The Pottery from Petra: A Neutron Activation Analysis Study 9780860544166, 9781407345956

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The Pottery from Petra A Neutron Activation Analysis Study

Khairieh ½.rnr

BAR International Series 324 1987

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR,-S324,1987 :The Pottery from Petra © Khairieh 'Amr,1987

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860544166 paperback ISBN 9781407345956 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544166 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

PREFACE

This s tudy c omprised the main part o f a Ph.D. t hesis p resented t o t he I nstitute o f A rchaeology, University o f L ondon, i n July 1 986. The s tudy d eals mainly with pottery excavated i n P etra b etween 1 958 a nd 1 964. One o f t he a ims o f the excavations ( directed by P eter J . P arr), was t o e stablish the l ocal, Nabataean, pottery types. T owards t his e nd 3 36 pottery s herds f rom t he excavations were a nalysed, a long with pottery and c lay s amples f rom a k iln s ite on t he outskirts o f P etra, pottery f rom two o ther Nabataean s ites, p ottery, c lay and p repared c lay mixtures f rom a modern workshop n ear Amman, a nd c lay s amples f rom a round P etra. Throughout the l ong t ime I s pent working on t his s tudy, I r eceived much a ppreciated a ssistance f rom many a rchaeologists, s cientists, a nd f riends. My g reatest t hanks g o t o my f amily, who o ffered c onstant s upport a nd encouragement. A lso t o Mr. P .J. P arr, D r. N . J . S eeley, P rof. F . R . Hodson, and D r. D . R . G riffiths, f or r eading a nd c ommenting on d ifferent parts o f t he t ext, a nd f or t heir h elp a nd advice. Valuable h elp i n various a spects o f t he s tudy r esulted f rom d iscussions w ith D r.'s M .J. Hughes, Anthony K ing, Vanda V itali, Marcelle Boudagher, Margaret Huxley, J ason Monaghan, R ichard Reece, M r.'s Karl S chmitte-Korte, W . I an Edwards, a nd Mrs. Eve F rench. I am a lso g rateful t o D r.'s Morven L eese, Nabil Khairy, and J ean-Marie D entzer f or a llowing me a ccess t o unpublished material, and t o my f riends W arangkhana Rajpitak, Kevin R ielly, E ffie Photos, Mark R edknap, Malak Amr a nd Mohamad e l-Daghmah f or a ll their p ractical h elp. My work with D r. F awzi Z ayadine on the Z urrabah k iln complex h elped g reatly i n my understanding o f t he p ottery o f t he a rea. I am a lso g rateful t o h im f or s upplying t he s amples f rom the c omplex . My thanks t o Mrs. C .M. B ennett f or s upplying t he s amples f rom Tawilan a nd t o A listair K illick f or the s amples f rom Udhruh. The c lay s amples f rom the P etra a rea were c ollected w ith t he h elp o f Nyazi a l-Shabaan, Mohamad Hweimel, Mufleh a l-Bdul, M ohamad a l-Bdul, a nd the wife o f Ahmad a s-Sane. M r. Rateb A bd a l-Aziz a l-Fakhoury s upplied t he i nformation a bout t he H ebron Tradition o f pottery making, and the s amples f rom h is M sheirfeh workshop. P article-size s oil a nalysis was d one w ith t he h elp o f S tephen C arter. F or a ssistance with the n eutron a ctivation a nalysis, I a m g rateful t o the p eople a t the University o f L ondon R eactor C entre i n S ilwood Park, e specially D r. Susan P arry a nd I an S inclair. To I an Maclaren, C live Orton, J onathan Moffet, I an Morton, B rian Oldham, Rodney C lough, R obert L awrence, a nd t o a ll t he o perators a t t he University C ollege C omputer

C entre, I am g rateful f or h elp with t he p roblems o f d ealing with G enstat, computers, and modern c ommunication t echnology. S ome o f the pottery d rawing were done by Julia S t. John Aubin. Thanks t o L ina Dakkak f or processing parts o f t he t ext, a nd t o Z ina S haraiha and Rana Abu Z eid f or t heir h elp i n t he p rocessing.

i i

L IST OF CONTENTS

•C hapter

1

H istorical Background

1 .1

I ntroduction

1 .2

The g eography o f

1 .3 1 .3.1 1 .3.2 1 .3.3 1 .3.4 1 .3.5 1 .3.6 1 .3.7

Extent o f Nabataean control G eneral c onsiderations The Nabataeans i n E dom The Nabataeans i n the N egeb The Nabataeans i n S inai The Nabataeans e ast o f t he J ordan The Nabataeans i n Hauran a nd D amascus The Nabataeans i n North West A rabia

2 2 3 3 4 4 5 7

1 .4 1 .4.1 1 .4.2

Nabataean t rade Nabataean t rade o rganisation and c onnections The I ncense Route

7 8 9

1 .5

Cultural e xchanges

1 .6

The annexation o f

1 .7

P etra

Chapter

2

1 P etra

2

1 0 P etra

i n t he Byzantine P eriod

1 2 1 4

The S amples

2 .1

I ntroduction

1 5

2 .2

The cooking pots

f rom t he P etra excavations

1 6

2 .3 2 .3.1 2 .3.1.1 2 .3.1.2 2 .3.1.3 2 .3.1.4 2 .3.2

The painted ware f rom t he P etra excavations Nabataean p ainted ware Nabataean p ainted ware: type 1 Nabataean p ainted ware: type 2 Nabataean painted ware: type 3 a Nabataean painted ware: type 3 b M iscellaneous painted wares

1 6 1 6 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 9 1 9

2 .4 2 .4.1 2 .4.2 2 .4.3 2 .4.4 2 .4.5

The t erra s igillata f rom t he P etra e xcavations Western t erra s igillata E astern t erra s igillata A Eastern t erra s igillata B E astern t erra s igillata C M iscellaneous t erra s igillata

1 9 1 9 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 3

2 .5 2 .5.1 2 .5.2 z .5.3 2 .5.4 2 .5.5

The r ed ware f rom t he P etra e xcavations R ed ware: type 1 R ed ware: type 2 R ed ware: type 3 R ed ware: type 4 M iscellaneous r ed wares

2 4 2 4 2 6 2 7 2 7 2 8

2 .6 2 .6.1 2 .6.2 2 .6.3 2 .6.4 2 .6.5 2 .6.6 2 .6.7 2 .6.8 2 .6.9 2 .6.10 2 .6.11 2 .6.12 2 .6.13 2 .6.14 2 .6.15 2 .6.16 2 .6.17 2 .6.18 2 .6.19

L amps f rom t he P etra excavations L amps: t ype 1 L amps: t ype 2 L amps: t ype 3 L amps: type 4 L amps: type 5 L amps: type 6 L amps: type 7 L amps: t ype 8 L amps: type 9 L amps: type 1 0 L amps: t ype 1 1 L amps: type 1 2 L amps: type 1 3 L amps: type 1 4 L amps: t ype 1 5 L amps: type 1 6 L amps: type 1 7 L amps: type 1 8 M iscellaneous l amps

2 9 2 9 3 0 3 0 3 1 3 1 3 2 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 3 4 3 4 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 6 3 6 3 6 3 7

2 .7

The t erracotta excavations

f igurines

f rom

t he

P etra 3 7

2 .8

The pottery e xcavations

2 .9

The pottery f rom t he

2 .10

The pottery and c lay Z urrabah excavations

2 .11

The

o ther c lay s amples

3 9

2 .12

The M sheirfeh workshop

4 3

Chapter

3

f rom

t he

Aujah

a l-Hafeer 3 7 3 8

U dhruh e xcavations s amples

f rom

t he 3 9

The N eutron A ctivation Analysis 4 4

3 .1

I ntroduction

3 .2

The

3 .3 3 .3.1 3 .3.2 3 .3.3 3 .3.4 3 .3.5

The analytical t echnique C hoice o f t he e lements t o b e d etermined The pottery s tandard S ampling t he pottery s herds T reatment o f t he pottery s amples T reatment o f t he c lay s amples

t heory o f

n eutron a ctivation a nalysis

1V

4 5 4 6 5 1 5 4 5 5 5 7 6 3

3 .3.6 3 .3.7 3 .3.8

Choice o f s ample s ize The i rradiation The counting

3 .4 3 .4.1 3 .4.2 3 .4.3

Additional t ests Homogeneity check f or t he pottery T emper e ffect on p ottery c omposition The e ffect o f t he background due t o t he s horter-lived i sotopes

•C hapter

4

f or analysis

I ntroduction

4 .2

D istribution o f

4 .3

C orrelations b etween t he e lements

4 .4

C hoice o f t he data a nalysis

t he e lements

e lements

4 .6.7

The data c ategories C ategory I : t he c ooking pots f rom t he P etra excavations C ategory I I: t he p ainted ware f rom t he P etra excavations C ategory I II: t he t erra s igillata f rom t he P etra excavations C ategory I V: t he r ed ware f rom t he P etra excavations, t he p ottery f rom Z urrabah, a nd the modern f igurine f rom Tawilan C ategory V : t he l amps f rom t he P etra excavations C ategory V I: t he t erracotta f igurines f rom t he P etra excavations, t he pottery f rom U dhruh a nd Aujah a l-Hafeer, a nd t he p ottery and c lay mixtures f rom t he M sheirfeh workshop C ategory V II: t he c lay s amples

4 .7

C lassification o f

4 .8 4 .8.1

C omparisons w ith published data The s ample g roups matching published data

4 .6.6

C hapter 5 .1

5

1 05

129

4 .6 4 .6.1

4 .6.5

1 04

t o b e considered f or

C hoice o f t he d ata analysis method The k -means methods The c anonical v ariate a nalysis The F -test D etermination o f outliers a nd g roup variances

4 .6.4

96

1 00

4 .5 4 .5.1 4 .5.2 4 .5.3 4 .5.4

4 .6.3

76 76 76

The D ata Analysis

4 .1

4 .6.2

6 6 69 72

t he category g roups

1 29 131 139 141 142 1 44 145 1 48 148

152 155

160 160 1 67 1 88 189

Conclusions P ottery manufacture

i n P etra

1 98

5 .2

P etra's pottery t rade

l inks

5 .3

The n eutron a ctivation a nalysis

1 99

5 .4

Treatment o f

2 00

t he data

L ist o f Abbreviations

1 98

2 02

•R eferences

2 04

Appendix A

Description o f t he s amples

2 23

Appendix B

C omposition o f

2 92

t he s amples

P lates

3 12

v i

CHAPTER 1 H ISTORICAL BACKGROUND

1 .1

I ntroduction

The s amples f rom t he P etra excavations a nalysed i n t his s tudy s pan a l ong p eriod o f t ime, f rom t he H ellenistic u p t o t he Byzantine p eriod. P etra f lourished t hrough much o f t hat t ime, a t ime during which t he i nteraction b etween c ultures was a t a h eight, over most o f t he a ncient world. F or t he N abataeans, t he c ontacts were mostly, but n ot e xclusively, t hrough t rade. M uch c ontroversy h as a risen c oncerning t he o rigin o f t he N abataeans b efore t he f irst c oncrete mention o f t hem by D iodorus a s h aving b een e stablished i n P etra i n 3 12 B .C. ( for e xample s ee a nd c ompare G lueck 1 934a, 8 3; 1 935, 1 39-140; 1 966, 4 ; G . a nd A . Horsfield 1 939, 9 8; S tarcky 1 955, 8 7; 1 964, c o1.903; P arr 1 969, 2 50-252; B owersock 1 971, 21; H ammond 1 973, 9 -10,11,13; B artlett 2 1 979, 6 3,66; H amarneh 1 975, 6 0-64; B ennett 1 984). However, n o matter what h appened i n t hose e arly d ays o f t he Nabataeans, t hey were t here a nd well e stablished i n t heir g reat c entres o f p ower: P etra, t he N egeb a nd H auran, b efore t he e nd o f t he t hird c entury B .C. ( Bowersock 1 971, 2 21; t here i s d isagreement c oncerning t he date o f p enetration i nto Hauran. C ompare H ammond 1 973, 3 5, f avouring a d ate during t he r eign o f A retas I I, c .120-96 B .C.). By t hat t ime t hey h ad a dopted t he l anguage o f t he s edentary p eoples o f t he Near E ast, t he A ramaean, which t hey w rote i n t heir own c ursive s cript ( Starcky 1 955, 8 7-88; 1 964, c o1.924; Hammond 1 973, 1 0). I t h as been s uggested t hat t heir a doption o f t he l ingua f ranca o f t he a rea was f or c onvenience i n d iplomatic 1 a nd c ommercial r elations ( Hammond 1 973, 1). This e xplanation i s c onfusing b ecause i f t hey a dopted t he l anguage t o enable t hem t o c ommunicate b etter w ith t he s urrounding peoples, why d id t hey t hen write i t i n a s cript t hese p eoples c ould n ot r ead? Abbe S tarcky's i nterpretation o f t heir s eeking t he a cceptance o f t he P ersian E mpire i s more p robable ( Starcky 1 964, c o1.924), w ith t he s cript, A rabic n ames, a nd maybe even t he ' pseudo'-Arabic t hey s poke a n i ndication o f t heir s eparate e thnic character.

1 .2

The g eography o f

P etra

0' N , l ong. 3 5° 2 6' E ( U .S. A rmy P etra l ies a t l at. 3 0° 2 1 971), n ear t he a ncient c aravan r outes a t t he n orth western edge o f t he A rabian d esert. The r outes i n North Western

A rabia r oughly f ollowed t he n orth-south j uxtaposition o f t he A rcaean ( Aqabah) g ranite t o t he west a nd t he Nubian ( Quweira a nd Kurnub) s andstone t o t he e ast, t he g eological f ormations continuing n orthward i nto t he P etra a rea ( Kennedy 1 925, 1 ; s ee a lso F ig. 2 .1 i n s ection 2 .10). The c ity l ies i n a mile-wide basin s urrounded by h igh r idges a nd a d esert p lateau. An i deal a rea f or d efence which a lso h as t he most i mportant f actor f or l ife i n t he d esert: water. ( For more details on t he t opography s ee K ennedy 1 925; S mith 1 931, 5 73-575; G . a nd A . Horsfield 1 938, 1 -14, H ammond 1 973, Ch. 3 ).

1 .3

1 .3.1

E xtent o f Nabataean c ontrol

G eneral c onsiderations

This i s a nother c ontroversial Nabataean s ubject. I n c onsidering i t two f actors s hould b e t aken i nto a ccount: 1 . o ur k nowledge o f N abataean h istory i s e xtremely l op-sided, i .e. most o f t he e xtant s ources date t o t he l ast one a nd a h alf c enturies o f t heir k ingdom ( although s ome r efer t o e arlier p eriods, D iodorus f or e xample). I n t his p eriod we a lso h ave more h istorical i nformation c oncerning t he a rea a s a whole. On t he o ther h and t he f irst t wo a nd a h alf c enturies s ince t heir a ppearance i n h istory a re more obscure a nd t he i nformation t here i s quite f ragmentary. ( For a d iscussion o f C lassical r eferences t o t he Nabataeans 1 s ee H ammond 1 973, 1-13 a nd b ibliography c ited). This s eparation i nto H ellenistic a nd R oman p eriods o f domination does n ot p reclude t he c onsideration o f t he Nabataean s tate a s a unit i n i tself, i nteracting a nd b eing a ffected by t he political s ituations but s till h aving i ts c ontinuous h istory t hrough r ise a nd s ubsequent f all, 2 . i t i s a g enerally a ccepted f act t hat t he N abataean p ower c ame i nto e xistence a s a r esult o f t heir control o ver t he t rade o f t he r egion. The s tate b oundaries f luctuated a ccording t o t he p revailing p olitical c onditions, a s Hammond ( 1973, 2 9) puts i t:".... t o t race t he b orders o f t he ( Nabataean) k ingdom i s t o t race t he s trength o f h er n eighbors, t he i mpact o f f oreign culture, a nd t hat d elicate balance o f p ower b etween s tates which h as a lways d etermined t he f inal c omplexion o f a ny g iven p olitical a rea i n t he Near E ast, a ncient o r modern." To h ave h ad a c lear boundary l ine s eparating s tates i s a f allacy, t his b ecomes even more s o when t he d esert a reas a re t aken i nto a ccount. Just one l ook a t a modern p olitical map o f t he A rabian p eninsula, where e ven t he i deologically v ery d istinct S outh Y emen h as n o c lear n orthern b orders, s uffices t o p rove t his p oint. N or s hould t he a rea s urrounded by t he boundaries b e t hought o f a s c ontinuous without a ny g aps o r ' patches', what s eems t o h ave b een most i mportant i n t his r espect was c aravan s ites a nd r oads c onnecting t hem. W ith t his v iew i n m ind, much o f

2

t he Nabataean domination ( especially i n t he n orth), s hould b e r egarded a s c ultural a nd e conomic r ather t han a ctual political. A s mentioned above ( section 1 .1), t he Nabataeans were a lready e stablished quite e arly i n t heir h istory i n t heir t hree major a reas o f power: P etra ( and E dom), t he N egeb a nd H auran. t o t hese we must n ow a dd t he r est o f t he l and e ast o f t he Jordan, S inai a nd North W est A rabia. O f t hese a reas P etra was t he c entre, t he c apital, a lthough i t i s d ifficult t o s ay t hat s he ' ruled' t he o thers, i n t he a bsolute s ense o f t he word. I t s eems t hat s he was t he c entre o f o rganisation, a n o rganisation which a ll s tudies o f Nabataean r emains h ave encountered ( see f or example G lueck 1 933, 1 4-15,18; 1 934a, 8 3). The Nabataean c ontrol o f t rade s mells s trongly o f a c entral s tate control s ystem, but t his d iscussion i s b eyond t he s cope o f t he p resent s tudy.

1 .3.2

The Nabataeans

i n E dom

G lueck d educed f rom h is explorations i n " Eastern P alestine" t hat t he Nabataeans h ad t aken o ver most o f what was E dom by t he f ifth c entury B .C. ( Glueck 1 935, 6 1). More i mportantly, h e f ound t hat a lmost wherever t here was a n E domite s ettlement, i t was f ollowed by a Nabataean o ne, a n i ndication o f a d irect t akeover f rom t he E domites. This a rea was t he h eartland o f t he N abataeans a nd i n i t was t heir c apital. Their l ocation t here ( plus s ome e ffort) g ave t hem c ontrol over the n orth-south t rade r outes, a nd c onsequently more a nd more p ower and wealth. These r outes were t he l and r outes t hrough t he desert a nd n ot a s G lueck ( 1 934a, 8 3) s uggests t he r outes l eading n orthwards f rom t he G ulf o f Aqabah. The n orthern r eaches o f t he R ed S ea a re v ery d ifficult t o navigate a nd t he p ort would n ot h ave s erved f or l ong d istance t rade a t t hat e arly p eriod ( see d iscussion i n Raschke 1 978, n .966, 9 75).

1 .3.3.

The Nabataeans

i n t he N egeb

The a rea b etween t he Nabataean ' heartland' a nd t he N egeb i s Wadi A rabah, which t he Nabataeans s eem t o h ave u sed f or p assage a nd c aravan r outes, r ather t han f or i ts m ines ( Glueck 1 935 e specially 1 39; f or t racing o f t he r outes i n A rabah a nd t he N egeb s ee G lueck 1 959, 2 01-235). A s f or t he N egeb i tself, i t was quite e xtensively o ccupied by t he Nabataeans ( see H ammond 1 973, 3 0 a nd b ibliography c ited). This o ccupation s tarted a s e arly a s t he e nd o f t he f ourth c entury B .C. o r b eginning o f t he t hird, but t he major s ites ( mainly Oboda) s how g aps i n t he o ccupation h istory ( see N egev 1 969 e specially 5 , 1 0 a lthough h is d ating a nd i nterpretation o f t he f inal end o f o ccupation l eaves much t o b e desired, a s will b e s hown l ater). The a rea i s v ery r ich i n Nabataean r emains and much o f our k nowledge o f t he culture, e specially pottery a nd a griculture, comes f rom t he

3

many Nabataean s ettlements t here. I n t he s econd-first c enturies B .C., P alestine was g oing t hrough a v ery u nstable p eriod, s uffering f rom t he t idal i nterventions o f t he S eleucids a nd t he P tolemies, a nd t he a mbitions o f p eople l ike A lexander J annaeus. This u nstable s ituation u ndoubtedly a ffected t he f ree f lowing o f t rade t o t he M editerranean v ia G aza a nd S inai, t hus a s trengthening o f N abataean c ontrol i n t he N egeb was a bsolutely v ital f or t he t raffic ( Hammond 1 973, 6 5). T his s ame s ituation which n ecessitated t he s trong c ontrol, a lso h elped e stablishing i t, a s t he i nstability c reated a v acuum i n t he S outh which t he N abataeans h ad n o t rouble i n f illing ( Hammond 1 973, 1 4, 1 6,21,30). I n c ontrast N egev a ttributes t he f irst g ap i n Nabataean o ccupation o f O boda t o A lexander J annaeus' ( short) c onquest o f G aza a nd p ostulates a c onquest o f t owns i n t he N egeb.

1 .3.4

The N abataeans

i n S inai

The S inaitic P eninsula i s t he n atural l and extension l inking t he N egeb a nd P alestine i n g eneral w ith E gypt, while h aving i ts own i mportant p ort o f R hinocolura ( al-Arish) o n t he M editerranean. N abataean r emains a long t he n orth S inai C aravan r oute a re mainly r estricted t o t housands o f t ravellers' a nd merchants' g raffiti a nd n ot m any s igns o f s edentary o ccupation h ave b een r ecovered ( Hammond 1 973, 3 4). T he s ituation s eems t o b e r eversed i n t he s outhern p art o f t he p eninsula, where i t s eems t hat t he Nabataeans s ettled T all a l-Makharet a nd u sed a r oad c onnecting i t t o A ila, l eaving t heir n umerous g raffiti i n Wadi a l-Mukattab, i nvolving t hemselves w ith m ining t he c opper a nd t urquoise o f t he a rea ( Rothenberg 1 970, 1 8,19; B owersock 1 971, 2 40). T he r oad was d isused s ince t he C halcolithic P eriod. T he o nly dated N abataean r emains a long i t ( mentioned by R othenberg) a re f irst c entury A -D. c oins a nd p ottery . I f t his w ere t he c ase i t c ould b e t hat t he N abataeans h ad moved t o m ining S inai o nly a fter t he t rade s lipped a way f rom t hem. T his s upposition i s f urther s ubstantiated by t he f act t hat t he only d atable i nscriptions i n t he a rea b elong t o t he p eriod b etween A .D. 1 50-A.D. 2 53 ( Starcky 1 955, 1 06).

1 .3.5

T he N abataeans e ast o f t he J ordan

This t erritory c omprises t he n atural c onnection b etween t he " heartland" a nd H auran a nd i ncludes most o f t he i mportant c ities o f t he D ecapolis. Much o f o ur h istorical k nowledge o f N abataean c ontrol o f t his a rea c omes f rom a ccounts o f t heir c lashes w ith t he c ontemporary J ewish S tate, much o f which o ccurred during t he p eriod o f u nrest which n ecessitated s tronger c ontrol o f t he N egeb ( see f or e xample Hammond 1 973, 1 7-19). T he N abataean c ontrol o f Moab i s t he b est r ecorded a rchaeologically, e videnced by much p ottery a nd a l ine o f watch-towers a long t he l ength o f t he a rea, f orming t he c ontinuation o f a s imilar l ine i n E dom ( Glueck

4

1 933). F urther n orth Nabataean c ontrol i s more d ifficult t o a ccept ( for a h istorical a rgument c oncerning t he b orders o f N abatene i n t his a rea s ee H ammond 1 973, 3 1-33); i t would h ave b een unnecessary i n a ny c ase due t o t he p resence o f t he e conomically s trong a nd well o rganized c ities o f t he D ecapolis ( although P hiladelphia s eems t o h ave e specially s uffered f rom t he Nabataean-Jewish s quabbles during t he R oman c ivil wars, s ee H ammond 1 973, 2 1) . There i s n o r eason t o s uppose that t he N abataeans h ad t o g o " skirting t he J ewish t erritories" a ll t he way e ast t o Wadi S arhan i n o rder t o g et t o Hauran a s H ammond s uggests ( 1973, 3 0,34, 3 5). The r oute a long Wadi S arhan t o t he E ast f ormed a s eparate p assage way i n i ts own r ight. Except maybe f or s hort p eriods o f unrest, t he p assing o f f riendly t raders t hrough t he t erritories o f t hese i mportant t rading c ities would h ave b een n o p roblem. The Nabataeans c ertainly l eft t heir marks t here ( for i nfluence i n J arash s ee H arding 1 967, 8 4) a nd N abataean c ommunities would h ave s ettled i n t hese c ities, a s i ndicated f or example by t he Nabataean t omb d iscovered i n Amman ( Harding 1 946).

1 .3.6

The Nabataeans

i n Hauran a nd D amascus

Hauran h as b een considered t he t hird Nabataean c entre o f p ower, a n opinion based on t he l arge number o f Nabataean b uildings a nd i nscriptions uncovered i n t he a rea a s well a s r eferences i n t he N ew T estament ( Hammond 1 973, 3 4). Added t o t hat i s t he s uggestion o f a dopting Busra a s a s econd c apital i n t he l ate days o f t he Nabataean k ingdom ( Starcky 1 955, 1 03; P eters 1 977, 2 72-275. The l atter s uggests t hat t he N abataeans o ccupied H auran, but d id n ot c olonize i t). R ecent e xcavations h ave uncovered l arge amounts o f Nabataean p ottery i n Dar'a, Umm a j-Jemal a nd e specially Busra ( Dentzer 1 985), t hus a nnulling G lueck's f amous s tatement t hat N abataean pottery i s n ot t o b e f ound i n a ny s ubstantial a mount n orth o f a l ine going r oughly f rom t he n orthern t ip o f t he D ead S ea t hrough Ma'dabah ( Glueck 1 966, 6 ). D entzer g oes o n f urther i n c omparing t he p ottery f inds a t B usra w ith t he f act t hat h ardly a ny Nabataean p ottery was f ound during s ite r egarded a s s ix y ears o f excavation a t S i -, a r epresenting s ome o f t he f inest examples o f u nmixed c lassical Nabataean a rchitecture a nd a rt ( Hammond 1 973, 3 6). F inally D entzer concludes t hat a " frontier" s hould b e d rawn t hrough t he b asaltic r egion o f H auran, s eparating t he n orthern p art ( which was l ater i ncluded i n t he R oman P rovince o f Syria) a s o f A ramaean t radition, f rom t he s outhern part ( which was i ncluded i n t he R oman P rovince o f A rabia) b eing o f Nabataean t radition. H e f urther opposes c alling " Nabataean" t he i nscriptions o f t he n orthern z one which h e r egards, i n t he b eginning a t l east, a s b elonging t o t he A ramaean t radition; h e a lso a rgues a gainst c alling a ll a rchitectural a nd s culptural t ypes i n t he a rea opposing t he G raeco-Roman c lassical t radition " Nabataean" d espite t heir

5

d ifferences f rom works made during t he s ame p eriod i n t he heart o f the Nabataean K ingdom. Avi-Yonah, i n h is s tudy o f the Oriental elements i n P alestinian a rt, p laces t he S yrian gable o f the t emple a t S i - a s b elonging t o t he N abataean borderland ( Avi-Yonah 1 944, 1 46, underlining a dded). The i dentification o f this t emple a s Nabataean i s a ccepted by a ll, i ncluding Dentzer. This i s j ust a h int a t t he d ifficulties a ssociated w ith t he n ature o f Nabataean c ontrol i n Hauran. I n l ooking a t t he above p roblem i t i s obviously s ensible t o r efer t o our h istorical knowledge o f t he r elevant p eriods i n Syria, h ere the a rguments u sed i n d iscussing t he Negeb apply. Hauran i s en-route t o Damascus, a most i mportant place f or Syrian products a s well a s b eing o n t he cross r oads o f t he caravans g oing b etween M esopotamia and the Mediterranean a nd t hose g oing b etween A rabia ( through Nabatene) and northern Syria ( see d iscussion i n H ammond 1 973, 6 5). The t urbulent days o f t he S eleucids i n t he s econd-first centuries B .C. would h ave f acilitated a s trong Nabataean p resence i n t he a rea ( Hammond 1 973, 3 5), i n a ctual f act this chaos h as b een r egarded a s what gave r ise t o t he Nabataean power i n western Syria a nd t he v ery existence o f t he Palmyrene s tate i n e astern Syria ( Rostovtzeff 1 941, 1 244; P eters 1 977, 2 65). I n t he Roman P eriod a n i ndependent Nabataean political p resence i n Hauran would n ot h ave b een tolerated by t he n ew masters a nd would h ave a gain b een unnecessary. The examination o f h istorical documents o f t he period g ives no i ndication o f i t, a ctually t he e xact opposite may b e c oncluded ( see Hammond 1 973, 3 5-37). The Nabataeans were t raders i n t he f irst p lace, p eace i s g ood f or business no matter who b rings i t. Nabataean control o f Damascus h as b een mentioned by J osephus and S tephen o f Byzantium. This could b e dated t o a round 8 5 B .C.-70 B .C., ending by t he a dvent o f T igranes t he A rmenian. The extent o f Nabataean political c ontrol i n t his p eriod i s very v ague and i t h as b een p roposed t hat t he control was t hrough a " governor i n r esidence" ( Hammond 1 973, 1 7-19,35), but no a rchaeological evidence h as b een d iscovered t o i ndicate any s ort o f Nabataean control o f Damascus ( Hammond 1 973, 3 6). On t he c ontrary Damascus i s t he c entre o f what Dentzer names a s A ramaean S outh Syria ( Dentzer 1 985, 1 51-152). An i ndication o f D amascus b eing under Nabataean control during h e e arly R oman P eriod a ppears i n t he New T estament a ccount o f P aul, however t he n ature o f t he Nabataean o fficials mentioned t here i s n ot c lear a nd S tarcky ( 1955, 9 8) l eaves t he question open. But i f we were t o f ollow the l ine o f r easoning g iven f or Hauran a ny s ort o f political control h ere would even b e more unlikely ( see a lso P eters 1 977, 2 66,271).

6

1 .3.7

The Nabataeans

i n North West A rabia

Naturally, t his a rea i s p art o f t he d esert which h as i ts border a t P etra a nd t hrough i t p assed t he c aravans c arrying t he r iches o f S outh A rabia a nd t he E ast, s till i t i s t he l east s tudied o f a ll Nabataean a reas, mainly due t o p ractical d ifficulties. There i s n o question c oncerning the s trong Nabataean p resence i n t his a rea, f or i n i t l ies t he s econd most i mpressive Nabataean c ity, M ada'in S aleh ( al-Hejrah), a nd s everal s ites i n t he a rea c ontain c onsiderable Nabataean r emains. Most o f t hese r emains date t o t he p eriod o f maximum N abataean p ower during t he r eign o f A retas I V ( 9 B .C.-A.D. 4 0), a f act t hat l ed many r esearchers t o b elieve t hat N abataean c ontrol o f t he a reas was mainly during t he f irst h alf o f t he f irst c entury A .D. ( Hammond 1 973, 3 4), a lthough a n e arlier d ate g oing b ack a s f ar a s t he s econd c entury B .C. h as b een p roposed by S tarcky ( see r eference i n H ammond a bove). N abataean i nscriptions mentioning t heir l ast t wo k ings ( Malichus I I a nd Rabbel I I) h ave b een f ound a t a l-Hejrah ( Hammond 1 973, 2 7,29), but during t heir t ime t he " degeneration" o f t his c ity s tarted. Hammond p roposes t hat t his d egeneration was due t o t he s hift i n emphasis t o Busra, a lthough t he c oncurrent s hift o f t rade r outes t o t he R ed S ea and E gypt ( Starcky 1 955, 9 4; F akhry 1 972, 6 -7) would c ertainly h ave h ad a more d irect e ffect on t his a rea. The N abataeans s hifted t o B usra f ollowing the c aravans, a t a l-Hejrah t here were n o more caravans t o f ollow. C oncerning t he a ctual g eographical b oundaries o f N abataean control i n t he a rea, Hammond d raws t he l ine a t t he L euce C ome-Hejrah-Teima Axis ( the p osition o f L euce C ome i s uncertain, s ee d iscussion i n G room 1 981, 2 61,n.52.), t hese b eing t he c entres o f t rade i mportance, p lacing the s ites t o la ( Dedan) a nd K haybar, under t he s outh, i ncluding a l- -U L ihyani a nd H imyari i nfluence. E ven t hen h e proposes a s hared c ontrol over t he n orthern s ites, e specially a l-Hejrah ( Hammond 1 973, 3 1, 3 3-34). This d ivision i s a lso s een i n a s urvey o f North W est A rabia i n which n ot a s ingle Nabataean o r l ate H ellenistic/Roman s herd was f ound i n a l- U la valley w ith t he only Nabataean r emains i n t he a rea b eing s ome g raffiti ( Parr e t a l. 1 969, 2 13-214).

1 .4

Nabataean T rade

A s s een i n s ection 1 .4 above, much o f t he N abataean t erritorial i nterest was motivated by t rade, t he most i mportant f actor both i n t heir r ise a nd t heir f all. I n o rder t o k eep t he peace n ecessary t o k eep t he c aravans f lowing t hey e arned t heir peace-loving i mage ( referred t o i n G lueck 1 959, 2 02), an i mage which was e ven i ncorporated i n t he t itles o f t heir l ater k ings ( see f or example S tarcky 1 955, 9 8-99,103). On t he o ther h and i t a lso g ave t hem t heir v icious warring image, r eferred t o by J osephus i n h is

7

a ccount o f t he J ewish War ( 1:103;11:66,86). They k ept t he balance a nd k ept t he f low, w ith t his f low n ot o nly c ame material g oods a nd wealth, but c ultural c ontact a nd exchange. The Near E astern c aravan r outes were o nly p art o f a much l arger t rade n etwork covering most o f t he world k nown t o t he c lassical g eographers a t t he t ime, a nd i t was t hrough t his cultural exchange over s uch a n etwork t hat t he Nabataean c ulture e arned i ts t rue-dynamic-image ( indirectly r eferred t o i n a ll s tudies o f i ts material r emains).

1 .4.1

Nabataean t rade o rganisation a nd c onnections

Major r oads i n t he N ear E ast h ave b een f ollowed o n r oughly t he s ame l ines t hroughout d ifferent a ges ( see e xamples i n G lueck 1 934a, 4 ; 1 935, 3 ,61), s o, i n a s ense, t he N abataeans ' inherited' t he t rade r outes f rom t he E domites, a long w ith t he Edomite o rganisation a nd d efense s ystems, u pon which they expanded ( Glueck 1 935, 1 39). The a dministrative p ractices were e ven a dapted by f oreign c onquerors f rom o ne p eriod t o a nother, t hus t he Romans a dapted t he G reek s ystems e stablished i n t he E ast ( Duncan-Jones 1 982, 1 ). These overlords l evied t axes o n t he c aravans a t t heir p oints o f entry i nto t he a dministrated l ands ( Raschke 1 978, 6 36 a nd n .574), a p ractice f ollowed by t he Nabataeans i n t heir administered d omain. A fter entry i nto Nabataean t erritory ( and s ometimes b efore a nd a fter exit, a s i s c lear i n t he case o f t he S inai r outes), t he c aravans were e scorted by Nabataean c ameleers a long t he c onnecting a nd b ranching 6 r outes ( Hammond 1 973, 6). A long t he r outes were t he c aravan c ities, t he g reatest o f which was P etra, whose s uburbs ( but n ot c entre) a cted a s t he r eceiving a reas f or 1 t he caravans ( Kirkbride 1 960, 17,121-122). These c ities were n ot merely r esting p laces but a lso b ig c learinghouses i n which were merchants a nd ' bankers' i nvolved i n i nvestments i n t he c aravans, a n a ctivity which i nvolved l arge s ums o f money a nd e xtended over l arge s ections o f t he r outes. A lso i n t hese c ities c hanges o ccurred, n ew c amels a nd men were p rovided a nd merchandise e xchanged ( Rostovtzeff 1 941, 1 247). I t was a t t his point t hat l ocal p roducts w ere i ntroduced i nto t he n etwork, a nd t he p rocessing o f g oods carried out ( Hammond 1 973, 6 6-67; s ee a lso Hammond 1 959b f or t he i mportant c ase o f t he D ead S ea b itumen i ndustry). A s noted e arlier, t he e xchanges were n ot o nly i n men, b easts and g oods, b ut a lso i n c ulture, a rt a nd i deas, t hus g iving these c ities a c osmopolitan e ssence. T his e xchange concerning t he Nabataeans was n ot c onfined t o t he b oundaries o f t he Nabataean t rade c entres but was g oing o n i n t he o ther g reat c entres i n a v ery l arge a rea o f t he world. M ost probably t he Nabataean c aravans, a s s uch, r arely e ver w ent beyond Nabataean c ontrolled a reas ( for t he c ase o f N orth West A rabia s ee S tarcky 1 955, 9 4; G room 1 981, 2 03) b ut t heir merchants c ertainly d id. A cting a s t rade a gents o r r epresentatives, t hey e stablished i n s ome c ases whole communities which would h ave a lso a cted a s p rotectors o f t he caravans t heir h ead-office a t P etra i nvested i n, a p ractice

8

a lso carried out by r epresentatives f rom other Near E astern c entres s uch a s Tyre a nd P almyra. ( For evidence i n Mesopotamia s ee Rostovtzeff 1 941, 6 7; i n t he A egean Rostovtzeff 1 941, 7 02; i n I taly Torrey 1 949, 4 8; S tarcky 1 955, 1 00;Glueck 1 966, 6 9; i n E gypt G room 1 981, 2 08-209; a nd maybe even i n e ast A frica, Raschke 1 978, 9 32, n .1137; G room 1 981, 2 04).

1 .4.2

The

I ncense R oute

This r oute, t raversing A rabia f rom s outh t o n orth, i s b eing s ingled out f or d iscussion h ere mainly b ecause i t was t he most i mportant t rade r oute f or t he N abataeans, yet s tudy o f t he cultural exchange a long i t h as b een l argely i gnored i n r egard t o t hem. The i mportance o f t his r oute l ies not o nly i n t he t ransfer o f f rankincense a nd myrrh, s o much i n d emand i n t he H ellenistic and R oman Empires y et p roduced s olely i n S outh A rabia a nd North S omalia ( Van B eeck 1 960, 7 2;Groom 1 977), b ut a lso i n i ts b eing the r ecipient o f g oods f rom A frica, I ndia, C eylon and maybe even C hina ( Starcky 1 955, 9 4;Glueck 1 959, 1 95-196; Van B eeck 1 960, 8 0), t hus h aving t he potential o f b ringing t ogether a n i ncredible a rray o f d ifferent cultures. The Nabataeans h ad a monopoly over t he s ection c onnecting t he caravan r outes f rom t he s outh w ith t hose r outes g oing i nto t he c lassical Empires. To c omplete t he p icture a r oute g oing a long t he R ed S ea must b e a dded ( Starcky 1 955, 9 4; Van B eeck 1 960, 7 5-76). Matters were g oing well f or t he N abataeans a s l ong a s t heir own port a t L euce C ome on t he e ast coast was u sed ( mainly f or t ransfer a cross t he R ed S ea t o Egypt), but t he blow came with t he Romans f avouring t he u se o f a r oute c onnecting South A rabia d irectly with E gypt. S tarcky ( 1955, 9 4) a rgues t hat t his was due t o t he f ailure o f t he Romans i n t heir expedition t o c onquer A rabia F elix i n 2 5 B .C. and t o t he " bad will o f the Nabataeans", this b eing i n s harp contrast t o Raschke's opinion ( 1978, 6 60) t hat t he Nabataeans may h ave b een r ewarded a ccess t o Egypt during t hat p eriod due t o t heir s upporting t he w inning s ide ( Augustus) i n t he Roman c ivil wars. The g enerally a ccepted opinion n ow i s t hat t his was the p eriod when t he Romans d iscovered t he s ecret o f t he s easonal wind ( the monsoons) a nd t heir u tilization i n the s outhern p art o f t he R ed S ea, a ' secret' a lready u tilized f or c enturies i n t he t rade a long t he I ndian O cean a nd t he A rabian S ea, t hus i t would h ave b een known well by the S outh A rabians f rom whom the R omans would h ave a cquired the knowledge ( see F akhry 1 972, 6 -7; R aschke 1 978, 6 60-664). Or maybe i t was t he S outh A rabians t hemselves who were encouraged t o v enture f urther i nto d irect t rade w ith Egypt. I n a ctual f act t his n ew r oute b rought even g reater r iches t o t he S abaeans ( see H ammond 1 973, 2 8 and r eferences c ited). This n ew r oute would h ave b een f ar more cost e ffective ( water transport g enerally i s)

9

and i t would h ave e liminated t he h igh t axes p aid o n t he goods whenever t hey c rossed t ribal t erritories ( including t hat o f t he Nabataeans), t hus i ncreasing t he p rofit margin o f t he i nvestors i n E gypt. The Nabataeans d id n ot a ccept t his s lipping a way o f r evenue, i n a desperate a ttempt t hey t urned t o p iracy, h oping t o d ivert t he s hips t o t heir own port o f L euce C ome ( Horsfield a nd C onway 1 930, 3 80). Their a ttempt f ailed, a nd t he d ecline o f P etra s tarted, pushed f urther by t he s ubsequent t ransfer o f t he t rade n orth t o P almyra.

1 .5

C ultural exchanges

The e ffects o f t he Nabataean contacts, b e i t i n t heir ' prehistory ' o r during t he k ingdom, c an b est b e s een i n t heir material r emains. I n t he e arly d ays b efore t heir s ettling t o s edentary l ife, t hey c ame i n c ontact w ith t he r emains o f t he cultures o f E ast J ordan, n amely t he E domite, Moabite a nd Ammonite; a fterwards i t was t he g reat empires i n the east, t he P arthian, S cythian a nd H ellenistic-Roman. A ll o f t hese l eft t heir marks o n t he a rts o f t he N abataeans ( see Hammond 1 973, 8 8-89). I n t his r espect Nabataean a rt i s v ery much i n t he s ame p osition a s t he n eighbouring P alestinian a rt, which s howed i nfluences o riginating f rom A sia M inor i n t he north t o S outh A rabia i n t he s outh, a nd f rom Rome i n t he west t o P arthia i n t he e ast, maybe even I ndia t ransmitted i n M esopotamian i nterpretations ( Avi-Yonah 1 944; 1 948; 1 950). These marks were n ot r eflected w ithout i nterpretation t hough. A s H ammond points out i n h is d iscussion o f t he t omb f acades ( 1973, 7 5-76), i t i s o f n o a vail t o l ook f or " lines o f i nfluence" a nd s eparate e lements, N abataean a rt s hould b e s een r ather a s a " derivative" o f t he d ifferent e lements, which s hifted i n i ts e volution f rom t he e ast t o t he w est ( into t he " classical" f acade), r eflecting t he s hift i n cultural o rientation. This s hift s hould n ot b e r egarded a s e ither c omplete o r c ontinuous t hough, a ll t hroughout t he Nabataeans r emained v ery much " Semitic". A retas may h ave b een a ' Philhellene', b ut h is s pirit, a nd t hat o f h is p eople, d efinitely n ever b ecame Hellene. I n a ctual f act t he Nabataeans were t he p rimary " transmitters" o f O rientalism i n t he E ast ( Avi-Yonah 1 950, 7 8-80), a nd t heir l ater a nti-classicism, evident t hrough excavations i n P etra ( see f or example H ammond 1 978, 8 6,101), s pread t hrough t hem t o P alestine a nd Syria ( Avi-Yonah 1 944, 1 07; 1 950, 5 3). P arr ( 1965, 5 27) h as n oted t hat " all a ttempts t o f it t he Nabataean a chievement i nto t he more g eneral p icture o f H ellenistic c ivilisation h ave p roved u nsatisfactory". H e puts part o f t he b lame o n t he n eglect o f t he s tudy o f Nabataean m inor a rts, o ne o f which i s p ottery, t he v ery s ubject o f t his s tudy a nd a medium which d rove one o f i ts s tudents t o s tate t hat t he " Nabataean K ingdom was c losely r elated t o a nd a d irect r esult o f t he H ellenistic

1 0

c ivilisation" ( Iliffe 1 934, 1 33). The e ffects o f t he i nstability i n t he a rea during H ellenistic t imes on Nabataean expansion h ave b een d iscussed i n t he p receding s ections, a nd t he p ottery d efinitely s hows H ellenistic i nfluences, b e t hey d irect o r i ndirect, w ith s trong l ocal i nterpretation a s i s t he case w ith o ther N abataean a rts. This i s evident b oth i n t he unpainted ( Khairy 1 975, 3 59) and painted pottery ( Crowfoot 1 936, 2 0; H ammond 1 959a, 3 73; 1 962, 1 72; 1 973, 8 9; P arr 1 963, 1 03; 1 965, 5 31). The physical c ontact b etween t he G reek l ands a nd A rabia g oes back well b efore t he emergence o f t he Nabataeans. H ellenistic pottery, d ating t o c . 3 rd c entury B .C., was f ound i n P etra. The N abataeans h ad contacts w ith t he G reeks s ince t he b eginning o f t heir " history", yet t he excavations whose p ottery i s under s tudy h ere s howed t hat t he H ellenistic i nfluence was f elt i n P etra only by t he f irst c entury B .C., a fter t he Nabataean t erritorial e nforcement i n H auran b rought t hem i n d irect political c ontact w ith t he S eleucids a nd t hen t he R omans ( Parr 1 965, 5 31). This c onclusion i s based o n a rchitectural e vidence ( one o f which i s a house with H ellenistic d ecoration a nd O riental p lan, o f c . A .D. 2 5, P arr 1 965, 5 29 a nd P 1.131:2-4), a s well a s on c oins o f t he e arly f irst c entury B .C. c opying S eleucid i ssues ( Parr 1 965, 5 30), a phenomenon s een i n t he e arly a utonomously s truck c oins o f t he N ear E ast, a nd r egarded a s a n a ttempt f or s eeking a cceptance o f t hese c oins a s l egal t ender ( Meshorer 1 975, 1 1). The most i mportant b ase f or t his c onclusion i s a ctually t he p ainted pottery, w ith d esigns i nspired by t he H ellenistic e astern M editerranean models, appearing a bruptly i n t he f irst c entury B .C. l evels ( Parr 1 965, 5 30-531), b eautifully f ormed a nd e xecuted, but w ith n o l ocal p redecessors. The e ffect o f t he H ellenistic culture on t he N abataeans c an well b e s een i n t heir s culptures o f d ivinities o r h umans, where t he e arly s tylized " face p laques" ( also f ound i n S outh A rabia, s ee C leveland 1 965, 1 6) d eveloped i nto more n atural ' Hellenized' r epresentations, t hough s till v ery much O riental ( see G lueck 1 966; P arr 1 957). More s tudy n eeds t o b e done i nto t he p arallel i nfluence a nd t ransmission o f I ranian-Mesopotamian currents. Nabataean s ettlements i n M esopotamia h ave a lready b een n oted ( see s ection 1 .5.1 a bove). H ellenistic ware v ery s imilar t o t he N abataean was f ound on F ailaka i n Kuwait ( Hannested 1 983, v ol. 2 :1 pp.51-52; vol. 2 :2 p p.33-34, p 1.43). I t i s v ery d ifficult t o i magine a Nabataean p resence i n t he E ast s imilar t o t hat i n H auran, t here was n o n eed f or i t a ny way a s t he a rea was f ar more s table t han S eleucid S yria. The p enetration o f t he Nabataeans e astward i s n ot y et well understood o r k nown. The Romans were t he h eirs t o t he H ellenistic c ulture. These n ew Western masters i n t he E ast c ame i nto even c loser c ontact with t he Nabataeans t han t heir p redecessors, t hey a ctually a nnexed t hem. The Roman i nfluences a re b est s een i n t he a rchitecture, where t hey a re s o s trong t hat i t was t hought t he extant " classicalized" s tructures i n P etra were

1 1

built a fter the Roman annexation, maybe even a s a n a ttempt a t Romanizing P etra ( Kirkbride 1 960, 1 20-121). Archaeological excavations h ave s hown t hat s ome o f t hese monuments, n amely the Theatre a nd t he t emple o f Qasr B int Far'un, were built during t he h eight o f t he Nabataean K ingdom ( Hammond 1 965, 6 5; Parr 1 968, 1 6-17), t hus r equiring a r econsideration o f the dating o f most " Roman" monuments i n P etra. A most i mportant s ource f or i ndicating c ultural exchange a nd h istorical events i s a p eople's l iterature a nd p oetry, s adly ' none o f which h ave been r ecovered o f t he Nabataeans. This s ituation i s paralleled i n S outh A rabia, most p robably due t o t he l iterature n ever being written down, but r ather k ept i n the memories a nd r elated v erbally f rom one g eneration t o another, a t radition s till p racticed by t he b edouins o f t he Near East a nd an i ndication o f h ow s trongly t he Nabataeans adhered t o t heir o riginal customs. The Nabataean culture d id n ot end w ith the a nnexation o f their k ingdom, and n either d id t heir i nfluences on t he o ther cultures c ease t hen. Their painted pottery may b e t he l ink between t he H ellenistic a nd t he L ate Byzantine/ E arly Umayyad, a lthough this i s d ifficult t o a scertain due t o evidence o f the d iscontinuity o f Nabataean ware during t he Byzantine p eriod ( Parr 1 963, 1 03; 1 965, 5 33 n .15; Hammond 1 978, 1 01). Their s tonecarving h as b een r egarded a s continuing i nto Byzantine, C optic a nd Umayyad t raditions 1 ( Hammond 1 973, 12; i nto I slam Avi-Yonah 1 948, 1 43,160), a lthough Fakhry ( 1972, 1 5-16) a rgues a gainst this point, e specially concerning the i nfluences o n C optic a rt, mainly on chronological bases: h e n otes t hat t he r elated f actors appeared i n Nabataean a rt i n t he f irst c entury A .D., a nd i n the C optic i n t he f ifth-seventh c enturies A .D. I nstead h e proposes a common s ource, most p robably i n Syria a nd Armenia.

1 . e

The

a nnexation o f

P etra

The o fficial a nnexation o f Nabatene by R ome o ccurred i n A .D. 1 06, carried out by A . C ornelius P alma, t he l egate o f Syria, under Trajan ( Starcky 1 955, 1 03; H ammond 1 973, 3 8). By t hat t ime t he change o f t rade r outes had weakened t he Nabataeans e conomically. The Roman c ivil wars which contributed t o t he Nabataeans' c ommercial d evelopment and delayed t heir annexation h ad ended. The Roman Empire was well e stablished, s trong and s table i n the Near E ast. The Nabataean s ense o f independence, s trong during t he z enith o f t heir power, h ad subsided. Nabatene's r ole a s a Roman v assal s tate b ecame more p rominent with i ts s upplying t roops t o Roman a rmies on various o ccasions ( Hammond 1 973, 3 8). There • Was n o more meaning i n a n i ndependent Nabataean s tate ( See Raschke 1 978, 6 64 and n . 1 344-1351). H istory has c ontinually t old u s t hat i s when a s tate ends.

1 2

Why d id Rome f inally decide t o annex Nabatene? S tarcky ( 1955, 1 03) s uggests Rome's i ntolerance o f a ny more i ndependent powers i n t he a rea; H ammond ( 1973, 3 9) s uggests a commercial p rize t o R ome i n P etra's d irect c ontrol; Raschke ( 1978, 6 47-648) a ttributes t he annexation t o t he g eneral expansionist policy r esumed by T rajan's R ome. Whatever Rome's motives were, P etra s eemed r eady t o g ive i n. A rchaeological evidence s hows n o s igns o f d estruction a t t he t ime ( see f or example Murray a nd E llis 1 940, 8 ; d iscussion i n Bowersock 1 971, 2 28). One burnt l ayer a t Oboda l ed N egev, i n o ne o f h is three datings, t o a ttribute i t t o t he R oman annexation ( see d iscussion i n N egev 1 963, 1 21; B owersock 2 1 971, 25). F inally N egev d ecided on b laming A rab t ribes i nvading t he a rea i n t he t ime o f Nabataean d ecline, b efore t he annexation ( Negev 1 969, 1 3-14). This s upposed i nvasion i s complex a nd extremely c onfusing, i t i s a lso s upposed t o have o ccurred a fter t he a nnexation ( Negev 1 967, 4 7,54), a nd Meshorer ( 1975, 5 ) c ites a n i nscription f rom Wadi F eiran i n S inai, dated t o A .D. 1 90/191 a nd c ommented on s imilarly by Negev ( 1963, 1 23), which l ed t he f ormer t o s tate t hat " The A rab t ribes, r aiding a nd p illaging t he country t owards t he . end o f t he s econd c entury C .E. .. b rought a bout t he f inal a nnexation o f Nabataean culture 8 5 years a fter t he Nabataean k ingdom had l ost i ts political i ndependence." L ooking a t t he o riginal publication o f t he i nscription ( Cooke 1 903, n o. 1 07 pp.260-261), t he l ast l ine, on which t he destruction conclusion i s based, h as s everal l etters missing a nd much d isagreement concerning the r eading: t he word " AI JARBU", one o f t he uncertain words, i s t ranslated a s " destroyed", a lthough i t may j ust mean " war". I n t he t ribal s ense t his may n ot b e more than a s quabble. The o ther uncertain word i s " RBYA", A rab. Thus a lthough n omadic t ribes c ertainly entered the a rea, Negev's and Meshorer's sweeping s tatement o f doom and destruction, based on one d estruction l evel o f uncertain date, a n i nscription o f uncertain r eading, a nd t he mere presence o f S afaitic a nd Thamudic i nscriptions i n t he a rea, i s hardly a nything t o g o by. The evidence f rom P etra points t o a s tate o f p rosperity a fter the R oman i nvasion, a nd s hows t hat the culture o f t he p eople s urvived f or a l ong t ime a fterwards. A fter t he a nnexation t he a rea down t o t he Gulf o f Aqabah was i ncluded i n the R oman P rovincia A rabia, l ater on t o undergo s everal r earrangements ( see Bowersock 1 971; 1 983). I t h as been s uggested t hat P etra was t he f irst c apital o f t his P rovince but this i s h ighly unlikely, s till s he c ertainly c arried t he designation o f Metropolis ( for P etra n ot b eing g ranted t he s tatus o f C olony a t t he b eginning s ee B en-Dor 1 949, 4 2). P etra's p rosperity c ontinued well i nto t he L ate Roman P eriod ( see P arr 1 957, 1 5; 1 960, 1 35; Hammond 1 978, 1 00), even t he Nabataean pottery c ontinued t o b e p roduced and was u sed by t he o ccupying Roman s oldiers ( Glueck 1 935, 1 3).

1 3

1 .7

P etra

i n

t he

Byzantine

P eriod

With t he change o f culture o f t he R oman Empire, t aking i t i nto t he " Byzantine", S tarcky ( 1964, co1.921) s uggests a s imilar change i n P etra. A ctually t he C hristian culture does n ot s eem t o have been s trong i n P etra ( see Z ayadine 1 974, 1 38-139; Hammond 1 978, 1 01), d espite t he f act t hat s he was s till a n i mportant c entre a nd h ad h er own b ishop i n t he m iddle o f t he f ifth c entury A .D. ( Parr 1 959, 1 07; Hammond 1 973, 5 6). P etra had a lready s tarted t o d iminish i n s ize a fter t he Roman annexation ( Parr 1 960, 1 35), undoubtedly t hrough p eople emigrating t o o ther a reas. This emigration may have continued i n one f orm o r a nother i n t he Byzantine period. P etra was badly destroyed by a n e arthquake i n A .D. 3 63 ( Hammond 1 980, 1 38). This would h ave c ontributed t o f urther emigration a nd dwindling o f t he population. No d ated h istory o f P etra i s extant a fter t he A .D. 47 i nscription 4 mentioning Jason t he B ishop o f P etra, r eferred t o a bove ( Hammond 1 973, 5 6). The L ate Byzantine P eriod was a p eriod o f poverty a nd degeneration t hroughout Jordan, i ncluding P etra ( Harding 1 958, 1 3). The evidence f rom t he P etra excavations c arried out by Parr points t o a date o f a bandonment i n t he s ixth c entury A .D., with a f inal major destruction due t o a s evere earthquake i n t he e ighth c entury A . D. ( Parr 1 959, 1 07-108; Khairy 1 975, 3 57), a lthough more r ecent excavations d id uncover early I slamic pottery ( Hammond 1 978, 8 3).

1 4

CHAPTER 2 THE SAMPLES

2 .1

I ntroduction

The bulk o f t he p ottery s amples analysed c ame f rom t he excavations directed by P eter P arr i n P etra, b etween 1 958 a nd 1 964 ( Parr 1 960; 1 970; K irkbride 1 960). S everal c lasses were chosen f or a nalysis: c ooking p ots, p ainted ware, t erra s igillata, r ed ware, l amps a nd f igurines. These c lasses a re d ivided i nto s ubclasses. S everal s amples were chosen t o r epresent each s ubclass. This d ivision i s quite wide a nd n ot a detailed s tylistic s tudy. The number o f s amples chosen i s n ot r elated t o t he r elative f requency o f o ccurrence o f t he s ubclasses i n t he e xcavated pottery. E stimating t he n umbers o f s pecimens r equired t o characterise a ' composition type' h as b een a p roblem f acing workers i n p rovenancing s tudies o f a rchaeological materials. Wilson ( 1978, 2 27) s uggested t hat " 5-10 s pecimens o f e ach o f t he s elected t ypes a nd s tyles o f pottery .. b e a nalysed i nitially, with t he p roviso t hat n o l ess t han a t otal o f 5 0 s pecimens b e examined". This s uggestion p roved d ifficult t o ases where o nly very f ew s pecimens were f ollow i n s ome -c a vailable f or a nalysis. M aterial f or c omparison with t he pottery f rom t he P etra e xcavations was a nalysed a s well. This i ncluded p ottery f rom t wo Nabataean s ites: Aujah a l-Hafeer i n t he Negeb, a nd U dhruh, which l ies s ome 2 0 Kms t o t he north e ast o f P etra. The material f rom t hese s ites s hould g ive a n i dea o f t he i nteraction between t hem a nd P etra. An additional i mportance o f t he Udhruh s amples i s .t hat a Nabataean p ottery k iln may h ave existed on t he s ite. P ottery and c lay s amples were a nalysed f rom a k iln complex d iscovered a t Z urrabah, a s uburb o f P etra. The d ate o f t he k iln i s l ate Roman, but i t p roduced s herds c ontemporary with s ome o f t he s amples f rom t he P etra excavations. The k iln material i s most p robably t he l ocal P etra ' composition t ype', o r a t l east one o f • the l ocal composition t ypes. C lay s amples f rom d ifferent s ources a round P etra w ere a lso a nalysed. These may h elp p inpoint s ome o f t he s ources u sed i n antiquity, a s well a s e stablish a l ocal c omposition p attern.

F inally, p ottery, c lay a nd t emper s amples w ere o btained f rom a modern p ottery workshop i n t he n orth o f J ordan. T hese would h elp e stablish a r elationship b etween t he c lay a nd f inished p roduct. They would a lso s erve a s a c omposition p attern o f a n a rea w ith which P etra h ad s ubstantial l inks. A ll t he s amples a nalysed a re d escribed i n A ppendix A .

2 .2

The c ooking pots f rom t he P etra e xcavations

E ighty f ive c ooking p ot s herds were a nalysed ( Table A .1). They h ave a ll b een s tudied by K hairy ( 1975). H is t ypology i s f ollowed i n t he t able. A p oint which must b e s tressed i s t hat Khairy 's c lassification o f t he c oarse wares f rom t he P etra e xcavations c oncentrated o n f orm, r ather t han w are. A c ommon t rend among a rchaeologists i n t he p ast h as b een t o r egard c oarse wares a s l ocal p roducts. C loser s tudies h ave s hown t his a ssumption a s u ntrue, e ven f or c ommon, " everyday", c ooking p ots ( see R iley 1 981, 1 40-141; 1 983, 3 16-318). K hairy p ointed o ut i n h is a bove m entioned s tudy ( p.357), t hat 4 5% o f t he t ypes h ave a w ide d istribution i n t he L evantine H ellenistic w orld, a lthough 8 0% o f t he e xcavated material s hows a d istinct p inkish r ed c olour t ypical o f t he P etra p ottery ( which h as n othing t o d o w ith t he c olour o f t he P etra s andstone). T his w ide " uniformity o f w are" was t aken a s a n i ndication o f a s ingle c entre o f o rigin i n t he P etra a rea. The " Families" o f p ots w ere d ivided i nto two c ategories: " Rarely p aralleled o utside N abataean s ites" v ersus " Paralleled o utside N abataean s ites".

2 .3

T he p ainted ware f rom t he P etra e xcavations

F ifty o ne p ainted s herds were a nalysed. F orty f our s herds b elong t o t he " typical N abataean" p ainted t ypes. T he s even o thers a re m iscellaneous, o ne o f which c omes f rom a H ellenistic l agynos.

2 .3.1

N abataean painted ware

This ware i s t he most d istinctively N abataean o f a ll t he wares s tudied. I t was o nly d esignated a s N abataean ( rather t han R oman), during t he e xcavations o f H orsfield a nd C onway i n P etra i n 1 929 ( published 1 930). S ince t hen t he p ottery h as b een s tudied mainly f rom t he p oint o f v iew o f i ts d ecoration ( see f or e xample H ammond 1 959a; S chmitt-Korte 1 971; 1 974; N egev 1 974). Nabataean p ainted ware h as b een d ivided i nto t hree main c ategories, c orresponding t o t hree c hronological p hases ( see P arr 1 970, e specially p .370; S chmitt-Korte 1 971, 5 3; 1 974;

1 6

Negev a nd S ivan 1 977). This d ivision i s c onfirmed by d ifferences i n t he physical p roperties b etween t he t hree c ategories, i ndicating changes i n t echnology a s well a s p ainted p atterns ( Hammond 1 964, 2 65). I n t his s tudy, t he painted p ottery i s c lassified i nto ' types', c orresponding t o t he t hree p ottery phases u sually f ollowed. The word ' phase' i s n ot u sed i n o rder n ot t o g ive a ny c hronological c ommitment t o t he d ivision o f t ype 3 i nto a a nd b ( sections 2 .3.1.3 a nd 2 .3.1.4 b elow). I t i s f elt t hat t ype 3 b s hould c ome l ater t han t ype 3 a, maybe a ffected by Byzantine t echniques o f p ottery making. The f inal word s hould b e l eft u ntil t he s tratigraphy o f t he P etra e xcavations i s c ompletely s tudied. C oncerning t he g eographical d istribution o f t he p ottery, G lueck c oncluded f rom h is e xplorations i n " Eastern" a nd " Western P alestine" ( 1932-1947), t hat i t d oes n ot o ccur i n a ny a ppreciable a mounts n orth o f a l ine j oining t he n orthern t ip o f t he D ead S ea with Ma'dabah. S outh o f t his l ine, i t was f ound on most o f t he s ites i ncluded within t he " Nabataean K ingdom", down t o Aqabah. F inds a lso o ccur i n n orthern A rabia a nd S inai ( see d iscussion i n S chmitt-Korte 1 971, 5 0-51). More r ecent e xcavations h ave uncovered l arge amounts o f t he ware i n Hauran, t hus n ullifying G lueck's l ine ( Dentzer 1 985, 1 49). A s f or t he c entres o f manufacture; K hairy, i n h is s tudies o f t he f ine unpainted pottery ( which h as v ery s imilar ware t o t he " classical" p ainted pottery) r ecognises i t a s o f purely Nabataean manufacture, a nd p oints t o t he r egion o f P etra a s t he o rigin o f t he P etra examples ( Khairy 1 982, 2 77-278; 1 983, 3 0,38). H ammond ( 1973, 6 7,68-69) puts f orward t he i dea o f t he manufacturing c entres b eing d istributed t hroughout Nabatene. P etrological e xaminations o f s herds f rom s ites i n H auran a nd f rom P etra ( reported i n D entzer 1 985, 1 49-151), i ndicated t hat t he p ottery i s a ll p etrologically s imilar. G eologically i t c ould n ot h ave o riginated i n H auran, a s n one o f t he s amples c ontained basaltic i nclusions, which a re t ypical o f t he Hauran c lays. The c alcite i nclusions i n t he pottery i ndicate P etra a s a possible o rigin, a lthough s ites f urther n orth c annot b e e xcluded. N egev ( 1974) c laimed h e d iscovered a p otter's workshop a t Oboda i n t he N egeb. H is i dentification s hould b e t aken w ith r eserve f or s everal r easons: 1 . what h e i dentified a s a k iln i s made o f l imestone, a most u nlikely material f or a p ottery k iln, 2 . n o " warped" wasters were d iscovered i n t he a rea, 3 . what h e i dentified a s a potter's wheel f oundation i s more l ikely t o b e a g rinding mill ( see P eacock 1 982, 5 5). A k iln c omplex was uncovered a t Z urrabah, but t he d ate h ere i s l ate R oman ( see s ection 2 .10 b elow). The f oundations o f a k iln, p robably f rom t he Nabataean P eriod, were d iscovered during e xcavations a t U dhruh ( see s ection 2 .9).

1 7

2 .3.1.1

Nabataean p ainted ware:

Thirteen examples P late 1 ).

o f

t his

type

t ype

1 ( PPW1-13)

were

a nalysed

( Table

A .2a,

The colour o f t he f abric i s r ed. T he p aint i s r ed w ith f lowing b rush s trokes, r esulting i n v arying t hicknesses o f paint, g iving a s haded e ffect. The ware i s well l evigated w ith v ery f ew s mall white ( calcite?) g rits. I t i s well f ired, f ew e xamples s how g rey cores, a nd even t hen t he r eduction i s v ery s light: P PW6 a nd 7 s how t hin l ight g reyish r ed c ores, P PW10 a nd 1 2 s how v ery t hin patchy g rey c ores. P PW13 i s p ainted i n t he s tyle o f type 1 , but t he f iring g ives i t t he c olours ( and h ardness) o f t ype 2 . ( Compare H ammond 1 956, 2 74-275,279; 1 964, 2 62).

2 .3.1.2

Nabataean painted ware:

type

2 ( PPW14-23)

This i s t he " classical" Nabataean ware. T en e xamples type were a nalysed ( Table A .2b, P lates 2 a nd 3 ).

o f

t he

The c olour i s r ed, but d eeper t han t he r ed o f t ype 1 . The paint i s d arker r ed, more even a nd more s tylized i n d esign t han i n type 1 . The ware i s s till well l evigated. G enerally t hinner t han type 1 . I t i s well f ired i n t hat i t i s h arder t han t ype 1 , but many examples h ave w ide dark g rey c ores.

2 .3.1.3

Nabataean painted ware:

t ype

3 a

( PPW24-38)

Two d ifferent f abrics were n oticed t o h ave t he p ainted patterns a ssociated with t he t hird " phase" o f Nabataean p ainted pottery. These f abrics a re t ermed t ype 3 a a nd 3 b i n t his s tudy. F ifteen s amples r epresenting t ype 3 a were a nalysed ( Table A .2c, P lates 3 a nd 4 ). P PW24 s hows t he dark p almette t ypical o f t he " third p hase" painting, but i ts t reatment i s f iner t han i s u sual i n " third phase" pottery. The b ackground l ines a re e xtremely f inely painted. I ts f abric i s s imilar t o t hat o f t ype 2 . The ware i s quite f ine, but l ess well l evigated t han t ype 2 . L arger c alcareous g rits a ppear. Most e xamples h ave g rey ( chert?) g rits. Many s herds s how dark c ores. Thin o r p atchy i n s ome c ases ( PPW25, 3 1, 3 2), a nd v ery wide i n o thers ( PPW26, 3 0, 3 5, 3 7); i n t he c ase o f P PW26 e xtending a ll t he way t o t he i nner s urface. P PW38 s hows " light-to-dark" buff c olour, which may b e a n i ndication o f s light over f iring.

1 8

2 .3.1.4 S ix 5 ).

Nabataean painted ware:

s amples

o f

t his

type

were

t ype

3 b

( PPW39-44)

a nalysed

( Table

A .2d,

P late

The f abric i s g enerally well oxidised, r ed i n c olour. S ome s amples h ave buff c ores ( PPW41, 4 2, 4 4). None o f t he s amples a nalysed h ave g rey c ores. The ware i s quite t hick ( up t o a lmost 6 mm i n t he s amples a nalysed). The f abric i s c oarser t han t he u sual f ine N abataean wares, h aving many g rits. P PW44 h as s ome m icaceous f lecks i n a ddition t o t he c alcareous a nd g rey ( chert?) g rits.

2 .3.2

M iscellaneous

S even m iscellaneous 5 a nd 6 ). P PW51 1 965,

2 .4

p ainted ware s herds were a nalysed

comes f rom a n i mported 5 31 a nd P 1.132,2).

The

H ellenistic

t erra s igillata f rom t he

( Table A .2e,

l agynos

P lates

( see

P arr

P etra excavations

The t erra s igillata s amples were d ivided i nto f our s ubclasses: western t erra s igillata ( including b oth I talian a nd Gaulish wares), e astern t erra s igillata A , e astern t erra s igillata B , and e astern t erra s igillata C . T he t erminology f or the e astern t erra s igillata i s t hat e stablished by K enyon ( in C rowfoot e t a l. 1 957, 2 83).

2 .4.1

Western t erra s igillata

( PTS1-26)

Twenty s ix s amples w ere a nalysed, t wo o f which p roved t o b elong t o t he s ame v essel upon c loser e xamination ( PTS5/8. T able A .3a, P lates 6 a nd 7 ). W estern s igillata i s g enerally d istinguishable e astern by i ts h ighly g lossy, well a dhering s lip.

f rom

t he

S everal s lightly d ifferent f abrics a re r epresented. The b ulk o f t he s amples a re o f v ery f ine, p inkish b rown ware w ith t hick h ighly g lossy, r eddish b rown s lip ( PTS1-3, 5 -15 a nd 1 8-20). PTS4, 1 6, 1 7 a nd 2 1 a re o f a s lightly l ighter c olour, while P TS11 h as s lightly d arker a nd f iner ware a nd s lip. P TS22 i s s imilar t o t he l ighter c oloured s amples, but ware i s c omparatively t hin. The s lip i s more r ed s omewhat t hinner a nd i nferior i n quality.

1 9

t he a nd

PTS24 i s o f a l ighter b rown a nd c oarser ware. more b rown a s well, a nd comparatively dull. PTS25 h as t he c olours o f t he bulk o f t he t exture o f t he ware i s s omewhat g rainy, matt. PTS26 i s quite d ifferent f ine, t hin, p inkish ware; o range-red s lip.

The

s amples, a nd t he

t o a ll t he o ther s amples. with well a dhering, t hick,

s lip

i s

b ut t he s lip i s

I t h as g lossy

" PTS23 i s burnt, most p robably i t b elongs t o one o f t he f abrics r epresented by PTS1-21. None o f t he s amples h as t he b right r ed c olour characteristic o f s ome G aulish s igillatas. The d ifficulty i n dealing with western s igillata, f or a N ear Eastern a rchaeologist, i s t he unfamiliarity w ith t he d ifferences i n wares. Non-eastern s igillatas t ended ( and s till t end) t o b e c lassified a s " Arretine", a lthough G aulish wares h ave b een i dentified i n t he L evant, i ncluding P etra, i n t he 1 930's ( see C omfort 1 939, 1 0; I liffe 1 938, 1 9,22; 1 942, 3 4,36). On s tylistic g rounds, t he majority o f t he s amples c an b e a ttributed t o I talian manufacturers. T he ware o f PTS22 i s most l ikely t o b e c entral G aulish. G . a nd A . H orsfield ( 1942) published two s herds f rom P etra, o f s imilar f orm t o PTS19 ( no.407 and 4 08). They described t hem a s G aulish. The c entres o f p roduction o f t erra s igillata i n t he West, a s well a s t he o rganisation o f t he p roduction, h ave b een s tudied quite t horoughly. Many k iln s ites have b een l ocated. The p icture emerging i s complex, w ith many c entres ( see O swald a nd P ryce 1 920, C hapter I I; P eacock 1 982, C hapter 7 ). Gunneweg e t a l. ( 1983) a nalysed t wenty s even western t erra s igillata s herds, excavated on d ifferent s ites i n P alestine, u sing n eutron a ctivation a nalysis. Twelve s herds w ere positively a ttributed t o A rrezo, matching A rretine wasters ( p.16). One o f t hese s herds i s c lose t o PTS5/8 and P TS10 ( TERRA 4 2, F ig.17). Three o ther s herds w ere a ttributed, w ith r eserve, t o P ozuoli ( pp.16-17). F ive s herds c ould have c ome f rom I zmir, a lthough t his a ttribution i s unreliable, a s i t i s based only o n a f ew s urface s herds f rom t he s ite ( pp. 1 7-18). The s amples a ttributed t o I zmir i nclude one s ample o f s imilar f orm t o P TS19, but t he ware may b e d ifferent ( JERS 1 6, F ig.18). One s ample e ach matched p ottery f rom A labanda ( inland, s outh o f E phesus), A ssos ( north o f P ergamon) a nd Enkomi ( in Cyprus). The a ttributions o f t he f irst two a re unreliable, a s again t hey a re b ased on a f ew s urface s herds ( p.18). The Enkomi r eference g roup i s a cceptable, but t he s herd t hat matched i t ( TERRA 1 30, f rom Oboda, F ig.20 a nd p .75), i s d escribed a s h aving l ight b uff ware and t races o f brown-red a nd o range-red s lip. The l ight colour a nd p oorly adhering s lip a re c haracteristics o f e astern, n ot western, s igillata ( in a ctual f act, t he

2 0

composition o f this s herd i s c lose t o Gunneweg e t a l.'s e astern t erra s igillata-I g roup, s ee t heir Table 1 4, p .29). F our s herds, r epresenting t hree c omposition g roups, were described a s o f unknown p rovenance ( p.18). None o f t he s herds matched r eference g roups f rom Mont e d e l a Muette, Loyasse, Banassac o r L a G raufesenque ( p.17).

2 .4.2

Eastern t erra s igillata A ( PTS27-57)

Twenty s ix P late 7 ).

s amples

o f

t his

ware

were

a nalysed

( Table

A .3b,

This i s t he l ight c oloured ware, w ith dark r ed-brown s lip, commonly c alled P ergamene. I n a n a ttempt t o n eutralise t he n ame, I liffe ( 1938, 1 2-13) c alled i t S igillata G roup i i. The a ndarli ware, c onsidered a n a djunct s ubsidiary o f P ergamene, will b e d ealt w ith a s e astern t erra s igillata C . Two s lightly d ifferent f abrics a re r epresented by t he s amples. The f irst i s v ery p ale, a lmost white, a nd v ery f ine. The s lip i s d ark, r eddish b rown o r r ed ( PTS27-29, 3 1, 3 2, 3 5, 3 6, 3 8, 3 9, 4 2, 4 4 a nd 4 8). The s econd f abric i s s lightly more y ellowish r ed, with more r eddish s lip ( PTS30, 3 3, 3 4, 3 7, 4 0, 4 1, 4 5 a nd 4 6). PTS43, 4 7 a nd 4 9 a re burnt, t hem t o e ither f abric.

making

i t

d ifficult

t o

a ssign

O f t he mottled s igillata, P TS50 b elongs t o t he s econd f abric. PTS52 b elongs t o t he f irst. PTS51 i s burnt. The f irst f abric i s e quivalent t o K enyon's ( Samaria) e astern s igillata A ware 1 ; t he s econd i s equivalent t o h er ware 2 ( Kenyon i n C rowfoot e t a l. 1 957, 2 83-284). S pectrographic a nalysis, carried o ut i n 1 935, d ifferentiated t he t wo f abrics o n t he b asis o f t heir B a c ontent ( Crowfoot e t a l. 1 957, Appendix I II, p .476). A s f or t he centres o f manufacture o f t his ware, t he g eneral opinion i s t hat t hey were s everal, i n t he e astern M editerranean ( see f or example I liffe 1 938, 5 -9; C rowfoot e t a l. 1 957, 3 55-357; Rosenthal 1 978, 1 8). H ayes ( 1967, 7 4; 1 973, 4 50) s uggested a Syrian o rigin f or t he ware. N egev ( 1974) h ad l ittle doubt t hat s ome e astern s igillata A was p roduced l ocally a t Oboda, s aying t hat s everal unfired v essels were f ound i n t he l ocal " kiln" ( pp.34-35, a nd s ee s ection 2 .3.1 above). None o f t hese v essels were p ublished, n one o f t hem were a nalysed by Gunneweg e t a l., who a nalysed f orty one t erra s igillata s herds f rom N egev's e xcavations a t Oboda. E astern t erra s igillata A comprises most o f G unneweg e t a l.'s ETS-I g roup ( 1983, 1 0-14). ETS-I i s a " pattern g roup", a rrived a t by n eutron a ctivation a nalysis. This g roup i s

2 1

amazing i n that i t comprises eastern t erra s igillata A , maybe a lso eastern t erra s igillata B and C ( this i s n ot c lear a nywhere i n t he s tudy, a lthough s ome o f t he f orms c ertainly belong t o t hese wares), a s well a s s ome B lack S lip ware, Megarian bowls, and even one West S lope s herd. The s tandard deviations o f t he e lements i n g roup ETS-I a re quite a cceptable ( Gunneweg e t a l. Table 1 , p .20), but these d epend h eavily on the number o f s amples o f d ifferent compositions ( if t here a re d ifferent compositions i n the g roup). I n o ther words, i f t he outliers a re f ew, a nd t he bulk o f the s amples a re o f s imilar composition, t hen t he s tandard deviations f rom the means will b e small. The b reakdown o f the data i nto the s eparate s ites where t he s herds were excavated d id n ot a lter t he image much, a lthough s urely a b reakdown i nto d ifferent wares would h ave b een more meaningful. ETS-I g roup c ame c losest t o eastern Cypriot r eference g roups, o f p ottery a s well a s c lays. No certain c entre c ould b e p inpointed a s t he o rigin.

2 .4.3

E astern t erra s igillata B ( PTS53-56)

Only f our examples o f t his ware were f ound s uitable f or analysis ( Table A .3c, P late 7 ). This ware i s equivalent t o I liffe's G roup i , which h e equated w ith the S amian ( Iliffe 1 938, 1 0-12). All t he s amples h ave f ine yellowish r ed ware, with many golden mica s pecks. The s lip i s t hick, s omewhat d eeper i n colour t han the ware, a nd g lossy ( except maybe f or PTS54, where the s lip i s t oo worn out t o b e c orrectly i dentified). PTS53 and 5 5 a re b roken i n f laky l ayers. All o f the s amples belong t o Hayes' E astern S igillata B I ware ( Hayes 1 973, 4 52). Not much can be s aid o f t he c entres o f manufacture o f eastern s igillata B , except maybe f or S amos. I liffe ( 1938, 1 1) s aid t hat two c lays were u sed on t he i sland: a s ea c lay and a mountain c lay. Eastern s igillata B may h ave b een i ncluded a l.'s ETS-I g roup ( see s ection 2 .4.2).

2 .4.4 E ight 7 ).

i n

Gunneweg

e t

E astern t erra s igillata C ( PTS57-64) s amples

o f

this ware were

a nalysed

( Table

A .3d,

P late

This ware i s equivalent t o t he ç andarli ware, i dentified by Loeschcke ( 1912) during h is t rial e xcavations a t t he s ite, n ear P ergamon. A k iln, with wasters o f t he ware, was f ound on t he s ite. This e stablishes i t a s a c ertain c entre o f manufacture. Three s lightly d ifferent f abrics a re r epresented by t he s amples. The f irst i s o f r eddish y ellow ware, s omewhat coarser and h arder t han eastern t erra s igillata A . The s lip

2 2

i s t hick, uneven, and matt i n most cases P TS60 i s o f s imilar ware, but t he s lip i s

( PTS57-59, t hinner.

6 1-63).

P TS64 has a more b rown colour, with golden mica f lecks. A ll t he s amples b elong to L oeschcke's e arlier, f irst c entury A .D., phase. O f t he f orms published by Loeschcke, PTS58 i s s imilar t o 5 ; PTS60 i s s imilar t o 2 7; P TS64 i s s imilar t o 1 . P TS63 i s thinner t han i s u sual i n t he ç andarli f orms. Only PTS58 h as t he c haracteristic " better i nside t han outside" s lip c ommon a t 9 andarli. E astern t erra s igillata C may h ave a lso b een i ncluded i n Gunneweg e t a l.'s E TS-I g roup ( see s ection 2 .4.2 above). I n any case, PTS63 i s very s imilar t o JERS 9 0 ( Gunneweg e t a l. 1 983, F ig. 8 ) a nd PTS64 i s s imilar t o TERRA 7 2 ( ibid. F ig. 1 1).

2 .4.5

Miscellaneous

T en miscellaneous 7 a nd 8 ).

t erra s igillata

s amples

were

PTS65 i s s imilar i n ware t o t erra s igillata A , but t he eastern t erra s igillata C . PTS66 i s s imilar h as no s lip.

i n

ware

t o

( PTS65-74)

a nalysed

( Table

A .3e,

P lates

t he l ight f abric o f e astern s lip i s s imilar t o t hat o f

e astern

t erra

s igillata

A ,

but

PTS67 i s s imilar t o eastern t erra s igillata C , but b oth i ts ware a nd s lip a re darker, c oarser a nd s ofter t han i s f amiliar. PTS68 a nd 6 9 a re s omewhat s imilar. t han any o f t he s igillata a nalysed. P TS70

i s

i t h as a

Their

ware

i s

s imilar i n ware t o e astern t erra s igillata s trip o f s loppy p aint r ather t han a s lip.

P TS71 a nd 7 2 a re s igillata A and C . The s lip i s t hin, l ustre.

c oarser

A ,

but

s imilar, l ying b etween e astern t erra The ware i s f ine, l ight yellowish r ed. yellowish r ed, with a s light metallic

P TS73 i s s imilar i n f orm t o western s igillatas, c olours o f eastern t erra s igillata B .

but

h as

t he

P TS74 i s t he only p iece which h as a r educed i nner s urface, which may b e t he cause f or i ts h ardness, a s t he o xidised p art i s s ofter. I t c ould b e a n imitation o f eastern t erra s igillata A .

2 3

2 .5

The

r ed ware

f rom t he P etra excavations

F our s ubclasses h ave b een s tudied a s r ed wares, a v ery g eneral t erm i n i tself. The f irst s ubclass, The C ypriot/ Nabataean t erra s igillata o r e astern s igillata D ( section 2 .5.1 b elow) i s a p rime e xample o f t he c onfusion s urrounding p ottery t erminology. I n t his s tudy i t was d ecided t o i nclude t his ware with t he r ed wares r ather t han w ith t he t erra s igillatas. I liffe ( 1938, 1 4-15) d iscussed t he d ifficulty i n d rawing a l ine b etween s igillatas a nd n on-sigillatas. H e e nded u p w ith a v ery b road d efinition. H is s igillatas i ncluded t he Nabataean f ine wares, b oth p ainted a nd unpainted ( Iliffe 1 938, 1 5-17). Another p roblem encountered i n d ealing w ith t erminology i s t he u se o f one t erm t o d escribe more t han one ware. I liffe, a s mentioned a bove, u sed t he t erm " Nabataean s igillata" t o d escribe t he f ine, " egg-shell", wares. G . a nd A . H orsfield ( 1942) u sed t he t erm t o d escribe a ware which t hey d id n ot d efine, a lthough t heir d efinition i s obviously d ifferent f rom I liffe's ( e.g. examples o n pp.146 a nd 1 47). F inally Negev ( 1972) u sed t he s ame t erm t o d escribe a c ompletely unrelated ware. A d ifficulty h as b een e ncountered with t he s econd s ubclass o f r ed ware ( section 2 .5.2). No r eference t o t his ware a s a s eparate g roup could b e f ound. I t s hows s ome a ffinities t o e stablished c oarse Nabataean w ares, a s ubject i n n eed o f more s tudy. The t hird s ubclass h as b een e stablished w ithout a n e stablished t erm t o n ame i t. The f ourth s ubclass i s well e stablished t erm.

t he

" Pompeiian

R ed",

a s

Nabataean,

t his

b eing

A s t his s tudy i s n ot p rimarily c oncerned with t ypology, i t was d ecided t o g ive t he s ubclasses n eutral n ames. T hus, f ollowing t he t erminology a dopted f or t he p ainted ware, t he f our s ubclasses a re t ermed " types". A b rief d escription o f each t ype i s i n T able 2 .1.

2 .5.1

R ed ware:

t ype

1 ( PPW1-12)

Twelve s amples o f t his ware w ere a nalysed. Two o f t hem p roved t o b elong t o t he s ame v essel upon c loser examination ( PRW4/7. Table A .4a, P lates 8 a nd 9 ). Three s omewhat d ifferent f abrics c an b e s een a mong t he s amples. The f irst i s d eep r eddish b rown, w ith a " streaky" s lip i n many c ases, due t o d ouble d ipping ( PRW1, 3 , 4 /7, 8 -11). PRW11 h as a g rey b and o n t he r im.

2 4

Table

2 .1

D escription o f

t he

r ed w ares a nalysed.

Type

C ommon t erminologies

D escription o f

1

B ally H ayes

Hard and v ery f ine, except f or f ew c alcareous i nclusions. The f abric u sually h as s ome small oval p ores. The p redominant c olour i s deep r eddish b rown. The s lip i s t hin but well a dhering w ith a metallic l ustre. Wheel burnishing marks a re q uite c ommon.

( 1962): ( 1967):

Ware C I Cypriot s igillata N egev ( 1972): Nabataean s igillata Rosenthal ( 1978): E astern s igillata D

t he ware

2

Hard, medium t hick, with s ome c alcareous i nclusions. The p redominant c olour i s yellowish r ed. The s lip i s t hick and matt, a pplied t o the outer s urfaces o f c losed f orms, a nd t o t he i nner s urfaces o f open ones, a s well a s t o t he r ims o f b oth.

3

H ard, t hin, w ith f ew c alcareous, a nd s ometimes s andy, i nclusions. The p redominant colour i s l ight r ed, s imilar t o t he f ine Nabataean wares. The s lip i s t hin a nd p olished a lso r ed i n c olour.

4

M edium s oft, c oarse, with many i nclusions, g iving s andy, i t a mottled, The a ppearance. p redominant c olour i s a b rownish r ed. The s lip i s v ery t hick, d ark r ed i n c olour, c overing t he t op o f t he r im a nd t he i nside o nly i n o pen f orms.

P ompeiian R ed

2 5

The s econd f abric i s more b rown i n c olour PRW6 has a t hinner, l ight s lip on t he r im.

( PRW2,

5 a nd

6 ).

The t hird f abric i s l ighter i n c olour, a lmost o range, w ith a l ess l ustrous s lip ( PRW12). This c olour i s due t o p oorer f iring, a nd i s c ommon i n t he l ater p hases o f t he ware ( Hayes 1 967, 6 6). D ifferent opinions h ave b een e xpressed c oncerning t he a reas p roducing t his ware. H ayes ( 1967) h ad h is r eservations when n aming t he ware " Cypriot". H e p roposed t he r egion o f S oli, i n n orth w est C yprus, a s t he p robable o rigin ( if t he ware i s made i n C yprus a t a ll). The s outhern c oastal r egions o f A sia M inor were p roposed a s a n a lternative o rigin which h ad n ot b een s tudied y et ( pp.65,75). On t he o ther h and, N egev ( 1972) h ad n o doubt i n h is mind c oncerning t he o rigin o f t he ware. Over a nd over a gain t he ware i s a ttributed t o t he Oboda workshop ( e.g. 1 972, 3 81,387,390,396,397,398; 1 986, 3 0-31). S ome dark s herds were r eported a s b eing over-fired ( 1972, n o.29 p .387 a nd n o.40 p .388; 1 986, n o.199 p .29), a lthough H ayes ( 1967, 6 6) r eported t hat s ome o f t he e arly p ieces were f ired i n a r educing k iln, a nd h ad dark g loss. Both Hayes a nd Negev published v ery c lose o f t he s amples a nalysed i n t his s tudy.

p arallels

t o

s ome

Rosenthal ( 1978, 1 9) expressed t he o pinion t hat t he w are h ad one o rigin, b ut was l ater i mitated a t v arious c entres. Gunneweg e t a l. ( 1983) a nalysed f ifty s amples o f t his ware, by n eutron a ctivation a nalysis. T en o f t heir s amples c ame f rom t he Oboda " workshop". The f ifty s amples c omprised t heir ETS-II composition g roup. This g roup p roved t o b e e xtremely homogeneous, i ndicating a s ingle a rea o f manufacture, w ith h omogeneous c lays. C omparisons w ith N abataean, C ypriot a nd coastal s outh Anatolian pottery a nd c lay c ompositions r uled out a Nabataean o rigin. A Cypriot o rigin c ould n ot be p inpointed but was n ot r uled o ut. A c oastal s outh A natolian o rigin was p ut f orward a s t he most p robable, w ith e xcellent matches. H owever, t his a ttribution i s u nreliable, a s i t i s based on a s mall n umber o f s herds c ollected f rom t he s urface a t S ide and A spendos ( Gunneweg e t a l. 1 983, 1 4-15, 1 09).

2 .5.2

R ed ware:

t ype

2 ( PRW13-20)

E ight s amples o f t his ware w ere a nalysed, t wo o f which p roved t o c ome f rom t he s ame v essel u pon c loser examination ( PRW15/17. T able A .4b, P late 9 ). Three s lightly d ifferent f abrics a re r epresented by t he s amples. The f irst i s y ellowish r ed i n c olour, w ith a d eep r ed s lip ( PRW13, 1 4, 1 5/17, 1 8 a nd 2 0).The s econd f abric h as a more p inkish c olour ( PRW16). The t hird f abric i s more r ed, with a t hinner s moother s lip ( PRW19).

2 6

Parallel f orms t o PRW19 and 2 0 were s tudied by Khairy ( 1975). PRW19 b elongs t o Khairy 's Bowl Family 1 Type 6 ( Plate 5 ). The example g iven i s o f a s omewhat d ifferent f abric. This f amily was c lassified by Khairy a s t ypically Nabataean, o f t he l ast quarter o f t he s econd c entury B .C. t o about t he f irst h alf o f t he s econd c entury A .D. ( p.51). PRW20 belongs t o Khairy's Bowl F amily 1 6 Type 3 36 ( Plate 2 2). The example i s o f a s omewhat d ifferent f abric, but s ome o f the examples o f F 16 h ave the s ame f abric a s PRW20. Khairy s uggested t hat F 16 could be Nabataean, o f a round 5 0 B .C. t o A .D. 7 0 ( p.108).

2 .5.3 S ix 9 ).

R ed ware:

s amples

o f

t ype t his

3 ( PRW21-26) ware

were

a nalysed

( Table

A .4c,

P late

PRW24 has s imilar f abric t o the bulk o f t he type 2 s amples ( section 2 .5.2 a bove), but t he s lip i s t hin a nd polished. The ware o f PRW26 i s v ery s imilar t o t he f ine " egg-shell" Nabataean wares. I t may a lso not b e s lipped, but merely h ave a polished outer s urface. G . a nd A . Horsfield ( 1942) published a s herd f rom P etra v ery s imilar t o PRW22 ( no.17, P late V III). However, t he s herd h ad a s lip on b oth s urfaces. They c lassified i t a s i mitation t erra s igillata, Nabataean o f t he f irst century A .D. ( p.116).

2 .5.4 E ight 9 ).

R ed ware: s amples

o f

t ype

4 ( PRW27-34)

t his ware were

a nalysed

( Table

A .4d,

P late

Most o f t he f orms o f t his ware a re open, s imple r immed d ishes w ith f lat bottoms. The ware h ad v ery wide d istribution i n t he Roman Empire b etween t he f irst c entury B .C. and t he f irst c entury A .D. ( Peacock 1 977b, 1 47). Two s lightly d ifferent f abrics a re r epresented by t he s amples. The f irst i s brownish r ed i n colour w ith dark mica f lecks ( PRW27-30). This i s equivalent t o P eacock's F abric 1 ( Peacock 1 977b, 1 49, 1 53). The s econd f abric i s more yellow t han b rown, with b oth dark and golden m ica f lecks ( PRW31 a nd 3 3). This i s equivalent t o Peacock's F abric 2 ( Peacock 1 977b, 1 53-154). PRW32 f irst

and 3 4 f abric.

a re

badly

b lackened.

They

s eem

c loser

t o

t he

A s f or t he a rea o f manufacture o f " Pompeiian R ed", I liffe ( 1938, 2 3-24) quoted two opinions. The f irst s uggested Western G ermany, i n t he Rhine r egion. This opinion was challenged by R itterling, who s uggested a n I talian o rigin.

2 7

Hayes ( 1973, 4 58) r ecognised two s lightly d ifferent ( equivalent t o P eacock's), but h e a ssumed a s ingle p robably i n I taly o r North A frica.

f abrics s ource,

Negev ( 1974, 4 1-42: 1 986, 1 7-19) a gain put f orward t he opinion t hat s ome " Pompeiian R ed" was manufactured a t t he Oboda " workshop". H is opinion i s based s olely on t he f act t hat many s herds were f ound there. H e s uggested t hat t he ware was i nitially i mported, t hen c opied l ocally, a s one s herd had a potter's s tamp i dentical t o a s tamp f ound a t C olchester. H e put s everal c riteria f or d ifferentiating between t he imported E uropean a nd t he l ocal i mitations. Most o f t he s amples a nalysed i n t his s tudy h ave characteristics f rom both d ivisions, a lthough PRW27 a nd 3 2 s eem c loser t o Negev's i mported c ategory, while PRW28-31 a nd 3 3, 3 4 a re c loser t o h is l ocal. P eacock ( 1977b) s aid o f h is F abric 1 t hat i t may b e t he commonest throughout t he Mediterranean. H e i nitially gave t he E ifel-Rhenish r egion o f G ermany a nd central o r s outhern I taly a s t he two possible s ources, based on t he r esults o f p etrological analysis. F inally, h e c oncluded t hat t he r egion o f Pompeii and Hercalaneum i s the most l ikely s ource. He based h is conclusion on t he evidence f rom amphorae and b rickwork, h aving i dentical f abrics t o P ompeiian F abric 1 , and o riginating f rom P ompeii a nd H ercalaneum ( Peacock 1 977b, 1 53). For P eacock's F abric 2 , the r esults o f t he p etrological analysis g ave B rittany, t he Massif o f c entral F rance, P rovence, t he A lpine r egion, the s outhern t oe o f I taly, and t he eastern Mediterranean a s possible o rigins. O f t hese possibilities, P eacock c hose t he Mediterranean a s t he most probable. H e a lso pointed out a f abric f rom t he A thenian Agora which s eems s imilar t o t he Pompeiian F abric 2 , but i s o f a d ifferent date and typology. This was t aken a s a h int that Fabric 2 may have o riginated in t he metamorphic a reas o f t he A egean o r Anatolia. No f inal word was g iven on t his a s t he Agora f abric was n ot a nalysed ( Peacock 1 977b, 1 54).

2 .5.5

Miscellaneous

r ed ware

( PRW35-40)

S ix miscellaneous s amples were analysed, two o f which p roved t o have come f rom t he s ame v essel upon c loser examination ( PRW36/37. T able A .4e, P late 9 ). The ware o f PRW35 i s s imilar t o t ype 1 , but i t h as i nclusions a nd a wet s moothed, uneven o uter s urface. The ware o f PRW36/37 types 2 a nd 3 .

i s

i ntermediate

b etween

t he

s and

wares

o f

PRW38 i s s imilar t o type 2 . I t i s t reated s eparately merely f or t he f act that t he s lip i s chipped, r evealing a t hin p ink f ilm.

2 8

PRW39 a nd 4 0 a re p robably J ordanian i mitations o f A frican R ed S lip ware ( see H ayes 1 972, 4 0, where t he e xamples a re d ated, w ith r eserve, t o t he l atter p art o f t he f ourth c entury A .D.).

2 .6

L amps f rom t he P etra e xcavations

S ixty l amp s herds were a nalysed. T hey a re d ivided i nto e ighteen t ypes, a ccording t o s hape a nd d ecoration. I n t he c ase o f l amps, t his d ivision i s e asier t o d eal w ith t han a d ivision a ccording t o wares, a s t he wares r epresented a re v ery v aried. Three s amples a re t reated a s m iscellaneous. O f t he e ighteen t ypes, t he f irst t wo w ere c ommented o n P arr ( 1963, 1 02) a s: " ... s pecially N abataean, a lthough t hey a re b ased o n R oman o riginals. These a re p articularly n oteworthy f or t he i nformation t hey p rovide o n t he Nabataean p ottery i ndustry; t he many h undreds o f l amps u ncovered c an b e s een ( from a s tudy o f m inor i rregularities i n t heir d esign) t o h ave b een p roduced f rom t he s ame t hree o r f our o riginal molds. This s uggests t hat t he manufacture o f t he l amps was c onfined t o a v ery f ew workshops, p erhaps e ven t o a s ingle f amily o f l ampmakers s upplying t he whole o f P etra's n eeds."

2 .6.1

L amps:

N ine s amples 1 0 a nd 1 1).

by

t ype 1 ( PL1-9) o f

t his

t ype were a nalysed

( Table A .5a,

P lates

D escription o f t ype: moulded l amps. C oncave d iscus w ith " double p etal" p attern, r adiating f rom t he f illing h ole i n t he c entre. T he n ozzle i s s hort a nd r ound, s urrounded by t wo s crolls a ttached t o t he b ody. T he f iner e xamples h ave l ug h andles a t e ither s ide o f t he b ody. T he wares r epresented i n t his t ype v ary. P L1-6 s eem t o h ave b een made f rom t he s ame mould, a t d ifferent s tages o f w eathering. P L6 i s t he b est d efined. The o rder s eems t o b e: P L6, 5 , 3 , 2 , 1 a nd l astly P L4 i s t he l east w ell d efined. The f iner e xamples o f t his t ype a re quite N abataean s ites ( they a re c onsidered t ypically s ee a lso P arr's q uotation i n s ection 2 .6 a bove).

c ommon o n N abataean,

Murray a nd E llis ( 1940) p ublished t wo e xamples f rom P etra ( Plate X I,2 a nd P late X XXVI,17). T he ware a nd s hape o f t he l atter i s s imilar t o P L1, 3 a nd 4 . G .

a nd

A .

H orsfield

( 1942)

published

2 9

a l amp

f rom P etra,

o n

which t he p osition o f t he p etals, t he r idges a nd t he t reatment o f t he h andles a re i dentical t o P L1-6 ( Plate XXI n o.162 a nd p .145). The ware o f t he l amp i s s imilar t o t hat o f P L2. T he l amp i s d escribed a s N abataean, p robably f rom t he s ame l ocal f actory a s t he p ainted p ottery ( in t he opinion o f D r. F . M . H eichelheim). Kurdi ( 1972) published t wo e xamples f rom a N abataean t omb a t S adaqah. They a re s imilar t o P L7-9 ( no.13 a nd 1 6, P late I II p .165). The ware may b e s imilar t o P L8. T hey a re d ated t o a fter t he m iddle o f t he f irst c entury A .D. ( p.87).

2 .6.2

L amps:

t ype 2 ( PL10-19)

T en s amples o f t his 1 2, 1 3 a nd 1 4).

type

w ere

a nalysed

( Table

A .5b,

P lates

D escription o f t he ware: moulded l amps. C onvex t op w ith s mall c oncave d iscus s urrounding t he f illing h ole, t hus f orming a c ircular r idge. M ost s amples h ave a " sun r ay" d esign, - s uperimposed by r osettes a nd r oulettes i n c lusters. P L19 l acks t he s un r ay d esign b ut h as a ll t he o ther main a ttributes o f t he t ype. The n ozzle i s e longated, f laring a nd s urrounded by s crolls a ttached t o t he b ody. S ome e xamples h ave o ne v ertical h andle a t t he b ack ( PL15). The f abrics r epresented by t his t ype a re v aried. V isually, t he f abric o f P L10 i s s omewhat s imilar t o e astern t erra s igillata A . The f abric o f P L15 a nd 1 7 l ooks l ike i mitation s igillata. T his i s t he s econd t ype r eferred t o a s t ypically N abataean by P arr ( in h is q uotation i n s ection 2 .6 a bove). Many o f t he l amps o f t his t ype h ave Nabataean i nscriptions o n t heir b ases. A ll p ublished e xamples h ave b een d escribed a s N abataean ( e.g. Murray a nd E llis 1 940, P late XXXVI, n o.15 . a nd 1 8; G . a nd A . H orsfield 1 942, P late X I n o.42; H ammond 1 965, P late L III n o.1; N egev 1 974 P late 1 7 n o.87-89 a nd pp.28-29; 1 986, n o.1164-1193 p p.134-138; R osenthal a nd S ivan 1 978 n o.394 a nd p .97). Murray a nd E llis's n o.15 i s s imilar t o P L13; n o.18 i s s imilar t o P L15. They g ave a d ate o f t he f irst c entury A .D. N egev 's ( 1974) e xamples a re s imilar t o P L11. P L16 a nd 1 7 b elong t o N egev's ( 1986) s ybtype I b, c haracterised mainly by a c hannel r unning f rom t he n ozzle t o t he w ick h ole. H e s ays o f t he t ype t hat " no e xamples a re k nown f rom a ny o ther ( than Oboda) N abataean s ites" ( p.136).

2 .6.3

L amps:

t ype

Only t wo s amples P late 1 4). D escription

o f

3 ( PL20-21) o f

t he

t his

t ype:

t ype

wheel

3 0

were

made

a nalysed

l amps.

( Table

T hick

A .5c,

walled

r ound body. W ide f illing h ole s urrounded by r idge/groove. U sually with a p ierced t riangular l ug-handle a t t he s ide. The nozzle i s e longated. The ware i s more o r l ess uniform: f ine, l ight b rown a nd c ompact, w ith f ine b lack g laze both i nside a nd outside. Howland ( 1958) published s everal examples f rom t he A thenian A gora ( Type 2 58), which h e d escribed a s " uniformly o f A thenian c lay" ( p.73). H e dated t he t ype t o t he s econd h alf o f t he f ourth c entury B .C. i nto t he f irst quarter o f t he t hird century B .C. ( p.72). P L20 would b elong t o Howland's e arlier phase, P L21 t o t he l ater. Hayes ( 1980) published a n example f rom t he R oyal Ontario Museum ( *19). H e d escribed i t a s Rhodian o f t he " mid ( ?) t hird c entury B .C.". S ome black g lazed ware ( none o f i t p ertaining t o l amps), i s i ncluded i n Gunneweg e t a l.'s ETS-I c omposition g roup, which t hey a ttributed t o eastern Cyprus ( see d iscussion i n s ection 2 .4.2).

2 .6.4

L amps:

type 4 ( PL22-23)

Only two s amples P late 1 5).

o f

D escription o f t he ( 1961) type 8 3.

t his

type:

type

moulded

were

a nalysed

" delphiniform"

( Table

l amps.

A .5d,

L app

These l amps were c ommon i n P alestine a nd J ordan during t he H ellenistic p eriod. The e laborate d esign, s crolls on t he n ozzle, a nd b rown/red ( rather t han g rey) ware s uggest a l ate d ate f or t he s amples.

2 .6.5

Lamps:

Three 1 5).

s amples

t ype o f

5 ( PL24-26)

t his

type were

analysed

( Table

A .5e,

D escription o f t he t ype: wheel-made " Herodian" l amps, knife s haped f laring n ozzle. L app ( 1961) type 8 2.1.

P late

with

These l amps were c ommon i n P alestine a nd Jordan i n t he e arly Roman period. They s how s ome uniformity i n ware, which i s u sually h ard, c ompact, a nd l ight i n c olour, with a g rey c ore. Most examples do n ot h ave a ny s ort o f s lip o r wash. The s lip on PL25 i s most p robably due t o s alt i n t he c lay ( see s ection 3 .4.2). However, the Na c oncentration f or P L25 i s not p articularly h igh, but t he K c oncentration f or t he type a s a whole i s more t han twice t he a verage f or t he l amps, t he h ighest among a ll t he t ypes ( see Table B .5, Appendix B ). The f act t hat t he s alt i s o f potassium, and n ot s odium, s uggests t hat i t was n ot a dded i ntentionally, a s

3 1

s alt ( mainly NaCl) would h ave b een t he l ogical available c hoice. T hus t he o ccasionally r eported l ight " wash" o n t hese l amps i s p robably u nintentional. M ore s amples f rom d ifferent s ites s hould b e a nalysed b efore a more d efinite a nswer c an b e g iven. common

A ll published e xamples o f t his t ype a re d escribed a s P alestinian ( e.g. N egev 1 974, P late 1 7 n o. 8 3-85 a nd pp.27-28; 1 986, n o.1135-1143 p p.130-131; R osenthal a nd S ivan 1 978 n o. 3 31-333 p .80; H ayes 1 980 * 50, 5 2-54).

2 .6.6

L amps:

t ype 6 ( PL27-28)

Only two s amples P late 1 5).

o f

t his

t ype

w ere

a nalysed

( Table

A .5f,

D escription o f t he t ype: moulded l amps. R ound b ody w ith a r idge s urrounding a c oncave d isc a round t he f illing h ole. Double a xe motif i s u sually p resent o n t he s houlder. T he n ozzle i s w ide a nd f laring. T he g eneral o utline i s r eminiscent o f a ' bulky ' t ype 2 . T he t wo s amples h ave d ifferent w ares. M cNicoll e t a l. ( 1982) p ublished a l amp f rom T abaqat F ahl ( Pella) which h as b oth t he " tongue" motif o f g eneral t ype 9 a nd t he d ouble a xe motif. The P ella e xample h as a r ounded n ozzle a nd p ink w are ( plate 1 32 n o.6). Two o ther s imilar l amps f rom O boda w ere published by N egev ( 1986, n o. 1 153 a nd 154 pp.132-133). 1

2 .6.7 F our 1 6).

L amps: s amples

t ype 7 ( PL29-32) o f

t his

t ype

were

a nalysed

( Table A .5g,

P late

Description o f t he t ype: moulded l amps. R ound body w ith c oncave d iscus d epicting f igures o r n on-geometric m otifs, s urrounded by c oncentric c ircles. T he n ozzle i s f laring a nd s urrounded b y v olutes a ttached t o t he b ody. This t ype was v ery p opular i n t he R oman p eriod, t hroughout t he empire. I t b elongs t o B roneer Type XXII, L oeschcke Type I . B roneer ( 1930, 7 7) n oted t hat t he l amps o f p ale y ellow ware a nd g reyish b rown s lip ( i.e. P L32 a nd m aybe P L30) a re m ost p robably I talian i mports. Two l amps f rom P etra, p ublished by G . a nd A . H orsfield ( 1942) a re o f i nterest h ere. T he f irst ( Plate X I n o.46 a nd p .122) i s s imilar t o P L30, b oth i n d ecoration a nd ware. I t i s d escribed a s a n " import(?)" o f t he f irst c entury B .C.-A D. The s econd l amp ( Plate X LVI n o.435 a nd p .197) i s s imilar i n d ecoration t o P L31 a nd i n w are t o P L29. I t i s

3 2

d escribed a s " import?, c entury A .D.(?)".

G allo-Roman(?)"

o f

t he

" second

H ammond ( 1973, 9 0) noted t hat a lmost a ll t he s cene-decorated d iscus l amps f ound i n P etra s hould b e r egarded a s Roman i mports, not o f l ocal o rigin.

2 .6.8

Lamps:

O nly one 1 6).

t ype

s ample o f

8 ( PL33) t his type was a nalysed

( Table A .5h,

P late

D escription o f t he type: moulded l amps. Round b ody w ith r aised concentric panels h aving dot a nd r adiating l ine d ecorations. P rojecting o val n ozzle s urrounded by v olutes a ttached t o t he body. G arcia ( in Hammond 1 965) described an example f rom P etra a s N abataean ( Plate L III,1). I t b elongs t o P eriod I a o f t he t heatre ( 4 B .C.-A.D. 2 7). The ware o f t he l amp i s n ot d escribed. T he f abric o f t he one example a nalysed i s d issimilar t o a ny o f t he f abrics r epresented by types 1 a nd 2 s amples. These t wo types being t he main Nabataean l amp types.

2 .6.9

L amps:

S ix s amples 1 6 a nd 1 7).

type

o f

9 ( PL34-39)

t his

type

were

a nalysed

( Table

A .5i,

P lates

D escription o f the type: moulded l amps. R ound b ody w ith c onvex r idge s urrounding a concave d iscus, f igured i n s ome e xamples ( PL36). Many examples h ave a " tongue" d esign o n t he s houlders. I n s ome examples t he d esigns a re i ncised, a lthough the l amp i s moulded ( PL39). The n ozzle i s r ound, v ery s lightly p rojecting. No volutes. This i s a g eneral l oosely i n i t.

t ype,

with varying wares.

P L38

i s

i ncluded

Murray a nd E llis ( 1940) published a l amp f rom P etra which i s s imilar t o PL34 a nd 3 5, h aving t he s ame ware a s P L35 ( Plate XXXVI no.16). G . and A . Horsfield ( 1942) published a nother s imilar l amp, b ut o f a d ifferent ware ( Plate XXI no.161). They d escribed i t a s Nabataean, b ut l isted c lose parallels i n s hape f rom G reece ( p.144). R osenthal a nd S ivan ( 1978) a lso d escribed t heir l amp n o.399, which i s s imilar t o t he a bove, a s Nabataean, a nd Negev ( 1986) a lso d escribed two s imilar l amps f rom Oboda a s " possibly l ocal" ( no.1131 a nd 1 132 pp.129-130).

3 3

2 .6.10

L amps:

Two s amples 1 8).

o f

t ype 1 0 t his

( PL40-41)

t ype

were

a nalysed

( Table

A .5j,

P late

D escription o f t he t ype: s mall moulded l amps. R ather e longated c onvex bodies. C oncentric c ircles a round t he f illing h ole. R elief g eometric d esigns o n t he s houlders. V ertical h andle a t t he b ack. Nozzle e longated a nd m erging w ith t he b ody. Ware v aries. G . a nd A . H orsfield ( 1942) p ublished a l amp which l ooks s imilar t o P L41 ( Plate X LVIII n o.473). H owever, t hey d escribed i t a s b eing wheel-made, which i s n ot c onveyed by t he p icture. T heir c ited p arallels f rom t he A thenian A gora ( Thompson 1 934, 4 12, F ig.98 E 90 a nd E 97) a re quite d ifferent f rom t heir p ublished p icture.

2 .6.11

L amps:

t ype 1 1

Only t wo s amples P late 1 8).

f rom

( PL42-43) t his

t ype

w ere

a nalysed

( Table A .5k,

D escription o f t he t ype : wheel-made l amps. R ound d eep b odies, w ith u ndecorated c oncave d iscus. C entral f illing h ole. H andle a t t he b ack. Nozzle h ardly p rojecting, i f a t a ll. T he wares o f t he t wo s amples a nalysed a re v ery d ifferent. P L42 i s v ery t hin walled a nd f ine ( although i t i s b urnt a nd b adly p reserved n ow). P L43 i s v ery h eavy a nd r eminiscent o f t he c oarser wheel-made H erodian l amp wares ( type 5 ).

2 .6.12

L amps:

t ype 1 2

( PL44-46)

Three s amples o f t his t ype w ere a nalysed 1 8 a nd 1 9).

( Table A .51,

P lates

D escription o f t he t ype: mould/ h and-made c rude i mitations o f d iscus l amps. U sually w ith l arge w ick h oles. A ll t he s amples a nalysed h ave g reyish, h ard a nd c ompact ware. G . a nd A . H orsfield ( 1942) published t wo l amps o f s imilar s hape ( Plate XXI n o.163 a nd P late XXIX n o.240). B oth t heir l amps were made o f " pink l ocal c lay r oughly c overed w ith g rey s lip"; which t hey d escribed a s " Nabataean. P oor n ative a malgamation o f H ellenistic a nd R oman l amp s hapes" ( p.145). R osenthal a nd S ivan ( 1978) a lso p ublished t wo s imilar l amps, b oth o f b rown ware ( no.397 a nd 3 98). T hey c lassified t hem a s Nabataean, b elonging t o t he Oboda " apperntice" l amps, a nd c ommented t hat " they may b e e ither p otter's waste o r s amples u sed t o t est t he t emperature o f t he k iln" ( p.98; s ee a lso t ype 1 3, s ection 2 .6.13 b elow).

3 4

2 .6.13

L amps:

t ype

Only t wo s amples P late 1 9).

1 3

o f

( PL47-48) t his

t ype

were

a nalysed

( Table

A .5m,

D escription o f t he t ype: moulded/ h and-made c rude i mitations o f H ellenistic D elphiniform l amps. B oth s amples a nalysed h ave g rey-black, h ard a nd c ompact ware. The s un r ay p attern o f P L48 was i ncised w ith a s harp t ool. N egev p ublished t wo l amps f rom Oboda s imilar i n s hape t o P L47 ( 1974, P late 1 7 n o.92; 1 986, n o.1194 p .137). H owever, t he Oboda examples h ave p inkish ware. O riginally, N egev t hought o f t hese a s k iln wasters o r a pprentice l amps. R eference t o t he l amps published by G . a nd A . H orsfield ( referred t o i n s ection 2 .6.12 a bove) c hanged t hat i dea ( Negev 1 974, 2 9; t he i dea i s p ut f orward a gain i n 1 986, 1 37).

2 .6.14

L amps:

t ype 1 4

O nly one s ample o f t his 1 9). D escription o f t he t ype 8 2.2.

( PL49) t ype was a nalysed

t ype:

moulded

( Table A .5n,

" Herodian"

P late

l amps.

L app

1( 1961)

The s ample a nalysed i s o f h ard, v ery t hin c ompared t o t he s ize. N egev ( 1974) p ublished a v ery ( Plate 1 7 n o.86 a nd p p.27-28).

r ed

ware.

s imilar

T he

s herd

walls

f rom

a re

Oboda

R osenthal a nd S ivan ( 1978) p ublished e ight s imilar l amps ( no.335-340 a nd 3 43-344). N one o f t hem h ave t he ware o r s pecific d ecoration o f P L49. They s uggested a " Jewish" o rigin, but p ointed o ut t hat t he l arge, c ontemporaneous, v ariations may i ndicate d ifferent a reas o f m anufacture.

2 .6.15

L amps:

t ype 1 5

( PL50)

Only one s ample o f t his t ype was a nalysed 1 9).

( Table A .5p,

P late

D escription o f t he t ype: moulded l amps. R ound b ody w ith c oncave, d ecorated d iscus. S hort r ound n ozzle s urrounded by v olutes a ttached t o t he b ody. The t ype was p opular i n t he R oman p eriod, Empire. I t b elongs t o B roneer Type X XIII.

3 5

t hroughout

t he

2 .6.16

L amps:

t ype

1 6

( PL51)

Only one s ample o f t his t ype was a nalysed 2 0).

( Table A .5q,

P late

D escription o f t he t ype: s mall moulded l amps. R ound b ody w ith wide f illing h ole. D ecoration o n t he s houlders. R ound n ozzle. H andle a t t he b ack. The one s ample a nalysed h as ware v isually s imilar t o e astern t erra s igillata A , but h arder a nd more c ompact. T he f ine v ine d ecoration i s r eminiscent o f H ellenistic e xamples.

2 .6.17 Three 2 0).

L amps:

t ype 1 7

s amples o f

t his

( PL52-54) type were a nalysed

( Table

A .5r,

P late

D escription o f t he t ype: moulded l amps. S lightly e longated convex b ody, c oncave a round t he f illing h ole. S emicircular dot p anel d ecoration, with t he s emicircles' c entres a t t he edges. Nozzle e longated a nd w ide, m erging w ith t he b ody, d ecorated w ith " flame" ( or " honeysuckle p almette") motif. P L52 and 5 3 a re o f t he s ame d imensions a nd ware, c ould h ave b een made u sing t he s ame mould. P L54 i s s maller a nd o f a d ifferent ware, but exactly t he s ame d ecoration. The type i s e quivalent t o t he A thenian Agora Type 4 8E ( Howland 1 958; p reviously p ublished by Thompson 1 934, F ig. 9 8, E 113 a nd p .413). The A gora e xample i s o f " Attic c lay", b ut H owland p ointed o ut t hat t he " originals f lourished outside o f A thens a nd were o ccasionally c opied h ere" ( p.165). H e d ated t he e xample t o t he l ast quarter o f t he s econd c entury B .C. R osenthal a nd S ivan ( 1978) published t wo e xamples ( no.27 a nd 2 8), r epresenting b oth wares o f t he s amples i n t his s tudy. They d escribed t hem a s " modelled a fter a n E gyptian a rchetype .. a nd most e xamples h ave i ndeed b een f ound i n E gypt" ( p.15). H ayes ( 1980) published a n example o f i dentical d ecoration, but w ith a b lack s lip ( *100). H e d escribed i t a s E gyptian, p robably o f t he s econd h alf o f t he f irst c entury B .C. o r f irst c entury A .D.

2 .6.18 Three 2 0).

L amps: s amples

t ype o f

1 8

t his

( PL55-57) t ype were a nalysed

D escription o f t he t ype: s haped l amps. One o f t he

( Table A .5s,

moulded l ate Byzantine most p rominent f eatures

3 6

P late

" almond" o f t hese

l amps

i s

t he v ery d eep moulding o f t he decoration.

All three s amples have r ed ware, a nd a re covered i n g reyish buff f ilm encrustation. The ware, s hapes a nd encrustation a re a ll common f eatures o f t hese l amps i n Jordan, which continued ( with modifications) i nto t he Umayyad p eriod. G . and A . Horsfield ( 1942) published a l amp f ragment f rom P etra i dentical t o PL55 ( Plate V I n o.5). They mentioned " no wash" i n t he description. I t was c lassified a s Nabataean, B roneer Type XXVIII, f ourth c entury A .D. ( p.114). Another f ragment h ad a c ross on t he n ozzle which i s s imilar t o t he c ross on PL57 ( Plate V I n o.125). I t was d escribed " same a s no.5" ( above).

2 .6.19

M iscellaneous

Three miscellaneous A .5t, P late 2 1). PL58

l amps l amp

( PL58-60) f ragments

i s most p robably a l amp f iller,

P L59 i s s imilar i n g eneral decoration i s v ery c rude.

s hape

were

a nalysed

( Table

r ather t han a l amp. t o

type

9 ,

but

t he

PL60 i s a " plastic l amp", d epicting a human f ace. These l amps were very common i n t he Roman p eriod, t hroughout t he Empire.

2 .7

The t erracotta f igurines

f rom t he P etra excavations

S amples f rom twenty s ix f igurines were a nalysed ( Table A .6). All t he f igurines h ave b een s tudied by Mrs. Eve F rench ( to b e p ublished). Two s amples were t aken f rom P FIG26, i t has a n i nner r educed ooks s eparate f rom t he outer oxidised p art. Mrs. par.t which l F rench pointed out t hey c ould be d ifferent c lays which were s tuck on t op o f each other i nside t he mould. M rs F rench a lso pointed out t hat P FIG22 i s made u sing a t echnique which i s d ifferent f rom a ny o f t he t echniques u sed i n making t he o ther f igurines f rom the P etra e xcavations.

2 .8

The pottery f rom t he Aujah a l-Hafeer excavations

Aujah a l-Hafeer, a lso known a s Nessana, i s a Nabataean s ite in t he Negeb. I t l ies a t t he j unction o f Wadi a l-Hafeer a nd Wadi Khraishah, only a f ew k ilometers east o f t he ( modern) S inai border.

3 7

All t he sherds analysed were excavated by a t eam f rom t he B ritish S chool _ ) . f A rchaeology i n J erusalem, under t he d irection o f H . Dunscombe C olt i n 1 936-1937 ( Colt 1 936; 1 962). Only s even c oarse ware s herds were a vailable f or ( Table A .7a). The typology i s a fter Baly ( 1962).

a nalysis

Twenty Nabataean p ainted s herds were a nalysed ( Table A .7b). AHPW1-7 belong t o t he Nabataean p ainted ware type 1 i n s ection 2 .3.1.1 above. AHPW7 h as a r ing b ase, which i s uncommon f rom the P etra excavations. G . a nd A . H orsfield ( 1942) r eported three p ainted f ragments f rom p ainted b owls having r ing bases. The s herd published i s a lmost i dentical t o AHPW7 ( Plate XL no. 3 49a a nd b a nd p .181). Negev ( 1974) mentioned f our " ring b ase cups" f rom Oboda ( Plate 1 2 n o.39 a nd p .19). AHPW8-10 a re very s imilar t o Nabataean painted ware t ype 1 , but h ave h eavier painting t han i s u sually f ound o n t ype 1 pots. They do n ot s eem t o c orrespond t o t he type r eferred t o by I liffe ( 1934, 1 34), which h e f ound a t Aujah a l-Hafeer a nd doubtfully i dentified a s Nabataean. AHPW11 i s a lso s imilar t o t he Nabataean p ainted ware t ype 1 . I t h as the t hick s tripes o f AHPW8-11, but i t h as a t an colour ( almost certainly due t o misfiring). The s herd h as a r ing base. The f abric i s v ery f ine, but t he f ew s mall t o medium s ized white g rits a re more t han i s u sual f or type 1 f abric. AHPW12-16 b elong t o t he Nabataean painted ware t ype

2 .

AHPW18-20 b elong t o t he Nabataean painted ware type

3 a.

2 .9

The _ pottery f rom t he U dhruh excavations

The s ite l ies s ome 2 0 Kms t o t he east o f P etra. Excavations were c arried out a t t he R oman f ort by a t eam f rom t he B ritish I nstitute a t Amman f or A rchaeology a nd H istory, under t he d irection o f A listair K illick, between 1 980 a nd 1 985 ( Killick 1 983). Three days b efore the end o f t he 1 983 s eason, a s tructure thought t o b e a k iln f rom t he Nabataean p eriod, was r eached. Work i n t he 1 985 s eason s howed only t he f oundations o f t he k iln t o h ave s urvived. Ten s herds f rom t he excavations were a nalysed They a re a ll Nabataean ( typologically). The s herds f rom p ( U2 and 4 -7) t ie i n a lthough not n ecessarily o f p rimary u se.

3 8

( Table

w ith

t he

A .8).

k iln,

T he s herd f rom C 19 ( 1 18) t he R oman a rchitecture. T he s herds f rom S 18 v ery d eep s ounding

2 .10 The p ottery excavations

t ies i n w ith f oundation d eposits f or

( U12-15)

a nd

c lay

a re

f rom w ithin t he

s amples

f rom

t he

f ort,

i n

a

Z urrabah

T he s ite i s s hown a s 1 o n t he map i n F ig. 2 .1 ( in s ection 2 .11 b elow). I t c ontains s everal p ottery k ilns. T he s ite was d iscovered a ccidentally i n November 1 979, when a r oad was c ut t hrough t he a rea. A l arge k iln c omplex w as e xcavated by a t eam f rom t he D epartment o f Antiquities o f J ordan, u nder t he d irection o f D r. F awzi Z ayadine, i n 1 980 a nd 1 981 ( Zayadine 1 981, 3 50-351; 1 982, 3 80-393; a nd i n H omäs-Frederique a nd F ranken 1 986, 1 85-189). T wenty t wo s herds f rom t he e xcavations A .9). Z P1-17 a re f rom t he 1 980 s eason. 1 981 s eason.

w ere a nalysed ( Table Z P18-22 a re f rom t he

M ost o f t he s herds a re k iln wasters. M any o f t hem o ver-fired. Thus t he c olour i n most c ases i s n o i ndication o f t he w are. Munsell C hart r eadings a re n ot made f or t his r eason. A ll o f t he f ine a nd p ainted Nabataean s herds a re more y ellow i n c olour t han t he s amples f rom t he P etra e xcavations. Thus t he t erm ' orange' i s u sed t o d escribe t hem. T he s lips o f Z P2 a nd Z P12 a re most p robably n ot s lips a t a ll. The e xtension o ver t he b reakage s ections i ndicates a s oluble material i n t he f abric which h as e migrated t o t he s urface, most p robably d uring d rying. T hus t hese s herds must h ave c racked b efore, o r a t t he s tart o f, t he f iring, when t he b reakage s ection would h ave a cted a s a ny o ther s urface. T his s uggests t hat t he s herds a re d efinite wasters T he a bsence o f t he c ore a t t he b reakage s ection o f Z P11 a lso i ndicates b reakage b efore o r d uring f iring, when t he b reakage s ections would g et o xidised l ike a ny o ther s urface. S even c lay s amples were c ollected f rom t wo b ack r ooms i n t he k iln c omplex. T hese r ooms may h ave b een d amp c lay s torage a reas. S ome o f t he s amples c ontain s hallow water b ivalve f ossils, which a re t oo f ragmentary f or a ny p recise i dentification.

2 .11

The o ther c lay s amples

T he i nvestigation o f p ottery p rovenancing,

c lays, f rom a n a rea u nder s tudy f or h as b een r epeatedly u rged ( see W ilson

3 9

1 978, 2 20-221, 2 28 a nd r eferences c ited). The p rocesses o f f inding a c lay s ource o f t he p ottery, o r r elating t he c lay t o t he p ottery, i nvolve many d ifficulties. But i f a s pecific c lay s ource c ould b e e stablished a s a h ighly p robable s ource f or p ottery manufacture, i t s hould l end much s trength t o t he p rovenancing a nalysis s tudy. Not much c lay i s f ound i n t he ' city ' o f P etra. When c lay was d iscovered i n a n e xcavation n ear t he U rn T omb, t he l ocal p eople c laimed i t c ame f rom t he l imestone h ills t o t he n orth ( Zayadine 1 974, 1 35). I t i s i ndeed i n, o r c lose t o, t he y ounger l imestone p lateau t o t he e ast t hat a ll t he c lay s ources s tudied h ere were f ound ( Fig. 2 .1). T his p lateau r uns a lmost t he l ength o f J ordan, t ill j ust s outh o f P etra, a nd h as b een d eposited o ver s everal g eological p eriods ( Bender 1 974, 2 1-22). The t erms u sed i n t his s tudy a re a fter Quennell ( 1956), a lthough o ther t erminologies a re a lso u sed i n t he a rea ( see B ender 1 974, 7 3-74). A lmost a ll t he c lays a re i n t he A jlun S eries, e xcept m aybe f or Z urrabah, which l ies a t t he j unction b etween t he K urnub S andstone a nd t he A jlun S eries l imestone. The e xact p osition i s d ifficult t o a scertain, a s t he a rea i s c overed w ith h abitation l ayers. The M ahis c lay, u sed by t he M sheirfeh w orkshop p otter, c omes f rom l ens i n t he K urnub S andstone f ormation f urther n orth i n J ordan ( van d er B oom a nd I brahim 1 962, 2 ; B ender 1 974, 1 68). The c lays f rom t he Turonian l imestone ( counterpart o f t he A jlun S eries) w est o f t he R iver J ordan h ave p roved p opular w ith p otters i n a ncient t imes ( see B ullard 1 970, 1 10-111). The c lays h ave q uite a v ariety o f c olours ( Table A .10). T aking K hairy 's c omments o n t he h omogeneity o f t he P etra wares ( in s ection 2 .2), most o f t he c ollected c lays c an t urn t he t ypical r ed c olour h e r eferred t o ( see S hepard 1 971, 5 7; 1 980, 1 6-17). T o t est t his, f iring t ests were c arried o ut o n t he c lay s amples. S mall p ellets w ere f ormed f rom t he c lays a nd f ired t o 6 00-1100 C a t 1 00 C i ntervals. T he t emperature was h eld f or a t l east one h our a t e ach i nterval. T able 2 .2 s hows t he t emperatures a t which t he c lays t urned t he " typical P etra r ed". T he s amples were t aken f rom v arying d epths a nd a reas o f t he c lay b eds, t o a ccount f or v ariations i n t he d eposits. I t i s t hought i mprobable t hat a ny o f t he c lays c ollected may h ave b een a ffected by modern c hemicals s uch a s f ertilizers ( see Hulth & I 1 982, 3 99). Wadi Musa A a nd B c lays may b e a ffected by c ar f umes, a s t hey a re e xposed i n a s ection o f t he r oad c onnecting W adi Musa w ith S hawbak The Z urrabah ( ZAR) s amples w ere o btained f rom a p it ( currently u sed a s a s eptic t ank) b elonging t o a h ouse s ituated a f ew meters e ast o f t he k iln s ite. The c ut c learly s howed t he c lay l ayers d irectly b elow t he a rchaeological d eposits.

4 0

t o Wid i

r a d ish

t o Shawbok

2

Karr Sah im

t oT a iybo

t o Ma in

LI I 0

10k m

B aloa S eries ( Basal c halk,chert;upper l imestone,chalk,phosphate) E OCENE S ENONIAN ' Ajlun S eries

( Dolomite,limestone,marls,shales,glauconite) T URONIAN C ENOMANIAN

K urnub S andstone

, \

( Sandstones(purple,white,red),indurated s hales) L OWER C RETACEOUS

U ndifferentiated

V/AQuweira

S eries

( Sandstone,quartzite,shales,grits,conglumerate) C AMBRIAN

C : 1 3 ] Saramuj

S eries

( Conglumerates,quartzites,intrusives) P RECAMBRIAN

[ 2 2 . 1'Aqaba G ranite C omplex ( Granites w ith b asic a nd a cid i ntrusives) P RECAMBRIAN 1 1 11 WOMOK MOMM Ig

M ajor N ormal F ault ( mapped)

M aintained R oad U nmaintained R oad o r T rack

mid M ajor N ormal F ault ( inferred) 4 6« ID

F ig.

2 .1

G eological f ormations o n Quennell 1 956.

4 1

.1. 1 1•9 1 1.1 1 1, I O W «. 1 1»

W adi

i n t he Wadi Musa a rea.

B ased

Table

2 .2

Temperatures a t which t he c lay s amples r ed o lour predominant i n t he pottery ( in "C).

Sample(*)

6 00

Z C ZASR ZASY ZAS ( mixture) ATG1 ATG2 ATG3 ATG4 ATG ( mixture) ATY1 ATY2 ATY3 ATY ( mixture) AT ( mixture) ASMG ASMYG ASMR MLQG1 MLQG2 MLQG3 MLQG4 MLQG5 MLQG6 MLQG7 MLQRY1 MLQY WMA

WMB

X X

X

7 00

8 00

X

X X X X

X X

X

turned t he f rom P etra

9 00

1 000

X X X X X X X X

X X X

100 1

X X

X X

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Turned b rown t hroughout X X X X Turned brown t hroughout Turned b rown t hroughout X X Turned b rown t hroughout X X X X Turned very pale brown throughout; pellets f ired over 8 00 ° C c racked a fter a f ew days o f exposure to t he a tmosphere. Turned pale p ink t hroughout X X

Z C ZAS AT ASM MLQ WMA WMB

Zurrabah k iln c omplex Zurrabah, east o f the k iln complex Ain a t-Tina Asem Mu'allaq Wadi Musa A Wadi Musa B Tawilan

-R -Y -G

r ed c lay yellow c lay green c lay

Where no s ample behaved s imilarly.

number

i s

4 2

g iven:

a ll

t he

s amples

The A in a t-Tina c lays w ere p ointed out by Muhamad H weimel, f rom Wadi Musa. H is g randmother u sed t o make p ots f rom t he c lays t here s ome t wenty y ears a go. T he a l-Mu'allaq c lays w ere e xposed when a r oad was c ut t hrough t he h illside. T hey a re c urrently u sed by t he p eople i n t he a rea, t o a l imited e xtent. T he Tawilan s amples came f rom t hree p its, dug i n a d ry wadi b ed, i n t he a rea e xcavated by t he B ritish I nstitute a t Amman f or A rchaeology a nd H istory, u nder t he d irection o f C rystal M . B ennett ( Bennett 1 968; 1 971; 1 984). M rs B ennett a lso p rovided a s ample f rom a modern f igurine, made f rom t he c lay.

2 .12

The M sheirfeh workshop

This i s a modern workshop t o t he n orth e ast o f Amman. The potter, R ateb A bd a l-Aziz a l-Fakhoury i s f rom H ebron a nd f ollows t he H ebron t radition o f p ottery making. This t radition, a s s een i n t he workshop, i nvolves l evigating p ale y ellowish g reen c lay ( Qalleilah) t hrough t hree s plit-level l evigation D asins. The l evigated c lay i s m ixed w ith s ieved r ed c layey s oil ( Samaqah) a nd s ieved " Sweileh" s and. The m ixing i s d one i n a t in c ontainer w ith a s ubstantial a mount o f water. C ommercial f ood s alt i s a dded t o t he s lurry ( to g ive i t t he d esired white c olour, s ee a lso d iscussion i n s ection 3 .4.2). T he m ixture i s d ried o ut t o t he r equired c onsistency t hen s pread o n t he f loor, i nside t he r oofed workshop, a nd c overed w ith p lastic s heets t o a ge. A fterwards b locks a re t urned i nto d iscs a pproximately 5 0cm l ong o n a s pecial machine, b efore b eing t urned o n t he wheel. The f iring i s c arried o ut i n a d ome s haped b rick k iln . c overed w ith mud. The f uel u sed i s whatever i s a vailable a t t he t ime, mainly s aw d ust a nd wood c hips, t he o uter s hells o f o ld c ar b atteries, a nd d irty e ngine o il o r d iesel o il. M r. a l-Fakhoury o btains h is c lays, s oil a nd s and f rom a c ontractor who g ets t hem f rom M ahes. H e c ould n ot g ive a ssurance t hat h is c ontractor g ot t he materials f rom t he s ame s ource c onstantly ( for s tudies o n t he M ahes c lays s ee v an d er B oom a nd I brahim 1 964; I brahim 1 965; B ender 1 974, 1 68). T en s herds were c ollected f rom a round t he k iln. T hree c lay ( Qalleilah) s amples were o btained f rom d ifferent h eaps. T wo s amples e ach o f s oil ( Samaqah) a nd s and w ere o btained f rom d ifferent h eaps. T hree s amples o f t he p repared m ixture w ere obtained f rom t hree d ifferent l ots. M r. a l-Fakhoury p ointed o ut t hat o ne o f t he l ots ( from which M LM1 was t aken) i s n ot f it f or working.

4 3

CHAPTER 3 THE NEUTRON ACTIVATION ANALYSIS

3 .1

I ntroduction

C lay m inerals, i n s ome f orm o r a nother, may b e f ound a ll over t he world. T hey a re p roducts o f r ock a lteration a nd c an g enerally b e g rouped i nto t hree major c lasses: k aolinites, montmorillonites, a nd i llites, a lthough t here a re many s ubdivisions w ithin t hese g roups. L ike many n aturally o ccurring s ubstances, c lays h ave i mpurities i n t hem, a nd m ixtures o f d ifferent t ypes o f c lay may o ccur a t one s ource ( for more d etails s ee S hepard 1 980, 6 -10, 1 8-19 a nd h er Appendix B ). M any e lements, i ncluding m embers o f t he h eavy m ineral s uite, a re p resent i n m ineral p hases w ithin a c lay s ource, o ther t han i n t he c lay m ineral l attice. W ithin t he c rystal l attice o f a c lay m ineral, e lements may s ubstitute f or o ne a nother i n t he s tructure. T he s ubstitution, i n quality a nd quantity, d epends o n t he o riginal s tructure a s well a s t he e nvironmental c onditions ( see P oole a nd F inch 1 972, 7 9-80; A rnold e t a l. 1 978, 5 48-549). Therefore, a lthough c lays may b e b asically s imilar i n t heir s tructure, t here a re w ide enough v ariations t o p ermit t he d ifferentiation o f d ifferent c lay s ources, e ven t hose t hat l ook s imilar. One o f t he most e ffective m ethods f or d ifferentiating b etween c lay s ources i s t race e lement a nalysis, i .e. t he d etection a nd e stimation o f e lements which a re f ound i n m inute quantities w ithin a p articular c lay s ource. E xperience h as s hown t hat d ifferent c lay s ources h ave d ifferent ( trace) e lemental c ompositions, a nd t hrough t he i dentification a nd e stimation o f t hese d ifferent t race e lements, a " fingerprint" o f t he s ources c an b e a rrived a t. When c lay i s u sed f or making p ots, i ts c omposition may b e a ffected by s everal f actors: l evigation would s eparate t he l arger p articles, a nd a dd, o r r emove, s oluble s alts. M aterial i n t he f orm o f t emper, o r a nother c lay m ay b e a dded, a nd f iring may r emove t he more v olatile e lements. W ith a rchaeological p ottery t he c onditions o f b urial ( soil a cidity, water, c ontact w ith o ther material, e tc.) may a ffect t he c omposition. The e ffects o f s ome o f t hese f actors w ill b e d iscussed i n p arts o f s ections 3 .3 a nd 3 .4 b elow.

3 .2

The t heory o f n eutron a ctivation a nalysis

N eutron a ctivation a nalysis i s a v ery s ensitive m ethod f or d etecting t race e lements i n v arious materials. I t u tilizes t he phenomenon o f g amma r ay emission b y r adioactive n uclides. T he r adioactivity i s i nduced by a f lux o f n eutrons which, upon c ollision w ith t he t arget, u ndergoes t wo t ypes o f e nergy s cattering: o ne i s e lastic, i n which t he k inetic e nergy o f t he b eam i s p artially c onverted i nto k inetic e nergy o f t he t arget; t he o ther i s n on e lastic, i n which t he e nergy o f t he b eam i s c onverted i nto e xcitation e nergy o f e ither b eam o r t arget. I n t he l atter t he n eutrons a re c aptured by t he n uclei o f e lements c onstituting t he t arget. R adioactive n uclides a re f ormed, e ach t ype o f which p ossesses a c haracteristic s et o f e xcited e nergy l evels. A s s oon a s t hese n uclides a re f ormed t hey s tart t o d ecay, i .e. f all b ack f rom t he e xcited e nergy s tate t o t he g round s tate. A ssociated w ith t his d ecay ( or d e-excitation) i s t he emission o f g amma r ay p hotons, t ogether c omprising a r eaction c alled a ( n,y ) r eaction. A s e ach r adioactive n uclide h as i ts o wn s pecific s et o f e xcited e nergy l evels ( corresponding t o i ts n uclear b inding e nergy), t he e nergy c arried by t he g amma r ay photons i t emits i s c haracteristic o f t hat nuclide ( and t herefore o f t he p arent e lement). This e nergy i s u sually m easured i n mega e lectron v olts ( MeV) o r k ilo e lectron v olts ( KeV). T he i ntensity o f t he g amma r ay photons ( measured i n c ounts p er s econd, c ps) i s a f unction o f t he number o f d ecaying n uclides a s well a s t he k inetic e nergy s pectrum o f t he n eutrons. T herefore, by d etecting t he e mitted g amma r ays, i t i s p ossible t o e stablish which e lements a re p resent i n a s ample, a s w ell a s t he c oncentration o f e ach e lement ( see T ite 1 972, 2 73-274; W illard e t a l. 1 974, 3 28; V alcoviC 1 975, 1 19, 1 29-130, 1 38). N eutron b eams may b e o btained f rom s everal s ources ( see V alcoviä 1 975, 1 32-134). T he s ource o f i nterest i n t his s tudy i s t he f ission r eaction i n n uclear r eactors. N eutrons a re emitted by t he f ission o f f uel a toms, most o f which s erve t o s ustain t he c hain r eaction i n t he r eactor, w ith t he e xcess s erving a s a n eutron s ource f or i rradiation. I rradiation i s done by p lacing t he s ample i n t he r eactor i n a n a rea o f i ntense n eutron f lux ( c 1, m iasured i n n eutrons p er s quare c entimetre p er s econd, n cm s 1 ) . T he s ample s hould b e i rradiated f or a p eriod l ong e nough t o p roduce a m easurable a mount o f t he n uclide t o b e d etected, b ut t oo l ong a p eriod o f i rradiation m ay l ead t o a s tate o f ' saturation', i .e. a s tate where t he p reviously a ctivated n uclei d ecay a t t he s ame r ate o f f ormation o f t he n ew a ctivated n uclei. N o quantitative i nformation c an b e o btained f rom d etecting t he e nergy i ntensities a t t his s tage. S aturation i s u sually r eached when a n e lement i s i rradiated f or a round s ix t imes t he h alf-life o f i ts i sotope ( Willard e t a l. 1 974, 3 29; Valcoviä 1 975, 1 38). T he d etection, o r c ounting, o f t he emitted e nergies i s d one u sing s pecial d etectors o f which t here a re t wo main t ypes:

4 5

t he s cintillation d etectors which c ontain c hemicals t hat c onvert t he g amma r ay e nergy i nto l ight ( for d iscussion o n s cintillation c ounting s ee W illard e t a l. 1 974, 3 11,314). These a re t he e arlier t ypes a nd a re n ot a s s ensitive a s t he more modern s emiconductor d etectors. S emiconductor d etectors a re o f t wo main types: t he s urface b arrier s ilicon d etectors a nd t he l ithium d rifted g ermanium d etectors. T he d etector u sed i n t his s tudy i s o f t he l atter t ype. I ts main f eature i s a v irtually w indowless G e(Li) c rystal which a bsorbs t he g amma r ays a nd p roduces f ree c harge c arriers ( electron-hole p airs) which c onstitute e lectrical p ulses a ssociated w ith t he a bsorbed g amma r ay photons. T he a mplitude o f a n i ndividual g enerated p ulse i s p roportional t o t he e nergy c arried by t he c orresponding g amma r ay photon. These p ulses a re a nalysed by multi-channel pulse h eight a nalysers, which g ive t he e nergies o f t he photons a s w ell a s t he n umber o f p hotons a t e ach e nergy l evel. T he p roduct i s a s pectrum w ith p eaks a t c ertain e nergy v alues ( corresponding t o t he i sotopes p resent). T he a rea under e ach p eak c orresponds t o t he a mount o f t he i sotope ( Tite 1 972, 2 76; W illard e t a l. 1 974, 3 14-316, 3 19). The a bove d escribed m ethod o f n eutron a ctivation a nalysis i s t he i nstrumental f orm , a s o pposed t o t he r adiochemical s eparation f orm ( Valcoviä 1 975, 1 39). N eutron a ctivation a nalysis i s a n e xtremely s ensi . 5 ive m ethod t o 1 0 -7 which c an d etect c oncentrations a s s mall a s 1 0ppm, d epending o n t he i sotope i nvestigated, a s w ell a s b eing h ighly s pecific i n c haracterising t he e lements p resent ( Willard e t a l. 1 974, 3 28; Valcoviä 1 975, 1 40-142; D iebolt 1 976, 2 07). Y et, a s w ith most c omplex methods, i t h as i ts p roblems a nd l imitations, w ith a g reat number o f v ariants t hat may a ffect t he f inal r esult. T hings s uch a s a s light v ariation i n t he f lux i n t he r eactor, t oo h igh b ackground r adiation i n t he e nergy s pectrum, o r e ven u nresolved p eaks. During c ounting b oth t he g eometry o f t he s ample a nd i ts d istance f rom t he ' detector c an i ntroduce e rrors ( Warren 1 973). When t his i s o vercome t he o verall a ctivity o f a s ample may a ffect t he s ensitivity o f t he p eaks' d etection ( Yellin 1 980). R esearchers h ave d evised v arious m ethods t o o vercome t hese p roblems ( in most c ases quite s uccessfully). Y et, t he p roblem which c annot b e o vercome, i s t hat n ot a ll t he e lements c an b e d etected u sing n eutron a ctivation a nalysis, f or r easons i nherent i n t he p hysical n ature o f t hese e lements ( see T ite 1 972, 2 78; W illard e t a l. 1 974, 3 28). S till, n eutron a ctivation a nalysis r emains a v ery p opular a nd e fficient m ethod f or t race e lement d etermination, a s a ttested by t he h undreds o f p apers published e ach y ear u tilizing i t i n v arious d isciplines.

3 .3

T he a nalytical t echnique

F rom T able 3 .1a-b, i t c an b e s een t hat a lmost a s many v ariations o f n eutron a ctivation a nalysis t echniques h ave b een u sed a s t here a re g roups working o n t he p rovenancing o f

4 6

ancient pottery u sing n eutron a ctivation a nalysis. The t echnique u sed i n t his s tudy i s d erived f rom t he o utlined t echniques, with variations d ictated by p ractical c ircumstances, s everal experiments, and what s eemed t o be common s ense.

Table

3 .1a S ampling t echniques u sed by g roups working o n n eutron a ctivation a nalysis o f ancient p ottery.

G roup

S ampling Tool

A thens(1)

S ynthetic s apphire d rill h ead

B erkeley & J erusalem(2)

B rookhaven ( 3)

F orm o f S ample

S ize

T reatment

P owder

1 00 mg

None

S ynthetic s apphire d rill h ead

P ellet

1 00 mg

None

a .Carborundum i mpregnated sa w o r c arbide r otating burr b . Tungsten c arbide d rill h ead

a .Slice 1 0x10x1 mm

1 002 00 mg

C NRS(4)

Tungsten c arbide d rill h ead

P ellet

1 00 mg

F iring a t 1 000 C f or 1 2hrs

E dinburgh(5)

D iamond g rinding wheel

P ellet

1 00 mg

F iri8g a t 1 000 C

G ent(6)

S craping w ith A 1 203 c rucible, c rushing i n a gate mortar

P ellet

1 00 mg

None

Manchester(7)

a .Crushing

P ellet

a .150 mg

a .Scraped s herd d ipped i n 0 .1M H NO 3 , d ist. H20 , t hen b oiled i n H20 f or 3 0mins

4 7

a.Leaching i n d istilled water b .Drying e t 6 5-70 uC

b .Powder

Table

3 .1 cont. F orm o f s ample

G roup

Sampling Tool

Manchester ( 7)

b . Tungsten carbide drill h ead

Montreal ( 8)

a .Scraping with quartz t hen c rushing b . Tungsten carbide drill h ead

P owder

P ennsylvania(9)

B /eaking with s teel p liers, c rushing i n agate mortar

P owder

Reading(10)

Tungsten carbide drill h ead

P owder

R is0(11)

a . Tungsten carbide drill h ead

P owder

P owder Hardened s teel P lattner mortar

4 8

T reatment

b .200 mg

b .None

1 00 mg

a .Firieg t o 9 00 C b .None

b . Cylindrical diamond g rinding p oint t o r emove s urface, c rushing i n a gate mortar Virginia(12)

S ize

2 00 mg

None f or p ottery, c lay l evigated i n d eionized . F ine H20 f raction n ot f ired, r est f ired 8 t 7 00-850

S oaking f or days i n two changes o f d eminerali sed H20 a .200 mg

a .F iring t o 7 00 C f or 1 o r 4 hrs b .300 b .Firing t o 1 000 C mg f or i hr

5 00 mg

None

Table

3 .1b

S tandards, i rradiation and counting conuitions, and e lements determined by g roups working on neutron a ctivation analysis o f ancient pottery.

G roup

S tandard

I rr. conditions Monitor

C ool' g No. o f E lements* period counts determined

( 1)

( 2)'s + U SGSGSP-1

4 5mins a t 2 . 2 x10 1 3 2 - 1 n cm s

None

6 dys, 3 wks

2

A s,Ce,Co, C r,Cs,Eu, F e,Hf,La, Lu,Na,Rb, Sb,Sc,Sm, Ta,Tb,Th, Y b,Zn

( 2)

F ine pottery c lay with added Co,Ni, Br,As calib' d against primary s t' ds

6 mins a t 1 .7x10 1 2 - -1 n cm 2 s , 8 hrs at 2 x10 l3 n cm -2 S -1

None

2 hrs, 8 dys

2

Ba,Ca,Ce, C o,Cr,Cs, Eu,Fe,Hf, K , La,Lu, Mn,Na,Sc, Sm,Ta,Eu

( 3)

a .St' d glass

a .24hrs a t 1 3 l x10 2 1 n cm - S -

None

8 -11 dys

2

a . C o,Cr, C s,Eu,Fe, H f,Sc,Ta, Th b . Ba,Ce, C o,Cr,Cs, Eu,Fe,Hf, K , L a,Lu, Mn,Na,Rb, S b,Sc,Ta, Th

b .USGSAGV-1 BCR-1 DTS-1

b.0.5-3 mins a t l x10 14 n cm -2 S -1

PCC-1 GSP-1 G -2

3 .5hrs a t 5 x10 124 n cm - S -1

( 4)

( 2)'s

1 5secs, 2 hrs iet 5 x10 n cm -2 S -1

None

a .None a .3 2 wks b .None b .2 3 wks

A s,Co,Cr, C s,Cu,Dy, Eu,Fe,Hf, K , L a,Lu, Mn,Na,Rb, S c,Sm,Ta, Th,Xb

( 5)

C lay calib' d against ( 2)'s

3 dys

None

About 3 wks

C o,Cr,Cs, Eu,Fe,Hf, S c,Th

6X1 0

n cm

-

a t 12

2

-

s

1

4 9

1

Table

3 .1b cont.

Group

S tandard

( 6)

( 7)

( 8)

I rr. conditions Monitor

C ool' g No. o f E lements* period counts d etermined

U SGSBCD-1

6 hrs a t 4 .9x10 1 n cm -2s 1

Cu f oil

8 dys, 1 4-20 dys, 3 0-50 dys

5 Ba,Ca,Ce, ( two C o,Cs,Eu, d iff't F e,Hf,Ho, count- L a,Lu,Nd, e rs) Rb,Sb,Sc, Sm,Ta,Tb, U ,Yb

a .Evap' g s ol' ns o f SPECPURE oxides on A l f oil b .Clay calib' d against a . + USGSW-1,G-2, AGV-1, BRD 1

5 mins, 3 0mins, 1 4hrs a t 2 , 3 x10 1 1 .2x10 1 2 , 1 .1x10 12'

Co wire

2 4hrs, 4 8hrs, 2 wks

3

E u,Fe,La, S c, Sm

None

l wk, 2 -3 wks

2

a . B a,Ce, C o,Cr,Cs, Eu,Fe,Hf, La,Lu,Rb, S c,Ta,Th,

( 2)'s

n cm

-

2

-

s

1

2 4hrs a t l x10 1 3 n cm -2 S -1

b . A s,Ba, C a,Ce,Co, C r,Cs,Eu, F e,Hf,La, Lu,Rb,Sb, S c,Sm,Ta, Th,U,Yb ( 9)

None

2 hrs a t l x10 13 1 s-2 n cm -

None

a .2wks a .1 b .7dys b .3 2 wks, 3 mnths

Ba,Ce,Co, C r,Cs,Eu, F e,Hf,La, Lu,Mn,Rb, Sb,Sc,Sm, Ta,Th,Yb

( 10)

None

3 0-36hrs a t l x10 12 n cm -2 S -1

None

6 dys

A s,Ce,Co, C r,Fe,La, Lu,Sc,Sm, Th,Ti,Yb

5 0

1

Table

3 .1b cont

G roup ( 11)

S tandard C lay calib' d against r ock s t' ds u sed by ( 3)

( 12)

U SGSBCR-1 & aqueous s ol' ns

I rr. c onditions Monitor l hr,3hrs None a t 4 .5x10 1 3 n cm -2 S -1

C ool'g No. o f period c ounts l wk, 2 3 0dys

E lements* d etermined A s,Ba,Ce, C o,Cr,Cs, Eu,Fe,Hf, K , La,Lu, Na,Rb,Sb, S c,Sm,Ta, Th,U,W,Yb

a .lhr a t 5 x10 1 3 n cm -2 S -1

a .1-3 dys, 5 -10 dys, 3 0dys b .3-5 dys, 3 0dys

C e,Co,Cr, E r,Eu,Fe, Gd,Ho, K , L a,Lu,Mn, Na,Nd,Sc, S m,Tb,Yb, Z r

None

b .2hrs a t 2 x10 1 2 - 2 - 1 n cm s *

a .3

b .2

E lements determined may vary.

R eferences 1 . 2 . 3 .

4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 1 0. 1. 1 1 2.

G rimanis a t a l. 1 976. P erlman & A saro 1 969; Michel e t a l. 1 976; Yellin 1 984. a . Harbottle 1 970; S ayre et a l. 1 971 b . Abascal et a l. 1 974; Bieber 1 974; B ieber et a l. 1 976a; Hammond et a l. 1 976. a . F ontes et a l. 1 979 b . A ttas et a l. 1 979; Widemann e t a l. 1 981. Davidson & McKerrell 1 976; 1 981; Davdison et a l. 1 977; Davidson 1 981. Op de Beeck e t a l. 1 976. a . K rywonos e t a l. 1 980 b . Matthers e t al. 1 983. a . B irgül e t a l. 1 976 b . Attas e t a l. 1 977. a . R ice 1 978 b . A rnold e t a l. 1 978. P ike & Fulford 1 983. a . Hansen e t a l. 1 979, 1 982 b . Thuesen e t a l. 1 982. a . A llen e t a l. 1 975 b . Allen e t a l. 1 982.

3 .3.1

Choice o f the e lements t o be determined

The d istribution o f many e lements i n c lays f rom d ifferent p arts o f the world could b e v ery s imilar, with s mall d eviations even f or the t race e lements ( Harbottle 1 970, 2 8-29 a nd Table 5 ). Thus even i f v ery f ew e lements may b e n eeded t o characterise a clay s ource, the g enerally a ccepted

5 1

opinion i s t hat, t o s tart w ith, s hould be d etermined.

a s many e lements

a s p ossible

D ifferent r esearchers h ave employed d ifferent c riteria f or t heir choice o f t he e lements t o b e d etermined ( see f or e xample Joron e t a l. 1 976, 1 153; B ieber 1 977, 7 2-74; A rnold e t a l. 1 978, 5 54). The g eneral c riteria d ictating t he e lements which c an b e r outinely d etermined i n a n eutron a ctivation a nalysis s tudy may b e summarized i n t he f ollowing points: 1 . an e lement s hould p roduce r adioactive i sotopes u pon bombardment w ith n eutrons i n a r eactor, 2 . t he c oncentration o f t he e lement i n t he s amples s hould b e h igh enough, a nd t he r adioactivity o f t he i sotope g reat e nough, t o b e c ounted i n a r easonable a mount o f t ime a fter a r easonable p eriod o f i rradiation, 3 . i t s hould b e p ossible t o d etermine t he e nergy p eak p roduced by t he i sotope w ith a cceptable a ccuracy, p recision, a nd r epeatability, i .e. t he b ackground f rom o ther p eaks s hould b e m inimal. Added t o t he a bove, t he e lement s hould b e u seful i n d istinguishing c lay s ources ( or pottery g roups). I n t he c ase o f t his s tudy a nother point which h ad t o b e t aken i nto c onsideration was t he h eavy b ookings o f t he d etector u sed, making possible only o ne d ay o f c ounting p er w eek. C onsidering t he l arge n umber o f s amples i t w as d ecided t o c ount e ach s ample once o nly. T o obtain t he maximum n umber o f e lements t hat c ould b e r eliably d etermined, u sing o nly one c ount p er s ample, a ll t he e lements h aving i sotopes w ith h alf-lives o f l ess t han h alf a d ay h ad t o b e i gnored. A lthough s ome g roups h ave r outinely d etermined t hese s hort-lived i sotopes ( for e xample B erkeley a nd C NRS), H ansen e t a l. ( 1979, 1 24) omitted t hem a s t hey f ound o ut t hat t he e lements i n question d id n ot g reatly a ffect t heir a nalytical r esults. F ollowing t he a bove c onsiderations, t he g uidelines g iven by P erlman and A saro ( 1969, A ppendix B ), a nd a n examination o f t he s pectra o f t wo t est batches o f p ottery s amples, l ooking o ut f or well d efined p eaks, n ineteen e lements p resented t hemselves a s p ossible c andidates f or d etermination; t hese a re s hown i n T able 3 .2. A s t he a nalyses p roceeded, s everal e lements ( or p eaks) h ad t o b e d ropped: 1 . A s a t 5 59.2 K ey h ad t o b e d isregarded a s i t i s p art o f a multiplet, s hared by S b a t 5 64.0KeV, which was n ot well s eparated by t he d etector a t t imes, t hus g iving r ise t o e rrors o f h igh magnitude ( a p roblem e ncountered by A spinall e t a l. 1 972, 3 5; a nd P ike a nd F ulford 1 983, 8 1, where d ifferences o f a f actor o f 2 a ppeared). 2 . S b a t 5 64.0KeV f or t he s ame r eason a s A s. 3 . B a a t 1 33.7 K eV s howed l arge v ariations i n s imilar s amples, t his c ould b e due t o i ts p resence i n l arge p articles. 4 . E u a t 1 21.3 K ey g ave e rratic r eadings, due t o t he p resence o f h igh b ackground i n t hat a rea i n t he s pectra o f s ome s amples. The 3 44.2 K eY p eak was r etained.

5 2

Table

3 .2

E lements considered

f or d etermination

E lement

Nuclide

Energy

S odium P otassium S candium Chromium I ron C obalt A rsenic Rubidium Antimony C esium B arium L anthanum C erium S amarium E uropium L utetium H afnium Tantalum

Na 24 K -42 S c46 C r-51 F e-59 C o-60 A s-76 Rb-86 S b122 C s-134 Ba 131 L a-140 C e-141 Sm 153 Eu 152 Lu-177 H f-181 Ta-182

Thorium

Pa-223

1 368.4 1 524.7 89.4, 1 120.3 8 3 20.0 1 291.6 173.1, 1 332.4 1 59.2* 5 1 077.6 5 64.0* 6 04.7 1 33.7*,496.3* 3 28.8, 1 596.5 1 45.4 1 03.2 1 21.8*,344.2 2 08.4 4 83.2* 1 00.1*,1189.0*, 1 221.4* 3 12.8

*

0 .623d 0 .515d 8 3.9d 2 7.8d 4.9d 4 5 .26y 1 .10d 1 8.6d 2 .80d 2 .05y 1 2.0d 1 .68d 3 2.5d 1 .95d 1 2.7y 6 .74d 4 2.5d 15.1d 1 2 7.0d

:

C ader et a l. 1 978 P erlman and A saro

6 .

H alf-life

P eaks that were d isregarded d=days ; y=years

References

5 .

( KeV)

1 969.

H f a t 4 82.2 K eV i s part o f a multiplet which was n ot well r esolved by t he detector a t t imes ( difficulties i n determining h afnium were encountered by a l-Kital e t a l. 1 969, 3 91). Ta a t 1 00.1 K eV was dropped a s t he G e(Li) detector u sed proved not t o b e s ensitive enough i n t hat a rea. The 189.0 and 1 221.4 K eV p eak s howed v ery h igh e rror 1 ( > 3 0%) i n t he I AEA's S oil-5 s tandard u sed f or t he calibration o f t he i nternal s tandard ( Rice 1 978, 5 23 f ound that B a, Eu and Ta were h ighly i rregular i n h er analyses).

Y ellin a nd Metzger ( 1982, 1 89) a rgued i n f avour o f a c orrection f or t he Sm 1 03.2 K eV p eak, due t o t he i nterference f rom the Pu Ka i X -ray a rising f rom t he d ecay o f . Np-239 ( a c ontribution d f 1 0% i n P erlman and A saro's s tandard pottery). This p eak p roved t o b e very well b ehaved i n the s amples t ested i n t his s tudy, t herefore n o c orrection

5 3

was

f ound n ecessary.

Where two peaks were d etermined f or a n e lement ( i.e. i n t he c ases o f S c,La and C o), t he e lement's c oncentration i s t aken a s t he a verage o f t he c oncentrations g iven by t he t wo p eaks.

3 .3.2

The pottery s tandard

Many r esearchers h ave a rgued i n f avour o f t he u se o f a s tandard w ith e ach batch o f s amples ( see f or e xample P erlman a nd A saro 1 969, 2 3-24; T ite 1 972, 2 77; W illard e t a l. 1 974, 3 29; Valcovie 1 975, 1 39; H arbottle 1 982). W ith t he u se o f a s tandard, the v ariations i n t he n eutron f lux i n t he r eactor c an b e a ccounted f or ( see d iscussion i n • section 3 .3.7 b elow), i nter-batch c orrelation w ill b e e asier, a nd a bundances o f e lements may be g iven i n concentration u nits. These a dvantages outweigh t he d ifficulties l isted by, f or example, A rnold e t a l. ( 1978, 5 43) a nd R ice ( 1978, 5 22-523) who a rgued t hat t he p reparation o f a multi-element s tandard i s d ifficult, t ime c onsuming a nd expensive, h aving a s tandard would n ecessitate a n eutron-flux monitor ( a p oint t o b e n egated i n s ection 3 .3.7 b elow), a nd " the s lightest d ifference i n t he weight o f each s ample... would a ffect t he r esults by a ltering the P PM count". This d ifference would c ertainly b e a llowed f or i n calculating t he a bsolute concentrations. There was n o s tandard a vailable i n a dequate quantities f or t he s tudy, s o i t was d ecided t o p repare a n " internal" s tandard. A s i t i s b est t o h ave a s tandard s imilar i n composition, a nd t hus i n b ackground, t o t he s amples ( Perlman a nd A saro 1 969, 2 8; T ite 1 972, 2 77), i t was d ecided t o prepare t he s tandard f rom p ottery s herds. Sherds f rom various s ites ( in Yemen, I raq, Turkey, Syria, P alestine a nd Jordan) a nd d ifferent a ges ( Pottery N eolithic t o M edieval) were p repared by r emoving t he s urfaces, i ncluding a ll g laze o r p aint, u sing a n " Airbrasive" machine. The c leaned s herds were c rushed u sing a c eramic mortar a nd pestle, t hen g round t o a v ery f ine p owder i n a n a gate pulverising m ill. The powder was quartered s everal t imes a nd t horoughly m ixed t o a chieve h omogeneity. The h omogenized p owder was c alibrated a gainst I AEA's s oil-5 s tandard ( forty f ive r uns i n f ourteen d ifferent i rradiations). The a verage c oncentrations i n t he s tandard o f t he e lements r outinely d etermined i n t he s tudy a re g iven i n T able 3 .3. " Samples" o f t he s tandard were i rradiated a nd c ounted a t r andom i ntervals t o a ssure h omogeneity t hroughout t he s tudy.

5 4

Table 3 .3 C omposition o f ( concentrations i n which a re i n % ).

E lement % K % Na % Fe R b C s S c L a C e E u L u Th C r C o S m

C oncentration 1 .75 0 .575 4 .38 6 1.2 2 .75 1 6.2 3 2.6 6 7.0 1 .43 0 .400 8 .91 1 63. 1 9.4 6 .05

3 .3.3 a .

t he i nternal s tandard p pm e xcept f or K , N a, a nd F e,

S tandard d eviation 0 .14 0 .017 0 .10 5 .3 0 .17 0 .45 1 .0 2 .0 0 .07 0 .032 0 .38 9 .8 1 .1 0 .28

S ampling t he p ottery s herds

U sing a t ungsten c arbide d rill h ead.

A t t he b eginning o f t he s tudy a t ungsten c arbide d rill h ead mounted o n a h and d rill was u sed t o o btain p owder f rom t he p ottery s herds. T his method h as b een h ighly r ecommended f or u se o n whole o bjects o r museum p ieces a s t he d rill h ead c auses m inimal d estruction ( Catling a nd M illet 1 965, 1 8 n .66; A ttas e t a l. 1 984, 1 04). The s herds were c leaned with water a nd b rush a t t he t ime o f e xcavation, s o t he s urfaces were j ust b rushed w ith a p aint b rush t o r emove t he dust a ccumulated o n t hem d uring s torage. F or t he a nalysis a s mall a rea o f a s urface o f e ach s herd w as r emoved w itn t he d rill h ead, t hen t he r est o f t hat s urface, a s w ell a s a ll o ther s urfaces, w ere c overed w ith masking t ape t o a void c ontamination. A pproximately 2 00 mg o f p owder was d rilled o ut o f e ach s herd a nd k ept i n s mall p olyethylene s ample t ubes t o b e weighed i nto i rradiation c apsules. This m ethod o f d rilling was l ater a bandoned a s t he t ungsten c arbide d rill h ead p roved t o c ontain c ontaminants, mainly C o, a s s hown i n T able 3 .4a-c. A lthough C r d id n ot s eem t o b e a ffected by t he d rill h ead u sed i n t his s tudy, i t p roved a c ontaminant i n o ther s tudies, a long w ith W a nd T a ( Hansen e t a l. 1 979; W inther-Nielsen e t a l. 1 981). T his contamination i s v ariable, making i t d ifficult t o c orrect f or ( Attas e t a l. 1 984, 1 05). A nother d isadvantage o f t he u se o f a t ungsten c arbide d rill h ead i s t hat t he i ntroduced t ungsten p roduces h igh b ackground a ctivity i n t he s pectrum, t hus l owering t he p recision o f t he a nalysis. This e ffect

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c an b e s ignificant i f t he c ounting i s c arried o ut l ess t han a w eek a fter i rradiation, when t he a ctivity o f W -187 ( half-life 2 4.1 h rs), w ould s till b e r elatively h igh ( Emeleus 1 958, 9 ; A ttas e t a l. 1 977, 3 6; 1 984, 1 05). b .

U sing a s ynthetic s apphire d rill h ead.

T he a lternative u se o f a s ynthetic s apphire d rill h ead was i nvestigated. A p iece o f c lear s ynthetic s apphire w as c ut i nto a n e longated s quare pyramidal s hape, u sing a d iamond wafering b lade on a s low c utting B uhler " Isomet" s aw. The b it was mounted o n a 1 2 v olt m ini d rill u sing a s low s etting e poxy r esin. This a rrangement was a s n ondestructive a s t he t ungsten c arbide d rill h ead ( although d estruction w as n ot a p rimary c onsideration i n most o f t he s amples s tudied). T he method o f o btaining t he s ample p owder w as t he s ame a s t hat u sing t he t ungsten c arbide d rill h ead, e xcept t hat h ere t he s urface was r emoved w ith a r ough p iece o f p ure q uartz o r s ynthetic s apphire. The d rill h eads w ere s harpened o n t he c utting b lade a nd w ashed w ith a cetone a fter e very d rilling. T o check f or c ontamination, f ive s mall p ieces c ut f rom d ifferent p arts o f t wo c lear s ynthetic s apphire b locks were a nalyzed. Two d ifferent ( mounted) d rill h eads were weighed b efore a nd a fter s everal d rillings o f d ifferent h ardness s herds. T he r esults a re s hown i n T able 3 .5a-b a nd c learly i ndicate t hat c ontamination i s n egligible. T his m ethod was u sed t hroughout t he s tudy f or o btaining t he p ottery s amples.

3 .3.4

T reatment o f t he p ottery s amples

T he a im o f t reating p ottery s amples b efore a nalysis was t o c ounteract t he e ffects o f c ontamination o f t he p ottery. T he main c ontamination would b e f rom b urial c onditions: c omposition o f t he s oil a nd s urrounding material, g round water, e tc. ( see d iscussion i n S ayre e t a l. 1 971, 1 68; H edges a nd M cLellan 1 976, 2 06-207). A nother s ource, which a ctually c ontributes i n f orming t he p ottery, i s t he water u sed by t he p otter, which b esides c ontributing c ations t hat g et l ocked i n t he c rystal l attice o f t he c lay m inerals, c ontributes s oluble s alts which c an b e r emoved b y washing ( Arnold e t a l. 1 978, 5 49). The e ffect o f t emper w ill b e d iscussed i n s ection 3 .4.2 b elow. T he s amples may b e t reated a s s herds o r a s p owder, t he l atter w as c hosen a s a t est m edium. Two methods o f t reatment w ere t ested, s amples w ere w eighed a fter t reatment:

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t he

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s amples were c entrifuged, t he l iquid d ecanted o ff, a nd h e r esidues were washed tw ce with 5 ml o f d istilled water t hen d ried overnight a t 1 10 C . The r esults a re s hown i n Table 3 .6a. Table 3 .6d s hows quite a v ariation i n t he e lemental c oncentrations: t he c oncentration o f C s a nd t o a l esser extent t he c oncentrations o f F e a nd C r i ncreased, while t he c oncentrations o f t he r are e arth e lements, e xcept f or Th, d ecreased, d rastically s o i n t he c ases o f L a a nd S m. The i ncrease i n c oncentration o f c ertain e lements i s due t o t he r emoval o f c arbonate by t he a cid. This i s c ounteracted by t he l eaching o f mineral phases which w ere washed o ut by t he water, t hus i ncreasing t he c oncentration o f s ome e lements a nd r educing t he c oncentration o f o thers. I t i s i mprobable t hat much o f t he h eavier r are e arth e lements were d eposited i n t he p ottery, t hus t his t reatment a ctually l eaches out more than h as b een a bsorbed. The a cid would h ave a ttacked s ome o f t he m ineral phases i n t he c lay which c ontain r are e arth e lements, e .g. p hosphate p hases. ( It i s n ow r ealised t hat t he c oncentration o f t he a cid u sed i s t oo h igh. C oncentration o f a round 2 -5% would b e more a ppropriate t o t est). b .

Washing w ith d istilled water.

Twelve s amples were washed a nd s haken w ell f our t imes with 5 ml d istilled water. E ach t ime t he s amples w ere c entrifuged a nd t he l iquid d ecanted o ff. The r esidues were d ried . The r esults a re s hown i n T able 3 .6b. overnight a t 1 10 ° C The changes i n c oncentrations a s s hown i n T able 3 .6e i ndicate s ome v ariation i n t he c oncentrations o f t he a lkaline e arth metals, t he most p rominent i s t he d ecrease i n t he c oncentration o f Na. The o ther a lkalis s howed s light d ecreases a s well a s s light i ncreases ( less t han 0 .15 e ither way, Rb s howed a n i ncrease o f 0 .19 i n t he c ase o f P CP 2 5). These variations a re p robably due t o e rrors i n measurement a nd i nhomogeneity i n t he p ots, a s t he r emoval o f s oluble s alts would h ave c aused only d ecreases i n t he c oncentrations. The above r esults a re i n a ccordance w ith o bservations made i n o ther s tudies. B ieber e t a l. ( 1976a., 1 35) n oted t hat only Ba changed c oncentration i n t heir s amples which were b uried i n h ighly a lkaline s oil. P oole a nd F inch ( 1972, 8 4) n oted t hat, among t he e lements t hey s tudied, which i ncluded Rb a nd K , o nly S a nd S r were a ffected by burial ( or F iring). B arra B agnesco e t a l. ( 1981, 2 2) s tudied T i, C r a nd Z r under e xtreme weathering c onditions a s well a s d ifferent f iring c onditions, t he c oncentrations o f t he t hree e lements r emained c onstant t hroughout. B lackman ( 1981, 1 3-14) n oted t hat a ny i on e xchange during burial d id n ot a ffect t he g roups b ased on C a, S c, F e, C o, R b, C s, L a, H f a nd Th, a n observation s hared by F ranklin a nd H ancock ( 1981, 1 18) who a nalyzed f or t wenty e ight e lements, i ncluding N a. A r eported e ffect, which t he b urial p eriod c ould h ave o n t he e lements d etermined i n t his s tudy, i s t he i ncrease i n t he concentration o f Na with t he l ength o f burial ( Krywonos e t a l. 1 980, 7 0-71).

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I n a r ecent s tudy ( Franklin a n V itali 1 985), c alcareous p ottery b riquettes f ired t o 9 50 C were e xposed t o a b road s pectrum o f s imulated s oil s olutions, w ith p H r ange exceeding t he r ange o f pH values i n n atural s oils. I n a ll c ases t he expcsed s urfaces o f t he t est b riquettes r eacted w ith t he s olutions t o f orm r eaction a nd/or a lteration p roducts, which a cted a s d iffusion b arriers, p reventing a ny f urther a ttack. F rom t he r esults o f t his s tudy, a nd t he o ther s tudies quoted a bove, i t was d ecided n ot t o c arry out t he washing p rocedure. The l eaching out o f Na, t he o nly e lement a ffected by t he washing t reatment, i s n ot s ystematic. I t i s h ighly i mprobable t hat t he g reat v ariation i n l eached o ut quantities i s due t o e xternal c onditions a cting o n t he p ots. A more l ikely r eason i s t he p resence o f N a within d ifferent phases i n t he c lays o f t he s amples s tudies, t hus i t was l eached o ut t o d ifferent e xtents i n d ifferent s amples. A s f or t he e ffect o f f iring on t he p ottery, n o t ests were c arried out ( although t hese t ests were d one f or t he c lay s amples, s ee s ection 3 .3.5 b elow). R e-firing s herds b efore a nalysis h as b een r ecommended i n s ome s tudies ( see f or example W idemann e t a l. 1 975, 5 8; W ilson 1 978, 2 28). S tudies done e lsewhere s howed t hat t he f iring t emperature, even t o t he extent o f over-firing, h ad a lmost n o e ffect on t he c omposition o f t he pottery ( Poole a nd F inch 1 972, 8 4; A ttas e t a l. 1 977, 4 1; F ranklin and Hancock 1 979; B arra B agnesco e t a l. 1 981, 2 2; H ughes e t a l. 1 983, 3 70). Therefore, i t was c onsidered s afe t o i nclude t he over-fired wasters f rom t he Z urraban k iln i n t he s tudy. N o r e-firing o f t he s amples p rior t o a nalysis w as c arried out.

3 .3.5

T reatment o f

t he c lay s amples

The question o f t reating c lay i s f ar more c omplex t han pottery, a s c lay u sually undergoes p rocessing b efore ending up a s t he f inished p ot. ' Unprocessed' c lay i s quite d ifficult t o deal w ith analytically, e specially i f i t c omes f rom a t ransported d eposit. This d ifficulty i s mainly due t o c lay b eds extending o ver l arge a reas, b oth v ertical a nd h orizontal i nhomogeneities i n t he d eposits, a nd c ontamination e specially f rom c hemicals s uch a s f ertilizers a nd p esticides. These c onditions a re s o c ommon t hat s ome r esearchers s tressed t he n ecessity f or u sing s everal a nalytical t echniques a nd numerous i nvestigations i n o rder t o p ositively i dentify a c lay d eposit ( see f or example Hulthän 1 982, 3 95,397-398). The p rocessing o f c lay c ould s erve a s a n i ndication o f i ts o rigin, a s c ertain t echniques may b e p eculiar t o c ertain a reas, o r e ven work s hops. On t he o ther h and, e stablishing t he r elationship b etween a p ottery s ample a nd a c lay s ource h as b een a d ifficult question t o answer ( see P erlman a nd A saro 1 969, 3 5). One method o f overcoming t he p roblem i s t o t reat t he c lay i n a s

6 3

c lose a manner a s p ossible t o t hat u sed by t he a ncient potter who p roduced t he type o f p ottery u nder i nvestigation, excluding t he a ddition o f t emper ( Krywonos e t a l. 1 982, 6 5-69). This m ethod c ould b e t he a nswer i f a . t he p ottery wares o ne i s d ealing w ith a re n ot v ery v aried, a nd b . i f t he p rocessing o f t he c lay f or t hese wares i s k nown. N either a . n or b . a pply i n t he c ase o f t he P etra p otters. I n i nvestigating t he l evigation o f c lays, L ondon t ap water was u sed. T he p ractice o f u sing d istilled w ater by r esearchers ( such a s R ice 1 978, 5 22; K aplan e t a l. 1 982, 1 33) was n ot f ollowed. T he d ecision t o l evigate u sing t ap water was t aken u pon s eeing t he M sheirfeh w orkshop l evigation t anks, w hich c ontained a mong many o bjects, s everal c ar b atteries a nd a n o ld s chool b ag w ith r usty m etal f astenings a nd h andle. U pon h indsight i t i s r ecognised t hat t his d ecision w as wrong. L ondon water c ontains q uite a h igh l evel o f d issolved s alts, which a re . most p robably d ifferent i n quantity a nd quality t o t he s alts i n t he w aters u sed by a ncient p otters. The l evigation p ractice a dopted i n t his s tudy would n ecessarily a dd more v ariables t o t he p roblem. The u se o f d istilled water i s n ow r ecognised a s a b etter c ontrolled, a nd s afer, o ption. A nother p roblem w ith l evigation s tudies i s t hat t here i s n o a bsolute m ethod. D ifferent p otters l evigate d ifferent c lays t o d ifferent d egrees. T he l evigation method u sed i n t his i nvestigation i s d escribed b elow. S ix c lay s amples were g round u sing a c eramic p estle a nd mortar. T he p owder was s haken w ell w ith t ap water, a llowed t o s ettle f or a f ew m inutes, t hen t he u pper f raction w as d ecanted o ff i nto a g lass b eaker. T he d ecantate was a llowed t o s ettle f or a f ew d ays t hen t he c lear w ater was d ecanted o ff. T he s lurry was d ried o vernight a t 1 20 ° C t hen, when c ooled, c rushed w ith a g lass r od. T he r esults o f t he a nalysis a re s hown i n Table 3 .7a. T able 3 .7c s hows c onsiderable v ariations i n t he c oncentrations o f t he e lements. S ample MC2 s hows a c onsiderable d epletion o f a ll t he e lements e xcept f or Na. T he M sheirfeh s amples ( MC1-3) s how a g eneral d epletion o f C r. C r s hows l ittle v ariation i n t he W adi Musa B s amples ( WMB1-3). O n t he o ther h and K a nd C s s how a n i ncrease i n t he W adi M usa B s amples, b ut l ittle v ariation i n t he M sheirfeh s amples ( except f or M C2). C e a nd C o s how a n i ncrease i n t he W adi Musa B s amples w ith mixed v ariation i n t he M sheirfeh s amples. D ifferences i n t he r esults f or t he c lays a re e xpected, d ue t o t he d ifferent e lements b eing p resent i n d ifferent s ized p articles, o r d ifferent p hases. W ithin e ach c lay ,source, g eneral systematic t rends a re d ifficult t o f ollow, a dding t o t hat t he d ramatic b ehaviour o f M C2. T he q uestion o f t o what extent d id t he p otter l evigate h is c lays i s f aced a gain. Were d ifferent l evigation p rocesses u sed f or d ifferent t ypes o f wares? T he i nvestigation o f t hese q uestions i s b eyond t he s cope o f t his s tudy. Only t he c lays which s eemed t o c ontain many l arge p articles w ere l evigated, t he o thers w ere only c rushed b etween p olyethylene s heets a nd d ried o vernight

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i 0 1 C ) 4 C O O C )L O e f l • • P1 l f ) 4 •. : 4 0 0 • • •

C N 0 1 0 1 r A C O 0 1 - r M D • •r A r ( . ) •r 4 0 1 • • • u ) 00 CV H CO 00 00

U ) 0 0 r 4 r 4 C N O D 0 0

r d

( 1 ) U j C . )

1 C V 0 1 4 . C 4 1 . 1 c n r e ) r C D 1 1 C f ) • • • • •_ • C N 1 C O C V C V

r d

o n •r 4 r 4 C V l • • • • •u i i V D C : 2 4 0 0 0 0 C D L r ) y i m rn

0 1 C N M D M D C N 0 1

( N I r -CO N

•

U ) C )

• • • • n r n r r 4 r 4

•

r q

D C O 0 ol C O C O%J c n l0 01H 01 0

4 . )

w n i g 3 0

0

. 4 . ) C D C ,C

(1 )

c ) • • • W o o ° r I

V)

0

• • 1 1

u 1 u l u l V D r C h V D O i r - r 4 C D • • • • • • C D C D C D 4 4 r 4 r 4

c)

r I

4 4 0 C

0 • H 4 ) H

H

C U

0 rm i

P l

o

U

n i

4 )

r d

u l U D 0 1 r 4 V D C h C D r 4 r 4 C V C D n r • • • • • •

4 4 0

0 C D 0 0 1 C V 0 1 1 Q D ' z r 0 1 0 o n ( 1 ) 4

Dr4

dP r q 0 1 n e C V N I N I C D V ) % I t MD OD . z r 0 r - C D r - 0 0 C D 0 L o l 0 0 0 o • . . • • • „ Ao c , o 0

O\

0 . , 4 4 -) • , . 1 . . . . . W G ) 0 h x 4

a l

Er c i c )

U

n i

0\ 0

r d

• r q

•

•

m t r e

•

•

. e . o n

r -c h u l rC I 0 1 r l n r r I b 4 • • • • • . d P r 4 r q ( N I r 4 r 4 H 0

•

r i d E r

H U

N O

r I C V P I m f l çL ç L 1 O

( 1 )

H r I C V M

r c l

E i

0

r A C V C V

k t ) o n N 0 I l l % . 0 H 0 h 0 1 n r I nLC / 1 . 1 I n 0 L C 1 1 r d C D C D C D C D r A C D Z . • . . • . 0 \0 a o a aa CD

C V o n 0 1 p a

ori o X X N 2 2 2 3 3

a l a l n r H C V n r C O l 0 $ 0 1 I I 0 0

4 . )

•

0 U 0 U 0 •H , 1

4 ) a ) .r d r4 I J

•

r x 4 0

.

•

H

•

H

•

H

r -(N I c h r 4 r n c i l MD r 4 r 4 C D U D C h

r d Z

• • • • • •

o H

s i H

0

o

1 n r 4 . 1rf l r 1C f l H C D l e l 0 1 r l C V C V •

0

•

C D 0

•

•

r I C D 0

•

•

•

H r4 H

0 a )

0

A A g a C r 4 O 3 r A • • l C N • . P ( K r r n M 4 n D l C 0 o N 0 4 1 Z I r -

• H

0H

U r C , l r V 1 O D n u , 0 h l U • r C w V C D l C • U • h h

o ü r

a t

5 0°C ( a p rocess

f ollowed by B ieber

1 977,

7 5-76).

N ext c ame t he question o f t he e ffect o f washing. Three l evigated s amples f rom t he Wadi Musa B c lay d eposit w ere washed i n t he s ame manner a s t he p ottery i n s ection 3 .3.4 a bove, t hen c rushed w ith a g lass r od. The r esults a re s hown i n Table 3 .8. T able 3 .8c s hows t hat t he only e lement t o b e a ffected t hroughout i s Na ( although C o a lso s hows a n i ncrease i n s ample WMB2). T he s ame r easoning f or n ot washing t he pottery a pplies h ere. T o t est f or t he e ffect o f f iring, t hree s amples f rom t he M sheirfeh workshop were f ired a t 8 50 ° C f or two h ours. When c ooled t hey were c rushed b etween polyethylene s heets. The s amples were weighed a fter f iring. The r esults a re g iven i n Table 3 .9. Table 3 .9c s hows quite a v ariation i n t he e lemental c oncentrations. Both M C1 a nd M C3 s how a n i ncrease i n t he c oncentrations o f most o f t he e lements, but MC2 s hows a r eduction i n most o f t he c oncentrations. A ssuming a m istake i n t he d etermination o f t he c oncentrations f or M C2 ( the l evigated t o unlevigated r atio i n Table 3 .8 s how a s imilar b ehaviour), t hen t he e xplanation f or t he i ncrease i n most o f t he e lemental c oncentrations f or MC1 a nd MC3 may b e a ttributed t o t he l oss o f c arbonate a nd water upon f iring. C arbonate ( and water) would a ct a s mere " diluents" o f t he c oncentrations o f t he o ther e lements, i .e. t heir r emoval would a ffect a ll t he c oncentrations i n a more o r l ess s imilar f ashion, which i s c learly n ot t he c ase h ere. N one o f t he e lements i nvestigated a re p articularly v olatile, t hus t he v ariations i n t he r atios c annot b e a ccounted f or b y l oss o f c ertain e lements upon f iring. The r esults obtained f rom t he l evigation a nd f iring experiments put i n doubt t he v alidity o f a ttempting t o a ttribute p ottery t o c lay s ources ( by e lemental a nalysis).

3 .3.6

C hoice o f

s ample s ize

f or a nalysis

The a mount o f material a nalyzed s hould b e a s r epresentative o f t he whole a s p ossible. Too s mall a n a mount may g ive a g reater s pread o f v alues t han i s d esired ( see f or e xample Abascal e t a l. 1 974, 9 7). B rummond e t a l. ( 1976) d escribed a mathematical method f or c alculating p ottery s ample s izes f or e lemental a nalysis, b ased o n i nclusion s ize a nd f requency. F or a ll t he wares s tudied h ere, 1 00 mg i s a bove t he r ecommended l ower l imit. The s ample s ize o f a round 1 00 mg was r ecommended by D r. S usan P arry a t t he U niversity o f L ondon R eactor C entre. 1 00 mg h ave a lso p roved t o b e q uite r epresentative o f f airly f ine wares i n t he t ests c arried o ut by H ancock ( 1983). Therefore, o ut o f 2 00-300 mg s amples d rilled f rom t he s hreds, 1 00-150 mg w ere u sed f or t he a nalysis. The s ame s ize s amples were u sed f rom t he c lays.

6 6

r -

V D C D C N U l

r n

r -

C . )

C V 0 1 C N 0 1 Q D

0

d istilled

J 1 • • • E 1 c \ I c \ I c • I

C r N IC

r " -

0

0

r - 0 r d

N

' z I r 0 1 1 -1 • • • • •

• ov o

. g

•

• r d •

E

¼ D N H ( 7 \ C D 0 1

• • •

4 )

• •

0

0

U l o r )

4 •

o n d i 0 O N rH

• • •

T 1 r I r 1

L I ) V D N 0 1 0 1 0 • • •

( . ) C D CD 1 4

H

, . / z

l . z r • z /1 U r e l i f )

0 0 r 4 O D C N C D

• • • c q c q c y

„ i z • . • E4CD C D

C D ( I )

r d C D r C N O D C N

• • • • • 0 0 0

4 i

0 1 ' 44 U ) 0 0 0

r n u n c 0

d i •

•

•

O ' e C D C ) C V C V 1 4

C h OD r n 0 0 C N C D ( 1 )

•

0a

•

•

o

0 1 o l

0 0

• .

o o r -

g r d

a ) 4 )

N

0

•

•

n i

U

C )

O H CD r c ) c q CV 1 1

r • d. H 0

Oa

• •

( N a n • • • ‘ z r

C O

• • • c \ , 1 r I

e lements

Oo

O rI C

H

c y p l r •u l u l

• = 1 ' •V D 0 1

( concentrations

•

E

r d

l evigated

( concentrations

H

r n i

U )

.

•

r c i

)

i l l i n r e ) 0 1 4 .

r d ,C ›1

( 1

.

C N C \ 1 Q )

U

r d

1 1 r I C

t 31

•

•

0

U

•

0

, 1 : : 1 C O CO CD • r n 4 ) 4 4 O

gl 0

0 H

4, e

•4 O ) H P 4 ▪ ( 1 ) ' ,I 0 W X 0 r j 4

r d

r d c o

• •

0

H i n 01 L c o D c n re ) re ) 0 0 0

r d

0

• ( -c 0 C Y \ 0 1 C Y \ • • •

c N 1 0 1

4

r -r-pl . • • c O P

C ON 1 4 0 1 0 1 0 • • •

D C D 1 4 f . 1 4 C

C V r 4 CV

0• 0

E E 0

C )

e : 3 1 ( N 1 C Y \ i n

r 4

c o

0\ 0

c o r n C N 1

C \ 1

3 C c l G Q 1

P : 1 ( I i n

NN

r d

NN

r d -1 E

6 7

•

C . C D 0

L n a ( N v 1 I l l

E • • •

0 0

E

v O N

P I v 1 i l l C O 0 1

• • •

C l ) r 1

H Lf l O % • • •

E c r )

Hr 1

r q

c D C N 0 0 r • • • C ) ,z r r q o q

r - • • • •z r > 4 C . C O C V • r • C O r 1

• e ' • m r • • • g 4 V'4 ' 0 0 C . ) V D M D V D

0i z r u z s c ) r 1 C V

r -

• r I

• • • c ) r 1

M D C N C N C D U l 1 1 • • • C ) C V r 1 C V

r d

0

0 0 0 1 u l

0

r d U )

•

N r I • 1r, C • •c D E D N H U)

U ) ( i ) H

•

•

•

C ) 0 1 M D C r 1 C ) r -0 3

0

•

• • • . 1o c o r e l ( N I 0 ' e t i l l C V • : r r e l • • • • 4 . 1 c D c D c D

• • • ( j ) i t ) L f l r n 0 r 4 r 1

C D u l O D r 1 C D r 1 r d • • • 1 o 1 o p c

•

( N I 0 ( N

l D P 1

L f l ( ' J

O

•. • ( N I r -o T 1

r 1 C O P I r 1 r -t0 • • • U. )( X ) ( X ) O D

l . 0C3 1r l r - CO CV U )

0

•

•

•

•

r f

r d

H

° " ' r d u )

C l )

0 1 r 1 C I O D • • H O

•

n j

•

4) a )

• r x 4

E O O r d

( 1 )

( C I

3

O r 1 C D

0 C D r I u r t s o

0 1 in •

C

•

C 3 1 C > • •

4,

C

Z • • 0 \ 0 o s o s o

( Y ) •

0

1 3 )

( 1. ) • H

0 i n N c n i n 0 L n

•

, . . 4 . . . . . ( i ) G )

r -tr )

W

4 4 • • • d P r I r q r q

C

•

c n r e ) l 0 1 C V i l r d - • • •

C N o n r , e, M D C N •

•

•

r 1

d k o

3 .9a

•

v I

a ) • •• ( )

Or d H0

a) C V C T 1

o

Table

U ) C

•

1 " -C 9 1 1 . 1 C V C I

( l • 1 -) 4 1 O

•

C 2 )

• Z3 1 -) " r1

L i I

2 2 2

•

C 4 . ) a ) U C I ) O (

4 )

r 4 C V C I 0 0 0

1 1

•

O r 1 0 1 C I C r 4 rn • e i r n

o . 1 4 a

• • •

( I )

P 1 C • I •

C V U l r 1 m rC D U )

C V C I O D C N O D U l

M I

r 1 r 1 C V

i n

• 4

e lements

c D r 1 r 1

a )

v 4 v 1 r 1 -

( concentrations

2 r

• • •

( N 1 O D O D n r - C o D 4 1 • • • v 1 C >

r d ( I ) 4 1

l ' r )

untreated

r d

C O C V 0 O D i f ) t f l

• • • r q c y p l

0 0 r 1

P r ) r › .1 • • • C ) r 1 C D r 1

r d

r -

c lay

( concentrations

o o v o 0 c n o q 0 r Y )

" e z

r 1 / O 1 1 4. 1 0 C -

a )

c N

a )

r

r d

« 2 1

6 8

r 1 C V C I 0 0 0

2 2 2

3 .3.7

The

i rradiation

S tandard h igh purity polyethylene i rradiation c apsules were c leaned w ith 2 0% h ydrochloric a cid t hen washed t horoughly with d istilled water. A fterwards t hey were s haken i n A nalaR g rade a cetone a nd d ried w ith a s tream o f h ot a ir o n t he walls o f a c lean g lass b eaker c overed with a luminium f oil, l eaving a s ide o pening t o a llow t he v apour t o e scape. 1 00-150 mg o f t he s amples was weighed i nto t he c ooled c apsules which were h andled w ith d isposable r ubber g loves a nd marked with a p ermanent f elt t ip p en. F ive empty c apsules t reated i n t he s ame way were i rradiated i n d ifferent b atches. The r esults a re g iven i n Table 3 .10, which c learly s hows t hey p resent n o s ource o f c ontamination. E ach batch o f s amples c omprised t wo c apsules c ontaining s tandards a nd t en c apsules c ontaining s amples. These were p laced i n o uter p olyethylene t ubes, t he s tandards a t e ach e nd a nd t he s amples i n b etween. The i rradiations w ere c arried out a t t he University o f L ondon R eactor i n A scot. This 1 00KW " Consort" R eactor Mark I i s o f t he s wimming pool type. The b atches were a lways I p laced i n e quivalent p ositions i n t he s ame c ore t ube f acility where t he t hermal f lux i s, on t he a verage, 1 .33x10 2 n cm -2 s-1 , C d r atio f or Au i s 3 .1, e pithermal f lux r atio i s 0 .030, a nd t he f ast f lux i s 0 .41x10 1 2 n cm -2 s1 . E ach batch was i rradiated f or f our " working" d ays, a t t he R eactor C entre, t his i s 7 -8 h ours a d ay, w ith 1 6-17 h ours during which t he r eactor i s s hut d own. None o f t he e lements d etermined would r each s aturation o ver t his p eriod; e ven i f w e a ssume a n i rradiation t ime o f 4 x7.5= 3 0 h rs= 1 .08x10 5 s ec w ithout t he overnight d ecay p eriod, t he s aturation o f K , t he s hortest l ived e lement, would b e 8 1%. This c alculation i s b ased on t he equation (0.693t S = 1 -10 -

i/2.3t

1 /2

)

Where S i s t he s aturation f actor, t i t1 / 2 i s t he h alf l ife o f t he e lement 3 29).

..3.1 t he i rradiation ( Willard e t a l.

t ime, 1 974,

The positioning o f a c apsule c ontaining a s tandard a t each e nd o f t he batch a cts i n i tself a s a n eutron monitor, a veraging out t he variation o f f lux a long t he c ore t ube ( Perlman a nd A saro 1 969, 2 3-24). The u se o f metal d etectors was a lso i nvestigated i n t his s tudy. S quares measuring 5 x5 mm were c ut f rom a z inc s heet o f v ery h igh p urity, t hese were weighed a nd a ttached t o t he u pper s ides o f e ach i rradiation c apsule w ith a s mall p iece o f p ressure s ensitive t ape, t hen i rradiated a long with t he s amples. These s quares were c ounted s eparately f rom t he s amples, a fter t he s ame c ooling p eriod, f or 1 00 s econds e ach. The z inc monitor c onstants f or twenty one s imilar s amples i n s even d ifferent b atches a re g iven i n Table 3 .11. T hese were c alculated

6 9

( concentrations U )

a ) c . ) 11111

C D A

r t F I l

i i i i

i rradiation

P

U ) X IXX X l r i C V 0 1 C D

a )

c . ) 11111

r 1 • . .. 0, .. r d r A -• H Q . Q 1 ) c d 4 1 O. . U • . 1 0 1 • 4 ) i . i . u ) ( 1 ) o rz 4 1 3 4 E ' C I O C u t l

• z r I a U, -i

n e e . r n II I 0 0 0 r 1 r 1 r 1

r I • 0 1

t l ) L f 1 1 . 1 •

.

•

r 4 r 1 1 1

U 2

, i : 2 C 4 1

1 1 1

1

C . 2 4 4 e c i I i

I I I

I

. 4 . : 11 L f 1 L n II II o a a a M I r 1 r 1 • 1 1 4 z >< >< > < > 4 0 V2 U " ) e i ir -c\ I u : ) r n L n o • • • • r 4 ( N ( N ) e n > 4 d P 1

1 1

1

1

r f C • 1 r e ) ' s e ' u l r i lr i l rA rA r i l

7 0

Table 3 .. 11

Batch no. 3

6

7 8

10 11 14

(J

Effect of the flux variation, as detected by zinc monitors, on the concentn�tion of Fe in similar samples. Zn monitor const. for standards 87.3 84.1 79.0 83.9

87.0 75.7 74.2 77.4 77.9 -75.3 90.2 93.4 114. 111.

Zn monitor const. for samples

%Fe uncorrected for monitor const.

%Fe corrected for monitor const.

85.4 81.1

4.44 4.79

4.45 5.06

85.8 79.6 81.7 82.8 83.0 79.5 80.8 81.0 82.7

4.35 4.27 4.43 4.25 4.29 4.64 4.54 4.62 4.33

4.13 4.37 4.42 4.18 4.21 4.75 4.58 4.65 4.27

83.2 79.3

4.51 4.24

4.41 4.35

78.7 77.8

4.35 4.57

4.19 4.46

76.4 81. 0

3.96 4.32

3.97 4.08

85.4 85.9

4.20 4.41

4.51 4.71

111. 114.

4.14 4.26 0.19 4.34

4.19 4.21 0.26 5.94

% error

71

a ccording t o equation 3 .2a, s ection 3 .3.8 b elow. S tandard deviation c alculations on t he c oncentrations o f F e, o ne o f t he b etter b ehaved e lements, a re a lso s hown. The e rror a ctually i ncreases when t he c oncentrations a re c orrected f or f lux variation a s detected by t he z inc monitors*. The explanation f or this i s t hat when c orrecting f or t he monitors, a ll t he s ources o f e rror i n t he weighing, c ounting, e tc., a re t aken i nto a ccount once more, i nstead o f merely correcting f or one s ource o f e rror i n t he f lux variations. Table 3 .12 g ives t he z inc monitor c onstants f or t he d ifferent p ositions i n f ifteen b atches. The v ariations within e ach batch a re s mall, but t he i nter-batch v ariations could b e c onsiderable. The u se o f t wo s tandards i n e ach b atch a ccounts f or i nter-batch v ariations. A s a t est a pproximately 5 00 mg o f s ample w as d rilled f rom t hree s herds, 1 00-150 mg o f e ach were i rradiated i n two d ifferent b atches. The r esults a re g iven i n T able 3 .13. Table 3 .13b s hows quite g ood agreement b etween t he t wo b atches ( except f or E u i n PRW10). The g eneral s mall i ncrease i n c oncentrations f or PRW40 i s more p robably due t o variations i n t he h omogeneity o f t he p ot, r ather t han t o a n i nter-batch v ariation.

3 .3.8

The c ounting

The c ounting was carried out s ix d ays a fter t he end o f t he i rradiation. The s horter-lived e lements d etermined i n t he s tudy would h ave died out a fter t his p eriod. One b atch was c ounted a fter f our days o f d ecay a nd a nother a fter f ive days. B oth b atches g ave unsatisfactory r esults due t o t he h igh b ackground r esulting f rom t he h igh a ctivity o f t he s horter-lived e lements, e specially s odium. E ach s tandard o r s ample was c ounted f or one h our a nd t hirty m inutes ( 5400 s ec). The c ounting was c arried o ut o n a f ully a utomated s ystem, i ncorporating a g ermanium-drifted l ithium d etector ( the s pecifications o f which a re i n T able 3 .14), w ith a s ample c hanger, coupled t o a n ND6620 multi-channel a nalyzer. The s amples were l oaded onto t he s ample changer i n t he s tandard i rradiation c apsules, a nd p ressed c arefully d own i n p lace. This a voids e rror due t o c hange i n t he s olid a ngle b etween t he c ounter a nd t he s ample ( see. P erlman a nd A saro 1 969, 2 1-22). The g amma r ay s pectrum i s a utomatically f ed i nto a c omputer p rogram, NAPARS. T he p rogram h as b een modified f or u se i n t his s tudy by f eeding i n t he r equired s tandard a nd unknown energy t olerances, t he e lements t o b e

* S imilar r esults have been a rrived a t a t t he B ritish Museum R esearch L aboratory. P ersonal c ommunication w ith D r. M . G . Hughes.

7 2

-...:J

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

3

no.

Batch

Table·3.12

87.3 79.0 87.0 74.2 114. 77.9 90.1 35.0 43.6 38.7 86.4 67.8

1

85.4 82.7 83.2 78.7 111. 76.4 85.9 . 38.3 35.5 39.2 84.6 69.7

2 4 89.4 79.6 87.0 70.4 112. 78.4 85.7 40.5 38.8 41.2 86.1 65.3

3 90.9 85.0 79.3' 77.8 114. 81.0 84.5 44.7 34.0 42.5 84.4 64.8 91.1 81.7 85.1 77.9 117. 72.2 88.4 40.1 42.8 39.9 80.2 61.5

Position 5 81.4 82.8 81.7 78.0 117. 78.7 88.9 40.0 41.0 42.7 79.2 68.8

6 82.8 83.0 86.7 76.5 122. 75.5 91.1 40.2 45.2 40.7 80.2 66.3

7 94.3 59.6 81.3 91.9 109. 77.2 92.0 40.4 44.7 41.7 76.2 63.3

8 88.3 79.5 85.1 79.9 112. 84.9 89.3 42.5 41.1 46.7 78.2 62.3

9 76.1 80.8 77.J 76.3 111. 80.2 86.8 39.8 43.1 41.8 68.4 61.2

10 84.7 81.0 80.5 80.2 111. 89.7 85.4 39.8 41.4 39.3 77.0 66.1

11

Zinc monitor constants for the various positions in different batches.

84.1 83.9 75.7 77.7 111. 75.3 93.4 40.8 36.1 41.6 77.8 6L9

12

•

N

N

N

•

d ifferent

•

•

N

C O

N

N I M O • • V I 4 1 4 1

• • 4 1 0

• • N 4 1 C I r I

TI 4 1

r I

l D •

O 0 • • 0 C N 0 4 4 4 4

M O U l 4 1

l f ) 0 N 4 4 r n x r

n r c r C O C V ‘ 1 . u n

4 1 i n n r r n

0

•

•

0

0

. c A o

r -

•

•

•

0

•

0

•

•

i n

4 0

, 4 a • •

r -cn . .

V I n 14

n r 4 I

u lul

1 : 1 )

0 4 1

unul

O rI • • m D r

0

• •

•

N 0

I . 1 0 1

m D p n • • n r n r

C D 4 4

•

u I vI

r I 4 1

u lul

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( concentrations

c \ I

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v l 0 0 N • • Or I

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r H rH rH

t e

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•

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_ •

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0 0 C N C N C D • • • C D r I

C ) n e C D 0 1 4 4 • • •

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• • C D e l

C N C D C N 0 1 C DC D • a) •

C I V D r n C D • • rn r n

r d

o o a b n n r n r • • r y r y

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^ ( 24 ni

7 4

C D 4 1

d etected w ith t heir energies a nd h alf-lives, a nd t he e lemental c oncentrations i n t he s tandard. A t t he t ime o f c ounting o f e ach b atch t he p rogram i s f ed w ith t he t ime a t which t he b atch c ame out o f t he r eactor a nd t he masses o f e ach s tandard a nd s ample.

T able

3 .14

The G e(Li)

d etector s pecifications.

R esolution

1 .81KeV 3 .39KeV

P eak/Compton r atio

3 6.3

E fficiency

8 .1%

C rystal d imensions

d iameter 3 9.0mm l ength 3 9.5mm d rift d epth 1 6.0mm d rift c onfiguration: c oaxial, o pen o ne end n ominal a ctive v olume: 4 2cm

( FWHM) @ 1 .33MeV ( FW.1M) @ 1 .33MeV

@ 1 .33MeV

The p rogram does a c omplete p eak s earch, r esolves multiple p eaks, c alculates t he e nergy o f e ach p eak a nd t he a rea under i t, s ubtracts t he b ackground, g ives t he c hannel n umber o f e ach p eak a nd c alculates i ts i ntensity a s w ell a s g iving t he p ercentage e rror i n t he i ntensity c alculation, c orrected f or d ead t ime. F inally, i t c alculates t he c oncentration o f e ach e lement a ccording t o t he f ollowing s et o f e quations: CpS st

..3.2a c onc st

x mass st

x e-Ät s t

c ps Cu n

c onc

where:

mass un

u n

=

..3.2b

x e-Ät u n

cun

..3.2c

cst

cst cun

= s tandard c onstant = unknown c onstant

c ps st

= i ntegrated e lement , i n = i ntegrated e lement i n

c ps un

c onc st

i ntensity o f t he p eak f or t he t he s tandard i ntensity o f t he p eak f or t he t he u nknown s ample

= c oncentration o f t he e lement i n t he s tandard

7 5

c onc un

= c oncentration o f t he e lement i n t he unknown s ample

mass = mass o f t he s tandard f t he u nknown s ample mass st = mass o un = t he d ecay c onstant f or t he i sotope = 1 n2/half-life tst tun

= t he d ecay t ime o f t he s tandard = t he d ecay t ime o f t he unknown s ample.

The c omputer i s c onnected t o a t eletype p rinter which g ives a p rintout c ontaining t he exact t ime o f c ounting, a h eading g iving s ample i nformation a nd c ounting c onditions, g amma r ay s pectra a nalysis a nd c alculations, a s ummary o f t he s tandard c onstants, a s w ell a s t he c alculated c oncentrations o f t he e lements i n t he s amples a nd t he s igma a nd p ercentage e rrors i n t hese c alculations. The c ompositions o f t he s amples a re g iven i n A ppendix B .

3 .4

3 .4.1

Additional t ests

H omogeneity c heck f or t he p ottery

Even a mong t he f inest wares, t he h omogeneity o f t he b ody may c hange f rom o ne p art t o a nother. C hecks f or t his i n t he f orm o f a nalyzing s everal s amples f rom t he s ame p ot h ave b een r ecommended i n s everal s tudies ( see f or e xample G rimanis e t a l. 1 976, 1 121; B irgül e t a l. 1 976, 1 146; W ilson 1 978, 2 24). F ive L arge c ooking p ot s herds w ere d rilled i n f our d ifferent p laces, a ttempting t o h ave s amples f rom t he r im o r n eck, h andle, b ody a nd b ase i f p ossible. I n a ddition, s ome t erra s igillata a nd r ed w are s herds which h ad b een a nalysed a s d ifferent, p roved t o b elong t o t he s ame v essels upon c loser e xamination ( see s ections 2 .4.1, 2 .5.1, 2 .5.2 a nd 2 .5.5). The r esults a re i n T able 3 .15a-e. T ables 3 .15b a nd d s how v ery f ew c ases i n which a n e lement v aries by o ver 1 0%, o nly Rb i n P CP71 a nd P TS5/8 v aries by o ver 1 0%. Table 3 .15e s hows t hat b oth R b a nd E u h ave a verage c oefficients o f v ariance i n t he n ine s heres o f a round 1 0%.

3 .4.2

T emper e ffect o n pottery c omposition

The e ffect o f t emper o n t he c omposition o f c lay s amples h as b een checked by m ixing s amples o f M sheirfeh workshop c lay-1 with v arying a mounts o f M sheirfeh w orkshop s oil-1 a nd s and-1. The r esults a re g iven i n F igs. 3 .1-3.14 ( a. f or t he s oil, b . f or t he s and).

7 6

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• • 0 1 r 4 e T LO H H

C D • • M n r 0 W H

• CD W • O M H M

N e t ' m,1 • •

W N ‘ f w . .

N N ‘r r m . .

O co

eLnLn

L n‘e

W ) C U 0 . 1 43 a i

N N

6 00 0 g e . cm m m

N m /. . 1 .4,. L nLn . . a

0 1 , 4 c ot--

> 4 •• • o ecN I

H

L C I W W W H P ( 14C14

a

N

W 0 0 c • l cv . . °

u lt . ( ) N T 1 -

• •

N

e r rs 3 3 t Z r4 g i C14

a

N

e .L f 1 H N u: . H H . . a

m N

N

N

• .

N

Lnr -

H H 3 3 P 4 r4 C I 4 A 4

o 0

a

w N

r q r n o n r 4

4. )

• •

0 0 ,. 1 W .4 . M r- rz . .

A •

• • U l C D

0 4 4

. 1 M i f l H N O

U l

Z

0

•

H EN • • N O

M 0 Z

•

V L n H •

.

w r-

a) . 1 A M E A

;lc ; i: 41 N P L 4

7 9

C O -, L r l W M

0

. V HO . i 2 4 Z u i

W • H H

. > . U

•

W

•

C D

C h O • • N O

N

N -, r i . . 3 M r t l i Z

• V . W

C O • . e r H

L t ' ) L I )

m co n e

H • r e l C O H • M

. > • U

( / )

O

o

O

L n a

C V

i l 0 l

C V

c x m • • c o a ‘ c

C O c o •

H Ni n • • a a

e • •

• • l f 3 H

› 1 u

0 1 E 1

C V 4 . •

. •

a

•

o

H

H . .

L n • r • •

L O •

.

O

C V

C O . .I

• • 0 1 H

I n • a

i n , c

C V 0

m r . a a

0 0

u p , i •

• • , -1a

‘ Zr

r A

Q

•

r -e1 C V 0 . 4 ' 0 • •

i n V D • 1 •

L n L n . : 1 ' H 4 . a • •

i n m •

E 1

a

a

a

m

m

• r z l

a t f l C V • • H 0

• r e ) H

E c H C O 1 1 • • H 0

i n C V • l . 0

C O

H

C V c n • L n

a

N 0 U

( 1 ) C D H H Q , Q c d

•

•

•

• 0 1

( 1 ) N 1 > c l ) . 1 0 1 4 -i4 4 4 )

o

• r d

0 0

• 0

c e ) • • C l )

L O i n o l

•

i N C D • •

•

0

c o

( N C V

l O DCe W •

•

4 : 1

" ) 1 •

•

H

( N • z r a • • c r

• • •

C O C V N . 0 • •

‘ 1 4 • : 11 d ' •

4 .a

o

C O 0

T able 3 .15d c ont.

0 0 C V 0

. • 0 0

> 4

0 1 /0 4 1

H

0

• 0

• • 0 0

O N C V C D • •

( N •

c r % i n m . .

6 N

m

( N

0

O

c o i n

C e )

W

.

• 4 .

0 i n •

, I 0 H

/0 4 1 C O

•

0 1 C O

C O

n i

' . 0 1 0 • • c N i T 1

4 / 10

' 4 1 H

• 6 N

•

• H

C N

N c r l • z t i c o U ) . . C ) r - 1 4 / D .

C O T 1

4 1 0

r •• -

6 N r e ) C O • •1 1 o o

C V 0 1 •

N

L I ) f e l • •

0 0

r . 7 . 4r a i

m

C V C O •C O t e 0 • Z r 1

i n 0 1 • /0 4 1

1 , : 1

( 1 )

• H

C e )

• z r L n

6 N / 40 1 •

/0 4 1

t o

C V .

C Y 1 H r e ) C V • •

C f l ( N

L C / T I • • 0 1 6 3 1

•

•0 0 i H • r 4 H N

L n c o ) 0.

c oefficients

• f e l

c o C o

•

• z 1,

c n v .

•

l 0 c e

h

4

•

N 1 4 /0 C l a • •

•

• •

E n C O i n o o • •

0 0 0 $

‘ z r ( N

C O O C

•

( NI

0 H , C H 4 -) M •

m C N c Y 1 0 1

. . E I in m

r f C NIf e l

0

•

•

•

( N I

0 1 0 C V C O

t f J U I • rd r d u ) g i N 4 V . 2 ) ( i ) g l - c l ) u ) c n u )

4 -) •

f e l

t i ) •

c . ) ' Z r H

• r iI 1

0

•

N _ , I

c d

E I E-i

•

• 1

0 C o

n t i

C N 0 1 e s

E A

a

C V C V ' o • • C / ) c1 ' m

E

•

r I t f l 6 N C I • • L n o o

•

in

C e l i n • 1C 1

t i i

2 u )

• .

0

r e )

•

3 0: 11I 1: 4 ( 1 ) • 1 24 Z W

•

U

• • N

m

( K % )

1

I I

1 .08

o . 96

1 *

I I 1 I I I I I 1

sheirfeh_ etterx =X . & v äke .i n M

*

*

f

*

a ve. v alue i n M sheirfeh p ottery i

0 . 8 z 1 1 I 1 I

0 .72

I

f -I

m in . v alue i n M sheirfeh p ottery

*

I

+ o

* I

*

+

+

6 0

3 0

+

t

+

+

1 0( ). % s oil +

I I

I1 3 .

4)

I

I

m ax. v alue i n M sheirfeh p ottery

r I

,

+

4 0

+

1

+

2 0

I I

0

*

an za mm me m e a m .m a k. mo m eg e meanr i m

a ve. v alue i n M sheirfeh

A m me

e a t .z eg u e .

*

t te

M sh erfeh_p efery_ l

1

0 .0

F ig.

I -+ 0

3 .1

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

1 00 % s and

C oncentration o f K v s. a . % s oil, b . % s and, i n m ixtures w ith c lay f rom t he M sheirfeh workshop. ( Not t o t he s ame s cale).

8 1

N a ( %)

4• Iu

0 .48

0 .40

I

0 .32

I

0 .24

I

0 .16

I *

0 .08

*

**

0 .00 0

N a 0 .042

0 .036

0 .030

0 .024

0 .018

0 .012

0 .006

F ig.

I

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

b

I [

i

I I I 1 * I I I I I

I

*

* *

I

3 .2

I I I I I I I I I

*

*

1 I I I I I

( I I I I I I i I I I I I f 0

1 01 3% s oil

e 2 0

*

I

I I I I i 1 I

*

f 4 0

*

6 0

f

8 0

I 1 I t 1 I 1 I 1 t I * 1 t I * ..

1 00 % s and

C oncentration o f N a v s. a . % s oil, b . % s and, i n m ixtures w ith c lay f rom t he M sheirfeh workshop. ( Not t o t he s ame s cale).

8 2

4 .

4

Ia .

F e ( %) 4 .4

4 .0

4

1 1 * 1 1 1 1

1 1

1

1 1

3 .6

1

I •

3 .2

m ax. v alue i n M sheirfeh p ottery_j

1 a ve. v alue i n M sheirfeh p ottery 1

2 .t i

2 .4

* * m in. v alue i n M sheirfeh p otterz

11

I

1 1

2 ( 1 4

i on % s oil

6 0

+

+

+

+

1

( % ) 2 .4

2 .0

1 .6

1 .2

0 .8

G .

+

b . 1 .

F e

4 0

4

I 1 I I i * 1 I 1 1 I I 1 1 1 1 I I 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1

m in. v alue i n M sheirfeh u otte y

* * * * *

*

1

1

1

0. 0

1 1 1 1 • -+

0

F ig.

3 .3

.1

I I I I I I 1 I 1 I I I I I I I 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 I 1

* *

1 I

t

2 0

4

4 0

4

6 0

A

1 I *1 1 1 4

1 00 % s and

C oncentration o f F e v s. a . % s oil, b . % s and, m ixtures w ith c lay f rom t he M sheirfeh workshop.

8 3

i n

R b

+ ,

I

+

+

a 1 I

+

+

+ I

I I

( PP I 1X

*

6 3 L .

I I 1 I 6 01 I I I I

I I I I I 5 4 I I I I I 5 1 I I I I I 4 8 I I I I I * 4 5 I +

max.

V e in .

I

I ni lA tert eba sterx . . c I 1 I I t I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

5 7

* *

*

a ve. value i n M sheir feh _ r ottery * *

. 2 )

o

R b I+ b . * W a il * ( 1 , .-. . 4 8 I 1 * *

C 1 I

4 0

*

+ 41 )

+

+

*

1 T—

*

* *

I I I

3 2

*

+ 6n

+ 8 0

+

r

I

I I I * I I I I I I

1 0+ 0% s oil

+ I I aluein M a ve. v sheirfeh p ottery I t I

I t t

alue i min . v n M sheirfeh z otterz &

-r I I I

*

1 1

.

2 4

1

1 6

1 1

1

8

*

1 0 1

*

•0

F ig.

3 .4

20

4 0

60

80

1 1 00 % s and

C oncentration o f R b v s. a. %s oil, b . % s and, i n m ixtures w ith c lay f rom t he M sheirfeh workshop. ( Not t o t he s ame s cale).

8 4

c e Ia . ( poi p 2 .88 1

2 .72

• 2 .56

I I I 2 . 4 01I 1 * I * 2 . 2 4 I I I I I * I

m ax. v alue i n M sheirfeh p ottery

.

1 f 1 I 1

*

I

1

2 .08 I

1 .92

I I I

I + 0

*

a ve. v alue i n M sheirfeh p ottery 1

4 -

+

2 0

4 0

C s Ib ' ( PPR) L

2 .4

1 .2

+

8 0

1 00 % s oil

m ax. v alue i n M sheirfeh p ottery I

I I *

2 .0

1 .6

+

6 0

I * I 4 .-

a ve. v alue i n M sheirfeh p ottery

I

m in. v alue i n M sheirfeh p ottery

*

r 1

0 .8 t 0 .4

0 .0 •

F ig.

I

+

0

3 .5

e

20

+

40

6 t )

f

30

f

1 00 % s and

Concentration o f C s v s. a . % s oil, b . % s and, i n m ixtures w ith c lay f rom the M sheirfeh w orkshop. ( Not t o t he s ame s cale).

8 5

s . 1 4.4

1 3.2

e t. * I I 1 1 otteryj m ax . v alue i nM sheirfeh p

1 . I I 1

i r I I I 1 . --

I I I

ottery I a ve . v alue i n M sheirfeh p I I I I I I I min . v alue i n M sheirfeh p otte r yI

.1 2.0

I I I I 1 0.8 1 I I 9 .6

I

* *

*

*

8 .4 I *

7 .2

1 0

4 0

2 ;

6 0

8 0

o n %s ou

4 .

S c i b .

( P ia ) r 8 .4

I *

1 7 .2

I

6 .0

I

4 .d

I

3 .6

I

2 .4

I

1 .2

1 1

f t *

* 1 4 .

Z O

F ig.

3 .6

k

4 0

6 0

80

1 00 % s and

C oncentration o f S c v s. a . % s oil, b . % s and, i n mixtures w ith c lay f rom t he M sheirfeh workshop.

8 6

L a I 3 m )I ( 171

t c i

•

1 3 6 I

3 2 I

m ax. v alue i n M sheirfeh p ottery

2 8 1

a ve. v alue i n M sheirfeh p otter y

2 4I *

2 0

m in . v alue i n M sheirfeh p ottery I

*

1 6 I I * 1 2

I 2 0

+

4

f

L a rb . ( t p) I 1 61 *

I I 1* i

4 0

*

6 0

+

8 0

e

s oil

+

L L 1 I I I I I

*

; 14 i

1

k

I

I *

4

I

I

4

1

I 12

1

I

1

*

I

I I I I t i I I I I I I

1

t I I 10 1 t t I I . 8 1

C I

1 1 6 I 1

1 1 1

I I I 1

f 0

E122_ 11 .2

I I i / 2

t 0

4 .

4 0

+

60

80

100 % s and

C oncentration o f L a v s. a . %s oil, b . % s and, i n m ixtures w ith c lay f rom t he M sheirfeh workshop. ( Not t o t he s ame s cale).

8 7

G

Ce I (ppa)f I RO I I I l r i) l

+-.-, ---

a

* '

- - .... ...

f •

I I I 6� I [


with clay fLurn ne Hshel.:.fe workshop. (Not to the same scale). 88

1 •1 I I I

-♦---------♦�--------♦--------- ♦ -----�---+-�-------♦-

I Eu I 8. (ppa) I I 1.6 I

ave.

f

1. 4 I 1 I I I 1. 2 I I I I I 1.U I I I I

value in Msheirfeh pottery

*

I

1 I I I I

I I I 1 I I l * 1 pottery eh min. value in Msheirf ________ - - - - - - -__ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -1l 1________ * * I T l 1 * I I I I I I 0.6 I I I* I I I I I I I

I

* *

*

---+-� -+--�- -� -�+-��-----�+--�-�-��-+---�-�--�+� ��- 100% 80 soil 60 40 20 0

0.4 I

l eh pottery 1 min. value in Msheirf 1-------------------------- ---- -----------�1 I I * C.8 I I

-+---�--�--+---------+-----�---+--------- ♦ -----�---+-

1 Eu 1 (ppm)

b·

I

I I I 1 0.7 I

o.6

I 1 I

I 1 1

*

l l1 *

I 0.5 1 I 1 1

1

1 1

*

*

I

i I I

*

I I

I I 1

*

*

l

l I

l I I I 1 l •I

t.4 1 I

I I I C. 3 l I I I 0.2

I

63

80

11

100" sand

--------♦- -+--��-----♦---------•--�------♦----- - -♦�

0

Fi�. 3.9

20

40

sand, in Concentration of Eu vs. a. % soil, b. h % work shop. mixtures with clay from the Msheirfe (Not to the same scale). 89

• * 1 m ax. v alue i n M sheirfeh p ottery I

0 .36

I

a ve

0 .32

1 ottery / v alue i n M sheirfeh p

m in. v alue i n M sheirfeh p ottery I

0 .28

I

*

0 .24 I

I .

*

0 . 20 I * 0 .16 I 2 0

i , ( P p i t )1 u * L u

+ I

0 .225

1 I I I I I 0 .200 I I I I I * 0 .175 I I I I

4 0

+

*

6 0

+

+

8 0 +

1 00 % s oil +

f 1

* *

I

*

i 1 *

*

f

I I

* *

i

f 1

1 1 1 1 0 . 1 2 5 1 1 1 1 1 0 .100 I 0 .150 /

I

I

1

I 0 .075 I + 0

F ig.

+ 20

+ 40

+ 60

+

8 0

* /

1n o

%s and

3 .10 C oncentration o f L u v s. a . % s oil, b . % s and, i n m ixtures w ith c lay f rom t he M sheirfeh workshop. ( Not t o t he s ame s cale).

9 0

+

+

Ia . ( m gh I 1 u1 I I 1 I T h

+

+

+

I

9 I I I I I

I 1 I I

*

8 1 I

m ax. v alue i n M sheirfeh p ottery4

I

I I

a ve. v alue i n M sheirfeh p otteryl

I I 1 I I

71

m in.

J& !

i n M sheirfeh

6 I

I I I I 5 1 I I I I * 4 I + 0

*

*

*

I I I 1 I I I I I I I

* *

*

I 4 .5 I I * I * I I * 4 .0 I I I I

+ 2 0

+ 4 0

+ 6 0

+

+

+

+

8 0

+

1 ) (+1 % s oil +

*

I

I *

1 I I I

* *

*

I

*

I 1

3 .0 1 1 I I I 2 .5 I I I 1 I 2 .0 I I I I I 1 .5 I

1 I 1 * 1 I I 2 0

F ig.

i 1 1 1 l ot .te T _ _ i

*

1 I + 1 3 . ( P T l h Y a l)

3 . 5

+

I 1 * 1 I I I 1 I

1

4 0

6 0

8 0

1 00

% s and

3 .11 C oncentration o f T h v s. a . % s oil, b . % s and, i n m ixtures w ith c lay f rom t he M sheirfeh workshop. ( Not t o t he s ame s cale).

9 1

C r

*

Ia .

( p r g o iI

1 35

1 20

I

I I I I

1

I I

*

1

I 1 I I 1 05 I

9 0

I : m ax. v alue i n M sheirfeh p otte vl .

r "

alue i n M sheirfeh a ve. v

I nave . i l a 1 5W le Lech .i nttesz I E IP A ,_

I I 7 5I I I I I I I 1 I I 4 5 I * + 0

I *

6 0

4 8 I I I * I 4 2 I 1

* + 20

+ 4 0

+ 6 0

t 8 0

+

+

3 .12

+

1 1 I

I I I I I I I

* 0 , *

I I I I I I I I I I I

A * *

I I

I I I i

0

1 I I + 10 0 %s oil

k

I I

I I I 1 2 I • + F ig.

* 1

I I I I 3 6 I I I I 1 3 G I I I I

1 8

* *

*

*

c r fb .* p ( p o th i

2 4

t te

+ 2 3

+ 4 0

* 6 0

+ 8 0

I I I I I II * 1 I I 1 1 l oP

%s and

Concentration o f C r v s. a . % soil, b . % s and, in mixtures w ith clay f rom the Msheirfeh workshop. ( Not to the same s cale).

9 2

+ . . 1 1 * 1

c o ' a . ( p l )f p 1

2 0.0

1 7.5

1

I

I I I 1 I I I 1 r

*

m a

1 5. u I I I

x , _n u lt l a h s h e izf e h

I

I an.v alue

I I -

*

I I

I 1 0.0 I

7 .5

5 .0

C o

p ( m )

I 1

7 .2

4 .8

3 .6

2 .4

I

I I

1 1 I I

I * I I I I I + 0

+ 20

+ 4 0

+ 6 0

+ 8 0

+

+

+

t

+

1

*

I I

*

1 * I

6 .0

*

*

i n M sheirfeh .p otter/ 1

*

I * I I ** 1

fb .

I I I I I I I I

*

+

1 1 1

* I

*

i I I

*

I I

I

I

1

I I I

1 I I I

I

I I I

* 1

1 .2

F ie.

I 1 I I I I I + 1 00 % s oil

i I

I I

I I I I I 0 .0 I + O

_ p ottery 1 / 1

a ve. v alue i n M sheirfehpottery'

I

1 2.. 5

I I I I I I I I

+

2 0

t

+

4 0

6 0

+

80

I 10Ö % s and

oncentration o f C o v s. a . % s oil, b. % s and, i n 3 .13 C mixtures w ith c lay f rom t he M sheirfeh workshop. ( Not t o t he s ame s cale).

9 3

+ I,

+

+

+

+

+1

( S s I PP LI ) 1 c l . I 7 .2 I 1 I I 6 .4

5 .6

4 .8

4 .0

3 .2

2 .4

I I I I I I * 1

I I I 1 1

*

r I I 1 I

a ve. v alue i n M sheirfeh

I I I I I 1 I I I I I I I

1 1 1 I I m ax. v alue i n M sheirfeh p ottery'

1 I 1 p otteryl1

* * * * *

t r m in. v alue i n Msheirfeh)ote

*

I I I I I I 1 I

I I I *I I I

*

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

1 00 % s oil

1

1 *

*

1 1

1 1

1 1

2 0

F ig ' .

4

4 3

0 0

f

B O

1 0Ö % s and

3 .14 C oncentration o f S m v s. a . % s oil, b . % s and, i n mixtures w ith c lay f rom t he M sheirfeh workshop. ( Not t o t he s ame s cale).

9 4

Na, F e, S c, L a, C e, E u, L u, Th, F or most o f the e lements ( C r, C o a nd Sm), t he c oncentrations i n t he s oil a re h igher t han i n t he c lay, t hus g iving a n a lmost l inear i ncrease i n t he concentrations o f t he e lements r elative t o t he i ncrease i n t he a mount o f s oil ( the v alues f or 4 0% s oil s eem t oo h igh i n s ome o f t he f igures, t his i s more p robably due t o e xperimental e rror r ather t han t o a n atural t rend). F or t he r emaining e lements ( K, Rb a nd C s), t he c oncentrations i n t he s oil a re c lose t o t hose i n t he c lay, g iving a s cattered p lot. F or a ll t he e lements, t he c oncentrations i n t he s and a re l ower t han i n t he c lay. The p lots s how a d efinite l inear d ecrease i n the c oncentrations o f t he e lements w ith t he i ncrease i n t he s and t emper ( except f or E u a nd L u which s how a s cattered p lot u p t o 4 0% s and). The M sheirfeh workshop p ots a re a v ery c omplex p roduct o f c lay, s oil, s and a nd c ommercial c ooking s alt, i n a ddition t o t he water, t he c ontamination f rom t he machine t hat makes t he p repared p aste i nto cylinders, a nd t he b urning o f c ar b atteries f or f uel. The s uperimposition o f t he r ange o f c oncentrations o f t he e lements i n t he M sheirfeh p ottery o n t he p lots i n F ig's 3 .1-3.14 s hows s ome v ery c lear t endencies. F or most o f t he e lements which h ave h igher v alues i n t he s oil t han i n t he c lay, t he p ottery v alues a re s omewhere i n b etween t he c lay a nd s oil; t he e xceptions a re Na where t he a ddition o f s alt g reatly i ncreases t he c oncentration i n t he f inished p roduct, a nd E u where t he p ottery i s more s imilar t o t he s oil. F or the e lements which h ave s imilar c oncentrations i n b oth t he s oil a nd t he c lay, t he pottery v alues a re s imilar t o b oth, a nd mixtures o f t he c lay w ith t he s and, u p t o quite h igh concentrations, s till l ay within t he l imits o f t he p ottery, i ndicating a v ery s mall e ffect o f t he s and t emper o n t he o verall b ehaviour. B rooks e t a l. ( 1974, 5 2-55) d id a s tudy o n p ottery f rom a H ebron p otter's workshop, b elonging t o t he s ame t radition a s o ur Msheirfeh workshop. Their " red f ield c lay" i s what i s t ermed h ere ' soil", and o n a ssuming a n e qual m ixture o f y ellow c lay ( traditionally c alled Q alleileh) a nd " red f ield c lay"-soil ( traditionally c alled S amaqah), t hey obtained v ery f avourable r esults, which would b e t he c ase i n t his s tudy i f t he s ame a ssumption i s made. H ere a rises the question o f t he d efinition o f t emper, which i s u sually added t o t he c lay t o g ive i t p roperties n ot a chieved by the u se o f t he c lay a lone. The t erm i s quite v ague a nd c ould i nclude o ther c lays ( see Rye 1 976, 1 05). The r esults obtained f rom t he e xperiment a nd t he s tudy o f B rooks e t a l. ( 1974) h ighlight t he p roblem o f a ttributing p ottery t o a s pecific s ource o f c lay. A s t o whether t he M sheirfeh s oil i s c lay o r n ot, a p article s ize a nalysis,

9 5

u sing s edimentation r ate a nd s ieving t echniques, was c arried o ut. The d ry s oil was f irst s ieved t hrough a 2 mm mesh s ieve, which i s r oughly t he s ize u sed by t he M sheirfeh p otter. The r esults a re g iven i n T able 3 .16. The c omposition o f t he s oil, r oughly 6 0% c lay, 3 0% s ilt a nd 1 0% s and, makes i t a f ine c layey s oil ( Buol e t a l. 1 973, 2 7 F ig. 2 .2). T he s oil i s n ot l evigated by t he p otter a nd i s n ot a s p ure a c lay a s t he Q alleilah.

' Table 3 .16 P article-size a nalysis o f M sheirfeh s oil-1

S ize f raction

P article s ize(mm)

P ercentage(w/w)

V ery c oarse s and

1 .0-2.0

2 .4

C oarse s and

0 .50-1.0

1 .8

M edium s and

0 .25-0.50

1 .4

F ine s and

0 .12-0.25

1 .2

V ery f ine s and

0 .063-0.12

1 .4

C oarse s ilt

0 .020-0.063

1 0.0

Medium S ilt

0 .006-0.020

1 0.0

F ine S ilt

0 .002-0.006

1 0.0

C lay

L ess t han 0 .002

5 9.7

T otal

9 7.9

I t i s t hought t hat t he p rimary u se o f t he s oil i s t o g ive t he ' p ottery e nough p orosity f or t he water t o b e d riven o ut t o t he s urface by c apillary a ction, t hus c ooling t he j ar t hrough e vaporation, but n ot l etting t he water l eak o ut i n l arge a mounts. The s oil i s f ormed f rom l imestone weathering, a nd h as a h igh c alcite c ontent, a s w ell a s s ome o rganic m atter, a c ombination w ell s uited f or o btaining p orosity. The h igh c alcite l evel e xplains t he u se o f s alt, which o ther t han g iving t he d esired white c olour t o t he p ottery, c ounteracts t he p ot-firing d amage c aused b y t he hydration o f c alcium o xide ( see Rye 1 976, 1 22,123,132-133, 1 35).

3 .4.3

One

T he e ffect o f l ived i sotopes

b atch o f

t he

b ackground

due

t o

t he

s horter

s amples was c ounted a fter one month's d ecay a s

9 6

well a s a fter t he r outine s ix d ays' r esults a re s hown i n T able 3 .17a-c.

d ecay

p eriod.

Table 3 .17b and c i ndicate a t otal decay o f K , Sm, a s expected o f t heir s hort-lived i sotopes.

Na,

L a

The

a nd

Rb s hows considerable d ecrease i n a ll t he s amples except f or P FIG26A. Rb-86 has a h alf-life o f 1 8.6 days, t hus i t s hould s till b e present i n s ufficient quantity f or d etection a fter a p eriod o f one month. The 1 076.6 K ey p eak i s t he o nly Rb p eak s uitable f or n eutron a ctivation s tudies i n p ottery ( Perlman and A saro 1 969, 5 0). The p eak h as n o i nterferences, a nd i t i s n ot part o f a multiplet i n t he s amples s tudied. The background i s r elatively l ow i n b oth c ounts. This b ehaviour o f Rb i s d ifficult t o explain. Lu i s another e lement t hat varies i n t he two c ounts. L u-177 h as a half-life o f 6 .74 days, t hus a fter a p eriod o f one month d ifficulties i n d etection may b e e xpected. I n t hree s amples i t h as d ecayed b eyond t he d etection l imits o f t he d etector u sed. Eu s hows h igh i ncrease i n f ive s amples a nd s light d ecreases i n two. Eu 152 h as a v ery l ong h alf-life ( 12.7 years). I ts 3 44.20 KeV p eak i s part o f a multiplet, but t he a mount o f s eparation o f t he p eak i n t he s pectra does n ot b ear a ny r elationship t o t he r esults obtained. A s f or t he b ackground, i t i s quite h igh i n both cases, and i n t he c ases o f MC1SD20 a nd MC1SD40, t wo o f t he t hree s amples i n which E u s hows l ittle variation, t he background i s a ctually h igher a fter t he month's d ecay. The d ecrease i n t he c oncentrations i n t he s econd count c annot b e explained by t he e limination o f t he background due t o t he s hort-lived i sotopes. The above r esults t hrow doubt d etermination o f b oth Rb and Eu.

9 7

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r LL l 00000000 n 4( 2 4 22222222

99

CHAPTER 4 THE DATA ANALYSIS

4 .1

I ntroduction

The a im o f t he data a nalysis i s t o f ind c omposition g roups among t he s amples analysed, i .e. t o d etermine t he d ifferent " fingerprints" o f the s ources f rom which t he s amples o riginated, be these " fingerprints" n atural o r a ffected by a c ertain manufacturing p rocess ( see s ection 3 .1). I n n o s ense i s t here a unique method o f a chieving t his a im. Many methods h ave been u sed i n t he p ast by various g roups working o n the n eutron a ctivation a nalysis o f a rchaeological materials, a s can b e s een i n Table 4 .1. I n many c ases, more t han one method i s u sed t o a nalyse t he s ame d ata. This a pproach i s r ecommended, a s i t e nables t he r esearcher t o l ook a t t he data f rom more t han one p oint o f v iew.

Table

4 .1 Data analysis methods u sed by g roups working o n p rovenance s tudies o f a rchaeological materials u sing t race e lement a nalysis.

G roup

P re-treatment o f d ata D ata a nalysis m ethod*

B erkeley & J erusalem(1)

E stablishment o f k nown r eference g roup f ingerprints t o which t he c ompositions o f unknown s herds a re c ompared. M ost o f t he u nknown's c omposition h ave t o f all w ithin 2 o o f t heir mean v alue i n t he r eference f ingerprint.

Berlin(2)

Ward's method. P rincipal c omponent a nalysis p lots.

B ritish Museum(3)

Bristol(4)

Log-transformation

E lemental r atios a s f irst check. L inear d iscriminant a nalysis. R eclassification u sing t he j ackknife t echnique. P rincipal c omponents a nalysis.

Table

4 .1 cont.

G roup

P re-treatment o f data Data a nalysis method*

Brookhaven(5)

L og-transformation

a .comparison o f l og concentration p rofiles o f t he e lements, f ollowed by p lotting t he g eometric m ean o f t he c oncentrations with l og c oncentration r anges t o t est t he g roups. .p lus b .The method i n a. t he c omparison o f e lemental r atios. U sing mean E uclidean d istance t o p rovisionally e stablish g roups. c .The method i n a . p lus h ierarchical a ggregative c lustering u sing s quared mean E uclidean d istance ( average a nd s ingle l inkage c lustering). G roups t ested u sing Mahalanobis d istance. d .Average l inkage c luster a nalysis. I terative c lustering methods based on t he l oglikelihood c oncept f or r eallocation o f o f s amples. Multidimensional s caling ( local a nd g lobal methods) i n E uclidean s pace.

D elft(6)

L og-transformation.

P robability b ased o n Bayes s trategy.

E dinburgh(7)

a .Log-transformation b .Normalisation t o 5 % F e.

Maximum d istance c lustering. Mahalanobis d istance f or checking g roups. R epresentation i n p robability s catter d iagrams. M inimum s panning t ree. Testing g roups by c alculating t he concentration i ndex ( using l og c ), f ollowed by s umming c oncentration i ndices t o c alculate g roup l imits.

F aure(8)

1 01

Table

4 .1 cont.

Group

P re-treatment o f data D ata analysis method*

G ent(9)

Normalisation by s etting t he smallest value=0, t he l argest value=1.

C alculating d issimilarity a s s um o f a ll t he d ifferences i n c oncentrations. I ntroducing s herds one by one i nto t he s pace t o e ither f orm a n ew g roup o r l ink t o a p reviously f ormed g roup. E ach g roup c onsidered a hypothetical s herd. G roups obtained by c alculating t he c entre o f g ravity.

G renoble(10)

E lemental r atios.

Lyons(11)

D iscriminant f unction ( based on c ovariance matrix).

Manchester ( 12)

C oncentration d ivided W ard's method. by t he mean a nalysis. c oncentration.

M ode

E lemental r atios ( using c ounts, n o s tandard).

Milan(13)

Montreal(14)

b .L og-transformation, s tandardised by s ubtracting t he mean a nd d ividing by a .

a .Ward's method, u sing E uclidean d istance. S tepwise d iscriminant a nalysis ( canonical v ariates) based on p robability measurements M ahalanobis d istance f or t esting g roups. b .H ierarchical c lustering, minimum and a verage d istance ( Euclidean). Relocation. S tepwise d iscriminant a nalysis,

Oxford(15)

c .L og-transformation.

a .Comparison o f f requency h istograms . b .Comparison o f c oncentration r anges a t 8 0% confidence f or t he d ifferent e lements. c .Ward's method, u sing s quared mean Euclidean d istance. S tepwise d iscriminant analysis.

1 02

T able 4 .1 c ont. G roup

P re-treatment o f data D ata a nalysis m ethod*

P ennsylvania ( 16)

L og-transformation Ward 's method u sing o f p eak h eights a s E uclidean d istance. Two compared t o t he S c46 t ailed t -test. p eak ( no s tandard u sed).

R eading(17)

[ ( Logs o f c ounts) ( mean/a )],no s tandard u sed.

R iso(18)

C oncentration d ivided C anonical v ariates by g eometric mean. a nalysis. Mahalanobis d istance t o t est g roups.

-

P rincipal c omponents a nalysis.

S eville(19)

G eometric m eans o f e lemental r atios o n 3 -axes p lots.

S outhampton ( 20)

Ward 's method. P rincipal c omponents a nalysis.

S urrey(21)

H istograms o f p ercentage d eviation f rom t he m ean.

V irginia(22)

C oncentrations o f r are e arth e lements i n t he s ample d ivided by t heir c oncentrations i n c hondritic meteorites.

C omparison o f " rare e arth e lements' r elative c oncentrations v s. a tomic numbers" p lots.

* Terminology u sed i s t hat o f t he a uthors c oncerned.

R eferences 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 .

6 . 7 .

P erlman a nd A saro 1 969; A rtzy e t a l. 1 973; W idemann e t a l. 1 975; G unneweg e t a l. 1 983. S chwabe a nd S lusallek 1 981. Hughes e t a l. 1 983. Thuesen e t a l. 1 982. a . H arbottle 1 970; O lin a nd S ayre 1 971; Abascal e t a l. 1 974 b . B ieber 1 974; B rooks e t a l. 1 974; Harbottle 1 975 c . B ieber e t a l. 1 976a,b; B ieber 1 977 d . H ammond e t a l. 1 976. D e B ruin e t a l. 1 972. a . D avidson a nd M cKerrell 1 976. b . D avidson e t a l. 1 977; L iritzis a nd M cKerrell 1 979; Davidson a nd McKerrell 1 980; Davidson 1 981.

1 03

8 . 9 . 1 0. 1 1. 1 2. 1 3. 1 4. 1 5.

1 6. 1 7. 1 8. 1 9. 2 0. 2 1. 2. 2

Boulle a nd P eisach 1 976. Op d e B eeck e t a l. 1 976. D iebolt 1 976. P icon e t a l. 1 975. Matthers e t a l. 1 983. Bdnterla e t a l. 1 973. a . B irgül e t a l. 1 976. b . A ttas e t a l. 1 977. a . C atling e t a l. 1 963. b . C atling a nd M illet 1 965. c . P ollard e t a l. 1 983. R ice 1 978; A rnold e t a l. 1 978; P ike 1 980. H ansen e t a l. 1 979; 1 982. G onzalez-Vilchez e t a l. 1 983. Mynors 1 983. K err e t a l. 1 979. A llen e t a l. 1 982.

R ice a nd S affer 1 982.

T heoretically s peaking, t he s ame r esults s hould b e o btained f or a s et o f d ata u sing d ifferent m ethods, a ssuming t he methods a re s ound. I n p ractice, t his i s f ar f rom t rue, t he r eason b eing t hat d ifferent m ethods t end t o a ssume d ifferent p roperties i n t he d ata, whicn t hey s earch f or ( see f or e xample G ower 1 967, 6 23; H odson 1 970, 3 01-302; S neath a nd S okal 1 973, 1 94-195; S okal 1 974, 1 120; M ertz e t a l. 1 979, 5 88; P ollard 1 983, 5 9-60). B efore c onsidering a m ethod o f a nalysis, i t i s i mportant t o f ind o ut t he n ature o f t he d ata t o b e a nalysed.

4 .2

D istribution o f t he e lements

M ost s tatistical m ethods u sed f or f inding g roups i n a d ata a ssume t hat t he d istribution o f t he v alues i s ( or G aussian), i .e. t he d istribution f requency p lot v alues would b e b ell-shaped, a nd s ymmetric a round t he

s et o f n ormal o f t he m ean.

I n a s tudy o f g ranite a nd d iabase f rom v arious l ocalities i n North America, Ahrens ( 1954) n oted t hat t he c oncentrations o f t he e lements i n a s pecific i gneous r ock a re l ognormally d istributed ( i.e. t he l ogs o f t he c oncentrations, r ather t han t he a bsolute c oncentration v alues, a re n ormally d istributed). T hirteen e lements w ere a nalysed f or, i ncluding K , Rb, C s, S c, C r, C o a nd L a. A hrens a dded t hat t his l aw may b e g eneral, a nd c ould h old t rue f or, f or e xample, s ediments. Many workers on t he p rovenance s tudies o f a rchaeological materials h ave u sed l og-transformed d ata, a s c an b e s een i n T able 4 .1 ( section 4 .1 a bove). The v alidity, o r n ecessity, o f t his t ransformation h as b een d isputed by s ome, h owever ( see f or e xample C atling e t a l. 1 963, 9 7-99; P icon e t a l. 1 975, 1 95; d e B ruin e t a l. 1 976, 7 8; P ollard 1 983,

1 04

5 7-58). Two u seful measures o f d eviation f rom n ormality a re s kewness a nd k urtosis. F or a n ormal d istribution, t he s kewness i s 0 .00 a nd t he k urtosis i s 3 .0 I n t his s tudy, 5 65 a nalyses w ere made. They may b e t aken a s r epresenting a s ediment, n amely c lay. The d istribution p lots, s kewness a nd k urtosis o f t he r aw c oncentrations a nd t he l og-transformed c oncentrations o f t he e lements d etermined a re s hown i n F ig.'s 4 .1-4.14. T he e lements d eviating most f rom n ormality a re Rb, C s, Th, C r a nd C o. F or a ll o f t hese, n ormality i s g reatly i mproved by t he l og-transformation. T hus, . l og-transformation o f a ll t he c oncentration was d one p rior t o s tatistically a nalysing t he d ata.

4 .3

C orrelations b etween t he e lements

Many s tatistical m ethods o f d ata a nalysis a lso t end t o a ssume t hat t he a ttributes d escribing t he d ata a re i ndependent v ariables. I n t he c ase o f t race e lement c oncentrations, m ost r esearchers h ave f ound t hat t he e lements a nalysed f or a re h ighly c orrelated, a nd t hat d ifferent c orrelations e xist f or d ifferent t ypes o f p ottery o r s ources o f c lays. I n d ealing w ith t his f act, s ome r esearchers u sed i t a s a means o f d istinguishing t he d ifferent c omposition g roups, t hrough c omparing e lemental c oncentration ( or l og-concentration) r atios ( see T able 4 .1 i n s ection 4 .1 a bove). O thers o pted f or u sing o nly o ne e lement t o r epresent e ach c ollection o f h ighly c orrelated e lements ( for e xample A saro e t a l. 1 971, 1 70; Op d e B eeck e t a l. 1 976, 6 7; R ice 1 978, 5 15; W ilson 1 978, 2 23). C orrelations ( r) b etween t he e lements i n t he c ategories a nalysed a re s hown i n F ig 's 4 .15a-h. F ig. 4 .15i s hows t hat t wo e lements which may b e h ighly c orrelated i n o ne c ategory, may n ot n ecessarily b e s o i n a nother. O nly F e a nd C o h ave a c orrelation o f o ver 0 .5 i n a ll t he c ategories. I t h as b een c onsidered t hat i f t he majority o f t he e lements a re c orrelated b y l ess t han 0 .5, t hen t he r esults o f s tandard c luster a nalysis m ethods s hould g ive a g ood p icture o f g roup s eparation ( Bieber e t a l. 1 976a, 1 36). T herefore, i n t he c ase o f t he d ata c onsidered i n t his s tudy, t hree o ptions p resent t hemselves: a . t o d isregard t he e lements which a re h ighly c orrelated i n s everal c ategories , b . t o c onsider d ifferent e lements i n d ealing w ith d ifferent c ategories, a nd c . t o c onsider a m ethod o f a nalysis which would t ake i nto a ccount h igh c orrelations b etween t he a ttributes. Option ( a) m eans t he l oss o f e lements which c an p rove i mportant i n s eparating c omposition g roups i n a c ategory i n which t hey a re n ot h ighly . c orrelated w ith o ther e lements. Option ( b) m eans r educing t he n umber o f e lements a vailable f or c omparing c omposition g roups f rom d ifferent c ategories. Option ( c) was a dopted a s t he most p referable.

1 05

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H ISTOGRAM

m e ee c em. r em crve e c oApe e cc c im -r .o •• •• • . •• • . • • • • •• • . • • •• 0 0 C C m um r pr e rm en n .n .e.s.r.r

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• 1 • 1}4 0.04 - .>.,).II o. n 3 - 1.12 n.12 - .1.11, 0.1(, - ,) • 20 0.2.1 - 11.24 0.24 - ,).211 0.23 - 0.32 0.32 - 'l.H o.,6 - ,1... 0 0.40 • .1.44 0.4:, - '.1.48 0.43 - ,).52 0.52 - il.56 0.56 - 0.60 0.60 - 3.0 1• 0.64 • .Q8 0.68 - :1.72 0.12 - 0.16 0.76 - J.30 0.80 • :J.84 0.84 .. 0.88 0.88 - :l.92 0.92 •

IIISTOGRAM :JF

L1.1

MISSING VALUES

--1.20 --1.15 --1.10 --1.05 --1.00 --u.95 --0.90 --0.85 --U.80 --0.75 --0.10 --0.65 --0.60 --0.55 -o.ss --a.so -o.su --0.45 -0.45 --0.40 -0.40 --0.35 -0.35 --0.30 -n.3o --o.2s -0.25 --0.20 -0.20 --0.15 -0.15 --0.10 -0.10 -

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Lu

3

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skewness -1.99 kurtosis 6�02

The distribution of Lu_ in 565 samples: A. concentration in ppm, B. log-transformed concentration.

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SCALf: 1 ASTERISK REPRESENTS

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1IISTOGRAl1 lJF

Cr

1.12 1.20 1.28 1.36 1.44 1.52 1.60 1.68 1.76 1.«s4 1.92 2. 00 2.08 2.16 2.24 2.32 2.40 2.48 2.56 2.64 2.72 2.80 2.as

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• -

Cr

Fig. 4.12

0

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1.27 UNIT(S)

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6.46 69.7

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SCALE: 1 ASTERISK REPP�SENTS

8

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HISTOGRAM OF

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f or

data

The choice o f t he e lements d etermined i n t he n eutron a ctivation a nalysis was d iscussed i n s ection 3 .3.1, where A s, S b, B a, H f a nd Ta were d ropped f rom t he l ist o f e lements o riginally c onsidered. F or t he d ata a nalysis, i t i s f elt t hat Na, R b a nd E u s hould a lso b e d ropped. M any r esearchers h ave f ound t hese e lements u seful f cr s eparating t he c omposition g roups o f t he p ottery t hey s tudied ( see f or e xample C atling e t a l. 1 961, 3 6 a nd 1 963,97 f or Na; W idemann 1 976, 5 27,532 f or R b; L aubenheimer e t a l. 1 981a, 7 4,78 f or N a, Rb a nd E u; W inther-Nielsen e t a l. 1 981 f or N a a nd Eu; Hughes e t a l. 1 983 f or E u). N evertheless, i t i s c onsidered t hat excluding t hem f rom t his s tudy i s j ustified o n t he b asis o f t he r easons g iven b elow. N a s howed s ubstantial d epletion i n t est s amples washed with d istilled water ( section 3 .3.4 a nd T able 3 .6). T he washing o ut o f Na i s mainly a f unction o f t he p hase i n which i t i s p resent i n t he c lays o f t he s amples t ested. T his i s t rue o f many o ther e lements, p articularly t he a lkalis a nd a lkaline e arths, h owever, o nly N a s howed d epletion h ere upon washing w ith water. J oron e t a l. ( 1976) a rgued f or t he n eed t o t he g eochemical c orrelation c hoose e lements f or which p atterns, i mposed by t he p rocess o f c lay g enesis, a re t ransposed a nd k ept i n t he p ottery, o r e lements whose c oncentrations a re s table i n a p hyllite c rystal l attice, due t o t he s tructural c haracteristics o f t heir i ons a nd t he i nfluence o f t he c rystal f ield. Among t he e lements d etermined i n t his s tudy, o nly Na d oes n ot meet t his r equirement.

Rb a nd E u s howed a n a verage o f 1 0% v ariation i n s amples a nalysed t wice a s a c heck f or h omogeneity ( section 3 .4.1 a nd T able 3 .15), a nd t hey b oth s howed s ubstantial v ariation, o f up t o a round 5 0%, i n a b atch c ounted t wice a fter t wo d ifferent p eriods o f d ecay ( section 3 .4.3 a nd T able 3 .17). E u was f ound h ighly i rregular i n t he s tudies c arried o ut by t he P ennsylvania g roup ( Rice 1 978, 5 23).

4 .5

C hoice o f t he d ata a nalysis m ethods

A s m entioned i n s ection 4 .1 a bove, t he d ata a nalysis m ethods u sed by workers o n p rovenance s tudies a re v aried, r anging f rom s imple e lement r atio p lots t o c omplex s tatistical m ethods. P reliminary a ttempts a t s eparating g roups by p lotting c oncentrations a nd l og-concentrations o f t wo e lements i n two-dimensional s pace d id n ot g ive s atisfactory r esults. I t was a lso f elt t hat t he i nformation g iven by t he d ata a s a whole s hould b e u tilized t o t he f ull, a t a ll s tages o f t he a nalysis. Thus i t was t he more c omplex s tatistical methods which w ere i nvestigated.

1 29

There e xist a number o f c omputer p ackages which c ontain p rograms u seful f or t he s tatistical a nalysis o f multivariate d ata. The u se o f a c omputer p ackage i s r ecommended: i t s aves h aving t o write a p rogram f rom s cratch, c oncentrating t he e ffort o n a dopting t he p ackage p rogram t o o ne's u se. O f t he p ackages a vailable, G enstat p resented i tself a s s uitable f or t he p urpose o f t his s tudy ( Alvey e t a l. 1 982; 1 983; G alwey 1 984). G enstat i s a p owerful g eneral s tatistics p ackage which o ffers a w ide v ariety o f s tatistical p rograms. I ts main d rawback, h owever, i s t he d ifficulty o f t he a ssociated l iterature. I t u ses t he G enstat l anguage, which i s b ased o n F ortran. T he G enstat p ackage was s ubmitted f rom r emote-entry t erminals t o t he C ambridge U niversity I BM 3 70/165 machine ( Edgcombe 1 984). The most u seful s tatistical m ethods f or c lassifying u nits o f multivariate d ata a re t he c lustering t echniques. T he most c ommonly u sed c lustering t echniques i n t race e lement s tudies o f a rchaeological materials a re t he a gglomerative h ierarchical t echniques ( Sneath a nd S okal 1 973, 2 05-235; D oran a nd Hodson 1 975, 1 75-177; E veritt 1 980, ' 23-35). O f t hese t he a verage l inkage a nd W ard 's methods a re t he most p opular, f ollowed by t he s ingle l inkage c luster a nalysis m ethod. The b asic p rocedure w ith a gglomerative h ierarchical c lustering t echniques i s t he i nitial d ivision o f t he units ( e.g. s amples) i nto s everal c lusters ( or g roups) a ccording t o a c ertain s imilarity o r d istance b etween t hem, t hen t he method p roceeds t o f use t hese c lusters a t s uccessive l evels, until a ll t he c lusters a re f used i n o ne. A t e ach l evel, t he t echnique f uses t he c lusters o r u nits which a re c alculated t o b e c losest ( having g reatest s imilarity o r l east d istance b etween t hem). An a ttractive p roperty o f t he a gglomerative h ierarchical t echniques i s t hat t he c lassifications a t a ll t he d ifferent f usion l evels c an b e e asily i llustrated i n t wo-dimensional s pace, by d iagrams c alled d endrograms ( also t ree s tructures o r p henograms, s ee S neath a nd S okal. 1 973, 2 60-264). S ome e xperiments w ere c arried o ut u sing d ifferent a gglomerative h ierarchical t echniques t o a nalyse d ata f rom t his s tudy. T he r esults w ere g enerally u nconvincing. T hi i s due t o t wo m ain characteristics o f t he h ierarchical models: 1 . a s t he n ame i mplies, h ierarchical t echniques a ssume a h ierarchy, i .e. t hey a ssume t hat a c luster a t a ny g iven l evel i s a t t he s ame t ime p art o f a l arger c luster ( at t he n ext l evel) ‚ and i t i tself c ould s plit i nto s maller c lusters a t t he f ollowing l evel. This " evolutionary" model may n ot n ecessarily a pply f or t race e lement d ata ( see d iscussion i n L eese 1 981, 2 8). T his h ierarchical model l eads t o t he f act t tat a unit a llocated t o a c ertain c luster a t a n e arly s tage o f t he a nalysis c annot b e r eallocated t o a nother c luster a t a l ater s tage, e ven i f t his r eallocation would r esult i n a b etter c riterion f or c lassification ( Hodson 1 970, 3 07; W ilson 1 978, 2 32; E veritt 1 980, 6 8); 2 . a s c urrently i mplemented, h ierarchical methods, a nd c lustering t echniques i n g eneral, a ssume n o

1 30

correlations b etween t he a ttributes o f t he u nits analysed. The e lemental c oncentrations i n t his s tudy have s hown h igh l evels o f c orrelation ( section 4 .3 above). I n a ttempting t o overcome t he f irst d rawback o f t he h ierarchical t echniques, t he k -means methods h ave b een r ecommended ( Hodson 1 970, 3 18;1971, 3 1; D oran a nd H odson 1 975, 1 80).

4 .5.1

The k -means methods

The k -means ( or o ptimization) m ethods o f c luster a nalysis d itfer f rom o ther m ethods o f c lustering mainly i n t hat t hey s tart w ith p rovisional c lusters t hat a re i mproved by i teration. I n t he k -means methods, t he number o f g roups ( or i n s ome i mplementations t he maximum n umber o f g roups), h as t o b e c hosen by t he o perator. The m ethod would t hen s plit t he units i nto t hat g iven number, c alculate t he c entres, a nd r eshuffle the u nits until a n o ptimum v alue f or a s et c riterion i s r eached. S everal l evels o f c lustering a re o ften s et, , d eclaring t he number o f g roups r equired a t e ach l evel. I t i s a lso possible t o g ive a " starting c lassification" a t a g iven l evel. C lassification a t a c ertain l evel may b e t aken a s t he s tarting p oint f or t he c lassifica . d ion a t t he n ext l evel. W ith t hese methods i t i s p ossible t o r eallocate units f rom o ne g roup t o a nother a t t he n ext l evel, i f t his r eallocation p roduces a " better" c riterion v alue ( see H odson 1 970, 3 11; 1 971, 3 1-32; D oran a nd H odson 1 975, 1 81; E veritt 1 980, 4 0-41). S everal c riteria f or c alculating t he r elationship b etween a unit a nd c luster c entroid a re a vailable i n G enstat. Among t he c riteria i s t he " maximisation o f t he M ahalanobis d istance b etween c lasses", which h as b een s uggested a s a method o f o vercoming t he s econd d rawback o f h ierarchical . t echniques. M ahalanobis d istance measurements t ake i nto a ccount c orrelations b etween t he a ttributes, but t hey s till a ssume t he g roups t o b e n ormally d istributed i n multivariate s pace ( Hodson 1 971, 3 4; S olomon 1 971, 6 7; B ieber e t a l. 1 976a, 1 30,136). A l imitation o f u sing t he M ahalanobis d istance i s t hat ( for t he measurement t o b e r eliable) e ach g roup must h ave a t l east o ne more m ember t han t he n umber o f a ttributes u sed ( Bieber e t a l. 1 976a, 1 30-134). The m ost d ifficult l imitation e ncountered i n t his s tudy p roved t o b e t he c omputation t ime r equired, e ven f or a round f ifty s amples a t a t ime u sing e leven v ariables ( a l imitation m entioned by H odson 1 971, 3 4; D oran a nd H odson 1 975, 1 83; E veritt 1 980, 7 1). G iving a s tarting c lassification t ends t o r educe t he a mount o f c omputing r esources u sed, b ut o nly s lightly s o. A s imilar c riterion, which r equires a s mall f raction o f t he c omputation t ime r equired f or t he M ahalanobis d istance, i s t he s um o f s quares c riterion. T he s um o f s quares a ttempts t o -m inimise t he t otal s um o f s quared d istances b etween e ach u nit a nd t he c entroid o f t he c luster t o which i t i s

1 31

a llocated. This i s equivalent t o • the maximisation o f t he sum o f s quared d istances b etween t he c luster c entroids ( see Doran a nd H odson 1 975, 8 1; E veritt 1 980, 4 2-43). T he d istance measurement u sed i s t he E uclidean o r ' ruler' d istance, which i s d erived f rom P ythagoras' t heorem. F or two p oints A a nd B , o f c oordinates ( X(A),Y(A)} a nd { X(B),Y(B)1, t he E uclidean d istance i s D (A,B)

= [ { X(A)-X(B))

2

+ { Y(A)-Y(B)1

This equation c an b e e xpressed f or multi-dimensional s pace a s f ollows

a u nit

2

)1/2 a nd

..4.1 a c luster

i n

D (I,L)

= [I A (I,J) -B(L,J) )2 ]1/2 ..4.2 J =1 where D (I,L) i s t he d istance b etween unit I a nd c luster L , A (I,J) i s t he v alue o f t he J th v ariable o f u nit I , B (L,J) i s t he mean o f t he J th v ariable i n c luster L , N i s t he t otal n umber o f v ariables. I f t he p artition o f M u nits i nto K c lusters i s P (M,K), t hen t he e rror i n t he p artition would b e

d enoted

by

I [D (I,L (I)} ]2 ..4.3 I =1 where D (I,L(I)) i s t he d istance b etween u nit I a nd t he c luster L (I) which c ontains t he u nit I . T hus, mathematically, t he method a ims a t f inding t he s mallest v alue f or e (P(M,K)1 ( Hartigan 1 975, 8 5). e (P(M,K)

=

The k -means method u sing t he s um o f s quares c riterion i s v ery s imilar t o o l ard's method f ollowed by r eallocation, which i s r ecommended by P ollard ( 1983, 6 0-62) a nd i s currently u sed f or t he e lementary s tudy o f n eutron a ctivation r esults a t t he B ritish Museum R esearch L aboratory*. ( Also c ompare e quation 4 .2 t o e quation i n . E veritt 1 980, 3 2). The k -means m ethod u sing t he s um o f s quares c riterion h as sev eral d rawbacks, t he main o nes b eing: 1 . i t a ssumes t he a ttributes t o b e n ormally d istributed, 2 . i t a ssumes t he a ttributes t o b e u n-correlated, 3 . i t i s v ery s ensitive t o t he d ata f ormat, o r m ethod o f t ransforming t he d ata ( Doran a nd H odson 1 975, 1 83; Everitt 1 980, 6 9), 4 . a t e ach l evel, i t i s u sually d ependant o n t he c lassification g iven a t t he p revious l evel, i .e. w ith most p rograms, t wo d ifferent i nitial c lassifications a t l evel k may g ive t wo d iffering c lassifications a t l evel k -1 ( Hartigan 1 975, 1 2), 5 . a s table p artition may b e f ound which i s n ot t he b est p ossible, i .e. t he c riterion may a rrive a t a ' local'

*

P ersonal c ommunication w ith D r.

1 32

M orven L eese.

optimum r ather t han a g lobal o ne, a nd s top s earching a t t hat point ( Doran a nd H odson 1 975, 1 81). T o d eal w ith ( 1), i t h as b een s hown i n s ection 4 .2 t hat t he l og-transformed c oncentrations a re c loser t o n ormality t han t he r aw v alues. This d ata t ransformation l eads t o ( 3) a nd t o a nother p roperty o f c lustering t echniques, t he n ecessity t hat a ll a ttributes s hould h ave equal weights, o r ( for c ontinuous data) t hat t he v alues o f t he v ariables s hould b e numerically c lose t o e ach o ther, s o t hat, i n t his s tudy, t he e lements s howing t he h igher c oncentrations would n ot d ominate t he c lustering r esults ( see S neath a nd S okal 1 973, 1 09-113; H artigan 1 975, 9 6-97). I n r eporting t he n eutron a ctivation a nalysis r esults, t he c oncentrations o f K , Na a nd F e a re g iven i n p ercentages while t he o ther c oncentrations a re g iven i n pm 's. This i s s omewhat a rbitrary, o nly p s erving t o a void h aving t o p resent many n oughts i f a ll t he e lements were t o s hare t he s ame c oncentration unit. S everal s imple a rithmetic t ransformations h ave b een s uggested i n o rder t o g ive a ll t he v ariables e qual weights ( see f or example Hodson 1 983, 5 9; a nd T able 4 .1 i n s ection 4 .1 a bove). L og-transforming t he d ata, i n i tself, c ould g ive c loser w eights o f t he c oncentrations. A dditionally, i n t his s tudy, i t was d ecided t o f irst d ivide t he c oncentration o f e ach e lement f or e ach s ample by t he s tandard d eviation o f t hat e lement i n t he c ategory c oncerned. Thus, f or s ample I , t he c oncentration o f e lement J would b e t ransformed a ccording t o t he e quation A (I,J)

= L og J (I)/

( J)

..4.4

The e ffect o f t his t ransformation o n t he c oncentrations o f t he e lements f or t he p ottery f rom t he M sheirfeh workshop i s s hown i n Table 4 .2a a nd b . Once t he partitions a re o btained, i t i s n ecessary t o d ecide o n t he a ctual n umber o f g roups r epresented by t he d ata. A c ommon method i s t o p lot t he number o f g roups a gainst t he c riterion v alue. F or t he s um o f s quares c riterion, t he p lot s hould s how a d rop i n t he c riterion value w ith t he i ncrease i n t he n umber o f g roups. A t t he ' true' number o f g roups t he g raph s hould f latten, o r h ave a ' shoulder'. H owever, t he p oint a t which t his s houlder o ccurs may n ot b e e asily d etected when c ontinuous d ata i s a nalysed ( as i n t his s tudy, s ee • H odson 1 971, 3 5; D oran a nd H odson 1 975, 1 82; H artigan 1 975, 1 36). A mathematical method f or o btaining t he t rue n umber o f g roups i s t o c alculate t he " ratio o f mean s quare r eduction t o m ean s quare w ithin c luster" ( Hartigan 1 975, 1 36). F or k +1 g roups, a l arge v alue f or t he r atio K-1) ( N-

(

e (P(M,K)} e (P(M,k+1)}

) 1

..4.5

where t he s ymbols h ave t he s ame meanings a s i n e quations 4 .2 a nd 4 .3, would i ndicate a d esirable number o f g roups. H owever, t his r atio a ssumes t hat k +1 p artitions a re o btained by s plitting o ne o f t he g roups a t k p artitions, which may

1 33

C h m r U l U l C V h

' 4 ' ¼0 0 0 0 m N N Ln N 0 1 0 1 a l ( 2 1 0 1 a l C O h C O C O

V I V D r 1 C D

V I r - C h C h C h r y U D E • • . . • • • • • •

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m r

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( concentrations

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•

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C D r . 1 C V r I n r U l

r - O D C h

P 4 g 4 P q g 4 P 4 P 4 P 4

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•

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0 4 1

[ Log(concentration/standard d eviation)]

r i l

0

N Ln m l cn m .D LnO 1 1 1 1 1 r I r I 1 1 r I 1 0 1 1 J r .

r 1 r I r 1

: 1 0 C V C V 1 1 1 1 r I t . 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 C 7 1 C O C O C O •

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r i 1 1 r 1 r I r I r 1

r 1 1 1

C D U l O D C V V D V I 1 1 V )n r 1 r • - 1 . 1 r -r -u; : $ W N • • • • • • • • • • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

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1 34

•

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C V r f l 0 C r ) l t ) 0 0 C V C V C V C V C V C V C V r 1 a • • • • • • • • • r 1 r I v 4 r 1 r 1

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n ot a lways b e t he c ase. One o f t he a ttractions o f t he k -means method u sing t he s um o f s quares c riterion i s t hat i t c an d eal w ith l arge b odies o f d ata, a s r elationships b etween a ll p airs o f units d o n ot h ave t o b e c alculated, o r s tored ( Hodson 1 970, 3 11; D oran a nd H odson 1 975, 1 80). The s amples a nalysed w ere s ubjected t o t he k -means m ethod i n f ifteen d ifferent r uns, n o s tarting c lassification a t t he maximum l evel was g iven f or a ny r un, i .e. e ach r un s tarts f rom a r andom c lassification. T he p artitions a t e ach r un a re i n T able 4 .3. The p lot o f t he number o f g roups v ersus t he c riterion v alues i s s hown i n F ig. 4 .16, which a lso s hows t he mean s quares r atios f or 1 0 d own t o 3 g roups. The c olon s ymbol i n t he p lot i ndicates where v alues c oincide. The l argest mean s quares r atio i s a t k =3, e xperiments h ave s hown t his t o b e t he u sual c ase e ven i f more t han t hree g roups a re p resent. A nother l arge v alue i s a t k =5, t he p lot a lso s tarts t o l evel o ff a t t hat p oint.

T able

4 .3 P artitions o f t he d ata o btained a t f ifteen d ifferent r uns o f t he k -means m ethod u sing t he s um o f s quares c riterion ( 464 s amples). Run

No. 32 3 0 2 8 2 7 2 5 2 3 2 2 2 0 1 8 1 6 1 4 1 2 1 0 8 6

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5

o f g roups 2 9 2 7 2 5 2 4 2 2 2 0 1 9 1 7 1 5 1 3 1 1 9 7 5 2

Two d ifferent c lassifications a re g iven a t k =5, n either o f which i s a s tarting c lassification. T hey b oth h ave t he s ame c riterion v alue. T he t wo c lassifications a re s hown i n T able 4 .4. This i llustrates d rawback ( 3) o f t he method. T he main c omments o n t he r esults a re: 1 . t he c lay s amples a re s pread t hroughout t he f ive g roups; 2 . t he d ifference b etween t he g roups o btained w ith k =8 a s t he s tarting c lassification a nd k =6 a s t he s tarting c lassification i s t hat Z P2, P CP73,74,82,85 a nd PRW33 were moved f rom g roup 4 t o g roup 5 i n t he s econd c ase; 3 . g roup 1 c ontains only c lay s amples. G roup 2 c ontains much o f t he material which c an b e a ssumed l ocal, but i t

1 35

L n c n m 0 L C ) C O •

0

•

•

0

0

0 1 P I 0 0 P 1 l D c o C I • • •

0 C V 0 i n r 1 C O r e 0 1 • • • •

0

r 1 r 1 r 1

0

0

• a )

U

>

M

Z

t » t 1

r /

•

‘Zr

: 1 l £ 1 o t o t 1 t 1 1 0 r • : . e • • • • • • • • •i n l • • L C 1 C V I l I / C A 0 0 0 1 l ' • T 1 C V L n L n ,z r L n N t 1

r 1

O D r ' s C O r -

L t l

1 . ) ` z r r l

r n

' e s . e r

. e f

I . I ) L C ) 1 0 i n V I 1 1 r I v 1

o btained

-• C O 1 r . 1 • • • • 3 1 c d V ) a r s t 1

••

CD

• . 1

••

••

••

• •• "C +• •

+

••

••

+

••

4. ••

•

0

4 -

•

c o r l

0 i t,

r e • 0

t r , 1 ,.

0 3

s e

0 4 3

• O r

te l •. •

• •••

&• • • • t o

0C

>

1 36

+

V )

( N

C lassification o f

t he s amples by t he k -means method a t k=5.

C O

‘ z r l •

. , . 1 . rl

g a d O g i

0

( N a d

. .

I I

% .0 - r I ( N

( N

I . •,in

ri

. . M I > I T-1

. . . . . .

. >4

.

• . . .

. . ) >4 CY I e i 1 — u U < E 1 4 r 4 U N E-i N < Z >4 2

• 0

r -

I

un

. H

C D

r -

CV

( . 9 I r e l

CO

C D ' P 4 C o N I

O

( N

( / ) d 1 < K C 2

-c \ I ( N

r I

0

.Z 14

•

>

1

.e

4

U) O

4 : 1 ) H A r c 1 E l

' X

t Y1 G ) 4 -) C d U

0 H o i H o z i 0 u )

A a l ( I ) i 0 N

5 D 4

1 37

I t , C t i 0 L f l

1 V D OL t

L O

• 4

g : 1 4

n e u n r 0 1 4

I l o ( N 7

C Z 0 e n

•

.

.

0 1 0 1 H C O e N 1 i z r 1 -I -01 4 . 0 1 1 n i n c \ I e 0

C \ , 1 H ( N rn i f

0

e n e n

U D

e n

• •

• H ( 1 ) ( 1 )

H

e n

n i ( I ) < H

0 3 . 2

c o c \ J

H

e n

H

I C 4 0 n z r

e n

O D

• 1 c 0 e n . . Oi

z i

( N . 1`z r II ( " 1 ( N

0

9 1 4 ) 4 . ) I ( T i ( T I 1 ) U)

( N O

N

0 1 I n .

C O L f l I H n e 1

L n

T 0 '1 C

N C O ,z r VD N 1 1 / I N e \ . 1 Ln N

L n O A c \ I e n e n (N . 1 e n 1 e n D H eN 1

C L I

( 1 )

( 1 )

4 -3 H C d e -1 E c 0 • 1 H . 3 4

C d 1

; 4 ) c . ( 1 )

4 )

•

C D

U K 4

>4

0 CI 4 : 1 )

C d

( T i

E l

C . )

1 ) e


0 0 0 n i rd > 0 n i rd > 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 : 4 0 • •P 4 I l i 1 % C D • •f X 4 , ) • •P 4 a l f : 4 ( 1 X P 4 P 4 a i C . D E w 0 0-C , D X i n ut . D E i n orp- 0 - 0 - 0--

1 47

. a ) H r d >

t r 1 . u )

U l

Z r 1 -x

2 .6.2

I C ategory I excavations

:

t he

p ainted

ware

f rom

t he

P etra

H ere o nly t hree f inal g roups were o btained ( Table 4 .7a-b). A ll t he Nabataean painted s herds, e xcept f or P PW39 ( of t ype P 3 b) b elong t o g roup A . I n t his g roup, PW44 p roved a n o utlier when t ested by t he c riteria g iven i n s ection 4 .5.4. H owever, on multiplying t he c oncentrations f or P PW44 by 1 .20, t hey a re b rought t o w ithin t he l imits o f t he a verage c oncentrations o f t he e lements i n g roup A . This s imple mathematical t ransformation i ndicates t hat a n " inert" t emper was u sed i n making t he p ot ( see f or e xample O lin a nd S ayre 1 971, 2 00; Attas e t a l. 1 979, 2 4; G unneweg e t a l. 1 983, 1 3). P PW44 i s t he o nly p ainted ware s ample which h as v isible m ica f lecks i n t he ware ( section 2 .3.1.4 a nd Table A .2d, A ppendix A ). G roup A a lso c ontains a ll o f t he miscellaneous p ainted P s herds, e xcept f or PW51 which c omes f orm a n i mported H ellenistic l agynos ( section 2 .3.2 a nd T able A .2e, A ppendix A ). This g roup i s most p robably a l ocal c omposition g roup.

Table 4 .7a

The p ainted ware f inal g roups.

Type

G roup A

Nabataean 1

1 -13

N abataean 2

1 4-23

Nabataean 3 a

2 4-38

N abataean 3 b

4 0-44

M isc.

4 5-50

2 .6.3

C ategory I II excavations

: t he

f rom

t he

P etra

e xcavations:

G roup B

G roup C

3 9

5 1

t erra

s igillata

f rom

t he

P etra

The s amples s eparated i nto t en g roups, f ive o f which c ontain o nly one s ample ( Table 4 .8a-b). The w estern s igillata s eparated i nto f our g roups. The s light v ariations i n f abric, d escribed i n s ection 2 .4.1, a re n ot c orrelated w ith

1 48

0 1 l D l f l c • - L C 1 C I O • • •

I A

▪ L g s

11 m e ' • • l . 0

c n

u l c o N . • • 0 N ( e ) N H

0 U

Lf lr c o N r 1

c i ) • 4 -) O D C V • • N r -

4 4 0

C r l L C / M O • • • 0 r I 0

E i

H

L C 1 0 • • N

• • •( r " ) 0 C ) r I

Cf l r e ) r I O C ) C . 1 C e l • • 0 0

ø Oc D • • • C I C O " e hr I N

r I • • m in D N

4

H

l . C ) L C ) 6 •C D 0 N • 0 N O

m ¼0 • • L o N m

e r

i n

r A C V C V

v i

N r H

( 1 )

. N ‘ 1 ,

e 4 I

T i -

Ln cO

e • • N N o N

T i )

• • L r ) c o

H

e

N

i n H

r 4 r l 0 0 . • C V C V

¼ O N H ‘ 4, I

•

n V C D C O

o C

N •

•

r l . z r

H U )

400

•

‘ e, c n N •

•

d P ' e ( N C D 0 1 ` '

r C r l

9: 14 C N •

r 4 C V

•

0 1

C I

r I

• H ( / ) U )

O Et o ug l i o ut 7 -1 7 —

i e

0

N

H / 4 1 0

l C l

2„.. g r ' . p4 g2i n Of u r d › • 4 0 a 0g 4 C 4 C L ) • •r i l > Cc : 4 a P 4 a

. , z

1 49

Group G G roup H

f inal groups. excavations:

c x

0

› 4

4 -3 C D ( 1 4

g a 4

C D

0 c . 7

0

C . )

s igillata

4 -

r I

L c )

› . 4

C O

( 1 )

Western

Table

4 .8a

0

a

4 U ) e l '

r l i K C

, a )

4 ) u ) a l W M

g i

( 1 ) 4. ) u) « I r i . 1 U

1 50

. U u ) H 2

4. 1 0 L I 1 0 / 0 • \ D 4 34 • N / 4 1 . 0

•

N O 0 • 4 . • C D r n u n N H

• O.

•

N

r m

C O

V 0 N •

r m e n

U I

H

L f 1

N

N

1 1 o n t i n 0 • c h H c a l • n r

4 1 ,

C O • H H

w e • N / 4 1 0

N • e n L f 1

H • e l N

•0

•

w e C O • N cnH H r n

w e w e C M 1N L1 • m U D

C O H N • .r e ) r 4 • H r -

0

/ 4 1 0 0 • •H C D H • c 4 7 C O

N NLn • . rn 0 9 • r q C N

C O 0 0 C O r I 0 1 « 1 0 1 4. / 0 • • • 0 0 " z r

0 N 0 0 1 0 L f 1 0 w e • • . 0 0 V D

• 1 1

• •N I N N • N ol H 0 1 r4

•

0 0 1 • r ' w H O H H

N N 0 1 N 0 m om • • • 0 0 i n

0 1

N

C M u n o n r % L i n 0 . •

• 40 / 1

NO N

e n

0 r 4 M • 0

O L t 1 • 0

0 • \ r I C • I O N • • 0 V D

C ' N H • • • H r q C M 1 4 r 4

¼ D N N • • r q CO O . aM C D

N o n •0 * ) u ) r m • • e r C V l . 0

%. 0 ‘ z r e r . •r N H . U 1 N

C O c z n a l . •N I N m ' / 4 1 0 / 4 1 0

r -rn . z r . •r , N H . N il )

C O • L t 1

0 N c n . •,e $ 2 1 H • H / 4 1 0

( N I c o . • • / 4 1 0 « 1 _ c 0 H H

a l N ( 3 ) . • H H • N i f l

N un ‘ z s, . •u p N H • N 40 / 1 1

C O • / 4 1 0

•

•

u n / 4 1 1 )

¼0

H

H

g r

40 / 1

Lf 1

1 4

L f 1 1 1

C I 1 M

w e C I

• 0

• 0

• 0

0

•

N H

' V •

N co

U I

C O

u m

4

t" •

•

er

0

•

• . 44 , e r

H

N • n r H

U I • CD 9r

e

N

VD H

CT % H

0

C O

\ 0

N C D C O

N • C D r n

N cn H• H

re , N

en

L n

C D

H 0 m c o

0 \0

L t ic : .o

1 1 4

•

•

U ) H 0 4

N c o c o / 4 1 0 1 4D / •

•

•

•

et, 0 H — . . u ) H

H r - D ' ‘ %e rn N . • • / 4 1 0 0 L O

— U 2 C n r I

/ 4 1 0 . e If , . .• 1 L . 1

M

1 - 1 N

$2 4 a)

P t : 4

• •

CN

in

en

u ) r I

H 0 C I4 C 0 001 0 0 0 1 ( / ) C O C D C D • • • N N N O

P4

P. 1 CO

CO

C\1

W

er / ‘Zr

C)

g• C n

C 2

r

g

4 0 , (. 2 t n . d

g L i ; d f i g E C U

; U ; 0 1

1 51

C O N • •

c o

C O 0 C . 1 •U ) ' K r 0 N U ) 0 o n • 0 1 o n • > 4 N . • • • •N 0 e . r • •‘ 1, e N ( N I C D r 4 C V C N 1 C D C D e r 0 1 C D r 4 0 1 H C D r I W

•

4 / 1 . 0

N • % . 0

H

V,

e n

N

N

r -

— x 4 r C i 3 E 1

N H • U I

C D

o

•

U I N • . 1 1

en en

H

H ^

g M

Ö r u H 4 ( 4 •P 1

2 E 4

Ö u l f ) E j 1

( 24 P4 1 11

r 3 4

Missing value.

0

I n V D 0 1 r) • •r 0 0 • H u l

these g roups, except f or PTS22 a nd 2 4, which a ppear i nferior i n quality. Table 4 .8b s hows t he compositions o f g roups A a nd B t o be s omewhat c lose. P TS69 i s v isually s imilar t o PTS68. A r elation b etween t he t wo g roups i s p robable. The eastern s igillata A s eparated i nto two g roups, one containing only one s ample ( PTS27). P TS27, which f orms g roup H , i s paler than a ny o f t he o ther eastern s igillata A analysed, and i t i s the only s ample with a s lip s o worn o ut a s t o b e b eyond i dentification ( see Table A .3b, Appendix A ). The two main eastern s igillata A f abrics, d escribed i n s ection 2 .4.2, a nd d ifferentiated o n the b asis o f t heir B a content i n a s pectrographic a nalysis c arried o ut i n 1 935 ( Crowfoot e t a l. 1 957, Appendix I II, p .476), a re n ot d ifferentiated h ere. A ll the s amples a nalysed o f e astern s igillata B f ell i n o ne g roup, a s d id t he s amples o f e astern s igillata C ( with t he bulk o f e astern A ). This does n ot n ecessarily i ndicate t hat there was j ust one s ource o f manufacture o f e ither ware, o r t hat the p roducts o f only one s ource p roducing e ach o f t he two wares were imported t o P etra. Very f ew s amples r epresenting eastern s igillata B a nd C were a vailable f or a nalysis. A l arger number may have g iven o ther g roups. The miscellaneous s igillata s amples f ell i n s ix g roups ( for descriptions s ee s ection 2 .4.5). PTS65, 7 1 a nd 7 2 c lustered with the bulk o f eastern A a nd C , v isually t hey a re s imilar t o both, and c ould b e i ntermediate wares. P TS67, which i s v isually s imilar t o e astern s igillata C , f ell i n t he s ame g roup. PTS74 i s v isually s imilar t o e astern s igillata A , but i t i s t he only s ample e ncountered w ith a r educed i nner s urface. I t f ell i n t he s ame g roup. However, both PTS66 and 7 0 a re v isually s imilar i n f abric t o e astern s igillata A , but without a s lip. N either b elongs t o a ny o f t he l arge g roups.

4 .6.4

C ategory I V : t he r ed ware f rom t he P etra excavations, the pottery f rom Z urrabah, a nd the modern f igurine f rom Tawilan

The s amples s eparated i nto s even g roups ( Table 4 .9a-b), g roup A i s c omprised o f a ll t he s amples f rom t he Z urrabah workshop ( except f or Z P2) a s well a s a ll t he r ed ware types 2 a nd 3 s amples ( except f or PRW24), i n a ddition t o f ive o ut o f t he s ix miscellaneous r ed ware s amples a nalysed. R ed ware types 2 a nd 3 a re most p robably Nabataean ( sections 2 .5.2 a nd 2 .5.3). This g roup c an b e a ssumed l ocal, e specially a s most o f t he s amples f rom Z urrabah a re k iln wasters ( see s ection 2 .10). A ll the s amples o f r ed ware t ype 1 , o f d ebatable o rigin ( section 2 .5.1), b elong t o g roup C . PRW24 which was classified a s b elonging t o r ed ware type 3 a lso f alls i n this g roup. PRW24 i s t he only s ample a nalysed o f t ypes 2

1 52

( 5 0

r d

Zurrabah,

0

O

0

4 4

0

CN

PL .

" z : 14

, r u 4 )

0 CN

• •

•o •

t 3 1 4

r d

r d

( 7 )

1 1

C 1 : 2 4

o

-H

f14 •.

0

( 1 )

4 -)

( 1 : 1

E O ni I E -

4 1

• 0 • ( d( 4 rcj

C D

o

RI 0 0

r e )

C Y1

CV

C N

01

I . rH L f l

N

CNN rH

H l a ) t 3 )

E I P4

r d

N

C : Y 1 • z r ( I )

r 1

r d

E -

• . . . , ,C

« 3 > 1

A

« 3 0 g i 4 ) -

•

4 .)

• 0

N

I C 4

r 4 n4

( 1 )

r d, 1 H g i H i

a— g i r d H

0

CI •V P4 m l . . 1 0 › i r z 4 P E iL P

C 4

1 : 4

gl

al . , . . .

0, . , . .

0

n i c m 3 0

ern 3 0

V

al

0 > 1 r 4 P

r e l i

P i

0 > i r : 4 )

1 53

3 0

‘ 14 . , . . .

n i • e4 3 0

r d R 4 0 > 4 r : 4 P

( I )

t d 3

g :4 i l l

• U

r d t n 0. 1 2

0 . E

• P4 W P i 1 j

O E

. r i

E

C 4 M S t e

c m cm

U 1 C D r I

n r

n ' N O

0

. .m i .

( I )

C ) . zu ) 4 ) 0 r d i i

r q C h n r u m r - •

4

0

u m r 4 O D r q n r C m

4

C O C D n r

( N I C D r n 0 0 C D • • • H O D rir H

W D e r s i P H

C M C V O D M' m i n • • • V D C o e r

m o o ' s e r r n • . .r. r m r I r n

C O C h C D

0 1 U l O D

r q

rm r n r n 6 4 00 r q C D • r I ( N

C O L i n n r

.

O

• .

0

4

•

•

4

•

C ) U

a l r q e r 1 4 H

e r H

0 3 e 1 C D H 14

4 . U

e l r n • r q c q c o H T 1

N . C D N

• •L n W I0 U D r H r H • H c o

e

4 l E

U P g r 1 4 C O r n • • •i n D 1 O 4 1 1

• 4 1 /0

r -V, r • • V D C O 1 4 • H C O

• 4

D 0 O C h i n O D r n C D • • ••1 4 C D C D r 4

O C 0 1 r m • C D

1 N 0 C O r n n e n r C D i n . • . C D C D

4 /0 H 1 r y r q n r C D .. C D C D

•

r m N I r ,4 1i

0

ri H

O

•

•

( N I 1 4 r 4 H I- i

4 . . 4, ) . 0 C . n i Q )

AU

n i • 0 • C . )

• •r n

U) g ; c li O 4 4

0

g 4

CO

H i n c r ‘ • •i n e r u l • C O

• 0 r H H

mr n r W D M

r -

.

i n e i c o . • • C O r - C D U 0 • i

nr N I n r

,

W D W D r r . 1 , 4

i n • c t e a . • • r H 1 4 g r C O 1 4 • I

O

rs i H

.

r i C V C N

Ul

4

•

•

m r r I • H C O

C O M D C V e t r f

i n c m C O • C D

V a , r s i 1 4 C h r n C D c m • • • C D C D u n

r r H m r ( d •. . . . C D

e • H • i n n e C N r H r y

T r r H r H

e l c c 0 • •e n r - r l • C O n r

• •c o N e • r n r q i n r H 1 4

r m

u n r - n e • •u l r -14 • e r r n

r % i n 1 4 • • • c D r q 0 r 4 1 4 0

C O H

14 • •u p M r 1 • H OD

i n C V r y • • • i n C V . 1 ' H 1 1

C O N • • • i n C V C D N

> i t r $ 4 I 4 ( J 4 -) a l4 4

C O r 4 • L D

4 . )4 )

o H N C )

n ti 0 i n U D r 4 r 4

4 1

• •v D t ) N i n 0 • r H W D

U D • i n r q

C O c o c o e •N I N e r 4 • i n r n

r -H

e 4

W D g r C D e • • U P c a l r l r q r 1

r n

r - r 4 C O

n r 1 4 C O

4

•

•

r n C D C O 0

•

•

CO

•

• N1

I

e

r -

•

•

N

• C . )

o L O l e l i n • • •t m 0 1 o

0 C I • H

N m o % J D N • • • r4

C O c r , . z r • • • W D n r C N H C V

H • i n

m i4 c h 0 C O 1 1 C D • • • m o Ln

G ) 4 4 d P

C , C D r n i n M D • e •( a l n r C D 1 4

r i n • C V

c o r n H i n • . • i n C D 1 4

C D C D c o n rC V

e r i n

O D c o q ) . r r-

n i w CI

l 0 C O r H r n • > 4C N 0 •V ) 0 Y, r n r q C D 1 4

r a .

0

•

0

n r

i z : ), IH

•

•

•

C D n r

. . . . W

• 2

S

m C D n r — W

r i

C D O D C V r-CD O D

•

r l

•

•

e l C D r 4 W

r 1

H

H p . ,v , N t r , c nt r q u ) C M u n • r i ) r H r q u l . . •r 4 • • 1 1 N r q C D , I r l 0 1 C ) O D

H U ) C M ‘ z e N 0.4 N e 1 1 c r r 9 0 r n •V ) g r 1 4 r n ., e . .c q . • • r H r I r q C D 1 4 r l r n C D r l U

• O

e r H

n r

0 r ) N

W r 1

• /0 4 1

W

• C n

W H

N H

C h . c o W D • 0 O D 0

1 4

c•• 2c••

; L i

c•

a ••

n i rd 0 4 4 0 « 1 rd 0 c a r d ›, 0 P 1 0 r t i 0 r dr d • ( 1 ) • •P 4 f z 4 ( 1 ) • •r Z ( 1 ) • •‘ Z N ( 1 ) • 1 : 4 C D • • c r ) UL D —CD E t r ) UC . D Z UCD — O Z ( r ) U .C 7E c r )U

1 54

concentrations

G )

a nd 3 whose f abric has v isible m ica f lecks ( Tables A .4b a nd c , i n A ppendix A ). C lose e xamination o f t he s herd a lso s howed a " double-dipping" s treak a t one e dge, a f eature c ommon i n ( but n ot peculiar t o) type 1 ware ( section 2 .5.1 a nd Hayes 1 967, 6 6). P lacing t he s herd i n type 3 may h ave b een a m isclassification, mainly due t o t he c olour o f t he s herd. G roup C a lso has PRW40, a ssumed t o b e a J ordanian i mitation o f Hayes' North A frican R ed Ware ( section 2 .5.5). This may a lso b e a misclassification. I t i s, h owever, extremely unwise t o d raw c onclusions on t he basis o f s ingle s amples. R ed ware t ype 4 s eparated i nto t hree g roups. PRW31 a nd 3 3 a re i n g roup F . These t wo s herds b elong t o P eacock 's P ompeiian R ed F abric 2 , which i s most p robably o f e astern M editerranean o rigin ( see s ection 2 .5.4). PRW 2 7, 3 2 a nd 3 4 c omprise g roup D , a nd PRW28-30 c omprise g roup G . These s herds b elong t o P eacock 's P ompeiian R ed F abric 1 , which i s most p robably o f S outh I talian o rigin ( section 2 .5.4). G roup E h as only one s ample, Z P2, which i s c ertainly a waster f rom t he Z urrabah k iln. I ts d ifferent c omposition may b e due t o a material a dded t o t he c lay, p robably t he s ame material t hat g ave i t i ts " slip" ( see s ection 2 .10. Z P2 h as l evels o f L a, C e, L u a nd S m s ubstantially h igher t han a ny o f t he o ther s amples f rom t he Z urrabah k iln c omplex). On t he o ther h and, the u se o f d ifferent c lays i n o ne workshop i s n ot u nknown ( see f or e xample L aubenheimer e t a l. 1 981a, 7 8).

4 .6.5

C ategory V : the l amps f rom t he P etra excavations.

The i nitial g roups obtained by t he k -means method u sing t he s um o f s quares c riterion p roved e xtremely i nhomogeneous, a nd s ome were o verlapping, e ven a fter t he s eparation o f outliers. Thus, t o o btain more meaningful g roups, t he k -means method u sing t he Mahalanobis d istance w ithout a s tarting c lassification, a nd w ith a s tarting c lassification o f t he g roups obtained by t he s um o f s quares c riterion p lus t he outliers, were employed. The r esults were c ompared t o t hose o btained by t he s um o f s quares c riterion, a nd a s eries o f c anonical variate a nalyses a nd F -tests, a s well a s j ackknifing ( the s eparation o f one unit a t a t ime a nd t esting i ts d istance f rom a ll t he g roups) were c arried o ut. The p rocesses r esulted i n s ome s huffling o f t he s amples. The r esults a re i n T able 4 .10a-b. These d ifficulties encountered i n obtaining a c lassification a re mainly d ue t o the h ighly t empered f abrics o f t he l amps, a nd t he l arge d ifferences i n v ariance b etween t he g roups ( homogeneity o f variance i s a ssumed by b oth t he c anonical variate a nalysis a nd t he F -test, s ee s ections 4 .5.2 a nd 4 .5.3). G roup A i s t he l argest o f t he f inal g roups, c omprised o f t wenty one s amples. I t i s a lso quite i nhomogeneous, with wide variations i n the concentrations o f K , C s, L a, L u, Th,

1 55

g l : O 4 . 1 0

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t l rd > 0 a ) r d > 0 ) • •g :4 4 ) • •r4 X r n UC . D Z W U CD

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4 1 0 a 4 X U ) 0 ( . 7 -' C D -- CD

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re l ess than o r C r, Co and Sm, where the minimum values a equal t o half the maximum values. However, n o values d iffer by more than a f actor o f 1 .9 f rom the mean ( in the c ase o f C s, where t he minimum i s 0 .861 ppm f or P L1). C s has a lso p roved t o have wide r anges o f concentrations i n g roup A o f c ategory I ( the c ooking pots, s ection 4 .6.1), g roup A o f c ategory I I ( the painted ware, s ection 4 .6.2) and g roup A o f category I V ( the pottery f rom Z urrabah and the r ed ware, s ection 4 .6.4). A ll these g roups were a ssumed l ocal. M cGovern e t a l. ( 1982, 9 ) r eported s ignificant variations o f many elements, i ncluding K , La, and Sm, i n pottery f rom t he Bacfah valley i n n orth Jordan. A ll a ttempts a t s eparating t he twenty one members o f g roup A i nto more t han one g roup gave g roups overlapping i n a ll the c oncentrations o f the e lements, o r very s mall F -values. The two main Nabataean l amp types ( types 1 a nd 2 i n t his s tudy, s ections 2 .6.1 and 2 .6.2) a re s pread among g roups A , B , F , a nd G . G roups A i s t he l argest, i t contains f ourteen out o f the n ineteen type 1 a nd 2 s amples a nalysed. I t a lso contains PL33 a nd 3 5, considered Nabataean on s tylistic g rounds ( see s ections 2 .6.8 a nd 2 .6.9). However, P L32 which i s c onsidered a Roman i mport on s tylistic g rounds, i s a lso i ncluded i n this g roup ( see s ection 2 .6.7). P L32 i s s imilar i n design t o PL30 ( see P late 1 6). The variations i n the ware ( described i n Table A .5g) may b e a ttributed t o variations i n f iring c onditions. PL30 b elongs t o g roup G , which a lso has three s amples f rom types 1 a nd 2 , a nd PL34, which i s c onsidered Nabataean on s tylistic g rounds ( section 2 .6.9). Thus i t i s p robable that P L30 and 3 2 a re Nabataean i mitations o f Roman imports. P L1-6, o f type 1 , a re thought t o be made u sing t he s ame mould ( section 2 .6.1). PL4 i s i ncluded i n g roup G , i t i s t he l east d efined o f PL1-6. PL6 i s t he b est d efined o f P L1-6, i t i s i ncluded i n g roup B . The f our members o f g roup B have s omewhat s imilar, l ight b rown f abric ( see Appendix A , Tables A .5a, g , j a nd t ). PL31, which i s i ncluded i n g roup B , i s thought t o be o f p robable G allo-Roman o rigin on s tylistic g rounds ( section 2 .6.7). Again, l ike PL30 o f g roup G , a nd PL32 o f g roup A , PL31 may b e a Nabataean i mitation. The d istribution o f PL1-6 among g roups A , B and G s uggests t hat the t hree g roups r epresent d ifferent c lays, o r d ifferent t echniques, employed i n one workshop. O f the members o f g roup G , PL19 i s e specially noteworthy a s i t i s the only analysed s ample o f type 2 which does n ot have the " sun r ay" pattern ( see P late 1 4). PL9 o f type 1 i s i ncluded i n g roup F . G roup F a lso i ncludes PL53 and 5 4, which a re s tylistically o f p robable Egyptian o rigin ( section 2 .6.17). The a ssignment o f PL9 t o type 1 could be doubtful, a s i t i s a s mall s herd o f s hallow moulding ( see description i n Table A .5a, Appendix A ). P L52, which s eems t o be made u sing the s ame mould a s P L53 ( section 2 .6.17) belongs t o g roup C . Thus g roups C a nd F may a lso be

1 59

considered a s o riginating f rom t he s ame workshop. G roup D i s comprised o f both black-glazed l amps o f type 3 . The f ive a pprentice l amps o f t ypes 1 2 a nd 1 3 a re i n g roup E . G roup E a lso contains PL23, 4 9 a nd 5 5-57, which a re o f t ypes very common i n P alestine a nd J ordan. Examples o f t hese types vary i n date f rom l ate H ellenistic t o Byzantine ( sections 2 .6.4, 2 .6.14 and 2 .6.18). Another type which i s very common i n P alestine and Jordan i s type 5 , P L24-26. These three s amples make up g roup J .

4 .6.6

C ategory V I: the t erracotta f igurines f rom t he P etra excavations, the pottery f rom Udhruh a nd Aujah a l-Hafeer, and the pottery a nd c lay mixtures f rom t he Msheirfeh workshop.

I n t his c ategory, two s amples c ome f rom t he s ame f igurine. PFIG26A i s a d rilling f rom t he i nner ( reduced) p art o f P FIG26, a nd P FIG26B i s f rom t he o uter ( oxidised) p art o f PFIG26. The e lemental c oncentrations f or both s amples a re v ery c lose, except f or Rb which i s not considered i n t he data analysis ( see Table B .6, Appendix B ). P FIG26A a nd B were l ooked a t a s one s ample i n carrying out t he f inal ( but not the i nitial) a nalyses. The r esults a re i n Table 4 .11a-b. G roup A i s comprised o f t he M sheirfeh s amples, b oth pottery a nd the c lay mixtures u sed i n i ts manufacture.

t he

PFIG22, which i s made using a t echnique d ifferent t o a ny o f t he other f igurines f rom the excavations ( section 2 .7), b elongs t o g roup B , which i s c omprised o f t hirteen out o f the twenty s ix f igurines a nalysed. F ive out o f s even Aujah a l-Hafeer c oarse ware s amples b elong t o g roup D . However, only AHPW10 o f t he painted ware s amples b elongs t o the s ame g roup. A ll t he o ther painted ware s amples, i ncluding AHPW8, 9 a nd 1 1, which have h eavy paint s imilar t o AHPW10 ( section 2 .8 a nd T able A .7b, Appendix A ), belong t o g roup F . G roup F a lso c ontains AHCW7, a ll t he s amples f rom Udhruh ( assumed Nabataean on typological g rounds, s ee s ection 2 .9), a nd s even o f t he f igurines a nalysed. Thus, t hese f igurines a re a lmost c ertainly o f Nabataean o rigin.

4 .6.7

C ategory V II:

the c lay s amples

The s amples s eparated i nto t en g roups ( Table 4 .12a-b). O f the s ources s tudied, Tawilan, Wadi Musa A a nd Wadi Musa B f orm s eparate g roups. The s amples f rom t he o ther s ources s eparate i nto more than one g roup. Only t he s amples f rom A sem a nd Mu'allaq s eparate a ccording t o c olour. One o f the s amples f rom t he M sheirfeh workshop g rouped with s amples f rom Z urrabah ( pit a nd workshop) a nd A in a t-Tina,

1 60

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ri C VrI C D N . _ . . •

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1 62

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O

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0 4 0 S 4

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C \ 1 • O

r x 1

Table

4 .12a The c lay s amples:

( . 9

• •

r = 4

( 2 ,

0

• O
4

>0 r t iv > 0 m i > 0 T id > 0 n i C 40 . ) • • 1X 4 ) • -C 4 0 •X C D • . P 4 0 • C 4( 1 ) • • g 7 4 0 • • r : 4 ‹ . noL DE C . 7 X m ot7 E u ) o(D E u ) or . D E m o(D E u) dO Z c r d

1 64

•

( 4 1

O U

C O

40 / 1

n t i C O • . •u p

N

O N r f l C O

U l

0 1 r • • e I • . . H C D e 1

r . r e ) C O • • • h • 4 0 . N TH ‘,3

N V I L I D 1 1 N • . . • . t. l e , i r • I

( " I m e V I i r 1 . . ( N I r n

0 4 4

f e l r e ) • • • 6 1 1 C O i n r I

P . 0 r i • . . ‘ . 0 C r ) 1 1 N r

. . x j • r 4 N

. H

C e

•

r 1

( i ) • ri

( 1 )

. Z E H

4 1

H N

C A 0 0 r ) N • • • e 0 a ,

M I N N 0 H • : 14 • • • N 0 O D

N e . 1 L . 0 • • , 4 , 1 -

t r ) r n V I C N 0 1 0- • . •a

M r 0 C D ri

V D 0 0 r q 0

0

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W 0

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0 • H

0 1 0 1 a , c r , • 0

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Q ) V I 4 ( 3 \0 4) O U A C V

. .-, U l W r I . I P i r ' l • 1 • I a d U ) N N • U ) . •r d P e, H C D ri C r )

e l ' C V i n L r l C V • • •e H C D 1 1 -

L l l V D U l R I . — C )

r 1 C V i n C O, I • • C D ri

0 •• . I . ( 0 h ) > n i t 3 I c 0

I

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e

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1 65

the two other s amples g rouped with s amples f rom t he Z urrabah p it, A in a t-Tina and Mu'allaq. The c lay u sed i n t he Msheirfeh workshop comes f rom Mahis, i n t he n orth o f J ordan, f rom l enses i n the Kurnub S andstone f ormation. The o ther clays come f rom the s outh o f J ordan, f rom t he A jlun S eries l imestone f ormation, except maybe f or Z urrabah ( see s ection 2 .11). The A jlun S eries l ies d irectly a bove t he Kurnub f ormation. S ome clays i n both f ormations may b e weathering p roducts o f t he s ame r ocks. This s imilarity b etween t he s amples f rom M sheirfeh ( or r ather Mahis), a nd t he s amples f rom a round P etra i ndicate s ome c omposition patterns may b e f ound i n r elated g eological f ormations s eparated by o ver 2 00 Kms ( see a lso McGovern e t a l. 1 982, 1 0; a nd Hughes e t a l. 1 983, 3 71). However, t he p ossibility t hat t he M sheirfeh c lays may b e s eparated i f more e lements were d etermined c annot b e r uled out. The r esults s how t here i s a g reat variation i n t he c lays a round P etra, even within s ingle s ources. F rom t he excavations a t Z urrabah, i t i s n ot c ertain t hat t he c lay i n the k iln complex was u sed f or pottery making. I t was f ound n ot l evigated a nd the s amples s how variations ( see s ection 2 .10). A most outstanding r esult f rom t he c lay a nalyses i s t he l arge variations i n the C o c oncentrations b etween s amples which have s imilar c oncentrations o f t he o ther e lements d etermined.

Table

4 .13a The c lay s amples: c oncentrations Wadi Musa B s amples o f g roup D .

S ample C o ( ppm)

Table

WMB2L 9 .64

WMB3L 3 .93

A SMR1 9 5.9

MLQG1 6 4.6

M LQG3 1 79.

C o

i n

t he

C o

i n

t he

WMB4L 4 .92

4 .13b The c lay s amples: c oncentrations member s amples o f g roup F .

S ample C o ( ppm)

Table

WMB1L 1 0.5

o f

o f

MLQG6 1 61.

4 .13c The c lay s amples: c oncentrations member s amples o f g roup G .

o f

MLQG7 4 6.6

C o

i n

S ample C o ( ppm)

Z ASY2 1 6.7

ATR1 2 1.0

ATY2 1 2.8

ATG1 2 9.6

ATG2 2 8.8

S ample C o ( ppm)

ATG3 1 0.9

ATG4 3 3.6

M LQG2 1 8.2

MLQG4 3 0.4

MLQG5 2 3.4

S ample C o ( ppm)

MC2 1 6.6

MC3 1 0.4

1 66

t he

Table

lay s amples: c oncentrations 4 .13d The c Mu s a llaq s amples o f g roup I .

S ample C o ( ppm)

4 .7

MLQRY1 4 2.9

C lassification o f

MLQY1 2 4.9

MLQY2 1 5.6

o f

C o

i n

t he

MLQY3 2 7.5

the c ategory g roups

The f inal category g roups obtained i n s ections 4 .6.1-4.6.7 were s ubjected t o the k -means method, t reating e ach c ategory g roup a s one unit, defined by t he a verage c oncentration v alues o f the e lements i n the g roup. The p lot o f t he number o f g roups v ersus t he sum o f s quares c riterion f or k =14 t o 3 0 s hows the l argest drop i n the c riterion value a t k =27 ( Fig. 4 .18). The classification a t k =27 i s g iven i n Table 4 .14. This classification differs f rom the c lassification a t k =27 o btained i n run 3 i n Table 4 .3 ( section 4 .5.1), where t he k -means method was done on t he whole data s et, a nd t he s tarting c lassification was a t k =28. Due t o the l arge number o f g roups, and t heir small s izes, c anonical variate analysis and t he F -test cannot b e r eliabLe when a pplied t o the c lassification i n Table 4 .14 c onsidering each category g roup a s one unit. Thus outlying c ategory g roups were s eparated and the d ifferent c ategory g roups r eplaced by their member s amples. This p rocedure g ives more a ccurate r epresentation o f the g roups. A t t his s tage, more category g roups p roved d ifferent a s variations i n c ompositions became more a pparent due t o t he l arger number o f component units. This p rocedure a lso a llows r eclassification o f units f rom one g roup t o a nother. A s eries o f canonical variate analyses and F -tests were c arried out on d ifferent combinations o f t he s ample g roups, t he r esultant c lassification i s g iven in Table 4 .15a-d. No r eclassifications between the category g roups ( obtained i n s ections 4 .6.1-4.6.7) o ccurred. O f the t hirty g roups i n T able 4 .15c, G X II - G XVII c ontain ' stylistically' N abataean pottery ( in G XVI, t he only p robable Nabataean s ample i s PL9, whose a ssignment a s Nabataean i s doubtful, s ee d iscussion o n f inal g roup F i n s ection 4 .6.5). The c anonical variate plots f or G X II-G XVII a re s hown i n F ig.'s 4 .19a-c a s an e xample. The f irst c anonical variate a ccounts f or 7 5.4% o f t he variance, t he s econd 1 7.7%, a nd t he t hird 5 .0%. The F -values b etween t he g roups a re i n F ig. 4 .20. The elements most u seful i n s eparating t he g roups a re S c, L a, C e a nd Th. F ig.'s 4 .19a-c s how G X II G X IV ( A-C) a s c learly s eparate. G XVI ( E) i s c lose t o G XV ( D) on one s ide, a nd G XVII ( F) o n the o ther. L ooking a t t he c ategory g roups b elonging t o G XV -G XVII, the common ones a re o f c ategories V a nd V I, a nd t hey were a ll well s eparated i n t he i ndividual c ategory a nalyses ( see d iscussions i n Amr 1 986, s ections 4 .6.5 a nd

1 67

*1

s . -4 44 /4 1-4 e -4

P4) -4 4 -4 4 . 4 S A

0 . • I 11P 1

1 -4 1. .4

1 .4

1 .4 I

I

4-0

t he s um o f

+

+

e -

P -11 -4e —e

e —e 1 —t1 -1e 11 - 14 -1e -4

1 4P 4

r— t

f rI1 — . 4e —I

CZ , • td1

4 A

L. .— 0 C

>( .—

W

1 68

1-

c ategory g roups:

n o.

o f g roups v s.

4-

Table

G roup

4 .14

Classification o f the category by the k -means method a t k=27. Cat I

Cat I I

C

B

Cat II I

C at I V

g roups

Cat V

obtained

C at V I

C at V II

1 2 3

A

4 5

D ,H

7 8 A ,B

9 1 0 1 1 1 2

B ,G

1 3 1 4

B ,H

1 5

A

1 6

D

A

A

C ,F A

1 7

B ,E A

1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4

1 69

B ,E

Table

Group

4 .14 cont. C at I

C at I I

C at I II

2 5 2 6 2 7

1 70

C at I V

C at V

C at V I

C at V II

c lassification

4 1 0

. C V i f

. z t

N N O D r -r-rq r y u n U D r D

H

0

0

0

1 71

r n r -

L / 1

r -

• • C O i n c l I I 0 • c e . 4 ) 0 C r. )

i f ) r H

z r C V M D I I I I 1 1 O D r q M D c V

0

1 72

c l C N L o I I . c e C V

i n r r - o o . . r y r -o p

.

•.

rA

1 0 4

4 1

H0 0 4 K C N

K C ( N

D 4

u n C . )

M D

e s ) C N C V n 1 C N r f C V w e I I rq r" • • 1 1 N I r i C

8 .00 M D C V U l C D 0 0 c i r n r n t i n

( N I

r n r n r l u n

C N

.

G XVIIIA

r ,

C D

1 73

lCD

0

H H

H H

X X

X X

0

0

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C V

( i )

.

-2

( 1 ) i 1

A ( T i E 4

> H X

H H > X

H H H > X

X H X

0

X

> X

X

H > X

X

X

X

0

0

0

0

0

• C V

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X

1 74

Table

4 .15b The c ategory groups corresponding classification o f the s amples i n Table Cat I

Group

Cat I I

C at I II

Cat IV

C at V

t o the 4 .15a. Cat V I

GI G I I G I II G IV G V G V I G V II G VIII G IX G X G X I G X II G X III G X IV A

A

G XV G XVI

A

G XVII G XVIII

A

G XVIII

B

A

G X IX G XX G XXI G XXII G XXIII

1 75

Cat VII

Table

4 .15b cont.

Group

Cat I

Cat I I

Cat I II

C at IV

Cat V

C at V I

Cat VII

G XXIV

J

G XXV

D

G XXVI

B

G XXVII

C

G XXVIII

A

G XXIX

G 1 .

G XXX Ung rouped

D E,F , B ,G

B ,C

J ,H, I ,E

1 76

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O f t he f inal s ample g roup i - I hich a re c omprised o f more than one c ategory g roup, G V I h as PTS73, which c ombines a western s igillata f orm w ith e astern s igillata A c olours ( section 2 .4.5), c lustered with PRW27, 3 2 a nd 3 4, o f r ed ware t ype 4 f abric 1 ( section 2 .5.4). G XV i s t he l argest g roup, with 2 11 s amples. I t c an b e a ssumed l ocal t o P etra. I t c ontains a ll t he pottery s amples f rom t he Z urrabah workshop, except f or Z P2, a s well a s t he bulk o f t he c ooking pots a nd Nabataean p ainted ware f rom t he P etra excavations. The g roup a lso c ontains most o f t he a ssumed Nabataean r ed ware s amples f rom t he P etra excavations, a ll t he Nabataean painted ware f rom Aujah a l-Hafeer ( except f or AHPW10), a nd a ll t he a ssumed Nabataean s amples f rom Udhruh. However, t he g roup does n ot i nclude a ny o f t he Nabataean l amp types, except f or the a pprentice l amps. I t i ncludes l amp types c ommon i n P alestine a na J ordan f rom t he l ate H ellenistic t o t he Byzantine p eriod. The bulk o f t he Nabataean l amps b elong t o G XVII, a long with t hirteen o f t he twenty s ix f igurine s amples. R elated l amp g roups b elong t o G X II a nd G X III. G XV i ncludes t he very f ine Nabataean painted ware f abrics a s well a s t he c oarse cooking pots a nd t he h ighly

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t his c ase). E astern Cyprus i s t he most p robable o rigin o f t he s amples a nalysed. 9 andarli c annot b e r uled o ut u ntil c omparisons with e stablished f ingerprints o f t he s ite c an b e made. g andarli l ies on t he western c oast o f A sia M inor ( see c omments on G I I a nd G I V a bove). G I X i s c omprised o f most o f t he western t erra s igillata s amples a nalysed. The ware o f t he s amples i n G I X i s c ommonly r eferred t o a s A rettine a nd i s a lmost c ertainly o f I talian o rigin ( see s ection 2 .4.1). The g roup matches wasters f rom A rezzo ( Table 4 .19). G XV i s t he g roup a ssumed t o b e l ocal t o P etra. I ts c omposition i s c lose t o t hat o f P alestinian l imestone h ill c lays ( Table 4 .20). However, t he p ublished g roup h as v ery l arge s tandard d eviations, making i t a n u nreliable r eference. Most o f t he c lays i n t he P etra a rea c ome f rom t he s ame g eological l imestone f ormation a s t he P alestinian l imestone h ills c lays ( see s ection 2 .11). O n t he o ther h and, n o matches b etween G XV a nd published P alestinian p ottery c ould b e f ound, a nd c orrelating p ottery t o c lay h as p roved unreliable ( see s ection 4 .7). N evertheless, a P alestinian o rigin f or s ome o f t he s amples i ncluded i n G XV c annot b e r uled o ut. G XV i s a lso s omewhat c lose i n c omposition t o a s mall g roup o f p lain ( Nabataean ? ) wares f rom O boda ( Table 4 .20). The g roup i s a ssumed l ocal t o Oboda, a N abataean s ite i n t he N egeb. No b asis f or t his a ssumption a re g iven i n t he publication. G XXVII i s c omprised o f t he t welve s amples o f r ed ware t ype 1 a nalysed, PRW24 which was a ssigned t o r ed ware t ype 3 , a nd t he miscellaneous r ed ware s ample P RW40. The c omposition o f t he g roup i s c lose t o t hat o f B ase R ing wares, most p robably o f C ypriot o rigin ( Table 4 .21). I t matches G unneweg e t a l.'s E TS-II g roup, o f C ypriot o r Anatolian o rigin. H owever, t he Anatolian r eference g roup i s t oo unreliable t ö b e s eriously c onsidered ( see d iscussion i n s ection 2 .5.1). G X IV, c omprised o f P CP33, a c ooking p ot t ype f requently paralleled outside Nabataean s ites ( Table A .1 i n A ppendix A ), o ne miscellaneous l amp, o ne p ainted s herd f rom A ujah a l-Hafeer, a nd f ive out o f t he s even Aujah a l-Hafeer c oarse ware s amples a nalysed, i s s omewhat s imilar i n c omposition t o P alestinian g roups published b y B rooks e t a l. ( 1974, T able I V, l ocal H esi p ottery, p ublication i n e lement-oxide c oncentrations), Mommsen e t a l. ( 1984, T able 3 L lmlk j ars), a nd Y ellin ( 1984, Table 3 I A(CW)). H owever, n o c lose matches c ould b e f ound. A P alestinian o rigin, p robably i n t he N egeb a t Aujah a l-Hafeer i tself, i s l ikely. G XXII, c omprised o f t he t hree t ype 5 ( Herodian wheel-made) l amps a nalysed, i s s omewhat s imilar i n c omposition t o a g roup f rom D eir a l-Balah i n P alestine ( Yellin a nd G unneweg 1 985, Table 1 7). However, t he t wo g roups do n ot match v ery c losely, a nd t he r eference g roup, o f only e ight s amples, i s t oo s mall t o b e o f t rue value. A P alestinian o rigin i s t he

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/ 4 1 , 0 s c , L n H H

e l m 1 r I 1 H

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I

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0

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m 4 ) 0 W 0 C N 1

— 4 . ) A 0 . . U )

0

E

0 r 1

c•

-rd r d -4: 1 r d 0 •« I ( 1 ) r m 0 •X I 0 • O X W — X m — E m — Z w

H r d 4 . ) 0 H w H H M H > 1H w m E i 4 1 ( T i

4 )

C l ) M

O m 1 , 1 -

m rd w 4 .) 1i n 0 C • /

• Zr

C d

•• a •

^ C dr d •A C V •

References

0 % 1 24t . 0 C V r I i g r • • • I. C V 0 C )H O r n A 4

x

1 96

a l-Hafeer Palestine

Eastern

P ossible

S 4 0

North east P eloponese

C N .

C D g i r d 3

. . w w C D C D g i i• r H 3 g i

V C D 4 )

s igillata

• w 0 . 1 o i

3

( 1 ) ( 1 ) • U ) o g i r d O U P i

E t n a d

, -

Eastern

Possible

0

B lack-glazed l amps.

H t i n H

r esented

U l

Wares r e

4 -

10

H C D g i r d «I > U

C D 4

r d CI c D• H

C d 1 : 2 4

C d a ) C d P r d A C d z

r e )

r e g i c D 0 cc O W

9 ) : • . n j r n a , ' 0 E a ) r d P H H e m p . ,• , 1

•

r d r t ir e ( 1 ) e o -) 4 ) t r d A r dV Z .

U )

r d

r d H r d C d i .

H

r d c n

1 97

0 r d H H 0

, 4

( )

w

c D

, 1

0 4 E

U )

4 ) g i Ord 0 al • H 4 ) W CIH a l 4J 3 . . 1 W h 4 c l 0 H H 0 r d• H 0 r 2 L 4 r s 4

. lV c g i g i r d C D 3 U ) V i r l ) a ) g i e C D 3 H A V « 1 C O A g i o 1e . n 1 2 , 0 ( 1 ) C D

> 1 P 0 C d r d

0 0 r d

V g i r d0 C D t 2 4 W

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS

5 .1

P ottery manufacture i n P etra

1 . The s amples i n G XV, t he s ample g roup l ocal t o P etra ( in s ection 4 .7), s pan a l ong p eriod o f t ime, f rom l ate H ellenistic ( around t he b eginning o f t he s econd c entury B .C.) t o l ate Byzantine ( around f ifth-sixth c entury A .D.). This i ndicates t hat p ottery p roduction i n P etra w ent o n f or a t l east t hat p eriod, a nd t hat t he s ame s ources o f c lay w ere u sed t hroughout ( although a P alestinian o rigin f or s ome o f t he s amples c ould n ot b e r uled o ut, b ut c ould n ot b e p roven e ither, s ee s ection 4 .8.1). 2 . Khairy 's a ssumptions t nat most o f t he c oarse a nd p ainted wares f rom t he P etra e xcavations o riginated i n P etra ( see s ections 2 .2 a nd 2 .3.1) a re s upported by t he f act t hat t he majority o f t he c ooking pots, a nd N abataean r ed a nd p ainted wares a nalysed b elong t o G XV. 3 . The P etra p otters w ere h ighly s elective i n c hoosing a nd p rocessing t heir c lays. G XV i s much more h omogeneous t han t he c lays f rom t he P etra a rea, which s pread o ut a mong t en s ample g roups ( Table 4 .15a i n s ection 4 .7). H owever, t hey u sed t he s ame c lays, a nd s imilar p rocessing t echniques, f or making a r ange of d ifferent c lasses o f p ottery, f rom t he v ery f ine p ainted wares t o t he c oarse c ooking p ots, l amps and f igurines. 4 : There may h ave b een s ome s pecialisation i n t he p roduction a reas o f Nabataean p ainted ware a nd l amps, w ith P etra ( and t he s urrounding a reas, maybe i ncluding Udhruh) s pecialising i n t he manufacture o f. p ainted w are, a nd o ther a reas s pecialising i n t he p roduction o f l amps ( see s ection 4 .7).

5 .2

P etra's p ottery t rade

l inks.

1 . A reas i n G reece, C yprus, I taly a nd P alestine h ave b een e stablished a s p ossible s ources o f s ome o f t he s amples a nalysed, w ith A sia M inor a s a nother s trong p robability ( section 4 .8.1 a nd T able 4 .23). T hese a reas a re a rchaeologically p ossible a s o rigins o f t he p ottery c lasses i n question, a nd t hey a re h istorically k nown a s a reas w ith which t he Nabataeans h ad s trong l inks ( see C hapter 1 ).

2 . No o rigin c ould b e e stablished f or t hirteen s ample g roups, a s w ell a s f or s everal un-grouped s amples. S tylistically, f ive o f t hese g roups a re t hought t o h ave W estern ( i.e. E uropean) o rigins, a nd a nother t hree o f t hem c ontain s tylistically N abataean, o r p robable N abataean, s amples. The i nability t o a ttribute a ny o f t he s amples t o a reas l ying t o t he e ast a nd s outh o f t he Nabataean K ingdom, which a re k nown h istorically t o h ave s trong l inks t o t he N abataeans, may b e due t o t wo f actors: a . comparatively f ew n eutron a ctivation s tudies o f l ocal f ingerprints o f t hese a reas h ave b een made, i n s ome cases n one a t a ll, b . t he p ottery c lasses a nalysed a re n ot r epresentative o f t he e xcavated material a s a whole, but b iased t owards c ertain c lasses a nd t ypes o f p ottery.

5 .3

The n eutron a ctivation a nalysis

1 . I n p reparing t he p ottery s amples f or a nalysis, i t was f ound t hat d rilling o ut p owder u sing a s ynthetic s apphire d rill h ead i s a s atisfactory m ethod which i s c omparatively n ondestructive a nd d oes n ot c ause a ny s ignificant c ontamination ( see s ection 3 .3.3). 2 . No p re-treatment o f t he s amples f rom P etra was f ound n ecessary ( section 3 .3.4). H owever, i t s hould b e k ept i n m ind t hat P etra, a s well a s Udhruh a nd Aujah a l-Hafeer, a re a rid a reas, which a re a lso f ree o f modern c hemicals s uch a s f ertilisers a nd i nsecticides. I n o ther c ases, e specially where s ites a re waterlogged o r c lose t o t he s ea, p re-treatment s hould b e s eriously i nvestigated. 3 . Obtaining t he r esults i n c oncentration u nits h as p roved h elpful i n a llowing c omparisons with studies done at other l aboratories t o b e made. I t a lso e stablishes t he g roups a rrived a t i n t his s tudy a s r eference g roups which may b e c ompared t o f uture work. 4 . I n o btaining t he r esults i n c oncentration u nits, t hree p oints h ave t o b e t aken i nto a ccount: a . t o o vercome e rrors due t o c hanges i n t he n eutron f lux i n t he r eactor c ore, t he u se o f t wo c apsules c ontaining t he s tandard a t e ach e nd o f t he i rradiation t ube g ave more a ccurate r esults t han t he u se o f m etal f lux monitors ( section 3 .3.7), b . s ome e lements ( or p eaks) which h ave b een d etected by n eutron a ctivation p roved u nreliable ( section 3 .3.1 a nd 4 .4), c . d espite t he f act t hat o nly a f ew e lements may b e e nough t o d istinguish g roups, a s many e lements a s p ossible s hould b e d etermined. D ifferent e lements w ere f ound t o b e b est d iscriminators when d ealing with t he d ifferent c ategory g roups ( although, i n most c ases, L a a nd Th were t he b est d iscriminators, f ollowed by C e, a nd t o a

1 99

l esser e xtent S c). T he d etermination o f t oo f ew e lements may p roduce m isleading r esults, a s s hown b y t he composition o f G V , c omprised o f e astern t erra s igillata s amples, matching a p ublished M esopotamian g roup ( section 4 .8.1 a nd T able 4 .18). 5 . P oint c a bove l eads t o t he q uestion o f t he maximum n umber o f e lements t hat h ave t o b e d etected i n o rder t o d istinguish g roups. The e leven e lements u sed i n t his s tudy p roved s atisfactory i n g eneral. I n o ne c ase, h owever, t wo g roups k nown t o b e o f d ifferent o rigins c ould n ot b e s eparated ( G XVIII A a nd B i n s ection 4 .7). I n a c ase r eported b y Y ellin ( 1984, 9 1-92 a nd T able 6 ), t wo a rchaeologically d istinct g roups c ould n ot b e s eparated e ven when e ighteen e lements w ere c ompared. This p roblem may b e s olved by l ooking a t t he p etrology o f t he p ottery a s w ell a s t he e lemental c omposition. P eacock ( 1970, 3 8; 1 977a, 2 6) a dvocates t he r outine u se o f p etrological t echniques i n e xamining p ottery, t o b e s upplemented by chemical a nalyses where n ecessary, s uch a s when d ealing w ith f ine, w ell l evigated wares. T he d ifficulty i n d ealing w ith t he r esults o f t he a nalysis o f t he h ighly t empered l amps a re i llustrated i n s ection 4 .6.5. The u se o f p etrological m ethods m ay a lso s hed l ight o n r esults o btained i n t his s tudy f or s ome o f t he c oarse w are s amples, s uch a s whether t he s eparation o f r ed w are t ype 4 ( Pompeiian R ed) f abric 1 s amples i nto G V I a nd V II i s r eally c alled f or, o r t he i nclusion o f P RW24 a nd 4 0 i n G XXVII, a long w ith t he r ed ware t ype 1 s amples, i s c orrect. Another a spect i n which p etrological methods may b e u seful i s i n d istinguishing c lay s amples, where c lays f rom t he n orth o f J ordan c ould n ot b e d istinguished f rom c lays f rom t he s outh o n t he b asis o f t heir e lemental c ompositions ( section 4 .6.7). 6 . N eutron a ctivation a nalysis d oes n ot s eem t o b e v ery e ffective i n a ttributing p ottery t o c lay s ources. O nly t he modern f igurine, made f rom T awilan c lay u sing v ery l ittle p reparation, m atched i ts c lay s ource. T he p ottery s amples f rom M sheirfeh matched t he p repared c lay m ixtures f rom t he s ame workshop, but n ot t he r aw c lays. T his i s d ue t o t he c omplex p rocesses o f p ottery m anufacture. H owever, t he m ethod i s s till s trong e nough t o a llow s everal d ifferent t ypes o f p ottery, s panning a v ery l ong p eriod o f t ime, t o b e matched, a s i n t he c ase o f G X V ( see p arts 1 a nd 3 i n s ection 5 .1).

5 .4

T reatment o f t he d ata

1 . S everal s tatistical a nd mathematical methods w ere u sed f or a nalysing a nd i nterpreting t he n eutron a ctivation a nalysis r esults. They a re d escribed i n s ections 4 .5.1-4.5.4. Their c ombination w as f ound, b oth t heoretically a nd p ractically, t o b e s atisfactory f or a pplication t o t he d ata. E very m ethod h as i ts a ssumptions a nd d rawbacks, s ome

2 00

o f which a re counteracted by t he u se o f a nother method. The u se o f s imple s tandard d eviations a t t he e nd o f t he i nitial s eparations enables o ne t o l ook a t a lmost e very s ingle s ample, a nd c orrects f or t he a ssumption i ntroduced by h aving t o r eplace t he m issing v alues by a verage c oncentrations ( see s ection 4 .6). I t i s n ot s uggested h ere t hat t he methodology u sed i n C hapter 4 i s t he only way t o d eal w ith s uch d ata. I n t he c ase o f t he l amps f or e xample, where p roblems w ith s eparating t he g roups were e ncountered, t he k -means method, u sing t he Mahalanobis d istance, a nd j ackknifing w ere a lso u sed i n c onjunction w ith t he o ther, r outinely-applied, methods ( section 4 .6.5. F or a rguments i n f avour o f t he u se o f s everal methods i n a nalysing t he s ame d ata s ee M ertz e t a l. 1 979, e specially 5 81). The u se o f c omputers i s a n ecessity when c arrying o ut s uch a nalyses, a nd s everal e xisting s tatistical packages o ffer a w ide c hoice o f methods. T heir u se i s i nvaluable. 2 . I n d ealing w ith t he d ata s et, i t was d ivided u p i nto s even c ategories, mainly, but n ot e xclusively, a ccording t o t he d ifferent c lasses s tudied. T his a pproach makes t he d ata t reatment a l ong a nd l aborious p rocess, a nd was d one p rimarily t o enable c arrying o ut t he c anonical v ariate a nalysis. H owever, t his d ivision was a lso f ound u seful a s t he s tudy d eals w ith many s amples, b elonging t o a w ide r ange o f wares, a nd r epresenting c omposition g roups w idely v arying i n c oncentration r anges a nd h omogeneities. The d ivision i nto c ategories m eans t he wares d ealt w ith a t a ny o ne t ime a re more s imilar t han i f a ll t he d ata w ere c onsidered s imultaneously ( t he d ifficulties e ncountered i n c omparing w idely d ifferent t ypes o f wares a re m entioned i n t he d iscussion o f t he c oefficients o f v ariance i n s ection 4 .5.4). D ealing w ith f ewer s amples a t a t ime means t hat i nhomogeneous g roups which a re i nitially s eparated i nto more t han o ne g roup, may b e much m ore e asily d etected a s r epresenting o ne c omposition g roup, when c ompared t o o ther . t ight, more homogeneous g roups.

2 01

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AA

American Antiquity

AASOR

Annual o f the American S chools o f Oriental Research

ABSA

Annual Athens

ADAJ

Annual o f Antiquities

AJA

American Journal o f

o f

the

B ritish

S chool

a t

t he Department o f Jordan

o f

A rchaeology

Archaeological

C eramics

Olin, J .S., and F ranklin, A .D. ( eds.) 1 982. Archaeological C eramics. Washington, D .C: Smithsonian I nstitution P ress.

Archaeological

Chemistry

Beck, C . W. ( ed.) 1 974. Archaeological C hemistry. Advances i n Chemistry S eries 1 38. Wahsington, D .C.: American Chemical S ociety.

Attie dei

Convegni

L incei

C esareo, R . ( ed.) 1 976. A ttie dei C onvegni L incei 1. 1 I nternational C onference, Applications o f Nuclear Methods in the F ield o f Works o f Art ( Rome-Venice, 2 4-29 May 1 973), Rome: A ccademia Nazionale dei L incei.

BA

The B iblical A rchaeologist

BASOR

Bulletin o f t he American o f Oriental R esearch

B IA

Bulletin o f t he I nstitute Archaeology, L ondon

C eramics

I EJ

o f

Kaminaljuyu

S chools

o f

Wetherington, R .K. ( ed.) 1 978. The C eramics o f Kaminaljuyu, Guatemala. The P ennsylvania University P ress Monographs S eries o n Kaminaljuyu. •I srael

E xploration Journal

JAOS

Journal Society

o f

JAS

Journal o f

the

American

Oriental

A rchaeological S cience

JNES

Journal of Near E astern S tudies

JRS

Journal o f Roman S tudies

Mathematics

Hodson, F .R., Kendall, D .G., and Täutu, P . ( eds.) • 1 971. Mathematics i n the A rchaeological and H istorical S ciences. Edinburgh: University P ress.

Modern T rends

Henkelman, R ., K im, J .I. , Lux, F ., S tärk, H ., and Z eisler, R . ( eds.) 1 976. P roceedings, 1 976 I nternational C onference: Modern Trends i n A ctivation Analysis, vol. I ( Preprints). Munchen, I Federal Republic o f Germany, 1 3 to 1 7 S eptember, 1 976.

P EQ

Palestine Exploration Quarterly

P EFQS

Palestine E xploration Quarterly S tatement

P roceedings, Symposium

2 2nd

Fund,

A spinall, A ., and Warren, S . E . ( eds.) 1 983. The P roceedings o f t he 2 2nd Symposium on Archaeometry. B radford: S chools o f P hysics a nd A rchaeological S ciences, U niversity o f B radford.

QDAP

The Quarterly o f t he D epartment o f Antiquities i n P alestine

RB

Revue B iblique

S cience a nd A rchaeology

Brill, R .H. ( ed.) 1 971. S cience a nd A rchaeology. C ambridge, Mass: M IT P ress.

S cientific S tudies

1 981. Hughes, M .J. ( ed.) Ancient S cientific S tudies i n Museum C eramics. British ondon: Occasional P aper No. 1 9. L R esearch B ritish Museum L aboratory.

WA

World A rchaeology

2 03

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An

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t o

A lvey, N .G., Banfield, C .F., Baxter, R .I., Gower, J .C., Krzanowski, W .J., Lane, P .W., L eech, P .W., Nelder, J .A., Payne, R .W., Phelps, K .M., Rogers, C .E., Ross, G .J.S., S impson, H .R., Todd, A .D., Tunnicliffe-Wilson, G ., Wedderburn, R .W.M., White, R .P., a nd Wilkinson, G .N. 1 983. Genstat, a G eneral S tatistical P rogram. Rothamsted Experimental S tation: The Numerical Algorithms G roup, L awes Agricultural T rust. Amr,

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A ttas, M ., Jaffe, L ., a nd F ossey, J .M. 1 977. N eutron a ctivation a nalysis o f e arly B ronze Age p ottery f rom L ake Vouliagm6ni, P erakhära, C entral G reece. A rchaeometry 1 9(1): 3 3-43. A ttas, M ., Widemann, F ., F ontes, P ., G ruel, K ., L aubenheimer, F ., L eblanc, J ., a nd L leres, J . 1 979. E arly B ronze A ge c eramics f rom L erna i n G reece: r adiochemical s tudies. A rchaeo-Physika 1 0: 1 4-28. A ttas, M ., F ossey, J .M., a nd Yaffe, L . 1 982. Variation o f c eramic c omposition w ith t ime: a t est c ase u sing L akonian p ottery. A rchaeometry 2 4(2): 1 81-190. A ttas, M ., F ossey, J .M., a nd Yaffe, L . 1 984. C orrections f or d rill-bit c ontamination i n s ampling a ncient p ottery f or n eutron a ctivation a nalysis. A rchaeometry 2 6(1): 1 04-107. A vi-Yonah, M . 1 944. P alestine i n t he 1 05-151. -

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e lements Byzantine

a rt QDAP

i n t he a rt o f , p eriods I I. QDAP

A vi-Yonah, M . 1 950. O riental e lements i n P alestinian a rt the R oman a nd Byzantine p eriods . QDAP 1 4: 4 9-80. B aly,

o f 1 0:

i n

T .J.C. 1 962. The P ottery. I n E xcavations a t N essana ( Auja Hafir, P alestine), vol. 1 , e d. H .D. C olt, 2 70-311. L ondon: B ritish S chool o f A rchaeology i n J erusalem.

B anterla, G ., S tenico, A ., T errani, M ., a nd V illani, S . 1 973. Characterisation o f S amian ware s herds by m eans o f n eutron a ctivation a nalysis. A rchaeometry 1 5(2): 2 09-220. B arnett, V ., a nd L ewis, T . 1 984. Outliers i n s tatistical d ata, 2 nd e d. Chichester: J ohn W iley & S ons.

2 05

B arra

Bagnesco, M ., B ranca, M .E., C onforto, L ., N icoletti, M ., Palmieri, A .M., a nd Taddenci, A . 1 981. I mported a nd l ocally p roduced c eramics a t L ocri E pizephri: r esults o f s pectrochemical a nalyses; c hemical c onsiderations o n t he t hermal t reatment o f r aw materials a nd w eathering o f c eramics. R evue d ' Archeometrie, s upplement, v ol. II: 1 9-27. I

B artlett, J .R. 1 979. F rom E domites t o Nabataeans, c ontinuity. P EQ: 5 3-66. B en-Dor,

S .

1 949.

P etra C olonia.

B erytus

9 :

a s tudy o f

4 1-43.

B ender, F . 1 974. G eology o f J ordan. T rans. M .K. K hdeir, D .H. P arker, a nd V . W ilkining. B erlin: G ebruder B orntraeger. B ennett, C .M. 1 968. The ADAJ 1 2-13: 5 3-55.

e xcavations

a t

T awilan

B ennett, C .M. 1 971, A b rief n ote on e xcavations J ordan, 1 968-70. L evant 3 : v -vii. B ennett, C .M. 1 984. E xcavations a t Jordan, 1 982. L evant 1 6: 1 -19.

Tawilan

n r.

P etra.

a t T awilan,

i n

s outhern

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Magalousis, N .M. 1 975. A tomic Absorption Spectrophotometric • Analysis o f Nabataean, Hellenistic and Roman C eramics f rom the Negev i n an Attempt t o Reconstruct H istory. •M . A. Thesis i n Anthropology ( Archaeology). C alifornia S tate University, Fullerton.

2 15

Matthers, J ., L iddy, D .J., Newton, G .W. A., Robinson, V .J., and Al-Tawel, H . 1 983. B lack-on-red ware i n t he L evant: a n eutron a ctivation analysis s tudy. JAS 1 0(4): 3 69-382. Mertz, R ., Melson, W ., and L evenbach, G . 1 979. Exploring data analysis o f Mycenaean c eramic c ompositions a nd provenances. Archaeo-Physika 1 0: 5 80-596. Meshorer, Y . 1 975. Nabataean C oins. Hebrew University.

Qedem 3 .

J erusalem:

The

M ichel, H .V., F rierman, J . D., and A saro, F . 1 976. C hemical composition patterns o f ceramic wares f rom Fustät, Egypt. Archaeometry 1 8(1): 8 5-92. Mommsen, H ., P erlman, I . provenience o f t he Lmlk

and j ars.

Y ellin, I EJ 3 4:

J ., 1 984. 8 9-113.

The

Munsell C olor. Munsell Soil C olor Charts. 1 975 ed. Baltimore: Macbeth D ivision o f Kollmorgen C orporation. Murray, M . A., and E llis, J .C. London: British S chool o f Bernard Quaritch L td.

1 940. A S treet i n P etra. A rchaeology i n E gypt, a nd

Mynors, H .S. 1 983. An examination o f Mesopotamian c eramics using petrographic and n eutron a ctivation a nalysis. I n Proceedings, 2 2nd Symposium, pp. 3 77-387. Negev, A . 1 963. Nabataean IEJ 1 3: 1 13-124. Negev, A . 1 967. 4 6-55.

Oboda,

Negev, A . 1 969. period. PEQ Negev,

A .

Negev, A . Bonn:

1 972.

The 1 01:

i nscriptions

Mampsis

f rom

' Avdat

( Oboda).

and P rovincia A rabia.

chronology 5 -14.

Nabatean s igillata.

o f

the

middle

7 9:

3 81-398.

RB

1 974. The Nabatean Potter's Rudolph Habelt Varlag GMBH.

Workshop

I EJ

1 7:

Nabataean

a t

Obodah.

Negev, A . 1 986. The Late Hellenistic and Early Roman P ottery o f Nabataean Oboda. Qedem, vol. 2. J erusalem: The 2 Hebrew University. Negev, A ., a nd S ivan, R . 1 977. The pottery o f t he Nabataean necropolis a t Mampsis. R ei C retariae Romanae F autorum 1 7/18: 1 09-131. Oates, J ., Davidson, 1 977. S eafaring 21-234. 2

T .E., Kamilli, D ., a nd McKerrell, H . meruhants o f U r? Antiquity 5 1(203):

2 16

Olin,

J .S., and S ayre, E . V. 1 971. Compositional categories o f s ome English and American pottery o f the American Colonial period. I n S cience and A rchaeology, pp. 1 96-209.

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o f

a rchaeological

O swald, F ., and P ryce, T .D. 1 920. An I ntroduction t o Study o f Terra S igillata. London: Longmans, G reen Co. Parr,

P .J.

1 957.

R ecent d iscoveries Rock

a t P etra.

engravings

8 9:

5 -16.

Parr,

P .J. 1 959. 1 06-108.

Parr,

P .J. 1 960. 1 24-135.

Parr,

P .J. 1 963. The capital o f American 2 09(4): 9 5-102.

Parr,

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Parr,

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Parr,

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Parr,

P .J., Harding, Preliminary s urvey 1 93-242.

E xcavations

Petra,

P etra.

PEQ

9 1:

1 958-59.

PEQ

9 2:

the Nabataeans.

S cientific

and n orth-west A rabia.

B IA

G .L., and Dayton, J .E. 1 969. i n n .w. A rabia, 1 968. B IA 8 -9:

P eacock, D .P.S. 1 970. The ceramics: a r eview. WA P eacock, D .P.S. archaeology. Peacock, pp.

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2 17

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2 18

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s ome I n

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2 19

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F . 1 982. Recent excavations ADAJ 2 6: 3 65 -3 93.

22 2

a t

P etra

( 1979

-

APPENDIX A DESCRIPTION OF THE SAMPLES

Table A .1

The cooking p ots

S ample

P rovenance

P CP1 P CP2 P CP3 P CP4 P CP5 PCP6 P CP7 PCP8 P CP9 PCP10 PCP11 PCP12 P CP13 PCP14 PCP15 P CP16

f rom t he P etra excavations. F amily paralleled outside Nabataean s ites* Rarely F requently

F amily*

Type*

1 .49 1 .101.106 1 .126.10 1 .126.27 1 .103.18 I .117.44a I V.107.16/12 I V.107.16/15 I V.107.11/33 1 .127.32 1 .101.92 1 .114.13 1 .105.78 1 .114.13 I X.101.4 V II.13

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 6 7 8 1 1 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 2 0 2 2 2 3

PCP17 PCP18 P CP19 PCP20

1 .126.33 1 .105.87 1 .103.47 V .101.3a

2 2 2 2

2 8 2 8 3 0 3 0

X

PCP21 P CP22 PCP23

1 .107.14 1.18 1 1 .115

3 3 3

3 4 3 6 3 7

X

PCP24 PCP25

XX.400.12 I X.100.74

4 4

4 1 4 3

X

PCP26 PCP27 PCP28

1 .101.106 1 .101.105 1 .121.6

5 5 5

4 9 4 9 5 2

X

PCP29 PCP30 P CP31 PCP32 PCP33 P CP34

1 .110.2 I I.111.11 XXI.600.4/6 I V.107.6/23 1 .121.7 XXI.100.5/5

6 6 6 6 6 6

6 2 6 5 6 6 6 7 7 1 7 4

X

X

'b1e A .1

cont.

Family*

S ample

P rovenance

P CP35 P CP36 P CP37 P CP38 P CP39 P CP40 P CP41 P CP42

1 .103.53 1 .101.2 11.4 1 I Va.3 XXI.200.3/14 XXI.200/2 XXI.100.4C/5 11.103.18 1

7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7

7 6 7 6 7 9 7 9 8 3 8 4 8 5 9 0

P CP43 P CP44 P CP45 P CP46 P CP47 P CP48 P CP49 P CP50 P CP51 P CP52

1 .103.16 1 .73 1 .104.10 1 .101 1 .101.110 11.103.2 1 1 .124.1 1 .106.17 1 .150.2 1 .121.7

8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

9 3 9 5 9 5 9 6 9 6 9 9 1 06 1 06 1 06 1 09

X

P CP53 P CP54 P CP55

11.101.131 1 11.103.34a 1 11.109.25 1

9 9 9

14 1 15 1 18 1

X

P CP56 P CP57 P CP58

1 .116.2 1 .127.23 1 .106.17

1 0 1 0 1 0

1 20 1 22 1 23

X

P CP59 P CP60 P CP61

XXI.200/6 XXI.802.B.7 1.103.9 1

1 1 1 1 1 1

1 29 1 30 1 31

X

P CP62 P CP63 P CP64 P CP65 P CP66 P CP67

I .103.6a 1 .103.23 I .98( N) 1 .51 11.103.31 1 V II.9

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2

1 32 1 37 1 38 1 42 1 44 1 45

P CP68 P CP69 P CP70

1 .49 1 .104.78 IV.100.55

1 3 1 3 1 3

1 51 1 52 1 53

P CP71 P CP72 P CP73 P CP74 P CP75

1 .126.33 1 .104.10 1 .101.94 1 .101.106 II.103.44a I

1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4

1 54 1 55 1 57 1 58 1 62

24 2

Type*

Family p aralleled outside Nabataean s ites* Rarely F requently X

X

X

X

T able A .1

cont.

S ample

P rovenance

P CP76 P CP77 P CP78 P CP79 P CP80 P CP81

1.18 1 1.36 1 1 V.3 1 .31 I .+ 1 .101.63

P CP82 P CP83 P CP84 P CP85

1 .101.5.6 XXX.100.12 11.107.80 1 11.103.32 1

*

A fter Khairy

Table A .2a

Family*

T ype*

1 5 1 5 1 5 1 5 1 5 1 5

1 66 1 76 1 85 1 87 1 88 1 90

Misc. Misc. M isc. M isc.

1 93 1 99 2 01 -

Family paralleled outside Nabataean s ites* Rarely F requently X

1 975.

Type 1 Nabataean excavations.

painted

ware

f rom

the

P etra

P aint ( darkest)

Thickn ess

P late

2 .5YR6/7 ( light r ed). Very f ew small white g rits.

2 .5YR 4 .5/8 ( red).

0 .19cm

1

Open bowl body s herd

2 .5YR6/8 ( light r ed). Very f ew small white g rits.

1 .2YR 4 .5/8 ( red).

0 .25cm

1

Open bowl base

2 .5YR6/8 ( light r ed). Very f ew s mall white g rits.

1 0R5.5/8 ( red).

0 .250 .40cm

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

Ware

PW1 P

II. I 1 03. 4 5

Open bowl base

PW2 P

II. I 1 03. 5

PW3 P

II. I 1 04. 1 1

25 2

1

Table A .2a c ont. Thickn ess P late

P rov.

P PW4

V . 1 00.4

Open b owl r im

2 .5YR6/6 ( light r ed). Very f ew s mall white g rits.

2 .5YR5/8 0 .25( red) s lip 0 .38cm on t he outside extending i nside r im 1 0YR6/2 ( light b rownish g ray).

P PW5

V . 1 00.3

Open b owl b ody s herd

2 .5YR6/8 ( Light r ed). F ew s mall white g rits.

1 0R5/8 ( red).

0 .29cm

1

O pen b owl b ody s herd

5 YR7/6 ( reddish y ellow). F ew s mall white g rits. Thin, l ight g reyish r ed c ore.

1 0R4/8 ( red).

0 .22cm

1

Open bowl b ody s herd

2 .5YR6/8 ( light r ed). F ew s mall white g rits. Thin, l ight g reyish r ed c ore.

F aded. 0 .22F aded s lip 0 .27cm band o uts ide a t t he r im 2 .5Y7/2 ( light g ray).

1

Open b owl b ody s herd

2 .5YR5/8 ( red). F ew s mall white g rits.

1 0R4/8 ( red).

0 .270 .49cm

1

P PW6 1 04.16

P PW7 1 06.50

P PW8

XXV. 4 00. 2 6

V essel

P aint ( darkest)

S ample

W are

2 26

1

Table A .2a cont.

W are

Paint ( darkest)

Thickn ess P late

Purpler ed*

0 .160 .24cm

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

PW9 P

XXV. 1 00.7

Open b owl b ody s herd

2 .5YR 5 .5/8 ( light r ed/red). F ew small white g rits.

PW10 P

XX. 1 03.2b

D eep open b owl base

2 .5YR6/8 Red*. ( light r ed). F ew s mall white g rits. Very t hin patchy l ight g rey core.

PW11 P

XXX. 1 02.6

D eep b owl r im

3 .2YR 6 .5/8 ( light r ed/ r eddish yellow). F ew s mall white g rits.

Dark 0 .27yellowish 0 .39cm r ed*. T races o f l ight g rey s lip i n band outs ide on t he r im, extending t o t he i nside.

PW12 P

V . 1 01.3

Open b owl b ase

2 .5YR5/8 ( red). Very f ew s mall white g rits. Very t hin patchy g rey c ore.

Purpler ed*.

P PW13

XXIII. 1 00.22

Open bowl body s herd

Dark 2 .5YR purple*. 4 .5/6 ( red). F ew small white g rits. Thick dark g rey c ore.

2 27

Tapering t o 0 .19cm

1

1

1

0.23cm

1

0 .23cm

1

Table A .2b

Type 2 Nabataean painted ware excavations.

f rom t he P etra

Thickn ess P late

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

PW14 P

II. I 1 03. 1 2

Open bowl r im.

2 .5YR 5 /8 ( red). F ew s mall white g rits.

Dark 0 .16cm b rownish r ed.* T races o f c reamy white s lip outside t he r im.

2

PW15 P

V .101 3 A

Juglet ( ?) body s herd.

1 .2YR 5 .5/8 ( light r ed/red). F ew small white g rits. Very wide dark g rey core.

Dark purple r ed.*

0 .28cm

2

PW16 P

XXI. 8 09. 1

Open bowl body s herd.

2 .5YR5/8 ( red). F ew s mall white g rits. Very dark g rey c ore.

5 YR4/2 ( dark r eddish g ray).

0 .27cm

2

PW17 P

XX. 2 00. 2 0/6

Small s pheri cal j uglet body s herd.

2 .5YR6/8 ( light r ed). F ew s mall white g rits. W ide medium g rey c ore.

Dark b rownish r ed*.

0 .160 .28cm

PW18 P

I V.101. 1 0

Open bowl body s herd.

2 .5YR 5 .5/8 ( light r ed/red). F ew s mall white g rits. Very t hin l ight g rey core.

1 .2YR 4 .5/8 ( red).

0 .17cm

W are

28 2

Paint

2

2

Table A .2b c ont.

W are

Thickn ess P late

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

P PW19

V .101. 6

Open b owl r im.

2 .5YR 5 .5/8 ( light r ed/red). F ew s mall white g rits.

D ark p urple r ed*.

0 .15cm

2

P PW20

I II. 1 03. 1 9

Open b owl b ody s herd ( close t o b ase)

2 .5YR5/8 ( red). F ew s mall white g rits.

2 .5YR 4 .5/6 ( red).

0 .33cm ( max.)

2

P PW21

I II. 1 03. 3 1

Open b owl b ody s herd.

2 .5YR5/8 ( red). F ew s mall white g rits.

1 .2YR 4 .5/6 ( red)

0 .29cm

2

P PW22

V .101. 1

O pen b owl b ase.

2 .5YR6/8 ( light r ed). F ew s mall white g rits. W ide d ark g rey c ore.

2 .5YR 4 .5/8 ( red)

0 .23cm

2

P PW23

XXIV. 1 00. 1 1

Open b owl r im

2 .5YR5/8 ( red). F ew s mall white g rits.

D ark b rownish r ed*. R ed s lip o utside r im.

0 .17cm

3

P aint

* D ifficult t o c ompare w ith Munsell C hart

2 29

Table A .2c

Type 3 a Nabataean excavations.

painted

ware

f rom

S ample

P rov.

V essel

Ware

P aint

P PW24

I V. 1 02. 3

Open b owl r im.

2 .5YR 5 .5/8 ( light r ed/red). F ew s mall white g rits.

2 .5YR 4 /4 ( reddish b rown).

P PW25

I II. 1 03. 2 9

Open b owl b ase.

2 .5YR 1 0R4/2 ( weak 5 .5/8 r ed). ( light r ed/red). F ew s mall white a nd g rey g rits. Thin l ight g rey c ore.

P PW26

I V. 1 02. 8 A

J uglet ( ?) b ody s herd.

1 0R3.5/2 2 .5YR4/4 ( weak ( reddish r ed/dusky b rown). ed). S ome s mall r white g rits. D ark g rey c ore extending a ll t he way t o t he i nner s urface.

PW27 P

I V. 1 02. 2

Open b owl b ody s herd.

2 .5YR 5 .5/8 ( light r ed/red). F ew s mall white a nd g rey g rits.

2 .5YR4/2 ( weak r ed).

PW28 P

I V. 1 02. 7

Open b owl r im.

2 .5YR 5 .5/8 ( light r ed/red). S ome s mall white a nd g rey g rits.

2 .5YR4/2 ( weak r ed) S trip o f buff s lip o utside r im.

2 30

t he

P etra

Thickn ess P late 0 .15cm

3

0 .23cm

3

0.31cm

3

0.24cm

3

0 .19cm 3

Table A .2c cont.

S ample

P rov.

V essel

PW29 P

I V. 1 01. 3

Open b owl r im.

2 .5YR5/8 ( red). S ome s mall white and g rey g rits.

P PW30

I V. 1 00. 1 8

J uglet b ody s herd.

6 .5YR 5 YR4/1 5 .5/4 ( dark ( mostly: g ray). r eddish b rown). S ome s mall -m edium white a nd g rey g rits. W ide buff g rey core.

PW31 P

XXV. 4 00. 2 6

O pen b owl b ody s herd.

2 .5YR5/8 Very dark ( red). b rownish S ome s mall g rey*. -m edium white a nd g rey g rits. D ark g rey c ore, patchy a nd varying i n t hickness.

P PW32

XXI. 1 00. 4 b

S pheric al j uglet b ody s herd.

2 .5YR B lack*. 5 .5/8 ( light r ed/red). S ome s mall white a nd g rey g rits. Thin p atchy dark g rey c ore.

P PW33

XXI. 8 08. 1

J uglet r im a nd n eck.

1 .2YR5/8 B lack*. ( red). F ew s mall white g rits.

W are

P aint

2 31

2 .5YR5/2 ( brown).

Thickn ess P late 0 .24cm

3

0 .37cm

4

0 .120 .33cm

0 .24cm

0 .140.21cm (body)

3

4

4

T able A .2c c ont.

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

Ware

P aint

P PW34

XXI. 6 00. 2

Open b owl b ody s herd.

2 .5 YR R eddish 5 .5/8 B rown*. ( light r ed/red). S ome s mall -m edium white a nd g rey g rits.

PW35 P

XXI. 8 02. B .2

S pheric al j uglet b ody s herd.

PW36 P

XXI. 8 08. 8

PW37 P

XXI. 8 10. 5

Thickn ess P late 0 .280 .47cm

4

2.5YR B lack* 5 .5/8 ( light r ed/red). S ome s mall white a nd g rey g rits. W ide d ark g rey c ore.

0 .180 .27cm

4

Open b owl b ody s herd.

I nside: B lack* 2 .5YR 4 .5/8 Outside: 2 .5YR 5 .5/6 ( light r ed/red). S ome s mall -m edium white a nd g rey g rits.

0 .25cm

Open b owl b ase.

2 .5YR R eddish 5 .5/8 b rown*. ( light r ed/red). S ome s mall -m edium white a nd g rey g rits. Very w ide r eddish buff c ore.

0 .290 .46cm

2 32

4

4

T able A .2c c ont.

S ample

P rov.

V essel

Ware

P aint

PW38 P

XXI. 8 10. 1

Open b owl b ody s herd.

Varying D ark f rom: 5 YR purple 5 .5/6 b rown*. ( reddish yellow/ y ellowish r ed) t o: 7 .5R6.5/4 ( pink/ l ight b rown). S ome s mall white a nd g rey g rits.

Thickn ess P late 0 .19cm

4

* Difficult t o c ompare with Munsell C hart.

T able A .2d

Type 3 b Nabataean p ainted excavations.

ware

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

Ware

P aint

PW39 P

I V. 1 01. 3

J uglet r im

2 .5YR5/8 B lack*. ( red). S ome s mall -m edium white a nd g rey g rits.

PW40 P

I V. 1 01. 8 3

Open b owl b ody s herd

• 1 0R5/8 N 4/0 (red). ( dark M any s mall g ray). - m edium white a nd g rey g rits.

2 33

f rom

t he

P etra.

Thickn ess P late 0 .45cm ( close to t he b ody)

0 .57cm

5

5

Table A .2d cont. Thickn ess P late

S ample

Prov.

Vessel

Ware

P PW41

XXI. 8 02. B .3

Open bowl base

2 .5YR Very dark 5 .5/8 b rownish ( light g rey*. r ed/red). Many small -m edium white and g rey g rits. Thin patchy buff core.

PW42 P

XXI. 1 00. 1 7

Open bowl r im

Medium - 0.59cm I nside: 2 .5YR dark g rey* ( patchy 5 .5/8 a nd worn). ( light r ed/red) Outside: 2 .5YR 5 .5/7 ( light r ed/red). Many small -m edium white and g rey g rits. Wide l ight buff g rey c ore.

5

PPW43

XXI. 8 02. B .3

Vertica l walled cup ( ?)

2 .5YR 5 .5/8 ( light r ed/red). Many small -m edium white and g rey g rits.

0 .32cm Dark b rownish g rey*, badly worn.

5

P aint

2 34

Base: 0 .18 -0.26 c m. B ody: 0 .24 0.37 c m

5

Table A .2d cont. Thickn ess P late

S ample

P ray.

Vessel

Ware

P PW44

XXV. 1 00. 1 9

C losed v essel ( ?) paint on t he outer s urface

2 .5YR B lack*, 0 .49cm 5 .5/8 badly worn. ( light r ed/red). Buff i nner s urface. Many s mall -m edium white a nd g rey g rits; s ome mica f lecks.

*

Paint

5

D ifficult t o c ompare t o Munsell C hart.

Table A .2e

Miscellaneous excavations.

painted

wares

f rom

t he

P etra

Thickn ess P late

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

Ware

P aint

P PW45

I II. 1 03. 3 4

Open b owl b ody s herd

7 .5YR6/4 ( light b rown). Many s mall -m edium white a nd g rey g rits. Wide dark g rey c ore.

.29cm S lip: Very 0 t hin ( buff), on t he outer s urface. Paint: 5 YR4.5/1.5 ( mainly dark r eddish g rey).

5

P PW46

V .101. 4

J ar ( ?) b ody s herd

2 .5YR6/8 ( light r ed). Many s mall white a nd g rey g rits ( sandy t exture). Medium wide l ight g rey c ore.

S lip: 2 .5YR7/3 ( pink) P aint: 1 0R4.5/4 ( weak r ed)

0 .59cm

5

2 35

Table A .2e cont. Thickn ess P late

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

Ware

P aint

PPW47

V .101. 3

Jar ( ?) body sherd

1 .2YR5/8 ( red). Many s mall white a nd g rey g rits. Brownish g rey i nner s urface.

S lip: 5 YR6/4 ( light r eddish b rown) P aint: 1 0R5/6 ( red).

0 .39cm

5

P PW48

I II. 1 06. 9

Open bowl r im.

2 .5YR6/8 ( light r ed).Many small -m edium white and g rey g rits ( sandy t exture).

S lip: D ark 0 .55cm g rey on outer s urface. P aint: 2 .5YR5/8 ( red).

5

PPW49

IV. 1 00. 1 8

R im o f a cup.

2 .5YR5/8 S lip: ( red). 5 YR7/4 Many s mall ( pink). -m edium P aint: white a nd 1 0YR8/2 g rey ( white). g rits.

0 .39cm

5

P PW50

XXV. 4 01. 2 8

Jar body s herd

2 .5YR6/7 ( light r ed). Many small -m edium white a nd g rey g rits ( sandy t exture). Medium thick g rey core c lose t o i nner s urface.

0 .470 .69cm

6

2 36

S lip: Very thin ( buff) on outer s urface. P aint: b lack.

Table A .2e cont. Thickn ess P late

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

Ware

Paint

P PW51

1 .104. 4 ( 612)

L agynos s houlde r

2 .5YR6/8 ( light r ed). Very well l evigated, n o g rits v isible by n aked eye.

S lip: 0 .42cm 7 .5YR6.5/6 ( reddish yellow). Paint ( darkest): 2 .5YR4.5/5 ( reddish b rown/red). I nner s urface: 2 .5 YR4.5/7 ( red).

Table A .3a

Western t erra excavations.

s igillata

f rom

t he

P etra

Thickn ess P late

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

Ware

S lip

P TS1

I . 1 04. 6 3

Small b ody s herd

2 .5YR5/6 ( light r eddish b rown/ l ight r ed). F ew s mall white g rits.

2 .5YR4/7 ( red) S lightly g lossy. On both s urfaces.

0 .26cm

P TS2

I . 1 04. 5 5

S mall b ody s herd

2 .5YR6/3 2 .5YR4/7 ( red) ( pale g lossy. r ed/light On both r eddish s urfaces. b rown). S ome d ense darker a reas. F ew s mall white a nd g rey g rits.

0 .31cm

2 37

6

Table A .3a cont. Thickn ess P late

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

PTS3

I . 1 05. 6 0a

Small f lat body sherd

2 .5YR6/4 ( light r eddish b rown). Very f ew mica s pecks. F ew small white g rits.

2 .5YR4/7 ( red) g lossy. On both s urfaces.

0 .460 .62cm

Small body s herd o f a plate.

2 .5YR6/6 ( light r ed).Very f ew mica s pecks. F ew s mall white g rits.

2 .5YR4/7 ( red) g lossy. On both s urfaces. S cratched.

0 .30cm

PTS4

W are

S lip

P TS5/8*

PTS5: I . 1 03.5 PTS8: I . 1 03. 5 a

R im o f a plate

2 .5YR6/4 ( light r eddish b rown). F ew small white g rits. S lightly encrusted .

2 .5YR4/7 ( red) g lossy. On a ll s urfaces. Worn out i n places, r evealing white f ilm a t the t op o f the r im.

PTS6

I . 1 03 5 5

Flat body s herd o f a plate.

2 .5 YR6/4 ( light r eddish b rown). F ew s mall white g rits.

2 .5YR4/7 ( red) g lossy. On both s urfaces. S cratched.

0 .78cm

PTS7

I . 1 07. 1 5

Body s herd o f a plate

5 YR6.5/4 ( pink/ l ight r eddish b rown). F ew s mall white g rits.

2 .5YR4/7 ( red) g lossy. On both s urfaces. S cratched.

0 .72cm

2 38

6

Table A .3a cont. Thickn ess

S ample

P rov.

V essel

Ware

S lip

P TS9

I . 1 07. 1 1

R im o f a p late

5 YR6.5/4 ( pink/ l ight r eddish b rown). F ew s mall -m edium white a nd g rey g rits.

2 .5YR4/7 ( red) g lossy. On a ll s urfaces. S cratched

6

P TS10

1 .57

R im o f a p late

3 .2YR6/4 ( light r eddish b rown). F ew s mall white g rits. S lightly encrusted.

2 .5YR4/7 ( red) g lossy. On a ll s urfaces. Worn out i n p laces r evealing an uneven yellowish white f ilm on t he t op o f t he r im

6

P TS11

XX. 2 00. 1 -2

R im o f a p late A pplied moulded d esign.

1 .2YR5/4 ( weak r ed/ r eddish b rown). F ew small white g rits.

2 .5YR4/6 ( red) g lossy. On a ll s urfaces.

6

P TS12

I . 1 00. 3

B ody s herd o f a p late. S hallow c oncent ric r oulett ed d esign.

2 .5YR6/4 ( light r eddish b rown). • Few s mall white a nd g rey g rits.

2 .5YR4.5/7 ( red). S lightly g lossy. On a ll s urfaces.

2 39

0 .390 .68cm

P late

6

T able A .3a c ont.

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

P TS13

T .XI. 1 00

Body s herd o f a p late. S hallow c oncent ric r oulett ed d esign.

P TS14 3 3

P TS15

I . 1 03. 8 3

Thickn ess P late

Ware

S lip

2 .5YR 5 .5/4 ( light r eddish b rown/ r eddish b rown). Very f ew m ica s pecks. F ew s mall white a nd g rey g rits. R ough a reas c overed b y t he s lip o n t he b ottom n ear t he f oot.

2 .5YR4/7 ( red) g lossy. Uneven on t he b ottom n ear t he f oot. On a ll s urfaces.

F lat body s herd o f a p late. Two s hallow c oncent ric l ines i nside, a bove t he b roken f oot.

5 YR6.5/4 ( pink/ l ight r eddish b rown). F ew s mall white g rits.

2 .5YR4/7 ( red). Very s lightly g lossy. On b oth s urfaces.

0 .290 .68cm

S mall b ody s herd ( of a cup?). S hallow moulded d esign.

2 .5YR6/4 ( light r eddish b rown). F ew s mall white a nd g rey g rits.

2 .5YR4/7 ( red) g lossy. On b oth s urfaces.

0 .280 .42cm

2 40

0 .756 1 .23cm

6

T able A .3a c ont. Thickn ess P late

S ample

P rov.

V essel

Ware

S lip

P TS16

I . 1 15

F lat b ody s herd o f a p late.

2 .5YR6/6 ( light r ed). S ome d ense d arker a reas. F ew s mall white a nd g rey g rits. S lightly e ncrusted.

2 .5YR4/6 ( red) g lossy. On b oth s urfaces.

0 .600 .65cm

P TS17

I . 1 03 8 2

F lat b ody s herd o f a p late.

2 .5YR6/6 ( light r ed). F ew s mall white a nd g rey g rits. S lightly e ncrusted. T races o f burning o n o ne b reakage s ection.

2 .5YR4/8 ( red) g lossy. On b oth s urfaces. S cratched.

0 .560 .75cm

P TS18

I . 1 03. 5 2

S mall f lat b ody s herd o f a p late. Two s hallow c oncent ric l ines i nside a bove t he b roken f oot.

2 .5YR6/4 ( light r eddish b rown). V ery f ew m ica s pecks. F ew s mall white a nd g rey g rits.

2 .5YR4/7 ( red) g lossy. On b oth s urfaces. E xtensivel y s cratched.

0 .61cm

2 41

Table A .3a cont. Thickn ess P late

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

Ware

S lip

P TS19

I . 1 04. 7 8

Base o f a plate Two s hallow concent ric l ines i nside above the f oot.

2 .5YR6/4 ( light r eddish b rown). F ew s mall white g rits.

2 .5YR4/7 ( red) g lossy. On a ll s urfaces.

7

PTS20

I . 1 21. 4 7

R im o f a n open bowl.

2 .5YR6/4 ( light r eddish b rown). F ew s mall white and g rey g rits.

2 .5YR4/7 ( red) g lossy. Worn out i n p laces. On a ll s urfaces.

6

P TS21

I . 1 03. 4 7

P art o f the base o f a cup. F oot missing.

2 .5YR6/7 ( light r ed). F ew s mall white a nd g rey g rits.

2 /5YR4/7 ( red) g lossy. On a ll s urfaces.

B ody: 0 .400 .70cm b ase: 0 .380 .46cm

P TS22

I . 1 04. 9

Small curved body s herd

2 .5YR6/6 ( light r ed). F ew s mall white a nd g rey g rits.

2 .5YR4.5/8 ( red). S omewhat t hin. S lightly g lossy. On both s urfaces. S cratched.

0 .24cm

P TS23

XXIII. 1 00. 2 1

Small f lat body s herd o f a p late. Two s hallow c oncent ric l ines, burnt.

7 .5YR 6 .5/3 ( mainly p inkish g rey). F ew s mall white a nd g rey g rits.

2 .5YR3.5/6 ( red/dark r ed) s lightly g lossy. On both s urfaces.

0 .280 .46cm

2 42

Table A .3a cont.

Ware

Thickn ess P late

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

P TS24

1 .31

Body 5 YR7.5/4 s herd ( pink). o f F ew s mall g lobular white and bowl(?) g rey g rits. S omewhat coarse t exture. Blackened on part o f one b reakage s ection.

2 .5YR4/6 ( red). Very s lightly g lossy. Worn out i n " poked" manner i n places. On both s urfaces.

• 0 .530 .76cm

PTS25

I . 1 32. 1

F lat body s herd o f a p late

2 .5YR 5 .5/5 ( mainly l ight r eddish b rown). S ome small white g rits. G rainy t exture.

1 .2YR4/6 ( red). Matt, on both s urfaces. Very s cratched on the l ower s urface.

0 .470 .70cm

P TS26

I . 1 15

B ase o f a c onic al cup

2 .5YR6/7 ( light r ed). F ew small white and g rey g rits. C overed i n t hin g reenish f ilm.

2 .5YR4/8.5 ( red). G lossy. S ome l arge " poked" marks on the i nside. On a ll s urfaces.

* Samples which were f ound upon closer examination.

S lip

t o

2 43

b elong

t o

t he

7

s ame

v essel

Table A .3b

Eastern t erra excavation

s igillata

A

f rom

the

Thickness P late

Sample

P rov.

Vessel

Ware

S lip

PTS27

II. I 1 01. 3 3

Base o f globul ar bowl

C reamy white paler t han 7 .5YR 8 /4

Very worn out t races o f dark r ed.On a ll s urfaces.

Body s herd o f a g lobul a r bowl

7 .5YR8/4 ( pink)

2 .5YR4/7 ( red). Very s lightly g lossy. On b oth s urfaces. S cratched o n the outside.

0 .48cm

PTS28 6 /7

7

PTS29

1 .121 6 9

Body s herd o f a l arge j ug.

7 .5YR7/4 ( pink). Encrusted.

1 0R4/8 ( red). Very worn. S omewhat g lossy. On t he outer s urface o nly.

0 .56cm

P TS30

I . 1 04. 7 8

Body s herd o f a l arge s pherical j ug.

5 YR6/6 ( reddish yellow). S ome d ense darker a reas. F ew small white g rits. Encrusted.

2 .5YR4/8 ( red). G lossy on t he outer s urface only. S lightly s cratched.

0 .601 .23cm

PTS31

XXI. 2 00. 3

F lat body s herd o f a p late

7 .5YR8/3 ( pinkish white/ p ink)

2 .5YR 3 .5/6 ( red/dark r ed) g lossy. On both s urfaces. S cratched.

0 .971 .08cm

2 44

P etra

Table A .3b c ont. Thickn ess P late

S ample

P ray.

Vessel

Ware

S lip

PTS32

I II. 1 04. 1 6

Body s herd o f a p late.

7 .5YR7/4 ( pink). Encrusted.

1 0R4/8 0 .64( red). 0 .85cm S lightly g lossy. On both s urfaces. S cratched.

PTS33

I II. 1 09. 3 1/9

S mall curved b ody s herd

5 YR7/5 ( pink/ r eddish yellow)

2 .5YR 4 .5/8 ( red) on the outer s urface, d ripping i nside. S lightly g lossy. Worn out i n p laces.

0 .490 .60cm

PTS34

I V. 1 00. 7

S mall c urved b ody s herd

5 YR7/5 ( pink/ r eddish yellow)

2 .5YR 4 .5/8 ( red). Matt. On the outer s urface only. S cratched.

0 .67cm

PTS35

I . 1 35

S mall b ody s herd

7 .5YR7/4 ( pink)

2 .5YR4/8 ( red). S omewhat g lossy. On both s urfaces. S cratched.

0 .55cm

PTS36

XXI. 8 00. 8 .2

B ase o f p late. F oot m issing

7 .5YR7/4 ( pink). F ew s mall white a nd g rey g rits.

Uneven: mainly 1 0YR4.5/8 ( red). On the outer s urfaces. S lightly g lossy. T races on the i nner s urface.

I nside f oot: 0 .220 .51cm Body: 0 .561 .03cm

2 45

Table A .3b cont. Thickn ess P late

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

Ware

S lip

PTS37

I . 1 28. 1

Base o f a cup.

5 YR7/6 ( reddish yellow). F ew small white g rits.

Uneven: mainly 2 .5YR4.5/8 ( red). S lightly g lossy. I nside, outside a nd under t he base. T races i nside t he v essel S cratched.

PTS38

I . 1 04. 5 1

Body s herd o f a p late.

7 .5YR8/3 ( pinkish white/ p ink).

Uneven: 2 .5YR 3 .5/6 ( red/ d ark r ed) d arker i n p laces. S omewhat g lossy. On both s urfaces. S cratched.

0 .460 .82cm

PTS39

I . 1 25. 7

R im o f an open bowl.

7 .5YR7/4 ( pink)

2 .5YR4/6 ( Red). G lossy. On a ll s urfaces. S cratched.

0 .96cm

PTS40

I . 1 18. 3

Neck o f a j ug

5 YR6/6 ( reddish yellow). F ew small white and g rey g rits. Encrusted.

1 0R4/8 ( Red). S lightly g lossy w ith f ew m ica s pecks. On the o utside. D ripping i nside. S cratched.

Body: 0 .39cmn eck 0 .35cm

2 46

7

7

Table A .3b cont. Thickn ess P late

S ample

P ray.

Vessel

Ware

S lip

PTS41

I II. 1 03. 8

R im o f a cup.

5 YR6.5/6 ( reddish yellow). F ew small white g rits. Traces o f burning.

2 .5YR 4 .5/8 ( red). S lightly glossy. S ome mica s pecks. On a ll s urfaces.

0 .30cm

PTS42

I . 1 20. 3 0

F lat body s herd.

7 .5YR 7 .5/4 ( pink)

2 .5YR4/6 ( red). G lossy. On both s urfaces. S cratched.

1 .461 .81cm

PTS43

I . 1 04. 7 8

Curved body s herd.

7 .5YR 7 .5/1 ( mainly l ight p inkish g rey), patches o f 5 YR6.5/1 ( light g rey). Burnt.

1 .2YR4/4 ( weak r ed/ r eddish b rown). S lightly g lossy. Worn out i n a reas. On both s urfaces. S cratched.

0 .50cm

PTS44

I . 1 30. 1 6

Base o f a bowl

6 .2YR8/3 ( pinkish white/ p ink). F ew small g rey g rits. T races o f burning.

1 .3YR4/7 ( red). G lossy. On a ll s urfaces. S cratched.

7

PTS45

I . 1 07. 7

Base o f a plate.

5 YR7/5 ( pink/ r eddish yellow). F ew small white a nd g rey g rits. Traces o f burning.

2 .5YR4/8 ( red). Thicker i n places. S omewhat g lossy. On a ll s urfaces except under f oot. S cratched.

7

2 47

7

Table A .3b c ont. Thickn ess P late

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

P TS46

I . 1 04. 7 8

F lat body s herd.

5 YR6/5 ( light r eddish b rown/ r eddish y ellow).

1 .2YR4/8 ( red). S lightly g lossy. On both s urfaces. S cratched.

0 .981 .42cm

P TS47

I . 7 9

C urved body s herd.

5 YR7.5/2 ( pinkish white/ p inkish g ray), p atches o f 5 YR6.5/1 ( light g ray). Burnt.

1 .2YR4/4 ( weak r ed/ r eddish b rown). S lightly g lossy. On b oth s urfaces.

0 .330 .49cm

P TS48

I . 1 22. 2 1

Curved body s herd.

7 .5YR7/4 ( pink). F ew s mall white g rits.

1 .2YR4/8 ( red). G lossy. O n both s urfaces. Very worn o ut on t he i nner s urface.

0 .46cm

P TS49

XX. 4 01. 2 /1

R im o f a n o pen b owl.

1 0YR7/2 ( light g ray). Burnt.

2 .5YR4/6 ( red). On a ll s urfaces. V ery worn o ut.

P TS50

I . 1 01. 8

C urved b ody s herd.

5 YR6/6 ( reddish y ellow).

F inely mottled. a lmost n et l ike. M ainly 1 .2YR5.5/8 ( light r ed/ r ed). M att. On b oth s urfaces.

W are

2 48

S lip

7

0 .350 .50cm

Table A .3b cont.

P rov.

Vessel

PTS51

I . 2 09

Small curved body s herd

6 .2YR7/4 Mottled, ( pink), i n patches with 2 .5YR4.5/8 patches o f ( red), 5 YR6/105 1 0R4/4 ( mainly ( weak p inkish r ed). g ray). Matt. F ew mica On both s pecks. s urfaces. Burnt.

PTS52

I . 1 10. 2

Curved body s herd.

7 .5YR8/3 ( pinkish white/ p ink).

Table A .3c

W are

Thickn ess

S ample

Eastern t erra excavation

S lip

0 .44cm

Mottled,in 0 .33patches 0 .60cm 2 .5YR4.5/8 ( red) 1 0R4/4 ( weak r ed). Matt. On both s urfaces

s igillata

B

f rom

the

P etra

Thickn ess P late

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

Ware

S lip

P TS53

I . 1 22. 5

R im o f a small j ug. Very f laky a nd b roken t o p ieces.

2 .5YR5.5/8 ( light r ed/red). Many mica s pecks. B roken i n l ayers.

2 .5YR4.5/8 ( red). Glossy. On both s urfaces. Worn i n poked manner.

0 .34cm

PTS54

XXI. 1 00. 9

Body s herd o f an open b owl

2 .5YR6/4 ( light r ed). Many mica s pecks. F ew s mall white g rits. Encrusted.

Very worn out, t races o f yellowish r ed.

0 .700 .91cm

2 49

P late

Table A .3c cont. Thickn ess P late

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

Ware

S lip

PTS55

XX. 2 80. 1 6

Small curved body s herd.

5 YR6.5/6 ( reddish yellow). Many mica s pecks b roken i n l ayers.

2 .5YR 4 .5/8 ( red). G lossy. On both s urfaces. Worn out i n poked manner.

PTS56

I . 1 04 5 0

R im o f a plate

2 .5YR5.5/8 2 .5YR4.5/8 ( light ( red) r ed/ r ed). g lossy. Many mica On a ll s pecks. s urfaces. Worn i n poked manner on t he outside.

Table A .3d

E astern t erra excavation.

S ample

P rov.

PTS57

I . 1 00. 1

PTS58

I +

Vessel B ase of a p late.

R im o f a plate.

s igillata

Ware

C

f rom

S lip

0 .37cm

7

t he

P etra

Thickn ess

P late

5 YR7.5/6 ( reddish yellow) F ew mica s pecks. F ew small white and g rey g rits.

1 .2YR 4 .5/8 ( red). Matt. On a ll s urfaces. Very worn i nside.

7

5 YR6/5 ( light r eddish b rown/ r eddish yellow). F ew small r ed g rits.

2 .5YR4.5/8 ( red). Matt. On a ll s urfaces. S cratched and worn out i n places.

7

2 50

Table A .3d cont. Thickn ess P late

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

P TS59

I . 1 01. 6 1

R im o f a p late.

5 YR7.5/4 ( pink). F ew s mall g rey g rits. Encrusted .

PTS60

XXI. 2 00. 2 9/7

B ase o f a n open b owl.

5 YR7/6 1 0R5/8 ( reddish ( red). yellow). Matt. Encrusted . On a ll T races o f s urfaces burning. S lightly s cratched on t he i nside.

P TS61

I . 1 15. 8

F lat b ody s herd.

5 YR6/7 ( reddish yellow) F ew mica s pecks. F ew s mall white a nd g rey g rits.

1 .2YR4/8 ( red). Matt. On both s urfaces.

P TS62

I . 1 10. 1

R im o f a n open b owl.

5 YR6/6 ( reddish yellow). F ew s mall white g rits.

1 0R4.5/8 ( red). Matt. On a ll s urfaces. S cratched.

7

PTS63

I . 1 16. 1

R im o f a p late.

5 YR7/5 ( pink/ r eddish yellow). F ew s mall white a nd g rey g rits.

1 0R4/8 ( red). S lightly l ustrous. On a ll s urfaces. Worn out i n poked manner.

7

W are

S lip

2 51

2 .5YR4.5/8 ( red). On a ll s urfaces. F aded/worn out i n p laces.

7

7

0 .85cm

Table A .3d cont. Thickn ess P late

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

Ware

S lip

PTS64

I . 1 00. 3

R im o f a plate.

5 YR6.5/6 ( reddish yellow). S ome mica s pecks. F ew small white a nd g rey g rits.

1 .2YR5/8 ( red). S lightly l ustrous. On a ll s urfaces. Very worn i nside.

Table A .3e

Miscellaneous excavation

t erra

s igillata

7

f rom

t he

Thickn ess P late

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

Ware

S lip

PTS65

I II. 5 6

C urved body s herd.

7 .5YR7/4 ( pink). F ew small r ed g rits. Medium s oft.

1 0R4.5/8 0 .60( red). 1 .40cm S lightly g lossy. F ew mica s pecks. On both s urfaces. S cratched.

P TS66

I . 1 03. 8 7

R im o f a k rater.

6 .2YR7/3 ( pinkish g rey/ p ink). Heavily encrusted and burnt.

None

2 52

P etra

7

Table

A .3e cont.

S lip

Thickness

S ample

P ray.

Vessel

Ware

PTS67

I . 1 05. 6 0

B ase o f a p late.

7 .5YR6.5/4 1 0YR4/8 ( pink/ ( red). l ight Matt. On brown). a ll F ew mica s urfaces. specks. Very worn. F ew small -m edium white g rits. One l arge c rystalli ne g rey g rit. Encrusted. Medium s oft.

8

PTS68

I . 1 01. 1 00

Base o f a j ug.

5 YR6.5/4 ( pink/ l ight r eddish brown). S ome small medium white and r ed g rits. S oft.

Faded and worn out. T races o f dark r ed on the outer s urface and under the base.

8

PTS69

I . 2 7

Neck o f a j ug.

5 YR6/4 ( light r eddish b rown). S ome mica s pecks and f lakes. S ome small -m edium white and g rey g rits. Soft.

Uneven: 0 .642 .5YR4.6/6 0 .95cm ( red) 2 .5YR3.5/3 ( mainly r eddish b rown). S lightly glossy. On the i nner surface only.

2 53

Plate

Table A .3e cont. Thickn ess P late

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

Ware

S lip

PTS70

I . 8 3

Base o f a g lobula r bowl.

8 .7YR7/4 ( pink/ very pale brown). F ew mica s pecks. F ew small white g rits. Medium s oft.

Paint i n t hick s loppy band a bove and partially on the f oot, outer s urface. 1 0R4/7 ( red). Matt.

PTS71

XXIII. 1 00. 2 1

Curved body s herd.

7 .5YR7/4 ( pink). F ew s mall white g rits. Medium s oft.

1 .2YR4.5/8 ( red). S omewhat l ustrous. On both s urfaces.

0 .380 .53cm

PTS72

1 . 1 01. 2 0001

Curved body s herd.

5 YR7/6 ( reddish yellow). Medium s oft.

1 .2YR5/8 ( red). S omewhat l ustrous. On the outer surface only. S lightly s cratched.

0 .36cm

PTS73

I . 1 22. 2 5

Base o f a plate. Shallow concent ric r oulett ed design.

5 YR6.5/6 ( reddish yellow). F ew mica s pecks. S ome s mall white a nd g rey g rits. Medium s oft.

2 .5YR5/8 ( red). Glossy. On a ll s urfaces. Flaky a t the j unction o f t he body , with the f oot. S cratched under the f oot.

2 54

8

8

Table A .3e cont. Thickn ess Plate

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

Ware

S lip

PTS74

I . 1 03. 8 8

Small curved body s herd.

7 .5YR7/4 ( pink) t o within approx. 0 .3cm f rom the outer s urface. N 6.5/0 ( light g ray) extending a ll the way t o the i nner surface. S ome small white and g rey g rits. Heavily encrusted. Medium hard.

2 .5YR5/8 0 .53cm ( red). Matt. On the outer s urface only. Badly worn out.

Table A .4a

Type 1 r ed excavations

w are

W are

s amples

f rom

the

Thickn ess P late

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

PRW1

I . 1 14. 3

R im o f a n open bowl. Roulett ed d ecora t ion.

1 .2YR5/8 2 .5YR4.5/8 ( red). • (red). S ome s mall S lightly white l ustrous. g rits. On a ll S lightly s urfaces. encrusted. s cratched.

PRW2

I II. 1 07. 3 3/5

Small curved b ody s herd.

1 .2YR5/6 1 .2YR5/6 0 .28cm ( red). ( red). S ome small Metallic white l ustre. On g rits. both s urfaces.

• •

S lip

2 55

Petra

8

Table A .4a c ont. Thickn ess P late

Sample

P rov.

Vessel

Ware

S lip

PRW3

XX. 2 00. 1/14 1

Base o f a n o pen bowl.

2 .5YR4.5/8 ( red). S ome s mall -l arge white g rits.

2 .5YR4.5/8 ( red). S lightly l ustrous. On a ll s urfaces. S cratched.

8

PRW4/7*

I . 1 00. 3

Open b owl.

1 0R4.5/6 ( red). S ome s mall -m edium white g rits.

U neven: 1 .2YR4.5/8 ( red) 2 .5YR4/7 ( red). M etallic l ustre. On a ll s urfaces. S cratched.

8

P RW5

I . 1 17. 5 7

S mall curved b ody s herd. C ut d ecorat ion, i ncised l ines.

2 .5YR6/4 ( light r eddish b rown). F ew s mall white g rits.

2 .5YR4/5 0 .33( reddish 0 .52cm b rown/ r ed). D arker i n g rooves. S light metallic l ustre. On b oth s urfaces.

PRW6

XX. 3 00. 1 5

R im o f a n o pen b owl.

1 0R6/3 ( pale r ed).Some s mall -m edium white g rits.

1 .2YR4.5/6 ( red). E xcept o utside o f a nd j ust b elow t he r im, where i t i s y ellow ( worn o ff partially). D ark b rown i n t he g roove under t he r im . M etallic l ustre. S cratched.

2 56

8

8

Table A .4a cont. Thickn ess P late

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

W are

S lip

PRW8

I . 1 03 8

Small curved body s herd. C ut d ecorat ion, i ncised l ines.

1.2YR4.5/8 (red). S ome s mall - m edium w hite g rits.

Uneven o n 0 .30the outer 0 .33cm s urface: 2 .5YR4.5/8 ( red) with darker patches. Metallic l ustre. I nner s urface: 2 .5YR4.5/8 ( red). Matt.

8

PRW9

I . 1 01. 1 06

L arge curved b ody s herd. C ut d ecorat ion.

1 .2YR4.5/8 ( red). F ew small -m edium white g rits.

Outer 0 .60s urface: 0 .65cm 2 .5YR4.5/8 ( red). Very l ustrous, metallic. I nner s urface: 1 0R5/5 ( weak r ed/ r ed). L ess l ustrous.

8

PRW10

I . 1 00. 3

L arge curved body s herd. C ut d ecorat ion, i ncised l ine.

0 .702 .5YR4.5/8 Uneven on t h e o u t e r 0 .9 1cm ( red). s u r fa ce : Many small 2 .5YR4/7 white ( red) with g rits. darker a reas. Metallic l ustre. I nner s urface: 2 .5YR4/7 ( red). Matt.

9

2 57

Table A .4a cont. Thickn ess P late

Sample

P rov.

Vessel

Ware

S lip

PRW11

I . 1 22. 1 5

R im o f deep bowl ( crater)

3 .2YR5/8 ( red/ yellowish r ed). F ew small white g rits.

2 .5YR5/7 ( red). On a ll s urfaces. 5 YR4.5/1 ( gray/ dark g ray) on the g rooves above a nd on the r im, a s well a s b elow t he r im. Very l ustrous. Metallic.

8

PRW12

I . 1 04. 5 1

R im o f deep bowl ( krater)

1 0R6.5/6 ( light r ed). F ew small white g rits.

2 .5YR4.5/8 ( red). S lightly l ustrous, ( nonmetall ic).

8

Sherds which were f ound t o b elong t o the s ame v essel upon c loser examination.

Table A .4b

Type 2 r ed excavations

ware

s amples

f rom

t he

Thickn ess P late

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

Ware

S lip

PRW13

I . 2 14

Small body s herd.

2 .5YR5.5/8 ( light r ed/ r ed). S ome small white a nd g rey g rits. D eep wheel marks on the outer s urface.

1 .2YR4.5/8 0 .52( red). 0 .60cm Matt. Outer s urface only. P eeled and s cratched.

2 58

P etra

T able A .4b cont. Thickn ess

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

Ware

P RW14

I . 1 04. 1 7

L arge curved body s herd

3 .2YR6/8 ( light r ed/ yellowish r ed).Some s mall -l arge white and g rey g rits. Large white g rits c ausing b listering i n places.

1 .2YR4.5/8 ( red). Matt. Outer s urface only. S cratched.

0 .65 0 .89cm

PRW15/ 1 7*

PRW15: 1 .103. 7 7 PRW17: 1 .103. 3 0

C urved b ody s herd.

2 .5YR5/7 2 .5YR4.5/8 ( red). ( red). Wide dark Matt. g rey c ore. Outer Many small s urface white only. g rits.

0 .500 .81cm

PRW16

I . 1 15. 1 4a

R im o f j ar.

2 .5YR6/5 ( light r eddish b rown/ l ight r ed).Thin. Darker r ed c ore. Many s mall -m edium white and g rey g rits.

1 0R4/7 ( red) on t he outer s urface, extending t o a round 3 .5cm b elow the r im on t he i nner s urface. 2 .5YR5/8 ( red) on the i nner s urface. Matt.

PRW18

V I. 1 01. GR. 1 1

Small s herd n eck curve o f a j ar o r j uglet.

2 .5YR6/7 ( light r ed). Thin r ed core. S ome s mall white g rits. Encrusted.

2 .5YR4.5/8 ( red) on the outer s urface and part o f t he i nner s urface. Matt.

S lip

2 59

P late

9

0 .470 .60cm

Table A .4b cont. Thickn ess Plate

S ample

Prov.

Vessel

Ware

S lip

PRW19

I . 1 04. 5 0

R im o f an open bowl.

2 .5YR5.5/8 ( light r ed/ r ed). S ome small -m edium white g rits.

1 0R4.5/7 ( red). I nner s urface and outside o f r im only. Matt.

9

PRW20

I . 1 22. 2 7

Rim o f a g lobula r bowl ( ?)

2 .5YR6/7 ( light r ed). Thin l ight g rey core. S ome small white and g rey g rits.

2 .5YR4.5/8 ( red). Matt. Worn out i n places. All over the r im.

9

Sherds which were c loser examination.

Table A .4c

f ound t o the s ame v essel upon o belong t

Type 3 r ed excavations

w are

s amples

f rom

Sample

Prov.

Vessel

Ware

S lip

PRW21

I . 1 00. 3

Body sherd o f a l arge j ug.

2 .5YR5/7 ( red). Wide Black core. Many s mall -l arge white g rits.

2 .5YR4.5/8 ( red). Patchy wide s tripes o f r eddish g rey. Outer surface only. S lightly polished.

2 60

t he

P etra

Thickn ess P late 0 .330 .36cm

Table A .4c cont. Thickn ess P late

S ample

P ray.

Vessel

Ware

S lip

PRW22

I . 1 10. 1

Body s herd o f s pheric al j ug.

2 .5YR6/7 ( light r ed). Many small -m edium white and g rey g rits. Encrusted i nside.

2 .5YR4.5/8 ( red). S lightly polished. Outer s urface only.

PRW23

I . 1 15. 1 4

Body s herd o f a l arge j ug.

R ed t o within a round 0 .1cm f rom the outer s urface. Wide g rey core s howing i n wheel marks o f the i nner s urface, which has a s triped a ppearance 3 .2YR5.5/8 ( mainly r ed) and 5 YR5/1 ( gray). many s mall -m edium white and g rey g rits.

2 .5YR4.5/8 0 .28( red). 0 .38cm Matt. F laking i n places. Outer s urface only.

PRW24

I . 1 0. 3

Body •3 .2YR6/8 ( light s herd r ed/ o f a r eddish s pheriyellow). c al S ome mica j uglet. s pecks. F ew s mall white g rits.

2 61

2 .5YR4.5/8 ( red). One thicker patch. S lightly polished. Outer s urface only. S cratched.

9

0 .32cm

Table A .4c cont. Thickn ess P late

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

Ware

S lip

PRW25

I . 1 05. 6 2

Small curved body sherd.

2 .5YR6/7 ( light r ed). S ome s mall -m edium white g rits.

1 .2YR5/8 ( red). S lightly polished. Worn o ut i n p laces. Outer s urface only.

PRW26

I . 1 15 2

Small s pheric al body s herd.

2 .5YR5.5/8 ( light r ed/red). F ew s mall white g rits. S lightly encrusted.

2 .5YR5.5/8 0 .22cm ( light r ed/red). S lightly p olished. Outer s urface only. S cratched. S plattered dots o f d arker r ed on b oth s urfaces. May b e a s mooth polish o f t he s urface r ather t han a s lip.

T able A .4d

Type 4 r ed excavations.

ware

s amples

f rom

S ample

P ray.

Vessel

Ware

S lip

PRW27

I . 1 10. 2

R im o f a p late

2 .5YR4.5/6 ( red). Many m ica f lecks. Many s mall -m edium white a nd g rey g rits.

1 0R4/7 ( red). G lossy. I nner s urface only.

2 62

0 .35cm

t he

P etra

T hickn ess P late 0 .68cm

9

Table A .4d c ont. Thickn ess P late

S ample

P ray.

Vessel

Ware

S lip

PRW28

I . 5 7

F lat b ody s herd o f a p late. P anel o f s hallow c oncent ric g rooves .

2 .5YR5/5 ( red/ r eddish b rown). Many mica f lecks. Many s mall -l arge white a nd g rey g rits.

1 0R4/7 ( red). S lightly g lossy. I nner s urface only.

0 .95cm

PRW29

I . 6 0

R im o f a p late

3 .2YR5/8 ( red/ yellowish r ed). Many mica f lecks. Many s mall -m edium white a nd g rey g rits. S lightly encrusted.

1 0R4/7 ( red). Chipped o ff over most o f t he s urface. Much weathered. I nner s urface only.

0 .50cm

PRW30

V III. 4

F lat body s herd o f a p late. Two bands o f s hallow c oncent ric g rooves t he outer h as f our c ircles t he i nner t hree.

0R4/6 2 .5YR4.5/6 1 ( red). ( red). Many mica S lightly g lossy. f lecks. Many s mall I nner -m edium s urface o nly. white a nd g rey g rits.

2 63

1 .17cm

9

T able A .4d c ont. Thickn ess P late

S ample

P rov.

V essel

Ware

S lip

P RW31

I . 1 04. 7 8

F lat b ody s herd o f a p late. Two b ands o f s hallow c oncent ric g rooves with f our c ircles e ach.

5 YR5.5/6 ( reddish y ellow/ y ellowish r ed). Many m ica f lecks. Many s mall -l arge white a nd g rey g rits.

1 .2YR4.5/8 0 .53cm ( red). Matt. I nner s urface o nly.

PRW32

I . 1 04. 6 6

R im o f a p late

Burnt, dark g rey. Many g rits.

2 .5YR4/5 0 .41cm ( red/ r eddish b rown). G lossy. May h ave changed upon burning. I nside a nd t op o f t he r im o nly.

PRW33

I . 1 04 8 1

F lat b ody s herd o f a p late.

5 YR5.5/6 ( reddish y ellow/ y ellowish r ed). Many m ica f lecks. M any s mall -m edium white a nd g rey g rits.

1 0YR4.5/8 0 .75cm ( red). Matt. Worn o ut i n p oked manner. On t he i nner s urface o nly.

2 64

9

Table A .4d cont.

S ample

P ray.

Vessel

PRW34

I . 1 15. 1 4

F lat b ody s herd o f a p late.

T able A .4e

Miscellaneous excavations

W are B lackened. Many mica f lecks. Many small -m edium white a nd g rey g rits.

r ed

Thickn ess P late

S lip 1 0R4/7 ( red). C hipped o ff over much o f t he s urface s howing r ough parallel l ines o n t he body. Much weathered. I nner s urface only.

ware s amples

f rom

S ample

P rov.

V essel

Ware

S lip

PRW35

I . 1 04. 5 4

R im o f a n open b owl.

2 .5YR5.5/8 ( light r ed/red). Many small white a nd g rey g rits. ( sandy). Hard. Uneven s mooth s urface ( soapy) S omewhat encrusted.

2 .5YR6/9 ( light r ed). Thin. On t he outer s urface a nd a bove t he r im. ( Encrusted on t he i nner s urface).

2 65

0 .61cm

t he

Thickn ess

P etra

P late 9

Table A .4e c ont.

S ample

P rov.

PRW36/ 3 7*

PRW36: 1 . 1 05. 6 0 PRW37:

Vessel C urved b ody s herd.

1 01. 3 9

PRW38

I . 1 04. 7 6

Curved b ody s herd

S lip

Ware

Thickn ess P late

3 .2YR6.5/6 ( light r ed/ r eddish y ellow) t o w ithin a round 0 .15cm f rom t he outer s urface. 2 .5YR6/5 ( light r eddish b rown/ l ight r ed) t owards t he i nner s urface. S ome s mall white a nd g rey g rits.

2 .5YR4.5/8 0 .32( red). 0 .45cm S omewhat p olished. Thick. F laking i n p laces. Outer s urface only.

1 0R6.5/6 ( light r ed) t o within 0 .15cm f rom t he outer s urface. G rey c ore s howing i n s tripe s o f r eddish g rey a nd • b rown o n t he i nner s urface Hard.

0 .331 .2YR4/6 0 .48cm ( red). Matt. Thick. F laking i n p laces t o r eveal a p ale p ink f ilm. O uter s urface o nly.

2 66

Table A .4e c ont. Thickn ess P late

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

Ware

PRW39

V I. 1 00 G rave 1 0

Base o f a b owl.

2 .5YR6/8 1 .2YR5/8 ( light ( red). r ed). Many Thin. small Uneven. -m edium white and g rey g rits. Medium hard. Smooth ( soapy) s urface. S lightly encrusted.

PRW40

V II. 1 0

F lange o f a n o pen b owl.

1 .2YR5/8 1 .2YR5/8 ( red). ( red). Many small Thin. -m edium Even. white and g rey g rits. Medium h ard. Smooth ( soapy) s urface.

* S herds which were c loser examination.

S lip

f ound t o b elong t o t he

2 67

9

9

s ame v essel upon

Table A .5a

S ample

Type

P rov/ no.

1 l amps

f rom t he P etra excavations.

W are

S lip

P late 10

PL1

I . 1 00.2 ( 384)

Unevenly f ired: 1 0R6/4 ( light yellowish b rown)1 0YR4.5/1 ( gray/dark g ray) on t he outer s urface. 1 0R4/1 ( dark g ray) c ore extending t o the i nner s urface. Many v ery s mall mica f lecks. S ome medium white a nd g rey g rits.

Uneven:dark brown, b lack a round t he f illing h ole. D ripping down t he s ides.

P L2

I . 1 00.1 ( 405)

2 .5YR5/8 ( red). F ew very s mall mica f lecks, s ome small white g rits. Fungal g rowth i n patches on t op a nd i nside. S lightly encrusted.

A lmost s ame a s ware, s howing i n s moother a reas where i t d ripped d own t he s ides. May b e due t o wetting r ather t han a r eal s lip.

1 0

P L3

1 .104 1 7 ( 786)

1 .2Y7.5/2.5 ( mainly very pale b rown) on outer s urfaces.2.5YR6/5 ( light r eddish b rown/ l ight r ed) on i nner s urfaces. F ew s mall white and g rey g rits. Fungal g rowth i n patches on t op a nd i nside. Round i ndentation i n t he i nner b ottom where t he t ool f or making the f illing hole h it. S light encrustation ( sand).

1 0R4.5/8 ( red) o n d iscus; 7 .5YR 3 .5/2 ( dark b rown) i n s urrounding g rooves a nd on h andle. D ripping i nside t hrough t he f illing h ole.

1 0

2 6

Table A .5a c ont.

S ample

P ray! no.

PL4

W are

S lip

5 YR6.5/4 ( pink/ l ight r eddish b rown). F ew v ery small mica f lecks, many s mall white and g rey g rits. S light blackening on top and i nside i n patches; burnt a fter b reaking a s blackening s hows on a reas o f the b reakage s ections

2 .5YR4.5/6 ( red) on t op. Dripping i n patches onto t he s ides.

PL5

I . 1 04. 2 3

Mainly 5 YR4.5/3 2 .5YR5.5/7 ( light r ed/red). Very ( reddish b rown). wide core: 5 YR5.5/4 ( light r eddish brown/ r eddish b rown). Inner s urface mainly 7 .5YR5/2 ( brown). Many small-large white and g rey g rits. Large white ( calcareous) g rits caused b listering.

PL6

I . 1 00. 3 5 15

1 .3Y6.5/4 ( mainly l ight yellowish b rown). F ew v ery small white g rits. I ndentation i n the bottom caused by the t ool f or making t he f illing hole.

2 69

7 .5YR4.5/3 ( brown). D ripping i n patches down the s ides and i nside.

P late

1 0

1 1

1 1

Table A .5a cont.

S ample

P rov/ n o.

Ware

S lip

P late

P L7

XXIV. 1 00. 2 2 178

Unevenly f ired: T races o f d ark 8 .2YR6.5/6 ( mainly b rown. b rownish y ellow) 1 0YR5.5/1 ( light b rownish g ray/ g rayish b rown). I nner s urface 1 0YR 5 .5/3 ( pale b rown / brown). F ew v ery s mall m ica f lecks, many s mall white a nd g rey g rits. B adly e ncrusted f laky, v ery b adly weathered.

1 1

P L8

XXI. 8 10. 1

2 .5YR6/7 ( light r ed). F ew v ery s mall m ica f lecks, s ome s mall-medium white a nd g rey g rits. B adly worn.

1 1

P L9

XXI. 8 08. 1

5 YR5.5/6 ( reddish 7 .8YR6/2 ( pinkish yellow/yellowish g ray/light b rownish r ed),Inner s urface g ray). 1 0YR6.5/2.5 ( mainly l ight brownish g ray). F ew v ery s mall mica f lecks, s ome small white a nd g rey g rits. Moulding s hallow a nd n ot c lear. B lackened n ear t he n ozzle.

2 70

T races o f r ed/ b rown.

1 1

Table A .5b

S ample P L10

Type

f rom t he P etra excavations.

P rov./ no. W are XXI. 8 13. 3

P L11 1 03. 3 0

P L12 1 03. 2 0 ( 775)

P L13

2 l amps

I . 1 00. 3 ( 438)

S lip

P late

2 .5Y8/3(white/pale yellow). F ew v ery s mall mica f lecks. Medium s oft, s imilar t o eastern t erra s igillata A .

7 .5YR3.5/2 ( dark b rown). Mostly worn out but quite thick i n t he r emaining t races. D ripping i nside t hrough the f illing h ole.

1 2

2 .5Y6/4(light yellowish b rown). S ome s mall-medium white g rits, c ausing blistering i n one place. Very f ew very small mica f lecks. B lackened i nside. Moulding s hallow a nd not well d efined.

Varying i n c onsistency, darkest: 1 0YR4/2 ( dark g rayish b rown).

1 2

2 .5Y8/3 ( white/ pale yellow). F ew v ery s mall mica f lecks. S ome l arger white g rits. Medium s oft, s imilar t o eastern t erra s igillata A . Weathered, s lightly encrusted

1 0R4/3.5 ( weak r ed). Thick. Weathered i n places. D ripping i nside t hrough t he wick hole.

1 2

6 .5YR7/5 ( pink/ r eddish yellow). F ew very small mica f lecks. Many s mall white g rits. F ew l arge white g rits, one o f which was cut t hrough a t t he s urface t o c ontinue the moulded design. S oft a nd powdery s urface. S lightly weathered.

T races o f l ight r eddish b rown. D ripping i nside through t he wick hole.

1 2

2 71

Table A .5b c ont.

S ample

P rov./ W are n o.

S lip

P late

P L14

XX. 2 00. 7

2 .5Y6.5/2 ( light g ray/ l ight b rownish g ray). The s ides 2 .5Y7.5/2 ( white/ l ight g ray),Inner s urface t op 2 .5Y6.5/2 ( light g ray! l ight b rownish g ray). F ew v ery s mall m ica f lecks. Many s mall white a nd g rey g rits.

U neven: 6 .2YR5/4 ( reddish b rown/ b rown), a round t he f illing hole 1 0YR3/1.5 ( very d ark g ray/very d ark g rayish b rown) n ear t he n ozzle. D ripping t hinly i nside t hrough t he f illing h ole. N ot c overing t he s ides.

1 3

P L15

XXI. 2 00. 3

5 YR6.5/6 ( reddish y ellow).Some v ery s mall m ica f lecks. Many s mall-medium white g rits. Encrusted on t op a nd i nside. B lackened n ozzle.

2 .5YR4.5/8 ( red). D ripping i nside t hrough t he w ick h ole.

1 3

P L16

I . 1 03. 8

1 0YR5.5/4 ( light yellowish b rown/ y ellowish b rown). Many medium-large white a nd g rey g rits, c ausing b listering i n p laces.

2 .5YR5/4 ( reddish b rown). D ripping i nside t hrough t he f illing a nd w ick h oles.

1 3

P L17

I . 1 04. 9 ( 581)

5 YR6/6 ( reddish y ellow). F ew v ery s mall m ica f lecks. M any s mall white a nd g rey g rits g iving a s omewhat mottled a ppearance, B lackened n ozzle.

U neven: 7 .5YR5.5/7 ( reddish y ellow/ s trong b rown) 5 YR/8 ( yellowish r ed) - 5 YR4/2 ( dark r eddish g ray). D ripping d own t he t he s ide a nd i nside t hrough t he f illing a nd w ick h oles.

1 4

2 72

Table A .5b c ont.

S ample

P rov./ no. Ware

PL18 7 5

PL19

S ample

Uneven and patchy; 1 0YR5/1 ( gray) 1 0YR3/1 ( very dark g ray). Dripping down the s ides and base, a nd i nside t hrough the f illing hole.

1 4

1 0YR6/2.5 ( light brownish g ray/ pale brown). Many small white and g rey grits.

Uneven: darkest 1 0YR3.5/1 ( dark g ray/ very dark g ray). Dripping i nside through the f illing hole.

1 4

Type

3 l amps

f rom the P etra excavations.

P rov./ n o. Ware

PL20 1 00. 3 9. ( 1457)

P L21 1 00. 1 03. ( 1846)

P late

1 0YR5/2 ( grayish brown) 7.5YR4/2 ( brown) 7.5YR4/2 ( brown/ dark brown). Many small -medium white and grey g rits. Patchy thin dark r eddish brown core.

I . 1 04. 2 8

Table A .5c

S lip

S lip

P late

5 YR6/6 ( reddish yellow). Very c ompact. Few very s mall mica f lecks. S omewhat encrusted.

N 2.5/0 ( very dark g ray/black). Thick, even, l ustrous. On a ll s urfaces.

1 4

7 .5YR6/4(light b rown).Some small white and g rey g rits.

1 0YR2/1 ( black). Even, s omewhat l ustrous. Badly worn out outside. On a ll surfaces ( except f or a small p atch on t he i nner s urface).

1 4

2 73

Table A .5d

Sample

Type 4 l amps

Prov./ no. Ware

PL22 1 06. 4

P L23

I . 2 13. 2 68.

Table A .5e

S ample P L24

f rom the P etra excavations.

Type

S lip

7 .5YR7/4 ( pink). Many small white ( quartzite?) g rits.

2 .5YR5.5/8 r ed/ r ed).

( light

1 5

Badly f ired: 1 0YR6.5/4 ( very pale b rown/light yellowish b rown) on the s urfaces. Very wide i rregular dark g ray/ b lack core s howing up a t the s urfaces i n places. May have a lso been partially burnt a fter breaking. Some small-medium white g rits. Layered breakage s ections.

5 YR5/7 ( yellowish r ed). Very patchy a nd worn.

1 5

5 l amps

etra excavations. f rom the P

P rov./ no. Ware I . 1 05. 6 2

P L25 ( 301)

P late

S lip

1 5

8 .2YR6/6 ( reddish yellow/ brownish yellow). Very wide uneven dark g rey core s howing up a t the s urface i n places. Many small -l arge white g rits. B lackened n ozzle. 2 .5YR6/4 ( light brown) 0 .5-1mm f rom s urfaces. Wide g rey core: 1 0YR5.5/1 ( gray). S ome small-medium white and g rey g rits.

2 74

P late •

2 .5Y7.5/2 ( white/ l ight gray). Thick a nd even on a ll t he s urfaces. May be due t o s alt a ddition r ather t han a s lip.

1 5

Table A .5e c ont.

S ample PL26

Prov./ no. Ware I . 1 01. 3 a ( 663)

Table A .5f

S ample

S lip

1 0YR6.5/5 ( mainly l ight yellowish b rown). Very wide g rey c ore s howing up a t the surface i n p laces: 1 0YR 4 .5/2 ( grayish b rown/dark g rayish brown) under the nozzle. S ome small white and g rey g rits. Blackened n ear the nozzle and bottom. S lightly encrusted.

Type 6 l amps

P late 1 5

f rom the P etra excavations.

P rov./ no. Ware

S lip

P late

P L27

I II. 1 03. 1 9

1 .2YR5/8 ( red). F ew very small mica f lecks, s ome small white g rits, Hard and compact.

2 .5YR4.5/8 ( red) over t he body. 5 YR4/1 ( dark g ray) a round and b elow the n ozzle.

1 5

PL28

I II. 1 09. 1 8

2 .5YR6/4 ( light r eddish b rown). S ome small white a nd g rey g rits. S oft, f laky. A lmost completely c overed by encrustation.

Unrecognisable

1 5

2 75

Table A .5g

Sample

Type 7 l amps f rom the P etra excavations.

P rov./ no. Ware

S lip

P late

PL29

XXO/ 8 02. D 5

1 0YR6/1.5 ( light g ray/light b rownish g ray). Darker g rey core. S ome small-medium white ( calcareous and quartzite?) and g rey g rits. Very hard and compact

N 4.5/0 g ray).

PL30

XX. 2 01. 1 /2

Unevenly f ired, mainly 1 0YR7/2.5 ( light g ray/very pale brown). F ew very s mall mica f lecks.Some s mall white and g rey g rits. F ew l arge g rey g rits.

Uneven: 5 YR6.5/6 ( reddish yellow) on d iscus-7.5YR4.5/1 ( mainly dark g ray) i n s ome o f the s urrounding g rooves a nd on the nozzle.

1 6

PL31

I . 1 29

1 0YR6/4 ( light yellowish b rown). Many s mall white and g rey grits. C ompact and hard.

1 0YR3.5/1 ( dark g ray/very dark g ray). Worn out i n p laces. S lightly l ustrous.

1 6

2 .5Y7.5/3 ( mainly white / pale yellow). Many small-medium g rey g rits. S oft. S lightly powdery s urface.

T races o f g reyish b rown i n the g rooves. Dripping i nside through f illing a nd wick h oles.

1 6

PL32 1 03. 3 9

Table A .5h

S ample P L33

Type

8 l amps

1 6

etra excavations. f rom the P

P rov./ n o. Ware I . 1 05. 1 0

( gray/dark

S lip

7 .5YR6.5/4 ( pink / light b rown). F ew very s mall mica f lecks. many small white ( calcareous a nd quartzite) g rits.

2 76

Uneven: 3 .2YR 6 /8 ( light r ed/ r eddish yellow) 7.5YR3/1 ( very dark g ray/dark g ray). F laky i n p laces.

P late 1 6

Table A .5i

Sample

Type

9 l amps

f rom the P etra e xcavations.

P rov./ no. W are

S lip

P late

PL34

II. I 1 03. 1 9

1 .2Y8/3 ( mainly white/ pale yellow). Many small white and g rey g rits. S oft, s imilar t o eastern t erra s igillata A .

PL35

XXI. 6 01. 4

1 0YR6/2.5 ( light Faded a nd worn out b rownish g ray/ i n p laces. R emains l ight b rown).Few o f g reyish b rown. v ery small mica f lecks. S ome small white and g rey g rits. S lightly encrusted. Moulding s hallow and unclear.

1 7

PL36

XXI. 2 00. 3

Unevenly f ired: Uneven: 1 0YR4.5/3 1 0YR6/4 ( light ( brown) 10YR3/1 yellowish b rown) ( very dark g ray). 10YR 5 .5/1 Dripping down the s ides. ( gray).Some small medium white a nd g rey g rits. C ompact and hard. Moulding shallow except f or c oncentric c ircles a round d iscus, c ircle a round wick hole and moulding on the base.

1 7

P L37

XXI. 8 03. 3

Unrecognisable 2 .5YR5.5/8 ( light r ed/ r ed). Many small-medium white a nd yellowish g rits. Very badly encrusted obliterating moulding details and s lip i f any.

1 7

P L38 1 09. 2 3

5 YR6/6 ( reddish yellow). Many small-medium white and g rey g rits. S lightly encrusted.

2 77

S omewhat uneven: 5 YR3/3 ( dark r eddish b rown) 2.5YR4/8 ( red). Thick, s lightly l ustrous. Worn ( rubbed) i n places.

6 .2YR6/5 ( mainly l ight b rown). Thick. May be due t o wetting the s urface r ather t han a s lip.

1 6

1 7

Table A .5i cont.

S ample PL39

Prov./ n o. Ware XXI. 1 00. 4 c

Table A .5j

S ample

Type

3 .2YR6.5/6 ( light r ed/ r eddish yellow). Some small white and grey g rits. Compact and hard.

1 0

l amps

S lip

P late

Uneven, darkest: 1 0R5/8 ( red). D ripping i nside.

17

f rom the P etra excavations.

P rov./ no. Ware

S lip

P late

PL40

XXI. 2 00

Uneven, mostly 5 YR7/5 ( pink/ r eddish yellow) more yellow i n p laces. F ew very s mall mica f lecks. F ew small white g rits. Blackened a round the nozzle, i nside and a t the b ottom o f the h andle. S omewhat encrusted.

Faded, worn out i n places. R emains o f g reyish b rown.

1 8

PL41

I . 1 10. 2

1 0YR.5/3.5 ( mainly pale brown). F ew v ery small mica f lecks. F ew small white and g rey g rits. Moulding s hallow a nd unclear.

Uneven, mainly 2 .5YR4.5/4 ( reddish b rown). Thick. Dripping i nside through the f illing and wick holes.

1 8

• •

2 78

Table A .5k

Sample

Type

1 1

l amps

f rom the P etra excavations.

Prov./ no. Ware

S lip

P late

PL42

1 .121. 2 5 ( 1836)

Outer surface: None. H ighly 7 .5YR4/4 ( dark burnished s urface. brown), probably o riginally buff(?). Wide dark g rey core extending a ll the way t o the inside. S ome small-medium white g rits. Partially burnt. Very f laky. E fflorescent s alt b etween the f laky l ayers. Fungus patches i nside.

1 8

PL43

I V. 1 02. 3 8 ( 1585)

1 0YR6.5/2 ( light None. g ray! l ight b rownish g ray)7 .5YR6/3 ( pinkish g ray/light brown) a t the outer s urface. Very wide core N5.5/0 ( gray). Many small white and g rey g rits. S omewhat encrusted.

1 8

Table A .51

S ample P L44

Type

1 2

l amps

etra excavations. f rom the P

P rov./ no. Ware I . 1 03. 4 5

S lip

Unrecognisable M edium g rey, v ery wide r ed core ( too badly encrusted f or colour i dentification). Many small white a nd g rey g rits. Y ellowish f ilm encrustation a ll over.

2 79

P late 1 8

Table A .51 cont.

Sample

P rov./ no. Ware

S lip

PL45

XXV. 4 01 2 6

7 .5YR5/3 ( brown). Very wide g rey core. Many small -medium white and dark g rey g rits.

PL46

I . 1 05

1 0YR5/2 ( grayish None. brown). Many small white and g rey grits. Blackened nozzle.

Table A .5m

S ample

Type

1 3

l amps

T races o f very t hin buff-brown s lip a t t he handle.

P late 1 8

1 9

f rom the P etra excavations.

P rov./ no. Ware

S lip

P late

P L47

T . 1 01. 8 0

Outer s urface: None N4.5/0 ( gray/dark g ray), wide core N 6.5/0 ( light g ray). Many small -m edium white ( calcareous and quartzite) g rits. S lightly encrusted

1 9

PL48

I . 1 04. 9 ( 650)

N 3/0 ( very dark g ray). L ighter g rey core. F ew small white and g rey g rits.

1 9

Table A .5n

S ample

Type

1 4

l amps

f rom the P etra excavations.

P rov./ no. Ware

PL49 1 94

None

S lip

2 .5YR5/6 ( red). Many small-large white g rits. Blackened nozzle. Joint between upper and l ower moulds t rimmed with a s traight edge t ool.

2 80

U neven:7.5YR6.5/4 ( pink/light b rown) where s lip i s t hickest.

P late 1 9

Table A .5p

S ample

Type

1 01. 3 9 ( 1323)

Sample

f rom t he Petra excavations.

A .5q

Type

P rov./ no.

1 03. 3 9 ( 1435)

Table A .5r

S lip

Type

1 6

l amps

1 66

1 9

f rom t he P etra excavations.

P late

Ware

S lip

7 .5YR7/4(pink). F ew medium white g rits. S imilar t o eastern t erra sigillata A but harder and more c ompact.

Uneven: darkest 1 0R4/7 ( red). On both outer and i nner surfaces. Worn out in places.

1 7

l amps

2 0

etra excavations. f rom t he P

P rov./ n o. Ware

PL52

P late

1 0YR6.5/4/4 ( very None pale brown/ yellowish brown). Wide uneven g rey core showing a t a reas o f the i nside. Nozzle a nd i nside blackened. F ew small mica f lecks. Many s mall white and g rey g rits. S oft. Layered b reakage s ections. C rude moulding.

P L51

S ample

l amps

P rov./ no. Ware

PL50

Table

1 5

P late

S lip

.5YR5/4 1 0YR7/4 ( very pale 7 W orn out b rown) t o within 2 5mm f rom the outer surface. Wide g rey core extending a ll t he way t o the i nner s urface: 1 0YR5/1.5 ( gray/ g rayish b rown). S ome small white and g rey g rits.

2 81

( brown). a t places.

2 0

Table A .5r cont.

Sample

P rov./ no. Ware

S lip

P late

PL53

XXIV. 1 00. 4 ( 2189)

1 0YR6.5/4 ( very pale b rown/light yellowish brown). Very wide medium g rey c ore. S ome small white and g rey g rits.

T races o f b rown.

2 0

PL54

XXI. 2 00. 3 ( 2204)

6 .2YR7/6 ( reddish yellow/yellowish r ed). Many small l arge white and r ed g rits. Blackened nozzle.

5 YR5.5/6 ( reddish y ellow/yellowish r ed). D ripping i n p atches down t he s ides and i nside t hrough t he f illing h ole.

2 0

Table A .5s

Sample

Type

1 8

l amps

f rom the P etra excavations.

Prov./ no. Ware

S lip

P late

PL55

XXI. 2 00. 1 /3

2 .5YR5.5/8 ( light r ed/red). Many medium white and g rey g rits. Blackened nozzle. C reamy-buff f ilm encrustation a ll over.

Unrecognisable.

2 0

PL56

I V. 1 01. 8 2

Unrecognisable. 2 .5YR5/8 ( red). Medium dark g rey c ore. Many s mall -l arge white and g rey g rits. L ight buff-grey f ilm encrustation on the t op a nd t he s ides, t o a l esser extent i nside.

2 0

PL57

V II.

2 .5YR5.5/8 ( light r ed/red). Many small-large white and g rey g rits. C reamy-buff f ilm encrustation a ll over

2 82

Unrecognisable

2 0

Table A .5t Miscellaneous

Sample

lamps f rom the P etra excavations.

P rov./ no. Ware

PL58 1 03. 3 1 ( 698)

PL59 ( 212)

S lip

P late

2 .5YR6/6 ( light r ed). F ew small mica f lecks. Many small white g rits. Encrusted.

1 0R4.5/8 ( red). Patchy a t the bottom.

2 1

2 .5Y6.5/2 ( light g ray/ l ight brownish g ray). F ew small-medium white g rits. Compact and hard.

1 0YR4.5/2 ( grayish brown/dark g rayish brown). Patchy and very t hin.

2 1

7 .5YR6/4 ( light brown). F ew small mica f lecks. Many small -m edium white g rits.

Uneven: 1 0YR4.5/8 ( red)-10YR3/1 ( very dark g ray).

2 1

PL60 2 08

Table A .6 The t erracotta excavations.

f igurines

the

P etra

S ample

P rovenance

Exc.

P FIG1

1 .105.65

2 377

S eated human.

P FIG2

XXI.100.7

2 119

S eated human.

P FIG3

1 .2

4 3

S eated human.

2 61

P iper,

1 617

Human h ead,

f emale.

P FIG6

3 6

Human h ead,

male.

P FIG7

3 04

S tanding human, male.

2 32

Human, bent open l egs with f eet f acing.

1 6

Camel, l eg and part o f back.

1 431

Camel,

P FIG4 P FIG5

P FIG8

1 11.103.33

1 .66

P FIG9

P FIG10

1 .117.1

no.

f rom

2 83

D escription

human.

f ront part.

Table A .6 cont. S ample

P rovenance

Exc.

n o.

D escription

PFIG11

1 .113.1

1 309

C amel,

h ind l eg.

P FIG12

1 11.103.37

1 281

C amel,

body.

P FIG13

1 .104.51

1 629

Horse,

body.

P FIG14

+

1 49

Horse with r ider's l eg and f oot.

P FIG15

+

4 7

Horse w ith part o f r ider on a s addle.

P FIG16

1 .130.6

2 029

Horse,

r ear s ide.

PFIG17

+

3 13

Horse,

s ide.

P FIG18

1 .104.51

1 592

Horse,

l egs.

P FIG19

1 .133

2 58

Horse,

l egs.

P FIG20

1 .100.2

4 10

Monkey,

P FIG21

+

3 5

Modelled camel, abstract h ead & f ront l egs.

P FIG22

1 .100.3

4 56

L eft a rm o f l arge human f igure(?)

P FIG23

+

3 12

Horse,

back l eg.

P FIG24

I II.105.29A

1 981

H orse,

back.

P FIG25

1 .100.1

3 42

S eated human.

P FIG26

+

3 1

Horse,

Table A .7a

The coarse ware f rom Aujah a l-Hafeer.

h ead.

h ind l eg.

S ample

P rovenance

N essana s hape n o.

AHCW1

1 48

1 34.15

A HCW2

1 20

1 34.2

A HCW3

Unmarked

C losest: 7 5.A2a. H as uneven dark r ed s lip on t he outer s urface.

2 84

Table A .7a cont. Sample

Provenance

Nessana

AHCW4

1 46

7 5. A2. Has uneven dark r ed s lip on the outer Surface.

AHCW5

Unmarked

8 0.1 Knob a t perforated.

AHCW6

Unmarked

Strainer, may be part o f Shape 1 14 ( ware XI).

AHCW7

SB/

Body sherd, may belong to a vessel o f Shape RDH2 ( ware XX).

* A fter

Table

Baly

A .7b

shape no.*

the

top

1 962.

The painted ware

f rom Aujah a l-Hafeer.

Sample

Provenance

Type*/description

Paint' g s imilar t o PPW no.

AHPW1

ETDcL2

Nessana A .12

PPW3,10

AHPW2

ETDcL4

Nessana A .2 colour)

AHPW3

ETDcL5

Nessana A .12 ( grey slip on the outer surface, paint faded).

PPW3,10

AHPW4

ETDcL6

Nessana A .7

PPW4

AHPW5

ETDcL7

Nessana A .11. a r ing base.

( tan

Has

PPW2

PPW3,10

AHPW6

Nessana A .5

PPW6

AHPW7

Nessana A .1-2

PPW8

i \ HPW8

Thick r ed vertical b ands on the inner surface o f an open bowl, r ed s lip on the outer s urface.

PPW11(?)

2 85

Table A .7b cont. Paint' g s imilar to PPW n o.

Sample

Provenance

Type*/description

AHPW9

ETDcL3

Thick dark r ed, dripping ( ?), horizontal band on the inner s urface of an open globular bowl, grey s lip on the outer surface.

AHPW10

ETDAL2

S imilar t o AHPW8. Traces o f g rey s lip on the outer surface.

AHPW11

Unmarked

Ring base o f a deep open bowl. Red thick v ertical bands meeting i n four V-shapes inside. Tan colour. Few small - medium white grits.

AHPW12

16 1

Nabataean Type Eye and dot decoration.

AHPW13

1 68

Nabataean Type 2 . Some s trokes shallow incised.

PPW21

AHPW14

1 29

Nabataean Type

2 .

PW21 P

AHPW15

Valley

Nabataean Type

2 .

PPW16(?)

AHPW16

1 37

Nabataean Type

2 .

PW21 P

AHPW17

SW

Nabataean Type

3 a

PW25 P

AHPW18

X

Nabataean Type

3 a

PW25 P

AHPW19

1 39

Nabataean Type

3 a

PPW28

AHPW20

VDT

Nabataean Type

3 a

P PW27(?)

PPW11(?)

2 .

or

2 2

* AHPW1-7 a fter Baly 1 962, a ll o f Nabataean painted ware typ t-? _ 1 in t his s tudy. AHPW12-20 f ollowing Nabataean painted waif s typology i n this s tudy, s ee s ections 2 .3.1.2 and . I .

2 86

Table A .8

The pottery f rom Udhruh.

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

Ware d escription

U 2

1 3 28

c ooking p ot, r ibbed,

2 .5YR5.5/7 ( light r ed/red). Many s mall white a nd g rey g rits. T races o f c reamy white s lip o n t he outer s urface.

0 .47cm ( max.)

U 4

p 25

F ine t hin walled o pen b owl.

2 .5YR5.5/8 ( light r ed/red). S ome s mall white a nd g rey g rits. Thin b lack c ore. T races o f g rey s lip o utside t he r im.

0 .17cm

U 5

p 25

F ine t hin b ody s herd.

2 .5YR5.5/8 ( light r ed/red). S ome s mall white a nd g rey g rits.

0 .20cm

U 6

[ 3 23

C ooking p ot, r ibbed.

2 .5YR5/8 ( red). Many s mall white a nd g rey g rits. T races o f c reamy white s lip on t he o uter s urface.

0 .39cm ( max.)

U 7

ß 23

F ine r ibbed b ody s herd.

2 .5YR5/8 ( red). F ew s mall white a nd g rey g rits.

0 .230 .32cm

U 8

C 19. 0 24

T hin 2 .5YR5.5/8 ( light l ong r ed/red). S ome s mall h andle, white a nd g rey g rits. r ectan- W ide g rey c ore. g ular c rosss ection.

0 .70x 0 .96cm

U 12

S 18. 8 8

C ooking p ot, r ibbed,

2 .5YR5.5/7 ( light r ed/red). Many s mall white a nd g rey g rits. T races o f c reamy white s lip o n t he o uter s urface.

0 .75cm ( max.)

U 13

S 18. 8 8

C ooking p ot, r ibbed,

5 YR5.5/5 ( mainly l ight r eddish b rown). Many s mall-medium white, g rey a nd r ed g rits, g iving a mottled a ppearance. T races o f y ellowish white s lip.

0 .29cm ( max.)

2 87

Thickness

Table A .8

cont.

S ample

Prov.

U 14

S 18. 8 8

F ine w are body sherd.

2 .5YR5.5/8 ( light r ed/red). Few small white a nd grey g rits.

0 .160 .29cm

U 15

S 18. 8 8

Body s herd ( jar?)

2 .5YR5.5/7 ( light r ed/red). Many small white a nd g rey g rits. S lip on outer s urface: 1 0YR7/4 ( very pale brown).

0 .45cm

Table A .9

Vessel

Ware description

Thickness

The pottery f rom the Z urrabah k iln complex.

S ample

P rov.

Vessel

Ware description

Z P1

A .1. 1 4

Cooking pot, r ibbed.

B lack ( over-fired). Dark b rown core. Many s mall white g rits. Traces o f g reen-creamy s lip.

Z P2

A .1. 1 4

Holemouth j ar, collared r im.

C reamy p ink. S ome s mall-medium white and g rey g rits. D eep r eddish-brown ' slip' on b oth surfaces extending on part o f one breakage s ection. S lightly encrusted.

Z P3

A .1. 1 5

Thin walled painted bowl ( Nabataean Type 3 a*)

O range b rown. Wide black c ore. F ew s mall white g rits. Very dark g rey paint.

Z P4

A .1. 1 5

F our body s herd o f thin walled bowls melted and fused t ogether i n one mass.

B lack-deep wine r ed-brown ( over f ired), with a f ew ' bubbles'.

Z P5

A .2. 6

C ooking pot.

L ight o range. S ome s mall white and g rey g rits. T races o f b rown s lip. H eavily encrusted.

2 88

Table A .9

c ont.

S ample

P ray.

Vessel

Ware d escription

Z P6

A .2. 8

H andle

Yellow buff, P inkish c ore. S ome s mall white a nd g rey g rits. B rown s lip.

Z P7

A .2, 8

J ar

L ight p ink. L ight buff-grey c ore. S ome l arge white g rits. B rown-grey s lip. Encrusted.

Z P8

A .2. 9

Thin walled f ine Nabataean ware.

O range. F ew s mall white a nd g rey g rits. D eep o range s lip on t he outer s urface.

Z P9

A .2. 1 0

Thin walled painted b owl ( Nabataean Type 3 a*)

O range. S ome s mall white a nd g rey g rits, t races o f dark b rown paint.

Z P10

A .2. 1 4

Thin walled painted b owl ( Nabataean Type 3 a*)

O range. Thin buff-grey c ore. F ew s mall white g rits. Dark b rown paint.

Z P11

A .2. 1 4

Thin walled f ine Nabataean c losed bowl.

O range. S ome s mall white a nd g rey g rits. Deep o range s lip o n t he o uter s urface.

Z P12

A .3. 1 5

Thin walled open b owl.

G rey-black ( over f ired?). Wide b rown c ore. S ome s mall white a nd g rey g rits. Yellow ' slip' on t he i nner s urface a nd part o f t he outer s urface, i n c oncentric c ircular s tripes, with t he g rey ware s howing i n t he g rooves o f t he wheel marks; ' slip' e xtending on s ome o f t he b reakage s ections.

Z P13

A .3. 1 5

Thin walled p ainted b owl ( Nabatdean Type 3 a*)

O range. Wide b lack c ore. S ome s mall white a nd g rey g rits. Dark b rown paint.

2 89

Table A .9 c ont. S ample

P rov.

Vessel

Ware d escription

Z P14

A .3. 1 9

Vertical r immed o pen b owl, f ine Nabataean.

O range. S ome s mall white a nd g rey g rits.

Z P15

A .3. 1 9

J ar

Buff-brown. G rey c ore n ot s howing a t t he b reakage s ections. Many s mall m edium white a nd b lack g rits, g iving a m ottled a ppearance. T races o f b uff s lip.

Z P16

1 .4. 2

J ar

L ight o range. G rey c ore. S ome s mall white a nd g rey g rits.

Z P17

A .9. 8 .11 ( 436)

F our s herds f rom t hin walled b owls, melted, f used t ogether a nd g reatly warped.

B lack -r eddish b rown ( over f ired). H ighly p orous a nd c rumbly. S lip t urned g reen-yellow.

Z P18

A .1 C leara nce

Open b owl

B lack ( over f ired). Many ' bubbles'. S urface d ark purple-brown.

Z P19

A .10. 3 .20

S mall j ar.

D ark g rey ( over f ired). S andy g rits.

Z P20

A .10. 8 .39b

Open b owl.

D eep o range-red. W ide d ark g rey c ore. Many s mall white g rits.

Z P21

A .10. 3 5.59

V ery t hick warped s herd.

G rading f rom b lack a t t he s urface t o r eddish b rown a t t he c entre ( over f ired). Many s andy g rits.Encrusted

Z P22

A .11. 3 .5.

B ody s herd o f a l arge v essel; melted i nto f olds w ith s urfaces f used t ogether.

B lack-deep w ine r ed-brown ( over f ired). S ome ' bubbles'.

* F ollowing Nabataean s ee s ection 2 .3.1.3.

p ainted

ware

2 90

t ypology

i n

t his

s tudy,

Table A .10

The c lay s amples. N o. o f s amples

S ite No.*

S ite

Symbol

D escription o f t he d eposit

Z urrabah ( east o f t he k iln c omplex)

Z AS

Two l ayers. The t op y ellow 2 red i n c olour ( mostly 2 .5YR6/4 2 yellow l ight y ellowish b rown). The b ottom r ed ( mostly 2 .5YR6/6, l ight r ed). Very d isturbed.

1

A in a tT ina

A T

Very extensive s ource, l red M ostly y ellowish g reen. 3 yellow L ayers o f yellow ( 2.5Y7/6, 4 green y ellow/ o live y ellow y ellow); g reen ( 2.5Y6/4 5 Y5.5/3.6, l ight y ellowish b rown -p ale o live/olive); p atches o f r ed ( mainly 2 .5R 4 .5/6, r ed). The patches c ontain a ppreciable a mounts o f c rystalline g ypsum.

2

A sem

A SM

A lternating l ayers o f d eep r ed ( 2.5YR4/4, r eddish b rown) a nd b right l ight g reen** with y ellow p atches.

3

Mu -a llaq

MLQ

l redE xtensive s ource.Layers o f y ellow d ark g reen ( 5Y5/1-5Y6/3, 3 yellow g ray/olive g ray -p ale 7 green o live); yellow ( 2.5Y7/5 2.75Y7/6, p ale y ellow/ yellow-yellow); a nd r eddish y ellow ( mainly 1 0YR6/7, b rownish y ellow).

Wadi Musa A

WMA

S ingle l ayer, mainly 5 Y 6 .5/3 ( pale y ellow/pale o live).

5

5

Wadi Musa B

WMB

S ingle l ayer, mainly 5 Y ( pale y ellow).

4

5

T awilan: S outhern p it M iddle p it Northern p it •

T S

L ow purity. A ll s amples s imilar i n c olour, mainly 2 .5Y7/4 ( pale y ellow).

l red l green l yellowg reen

6 3 south

TM

3 middle

TN

3 north

* S ite n o. i n F ig. 2 .1 * * C olour n ot c omparable with Munsell C hart. 2 91

4

1 • 1 I A C D T 1 0 1 U l c , 0 4 r - in L i p i n c o 1 1 l ( 1 0 0 1 r •T 4 L ( 1 n e C O r I r C > r 1 r -co r r I C V r I 0 1 C O C V E • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ( 1 ) i n i n l r ) n e ' l e L 1 1 l . 0 t r ) t f l ‘ e L . ( 1r ' s • -1 . 1i n e l t ) r s • • H

( concentrations

r -co 0 ) O

•

•

•

T H

c \ I

r1 ( 7 1

•

•

•

•

•

c o % c )

. 1 c \ I (

•

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•

r •

•

C V e •

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•

•

L r ) C O I n L n

•

C \ . 1

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•

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r I t . 0 CV 0 CV C O r n 0 OD r n Cq L i n un M D in u n Or -on

C I

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Table

COMPOSITION OF

dP c D C D CD C D C D CD C D C D CD C D C D C D C D C D C D

L O U D 0 1 C D u n C N 1 1 C D C V r - C D n e C V r - C D 0 1 C O 0 r 4 C V C V C V C V N on N • • • C D CD CD CD CD CD C) CD CD CD

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r 4 1 1 C D C D C D C D r 4 , 4

( 1 )

E 1

4 4

. .

m pn r e ii n g e r

ni

a )

.

o n o n o n o n o n r n c V cV ( " V rn

OD , . 4 C V W • • • C . ) N . I N I N I

U

4 3

r . ,

r -q . )r -

• , I

0 10

• • 1 1

P PW2

P PW1

P PW3

pw4

P PW5

p Pw6

P PW8

P PW7

P PW9

I

P PW11

P PW13

P PW10 P late

I

P PW12

P ainted N abataean ware type 1 .

3 12

S cale 3:4 Key: /y/ , b roken e dge D iameters a re i n cm. f rom t he P etra excavations:

P PW15

P PW18

p pwi6

P pw14 P P W17

P PW21

P PW20

P PW19

S cale 3 :4 K ey: / / / , b roken edge D iameters a re i n cm.

PW22 P P late

2

P ainted N abataean w are t ype 2 .

3 13

f rom t he P etra excavations:

1

4 »

••••

•

.M •

•

1 • 1• 1• 1 ,

•

••• •

•

• ••• 1

•

«

n o

•

IM•I •

«

M I

•

«I.. •

• ••• •

•//

6

2

/ 41

4'

••• • ••• •• • ••

i

—. : Ai V . :9 4. . .l i r s •J b. ä q b e . *

••••••• C el l. ••

• » i i •• •• : . •. . • •

P PW23

P PW26 P PW25 P PW27

P EW24

1'

N e ib

P PW31

S cale 3 :4 D iameters

P PW28

P PW29

P late

1 7 .5

3

P ainted Nabataean w are types 2 a nd 3 a.

3 14

f rom t he Petra

a re

i n cm.

excavations:

/

-

I

/

. .

I71

%

" '

,

1 0

1// 1 1(

1

t

P PW32

P PW3 0

P PW33

1

P PW35

P PW34

P PW38 P PW36

. % As

e e e p ie . . . . .

L I I

PP W37 P late

4

P ainted Nabataean ware type 3 a.

3 15

_

S cale 3 :4 Key: 2 : / / // , b roken edge D iameters a re i n cm.

f rom t he

P etra excavations:

L iY

p pw4o

I

P Pw39

3 . 75

pw4i p

P PW43

P PW I 44 P PW42

P PW45

p pw46

P pw48 P late

5

P PW47

S cale 3 :4 K ey: /// / , b roken e dge / D iameters a re i n cm.

PP W49

P ainted Nabataean ware f rom t he P etra t ype 3 b a nd m iscellaneous.

3 16

excavations:

P TS9 P TS10

P TS5/8

P PW51

P rs r _

p rsi5

P TS20

S cale 3 :4 K ey: / l b roken e dge / f D iameters a re i n c m.

P rs i 3 P late

6

P TS12

M iscellaneous p ainted ware, a nd w estern s igillata f rom t he P etra excavations.

3 17

t erra

-11 411

fi

r_

9

P rs26

PTS19

P rS27

•

P TS : 37

P rs39

I

p rs49

P rs45

• ' 4 1 1 1 L Ole

P rS 56

P TS58

P rs6o

P TS57 P TS59

F TS62

P TS 63

p rs66

P rs64 S cale 3 :4 D iameters

P late

7

a re i n cm.

Western, eastern A , B , C , a nd micsellaneous s igillata f rom t he P etra excavations.

3 18

t erra

P TS7 0

P rs67

P RW8

P RW6

P RW5

P RW11

P RW9 P late

8

S cale 3 :4 K ey: // //z b roken e dge / D iameters a re i n c m.

I

Micsellaneous t erra s igillata, 1 f rom the P etra excavations.

3 19

a nd

r ed

ware:

t ype

1 0 .5

P RW19

111

4

P RW20

P RW16

P RW10

I

P RW22

3 c

r

2 2 .5

P RW32 P RW29 10

P RW27

1 11 1 1 11 11

V 2 0•

P RW I 4 -0

. 71 1 1 11

P RW35

P late

9

k -7 i

S cale 3 :4 Key: M 1 / b 2 roken e dge D iameters a re i n cm.

FRW39

he P etra R ed ware f rom t iscellaneous. 3 , 4 , a nd m

3 20

e xcavations:

types

1 , 2,

••

C D

3 21

c o a

PI

I

a )

\ o a

excavations:

4 . )

> 4 4 . ) ( 2 4 a ) 4 ) 0 > 4

4 1

Z 2 +

a

4 . ) r t j

3 22

excavations:

(

3 23

3 24

0 c • 1

a ( a l

H c \ I

2

NH 4

3 25

I

3 26

f rom t he e xcavations:

broken edge

1

c o a g L i

C Y1

I4

T -1

c d

C ) 4 ) • C i 2 0 4 )

c d c d

c d 4 ) C D

4 )

0

r d

a c o 0

C ) 4 . ) c d

r i ( 2 4

3 29

3 30

M I. .

4 1•• ••• • - 1 ....

• •• •

/

N r I

0 CV

a ) 4 ) t e , 1 n 4

31 3

M iscellaneous

excavations.

AN% 0 \C D 4

a i

4

3 32