The Potential for Rural Development in the New Seventh Division of Sarawak: A Preliminary Background Report 9789814376457

Citation preview

The Institute of Southeast Asian Studies

Established as an autonomous corporation by an Act of the Parliament of the Republic of Singapore in May, 1968, the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies is a regional research centre for scholars and other specialists concerned with modern Southeast Asia. The Institute's research interest is focussed on the many-faceted problems of modernization and social change in Southeast Asia. The Institute is governed by a 24-member Board of Trustees on which are represented the University of Singapore and Nanyang University, appointees from the Government, as well as representatives from a broad range of professional and civic organizations and groups. A ten-man Executive Committee oversees day-to-day operations; it is ex officio chaired by the Director, the Institute's chief academic and administrative officer.

"Copyright subsists in this publication under the United Kingdom Copyright Act, 1911 and the Singapore Copyright Act (Cap. 187). No person shall reproduce a copy of this publication, or extracts therefrom, without the written permission of the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore."

The Potential for Rural Development in the New Seventh Di vision of Sarawak A Pre l iminary Background Report

by

Richar d L . Schwenk

Occasional P a per No . 17 Institute of So utheast Asian Studies Pr ice : $ 4 • 00

PREFACE The importance of sub-national level studies is now generally recognized . The aspirations, problems and dynamics of life at the gressroot or intermediate levels c an be substantial l y different from the broader national mainstream. A proper grasp and understanding of such differences are vital to any meaningful appreciation of actual r eality at various levels of government or life in general . Viewed in this light, Mr . Richard Schwenk's venture into a study of longhouse communities in East Malaysia is particu l arly welcome . Specifically, it is an attempt to pinpoint, at the grassroot level of the longhouse dwel l ers of the new Seventh Division of Sarawak, some of the main developmental problems and needs of rural peoples as perce i ved and felt by them, with the hope t hat such findings would be of assistance to governmental and other planners concerned with rural development programmes . It is a preliminary report of an on-going study and we look forward to seeing the final results soon . In the meantime, let's hope Mr. Schwenk's fine effort would stimulate other problem-oriented local studies in not only Malaysia but the other countries of t he region as well . While wishing such studies and Mr" Schwenk all the best, it is clearly understood that r esponsibility for facts and opinions expressed in the work that follows rests exclusively with the author, and his interpretations do not necessarily reflect the vi ews or policy of the Institute itself . 1 0 September 1973

Kernial Singh Sandhu Director

CONTENTS

Preface List of Illustrations and Tables Acknowledgement The Problem

1

Original Objectives

1

Data Collection and the Sample

2

Unit of Analysis

4

People

4

Environment and Implications for Development

6

Present Needs of the Area

10

Religion

13

Economy

14

Transportation

16

Communications

18

Literacy and Education

19

Health

20

Summary and Conclusions

23

TABLES

25

BIBLIOGRAPHY

37

Illustrations Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3

Fig. 4

A Traditional Iban Longhouse of Nine Doors

3

Population Pyramid for the Iban of Kapit District

5

Distribution of Iban Longhouse Communities in Sarawak and in the Seventh Division

7

Iban Longhouses Sampled in the Seventh Division

8

Tables 1.

2. 3.

4.

So

Basic Socio-Economic Data on Iban Longhouses in Kapit District, January 1972

25

Basic Socio-Economic Data on Iban Longhouses in Sibu District, January 1972

26

Bilik in Longhouse Construction, Sibu & Kapit Districts, January 1972 (Pasal Jalai Bilik Di gaga)

27

Level of Living, Items for Iban Biliks, Sibu & Kapit Districts, January 1972 (Keresa Empu Orang Di Bilik)

28

Levels of Literacy & Literature for Iban Bilik s-Families, Sibu & Kapit Districts, January 1972 (Pasal Macha and Nulis)

29

6.

Highest Level of Education Attained by Iban Bilik-Family Members Sibu & Kapit Districts, January 1972 (Pasal Peninggi Pelajar) 30

7.

Agricultural Innovation of Iban BilikFamilies, Sibu & Kapit Districts, January 1972 (Pasal Betanam Betupi Jalai Baru)

31

Health Practices and Facilities of Iban Bili k-Families, Sibu & Kapit Districts, January 1972 (Pasal Pengerai Di Bi lik Tu)

32

8.

Tables

9.

10 .

1 1.

12 .

Agricultural Products Produced by Iban Bi Zik-Families, Sibu & Kapit Districts, January 1972 (Kereja Betanam-Betup i Ari Bi Zi k Tu Ngena Ka BuZ i h BeZanja)

33

Non-Agricultural & Barter Produce Produced by Iban BiZik-Families, Sibu & Kapit Districts, January 1972 (Kereja Orang Ari Bi Zi k Tu Ngena Ku Bul i h BeZanja)

34

Geographic Mobility of Iban Bilik-Families, Sibu & Kapit Districts, January 1972 ( PasaZ Pelajai Kita Sab i Zi k)

35

Iban Bi l i k-Families Recreation Habits, Sibu & Kapit Districts, January 1972 (PasaZ Pemai n Orang Di Bi l i k Tu)

36

Acknowledgements The author is grateful to Professor Kernial Singh Sandhu and Dr. Peter Weldon for their encouragement and suggestions leading to the publication of this paper , Special thanks are given to Dr . Weldon for his help in editing the manuscript and to Mrs. P. Lim Pui. Huen, Miss Lorraine Gribbens and to my wife, Paz Caridad, for their proof-reading . A special grant from the Board o f Global Ministries of the United Methodist Church made this study possible.

The Problem The !bans or Sea Dayaks of the new Seventh Division 1 of Sarawak may be at the threshold of a major socioeconomic crisis. Unemployment of the educated is experienced in major proportions for the first time. Secondary school leavers are reluctant . to return to their longhouses and are not vocationally trained to earn a living. The price of rubber, their major source of income, dropped at the time this study was made so that most !bans had stopped tapping. Rattan and other jungle produce for cash income are less in demand. As of early 1973 the demand and prices for rubber and timber have been increasing, at least temporarily. Also an illippi nut harvest has added some cash income into the economy in 1973. However, the price paid for illippi nuts is low and many !bans have heavy debts after two years of rice crop failures. Poor weather and impoverished soil had a disastrous effect on the upland rice harvests of 1971 and 1972. In this situation many !bans are beginning to seek more intensive agricultural pursuits or other jobs. The 11 Change agents 11 , where they exist, are often at a loss for a systematic method of discovering the 11 learning readiness .. of the people they hope to serve. The gap between the 11 haves 11 and the 11 have nots" seerrs to be widening . Original Objectives The original objectives of this study were to: - Learn the present .. felt needs .. and .. real needs 11 of rural people; Find out the socio-economic conditions of !ban longhouses; - Gather objective baseline data that can be used in the planning and evaluation of rural development programmes; and - Observe the socio-structural factors of a longhouse community, factors that may enhance or limit developmental change.

1

Fonrerly Kapit District, en April 2 1973, it becarre the Seventh Divisicn of Sarawak and includes within its boundaries the fonrer Sub-Districts of Scng, Kapit and Belaga, which have no.v been elevated to District status respectively.

- 2 -

This preliminary background reports on data collected to meet the first three objectives; additional data drawn from other sources and the personal observations of the author are used to substantiate and expand the survey findings. The majority of the quantitative findings from the survey are contained in twelve tables which accompany this report. While references are made to these tables in the text, the data in the tables has been arranged so that a rather complete picture of the longhouse and b i Zik social structure is given, as of January 1972 . There the tables can stand almost separately from the report proper; Iban translations are provided in most of the tables . Data Collection and the Sample A nine-page questionnaire was administered to a 4% stratified random sample of !ban longhouses in the Kapit District (now the Seventh Division) and the Sibu District during the first quarter of 1972 . Stratification was on the basis of nineteen penghulu's (chiefs') administrative areas. One longhouse was selected at random (using a list of random numbers) from each chief's area and all the b i lik-families in each longhouse were then surveyed. This report deals only with the findings of the fourteen chiefs' areas of the Seventh Division. Data from the Sibu District, a more urban area, survey is included in the tables to provide comparison. Administration of the questionnaire was carried out by the agricultural extension staff of the Joint Rural Development Programme of the Methodist Church under the personal direction of the author and all interviews were conducted in !ban. The analysis of data was a project of the manager and staff of the Methodist Agricultural Extension Service, Kapit. Since this is a random sample survey with a large number of cases and the relevant population findings compare closely with available data from the 1970 census and other records, the writer feels that generalizations to the !ban longhouse population in the Seventh Division for the most part can validly be made . Except where noted, the figures supplied are taken from this survey for the year 1971, with the survey having been completed in January 1972.

3

H

Fig. 1.

A Traditicnal lban Ialghouse of Nine Doors

Tanju-drying platfonn Ruai-inner porch-like corridor Padong ruai or pantas-wo:rking and ccnversing area D Sadau-loft E Tibang-ba:rk rice bins F Bitik-family roam

A B C

G

H I

J

K

Dapo1-hearth stove Tangga-ladder (this cne has a carved head) A tap-roof of individual family secticn Pin tu-d.oor is the tenn also used as a nuneral classifier in counting the autcnarous bi tikfamily apart:rcents Tempuan-camon walkway

- 4 -

Unit of Analysis The main unit of analysis is the autonomous b i l i kfamily which is the basis for data presented in the tables of this report. Three pages of the questionnaire were devoted to the longhouse as a unit of analysis, as for example, the "felt needs" and the socio-structural data yet to be analysed. There are 247 bili k's in the 14 longhouses randomly selected from the 377 Iban longhouses in the Seventh Division; in some tables comparative data is presented based on a sample survey of 118 bi l i k's in 5 longhouses randomly selected from the longhouses in the Sibu District. The average sized longhouse (like a village under one roof ) in the Seventh Division is 17.8 "doors" (see Table 1) or nuclear b i U k-families. The b i lik is the real socio-economic unit in Iban society, resembling in many ways a small corporation in matters of ownership and i nheritance o The average bilik has 6.1 members, often including three generations. The rate of population growth is about 2 o5%. People The ethnic composition of the population former Kapi t District was as f ollows in 19 70: No . Iban (or Sea Dayak)

75 . 1

Other Indigenous (includes Kay an, Kenyah, Ptm.ah, etc.) 7 ,2CB

14 . 1

160

o. 3

4,257

8. 3

Malay

898

1.7

Others

233

0.5

Chinese

'Ibtal

51,415

of the

%

38,658

M=lanau and Land Dayaks

2

100.0

--

2

R. Chander, Banchi Pendudok dan Perumdhan Ma l aysia L9 ?0; Gu lon gan Masharakat. I 9 ?0 Popu Zation and Housing Census of Malay sia; Communi ty Groups (Kuala LUmpur: Jabatan Perangkaan Malaysia, 1972 ) , pp. 101-104.

5 AGE

r

ON BEJALAI

I

I

I

70-74 65-69

j

J

J

60-64 55-59

J

1

j

50-54

1 l

45-49 40-44 .

J

I I

I

30-34

l

25-29

I

l

20-24 15-19

I

l

10-14

1

l

75+

35-39




~

\

(•

,__ i

\ • /·\,5th DIV.)

....

r>-

C3

DIV.

,..

I I 20

..._,/

BORNEO

Fig. 3.

Distribution of Iban Longhouse Communities in Sarawak and in the Seventh Division.

8

. I

~·--·_,....·-·-·_.,.·-·--.

/•

. J •

INDONESIAN

BORNEO

I

, .

.)

,.-·-..... '-. •

0

10 MILES

20

•

KEY : x = RANDOM SAMPLE LONGHOUSES SURVEYED BTG = SATANG OR MAIN RIVER S = SUNGAI OR TRIBUTARY STREAM

Fig.

4.

-·,

• -- . , •--.,..

._,·

Iban Lon gh ouses Sampled in the Seventh Division.

/.

- 9

-

which flood easily after heavy rains. There are a few flat areas at the headwaters of some streams such as the Baleh and Melinau Rivers and above some rapids such as the Pelagus and the Linau. The major problem in these areas is the difficulty and expense of transport, because of both rapids and distance. The depth of the rivers vary daily, making it difficult to plan travel ahead; some streams are impassable when the water is at the highest or lowest levels. Soils Some of the relatively fertile areas, large enough to show agricultural potential, have been soil mapped and have been shown to have Red-Yellow Podzolic Soils: Shallow to deep, yellow to red loamy sands to clays; or sedimentary, acid igneous and metamorphic rocks; gently sloping to steep land.3 The Linau-Balui Plateau is a very remote area with more than eleven square miles of fertile Podzols: Shallow to deep, pale-coloured sands with prominent sub-surface accumulation of humus or, locally, iron; on old or sub-recent alluvium or coarse-textured sedimentary rocks, flat to gently sloping land o4 The soil is acid and rapidly leaches when the natural vegetation is removed. Two or three continuous years of hill rice cropping usually result in almost irreversible soil depletion and in a take-over by noxious lalang grass (Imperata CyZindriaa). This is not so, however, for flooded padi soils which can be farmed year after year. Climate All of Sarawak lies within the hot humid tropics, 0 0 1 to 5 north of the Equator. Temperatures vary almost consistently between a minimum of 70°F at night to a high

3 Departrrent of Agriculture, Sarcwak, Ti mor (Kuching, 1970).

4 Ibid.

Soi Z Map of SarOJ.;)ak, Ma Zaysia

- 10of 95°F during the day. Rarely a day goes by without some sunshine and most heavy rain comes at night and in the months of October to February . Rainfall usually varies from 140 inches near the coast to 200 inches per year near the mountainous interior . There is no predictable distinct dry season. Farmers generally hope their jungle clearings will be dry enough to burn in the months from June to August. This undependeable rainfall is one of the greatest problems in slash-and-burn agriculture. Implications These are some of the salient factors of the environment , The predominantly steep jungle terrain and high rainfall of the hot humid tropics are a combination that readily leaches the soil o Land use differs from that in the monsoon tropics where the soil can be worked during the long dry season, for example, as in South and mainland Southeast Asia. In the hot humid tropics insects and fungi continue to flourish the whole year round unlike the monsoon tropics, arid and temperate zones o Therefore, problems of pest and disease control both in the growing and the storing phases of food production are the most severe in the hot humid tropics. It is little wonder that the isolated farmer does not grow food in quantity greater than his yearly needs, since stored crops do not keep long and there are no ready markets fo~ most food crops. The cultivation of timber, rubber, fruit trees, cassava and other crops that most nearly resemble the native vegetation, probably makes wisest use of the land in most of the Seventh Division. Forage crops for livestock should be investigated in greater depth as they would protect the soil and take advantage of the plentiful rainfall and sunshine. Wherever possible flatter land should be terraced for wet rice production. Present Needs of the Area "Felt Needs" In each longhouse of the sample survey and in some forty other longhouses in the Kapit area, in the first quarter of 19 72, we asked an assembly of elders, "What are your: greatest problems or needs? Please list them from the greatest to the least." Below is a summary of responses in rank order:

- 11 -

1. We are hungry for rice. 2 . The prices received for things we want to sell are low, especially rubber (M$25 to M$30 per pikul at the time). 3. The prices charged us for essential commodities we need are high, for example, kerosene, outboard motor fuel, sugar, etc. 4. We are often sick with no clinics nearby. 5. We do not have enough knowledge, especially about agriculture and health. These are the "felt needs" or "gut issues" among Ibans and longhouse dwellers generally. It is interesting that the elders questioned had difficulty articulating their problems beyond three or four points . Lack of rice was mentioned first without hesitation by over 98% of the longhouse communities. Until the Ibans' immediate need for rice is satisfied, the subsistence farmers will be less deeply concerned about their more complex needs . The reasons most often cited by members of the rice producing classes for the lack of rice were: 1. The jungle cannot be burned up enough to get rid of debris, ki 11 weeds and provide fertilizers from the ash. 2. There are too many pests such as rice birds, animals, insects and weeds. 3. Lack of good soil or flat land for making wet padi . 4. Lack of knowledge of the best time to begin cultivation. 5. Lack of capital to terrace land, to buy fertilizer and other agro-chemical products. When questioned further most rice production trainees recognize that their lack of knowledge and hard work is quite often the major reasons why their family does not have enough rice to eat. Those families that do not produce enough rice tend to place the blame on the weather and bad luck. Those who do get enough rice often attribute it to knowing when to start the farming cycle and to hard work.

- 12 -

In some longhouses there are certain respected families that always have enough rice for their yearly needs. Because they do, they can afford to hire poorer families to help in the essential task of weeding. So there is the tendency for "the rich to get richer and the poor to grow poorer". In fact an Iban truism has it, that, "those who always get rice are descendants of those who always got enough rice" (Sida ke se lalu bulih padi nya

ari turun-menurun orang ke selalu buZik padi). "Real Needs" The "real needs" are an at t empt by the planner or change agent to articulate more fully the "felt needs" of the people he is trying to help . Sometimes these two kinds of needs are the same. We might summarize the "real needs" of the area as being primarily: 1. More staple carbohydrate foods such as rice, maize, tapioca, and/or sweet potatoes. 2 . Cheaper transportation and communication . 3 " Agricultural knowledge appl icable to this area.

4 . Availability of agro-chemica l inputs. 5. Dependable markets with reasonable prices for produce . 6 . Increased availability of heal t h education, sanitary and medical facilities . 7 . Education for adults and more of the children for li fe work . Like spokes on a wheel these are all essential to rural development and it would be difficult to give priorities . Incorporating the ideas of Mosher,5 we would add as the "accelerators of agricultural development", planning, production credit and banking facilities, group action by farmers and expansion and improvement of the land base . These are all being attempted in the Second Malaysia Plan of the government which has as its main aims: Solidarity of the people; bridging the gap between the "haves" and the "have nots"; and helping rural people develop .

5 Arthur T. Mosher, Getting Agriculture Moving: Essentials for Deve lopment and Modernization (New York: Praeger for the Agricultural Develc:prrent Council , 1966).

- 13 -

Religion According to our random sample survey, 66% of the Iban bi li k-families in the Sixth Division are animists, 17% Methodists, 11% Bahai and 7% Roman Catholic. There is not much overlap in the areas in which the various Christian churches work but where there is, as in Kapit town, ecumenical worship among their members is now practised regularly and service programmes may be forthcorning . There is a strong local committee on Christian unity , The traditional Iban religion is often called a "padi cult", as much of the mythological lore, based on bird augury, was to insure a good rice harvest . This animistic faith is, however, much more than just a padi cult. The chief of the bird-men-like deities is the brahiminee kite bird known as Si ngalang Burong, thought to be the ancestor of all Ibans . This belief in a common mythical ancestor is one of the sources of their solidarity as a people . But as with most religions, as they become more rigidly institutionalized, they become less relevant to changing human needs and world views . Among the "other indigenous" communi ties in the Belaga District there is an animistic padi cult called Bungan that swept over the whole area from Indonesian Borneo starting about 1952 . The founder of this emancipated padi cult was Jok Apoi, an Indonesian Kenyah, who travelled from house to house in the Belaga District teaching the traditional "Lali" animists that they need no longer follow various taboos to insure prosperity. His first converts in each longhouse in turn became teachers and worship leaders. The indigenous movement was so successful that there are probably no more orthodox Lali left, for instance, whereas formerly it was forbidden to eat deer meat, now almost everyone does . So pervasive is the reforming cult that even the majority of the isolated Penans have become Bungan. The followers of the goddess Bungan still must offer sacrifice of eggs and chickens whenever they want favours . Jok Apoi died about 1955 but the movement he began still thrives.6

6 E. White, "Bungan: a New Kayan Belief", Sarcth)ak Musewn Journal, VII, (1956), pp. 472-475.

-

14 -

Certain individual self-styled Iban shamans (manang's) have appeared in recent years and have performed ceremonies ridding · Iban bili k of their taboos. One prominent person in the area performs this ceremony at the cost of one chicken per bi Uk . It appears · that when the time is "ripe" a charismatic type person will be elevated to help answer a press i ng need with a new world view. Thus religion becomes functional or practical when it legitimizes new lines of action or life styles to meet ever changing situations . The role of these religions as agents of developmental change in the future remains to be seen . Economy Timber has brought the greatest export earnings for the Seventh Division for the last decade, but the bulk of the profits does not reach the hands of the common people except through wages and the sale of a few logs. Rubber sold from the bilik -families' rubber small-holdings although not high yielding, is still the largest source of income for the Ibans. The high price of rubber during the Korean War period and then the timber boom of the 1960's have provided enough income so that the Ibans have not been forced to diversify their farming until now . Upland rice, or padi bukit as it is called, is grown by almost all longhouse dwellers in the Seventh Division (69,225 acres planted for the 1973 harvests). 7 Slash-and-burn agriculture is the most viable means yet found for farming the steep jungle hillsides to produce hill padi. Lowland or wet padi cultivation in this same area has increased greatly from 208 acres in 1967 to 1,150 acres in 1973. The yields from wet padi are two to three times that of hill padi under ordinary cultivation but with modern techniques the yields can be increased fivefold. Wet padi fields once properly built can be farmed continuously thus freeing farmers from the unpredictable shifting agriculture. Larger, more prosperous communities are usually found in wet padi areas . Crops for the last two years were the poorest in memory due to a combination of a prolonged wet season, when burning should have been done, and a depleted soil .

7 Departrrent of Agricu-1-ture, Sarawak, Annual Feport, "'Ihird Divisicn, Upper Fejang", Kapit, 1972, mirreographed.

- 15 -

Lack of easily accessible virgin jungle has led to a shorter period of "bush fallow" (resting of the land) , from an ideal of twelve years to about six years at present. Soils are therefore more impoverished as there is no time for big trees to grow which can bring up nutrients from the sub-soil and kill noxious weeds. In 1971, only 46% of the biZik's were self-sufficient in rice, that is, they had slightly more than five months' supply. However, the two longhouses in the survey which had started planting wet padi met 84% of their rice needs as compared to only 40% of those which were completely dependent on hill padi. The reason all longhouses do not plant wet padi is the scarcity of terraceable land. Still, more small areas are being terraced and prepared each year with the largest wet padi scheme at Nanga Merit where 320 acres are about to be irrigated by diesel pumps. Pepper growing began spreading rapidly in the Seventh Division about 1969 when rubber and jungle produce prices plunged. The crop was grown almost exclusively by Chinese farmers below Kanowit before this time but foot-rot fungus (Phytophthora paZmivora) and the abandoning of whole gardens due to insecurity, especially in the Sarikei and Binatang Districts, have forced the prices up and made the cultivation of pepper attractive . At the time of our sample survey, 27% of the Iban bi lik 's were growing pepper with an average of 156 vines each. Pepper planting was first successful among downriver Ibans who migrated into this area from Sarikei, Kanowit and Julau and settled near the Rejang River. Pepper is the third ranking export earner for Sarawak. A pepper subsidy scheme is being provided for select farmers, partly as a substitute for the rubber scheme of the government. In an effort to stabilize prices a Pepper Marketing Board was recently established with powers to regulate grading, storage, etc. The problems of foot-rot and other diseases, high input costs, labour intensity and the inelasticity of demand may disappoint many. In our pepper survey only 50% of those growing the crop are using fertilizer and many do not know how to apply it, therefore the yields may be low. If the price falls to M$50 per pikul (price at present is M$90 to M$120 per pikul for black pepper), it would be uneconomical to grow pepper, but there appears to be no better agricultural gamble right now. The Iban population of the area are 53% "economically active", that is, individuals above the age of twelve who

- 16 -

can do farming or other work " Of the economically active Iban, the 1960 census reported 97 o7% as farmers . Since it was a "defacto census" of those actually at horne on census night, it does not take into consideration the Iban men on bejalai , that is, those travelling . This may account for as many as a quarter of the Iban men between the ages of 15 and 35 years (see gap for those ages in Table 3) . Many have been working for timber companies in Sabah or Indonesia or in the oilfields of Brunei or have joined the armed forces . Recently, a decline in employment has forced many men to return home . Additionally the army will be mustering out many older Ibans for pension soon. This could mean a potential boon for development in the rural areas if these men with wide experience, considerable world view and some capital return to their longhouses with a desire to maintain a standard of living equal to what they experienced -in the towns o Presently, one seldom finds many able-bodied man at horne after the hard work of felling trees and planting rice is over. The menial tasks of farming such as weeding, pest control and harvesting are done mostly by the women. Transportation The quickest way to travel the ninety miles from Sibu to Kapit is by the twice weekly Malaysian Airlines System (MAS) eight-seater plane. This service extends up to Belaga and back every Thursday and Saturday. An MAS ticket from Sibu to Kapit costs M$38, Kapit to Belaga, M$37 . The usual transportation to Kapit from Sibu and return is by a twice daily "express" launch service costing M$6 one way. The trip usually takes about four hours to go down river to Sibu and five hours to go up to Kapit. As there is no road to Kapit most cargo and people travel by river . Transportation above Kapit along the main rivers of the Rejang and the Baleh has greatly improved since 1970 when a daily public launch service was began. Belaga can now be reached in a day by "express" launch at a cost of M$10 one way. Many Ibans along these main rivers have sold or no longer use their outboard motors which are about ten times more costly to operate than

- 17 -

public transport. Fuel for outboard motors costs M$2 . 25 per imperial gallon in Kapit. However, for those living along the many side streams, the outboard is still essentiaL According to our random sample survey, the time it takes to travel from the average Iban longhouse to Kapit town is three hours . The closest longhouse is twenty minutes away while the farthest Iban longhouse is eight hours from Kapit town by outboard motor powered longboat o Our survey showed an average round trip fare to Kapit from an Iban longhouse and return by cheapest ££actical means is M$8.23 with a range between M$1 and M$21 (See Table 1). Many families drift down to Kapit by longboats loaded with rubber, rattan and other jungle produce that will be sold to buy essential goods such as salt, kerosene and enough fuel to power their return trip home again. The term "fare" used above refers to either the cost of a ticket on a Chinese operated public launch or the standard charge established by each longhouse for taking a neighbour to town in a private outboard motor powered longboat. The cost for fuel from the farthest Iban longhouse to Kapit and back would be at least M$50 by small boat, so that most private operators cannot afford to give free rides o The above discussion on the costs of travel is limited to Iban longhouses which are relatively ne~r Kaoit town . However, travel costs in Belaga District are much greater as fuel costs are higher, distances greater and the rapids more dangerous. Therefore, larger boats, double motors and crews are required. The fare to Belaga town from Kapit town is M$10 by "express" launch and M$8 per pikul (133 . 3 lbs) of freight. An indication of the relatively easier travel down river is the fact that the freight rate drops to $6 per pikul from Belaga to Kapit by Belaga express. A "reasonable" fare on an unscheduled Chinese trader's cargo boat to Long Busan from Belaga is M$80 for the round trip. The same trip if boat, motor, fuel and a minimum crew of four were contracted specially would cost close to M$1;800 for the round trip. With such high costs one can better appreciate why Belaga District does not attempt to export heavy products or take sick people to Kapit for treatment. If, for example, a person dies the corpse must be taken back by privately contracted boat which would cost over M$100 to go from Kapit to just above the Pelagus Rapids, less than twenty-five miles. A proposed road from Bintulu to Belaga would greatly open up this vast district of 7,400 square miles.

- 18 -

Communications Post and telegraphic services are located only in the three administrative centres of Kapit, Song and Belaga o Telephone (wireless relay type) service is also available in these towns making it possible to "direct dial" Sibu or Kuching or call long distance to the outside world. Radio Malaysia, Sarawak, broadcasts news and special feature programmes in the four major languages of Malay, Chinese, Iban and English. There are also some broadcasts in the less widely spoken languages such as Kayan and Melanau. There are six hours of Iban language programmes broadcasted daily; these include agricultural programmes to which many Iban farmers listen. School programmes in English are also broadcasted on weekdays. A new Radio Malaysia station is being built in Sibu. Television may be available in the rural areas of the Seventh Division (wherever there is electricity) by 1975 using a relay tower near Song. 47% of the Iban bili k-families of the area now have radios . Newspapers arrive in Kapit the same day they are pub l ished in Kuching; the English language dailies, the Vanguard and the Sarawak Tr i bune are air shipped to S i bu and sent by express launch to three distributors in Kapit town. There are also six Chinese language dailies from Sibu, Kuching and Miri; of these the See Hua Dail y Ne ws of Sibu has the largest circulation. The Borneo Bu l letin, a weekly from Brunei has the largest circulation of all papers. The Bul l eti n's well edited and illustrated pages including the colourful As ia Magaz i ne supplement are popular week-end reading. Both the Borneo Bulletin and the Vanguard have Malay language sections and have the largest number of subscribers in Kapit . The Malaysian Information Service (MIS) distributes free Federal and state government weeklies in Malay . The Iban translations are Karang Saminggu and Pemberita respectively. Wall posters, leaflets and booklets are also distributed free from the Kapit office of MIS. Movies on development, culture and fighting communists are shown monthly in the main towns and some longhouses.

- 19 -

A monthly Farmer Bul l e ti n is produced by Sarawak's Department of Agricult ure in the four main languages and is distributed by the Department of Agriculture Office and the MIS Office. Literacy and Education Our random sample survey indicates that only 9% of the adult Iban (15 years old and over ) in the Seventh Division longhouses are able to read and write a personal letter . 25% of the b ili k's have an adult male literate and 12% have a female literate. Literacy among the young is rapidly increasing because of the proliferation of rural Kapit District Council primary schools, which were recently taken over by the state, in the last decade since Independence in 1963. Before 1963 there were eight Methodist Primary schools, one Roman Catholic and seven local authority or Kapit District Council schools . The first schools for Ibans in the area were built by the Methodist Church started in about 1939 in Kapit town . Today in the Seventh Division there are fifty government, eight Methodist and one Roman Catholic primary schoo l s . All the mission schools are government-aided, use English as the medium of instruction and have a total enrollment of about 5, 400 students . - The Government Secondary School has an enrollment of 530 students while the only other secondary school, the Methodist Secondary School, has 130 students . There are no vocational schools in the Seventh Division except for the government Farmers Training Centre at Seputin, Kapit, which teaches short courses mostly to primary school leavers. Of those of school age (7-20 years old), 53% have had some schooling . The highest educational level in 33% of the families did not extend beyond Primary 4 probably because this level of education is the most available in the rural schools . Only 27 % of the l onghouses are close enough to primary schools (Primary 1-4) for the students to return home each night, that is, "day schools". This means that 73% of the longhouse b ilik -families must send their small children to boarding schools if they want them to be educated. 9% of the families have children with an educational level as high as Form 1 - 6 in secondary school. An Iban story book was found in 12% of the b i l i ks and the Pe mb e r it a Or an gb um ai (Farmers Bulletin) were found

- 20 -

on 5% of the bilik walls. Less than 1% had a collection of books available for others to read. Recent daily newspapers (" .. . less than one month old") were found in less than 1% of the families. A weekly, Karang Saminggu, was found in 4% of the bilik 's. The most popular ' magazine, found in only 4% of the bilik's, was the monthly Dolphin printed in English and Chinese by the Borneo Literature Bureau for primary school students and sold at M$.25 per copy. The total monthly sales of the Dolphin in Kapit Town is nin~ty copies in English and fifty copies in Chinese. Health The health of longhouse people is precarious due to high density in living quarters where 50 to 250 persons live under one roof with little ventilation, sunlight or sanitation facilities. Intestinal parasites can be found in 90-99% of the people according to a Japanese medical survey in 1969 and 1970: parasite eggs, 88%; round worms, 75%; and hook worms, 24%.8 Dysentery (bacillary and amoebic) and typhoid fever are also common . Acute respiratory infections such as bronchitis and broncho-pneumonia are probably the second greatest disease problem according to government hospital reports. Skin diseases infect at least 3% of the longhouse dwellers.9 Eye infections are also prevalent. Nutritional disorders are most fre3uent among those under 5 years and over 40 years of age. 1 The government has an "under five clinic" in all hospitals and dispensaries. Persons between 15 and 30 years of age generally appear more healthy. Baby foods should be improved as the

8 Tt.nochiro Kurahori, M.D., and team, "'Ihe Interim Report of the Examination of the Inhabitants arol.¥1d Kapi t Area of the 'lhird Divisim Sarawak, 1969", and "Preliminary Report of the Medical and Nutri timal Survey, 19 71" , unpublished reports of the 6th and 7th Medical Mission of Csaka University and the Medical Departrren.t of Sarawak. 9

Ibid.

10 Ibid.

-

21 -

sweetened condensed milk and rice gruel which is most often used to supplement mothers milk do not supply enough vitamins or protein, and the high sugar concentration of the former often produces diarrhea and stomach upseto !ban mothers suffer most from malnutrition because of widespread adherence to taboos. For example, 70% of !ban bi lik 's of Kapi t District have taboos against mothers eating foods other than rice and salt for a month or more after giving birth. Goiters are found in 29% of !bans (women 40% and men 15%) according to the Japanese survey.ll Iban women are especially prone to goiter because of their poor diets during and following pregnancy. Proper nutrition would probably reduce greatly respiratory, skin and eye infections as well as deficiency diseases. Accidental cuts and broken bones due to the constant use of knives and axes in farming and timber occur all too frequently. Tetanus neonatorum ("lock jaw" of new born babies), which can be due to unhygenic practices in the cutting and treating the umbilical cord of longhouse-born babies is a cause of infant mortality in the first few days after birth o At least one case of tetanus in babies can be found in Christ Hospital in Kapi t town on almost any day of the year. In the twelve year history of the Hospital they have treated 130 tetanus babies with a high recovery rate of about 90%, but many cases never reach Kapit for treatment. Without proper treatment, always involv1ng intravenous feeding, tetanus neonatorum often results in death, usually within about eight hours after convulsions began.l2 Obtaining facts on infant mortality is difficult, especially when one must describe the agonizing symptons of tetanus, which are usually a failure to nurse followed by convulsions. When tetanus is described, respondents become extremely serious as they recognize the mysterious disease. In some longhouses of average size, the elders estimated two or three cases in the last year. After reporting this, one he a d man shuddered and said,

12

Dr. Rebert McClu.:re, M2dical Officer, and Ms . Lorraine Gribbens, Pharmacist, of Christ Hospital have either supplied or substantiated the above discussion on health.

-

22 -

"Never mind figuring for the other years before this!" It was too oainful to recall. A common utterance, "We do not know about these things 11 masks the seriousness and extent of the problem. The greatest complaints of Ibans are gastro-intestinal troubles and headaches.l3 Christ Hospital is the only hospital in the Seventh Division. It has 74 beds with complete up-to-date facilities for surgery. There is only one surgeon for the whole upper Rejang River area above Sibu. A Government Dispensary in Kapit provides free medicine and midwife services. There are similar dispensaries at Song, Belaga, Nanga Gaat, Nanga Sepata and Long Linau with Sub-Health Centres to be built at Ng. Mujong, Ng. Merit and Ng. Bangkit. There are also travelling boat dispensaries on the main rivers and recently 11 Medical Auxilaries 11 (para-medics) who live in the more remote areas. The latest proposal of the Minister of Health, Tan Sri Lee Sick Yew, was that of: ... strengthening and accelerating the growth of rural health services ... to establish a Community Health Centre to serve a population of 2,000 to 3,000. A Community Health Centre will provide curative medical care, material and child health and environmental sanitation. This will supplement the network of main Health Centres and Health Sub-Centres introduced in the Second Malaysia Plan. Where the population is 25,000 and 5,000 respectively, a Main Health Centre and Health Sub-Centre will be established. 14 A programme aimed at improving health must involve massive education to create an awareness of and bring about solutions to the problem. Facts concerning health and disease must be presented to the people so they will know the reasons for the various 11 0dd 11 recommended practice. Constructing water systems for longhouses is one good first step to prevent water-borne diseases, but without education many will still drink unboiled river water at their farm huts.

13 Japanese team, op. cit. 14 The .Vangua:t'd

(Kuching), 16 February 1973.

-

23 -

It is disturbing that many longhouse dwellers did not mention health as a major problem or 11 felt need 11 • One of the major tasks of the extension worker or paramedic is to make people aware of their 11 real needs 11 • For example, only 47% boil their drinking water; 19% of the biZik's boil the instrument used to cut the umbilical cord of a longhouse-born baby; 15% have a screened cabinet to store food; 14% have a latrine; 13% have been aided by a registered midwife when giving birth; 5% claim to eat fruit every day and only 3% of the bilik's in this study have a first-aid kit. Summary and Con.c lusions These are some of the chief environmental problems and needs of rural people in the new Seventh bivision of Sarawak, especially as it affects the largest ethnic community, that is, the Ibans, who constitute 75% of the population. Most of these problems are being dealt with in various degrees by the government and other agencies, but usually by top level planning and planners and less by discovering 11 felt needs 11 at the grassroots level. Most people involved in rural development will readily admit that the social or human factors are the main obstacles in accomplishing the goals. Often the objectives of the agencies are not readily identifiable with the people's 11 felt needs 11 • By not meeting the 11 gut issues .. of rural people, for example, their need for rice, but at the same time helping the progressive innovators, the gap betwe.e n the 11 haves .. and the 11 have nots" is accentuated. The purpose of this report is to state as objectively as possible the needs of longhouse dwellers and to pinpoint developmental trends and problems of the economy, transportation, communication, literacy, education, agriculture, health, etc . Some hints or suggestions to solutions are given but this background report is primarily the raw material from which development planners may begin their work. Using this background material the author 15 has drafted a proposal for a Rural Development Programme

15

"Rural Life Develcpnent Prograrme of the M:!thodist Church in Kapit and Bintulu Districts of Sarcwak", M=thodist Agricultural Extension Service, Kapit, Sarawak, 1973, mirreographed.

-

24 -

of the Methodist Church in the Kapit and Bintulu Districts of Sarawak; hopefully other agencies may do the same. The baseline data for 1971-1972 may also be used to evaluate goals in the years to come. The extension agents, literacy teachers and public heal t h practi tioners c o uld find it easier to teach their longhouse people, knowing the extent to which various recommended practices are now being used (for example Tables 1-12) . Generally speaking, our studies h ave shown that it is easier to implement the most frequently found practices before trying the rarer innovations, for example, wet rice production before building fish ponds and boiling d r inking water before building latrines. These "change agents" could use scales of approved practices to discover "learning readiness" of the people they hope to serve and plan their strategy accordingly . l6 For more details on the complex social factors of Ibans in this area, there is the work of J.D. Freeman and others in the bibliography which follows this report . V.H. Sutlive, Jr . , offers excellent coverage and contrasts to the vast and complex socio-economic factors of the Iban of the greatly urbanized Sibu Distric' 1 7 When further rural development takes place at the longhouse level it will probably be the r esult of cooperative and coordinated effor t s of the developmental agencies planning with the people to me e t their needs at the same time as they improve such structur al elements as vocational education , transportation and communication facilities. This colossal task is worth the effor t needed only if it benefits a larger s hare of the rural people in Sarawak.

16

Richard L. Schwenk, "'Ihe Guttman Scale as a Tool to Planning Agricultural Develaprrent Programrres: an Example in Application from Sarawak", ~thodist Agricultural Extension ServiCE, Kapit, Sarawak, 1973, mirreographed.

17 Vinrent H. Sutlive, Jr. , "From IDnghouse to Pasar; Urbanization in Sarawak, East Malaysia", Ph . D. thesis, University of Pittsburgh, 19 72 .

-

Table 1:

AverHrs No. of to Dist Office bv IDnghouse Doors in Outboard Survey Moto:rboat 1 Jarrban

25 -

Basic Socio-Economic Data en Than Longhouses in Kapit Distri ct, January 1972

Aver Cheapest Cost Aver Si ze to & from of Bilik Kapit Market Sibu Family M$ M$ M$

25

0. 3

2 Ajat

5

4.0

3 Ttian

19

0.5

1.00

1.00

4 Undi

14

2.0

8.00

5 Gassan

20

6 Sibat 7 Ujom

1.00

1.00

% of

% of

% of

s-z: lik

Bilik

Bilik

Econ Active

o-12 Years

7-20 Years with sorre Schooling

% of Bilik ~ Bedurok

Literate 15+ years

w~ by Bi liks

% SelfSuffi cient in Rice Producticn

1971

5 . 00

5. 7

58

39

20

1

36

22

10.00 10.00 15.00

5.8

38

38

99

35

33

97

5.00

6.5

45

36

43

3

95

38

0 . 50 13.00

6.5

58

32

33

17

70

52

3.0

10.00 10.00 15.00

7. 2

43

54

30

4

65

51

13

8.0

21.00

8.00

13.00

5.2

67

30

53

12

62

47

8

2.0

3.00

1.00

3.00

6.5

53

34

73

11

99

29

8 Untarn

13

6.0

14 . 00

10.00 18.00

4.9

64

30

83

9

77

43

9 Kedal

15

4. 0

12 . 00

8.00

16 . 00

5.8

56

40

73

6

67

55

19

1.0

2 . 00

2.00

4. 00

7 .o

49

38

57

12

84

70

11 Unggat

9

4.0

10. 00

0.50

14.00

6.1

54

44

46

3

33

23

12 Jamal

23

5.0

15 . 00

3.00 20. 00

6.5

45

40

26

5

91

48

13 Bantin

31

1.8

3. 50

0.50

3.50

5. 8

58

36

71

7

61

17

14 Kalop

24

1.0

6 . 00

2 . 00

11.00

7.0

56

42

40

4

24

57

247 17.8

3.0

8 . 32

4.10 11.10

6. 1

53

38

53

9

64

46

10 Ansi

'Ibtal Average

-

Table 2:

IDnghouse

26 -

Basic Socio-Economic Data on Iban Longhouses in Sibu Distri ct, January 1972

No. of Doors in Survey

Aver Hrs to Dist Office by Outboard Motorboat

Aver Cheapest Cost to & frc:m Dist Off/Market/Sibu

M$

Aver s · 1ze of BiZik F . arm. 1Y

% of B.; .k " -z_ Econ Active

z

% of Bilik

% of Bilik

.% of Bilik

Years

7-20 Years with sorre Schooling

Literate 15+ years

0-12

1 Nyalla

32

1.0

1.40

6.2

67

65

63

51

2 Gacng

37

1.4

3.00

5.2

33

34

80

3 Bandang 4 Irrba

10 27

1.0 1.0

2.40 2.80

6.5

55

46

5.7

54

5 Buda

12

3.0

2.40

4.8

118 23.6

1.5

2.40

5.7

'Ibtal Average

% Bedurok

Cocp Work by Biliks

% SelfSufficient in Rice Production

1971 104

16

31 47

47 24

70 11

41

35

96 64

43

58

43

74

14

83

44

54

45

75

32

48

58

42

-

Table 3:

Rank

27 -

Bi lik & I.onghouse Ccnstructicn, Sibu & Kapit Districts, January 1972 (PasaZ Jalai Bi lik Digaga)

BiZiks/Longhouses Having:

Sibu Kapi t %

1 2

3

4 5

6

7

8

9 10

11

12 13 13

'Ibtal

%

%

WindON in roof to give light (bisi cherrrrin ba atap co,;ak ka tampak agi)

84

63

73.5

Roof made of hard wood shingles or asbestos (atap di gaga ari bilian tauka 'asbestos' atap semen)

90

49

70.0

Wall between family room & comrron pordl is made of board •hard board or sawn lurrber• (dinding antara bilik & ruai digaga ari papan)

69

53

61.0

Kitchen is a separate room from family room (dapor endang bi Zik kediri)

75

37

56.0

Rafters are sawed or hand cut lunber made square not round (kasau atap digaga ari papan digaga sigi empat ukai segaZa aja)

71

35

53 . 0

'Ihe hearth-stove is 2 to 3 feet above the floor (peninggi dapor ari geladak, entara dua & tiga kaki)

66

15

40.5

'Ihe flooring of the camron porch is made from srrooth planks (ge Zadak ruai digaga ari papan ke tam)

47

21

34.0

'Ihere is a padi store •Granary • other than the loft (bisi Zingun tauka endor nyimpan padi ke Zain ari nya di sadau)

29

6

17.5

A professional carpenter helped make this bilik (tukang kayu ke digaji ke ngaga biZik)

25

2

13.5

'Ihere is a bedroom separate fran the family room (bisi biZik t i ndok ke Zain ari biZik besai)

15

1

8.0

'Ihere is storage for rrotor fuel separate from the longhouse (s t ar minyak mota ke diri ari rumah panjai tu)

3

5

4.0

'Ihe roof style has gables or dorner windON (setai Z atap nyenkaun gajah nusu)

3

1

2.0

'Ihe ground floor is made from oerrent (ge ladak di ta:nah digaga ari semen)

3

1

2.0

Visitor room ( tiko /panking temuai)

2

0

1.0

'Ibtal bi Zik -families

(118) (247) (365.0)

- 28 Table 4:

level of Living, Iterrs for Iban Biliks, Sibu & Kapit Districts, January 1972 (Keresa Empu Orang Di Bi Zik)

Bi Ziks Having:

Rank

Sibu %

Kapi t

%

Aver %

1

Matress ( ti lam)

71.0

82 . 0

76 . 5

2

Pressure lanp ( Zampu ges)

70.0

70. 0

70o0

2

Chest (peti/cabinet)

67.0

73.0

70. 0

3

Hoe (cha:ngku l )

71.0

56.0

63 . 5

4

Mirror en wall (chermin moa ba dinding)

67 .o

55.0

61.0

5

Gun (s enapa:ng)

55.0

57.0

56.0

6

Bed ( ka til)

67 . 0

43.0

55 . 0

6

Sewing machine (injin jait)

63.0

47.0

55 .0

7

Radio

50.0

47. 0

48.5

8

Table (mija)

64.0

32.0

48.0

9

Tin opener (pemuka tin sardin)

45.0

39.0

42.0

10

Chair (kerus i )

49.0

32.0

40.5

11

Clock (jam besai) and/or Watdl (jam ta:ngan)

44 .0

34.0

39 . 0

12

Ancient Dragen jar (tajau menaga ke amat tuai)

30.0

12.0

21 .0

13

Linoleum-like floor cover (Zilin geladak/ti kai keretas)

26.0

4.0

15 . 0

13

Shovel or spade (sekup)

19.0

11 . 0

15 . 0

14

Weighing scale or balance (dachin)

11.0

14.0

12.5

15

Fire extinguisher (pemadam api)

12.0

10.0

11.0

16

Regulatien galien size rreasure (gan tang)

13.0

8.0

10.5

16

Gramophone (pi rin rekod)

14.0

7.0

10.5

17

Rice mill (in j in padi)

3.0

6.0

4.5

18

Regulation size quart rreasure (chupak)

6.0

2.0

4.0

19

Sacred jar (tajau guchi)

2.0

4.0

3.0

20

Camera (pena:ngkap gambar)

5.0

8.0

2.9

21

Old heads (antu pala)

0. 8

3. 3

2.5

22

Tape recorder (p enangkap jako )

3.0

0.4

1.7

22

Typewriter (injin taip)

3.4

0.0

1.7

23

Electric generator (injin api)

o.o

0.8

0. 4

24

Refrigerator (peti ais) Total bilik-families

(jemari)

0.0 0.0 0.0 (118.0) (247 .0) (365.0)

Table 5:

29 -

Levels of Literacy & Literature for Iban Bi l.iks-Families, Sibu & Kapit Districts, January 1972 (Pasal Macha and NuZis)

%

Kapit %

A day sd1ool (Primary 1-4) is close enough to go a.nd retun1 each day (se kula baroh Primary I-4 ke damping, anerribiak tau pulai hari) 100. 0

27.0

63.5

Cl1ildren in Sd1ool Primary 1-6 (anembiak udah belajar sekula Primary I-6)

70.0

48.0

59.0

A male adult literate 15 years or older who can read and write a letter (laki besai tuai umor I5 taun katas tau macha & nulis surat bekirum)

49.0

25.0

37.0

A day sd1ool (Primary 5-6) is close enough to go and retun1 ead1 day (s ekula baroh Primary 5-6 ke damping anembiak tau pulai hari)

27.0

24.0

25.5

A female adult literate 15 years or otder who can read or \vrite a letter (indu besai tuai umor I5 taun katas tau macha & nulis surat bekirwn)

39.0

12.0

25.5

Cl1ildren in Secondary Sd1ool 1-6 (an erribiak udah belajar sekula Secondary I-6 )

28.0

9.0

18 .5

6

An Iban story book (bup cherita Iban)

18.0

12.0

15.0

6

Magazine (p erriberita )

25.0

5.0

15.0

7

Other book (s) Non Religious (bup bukai ukai bup pasal pengarap)

7.0

6 .0

6.5

Farmers' Bulletin posted on the wall (Pemberi ta Orang Bumai di-lekat ba dinding)

1.0

5.0

3.0

Book or booklet or leaflet an agriculture (surat tauka bup pasal betanam-betupi)

1.0

4.0

2.5

A collection of books available for others to read (bup ke digwrrpul Cfh)ak ka orang buka-i tau macha)

1.0

0.8

0.9

Newspaper (surat kabar) : Borneo Bulletin SarcMak Tribune Vanguard Others (bukai)

1.0 6.7 5.9 3.4 0. 8

0.4

0. 8

0.0

3.4 3.1 1.7 0.4

Rank

1

2 3

4

4

5

8 9 10

11

B-i Zik-Families Having:

Magazines: Nendak Dolphin Karang Saminggu Asia Magazine Others (bukai) Total bilik-families

Sibu

0.4 0.0 0.0

Aver %

23.5 0.8 12.2 18.5 4.2 11.3 9.2 3.8 6.5 8.4 0.0 4.2 1.7 0.0 0.9 (118.0) (247 .0) (365 .0)

Table 6:

30 -

Highest level of Education Attained by !ban Bi Uk-Family M=rrbers Sibu & Keeit Districts, January 1972 (PasaZ Peninggi PeZajar)

Biliks With Family Member Having:

Rank

Sibu Kapit %

%

Aver %

1

Prirna:ry 1-4

33.6

33.0

33.3

2

Primary 5-6

18.0

20.0

19 . 0

3

Fonn 1-3

13 . 0

5.0

9 .o

4

Pass in Junior Sarawak

7.0

0.4

3.7

5

Pass in Comron Entranre Exam

5.0

0.6

2.8

6

Fonn 4-5

5.0

0.4

2.7

7

Pass in Senior Carrbridge

3.0

0.4

1.7

8

Fonn 6

0. 8

0.0

0.4

9

Attendanre and/or graduate of College or University

0.0

0.4

0.2

10

Pass in F.igher School Certificate Total bilik-families

o.o 0.0 0.0 (118.0) (247 . 0) (365 . 0)

Table 7:

Rank

31 -

Agricultural Innovation of Iban Bi lik-Families, Sibu & Kapit Districts, January 1972 (PasaZ Betanam Betupi JaZai Baru)

BiZik-Families Having:

Sibu - Kapit %

%

Aver %

1

Fertilizer used (sum)

69.0

37 .o

53 . 0

2

Govemrrent Scherre (soheme perintah)

69.0

18.0

43.5

3

Wet padi (padi paya)

75.0

7 .o

41.0

4

Sewing Machine Used (ngena injin jai t)

53.0

26 . 0

39 . 5

5

Insecticide (raohun indu utai)

52.0

15.0

33.5

6

He.rbicide (raohun rumput)

51.0

14 . 0

32.5

7

Pepper planted ( Zada)

33.0

27 .o

30.0

8

Agro-chernical sprayer (i nji n manohi t raohun)

45.0

11.0

28 . 0

9

Padi fertilizer (sum padi)

43 . 0

11.0

27 .o

10

Rat poison (raohun ohit)

50.0

3. 0

26.5

11

Pepper Fertilizer (sum Zada)

28.0

13 . 0

20. 5

12

Rubber Fertilizer (sum ge tah)

19.0

18 . 0

18. 5

12

Vegetable garden (kebun sa:yur)

28. 0

9.0

18.5

13

Grafted fruit tree ( tampang buah kCllJ)i n)

19.0

9.0

14 . 0

14

Tree killer (raohun ko:yu)

8.0

6.0

7.0

15

Fish pmd (pegong i kan)

7.0

4.0

5.5

16

Fungicide used (raohun kuZat)

8.0

2.0

5.0

17

Chickens raised in pen (manok nupi a l am pagar)

o. 8

3.0

1.9

18

Pig, inproved breed raised in pen

(babi menoa tasik) Total biZik-families

0.0 3.0 1.5 (118.0) (247 .0) (365 . 0)

Table 8:

Rank

1 2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

32

=

Health Practices and Facilities of Iban Bilik-Families, Sibu & Kapit Districts, January 1972 (Pasal Pengerai Di Bilik Tu)

Bilik-Families Having:

Sibu Kapi t %

%

Aver %

People sleep under rrosquito nets (orang bi lik tu tindok a lam kibong)

97.0

95.0

96.0

Animals like dogs & chickens are not allowed in the family roam (jelu, baka udok enggau manok enda di-asoh tama ke bi lik)

72.0

77 . 0

74.5

Drinking water boiled at least 10 minutes (ai irup dipandok datai ka engkurak enda kurong a:r-i ZO mini t)

79.0

47.0

63.0

Mothers newly giving birth can eat soup vegetables, rreat or fruit not just rice and salt (indu baru udah beranak a lam bi lik tu tau makai lauk bekuah, seyor, dagin tauka buah ukai asi enggau garam aja) 60.0

30.0

45.0

If a boy is born in this family, people here cut the urrbilical cord with a bamboo, scissors or knife that is boiled first (en ti anak ke baru ada di bilik tu orang tu ngetas ka tali pusat & guntin, lunga tauka buloh ke udah di mandok alam ai angat engkurak)

59.0

19.0

39.0

Food is placed in wire covered cabinet for vermin protection (pemakai disimpan alam jemari d(JJ;)ai awak ka chit tauka indu utai enda ulih ngachau)

55.0

15.0

35.0

Persons from this family use a hygenic sealed latrine (orang di bi lik tu ngena j'alliban ke enggau be tudong )

36.0

14.0

25.0

When warren fran this family give birth they are aided by a registered midwife (maya indai ari bilik tu beranak iya detulong indu bidan ke dirijesta)

32.0

13.0

22.5

When warren fran this family give birth they are aided by a registered nurse (maya indai ari bilik tu beranak, iya detulong indu nas ke 'registered nuY'se ')

24.0

13.0

18.5

People fran this family eat fruit every day not just those seasonal fruits (orang sabilik tu makai buah tiap-tiap hari ukai maya musin buah aja) 23.0

5.0

14.0

There is a first aid kit in this family (bisi parengka sakang baru 'firs t aid kit' alam bilik tu) Total bi Zik-farnilies

5.0 3.0 4.0 {118.0) (247.0) (365.0)

.. J3 Table 9:

Agricultural Prcducts ProduCEd by Iban Bi lik-Families, Sibu & Kapi t Districts, January 19 72 (Kere.j a Be tanamBe tupi Ari Bi Zik Tu Ngena Ka Bu Zih Be lanj a)

Bilik-Families Producing:

Sibu Kapit %

%

Aver %

l

Rubber (getah)

22.0

30.0

26.0

2

Chicken (manok)

12.0

21.0

16 . 5

3

Local pigs (babi menoa)

11.0

18 . 0

14 . 5

4

Pepper (lada)

17.0

9.0

13 . 0

5

Eggs (telu)

2 .0

10. 0

6 .0

6

Banana (buah pisang)

3.0

7 .o

5 ,0

7

Durian (buah rian)

2 o0

7.0

4c5

8

Dabai (buah dabai)

0.8

5.0

2.9

9

Rice/Padi

3.0

2.0

2.5

10

Com/Maize (jagong)

o. 8

4.0

2.4

ll

Rarrbutan (buah rambutan)

2.0

2.0

2.0

ll

Tchacoo (semakau)

2.0

2.0

2.0

12

Payaya (buah rungan)

0. 8

2.0

1.4

13

Coffee or Cocoa (buah kopi tauka buah koko )

0.0

2.0

LO

14

Citrus ( Zimau)

0.8

0.8

0.8

15

Ginger ( Zia) Total bi Zik- f amilies

o.o 0. 4 0. 8 (118 . 0) (247 oO) (365 nO)

,.. 34 Table 10:

Ncn-Agricultural & Barter Produce Produced by Than Bi UkFamilies, Sibu & K9eit Districts, January 1972 (Kereja Orang Ari Bilik Tu Ngena Ka Bulih Belan j a)

Bilik-Families Producing:

Rank

Sibu Kapit Aver % % %

1

Basket (bakul)

31.0

0.0

15.5

2

'Ihings gathered (utai di gwnpul)

18.4

10.0

14.2

3

Mats ( tikai)

20.0

0.4

10.2

4

others (utai bukai)

3.0

3.0

6.0

5

Beetlenut or sireh (pinang tauka sereh)

3. 0

4.0

3.5

6

Knives (parang)

2 .0

o.8

1.4

6

Hats (tanggi )

0.8

2.0

l. 4

7

Paddles (sengayoh)

2.0

0.4

L2

8

Boats (perau)

0.0

2.0

1.0

8

Fish nets (jala)

2.0

0.0

1.0

9

Wine or beer ( tuak tauka araki)

0.8

0. 4

0. 6

things (utai bejai t)

0.0

o. 4

0.2

0.0

0.0

0.0

10

Sewn

11

Beads (marik)

11

Carved things (ngukir gamaZ utai) Total bi lik-families

0 .0 0.0 0.0 (118.0) (247 .0) (365 . 0 )

Table 11:

Rank

1

35 ·-

Geogra;phic Mcbility of Than Bil.ik-Families, Sibu & Kapit Districts, January 1972 (Pasal Pela;jai Kita SahiZik)

Bilik-Farnilies Where:

34.0

31.0

32.5

18.0

42.0

30.0

13.0

8.0

10.5

17.0

3. 0

10. 0

tracker, polire, boarder, scout, security force etc. (bisi lelaki ari bilik tu udah nyadi: soldadu3 ranger3 tracker3 polis3 boarder souct3 secuPit;y force)

11.0

9.0

9.5

A wanan from this family has visited outside Malaysia (bisi indu ari bilik tu udah nemuai ka lua:r' Malays ia)

2.0

0.8

1.4

A wanan from this family has visited Kuala Lumpur (bisi indu ari bilik tu udah nemuai ka Kuala LumpUY')

2.0

0.4

1.2

Man of another rare living in this family ( le laki ke bans a bukai udah mindah ka biZik tu)

2.0

0.4

1.2

1.0

1.0

1.0

Man from here has visited outside SaraNak

(bisi Ze laki ari bi lik tu udah nemuai lua:r' an Sa:r'CMak) 3

Man fran here has visited Kuala Lurrpur

(bisi lelaki ari bilik tu udah nemuai ka Kuala LumpUY') 4

5

6

7

7

8

A wanan from this family has visited Kuching (bisi indu ari bilik tu udah nemuai ka Kuching) Man fran this bilik has becarre a soldier,

Man of another country living in this family

(lelaki ke banong diau di bilik kita mindah ki tu ari lua:r' menoa SarCMak) 9

Aver %

Man fran this bi Zik has visited Kuching

(bisi le laki ari bi lik tu udah nemuai ka Kuching) 2

Sibu Kapi t % %

Wanan of another rare living in this family (indu ke bansa bukai udah mindah ka biZik kita) Total bilik-families

0.0 0.0 0.0 (118.0) (247.0) (365.0)

Table 12:

Rank

1

36 -

Iban Bi Uk-Families Recreation Habits, Sibu & Kapi t Districts, Janua..=y 1972 (Pasal Pemain Orang Di Bi Z{k Tu)

Bilik-Families Who:

Sibu Kapit % %

Aver %

Attend cinema at least yearly (orang ari bilik tu enggau meda wayang)

45.0

22 .o

33 . 5

Attend cockfighting at least yearly (Orang ari bi Zik tu en ggau nyahong)

29.0

20.0

24.5

3

Play soccer (mai n bel)

42.0

6 oO

24 o0

4

Play badminton (main badminton)

33.0

5.0

1.9 .o

5

Attend Woman' s Institute Gove:rnirel1.t/ ~thodist W.S.C.S . (Indu ari bi lik tu enggau Gerempong Bala Indu: Perintah/Methodist)

28 . 0

0.4

14.2

Sing or play in a band or conbo (be lagu tauka mai n alam band tauka corribo)

28.0

0.0

14.0

7

Play basketball (main basketball)

18.0

2.0

10.0

8

Play volleyball (main volleyball)

15.0

4.0

9.5

9

Play guitar (main gui tar)

16.0

2.0

9.0

Play Malay game with rotan ball (main sipak raga tauka takraw r>aga )

7 .o

3.0

5.0

Carve things for p_easure only (ngukir kayu lalu gaga utai ka main aja)

7.0

2.0

4.5

12

Rare speed boats (be lurriba bugap)

4.0

0.4

2.2

13

Play violin (main violin )

4.0

o.o

2 .0

14

Attend 4-H club (anerribiak ari bi lik tu enggau k lub 4-H)

3.0

0.4

1.7

2

6

10 11

15

Other organization (gerempong bukai ) Total bilik-families

3.0 0.0 1.5 (118.0) (247 .0) (365 .0)

,. 37 BIBLIOGRAPHY Chander, R., Banchi Pendudok dan Perumahan Malaysia I9?0:

Gulongan Masharakat. I9?0 Population and Housing Census of Malaysia; Community Groups (Kuala Lumpur: Jabatan Perangkaan Malaysia, 1972) . Department of Agriculture, Sarawak, 11 Annual Report, Third Division, Upper Rejang 11 , Kapit, 1972, mimeographed. Department of Agriculture, Sarawak, Soil Map of Sarawak 3 Malaysia Timor, Directorate of National Mapping, Malaysia, No. 38-1969 (Ruching, 1970). Freeman, J.D., Iban Agriculture:

a Report on the Shifting Cultivation of Hill Rice by the Iban of Sarawak (London: H.M.S.O., 1955).

Jones, L.W., Report on the Census of Population taken on I5th June I960 (Ruching: Government Printing Office, 19 6 2) . Kurahori, Tumohiro, M.D., and team, 11 The Interim Report of the Examination of the Inhabitants around Kapit Area of the Third Division, Sarawak, 1969 11 , unpublished report of the 6th Medical Mission of Osaka University and the Medical Department of Sarawak, 1971, typescript. Kurahori, Tumohiro, M.D., and team, 11 Preliminary Report of the Medical and Nutritional Survey, 1971 11 , unpublished report of the 7th Medical Mission of Osaka University and the Medical Department of Sarawak, 1971, typescript. Lee Siok Yew, Tan Sri, Speech in The Vanguard 16 February 1973.

(Ruching),

Mosher, Arthur T., Getting Agriculture Moving: Essentials for Development and Modernization (New York: Praeger for the Agricultural Development Council, 1966). Schwenk, Richard L., 11 A Macro-Structural Approach to Planning Programs of Developmental Change Using a Case Study of Iban Longhouses,., M. Sc. thesis, Cornell University, 19 71. Schwenk, Richard L., 11 The Guttman Scale as a Tool to Planning Agricultural Development Programs: an Example in Application from Sarawak 11 , Methodist Agricultural Extension Service, Kapit, Sarawak, 1973, mimeographed.

-

38 -

Schwenk, Richard L., "Rural Life Development Program of the Methodist Church in the Kapit and Bintulu Districts of Sarawak", Methodist Agricultural Extension Service, Kapit, Sarawak, 1973, mimeographed. Urbanization Sutlive, Vincent, Jr., "From Longhouse to Pasar: in Sarawak, East Malaysia", Ph.D. thesis, University of Pittsburgh, 1972. White, E. , "Bung an: Journa l , VII,

a New Kayan Belief", Sarawak Museum (1956)' pp. 472-475.

!SEAS PUBLICATIONS Occasional Papers 1.

Harry J . Benda, Research in Southeast Asian Studies in Singapore, 1970. lOpp. Gratis.

2.

P. Lim Pui Huen, Newspapers published in the Malaysian Area: with a union list of local holdings, 1970 . 42pp. Gratis.

3.

Chan Heng Chee, Nation-Building in Southeast Asia : The Singapore Case, 1971 . 19pp. Price: $2.00.

4.

Eva Horakova, Problems of Filipino Settlers, 1971. 24pp. Price: $2.00 (Out of Print) .

5.

Mochtar Nairn, Merantau:

Causes and Effects of Minangkabau Voluntary Migration, 1971. l9pp.

Price: $2.00. 6.

Paul Pedersen, comp ., Youth in Southeast Asia: A Bibliography. Modified and Expanded by Joseph B. Tamney and Others, 1971. 69pp. Price: $4.00.

7.

J . L . S. Girling, Cambodia and the Sihanouk Myths, 1971. 26pp. Price: $2 .oo.

8.

R.P . Dore, Japanese Industrialization and the Developing Countries: Model, Warning or Source of Healthy Doubts? 1971. 18pp. Price: $2.00 (Out of Print).

9.

Michael Stenson, The I948 Communist Revolt in Malaya A Note of - Historical Sources and Interpretation and A Reply by Gerald de Cruz, 1971. 30pp. Price: $3 . 00 .

10.

Riaz Hassan, Social Status and Bureaucratic Contacts Among the Public Housing Tenants in Singapore, 1971. 16pp . Price: $2 . 00 .

11 .

Youth in Southeast Asia: Edited Pr oceedings of the Seminar of 5th - ?th March I97I. Edited by Joseph

B. Tamney, 1972. 12.

13.

75pp.

Price: $4.00.

A. W. Stargardt, Pr oblems of Neutrality in South East Asia:

The Relevance of the European Experience,

1972.

2~pp.

Price: $2.00.

William R. Roff, Autobiography & Biography in Malay Historical Studies, 1972. 21pp. Price: $2.00.

14.

Lau Teik Soon, Indonesia and Regional Security: Djakarta Conference on Cambodia, 1972. 20pp. Price: $2.00.

15.

Syed Hussein Alatas, The Second Malaysia Plan I9?I- I9?5: A Critique, 1972. 16pp. Price: $2.00.

16.

Harold E. Wilson, Educational Policy and Performan c e in Singapore, I942 - I945, 1973. 28pp . Price: $3.00.

17.

Richard L. Schwenk, The Potential for Rural Development

The

in the New Seventh Division of Sarawak : A Preliminary Background Report, 1973. 39pp. Price: $4.00.

Trends in Southeast Asia

1.

Trends in Indonesia:

1971. 2.

58pp.

Proceedings and Background Paper,

Price: $3.00 (Out of Print).

Trends in Malaysia:

Proceedings and Background Paper .

Edited by Patrick Low, 1971. 3.

Trends in the Philippines.

4.

Trends in Indonesia.

5.

Trends in Thailand.

120pp.

Price: $5.00.

Edited by Lim Yoon Lin. (Singapore University Press), 1972. 136 pp. Price: $7.00. Edited by Yong Mun Cheong. (Singapore University Press), 1972. 140pp. Price : $ 7 . 00 . Edited by M. Rajaretnam and Lim So Jean. (Singapore University Press), 1973 . 142pp. Price: $10.00.

Library Bulletins 1.

Rosalind Quah, Library Resources in Singapore on Contemporary Main l and China, 1971. llpp. Price: $2.00

2.

Quah Swee Lan, comp., Oil Discovery and Technical Change in Southeast Asia: A Preliminary Bibliography, 1971. 23pp. Price: $2.00.

3.

P. Lim Pui Huen, comp., Directory of Microfilm Facilities in Southeast Asia, 1972. 24pp. Price: $2.00.

4.

Checklist of Current Serials in the Library, 1972 .

30pp.

Price: $3.00.

5.

Tan Sok Joo, Library Re sources on Burma i n S i ngapore, 1972. 42pp. Price: $3.00.

6.

Quah Swee Lan, comp., Oil Discovery and Techm~cal Change in Southeast Asia: A Bibliography, 1973. 32pp. Price : $ 3 . 00 .

Southeast Asian Perspectives 1.

U. Khin Mg . Kyi and Daw Tin Tin, Adminis t rat i v e Patt e rns in Hist o rical Burma, 1973. 67pp. Price: $3.00.

Oral History Pilot Study 1.

Philip Hoalim, Senior, The Malayan Democratic Union Singapore's First Democratic Political Party, 1973. 26pp. Price: $3.00.

2.

Andrew Gilmour, My Role in the Re hab il i t a tio n o f S i ngap o r e: I946 - I953, 1973. lOOpp . Price: $6.00.

3.

Mamoru Shinozaki, My Wartime Experiences in Singapore, 1973. 124pp. Price: $6.00.

Field Report Series 1.

Yong Mun Cheong, Conflic t s wi t hin the Prijaj i Wo r l d of t h e Parahyangan in West Java, I9I4 - I927, 1973. 42pp. Price: $3.00.

2.

Patrick Low and Yeung Yue-man, The Pr op o s e d Kra Canal: A Critical Evaluation and Its Impact on Singapore,

1973.

39pp.

Price: $3.00.

3.

Robert Fabrikant, Legal Aspects of Production Sharing Contracts i n the Indonesian Petroleum Industry, 1973 . 235pp. Price: $15.00.

4.

The Indon e sian Petroleum Industry: Miscellan e ous Source Material. Collected by Robert Fabrikant,

1973.

516pp.

Price: $15.00.

5.

C.V. Das and V.P. Pradhan, Some International Law Problems Re garding the Straits of Malacca, 1973. 95pp. Price: $10.00

6.

M. Rajaretnam, Po lit i c s of Oil i n the Ph i l i pp i nes, 1973. 8lpp. Price: $5.00.

Current Issues Seminar Series L

Multinational Corporations and Thei1• Implicati ons f or Southeast Asia. Edited by Eileen Lim Poh Tin , 1973. 140pp. Price: $10.00.

2.

Economic and Political Trends in Southeast Asia, 1973. 60pp . Price: $6 . 00.

3.

Southeast Asia Today: Problems and Prospects, 1973. llOpp. Price: $10 . 00.

International Conference s 1.

New Directions in the International Relations of Southeast Asia. 2 Vols. (Singapore University Press) . Ec onomic Relati ons. Edited by Lee Soo Ann, 1973 . 135pp . Pr i ce: $8 . 50 . The Great Powers and Southeast Asia. Edited by Lau Te ik Soon, 1973. 208pp . Price: $10 . 00.

2.

Mod ernization in Sou thea st Asia. Edited by HansDiete r Evers . (Oxford University Press) , 19 7 3 " 249pp. Price: $35 . 00.

The above publications are available for sale , at the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Cluny Road , Singapore 10 . Telephone: 514211

THE AUTHOR Mr. Richard L. Schwenk is a Ph .D . candidate at Cornell University, U.S.A.