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The Poetics of Transcendence
CURRENTS OF ENCOUNTER STUDIES ON THE CONTACT BETWEEN CHRISTIANITY AND OTHER RELIGIONS, BELIEFS, AND CULTURES VOL. 51
GENERAL EDITORS Hans De Wit Jerald D. Gort Henry Jansen Lourens Minnema W.L. Van Der Merwe Hendrik M. Vroom Anton Wessels ADVISORY BOARD Leonard Fernando (Delhi) James Haire (Canberra) James W. Heisig (Nagoya) Mechteld M. Jansen (Amsterdam) Kang Phee Seng (Hong Kong) Oddbjørn Leirvik (Oslo) Jayakiran Sebastian (Philadelphia, PA) Nelly Van Doorn-Harder (Valparaiso) Ulrich Winkler (Salzburg)
The Poetics of Transcendence
Elisa Heinämäki, P.M. Mehtonen and Antti Salminen Edited by
Amsterdam - New York, NY 2015
Cover photograph: view from Staatsbibliothek. Berlin 2012 © Jyrki Siukonen The paper on which this book is printed meets the requirements of “ISO 9706:1994, Information and documentation - Paper for documents - Requirements for permanence”. ISBN: 978-90-420-3928-5 E-book ISBN: 978-94-012-1209-0 © Editions Rodopi B.V., Amsterdam - New York, NY 2015 Printed in the Netherlands
Table of Contents Acknowledgements .................................................................................... vii Literary Beyonds: An Introduction ELISA HEINÄMÄKI, P.M. MEHTONEN, AND ANTTI SALMINEN ..................... 1 Part I: Poetics of Mysticism ........................................................................ 13 Non‐Religious Mysticism: Between Immanence and Transcendence DANIEL ACKE ................................................................................................. 15 Writing Through the Transcendence: On Paul Celan’s Mysticism ANTTI SALMINEN ........................................................................................... 37 Transcribing Desire: Mystical Theology in Dennis Cooper’s The Sluts KENT L. BRINTNALL ...................................................................................... 59 Part II: Transcendence and Language ...................................................... 81 Transcendence and Poetics: Levinas, Ricoeur, Frost SHIRA WOLOSKY ............................................................................................ 83 Language and Transcendence in Dante’s Paradiso WILLIAM FRANKE ....................................................................................... 107 Part III: Tropes of Transcendences .......................................................... 133 The Original Analogy: Mediating Transcendence in The Man Without Qualities ELISA HEINÄMÄKI ....................................................................................... 135
Transcendental Puppets: Kant and Kleist JARKKO TOIKKANEN ................................................................................... 159 Horizontal Rivalry, Vertical Transcendence: Identity and Idolatry in Muriel Spark’s The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie and Donna Tartt’s The Secret History HANNA MÄKELÄ ......................................................................................... 179 Index of Names ......................................................................................... 201 Index of Subjects ........................................................................................ 205 Contributors ................................................................................................ 209
Acknowledgements The editors would like to express their gratitude to the con‐ tributors of this volume; it has been a delight to work with this professional team. We are indebted to the Academy of Finland for its support of the project “Literature, Tran‐ scendence and Avantgarde” (2008‐2011) where the idea of this book was born. P.M. Mehtonen is grateful to the same institution for a generous Academy Research Fellowship. Warm thanks are also due to Lourens Minnema of the Cur‐ rents of Encounter series for his role in realizing this project, as well as to Henry Jansen for his expertise at the final stages of editing this work. Jarkko Toikkanen wishes to acknowledge his gratitude to Palgrave Macmillan for permission to republish, in a slightly altered form, a chapter from: Jarkko Toikkanen, The Intermedial Experience of Horror: Suspended Failures. Palgrave Macmillan, 2013. Elisa Heinämäki P.M. Mehtonen Antti Salminen
Literary Beyonds An Introduction
Elisa Heinämäki, P.M. Mehtonen, and Antti Salminen In the wake of the “immanent turns” in philosophy and cultural studies of the 1970s and 1980s, transcendence was dubbed a rel‐ ic and a hierarchical concept that established a false authority and even spiritual tyranny. In many fields, however, thinkers have recently reverted to transcendence, not with a view to its straightforward rehabilitation but, initially, to rearticulating the concept in epistemological, literary, and aesthetic criticism. Philosophies of all‐inclusive immanence—such as historical ma‐ terialism or Deleuzian ontology—easily repeat the same hege‐ monic mistakes for which the proponents of transcendence were previously criticized. Hence immanence, too, needs to be radically revised and laid open, not to establish other worlds or more profound realities with their paramount Others but to reveal ontological and epistemological blind spots inaccessible through conventional language and thought. This anthology approaches the present “turn to religion” as a new turn to transcendence revisited. In particular, the volume focuses on language and literature as a matrix of expressions of transcendence and immanence. Probing the literary gestures to‐ wards transcendence with a host of twentieth‐ and twenty‐first‐ century writers, these essays constitute a multidisciplinary at‐ tempt to access the definitions and poetics of transcendence at the nexus of post‐metaphysical philosophy, religious discourse, and literary analysis. For centuries, the paradigmatic models for literary tran‐ scendences in the West were derived from the Christian tradi‐ tion. Otherworldly transcendence that could be grasped by po‐ etic means became a topos of literary imagination, fabulation, and constant reinterpretation. Dante’s Commedia, for instance, structured and even perfected the geometry of the heavens and hell, affording an intertextual matrix to spatialize transcendent spheres and their wonders. Another tradition of the Christian poetics of transcendence was the via negativa of mystics in
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which the question of transcendence delineates the limits of po‐ etic expression and suggests an ultimate horizon for (the) poetic language. In the mystics’ texts an experience of this horizon was expressed by the dialectical tension between apophatic and kataphatic discourses. Yet even these limits and their suspen‐ sion are constructed in time—the poetic absolute has a history of its own. The essays in this book offer partial answers to questions regarding the ways in which the literary encounters and sub‐ jects the transcendent sphere and how it in turn is subjected by this ontological beyond. We also ask how the dominant Chris‐ tian view of transcendence varies and is historically reinter‐ preted—even in the Christian tradition transcendence appears in the plural. What is more, this plurality of not‐world(s) seems to guarantee the singularity of the literary work. If a poetic word is imbued with the “impossible possibility” of transcend‐ ence, the language experience itself becomes radically prob‐ lematized and hence more amenable to fresh interpretations and enlivened capabilities of imagination. In a radically immanent point of view, (the) written tran‐ scendence is a contradiction in terms. This is captured for in‐ stance in Cioran’s aphorism, in Tears and Saints, about God whose greatest advantage is that “one can say or think anything about him. The less you connect your thoughts, abandoning them to contradictions, the more you risk coming near the truth” (Cioran 1995: 38). Ironic in tone, the aphorism neverthe‐ less deftly applies the same poetics of paradox as the more af‐ firmative languages of God and religious transcendence. Thus the poetics of transcendence may reveal an exhaustion of lit‐ erary figures and tropes in general, applicable to any purpose yet leaving the “said” untouched. The conventional ineffability topos, as touched on in many of the essays in this volume, is both a useful and insufficient umbrella term in discussing the objects of earthly or heavenly desire and the disintegration of the subject. The poetics of transcendence work hard through a writing style that undercuts its own legibility and reliability. Poetic transcendence is doing we know not what—it is an a‐ subjective, sovereign, a‐conceptual and pre‐syntactic level of language that saturates univocal meaning and foils our lin‐
LITERARY BEYONDS: AN INTRODUCTION
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guistic intentions. Yet its linguistic effects and expressions are open to interpretation. Critical Poetics of Transcendence Methodologically, the use of “transcendence” as a concept sug‐ gests links to various schools of literature, criticism, and philo‐ sophy. The twentieth century began with critiques of grand philosophical and religious systems. Secularized mysticism and the most recent (anti‐realistic and anti‐metaphysical) literature played an important role in the European philosophy of the early twentieth century. For instance, the mainly German anti‐ Hegelian thinkers saw in modern science, philosophy, and poli‐ tics a “word‐superstition” that was a relic of the former reli‐ gious Weltanschauung. According to the critics, these authorita‐ tive institutions had used language and words as if they re‐ ferred to real things rather than to contingent perceptions or mental processes. Here, Fritz Mauthner’s critique of Hegel, in his voluminous contributions towards establishing a new Sprach‐ kritik, serves as an early example. Mauthner claims that if the word “mystic” can be used as an umbrella term that comprises the various forms of the eternal human longing to say the un‐ sayable (Unaussprechliche), then Hegel is a mystic. But Hegel failed because of his “language tyranny”: he blurred the mys‐ tic’s longing for the unsayable by attempting to conceptualize it in the precisely defined words of the intellect (Mauthner 1910: 414). The first decades of the twentieth century shaped an im‐ portant modern (secular) reception of medieval mysticism, whe‐ ther this was credited as the a‐modern Sprachkritik (by Mauth‐ ner, Gustav Landauer), speaking of the unspeakable (by Martin Buber), or “politicians without appearances” (Cioran)—all with great literary ambitions and a respect for the particular means of poetry and prose. Later, the French tradition added to the poetic ways of rephrasing this and rereading the mystics, for instance, Georges Bataille in L’Experience intérieure (1954) fam‐ ously seeking a sovereign space for inner experience that in no way moves towards a (Hegelian) completion or even conscious‐ ness of it: inner experience with neither goal nor authority. A conceptual history of the poetics of transcendence also involves the critical art theory of the early 1900s, which marked the beginning of the avant‐garde era. Our keyword gained a
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new lease on life as “transcendence” became one of the wea‐ pons in the critiques against the aestheticized privilege of art as an “autonomous” realm and its European‐Classical preferences. The words “transcendence” and “transcendental” were, for in‐ stance, applied to non‐Classical (medieval Gothic, Oriental) art produced by a “world instinct” that leaned on a dire need for redemption. The forms of such art allegedly worked towards abstraction, that is, against the contingency and mutability of the organic, translating “the mutable and conditional into val‐ ues of unconditional necessity” (see Worringer 1997). Such the‐ oretical views, considering the history of art to be an inevitable fusion and alternation of immanent‐organic and transcendent‐ abstract tendencies (Worringer 1997), had an enormous influ‐ ence on the new literary and artistic movements around the 1910s. In later literary theory and poetics, “transcendence” as a poetic term was used to describe certain textual facts or devices but could also entail stronger philosophical commitments re‐ garding language and the world. These are seemingly disparate traditions in literary theory, one rooted in the structuralist tra‐ dition of textual poetics that favours all manner of taxonomies or typologies and the other more speculative, drawing on the legacy of philosophy and the study of religion. Both the nar‐ rower and broader definitions are well represented in recent scholarship. The first approach seeks the primary tasks of literary study in textual analysis and linguistics, rooted in the legacy of poet‐ ics and rhetoric. In drawing on analytic aesthetics, it stresses the term “transcendence” not as spiritual or philosophical but strictly in its etymological (Latin) sense that is “eminently sec‐ ular: to transcend is to go beyond a limit, to overflow a closed space” (Genette 1997: 11n.). This approach, as represented by Gerard Genette, explores the mode of existence of an artwork, not just those features of which the work consists but also the ways in which works of art transcend this consistency, “either because they are ‘embodied’ in several objects, or because their reception can extend far beyond the presence of this/these ob‐ ject(s)” (Genette 1997: 10‐11). This rather technical definition of the modes of transcendence is interesting as it allows Genette to specify forms like “plural immanences”—for instance, transla‐
LITERARY BEYONDS: AN INTRODUCTION
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tions of literary works from one language into other languages, or even the same language. These discussions problematize the relations between texts and works, relations that are all but self‐ evident for anyone engaged in manuscript studies or pre‐mod‐ ern literature. Another important tradition in literary study involves phil‐ osophically oriented approaches. Here the concept of “transcen‐ dence” has been invoked in arguments both for and against a religious mind‐set. It was adopted by modern critics of reli‐ gious experience, such as Wilhelm Dilthey, as well as those seeking to revitalize it, most notably Walter Benjamin, who held that the literary approaches to transcendence are important paths in approaching inner experience, Erlebnis. In recent schol‐ arship, the philosophical approach in literary studies is repre‐ sented by anthologies that tap into phenomenology and post‐ structuralism,1 as well as hermeneutics. According to James Faulconer, any attempt to think transcendence through the her‐ meneutical circle “will be a broken hermeneutics, a hermen‐ eutics that operates in the traces of rupture and subversion” (Faulconer 2003: 9). In other words, the methods of the hermen‐ eutical approach and close reading need to be recalibrated to understand literary transcendence in a post‐Nietzschean and post‐secular double bind. In this situation, literary transcend‐ ences do not point to any Platonic sphere beyond immanence but attest to a multifaceted experience of holiness that is, after all, tainted by the Entzauberung of the present era. In a recent attempt to arrive at a systematics of transcen‐ dence, Wessel Stoker proposes a heuristically significant divi‐ sion into four types of transcendence. In “immanent transcen‐ See the volume edited by Regina Schwartz where the editor, avoiding definitions, summarized the contributions of the volume: “In theology, transcendence has resurfaced as mystical theology—beyond all names, defying predication …. In literature and literary theory, transcendence points to ‘that within representation that nonetheless exceeds representation.’... Even those who claim to be radical materi‐ alists rediscover transcendence in new guises: the postmodern notion of transgression, the phenomenological notion of the other … the aes‐ thetic notion of excess, the psychoanalytic notion of subjectivity, the political notion of revolutionary ecstasy” (Schwartz 2004: viii). 1
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dence” the absolute is experienced through mundane reality (as in the pantheism of American Transcendentalism) whereas in “radical transcendence” (of, say, the Gnostic gospels) the worlds are in sharp distinction. Thinkers of “transcendence as alterity” (such as Emmanuel Levinas) understand transcen‐ dence in the term of otherness or Other, and defenders of “radi‐ cal immanence”—such as Gilles Deleuze or Slavoj Žižek—see the absolute totally converged with a profane world (Stoker 2012: 5‐9). As Stoker claims, the four forms have different crit‐ ical functions and assume different cultural roles (Stoker 2012: 9). Despite the persuasiveness of such categories, it remains de‐ batable whether these types “are of normative character and de‐ termine one’s orientation of life,” as Stoker proposes. A less de‐ terministic approach might conceive of the relations the other way around: it could be argued that one’s orientation of life (say, the experiential mode to which one is acculturated) de‐ termines the type of transcendence (or radical immanence) with which one lives. Thus, Stoker’s claim that a form of transcend‐ ence “is thus like a pattern or template that is filled in by con‐ tent, by a certain type of spirituality” (Stoker 2012: 11) seems to essentialize and spatialize these relations. A less Platonic ap‐ proach might assume that, just as literary works alter our ex‐ perience of language, so they also change the ontological as‐ sumptions regarding different variations of transcendence. Thus, no variation of transcendence can be taken solely as a template to be filled in but is given in a complex mode of language experience that is altered, doubted, and fostered in the test of literary texts, poetic alterity, and everydayness that may abruptly open up to what the conventional world is not. This “not‐world” becomes plural with experiential modes that vary in historical situations and their interpretations. How, then, is transcendence written today and what is at stake? Although the ontology of transcendence as such lies be‐ yond an epistemological barrier, there are different poetic and literary gestures—tropes, topoi, idioms—through which to ap‐ proach it. The articles in this volume show some of the ways in which the modern writing of transcendence taps into the long Christian tradition. These encounters may be more or less criti‐ cal, more or less intentional; either way, it is clear that the Christian background provides an indispensable resource for
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present writing and thinking. As Elisa Heinämäki states in her essay, the term “transcendence” entails “an inheritance of (theo‐ logical, philosophical) meanings that cannot simply be denied.” The essays in this volume provide different examples of how this inheritance can be—again as formulated by Heinämäki— both preserved and suspended, open to reinterpretation and re‐ organization. The first essays in this volume approach transcendence as it emerges in mystical languages past and present. In his ex‐ ploration of the mystical strand of twentieth‐century French literature and thought, Daniel Acke divides this literary mys‐ ticism into two: there are, on the one hand, those who wish to preserve transcendence and, on the other, those who affirm im‐ manence. But, as Acke is led to conclude, a dialectical link be‐ tween transcendence and immanence is preserved in most cases, for example, in the reconciliation of immanence and tran‐ scendence evident in the poetry of Philippe Jaccottet and Yves Bonnefoy. Antti Salminen offers close readings of Paul Celan’s poetry and poetics, in which Christian and Jewish views of transcendence are in dialogue in the search for an ontological reconstruction of the poetic word and the German language after WW II. Salminen claims that Celan’s quest for ontological renewal is clearly evident not only in his poetic theories but also in the miniscule details of graphical tropes, elliptical markings, and apophatic wordings. Kent Brintnall illustrates in his essay how the devices and insights of Christian apophatic mysticism may assume a radically altered form in the modern pornographic fiction of Dennis Cooper and how the Christian paradox of incarnation can help formulate a new ethics of de‐ sire. In their essays, Shira Wolosky and William Franke engage with the Western legacies of philosophical thinking about language and transcendence. Wolosky, conversing with Ricoeur and Levinas, addresses the long tradition of a “metaphysics of metaphor” extending from antiquity to medieval disputes and the present. Metaphor as a structure of meaning that prioritizes sameness and resemblance is contrasted with a change of per‐ spective proposed by Emmanuel Levinas. Here, addressing the other in the openness of Saying takes precedence over fixed fig‐ ures or roles in communication. William Franke revisits Dante
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Alighieri’s medieval masterwork in articulating the impossi‐ bility of expressing his vision of God and even substituting this aporia suprema for the vision. With modern notions such as (Agamben’s concept of) the experience of language as the “tran‐ scendental a priori” of the very possibility of thought—as an “architranscendental” preceding even the medieval transcen‐ dentalia (being, unity, truth)—Franke explores the various ways in which this experience of language opens up towards the dif‐ ference of transcendence within language, and can be said to be‐ come, via countless loquacious detours, an experience of being and even of Being‐Itself. The essays in the last section address the ways in which literary works have staged difficulties in the relationship with transcendence and sought (literary) mediation to overcome them. Elisa Heinämäki discusses the problem of unmediated transcendence at the center of Robert Musil’s novel The Man without Qualities, suggesting that three different ways of me‐ diating transcendence are deployed in the novel: detachment, transgression, and what Musil calls the original analogy. In Heinämäki’s reading, analogy—as well as metaphor, which is closely related to it—in Musil’s sense are not harmonizing fig‐ ures of sameness. Rather, they name a movement of significa‐ tion predicated on absence and referral, thus, on a transcen‐ dence immanent to signification. The Kantian problem of transcendence is addressed in Jarkko Toikkanen’s essay, which focuses on the concept of hypotyposis, the sensible presentation of transcendent notions. Toikkanen interprets Kleist’s story “Über das Marionettentheater” as a depiction of the instability and insufficiency of such devices. They can be seen, however, as all we have at our disposal in our attempts to reach the ne‐ cessarily lingering transcendence. In the final essay of the vol‐ ume, Hanna Mäkelä reads two modern novels, Muriel Spark’s The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie and Donna Tartt’s The Secret History, as dramas of difficult human relationships with the other. Mäkelä’s analysis explores and develops René Girard’s theory of “mimetic desire” and his distinction between two models of transcendence, horizontal and vertical. In Girard’s view, modern subjects perceive god‐like attributes in their peers (horizontally) instead of looking up to the “vertical” models of deities and transcendences. Together with Girard, Mäkelä fore‐
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grounds the stakes of our choices of different models of tran‐ scendence, and presents a plea for a transcendence of love in‐ stead of that of violence. In proposing spaces for textual and linguistic plural tran‐ scendences, the present volume does not claim that every major shift in literary style generates a transcendence of its own. Rather, different poetic devices yield a different view of “what immanent is not,” which is why literary transcendences are not ontological assumptions but poetic means to explore and con‐ template the limits of language. As Brintnall writes in his essay, “precisely through this experience of language’s collapse, (something akin to) transcendence is made present, however fleetingly and inadequately.” It comes as no surprise that some paradigms have rejected outright the term “transcendence” as a flagship of unreasonably utopian, hopelessly metaphysical, and romanticized views of poetic ontology. For the poet and literary critic Susan Stewart, for one, “the special history of literary transcendence is ulti‐ mately unintelligible and idiosyncratic” (Stewart 2002: 253), and the term evokes the formalist method. Likewise, Drew Milne in her programme for Marxist Studies opposes “a theory of the material conditions of joy” to “a short‐cut to the ecstasis of lit‐ erary transcendence” (Milne 1996: 27). But if we give poetics of transcendence a more heterodox reading, the encounter with transcendence does not necessarily signal an escape from im‐ manent and everyday experience. Quite the contrary: the exper‐ ience of transcendence may emerge in the most impure and het‐ erogeneous encounters, too, such as pornographic texts or erotic transgressions. The sign of transcendence in the text is not by definition a sublime “peak experience” that could be dif‐ ferentiated from the mundane world. The poetic transcen‐ dences are enmeshed in the worldly phenomena to such an ex‐ tent that they do not form any experiential hierarchy. Does claiming a literary variant take precedence over met‐ aphysical (or theological) commitments? A partial answer to these questions emerges in the tradition of modern literature and literary language as a space where the divide between the immanent and the transcendent is determined. Language is also where the divide itself is always already suspended. Converse‐ ly, the very suspension applies to plain immanence, too: if the
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place of transcendence is disputed, the ontology of immanence becomes a matter of negotiation. In the post‐Nietzschean situation poetic transcendence can‐ not guarantee a glimpse of an ontological perfection or any godly sphere; these encounters are like kairotic moments that cause a poetic shock, an ontological ecstasy or an epistemologi‐ cal rupture capable of changing ossified premises. In literary transcendences the sovereign and the servile are intertwined, and only in their pre‐conceptual dialectics can we comprehend their common ground—or, perhaps more precisely, their com‐ mon abyss that gives rise to poetic work. Thus, ultimately, the present anthology offers no apology for traditional views of transcendence and religious experience but presents original contributions to the poetics of transcendence that are sensitive to religious as well as a‐religious languages in literature. It is ar‐ gued that, in order to rethink meanings and the value of tran‐ scendence, rigorous ontological philosophy must once again face up to the imaginative potential of poetics. Bibliography Cioran, E.M. Tears and Saints. (1992). Transl. Ilinca Zarifopol‐Johnston. Chicago/London: University of Chicago Press. Evens, T.M.S., and James L. Peacock (eds.). (1990). Transcendence in So‐ ciety: Case Studies. Greenwich CT. Jai Press. Faulconer, James E. (2003). “Thinking Transcendence.” Transcendence in Philosophy and Religion. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Pp. 1‐10. Genette, Gérard. (1997). The Work of Art: Immanence and Transcendence. Transl. G.M. Goshgarian. London/Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Mauthner, Fritz. (1910). Wörterbuch der Philosophie: Neue Beiträge zu ein‐ er Kritik der Sprache. Munich: Georg Müller. Milne, Drew, and Terry Eagleton. (1996). Marxist Literary Theory: A Reader. Oxford: Blackwell. Schwartz, Regina (ed.). (2004). Transcendence: Philosophy, Literature, and Theology Approach the Beyond. New York/London: Routledge. Stewart, Susan. (2002). Poetry and the Fate of Senses. Chicago: Univer‐ sity of Chicago Press. Stoker, Wessel. (2012). “Culture and Transcendence: A Typology.” Looking Beyond? Shifting Views of Transcendence in Philosophy, The‐
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ology, Art, and Politics. Currents of Encounter 42. Amsterdam: Rodopi. Pp. 5‐28. Worringer, Wilhelm. (1997). “Transcendence and Immanence in Art.” Abstraction and Empathy. Transl. Michael Bullock. Chicago: Ele‐ phant Paperbacks. Pp. 122‐35. Originally published in 1911.
Part I
Poetics of Mysticism
Non‐Religious Mysticism Between Immanence and Transcendence Daniel Acke Abstract This essay explores the phenomenon of non‐religious mysticism, defined by ecstatic experiences and persistent spiritual quests without specific religious content, in the context of French twentieth‐century literature and philoso‐ phy. According to Louis Dupré, the main distinction between natural mysti‐ cism and religious mysticism resides in the fact that the latter always implies a withdrawal from or a transcendence of the reality the subject encounters. The author argues that this reality split may just as well occur in natural mysticism, or non‐religious spirituality, and unearths a movement of “with‐ drawal of the essential reality” in non‐religious mysticisms as well. This movement includes a current characterized by transcendence (Cioran, Su‐ sanne Lilar, Philippe Jaccottet) as well as a current faithful to immanence (Roger Caillois, Georges Bataille, Clément Rosset, Gilles Deleuze). He also demonstrates that a strict opposition between these two currents does not hold: there is a dialectical link between immanence and transcendence in most forms of non‐religious mysticism.
Introduction Several Western writers and philosophers of the twentieth cen‐ tury have evoked or personally undergone a spontaneous ecsta‐ tic experience. More often than not, this is accompanied by a spiritual quest developed over time and expressed through their works, without, it should be added, adherence to Chris‐ tianity or any other religion. I think of the “oceanic feeling” of Romain Rolland,1 the “cosmic consciousness” of Richard Mau‐ rice Bucke (Bucke 1961), the “x‐experience” of Erich Fromm (Fromm 1966), the marvellous of the surrealists, the “inner ex‐ perience” of Georges Bataille (1978), the “presence” of Yves See Sigmund Freud (Freud 1968: 422‐31), and also the letters of Romain Rolland to Freud on 5 December 1927 and July 1929 (Freud and Rolland 1993). 1
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Bonnefoy (1990),2 and the “material ecstasy” of Jean‐Marie Le Clézio (Le Clézio 1967).3 Indeed, several others could also easily be mentioned. What is at stake in these kinds of experiences is the momentary transformation of the self and its intimate rela‐ tion with the world. Often, this gives the impression of being in contact with true existence, the absolute or the infinite. Critics occasionally speak about “atheist mysticism,” but this concept is mistaken insofar as such experiences do not involve philo‐ sophical statements (as atheism does) but have above all deeply affective, imaginary implications. Hence, in the following I will use the expression “natural mysticism”4 to avoid such am‐ biguity. One objection to a discourse on natural mysticism could be that such experiences are necessarily situated beyond language. Even if this is the case, strictly speaking, several writers and philosophers have nevertheless accorded major importance to such experiences in their work. One of the first modern writers to do so was Jean‐Jacques Rousseau in his Rêveries du promeneur solitaire (1782), written and published in the last quarter of the eighteenth century.5 The timing of Rousseau’s writing was no coincidence; Christianity as the predominant Western religious institution and system of dogmatic truths had already begun to erode under the onslaught of the criticism of the Enlighten‐ 2 For an interpretation of Bonnefoy’s work from this point of view, see Acke 1999b.
Unless otherwise indicated, the translations from French are my
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own. Natural should be understood here as spontaneous, not indebt‐ ed to a specific religious tradition. We can also speak about ”wild mysticism,” as does Michel Hulin in his stimulating book on mystics without a “theological a priori” or “denominational mark” (Hulin 1993: 6‐7). 4
See Marcel Raymond’s interpretation (Raymond 1940). Com‐ menting on a famous sequence in Rousseau’s fifth “promenade,” he reads the writer’s attitude at the lake shore as an example of “experi‐ ence of natural mysticism” (14). When Rousseau enjoys “his own ex‐ istence,” this means that “the sentiment of the self and the sentiment of the whole can no more be distinguished” (14). 5
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ment, rendering one’s subjective relation to religion more im‐ portant. Moreover, we can identify a “disenchantment of the world” (Max Weber), brought about by the growing influence of rationalism and the further rationalization of the world. But this process, rather than resulting in a straightforward secular‐ ization, can also be seen as fostering spiritual needs. We enter the age of “the religious after religion” (Gauchet 1988: 292‐303), to which literature and art have offered substantial contribu‐ tions by reworking traditional Christian and other religious concepts and myths. For example, one can think of the use of the word God by agnostic writers: Yves Bonnefoy (1990: 46) de‐ clares that “God is to be born.” Philippe Jaccottet (1961: 136) admits to having heard “God’s step” one day; Cioran (1997: 986) notes in his diaries: “God is, even if he is not.” Rather than proof of the incontrovertible indigenousness of religion, these statements suggest the existence of certain anthropologically rooted attitudes to which the traditional religions have, for cen‐ turies, given historical and contingent expression. In any case, I do not want to engage in the contemporary debate concerning the necessity—or lack thereof—of religion. Nowadays, it is more evident than it was in the past that mysticism can exist without religion in the sense of a coherent set of beliefs and practices, such as Christianity provided in the Western tradi‐ tion. The phenomenon of natural mysticism and its historical context having been delineated, I would now like to turn my at‐ tention to its relation to the notion of transcendence. It would be too simple to assume that natural mysticism excludes tran‐ scendence, as this could easily imply the identification of tran‐ scendence with a religious dimension. We have to bear in mind that mystical experience (either natural or religious) subverts entirely the ordinary relation between subject and object. While normally separate, the latter being an object of representation submitted to our practical requirements of knowledge and power, the mystical experience tends to bring about a sort of fusion between subject and object. The question is to what ex‐ tent this operation is successfully achieved during the mystical experience. According to the Belgian‐American philosopher Louis Dupré, natural and religious mysticism share the idea of
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a sort of fusion or union of the subject and the object. Clearly, the main distinction between them concerns transcendence: Whether the higher reality preserves some transcendence with respect to the finite self during the mystical union is of capital importance, for this, I believe, determines the reli‐ gious or nonreligious character of the mystical experience. (Dupré 1972: 488)
Only religious mysticism necessarily entails a withdrawal or transcendence of the reality the subject is confronted with: “In both cases the mind reaches the innermost self and the absolute in one and the same act. Yet in the religious experience the attainment of the absolute through the self is accompanied by a negative movement which simultaneously opposes the absolute to the self” (Dupré 1972: 492). Rather than conceptual or theo‐ logical statements,6 it is this structural distinction that is de‐ cisive. As Dupré concludes: “the religious experience begins with withdrawal” (Dupré 1972: 493). In terms of the literary material under consideration here, I would like to propose another thesis: I argue that the boundary Dupré is speaking about must be traced within natural mysti‐ cism itself. In other words, a distinction has to be made between those who undergo such experiences and write about them with an eye towards at least the residue of transcendence, and those who do it principally within the sphere of immanence. In the following I would like to present these two types of natural mysticism and illustrate them by examples taken from modern French literature and philosophy. It will become apparent that there is a dialectical link between immanence and transcend‐ ence in most forms of natural mysticism. Varieties of Mystical Transcendence First of all, let us consider the operative notion of transcendence as it is experienced in mysticism. We have to keep in mind that “Rather than for ‘religious’ words we should search for signs of an internal opposition within experience. If no negative withdrawing moment is detected in the movement from the finite self to the absolute, the experience may be considered as nonreligious” (Dupré 1972: 492). 6
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transcendence, as defined by philosophers, always implies the positing of a higher level of being. It can be the religious tran‐ scendence of God, or the metaphysical transcendence of the spiritual or the logos. Further, we must also take into account the transcendence associated with a movement rather than a state, as in the phenomenological tradition. All these meanings (even the transcendence of God) are of importance here, since there is no single form of transcendence in mysticism; in fact there are several. An important first observation is that a great part of the na‐ tural mysticism of transcendence is an expression of Gnostic sensibility, which still pervades large parts of modern culture. Gnosticism associates earthly and historical existence with evil and exile, from which we have to escape to rejoin our real spiri‐ tual destination. Literary history has shown that modern poet‐ ry, in particular that of Baudelaire, Rimbaud, and Mallarmé, is charged with what Hugo Friedrich calls “empty transcendence” (“leere Transzendenz”) (Friedrich 1977: 47). According to this critique, several poems of Baudelaire betray patterns of ascent borrowed from Christian culture and mysticism. Whereas tradi‐ tional Christian mysticism, however, tends to result in—or at least seeks to attain—unity with God, the end of the movement towards “empty transcendence” remains utterly vague. “Any‐ where out of the world”7 is the whole message. As Baudelaire puts it at the end of the last piece of Les Fleurs du Mal (Baude‐ laire 1982: 157): Once we have burned our brains out, we can plunge to Hell or Heaven—any abyss will do deep in the Unknown to find the new!
Some critics, like the philosopher Jacob Taubes (1966: 139‐43) and the poet Yves Bonnefoy (1990: 68‐87; 80‐84) have detected Gnostic tendencies even in surrealism. Although this literary and artistic movement does display materialistic sympathies and definitely shows a commitment to the immanent world (one can think of the importance of love, of the search for the According to Thomas Hood’s formula that appears in Edgar Poe’s Poetic Principle and also serves as the title of one of Baudelaire’s prose poems (Baudelaire 1975: 356, 1348). 7
20
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marvellous at the core of modern cities8), it also shows nihilistic, destructive tendencies (consider, for example, the influence of de Sade, or the anxious images in the collages of Max Ernst). According to Bonnefoy, the surrealist image is for André Breton a proof of the secret forces at play behind everyday life: “thus it is easy to take [the surrealist image] as a sign that is sent to us, an appeal, another proof that there is some other level of being” (Bonnefoy 1989: 153.) (This would explain, one could perhaps add, the straightforward concern of the later Breton with occult sciences.) One particular case, uniquely close to the surrealists, is the French‐Belgian writer Suzanne Lilar, who has commented extensively on the ecstasy she experienced as a child and the “marvellous moments” (Lilar 1986: 123‐59) she was privy to throughout her life. Although less pervasive than genuine ec‐ stasy, these exceptional and unexpected moments of everyday life afford an intense connection with the world through the always unexpected experiences of analogies, i.e., the analogy between the shape of a shell and that of a dress represented in a picture. She considers this phenomenon, to which she devoted a whole book, Le journal de l’analogiste, as a way of really living poetry, which should bring her closer to the “absolute reality” (Lilar 1979: 217). Following Plato’s conception of anamnesis, Li‐ lar depicts this higher reality as something we knew once upon a time and need to recover in the future. Poetry is “the nostalgia itself of the soul and as the memory of another state she is con‐ tinually longing for” (Lilar 1979: 214). We can also speak of a Gnostic perspective, insofar as Lilar expresses a sentiment of ex‐ ile within immanent reality: Being much in love with the appearances of our world, I still can’t evade the occasional sense of exile. When the air‐ plane climbs ... I have the feeling of reaching my real country.... Through this landscape ... I felt a nostalgia which appeared like a recollection, the insurmountable intuition that felicity and peace called me there and at the same time where out of reach. (Lilar 1986: 156)
Julien Gracq, companion of the surrealists, declares: “for Bre‐ ton, the surreal was not transcendent, but was immanent in reality” (Gracq 1995: 1225). 8
NON‐RELIGIOUS MYSTICISM
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In all these writers, the fascination with a vague, indefinite no‐ tion of transcendence does not exclude a generous, affectionate, and imaginative investment in immanent reality. As a contrary case, we could think of the French‐Romanian thinker and writer Cioran, who blends the idea of empty transcendence with a radical rejection of immanent reality. Son of an orthodox priest, Cioran develops an attitude towards Christian religion and God that is thoroughly paradoxical (see Acke 1999a). He says: “I don’t believe in God, without being irreligious for all that.” In his interviews he comments extensively on his own mystical ex‐ periences. His posthumous Cahiers (Cioran 1997) bear witness to his daily spiritual quest and his being torn between the long‐ ing for the absolute and an equally strong radical scepticism. His profound Gnosticism can best explain this duality of mind: the immanent world, ruled by evil and destruction, has been made by a “mauvais démiurge” (Cioran 1969), a “bad Creator,” to whom the transcendent God must be opposed. Although the latter remains purely hypothetical for Cioran and not at all an object of faith, “he” nevertheless has to be approached through a continuous movement towards the negation of the given world. In his own words: “God is what survives the evidence that nothing is worth thinking about” (Cioran 1997: 767). In short, the ecstatic experience takes root in the emptiness left by the sceptical destruction of all immanent truth.9 In his diary, Cioran asserts that the main experience in his life was that of emptiness, and that it is precisely this experience that brought him close to the mystics.10 In his interview with Sylvie Jaudeau, he is even more explicit and claims to have experienced ecstasy four times in his life, all during difficult periods (Cioran 1995: 219). What was involved in these experiences? He clarifies his idea as follows: 9 For a similar appreciation of Cioran’s mysticism, see Roger Mu‐ nier (Munier 2009: 259‐70).
“The fundamental experience I have had in this life has been that of emptiness—emptiness of everyday life, emptiness of eternity. However, it is through that experience that I caught a glimpse of states which would render jealous even the purest and the most fren‐ zied mystic” (Cioran 1997: 612). 10
22
POETICS OF TRANSCENDENCE It was between 1926 and 1927, a period of intense distress. Every night I wandered in the streets, experiencing gloomy obsessions. During this period of intense interior tension, I more than once had an experience of ecstasy. It is an im‐ mediate shock, for which there is no preparation. Being gives an extraordinary blissful feeling, or, more precisely, a feeling of triumphant emptiness. That was a major experi‐ ence, a direct revelation of the meaninglessness of every‐ thing. These few illuminations brought me the knowledge of supreme happiness of which the mystics speak.... (Cioran 1995: 218)
As far as I know, there has been no attempt at making a literary transcription of these particular experiences in Cioran’s essays. But throughout his diaries he regularly reports his nocturnal walks and his various sentiments of emptiness. What he calls the “Night of Talamanca” (Cioran 1997: 473) details a stay in Ibiza,11 and represents a kind of climax of the sort common in the 1960s. He reports: “In the middle of the night, a gaping hole opened for me”(Cioran 2000: 33; see also 41). A more dialectical relation between immanence and tran‐ scendence is expressed in the poetry and essays of Philippe Jac‐ cottet, who belongs to the generation of Yves Bonnefoy and An‐ dré du Bouchet, two other French “poets of place.” Jaccottet shares with Cioran’s work the same scepticism towards tradi‐ tional religions, the same attachment to a transcendent meaning associated with a complete lack of religious faith (see Acke 1996). This attitude is expressed by the following judgments: “What we would like to call the Most High ... cannot cease to be our goal” (Jaccottet 1993: 76); “the world is not what we believe it is” (Jaccottet 1988: 96). Both writers mention a privileged ex‐ perience. But unlike Cioran, who hardly displays any affection towards nature, Jaccottet draws his convictions from experi‐ ences that involve an intense contact with landscapes, in parti‐ cular those of the Haute‐Provence, where he has been living now for almost sixty years. For Jaccottet, the search for the tran‐ scendent permeates the experience of nature as well as poetic and verbal creation. This part of the diary was published separately (Cioran 2000).
11
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Two different attitudes towards transcendence are in‐ volved in Jaccottet’s poetics. On the one hand, the transcendent can only be approached in a negative way (which reminds us of Cioran), mainly by the rejection of all Christian and other de‐ nominations of God and of the sacred (as is evident in Jaccot‐ tet’s criticism of traditional religion), to which the scriptural gesture of what painters call the pentimento corresponds. In this process, metaphors and similes that seek to echo the transcen‐ dent in nature are crossed out and continually replaced, due to their unsatisfactory character. For example, in “Invisible Birds,” Jaccottet tries to capture the hidden sense of the songs of birds he hears on a walk in the countryside, and throughout the text he continually replaces one image with another: “bubbles,” “in‐ visibles globes,” “nest of sounds,” “angel,” “constellation,” etc. (Jaccottet 1997: 59‐66). On the other hand, there is the transcen‐ dent that is always already immanent, at least in the mind of the poet, who remembers a famous sentence from St. Augus‐ tine’s Confessions: Deus interior intimo meo, God more interior than myself, absolutely interior, absolutely not outside. God, inside of the word, breath. Those who use the word are closer to God, therefore it is their duty to respect the word, because it bears the breath, instead of hiding it, freezing it, blowing it out. (Jaccottet 1984: 42‐43)12
Jaccottet also speaks of the “secret in which we live, that cannot be exterior to us” (1984: 83). This interiority finds a parallel in the poetic representation of the landscape, which tends to elim‐ inate the antinomies between time and timelessness, the invisi‐ ble and visible, order and disorder: for example, the waters of the Lez stream are “brief, and yet eternal” (Jaccottet 1994a: 28); things in nature shine with a light that comes from within: the “inside” of things ... is shining; the world is shining by its interior light. (Jaccottet 1988: 54‐55)
The complete sentence St. Augustine speaks to God is the fol‐ lowing: “tu autem eras interior intimo meo et superior summo meo” (III.VI: 11; see St. Augustine 1962: 382). 12
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POETICS OF TRANSCENDENCE it is also an hour where the surviving light, whereas its source is no more visible, seems to emanate from inside things and raise from the ground .... (Jaccottet 1990: 11)
In a certain way, immanence and transcendence come together tangentially. This reminds us of the important nuance in Jaccot‐ tet’s judgement of his privileged mystic‐poetical experience: it does not disclose another world but only permits a different perception of our own: There are in poetry ... openings ... onto an Other space, which would not be another world, but our world under‐ stood differently. This is close to Musil’s meditation on what he calls the other state, “der andere Zustand”, which he compares with the mystical state, but which is also a po‐ etical state: a state in which our perception of the world is changed ... in a sense that it becomes more inhabitable. This is also what Rilke calls “the Open”, where poets, angels, and animals go around without difficulty, because there are no longer any obstacles and breathing is possible. And I think that all real poetical works, and especially musical works, lead us more or less close to this threshold. (Jaccottet 1994b, IV)
Despite Jaccottet’s multiple references to God and to a higher principle, this remark actually suggests that his conception of transcendence is close to that of Maurice Merleau‐Ponty in his ultimate works (Merleau‐Ponty 1964): the continuity between the visible and the transcendence of the invisible can be re‐ stored without conceiving of the latter as an independent reali‐ ty.13 If Jaccottet represents a possibility of harmonizing imma‐ 13 Concerning this problematic as applied to poetry, see Michel Colot, who writes: “Phenomenons of horizon allow us to understand the transcendence of being itself.... Every visible thing stands out against a background which ‘cannot itself be seen as a thing.’ For Mer‐ leau‐Ponty this transcendence does not at all imply that being lies be‐ yond the visible, in an autonomous realm of reality.... [T]he invisible is part of the texture of the visible itself, it is inseparable from it, like the back from the right side ...” (1989: 33‐34). In an earlier study on Jaccot‐ tet (see above), I spoke of the ambiguity of Jaccottet’s religiosity: it seems to combine negative theology with real presence. I would say
NON‐RELIGIOUS MYSTICISM
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nence and transcendence, what would a thoroughly immanent natural mysticism be like? Varieties of Mystical Immanence The essence of the mysticism of immanence seems to me very well defined by the contemporary French philosopher André Comte‐Sponville. Discussing a natural mystical experience he had in his youth, he says, We are in the All, and whether it is finite or not, it surpasses us (goes beyond us) in every direction; its limits, if it has any, are permanently beyond our reach. It envelops, con‐ tains and exceeds us. Is it a transcendence? Not all, since we are inside of it. It is an exhaustible, indefinite immanence, whose limits are both undefined and inaccessible. (2008: 145) Was it ecstasy? I wouldn’t call it that, because there was no exterior to float away to. Instead, I would call it enstasy—the experience of an interiority (but one that contained me, ra‐ ther than my containing it), an immanence, a unity, an im‐ mersion, an insideness. (2008: 155)
Of course, it is important to note his insistence on the fact that this experience completely lacks the presence of another level of reality that could be subject to desire, hope, and speculation. As just described above, however, mystical immanence retains the problem of transcendence. This time, however, the issue is no longer the transcendence of the object but rather that of the subject: the (minimal or general) transcendence peculiar to thinking and consciousness itself.14 To what extent does the that it is rather his conception of transcendence that is ambiguous: transcendence as another level of reality or transcendence in the sense of Merleau‐Ponty as the transcendence of the invisible. As one philosopher put it: “Every conscious thinking implies an suspension over what is, a sudden rise which initiates transcen‐ dence …. To what extent immanence does not seal up the loss of meaning, absorbing human specificity? ... [O]ne can only notice the need of a radical otherness, of a finality (History or Progress) at work within imanent determinations, and justifying them” (Frioux 2007: 14
26
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immanent mystical experience grant some power of withdrawal to consciousness? Or, inversely, does it not destroy conscious‐ ness as well as our sensation of being a particular person? It seems that there is a sort of utopianism in natural mystical ex‐ perience where we are intimately linked to the whole yet, at the same time, we still retain enough consciousness to be aware of this situation and truly enjoy it. As the writer Julien Green puts it in his diary, commenting on a unique experience of a “senti‐ ment océanique”: the harmony between myself and the landscape was so profound that I wondered as in the past if it would not be delicious to vanish in all that, just like a drop in the sea, no longer having a body, but just enough consciousness to be able to think: “I am a fragment of the universe. The universe is happy in me. I am the sky, the trees, the Seine, and the houses which border it ....” (quoted in Certeau 2005: 331)
Precisely this “just enough consciousness to be able to think” is not a straightforward matter. Indeed, there seem to be forms of natural mysticism that conserve a sense of consciousness and the self, and others that, to the contrary, cancel or at least per‐ turb these notions. It is this crucial difference that I would now like to explore through some examples taken from literature and philosophy. As an example of a natural mysticism that maintains the power of consciousness to a certain extent, we will take the case of the writer and sociologist Roger Caillois. Throughout his life, Caillois was fascinated by several aspects of modern culture, such as the role of the sacred, the myth of the city, and the func‐ tion of aesthetics. But what is of particular interest here is his unfaltering passion for certain stones in which strange figures can be discerned. His opinion is that the contemplation of such stones—as well as writing about them—can change our con‐ sciousness of the self and our perception of time and space—or, in short, can lead to illuminations and ecstasy: 407). Equally, Sartre put forward the transcendence of consciousness with regard to the world: “consciousness is always consciousness of something else: that means that transcendence is the inner structure of consciousness” (Sartre 1943: 28).
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In certain oriental traditions, an illumination can well up from the marvel caused by the form or the design of a gnarled root, of a rock, of perforated or veined stone. They resemble a mountain, a depth, a cavern. They summarize the depth, they condense the duration. They are objects of long daydreams, of meditations, of hypnosis. They are sup‐ ported by ecstasy, a means of communication with the real world. (Caillois 1970: 22)
As in the “marvellous moments” of Suzanne Lilar, the percep‐ tion of analogies is crucial for Caillois, but here they are envis‐ aged more rigorously or profoundly; through his observations of these objects from time immemorial, Caillois claims to grasp nothing less than the “syntax” of the world, presented on a miniaturized scale (Caillois 1978: 208). He is able to experience the unity and stability of the immanent world despite its infin‐ ite character. His communion with the world rejects all surren‐ der and requires a certain attention without which analogies could not be apprehended: “Never am I tempted to withdraw my faculties of control” (Caillois 1978: 207).15 Caillois depicts a harmonious relationship between subject and object, at least for a privileged moment. Nevertheless, this moment does not con‐ stitute a real fusion. From an affective point of view, Caillois speaks about “calm happiness” (Caillois 1978: 205), “calm states, of weak intensity” (1978: 208), “brief serenity” (Caillois 1978: 206), and excludes “the transport of mystic illumination” (Caillois 1978: 206) or “ecstasy” (Caillois 1978: 208). Elsewhere, however, Caillois evokes the possibility of sur‐ render and ecstasy in the sense that the subject and the object (the stone) can come together into a singularity, to merge as it were: I feel that I become close to the nature of stones. At the same time, they become close to mine, thanks to the unsuspected proprieties I use to assign them during my speculations by turns precise and loose .... Between the immutability of the stone and my mental effervescence, a kind of current is
See further: “I let the images assault me, extend the stone, I don’t let them be unfaithful to it” (Caillois 1978: 205). 15
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POETICS OF TRANSCENDENCE established, which gives me, at least for a moment, wisdom and comfort. (Caillois 1971: 91)
The possibility of some kind of mysticism exists: “the possible seed for an unknown and paradoxical mystic”; this form of mysticism leads to the dissolution of the ego: it “would lead to the dissolution of the soul in some inhuman immensity.” More‐ over, we are facing an atheistic and materialistic kind of mysti‐ cism here: “atheist mysticism”; “this abyss would not be divine at all and would be pure matter and solely matter.” The medita‐ tion could lead to vertigo and ecstasy: “until vertigo, until ec‐ stasy” (Caillois 1971: 91)). But it must be said that Caillois does not seem to reach this level of profundity. In short, Caillois’ sustained companionship with stones clearly illustrates the ambiguities of the notion of immanence present in natural mysticism: profiting from the faculty of con‐ sciousness on the one hand, while keeping open the option of a complete unification with matter on the other. I find a similar ambiguity in the natural mysticism evoked by Jean‐Paul Sartre in his novel Nausea (La Nausée). In the public garden of the small provincial town of Bouville, Roquentin, the hero and nar‐ rator of the story, has an “experience of the absolute,” experi‐ ences an “illumination” (Sartre 1981: 150), an “ecstasy” (Sartre 1981: 155). Here too, we are confronted with an atheistic mysti‐ cism, as Geneviève Idt recognized (1971: 41). The core of this ex‐ perience is the discovery by the hero of a world without any sense: words seem to detach themselves from things, which lose their necessity, while reality loses its conceptual coherence. Roquentin’s consciousness is in danger of being absorbed by the world of things, as is shown in the novel by the importance of the imagination becoming bogged down in details or over‐ whelmed by a particular object or situation. At the same time, however, it retains the possibility of becoming detached from them, following the definition of the “pour soi” in Sartre’s Being and Nothingness (L’Etre et le néant). The following remark made by Roquentin about the culminating moment of his experience, when he is facing a root of a chestnut tree, manifests this ambiguity: “I was the root of the chestnut tree. Or rather I was entirely conscious of its existence. Still detached from it—since I was conscious of it—yet lost in it, nothing but it” (Sartre 1964: 131‐32). Ultimately, it is this possibility of detachment and its
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ethical consequences which would eventually dominate Sartre’s philosophy. According to his contemporary, Georges Bataille, after having explored the terrible nature of the purely sensible, Sartre developed a rather conventional philosophy of choice and freedom (Bataille 1988b: 13‐14). It is precisely Bataille, and equally some of his contempor‐ aries such as Maurice Blanchot and Emmanuel Levinas, who developed a form of immanent natural mysticism (or at least evoked the possibility of such a mysticism) that does not make any concessions to the power of consciousness. One can think of several of their writings that are close in time (1941‐1946) but also in spirit, as they have themselves recognized by cross references: in his early writings the young Levinas develops the concept of the il y a, pure and anonymous murmur of being (“Etre”) without existent beings (“existant”), for which he finds an illustration in the first chapters of Blanchot’s novel Thomas l’obscur, published a few years before (1941).16 In turn, Inner Experience (L’Expérience intérieure 1943) by Bataille bears sim‐ ilarities with Thomas l’obscur, as not only Bataille recognized but also Albert Camus. The latter considered Bataille’s essay to be a translation and a commentary on Blanchot’s novel.17 In all of these cases, concrete experiences undergone by the authors un‐ mistakably influenced their thinking. Rather than engage in an extensive analysis of these works, I would simply like to illustrate this questioning of the tran‐ scendence of the subject by way of an example from Levinas. Let us consider his conception of il y a, important in his first philosophical writings and refined later by a thinking of other‐ ness which does not enter into consideration here.18 When con‐ fronted by the il y a, the references to person, space, and time common to everyday life are no longer applicable. I would like to focus more particularly on the question of the subject. The il y a has to do with anonymous existence: “There is no deter‐ Blanchot published a revised edition of the novel in 1950.
16
17 This judgment is revealed by Sartre in his essay on Bataille’s L’Expérience intérieure (Sartre 1947: 170).
Several of the first writings of Levinas develop the il y a. See Levinas 1989: 29‐36; Levinas 1947; 1983. 18
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mined being” (Levinas 1989: 31); “there is nobody nor anything who takes responsibility for this existence” (Levinas 1983). We could even speak of a process of depersonalization: “What we call the self is itself submerged by the night, invaded, deperson‐ alised, stifled by it” (Levinas 1989: 31). The experience of insom‐ nia is a privileged representative of this situation: “we can and at the same time we cannot say that there is a ‘Me’ which does not succeed to sleep. The impossibility of leaving the state of waking is something ‘objective’, independent of my will” (Levi‐ nas 1982). Consciousness has lost its subjective character, its “ability to be able,” yet there is no unconsciousness posited in its place. Rather, there is an impersonal alertness or sensitivity. Consciousness is affected in the sense that every interiority or state of mind disappears. We can no longer hide within our‐ selves; consciousness has lost every possibility of retreat. Clear‐ ly, we are beyond the categories of interiority and exteriority (Levinas 1989: 30).19 There is no longer a relation between a sub‐ ject and an object: “The mind does not find itself faced with an apprehended exterior” (Levinas 1989: 30‐31). Facing the il y a, the subject is confronted by a radical heteronomy, a paradoxical relation of non‐relation in which it participates without (and against) its will: “there is being prey to, delivered over to some‐ thing that is not a ‘something’” (Levinas 1989: 34). In stark con‐ trast to radical heteronomy, “to be conscious is to be torn away from the there is, since the existence of a consciousness consti‐ tutes a subjectivity, that is, to some extent a master of being, al‐ ready a name in the anonymity of the night” (Levinas 1989: 32). Surely this is, strictly speaking, a borderline experience that subverts the usual conditions of experience, and, it should be added, perhaps also that of traditional mystical experiences as well.20 Arguably, it would be possible to show that this is also “The exterior—if one insists on this term—remains uncorrelat‐ ed with an interior” (Levinas 1989: 31). 19
Levinas is fully aware of this: “I am, we can say, the object ra‐ ther than the subject of an anonymous thinking. Of course, I have at least the experience of being an object, I become aware of this anony‐ mous attention, but I become aware of it through a movement by which the I has already detached itself from anonymity and by which the borderline situation of impersonal attention is mirrored through 20
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the case in the experiences of Blanchot and Bataille (Jay 2005: 361‐400). While the other forms of immanent natural mysticism promise an interiority or an order we can partake in, the ulti‐ mate nature of immanent mysticism cancels any transcendence of the subject. It makes us aware of the fact that a reconsidera‐ tion of natural mystical immanence cannot occur without re‐ thinking the conditions of subjectivity. Natural Mysticism and the Conditions of Subjectivity The institutional crisis of the Christian religion in the Western world has created a new realm of experience, the “religious out‐ side religion” and has opened new paths to natural mysticism, as is obvious in large parts of modern art and literature. This situation implies that we must reappraise the nature of tran‐ scendence and, simultaneously, that of immanence as well. It is far too easy to identify transcendence in mysticism with its reli‐ gious dimension. There is a natural mysticism that presupposes the transcendence of the intentional object. Since the nineteenth century, religious patterns borrowed principally from the Chris‐ tian tradition have continued to permeate in various ways the mystical quest of agnostic and atheistic writers, opening the way for an empty transcendence that can contribute not only to a hidden (surrealism, Lilar) or an overt and radical (Cioran) de‐ preciation of immanent reality but also to a reconciliation of immanence and transcendence (Jaccottet, Bonnefoy). If there is also a natural mysticism that deliberately choos‐ es to settle in the sphere of immanence, all its representatives do not necessarily do it the same way. While some of them maintain the transcendence of the subject, be it explicitly (Comte‐ Sponville) or implicitly (Sartre, Caillois), the historical impor‐ tance of others is found in their vigorous resistance to any form of transcendence of the subject (the young Levinas, Blanchot, the rushing back of consciousness which leaves it” (Levinas 1947: 112). In a review of De l’existence à l’existant, Bataille affirms that “the prob‐ lem introduced by the little book of Levinas is the one of the communi‐ cation of an ineffable experience. Apparently the il y a is the ineffable of the mystics ....” (Bataille 1988a: 296).
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Bataille). This clearly demonstrates the necessity of rethinking the conditions of the subject for natural mysticism. Bibliography Acke, Daniel. (1999a). “D’un Dieu improbable—Remarques sur la reli‐ gion chez Cioran.” In: Else Walravens and Johan Stuy (eds.). Denken als openheid: Liber amicorum Hubert Dethier. Brussels: VUB Press. Pp. 91‐102. (1999b). Yves Bonnefoy essayiste: Modernité et présence. Amsterdam/ Atlanta: Rodopi. (1996). “Philippe Jaccottet et les ambiguïtés du religieux.” Le Courrier du centre international d’études poétiques 209‐210: 5‐32. Apostel, Leo. (1998). Atheïstische spiritualiteit? Ed. by Jan H. Mysjkin. Brussels: VUB Press. Bataille, Georges. (1988a). “De l’existentialisme au primat de l’éco‐ nomie.” In: George Bataille. Œuvres complètes. Vol. XI. Paris: Gal‐ limard. Pp. 279‐306. Originally published in 1947. (1988b). “L’existentialisme.” In: George Bataille. Œuvres com‐ plètes. Vol. XII. Paris: Gallimard. Pp. 11‐15. Originally published in 1950. (1978). L’Expérience intérieure. Collection Tel. Paris: Gallimard. Originally published in 1943. Baudelaire, Charles. (1982). The Flowers of Evil. Transl. Richard How‐ ard and David R. Godine. New Hampshire: New Hampshire Publisher, Inc. (1975). Œuvres complètes. Bibliothèque de la Pléiade. Vol. I. Paris: Gallimard. Bologne, Jean‐Claude. (1995). Le mysticisme athée. Paris: Ed. du Rocher. Bonnefoy, Yves. (1990). Entretiens sur la poésie. Paris: Mercure de France. (1989). The Act and the Place of Poetry: Selected Essays. Edited and introduced by John T. Naughton. Foreword by Joseph Frank. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Bucke, Richard Maurice. (1961). Cosmic Consciousness: A Study in the Evolution of the Human Mind. New York: University Books. Or‐ iginally published in 1901. Caillois, Roger. (1978). Le Fleuve Alphée. Paris: Gallimard. (1971). Pierres suivi d’autres textes. Poésie Gallimard. Paris: Gallimard. (1970). L’écriture des pierres. Genève: Skira.
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Certeau, Michel de. (2005). “Mystique.” In: Michel de Certeau. Le Lieu de l’autre ; Histoire religieuse et mystique. Paris: Gallimard‐Seuil. Pp. 323‐41. Cioran, Emil Michel. (2000). Cahier de Talamanca. Paris: Mercure de France (1997). Cahiers. Paris: Gallimard. (1995). “Entretien avec Sylvie Jaudeau.” In: Entretiens. Paris: Gallimard. Pp. 215‐33. (1969). Le Mauvais démiurge. Paris: Gallimard. Colot, Michel. (1989). La poésie moderne et la structure d’horizon. Paris: Presses universitaires de France. Comte‐Sponville, André. (2008). The Book of Atheist Spirituality: An Ele‐ gant Argument for Spirituality Without God. Transl. Nancy Huston. London: Bantam Press. Dupré, Louis. (1972). The Other Dimension: A Search for the Meaning of Religious Attitudes. New York: Doubleday. Freud, Sigmund. (1968). Das Unbehagen in der Kultur: Gesammelte Werke. Vol. XIV. Frankfurt am Main: Fischer. Pp. 422‐31. Or‐ iginally published in 1930. Freud, Sigmund, and Romain Rolland. (1993). Correspondance, 1923‐ 1936. Ed. by Henri and Madeleine Vermorel. Paris: Presses uni‐ versitaires de France. Friedrich, Hugo. (1977). Die Struktur der modernen Lyrik. Hamburg: Ro‐ wohlt Taschenbuch Verlag. Originally published in 1956. Frioux, Dalibor. (2007). “Immanence.” In: Dictionnaire des concepts phil‐ osophiques. Ed. by Michel Blay. Paris: Larousse‐CNRS éditions. Pp. 406‐08. Fromm, Erich. (1966). You Shall be as Gods. New York: Henry Holt & Co. Gauchet, Marcel. (1988). Le désenchantement du monde. Paris: Gallim‐ ard. Gracq, Julien. (1995). “Entretiens avec Jean Roudaut.” (1981) In: Julien Gracq. Œuvres complètes. Vol. II. Ed. by Bernhild Boie and Claude Bourguin. Bibliothèque de la Pléiade. Paris: Gallimard. Pp. 1211‐ 30. Hulin, Michel. (1993). La Mystique sauvage. Paris: Presses Universi‐ taires de France. Idt, Geneviève. (1971). La Nausée de Sartre. Profil d’une œuvre. Paris: Hatier.
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Jaccottet, Philippe. (1997). Landscapes with Absent Figures. Transl. Mark Treharne. Preface by Michael Hamburger. Birmingham/London: Delos Press/Menard Press. (1994a). Après beaucoup d’années. Paris: Gallimard. (1994b). “Interview.” Le Monde, Le Monde des livres (15 July): IV. (1993). Cristal et fumée. Saint‐Pierre de Rivière: Fata Morgana. (1990). Cahier de verdure. Paris: Gallimard. (1988). La Promenade sous les arbres. Genève: La Bibliothèque des arts. (1984). La Semaison, carnets 1954‐1979. Paris: Gallimard. (1961). Eléments dʹun songe. Paris: Gallimard. Jay, Martin. (2005). Songs of Experience: Modern and European Variations on a Universal Theme. Berkeley: University of California Press. Jonas, Hans. (1978). “Gnosticisme, existentialisme et nihilisme.” In: Hans Jonas. La religion gnostique. Paris: Flammarion. Pp. 417‐42. (1978). “Le syndrome gnostique: typologie d’une pensée, d’une imagination et d’une sensibilité.” In: Hans Jonas. La religion gnos‐ tique. Paris: Flammarion. Pp. 442‐63. Le Clézio, Jean‐Marie. (1967). L’extase matérielle. Paris: Gallimard. Levinas, Emmanuel. (1989). “There is: Existence without Existents.” In: Séan Hand (ed.). The Levinas Reader. New York: Blackwell. Pp. 29‐36. (1983). Le Temps et l’autre. Paris: Presses universitaires de France. Originally published in 1946‐1947. (1982). Ethique et infini: Dialogues avec Philippe Nemo. Paris: Fay‐ ard. (1947). De l’Existence à l’existant. Paris: Editions de la revue Fon‐ taine. (1946). “Il y a.” Deucalion 1: 141‐54. Lilar, Suzanne. (1986). “Les moments merveilleux.” In: Cahiers Suzanne Lilar. Paris: Gallimard. Pp. 123‐59. (1979). Journal de l’analogiste. Paris: Grasset. Originally published in 1954. Merleau‐Ponty, Maurice. (1964). Le Visible et l’invisible. Paris: Gallim‐ ard. Munier, Roger. (2009). “L’Aveu.” In: Laurence Tacou (ed.). Cioran: Ca‐ hier de l’Herne. Pp. 259‐70. Raymond, Marcel. (1940). De Baudelaire au surréalisme. Paris: José Corti. Saint‐Augustin. (1962). Les Confessions. Books I‐VII. Ed. by M. Skutella et al. Paris: Desclée de Brouwer.
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Sartre, Jean‐Paul. (1981). Œuvres romanesques. Ed. by Michel Contat and Michel Rybalka. Bibliothèque de la Pléiade. Paris: Gallimard. (1964). Nausea. Transl. Lloyd Alexander. Introduction by Hayden Carruth. New York: New Directions Publishing Corporation. (1947). “Un nouveau mystique.” In: Situations I. Paris: Gallimard. Pp. 133‐74. (1943). L’Etre et le Néant. Paris: Gallimard. Sloterdijk, Peter. (2007). “Der mystische Imperativ: Bemerkungen zum Formwandel des Religiösen in der Neuzeit.” In: Peter Sloterdijk. Mystische Weltliteratur, gesammelt von Martin Buber. Kreuzlingen/ Munich: Diederichs Gelbe Reihe. Pp. 9‐36. Taubes, Jacob. (1966). “Noten zum Surrealismus.” In: Wolfgang Iser (ed.). Immanente Ästhetik—Ästhetische Reflexion: Lyrik als Paradig‐ ma der Moderne, Poetik und Hermeneutik. Vol. 2. Munich: Fink. Pp. 139‐43. Zaehner, R.C. (1957). Mysticism Sacred and Profane. Oxford: The Clar‐ endon Press.
Writing through the Transcendence
On Paul Celan’s Mysticism Antti Salminen Abstract In recent years the place of transcendence in Paul Celan’s poetry has attract‐ ed new attention as scholars have revisited the concept of transcendence without an unequivocal confessional and religious basis. This essay explores these discussions in search of new ways of understanding Celan’s poetics. In these discussions, Celan is considered either a religious sceptic or a “reluc‐ tant theologian,” aiming to re‐establish the covenant with the divine with his themes of silence and nothingness. Contrary to these views, Salminen argues that Celan’s poetic gesture calls into question the very atheist/theist dichot‐ omy: transcendence is written as it dwells within and goes through Celan’s poetic language, not beyond it. This throughness is the basis of Celan’s original mysticism, which, paradoxically enough, is neither atheist nor reli‐ gious. Thus, Celan takes a third position between religious mysticism and completely secular poetics in favor of poetic heresy with its critical stance to‐ wards both atheist and confessional positions.
Introduction Among Paul Celan’s (1920‐1970) Meridian fragments these plain lines catch attention: Mysticism as wordlessness / Poetry as form1 Mystik als Wortlosigkeit / Dichtung als Form (Celan 1999: 104)
If poetry is the form for wordless mysticism, the paradox seems striking: what is poetry without words? Maybe poetry, as words, provides the form for silence? In Celan’s case these questions amalgamate his poetics with the concept of transcen‐ dence commonly understood as the beyond of language and be‐
All translations are by the author, unless otherwise stated.
1
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ing (e.g., Schwartz 2004: viii).2 In this essay Celan’s transcen‐ dence is reinterpreted as a paradoxical “beyond within” his lan‐ guage and poetics. In recent years the place of transcendence in Paul Celan’s poetry and poetics has attracted the attention of scholars when the concept of transcendence has been revisited without out‐ right confessional and religious emphasis. Leslie Hill regards Celan as a skeptic of aesthetic transcendence, not to mention re‐ ligious transcendence (2005: 1004‐05). On the other hand, some have labelled Celan a “reluctant theologian.” For instance, Beth Hawkins argues that Celan aims to re‐establish the covenant with the divine and speaks with divine transcendence through the themes of silence and nothingness (74). Contrary to both Hill and Hawkins, it will be argued that Celan’s gesture calls in‐ to question the atheist/theist dichotomy: transcendence is writ‐ ten as it dwells within and goes through Celan’s poetic lan‐ guage, not beyond it. This “throughness” is the basis of Celan’s original mysticism, which is, paradoxically enough, neither atheist nor religious. Thus Celan takes a third position between religious mysticism and totally secular poetics in the favor of poetic heresy with critical stance towards both atheist and con‐ fessional positions. According to Emmanual Levinas, in Celan’s Meridian speech there is an obvious “attempt to think transcendence” (1996: 42), although the view is somewhat controversial (see especially Hill 2005). It will be argued that in his poems this matter of thinking assumes a written and concrete form. In Celan’s po‐ etics and poems the mystical elements are bound to the most concrete immanence, even at the bodily level. Characteristically one of Celan’s most Kabbalistic poems “Near, in the Aorta’s Arch,” is written inside the front cover of a physiology hand‐ book (Felstiner 2001: 236). Instead of the widely researched mystical motifs (see Schulze 1983 for a detailed account), I will focus on Celan’s un‐ In this essay “transcendence,” “transcendent,” “immanence,” and “immanent” are used in a broadly theological and pre‐Kantian sense, transcendence referring primarily to an otherworldly and spir‐ itual plane. Thus, strictly phenomenological uses of the term (e.g., in Heidegger and Husserl) are omitted in this essay. 2
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orthodox ideas of transcendence and what Shira Wolosky terms his “resistance” towards it (1995: 246). Celan’s resisting a “third position” is not a direct answer to the complex question of the place of transcendence in relation to language and experience. Elke Günzel characterizes Celan’s poetry by a triple negation, as not religious, not atheist, and not nihilistic (296). This is a de‐ scription that may hold, but instead of a negative description a positive one should be arrived at, one that could outline Celan’s highly contradictory relation to the transcendence in his poetry and poetics. Instead of the triple negation, a triple affirmation is given. In this essay transcendence as “throughness” in Celan’s poetics is posited first by the elliptical use of language, second by the temporalization (of the “beyond”), and third by the theme of encounter. God as Ellipsis To understand Celan’s poetics of transcendence, some of his mystical and philosophical sources and stances towards the no‐ tion of the godhead must be considered. Surely the Celanian loci classici in this regard are the poems “Psalm” and “Man‐ dorla” (from the collection Niemandsrose), which refer to the deity as nothingness and No one (Niemand) (see, e.g., Schulze 1983: 3), and link Celan to apophatic tradition and discourse. The poems are often used as proofs of Celan’s god‐oriented (Jewish) mysticism. According to Celan’s “reading traces” (Le‐ sespuren) and recently published fragments (Celan 2004; 2005a), his mysticism seems more unorthodox and heterodox than has previously been thought. Celan draws his mystical topoi from different traditions in a syncretic, and sometimes even eclectic, manner. Judging by the reading traces of his philosophical library (Celan 2004), he was well read in Christian and Jewish classics. He knew Meister Eckhart’s mystical writing (in Gustav Landauer’s influential translation from 1903), some Angelus Silesius, Kabbalistic, and Chasidic texts (via Martin Buber’s and Gershom Scholem’s in‐ terpretations), but also the basic concepts of Renaissance alche‐ my and Laozi’s Taoist writings. Thus, Shira Wolosky’s claim that we should take Celan’s poetics first and foremost in their Jewish context can be questioned (Wolosky 1995: 203). This is not to say that Jewish mysticism should be ignored when
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studying Celan’s mystical undercurrents, but it does not merit a hegemonic frame of interpretation. Beside the religious mystical strains of thought, Celan’s inspira‐ tion for his poetics of transcendence was of philosophical ori‐ gin. According to his “reading traces,” he was particularly in‐ terested in the relationship between nothingness and transcen‐ dence considered by Ernst Bloch, Martin Heidegger, and Ar‐ thur Schopenhauer among others. For instance, Celan wrote a reading note to Heidegger’s What is Metaphysics, which deals with the metaphysics of nothingness: “Nothingness = ens sum‐ mum ens = God = ens increatum” (Celan 2004: 410). Celan’s note is not, however, a plain reiteration of Heidegger’s thought as the original passage reads: Christian dogma denies the truth of the proposition ex nihilo nihil fit and thereby bestows on the nothing a transformed significance, the sense of the complete absence of beings apart from God: ex nihilo fit—ens creatum. (Heidegger 2007: 94; Celan 2004: 410)
Thus, in Celan’s interpretation inspired by Heidegger’s passage the godhead equals nothingness, which is a stance similar to radical mystics but not to the orthodox Christian dogma Hei‐ degger addresses. Surely there are other reasons for Celan’s turn to nothing‐ ness as a linguistic‐mystical topos. For instance, Otto Pöggeler counts nothingness among Celan’s core of mystical themes, and credibly links nothingness to the Jewish Kabbalistic tradition (Pöggeler 1994: 98‐99). Celan addresses the Kabbalistic themes especially in his collection Niemandsrose and the last poems of Zeitgehöft, in the so‐called Jerusalem cycle. In the medieval Lurianic Kabbalah especially, nothingness has a positive mean‐ ing as the manifestation of the godhead, and, according to Pög‐ geler, this is also reflected in Niemandsrose (1994: 180). Pög‐ geler’s argument can be contrasted to Gershom Scholem’s pas‐ sage, whose Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism was Celan’s pri‐ mary source of Kabbalistic thought (see Günzel 1995: 336). Scholem writes about the mystical nothingness: It is well known that the descriptions given by the mystics of their peculiar experiences and of the God whose presence
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they experience are full of paradoxes of every kind. It is not the least baffling of these paradoxes … that God is frequent‐ ly described as the mystical Nothing. (Scholem 1995: 5)
Side by side with the Kabbalistic sources it is evident that Celan was familiar with the idea of god as nothingness also via Chris‐ tian mysticism. Felstiner notes, that in 1967 Celan studied the negative theologian Meister Eckhart extensively (249), but Eck‐ hart was not the only Christian thinker of nothingness known to Celan. In his personal copy of the journal Hermes (vol. 6), published in 1969, Celan underlined with care the words of An‐ gelus Silesius: “The godhead is Nothing. The frail godhead is nothing and beyond nothing” (“Die Gottheit ist ein Nichts. Die zarte Gottheit ist ein nichts und übernichts”) (Celan 2004: 562). Silesius’ words concur with Celan’s important posthumous frag‐ ment: Consequently there is also an ellipsis, which should not be misunderstood as a trope or merely a stylistic refinement. The god of the poem is admittedly a deus absconditus. Es gibt also eine Ellipse, die man nicht als Tropus oder gar stilistisches Raffinement missverstehen darf. Der Gott des Gedichts ist unstreitig ein deus absconditus. (Celan 2005a: 136)
God is depicted here as something close to nothingness, some‐ thing non‐represented, a signified absence. Without tropologi‐ cal and stylistic aspects this is not a representation of god as no‐ thingness. Taken literally and paradoxically, Celan’s god is written with the ellipsis. Hence the poem does not only refer to deity in elliptical manner—the godhead is also deus absconditus within the text. Although deus absconditus refers directly to Chris‐ tian negative theology, there are more implicit meanings bub‐ bling beneath the surface. The elliptical markings have Kabbal‐ istic significance, as Moshe Idel states, in some Kabbalistic sources. In a few Chasidic ones, there is a religious significance not only to the black signs that constitute the Hebrew letters but also to the white spaces that encompass them (Idel 2006: 170). Thus the meaning of elliptical language in this regard could stem from the Chasidic sources that Celan knew from the writ‐ ing of Buber.
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Celan’s fragment also invokes Friedrich Nietzsche, a philo‐ sopher close to Celan, who famously stated in Twilight of the Idols that “I am afraid we are not rid of God because we still have faith in grammar.” In Celan’s poetry the non‐grammatical use of language reveals the idea of “Der Gott des Gedichts” in its most radical formulation: there is no god as such, but this no‐god, like Celan’s central concept of Niemand, assumes posi‐ tions in language. The ellipsis conserves the idea of god who may or may not exist. This written god is paradoxically both ex‐ isting and non‐existing, in the state of in‐between. Thus Celan inverts the conventional apophatic discourse that speaks of de‐ ity: for Celan it seems, god is not beyond language and repre‐ sentation, but manifests on the textual level by means of the po‐ etic ellipsis. As Jenny Chamarette has observed, ellipsis is a means of accessing what cannot be expressed within language in a form that nonetheless maintains a visual proximity to the written word (Chamarette 2007: 36). In the ellipsis absence is re‐ cognized on the material level of the text. According to Celan’s fragment, paradoxically the most absent, the very nothingness, can become a visual element in the written text. In Nietzsche’s wake Celan also refers to the “death of god” theme, for instance, in the poem “Treckschutenzeit”/“Barge‐ time,” in which one “sheds oneself of death, sheds oneself / of God” (Todes quitt, Gottes / quitt) (GW: II 326). In the stanzas Celan refers quite explicitly to Gustav Landauer’s translation of Meister Eckhart’s Predigt (see May et al. 2008: 113): “I pray God to shed me of God” [“Darum bitte ich Gott, das er mich Gottes quitt mache”]. As the words death (Todes) and godhead (Gottes) rhyme, it is implied that if god is dead, death is dead, and both traditional gates to transcendence are shut. It is significant that if Celan’s poetry has the Nietzschean undercurrent of radical doubt, this doubt is expressed with mystical motifs and even rhetorical devices common to the Christian and Jewish mystical traditions. Again, Celan follows a third position that sustains both thesis and antithesis without seeking a synthesis. Thus it comes as no surprise that, despite the Nietzschean undercurrents, something godlike still remains in Celan’s po‐ etry. For instance in the last stanzas of “Why This Hasty Home” (“Warum dieses jähe Zuhause”) there is a encouragement that merges human and divine together:
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Throw your tropes to the rest: someone wants to know, why I was no different with God than with you. (transl. in Celan 1986: 123) Wirf deine Tropen zum Rest: einer will wissen, warum ich bei Gott nicht anders war als bei dir. (GW II: 363)
A metapoetic hint can be read from the poem: As “the god of the poem” is not to be confused with a trope, approaching the deity is to be taken quite literally here. In the poem the encoun‐ ter with the godhead is an encounter with you. Hence Celan’s mystical approach is not a silent dialogue with god in the man‐ ner of negative theology. With “you,” Celan ponders the ab‐ sence of god. Yet this absence is not a mystical experience as such, but an aspect of the poem as an ellipsis. In Celan’s “word‐ less” mysticism, “God” is unwritten in the name of the “you.” According to the fragment, it is an open question as to whether this is a god of spiritual atheist or radical mystic remnants. The complicated gesture of negation leaves open whether god ex‐ ists, and if so, whose god is really addressed. Thus Celan steps over the question of spiritual transcendence: his poetics are be‐ tween an atheist and theist position. As we shall see, this dou‐ ble bind also parallels his transcendence/immanence dichotomy as the ontological question. “Blue of Which Heaven?” With the words “The high world—lost, the illusion trip, the day trip” (“Die Hochwelt—verloren, die Wahnfahrt, die Tagfahrt” [“Die Hochwelt”; GW II: 199]), Celan posits the place of a tradi‐ tional foundational transcendence as an eternal Otherworld, but transcendence “above” as a true and ideal world seems lost and illusionary. But this is only a point of departure, for in Ce‐ lan’s poetry transcendence is a matter of constant negotiation, scepticism, and ultimately displacement. As Leslie Hill writes,
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language is the place where the divide between the immanent and the transcendent is decided; but by that very token it is also the locus where the divide itself is always already suspended (2005: 1001). And, conversely, this suspension goes for the view of plain immanence too: when the place of transcendence is questioned, the ontology of immanence also becomes a matter of negotiation. In this regard Beth Hawkins observes a paradoxical struc‐ ture that is a central impulse in Celan’s poetics of transcen‐ dence: the collapse of transcendence into immanence, and the simultaneous existence of both realms (2006: 98). It could be added that this collapse is also an ontological inversion, as Celan echoes the words of Büchner’s Lenz in the Meridian: “Whoever walks on his head, ladies and gentlemen, whoever walks on his head has heaven as an abyss beneath him” (GW III: 195). When the meaning of transcendence is lost, the world itself (or at least our perspective) is going to turn upside down. The ontological inversion, which also signals the skepti‐ cism of transcendence as a distinct ontological plane, also ap‐ pears in the poem “Under a Picture”: Ravens swarming over a wave of wheat. Blue of which heaven? The lower? Higher? Later arrow that the soul released. Louder whirring. Nearer glow. Both worlds. Rabenüberschwärmte Weizenwoge. Welchen Himmels Blau? Des untern? Obern? Später Pfeil, der von der Seele schnellte. Stärkres Schwirren. Näh’res Glühen. Beide Welten. (GW I: 155)
The poem is an ekfrasis from Vincent van Gogh’s painting “Cornfield with Ravens,” which was presumably his last. An explicit intertextuality to Van Gogh’s last days gives the poem an otherworldly twist. Although there is (in Van Gogh’s paint‐ ing and Celan’s poem) an explicit hint at a distinction between immanence and transcendence, they are both textually pre‐ sented. The approaching “arrow” (is that the gaze of the be‐ holder?) pierces as it were the ekfrasis and gives an answer to the questions: “both worlds” (which correspond to the two af‐ fects “whirring” and “glowing”) exist side by side. The tran‐
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scendence in “Under a Picture” is not simply the place beyond being and language as often supposed but a plane that co‐exists within immanence and fuses with it. This idea has a philosophical parallel that is worth men‐ tioning here. Celan was familiar with the idea of transcendence emerging within immanence (and Dasein) via Heidegger, as his reading traces show (Celan 2004: 540). Husserl’s phenomenolo‐ gical criticism of transcendence, known to Celan, could also have been reflected to his view (see May et al. 2008: 251). Thus it is evident from a philosophical basis that Celan’s transcendence is not a self‐governing Platonic plane of ideas (or godhead), but —yet theological—like an immanent depth dimension of this world of ours. As we shall soon see, this goes mutatis mutandis for his poems and poetics as well. Yet another analogue for the same idea comes from the Kabbalistic tradition. Shira Wolosky has insightfully observed that in the poem “Spät und tief” / “Late and Deep” Celan in‐ vokes one of the most radical Kabbalistic figures—the tempor‐ alization of transcendence (Wolosky 1995: 224). This insight could be developed to a larger extent. From this Kabbalistic viewpoint temporalized transcendence in Celan is not a foun‐ dational plane of godhead or ideas but a dynamic and temporal force, not separate from the ordinary world and language. The radical temporalization of ontology is reminiscent of Heideg‐ ger’s fundamental ontology of Being and Time. To sum up these aspects of the transcendence‐immanence interplay, for Celan the two planes are like the sides of the Möbius strip, that is without a distinct inside or outside. In this strange and paradoxical ontology, the world and non‐world are inseparably bound to each other. Emmanuel Levinas also con‐ nects Celan’s view of transcendence to the logic of paradox, stating in his essay on Celan: “The paradox is not only in the in‐ finite adventure of a dead letter; it is in the antinomy in which the concept of transcendence itself unfolds” (Levinas 1996: 42). Considering this transcendence in Celan is possible only in its impossibility: in his poetry transcendence is written, but when written, it becomes necessarily immanent. Writing as writing cannot grasp transcendence as transcendence, but poetic writ‐ ing can negotiate its meaning.
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Joel Golb argues that Celan’s “fragmented language is … polarized between the corrupt nature of its materiality and the transcendence towards which it strives” (1986: 30‐31). Golb’s view should be inverted: fragmenting and transcending are not polar opposites, but by the very act of fragmenting, breaking, and wounding language, Celan is able to place the transcen‐ dence in his poetry as a crack in immanence. As the “god of the poem” was present as the ellipsis, transcendence fuses with the immanent: the rupture of transcendence does not lead to the mystical beyond, but the crack is transcendence itself. Both of these themes are addressed and illustrated in the poem scrutin‐ ized next, in which Celan’s mystical sources also conjoin. From Eckhart to the Apollo Program One of the most striking thematizations of transcendence in Ce‐ lan’s poetry is to be found among his last poems, from the post‐ humously published Zeitgehöft (1976). Mystical undercurrents in “Nitidous You” are explicit but woven into a complicated fa‐ bric. Celan specialist Otto Pöggeler is forced to ask here if the poem recalls “a science fiction story of the War of the Worlds ra‐ ther than mysticism” (1994: 97). NITIDOUS YOU tumor daughter of a blinding in the cosmos, seized by supracelestial search troops shunted into the seeing, god‐ waiving starheap Blue, you turn gamey before our hungry, immovable pores, an also‐sun, between
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two brightshots abyss. (transl. in Celan 2005b: 139) DU GLEISSENDE Tochtergeschwulst einer Blendung im All, aufgegriffen von überhimmlischen Suchtrupps, verschoben ins sehende, gott‐ entratene Sternhaufen‐Blau, du wildenzt vor unsern hungrigen, unverrückbaren Poren als Mitsonne, zwischen zwei Hellschüssen Abgrund. (GW III: 101)
“Nitidous You” appears in the second poem cycle of Zeitgehöft. The cycle emanates the feeling of sacredness with the vocabu‐ lary and imagery of mysterious radiance, glimmering and light. “Nitidous You” brings these motifs to the edge as the medieval concepts of Meister Eckhart clash with astrophysical phenome‐ na and physiology. Pierre Joris’ otherwise apt translation miss‐ es, as do previous interpreters, to my knowledge, that Stern‐ haufen is an exact astronomical concept for a star constellation, in which stars are gravitationally bound together. Within these clusters stars called “blue straggler” emit blue light, Sternhauf‐ en‐Blau. The blue stars violate the laws of stellar evolution, as their evolving is abnormal and even sporadic. In this sense “starheap Blue” is “god / ‐waiving” as it does not obey the supracelestial constants. This is also a bodily link: like a tumor, this sun of the odd waxes or wanes in obstinate disregard of the laws of the celestial bodies. But the supra‐lunar context is also worth considering since Celan wrote the poem in November 1969. Four months earlier,
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the first Apollo space mission was launched. Thus, the “supra‐ celestial search troops” may refer not to angels but to Neil Arm‐ strong and his co‐astronauts who “seized” the moon. The other Abgrund mentioned refers then to the darkness of space, in the same manner as the sky opened as an abyss in the Meridian. In the world of moon rockets there are no gods above, but the blue light from outer space gives impetus to the angels in space suits; still there is “you,” gleaming in the inhuman far‐travelled light, primordial as space itself. The “also‐sun” calls forth an image of a black hole. Like the blue stragglers, black holes violate the rules of astrophysics. Black holes maintain singularity in which the laws of nature collapse in infinite density. Is this a form of transcendence Ce‐ lan addresses after god is vanished? The event horizon of the poem remains impenetrable in this respect. In any case, the black hole also resembles the pupil of an eye, a singular and un‐ known also‐sun. Given the eye imagery, one is reminded of Meister Eckhart’s aphorism: “The eye with which I see God is the same eye with which God sees me: my eye and God’s eye are one eye, one seeing, one knowing and one love” (from the German Sermon No. 57). This becomes manifest in the poem as the word Abgrund is not inflected to the grammatically correct plural (zwei Hellschüssen / Abgründe). Paradoxically, “two brightshots,” my eye and yours, form one abyss, deep as the sky above. On the other hand, Celan draws again on Kabbalistic sources. Rochelle Tobias (Tobias 2006: 54) makes a plausible link between Celan’s celestial imagery and that of Gershom Scholem’s interpretations of the Kabbalah that Celan studied extensively (Felstiner 2001: 121‐22). According to Felstiner, Ce‐ lan was particularly interested, among other themes, in the light apparition in the Kabbalistic creation myth (Felstiner 2001: 235). Thus the “two brightshots” are also an allusion to the primor‐ dial cosmic man Adam Kadmon of the Kabbalistic tradition, from whose orifices the light of the creation flashes forth (Scholem 1995: 265). Eyes are abysses, too; but from these depths the light shoots out. In “Nitidous You” god is neither absent nor present, as To‐ bias states: “If absence is only partial, then presence is as well. Indeed the two terms cease to be meaningful when they no longer function as diametrical opposites” (Tobias 2006: 105) In
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this context Celan is not approaching god by denial, as in his middle collections. The godhead of the poem is by the inverted paradox either/or, a kind of ellipsis Celan called forth in the “Der Gott des Gedichts” fragment. This shows the remains of the divinity that is manifest in “Nitidous You” in a ghostly, al‐ most living‐dead, light. Tobias claims that Celan’s late poems lack the “transcen‐ dent model and there is no possibility of transcendence for the body” (2006: 80). In the case of “Nitidous You,” this claim be‐ comes dubious. Celan’s mysticism differs from the non‐bodily mystics like Eckhart in this respect. The model of transcendence is there, namely, in the bodies of the other and celestial, held taut between black holes and pores of the skin. Transgressing the Page Indeed the “high‐world,” the transcendence above is lost for Celan in the secular age of space rockets, and the godhead has vanished before the “supracelestial search troops.” In this situa‐ tion, transcendence is not going above or beyond the world. Thus, Celan’s transcendence (“above and beyond”) is relocated within immanence as its crack and throughness. Celan also ap‐ proached these themes in his Bremen speech given in 1958: For the poem is not timeless. Certainly, it lays claim to infin‐ ity, it seeks to reach through time—through it, not above and beyond it [durch sie hindurch, nicht über sie hinweg]. (Transl. Felstiner 2001: 115; GW III: 186)
Mindful of the Kabbalistic idea of temporal transcendence, a poem makes its claim to infinity only by the immanent basis. Transcending as transgressing, going through, also leads to the root of the word. Etymologically, the prefix “trans” originally meant “across” and “through” (see “trans” in the OED). In the preceding pages these gestures are approached as a thematized position, but, what is more, Celan’s writing itself al‐ so makes use of these ideas. For instance “transcending as tran‐ sgressing” becomes manifest in the poem “The Sluice,” whose first two stanzas read:
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POETICS OF TRANSCENDENCE THE SLUICE Over all this grief of yours: no second heaven. . . . . . . . . . . To a mouth for which a thousand word was lost— I lost a word that had remained with me: sister. (Transl. Felstiner 2001: 161‐62) DIE SCHLEUSE Über aller dieser deiner Trauer: kein zweiter Himmel. . . . . . . . . . . An einen Mund, dem es ein Tausendwort war, verlor— verlor ich ein Wort, das mir verblieben war: Schwester. (Celan 1996: 28‐29)
In the situation of “The Sluice” there is no transcendent heaven‐ ly plane, “no / second heaven.” According to Jürgen Lehmann’s commentary on the poem, this could also be a denial of tran‐ scendence altogether (Lehmann and Ivanovic 1997: 249). In the first place, it is crucial that Schleuse has two meanings in Ger‐ man. It is used for a sluice through which boats pass between water levels and, second, to indicate a waterfront construction that separates salt water from fresh water. Thus, it paradox‐ ically refers simultaneously to going through and a barrier. This ambiguity also characterizes one possible view of transcen‐ dence, opened by the broken line.
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Following Anja Lemke’s reading, the broken line between the stanzas makes the void between the lines visible, and “transfers silence into the interior of the poem, as a kind of speechless gap in its body” (Lemke 2004: 4). But this is a void with significance: the title included, there are ten words before the ten dots in the final version of the poem. Furthermore, the dots resemble tiny holes that underline the motif of the passage to which the title alludes. This passage, as “sluice,” leads ulti‐ mately beyond the page, and goes through it. As Celan put it in the Bremen speech, the idea of poetry is not to transcend but to traverse time (“es sucht, durch die Zeit hindurchzugreifen— durch sie hidurch, nicht über sie hinweg,” GW III: 186). The broken line, going through the (un)written, does not cling to a vertical or horizontal axis but opens up a depth di‐ mension. This “impossible dimension” of transcendence grants the poem an illusion of depth perception. Celan’s radical ellip‐ sis shows that although there is no second heaven, the unwrit‐ ten space is a vertiginous abyss of visible darkness. In this sense Celan confronts the dilemma of many visual artists: how to ex‐ press depth on a flat surface. All these aspects considered, the dots do not refer to the void between the stanzas but through the page, beyond the writing itself. This is a radical ellipsis, a delayed erasure of the whole stanza as the Tübinger edition (Celan 1996) of the poem reveals.3 The non‐saying is marked by non‐linguistic means, and this marking goes beyond the said. The ellipsis is revisited in the next stanza (“verlor—”) as the dash marks the place of erasure, ellipsis as “forgetting the word.” Obviously, the transcending and transgressive dimension of language has its material basis, but in Celan’s poem the tran‐ scendence (“second heaven”) itself collapses into the material signs. If the “god of poem” was written with an ellipsis, this is an example of how Celan writes transcendence that is within immanence. The elliptical use of language posits a place of tran‐ scendence as the page is pierced with the ten dots. Perhaps this This only appears in the critical editions. For instance, in the standard edition Celan 1983 there are 14 points in total, which does not match any of the three versions of the poem. 3
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is also a negation of the first stanza: as the sluice gate is opened, water is allowed to flood and let through. The Otherworld as the Other’s World There are also other means by which transgressing as transcen‐ dence is thematized in Celan’s poems. Celan refers to another mystical motif, namely ecstasy, as a means of transgressing, in his fragment of Meridian speech: “the poem as ecstasy: winning the world as abandoning the world; annihilation [Entwerden] (Celan 1999: 130). Especially in a pre‐modern sense, ek‐stasis is a mystical topos, etymologically the “step outside,” in which the mystic loses her identity. The word “Entwerden” comes, pre‐ sumably, again from Eckhart in the meaning of unbecoming and the loss of the self. (See especially the Latin sermon 109, “Nolite timere eos, qui occidunt corpus,” in Walsher.) Another Meridian fragment illustrates that the “step” of the poem is actually taken towards language, not beyond it (Celan 1999: 104). Again, Celan’s sources in this regard were multiple, as he also knew the meaning of the word ek‐stasis from Hei‐ degger’s writing (see Lyon 2006: 31). The ekstasis of the poem thus pierces language, and transcends it as “throughness.” In several of Celan’s poems transcendence is thematized as going out of or behind (hinaus or hinter) the world. Two examples fol‐ low. WITH ALL MY THOUGHTS I went out of the world: and there you were, you my quiet, my open one, and – you received us. (Transl. in Celan 2002: 145) MIT ALLEN GEDANKEN ging ich hinaus aus der Welt: da warst du, du meine Leise, du meine Offne, und – du empfingst uns. (GW I: 221) I PILOT YOU behind the world, there you are by yourself, unseen, airy the starlings gauge the death,
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the reed beckons the stone away, you have everything for this evening. ICH LOTSE DICH hinter die Welt, da bist du bei dir, unbeirrbar, heiter vermessen die Stare den Tod, das Schilf winkt dem Stein ab, du hast alles für heut abend. (GW III: 89)
In both poems beyond the world is a place, and it is also a place of encounter with “you.” Hence, the passage to transcendence does not mean a unio mystica, but especially in “I Pilot You” there is nothing to distinguish it from “the world” or the plane of immanence. In “With All My Thoughts” the “setting free” is not an ek‐stasis in the original mystical sense: not a step outside the world, but a step towards some other. The paradoxical logic also goes for the “you” of the poem as a fragment intended for the Meridian: “the You of the poem = (infinitely) close and infin‐ itely distant (spatially and temporally)” (Celan 1999: 142). The Celanian otherworld is thus the world of the other, constructed by means of paradox. If the ekstasis “conquers a world by abandoning it,” the world conquered is not a heaven above but, paradoxically, the same and the only world, which is seen in a new light. The same goes for the following poem from the Zeitgehöft: A RING, FOR BOWDRAWING, loosed after the wordswarm that founders behind the world with the starlings, Arrowy one, when you whir toward me, I know from where, I forget from where. (Transl. in Celan 2005b: 138)
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POETICS OF TRANSCENDENCE EIN RING, ZUM BOGENSPANNEN, nachgeschickt einem Wortschwarm, der wegstürzt hinter die Welt, mit den Staren, Pfeilige, wenn du mir zuschwirrst, weiß ich, woher, vergeß ich, woher. (GW III: 99)
As in “I pilot you” the starlings appear as guides between the planes and as in “Under a Picture,” the motif of the arrow is mentioned. The place of transcendence is addressed by a ques‐ tion (where), which is first known and then forgotten. The gap between the stanzas can be read as a representation of this place, an elliptical place in‐between “after the swarm of words.” Like the “god of the ellipsis,” transcendence is again written not with an outright linguistic negation but by using the materiality of the poem, by (non‐)writing between the lines. Thus, transcen‐ dence of writing remains within and through language, not beyond or above it. Interestingly all the motifs and themes discussed are drawn together in the alternative ending for the Meridian, the so‐called “B‐Rede.” In the passage the motif of the “through‐ stepping” conjoins with the paradoxical view of transcendence: The distance, the through‐stepped, which turns back from the endless, from the farthest‐flung turns back to here, infin‐ ite‐finite, the infinity‐pronouncing mortality and pointless‐ ness: self‐encounter. Die Distantz, das Durchschrittene, das aus dem Unendlich‐ en Züruckkehrende, vom Fernsten her zurückkehrende, Unendlich‐Endliche, das Unendlichgesprochene Sterblich‐ keit und Umsonst—: Selbstbegegnung. (Celan 1999: 291)
The word Durchschrittene is close to Durchschreiben, “through‐ written,” manifest in the passage by the four dashes after “pointlessness” (Umsonst). (“Pointlessness” is only one possible translation as Hill [2005] discusses.) Nevertheless, something is left unsaid, but this unsaid has left its mark and trace as in “The Sluice.” But “the through‐stepped” (Durchschrittene) is also the
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meridian, Celan’s poetic emblem, that travels through time and space. The crossing of the meridian happens at the same time in the level of text and the tropics of the globe. Simultaneously endless and finite, it is immanent and yet transcendent. As im‐ manent‐transcendent, it corresponds with Celan’s poetics of transcendence, which dwells in the written word and in en‐ counter. The ek‐stasis of the meridian is not an exit beyond the world: transgressing the transcendence takes place inside and outside the poetic language. And, what is more, it leads to an encounter, with myself as the other, following a paradox pre‐ sented in the posthumously published poem “Live the Life”: “I am an other, I am no other” (Celan 2005a: 540). Otto Pöggeler claims that “if there are mystical elements in Ce‐ lan’s poetry, they serve as an orientation beyond the usual vi‐ sion” (1994: 98‐99). Conversely, it could be argued that Celan’s poetry is for the most part filled with unusual modes of vision and perception. Rather than approaching the beyond of the u‐ sual vision, the mystical elements are an organic part of the on‐ tological fabric Celan weaves into his poetry. Transcendence as an ellipsis is not a vertical abyss but the unseen depths are written on the surface and between the lines by means of elliptical use of language. Hence, Celan does not reject or affirm the possibility of transcendence in his poems. In‐ stead, it is a shadow of his language. If Celan’s transcendence is characterized as “throughness,” it is no more a plane of its own, but a matter of time, if not time itself, manifest as the meridian. Celan’s mystical allusions are both Christian and Jewish in origin, but this is not mere syncretic mysticism. Celan’s poetry reaches far beyond the dichotomy of transcendence/immanence. His poetry is neither religious nor atheist, but he uses patterns of thought from different mystical traditions and develops them both towards ad absurdum: creation myths and astrophysics join in the names of Eckhart the Mystic and Armstrong the Astro‐ naut. In Celan’s poetry the place of transcendence is sought not in spiritual contemplation but amongst tumors, pores, and the depths of a non‐human iris. Celan’s transcendence of “through‐ ness” does not reflect religious theories or philosophical theses on transcendence as such but poses radical questions on a poetic basis. Hence, it is not necessary to determine whether
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Celan was a mystic or a counter‐mystic: according to the logic of paradox he was both both‐and and neither‐nor. It seems evident that Celan’s poetics opposes plain imma‐ nence as the mere positivity of worldly phenomena, which are to be taken as such or derived from a transcendent source. On the other hand, his poetry resists classical formulations of tran‐ scendence both religious and philosophical; poetry creates an ontological stance of its own, which is double‐binded with the post‐Nietzschean and post‐secular condition. Celan’s “third position” as a mystic without mysticism is not an answer but more like an open question that posits transcendence within immanence, ellipsis, and encounter. Bibliography Celan, Paul. (2005a). Mikrolithen sinds, Steinchen: Die Prosa aus dem Nachlass. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Verlag. (2005b). Selections. Ed./transl. by Pierre Joris. London: University of California Press. (2004). La bibliothèque philosophique / Die philosophische Bibliothek : Catalogue raisonné des annotations établi. Ed. by Alexandra Richter, Patrik Alac, Bertrand Badiou. Paris: Éditions Rue d’Ulm. (2002). Poems of Paul Celan: Revised & Expanded. Transl. Michael Hamburger. New York: Persea. (1999). Der Meridian: Endfassung, Vorstufen, Materialien. Ed. by Bernhard Boschenstein and Heino Schmull. Tübinger Edition. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Verlag. (1996). Niemandsrose: Tübinger Ausgabe. Ed. by Jürgen Wertheim‐ er et al. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Verlag. (1983). Gesammelte Werke in Fünf Banden. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Verlag. [Cited as GW I‐V]. (1989). Last Poems. Transl. by Katharine Washburn and Margret Guillemin. San Francisco: North Point Press. Chamarette, Jenny. (2007). “Flesh, Folds and Texturality: Thinking Visual Ellipsis via Merleau‐Ponty, Hélène Cixous and Robert Frank.” Paragraph 30/2: 34‐49. Felstiner, John. (2001). Paul Celan: Poet, Survivor, Jew. New Haven: Yale University Press. Golb, Joel David. (1986). Celan and Hölderlin: An Essay in the Problem of Tradition. PhD Dissertation. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
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Günzel, Elke. (1995). Das wandernde Zitat: Paul Celan im jüdischen Kon‐ text. Würzburg: Königshausen und Neumann. Hawkins, Beth. (2003). Reluctant Theologians: Franz Kafka, Paul Celan, Edmond Jabès. New York: Fordham University Press. Heidegger, Martin. (2007). Pathmarks. Transl. William A. McNeill. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hill, Leslie. (2005).“‘Distrust of Poetry’: Levinas, Blanchot, Celan.” MLN 120: 986‐1008. Idel, Moshe. (2006). “White Letters: From R. Levi Isaac of Berditchev’s Views to Postmodern Hermeneutics.” Modern Judaism 26/2: 169‐ 92. Lacoue‐Labarthe, Philippe. (1999). Poetry as Experience. Transl. Andrea Tarnowski. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Lehmann, Jürgen, and Christine Ivanovic. (1997). Kommentar zu Paul Celans “Die Niemandsrose.” Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Win‐ ter. Lemke, Anja. (2004). “How to Speak? Non‐Semantic Representation of the Shoah in the Writings of Paul Celan.” In: TRN‐Newsletter 2. Frankfurt am Main: Hamburg Institute for Social Research. pub‐ likationen.ub.uni‐frankfurt.de/files/6006/lemke.pdf Levinas, Emmanuel. (1996). Proper Names. Transl. Michael B. Smith. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Lyon, James K. (2006). Paul Celan and Martin Heidegger: An Unresolved Conversation, 1951‐1970. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. May, Markus, Jürgen Lehmann, and Peter Gossens. (2008). Celan‐hand‐ buch: Leben, Werk, Wirkung. Stuttgart: Verlag J. B.Metzler. OED Online. Oxford University Press. http://dictionary.oed.com. Pöggeler, Otto. (1994). “Mystical Elements in Heidegger’s Thought and Celan’s Poetry.” In: Aris Fioretos (ed.). Word Traces. Balti‐ more: Johns Hopkins University Press. Scholem, Gershom. (1995). Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism. New York: Schocken Books. Schulze, Joachim. (1983). Celan und die Mystiker: Motivtypologische und quellenkundliche Kommentare. Bonn: Bouvier Verlag. Schwartz, Regina. (2004). Transcendence: Philosophy, Literature, and The‐ ology Approach the Beyond. London: Taylor & Francis. Tobias, Rochelle. (2006). Discourse of Nature in the Poetry of Paul Celan: The Unnatural World. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
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Wolosky, Shira. (1995). Language Mysticism: The Negative Way of Lan‐ guage in Eliot, Beckett, and Celan. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Transcribing Desire Mystical Theology in Dennis Cooper’s The Sluts Kent L. Brintnall Abstract Relying on Georges Bataille’s conception of poetry and eroticism as struc‐ turally equivalent limit experiences, this essay discusses the ways in which the formal dimensions of the mystical writings of Pseudo‐Dionysius and the pornographic texts of Dennis Cooper bear marked similarities, thus leading to similar affective experiences for their readers. Drawing on Bataille’s subject‐ rendering sacrificial ethic, the essay highlights the political and ethical poten‐ tialities of this use of language to evoke and frustrate desire.
Introduction Transcendence entraps language. Donning the apparel of seem‐ ingly innocent nouns, transcendent objects, entities, experiences and states of awareness solicit language’s desire to clarify and explain.1 “God,” of course, has the longest record of such beha‐ vior. Much ink has been spilt, and much energy spent, in at‐ tempts to explain how God is the Creator but not a creature, the Cause of all but outside time, the source of Being but not a be‐ ing, and not a thing but not nothing either. As its source and goal, God exceeds the created order, including its linguistic and conceptual frameworks. Insofar as the metaphysical presuppo‐ sitions of this example offend contemporary materialist sensi‐ I am troubled by the word “noun” in this sentence. To describe something as ungraspable and slippery as transcendence with a word that implies boundedness and thingness seems inappropriate. But, grammatically, “transcendence” is a noun—even if it might be more useful to think of it as more akin to a verb or an adjective. The move from transcendence—as a quality or idea—to the transcendent—as an object or experience—is similarly troubling. The essay as a whole, as well as my invocation here of experience and awareness, will, I hope, serve as the unsaying of the troubling associations of this opening gambit. 1
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bilities, “ecstasy” can be brought in as a suspect. Understood as supra‐immanence, rather than radical alterity, ecstasy results from intensification of ordinary experience. Due to its intensity, ecstasy—however briefly and whatever its cause—disrupts nor‐ mal conceptions of time, space, self and other. Once again, lin‐ guistic and conceptual frameworks falter. Language pursues transcendence. Placing confidence in ever‐increasing conceptual sophistication, it hopes to capture that which necessarily exceeds its capacity. When striving to name the transcendent, language simultaneously, and inevita‐ bly, reveals its limitations, often testifying explicitly that it relies too heavily on metaphor, just misses the mark, cannot quite tell the full story. By confessing one kind of inadequacy, language unwittingly reveals additional crimes: after all, “‘ecstasy’ ex‐ ceeds language” is a meaningful, comprehensible description of a key feature of ecstasy—namely, the inability to meaningfully and comprehensibly describe it. In naming its limitations, lan‐ guage implicates itself in contradiction. To avoid the appear‐ ance of impropriety, language must disclose both its inadequa‐ cies as well as its inability to specify their precise character. (To understand exactly how language fails to name God, after all, one needs an adequate conception of God as a standard of mea‐ surement.) In this context, silence is not a sign of humility but of hubris: language’s attempt to exonerate itself. By giving up its right to remain silent, language’s perpetual faltering can be used against it. With a certain kind of prolixity, however, lan‐ guage demonstrates its mutism. Through paradox, oxymoron, and irony, language establishes its innocence. By constantly striving, and failing, to adequately name “God” or “ecstasy,” language undermines confidence in knowing them, possessing them, controlling them. (Silence, in this context, reassures.) Through performative self‐indictment, language (re)produces mimetically what it is unable to name discursively. With this pursuit of transcendence’s incomprehensible ex‐ cess, through its articulation of transcendence’s unsayability, language entices. When grasping for a meaning always just out of language’s reach, the reader or auditor pursues the trail left by its strivings but is able to track only the fracture of meaning transcendence exacts. But precisely through this experience of language’s collapse, (something akin to) transcendence is made
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present, however fleetingly and inadequately. Language’s ina‐ bility to name transcendence is the root of its capacity to pro‐ duce it.2 Function of Language Pseudo‐Dionysius opens his short treatise Mystical Theology with a prayer to the Trinity.3 Invoking the Godhead with its most inscrutable appellation, he prays that Christians be led to “the farthest, highest peak ... where the mysteries of God’s Word lie simple” (Pseudo‐Dionysius 1987b, 135; hereinafter MT). Consisting of a “hidden silence” resting in a “brilliant darkness,” this Word’s mysteries fill “sightless minds” with “wholly unsensed and unseen ... treasures beyond all beauty” (MT 135). The prayer’s images are overwhelmingly oxymor‐ onic—a silent word, a hidden revelation, a darkened brilliance, an unseen illumination, an invisible beauty. The prayer draws on competing metaphoric frames: spatial, sensory, and concep‐ tual languages are promiscuously mingled. And the prayer cancels itself: addressed to something beyond being, divinity, and goodness, it undermines confidence that its supplications will be answered. The prayer is a fitting prelude. Just as he beseeches the Trinity to lead “Christians ... beyond unknowing and light,” Pseudo‐Dionysius advises his friend Timothy to both “strive upward” (MT 135) and “plunge into darkness” (MT 136). The One who dwells in this darkness “above light ... has neither shape nor form, quality, quantity, or weight” (MT 138, 140‐41). Its hidden beauty (is beauty not a quality?) can be seen only by those who lack vision and known only by those who lack com‐ prehension because, although likened to a statue uncovered by the sculptor’s patient chipping away, the One “is neither per‐ ceived nor ... perceptible” (MT 138, 141). It evades not only the senses, but also exceeds language and thought. “There is no 2 This account depends on ideas found in Sells 1994 and Turner 1995a. See also Budick and Iser 1989; Franke 2007; Wolosky 1995.
On Pseudo‐Dionysius generally, see Carrabine 1995; Coakley and Stang 2009; Gersh 1978; Louth 1989; Rorem 1993. 3
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speaking of it, nor name nor knowledge of it.... It is beyond as‐ sertion and denial” (MT 141). Although the One can neither be spoken of nor named, this does not prevent Pseudo‐Dionysius from devoting a much leng‐ thier treatise to “an explication” of its names and their relative adequacy, in which he affirms and denies various statements about the Cause of all things (Pseudo‐Dionysius 1987b: 49; hereinafter DN). Divine Names, however, never establishes ap‐ proved vocabulary for speaking about God nor endorses accep‐ table concepts for thinking about God. Instead, it shows the ap‐ plicability of all language—even the most bizarre—and the in‐ adequacy of all concepts—even the most familiar. Because God is the cause of all things, everything reveals some truth about God. Thus, God can be named as a solid rock, a living stream, a raging storm. But God can also be called a seaworthy ship, a mighty lion, a belligerent drunkard. Because God transcends cre‐ ation, nothing reveals the ultimate truth about God—therefore, appealing to creation can be misleading. Speaking of God’s hands implies a body; speaking of God’s love implies a quality; speaking of God’s maternal wisdom or paternal care implies gender. Of [God] there is conception, reason, understanding, touch, perception, opinion, imagination, name, and many other things. On the other hand he cannot be understood, words cannot contain him, and no name can lay hold of him .... He is all things in all things and he is not a thing among things.... This is the sort of language we must use about God .... [For] the most divine knowledge of God ... comes through unknowing. (DN 109)
Beyond assertion and denial. Words cannot contain. Names cannot lay hold. The sort of language we must use. So that knowledge may come from unknowing. Pseudo‐Dionysius is obsessed with language. He speaks incessantly—and paradoxically—to show the vanity of speaking at all. He relies on contradiction, para‐ dox, oxymoron, absurdity to create a shock of recognition about language’s limitations. But his texts perform a linguistic bait‐ and‐switch. The texts considered here open, respectively, with the promise of “advice” and “explication” (MT 135; DN 49). They comprise descriptive phrases, declarative sentences and
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analytic prose. But the adjectives and nouns often do not fit together, almost every predication of the subject “God” is subsequently negated, and the ultimate conclusion is that the One about whom knowledge and understanding is sought is beyond available analytic categories. Pseudo‐Dionysius’ linguistic performance, while undoubt‐ edly intended as a tantalizing lure, is not a trap set with malice aforethought. Nor is he obsessed with language for language’s sake. In Mystical Theology, he states that when one lays aside un‐ derstanding, one can experience “union with him who is be‐ yond all being and knowledge” (MT 135). Similarly, in Divine Names, he claims that when we approach God “in a manner sur‐ passing speech and knowledge, we reach a union superior to anything available to us by way of our own abilities or activi‐ ties” (DN 49): “an undivided and absolute abandonment of yourself and everything, shedding all and freed from all” (MT 135), in which “the lover belongs not to the self but to the belov‐ ed” (DN 82).4 If Pseudo‐Dionysius’ friend Timothy is drawn up to the One by the One (for union is never obtained through the seeker’s actions and abilities alone), his categories for under‐ standing his position in and orientation to the world will be radically disrupted, if not completely dissolved. The texts open and proceed as if they will answer a question, but the answer is always put off—as author‐sculptor, Pseudo‐Dionysius removes more and more stone. The conclusion of each text, however, gestures somewhere else: the “answer” is an enigma. The sculp‐ tor creates only empty space and a pile of rubble, not a statue.5 The text’s promise of an answer, a resolution, predication—and, especially, the character of the language that makes that pro‐ Given the terms of Pseudo‐Dionysius’ description, I disagree with Denys Turner’s insistence that one read mystical union in a way that emphasizes continuing differentiation. See Turner 1995b: 58‐64. 4
Given Pseudo‐Dionysius’ invocation of the metaphor of a sculptor in a text that points to the nature of God but remains enigma‐ tic, I cannot help but think of Roland Barthes’ reading of Balzac’s “Sar‐ rasine” in S/Z, and its alignment of the emptiness of castration and the hollowness of a statue, its privileging of the “hermeneutic code” that promises to answer the question posed by the text, and its analysis of the text that always remains pensive. 5
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mise—propels readers forward as they strive to unravel the text’s mystery. This technique could be characterized as prepar‐ atory: by reading, one will be ready for a union with God that occurs after or outside the text. It can also be understood as per‐ formative: by reading, one will have the kind of disruptive, be‐ wildering, meaning‐shattering experience that the text names as “union with God.” Pseudo‐Dionysius neither advises nor expli‐ cates, but rather offers an experience. God might be beyond lan‐ guage, but God is intimately bound up in these texts’ linguistic performance. At a minimum, the experience of unknowing that Pseudo‐Dionysius advocates is facilitated by a textual perform‐ ance that abandons language’s discursive function for one that evokes desire by perpetually (un)veiling its cause. Dennis Cooper’s novel The Sluts (2004) exemplifies the thematic and stylistic features of his larger body of work.6 His novels contain narratives about the obsessive, excessive, and frustrated desire to grasp and know the object of erotic fascination. They typically feature a drug‐addled, emotionally troubled, sexually confused, self‐destructive teenage boy as the desired object and a sadistic, pedophilic, and necrophilic adult male as the desir‐ ing subject. Circling around a small collection of themes—ho‐ moerotic desire, youth culture, urban malaise, drug use, and vi‐ olent sex—Cooper’s novels also share marked formal similari‐ ties. Obsessed with impediments to authentic relations between people, they highlight how language facilitates and frustrates such connections. Cooper’s characters—due to age, inebriation, or trauma—are both loquacious and inarticulate, with little ca‐ pacity for self‐reflection. At the same time, they demonstrate a fascination with language: they are authors, journalists, diarists, denizens of on‐line chatrooms. The terse prose, that so perfectly captures urban teenage dialect, destroys the fantasy of pro‐ found depth with banal verbiage. The novels typically contain multiple narrative voices and unfold on multiple experiential planes. Mixing past and present, fantasy and reality, dreaming and waking states with dubious narrators, they force the reader On Cooper generally, see Canning 2000; Gambone 1999; He‐ garty and Kennedy 2008; Jackson 1993; Lev 2006. See also http:// denniscooper‐theweaklings.blogspot.com. 6
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to make decisions about reliable information. This alters the stakes regarding Cooper’s depiction of violent, pedophilic, ne‐ crophilic behavior. Is it all just a fantasy? What does it mean to parse fact and fiction in a novel? And what does it mean if the reader feels cheated or angry when the (horrific) events depict‐ ed turn out to be “untrue”? The Sluts tells of a community of men fascinated with a young, male escort. Like so many of Cooper’s ephebic beauties, Brad is desired not only for his face and ass but also for his des‐ peration, confusion, physical and mental fragility—and, most especially, for his longing to be murdered during sex. The Sluts reveals the ways language fosters and frustrates desire. Its first and last chapters comprise on‐line escort reviews. Each offers a statistical overview and brief narrative. In the first chapter, the escort’s height varies by six inches and his weight by 30 pounds; his eye color changes from blue to green to hazel. Con‐ sistent with these anomalies, the vignettes characterize “Brad” as annoyingly talkative or eerily taciturn, actively enjoying sex or remaining utterly passive, having various physical problems or appearing quite robust. As reviews accumulate, he is killed by one of his johns and his death‐wish is revealed to be a ruse to generate celebrity status and higher fees. Rather than dispell‐ ing interest, or being taken as evidence that the reviewers are discussing different boys, variations and inconsistencies height‐ en desire to know the “real” Brad behind the mystifications and misunderstandings. In the middle chapter, an on‐line discussion board devoted to uncovering the truth about Brad, various characters contri‐ bute what they know—or think they know. These reports can‐ not settle matters because there is nothing outside the discourse against which they can be measured. Because there is no au‐ thoritative voice among the chorus—even the Webmaster’s in‐ terventions are only so many feeble attempts to establish facts— the characters, and the reader, must sift evidence and venture their own opinions about reality. As Timothy Baker observes, The Sluts challenges typical understandings of how one verifies knowledge: each individual relies on their personal experience, but when it is challenged by another person’s experience, the community can neither verify nor falsify, it can only under‐ mine. With this challenge to individual experiences, experience
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itself is called into question—at both the individual and com‐ munal level (Baker 2008: 57‐66). The inability to name, combin‐ ed with the overwhelming desire to name, undermines lan‐ guage’s capacities, revs up language’s production, and intensi‐ fies desire’s hold. The final chapter narrates Brad’s return to escorting. E‐ vents recounted in reviews become increasingly violent and de‐ structive; Brad’s body is destroyed bit by bit. The final review is a matter‐of‐fact confession of hating young, cute boys one can never have, expressing that anger by murdering Brad, dumping Brad’s body, and killing Brad’s pimp. But attached as a coda is a note from Brad’s pimp, Zack Young, confessing that this se‐ cond coming was a lie, the work of Zack and an impostor, and that half of the second round of reviews had been written by Zack. As a “great liar,” Zack was able to write “fake reviews” that seemed “plausible”; he valiantly attempted to “make up a better ending than whatever would have happened anyway.” Eventually, however, “it just became impossible to satisfy ev‐ eryone and create the perfect death at the same time.” Accord‐ ing to the Webmaster’s commentary, this inability to match de‐ sire to story may have led to Zack’s suicide. In his concluding paragraph (the last of the novel), Zack asks the Webmaster to keep his confession private so that people reading the (fake) re‐ views “will feel like they got what they wanted even if they aren’t happy about how it played out” (261). Structured by in‐ satiable desire—for Brad, for violent sex, for discerning fact and fiction, for complete possession of the erotic object, for extreme fantasy, for truth—The Sluts culminates in a confession of lan‐ guage’s capacity, and failure, to answer that desire, to keep it alive. In Inner Experience Georges Bataille wrote: “Of poetry, I will now say that it is, I believe, the sacrifice in which words are vic‐ tims” (1988: 135). Should words such as horse or butter enter into a poem, they do so detached from interested concerns. For as many times as the words butter, horse are put to practical ends, the use which poetry makes of them liberates human life from these ends. When the farm girl says butter or the stable boy says horse, they know butter, horse. The knowledge which they
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have of them in a sense even exhausts the idea of knowing, for they can make butter or lead a horse at will .... On the contrary, poetry leads the known to the unknown. It can do what neither the boy nor the girl can do: introduce the idea of a butter horse. It places one, in this way, before the un‐ knowable. No doubt I have barely enunciated the words when the familiar images of horses and of butter present themselves, but they are solicited in order to die. (135‐36)
Words (butter, horse) can serve the instrumental, utilitarian ends of productive labor. Armed with words, the subject seizes the world as a collection of distinct objects; relying on words, the subject furthers its goals and accomplishes its plans. These words foster objectification and the alienation of human beings from each other and their world. But words (butter, horse) can be detached from work, rationality, knowledge and understanding so that they generate different experiences and awareness. In poetry, words gain the power to open eyes .... [They] become … imbued with possibilities that are independent of the meaning of terms, a rhythm which can be raucous or pleasant at will.... And this rhythm ... leads us to use words ... as if they were no longer intelligible signs but cries, which one could modulate at length and in diverse ways. (Bataille 1994: 137)
This interruption of day‐to‐day, ordinary, profane reality justi‐ fies Bataille’s alignment of poetry and sacrifice. Sacrificial ritual blurs the boundary between on‐looker and immolated; poetic expression confuses regnant conceptual distinctions. In both cases, “distinct subjects and objects no longer exist” (Bataille 1994: 150). Bataille begins Inner Experience with a question about pow‐ er: “To ask oneself before another: by what means does he calm within himself the desire to be everything” (xxxii)? Poetry is one of the means. Thus, poetry is one subject of the book. A book written “for one, who, entering into [it], would fall into it as into a hole, who would never again get out” (116). Ap‐ proaching poetry as a poet, Bataille gives his reader access to the unknowable sacred.
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The Character of Desire Pseudo‐Dionysius invokes the language of desire without hesi‐ tation. “All things long for” the One; “it is there at the center of everything and everything has it for a destiny” (DN 54). It is the great creating cause ... which holds all things in ex‐ istence by the longing inside them to have beauty. And there it is ahead of all as Goal, as the Beloved, as the Cause toward which all things move, since it is the longing for beauty which actually brings them into being. (DN 77)
Desire is not only a characteristic of created beings that causes them to move toward the One; it is also a feature of existence that creates and sustains them (DN 75). Yearning has a similar relation to the One itself. God is both yearning and the yearned‐ for: God “causes, produces and generates” yearning and “he is the thing itself. He is stirred by it and he stirs it. He is moved to it and he moves it” (DN 82). While “all things ... yearn for ... the Beautiful and the Good …,” the Beautiful and the Good “pre‐ exist in [yearning], and because of it they exist and come to be” (DN 79, 82). Although he cautions his reader to abandon tra‐ ditional concepts of temporality and causality when thinking about the One, and although he makes it clear that yearning is a creation and possession of the One, Pseudo‐Dionysius also (inadvertently?) suggests that yearning, in some sense, calls in‐ to being and influences the Beautiful, the Good, the One. He ar‐ gues that the One’s yearning for creation “enticed [him] away from his transcendent dwelling place ... to abide within all things” (DN 82). Again, while cautioning against a literal read‐ ing (“He is, as it were, beguiled ... by yearning” (DN 82; em‐ phasis added)), and pointing out that, even when lured from transcendence to immanence, the One has a “supernatural and ecstatic capacity to remain, nevertheless, within himself” (DN 82), Pseudo‐Dionysius implies that yearning compels both crea‐ ture and Creator. This is consistent with his characterization of the Beautiful and the Good as “the source of all which tran‐ scends every source ... an ending which transcends completion” (DN 79). If they are causes that transcend causation, and end‐ points that transcend culmination—and if yearning, in some way, exceeds them—then yearning, in some way, transcends transcendence.
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While the relation between yearning and the One is murky, the significance of yearning is not. For Pseudo‐Dionysius, the language of yearning (eros) is as, if not more, appropriate than the language of love (agape) for naming the relation between the One and the created order (DN 79‐82). He appeals both to scrip‐ ture and tradition to justify his terminological preference (DN 80‐81) and admonishes that “it would be unreasonable and silly to look at words rather than at the power of the meanings” (DN 80). And what is the meaning of eros? It signifies “a capacity to effect unity, an alliance, and a particular commingling in the Beautiful and the Good. ... [It] brings ecstasy so that the lover belongs not to the self but to the beloved” (DN 81‐82). Objec‐ tions to such language stem from a tendency to confuse “true” yearning with the “partial, physical, and divided yearning ... [that is] an empty image or, rather, a lapse from real yearning” (DN 81). But how do we draw the distinction? Most straightfor‐ wardly, yearning for the Beautiful, the Good, the One—that is, God—should be understood as true and yearning for anything else as false. This only raises another question: what does it mean to yearn for God? If God can appropriately bear any name as the Cause of all, then why would yearning for some part of that all not also be a yearning for God? Perhaps, though, yearning for God through creation is what renders it partial and divided; perhaps only yearning for God per se is authentic. Giv‐ en that we cannot know, understand, perceive, or experience God in God’s fullness, would not all (human) yearning necessar‐ ily be partial (and thus false)? Or, is there any such thing as gen‐ uine human yearning? Is there only one eros—the eros that flows out of the One, through creation, and desperately seeks to re‐ unite with its origin and goal? After all, “the divine longing is Good seeking good for the sake of the Good” (DN 79). But if this is the case, then why describe any yearning as partial, phys‐ ical and divided? And if it is not the case, what is the source of this other, partial yearning? Is yearning empty or fully based on its object? If so, God becomes an object as the object of “real” yearning. Does yearning retain or lose its authenticity in refer‐ ence to its subject? If so, God becomes a subject possessing the quality of authentic desire. Or is the distinction between empty and full desire to be found in the character of desire itself? De‐
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sire that unifies, aligns, respects appropriate hierarchies, and delivers the self to the beloved is full; any other kind is empty (DN 81‐82). While this provides a standard to distinguish a‐ mong forms of desire, it leaves open the question whether “pro‐ fane” eros—the kind that justifies objections to the word—has this character. Pseudo‐Dionysius’ asserted, but unexplained, distinction between “true” and “empty” yearning does not fit easily with his other claims about God, God’s relation to creation, God’s re‐ lation to human categories of understanding, and God’s rela‐ tion to yearning itself. Losing this distinction allows us (re‐ quires us?) to posit a primary yearning that moves through both the Cause of all and the created order, preceding and ex‐ ceeding the One, but this yearning would need to be acknowl‐ edged in all its guises insofar as it does the work of generating an ecstatic rupture of the typical relation between self, other and world. The Sluts most likely bears such strong similarity to Cooper’s larger body of work because he began writing it while working on the five novels comprising his George Miles cycle and ori‐ ginally intended to include it in that cycle (Kennedy 2008: 192, 195‐96; Lev 2005: 10). The Miles novels—Closer, Frisk, Try, Guide and Period—represent the author’s attempt to make sense of his erotic obsession with a friend’s younger brother. Miles was, ac‐ cording to Cooper, an emotionally unstable drug user: Cooper was his friend, care‐taker, and—for a brief time, when both were of age—lover. After losing touch with Miles, Cooper began writing the homoerotic, “lost boy” novels with the hope that his estranged friend would read them. Unbeknownst to Cooper when he was writing the first novel, Miles had already committed suicide. The George Miles cycle, then, is an unde‐ livered, undeliverable love letter (Canning 2000: 311; Glück 2006: 243‐45; Lucas 2010). Each novel in the Miles cycle, like The Sluts, features a char‐ acter who generates obsessive, violent desire for other charac‐ ters in the novel; each novel, including The Sluts, meditates on the impossibility of satisfying this (any?) desire. In Cooper’s novels, especially Frisk and The Sluts, desire is violent. But in his novels, sexual violence is born not of hatred but rather of an in‐
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tense longing to know the other—to know the other intimately, inside and out. By rending the other, opening and inspecting the other, the desiring subject hopes to gain understanding. As various characters in The Sluts make clear, the desire to have sex with Brad, to murder him, and to know him are confusingly in‐ distinguishable. Because language fails to provide adequate and reliable access to the object of desire, the body’s materiality is pursued instead. But the body—dead or alive—is mute: its cues must be read, its speech must be interpreted, its prolif‐ erating articulations remain, in the final analysis, indecipher‐ able. As reviewers throughout the novel speak for Brad claim‐ ing that he seemed to enjoy (or not) what was done to him, and as various commentators using the name Brad contribute un‐ certainties and confusions about events and the narratives a‐ round them, it becomes clear that the desire to know and un‐ derstand is undercut by desire itself. At the same time, as the book’s final chapter suggests, de‐ sire produces its own verification. This second round of reviews comment on Brad’s reappearance and his offer, for the right price, to “sell pieces of his death” (243). One john breaks his legs and rapes him; another castrates him and force‐feeds him the excised testicles during their sexual encounter. Both try vali‐ antly to describe their experience but concede that language fails. Neither sought out Brad for sex, neither expressed interest in Brad—each sought an experience, not a person. But it is not only excessively violent desire that produces ecstatic rapture. Two other reviewers wax rhapsodic about the extreme and ulti‐ mately indescribable pleasure derived from very tame sexual acts that were enhanced because experienced with Brad. These reviewers sought a person, not an experience. When Brad’s de‐ ception is revealed, however, the objective ground of their ec‐ stasy is dissolved. Taken together, these vignettes show that the ekstasis that exceeds language requires neither an experience with a unique character nor an object with specific properties, but rather a desire of a particular kind: for these johns, desire alone conjures the ineffable. Other vignettes seem to suggest that desire and reality need to match up. Upon learning about the ruse, a john who beat Brad within an inch of his life submits a review expressing his anger and ethical uncertainty. After detailing how he
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punched the boy’s face “until his nose and front teeth broke, his lips and right eyebrow split open, and cuts opened on his cheeks and forehead,” and reporting that he beat him until “Zack Young stopped me for fear that I would accidentally kill the boy,” he writes that what “was supposed to be the greatest moment of my life and the worst moment of Brad’s” was un‐ done by the fact that the assault victim was not Brad. I would never have done that to someone I didn’t even know. I’m not interested in assisting the suicide of some cancer victim. I don’t know how I feel about that morally. I was never given the chance to make a moral decision. Zack Young’s deceit has turned me into someone I’m not. I want‐ ed a heavy experience, not to have my life changed forever. Consider this review a warning to everyone out there who wants to play a part in Brad’s story. (253)
By novel’s end, of course, readers learn that this review was written by Zack and that Brad had long ago fled the scene: what desires (and disappointments), then, are narrated here? (And what warning issued?) Similarly, when reading Zack’s self‐de‐ fense—“What I’m letting you guys do to Brad is not my fan‐ tasy. It’s your fantasy .... [And] Brad wants this to happen”—we should remember that Zack authored the reviews (fantasies) and that Brad escaped because he did not want to be killed (242). In his closing confession, which expresses a desire to end the story well, Zack also expresses doubt that the original Brad, or the impostor Brad, or any of the boys in between, could “have lived up to the hype even if he had let himself be killed .... That’s why I ended up thinking it was better if there wasn’t a Brad at all” (261). But was there ever a Brad? Given the uncer‐ tainties that plague his saga, was not Brad always a fantasy ob‐ ject, solely the product and project of desire? One of Brad’s de‐ voted fans complains that Brad’s return is “disappointing,” “grim and depressing” because “these reviewers are actually doing these things to him and not just making up evil fantasies about him and pretending they’re true” (239). Except, of course, if Zack’s confession can be trusted, these reviews are not true. The general principle behind this complaint—that desire is less disappointing when connected to make‐believe, when it is satis‐
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fied by fantasy rather than reality—underscores desire’s self‐ sustaining power. At novel’s end, then, the reader is in the same position as the characters. What really happened, and what was fantasy? Which voices were trustworthy, and which were lying? How do the various narrative strands fit together? Who is Brad and why did he want to die? (Did he want to die?) Who are these people who find their greatest erotic satisfaction in the infliction of pain, horror and misery? Am I one of those people? The novel presents itself as a mystery, a mystery about Brad’s identity, and a meditation on the mysterious capacity of human beings to inflict (and endure) pain and terror. At novel’s end, however, Brad’s identity cannot be resolved because the novel contains a smorgasbord of Brads. Also unresolved is the mystery of cruelty: it has been transported into the realm of im‐ agination, but its exposition has implicated us, insofar as we have read the novel—more so, if we find ourselves disappoint‐ ed by its hoax. We are caught up, as readers, in the desire for Brad’s destruction as much as any of his customers. What the novel promises, then, it fails to deliver. But what the novel pro‐ mises to deliver—an object that both generates ecstasy and can be fully known, horrific narrative violence that is both suffi‐ ciently real and comfortably contained—is undeliverable. What the novel delivers—desire’s foment, escalation, frustration, dis‐ appointment—is a promise kept only in its breaking. In Erotism, Bataille writes, “Poetry leads to the same place as all forms of eroticism—to the blending and fusion of separate ob‐ jects. It leads us to eternity, it leads us to death, and through death to continuity” (25). For Bataille, the central problem of human existence is the discontinuity that fosters and is fostered by subject‐object relations. Because we must instrumentalize various dimensions of reality—including our own bodies, our loved ones, and material artifacts—to know and understand them, to utilize them in our most basic quest for survival, we necessarily objectify them, thus creating a world characterized by separation and alienation. Poetry, religion, and eroticism have the capacity to disrupt this state of affairs, restoring— however briefly—a sense of continuity; for this reason, poetry,
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religion, and eroticism must always be thought together (Ba‐ taille 1986: 7‐9, 24‐25; Bataille 1989: 70). Separation and alienation are disrupted, first, because sub‐ jective experience comes undone. “The whole business of eroti‐ cism is to destroy the self‐contained character of the participa‐ tors as they are in their normal lives .... It is a state of communi‐ cation revealing a quest for a possible continuance of being be‐ yond the confines of the self” (Bataille 1986: 17). Similarly, by restoring the subject to an intimacy that undoes individuality, sacrifice unravels the usual experience of subjectivity (Bataille 1992: 50‐52). Disruption also occurs when the status of the ob‐ ject is challenged. “Mystical experience reveals an absence of any object. Objects are identified with discontinuity, whereas mystical experience, as far as our strength allows us to break off our own discontinuity, confers on us a sense of continuity” (Ba‐ taille 1992: 23). Similarly, the erotic object is “an object which implies the abolition of the limits of all objects” (Bataille 1992: 130).7 Ecstasy, whatever its cause, reveals “a ‘yawning gap’ be‐ tween the one and the other and, in the gap, the subject, the ob‐ ject are dissolved; there is passage, communication, but not from one to the other: the one and the other have lost their sepa‐ rate existence” (Bataille 1988: 59‐60). But both states—discontinuity and continuity—depend on awareness. It is not that the worker, the animal, or the tool are things; it is that they are conceived as things in a regime organ‐ ized by productive labor and instrumental reason. Similarly, the objective reality of killing and sexual copulation can objecti‐ fy and alienate. Eroticism, as opposed to sex, and sacrifice, as opposed to slaughter, depend on a particular consciousness (Bataille 1986: 11, 29‐31, 102; Bataille 1994: 150). In other words, representational frameworks, signification, language are essen‐ tial to ecstatic rupture: it is not simply acts themselves, but the meanings assigned them that allow for a break in profane real‐ ity. In fact, representation might be superior to reality. When discussing de Sade’s novels, for example, Bataille observes “the true nature of the erotic stimulant can only be revealed by liter‐ ary means, by bringing into play characters and scenes from the For further discussion of Bataille’s conception of the erotic ob‐ ject, see Brintnall 2011: 178‐85. 7
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realm of the impossible” (Bataille 1991: 177). Poetry not only leads to the same place as eroticism and sacrifice, but it opens the space of ecstatic rupture in a way that gives us the experi‐ ence and allows us to survive it: “Only the fictitious approach of death ... points to the joy that would gratify us, if its object were real ... if we were dead we would no longer be in a condi‐ tion to be gratified” (Bataille 1991: 109). Language gestures to‐ ward, mines and mimics, that which cannot be the substance of experience. Concluding Ruminations Apophasis—the “mode of discourse” that keeps alive “the un‐ resolvable dilemma” of language’s transcendence, by maintain‐ ing the tension between that which can be named and the un‐ sayable—“can be defined either historically or formally” (Sells 1994: 2‐4). If, from a historical perspective, apophasis should be used to describe only “writers who employed the term in their own writing, and ... writers with a clearly demonstrable histori‐ cal connection to such writings” (Sells 1994: 4), then most non‐ theological literature, the vast majority of art, and erotic dis‐ courses should be kept distinct from apophasis and identified as sources from which apophatic theology borrows when “straining to speak” (Turner 1995a: 1, 19‐23). Considered for‐ mally, however, apophatic discourses can be found across reli‐ gious traditions as well as in “poetry, drama—almost any form of art” (Sells 1994: 4, 206). Because apophasis’ dialectical dance between speaking and the indictment of speech’s capacity “is momentary ... and must continually be re‐earned by ever new linguistic acts of unsaying,” insofar as the discourse has any value, it must be sought out in all the sites in which it appears (Sells 1994: 3; see also Turner 1995a: 25‐26). But is apophatic discourse really necessary? If the experi‐ ence of transcendence is so common—in the face of God, in the presence of beauty, in the throws of desire—then why must we constantly be reminded that there is something that exceeds our capacity to know and understand? The Christian theological imaginary, in several ways, demonstrates just why apophatism is necessary. Although orthodox Christian theological teaching insists on the transcendence of God the Creator, the gap of tran‐ scendence is overcome through the second person of the Chris‐
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tian Trinity: Jesus Christ, or God the Redeemer. By becoming enfleshed, entering the experience of the creature, participating in the joys and sorrows, the trials and tribulations, the vul‐ nerabilities and limitations of humanity, the transcendent God becomes knowable in the immanent Christ. By knowing Jesus, the faithful Christian knows God. Perhaps this is why Jesus, as a personal figure, is virtually absent from Pseudo‐Dionysius’ theological writings: Jesus potentially provides an answer to quiet the quest for God. Of course, the historical distance of the person of Jesus makes him exceed the grasp of knowledge in certain important ways. More importantly, of course, there is the mystery of the Incarnation: Jesus is not fully or complete‐ ly—or solely—immanent but also transcendent. Or, in the words of more classic theological expression, Jesus Christ is fully hu‐ man and fully God. In this way, Jesus, at least in part, exceeds knowledge and understanding, while also posing as knowable and understandable. In this way, Christianity is particularly susceptible to the sense of certainty that apophasis seeks to challenge. But writers in the Christian tradition meet this challenge. This dance of a present, but never fully graspable, Jesus is pre‐ sent in apophatic mystical writings that come centuries after Pseudo‐Dionysius—for example, in the work of Angela of Fo‐ ligno, John of the Cross, Catherine of Siena, Teresa of Avila. These are the mystics that fascinate Bataille. Perhaps because they glimpse the connection between the elusive nature of God’s presence in Jesus and the erotic longing to know the de‐ sired other. Cooper’s pornographic writings reveal, in a manner fully consonant with these mystical writings, that even the en‐ fleshed other—even the fully immanent other—remains beyond reach precisely because this other is desired so fiercely. As the Christian mystical tradition, Bataille’s transformation of it, and Cooper’s miming of it reveal, the desire to know outstrips the capacity to know; the desire to know and understand the other makes any knowledge and understanding of the other seem paltry and unsatisfying. Desire keeps desire in play by keeping it unsatisfied. But if even the immanent is, in the final analysis, also tran‐ scendent in some meaningful sense, then why this need for apo‐ phatic discourse? By focusing on the inadequacies, short‐com‐
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ings and fragilities of language, apophasis challenges claims to authority. Because our desire to know, our desire to possess, our desire per se gives rise to a range of negative effects, we want it answered. It is exceptionally easy to forget that our feeble grasp is not really holding on to anything. Astonishing violence has been meted out because various persons and insti‐ tutions have felt their speech about God or ecstasy (or gender, or justice, or human rights) was adequate to transcribe the re‐ ality that it sought to name. It is remarkably easy to forget, when guided by passion—even when guided by compassion, to lose sight of the fact that efforts to name, and to speak in the name of, the transcendent are only ever desperate attempts to grasp that which will always remain just out of reach, and that they are often fraught with enormous risks of injury to self and other. For this reason, linguistic practices that shake confidence in the categories, concepts, and frameworks through which we organize our lives have the capacity to highlight the limitations of our moral imagination and prevent their too‐quick imposi‐ tion on the bodies and minds of our fellow travelers. Insofar as the language of eros has displaced the language of theos in un‐ derwriting the self’s most profound truths, then the apophatic tendencies of erotic languages are particularly noteworthy, and should be identified, sought out and fostered.8 The language of eros serves apophasis because sexual de‐ sire typifies the insatiable quest to know and be known by, to possess and be possessed by, the Other. Erotic language is most valuable, as apophasis’ handmaiden, not for its allegorical force in relation to conceptual illumination, but rather in relation to its experiential dimension.9 Or, to state it more strongly: erotic language is a form of apophasis and apophatic discourse is ne‐ cessarily erotic. Desire—to know, to be in intimate relation with —is never sated: the object recedes, eludes, resists objectifica‐ tion; the encounter exceeds expectation (through delight or dis‐ appointment), comes to an end. Desire only ever produces the desire for desire. Discourses that claim the authority to name 8 On the displacement of theology by sexuality, see Certeau 1992; Foucault 1978.
For a different conception of the suitability of erotic language for apophatic theology, see Turner 1995b: 56‐68. 9
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promise a cessation of yearning. Their seductive allure arises from this affective charge. The relation between claiming the authority to name and claiming increasing authority to shape social, cultural, and political reality is symptomatic of the im‐ possibility of damming desire’s flow. Because the proffered an‐ swer cannot be gainsaid without diminishing the appeal of the discourse, its reach must be extended to quell desire’s ebulli‐ tion. Discourses that perform the inability to name have the ca‐ pacity to ease (some forms of) frustration and anxiety by undo‐ ing the desire to know, to comprehend, to possess, to control by revealing—through its perpetual provocation—the impossi‐ bility of desire’s satisfaction. By fostering desire, refusing to satisfy it, suggesting that its answer exceeds the very bounds of “answer,” apophasis disperses, rather than channels, desire’s violent, disruptive energy.10 Bibliography Baker, Timothy C. (2008). “The Whole is Untrue: Experience and Community in The Sluts.” In: Paul Hegarty and Danny Kennedy (eds.). Dennis Cooper: Writing at the Edge. Portland OR: Sussex Academic Press. Pp. 52‐67. Barthes, Roland. (1974). S/Z: An Essay. Transl. Richard Miller. New York: Hill and Wang. Originally published in 1970. Bataille, Georges. (1994). “From the Stone Age to Jacque Prévert.” In: Michael Richardson (ed./transl.). The Absence of Myth: Writings on Surrealism. New York: Verso. Pp. 137‐54. Originally published in 1946. (1992). Theory of Religion. Transl. Robert Hurley. New York: MIT Press. Originally published in 1948. (1991). The Accursed Share: An Essay on General Economy. Volumes II & III. Transl. Robert Hurley. New York: MIT Press. Originally published posthumously in 1976. (1989). The Tears of Eros. Transl. Peter Connor. San Francisco: City Lights Books. Originally published in 1961. (1988). Inner Experience. Transl. Leslie Anne Boldt. Albany: State University of New York Press. Originally published in 1943.
For a discussion of the ethical risks and possibilities of apopha‐ tic discourse, see Sells 1994: 209‐17. 10
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(1986). Erotism: Death and Sensuality. Transl. Mary Dalwood. San Francisco: City Lights Books. Originally published in 1957. Brintnall, Kent L. (2011). Ecce Homo: The Male‐Body‐in‐Pain as Redemp‐ tive Figure. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Budick, Sanford, and Wolfgang Iser (eds.). (1989). Languages of the Un‐ sayable: The Play of Negativity in Literature and Literary Theory. New York: Columbia University Press. Canning, Richard. (2000). “Dennis Cooper.” In: Gay Fiction Speaks: Conversations with Gay Novelists. New York: Columbia University Press. Pp. 297‐330. Originally published in 1997. Certeau, Michel de. (1992). The Mystic Fable: Volume One. The Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. Transl. Michael B. Smith. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Originally published in 1982. Coakley, Sarah, and Charles M. Stang (eds.). (2009). Re‐Thinking Dio‐ nysius the Areopagite. Malden MA: Wiley‐Blackwell. Cooper, Dennis. (2005). The Sluts. New York: Carroll and Graf. Origin‐ ally published in 2004. Foucault, Michel. (1978). The History of Sexuality: An Introduction. Transl. Robert Hurley. New York: Vintage Books. Originally published in 1976. Franke, William (ed.). (2007). On What Cannot Be Said: Apophatic Dis‐ courses in Philosophy, Religion, Literature and the Arts. 2 vols. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press. Gambone, Philip. (1999). “Dennis Cooper.” In: Something Inside: Con‐ versations with Gay Fiction Writers. Madison: University of Wis‐ consin Press. Pp. 55‐61. Originally published in 1989. Gersh, Stephen. (1978). From Iamblichus to Eriugena: An Investigation in‐ to the Prehistory and Evoluation of the Pseudo‐Dionysian Tradition. Boston: Brill. Glück, Robert. (2006). “Dennis Cooper (Interviewed).” In: Leora Lev (ed.). Enter at Your Own Risk: The Dangerous Art of Dennis Cooper. Madison: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. Pp. 241‐59. Hegarty, Paul, and Danny Kennedy (eds.). (2008). Dennis Cooper: Writ‐ ing at the Edge. Portland OR: Sussex Academic Press. Jackson, Jr., Earl. (1993). “Dennis Cooper (1953‐).” In: Emmanuel Nel‐ son. Contemporary Gay American Novelists: A Bio‐Bibliographical Critical Sourcebook. Westport CT: Greenwood. Pp. 77‐82. Kennedy, Danny. (2008). “‘It’s the Shift that Creates’: An Interview with Dennis Cooper, 12 July 2007.” In: Paul Hegarty and Danny
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Kennedy. Dennis Cooper: Writing at the Edge. Portland OR: Sussex Academic Press. Pp. 191‐209. Lev, Leona (ed.). (2006). Enter at Your Own Risk: The Dangerous Art of Dennis Cooper. Madison: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. (2005). “Infernal Bridegroom(s), Reanimated.” American Book Re‐ view 27: 10‐11. Louth, Andrew. (1989). Denys the Areopagite. New York: Continuum. Lucas, Stephen. (2001). “American Psycho: An Interview with Dennis Cooper.” 3AM Magazine. www.3ammagazine.com/litarchives/ nov2001/cooper_interview.html. Accessed 18 May 2010. Pseudo‐Dionysius. (1987a). The Divine Names. In: Pseudo‐Dionysius. The Complete Works. Transl. Colm Luibheid. New York: Paulist Press. Pp. 47‐131. (1987b). The Mystical Theology. In: Pseudo‐Dionysius. The Com‐ plete Works. Transl. Colm Luibheid. New York: Paulist Press. Pp. 133‐41. Rorem, Paul. (1993). Pseudo‐Dionysius: A Commentary on the Texts and an Introduction to Their Influence. New York: Oxford University Press. Sells, Michael A. (1994). Mystical Languages of Unsaying. Chicago: Uni‐ versity of Chicago Press. Turner, Denys. (1995a). The Darkness of God: Negativity in Christian Mysticism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (1995b). Eros and Allegory: Medieval Exegesis of the Song of Songs. Collegesville MN: Cistercian Publications. Wolosky, Shira. (1995). Language Mysticism: The Negative Way of Lan‐ guage in Eliot, Beckett, and Celan. Stanford CA: Stanford Universi‐ ty Press.
Part II
Transcendence and Language
Transcendence and Poetics
Levinas, Ricoeur, Frost Shira Wolosky Abstract Levinas has been assimilated into many discourses, but this diffusion has also blunted the edge of some of his radicalism. This essay focuses on how Levinas’ notions of transcendence remain radically other than traditional Western notions of it. This is not explored, however, through the phenomenological philosophy that most typically frames discussions of his work nor in terms of the religious resonances and resources he also certainly and powerfully draws on. Rather, the author explores this by focusing on the specific problematics of language that are in fact pivotal to both Levinas’ phenomenological and re‐ ligious engagements. These, in turn, reflect on languages of poetic undertak‐ ing in, for example, the poetry of Robert Frost, where Levinas’ radical ethics of linguistic transcendence is explored.
Introduction Discussions of Levinas have been on the whole philosophical or religious, with the relation between these a point of contention. Yet Levinas has also begun to penetrate discussions of aesthe‐ tics. He himself has written on poets, such as Celan, Jabez, and Claudel, and refers to literary experience recurrently through‐ out his writings. The theory of language, which is fundamental to Levinas’s whole ethical venture, likewise places Levinas’s work at an intersection with current literary analysis and re‐ flection. The extent to which Levinas’s theory offers a radical break from traditional assumptions can be seen by comparing his focus on “enigma” with Paul Ricoeur’s very influential dis‐ cussions of metaphor. Against Ricoeur’s continued presupposi‐ tions of resemblance, analogy, and reconciliation, Levinas pos‐ its a break in analogy that never reconstitutes unitary wholes. This difference interestingly restages theological disputes, re‐ calling the Thomistic critique of Maimonides’ negative theology of radical transcendence. Just how differently enigma structures
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poetic analysis will be explored in a discussion of Robert Frost’s “The Most of It.” From Metaphor to Enigma Paul Ricoeur’s work in many ways parallels Levinas’. The writ‐ ings of both take place on a border between philosophy, phe‐ nomenology, religion, and language theory. Each also address‐ es the work of the other. But this address marks radical dis‐ agreements, which bring to visibility Levinasian aesthetics in their difference from traditional ones. For, although Ricoeur en‐ gages with contemporary theory and philosophy in its critical relation to the past, he emerges, from a Levinasian viewpoint, as still within and continuing traditional philosophies in ways that Levinas critiques and opposes. This continuity with tradition in its specifically aesthetic implications is pronounced in Ricoeur’s discourses of meta‐ phor. In his Rule of Metaphor, metaphor indeed rules. Its drive to resemblance governs the analysis not only of metaphor itself but of art and hermeneutics as well. Ricoeur’s study follows metaphor forward from Aristotelian to modern theories. But throughout, resemblance remains not only its core feature but, as he writes elsewhere, “the paradigm of all creativity in lan‐ guage” (Ricoeur 1978b: 129, hereinafter Rule). Ricoeur does not neglect difference in his discussion of metaphor. Against Ro‐ man Jakobson’s “substitution” theory, he proposes a theory of “tension between identity and difference.” This would retain both “proximity” and “distance” (Rule 5). Yet Ricoeur’s interest ultimately remains in overcoming distance for proximity via the core value of metaphor, resemblance. Metaphor takes its place “in a set of procedures founded on similarity—symbol and synaesthesis [and] comparison” (Rule 184). What it establishes or pursues is a “parallel between two thoughts such that one situation is presented or described in terms of another that is similar to it” (Rule 189). As in tradi‐ tional analysis, the mechanism of metaphor is transfer, where “to transfer is to approximate, to suppress distance” (Rule 194). Citing Aristotle, Ricoeur confirms that “metaphor implies an in‐ tuitive perception of the similarity in dissimilars” (Rule 5). Intu‐ ition is a unitive term. It entails the simultaneous grasp of dis‐ parate parts (Rule 196). Just so, in metaphor, “conflict between
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identity and difference becomes fusion of differences into iden‐ tity” (Rule 198). There is a “grasping of identity in spite of dif‐ ferences” (Rule 199). This remains the case even if, as Ricoeur goes on to argue, the two remain “tensional” (Rule 295, 296). Metaphor moves, albeit through tension, towards assimilation into a whole. In consideration of contemporary post‐metaphysics, Ri‐ coeur takes care to deontologize his discussion of metaphor. The conclusion of The Rule of Metaphor includes a reply to Derri‐ da’s “White Mythology,” where Derrida critiques metaphor as quintessentially metaphysical. In its classic structure, metaphor reduces to a relation between signified and signifier. This ap‐ pears classically, and in Ricoeur, in discussion as concrete and abstract (Rule 298), vehicle and tenor (Rule 294), particular and general (Rule 300). Derrida claims these terms reproduce the classic ontological distinction between sensible and intelligible, visible and invisible, with the metaphorical transfer referring from the first to the second, as its representation (Derrida 1974: 25).1 This reproduces ontologies in which being beyond the sen‐ sible determines the meaning of world as in Platonic Ideas, the Plotinian One and its emanations, or the Christian mind of God. Ricoeur, in attempting to respond to such metaphysical cri‐ tique, contests Derrida’s claims that metaphor is metaphysical (Rule 290). Against this he insists that, instead of a correlation of “sensible and intelligible” (Rule 288), there is an “interplay of resemblance” (Rule 288). The metaphorical transfer is not from a fixed ontological signified represented by a signifier through resemblance, but a “network of intersignification” (Rule 293). There is no “literal” in the sense of direct representation or mi‐ mesis. Rather, the “literal” denotes, in what seems a pragmatist gesture, the “established value of words” (Rule 296) in lexical senses and usage. Nonetheless, as in classical rhetoric, depar‐ ture from the “literal” into metaphor occurs when “an unusual “Above all, the movement of metaphorization (the origin and the effacing of the metaphor, the passing from a proper sensible meaning to a proper spiritual meaning through a figurative detour) is nothing but a movement of idealization ... [turning on] the opposition between the sensible and the spiritual, the sensible and the intelligible, the sensible and sense itself (sinnlich/Sinn)” (Derrida 1974: 24). 1
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use requires introduction of second field beyond the first one” (Rule 291) in a “play of semantic impertinence” (Rule 294). As in symbol (Rule 299), metaphor links two levels of meaning in a play “on the relation between the similar and the dissimilar” (Rule 295), emerging through the “tension” between them as a “switching back and forth” (Rule 296) between discourse fields (Rule 301) rather than direct imitation or representation. But Ricoeur’s gestures towards notions of “play” and con‐ temporary signification prove ultimately to recover and repro‐ duce ontological structures. Resemblance remains the govern‐ ing principle as reflecting unity. The tensional structure of met‐ aphor is finally resolved when the disorder of clashing usages are resolved “to make sense of the statement as a whole” (Rule 296). The work of resemblance acknowledges, indeed operates on the recognition that “the ‘similar’ is not the ‘same’;” but its power inheres in being able to “apprehend the same within and in spite of difference” (Rule 296). Tensions are ultimately inte‐ grated in consciousness, “reconciled with the requirements of the concept” (Rule 300) that are phenomenological and hermen‐ eutical, finally resolving into “predicative assimilation” (Rule 301). This assimilative gesture extends from linguistic, rhetori‐ cal, and poetic technique to the fundamental hermeneutic that governs the apprehension of reality itself. In Ricoeur, metaphor inevitably works within, but also defines, the “schema” through which language and reality itself are interpreted. It both consti‐ tutes and operates within a “horizon” of understanding: “The signifying aim of the concept works free of interpretations, schematizations, and imaginative illustrations only if a horizon of constitution is given in advance, the horizon of speculative logos” (Rule 302). There is creativity as new metaphors emerge, but always within a given horizon that underwrites them and that they ultimately confirm. “Predicative assimilations and schematizations” continue to “underlie metaphorical utterance” (Rule 301). Interpretation is a “transposition, transference” of signified meanings, through a “unitive process, the sort of as‐ similation that occurs between alien ideas” (Rule 195). Inter‐ pretation is assimilation, based on similarity: “what holds for the operation of assimilation can hold for the relation of simi‐ larity” (Rule 196). Like a hermeneutical “fusion of horizons” (Ri‐ coeur 1978a: 144), metaphor is the “grasping of identity within
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differences and in spite of differences, based on preconceptual patterns” (Rule 199). In metaphor “the same” operates in spite of “the different” (Rule 196).2 Metaphor, hermeneutics, phenomenology, ontology—all remain closely linked in Ricoeur. As in the history of metaphor, analogy remains rooted in being (Rule 311) and the mind’s ap‐ prehension of it, which is ultimately self‐reflective, “proceeding from and reflecting the very structures of the mind” (Rule 300). And although Ricoeur wishes to distinguish his view from an “immediate ontology” in a “naïve sense,” he openly resists the truly “heterogeneous” that he associates with the language games of Wittgenstein (Rule 295), and that characterizes both Derridean and Levinasian sign theory. Conceding to contem‐ porary theory that “there is no standpoint outside language” (Rule 304), he nonetheless claims for language a “reflective ca‐ pacity as related to the totality of what is” (Rule 304). Levinas contests this rule of metaphor, and the hermeneu‐ tics and phenomenology it both implies and constructs. Against analogical structures in which, as Ricoeur writes, “the same op‐ erates in spite of the different” (Rule 196), Levinas insists on dif‐ ference as it withstands and disturbs the same. In specifically aesthetic terms, where Ricoeur enshrines metaphor, Levinas may be said to propose enigma. Ricoeur interestingly refers to “enigma” as precisely the “tension, contradiction, and contro‐ version” of usages “to which the metaphorical meaning offers the solution” (Rule 194‐195). Enigma is a site of inconsistencies “the reconciliation of which metaphor ‘makes sense’” (Rule 195). But resisting such reconciliation is precisely Levinas’s pro‐ ject. Enigma, as he writes in his essay “Enigma and Phenome‐ non,” does not “resemble terms of an already familiar order” (Levinas 1996: 67; hereinafter EP), an order that Levinas (like Ricoeur) identifies with phenomenology. He describes phenom‐ ena as apprehended in consciousness as an appearing that “as‐ sembles” time and manifestation as contemporaneous, present within the “understanding of being” that has defined philoso‐ phy” (EP 66, 68). But enigma ruptures such contemporaneity Cf. “all discourse is effectuated as an event, but is understood as meaning,” where meaning is what “can be identified and reidenti‐ fied as the same” (Ricoeur 1978a: 136). 2
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and correlation in ways that cannot be recovered or reconciled. As in its etymological sense of “riddle,” enigma counters phen‐ omenology as an “impossibility of manifesting” (EP 67), a tran‐ scendence that “ventures beyond being” and “beyond thought” (EP 67). In ways that are hinted at in “Enigma and Phenomenon” but more fully developed in, for example, Alterity and Transcen‐ dence, Levinas situates resemblance within histories of ontology that enigma interrupts. Underwriting the rule of metaphor are Platonist divisions of “the idea of being or the idea of becom‐ ing,” as assembled and ordered within a “logos” of unifying reason (EP 66). In being is assembled the “appearing of phe‐ nomenon” that metaphor both reflects and constructs (EP 66). But enigma breaks up the time and presence of manifestation. Its “moments do not refer to the present to connect everything together ... in correlation” (EP 67), neither positing nor taking its place within “a totality that gives it meaning” (EP 67). It in‐ terrupts the grasp of consciousness in either of its older ontolo‐ gical or current phenomenological senses. Not contained by the “synchronism” in which “the being of being unfolds,” it refuses to “put all things together, ordering order.” Instead it remains “beyond cognition which rests on apparition” (EP 75), pointing to a “transcend[ence] in another time.” Ricoeur’s metaphor re‐ solves into a dialectical “interplay” of “tensions” (Rule 302) be‐ tween what is “hidden and yet manifest, open and yet veiled” in “search for a new order in which this first discord would be resolved” (Rule 311‐312). Levinas calls this a “co‐presence of Other and Same in phenomenon that constitutes an order” (EP 68). But enigma points instead towards a time whose moments do not refer to the present or con‐ nect everything together again in the present of that glimpse [where] already correlation or structure returns: transcendence is synchronized with speech and reenters the indestructible order of being in its undephasable simultane‐ ity (EP 67).
How does this move from metaphor to enigma function on the level of poetics? Ricoeur claims to have released metaphor from essentialist ontology by analyzing it through phenomenolgical/ hermeneutical terms, locating it within linguistic processes as a
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structure of discourse rather than classical ontology. Metaphor, he argues, does not refer directly to a pregiven existing reality but negotiates between a “literal” meaning he claims is “lexical” rather than “proper” or directly mimetic (Rule 291); and its sus‐ pension that reveals new resemblances previously hidden in a “second order” reference. This he calls “the power of redescrip‐ tion” (Rule 305, 5, 292).3 The resemblance of this definition of metaphor to long‐held traditions is more than visible when he describes the “metaphorical” as “transport[ing] meaning into the spiritual order out of an improper sense coming from the sensible order” (Rule 292). Ricoeurian metaphor thus itself func‐ tions as a hermeneutic, phenomenologically based, in which the mind redescribes the world in orders that continue to be defin‐ ed through correlation of terms and simultaneity in conscious‐ ness, on the model of a “spiritual order” as distinct from a “sen‐ sible” one, and which he sums up as “a struggle for univocity” (Rule 302). But, as Derrida argued in Speech and Phenomenon, this her‐ meneutic remains both ontological and epistemological, a cri‐ tique Ricoeur cites and attempts to counter in the final chapter of Rule of Metaphor, but instead embodies: “the meaning aimed at through these figures is an essence rigorously independent of that which carries it over.”4 This is classical sign theory. “Con‐ cept” constitutes what is signified, an interiority expressed phenomenologically as “intention.” Metaphor in turn acts as signifier to this signified, the “presentation of the Idea by the imagination” (Rule 303). Even if these poles of metaphor are held “dialectically,” as “description” and “redescription” they remain within ontological references and structures of repre‐ sentation (Rule 293). “The suspension of literal reference is the condition for the re‐ lease of a power of second‐degree reference, which is properly poetic reference” (Rule 6). 3
Ricoeur is here citing Derrida; indeed this chapter is presented as a response to Derrida’s critique of metaphor as, in Ricoeur’s presen‐ tation, “the supposed collusion between the metaphorical pair of the proper and figurative and the metaphysical pair of the visible and in‐ visible” (Rule 294). 4
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The Levinasian enigma contrasts with the continued meta‐ physics of Ricoeur’s metaphor. While Ricoeur’s second order redescription rejoins with primary description in “reciprocal participation,” enigma intrudes a “difference ... strong enough to break the continuous form ... in which this difference is still regulated” (EP 72). Metaphor, as Levinas writes in “Hermeneu‐ tics and Beyond,” assumes the “expression of a thought in a discourse [as] equivalent to a reflection in the different milieu of a mirror” (Levinas 1998a: 107). This is the mirror of conscious‐ ness itself, with the mind as “solitary from the outset and mov‐ ing toward coincidence with itself, toward self‐consciousness” (Levinas 1998a: 107). This closed system of self‐reflection is what Levinas attempts to rupture by a transcendence that will not be encompassed within it. Within phenomenology as ontol‐ ogy, “consciousness find[s] itself in the same, identifying itself even in the exteriority of its intentional object,” defeating tran‐ scendence, which “intentionality converts itself into immanence in the world.” But genuine transcendence, which intervenes as irrecuperable difference and alterity rather than correlation, re‐ semblance, and metaphor, breaks this equilibrium of the soul thinking according to its scale. In its temporality which disperses consciousness into successive moments synchronized in retention and preten‐ sion. Alterity can undo this simultaneity. (Levinas 1998a: 104‐05)
Temporality disperses the synchrony of phenomenological re‐ tention and pretension, breaking simultaneity into alterity. The contest with metaphor of course does not deny its function as a rhetorical trope of comparison but only its privi‐ lege to “rule” and above all how it works. Even granted this fundamental tropological structure, a different structure of meaning from Ricoeur’s continued ontological one is at work in Levinas, and most dramatically, a different sign theory and fun‐ damental event of discourse. Levinas, like Derrida and pragma‐ tist language theory, denies there is a “signified” as a pre‐given meaning that happens outside of discourse, which language would represent as secondary signifier. As Levinas puts it in “Enigma and Phenomenon,” “language does not double phe‐ nomenon” (EP 73). Phenomena do not “indicate an order of
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‘things in themselves’ of which [there] would be signs.” There is no structure of “signifieds” prior to and independent of signi‐ fiers, no “signs which recapture the signified” (EP 69), as if “‘in‐ dicated’ terms outside and before ‘indicating’ terms [re‐esta‐ blish] a conjuncture, a simultaneity” (EP 69). Levinas develops his own terminologies in place of signified/signifiers. What is “said” replaces “signified” but shifts meaning to inhere in the articulation of signifiers. The Levinasian theory of signification regards significance as emerging among signifiers interrelation‐ ally, without some prior signified they would express, indicate, or represent. His are a “chain of significations which constitute the world” (EP 67), a “rational enchainment of significations” (EP 74). This what is “said” does not represent an ontologically independent signified but unfolds meanings through interre‐ lated signifiers. Their function is not to describe or to redescribe what Ricoeur refers to as a “counterpart reality” (Rule 306), in‐ deed, not to offer representation and ultimately phenomen‐ ological comprehension and hermeneutic accounting. As a chain of signifiers, the “said” in Levinas is never a complete re‐ presentation, never a “simultaneity of one single order” nor even a “meeting of two series of significations” (as in Ricoeur’s metaphor) “that each lay claim to the same phenomenon” (EP 71). The “said,” even as the substance of a communication, is never fully constituted. It does not signify a signified prior to it. Most crucially, what is “said” itself takes place in what Le‐ vinas calls a “Saying,” an act of discourse that both situates and exceeds the “said.” The “said” is never autonomous. It occurs within an event of “Saying” that is also never complete, closed or autonomous. “Saying” is a language event as it takes place between interlocutors who are never bracketed out of dis‐ course, who always situate discourse as poles that are the ter‐ rain, not as the structure that signs operate within but, as an ongoing event, in open, ongoing trajectory. Levinas thus radically inaugurates a move from represen‐ tation and structure to event and address or, rather, to address and response, where address itself is always already response, which I will call responsa. The addresser is always already situ‐ ated in relation to others in response to them. Any addresser is always a responder already. The crucial importance of address in Levinas is noted by commentators and is something Levinas
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himself insists on, calling his a grammar of the “vocative.”5 But the very sense of “address” in Levinas already entails a re‐ sponse. Levinas’s discourse event goes beyond the “addresser” familiar from Jakobsonian linguistic models that posit a “sen‐ der” and “receiver” of a communication, each of which remains autonomous (Jakobson 1960). This would re‐subjectivize dis‐ course oriented through a speaker’s intentions. Levinasian discourse‐theory breaks out of intention. Interlocutors are nei‐ ther addressers nor addressees but responders whose responses always takes place as diachrony rather than simultaneity, and are never contained phenomenologically in consciousness. In‐ stead, discourse takes place across a distance that is never closed but marks a trajectory. There ever remains a gap be‐ tween interlocutors, which itself both generates discourse and ruptures it. “The enchainment of the Story is exposed to inter‐ ruption” (EP 73), writes Levinas. The “said” occurs within a “Saying” that breaks the representational grasp, redirecting dis‐ course as oriented towards an other. In this reordering of signification, there is an absence of the “signified” in a double sense. The “said” as a chain of signifiers does not represent a concept; fixed ontological or phenomeno‐ logical signifieds escape or rather are denied. And, as event of “response” in an act of “Saying,” discourse is directed towards but never encompasses or grasps an other to which it responds. This otherness exceeds and ruptures a signified as constituted concept and also escapes consciousness and the grasp of the “addresser” in the act of speech. It thus ruptures the resem‐ blances of metaphor as attesting correlation and grasped in the synchrony of consciousness. This is the rupture of enigma. It marks a discourse that does not fulfill “the structure of intentional correlation” (EP 77), running counter to a “signifyingness ... that awaits a concept ca‐ pable of finding and grasping it” in a “sphere that is present.” (EP 75). As a “Saying” that ruptures, even while retaining what is “said,” enigma invokes what Levinas calls in Otherwise than Being an “Unsaying:” dédire. In “Enigma and Phenomenon” he speaks of withdrawal, and of trace, a term closely allied to enig‐ 5
For one of many examples, see Levinas 1997: 7‐8.
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ma.6 Traces as enigma are not “like signs which recapture the signified” (EP 69). An enigma’s “signifyingness” is one that is “absent from the very terms in which it was signaled” (EP 75). Infinite as exceeding all determination, it is a “withdrawal like a farewell which is signified” not as “inundate[d] with light but in being extinguished in the incognito” (EP 75‐76). An enigma does not “[signify] as a sign.” It is “the very emptiness of an ir‐ recuperable absence, the gaping open of emptiness [that] is not only the sign of an absence ... but the very emptiness of a passage” (EP 70). The enigma thus exceeds and disrupts the sig‐ nified/signifier correlations of both classical sign theory and theories of metaphorical resemblance. The signified is instead ungraspable, both in terms of representation of what is “said” and of the other which “Saying” addresses/responds to. As “the sign of an absence,” enigma marks “the intervention of a mean‐ ing which disturbs phenomena but is quite ready to withdraw” (EP 74). Enigma is an “intervention of meaning which disturbs phenomena,” ready to “withdraw” as “footsteps that depart [as] transcendence itself, the proximity of the Other as Other” (EP 74). Is a “trace” then simply a “sign of remoteness?” Levinas himself asks this (EP 70), answering suspicions that Ricoeur warns against. In that Levinasian signification is an “irreducible disturbance” (EP 67) that cannot be bridged by analogical rela‐ tions such as metaphor sustains, Ricoeur sees it as unraveling sense altogether. The very title of Ricoeur’s Soi‐même comme un autre, the Self as Other, contests against Levinasian radical alter‐ ity, implying an interchangeability or transfer between self and other. Of Levinas, Ricoeur writes: to the extent that the other represents absolute exteriority with respect to an ego (“moi”) defined by the condition of separation ... the other absolves himself of any relation. This irrelation defines exteriority as such (Ricoeur 1992: 188).
The trace is a Levinasian term that Derrida then further theor‐ izes, see Wolosky 1982. It has its own theological intersignification, as reference to Exodus 33 in which God, refusing Moses’ request to be‐ come visible to him, instead “passes by.” 6
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Exteriority that denies intersecting substances in metaphor or as consciousness seems to Ricoeur to threaten “irrelation,” the loss of relationship altogether.7 Loss of a represented signified threat‐ ens loss of significance itself, a fall into relativism and inco‐ herence: “When the reference to objects set over against a judg‐ ing subject is suspended, is not the very structure of utterance shaken?” (Rule 306). Theological Echoes Ricoeur’s complaints against Levinas have theological antece‐ dents. Indeed, Ricoeur and Levinas may be said to restage ear‐ lier disputes within Christian and Jewish scholasticism. Aqui‐ nas leveled similar criticisms at Maimonides, whose negative theology, in its severe and radical commitment to transcen‐ dence, seemed to Aquinas to defeat all relationship to the di‐ vine. Maimonides ruptures the continuities of resemblance in ways that Aquinas finds extreme. He protests the view of “Rabbi Moses” as making all language of God equivocal— which is to say, into catachresis, so that a term applied to God does not mean what it means when applied to creation; thus rendering it impossible “to express anything that exists posi‐ tively in Him.” Aquinas writes in response: “Therefore we must hold a different doctrine—viz. that these names signify the di‐ vine substance, and are predicated substantially of God, al‐ though they fall short of a full representation of Him” (Summa Theologica I.13.2). God can, he insists, be known analogically from creatures by way of shared common properties, albeit in different proportions. God always has eminence over creatures regarding any feature. Yet the creature resembles and is like God, and therefore can represent Him: As Richard Cohen explains, Ricoeur is critical of Levinas along three lines of exaggeration: Levinas totalizes the Same beyond what is required; he exaggerates the alterity of the other; and he hyperbolizes the difference separating the same and the other (Cohen 2001: 298, 311). 7
Cf. Ricoeur (1997a: 26), where he calls Levinas’s hyperbolism a form of “verbal terrorism.” But Levinas embraces “hyperbole” as a trope that “retains the trace of a beyond‐being” (EP 67). 7
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[E]very creature represents Him, and is like Him so far as it possesses some perfection .... Therefore the aforesaid names signify the divine substance, but in an imperfect manner, even as creatures represent it imperfectly.
It is possible to name common qualities although imperfectly, with the divine always taking pre‐eminence in “proportion” of the term (Summa Theologica I.13.2; Jordan 1984: 168). For Aquinas, God’s difference does not entirely revoke likeness to Him. The creature resembles and is like God, and therefore can represent Him. Thus, Aquinas confirms the possi‐ bility of analogy, where language is neither catachresis nor univocal but metaphorical. While never fully adequate, analogy still “allows imperfect speech about divine substance to be con‐ structed on the basis of human understanding,” where crea‐ tures serve as “splintered likenesses.”8 As Mark Jordan argues, in Aquinas, as in Dionysius—the figure cited the most in the Summa after Aristotle—God can be partly known through cre‐ ated similitudes in a “hierarchical, participational order” (Jor‐ dan 1984: 167). And, Joseph Buijs argues, analogy here is not just a linguistic but a metaphysical relation (Buijs 1988: 736). Maimonides denied such analogical intercrossing of divin‐ ity and the world. Even the equivocal language of catachresis only pertains to divine actions in relation to the world, not to the divine in itself. This is a position, in terms recalling Mai‐ monidean negative theology, that Levinas’ closely resembles.9 He describes God as “disarticulating the very moment in which he is presented and proclaimed unrepresentable” (EP 70). The divine as other “seeks recognition while preserving his incog‐ nito” (EP 70). It “manifests without manifesting” (EP 70), “sig‐ nifies itself without revealing itself” (EP 77). Divine significa‐ tion “does not consist in being unveiled nor in being veiled, ir‐ reducible to the modalities of being” (EP 75). Levinas hintingly places this discourse of the “the scandalous absence of God” in scholastic arguments about “contradictions between existence 8 Mark Jordan (1984: 166‐167) analyzes Aquinas’s “Exposition on Dionysius,” 7th article: q.7.a.7c; 203: 2‐204.
For discussion of Levinas’s relation to Maimonides, see espe‐ cially Michael Fagenblat (2010). 9
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included in the essence of God” (EP 66), an absence that con‐ trasts against similarly hinted at Platonist traditions of being: Platonist and Plotinian divine light such that the divine “with‐ draws from the illuminated site” (EP 77) and does “not [repre‐ sent] phenomena as cognition” (EP 75). In a formula that evokes Heidegger and places him within these traditions of ontology, Levinas denies the model of a “‘clearing’ of the pres‐ ent in which being is unveiled” (EP 77), speaking instead of “non‐manifestation,” (EP 67), an “invisibility which language sets forth” (EP 77). As in the “subtle silence” of I Kings 19:12, the absolute “gapes open as a void in which the irreversible is not represented” (EP 73). The “original antecedent of divine from world cannot contain him. Cannot be said within being” (EP 77). As Aquinas complained of Maimonides, so Ricoeur com‐ plains that Levinas, in this radical transcendence expressed as absence, void, and negation, allows “no middle ground, no ‘be‐ tween’ secured to lessen the utter dissymmetry between the Same and the Other” (Ricoeur 1992: 337). To mediate the opening of the Same to the Other and the in‐ teriorization of the voice of the other in the same, language must have its resources of communication, i.e. reciprocity. Doesn’t dialogue require superposing relation on “absolute distance” so‐called between the separate me and teaching other? (Ricoeur 1992: 339)
But Levinas, while refusing Ricoeur’s “interiorization of the voice of the other in the same,” still does not do away with re‐ lationship but rather redefines its terms. Levinas does reject the submergence of transcendence into a “totality which gives it meaning.” Yet he does not concede that “to refuse this primor‐ dial order of contemporaneousness” means “ceasing to signify” (EP 67). What emerges is a different mode of signification from that of representation, which Levinas sees ultimately as a mode of narcissism. Levinas insists: “the Other cannot also not appear without renouncing his radical alterity, without entering into an order” (EP 68). Neither through metaphor nor symbol, the other is not shown in any phenomenological sense: “The infinite is an inas‐ similable alterity, a difference and absolute past with respect to
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everything that is shown, signaled, symbolized, announced, re‐ membered and thereby ‘contemporized’ with him who under‐ stands” (EP 75). But how then is positive relation, signification itself possi‐ ble? Levinas’ radical shift from ontology to ethics redefines this very question. This occurs in the very move from representa‐ tion to responsa as addresses/responses to otherness. The rela‐ tion to the other is no longer one of cognition or correlation or participation but rather of ethical regard: the “approach to the Other as beyond cognition and disclosure is ethics” (EP 76). “Enigma is ethics,” as responsa that “[break] the undephasable simultaneity of representation” (EP 76). In Totality and Infinity, Levinas outlines a discourse ethics of language trajectory to‐ wards an other that remains outside of representation and com‐ prehension. Language as representation “would consist in sup‐ pressing the other, in making the other the same” (Levinas 1969: 73). But discourse ethics would be language that “precise‐ ly maintains the other, to whom it is addressed, whom it calls upon and evokes.” The other called upon is not something represented ... far from supposing universality and generality, it first makes them possible. Language presupposes interlocutors, a plur‐ ality. Their commerce is not a representation of the one by the other, nor a participation in universality ... their com‐ merce is ethical…. The relationship of language implies transcendence, radical separation, the strangeness of the in‐ terlocutors, the revelation of the other to me. (Levinas 1969: 73)
Levinasian discourse ethics upholds and reflects the transcen‐ dence of the other from the self. This is a gap that is not sup‐ pressed yet across which address and response takes place. Re‐ presentation, intentionality, consciousness continue to appear in what Levinas calls the “said,” but within a “Saying” that ex‐ ceeds representation or any common or universal order of be‐ ing in which all participate, resemble, and reflect one another. Saying as discourse event confirms plurality and difference, “radical separation,” in which not an ontological but an ethical relation is called for. In Otherwise than Being, this excess of re‐ presentation as rupture (but not repudiation) of what is “said”
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is called an “Unsaying:” “The otherwise than being is stated in a saying that must also be Unsaid” (Levinas 1998b: 7). What is “said” emerges from but also is interrupted by a “Saying” that is thus rendered an “Unsaying,” closely associated with enig‐ ma: an “Unsaying in the ambiguity or the enigma of the tran‐ scendent, in which the breathless spirit retains a fading echo” (Levinas 1998b: 44). Enigma in this sense of a transcendence that ruptures ontology as an Unsaying, a “fading echo,” is de‐ scribed in “Enigma and Phenomenon” as a “summons to moral responsibility” (EP 76). It initiates an “extravagant response,” that “think[s] more than one thinks, to think of what withdraws from thought” (EP 76). As “summons,” enigma affirms relation; but as “what withdraws,” it sustains difference, the transcen‐ dence that safeguards the other, so that “morality is enigma’s way” (EP 76). Poetics of Transcendence: Robert Frost “Reality and its Shadows,” Levinas’ 1948 essay on aesthetics, is often seen to propose a Platonist view of art.10 But the essay emerges as critical of Platonist aesthetics, denying art as “ex‐ pression” or “cognition” in the (Neoplatonist) sense in which cognition “coincides with metaphysical intuition” claiming to have “knowledge of the absolute” and to “[tell] of the ineffable” (Levinas 1985: 130). Levinas proposes instead an interrelational art, taking place in a public sphere that is contingent and histor‐ ical (Levinas 1985: 130), where the artwork breaks free of a to‐ talistic “stoppage” that transcends time to “[treat] the artist as a For a Platonist reading see Edith Wyschogrod (2000: 78): “It is not difficult to discern the Platonic bias in Levinas’s point of view ... ontology of the sensible is an ontology of shadows cast by being, of the resemblance that being bears to itself.” Wyschogrod, in my view, wrongly argues for an ideal of language as transparency, as “abstract” so that it acts ideally as a “window through which the real appears” (Wyschogrod 2000: 80‐81). This reading is developed in Edith Wy‐ schogrod 1995. Seán Hand (1996) importantly contextualizes “Reality and its Shadows” as a response to Sartre, Heidegger, and WW II. Fuller discussion of how Levinasian aesthetics has been treated far ex‐ ceeds the current context. 10
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man at work, link[ing] this disengaged and proud man to real history [so that] the immobile statue has to be put in movement and made to speak” (Levinas 1985: 142). Levinas’ aesthetics would then be one in which, as in his ethics, the alterity of the other is never absorbed into the artwork as a self‐sufficient re‐ presentation. It would be to enact a “relationship with the infin‐ ite” that does not have the structure of “correlation,” that breaks the “simultaneity of representation,” pursuing instead an “approach” that also “retracts, withdraws, fails to grasp” (EP 76‐77). A retractive poetics of Unsaying would rupture correla‐ tion and its claims to ontologically grasp, displacing it with an ethical stance that, as a poetics, would acknowledge, restrain, and demarcate what language can and cannot accomplish or encompass. It projects poetry not as representing but as instead exposing and resisting any total account or comprehension. As an ethical scene of language, poetry would occur as something “said” within a “Saying” of address and response that is also an “Unsaying,” a Dédire that retracts and ruptures the language event and so safeguards it. Insisting on areas that the Said and Saying cannot reach, that transcends human linguistic grasp and must not be claimed, whose distance language must re‐ spect, Unsaying interrupts language in the name of what tran‐ scends it, keeping what is said within ethical boundaries. The artwork would sustain distance as well as relation, an enigma that will never be fully unriddled. Such an ethical aesthetic can be seen in the poetry of Robert Frost. Frost’s apparently naïve portraits of nature, as if some casual passerby happened to look up and comment on a soli‐ tary green, often turn out to be complex acts that acutely reflect on the powers, and the limits, of language.11 Such reflection on 11 Cf. John Lynen (1960: 147‐48) who sees in the poem “The Most of It,” the “pathos and tragedy” of the “gulf separating man from nature” because nature’s response is “so remote from his desires that he cannot recognize it.” The poem therefore shows “the struggle be‐ tween the human imagination and the meaningless void man con‐ fronts.” George Nitchie (1978: 30‐31) speaks of the “unbridgeable dif‐ ference” between humankind and nature as an existential condition, making Frost’s nature an impersonal other. Cf. Mordecai Marcus (1991: 171), for whom the poem expresses the disappointed yearning
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the event of language is particularly dramatized in Frost’s poem “The Most of It” (Frost 1969: 338), specifically as address and response as this undercuts phenomenological subjectivity. He thought he kept the universe alone; For all the voice in answer he could wake Was but the mocking echo of his own. From some tree‐hidden cliff across the lake. Some morning from the boulder‐broken beach He would cry out on life, that what it wants Is not its own love back in copy speech, But counter‐love, original response.
The poem opens inside the consciousness of its human figure, phenomenologically as it were, with an ironic self‐reflective twist. The very disappointment the “He” expresses in being alone itself presupposes his expectation of unity. His effort to divest himself of his desire for a humanized world only reaf‐ firms its intensity. This is specifically expressed in terms of lan‐ guage, the ultimate and fundamental humanizing mode, as a desire for genuine dialogue with nature. But this desire defeats itself since it only projects onto nature his own linguistic im‐ pulse, which from the start makes genuine dialogue impossible. The very wish for a “voice in answer” is nothing more than a “mocking echo” of human desire answering itself. Thus, the speaker’s very disappointment in a failed dialogue with nature for a bond with nature, “facing nature’s uncaring power to give universe meaning as painfully limited.” Some discussions do turn towards questions of the role of language in the Frostian scene. Thus, Robert Pinsky (1976: 67) notes “the verbal paradox of original re‐ sponse: that will spring from sources unlike him, yet somehow speak to him. But the gulf is absolute, and the buck represents indifference.” Richard Poirier does comment importantly on the role language plays in the confrontation with nature and sees “The Most of It” as warning “against metaphors as contriving the world” (Poirier 1998: 159). He also notes the oxymoron of “original response” and the ambi‐ guity that “That was all” does not mean “is nothing” (160‐61). He also discusses “it”: “But ‘it’ at end is not, as often claimed, a terrifying ne‐ gation of meaning. The poem is thus an awe‐inspiring and wonderful representation of what we do not know and cannot name” (163).
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already depends on the assumption of humanized nature that is also being exposed and rejected. On one level this is Romantic pathetic fallacy, not only as a poetic image but as intrinsic to the operations of language as such, such that the very unmasking continues within the mesh‐ es of what it would expose. The speaker wants nature to be hu‐ man and not just to be his projection of humanity on it. But this very desire to have a humanized nature without projection is an extreme projection. To not want “copy speech” is already to in‐ sist on it, continuing to formulate nature in human linguistic terms. That this is self‐contradictory is registered in the oxy‐ moron “original response”: response cannot be original, it must be return. The speaker’s desire to incorporate nature is a solip‐ sism that defines the poem’s opening, with its cogito reduction where the “He” thinks his thought “alone” keeps the universe. The universe has been reduced to him alone, with his lone thought. But it is difficult to exit such solipsism. As Levinas analyzes, it cannot be ruptured from within its own terms. The speaker is thus caught in nature as his own reflection, even as this disappoints him. But then the text takes an enigmatic turn: And nothing ever came of what he cried Unless it was the embodiment that crashed In the cliff’s talus on the other side, And then in the far distant water splashed, But after a time allowed for it to swim, Instead of proving human when it neared And someone else additional to him, As a great buck it powerfully appeared, Pushing the crumpled water up ahead, And landed pouring like a waterfall, And stumbled through the rocks with horny tread, And forced the underbrush—and that was all.
The human projection in and of language, which claimed and overcame nature’s difference, now turns into a release of nature from this very desire, into a recognition and acceptance of dif‐ ference from nature. Yet this requires not only a saying in lan‐ guage, but a retraction of language, an Unsaying: a Dédire, to use Levinas’ term, where language is not transcended but rather revoked. Language necessarily and inevitably human‐
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izes, being spoken by humans (Wolosky 2001). But its retraction allows a realm beyond what it can grasp. In the poem, such re‐ traction is inaugurated in the qualifying sequence—nothing/‐ unless. “Nothing ever came of what he cried” subtracts, retracts from the cry that in fact produced “nothing” but is then qual‐ ified by “unless,” itself a double negative formally (un/less). Something is the lessening of nothing, which remains in fact in‐ definite: “the embodiment that crashed.” “Crashed” implies rupture. Above all, just what is crashing is not “said.” “It” re‐ mains throughout an “it,” unnamed; an absent figure of incomplete representation, this “it” does not “[prove] human” as “someone else additional to him.” In place of what Levinas calls the Same, a form of the self reproduced, an “it” is declared but as unspecified other. “It” here is an evasion of language, not a complete meta‐ phor but an enigma, an Unsaying as a refusal to name. It is not an ontological signified at all but rather a signifier that remains mobile and undefined. The “most” the poem will say about “it” (and the title insists on this lack of determination) is that “As a great buck it powerfully appeared.” “It” appears “as,” i.e., in the form of a simile but one whose circle is not closed since to appear “as” a buck is still not to be one.12 No closure is offered, no signified being is specified. All there is is appearance, phe‐ nomenon, to which language points “as” what we see and say without claiming these to fully grasp or incorporate into a ling‐ uistic system. The following simile reinforces this trajectory from com‐ pleted resemblance to open riddle: “Landed pouring like a waterfall.” Now the figure is not buck but, “like” falling water, in a near oxymoron, “landed pouring,” that further likens water to land. Which is the signified term, which are the signifiers? Buck, waterfall, land? The poem does not say, suspends saying, as a dédire that limits what language can claim. Oxymoron and open figure then verge into catechresis. “Crumpled water” makes water solid, in a figure so extreme that its very figurality In this it can be distinguished from “comme” in Ricoeur, which remains reciprocal between terms, mutually positing, and ultimately, as in his Rule of Metaphor, integrative into a resolution of distinction, a “reconciliation of which metaphor ‘makes sense’” (Rule 195). 12
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is exposed, as occurs again with “horny tread,” making the ac‐ tion into substance. The “cliff’s talus,” too, is a classic catachre‐ sis in that it names a non‐human object through human body— talus is ankle, which is how a slope of rock is called—but there is no other way of naming it, at once affirming and retracting likeness through equivocal language in which terms never co‐ incide in their senses. The force of “it” here comes to full weight: “Unless it was the embodiment that crashed.” The “it” is designated as “the embodiment,” without saying of what: but language is embodi‐ ment, is formation into shape, linearity, temporality, material body. The extreme force of temporality—on which Levinas in‐ sists absolutely as against eternal signified Ideas—governs the poem’s whole final passage, which is one extended sentence winding its way through a series of temporal moments: “crash‐ ed,” “then,” “after a time,” “neared,” “landed,” “stumbled.” The poem’s concluding gesture—”and that was all”—combines, as Frost so masterfully does, the colloquial with the philosoph‐ ical. The conclusion remains fully ambiguous, which is to say enigmatic, in ways that insist on the reader’s own response to its address. Is “all” a dismissal, as not much? Or is it a claim to being enough? “All” points back to the “Nothing” of the sentence’s opening. Indeed the long final sentence moves from nothing to all. Is the “Nothing” that came of what “he” cried a negation as lack? Or is it an indication of what is beyond his desire, which chastens but also opens to the poem’s final “all?” The poem’s title of “Most” remains situated between nothing‐ ness and “allness,” not as dialectic but as decision. To accept this “nothing” as “most” is to take leave of the solipsistic “He thought” around which language first revolved. Instead, the language event opens into response, an address/response from author to reader. Language is at once embraced and limited. We cannot not see and say in language and its time sequences; but we can accept that in doing so there remains a world beyond what we say and grasp, a kind of partial, colloquial “All” close to the “Most” that we face and can affirm but do not possess, which remains beyond us, transcending us. Among his comments on poetry, Frost speaks of “dark say‐ ings,” of “enigmatical reserve” and of “expansion and contrac‐
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tion (Frost 1968: 260).13 This poem may be said to be enigmatic in Levinasian senses. As against metaphorical structure, the po‐ em in fact creates a rupture between man and nature rather than resemblance, exposing the desire for resemblance as phe‐ nomenological imposition on what is ontologically absent and ethically problematic. The “cliffs,” the “talus,” the “embodi‐ ment” all defy correlation to human consciousness and its cate‐ gories or analogical figures. Instead, the poem’s “Said” of either mimetic description or phenomenological crisis takes place as a “Saying” in which the event of language, addressed to the read‐ er, investigates its own conditions. And it insists on an ethical “Unsaying,” a retraction, that paradoxically reveals “Nothing” to be “Most,” with an “it” that remains beyond linguistic, hu‐ man grasp. Thus the poem, respecting what is beyond human grasp and language, affirms a present world as inhabited ethic‐ ally by those who respect its boundaries. Bibliography Aquinas, Thomas. Summa Theologica. Transl. Fathers of the English Dominican Province. Online Edition Copyright © 2008 by Kevin Knight. http://www.newadvent.org/summa/index.html. Buijs, Joseph A. (1988). “The Negative Theology of Maimonides and Aquinas.” The Review of Metaphysics 41/4: 723‐38. Cohen, Richard. (2001). “Ricoeur and the Lure of Self‐Esteem.” In: Ri‐ chard Cohen. Ethics, Exegesis and Philosophy. Cambridge: Cam‐ bridge University Press. Pp. 283‐325. Derrida, Jacques. (1974). “White Mythology: Metaphor in the Text of Philosophy.” New Literary History 6/1: 5‐74. Fagenblat, Michael. (2010). A Covenant of Creatures. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Frost, Robert. (2007). “Education by Poetry.” In: Collected Prose. Ed. by Mark Richardson. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. Pp. 102‐11. (1969). Poetry of Robert Frost. New York: Holt, Rhinehart, Win‐ ston.
Cf. Poirier (1990: 14), who sees Frost as “letting his metaphors take him too far and then retracting.” 13
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Hand, Seán. (1996). “Shadowing Ethics: Levinas’s view of Art and Aesthetics.” In: Seán Hand. Facing the Other: The Ethics of Emman‐ uel Levinas. Curzon Jewish Philosophy Series. Richmond: Curzon Press. Pp. 63‐89. Jakobson, Roman. (1960). “Linguistics and Poetics.” In: Thomas Se‐ beok. Style in Language. Cambridge: MIT Press. Pp. 350‐77. Jordan, Mark. (1984). “The Names of God and the Being of Names.” In: A.J. Freddoso (ed.). The Existence and Nature of God. Notre Dame IN: University of Notre Dame. Pp. 160‐90. Levinas, Emmanuel. (1998a). “Hermeneutics and Beyond.” In: Em‐ manuel Levinas. Of God who Comes to Mind. Transl. Bettina Bergo. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998. Pp. 100‐10. (1998b). Otherwise than Being. Transl. Alphonso Lingis. Pittsburgh PA: DuQuesne University Press. (1996). “Enigma and Phenomenon.” In: Emmanuel Levinas. Basic Philosophical Writings. Bloomington IN: Indiana University Press. Pp. 65‐77. (1989). “Reality and its Shadows.” In: Sean Hand. The Levinas Reader. Pittsburgh PA: Duquesne University Press. Pp. 129‐43. (1969). Totality and Infinity: An Essay on Exteriority. Transl. Al‐ phonso Lingis. Pittsburgh PA: Duquesne University Press. Lynen, John. (1960). The Pastoral Art of Robert Frost. New Haven: Yale University Press. Marcus, Mordecai. (1991). The Poems of Robert Frost: An Explication. Boston: GK Hal. Nitchie, George. (1978). Human Values in Robert Frost. New York: Gor‐ dian Press. Pinsky, Robert. (1976). The Situation of Poetry. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Poirier, Richard. (1990). Robert Frost: The Work of Knowing. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Ricoeur, Paul. (1997). Autrement: Lecture d’Autrement qu’etre ou au‐delà de l’essence d’Emmanuel Levinas. Paris: PUF. (1992). Oneself as Another. Transl. Kathleen Blamey. Chicago: Uni‐ versity of Chicago Press. (1990). Soi‐même comme un autre. Paris: Editions de Seuil. (1978a). The Philosophy of Paul Ricoeur. Ed. by Charles Reagan and David Stewart. Boston: Beacon Press.
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(1978b). The Rule of Metaphor. Transl. Robert Czerny with Kath‐ leen McLaughlin and John Costello, SJ. London: Routledge & Ke‐ gan. Wolosky, Shira. (2012). The Art of Poetry. New York: Oxford University Press. (1982). “Derrida, Jabes, Levinas: Sign Theory as Ethical Dis‐ course.” Prooftexts 2: 283‐32. Wyschogrod, Edith. (2000). The Problem of Ethical Metaphysics. New York: Fordham University Press. (1995). “The Art in Ethics: Aesthetics, Objectivity and Alterity.” In: Adriaan Theodor Peperzak (ed.). Ethics as First Philosophy. New York: Routledge. Pp. 137‐48.
Language and Transcendence in Dante’s Paradiso William Franke Abstract This speculative essay in philosophical poetics draws from Heidegger and Agamben in reflecting on how the predicament of ineffability Dante struggles with from the beginning to the end of the Paradiso becomes the source of one of the most fecund veins of poetic expression in Western literature. Philo‐ sophical and theological backgrounds, ancient and modern, are brought to bear in order to render intelligible the paradoxically loquacious expressivity of poetic experience vis‐à‐vis what cannot be said. The limits of language are dramatically realized by Dante in such a way as to break language open to the infinite and the whole of reality. In his wake, the experience of what tran‐ scends proper linguistic expression in various immanent, worldly registers, including that of poetic language, has continued to engender a wide range of at least quasi‐religious reactions in symbolic works in various genres down to our own times.
The Language of the Ineffable The whole of Dante’s Paradiso is an elaborate articulation of in‐ effability, a self‐conscious failure to say what cannot be said. Making a virtue, or at least an issue, of necessity, Dante takes the impossibility of expressing his vision of God as his theme: he makes this barrier an integral part of that vision itself and, to an unnerving extent, even substitutes it for the vision. For he can elaborate, with unbounded verve and virtuosity, on his own human limitations as they manifest themselves in this im‐ possible attempt, whereas he can say nothing at all about the di‐ vine essence as such. Whatever the divine essence is, all that can be said about it concerns just this impossibility of express‐ ing it. Yet Dante’s very insistence on his inability to narrate the vision accorded him expresses it, after all, metanarratologically. By saying and resaying, with unsurpassable intensity of reli‐ gious witness, that he cannot possibly say what he experienced in Paradise, he has in a manner said it: the poem, the Paradiso, exists.
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Dante’s exhaustive exploration of the modes of this incapa‐ city, moreover, constitutes a thoroughgoing treatment of the negative expressive capabilities of language. Only thanks to language’s capability of negating and disqualifying itself can something in relation to this divine essence nevertheless be ex‐ pressed. In certain registers of poetic and theological experience that Dante explores to their furthest limits, this self‐subversion of language becomes a condition of the experience of divinity. God, the ultimate theme and object of the poem, can be known only through the experience of language in a negative mode. From the perspective of such a linguistic mysticism, it may be impossible to conceive of or experience God otherwise than through the negations of language. The negative theological paradigm that subtends Dante’s poetics of ineffability matures in the fathers and doctors of the church and can be found fully developed, just a generation be‐ fore Dante’s time, as consummately analyzed by Thomas Aqui‐ nas (1225‐1274). In his Summa Theologica Ia, question 13, Thomas shows that since God cannot be known as he is in himself but only in relation to his effects, his creatures, so also he can be named and spoken of only in relation to them. This means that infinite Being or God is known only by analogy or through its negations in the forms of finite beings. For Aquinas, God’s es‐ sence (essentia) is equivalent to his existence (existentia), which can be verified but not described. What God is (“quid Deus est”) cannot be known by us (in this life) or be expressed. All we know (at least naturally and rationally) is that he is (“quod Deus est”). Other apophatic mystics, together with Dante, then de‐ velop metaphorically the analogical ways of not knowing God in relation to the whole spectrum of created existence in its countless different dimensions and facets. This peculiarly indirect and negative sort of expression, based on not knowing, is the special element of the Paradiso. There is something marvelous and fascinating in the way that this negation of a proper subject matter becomes itself an inex‐ haustible fount for poetic excursus and elaboration. It performs the magic of making something, everything, out of nothing. This negative creativity, or the creativity of negation, has some claim to being recognized as the very vocation of poetry— ποίεσις, “making”—as such or in its purity. Racine, in his pur‐
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suit of the purity of poetic language, was likewise to discover that his art consisted in making everything out of nothing (“toute l’invention consiste à faire quelque chose de rien,” 1950: 466). The magic of such poetry is to conjure a whole world of beings out of nothing—the “airy nothing” of words. With the poetics of ineffability, however, even this airy nothing of words is finally removed by the complete evacuation of language. Dante’s endeavor to express the inexpressible converges upon the perennial, millenary attempts of countless poets and thinkers: seminal in our times are the efforts of Heidegger and, following in his wake, Levinas, Derrida, and Blanchot. For Hei‐ degger, all true and original speaking, in essence naming, is an attempt “to say the unspoken and to do so in such a way that it remains unspoken” (“Jedes anfängliche und eigentliche Nen‐ nen sagt Ungesprochenes und zwar so, dass es ungesprochen bleibt,” 1954: 119). And Blanchot defines the ideal of literature in general as that of speaking in order to say nothing (“L’Idéal de la littérature a pu être celui‐ci: ne rien dire, parler pour ne rien dire,” 1949: 327). In important respects, the source of this vein of speculation is to be found in the church fathers who combined their faith in an absolutely transcendent God with Greek logos philosophy. The problem of ineffability, made fundamental for the Latin tra‐ dition especially by Augustine and then by Dionysius the Areo‐ pagite, thanks to the latter’s De divinis nominibus and De theolo‐ gia mystica in Latin translation, had been wrestled with by the Greek fathers, particularly the Cappadocians John Chrysostom, Gregory Nazianzus, and Gregory of Nyssa. It subsequently de‐ velops in a continuous tradition, passing through John Scott Eriugena and Maimonides (who directly influence Aquinas) and reaches another speculative peak with Meister Eckhart in Dante’s own time (Franke 2007a: vol. 1). In what follows, I will interpret the implications of Dante’s view of language as embodied in the poetry of the Paradiso with reference to much more recent thought about language. Admit‐ tedly, I am not reconstructing Dante’s own understanding of what he was doing. Instead, I am bringing out the full signifi‐ cance of the creative use of language in Dante’s poetry as it may be appreciated retrospectively with the theoretical resources available to us today. The premise for such a reading is the
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conviction that the Paradiso is an attempt to experience the es‐ sence of language as the essence of being and even of Being It‐ self—the esse ipsum subsistens of medieval onto‐theology. To write, and by consequence to read, the Paradiso in this way is to “undergo an experience with language” (“mit der Sprache eine Erfahrung machen”), in Heidegger’s phrase (1959: 159). For both Dante and Heidegger, the question of language is the ques‐ tion of Being, and it entails the question of all things in their or‐ iginary ground and togetherness, their mutual relatedness in making up a world or cosmos. Following in the train of Heidegger’s speculations supple‐ mented by insights from Wittgenstein, Benjamin, and Foucault, Giorgio Agamben identifies the experience of language (“exper‐ imentum linguae”) as the “transcendental a priori” of the very possibility of thought (2001). We can and should reach back to Dante as one of the most original explorers of this experience, one opening the path to modernity while yet retaining the now largely lost horizon in ancient and medieval hermeneutics of what we today call “experience.” This is for Agamben the ex‐ perience of a “purely empty dimension” (“dimensione perfetta‐ mente vuota,” X) that places us in front of “the pure exteriority of language” (“la pura esteriorità della lingua,” XI). This last point marks an important difference from Dante’s sensibility, for whom, surely, language, like everything else, was inhabited by the indwelling of the divine Spirit. Like Dante, however, Agamben finds in this experience of language as such an experience not simply of silence (“sigetica”) or of a “lack of names” (as Hölderlin famously wrote) but of the “su‐ preme aporia” (aporia suprema, XI), the impasse or gap between language and discourse, langue and parole, semantics and sem‐ iotics (Benveniste 1966‐1974a; 1966‐1974b). In Dante’s experi‐ ence of language there is just such a disjunction, and it alone enables him to signify what is in itself an experience without articulable content. Dante in the Paradiso constantly finds him‐ self enraptured by superlatively significant experience that, nonetheless, he can find no words to express. Semiotically, the poem bursts at the seams with all that it would say and must mean, while at the semantic level all its contents are negated and withdrawn. This experience, the experience of language it‐ self, as necessarily presupposed in all experience, even while
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itself escaping all attempts to express it, Dante registers in his evocations of the “ineffability topos.” The experience of lan‐ guage per se is analogous to and finally indistinguishable from Dante’s ultimate experience of divinity, of the divine essence itself. The Ineffability Topos The topos of ineffability, that is, the declaration in “negative hy‐ perboles” of the impossibility of description, has been identified by numerous critics as a peculiarly distinguishing feature of the Paradiso, even if not unique to this third part of the Commedia (Jacomuzzi 1970). The instances of the topos are not only incom‐ parably more frequent in the Paradiso (some principle ones: I. 4‐ 9, 70‐72; III. 37‐39; X. 43‐48, 70‐75; XIV. 79‐81, 103‐08; XVIII. 7‐ 18; XX. 10‐12; XXIII. 22‐24, 40‐69; XXIV. 19‐27; XXX. 16‐36; XXXI. 136‐38; XXXIII almost as whole); they also take on there a theo‐ logical dimension reaching well beyond their customary rhetor‐ ical function as they occur very broadly in literary tradition. Their renunciation of description of the object of Dante’s experi‐ ence becomes a practice assimilable to, or even participating in, what has been called “negative theology” in the Christian mys‐ tical tradition based on the recognition of the ineffability of God and consequent recourse to purely negative modes of signifying in relation to Him. The problem is a little broader and deeper than this, inas‐ much as not only God, the final object of the intellect’s desire (desiderium suum, also called substantiam intellectualem separa‐ tam” in the Letter to Can Grande expounding “suo desire” in Paradiso I. 7), but also the whole host of paradisiacal realities are the object of Dante’s transcendent vision, and inasmuch as not only language fails to represent what Dante can remember of Paradise but memory itself fails to retain this experience reach‐ ing beyond all ordinary bounds. All of Paradise in the strict sense of the Empyrean, the purely intellectual, suprasensible Paradise, is outside of time, in eternity, and therefore belongs to the kind of memoryless vision without division that char‐ acterizes the contemplation of the angels (Paradiso IV. 28‐48; XXIX. 79‐81). The density that the ineffability motif takes on in Dante’s poem effects a displacement of its theme from the unattainable
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suprasensible object to the poem itself and its very tangible, tas‐ table poetry or, in other words, to the experience of language. By elaborating on ineffability to the extent and with the persis‐ tence that he does, Dante makes it into much more than simply the marker of a limit, the sign of a region to which expression cannot accede. It becomes, by an indirect, recursive logic, an ex‐ altation of his poem itself in its extraordinary object and endea‐ vor. This results from all the poem says indirectly about itself in noting all that it cannot say about its purported object. This self‐ reflexive aspect of the poem’s insistence on ineffability has been noted by critics for some time. Jacomuzzi makes this point by relating together the two sides of the Paradiso as, on the one hand, indicating a supersensible reality to which Dante must be elevated by being “transhumanized” and being given higher powers of sense (for example at XXIII. 47‐48) and, on the other hand, presenting this higher reality in terms comprehensible to human understanding by a metaphorical translation bringing su‐ pernal things down to our level (“inver lo segno del nostro intelletto,” XXIII. 37). This is what Jacomuzzi calls the displacement of the object of the poem, specifically with reference to verses 46‐69 of Canto XXIII, from the visionary event to the poem itself: “Their proper object is not so much an event, the forgotten and unsayable vi‐ sion, as the poem” (“Il loro oggetto proprio non è tanto un acca‐ dimento, la visione oblita e indicibile, quanto il poema,” 40). By contrast to the panegyric function that the ineffability topos ful‐ fills in literary tradition, in Dante’s poem the topos “declares its function in evidencing not the sublimity or presumed ineffabil‐ ity of the ‘subiectum,’ but the exceptional status of the poem” (“dichiara la sua funzione nell’evidenziare appunto, non la sub‐ limità o la ineffabilità presupposta del ‘subiectum’, ma la ecce‐ zionalità del poema,” 43). Jacomuzzi underlines, furthermore, how the poem’s technical virtuosity and artifice are in tension with the transcendence of its object (“la sua effettuale strumen‐ tazione tecnica, l’artificio che si riconosce in tensione con la tra‐ scendenza dell’oggetto,” 43). The effects produced should, in principle, rely only on the superlative power and inspiration from which everything in the poem, by hypothesis, derives. In violation of this principle, however, there is much exposure and even exaltation of the artifice that contributes to producing such
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extraordinary effects. This suggests that the principle of inspir‐ ation versus artifice is not a rigorous dichotomy and that arti‐ fice itself can function as a means of receiving inspiration. Undergoing an Experience with Language Dante’s very insistence throughout the Paradiso—in reiterated instances of the ineffability topos declaring the incommensura‐ bility of his subject matter to his language—that what he experi‐ enced cannot be described results, paradoxically, in a collapsing together of his language and this subject matter. For, if langu‐ age is impotent to convey the experience of Paradise, then what the Paradiso does convey is exclusively an experience of lan‐ guage: the poem reaches to no further, extra‐linguistic field of reference. Accordingly, one might conclude, “Language itself is the real protagonist of the third cantica, which is a poetic at‐ tempt to express that which is beyond our intellectual as well as our material experience. Because the object of such poetry is by definition inaccessible, expression becomes an end in itself” (Chiarenza 1978: 207). This view builds on John Freccero’s ob‐ servation regarding Paradiso that representation points to no reality, however fictive, beyond itself. The structure of the cantica depends, not upon a prin‐ ciple of mimesis, but rather upon metaphor: the creation of a totally new reality out of elements so disparate as to seem contradictory by any logic other than that of poetry. (Frec‐ cero 1968: 86)
Taken in this key, the experience of language in the Paradi‐ so is Paradise, a paradise of poetic metaphor, insofar as the poem is able to convey anything at all of the subject named by its title. Accordingly, the protagonist’s and the poet’s experi‐ ences, although said to be virtually without any point of contact, come to coincide in the actual saying of the poem. While the terms of the ineffability topos ostensibly affirm a total disjunc‐ tion between these two realities, that is, the vision itself, on the one hand, and the writing of the poem, on the other, in effect, for as much as is given to the reader in the experience of the poem, the two amount to the very same thing. We need not as‐ sert dogmatically that they are identical, but for the reader, at
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any rate, access to Dante’s experience of Paradise is channeled through poetic experience of the language of the Paradiso. In this way, ineffability, which is in principle the limit of all possible discourse, is turned into a principal means of genera‐ ting Dante’s poetic exposition of his experience of Paradise. By dwelling poetically on precisely this unbridgeable gap, Dante turns it from a cipher of an unsurpassable barrier to expression into the most richly expressive and inexhaustible moment of his whole poem, indeed the overarching and omnipresent burden of his quest. Paradoxically, by deferring to the beyond of lan‐ guage—inasmuch as he defines the direct intuition of God es‐ sentially in terms of what cannot be described by language— Dante’s experience fulfills itself precisely in and as language. This is possible because the beyond of language is itself no dis‐ crete or definite object; it is exactly nothing that can be a deter‐ minate object of language. Yet, being nothing determinate that can be expressed turns into something of the greatest moment: this nothing becomes everything precisely on account of lan‐ guage’s inability to reach and reduce or delimit it. Being nothing determinate, furthermore, this beyond of language puts up no resistance to metaphorical redescriptions, and so the inexpressible turns out also to be infinitely expressi‐ ble. It is open to determination not just by any one delimited range of figures or themes available among others within a giv‐ en language but by language as a whole and as such. This in‐ definability and infinite openness of language as such makes it analogous to God, and consequently the experience of language can become a powerful means for suggesting what the ex‐ perience of divinity might be like. This experience of “likeness” to God in the experience of language without limits is not per‐ haps phenomenologically different from the experience of di‐ vinity itself. Not surprisingly, then, typically in monotheistic traditions, discourse about divinity turns out to be discourse about language as divine Word. For Henri Meschonnic, for in‐ stance, “Discourse on the divine is an indirect discourse on lan‐ guage” (“Le discours sur le divin est un discours indirect sur le langage,” 1985: 357). Language as such opens up or explodes into an experience that is infinite, in fact, the experience of All. All is experienced in and as language. Language functions, like divinity, as the
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All‐Nothing that Neoplatonic discourses in negative theology found to be at the source of all that is. The All‐Nothing that lies at the source of all that is and that was understood to be God, albeit a God beyond naming and description, according to Neo‐ platonic as well as Hermetic and certain Gnostic philosophies, is expounded by Dante essentially in terms of language. Dante’s orientation to the ultimate unsayable principle, the All‐Nothing (Omnia‐Nihil), is understandably linguistic, given his perspec‐ tive as a poet. He is, moreover, in the highest degree a theoret‐ ically reflective poet, one who is in search of the perfect lan‐ guage, what in De vulgari eloquentia he calls the illustrious ver‐ nacular (“vulgare illustre”). He can hardly help, therefore, see‐ ing everything through linguistic lenses. This paradox about the language of the ineffable, namely, that it inadvertently defines an object and stakes out a field of reference that is itself purely linguistic in character, has been re‐ vealingly explored by Michel de Certeau in connection with a later historical period, the Baroque of the sixteenth and seven‐ teenth centuries. This period, with its characteristic forms of mystic discourse, is also highly instructive for the verbal proble‐ matic of ineffability. According to Certeau, the paradox of in‐ effability is that what is purely ineffable turns out to be also purely verbal. It is nothing but this verbal formulation: “that of which one cannot speak is ‘that of which one cannot speak’” (Certeau 1973: 153). Certeau is describing the paradox of mys‐ tical and specifically hagiographic discourse, namely, that what cannot be said can have no other than a purely verbal identity. It can be approached only through words. The ineffable Other is experienced only from within language—precisely as its lack and as signified by the failure of the sign. Luca D’Isanto, quoting Certeau’s Fable mystique, XVIe‐XVIIe siècle, spells out the paradox: The graphic signs consume and exhaust the capacity to say the Other; they refer to that which is missing from discourse carried to its limits, to the point of creating a hole in lan‐ guage: the signifier “God” indicates the coming to nothing of all signs. (1995: 109)
But just this limit of significance is the focal point from which language in general is understood in Dante’s Paradiso.
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Dante is all too aware that, insofar as he is going to say anything about the ineffable, he is talking (at least indirectly) about lan‐ guage and its limits rather than about any effectually extra‐ linguistic object. The ineffable, if we say what it is, must be said to be nothing. For it is no specifiable object—nothing that can be said to be this or that. But just this is the predicament, according to classical negative theology, of all discourse about God. Nevertheless, Dante’s very thematization of ineffability, es‐ pecially by being given such concentrated intensity, itself al‐ ready surpasses the predicament of not being able to say any‐ thing. Indeed, saying what cannot be said in an indirect manner says it. Such a strategy of indirection, moreover, is implicit in the very idea of allegorical signification. Dante attempts to ap‐ proach the ineffable precisely through language, poetic lan‐ guage, taken to its limits, and he finds there the ineffable divine Other—in his uncanny experience of language. This would suggest that what is ineffable is so because it is immanent to language; it remains within the very structure and dynamism of language and cannot become an object of it. It is like the pure medium of “language as such,” in Benjamin’s speculation (1916), the “pure language” (reine Sprache, Benjamin 1977) that is intimated by translation between different lan‐ guages, each one but a shard of the shattered whole of language as such. Such language, which is manifest only through the multiplicity of historical languages that are its splinters, can be an allegory for God as Being itself that is the transcendent source of all beings but can be found nowhere whole among them. In this manner, Dante’s constant recourse to the ineffability topos becomes a self‐reflection of language on itself. Such re‐ flection moves into the foreground of his poem, becoming in a strong sense its leading motif and key theme. This self‐reflexiv‐ ity is itself conceived and imagined as a reflection of transcen‐ dence. The “transcendence” in question is God, but it is made manifest only as a negative linguistic structure of what cannot be said, which Dante understands and explores semiologically or, in Kenneth Burke’s terms, “logologically.”
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Immanence to Language as Intimation of Transcendence The constantly reiterated inability to retell what he really exper‐ ienced is not simply or unequivocally a despairing admission of the utter inadequacy of language with respect to the ultimate reality he seeks to convey. Curiously, the continued apologies for the inadequacy of language to describe the transcendent vi‐ sion of Paradise have the result not of shunting language aside but of foregrounding it and finally of making the experience of Paradise (insofar as this can be conveyed by the poem at all) co‐ incide with the experience of language. Language’s normal ref‐ erential function is thereby suspended or displaced as language becomes in itself, more directly, an objectless mode or manifes‐ tation of vision and revelation. The imageless vision, visio intel‐ lectualis, of the sources cited in the Letter to Can Grande, sec. 28, is given purely as an act of grace and cannot be recalled, but Dante endeavors to reproduce this miracle in the medium of language. Dante thereby discovers the immanence of Paradise itself to the language of the Paradiso that he invents (in the me‐ dieval sense of invenire or “to come into”). Of course, as Dante relentlessly insists, Paradise also transcends all that language can attain, but whatever of Paradise can be communicated is communicated not as an object exterior to language, and so as referred to or described, but rather in a dimension of experience immanent to language, one that is probed and perhaps tasted or touched especially in the language of lyric, which Dante so ef‐ fectively exploits, developing it to unprecedented heights in the final cantica of his poem. Whenever one says that the ineffable is what absolutely cannot be expressed in language, one has expressed absolutely what it is, so far as it can be said, and one has done so in lan‐ guage. Of course, one means to indicate something independent of and untouched by language. But what could this meaning possibly be? Is any such thing as meaning possible without lan‐ guage? To conceive of some thing that cannot be said, but which nevertheless is, may simply hypostatize a certain aspect or vir‐ tuality of language. This is what the discourse about the mysti‐ cal experience of the ineffable risks doing. It risks treating the ineffable Other as a thing that can be set up over against lan‐ guage and as utterly separated from it. Dante in some ways cer‐ tainly purveys such a myth, and yet he also explores this ineffa‐
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ble otherness as immanent to language and as its peculiarly un‐ objectifiable, infinite mode of being. He does so in persistent linguistic figures for divinity as Sign (XXXI. 27), Writing (XVIII. 70‐136), Verbum (XXIII. 73), the alpha and omega of the uni‐ verse (XXVI. 17), which is itself a book bound by love (XXXIII. 86). On the other hand, this reflection must not be mistaken simply for a “reduction” of divinity to language. Language is revealed by this sort of speculative reflection not as a definite object to which anything could be reduced. Language, rather, as no longer bound to and limited by any object, becomes irreduci‐ ble and is recognized as itself infinite—as infinitely open. It is so conceived in certain models of pansemiosis à la Charles San‐ ders Peirce or Umberto Eco, in which reality and signs interpen‐ etrate and flow into one another without fixed borders.1 Lan‐ guage so conceived, moreover, is transitional, always transi‐ tory—“on the way” to what transcends it. It is as such an en‐ gine of self‐transcendence that language points to divinity. The sign is a mechanism of self‐transcendence towards what it sig‐ nifies. What Dante is contemplating, or playing and experiment‐ ing with, is the fact that God reveals himself by linguistic signs that are not what they signify. A transcendent divinity can be revealed only by signs, which are at the same time veilings sub‐ stituting objective entities for what in itself can be no object. This is recognized uncompromisingly by theologians of tran‐ scendence like Karl Barth: He unveils Himself as the One He is by veiling Himself in a form which He Himself is not. He uses this form distinct from Himself, He uses its work and sign, in order to be ob‐ jective in, with and under this form, and therefore to give Himself to us to be known. Revelation means the giving of signs. (Barth 1957: 52)
The Middle Ages in particular had an acute sense of God as veiling himself in the very signs by which he is revealed. Johan Huizinga astutely observed this proclivity of mystic language A detailed application of such semiotic theory to the poem is proposed by De Benedictis 2012. 1
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in the late Middle Ages to make all signs for God into figures for the ineffable: The imagination was continually striving, and in vain, to express the ineffable by giving it shape and figure.... It is al‐ ways infinite extension which has served for rendering the eternal accessible to reason. Mystics exert themselves to find suggestive images.... Thus begin the tremendous strug‐ gles of the spirit which yearns to rise above all imagery.... But still the contemplation of the absolute Being ever re‐ mains linked up with notions of extension or of light. Next these notions change into their negative opposites—silence, the void, obscurity. And as these latter formless concep‐ tions, too, in their turn, prove insufficient, a constant joining of each to its contrary is tried. Finally, nothing remains to express the idea of divinity but pure negation. (Huizinga 1985: 221)
While it is programmatically the case that the experience con‐ veyed by the Paradiso is a linguistic‐poetic experience, we must still allow that this experience should not itself be taken as an independent, subsistent reality but only as correlative to true reality, the supersensible realm that Dante wishes to adumbrate by “shadowy prefaces” (“umbriferi prefazii,” Paradiso XXX. 78). We must remember that God, strictly speaking, for much of Ne‐ oplatonism and in the mystic vision of Meister Eckhart, for ex‐ ample, is the only reality. All creatures are mere nothing; I do not say that they are little or aught: they are nothing. That which has no entity, is not. All creatures have no being, for their being depends on the pres‐ ence of God. (Eckhart 1978: 4)
Any articulable experience, as an experience of something finite, can, by this logic, be only an illusion, an experience of what is not. All articulation is therefore vacuous and vain in the face of the absolute reality remaining in unbroken silence beyond and apart from all determinations. To the extent that we articulate what is real to us, we make it into allegory, or at least metaphorize it, seeing it from our own partial point of view, thus filtering the infinite or indeterminate through the lenses of our own finite experience.
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It is only a language that gestures towards the absolutely indeterminate that can effectively stand for a presence/absence beyond the grasp of language. It is only in finally undoing itself as a communicative instrument for designating specific entities and for conveying definite conceptual contents that language can evoke the infinite, divine presence. With his allusion to the scattering of the leaves of Sybil at the height of his venture in the final canto, Dante enacts just such an undoing of the careful‐ ly constructed discourse of his whole poem. This allusion be‐ comes an image for the poem itself in its ultimate endeavor to express his final vision and its necessary failure. Così la neve al sol si disigilla; così al vento ne le foglie levi si perdea la sentenza di Sibilla. So does sun unseal the snow; so in the wind were the light leaves of the oracles of Sybil lost. (XXXIII. 64‐66)
The oracular speech of the poem melts down and scatters in the very moment in which it would triumphantly achieve comple‐ tion. Logic of Analogy and Rhetoric of Allegory In a first moment, Dante’s insistent declarations of the inade‐ quacy of language have the effect of concentrating attention on language. This thematizing of itself and of its own status as lin‐ guistic medium constitutes the decisive gesture of the Paradiso as predicated on a poetics of ineffability. Yet the poem is also directed by its intentionality towards the experience of what transcends it in its collapse as referential language. This double gesture is consolidated programmatically in the ineffability to‐ pos, but it also extends far beyond and insinuates itself capil‐ lary‐wise into the entire texture of the poem. It is by a peculiar kind of analogy, which is more exactly dis‐analogy, that the nature of language as infinite medium can obliquely afford Dante some experience of God. After all, anal‐ ogy is a central mechanism from the opening cantos. Not only the renunciations of description, but all those passages that de‐
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fine the nature of the poem’s object as supersensible and tran‐ scendent, yet as experienced analogically through bodily sen‐ sations, are pertinent to determining the function of the ineffa‐ bility topos. This includes the whole poem in a broad sense, but more specifically its transitions to higher and hence even more ineffable subject matter. Donald Duclow observes in relation to John Scott Eriugena and other apophatic theologians in the Dionysian tradition that “speech and writing not only contain symbols but themselves become symbols, since they provide John the Scot with a para‐ digm for interpreting both nature and divine creativity” (2006: 48). It is the symbol that Dante’s language in the Paradiso be‐ comes that constitutes an allegory of the experience of Paradise: his poetic language becomes a revelation of divinity. To flesh out the ways in which this happens requires attention especial‐ ly to the sensory qualities of poetic language. The comparison in question, however, is constituted not by discernible similar‐ ities between fully constituted objects but rather by a transform‐ ative relationship. The symbol or allegory that language be‐ comes is of the nature of an “allegory of faith,” in Karl Barth’s terms, or an “allegory of love,” to hark back to St. Augustine. Allegory in this sense is experienced as a formative modeling and assimilating of the human self to an unattainable unity and ideality in which the divine is made incarnate. Divinization of the human soul has long been a crucial axis of mystical ascent that can be traced also in the Paradiso.2 The transformative powers of a certain performative di‐ mension of language have been the special concern of rhetoric, from ancient times and again with renewed intensity in recent researches. Following Paolo Valesio’s, Ascoltare il silenzio (1986), Domenico Cofano describes how rhetoric in the second half of the twentieth century extended its territory beyond verbal ex‐ pression to the inexpressible. A kind of non‐verbal rhetoric turning on gesture and action and the “eloquenza del corpo” was already an important theme in classical tradition. In mod‐ ern treatments, the very interruptions and fissures and the tear‐ ings of language become themselves eloquent. As a result of the Among excellent treatments are Botterill 1994, especially 194‐ 241, and Moevs 2005: 58‐68. 2
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“rhetoric of anti‐rhetoric,” rhetoric englobes silence and uses it as an extension of itself. “Silence, then, is no longer in opposi‐ tion to rhetoric but incorporates it and renders it more power‐ ful” (“la integra e la potenzia,” Cofano 2003: 8). Silence becomes “plenitudinous” and reinstates a kind of absolute fullness of rhetoric. Cofano describes an inversion with respect to the rest of the poem of the roles of word and silence in the Paradiso, in which “now the word makes itself the bearer of silence” (“e ora la parola a farsi portatrice del silenzio,” Cofano 2003: 17). Si‐ lence does not exactly signify, not in the usual sense of desig‐ nating some reality or experience. It points, rather, beyond all experience to a divine ultra‐reality. According to Giuseppe Led‐ da, in the Paradiso “the metaphors will take on more and more the function of scanning the advance of silence toward the ab‐ solute unity of the divine hypersignificance” (“le metafore avranno sempre più la funzione di scandire l’avanzata del si‐ lenzio verso l’unità assoluta dell’ipersignificanza divina,” Led‐ da 2002: 15). Giuliana Carugati likewise captures the insep‐ arability of word and silence, sense and non‐sense, near the end of her study in declaring that “vision and consummation, vision and blindness touch and support each other in that supreme confrontation of word and silence, of sense and nonsense that constitutes the “mystic thing’” (“visione e consumazione, vision e accecamento si toccano, si appoggiano l’uno all’altra, in quel supremo affrontarsi di parola e silenzio, di senso e non‐senso che definisce la ‘cosa mistica,’” 1991: 134). From various angles, these critics confirm that writing Par‐ adise is not a matter of describing an object. It is based, rather, on analogy, in logical terms, and on allegory, in rhetorical terms. But, more than description in any genre, it is a matter of responding to the Other in absolute freedom, face to face with nothing, yet responding to incitements of sensible experience, even of overwhelming and traumatic experience (Franke 2013: 168‐70). Ineffability and the Speech of Language We have seen that the paradox that subtends the whole miracle of the Paradiso, with its absolutely consummate expression of the inexpressible, is that insistence on its own impossibility ac‐ tually results in the achievement of the project. Precisely the
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language of ineffability—which is, strictly speaking, the lan‐ guage of the whole of the Paradiso—becomes the means of ex‐ pressing what the poem itself says cannot be expressed. Exactly contrary to what the ineffability topos, taken at face value, says, Dante’s poem, as structured from beginning to end by this topos that defines the nature and limits of its pro‐ ject, proves the impossibility of separating the experience from its expression. Whereas the topos per se posits an unbridgeable gulf between experience and expression, Dante works it over throughout the Paradiso until its language, as a form of poetic expression, comes in effect to present itself as a genuine antici‐ pation of the experience of Paradise. Of course, in principle, the separation between the poem and its object remains in force, but in effect all the energies of the poem have been poured into fusing the two together. One way of putting this, adopting Stoic terminology, would be to say that the pragmatic effect of Dan‐ te’s language (actus exercitus) contradicts its propositional sense (actus signatus). To this extent, the poem is about how the program of as‐ cending to attain an imageless vision is fulfilled by the lan‐ guage that articulates it. The imageless vision beyond the refer‐ ential reach of language as an instrument of representation is replaced at the level of effective poetic realization by the “vi‐ sion” that language in itself is and thus, in a certain manner, images. In effect, what Dante’s poem is about is the speech of language, all that language expresses and embodies materially and lyrically—independently of its being related to an object outside itself to which it refers. The poem gives relief to the fact that language as such exists and thereby to the whole mystery of existence. Wittgenstein’s locus classicus, in his “Lecture on Ethics,” on this equivalence between the mysterious fact that there is anything at all and the existence of language, is relayed by Agamben in his “Experimentum Linguae,” the preface to In‐ fanzia e storia, which focuses on modern philosophical ap‐ proaches to the experience of language as an “architranscen‐ dental,” preceding even the medieval transcendentalia (being, unity, truth), at the origin of all possible experience (Agamben 2001: X). The substitution of an experience of language for the ex‐ perience of Paradise itself, I submit, is not to be taken as a secu‐
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larization or demythologization of Paradise. Rather, the best analogue that Dante can offer us of Paradise is the experience of language, a poetic experience of language in which it breaks down as language in the conventional sense of a sign bearing a meaning and opens up into a kind of experience of unmediated presence. What language images and even more importantly realizes in itself is the total relationality of all beings. The divine being, God as esse, in the Scholastic doctrine of God as infinite (or infinitive) being, is mirrored in the structure of language— in its infinity and openness to always further interpretation of its sense—and is realized concretely in the relating of all things together. Determinate beings in the infinity of the relations to which language opens them are so many partial revelations of being as such. Ineffability is not a trope or figure for anything but rather a figure for what is nothing, which means nothing that can be said. What Dante discovers, then, is the mysterious nature of language as unable to say what it is really about. All that it can actually say falls short of the essential thing that it indirectly ex‐ presses and—at a yet deeper level—simply is. What, then, is the point of trying to say the ineffable? Precisely that, even with no articulable content, nevertheless the very existence of language says a lot. It is language that speaks. Language speaks even when it says nothing—and indeed most essentially just then. Such is the thesis signally of Martin Heidegger among modern philosophers, and Walter Benjamin reaches a comparable con‐ clusion through his quasi‐Kabbalistic speculations. Like them, Dante does not follow Wittgenstein’s advice that we should re‐ main silent concerning that about which we cannot speak (“Wovon man nicht sprechen kann, darüber muß man schwei‐ gen,” Tractatus 7). In fact, his poem is a prodigious act of defi‐ ance of precisely this seemingly incontrovertible logic. As has been discovered from a variety of different angles of speculation on Logos since Heraclitus but in particular in the German hermeneutical tradition since Romanticism (notably Novalis’s “Monolog”), language is the infinite mysteriously made manifest in finite forms. Being as such is beyond the grasp of language; it is infinite. Yet precisely being as such is what language as such reveals or manifests, without being able to say it. Dante’s poetic insight, or rather the insight built into
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the poetry that Dante develops to the furthest limit of its expressive power, concerns how language—when absolutized as pure mediation without any object—reveals the very essence of the unmediated and unconditioned. Dante’s poem is about God, but this theme coincides for him, in effect or in what can be said, with the nature of lan‐ guage. The nature of language is to be nothing and yet to be the whole of being in the form of the universal medium and ontolo‐ gical ground presupposed by every particular thing or phe‐ nomenon. This point of view has been developed particularly by Gadamer under the heading of “Linguistic Ontology” (“Ontologische Wendung der Hermeneutik am Leitfaden der Sprache”) in the third part of his Wahrheit und Methode, but Gadamer is articulating insights deeply rooted in Heidegger and in the whole hermeneutic tradition of thinking about language carried forward by such thinkers as Herder, Hamann, Hegel, and Humboldt, and extended even by Wittgenstein. In its innermost nature, language contrives purely by means of difference to express, or rather to intimate, what is of itself purely simple, like God. This simplicity can be apprehended only as produced and projected by language, and therefore on‐ ly negatively. The very term “simple” is itself a negation, mean‐ ing etymologically “without fold” in Latin (sin, without, plex, fold). Thus the nature of language as mediation is, in its dif‐ ferential and negative character, its faculty to create out of nothing but itself and its own internal folds or differentiations, paradoxically the negative image of what it is utterly different and diverse from—the unmediated simplicity of being (Franke 2007b: 25‐29). Language and Transcendence: Later Heidegger and Dante To write, and by consequence to read, the Paradiso is to “under‐ go an experience with language.” For both Dante and Heideg‐ ger, the question of language is the question of Being and as such entails the question of all things in their originary ground and togetherness, their mutual relatedness in making up a world or cosmos. Beyond just representing the universal relat‐ edness of things, moreover, language enacts it and integrates us into this universal event of being.
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Language, the Word, is revelation. Language is this for a Christian poet like Dante not only, as for Heidegger and Hum‐ boldt, by its nature as disclosure of a world but also in the sense that the word, the Word that is with God, is God and creates the world, as stated in the prologue of the Gospel according to John. In the Paradiso, Dante seeks to recover the essence of lan‐ guage as revelation of the divine Word. Or, rather, we should say that he highlights this quest there since the whole Commedia participates in it. But in the Paradiso in particular he attenuates reference in the attempt to reveal the essential nature of lan‐ guage. The reference that is discarded is reference in an ordin‐ ary or technical sense to a world of independently existing ob‐ jects, not signification as intimation of a wholly other or para‐ disiacal world that is projected from sense: only ordinary empir‐ ical reference is surpassed, not signification as engendered by words in the image of the Word. Whatever is in Paradise, inso‐ far as it can be conveyed, comes to be in language. What Dante achieves is to show, in words of the later Hei‐ degger, that “language speaks” (“die Sprache spricht”). Dante lets the saying that is intrinsic to language come forward es‐ pecially in lyrical form—but also in the silence left in its wake. What speaks in this case is not what we say by language, but what it itself says, for language is itself a Saying. It communi‐ cates something beyond what any of us use it to say. The very being of language says more than we could ever intend and say about being: it speaks the mystery that there is anything at all rather than nothing. Hearing this entails recognizing the tran‐ scendence of the medium with respect to any of the messages that it is made to bear. Language, in the very fact of its exis‐ tence, is already in and of itself laden with a message that no one can command because it commands us all. It opens our his‐ tory and destiny (“Die Sprache,” in Heidegger 1959). Heidegger says this in an explicitly theoretical idiom that interprets the tradition of language speculation from which Dante writes, turning its “humanism” (Apel 1963) inside out, opening it towards its strange, uncanny source—to the “divine” that is at work within it. Dante shows what this might mean by explor‐ ing the resources of language to invent a world and by repre‐ senting an ideal world through, and as, an order of language.
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Dante thereby probes the inventiveness of language as itself the immediate manifestation of a divine creative power. It is particularly through the experience of language, then, that Dante endeavors to attain to mystical union, transcen‐ dence, eternity, divinity. In this experience, the essential origins of time (its “roots,” as Dante puts it with regard to the Primum Mobile in Paradiso XXVII. 119) are unconcealed in a dimension “prior” to the elapsing time of worldly temporality. Language can create a temporality that is free from worldly, linear time, which is irreversible and fallen. In its creative faculties, lan‐ guage can thus afford a glimpse of eternity. A similar possibility is evoked also by Heidegger in his dis‐ cussion of Heraclitus’s Logos fragment (1951). Thinking through language as the event of unconcealment brings out the uni‐ fying‐gathering capacity of language, with its constitutive un‐ concealment, as the precondition of any historical happening. Heraclitus’s Logos fragment, as Heidegger reads it, shows that unconcealment can occur only as the “laying together before” in ordered arrangement of things. It is because things are ga‐ thered together that they can be unconcealed—in whole struc‐ tures of significance. This gathering is not itself historical, al‐ though it must be allowed to happen in history and by human action in order to open and inaugurate a historical epoch. Dante’s poem is remarkable for its showing of language as emergent in history and in its own narrative process: it reveals itself, in the apt description of Philippe Sollers, as a text in the process of being written (“un texte en train de s’écrire ...”). Sol‐ lers grasps also how this processual element of the poem’s lan‐ guage hangs together with its being bound and gathered in a totality that is not itself given by history, but from which his‐ tory is given its shape, a totality that is best symbolized as a book. He designates the Divine Comedy as “the first great book entirely thought and enacted as a book by its author” (“le pre‐ mier grand livre pensé e agi intégralement comme livre par son auteur,” 1968: 45). The paradox here is that we and everything we make must change and indeed perish in order to open to‐ wards and open into the imperishable. As Augustine perceived, our only permanence is in our relation to “him, without whom we are not, while he, remaining the same as himself, renews everything” (“si non manebo in illo, nec in me potero. Ille au‐
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tem in / se manens innovat omnia,” Confessions VII.11.17; cf. Paradiso XXIX. 145). Conclusion: Transcendence sive Immanence The question of transcendence is ultimately linguistic in nature, for transcendence is a concept that only comes into being through language. Indeed, concepts in general come to be only through language, and consequently perhaps all have something “tran‐ scendent” about them. Language introduces another dimension of existence beyond that of its immediacy, a dimension of sense. In this dimension, everything is potentially related to every‐ thing else. The focus on language might seem to be a reduction of Dante’s experience to pure immanence: there is nothing to refer to beyond language itself. What Dante helps us to discover, however, is that the transcendent is right within language, in the gap that opens in its midst: the difference of transcendence is played out within language and its signifying operations ra‐ ther than constituting only some separate sphere apart. In the Paradiso, the linguistic sphere and the religious are not contigu‐ ous so much as the same sphere entered and experienced from different angles of approach. It is not clear, after all, whether Dante’s poetics of transcendence is the linguistic interpretation of his mystical experience, or whether his religious faith is a theological rendering of the experience of the limits of lan‐ guage. In either case, a certain erasure of differences between himself and everything else, in recognition of the unlimited re‐ lationality of all that is, forms the pivot projecting him into an otherwise inaccessible dimension of existence. Many contemporary thinkers addressing the question of transcendence, including Charles Taylor, Slovej Žižek, Jean‐Luc Marion, Emmanuel Levinas, and John Milbank, prefer to talk about transcendence within immanence rather than polarizing the two concepts (Schwartz 2004). As Gilles Deleuze writes, “One wants to think transcendence within the immanent” (“On veut penser la transcendance à l’intérieur de l’immanent,” 1991: 49). Setting transcendence and immanence up as mutually ex‐ clusive paradoxically places them on the same plane, and then transcendence is not absolute but exists only in a certain repre‐ sentable and effable dimension, the way that one measurable
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quantity can be transcended by another greater but still homo‐ geneous quantity. Dante, however, discovers transcendence as incommensurability in his exploration of divinity sive infinity in the language of the ineffable. Bibliography Agamben, Giorgio. (2001). Infanzia e storia: Destruzione dell’esperienza e origine della storia. Turin: Einaudi. Alighieri, Dante. (1973). De vulgari eloquentia: Epistole. Ed. by Pier Vin‐ cenzo Mengaldo et al.. Opere minori. Vol. 5, Book II. Milan: Ricci‐ ardi. (1966‐1967). La Divina Commedia secondo l’antica vulgata. 4 Vols. Ed. by G. Petrocchi (ed.). Milan: Mondadori. Apel, Karl‐Otto. (1963). Die Idee der Sprache in der Tradition des Human‐ ismus von Dante bis Vico. Bonn: Bouvier. Augustine. (1992). Confessions. Ed. by James J. O’Donnell. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Barth, Karl. (1957). Church Dogmatics. Vol. II. Ed. by G.W. Bromiley and T.F. Torrance. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. Benjamin, Walter. (1977). “Die Aufgabe des Übersetzers.” In: Walter Benjamin. Illuminationen. Ausgewählte Schriften. Vol. I. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp. Pp. 50‐62. (1977). “Über die Sprache überhaupt und über die Sprache des Menschen.” Gesammelte Schriften. Vol. II, Part 1. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp. Pp. 140‐57. Originally published in 1916. Benveniste, Émile. (1966‐1974a). “La nature des pronoms” Problèmes de linguistique générale. Paris: Gallimard. Pp. 251‐57. (1966‐1974b). “Subjectivité dans le langage.” Problèmes de linguis‐ tique générale. Paris: Gallimard. Pp. 258‐64. Blanchot, Maurice. (1949). La part du feu. Paris: Gallimard. Botterill, Steven. (1994). Dante and the Mystical Tradition: Bernard of Clairvaux in the Commedia. Cambridge: University of Cambridge. Burke, Kenneth. (1961). The Rhetoric of Religion. Berkeley: University of California Press. Carugati, Giulliana. (1991). Dalla menzogna al silenzio. Bologna: Mulino. Certeau, Michel de. (1973). L’absent de l’histoire. Paris: Mame. Chiarenza, Marguerite Mills. (1978). “The Singleton Paradiso.” Dante Studies 96: 207‐12. Cofano, Domenico. (2003). La retorica del silenzio nella Divina Commedia. Bari: Palomar.
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De Benedictis, Raffaele. (2012). Worldly Wise: The Semiotics of Discourse in Dante’s Commedia. New York: Peter Lang. Deleuze, Gilles. (1991). Qu’est‐ce que la philosophie? Paris: Minuit. D’Isanto, Luca. (1995). “Ermeneutica e agiografia.” In: G. Vattimo (ed.). Filosofia ‘94. Bari: Laterza. Duclow, Donald F. (2006). Masters of Learned Ignorance: Euriugena, Eck‐ hart, Cusanus. Aldershot/Burlington: Ashgate. Eckhart, Meister. (1978). Deutsche Predigten und Traktate. Transl. Joseph Quint. Munich: Carl Hanser. Franke, William. (2013). Dante and the Sense of Transgression: “The Tres‐ pass of the Sign.” London: Bloomsbury Academic. (2012). “The Place of the Proper Name in the Topographies of the Paradiso.” Speculum: A Journal of Medieval Studies 87/4: 1089‐24. (2007a). On What Cannot Be Said: Apophatic Discourses in Philo‐ sophy, Religion, Literature, and the Arts. Edited with theoretical and critical essays by William Franke. 2 vols. Notre Dame IN: University of Notre Dame Press. (2007b). “Scripture as Theophany in Dante’s Paradiso.” Religion and Literature 39/2: 1‐32. Freccero, John. (1968). “Paradiso X: The Dante of the Stars.” Dante Stu‐ dies 86: 85‐111. Heidegger, Martin. (1959). Unterwegs zur Sprache. Pfullingen: Neske. (1954a). “Logos (Heraklit, Fagment 50).” Vorträge und Aufsätze. Pfullingen: Neske. (1954b). Was Heisst Denken. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag. Huizinga, Johan. (1985). The Waning of the Middle Ages: A Study of the Forms of Life, Thought and Art in France and the Netherlands in the XIVth and XVth Centuries. New York: Saint Martin’s Press. Or‐ iginally published in 1924. Jacomuzzi, Angelo. (1970). “Il ‘Topos’ dell’ineffabile nel Paradiso Dan‐ tesco.” Da Dante al Novecento: Studi critici offerti dagli scolari a Gio‐ vanni Getto nel suo ventesimo anno di insegnamento universitario. Mi‐ lan: Mursia. Pp. 27‐59. Ledda, Giuseppe. (2002). La guerra della lingua: Ineffabilità, retorica e nar‐ rativa nella Commedia di Dante. Ravenna: Longo. Meschonnic, Henri. (1985). “Dieu absent, Dieu présent dans le lan‐ gage.” Qu’est‐ce que Dieu? Hommage à l’abbé Daniel Coppieters de Gibson (1929‐1983). Bruxelles: Facultés universitaires Saint‐Louis. Pp. 357‐91.
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Moevs, Christian. (2005). The Metaphysics of Dante’s Comedy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Racine, Jean. (1950). Préface de Bérénice. Oeuvres complètes. Vol. I. Paris: Gallimard. Schwartz, Regina (ed.). (2004). Transcendence: Philosophy, Literature, and Theology Approach the Beyond. New York: Routledge. Sollers, Philippe. (1968). “Dante et la traversée de l’Écriture.” In: Philippe Sollers. Logiques. Paris: Seuil. Wittgenstein, Ludwig. (1993). “Lecture on Ethics.” In: Ludwig Witt‐ gentein. Philosophical Occasions 1912‐1951. Ed. by James C. Klagge and Alfred Nordmann. Indianapolis and Cambridge: Hackett. Pp. 37‐44. (1992). Tractatus Logico‐Philosophicus. Transl. C.K. Ogden. Intro‐ duction by Bertrand Russell. London: Routledge.
Part III
Tropes of Transcendence
The Original Analogy Mediating Transcendence in The Man Without Qualities Elisa Heinämäki Abstract This essay discusses Robert Musil’s The Man Without Qualities as an ex‐ position of and a struggle with the “lack of reality” that François Lyotard saw as the defining feature of modernity. In the novel, this lack is expressed as unmediated transcendence: meaningless everyday reality is juxtaposed with a mystical “other condition” that promises a fullness of meaning but is only attained in fleeting, unpredictable moments. The author detects three ways of mediating the unmediated transcendence in the novel: detachment, transgression, and the original analogy, figures that do not resolve the con‐ tradiction once and for all but rather silently unravel the duality of im‐ manence and transcendence.
Introduction In Robert Musil’s unfinished modernist masterpiece, The Man Without Qualities,1 we encounter Ulrich, a man in his early 30s, at a somewhat still point in his life. He has successfully started not only one but several careers—those of officer, engineer, and mathematician—and yet given up each of them. He decides to have some time off from his active life to find out what he really should do. In the meantime, he accepts a not too demanding but rather absurd job as the secretary of a committee that plans Parts I‐III of Der Mann ohne Eigenschaften were published in 1930‐1933. In 1938, Musil withdrew from print a long section that was to continue part III (“Ins Tausendjährige Reich” / “Into the Millen‐ nium”), but even this withdrawn part does not conclude the novel. Musil continued writing and revising his novel until his death in 1942. Both the German edition (1978) and the newer English translation (1996) include these withdrawn chapters as well as a number of fur‐ ther chapters and drafts. 1
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imperial jubilee festivities.2 While he performs his job com‐ petently, he regards the task as well as the social and societal hustle around him from an ironic distance. The distance includes Ulrich’s relation to himself. He has all the qualities it takes for a man to succeed, yet he cannot take any of them seriously. In this, he seems like a not too original male protagonist of a modern novel. Yet Ulrich has another, in‐ ner life. He feels that he has two sides, another face hidden be‐ hind his competent social self. The other Ulrich has peculiar ex‐ periences, glimpses of another view of the world, where every‐ thing there is is given in a different light, in an organic intercon‐ nectedness, covered in an inexplicable melancholy sweetness. Ulrich figures this bifurcation as two incommensurable trees of life, the one named violence and the other love (Musil 1996: 644‐49). Elsewhere, in his essays, Musil addresses this duality as two fundamental attitudes or two spiritual conditions that he names by the rather cumbersome neologisms “ratioid” and “nonratioid,” the one characterized by a strong sense of self and by a factual, goal‐oriented, calculating relationship to things, the other by an experience of immersion and participation (Mu‐ sil 1990: 62‐64). The moments where the “second tree of life” or the nonratioid attitude prevails come to be called, in the novel as well as in the essays, “Der andere Zustand,” i.e., the other condition. In Ulrich’s character, Musil expresses “the discovery of the ‘lack of reality’” that François Lyotard has identified as the de‐ fining feature of modernity (Lyotard 1986: 77) and that Musil shares with many of the thinkers and writers who were his con‐ temporaries. Both bifurcated spheres of life, in Musil’s novel, are afflicted by a sense of lack. On the one hand, everyday life seems absurd and without foundation—the second part of the book, which consists largely of hilarious descriptions of the planning of jubilee festivities is entitled “Pseudoreality Pre‐ vails.” On the other hand, the nature of the other condition is a problem. It is intuited as something profound and meaningful, The novel is set in the capital of a country called Kakania—a novelistic double of the Austro‐Hungarian Empire (and Vienna) on the threshold of WW I. 2
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but it is felt only in ephemeral moments with no obvious real‐ ity. It is a transcendence3 not mediated to the everyday world. In the German Sprachkritik, the problem of the lack of reali‐ ty was posed in terms of language: the trust in language as a neutral and trustworthy representative of reality is shattered, the (linguistic) accessibility of reality is questioned. Similarly, Musil’s problem with the “other condition” has a linguistic side: it is characterized as ineffable, and the “second Ulrich” is said to have “no words at his disposal. Words leap like mon‐ keys from tree to tree, but in that dark place where a man has his roots he is deprived of their kind mediation” (Musil 1996: 164). In Musil’s case, however, the problem is not primarily the‐ matized with regard to language. It is most obviously a moral dilemma that can be given the Kantian form: “What should I do?” Ulrich’s lack of commitment and his inability to act is directly related to the separation of the two trees of life, “the failure to bring these two tracks together” (Musil 1996: 647). Because of this separation, everyday action and its moral basis seem empty; on the other hand, there is no guaranteed way to connect the other scene to everyday reality. Ulrich suffers from the problem of unmediated transcendence that is manifested as moral paralysis. There is no obvious answer to the problem in Musil’s nov‐ el. This would go against the unfinished character of the novel (that I do not believe is only a matter of unfortunate circum‐ 3 The term “transcendence” does not derive from Musil’s vocab‐ ulary; I use it primarily as an analytical tool that indicates the bifurca‐ tion of the spheres of experience or existence and denotes, in a formal manner, what surpasses the limits of ordinary experience and under‐ standing (without assumption on my part of a substantial, “other,” transcendent reality). This does not foreclose the fact that the “tran‐ scendent” other scene in Musil’s text acquires substantial descrip‐ tions—nor the more fundamental fact that terms such as “transcend‐ ence” do entail an inheritance of (theological, philosophical) meanings that cannot simply be denied. In this essay, where the focus in not on a closer scrutiny of this term, I suggest this inheritance be heard “un‐ der erasure”: preserved, suspended, open to reinterpretation and reor‐ ganization.
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stances) as well as against Musil’s “essayist” aesthetics. In fact, in his essays Musil speaks vehemently against simplistic correc‐ tives to contemporary ills. The literature of his times, he states, is “clearly full of [mainly nostalgic] remedies” to the predica‐ ment of “soullessness, mechanization, calculatedness, irreli‐ gion.” Over and against this, Musil sees the careful formulation of the problem as more urgent and a necessary starting point (Musil 1990: 176). In The Man Without Qualities, naïve attempts to overcome separations and divisions are parodied on several occasions, like in Ulrich’s tongue‐in‐cheek proposal to form a General Secretariat of Precision and Soul that would govern the divided spheres of life and bring them together (Musil 1996: 651).4 A certain reading could come to the conclusion that, as re‐ gards Ulrich’s dilemma, the book only presents a series of fail‐ ures. Still, I believe that suggestions of certain mediations can be teased out from the book. The word mediation, here, should be taken lightly. It is not a question of finding a third term that would overcome the antithesis and result in a new synthesis— Musil is not after a lost totality. By mediation, I mean possibili‐ ties of undoing, one way or another, the strict juxtaposition of two spheres; suggestions that may not be stated explicitly but are still opened up by the text. In tracing these, I want to take on the “sense of possibility” that Musil attributes to the man without qualities. I call these suggestions detachment (or mystical action), transgression, and the original analogy. These amount to a (lost) overcoming of duality, its suspension, and its unravelling. Before going into them, I will elaborate a little more on how the problem of unmediated transcendence is posed in Musil’s novel and how it comes to be formulated as a moral problem. This elaboration will also suggest that the question is eventually not without relation to language and literature.
While earlier studies of Musil’s work often approached his work as criticism of the ills of modernity and an attempt to rescue a sense of coherence, in recent interpretations he is rather seen as prob‐ ing the fragmented modern condition. See Jonsson 2000 and McBride 2006. 4
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The Other Condition and the Problem of Morality Decisive for the problem of mediating transcendence in Musil’s book is Ulrich’s encounter with his long‐lost sister, Agathe, on the occasion of their father’s death. The siblings immediately become aware of a strong bond between them, an affinity both effortless and intense. This affinity makes Ulrich confide to Agathe his secret side, the experiences of the other condition. The core of the second part of Musil’s book are Ulrich and Agathe’s discussions on the nature and implications of these experiences. To Agathe, Ulrich also trusts his passion for mysti‐ cism. In Ulrich and Agathe’s conversations—“holy dis‐ courses”—the other condition is revealed as akin to the mystics’ experiences: Aren’t these [the mystics’ experiences] the same sensations, however veiled by the difficulty of expressing them, still ex‐ perienced today when the heart—“greedy and gorged” as they say!—stumbles by chance into those utopian regions situated somewhere and nowhere between infinite tender‐ ness and infinite loneliness? (Musil 1996: 818)
Mystical texts, which Ulrich has in his library, provide language for the other condition. Before the fateful encounter of Ulrich and Agathe, Ulrich’s inability to decide what to do with his life and his experiences of the mystical other condition remain largely separate themes in the novel. In Agathe and Ulrich’s conversations, meditations on mysticism become explicitly intertwined with the question of morality. Interpreting mysticism in an antinomian vein, Ul‐ rich declares that “society’s virtues are vices to the saint” (Musil 1996: 756). The other condition is strongly contrasted with con‐ ventional morality, with the rules and prohibitions that set the norms for good and evil and dictate the boundaries of accept‐ able behavior (according to Ulrich, morality is usually taken as “a sort of police regulations for keeping life in order” [Musil 1996: 1117]). Compared with conventional morality, the other condition is amoral, totally unconcerned with rules. This also means, however, that it is hypermoral. Influenced by it, nothing one does can be said to be evil (Musil 1996: 828). As Ulrich stat‐ es, “They [the mystics] say that nothing can happen in that con‐ dition which is not in harmony with it” (Musil 1996: 828). Ul‐
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rich views this condition as that which lies at the foundation of morality; only it is inevitably lost in forcing morality into rules (Musil 1996: 828). The other condition is the state of mind in which everything is an affirmation: the condition in which one is incapable of any spiritual move‐ ment except a moral one, therefore the only state in which there exists a morality without interruption, even though it may only consist in all actions floating ungrounded within it. (Musil 1996: 898)
In all, the other condition is depicted as a Nietzschean state be‐ yond good and evil that at the same time has a paradoxical, founding status with regard to conventional moral notions. If, then, the other condition is not just an experience but al‐ so connected to morality—as its paradoxical basis—what would this mean with regard to the question: “What should I do?” As the moral side of the other condition becomes elucidated in the discussions with Agathe, does Ulrich’s dilemma with his life get solved? In fact, it is Agathe who is more ready to draw straightforward conclusions from these musings, i.e., that con‐ ventional morality can just be sidestepped and nothing is really forbidden to the one inspired by the mystical vision. She reck‐ lessly declares to her brother that she wants to kill her husband whom she despises anyway, but settles for a lesser crime, for‐ ging her father’s will to the disadvantage of the husband. (She does not do this to benefit herself but acts on a passionate whim as befits her inspired state.) Ulrich, on the other hand, is as al‐ ways held back by his irony and restraint. For him, it remains a nagging question as to whether it is possible to draw any conclusions from the other condition, despite its (hyper‐)moral character. At the end of the published part of the book, where no obvious solution to his dilemma is in sight, he is neverthe‐ less led to the following point in his speculations: He believed in morality without believing in any specific moral system. Morality must not be reduced to this level [of police regulations]. Morality is imagination [Phantasie]. This was what he wanted to make Agathe see. And his second point was: Imagination is not arbitrary. Once the imagina‐ tion is left to caprice, there is a price to pay. (Musil 1996: 1117)
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These lines can be found right at the end of the published part of the novel. The end does not conclude anything—it was not intended as the end of the novel. The surprising connection be‐ tween morality and imagination is clarified neither in its imme‐ diate context nor in Agathe and Ulrich’s antecedent conversa‐ tions. The lines evoke, however, a much earlier passage, an early instance of mystical experience in the book. There, Ulrich exper‐ iences “a moment of that special lucidity that lights up every‐ thing going on behind the scenes of oneself” (Musil 1996: 634). What Ulrich sees, more specifically, is how a dream and what it expresses are connected. It is suggested that this relationship be that of analogy, of metaphor.5 The state of analogy is seen as a kind of original state of human mind that is subsequently di‐ vided into the domains of truth and falsehood, art and know‐ ledge, dreams and reality; when this division has been settled, it seems that there is no third possibility (Musil 1996: 634‐35). We could understand the state of analogy as the absence of clear‐ cut boundaries and identities as well as, at the same time, the interplay of similarities and differences: seeing something as something, in the light of something else, seeing things as inter‐ connected precisely in their difference. This would also amount to one way of describing the basic work of imagination. “Morality is imagination”: in The Man Without Qualities, the other condition becomes defined as the sphere of both morality and imagination. A parallel attribution can be found in Musil’s essays, where the “nonratioid” area of experience is that of ethics and aesthetics (Musil 1990: 199). What morality and aes‐ thetics have in common, in this view, is that they both belong to In Musil’s German, the passage talks about “die Beziehung der Analogie, des Gleichnisses” (Musil 1978: 581). In the English transla‐ tion, these are rendered as analogy and metaphor. For Musil, the tech‐ nical difference between analogy and metaphor is not important: he uses the terms interchangeably (see also Musil 1996: 1405). In the fol‐ lowing discussion (which ultimately aims to elaborate the general dif‐ ferential structure of signification as it becomes illuminated in reading Musil’s novel), I will also disregard the difference. Technical and the‐ oretical differentiation between these and other related terms can of course be meaningful and necessary in other contexts. 5
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the realm of passionate exceptions, of unique and living rela‐ tions, of things in their interconnectedness (Musil 1990: 62‐64). Metaphor, or analogy, is offered as a way of perceiving proper to the other condition, as “a gliding logic of the soul” peculiar to aesthetic intuitions (Musil 1996: 647). The picture is complicated by the fact that the attributions —metaphor, imagination, aesthetics as indicative of “the other condition”—do not always hold. In the passage quoted above, analogy or metaphor was said to govern a logic preceding the differentiation of realms rather than belonging to just one of them. Elsewhere, the blurring of lines is somewhat different: in the discussion on the two trees of life, imagination is attributed to the active, “violent” part of Ulrich’s divided self, his “unmis‐ takable, ruthless passion to influence reality” (Musil 1996: 646), instead of the side of love where, following Musil’s distinctions, one would expect to find it. I will leave these complications aside for the time being. With this outline—not without mysteries—of how the other condition becomes defined as a realm of morality and also that of imagination, I will now proceed to the possibilities of media‐ tions opened up by the text. Detachment (Mystical Action) One possibility is opened up by the connection between the other condition and the tradition of mysticism. As already not‐ ed, the other condition is consistently likened to mystical exper‐ ience, and the language of mysticism is constantly employed in Ulrich’s and Agathe’s discussions. Musil was not alone in his interest in mysticism. In the Germanophone literature and cul‐ tural theory of the turn of the twentieth century, this interest and an inclination towards a mystical worldview was a significant current (Schmidt 1975: 53‐63; Spörl 1997)6—a current In his extensive analysis, Uwe Spörl coins the term Neomystik to designate this literary‐cultural mysticism (Spörl 1997: 25‐27). By this he means an experience of dissolution of limits of subject and object and a following unity‐vision where God (as the traditional object and foundation of mystical experience) has been replaced by this‐worldly entities (“world,” another human being). Other authors have sugges‐ ted other, more paradoxical labels for the “godless” modern mysti‐ 6
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that gave one expression to the “discovery of the ‘lack of reality’” diagnosed by Lyotard. As for the language of mysticism in The Man Without Quali‐ ties, an important source for Musil was Martin Buber’s Ekstati‐ sche Konfessionen, a compilation of excerpts from mystical texts that he drew extensively from in the descriptions of the other condition (Goltschnigg 1974). Besides this source, Musil’s read‐ ing of Meister Eckhart, more precisely, Eckhart’s radical verna‐ cular sermons, was also central (Schmidt 1975; Spreitzer 2000). It is from Eckhart that Musil picks the name for his novel and the paradoxical defining characteristic of his protagonist: with‐ out qualities, ohne Eigenschaften. In this connection, it is not only a question of finding words or borrowing language. In one sense, it is less: the appropriation of ohne Eigenschaften makes clear the ironic twist in Musil’s mysticism. On the other hand, however, the connection to Eckhart’s radical mysticism allows for an interrogation of a mystical logic of action and its possibil‐ ity in modernity. To explain this, a digression on Eckhart’s ser‐ mons is necessary. As clarified by Jochem Schmidt (1975), Eigenschaft, in Eck‐ hart’s Middle High German, means a property or characteristic. It can have the connotation of possession, of owning something; it also denotes qualities of individual things in line with mod‐ cism (“mysticism without mysticism,” “le religieux après la religion”; see Connor 2000: 52‐57; Gauchet 1985: 282‐93, and also Salminen in this volume). For a somewhat sketchy yet insightful genealogy of this kind of mysticism (how religious mysticism proper transforms into a largely aesthetic phenomenon), see Largier 2009. While The Man With‐ out Qualities can obviously be included in this mysticism, in this case (and not only this) its alleged “godlessness” would merit further scrutiny. Is “God” simply irrelevant for the mystical motif in the nov‐ el? I do not think it is. On the other hand, it would be extremely naïve to read Musil’s engagement with mysticism as a straightforward reli‐ gious commitment. I will bring up a point of convergence between “traditional” and “godless” mysticism below by briefly considering the use of negative language in Eckhart and Musil. A proper analysis of the subject would necessitate a detailed analysis of the literary and philosophical uses and modes of the concept of god in the novel but this lies outside the scope of this essay.
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ern usage; for Eckhart, the word has a further connotation of a limiting quality. For Eckhart, Eigenschaft is a negative quality, characteristic of an illusory, outward view of things. Eigenschaft is typically contrasted with its opposite, âne eigenschaft, without qualities. For Eckhart, to be without qualities is to be without attachment to outward appearances, be it of things or of oneself—or of God; it is a state of inwardness that, in turn, equals being “empty and free.” Thus, it is closely connected to other distinctive Eckhartian notions such as detachment and re‐ leasement (abgescheidenheit, gelâzenheit). Eckhart’s sermons are a powerful invitation to this empty and free condition of âne eigenschaft, as it is in fact what human beings and God have in common. This is what Eckhart writes in his sermon Intravit Jesus in templum, about Jesus going to the temple and throwing out those who were buying and selling: God seeks nothing of his own. In all his works he is empty and free and works them out of genuine love. This is how the person acts who is united with God. He, too, is empty and free in all his works and he does them only for the glory of God, seeking nothing of his own, and it is God who is working this in him. (Meister Eckhart 1987: 240)
In other words: to be without qualities is to be one with God— to overcome the separation of spheres that troubles Ulrich in Musil’s novel. In Musil’s novel, we found the suggestion that the eventual mediation would be related with analogy and imagination. At first sight, this connection is lacking in Eckhart’s thought. As we know, in the Middle Ages, analogy was a central way of conceiving the relationship between the being of God and that of human beings: what God possessed in a perfect form human creatures realized finitely and by participation. The analogy of being, however, is not enough for Meister Eckhart. In his radi‐ cal vision, the analogical relationship does not suffice to qualify the unity of God and the human soul.7 As for imagination, in Eckhart it seems at most a hindrance to the state without quali‐ See Schürmann (1978: 172‐213) for the medieval theories of analogy of being, particularly that of Thomas Aquinas, and how Eck‐ hart moves beyond them in the radical claim that (all) being is God. 7
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ties, as qualities, for Eckhart, are precisely images, illusory ap‐ pearances. In the empty and free state of the one without quali‐ ties, these appearances no longer play any role. Yet imagination is formative of Eckhart’s mystical enter‐ prise as a whole. Like other early Christian and medieval theo‐ logians and preachers, Eckhart is reading and interpreting the Scriptures, and in the interpretation, allegory—extended meta‐ phor, as it is often understood—in its different forms was a standard model. The biblical stories said something more than they said, they hid doctrinal, moral, and prophetic meanings. In other words, Eckhart is really engaged in an imaginative enter‐ prise. There were of course limits to this enterprise, to which Eckhart’s (and others’) difficulties with the Inquisition attest (and yet these difficulties also speak of the negotiability of these limits). Nonetheless, let us look at one example of this work of imagination, his interpretations of Martha and Mary. In Eckhart’s language, one way of describing the soul with‐ out qualities is that it is or has become a virgin—again, empty and free to receive God. But as it happens, the emptiness of the virgin is still somewhat lacking. In one of his sermons, Eckhart translates the Latin word mulier, used of Martha, to mean “vir‐ gin who is a wife.” He argues that the virgin‐like qualities of the soul must be accompanied by wifely fruitfulness, and it is Mar‐ tha who exemplifies this combination. The virgin wife lives “in the midst of things, but not in things” (Meister Eckhart 1986: 340). Her state of detachment means neither blissful passivity nor momentary ecstasy. Instead, it means active life in the world based on detachment and of unity with God. This action is “without a why” (âne war umbe): it has no outward sanctions, goals, or rationale.8 What Eckhart does with his idea of “virgin who is a wife” is to bring together Martha and Mary, the active and contem‐ plative lives. A way of conjugating mysticism with imagination: the vision is reached by an imaginative interpretation that un‐ dermines strict identity boundaries. A way also of conjugating mysticism with morality: mysticism as blissful action in the For an extensive analysis of this Eckhartian motif, see Holly‐ wood 1995. 8
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world, “without a why,” without rules, goals, and outward jus‐ tifications. In Eckhart’s German sermons, the distinctions between God and human being, transcendence and immanence become undone in a mystical abandonment of all qualities, of all projec‐ tions of self. This mysticism is not that of longing and ecstasy, of sudden but short‐lived raptures. Instead, it is a mysticism where transcendence has become wholly immanent in this world, a double that is transparent yet effects a qualitative change so that everyday becomes a bliss.9 As transcendence be‐ comes immanent, the difference between ought and is and the gap separating rule and action vanishes. What Eckhart depicts is precisely the state of “uninterrupted morality” that Ulrich and Agathe chart, the state where faith is never “more than an hour old!” (Musil 1996: 820). After this lengthy digression, let us return to Ulrich. He is in fact without qualities in a very Eckhartian sense: not attached to outward realities around him, unable even to attach to him‐ self as he lacks an “ego‐building instinct” (Musil 1996: 272). The distinction between the two conditions is characterized in an Eckhartian manner as that between an “outside” and “inside” view of things (e.g., Musil 1996: 127). And the other condition, as it becomes elucidated in discussions with Agathe, has defi‐ nitely Eckhartian overtones as a state where “one possesses no‐ thing in the world, one holds on to nothing, one is not held by anything” (Musil 1986: 828). The mystical motif in The Man Without Qualities has recent‐ ly been interrogated by Genese Grill (2007) for whom mysticism is something that occurs in short moments of ecstatic experi‐ ence. In Grill’s view, the problem for Ulrich and Agathe as well as for mystics of all times would be how to hold on to these mo‐ ments. Yet the model of mysticism offered by Meister Eckhart is not that of fleeting moments but that of continuous dwelling in Here Eckhart’s mysticism departs from stereotypical renderings of mysticism but is in fact in line with certain fundamental themes of the German mystical tradition (as distinguished from the Romance tradition, for example). Andrew Weeks (1993) proposes a reading of Eckhart’s mysticism within the larger continuities of the German mystical tradition. 9
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this world that is not characterized by rapture but by a trusting and active openness. In Ulrich’s and Agathe’s case, material‐ izing this kind of mysticism would in fact be realized em‐ bracing the normal conditions of life, confronting them with an accepting and imaginative openness both towards oneself and toward others. This kind of attitude would be supported by the intuition of transcendence in immanence that would generate a trust in the meaningfulness of it all. But for Ulrich and Agathe, precisely the mystical state without qualities does not organically flow into a mode of ac‐ tion as it does for Eckhart. It would seem natural to assume that this difference has something to do with the presence or ab‐ sence of God. In evoking this difference, certain qualifications are necessary. For Eckhart, the master of negative theology, there are no positive statements of the being of God that would not be erased by denials necessitated by the limitations of our language and thinking. And we have seen how the distinction between divinity and humanity is undone in the annihilation of qualities. As for Musil’s Ulrich and Agathe, the other condition is depicted for the most part without any reference to God, and Ulrich reproaches the tendency of mystics to believe in God and themselves as two separate requisites of the same experience. References to God become a little more frequent in the unpub‐ lished parts of the novel. In a moment of anguish, Agathe feels the abyss that one is led into in the search for the other condi‐ tion; at the same time, she is led to the thought that “this abyss was God.” This idea, however, is immediately followed by an emotional expression of ignorance: “oh, what did she know!” (Musil 1996: 1165). Ulrich, in his turn, muses on the godless spirit of the modern scientific frame of mind, and asks himself: “What if this selfsame ungodliness turned out to be nothing but the contemporary path to God?” (Musil 1996: 1188). Here again, the reference to God is made in an interrogative mode. A set of negative determinations of God, then, can be found both in Eckhart’s mysticism and in The Man Without Qua‐ lities, but these sets are not similar. In Eckhart’s case, the logic of denials is related to a lack of a determinate hierarchical totality (of a Neoplatonic or Scholastic kind). Instead, linked to the era‐ sure of difference between divinity and humanity, Eckhart en‐ visions an open but meaningful whole supported by the tran‐
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scendent doubling of immanence. In the Eckhartian detached action, qualities are withdrawn as one becomes a vessel of di‐ vinity. One’s own pursuits are abandoned for the sake of an‐ other, greater, divine sense of action. Open to every new en‐ counter, unbothered by the absence of rules, one is sheltered by this doubling. For Agathe and Ulrich, the meaningful whole has been re‐ placed by an irreparably fragmented world. The world depicted in The Man Without Qualities is that of manifold discourses, pre‐ occupations, and walks of life; despite their mystical side, Ul‐ rich and Agathe are persons of “piecemeal passions” (Musil 1996: 766) and thus children of this—modern—world. A certain clear‐headed acceptance of this world becomes explicit in Mu‐ sil’s essays, where he speaks of diversity as a “quality of the future” (Musil 1990: 176) and disclaims the quests for nostalgic remedies. In this world, where the sense of God is more nega‐ tive than in negative theology and where there is no getting around fragmentation, the Eckhartian continuous bliss is no longer possible. Transgression Another possibility of mediation is explored in The Man Without Qualities, more in keeping with the modern world. This possi‐ bility can be entitled transgression, trespass of the boundaries of ordinary morality and affirmation of what is normally for‐ bidden. Following the analysis of Michel Foucault (1998), trans‐ gression denotes a structure of experience peculiar to moderni‐ ty. Transgression, in this reading, is intimately linked to the ex‐ perience of finitude: it attests to human existence aware of its limits but is at the same time no longer limited by the divine Limitlessness. In this situation, the violation of limits becomes an experience of the sacred—emptied of its meaning. Foucault emphasizes the interdependence of limit and transgression: transgression is a defiance that charts the limits it momentarily denies. Transgression is a modern version of transcendence: become impossible, transcendence as a momentary, blinding ecstasy that reveals the groundlessness and necessity of limits. In Musil’s novel, the transgressive possibility is intimated by a certain overall fascination with crime. An important exam‐ ple of this is the case of the criminal Moosbrugger. In the course
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of the novel, the carpenter Moosbrugger is imprisoned, charged, and condemned for the atrocious murder of a young prostitute, the kind of assault he has already repeated several times. The case attracts the attention of the general public, in‐ cluding Ulrich and his circle. Consistently with his open and curious mind, Ulrich re‐ gards the case without a hint of moralizing. Instead, he links Moosbrugger to his musings on mysticism and morality. Signi‐ ficantly, it is in discussing Moosbrugger that the novel’s sole di‐ rect reference to Eckhart occurs: “’In Christ too there was an outer and an inner man, and everything he did with regard to outward things he did as the outer man, while his inner man stood by in immovable solitude,’ says Eckhart” (Musil 1996: 127). The distinction between inner and outer man, for Ulrich, means two separate sets of criteria for morality; outer criteria do not hold for the “inner man”; and he is ready to grant Moosbrugger’s deeds an inner rationale. Society may condemn Moosbrugger, Ulrich thinks, but according to a saint’s morality, Moosbrugger would not be condemned. And indeed, Moosbrugger is portrayed as a mystic of sorts. The ponderings of his murky mind, as depicted in the novel, are characterized by a view of interdependence of everything, by a lack of distinction between inside and outside: “Moosbrug‐ ger’s experience and conviction were that no thing could be singled out by itself, because things hang together” (Musil 1996: 259). His vision of interdependence is not without beauty—it seems like an example of the “gliding logic of the soul” (Musil 1996: 647), the logic of the other condition. Part of this vision is a profound experience of the arbitrariness of words. For Moos‐ brugger, since everything is interconnected and without proper distinction, language is but an empty labelling that tries to grasp this whole in vain. On the other side of language, Moos‐ brugger’s world is that of full meaning. From the depths of his private world, Moosbrugger refuses the categories that the legal and medical system impose on him. But it is a painful world also, that of tortured voices with‐ out a definite source. It is a world without a voice of one’s own, as words fail Moosbrugger time and again, in everyday encoun‐ ters as well as in the court, where he is unable to produce the requested narrative of his actions and motives. As a modern
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mystic, Moosbrugger is a proud and tortured creature that can‐ not attribute a divine source to the voices he hears. The reaction left as a response to the haunting and accusing voices is that of crime—a gruesome dissolution of the boundaries between self and other, life and death. But transgression is not only a theme exemplified by a mi‐ nor figure in the novel; it is also explored by the main protago‐ nists. It is Agathe and Ulrich together who come to personify the possibility of a flagrant transgression. An incestuous ver‐ sion of transgression is anticipated in a striking scene by their dead father’s coffin: as a curious gesture of farewell, Agathe slips a silk garter, still warm from the touch of her thigh, to her father’s pocket (Musil 1996: 768). Yet the motif becomes explicit in the relationship between Agathe and Ulrich. From the start, there is a strong incestuous strand in their relationship. They sense no clear‐cut boundaries between them, there is a fascination of the like who is yet not oneself but an‐ other, a sort of redoubling of oneself combined with the unpre‐ dictability of an other. The whole relationship seems to be gov‐ erned by the passions of the soul. This attraction incites Ulrich to invite his sister to live with him. This life together is depicted as a “millennium,” a realization of a “blissful state of doing nothing and thinking nothing” touched upon in their conver‐ sations (Musil 1996: 870‐71). It is an attempt to actualize the other condition and, at the same time, “a ‘borderline case’—of limited and special validity” (Musil 1996: 826). Again, as in the case of Moosbrugger, it is also described as today’s version of mystics’ path (Musil 1996: 826). The incestuous motif is left in suspense, however, in the published parts of the novel. It is developed somewhat further in the unpublished chapters. The closest it comes to a climax is in a scene where Ulrich, with a gesture both playful and violent, surprises his dressing sister by biting a fold of her bent neck and lifting her to his arms; and now, at this moment, they were “in the midst of that shared condition at whose border they had long been hesitating, which they had already described to each other so often but had so far only gazed at from the outside” (Musil 1996: 1177); “nothing was so certain as that the decision had been made and all prohibitions were now a matter of indif‐ ference to them” (Musil 1996: 1178). And after this—nothing,
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nothing of the expected, anyway, as this is the peak of the erotic encounter between brother and sister. There is no further trans‐ gression. In Musil’s novel, then, transgression is a central structure bridging the gap between immanence and transcendence, or‐ dinary life and the other condition. The other condition is rea‐ lized by a trespass of limits, notably those that divide life and death, self and other. Crime becomes the privileged act that obeys the other logic of mystical morality. In the sole example of an explicitly erotic encounter between Ulrich and Agathe, violence and love, the two “trees of life,” are inseparable. Nonetheless, while Musil’s work explores and even affirms transgression, it does not offer itself as an unreserved celebra‐ tion of that motif, such as can be found in some other modern writers (Georges Bataille, for instance). As for the case of Moos‐ brugger, some of Ulrich’s extravagant friends are ready to cam‐ paign for his liberation. Fascinated as Ulrich is with the case, he is not ready to go along with the idea: It is possible to have all sorts of feelings for Moosbrugger but not to do anything for him. Basically, all these cases are like the loose end of a thread—if you pull a thread, the whole fabric of society starts to unravel. (Musil 1996: 283)
Ulrich’s objection attests to the fact that transgression is always only an exception. It is dependent on the limit that it suspends but cannot permanently undo. A generalized state of trans‐ gression would no longer be transgression but chaos. In a detailed study devoted to the transgressive motif in Musil’s novel, Stéphane Gödicke highlights a further facet of the aporetic character of transgression: as an ephemeral and non‐justifiable act, its sense vanishes along with its realization (Gödicke 2006: 70). Once committed and past, it is no longer meaningful or justifiable. It only lives in an instant (and so Moosbrugger can never really tell his story). It may be a fear of this that leaves Ulrich and Agathe indeterminately at the brink of the fatal act, preferring a deferral to a gratification of desire in which fulfilment and loss coincide.
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The Original Analogy But let us have another look at Ulrich and Agathe as they re‐ frain from the definite transgressive step. Here they are, in the privacy of Ulrich’s handsome townhouse surrounded by a lu‐ scious garden, deliberately isolating themselves from their so‐ cial surroundings, so as to better immerse themselves in their love. And they will not go further. This is how Musil describes them: They wanted to begin, but the gestures of the flesh had be‐ come impossible for them, and they felt an ineffable warn‐ ing that had nothing to do with the commandments of mor‐ ality. It seemed that from a more perfect, if still shadowy, union, of which they had already had a foretaste as in an ec‐ static metaphor, a higher commandment had marked them out, a higher intimation, curiosity, or expectation had breathed upon them. Brother and sister now remained per‐ plexed and thoughtful and after they had calmed their feel‐ ings they hesitantly began to speak. (Musil 1996: 1178)
The speech is inaugurated by Ulrich’s words to his sister: “you are the moon”; “you have flown to the moon and it has given you back to me again” (Musil 1996: 1178). Their situation is de‐ scribed by a metaphor, anticipated by this reference to the moon and borrowed from the vocabulary of mysticism: the siblings have plunged into “the all‐experiencing corporeality of night” (Musil 1996: 1179). But the night, in its turn, is not an ineffable state but is filled with speech—it consists of speech— and is characterized by a relationship to language: in these noc‐ turnal conversations, “no word is false and no word true, but each is that incomparable birth of the spirit out of darkness that a person experiences in a new thought” (Musil 1996: 1179). In other words, at this point, speech and language become the central focus of the text: the relationship of Ulrich and Agathe is described as consisting of “insatiable” conversations (Musil 1996: 1313). In a way, this is no surprise. From the begin‐ ning, this relationship has evolved as a passionate verbal en‐ counter. Now, to an even larger extent than before, the text it‐ self proceeds as an account of their dialogues. Earlier, their con‐ versations centered on the nature of the other condition and the question of morality. It is love that now becomes the privileged
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topic, and so a love affair unfolds as an unending conversation on love. Reflection on love continues in other linguistic registers as well: the text charts Ulrich’s diary entries on the nature of love; later, in Ulrich’s notebooks, the personal reflection gives way to a more rigorous analysis of the same subject. What is one to make of this turn of events? In an obvious and explicit sense, the story of Ulrich and Agathe—“the Sia‐ mese twins” as a chapter title puts it—explores the utopia of love as the union with the perfect counterpart. The brother and sister sense each other as the missing half that one has semi‐ consciously always been dreaming of. Their life together is a re‐ alization of that dream. And if it is not climaxed in a physical union, it is described as a state where everything has suddenly become meaningful. Their love is consummated in loving, self‐ referential speech that turns on love itself. Their speech seems to offer the fullness of things, with no separating distance be‐ tween saying and what is signified. As Ulrich explains in his di‐ ary: For some time Agathe and I have been sensitive to a certain hauntedness in the empirical world. Every detail in which our surroundings manifest themselves “speak to us”. It means something. It shows that it has come into being with a purpose that is by no means fleeting. (Musil 1996: 1228)
Is this utopia? Or does the utopia silently turn into dystopia? As everything becomes meaningful, another thoroughly meaning‐ ful universe is echoed: the heavenly‐hellish private universe of Moosbrugger. Musil, in draft versions of Ulrich and Agathe’s story, does suggest that this is a failure: Ulrich and Agathe keep talking “above all not knowing how they could act” (Musil 1996: 1313). Meaningful action in the world has been replaced by self‐referential talk about love. Separating distances have been overcome, the difference between immanence and tran‐ scendence has collapsed. But is this not a sterile and suffocating substitute for life, as “the anesthetized trace of still life” (Musil 1996: 1325) is said to linger around the conversing couple? But let us return once again to where all this talk about love begins. It is initiated by a figure of speech, by a metaphor: “you are the moon,” “you have flown to the moon and it has given you back to me again” (Musil 1996: 1178). In the sur‐
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rounding paragraphs, metaphors and the idea thereof abound. The distance or anticipation separating Ulrich and Agathe from the concrete consummation of their love is compared to an “ec‐ static metaphor.” Ulrich’s use of the metaphor of the moon, it‐ self doubled by the slightly different version, is immediately followed by a reflection: “It’s a figure of speech,” Ulrich ex‐ plains, and continues curiously by citing possible—but not pre‐ viously employed—depictions of what has happened: “‘We were beside ourselves’, ‘We exchanged bodies without even touching each other’, are metaphors too!’” (Musil 1996: 1178). Furthermore, the mystical metaphor of night is used as a gener‐ al description of Ulrich and Agathe’s situation. The reader’s attention, then, is irresistibly drawn to meta‐ phor. Again, there is no reason to take metaphor in any strict technical sense: in the much earlier occurrence of the idea of metaphor, where it was intimated as a kind of originary state, it was used interchangeably with analogy; and in another draft discussion on metaphor, Ulrich states: “Mental image, simile, metaphor, they shade into each other” (Musil 1996: 1405). What is at stake is a basic model of signification: giving something as something through the pattern of similarity in difference (im‐ plying, inevitably, also difference in similarity). Similarity in difference: but is this not the structure of the couple, Ulrich and Agathe, who are “the unseparated and not united” (Musil 1996: 1201)? Is metaphor more than the model of this union, this cou‐ ple together at last in the deadly perfection of still life? Still life is not what the text offers. Instead of a fixed point, the deployment of metaphor in the text creates a dizzying mul‐ tiplicity. As described above, metaphor is used as a literary de‐ vice in the narration; it is employed as a figure of speech in the dialogue; it becomes—in the dialogues—an object of self‐con‐ scious reflection; still further, the anticipation and distance from union is likened to “ecstatic metaphor,” metaphor itself becom‐ ing a metaphor of distance and deferral. At the level of reflec‐ tion, the assumed “lack of reality of metaphors” (removed from the alleged primary, literary language) is addressed, yet the questioning leads—not to an answer but to a question that sus‐ pends the reference to (primary) reality and the hierarchy of “reality‐contents”: “What reality am I talking about? Is there a second one?” (Musil 1996: 1179).
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Through the reflection on metaphor, the reader’s attention is drawn to metaphor as a second‐order phenomenon at work in the organization of narration. If one remains attentive to the text, however, this second‐order perspective cannot become a totalizing, overall frame: in the text, reflection on metaphor is also inserted in dialogues, not only in narration. On the other hand, in the narration (as quoted at the beginning of this chap‐ ter), “metaphor” itself becomes a metaphor—of a never‐fulfilled anticipation, in other words, of deferral. In the dizzying inva‐ sion of metaphor/icity, metaphor is not a stable structure of giv‐ ing one thing in the light of something else. As metaphor itself becomes a metaphor of distance, the similarity side of the struc‐ ture is downplayed in favor of difference. As metaphor leads to the undecidability of the question of reality, it undermines the hierarchy of true and false, literal and figurative. Its uses on dif‐ ferent levels of narration undermine the hierarchy of the narra‐ tion itself. Moreover, the initial opening by metaphor (“you are the moon”) is followed by endless, interlacing, erring paths of dia‐ logues. If metaphor, initially, brings two things together, in the discussions the structure of similarity‐difference is deployed both metaphorically and in a more analytic vein. In an insatia‐ ble mood of exploration, Ulrich and Agathe interrogate the ob‐ jects of their concern: what is love; what are the different kinds of love; what is the relationship between love of self and love of another; what is the relationship between love and reality; is love really an emotion; but what is an emotion in the first place? In these dialogues, the supposed identities of things and phe‐ nomena become unravelled by inquisitive, non‐reverent prob‐ ing. Initiated by metaphor and reflection on this, Musil’s text overflows its central conceptual distinctions. At stake is the re‐ alization, in love, of the other condition; the other condition was supposedly an ineffable state, but, as it becomes clear that love “consists largely of loquaciousness” (Musil 1996: 1312), it be‐ comes a linguistic event. This event unfolds a rhythmic texture of differences‐similarities, where fixed points are transitory, predicated on a difference, pointing beyond themselves, and becoming unravelled; this event extends—in differing registers —from the dreamlike discourse of lovers to the analytic‐essayist
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scrutiny. In this way, the basic opposition between two modes of structuring the meaningful world (the organic interconnect‐ edness of everything in the other condition, as opposed to the sharp distinctions the analytic, “ratioid” mind is capable of) los‐ es its contours. It is here that we could see “the original analogy” at work —the structure that Ulrich, much earlier, mused over as pre‐ ceding the differentiation of spheres of experience. The original analogy is not a bridge between two separate levels or realms of reality or of thought. It is neither a simple origin nor a merely dual structure. It is the structure of signification as a prerequi‐ site of every conceptual distinction. These characterizations could be read as hinting towards what Jacques Derrida articu‐ lates, much later, as the movement of the signification as a movement of the trace (Derrida 1967: 92). Read in this light, the state of original analogy would not be that of an ineffable or‐ iginal being but that of an origin that does away with all fixed origins. This perspective replaces hierarchical differences (like that between immanence and transcendence) by a tracing of what precedes them and makes them possible. And what makes them possible is a dynamic, differential play that fixes meanings precisely by not fixing them but making every mean‐ ing dependent on a referring elsewhere, a deferring of presence, and thus never there as such.10 Thus understood, the original analogy is the third possibil‐ ity of mediation between immanence and transcendence sug‐ gested by The Man Without Qualities. As an openness and the joy of “seeing‐as,” it can also be seen as the essence of imagin‐ ation and the condition of the possibility of morality.
The sense of metaphor or analogy as it unfolds in Musil’s novel thus contrasts with traditional understanding that privileges resem‐ blance, rests on a hierarchical distinction between levels of reality (sensible and intelligible), and sees the relationship between these lev‐ els as representation. See the discussion in Wolosky’s essay in this vol‐ ume. 10
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Bibliography Connor, Peter Tracey. (2000). Georges Bataille and the Mysticism of Sin. Baltimore/London: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Derrida, Jacques. (1967). De la grammatologie. Paris: Minuit. Foucault, Michel. (1998). “Preface to Transgression.” In: James D. Fau‐ bion (ed.). Essential Works of Foucault 1954‐1984. Vol. 2: Aesthetics, Method, and Epistemology. New York: The New Press. Pp. 69‐87. Gauchet, Marcel. (1985). Le désenchantement du monde. Une histoire poli‐ tique de la religion. Paris: Gallimard. Gödicke, Stéphane. (2006). Désordres et transgressions chez Robert Musil. Paris: Presses Sorbonne nouvelle. Goltschnigg, Dietmar. (1974). Mystische Tradition im Roman Robert Mu‐ sils: Martin Bubers “Ekstatische Konfessionen” im “Mann ohne Eigen‐ schaften.” Heidelberg: Lothar Stiehm Verlag. Grill, Genese. (2007). “The ‘Other’ Musil: Robert Musil and Mysticism.” In Philip Payne, Graham Bartram, and Galin Tihanov (eds.). A Companion to the Works of Robert Musil. Rochester NY: Camden House. Pp. 333‐54. Hollywood, Amy. (1995). The Soul as Virgin Wife: Mechthild of Magde‐ burg, Marguerite Porete, and Meister Eckhart. Notre Dame/London: University of Notre Dame Press. Largier, Niklaus. (2009). “Mysticism, Modernity, and the Invention of Aesthetic Experience.” Representations 105: 37‐60. Lyotard, François. (1986). The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Know‐ ledge. Transl. Geoff Bennington and Brian Massoumi. Manches‐ ter: Manchester University Press. McBride, Patrizia C. (2006). The Void of Ethics: Robert Musil and the Ex‐ perience of Modernity. Evanston IL: Northwestern University Press. Meister Eckhart. (1986). Meister Eckhart, Teacher and Preacher. Ed. by Bernard McGinn. New York: Paulist Press. Musil, Robert. (1996). The Man Without Qualities. Vol. 1‐2. Transl. So‐ phie Wilkins and Burton Pike. New York: Vintage International. (1990). Precision and Soul: Essays and Addresses. Ed. and transl. by Burton Pike and David S. Luft. Chicago/London: The University of Chicago Press. (1978). Der Mann ohne Eigenschaften. Hamburg: Rohwohlt Verlag. Schmidt, Jochen. (1975). Ohne Eigenschaften: Eine Erläuterung zu Musils Grundbegriff. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag.
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Schürmann, Reiner. (1978). Meister Eckhart: Mystic and Philosopher. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Spörl, Uwe. (1997). Gottlose Mystik in der deutschen Literatur um die Jahr‐ hundertwende. Paderborn/Munich/Vienna/Zürich: Ferdinand Schö‐ ningh. Spreitzer, Brigitte. (2000). “Meister Musil: Eckharts deutsche Predig‐ ten als zentrale Quelle des Romans ‘Der Mann ohne Eigenschaf‐ ten’.” Zeitschrift für deutsche Philologie 119: 564‐88. Tobin, Frank J. (1972). “Eckhart’s Mystical Use of Language: The Con‐ texts of Eigenschaft.” Seminar: A Journal of Germanic Studies VIII/3: 160‐68. Weeks, Andrew. (1993). German Mysticism from Hildegard of Bingen to Ludwig Wittgenstein: A Literary and Intellectual History. Albany: State University of New York Press.
Transcendental Puppets Kant and Kleist
Jarkko Toikkanen Abstract The possibility of transcendence in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant and the literature of Heinrich von Kleist plays at the limits of what can be presented in language. Starting out from the former’s objective to establish a new ideal‐ ism, this essay observes the importance of the rhetorical device of hypoty‐ posis—the verbal description of visual images—to Kant’s system, and then turns to Kleist’s struggle with and ultimate rejection of that system. His famous story “Über das Marionettentheater” (1810) is used to point to the pitfalls of linguistic presenting. Paul de Man’s readings of both Kant and Kleist are acknowledged for their focus on language, but the author of this essay also indicates where de Man’s strictly formalistic approach might fall short. When that happens, the failure of the puppet show as a transcendental presentation may be experienced as the end beyond which there is nothing. This failure is significant in demonstrating how encounters between different beliefs and philosophies may have drastic consequences for those involved even if their dialogue is based on nothing solid.
Introduction The possibility of transcendence in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant (1724‐1804) and the literature of Heinrich von Kleist (1777‐ 1811), as I will argue, plays at the limits of what can be present‐ ed in language. Starting out from the former’s objective to es‐ tablish a new idealism, I first move on to observing the impor‐ tance of the rhetorical device of hypotyposis—the verbal descrip‐ tion of visual images—to Kant’s system and then turn to Kleist’s struggle with and ultimate rejection of that system. His famous essay “Über das Marionettentheater” (1810) is used to point to the pitfalls of linguistic presenting. Paul de Man’s readings of both Kant and Kleist are helpful because of their focus on lan‐ guage, but I will also indicate where his strictly formalistic ap‐ proach might fall short. When that happens, the failure of the puppet show as a transcendental presentation may be exper‐
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ienced as the end beyond which there is nothing. In the context of the current volume, this failure is significant in demonstra‐ ting how encounters between different beliefs and philosophies may have drastic consequences for those involved even if their dialogue is based on nothing solid, as the following discussion will venture to display. Kant’s Idealism Kant’s aim with his critical philosophy was to establish a break between his own thinking and the old theologies, dualisms, and logical rationalist systems that, in Sebastian Gardner’s words, seemed to operate out of a metaphysical sphere that had us “vacillate between dogmatism, skepticism and indifference” (Gardner 1999: 1). With them it was either God, the division of body and mind, or natural reason that was deemed the tran‐ scendent “real” on which everything else was built: there was something in such an understanding of experience that Kant wished to fix through his efforts.1 For instead of considering thought as a process that only came into being after “reality” was already well in existence, he wanted to make it clear that thought in a way preceded reality and made it available for ex‐ perience, time after time, by supplying form. In other words, against what he saw as the metaphysical rule of transcendent, reality‐legislating entities such as God and nature, and our struggle with them, Kant sought to install new knowledge for “conditions of possible experience” (Caygill 1995: 399). Kant called this philosophy transcendental idealism. First, it was to be transcendental because the question of metaphysics refused to go away: metaphysical discourse did employ “the Howard Caygill, for instance, relates Kant’s “great dissatisfac‐ tion” with his predecessor Christian Wolff’s metaphysics and his “sympathetic disagreement” with Christian August Crusius’s critique of Wolff (1995: 291). In Träume eines Geistersehers, erläutert durch Träume der Metaphysik (1766; see Kant 1912), Kant describes them as the “airy builders of various imagined worlds” (“die Luftbaumeister der mancherlei Gedankenwelten”) with whose suggestions it has been his “fate to fall in love with” (“in welche ich das Schicksal habe verliebt zu sein”). 1
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same cognitive power as is employed in commonsense and sci‐ entific judgments about the world of experience” (Gardner 1999: 21). This means that metaphysics, along with its ruling transcendent entities, did not just suddenly become invalid or useless—there had to be a new, transcendental way of conceiv‐ ing and talking about these entities, making “cognition itself an object of philosophical enquiry” (23). In this context, we do not need to dwell on how (and whether) Kant achieved the feat in all of his writings. We only need to recognise the enduring ne‐ cessity of the metaphysical question and the transcendental space it keeps open for such experiences that at any time appear to transcend understanding. Second, Kant’s philosophy was idealism because it dealt with the conditions that first make cognition and experience possible, and such a priori conditions cannot be made into a principle except in the form of ideas that, transcendentally, pre‐ cede any actual form. With other solutions one risks falling back to metaphysics. In the third Critique, Kant makes the base difference between transcendental and metaphysical principles in the following terms: A transcendental principle is one through which the univer‐ sal a priori condition under which alone things can become objects of our cognition at all is represented. By contrast, a principle is called metaphysical if it represents the a priori condition under which alone objects whose concept must be given empirically can be further determined a priori.2
Paul de Man has interpreted this passage as saying that where‐ as “metaphysical principles lead to the identification and defi‐ nition, to the knowledge, of a natural principle that is not itself a concept,” “transcendental principles lead to the definition of a conceptual principle of possible existence” (de Man 1996b: 71). Such a “natural principle” is metaphysical exactly because it “Ein transzendentales Prinzip ist dasjenige, durch welches die allgemeine Bedingung a priori vorgestellt wird, under der allein Dinge Objekte unserer Erkenntnis überhaupt werden können. Dage‐ gen heisst ein Prinzip metaphysisch, wenn es, die Bedingung a priori vorstellt, unter der allein Objekte, deren Begriff empirisch gegeben sein muss, a priori weiter bestimmt werden können” (Kant 2000: 68). 2
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implies the existence of a transcendent, reality‐legislating entity —in this case, one derived from nature—that reduces all objects and concepts we meet into nothing but proof of its own exist‐ ence.3 In contrast, as de Man sees it, a transcendental principle only provides a reflexive basis for cognition to consider its own “possible existence,” and the way we understand things is not determined from a transcendent vantage point. That is not to say, however, that such vantage points could be simply erased. Instead, for reasons shown, they linger on as ideas in Kant’s transcendental philosophy. But how can we talk about something so elusive, something by default at odds with everyday discourse? The question of presentation, and presen‐ ting in language, resurfaces here. In the first Critique Kant aims to show how “intuition takes place only in so far as the object is given to us … [and] in so far as the mind is affected in a certain way”4 in accordance with transcendental schemata—that is, how concepts of understanding are directly combined with sen‐ sible intuitions for presentation. In the third Critique, however, Kant claims that such curious intuition exists too that is unable to perform this cognitive function directly. There, the object to be presented is rather “given” in a roundabout fashion, passing through the strange realm of symbolic language on its way to‐ wards us. Kant’s Hypotyposis This observation brings us to the rhetorical device of hypotypo‐ sis and how it figures in the context. As a tool that has tradition‐ ally provided abstract notions with tangible form—Quintilian, for instance, claimed hypotyposis as “the expression in words of a given situation in such a way that it seems to be a matter of One might argue that examples of such petitio principii in En‐ lightenment thought could be found, among others, in Newton’s uni‐ versal laws that govern natural phenomena, Leibniz’s natural descent of knowledge from the abstract towards the concrete level, and Hume’s sceptical empiricism where nature forever escapes reason. 3
“Diese findet aber nur statt, sofern uns der Gegenstand gegeben wird; dieses aber ist wiederum nur dadurch möglich, dass er das Ge‐ müt auf gewisse Weise affiziere” (Kant 1929: 65). 4
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seeing rather than of hearing”5—the device taps into the de‐ scriptive powers of language, visual and aural, in all verbal communication, philosophy included. Howard Caygill has de‐ fined the Kantian hypotyposis as something “in the guise of ‘presentation’ or the rendering of concepts and ideas in ‘terms of sense’” (Caygill 1995: 231). This “rendering” further divides into “schematic” and “symbolic” hypotyposes, of which, in Kant’s words, the first contains “direct” and the second “indi‐ rect representations of the concept.” Subsequently, he tells us the schemata do the presentation “demonstratively” and the symbolic “by means of an analogy” which acts as a “transporta‐ tion of the reflection on one object of intuition to another, quite different concept, to which perhaps no intuition can ever direct‐ ly correspond” (Kant 2000: 226‐27).6 Whereas the schematic de‐ monstration, in other words, gives us its object directly, the symbolic analogy must approach it indirectly because it is possible that the intuited object can never be grasped as such. To put it differently, while “nature” schematically indeed refers to something called nature, it is a completely different matter to show that the idea of nature symbolically corresponds with other ideas such as beauty and goodness. From this observation, it is not difficult to see why hypoty‐ posis should play such an important part in Kant’s system of transcendental idealism, even if the philosopher did not seem to appreciate the art of rhetoric as such, as Rodolphe Gasché has noted.7 Without the link that the device provides in bring‐ Quintilian was one of the first authors to discuss the notion of hypotyposis in some detail. The reference is to Institutio oratoria 9.2.40‐ 44 where Quintilian exalts Cicero’s rhetorical technique over those of later authors such as Celsus and Seneca. See Quintilian 2001, vol. 4: 56–58. 5
The original text of the Critique of the Power of Judgment says: “der Übertragung der Reflexion über einen Gegenstand der Anschau‐ ung auf einen ganz anderen Begriff, dem vielleicht nie eine Anschau‐ ung direkt korrespondieren kann.” 6
Gasché starts out by noticing how Kant’s “invectives against rhetoric … at times even seem to share the Enlightenment’s open hos‐ tility toward it” (2003: 202), but, as he then establishes Kant’s hypoty‐ posis as “a transcendental presentation” (210), he argues that, in the 7
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ing mere abstract ideas in line with other abstract ideas and their sensible presentations, there is no way for philosophy to ensure that what we see actually represents what we think it does—and to adjust our course of action accordingly. On the one hand, with a schematic hypotyposis, such adjustment sounds simple enough; if I am presented with a person drown‐ ing, I will think that what I see is a person drowning, and can respond with a proper course of action. Doing so demonstrates the transcendental function of directly connecting a schematic hypotyposis (being presented with a person drowning) first with a concept of understanding (thinking there is a person drowning) and then with an empirical action (helping the person out of the danger). A symbolic hypotyposis, on the other hand, is a more curious entity—one that indirectly transports any reflection, as de Man said, to “another, quite different con‐ cept.” In witnessing the scene of a person drowning, I might suddenly become concerned with ideas such as whether I “should” be acting at all or whether it was “right” to save this particular person from drowning, and the hesitation would demonstrate the often disruptive effect of a symbolic hypotypo‐ sis. For just like beauty and goodness, and what guarantees them as such, so also duty and justice require indirect, round‐ about representation. De Man discusses Kant’s notion of hypotyposis in the es‐ say “The Epistemology of Metaphor.” He begins by studying, and dismissing, Locke’s and Condillac’s solutions to related matters, but when he gets to Kant, de Man finds himself in an interesting situation. He quotes the same sentence that I did above (symbolic hypotyposis as a “transportation of the reflec‐ tion on one object of intuition to another, quite different con‐ cept, to which perhaps no intuition can ever directly corre‐ spond”), except that he uses a different translation and high‐ lights the word “perhaps.” That makes all the difference for de Man. Not only does the single “perhaps” bring out the radical end, hypotyposis “serves to conceptualize the elemental philosophical distinction of the shapedness of shapes, of the formedness of forms, and so on, in a way similar to what Aristotle intended with the verbal form of hypotypoun” (216). In this specific manner, the rhetorical de‐ vice remains indispensable for Kant’s system.
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indirectness of symbolic hypotyposis, but it also puts at serious risk the stability of the schematic one: when the impossibility of direct correspondence is “said, even in passing, to be ‘perhaps’ possible, the theory of a schematic hypotyposis loses much of its power of conviction” (de Man 1996a: 47).8 The notion is flaw‐ ed because the forms it presents us with may not be trusted. Af‐ ter all, how are we to believe that we have access to a “clean category of epistemologically reliable tropes” (Loesberg 1997: 90) in any given situation, real life or hypothetical, if there is the slightest chance the tropes do not function as we think they do? What if the thought of saving the person from drowning was bound to be only a misunderstanding, an illusion, an unreality? With that lingering concern we find ourselves in the world of Kleist. Kleist’s Crisis The young Kleist believed strongly in the rational tenets of the Enlightenment. In a letter to his sister from 1799 he expresses this faith: I hear a thousand people speak and see them act and it ne‐ ver occurs to me to ask after the why? Nor do they know, they follow obscure inclinations, their action are determin‐ ed by the moment. They never come of age and their fate is the plaything of chance…. No free person, no thinking per‐ son, stays where chance happens to thrust him …. He de‐ termines according to his reason what manner of happiness is the highest for him, he devises a plan for his life [Lebens‐ plan] and strives towards his goal with all his strength and
As it occurs, de Man’s argument hinges on its looking away from the symbolic towards schematic hypotyposis. The failure of the Kantian symbol to “perhaps” ever directly correspond to an intuition is turned into a systematic failure of its schematic counterpart. But one could take Kant’s “perhaps” as referring to something symbolic which human understanding can never have direct intuition of—not an infre‐ quent motif in Kant. Such a compromise might spare the transcen‐ dental view. 8
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As we know from Kleist’s later stages, his youthful conviction in “securely founded principles” took a beating with the start of the new century and an encounter with what he referred to as “the new, the so‐called Kantian, philosophy” in a letter from March 1801, addressed to his fiancée. Kleist describes himself as “deeply and painfully shaken” by an idea in that philosophy (421)10 that presents, as James Phillips also notices, a somewhat Cartesian conundrum of what would happen if “people all had green lenses instead of eyes” and they would never know “whether the eye shows them things as they are or whether it isn’t adding something to them belonging not to them but the eye” (Constantine in Kleist 2004: 421; also Phillips 2007: 3).11 Kleist’s Kantkrise, in other words, was one in which the new philosophy had undermined his conviction in being able to know things as they “really” are and plan one’s whole life ac‐ cordingly. Of course, Kant’s whole aim had been to rattle exactly such convictions but, for him, this did not spell a personal crisis. His response to the loss of metaphysical certainty, as Seán Allan has observed, came in the form of a transcendental system that “Tausend Menschen höre ich reden und sehe ich handeln, und es fällt mir nicht ein, nach dem Warum? zu fragen. Sie selbst wissen es nicht, dunkle Neigungen leiten sie, der Augenblick bestimmt ihre Handlungen. Sie bleiben für immer unmündig und ihr Schicksal ein Spiel des Zufalls .... Ein freier, denkender Mensch bleibt da nicht ste‐ hen, wo der Zufall ihn hinstösst.... Er bestimmt nach seiner Vernunft, welches Glück für ihn das höchste sei, er entwirft sich seinen Lebens‐ plan, und strebt seinem Ziele nach sicher aufgestellten Grundsätzen mit allen seinen Kräften entgegen.” Kleist’s original text can be found at http://www.kleist.org/briefe/005.htm. 9
10 Kleist’s expression is “so tief, so schmerzhaft erschütter[t],” found at http://www.kleist.org/briefe/037.htm.
“Wenn alle Menschen statt der Augen grüne Gläser hätten ... nie würden entscheiden können, ob ihr Auge ihnen Dinge zeigt, wie sie sind, oder ob es nicht etwas ihnen hinzutut, was nicht ihnen, son‐ dern dem Auge gehört.” Kleist, http://www.kleist.org/briefe/037.htm. 11
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strove “to preserve the notion of morality itself” by separating duty (Pflicht) from inclination (Neigung) and gave us free rein over our moral actions (Allan 1996: 34). Yet such a solution was not apparently to Kleist’s old‐fashioned liking, even if he could not deny the impact of Kant’s thought on himself. James Phil‐ lips suggests this was because he did not appreciate the “Kant‐ ian juggernaut” that strove to integrate all things and entities into “the totality of human experience” and as such took their cognitive availability for granted. Because of his dogmatic strain, Kleist instead wished to preserve “the unknowability of things in themselves” (Phillips 2007: 13). Allan, on the other hand, sees Kleist’s rejection as “all the more ironic” as the youth seems to have regarded “Kant’s philosophy not as an affirma‐ tion of human freedom, but on the contrary, as a final, and in‐ deed insurmountable, obstacle to its assertion”—even if Kant had intended just the opposite by letting individuals “choose to act in accordance with the dictates of their moral will” (Allan 1996: 35). Yet Kleist must not have believed in this view, for as he deplores in another letter to his fiancée in April 1801, fore‐ boding future writings, “We think that we are free and yet in reality we are wholly at the mercy of chance that leads us along by a thousand finely spun threads.”12 On another occasion, it would be very interesting to study how Kleist’s plays in the first decade of the 1800s exhibit symp‐ toms of the Kant crisis in their various ways. Robert E. Hel‐ bling, for instance has noted how “Kleist’s drama contains its own version of hamartia, tragic error” and “[t]he term for it which [Kleist] puts in the mouths of some of his characters is the rather untranslatable Versehen, suggesting something like ‘misapprehension’ of reality” (1975: 49). And true enough, the erratic and often terrible consequences of Versehen can be wit‐ nessed in plays such as Die Familie Schroffenstein (1803), Amphi‐ tryon (1807), and Penthesilea (1808). In this context, however, I will focus on Kleist’s enigmatic 1810 essay “Über das Marionet‐ tentheater.” My objective is to indicate how Kleist’s inability to “Ach, Wilhelmine, wir dünken uns frei, und der Zufall führt uns allgewaltig an tausend feingesponnenen Fäden fort.” Kleist quot‐ ed in Allan 1996: 35, original text found at http://www.kleist.org/ briefe/041.htm. 12
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adopt the Kantian worldview actually results from a different conception of what can be presented in language. Kant’s philo‐ sophy claims that all experience adheres to a transcendental condition that ensures that any sensible presentation, or hypo‐ typosis, successfully connects understanding with intuition (notwithstanding de Man’s deconstructive criticism of the “per‐ haps”). Kleist’s literature suggests that there is no way of ensur‐ ing such success. As I now move on to show, in the Kleistian world intuitions are instead bound to be confused with under‐ standings that lead up to further misunderstandings—of de‐ scribing as proof or trusting as truth—that poignantly evince the necessity of such answers and the metaphysical question looming behind them. Transcend the gap we must, but never can. “Über das Marionettentheater” “Über das Marionettentheater” is a tale of two men debating. It consists of their meeting in a town square, where both are watching a puppet show, and the back‐and‐forth dialogue that ensues. The essay has attracted many commentators over the last two centuries and, as Helbling says, it “has often tempted the critics to use it as a magic key to unlock the secret of Kleist’s world” (1975: 35). Possible themes range from the limits of hu‐ man reason to the infinity of divine reason, from the problem of self‐consciousness to its absence in inanimate things, from nos‐ talgia for a lost paradise to a future political utopia, and they all opt to explain the enduring popularity of Kleist’s essay. For my part, to highlight the difference between Kant’s and Kleist’s separate vantage points on how hypotyposis works, I will ana‐ lyse one specific passage with an eye for its overall significance, anticipating an unexpected experience for the reader at the end of the puppet show. Die Puppen brauchen den Boden nur, wie die Elfen, um ihn zu streifen, und den Schwung der Glieder, durch die augen‐ blickliche Hemmung neu zu beleben; wir brauchen ihn, um darauf zu ruhen, und uns von der Anstrengung des Tanzes zu erholen: ein Moment, der offenbar selber kein Tanz ist, und mit dem sich weiter nichts anfangen läßt, als ihn mög‐ lichst verschwinden zu machen.
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Puppets need the ground only to glance against lightly, like elves, and through this momentary check to renew the swing of their limbs. We humans must have it to rest on, to recover from the effort of the dance. This moment of rest is clearly no part of the dance. The best we can do is make it as inconspicuous as possible.13
In Kleist’s essay, at the time when Herr C makes the above claim, the debate has surged from the universal mechanics of the marionettes first to the soul of the puppeteer controlling them and then to the pathetic failure of contemporary dancers to express themselves with grace. Herr C’s point about how puppets are distinguished from humans recapitulates one of his major ideas that inanimate, mechanical dancers are more god‐ like and gracious than their animate, organic counterparts. With this particular claim, however, there is more at stake, and the logic of the argument is seen as relying on one specific symbol: that of “ground” (Boden). Whereas a transcendent entity such as God requires no earthly ground to perpetuate his omnipotence, both puppets and humans do—the difference is that the former need it “only to glance against lightly” to keep them in motion, in a continuous mechanical fashion, while humanity “must have [the ground] to rest on.” Our fate, in other words, depends on the solidity of a site where we can recover and aim to start again, with the least distraction and exposure possible. Because puppets do not require this forced period of in‐ activity, they transcend what we are capable of and so aspire to a divine status.14 Since their show, nonetheless, is unques‐ tionably there for us to witness and it remains within our sight, unlike God’s presence, they do not step out of our realm com‐ pletely. Instead, the idea of what the puppets might represent lingers, presented before our eyes in the form of the continuing show. They are encountered as transcendental in this very sense: as beings of both the heavenly and the earthly plane that, 13 Original at http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/buch/593/1. Transl. Idris Parry at http://southerncrossreview.org/9/kleist.htm and in Parry 1981.
We could raise the theological question here as to why God rested on the seventh day, but I will ignore it for now. 14
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for Herr C at least, reflect and justify our own ambition. But on what exactly is such justification based? What ensures the con‐ nectedness of our actions with those of the puppets? In the given example, the symbol of the ground does. Apart from mere resemblances and analogies of physical movement, Boden provides the material uniting link between us and the dolls: we both exist upon it and are able to preserve motion thanks to it. In contrast to God, they are here and we are here, but because the dancing dolls’ capabilities transcend ours, we can logically infer there is another, divine plane of being beyond ours. Thematically oriented interpretations of “Über das Marion‐ ettentheater” have often run with this insight to insist how Kleist, either for his own or someone else’s sake, seeks to close the gap between the two planes of being. Jeffrey Cox, for in‐ stance, has found Kleist’s essay as being obsessed with two central Romantic alternatives to man’s entrapment in the self: an unreflective state that seeks a prelapsarian na‐ tural grace, and a fully imaginative state that discovers a vi‐ sionary unity between self and world. (Cox 1986: 261)
With this gesture, Cox reduces the text into a self‐centred re‐ hearsal of familiar themes and dissolves the chance (or worth) of reading Kleist rhetorically, as a piece of writing concerned with how such themes can be articulated at all. Somewhat similarly, Evelyn Cobley has understood the essay as foreseeing “Hegel’s dialectical process [as] problematic not only because the possibility of sublation is at best doubtful but also because the desire for spontaneity is from the start misconceived.” She wants to say that since Kleist is the Romantic who longs for this kind of spontaneous expression and Hegel is part of the En‐ lightenment tradition whose related ideal of progress “sub‐ lates” disastrously into “fascist terror” and “death camps” a century later (Cobley 2003: 28, 31), “Über das Marionettenthe‐ ater” presents little more than an unwitting prologue to such history. Meanwhile, de Man has sought to indicate why Kleist’s essay achieves nothing of the sort and instead falls itself in the very gap it exposes, unable to promote or argue for any given theme. In his essay “Aesthetic Formalization: Kleist’s ‘Über das Marionettentheater’,” he starts by considering Kleist’s rejection
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of contemporary trends as his inevitable fallout with the natur‐ alised pathos promoted by luminaries such as Schiller. Peeling off these influences layer by layer, de Man finally witnesses Kleist’s essay as the “extreme formalization” of the polysemous ambiguity of the German word Fall that, in taking many dif‐ ferent forms, keeps recurring in the essay “in a manner that stretches it from the theological Fall to the dead pendulum of the puppet’s limbs to the grammatical declension of nouns and pronouns” (de Man 1984: 289‐90). De Man concludes: But Fälle, of course, also means in German “trap,” the trap which is the ultimate textual model of this and of all texts, the trap of an aesthetic education which inevitably confuses dismemberment of language by the power of the letter with the gracefulness of a dance. This dance, regardless of whe‐ ther it occurs as mirror, as imitation, as history, as the fenc‐ ing match of interpretation, or as the anamorphic transfor‐ mations of tropes, is the ultimate trap, as unavoidable as it is deadly. (1984: 290)
As I regard it, against the rather trite interpretations of Cox and Cobley, de Man’s reading is much preferable because it recalls the question of language involved in the tale of two men de‐ bating and, in doing so, paves the way for the return of the rhe‐ torical device of hypotyposis, Kant’s systematic resorting to it, and Kleist’s obstinate refusal to go along with the Kantian solu‐ tion. In studying the symbol of the ground as we have done, the logic behind all this comes into view. The difference between schematic and symbolic hypoty‐ poses was defined earlier in terms of directness and indirect‐ ness, and it is not too difficult to apply that criterion in the case of Boden. Understood directly, as a physical phenomenon, the ground is something that the puppets actually require to main‐ tain their mechanical motion and that humans can rest and re‐ cover on. Understood indirectly, however, the ground becomes an abstract entity that, as de Man put it, transports reflection from its schematic reference to “another, quite different con‐ cept” that it symbolises. Kleist’s Boden, in other words, turns from its existence as concrete matter into a mediating notion that, just like concrete matter, supports humans and dolls alike. As this, consequently, proves our similarity and connectedness,
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it also becomes true that we are justified, both logically and morally, in our pursuit of the higher plane the puppets repre‐ sent—the metaphysical domain of a transcendent God remains beyond our reach but the vivid transcendental gestures of the inanimate dolls by no means do. A literary transcendence, as Herr C seems to echo Kant, is always possible because of the mediate presentations of language which allow us to experience and confirm what we may never grasp as such. Through the play of hypotyposis the puppets do not appear as mere things on a string to be watched unresponsively, but rather as cogni‐ tive objects with deep vested significance. As we may recall, however, de Man suggested that the ground from which Herr C’s transcendental aspirations take flight appears precarious at best, riddled with dangerous pit‐ falls. We must keep in mind that “Über das Marionettenthea‐ ter” is a tale of two men debating, not a philosophical treatise or lesson in argumentation. It certainly presumes to make use of these aims but not as direct proof of their truth or the point‐by‐ point analysis of any given postulate. In de Man’s words, although Marionettentheater can be said to be about proof, it is not set up as one but as the story or trope of such a demonstration” which, in due course, becomes “a scene of persuasion” that “shows people engaged in the act of telling ... and problematizes the relationship between a rhetoric and a hermeneutics of persuasion.” (1984: 268‐69)
As such, the tale ebbs and flows, from the narrator’s voluntary acquiescence to Herr C’s authoritative musings and moments of reciprocating trust and disbelief—or transitory exposure made as “inconspicuous as possible”—to two concluding anecdotes that seemingly digress from the main plot but bring the whole to an emblematically Kleistian climax. I will not render the anecdotes in detail because I wish to encourage the reader to turn to them herself. Put briefly, the first one describes an impressionable youth who loses his abili‐ ty to perform gracefully because of an unfortunate incident in‐ volving a classical artwork, attempted mimicry, and the barely checked ridicule of his teacher. For the second one, Herr C gives an off‐the‐wall travel account of a bear reared domestically at a Baltic farm against which he is goaded into an impossible fenc‐
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ing match. It is true these bizarre snippets are at first confusing. But, when viewed from the vantage point of aspiring for tran‐ scendence (for something we cannot do, something beyond our cognitive ken), the lesson learned is clarified. There is the young man who does not cope either with the grace of a statue or his teacher‐narrator’s gaze, and there is Herr C frustrated by the superior bear who never attacks but dodges or parries his every blow, and together there is what both of them share: the human urge to take on what we see as non‐human because of what we think it represents. For the youth, the graceful statue represents a transcenden‐ tal ideal that he cannot reach and whose failure is made all the worse by his teacher’s demeaning response. According to de Man, the tragedy is not that of a simple “game” that the youth could have continued on his own for ages but that of trust’s betrayal. Meanwhile, Herr C’s encounter with the “transcen‐ dental bear” which sees and knows more than he ever will soon turns into one against the very limits of understanding (de Man 1984: 278, 283). As the beast confronts Herr C staring, reading his soul in his eyes (“Aug in Auge, als ob er meine Seele darin lesen könnte”), it always stays one move ahead, and so his urge to connect with it, literally or figuratively, can only go unful‐ filled. As de Man says, “Such is language: it always thrusts but never scores. It always refers but never to the right referent” (285). These scenes and insights remind us that, in Kleist, the metaphysical question remains because it cannot be eliminated. Instead, it keeps staring at us.15 In “Über das Marionettenthe‐ ater” we are therefore faced with the hypotyposis of two men debating a puppet show and other sights, swaying between trust and disbelief, shame and exposure, and the unreliable ground on which it all takes place. It is also possible the show might just stop, having run out of images and the words to de‐ scribe them. What kind of experience would that be? Bianca Theisen has found “the bear’s grace, the innocent and infallible certainty with which he is able to distinguish between de‐ ception and non‐deception in his opponent [as] nothing but the blind‐ spot of the dancer’s self‐observations” (2006: 529). While her interpre‐ tation may be useful in questions of self‐reflection, it does not remove the problem of the stare. 15
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End of the World Mithin, sagte ich ein wenig zerstreut, müßten wir wieder von dem Baum der Erkenntnis essen, um in den Stand der Unschuld zurückzufallen? Allerdings, antwortete er, das ist das letzte Kapitel von der Geschichte der Welt. “Does that mean,” I said in some bewilderment, “that we must eat again of the tree of knowledge in order to return to the state of innocence?” “Of course,” he said, “but that’s the final chapter in the his‐ tory of the world.”16
If we were ever to regain, as Herr C envisions, an ideal paradi‐ siacal state beyond confusion, betrayal, and shame as we might have enjoyed before the Fall, how on earth could we manage that? In view of the preceding dialogue and the puppet show before their eyes, the narrator wonders if the only way to return to innocence would actually be through more knowledge in‐ stead of the opposite. Instead of letting go of our needs, urges, and desires to explain, investigate, and peruse, should we not rather heat up the pursuit—watch and learn from puppets, mak‐ ing up more and more off‐kilter arguments and anecdotes to force language to its limits? As the narrator finds himself “ein wenig zerstreut” at the end, instead of Parry’s “in some bewil‐ derment,” de Man observes his state “not only as distracted but also dispersed, scattered, and dismembered” and in doing so he appears to tap into a disturbing undercurrent (de Man 1984: 289). For as words fly out of our mouths at any time to describe and explain what we see, there is no given trajectory that they will trace and indicate where they will land. Inasmuch as there is both distraction and hope over what anything means or will result in, the belief always comes with a poignant sense of loss and banishment exposed to recurring sweeps of shame and fear of death. Kant’s lesson in curbing such unsettling randomness was a philosophy of transcendental idealism that had the tools to en‐ sure that, whenever we so wished, anything we saw corre‐ Original at http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/buch/593/1, transl. by Par‐ ry, at http://southerncrossreview.org/9/kleist.htm and Parry 1981. 16
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sponded with what we said. If, for example, we sought to dem‐ onstrate successfully how human ambition to reach a higher plane could be explained by describing the meaning of a pup‐ pet show, hypotyposis made it possible through the symbol of the ground. In “Über das Marionettentheater,” the character of Herr C appears to embody the support for such proof, and surely enough, his connections between the needs of humanity and the pathetic failures of contemporary dance do beckon in the direction.17 Yet, as I have been saying, “Über das Marionet‐ tentheater” is not a work of philosophy but a tale of two men debating. While partial to that view, de Man, in focusing exclu‐ sively on Kleist’s rhetorical complexities, concludes his reading in a claim to “extreme formalization” in which we are left only with “the ultimate textual model of this and of all texts.” But in what way do we feel such a model? In my experience there are at least three points to start to answer that question. First, heeding Kleist’s lesson that what we demand is more knowledge, not less, there is never respite or getting away from needing to describe what we see. Second, since hypotyposis, although necessary, remains essentially in‐ capable of ensuring that what we see actually corresponds with what we say, one can never verify having attained what one set out to attain. No transcendental ambition can carry out its own plan—it can only confirm that it must exist, in language. This leads us to my third and final point. Because there is no end to description and no end to not knowing for sure, we can only describe the end of the world as we think we know it. The readers of Kleist referred to have thought that beyond the end of “Über das Marionettentheater” either religious nostalgia or Romantic wishfulness awaits (Cox), or idealist utopia and historical di‐ saster (Cobley).18 When these knowledges are realised as sym‐ Lucia Ruprecht echoes Herr C in observing how “[t]he failure of the Kleistian protagonist … is not that he acts where he should be natural, as Schiller would put it. He fails as performer: he cannot cope with his exposure on stage, or in front of a beholder” (Ruprecht 2006: 41). 17
Not all thematic interpretations of “Über das Marionettenthe‐ ater” have had such a bleak tone. G.A. Wells, for one, has found the meaning of the essay “in the final chapter of the world’s history” 18
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bolic hypotyposes, however, or descriptions that function only indirectly and thus fail in connecting the proof of the puppet show to the arguments they claim to support the ground (Boden) falls from beneath them. At first, we are then reminded of de Man’s entrapment in the formal involutions of language, but, according to its logic, even that insight cannot last beyond the essay’s end. The encounter stops there, meaning nothing. And so we are finally left with the experience of an end beyond which there is nothing, no heaven or hell, utopia or dystopia, living essence or dead matter, words, or images. There is only the end—“the final chapter in the history of the world”—and the full stop, an experience of sheer horror. Bibliography Allan, Seán. (1996). The Plays of Heinrich von Kleist: Ideals and Illusions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Caygill, Howard. (1995). A Kant Dictionary. Oxford: Blackwell Pub‐ lisher. Cobley, Evelyn. (2003). “Ambivalence and Dialectics: Mann’s Doktor Faustus and Kleist’s ‘Über das Marionettentheater’.” Seminar: A Journal of Germanic Studies 39/1: 15‐32. Cox, Jeffrey. (1986). “The Parasite and the Puppet: Diderot’s Neveu and Kleist’s ‘Marionettentheater’.” Comparative Literature 38: 256‐ 69. De Man, Paul. (1996a). “The Epistemology of Metaphor.” In: Andrzej Warminski (ed.). Aesthetic Ideology. Minneapolis/London: Univer‐ sity of Minnesota Press. Pp. 34‐50. (1996b). “Phenomenality and Materiality in Kant.” In: Andrzej Warminski (ed.). Aesthetic Ideology. Minneapolis/London: Uni‐ versity of Minnesota Press. Pp. 70‐90. (1984). “Aesthetic Formalization: Kleist’s Über das Marionetten‐ theater.” In: Paul de Man. The Rhetoric of Romanticism. New York: Columbia University Press. Pp. 263‐90. Gardner, Sebastian. (1999). Kant and the Critique of Pure Reason. Lon‐ don/New York: Routledge.
when “man will eat again from the tree of knowledge and thereby achieve God’s ‘unendliches Bewusstsein’” (1985: 96). Such a feat would doubtlessly satisfy any Kantian dream.
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Gasché, Rodolphe. (2003). The Idea of Form: Rethinking Kant’s Aesthetics. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Helbling, Robert E. (1975). The Major Works of Heinrich von Kleist. New York: New Directions. Kant, Immanuel. (2000). Critique of the Power of Judgment. Transl. Paul Guyer and Eric Matthews. New York: Cambridge University Press. Original: Kritik der Urteilskraft (1790). http://www.archive. org/details/kritikderurteils00 kantuoft. Accessed 23 August 2011. (1929). Critique of Pure Reason. Transl. Norman Kemp Smith. London: Macmillan. Original: Kritik der reinen Vernunft (1781/ 1787). http://www. gutenberg.org /ebooks/36076. Accessed 23 August 2011. (1912). Träume eines Geistersehers, erläutert durch Träume der Metaphysik (Dreams of a Spirit‐Seer Elucidated by Dreams of Metaphysics, 1766). In: Artur Buchenau (ed.). Vorkritische Schriften. Vol. 2. Immanuel Kants Werke, Vol. II. Berlin: Bruno Cassirer. http://www. gutenberg.org /ebooks/36076. Accessed 18 October 2012. Kleist, Heinrich von. (2004). Selected Writings. Ed. and transl. by David Constantine. Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Com‐ pany Inc. (n.d.). Sämtliche Briefe. http://www.kleist.org/briefe/. Accessed 23 August 2011. (n.d.).“Über das Marionettentheater” (“On the Marionette The‐ atre“). http:// gutenberg.spiegel.de/buch/593/1. Transl. Idris Parry (1981).