The Nahal Qanah Cave: Earliest Gold in the Southern Levant 9654400057, 9789654400053

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THE NAI:IAL QANAH CAVE EARLIEST GOLD IN THE SOUTHERN LEVANT by

AVI GOPHER AND TSVIKA TSUK

Contributions by I. Carmi, A. Frumkin, Y. Goren, I. Hershkovitz, L. Kolska Horwitz, 0. Lernau, N. Liphschitz, S. Shalev.

AVIGOPHER Editor

MONOGRAPH SERIES OF THE INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY TEL AVIV UNIVERSITY

This publication was made possible through grants from the Georg and Shulamit Majewski [Israel] Endowment Funds Dubin [U.S.A.] Endowment Fund and the Friends ofthe Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University

Published by the Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University Publications Section

ISBN 965-440-005-7

©

Copyright 1996 All rights reserved

Printed in Israel by 'Graphit' (Graph-Chen') Press Ltd., Jerusalem

Frontispiece: Chalcolithic gold and electrum objects (Photo: N. Slapak, courtesy of the Israel Museum, Jerusalem).

CONTENTS

List of Figures List of colour plates Preface Avi Gopher Chapter I

Chapter 2.

Chapter 3

Chapter 4

Chapter 5

INTRODUCTION Tsvika Tsuk and A vi Gopher Discovery and excavation The environmental setting Excavation technique and methodology DESCRIPTION OF THE SITE A vi Gopher and Tsvika Tsuk Layout and excavation areas Architectural features

vii IX XI

6 7 13 13 45

THE NEOLITHIC ASSEMBLAGES Avi Gopher Pottery Chipped stone assemblage Groundstone tools Summary

53

THE CHALCOLITHIC ASSEMBLAGES A vi Gopher and Tsvika Tsuk Pottery Stone objects Metal objects Ivory and bone objects Ornaments Miscellaneous Summary EARLY BRONZE AGE Pottery Metal objects Summary LATER PERIODS

91

GEOLOGY AND SPELEOLOGY OF THECA VE SYSTEM Amos Frumkin

53 72

73 80

91 109 114 124 128 128 130 131 131 135 135 135 139

v

Chapter 6

PETROGRAPHIC STUDY OF THE POTTERY ASSEMBLAGE Yuval Goren

147

Chapter 7

METALLURGICAL AND METALOGRAPHIC STUDIES COPPER OBJECTS Sariel Shalev. GOLD AND ELECTRUM OBJECTS A vi Gopher and Tsvika Tsuk

155 155 165

HUMAN SKELETAL REMAINS

175

Chapter 8

Israel Hershkovitz and A vi Gopher Chapter 9

Appendix

FAUNAL REMAINS Liora Kolska Horwitz FISH BONES Omri Lernau

181 200

Chapter 10

ARCHAEOBOT ANI CAL REMAINS Nili Liphschitz

202

Chapter ll

RADIOCARBON DATES

205

Israel Carmi Chapter 12

CONCLUSION A vi Gopher and Tsvika Tsuk History ofthe cave. The Neolithic Period The Chalcolithic Period The Nal)al Qanah Cave in the Ghassulian Context Socio-economic Aspects ofthe Ghassulian Culture The Archaeological Contribution of the Nal)al Qanah Cave

List of Abbreviations List of Loci Inventory of Basalt Objects

VI

209 209 213

215 217

226 234 244 245 248

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 1.1 Fig. 1.2: Fig. 1.3: Fig. 1.4: Fig. 1.5: Fig. 1.6: Fig. I. 7: Fig. 1.8: Fig. 1.9:: Fig. I. 10: Fig. 2.1: Fig. 2.2: Fig. 2.3: Fig. 2.4: Fig. 2.5: Fig. 2.6: Fig. 2.7: Fig. 2.8: Fig. 2.9: Fig. 2.10: Fig. 2.11: Fig. 2.12: Fig. 2.13: Fig. 2.14: Fig. 2.15: Fig. 2.16: Fig. 2.17: Fig. 2.18: Fig. 2.19: Fig. 2.20: Fig. 2.21: Fig. 2.22: Fig. 2.23: Fig. 2.24: Fig. 2.25: Fig. 2.26: Fig. 2.27: Fig. 2.28: Fig. 2.29: Fig. 2.30 Fig. 2.31: Fig. 2.32: Fig. 2.33: Fig. 2.34: Fig. 2.35: Fig. 2.36: Fig. 2.37: Fig. 2.38: Fig. 3.1: Fig. 3.2:

View from the hill outside the Na1;al Qanah cave. The entrance to the cave Narrow low passage leading from the entrance shaft. View of the Main Hall with 'The Shelf' in the right foreground. Yarmukian pottery in situ. The 'New Entrance'. Map of the geographic setting. Detailed topographic map of the area (based on the I :50000 Israel grid map) Major wadi systems, springs and protohistoric sites in the western Samaria hills. Checking with a metal detector. Section through the Nal).al Qanah cave showing all five levels .. Profile of the NaQ.al Qanah cave. Plan and sections of Level A showing excavated loci. East-west sections through the Main Hall. The Shelf. Bedrock mortar on the Shelf. Early Bronze Age juglet in situ (Locus 121 ). Copper adze in situ (locus 150). Plan of the floor of the Main Hall at the top level of Loci I 00 and I 04. Vertical section through the Passage. Schematic section of the Passage showing the excavated loci. View down the Passage after it was cleared. Plan and sections of Level B. Copper standard in situ on the floor of the Copper Room. Chalcolithic churn in situ. Fragment of a basalt pedestalled bowl in situ. General plan of Level C showing excavated loci. The descent from the Copper Room. The 'Watermelon'. Incised Neolithic bowl in situ. Plan and sections of Level D. Fragments of basalt pedestalled bowls in situ. on the floor of the Rectangular Room. A terrace wall in the Rectangular Room. Yarmukian sherds in situ in the Neolithic Room. Plan and sections of Level E. Entrance to the Hall of the Terraces from inside the chamber. One of the built terraces. Partially roofed corridor in the Hall of the Terraces. Fragments of an ossuary in situ (Locus 512). A built terrace (Locus 517). Plan and section of the Rectangular Room. View of Space 600. Plan of the Hall of Terraces. North-south section A-A through the Hall of the Terraces. Section B-B through the Hall of the Terraces. Section E-E through the Hall of the Terraces. Section F-F through the Hall of the Terraces. Section D-D through the Hall of the Terraces. Neolithic bowls. Neolithic bowl with incised and painted decoration.

2 3 4 4

5 6 8 9 10 II 14 16 17 18 21 21

22 23 26 27

28 28 29 30 31 31 32 33 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 41 41 43 43

44 46 47 48 49 50 50 51 51 54

55

vii

Fig. 3.3: Fig. 3.4: Fig. 3.5: Fig. 3.6: Fig. 3.7: Fig. 3.8: Fig. 3.9: Fig. 3.10: Fig. 3.1!: Fig. 3.12: Fig. 3.13: Fig. 3.14: Fig. 3.15: Fig. 3.16: Fig. 3.17: Fig. 3.18: Fig. 3.19: Fig. 3.20: Fig. 4. 1: Fig. 4 2: Fig. 4.3: Fig. 4.4: Fig. 4.5: Fig. 4.6: Fig. 4.7: Fig. 4.8: Fig. 4.9: Fig. 4.10: Fig. 4.11: Fig. 4.12: Fig. 4.13: Fig . .4 14: Fig. 4 15: Fig. 4.16: Fig. 4.17: Fig. 4.18: Fig. 4.19: Fig. 4.20 Fig. 4.21: Fig. 4.22: Fig. 4.23: Fig. 4.24: Fig. 4.25: Fig. 4.26: Fig. 4 27: Fig. 4.28: Fig. 4.29: Fig. 4.30: Fig. 4.31: Fig. 4.32: Fig. 4.33: Fig. 5.1: Fig. 52: Fig. 5.3: Fig. 5.4:

viii

Neolithic pedestalled platter bowls. Neolithic cooking-pots, kraters and holemouth jars. Neolithic decorated jars. (Left) Incised Neolithic jar; (Right) Incised and painted Neolithic jar. Neolithic jars. Neolithic jars. Neolithic ring-base jars. Neolithic jars. Necks of Neolithic jars. Neolithic pottery. Neolithic pottery. Neolithic pottery. Neolithic flint tools Neolithic flint tools. Neolithic sickle blades. Neolithic flint and stone tools. Neolithic arrowhead. Neolithic sickle blades. Chalcolithic bowls. Chalcolithic bowls and cups. Chalcolithic pottery. Chalcolithic jars. Chalco lithic jars.

Chalco!ithic kraters and ho!emouth jars. Chalcolithic churns and handles. Chalcolithic churns. Ossuary fragments. Miscellaneous Chalcolithic fragments. Fragment of box-shaped ossuary. Chalcolithic spout Perforated flake (fanscraper?). Chalcolithic basalt bowls and pedestalled bowls. Parts of several basalt pedestalled bowls combined for exhibition. Chalcolithic basalt pedestalled bowls. Chalcolithic haematite maceheads. Haematite maceheads. Chaicoiithic metal objects. Copper standard. (Left) Before cleaning; (Right) After cleaning. Copper wire and lump. Chalcolithic copper objects. Copper objects. Gold rings. Electrum and gold rings. (Left) Perforated plaque made from hippopotamus tusk. (Right) Bone object. Ivory and bone objects. Bone points and spatulae. Ornaments. Ornaments. Early Bronze Age pottery. Early Bronze Age cups. Early Bronze Age copper dagger. Vertical section through Nal;al Qanah Cave. Plan of the Main Hall. Sections through various areas of the cave. Columns in the Main Hall.

56 58

60 61 63 64 65 66 67

69 70 71 74 75 77 78 79 79 92

94

96 97

98 !00 102 103 104

106 107 108 108

110 Ill 112 113 113 116

117 117 118 119 120 123 124 125

126 128 129 132 134 136 140 141 142 143

Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig.

55: 56: 57: 5. 8: 7.1: 7.2: 7.3: 7.4:

Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig.

7.5: 7.6: 8.I: 8.2: 9.I: 9.2: 9.3:

Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig.

9.4: 9.5: 9.6: 9.7: 9.8: 9.9: 9.IO: 9.II: 9.I2: II. I: I2.I: I2.2 I2.3: 12.4: I2.5: I2.6:

Chamber formed by displacement of bedrock blocks. Cave corals. Development of a column close to A9. Evolution of the Nal)al Qanah cave. Gold rings. Plan showing location of concentrations of gold rings. Section of Ring No.3. a) Upper surface of Ring No. 2; b) Detail (x I 0); c) Upper surface of Ring No. 4; d) Detail (xI 0). Hammering marks on the upper surface of Ring No. 2. Map showing distribution of gold sources. Skeletal remains. Human skeletal remains by age and sex. Spatial distribution of bones in the Main Hall. Sheep/goat bodypart breakdown. a) Distribution of unidentified bone fragments. b) Distribution of human and animal modified bones. Percentage of bones in each modification group. A goat astralagus with cut marks on the lateral side (Locus 130). A bone point with cut marks. Equid metatarsal shaft with porcupine-rodent gnawing on distal end (Locus I 00). Sheep/goat humerus shaft with porcupine gnawing. Bone fragment with puncture holes. Sheep/goat distal femur with deep furrows resulting from carnivore gnawing. Caprine humerus showing carnivore striations and puncture holes. Left juvenile human distal radius showing puncture holes. Distribution of samples taken for radiocarbon dating. Scheme ofthe Nal)al Qanah cave system at the time of first human use. Occupational history of the Nal)al Qanah cave. Distribution of human skeletal remains and ossuaries in the cave. Loci from which basalt objects were retrieved. Reconstruction of the Main Hall during Chalcolithic use of the cave. Possible sources of the raw material of objects found in the cave.

143 144 144 I45 I64 I66 168 170 17I

I72 I79 I80

183 I85 186 I87 188 188 190 I90 190 I9I 191

194 207 210 212 219 22I 225 236

LIST OF COLOUR PLATES Frontispiece Plate I Plate II Plate III Plate IV Plate V Plate VI Plate VII Plate VIII Plate IX Plate X Plate XI

Chalcolithic gold and electrum objects. The 'Shelf' in the Main Hall. Terrace and flat surface in the Rectangular Room. Wall and roofing in the Hall of Terraces. Neolithic- Yarmukian undecorated jars. Neolithic- Yarmukian decorated jars and bowl. Neolithic- Yarmukian decorated jar. Neolithic- Yarmukian cooking-pot. Chalcolithic vessels. (Left) Chalcolithic macehead-like turquoise bead.; (Right) Chalcolithic perforated hippopotamus tusk plaque. Chalcolithic copper and haematite objects. Neolithic spindle whorls (above) with Chalcolithic bone points and shells.

83 83

84 85 86 87 87

88 88 89 90

ix

Members of the team at the entrance to the Na}:!al Qanah cave.

X

PREFACE

When I was first introduced to the Nal:lal Qanah cave, the Pottery Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age were periods outside my usual area of study. The description of the cave attracted me, however, and my curiosity overcame my reservations about investigating it. The choice to excavate Nabal Qanah was made on emotional grounds for the sake of adventure, and I was drawn to this site, so different from the 'clean' single-stratum open air sites that I had always sought. From a personal perspective the project was accompanied throughout by conflicting emotions of excitement and anxiety, of elation and great solitude. My judgement would battle with romantic soarings of the imagination where the charm of the cave and extraordinary finds would conflict with years of conditioning and study in which artefacts had been reduced to a mere means to the greater end of understanding, reconstructing and explaining human behaviour and culture. The excavation produced many assemblages worthy of systematic study which are the core of this book. Reluctantly, we did not include the narrative of the adventures involved in this extraordinary excavation. Yet the scientific results go hand in hand with the hazards and the exceptional archaeological experience of coping with drastically different field conditions where professional skills were tested to the extreme. The discovery of the cave and its excavation is described in the first chapter by my partner, Tsvika Tsuk. His keen instincts and determination led us to overcome the many obstacles and reveal impressive finds. He was a stimulating and valuable partner in the project, for which I am most grateful. A vi Gopher Tel Aviv 1996

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The field work and part of the analysis of the finds was made possible by grants from the Ministry of Science and Development of the Government of Israel during the years 1987-1989; I.B.M. Israel has generously contributed to the analysis of the finds; The Israel Museum has contributed to the restoration of finds and their conservation, and later to the exhibition of finds and their early exposure to the public in exhibition with an impressive accompanying catalogue. The Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University was supportive throughout the project and very helpful in restoration of pottery, laboratory analyses of metal objects, photography, graphics and the preparation and publication of this book. A contribution from the Faculty of Humanities of Tel Aviv University enabled us to include colour photographs in this book. The Nabal Qanah cave project was made possible by the contributions and hard work of many people to whom we owe our heartfelt thanks. Firstly, Amos Frumkin and his staff of the Israel Cave Research Center who gave generously of their time, hard work, equipment and expertise that enabled us to proceed with the field work. I. Magen, the archaeological Staff Officer of Judaea and Samaria

xi

gave permission for the project and helped us along the way. The Israel Defence Forces provided security during the 1987-1991 seasons. Our thanks to Mr. J. A vi ram of the Israel Exploration Society and Prof. A. Biran of the Hebrew Union College who supported us and helped to raise the money needed for the 1987-1991 work. Our grateful appreciation to 0. Misch-Brandel, M. Tadmor and T. Noy of the Israel Museum for their insight that deepened our understanding of the cave and its finds and for preparing the exhibition in the course of which a television feature was produced by H. Kloppfer-Naveh, directed by Y. A vissar and photographed by V. Schultz, all of Israeli Television Channel 1. Our thanks to them all. During the study of the pottery we consulted Prof. R. Gophna, Mr. E. Yanai and Dr. I. BeitArieh, and benefited too from the assistance of Dr. Y. Goren. We are indebted to Prof. A. Horowitz for his help and advice in identifying minerals and in studying the metal artefacts, to Mr. Y. Dinner for his notes on the geology of the cave, to Mr. Y. Drei who spent time in the cave and made a major contribution to the enlargement of the metal assemblage, to Dr. F. Poplin of the Laboratoire d'Anatomie Comparee du Musee Nationale d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, who helped us in better understanding the bone and ivory items from the cave, to Mr. M. Dvorachek of the Geological Survey of Israel for his cooperation in analyzing the gold artefacts on the SEM and M. Bar-Mathews, Director ofthe laboratory, toN. Halperin of the Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University for her help with the metal objects, and to J. Kapelyan, Y. Dekel, 0. Paran and D. Enoch-Shiloh who produced the drawings for this book. Photographs in the field were taken by many including lCRC staff members, T. Tsuk, A. Gopher, D. Meron and by P. Lanyi of the Israel Museum. Studio photographs were taken by N. Slapak of the Israel Museum, A. Hay, Z. Radovan and by N. Adany-Tarkhanov and P. Shrago, the photographers ofthe Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University. We are grateful to all ofthem. We are deeply indebted to the late Mr. Erich Friedman for his faithful work and careful treatment of our finds. Our sincere thanks to our colleagues who contributed chapters to this book and made their work and results available for our attempt at reconstruction of the cave and its uses: Israel Carmi, Amos Frumkin, Yuval Goren, Israel Hershkovitz, Liora Kolska Horwitz, Nili Liphschitz and Sariel Shalev. Special thanks to Estelle Orrelle for her time in preparing the original manuscript of this book and for many hours of discussion. We thank the volunteers listed below for their dedication and hard work: -A. Frumkin, Director ICRC; G. Izdarechet, A. Bar-l-lama, D. Gan, Y. Hare!, A. Hartuv, I. Cohen, Y. Carmi, U. Livneh, U. MorHai-Levi, A. Metzer, E. Stanislavski, A. Seta, A. Farhi, A. Tsipori, M. Sadeh, R. Shamir, N. Cohen, D. Rubin, I. Rappaport, M. Shahaf, E. Friedman, K. Furleiter, G. Alaluf, Y. Geva, E. Wald, N. Schlanger, N. Frank, M. Schlanger, M. Grinbart. 1987: S. Steiner, A. Hershtik, T. Gindin, U. Livner, R. Kaftori, A. Kasten, A. Shpigel, S. Shechter, A. Hod, E. Morag, M. Shienberg, K. Kolodner, Y. Briner, N. Shani, A. Bar-Hama, A. Zeidner, D. Meiron, P. Liberman, N. Frank, N. Schlanger, M. Grinbart, E. Friedman, E. Orrelle, K. Furleiter, S. Naor, 0. Golan, I. Meyuchas, S. Gorodezky, H. Kfir. 1987-1990- S. Harpazi, D. Artzi, A. Arzi, P. Liberman, E. Morag, Y. Dinner, Y. Helfman, A. Zeidner, A. Frumkin, D. Meron.

1986:

A vi Gopher and Tsvika Tsuk

XII

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION Tsvika Tsuk and A vi Gopher

DISCOVERY AND EXCAVATION Tsvika Tsuk In 1980, during a visit to villagers of Kfar Lakhif in western Samaria, members of the Israel Cave Research Center (ICRC) of the Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel were told of a large karstic cave in the vicinity. The following year members of the ICRC set out to search the surmunding region for the cave, which was located after a two-day search (Fig. 1.1 ). The first of the team to clamber into the cave tells that he crawled into a very narrow fissure which at first appeared to come to a dead end but in fact opened into a large chamber. His head-lamp illuminated an open expanse, very rich in stalagmites and stalactites and he could hear the sound of dripping water. This amazing sight was to meet our eyes on each subsequent visit. The cave is entered through a round inclined shaft (Fig. 1.2). At first it is still possible to stand upright or slightly stooped but soon the roof becomes lower and one must wriggle along on one's stomach around kinks in a narrow 40 em. high passage (Fig. 1.3). Finally this broadens and leads into a vertical chimney which opens into a large hall (Fig. 1.4). From the first visit it was evident that there were archaeological remains in the cave for wherever one trod sherds lay on the ground or peeped out from beneath the vast boulders which had fallen in the centre of the hall. In 1982 we visited the cave together and after a series of delays launched the excavation in 1986. What started as an investigation of a natural cave complex turned into a most unusual archaeological expedition. Every aspect of the logistics of this project was complex. Equipment had to be carried up the steep and stony hillside for a considerable distance. Generator-supplied lighting had to be installed to supplement head lamps. Safety measures had to be taken to prevent accidents on the wet and slippery mud floor with its extreme irregularities, steep inclines and impeding boulders. Working tools had to be brought in and finds taken out. These and many more unanticipated problems were solved with the help and cooperation of our ICRC colleagues who had the experience and the equipment to overcome almost anything. The first stage of the project was to survey the cave thoroughly and map all accessible areas. This was undertaken by members of the ICRC. Work was laborious and slow. Plans and sections of the excavated areas of the cave had to be drawn in the most awkward positions and extremely confined spaces.

Fig. 1.1: View from the hill outside the Nal}al Qanah cave. (Above) looking northwest; Below) looking northeast.

2

The wealth of sherds and vessels was collected by groping under slabs, on ledges and in crevices. As the excavation proceeded methods for removal of sediments were developed. Those that were relatively dry were put into strong plastic bags, closed with string, tagged and manhandled towards the base of the entrance shaft whence they were dragged to the sieving and sorting station outside. Each find added a piece to the puzzle of the mysterious site we were researching - a complete flint arrowhead, a very tiny carnelian bead, a bone point, a few sea shells or a fragment of hippopotamus tusk. The sherds turned out to represent three periods: the Pottery Neolithic period (Yarmukian culture) which includes the earliest pottery assemblage in Israel dating to the second half of the sixth millennium B.C.E., the Chalcolithic Period and the Early Bronze Age. Only a few areas were suitable for systematic horizontal excavation. First a few promising areas such as crevices tested on earlier visits and a built terrace in the Main Hall were investigated. We surveyed the cave constantly, slowly and thoroughly in order to become familiar with its size, locate new hollows, collect additional finds and locate archaeological contexts. Each area excavated Jed to new areas being opened. As work progressed the cave system turned out to be more and more complex. Names had to be invented for each new area. They were coined according to finds and so the 'Copper Room' was named. From a small recess at the base of the Main Hall we slid down almost 5 m. into a chamber where the finds on the floor suggested that we were for the first time handling in situ Chalcolithic finds. These included a copper standard, fragments of churns and basalt pedestalled bowls together with human skeletal remains. Continuing our progress along a narrow corridor, we reached another chamber where walls had been constructed to form terraces and, since that was the general shape of the area, it became the 'Rectangular Room'. This in turn led into a high wide corridor from which crevices branched off in different directions. In it lay a large broken fragment of a jar that must have been almost a metre high. Today it is impossible to bring such a huge vessel into the cave intact, and this reinforced our intuition that morphological changes had taken place in the

Fig. 1.2: The entrance to the cave.

3

Fig. 1.3: Narrow low passage leading from the entrance to the cave.

Fig. 1.4: View of part ofthe Main Hall showing the Shelf in the right foreground.

4

cave since the Chalcolithic period. Squeezing through an oval hole in the floor of the corridor, we slid down another very steep slippery slope to find ourselves in a large boat-shaped hall which tilted downwards and was filled with built terraces. The lowest of the retaining walls were in the deepest part of the hall and from one of them slabs jutted out diagonally to create a ceiling which touched the wall of the cave. Here too many pottery sherds lay on the terraces, most of them from the Chalcolithic period. This chamber was named the 'Hall of the Terraces'. From the corridor leading to the Rectangular Room another branch led to a cavity, later named the 'Neolithic Room', where we came across two very well-preserved restorable Neolithic vessels (Fig. 1.5) An innovation of the third season (1987) was a telephone line, made possible by the ICRC, and this was laid together with an electric cable as far as the Hall of the Terraces. Thus we had both light and communication at the very end of the cave. In the same season we located and put into service a shorter and more comfortable entrance to the cave. By chance a volunteer working outside the cave, struck a rock and heard a dull reverberation which hinted that underneath it the ground was not solid. We searched from inside the main entrance shaft and finally found a passage branching off it blocked with rocks and soft sediments. We believe that this must have been the original entrance to the cave that had filled up through the years. Working from the Main Hall it took a few days of intense effort to clear this more convenient access (Fig. 1.6). In the best tradition, the most exciting finds came to light on the last day of that season - a long green copper dagger and, in another area, a circular ring-like object covered with mud. After briefly rubbing it we could see that it was yellow in colour. The ring was crude but its colour was quite unlike the green oxidized copper items which we had found before. All that sprang to mind was that this was that noble metal, unaffected by its surroundings - gold - as indeed it turned out to be. From that first discovery at the end ofthe 1987 season until 1990 we returned to the cave a number of times for the specific purpose of investigating the Passage leading down from the Main Hall which was where the gold had been found. In all, eight rings were found under the most uncomfortable wet and cramped conditions. Close to where the eighth golden ring was found, were parts of a child's skull and a macehead of polished haematite. In addition a few beads appeared, mostly made of mother of pearl and some made of stone and yet another mace head made of haematite. That collection of finds from the Passage has, we believe, enormous significance for our understanding of the people that placed them there. Work in the field came to an end but the repercussions of the discoveries in the cave will reverberate still for many years.

Fig. 1.5: Yarmukian pottery in situ on the floor of the Neolithic Room.

5

Fig. 1.6: The 'New Entrance'.

THE ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING Tsvika Tsuk and A vi Gopher The entrance to Nabal Qanah cave (Map Location 1568/ 1713 Israel Grid or 6953/5575 U.T.M. grid) is situated at a height of 260 m. above sea level, half way down a steep rocky slope partly covered· by an orchard of almond and olive trees. This lies in the southwest of the Samaria Hills, a strip of some 10 km. on an east-west axis and some 20 km. on a north-south axis (Fig. 1.7). The area, designated the Samaria western slope south, differs from the Samaria western slope north by the nature of its lithology. In the north, a Cenonian chalk formation dominates while in the south a hard Cenomanian - Turonian limestone is the predominant country rock. A north-south geological section from Khirbet es-Samra, some 600- 800 m. south of the Nabal Qanah cave (348 a.s.l), to Wadi Yaakub (Fig. 1.8) cuts through some 150m. of sedimentary rocks. In the highest parts, at Khirbet es-Samra and its surroundings including the olive groves on the slopes leading down to the cave, the B'ina formation of the Turonian is exposed. It is made up of dolomite and reddish limestone, Meleke limestone and lithographic limestone to a maximum thickness of 120m. The upper two thirds of the slope on which the cave entrance is situated is a hard grey dolomite of the upper Cenomanian - lower Turonian Weradim formation which varies in thickness from 20-100 m. The entrance to the cave lies in the central part of this formation. The lower part of the slope, down to the Wadi Yaakub, is made up of chalk and marls of the upper Cenomanian Kfar Shaul formation which reach a maximum thickness of 70 m. It is possible that this is the marly horizon exposed in the cave near the Rectangular Room and in the Hall of the Terraces. The Cenomanian Aminadav formation lies in the lowest part of the section below the slope and in Wadi Yaakub. Meleke limestone and dolomite reach a maximum thickness of l 00 m. At Khirbet es-Samra a blackish-grey basalt intrusion cuts into the hard limestone of the B'ina formation.

6

The western slopes of the Samaria Hills receive some 550 mm. of precipitation annually. The terrain is rocky with very little soil cover and steeply cut by streams. Small patches of red soil appear on the slopes and on the plateaux between the gulleys. The main stream systems cutting the area from east to west are (from north to south): Nalfal Qanah, Nalfal Shiloh and Nalfal Natuf (Fig. 1.9). These streams and their tributaries cut down to a depth of 200 m., exposing different geological formations (below). The Moza chalk, the aquifer in which the springs of the area occur, is exposed in places along the stream beds. Of the numerous springs in the area, closest to the site are Ain Fawar and A in el Fawara as well as the small spring 1 at Bir Abu Amar. Recent major vegetation cover includes olive orchards and some fig, grape and almond groves. Cereals are rarely grown. Between the small cultivated patches and on the slopes, remnants of a Mediterranean forest can be seen mainly constituted of two vegetation communities: Quercus calliprinos (Kermes oak) with Pistacia palestina (Terebinth), and Ceratonia siliqua (Carob) with Pistacia lentiscus (Lentisk) (Waisel et al 1978; Zohary 1980; Waisel and Danin 1984). Before human destruction of the natural vegetation this area was probably all covered by Mediterranean forest (Lipschitz and Bigger 1990). Archaeological surveys show that the area was inhabited since the Neolithic period through the Early Bronze Age. Pottery Neolithic sites do not appear in the higher parts of the area but rather to the west at the junction of the hills and the Shephela (Fig. 1.9). Such is the case with Lod (Kaplan 1977; Gopher and Rosenberger 1994) on the southern bank of Nalfal Ayalon and with the site of Wadi Raba (Kaplan 1958) located on a small tributary of Nalfal Shiloh. During the survey of this area, four small Chalcolithic sites were discovered close to the springs at Ain Fawar in Nalfal Qanah, Ain el Fawara in Nalfal Shiloh, Khirbet 2 Ras-Amar in Nalfal Shiloh and Ain Shikh el Sultan in Nalfal Natuf (Gophna and Tsuk 1990). These sites are located on wide terraces near to the springs while the Nabal Qanah cave is relatively distant from a water source and is located on a slope in the heart of the hard limestone formations of the upper aquifer. However, the constant dripping formed small pools which provided water inside the cave. Other Chalcolithic sites appear in the region in the contact zone where the Shephela meets the hills (e.g. Ben Shemen, Bareket, Wadi Raba, Aphek, Jaljulia) and on the coastal plain in the Tel Aviv area. There are also many later sites in the area which do not relate to this study. EXCAVATION TECHNIQUE AND METHODOLOGY Avi Gopher and Tsvika Tsuk The Nabal Qanah cave is a multi-component site, severely damaged, with difficult and dangerous working conditions. The most conspicuous phenomenon in the Main Hall and in almost all other areas of the cave was the extreme paucity of sediments. Very few areas had sediments and even fewer had any stratigraphic potential. Most finds were either on the surface rock, under travertine crusts, in the bat droppings or under large fallen boulders. Excavation strategy concentrated on two mam objectives. These were to excavate systematically where possible in order to expose stratigraphy and separate the different horizons, and to plot the spatial distribution of the archaeological finds. Different field methods were employed according to the nature of the particular excavation area. The specific method was chosen ad hoc according to the size of the area and its accessibility: 11

Bir Abu Amar lies some 1.5 km. to the northwest ofthe cave on the southern bank of Wadi Abu Amar. It is accessed by means of a 20m. long corridor which opens into a large hall. A stone-lined well was found some 50 m. to the west of the spring (Tsuk 1983). 2 At Ain Fawar and Ain el Fawara there is an indication for Pre-pottery Neolithic occupation. The latter site also produced late Neolithic finds that may represent an assemblage of the Wadi Raba culture.

7

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00

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/·:·:::.::·.. :·:.

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Fig. 1.7: Map of the geographic setting. (Light dotted areas: 1-200 m. above sea level; Dark dotted areas: 200-300 m. above sea level).

154

156

158

160

Fig. 1.8: Detailed topographic map of the area. (Based on the 1:50000 Israel grid map)

9

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4

· · ~AB"· · · · · · · · ·

·: ·:· ·.·· _: ·:_::-: .·~·::· :':: :' :' :' :': : ~- ....

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Fig. 1.9: Major wadi systems, springs and protohistoric sites in the western Samaria hills

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• Very small areas with sediments suiting standard excavation were divided by grid of I x I m., each square being subdivided into four quadrants which were excavated in maximum height spits of 5 em. This was only applied in a small area of the Main Hall (e.g. Locus I 02). All sediments were sieved through a 2-3 mm. mesh, outside the cave. • Small crevices were excavated as independent units and we tried not to exceed I 0 em. descents when sediments were present. These were usually very small areas with muddy sediments (e.g. Loci I 00, I 04 ). The same technique was applied on a larger scale in the Passage where sediments could be slowly excavated from top to bottom in small height spits, and also in some loci in the Hall of the Terraces (e.g. Locus 516). • Areas underneath large rockfall boulders were treated as independent excavation units without any spatial subdivisions. • Some areas were excavated as loci without subdivisions since the development of the work did not show archaeological justification to do so. Such was the case with Loci 125, 113 and some of the Shelf loci (e.g. Locus Ill). • In the Rectangular Room, the lower floor area covering some 20 m 2 • was subdivided into four quadrants by marking a cross on the floor according to features of the area. Items were collected and coordinated according to the two axes. There were virtually no sediments in this part of the cave. Sieving through a 2-3 mm. sieve was selective. Most of the sediments of the 1986-1987 seasons were sieved. Sediments in the Hall of the Terraces were not taken out of the cave for various technical reasons and thus were not sieved. These sediments were, however, double-checked manually.

Fig. 1.10: Checking with a metal detector.

11

A post-excavation survey using a metal detector was conducted in all areas of the cave including non-excavated areas (Fig. 1.1 0). This resulted in the discovery of a dozen additional metal objects. Two major problems affected contextual analysis of the finds: the assemblages were mixed and the degree of preservation in the cave was differential. Most contexts were found to have been disturbed and to contain finds from two or all three time-periods represented in the cave. In many cases it was possible to identify and assign vessels or sherds to a specific cultural assemblage (Neolithic, Chalco lithic or Early Bronze Age) on the basis of typology. Manufacturing technology as well as raw materials were also of help except in the case of plain body sherds. The task of preserving and restoring the ceramic material which had been in a constantly damp atmosphere was a priority as many of the sherds turned to mud in our hands. They were strengthened in the Restoration Laboratories of the Institute of of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University and of the Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Fragments of pottery constituted the bulk of the finds but in view of the above-mentioned handicaps a full quantitative analysis of the ceramic material was not attempted. The sherds represent three periods: the Pottery Neolithic period (Yarmukian culture) which includes the earliest pottery assemblage in Israel dating to about 5500 B.C.E., the Chalcolithic Period and the Early Bronze Age. The pottery for each period is presented according to typology but in cases where a reasonably 3 controlled assemblage was extracted, a simple quantitative analysis has been carried out. The flint, stone, metal, ivory and bone objects were also found in mixed contexts together with pottery. In many specific cases the cultural assignment of these finds is so clear that they serve as anchors for treating the ceramic assemblage. REFERENCES Gopher, A. and Rosenberger, A. 1994. Lod. Had. Arkh. 101:74. (Hebrew) Gophna, R. and Tsuk, T. 1990. Chalco lithic Settlements in Western Samaria. EI 21: 111-118.(Hebrew with English summary) Kaplan, J. 1958. Excavations at Wadi Rabah. IEJ8:149-160. Kaplan, J. 1977. Neolithic and Chalcolithic Remains at Lod: EI 13:57-75. (Hebrew with English summary) Lipschitz, N. and G. Bigger, 1990. Ancient Dominance of the Quercus Calliprinos/Pistacia atlantica Association in Mediterranean Israel. Journal of Vegetation Science 1:67-70. Tsuk, T. 1983. Karst Sites in Western Samaria. Ni!a-ot Zurim 7:67-70. (Hebrew with English summary) Waisel, Y., Pollak, G. and Cohen, Y. 1978. The Ecology of Vegetation of Israel. Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv. Waisel, Y., and A. Danin, 1984. The Vegetation of Samaria. In: Waisel, Y., ed. Plants and Animals of the Land of Israel. Vol. 8. Tel Aviv. Zohary, M. 1980. Vegetal Landscapes of Israel. Tel Aviv.

3

For example, Loci I 00 and I 04 in the Main Hall, most of the loci of the Passage and for some loci where no disturbance was identified, such as in the Neolithic Room.

1.2

CHAPTER 2

DESCRIPTION OF THE CAVE AND EXCAVATION AREAS A vi Gopher and Tsvika Tsuk

LAYOUT AND EXCAVATION AREAS The Nal;al Qanah cave system spreads over five levels (Fig. 2.1 ). On the uppermost level (A) lie the entrance to the cave, the passage leading to the Main Hall and the Main Hall itself. This level is not fully illusttated in the section since it includes passages, crevices and tunnels that could not be physically reached or mapped. The original floor of the Main Hall was disturbed by subsidence and rockfalls. In its southwestern part, beneath a rock shelf above point A9, a 5 m. long passage leads down to the lower levels (B-E). Levels B and C include the Copper Room and lower part of the passage from the Main Hall. The corridor from the Copper Room area to the Rectangular Room makes up Level C, while Level D consists of the Rectangular Room (Dl) and the Neolithic Room (D8, D9). On the lowest accessible level (E) is the Hall of the Terraces (E7-E3). Some of the offshoots from this level are indicated by broken lines on the section in order to illustrate the complexity of the various features. The lowest point reached in the cave (E3) is some 25 m. below point A 1. The length of the path from the entrance to this point is some 90 m. (Fig. 2.2). THE ENTRANCE

The entrance which we used since the discovery of the cave measures 1.8 x 1.9 m. and leads to a 1.5 m. deep shaft. At the bottom of this shaft a narrow inclined passage runs for 2.2 m. and then levels out. In all, this passage is some 16 m. long. It is no wider than one metre at any point and its height varies, being only 40 em. along a stretch of about 5 m. The end of the passage rises and a circular window' opens into the upper part of the Main Hall. Not far from the bottom of the above-mentioned shaft a second passage, clogged with rubble, branched off to the south. It was discovered and cleared in 1987 and found to be about 5 m. long, also leading into the Main Hall. This New Entrance was used thereafter as a more convenient route for access (Fig. 1.6). Neither of these passages was systematically excavated. All efforts by the staff of the Israel C~ve Research Center to find additional entrances to the cave were fruitless. It must thus be assumed that the only access into the cave system from outside was via the main entrance shaft.

13

A2

--'

w >

'::1

l

-~~

w TERRACES

Fig. 2.1: Section through the Na[.lal Qanah Cave showing all five levels with legend used throughout for various features (after Frumkin 1984).

14

PASSAGES

SPELEOTHEMS

DRIP LINE LARGE STALAGMITE

(PEAK A )

PASSAGE STALAGMITES PRESENT

VERTICAL

ENTRANCE.

DEPTH

CROSS SECTION

STALAGMITE WITH

STALACTITES

STALACTITE OVER

STALAGMITE

LARGE STALACTITE

PILLAR (BEDROCK)

STALACTITES

PRESENT

UNDERLYING and OVERLYING PASSAGES COLUMN

only narrowest port in black

UNMAPPED PASSAGE COLUMNS

PRE SENT

SLOPE

VERTICAL DROP,

CEILING

DEPTH

LEDGE

ALLUVIAL BLOCKADE

BREAKDOWN BLOCKADE

SPELEOCLASTS CONTINUES

LOW

CONTINUES, NARROW LARGE BREAKDOWN

INDETERMINATE WALL SMALL

BREAKDOWN

PIT FALLEN SPELEOTHEMS~___.

DOME COBBLES

CONECTING TWO LEVELS

15

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MAIN

HALL

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Fig. 4.1: Chalco lithic bowls.

92

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FIGURE 4.1: CHALCO LITHIC BOWLS No.

Type

Locus

Reg. No.

Description

I.

Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl (lamp?) Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl

125 308 128 142 105 113 308 127 142 104 127 160 100 127 127 100 125 129 160 100 142 125 145 100 129 127 109

1233/2 1425/2 1353/1 156112 1125/1 1156/l 142511 1248/3 1551/2 1105/3 1248/1 1328/3 1007/5 1247/2 1248/2 100111 1235/3 131011 132811 1007/6 1551/3 1235/3 1576/3 100511 1333/2 1249/3 1137/3

Light-brown clay; limestone and flint grits; tournett? Light-brown-pink clay; limestone grits; truncated base; tournette. Brown-pink clay; white grits; tournette. Brown clay; limestone and flint grits; tournette. Light brown clay; limestone grits; tournette. Brown-pink clay; tournette. Light brown-pink clay; limestone & flint grits; truncated base; tournette. Light-brown-yellow clay; flint grits. Light brown clay; limestone and flint grits; red slip. Pink clay; grey core; crushed pottery, flint and limestone grits. Light-brown clay; flint grits. Light-brown clay; limestone and flint grits; tournette; red paint. Pink clay; black charred signs on rim inside and outside; tournette. Brown-yellow clay; limestone and flint grits; tournette. Brown-red clay; limestone and flint grits. Pink clay; limestone and flint grits; tournette. Light brown-orange clay; flint and limestone grits. Pink clay; plastic decoration on base. Brown-pink clay; limestone and flint grits; tournette; red paint. Brown-pink clay; limestone and flint grits. Orange clay; flint and limestone grits. Orange clay; flint and limestone grits. Light brown-buff clay; limestone and flint grits. Light brown-buff clay; limestone and flint grits. Light brown-orange clay; limestone and flint grits. Brown clay; limestone and flint grits; remants of paint on rim. Brown-pink clay; limestone and flint grits.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

II. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18 19. 20. 21 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27.

CUPS This small group includes cups with or without handles (Figs. 4.2:10-15; 4.3:1,3). A single globular vessel with a spout and sieve is also present (Fig. 4.2:15). The fragment in Fig. 4.2:13 might have been part of a cup. Fig. 4.2:14 has red paint and a thickened rim.

JARS There are far fewer jars than bowls. The major jar types that appear are: • Globular jar with everted neck/rim and a narrow opening. Two loop handles are attached either in the central part of the body (Fig. 4.4: 1) or a little higher (Fig. 4.4:2). The bases of this type are usually flat, and decoration is very rare. A sub-type with a somewhat shorter straight neck and wider opening/aperture (Fig. 4.4: 12) also appears, sometimes with painted bands on the rim area. • Globular jar with a very short neck or neckless (Fig. 4.4:8-11,13 ). The rim is simple or everted and sometimes bears red painted bands. • Small jar with a short straight neck (Fig. 4.4:14). • Large jar with a long neck (Fig. 4.4:15,16).

93

2

5

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94

11

12

14

15

• Small jar or bottle (Fig. 4.4: 17). • Jar with a wide aperture, short everted rim and globular body: sometimes with painted decoration at the rim edge.

• Small amphoriskos with a short everted rim: two loop handles attached from rim to upper body. Additional small and medium-sized jars without handles and decorated with broad red painted bands appear (Fig. 4.5:6-7). Very few sherds with red paint and incisions of cuneiform shape appear. An exceptionally large massive jar can be described as a pithos (Fig. 4.6: 17) but may be a burial jar. Bases of jars are usually flat (Fig. 4.5: 1~3,5) or slightly concave (Fig. 4.5:4). In some cases the base protrudes slightly beyond the natural taper of the sides of the vessel (Fig. 4.5:3,4,5). These are massive bases in many cases and sometimes bear painted decoration. Jar handles are the usual loop handles (Fig.4.7:8-12) and a few bear red slip and paint (Fig. 4.7:7). Necks and rims of jars are separately shaped and are attached to the coil-built jar. Signs of rotary action sometimes appear on the neck.

FIGURE 4.2: CHALCOLITHIC BOWLS AND CUPS No.

Type

Locus

Reg. No.

Description

I.

Bowl

104

108011

2.

Bowl Pedestalled Pedestalled Pedestalled Pedestalled Pedestalled Pedestalled Pedestalled Cup

142 104 144 133 109 113 114 114 100

156111 1105/1 1575/4 115617 113511 1230/4 163911 1169/ 1003/1

Light-brown -pink clay; limestone and flint grits; tournette; red paint remnants on rim. Light-brown clay; limestone and flint grits; tournette. Brown-pink clay; flint grits Grey-beige clay; limestone grits. Light brown-yellow clay; limestone and flint grits. Light brown-yellow clay; limestone and flint grits. Light browh-orange clay; large flint and limesone grits. Light browh-orange clay; flint and limesone grits. Light browh-orange clay; tlint and limesone grits. Pink-light-brown clay; limestone and flint grits; tournette; remnants of red paint; incisions. Light-brown clay; limestone and flint grits. Light-brown clay; limestone and flint grits; red paint on rim; incisions. Light brown-yellow clay; limestone and flint grits. Light-brown clay; grey core; limestone and flint grits; red slip and paint. Pink-light-brown clay; flint limestone and calcite grits; tournette.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

8. 9. 10.

11.

bowl bowl bowl bowl bowl bowl bowl

12.

Cup Cup

104 100

1098/2 1008/3

13. 14.

Cup Cup'l

125 106

1235/2 112611

15.

Spouted vessel/cup?

130

1501/1

95

Fig. 4.3: Chalco lithic bowls. (Left) Fig. 4.2: 10; (Centre) Fig. 4.1: 1-1 0; (Right) Fig. 4.2:15 (courtesy of the Israel Museum).

FIGURE 4.4: CHALCOLITHIC JARS No.

Type

Locus

Reg No.

Description

I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10 II. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

Jar Jar Jar Jar Jar Jar Jar Jar Jar Jar Jar Jar

408 518 101 100 125 132 130 100 127 114 125 129

1296/1 1226/1 1010/2 1008/6 1337/1 1517/1 150118 1007/4 124717 1170/5 1410/4 1300/2

Jar Jar Jar Jar

103 118 100 100

1070/2 1166/1 1007/3 100712

Dark-brown clay; large limestone and flint grits; rim made on wheel. Dark-brown clay; large white limestone and flint grits. Beige-buff clay; limestone grits. Pink clay; limestone and flint grits; tournette. Pink clay; limestone and flint grits. Buff clay; limestone and flint grits; tournette. Orange clay; limestone grits. Brown-pink clay; limestone and flint grits. Yell ow clay; limestone grits. Yell ow clay; limestone grits; red slip and paint. Light brown clay; flint and limestone grits; remnants of red paint on rim. Orange clay; flint and limestone grits; red paint. Yellow-pink clay clay; limestone grits. Yellow-pink clay; large flint and small limestone grits. Brown-red clay; limestone and flint grits. Pink clay; flint grits; tournette. Pink clay; limestone and flint grits; tournette.

96

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13

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Fig. 4.4: Chalcolithic jars.

97

2

6

7

,

8

Fig. 4.5: Chalcolithic jars.

I

FIGURE 4.5: CHALCOL!THIC JARS.

No.

Type

Locus

Reg. No.

Description

I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Jar Jar Jar Jar Jar Jar Jar Jar

407 115 125 128 304 130 104 127

1295/l 1107/3 1337/2 1400/1 1261/1 1501/6 1081/1 1247/5

Buff clay; limestone, flint and calcite grits; incised line above base. Light-brown clay; limestone and flint grits. Light-brown clay; limestone and flint grits. Light-brown-pink clay; flint and limestone grits; red slip and paint. Light brown-orange clay; limestone and flint grits. Brown-red clay; limestone and flint grits; brown paint. Pink clay; yellow-pink core; limestone and flint grits; red paint. Pink clay; flint and limestone grits.

98

base base base base base

rim

KRATERS These are large wide-mouthed vessels with a short everted rim (Fig. 4.6: I, 3, 4-9). The rim is pointed everted or thickened (Fig. 4 ..6:2). A few of the smaller kraters have red-painted bands around the rim (Fig. 4.6:3) or on the whole vessel (Fig. 4.6:9, 15). Holemouth jars usually have pointed or rounded rims (Fig. 4.6:5, 7.12) occasionally thickened (Fig. 4.6:8,1 0). They are usually plain but some display red paint (Fig. 4.6:10,11 ). Fig. 4.6:11 may be described as a cooking-pot since the outside is coated with charred material. A special type with a spout and red-painted decoration has been included in this group (Fig. 4.6: 16). This vessel may have been put to secondary use as an ossuary.

CHURNS A number of churn fragments with or without handles are shown in Figs. 4.7:1-5; 4.8:2. Fig. 4.7:1 (also seen in Fig. 4.8:1 and Fig. 2.15) has a neck and rim and a strainer at the base of the neck. The fragment illustrated in Fig. 4.7:5 has a red-painted band at the junction between the neck and body. On the inside of the vessel clear imprints of a finger or stick can be seen where the neck was attached. It should be noted that most of the churns from Nalfal Qanah are small or medium in size similar to those regarded as a feature of the Beer-sheba culture. Such small churns were found only sporadically at the new excavations at Ghassul (Hennessy 1989), the Beer-sheba sites of I:forvat Beter (Dothan 1959:Fig. 16:1), Abu-Matar (Commenge-Pellerin 1987, Fig. 37:1-2) and in burials such as for example Ben Shemen (Perrot and Ladiray 1980, Fig. 124:1 0). Similar vessels appear at Tel Teo (Eisenberg 1989:Fig. 4:16-17) and at Jericho (Kenyon and Holland 1983:Fig. 12)

OSSUARIES These are of two types: • Box-shaped(Figs. 4.9:13; 4.11) • Burial pithoilkraters (Fig. 4.6:16, 17) A number of the many box-shaped ossuary fragments collected bore red paint and some had plastic decorative elements. Unfortunately it was not possible to reconstruct even a single complete ossuary.

CREAM WARE VESSELS 1 The few Cream Ware vessels found at Nabal Qanah are all small jars with a slight thin rim, a set of pierced handles along the carination and a flat base (Figs. 4.10: 1-3). They have a reddish-pink slip.

1

Cream Ware was first desc;ibed by Macalister at Gezer ( 1912: 137). Its light creamy colour apparently stems from the use of kaolin-rich clay (Am iran 1971 ).

99

\C/1

1

\

3

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I 7

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7

4

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6

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8

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10

12 11

14

16

Fig. 4.6: Chalcolithic kraters and holemouth jars.

100

I

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2

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J

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FIGURE 4.6: CHALCOLITHIC KRA TERS AND HOLEMOUTH JARS. No.

Type

Locus

Reg. No.

I.

Krater Krater Krater Krater Holemouth jar Holemouth jar Holemouth jar Holemouth jar Krater Holemouth jar Cooking-pot ? Holemouth jar Holemouth jar Jar* Holemouth jar Spouted krater Pithos

107 128 142 113 125 127 130 126 108 125 100 129 100 142 141 113 404

1129/1 1344/4 1562/1 1230/3 1235/7 1247/4 1501/7 1253/1 1131/2 1233/1 I 008/4 1334/3 1007/7 1561/4 1540/1 1156/4 1288/1

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

II. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

Description Light-brown clay; flint and limestone grits. Light brown clay; limestone grits. Light brown-beige clay; limestone and flint grits; red paint. Yellow clay; limestone grits. Light brown clay; limestone grits. Pink-beige clay; large limestone and flint grits. Beige clay; limestone and flint grits. Light-brown clay; limestone and flint grits. Beige-yellow clay; limestone grits. Orange-brown clay; limestone and quartz grits; red slip. Light-brown-pink clay; limestone grits; red paint; charring signs. Beige clay; flint and limestone grits. Orange clay; flint and limestone grits. Pink clay; flint grits; red paint; incised decoration. Pink ligh-brown clay; tournette; brown paint Pink clay; limestone and quartz grits; brown paint. Orange clay; large limestone and flint grits.

* Most probably a Neolithic jar. It may be part of the small post-Yarmukian assemblage mentioned in Chapter 3.

FIGURE 4.7: CHALCOLITHIC CHURNS AND HANDLES. No.

Type

Locus

Reg. No.

Description

I.

Churn

113

115511

2. 3.

Churn Churn Churn Churn Spout? Handle Handle Handle Handle Handle Handle Handle

300c 100 104 114 Ill 108 127 142 139 133 101 125

1278/1 1004/4 1105/2 1634/3 1143/1 1132/1 1249/4 1561/3 1524/1 131911 1010/1 1410/3

Light-brown clay; limestone and flint grits; travertine accumulation inside. Brown-yellow clay; small limestone and large flint grits. Beige clay; limestone and flint grits. Buff-pink clay; limestone grits. Orange clay; limestone grits; red paint. Beige-yellow clay; limestone grits. Pink clay; limestone grits; red paint. Light-brown clay; limestone and flint grits. Light-brown-pink clay; limestone and flint grits. Light-brown-pink clay; flint grits. Light-brown clay; flint grits. Light brown clay; large flint and small limestone grits. Light brown-yellow clay; limestone and flint grits.

4. 5. 6.

7. 8. 9. 10.

II. 12. 13.

101

~-,

··~

-

,.. ..... ,

'

i

'I

) ~

' /' 4

3

~

tv

'

2

ill I

-.....-,' ~

/

'

"-'

'

~

'

11

Fig. 4.7: Chalcolithic churns and handles.

102

7

6

\

8

@

I

I

5

a 10

9

12

•

I I

13

Fig. 4.8: Chalcolithic churns. (Left) Fig. 4.7:1; (Right) Fig. 4.7:2 (courtesy ofthe Israel Museum).

MISCELLANEOUS The following fragments were found: • Handles with broad attachments from 'basket' vessels (Fig. 4.1 0:5,6). • Handles with perforations (Fig. 4.10: 16-18). • Pierced handles (Fig. 4.10:1 0). • A single loop handle which may be assigned to the Chalcolithic or Early Bronze Age (Fig. 4.10:15). • A single stopper was found, most probably of a jar (Fig. 4.1 0:7). • Two spouts with widened apertures (Fig. 4.10:11-12). • A single base of a goblet or juglet (Fig. 4.1 0:8). • A base with a concentric pattern of incisions which may be a cover of a jar (burial jar ?) or an ossuary (Fig. 4.10:9). • A bowl fragment \-;ith a guttered rim (Fig. 4.10:13). • A possible plastic decoration/pierced handle on a fragment of a vessel (ossuary?) (Fig. 4.10:14 ). • Two unidentified fragments (Figs. 4.7:6; 4.12 and Fig. 4.10:4).

103

·,.-

2

3

4

5

6

7

9

10

Fig. 4.9: Ossuary fragments.

104

12

11

Fig. 4.9: Ossuary fragments (cont.).

FIGURE 4.9: OSSUARY FRAGMENTS. No.

Type

Locus

Reg. No.

Description

I.

Ossuary frag.

129

1334/2

2. 4.

Ossuary frag. Ossuary frag. Ossuary frag.

109 129 100

1137/5 130011 1008/10

5.

Ossuary frag.

129

1310/4

6. 7.

Ossuary frag. Ossuary frag.

129 100

1305/l 1005/2

8.

Ossuary frag.

104

1095/1

9.

Ossuary frag. Ossuary frag. Ossuary frag. Ossuar:' frag. Ossuary frag.

129 129 129 103 133

1305/2 1305/4 1305/3 106811 1319/3

Light-brown clay; flint and limestone grits; red paint; plastic decoration. Light brown clay; flint and limestone grits. Light-brown clay; limestone grits; dark red paint. Light-brown clay; flint and limestone grits; dark red paint; opening in roof of vessel. Light brown clay; flint and limestone grits; red paint; plastic decoration. Buff-light-brown clay; flint and limestone grits; red paint. Light brown clay; grey core; small and large limestone and flint grits; remnants of red paint. Large and small limestone and flint grits; remnants of red paint; plastic decoration. Light-brown clay; flint and limestone grits; red paint. Light-brown clay; flint and limestone grits. Light-brown clay; flint and limestone grits. Light-brown clay; grey core; limestone grits. Light brown clay; limestone grits.

3.

10.

II. 12. 13.

105

•

3

2

rj,.n

SJ'-A 5

4

7

6

(~ 8

9

~

'

~

,.

10

12

11

\

'

13

~14

15

16

-

106

10cm

~: 17

..

l Jj_

I

'

0

Fig. 4.10: Miscellaneous Chalcolithic fragments.

8'-··~

0

18

FIGURE 4.10: MISCELLANEOUS CHALCOLITHIC POTTERY FRAGMENTS. No.

Type

Locus

Reg. No.

Description

L 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. II. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

Cream Ware jar Cream Ware jar Cream Ware jar Cream Ware jar Basket handle Handle Stopper Cup? Ossuary cover ? Handle Spout Spout Bowl Handle Handle Handle Handle Handle

503 130 129 143 104 142 109 100 108 100 142 130

1208/1 1501/4 1310/3 156811 1081/2 155211 1141/1 100711 1132/2 I 008/5 1552/4 1501/5

Light-brown-reddish clay; very small brown grits: red slip. Light-brown-reddish clay; very small brown grits; red slip Pink clay; red slip. Light-brown-pink clay; small limestone grits. Grey-white clay; limestone grits. Pink-orange clay; small flint grits; red paint Light brown clay; limestone and flint grits. Brown-pink clay; limestone and flint grits. Light-brown-pink clay; incisions. Pink clay; limestone and flint grits. Orange clay; limestone and flint grits. Pink -orange clay; limestone and flint grits.

125 104 130 127 104

1410/2 1105/4 1306/3 1249/2 1075/1

Brown-yellow clay: limestone and flaint grits. Orange clay; limestone grits; red slip. Orange clay; small limestone grits. Beige clay; very small grits. Grey-white clay; small limestone grits.

Fig. 4.11: Fragment of box-shaped ossuary in situ.

107

Fig. 4.12: Chalcolithic spout (Fig. 4.7:6).

0

Fig. 4.13: Perforated flake (fan scraper ?) (Locus 152).

108

3crn

STONE OBJECTS

FLINT TOOLS Chalcolithic flint tools could not be clearly identified except for a few items made on tabular flint, a single blade and some bladelets. A large circular flake was shaped into a fanscraper (?) with a flaked off-centre perforation (Fig. 4.13). This general type is known from the Jordan Valley area (Nasrallah 1948; Perrot et al. 1967; Mallon et al. 1934:Pl. 31 :4; Gopher 1989: 132), the Negev (Levy and Alon 1982:257, n. 4) and the Golan (Epstein 1978; Epstein and Noy 1988). A retouched bladelet bears fine retouch on one edge and is almost like a micro-scraper at its distal end. It may be argued that some of the cores, debitage-debris or even a hammerstone which were assigned a Neolithic date are in fact of Chalcolithic age but this is doubtful since the shaped tools (including sickle blades, arrowheads, bifacials) all fit well into the Neolithic period. The Chalcolithic flint assemblage is thus negligible and the only artefact worthy of note is the perforated fan scraper.

BASALT VESSELS All the 101 basalt vessels found are bowls, some with a pedestal and some without (Figs. 4.14-4.16). Every single one was broken but some pieces were conjoinable (see pp. 248-249). The former type were made from a single block apparently using a reduction technique (Fig. 4.15). Four or five (Fig. 4.16:2) legs emerge from the ring at the base of the bowl. Three vessels bear incised patterns of triangles on the rim (Fig. 4.14:1 ,3) - a motif known from other Chalcolithic basalt objects. Basalt vessels of similar type and workmanship are known from many Chalcolithic sites, for example Azor (Perrot and Ladiray 1980:Fig. 77:2), I:Iorvat Beter (Dothan 1959 Figs. 11:18-20, 19:14), Bir Abu Matar (Perrot 1955), Palmachim (Gophna and Lifshitz 1980 Fig. 4:1 0) and Shiqmim (Levy and Alon 1987:Fig. 6.10:1,2,5). Mineralogical comparison of the basalt from which the bowls were fashioned with that from the nearby outcropping at Khirbet es-Samra shows that this was not the source of the raw material (Chapter 6).

HAEMATITE MACEHEADS Ofthe three maceheads recovered, one was found near Locus 113 (Fig. 4.17:1). It is 5.04 em. long by 4.33 em. wide and weighs about 200 gm. The cylindrical perforation is 1.30-1.43 em. in diameter. Another was found in Locus 125 in the Main Hall and the third in Locus 142 in the lower part of the Passage (Fig. 4.17:2,3). All are symmetrical, nicely polished and very well executed (Fig. 4.18). This type of macehead, made from either haematite or metal, is known from a number of Chalcolithic sites. Six such haematite maceheads were found in a hoard in the Nal).al Mishmar Cave (Bar-Adon 1980:Nos. 185-190) and additional examples were discovered at Benei Beraq (Kaplan 1963), Azor (Perrot 1961, Fig. 43:3) and the Beer-sheba sites (Dothan 1959:27, Fig. 18:55; Perrot 1955: Pl. 14A) among others (Shalev 1992). The function of these mace heads is speculative but they are nevertheless a well-known characteristic of Chalcolithic culture.

109

2

3

\ IID7 4

\ 5

\~

7

~1.7 I I

\ \

8

9

11 0

10cm

-::-----------~--

Fig. 4.14: Chalcolithic basalt bowls and pedestalled bowls.

110

Fig. 4.15: Parts of several basalt pedestalled bowls combined for exhibition (courtesy ofthe Israel Museum).

FIGURE 4.14: CHALCOLITHIC BASALT BOWLS AND PEDESTALLED BOWLS No.

Type

Locus

Reg. No.

Description

I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Base of pedestalled bowl Bowl

132 128 125 104 113 312 100 104 129 405 113

1312/50 1418/50 1606/50 1077/50 1153/50 1185/50 1008/51 1077/51 1358/50 1290/50 1153/51

Incised decoration

7.

8. 9. 10. 11.

Incised decoration

Ill

"

\

"" \

\

\

\

\

~-~-~_-~

I

'

'

I I

I I

\

\ \

3

10cm

Fig. 4.16: Chalcolithic basalt pedestalled bowls.

FIG. 4.16: CHALCOLITHIC BASALT PEDESTALLED BOWLS No.

Type

Locus

Reg. No.

I. 2. 3.

Pedestalled bowl Bowl Pedestalled bowl

104 113 120

1077/52 1153/50 1157/50

112

Description

2

3 0

3cm.

Fig. 4. I 7: Chalco lithic haematite maceheads.

FIGURE 4.17: HAEMATITE MACEHEADS. No.

Type

Locus

Reg. No.

I. 2. 3.

Macehead Mace head Mace head

113 142 125

1152/50 1572/50 1591/50

Description

Fig. 4.18: Haematite maceheads (courtesy ofthe israel Museum)

113

METAL OBJECTS Metal objects were recovered from different parts of the Main Hall, from the Passage and from the Copper Room (Locus 113). None were found in the deeper confines of the cave. They include copper, electrum and gold objects, some of which were metallurgically analyzed (Chapter 7).

COPPER ARTEFACTS Most of the Nal).al Qanah copper objects are types which are known from Chalcolithic metal assemblages (Bar-Adon 1980; Shalev 1992). The innovation here are the wires which have not been reported previously from any Chalcolithic site.

The Standard A smooth cylinder 9.05 em. long and 2.40-2.55 em. in diameter with a circular flange at each end (Figs. 4.19:1; 4.20: 1). At about a third of its length from the top is a disc-like collar 6.43 em. in diameter. Below this is a small perforation 0.5 em. in diameter which was probably intended for insertion of a nail to secure a wooden(?) rod inside the cylinder. The object weighed 310 gm. before cleaning. The Nal:la1 Qanah standard was found in Locus 113 in association with other finds and human bones (Chapter 2). It is simple in shape and undecorated. Similar standards were found at Nal).a1 Mishmar (Bar-Adon 1971, 1980:97 Nos. 126, 128, 129), Newe Noy (Eldar and Baumgarten 1985), Shiqmim (Shalev and Northover 1987:689) and Palmachim (Gophna and Lifshitz 1980: Pl.l :5).

Fragment of Decoration An object resembling a nail with a flattened head (Fig. 4.19:2) was found in Locus 104. It was probably originally part of the decoration of a standard (Bar-A don 1971, I 980:77 Nos. 76, 77, 121 No. 177) or of a crown (Bar-Adon 1980:29-32, 35) and is described by Bar-Adon as a "cylindrical boss with a disk-shaped head" (1980:24). Only at Nal).ai Mishmar have similar objects been found.

Wires Eight pieces of wire were found in the Main Hall and the Passage. Only one of these, a twist of two different wires measuring approximately 18 em. (Figs. 4.19.6; 4.21 :2) was metallurgically analyzed (Chapter 7). The others, including a twisted wire some 13-14 em. long (Fig. 4.19:5), two separate wires with a kind of spiral appearance (Fig. 4.19:7-8) which may have been due to corrosion of the original wire or possibly a non-metal material adhering to it and four small pieces of wire, have not 2 been studied yet.

Amorphous Metal Lumps Three such objects were found (Figs. 4.19:3-4; 4.21: I) of which one was analyzed (Chapter 7). other items which may be connected to the copper industry were found. Similar amorphous masses known from a number of sites such as Shiqmim and Ghassul (Shalev I 992:31, Table 4.A-2) and Abu Matar (Beer-sheba) (Shalev I 992:31 and reference) and are sometimes associated with

2

Additional analyses of metal objects from the Nal;al Qanah cave, including the wi;·es, are being carried out at present in collaboration with B. Ottaway of the University of Sheffield and E. Pernicka of the Max Planck Institute in Heidelberg.

114

No are Bir the

facilities and equipment for metal manufacturing. However, the Nabal Qanah specimen analyzed is the only example of arsenic-antimony copper, i.e., the copper used for prestige ware (Shalev 1992).

Fragment of Copper Crown (?) This is 19 em. in diameter and has a diagonally cut base which tends slightly inwards (Figs. 4:22:1; 4.23). Although this fragment could be positioned differently and reconstructed as part of a bowl, we believe that it is part of a crown with parallels in the Nabal Mishmar hoard (Bar-Adon 1971, 1980: Nos.l0-11, 13,15-16).

Copper Axe/Adze One entire copper axe/adze was found in the Main Hall (Figs. 4.22:2; 4.23). It is a type well known from Chalco lithic sites such as Shiqmim (Shalev and Northover 1987:PI.l4.3: I) and Nabal Mishmar (Bar-Adon 1980:117, Nos. 159, 160).

Fragment An unidentifiable copper fragment (Figs. 4.22:3; 4.23).

FIGURE 4.19: CHALCO LITHIC METAL OBJECTS. No.

Type

Locus

Reg. No.

I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Standard Decorative frag. Metal Lump Metal Lump Metal Wire Twisted Wires Wire Wire

113 104 104 148

1151/60 1299/60 1183/60 1618/60 1609/60 1531/60 1613/60 1612/60

130

Description

Broken into three pieces

115

1

2

3

I

I

)

\

CL

4

5

6

7 0

Fig. 4.19: Chalcolithic metal objects.

116

8 3cm.

Fig. 4.20 Copper standard. (Left) Before cleaning; (Right) After cleaning.

Fig. 4.21: Copper wires and lump (courtesy of the Israel Museum).

FIGURE 4.22: CHALCOLITHIC COPPER OBJECTS.

No.

Type

Locus

Reg No.

1. 2. 3. 4.

Copper crown? Adze ? Copper stained mineral

149 150 149

1620/60 1614/60 1619/60 1617/60

Description

117

1

''

3

() .

.·

4

0

2

Fig. 4.22: Chalcolithic copper objects.

118

3crn.

Fig. 4.23: Copper objects. (Left) Adze; (Centre) Bowl?; (Right) Fragment.

GOLD OBJECTS Eight very similar gold and electrum rings were found in a concentration in the Passage (Loci 130, 142). Their dimensions are presented in Table 4.1. The outer diameter ranges from 43.5- 50.4 mm., and the inner diameter from 24.1-32.9 mm. Width and thickness range from 7.3- 10.7 mm, and from 6.4- 11.3 mm. respectively and their weight from 88- 165 gm. (Fig. 4.24). No. 4 is made of almost pure gold and is dark yellow in appearance. No.7 is lighter and is made of some 90% gold and 10% silver. The other six are electrum with a 70:30 ratio of gold to silver (Chapter 7). The section of each ring (Fig. 4.24) is slightly different but all are generally trapezoidal as demanded by the casting process. The upper surfaces are concave as a result of casting shrinkage. Marks of hammering are visible on all the rings (Figs. 4.24, 4.25), usually on both sides (Nos. 2-6) but in three cases on one side only (Nos. 1, 7, 8). The tool used for hammering these objects could have been a metal or stone object (macehead?) but this is speculative. The production site is also unknown since no moulds have been found to date. The gold and electrum items from Na!;al Qanah are so far unique and form an unparalleled category in the region (Chapter 12).

119

~I

2 0

-· r1g. 4 ·24·· Gold and eiectrum rings.

120

3cm.

-~

I

~

0

3cm .

..._" ·c·=·c=-

Fig. 4.24: Gold and electrum rings (cont.).

121

-JZ3. 7

8

I

~ Fig. 4.24: Gold and electrum rings (cont.).

122

0

3cm.

FIGURE 4.24: GOLD AND ELECTRUM OBJECTS. No.

Type

Locus

Reg No.

Description

I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Ring Ring Ring Ring Ring Ring Ring Ring

130 130 130 130 130 142 142 142

1302/60 1504/60 1528/60 1529/60 1530/60 1557/60 1571160 1573/60

Electrum Electrum Electrum Electrum Electrum Gold Electrum Gold

Fig. 4.25: Gold rings.

TABLE 4.1: DIMENSIONS OF THE GOLD AND ELECTRUM RINGS

No.

Max. outer diam. (em.)

Max. inner diam. (em.)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

4.35 4.79 4.28 4.46 5.04 4.89 4.47 4.23

2.50 2.82 2.47 2.41 3.13 3.29 2.47 2.60

Width (em.)

Thickness (em.)

Weight (gm.)

Volume (cc.)

See Fig.

0.73-0.87 0.87-1.02 0.75-0.95 0.97-1.07 0.90-1.03 0.78-0.80 0.87-1.00 0.87-1.02

0.78-0.92 0.71-0.87 0.64-0.80 0.72-0.87 0.82-1.13 0.80-0.93 0.82-0.86 0.67-0.84

106.9735 137.3847 88.0622 136.0862 165.0271 I 08.5928 136.8127 114.8313

6.5992 8.1539 5.2913 7.0886 9.9138 6.5071 7.4350 6.9819

4.24:1 4.24:2 4.24:3 4.24:4 4.24:5 4.24:6 4.24:7 4.24:8

123

IVORY AND BONE OBJECTS Seventeen objects of worked bone were found as well as one made from a hippopotamus tusk. This is a fragment of a perforated plaque which was assigned to Locus 101 (Figs. 4.26; 4.27:1) and identified as the right hand side tusk of a hippopotamus from which most of the enamel had been removed by polishing. Similar plaques were found in the Nal).al Mishmar Cave (Bar-Adon 1980: 16-23) and at Shiqmim (Levy and Alon 1992). Of special note among the bone artefacts is one made on a section cut from a large bone. It is a series of four joined spheres each with a biconical perforation vertically through its centre (Fig. 4.27:2; 4.26). The majority of bone tools are points, some of which have cut marks (Fig. 4.28:4,9, 10). Additional bone tool types are elongated narrow spatulae (Fig. 4.28:1 ,2,5), one fragment of a needle-

Fig. 4.26: (Left) Perforated plaque made from hippopotamus tusk; (Right) Bone object.

like object (Fig. 4.28:6) and the distal end of a large bone with a perforation (Fig. 4.28:8).

FIGURE 4.27: IVORY AND BONE OBJECTS No.

Type

Locus

Reg. No.

Description

1.

Perforated plaque Bone object

101 104

1011/40 1184/40

Hippopotamus tusk Bone

2.

124

D .

I

I

I

-0 I

.

'I

I

I

@.

I

I

2

I

\

' '

'

F;g A 2 7: Ivory "" ' · .,.. ,,.,d hvOne objects.

125

I\

'I

1

2

3

I I

6

0

1

2

li!il-.~•.t"ii!'J.•;ii'I;Jiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiil'c M

I I

7 \I

Fig. 4.28: Bone points and spatulae.

126

8

0 10

9

0

3cm.

Fig. 4.28: Bone points and spatulae (cont.).

FIGURE 4.28: BONE POINTS AND SPATULAE. No.

Type

Locus

Reg. No.

I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

Spatula Spatula Point Point Spatula Needle Point Perfirated object Point Point

306 141 104 310 405 125 128 114 105 144

1397/40 1538/40 1173/40 1356/40 1431/40 1237/40 1339/40 1171/41 1124/40 1603/40

Description

Cut marks.

Cut marks. Cut marks.

127

ORNAMENTS A number of beads and pendants were found in the Nal).al Qanah Cave. Their assignment is problematic although we believe that they can all be considered of Chalcolithic age. They include: • A roughly conical greenstone pendant with a biconical perforation through its wide end (Figs. 4.29:2; 4.30). • A large turquoise bead which resembles a miniature macehead and is decorated with an incised zig-zag pattern (Figs. 4.29:1; 4.30). • Two small round carnelian beads with a central perforation (Fig. 4.30). • A few stone beads (Fig. 4.29:5,6). • Eight beads made of cut sections of dentalium shells (Fig. 4:29:7, 8). • Some 15 sea-shells or shell fragments which include fragments of mother-of-pearl from three different loci ( 100, 109, 125), one cowrie shell and eight glycymeris sp. (Fig. 4.30), one of which was polished and shaped into a bead.

MISCELLANEOUS • • • • • •

A A A A A A

fragment of ostrich eggshell (Locus 130) (Figs. 4.29:3; 4.30). lump of pumice (Locus 128). chunk of sandstone containing copper (Locus 160). clod of brown sediment with asphalt attached to it (Locus 122). chunk of red material - perhaps ochre (Locus 141 ). small macaroni stalagmite which was polished to a point (Fig. 4.29:4).

....

WI I

:: ::

'

'

I

2

1

I! 3

':f..~-·.~;

;;

~ ~

'.•

0

0 4

Fig. 4.29: Ornaments.

128

3crn.

~.cc-:.=--

5

@

®

@

~

lm::O

00

6

7

@

1m 8

FIGURE 4.29: ORNAMENTS. No.

Type

Locust

Reg. No.

Description

I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Macehead Bead Pendant Fragment Stalagmite Bead Bead Bead Bead

130 125 130 100 100 125 122 125

1527/50 1526/80 1415/91 1008/41 1009/80 1602/80 1390/80 1602/80

Turquoise Green Mineral Ostrich eggshell

Fig. 4.30: Ornaments.

129

SUMMARY The Chalcolithic assemblage presented above displays the following features: • There is a rich metal assemblage in which gold and electrum items represent a new material hitherto unknown from Chalcolithic contexts. Wires and arsenic-antimony lumps are also an innovation in this assemblage. • Fairly complex construction activities were carried out inside the cave despite the difficult conditions. • Burial vessels appear in many loci mostly in the form of ossuary fragments. Additional vessels that could be associated with burials are some types of jars (Fig. 4.6: 17); a spouted krater (Fig. 4.6: 16), the bottle (Fig. 4.4: 17); basket handles (Fig. 4.1 0:5,6) which were recently reported from the burials of Kisufim (Goren and Fabian 1993) and are also known in metal from the Cave of the Treasure (Bar-Adon 1980). • Everyday vessels including bowls, cups, kraters, cooking-pots, jars and churns also appear. These are characteristic of many Chalcolithic assemblages and were reported from almost every Chalcolithic site including burial sites (e.g. Perrot 1961; Perrot and Ladiray 1980). Generally, plastic or painted decoration on the pottery is rare. A few handles may indicate the presence of basket vessels which appear highly decorated in other Chalcolithic burial sites (Goren and Fabian 1993). Some charred kraters may possibly have been used for cooking and a few small charred bowls may have been used as lamps. • Cornets, considered typical of Ghassulian assemblages, are altogether missing from the Nai:tal Qanah cave as are spoons, which appear sporadiacally in Ghassulian assemblages (e.g. Mallon et al. 1934:104, Fig. 55:1, Pl. 44:55-58, 64; Porath 1985:9, Fig. 5 :8; MacDonald 1932:5, Pis. XXII:2, XXVII:22, 27; Gilead and Goren 1995:181, Fig. 4:18:7,8). • The lithic assemblage is meagre and includes only isolated examples. The presence of the perforated flake is thus very conspicuous. This type was reported mostly from more northerly sites in the central Jordan Valley and the Golan Heights. • Finely-made objects fashioned from imported materials are present in relatively high frequencies. Outstanding among them are the basalt vessels which are very accurately made and are in keeping with the high standard of the Chalcolithic basalt industry. This group is very limited in types but well executed with some decorated items. Haematite maceheads are also very well made as is a large turquoise incised bead (or a rather small macehead?). There are a few beads made from semiprecious stones and sea shells. Objects made from bone and hippopotamus tusk are also present as well as a fragment of ostrich eggshell. Since the Nal:tal Qanah cave produced no evidence of onsite production of any of the above, it is reasonable to assume that they were all brought in from their home sites by the Chalcolithic users. The exact location of these sites is not known but a potential candidate has been reported recently (Gophna and Tsuk 1990). The rich assemblage of Chalcolithic pottery from the Nai:tal Qanah cave includes sherds and vessels that find parallels in Chalcolithic levels at other sites such as Ghassul (Mallon et al. 1934), Shiqmim (Levy and Menahem 1987) and the sites at Beer-sheba (Commenge-Pellerin 1987, 1990). The absence of cornets, spoons and rope designs and the presence of Cream Ware may be used to characterize the assemblage as a Beer-sheba culture variant but his distinction is not applied here.

!30

EARLY BRONZE AGE The Early Bronze Age finds constitute the smallest portion of material culture finds in the cave as compared with those of the Pottery Neolithic and the Chalcolithic periods. These finds are limited to the Main Hall especially to its higher parts in the western areas. Three pottery sherds which are suspected of being Early Bronze Age in origin were found in the Passage loci, but they could equally well have been Chalcolithic. However, it may also be assumed that Early Bronze Age users of the cave had no access to the deeper confines of the cave beyond the Main Hall, and even if the above single sherds are dated to the Early Bronze Age I they could have infiltrated past the collapse. Early Bronze Age finds include pottery sherds only and one copper dagger from Locus 135.

POTTERY BOWLS Small rounded or carinated bowls are the major type. These have a simple pointed or rounded rim and a slightly convex base (Fig. 4.31: I -8). The carination is located at the termination of the sides and forms an angle of almost 90° with the slightly convex base (Fig. 4.31:1 ,3). Another carinated bowl type has everted upper sides and rims (Fig. 4.31 :2,5,6). Many of these bowls are slipped and burnished or have a red burnished band next to the rim (outside and inside). Others are undecorated. Some of the bowls bear soot marks near the rim which may indicate their use as lamps.

KRATERS Kraters are rare and include mostly large vessels with a carination high on the side of the vessel wall. The upper wall and rim are inverted. Rims are shaped and cut (Fig. 4.31:1 0).

JARS Holemouth Jars are the most common Early Bronze Age vessels in the cave. Rims are folded and thickened thereby creating a ridge. These are sometimes slipped (Fig. 4.31 :9, 11-13). A somewhat different type is shown in Fig. 4.31:15 with a thickened inverted rim. The base in Fig. 4.31 :20 and body sherd in Fig. 4.31:21 may be assigned to these jars. These fragments add another element of decoration- an applied rope design close to the base area or on the body.

JUGLETS- CUPS These include small cups with a high loop handle (Figs. 4.31: 18; 4.32:1) or similar items without handles Fig. 4.31: 17). A larger cup with a high loop handle was found which is exactly the same shape and bears a series of incised puncture marks on its handle (Figs. 4.31: 19; 4.32:2). A somewhat different type is a handleless cup of a more globular shape and short neck, either everted or straight (Fig. 4.31: 16) and perhaps also Fig. 4.31:14.

CHURNS A single churn fragment was found with Early Bronze Age characteristics (Fig. 4.31 :22).

131

4

3

2

7

8

9

10

11

13

12

(CJ

•

14

'

15

16

17

,~[[

18

.1

19

~ .

'

21

,'

Fig. 4.31: Early Bronze Age pottery.

132

~~ ~,

22

FIGURE 4.31: EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY. No.

Type

Locus

Reg. No.

Description

I.

Bowl

160 141 138 104 127 127 104 100 122 143 100 104 104 142 109 161 134 121 100 104 106 101 100 126 100 119 115

1328/2 1540/4 1519/1 1105/5 1248/4 1159/1 1298/3 1004/1 1165/1 1556/1 1000/3 1075/3 1075/2 1552/5 1137/2 1428.'1 1327/1 1162/1 1008/1 107411 1126/2 1010/3 1000/1 1255/1 1000/2 1161/1 1107/2

Pink clay; flint grits; red paint; charred. Light-brown clay; red paint. Light brown clay; flint grits; red paint. Orange clay; limestone grits. Light-brown clay; flint and limestone grits. Yellow-red clay; yellow core; limestone and flint grits; red paint. Brown-pink clay; limestone and flint grits. Brown-pink clay; limestone and flint grits. Yellow-pink clay; grey core. Pink clay; limestone grits. Dark-brown clay; light brown core; flint and limestone grits. Light-brown-grey clay; limestone grits; red slip-paint. Light brown clay; limestone grits; black slip. Beige-light brown clay; smlllimestone grits. Light-brown-pink clay; limestone and flint grits. Brown-orange clay; quartz and flint grits. Brown clay; grey core; calcite grits; red paint. Light-brown clay; flint and limestone grits; white slip remnants. Grey clay; flint and limestone grits; remnants of white slip. Pink clay; grey core; plastic rope decoration. Dark-brown clay; limestone grits; plastic rope decoration. Pink clay; grey core; limestone and flint grits. Light-brown clay; limestone and flint grits; brown paint. Light-brown clay; limestone grits; brown paint. Light-brown clay; flint grits; brown-red paint. Light-brown clay; yellow core; flint and limestone grits. Yellow-orange clay; flint and limestone grits; remnants of red paint.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

II. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25 26. 27.

Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Bowl Holemouth jar Holemouth jar Holemouth jar Holemouth jar Holemouth jar Amphoriskos Holemouth jar/krater Amphoriskos* Cup Cup Large cup Jar base. Body sherd Churn Handle Handle Handle Handle Handle

*Assigned to the Early Bronze Age assemblage but may be as early as the Neolithic.

25

24

23

~.-;,.. .

26

0

10cm

'-:::=,--=--,_---

Fig. 4.31: Early Bronze Age pottery (cont.).

133

Fig. 4.32: Early Bronze Age cups (courtesy ofthe Israel Museum).

HANDLES A number of shelf handles was found (Fig. 4.31 :23-27) which are sometimes painted, slipped and burnished and are typical of the period.

134

METAL OBJECTS A copper dagger with four holes for attachment to a haft (Fig. 4.33) was found in Locus 135. This type has parallels in Early Bronze Age levels such as Azor (Bentor 1975:45, Fig. 12:5-6; 1993:127) or Site H in the Besor area (MacDonald 1932:Pl. XXVI:50).

SUMMARY The Early Bronze Age ceramic repertoire, which includes bowls, kraters, jars, cups and churns, is domestic in nature. On typological grounds it can be assigned to the Early Bronze Age Ib phase having its best parallels in the second part of Early Bronze Age I from sites such as Tell el-Far'ah (N) (Chambon 1993) and Aphek (Beck and Kochavi 1993). Several other sites of this period have been discovered in the western Samaria hills, one of them in the Nal).al Qanah valley itself near Jebel Akra (Finkelstein and Lederman, forthcoming). A similar assemblage comes from Khirbet Ras Amar and from Ain Fuara on the Nal).al Shiloh (Gophna and Tsuk 1990). A burial cave at Qedumin (Magen 1982) shows also similar pottery types to those presented here. In the Sharon area, from the Yarkon river northwards, twelve EB Ib sites were reported during a survey (Gophna 1978; Gophna and Bunimovitz 1980). There are several points of interest regarding the Nal).al Qanah Early Bronze Age finds: • Their distribution is restricted to the Main Hall. • A copper dagger and a complete cup were found in a small niche but there were no other remains to suggest a specific role for this crevice. • The presence of lamps is unusual in this period but understandable in this context. The Early Bronze Age I presence at this site is remarkable in that it is one of the few cave occupations known from that period. It may have been an occupation site as the inventory may suggest, but it could equally be of a different nature. As such its contribution to the discussion on the complex processes of change which took place between the Chalcolithic and the Early Bronze Age I cultural entities is unclear. However, the continuity in ceramic technology and raw material selection between the two assemblages as pointed out by Goren (Chapter 6) and the continuity in metallurgy for at least one sub-industry of the Ghassulian should be taken into account.

LATER PERIODS A few Hellenistic sherds were found in the entrance to the cave and in the fill of the New Entrance. These include a handle and 2-3 body sherds.

135

.. I

\

I :,

1 0

3cm.

...........-= .. C:C-~:-.:--

Fig. 4.33: Eaily Bronze Age copper dagger (Locus i35) (courtesy of the israei Museum).

136

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137

Levy, T. and Menachem, N. 1987. The Ceramic Industry at Shiqmim: Typological and Spatial Considerations. In: Levy T. E. ed. Shiqmim I Studies Concerning Chalcolithic Societies in the Northern Negev Desert, Israel. BAR International Series 356(1). Oxford. pp. 313-332. Macalister, R. 1912. Excavations at Gezer Il London. MacDonald, E., Starkey, J.L. and Harding, G.L. 1932. Beth Pelet II: Prehistoric Fara. British School of Archaeology in Egypt Vol. 52. London. Magen, l. 1982. The Archeological Discoveries at Qedumim-Samaria Qedem Museum. Mallon, A. Koeppel R., and Neuville R. 1934. Teluliot Ghassul. Rome. Nasrallah, J. 1948. Une station Ghassuliene du Hauran. RB 55:81-103 Perrot, J. 1955. The Excavations at Tell Abu Matar near Beersheva. IEJ 5:17-40, 73-84, 167-189. Perrot, J. 1961. Une tombe a ossoires de IVe millenaire a Azor pres de Tel Aviv.