The Making of South East Asia 9781138892583, 9781315697925, 9781138901377, 9781315697802

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ROUTLEDGE LIBRARY EDITIONS: MODERN EAST AND SOUTH EAST ASIA

Volume 4

THE MAKING OF SOUTH EAST ASIA

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THE MAKING OF SOUTH EAST ASIA

G. CŒDÈS TRANSLATED BY H. M. WRIGHT

Translated from the French Les peuples de la péninsule indochinoise First published in Great Britain in 1966 by Routledge & Kegan Paul Limited This edition first published in 2015 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © Dunod, Paris, 1962 English Translation © 1966 H. M. Wright All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN: 978-1-138-89258-3 (Set) eISBN: 978-1-315-69792-5 (Set) ISBN: 978-1-138-90137-7 (Volume 4) eISBN: 978-1-315-69780-2 (Volume 4) Publisher’s Note The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality of this reprint but points out that some imperfections in the original copies may be apparent. Disclaimer The publisher has made every effort to trace copyright holders and would welcome correspondence from those they have been unable to trace.

The Making of South East Asia bj

G. CCEDES

Translated by

H. M. W R IG H T

London R O U T L E D G E & K E G A N PAUL

Translatedfrom the Trench LES PEUPLES DE L A PENINSULE INDOCHINOISE

© Dunod, Paris, 1962 Published in Great Britain by Koutledge °

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*43

The Indochinese States after the Thirteenth Century men par excellence), and the commoners were distinguished from the serfs, who were usually non-Mongolian, so a distinction was made between the T ’ai warrior aristocracy and the conquered peoples - and so sharp a distinction, that the ethnic term ‘T ’ai’ acquired the meaning o f ‘free man’ (as opposed to serf) in Siamese, the role of serf in T ’ai society being occupied by the indigenous peoples. With regard to the Khmers, however, the Siamese of Sukhodaya, once they had gained their independence, seem to have made an express effort to go against everything that had been done by their former masters. No doubt they found Khmer rule irksome, since they belonged to an entirely different ethno-linguistic group with a political and social organization and a religion that were in complete contrast to those of Cambodia. Some idea of the political ideals of the kings of Sukhodaya can be gained from Rama Khamheng’s inscription of 1292, from various passages of the Traibhumikatha of King Lu T ’ai, and from an inscription by the latter dating from 1361. Here is what Rama Khamheng has to say about his own government: ‘During the lifetime of King Rama Khamheng the city of Sukhodaya has prospered. There are fish in its waters and rice in its rice-fields. The Lord of the country does not tax his subjects, who throng the roads leading cattle to market and ride horses on their way to sell them. Whosoever wishes to trade in elephants or horses does so; whosoever wishes to trade in gold and silver does so. When a commoner, a noble, or a chief falls ill and dies, or disappears, his ancestral home, his clothes, his elephants, his family, his rice granaries, his slaves, the plantations of areca and betel inherited from his ancestors, all are transmitted to his children. I f com­ moners, nobles, or chiefs have a dispute, the king makes a proper inquiry and decides the matter with complete impartiality. He does not enter into agreements with thieves and receivers. I f he sees rice belonging to others, he does not covet it, and if he sees the riches of others he is not envious. To whomsoever comes on elephant-back to seek him and put his own country under his protection, he will extend his support and assistance. I f the stranger has neither elephants nor horses nor servants nor wives nor silver nor gold, he will give them to him and invite him to regard himself as being in his own country. If the king captures warriors or enemy soldiers, he neither kills them nor beats them. 144

Siam or Thailand In the gateway of the palace a bell is hung; if anyone in the king­ dom has some grievance or some matter that is ulcerating his entrails and troubling his mind, and wishes to lay it before the king, the way is easy: he has only to strike the bell hung there. Every time King Rama Khamheng hears this appeal, he interro­ gates the plaintiff about the matter and gives an entirely impartial decision/ And here is how the pious king, Lu T ’ai, boasts of the way he governs his country: ‘This king rules by observing the ten kingly precepts. He has pity on all his subjects. I f he sees rice belonging to others, he does not covet it, and if he sees the wealth of others, he does not become indignant. . . . When a father dies, he lets the children have his possessions; when an elder brother dies, he lets the younger brother have them. He has never once beaten to death someone who has done wrong, whatever the crime may have been. Whenever he has captured warriors or enemy combatants, he has neither killed them nor had them beaten, but has kept them and fed them so as to preserve them from ruin and destruction. If he catches people who are guilty of deceit and insolence - people who put poison in his rice so as to make him fall sick and die - he never kills them nor beats them, but is merciful to all those who display evil intentions towards him. The reason why he represses his feelings and curbs his thoughts, and refrains from anger when anger is called for, is that he desires to become a Buddha and to lead all creatures beyond the sea of suffering of transmigration.’ If the various features of this programme are compared with what Cambodian epigraphy tells us about Khmer methods of government, it will be seen that they differ on almost every point. The Khmer king was regarded as being on such a superior plane to that of ordinary men that he was designated by the epithet ‘the dust of his sacred feet’. He gave audience within his palace and showed himself at a window framed in gold; and when he went out, all who happened to be on the route had to prostrate them­ selves with their foreheads touching the ground; if they failed to do so, ‘they were seized by the master of ceremonies, who would not on any account release them’.10 A marked contrast to this picture is presented by Sukhodaya, where King Rama Khamheng had a stone dais installed in his garden ‘so that all could see the king receiving homage from tributary peoples’ . Everything points to the existence in Cambodia of a system of extremely 145

The Indochinese States after the Thirteenth Century heavy imposts and prestations, and of corvees which can have done little to conserve the energies of the people forced to carry them out. One has only to think of the amount of effort the Khmer people must have put into constructing the vast number o f build­ ings erected during the twelfth century under Suryavarman II and Jayavarman V II! But the kings of Sukhodaya declare that there commerce was free and exempt from taxation, that imposts were moderate, that corvees must be proportionate to the capabilities of the forced labour employed and that the old must be spared, and that all property was transmitted to the natural heirs without any levy on behalf of the crown. Khmer justice does not seem to have been carried out very expeditiously, and the only means of recourse to the king was through the official hierarchy, which was a complicated procedure; sentences included, apart from the death sentence, appalling corporal punishments. In Sukhodaya, how­ ever, the plaintiff who wished to appeal to the king had only to ring at the gate of the palace, and neither the death sentence nor corporal punishment existed. The contrast is so striking that one is inevitably led to suppose that the kings of Sukhodaya were anxious to do away with a hateful past and to inaugurate a new regime. With the foundation of the new Siamese kingdom of Ayudhya a complete reversal of this trend becomes evident. The new Siamese monarchy seems to have made every effort to continue the traditions of the rulers of Angkor instead of flouting them. Perhaps this was because the new kingdom arose in an area that had been impregnated for the past three centuries by Khmer civilization, and where the T ’ai element was only an aristocratic minority. While it may be true that the ruler of U Thong had married into the T ’ai family of Chiang Saen, he himself may well have belonged to a family of Mon or Khmer origins. However that may be, what now took place in the southern part of the Menam valley was the very opposite of what had happened in the north. In Ayudhya, the king was not at all a fatherly figure. He may not have been a god on earth like the Cambodian king, but he was at least a sort of Living Buddha, to be addressed as ‘Our master the Holy Buddha’, while the Crown Prince was known as Buddhankura, ‘Descendant of the Buddha.’ Like the King of Angkor, the King of Ayudhya was referred to by the epithet ‘dust on the holy feet’, and the whole Khmer vocabulary reserved for the person 1 46

Siam or Thailand and actions of the king was taken over en bloc for the protocol of the Court of Ayudhya. The Siamese king no longer made public appearances seated on a stone dais in his garden as had been the custom of Sukhodaya, but could only be seen in his palace, at a window inserted in the inner wall of the hall of audience; and when he went out, any subject who committed the sacrilege of raising his head to look upon the royal countenance was liable to receive an earthenware pellet in his eye, shot from the bow of one of the guards at the head of the royal procession. The laws that have been ascribed, whether rightly or wrongly, to the founder of Ayudhya seem for the most part, so far as one can judge, to revive the clauses of the old Khmer code. The regulations for the palace guards (jmandirapala), which is a text so difficult to interpret that it has so far defeated the exegetists, would not be understandable at all without a thorough knowledge of the customs at the Court of Angkor. The type of Siamese prang found at Ayudhya is a slimmer version of the Khmer tower, while in sculpture what is known as the U Thong school, which it would be better to call the first school of Ayudhya, is characterized by a return to the Khmer tradition of Lop Buri, or is, rather, a continuation of that tradition with some new features, such as the flame on top of the head (of Sinhalese origin), and the tight curls of the hair. Apart from details such as these, all the features of the Khmer statuary of Lop Buri are found again here. The same thing happens in literature. The first poetic texts of Ayudhya, such as the curse upon the flood waters, the prayers addressed to the gods and the spirits by the clerk of the court before a trial by ordeal, and the oldest passages of the laws for the palace guards - all of them non-Buddhist texts, composed or inspired by Brahmans who inherited the traditions of Angkor were probably very much influenced by Khmer models. Ramadhipati ("Ramth*ibodi 1), the founder of Ayudhya, held effective sway over a territory covering the lower Menam valley and the major part of the Malay Peninsula, the principal towns being Lop Buri, Subarnapuri {Suphan), Rajapuri {Rat Buri), Bejrapuri (.Phet Buri), Tenasserim, Tavoy, Ligor, Signora, and Chandapuri ( *52>

153, 172, 182, 196; extent of, 1 3 1 ; under rule of Ayudhya, 148, 184; relations with China, 139-40 kingdom of Ayudhya: founding and consolidation, 13 4 ,13 7 ,14 0 - 1 , 14652; campaigns against Lan Na, 149, 150, 15 1, 152, 165; wars: with Burma, 152-6 (see also Burma); with Laos, 15 6 -7; annexation of Laos, 165; brilliant period under Paramakosha, 16 0 -1; further con­ flict with Burma, 16 1-2 ; fall, 162 the Bangkok dynasty, 16 5 -7 1; atti­ tude towards European colonial expansion, 168 ff.; modernization, 170 Buddhism in, 140, 142, 143, 146, 161, 169 see also architecture, sculpture; for wars against Cambodia, see Cam­ bodia Siamese: language, 27, 28, 164, 168, 202; people, see Syam, T ’ai; see also civilization, cultural influence, law codes, literature Siem Reap (Cambodian province), 170, 199, 201 Sihasura (son of Narasimhapati), 129 Sihavikrama (king of Shrikshetra), n o Simhasura (king of Pagan), 115 Singu (Burmese king), 187 Sip Song Phan Na (region of Laos), 176 Sisophon (Cambodian province), 170, 201 Sisovath (Cambodian king), 201 Sittang river, 27, 31, 70, 112 slavery, abolition of, in Siam, 170 slaves, 60, 222-3 Smim Htaw Buddhaketi (ruler of Lower Burma), 186 social organization, 2,4, 5,10 , 26, 3 1-3 3 , I02> Io6> x4 3 » T4 4 , 2 * 9 > 222, 230 Sogetu (Mongol general), 127, 128 Sohan prehistoric sites, 12 Soma (daughter of the King of the Naga), 57 Song Gianh river (as boundary between n. and s. Viet-nam), 64, 209, 213 Song Th’am, P’ra Chao (king of Ayudhya), 156, 157, 161 songs, Cambodian, 203 Soriyopear, see Suryavarman

264

4 7 , 94- 9 5 >

Index Sotikakuman, see Jotikakumara source material, historical, 36,53, 65, 73, 74-75, 103, 137; Chinese, 52, 57, 58—61, 63 ff., 74, 81, 88 ff., 101, 103, n o , 131, 137, 193, 196; see also inscriptions Spain, 156, 214; Spaniards, 197 Srei Santhor, see Basan State, development of a centralized, 1, 2, 5. 7 . 67 , 73 . 219, 221 statues: of the Buddha, 67, 70, 79, 93, 94, 108, 122, 126, 143, 149, 150, 151, 163, 173, 174, 176, 179; of Harihara, 94; of Vishnu, 70, 237 n. 5; see also sculpture stele: of Rama Khamheng, 133, 142, 14 4 -5; at Vieng Chan, 172; of Vo Canh, 59, 58; steles of Le dynasty tombs, 212 stupas, i n , 116, 132, 139, 141, 151, 152, 1 5 4 . i 55 » i6 3 . 17 5 . ! 7 9 » 1 9 5 ; bellshaped, 11 6 -17 ; conical, 190 Su Ting (prefect of Chiao-chih), 44 su-quan (feudal lords in n. Viet-nam), 80 Subarnapuri (Suphan, Thailand), 140, 147, 148, 153, 155 Subotai (Mongol general), 126 Sudassana temple (Bangkok), 166 Sudhammavati (Thaton, Burma), 69, 70, in Suk Som (ruler of Luang Prabang), 177 Sukhodaya, kingdom of, see Siam Sukhothai, see Sukhodaya Sulamani, see Chudamani Sumana (Buddhist monk), 149 Sumatra, 95 Sung dynasty (China), 81, 126, 216 Sunt’on Ph’u (Siamese poet), 167, 167-8 Supayalat, Queen (Burma), 189 Suphan, see Subarnapuri Surivong (Laotian poem), 180 Suriyavamsa (king of Lan Ch’ang), 175, 176; see also Shri Varavamsha Suriyodaya, Queen (Ayudhya), 153 Suriyot’ai, see Suriodaya Suryavarman (Khmer kings): I, 99-100, 1 1 3 ; II, 85, 101, 102, 106, 107, 122,

125,146 Suryavarman (title adopted by Ponhea Yat of Cambodia), 196 Suryavarman, Prince (Paramaraja IV of Cambodia), 197-8 Suryavikrama (king of Shrikshetra), n o

Sut’at, see Sudassana Suthiammarach’a, see Shri Sudham­ maraja Suvannabhumi, the ‘gold land’, 58, 69 Suvarnakudya, the ‘gold wall’, 58 Sweden, 170 Syam, 10 1-2, 122, 124, 125, 133 Syriam (Burma), 185, 186, 188 Ta Kev temple (Khmer), 99, 105 Ta Prohm temple (Khmer), 108, 109 Ta Yii (Dai Ngu), (name given to Dai Viet by Ho Quy Ly), 206 Tabinshweti (unifier of Burma), 152, i 53 > i 83 - 4 T ’ai: languages, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30; oldest written text in, 139; kingdoms, see Ayudhya, Lan Ch’ang, Lan Na, Pegu, Sukhodaya; people, 17, 20-21, 33, 42, 129 -31, 132, 133, 142, 180; capacity for assimilation of, 102, 168, 178; southwards infiltration of, 73, 102, 130, 131, 138, 181, 182; see also Syam Tak, P’raya (Siamese general, later king),

, ,

162 164 165,177 Takayupti (Burmese king), 182, 183 Talaing (the Mons), 69 Tamil texts, 52 Tan, Ponhea (Paramaraja II of Cam­ bodia), 197 T ’an Ho-chih (governor of Chiao-chih), 66, 77 T ’ang dynasty (China), 48, 78, 80 tanks, dry-stonework, 19 Tantrism, see Buddhism Taoism, 47 tapasvin (worshippers of the linga), 194 Tarabya (governor of Pegu), 181 Taung-gyi Shin (a Burmese god), 112 Tavoy (Burma), 7, 147, 151, 155, 157, 162, 167, 182, 183, 185, 187, 188 Tay Au, see Hsi Ou Tay-do (Ho dynasty capital), 207 Tay-son rebellion (Viet-nam), 211, 2 1 3 -

14

Tejatisara (Siamese poet), 168 temple-mountains, 10 4 ,14 1,17 5,19 6 ,2 2 1 temples, 70, 77-85 passim, 94, 98, 10 1-2, 104-5, 108, 114, 125, 129, 141, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 158, 165, 166, 173, 174, 176, 177, 188, 195, 210, 221; main features of Siamese Buddhist, 163

265

Index Tenasserim (Burma), 147, 152, 155, 157, 162, 182, 187 T ’ep Kavi, see Devakavi Terrace of the Leper King (Cambodia), 109 Thadominbya (founder of Ava), 182 Thailand, see Siam Thalun (Burmese king), 185 Tham Pong prehistoric site (Laos), 13 ,2 2 Thambula temple (Pagan), 117 T h ’ammath’iket, see Dhammadhipesa Th’ammayut, see Dhammayuttika T h ’ammikarat, see Dhammikaraja Thang Long (present Hanoi): capital of Dai Co Viet, 83; L y dynasty capital, 209 Tharawadi (Burmese king), 188 th’at or reliquary (Laos), 179, 180 Th’at Luang temple (Laos), 174-5 Thatbyinnuy, see Sabannu Thaton (Burma), 113 , 15 5 ; see also Suddhammavati Thayekhettaya (Burmese for Shrik­ shetra), n o Then K ’am (king of Lan Ch’ang), 174 Thibaw (Burmese king), 189 Thieu-tri (emperor of Viet-nam), 214 Thihathu, see Sihasura Thilawuntha (Burmese writer), 191 Thingathu, see Simhasura Thinkhaba (founder of Toungoo dynasty), 183 Thmenh Chei (Cambodian version of Dhananjaya), 203 Thoat Hoan, see Toghan Thommeasokareach, see Dhammashokaraja Thommoreachea, see Dhammaraja Thonburi, see Dhanapuri Three Kingdoms period (China), 58, 64, 166 Three Pagodas Pass, 7, 154, 183 Ti Chen (king of Lin-i), 64 Tibeto-Burman languages, 28, 30 Tich Quang, see Hsi Kuang Tilokamangala temple (Pagan), 117 Tilokaraja (king of Lan Na), 150, 151 Tirchul (the Pyus), 68 To Dinh, see Su Ting T ’o-lo-po-ti (Chinese name for Dvara­ vati), 69 Toa Do, see Sogetu Toghan, Prince (son of Kublai), 127-8

tombs: chamber-, 2 1; Chinese (in n. Viet-nam), 17, 44, 46; Le dynasty, 212 T ’ong Chan (son of Ramadhipati I), 149 Tongking, French protectorate of, 6, 178 Tonle Sap, 2, 3; see also Great Lake Toungoo (Burma), 153, 155, 156, 181, 182, 182-3, i84, 185, 186, 187 Toungoo dynasty (Burma), 182-6, 190, 191 Tra-kieu (site of capital of Lin-i), 65, 77, 81, 91 trade, vi, 5, 39, 43, 48, 49, 51, 58, 59, 60, 77, 95, I03» i 67, 168, 169, 174, 183, 193, 214 Traibhumikatha (treatise by Lu T ’ai), 140, 144 Tran dynasty (Dai Viet), 204-6 Tran Anh-tong (Tran dynasty), 128-9, 129, 204 Tran Canh, see Tran Thai-tong Tran De Nghien (son of Tran Duetong), 205 Tran Du-tong (Tran dynasty), 204, 205 Tran Due-tong (Tran dynasty), 205 Tran Hien-tong (Tran dynasty), 196, 204 Tran Hung-dao (name under which Tran Quoc Toan is worshipped), 128 Tran Ke Xoang (Vietnamese poet), 216 Tran Minh-tong (Tran dynasty), 204 Tran Nghe-tong (Tran dynasty), 205, 207 Tran Nhan-tong (Tran dynasty), 12 7 ,12 8 Tran Quoc Toan (Vietnamese general), 128 Tran Thai-tong (Tran dynasty), 86, 123-4 , 126 Tran Than-tong (Tran dynasty), 126 Tran Thu Do (founder of Tran dynasty), 86, 123 Tran Thuan-tong (Tran dynasty), 205 trapeang (the common pool), 60, 61 Trengganu, sultanate of, 166, 170 trial by ordeal, 60, 61, 63, 147, 152, 194 Tribhuvanaditya Dharmaraja (title of Kyanzittha), 114 Tribhuvanadityavarman (Cambodian usurper), 107 Trieu, see Chao Trieu Da, see Chao T ’o Trinh family (virtual rulers of n. Viet­ nam), 208 ff.

Index Vat Chet Yot, see Mahabodharama Vat Chulamani (temple at Phitsanulok), 150 Vat Jayamangala (temple at Ayudhya),

Trinh Cuong, 2 11 Trinh Dinh, 2 11 Trinh Duy Sam, 208 Trinh Giang, 211 Trinh Hoai Due (Vietnamese historian), 215 Trinh Khai, 2 11 Trinh Kiem, 208, 209 Trinh Phung, 211 Trinh Sam, 2 11, 214 Trinh Tung, 208-9 troglodytes, 3, 14, 16 Trung Nhi, see Cheng Ni Trung Trac, see Cheng Tse Truong Ba-nghi, see Chang Po-i Truong Minh Giang (s. Vietnamese general), 200 Tu-duc (emperor of Viet-nam), 214 Tuc-mac pagoda (Viet-nam), 206 Tusita Mahaprasada palace (Bangkok), 166

155

U Thong (Thailand), 140, 146, 147 Udayadityavarman (Khmer kings): I, 99; II, 100 Udayagiri temple (Orissa), 116 Udumbara (Siamese king), 161, 162 Uma (wife of Shiva), 65 Un K ’am (ruler of Luang Prabang),

177

Unarut, see Aniruddha United States of America, 168, 170 universal monarch, 90, 97, 99, 221 Upali Thein temple (Pagan), 117 uposathagara (Siamese: hot; meeting-hall for monks in a temple), 163 Uriyangadai (Mongol general), 126 Usabarot (Laotian poem), 180 Ussa (former name of Pegu), 11 1 Utei (Cambodian king), 213 Ut’ump’on, see Udumbara Uzana, see Narasimha Uccana Vajrabharna, see Sawlu Van-mieu, ‘temple of literature’ (Viet­ nam), 87 Varavamsha (Siamese kings): (I) 152; (ii) (Prasat T ’ong, q.v.), 157 varna, ‘caste’, used for social classes in Cambodia, 56 Vat Buddhaishvarya (temple at Ayud­ hya), 148

Vat Kukut (temple at Haripunjaya), 125-6 Vat Mahadhatu: (i) at Ayudhya, 148; (ii) at Bangkok, 166; (iii) at Phit­ sanulok, 150; (iv) at Lamphun, 126; (v) at Lop Buri, 122; (vi) at Sawankhalok, 141 Vat Mai (at Luang Prabang), 177 Vat Manorom (Laos), 173, 179 Vat Nak’on Kosa (Lop Buri), 122 Vat Phu, hill of, 89 Vat P’o, see Jetavana Vat P’ra Keo (temple at Bangkok), 165, 166, 174 Vat P’ra P’ay Luang (Sukhodaya), 125, 141 Vat P’ra Yun (Lamphun), 149 Vat Rajapurana (Ayudhya), 149 Vat Si Saket (Vieng Chan), 176 Vat Visun (Laos), 174 Veddas, 21 Veloso, Diogo, 197 Versailles, the Court of, 159, 214 Vessantarajataka, 151, 203 Vidyeshadhimant (Cambodian Brah­ man), 195 Vieng Chan (present Vientiane), 153, 154, 165, 166, 172, 174, 175, 179; State of, 176-7, 178, 200 Vientiane, 107 Viet, see Yiieh Viet su cuong muc (a history of Dai Viet), 206 Viet-nam: origin of the name, 41 prehistoric, 11, 12, 13 -15 , 16, 17-19 , 21, 31, 33 Chinese conquest of Red River delta, 3 3 > 39 - 4 0 , 42-43 kingdom of Nan-yiieh, 40-41, 42, 43 under Chinese rule, 43-49, 77 ff.; rebellions against Chinese rule, 4445, 47-48, 78; raids by Indonesians, 78; attacked by Nan-chao, 79; end of Chinese rule, 80 after independence: Nam Viet and Twelve Su-quan period, 80; Dai Co Viet, 81-84; Dai Viet, 84-85,

267

Index after independence (continued) 86-87, I2 3~4> i 26~9> 204-6; Ho dynasty, 206; Le dynasty, 207-8 expansion southwards, 7, 67-68, 87, 218 conflict with Champa, 66, 77, 79, 8i, 82, 83, 84-85, 121, 123-4, 128-9, 204-5, 208 intervention in Laos, 173-4 , 175, 176, 208 partition, 208-9; conflict between north and south, 2 11, 214 ; n. Viet­ nam: Trinh family in power under nominal rule of Le dynasty, 208-10; s. Viet-nam under Nguyen dynasty, 209-10; rivalry with Siam, 177, 199, 200; infiltration of Cambodia, 198, 199, 200, 210, 2 13 ; French aid sought, 214 re-unification: country known as Viet-nam, 214; French intervention, 2 14 -15 ; colony o f Cochin-china, 215 relations with China after independ­ ence: vassalage, 8 1; wars, 82, 84, 100, 173, 207; Chinese occupation, 207; under Chinese suzerainty, 207; Chinese recognition of unified empire, 214 Buddhism in, 46-47, 206 Confucianism in, 47, 87, 216 see also administrative system, archi­ tecture, cultural influence Vietnamese: Annals, 78, 8 1; language, 27, 28-29; people, 7, 19, 3 1; origins of the, 4 1-4 2 ; see also civiliza­ tion, law codes, literature vihara (Siamese: vihan\ meeting-hall for the laity in a temple), 163 Vijaya (a Cham capital), 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 127 Vijayabahu I (Ceylon), 113 Vikravantavarman (king of Champa),

9i

Vinitaruchi (Buddhist monk), 47 Vishnu, 70, 94, 101, 224; Vaishnavite cult, 61, 91, 94, 98, 104 Visun (king of Lan Ch’ang), 174 Vo Canh, stele of, 50, 58

V o Vuong (Nguyen dynasty), 213 Vong, Chao (ruler of Luang Prabang),

177

Voravong, see Varavamsha Vu Quynh (Vietnamese writer), 212 Vyadhapura (a capital of Fu-nan), 60, 62 Wang An-shih (Chinese statesman), 84 Wang Mang (Han usurper), 43, 44 Wareru (T’ai ruler of Martaban), 18 1-2 Wellesley province (Malaya), 167 wheels, stone, 70 Wu-ti (Han emperor), 42 Wusthoff, Gerrit van, 175 Xieng Khouang (Laos), 175, 179 Xuan-loc megalithic site (s. Viet-nam), 21 Yajnavaraha (Cambodian Brahman), 99 Yamada Nagamasa (commander of the Japanese guards in Siam), 156, 157 Yang Po Ku Vijaya (king of Champa), 82 Yang Shao (Chinese neolithic culture), 24 Yashodharapura (Angkor), 74, 98, 99, 107, 197 Yashodhareshvara (Khmer royal linga), 98 Yashovarman (Khmer kings): I, 98; II, 106, 107 Yat, Ponhea (Cambodian king), 196 Ya^awingyaw (Burmese summary of the chronicle of Ceylon), 191 Yellow River, 16 Yesin Timur (Mongol general), 129 Yiba (king of Haripunjaya), 130 Yii the Great (legendary Chinese emperor), 206 Yuan dynasty (China), 124 Yiieh, country of the, 39-40 Yiieh tribes, 42 Yule, Henry, 189 Yunnan (China), 6, 68, 7 9 ,1 1 2 ,1 2 4 ,1 2 9 ,

133 Zeyatheimhka, see Jayasimha Zokthok, stupa of (Burma), i l l

268