The Macmillan Dictionary Of Contemporary Phrase & Fable 0333906365, 9780333906361

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crf^ MACMILLAN DICTIONARYi^ CONTEMPORARY

PHI^SE FABLE

JTS' MACMILLAN DlCTlONARYiC CONTEMPORARY PHRASE &. FABLE Language defines our culture and life, and rarely has it reflected such bewildering and complex changes as those of the last hundred years. From beautiful game to zombie, this classic reference book explores the origin and meaning of a vast range of words, phrases and events that have come into use in the English language over the past century. Over 8,000 entries cover slang terms; acronyms; idioms; catchphrases; quotations and new expressions, and supply details about the derivation and meaning of words from both sides of the Atlantic, as well as from elsewhere in the English-speaking world. More recent years have seen an explosion of linguistic change associated with new technology, and this is covered in full. And in a century rich in mythology, the dictionary catalogues the happenings and personages that have become our modem ‘fables’, from Lord Haw-Haw and El Niiio to the Lewinsky affair and Harry Potter. Entertaining, backed with a wealth of quotation and anecdote, and full of information not usually found in conventional dictionaries and encyclopedias. The Macmillan Dictionary of Contemporary Phrase and Fable is a major source of reference on modem hfe and culture, and a deUght to browse through.

The

MACMILLAN DICTIONARY of

CONTEMPORARY PHRASE & FABLE

The

MACMILLAN DICTIONARY of

CONTEMPORARY PHRASE & FABLE

MACMILLAN

First published 2002 by Macmillan an imprint of Pan Macmillan Ltd Pan Macmillan, 20 New Wharf Road, London N1 9RR Basingstoke and Oxford Associated companies throughout the world www.panmacmillan.com ISBN 0 333 90636 5 Hardback ISBN 0 333 90637 3 Paperback Copyright © Market House Books Limited, Aylesbury, 1991, 1993, 1996, 2002 The right of Market House Books Limited to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by it in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Parts of this work previously published as Brewer's Dictionary of 20th Century Phrase & Fable by Cassell, 1991, 1993, 1996 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the prior written permission of the publisher. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. 987654321 A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Typeset by Market House Books Limited Printed and bound in Great Britain by Mackays of Chatham pic, Chatham, Kent

Contents Acknowledgments Preface by Philip Howard The Dictionary Name Index

vi vii 1 659

The Macmillan Dictionary of Contemporary Phrase & Fable is derived in part from Brewer's 20th-Century Phrase & Fable (published by Cassell, 1991; revised 1993 and 1996), which was also compiled by Market House Books Ltd. For this new Macmillan version the organization of the book has been com¬ pletely altered, the older entries have been substantially revised, and much entirely new material has been added. Entries are arranged in strict alphabetical order with the exception of some entries that take the form of a sentence or longer phrase. To make the book more user-friendly, these are alphabetized by key word (usually the first main noun or verb). For instance, the catchphrase as the actress said to the bishop will be found at the dummy headword actress and the quotation We shall never surrender at surrender. An original feature of this edition is the Name Index that follows the Dic¬ tionary. In this index the names of people (alive and dead) who receive prominent mention in the book are listed alphabetically and referred to the entries in which they appear. Cross references in the text are indicated by a change of typeface to a sans serif face.

Editors (Market House Books Ltd.) Jonathan Law Alan Isaacs

Contributors Anna Berry Callum Brines John Daintith Rosalind Fergusson Robert Mine Amanda Isaacs Heather Jargus Elizabeth Kirkpatrick

VI

Elizabeth Martin David Pickering Joshua Raymond Kate Reddick Mark Salad Kathy Seed Anne Stibbs John Wright

Preface by

Philip Howard They said that this was the last generation of printed reference books. All the information anybody needed was available on the Internet, or soon would be. In cyberspace there’d be no algebra, no learning dates and names, but only pla5dng on golden keyboards, and reading Henry James (on screen). A researcher would no longer have to trawl through dusty libraries and plod through a lab5n-inth of old files. Well, they were wrong, as usual, weren’t they? The Internet is indeed a wonderful invention, certainly one of the master/mistress influences of the new century. Much of the information in the world is already on it. It is a huge democratic advance, putting the knowledge of the world at the fingertips of Everyman and Everywoman. But it has also demonstrated that, even if you put a million monkeys in a stadium with a million key¬ boards, they will never write the works of Shakespeare. The sheer volume of the Internet is paradoxically its Catch-22. As the journalist said: “How do I know what I think until I read what I have writ¬ ten?” So the trawler through the Internet says: “How do I know what I want until I call it up by accident, and the system crashes?” And how does he know that it is accurate? There is no quality control on the Internet, as there is with an academic publisher. If a book is in a university library, it has been considered worth buying by librarians and academics. It may even contain true and interesting facts, phrases, and fables. It should not contain many direct lies. But if you call up Libya on the Internet, you will find a number of impressive official websites. They are full of beautifully presented statistics, tables, and historical summaries. The trouble is that they are built on a foundation of painted smoke. For the websites are pro¬ duced by Colonel Gadaffi’s spin laboratory. So they are indeed strong on fable. I have never yet found an)Ahing on the Internet that I could not have found faster and more reliably in a book. And I am perfectly competent on the Internet, though not an infotech anorak. My requirements as a jour¬ nalist are peculiar. And I have access to the best libraries. But the book is still a marvellous high-tech piece of equipment. It is portable. It is carefully edited, at least when it comes from respectable academic publishers. vii

Many books can be put in your pocket or read in the bath. If you know the right book, it will give you the right answers. As a daily journalist, I need the right answers to a bewildering and un¬ predictable variety of questions fast. Any serious reader or writer needs within easy reach the biggest dictionary that he or she can afford. And the biggest atlas. And access to the serious encyclopedias. A journalist needs a dictionary of quotations, so that he can verify his references, before swanking: “As every schoolchild knows...”. Because they are my particular interest, I have on my desk a dictionary of slang (Partridge, of course) and a classical dictionary. I have a style guide and a dictionary of etymology. The Macmillan Dictionary of Contemporary Phrase and Fable will have a parking slot on my not particularly capacious desk. It answers (reliably and with citations) the questions that I did not know existed until the editor shouts “Change leaders!” For English is the richest mine of phrase and fable in the world, for sev¬ eral reasons. It is becoming the world language. It already is the world lan¬ guage in such fields as medicine, computers, aeronautics, and navigation. It is the second language of half the world. English newspapers and other media are the nosiest and noisiest in the world. America is a melting-pot of every culture under the sun, and the United Kingdom is an ancient stewpot. Because of our extraordinary history, the sun never does set on the rich culture and languages that make up English phrase and fable. An Eng¬ lishman was mocking Scottish Gaelic for being a jejune and d)dng tongue. ‘What’s the Gaelic for spaghetti?’ The man from Lewis replied: ‘What’s the English for spaghetti?’ The Angles sailed west as the first illegal immi¬ grants. The obtuse Angles turned left and became Englishmen. But the acute Angles sailed on to Edinburgh and became the Lowland Scots. One of them was called Macmillan. Even the most conscientious journalist with the most capacious mem¬ ory cannot carry in his/her head all the phrases, facts, and fables that have left their footprints in the sand of the last century. He can bellow down the news room: ‘Who wrote Catch-22?’ Or he can give up, and write his way around the problem. In the hurly-burly of daily journalism, under the lash, up to the wire, towards deadline, that is what journalists call re¬ search. And now we have another weapon in our armoury in our daily struggle to find facts and phrases in a hurry; to appear knowledgeable and widely read; to disguise our ignorance. For our general knowledge is wide but shallow. We have a good working knowledge of news, and phrase, and fable. But we cannot carry it all in our busy little heads. What song the Syrens sang, or what name Achilles assumed when he hid himself among women, though puzzling questions, are not beyond all conjecture. And you can find those conjectures in older reference books. But who wore siren suits and what were the add bath murders are the contemporary puzzling questions. Such modern general knowledge is found aggregated only in this reference book. It is particularly strong on gruesome murders, from the Boston Strangler to the Shipman murviii

ders. It (rightly) gives most space to the latest, and therefore least recorded, facts and fables. Suppose that you wish/need to refresh your memory about James Bond. Here you will find entries and citations under Bond, Goldfinger, Oddjob, Q,, and Martini, shaken, not stirred. So the hack in a hurry can put up a convincing show of being an expert on the thud and blunder of Bondage. Catchphrases, slang, interesting acronyms, film stars, heroes, villains, historical events, and other trivial pursuits are explained and cited. George Smiley meets Miss Marple and the Falcon, and they share a quip with Groucho and the Marx Brothers. Why is £2,000 known in the City as an Archeri* How many fractals make 4711? Name the Teletubbies and identify them by their colours. If you had a close encounter with the Roswell incident, would you be (a) pleased; (b) alarmed: (c) incredulous? Would you (1) wear; (2) eat; (3) dance a zonk? I know where I would start to look for the answers to most of these puz¬ zling questions. Most (all?) of them can be found on the World Wide Web. But if seven maids with seven laptops surfed the Internet for half a year, do you suppose, the Walrus said, that they could get it clear? I doubt it, said the Carpenter, and shed a bitter tear. So move over Oxford English Dictionary. I shall make room on my desktop for The Macmillan Dictionary of Contemporary Phrase and Fable. It answers the puzzling questions that other reference books cannot reach. This is a sufficient reason for having the book on my desk. But, of course, the necessary reason for having it at bedside or in bathroom is that it is the best browsers’ pasture published. P.H., 2002

IX

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►►1

• A ► A former category of film classification used

mate friend of Mrs Simpson for some years before

by the British Board of Film Censors. When classi¬ fication was introduced in the UK in 1913 A (stand¬

acceding to the throne on 20 January 1936. In the ensuing months he continued to escort Mrs Simp¬

ing for ‘adult’) denoted that children under the age of 16 should only be admitted if accompanied by an adult. In 1970 a new system was introduced in which A (now standing for ‘advisory’) meant that the film contained scenes that parents might not wish their children to see; unaccompanied chil¬

son while she awaited her divorce from her second husband, Ernest Simpson. This was granted in Oc¬ tober, and the couple hoped the final hurdle to their marriage had been cleared. However, they reckoned without the Establish¬ ment. Prime Minister Baldwin, prodded and sup¬

dren could, however, now be admitted to A films. The category was abolished in 1982.

ported by various prominent figures alarmed by the constitutional implications, informed the king

• AA ► 1. A former category of film classification

that marriage to Mrs Simpson was unacceptable

indicating that in the opinion of the British Board of Film Censors a film was not suitable for chil¬

while he remained on the throne. Reaction among the British public was mixed. The king had been a

dren under 14 years of age (whether accompanied or not). The classification was introduced in 1970 and dropped in 1982.2. See: Alcoholics Anonymous.

popular figure noted for his concern for the un¬ employed during the 1930s. But opposition to di¬ vorce was still widespread, a moral position

• Abadan Crisis ► A political dispute between the

staunchly upheld by the Church of England, of which Edward was the titular head.

UK and Iran following the nationalization of the Iranian oil industry in 1951. This threatened the interests of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (later British Petroleum), which operated the large refin¬ ery at Abadan. The UK retaliated with a blockade of Iran, thereby damaging the Iranian economy. The crisis was resolved by the formation in 1954 of an international consortium of oil companies (in¬ cluding Anglo-Iranian) to run the Iranian oilfields.

With no hint of compromise from his prime minister, the king relinquished the throne on 11 De¬ cember, to be succeeded by his brother, George VI. In a radio broadcast to the Commonwealth on the night of his abdication, the ex-king spoke movingly of his dilemma: ‘...I have found it impossible to carry the heavy burden of responsibility and to dis¬ charge my duties as king as I would wish to do with¬ out the help and support of the woman I love.’

• Abbey Theatre ► A Dublin theatre, opened in 1904, renowned for staging works by contemporary Irish playwrights, including Yeats, Synge, O’Casey, and George Russell (known as AE). The Abbey Thea¬

his wife after their marriage on 3 June 1937 in Paris. The Abdication, a mountain in Britain’s moral land¬

tre was built at the instigation of Annie Horniman

scape, retains its fascination for successive genera¬

(1860-1937), a wealthy English patron, to provide a home for the Irish National Dramatic Society of Yeats and Lady Gregory. In 1924 it became the first

tions; at its heart it contains the dilemma of an

state-subsidized theatre in the English-speaking world. A fire destroyed the original building in 1951

Edward was created Duke of Windsor and given the title Royal Highness, although this was refused

individual torn between love and the highest of¬ fice in the land. Well, Mr Baldwin! This is a pretty kettle of fish! - QUEEN MARY, Speaking to the prime minister.

but a new playhouse was subsequently built, open¬

• Aberfan disaster ► A tragedy that befell the

ing in 1966.

mining village of Aberfan in south Wales, near

• Abdication Crisis ► The constitutional dis¬

Merthyr Tydfil, on 21 October 1966. Avast tip of col¬

pute between the uncrowned King Edward VIII and

liery waste slid downhill engulfing part of the vil¬

the British Establishment; it was caused by the king’s intention to marry the twice-divorced Amer¬

lage, including the school. 116 of the 144 lives lost were children. The disaster prompted an urgent re¬

ican Mrs Wallis Simpson. Edward had been an inti¬

view of the siting and maintenance of similar tips.

Abgrenzung

• Abgrenzung ► (German, demarcation) The for¬

and point-of-sale material. The distinction is arbi¬

mer policy of separation of the German Democra¬

trary but reflects the way in which company profit and loss accounts are prepared, with a horizontal

tic Republic and the Federal Republic of Germany following the creation of two German states after

line separating entries that show how the profit or

World War 11. Deeply resented by many Germans in

loss is calculated (above the line) from those that

both countries, it was finally and comprehensively

show how it has been used or distiibuted (below the

dropped as official policy in 1990, when the two

line).

states reunited.

• abstract expressionism

See: action painting.

• able and willing to pull his weight

• Absurd, Theatre of the ► See: Theatre of the

President Theodore Roosevelt’s characterization of

Absurd.

the ideal American in a widely reported speech of 1902: The first requisite of a good citizen in this Re public of ours is that he shall be able and will¬ ing to pull his weight.

• ableism ► Discrimination on the grounds of ablebodiedness. Employers are accused of ableism when they discriminate in favour of hiring an able bodied person for a job rather than a person with a physical or mental handicap who could have done the job equally well. The word is formed on the same basis as racism and sexism. • ABM ► Anti-ballistic missile. A weapon designed to shoot down an incoming enemy missile. ABMs were developed and deployed by America and the Soviet Union in the 1960s and early 1970s, ostensi¬ bly as a defensive precaution. However, the weap>ons soon came to be seen as a serious threat to world peace, because their existence undermined the dreadful logic of mutually assured destruction (see; MAD). A country with a large arsenal of ABMs might become more likely to launch a nuclear first strike, because it believed that it could survive the in¬ evitable retaliation. The menace from ABMs was effectively neutralized by the SALT I accord (see: SALT) in 1972. However, in 2001 America under George W. Bush announced that it would no longer

• abuse ► A well-established word that took on a new lease of life in the later 20th century. It has now acquired a sinister relevance in such combi¬ nations as alcohol abuse, drug abuse, solvent abuse (see: glue sniffing), sexual abuse, and child abuse. Until quite recently, to describe someone as abusive meant that they were rude; it is now more likely to imply that they are violent and sexually perverted. The use of the term self-abuse to mean mas¬ turbation is now regarded as somewhat quaint. The US psychiatrist Thomas Szasz has described mas¬ turbation as ‘the primary sexual activity of mankind...’, concluding that ‘in the nineteenth cen¬ tury it was a disease; in the twentieth it’s a cure.’ • Abwehr ► The German military intelligence ser¬ vice. It was led from 1935 by Admiral Wilhelm Canaris, who saw its authority increasingly curtailed before and during World War II. Hitler favoured the rival intelligence organizations, the SD (Sicherheits-dienst) and the SS (Schutzstaffel). As a conse¬ quence, the Abwehr became a focus of opposition to Hitler. Several of its leaders, including Canaris, were imphcated in the 1944 plot to overthrow the Fuhrer, (see: Stauffenberg Plot) and Hitler ordered that it be merged with the SD in February 1944.

be held by this treaty.

• ACAB ► All coppers are bastards. An abbreviation

• A-bomb »■ See. atom bomb; nuclear weapon.

much used in the 1960s and 1970s in graffiti and in

• Abominable Snowman ► A name, popular¬ ized by Eric Shipton’s Everest Expedition of 1951, for the yeti, a large bearlike animal supposed by some to inhabit the high Himalayas. Although there have been no authenticated sightings. Sir Edmund Hillary found the alleged footprints of a yeti in 1960 and explained its elusiveness thus: ‘There is

slogans on clothing, as well as in chants at football matches. • Acapulco Gold ► A type of marijuana with golden leaves grown in the region around Acapulco, Mexico, and much prized for its potency. It was im¬ ported into America, particularly California, from the late 1960s.

precious little in civilization to appeal to a yeti.’

• ACAS ► Advisory Conciliation and Arbitration

5ee also-. Bigfoot.

Service. In the UK, a government quango set up in

• above-the-line»- Advertising expenditure on

the 1970s to attempt to resolve industrial disputes

which a commission is payable to an advertising

before major damage could be done to the eco¬ nomic interests of the country.

agency. This includes all mass-media advertising. Below-the-line advertising, on which no commis¬

• AC/DC ► Bisexual. The expression originated in

sion is payable, includes direct mail, free samples.

America by analogy with electrical devices adapt-

►►3

acqua alta

able for either alternating or direct current. It be¬

ways denied any drug connection. See also: orbital;

came popular in the UK during the 1960s and

rave; warehouse party.

1970s. The sexual imagery of electricity is further elaborated in the tradition of ‘male’ and ‘female’ connectors in wiring etc.

• acid rain ► Originally a term used to describe the heavily polluted rainfall in the Manchester area in the 19th century. Then, as now, it refers to rain

• ace ► The number one on playing cards or dice,

containing sulphuric and nitric acids formed from

from as, the Latin unit of weight. In World War I the

sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides present in the

French word, as, was applied to an airman who had

atmosphere as a result of burning fossil fuels on an

brought down ten enemy aeroplanes: it was im¬

industrial scale. The combustion of petrol and oil in

ported in its English equivalent, ace, and later ex¬

vehicles without catalytic exhaust systems also con¬

tended to any especially expert flier, golfer, etc.

tributes these acid-forming oxides to the environ¬

Anything excellent or outstanding can now be re¬

ment. It is believed that acid rain can destroy crops,

ferred to as ‘ace’.

trees, and fish as well as causing damage to build¬

Liverpool... the city of the Beatles, Brookside and an ace football team is poised to storm back into fashion. - The Independent, 16 March 1991.

ings. In 1985, 17 countries agreed to reduce their emissions of sulphur dioxide by 30% by 1993. In fact, the 17 signatories to the protocol exceeded

• ace in the hole ► US expression from the card

this reduction, while non-signatories reduced their

game stud poker, meaning that an ace is held in the

sulphur emissions by less than 10%.

unexposed cards (the hole). More generally, the phrase is used to mean a hidden advantage or strength that is held in reserve until needed, as in ‘his friendship with the chairman is his ace in the

• acid rock ► A type of rock music popular in the late 1960s involving weird electronic effects and psychedelic lightshows to suggest the effects of LSD

(‘acid’) or other hallucinatory drugs.

hole’. It became popular in the 1920s. A similar ex¬ pression is ‘ace up one’s sleeve’.

• ack-ack ► Slang from World Wars I and II mean¬

• acid ► A slang name for LSD (lysergic acid di¬

ing anti-aircraft guns (from signalling code for AA).

ethylamide).

• ack emma»- See:

pip emma.

• acid bath murders ► The gruesome series of

• Acol system ► Widely used bidding and play

murders committed by John George Haigh in the

conventions in the game of bridge, devised in the

1940s. Haigh was arrested in 1949 for the murder of

1930s by the London bridge theorist Jack Marx

an elderly widow, Mrs Durand-Deacon, whom he

(1904-87) and his partner in international compe¬

had killed and whose body he dissolved in a bath of

titions, the Conservative politician Iain Macleod

sulphuric add. Haigh confessed to the crime, and to

(1913-70). They were then members of the Acol

the murder of seven other people, two of which

Bridge Club in Acol Road, West Hampstead in Lon¬

were fictitious. He claimed to have drained the

don, which gave the system its name.

blood from his victims prior to dissolving them,

• ACORN ► A Classification of Residential Neigh¬

and to have drunk a cupful of blood from each. His

bourhoods, a directory of 39 different neighbour¬

plea of insanity was dismissed and he was hanged.

hoods in the UK, used by companies selling goods

The bath he used is preserved in Scotland Yard’s

or services on the assumption that the inhabitants

Black Museum.

of particular neighbourhoods are likely to have sim¬

• acid head ► A person who frequently takes, and

ilar interests and disposable incomes. It is much

whose mental faculties have been affected by, LSD.

used by door-to-door and telephone salespeople of¬

• acid house or house ► A style of synthesized dance music with a repetitive hypnotic beat, asso¬ ciated with the taking of hallucinogenic drugs, es¬ pecially Ecstasy. The name ‘house’ came from the

fering swimming pools, double glazing, insurance, finance, etc. It also provides information on which areas to omit in a sales drive.

• acqua alta ► (Italian, high water) Italian term

Warehouse Club in Chicago, where the style origi¬

used of the water that periodically floods central

nated. As its popularity spread in the UK during

Venice. The city was badly damaged in such floods

the late 1980s, thousands of young people (many

in November 1966. In the late 1960s, in an attempt

wearing ‘A-c-e-e-e-d’ T-shirts) congregated in deserted

to prevent further inundations (and to halt the

warehouses and club venues for all-night acid-house

city’s rapid deterioration from air pollution), UN¬

parties. These were frequently raided by the police

ESCO launched a programme of scientific and tech¬

in search of drugs, although party organizers al¬

nical research. A series of flood barriers is also

4'«

action painting

planned. The Venice in Peril campaign aims to pro¬ mote the city’s protection.

• action painting ► A term coined by the US art critic Harold Rosenberg in 1952 to describe certain works produced by the New York abstract expres¬ sionists. the best known of whom were Jackson Pollock and Willem de Kooning. The style is char¬ acterized by dynamic spontaneous gestures, in which paint is spilt, spattered, and dripped onto canvas laid on the floor. The finished work is in¬ tended to reflect a creative expressive interplay be¬ tween the artist and his materials, free from the constraints of preconceived form or subject matter. On the floor 1 am more at ease, I feel nearer, more a part of the painting, since this way I can walk around it, work from the four sides and literally be ‘in’ the painting. - jackson pol¬ lock, in 1947, quoted in Tomassoni’s Pollock (1968).

the body. Dating back to at least 2500 bc, the system is based on achieving a balance between the op¬ posing life forces yin and yang. In modern times it has been used widely in alternative medicine, both to treat a variety of conditions and as an anaesthetic procedure. The system appears to be effective in some cases and is even practised by some qualified doctors, although there is no accepted explanation for the way in which it works. One modern theory is that the needles stimulate subcutaneous nerves in some way that makes them release painkilling endorphins. • AD ► Drug addict. An abbreviation used mostly in America by both drug addicts and the police. It is formed by taking the first two letters of addict, or by reversing the initial letters of the two words, thereby distinguishing it from DA for District At¬ torney.

Abstract Expressionism was invented by New York drunks. -JONI mitchell, interview on BBC television. 1985.

• Ada ► A computer-programming language de¬ veloped for the US Department of Defense. It was named after Augusta Ada Lovelace (1815-51), daugh¬

• action replay ► The repetition of part of a TV

ter of Lord Byron, wife of the Earl of Lovelace, and co-worker of Charles Babbage (1792-1871), the

broadcast, usually in slow motion, to analyse a key moment in a sports event such as a goal, winning putt, etc.

• Actors' Studio ► The New York-based work¬ shop for professional actors founded in 1947 by Elia Kazan, Robert Lewis, and Cheryl Crawford. Under the artistic direction of Lee Strasberg (from 1948), the Studio became known as the US home of the acting technique known as the Method and nur¬ tured many leading theatre and film stars, includ¬ ing Marlon Brando. The Studio is primarily a forum for exploration and experimentation, away from the pressures of commercial production. The costs

British mathematician. Babbage is given credit for the invention of computers as he built a calculating machine regarded as the forerunner of the elec¬ tronic computer. The machine is preserved, unfin¬ ished, in the Science Museum in London.

• adam ► See. eve. • ADAPTS ► Air Deliverable Antipollution Trans¬ fer System. A system of dealing with oil pollution employed by the US coastguard. The system relies upon entrapping the oil with inflatable nylon bags and then pumping it off the water.

are met by voluntary subscription, and member¬

• admass ► A word coined by J. B. Priestley in Jour¬ ney Down a Rainbow (1955) to describe the mid-20th-

ship is by invitation following audition.

century proliferation of commercial advertising

• actress ► as the actress said to the bishop An ex¬

and high-pressure salesmanship, especially in America. The word has now come to mean the vast

pression added to what seems a perfectly straight¬

mass of the general public to whom advertisers ad¬ dress their publicity.

forward innocent remark to create a sexual double entendre. Typical examples might include ‘1 never please you’. The phrase was popular in the RAF in

• admirals The Admiral of the Atlantic salutes the Admiral of the Pacific A telegram from the

the 1940s, although its origin is said to be Edwar¬

German emperor Wilhelm II to Tsar Nicholas II in

knew I had it in me’ or ‘I’d bend over backwards to

dian. An alternative form of this expression is as

1905. Sent during a naval exercise, it reflected Ger¬

the art mistress said to the gardener, which was

many’s determination to assert itself as a world power, a desire that contributed to the outbreak of World War 1.

popularized by the British actress Beryl Reid when playing the part of Monica in the BBC radio series Educating Archie (broadcast in the 1950s). • acupuncture ► An ancient Chinese system of

• Admiral's Cup ► The trophy presented by the Admiral of the Royal Ocean Racing Club to the win¬

healing and pain relief in which thin needles are in¬

ners of the biennial series of races for yachts in the

serted and rotated into precisely defined points of

29-60 foot class. The three-boat teams compete in

►►5

Agadir Crisis

five races along the English Channel, including the

• affirmative action ► See: quota system.

famous Fastnet Race. The competition was inaugu¬ rated in 1957.

• Affluent Society ► A phrase, popular from the later 1950s, reflecting the overall growth in

• advertorial ► An article in a newspaper or mag¬ azine that appears to be editorial matter but is ac¬ tually intended to promote a particular product or service. See also: plugumentary.

• AE ► The pseudonym of the Irish poet and play¬ wright George William Russell (1867-1935). It was derived as a contraction of‘aeon’, a word to which Russell ascribed great mystical significance. AE’s considerable and varied output includes several volumes of poetry and the play Deirdre (1902). He also helped found Dublin’s Abbey Theatre.

• A-effect ► (German, V-Effekt, Verfremdungseffekt) Alienation effect. The term coined by the play¬ wright Bertolt Brecht (1898-1956) for his technique of deliberately limiting the degree to which both ac¬ tors and audience identity with the drama. Brecht’s intention was to jolt the sensibilities of all partici¬ pants in order to sharpen their objectivity and po¬ litical awareness. Devices used to achieve this A-effect included third person or past-tense narra¬ tive, spoken stage directions, unusual or subversive stage design, as well as the use of songs, placards, masks, etc. • aerial ping-pong ► A facetious name for Aus¬ tralian Rules Football, in which much of the game is played in the air because of the high jumps and kicks involved in the style of play. • aerobics► (Greek, aer air; bios life) Programmes of exercise designed to improve the body’s uptake of oxygen and thus benefit general health. Such exercises became popular in America in the 1980s and soon won converts throughout the Western world; proponents of the system included the film actress Jane Fonda. • aerosol ► A tyqje of pressurized spray can much used in perfumery, polishes, paints, etc. The use of chlorofluorocarbons (see: CFC) as propellants in aerosols caused concern when it was alleged that the proliferation of such substances in the atmos¬ phere was damaging the ozone layer. In the 1980s several international agreements were signed lim¬ iting such emissions and new nonaerosols were de¬ veloped.

• affinity card ► In the UK, a credit card that au¬ tomatically donates a small percentage of each transaction to a specified charity or similar orga¬ nization (such as a university). In America, a credit

material prosperity of Western societies at this time. It referred primarily to the increasingly wide¬ spread ownership of cars, television sets, washing machines, refrigerators, etc., in a society further cushioned by its ‘free’ social services. J. K. Gal¬ braith’s The Affluent Society (see: Galbraithian) was published in 1958. • aff luenza ► A late 20th-century coinage for the condition of those who have so much money and so many possessions that their psychological well¬ being suffers. In the UK the term has been applied to the deleterious effects of winning large sums on the National Lottery. It is a combination of ‘afflu¬ ence’ and ‘influenza’.

• Af ghanistanism ► Journalists’ slang for a sud¬ den and usually shortlived interest in events in re¬ mote parts of the world. The term was first used in the 1950s but acquired new relevance when Soviet troops invaded Afghanistan in 1980 and when US and British forces attacked the same country in 2001 (see: war on terrorism). • African National Congress ►

See: ANC.

• Afrikaans ► A language of South Africa that has evolved from the Dutch originally spoken by 17th-security prison. The is¬

code of practice on promoting alcohol to under-18s

land became a US possession in 1851 and was

was being widely breached. Later that year the

shortly after made the home for a military correc¬

Group ordered Carling-Tetley to repackage its drink

tion centre. The military prison erected in 1909 was transferred to the federal prison authorities in 1933. Until its closure in 1963, Alcatraz held some

Thickhead, an ‘alcoholic carbonated gel’ described

of America’s most notorious criminals, including A1 Capone (see: Scarface) and Machine-Gun Kelly. The

• Aldeburgh ► A small coastal town in Suffolk that hosts an annual music festival established by

regime was harsh; inmates were kept in solitary confinement in cells measuring 2.7 m by 1.5 m (9 ft

Benjamin Britten, Peter Pears, and their friends in

by 5 ft). Escape was made virtually impossible by the dangerous currents surrounding the island. One

ation with the English Opera Group, a small troupe

inmate, the murderer Robert Strand, studied birds during his incarceration and was the subject of the

as having the taste of wine gums and the texture of vomit.

1948. The festival developed out of Britten’s associ¬ of singers and musicians for whom many of his works were written. Aldeburgh and the nearby Maltings at Snape became an important venue for

1961 film. The Birdman of Alcatraz.

introducing Britten’s new operas to the public. De¬

• Alcock and Brown ► The pioneering aviation

spite the death of Britten in 1976 and of Pears in

partnership consisting of Captain John Alcock

1986, the festival continues.

(1892-1919) and Lieutenant Arthur Whitten Brown (1886-1948), who in 1919 achieved the first air cross¬

• Aldermaston Marches ► A series of Easter protest marches (1958-63) sponsored by CND close

ing of the Atlantic. The challenge was set by a Daily Mail offer of £10,000; Alcock and Brovm, both he

to the site of the Atomic Weapons Research Estab¬

roes of World War 1, were recruited by Vickers to fly a converted Vimy bomber from Newfoundland to Ireland. After months of preparation they set off (ac¬

they attracted up to 150,000 supporters.

companied by Brown’s toy cat Twinkletoes). During the next 16 hours 27 minutes they were beset by thick fog, lost all radio contact, survived an engine

Ben Travers (1886-1980) and staged at the Aldwych Theatre, London, between 1925 and 1933. The series

fire, were caught in a storm, were forced to climb out on the wing to free the air intakes of snow, and finally crash-landed in a peat bog, which they mis¬

lishment at Aldermaston, Berkshire. At their peak • Aldwych farces ► A series of plays written by

began with A Cuckoo in the Nest and featured a reg¬ ular cast headed by Robertson Hare, Mary Brough, Tom Walls, and Ralph Lynn. Other well-known plays in the series are Rookery Nook (1926) and Thark (1927).

took for a field. Both fliers were knighted within

• A-level ► In England and Wales, the public ex¬

the week and hailed as national heroes. Sadly, Al¬

amination usually taken at the age of 17-18 that

cock died in an air accident six months later; Brown was shattered by the news and never flew again.

It was first introduced in 1951 (see: GCE). A-levels

• Alcoholics Anonymous ► An organization

came under increasing criticism from reformers

founded in 1935 by two Americans to help alco¬ holics control their addiction. The stockbroker

in the 1980s and 1990s as being too narrow and

William Griffith Wilson (‘Bill W’) and the surgeon

by government ministers as the ‘gold standard’ of

Robert Holbrook Smith (‘Dr Bob S’) originated a programme of self-help based on small groups of

broaden the curriculum of sixth formers, in 1989

sufferers sharing their experiences and giving mu¬

the one-year AS-level (advanced supplementary

tual support. Members are known only by their first names and the initial of their surnames. The

level) was also introduced. Since 2000, A-levels have been taken in two stages, the AS-level (now meaning

provides the main passport for university entrance.

specialized but the examinations were defended the British secondary education system. However, to

British branch of AA was founded in 1947.

advanced subsidiary level) after one year and the

• alcopops ► Alcoholic beverages designed to taste like soft drinks and packaged and promoted ac¬

A2-level after two years. In recent decades the steady

cordingly. In the mid-1990s such concoctions as Alcola, an alcoholic cola drink, and Hooch, an alcoholic lemonade, became highly popular

year-on-year improvement in A-level grades has led to accusations that the exam has become too easy (see: dumbing down).

• Alexandra Day ► A day in June when rose em-

• Alexbow

10-M

blems are sold for the hospital fund inaugurated in 1912 by Queen Alexandra (1844-1925), Danish con¬ sort of Edward VII, to celebrate the fiftieth year of her residence in England. • Alexbow ► A form of ship’s bow that was de¬ signed in 1968 to facilitate a vessel’s progress through ice by lifting the ice upwards. It was named after its Canadian inventor, Scott Alexander.

• A-Lines

5ee: Dior.

• aliyah s (Hebrew, ascent) The mass immigra¬ tion of Jews from all over the world to Israel after the new state won independence in 1948. See: olim. • all because the lady loves Milk Trays A highly successful trade slogan used in advertising campaigns for Cadbury’s Milk Tray chocolates in the 1970s and 1980s. Television adverts for the prod¬

• 'alf a mo, Kaiser »■ A catchphrase from a British recruiting poster of World War I, depicting a British soldier pausing for a cigarette before re¬ suming the fight. See: Kaiser Bill.

formed various daring feats to deliver a box of

• al-Fatah ► (Arabic, the victoiy) One of the most

20 years.

powerful factions of the PLO. Under its leader Yassir Arafat (1929- ) it organized a guerrilla campaign against Israel from the early 1960s onwards. How¬ ever, it split into factions after Arafat signed a pieace

Rugby Union Football team (so-called from their

uct, featuring a black-clad stuntman who per¬ chocolates to the lady in question, were much par¬ odied but remained substantially unchanged for

• All Blacks s The New Zealand International all-black strip), which first played in England in 1905.

agreement with Israel in 1993.

• alley cats A pejorative term for a person of ei¬ • Alf GarnettSee Garnett, Alf.

ther sex who favours a wild and promiscuous street

• Algeciras Conference ► A conference of Eu¬ ropean powers held in the Spanish port of Algeciras in 1906 to settle the issue of Moroccan sovereignty.

an alley cat’. It was originally a pre-World War II US

France wanted to establish a protectorate over Mo¬ rocco, a move strongly opposed by Germany. Ten¬ sion had been increased in 1905 by a visit to Morocco by Kaiser Wilhelm II. The Conference ended in March, guaranteeing Moroccan indepen¬ dence and ensuring free access for ail nations but giving a spjecial role to France and Spain in policing. However, the issue flared up again in the Agadir

life, used often in the phrase ‘to have the morals of expression, but has been heard in the UK and Aus¬ tralia since the 1960s.

• Allies s 1. Those countries allied against Ger¬ many and the other Central Powers in World War I, notably the UK, France, Italy, Russia, and America. 2. In World War II those 49 nations allied against the Axis states, including the UK and the Com¬ monwealth countries, America, the Soviet Union, China, and France.

Crisis.

• Algerie fran^ise*- (French, Algeria is French) The rallying cry of the colonial French in Algeria who opposed moves to Algerian independence dur¬ ing the 1950s and early 1960s. See also: OAS. • Algonquin Round Tables A group of noted US wits who met regularly to dine and exchange epigrams at New York’s Algonquin Hotel in the in¬ terwar years. They included Dorothy Parker, James

• alligators In Black US jazz slang, a White mu¬ sician, dancer, or fan of jazz music (first heard in the 1930s). See: See you later, alligator. • All Souls' Parish Magazine ► The Times was so nicknamed during the editorship (1923-41) of G. G. Dawson, fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. He and some of his associates, who were also fellows of the college, frequently met there for discussions.

Thurber, Alexander Woollcott, George Kaufman,

• ail systems go ► A catchphrase of the 1960s

and Robert Benchley. On one occasion Dorothy

and 1970s, meaning that everything is ready for

Parker left her place at the Round Table saying ‘Ex¬

imminent action. It derived from its use during

cuse me, I have to go to the bathroom.’ After a pause, she added ‘I really have to telephone, but I’m too embarrassed to say so.’

the launch of US space missions to indicate that all

• Alice blue^ A shade of pale blue named after

the craft’s components were working normally. As interest in space flight waned by the end of the 1970s, so did the use of such phrases. • all-terrain vehicle ► (ATV) A motor-vehicle

Alice Roosevelt Longworth (daughter of Theodore Roosevelt), who was particularly fond of it. Joseph

that is specially designed for rapid transport over

McCarthy wrote a song called ’Alice Blue Gown’.

rough ground. ATVs include such vehicles as dune

In my sweet little Alice blue gown When I first wandered out in the town...

• alien abductions

5ee:flying saucers.

buggies, intended chiefly for recreation: others in¬ clude snowcats and various moon buggies. • all the president's men ► A phrase embody-

• alternative energy •

►*■11

ing the notion of unquestioning loyalty to the US

drove out the Soviet invaders - a role that estab¬

president, originally coined by the politician and diplomat Henry Kissinger (1923- ) in a discussion

lished him as a hero to many Muslims. In 1990-91

of US policy on Cambodia in 1970. It was subse¬

US troops on the sacred soil of Saudi Arabia: it is ap¬

quently used, with a distinct note of irony, as the

parently this ’violation’, rather than the Palestine

title of Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein’s book

situation or US policy in the Gulf, that has chiefly

about their role in exposing the Watergate scandal.

fuelled his anti-Americanism since that time. The

A film with the same name was released in 1976,

al-Qaida organization dates from around 1991,

starring Dustin Hoffman and Robert Redford.

when Bin Laden settled in Sudan and began train¬

• Ally Pally ► A familiar and affectionate name for the Alexandra Palace in north London, which be¬

ing terrorists for his holy war against America. His

came the site of the world’s first television trans¬

servicemen in Yemen (1992), Somalia (1993), and

mitter when it was acquired by the BBC in 1936. It

Saudi Arabia (1995). In 1998, on the eighth an¬

opened in 1863 as a rival to the Crystal Palace but burnt dovm after only 16 days and did not reopen

niversary of US troops landing in Saudi Arabia, the US embassies in Kenya and Tanzania were blown

until 1873; in World War 1 it was used as a bar¬ racks. In 1955 it witnessed the first experiments

up, killing 700 people.

with colour television. It was devastated by another disastrous fire in July 1980, but much of it has been

Laden transferred his operations to Afghanistan,

rebuilt and it now contains a skating rink and a

By this time he had effectively transformed al-Qaida

winter garden.

into a multinational terror business, in which the

• alone ► I want to be alone Catchphrase associated with the Swedish-born US film actress Greta Garbo (Greta Gustafson; 1905-90). She spoke the words in Grand Hotel (1932) and, in conjunction with her aloof beauty and long reclusive retirement (from 1941), they established one of the greatest of all cinema legends. Garbo’s temperament reflected the rain and gloom of the long dark Swedish winters. - Lil¬ lian GISH.

• alone ► You're never alone with a Strand A trade slogan associated with a much-acclaimed but commercially disastrous advertising campaign of

Bin Laden was outraged by the decision to station

trainees were responsible for bomb attacks on US

Having been expelled from Sudan in 1996, Bin where he forged close links with the Taliban regime.

various cells operate rather like franchisees of the parent organization. There appear to be several dis¬ tinct tiers of operative, with Bin Laden himself ex¬ ercising an aloof form of leadership from the centre of the web. His precise role in conceiving and di¬ recting the events of September 11 is therefore hard to pin down. Although the US-led war on terrorism has destroyed al-Qaida’s Afghan Command centre, it is too soon to say that its threat has been neu¬ tralized; cells with al-Qaida links are currently thought to be active in around 40 countries and some experts believe that its international support network remains largely intact. • alternative ► A word used since the late 1960s to describe anything that offers an alternative to

1960. The aim of the campaign, commissioned for

the usual or conventional form of that thing. Al¬

the launch of the cheap new Strand cigarette, was to identify the product with contemporary disaf¬

ternative comedy, alternative energy, alternative

fected youth. Cinema adverts showed a fashionably

this usage.

dressed young man (actor Terence Brook) looking

• alternative energy ► Energy derived from re¬ newable energy sources rather than conventional fi¬

pensive as he drew on his cigarette in a downbeat urban setting. Although widely admired, this

lifestyle, and alternative medicine are examples of

melancholy imagery failed entirely to sell the cig¬

nite mineral resources. Alternative energy sources include hydroelectric power, solar power, wind power,

arette.

tidal power, wave power, geothermal energy, and bio¬

• al-Qaida ► (Arabic, the base) The international

mass energy. Their attraction is that they conserve

terrorist organization created by Osama Bin Laden

resources of fossil fuels, do not involve the dangers

(1957-

of nuclear power, and cause no pollution. Various

) that is presumed to have been responsible

for the extraordinary and atrocious attack on Amer¬

estimates have been given for the time required be¬

ica on September 11 2001. Bin Laden, a Saudi-born multimillionaire, became involved in militant Is¬

fore alternative energy could provide 10% or 20% of

lamic politics in the late 1970s: in 1979 he travelled

hopelessly unrealistic. In 1996 alternative sources,

to Afghanistan, where he helped to finance and or¬

including hydroelectricity, provided only 0.2% of

ganize the mujaheddin resistance that eventually

the UK’s energy requirements.

the UK’s electricity requirements, many of them

1223

ing, which include techniques ranging from provo¬ cation to mutual support, became increasingly pop¬

one of the most lastingly popular of cartoon char¬

ular in the 1970s and 1980s, especially among the business community and women’s groups.

thirds of the French population had read at least one of Asterix’s adventures.

• asset-backed fund ► A fund in which money is invested in stocks and shares, property, works of art, etc., rather than being loaned to a bank to earn

• astrobug ► A sample of bacteria or other mi¬ croscopic organisms that is sent into space for ex¬ perimental purposes.

interest. In the second half of the 20th century in¬

• astrodome ► l. An indoor stadium with a translucent domed roof The first was built in Hous¬

flation was such a dominant influence on com¬ mercial activities that pension (and other) funds needed to be asset-backed in order to keep pace with it.

• asset stripping ► The practice of buying a com¬ pany whose shares are valued at less than their

acters. In 1969 a national survey reported that two-

ton, Texas in 1965, and covers a playing area large enough for baseball and American football. The plastic-panelled dome has a span of 196m (642 ft), has seating for 66,000 people in six tiers, and the in¬ terior is air-conditioned to 23°C. 2. A transparent

asset value (i.e. the total value of a company’s assets

dome on the upper side of an aircraft fuselage

less its liabilities divided by the number of ordi¬ nary shares issued), with the object of selling off the company’s most valuable assets and closing down

through which astronomical or other observations can be made.

the remaining shell or revitalizing its management and selling its shares at a profit. The practice was particularly prevalent in the UK and America in the decade following World War II, when rising property values made the shares of many compa¬ nies look very cheap. Although the asset stripper

• astromonk ► Any one of several monkeys sent into space in the 1950s and 1960s in order to observe the likely effects of such travel upon hu¬ mans. • astronaut ► (Latin, astrum, star; muta, sailor) One who voyages in space. This word, first used in

and his associates may make enormous profits from these deals, many of the employees may lose their

1929, emerged from the realms of science fiction after the first manned spacecraft flight by Major

jobs, the other shareholders may come off badly, and the interests of the suppliers, customers, and creditors may be totally ignored. For these reasons

Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union in April 1961. The first non-Soviet astronaut was the American Alan

asset stripping is now strongly deprecated by gov¬ ernments and company accountants have a re¬

minute space flight in May 1961, 23 days after

sponsibility for seeing that the assets of a business are not undervalued in their accounts.

• Astroturf ► Trademark for a type of artificial playing surface used for football pitches, etc. Such

• Astaire, Fred ► Frederick Austerlitz (18991987), the near-legendary film and stage dancer.

pitches were first introduced in America in the

Although Astaire’s career began inauspiciously with his first audition verdict, ‘Can’t act. Can’t sing.

door ball park in Houston, where the first such

Slightly bald. Can dance a little’, he went on to de¬ light two generations of filmgoers with his effort¬

• Aswan High Dam ► A dam ill m (364 ft) high across the Nile at Aswan, Egypt, financed by the So¬

less and inventive dance routines. Both Balanchine and Nureyev described him as the world’s greatest dancer; the film critic C. A. Lejeune said of him ‘...in his loose legs, his shy grin, or perhaps the anxious diffidence of his manner, he has found the secret of persuading the world.’ hr many of his films he was partnered by the almost equally legendary Ginger Rogers (1911-95).

Bartlett Shepard (1923-98), who completed a 15Gagarin’s flight. See. cosmonaut.

1960s; the name is derived from the Astrodome in¬ pitch was laid.

viet Union and completed in 1970. The creation of its reservoir. Lake Nasser, entailed the resettling of 90,000 Egyptian peasants and Sudanese Nubian no¬ mads as well as the repositioning of the ancient Egyptian Temple of Abu Simbel. The dam allows the annual Nile flood to be controlled for irrigation and to generate prodigious amounts of electricity.

• Ast6rix ► The diminutive Gallic warrior who is

It lies 6.5 km (4 mi) upstream from the earlier Aswan Dam (1902), once one of the largest dams in

the hero of the comic strip adventures originally

the world.

created by Goscinny and Uderzo in 1959. With his

• asylum seekers ► See:

friend Obelix, he has survived multiple translations (the English versions have been much admired), ex¬

DP; economic migrant.

tensive commercialization, and mainly weak imi¬

• Ataturk ► Father of the Turks. A surname adopted in 1934 by Mustapha Kemal (1881-1938),

tations in the cinema and on television, to become

the founder of modern Turkey, when all Turks were

2427

• BA ► US slang for an aggressive person, someone

for a bomb attack on German troops stationed in

with a ‘bad attitude’: a ‘bad ass’. These initials were

Kiev. When the Germans retreated, the site of the

used for the name of the aggressive Black hero B. A.

mass grave was concealed and Babi Yar only came

Barracas, played by Mr T, in the popular TV series The A-Team in the 1980s.

to international attention in 1961 with the publi¬

• Baader-Meinhof gang*- See. Red Army Faction. • Ba'athists ► Members of a radical Arab move¬

cation of a poem of the same name by the ac¬ claimed Soviet poet Yevgeny Yevtushenko. Dmitry Shostakovich subsequently set the poem to music and incorporated it in his 13th symphony (1962);

ment (the Arab Socialist Ba’ath Party) founded in

both artists were reprimanded by the authorities

Damascus in 1943. They advocate the formation of

who were reluctant to draw attention to Jewish vic¬

a single socialist Arab nation and currently hold

tims of the Nazis. A memorial erected on the site in

power in both Syria and Iraq (although the Syrian

1966 omitted any acknowledgment of the Jews

and Iraqi wings have been divided since the 1970s). The Arabic word Ba'ath means ‘renaissance’.

killed there.

• Babar the Elephant ► The main character in a series of illustrated children’s books created in 1931 by the French writer and illustrator Jean de

• babushkaphobia ► A modern woman’s aver¬ sion to the traditional role of grandmother (Russian babushka, grandmother). It reflects the view held by

Brunhoff(d. 1937). Babar rules over a luscious tropi¬

increasing numbers of women who, having raised a family, wish to re-establish careers and enjoy their

cal kingdom with the help of his queen consort.

independence free from the constraints of baby-

Celeste, and his friend the Little Old Lady. His capi¬

minding and child-rearing.

tal is at Celesteville. The books have been trans¬ lated into English and many other languages.

• baby Austin ► The nickname for a small sevenhorsepower family car (the Austin 7), first pro¬

• Babbitt ► The leading character in Sinclair

duced in 1921 by the British engineer and

Lewis’s novel of this name (1922). He is a prosperous

industrialist Herbert Austin (later Baron Austin;

realtor in the western city of Zenith, a simple like¬

1866-1941) at his Longbridge works in Birming¬

able fellow with faint aspirations to culture that are

ham. Following the lead of Henry Ford in America,

forever smothered in the futile bustle of US busi¬

the Austin 7 was the first mass-produced car to be

ness life. Drive (which takes him nowhere), hustle

manufactured in Europe and greatly influenced

(by which he saves no time), and efficiency (which does not enable him to do anything) are the

British light-car design. See also: Tin Lizzie.

keynotes of his life. The name is sometimes used to typify the businessman of orthodox outlook and

• baby battering ► See. child abuse. • Baby Bell >- 5ee: Ma Bell.

virtues, with corresponding limitations. See also:

• baby boom ► An increase in the birth rate, es¬

Main Street.

pecially the sharp increase in Europe and America

• Babe ► Nickname of George Herman Ruth

after World War II, when servicemen returned to

(1895-1948), US professional baseball player. He

their wives. The children born in this period, who

earned the name in his first team, which he joined

came to maturity during the upheavals of the 1960s

when he was only 19. He was also called the Bam¬

and now occupy many positions of power and in¬

bino by his fans of Italian origin. See also: Murder¬

fluence, are often known as the baby boomers.

ers' Row.

• baby bust ► A sudden marked decline in the

• Babi Yar ► A ravine N of Kiev in Ukraine, which

birthrate; a 1980s colloquial term modelled on baby

in World War II became the site of a mass grave for

boom. The post-World War II baby boom was fol¬

over 100,000 victims of German exterminations.

lowed in Western countries by a fall in the

Most of the victims, killed between 1941 and 1943,

birthrate, which began in the mid-1960s. The ad¬

were Jews (see: holocaust) who were unjustly blamed

verse economic and social implications of this trend

baby in a microwave

28^

include an overall shift in the age structure of so¬ ciety, a declining workforce, and a potential re¬

anonymous workers. The phrase comes from a speech by Lord Beaverbrook on war production (24

duction in consumer markets.

March 1941): ‘To whom must praise be given...to the boys in the backroom.’ Beaverbrook no doubt re¬ called Marlene Dietrich’s song ‘See What the Boys in the Backroom Will Have’, ft om the film Destry Rides

• baby in a microwave*-

See urban legends.

• baby-kisser*- A politician, so called from the 1940s onwards for the ubiquitous photographs seen

Again (1939). Nigel Balchin provided a further trib¬

during election campaigns of politicians making the acquaintance of various younger members of

(1943).

their constituencies in the belief that this will help endear them to the voting public.

• Babylon *■ l. Slang for mainstream White soci¬ ety, seen as racist, corrupt, and oppressive. Origi¬ nally the word, with all its biblical connotations, was used by the Rastafarians but its use has spread to White youths also through the widespread pop¬ ularity of reggae music. 2. The Babylon The police force, seen as the instrument of authority in a racist society. A more specific application of sense 1 above.

• baby-sitting ► l. Staying with someone to make sure they come to no harm while they are taking mind-altering drugs, particularly hallucinogens. 2. A journalistic term for guarding an informant in order to prevent other journalists from picking up the story. • backdoor man*-1. US expression for a secret lover, particularly a married woman’s secret lover, which came originally from Black slang of the 1950s. It implies that the lover leaves by the back door as the husband arrives home at the front door. ‘Back Door Man’ is a well-known blues song recorded by The Doors in 1968. 2. A heterosexual man who practises anal intercourse. 3. Australian slang for a homosexual. • back end ► A late stage in the processing of nu¬ clear fuel in which used fuel is separated into re¬ cyclable uranium and plutonium and radioactive waste. The phrase has since been applied to the final stage of any project (especially in a financial context). • Backfire bomber *- A NATO codename assigned to the Soviet-made Tupolev V-G swing-wing longrange bomber that was first deployed in the 1970s. • backpacking *- Travelling cheaply with one’s clothes, sleeping bag, tent, and sometimes food car¬ ried in a rucksack or other large pack (backpack). Backpackers are often students taking a gap year or travelling during their summer vacation. Some travel alone, while others go in small groups.

ute to these workers in his novel The Small Back Room • backstage ► Tlie area behind or away from the stage in a theatre, including the wings, the dress¬ ing-rooms, etc. A ‘backstage’ film or stage show (often a musical) is one based upon life backstage. • backs to the wall ► On the defensive against heavy odds. Someone beset with foes tries to get his back against a wall to prevent attack from behind. Every position must be held to the last man: there must be no retirement. With our backs to the wall, and believing in the justice of our cause, each of us must fight on to the end. - DOUGLAS HAIG, Ordering his troops to resist a German attack in World War I. The phrase is sometimes used as a jocular warning that one is in the presence of a homosexual. • back to basics *- Back to first principles; a phrase first heard in the 1950s. It was adopted as a slogan by the Conservative government of John Major in the mid-1990s, to indicate their approval of a return to old-fashioned moral values. However, the campaign was fatally undermined by a series of sexual and financial scandals affecting the Con¬ servative Party and the phrase quickly became a laughing stock (see. sleaze). • back to square one *- Back to the starting point. The phrase was popularized by early radio commentaries on football matches; in order to make the game easier to follow, a diagram of the pitch, divided into numbered squares, was provided for listeners. • back to the drawing board ► A phrase in¬ dicating that it is necessary to rethink the whole de¬ sign or concept. Probably first used by aircraft designers when a plan was shown to be faulty and had to be rethought. • backward masking ► In music recording, a technique for incorporating a hidden message in a song so that it can only be made out when the track is played backwards. Rock groups have sometimes included such messages (often ribald) as a joke or a gimmick. The issue hit the headlines in the 1980s.

• backroom boys *- The unpublicized scientists

when Christian fundamentalists in America began

and technicians in World War II, who contributed so much to the development of scientific warfare.

to claim that rock groups were using tlie technique to smuggle Satanic messages into their songs. Al¬

The term has since been applied generally to any

though the supposed messages would be unintelli-

• Bakelite

m-29

gible to anyone not in the habit of playing their

known to European Jews, and were traditionally

records backwards, campaigners argued that they

served with hard-boiled eggs after a funeral, their

could still have a ‘subliminal’ effect. The British

association with lox and New York Jews began in

rock group Judas Priest was unsuccessfully sued

the 20th century.

after two fans committed suicide while listening to an album that allegedly contained such messages. • bacteriophobia ► An unreasoning fear of bac¬ teria. Sufferers are obsessed with avoiding ‘dirt’ of any kind and wash themselves frequently. This is often interpreted as evidence of a guilt complex and is sometimes called the Lady Macbeth s)mdrome, in reference to that character’s obsessive hand washing in Shakespeare’s play.

• baggies »■ US surfing jargon dating from the 1960s for the wide long shorts worn by surfers.

• Baghdad Pact ► A treaty for military and eco¬ nomic cooperation originally signed in 1955 be¬ tween Iraq and Turkey. It was later joined by Iran, Pakistan, and the UK. In 1959 Iraq withdrew, Amer¬ ica became an associate member, and the or¬ ganization was renamed the Central Treaty

• bad ► Good, excellent. Originally associated with

Organization (CENTO). After the fall of tlte Shah of Iran in 1979, Iran withdrew from the pact and the

Black US jazz musicians in the 1950s, it became

organization was dissolved.

widely used by the young in the 1970s and 1980s.

• bag lady ► A female tramp, a vagrant, charac¬ terized by the assortment of plastic carrier bags

Bad in this sense is usually pronounced ‘b-a-a-d’. The superlative form is baddest. See also: wicked. She had on a little black cocktail number and the baddest suede, pointy, red shoes you ever saw. - BEN ELTON, Stark (1989). • Badminton horse trials ►A competition held annually in April in the park of Badminton House, the seat of the dukes of Beaufort in Avon. It is a three-day event consisting of a dressage stage, a speed and endurance stage over steeplechase and cross-country courses, and a showjumping stage on the final day. The trials were started in 1952. • bad news ► A difficult or disliked person. Orig¬ inally a US expression, it has been used in the UK since the 1960s. • Baedeker Raids »■ A phrase used in Britain to describe the German air attacks on 29 April 1942. These were deliberately targeted on historic towns, such as those listed in the Baedeker series of guide¬ books for tourists (e.g. Bath, Canterbury, Norwich). • Bafta awards ► Awards presented annually to the film and TV industry by the British Association of Film and Television Arts. The Association was created in 1959 from the earlier British Film Acad¬

that contain her worldly possessions. The eu¬ phemism originated in the 1970s in America but is now used in the UK and elsewhere; it has also come to be used to describe any very untidy unkempt woman. • bag man ► l. A US underworld expression of the 1920s and 1930s for the man sent by the big gang¬ sters to collect extortion pa5nnents. 2. A male tramp, a vagrant, characterized by his assortment of plas¬ tic carrier bags. • bagpipe ► l. us slang dating from the 1940s for a vacuum cleaner. 2. To indulge in sexual activity in¬ volving stimulation of the male genitals by the armpit. • bag system ► A public welfare scheme pro¬ moted in Australia during the Great Depression. Under its terms the unemployed were given a bag of essential groceries on each dole day. • Bahasa Indonesian (Malay bahasa, language) A form of Malay widely used as a trade language in SE Asia and adopted as the official language of In¬ donesia in 1972.

emy (founded 1946).

• Bailey bridge ► In World War II a metal bridge

• bag ► A person’s particular taste, area of interest

of great strength made of easily portable sections

or expertise. This sense originated in US jazz slang, where it usually referred to a musician’s personal style of playing, e.g. ‘playing in a big band was not his bag’. • bagel ► Tire Yiddish name for a hard round roll, simmered in hot water before baking and then glazed with egg white. They are eaten with lox and cream cheese, especially by Jews in New York City. The Yiddish word is derived from the German Beugel, a round loaf Although bagels were well

and capable of speedy erection. It was invented by the British engineer D. C. Bailey. Bailey bridges were a major factor in enabling the Allies to advance so rapidly in NW Europe, where many brick bridges had been destroyed by the retreating Germans. • bait and switch ► An advertising ploy in which a customer is first lured by a cheap product and then persuaded to buy a more expensive product that has obviously superior features. •

Bakelite ► The tradename for a phenol-

30^

Baker Street Irregulars

formaldehyde resin invented in 1908 by Leo Baeke¬

tained, as should those of Jewish residents in other

land (1863-1944), a US chemist of Belgian birth.

countries. The declaration was repudiated by the

While searching for a substitute for shellac, which

British Government in 1939. See also: McMahon let¬

was then being used for making records for the

ters; Sykes-Picot agreement.

emerging gramophone industry, he investigated the phenol-formaldehyde resins that had been dis¬ covered in 1871 by Karl Baeyer. By choosing appro¬ priate formulation and reaction conditions he discovered a hard resin that could be both cast and machined and had unusually good electrical prop¬ erties. The result, patented under the name Bakelite, formed the basis of the vast plastics industry. Shellac, however, continued to be used for 78 rpm records, until the advent of extended-play (45 rpm) and long-playing (33 rpm) records in the 1950s, which were both made from vinyl plastics.

• Baker Street Irregulars ►The group of young boys that Sherlock Holmes used to gain informa¬ tion about London’s underworld in the novels of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (1859-1930). Holmes’s rooms were at 221b Baker Street. The name was later taken

• Balfour's Poodles The House of Lords. From 1906 Arthur Balfour, the Conservative leader, ex¬ ploited his party’s majority in the House of Lords to block the legislation of the Liberal government, which had an overwhelming majority in the Com¬ mons. When the Lords rejected the Licensing Bill of 1908, Henry Chaplin MP claimed that the House of Lords was the ‘watchdog of the constitution’, to which Lloyd George replied, ‘You mean it is Mr Bal¬ four’s poodle! It fetches and carries for him. It barks for him. It bites anybody that he sets it on to!’ See also: People's Budget; Veto Bill.

• Balkan League ► A military alliance formed (1912) between Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, and Mon¬ tenegro to wage war against Turkey. See: Balkan Wars.

by a US appreciation society dedicated to stud}dng

• Balkan Pact^ A military treaty (1954) between

the Holmes novels. It was also used by the Special

Greece, Turkey, and Yugoslavia. Although it was

Operations Executive (SOE) - the British secret-

never formally cancelled, the three members later

service organization set up (1940) during World

quietly forgot its existence.

War II to train agents working in occupied territo¬ ries. The SOE took the name because its original headquarters were in Baker Street.

• Balkan Wars ► Two military conflicts occurring shortly before World War I in the Balkans. The first (1912-13) was between the members of the Balkan

• balance of terror ► The role of nuclear

League and the Ottoman Empire. The Empire was

weapons in maintaining stable international rela¬

forced to give up most of its European territories.

tions during the Cold War. The phrase is a refine¬

The second Balkan War was between members of

ment of the more traditional ‘balance of power’. See

the Balkan League - Bulgaria was defeated by Ser¬

also-. MAD.

bia, Greece, and Romania in a quarrel about the dis¬

• Balearic ► A form of dance music that became

tribution of territory gained in Macedonia during

popular in the 1980s. Its name was derived from the

the first war. At the same time, the Turks regained

Balearic Islands (especially Majorca and Minorca

part of Thrace.

and Ibiza), popular with British holiday-makers, where there are numerous clubs and discos.

• Balenciaga ► The Spanish fashion house founded by Cristobal Balenciaga (1895-1972). Its

• Ballets Russes ► The enormously influential ballet company founded in Paris in 1909 by Sergei Diaghilev (1872-1929). It acquired almost legendary status under the choreographers Fokine, Massine,

style of elegant suits and evening dresses was enor¬

Balanchine, and Nijinsky before it was finally dis¬

mously popular in the 1950s but fell from fashion

banded on Diaghilev’s death.

in the more informal 1960s. • Balfour declaration ► A statement made by the British Conservative statesman Arthur Balfour (1848-1930) in 1917 (when he was foreign secretary) regarding the establishment of a national Jewish state in Palestine. The promise to support the set¬ ting up of such a state was made in a letter from

• Ballinspittle^

5ee; Our Lady of Balllnsplttle.

• balloons when the balloon goes up When trouble breaks out. The phrase was first used in World War I, referring to the launching of observation bal¬ loons shortly before an attack.

schild (2nd Baron Rothschild; 1868-1937), and was

• balloon angioplasty ► A surgical procedure in which a blocked coronary artery (which supplies

conditional on the idea that the rights of existing

blood to the heart) is stretched by inserting into it

non-Jewish residents in Palestine should be main¬

a plastic cylinder (‘balloon’), which is then inflated.

Balfour to the Zionist leader Lionel Walter Roth¬

• bananas

m>31

In some cases a stent (splint) is left in the artery to keep it open.

character has become a symbol of gentle wide-eyed

• balloon astronomy ► The use of special bal¬

and his rather ingenuous air, Tony Blair was often

loons carrying sophisticated cameras and other sci¬

nicknamed Bambi in his earlier years as Labour Party leader.

entific equipment to observe astronomical features from high altitudes, where the earth’s atmosphere is very thin. • balloon cloth ► A type of cloth first used in hot¬ air balloons and dirigibles, but later adapted for use in the clothing industry. • balloon pump ► A pump used in heart surgery to imitate the pulsating action of the heart, first used in the 1960s. • ballpark figure ► An estimate, usually of a fi¬ nancial quantity, upon which no great reliance should be put. It comes from the slightly older phrase ‘in the same ballpark’ meaning that two fig¬

innocence. Owing to a slight facial resemblance

• Bambi Projects AUS defence project involving the use of orbital satellites armed with missiles to intercept intercontinental ballistic missiles at take¬ off The project was suspended in 1964, but was a forerunner of the Star Wars programme.

• Bamboo Curtain ► Especially in the 1950s and 1960s, the veil of secrecy and mistrust between Communist China and the non-Communist na¬ tions. It was named by analogy with the Iron Curtain. See also: Garlic Wall; Tortilla Curtain.

• Banaban ► A native of Ocean Island in the SW Pacific. In the late 1970s inhabitants of the island

ures are roughly of the same magnitude. In Amer¬ ica a ballpark is a large stadium in which baseball

engaged in a lengthy battle for compensation from

is played.

home during extensive mining for phosphates (1900-79). The process culminated in the Banabans

• balls ► Testicles. The word has acquired two slang meanings on both sides of the Atlantic. ‘Don’t talk balls’ means ‘don’t talk rubbish’; balls as a single expletive also means ‘Rubbish, I don’t agree’. On the other hand ‘He doesn’t have the balls for it’ means

the British government for damage done to their

resettlement on Rabi Island in Fiji during World War n. They were finally awarded £5 million. • banana ► l. A fool. This now obsolete British

‘He doesn’t have the courage’. The term balls-up,

sense is still sometimes heard in the shortened form ‘nana’, used among children as a mild insult.

used for something that has gone hopelessly atviy,

2. British slang meaning penis. 3. US slang for a

was first heard in the 1930s.

light-skinned Black woman. Used by Black men, it can be either appreciative or derogatory.

• ballyhoo ► A fuss, cacophony of raised voices, etc. hi the film industry the word (Irish in origin) ac¬ quired the more specialized sense of promotional publicity for a film {see also: hype). • Balt ► Australian slang of the 1950s for a new Australian, an immigrant. The term was originally limited to immigrants from the Baltic States, but later more widely applied. See: reffo.

• banana belt ► An area in North America that is popular for winter holidays owing to its mild cli¬ mate (warm enough for bananas to be grown). The term used of other similar regions.

• banana boat ► See:

come over with the onion

boat.

• banana republics Any state that is depen¬ dent on one particular agricultural product, such as

• Baltic Exchange ► A market in the City of Lon¬ don for buying and selling freight space for goods to be transported by sea or air. It also deals in char¬

bananas. Usually applied to the nations of South America or Africa, the phrase has overtones of bu¬

tering ships and aircraft. The market formerly dealt

reaucratic inefficiency, impoverishment, and easily

in some commodities - grain, potatoes, and meat -

bribed leaders. Bananas (1971) was a Woody Allen

but this came to an end after an IRA bomb caused severe damage to the building in 1992. These com¬

comedy film about such a state.

modities have since been dealt with at the London Commodity Exchange. Forward freight is dealt with by the Baltic International Freight Futures Ex¬

• Bananas, Joe^ See: Joe

Bananas.

• bananas► Yes, we have no bananas A nonsensical

change (BIFFEX). The name comes from the fact that in the 18th century most of its business in¬

catchphrase of the 1920s. It was taken from the

volved trade in grain through Baltic ports.

Cohn.

• Bambi ► A young deer, the eponytmous star of a feature-length Walt Disney cartoon film (1942) based on the novel by Felix Salten (1869-1945). The

chorus of a song (1923) by Frank Silver and Irving I would rather have been the Author of that Banana Masterpiece than the Author of the Constitution of the United States. No one has offered any amendments to it. It’s the only

band-aid

32-m

thing ever written in America that we haven’t

by London mods {see. mods and rockers) and skin¬

changed, most of them for the worst. - will

heads in the late 1960s.

ROGERS, The Illiterate Digest (1924).

The phrase was revived in the UK during World War II. when bananas disappeared completely from the shops. At the end of the war there were 5-yearold children who had never seen a real banana. • band-aid ► To fix something on a temporary

• bang ► l. To have sex. A widely used slang word since the 1960s but more common in the UK and Australia than in America, bang like a shithouse door (in a gale) is a colourful Australian expression meaning to be an enthusiastic sexual partner. It was popularized by the cartoon strip Barry McKenzie

basis, from the tradename for an adhesive plaster.

(by Barry Humphries) in the magazine Private Eye in

In 1984 the name Band Aid was adopted by the or¬

the 1960s. See also: gang-bang. 2. US slang for a big

ganizers of a fundraising effort launched by the

thrill. 3. A drug abuser’s term, dating from the

pop music community to help the starving in

1940s, for an injection of illegal drugs, particularly

Ethiopia and Sudan; the pun reflects what they ob¬

heroin or morphine.

viously considered an inadequate response to a se¬ rious problem. Nevertheless, their recording of‘Do They Know It’s Christmas’ became the UK’s biggestselling single to that date, raising about £8 million. This success inspired several similar campaigns, in¬ cluding the Comic Relief events, in which leading comedians urge the public to support worthy causes by buying red plastic noses, etc. See also: Live

• bangers l. British slang for a sausage, current since the 1940s and, supposedly deriving from the noise of the sausage skin popping while it cooks. Bangers and mash (sausages and mashed potato) is a favourite British dish, especially when served with onion gravy, although no one would claim that it is an example of British haute cuisine. 2. An af¬ fectionate term for an old decrepit car.

Aid; telethon. • B and D ► A British and Australian slang ex¬ pression meaning bondage and discipline, used by prostitutes to describe the services that they offer.

• banjo'd or banjoed ► l. British slang meaning completely drunk or stoned. Used mainly by young people in the 1980s, it is probably a corruption of ‘banjaxed’, an Irish word meaning totally overcome.

• B and K ► The Soviet statesmen Nicolai Bul¬

2. An army expression of the 1970s and 1980s for de¬

ganin

Khrushchev

feated, again probably related to ‘banjaxed’. There

(1894-1971). It was used in newspapers during their

may also be a connection with an archaic slang

visit to the UK in 1956. At the time, Bulganin was

usage of banjo meaning a shovel or weapon.

(1895-1975)

and

Nikita

the Soviet prime minister and Khrushchev, who subsequently ousted Bulganin, was the first secre¬ tary of the Communist Party. • Bandung Conference ► A conference (1955) attended by 29 African and Asian states at the city of Bandung in West Java, Indonesia. A strong stance against colonialism was taken and a policy of non-

• bankable ► Any project or person thought likely to prove financially profitable, applied chiefly to film stars and other celebrities since the 1960s. • Bankers' Ramp ► An alleged conspiracy by British bankers (1931) to discredit the Labour gov¬ ernment of the time by undermining the economy.

alignment between the Western and Communist

• Ban the bomb! ► Slogan adopted by CND in the

blocs agreed.

late 1950s.

• bandwidth ► A US expression of the 1990s

• Bantustan ► Formerly an area in South Africa

meaning the extent of one’s capacity to absorb new

set aside by the government for Blacks, who were al¬

information. In 1993 Bill Gates, the founder of

lowed limited self-government. The first of these

Microsoft, was described by an admirer as having

areas (also called Bantu Homelands) to be created

‘the biggest bandwidth I’ve ever come across’. It de¬

was Transkei in 1963. The name came from com¬

rives from the use of the same term in computer

bining ‘Bantu’, the indigenous people inhabiting

systems to mean the amount of data that can be

the area, with ‘-stan’, from Pakistan (taken as an ex¬

transmitted within a certain time. In analogue com¬

ample of a state formed from an existing state). The

munications systems, such as radio, the bandwidth

Bantu Homelands were reintegrated into South

is the range of frequencies available on a particular

Africa following the multiracial elections in April

channel.

1994.

• bandy ► A British working49

ities, which therefore escapes taxation, or money

the previous Friday. The first Wall Street Crash oc¬

earned but not disclosed by those claiming state benefits. The black economy is believed to be very

curred on Monday 28 October 1929, when the 13%

large in most societies, although by its nature it is

the Great Depression of the 1930s. The second Black Monday occurred on 19 October 1987, when the

unmeasurable. • black flag ► l. In World War II, submarines, sometimes hoisted a black flag on returning to

knocked off the Dow Jones Industrial Average led to

Dow Jones Average fell by an alarming 23%. Al¬ though Wall Street’s collapse in both cases trig¬ gered falls in stock-market prices throughout the

base, to indicate a ‘kill’. 2. In motor-racing, the showing of a black flag signals to a driver that he

world, in the 1987 crash careful management of

must quit the race, usually for some serious in¬

international finances managed to avoid a serious

fringement of the rules.

slump and prices gradually recovered.

• Black Fridays 15 April 1921 was Black Friday for the British Labour Movement, this being the day on which the threatened General Strike was can¬ celled. 5ee also: Red Friday. • Black Hand ► l. The popular name of the Slav secret society largely responsible for contriving the assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand on 28 June 1914 (see. Sarajevo assassination). This was the event that precipitated World War I. 2. A criminal society, once active in New York, largely made up of Italians. • black hole ► A hypothetical object in space that

• Black Muslims ► A popular name for the Na¬ tion of Islam, a Black US sect noted for its fierce racial ideology. The movement dates from about 1930 when Wallace Fard Muhammed, acclaimed by his followers as the incarnate Allah, built a mosque in Detroit (he disappeared shortly after¬ wards in mysterious circumstances). Under Fard’s successor, Elijah Muhammed, the sect developed a doctrine of racial separation, preaching that 'White society was the creation of devils and doomed to im¬ minent destruction. The Black Muslims came to national prominence in the 1960s, owing mainly to their charismatic spokesman Malcolm X and the re¬

is believed to result from the gravitational collapse of a massive star at the end of its life, first postu¬ lated by the German astronomer Karl Schwarzchild

cruitment of such figures as the boxer Cassius Clay

(1873-1916) in 1916. Because the escape velocity from the object is equal to the speed of light, no ra¬ diation can escape from it and what goes on inside its boundary, called its event horizon, is theoreti¬

beliefs, merging eventually with the Islamic main¬ stream; the other, led by Louis Farrakhan, contin¬

cally unknowable. No black hole has been identi¬ fied, although it has been postulated that they are the power sources of quasars.

(Muhammed Ali). In the 1970s and 1980s the move¬ ment split: one faction repudiated its more extreme

ued to maintain the sect’s doctrines.

• black-out ► 1. Originally, a period in the thea¬ tre when the whole stage is in darkness. This usage dates from the 1920s. 2. A World War II air-raid pre¬ caution. From the outbreak of war against Germany

• Black is beautiful ► Slogan adopted in the 1960s by supporters of Black civil rights in America in an attempt to improve the negative self-image

(3 September 1939) until 23 April 1945 (coastal

and low self-confidence of many Blacks. The slogan

dark so that no gleam of light could be seen from

was coined by Stokely Carmichael in 1966 and taken

outside. Moving vehicles were only allowed to use masked lights. 3. A complete loss of consciousness.

up by Martin Luther King the following year.

• black knights See: white knight. • black market ► In World War II, illicit dealing in rationed goods; subsequently used of any illegal dealing. See: under the counter.

areas, 11 May), it was obligatory throughout Great Britain to cover all windows, skylights, etc., before

• Black Panther ► l. The name given by the pop¬ ular press to the British murderer Donald Neilson. After a nine-month search he was caught and con¬ victed of the murder of Lesley 'Whittle and three sub-post office officials in 1975. The name reflects

• black mist^ (Japanese kuro kiri) Translation of a Japanese term denoting corruption in business or

his use of a black hood to conceal his identity. 1. A member of a US Black militant organization of the

politics. Several major scandals of this nature have disrupted Japanese life since the 1960s; the black

late 1960s, notorious for such demands as the re¬

mist referred to is the usual attempt made to dis¬

staging a series of shootouts with the police. The

guise such corruption.

name seems to have arisen from the panther sym¬

• Black Mondays Either of the two Mondays in

bol used by a group of Black Power candidates who

the 20th century on which the New York Stock Ex¬ change opened very considerably below its level on

fought elections in Alabama in 1966. A Black Pan¬

lease of all Black prisoners from US gaols and for

ther Party emerged in California the following year

50^

Blackpool illuminations

under the leadership of Huey Newton and Eldridge Cleaver, preaching total separation from White so¬ ciety and urging Blacks to take up arms in ‘self de

• Black Wednesday ► Wednesday 16 Septem¬ ber 1992, when sterling was forced out of the Ex¬ change Rate Mechanism (see: European Monetary

fence’. By the 1970s the movement had been seriously weakened by internal rifts and the arrest,

System), leading to a 15% fall in its value against the

defection, or death of its leading members.

chequer, Norman Lamont, who had declared that any devaluation would be over his dead body, and the prime minister, John Major, who described any

• Blackpool illuminations »-The annual dis¬ play of elaborate decorative street lighting that stretches for over 9 km (6 mi) along the front at Blackpool. The lights go on in the autumn and ex¬ tend the ‘season’ by several weeks, attracting many thousands of visitors to the town. They were first erected in 1912 for a visit by Queen Victoria’s daugh¬ ter Princess Louise and (with a break during World War II) became an annual event from 1925.

• Black Power ► A slogan first used by the US Black leader Stokely Carmichael in about 1966. The phrase implies a rejection of both integration as a political goal and of the pacifism of the civil rights movement led by Martin Luther King.

• Black September ► A Palestinian terrorist group founded in 1972. It was named in commem¬ oration of the Jordanian expulsion of Palestinians in September 1970. The seizure of Israeli athletes (and the subsequent killing of most of them) during the Olympic Games of 1972 was staged by the group, as were various sky-jackings and assassina¬ tions.

• BlackshirtsMussolini’s Italian Fascists, named after the distinguishing garments they wore. Sim¬ ilar shirts were adopted by the British Union of Fas¬ cists under Sir Oswald Mosley (see. Mosleyites). Also a name for the German SS, led by Himmler. See. Fascism.

• Black Sox scandal ► A notorious bribery scan¬ dal that shook the US baseball world in 1920. Mem¬ bers of the Chicago White Sox team had been bribed to ‘throw’ a game in the 1919 World Series. At the subsequent trial the accused players were acquitted due to lack of evidence. However, the newly ap¬ pointed first commissioner of baseball realized the threat to the sport’s reputation and banned those involved from baseball for life. When news of the scandal first broke, supporters were stunned. One small boy approached his favourite star and tear¬ fully begged him to say it ain’t so, Joe. His words, one of the best known quotations in baseball his¬ tory, are now used ironically in other situations in which a hero is suspected of having done some¬ thing awful.

• black spot ► A stretch of road notorious for fre¬

Deutschmark. The then chancellor of the ex¬

devaluation of sterling as ‘a betrayal of our future’, were both called upon to resign. Neither did so, but some nine months later Major sacked Lamont.

• blag ► 1. British slang meaning to rob, or a rob¬ bery. A familiar expression since the 1970s from its use in TV crime dramas. 2. To scrounge, or the spoils from scrounging. The derivation of both these meanings is obscure. • Blairism»- The political ideas and policies asso¬ ciated with Tony Blair (1953- ), prime minister of the UK (1997- ), or his supporters, the soular with children in the late 1980s.

• BO ►

Sec body odour.

picnics, and boating parties (hence the name). It is the established headgear of pupils at Harrow School and was formerly much favoured by butchers and fishmongers. • boat people ► Refugees from Vietnam who, fol¬ lowing the Chinese invasion (February-March 1979), escaped the country in small, often unsea¬ worthy, boats across the South China Sea. Many died in the attempt, and those that did survive had difficulties in finding a country that would give them asylum. In the late 1980s increasingly large numbers of boat people, fleeing from the Commu¬ nist regime in Vietnam, arrived in Hong Kong, where the authorities detained them in large squalid camps. The British government authorized the first forcible repatriations in 1989. In 1992 Britain signed an agreement with Vietnam to re¬ turn all the boat people. • bob ► A short haircut, popular among fashion¬ able young women of the 1920s, particularly after the British actress Beatrice Lillie (1898-1989) had her hair cut this way. Variants of the style included the Irene Castle bob (Irene Castle was a popular dancer of the period).

• Bob-a-Job-Week ► An imaginative way of rais¬ ing funds by self-help, instituted by the Boy Scouts in 1949. All kinds of jobs were undertaken, some for their publicity value, for the payment of one shilling (a ‘bob’). It became an annual effort but with the declining value of the ‘bob’ and the advent of decimal currency, Scout job Week took its place in 1972. • bobby-sox ► Long white cotton socks or ankle socks worn by teenage girls in America in the early 1940s. Hence the name for the young females them¬

• Boanerges ► The nickname given by the ad¬ venturer and writer T. E. Lawrence (sec Lawrence of Arabia) to the Brough Superior motorbike on which

selves, bobby-soxers.

he was killed in an accident on a Dorset road in 1935. The name, meaning ‘sons of thunder’, was taken from the biblical tale of James and John, the

comedian (1903-

sons of Zebedee, who wanted to call dovm ‘fire from heaven’ to consume the Samaritans for not ‘re¬ ceiving’ the Lord Jesus (Luke 9:54; Mark 3:17).

self-consciously dropped ‘H’.

Lawrence’s motorbike was little damaged and is still extant and in working order. The vintage car that serves as the mascot of the engineering de¬ partment of the Imperial College of Science, Tech¬ nology and Medicine is also called Boanerges. • boater ► A flat-topped shallow-crowned straw hat, usually trimmed with a band of ribbon, popu¬

• Bob Hope ► Dope, i.e. cannabis. This British slang term using the name of the British-born US ) was probably coined by middle-

class cannabis users in imitation of Cockney rhyming slang and is therefore pronounced with a • Boche ► Derogatory term for a German or (in the phrase ‘the Boche’) Germans collectively. It was used in both world wars to mean the German armed forces. It comes from the French word alboche, which is probably a blend of allemand (Ger¬ man) and caboche (pate, head). • bodgie ► Australian slang of the 1950s for an un¬ couth or delinquent youth.

lar in late-Victorian and Edwardian England and

• body art ► 1. The practice of decorating the

still seen until the early 1930s at cricket matches,

human body with painted designs, tattoos, and

Bogart

►►57

piercings, etc. 2. An artistic genre of the 1970s in which the artist used his or her own body as the

• body scanner ► Any of several pieces of medical equipment that reveal the internal structure of the

means of expression. It often involved an element of self-inflicted pain or physical endurance.

body and are widely used in diagnosis. The term

• body bag ► A plastic or rubber container with

mously with the CT scanner (originally called a ‘CAT

a zip fastener, used to transport a corpse. Body bags first attracted public attention during the Vietnam

scanner’); since then it has been used, together with body scan and body scanning, in connection

War, when tens of thousands of young US service¬

with several other techniques, including the ultra¬

men were sent home in body bags.

sound scanner, used especially to monitor preg¬

• body building ► A system of diet and exercise

was coined in the 1970s, when it was used synony¬

nancy; and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI),

designed to increase muscle size. Tlte ‘sport’ devel¬ oped before World War II; in competitive body¬

utilizing the phenomenon of nuclear magnetic res¬ onance. The advantage of all these techniques over conventional X-ray examination is that they can

building men compete for such titles as ‘Mr Universe’. Women also compete for similar titles. Doubts have been expressed by medical organiza¬

‘scan’ the soft tissues, producing images in differ¬ ent planes of the body. See also: brain scanner.

tions about the wisdom of adopting these punish¬ ing regimes, which sometimes include the taking of anabolic steroids.

• body shop ► The job centre, the employment agency. It is used in America and the UK and re¬ flects the depersonalized atmosphere in such

• body count ► l. Tlie number of dead in a mili¬

places. In the UK it is an ironic contrast to the Body Shop chain of stores, which sell environmentally

tary operation or other incident. 2. The number of people present at a particular event or location.

friendly cosmetics and toiletries.

• body language ► The bodily movements or postures by which non-verbal information is con¬ veyed from one person to another. Many circum¬ stances in human relationships depend on the appropriate body language, to express support, agreement, attraction, or love on the one hand or disagreement, contempt, indifference, or hatred on the other. Body language has its own eloquence - which may be intentional or, more often, com¬ pletely unconscious. Because it is difficult to fake convincingly, body language can often be a more re¬ liable indication of someone’s real feelings than their words. Although peoples of different ethnic origins may put differing interpretations on some specific gestures, in general body language is in¬ ternational. • body line ► In cricket, fast bowling at the bats¬ man rather than the wicket, with the intention of forcing him to give a catch while defending himself The accurate but dangerous bowling of Harold Lar¬ wood (1904-95) in the infamous Body Line Tour of 1932-33 won the Ashes for England, but roused a storm of indignation in Australia that led to a mod¬ ification in the laws of cricket. See also: bouncer. • body odour ► (BO) Any offensive body smell, but chiefly that caused by stale sweat. The phrase was coined in a US publicity campaign for Lifebuoy soap (1933), designed to make people insecure

• Boer Wars or South African Wars ► The two wars (1880-81 and 1899-1902) in which the Boers of the Transvaal challenged British rule in South Africa. The first war resulted in the Transvaal re¬ gaining its independence; the second ended in the re-establishment of British supremacy. The Second Boer War saw the humiliation of the British Army by Boer guerrillas on several occasions and British victory was only secured by harsh measures, in¬ cluding the confinement of Boer women and chil¬ dren in concentration camps, where 20,000 died. The ugliness of the war has been seen by some histori¬ ans as a forewarning of the brutality of subsequent 20th-century conflicts, especially the two world wars. See also: mafficking; Relief of Ladysmith; Spion Kop; Vereeniging Treaty.

• boffin ► A nickname used by the RAF in World War II for research scientists or backroom boys. It passed into general use in the 1940s. It is said to de¬ rive from the practice of a certain scientist, who gave his colleagues Dickensian nicknames, Mr Bof¬ fin being a character in Our Mutual Friend. • boffo ► A US slang term from the theatrical world meaning excellent. Apparently derived from ‘box office’ (i.e. box-office success), it is mainly used by journalists. • Bofors gun ► An automatic double-barrelled anti-aircraft gun used in World War 11. It was named

about such odours.

after Bofors, a town in Sweden where it was first

• body-popping ► A dance popular with young people in the 1980s, employing sequences of jerky

made.

movements.

the cannabis cigarette to the next person. This ex-

• Bogarts To monopolize a joint, to fail to pass on

5859

been applied to other heavily bombed areas in an at¬

originally early 20th ical accessory for drug users in the 1960s and 1970s.

• boob ► 1. A fool, an idiot. An inoffensive short¬ ened form of booby. 2. A mistake, a blunder. 3. So¬ cially acceptable slang for a female breast.

The word is used throughout the English-speaking

• boob tube ► l. A tight-fitting strapless top for

world.

women, i.e. a tube to contain the breasts. 1. In US

• bonk ► To have sexual intercourse. A popular eu¬

and Canadian slang, a television set.

phemism for ‘fuck’ in the late 1980s and 1990s. Be¬

• booby hatch ► Slang for a mental hospital, de¬

cause it is vulgar without being taboo, the word has

rived from the traditional sense of booby meaning

proved a godsend to tabloid journalists. ‘Bonk’ was

‘fooT. In the UK the phrase acquired added signifi-

60ed in the Middle West by jazz musicians early in the 20th century, it owes its name to Clarence

• bootlegger ► One who traffics illegally in al¬ coholic liquor. The term apparently derives from the smuggling of flasks of liquor in the legs of

■Pinetop’ Smith’s ‘Pinetop’s Boogie-Woogie’ (1928). It did not become popular, however, until the 1930s. • boo-hurrah theory ► The philosophical theory, also known as emotivism, that moral state¬ ments are not true in any other sense than that

smugglers’ boots. Bootlegging became a major racket in America during the years of Prohibition (1920-34). Organized crime took over and the prof¬ its from bootlegging enabled a rapid and dangerous

they express the feelings of the person making them. Thus, the statement ‘charity is good’ merely

growth of the underworld under such gangsters as Capone (see: Scarface).

means that the person saying it thinks that being charitable is desirable.

• bootstrap ► In science and technology, a system that is self-acting or self-sufficient in some way. For instance, in computer science a bootstrap pro¬ gram is a short program used to load the operating

• Booker Prize ► An annual prize for a British, Commonwealth, or Irish work of fiction written in English, first awarded in 1969. It was founded by the British engineering and trading company Booker McConnell in conjunction with the Pub¬ lishers’ Association: the winner is selected by a panel appointed by the Book Trust and receives a prize of £20,000. Past winners include Iris Murdoch (1978), Salman Rushdie (1981), Kingsley Amis (1986), and Graham Swift (1996). In 1999 the prize was awarded for the first time to a past winner, J. M. Co-

system and start up the system. The word can also be used as a verb: ‘to bootstrap a computer’. In nu¬ clear physics, a bootstrap theory is a self-consis¬ tent theory in which fundamental nuclear particles are interconnected - composed of each other, rather than made up of more fundamental enti¬ ties such as quarks. Such uses of the word come from the phrase ‘pulling oneself up by one’s own

etzee (first award 1983) - a feat repeated by Peter

bootstraps’. Possibly this originated with a story by the German writer Rudolph Raspe (1737-94) in

Carey in 2001 (first award 1988). The first Interna¬

which his hero Baron Miinchhausen boasts that he

tional Booker Prize was awarded in 1992.

once found himself trapped in quicksand, lifted

• boom corridor ► A strip of land under the

himself by his bootstraps, and carried himself to firm ground.

flight path of a supersonic plane, within which the sonic boom can be heard. The term came into use with the advent of the Anglo-French supersonic air¬ liner Concorde (1969) and the search for designated flight paths that caused minimum inconvenience. • boomerang kid ► A young adult who leaves

• bop ► In the 1940s, another name for bebop. The word later came to be used for any dance to jazz or pop music. • Borley Rectory ► Reputedly ‘the most haunted house in England’, a former rectory in the village of

Bottomley case

►*-61

Borley, Essex. It laid claim to a ghostly nun, a head¬

• boss ► Excellent. This sense of the word origi¬

less coachman, and various poltergeist manifesta¬

nated among the Black youth of America in the

tions. The Rectory was investigated by the Society

1960s and became fashionable with White youths

for Psychical Research, the BBC, and private ghost-

some 15 years later.

hunters from all around the world before it burned down in 1938. Its reputation was largely created by the journalist and psychic researcher Harry Price, who wrote numerous articles in the press and a popular book about the alleged hauntings. When the house burned dovm ghostly faces were suppos¬ edly seen in the windows: later, reports of strange happenings in the church opposite led to specula¬ tion that the house’s ghostly inhabitants had found

• Boss, the^ 1. Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945), US president, also known as the American Dicta¬ tor, the New Deal Caesar, the Sphinx, Franklin Deficit Roosevelt, and Houdini in the White House. See: FDR. 2. Bess Truman (1885-1982), wife of the US president Harry S. Truman. 3. Bruce Springsteen (1949- ), US rock star. 4. Margaret Thatcher. See: Iron Lady.

a new home nearby. The legend of Borley Rectory

• bossa nova ► (Portuguese, new voice) A type of

was effectively debunked in 2000, when a 90 yearold-man named Louis Mayerling gave a detailed ac¬

dance music, based on the samba, that originated in

count of how he had helped other villagers to fake

out the West.

paranormal activities at the house over a period of

• Boston Strangler ► A mass-murderer who killed at least 11 women in Boston, Massachusetts,

20 years.

Brazil but subsequently became popular through¬

• born-again Christian ► A person who has ex¬

in the period 1962-64. He is thought to have been

perienced a spiritual conversion and become an ar¬ dent and often evangelizing Christian. The epithet

Albert DeSalvo, who was sentenced to life impris¬

‘bom-again’ is now often used in non-religious con¬

assault.

onment in 1967 for other offences involving sexual

texts. For example, a bom-again golfer is one who,

• bottle ► 1. Courage, nerve. A British slang ex¬

having played golf occasionally for many years, be¬

pression used in such phrases as ‘to lose one’s bot¬

comes an ardent player on retirement.

tle’ or ‘I admire his bottle.’ The origin is somewhat

• born 1820 - still going strongs Trade slo¬

devious; in Cockney rhyming slang ‘bottle and

gan associated with Johnnie Walker whisky, coined

glass’ means arse, ‘arse’ is a taboo word for bottom,

in 1910; 1820 was the year the company was

and bottom has an old-established sense meaning courage. This sense of bottle only came to be widely

founded.

• Borstal ► A former British institution for the de¬ tention and rehabilitation of offenders between the ages of 15 and 21. Youths could be detained for up to two years with a subsequent ‘parole’ period of two more years. The Borstal system was introduced in 1908 and named after the first such prison at the village of Borstal, near Rochester in Kent. Borstals were abolished in 1983; offenders under 21 years of

used in the 1970s, probably influenced by criminal and police speech in TV crime dramas. In 1985 it was used in the advertising slogan for milk, ‘Milk has gotta lotta bottle’. It is usually pronounced with a medial glottal stop in an imitation of Cockney speech. 2. British slang for the money collected by street buskers. 3. To injure by hitting with a bottle or by thrusting a broken bottle into someone.

age are now sentenced to ‘detention in a young of¬

• bottle bank ► A large container provided by

fenders institution’.

local authorities in a public place to enable mem¬

• bosey ► in cricket, another (mainly Australian)

bers of the public to dispose of their used glass bot¬

name for a googly, i.e. a ball that appears to deviate from the leg side towards the off side but in fact does the opposite. It was so named from its inven¬

tles for recycling. Three such containers are often provided, one for colourless glass, one for brown or amber glass, and one for green glass.

tor, the English bowler B. j. Bosanquet, who toured

• bottleneck ► l. A style of rock or blues guitar

Australia in 1903-04. The term was also applied in

playing in which a small metal tube or similar de¬

World War II to a single bomb dropped from a

vice worn on the player’s finger is moved up and

plane.

down the fretboard to produce a glissando effect. It

• Bosnywash ► In America, the thickly popu¬ lated and affluent eastern region of the country. It comes from the names of the three main cities in the region: Boston, NY (New York), and Washington. See also: Chippitts; Sansan.

is so called because originally the neck of a glass bottle was used. This style of plajdng is also called slide or slide guitar. 2. A road that is frequently clogged with traffic. • Bottomley case ► A fraud case involving Hor-

62-m

bottom line

• Bourbaki, Nicolas ► A contemporary French

atio Bottomley (1860-1933), former liberal MP and editor of the ultra-patriotic magazine John Bull. In

mathematician noted for the presentation of math¬

1922 he was sentenced to 7 years’ imprisonment for

ematics in an original fashion, stressing its ax¬

his part in issuing bogus victory bonds.

iomatic structure. In fact, Bourbaki is not a person

• bottom line

The main issue at stake, the most important factor or ultimate standard by which something will be judged. The phrase be¬

but a pseudonym for a group of mathematicians

came popular during the 1970s, possibly because of

French general who, in the Franco-Prussian war of

its use by the US secretary of state Henry Kissinger (see. shuttle diplomacy), who often spoke of‘the bot¬

the Prussian line.

tom line’ as the eventual outcome of a negotiation. The phrase originally referred to the last line on a

who came together in 1939 to write a treatise Ele¬ ments de mathematique. They took the name from a 1870-71, valiantly but unsuccessfully tried to break

• bovine spongiform encephalopathy ► See. mad cow disease.

financial statement summarizing the net profit or • bovrilAustralian slang for ‘rubbish’; from the

loss of a company.

• bouffant ► A women’s hairstyle, common in the 1960s, in which extra height and breadth are given by backparently, was an escaped convict who, after 32 years on the run, gave himself up in 1955 to the author-

Buckmaster Divorce Act

70^

ities and then died the following year. Often short¬

later mainly drawn by the animator Tex Avery

ened to Buckley’s.

(1907-80). Bugs’s Brooklyn accent was supplied by

• Buckmaster Divorce Act ► The name given to a British act of parliament, the Matrimonial Causes Act (1923). It made adultery sufficient cause

voice artist Mel Blanc, who also coined the famous

for divorce by either party. Up to this time, a woman could not obtain a divorce on the grounds of adul¬ tery alone - cruelty or desertion had to be involved. The act is named after the former Lord Chancellor,

catchphrase What's up, Doc? 2. British underworld rhyming slang for money, common since the 1960s. • bug smasher ► US airforce slang for a light air¬ craft, used since the 1950s.

• Bulge, Battle of the^ See. Ardennes Offensive.

Lord Buckmaster, who had pressed for such reform.

• bulimia ► (Greek bous, ox, limos, hunger) Com¬

• buckminsterfullerene ► A new form of car¬ bon (in addition to diamond and graphite) discov¬ ered in 1985. It consists of molecules containing 60

pulsive overeating. Originally known only as a neu¬

carbon atoms arranged on the surface of a sphere in a framework of hexagons and pentagons. The substance is named after the architect Buckmin¬ ster Fuller because of its structural resemblance to Fuller’s geodesic dome. This and similar forms of carbon are called fullerenes or, more informally, bucky balls.

rological disorder, this condition, in the form of bulimia nervosa, became increasingly recognized during the latter part of the 20th century as a symp>tom of psychological disturbance, particularly af¬ fecting adolescent girls. It is sometimes seen as a phase of anorexia nervosa: the patient undergoes an orgy of overeating followed by drastic purging or self-induced vomiting. • Bullamakanka

Australian slang for any re¬

• Buck Rogers US science-fiction hero, who ap¬ peared in comic strips from 1929. First introduced in Phil Nowlan’s novel Armageddon 2419, the char¬

mote or backward place (there is no real place of the

acter is an air-force officer who wakes up from a 500-year sleep in the 25th century, in which he has numerous adventures. Various film and television versions of the stories have been made.

reference to their pugnacity. This phrase comes

name). • bulldog breed ► The British, especially with from Arthur Reece’s music-hall song ‘Sons of the Sea, All British Born’ which had a tremendous vogue in late Victorian and Edwardian England. It

• buckshee ► Free, offered without charge. The word entered the language in the 20th century as a late import from the Indian Raj; it derives from

came at the time of naval rivalry with the Kaiser’s

baksheesh, meaning a tip or gift of alms (from Per¬ sian bakhshish, from bakhshtdan, to give).

• bullet*Every bullet has its billet A fatalistic

• buddy ► US slang for a fiiend. Of 19th-century origin, it was adopted in the 1980s, in both Amer¬ ica and the UK, as a specific term for a volunteer companion of an Aids sufferer (see: Terrence Higgins Trust).

• Budget leak tribunal *■ An official tribunal that investigated (1936) allegations that details of the budget had been leaked to a private individual who had used the information to make money. The tribunal’s report led to the resignation of the then colonial secretary]. H. Thomas.

• Buffy the Vampire Slayer »■ See. valspeak. • Bugger Bognor ► See.

Germany and inspired the name of Bulldog Drum¬ mond, hero of the adventure novels of Sapper.

phrase, probably military in origin, meaning that nothing happens by chance and that there is no point in trying to evade one’s destiny. • bullet train ► A high-speed train developed in Japan since the 1970s. It proved capable of speeds over 125 mph. • Bullfrog of the Pontine Marshes*- A dis¬ missive reference to Benito Mussolini (1883-1945) by Winston Churchill during World War U. • Bull Moose ► Nickname of US President Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919). I am as strong as a bull moose. - Theodore

How is the Empire? at

Empire.

ROOSEVELT, during 1900 vice-presidential cam¬

paign.

• Bugs Bunny ► 1. Anarchic cartoon character

• bum bag ► British slang for a small zipper bag

who has appeared in over 160 films since the late

attached to a belt worn around the waist with the

1930s. The carrot-crunching troublemaker first ap¬

bag part resting either at the back or in the front.

peared - as a nameless hare - in Warner Brothers’

Originally worn by skiers to hold their keys and

POrky’s Hare Hunt (1938). He was created by Ben

money, they became part of street fashion in the

‘Bugs’ Hardaway (whose nickname he stole) but was

late 1980s. They are worn by either sex and are a

• Burton •

►►71

much safer alternative to a handbag, which can be

ples held each other in a tight embrace while per¬

snatched in the street. The US name is fanny pack.

forming it.

• bump ► In the airline business, to move a pas¬

• Bunter, Billy ►A fat greedy schoolboy created

senger’s reservation from an overbooked flight to

by the prolific writer Frank Richards (pen name of Charles Hamilton: 1876-1961). Bunter’s exploits at

the next available one. • bums on seats ► A paying audience for any public event. All impressarios require sufficient bums on the seats of an auditorium to cover ex¬ penses and make a profit. • bum's rush ► Slang for the immediate rejection

the fictional Greyfriars School were recounted in the boys’ comics Gem (1907-39) and Magnet (1908-40) and later in numerous books. The be¬ spectacled Bunter was always in search of a chum who would advance him a small sum of money

forcible ejection of undesirables (bums), usually

with which to buy tuck. The loan was always in an¬ ticipation of an expected postal order. The name Billy Bunter is now applied to any grossly over¬

from a bar.

weight boy or man.

• BUNCH ► Burroughs, Univac, NCR, Control Data,

• buppie ► A US slang term of the 1980s, also heard in the UK, for a Black yuppie.

of an idea, person, etc. From a US phrase for the

and Honeywell. After IBM and the Digital Equip¬ ment Corporation, this group of companies became the biggest-selling computer manufacturers in the 1980s. • Bundles for Britain ► An organization founded in America in January 1940, by Mrs Wales

• Burgos governments The rebel Spanish gov¬ ernment set up in July 1936 by General Franco at Burgos, the former capital of Castile, at the start of the Spanish Civil War.

• Burma Road ► This great highway was made in

Latham, to send parcels of comforts to Britain dur¬

1937-39 to open up the western interior of China by

ing World War II.

communication with the sea, and ran from Lashio to Kunming in Yunnan, a distance of 770 miles. It was the chief highway for supplies to China during

• Bungalow Bill ► British slang for a rather un¬ intelligent male, i.e. one ‘with nothing going on upstairs’, or a very sexually active male, i.e. ‘one with a lot going on downstairs’, or both. The name comes from a song by the Beatles (1968). • bunji-jumping ► British slang for the practice of jumping from high places (such as bridges) while attached to an elastic line secured to the high place.

World War II until the Japanese cut it in 1942. It was recaptured in 1945. • burn, baby, burn ► A slogan adopted by mili¬ tant Blacks after a riot in Los Angeles in 1965, in which 34 people died and a wide area was destroyed by arsonists.

eraser, a rubber.

• Burnham scale ► A scale of salaries and other benefits for school teachers in England and Wales, first instituted in 1924 and named after the former

• Bunker, Archies A bigoted working-class char¬

newspaper owner Viscount Burnham (1862-1933), chairman of the committee that originally set it up.

It became popular in the late 1980s. Bunji is an adaptation of bungy, the playground word for an

acter in the US TV comedy series All in the Family. Bunker was devised as a US counterpart to Britain’s Alf Garnett, the show being essentially a reworking

• burn rubber ► To leave somewhere so fast in a car that the tyres scorch on the road.

Canada the name is still used to denote an ignorant

• Biirolandschaft ► (German, office landscape) A style of open-plan flexible office design in which

and prejudiced blue-collar male.

people work in areas delineated by small screens or

• Bunny ► Nickname of the British comedy actor

rows of indoor plants, rather than by walls.

of the BBC’s Till Death Us Do Part. In America and

J. Robertson Hare (1891-1979), who became a star of the Aldwych farces of the 1920s and the 1930s. • bunny girl ► A somewhat scantily dressed wait¬ ress or attendant in a night club, equipped with a fluffy tail and a headdress with long ears to suggest a rabbit. They were introduced in the Playboy Club,

• Burton ► gone for a Burton Absent, missing, or lost; dead or presumed dead. Although widely used by the services in World War II, the phrase is of un¬ certain origin. It is sometimes said to be an RAF coinage derived from the training of radio tele¬

London, in 1966 by Hugh Heftier and Victor Lownes.

graph operators in Montagu Burton’s clothing premises at Blackpool. Those who failed their tests

• bunnyhug ► A jazz dance that became popular

were said to have ‘gone for a Burton’. Alternatively,

in the early 20th century; so-called because cou¬

it may be connected with Burton beer - the impli-

72-m

Busby's babes

• Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid ►

cation being that the absent person has gone for a drink. Another interesting suggestion relates the phrase to council elections held in Birmingham in 1878, when George Cadbury, supporting the tem¬

The nicknames of two US bandits whose exploits have become folklore; in the highly successful film

perance interest, was opposed by a Dr Burton, openly backed by the licensed victuallers. The Birm¬

and Robert Redford was the Kid. Butch Cassidy's real name was Robert Le Roy Parker (1886-1909) -

ingham Post (22 July) reported: ‘During the whole of the polling day men were seen coming from Dr Burton’s committee room, and, parading Steward St

was an ex-butcher. The Sundance Kid. real name Harry Longbaugh (1860-1909), established his rep>-

with this title (1969) Paul Newman played Butch

he was called Butch for the very good reason that he

with jugs of beer in their hands, on which were painted papers “Vote for Burton”.’ This could have

utation by robbing a bank in Sundance, Nevada.

given rise to the expression ‘he’s gone for a Burton’ when inquiring of someone’s whereabouts.

on fact, including their deaths in a shoot-out in Bo¬ livia.

• Busby's babes ► Members of the Manchester United football team managed by Sir Matt Busby (1909-94) from 1945 to 1969. See also: Munich air

• Butcher of Baghdad ► Epithet used for Sad¬ dam Hussein, president of Iraq, in the popular press

crash.

• business as usual •

See: Blitz.

business cycle »■ See: trade cycle.

• businesspeak ► Jargon used in business and commerce. The term is one of a number coined with the suffix ‘-speak’ and modelled on newspeak and doublespeak in George Orwell’s novel Nineteen Eighty Four (1949). There are p>erhaps two main styles of businesspeak: the 19thopular by A1 Jolson in the 1921 musical Bombo. It has since been used, on both sides of the Atlantic, by anyone who believes he or she is on his way to success.

• Californiate ► To spoil the landscape by un¬ planned building, industrialization, etc. The term was used in America in the 1970s and refers to the uncontrolled development of southern California. Sometimes Californicate is used.

• call^ don't call us, we'll call you A phrase sup¬ posedly used by theatre directors to say goodbye to unsuccessful applicants at auditions. The implica¬ tion is, of course, that no call will be made. The phrase, which dates from the 1940s, is now used more widely, often in a jocular way, to get rid of some one offering to sell something or provide a service. It is often shortened to don’t call us.

• call-and-recall ► A system in which those who require regular medical check-ups, often for spe¬ cific identified conditions, receive computer¬ generated reminders of the date of their next con¬ sultations. The system is particularly applicable to diagnostic tests used in preventive medicine. Calland-recall frequently refers to smear tests for cer¬ vical cancer but also has relevance to other tests, such as mammography or blood-pressure tests, in

outgoing telephone calls. Call centres can be used for cold-calling or other sales, to carry out surveys and research, or by large organizations wishing to deal with all service and other enquiries centrally. A product of the late 1980s, call centres are now a major growth industry: the UK alone has over 3500, employing well over a third of a million people. In the UK, many call centres are located in the north of the country, apparently because surveys indicate that people associate northern accents with hon¬ esty. The rise of the call centre has not been univer¬ sally welcomed. Many members of the public prefer to talk to an organization’s representatives face-toface in local branches; others resent having to nav¬ igate through as many as four submenus before being left to sit on hold for 20 minutes listening to bad muzak. Some call centres have also been criti¬ cized for providing a highly pressured and deper¬ sonalized working environment for their staff.

• call girl ► A female prostitute, usually an elegant and sophisticated one, who makes her assignations on the telephone.

• call-in ► See. phone-in. • calling all cars^

5ee; APB.

• call money ► l. Money repayable on demand. Money invested with a bank may be placed on the

which early detection can prevent death or serious

money market, either for a fixed term or to be re¬ paid when called for. 2. Money paid for a call op¬

illness.

tion on a stock exchange or a commodity exchange,

• callanetics^ A system of exercises developed in the 1970s by the US v/riter on fitness Callan Pinck¬ ney. It aims to improve fitness and general muscle tone without the development of unsightly mus¬ cles. Callanetics came into public prominence in 1989 when the Duchess of York (see: Fergie) used the method to improve her figure after the birth of

i.e. the cost of purchasing an option to buy certain shares or goods by a fixed date. A put option gives the buyer of the option the right to sell the shares or goods by a fixed date. • call off all bets ► literally, to cancel all wagers in certain circumstances. A bookmaker, for exam¬ ple, might call off all bets if he suspected that some

her first child, Beatrice.

race or contest had been rigged. By extension, the

• call-back ► In America, the recalling of a prod¬ uct by its manufacturer because of faults discovered

geous agreement or situation’. In particular, in US

after the product has been sold. The situation oc¬ curs most commonly with cars, when potentially

phrase is used to mean ‘repudiate a disadvanta¬ Black slang of the 1940s, it meant ‘to die’ - per¬ haps the most effective way of calling off one’s bets. • call waiting ► A service provided by British

dangerous defects can show up after a new model has been running on the road. Products may either

Telecom for those of their subscribers willing to

be returned to the dealer for repairs to be carried

pay a small fee. Without it, someone calling sub-

76^
87

McAuliffe, who had been selected as the first in a ‘citizens in space’ programme. Shown live on tele vision and witnessed by the astronauts’ families, the tragedy caused a massive shock, especially in America. President Reagan, speaking later, said that the crew had ‘touched the face of God’. The Soviet space agency later announced that it was naming seven recently discovered asteroids after members of the crew.

• champagne socialists*- A derogatory term for those whose luxurious style of living and ex¬ travagant tastes appear to contradict their declared

• chain reaction ► Originally a chemical or nu¬

left-wing political ideals.

clear reaction that creates energy or products,

• Chan, Charlie ► Inspector Charles Chan, the fic¬ tional Chinese detective created by the US writer

which in turn cause further reactions without a need for further energy input from outside. The concept in this sense emerged in the 1930s. In the 1970s the phrase entered the non-technical lan¬ guage: it is now used to denote any series of events in which each event causes the next. See also:

Earl Derr Biggers. He made his first appearance in 1925 in The House Without a Key. Chan lived in Hon¬ olulu with Mrs Chan and his many children. He was unfailingly dignified and polite, striving at all times to speak correct English. ‘You will do me the

pointed to chair a committee, organization, etc.,

great honour to accompany me to the station, if you please’, was his usual mode of arresting criminals. He was sometimes accompanied in his work by his number one or number two son. Biggers created this gentle character as a protest against the stereo¬

were content to be referred to as chairmen and to be addressed as ‘madame chairman’. However, a

typed depiction of the Chinese in America. Eight books featuring Charlie Chan were published and

feminist preoccupation with the etymology of words containing characteristically male sub-units

over a dozen films starring Warner Oland appeared in the 1930s. Later films starred Sidney Toler,

led to the substitution of‘-person’ for ‘-man’. Thus,

Roland Winters, and Peter Ustinov.

domino theory.

• chair »■ A late 20th-century neutered term for a chairman or a chairwoman. Previously, females ap>-

chairpersons and spokespersons made their ap¬ pearance (though policepersons and seapersons did not). It was not long, however, before the pre¬ dictable shortening took place and the chairper¬ son became the chair. In this sense chair is used as an exact synonyrm for chairman or chairwoman. ‘The chair asked for nominations’ has a slightly dif¬ ferent sense from ‘questions should be addressed to the chair’: in the former the chair is a person, in the latter it is an office.

• Chanak crisis► The crisis in October 1922 that caused the fall of Lloyd George’s coalition govern¬ ment. It was started by the entry of the Turks into Chanak, on the Asiatic side of the Dardanelles, a neutral zone held by the British and the French. Their objective was to take part of Thrace from Greece. The Conservative members of Lloyd George’s cabinet felt that he acted in favour of Greece by reinforcing the British garrison in Chanak. At the famous Carlton Club Meeting, on

• Challenger, Professors George Edward Chal¬ lenger, a fictional professor created by Sir Arthur

19 October 1922, the Conservatives decided to with¬ draw from the coalition government, forcing Lloyd

Conan Doyle in The Lost World (1912), and appearing

George’s resignation. This was the occasion for the formation of the 1922 Committee of Tory back¬ benchers, who were determined that the leader¬

in other stories. Challenger is a distinguished and adventurous zoologist and anthropologist with a fiery temper. He was possibly modelled on one of Doyle’s fellow medical students, George Budd.

• Challenger disasters A tragic accident to the US space shuttle Challenger, which exploded shortly after take-off on 28 January 1986 at Cape Canaveral. The disaster was later found to have been

ship of the party should not take decisions without consulting them in the future. The Committee is still a powerful force in Conservative politics.

• chance would be a fine thing ► A catchphrase meaning that someone would welcome the chance to do something but that such an opportu¬

the rocket. All seven astronauts aboard were killed

nity is unlikely to occur. It is something a woman might say if asked whether she would consider hav¬

instantly, including the schoolteacher Christa

ing a relationship with a particular man - meaning

caused by leaking seals (‘O rings’) between stages of

Chanel •

■yes, if only he would show some interest!’ How¬ ever, it might also be said in reply to a woman who indignantly denied that she would have such a re¬ lationship - in this case meaning ‘well, you’re not going to be asked!’

• Chanel ► The name under which a wide range of haute couture and beauty products have been mar¬ keted since the 1920s. The name is that of the Parisian couturier Coco Chanel (real name Gabrielle Chanel: 1883-1971), who started a fashion house in Paris in 1924. Her most characteristic innovations were her jersey suits, costume Jewellery, colourful evening scarves, and perfumes, especially Chanel No 5. Although she retired before World War II she made a successful return to designing in 1954.

• Channel the day the Channel caught fire A myth of World War II that spread rapidly through the UK in the darkest days of 1940. At a time when it was widely feared that the Germans were preparing to cross the Channel, the populace was much cheered by rumours that an attempted invasion had been foiled. The story was that the Channel had been drenched with petrol, which was ignited as the German invasion fleet approached. German bodies were reported to be choking the Channel. In fact the British had conducted experiments with submerged oil pipes but had realized that such a plan was not feasible. Nevertheless for many months people recalled ‘the day the Channel caught fire’.

• channel hopping or channel surfing ► Using a remote-control device to skip rapidly and aimlessly across the available television channels; the preferred mode of viewing of US adolescents in the 1980s and 1990s and now widespread among all age groups on both sides of the Atlantic.

• Channel Tunnel ► A rail link beneath the Eng¬ lish Channel between the UK and France. Finance having been raised by an Anglo-French consortium, construction began in 1987 and was completed in 1994. A shuttle service (see; Shuttle, Le) ferrying motor vehicles through the tunnel began later that year, while Eurostar, a direct passenger service be¬ tween London and Paris or Brussels, began in 1995. The link actually comprises three tunnels: two car¬ rying trains travelling one-way and a third service

• chaos theory ► A mathematical theory con¬ cerning the unpredictable behaviour of systems be¬ cause of their sensitivity to the initial conditions or because there are so many factors influencing them. Even though the laws or rules governing the system’s behaviour are well-understood, the be¬ haviour of the system as a whole is ‘chaotic’ be¬ cause it is so complex. It was originally developed as a theory of meteorology and illustrates the dif¬ ficulty of weather forecasting. It has been said that a butterfly flapping its wings in South America can be the cause of a tornado in North America - the socalled butterfly effect. Chaos theory has been ap¬ plied to many other branches of science and social science.

• Chappaquiddick*- An island in New England, which in 1969 was the scene of a tragic car accident involving the US Senator Edward Kennedy; an in¬ cident that was to haunt his subsequent political ca¬ reer. Kennedy’s car had crashed off a bridge into eight feet of water; a female passenger, Mary Jo Kopechne, aged 27, drowned. Controversy sur¬ rounded the senator’s failure to save the girl, al¬ though he managed to escape from the car himself, and his failure to inform the police immediately of the accident.

• charismatic movements A Christian move¬ ment that emphasizes the charismatic gifts of speaking in tongues, healing by laying on of hands, and baptism by the Holy Spirit. Although the move¬ ment originated within the Pentecostal Church (which developed from revivalist meetings in Amer¬ ica in 1906) many later charismatics have preferred to remain in their own churches. Since the 1960s, therefore, many charismatics have also been found in Roman Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox Churches. In the Christian sense, charisma means a power or talent that is divinely bestowed upon a person.

• charleston ► A ballroom dance popular c. 192327, which originated as a dance among Black Amer¬ icans. Charleston is the name of a cotton-trading seaport in South Carolina, one-third of the popu¬ lation of which is Black. The charleston featured in the Black musical Runnin’ Wild (1923) and with its 4/4 syncopated rhythm and kicking toe-in steps rapidly spread throughout the world.

and ventilation tunnel. This massive engineering

• Charlie

feat is a manifestation of the UK’s closer connection

pression ‘a right Charlie’. It is derived from Cockney

with Europe; although many Britons felt threat¬

rh)Tning slang, Charlie Hunt for cunt. 2. A eu¬

ened by the loss of the UK’s island status (raising fears of invasion by rabid animals or illegal immi¬

phemism for cocaine; from the communications

grants), the tunnel is now widely popular with

coded expressions as ‘Is Charlie in tonight?’, mean¬

British holiday makers.

ing is there any cocaine available here tonight. 3. A

1. British slang for a fool, as in the ex¬

code name for its initial letter, C. It is used in such

chatline

►►89

the Vietnam War. It comes from “Victor Charlie’, the

1977 (designated ‘Year of Rights of Political Prison¬ ers’) to monitor abuses of human rights by the

name for the Viet Cong used by US soldiers during communications code names for the abbreviation

Czech authorities. The Charter itself demanded the

VC. 4. A slang euphemism for any unmentionable

adherence of the government to UN covenants and

subject, as in the expression ‘Charlie’s come’ to mean that a female’s menstruation has started.

the Helsinki accords on human rights. Hundreds of signatures were collected from people of all classes,

5. Australian rhyming slang for a young woman,

many of whom subsequently suffered harassment,

from Charlie Wheeler for sheila (a girl). See also:

imprisonment, or exile. One of those imprisoned,

Checkpoint Charlie.

the writer Vaclav Havel, became president of

• Charlie Brown ► A little boy who appeared in

Czechoslovakia in 1989 (and of the new Czech Re¬

the Peanuts cartoon strip created by Charles M. Schulz in 1950. He achieved great popularity, with his dog Snoopy and his friends Lucy and Linus. The strip had global syndication and a host of ephemera was produced. See also: Happiness is.... •

Charlie Chan^ See: Chan,

Charlie.

public in 1993).

• charts ► Lists of best-selling records published on a weekly basis. The term is used in such phrases as in the charts and top of the charts, etc. In Amer¬ ica lists of best-selling sheet music began to appear in Billboard in 1894; the magazine is still the source for the country’s most authoritative record charts.

• Charlie Farnsbarns^ A person whose name

In the UK the first chart listing the country’s ‘Top

one cannot remember, as in ‘Mrs Thing’, ‘Old What-

12 Best-Selling Records’ was published in the New Musical Express in November 1952. During the 1980s

sisname’, etc. It was used by the comedians Richard Murdoch and Kenneth Home in their 1940s radio

and 1990s, as the technology for gathering point-of-

comedy Much Binding in the Marsh.

sale data and processing (pcs) information became

• Charlie's Aunt^ A nickname of Princess Mar¬ garet. One of the numerous nicknames used in the

cheaper and easier to use, there was a proliferation

satirical magazine Private Eye, it is thought to have been coined (in allusion to the popular farce

music, indie music, rock, pop, etc. Many record chains, radio stations, publications, etc., now pub¬

Charley’s Aunt by Brandon Thomas) by the princess

lish their own charts. The compilation of charts

in the number of charts produced, e.g. for classical

herself - who was, of course, the aunt of Prince

has also been extended to other media, such as

Charles. See also at running.

books and TV programmes.

• Charlie's dead ► A slang expression meaning that a woman’s petticoat is showing, or that a

• chase the dragon ► l. To smoke heroin, an ex¬ pression dating from the 1970s when cheap heroin

man’s trouser zip is undone. It is often heard in the school playground, where it has been current since

became widely available. The drug is heated on a piece of aluminium foil and the fumes inhaled

the 1950s. The origin of the phrase and the identity

through a tube. Perhaps the imaginative name de¬

of Charlie are unknown.

rives from ‘chasing’ the coils of smoke across the piece of foil. 2. To court death by taking heroin.

• charm ► In physics, a property postulated to exist for certain quarks to account for the behav¬ iour of some elementary particles. The term was first used in 1974 by the US physicist Sheldon

This wider application was current among the upper- and middleen government, on the grounds that the services provided could hardly be

of the system, variously called SuperScope, Wam-

compared with the standards set for them without

used to help counter the growing threat from tele¬

98105

writers to use the term freely in descriptions of sex¬

tory reference to someone regarded as an unwel¬

ual intercourse. During the 19th century it seems

come foreigner. It originated in the 1920s, with ref¬

to have been assumed that the experience was re

erence to French onion sellers who crossed the

stricted to the male of the species. Once it became

Channel with their strings of onions and their bi¬

acceptable to discuss female orgasms, the editors of

cycles, to hawk them round the tovms and villages

women’s magazines of the late 1970s and 1980s

of southern England. ‘You don’t think I came over

found that descriptions of the experience, and how

with the onion boats, do you?’ is a commonly used

to achieve it, produced highly saleable copy. Un¬

form, likely to be said by someone who wishes to es¬

fortunately, the pendulum swung so far that many

tablish his long residency in the British Isles. 'Vari¬

women came to feel deprived if they failed to

ations on this theme include ‘came over with an

achieve explosive multiple orgasms on every occa¬

icecream barrow’ aimed at Italians, and ‘came over

sion that they made love.

with the banana boat’ relating to those of African

• come again? ► Please repeat what you have just

descent who arrived by ship from the Caribbean

said: I either didn’t hear you or failed to under¬

after World War H.

stand you. Popular at various times on both sides of

• Comet ► The first commercial jet airliner. Man¬

the Atlantic, it probably originated in America be¬

ufactured by the De Havilland Aircraft Company in

fore World War 1.

1952, Comet 1 was withdrawn after two tragic ac¬

• COMECON ► Council for Mutual Economic As¬

cidents, in which many people died, which were

sistance. An association set up by Stalin in 1949 to

shown to have been caused by metal fatigue. De

promote economic development and trade between

Havilland modified the design and introduced the

the Soviet Union and the other communist coun¬

extremely successful Comet 4, which entered ser¬

tries of Eastern Europe (except Yugoslavia). Until

vice with BOAC in 1958.

1953 the organization was largely a propaganda ve¬ hicle used by Russia to disguise the economic ex¬

• come up and see me some time ► A sex¬ ual innuendo associated with the US actress Mae

ploitation of its satellite states. In later years,

West (1892-1980). The line first appeared in her

however, it began to promote genuine mutual eco¬

play Diamond Lil (1928) but gained wider currency

nomic cooperation and development. East Germany

from the film version She Done Him Wrong (1933), in

left on German reunification in 1990 and the re¬

which Mae West says to the young Cary Grant, ‘Why

maining members voted (1991) to replace COME¬

don’t you come up some time and see me? I’m

CON with a looser association designed to help

home every evening.’ It may be that the phrase was

integrate their economies with those of Western

used on the streets of New York before this, but it

Europe.

was certainly Mae West who immortalized it.

• come home all is forgiven ► A catchphrase

The male counterpart, come up and see my

spoofing the agony column advertisements formerly

etchings, is probably of earlier origin; it has been

seen in many newspapers. Perhaps some originals

used as a jokey allusion to ’Victorian melodrama -

on these lines were actually published, by spouses

the villain seducing the innocent maiden - since

seeking the return of a missing partner or by par¬

the early years of the 20th century.

ents revoking a decision that an offspring should

• come with me to the Casbah »■ A line that

never darken their door again. However, the phrase

Charles Boyer is supposed to have said to Hedy

has gained wide currency in a humorous context.

Lamarr in the film Algiers (1938). He didn’t - any

• come out ► Short for come out of the closet,

more than Humphrey Bogart said Play it again, Sam

to declare oneself a homosexual. In the days when homosexuality was a criminal offence, prudence

in Casablanca (1942).

led many gays to conceal the nature of their sexual interests. They became known as closet

a humorous story or an adventure. They generally

queens or closet homosexuals, the connection

are sometimes published as comic books or ‘graphic

with the secrecy of the closet being obvious. As

novels’. The first modern comic strip, ‘The Yellow

• comic strip ► A sequence of drawings relating appear in newspapers and magazines; longer ones

anti-homosexual laws were relaxed and popular

Kid’ appeared in the New York World in 1896 drawn

prejudice began to abate, the need for secrecy dis¬

by Richard Telton Outcault. Its success encouraged

appeared and gays were able to ‘come out’. The ex¬

many imitators on both sides of the Atlantic during

pression is also used with no sexual connotations,

the 20th century. Especially notable are the Amer¬

to mean to state one’s real position. See also', outing.

ican ‘Krazy Kat’ (1910) by Richard Herriman, Peanuts

• come over with the onion boat ► A deroga¬

(1950) by Charles M. Schulz, and the British Andy

106^

Cominform

Capp (1957) by Reginald Smythe. See also: Asterix; Jane; Peanuts; Pip, Squeak, and Wilfred; Rupert Bear.

• Cominform ► Communist Information Bureau.

• Common Market ► In Britain, the popular name for the European Economic Community and later the European Community. It is now rarely heard.

An international communist organization, set up in

• Commonwealth of Nations >’ A loose asso¬

1947 under Soviet control to publish propaganda

ciation of nations established in 1931 under the Statute of Westminster; until 1947 it was entitled the British Commonwealth of Nations. There

encouraging international communist solidarity. It also coordinated the policies of the communist parties of countries not under Soviet control. The membere of the Cominform were the Soviet Union, Bulgaria. Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Roma¬ nia, Yugoslavia. France, and Italy. In 1948 Yugoslavia was expelled for its failure to follow Soviet in¬ structions; the Cominform was dissolved in 1956 in order to improve relations with Yugoslavia.

• Comintern ► Communist International. An or¬

are now 54 member states, all but one of which were formerly part of the British Empire; their pop¬ ulations comprise approximately 25% of the world’s population. The British monarch is still recognized as the head of the Commonwealth. Common¬ wealth Day is 12 March.

• communications satellite An unmanned artificial earth satellite, usually in a geostationary

wide revolution of the proletariat. It was dissolved

orbit, i.e. one in which the satellite completes its orbit in 24 hours and thus appears to remain sta¬ tionary in the sky above the same place on the

by Stalin in 1943 as a gesture towards his wartime

earth’s surface. Three such satellites suitably placed

capitalist allies.

can provide a worldwide communications link en¬ abling television broadcasting, telephone commu¬

ganization of world communist parties founded by Lenin in 1919 as an early stage towards the world¬

• commando ► (Portuguese commandar, com¬ mand) Originally armed units of Boer horsemen, who were well known for their daring during the South African War (1899-1902). Lord Kitchener’s relentless policy of attrition was slowly breaking the hearts of the com¬ mandos. - DENEYS REiTz: Commondo. In World War II the name was adopted for the units of specially trained British assault troops formed from volunteers to undertake particularly haz¬ ardous tasks.

• Committee of 100*- See: CND. • Common Agricultural Policy*- See:

CAP.

• Common Cause ► A US political pressure group founded in 1970 to urge the government to respond to what it regards as the wishes of the peo¬ ple as a whole, rather than to the lobbying of wealthy pressure groups. In particular, it has cam¬ paigned for charges to the laws on campaign fund¬ ing. • Common Entrance ► The exam taken by

nications, and computer data to be exchanged between any points on the earth. Radio signals from a transmitting station on earth are beamed to the satellite, which retransmits them to a receiving sta¬ tion out of normal ground-wave or sky-wave com¬ munication with the transmitting station. The first active communications satellite was the US Telstar, launched in 1962. There are now large numbers of these satellites serving both governments and com¬ mercial interests. See. Intelsat.

• communist bloc or Eastern bloc *■ After World War II many countries in Eastern Europe be¬ came communist states under the domination of the Soviet Union. These states, which included Bul¬ garia, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania, signed the Warsa\w Pact in 1955. Albania was a member of the Pact from 1955 until 1968, when it left. Although Yugoslavia was usually regarded as part of the communist bloc, it was not a signatory of the Warsaw Pact and man¬ aged to maintain an independent foreign policy. In 1989 mass unrest culminated in the communist

British 13-year-old prep-school boys seeking en¬

parties in Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Bul¬

trance to a public school. The exam was instituted

garia, Romania, and East Germany losing power.

in 1903 and is still in force. Latin, which used to be

The Soviet Communist Party fell from power and

a compulsory subject, is now optional. It is this

was disbanded following the abortive coup of Au¬ gust 1991.

exam, in addition to individually set scholarship exams, that enables the most prestigious public schools to select only the brightest pupils. And it is

• communitarianism ► A somewhat vague po¬ litical concept that gained currency on both sides

by selecting the brightest (rather than by superior

of the Atlantic during the 1990s. Rejecting both

teaching methods) that the same group of public

the economic individualism of the 1980s and the so¬ cial liberalism prevalent since the 1960s. commu¬

schools survive at the top of the A-level tables of re¬ sults.

nitarian thinkers stressed the importance of

compassion fatigue

►►107

community life and the responsibilities that flow from it. They placed a high value on the family and

charged specifically with creating formal and in¬

civil institutions, while taking a tough view on

ing the 1990s, attitudes to this approach wavered,

crime and antisocial behaviour generally. Commu-

particularly with shrinking police budgets and staff

formal links between police and community. Dur¬

nitarianism is known to have influenced the think¬

cuts. However, in many British towns and cities, po¬

ing of Tony Blair and other leading figures in the

lice officers have been moved out of central police stations to community policing teams based in of¬

‘New’ Labour Party [see: New Labour: Third Way).

• community charge ► A British local tax in¬

fices on housing estates or in supermarkets.

troduced by the Conservative government in

• commuters Someone who regularly travels to

1989-90 to replace the domestic rating system. The

a town or city centre to work. The word became

community charge was a flat-rate charge on every

common in the UK in the 1950s but has been pop¬

adult in the community; as such it was described (by opponents) as a poll tax (from Middle English

ular in America since the late 19th century. It is de¬

polk, head), like that first introduced in 1377 and

of a British season ticket.

periodically thereafter. The government claimed that the tax was fairer than the rates, as everyone who benefited from the amenities provided by the local authority shared the bill for providing them, rather than the whole bill being paid by property owners. Opponents argued that as everyone paid the same amount, its impact was severest on the poorer members of the community (although ex¬ emptions were made for very poor families). The un¬ popularity of the charge contributed to the resignation in 1990 of Margaret Thatcher as prime minister. From 1993 it was replaced by the council tax, a charge based on property values, with various rebates depending on occupancy.

rived from ‘commutation ticket’, the US equivalent

• compact disc^ (CD) A small plastic disc used for recording music or other sound. A 120-mm di¬ ameter disc stores more than one hour of music. The disc is made by impressing one of its sides with the master disc, thus transferring to it a series of tiny pits of varying depth in an outward spiral. This is then coated with a layer of reflective aluminium and another layer of plastic. The disc is inserted into a CD player, in which a light beam from a lowintensity laser is alternately reflected and scattered by the pits; the light-sensor converts the varying light intensity into digital signals, which are con¬ verted by the high-fidelity amplifiers into music, speech, etc. The master disc is created by a reverse

• community medicine ►The medical specialty

process in which the minute pits are inscribed into

concerned with maintaining the health of com¬

the plastic disc by the laser of a digital recording in¬

munities. Also known in the UK as public-health

strument. As nothing mechanically touches the

medicine, it did not emerge as a distinct branch of medicine until the introduction of the National

wear with use; also, as the pits are covered by a

surface of the disc during playback, it does not

Health Service after World War 11. It includes such as¬

layer of plastic, they are unaffected by scratching

pects of health care as preventive medicine (im¬ munization, birth control, health visiting, mass

ensure continued high-quality sound reproduction.

screening tests, etc.) and monitoring special groups

See a/so: CD-I: CD-ROM; DVD.

of the population, notably young children and the elderly.

the surface or by deposits of dust. These two factors

• Companion of Honours (CH) A British order of chivalry instituted by George V in 1917 to honour

• community policing ► A method of main¬ taining law and order in which the police seek to

men and women who have made conspicuous con¬

forge links with local residents and consult with community leaders on a routine basis. In the UK

and 65 people, it confers no title.

many such initiatives were started in the 1980s, prompted especially by Lord Scarman’s report on the 1981 Brixton riots in London. This urged the need for greater cooperation by the police with the communities they serve - particularly with Black and other ethnic groups, who felt alienated from a

tributions to the nation. Limited to the sovereign

• comparative advertising ► An advertising technique in which a competing product is men¬ tioned by name and compared unfavourably with the advertised item. In the UK, information of this t5q)e is referred to as knocking copy. See also: Brand X.

predominantly White police force. Advocates of

• compassion fatigue ► Indifference to chari¬

community policing argued that only in this way

table appeals, especially in response to a disaster or

could the police effectively detect criminals, pre¬

crisis, caused by overexposure to images of suffer¬

vent crime, and protect the public. Many constab¬

ing and distress. Media reports of calamities in

ularies appointed a community liaison officer.

every corner of the world can leave a well-disposed

Compi^gne

108^

person feeling numbed and helpless, making them less rather than more likely to give their time or money to charity.

• Compi^gne ► The town in N France on the River Oise in which Joan of Arc was captured by the English in 1430. In the 20th century the Armistice ending World War 1 was signed by the Germans in a railway coach in a clearing in the for¬ est of Compiegne on 11 November 1918. On Hitler’s insistence the document acknowledging the defeat of France was signed on the same spot by the gen¬ erals Huntziger (France) and Keitel (Germany) on 22 June 1940.

• complementarity principles

the Science Museum built it in 1991) foreshadowed an electronic model, ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator), developed during World War 11 at the University of Pennsylvania. An enor¬ mous machine using 20,000 valves, it was designed to solve a specific problem related to high-altitude trajectories. Similar valve-based machines were sub¬ sequently built in the UK and France. However, the real computer revolution began in the 1950s and 1960s, when advances in information theory and the emergence of first the transistor and then the integrated circuit transformed computer design. The first computers were massive and expensive machines owned and run by large industrial, gov¬

See; quantum

ernment, or academic institutions, but during the

theory.

1970s and 1980s, siliconort of

cantankerous Daffy’s first real appearances came in

Dakar, capital of French West Africa, that took place on 23 September 1940. The Vichy authorities who controlled Dakar refused to switch their allegiance,

Porky's Duck Hunt (1937) and A Wild Hare (1940); his spluttering speech was articulated by Mel Blanc,

contrary to the expectation of the Free French leader, de Gaulle. The Dakar garrison fired on emis¬

who was the voice behind nearly all the Looney

saries from the landing force and Vichy warships shelled the British vessels. The British called off the

Tex Avery, Chuck Jones, and Robert Qampett. The

Tunes characters, including Bugs Bunny, Elmer Fudd, and Sylvester the Cat.

• daft^ Ee, ain't it grand to be daft The catch-

action when the scale of the opp>osition became ap¬ parent; de Gaulle’s hopes of establishing a Free French enclave in West Africa were dashed by the

phrase used by Albert Modley (1901-79), the north

expedition’s failure.

country British comedian, who was known nation¬

• Dakota ► The British name for the US-built Dou¬ glas DC-3 twin-engine aircraft, one of the stalwarts

wide in the 1940s through the radio programme Variety Bandbox. In the 1930s and 1940s, the great age of the radio comedy, it was regarded as ax¬ iomatic that anything said in a north country ac¬ cent was funny.

• DAG MAR ► Defining advertising goals for mea¬ sured advertising results. The principle, first soformulated in America in the 1960s, that the suc¬ cess or failure of an advertising campaign should be measured against objectives defined for it before it is embarked upon.

• dagmars ► Round protuberances on the front of some US cars of the 1950s. The name was inspired by Jennie Lewis, a US actress in TV comedies who was known as ‘Dagmar’ and noted for her own round protuberances. • Dai I t ireann ► The lower chamber of the par¬ liament of the Republic of Ireland. In Irish, ddil

of the early days of commercial flying. Introduced in 1935, the Dakota established a reputation for re¬ liability and low operating costs, playing a major role in the expansion of the airline business around the world. The original version carried 21 passen¬ gers and could cruise at 192 mph. Military versions were widely used during World War II; after the war many were converted for passenger use. Nearly 11,000 Dakotas had been built when production ceased in 1946. • daks ► Slang for trousers. Strictly speaking. Daks is a tradename for men’s casual trousers manufac¬ tured by Simpsons, the former clothing store in Piccadilly, London; the name was coined (1934) by the second son, Alexander, of the proprietor Simeon Simpson, from a combination of‘dad’ and ‘slacks’. The word is now mainly heard in the phrase to drop one’s daks, which became popular after it ap¬

means assembly and tireann means of Eire (the Irish

peared (1960) as one of the catchphrases in Barry

Gaelic name for Ireland). There are 144 members of the Dail, elected by proportional representation

McKenzie, the cartoon strip created by Barry Humphries for the magazine Private Eye. At the end

every five years. The first (illegal) Dail was set up in 1918 when 73 of the 103 MPs elected to represent

of the 1990s Simpsons closed and the store was bought by Waterstones, the bookselling chain, who

Ireland in Westminster were Sinn Fein members,

opened it as the largest bookshop in the world.

who refused to take their seats in the British par¬ liament. The Dail became the lower chamber of the Irish parliament in 1921-22, when the Irish Free State was created.

• Dalcroze Institute of Eurhythmies ► eurhythmies.

• Dalek ►

See; exterminate, exterminate.

See;

•

Dallas •

• Dallas ► A US television soap opera set in Dallas, Texas, and concerned mainly with the Ewings, a

tional classroom becomes a workshop, with the

large and powerful family involved in the oil busi¬

subsequently established in many European coun¬

ness. The show ran from 1978 to 1991 and proved

tries, as well as Japan and China.

teacher in a supervisory role. Dalton schools were

amazingly popular, its most memorable character

• Daltons ► The nickname, coined by the London

being the villainous schemer J. R. Ewing (Larry Hag-

Stock Exchange, for an issue of undated 2% Treasury

man), a Man You Love To Hate. Audiences reached a

stock, authorized by Hugh Dalton in 1947, when

peak in 1980, when ‘J-R.’ was shot - as it turned out, by his sister-in-law who was pregnant with his child

he was Labour chancellor of the exchequer. The value of the stock dived shortly after issue due to

(see. Who shot J.R.? at J.R.). The incident proved so

loss of stock-market confidence in the government’s

popular that the producers decided to have J.R. shot again when the show’s viewing figures started to de¬

financial strategy. See also: Dalton budget leak.

cline. The ludicrous plotting reached its nadir in the 1985-86 season, when Bobby Ewing (Patrick Duffy), who had been killed off some time before,

• Dambusters ► The nickname of 617 Squadron of the RAF. On the night of 17 May 1943, the squadron, led by Wing-Commander Guy Gibson, attacked and destroyed the Mohne dam in the Ruhr

returned to the show; the whole of the previous sea¬ son was now explained as ‘just a dream’. With its

valley and the Eder dam in the Eder valley, both

larger-than-life characters, materialistic values, and over-the-top fashions (immense shoulder pads for

dustrial heartland. The pilots flew low over the

the women), the show now seems a curious relic of

reservoirs behind the dams and dropped specially

its era.

designed bombs at a precalculated height and dis¬

• dallymoney ► A US name for money ordered by a court to be paid to a former sexual partner by the other partner when it has been proved that he or she gave assurances of long-term affection and fi¬ delity that were not fulfilled. The word is formed from the combination of‘dalliance’ and ‘money’ on the model of alimony (money paid by a spouse to a separated wife or husband) and palimony (money paid to an unmarried partner).

highly important strategic targets in the German in¬

tance. The so-called ‘bouncing bombs’ skimmed along the surface and exploded underwater at the base of the dam. The raid caused severe damage and high civilian casualties. The bombs were de¬ signed by the British aeronautical engineer Sir Barnes Wallis (1887-1979). In 1954 a popular ac¬ count of the episode, and the scientific saga leading up to it, appeared in the film The Dam Busters, in which Michael Redgrave played the part of Barnes Wallis and Richard Todd was Guy Gibson; the film’s

• Dalton budget leak ►The incident as a result

stirring and much-admired musical theme (by Eric

of which the British Labour chancellor of the ex¬ chequer, Hugh Dalton (1887-1962), was obliged to

Coates) was called ‘The Dambusters March’.

resign. Shortly before presenting his budget to the House of Commons on 13 November 1947, Dalton gave certain details of the budget to a lobby corre¬ spondent of The Star, one of London’s evening pa¬ pers. The paper was able to run a ‘Stop Press’ announcement of taxation changes before the House had been informed by the chancellor. This grave breach of protocol left Dalton with no option but to tender his resignation to the prime minister,

• dancehall ► A US slang euphemism either for the place in which an execution takes place or the cell in which a condemned prisoner awaits execu¬ tion. It probably derives from old criminal slang dance in the air, meaning to be hanged. The allu¬ sion is to the dancelike foot movements of someone being hanged.

• dangerous age ► An epithet that is usually pre sumed to refer to the age of 40, although in 1967

Clement Attlee. Dalton returned to the cabinet in

Dudley Moore starred in a film called Thirty is a

1948, as chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster.

Dangerous Age, Cynthia. It seems to have an air of

• Dalton Plan ► A system of US high-school edu¬

sexual innuendo, implying that once this milestone

cation developed by Helen Parkhurst (1887-1959) and named after the school in Parkhurst’s birth¬ place, Dalton, Massachusetts, in which a pilot scheme was introduced in 1920. Influenced by the Montessori method, the Parkhurst system is based

on learning ‘contracts’ in which pupils work on a particular topic for periods varying from one week

has been reached the trammels of marital fidelity will be thrown off in an attempt to provide re¬ assurance that one is still sexually attractive. See

also-. Life begins at forty; seven-year itch. • D'Annunzio raid ► The seizure of the city of Fiume (Croatian name; Rijeka) in September 1919 by a force led by the Italian Fascist novelist and poet,

to one month, organizing their own time and con¬

Gabriele d’Annunzio (1863-1938). Fiume was a Hun¬

sulting books and teachers as necessary. The tradi¬

garian port until 1919 when, as one of the spoils of

►►129

• darts •

war, it was claimed by both Italy and Yugoslavia.

scopes. Various exotic theories have been suggested

While it was still under the control of the League of

to account for this dark matter, including black

Nations, D’Annunzio led some 2600 demobbed sol¬

holes, cosmic strings, etc.

diers and Fascists and took over the city, much to the delight of Italian nationalists and the embar¬ rassment of the Italian government. He remained in control of Fiume until November 1920, when he was expelled following agreement between Italy and Yugoslavia. Fiume was briefly a free city, until its incorporation by Italy in 1923. As Rijeka, it be¬ came Yugoslavian in 1947, as reparation after World War n. Since 1991 it has been the chief seaport of in¬ dependent Croatia.

• Danny the Red ► Nickname for Daniel CohnBendit (1945-

), a West German student in France

who led a students’ revolt at Nanterre campus in Paris in May 1968. He was later deported to West Germany.

• DAP ► Draw a person. A psychological test in which the subject is asked to make a drawing of a person. Conclusions about the personality of the subject are drawn from the type of drawing pro¬ duced.

• dark star ► An invisible star, such as a compo¬ nent of a multiple star, the existence of which can only be deduced from infrared or radio emissions or from its observed gravitational effects.

• Darling Daisy^ Frances, Countess of Warwick, adulterous wife of the 5th Earl of Warwick and for nine years mistress of King Edward VII, whom he often addressed as ‘My Darling Daisy wife’ when writing to her. In 1914 she sought to increase her in¬ come by threatening to publish her memoirs, which would have included the late King’s letters. This was prevented by three prominent courtiers acting on behalf of King George V.

• Darling of the Halls ►

See: Prime Minister of

Mirth.

• Dartington Hall^ A community, near Totnes in Devon, founded in 1926 on enlightened social and economic principles. The founders were Leonard and Dorothy Elmhirst, who bought the Dartington estate in 1925. The following year they

• daps^ British slang for plimsolls or tennis shoes; it has been used, especially in Wales and SW Eng¬ land, since the 1930s. The derivation is uncertain, but it may be related to the verb to dap, meaning to bounce or skip.

• Dardanelles ► (formerly Hellespont) A narrow strait in N Turkey linking the Aegean Sea with the Sea of Marmara. The straits have always been of strategic importance as the gateway to Istanbul and the Black Sea from the Mediterranean. In ancient

established Dartington Hall School, a coeducational day and boarding school organized on progressive lines. Pupils enjoyed considerable freedom and in¬ formality (for instance there were no compulsory games or uniforms) and were encouraged to pursue their own interests in both the arts and sciences. The Elmhirsts also founded a range of small-scale rural enterprises on the estate, such as joinery, sawmilling, cider-making, and poultry-breeding. All employees have access to the artistic and edu¬

side (the straits are named after Dadanos, a former

cational opportunities afforded by Dartington, with the aim of enriching the community spiritually as

king of Troy). In the 4th century

well as economically. Ownership of the estate was

history they were guarded by Troy from the Asian bc

Alexander the

Great crossed over using a bridge of boats on his ex¬

transferred to a trust in 1932. The Dartington Hall

pedition against Persia. In April 1915 Allied forces

summer school for musicians has established an

landed on the W and S sides of the Gallipoli penin¬ sula guarding the straits, in a move to capture Is¬

international reputation.

tanbul and link up with Russian forces for an

ries of sex and drugs scandals. The philosophy of

offensive in the east. The campaign, marked by in¬

the school has, however, been carried on in the new

eptitude and indecisiveness on the part of the British commanders, quickly degenerated into a

Schumacher College on the same site, named after the green economist E. F. Schumacher (see; small is

bloody stalemate and the Allied forces were forced

beautiful).

to withdraw in January 1916. See also: Anzac. • dark matter ► The hypothetical matter in the

• darts ► An indoor target game in which sharp weighted darts (also called ‘arrows’) are thrown at

universe that cannot be observed by direct obser¬

a circular marked board. The game evolved from

vation of the electromagnetic radiation it emits.

military training in the Middle Ages, when 10-inch

Dartington Hall School closed in 1986 after a se¬

Its existence is postulated to account for the miss¬

throwing ‘dartes’ for use in close range combat

ing mass, i.e. the difference that is believed to exist

were thrown at archery targets or sawn-off tree

between the actual mass of the universe and that es¬

trunks: however, the modern version of the game is

timated by observations using all kinds of tele¬

less than a century old. In 1906 the first all-metal

130^4

• DAT •

barrelled dart was patented in the UK and in a court ruling of 1908 the game was designated one of skill, not chance, and made legal in pubs. The National Darts Association was formed in 1962, and the game’s most important tournaments are shown regularly on television sports programmes. These broadcasts became hugely popular in the 1980s, when leading players became household names.

• DAT ► Digital audio tape. A system for recording digitally encoded sound on magnetic tape. The for¬ mat is similar to that of a recording cassette but is capable of superior digital sound recording and re¬

the DSEA during ascent, in favour of free escape fol¬ lowing special training.

• Davis Cup ► The trophy awarded to the winners of the International Lawn Tennis Championship. It was donated in 1900 for the inaugural contest be¬ tween America and the UK by Dwight Filley Davis (1879-1945), who himself played for the US team in the opening contests. The competition now attracts some 60 nations. Each match comprises four singles and a doubles, and the eliminating round is played in three zones, American, European, and Eastern, with a zone final in each followed by an inter-zone

production. DAT technology is used widely in pro¬ fessional recording studios, and reasonably priced DAT machines are now available to consumers.

final to decide the winner. The most recent winners were; America (1990, 1992, 1995), France (1991, 1996, 2001), Germany (1993), Sweden (1994, 1997,

Widespread introduction of DAT machines was de¬ layed by attempts to reach international agreement on measures to prevent wholesale copying and

1998), Australia (1999), and Spain (2000).

piracy of compact discs.

• database ► Organized information held on a computer in a form that enables it to be put to a

number of different uses. The information has to be held in such a way that it can be easily retrieved. A special computer program, called a database man¬ agement system (DBMS), is used for this purpose.

• date rape ► A rape that occurs when a man takes a woman out on a date. More controversially, the term is also used to describe cases in which a woman submits to sex against her better judge¬ ment - because she has been made drunk, perhaps, or subjected to undue pressure. Such acts, which would previously have been thought of as seduc¬ tions, have now been redefined as rape by many feminists - although the law has not always agreed. More recently successful prosecutions have been brought in much less ambiguous cases of date rape, when the woman has been sedated or rendered un¬ conscious by means of socalled date-rape drugs,

• Dawes Plan ► A scheme for reorganizing repa¬ ration payments by Germany (see: Versailles Treaty), drawn up in 1924 by a committee headed by Charles Gates Dawes (1865-1951), a US brigadier-general. The scheme was devised in the wake of France’s in¬ vasion of the Ruhr in 1923 following default on pa)mients by Germany, with the intention of obvi¬ ating such military sanctions in future. Central to the plan was the establishment of a German gold reserve based on an 800 million goldmark foreign loan and a system of reparation payments that would prevent currency depreciation and link pay¬ ments to German industrial growth. The total amount of reparations payable was not fixed. The Dawes Plan was superseded in 1930 by the Young Plan. Dawes himself became Republican vice-presi¬

dent (1925-29) and was awarded the 1925 Nobel Peace Prize (jointly with Austen Chamberlain) for the Dawes Plan, which many regarded as having saved Europe from economic collapse.

• dawk ► In America, a person who cannot make up his or her mind about whether to approve of a

which leave their victims with no memory of the at¬

war or to campaign for peace. The term, a blend of

tack. Drugs that have been used for this purpose in¬ clude GHB. the hypnotic Rohypnol, the sedative

dove and hawk, plays on the slang word ‘dork’ or fool. It was coined by Time magazine during the

midazolam, and the anaesthetic ketamine.

Vietnam War, to describe Republican politicians who

• Davis apparatus ► More properly known as

approved of the war in principle but opposed it for political reasons.

the Davis Submerged Escape Apparatus (DSEA). De¬ signed by Sir Robert Davis, the apparatus was in¬ troduced in the late 1920s to assist submarine crews

• dawn raid ► Business jargon for a sudden sur¬

to escape from submerged vessels. It consisted of a

prise attempt to buy a company’s shares as soon as the stock market opens, in order to effect a takeover.

mouthpiece and flexible tube attached to a rubber

The term became current in the early 1980s during

bag, which in turn was connected to a pressurized

the takeover boom in the City of London. The Lon¬

oxygen-filled container. This enabled the sub¬

don Stock Exchange and Council for the Securities

mariner to breathe during the ascent to the surface.

Industry subsequently introduced regulations to

The main drawback was the need to remove the mouthpiece on reaching the surface or risk suffo¬

limit the amount of shares that can be acquired in this way.

cation. In 1946 the Royal Navy discontinued use of

Takeovers are for the public good, but that's

Dayton anti-Darwinist trial •

►►131

not why I do it. 1 do it to make money. - sir The Sunday Times. 8 Septem¬ ber 1985.

tended by six weeks, so that it began in late March

• day^ Go ahead, make my day A catchphrase

October 1945. Double Summer Time (i.e. two

meaning ‘go ahead if you dare’, the implication

in force during the summers of 1941-45 and 1947

being that the outcome will benefit the speaker, not

to save fuel. See also: BST.

JAMES GOLDSMITH,

and ended in late October. During World War II it extended continuously from 25 February 1940 to hours in advance of GMT instead of one hour) was

the person spoken to. It originates from a 1983 Clint

In America, Summer Time (March to October)

Eastwood film Sudden Impact, in which the rogue

was in force in 1917 and 1918 and again from 1942

cop ‘Dirty Harry’ (played by Eastwood) uses it twice, both times while pointing a gun at an armed crim¬ inal.

Time). In 1966 the Uniform Time Act re-introduced

to 1945 (all the year round and known as War Summer Time (from the last Sunday in April until the last Sunday in October) while allowing indi¬

• day^ Have a nice day A phrase widely used as a

vidual states the right of option. In the years since

valediction, especially by sales staff in shops, restau¬

World War II a number of other countries have

rants, and garages. It originated in 1956 as ‘Have a happy day’ when the Los Angeles advertising

adopted some form of Summer Time.

agency, Carson Roberts, used it as a greeting and as a slogan on all their promotional products. In the

• Daytona Beach ► A city and popular beach re¬ sort on the NE Florida coast. It was named in 1876 after local landowner Mathias Day of Ohio. The

1970s it became ‘Have a nice day’. Most of the good¬

hard sandy beach stretches for 37 km, and the sur¬

will inherent in the phrase has been drained from

face has attracted motor-sport enthusiasts since

it by overuse. ...the Americanization of Western culture: Dal¬ las and Coca-Cola and ‘Have a nice day!’ - mark LAWSON, The Independent, 5 January 1991.

• day^ that'll be the day! An ironic way of refer¬ ring to an event that is never likely to happen. The catchphrase supplied the title for one of Buddy Holly’s most popular hits (1957) and was more re¬ cently adapted as ‘That’ll be the Daewoo’ to adver¬ tise Daewoo cars.

1903, including the British land-speed record holder. Sir Malcolm Campbell (1885-1948). Motor spoi't is also found at the Daytona International Speedway, a 4-km race track used for motorcycle, stock-car, and sports-car events.

• Dayton anti-Darwinist trial ► The test case brought in 1925 by evolutionists to challenge the anti-evolutionist campaign of religious fundamen¬ talists then gaining momentum in many southern US states {see: fundamentalism). In Tennessee, such fundamentahst opinions were embodied in an Anti-

• day care ► The practice of keeping old or ill people in supervised centres during the day, i.e. during normal working hours, so that the people

Evolution Law, passed in March 1925. A biology

looking after them can go out to work. In America,

which incorporated Darwinian theory. His arrest

the term is also used for nursery schools for pre

was contrived by a friend and anti-fundamentalist,

school children.

George Rappelyea. Scopes was defended by the il¬

• daylight saving ► The idea of making fuller use of the hours of daylight by advancing the clock

lustrious attorney, Clarence Darrow (1857-1938);

originated with Benjamin Franklin, but its intro¬

teacher at Dayton high school, John T. Scopes, was arrested for using the standard high school text,

the prosecution’s case was put by William Jennings Bryan (1860-1925), leader of the fundamentalists.

duction was due to its advocacy from 1907 by

Darrow vehemently argued the case against reli¬

William Willett (1856-1915), a Chelsea builder. In

gious interference in education and managed to

1916 it was adopted first in Germany and then in the UK as a wartime measure, British clocks being

humiliate Bryan during the course of the trial. Nev¬

advanced one hour from Greenwich Mean Time. In

dollars. On appeal the decision was reversed on a

the UK it became permanent by an Act of 1925.

technicality. Moreover, one of the appeal judges

Summer Time, as it was called until 1939 (and again in 1946 and from 1948 till 1959), began on the

ruled the Tennessee Anti-Evolution Law unconsti¬

day following the third Saturday in April (unless

and the tide of fundamentalism began to ebb. How¬

that was Easter Day, in which case it was the day fol¬

ever, the revival of Christian fundamentalism in

lowing the second Saturday in April). It ended on

the later 20th century means that evolution still

the day following the first Saturday in October. In

cannot be taught in a proper scientific fashion in

1961 and all subsequent years Summer Time was ex¬

many public schools in the US South.

ertheless, Scopes was found guilty and fined 100

tutional, Bi-yan died shortly after the initial trial

dazzle gun

132^

• dazzle gun ► A weapon used by the Royal Navy in the Falklands Conflict in 1982 but not made pub¬

nated on the New York Stock Exchange to indicate a temporary recovery in prices (after a substantial

licly known until the late 1980s. It is a laser gun

fall) caused by speculators buying in stock they had

used to dazzle pilots of enemy aircraft or other at¬

sold at a higher level. It does not imply a sustained upward trend in the market and the fall may well continue when these buyers have covered their pur¬

tackers. • dazzle ships ► In World War I, warships painted in zigzag patterns to confuse the enemy as to the vessel’s size, speed, and course. A highly special¬ ized application of camouflage, the patterns were de¬ signed by leading contemporary artists and are now considered to have had significant value as art in their own right. • DBE^ •

See. Order of the

DC aircrafts See:

British Empire.

Douglas aircraft.

• D-Day ► In World War 11, the day appointed for the Allied invasion of northern Europe and the opening of the long-awaited Second Front. It was

chases. • deadhead ► l. Slang for a very boring or dull person. See also: airhead. 2. US slang for a scrounger or someone who avoids paying, for example by fail¬ ing to buy a ticket on a train. 3. A fan of the US rock group the Grateful Dead, whose career started in the late 1960s and ended only with the death of their leader, guitarist Jerry Garcia, in 1995. The group were known to their devoted fans, some of whom made following the group a full-time occu¬ pation, as 'The Dead’. • Dead Heart ► In Australia, the central barren

eventually fixed for 5 June 1944, but owing to im¬

desert region of the country.

possible weather conditions, it was postponed at

Canadian, and US troops were successfully landed

• dead-in-the-water ► Denoting a company or corporation that is making very little progress and is therefore ripe for a takeover bid. The allusion is to a dead fish, which is simply drifting in the water

on five beaches in Normandy - the largest am¬

rather than swimming in a specific direction.

the last moment until 6 June. Under the supreme command of Eisenhower, some 160,000 British,

phibious operation in military history. Operation Overlord had begun.

• DDT ► Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane. A highly toxic synthetic insecticide. First made in 1874, it was first used as an insecticide in 1939 by the Swiss chemist Paul Hermann Muller. Extensive use was made of it during World War II against lice, fleas, and mosquitoes, as well as crop pests. Unfortunately many insect species become immune to the com¬ pound, which builds up in their bodies and then contaminates animals, such as birds and mammals, higher up in the food chain. As a result, in 1972 se¬ vere restrictions were imposed on its use in Amer¬ ica, and many other countries subsequently banned it. • dead beat ► Completely exhausted, absolutely ‘whacked’, like a dead man with no fight left in him. A deadbeat is a useless or idle person, a

• dead-letter box ► A box or other receptacle in which spies are supposed to deposit messages and other information to be picked up by other agents. The term has been popularized by writers of spy fic¬ tion. See also: drop. • dead man's handle ► A handle on the con¬ troller of an electric train, etc., so designed that it cut off the current and applied the brakes if the dri¬ ver released his pressure as a result of sudden ill¬ ness or some other cause. It was formerly applied to electric, diesel-electric, diesel-mechanical, and diesel-hydraulic trains but was renamed driver’s safety device, a term with less distressing associa¬ tions. • dead president ► US Black slang from the 1940s for any paper money bearing the head of a de¬ ceased US president.

beat dads was widely used for the growing phe¬

• Dead Sea Scrolls ► In 1947 a Bedouin goatherd, Muhammed the Wolf, made the first

sponger or parasite. In the late 1990s the term dead¬ nomenon of young men who impregnate their

scroll discoveries in a cave at the NW end of the

girlfriends and then take no resfxmsibility for ei¬

Dead Sea, since when 500 more have been found.

ther mother or child.

Most scholars accept them as originating from the monastery of the Jewish sect of the Essenes at Qumran. There is still much controversy over their in¬

• dead but won't lie down ► Catchphrase used since around 1910 in statements such as ‘he’s dead but he won’t lie down’, meaning that some¬ one. through stupidity or courage, does not know when to give up. • dead-cat bounce ► An expression that origi¬

terpretation but these manuscripts (dating from the period 150 bc to 70 ad) have added considerably to the understanding of both the Old and the New Testaments. In the early 1990s a bitter controversy arose about the delay in making the scrolls’ con-

• decaffeinated •

►*>133

tents fully available to the public and the restric¬

ver in a car, so called because it is the most vulner¬

tions placed on independent scholars seeking ac¬

able position in an accident.

cess. It was alleged (not altogether convincingly)

• death squad ► A group of people organized, ei¬ ther unofficially or officially, to commit murder.

that one reason for this may have been the scrolls’ bearing on orthodox Christian beliefs.

• dead sheeps See: sheep

in sheep's clothing.

• dead soul ► An expression that owes its origin to the title of the Russian author Nikolai Gogol’s novel Dead Souls (1842); in this book a swindler, Chichikov, buys serfs who are in fact dead but offi¬

The term was originally applied in the 1970s to un¬ official vigilante groups in certain Latin American countries, who worked to assassinate politicians and others who opposed the current military regime. More generally, it has been applied to any group organized for assassination.

tax register. The expression re-emerged in 1989

• death star or throwing star ► A weapon consisting of a small thin metal disc cut into the

when 110 members of the Central Committee of

shape of a star and having sharp-edged points. De¬

cially still alive, as their names still appear in the

the Communist Party of the Soviet Union were re

signed to be thrown, it was adopted by British foot¬

moved from office by President Gorbachev, whose

ball hooligans in the late 1980s. The death star is

plans for perestroika they were obstructing. It is now

one of a range of weapons popularized by martial

used to describe a person who retains a position in

arts enthusiasts, who use a less dangerous rubber

an organization, even though he or she is no longer

version.

making any positive contribution.

wife, girlfriend, or female partner indicating that

• death-valley curves The ominous decline in the curve on a graph that records the use of a new company’s capital. With high start-up expenses and

the relationship with the recipient is over. The ex¬

small income from sales, the death-valley curve is

• Dear John letter ► A letter or note from a

pression originated during World War 11, the re¬ cipients of Dear John letters often being members of the armed forces whose female partners at home had formed a new relationship as they were un¬

likely to frighten off new investors and sources of venture capital. The decline should be halted as sales reach predicted levels and start-up expenses fall.

willing to tolerate the long separation that over¬

• debrief ► To question a member of the armed

seas service entailed.

forces, spy, astronaut, etc., after a tour of duty or

• dear money or tight money ► A monetary

mission has been completed in order to obtain the

policy in which interest rates on loans are high. See also: cheap money.

possible, i.e. before other influences can colour the experience. It is the opposite of the briefing given

• dear old pals»- A contemptuous catcall some¬ times heard at boxing matches when it appears that the two opponents are not fighting with the aggression that the audience have paid to see. It was derived from the popular song ‘Dear Old Pals, Jolly Old Pals’.

• death duty^ See:

maximum information from him or her as soon as

before the duty or mission begins.

• deb's delights British slang of the 1960s for an upper-class young man, noted more for his inher¬ ited wealth than his intelligence, who nevertheless might be chosen as a suitable escort, or even a mar¬ riage partner, by a debutante’s parents. It was often

inheritance tax.

• Death Row ► US name for the cells of a prison in which condemned prisoners are held until their execution. Because of the protracted nature of US legal processes, prisoners can spend many years waiting for the sentence to be carried out. During the 1960s and 1970s only a few executions actually took place; most death sentences were automati¬ cally commuted to life imprisonment. However, in the more conservative political climate of the 1980s and 1990s, executions took place in many US states on a regular basis. In 2000 it was calculated that

used disparagingly by debs themselves. The debs had names such as Charlotte, Eleanor, Sophie, Annabel, Samantha, Astrid, and Jokey. Their escorts - the deb’s delights - were called Patrick, Hugo, and Alexander. - The Independent, 10 April 1991.

• decaffeinated ► Denoting coffee and some other drinks that have had their caffeine content re¬ moved in response to consumer demand for natural beverages free from potentially harmful stimulants. Decaffeinated coffee, colloquially known as decaf, is now widely available. There is some concern, however, about the health risks from the solvents,

there were some 3500 prisoners on Death Row.

such as methylene chloride, used to dissolve out the

• death seat>- Slang for the seat next to the dri¬

caffeine. Traces of this solvent remaining in the

decathlon •

134^

product can make decaffeinated coffee more of a health hazard than the natural drink. • decathlon ► An athletic contest in the modern Olympic Games consisting of ten events: 100 m sprint, long jump, putting the shot, high jump, 400 m sprint, 110 m hurdles, discus, pole vault, throwing the javelin, and 1500 m run. See also: pen¬ tathlon. • deccie or deccy ► A derogatory slang term for someone who is constantly redecorating his or her house and who moves house frequently in order to start another round of interior decorating. The term originated in the 1980s when much gentrification of old property was taking place. This type of word, ending in ‘-ie’ or '-y’, was very popular at the time, owing to the runaway success of the term yuppie (oryuppy). • decimal currency ► The currency introduced in the UK on 15 February 1971, the new pound con¬ sisting of 100 pence. The introduction of a decimal currency was first mooted by the Tory MP, John Croker, in 1816. The idea was again put forward in parliament in 1824, 1847,1853, and 1855. During the last two years he had devoted him¬ self to decimal coinage with a zeal only second to that displayed by Plantagenet Palliser... - ANTHONY TROLLOPE: Phineos Redux (1874). See also: metrication. • decision tree ► A diagram sometimes used in the analysis of a financial situation, especially in making investments. The diagram is used to illus¬ trate the p>ossible courses of action that flow from a decision: the possible courses are represented by branches at different levels arising from a series of

precludes the possibility of determinate meaning. A deconstructionist reading will therefore seek to expose the ways in which a text continually un¬ dermines its own claims to coherence. In journal¬ istic usage the term is often merely a pretentious synonym for ‘analyse’ or ‘subvert’.

• Dedalus, Stephen ► The eponymous hero of James Joyce’s novel A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1914-15), who also appears in Joyce’s Ulysses (1922). The earlier book, which is mainly autobio¬ graphical. relates the story of Stephen’s upbringing and development in Dublin, through school and adolescence, to his student days at Trinity College. Exposed to the pressures of Irish nationalism and Catholic dogma, and afflicted by poor eyesight, Stephen struggles to retain his individuality and to create a sense of personal destiny as poet and pa¬ triot. At the end of the book he resolves to leave Dublin for Paris: I go to encounter for the millionth time the re¬ ality of experience, and to forge in the smithy of my soul the uncreated conscience of my race. Despite this ringing declaration, Stephen re¬ appears in Ulysses as a rather uncertain and lonely young man adrift in Dublin on one particular day - 16 June 1904 (see: Bloom, Leopold). Unlike his mythological Greek namesake, the inventor Daedalus who made himself a pair of wings, Stephen finds that he cannot so easily soar above the common problems of humanity. • de-dyke ► British lesbian slang of the 1980s and 1990s meaning to remove the traces of a lesbian lifestyle from a house, usually before a parental visit. See also: dyke.

decisions taken subsequent to the initial decision.

• deep covers The cover story of a spy who sus¬

• deck-access ► Describing a block of flats in which there is a continuous inset balcony on each floor, onto which the front doors of the individual flats open.

tains his or her role in another country for such a long time and so intensely that the details of the in¬

• decommissioning ► See:

Good Friday Agree¬

ment; IRA.

• decompression chambers A room or space in which the air pressure can be varied at a con¬ trolled rate to enable people, such as divers, who have been exposed to abnormal atmospheric pres¬ sure to be returned to normal pressure slowly, in

vented character virtually take over from those of the real agent.

• deepfreeze ► A type of refrigerator in which food, etc., can be stored for long periods at below freezing. Most deepfreezers operate at -15°C to -20°C; these same temperatures are also achieved in the deepfreeze compartments of an ordinary do¬ mestic refrigerator.

order to avoid decompression sickness.

• deep-sea divert British rhyming slang for a fiver, a £5 note. It was mainly used in the mid-1970s.

• deconstruction ► A method of reading literary and philosophical texts devised by the French phi¬

• deep-six ► US slang meaning to bury or dispose of, i.e. to kill. Used since the 1950s, it derives from

losopher Jacques Derrida (1930-

). Proceeding

the underworld euphemism deep six, meaning a

from a structuralist understanding of language {see. Structuralism), Derrida claims that the unlimited

grave, which alludes to the minimum depth (6 ft)

play of linguistic differences within a given text

for a grave and the minimum depth of water for burials at sea.

Delaney amendment

• Deep Thought ► A character in the cult radio series The Hitch Hiker's Guide to the Galaxy (1978-79) by Douglas Adams. Deep Thought is an extraordi¬

m>135

volves a barrage of diagnostic tests, many of which are totally unnecessary, and routine referrals to a consultant or other doctor for a specialist or second

ing of Life, the Universe, and Everything, ponders

opinion when these are not needed. The tests can in fact be harmful to patients and both these and sec¬ ond opinions are extremely expensive and time-

for seven and half million years - and comes up

consuming. Originally, defensive medicine was

with the answer of 42.

restricted to America but from the 1980s some doc¬ tors in the UK also began to practise it in the light

narily intelligent supercomputer which, when asked to provide the Ultimate Answer to the mean¬

• Deep Throats Deep Throat was the code name of the top-secret information source within the ad¬ ministration of President Richard Nixon, used by Washington Post reporters Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward during their investigation into the Wa¬ tergate affair (1972-74). Although the journalists

refused to reveal the identity of this source, some commentators have suggested possible candidates. The codename was taken from the title of a very successful pornographic film (1974) about a young lady whose clitoris is located in her throat. In in¬ terviews the film’s star, Linda Lovelace, claimed to have developed a method for controlling the gagging reflex in fellatio, which accounted for her spectacular performance. Later, however, she claimed that she had been coerced into making the film by threats of beatings and violence.

• def ► British slang of the late 1980s denoting ex¬ treme approval; excellent. It is a shortening of ‘de¬ finitive’ and was originally part of hip-hop jargon. In 1988, BBC2 started a TV series for young people called DEF IJ.

• de facto ► Australian slang dating from the 1940s (or earlier) for a live-in partner with whom one has an enduring relationship but to whom one is not married. Although 29% of British women in the age range 18-49 were cohabiting in the year 1999, there is no widely accepted word to describe either of the partners. In most contexts, ‘my part¬ ner’ is used: the formal ‘common-law spouse’ is mainly used in legal contexts or as a joke. See. cohab; live-in; significant other.

• Defense Intelligence Agency ► (DIA) The or¬ ganization created in 1961 to coordinate all gath¬ ering and analysis of US military intelligence. It largely took over the previously separate intelli¬ gence branches of the US Army, Navy, and Air Force. The DIA’s director is responsible for supplying the defense secretary and joint chiefs of staff with mil¬ itary intelligence information.

of an increase in negligence and malpractice suits brought against them.

• defrosted ► US slang meaning worked up, the opposite of cool and unflustered. • De Havilland Aircraft Company ► The air¬ craft manufacturing company founded in the UK in 1920 by Geoffrey de Havilland (1882-1965). One of the earliest models to achieve fame was the de Hav¬ illand Moth, first produced in 1925. One was pi¬ loted by Amy Johnson on her solo flight from the UK to Australia (see: Queen of the Air). During the 1930s the de Havilland Tiger Moth was adopted by the RAF as their principal trainer, while the allwooden Mosquito bomber was one of the fastest planes to fight in World War 11. Perhaps the com¬ pany’s greatest contribution to aviation history was the Comet, the world’s first jet-propelled airliner. De Havilland’s companies were taken over by Hawker Siddeley in 1959.

• Dehra Dun Academy ► The military acad¬ emy of the Indian army, established in 1932 at Dehra Dun, a city in NW Uttar Pradesh. From 1949 it also catered for air-force and naval officer cadets, but in 1955 all basic officer cadet training was transferred to the new National Defence Academy at Khadakvasala, near Poona. Thereafter Dehra Dun provided advanced training for newly qualified of¬ ficers.

• Delaney amendment ► In America, an amendment to the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act prohibiting the use of substances that cause cancer. The amendment, proposed in 1970 by the US Con¬ gressman James J. Delaney, stated that ‘no additive shall be deemed to be safe if it is found, after tests which are appropriate for the evaluation of food ad¬ ditives, to induce cancer in man and animals’. The amendment became extremely controversial in the 1970s because the US Food and Drug Administra¬ tion interpreted it in a strict way, irrespective of the

• defensive medicines The practice by doctors

dose involved. For example, in 1970 they banned the use of cyclamates, artificial sweetening agents

of taking extreme precautions to cover themselves

widely used in the food industry, on evidence that

against possible accusations of negligence and to

massive doses caused bladder tumours in rats. In

avoid being sued by patients or relatives of patients

1977 they invoked the Delaney amendment to ban

for supposed malpractice. Defensive medicine in¬

the sweetener saccharin.

136■ See. Montezuma's revenge. • Delhi pact*^ Either of two separate pacts signed in Delhi that figure in modern Indian history. The first, signed in 1931 and also called the GandhiIrwin pact, was an agreement between the leader of the Congress Party, Mahatma Gandhi, and Lord Irwin, viceroy of India. The pact, addressing some of Congress’s grievances against the British, marked a truce in the Congress campaign of civil disobe¬ dience. It also established Congress as the princi¬ pal conduit of Indian opinion in the Round Table constitutional conference. The second Delhi pact was signed in April 1950 between the Indian prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, and his Pakistani op¬ posite number, Liaqat Ali Khan. The pact ensured the rights of Muslim and Hindu minorities in their resp>ective countries; it was prompted by a massive two-way migration across the East Pakistan-lndian border following partition and fears that religious minorities in both countries would suffer persecu¬ tion. • dell ► Short for delicatessen, a shop selling un¬ usual foods (sometimes cooked), especially those of a particular ethnic or national origin, e.g. a Jew¬ ish deli, an Italian deli, etc.

• delta wing ► An aircraft wing in the form of a

supersonic fighter aircraft based on the delta-wing design, the F-102. British models, such as the Hawker Hunter and the Vulcan bomber, followed later. Because of their benefits at supersonic speed, narrow delta wings were chosen for Concorde, which was designed to cruise at Mach 2; American Orbiter space shuttles have also used a similar design. • deltiology ► The pastime of collecting picture postcards. Picture postcards became popular early in the 20th century, especially in the form of greet¬ ings cards sent by people on holiday to their friends and relations. As the cards became more diverse, some having photographs on one side depicting local scenery and some having cartoons with faintly risque jokes, so the hobby of collecting them began to grow. The word is formed from Greek deltion, a diminutive of deltos, a writing tablet, and the suffix ‘-ology’, as in biology. • delusions of grandeurs A form of megalo¬ mania in which the person concerned has a grossly inflated idea of his or her importance. Although the expression derives from the language of psychology in the early 20th century, it is now widely used in common speech to describe someone who needs to be deflated from time to time.

• demand-pull inflation*- See: inflation. • dementors ► See. Potter, Harry. • demi-veg *- Short for demi-vegetarian, a diet in which the major components are vegetarian but the consumption of poultry and fish is permitted. Such a regime rules out the eating of red meat, which some medical experts regard as being inju¬ rious to health. • demo ► 1. Slang for a street demonstration. 2. Slang for a demonstration recording that wouldbe pop musicians send in to recording companies or disc jockeys, hoping to get their work known. 3. Slang for a demolition job, either in the literal sense of knocking a building down or in the figu¬ rative sense of denigrating someone behind his or her back. • Demochristian ► An informal term for a mem¬ ber of any of the European political parties that have ‘Christian Democrat’ in their name.

triangle with its apex pointing in the direction of

• demographic timebomb ► An expression coined at the end of the 1980s to describe an an¬

motion, which facilitates passage through the

ticipated shortfall of potential workers as a result of

sound barrier. Experiments with delta-wing de¬ signs, also known as sweptback wings, were car¬

sumption is that, in the absence of enough young

ried out by the Germans during the 1940s; after

people to fill the jobs available, others, such as re-

an earlier drop in the national birth rate. The as¬

• Desert Fox •

►►137

tired people or women who had not previously worked, would be required to work. The phrase was

marines during World War II. However, they are

used despite the high unemployment rate current

are little used today.

not so effective against nuclear submarines and

at the time.

• Derbyite ► In World War I, a soldier enlisted

• demonstration model ► A consumer prod¬

under the Derby Scheme of 1915. The Earl of Derby

uct, such as a car or washing machine, that has

was director of recruiting and sought to promote a scheme of voluntary enlistment by age groups. The

been used in the showroom of a retail outlet to demonstrate the model to potential buyers. When

response was quite inadequate and conscription

the model being demonstrated is changed, or the demonstration model begins to show signs of use,

was instituted in May 1916.

it may be offered for sale at a discount to the nor¬ mal price.

• denim ► Coloured (usually blue) twilled cotton

• DERL ► Derived emergency reference level. The point at which action must be taken to counteract a potentially dangerous rise in radiation levels. The reference level is calculated on the basis of the most

material, the name deriving from a contraction of

sensitive members of the public, usually children

serge de Nimes, originally made at Nimes in the south of France. The garments themselves are known as

below one year of age.

‘denims’. Until the 1960s denim was considered

• derry ► British slang for a derelict building. The term is used by tramps looking for shelter, by home¬

only suitable for working garments, overalls, etc. but from the middle of that decade denim jeans

less people seeking a place in which to squat, or by

began to be worn as fashionable casualwear by both

people looking for derelict country properties to renovate.

sexes; other denim garments (shirts, jackets, etc.) are also now regarded as fashion items, especially

• derv ► Diesel-engined road vehicles. A t5fpe of

when the fabric is artificially aged (see: granite-

diesel oil used in road vehicles. The word was orig¬

wash).

inally World War II service slang.

• Denning report ► The report of an enquiry into the security aspects of the Profumo affair, con¬ ducted by the Master of the Rolls, Lord Denning (1899-1999). He concluded that the liaison between the UK’s former war minister, John Profumo, and the call girl, Christine Keeler, had posed no threat to national security in spite of Keeler’s association with a Soviet naval attache. Denning also found no evidence to support rumours about the possible in¬ volvement of other ministers. However, Denning’s criticisms of the existing security arrangements prompted the prime minister, Alec Douglas-Home,

• deselect ► A euphemism meaning to exclude from participation or availability. It was first used in the UK in the early 1980s in the context of Labour party politics. Sitting MPs who lost the confidence of their constituency parties were faced with po¬ tential deselection, i.e. having their candidature re¬ scinded before the next general election. The verb was later applied to others in a similar situation, such as local-government councillors. It has now ac¬ quired much more general application: for exam¬ ple, ‘deselected’ library books are those removed from public circulation.

to establish a standing committee on security.

• Desert Fox^ Nicloiame of Field Marshal Erwin

• Denver boot ► A wheel clamp: a metal clamp attached by the police, or a private firm acting for

Rommel (1891-1944), so called because of his intu¬ itive strategy as commander of the German Afrika

the police, to one wheel of an illegally parked car to

Korps in World War II. One of Hitler’s most popular

prevent it from being driven away until the driver

generals, he also enjoyed the respect of many Allied soldiers. After the success of the Allied landings in

has paid a substantial fee to have it unlocked, plus a statutory fine. It takes its name from Denver, Col¬ orado, where the device was first used. In the streets of New York and London (from 1983) its introduc¬ tion greatly reduced illegal parking.

France in 1944, he became convinced that Germany would be defeated and pleaded with Hitler to end the war. He was subsequently implicated in the July 1944 bomb plot (see Stauffenberg Plot) against Hitler, although he was not involved in the assassination

• Depressions

5ee: Great Depression.

• depth charge ► A drum packed with explo¬ sives, which can be timed to detonate at a pre-set

attempt itself, preferring that Hitler should be de¬ posed and brought to trial. In October 1944, while at home recovering from a wound received in an air

submarines. Depth charges are usually launched

raid, he was visited by two fellow generals, who gave him a choice between a public trial and sui¬

in groups to cover a pattern and were used with

cide. He chose the latter and was given a hero’s

considerable success against diesel-engined sub¬

state funeral.

depth, used by surface vessels to destroy submerged

138onse to the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait.

wing policies and a new emphasis on PR, media put down to the influence of Peter Mandelson (see:

• designer stubble ► A man’s one- or two-day’s growth of beard that has intentionally been left unshaved to create a relaxed unsmart image.

• designer water ► An ironic description of bot¬ tled water. For many years, the idea that the British should actually buy water in bottles in their own country would have seemed ludicrous. It was the sort of thing that they felt obliged to do when ven¬ turing abroad: foreign tap water was regarded as unclean, unwholesome, and dangerous. In the

• Desert Storm ► The military codename for the

1980s. however, there was a change in attitude and

US and British air attack on Iraq, which began on 17

home sales of bottled water increased dramatically

January 1991, in response to Saddam Hussein’s in¬

for both carbonated and still water. There were a

vasion and rape of Kuwait (August 1990). In order to

number of reasons for this. Perhaps the most sig¬

protect the other Gulf States and Saudi Arabia, to

nificant was a highly successful advertising cam¬

force Saddam to leave Kuwait, and to achieve su¬

paign for the French product Perrier water. This

premacy over the Iraqi war machine (the fourth

was helped by the deteriorating quality of British

largest in the world), a massive multinational force

tap water, by a general increase in the public’s

had previously been built up in Saudi Arabia under

awareness of health issues, and by the growing feel¬

the code name Desert Shield. The short land war

ing that it is wise to abstain from alcohol altogether

• detoxification centre •

before driving or during working hours. Drinking bottled water instead of tap water is expensive but chic, hence the ‘designer’ label.

• desk jockey ► A facetious and often derogatory description of an office worker, coined by analogy with disc jockey.

• desktop publishing ► (DTP) The use of a desk¬ top computer with page make-up software and a laser printer to produce professional-quality docu¬ ments that may include graphics and photographs as well as text. The first page-layout software pro¬ gram, Aldus PageMaker, was released for the Apple Macintosh computer in 1985; this software and hardware combination remains the standard by which other DTP systems are judged. Because of the substantial savings in time and labour resulting from using DTP (rather than traditional typeset¬ ting), similar technology is now used at the highest level to produce books, magazines, and newspa¬ pers. • Desmond ► British student slang of the 1980s for a lower second class degree, i.e. a 2/2. It is a play on the name of the South African archbishop, Desmond Tutu. See also: Douglas; Pattie; Taiwan. • des res ► Short for desirable residence. Origi¬ nally estate agents’jargon used in advertisements, it passed into common usage in the late 1980s to refer to a property with many attractive features, to¬ gether with ‘all mod cons’ (i.e. all the usual modern conveniences). • de-Stalinization ► The reversal of the policies of the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin (1879-1953) fol¬ lowing his death. A campaign to discredit Stalin’s memory was started by his successor, Nikita Khrushchev (1894-1971), in a bitter speech at a closed session of the 20th Party Congress in March 1956. Here he denounced Stalin as a despot and brutal mass-murderer interested in ‘the glori¬ fication of his own person’. It has been said that Khrushchev’s speech was interrupted by a shout from the audience of ‘Why didn’t you stop him?’. Khrushchev glared at the delegates and shouted ‘Who said that!’. Nobody spoke, and Khrushchev continued, ‘Now you know why!’. A number of similar terms have been coined, for in¬

►►139

the painter Piet Mondrian (1872-1944) and the ar¬ chitect Gerrit Rietveld (1888-1964). The school ad¬ hered to Mondrian’s principle of neoplasticism, which stressed the use of horizontal and vertical lines and of white, black, grey, and primary colours. De Stijl had an important influence on the Bauhaus school.

• Destour ► The Tunisian Liberal Constitutional Party: a nationalist political party formed in 1920 to press for Tunisian independence from French colo¬ nial rule and for reinstatement of the suspended Tunisian constitution {dustiir). After organizing strikes and boycotts in the early 1930s, Destour was banned by the French authorities in 1933. A break¬ away faction, Ndo-Destour, emerged soon after and eventually eclipsed its progenitor, in spite of several attempts to revive Destour in the 1940s and 1950s. Under Habib Bourguiba (1903-2000), NeoDestour achieved independence for Tunisia in 1956.

• detente ► The relaxing or easing of tension be¬ tween nations. The word is particularly associated tvith the efforts to improve superpower relations that occurred in the 1970s, beginning with the Nixon-Brezhnev meetings and US rapprochement with China. The early 1980s, however, saw a return to hardline Cold-War attitudes.

• detention centre ► A former institution for the short-term detention of young male offenders aged between 14 and 20. Custodial sentences were usually for between 21 days and four months. These centres operated a regime of rigid discipline, hard work, and physical exercise, in accordance with the government’s ‘short sharp shock’ policy, announced by William Whitelaw at the 1979 Conservative Party conference. However, statistics for those commit¬ ting subsequent offences after release failed to in¬ dicate that this tougher regime had had a deterrent effect and detention centres were replaced by young offender institutions. • detox ► Short for detoxification. The word has two main senses in contemporary English. One is abstention from illegal drugs or alcohol as part of a programme of treatment for those who have be¬ come physically addicted to these substances {see: detoxification centre). The other is a regime of strict dieting (usually based on organic fruits and veg¬

stance de-Maoization (or de-Maoification) for the

etables) designed to rid the body of toxins such as

reversal of the ideas of the Chinese leader Mao Tse-

caffeine, alcohol, etc.

tung (1893-1976) following his death; and deThatcherization following the resignation of the British prime minister Margaret Thatcher in 1990. • de StijI ► (Dutch, the style) A school of Dutch artists and architects who launched a periodical of the same name in 1917; the leading members were

I can’t wait to get started on my next 28-day detox and lose the pounds I’ve put on over Christmas she enthused. - carol vorderman, quoted in The Sunday Times, 7 January 2001. • detoxification centre ► A clinic to which al¬ coholics and drug addicts go to receive professional

140143

transmitter, essentially uses a band of numerous carrier frequencies called a multiplex, which can be

degu, to understand. The word was used in this

transmitted in the gaps between the existing ana¬

sense in the 1930s but re-emerged in the 1950s and

logue transmissions in the UHF part of the electro¬ magnetic spectrum. Digital audio broadcasting

1960s as beat or hippie jargon, meaning to like or ap¬ prove of. It now sounds very dated.

• dig for victory ► A campaign run by the British Ministry of Agriculture during World War n urging garden and allotment owners to grow food to help the war effort. The campaign involved a propaganda barrage - over ten million leaflets were distributed in 1942 alone. By 1944, 25% of fresh eggs were sup¬ plied by domestic hen keepers; there was also a pig¬ keeping craze, with over 6900 Pig Clubs in existence by the end of the war.

(DAB) employs the VHP frequency band, formerly used for TV transmissions but now empty. Satellite and cable broadcasters use different methods of transmitting the signal. The first digital television transmissions were made in 1997 from satellites and seen by audiences in France and the USA. In the UK it is expected that the switch to digital will be completed by about 2010, when all viewers will require a set-top de¬ coder for their TV set, or an integrated digital TV.

• digger ► An Australian. The name was in use be¬

The timetable for digital radio is less certain. One hurdle is the high cost of digital radios compared to

fore 1850, consequent upon the discovery of gold,

analogue receivers.

and was applied to Anzac troops fighting both the

hippies who distributed free food, etc., to those who

• digital clock ► A watch or clock featuring a readout in figures (usually the 24-hour system) as opposed to the revolving hands of a normal (ana¬ logue) clock. Early forms of digital clocks used light-

needed it. The name was derived from its use by a

emitting diode (LED) displays but these were

small group of social revolutionaries under Gerrard Winstanley (c. 1609-60) who began to dig the

superseded by superior liquid crystal displays (LCD). Digital read-outs are now widely used in many mea¬

common at St George’s Hill, Surrey in 1649. Their

suring instruments.

aim was to give back the land to the common peo¬

• digital mapping ► A method of map making in which the points and lines that make up the map are fed into a computer in digital form and

World Wars.

• diggers ► In America, a group of West Coast

ple, but they were soon suppressed by the Cromwellian army leaders.

• digital ► Describing a device or process in which data is represented as a series of discrete numerical

stored on magnetic tape or disk. Subsequently the map, or a selected part of it, can be displayed on a

quired the general sense ‘relating to computers or

screen or printed out, to any scale or in a variety of forms of projection. Changes can also be made with¬ out needing to redraw the map. In 1973 the UK Ordnance Survey began converting its maps to the

computerization’.

digital form.

• digital broadcasting ► The transmission of television and radio programmes or other data as a

• digital photography^ A form of photography in which the image produced by an optical camera

digital signal. Compared to the traditional ana¬

is stored in digital form as pixels on a computer

logue system, digital broadcasting has several ad¬

disk. The picture can then be viewed on a computer screen or printed out by a colour printer (the qual¬

values. Because nearly all computers are digital, in that they manipulate information in the form of groups of binary numbers, the word has also ac¬

vantages. The most compelling for broadcasters is that because the signal is relatively ‘compressed’, it creates space for many more channels, including ones that transmit only text or graphics rather than programmes. Moreover, the quality of both sound and pictures is improved, because the signal is much less prone to distortion than analogue signals. An¬ other feature is the capacity it provides for inter¬

ity of the print depending on the quality of the printer and the paper). Although the quality does not yet equal that of normal photography, the ad¬ vantage of the process is that once converted to digital form the image can be altered in a variety of ways (cropped, retouched, etc.) or mixed with other digital images.

ticipate directly in live broadcasts, shop over the In¬

• digital recording ► A method of recording sound on digital audio tape (see: DAT), compact discs, or DVD, in which the signal is sampled up to 30,000

ternet, or send e-mails (see: interactive television).

times per second and its characteristics are repre

active programming, whereby viewers can use their TV sets in a host of new ways - for, example to par¬

Digital transmission of ‘terrestrial’ television

sented by digits, in the same way that all forms of

(DTT), received via an aerial from a ground-based

information are handled by a computer in digital

digital versatile disk

144-to-ship communication in the British

being entitled to it. This phrase is sometimes used in a more general sense to mean a lazy and unreli¬

fleet enabled the remaining German vessels to es-

able person.

cajje.

• doll ► 1. Originally US slang for a woman. Al¬

• Dogger Bank incidents The tragic and star¬

though probably not coined by the New York writer

tling attack by ships of the Russian Baltic fleet on

Damon Runyon, it was popularized by the title of

Australian slang for someone

Hull trawlers off the Dogger Bank in October 1904.

his collection of short stories Guys and Dolls in 1933.

Two of the British vessels were sunk, with the loss

The term became popular again in the 1970s, when

of their captains. Apparently, the Russians, en route

it was also used of men by women. Feminists see it

domino operation

►►151

as having a patronizing and proprietorial flavour.

technique provides a relatively easy means of

2. US slang for a pill containing either barbiturates or amphetamines, especially as used by middle-

sheep that has been painstakingly genetically en¬

class abusers of prescribed drugs. It is thought to

gineered to produce a human blood-clotting factor

have been invented by the US writer Jacqueline Susann, who used it in the title of her novel The Valley

in its milk. A similar technique is also being used to clone

of the Dolls (1965). It may be derived from the idea of a doll as a source of comfort.

endangered species, to help ensure their survival. In

• dollar diplomacy ► Governmental support and furtherance of commercial interests abroad for both political and economic ends. The phrase,

provides the recipient egg cells and acts as the sur¬

popular with critics of US policy, stems from the Taft administration (1909-13), which fostered such policies in the Far East and Latin America. Their in¬ tention was to control as well as to promote enter¬ prise abroad by substituting dollars for bullets and lending ‘all proper support to every legitimate and beneficial American enterprise abroad’.

• dollar shop ► A shop in a communist or for¬ merly communist country in which goods may be purchased for US dollars, or other hard foreign cur¬ rency, rather than for the local currency. Such shops supply luxury goods and other items not readily obtainable in the ordinary local shops.

• doll city ► A US teenage slang expression used to describe a beautiful person, either male or fe¬ male, or a beautiful place or idea. It can also be used as an exclamation of approval.

• Dolly the sheep ► A sheep bom in Febmary 1997 at the Roslin Institute, near Edinburgh - the world’s first mammal to be cloned from a body cell

cloning so-called transgenic animals, for instance a

this case another, usually closely related, species rogate ‘womb’.

• dolphinarium ► An aquarium or pool in which dolphins are kept, typically one in which the dol¬ phins have been trained to perform tricks for pub¬ lic entertainment.

• dominatrix^ A Latin word meaning either a fe¬ male ruler or a mistress. In the late 1980s it be¬ came associated with the idea of a woman as the provider of sexual gratification in a dominant or disciplinarian role.

• Dominici murders The murder of the British nutritionist Sir Jack Drummond, his wife Anne, and their ten-year-old daughter on 4 August 1952 while camping in the French Alps at Digne. A 77year-old farmer, Gaston Dominici, was found guilty of the crime two years later, but reprieved in 1957. The mystery was never solved.

• dominion status ► A term formerly used in re¬ lation to certain countries within the British Com¬ monwealth, meaning that they were self-governing states rather than colonies. The term ‘dominion’ was applied after 1919 to Canada, Newfoundland,

of an adult animal (see: clone). The birth of the ewe lamb attracted enormous press coverage, with many commentators seeing human cloning as the

Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, and their

next step. Such interpretations were discouraged by

tus...united by a common allegiance to the Crown’. Subsequently, any such country was referred to as

the scientists involved, led by Ian Wilmut. The real significance of Dolly’s birth is that she was devel¬ oped from cultured cells taken from the udder of a mature ewe. Prior to this, cloned mammals had all been derived from embryos, or cultured embryo cells: DoUy opened up the possibility of cloning an¬ imals using much more easily obtained tissues.

status was defined in 1926 as ‘autonomous com¬ munities vrithin the British Empire, equal in sta-

a ‘dominion’.

• domino operation ► A surgical operation de¬ veloped in the late 1980s in which the heart and lungs from a deceased person are transplanted into the body of a patient whose lungs are in need of re¬

The technique used involves taking an unfertil¬

placement but whose heart is sound. This patient’s

ized egg cell from a recently ovulated animal, and sucking out the chromosomes, which carry the

heart is then transplanted into another patient

cell’s genetic instructions. This ‘empty’ cell is then fused with a donor cell obtained from the animal

of replacement. The reason for this procedure is

to be cloned, and containing a full set of its chro¬

alone is less successful than transplanting heart

mosomes. When the fused cell starts to develop

and lungs together; the domino operation is also

like a normal embryo, it is transferred to the womb of a surrogate mother to develop into a fetus. How¬

economical with transplant organs, which are often

ever, only 1-2% of cloned embryos survive to be¬

pital, W London, the operation is thought to owe its

come living genetic replicas of the donor animal

name to the fact that the face of a domino piece is

and some of these die soon after birth. Even so, the

divided into two equal parts, rather than to any

whose lungs are healthy but whose heart is in need that it has been found that transplanting the lungs

in short supply. First performed at Harefield Hos¬

152-m

domino theory

connection with the ‘domino effect’ (see: domino theory).

• domino theory ► The theory prevalent in US foreign policy during the Cold War, which justified US intervention in SE Asia to contain the spread of communism. President Eisenhower explained the theory in a press conference on 7 April 1954: ‘You have a row of dominoes set up. you knock over the first one. and what will happen to the last one is

between unions and employers. Donovan also ad¬ vocated setting up an independent Industrial Rela¬ tions Commission to investigate problem areas of industry and the establishment of Labour Tribunals to examine grievances held by individuals against either employers or unions. The report was criti¬ cized by some for rejecting criminal sanctions to curb unofficial strikes and picketing.

• Don't just stand there, do something! ►

that it will go over very quickly’. The theory was em¬ braced as a moral imperative by subsequent US ad¬

An exhortation that became a catchphrase in the

ministrations, in the belief that if Indochina went communist, then so would Burma, Thailand, and

a voluntary organization that helps the suicidal

Malaya, followed by all the other countries of SE

times inverts the exhortation to ‘don’t just do some¬

Asia. The communists could then pose a danger¬ ous threat to Australia and New Zealand and there¬

thing, stand there’.

after to the remainder of the free world. The

a particular issue, especially someone who refuses

domino theory led directly to America’s disastrous involvement in Vietnam (see: Vietnam War).

to give a definite answer either way in an opinion

1940s. generally used humorously. The Samaritans, and despairing by listening to them at length, some¬

• don't know*- A person who is undecided about

poll. See also floating voter.

The effect in which a row of dominoes collapses if one falls is used metaphorically in other con¬

• doodlebug*- See.

buzz bomb.

texts, and is often known as the domino effect.

• doofer ► 1. A jocular term for a thing whose

• Donald Duck*- British and Australian rhyming

name has been temporarily forgotten or was never

slang for fuck, often abbreviated as in: ‘fancy a Don¬

known, as in ‘pass that doofer over’. 2. Slang for a

ald?’ It derives, of course, from the Disney cartoon character, an irascible duck who was first seen in

half-smoked cigarette, the other half of which will

The Wise Little Hen (1934).

is still heard.

• Donington Park ► A motor racing circuit near Castle Donington, Derby. It was originally opened in

doolally’, might be said of someone who has suc¬

‘do for’ later. This usage dates from World War II but

• doolally ► Temporarily deranged. ‘He’s gone

1931 for motor cycles and saw its first car racing

cumbed to a short-term stress by behaving in a

event in 1933, which was organized by the Derby

strange way that is out of character. The word

and District Motor Club. One of the first closed road

comes from the British army in the years of the Raj

circuits in the UK, the Donington track ran for 2

(until 1947). Soldiers due to return to the UK were

miles through wooded parkland of the former seat

sent to a camp in Deolali, near the port of Bombay,

of Lord Hastings. During World War II Donington

where they often remained for some time before

was used as an army vehicle depot and the circuit

being shipped home. Their restless unsettled be¬

fell into disuse. It was not until 1977 that Doning¬

haviour was described as ‘doolally dap’ (dap being

ton reopened for motor cycling and automobile

Urdu for fever).

events. It is now a venue for saloon, sports car, and formula racing events, including Formula 3 and Formula 3000. Donington also hosts the British

• Dolittle, Doctor*- See. • Doolittle, Eliza*-

Doctor Dolittle.

See; Higgins, Professor.

Motor Cycle Grand Prix.

• Doolittle raid ► A US bombing raid on Tokyo

• donkey ► British slang for a slow or clumsy per¬

and other Japanese cities by planes from the carrier

son. It is often used by football fans, who make

USS Hornet, which took place on 18 April 1942. The

bra)ang noises at a player (particularly one from

US test pilot Colonel James H. ‘Jimmy’ Doolittle led

the opposing team) who misses a ball or plays badly.

his force of 16 bombers more than 800 miles across

• Donovan Report ► The report of the Royal

the Pacific to their targets. Being unable to return

Commission on Trade Unions and Employers’ As¬ sociations, chaired by Lord Donovan and published in 1968. The Report focused on ways of reducing the high incidence of unofficial strikes in British in¬

over such a distance, the planes flew on into China. Two crashed in Japanese-controlled territoiy. Doolit¬ tle was awarded the Congressional Medal of Hon¬ our for his exploit.

dustry and recommended moving towards local

• doom-and-gloom merchants A person who

plant agreements in place of national agreements

seems to enjoy bad news and can be counted on to

• dot com •

►►153

put the worst possible interpretation on any situa¬ tion.

Dora was portrayed as a long-nosed elderly female,

• Doomsday Clock ► An image of a clock con¬

• dormitory town ► A small town vAthin com¬ muting distance of a larger town, the majority of

tained in each issue of the Bulletin of Atomic Sci¬ entists (founded 1945) that indicates the time supposedly remaining before the nuclear holocaust

the personification of restriction.

the residents of which work in the larger tovm. Be¬ cause property is so expensive in the large cities of

(imagined to take place at 12 o’clock). In 1945 the

Europe and America, many people live in dormitory

time was set to 11.52, at the height of the Cold War it was moved to 11.58, but following Gorbachov’s re¬

towns, where houses and flats are cheaper. In ad¬

forms in the Soviet Union and the collapse of com¬ munism in E Europe, it was put back to 11.50.

as havens from the crowds, noise, and pollution of

• Doomsday machines A hypothetical nuclear weapon designed to destroy all human life when

• Dormobile^ Tradename for a type of small van equipped with living accommodation; a type of

triggered by a nuclear attack. The idea behind the Doomsday machine is that if nuclear weapons act

camper.

as a deterrent then the ultimate deterrent would be automatic destruction of everybody. The concept was first put foward by the US mathematician and ‘futurologist’ Herman Kahn (1922-

).

• doorstepping ► Journalists’ slang for their un¬ popular and unprincipled custom of waiting out¬ side the private house of someone in the news, in order to obtain a doorstep interview the moment the person steps outside. • doo-wop ► A type of male harmony singing popular in large US cities in the 1950s, especially among Blacks and Italians. The name, which was coined in the 1960s after the popularity of the style had declined, is derived from the ‘doo-da’ of Negro songs and the derogatory ‘wop’ for an Italian; it also reflects the nonsense sounds used in the singing.

• dope ► 1. In the 20th century this word became very familiar as a term for an illegal drug, or as a verb meaning to drug. This presumably derives from its 19th- Nick¬ name of Grosvenor Square. London, during World

viding automated search for topics of interest and

War n. when all the surrounding buildings were oc¬

convenient links between text, pictures, graphics,

cupied by American Military Headquarters. A statue

and sound. Scientific and other academic journals

for encyclopedias and other reference works, pro¬

of Eisenhower now stands in the square, which con¬

now routinely publish electronic versions online,

tains the US Embassy.

and in some cases have abandoned printed versions

• elan vital ► (French, vital impetus). A force that

altogether. This enables direct inputting of materi¬

drives the evolutionary process in all living things,

als from the author, rapid updating, and more or

as described by the French philosopher Henri

less instantaneous dissemination directly to the subscriber.

Bergson (1859-1941) in his Creative Evolution (1907. translated 1911). The concept was developed in of>-

The phenomenal expansion of the Internet dur¬

position to Darwin’s evolutionary theories, which

ing the 1990s also brought the advent of the elec¬

Bergson considered too mechanistic. See: creative evolution.

tronic book, or e-book. These are books that are

• elbow bender ► British slang for a heavy drinker, from the idea of someone constantly bend¬ ing their elbow to lift a glass to their lips.

• electrification ► Communism is Soviet power plus the electrification of the whole country Apo¬

prepared by a publisher exclusively in electronic form and posted on the publisher’s website in en¬ crypted form. Prospective readers can sample the text and chat online with others who have read the book, or perhaps with the author. A payment to the publisher then allows them to download the complete unencrypted version to their PC. The pub¬ lisher thereby avoids all the traditional costs of

litical slogan adopted in the Soviet Union in 1920.

printing and distribution. E-books can incorporate

It was coined by Lenin with reference to the pro¬

all the multimedia elements of graphics, video, and

posed electrification programme.

interactivity, and are especially suited to ‘how-to’

• El Nino

►►169

manuals, such as cookery and DIY books. However, no electronic product can yet match the portability

or the Glashow-Weinberg-Salaam theory). The ulti¬ mate objective of particle physics is to combine

and straightforward appeal of the printed book as

these elementary particles and fundamental forces

a means of publishing novels or similar works.

into one unified theory.

• electronic tagging ► A system for monitoring the movements of certain categories of convicted

• eleven plus ► The selection tests formerly given to schoolchildren at the age of eleven, or just over

persons or persons on bail by attaching a low-

that age, throughout England and Wales as a means

powered radio transmitter to a bracelet worn on the

of judging their suitability for the various t5rpes of secondary education provided by the Education Act

wrist or ankle. The continuous signal emitted by the transmitter is picked up by a device attached to a telephone in the person’s home, which sends a message to a controlling computer in a remote cen¬ tre if the offender moves more than 75 metres from the telephone.

• electronovision ► A system enabling televi¬ sion programmes to be transferred from videotape to film for the big screen, hailed on its introduction in 1965 as a breakthrough for the cinema industry. Two cinema films were made by this method before it was discarded as artistically and financially unviable.

• electroweak theory ►

See fundamental forces;

of 1944 (secondary modern, secondary technical, secondary grammar, etc.). The tests became a target for those who, for reasons political and social as well as educational, were seeking to replace the ex¬ isting pattern of education in England with com¬ prehensive schools (see: comprehensivization). In the 1970s the examination largely disappeared with the majority of grammar schools; in some areas it was replaced by a twelve plus examination.

• Elginism ► The illicit removal of items of cul¬ tural value - especially antique fireplaces - from stately homes or other sites of historical interest. The word was first used in 1986 when a rash of

unified-field theory.

such thefts was reported: it derived from Lord Elgin’s controversial removal of friezes from the

• elementary particles The fundamental con¬ stituents of which all the matter in the universe is constructed. Until J. J. Thomson (1856-1940) dis¬

Parthenon in Athens to the British Museum in 1816 (at a time when occupying Turkish forces were

covered the electron in 1897 it was assumed that matter was made from indivisible atoms. When Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937) discovered the atomic nucleus in 1906, it was thought that elec¬ trons orbited a central indestructible nucleus. By 1932, with James Chadwick’s (1891-1974) discovery of the neutron, the atomic model consisted of a nucleus of protons and neutrons surrounded by sufficient negative electrons to balance the posi¬ tive charge of the nucleus. Since the niid-1930s var¬ ious models to account for the stability of the nucleus have been proposed, accepted, and super¬ seded. In the current model, electromagnetic, strong, and weak forces are recognized as control¬ ling the structure of matter (see: fundamental forces). The electromagnetic force, mediated by photons, holds the electrons in orbits around the nucleus and determines the ‘chemical’ properties of atoms. This is described by the theory of quantum elec¬ trodynamics. The strong force, mediated by gluons between the constituents of hadrons (protons, neutrons, and pions) is described by quantum chro¬ modynamics. Hadrons are not themselves funda¬ mental particles but consist of quarks between which gluons are exchanged. Weak interactions controlling radioactive decay are mediated by pho¬ tons, W, and Z particles, according to quantum flavourdynamics (also called the electroweak theory

using the Parthenon for target practice).

• Ellery Queens 5ee: Queen. Ellery. • Ellis hanging ► The execution of Ruth Ellis, the last woman to be hanged in the UK. She was sen¬ tenced to death for murdering her lover (who was having an affair with another woman) and was hanged at Holloway Prison on 13 July 1955. Her story provided the plot for the films Yield to the Night (1956) and Dance with a Stranger (1985). • Ellis Island ► An island in Upper New York Bay that served as the main immigration station for America from 1892 to 1943 and as a detention cen¬ tre for illegal aliens until it was closed in 1954. Ellis Island is close to the Statue of Liberty, whose in¬ scription (‘Give me your tired, your poor, your hud¬ dled masses...Send these, the homeless, tempest-tost to me’) must have had a hollow ring for many of those detained there: the centre was infamous for its impersonal procedures and the casual brutality of its staff. It is now part of the Statue of Liberty Na¬ tional Museum. • El Nino ► A southerly current of warm water that occurs off the western coast of South America roughly every three to seven years. It is accompa¬ nied by disturbances in weather patterns, both in the Pacific region and further afield. The Spanish name El Nino (‘the Child’) refers to the Infant Jesus,

170^*

el primo

and was originally used for a warm current that ar¬

has been a revival of film-making at Elstree; part of

rives at the Peruvian and Ecuadorian coasts every

the site is also used by the BBC.

December around Christmas time. However, during

• Elvis the Pelvis ► The nickname by which the

the 20th century, the term ‘El Nino’ came to refer

US rock 'n' roll singer Elvis (Aaron) Presley (1935-77)

to an irregularly recurring large-scale reversal of

became known in the late 1950s. His suggestive hip

water currents that stretches across the tropical

movements on stage while performing such hits as

Pacific Ocean. Normally the easterly trade winds

‘Hound Dog’ and ‘Heartbreak Hotel’ (both 1956)

push warm water from east to west, causing it lit¬

displayed a raw sexuality never before seen in White

erally to pile up off the coast of Indonesia. This pro¬

popular music and earned him his nickname. How¬

duces the heavy rainfall generally associated with

ever, in deference to his commanding stage pres¬

Southeast Asia. However, in certain years the trade

ence. unrivalled record sales, and pivotal role in

winds weaken, or even reverse their direction, and

creating modern pop and rock music, Presley’s mil¬

the ‘pile’ of warm water flows back towards the

lions of admirers worldwide prefer to know him as

east. In such years, the normally arid east coast of

the King of Rock ’n' Roll or simply the King.

South America receives much greater rainfall, while

Like some other monarchs, Elvis has inspired a

Southeast Asia experiences drier conditions. El Nino

strangely persistent legend that his death (of a heart

is associated with the oscillation of an air mass

attack) was faked and that he is still alive and in hid¬

over tropical regions known as the Southern Oscil¬

ing somewhere. Although there is no real evidence

lation, and the combined oceanic and meteorolog¬

for such a belief, sightings of the unfortunate singer

ical fluctuations are termed the El Niflo-Southem

continue to be reported by his more impression¬

Oscillation (ENSO).

able fans. There seems little doubt that a grossly

An intense and sustained El Nino can have dev¬

overweight Presley died of heart failure brought

astating consequences for the world’s climate. The

on by poor diet and drug dependence over many

occurrence in 1982-83 was particularly severe, and

years. See also: Graceland.

brought drought to Australia, Southeast Asia, and Africa, while the eastern American seaboard was hit by torrential rain and floods. Many lost their lives or homes, while the damage to crops and property was immense. Other recent occurrences have been in 1987, 1992, 1993, 1994, and 1998. Some have linked the unusual frequency of the El Nino phe¬ nomena during the 1990s with global warming. However, the events involved are highly complex, and no one has yet determined exactly how they start, and equally how they stop. A warm El Nino event is sometimes followed by the occurrence of especially cool water in the eastern Pacific. This event, termed La Nina (‘the little girl’), is all part of the same complex ENSO

• e-mail ► A means of exchanging text messages between connected computers. The computers may be connected as part of a local area network (e.g. within a company’s offices) or by means of the tele¬ phone network (see; Internet). A person wishing to send a message, letter, or data in electronic form keys the message, attaching any data file to be transmitted, and sends it to a recipient identified by a unique address. To receive a communication, someone with an e-mail address calls up the central computer, keys in a password, and receives any mes¬ sage or data that has arrived in his ‘mail box’. The system is now widely employed by both business and private users.

cycle.

• embuggerance^ A complicated problem. The

• el primo ► (Spanish, the first) The best. A US ex¬

word was apparently used in the engineering fra¬

pression coined in imitation of Hispanic speech.

ternity for some years before it came to wider notice during the Falklands Conflict of 1982, when it was

• el ropo ► A cigar, or a joint. Derived from the

used by the Royal Engineers, who were faced with

idea that rough tobacco and marijuana look like,

complicated logistical tasks.

and smell like, burning rope.

• Elstree*- The site near Borehamwood, in outer

• Emden*Didn't you sink the Emden? An Aus¬

London, of the famous British film studios. Elstree

tralian catchphrase ofWorld War I, used to deflate

became a centre of film-making in the 1920s and

anyone indulging in excessive self-praise. The Emden

produced numerous classics of the British cinema

was a German light cruiser that caused consider¬

during the next two decades. From the late 1960s

able damage to shipping and ports in the Pacific be¬

activity there was greatly reduced, although the

fore it was eventually sunk by the Australian cruiser

technical facilities continued to be used from time

Sydn^ off the Cocos-Keeling Islands in November 1914.

to time by top US producers. Since the 1990s there

►►171

endangered species

• emmet ► A tourist. A Cornish dialect word, meaning an ant, that is used disparagingly of the

Austrian-Italian film star Elissa Landi (1904-48). A leading lady in the 1930s, she starred in such largely

masses of summer tourists that swarm to Cornwall

forgotten films as The Sign of the Cross (1932) and

each year. Grockle is another dialect word with the same meaning.

The Count of Monte Cristo (1934).

• Emmy ► A US award granted annually in various

• empty nest ► An expression used of a house¬ hold when all the children have grown up and left

categories to television programmes that have

home. The parents, who may be left feeling bereft

achieved a certain standard of excellence. The

and directionless after all the years of taking care

awards are usually considered the Oscars of the tele¬

of the children, are known as empty nesters. The phrase has a particular financial relevance as these

vision industry. The name is derived from Tmmy’, a shortened form of image orthicon tube.

• Empires How is the Empire? The last words of George V, spoken to his private secretary in 1936. Others have it that his last words - spoken in reply to his doctor’s assurance that he would soon be well enough to visit Bognor Regis - were Bugger

parents, who will usually have paid off their mort¬ gage and have acquired some savings, may find themselves in possession of a substantially larger amount of disposable income than they have been accustomed to when there were more demands on their pocket. • EMS^ See: European Monetary System.

Bognor. The latter may have been said by the King

• emu-bobber ► A worker employed to remove

in 1929, in reply to the suggestion that the town be renamed Bognor Regis to commemorate his con¬

debris after an area of Australian bush has been cleared.

valescence there after a serious illness.

We...went to Wingadee to work for a contractor at buming-off. This work is also known as ‘stick¬ picking’ or ‘emu-bobbing’. A group of men bending to pick up the fallen timber, with heads down and tails up, look veiy much like a flock of emus. - h. p. tritton: Time Means Tucker. An operation in which an area is cleaned up by

• Empire Day ► A day instituted by the Earl of Meath in 1902, after the end of the Boer Wars, to en¬ courage schoolchildren to be aware of their duties and responsibilities as citizens of the British Em¬ pire. The day set aside was 24 May, Queen Victo¬ ria’s birthday. In 1916 it was given official recognition in the UK; it was replaced by Com¬ monwealth Day (12 March) in December 1958. • Empire Free Trade ► An unsuccessful cam¬ paign (1929-31) to establish free trade throughout the British Empire. It was spearheaded by the press barons Lords Beaverbrook and Rothermere, who ar¬ gued the case with crusading zeal in their news¬ papers and founded the United Empire Party in an attempt to gain a parliamentary platform. The cam¬ paign foundered on the reluctance of the Domin¬ ions to give free entry to British goods and finally collapsed with the onset of the Great Depression in the 1930s.

emu-bobbers is known as an emu parade. •

enchilada ► See:

big enchilada.

• encounter group ► A group of people who gather together to share their deepest feelings and anxieties. Participants in such sessions are encour¬ aged to lose their inhibitions in order to achieve self-awareness and personal growth. See also: con¬ sciousness raising; group therapy; sensitivity training.

As encounters multiplied and perspective deep¬ ened, Jane found herself kicking pillows and hurling finger paint with the worst of them and feeling, as a result, relieved of some fossil fears. - brad darrach, ‘Gropeshrink’.

• Empire State Buildings One of New York’s best-known skyscrapers, built in Manhattan in

• end^ an end to the beginnings of all wars

1930-32 by Shreve, Lamb, and Harmon at a cost of

The hope for the future expressed in the last speech

$41 million. The scene of the climax of the film

of President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Broadcast the

King Kong (1933), in which the giant gorilla ascends

day after his death in April 1945, his words in full

the building and fights off attacking aircraft, the

were: ‘More than an end to war, we want an end to

Empire State Building remained, at 381 m (1250 ft)

the beginnings of all wars.’

high, the tallest in the world until the World Trade Center was completed in the same city in 1974. The

ened species identified by the International Union

building acquired its name by allusion to one of

for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Re¬

New York City’s colloquial titles, the Empire City

sources (lUCN). Populations of these species are at

(acknowledging its wealth and importance).

a critical level and are in immediate danger of ex¬

• Empress of Emotion ► The nickname of the

tinction; the term also includes species that may al-

• endangered species ► A category of threat¬

172^.

end of story

ready be extinct but have definitely been seen in the wild in the previous 50 years. Endangered species include: orang-utan (Pongo pygmaeus) mountain gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) tiger (Panthera tigris) black rhinoceros {Diceros bicomis) Indian elephant (Elephas maximus) pygmy hog (Sus salvanius) red wolf (Canis rufus) sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus) crested ibis (Nipponia nippon) peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) Californian condor (Gymnogyps califomianus) loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) green turtle (Chelonia mydas) See alsa. extinct; threatened species; vulnerable species.

• end of story ► A phrase used to bring an argu¬ ment or discussion to a close - brusquely and con¬ clusively, if onesidedly. A child nagging a parent for some favour may be told ‘End of story’ if it per¬ sists in its demands longer than the parent con¬ siders acceptable.

• end of the beginning ► The words with

and efficient travel, Amundsen: but when you are in a hopeless position, when there seems no way out. get down on your knees and pray for Shackleton. - Fellow-explorer of shackleton’s.

• Enewetak ► See:

Eniwetok.

• England »If I should die, think only this of me: That there's some corner of a foreign field that is forever England One of the bestknown quotations to emerge from World War 1, these lines come from ’The Soldier’ by Rupert Brooke (1887-1915). Brooke died of blood poisoning on a hospital ship in the Aegean, on his way to the Dardanelles; his corner of a foreign field is on the is¬

land of Scyros. See: Grantchester; war poets.

• England ► Speak for England The resounding cry of an anguished Conservative backbencher during a parliamentary debate on the eve of World War II. At 7.30 p.m. on 2 September 1939, Neville Chamberlain disappointed the House of Commons by telling them that further negotiations were in progress to persuade Hitler to withdraw his troops from

which Winston Churchill greeted news of the Allied victory at Alamein in North Africa in November 1942. His words in full were: ‘This is not the end. It is not even the beginning of the end. But it is, per¬ haps, the end of the beginning.’

Amery reflected the mood of everyone present

• endsville ► A US expression for the absolute

when he shouted from the Conservative benches;

worst. It originated in the beatnik jargon of the 1950s and is still heard. The suffix ‘-sville’ is used in

‘Speak for England, Arthur!’ Greenwood’s ‘Every

a similar way in numerous other contexts.

illing our national interests...imperilling the very

• Endurance ► The ship in which Sir Ernest

foundations of our national honour’ was probably

Shackleton travelled to the Antarctic in 1914. The expedition’s problems began when the Endurance

ultimatum the next morning. The absence of a Ger¬

became locked fast in ice; for months the members of the team waited for the ship to free itself, but fi¬ nally it sank. Living off penguin meat and seaweed,

Poland. What both sides of the House wanted was an ultimatum. As Chamberlain sat down to a dis¬ mayed silence, Arthur Greenwood, acting leader of the Labour Party (Attlee was ill), rose to speak. Leo

minute’s delay now means the loss of life, imper¬

influential in persuading Chamberlain to send the man reply to this ultimatum led Britain and France to declare war on Germany on 3 September.

• English »■ put on English A US expression meaning to

Shackleton and his fellow-explorers spent the next five months drifting on an ice floe. Two years after

apply spin to the ball in billiards or baseball, pre¬

setting out on the voyage, they transferred to the three remaining ship’s boats and eventually landed

sumably an allusion to the practice of spinning the ball in cricket.

on a bleak ice-covered island. The only hope was to reach South Georgia, 800 miles away across one of the worst stretches of ocean in the world. Un¬ daunted, Shackleton and five volunteers set off in one of the boats, just 22 feet long. Over the next two

• English as she is spoken Acatchphrase used to refer to the attempts of foreigners or illiterates to speak the English language.

• English breakfast ►The large cooked morning

weeks the six men were constantly soaked, sub¬

meal beloved of the Victorians and still produced,

jected to intense cold, and frequently threatened

with varying degrees of competence, at hotels and

with being washed overboard by huge waves. Re¬ markably, they survived, reaching South Georgia

bed-and-breakfast establishments throughout the

and enabling the whole team to be rescued without a single loss of life.

greasy caffs, and in some private homes at week¬

For scientific leadership give me Scott; for swift

repast starting with porridge and continuing with

UK as well as on trains, in gentlemen’s clubs, in ends. Interpretations of the phrase range from a

►►173

E-numbers

grilled kidneys, kippers, kedgeree, and other simi¬ lar dishes, to any menu including cooked food (usu¬ ally bacon and egg). The US invention of breakfast cereal early in the 20th century and the later intro¬ duction of Swiss muesli have done much to under¬ mine the institution, which has been further eroded by health warnings of the dangers of eating too much fatty food. Besides, with two wage earners and no domestic staff, very few homes have time to prepare such a lavish spread early in the morning.

• English disease or English sickness ►A va¬ riety of complaints and malaises have been ascribed to the English. Since the time of Columbus the French have described syphilis as the English dis¬ ease; the English response to this insinuation was to call it the French disease. Later, after the indus¬ trial revolution, the damp climate combined vnth industrial smoke to create a high prevalence of bronchitis. On the continent and elsewhere, this also became known as the English disease. In the 20th century, air travel meant that physical disease could no longer be confined to particular nations and therefore could not be characterized in this way. Instead, various social ailments, including class conflict, poor industrial relations, and eco¬

In 1980 the tiny population (88) was allowed to re¬ turn until evidence of lingering contamination re¬ sulted in their re-evacuation. • enjoy! ► An exclamation inviting people to sam¬ ple and enjoy food, later extended to other com¬ modities and situations. The construction is Yiddish in origin and the phrase came to the UK from Amer¬ ica. In American Jewish speech influenced by Yid¬ dish ‘enjoy’ is an intransitive verb and the imperative is usually duplicated as ‘enjoy, enjoy’. This was the title of a book by Harry Cohen, pub¬ lished in 1960. When the phrase was brought to the attention of advertisers they used it in various slogans. It can also be used ironically. If a person complains that he has to undertake some chore, such as taking his mother-in-law out to dinner, he may be exhorted to enjoy the experience.

• Enola Gay ► The name of the US bomber that dropped the atom bomb on Hiroshima on 6 August 1945. A Superfortress, the aircraft was named in ho¬ nour of the mother of the pilot. Colonel Paul W. Tibbets. The force of the explosion hit the Enola Gay with all the power of a near-miss by flak, although the aircraft was by then 10 miles away from the

cally English: in the 1960s and 1970s, when trade union power was at its zenith, strikes were widely known as the English disease. More recently, espe¬

point of impact. More than 75,000 people died. Many years later members of the Enola Gay’s crew visited Hiroshima once more to see the rebuilt city. A Peace Memorial Park commemorates those who died. Enola Gay is also a character in the novel Lon¬

cially since the 1980s, disgraceful behaviour at foot¬

don Fields (1989) by Martin Amis.

ball matches, both at home and abroad, has been so

• enosis ► (Greek, union) The political union of Greece and Cyprus, pursued by Greek Cypriots in

nomic stagnation, came to be thought of as typi¬

described (see: football hooliganism).

• English National Operas (ENO) A Londonbased opera company that developed from the Sadler’s Wells Opera Company in 1974. The com¬ pany moved from the Sadler’s Wells Theatre to the London Coliseum in 1969. Traditionally the ENO offers operas sung in English and has a commit¬ ment to innovative productions: these are pre¬ sented less lavishly than those at the Royal Opera House, enabling seats to be more modestly priced.

the 1950s. See: EOKA. • ENSA concerts ► In World War H, concerts pro¬ vided for the British fighting forces on active service by the Entertainments National Service Association (ENSA). Many famous figures in the entertainment and musical world took part, greatly helping to boost morale. By the time of the last ENSA show in 1946, 2 million performances had been given. The US equivalent was USO (United Service Organiza¬

• English spliff or English joints A US term

tions).

for a joint in which the cannabis is rolled with to¬

• Entente Cordiale^ (French) A cordial under¬ standing between nations; not amounting to an al¬ liance but something more than a rapprochement

bacco.

• ENIAC ► Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator. See: computer.

• Enigma ► See:

Bletchley Park.

• Eniwetok or Enewetak ► An atoll in the Re¬ public of the Marshall Islands in the Pacific Ocean designated as a testing site for nuclear weapons shortly after World War 11. Testing began in 1948; the first hydrogen bomb was exploded here in 1952, and there were further tests throughout the 1950s.

(moving closer together). The term is particularly applied to the Anglo-French Entente of April 1904, sealed by King Edward VII’s visit to Paris in 1906. See also: Triple Entente. •

enterprise cultures

See:Thatcherism.

• E-numbers ► Numbers, prefixed by the letter E (for European Union), that are assigned to food addi¬ tives used within the EU. For example, tartrazine (a

• environment •

174-m

yellow colouring) is E-102: sodium benzoate (a pre¬ servative) is E-211. Additives can be identified by their E-numbers, which must be listed, with the other ingredients, on the packaging of the foodstuff. • environment ► A 19th-century word derived from the Old French verb environner, to surround, which during the 20th century acquired the more specific sense of the surroundings in which a plant or animal lives (see. ecology). From the 1960s, with growing public awareness of the harmful effects of human intervention on our surroundings, the sense of the word widened to include all those at¬ tributes of the natural world that are susceptible to damage by human activities - especially by pol¬ lution and destruction of natural habitats by desertification, deforestation, etc. - leading to im¬

Free at last, free at last Thank God almighty We are free at last. - Epitaph of martin luther anonymous spiritual).

king

(from an

Beneath this slab John Brown is stowed. He watched the ads And not the road. - OGDEN NASH, Lather as You Go. He lies below, correct in cypress wood And entertains the most exclusive worms. - DOROTHY PARKER, ‘Epitaph for a Very Rich Man’. I will return. And I will be millions. - Inscrip¬ tion on the tomb of eva peron.

• EPOS ► See: bar code.

poverishment of the plant and animal life they sup¬ port (see threatened species; endangered species; vulnerable species). Concern for the environment,

• Epsom salts British slang for the drug Ecstasy, used from about 1989. Epsom salts are actually hy¬

combined with an enthusiastic overuse of the word,

for indigestion and constipation.

escalated during the 1980s and 1990s; environ¬ mental - or green - issues are now embraced by

during World War 11. Between 1940 and 1945 any

most political parties, and an environment-friendly way of life is almost universally recommended. • EOK A ► (Greek Ethniki Organosis Kipriakou Agonos) The National Organization of Cypriot Struggle, founded in 1955 to pursue the political goal of enosis. Led by Georgios Grivas, and supported by Arch¬ bishop Makarios, it conducted a guerrilla campaign against the occupying British forces. It disbanded

drated magnesium sulphate, a traditional remedy • EPT ► Excess profits tax. A tax imposed in the UK profit a company made above its pre-war profit level was payable in full to the government; 20% of it was returned when peace was restored.

• equals All animals are created equal but some are more equal than others A non¬ sensical political slogan created by George Orwell in his political fable Animal Farm (1945). Although iron¬

on independence in 1959 but was re-formed in 1971.

ically reflecting contemporary Stalinist doctrine,

• epic theatre ► A style of political theatre that emerged in Germany during the late 1920s. Deriv¬ ing ultimately from the theories of Aristotle, it was

Orwell was guying a statement from the Declara¬ tion of American Independence (1776) that ‘All men are created equal’.

developed by Bertolt Brecht (1898-1956) and the di¬ rector Erwin Piscator (1893-1966). The plays they

• equalizer ► A euphemism for a revolver. The word, derived from the view that in death all men

created were characterized by explicit p>olitical com¬ mitment, a loose episodic structure, and the use of

are equal, became common currency in America in

the so-called A-effect to engage the audience’s in¬ tellect and judgment rather than the emotions. See also: Berliner Ensemble. • epitaph ► Strictly, an inscription on a tomb, but usually it refers to any brief verses or apt com¬ memoration of the departed. Noted examples from the 20th century (some in jest) include: Hereabouts died a very gallant gentleman. Cap¬ tain L. E. G. Oates of the Inniskilling Dragoons. In March 1912, returning from the Pole, he walked willingly to his death in a blizzard, to tiy and save his comrades, beset by hardships.

the years before World War II. Its usage has since spread to both sides of the Atlantic, largely through its adoption in crime thrillers and screenplays.

• Equal Opportunities Commission»- See: feminism. • equal opportunity ► A phrase used in the business world, indicating that employees are taken on regardless of their colour, sex, or age. • Equal Rights Amendment ► (ERA) A pro¬ posed amendment to the US constitution that was first pressed in 1923, passed by Congress in 1972,

- E. 1. ATKINSON.

but failed to be ratified in 1982. Under its terms

I’ve played everything but the harp. - Lionel Barrymore’s suggested epitaph on himself.

women would receive explicit constitutional pro¬

Over my dead body! -

were backed by right-wing religious groups, argued

george s. Kaufman’s sug¬

gested epitaph on himself.

tection from sex discrimination. Its opponents, who that the amendment was inappropriate because it

• Essex man •

►►175

ignored the biological and psychological differ¬

scribing an inferior substitute for something that is

ences between the sexes, that it would harm the in¬

no longer available. The word was much used in Germany during and after World War 1, when the

stitutions of marriage and the family, and that there was protection already under the 5th and 14th Amendments. •

equal time^ See: fairness doctrine.

• Equity ► The actors’ trade union, founded in the UK in 1929 to regulate the employment of pro¬ fessional actors in the theatre, radio, film, and tele¬ vision. The strict rules

surrounding Equity

membership have made the Equity card much sought-after. The Catch-22 of the British theatre is that in order to be given a speaking part an aspir¬ ing actor needs an Equity card, but in order to ac¬

country’s economic collapse led to the widespread introduction of such goods; it was applied espe¬ cially to coffee made from acorns. The word was subsequently adopted by most countries (includ¬ ing the UK) during World War II and the rationing era.

• Erie ► The pseudonym adopted by the French fashion designer and magazine illustrator Romain de Tirtoff (1892-1990). He derived it from the French pronunciation of the first letters of his Christian name and surname.

quire an Equity card, the aspiring actor has to show

• ERTS^ Earth Resources Technology Satellite. See:

that he has had previous professional engagements.

Landsat.

The US version was founded in 1913; unlike the

• e-shopping ► The purchase of goods or services over the Internet. Using either a computer or an In¬

British union it is for stage actors only. • Eric ► 1. A former British schoolboy abbreviation for an erection. It is not thought to owe its deriva¬ tion to E. W. Farrar’s novel of school life at Harrow, Eric, or Little by Little. 2. A former schoolboy expres¬ sion for a stupid man or fool, possibly derived from oik.

• 'er indoors ► A catchphrase popularized by the nv series. Minder, which was first broadcast in 1979. The expression was used by the chief character, the roguish Arthur Daley (played by George Cole), when referring to his wife, a character who was never seen. The implication is that, although the wife is confined to the domestic sphere, she wields a con¬ siderable amount of power. See also: earner. • erk ► Originally (1910s) an RAF term for an air¬ craftman or mechanic: it derives from ‘airc’, an ab¬ breviation of aircraftman, the lowest rank in the service. The term is now applied to beginners, ju¬ niors, and underlings generally. • ERM ► Exchange Rate Mechanism. See: European Monetary System.

• ERNIE ► Electronic Random Number Indicating Equipment, the electronic equipment used to select winners in the premium bonds issued by the De¬ partment of National Savings of the UK govern¬ ment. Premium bonds were first issued in 1956 and play on the British public’s love of gambling. The prize fund is distributed to bond holders selected monthly by ERNIE; bond holders receive no interest

ternet TV, the shopper visits the website of the sup¬ plier and places an order; payment is usually by credit card or by cybercash. Small items are delivered by post or parcel service. Items ordered from a su¬ permarket will usually be delivered by the store’s own delivery service. Although on-line shopping is a fast-growing area, many consumers still have con¬ cerns about privacy and security: others like to see or handle the actual goods before deciding to buy. • Esky ► In Australia, a tradename for a portable drinks cooler. It is an abbreviated form of‘eskimo’. • ESP ► Extra-sensory perception, a modern term for the supposed ability of some people to acquire accurate knowledge of the outside world indepen¬ dently of the five senses. The subject of serious sci¬ entific research throughout the 20th century, the term covers such activities as telepathy (mind-tomind communication), clairvoyance (knowledge of remote objects, events, or persons), precognition (foretelling the future), and retrocognition (per¬ sonal knowledge of the past). The US psychologist J. B. Rhine (1895-1980) conducted experiments using special packs of cards to produce statistical ev¬ idence in favour of ESP, but the conclusion is not universally accepted. • Essex girl ► In the early 1990s young women from Essex became the butt of a series of snobbish jokes, all stressing their supposed stupidity, lack of style, and sexual promiscuity. A ‘real Essex girl’ would tynsically sport a fake suntan, white stilet¬

£20,000 will, on average, yield prize money of some

tos, a short tight skirt, cheap but ostentatious jew¬ ellery, and peroxide blonde hair swept into an elaborate perm. She would speak with a pro¬

£800 p.a. (i.e. about 4% tax free).

nounced Estuary accent (see: Estuary English).

• ersatz ► (German ersetzen, to substitute) De¬

• Essex man ► A wealthy but poorly educated

but can cash in their bonds for the issue price at any time. It is estimated that the maximum holding of

176-«

Establishment, the

male, who typically lives in Essex, has right-wing po¬

as a student movement opposed to Franco, under

litical views, shows conspicuous bad taste in dress and decor, and has few (if any) cultural interests. The implication is that Essex man is a throw-back

whose regime the Basque language and culture were heavily repressed. Since that time ETA has waged a bloody campaign to achieve independence

to a less civilized form of hominid. See also: loadsamoney.

for regions of N Spain and SW France that Basque

...the human species known as ‘Essex man’: fa¬ ther with extensive collection of gold rings, bracelets and neck chains; wife probably aged 50 but dressed as if she was 20; sullen adoles¬ cent son in unlaced trainers, with baseball cap on back to front, lugging around a ghettoblaster. - The Independent, 19 January 1991.

• Establishment, the^ l. The Church of Eng¬ land in its role as the officially recognized national church. The subject of much discussion in the 19th century, the link between Church and State has re¬ mained a subject of controversy in the 20th and 21st centuries. Those who support the link are called Establishmentarians. Those who argue for its abolition are disestablishmentarians, while those who range themselves against the disestab¬ lishmentarians are adherents of antidisestablishmentarianism. 2. Since the 1950s the term

separatists claim should be theirs. The campaign has continued for over 30 years and has resulted in some 800 deaths, including those of politicians and members of the Spanish police force. It has pro¬ voked severe countermeasures from the Spanish state, including the alleged use of illegal death squads. Following the kidnap and murder of a politician in July 1997, millions of people across Spain mounted demonstrations demanding an end to the campaign of violence. In September 1998 a ceasefire was called. However, following the refusal of the Spanish government to discuss Basque indepen¬ dence, the ceasefire was officially terminated in December 1999 and the terrorist campaign re¬ sumed.

• ethical foreign policy^ A foreign policy gov¬ erned by a concern for right and wrong, rather

‘Establishment’ has been used to designate an inner circle in the upper echelons of society that is seen as wielding long-established power and influence, often by indirect or invisible means. It is generally

than the selfish interests of one’s own country. The phrase became current following the election of the Labour government in 1997, when the new for¬

used to indicate reaction, privilege, and resistence to change. The term is also applied to similar groups within a particular profession or field of

such a policy. Although Cook denies ever using the exact phrase, he proclaimed the new government’s commitment to human rights in several speeches.

activity (e.g. ‘the educational establishment’).

For instance, in May 1997 he said; ‘We have made a firm commitment not to permit the sale of arms to regimes that might use them for internal repres¬

• estate duty ► See:

inheritance tax.

• Estuary English ► A type of spoken English that came to the attention of the media in the early 1990s. Supposedly typical of speech in the towns along the Thames Estuary, it is characterized by modified Cockney vowel sounds, lazy diction, and a colourless vocabulary. The way people talk is much worse. Everybody has started using Estuary English, the kind that Jonathan Ross speaks.-TheIndependent, 12 June 1993.

• ET ► Abbreviation for extra-terrestrial. Steven

eign secretary Robin Cook appeared to promise

sion or international aggression.’ Similarly, in July that year he asserted that he would ‘put human rights at the centre of British foreign policy’. Both the phrase and the philosophy it implied came in for a good deal of criticism. While com¬ mentators on the right denounced it as a charter for all kinds of ill-considered meddling in other coun¬ tries’ affairs, some on the left saw it as a hollow phrase masking the same old Realpolitik. In prac¬ tice the record has been mixed. While the govern¬

Spielberg’s hugely successful film (1982) with this

ment did take a moral stance on some issues, such as its support for an international treaty banning

title had as its central character a lovable space creature itself named ET. Most children wept copi¬

landmines, and its depiction of the Kosovo crisis in terms of good and evil, critics can point to Britain’s

ously when ET finally abandoned his earth friends to return to his native planet, although one critic

failure to halt arms sales to countries with dubious

was driven to comment that he found it hard to be emotional about a collection of Hoover parts. 5ee also-, close encounter.

human rights records, such as Saudi Arabia, Pak¬ istan, and Indonesia.

• ethical investments A financial investment in a company that has been screened to ensure that

• ETA ► (Euskadi ta Azkatasuna, Basque Nation and Liberty). A Basque terrorist organization that oper¬

its activities are ethically acceptable. The term orig¬

ates in France and Spain. ETA emerged in the 1960s

widen public interest in stockmarket investments.

inated in America in the 1980s, during the drive to

• euro-ad •

*♦177

For many new ‘capitalists’ the idea of using their

ethnic in origin. In Northern Ireland, for example,

savings to help to produce armaments or cigarettes

Protestants and Catholics are apparently unable to live together in harmony for reasons that now have

or to boost the economies of repressive regimes was an anathema. Brokers therefore recommended investments for their clients in companies they had screened for a positive social outlook. By the late 1980s the craze for ethical investments had reached the UK and Australia: it became commonplace for unit-trust managers to launch new trusts special¬ izing in portfolios containing investments in ‘so¬ cially screened’ businesses. In Australia there was even a call for legislation making it compulsory for pension funds to invest exclusively in ethical in¬ vestments.

• ethnic ► A pejorative name for an immigrant, used chiefly in Australia and America since the 1970s. It is derived from the adjective.

• ethnic cleansing ► Purging an area of one or more (usually minority) ethnic groups by expul¬ sions, terror, and murder. This repulsive expression achieved notoriety soon after the beginning of the Bosnian civil war in 1992, when it was used by Serb spokesmen to describe their inhuman pohcy of forc¬ ing Muslims and Croats from their homes in Serbdominated areas. In 1998-99 a similar policy was pursued in the Serbian province of Kosovo. Here ethnic Albanians (who formed the majority of the population and were demanding independence) were subjected to ‘ethnic cleansing’ by Serb forces to an extent that left an estimated 10,000 dead,

little to do with religious doctrine. The same may be said of the conflicts between Muslims and Chris¬ tians in the Balkans. Elsewhere, as in parts of Africa, tribal or linguistic differences may lead to ferocious antagonism between neighbouring peoples. See also: ethnic cleansing.

• Eton crop ► A short boyish hairstyle, fairly pop¬ ular among English women in the 1920s, called after the famous school for boys at Eton. • Eureka project ► An international science ini¬ tiative launched between the European nations in the 1980s in an attempt to pool resources on pro¬ jects of mutual interest. Its name refers to Archimedes’ shout of ‘Eureka!’ (literally, I have found it) on discovering, while taking a bath, how he might test the purity of a gold crown by emplo5dng the law of displacement (now known as Archimedes’ Principle). As Vitruvius says; When the idea flashed across his mind, the phi¬ losopher jumped out of the bath exclaiming, ‘Heureka! heurekal’ and, without waiting to dress himself, ran home to try the experiment.

• eurhythmies ► A system of exercise for health and fitness involving energetic dance routines, which became popular in the 1920s. At the Dalcroze Institute of Eurhythmies, founded in 1910 by the Swiss composer Emile Jacques-Dalcroze, chil¬

{see. Kosovo crisis). The phrase ‘ethnic cleansing’ had

dren were encouraged to respond to music through dancing. Eurh5d:hmics was later the name of a

previous been used by the Croatian fascist govern¬

highly successful British pop duo (1980s).

over 200,000 homeless, and entire villages destroyed

ment in World War 11, to describe their still more

• euro ► The currency unit of the European Mone¬

murderous policies towards Serbs, Jews, Gypsies,

tary System. In May 1998 all member states of the EU

and others.

except Denmark, Greece, Sweden, and the UK com¬ mitted themselves to European monetary union (EMU), and their currencies were locked together. In

• ethnic identity ►While ethnic identity cannot be exclusively defined by culture, language, race, nationality, or religion, it can encompass any or all of these distinctions; essentially it defines how peo¬ ple see themselves in terms of the shared history, customs, and values in which they have been brought up. Ethnicity is, unfortunately, a divisive concept those of the older generation, in particular, can easily feel threatened by people with a different background. Intermarriage between younger mem¬ bers of disparate groups is often opposed by their parents because they fear that the ethnic identity of their children (and grandchildren) will be jeop¬ ardized. Religious Jews, for example, will often cut themselves off from a child who marries a non-Jew.

January 1999, the euro was launched for all forms of non-cash transactions. Notes and coins denomi¬ nated in euros were issued in January 2002; the various national currencies were phased out by March 2002. Denmark voted against adopting the euro in a referendum in September 2000. On 1 January 2001 Greece became the twelfth country to enter the eu¬ rozone, having fulfilled the necessary criteria for EMU. In the countries that remain uncommitted notably the UK - debate continues as to whether the economic benefits of joining can outweigh the loss of national sovereignty involved.

In many cases religious differences provide a pre¬

• euro-ad ► An advertisement designed so that it will be relevant in all European countries. Recent

text for conflicts that are more accurately seen as

products, such as cars and electric shavers, are usu-

178-m

eurocheque

ally suitable for multinational advertisements. On the other hand, more traditional products, such as food, are not.

• eurocheque ► A cheque drawn on a European bank, which can be cashed at any bank displaying the sign of the European Union or used to pay for goods or services at outlets displaying this sign.

• Eurocrat ► A high-ranking civil servant working for the European Union. See also: globocrat.

• eurocurrency ► Any currency held in a Euro¬ pean country other than that which issued it. For example, dollars and yen deposited in a European bank are eurodollars and euroyen, respectively.

• Europe► ■'Europe des patries A version of a phrase used by General de Gaulle to define his vision of the European Economic Community. First used in 1961, it was meant to distinguish de Gaulle’s ideal of a loose organization of sovereign states from more ambitious schemes for European government. De Gaulle insisted that he had actually used the words 'L’Europe des etats’. • European Community ► (EC) An organiza¬ tion of Europ)ean states created in 1967 when the ex¬ ecutive and legislative bodies of the European Atomic Energy Community (founded by the Treaty of Rome in 1958) and the European Coal and Steel Community (founded in 1952) merged with those of the European Economic Community (founded by the Treaty of Rome in 1957). The original mem¬ bers were Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany (which became the reunified Germany in 1990). Denmark, the Re¬ public of Ireland, and the UKjoined in 1973. Greece joined in 1981 and Spain and Portugal in 1986. In 1985 Greenland left on obtaining home rule from Denmark. Barriers to the free movement of labour, ser¬ vices, and capital were lifted from December 1992. Under the terms of the Maastricht Treaty (signed 1992) member states agreed a number of steps to closer political, economic, and monetary union that resulted in the creation of the European Union in 1993. • European Monetary System ► (EMS) A sys¬ tem introduced in 1979 to stabilize exchange-rates between the countries of the European Commu¬ nity; the longer term goal was to establish a single currency unit for the member states. The system

ernments committed themselves to maintaining the value of their currencies within agreed limits. The ERM valued each currency in ecus and a parity grid gave exchange values in ecus for each pair of currencies. If the market rate differed from the par¬ ity rate by more than the permitted percentage the relevant government had to take action. In autumn 1992, however, the British, Italian, and Spanish gov¬ ernments found themselves unable to support their currencies above their floor values. They then had to be allowed to float, the pound falling heavily against the Deutschmark (see: Black Wednesday). In August 1993 speculative pressure on the franc forced the European foreign ministers to allow wider fluctuations of the remaining currencies. Although the EMS seemed to have failed, plans to create a single currency (the euro) and a European Central Bank by 1999 went ahead. In May 1998,11 EU countries (all the member states with the ex¬ ception of Denmark, Greece, Sweden, and the UK) committed themselves to European Monetary Union (EMU), having fulfilled the criteria required for participation. The European Central Bank (ECB) was set up in 1998 under the presidency of Willem Duisenberg (1935- ), a Dutch economist. In Janu¬ ary 1999 the euro became available for non-cash transactions; notes and coins were introduced in 2002. Greece adopted the euro from 2001.

• European Union ► (EU) An organization formed by the member states of the European Com¬ munity in 1993. Under the terms of the Maastricht Treaty (1992) the member states agreed to extend the

scope of the EC by co-ordinating their foreign and security policies and co-operating in matters of jus¬ tice and policing. Controversial moves to harmo¬ nize social policy and to create a single European currency (see European Monetary System) were also approved; the euro was finally launched in January 1999. In 1995 Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined the EU. bringing the number of member states to 15.

• Eurosceptic ► Someone who is hostile to the policies of the European Union and resists steps to¬ wards closer economic and social integration of European states. Since the UK’s admission to the European Community (EC) in 1973, the argument about ‘Europe’ has been a perennial fixture in British politics. The term ‘Eurosceptic’ was coined in the mid-1980s and encompassed individuals drawn from all the main political parties. Their ar¬ gument essentially was that the growing powers of

had two main elements; the Exchange Rate Mech¬

the EC were inexorably diminishing national sov¬

anism (ERM) and a balance of payments support

ereignty and leading to the formation of a Euro¬

mechanism organized by the European Monetary

pean ‘superstate’. The Conservative government

Cooperation Fund. In the ERM, participating gov¬

elected in 1979 had, in Margaret Thatcher, an in-

4venements

►►179

stinctively Eurosceptic leader who was continually

gramme that presents curious mainly sex-related

trying to renegotiate the terms of Britain’s mem¬

items from around Continental Europe for the

bership. Her stance was supported by a large sector

delectation of the prurient Brits.

of the Conservative Party, including fellow cabinet

• Eurotunnel ► See: Channel Tunnel.

ministers such as Norman Tebbitt, as well as many rosceptics formed the Bruges group in 1989. At the

• evacuees ► In World War II, children from large cities in the UK who were sent to live with families

same time many Conservatives supported the prin¬

in the country. Evacuation was a vast operation

ciple of greater European integration - prominent

that had been carefully and efficiently planned by

Europhiles included Michael Heseltine and Dou¬

the British government to safeguard the lives of

glas Hurd - and party unity on the issue was elu¬

children in the event of war and the inevitable

sive. Meanwhile, other member states were proceeding with plans for a single market and mon¬

bombing of cities. The evacuation began on 1 Sep¬ tember 1939 when it became clear that war with

etary union, and this growing chasm between the prime minister’s own beliefs and Britain’s under¬

Germany was imminent. Although parents were under no obligation, some 3 million children were

takings to her European partners contributed to

evacuated in Britain before the end of the war.

Thatcher’s downfall and the election of the more conciliatory John Major. In the early 1990s, the Eu¬

parents to their schools, where labels were tied

backbenchers; some of the more outspoken Eu¬

In the initial phase, children were taken by their

rosceptics gained succour from the UK’s forced exit

around their necks showing their names and des¬

from the Exchange Rate Mechanism {see: European

tination. They carried a small suitcase or bag con¬

Monetary System) and intensified their attacks dur¬

taining their belongings, a gas mask in its

ing negotiations over the Maastricht Treaty. The gov¬

cardboard box, and sandwiches for the day. From

erning party’s deep divisions over Europe persisted,

their schools they were sent in groups to desig¬

and contributed to its humiliating defeat in the

nated small towns and villages in the country,

1997 general election. Any Eurosceptics in the in¬

where they were met by local billeting officers.

coming Blair government were muffled voices; the party has contrived to avoid splits over Europe

These officers had the authority to compel suitable

mainly by putting off any decision on the crucial

of the children, separated from their parents for the

issue of participating fully in European monetary union and replacing the pound with the euro.

first time, were not surprisingly tearful and dis¬ tressed. Most found the unfemiliar environment

Deep divisions within the Conservative party wiU come out into the open this week when Eu¬ rosceptic fans of Lady Thatcher seek to oust Hugh Dykes, MP for Harrow East... - The Inde¬ pendent on Sunday, 24 August 1993.

of the countryside both bewildering and daunting.

• Eurostar ► A train service between London (Wa¬

moving account of a deprived East End lad who

households to accept one or more evacuees. Many

Some returned to the city after a short irreconcil¬ ably unhappy stay, but most remained and gradu¬ ally settled into their new families. Michelle Magorian’s book Goodnight Mister Tom (1981) is a

terloo) and Paris (Gare du Nord) or Brussels

eventually flourishes in the care of an old man

(Midi/Zuid), travelling through the Channel Tunnel

with whom he is compulsorily billeted. The book

via Ashford (in Kent), Calais, and Lille. There are also Eurostar services direct from London to Dis¬

was later made into a convincing TV drama.

neyland Paris and to Moutiers and Bourg-St Maurice (the last two in the French Alps). The journey to Brussels takes 2 hours 40 minutes and that to Paris 3 hours. Although this is longer than the flight be¬ tween London (Heathrow) and Paris (Charles de Gaulle), the actual journey time is probably shorter (considering the time required for travelling to and from airports, checking in, and baggage clearance), and passengers certainly travel in more comfort. See also: Golden Arrow.

• eurotrash ► The European jet set, an expres¬ sion used in society circles and journalism; it is an adaptation of the US expression ‘White trash’, meaning worthless White people, the term is now more familiar as the title of a Channel 4 pro¬

• Evans of the Broke ► Sir Edward Ratcliffe Garth Russell Evans (1881-1957), British admiral, ex¬ plorer, and author. His nickname derives from his World War I exploit of sinking six German de¬ stroyers while commanding HMS Broke (pronounced ‘brook’; the ship was named after the naval hero Sir Philip Broke). This was only one incident in a colour¬ ful career; in 1909 Evans was second in command of Scott’s first expedition to the Antarctic.

• eve ► The stimulant drug MDEA, which is re¬ lated to Ecstasy (MDMA). Ecstasy is sometimes known as adam, from an anagram of MDMA; the jump to ‘eve’ for the related drug is not hard to un¬ derstand. • evenements ► (French, events) The evenements

180^

• Evenin' all

of May-June 1968 were a series of violent left-wing

merly the British Ever Ready Electrical Company),

protests, led largely by students, in the streets of

founded in 1906.

Paris. The students erected barricades, occupied a number of key buildings, and briefly made com¬

• everybody out ► A phrase associated with trade-union leaders when calling their members

mon cause with striking industrial workers. The uprising caused a momentary failure of nerve

out on strike. When the British trade-union move¬

in the government of Charles de Gaulle but soon burned itself out. When de Gaulle resigned the following year it was over an unrelated mat¬ ter. During the tenements of May and June. 1968. the red flag of communism and the black flag of anarchism fluttered side by side on the oc¬ cupied Theatre de I’Odeon.

• Evenin' allA catchphrase popularized by the BBC TV series Dixon of Dock Green (1955-76). the hero of which was PC George Dixon, played by Jack

ment was at its most powerful in the 1960s and 1970s the leaders acquired a reputation for calling strikes on the slightest pretext. ‘Everybody out’ was the supposed automatic response to any dispute with management. It was popularized by a TV series called The Rag Trade in which Paddy, the shop stew¬ ard (played by Miriam Karlin), shouted the phrase at the least provocation.

• everybody's doing it ► A popular phrase of the period immediately preceding World War I. taken from the song ‘Everybody’s Doing It Now’ by Irving Berlin. The ‘it’ in question was the turkey

Warner. His invariable op>ening greeting to the view¬ ers ‘Evenin’ all’ was accompanied by a sketchy

trot, a lively dance performed to ragtime music.

salute. Somewhat bizarrely. the TV series was born out of the film The Blue Lamp (1950). in which Dixon

• Every day and in every way I am getting better and better ► See: Coueism.

was shot dead by the young Dirk Bogarde. Just how he recovered from this misfortune to enjoy such a long ensuing career in the police force has never been explained. By the time the programme ended. Warner was 82 - considerably past the usual po¬ lice retirement age.

• event horizon »■

5ee: black hole.

• eventide home ► A euphemism for an old people’s home. The House of Lords is a perfect eventide home. - MARY STOCKS.

• Evian agreement ► The treaty under which France granted Algeria independence in 1962. named after the French town in which indepen¬ dence talks began in 1961.

• evil ► Youth slang, originating among US Blacks, for very good, impressive. A rarer version of bad or wicked used in the same sense.

• Evita ► The name by which Maria Eva Duarte de Peron (1919-52). the second wife of Juan Peron (1895-1974). the Argentine president, was known to

• Everest syndrome ► The tendency to under¬

the adoring Argentine public. Despite abundent ev¬ idence of her ruthlessness and greed, Evita’s char¬

take challenging enterprises, such as climbing mountains, rowing the Atlantic, tight-rope walk¬

itable work, beauty, and early death all contributed

ing across the Niagara Falls, pursuing esoteric sci¬ entific research, etc., simply for the sake of the challenge. George Mallory is said to have wished to climb Everest ‘because it is there’. Everest was fi¬ nally conquered on 29 May 1953 by Sir Edmund Hillary and Sherpa Tenzing Norgay: news of the climb reached the UK during celebrations of the coronation of Elizabeth 11. doubling its impact. We done the bugger! - tenzing norgay. 29 May 1953. In 1993 Rebecca Stephens became the first British woman to climb Everest. • Ever Readies ► Nickname of the Territorial Army Volunteer Reserve, a former (1922-67) di¬

to the popular myth surrounding her name: in 1978 her life became the subject of the successful stage musical Evita by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice (filmed 1996). If a woman like Eva Peron with no ideals can get that far, think how far I can go with all the ideals that I have. - Margaret thatcher (1980).

• excrementum bellum vincit^ (Latin) Army catchphrase from World War II: roughly translated as ‘bullshit wins the war’. • excuse my dust*' An apology shouted by early motorists to other road-users for any dust their ve¬ hicles threw up in passing.

vision of the Territorial Army. The Ever Readies

• exercise is bunk ► The US car manufacturer Henry Ford’s opinion of the contemporary fashion

were called upon to supply trained and equipped

for exercising to keep healthy, since quoted by couch

men on the outbreak of war or in other sudden

potatoes everywhere. Ford justified his opinion, first publicly expressed in 1920, with the further com¬ ment:

emergencies overseas. The name is also a tradename for a brand of battery made by Berec (for¬

►*•181

• extra two inches

If you are healthy, you don’t need it: if you are sick, you shouldn’t take it. 5ee also: history is bunk.

such as Rouault, Soutine, Schiele, and Kokoschka,

• exercise the ferret ► Australian slang mean¬ ing to have sex; a macho expression that likens the penis to the aggressive animal used to hunt rabbits, etc. from their burrows.

cluded the German directors Fritz Lang, G. W. Pabst, and F. W. Murnau. Their work is characterized by

• existentialism ► A philosophical attitude, owing much to the writings of the Protestant thinker Soren Kierkegaard (1813-55), that devel¬ oped in Germany after World War I and somewhat later in France and Italy. Atheistic existentialism was popularized in France by Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-80) and Albert Camus (1913-60) after World War II. Post-war existentialists emphasized the free¬ dom and moral responsibility of the individual in the face of an absurd universe without meaning or the possibility of transcendence. Much of their writ¬ ing is characterized by disillusionment. The term is a translation of the German Existenz-philosophie. • exit poll^ See: opinion poll. • Exocet ► An anti-ship missile developed by the French and used with great effect by the Argentin¬ ian air force in the Falklands Conflict. The most no¬ table British casualty to this missile was HMS Sheffield, which was sunk. Hence, to ‘Exocet’ a pro¬ ject is to cause it to be brought to a complete stand¬ still. • expanding universe ►The generally accepted cosmological theory that the universe is expanding. See. Big Bang. • expletive deleted ► A phrase widely used in the 1970s in substitution for an obscenity or blas¬ phemous comment, especially in printed docu¬ ments. It entered popular use after the publication in 1974 of transcripts of recorded exchanges be¬ tween President Nixon and his advisers relating to the Watergate scandal. In these the words ‘exple¬ tive deleted’ were employed so frequently that it was inevitable that they should gain wider cur¬ rency. Many ordinary Americans appeared to be more shocked by their president’s routine use of profanities than by the political scandal itself. • expressionism ► A movement in the arts of the early 20th century in which the force of human emotion was allowed to distort the presentation of the external world. It was most important in the vi¬ sual arts but also significant in cinema, theatre, literature, and music. In painting, forerunners of expressionism include Van Gogh and Edvard

also worked in an expressionist style. In the cinema, pioneers of expressionism in¬

the use of distorted perspective, unusual camera an¬ gles, and extreme contrasts of light and shade to convey abnormal states of mind. In drama, expres¬ sionism emerged as a definite movement in the German theatre of the 1910s and 1920s, when such writers as George Kaiser, Ernst Toller, and the young Brecht experimented with nonrealistic styles. In literature and music the term is used more loosely: the writing of Kafka and the early music of Berg and Schoenberg are often described as ex¬ pressionist.

• extended family ► See.

nuclear family.

• ex tenebris lux^ (Latin, out of darkness, light) The motto of HMS Glcrw-worm, the Royal Navy ship that in 1940 succeeded in ramming and badly dam¬ aging the German heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper. The Glow-worm exploded and sank after the impact.

• exterminate, exterminates A catchphrase popularized by the BBC’s long-running science fiction series Dr Who (1963-96). It was the charac¬ teristic cry of the Daleks, mobile metallic ex¬ traterrestrial beings equipped with ray guns. Dr Who was a great favourite with children, many of whom enjoyed being scared by the series, and the Daleks were the most popular of the aliens. The cry ‘exterminate, exterminate’ was often heard in children’s games in the days of the Daleks.

• extinct ► A species of animal or plant defined by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (lUCN) as not hav¬ ing been definitely located in the wild in the pre¬ vious 50 years. Animal species that became extinct in the 20th century include: broad-faced potoroo (Potorous platyops) desert bandicoot (Perameles eremiana) thylacine (Thylacinus cynocephalus) Palau flying fox (Pteropus pilosus) Falkland Island wolf (Dusicyon australis) Mexican grizzly bear (Ursus arctos nelsoni) Syrian wild ass (Equus hemionus hemippus) glaucous macaw {Anodorhynchus glaucus) silver trout (Salvelinus agassizi) Texas tailed blue butterfly (Everes comyntas texanus) See also: endangered species; threatened species; vul¬ nerable species.

Munch, but the style achieved its fullest flowering

• extra two inches ► The extra two inches (to their erections) that men over 40 are supposed to ac¬

in the angst-ridden work of the Briicke and Blaue Re¬

quire. A well-known army myth of World War II, it

iter groups in Germany. Many independent figures.

implied that the sexual disappointments of one’s

182oral, the Commons, and the press. See

• Filofax ► Tradename for the best-selling and most prestigious brand of personal organizer, a

also-. Auntie; Beeb.

portable loose-leaf ring-binder filing system using

The other four estates are the Lords Spiritual, the

• fifth man ► See.

different coloured papers for recording appoint¬ Magnificent Five.

ments, names and addresses, useful information,

• Fifth Republics The period of French history

etc. Possession of a bulging leather

• funny peculiar or funny ha-ha? ► A catchphrase used to distinguish between two senses of the word funny; odd or peculiar (e.g. a funny way to behave) and amusing (a funny joke). It has appeared as a line in several plays, the first probably being the Housemaster (1938) by Ian Hay Beith. • fusion ► The form of nuclear reaction in which

dent arousing controversy far beyond the religious circles of America (see: Dayton anti-Darwinist trial).

atomic nuclei of low atomic number fuse together

Fundamentalism has also been a feature of

to form a heavier nucleus, with the release of a

Fylingdales

►►213

considerable amount of energy. For example, when two deuterium nuclei (heavy hydrogen nuclei) fuse

past, calling for all museums and libraries to be de¬ stroyed. The original futurists, who included

to form a tritium nucleus (the heaviest isotope of hydrogen) 10'^ joules of energy are released. Before two such positively charged nuclei can fuse, how¬

Marinetti, Boccioni, Carra, Russolo, and Severini, ex¬ hibited at Paris in 1912. Their glorification of vio¬ lence and energy led Marinetti and some others to

ever, the repulsive electromagnetic forces between them have to be overcome. This can be achieved if

support Fascism in the 1920s, by which time the force of the movement was in any case largely

the reacting nuclei have very high kinetic energies,

spent.

which implies a temperature of around 10® kelvins. 5ee also: cold fusion; nuclear weapon.

• fuzz, the ► Slang for the police or a policeman. It originated in America in the late 1920s; the exact

• futon ► A Japanese soft cotton mattress used as a bed; a simple and unobtrusive design, which can be folded to make seating or easily stored when not

etymology is uncertain but in his American Tramp and Underworld Slang (1931) G. Irwin says; ‘a detec¬ tive; a prison guard or turnkey. Here it is likely that

in use. The word itself is Japanese.

“fuzz” was originally “fuss”, one hard to please or over-particular’. Not very likely, but in the absence of anything more convincing, it will have to do. Surprisingly, the word fuzz did not appear in the UK until the 1950s, probably in the wake of US crime TV programmes and films.

• future► I have seen the future and it works A famous declaration by the US reformer and jour¬ nalist Lincoln Steffens (1879-1955), following a visit to the Soviet Union and his meeting (1919) with Lenin. It has since been widely applied, often iron¬ ically. • future► Your future is in your hands A slogan from the Conservative Party campaign led by Win¬ ston Churchill in the 1950 General Election. It turned out to be a winner because although the Labour government obtained a (much reduced) ma¬ jority, this was too small to be workable and the Conservatives were returned to power in 1951, with Churchill as prime minister. • futurism ► An art movement that originated in Turin in 1909 under the leadership of E. F. T. Marinetti. Its adherents sought to introduce into their paintings a d3mamic ‘poetry of motion’ re¬ flecting the speed and excitement of the machine age. They rejected tradition and the influence of the

• fuzz word ► A piece of fashionable jargon that serves to obscure, rather than clarify, an issue. This may or may not be intentional. From a blend of ’fuzz’ and buzz word.

• f'Word ► A euphemism for ’fuck’. It originated in the 1980s in America and gave rise to a number of similar constructions used by people trying to avoid taboo expressions, for example, ’the T-word’ (for Margaret Thatcher) or ’the L-word’ (for liberal often a term of abuse in America). • Fylingdales^ A moor to the south ofWhitby in Yorkshire upon which the British station of the US Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS) is built. It is a giant radar installation, a companion to those at Clear in Alaska and Thule in Greenland, that has continually monitored the sky in the gen¬ eral direction of Russia since 1963.

214215

selves, and could readily share the excitement of contestants who sweated under the studio lights to risk a small fortune on the turn of a compere’s

night and small forces were landed during the day, convincing the Turks that the Allies were continu¬

question card. Since then, the quiz show has be¬ come a staple of schedules around the world. On British screens, some long-running favourites, such

ing to reinforce their position; as a result, not a single life was lost in the evacuation. In all, though,

as Mastermind, have lured participants with little more than the prestige of -winning. At the other

25,000 Allied troops died, with 13,000 missing.

end of the spectrum is Who Wants to be a Millionaire?, which in 2000 created British television’s first quiz-

• Gallup Poll ► The best knovra of the

opinion

polls, instituted by Dr George Gallup (1901-84) of

the American Institute of Public Opinion in 1935. Trained interviewers interrogate a small but care¬ fully selected cross-section of the population. For the British parliamentary election of 1945, out of 25 million voters, 1809 were interviewed, but the Gallup Poll forecast was within 1 per cent; however the forecast was wrong for the US presidential elec¬ tion of 1948. Notoriously, Gallup and the other polls failed to predict the Conservative victory in the British general election of 1992.

• game of life ► A mathematical game invented by the British mathematician John Conway in 1970. It is played on an infinite two-dimensional grid of squares. Each square has eight near neighbours and squares may be occupied (‘alive’) or empty (‘dead’). There is an initial pattern of live squares, and the pattern then changes in steps, with the whole grid changing at each operation. The fate of each square depends on its neighbours. A square that has only two live neighbours is unchanged. A live square with no neighbours, one neighbour, or four or more neighbours dies. An empty square with three living neighbours is filled in the next generation (a ‘birth’ occurs). Depending on the original pattern, the colony may die out, grow, or switch between dif¬ ferent patterns. The game is usually played on a computer and is highly addictive. Many millions of pounds worth of unauthorized computer time has been spent investigating its complexities.

• gameplan ► Originally, in American football, a series of tactical steps planned in advance to achieve a particular objective. The term is now used, on both sides of the Atlantic, to refer to any longer term strategy in which there are several distinct steps, such as a career plan involving a number of job changes.

• game show ► A television show in which con¬ testants answer questions or perform other tasks to win prizes. The general format dates back to the US quiz shows of the 1950s, one of the first to offer big

show millionaire. The game show has developed a host of different formats. Some test physical as well as mental prowess. For example, in French television’s Fort Boyard teams of players face varied challenges, such as locked rooms, labyrinths, and assault-courses. The physical element is taken to extremes in the Japanese show Endurance, which puts its contestants through excruciating and often humiliating or¬ deals. Inevitably, sex has also been worked into the formula, most popularly in ‘dating’ formats such as Australia’s Perfect Match and the UK’s Blind Date. The current trend is for so-called reality television shows, such as Big Brother, in which contestants are filmed in real-life situations (albeit ones that are ut¬ terly contrived). The permutations of the game show are seemingly endless, and the genre shows no sign of taking the cheque and wa-ving goodbye just yet.

• gamesmanship ► A word coined by Stephen Potter (1900-70), whose book The Theory and Practice of Gamesmanship (1947) defines the meaning in its sub-title; ‘The Art of Winning Games without Actu¬ ally Cheating’. See also: lifemanship; one-upmanship. • game theory ► A branch of mathematics that analyses the optimum strategy to adopt in a given situation. The theory was first introduced by the French mathematician Emile Borel (1871-1956) in 1921 and was developed by the Hungarian-born US mathematician John von Neumann (1903-57) and the German-born US economist Oskar Morganstern (1907-77) in their book The Theory of Games and Eco¬ nomic Behaviour (1944). Here, they argued that the type of applied mathematics used in engineering and the physical sciences was not suitable for analysing economic activity. In the physical sci¬ ences, the subject under investigation is disinter¬ ested in the result; in economics, the indi-viduals, companies, countries, etc., can take into account and anticipate the behaviour of other participants in the system. Consequently, economics is more like a game in which the players attempt to get the

1955. Such shows were cheap to make and attracted

best possible result for themselves (i.e. to maximize their gain, or ‘payoff, and to minimize their loss).

large audiences. Viewers were able to test them¬

Game theory (which is also known as the theory of

cash prizes being The $64,000 Question, launched in

216■ You ain't heard nothin' yet! The immor¬

cynical, adopting as its unofficial slogan ‘Get them

tal line spoken by A1 jolson in The jazz Singer (1927), the first talkie feature. Although particularly reso¬ nant in this context, the line had been used as Jolson’s catchphrase for some years previously. See: World's Greatest Entertainer.

• heart In your heart you know I'm (or he's) right The slogan used by the right-wing Republi¬ can Barry Goldwater in his unsuccessful presiden¬ tial election campaign (1964) against President Lyndon Johnson. Opponents countered with; ‘In your guts, you know he’s nuts.’ See-. Goldwater caper.

• heartbeats a heartbeat away from the presidency A well-known expression describing the position

their mouths’. The Nixon White House was more by the balls and their hearts and minds will fol¬ low’.

• heat^ If you can't stand the heat, get out of the kitchen A saying that is usually attributed to US President Hariy S. Truman, although he himself gave his aide Major-General Harry Vaughan as the original source. Truman used it in 1952 when he an¬ nounced that he would not be standing again for the presidency.

• heat, the ► Slang for the police. The epithet originated in US Black street slang and was later adopted by the hippies, before becoming more widely used. The image is that of an oppressive force.

the presidency at a moment’s notice. It is normally

• heat death ► The end that befalls a thermody¬ namically closed system that has attained its max¬

used by political opponents to raise fears about the

imum total entropy. The concept, has been applied

calibre of a presidential candidate’s running mate.

to the universe as a whole, on the assumptions that

A book by Jules Witcover about the resignation of

the universe is subject to the second law of ther-

Spiro Agnew, vice-president under Nixon, was

mod5mamics, which states that entropy either re¬

called A Heartbeat Away. When George Bush won

mains constant or increases in an isolated system,

the presidential election with the much-derided

and that the universe is, in fact, an isolated sys¬

of the US vice-president, who may have to assume

Dan Quayle as his running mate, there was a story

tem. At present there are many hot stars cooling in

going round Washington that Quayle was accom¬

space but eventually, it is suggested, this energy

panied wherever he went by two armed CIA men -

flow will cease and the universe will attain ther¬

with orders to shoot him if anything happened to Bush. The expression arose during the Eisenhower

modynamic equilibrium. All change and fluctua¬ tion will then cease and the universe will be cold,

administration, when the vice-president was Rich¬

still, and timeless. There is some evidence, how¬

ard Nixon.

ever, that the universe is expanding and contract¬

• Heartbreak Ridge ► The site of one of the bloodiest battles of the Korean War, also known as Height 1211. It is located in hilly country, W of the Hwachon Reservoir and near the 38th Parallel. The worst fighting occurred in October 1951, when troops of the US 2nd Marine Division fought to

ing, in which case its eventual heat death will be followed by a rebirth. The concept of the heat death of the universe is highly speculative. Those with a nervous disposition can be reassured that even if the concept is valid, it is an unimaginably long time away.

push the enemy northwards following the collapse

• heater ► US slang for a handgun, first heard in

of truce negotiations. The Americans secured the

the 1930s. It became well known through films and

ridge on 15th October, against fierce opposition

books about the underworld.

from North Korean defenders.

• Heath Robinson An epithet often used to de-

• Heimlich manoeuvre •

m^263

scribe an absurdly complicated, ingenious, and fan¬ tastic contraption. It alludes to the cartoonist W. Heath Robinson (1872-1944), whose amusing draw¬

Lord Landsdowne were prepared to acquiesce rather than risk the creation of enough Liberal peers to en¬

ings of such contrivances appeared in Punch and elsewhere.

Halsbury were prepared to die in the last ditch

• Heaviside layer or Heaviside-Kennelly layer or E-layer ► A belt in the Earth’s atmos¬ phere that contains ionized gases that act as a re¬

sure the bill’s passage. The ‘Ditchers’ led by Lord rather than yield. The Hedgers (the ‘Judas group’) prevailed and the bill passed, thus formally ending the power of the Lords over money bills and limit¬ ing that over other legislation to two years. See: Balfour's Poodle; Diehards; People's Budget.

flector for radio signals transmitted from Earth. It is named after the British physicist Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925). His studies of radio waves prompted

• heebie-jeebies ► Slang for a state of nervous apprehension and fearfulness. It was coined by the

him to propose (1902) the existence of such a com¬ ponent in the atmosphere. A similar proposal was

US cartoonist William de Beck (1890-1942). It is now used in all English-speaking countries.

made independently by the US engineer Arthur Edwin Kennedy (1861-1939) at the same time,

• Heidelberg man ► A form of prehistoric man first known from a fossilized lower jaw discovered

hence the alternative name.

• heavy ► Slang from the youth culture of the late 1960s and early 1970s for serious, important, or meaningful, e.g. ‘a heavy date’. It can also mean ag¬ gressive, threatening, or antagonistic.

• heavy hitters A colloquial expression for a per¬ son with a great deal of power, authority, or effectivess. Originating in baseball, it is usually applied to someone in the world of commerce or politics. • heavy metal ► A form of rock music, popular since the early 1970s, that is characterized by ex¬ tended guitar solos, heavy repetitive riffs, and high volume. It was developed from earlier electric blues styles in the late 1960s by such groups as Led Zep¬ pelin and Deep Purple; later exponents have in¬ cluded Whitesnake and Judas Priest. With its macho posturing, the style appeals mainly to ado¬

in 1907 at Mauer, near Heidelberg, Germany. The thick-boned chinless mandible, about 500,000 years old, suggests that the owner had a broad projecting face, similar to Homo erectus (‘upright man’). How¬ ever, other features, such as the evenly propor¬ tioned teeth, are more characteristic of modern man (Homo sapiens). Heidelberg man was thus prob¬ ably a type transitional between the two species and has been officially named Homo heidelbergensis. Since the original discovery, remains of H. heidel¬ bergensis have been discovered at other sites, in¬ cluding Boxgrove in West Sussex (Boxgrove man). • heightism ► Discrimination on the grounds of height. This can be practised against those who are considered too tall or too short for a particular job. The word was coined by analogy with other dis¬ criminative words, such as sexism and ageism.

• heavy water ► Deuterium oxide, i.e. water in

• hei Jen ► In China in the 1960s, young people who absconded from rural areas and went to live il¬

which some or all of the hydrogen has been re¬

legally in the city, with no fixed abode. The Chinese

placed by deuterium; either HDO or D2O. Heavy water is used as a moderator to slow down the neu¬ trons in a nuclear reactor. German attempts to se

means ‘black people’.

lescent boys.

cure large supplies of heavy water from an industrial plant in Norway in the early 1940s con¬ vinced the Allies that the Nazis were developing an atomic weapon. The belief spurred the AngloAmerican determination to build, and eventually

• Hell Hitlers The salutation to the Fiihrer used as an all-purpose greeting etc. in Nazi Germany. It was accompanied by the so-called Hitler or Nazi salute, in which the right arm was raised outstretched with the palm dovraward and the heels were clicked. The salutation and gesture are now used de¬ risively of anyone perceived to be behaving in a dic¬

use, the first atomic weapons.

tatorial way.

• hedgehopper ► British slang coined during World War I for an air-force recruit; it is still used

• Heimlich manoeuvre ► An emergency tech¬ nique to help a person who is choking, devised by

by new airmen of themselves. It is derived from the practice of flying close to the ground while still in¬ experienced.

the US physician H. J. Heimlich (1920-

). The suf¬

ferer is clasped from behind with both arms, the clenched fist of one hand grasped by the other. The

• Hedgers and Ditchers ► In 1911, during the struggle against the Veto Bill proposing to curtail the powers of the House of Lords, the Conservative ma¬

two hands are placed just below the sufferer’s

jority in the Lords was split. The ‘Hedgers’ under

structing the sufferer’s airway.

breastbone, enabling a sudden upward thrust of the hands and arms to dislodge the object ob¬

26A«

Heimwehr

• Heimwehr ► Home Defence Force: an Austrian paramilitary movement, consisting of several dis¬ tinct regional forces, that was founded after World War I, partly to repel border incursions by Yugoslavs and Hungarians. The groups had strong conserva¬

terms the uncertainties involved are so small that they are significant only when considering atoms and sub-atomic particles. These uncertainties arise from the wavelike properties of such particles, i.e. they behave as both particles and waves. Position

mainly from rural areas. During the 1920s and early

can only be determined accurately when the wave shows greatest undulation; but at this instant the

tive or Fascist tendencies, and gained support 1930s the movement was increasingly courted by

wavelength is ill-defined, creating uncertainty in ve¬

politicians of the right to act as a counterforce to so¬

locity measurement. The converse is true of pre¬

cialist movements in Vienna and other cities. The Heimwehr leadership forged ties with Mussolini in

cise velocity measurement. Heisenberg’s principle also applies to other related pairs of physical vari¬

1930, and in 1932 the right-wing Christian Social Party gave the movement’s leader. Fey, the post of

ables, such as momentum and position, energy and

national security chief in return for Heimwehr sup¬ port. Although it helped in suppressing the Aus¬

quantum mechanics and particle physics but also for philosophy, especially arguments about cause

trian socialists in 1934, the Heimwehr found its

and effect. If Heisenberg is correct, the identity of

power draining away to the Nazis. It was dissolved by the government in 1936.

a particle can only be expressed in terms of proba¬ bility and therefore its destiny cannot be stated

• Heineken refreshes the parts other beers cannot reach ► An advertising slogan for Heineken lager devised by Terry Lovelock of the Collett, Dickenson, Pearce Agency in 1974. The slo¬ gan is still used almost 30 years later. Since it first appeared a variety of characters, both on TV and on hoardings, have experienced the remarkable effects of the lager. ‘Parts’ to benefit include a policeman’s feet, Concorde’s nose, and those making up

time. Moreover, it has implications not only for

with certainty. If one is unable to identify positively a particle and unable to be sure what will become of it in the future, one cannot say whether or not it is obeying the law of cause and effect. The break¬ down of this law at the level of particles thus casts doubt on a principle that has been intuitively ac¬ cepted for thousands of years - that every effect must have a cause.

• heists US slang for a robbery, usually an armed robbery. First used in the early years of the 20th cen¬

Frankenstein’s monster. The phrase has been fre¬ quently parodied in such diverse contexts as graffiti

tury, it probably derives from ‘hoist’, meaning to

and political speeches. At the 1980 Tory Party Con¬

lift. ‘Lifting’ is itself a euphemism for stealing.

ference Margaret Thatcher referred, in one of her

Heist movies are a popular subgenre of film in

better jokes, to her then foreign secretary. Lord Car¬

which the execution and aftermath of a robbery are

rington, as ’the peer that reaches those foreign parts other peers cannot reach’.

seen from the viewpoint of the robbers. Examples

• Heinkel bombers Any of several aircraft man¬

Quentin Tarantino’s Reservoir Dogs (1992).

ufactured in Germany by Heinkel Flugzeugwerke, especially the He 111, the Luftwaffe’s main medium-

• Heligoland Bights The scene of the first naval battle of World War I, fought between the Royal

include John Huston’s The Asphalt Jungle (1950) and

range bomber during World War II. The He 111 was

Navy’s Harwich Force, led by Commodore Reginald

a twin-engined development of the He 70 single-

Tyrwhitt, and German vessels patrolling the wa¬ ters of Heligoland Bight in the S North Sea. The in¬

engined airliner. It first flew in 1935, and from 1936 was introduced into the Luftwaffe. The plane soon saw active service on the Nationalist side in the

tention was to lure into battle the larger German battleships anchored in nearby ports. In spite of

Spanish Civil War. More streamlined versions, the He

near calamitous confusion among the British,

lllP and lllH, had been developed by 1939; these

caused by poor communications and bad visibility,

had a wingspan of 22.6 m (74 ft 1 in) and a length

several enemy ships were engaged resulting in the

of 16.39 m (53 ft 9 in). Many of these planes flew

loss of three German light cruisers and a torpedo

bombing missions over Britain during World War II,

boat. Tyrwhitt’s own cruiser, Arethusa, was severely

and losses were heavy during the Battle of Britain.

crippled, and three British destroyers were dam¬

• Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle or In¬ determinacy Principle ► This states that one

aged. The action, in August 1914, impressed the UK’s naval supremacy on the Germans at the outset

cannot measure precisely and simultaneously both

of the war, and prompted the Kaiser to instruct his

the position and velocity of an object. It was for¬ mulated by the German physicist Werner Heisen¬

fleet to ‘hold itself back and avoid actions which can lead to greater losses‘.

berg (1901-76) and published in 1927. In practical

• helipad ► A place for helicopters to land and

Herald of Free Enterprise

take off. The word, a combination of ‘helicopter’

►►265

and ‘pad’ (a flat surface for vertical takeoff and

ciety. They still have a somewhat dubious image, al¬ though members claim that ‘Angels’ support one

landing), was coined in 1960. An earlier word, ‘he¬ liport’, is also used.

another and have even organized charitable fundraising efforts.

• heli-skiing ► A form of skiing in which the skiers are transported to the top of the slopes by he

• hell's a-poppin ► A US catchphrase of the 1930s onwards describing a manifestation of immense exuberance or energy. The phrase might be used to

licopter. Usually these slopes are remote from the usual tourist ski areas and certain to have copious snowfalls. Heli-skiing first became popular in Canada but has spread to the European ski slopes. • hellacious ► US slang for horrifying or hellish: also sometimes used to mean extraordinary or won¬ derful. In Britain, the word first came to public at¬ tention during the Gulf War of 1991, when a US serviceman used it in a news broadcast. • Hell is other people ► A much-quoted re¬ mark by the French existentialist philosopher and writer Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-80); it comes from his one-act play Huiserienced an

minion, precipitating the war. This culminated in

enormous leap in popularity, purely as a result of being revived in the film.

the international Geneva Conference (April-July

Music written specially for a film or programme

North and South along the 17th parallel (see Geneva

the ignominious French defeat at Dien Bien Phu and 1954), which agreed the partition of Vietnam into

may either be innocuous, intended to enhance the

Agreements).

mood of the action without being obtrusive, or it may provide a new dimension of its own. The zither

ally organized in a trade union, in support of a pay

• industrial actions Action by a workforce, usu¬

music of Anton Karas (1906-85) in Carol Reed’s The Third Man (1949) became almost as well known as

claim or other demands concerned with terms and

the film itself, as did Mikis Theodorakis’s bazouki music in Zorba the Greek (1964) and Vangelis’s highly

dustrial action, and the weapon of last resort, is

appropriate music to Chariots of Fire (1981). In some

overtime ban, a go-slow, or a work to rule.

cases the music may prove more enduring than the film. The wartime Dangerous Moonlight (1941), for example, is now largely forgotten, but Addinsell’s ’Warsaw Concerto’ is still familiar.

conditions of employment. The most serious in¬ the strike: other less drastic measures include an

• industrial espionage ►The practice of spying on one’s competitors to discover their trade secrets. This can be achieved by planting employees in the workforce, bribing existing workers, or making il¬

• include me out^ See: Goldwynisms. • income support^ A form of social security pay¬ ment, introduced in the UK in 1988 as a replace¬

legal use of telephone- or computer-tapping devices. The information sought usually concerns the com¬ petitor’s plans for research, launching of new prod¬

ment for supplementary benefit: it is payable to

ucts, or advertising campaigns: or it may involve the

people on low incomes, such as lone parents or the

competitor’s manufacturing techniques, pricing policy, takeover plans, etc.

disabled (income support for the unemployed was replaced by the jobseeker’s allowance in 1996). • Indianapolis 500 ► The US Grand Prix 500mile motor race run annually in May at the Indi¬

• industrial medicine ► The health care pro¬ vided for a workforce by the management. There are usually three facets: the first-aid and nursing

anapolis Motor Speedway, Indiana. It was first run

care provided to cope with accidents, illness at

in 1911 and is now the fastest and most dangerous race of its kind in the world, with cars reaching

work, etc.; the prevention of accidents, work-related

speeds of up to 200 mph (321.8 kph) on the 2.25-mile

dusts), and the minimization of the factors causing

(3.6-km) circuit. With prize money in excess of $1.5 million, the Indy, as it is called, tempts numerous

stress; and a regular service of physical check-ups. especially for senior members of staff.

entrants; it is also very popular with spectators, at¬

diseases (e.g. those caused by noxious fumes or

tracting crowds of up to 300,000 annually.

• industrial tourism ► A recent development in the tourist trade, in which factories, workshops,

• indie ► British slang for a small independent

and other industrial sites market themselves as at¬

record company, as opposed to the large recording

tractions for sightseers. For the companies involved

information anxiety

m>289

the revenue generated is usually much less impor¬

inflation), or an increase in the money supply

tant than the public relations opportunity. In the Fuels’ promotion of the Sellafield nuclear power sta¬

(monetary inflation). The opposite process is de¬ flation, in which both output and employment fall. In 19thecially prepared backing

• Kate and Sidney ► A Spoonerism for steak

audio tape. Karaoke usually takes place in bars and

and kidney pie or pudding, traditional dishes in

nightclubs with the customers taking it in turns to perform. In Japan it became a regular feature of

British cuisine. It is still heard, although the dishes are now less popular than they were.

the semi323

Kopenick hoax

• knock-on effect ► An effect that is a direct or indirect consequence of some previous event. When

Dalstroy, the Far Eastern Construction Trust. The

there is a whole chain of knock-on effects, this is

were also logging camps for women prisoners. In all, over two million died under a deliberately de¬

often referred to as the domino effect (see: domino theory). 5ee

also:

ripple effect.

main camps serviced the Kolyma gold mines; there

structive regime, which provided a starvation diet,

• knowledge, the ► London taxi-drivers’ slang for the knowledge of the streets etc. of London on which they are examined in order to become li¬

prohibited fur clothing, and enforced outside work

censed black cab drivers. Would-be taxi-drivers can

Labour is a matter of honour, valour and hero¬ ism. - Sign required by statute on all camp gates.

be seen acquiring ‘the knowledge’ by riding around London on mopeds following pre-arranged routes drawn out on a clipboard attached to the handle¬ bars. This is known as being on the knowledge; the drivers themselves are called the knowledge boys irrespective of their age or gender. These terms became more widely known through a 1979 TV play. The Knowledge, by Jack Rosenthal.

10 hours a day, unless temperatures fell below -50°C.

• Komsomol ► The All-Union Leninist Young Communist League, established in 1918 as a Bol¬ shevik youth organization for agitation and propa¬ ganda. • Kondratieff waves ► Long-term cycles in eco¬ nomic activity with a period of about 40 years, pos¬

• Kodak ► Tradename for a range of cameras and films invented by the eccentric American, George

tulated by the Russian economist N. D. Kondratieff (1892-1931). There is little substantive evidence for

Eastman (1854-1932), the first of which appeared in 1888. This first Kodak camera was compact, light, and relatively cheap; it heralded the arrival of pop¬

the theory. 5ee: trade cycle.

ular photography. The box-shaped device produced 100 round photos on paper stripping film. When all the photos had been taken, the camera was re¬ turned to the factory, which replaced the film, de¬ veloped the pictures, and returned the camera and snaps to the owner within 10 days. Eastman has recorded his reasons for choosing the name Kodak: I chose it because I knew a trade name must be short, vigorous, incapable of being misspelled to an extent that will destroy its identity, and, in order to satisfy trademark laws, it must mean nothing. The letter K had been a favourite with me - it seemed a strong, incisive sort of letter. Therefore, the word I wanted had to start with K. Then it became a question of trying out a great number of combinations of letters that made words starting and ending with K. The word Kodak is the result. • kode ► Slang for a set of mainly visual signs used by gays to communicate their sexual proclivi¬ ties. The code includes modes of dress (see: clone),

• Kon-Tiki expedition ► The unique voyage made in 1947 by the Norwegian Thor Heyerdahl with five companions, who sailed a primitive balsa raft from Callao in Peru to Tuamotu Island in the South Pacific. Their object was to support the theory that the Polynesian race reached the Pacific islands in this fashion and were descendants of the Incas of Peru. Their raft was called Kon-Tiki after the Inca sun-god. Although the voyage demon¬ strated that such a migration was possible using prehistoric technology, modern DNA testing has shown that the theory is almost certainly wrong.

• kook ►US slang for an eccentric or crazy person. It is probably derived from ‘cuckoo’, meaning crazy. Kook is rarely heard in the UK, although it is used in Australia.

• Kop, the ►

See; Spion Kop.

• Kopenick hoax ► An incident that took place in a Berlin suburb in 1906. An ex-convict shoe¬ maker, dressed in a guardsman’s uniform, com¬

key rings attached to belts, and certain coloured

mandeered a passing platoon of soldiers and

handkerchiefs in certain pockets, as well as the use of particular codewords in conversation.

in search of cash and a passport. He was brought to

• kogai ► A Japanese word for environmental pol¬ lution. From about 1970, reports of conferences

arrested the Burgomaster, before rifling his office justice ten days later and identified as Wilhelm Voigt. The case, which made Prussian militarism a laughing stock, attracted wide publicity: the Kaiser

held to discuss the problem of kogai in Japan began

was obliged to pardon the daring elderly hoaxer,

to appear in Western newspapers. The term is ap¬ plied to all types of environmental nuisance, in¬ cluding noise, water impurity, traffic congestion,

who spent his remaining years in comfort on a

obstruction of light, and air pollution.

pension given him by an admiring Berlin dowager. The episode provided the plot for the comic satire Der Hauptmann von Kopenick (1931) by the Ger¬

• Kolyma ► A region in NE Siberia, site of a com¬

man dramatist and novelist Carlos Zuckmayer

plex of Soviet forced-labour camps administered by

(1896-1977).

324^

• Korean War •

• Korean War*- (1950-53) The bitter, and ulti¬

the ethnic Albanian population in its southern

mately inconclusive, conflict precipitated by the

province of Kosovo. In 1998 demonstrations by

surprise invasion of pro-Western South Korea by

ethnic Albanians, who formed almost 90% of the

communist North Korea on 25 June 1950. Korea

province’s population, led to severe repression

had been temporarily divided across the 38th Paral¬

by the Belgrade government under Slobodan

lel by the Allies in 1945, after which attempts by the

Milosevic; this in turn provoked armed resistance

UN to reunite the country failed. An international

from the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA). Mounting

force was raised by the UN to combat the invasion,

evidence of ethnic cleansing by Serb forces led NATO

dominated by the Americans and led by General

to threaten airstrikes against the Serbs in October

Douglas MacArthur, who masterminded the suc¬ cessful Inchon landings (September 1950) cutting

bia resumed its aggression. NATO began a cam¬

the enemy supply lines. The UN forces then drove

paign of airstrikes against military and economic

1998. When subsequent talks broke down and Ser¬

the communists back to the Yalu River, the bound¬

targets in Yugoslavia in March 1999. The Serb forces

ary between North Korea and China. MacArthur

intensified their campaign of terror against ethnic

was removed by President Truman in April 1951 for publicly advocating the bombing of China,

Albanians, leading to a mass exodus of some 800,000 refugees seeking shelter in Macedonia, Al¬

which had invaded in support of the North in No¬

bania, and Montenegro; a similar number were dis¬

vember 1950, pushing the UN forces back to the

placed within Kosovo and at least 10,000 are thought to have been massacred. In June 1999 the

38th parallel. Seoul, the southern capital, fell to the communists, but was recaptured in April 1951.

Serbs effectively surrendered, agreeing to the com¬

Negotiations began as the fighting continued, until

plete withdrawal of their military forces, the pres¬

an armistice was finally signed at Panmunjon in 1953. Some 1,750,000 Koreans on both sides died in

ence of international peacekeepers, and the return of all refugees. About 170,000 Serbs have since fled

the conflict, compared to around 55,000 Ameri¬ cans.

the province. Kosovo’s political status remains un¬ resolved.

• kosher ► A Yiddish word (from Hebrew kosher,

• Kraft durch Freude*- (KdF; German, Strength through Joy) A popular Nazi scheme for cheap pack¬

proper) that came into use in English-speaking countries in the 19th century to describe food that complies with the Jewish dietary laws. Its use was subsequently extended to describe restaurants and butchers selling this food and even the Jews them¬

age holidays, which allowed thousands of working Germans to visit remote areas of the country, or take leisure cruises abroad, during the 1930s. The scheme, based on the Italian Fascist organization

scribe anything trustworthy, genuine, or above

Dopo Lavoro, was initially financed from confis¬ cated trade-union funds but later became big busi¬

board, is essentially a 20th331

Queens, and the Sperry G5Toscope Company Build¬ ing at Lake Success.

French during World War I, but returned to Lam¬ barene in 1924, rebuilt the hospital, and founded a

• Lake Wobegon effect ► An effect in which

leper colony nearby. By 1963 the hospital had 350

the standard of something or someone with which

patients; the leper colony treated a further 150 peo¬

or with whom one is connected is grossly overesti¬

ple. The entire complex was staffed by 35 White doctors and nurses as well as African ancillary work¬

mated. The phrase refers to Lake Wobegon Days (1985), a book by the US humorist Garrison Keillor (1942-

). The stories in the book are set in the

imaginary town of Wobegon, where all the inhabi¬ tants are exceptional; ...the women are strong, the men good looking and all the children above average.

• Laiique glass ► A type of Art

Nouveau glass de¬

signed and manufactured by the French jeweller and interior designer, Rene Laiique (1860-1945). Laiique was trained in London and Paris, and in his early career specialized in jewellery, textiles, and fans. His company sold designs to Cartier, made costume jewellery for the French actress, Sarah Bernhardt, and achieved some success with Art Nouveau brooches and combs at the Paris exhibi¬ tion of 1900. After establishing a glass factory in 1910, Laiique mass-produced a wide range of moulded glassware, such as vases, statuettes, scent bottles, and desk accessories. These featured iced surfaces and pale opalescent hues, with elaborate relief patterns based on plant, animal, and sensu¬ ous female motifs. • La Lollo► Gina Lollobrigida (1927-

), Italian ac¬

tress whose ample curves featured in a series of in¬ ternational films from 1947. Her roles included a variety of temptresses - a trapeze artiste in Trapeze (1956), a glamour girl in an Italian village in Buona Sera, Mrs Campbell (1968), and a Munich bookseller’s wife in King, Queen, Knave (1972). • lambada ► A late 1980s dance craze, in which a couple embrace tightly and gyrate their hips in a lu¬ bricious manner. It is thought to have originated among sailors and prostitutes in the shanty towns of Rio de Janeiro and was long considered unfit for respectable women. The music that accompanies this performance, also called lambada, is an infec¬ tious mixture of Latin American and Caribbean styles. In the 1980s it was taken up by North African

ers. Schweitzer, called the Saint of Lambarene by his admirers, died and was buried there in 1965. His writings on Bach and recordings of his recitals of Bach organ music are still highly regarded. This re¬ markable multitalented man was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1952. • Lambeth Walk ► A thoroughfare in Lambeth, S London, leading from Black Prince Road to the Lambeth Road. It gave its name to an immensely popular Cockney dance featured by Lupino Lane (from 1937) in the musical show Me And My Gal at the Victoria Palace. Purporting to imitate the strut¬ ting walk of the typical Lambeth Cockney, it came to symbolize the spirit of defiance of Londoners during the Blitz in World War 11. Any time you’re Lambeth Way Any evening, any day. You’ll find us all. Doing the Lambeth Walk, Oi!

• Lambre'tta ► A motor scooter manufactured by Innocent! from the 1950s at its factory in the Lambrate district of Milan. Together with the equally well-known Vespa motor scooter of the same pe¬ riod, it provided a more genteel alternative to the motorcycle, affording greater protection from the weather and enabling the rider to dispense with the more-or-less obligatory leathers and goggles of the motorcyclist. Most models were equipped with a 125 cc two-stroke engine, providing a stately average speed of about 45 mph; there were a few larger-en¬ gined versions.

• lame brain ► Slang for a slow-witted or stupid person. Having originated in America in the 1960s, it was heard in both the UK and Australia from the 1970s. • lamps ► The lamps are going out all over Eu¬ rope The melancholy observation made by the

musicians in Paris, and this modified form of lam¬

British statesman Sir Edward Grey (1862-1933) just before the outbreak of World War 1. His further re¬

bada swept through European nightclubs in the

mark ‘we shall not see them lit again in our life¬

summer of 1989. The name derives from a Por¬

time’ was, arguably, a little too apocal5q)tic. See

tuguese word meaning the crack of a whip.

also:

• Lambarene ► A village on an island in the Ogooue River in W Gabon, the site of the hospital

• Lampton, Joe ► The ruthless self-seeking antihero of John Braine’s novels Room at the Top (1957)

built in 1913 by the German medical missionary,

and Life at the Top (1962). From a working-class home

theologian, and musician Albert Schweitzer

in a small Yorkshire town, Lampton achieves his ends by discarding his long-standing but impecu-

(1875-1965). Schweitzer was imprisoned by the

Belle fpoque.

332333

pudiated by the government and the press as an act

graphical trilogy (1945) by Flora Thompson

of disloyalty suggesting a weakening of Allied re¬ solve to defeat Germany. As a result Lansdowne was expelled from the Tory party.

(1876-1947) containing a detailed evocation of her

• Lao Dong ► The Vietnam Workers’ Party, cre¬

as Lark Rise (1939), Over to Candleford (1941), and Can¬

ated by Ho Chi Minh in May 1951 to replace the

dleford Green (1943); it is an unsentimental portrait

Communist Party. The newly created Lao Dong ab¬

of a lost age of agricultural customs and rural cul¬ ture.

sorbed the Lien Viet (National United Front), a nationahst and communist coalition, and became the ruling party of the Democratic Republic of Viet¬ nam, which had been established in Hanoi on 2 September 1945 by Ho Chi Minh.

• lap dancing ► A striptease or erotic dance rou¬ tine in which a customer pays for the dancer to perform in close proximity and at their personal in¬ vitation. T3fpically the dancer attends the punter’s table, hence the more proper term table dancing. Although the performer may be pursuing his or her ‘art’ virtually in the lap of the punter, laws li¬ censing such clubs often forbid physical contact. Lap dancing originated in the early 1980s in the

rural childhood through the experiences of the character Laura. The work was originally published

• Larrys ► Informal name for the Laurence Olivier Awards presented by the Society of London Theatre, in imitation of the Oscars awarded in the cinema. ‘Larry’ was the nickname of the British actordirector Laurence Olivier (1907-89), used both by those who knew him well and - with stagey famil¬ iarity - by others who aspired to be on first-name terms with one of the finest British actors. In 1947 he was knighted and in 1970 he became the first actor to be made a life peer, largely for his work as director (1961-73) of the National Theatre company. The Olivier Theatre, part of the National Theatre, was named in his honour.

first table dancing venue was the Cabaret of Angels,

• Lascaux caves ► A cave system near Montignac in the Dordogne, SW France, containing some of

opened in London by clubowner Peter Stringfellow

the most remarkable examples of prehistoric art

in 1996; similar establishments are now com¬ mon throughout the country. Britain’s first gay lap¬

ever found. The caves were discovered in 1940 by a group of boys after their dog disappeared through

dancing club opened in London in 1999. A renewed

a hole, which turned out to be a hidden entrance to

mainstream interest in erotica has created a

the grotto. The main cavern and a series of steep gal¬ leries off it contain vivid yellow, brown, red, and

USA, where it is now a massive industry. The UK’s

healthy market for table dancing, and helped many such clubs to escape the traditional seedy image of the strip joint.

black paintings of various animals, including au¬

• laptop ► A small portable computer, usually weighing between 3 and 81bs (1V2-4 kg) and carried

which have been dated to the Upper Palaeolithic pe¬ riod (c. 18,000 BC). The dry atmosphere within the

in a briefcase. It first appeared in 1984 and is used

rochs, red deer, oxen, horses, and stags’ heads,

caves, together with a coating of calcite laid down

mostly for word processing in trains, hotels, etc.

over the centuries (which acted as a coat of var¬ nish), had left the artwork in a remarkable state of

• Lari massacre ► The slaughter of 90 people, mostly Africans, by Mau Mau terrorists at Lari in

preservation. However, when the caves were open to the public the humidity from tourists’ breath and

Kenya on the night of the 24 March 1953. A British-

perspiration caused the paintings to deteriorate

appointed Kikuyu chief and his family had relin¬

rapidly: since 1963 the caves have been closed to the public.

quished land designated as “White’ in return for land at Lari, NW of Nairobi: as a result, the dis¬ placed and disgruntled Lari cultivators had joined the Mau Mau. On the night in question the Mau Mau imprisoned the Kikuyu intruders in their huts and burned them alive - those who tried to escape were hacked to pieces with machetes. Most of the men were absent, so those who died were almost ex¬ clusively women and children. The barbarity of the attack convinced the British authorities of the need to crush the Mau Mau with maximum force, an ob¬ jective largely achieved in the two years following the massacre.

• Lark Rise to Candleford ► An autobio¬

• laser ► A device for producing an intense narrow beam of light (or infrared, ultraviolet, or other ra¬ diation). The first laser was made by the US physi¬ cist Theodore Maiman (1927- ) in 1960. He used a rod of ruby with partially reflective surfaces at each end. In a ruby laser, intense pulses of light are ap¬ plied from surrounding sources and these excite atoms within the material. These excited atoms decay with emission of light at a particular wave¬ length. The light is reflected backwards and for¬ wards through the material and stimulates further emission. The result is a narrow beam of light with a single wavelength (monochromatic), with all the

334-m

laser bomb

light waves in phase (coherent). The name was orig¬ inally an acronym: ‘light amplification by stimu¬ lated emission of radiation’. Maiman’s idea came from an earlier device, the maser (microwave am¬ plification by stimulated emission of radiation), which had been invented in 1955 by the US physi¬ cist Charles Townes (1915- ) and, independently, by the Soviet physicists Nicolai Basov (1922- ) and Aleksandr Prokhorov (1916- ). The laser was orig¬ inally called an ‘optical maser’. Following Maiman’s invention in 1960, a number of types of laser were developed using different materials and operating in different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.

bleeding blood vessels, weld breaks in the retina, and remove thin slices of cornea (i.e. to treat my¬ opia), leaving surrounding tissue uninjured.

• Lassa fevers A contagious viral disease with a high mortality rate. It was first identified in 1969 in the Nigerian village of Lassa. Symptoms include a high fever, muscle aches, skin rash, mouth ulcers, haemorrhaging under the skin, and heart infec¬ tion. The disease, thought to be transmitted to hu¬ mans from mice and rats, occurs chiefly in rural areas of W Africa.

• Lasseter's gold reef ► A seam of gold, re¬

Initially, the device was regarded as something of a scientific curiosity - ‘a solution without a prob¬

puted to be enormously rich, in the deserts of cen¬

lem’. The possibility of applying laser technology to

The seam, promising untold wealth to anyone who

warfare meant that early research was highly se¬ cret, stimulating the popular image of the laser as the weapon of the future. Subsequently, a large and

could find it, was apparently discovered by a

diverse number of applications were found: laser light shows, measuring and surveying devices, com¬ pact discs, computer printers (see: laser printer), laser

tral Australia, which has so far eluded all searches.

prospector called Harold Bell Lasseter in 1897. By 1911 he had raised sufficient funds for an expedi¬ tion, but he and his companions were driven back by the harsh conditions. In 1930 he tried again. This time he refused to turn back, even when the

surgery, and, as predicted, beam weapons (see: Star

heat had claimed all the members of his expedition

Wars).

except for two camels; his starved and dehydrated

• laser bomb ► A type of bomb guided by a laser

body was subsequently found in a cave. The search

beam. An aircraft locks a laser beam onto its target; sophisticated bombs dropped by that aircraft - or

for his gold reef continues.

accompanying aircraft - then follow the beam. First used in the Vietnam War. they were highly effective during the Gulf War of 1991 in destrojring specific

Knight’s Lassie Come Home (1940), a novel for chil¬

targets while minimizing civilian casualties.

Lassie Come Home (1943) was followed by The Courage

• laser cane ► A type of walking stick for the

of Lassie (1946), Son of Lassie (1945), and The Sun Comes

• Lassie ► The doughty collie-dog heroine of Eric dren, who went on to feature in a whole series of ca¬ nine adventure films made by MGM in the 1940s.

blind that emits infrared laser radiation. The radi¬

Up (1949). The part of Lassie was actually played by

ation is reflected by surrounding obstacles and de¬ tected by sensors in the cane; the signal is converted

a male dog called Pal; among his co-stars were

into an audible tone, which warns the user of the obstacle.

MacDonald. Later adaptations included Lassie, a

• laser printer ► A type of printer used with com¬ puter systems. A laser beam is scanned across an electrically charged plate and discharges the plate

animated series Lassie’s Rescue Rangers (1973-75), and

in regions in which the image is required. Parti¬

Roddy McDowell, Elizabeth Taylor, and Jeanette popular and long-running US television series; the the television film Lassie: The New Beginning (1978). Lassie returned to the big screen in the musical The Magic of Lassie (1978).

cles of pigment adhere to the discharged region; the process is similar to that in a photocopier. Laser

• last chance trendy ► (LCT) A disparaging epi¬ thet applied to a person, particularly a middle-aged

printers can produce type similar to that of a type¬

man, who attempts to conceal his age by dressing

setting machine and are extensively used in desktop publishing systems.

younger person. The phrase was popular in the late

• laser surgery Surgical treatment using light from a laser. Since the late 1960s the advantages of using a laser beam, which can be focused precisely on a minute area of tissue, have revolutionized some areas of surgery. The main benefits have been in microsurgery and ophthalmic surgery, where

and behaving in a manner more appropriate to a 1970s and 1980s. The hallmark of a last chance trendy is usually taken to be hair carefully combed or styled to hide tell-tale bald patches.

• last hurrah ► A final farewell appearance, a ‘swan song’. The expression derives from the US film The Last Hurrah (1958), in which a New Eng¬

lasers have been used to make delicate incisions, se¬

land political leader (played by Spencer Tracy) un¬

lectively destroy damaged or tumorous tissue, seal

dertakes the last campaign of his life.

Laurel and Hardy

• last night of the Proms ► See:

Land of Hope

m-335

ond phase of the Celtic Iron Age in Europe (mid-5th

and Glory; prom.

century

• last of the big spenders ► An ironic jibe used to denote someone who is careful with money, or

• lateral thinking ► An expression coined by the British physician Edward de Bono (1933- ) in

even downright mean. It is said to have originated in Australia in the late 1950s.

by the use of unorthodox or even apparently illog¬

• Last of the Red Hot Mommas ► The nick¬ name of the vaudeville and cabaret singer Sophie Tucker (1884-1966), born somewhere in Russia while her parents were en route to America. Her

bc

to the Roman conquest).

the mid-1960s to denote a way of solving problems ical means rather than by direct logical processes. The concept is explained in de Bono’s The Use of Lat¬ eral Thinking (1967).

nickname, derived from the song T’m the Last of

• Lateran Treaty ► A treaty concluded between the Holy See and the Kingdom of Italy in 1929, es¬

the Red Hot Mommas’ (written by Jack Yellen), so

tablishing the Vatican City as a sovereign state. In

suited her brash, often risque, image and vigorous singing style that it was used in her billing from

the same treaty the papacy finally recognized the

1928 for the rest of her career. She was also known

states, which had been absorbed into the unified Italy in 1870. See: Vatican City State.

as Sophie Tuckshop, an allusion to her ample pro¬ portions.

• last words ►

See; famous last words.

loss of its temporal power over the former papal

• Laughing Murderer of Verdun ► See.

Little

Willie.

• Las Vegas ► The principal city of the US state of Nevada, a neon oasis set in the parched wasteland

• launch windows A short period during which a spacecraft must be launched in order to accom¬

of the Mojave Desert. Famous for its luxury hotels and casinos, which line the ‘Strip’, it offers 24-hour

plish its mission successfully. This is contingent on the astronomical conditions prevailing, in partic¬

year-round gambling and cabaret entertainment,

ular the relative position of the planets and their

often featuring some of the world’s greatest showbusiness stars. Las Vegas means ‘the Meadows’ in

satellites, which enables the craft to travel on a path requiring the minimum input of energy. A suitable launch window for a flight from Earth to

Spanish, a reference to the artesian wells discov¬ ered here by the first Spanish settlers. Such a de¬

Venus occurs once every 19 months; one to Mars oc¬

scription, however, is no longer appropriate to this

curs once in 26 months.

modern incarnation of glitzy vulgarity. The city owes its commercial success to the legalization of

• Launderette ► A self-service laundry (called a Laundromat in America) in which customers can

gambling by the Nevada state authorities in 1931, although it remained a shabby settlement with a few drab gambling halls, quick-wedding chapels, and legahzed brothels until the first luxury casino, the Flamingo, was built with mob money in 1946. Since then it has steadily climbed up-market.

wash and dry clothes and other items in coinoperated machines. Both versions are tradenames now loosely used for any such establishments. The social life of the launderette is a feature of many dis¬ tricts, especially the bed-sitter areas of London. Cus¬

• latchkey kid ► A young child whose parents are

tomers are obliged to wait for periods of up to half an hour while their laundry is being washed. Con¬

still at work when he or she returns home after

versation with other customers is usually consid¬

school; the child must therefore carry the key of the house or flat. The problem of children remaining unattended and unsupervised at home began to be

clothes rotate, through the glass window of the washing machine.

widely recognized in the 1960s as a serious side ef¬ fect of the increasing numbers of working mothers and single-parent families. • La Tene ► A curvilinear decorative style derived from Iron-Age Celtic art. Such designs on pottery and metalwork in gold, silver, and bronze were found in the La Tene archaeological site on Lake Neuchatel, Switzerland, in excavations between 1907 and 1917. La Tene art, which included inter¬ laced patterns related to the Greek geometric style and stylized oriental animals, also existed in the UK and Ireland. La Tene has given its name to the sec¬

ered preferable to sitting in silence, watching one’s

• laundering ► A colloquial expression originat¬ ing in America to denote the process of passing money, which has been illegally obtained, through foreign banks or legitimate commercial enterprises so that it reappears in circulation in a context that makes it appear to have originated legitimately. The word is now often used in the phrase money laundering.

• Laurasia ► See:

Pangaea.

• Laurel and Hardy ► Hollywood’s most suc¬ cessful comedy team, the thin British-born Stan

336347

• limousine

or ‘like your argument is like useless’. This usage originated amongst beatniks and jazz musicians in

beautiful body and the timeless loveliness of her face.

the 1950s and was later taken up by hippies in the

See also: backroom boys.

1960s and 1970s as part of their habit of making detached and often not very profound or original

• Lima Declaration ► A declaration by the Eighth International Pan-American Conference,

assertions. It has now become a compulsive speech

which met in Lima, Peru, in December 1938, af¬

habit among schoolchildren and teenagers. One

firming American continental solidarity and col¬

curious development of the last few years has been

lective security in the face of any foreign threat to

the growing tendency to use ‘like’ as an all-purpose substitute for ‘say’, ‘think’, or ‘imply’, as in ‘I come

its political or territorial integrity. The declaration was prompted by President Roosevelt’s determina¬

in and she’s like Where the heU have you been?, and

tion to secure the American republics against Eu¬

I’m like What’s it to you?’. See: valspeak.

ropean totalitarianism, although many of the

• Likud ► A political coalition which, under the

South American signatories harboured Fascist sym¬

successive leadership of Menachem Begin and Yitzhak Shamir, was the outright governing power

pathies in preference to US democratic values,

in Israel between May 1977 and November 1984, and has subsequently formed a series of coalition

the 1950s, in which dancers bend backwards to pass beneath a horizontal bar that is lowered after

governments under Shamir (1990-92), Binyamin

each try. Often the dance continues until only one

Netanyahu (1996-99), and Ariel Sharon (2001-

dancer remains.

).

Formed in 1973, it was created from various rightwing organizations, principally the Gahal bloc, comprising the Herut (Freedom) Party, which for¬ mally emerged in 1948 (the year of Israel’s inde¬ pendence), and the Liberal Party, itself an amalgamation formed in 1961 of the former Gen¬ eral Zionist and Progressive parties.

• limbo ► A West Indian dance, popularized in

• Lime, Harry ► The unscmpulous villain played by Orson Welles in The Third Man (1949), a remark¬ able film directed by Carol Reed and scripted by Graham Greene. Lime, a shady figure who appears only briefly in the doorways, fairgrounds, and sew¬ ers of post-war Vienna, has a hospital contact who supplies him with penicillin, which he sells on the

• Li'l Abners The handsome hillbilly character of

black market. As a result, the diluted penicillin left

the long-running newspaper comic strip created by the US cartoonist Alfred G. Caplin in 1934. The

in the hospital fails to cure the sick children to whom it is administered. Lime justifies himself to

character was played on screen by Granville Owen

his American friend Holly;

in a 1940 film; a later stage musical was also filmed (1959) with Peter Palmer in the title role. The orig¬ inal strip continued into the 1970s.

• Lili Marlene ► A German song of World War II composed by Norbert Schultze in 1938 and first

In Italy for 30 years under the Borgias they had warfare, terror, murder, bloodshed and they produced Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci and the Renaissance. In Switzerland they had broth¬ erly love, 500 years of democracy and peace and what did they produce? The cuckoo clock.

recorded by the Scandinavian singer Lale Ander¬

It is said that Orson Welles himself added these

sen. The lyric was based on a poem written by a Ger¬

lines to Greene’s script. The film owes its success to

man soldier, Hans Leip, in 1917. The song became

a combination of skills: the acting, the direction,

increasingly popular during the 1940s, especially

the scriptwriting, the photography, and the haunt¬

with the Afrika Korps, and the recorded version was

ing incidental music of Anton Karas and his zither.

played nightly by Radio Belgrade from the late sum¬ mer of 1941 virtually until the end of hostilities. Other German stations plugged it and it was picked up and adopted by the British Eighth Army, the English version of the lyric being by T. Connor. There were French, Italian, and numerous other renderings of what became the classic song of the war. It was later performed, both in German and English, by the German-bom star Marlene Dietrich,

• Limehouse ► A once common term for violent abuse of one’s political opponents: from a speech by Lloyd George at Limehouse, London, on 30 July 1909, in which he poured scorn and abuse on dukes, landlords, financial magnates, etc. In 1981 four former cabinet ministers (see: Gang of Four) issued the Limehouse Declaration, launching the Social Democratic Party.

with whom it is now chiefly associated. Perhaps it

• limousine ► Originally, a large car in which the

was after hearing her sing ‘Lili Marlene’ that Ernest

driver was separated from the passengers by a par¬

Hemingway wrote: If she had nothing but her voice, she could break your heart with it. But she also has that

tition. The name comes from the French limousine, a cloak (originally a hooded cloak worn by the in¬ habitants of Limousin). Later the name was used of

348

limousine liberal •

any large and luxurious car, especially in North America, and was often abbreviated to limo. A stretch limo is a very long saloon car made in

seeking his release from prison. Whatever the truth, ’Lindy’ turned his back on US society and

America by a variety of firms from Ford Lincolns. It is used worldwide as a vehicle able to transport up

man.

to 15 passengers on such special occasions as wed¬ dings. Stretch limos are also used by rock bands, film stars and their entourages, etc.

• limousine liberal ► A derogatory term for a person with liberal political leanings, who also has a great deal of personal wealth. The implication is that it is easy to have liberal views in the back of a chauffeur-driven limousine. Largely a US expres¬ sion, it has a British counterpart in champagne so¬ cialist.

• limp-wristed ► A derogatory adjective used to describe a male homosexual. It is supposed to de¬ scribe the camp and ineffectual wrist and hand movements of such a person.

• Lincoln Center ► The Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts (1957-67), a complex in New York City that includes the Metropolitan Opera House (1966), New York Philharmonic Concert Hall (1962), New York State Theatre (1964; home to the NYC Opera, NYC Ballet and other groups), and the Juilliard School of Music (1967). The buildings flank a Michelangelo-style piazza, similar in concept to the Capitoline in Rome, and were designed by a team of architects including Philip Johnson, Max

spent the next five years in Europe, an embittered • Lindbergh jacket ► A style of waist-length jacket, which was popular in the 1930s in imitation of the flying-jacket worn by the US aviator Charles A. Lindbergh.

• lindy hop or lindy ► The vigorous jitterbug dance of the 1930s, named after transatlantic solo pilot Charles A. Lindbergh. The lindy hop was per¬ formed to swing or other fast jazz music and intro¬ duced the hip twists and pelvic gyrations that became a feature of many subsequent dances.

• line ► British slang for a single dose of cocaine, or other drug in powder form, that is sprinkled in a straight line on a mirror, or similar hard flat sur¬ face, and snorted into the nose through a straw or a rolled-up banknote. • Linear B script ► A syllabic version of Greek (also called Mycenaen Greek), dating from c. 1400 to c. 1150 BC, most examples of which have been dis¬ covered on fragments of tablet at Knossos in Crete, Mycenae, and areas of the Greek mainland. It was so named by Sir Arthur Evans (1851-1941) to dis¬ tinguish it from the hieroglyphics which preceded the linear form. The script was deciphered in 1952 by the British architect Michael Ventris (1922-56)

Abramovitz, and Eero Saarinen, coordinated by Wal¬ lace K. Harrison.

and is thought to be either derived from, or paral¬ lel to. Linear A (c. 2000-c. 1500 Bc), which cannot yet be read.

• Lindbergh baby murders A criminal case in¬ volving the kidnap and murder of the 20-month-old baby son of the US aviator Charles A. Lindbergh

• line dancing ► A popular dance style of the 1990s that is faintly reminiscent of square danc¬ ing. In a line dance, the dancers form a line or lines

(1902-74) in March 1932. Lindbergh (or ‘Lindy’) had become enormously famous as a result of his non¬ stop solo flight from New York to Paris (1927) in his monoplane Spirit of St Louis. The world was ap¬ palled by the case and a nationwide hunt resulted, with offers of help from the jailed A1 Capone, among many others. In May the baby’s body was found in a shallow grave - he had died from a blow

and execute a number of simple steps to country-andwestern music. The dancers (of both sexes) dress in

cowboy boots and hats with various gaudy accou¬ trements. Line dancing seems to be popular be¬ cause it offers an occasion for social dancing at which no one need be worried about not knowing the steps or not having a partner.

investigation by the police led eventually to the ar¬

• linkage ► A political deal in which progress on one difficult issue is made dependent on progress

rest in September of a German-born carpenter, Bruno Richard Hauptmann, who had entered Amer¬

in another (which may be otherwise unrelated). This technique was greatly favoured by US secretary

ica illegally in 1923. Given Lindbergh’s celebrity

of state Henry Kissinger, during his international

status, the trial in January 1935 was a media circus.

negotiations in the 1970s. A tacit linkage between

Hauptmann was sent to the electric chair in April

issues later formed a mainstay of the peace processes (1990s) in Northern Ireland and the Mid¬

to the head on the night of the kidnap. Painstaking

1936. However, his conviction has been the subject of considerable controversy ever since and his in¬

dle East, although this was often denied in public.

The Airman and the Carpenter (1984). One theory is

• Lion of Judah ► The title of Haile Selassie (1892-1975), emperor of Ethiopia from 1930 to 1974

that the kidnap was staged by friends of Cajwne,

except for the years of the Italian occupation

nocence was argued by Ludovic Kennedy in his book

m>349

little green men

(1936-41), during which he lived in exile in the UK.

listed buildings): Grade lUfor ‘particularly impor¬

In 1974 he was deposed by a military coup and Ethiopia was declared a socialist state. He is re¬ garded by Rastafarians as the Messiah, the incarna¬

tant buildings of more than special interest’ (about 4%); and Grade II for buildings of special interest that ‘warrant every effort being made to preserve them’. Some of the more unusual ‘buildings’ to

tion of God. The term ‘Rastafarian’ comes from Selassie’s real name, Ras Tafari Makonnen. He as¬

have been listed include prefabs, ornate tombs, and

sumed the title Haile Selassie, meaning ‘Might of

various follies.

the Trinity’, when he became emperor. The lion is the emblem of the biblical tribe of Judah, Christ sometimes being referred to as ‘the lion of the tribe

• listeria ► A bacterium belonging to a genus named after the famous British surgeon, Joseph Lister. The name usually refers to the species Liste¬

of Judah’.

• liposuction ► A surgical method of slimming in which fat cells are permanently removed from such areas of the body as the stomach, hips, and upper arms. After administering a local anaesthetic, the surgeon m2Lkes a small incision and uses a S5rringelike instrument to draw out the fat cells. The tech¬ nique is generally regarded with horror by all but the most obsessive slimmers.

• lipsticks US college slang from the 1970s for a fashionably and femininely dressed lesbian. The term gained a much wider circulation in the 1990s (see: Same Gender Orientation). A lipstick is the op¬ posite of a cnmchie, a more austerely and masculinely dressed lesbian. • lipsynch ► To pretend to sing or talk by silently moving the lips in synchronization to a recording. Long used by Hollywood, this became an accept¬ able mode of performing on stage and television in the 1960s. Singers could mime to their own record¬ ings in order to retain the original quality and cer¬ tain studio sound effects that could not easily be recreated in live performance.

• liquid crystal displaySee: • liquid Ecstasy ► See-.

ria monocytogenes, which causes listeriosis in hu¬ mans and animals and occurs widely in nature, for example in soil, faeces, silage, and the tissues of healthy animals. Infection in humans can cause three distinct forms of disease: a flu-Iike pattern of symptoms: septicaemia, caused by the organisms entering the bloodstream: and a form of meningi¬ tis. In pregnant women the organism can cross the placenta and affect the fetus, causing miscarriage, stillbirth, or birth defects. Occasionally, mass out¬ breaks of listeriosis occur, often traceable to cont¬ aminated food, such as soft cheeses, pates, etc. In most cases, however, infection is sporadic and from an unidentifiable source. Worries emerged in the 1980s over the risks of listeriosis caused by the pres¬ ence of the highly resistant listeria organisms in cook-chill food products inadequately reheated using microwave ovens. New guidelines were introduced in the UK in 1990 to combat this risk.

• litterbug ► A person who drops litter in public places. The word was coined in about 1947 in Amer¬ ica, where it is also used as a verb, meaning to drop litter. It contains a pun on the 1940s dance craze, the jitterbug. In the UK litter lout is more common.

LCD.

GHB.

• liquidizers An electrical kitchen appliance with blades that can cut, puree, mix, and blend. It is also called a blender, especially in America, where it was first sold in the 1960s to mix crushedice alcoholic drinks, such as frozen daiquiris. Mod¬ ern models can blend soups, chop nuts, puree vegetables or fruit, grate cheese, and make mousses

See also:

Keep Britain Tidy.

• Little America ► See:

Eisenhower Platz.

• Little Bighorn ► British motor-cycle couriers’ name for Hyde Park Corner in London, one of the capital’s busiest junctions. The reference is to the Battle of Little Bighorn (1876) in America, at which General Custer’s troops were massacred by the Indians and Custer himself was killed. For motor¬ cyclists, Hyde Park Corner can be a similarly fright¬

and frothy sweets. See also: urban legends.

ening and dangerous place.

• listed building ► A building in the UK offi¬ cially recognized as being of‘special architectural

• Little Entente ► The political alliance formed between Czechoslovalda, Yugoslavia, and Romania

or historic interest’ according to the Town and Country Planning Act (1971). Under the act, such buildings are protected from demolition and their

(1920-22). Originally intended to prevent the restoration of Habsburg power, it later became broader in scope. It was brought to an end by the de¬ struction of Czechoslovakia after the Munich Agree¬

owners or occupiers are required to obtain consent from their local planning authority before carrying out any work that would affect the character of the building. There are three types of listing; Grade I for buildings of ‘exceptional interest’ (about 1% of

ment (1938).

• Little Flower*- See:

La Guardia.

• little green men*- See:

LGM.

350^

Little Miss Dynamite

• Little Miss Dynamite ► The stage name of the

(who lived in nearby Warwick Crescent) noted a re¬

US singer Brenda Lee (1944-

the few successful female rock ’n’ rollers of the late

semblance to Venice. Little Venice has been popular with many painters, including Feliks Topolski

1950s and 1960s. The nickname may have been

(1907-89) and Lucien Freud (1922-

partly inspired by the song ‘Dynamite’, a minor hit

been used as a backdrop in numerous British films

in 1957. In the 1980s she rebuilt her career as a

and television series.

country singer.

• Little Willie * A nickname used by British troops in World War I for Friedrich Wilhelm, crown

), who was one of

• Little Mo ► The nickname of the US tennis

). It has also

great tennis stars of the early 1950s. she won her

prince of Germany and eldest son of Kaiser Wil¬ helm II (see: Kaiser Bill). The commander of the Ger¬

first championship at 16, took three Wimbledon titles between 1952 and 1954, and was the first

was apparently unmoved by the enormous casual¬

champion Maureen Connolly (1934-69). One of the

man armies that attempted to capture Verdun, he

British, US. Australian, and French singles champi¬

ties sustained on both sides - hence another of his nicknames, the Laughing Murderer of Verdun.

onships in one year.

• Live Aid * Two marathon rock concerts held on

• Little Red Book*’ A name for the collected Quo¬ tations of Chairman Mao Tse Tung, a book originally

13 July 1985 in Wembley Stadium, London, and JFK Stadium, Philadelphia, to raise funds for African

produced for the indoctrination of the Chinese

famine relief The concerts, featuring such stars as U2, David Bowie, Madonna, and Mick Jagger, were

woman to win the tennis grand slam, taking the

Army in 1964 that appeared in a regular edition red plastic, contained a collection of political quo¬

watched by an estimated one and a half billion peo¬ ple in 160 countries. Live Aid was also the name of

tations. homilies, and aphorisms culled from Mao’s writings over the decades and was designed to stim¬

venture was masterminded by the Irish rock singer

ulate revolutionary awareness. It became a familiar

from 1965. The pocket-sized book, bound in bright

the charity set up to administer these funds. The

sight during the upheavals of the Cultural Revolution,

Bob Geldof (1952- ), who cajoled, bullied, and blackmailed everyone from superstars to heads of

when it was brandished aloft by zealous Red Guards

state in pursuit of his aims. Geldof had previously

and workers as they heeded Mao’s call to root out

been the moving force behind Band Aid an ad hoc su¬

revisionaries among the bureaucratic and intellec¬

pergroup that recorded a charity single in response

tual elite. It also enjoyed a vogue among the New

to harrowing TV footage of the Ethiopian famine of 1984. In 1986 he was awarded an honorary knight¬

Left in Europe and America during the same period. Every communist must grasp the truth, politi¬ cal power grows out of the barrel of a gun.

• little ships*

See: Dunkirk.

• Little Sparrow * Nickname of Edith Piaf (1915-63), the French cabaret singer and enter¬

hood. After Band Aid and Live Aid, the word ‘Aid’ was frequently incorporated into the titles of char¬ ity events. I’m not interested in the bloody system! Why has he no food? Why is he starving to death? BOB GELDOF in an interview, October 1985.

tainer. Her real name was Edith Gassion; the stage

• live-in * Designating a sexual partner with

name ‘Piaf is French slang for ‘sparrow’, an allusion

whom one shares one’s living accommodation but

to her tiny stature. Many of her songs, ‘Je m'enfous

to whom one is not married. Livein boyfriends, for

pas maV (‘1 couldn’t care less’), ‘Je ne regrette rien’ (‘I regret nothing’), and 'La vie en rose’ (‘Life through

example, may or may not own, or partly own, the

rose-coloured glasses’), are a reflection of the drugand alcohol-induced tragedies of her ovra short and

choose to do so. In general, they have not achieved the status of common-law husbands, who might

accommodation and are free to go when they

chaotic life. Immensely popular in her native Paris,

be regarded as boyfriends who have lived-in for

she was mourned by virtually the whole populace,

some years and have probably entered into some

bringing traffic to a standstill on the day of her fu¬

property-sharing arrangements with their partners.

neral. When he heard the news of her death, her

In 1972 only 17% of wives in the UK had started

friend the writer and artist Jean Cocteau suffered a

their relationships with their husbands as live-in

fatal heart attack.

• Little Venice* A picturesque tree-lined stretch

girlfriends. By 1987 this had risen to 57%. In 1998-99 25% of all women aged between 16 and 59

of the Regent’s Canal (opened in 1820 and joined to

were cohabiting with men to whom they were not

the Grand Union Canal in 1929) in London’s Maida

married. See also: cohab; de-farto; significant other.

Vale. Although the name only became current after

• Liver bird * A punning name for a working-

World War II, both Lord Byron and Robert Browning

class girl from Liverpool. It derives from the effigies

►►351

• loaded •

of mythical birds on the twin towers of the Royal

blies. Lloyd George Knew My Father is the title of a

Liver Exchange, known locally as the Liver birds,

play by William Douglas Home (1972).

and the slang ‘bird’ meaning a girl. The name was popularized by the BBC sitcom The Liver Birds

• Lloyd's names ► Underwriters of insurance policies at Lloyd’s of London, the world’s premier in¬

(1969-78).

surance association. Lloyd’s was founded in a 17th-

• living will ► A document in which a legally

century London coffee shop owned by a Mr Edward Lloyd. Here marine and other insurers gathered to

competent person states that in the event of incur¬ able illness, severe disability, etc., he or she would

learn the fortune of the ships they had insured.

prefer not to be kept alive by artificial means. The

The association was incorporated by Act of Parlia¬

phrase was widely heard in the 1980s, by which time many US states recognized the legal force of

ment in 1871. Lloyd’s itself does not participate in underwrit¬

such documents (known formally as advance di¬

ing policies. Its members (names) are organized

rectives). By the mid-1990s it had been established

into syndicates, which are run by a manager who

in a number of cases in British courts that doctors

writes the policies and stipulates the premiums.

should take account of patients’ wishes expressed

The names take no active part in the business, but

in a living will.

they have to deposit substantial sums of money or

• Llareggub ► The small seaside town that pro¬

other assets with the corporation to provide the risk capital if their syndicate makes a loss; fur¬

vides the setting for Dylan Thomas’s ‘play for voices’ Under Milk Wood (1954). It was based largely on Laugherne in SW Wales, where the poet spent his later years and is buried. Llareggub is ‘buggeralT spelt backwards.

• Lloyd George Fund ► The controversial fund established and personally controlled by David

thermore, if this capital proves insufficient, they are called upon to provide whatever extra sums are required with unlimited liability. On the other hand, if their syndicate makes a profit, they share in it. Because Lloyd’s has been regarded for nearly two centuries as a monument of reliability and fi¬

Lloyd George (1863-1945) as prime minister

nancial decorum, rich men and women who could afford the deposit have queued up to become

(1916-22); it was set up to finance a new party or¬

names, in the virtually certain expectation that

ganization after his split with the official Liberal

they would make a handsome return on their in¬

Party under Asquith. Lloyd George’s blatant use of

vestment. However, in the period 1988-94 many S5mdi-

the honours system to reward wealthy contribu¬ tors to the fund, without regard to their personal

cates made huge losses, totalling some £8 billion.

reputations or philanthropic credentials in other

This drain on the capital of names resulted in con¬

spheres of life, provoked the Honours Scandal of July

siderable financial hardship for many of them, fi¬

1922. A commission of inquiry was set up to inves¬ tigate the propriety of Lloyd George’s administra¬

nancial ruin for some, and the suicide of several. As a result becoming a Lloyd’s name is no longer re¬

tion of the fund; his refusal to relinquish control of

garded as an infallible source of profit. In the af¬

it contributed to the dovrafall of his coalition gov¬

termath of this debacle, Lloyd’s was forced to admit

ernment (see: Chanak crisis).

limited companies as names, thus breaking the long

• Lloyd George knew my father ► A saying that was heard even before the death of the great Welsh Liberal prime minister in 1945. It is fa¬ cetiously referred to as every Welshman’s claim to fame. The originator of the phrase was reputedly Tommy Rhys Roberts QC (1910-75), of whom it was actually true as his father, Arthur Rhys Roberts, and Lloyd George had set up a solicitors’ practice in London together in 1897. Tommy Rhys Roberts be¬ came famous for singing the lines ‘Lloyd George

tradition that names accepted unlimited liability.

• LMS ► Local Management of Schools. The control of a school’s finances by its own board of gover¬ nors, as first introduced by the Education Reform Act of 1988 (see; Gerbil). This is now standard practice in state schools in England and Wales. See also: LEA. • loaded ► l. US slang meaning intoxicated by al¬ cohol or high on drugs. In 18th-century America, a ‘load’ was a single measure of alcohol, as in ‘10 cents a load’. The use of loaded to mean drunk was

the hymn tune ‘Onward Christian Soldiers’ at the

extended to the effects of drug abuse in the 1950s. 2. Slang for extremely wealthy. Also originally a US

close of the after-dinner speeches at circuit din¬

expression, it is now common in all English-speak¬

ners. This was the signal that a general sing-song

ing countries.

knew my father, my father knew Lloyd George’ to

would follow. The practice was also taken up by Welsh Rugby Clubs and by Welsh Liberal assem¬

Is your Dad rich?...He’s reasonably loaded. - COLIN MACiNNEs; City of Spades (1957).

352^

loadsamoney

• loadsamoney ► An expression coined in the mid-1980s by the comedian Harry Enfield, origi¬

persisted since St Adamnan’s 7th-centuiy biography

nally as a catchphrase and subsequently as the

ishing an aquatilis bestia from the depths of Loch

name of one of his characters. Loadsamoney, a

Ness. Following this revival of the legend in the

coarse loudmouthed plasterer who waved a wad of banknotes in other people’s faces to show off his

other occasions and has become a favourite silly

newly acquired wealth, was intended as a broad

season item for the British press, to whom it be¬

satire on the nouveaux riches of Thatcherite Britain (dubbed the loadsamoney society by its critics).

came known as Nessie. Although investigations

‘Loadsa-’ subsequently became a prefix attached to other words; Loadsabargains are promised by

historic monster, local traders, for whom the mon¬

shops advertising sales and comedy shows promise loadsalaughs. See also: Essex man; Lombard.

done their best to keep the myth alive. The extreme

• lobotomy ► Strictly, surgical incision into a

the water meant that underwater photographs of

lobe of the brain, although a lobotomy generally refers to the surgical procedure of prefrontal lo¬ botomy (prefrontal leucotomy) in which the nerve fibres connecting the extreme frontal (prefrontal) lobes of the cerebrum with the thalamus are sev¬ ered, using a cutting instrument (leucotome) in¬ troduced through a hole drilled in the skull. The technique was pioneered in 1935 by the Portuguese surgeon

Antonio

Caetanio

de

Egas

Moniz

(1874-1955) and was used to treat severe depres¬ sion, schizophrenia, and other intractable emo¬ tional and behavioural disorders. Because the operation had unpredictable and sometimes ad¬ verse effects on the patient, such as marked per¬

of St Columba mentioned that he succeeded in ban¬

1930s, the creature has been ‘seen’ on numerous

have failed to provide convincing evidence of a pre¬ ster has been a fortuitous source of income, have depth of the loch combined with the murkiness of the ‘monster’ taken in 1975 were indistinct; they were sufficient, however, to convince the leading naturalist Sir Peter Scott, among others, of the crea¬ ture’s existence. The Loch Ness Phenomena Inves¬ tigation Bureau, set up in 1961, continues the quest. Sightings of a similar nature have been reported in other deep Scottish lakes, which sceptics regard as attempts to increase their tourist appeal.

• lockdown ► A US word (used since 1974) for the disciplinary measure of keeping a prison’s inmates locked in their cells, usually for a day or more, fol¬ lowing a disturbance in the prison or a warning of pending violence.

sonality changes, it is no longer practised.

• Lockerbie disaster ► The UK’s worst air dis¬ aster, in which a Pan American Boeing 747, en route

• Local Defence Volunteers► See: Home Guard.

from Frankfurt to New York via London, crashed

• Local Education Authority ► See:

over the small Scottish town of Lockerbie on 21 De

LEA.

cember 1988, killing all 259 passengers and crew

• Locarno Pacts ► A series of non-aggression

and 11 people on the ground. The cause of the crash

agreements formulated at Locarno, in Switzerland, on 16 October 1925 and signed in London on 1 De¬

was the explosion of a terrorist bomb in one of the

cember 1925, which guaranteed the post-Versailles

following the disclosure that warnings of terrorist

Treaty frontiers between Germany and France as well as those between Belgium and Germany. This

attacks received some weeks earlier by airport au¬ thorities and others had neither been publicized

settlement of Franco4Serman differences and the

nor heeded. In 1991 a US court indicted two Libyan

implied British and Italian military guarantee of

intelligence officers for planting the bomb. When

luggage holds; great public concern was aroused

French territorial integrity appeared to herald a

Libya refused to extradite these suspects for trial in

new era of international peace and security (the

America or Scotland, the UN imposed sanctions on

Locarno Spirit). Germany was admitted to the

Libya. Eventually, in 1998, Libya agreed that the

League of Nations shortly afterwards (September

men could be tried in a neutral country under Scots

1926). Ten years later, in March 1936, Germany re¬

law. In 2001 a Scottish court sitting at Camp Zeist

nounced Locarno and marched into the Rhineland.

in the Netherlands found Abdul Baset Ali al-

• Loch Ness Monster ► In April 1933 a London

Megrahi guilty of multiple murders but acquitted his alleged accomplice.

surgeon driving along the shore of Loch Ness, Scot¬ land, saw (and photographed) a strange object at some distance out, subsequently described as being

• Lockheed ► A giant US aerospace corporation (headquarters at Burbank. California) that produces

about 30 ft long with two humps, a snake-like head

military aircraft (including the C-130 cargo planes

at the end of a long neck, and two flippers about

and Stealth bombers), satellites, and submarine-

the middle of the body. This ‘sighting’ of some kind

launched missiles. In the mid-1970s financial diffi¬

of monster renewed interest in a legend that has

culties and an overseas pay-off scandal threatened

lollipop lady

►►353

to sink the company; it survived, however, and re¬

tions of metaphysics, ethics, and religion are ren¬

mains one of the world’s largest weapons manu¬

dered nonsensical. Critics of the doctrine made the

facturers. It was founded in 1913 by aircraft

rather obvious point that, on these criteria, the ver¬

designers Malcolm and Allan Longhead (they later changed the spelling) but collapsed in 1931 and

ification principle is itself meaningless. Ayer later qualified his position in revised editions of his book

was then rescued without the Lockheed brothers by

(1946).

a Boston bank in 1932. In the 1960s Lockheed’s de¬

• logic bomb ► A set of secret instructions in¬

cision to produce the L-1011 TriStar jet, coupled

troduced into its a computer’s memory that will be¬

with severe cost overruns on the C-5 military trans¬

come operative at some point in the future, leading

port, threatened to bankrupt the company; it was

to the breakdown of the system. By the time the

only kept solvent by massive injections of Federal

breakdown takes place, the saboteur is not readily identifiable and may have left the organization

funds. In 1975 it was revealed that as much as $24.5 million of this money was used to bribe foreign government officials to attract overseas contracts.

• lock-in ► A form of organized protest in which

concerned.

• loi-cadre ► (French, draft law) Legislation en¬ acted by the French National Assembly on 23 June

the protesting group locks itself in a building. The

1956 to give French overseas possessions, except Al¬

lock-in was a tactic popular in America in the late

geria, a measure of political autonomy. French ter¬

1960s, when it was used as a means of passive re¬

ritories in West Africa, such as Senegal and Sudan,

sistance. It subsequently spread to the UK, where it was sometimes used as a form of industrial action. In

and Equatorial Africa, such as Gabon, were given territorial assemblies elected by universal suffrage.

this case the workers lock themselves into their

The territories could also send representatives to

workplace to prevent the management from closing

the French National Assembly, but France retained

the company down. See also: lock-out.

the power of veto over the local legislatures and re¬

• lock-on ► To locate and track a target by means

tained control over foreign affairs, defence, and in¬

of a radar beam. A ground-based conically scanned

ternal security.

radar beam can be made to lock onto an enemy air¬ craft, which enables a guided missile to be controlled

a locked door by using a piece of celluloid (now usu¬

so that its flight path coincides with the beam. When the missile reaches the vicinity of the target a proximity fuse detonates it, destrojdng the enemy aircraft.

• lock-out ► During industrial action, the closing of a factory or workplace by the management, thus putting pressure on employees to negotiate or to ac¬

• loid ► Police and underworld slang for opening ally a credit card). This has been a popular method of illegal entry into houses and cars since the 1930s.

• Lolita ► A sexually precocious adolescent girl under the age of sexual consent, who is attractive to older men. The word derives from the title char¬ acter in Lolita, the 1955 novel by'Vladimir Nabokov (1899-1977), which deals with the seduction of

cept terms. See also: lock-in.

Humbert Humbert, a middle-aged academic pae¬

• locust years ► Years of poverty or hardship, or

dophile, by the pubescent daughter of his landlady.

years that have been terribly wasted. The term was

A witty, often hilarious, satire on Middle America,

applied by Sir Winston Churchill to the years of the Great Depression preceding World War II, when

the book has been filmed on two occasions, al¬ though neither attempt succeeded in capturing the

rearmament should have taken place but did not.

full outrageousness of Nabokov’s creation. Stanley

It is an allusion to the Bible, Joel 2:25: And I will re¬

Kubrick’s 1962 version starred James Mason as

store to you the years that the locust hath eaten...’.

Humbert and Peter Sellers as his rival for the 12-

The phrase has also been used of the late 1960s in the UK, when the Labour government was in power.

year-old Lolita (played as a 15-year-old by Sue Lyon).

logical positivism ► A philosophical doctrine

Swain in the title role, was even further from catch¬

•

originating in Vienna (see: Vienna circle) in the 1920s and later popularized in the UK by Sir Alfred Ayer

Adrian Lyne’s 1997 remake, featuring Dominique ing the elusive qualities that make Nabokov’s Lolita so insufferable. See also: nymphet.

(1910-89) in his book Language, Truth and Logic

• lollipop lady or man ► Name used by children

(1936). At its core is the verification principle,

for the special traffic warden who conducts them

which asserts that any non-tautological statement

across the road on the way to and from school. It de¬

that cannot be verified by empirical observation is

rives from the striped pole, surmounted by a

literally meaningless. On this principle, only sci¬

brightly coloured disc, which he or she uses to di¬

entific knowledge can claim to be factual; all ques¬

rect the traffic to stop.

354ecially raising children, cooking, setving, and looking after the home. His behaviour towards women is in accordance with these views; in par¬ ticular, he sees nothing wrong with regarding women as sex objects. The term was coined during the early days of the feminist movement in the late 1960s (see also: female chauvinist pig). I enjoy fucking my wife. She lets me do it any way I want. No Women’s Liberation for her. Lots of male chauvinist pig. - Joseph heller: Something Happened (1974).

small-tovm America.

• Mallard ► A famous British steam locomotive, which in 1938 established a long-standing record

• make love, not war ► The ultimate pacifist slogan, coined in the mid-1960s to epitomize the

(202.8 kph, 126 mph). Immediately recognizable by

often used to symbolize the conservative values of

philosophy of the hippie generation. It was taken up as the slogan of the anti-Vietnam War demonstra¬ tors and has been revived by protesters against sub¬ sequent military adventures.

for the highest speed reached by a steam locomotive its distinctive streamlined design, this Gresley A4 Pacific engine was subsequently preserved in work¬ ing order as an example of rail engineering excel¬ lence.

aging of something; originally the transformation

• mallie or mall rat ► US slang for a female teenager who loiters in shopping malls, as some¬

of a person’s appearance by new clothes and a series

where to pass the time rather than a place to spend

of beauty treatments. This vogue word of the 1980s

money. This phenomenon sprang up with the malls themselves in the 1980s.

• makeover*' A complete remodelling or repack¬

reflects that decade’s fixation with style and image. Women's magazines of the time featured numer¬ ous articles in which ordinary people had their

• Malvern Festival ► A theatre festival founded in 1929 at Malvern in Worcestershire by the British

• Mandates Commission •

►•>369

theatre manager and director Sir Barry Jackson

social groups for any part of the establishment.

(1879-1961). A number of George Bernard Shaw’s

2. Slang for a dealer in illegal drugs, as in ‘Waiting

later plays, such as The Apple Cart, were first per¬ formed at the Malvern Festival. New productions

for the Man’, a song by the Velvet Underground re¬

also included plays by J. B. Priestley, James Bridie,

• Manassa Maulers Nickname of the US boxer Jack Dempsey (1895-1983). World heavyweight champion (1919-26), he acquired an almost leg¬

and other contemporary writers. In 1939 the festi¬ val was discontinued; it enjoyed a brief revival in

leased in 1967.

1949 and was re-established in 1977 as a drama and musical festival featuring the works of Shaw and Sir

endary reputation for his ferocious punch before

Edward Elgar, who is buried at Malvern.

Gene Tunney (see; We wuz robbed at robbed). His

losing his title in controversial circumstances to

• mamba ► Acronym for middle-aged middle-brow

nickname was derived from Manassa, the town in

accomplisher. It denotes an average middle-of-the-

which he was born.

road person who manages to get things done and

• Manchester school ► A group of early 20thcentury dramatists associated with the Gaiety Thea¬

has made a success of his life. It was coined in the late 1980s when the fashion for lifestyle-based acronyms was at its height.

• mammoplasty ► Plastic surgery to alter the shape of the breasts. Small breasts may be enlarged by means of a silicone rubber implant. This is in¬

tre in Manchester. Notable members of the Manchester school included Stanley Houghton (1881-1913), whose controversial play Hindle Wakes was first performed at the Manchester Gaiety in 1912; Harold Brighouse (1882-1958), author of the

made via an incision at the base of the breast, along

comedy Hobson's Choice (1915); and Allan Monkhouse (1858-1936). The Gaiety Theatre company, the first

the natural crease line. Some women develop scar

modern English repertory company, was founded in

tissue around the implant and may require further

1908 by Annie Horniman (1860-1937); its first pro¬ duction was Allan Monkhouse’s Reaping the Whirl¬

serted into a pocket created behind the breast,

surgery to remove an excessive build-up. Improv¬ ing the shape of a large or drooping breast is a more complex procedure, involving the removal of

wind.

the necessary sldn, fat, and underlying tissue, plus

Japanese in 1932, after the Mukden incident, from the three provinces of Manchuria in NE China. The state

relocation of the nipple. This inevitably leaves scars, not only under the breast but also around the are¬

• Manchukuo ► A puppet state created by the

ola and vertically from the nipple to the base. The

was largely administered by Chinese, but remained under Japanese control. Henry P’ui, the last em¬

early 1990s saw rising concern about the possible

peror of the Manchu dynasty, emerged from re¬

medical and cosmetic side-effects of mammoplasty; surgery to have their silicone implants removed

tirement to become the ruler of Manchukuo until 1945, when the state was dissolved after Japan’s de¬ feat in World War II. Manchuria was subsequently

(so-called ‘silicone explant’ operations).

redivided into the provinces of Heilungkiang, Kirin,

• mamser*- See: momzer.

and Liaoning.

as a result, some women chose to undergo further

• man^ a man's gotta do what a man's gotta do A catchphrase used to emphasize the difficult and dangerous actions a man is forced to take in his life, now invariably used facetiously. Although the line is generally thought to originate in a John Wayne Western, nobody has been able to say which. However, it is spoken by Alan Ladd in the Western Shane (1953). A facetious paraphrase is sometimes used in reply to a protest made about a dog fouling the pavement: a dog’s got to do what a dog’s got to

• Manchurian candidates Someone who has been brainwashed by a foreign power to obey orders without thinking (see. brainwashing). The term comes from the title of a novel by Richard Condon, The Manchurian Candidate (1959), about a US POW who returns from Korea having been brainwashed to act as an assassin by the Chinese. This was made into a successful film (1962).

• Mancini murders See:

Brighton trunk murders.

• Mandates Commission s An organization set up by the League of Nations after World War I to su¬

do.

pervise the administration of the former overseas possessions of Germany and Turkey. These included

• man, the ► l. US slang for the police, the gov¬ ernment, or the White establishment. Originally

Iraq, Syria, Palestine, and the African colonies of Tanganyika, the Cameroons, and Togoland. Manda¬

used contemptuously by Blacks to mean White au¬

tory powers over these territories were assigned to the UK, France, Belgium, and other countries, who

thority in general, it is now used by disadvantaged

• Mandelbaum Gate •

370^

mission. The Commission itself consisted of repre¬

• man for all seasons ► A phrase used to de¬ scribe an adaptable Renaissance man who can be re¬

submitted annual reports to the Mandates Com¬ sentatives from Belgium. France, Holland, Italy,

garded as dependable and competent in all

Japan, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, and the UK; repre¬

situations. The phrase was popularized by Robert

sentatives from Germany, Norway, and Switzerland joined at a later date. In 1945 it was superseded by

Bolt as the title for his 1960 play about Sir Thomas More. It was also the title of the 1966 film starring

the UN Trusteeship System.

Paul Scofield. More had been described in these

• Mandelbaum Gate ► Formerly, the control p)oint for traffic passing from one sector of the di¬

words by his contemporary. Robert Whittington.

vided city of Jerusalem to the other. The city was di¬

• man from the Pru ► Part of the 1940s adver¬ tising slogan for the Prudential Assurance Com¬

vided between Israel and Jordan in 1948 and the Mandelbaum Gate remained in operation until Is¬ rael took possession of the whole of the city in 1967 {see. Six-Day War).

• Mandelbrot set^ An entity discovered in 1980 by the French mathematician Benoit Mandelbrot. It is generated by a simple type of quadratic equation for complex numbers and is usually plotted using computer graphics. The resulting pattern is ex¬ tremely complex, containing an infinite number of repeated copies of itself It is related to the condi¬ tions under which chaotic behaviour occurs. See also: chaos theory; fractal.

• Mandy ► A media nickname for Peter Mandelson (1953-

), a leading architect of New Labour and a

close associate of Tony Blair. The grandson of Her¬ bert Morrison (Baron Morrison; 1888-1965), the home secretary in Churchill’s wartime coalition, Mandelson became Labour’s chief spin doctor in 1985 and an MP in 1992. During this period his rep¬ utation as a shrewd and unscrupulous master of spin earned him another press nickname - the Prince of Darkness. In Blair’s first administration Mandelson served initially as minister without portfolio - a position that gave him responsibility for the much maligned Millennium Dome (he was sometimes dubbed the

‘dome secretary’ in a snide allusion to his grandfa¬ ther’s high office). Mandelson then (1999) became secretary of state for trade and industry but was forced to resign later the same year, owing to the revelation that he had borrowed a large sum with which to buy a house from a fellow minister, Geof¬

• Man from Missouri ► See: Give 'em

Hell Harry.

pany; the full slogan was: ‘Ask the man from the Pru’. • Manhattan eel *■ US slang for a used condom. It is so called because of the large number of dis¬ carded condoms that can be seen floating in New York harbour. • Manhattan Projects The codename given to a US project begun in the early 1940s with the aim of developing an atom bomb for use during World War 11. Great secrecy and great haste were required in the race to construct such a bomb before the Germans, who were believed to be working on a similar project. Research and development took place at various laboratories, notably Los Alamos, New Mexico, under the direction of the physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer. The Manhattan Project cul¬ minated in the testing of the first atom bomb on 16 July 1945 and its first use in war at Hiroshima on 6 August 1945. The total expenditure on the project from start to finish was around 2000 million dol¬ lars. 5ee: nuclear weapon; Oppenheimer affair. We knew the world would not be the same. -J. ROBERT OPPENHEIMER, 1945.

• Manila Pact ► The treaty signed in Manila on 8 September 1954 on the creation of the South East Asia Treaty Organization (see. SEATO). Signed by rep¬ resentatives of America, Australia, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, and the UK, the treaty came into force on 19 February 1955 and was formally ended in 1977. • Man in Black ► The supposed narrator of the

frey Robinson, whose business affairs his depart¬

BBC radio programme Appointment With Fear, first

ment was investigating. After only a year in the

broadcast on 11 September 1943. The haunting

wilderness Mandelson was brought back into the

tones belonged to Valentine Dyall and became a

government as secretary of state for Northern Ire¬

hallmark of this series of mystery and suspense sto¬

land. However, a second resignation was forced on

ries (originally written for US radio by John Dickson

him in 2001, when it was revealed that he had in¬

Carr). Dyall’s father, Franklin Dyall, narrated the

tervened in the naturalization application of an In¬

second series, beginning in January 1944, but the

dian businessman who had made large donations

Man in Black Junior returned to set spines tingling

to the Millennium Dome. Whether Mandelson can

in later series. In 1949 Dyall was given his own se¬

defy his political obituarists by staging yet another

ries, The Man In Black - described as ‘famous tales of

comeback remains to be seen.

mystery and fear‘. Appointment With Fear returned in

►►371

Mansion House speech

1955 after a seven-year break, again with Dyall as narrator. The series was again resurrected in 1991, with Edward de Souza cast as the Man in Black.

• Man In the Iron Mask^ A man who agreed to imitate the historical prisoner made famous in the writings of Alexandre Dumas, following a bet

starred in macabre roles - notably as a s)mipathetic lycanthrope in The Wolf Man (1941) and its sequels. Don’t step on that spider, it might be Lon Chaney. - Joke from the 1920s.

• Man of steel ► The English rendering of the Russian name Stalin, adopted by the dictator Joseph

made at the National Sporting Club in London in 1907. With a stake of $100,000 offered by the US mil¬

Dzhugashvili (1879-1953). A Bolshevik from 1903,

lionaire John Pierpont Morgan and the British sportsman Lord Lonsdale, the young and wealthy

years preceding the October Revolution of 1917. By

Harry Bensley agreed to attempt to walk round the world pushing a pram: he would start out with no

Party under Lenin; in 1929 he became dictator and

more than £1 and wear an iron mask for the whole time. Other rules he had to observe included find¬ ing a wife (without showing his face) and paying for

he was frequently imprisoned and exiled in the 1922 he was general secretary of the Communist began the reign of terror that made his assumed name synon5Tnous with brutality and repression by the state (see: Law of December 1; Stalinism: Yezhovshchina). Treated circumspectly by the Soviet

his journey by selling postcards. He set out on 1 January 1908 from Trafalgar Square wearing a 4lb

Union’s allies during World War II, he became even

helmet. At Newmarket he sold a postcard to Ed¬

in his hostility towards opposition both at home

ward Vn for £5 but at Bexleyheath he only narrowly escaped imprisonment after he refused to remove his mask in the magistrates’ court, having been ar¬

and abroad. After his death, psychiatrists conjec¬

rested for trading without a licence. By 1914 he had traversed 12 countries and turned down 200 offers of marriage. With the outbreak of World War 1, however, Bensley had to give up the challenge as he wished to join up. The sporting peers agreed to allow him to do so and gave him a reward of £4000, which he gave to charity. Bensley himself survived the war but lost his fortune, most of which was in¬ vested in Russia. He died in reduced circumstances in Brighton in 1956.

more autocratic once the war was over, implacable

tured that the ‘man of steel’ had actually suffered from a variety of psychotic conditions. Long before the liberalization of Soviet society in the late 1980s he had been stripped of his almost legendary status as a great leader of the Soviet peoples (see: deStalinization).

What could we do? There was a reign of terror. You just had to look at him wrongly and the next

day

you

KHRUSHCHEV,

lost

your

head.

-

nikita

18 March 1956.

• Man on the Wedding Cake^ Nickname of Thomas E. Dewey (1902-71), governor of New York,

• manky ► British informal term meaning dis¬ gusting or filthy. It is derived from the Italian man-

who was unexpectedly defeated by Harry S. Tru¬

care, to be lacking, influenced by ‘mangy’. The word is also used in the north of England to mean

name was bestowed on him by Grace Hodgson

naughty or spoilt.

This cruel reference to Dewey’s stiff manner and

• Mannerhelm Line ► A line of fortifications

lack of charisma is thought to have contributed to

built in the 1930s across the Karelian Isthmus, along the border between Finland and the Soviet Union. The Une successfully protected Finland from invasion by Soviet forces at the beginning of the Winter War (1939-40) but was breached in February

man in the presidential election of 1948. The nick¬ Flandrau and much repeated by Alice Roosevelt.

his defeat. Truman’s victory was a major surprise to the pollsters, who had predicted an easy win for Dewey; The Chicago Tribune had been so confident of Dewey’s success it had gone to press with the head¬ line ‘Dewey defeats Truman’. The Washington Post,

1940. The Mannerheim Line was named after Baron

which had been similarly caught out, invited Tru¬

Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim (1867-1951), commander-in-chief of the Finnish defence forces dur¬

man and the pollsters to dinner to eat ‘humble pie’.

ing the Winter War and later president of Finland.

• Mansion House speech ► A speech made by David Lloyd George in July 1911, at the Mansion

• Man of a Thousand Faces ► Niclcname of the

House in London, in which he issued a strong warn¬

US film star Lon Chaney (1883-1930), who played numerous villains, usually in grotesque disguise.

in any conflict that might arise out of the Agadir Cri¬

His films included The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1923) and The Phantom of the Opera (1925). Man of a

hemence but also for its unexpectedness: as

Thousand Faces was also the title of a biopic about

chancellor of the exchequer Lloyd George had been

him made in 1957 in which James Cagney played

largely concerned with social reform and had

Chaney. His son, Lon Chaney Jnr (1906-73), also

shown little interest in foreign policy.

ing to Germany that the UK would support France sis. This declaration was notable not only for its ve¬

372-m

Manson Family

• Manson Family ► A hippie group living in a commune near Los Angeles, which in 1969 was re¬

classification of the relevant documents in 1998 revealed that ’Martin’ was really Glendwyr Michael,

sponsible for a series of drug-crazed killings that

a Welsh down-and-out who had died after eating rat

shocked US society with their brutality. Led by Charles Manson (1934- ), a failed rock musician and petty criminal who had developed bizarre mes¬

stone in Spain.

poison. His name has now been added to the grave¬

sianic delusions, members of the ‘Family’, indulged

• Man with the Golden Flute »■ Nickname of the Irish flautist Sir James Galway (1939- ). in im¬

in a quasi-religious and orgiastic lifestyle in which LSD played a major role. Their excesses reached a horrific climax when they carried out five murders

James Bond thriller by Ian Fleming. Galway was often pictured with his gold and silver flutes, which

itation of The Man with the Golden Gun, the title of a

in the house of the film director Roman Polanski: among the victims was Polanski’s heavily pregnant

were made to his own specifications.

wife, the actress Sharon Tate. In a previous inci¬ dent they also killed supermarket millionaire Leno

name

• Man with the Orchid-Lined Voices Nick¬ of the

Italian

tenor

Enrico

Caruso

LaBianca and his wife. Manson’s followers, after their arrest later in the year, claimed they were un¬ aware of their victims’ identities and had been in¬

(1873-1921). He was the first major opera star to be

spired to kill after listening to the Beatles song ’Helter-Skelter’. During the trial Manson himself

electric era and although electric remakes were

recorded and the first to make a radio broadcast. Unfortunately his recordings were made in the pre¬ produced much later, these were recorded not from

delivered wild tirades about the threat of race war;

live performances but from the pre-electric record¬

the four accused members of the gang were sen¬ tenced to death (in practice an indefinite life sen¬ tence).

ings. Nevertheless, the quality and amazing tone control of Caruso’s voice can still be heard. When he

• Man Who Never Was, The ► The title of a 1955 film relating the true story of a fictitious Royal Marines officer who played a key role in deceiving the Germans about the Allied invasion plans in World War 11. The original book was written by a naval officer, the Hon. Ewen Montagu QC, who or¬

died of peritonitis in Naples at the age of 48, New York’s flags were flown at half mast. • Man you Love to Hate ► Catchphrase asso¬ ciated originally with the actor Erich von Stroheim (1885-1957), but subsequently with many other screen villains as well as others outside the cinema world. It was first used in publicity for the 1918 propaganda film The Heart of Humanity, in which

ganized the whole affair. Montagu arranged for the body of a ’Major William Martin’ to be washed up

von Stroheim played a particularly unpleasant Ger¬

in neutral Spain in 1943; when it was found that he

man officer. In 1979 a film. The Man You Love to Hate,

was canying apparently top)-secret documents, local German agents quickly passed the word to the Ger¬ man High Command. Among the documents found

commemorated the life and work of von Stroheim, who had gone on to become an admired (if notori¬ ously extravagant) Hollywood director.

on the dead marine were a letter from the vice¬

• Mao jackets

chief of the Imperial General Staff to General Alexander and a letter from Lord Mountbatten to Admiral of the Fleet Sir Andrew Cunningham, both of which suggested that Sardinia, not Sicily as exp>ected, would be the target of the Allied assault. These letters, backed up by Martin’s personal doc¬ uments (including two theatre ticket stubs for Lon¬ don shows), convinced the German agents that they had stumbled upon genuine Allied invasion plans.

See: Nehru jacket.

• maquis ► In World War II, French patriots who formed guerrilla groups in the countryside during the Occupation (1940-45), attacking German pa¬ trols, depots, etc. They were so named after the thick scrubland in Corsica and other Mediterranean coastal lands to which bandits formerly retreated to avoid capture. See: FFI; Resistance.

When the Allies were handed back the body and the

• Marburg disease or green monkey dis¬ ease ► A disease of vervet (green) monkeys and hu¬

documents by the Spanish authorities, scientific

mans caused by a virus. It is named after the town

analysis showed that the envelopes had been

of Marburg, Germany, where the first case was re¬

opened. The plan succeeded: when the Allies finally

ported in 1967. The patient had contracted the dis¬

attacked Sicily, they were opposed by the Italians

ease from a consignment of vervet monkeys

and only two German divisions: Allied losses were

imported from Africa. Ticks, mites, or other arthro¬

thus greatly reduced. His duty done, ’Major Martin’

pods may act as a reservoir of the virus, which can

was buried with full military honours in a Spanish

also be transmitted from person to person. This

cemetery; his real identity was not disclosed, in

fact, coupled with the high mortality rate of around

deference to the wishes of his family. However, de¬

30%, dictates stringent isolation measures for sus-

• Mariner •

*>373

pected cases. The incubation period is 3-9 days, fol¬ lowed by the development of fever, headache, mus¬

skirts of Peking. This was followed by further

cle pain, nausea, and vomiting. Later, a skin rash appears and, in about 50% of cases, internal bleed¬ ing.

fused to withdraw their troops but a series of at¬

clashes in the Peking-Tientsin area. The Chinese re¬ tacks and counter-attacks led to their expulsion by the Japanese at the end of July.

• Marchioness disaster ► A tragedy that oc¬ curred on the River Thames in London on 20 August

softie. It is particularly used in the north of Eng¬

1989. The Marchioness pleasure boat, carrying some

land, where mardie is also used as an adjective to

150 people, was rammed from behind by the dredger Bowbelle and sank within minutes, drown¬

mean bad-tempered or (of a child) sulky and spoilt.

ing 51 of her passengers. The accident happened near the Tower of London in the early hours of the morning. On board the Marchioness were partygoers celebrating the birthday of a young City business¬ man, Antonio Vascancellas, who was among the victims, many of whom came from the capital’s fashionable social set. In 2001 the official inquiry into the disaster blamed the captains of both vessels

• mardarse ► British slang for a mother’s boy, a

• Mareth Line ► A line of fortifications in S Tunisia. Originally built by the French to repel the Italians, the line was used by Rommel in the North African campaign of World War 11. On 20 March 1943 the British Eighth Army under the command of General Bernard Montgomery launched an at¬ tack on the Mareth Line, which led ultimately to the surrender of the Axis forces in Tunisia.

• marginalize* To reduce the power, influence,

and the companies that owned and managed them; the Department of Transport and the police were also criticized.

or importance of a person or thing. For example, to

• March on Rome ► The arrival in Rome of Mus-

relevant to the decision-making process. As with many such verbs ending in ‘-ize’ it originated in

sohni and thousands of his Blackshirts (Fascist sup¬ porters) on 28 October 1922, shortly before the establishment of Italy as a Fascist state. Mussolini

marginalize a politician is to malce him or her ir¬

America but became common in the UK in the sec¬ ond half of the 1980s.

and his armed followers travelled to Rome by vari¬ ous means and entered the city with little or no op¬

• Marienkirche frescoes ► A series of medieval wall paintings in a church in the German port of

position from military or civilian authorities. The head of the cabinet resigned and King Victor Em¬ manuel 111 invited Mussolini to form a new gov¬

Liibeck, which in 1952 became the subject of a major art scandal. The Marienkirche was damaged by an incendiary bomb in 1942, revealing medieval

ernment.

frescoes previously hidden under a layer of white¬

• Marconi affair*- A scandal in the earlier career of David Lloyd George, when he was chancellor of

wash. However, by the time work could begin on their restoration in the post-war period, they had

the exchequer. In 1912 Lloyd George had bought shares to the value of £2000 in the US Marconi com¬

Fey, owner of a firm of art restorers, was finally

suffered extensive damage from exposure. Dietrich

pany. He had obtained these shares at a preferential rate through the managing director of the com¬ pany, Godfrey Isaacs, brother of the attorney gen¬

awarded a contract to restore the masterpieces (for

eral Rufus Isaacs (later 1st Marquess of Reading).

coes were restored to their former glory; in 1951 Fey

Meanwhile, shares in the British Marconi company had enjoyed a sudden increase in value as the result

West German chancellor Konrad Adenauer. The Ger¬

of a government contract to build a chain of radio stations. Although the two companies were legally

man post office celebrated the restoration with a series of stamps depicting the frescoes. One year

separate, there were inevitable rumours of corrupn

later, however, Malskat (who had received no money

tion. The parliamentary committee set up to in¬

for his work) confessed that the frescoes were fab¬

vestigate the matter found Lloyd George and Isaacs

rications and bore no relation to the original paint¬

not guilty of corruption, although the transaction was described as imprudent. Nevertheless, both ministers’ reputations were damaged by the affair.

ings, which had been too faint to work from. Upon examination, some of the figures in the frescoes

• Marco Polo Bridge incident ► An incident that renewed hostilities between China and Japan at the beginning of the Sino-Japanese War. On 7 July 1937 Japanese and Chinese troops began firing at each other at the Marco Polo Bridge on the out¬

a large sum) in collaboration with the artist Lothar Malskat. Gradually, out of the public gaze, the fres¬ himself showed the completed decorations to the

were recognized as likenesses of Rasputin, Marlene Dietrich, and members of Malskat’s family. A sen¬ sational trial followed in which the German art es¬ tablishment was deeply embarrassed; both Fey and Malskat were jailed.

• Mariner ► A series of space probes launched dur-

374^443

lution and consecrating the bread and wine for

has arisen from the widely held perception that or¬

Holy Communion (although they were allowed to

ganic produce is safer and more nutritious than

administer it). However, despite a growing feeling in

that from ‘conventional’ farms, being free of pesti¬

the Church as a whole that there were no valid the¬

cide residues and genetic modification (see: GM

ological grounds for excluding women from the

food), for example. In Britain the growth in the or¬

priesthood itself, traditionalists in the Evangelical

ganic sector has been encouraged by various food

and Anglo-Catholic wings remained adamantly op¬

‘scares’, notably the BSE crisis (see: mad cow dis¬

posed to the change. In 1992 the General Synod voted by the necessary majority to admit women to

ease). It is too early to say whether this latter-day

the priesthood; some of those who could not accept

ing fad or the start of another agricultural revolu¬

the move joined the Roman Church, others simply

tion. See; factory farming.

make a point of avoiding services at which a woman presides. However, such feelings seem to be in de¬

growth in the organic movement represents a pass¬

• organization and methods►

See: 0 and M.

Church of England who have earned the respect

• organization man or company man ► A person who is totally devoted to the organization or

and acceptance of their parishioners.

company for whom he works, accepting its aims,

cline; there are now many women priests in the

• organic farming ► Any system of agriculture that avoids the use of synthetic fertilizers and pes¬ ticides and relies instead on natural methods of crop and animal husbandry. Central to organic farming is the health of the soil, which is nurtured by such means as crop rotation, animal and plant manures, and fertility-enhancing leguminous

methods of working, and values without question. Both expressions therefore have a derogatory flavour, being thought to describe someone who has no personal views of his own. The female equiv¬ alents are, of course, organization (or company) women.

plants. Weeds are managed chiefly by cultivation or

• orgasmatron ► A device that induces orgasm. The name derives from the Woody Allen film Sleeper

use of mulches, while the inherent diversity and

(1973), in which people enter a capsule to achieve

health of the system is relied on to keep pests and diseases in check. Livestock are kept in conditions

sexual satisfaction instead of using the traditional

that allow them to exercise all their natural be¬

the orgone boxes marketed by the maverick

haviours; for example, chickens and pigs are al¬ lowed free access to the outdoors, instead of being

psychoanalyst Wilhelm Reich (1897-1957), who

permanently housed under artificial conditions.

the excess sexual energy in the universe, and that

Organic systems are also designed to fit in harmo¬ niously with the natural environment, so that

a person could improve his or her sex life by regu¬

wildlife is protected. Until the advent of artifical fertilizers, pesti¬

prosecution for fraud.

cides, and herbicides during the 20th century, most traditional systems were broadly ‘organic’. The mod¬

that enabled those who could afford it to travel in

ern organic movement started after World War II,

hours. It was the creation of the entrepreneur

just as farming in many countries was undergoing a technological revolution. One of the cornerstones

Georges Nagelmackers (1845-1905), founder (at the

biological method. Allen’s idea derived in part from

claimed that such devices could capture and store

larly sitting in such a box. These claims led to his

• Orient Express ► An extremely luxurious train comfort from Paris to Constantinople in around 82

of the movement is the Soil Association, estab¬

age of 24) of the Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits et Grands Express Europeens. The first Ex¬

lished in Britain in 1945 ‘to bring together all those working for a fuller understanding of the vital re¬

press left the Gare de I’Est in Paris on 4 October

lationship between soil, plant, animal and man.’ In 1967 it published the first set of standards for or¬ ganic production, and in the ensuing decades it became the UK’s main body responsible for certi¬ fying organic farms. During the same period simi¬ lar bodies were founded in many other countries. The worldwide umbrella organization of the or¬ ganic movement, the International Federation of

1883. There was a twice-weekly service in each di¬ rection and a daily service as far as Vienna was in¬ troduced in 1885. The train made a last trip in May 1977, but was revived in the mid-1980s in opulent form as a tourist attraction. Works of fiction to use the Orient Express as a setting include Agatha Christie’s Murder on the Orient Express (1934) and Gra¬ ham Greene’s Stamboul Train (1932).

Organic Agriculture Movements, now has some 760

• Orlando ► The central character of Virginia

member organizations in 105 countries.

Woolfs novel (1928) of the same name. The extra¬

Since the late 1980s there has been an upsurge of interest in and demand for organic food. This

ordinary Orlando, whose sex changes as he moves from one historical context to another, was gener-

444-m

Orphism

ally regarded as being based upon Woolf s friend Vita Sackville-West (1892-1962), to whom the book was dedicated. Vita, wife of the critic Sir Harold Nicolson, had a remarkable relationship with Woolf, which is thought to have included lesbian ac¬ tivities. Their friendship remained a subject of pub¬ lic fascination long after both women were dead; Portrait of a Marriage (1990), a controversial televi¬ sion dramatization of the Nicolsons’ life together,

people signed a petition for clemency; his sentence was then commuted to life imprisonment. The cam¬ paign for his release was led by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, who wrote The Case of Oscar Slater (1912) crit¬ icizing the verdict. Slater was finally released on ap¬ peal in 1927, after 18 years in prison. He was paid £6000 in compensation.

• OSS ► Office for Strategic Services. The US espi¬

revived the speculation.

onage and sabotage organization which was the forerunner of the CIA and the equivalent of the

• Orphism ► A movement in painting founded

British wartime SOE (Special Operations Executive;

by the French artist Robert Delaunay (1885-1941) in about 1912; one of the first schools of abstract paint¬

see: Baker Street Irregulars). The OSS was established

ing, it was characterized by patches and swirls of in¬ tense and contrasting colours.

• Orwellian ► Resembling or related to the total¬ itarian society described in Nineteen Eighty-Four, the last novel of George Orwell (Eric Arthur Blair; 1903-50), published in 1949. Such familiar Or¬ wellian coinages as newspeak, doublethink. Thought Police, and Big Brother serve as a constant warning

against the authoritarian tendencies in society. • Oscar ► A gold-plated figurine awarded annually

by the American Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for achievement in various categories, including Best Film, Best Director, Best Actor, and Best Actress. The Oscars, properly known as the Academy Awards, were first awarded in 1927; it is said that an award can now mean an extra $30 mil¬ lion in box-office receipts and a corresponding boost in a star’s future fee. According to one account, the statuette owes its nickname to a longforgotten secretary who, on seeing the newly cast figure in 1927, remarked that it reminded her of her uncle Oscar. According to another, Bette Davis named the figure after her husband, because she

in June 1942 by President Roosevelt and placed under the direction of General ‘Wild Bill’ Donovan (1883-1959), his intelligence adviser. Its role com¬ bined information gathering and analysis with covert operations against the enemy, including guerrilla warfare, the rescue of Allied servicemen, and the support of underground resistance move¬ ments. In this latter role, Donovan modelled the OSS on the SOE.

• Ossewa-Brandwag ► (Afrikaans, Ox-Wagon Sentinels) A South African pro-Nazi paramilitary organization that emerged in 1938 after a symbolic re-enactment of the Great Trek; it achieved popular support in the wake of German victories in the early years of World War 11. An elite inner unit, called the stormjaers (stormtroopers), was dedicated to sabotaging the South African war effort. Led by Hans van Rensberg, the OB included in its ranks nu¬ merous prominent Afrikaners, such as John Vorster, later prime minister (1966-78), and Hendrik van den Bergh, who became head of the Bureau of State Security (BOSS). With the defeat of Germany, the OB disintegrated and its remnants were incorporated into the National Party.

thought its buttocks resembled his.

• ossis^ German slang term, often pejorative, for

• Oscar Slater case ► A famous case of wrong¬ ful imprisonment. Oscar Slater (c.1871-1948), a Ger¬

those Germans who were formerly citizens of so¬

man fugitive from military service who lived by gambling and selling jewellery, was found guilty of the murder of an 82-year-old Glasgow woman, Mar¬ ion Gilchrist, in 1909. Slater had been in Glasgow at the time of the murder and then sailed shortly af¬ terwards to America on the Lusitania. A brooch he had pawned to pay for his passage was thought to have been owned by the victim; he was arrested on his arrival and returned to Scotland for trial. The brooch proved to have been Slater’s for some time but this evidence was suppressed. As a result he was found guilty and sentenced to hang on the

cialist East Germany; it is used mainly by their neighbours in the richer west of the country. The ossis similarly refer to the former West Germans as wessis. The names, from the German words for east and west respectively, reflect the continuing culture clash within the outwardly reunited coun¬ try. Wessis tend to regard ossis as shiftless, parasitic, and laughably unsophisticated in matters of style and taste; they are also widely seen as being un¬ grateful for their incorporation into a rich democ¬ racy. For their part, the ossis see the westerners as grasping and materialistic and accuse them of be¬ having with the arrogance of conquerors.

basis of circumstantial evidence and the dubious

• Ostpolitikt- (German, eastern policy) The West

testimony of witnesses who claimed to have seen him outside Gilchrist’s flat. After the trial 20,000

German policy of normalizing relations with E Eu¬ ropean countries, which was adopted by the gov-

Our Lady of Fatima

m>445

eminent (1969-74) of Willy Brandt. Previously, West

1898-1979) who enjoyed enormous popularity in

German foreign policy had been constrained by the so-called HaUstein doctrine, prohibiting diplo¬

the 1930s, when she starred in such brightly opti¬ mistic films as Sally in Our Alley (1931), Sing As We Go (1934), and Keep Smiling (1938). Of working-class

matic relations with any country that recognized East Germany. OstpoUtik has also been used in a vaguer sense to mean any conciliatory policy by a Western nation towards the (former) communist states of E Europe.

• Other Club ► A dining club founded in 1911 by Sir Winston Churchill and F. E. Smith (Lord Birken¬ head): apparently so called because they were not wanted at an existing ftatemity known as The Club.

• OTT ► Abbreviation for over the top. In the early 1980s this was the name of a British TV comedy show and thereafter the abbreviation became more popular than the full phrase in many informal con¬ texts. For example, a particularly impassioned po¬ litical speech, or a person who openly insults another or dresses in very bright colours, might be described as OTT.

northern origins - she was born above a fish and chip shop in Rochdale and started her worldng life as an employee in a cotton mill - she always sought to retain her image as the Lassie from Lancashire despite huge wealth and fame. At the start of World War II she achieved great success with her song ‘Wish Me Luck As You Wave Me Goodbye’; however, her subsequent departure to America with her Ital¬ ian-born husband. Montie Banks, who became an undesirable alien when Italy came into the war, was widely regarded as an act of betrayal. She re¬ turned to England in 1941 but never regained her previous popularity. After Banks died in 1950, she moved to Capri, where she opened a restaurant and married an Italian electrician. She made frequent visits to England and was welcomed back to her native Rochdale, where a theatre was named after

• Ottawa agreements ►The protectionist mea¬

her. See also: Forces' Sweetheart.

sures adopted at the Imperial Economic Confer¬

• Our Lady of Ballinspittle ► A statue of the Virgin Mary in the Irish village of Ballinspittle, near Cork, credited with miraculous powers of move ment and gesture. On 22 July 1985, seven girls of the Daly and O’Mahony families were praying at the shrine when the statue - a lifesized concrete effigy weighing about half a ton - appeared to rock vio¬ lently from side to side. After further reports of

ence in Ottawa (21 July-20 August 1932) at the height of the Great Depression. A series of bilateral agreements established a system of Imperial Prefer¬ ence, by which the UK and her dominions and

colonies exchanged tariff preferences to promote trade within the empire and exclude certain classes of foreign goods. • Ottawa spy ring ► An espionage network ex¬ posed in 1945 after the defection of a Soviet diplo¬ mat, Igor Gouzenko, from the Soviet Legation in Ottawa. Gouzenko, a GRU agent posing as a cipher clerk, had considerable difficulty in persuading the Canadian authorities to take him seriously because of their reluctance to embarrass their Soviet ally. A clumsy burglary at Gouzenko’s apartment by the GRU finally persuaded the Canadian police to take him into custody. The documents handed over by Gouzenko revealed Soviet penetration of the Allied atom bomb programme and led to the immediate arrest of the British communist scientist Alan Nunn May and ultimately to the exposure of Klaus Fuchs and the Rosenbergs in America five years later. See: Nunn May affair; Rosenberg spy case.

• Our Ginny ► Nickname of the British tennis player Virginia Wade (1945- ). Her victory in the women’s singles championship in 1977, the year of Wimbledon’s centenary and of Elizabeth II’s silver jubilee, ensured her place in the affections of the nation. • Our Grade ► Nickname of the British enter¬ tainer Gracie Fields (Dame Grace Stansfield;

movements, visions, voices, and healings, crowds began to gather and an almost continuous vigil began, lasting the rest of the summer. To accom¬ modate the daily influx of pilgrims, a stadium was built seating 7000 people. The events at Ballinspit¬ tle soon gained international publicity, much of it derisive. A variety of explanations was offered, most plausibly that the ‘movements’ were a hallucina¬ tion produced by prolonged staring at the halo of electric lightbulbs above the Virgin’s head. In 1987 it was estimated that half a million people had vis¬ ited the shrine.

• Our Lady of Fatima ► Apparitions of the Vir¬ gin Mary that appeared to three peasant children in the Portuguese hill town of Fatima in 1917. On 13 May, Lucia Santos (10) and her cousins Francesco (9) and Jacintha (7) reported meeting a ‘shining lady’ while out on the hills. The visitations recurred at monthly intervals and were accompanied by a num¬ ber of solemn messages to mankind. By the time of the last appearance, on 13 October, a crowd of some 30,000 had gathered, many of whom reported strange lights in the sky and other unusual phe¬ nomena. The Catholic hierarchy was initially hos¬ tile, but showed the first signs of recognizing the

446^

Our Lady of Knock

visions in 1927, when a national pilgrimage was

bringing to Ireland the one million pilgrims who

organized. A year later work began on a vast basil¬

wish to visit the site each year.

ica at the scene of the apparitions; by the time this

• Our Marie*- See:

was completed, in 1953, Fatima had established it¬ self as one of the great pilgrimage centres of the world. Of the original witnesses only Lucia survived childhood, becoming a Carmelite nun and living into the 2000s. In her middle age she produced a full account of the messages received from the Vir¬

Queen of the Halls.

• outasight ► Slang meaning outstanding, ex¬ traordinary. Originating amongst US jazz musi¬ cians and beatniks of the 1950s. it was later adopted by the hippies, who used it interchangeably with ‘far out’. It is now only heard in America, usually among Blacks.

gin. which included an apparent prediction of a

• outing ► The practice of publicly naming promi¬

second world war and a warning about the rise of

nent figures as homosexuals, as carried out by other homosexuals. This first attracted attention in

godless communism in Russia. However. Lucia’s ac¬ count was only partly released by the Church au¬

1990-91, when radical gay activists posted bills

thorities, the rest being placed under seal until the

across America claiming that certain well-known

1960s. when a decision was taken to postpone any

entertainers were ‘absolutely queer’. The practice

further disclosures indefinitely. This reticence in¬

has divided opinion amongst homosexuals. Its sup¬

spired the usual crop of conspiracy theories, alleg¬

porters claim that by concealing or lying about

ing that the so-called Third Secret of Fatima

their sexuality, prominent gays help to render ho¬

concerned the date of the end of the world, the

mosexuality invisible, reinforcing public ignorance

identity of the Antichrist, or details of some mys¬

and prejudice. They are particularly angered by the

terious crime involving the Church leadership. In

hypocrisy of politicians, who may even vote against

1981 a former monk even hijacked a passenger jet

reforms in the law affecting homosexuality, while

and threatened to blow it up unless the Vatican re¬

being actively gay themselves. Others argue that while public attitudes remain unsympathetic, ho¬

leased the Third Secret. Speculation was finally laid to rest in May 2000,

mosexuals have a right to privacy that overrides

when the Vatican revealed that the ‘Third Secret’ concerned a ‘bishop dressed in white’ being shot

any of these factors. The word is derived from the phrase come out, meaning openly acknowledge

at and apparently killed. With hindsight, many

one’s homosexuality.

Catholics have seen this as a warning of the nearfatal assassination attempt on Pope John Paul II on

• out-of-body experience ► A psychic experi¬ ence in which the person concerned has the dis¬

13 May 1981 - 64 years to the day after the chil¬

tinct impression of being outside his or her body,

dren saw the first vision at Fatima. That the pope

often looking down at it from another part of the

himself sees the matter in this light is suggested by

room. Such experiences have been reported by

several pieces of evidence; he has spoken several

many people, often during hospital operations or in

times of being saved by the direct intervention of

other life-threatening situations (see: near-death ex¬

the Virgin; he visited Fatima on the 10th anniver¬

perience).

sary of the shooting in 1991; and in 2000 he or¬ dered a bullet taken from his body to be set in the crown of the statue of the Virgin at the main shrine there.

• out of order ► British slang meaning not fol¬ lowing the rules as laid down by social custom. It derives from the idea of being in breach of standing orders - the rules and regulations that govern the

• Our Lady of Knock ► An apparition of the Vir¬

conduct of Parliament. After the broadcasting of

gin Mary, accompanied by St Joseph and St John,

Parliament began in the late 1970s, the British pub¬

that was reported to have been seen on the gable of

lic became increasingly familiar with the Speaker

the Catholic church in Knock, Co Mayo, Ireland. Al¬

ruling MPs or their interventions ‘out of order’.

though this vision occurred in 1879, Knock did not

Do yourself a favour and take a little time off from the booze. It is really out of order... - The Sun, 6 April 1991.

become an important centre for pilgrims until the 20th century. The original appearance is said to have heralded a number of miraculous cures. A

• out to lunch ► Temporarily disorientated, or

new church, to accommodate 7500 people, was

functioning below one’s best. The phrase implies

opened on the site in 1974, and five years later the

that one’s mind has taken a break and gone out to

Pope visited the church, during the first visit of any pope to Ireland. In 1986 a new international air¬

lunch, leaving one’s body to function as best it can without it.

port was opened nearby at Charlestown, to assist in

The captain of the team said he’d been batting

►*>447

• Ovra •

pretty well this season but his bowling was outto-lunch - and unlikely to return until next season.

• Outward Bound Trust ► A training organi¬ zation that aims to help people aged 14 and over to expand their horizons and realize their potential through a variety of challenging outdoor activities designed to develop teamwork, self-discipline, and self-awareness. The trust was formed in 1946, fol¬ lowing the successful introduction (1941) of a course for merchant navy cadets operated at Aberdovey in North Wales.

• Oval Office ► The oval-shaped room, in the west wing of the White House, used as the office of the US president. Overlooking the Rose Garden, it was built for President Theodore Roosevelt. The el¬ liptic design was copied from the White House’s ‘Blue Room’. The president’s famous Oval Office desk, made from timbers of HMS Resolute, was a gift in 1878 from Queen Victoria to President Ruther¬ ford B. Hayes. Each president adds personal touches: on the desktop of President John F. Kennedy was the coconut shell bearing his own carved ‘SOS’ that led to his rescue during World War II. See a/so: The buck

to hit a target with nuclear weapons? - John f. KENNEDY.

• Overlord ► The codename given to the Allied op¬ eration for the invasion of NW Europe, which began on D-Day 1944. • over-paid, over-fed, over-sexed, and over here ► A much-repeated catchphrase of World War II, referring to the presence of US forces in the UK. In fact, relations between the US troops and their British hosts were generally good, al¬ though the relatively high pay of the Americans and their sometimes brash manner, coupled with their evident appeal to many British women (see: Gl bride) led to some irritation. The catchphrase was

popularized by the British entertainer Tommy Trinder (1909-89). Subsequently it was also heard in Australia, when US forces were stationed there dur¬ ing the Vietnam War.

• overseas blue ►A shade of blue-grey adopted by the RAF for uniforms worn by personnel during World War II. • over the moon ► A cliche used to express ex¬ treme pleasure or delight, implyring that an almost

stops here af buck.

impossible dream has come true. It is a particular

• Ovaltine ► The tradename of a milk drink con¬ taining concentrated barley malt, cocoa, eggs and

favourite with the tabloid press. Its repetitive

vitamins, originally developed in 1904 by Dr George

overuse by football players and managers, who de¬ clare themselves ‘over the moon’ at every victory,

Wander at his laboratory in Berne, Switzerland, and launched under the name Ovomaltine. When,

provided a running joke in the satirical magazine

in 1909, a factory was opened in England the name

robbed).

Private Eye (see also: sick as a parrot: We wuz robbed at

was abbreviated to Ovaltine, reputedly because a

In 1991 it was reported in The Sun newspaper (6

clerical error was made at the time the company ap¬ plied to register the name. The Ovaltiney Club,

March 1991) that a lecturer at Norton College,

launched on Radio Luxembourg in 1935, was an

to improve their communication skills. He told The

immediate success with children; by 1939 there

Sun:

Sheffield, had started a course for young footballers

broadcasts, heralded by the famous jingle ‘We are

There is no reason on earth why they can’t talk to cameras without resorting to soccer-speak.

the Ovaltineys’, were brought to a halt by the out¬ break of World War II but resumed in 1946 and

Jimmy Greaves, the well-known football commen¬ tator, reacted enthusiastically to this news:

were five million members. The Sunday night

continued for a number of years.

• overkill ► The state in which something is hugely overdone, often because considerably more effort and materials than were needed have been used. An extravagant advertising campaign, for ex¬ ample, can be said to involve overkill. The term originated in the jargon of the nuclear arms race during the Kennedy administration: nuclear overkill is having enough nuclear ‘megatonnage’ to

If the course had been around in my playing days, Td have been over the moon. • over the top ► An expression denoting that something goes beyond what is required or cus¬ tomary; excessive. It originated in World War I, when soldiers fighting trench warfare were de¬ scribed as going over the top when they climbed out of the trenches to attack the enemy. See also: OTT. • Ovra ► The Italian Fascist secret police estab¬

annihilate the same enemy many times over. One

lished in 1927 by Arturo Bocchini, Mussolini’s chief

nuclear submarine, for instance, has more de¬

of security (1926-40). The meaning of the term Ovra

structive power than all the weapons used in World

is a mystery: it may have been coined by Mussolini

War II. There is a limit. How many times do you have

as a deliberately meaningless term to inspire fear in his opponents. The organization was used to spy on

448^

own goal

both known anti-Fascists and on many of the dic¬

under which the words of Gerry Adams and others

tator’s supporters, employed over 900 informers

had to be voiced by an actor.

during its existence, and made frequent use of tor¬

• Oz ► Colloquial name for Australia, used mainly

ture to terrorize its victims. Its activities, however,

by Australians.

were never on the same scale as its German coun¬ terpart, the Gestapo. To govern you need only two things, police¬ men. and bands playing in the streets. - Mus¬ solini, on governing the Italians. • own goal ► In football, accidentally kicking

• ozone friendly ► 5ee; -friendly. • ozone layers A region of the Earth’s upper at¬ mosphere, 10-50 km (6-30 miles) above the ground, in which the gas ozone (triatomic oxygen: O3) forms in greatest concentration.

the ball into one’s own goal, thus scoring for one’s

Ozone molecules themselves absorb the part of

opponents. By extension, any event in which one ac¬

the Sun’s ultraviolet radiation that is dangerous to

cidentally does something to one’s own detriment.

life on Earth; the ozone layer is therefore an essen¬

It could be said that the Aids pandemic is a classic own-goal scored by the human race against itself. - the princess royal, January 1988. The expression is sometimes used by police to

tial attribute of the planet. However, in recent years there has been widespread concern that the ozone

mean an act of suicide. This sense is thought to

frigerants. These exceptionally stable compounds

have originated with the British forces in North¬

diffuse into the upper atmosphere, where they

ern Ireland, who use it to describe the fate of a ter¬

enter into photochemical reactions with the highly

rorist who blows himself up with his own bomb.

reactive ozone molecules, which break up and cease

• Oxbridge ► Oxford and Cambridge universities

to function as ultraviolet absorbers. In the late

layer is being depleted. The main culprit has been identified as the fluorinated hydrocarbons [see. CFC) used as driver gases in aerosol cans and as re¬

considered as a single entity representing the elite

1980s holes were detected in the ozone layer over

of the British academic world. See also: Ivy League;

both the north and south poles. Following accep¬ tance of the scientific evidence of this damage over

redbrick.

• Oxf am ► A charitable organization that aims to provide famine relief and other forms of aid, both emergency and long-term, wherever it is needed. Originally known as the Oxford Committee for

100 countries agreed, under the Montreal Protocol (December 1995), to ban the production of CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances from January 1996 and to phase out their use by 2020.

Famine Relief (the truncated title was not officially

• ozone sickness ► A condition caused by in¬

adopted until 1965), it was founded in Oxford in

haling the poisonous gas ozone, characterized by

1942 in direct response to the plight of the starving

headaches, drowsiness, chest pains, and inflam¬

civilian population of Greece during the German

mation. In the late 1970s it was realized that ozone

occupation of World War II.

sickness was a hazard to the crews of high-flying air¬

• Oxford bags ► Very wide-bottomed flannel trousers first fashionable among Oxford under¬ graduates in the 1920s. • Oxford Group ► The name first adopted by the followers of US evangelist Frank Buchman (1878-1961), who had a considerable following at Oxford University in the 1920s. The group was evangelical in character and also became concerned with social, industrial, and international questions. It later developed into the Moral Rearmament move¬ ment. • oxygen of publicity*^ Media publicity that

craft because of ozone in the atmosphere seeping into the cabin.

• Oz trial ► The trial (1971) of the editors of Oz magazine on charges including ‘conspiracy to cor¬ rupt the morals of liege subjects of Her Majesty the Queen by raising in their minds inordinate and lustful desires’. The magazine - a heady mixture of satire, erotica, psychedelic art, and drug-related ma¬ terial - had been founded in Australia by Richard Neville, who brought it to London in 1966. Moti¬ vated principally by idleness and a lack of ideas, the editors turned the April 1970 issue over to their younger readers to write and edit for themselves:

encourages an organization or activity that is ille¬

the result was the notorious ‘Schoolkids Oz’. The in¬

gal, dangerous, or unacceptable. Margaret Thatcher

volvement of legal minors gave the authorities the

popularized the phrase in July 1985, when she at¬

perfect excuse for action against the magazine. Ar¬

tacked the publicity given to terrorists, particularly

ticles cited by the prosecution included a piece on

the IRA. The result was an ill-considered and much-

oral sex (such as might now appiear in almost any

ridiculed broadcasting ban on Sinn Fein spokesmen.

women’s magazine), a comic strip featuring a pri-

• Oz trial

m>449

apic Rupert Bear, and a cartoon showing a cane-

They were, however, found guilty on the two lesser

wielding teacher with a visible erection. The trial,

counts of obscenity and sending indecent matter

held at the Old Bailey, became a theatrical con¬

through the post. The judge’s decision to gaol the

frontation - greatly relished by both sides - be¬ tween the hippie underground and the guardians of

defendants pending psychological reports was tvidely commented on, as were the short haircuts

traditional morality. The accused - Neville, Felix

gleefully imposed by prison officers. Three weeks

Dennis, and Jim Anderson - went for maximum

later prison terms of between 9 and 15 months

publicity, posing in gymslips for the press and in the nude for a painting by David Hockney. Their

were handed down, together with deportation or¬ ders on Neville and Anderson (who were Aus¬

supporters led a procession of chickens through

tralians). When the case went to the Court of

the City of London (elephants having proved too

Appeal, only the minor charge of sending indecent

expensive). Despite the evident hostility of the

matter through the post was upheld and the editors

judge, the defendants were acquitted on the main charge (which carried a maximum life sentence).

were released. The Oz trial is said to have provoked more letters to The Times than the Suez crisis.

450-*4

• pacemakers A device that provides electrical

overall price. In computer terminology a package

stimulation of the heart and so helps to correct an

program comprises all the programs and docu¬

abnormal heart beat. The first internal pacemaker

mentation necessary for a particular set of appli¬

was designed in 1957; by the 1960s fully im¬

cations.

plantable units were available. These are inserted

• pack drill no names, no pack drill A phrase used

under the skin of the chest wall and connect to an electrode positioned on the surface of the left ven¬ tricle or inner wall of the right ventricle.

• pacification ► The process, usually a military operation, of subduing or eliminating enemy or terrorist activity in an area by rendering it in¬ hospitable or unusable. Unlike peacekeeping, in which a military presence of neutral and nonaligned forces serves to enforce a truce, pacification

when refusing to identify a wrongdoer, even though the identity of the person concerned is known to the speaker. It implies that the informant does not wish to be responsible for getting the wrongdoer into trouble. The expression arose in a military context, when the punishment for a mis¬ demeanour might be having to drill wearing a full

is carried out during a time of hostilities and typi¬

pack for a specified time. If the wrongdoer is not identified he cannot be ordered to suffer the pack

cally involves securing the cooperation of the local

drill.

population or removing them from the area. Build¬ ings. food supplies, crops, animals, and ground

• Pack up your troubles m your old kit¬ bag ► The opening line of one of the most memo¬

cover that could offer support or protection to the

rable choruses of World War I. It was written by

enemy may be destroyed. During the Vietnam War US

George Asaf (words) and Felix Powell (music) in 1915.

forces engaged in a policy of pacification to lower the morale of the Viet Cong and take rural areas from their control.

• Pacific Rim ► Those countries situated around the rim of the Pacific Ocean, especially the nations of SE Asia, such as Thailand and Malaysia. The phrase came into use in the 1980s, when these

Pack up your troubles in your old kit-bag. And smile, smile, smile. While you’ve a lucifer to light your fag, Smile, boys, that’s the style, etc. (A lucifer was a tradename for a type of match.)

nomic growth. The boom continued for most of

• Pac-Man defence ► A business tactic in which a company attempts to defeat an unwelcome takeover bid by buying up the bidder. It derives

the 1990s but came to a spectacular end in 1997-98,

from Pac-Man, an early computer game in which a

when a financial crisis in Thailand had serious knock-on effects throughout the region. The phrase

rudimentary representation of a head tried to de¬ vour its enemies or predators.

is sometimes used to include Japan and the West

• Pact of Steel ► A formal alliance between Ger¬ many and Italy, concluded in May 1939, which com¬

countries were identified as a major area of eco¬

Coast of America.

• package ► A collection or composite of various

mitted Italy to support Germany in the event of

items or elements presented as or forming a com¬

war. Mussolini coined the name after wisely aban¬ doning his first choice, ‘pact of blood’. The pact ce¬

plete unit. This usage derives from the idea of a parcel or package containing in one wrapping a number of different items; it generally involves the

mented the close ties between Italy and Germany known as the Rome-Berlin Axis.

notion that each component is an essential part of

• pad ► Slang for a home. In the 17th century a pad

the whole. A package deal contains a number of

was a sleeping mat, consisting of straw or rags,

conditions that must be accepted or rejected in

used by travellers. In America in the 1930s and

their entirety; a package holiday includes all travel and accommodation arrangements in the

1940s, it was the couch in an opium den, or the den itself. This usage was extended by the beatniks in the

►►451

Paki bashing

1950s to include any room or home, a sense taken

for newspaper photographs. The UK tabloid papers,

up by the hippies in the 1960s and 1970s. It now

especially the Sun, have traditionally reserved a slot

sounds rather dated and would only be used self¬

on the third page of their papers for such a photo¬

consciously.

graph. See also: pin-up.

• paddy wagon ► Slang for a police vehicle, usu¬ ally a secure van of the type also known as a black

• paintballing ► An adult game in which the members of two opposing teams try to hit each

Maria, although it can be used of a squad car.

other with paint pellets fired from devices resem¬

‘Paddy’ refers to the many Irish policemen in New

bling guns. Points are gained by scoring hits and the

York and the New England area, in which the term

winning team is the one that succeeds in capturing

originated at the end of the 19th century. Its use

the other’s flag. Before it became a sport, paint¬

subsequently spread to Australia and the UK.

balling was used as a training exercise by the Cana¬ dian Mounted Police; it was then used as a

• paedophile register ► An official list of pae¬ dophiles or other convicted sex offenders that con¬ tains their names and addresses and, in some cases, information about previous crimes, known con¬ tacts, etc. In England and Wales, the Sex Offenders Act of 1997 requires all those with convictions for

management training technique by US and later British business firms. It has its origins in the prac¬ tice of marking cattle in the American Mid-West by shooting pellets of paint at them from pistols pow¬ ered by carbon dioxide.

serious sexual offences to sign the sex offenders’

• pair bond ► A monogamous union between a

register for a stipulated period of time or indefi¬ nitely, depending on the severity of their crimes.

male and a fem^Lle animal of the same species. Pair bonding is the formation of this type of exclusive

The information is available to the police and to

bond or the courtship and mating behaviour in¬

others with authorized access, such as local au¬

volved in establishing and reinforcing it. The phe¬

thorities. In America, each state now has a public

nomenon is relatively uncommon in the animal

register of sex offenders, with information readily available to the general public, often via a website.

kingdom, a notable exception being birds, many of which form pair bonds that last throughout the

In New York and elsewhere this legislation is com¬

mating season and often continue over a lifetime.

monly referred to as Megan’s Law, after a seven-

• Paisleyite ► A supporter of the Revd Ian Paisley

year-old girl, Megan Kanka of New Jersey. Her rape and murder by a neighbour who, unknown to

(1926-

Megan’s parents, was also a twice-convicted sex of¬ fender, led to a public outcry and enactment of such laws throughout the country. The sexual as¬ sault and murder of schoolgirl Sarah Payne in Sus¬ sex in 2000 fuelled a campaign for similar free

), Presbyterian minister. Democratic Union¬

ist MP, and militant leader of the Protestants in Northern Ireland. Since the 1960s he has presented an extreme Unionist stance, denouncing all efforts to bring Catholics and Protestants together in power-sharing bodies and opposing any form of ac¬ commodation with the Republic of Ireland. In the

access to the sex offenders’ register in the UK, with

1990s Paisley and his supporters were vociferous

sections of the press calling for a Sarah’s Law in the

opponents of the peace process and - especially - of

young victim’s memory. But others cautioned

the the Good Friday Agreement. In elections to the As¬

against such a move for fear of vigilante attacks,

sembly established under the Agreement, Democ¬

often against innocent targets, and because it

ratic Unionists won 20 seats and two portfolios in its

might reduce compliance tvith the existing law, causing more offenders to go ‘underground’ where

power-sharing executive, but refused to sit in the

their activities could not be monitored by the po¬ lice.

• paedophile ring ► An organized group of peo¬

cabinet alongside Sinn Fein ministers. • Paki ► 1. British offensive slang for a Pakistani or Indian. It has been in use since the 1960s, mainly as a racist term of abuse. However, the term ‘Paid’ is

ple who conspire to manufacture 2md disseminate

also applied to the corner stores run by Pakistani or

pornographic images of, or to commit indecent

Asian families, which stay open for long hours; in

acts with, children. Paedophile rings now fre¬

this context the use has no pejorative sense, e.g.

quently use the Internet to transmit images to mem¬

‘I’ll just run round to the Paki to get some sugar.’

bers around the world, even though in many

2. British drug-users’ slang for the black hashish

countries it is illegal to download such material.

from Pakistan, often known as Paki black. It is not

• pagers 5ee: bleeper.

particularly strong and has often been adulterated

• page-three girl ► A female model who poses

with other substances.

topless, extremely scantily dressed, or nude, usually

• Paki bashing ► British slang term for the vie-

Pakistan

452-m

timization, often brutal, of Pakistanis and other Asian people by White racist youths. This began in the late 1960s and still occurs. In the past, the po¬ lice were sometimes accused of turning a blind eye to it; however, any form of racism in the police is now strongly deprecated. • Pakistan ► The name of this state, which was formed from parts of British India in 1947, was coined by Chaudrie Rahmat Ali in 1933 to represent the areas that should be included when the time came; P - Punjab; A - Afghan border states; K Kashmir; S - Sind; Tan - Baluchistan. • palimony ► US slang for alimony awarded in a court case involving an unmarried couple who break up after living together, usually in a long¬ term relationship. The word was coined during a 1979 case involving Hollywood star Lee Marvin; it is a combination of ‘paT (i.e. friend) and ‘alimony’. 5ee also-, dallymoney.

• Palm Beach ► Tradename for a lightweight fab¬ ric used in men’s and women’s summer suits, often with a striped design. It is named after Palm Beach, Florida, an exclusive tourist resort noted for its wealthy clientele. The famous palm trees appeared at the end of the 19th century, following the wreck of a ship with a cargo of coconuts.

tempt to build a sea-level canal was begun in 1880 by the French Panama Canal Company, founded by Ferdinand de Lesseps, who had supervised the con¬ struction of the Suez Canal. This was abandoned in 1891 after a financial scandal destroyed the con¬ sortium. In 1902 the Americans approved the Panama route for their own canal project; the Hay-Bunau-Vanilla treaty of November 1903, with the new Republic of Panama, provided for a UScontrolled ten-mile-wide canal zone. Control over this zone eventually passed to Panama in 1979, but America retained responsibility for the manage¬ ment and defence of the canal itself until 31 De¬ cember 1999, when full control passed to Panama. The privations suffered by the constructors of the canal, caused by malaria-carrying mosquitos, poor sanitary conditions, and consequently much dis¬ ease, have passed into legend.

• panda car ►A UK police patrol car of the 1960s. The name derived from the white and black paint¬ work used on the vehicles at this time, reminiscent of the markings of the giant panda.

• Pangaea or Pangea ► The single superconti¬ nent comprising all the Earth’s land mass, first pos¬ tulated by the German meteorologist Alfred Wegener (1880-1930) in 1912. He argued that the present continents originated from the break-up

• Palme d'Or^ (French, Golden Palm)The major prize (called the Grand Prix until 1975) at the an¬

of this supercontinent and cited their present shapes and distribution as evidence of this process.

nual Cannes Film Festival, which is awarded for the

Wegener’s hypothesis, initially derided by other

best film overall.

scientists, is now accepted as the basis of plate tec¬ tonics. Pangaea is thought to have formed by coa¬

• Palomares^ The site of a nuclear accident that occurred on 17 January 1966, when four 20-megaton hydrogen bombs were lost from a US bomber, which collided while refuelling over the Spanish Mediterranean coast. Three of the bombs fell on

lescence of the Earth’s crustal plates about 240 million years ago and to have broken up perhaps 50 to too million years later to form the southern su¬ percontinent Gondwanaland and the northern

land, close to the village of Palomares, two of them rupturing and spewing out radioactive plutonium.

supercontinent Laurasia, separated by the Tethys

The fourth fell into the sea and was only located after a massive search operation had been mounted. Over 1000 tons of contaminated topsoil and vege¬ tation were removed for disposal in America.

duce the present continental land masses of the

• Palooka, Joe*- See. Joe

Palooka.

• Panama CanalThe canal that connects the Atlantic and Pacific oceans through the narrow isthmus of Panama, constructed by America during the period 1904-14. Vessels are towed through the 12 locks of the 50-mile (80 km) canal by locomotives

sea. These supercontinents in turn divided to pro¬ southern and northern hemispheres, respectively.

• panic button ► The button pressed by test pi¬ lots to bring about an emergency ejection by para¬ chute in the event of impending danger. In general language to press the panic button means to react, often to over-react, to a dangerous or unpre¬ dictable situation in a hysterical or hasty way. See also: chicken switch.

• panic buying ► Buying more than one’s im¬

on a cog railway; it takes an average of 28 hours to

mediate needs of something, fearing that it will

pass from one side to the other. Proposals for the canal had been in existence since the time of the

soon be in short supply or hard to find. For exam¬ ple, in the fuel crisis of Autumn 2000 [see. fuel cri¬

great explorations in the 16th century, but it was

sis) enormous queues of panic buyers formed at

not until the late 19th century that engineering

petrol stations. As a result the pumps ran dry, petrol

expertise enabled construction to proceed. An at¬

became virtually unobtainable, and it appeared

parasailing

»>453

tJiat the country would grind to a total halt. In this instance, as in many others, panic buying helped to

cer. Two samples are taken - one of cells scraped from the wall of the cervix, the other of vaginal se¬

create the very shortage that the buyer’s feared.

cretions; the latter may indicate malignancy of the

• pansy ► A male homosexual or very effeminate man. The word was first used in this sense in the

endometrium or ovaries as well as the cervix. A smear of the flaked-off tissue cells is fixed in alco¬

1920s; it is now seldom heard.

• pantsuit or pants suit ► A woman’s or girl’s

hol and examined under a microscope for signs of malignant change. The test can also detect cancer¬

suit of matching jacket and trousers. Pantsuits,

ous changes in cell samples taken from the respi¬ ratory, digestive, and genitourinary tracts. The

more commonly called trouser suits in the UK,

technique is named after the US physician, George

became fashionable in the mid-1960s. Smart and well-tailored, they helped to establish trousers as an

N. Papanicolaou (1883-1962), who first recognized

acceptable alternative to a skirt or dress for women

cells.

of all ages.

the diagnostic importance of changes in shed tissue

• pantyhose or pantihose ► A women’s gar¬

• paracetamol ► The generic name in the UK for para-acetylaminophenol, a drug with mild pain- and

ment that combines underpants and hose (i.e. stock¬

fever-relieving properties. Available without pre¬

ings): the US name for tights. They were invented

scription, paracetamol is used in the same circum¬

in the early 1960s but sales really took off with the advent of the miniskirt in the latter half of the

stances as aspirin for the relief of headaches, rheumatic pains, and cold and influenza symp¬

decade. Towards the end of the 1980s stocldngs made something of a comeback but as a glamour

toms. Unlike aspirin, it has no adverse side effects on the stomach, but overdosage can cause serious

item rather than an everyday article of clothing.

liver damage. The American name is aceta¬

• paparazzo ► a freelance photographer who ag¬

minophen.

gressively and intrusively pursues famous people whenever they go out in public in order to take pic¬ tures that he can sell to the press. Originating in Italy, where street photographers were commonly

1960s, in which a person uses a wing-like parachute to glide from an aeroplane to a predetermined land¬

seen in pursuit of film celebrities, the word became current in the English-speaking world in the late 1960s, with the spread of this practice to other

• paramedic ► l. A health-care worker, especially a member of an ambulance crew, who is trained to

• paragliding ► The sport, dating from the late

ing spot.

countries: the unfortunate targets now include not only film stars but any newsworthy victims. Tlie

perform life-saving medical procedures in emer¬

word is usually used in the plural, paparazzi, as such pests tend to hunt in packs. It came from the surname of such a photographer in Federico

worker who supplements the work of doctors and nurses by providing auxiliary clinical services. Para¬ medics include radiographers, dieticians, physio¬

Fellini’s 1959 film La Dolce Vita.

therapists, occupational therapists, and medical

• papers ►

All I know is what I read in the papers A catchphrase popularized by Will Rogers, the socalled ‘Cowboy Philosopher’, in the later 1920s. It implies that the ordinary man in the street, who has no specialist knowledge or inside information, is as entitled to his opinion as the next man. • paper tiger ► A person or thing that appears to be both threatening and powerful but is really nei¬ ther: a paper tiger is, in fact, weak and powerless. The phrase is a translation of the Chinese tsuh lao fu, an expression made popular by Mao Tse-tung (1893-1976) in the mid-1940s: The atomic bomb is a paper tiger...All reac¬ tionaries are paper tigers. - mao tse-tung, 1946.

gencies in the absence of a doctor. 2. A health-care

technicians. • paramilitary ► l. Describing a semiofficial or secret organization run on military lines. The word was first used in the early 1970s for terrorist groups in Northern Ireland. A well-known US example was the Black Panther group, which came to the fore in the late 1960s. 2. Describing civil forces or organi¬ zations that legitimately support military forces.

• Paraquat ► Tradename for a highly poisonous herbicide. A soluble yellow solid used in weed¬ killers, Paraquat is quick-acting but becomes inac¬ tive upon contact with the soil.

• parasailing ► The sport in which a water-skier grasps the bar of a large kite or wears a parachute and is pulled by a speedboat until airborne. It was

• Pap test ► The Papanicolaou (pronounced ‘papa-

introduced in America in 1969; land versions

nicolo’) smear test: a diagnostic test used in the early detection of cancer, especially cervical can¬

(parascending) have been successfully developed using a car or other vehicle.

parcel bomb

454^

• parcel bomb ► See: letter bomb. • Paris Club*- See.

Group of Ten.

• Paris Peace Conference ► The conference that took place in 1919-20 to arrange a peace set¬ tlement after World War 1. Various treaties were concluded, the most important being the Versailles

item of youth fashion in the 1960s, when the mods {see. mods and rockers) used it as a badge of identity.

• park-and-rlde ► A system, known as park-ride in America, enabling motorists, especially shoppers or employees, to leave their cars in designated areas on the outskirts of congested cities and to complete

Treaty (28 June 1919) between the Allies and Ger¬

their journeys by bus. The idea originated in the mid-1960s in America, where suburban commuters

many. A series of other treaties were made to settle

drove to railway stations or other car parks and

eastern Europe and the Middle East in the wake of

then transferred to public transport.

the dissolution of the old Habsburg, Romanov, Hohenzollem, and Ottoman empires. Austria and Hun¬ gary were dismembered by the Treaty of St Germain and the Treaty of Trianon, respectively: the Bulgtuian issue was settled by the Neuilly Treaty and the Turkish problems by the Treaty of Sevres. The Peace Conference also established the League of Nations to settle any remaining disputes or any that should arise in future.

• Paris summits An abortive meeting between EHvight D. Eisenhower, Nikita Khrushchev, Harold Macmillan, and Charles de Gaulle, which was scheduled for 16 May 1960. All four leaders arrived in Paris, but the summit was abandoned in the wake of the U-2 incident.

• Paris Treaty ► The treaty of 27 May 1952 in which France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg agreed to the for¬ mation of the European Defence Community (EDC). Pacts were then agreed between NATO and the EDC and between the EDC and the UK. The purpose of the EDC was to incorporate West Germany into the

• Parkinson's Law^ The famous business rule conceived by the British historian and author Cyril Northcote Parkinson (1909-93), and described in his book of the same title (1958); it states that work expands to fill the time available for its comple¬ tion. Although much the best known, this is only one of Parkinson’s witty and illuminating apho¬ risms about the business world; others include the observations that expenditure rises to meet income and that subordinates multiply at a fixed rate. The rise in the total of those employed is gov¬ erned by Parkinson’s Law and would be much the same whether the volume of work was to increase, diminish or even disappear. - Parkin¬ son’s Law. • Parliamentary Commissioner ► See. om¬ budsman.

• party line ► l. The official view or position taken by a political party, which members are ex¬ pected to support in their public statements. To toe the party line is to follow or be coerced into fol¬ lowing party policy. The term originated in the

unified European military command - a formula

Communist Party, which was especially intolerant of dissenting views. See also: singing from the same hymn sheet. 2. A telephone line shared by two or

devised by the French in the hope that it would

more subscribers.

NATO system of alliances while also establishing a

make German rearmament acceptable to French public opinion. After nearly two years of procrasti¬ nation the French National Assembly refused to ratify the treaty, despite the efforts of the prime minister, Mendes-France, and pressure from the Americans. Within a matter of months, however, a similar formula for Franco Forged material published by Serge Nilus in Russia in 1905,

of restriction or ban on the sale of alcohol and

based on an earlier forgery of 1903, purporting to

many counties and cities were also ‘dry’ by virtue of

outline secret Jewish plans for achieving world

the ’local option’ made available by state legisla¬

power by securing a monopoly in international fi¬

tures. Nationwide prohibition, however, proved un¬

nance, and by undermining Gentile morality, fam¬

enforceable; the supply of illicit liquor to a thirsty population by bootleggers spawned organized

ily life, and health. Their falsity was exposed by

crime and widespread corruption among the police

tinople, in 1921 and later judicially, at Berne

and politicians. It was finally repealed in 1933 (see:

(1934-35). Their influence in inciting antisemitism,

21st Amendment).

notably among the Russians, and later in providing

• pro-life or right-to-life^ Describing people, groups, or movements that support the right of an unborn foetus to life. Pro-lifers therefore seek to

Philip Graves, The Times correspondent in Constan¬

Hitler and his associates with a pretext they knew to be false, provides tragic evidence of the power of the ‘big lie’.

periments on embryos. The leading British anti¬

• Prufrock, J. Alfred ► The indecisive and in¬ trospective hero of the poem by T. S. Eliot

abortion organizations are the Society for the

(1888-1965), The Love Song ofj. Alfred Pru/rock. which

Protection of the Unborn Child (1966) and LIFE

was first published in the Chicago magazine Poetry

limit or ban legal abortions; they also oppose ex¬

►*-483

Public Enemy No. 1

and Other Observations (1917). The poem is in the form of a dramatic monologue, which reveals Pruffock (named after a St Louis furniture firm) as timid, sex¬

designs of this type proliferated in clothing, fabrics, posters, decor, album covers, and all kinds of fash¬ ionable bric-a-brac. They also featured prominently

ually inhibited, bored with the Boston social round,

in mixed media events {see: happening), which com¬

and failing in his resolve to transform his life:

bined lightshows, 3D-art installations, and deafen¬ ing psychedelic rock music to create a totally ‘mind-blowing’ experience. A favourite technique

I have measured out my life in coffee spoons... I grow old...I grow old... I shall wear the bottoms of my trousers rolled... Do I dare to eat a peach?

• pseud ► British colloquialism for a pretentious

was to project slides containing coloured oils onto the walls and ceilings, producing vast drifting shapes like amoebas or imploding galaxies. Like

pseudo-intellectual. The word became popular in

other forms of psychedelic art, this was supposed to

the 1960s through its use in the satirical magazine.

replicate the visual effects of LSD or other hallu¬ cinogens, and was perhaps best appreciated under the same influence.

Private Eye, which still features a column called

‘Pseuds Corner’ - a collection of items garnered from other publications which are thought to show laughable pretentiousness.

• Psion ► See:

Filofax.

• PSL ► Private-sector liquidity. See. money supply. • Psmith ► A character who appears in some of the earlier novels of P. G. Wodehouse, from Enter Psmith (1909) to Leave it to Psmith (1923). Psmith (originally named Smith - he adds the ‘P’ himself for effect) is not a monocled silly ass in the Bertie Wooster mould, and would be unlikely to join the Drones' Club. Rather, he is an ingenious and resourceful

manipulator, old beyond his years. He was based on Rupert D’Oyly Carte (1876-1948), a schoolfriend of the author’s cousin, who later succeeded his father as proprietor of the D’Oyly Carte Company and be¬

• psychobabble ► A type of speech character¬ ized by endless inconclusive analysis of one’s own emotions and mental states; its vocabulary is a mix¬ ture of hippie slang and the jargon of psychoanaly¬ sis and alternative therapies. For instance, a woman might explain her marital difficulties by saying; ‘My husband laid a real guilt trip on me and went into total denial when I said I needed space to find my inner child’. A product of the self-obsessed me decade, it became particularly prevalent on the West Coast of America. The term was coined in 1976 by the US writer R. D. Rosen, who later published Psychobabble: Fast Talk and Quick Cure in the Era of Feel¬ ing (1977). The phenomenon is satirized in Cynthia McFadden’s novel The Serial (1976), in which the ac¬ tivities of a cast of solipsistic Californians are de¬

came chairman of the Savoy Hotel.

scribed entirely in psychobabble.

• psychedelic ► (Greek p^che, soul, mind; deloun,

• psychodelicatessen »■ See.

to reveal) Denoting experiences of heightened men¬

• PTFE ► Polytetra/luoroethylene. A synthetic poly¬ mer containing the element fluorine, noted for its toughness, resistance to chemical attack, and its low coefficient of friction. It was developed in the

tal and sensory awareness brought about by taking hallucinogenic drugs, such as LSD and mescaline. To the enthusiastic advocates of these drugs, who in¬ cluded Aldous Huxley in the 1950s and Dr Timothy Leary in the 1960s, such experiences offer a more profound view of reality rather than a mere distor¬ tion of it. The term, from the jargon of the beatniks and hippies, was imported into the UK from Amer¬ ica in the mid-1960s. By 1967 the word psychedelia had been coined to refer to the whole world of psy¬ chedelic drugs and the burgeoning subculture as¬ sociated with them. The impact of these drugs on the senses, in particular the distorted images and sounds and kaleidoscopic patterns of light and col¬ our, was imitated in paintings, posters, fabric de¬ sign, and music, which in turn came to be described as psychedelic. • psychedelic art ► A type of art popular in the late 1960s, characterized by complex swirling pat¬ terns of brilliant, often jarring, colours and involv¬ ing elements of op art. In the summer of 1967

head shop.

1940s and has a variety of uses; most people know it as the coating for nonstick frying pans. It is man¬ ufactured under the tradename Teflon.

• PTSD ► See. post-traumatic stress disorder. • public access broadcasting ► US broad¬ casting channels legally reserved, since 1972, for public-service use. Since a cable system can carry more than 100 channels, many communities have public-access channels devoted to local government, which provide a forum for community organiza¬ tions and individual comment. This freedom of speech has even occasionally been extended, with considerable controversy, to such groups as the racialist Ku Klux Klan.

• Public Broadcasting Services See:

PBS.

• Public Enemy No. 1 ► The phrase used to de¬ scribe the US bank robber and murderer John

public health medicine

484^

diana and Illinois. He was given this impressive sta¬

It is often used as a command or an exhortation to one dawdling or doing a job ineffectually. It is

tus by the attorney general, Homer Cummings, and was finally shot dead in Chicago by FBI agents, hav¬

now widely heard, although it is regarded by some as too vulgar to use in polite society because of the

ing escaped once from police custody. The phrase

possible position of the finger that needs pulling

‘public enemy’ is thought to have been coined by the president of the Chicago Crime Commission,

out.

Dillinger (1903-34), who was active 1933-34 in In¬

Frank Loesch, in an attempt to alert the public to the dangerous nature of such gangsters and to dis¬ pel the aura of glamour that the press had created around them. The James Cagney film The Public Enemy (1931) was one of Hollywood's first gangster movies. The phrase is now applied to anything or

• pulsar ► An extremely dense star that emits short bursts of radio waves or other radiation at precise intervals. The first pulsar was discovered in 1968 (see: LGM); over 300 have now been identified. It is thought that the strong magnetic field associ¬ ated with the star focuses the radiation into two

anyone considered a menace to society.

beams. The pulses detected are the result of the star’s rotation sweeping the beams around, rather

• public health medicine ►

like the signal from a lighthouse.

5ee: community

medicine.

• public lending right ► (PLR) A UK govern¬ ment scheme, introduced in 1983, to enable au¬ thors to earn a small royalty when their books are borrowed from public libraries. Authors register with the PLR Registrar, who makes payments based on averages from some 30 libraries. Over 17,000 au¬ thors registered for the £4.16 million available for 1998-99. An annual upper limit (£6000 in 1999) on a single author’s work is set to help less popular writers. Fiction accounts for nearly 70% of the money earned by authors.

• public relations officers

• pump iron ► To lift weights for exercise or body¬ building. The phrase was popularized by the film Pumping Iron (1970), which made a star of the Aus¬ trian-born bodybuilder Arnold Schwarzenegger (1947-

).

• pumpkin papers »■ See.

Hiss affair.

• pumpkin time ► The point at which a period of exceptional prosperity or happiness comes to an end with the status quo being suddenly re¬ established. The name refers to the time (midnight) when Cinderella’s coach reverts to being a pumpkin after the ball.

5ee: PRO.

• Pugwash ► An annual international scientific conference with the aim of promoting the con¬ structive and peaceful uses of scientific knowledge. The first was held in July 1957, at the home of Cana¬ dian philanthropist Cyrus Eaton in Pugwash, Nova Scotia. It was inspired by the Einstein-Russell Mem¬ orandum, a document describing the appalling consequences for the human race of nuclear con¬ flict, and called for a conference of scientists from both sides of the Iron Curtain. Subsequent meetings have been held in many different countries; sub¬ jects for discussion have included nuclear disar¬ mament, environmental issues, and the problems of the developing world. The Pugwash movement, coordinated by an International Continuing Com¬ mittee, has produced various reports over the years on arms control, which have contributed to progress on disarmament since the 1970s.

• pundit ► Hindi for a person learned in the San¬ skrit disciplines. In English the word is used to mean someone who is an authority on a particular subject. Pundits can be seen, for example, on tele vision giving their expert ideas on such subjects as economics or military strategy. • punk ► An anarchic youth cult of the mid-tolate 1970s in Britain and America. Its adherents fol¬ lowed punk rock bands such as the Sex Pistols and the Clash, whose energetic (if somewhat basic) music, angry l5Tics, and generally provocative stance arose as a furious reaction to the dullness and complacency of the music scene at that time. Punks could be recognized by their eccentric ragged clothes and their spiky or extremely short hair, which was often dyed green or red; unusual acces¬ sories, such as safety-pins worn as jewellery, were another hallmark. The movement had fizzled out by 1979-80 but its cultural and political meaning

• Pulitzer Prizes^ Prizes for literary work, jour¬

continue to be much discussed. Although it pro¬

nalism, drama, and music, awarded annually from

voked horror and outrage at the time, punk is now regarded with a good deal of nostalgia.

funds left for the purpose by Joseph Pulitzer (1847-1911), a prominent and wealthy US editor and newspaper proprietor.

• pull one's finger out^ A colloquial expres¬ sion meaning to get moving, to work efficiently.

The word ‘punk’ is an archaic term for a prosti¬ tute; it later became a derogatory term for a jierson or thing considered worthless. • purges ► The systematic elimination of potential

pyramid selliing

m>485

opponents by Stalin (see: Man of Steel), beginning in

favourite 1960s expression of the skinheads, who

1934 and continuing until his death in 1953. The

wore large Doc Martens boots. It is also used in a

victims included leading politicians, army officers,

more general sense, meaning to attack someone when they are particularly vulnerable.

and party functionaries, as well as many thousands of ordinary citizens. 5ee alsa. Doctors' Plot; Law of De¬ cember 1: Leningrad Purge; Yezhovshchina.

You can't make an omelette without breaking eggs. - Joseph staiin, justifying his tyrannical methods. •

purple corridors ►

See: Queen's Flight.

• Purple Hearts l. AUS army medal awarded for wounds received as a result of enemy action while on active service. It consists of a silver heart bearing the effigy of George Washington, suspended from a purple ribbon with white edges. 2. The popular name of a stimulant pill (Drinamyl), so called from

• PVC^ Polyvinyl chloride. A S5mthetic plastic first developed in the 1930s and made by polymerizing the compound vinyl chloride (chloroethene, CH2;CHC1). Commonly, the polymer is mixed with plasticizers, pigments, and other additives to give a flexible material used in packaging, electrical in¬ sulation, clothing (e.g. raincoats), etc. There is also a hard tough variety of the plastic known as u-PVC (unplasticized PVC), which is used as a building ma¬ terial (e.g. for door and window frames).

• PVS ► 1. Post-Vietnam syndrome. The emotional instability and serious psychological problems

its shape and colour.

encountered by many US veterans of the Vietnam

• push-button war ► A war fought with guided

War (1954-75). Many of the US soldiers serving in

missiles controlled by pushing a button.

Vietnam were young and inexperienced conscripts,

• pushers Informal for someone who supplies il¬

who faced appalling conditions in which over 55,000 of their compatriots were killed, a fifth ac¬

legal drugs, particularly someone who knotvingly supplies addictive drugs in order to create a captive market. The term is used by the police and the tabloid press, rather than by addicts or dealers themselves. Many pushers become suppliers to fi¬ nance their ovm drug addictions. Others are es¬ sentially pimps, supplying drugs to young women addicts in return for their earnings from prostitu¬ tion. • pussy ► 1. Slang for the female genitals, proba¬ bly deriving from the resemblance of pubic hair to cats’ fur. 2. Slang for a female, viewed as a sex ob¬ ject. • Pussyfoot Johnson ► Nickname ofW. E. John¬ son (1862-1945), the US temperance advocate. He gained his nickname from his ‘cat-like’ policies in pursuing law-breakers in gambling saloons, etc. in Indian territory when serving as chief special offi¬ cer of the US Indian Service (1908-11). After this he devoted his energies to the cause of Prohibition and gave over 4000 lectures on temperance. • Put a sock in it^ An instruction to be quiet. It comes from the days of the early gramophones, which had no mechanical volume controls; a con¬ venient method of reducing the volume was to stuff a sock, or a piece of material of a similar size, in the

cidentally by their own troops. Readjustment to civilian life was made even more difficult by the anti-war mood prevailing in America on their re¬ turn. The attitude of the US people to the war had become so hostile by 1973 that America was forced to begin a withdrawal. 2. Post-viral (fatigue) syn¬ drome. See: ME.

• PWA ► Person with Aids. An abbreviation often used in preference to Aids patient or Aids victim. • pylon ► Originally a monumental gateway (from Greek pulon, a gateway), especially of an Egyptian temple, consisting of two massive towers joined by a bridge over the doorway. The word now usu¬ ally refers to the single structures that support the overhead cables that make up the electrical grid system. • Pylon Poets ► A derogatory nickname for the group of young British left-vnng poets - principally W. H. Auden (1907-73), Stephen Spender (1909-95), Louis MacNeice (1907-63), and C. Day Lewis (1904-72) - that emerged in the 1930s. It alludes to their sometimes naive enthusiasm for up-to-theminute themes and imagery, seen at its most selfconscious, perhaps, in Spender’s 1933 poem ‘The Pylons’. Auden’s idiosyncratic descriptions of in¬ dustrial landscapes were widely imitated by other

horn.

members of the group, giving their work a coterie

• put down ► To humiliate. A term widely used since the 1960s. In the noun form, put-down, it

flavour.

means a belittling remark or humiliating action.

uct using a pyramid-like structure of part-time sales¬

• put the boot in ► British slang meaning to kick someone. In the early 1970s this was a

people. At the apex of the pyramid is the holder of a franchise empowering him to sell a particular

• pyramid selling ► A method of selling a prod¬

486eakers as well as those for whom

bottle and paper banks and encourage household¬

English was a second language. In his Preface to the first edition of the BBC Pronouncing Dictionary of

ers to sort newspapers and certain types of plastic from the rest of their waste for separate collection.

British Names, G. M. Miller wrote:

Pressure for recycling schemes has grown since the

The good announcer remains, as far as the BBC is concerned, the pleasant unobtrusive speaker

1980s with the greater awareness of the environ¬ mental ravages brought about by a modern con-

Red Brigades

sumer society and the huge amounts of waste it generates.

• red^ better red than dead Living under a com¬ munist regime is preferable to being killed in a nu¬ clear war. The phrase was used as a slogan in the late 1950s by British campaigners for nuclear dis¬ armament {see. CND): in the words of the British philosopher and pacifist Bertrand Russell: If no alternative remains except communist domination or the extinction of the human race, the former alternative is the less of two evils. Supporters of the opposite point of view re¬ versed the elements of the phrase, producing the slogan ‘Better dead than red’.

►►503

Schleyer of Daimler-Benz, kidnapped in October, was murdered as a reprisal. After these events the revolutionary appeal of the group to German stu¬ dents and young radicals began to wane. By the mid-1980s most of the group’s leading members were either dead or imprisoned. The group formally disbanded in 1998. Don’t argue - destroy. - Slogan of the Red Army Faction.

• Red Arrows ► The RAF jet aircraft aerobatics display team, regarded as the finest in the world. • Red Baron ► Nickname of Manfred, Freiherr von Richthofen (1892-1918), the most celebrated German fighter pilot of World War 1, reflecting his aristocratic rank and his red Fokker triplane. From 1916 he commanded Fighter Group 1 of the Ger¬

• Red Adairs Nickname of Paul Adair, a US con¬ sultant on oil-well disasters chiefly known for putting out fires. He was played by John Wa)me in the film Hellfighters (1969). In 1991 the veteran Adair was engaged to deal with the hundreds of oil-well fires deliberately started by Iraqi troops evacuating Kuwait.

• Red Army Faction ► (RAF; German Rote Armee Faktion) A West German terrorist group, known pop¬ ularly as the Baader-Meinhof gang, created when the arsonist Andreas Baader (1943-77) was sprung from prison on 14 May 1970 by Ulrike Meinhof (1934-76), Horst Mahler, and others. The group then launched a violent campaign against the political,

man Imperial Air Force, known to Allied airmen as Richthofen’s Flying Circus because of its brightly coloured and whimsically decorated planes and its innovative use of team tactics. He is thought to have shot down 80 enemy planes before being brought down himself by a combination of ground fire and the guns of a Sopwith Camel flown by the Canadian ace Captain A. Roy Brown during the sec¬ ond Battle of the Somme. Respected as well as feared by the AlUes, he was buried with full military honours by the British and Australians. The Red Baron’s death was considered by Ludendorff the equivalent of losing 30 divisions. His command was taken over by Herman Goering; his cousin, Frieda

economic, and military organs of the West German state, which they branded as the neo-Fascist ‘Straw¬

von Richthofen, married the novelist D. H.

berry Reich’. They also targeted NATO and its mili¬ tary personnel as the international agency of US

• redbrick ► Denoting a 19th-century British uni¬ versity, many of which were built in the redbrick

imperialism; their attacks on the European alhance during the 1970s and 1980s were organized in league with a European network of terrorist groups, including the French Action Directe and the Italian Red Brigades. During the early 1970s their activities included bank raids, bombings, kidnappings, and the assassination of business leaders, police, and government officials. By 1972 the main leaders, Baader, Meinhof, and Gudrun Esslin, were in prison but violence continued unabated in an attempt to secure their release. In April 1977 the attorneygeneral, Siegftied Buback, was murdered in revenge for the suicide in Stammheim prison of Meinhof; in October of the same year Red Army members collaborated with Palestinian Red Army terrorists in the hijacking of a Lufthansa jet with 91 hostages, during which the pilot was shot. As German anti¬

Lawrence.

Gothic revival style of such architects as Alfred Wa¬ terhouse. The term is now often applied rather loosely to all English universities built before the 1960s other than Oxford and Cambridge (see: Oxbridge). It was introduced by Bruce Truscot (Pro¬ fessor E. Allison Peers: d. 1952) in his book Redbrick

University (1943), in which he dealt primarily with the universities of Birmingham, Bristol, Leeds, Liv¬ erpool, Manchester, Reading, and Sheffield, and ex¬ pressly excluded London.

• Red Brigades ► (Italian Brigate Rosse) The Italian left-wing terrorist group that was responsible for the kidnap and murder in March 1977 of Aldo Moro, the president of the Christian Democratic Party and ex-prime minister. The organization was established in 1969, initially with the aim of at¬

terrorist squads stormed the plane at Mogadishu airport in Somalia, it was discovered that Baa¬

tacking leaders of large corporations, such as Fiat and Pirelli, who were regarded as ‘enemies of the

der and Esslin had also committed suicide in Stammheim; another hostage, Hans-Martin

worldng class’. In subsequent years they were re¬ sponsible for a series of kidnappings, bombings.

redcap

504

and the murders of police, judges, government of¬

sleep. They arrive looking exhausted with blood¬

ficials, and business leaders with the aim of un¬ dermining the Italian state and initiating a Marxist

shot eyes. It is usually applied to coast-to-coast

revolution. The body of their most notable victim.

• red flag ► 1. A flag generally used to indicate

Moro, was found in the boot of a car in Rome in May 1977, shot dead after the government refused to

danger or as a stop signal. 2. The symbol of inter¬

agree to the release of 13 Brigade leaders. The Brigades were also linked to other terrorist groups, including the German Red Army Faction. In January 1982 the Italian police achieved a major success in freeing the US Brigadier-General James Dozier, a deputy NATO commander, who had been abducted in Verona in December 1981. Leading Brigade ideo¬ logues, such as Renato Curcio (1948-

flights in America.

national socialism; ‘The Red Flag’ is a socialist an¬ them still used, somewhat incongruously, by the British Labour Party. then raise the scarlet standard high, Beneath its shade we’ll live and die Though cowards flinch and traitors sneer We’ll keep the Red Flag flying here. -JAMES CONNELL: ‘The Red Flag’ (1889).

) and Al¬

• Red Fridays Friday 31 July 1925, when a stop¬

berto Fraceschini, as well as those responsible for the Moro and Dozier kidnappings, were captured

page in the coal industry, planned to meet the threat of wage cuts, was averted by the promise of

and tried during the late 1970s and early 1980s.

government subsidies to support wages, etc. It was

The last of the Moro kidnappers was sentenced in 1983; since then the authorities have had increas¬

so called by the Labour press to distinguish it from

ing success in penetrating and neutralizing the or¬ ganization’s cells in various parts of the country.

Black Friday or 15 April 1921, when union leaders

called off an impending strike of railwaymen and transport workers designed to help the miners, who

• redcap ► l. A colloquial term for British military

were locked out.

police, whose caps have red covers. 2. In America, a porter at a railway or bus station.

• Red Guards ► Young supporters of Mao Tsetung during the Cultural Revolution. The mobiliza¬

• red carpet ► A long red carpet that is unrolled in front of the door to a building, train, aircraft,

Tiananmen Square, Peking, on 18 August 1966.

etc., when an important dignitary is expected to

These unruly mobs consisted chiefly of students

arrive. Its practical function is to provide a dirt-ffee passage from one place to another: however, it also has a ceremonial significance, indicating that the

from secondary schools, colleges, and universities;

visitor is of sufficient importance to merit this treatment. Rolling out the red carpet for some¬ one can also be used less literally to mean that the

enemies and opponents of Mao Tse-tung, and de¬

person in question will be received with lavish hos¬ pitality, e.g. “When my boss came to dinner we really

habits. They wore red armbands and carried copies of Mao’s Little Red Book.

rolled out the red carpet and served up an impres¬ sive meal.’

• Red Ken ► Press nickname for the Labour politi¬ cian Ken Livingstone (1945- ) when he achieved

• redcoats See.

Butlins.

tion of the Red Guards began at a rally in

their task was to rampage the streets and the coun¬ tryside of China and Tibet, harassing and attacking stroying public and private property - anything that represented ‘old’ ideas, culture, customs, or

notoriety as the left-wing leader of the GLC

• Red Dean ► Press nickname for Dr Hewlett John¬ son (1874-1966), Dean of Canterbury and formerly Dean of Manchester. He attracted some controversy

(1981-86). His outspoken views made him a bogey¬

for his belief that communism, as practised in Stalin’s Soviet Union, was a practical application of

Odious Man in Britain’. Livingstone skilfully coun¬

Christian ethics.

downbeat image, visibly at odds with his press rep¬

• Red Devils

man of the right-wing tabloids, one of which car¬ ried his photograph under the headline ‘The Most tered this onslaught by presenting a soft-spoken utation. Meanwhile, his policies - which included

1. Nickname of the British Para¬

chute Regiment. 2. Nickname of the Manchester United soccer team, founded in 1878, which wears a chiefly red and white strip.

handouts to unpopular fringe groups as well as a highly popular fare-cutting programme on London Transport (pensioners travelled free) - were in¬ creasingly seen as a deliberate provocation to cen¬

• red-eye ► l. Sltmg for whisky or any other strong

tral government. Margaret Thatcher’s decision to

spirit that causes the drinker’s eyes to become

abolish the Council, announced in October 1983,

bloodshot. 2. Mainly US slang for a flight that takes

unexpectedly transformed Red Ken into something

off late at night and arrives early the next morning,

of a folk hero with Londoners, including many who

thus depriving the passengers of a good night’s

had previously detested him. Following the aboli-

reflexology

m>505

tion of the Council, Livingstone was elected to par¬

spectra of a number of distant galaxies and showed

liament representing Brent East. In 2000 he was

that their redshifts were proportional to the dis¬

elected to the newly created post of Mayor of London.

tance away of the galaxy. This provides the main ev¬

• Red Letters

idence that the universe is expanding (see Big Bang).

See: Zinoviev Letter.

• redlining ► A mainly US term for the systematic denial of loans, mortgages, and insurance to prop¬ erty owners, or prosi>ective property owners, in the poorer sections of a city. Some banks and other fi¬ nancial institutions make use of this practice to minimize their risks, although it has been called racial discrimination, because it is in these areas that ethnic minorities usually reside. Redlining originated in the late 1960s and takes its name from the supposed practice of outlining such areas

• reds under the bed ► A reference to excessive suspicion of communists. The phrase dates from Senator McCarthy’s witch-hunts of the 1950s in America, when supposed communist sympathizers were alleged to have been found in the most un¬ likely places (see: McCarthyism). Those who unrea¬ sonably or unjustifiably see a communist or left-wing influence where none exists are said to be looking for ‘reds under the bed’. The phrase is now seldom heard.

in red on a map.

• reductivism^

• redneck US derogatory slang for a person from

• reefer ► Slang for a hand-rolled cannabis ciga¬ rette (see: pot). It is now rarely heard, having been re¬ placed by joint and spliff in the late 1950s to 1960s;

a rural community who is poorly educated, nar¬ row-minded, and right-wing. The word was origi¬ nally used to describe White Southern farmers (the backs of whose necks would be red from working in the fields under the hot sun), but its use spread in the late 1960s to describe anyone with uneducated right-wing views. The word has been used in this way in the UK since the 1980s.

See: minimalism.

the media nevertheless persisted in using the word well into the 1970s. There are two plausible ety¬ mologies; one derives from the nautical term ‘reef, the gathered-in part of the sail, because of a simi¬ larity in shape between the furled sail and the hand-rolled cigarette. Others derive the word from grifa, Spanish slang for marijuana.

• reds^- Colloquial term for socialists, radicals, or left-wingers of any kind, especially former Soviet communists. The colour red has been associated with revolution since at least 1848, when the work¬

• Referendum Party ► A British political party founded in 1994 by the millionaire entrepreneur Sir James Goldsmith (1933-97) to press for a referen¬

ners. The words to the socialist anthem the Red Flag

dum on whether or not Britain should leave the EU. After failing to win a seat in the 1997 election the

date from 1889. ‘Reds’ became a general journalis¬

party disbanded.

ers of Paris manned the barricades under red ban¬

tic term for communists with the Russian Civil War

• reffo ► In Australia, a derogatory term for any of

of 1918-22, in which Trotsky’s Red Army fought

the European refugees, predominantly Jewish, who arrived during or shortly before World War II. Aus¬

the conservative White Volunteer Force. Its use was especially prevalent during the McCarthy witch¬ hunts in America (see: McCarthyism), when it was applied to alleged subversives of every kind. See also: pinko; better red than dead af red; reds under the bed.

• redshift ► An effect in which the light (or other electromagnetic radiation) emitted by a body ap¬ pears to have longer wavelength if the body is mov¬ ing away from the observer. There is a shift in the position of lines in the spectrum from their normal position towards the red end of the electromag¬ netic spectrum. The converse effect - a blue shift - occurs if the body is moving towards the observer. Both are examples of the so-called Doppler shift, named after the Austrian physicist Christian Doppler (1803-53), who discovered the effect with sound waves in 1842. The redshift is important in astronomy. In 1929 the US astronomer Edwin Hubble investigated the

tralia was then a far more homogenous and cul¬ turally isolated society than it is today, and the reffos - also dubbed reffiijews and reff-raff- pro¬ voked widespread resentment. Although the influx of refugees was unprecedented at the time, the numbers pale into insignificance beside the mass immigration that transformed Australian society in the post-war decades: between 1940 and 1964 some two million people, mainly from the UK and conti¬ nental Europe, chose to start new lives in Australia. The government carefully referred to these incom¬ ers as New Australians, rather than immigrants, in the hope of easing assimilation. To the stubbornly xenophobic Old Australians, however, they were Balts, Naussies, emigrantos, micros, and wogs (sub¬ divided into Pommie wogs, Yankee wogs, etc.). • reflexology ► A technique of foot massage used to relieve tension and promote general bodily health. Like acupuncture and shiatsu, reflexology

506^

• refuse

claims an ancient pedigree; it is based on the theory that channels of energy course through the body in

has a strong bass line and a bluesy feel. In the UK its popularity spread from the largely urban West In¬

a network of nerves linking all the body’s main or¬

dian communities to young Whites during the

gans and muscles. Reflexologists hold that this en¬

1970s. The derivation of the word is uncertain, but it is thought to be connected to the Jamaican ‘rage-

ergy network terminates at tiny reflex points in the feet, which mirror the body’s organs, and that compression or finger massage at these specific

rage’, an argument. Many reggae musicians are

fioints can help restore healthy energy flow by re¬

were developed during the early 20th century by

• Regulation 18b »■ A provision of the British Emergency Powers (Defence) Acts (1939; 1940), which was amended by parliament in 1940 to give the home secretary the power to detain, without

the US physician William H. Fitzgerald, who estab¬ lished the principles of‘zone therapy’, using pres¬

trial, members of any organization sympathetic to an enemy power. Defence Regulation 18b(lA) was

sure points on different areas of the body to treat common ailments. The technique was pioneered

specifically targeted at the British Union of Fascists and its leader. Sir Oswald Mosley (1896-1980), who

in the UK by Doreen Bayly in the 1950s; since the 1980s Bayly clinics have ministered to a growing

was arrested and imprisoned in Brixton on 23 May 1940. Altogether 763 BUF members (see: Mosleyites)

number of believers in alternative medicine. Reflex¬ ology does not find much support in the orthodox

were rounded up, including Mosley’s wife Diana (see: Mitford girls), who was sent to Holloway, as well

medical profession.

as many pro-German and pro-Italians. Mosley re mained in Brixton until November 1943, when he

moving crystalline deposits clogging the energy pathways. The techniques of modern reflexology

• refuse an offer one can't refuse Originally, an offer of so much more than one is expecting that it would be foolish to say ‘no’. In Mario Puzo’s Mafia novel The God/ather (1969; filmed 1972) it takes on a much more sinister sense: ‘I’m going to make you an offer you can’t refuse’ means that you are about

Rastafarians.

was released for health reasons.

• Reichsmark ► (German, mark of the realm) Ger¬ many’s standard monetary unit from 1924 to 1948, composed of 100 Reichspfennig. It is particularly as¬ sociated with Adolf Hitler’s Third Reich (1933-45).

to be told to do something by a Mafioso and will cer¬ tainly do whatever it is if you don’t want to be

‘Mark’, originally a measurement of precious met¬ als, was the name given to German currency from 1871 until the country adopted the euro in 2002.

killed. It is thus the ultimate in blackmail. See: God¬

See: Deutschmark; Rentenmark.

father offer.

• refusenik ► In the former Soviet Union, a citizen

• Reichstag fire ► The destruction by arson of the Reichstag parliament building in Berlin on 27

who was refused an exit visa to emigrate to another country; most refuseniks were Jews wishing to em¬

February 1933. The fire occurred at a crucial mo¬ ment in 20th-century German history, enabling the

igrate to America or Israel. Until the late 1980s,

Nazis to seize absolute power. This was achieved by

under Soviet law, emigration was a state-granted privilege, although the Helsinki Accord (1975), to

blaming the communists for the fire and so dis¬ crediting the left wing, who until then had blocked

which the Soviet Union was a signatory, guaran¬

complete Nazi supremacy. A 24-year old Dutchman,

tees emigration as a basic human right. During the

Marius van der Lubbe, was identified as the com¬

1970s over 250,000 Soviet Jews were granted visas

munist who had started the blaze; before the night

but many of those who were refused were branded

of 27 February was over, 5000 known communists

as political dissidents and persecuted by the au¬ thorities. One of the most prominent refusenik

had been arrested. The communists for their part accused the Nazis of staging the fire themselves

campaigners was Anatoly Scharansky, imprisoned

with the object of blaming their opponents. During

in 1978 for treason, who was eventually released

the trials following the war, the German chief of

and allowed to settle in Israel in 1986. Subsequently,

general staff recalled hearing Goering boast: ‘The

restrictions on the emigration of Soviet citizens

only one who really knows about the Reichstag is

were gradually removed in accordance with Mikhail

me. because I set it on fire.’ The one person who

Gorbachov’s policy of glasnost. Large numbers of

could have solved the mystery conclusively was van

Soviet Jews were then allowed to leave; 72,500 in

der Lubbe himself, but he had been executed by the Nazis on 10 January 1934.

1989 and an estimated 200,000 in 1990. See: -nik; returnik.

• reggae ► Popular music from Jamaica with a

• reinforcement therapy ► A psychiatric treat¬ ment that rewards a patient for exhibiting the de¬

heavily accented upbeat in each bar of four beats. It

sired behaviour. These rewards - money, food.

►►507

relativity

approval, etc. - encourage repetition of the behav¬ iour. Fears, such as flying, can often be eliminated

• Reith lectures ► An annual series of broadcast lectures by leading thinkers, established by the BBC

through pleasant associations; for example, hav¬ ing a birthday party with friends in a plane. Nega¬

in 1947 in honour of John (Charles Walsham), 1st Baron Reith (1889-1971), the first director-general

tive reinforcement is the withdrawing of rewards. Reinforcement therapy was a product of the early

of the BBC (1927-38).

animal experiments by physiologists in Russia, the UK, and America and their adaptation to human be¬ haviour by the US psychologist B. F, Skinner (1904-90) in the 1930s; the term was coined in 1969. Although reinforcement therapy has often proved successful, it is not a panacea. For example, in one study, which attempted to cure a child’s fear of rab¬

• rejasing ► Reusing junk as something else. US acronym for making use of old cast-off items, even rubbish, for some other purpose. Rejasing turns jamjars into paint containers and used tyres into playground obstacle courses. The movement devel¬ oped in the 1970s in reaction to the disposable so¬ ciety.

bits by giving it sweets while encouraging it to

• relativity ► A theory in physics, first proposed

stroke a rabbit, the result was that thereafter the child invariably felt sick when given sweets.

by the German-born physicist Albert Einstein (1879-1955), in two parts. The first, known as the

• reinvent the wheel ► l. Literally, to produce an invention that already exists and is in wide¬ spread use. For example; ‘He has spent 3 years per¬ fecting a computer program that does no more than one that has been available from Microsoft for over a year - talk about reinventing the wheel!’. More figuratively, to waste time and effort doing anything that has already been done. 2. To be obliged by circumstances to construct any basic de¬ vice, e.g. ‘To cross the river we had to reinvent the wheel and build a raft’.

• Reis forgery ► An ambitious forgery that threatened the economy of Portugal and the repu¬ tation of a leading British printing company in 1924. It was planned by Arthur Virgilio Alves Reis, a member of the Portuguese colonial service, who capitalized on his discovery that Portuguese ban¬ knotes were printed by a British firm, Waterlow and Sons, which was less than scrupulous about checking for notes with accidental duplicate num¬ bers. Reis’s elaborate plan involved the forging of letters from the Portuguese minister of finance and other high officials commissioning the printing of huge numbers of 500-escudo notes (worth £5 each);

Special Theory, was published in 1905; it arose as a result of problems in the mathematics of rela¬ tive motion, particularly with reference to the speed of light. Suppose, for example, that a car trav¬ elling at 40 mph approaches another travelling at 60 mph; each driver would know his speed relative to the road but would say that the other car was ap¬ proaching at 100 mph. This is the ‘common-sense’ view of relative motion, accepted also, until the early part of the 20th century, by most physicists. Common sense, however, is not always a good guide to reality in physics (see diso: quantum theory). As Einstein once said: Common-sense is the collection of prejudices acquired by age eighteen. In the 19th century hght was regarded as a wave motion in an all-pervading weightless elastic medium knovra as the ‘ether’. If the Earth was mov¬ ing through the ether it should be possible to con¬ firm the existence of the ether by detecting a difference in the speed of light in the direction of the Earth’s rotation compared to that at right an¬ gles to this motion. By 1887 the Michelson-Morley experiment had failed to detect this difference - a result that caused considerable uncertainty among

these, he explained, would not need new serial numbers as they would later be overprinted ‘An¬

physicists. Einstein at the time was a technical expert

gola’ for use in that country, which was then a colony of Portugal. The overprinting, however, never happened. Instead Reis exchanged the notes for for¬

(third class) in the Swiss Patent Office in Berne. As such, he was unaware of the Michelson-Morley ex¬ periment, but he was thinking about the speed of

eign stock and built up a huge financial empire, even opening his own Bank of Angola and Metropole. Sooner or later, it was inevitable that the mas¬

light and, in particular, the fact that the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell (1831-79) had put forward in 1873 a set of equations describing light

sive fraud would be detected. In mid-1925 notes with duplicate serial numbers were discovered in

as electromagnetic waves travelling at a speed that did not depend on the relative motion of the source

Reis’s bank and he was arrested. Reis eventually confessed and was sentenced to 20 years in prison; he was released in 1945 and died ten years later. He

and observer. At the turn of the century, mechanics - in the

was so poor that at his own request he was buried in a sheet to enable his son to inherit his only suit.

tradition of Galileo and Newton - was in a state of confusion. Einstein proposed that the best way to deal with the confusion was to assume that the

508-*^

Relief of Ladysmith

speed of light is always the same, irrespective of the

grazing the Sun should be visible. In 1919 a group

relative motion of the source and observer. For ex¬ ample, the drivers of the two cars approaching each

led by Sir Arthur Eddington observed a solar eclipse

other at 40 mph and 60 mph might add together their speeds to arrive at their relative speed (100

Einstein’s prediction. The result caught the public’s imagination -

mph). However, the speed of the light emitted by

even The Times, in a rare editorial on scientific mat¬

their headlights would always be the same, irre¬

ters, commented:

spective of the speeds of the cars. There were a number of unusual consequences

at Principe in West Africa and were able to verify

The scientific conception of the fabric of the universe must be changed.

to the Special Theory. For example, the mass of a

The theory of relativity was widely regarded as

body increases with its speed and becomes infinite

being incomprehensible to all but a few physicists.

at the speed of light, so that it is impossible to

It was said that only three people in the world could

travel faster than the speed of light. Even more un¬

understand it (Eddington, on hearing this, asked

usual is the idea of time dilation: time passes more

‘Who’s the third?’).

slowly for a moving object than for a stationary ob¬

• Relief of Ladysmith ► The rescue by forces led

ject. This leads to the twin paradox, in which one

by General Sir Redvers Buller, on 28 February 1900,

of a pair of twins lives on Earth and the other lives

of General Sir George White and his Natal Defence

in a spacecraft travelling at high speed. When they

Force from the beleaguered garrison of Ladysmith

meet after many years the earthbound twin has

in NW Natal, which marked the turning point for

aged in the normal way; the space traveller is still

British fortunes in the Boer Wars. The garrison had

young because he has spent most of his life moving

been under siege by General Piet Joubert and his 15,000-strong Boer army since 2 November 1899.

at a high speed, so time has passed more slowly. The consequences of the Special Theory, un¬

The rescue saved Buller’s military reputation, sul¬

usual though they may seem, have been completely

lied by a string of defeats at the hands of the Boers

verified by experiment and only give results that

in the preceding months, while General White’s

differ from classical mechanics when objects are moving at speeds close to the speed of light. How¬

strategic blunder in allowing himself to be trapped in Ladysmith and encircled by Joubert’s artillery

ever, one consequence of the theory does affect our

cost him his health and standing. He was invalided

lives; this is the principle of the equivalence of

back to England shortly afterwards. See also: Spion

mass and energy put forward by Einstein in 1905 in

Kop.

the equation e = md, which is the principle upon which nuclear weapons are based. The Special Theory only applies to objects at rest or in uniform relative motion. By 1907 Einstein was able to incorporate acceleration into the scheme to produce his General Theory. In this, Einstein took the view that a body’s inertial mass (measured by its resistance to being accelerated) and its gravitational mass (the force it experiences in a gravitational field) were identical and that there is an equivalence between accelerating forces and gravitational forces. The final form of the Gen¬ eral Theory, published in 1916, used the ideas of the Russian-born German mathematician Hermann Minkowski (1864-1909), who postulated that the three dimensions of space and the dimension of

• REM ► Rapid eye movement. Denoting a stage of sleep characterized by darting movements of the eyes beneath closed eyelids, irregular breathing, increased blood flow to the brain, and increased brain temperature. In humans, during normal sleep, short periods of REM sleep (5-15 minutes) al¬ ternate with longer periods (70-80 minutes) of heav¬ ier sleep without eye movements (non-REM sleep). REM sleep is associated with dreaming and seems to be far more important for well-being than NREM sleep, although the reasons for this are still a mys¬ tery. Babies and infants may spend up to half their sleep in REM. REM is also the name of a hugely successful US rock band (formed c. 1981).

time formed a continuum, called space-time. In

• Remagen ► A town in Germany, on the River

the General Theory, gravitation is treated as a con¬

Rhine between Coblenz and Cologne: the scene of

sequence of the fact that a mass warps space-time,

the first Allied crossing of the Rhine in World War

leading to the concept of‘curved’ space.

II. On 7 March 1945 a division of the US army dis¬

There have been many experimental verifica¬

covered that the railway bridge at Remagen was fit

tions of the General Theory, the most spectacular in

for use - other bridges across the Rhine had been

1919. Einstein had earlier predicted that light could

blown up as the Allies approached - and they were

be deflected by a gravitational field; in a total

able to establish the first bridgehead on the east

eclipse of the Sun the deflection of starlight just

bank of the river. Further bridgeheads were estab-

rent party

lished later in March as planned (Remagen had not been part of the original strategy), facilitating the Allied advance towards Berlin.

• REME ► Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engi¬ neers. A corps of engineers and technicians formed in May 1942 to maintain and repair the increas¬ ingly complex weaponry and equipment employed by the British Army. In previous wars these tasks had been performed by technicians from such units as the Royal Ordnance Corps and Royal Corps of

m-509

seek excellence in all aspects of his physical, intel¬ lectual, and spiritual life. The ideal is often sym¬ bolized by Leonardo’s famous drawing of a perfectly proportioned man with limbs outstretched within a circle.

• Reno divorce ► A divorce that can be easily ob¬ tained in Reno, Nevada, under the liberal laws of that state. Divorces are granted in Nevada on a wider range of grounds than elsewhere to appli¬ cants who have been resident in the state for as lit¬

a matter of urgency; in 1942 these ROC and RCS

tle as six weeks. Although these laws apply throughout the state, the city of Reno is particularly

technicians were transferred to the REME. In 1949 the REME’s designation was changed to Corps of

famous as the place in which a number of showbusiness celebrities have ended their marriages,

Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers.

being close to the border with California.

• Remember I'm your mother and get up them stairs! ► A catchphrase used during both

• rent-a-crowd ► A crowd that has been specially organized or paid to appear at a rally, demonstra¬

Signals, but the need for a specialist corps became

World Wars by members of the British armed forces. It was a jocular valediction to a man who was about to go on leave, exhorting him to take his wife (or girlfriend) upstairs to bed without delay.

• Remember there's a war on ► A phrase used widely during World War 1 in response to a re quest for something that was in short supply, or as a reprimand to those who were seen to be wasting time or resources or indulging in frivolous behav¬ iour. During World War 11 the phrase reappeared in the form Don’t you know there’s a war on? It was often used ironically, as a justification for some undesirable state of affairs, etc.

• Remembrance Day or Remembrance Sundays in Britain, the day commemorating the fallen of both World Wars; also called Poppy Day from the artificial poppies (recalling the poppies of Flanders fields) sold by the British Legion in aid of ex-servicemen. From 1919 to 1945 it was called Armistice Day and observed on 11 November. From

1945 to 1956 Remembrance Day was observed on the first or second Sunday of November; in 1956 it was fixed on the second Sunday of that month. See also: two-minute silence.

• remote control ► A system or device that en¬ ables a distant object to be controlled, usually by radio or electrical signals. Examples of remotecontrolled objects range from toy cars, television sets, videocassette players, and garage doors on the domestic scale up to guided missiles, aircraft, or

tion, political occasion, etc. For example, such a group may be organized by a politician’s campaign manager to enable television audiences to see the successful and popular candidate being greeted by enthusiastic supporters. A rent-a-mob is a crowd specially organized to cause a disturbance or riot. Both terms were apparently coined by the rightwing satirist ‘Peter Simple’ (Michael Wharton) dur¬ ing the 1970s.

• rent boy ► British term for a young male pros¬ titute - a youth available for ‘rent’. It is an expres¬ sion much favoured by the tabloid press. A top athletics club was rocked by a rent-boy sex scandal when their gay coach was convicted of a sex offence with a 14-year-old rent-boy.

- The Sun, 6 April 1991. • Rentenmark ► A new currency introduced on 20 November 1923 to stabilize Germany’s economy and reduce inflation after World War 1. Rentenmarks were issued in limited quantities for a tem¬ porary period, until the financial crisis showed signs of coming to an end. This drastic remedy was controversial but successful: in 1924 the new Reichsmark, worth 1,000,000,000,000 old marks, was introduced. • rent party or house-rent party ► In the 1920s to 1940s, a type of party held by US Blacks to raise money for the rent: ‘guests’ were charged at the door and for their food and drink. Especially common during the Great Depression, the practice

spacecraft on a global scale.

was also stimulated by Prohibition, as it provided an environment in which alcohol could be freely con¬

• Renaissance man ► A man with a diverse

sumed. Such parties often lasted for days on end

range of knowledge and talents in the tradition of such giants of the Italian Renaissance as Leonardo

and were famous for the spontaneous sessions of jazz and blues that developed. Many performers

da Vinci (1452-1519). According to the humanist

survived in hard times by travelling from one rent

ethic of the Renaissance, a man was expected to

party to the next, playing for food, drink, and a

510^*

• rent strike

bed. ‘Rent party’ or ‘house party’ also became a term for a style of blues piano playing. See also: rug¬ cutting.

• rent strike ► An organized refusal by tenants to pay their rent; for example, to protest against the di¬ lapidated conditions of a building, unfair rent rises, lack of services, and various restrictions. It was widely used in America in the 1970s, especially in large cities and among college students.

• repetitive strain injury ► (RSI) A painful con¬ dition of particular muscles and joints caused by re¬

May 1943 the various Resistance groups - including former army officers, communist intellectuals, and many ordinary patriots - were coordinated as the Conseil National de la Resistance, led by Jean Moulin (until his arrest in June 1943, when he was succeeded by Georges Bidault). In February 1944 the maquis, provincial guerrilla groups operating in the countryside, became part of the newly formed Forces Fran^aises de Tlnterieur (FFI), which played a vital role in the liberation of France (see also-. Fight¬ ing French). During World War II there were also

peated mechanical activity. The condition was only

active Resistance groups in Belgium, Holland, Den¬ mark, Norway, Poland, Yugoslavia, Greece, and else¬

recognized in the late 1980s. and embraces a wide

where.

range of disorders some of which, such as writer’s cramp, have long been associated with certain jobs.

• Retail Price Index ► (RPI) An index showing how the price of goods and services in retail shops

All are the result of the prolonged repetition of specific tasks, typically performed using the hands, arms, or shoulders; common sufferers include mu¬ sicians, hairdressers, machine operators, and key¬ boarders.

• reserved occupations A civilian occupation that exempts those who work in it from military service. The need to prevent workers with certain es¬ sential skills from being recruited into the armed forces was first recognized by Lloyd George during the early months of World War 1, when the high lev¬ els of voluntary enlistment threatened the supply of labour to crucial industries, such as coal mining, armaments, transport, and agriculture. As well as

and other outlets changes on a monthly basis. In the UK the RPI is compiled by the Department for Education and Empl05ment and includes the prices of some 130,000 different items. The index is ex¬ pressed in percentages and takes a base year as 100%, e.g. if 1987 is taken as 100, the RPI for mid2001 was 173.3. In America the RPI is called the consumer price index.

• retail therapy ► A facetious term for the (gen¬ erally female) tendency to go shopping for clothes, shoes, toiletries, or luxury items as a remedy for life’s various upsets and disappointments. In prac¬ tice, the term covers a range of behaviour, from the

protecting these occupations during the period

quite normal to the seriously abberant. While it is not usually very harmful for people to spend a lit¬

1914-18, the British government also introduced measures to make more efficient use of skilled per¬

tle money on themselves when they feel in need of a lift, this form of ‘therapy’ can become danger¬

sonnel, to open up skilled jobs to the semiskilled and unskilled, and to recruit large numbers of

ously compulsive in those suffering from a deep emotional insecurity. The brief high that comes

women into industry. The same principles were ap¬

from spending money irresponsibly is usually fol¬

plied in World War II.

lowed by a feeling of guilt and depression that com¬ pounds the original problem.

• residents' association ► An organization of householders formed to act collectively on local is¬ sues, such as traffic regulation, approaching grant¬

• retina identification ► Identification of a per¬ son by means of the unique pattern of veins in his

making bodies for funding for property renovation,

or her retina. It has been investigated by banks as a

pressurizing the local council on planning issues,

means of improving security at cash-point ma¬

organizing a Neighbourhood Watch for crime pre¬

chines and by hotels, etc., as an alternative to room

vention, etc. Called a block association in America.

keys. So far, the cost of installing machinery to read such ‘eye-prints’ has been found prohibitive.

• Resistance ► An underground organization formed by the inhabitants of enemy-occupied ter¬

• retread ► A colloquial term for something -

ritory in wartime; notably the French Resistance

such as a film, clothes style, or pop record - that re¬

movement of World War II. The activities of the Re¬

works old ideas, either from poverty of imagina¬

sistance included sabotaging enemy operations,

tion or as a calculated appeal to nostalgia. In

passing information about enemy movements to

Australia and New Zealand there is an older use of

the Allies through clandestine radio communica¬

the term to mean a pensioner who returns to his or

tions, and hiding members of the Allied forces

her former employment. It is especially used of re¬

(such as airmen who had been shot down in ac¬

tired teachers called back to the classroom to make

tion) while helping to organize their escape. From

up a temporary shortage. In World War II, ‘retread’

• RFC •

was services slang for a World War 1 veteran who en¬ listed to fight again. The term derives from the idea of treading over the same old ground again but it is also an allusion

►►511

that aims to be more flexible and up-to-date in its approach. Such a policy was first advocated in 1899 in Germany by Eduard Bernstein, who argued for social reform rather than revolution: he also felt

to the car t5nres known as retreads, in which a new tread is moulded onto the casing of a worn tyre.

the socialist movement should include all classes and not be restricted to workers. This idea of revis¬

• Retreat? Hell, no! We just got here! ► A

ing and updating Marxist theory has been recur¬ rent within communism. Strict followers of

quotation attributed to the US army officer Lloyd S. William on his arrival at the Western Front towards the end of World War 1. Captain William is said to have made this response to French troops, who were retreating and advised him to do likewise. The phrase was subsequently used in other situations, such as sporting competitions, by anybody defi¬ antly rejecting advice to abandon what appears to be a lost cause.

• retrorocket ► A rocket motor that acts in the opposite direction to the direction of motion of a spacecraft, probe, etc. Retrorockets are used to slow down the vehicle as it enters the atmosphere or lands.

Marxist-Leninist ideology have traditionally re¬ garded any new interpretation of doctrine to be heretical and dangerous. For this reason ‘revision¬ ist’ was a bitter term of abuse among many com¬ munists before the introduction of perestroika and

glasnost in the Soviet Union. • revolving door ► Any policy, approach, etc., based on rapid cyclical activity, especially when this involves people in constant comings and goings from the same place. It is sometimes used to de¬ scribe the emplo}rment policies of firms that ac¬ cept a high turnover of staff, with new workers constantly arriving as others move on. It has also

• retrovirus ► Any of a family of viruses that

been used in connection with the so-called care in the community policy towards psychiatric patients,

replicate in an unusual way. The genes of the retro¬ virus are in the form of RNA (rather than DNA); but

who may find themselves constantly discharged

what is remarkable is that by using an enzyme unique to themselves, called reverse transcrip¬ tase, retroviruses produce DNA versions of their own RNA genes. This is the reverse of the usual flow of genetic information - from DNA to RNA hence the term retrovirus. This so-called DNA tran¬ script can then combine with the DNA of the host cell, i.e. the cell which the virus is infecting, so that the viral genes are expressed with the genes of the host cell and are able to subvert the protein manu¬ facturing apparatus of the host cell to assemble new virus particles. One important consequence is that certain retroviruses may introduce cancercausing oncogenes into the host cell, transforming it into a cancer cell. These genes may be inherited by subsequent generations of the host organism, making the offspring of infected parents predis¬ posed to certain cancers. The Aids virus, HIV, is an¬ other type of retrovirus. • returners A woman who takes up her career again after an interval, usually to have and bring up children. In education and some other professions special returners’ courses are now organized. • returnik ► A former emigre from an East Euro¬ pean country, who has returned home since the collapse of communism. A coinage of the early 1990s, modelled on refusenik.

from and readmitted to hospital. The image, fa¬ miliar from numerous comedy sketches, is of some¬ one entering a building by a revolving door that carries him or her straight out again.

• Rexists ► A Belgian political party formed by Leon Degrelle in 1936 advocating Fascist methods. Markedly collaborationist during the German oc¬ cupation of Belgium, it was accordingly suppressed when the Germans were expelled in 1944. The name is an adaptation of‘Christus Rex’, Christ the King, the watchword of a Catholic Young People’s Action Society founded in 1925.

• Reye's syndrome ► A rare but serious disease of children. First identified in 1963 by R. D. Reye (1912-77), the Australian physician after whom it was named, it typically develops during the recov¬ ery phase of a viral infection, such as influenza. Sjnnptoms of brain damage (including swelling, delirium, and coma) are combined with those of liver failure: both require prompt treatment to pre¬ vent permanent damage to these organs. The cause has not been definitely established but evidence suggests that the disorder is caused by the toxic ef¬ fects of aspirin - given to relieve the original infec¬ tion - on young children. For this reason aspirin should not be given to children under 12 years of age.

• RFC ► Royal Flying Corps. The UK’s first military

• reverse discrimination ► 5ee: quota system.

aviation service and the forerunner of the RAF. It

• revisionism ► A modified version of Marxism

was created by royal warrant in 1912 from the Air

512513

side remained unclear until the 1950s, when re search demonstrated its importance in spatial analysis. • right on ► l. An expression of wholehearted agreement or enconragement that is chiefly asse dated with US Black speech. The phrase was al¬ ready in use in the 1950s and gained wider currency in the 1960s. 2. Right-on An adjective meaning

who improvises freely. The soloist can be said to ‘ride’ the accompaniment in the sense that he is

fashionably liberal or left-wing, politically correct,

carried along by it while at the same time control¬

stantly from the humour’. The term is usually

ling its speed and direction. The allusion is proba¬ bly as much to the idea of a man ‘riding’ a woman

ironic or derogatory.

in sexual intercourse as to any form of equestrian¬ ism. A band or section of a band can also be said to ‘ride’ when it plays with an easy flowing rhythm. A ride cymbal is a cymbal used by jazz drummers to keep up a continuous rhythm, while the ride-out

as in ‘His tediously right-on attitudes detract con¬

• right stuff, the ► Army slang for the qualities regarded as necessary for officer material. The phrase, often heard in the 1930s, became popular again after the US writer Tom Wolfe used it as the title of his 1979 book about the first US astronauts (filmed 1983).

is the final chorus of a piece, usually taken in uni¬ son.

• right-to-life^ 5ee: pro-life.

• ride shotgun ► To sit in the front passenger seat of a car. Popularized by US teenagers in the 1950s, this term was originally used in the Ameri¬

• Ringo ► In full Ringo Starr, stage name of Richard Starkey (1940- ), drummer with the Bea¬

can West, when it referred to an armed guard who rode next to the driver of a stagecoach to provide protection against robbers, hostile Indians, etc. • riff ► In jazz and rock music, a simple ostinato figure used as a basis for improvisation. By exten¬ sion, it has come to be used of speech or writing that resembles jazz riffing in its rhythms or im¬ provisatory quality. It is also used in a derogatory sense to mean anything that is constantly reiter¬ ated, such as a phrase or argument. The derivation is uncertain. Some accounts link it to the word ‘riffle’, meaning any kind of skim¬ ming or rippling motion; it may, however, be noth¬ ing more than a shortening of‘refrain’. • right brain ► The right hemisphere of the brain, which neuropsychological research has demon¬ strated to be dominant for spatial awareness, cre¬ ative thinking, and the production of art, music, and literature. Creative individuals can therefore be described as right-brain thinking. Tire left brain is nsually dominant for verbal skills and math¬ ematical and analytical thinking. Cerebral asym¬ metry and the localization of brain function became widely accepted in the 19th century with the discovery that damage to the left hemisphere resulted in speech impairment, whereas damage

• Rillington Places See: Christie murders.

tles (1963-70) and subsequently a solo performer. He

acquired the name in the early 1960s, when his habit of wearing several rings was far more un¬ usual for a man than would be the case now. The surname Starr was adopted for an early stint at a Butlin’s Holiday Camp. • ring road ► A main road that encircles a city or town so that heavy through traffic can bypass the centre. London’s orbital motorway, the M25, re¬ placed an earlier ring-road network that was over¬ taken by the city’s growth. The US name for a ring road is a belt or beltway. The beltway round Washington, DC, has given rise to the political catchphrase outside the beltway, referring to public opinion in grass-roots America. • Rintelen spy ring ► A group of German spies operating in America during World War I under the leadership of Kapitan Franz von Rintelen. The organization was highly successful, for a time, in its mission to sabotage US aid to the Allies. In August 1915 Rintelen was recalled from America by a false message; he was arrested when the Dutch ship on which he was travelling reached British waters. • Rin Tin Tin ► An Alsatian (German shepherd)

to the right had no discernible effect on speech

dog who became a star of the silent screen in the 1920s. Formerly a guard dog with the German army,

abilities. In the early 20th century it was also dis¬

Rin Tin Tin appeared in such films as Jaws of Steel

covered that the left side was dominant in con¬ trolling complex movements; the role of the right

(1927) and A Dog of the Regiment (1930), usually sav¬ ing the day with a display of loyalty and resource-

514-m

• Riom trials

fulness. During his Hollywood career Rin Tin Tin en¬

enhanced standing for President Bush, and major

joyed the services of a j>ersonal chef, valet, and

redundancies in the air industry.

chauffeur. This remarkable dog died in 1932, aged about 16. See also: Lassie.

• rite of passage ► A ritual or ceremony per¬ formed to mark a person’s transition from one sta¬

• Riom trials ► The trials of a number of French

tus to another. The common rites of passage are

politicians and military men, which took place in

naming after birth (and/or circumcision in some

1942 at a supreme court of justice set up by the

communities), confirmation or some other cere¬

Vichy government in the town of Riom. France. The

mony performed at puberty, inauguration into a

defendants, opponents of the Vichy government,

profession or position, marriage, and the rites as¬

included such major figures as Edouard Daladier,

sociated with death and burial. In presdentific so¬

Lton Blum, Paul Reynard, and Maurice Gamelin,

cieties such rites of passage are often thought to

who were blamed for the fall of France and impris¬

have magical efficacy, while in modern religions

oned. The trials began in February 1942 and were

the significance is a spiritual one. However, similar

suspended indefinitely in April of that year. The

rites persist in even the most secular societies and

accused spent the remainder of World War II in

communities, suggesting that they have a psycho¬

prisons and concentration camps.

logical and social importance, too. The expression

• riot shield ► A defensive shield, made from tough plastic, carried by police or military forces

was first used as the title of a French book Les Rites

during riot control. Riot shields have been used by British troops in Northern Ireland since the early

de passage (1909) by the anthropologist Arnold van Gennep. • Ritz Brothers ► A team of US comedians of the

1970s and were first issued to jxilice forces on the

1930s and 1940s, comprising A1 (1901-65), Jim

mainland after the Lewisham riots in the summer

(1903-85), and Harry (1906-86) Ritz. Beginning in

of 1977. The tactic of banging on such shields to in¬

nightclubs, they later appeared in such film musi¬

timidate a foe was borrowed from the war customs

cals as The Coldwyn Follies (1938) and The Three Mus¬

of the Zulus and others.

keteers (1939). Their original family name was Joachim.

• ripcord ► A cord attached to a handle that is scent. The first parachutes, those of the late 18th

• ritzy ► Denoting an occasion, person, etc., that is fashionable and opulent. The word derives from

century, were droppied already opened from bal¬

the Ritz Hotels in Paris and London, which are iden¬

pulled to open a parachute from its pack during de¬

loons. An American, A. L. Stevens, introduced the

tified with luxury and wealth. They were estab¬

parachute pack and ripcord in 1908. This combi¬

lished by the Swiss hotelier, Cesar Ritz (1850-1918).

nation was perfected 10 years later by another

Hence ‘to dine at the Ritz’ may be considered to be

American, Floyd Smith, for use in escaping fi-om an

the ultimate luxury in dining out. To put on the

aircraft.

Ritz is to make an ostentatious display of opulence:

• rip off ► A colloquialism meaning to steal, to swindle, to take advantage of. Originally a term from the Black street slang of large US cities, it was taken up by the hippies and has passed into more general usage, being now heard in all parts of the English-speaking world. In Spain, tourists used to be ripped off by sou¬ venir shops and property speculators: nowa¬ days they are just ripped off. - The Independent, 16 March 1991. The noun form (ripoff) is also widely used, as in ‘the price was a ripoff. It is also used to imply that an idea has been stolen without attribution:

the phrase predates the Irving Berlin song ‘Putting on the Ritz’, which was written in 1929. It was from The Ritz Hotel in Paris, currently owned by the Eg5fptian-born tycoon Mohammed al-Fayed, that Diana, Princess of Wales (see: People's Princess) and her lover, Dodi Fayed, the son of the hotel’s owner, set off on their fatal drive. See also: glitzy. • Rivers of Bloods 5ee: Powellism. • RKO ► RKO Radio Pictures Inc., formerly one of the biggest Hollywood production and distribution companies. It was founded in 1921 when the Radio Corporation of America merged with the Keith-

‘His paper was a ripKjff of mine!’

Orpheum cinema circuit. Notable RKO features in¬ cluded Cimarron (1931), King Kong (1933), and Citizen

• ripple effects The series of consequences that

Kane (1941) but the company was best known for its

flow from a single important event or situation.

low-budget and often unsuccessful films; it was in

The ripple effect of the September 11 attacks in

continual financial difficulties. During World War

America, for example, has so far included the de¬

II a popular Hollywood joke ran ‘In case of an air

struction of the Taliban regime in Afghanistan, an

raid, go directly to RKO; they haven’t had a hit in

road show •

►*>515

years’. In 1948 the eccentric tycoon Howard Hughes

less, or inconsiderate motorist, especially one who

acquired a controlling share of the stock, leading to prolonged litigation, the defection of top staff, and

‘hogs’ the road by making it difficult for others to pass. The term has been in common use since the

further enormous losses; in 1953 the studios were

early days of motoring.

sold off to a television company. The firm continues

• roadhouse ► An inn or hotel by the roadside, usually at some distance outside a town, to which

as RKO General, an umbrella organization control¬ ling a number of radio and TV stations.

people go by car for meals, dancing, etc. Roadhouses

• RN A ► Ribonucleic acid. One of the fundamental

became popular with the growth in car ownership

molecules of life, responsible for interpreting the

during the 1930s, but have since declined owing to

genetic information that resides in the genes of liv¬

strict drink-drive codes. Their other function, of

ing cells. This it does in two stages: transcription

providing overnight accommodation for travellers,

and translation of the genetic message. RNA is

has largely been taken over by motels.

chemically very similar to DNA; the essential dif¬

• roadie ► A person hired by touring musicians to transport, maintain, and erect equipment for their

ference is that it contains the sugar ribose (hence ribonucleic) instead of the deoxyribose sugar of DNA. Cells contain several different types of RNA, including messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, and trans¬

stage shows.

fer RNA, which all have different roles in the

• road movie ► A genre of film in which the cen¬ tral character takes to the road to escape the law,

manufacture of proteins by the cell. In some viruses

the past, a constricting home hfe, etc. His or her ex¬

RNA is also the genetic material. Discovery of

periences, and those of other characters met along the way, form the substance of the film. The hero’s

the vital roles of RNA in protein synthesis came in the 1950s through the work of many scientists, including Francis Crick, Paul Berg, and Robert Holley. • RNAS ► Royal Naval Air Service. The air force of the Royal Navy, which was founded in 1914 to protect coastal ports and shipping and to carry out punitive raids on U-boat bases in the Germanoccupied Channel ports. After 1918 the RNAS was subordinated to, and controlled by, the RAF, al¬ though the Admiralty insisted that the navy should be allowed to maintain a separate specialist air ser¬

journey usually becomes a voyage of self-discovery or an exploration of the state of a society. Classic road movies include the biker film Easy Rider (1969), Badlands (1973), and the feminist Thelma and Louise (1991). This mostly rather sombre genre should cer¬ tainly not be confused with the ‘Road’ movies of Bob Hope, Bing Crosby, and Dorothy Lamour - a se¬ ries of light comedies beginning conventionally enough with The Road to Singapore (1940) but later developing a zany ad-libbing style of its own.

vice. In 1924 government permission was granted to

• road rage ► An uncontrollable anger that can

establish the Fleet Air Arm, a carrier branch of the

overcome the driver of a motor vehicle if he con¬

Royal Navy, although it was not until 1937 that the FAA was placed under sole Admiralty control.

siders that some other driver has committed either

• road^ Keep death off the road A British gov¬ ernment slogan of the late 1940s and early 1950s

a motoring offence according to the Highway Code or an act that constitutes a personal affront. The male pronoun is here used advisedly; women tend to react less extremely to the foibles of other road

exhorting drivers to take more care. It was used as

users. A driver so afflicted is capable of language and behaviour that would otherwise be quite un¬

the caption to a photograph of a haggard and dis¬

characteristic: in extreme cases road rage has led to

tressed looking woman, with the implication that

murder.

she had just been bereaved by a road accident. The campaign was criticized at the time as being too disturbing. A similar slogan was carelessness kills.

• road show ► l. Originally a US term for a trav¬ elling show of actors, musicians, mountebanks, etc., now used of any Icind of touring attraction, es¬ pecially one requiring large amounts of equipment

• road^ one for the road One last drink before de¬

and personnel. It is commonly used of, for example, rock bands touring with their own sound and light¬

parting, formerly a popular call at the end of a

ing equipment, campaigning politicians with their

party or drinking session. However, since the in¬

entourage and mobile back-up facilities, or a radio

troduction of strict drink-driving codes, this is now

or TV programme that broadcasts live from a series

rarely heard. See: breathalyser.

of outside venues; BBC TV’s The Antiques Road Show

• road hog ► Colloquial name for a selfish, reck¬

is a notable example of the latter. 2. In the film

516^

robbed •

business, the special ‘prerelease’ of a major fea¬ ture in selected cities before its general distribution to local cinemas nationwide. • robbed *■ We wuz robbed A catchphrase that origi¬ nated in the boxing world in America. In the 1927 world heavyweight fight between Gene Tunney and the challenger Jack Dempsey, Dempsey laid Tun¬ ney flat on the canvas - but it was six seconds be¬ fore the referee could persuade Dempsey to retire to a neutral comer so that he could begin his count. The delay enabled Tunney to get to his feet, survive the round, and retain his title on points. Dempsey said afterwards, ‘I was robbed of the championship’. This cry was echoed a little less grammatically by Joe Jacobs, the US manager of Max Schmeling, whom he believed had been cheated of victory in his 1932 fight against Jack Sharkey. ‘We wuz robbed‘, he shouted into a vacant microphone. Since the 1930s, the phrase has been used by the losers and their managers in many other sports, especially football. In 1991 The Sun, reporting that footballers were being offered a course to help them

• rock ► 1. A broad term for various kinds of pop¬ ular music loosely descended from rock 'n' roll. It was used more-or-less interchangeably with pop {see. pop music) until the early 1970s, when some critics began to insist on a distinction. Thereafter, ‘rock’ tended to be used of music that was more am¬ bitious, more serious in intention, and less imme diately commercial than the lightweight pop music that dominated the singles charts. In 1990 this dis¬ tinction was the subject of a debate in the House of Lords, who had to rule whether a commercial radio franchise reseived for ‘non-pop’ broadcasting could be awarded to a company who planned to specialize in serious rock music. After a long and somewhat heated discussion, their lordships ruled that this was a distinction without a difference. Subdivisions of rock include soft rock (a more melodic variety) and hard rock (based on pounding rh5d:hms and high volume). See also: acid rock; folk rock; heavy metal; punk, etc. 2. Slang for crack cocaine, because of its hard crystalline form. 3. A colloquial term for a diamond or any precious stone.

• rock»^

avoid such cliches (see; over the moon; sick as a par¬ rot), offered a translation:

late 1950s, used in response to hostile criticism of

We were humiliated by the vastly superior tech¬ nical skills of the opposition.

rock 'n' roll music. It was the title of a 1957 film fea¬ turing Bill Haley and the Comets; the title song

• robot ► (Czech robota, forced labour) In science fiction, an automaton with semi-human powers and intelligence. The word comes from the me¬

reached No. 7 in the British charts that same year.

chanical creatures in Karel Capek’s play R.U.R. (Rossum’s Universal Robots), which opened in Prague in 1921 and was successfully produced in London in 1923. The play was a warning of the dan¬ gers of uncontrolled technological development. In modern industry a robot is a computercontrolled machine that is programmed to carry out specific tasks that would otherwise be per¬ formed by a human being. Many functions in fac¬ tories are now automated, i.e. performed by robots. • robot dancing or robotics ► A dance style popularized in the 1980s by Black Americans; it is

don't knock the rock A catchphrase of the

• rockabilly ► A type of popular music, originat¬ ing in the southern states of America, that fuses rock 'n' roll and hillbilly country music. Popular in the 1950s, it has enjoyed several revivals, notably in the early 1990s. • rock 'n' roll ► A type of popular music that emerged in the later 1950s, characterized by a heav¬ ily accented beat and simple repeated phrases. Essentially a commercialized version of rhythmand-blues, it was the first style of popular music to become a focus for youthful rebellion and parental panic. It was accompanied by a frenetic kind of jive dancing, also known as rock ’n’ roll. The term was used from about 1953 by the US disc jockey

characterized by quick Jerky movements imitating

Alan Freed, who found that the racial stigma at¬

the mechanical actions of robots. ‘Robotic’ (resem¬ bling a robot) was a word originally coined by the

tached to rhythm-and-blues prevented this music

US biochemist and science fiction writer Isaac Asi¬ mov (1920-92). • robug ► A remote controlled device used to clean, maintain, or photograph inaccessible parts of

from being accepted by White audiences. Ironically, ‘rock and roll’ - like so much of the popular music vocabulary - was originally Black slang for sexual intercourse.

a tall building. It uses legs with adhesive suckers to

• Rockefeller Center*- New York City’s 22-acre business and entertainment complex of 19 build¬

crawl up vertical surfaces and across ceilings. The name reflects its resemblance to a robotic spider. It

eral Electric Building (the former RCA Building)

was developed in the 1980s by Arthur Collie and

housing the National Broadcasting Company (see.

Professor John Billingsley.

NBC). The building’s sunken Plaza, overlooked by a

ings. It includes the 70-storey 850-foot (283-m) Gen¬

►►517

Rolling Stones

gilded statue of Prometheus, becomes a garden-ter¬

dicating that a message had been received and un¬

race restaurant in summer and an ice-skating rink

derstood; ‘Roger and out’ meant that the message had been received and there was no reply. During World War n Roger was used as a general term of ac¬

in winter crowned with ‘the world’s largest Christ¬ mas tree’. Superlatives also abound in Radio City Music Hall, whose indoor cinema (6200 seats), Wurlitzer organ, and chandeliers are all listed as ‘the

knowledgment (meaning ‘right’, ‘OK’, or ‘agreed’) by British and US forces; thereafter it entered the

48th to 51st streets and from 5th Avenue to the Av¬

general language. In the modern telecommunica¬ tions alphabet the letter R and the word ‘received’

enue of the Americas - was leased from Columbia

are represented by the word ‘Romeo’.

University in 1928 by industrialist John D. Rocke¬

• Rogers, Buck^ See:

world’s largest’. The Rockefeller Center site - from

feller Jr (1874-1960): the major buildings were con¬ structed between 1931 and 1939. The family’s association with the Center ended in 2000, when Rockefeller Center Properties sold the complex to US developers Jerry Speyer and Lester Crown for $1.8 billion.

• Rockefeller Foundation ► A philanthropic foundation created in 1913 by the US industrialist John Davison Rockefeller (1839-1937) and his son John D. Rockefeller Jr (1874-1960). The purpose of the foundation was ‘to promote the well-being of mankind throughout the world’. Initially con¬ cerned with public health and medical education, the work of the foundation diversified after 1928, providing generous financial support for scientific research and projects connected with the social sci¬ ences and humanities.

• rockers

See: mods and rockers.

• Rockhampton Rocket ► A press nickname for the Australian tennis player Rod Laver (1938-

),

referring to his speed about the court and his birth in Rockhampton, Queensland. Laver was the first player to win the grand slam of major tournaments twice, in 1962 and 1969; the interval represents the period during which he was barred from Wimble¬

Buck Rogers.

• role model ► A person whose behaviour in a particular role serves as a model for another to fol¬ low. For example, a father often functions as a role model for his son. It has often been said that the central problem with the single-parent family is that there is no father to provide a role model. • role play ► An activity in which the partici¬ pants act out designated roles in a dramatic situa¬ tion; the aim is usually either therapeutic or educational. Role play was originally developed as a technique in psychotherapy by the Austrian-born US psychiatrist Jacob Moreno (1890-1974). His pa¬ tients were encouraged to act out a variety of roles to gain insight into the motives, actions, and per¬ spectives of others. The technique is now widely used in many forms of training to promote under¬ standing and improve relationships. • Rolex ► Tradename for the watches produced by the Rolex Watch Co. Although meaningless in itself, the name may have been chosen to suggest the ‘rolling’ mechanism of a watch and the idea of ex¬ cellence. This was one of the first tradenames to use the suffix ‘-ex’, which has since become ubiquitous. The famous Rolex oyster, introduced in 1926, was so-named because of its watertight design, at that

don for his professional status. He was also the first

time a unique feature. In the 1980s it became the

player to earn £1 million in prize money.

yuppie watch par excellence, appearing regularly

• rock opera ► A drama set to rock music. The first of the genre was the controversial hippie musical

in the lists of designer accessories that fill the pages of S 'n's novels from that era.

Hair (1967), which ran for 1750 performances in

• rollers British slang for a Rolls-Royce car. Orig¬

New York. This was followed by Tommy, written by

inally an underworld term it became more wide¬ spread in the early 1980s and is now, perhaps, the most usual way to refer to such a vehicle.

Pete Townshend of The Who (1969) and Jesus Christ Superstar (1970), with music by Andrew Lloyd Web¬ ber and lyrics by Tim Rice; both works were origi¬ nally written to be listened to on records rather than experienced in the theatre, although both were later staged (and filmed). The vogue for socalled rock operas passed fairly quickly, but the genre has had a lasting influence on the develop¬ ment of the musical since the 1970s. • Roger ► The word used to represent the letter R in a former version of the alphabet used in ra¬ diotelephony. ‘Roger’ also stood for ‘received’, in¬

Duke’s £38,000 bill to fix his roller. - The Sun, 3 April 1991. • roller disco ► A form of disco dancing on roller skates that became a popular US pastime in the late 1970s. The most renowned performers were seen at the Empire Roller Disco in New York City’s borough of Brooklyn. Indoor roller skating has re¬ mained popular in America since rinks prolifer¬ ated in the 1870s. • Rolling Stones ► The leading British rock

518 plied to marijuana in the form of a joint, perhaps be¬ cause in the 1930s and 1940s a ‘rope’ was a facetious term for a cigar. See also: pot.

• RORO^ See:

roll-on roll-off.

• Rorschach ink-blot test ► A test used in psy¬ chology, devised by the Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach (1884-1922). It consists of a series of ten ink-blots that form complex symmetrical shapes: five of the ink-blots a re coloured, five are in shades of grey and black. The way in which the patients de¬ scribe and interpret these shapes is supposed to re¬ veal aspects of their personality and emotional stability (or instability): the results can be used to measure intelligence and diagnose psychological disorders. The validity of the test has been the sub¬ ject of some controversy. • rort ► An Australian colloquialism for a riotous party or drinking bout. This usage seems to have originated among Australian servicemen in World War II, probably by back formation from the slang rorty, meaning lively or jolly. It seems to be unre¬ lated to the older sense of ‘rort’ meaning a racket, dodge, or swindle. In the Great Depression a rorter was a tramp who made a precarious living by ped¬ dling trashy goods from door to door. The word is used more generally to mean a small-time conman

acronym for ‘rest of south-east’, but also conveys the idea that life is rosy in this affluent and agree¬ able part of the country. The acronym first ap¬ peared in the mid-1980s, when the south-east enjoyed an economic boom (and a dramatic rise in property values) while other parts of the country were still struggling out of recession.

• Rosenberg spy case ► The case of the US cou¬ ple Julius (1918-53) and Ethel Rosenberg (1915-53), who were arrested in 1950 on suspicion of supply¬ ing the Soviet Union with atom bomb secrets. The case against them was based largely on the evi¬ dence of Harry Gold, a Soviet agent, and David Greenglass, Ethel Rosenberg’s brother, who worked at the atomic research base at Los Alamos (see: Man¬ hattan Project), both of whom had been eventually

exposed by the arrest of Klaus Fuchs in 1945 (see: Fuchs spy case). Greenglass claimed that his espi¬ onage activities, which he admitted in return for leniency, were instigated and encouraged by the Rosenbergs, although both protested their innocence throughout their ordeal. The anti¬ communist hysteria generated by McCarthyism at that time combined with the outbreak of the Korean War to give the Rosenbergs little chance of acquit¬

tal. They were sentenced to death in March 1951, al¬ though a series of appeals and stays of execution prolonged the agony until 19 June 1953, when they were electrocuted in Sing Sing despite appeals for

or hustler.

clemency and public demonstrations throughout

• Rose Bowl ► A sports stadium in Pasadena, Cal¬

America and Europe on their behalf They would al-

520521

Royal Festival Hall

a ball spinning in a breeze. Flettner claimed that it

proscenium arch or curtains. This style of presen¬

was capable of greater speeds than conventional

tation, which allows for greater interaction between

sailing ships while being cheap and easy to run; it

actors and audience, became fashionable in the 1960s and 1970s.

was also able to keep moving in the heaviest weather. It was confidently predicted that all the world’s shipping would employ rotor power within years. However, the Baden-Baden's dependence on the wind coupled with technical difficulties cre¬ ated by the continuous vibration caused by the ro¬ tors meant that even the prototypes had been scrapped within 20 years.

• rotten ► One of many Australian colloquialisms

• Round Table ► An international organization that provides business and professional men under the age of 40 with an opportunity for social gath¬ erings, with a strong emphasis on community ser¬ vice, charitable works, and fund raising. It was founded in 1927 as a ‘Club for Young Business and Professional Men’ by Louis Marchesi, the son of a

meaning drunk. It presumably describes a more

Swiss-born restaurateur living in Norwich, England. The origins of the name are somewhat confused:

advanced state of intoxication than such terms as

some have attributed it to a speech made by the

‘ripe’ and ‘overripe’.

Prince of Wales (the future Edward VIII) in which he urged:

• rottweiler ► A breed of working dog with a stocky body and thick neck, named after the tovm of Rottweil in SW Germany. Rottweilers are thought to have been brought there by the Roman legions and were traditionally used by local butchers to carry their moneybags to market. Their character¬

The young business and professional men of this country must get together round tire table, adopt methods that have proved so sound in the past, adapt them to the changing needs of the times, and wherever possible improve them.

them highly suitable as guard dogs. The rottweiler

There are now over 1250 such local groups, or ‘Tables’, in the UK, with more than 30,000 mem¬

became notorious in the UK in the 1980s, following

bers, known as Tablers. The organization is also es¬

a series of attacks on children and others, some

tablished in some 70 other countries. Tablers retiring at 40 can seek solace in the ‘41 Club’. The

istics include strength and aggression, making

fatal. A press campaign to make the dog a con¬ trolled breed seemed only to increase its popularity, especially among those young men for whom its vi¬ ciousness became the chief attraction. The word ‘rottweiler’ is now frequently used to mean a brutally aggressive person with no scru¬ ples or sense of fair play. In some fields, such as pol¬ itics or business, the usage may be half-admiring. The word is used in such common phrases as rot¬ tweiler tactics, rottweiler journalism, etc. See

first Ladies Circle, for members’ wives, was formed in Bournemouth in 1930, and the National Associ¬ ation of Ladies Circles was set up in 1936. See also: Algonquin Round Table.

• Roy ► Australian colloquialism for a rich fash¬ ionable man, especially one who drives a sports car, dresses in expensive leisure wear, and has an of¬ fensively smooth manner. He is despised by the ockers, who regard the Roys as idle, untrustworthy,

also: pit bull terrier.

and effeminate.

• rough cut ► The initial stage in the editing of a film. The rough cut is assembled by selecting one

• Royal Air Forces See:

version of each shot and arranging them in correct narrative sequence. Many adjustments and refine¬ ments are made before the fine cut is submitted to the film’s producers for approval and release. See also: rushes.

• rough trader l. British male homosexual slang for an uncouth and aggressive sexual partner, usu¬

RAF.

• Royal Ballets The principal British ballet com¬ pany, which was known as the Sadler’s Wells Ballet until 1956. Founded by Ninette de Valois in 1931, it originally performed at the Sadler’s Wells Theatre and the Old Vic: since 1946 it has been based at the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden (see: Royal Opera). In 1990 the Royal Ballet’s subsidiary com¬ pany moved to Birmingham, where it became

ally a younger man of a lower social group, casually

known as the Birmingham Royal Ballet. The

picked up. 2. Similarly, a macho and muscular, but

Royal Ballet also runs its own school of dancing.

socially inferior, young bo5rfriend of a cultured older woman.

• Royal Festival Hall ► A concert hall on the South Bank of the Thames designed by Sir Leslie

• round »in the round In the theatre, a form of staging

Martin and Sir Robert Matthew for the Festival of

in which plays are presented on a central stage sur¬

public building in the modern style and the only

rounded by the audience as in an arena, without

building intended to be permanent in the complex

Britain in 1951. It was the first significant British

522525

and pulls the trigger. In a six-chamber revolver his

as evacuating Manchuria, leaving Japan as the ac¬

chance of committing suicide is 1:6. The name Russ¬

knowledged power in the region.

ian roulette is now often given to any reckless or po¬ tentially very dangerous gamble.

• Russo-Japanese War»- (1904-05) The conflict in which the Japanese inflicted a crushing defeat on the Russians, helping to destroy the myth of White supremacy over the Oriental races. The Japanese

I have today seen the most stupendous specta¬ cle it is possible for the mortal brain to con¬ ceive - Asia advancing, Europe falling back, the wall of mist and the writing thereon. - ltGEN SIR IAN HAMILTON on the Battle of Liaoyang, A Staff Officer’s Scrap Book during the Russo-Japan¬ ese War (1907).

were determined to end all Russian influence in

• Ruth Draper garden ► A type of garden made

Korea and Manchuria and to establish their own

famous by the US

hegemony in the area. To this end, in February 1904

(1884-1956) in her dramatic monologue ‘Showing

comedian

Ruth

Draper

they launched a pre-emptive air strike against Port

the Garden’. An elderly English lady takes a visiting

Arthur on the tip of Manchuria’s Liaotung Penin¬

acquaintance on a tour of her country garden. Un¬

sula, which inflicted serious damage on the Russirm

fortunately, instead of a riot of colour, the borders

fleet at anchor there. Port Arthur was then besieged

are largely barren; as the tour progresses, excuse

by Japanese land forces and surrendered in January

after hilarious excuse is made to explain the defi¬

1905. The conflict between the opposing armies in

ciencies. In short, a Ruth Draper garden is one that

central Manchuria was less decisive. However, in

was as exquisite last month as it will be next

May 1905, in the Battle of Tsushima, the Japanese

month, although at the moment it is a shambles. By

fleet under Admiral Togo inflicted severe losses on

extension, the name is applied to any similar pro¬

the Russian fleet, which brought the Russians to

ject.

the conference table. By the Treaty of Portsmouth of September 1905, the Russians surrendered Port Arthur and half of Sakhalin to the Japanese as well

That border was a dream in June, and it’s going to be again in October...could you possibly come back in October? - ‘Showing the Garden’.

526ected advance show¬

referendum (1979) proved a major setback for the

tion to Labour in Scotland. Since the establishment of a Scottish parliament in 1999 it has also been the official opposition in that body, holding 35 of the 129 seats. The SNP continues to campaign for total independence for Scotland as a separate country within the EU.

• Snoopy► See.

Happiness is...; Peanuts.

ing of a feature film before its general release. This enables a studio to measure the audience’s reac¬

• snuff movie or snuff f ilm ► An underground pornographic film that has as its climax the mur¬

tion and gather written comments: it can also gen¬ erate local interest for a ‘coming attraction’. Gone

der of an unsuspecting actress or actor. Although

With The Wind (1939), received a tojs-secret sneak preview to keep the press from reviewing it early. The audience in the Warner Theater at Santa Bar¬ bara, California, had come to see Alexander’s Rag¬ time Band, but were told they were about to see ‘the biggest picture of the year’ instead. Once it started, security guards blocked the exits to prevent the au¬ dience from leaving or even making telephone calls.

persistent rumours indicate that such films began to appear in California in the late 1960s, not one ex¬ ample has ever been verified. Faked snuff movies, however, have been made for commercial purposes.

• soap opera ► A long-running drama serial on radio or television, particularly one that treats do¬ mestic themes in a sentimental or melodramatic fashion. The name derives from the soap manufac¬ turers who, in America, were the original sponsors

• snow ► 1. Cocaine; a slang term dating from the early 1900s. It derives from the powdery white

of these programmes; it is often shortened to soap.

form of the drug. 2. US slang meaning to mislead

(see. Archers, The) on radio and Coronation Street on

someone with elaborate insincere words or to con¬

television. Australian soaps, such as Neighbours, are

fuse them with excess information. A snow job is the act of deliberately manipulating someone in this way. especially by flattery or cajolery.

also very popular in the UK. See also: Brookside; Dal¬

Long-running British soap operas include The Archers

las.

• sob sister*- A US journalist who conducts an

• snowflake's chance in hell ►A phrase used to illustrate a situation in which something or

‘answers to correspondents’ column in a women’s

someone has a very limited chance of survival. It

agony aunt.

magazine. In the UK the more usual expression is

originated in America at the turn of the century but is now in widespread use.

• sob stuff ► A film, newspaper article, or other

• SNP ► Scottish National Party. A party founded in

story that makes use of cheap or tear-jerking emo¬ tion. See also: schmaltz.

1928 as the National Party of Scotland by a group of disaffected Independent Labour Party (ILP) mem¬

• Social and Liberal Democratic Party *-

bers. journalists, intellectuals, and nationalist ac¬

(SLD) The original name (1988-89) of the Liberal De¬

tivists. The party remained insignificant until the late 1960s, when growing disenchantment with the

mocrats. •

social chapter »■

5ee; Maastricht Treaty.

• social credit

• social class ► At the turn of the 20th century there was still a fairly clear and well-defined class structure in the UK: essentially, society consisted of the aristocracy, the gentry, the upper middle class (professional), the lower middle class (trade), and the working class (both industrial and agricultural). Although this scheme is somewhat arbitrary, these broad divisions were accepted and most people knew to which stratum they belonged. As Mrs Alexander wrote: The rich man in his castle The poor man at his gate God makes them, high or lowly. And order’d their estate. This idea of an unchanging God-given hierarchy began to fall apart in the early 20th century. Tradi¬

►*>559

cent also remains important in perceptions of class {see: Received Pronunciation): An Englishman’s way of speaking absolutely classifies him The moment he talks he makes some other Englishman despise him. - ALAN lerner: My Fair Lady. The late 20th century saw further seismic changes, including the long-term decline of many traditional working-class occupations and the grow¬ ing importance of women in the workforce. In cul¬ tural terms, television and the mass media have had an important levelling effect, with dowagers, website designers, and drug dealers all sitting down to watch the same soap operas. At the same time, in¬ equalities in income have increased rather than di¬

tional class barriers were undermined by the in¬ troduction of universal suffrage for men in 1918

minished since 1980. Although the picture is clearly

and for women in 1928; the emergence of the Labour movement, which enabled the working

UK has become less rigidly class-bound during the last hundred years. When the romantic novelist

classes to have their own members in parliament; and the spread of education. The two world wars

whether she thought that class barriers had broken

also had a marked effect on social attitudes. One influential classification of the British pop¬ ulation was that produced in 1962 by the Institute of Practitioners in Advertising, which commis¬ sioned a survey by Research Survey Ltd. It has since

complicated, most people would agree that the

Barbara Cartland was asked in a radio interview down she replied: Of course they have, or I wouldn’t be sitting here talking to someone like you. See also: classless society.

• Social Contracts The agreement made in 1973

been used for a variety of social and commercial

between the Labour Party of Harold Wilson and the

purposes:

trade unions. Labour agreed to initiate economic and social policies to the advantage of union mem¬

A: upper middle class (3%; professional and managerial) B: middle class (14%; administrative and pro¬ fessional) Cl: lower middle class (22%; supervisory and clerical) C2; skilled working class (29%; skilled man¬ ual workers) D; working class (18%; semi-skilled and un¬ skilled) E: lowest level (14%; state pensioners and ca¬ sual workers) Another, quite different, classification is based on the type of house or accommodation that people

bers; in return the unions promised to hold down demands for wage increases. Although the promise of industrial peace helped Labour to gain re-election in 1974, this was not to last; inflation continued to grow, and the prices and incomes policy imposed in 1975 finally broke down in the chaos of the Winter of Discontent (1978-79).

The term ‘social contract’ was coined in the 1680s by the English philosopher John Locke; in 1762 it provided the title for a famous book by the French thinker Jean Jacques Rousseau.

live in (see; ACORN). Although the advertisers’ classification is al¬

• social credit ► An economic doctrine based on the ideas of an English engineer, C. H. Douglas

most entirely economic, it shows the influence of

(1879-1952), which became influential in Canada

deep-rooted attitudes that date back to the 19th

after 1930. Douglas believed that money, or ‘social

century. A particular example of this is the divi¬ sion of the C category into clerical and manual

credit’, should be distributed to allow people to purchase the goods and services produced by a cap¬

workers - why should a clerical officer in the Civil

italist economy and that lack of such credit pro¬

Service be regarded as in some way superior to a

voked economic instability. During the Great

highly skilled lathe operator in an engineering com¬ pany? The answer is that class distinctions are based not only on earnings, but also on how people see

Depression the doctrine found enough willing ad¬

herents for a Social Credit Party to be victorious in Alberta in 1935; it won nine successive elections

themselves, how they spend their money (e.g. pri¬

and remained in power until 1971. A Social Credit

vate health care and private education), and their expectations for themselves and their children. Ac¬

government was elected in British Columbia in 1952, while the federal paity continued to win seats

Social Democratic Party

560^

and to be represented in the national parliament

such as a fog filter. The technique is also employed

until 1980. Since then Social Credit has declined as

by photographers for studio portraits.

a political force and the Alberta Party has been dis¬

• soft landing ► A decelerated landing by an un¬ manned space probe on the moon or a planet, or by

banded. See also: greenshirt.

• Social Democratic Party ► See. Gang

of Four.

• Socialism in Our Time ► The title of a policy statement issued by the Independent Labour party in 1927. The main proposal, based on the advice of the Keynesian economist]. A. Hobson, was that a fu¬ ture Labour government should introduce a ‘living wage’ to boost demand and create full employment.

a manned spacecraft on the moon. Both the Soviet Union and America achieved unmanned soft land¬ ings on the moon in 1966, before Neil Armstrong set foot there three years later. Soft landings, such as those made by the Soviet and US probes to Mars in the 1970s, are important if delicate instruments are to survive the impact. Compare: hard landing.

placed on the Labour Party leader, Ramsay Mac¬

• soft porn ► Pornography that presents (simu¬ lated) sex in a suggestive and titillating way, rather

donald, to adopt this policy but he favoured the

than explicitly or violently. Soft porn is on open

more moderate policy statement. Labour and the Na¬

public sale in America and the UK, whereas the

tion, adopted by the party conference in 1928. See

more explicit, deviant, and especially violent ma¬

also: Keynesianism.

terial is sold ‘under the counter’ - this is some¬

Over the next two years constant pressure was

• socialist realisms The approved theory and practice of visual and literary composition in the So¬

times known as hard porn or hardcore.

• soft rock ► See:

rock.

defined the purpose of art as promoting socialism,

• soft sell ► Selling by unobtrusive methods, rather than the challenging and repetitious meth¬

and insisted that the way to do this was to treat so¬

ods that feature in the hard sell.

viet Union from the 1930s until the glasnost era. It

cially relevant themes in a simple realistic style. Although the application of the theory produced some interesting results in the early years, the style later degenerated into idealistic representations of the heroic successes of the Soviet economy and so¬ ciety, which are almost totally devoid of merit.

• social realism ► Art that depicts contempo¬ rary life and society in a naturalistic manner, as practised (for example) by the ash-can school in America in the early 20th century.

• soft touch ► A person who is sufficiently kindhearted to give or to lend money for the asking. The term is often slightly derogatory, implying that such a person is too weak to say ‘no’ however out¬ rageous the request.

• software ► Computer programs, as distinct from the equipment on which they are run, which is known as the hardware.

• Soil Association ► See: organic farming.

run since 1988 by the Department of Social Secu¬

• solar power »■ The use of light and other radi¬ ation from the Sun to produce usable energy (see;

• social security ► A UK government system, rity, for paydng allowances to the unemployed

alternative energy). There are several ways of ex¬

(jobseekers’ alowance) and the sick or injured (in¬

ploiting solar energy, the commonest being the di¬

capacity benefit), as well as state retirement pen¬

rect heating of water in specially designed solar

sions and an allowance for pregnant women

panels mounted on the roofs of buildings. Although

(maternity allowance). It also includes various non¬ contributory benefits, including income support

the rise in temperature is not sufficient to produce water hot enough for washing or heating, it does re¬

for those in need, child benefit, and family credit.

duce the cost of heating the water by other means.

• Sod's law^ See. • SOE ► See.

It is also possible to produce higher temf)eratures by Murphy's Law.

Baker Street Irregulars.

• soft drug*- See.

hard drug.

using curved mirrors to focus radiation; water con¬ verted into steam in this way is then used to drive an electric generator. At present, however, such solar generators are uneconomic. Another method

• soft focus ► In film or television, an effect in

of generating electricity from solar radiation is by

which a certain lack of sharpness is deliberately

direct conversion using a solar cell. This has been

imparted to the image, usually to create a romantic

used in small-scale applications, such as spacecraft,

or dreamy atmosphere. Another common use is to

marine warning beacons, pocket calculators, etc.

disguise the wrinkles of an ageing actor or actress

Large-scale commercial exploitation of solar cells

in close-up. Soft focus can be accomplished by plac¬

for producing electricity is uneconomic because of

ing a gauze over the lens or using a diffusion device.

the high cost of the silicon used in the cells.

►*>561

Sooty

• So little done, so much to do*- See. famous

Somme has gone down in history as an appalling

last words.

waste of over a million young lives without any

• solvent abuses See. glue

sniffing.

• Somebody up there likes me ►A phrase used in the event of a miraculous escape or a lucky break. Both the autobiography of the World Mid¬ dleweight Boxing champion (1947-48) Rocky Gra-

trace of tactical or strategic benefit to either side. I feel that eveiy step in my plan has been taken with the Divine help. - Douglas haig, in his diary on the eve of the Battle of the Somme. The Second Battle of the Somme, 21 March-

ziano, and the 1956 film made of his life, starring

5 April 1918, marked the beginning of the last major German offensive of the war. The German

Paul Newman, had this title. Neil BCinnock, the for¬

commander, Erich Ludendorff, hoped to achieve a

mer leader of the Labour Party, used the phrase in 1983, after his escape from an overturned car on the M4 motorway.

spring victory on the Western Front before the ar¬

• somewhere in France ► A military catch-

sector north of the Somme along a 60-mile-wide front between Arras and La Fere, preceded by a

phrase of World War 1, used in soldiers’ letters home to avoid the possibility of furnishing the enemy with details of Allied troop movements. It was subsequently used more widely, when someone was believed to be hopelessly lost, in hiding, or oth¬ erwise untraceable.

• Somme, Battle of the ► The First Battle of the Somme, 1 July-13 November 1916, was one of the bloodiest battles of World War 1. After months of preparation, the Allies launched a frontal attack on German positions along a 21-mile stretch of the Western Front north of the River Somme. In the wake of a thundering seven-day artillery bombardment, 19 Divisions of the British Fourth Army, under Gen¬ eral Sir Henry Rawlinson, and the Third Army, under General Edmund Allenby, went ‘over the top’ into a storm of machine-gun fire from the en¬ trenched German positions. The British suffered

rival of US troops to bolster the French and British forces. Three German armies struck at the British

rolling artillery bombardment. The aim was to drive a wedge between the British and French. How¬ ever, the initial German breakthrough, which gained a 40-mile-deep salient, was halted by British reserves at the beginning of April. The British lost 163,000, the French 77,000, and the Germans as many, killed or wounded.

• sonar ► A method of measuring the depth of water below a vessel or detecting underwater ob¬ jects (submarines, shoals of fish, etc.). It is similar to radar, but uses pulses of ultrasonic sound waves rather than electromagnetic radiation. Although the method was first developed during World War I (see: ASDIC), the name sonar (from sound novigation and ranging) came into use later.

• son et lumiere ► (French, sound and light) Dramatic spectacles relying on the use of lighting

60,000 casualties on the first day, including 19,000 killed, the greatest loss on a single day in the history of the British Army. Haig, the British

be a cast of performers involved. They are usually presented after dark in an appropriate natural or

Commander-in-Chief, had envisaged a swift break¬

historic setting.

through in the wake of the artillery barrage, with cavalry operating in open country to mop up the remnants of the shattered German positions. It

• Sonnenfeldt doctrine ► The former US policy of not encouraging revolt by citizens in commu¬

quickly became apparent, however, that a break¬ through was impossible and the offensive deterio¬ rated into a series of small but costly assaults on the well-defended German positions, which resulted in a total advance of little more than eight miles in five months. The cavalry were employed in a British attack on 13 July (the last use of mounted soldiers in such a way) but they proved easy targets for the German machine-gunners and were slaughtered en masse. On 15 September Haig authorized the use of British tanks for the first time in the war, but due to poor tactics, technical problems, and the unsuitable terrain they made little impact on the

effects and recorded sound; there may or may not

nist E Europe, because of the threat to regional and world peace. The doctrine was proposed in 1976 by a US official, Helmut Sonnenfeldt. After the Soviet suppression of the 1956 Hungarian Rising, in which some 7000 Hungarians were killed. Congressional hearings were critical of US foreign policy and blamed Radio Free Europe for inciting a rebellion that could not succeed. The 1968 Prague Spring was also crushed by troops from five Warsaw Pact coun¬ tries. Sonnenfeldt’s doctrine was thus a recogni¬ tion of Western impotence in such cases. The policy began to be eroded under President Jimmy Carter’s administration (1977-81).

fighting. When the battle ended the British had lost 418,000, the French 195,000, and the Germans

• Sooty ► A glove-puppet character who first ap¬ peared on British children’s television (with his cre¬

650,000 killed or wounded. The First Battle of the

ator Harry Corbett) in 1952. Sooty, a yellow teddy

562 See. supersonic.

• sound bite ► A short extract from a speech or interview given by a politician that is designed to catch the news headlines and the attention of the public. Although modern politicians are often crit¬ icized for relying on sound bites rather than lengthy argument and analysis, they are probably only responding to wider changes in the culture as

Communist Party in 1918, visited the Soviet Union as a journalist in 1925, and by 1929 was working for

a whole. According to recent research, the amount of time for which a viewer or listener can be ex¬

the GRU (Soviet military intelligence). He went to Japan in 1933 (after contriving to join the Nazi

pected to concentrate and take in information is

Party) as a correspondent of the Frankfurter Zeitung,

vertisement now lasts less than 30 seconds. See also:

and became fiiendly with Major-General Ott, the military attache in the German Embassy in Tokyo. He also forged close links with Japanese military

three-minute culture.

steadily decreasing; for example the typical TV ad¬

•

sound pollution »■ See:

noise pollution.

and political circles, and was thus able to provide

• South Bank ► The arts complex on the south

crucial information to the Kremlin on both Ger¬ man and Japanese intentions in the period preced¬

bank of the River Thames in London, between Blackfriars and Westminster bridges. The first modern

ing the outbreak of World War II. He predicted, for

building on the site was the Royal Festival Hall, built

example, that the Japanese would enter the war by an offensive in SE Asia, rather than an attack on the

by the then London County Council under the di¬ rection of architect Sir Leslie Martin for the Festival

Space Invaders •

m-563

of Britain in 1951. Other buildings include the Na¬

vanced versions of this basic design were the Soyuz-

tional Film Theatre, under the southern arch of Waterloo Station, which was completed in 1958;

T (introduced in 1981) and Soyuz-TM (1986). One of the principal tasks of the Soyuz craft was carrifing

the Hayward Gallery, Queen Elizabeth Hall, and the Purcell Room (linked together in a single

cosmonauts to and from orbiting space stations (see: Salyut). The good safety record of Soyuz craft

group), which date from 1965-68; and the Royal Na¬ tional Theatre, which was opened in 1977. The brutal concrete style of the South Bank complex, espe¬

was marred in 1971 when the Soymz 11 re-entry

cially the Hayward group, has attracted much crit¬ icism. In the 1990s the South Bank was effectively extended eastwards by the reconstruction of Shake¬ speare’s Globe Theatre in Southwark and the con¬ version of the disused Bankside power station into the Tate Modern art gallery. • South Bank religion ► A journalistic label for the religious activities in the diocese of South¬ wark, on the south bank of the Thames in London, associated with Dr Mervyn Stockwood (1913-95), Bishop of Southwark (1959-80), Dr John Robinson (1919-83), Suffragan Bishop ofWoolwich (1959-69) and author of Honest to God (1963), and some of their diocesan clergy. ‘South Bank religion’ was characterized by outspokenness on moral and po¬ litical issues, often from a socialist angle, and en¬ ergetic attempts to bring the Church into closer relation to contemporary society. The epithet was often used disparagingly by opponents. That is rather the new idea inside the Church. I should definitely say you were a South Banker. - AUBERON waugh: Consider the Lilies (1968).

• southpaws In US usage, a left-handed baseball player, especially a pitcher; also sometimes applied to any left-handed person. In both US and British usage it means a boxer who leads with his right hand.

module depressurized during descent, killing three cosmonauts who were returning from the Salyut 1 space station.

• space age ► The present era of exploration be¬ yond the Earth’s atmosphere. General agreement marks its beginning as 4 October 1957, when the So¬ viet Union launched Sputnik 1. The Americans fol¬ lowed three months later with their satellite. Explorer 1. Since then, there have been many thou¬ sands of successful space launches. The first men went into space in 1961; Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin completed one orbit on 12 April and US as¬ tronaut Alan Shepard made a sub-orbital flight on 5 May. Other successful launchings have been mil¬ itary, weather, and communications satellites as well as space probes, moon landings, and space shut¬ tles and stations. The European Space Agency put up

its Spacelab in 1983. The same year, NASA’s Pioneer became the first spacecraft to leave the solar sys¬ tem, passing beyond the orbit of Neptune, a feat re¬ peated in 1989 by Voyager 2. Space travel was predicted by two French nov¬ elists, Cyrano de Bergerac in the 17th century and Jules Verne in his novel From the Earth to the Moon (1873). In 1901 H. G. Wells envisaged that English¬ men would be the first men on the moon in his novel of that name. The space age first loomed as a possibility in 1926 when physicist Robert Goddard (1882-1945) began his tests on liquid propelled rock¬

• Soviets ► All power to the Soviets! Slogan of Bol¬

ets. Although he died before the space age began,

shevik forces during the October Revolution of 1917,

his designs, which were developed into a reliable ve¬

subsequently adopted by the new Soviet state. The Soviets were the workers’ councils first established

hicle by the German rocket scientist Wernher von

in the Russian Revolution of 1905. The govern¬ mental system of the Soviet Union consisted of a pyramidal structure of such councils, with the

America to work on the US space rockets, including the Saturn rockets used in the Apollo moon pro¬

Supreme Soviet at its apex.

Moon.

• soya ►

• spaced-out ► Slang, dating from the late 1960s, for the state of being dazed or intoxicated by a drug. It later came to mean disorientated by the impact

See; TVP.

• Soyuz ► (Russian, union) A series of Sovietcrewed spacecraft, which began with Soyuz 1, launched on 23 April 1967. Each craft consisted of an orbital module, in which the three-member crew lived and worked during the mission; an instru¬ ment assembly module, which contained the propulsion mechanism; and the descent vehicle, occupied by the crew during launch and descent and the only section to return to Earth. More ad¬

the German wartime V2 rocket was largely based on

Braun (1912-77). After the war von Braun went to

gramme, as a result of which man set foot on the

of any moving experience, such as seeing a power¬ ful film or listening to music. The expression refers to the effects of LSD or other hallucinogens, which are said to make users feel out of touch with real¬ ity, as if flying through space. It is often shortened to spaced.

• Space Invaders ►Tradename for an early com-

564eriod seen as an era dominated increasingly by televi¬ sion. Before World War 11 the television - invented

Television is more interesting than people. If it were not. we should have people standing in the corners of our rooms. - alan coren. The Times.

in 1924 by the British electrical engineer John Logie Baird (1888-1946) - was a curiosity; although the BBC began regular TV broadcasts in 1936 there were a very small number of sets to receive them. By the 1960s, however, a television set (‘the box’) was an es¬ sential part of the living-room furniture in most British and US homes. In 1987 the total of homes with a television set throughout the world passed

• telex ► A system for transmitting information over telephone lines using a keyboard and a printer, originally developed in the late 1890s. The modern telex systems developed in the 1930s were widely used until the late 1980s, when fax and subsequent e-mail replaced them for nearly all purposes. The name combines teleprinter and exchange.

500 million, with America leading with 89,130,000 sets. A year later, however, Chinese officials an¬

• Telstar ► The communications satellite launched in

nounced the presence of no less than 100 million sets in their country. Some 98% of British house¬

and television pictures.

holds now have a set, with well over half of these having two or more (in 2002 a survey reported that 56% of children aged four to nine have a set in their bedroom). Recent years have also seen a prolifera¬ tion of channels: in 1997-98 over 25% of British households had a satellite dish (see: satellite televi¬ sion) and about 7% subscribed to cable (see. cable television). Digital television (see. digital broadcast¬ ing) is expected to become the norm by 2010.

The effects of the penetration of television into

1962 for relaying transatlantic telephone messages

• ten-four or 10-4 ► US police code for message received, message understood, message affirmed, or yes. okay, affirmative, correct. It is equivalent to the military Roger. The term was introduced in the mid-1950s and popularized in the 1970s by CB radio users, especially as depicted in films and country music. Other examples of the ‘ten’ codes used by US police to save air time are; 10-9 for repeat, 10-15 for civil disturbance, and 10-34 for trouble or emer¬ gency.

subject of anxious debate. In 1988 it was estimated

• 1066 and All That ► Catchphrase taken from the title of a comic survey of British history by

that the average child in America had witnessed

Robert Julian Yeatman and Walter Carruthers Sel¬

26,000 murders on television by the age of 18. The

lar, published in 1930. The authors reduce British

average Briton watches 25 hours of television every

history from the Roman conquest to World War I to

week (1997). Audiences across the world can be

a breathless chronology of kings and queens, inva¬

enormous; 1.6 billion people (one third of the

sions, battles, wars, inventions, etc., summarized as

world’s population) tuned in to the Live Aid con¬ certs of 1985, while 2.5 billion watched the funeral

either ‘a Good Thing’ or ‘a Bad Thing’ in a parody

of Diana, Princess ofWales. The potential for television to influence huge

schoolchild. Familiar incidents and events are

numbers of people has led to strict control being

sizes’, for example:

homes throughout the world have long been the

placed on the medium, with measures ranging from total political censorship in some countries to

of traditional history textbooks familiar to every amusingly rendered; in the notorious ‘Bloody As¬ The Rebels were ferociously dealt with by the memorable Judge Jeffreys who...made some fu-

Tet offensive

m>595

nous remarks about the prisoners known as ‘The Bloody Asides’.

Tessa’s were replaced by IS As in 1998, existing Tes¬

• Teresa, Mother ► Albanian-born nun (Agnes Gonxha Bejaxhui; 1910-97), who attracted world¬

• Test-ban Treaty ► A treaty signed by America, the Soviet Union, and the UK on 7 October 1963

wide attention for her charitable work amongst

agreeing to a ban on the atmospheric (but not un¬

sas will continue until their term expires.

the poor of India. She opened a hospice in the Cal¬

derground) testing of nuclear weapons. The treaty

cutta slums in 1952 and a leper colony in 1957. A

represented only a small step in the direction of nu¬

tiny stooped woman clad in a white sari and often

clear disarmament but was a victory for environ¬

going barefoot, she became an international celebrity in the 1970s. In her old age she pressed her

mentalists, who feared the damaging effects of

case for support for India’s deprived with numerous

over 100 other countries endorsed the treaty, France

heads of state, including Queen Elizabeth II. She

and China being notable exceptions. Following ex¬

radiation dispersal in the upper atmosphere. Later,

won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1979 and is now

tensive talks, a more comprehensive Test-ban Treaty

widely regarded as a saint.

was drawn up in 1996. However, this will only come into effect when signed and ratified by all 44 coun¬

• terminological inexactitude »■ A eu¬ phemism for a lie, first used by Winston Churchill (1874-1965) in a speech in the House of Commons

tries deemed to have nuclear potential. So far, it has been signed by all these countries except India,

on 22 February 1906 (about bonded Chinese labour

Pakistan, and North Korea, but ratified by only the

in South Africa):

UK and France.

It cannot in the opinion of His Majesty’s Gov¬ ernment be classified as slavery in the extreme acceptance of the word without some risk of terminological inexactitude. It is contrary to parliamentary procedure for one MP to call another a liar. A more widely used phrase now, which is less of a mouthful, is econom¬ ical with the truth.

• Terrence Higgins Trust*- An organization

• test marketing ► The launch of a new product in a restricted geographical area in order to test consumer reaction. This has the advantage of min¬ imizing costs and enabling the product to be mod¬ ified in the light of consumer reactions. The disadvantage is that competitors are able to see the product before its full launch.

• test-tube baby*- See:

IVF.

that provides information, help, and advice on Aids

• Tethys Sea*- See.

and HIV infection through its helpline. The Trust

• Tet offensive ► The coordinated assault by 70,000 communist soldiers on more than 100 major

was established in 1983 by the friends of Terrence Higgins, who a year earlier became one of the first people to die of Aids in the UK; it now has a gov¬ ernment grant that covers about one quarter of its costs. The Trust’s medical advice covers such issues as drug use, health education, and safe sex; its legal centre offers advice on the problems of employ¬ ment, insurance, and mortgages; and its publicity department helps to promote public awareness and understanding of Aids and HIV through leaflets, campaigns in the media, lectures, and training courses. Its main contribution to the welfare of

Pangaea.

cities and towns throughout South Vietnam, which was launched on 31 January 1968. The offensive broke the holiday (Tet, the lunar New Year) truce, took the US military by surprise, and came as a complete shock to the US public. For the first time in the Vietnam War, television viewers witnessed US troops fighting the Viet Cong, not deep in the coun¬ tryside, but in the streets of Hue and Saigon - even within the US Embassy itself. Ever since the first commitment of US ground troops in 1965, the mil¬

Aids sufferers is through its buddy system, in which

itary had constantly assured the politicians, the press, and the general public that the communists

some 400 volunteers provide practical and emo¬

were on the verge of collapse. The Tet offensive ap¬

tional support to those with the disease on a one-to-

peared to prove otherwise; as a result public sup¬

one basis.

port for the war, which had been diminishing

• Tessa ► Tax Exempt Special Savings Account. A

significantly in any case, dropped sharply. Walter

savings scheme in the UK introduced m 1991, which

Cronkite, ‘the most trusted face’ on network TV,

enables savers to invest £3000 in the first year and

reported from Saigon in February that, contrary to

£1800 p.a. thereafter, up to a limit of £9000, in a

official pronouncements, the war was going badly

bank or building society with tax-free interest, pro¬

and was bound to end in stalemate. Although the

vided that the capital remains in the account for

offensive was crushed with the communists suf¬

five years. Interest can be withdrawn but if the cap¬

fering severe losses, Tet represented a decisive psy¬

ital is withdrawn tax relief is forfeited. Although

chological victory for the Viet Cong. The offensive

texting

596^

also represented the last nail in the coffin of John¬ son’s presidency. In March 1968, faced with the

• Theatre of Cruelty ► A theory of drama pro¬ posed by the French director, actor, and writer An¬

growing public and political opposition to the war.

tonin Artaud (1896-1948) in his book The Theatre

even among his own staff, he announced he would

and its Double (1938). Artaud was a follower of surre¬

not seek re-election as the Democratic candidate in

alism and sought to combine its theories with Tao¬

the forthcoming presidential contest.

ism and Eastern dance drama to create a ritualistic

• texting ► See:

form of theatre. This was intended to be in direct

mobile phone.

• TGV ► Train d Grande Vitesse (French, high-speed

opposition to the realistic theatre of the dominant

train). A French bullet train that can reach speeds

rationalist culture. His aim was to shock his audi¬ ences into an awareness of basic human nature by

of 236 mph (370 kph), the fastest in the world. The

releasing feelings usually repressed in conventional

first TGV began service in 1983 on a specially built

society. In the 1950s and 1960s a number of play¬

line between Paris and Lyon, cutting the 285-mile

wrights experimented with the idea of a theatre of

(460-km) journey time to two hours. A second TGV

cruelty, notably Jean Genet and Joe Orton. Peter Brook’s 1964 production of Peter Weiss’s play

line, SW to Le Mans and Tours was opened in 1990. During the 1990s Paris was linked by TGV with the Channel Tunnel to the west and with Brussels, Am¬ sterdam, and Cologne to the east. See also: sinkansen.

• thalidomide ► A drug formerly used in medi¬ cine as a sedative and to prevent vomiting. Devel¬ oped in the 1950s and marketed under the

Marat/Sade is generally considered the definitive ap¬ plication of Artaud’s theory.

• Theatre of Fact or Documentary Theatre ► A theatrical genre in which plays are based on documented historical fact. It became a recogniz¬ able theatrical form in the 1950s and 1960s, no¬

tradename Distaval, it was prescribed for pregnant

tably in the plays of Rolf Hochhuth (1931-

women until its disastrous effects on the develop¬

The Representative (1963) and Peter Weiss (1916-82),

ing foetus became widely known. Women who had taken the drug early in pregnancy gave birth to ba¬

e.g. The Investigation (1965) and Trotsky in Exile (1970).

bies with a range of abnormalities typically involv¬ ing the absence of limbs, the fingers or toes being attached to the trunk by a short stump. Between 1959 and 1962 over 3000 so-called ‘thalidomide ba¬ bies’ were born in the UK, West Germany, and Canada before the drug was withdrawn. The tragedy led to stricter controls in the testing of new drugs.

). e.g.

• Theatre of the Absurd ► A form of drama that jettisons the usual conventions of plot, set¬ ting, and characterization to reflect the dramatist’s belief in the meaninglessness of human existence. Absurdist theatre was first fully realized in Ionesco’s The Bald Prima Donna (1948), although Beckett’s Waitingfor Godot (1952) is usually consid¬ ered the essential work in the genre. In this play, two tramps wait in vain for the mysterious Godot,

• Thatcherism ► The economic and political

who never appears. Like other absurdist works, it

ideology associated with Margaret Thatcher

explores concepts of isolation, futility, and non¬

(1925-

), prime minister of the UK (1979-90).

communication. The tramps’ predicament is uni¬

Broadly, Thatcher favoured the unhindered opera¬

versal and the play’s title has come to stand for

tion of the free market, the privatization of public

that predicament. In his later works, Beckett

utilities, and the encouragement of share owner¬

reached the frontiers of the absurdist’s world, with

ship to further the ‘enterprise culture’ she stood for.

characters in increasingly bizarre settings and

Monetarismreplaced Keynesianism, direct taxation

predicaments. For instance in Happy Days (1960),

was cut, and the power of the trade unions was

the main character, Winnie, is gradually immersed

successfully curtailed. In foreign affairs Thatcher

in sand, while Breath (1969) runs for just 30 seconds

was resolute in her opposition to communism (see:

and includes sounds of both birth and death. Other

Iron Lady) and support of America but resisted moves

playwrights associated with the style included Ed¬

to greater unity within the European Community,

ward Albee and Harold Pinter.

which she saw as threatening British independence.

• Theatre Workshop ► An experimental left-

Although many of these policies proved popular and successful, it was Thatcher’s confrontational style of leadership and its divisive effect on the cab¬ inet - especially over European p>olicy and local tax¬ ation (see: community charge) - that brought about her downfall in November 1990.

• That Was The Week That Was*- See: TW3.

wing drama group founded in Kendal in 1945 by a group of actors dissatisfied with the mainstream theatre. From 1953 the Workshop was based in the Theatre Royal, Stratford East. London, with Joan Littlewood (1914-

) as artistic director, Gerald Raf¬

fles as general manager, and Ewan McColl (Littlewood’s husband) as writer or adapter of many of the

►►597

Third Way

group’s dramatic productions. Theatre Workshop sought to revitalize the British theatre with chal¬ lenging adaptions of the classics and new works, especially working-class plays. Many of these, in¬ cluding Brendan Behan’s The Quare Fellow (1956) and

William Powell) became firmly identified with the phrase.

• third age ► The years after middle age, a term borrowed from the French troisieme age. See also: University of the Third Age.

Shelagh Delaney’s A Taste of Honey (1958), later trans¬ ferred to London’s West End. In 1961 Littlewood left the group, disillusioned by the dilution of the

• third man ► A suspected third Soviet agent in¬ volved in the defection of Burgess and Maclean to

radical content of its output as a result of the pres¬

Russia in 1951 (see: Magnificent Five). In 1963 it be¬

sure for commercial success. She did, however, re¬

came apparent that the third man was journalist

turn to direct the occasional production, notably

Kim Philby, who also fled to Moscow. The name al¬ ludes to the title of the Graham Greene and Carol

the musical Oh, What a Lovely War! (1963). She even¬ tually left the UK in 1975 to work in France; the

Reed film The Third Man (1949). See: Lime, Harry.

Workshop disbanded soon afterwards.

• Third Programmer One of the three postwar

• themed ► Denoting a restaurant, pub, amuse¬

BBC radio channels (the others being the Light Pro¬

ment park, etc., that is planned or designed around a single unifying theme, such as the Wild West or Sherlock Holmes. The concept arose with the ad¬ vent of the theme park, a leisure site in which the various displays and buildings reflect a particular theme, usually a historic period or exotic place. The 1980s saw a vogue for ‘theming’ established pubs and restaurants with the aim of attracting a young wealthy clientele, generally to the irritation of its more conservative regular clientele. Tire prac¬ tice has even spread to such areas as catering, so that it is possible to order a ‘themed’ meal for spe¬ cial occasions.

air for the first time on 29 September 1946. The Third Programme was devoted to serious, often avant-garde, music, drama, literature, lectures, and intelligent discussion. Exact programme timings were avoided to ensure a free-flowing schedule and items broadcast during the first week included Bach’s Goldberg Variations, Shaw’s Man and Super¬ man, talks by Field Marshal Smuts and Max Beerbohm, and a humorous programme devised by Joyce Grenfell and Stephen Potter. The darling of in¬ tellectuals, ‘the Third’, as it was called, was sneered at by the uneducated and by some others who ought to have known better:

• theory of games ► See: • thermal reactors See:

gramme and the Home Service) which went on the

game theory.

I have listened attentively to all programmes and nothing will confirm me more in my res¬ olution to emigrate. - evelyn waugh.

nuclear reactor.

• thermonuclear weapon ► See:

nuclear

• Third Reich ► The offical name of the Nazi regime in Germany, from January 1933 to May 1945.

• think-tank ► A group of people with specialized

The Third Reich was deemed to be the successor to

knowledge and ability, set up to carry out research into particular problems (usually social, political,

two previous periods of German power: the First Reich being the medieval Holy Roman Empire and

and technological) and to provide ideas and possi¬

the Second Reich the empire of the Kaisers

ble solutions. The idea originated in America in

(1871-1918). Reich is German for empire or realm.

weapon.

the 1940s: in the UK the term was first used for the

• Third Republic ►The government of France be¬

Central Policy Review Staff, set up by Edward Heath

tween the defeat of the Second Empire by Prussia in 1870 and the fall of France to Nazi Germany in

in 1970 under the directorship of Lord Rothschild (1910-90). Its function was to provide the cabinet

1940. The Third Republic was notable for its politi¬

and individual ministers with advice on strategy. It

cal instability, especially after 1918, when govern¬

was abolished in 1983 by Margaret Thatcher.

ment ministries came and went with great rapidity.

• Thin Man. the ► An epithet now associated

The period was also punctuated by a series of crises that threatened the French parliamentary system it¬

with Nick Charles, the wisecracking detective hero of a series of films in the 1930s and 1940s (and later of a TV series). In the first of these films. The Thin Man (1934), as in the original Dashiell Hammet novel, the Thin Man was actually the first of the murder victims and not the detective. However, a

self; these included the Dreyfus affair in the 1890s and the Stavisky affair in the 1930s. In spite of these shortcomings, the Third Republic proved to be France’s longest-lived system of government since the Revolution of 1789.

string of sequels followed, all with ‘Thin Man’ some¬

• Third Way ► A political approach developed by

where in the title; as a result the hero (played by

centre-left parties during the 1990s: although some-

598^

Third World •

what ill-defined, it can be seen as an attempt to

f)orted the Committee’s call for de Gaulle’s return

modernize social democracy in the light of chang¬ ing social and economic conditions. The idea was highly influential in the policy-making of Tony Blair’s New Labour government in the UK and Bill

to power, and on 15 May de Gaulle dramatically an¬ nounced that he would be willing to assume power if invited. Meanwhile the rebellion in Algeria esca¬

Clinton’s ‘New Democrats’ in the USA. As the name suggests, the Third Way attempts to provide an alternative to traditional ideologies of both left and right, arguing that these have become outdated in an era of rapid technological advance, globalization of business and information, and frag¬ mentation of social classes. Its proponents endorse the role of the free market as the basis for creating a ‘new mixed economy’, while seeking to construct a new social contract on the principle of‘no rights without responsibilities’. They also uphold tradi¬ tional family values (while accepting that family structures have changed), are ‘tough on crime’ (but also ‘tough on the causes of crime’), and have in¬ troduced measures aimed at reducing the scale and cost of the welfare state (while insisting that the principles behind it are intact). Critics have condemned Third Way thinking as ideologically incoherent and totally inadequate to the real challenges posed by globalization. In the UK, many traditional leftwingers regard it scorn¬ fully as a capitulation by the Labour Party to the val¬ ues of Thatcherism.

• Third World ► The underdeveloped countries of Africa, Asia, and Latin America in which agricul¬ tural and industrial production are insufficient to sustain investment and economic growth. The term was coined during the Cold War era to distinguish these countries from both the capitalist Western na¬ tions (the First World) and the communist bloc (the Second World). Although it is still used, the term developing world is now generally preferred.

• Thirteen Plots of May 13►Thedramatic and secretive plotting and counterplotting that re¬ turned Charles de Gaulle (1890-1979) to power in France in May 1958. De Gaulle had resigned the premiership in 1946 in disgust at what he perceived as the harmful vacillation and factionalism of par¬

lated; on 24 May Algerian-based troops occupied Corsica and it was widely rumoured that the gen¬ erals were planning to occupy Paris on 27 May. It was against this background of political crisis, heightened by fears of an imminent military coup and the threat of civil war. that Pflimin agreed to step down in favour of de Gaulle. On 1 June the na¬ tional assembly confirmed de Gaulle’s appointment as premier, gave him full powers for six months, and left him with the task of elaborating a new constitution. De Gaulle was certainly aware of the plots to secure his return but he wisely refused to commit himself until the collapse of the Fourth Republic was certain; this enabled him to assume power on his own terms.

* 38th Parallel ► The dividing line between North and South Korea agreed by the Soviet Union and America in August 1945. It was originally intended as a temporary measure to facilitate the surrender of Japanese forces in the region; the Soviets would be responsible for the Japanese surrender north of the 38th Parallel and the Americans responsible south of the line. The division was hastily suggested by the Americans as the Soviet forces moved into the north of Korea in the last days of the war. Stalin surprisingly agreed, although the absence of US forces in the area at that time would not have pre¬ vented him moving further south. As a result Amer¬ ica was left in control of the capital Seoul, two-thirds of the population, and the main agri¬ cultural region, while the Soviet Union controlled the industrial north. As the wartime alliance be¬ tween the Soviet Union and America dissolved into Cold War rivalry, the prospects for unification re¬ ceded and civil war escalated into full-scale inter¬ national confrontation in the Korean War (1950-53). The post-war armistice left the boundary un¬ changed; the division of Korea into North and South along the 38th Parallel remains.

liamentary politics. By 1958, however, a powerful body of Gaullist supporters had begun secretly plot¬

• thirty-something ► Any age between 30 and 40, when the conflicting impulses of youth and on¬

ting to secure his return to power. They consisted of malcontents within the army and among White

coming middle age can precipitate a crisis of iden¬ tity. The phrase is often used to avoid giving one’s

French settlers in Algeria, angered by what they re¬ garded as inadequate political support from the

exact age; its association with a vague spiritual malaise was reinforced in the 1980s when it was

mainland, and right-wing opponents of the gov¬ ernment in metropolitan France. On 13 May, as a

about a group of affluent but troubled young peo¬

new prime minister, Pierre Pflimin, was about to be appointed, a large crowd attacked and occupied

ple in their thirties. Britain’s most famous thirty¬ something is undoubtedly the neurotic Bridget

the government offices in Algiers, establishing a

Jones. The terms twenty-something, forty-some¬

Committee of Public Safety. The army generals sup-

thing, etc., are now also common.

used as the title of a highly successful US TV series

►►599

Thunderthighs

• Thought Polices The sinister and murderous guardians of Party orthodoxy described by George

3-D. The first 3-D feature film, Bwana Devil in 1952,

Orwell (1903-50) in his Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949). In

House of Wax (1953) was perhaps the most successful

this nightmarish vision of a totalitarian future, so¬ ciety is divided into the Party and the Proles. The

of the 30 or so features that followed in the next couple of years. The anaglyphic process used re¬ quired the audience to wear polarized glasses,

Proles are insignificant, but the Party is divided into the Inner Party, the privileged class, and the Outer Party, who are constantly monitored by the

promised ‘A lion in your lap’; Warner Brothers’

which blended two simultaneously projected im¬ ages of the same scene shot by separate cameras.

Thought Police for deviation from prescribed think¬ ing (thought crimes). Those caught harbouring

The public’s thrill at ducking spears and boulders

improper thoughts are arrested, tortured at the Ministry of Love, and then vaporized. The term is

did not require glasses.

now often used for any agency (real or imagined) that attempts to impose official thinking or politi¬ cal correctness.

• Three Mile island ► The site near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, of America’s most serious nuclear re¬ actor accident on 28 March 1979. Owing to human

and technological failure, the fissionable core, nor¬

• Thousand Days ► The three-year administra¬ tion of President John F. Kennedy (1917-63), from his election on 9 November 1960 to his assassina¬ tion on 22 November 1963. It was taken as the title of one of the best inside accounts of Kennedy’s pres¬ idency, A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House (1965), by the historian Arthur Schlesinger Jr, one of the ‘Best and Brightest’ whom Kennedy se¬ lected to implement his promised New Frontier. See

also:

soon waned in favour of well-scripted films that

Camelot.

mally immersed in water, became accidentally ex¬ posed to the air and began to melt, releasing radioactive gases into the air. Complete meltdown of the reactor core (see. China syndrome) was avoided but the accident provoked a national debate on the safety of nuclear power. This effectively brought the US nuclear reactor programme to a halt and provided support for the anti-nuclear power lobby elsewhere. See also: Chernobyl.

• three-mile limits See:

• thrash ► A type of rock music that combines the speed and violence of hardcore with the highvolume guitar style of heavy metal. It originated in New York in the late 1980s. Exponents rejoiced in such names as Anthrax, Napalm Death, and Mil¬ lions of Dead Cops. It is also known as speed metal, thrash metal, thrashcore, and deathcore.

rum runners.

• three-minute culture ► A culture in which the constant supply of miscellaneous information by means of television, magazines, etc., has led to the average viewer or reader being unable to con¬ centrate on a single topic for more than a few min¬ utes. As evidence for the damaging influence of such a culture, commentators point to the dimin¬

• threatened species ► A species of animal or plant that is in danger of becoming extinct if nothing is done to halt the decline in its wild popu¬

ishing length of newspaper articles and the phe¬ nomenon of the sound bite, etc. See also-, dumbing

lation. Reasons for the decline may include ex¬ ploitation of the species (e.g. the killing of elephants to obtain their tusks) or destruction of its habitat

• throwaway ► A disposable artefact, especially one designed to be discarded after a single use.

(e.g. the burning of tropical rain forests). The Inter¬ national Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (lUCN) has identified several cat¬ egories of threatened species. These include (in as¬ cending order of vulnerability): rare species (those with small populations considered to be at risk); vul¬ nerable species: and endangered species.

See also: ex¬

tinct.

• 3-D ► Three-dimensional cinematography. From the 1920s onwards various stereoscopic techniques were used to create an illusion of realistic depth on the cinema screen, mainly in short films. It was not, however, until competition from television be¬ came a serious threat in the 1950s that the studios paid serious attention to 3-D processes with such tradenames as Natural Vision 3-D and Dynoptic

down.

Throwaway cameras, for example, are sold con¬ taining a film; after the film has been exposed and developed, the camera is thrown away. The prolif¬ eration of such items has led to accusations that the West has become a wasteful ‘throwaway society’.

• throw a wobbly or wobbler ► To be over¬ come by a fit of uncontrollable rage. Although a number of derivations have been suggested for this slang phrase (such as the idea that it refers to throw¬ ing a ‘wobbly’ ball in cricket), it probably combines the idiom ‘to throw a fit’ with the idea of somebody trembling (wobbling) with anger. The term was pop¬ ular with teenagers in the 1980s and 1990s, who used it chiefly to make the anger of parents or teachers seem ridiculous. • Thunderthighs ► A niclcname for an obese or

Tiananmen Square massacre

60044

heavily built woman, especially one who is intimi¬

down one ministry after another using his news¬

dating to men. In the late 1970s it was the media’s

paper La Justice.

nickname for Christina Onassis, heiress of the

• tights ► 5ee: pantyhose.

Greek

shipping

magnate

Aristotle

Onassis

(1906-75), referring to her evident weight problem. It presumably refers to ‘thunder’ in the sense of moving heavily or noisily.

• Tiananmen Square massacre ► The mas¬ sacre by the Chinese army of thousands of unarmed civilians in Beijing’s Tiananmen Square during pro¬ democracy demonstrations in June 1989. Protests had started in late April during the funeral of the liberal Hu Yaobang, a deposed former general sec¬ retary of the Chinese Communist Party. About 150,000 students gathered in Tiananmen Square shouting anti-government slogans. By mid-May more than one million demonstrators, including some government officials, held the largest protest gathering in communist China’s history. This oc¬ curred during a visit by the reforming Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachov, who made a point of inter¬ rupting his schedule to lay a wreath in Tiananmen Square. Students occupied the square permanently and erected a Statue of Freedom based on New York’s Statue of Liberty; some of them staged hunger strikes. Martial law was imposed on 20 May and on 3 June about 10,000 troops of the People’s Liberation Army entered the city; the next day tanks and armoured personnel carriers moved in to kill the fleeing students. The massacre provoked worldwide condemnation and trade reprisals. How¬ ever, Deng Xiaoping, China’s veteran leader, made

• time and motion study ► A widely used method of analysing a complex operation by break¬ ing it into small steps and timing each step. Tliis en¬ ables standards of performance to be set so that the operation can be incorporated into a larger process, which can be timed and costed accurately. • time capsule ► A box or other container en¬ closing items related to the present period, which is buried or hidden for rediscovery and reopening in the distant future. Such capsules, usually con¬ taining daily newspapers, everyday objects, etc., have been ‘planted’ at numerous sites throughout the UK since the 1960s, often with civic ceremony. The ultimate in time capsules must, however, be the summaries of human achievement carried on board the Pioneer and Voyager space probes

• time dilation »■ See:

relativity.

• time-lapse photography ► A method of film¬ ing used to record such slow processes as plant growth. A series of single exposures of the subject is made over a period of time using a film or video camera adapted to taking single shots. When this film is shown at a normal speed the rate of change is greatly speeded up. For example, if one photo¬ graph per day is taken of a plant, the growth from seedling to mature plant over a period of several weeks can be seen in a few seconds.

it clear that he would continue to crush the

• time share ► l. An arrangement for sharing

‘counter-revolutionary rebellion’. Mass arrests and

ownership in a furnished holiday house or flat,

executions followed.

with each owner occupying the property for a cer¬

• ticker

tain period during the year. Popularized in the midSee. birder.

1970s, time share has since come into disrepute

• tidal power ► A method of generating elec¬

because of the high-pressure selling methods asso¬

tricity by using the ebb and flow of the tides. Water

ciated with it {see. hard sell). For example, people are

is collected behind a barrage at high tide and re¬

often telephoned by a company and told that they

leased at low tide to drive a turbine, which in turn

have ‘won’ a foreign holiday; however, in order to

drives a generator. The first successful scheme to ex¬

collect this prize they have to attend a long pre¬

ploit tidal power was the La Ranee power station

sentation during which they are subjected to the

opened in 1967 in the Gulf of Saint-Malo in France.

full repertoire of hard-sell techniques. Those who

Several UK sites, especially the Severn estuary, are

withstand this battery and try to claim their ‘prize’

thought to be suitable for tidal power generation.

without signing up for an expensive time-share

See alse. alternative energy.

arrangement meet with short shrift. Action to end

• Tiger, the^ Nickname of the French statesman and journalist Georges Clemenceau (1841-1929), who, as prime minister, led his country to victory in World War I and negotiated the Versailles Treaty (1919). A determined fighter, single-minded in

the worst such abuses was taken in the early 1990s. 2. The apparently simultaneous use of a central computer by operators at separate terminals. This is possible because of the computer’s high speed of processing data.

achieving his objectives, he gained an early repu¬

• TINA ► A nickname of Margaret Thatcher. See.

tation for destructive political power by bringing

Iron Lady.

• Titanic •

1^601

• tin fish ► Naval slang for a torpedo.

music hall in 1914 after it was sung by troops em¬

• Tinker Bell ► In J. M. Barrie’s children’s play

barking for France and on the Front.

Peter Pan (1904), a female fairy who accompanies Peter and the Darling children on their adventures.

It’s a long way to Tipperary, It’s a long way to go. It’s a long way to Tipperary,

When she ‘dies’, the audience is required to de¬ clare its belief in fairies in order to bring her back

To the sweetest girl I know, Goodbye, Piccadilly;

to life. The name is sometimes applied to effemi¬ nate or oversensitive males.

Farewell, Leicester Square; It’s a long, long way to Tipperary,

• Tin Lizzie ► Nickname of the Ford Model T

But my heart’s right there.

tured by the Ford Motor Company in the early 20th

• tired and emotional ► A euphemism for drunk that has proved useful to the press who have

century. The Model T was the first mass-produced motor car: 15 million had been manufactured and

ple’s exploits. The expression is thought to have

motor car, designed by Henry Ford and manufac¬

sold by 1927, when the model was discontinued. The first Model T car was made in 1908, and mass

to be mindful of the libel laws when reporting peo¬ originated in the satirical magazine Private Eye in the 1960s, when it was frequently used to describe the demeanour of George Brown, a notoriously

production began five years later on a specially designed assembly line housed in a purpose-built

bibulous Labour politician. It is sometimes abbre¬

factory at Highland Park, Michigan. With its four-

viated to t and e.

cyhnder 2898 cc engine, the Model T was capable of

• Titanic*- The sinking of RMS Titanic on 14 April

speeds up to 40 mph; in accordance with Ford’s specifications it was durable, easy to operate and maintain, and equally suitable for tovra and coun¬

1912 ranks as perhaps the most notorious ship¬ wreck of all time. The large number of deaths, to¬

try driving. A reduction in the price of the Model T to $500, or £110, brought motoring within the reach

world’s newest and most luxurious ocean-liner on

of the average citizen in America and the UK. See at black.

world’s imagination that has never faded. The Ti¬ tanic set sail from Southampton with 3000 people

• Tin Pan Alley ► The district of New York City, originally in the area between 5th Avenue and

aboard, including at least six millionaires and many prominent members of British and US society. At

Broadway, where many songwriters and music pub¬ lishers were formerly based. In England, Denmark Street, off Charing Cross Road, was also so called as the centre of the popular music industry. The name

gether with the shock caused by the loss of the her maiden voyage, made an impression on the

11.45 p.m. on 14 April, however, the claims that the ship was unsinkable were put to the severest test when she hit an iceberg, which tore a 300-foot gash below the waterline. AATien the Titanic went down

has been said to derive from the rattling of pans by

two hours and 40 minutes later - its band still play¬

aggrieved neighbours when a performance was too

ing - 1513 people drowned. The high death toll was largely owing to the criminally small number of

loud or too protracted. The ‘Alley’ is now largely deserted by songwriters and music publishers who have moved to bigger premises. See: Old Grey Whis¬

these to their proper capacity. Curiously, the loss of the Titanic appears to have

tle Test.

• tinsel town*- See:

lifeboats provided (only 16) and a failure to load

Hollywood.

been foretold some years earlier by Morgan Robert¬ son in his novel Futility. In this work of fiction, a

• tip and run raid ► During World War II, a hur¬ ried and often indiscriminate air raid in which the

great liner on its maiden voyage - with many soci¬

enemy sped homeward after jettisoning their

it rams an iceberg: the death toll is high because

bombs. So called from the light-hearted form of

there are not enough lifeboats. The Titan is also

cricket in which the batsman has to run every time

called ‘unsinkable’. This was not the only forewarning of the

he hits the ball.

ety figures among its 3000 passengers - sinks when

• Tipperary ► A song inseparably associated with World War I, composed by Jack Judge (d. 1938), of

tragedy. The journalist and spiritualist W. T. Stead

Oldbury, Birmingham, with words by Harry J.

lel to the Titanic’s ; he was one of those to die in the

Williams of Temple Balsall, Warwickshire (who has

disaster in 1912. The sinking has inspired several films and nov¬

the first line of the refrain engraved on his tomb¬

had in 1892 published another story closely paral¬

stone). The two men wrote the song in 1912, in re¬

els, notably James Cameron’s epic Titanic (1997),

sponse to a bet that they could not write a song and perform it the same day; it became popular in the

which had the distinction of being both the most expensive and the most successful movie made to

602603

Year-Plan (1936-40), and was Reich minister for mu¬

• tom ► See. jane.

nitions from 1940 until his death in a plane crash.

• Tom and Jerry ► Two cartoon characters who have featured in numerous MGM shorts since the

The Todt Organization was responsible for the con¬ struction of the autobahn system, the 400-mile long Siegfried Line, and the Atlantic Wall, the French

coastal defences erected after the German occupa¬ tion in 1940.

early 1940s; Tom, a vindictive but accident-prone cat, and Jerry, a clever little mouse. They were cre¬ ated by William Hanna and Joe Barbera and first

• together ► Self-possessed, free of emotional

seen in Puss Gets the Boot (1940). The characters are famous for the extreme slapstick violence they

problems. In the late 1960s this was a popular term

mete out on each other, while remaining inde¬

in the hippie lexicon, indicating a vague idea of

structible.

being at peace with oneself and the world (espe¬ cially in the exhortation get it together). In the work-

They may have been named after a couple of roistering young men about town featured in Pierce

and efficiency-obsessed 1980s its meaning dwin¬

Egan’s Life in London; or, The Day Night Scenes of Jerry

dled to competent or well-organized.

Hawthorn, Esq., and his Elegant Friend Corinthian Tom

• tokamak ►

(1821).

See: nuclear reactor.

• tokenism ► The practice by some companies, schools, sports teams, etc., of accepting a token rep¬ resentation of a minority group, such as Blacks or women, in order to give the appearance of operat¬ ing an equal-opportunities policy. This early-1960s Americanism spread to the UK a decade or so later. A showcase nigger is Black slang for a token Black given high visibility in the company’s front office. 1 was the showcase Jew with the agency. I tried to look Jewish desperately, used to read my memos from right to left all the time. They fired me finally ’cos I took off too many Jewish holidays. - woody allen.

See. quota

system.

• tokus or tochis ► Bottom or backside, from the Yiddish tokhes and originally Hebrew tahath, under. A common expression in New York is get off your tokus, i.e. get up and do something. Like many other Yiddish words it has crossed the Atlantic since World War 11. • Tokyo Rose ► The nickname given by US ser¬ vicemen to a mysterious sultry voiced young woman who broadcast propaganda from Japan dur¬ ing World War 11. ‘Tokyo Rose’ has never been sat¬ isfactorily identified and it now seems that she was either a composite of several broadcasters or com¬ pletely mythical. After the war several AmericanJapanese women were suspected of taking part in these broadcasts but only one, Iva Ikuko Toguri D’Aquino (1916- ), was charged. Although there is good evidence that D’Aquino was pro-Allied in her sympathies, and that her broadcasts (for a Channel run by POWs) were intended as lighthearted send-

• Tommy ► The usual nickname given to British soldiers fighting in the two world wars. In fact the name Tommy or Tommy Atkins had been used for the British private soldier for many years before this. From 1815 and throughout the 19th century ‘Thomas Atkins’ was the name used in the speci¬ men form, accompanying the official manual is¬ sued to all army recruits, showing them how their own form, requiring details of name, age, date of enlistment, etc., should be filled in. See also: Fritz. • Tommy-cooker ► A small individual stove using solid fuel invented during World War 1 and is¬ sued to Allied troops in World War 11. It was also the name given by the Germans to the Sherman tank, which caught fire very easily when hit. • Tommy gun ► A Thompson short-barrelled sub¬ machine-gun. • tomography ► (Greek tomos, slice, section; graphein, to write) A technique for obtaining an Xray or ultrasound picture of a specific plane of the body or of any other solid object. The tomography machine is so designed that the radiation or ultra¬ sound is focused only on a selected plane; clear im¬ ages are obtained of structures in that plane, while overl5dng structures appear blurred. Tomography, which was developed in the 1930s, is widely used in medical diagnosis as it enables the imaging of soft and deep-seated tissues and organs, which cannot be visualized using conventional X-ray machines. It is often used in the form of computerized tomog¬ raphy (see CT scanner). See also: body scanner; brain scanner.

of being the notorious ‘Tokyo Rose’ and sentenced to 10 years in prison. After her release in 1956 a

• ton ► A speed of 100 mph. In the late 1950s, ‘doing a ton’ became a goal for every young mo¬ torcyclist, being regarded as the ultimate test of

campaign to clear her name gathered momentum; she was finally given a presidential pardon in 1977.

both machine and rider. Organized speed trials were held on public roads, their illegality supplying

See also: Lord Haw-Haw.

an extra frisson of excitement. The activities of the

ups of Japanese propaganda, she was found guilty

tong

604-*^

tun-up kids, as they were dubbed, became the sub¬

man who hunts naughty children and captures

ject of outraged comment in the press.

them in his sack (macoute). The name was applied to

In darts and cricket a ton is a personal score of

the fearsome private militia and secret police cre¬

100, while in betting and underworld slang it

ated by Fran613

(small lumps or granules), which usually has to be soaked before use. It is widely available in health food stores and is also used in ready-made vegetar¬

• turn-off ► Something that repels, bores, or

ian meals and soup powders.

quenches sexual ardour; also used as a verb to mean

• TVR ► Television rating. The popularity of a par¬ ticular television programme as determined by

repel or discourage. The opposite of turn-on.

• turn-on ► Something that is attractive, stimu¬ lating, or sexually arousing. In hippie parlance, ‘to turn on’ meant to liberate one’s mind from con¬ ventions, materialism, negative thinking, etc., es¬ pecially through the use of mind-altering drugs. Turn on, tune in, drop out was the slogan of the LSD-guru Dr Timothy Leary (1920-96). The term de¬ rives from the idea of turning on a light or other electrical apparatus.

• TVA ► Tennessee Valley Authority. The US federal corporation created in 1933 to develop the basin of the Tennessee River, mostly to build dams for flood control and to provide cheap electric power. It was one of President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s first pro¬ jects to reverse the Great Depression and tackle un¬ employment. Critics called it socialistic, which made TVA a controversial issue for many years; pri¬ vate electricity companies especially opposed the federal competition. It is now highly regarded, how¬ ever; TVA’s 39 dams on the Tennessee River and about 160 nonprofit-making electric power distrib¬ utors provide cheap electricity (one-third cheaper than the US average) to consumers within 210,000 sq km (80,000 sq mi). The river, which once flooded

equipment attached to sets in selected homes that records the times and channels during which the set is on. Diary panels are used to record the num¬ ber of people watching a particular set. Audience re¬ search is clearly of great value to programme producers and advertisers. In the UK audience re¬ search is carried out by the Broadcasters Audience Research Board (BARB).

• tweenie ► A young person, especially a girl, be¬ tween the ages of 10 and 15. The word is most often used by those in the media and marketing indus¬ tries, who have recognized tweenies as an impor¬ tant new consumer group with tastes and interests of their own (and the spending power to gratify them). To take just one example, television (notably Channel 4) increasingly shows programmes for and advertisements aimed at tweenies between 6pm and 7pm - their peak viewing time. The word itself is clearly a diminutive of ‘between’ but may owe something to the obsolete ‘tweeny’ or ‘between maid’ (a domestic servant who helped both the cook and parlour maid). More recently the word tweenager has also become a favourite with jour¬ nalists. This appears to differ slightly from ‘tweenie’

along the Tennessee Valley, which extends 105,956

in that it refers mainly to ‘pre-teens’ in the 9-13 year-old range. However, the distinction is some¬ what sophisticated and many use the terms inter¬

sq km (40,910 sq mi).

changeably.

regularly, has been converted into a series of lakes

• TV movie ► A film made specifically for show¬ ing on television rather than in the cinema. Such productions, which proliferated from the 1960s on¬ wards, have often been distinguished by low stan¬ dards

in

production

and

facile

plots

and

characterization. Indeed, the made-for-TV movie has often been seen as the successor to the B-movie. On the other hand the development of the genre did much to restore Hollywood’s finances and helped the careers of both up-and-coming and no longer fashionable stars. The quality of movies made for television has improved greatly in more re¬ cent years, notably in the UK, where independent production companies have created some innova¬

Affluent, aspirational and apparently sophisti¬ cated, tweenies are a marketer’s dream. Little girls of nine and 10 running around in cropped tops and body tattoos, watching EastEnders and Friends, getting up to who-knows-what with God-knows-who in Internet chat rooms. - The Guardian, 3 December 2000.

• twelve-tone music ► 'The compositional sys¬ tem devised in the early 1920s by the Austrian com¬ poser Arnold Schoenberg (1874-1951), which had a profound impact on Western music. As an alterna¬ tive of orthodox tonality, Schoenberg based his com¬ positions on fixed sequences that used all 12 notes of the chromatic scale in a particular order. As long as the sequence was maintained, the tones could be

tive and accomplished films.

used harmonically (in chords) or melodically (suc¬

• TVP^ Textured vegetable protein (also called tex¬ tured soya protein, TSP). A meat substitute devel¬

cessively); the series could also be transposed, in¬ verted, or reversed. The principles of the system

oped in the 1970s, TVP is similar in appearance,

were later employed by Schoenberg’s disciples,

texture, and taste to meat but is generally cheaper.

Alban Berg and Anton Webern, and also to a certain

It comes in tins (sausages or slices) or in dried form

extent by Stravinsky. See also: serialism.

614623

mance in A Fool There Was (1914), a film based on

his own work had been derided by a critic when, as

Kipling’s poem ‘The Vampire’. Vamps still appear in TV movies and the less subtle television soap operas.

a young man, he had refused to buy a good review with a bribe.

• Van Allen belts ► Radiation belts that sur¬ round the Earth, consisting of high-energy charged

• Vasa projects The raising of the Swedish sail¬ ing ship Vasa, which sank in a sudden squall in

particles trapped in the Earth’s magnetic field. The lower belt, containing electrons and protons, ex¬

age in 1628. This feat of engineering, completed in

tends from 1000 to 5000 km above the equator. An

Stockholm harbour before it began its maiden voy¬

outer belt, containing mostly electrons, extends

1961, was initiated by Anders Franzen, a salvage ex¬ pert who believed that the Vasa might well be

from 15,000 to 25,000 km above the equator. They

largely intact on the seabed, the Baltic being free of

were discovered in 1958 by James Van Allen (1914- ), as a result of radiation detectors carried by Explorer satellites.

the destructive shipworm (teredo navalis) that is prevalent elsewhere in the world. It took four years to find the wreck and a further five years to prepare

• Van de Graaff generator ► A machine used

the Vasa for its perilous ascent to the surface, using

to generate an electrostatic charge. A continuously

inflatable pontoons and hydraulic Jacks. The ship

moving belt collects charge from an external volt¬

was brought up in an extraordinary well-preserved

age source and transfers this to a hollow metal

condition: it was subsequently housed in a specially

sphere. The very high voltages produced within the dome are often used to accelerate electrons, pro¬

built museum, in which it was constantly sprayed

tons, etc., for research in particle physics. It was in¬

marine salvage inspired several similar projects (see: Mary Rose).

vented by the US physicist R. J. Van de Graaff (1901-67).

to prevent the timbers warping. This triumph of

• VAT ► Value Added Tax. An indirect tax on goods

• Van Meegeren forgeries ► Notorious art forgeries perpetrated by the Dutch artist Hans Van

or services calculated by adding a percentage (cur¬ rently 17!/2% in the UK) to the value of a product at

Meegeren (1889-1947) in the 1930s and 1940s,

each stage in its production. Each trader has to

which caused acute embarrassment to the numer¬

remit the tax to the Customs and Excise after de¬

ous prominent art critics who had authenticated them. Van Meegeren’s forgeries were exposed after

services (but not labour costs). Thus the tax is not

ducting the amount of tax he has paid for goods or

the close of World War II, when a painting pur¬

borne by traders but by consumers. It replaced pur¬

porting to be Vermeer’s The Woman Taken in Adultery

chase tax in 1973 to conform with the similar tax

was found among the works of art obtained illegally by Herman Goering. The sale to Goering was traced

ucts, e.g. food and books, are zero-rated for VAT or

to Van Meegeren, who had been paid the equivalent

taxed at a special reduced rate.

of £150,000 (ironically enough, in forged ban¬

• Vatican City State ► The area of Rome occu¬ pied by the city of the Vatican, recognized by the

knotes). Accused of collaborating with the Nazis and facing a possible death sentence, the artist con¬ fessed to his long series of forgeries. It subsequently emerged that he had forged 14 masterpieces by such artists as Hals, Hooch, and Vermeer, including the latter’s Christ and the Disciples at Emmaus, which had been hailed by the art establishment on its dis¬ covery in 1937. The authorities dismissed his con¬ fession and challenged him to produce another Vermeer of equal quality. Van Meegeren was locked

levied in the European Community. Some prod¬

Lateran Treaty (1929) as constituting the territorial

extent of the temporal power of the Holy See. It consists of the Papal palace, the Vatican Library, archives and museums, the Piazza of St Peter, and contiguous buildings including a railway station in all an area of just under a square mile. It has about 900 inhabitants. Certain other buildings out¬ side the Vatican enjoy extraterritorial rights.

his Young Christ Teaching in the Temple. His mastery of

• Vatican roulette ► Slang for the rhythm method of contraception, which is based on avoid¬

faking the effects of time upon the painting was so

ing intercourse during the middle of the menstrual

sophisticated that he did not even have to complete the work to convince the judges. The collaboration

a reliable method of birth control, but the Vatican

into a studio with a panel of experts and he began

cycle when ovulation is most likely to occur. It is not

charges were dropped but charges of falsifying sig-

still forbids contraception by any other method.

naPares brought the artist a sentence of one year in

The phrase alludes to Russian roulette, a potentially

prison: he died of a heart attack before he could

suicidal game of chance played with a gun. It is

begin his term. Van Meegeren’s motive, it seems,

said jokingly that couples who play Vatican roulette

was to revenge himself upon the art establishment;

are called ‘parents’.

• Vatican II •

624^

• Vatican II ► See. • VC ►

Second Vatican Council.

See; Victor Charlie; Viet Cong.

• VDU ► Visual display unit. The part of a com¬

Europe. The British agents. Captain Sigismund Payne Best and Major R. H. Stevens, were part of an MIG network seeking contacts with the anti-Nazi

puter system on which words, pictures, diagrams,

movement in Germany, with the ultimate aim of re¬ moving Hitler from power and securing an end to

etc., are displayed. It consists of a cathode-ray tube and is usually connected to a keyboard and

the war. They were contacted by a ‘Captain SchaemmeT, actually Major Walter Schallenburg of Nazi

personal computer. In larger computer systems,

counter-espionage, who claimed to be a represen¬

however, the cathode-ray tube, its controlling elec¬

tative of the anti-Nazi movement. After several

tronics. and the keyboard may be referred to col¬ lectively as the VDU.

meetings, the MI6 agents agreed to arrange the air¬

• VE Day ► The day on which hostilities in Europe ended in World War 11. 8 May 1945. See also: VJ Day.

who, Schallenburg claimed, wanted urgent talks with the British government. Hitler ordered that

• veganism ► A strict form of vegetarianism in which all food of animal origin is renounced. Veg¬ ans refuse not only meat but also eggs, dairy prod¬ ucts, and even honey. Adherents of this strict

lift from Venlo to London of the movement’s leader

the British agents should be seized on Dutch soil, kidnapped, and transported to Germany, where they remained prisoners until released by US forces in 1945.

regime coined the term in 1944, to distinguish themselves from mere vegetarians (sometimes re¬

• venture capital ► Capital used by an investor to buy shares in a new company or an expanding

ferred to as ovolactarians, i.e. egg-and-milk eaters).

business, when he is well aware that the invest¬

Vegans argue that theirs is the only logical form of

ment carries a substantial risk. Venture capital is an

vegetarianism, since commercial production of milk and eggs could not be carried on without the

investment rather than a loan.

market for beef and chicken. They use a milksubstitute manufactured from beans. The diet is not self-sufficient; vegans require certain dietary supplements to remain healthy. • Velcro ► Tradename for a ‘touch and close’ fab¬ ric fastener. The device was invented in 1957 in

• Venture Scouts ► See:

Boy Scouts.

• Verdun ► The fortress region in E France that saw one of the longest and bloodiest battles of World War 1 (21 February-18 December 1916). The Germans launched a major offensive here in the be¬ lief that French determination to hold the region at all costs would fatally sap their resources. The ini¬

Switzerland by Georges de Mestral, who devised

tial German artillery barrage was one of the most

the name as a combination of the French words

devastating ever launched and enabled the Ger¬

velours (velvet) and croche (hooked). It consists of

man Fifth Army to advance through the outer

two strips of nylon, one having a large number of tiny hooks and the other with an equal number of

defences and capture Fort Douaumont on 25

loops, into which the hooks fit when the two strips

tack using reinforcements transported to the front

are pressed together.

along the secondary road from Bar-le-Duc, which

• Velvet Fog ► A nickname for the US singer Mel Torme (1923-99), in allusion to the smooth croon¬

became known as the Sacred Way. This halted the

ing style that characterized his singing of the late 1940s and 1950s.

German commander, Erich von Falkenhayn, fo¬

• velvet revolution ► The overthrow of com¬ munism in Czechoslovakia during NovemberDecember 1989; scxalled because of the peaceful nature of the transition. Following a week of mass demonstrations in Prague and elsewhere, the entire ruling politburo resigned on 24 November. A ma¬ jority non631

• WAAC ► Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps. A body of women raised for non655

• Zabern incident ► A military incident in a

ing the hippie era it was sported by the Beatles (es¬

small garrison town in Alsace in November 1913,

pecially in their Sergeant Pepper days), Frank Zappa,

which precipitated a political crisis in Germany.

and others. The moustache, which bends around and below the sides of the mouth, imitates that

The Alsace region had been annexed from France by Germany after the Franco-Prussian War of 1870. In Zabern, repressive action by officers of the local garrison led to popular demonstrations; in response the colonel of the regiment, von Reutner, exceeded his authority in ordering the arrest and detention of a number of townspeople. In Germany, the inci¬ dent was regarded as indicative of Prussian military arrogance; when Erich von Falkenhayn, the war minister, and the imperial chancellor, BethmannHollwegg, defended the actions of the military au¬ thorities, the left and centre parties in the Reichstag raised a storm of protest. On 13 December 1913, the government’s actions were condemned by a vote of 293 to 54. The incident is regarded as sig¬ nificant because of the tensions it revealed between the ruling military class and the wider German population; some historians believe that these would have toppled the Hohenzollern regime had

worn by the Mexican revolutionary Emiliano Zap¬ ata (1877-1919).

• Ze Arigo ► Nickname of Jose Pedro de Freitas, a poor Brazilian peasant who became world famous in the 1950s for his miraculous healing powers; a rough English equivalent would be ‘Joe from the sticks’. Without any medical training and using only an old kitchen knife, he is said to have per¬ formed intricate eye operations, restored lame pa¬ tients’ ability to walk, and treated thousands of other poor Brazilians for a variety of disorders. Fie was twice prosecuted as a charlatan but none of his patients would testify against him. Ze Arigo claimed that his remarkable powers originated from his spiritual contact with Dr Fritz, a German surgeon who died in World War I. It is said that he never ac¬ cepted a fee for his work and that he predicted his own death, in a car crash, in 1971.

it not been for the outbreak of World War 1.

• zap ► 1. Slang meaning to destroy, to kill vio¬

• zebra crossings See:

pelican crossing.

lently; from the language of comic-strip cartoons of

• Zeppelin ► A dirigible airship designed by Count

the 1950s and 1960s in which ‘zap’ represented the

Ferdinand von Zeppelin (1838-1917). Zeppelins were

sound of a laser gun. It is often used figuratively,

used for bombing and reconnaissance during World

meaning bombard (e.g. with witticisms).

War I, but with the development of the aeroplane and the tragedy of the Hindenburg airship in 1937,

Madcap tube driver Cozmik Wilson cheers up depressed commuters...he zaps them with: ‘I am to boldly go where only a man being paid double time would go’. - Daily Sport, 5 May 1991. 2. Slang meaning to bypass the advertisement breaks in a television programme using a remotecontrol device (a zapper), either by switching to another channel or by operating the fast-forward

the more cumbersome and unsafe zeppelin was eclipsed. See also: Graf Zeppelin.

• zero hour ► A military term (first used in World War I) for the exact time at which an attack, etc., is to begin. Subsequent operations are often timed in relation to zero hour, e.g. zero + 3 means 3 minutes after zero hour.

control on the video. 3. Slang for power, lifeforce.

• zero option ► President Reagan’s proposal in

You get curious, especially if you’ve been past 41 yourself, which reminds you how your legs lose their spring and your reflexes their zap. - The Independent, 10 April 1991.

the early 1980s for a deal in which America would reduce to zero its stock of cruise missiles in Europe if the Soviet Union would no longer deploy its medium-range SS-20s. The proposal met a stony re¬

• Zapata moustache ► A type of bushy mous¬

ception from the Kremlin, which saw it as a US pro¬

tache that became fashionable in the late 1960s

paganda stunt rather than a serious contribution to

and 1970s, especially among rock musicians. Dur¬

disarmament. Both sides’ weapons were eventually

656^

• zero-sum game

agreed by Reagan and Gorbachov in 1987. See also:

Ziegfeld (1867-1932) in 1907. The Follies, modelled on the Folies Bergere shows in Paris, became the last

Greenham Common; IRBM.

word in lavish entertainment, with a chorus line of

• zero-sum garner See. game theory.

beautiful girls, stunning sets, and glamorous cos¬ tumes. The revues ran continuously until 1932 and

withdrawn from Europe under the INF Treaty

• zero tolerance ► A policing policy in which even minor infringements of the most commonly flouted laws are not tolerated. The policy was in¬ troduced in the 1990s in certain US cities, espe¬ cially New York, where it was zealously enforced by Mayor Rudolph Giuliani. Previously there had been a tacit acceptance that in crime-ridden inner cities the police were obliged to turn a blind eye to much minor lawlessness in order to concentrate on homi¬ cide and other serious crimes. However, the advo¬ cates of zero tolerance argued that a crackdown on all visible forms of lawbreaking - including litter¬ ing, graffiti, and general rowdiness - would not only improve the quality of life but lead to a fall in serious offences. By stressing the importance of the law and the penalties for non-compliance, zero tol¬ erance would (it was argued) deter petty offenders and serious criminals alike. This theory appeared to be confirmed by its successful application in New York, which in the early years of Giuliani's may¬

then periodically until 1957.

• zilch Nothing. First widely heard in America during the 1960s, it reached the UK a decade later. It seems to be an amalgam of‘zero’, ‘nil’, and the Yiddish nich. The US magazine Ballyhoo featured a family of comic characters called the Zilches in the 1930s.

• Zinoviev Letters A letter, which purported to be signed by the Soviet politican Grigori Zinoviev (1883-1936), president of the Comintern, calling on the British Communist Party to intensify its revo¬ lutionary activities and to subvert the armed forces of the Crown; it was published in the British press on 25 October 1924, four days before a general elec¬ tion. The letter whipped up a ‘red scare' and al¬ most certainly increased the Conservatives' majority (although the outcome of the election was already in little doubt). Many Labour leaders held it to be a forgery and its authenticity was denied by

oralty went from being perhaps the most dangerous city in America to being one of the safest. Amongst

the Soviet Union. In December 1966 The Sunday Times published an article establishing that the let¬

other benefits, the police discovered that many of those arrested for antisocial behaviour turned out, when investigated, to be involved in far more seri¬

ter was a forgery perpetrated by a group of White Russian emigres, and suggesting that Conservative Central Office knew that it was a fake but decided

ous forms of crime (few drug dealers, for instance, have scruples about dropping litter).

to use it anyway. These conclusions were endorsed by an official enquiry into the role of British Intel¬

As a result, the policy was widely imitated in cities around the world. By 2000, however, doubts about the New York record had begun to emerge. Critics of zero tolerance argued that the spectacu¬ lar drop in homicide rates was attributable to other long-term factors and maintained that the police were using the policy as a charter for harrassing racial minorities. There was also a public outcry in June 2000, when three people were arrested and jailed for smoking on deserted subway stations late at night. In the UK, zero tolerance policing was pio¬ neered in the Qeveland region of NW England by a flamboyant senior officer named Roy Mallon. However, allegations that Mallon’s detectives had abused the laws on criminal evidence (and even of¬ fered drugs for information) led to his suspension in 1997. He was subsequently (2000) acquitted of criminal wrongdoing but continues to face disci¬ plinary charges.

• ZETA*’ See. nuclear reactor. • Ziegfeld Follies ► The spectacular revues first presented by the US theatre producer Florenz

ligence in the matter in 1999.

• Zionism ► The Jewish movement for the estab¬ lishment of‘national home’ in Palestine. The Zion¬ ist movement was founded by Dr Theodore Herzl of Vienna in 1895, although it was the Balfour declara¬ tion of 1917 that first recognized Zionist aspirations

and gave them political teeth. From 1920 to 1948 Palestine was a British mandate, administered under great difficulties arising from the friction be¬ tween Jews and Arabs. However, the holocaust pro¬ vided Zionism with an unanswerable case and with strong US support the state of Israel was established in 1948. Zionism has continued to exist as a politi¬ cal force advocating the right of all Jews to live in Israel as Israeli citizens. The conflict between this principle and the rights of the Palestinians has not, however, been resolved. The term Zionism is now often used in a strongly negative sense to mean hardline Israeli nationalism.

• zip code ► The US system used to differentiate the mail delivery zones based on five- or nine-digit numbers. The name ‘zip’ is derived from the initial letters of the name of the system. Zone Improve-

• Zorro •

ment Plan. The British post code composed of let¬ ters and numbers is a similar system.

• zip fastener ► A type of fastener for clothing, bags, etc., consisting of two parallel strips with in¬ terlocking teeth opened or closed with a sliding clip. Although a fastener of this t5q)e was patented as early as 1893, the name did not appear until the 1920s, when the US company B. F. Goodrich mar¬ keted the ‘zipper boot’, a type of galosh fastened with a zip. The name - deriving from the verb to zip, i.e. to move briskly or hurriedly - was presum¬ ably chosen to highlight the quickness of the zip fastener as compared with buttons, etc. There may also be an allusion to the sound made when a zip is opened or closed.

• Zippergate ► A facetious term, modelled on Watergate, for the Lewinsky affair - because the scan¬

dal centred on President Clinton’s trouser zipper. • zit ► Slang for a spot or a pimple. Originally an Americanism, it had become well established in the UK by the 1980s. • Zodiac murders ► A series of murders in Cali¬ fornia, which captured world headlines in the 1960s; they were subsequently seen as the first mur¬ ders by a modern serial killer. The murders began in 1968 with the motiveless shooting of two teenagers in a car near Vallejo, California. As the killings con¬ tinued, the murderer maintained contact with the press in numerous cryptic messages, calling himself ‘Zodiac’ and explaining that he was acquiring ‘slaves in the afterlife’. Panic reached such levels that police officers accompanied school buses (which had been threatened by ‘Zodiac’), while the authorities were plagued by letters and calls from hoaxers. The killer (or possibly a hoaxer) even rang a popular television chat show to say he was suf¬ fering from a mental illness. The murderer has never been identified. As late as 1974 a message was received to the effect that ‘Zodiac’ claimed to have murdered 37 people. • zoftig or zaftig ► US slang for delicious or at¬ tractive: it comes through Yiddish from the Ger¬ man saft, juice. It is t5q)ically used by men of women whom they find sexually desirable.

• zombie ► A dull-witted unresponsive person, or someone who cannot think or act for themselves. It

►►657

is speculation that real zombies may have been cre¬ ated from the living by the use of certain drugs. The word is derived from the Kongo zumbi, a good-luck fetish; it was also the name of a p}Ahon god in W Africa. And, like a zombie, I found myself going into the shop and saying ‘how much is it?’ Which is not a question you are entitled to ask when you have not got a bean. - The Independent, 20 May 1991. • zombie food ► US slang for junk food. It is not certain whether ‘zombie’ in this case refers to the anticipated results of eating such food, the amount of intelligence required to prepare it (usually only opening the container), or to the kind of person who is willing to eat it. It is perhaps a combination of all three.

• zonked ► Slang meaning incapacitated by drugs, alcohol, or simple exhaustion. Zonk echoes ‘bonk’, a bang on the head, which has much the same ef¬ fect as being zonked by alcohol. • ZOO daddy ►US slang for a divorced father who has access to his children and typically takes them on a treat outing to the zoo when they visit him. There is a double implication in the term - first that he spoils his children and secondly that he doesn’t know what else to do with them. A similar expres¬ sion is Disneyland daddy. • zoo television ► A type of television program¬ ming consisting of live broadcasts with a fastmoving and largely unstructured format. The move¬ ments and reactions of technical crew, etc., are usually visible to the audience. The intention is to create a spontaneous and slightly anarchic atmos¬ phere. The expression originated in America in the early 1990s. In the UK, Saturday Zoo was the name of a weekly television programme of this nature hosted by Jonathan Ross. The format and the term were adopted by the Irish rock band U2 for their idiosyncratic stage show of 1992-93. • zoot-suit ► An exaggerated style of clothing adopted in the late 1930s by US hep-cats and fol¬ lowers of fashionable swing music. It usually con¬ sisted of baggy trousers caught in at the bottom, a long coat resembling a frock coat, a broad-brimmed hat, and a flowing tie, all in vivid colours. An es¬ sential article of equipment was a vast key chain.

is generally used as a mild term of abuse, as in ‘He

• Zorro ► The masked sabre-wielding hero of nu¬

sits there like a zombie, never saying a word.’ The name refers to the belief, current in the Caribbean magicians have the power to revive corpses and use

merous Hollywood B-movies. The character, who originated in a comic strip in 1919, first appeared on screen in The Mark of Zorro (1920), an unlikely combination of swordplay and the Wild West that

them as robot-like slaves (known as zombies). There

nevertheless proved enormously successful; Dou-

(especially Haiti) and parts of Africa, that voodoo

658^

zouk •

glas Fairbanks played the hero. Other actors to play

• zouk ► A style of music combining ethnic el¬

the debonair Robin Hood of the West include

ements from the French Antilles with Western f>op.

Robert Livingston. John Carroll, Tyrone Power. Guy

Characterized by highly energetic rh)dhms. it was

Williams. Alain Delon, and George Hamilton. A big-

created by Guadeloupean musicians living in Paris

budget remake of TTie Mark ofZorro was released in

and came to the attention of US and British audi¬

1998, starring Antonio Banderas. Zorro’s trademark

ences in the late 1980s. The name is thought to de¬

(known as the mark of Zorro) is a letter Z cut into

rive from a creole word meaning to revel. See also:

the shirt of his opponent.

rai; world music.

►*>659

Index A Abakumov, V. S. Leningrad purge Abdulla, Mohammed bin Mad Mullah Adair, Paul Red Adair Adams, Douglas Deep Thought Adams, John Bodkin Bluebeard of Eastbourne Adams, Sherman Goldfine affair Adams, Victoria Spice Girls Adamson, Joy Twenty Questions Adler, Alfred inferiority complex Ager, Milton Happy days are here again Aitken, Jonathan sleaze Akins, Zoe Greeks Alain-Foumier Alain-Foumier Albee, Edward off-Broadway Alcock, John Alcock and Brown Aldrin, Buzz Gemini Alechinsky, Pierre Cobra Alexander, Scott Alexbow Alexandra. Empress Mad Monk Alexandra, Queen Alexandra Day All, Chaudrie Rahmat Pakistan All, Muhammad greatest; Float like a butterfly, sting like a bee al-Khattabi, Abd al-Krim Anual Allen, Chesney Crazy Gang Allen, Woody orgasmatron; Play it again. Sam AUenby, Edmund Somme, Battle of the Allingham, Margery Campion, Albert AUitt, Beverley Munchausen syndrome Altman. Robert M*A*S*H Alzheimer, Alois Alzheimer’s disease Amery, Julian Monday Club Amery, Leo England Amin, Idi Big Daddy Amis, Kingsley Dixon, Jim Amundsen. Roald Amundsen Sea; Scott of the Antarctic

Anastasia. Grand Duchess Anastasia Andersen, Lale Lili Marlene Anderson, Anna Anastasia Anderson, David A. Anderson shelter Anderson, Sir John Anderson shelter Andre, Carl minimalism Andrews, Julie Hockey Stick Anielewicz, Mordecai Warsaw Uprising Anne, Princess Four-letter Annie; Princess Royal; Save the Children Fund Anthony, Susan B. Anthony dollar Appel, Karel Cobra Arafat, Yassir al-Fatah; PLO Arbuckle, Roscoe Fatty Archer, Jeffrey Archer; Mayor of London Archer-Shee, George Winslow, Ronnie Arlen, Michael Falcon, the Arliss, George First Gentleman of the Screen Armani, Giorgio Armani Armen, Jean-Claude Gazelle Boy Armstrong, Herbert Rowse Armstrong murder Armstrong, Louis New Orleans style; Satchmo; scat Armstrong, NeU one small step for man Armstrong, Paddy Guildford Four Armstrong, Sir Robert economical with the truth Arp, Jean dadaism Artaud, Antonin Theatre of Cruelty Asaf, George Pack up your troubles in your old kit-bag Ashdown, Paddy Liberal Democrats Asimov, Isaac robot dancing Askey, Arthur Auntie; ay thang yew; Big-hearted Arthur; Hello playmates!

Asquith, Herbert H. Squiffites; Unknown Prime Minister; Wait and see Astaire, Fred Astaire, Fred Astor, Nancy Cliveden set Astor, Lord Profumo affair Atkinson, Rowan Blackadder Attenborough, Richard biopic; Mousetrap, The Attlee, Clement Labour Party; National Health Service; sheep in sheep’s clothing Auden, W. H. International Brigades; Pylon Poets Auric Six. Les Austin, Herbert baby Austin Axelrod, George seven-year itch Ayer, Sir Alfred logical positivism; near-death experience; Vienna circle Ayres, Lew Kildare, Dr

B Baader, Andreas Red Army Faction Bacon, Sir Ranulph Have a Go Baden-PoweU, Robert Boy Scouts: Girl Guides; mafficking Bader, Douglas dogfight; reach for the sky Baekeland, Leo Bakelite Baer, Max Italian Alp Bailey, David Shrimp, The Bailey, D. C. Bailey bridge Baillie-Stewart, N. Officer in the Tower Baird, John Logie television age Bairnsfather, Bruce better Balter, G. sad sack Baker, Kenneth Gerbil Bakker, Jim and Tammy televangelists Balaguer, Jose Maria Escriva de Opus Dei Balchin, Nigel backroom boys Baldwin, Stanley National Governments; Safety First; Winnie

660^

Balfour, Arthur Balfour declaration; Balfour’s Poodle; Diehards Bamford. Joseph Cyril JCB Bannister, R. G. four-minute mile Bara, Theda vamp Barbera. Joe Tom and Jerry Barbie, Klaus Butcher of Lyons Bardeen, John superconductivity Bardot, Brigitte Sex Kitten Barker, Ronnie porridge Barnard, Christiaan spare-part surgery; Washkansky transplant Barnes, Kenneth RADA Barraud, Francis His Master's Voice Barrett, Lawrence sleaze Barrie, J. M. Nana; Never Never Land; Peter Pan; Tinker Bell; Wendy house Barrington, Jonah Lord HawHaw Barrow. Clyde Bonnie and Clyde Barrow. Eliza Mary Seddon Murder Barrymore, John Great Profile Barrymore, Lionel epitaph; Hardy family Bart. Lionel Pings Ain’t Wot They Used TBe Baruch. Bernard Cold War Basov, Nicolai laser Bates, H. E. Flying Officer X Baudot. J. M. E. baud Baum. L. Frank munchkin; Wizard of Oz BayUs, Lilian Old Vic Bayly. Doreen reflexology Bazna. Elyesa Cicero Beaton. Cecil Shrimp, The Beatty. David. Earl Beatty; Jutland, Battle of; Queen Elizabeth Beatty, Warren Kid, The Beaumont-Dark, Anthony Keep it dark Beaverbrook, Max, Baron backroom boys; Beaver, the; Empire Free Trade; Press Barons Bechet, Sidney New Orleans style Beckett, Samuel Theatre of the Absurd Bedford, Mary, Duchess of Flying Duchess Beeching. Richard, Baron Beeching’s axe Begin, Menachem Camp David; Likud

Balfour •

Behan, Brendan famous last words Belafonte, Harry King of Calypso Bell, Alexander Graham Ma Bell Bell, Clive Bloomsbury Group Bell, Jocelyn LGM Bell, Vanessa Bloomsbury Group; Omega workshops Belloc. Hilaire Chesterbelloc Ben Barka, Mehdi Ben Barka disappearance Ben Bella, Ahmed FLN Benchley, Peter Jaws Benchley, Robert Algonquin Round Table Benda. Julien trahison des clercs Ben Gurion, David Jewish Agency Benioff, Victor Hugo Benioff zone Benn, Tony Bennery Bennett, Alan Beyond the Fringe Bennett, James Gordon deleted by French censor; Gordon Bennett Bensley, Harry Man in the Iron Mask Benson. A. C. Land of Hope and Glory Bentine, Michael Goon Show Bentley, W. O. Lagonda Benz. Carl Mercedes Berg, Alban twelve-tone music Berg, Moe good field, no hit Berg, Paul RNA Bergman, Ingrid Play it again, Sam Bergson, Henri creative evolution; elan vital Beria, L. P. Leningrad purge; MGB Berlin, Irving ritzy Bernhardt. Sarah Sarah Bernstein, Carl all the president’s men; Deep Throat; Watergate Bernstein, Edouard revisionism Bernstein, Morey Murphy, Bridey Berry, Chuck rhythm-and-blues Bessie, Alvah Hollywood Ten Best Sigismund Payne Venlo incident Bestall, Alfred Rupert Bear Bethmann-Hollweg, Theobald von necessity knows no law; Scrap of Paper Bevan, Aneurin Bevanite; National Health Service; Nye

Beveridge. William Henry Beveridge Report Bevin, Ernest Bevin Boys; ’Keep Left’ group Beyers. C. R. de Wet Rebellion Bhaktivedanta, A. C. Hare Krishna Biberman, Herbert Hollywood Ten Bidault, Geoiges Resistance Biggers, Earl Derr Chan, Charlie Biggs, Ronald Great Train Robbery Biko, Steve Biko affair Billings, John and Evelym Billings method Binet, Alfred Binet test Bingham, Hiram Machu Picchu Bin Laden, Osama al-Qaida; September 11; war on terrorism Bird, Kenneth Fougasse Birdseye, Clarence Birds Eye Bird, Laszlo Biro Blackburn, Tony Radio Caroline Blair, Tony Blairism; Cool Britannia; cronyism; Labour Party; New Labour; sleaze; spin doctor; stakeholder society; Third Way Blair, Lionel Grosvenor Squares Blake, George Blake case Blanc. Giuseppe Giovinezza, La Blanc, Mel folks Bloxham, Amall Bloxham tapes Blum, Leon Riom trials Blunt, Anthony double agent; fourth man; Magnificent Five Blyton, Enid Noddy Bocchini. Arturo Ovra Bogart, Humphrey Bogey; Here’s looking at you, kid; Marlowe, Philip; Play it again, Sam Bohr, Niels Maud Committee; quantum theory Bolt. Robert man for all seasons Bonano, Joseph Joe Bananas Bondi, Hermann steady-state theory Booker, Christopher Private Eye Boon, Charles Mills & Boon Boothman, J. N. Schneider Trophy Borel, Emile game theory Borglum, Gutzon Rushmore. Mount Bor-Komorowski, Tadeusz Warsaw Uprising Bosanquet. B. J. bosey

• Chambers •

Bosustow, Stephen Mr Magoo Botham, Ian Guy the Gorilla Bottomley, Horatio Bottomley case Boudin, Kathy Weatherman Boulez, Pierre serialism Bow, Clara It Girl Bowen, Lord Clapham Bowers, H. R. Scott of the Antarctic Boyer, Charles come with me to the Casbah Brabham, John Brabham Brabazon, Lord Brabazon Bradbury, J. S. Bradbuiy Brady, Ian Moors murders Bragg, Billy agitpop Braine, John Lampton, Joe Brand, Max Kildare, Dr Brandenberger, Jacques Cellophane Brando, Marlon Actors’ Studio; Method, the Brandt, WUly Ostpolitik Brague, Georges assemblage; cubism Bratby, John kitchen sink Brecht, Bertolt A-effect; Berliner Ensemble; Brechtian; epic theatre; Schweik Breton, Andr6 surrealism Brezhnev, Leonid Brezhnev Doctrine; SALT Briand, Aristide Kellogg Pact Brianin, Norbert Amadeus String Quartet Brighouse, Harold Manchester school Brittan, Leon Westland affair Britten, Benjamin Aldeburgh Brooke, Rupert England; Georgian poets; Grantchester; Lost Generation; war poets Brooke-Taylor, Tim Mornington Crescent Brown, Arthur Whitten Alcock and Brown Brown, George Gnomes of Zurich; National Plan; tired and emotional Brown, Melanie Spice Girls Brown, Rosemary musical medium Brubeck, Dave five Brunhoff, Jean de Babar the Elephant Bryan, William Jennings Dayton anti-Darwinist trial Buchan, John Hannay, Richard

Buchman, Frank Moral Rearmament; Oxford Group Bulganin, Nicolai B and K Buller, Sir Redvers Relief of Ladysmith; Spion Kop Bunton, Emma Spice Girls Burgess, Anthony clockwork orange; nadsat Burgess, Gelett blurb; bromide Burgess, Guy double agent; Magnificent Five Burnham, Edward LevyLawson, Viscount Burnham scale Burr, Raymond Mason, Peny Burroughs, Edgar Rice Tarzan Burroughs, William beat Busby, Matt Munich air crash Bush, George happy; New World Order; point man; read my lips Bush, George W. ABM; chad; Dubya; Star Wars; war on terrorism Bushman, Francis X. Handsomest Man in the World Buthelezi, Mangosouthu Inkatha Butler, R, A. Butler Act; Butskellism; Rab; Rab’s Boys; Politics is the art of the possible Butler, Robert ageism Butlin, Billy Butlins Butt, Dame Clara Land of Hope and Gloiy; muck Butts, Alfred M. Scrabble

c Cagney, James Public Enemy No. 1; rat CaUlaux, Joseph Caillaux affair Caine, Michael people Cairncross, John Magnificent Five Calder, Alexander kinetic art Callaghan, James Labour Party; Lib-Lab; Sunny Jim Calley, Lt. William My Lai Calmette, Gaston Caillaux affair Cameron, James Titanic CampbeU, Commander Brains Trust Campbell, Donald Malcolm Bluebird Campbell, Malcolm Bluebird; Daytona Beach Campbell-Bannerman, Henry Liberal Landslide Camus, Albert existentialism Canaris, Wilhelm Abwehr

►►661

Capek, Karel robot Caplin, Alfred G. Li’l Abner Capone, A1 Alcatraz; Lindbergh baby murder; St Valentine’s Day Massacre Capote, Truman Holcomb murders Cardin, Pierre Cardin Carey, Peter ill)fwhacker Carlton, Chester Xerox Carmichael, Stokely Black is beautiful; Black Power; Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee Carnap, Rudolph Vienna circle Carnarvon, George Herbert, Earl of curse of Tutankhamun Carnegie, Dale How to win friends and influence people Camera, Primo Italian Alp Carson, Edward Ulster Covenant; Ulster Volunteers; Winslow, Ronnie Carter, Howard curse of Tutankhamun Carter, Jimmy Camp David; President Peanuts; SALT Carter, Lillian Miz Lillian Cartland, Barbara Animated Meringue; bright young things; social class Camso, Enrico Man with the Orchid-Lined Voice Casement, Roger Casement diaries Cashin, Bonnie layered look Casson, Hugh Festival of Britain Castro, Fidel Castroism Cavell, Edith Cavell Memorial Cavendish, Henry Cavendish Laboratory Ceau$escu, Nicolae Securitate Cecil, Lord Robert Peace Ballot Chabrol, Claude New Wave Chadwick, James elementary particle; neutron Chain, Ernst penicillin Chamberlain, Houston Stewart Aryan myth Chamberlain, Joseph clearing house of the world; Tariff Reform Chamberlain, Neville England; Munich; National Governments; peace in our time Chamberlain, Richard Kildare, Dr Chambers, Whittaker Hiss affair

• Chamorro •

66244

Chamorro. Violeta de Sandinista

Chandler, Raymond Marlowe. Philip

Chanel. Gabrielle Chanel Chaney, Lon Man of a Thousand Faces

Chang. Min Chuch Pill, the Chaplin. Charlie silent dims; star; take; Tramp, The

Chapman. Graham Monty Python’s Flying Circus

Charles. Prince Camillagate; carbuncular; hydrophonics; People’s Princess; Royal National Theatre

Charlesworth, Violet fall Charri^re, Henri Devil’s Island Charteris, Leslie Saint, The Chatterton, George Edward Chad

Chaudron, Yves Mona Lisa theft Chennault, C. L. Flying Tigers Cheshire, Leonard Cheshire Homes

Chesterton, G. K. Chesterbelloc; Father Brown; heroes

Chevalier, Albert Old Dutch Chevalier, Haakon Oppenheimer affair

Chevalier, Maurice Mistinguett Chiang Kai-shek generalissimo; Guomindang; Long March; Suchow, Battle of; Xi An incident

Chichester. Francis Gipsy Moth IV

Chifley, J. B. light on the hill Chisholm. Melanie Spice Girls Chomsky, Noam transformational grammar

Chou En-lai, Quemoy crisis Christian X, Schandband Christie, Agatha Marple, Miss; Mousetrap, The; Poirot, Hercule; Queen of Crime

Christie, John Glyndeboume Christie, John Reginald Christie murders

Churchill, Caryl serious money Churchill, Sir Winston Arcadia; Atlantic Charter; blood, toil, tears and sweat; Casablanca Conference; end of the beginning; famous last words; Few, the; Former Naval Person; future; General Strike; Haldane mission; hour; Iron curtain; jaw-jaw; King and

Quadrant; riddle; Second Front; sheep in sheep’s clothing; Sidney Street siege; siren suit; surrender; Tehran Conference; terminological inexactitude: Tonypandy riots; Trident; Washington Conference; Winnie: Yalta Conference

Clanmorris. John Bingham. Baron Smiley. George Clapton, Eric Old Slow Hand Clark. Alan K Clark, Sir Kenneth K Clark. Mark Salerno landing Clayton, P. B. Toe H Cleese, John different; Fawlty Towers; Monty Python’s Flying Circus; read

Clemenceau, Georges Tiger, the; Versailles Treaty

Clifton-James, M. E. Monty’s double

Clinton. Bill Lewinsky affair; Third Way; Whitewater affair; Zippergate

Cockerell, Christopher hovercraft

Cocteau, Jean Six, Les Coe, Sebastian four-minute mile Cohen, Harry enjoy! Cohen, Sir John pile it high, sell it cheap; supermarket

Cohn-Bendit. Daniel Danny the Red

Cole, George ’er indoors; minder Cole, Lester Hollywood Ten Cole, William Horace de Vere Dreadnought hoax

Collins, Jackie s ’n’s Collins, John CND CoUins. Michael Free Staters; Troubles, the

Compagnoni, Achille K2 Compton, Arthur nuclear reactor

Condon, Richard Manchurian candidate

Conlon, Gerard Guildford Four Cormolly, BUlyjessie CormoUy, James Easter Rising Cormolly, Maureen Little Mo Connor, William Cassandra Conrad, Joseph Marlow, Captain Conran, Shirley s ’n’s Conway, John game of life Cook, Peter Beyond the Fringe; Private Eye; Sex Thimble

Country debate; locust years; Lusitania; Moscow Conference;

Cook, Robin ethical foreign

Other Club; j)eace sign:

Coolidge, Calvin choose

policy

Cooper. Dame Gladys famous last words

Cooper, L. N. superconductivity Corbett, Harry Sooty Cornwell, J. T. Cornwell Badge CorreU, Charles Amos ’n’ Andy Coryell, John Russell Carter, Nick

Cosgrave, Liam Sunningdale Agreement

Cosgrave, William T. Fine Gael; Irish Free State

Cotton, BUly Wakey-Wakey! Cou^, Emile Cou^ism Coupland, Douglas Generation X

Courtages, Andr^ miniskirt Courtauld, Samuel Courtauld Institute of Art

Coward, Noel famous last words; kitchen sink; Master, the; Stately Homes of England

Crabb, Commander Lionel Crabb Affair

Crabbe, Buster Flash Gordon; King of the Serials; ray gun

Crabtree. Shirley Big Daddy Craven, Wes Krueger, Freddy Crawford, Cheryl Actors’ Studio Crawford, Marion Crawfie Crawford, Michael mothers Creutzfeldt, H. G. CJD Crichton. Michael Andromeda strain

Crick, Francis DNA; RNA Crippen, Hawley Harvey Crippen murder

Cripps, Sir Stafford Cripps mission

Croker, John decimal currency Cronkite, Walter go, man, go!; way

Crosby, Bing Old Groaner; OneTake; road movie

Crosland, Anthony Hampstead set

Crossman, Richard ‘Keep Left’ group

Crowley, Aleister Great Beast 666

Cruise, Tom bratpack; Mission Impossible

Crumb, Robert keep on truckin’ Cryer, Barry Momington Crescent

Cummings, Homer Public Enemy No. 1

Cummings, W. T. atheists Cunningham, John Cat’s Eyes Curcio, Renato Red Brigades

• Eastwood •

Currie. Edwina Cruella De Vil Ciu^on, George Nathaniel, Lord Curzon line

de Kooning. Willem action painting

de la Hey, Serena Angel of the North

D Daladier, Edouard Riom trials Dalton, Hugh Dalton budget leak; Daltons

Daly, Dan Belleau Wood DalyeU, Tam West Lothian question

Damm, Vivian Van closed Dannay, Frederic Queen, Elleiy d’Annunzio, Gabriele D’Annunzio raid

D’Aquino, Iva Ikuko Toguri Tokyo Rose

Darrow, Charles B. Monopoly Darrow, Clarence Dayton antiDarwinist trial; Leopold and Loeb murder

Davidson, Harold Stiffkey, Rector of

Davies, W. H. Georgian poets Davis, A. H. Dad and Dave Davis, Bette Oscar Davis, Dwight Filley Davis Cup Davis, Robert Davis apparatus Davis Jnr, Sammy Rat Pack Dawes, Charles Gates Dawes Plan

Dawson, Charles Piltdown Skull Dawson, G. G. All Souls’ Parish Magazine

Day, Mathias Daytona Beach Day Lewis, C. Blake, Nicholas; Pylon Poets

Dean, James Rebel Without a Cause

Dean. William R. Dixie Dean de Beck, William heebie jeebies; horse feathers

de Bono, Edward lateral thinking

de Broglie, Louis quantum theory

Dederich, Charles Today is the first day of the rest of your life

Dee, Simon Radio Caroline de Gaulle, Charles Europe; evenements; FFL; Fighting French; Nassau conference; OAS; Paris summit; Thirteen Plots of May 13;

de Gaulle. Yvonne Tante Yvonne Degrelle, Leon Rexists De Havilland, Geoffrey De Havilland Aircraft Company

de Klerk, F. W. apartheid

de la Mare, Walter Georgian poets

Delaney, James J. Delaney amendment

Delaney, Shelagh kitchen sink Delaunay, Robert Orphism Delgado, Hiunberto Delgado murder

Demjanjuk. John Ivan the Terrible

Dempsey, Jack duck; Manassa Mauler; robbed

Demuth, Charles cubist-realism Deng Xiaoping Tiananmen Square massacre

De Niro, Robert Method, the Denning, Alfred, Lord Denning report

Derrida, Jacques deconstruction DeSalvo, Albert Boston Strangler Desgrange, Henri Tour de France

De Sica, Vittorio neorealism De Valera, Eamon Fianna Fail; Irish Free State; Sinn Fein; Troubles, the

Devereux, James P. S. Japs deWet,C.R. de Wet Rebellion Dewey, Thomas E. Man on the Wedding Cake

Diaghilev, Sergei Ballets Russes Diana, Princess of Wales Althorp House; People’s Princess; Squidgygate

Dickson, Alexander VSO Dietrich, Marlene backroom boys; Dietrich, Marlene; Lili Marlene

Dillinger, John Public Enemy No. 1

DiMaggio, Joe Monroe, Marilyn Dimbleby, Richard Twenty Questions

Dior, Christian Dior Disney, Walt cartoon; Disne3dication; Disneyland; Mickey Mouse; Silly Symphony

Dixey, Phyllis One and Only Dmytryk, Edward Hollywood Ten

Dolby, Ray Dolby System Dolenz, Mickey Monkees Domingo. Placido Placido Domino, Fats Fats; rhythm-andblues

Donovan, General Wild Bill’ OSS

m>663

Doolittle, Hilda HD Doolittle, James H. Doolittle raid

Doppler, Christian redshift Dorgan, T. A. hot dog Dossena, Alceo Dossena forgeries

Douglas, Major C. H. greenshirt; social credit

Douglas, Donald Douglas aircraft

Dowding, Hugh, Baron Fighter Command

Doyle, Sir Arthur Conan Baker Street Irregulars; Challenger, Professor; Cottingley fairies; Holmes, Sherlock; Oscar Slater case

Draper, Ruth Ruth Draper garden

DrbaL Karel Drbal’s pyramid Dreaper, Tom Arkle Dreiser, Theodor famous last words

Dreyfus, Alfred Devil’s Island; Dreyfusard

Drummond, Jack Dominici murder

Dubcek, Alexander Prague Spring

Dubuffet. Jean Art Brut; assemblage

Duchamp, Marcel conceptual art; objet trouve

Duisenberg, Willem European Monetaiy System

Duncan, Isadora famous last words

Dnnne, John William serialism Dunsterville, L. C. Dunsterforce Durante, Jimmy Calabash; Schnozzle

Durey, Louis Six, Les Durkheim, Emile functionalism Durocher, Leo nice guys finish last

Dury, Ian sex ’n’ drugs ’n’ rock ’n’ roll

Duvalier, Francois ‘Papa Doc’ and Jean-CIaude ‘Baby Doc’ Tontons Macoute

Dyall, Valentine Man in Black Dyer, Reginald Amritsar Massacre

Dylan, Bob Dylan, Bob; folk-rock; garbology; Weatherman

E Eastman, George Kodak Eastwood, Clint day; spaghetti Western

• Eaton •

664669

• Maiman •

Lejeune, C. A. flashback Lenin, V. I. Bolshevik; Lenin;

Loeb, Richard Leopold and Loeb murder

Leninism; Lenin’s Testament; New Economic Policy;

Loesser, Frank Praise the Lord

Ochrana; October Revolution

Loew, Marcus MGM Lofting, Hugh Doctor Dolittle Lollobrigida, Gina La Lollo Long, Huey Pierce Kingfish Longbaugh, Harry Butch

Lennon, John Apple Corps; Beatles

Leone, Sergio spaghetti Western Leopold, Nathan Leopold and Loeb murder

Levin, Bernard 1W3 Levy, Yisrael Irgun Zvai Leumi Lewin, Kurt sensitivity training Lewinsky, Monica Lewinsky affair

Lewis, C. S. Inklings; Narnia; Screwtape Letters

Lewis, Isaac Newton Lewis gun Lewis, Jennie dagmars Lewis, Jerry Lee fire Lewis, Wyndham Blast; vorticism

Lewis, Robert Actors’ Studio Lewis, Sinclair Babbitt; Main Street

Liberman, Evsei Libermanism LiddeU, Alvar Received Pronunciation

Liebknecht, Karl Spartacists LUienthaL Otto aircraft LUlie, Beatrice bob Lindbergh, Charles A. aircraft; Le Bourget; Lindbergh baby murder; Lindbergh jacket; lindy hop; Spirit of St Louis

Lindemann, Jean interferon Link, Edwin A. flight simulator Linklater, Richard slacker Linley, David, Viscount Hooray Henry

Littlewood, Joan Fings Ain’t Wot They Used T’Be; Theatre Workshop

Livingstone, Ken Mayor of London; Red Ken

Llewellyn, Harry Foxhunter Lloyd, Marie Queen of the Halls Lloyd George, David Chanak crisis; Coupon Election; garden suburb; hang the Kaiser!; heroes; Honours Scandal; Limehouse; Lloyd George Fund; Lloyd George knew my father; Mansion House speech; Marconi affair; People’s

and pass the ammunition

Cassidy and the Sundance Kid

Longford, Frank Pakenham, Lord Hampstead set; Holy Fool; Lord Pom

Longworth, Alice Roosevelt Lon Nol, Khmer Rouge Lonsdale, Gordon Kroger affair; Lonsdale affair

Lonsdale, Lord Man in the Iron Mask

Loos, Anita Lee, Lorelei Lorre, Peter Moto, Mr Loudon, Norman Shepperton Louis, Joe Brovm Bomber; hide Lovell. Sir Bernard Jodrell Bank Lovelock, James Gaia hypothesis Lovett, Martin Amadeus String Quartet

Low, David blimp Lucan. Richard Bingham, Earl of Lucky Lucas, George special effects Luce, Qare Boothe stuffed shirt Luciano, Salvatore Lucky Ludendorff, Erich Somme, Battle of the; Munich Putsch; Tannenberg

Liiger, George Liiger Luks, George Benjamin ash

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