The Land of Houlouf: Genesis of a Chadic Polity, 1900 B.C.–A.D. 1800 9781951519919, 9780915703524

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Memoirs Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan Number 35

The Land of Houlouf Genesis of a Chadic Polity, 1900 B.C.-A.D. 1800

Augustin F.C. Holl

Ann Arbor, Michigan

2002

©2002 by the Regents of the University of Michigan The Museum of Anthropology All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America ISBN 978-0-915703-52-4 (paper) ISBN 978-1-951519-91-9 (ebook) Cover design by Katherine Clahassey The University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology currently publishes three monograph series: Anthropological Papers, Memoirs, and Technical Reports, as well as an electronic series in CD­ ROM form. For a complete catalog, write to Museum of Anthropology Publications, 4009 Museums Building, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1079. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Holl, Augustin. The land of Houlouf: genesis of a Chadic polity, 1900 B.C.-A.D. 1800 I Augustin F.C. Holl. p. cm. -- (Memoirs of the Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan ; no. 35) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-915703-52-1 1. Excavations (Archaeology)--Chad Basin. 2. Prehistoric peoples--Chad Basin. I. Title. II. Series. GN2 .M52 no. 35 [GN865.C45] 967.43 'O l--dc21 2002006621

The paper used in this publication meets the requirements of the ANSI Standard Z39.48-1984 (Permanence of Paper)

Contents LIST OF FIGURES, 6 LIST OF TABLES, 12 PREFACE, 15 CHAPTER 1. CHADIAN PLAIN ARCHAEOLOGY: AN OUTLINE, 1 Introduction, 1 Research History, 1 Modeling Site Location Strategies, 3 The Landscape: Past and Present, 4 Holocene Settlement Expansion, 7 The Early Holocene Settlement Phase, 7 The Late Holocene Settlement Phase, 9 Tempo and Modes of Late Stone Age Colonization, 14 Learning from Historical Linguistics, 15 Concluding Remarks, 16 CHAPTER 2. SOCIAL FORMATIONS: AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE, 19 Introduction, 19 Archaeology and Social Change, 19 Within the Black Box, 20 West African Social Formations: An Outline, 21 World Systems, Center-Periphery and Peer-Polity Interaction: A Case Study, 23 Warfare, Migrations and Settlement Relocation, 23 Pattern of Exchange, Rank and Hierarchy, 24 Archaeological Perspectives, 25 CHAPTER 3. THE RESEARCH PROGRAM, 27 Introduction, 27 Survey Operations, 28 Extensive and Selective Survey, 29 Judgmental Survey, 31 Intensive Survey, 31 The Study Area, 32 Excavation Strategies, 33 CHAPTER 4. EXCAVATIONS AT OEGUESSE, KRENAK, AND HAMEl, 35 Excavations at Oeguesse, 35 Introduction, 35 The Stratigraphic Sequence, 35 Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence, 37 Summary, 42 Excavations at Krenak, 43 Introduction, 43 The Stratigraphic Sequence, 43 Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence, 44 Summary, 47 Excavations at Hamei, 47 Introduction, 47

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The Stratigraphic Sequence, 48 Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence, 49 Summary, 53 CHAPTER 5. EXCAVATIONS AT Y MiRE SITES, 55 Excavations at Mishiskwa, 55 Introduction, 55 The Stratigraphic Sequence, 55 Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence, 55 Summary, 60 Excavations at Madaf, 60 Introduction, 60 The Stratigraphic Sequence, 60 Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence, 61 Summary, 64 Excavations at Amachita, 65 Introduction, 65 The Stratigraphic Sequence, Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence, 65 Summary, 67 Excavations at Sororo, 68 Introduction, 68 The Stratigraphic Sequence, Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence, 68 Summary, 71 CHAPTER 6. EXCAVATIONS AT SOUTHEASTERN SITES, 73 Excavations at Ble Mound A, 73 Introduction, 73 The Stratigraphic Sequence, 73 Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence, 73 Summary, 91 Excavations at Ble Mound B, 92 Introduction, 92 The Stratigraphic Sequence, 92 Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence, 93 Summary, 101 Excavations at Ble Mound C, 101 Introduction, 101 The Stratigraphic Sequence, 101 Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence, 102 Summary, 111 Excavations at Ble Mound D, 111 Introduction, 111 The Stratigraphic Sequence, 112 Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence, 113 Summary, 120 Excavations at Ble Mound E, 120 Introduction, 120 The Stratigraphic Sequence, Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence, 120 Summary, 130 Excavations at Krenak-Sao, 130 Introduction, 130 The Stratigraphic Sequence, 131 Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence, 132 Summary, 137 CHAPTER 7. EXCAVATIONS AT HOULOUF, 139 Introduction, 139

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The Stratigraphic Sequence, 140 Occupation Horizon I, 143 Occupation Horizon II, 147 Occupation Horizon III, 149 Occupation Horizon IV, 152 Occupation Horizon V, 155 Occupation Horizon VI, 158 Occupation Horizon VII, 165 Occupation Horizon VIII, 181 The Palace Complex, 181 Surface Material, 186 Summary, 186 CHAPTER 8. THE FORMATION OF THE LANDSCAPE, 189 Introduction: Hypotheses, 189 Before the Mounds: Ancient Topography of the Study Area, 189 Geomorphological Probes, 192 Sedimentary Buildup in a Fossil Channel, 194 Abani Channel-Krenak-Sao Geomorphological Transect, 196 CHAPTER 9. GENESIS OF THE HOULOUF CHIEFDOM, 203 Introduction, 203 A Long Prelude: The Deguesse Phase, 203 The Krenak Phase, 204 The Mishiskwa Phase, 206 The Ele Phase, 209 The Houlouf Phase, 213 The Houlouf Phase A Cemetery, 215 Burial Facilities and the Disposal of the Dead, 215 Distribution of Grave Goods, 216 Spatial Organization of the Cemetery, 217 The Fabric of the Elite, 220 Procurement Strategies and Accumulation of Material Capital, 220 From Material to Symbolic Capital, 221 Cemetery Space, Social Factions and Occupational Hierarchy, 223 Spatial Context of the Cemetery, 224 Formal Disposal Area and Social Dynamics, 225 The Collapse of the Houlouf Chiefdom, 226 Surface Material and Archaeological Inference, 227 CHAPTER 10. CONTINGENCY,"EvENTS," "MENTALITEs," CONJONCTURES AND SOCIAL FORMATIONS, 231 Landscape and Regional Settlement Dynamics, 231 Mound Formation Processes, 233 Subsistence Patterns: Long-Term Perspectives, 238 Craft Specialization, 242 Ceramic Production, 242 Salt Production, 243 Fish Processing and Smoking, 244 Metal Production, 247 Long-Distance Exchange, 249 Events, Mentalites, Conjonctures, and Social Formations, 251 Events, 251 Mentalites, 251 Social Formations, 252 REFERENCES,

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ApPENDIX A. HOULOUF POTTERY DESCRIPTIONS,

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Figures 1. Distribution of archaeological sites in the Chadian Plain, 2 2. Fluctuations of Lake Chad levels at different time scales, 4 3. Major sedimentary formations and distribution of Late Stone Age sites, 6 4. Chronological chart of the studied Holocene Late Stone Age sites, 8 5. Glottochronological ordering and distribution of Chadic linguistic family, 15 6. Glottochronological ordering and distribution of eastern Central Chadic languages, 16 7. Hypothetical Proto-Chadic homeland, 17 8. Vegetation zones of northern Cameroon, 28 9. Soils of northern Cameroon, 29 10. Site distribution following judgmental survey, 30 11. Logone-Birni: the Sultan's palace viewed from the northwest, 30 12. Physiography of the study area, 31 13. Site distribution and soil types from the study area, 32 14. A construction pit from Houlouf, 34 15. Potsherds included in a present-day wall course, 34 16. Deguesse: site contour map, 35 17. Deguesse: the stratigraphic section, 36 18. Living floors and surfaces from Deguesse, 38 19. Deguesse: vessels from occupation horizon VII, 39 20. Deguesse: decorated sherds from occupation horizon VIII, 39 21. Deguesse: vessels from occupation horizon VIII, 40 22. Deguesse: decorated sherds and vessels from surface, 42 23. Krenak: site contour map, 43 24. Krenak: the stratigraphic section, 44 25. Krenak: living floors and surfaces and decorated sherds, 45 26. Ware and occupation horizon IV living surfaces, 46 27. Living surface and floor from occupation horizons V and VI, 47 28. Pottery from occupation horizon VI, 47 29. Living floor and surface from occupation horizons VII and VIII, 48 30. Krenak vessels from occupation horizon VIII and surface, 48 31. Hamei: site contour map, 49 32. Hamei: the stratigraphic section, 49 33. Hamei: occupation horizon I living surface, 49 34. Hamei: archaeological finds from occupation horizons I and II, 50 35. Hamei: house floor from occupation horizon II, 51 36. Hamei: living surface from occupation horizon III, 51 37. Hamei: house floor from occupation horizon IV, 52 38. Hamei: living surface from occupation horizon V, 52 39. Hamei: vessels and net sinker from occupation horizon V, 53 40. Mishiskwa: the stratigraphic section, 56 41. Mishiskwa: living surface from occupation horizon I, 57 42. Mishiskwa: living surface from occupation horizon II, 57 43. Mishiskwa: vessels and clay arm ring from occupation horizon II, 57 44. Mishiskwa: living surface from occupation horizon III with an iron-smelting furnace, 58 45. Mishiskwa: profile of the iron-smelting furnace, 58 vi

46. Mishiskwa: vessels and other archaeological finds from occupation horizon III, 58 47. Mishskwa: living surface from occupation horizon V, 59 48. Mishiskwa: pottery from occupation horizons V and VI, 59 49. Madaf: site contour map, 61 50. Madaf: the stratigraphic section, 61 51. Madaf: living surface from occupation horizon I, 62 52. Madaf: archaeological finds from occupation horizon I, 63 53. Madaf: living surface from occupation horizon III, 63 54. Madaf: vessels from occupation horizon IV, 63 55. Madaf: living surface from occupation horizon VI, 63 56. Madaf: pottery from occupation horizon VI and surface, 64 57. Amachita: site contour map, 65 58. Amachita: the southwestern section, 66 59. Amachita: the southeastern section 66 60. Amachita: the northeastern section, 67 61. Amachita: living surface from occupation horizon I, 67 62. Amachita: vessels from occupation horizon I, 68 63. Amachita: living surface from occupation horizon II, 68 64. Amachita: vessels from occupation horizons II and III, 69 65. Amachita: living surface from occupation horizon III, 69 66. Sororo: site contour map, 70 67. Sororo: the stratigraphic section, 70 68. Sororo: living surface from occupation horizon I, 71 69. Sororo: living surface from occupation horizon II, 71 70. Sororo: pottery from occupation horizon II, 71 71. Sororo: view of a present-day fish-smoking feature, 72 72. Ble Mound A: site contour map, 74 73. Ble Mound A: the northern section, 74 74. Ble Mound A: the southern section, 75 75. Ble Mound A: occupation horizon I house floor, 76 76. Ble Mound A: occupation horizon II house floor, 76 77. Ble MoundA: vessels and amazonite pendant from occupation horizon III, 77 78. Ble MoundA: occupation horizon III living surface, 77 79. Ble MoundA: profile of occupation horizon III watering trough, 77 80. Ble Moundd A: vessels and other finds from occupation horizon III, 78 81. Ble Mound A: living surface from occupation horizon IV, 78 82. Ble Mound A: vessels from occupation horizon IV, 79 83. Ble Moundd A: living surface from occupation horizon VI, 79 84. Ble Mound A: vessels and ground-axe from occupation horizon VI, 79 85. Ble Mound A: house floor from occupation horizon VII, 80 86. Ble Mound A: vessels from occupation horizon VII, 80 87. Ble Mound A: living surface from occupation horizon VIII, 80 88. Ble Mound A: pottery from occupation horizon VIII, 81 89. Ble Mound A: living surface from occupation horizon IX, 81 90. Ble Mound A: pottery from occupation horizon IX, 82 91. Ble Mound A: living surface from occupation horizon X, 82 92. Ble Mound A: profiles of fish-smoking features from occupation horizon X, 82 93. Ble Mound A: vessels from occupation horizon X, 83 94. Ble Mound A: figurines collected from occupation horizon X fish-smoking feature, 84 95. Ble Mound A: living surface from occupation horizon XI, 84 96. Ble Mound A: pottery from occupation horizon XI, 84 97. Ble Mound A: vessels from occupation horizon XII, 85 98. Ble Mound A: living surface from occupation horizon XIII, 85 99. Ble Mound A: pottery from occupation horizon XIII, 86 vii

100. Ble Mound A: vessels and figurines from occupation horizon XIV, 86 101. Ble Mound A: vessels from occupation horizon XV, 87 102. Ble Mound A: vessels and miscellaneous fired clay objects from occupation horizon XV, 88 103. Ble Mound A: head rest specimens found on surface, 89 104. Ble Mound A: head rest specimens, zoomorphic and anthropomorphic figurines, and broken effigy jars found on surface, 90 105. Ble Mound A: plan and profile of a tested surface large fish-smoking feature, 91 106. Ble Mound B: site contour map, 93 107. Ble Mound B: the stratigraphic section, 93 108. Ble Mound B: house floor from occupation horizon I, 94 109. Ble Mound B: living surface from occupation horizon II, 94 110. Ble Mound B: vessels from occupation horizons II and III, 94 111. Ble Mound B: living surface from occupation horizon III, 94 112. Ble Mound B: living surface from occupation horizon IV, 95 113. Ble Mound B: house floor from occupation horizon VI, 95 114. Ble Mound B: vessels from occupation horizon VI, 95 115. Ble Mound B: house floor from occupation horizon VII, 95 116. Ble Mound B: house floor from occupation horizon VIII, 96 117. Ble Mound B: living surface from occupation horizon IX, 96 118. Ble Mound B: vessels from occupation horizons IX and X, 96 119. Ble Mound·B: house floor from occupation horizon X, 97 120. Ble Mound B: house floor from occupation horizon XI, 97 121. Ble Mound B: vessels from occupation horizon XI, 98 122. Ble Mound B: miscellaneous fired clay objects from occupation horizon XI, 99 123. Ble Mound B: vessels and head rest specimen from occupation horizon XII, 99 124. Ble Mound B: surface finds, 100 125. Ble Mound C: site contour map, 103 126. Ble Mound C: the stratigraphic section, 103 127. Burials from occupation horizons I and II, 103 128. Profile of occupation horizon I burial, 103 129. Ble Mound C: vessels from occupation horizon I, 104 130. Ble Mound C: superimposed house floors from occupation horizon II, 104 131. Ble Mound C: vessels and figurine from occupation horizon II, 104 132. Ble Mound C: occupation horizon II: vessels and head rest from the burial, and a bone awl, 105 133. Ble Mound C: lower house floor from occupation horizon III, 105 134. Ble Mound C: the upper house floor from occupation horizon III, 105 135. Ble Mound C: decorated sherds from occupation horizon III, 106 136. Ble Mound C: house floor from occupation horizon IV with occupation horizon V secondary burials, 106 137. Ble Mound C: living surface from occupation horizon V, 106 138. Ble Mound C: archaeological finds from occupation horizon V, 107 139. Ble Mound C: occupation horizon VII burials, 107 140. Ble Mound C: calcite lip-plugs and cylinder from occupation horizon VII burials, 107 141. Ble Mound C: vessels and miscellaneous fired clay objects from occupation horizon VI, 108 142. Ble Mound C: vessel, clay bell and decorated sherds from occupation horizon VII, 109 143. Ble Mound C: living surface from occupation horizon VIII, 109 144. Ble Mound C: profiles of occupation horizon VIII fish-smoking features, 110 145. Ble Mound C: vessels and female figurines from occupation horizon VIII, 111 146. Ble Mound C: copper cones and ostrich eggshell beads from a disturbed burial, 112 147. Ble Mound 0: site contour map, 113 148. Ble Mound 0: the stratigraphic section, 113 viii

149. Ble Mound D: living surface from occupation horizon I, 113 150. Ble Mound D: vessels and miscellaneous fired-clay objects from occupation horizons I to III, 114 151. Ble Mound D: house floor from occupation horizon II, 116 152. Ble Mound D: living surface from occupation horizon III, 116 153. Ble Mound D: house floor from occupation horizon IV, 116 154. Ble Mound D: house floor from occupation horizon V, 116 155. Ble Mound D: house floor from occupation horizon VI, 117 156. Ble Mound D: living surface from occupation horizon VII, 117 157. Ble Mound D: living surface from occupation horizon VIII, 117 158. Ble Mound D: vessels and miscellaneous fired clay objects from occupation horizons IV to VIII, 118 159. Ble Mound D: plan and sections of the tested surface fish-smoking features, 119 160. Ble Mound E: site contour map, 122 161. Ble Mound E: the southeastern section, 122 162. Ble Mound E: the southwestern section, 122 163. Ble Mound E: the northeastern section, 122 164. Ble Mound E: living surface from occupation horizon I with two occupation horizon II burials, 123 165. Ble Mound E: occupation horizon I burial, 123 166. Ble Mound E: vessels and a net sinker from occupation horizon I, 123 167. Ble Mound E: living surface from occupation horizon II, 124 168. Ble Mound E: vessels from occupation horizon II and occupation horizon III burial, 125 169. Ble Mound E: occupation horizon III burial, 125 170. Ble Mound E: vessels and miscellaneous fired clay objects from occupation horizon III, 126 171. Ble Mound E: living surface from occupation horizon IV, 127 172. Ble Mound E: vessels from occupation horizon IV, 127 173. Ble Mound E: living surface from occupation horizon V with large pits, 128 174. Ble Mound E: occupation horizon V burials, 128 175. Ble Mound E: vessels and miscellaneous fired-clay objects from occupation horizon V, 129 176. Ble Mound E: surface finds, 130 177. Krenak-Sao: site contour map, 132 178. Krenak-Sao: trench 6 stratigraphic section, 132 179. Krenak-Sao: trench 7 stratigraphic section, 133 180. Krenak-Sao: living surface from occupation horizon I with an occupation horizon II burial, 134 181. Krenak-Sao: vessels and miscellaneous fired-clay objects from occupation horizon I, 134 182. Krenak-Sao: living surface from occupation horizon II with occupation horizon III burials, 135 183. Krenak-Sao: pottery and an iron tang from occupation horizon II, 136 184. Krenak-Sao: house floor and a secondary burial from occupation horizon III, 136 185. Krenak-Sao: vessels and iron hoe-blade from occupation horizon III, 137 186. Krenak-Sao: house floor from occupation horizon IV, 137 187. Krenak-Sao: archaeological finds from occupation horizon IV, 138 188. Block diagrammatic presentation of Houlouf, 140 189. Houlouf street with mud-brick flat-roofed houses, 141 190. Houlouf: site contour map, 141 191. Houlouf: the stratigraphic section, 143 192. Houlouf: cumulative particle-size curves (3.8 and 3.6 m samples), 144 193. Houlouf: cumulative particle-size curves (3.5 and 3.4 m samples), 144

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194. Houlouf: cumulative particle-size curves (3.3 and 3 m samples), 144 195. Houlouf: cumulative particle-size curves (2.8 and 2.5 m samples), 144 196. Houlouf: cumulative particle-size curves (2 and 1.8 m samples), 144 197. Houlouf: cumulative particle-size curves (104 and 1 m samples), 144 198. Houlouf: cumulative particle-size curves (0.6 and 004 m samples), 144 199. Houlouf: cumulative particle-size curves (mud-brick, earthen rampart, and ancient palace complex), 144 200. Houlouf: scatter diagram of the sediment samples from the Houlouf stratigraphic section, 145 201. Houlouf: map of occupation horizon I living surface, 145 202. Houlouf: vessels from occupation horizon I, 146 203. Spatial distribution of sherds in occupation horizon I deposit, 147 204. Houlouf: map of occupation horizon II living surface, 148 205. Occupation horizon II: storage pit profile, vessels and iron implements, 148 206. Spatial distribution of sherds in occupation horizon II deposit, 149 207. Houlouf: map of occupation horizon III living surface, 150 208. Vessels from occupation horizon III, 150 209. Spatial distribution of sherds in occupation horizon III deposit, 151 210. Houlouf: map of occupation horizon IV living surface, 152 21l. Vessels and bone artifacts from occupation horizon IV, 153 212. Spatial distribution of sherds in occupation horizon IV deposit, 154 213. Houlouf: map of occupation horizon V living surface, 156 214. Vessels, stone and bone artifacts from occupation horizon V, 157 215. Spatial distribution of sherds in occupation horizon V deposit, 158 216. Alloyed copper artifacts, 160 217. Items of horsemanship of alloyed copper, 161 218. Items of personal adornment of alloyed copper and iron, 162 219. Houlouf: map of occupation horizon VI living surface, 163 220. Stratigraphic section of feature 47: occupation horizon VI storage pit, 163 22l. View of a concentration of catfish bones from occupation horizon VI, 164 222. View of dispersed salt-production vessels on occupation horizon VI living surface, 164 223. Spatial distribution of burials from occupation horizon VI, 165 224. Cups and juglets from occupation horizon VI, 166 225. Pots and jars from occupation horizon VI, 167 226. Spatial distribution of sherds in occupation horizon VI fill of collapsed material, 168 227. Houlouf: map of occupation horizon VII living surface, 168 228. Stratigraphic section of feature 41: occupation horizon VII storage pit, 168 229. Partial view of the furnace base, 169 230. View of the forge hearth, 169 23l. Hippopotamus figurines found associated with salt production installations, 170 232. View of the effigy jar, the "Central Monument" of the cemetery 170 233. View of a burial in an almost upright position, 171 234. Burial furniture: a set of superimposed jars, 171 235. View of the "altar," 172 236. Anthropomorphic figurines found associated with the "altar," 172 237. Bowls, juglets, jugs and pots from occupation horizon VII, 173 238. Pots, basins and truncated jars from occupation horizon VII, 174 239. Jars from occupation horizon VII, 175 240. Jars from occupation horizon VII, 176 241. Miscellaneous fired-clay objects from occupation horizon VII, 178 242. Spatial distribution of sherds from occupation horizon VII deposit, 178 243. Houlouf: map of occupation horizon VIII Ii ving surface, 180 244. Vessels from occupation horizon VIII, 182 x

245. Miscellaneous finds from occupation horizon VIII, 183 246. Spatial distribution of sherds in occupation horizon VIII deposit, 183 247. Houlouf: map of the Sultan's palace complex, 184 248. Vessels and smoking pipes from surface, 185 249. Past and present hydrographic network based on low altitude air photos, 190 250. Sedimentary units found at bottom of the tested mounds, 190 251. Cumulative particle-size curves of the Houloufbottom sedimentary units, 191 252. Cumulative particle-size curves of sedimentary units at the bottom of Ble Mound D, 191 253. Cumulative particle-size curves of sedimentary units at bottom of Krenak-Sao trench 6,192 254. Cumulative particle-size curves of sedimentary units at bottom of Krenak-Sao trench 7, 195 255. Malingwa probe 1: the stratigraphic section, 196 256. Malingwa probes 2 and 3,196 257. Krenak-Sao trench 2: the stratigraphic section, 197 258. Cumulative particle-size curves of Krenak-Sao trench 2 (2.8 and 3.2 m samples), 197 259. Cumulative particle-size curves of Krenak-Sao trench 2 (1.8 and 2.6 m samples), 198 260. Cumulative particle-size curves of Krenak-Sao trench 2 (1.6 and 1.1 samples), 198 261. Krenak-Sao trench 3: the stratigraphic section, 199 262. Cumulative particle-size curves of Krenak-Sao trench 3 (3.4 and 2.3 m samples), 200 263. Cumulative particle-size curves of Krenak-Sao trench 3 (2 and 1.2 m samples), 200 264. Cumulative particle-size curves of Krenak-Sao trench 3 (1.2 and 0.2 m samples), 201 265. Krenak-Sao trench 4: the stratigraphic section, 201 266. Krenak-Sao trench 5: the stratigraphic section, 201 267. Krenak-Sao geomorphological transect: the stratigraphic correlation, 202 268. Deguesse phase settlements and landscape, 204 269. Krenak phase settlements and landscape, 204 270. Krenak phase: distribution of long-distance trade items, 204 271. Settlement heights at the end of Krenak phase, 206 272. Mishiskwa phase settlements and landscape, 206 273. Mishiskwa phase: distribution of long-distance trade items, 207 274. Distribution of Mishiskwa phase long-distance items: Houlouf and Ble Mound Complex compared, 207 275. Settlement heights at the end of Mishiskwa phase, 207 276. Ble phase settlements and landscape, 209 277. Ble phase: distribution oflong-distance trade items, 210 278. Distribution of Ble phase long-distance items: Houlouf and Ble Mound Complex compared,210 279. Rank-size hierarchy of Ble phase B settlements, 210 280. Settlement heights at the end of the Ble phase, 211 281. Houlouf phase settlements and landscape, 215 282. Context, spatial structure and burial furniture of Houlouf phase A cemetery, 217 283. Spatial distribution of burials according rank and "occupation," 219 284. Rank-size hierarchy of Houlouf phase B settlements, 219 285. Regional distribution of surface material, 227 286. Regional distribution of surface coarse stone material, 228 287. Regional distribution of iron slag, 228 288. Long-term change in regional density of settlement, 232 289. Variation of cultural deposits thickness through time, 233 290. Long-term variability of cultural deposit thickness, 237 291. Long-term variability of cultural deposit thickness, 238 292. Long-term mound buildup, 239 293. Krenak phase faunal spectrum, 240 294. Mishiskwa phase A faunal spectrum, 240 295. Mishiskwa phase B faunal spectrum, 240 296. Ble phase A faunal spectrum, 241 Xl

297. Ble phase B faunal spectrum, 241 298. Houlouf phase faunal spectrum, 244 299. Long-term variation in faunal spectra, 244 300. Long-term variation in domestic fauna, 244 301. Long-term variation in vessels shapes frequency, 247 302. Long-term flux of coarse stone raw material according to procurement zones, 247 303. Long-term variation in long-distance exchange items, 249 304. Nineteenth-century Kotoko polities with the northwestern part of the Lagwan kingdom, 253

Tables 1. Deguesse: the stratigraphic sequence, 36 2. Krenak: the stratigraphic sequence, 42 3. Krenak: summary of the occupation sequence, 50 4. Hamei: the stratigraphic sequence, 50 5. Hamei: summary of the occupation sequence, 52 6. Mishiskwa: the stratigraphic sequence, 56 7. Mishiskwa: summary of the occupation sequence, 62 8. Madaf: the stratigraphic sequence, 62 9. Madaf: summary of the occupation sequence, 62 10. Amachita: the stratigraphic sequence, 64 11. Amachita: summary of the occupation sequence, 65 12. Sororo: the stratigraphic sequence, 71 13. Bie Mound A: the stratigraphic sequence, 75 14. Ble Mound A: summary of the occupation sequence, 76 15. Ble Mound B: the stratigraphic sequence, 92 16. Bie Mound B: summary of the occupation sequence, 92 17. Bie Mound C: the stratigraphic sequence, 102 18. Ble Mound C: summary of the occupation sequence, 102 19. Ble Mound D: the stratigraphic sequence, 115 20. Ble Mound D: summary of the occupation sequence, 115 21. Bie Mound E: the stratigraphic sequence, 121 22. Ble Mound E: summary of the occupation sequence, 121 23. Krenak-Sao: the stratigraphic sequence from trench 6, 131 24. Krenak-Sao: the stratigraphic sequence from trench 7, 131 25. Krenak-Sao: summary of the occupation sequence, 131 26. Houlouf: the stratigraphic sequence, 142 27. Houlouf: particle-size analysis of the archaeological section, 142 28. Houlouf: summary of the occupation sequence, 143 29. Particle-size analyses of the sedimentary units at mound bottoms, 193 30. Krenak-Sao trench 2: particle-size analysis, 193 31. Krenak-Sao trench 3: particle-size analysis, 194 32. Faunal remains from Krenak phase sites, 205 33. Faunal remains from Mishiskwa phase sites, 208 34. Faunal reamins from Bie phase sites, 212 35. Distribution of long-distance exchange items in Bie phase, 212 36. Faunal remains from Houlouf phase sites, 216

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37. Houlouf phase A cemetery: grave goods, rank and occupational classes, 218 38. Surface material in regional perspective, 228 39. The regional chronology, 234 40. Mound formation in regional perspective, 236 41. Long-term variability in faunal remains, 245 42. Long-term variability in vessel shape frequencies, 246 43. Metallographic analysis of Houlouf phase A alloyed copper artifacts, 246 44. Long-term patterns of consumption of coarse stone raw materials, 248 45. Long-term flux of long-distance exchange, 248 AI. Houlouf: vessels from level I, 265 A2. Houlouf: vessels from level II, 265 A3. Houlouf: vessels from level III, 266 A4. Houlouf: vessels from level IV, 266 AS. Houlouf: vessels from level V, 266 A6. Houlouf: vessels from level VI, 267 A7. Houlouf: vessels from level VII, 269 A8. Houlouf: vessels from level VIII, 271

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Preface The Houlouf Archaeological Project was initiated in 1981 by the late Jean-Paul and Annie M.D. Lebeuf, co-directors of the Mission Archeologique Franco-Camerounaise du NordCameroun, a research group of the Laboratoire d'Ethnologie et de Socio10gie Comparative (CNRS-Universite de Paris X). The excavation program started the next year, in 1982, with the author as research assistant in charge of field operations, archaeological data processing and analysis. The program later shifted toward a regional archaeological research project. The goals were then clearly focused on the development of complex societies in that part of the Chadian Plain. Fieldwork lasted from 1982 to 1991. Depending on teaching schedules, ten field seasons, one to two months long each, were carried out. Survey operations were conducted during each season, and fourteen mound sites were tested in the selected study area. The documented archaeological sequence spans approximately 4000 years, from ca. 1900 B.C. to A.D. 1800. The title of this work, The Land of Houlouf, deserves some explanation. At its initial phase, the regional archaeological project was framed in ecological/environmental terms, directed toward an analysis of human-land relationships through time. Ethnographic and ethnohistorical information collected during fieldwork showed such an approach to be inappropriate for a cogent investigation of the regional sociopolitical long-term history. The study area was consequently reformatted to fit the more meaningful traditional land division. It is clear that there are good and bad sides to such an approach, but it appeared to be the most relevant. The Land of Houloufis thus a literal translation of term used by local people to refer to their land; it is the meaningful local traditional territorial unit. Along the northern and northeastern sides, its boundary is neat. It is looser on the western and southwestern Yaere sides. The Yaere hinterland depressions are a seasonally flooded grassland. The Yaere is not, strictly speaking, a "noman's-land," but more precisely an open territory, accessible to all neighboring communities with the necessary social and political agreements. The book is divided into ten chapters organized in four parts of unequal length. Part 1 includes Chapters 1-3. Chadian Plain archaeology research history, patterns of Holocene Late Stone Age colonization, as well as historical linguistic evidence are outlined in Chapter 1. Issues in need of further evaluation and testing are thus singled out. Theoretical considerations for the study of social evolutionary processes are discussed, with some archaeological perspectives pertinent to the data at hand singled out in Chapter 2, and different steps involved in the implementation of the Houlouf Archaeological Project delineated in Chapter 3. Part 2, Chapters 4-7, is the longest of the book and provides details on archaeological contexts and the collected cultural material record. Chapter 4 deals with sites located in the north and east of the study area (Deguesse, Krenak and Hamei); Chapter 5, with Yaere sites (Mishiskwa, Madaf, Amachita and Sororo); Chapter 6 with the southeastern sites (Ble Mound A, B, C, D, E and Krenak-Sao); and finally, Chapter 7 with the main excavation at the central fortified settlement of Houlouf. Part 3, Chapters 8 and 9, discusses major diachronic trends identified in the study area's archaeological record. Chapter 8 focuses on palaeoclimatology and the formation of the landscape, while Chapter 9 considers diverse characteristics of each settlement phase or subphase. Five major settlement phases of varying lengths, with four of them divided into two subphases each, have been identified.

xv

Part 4, Chapter 10, offers a long-term perspective on some of the major processes involved in the genesis of the Houlouf chiefdom. It is hard to acknowledge all those who have contributed to this work from the beginning to the end. They are too numerous to be all cited by names here. The Houlouf Archaeological Project was funded by grants from the Sous-direction des Sciences Humaines of the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs from 1981 to 1986; the Sous-direction de la Recherche Scientifique of the French Ministry of Cooperation from 1987 to 1991; and the National Geographic Society Research and Exploration Committee in 1987. Funds for laboratory analyses, sedimentology, soil physicochemical analysis, paleometallographic analyses and radiocarbon dating, were partly provided by the Laboratoire d'Ethnologie et de Sociologie Comparative (UMR 116 CNRS-Universite de Paris X). In Cameroon, research permits for the field staff, as well as constant logistical support, were provided by the Institute of Human Sciences. Special thanks are due to late Jean-Paul and Annie M.D. Lebeuf, both research directors at the CNRS, for their trust, support and encouragements. Dr. C. Lechevalier is gratefully acknowledged for his important contribution to the palaeoclimatological subprogram. He has directed fieldwork on geomorphological probes, and provided efficient training on the identification of local sedimentary contexts. Dr. A. Bridault helped in the determination of a part of the collected faunal remains, and was also involved in all the components of fieldwork. Dr. Thomas E. Levy is acknowledged for his contribution to fieldwork and wide- ranging discussions on theories and processes of social evolution as viewed from the Houlouf base camp. Thanks are due to M. Levant (CNRS) for particle-size anlysis and her incisive and useful comments on their results, J.L. Dumont (CNRS) for physicochemical analysis of soil samples from the Houlouf site catchment area, and M. Bourhis (CNRS) for his metallographic analysis and informative comments. In different years, fieldwork was supervised by P.A. de Labriffe, F. Lafage and A. Jones. M. H. Demarre-Holl is acknowledged for her contribution to fieldwork and archaeological data processing in the heat and dust of the Houlouf dry season. Gratitude is extended to Mr. Mahatma Bahr Maalouf, Sultan ofLogone-Birni, the late May Hassana, the last Sultan of Houlouf, the Galadima, other elders from Houlouf, and Bilama Harfi of Alaya I, for their patience and teachings. And finally, Mrs J. Ngarba, M. Mahamat, M. Arouna, Z. Harfi, O. Abdoulaye, Adoum, Arouna, Ousmane Babawa are acknowledged for their constant support and contribution to fieldwork. As is usually the case in similar circumstances, none of the colleagues named above, is to be blamed of any idea, shortcoming or misinterpretation of the data published in this work, the responsibility of which rests on the author alone. The first draft of this book was completed during a sabbatical semester, as a host of the Centre de Recherches Archeologiques of Cuiry-les-Chaudardes. Colleagues from ERA 12-CNRS, and especially its director, Professor J.P. Demoule, Drs. J. Dubouloz, L. Hachem, M.J. Ilett and C. Constantin, are warmly acknowledged for their help and support.

xvi

Chapter 1

Chadian Plain Archaeology An Outline

Introduction

decade, L. Pales, a medical doctor residing at Fort-Lamy (Ndjamena), discovered a mound site in the periphery of the town, on the shore of the Chari River, and excavated a part of it. Numerous sherds and a few burials were recorded (Pales 1937). Human skeletons excavated by T. Monod at LogoneBirni and L. Pales at Ndjamena were studied and written about by R. Hartweg (1942). Up to the Second World War, with the exception of the unique expedition of F. Wulsin at Goulfey, research on Chadian Plain archaeology was based on casual finds. The situation changed after 1945 when M. Griaule and J.P. Lebeuf launched a longterm archaeological research program on the Sao civilization. M. Griaule was fascinated by folktales concerning the Sao, a vanished civilization of giants. Both were interested in documenting what were then considered symbols of high culture. Terra-cotta figurines, copper-alloy artifacts, and items of personal adornment were the main targets of archaeological excavation. All the major Kotoko cities-Makari, Afade, Maltam, Kusseri, Sao, Goulfey, Woulki, Waza, Midigue, Tago, Gawi, Amkoundjo, Messo-were tested or surveyed (Griaule and Lebeuf 1948, 1950, 1951; Lebeuf and Masson-Detourbet 1950; Lebeuf and Lebeuf 1977). A typology of Sao sites (Sao I, Sao II and Sao III) was worked out and an archaeological atlas with 880 recorded sites published (Lebeuf 1979, 1981). The reasearch problem addressed by M. Griaule and J.P. Lebeuf, and later by J.P. Lebeuf and A.M.D. Lebeuf, belongs to a broader trend of cultural history. Artwork was then considered to be the mark of civilization, providing important clues to the aesthetics, "taste" and "finesse" of a cultural universe. When the artwork in archaeological deposits ran out, the research crew moved on to another site. The title of LeBeuf and Masson-Detourbet's book published in 1977, Les Arts Sao, is particularly significant. The Sao civilization issue had been hotly debated in the 1960s. Cohen's (1962) short contribution to Man

Chadian Plain archaeology is relatively young. The number of researchers and research programs has never been particularly high. Interaction with other disciplines is a very recent phenomenon. Several explanations can be offered for this situation but they will not be considered in this work. Given this background, the research achievements are remarkable. A general chronological framework for the development of Chadian Plain prehistoric societies has been worked out. The development of its food-producing societies is currently under serious investigation. Extensive surveys and an archaeological atlas have been published. It is now possible to shift toward an archaeology of societies.

Research History A history of archaeological research is not a simple chronicle of fieldwork and publications. It is a history of research problems that have mobilized both the energy and creative forces of different generations of researchers. As far as the archaeology of the Chadian Plain is concerned, the first survey and test excavation was conducted by F. Wulsin (1937) of the Peabody Museum, Harvard University, in the 1920s. His excavation was carried out at Goulfey, on the west bank of the Chari River. He recorded a series of clay figurines, artifacts of alloyed copper and few well-preserved large jars from an unknown vanished culture. In the 1930s, T. Monod traveled to Logone-Birni as an expert in fisheries to study traditional fishing technologies and provide advice for their improvement. During his sojourn, he happens to excavate a series of large burial jars exposed by the Logone River. (Monod 1928, 1932). These burials contained carnelian beads and copper-alloy grave goods. During the same 1

2

The Land of Houlouf

Lake Chad

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.

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Figure 1. Distribution of archaeological sites on the Chadian Plain.

entitled "The So just so" considered the Sao to be a "spurious tribal" grouping. The advent of radiocarbon techniques and the dating of charcoal samples from Mdaga excavated from 1960 to 1968 changed the nature of Lebeuf's research program (Lebeuf et al. 1980). The Sao tripartite settlement typology collapsed. The Mdaga archaeological sequence appeared much older than suspected. And more important, the very concept of Sao civilization was shaken. The newly adopted research strategy involved long-term archaeological investigation, with several trenches of varying sizes distributed all over the mound surface. This strategy was tested and was particularly successful at Mdaga. It was then shifted to the large mound site of Sou, near Afade in northern Cameroon. In the Nigerian part of the Chadian Plain, there was no archaeological research prior to 1960. Bivar and Shinnie (1962)

conducted a survey of Old Kanuri capitals along the Yobe River and the northwestern shore of Lake Chad in northern Bornu. They discovered the remains of Birni-Ghazzargamo, the capital city of the ancient Bornu kingdom until the beginning of the nineteenth century, a walled settlement with large central buildings constructed with fired bricks. G. Connah, then research fellow at the University ofIbadan, initiated a long-term archaeological project along a 300 km north-south transect of the Chadian Plain, from the Barna Ridge to the Yobe Valley (Connah 1981, 1984). He conducted an extensive survey program in southern Bornu, along the edge of the Mandara mountain range and discovered several lithic workshops, probable stone procurement sites linked with Chadian Plain Late Stone Age settlements (Connah and Freeth 1989). Nine archaeological sites, ranging in date from ca. 2000 B.C. to A.D. 1500, were tested

Chadian Plain Archaeology: An Outline

along the selected north-south transect: Bama Road site in the south on the Bama Ridge; Shilma, DaYma and Kursakata in the clayey (jirki) plain of the Chad lagoonal complex; and Ajere, Yau and Ghazzargamo within the sandy Yobe Valley in the north. G. Connah's research program was framed in human-to-Iand relationships and attempted to document human responses to changing environmental circumstances. Two major adaptive responses were singled out: the ''firki response" I, II and III in the thick clay soils contexts of the Chad lagoonal complex documented at Kursakata, Shilma and Dalma, and the "Yobe adaptation" for the sandy soils of the northern sites cluster documented at Ajere, Yau and Ghazzargamo (Connah 1981,1985). The advent of iron technology documented in the Da·ima mound sequence between 500 and 300 B.C. was considered an adaptive response to the heavy soils of the firki plain. Iron tools, more efficient for digging heavy soils and tilling land, may have enhanced productivity in wetland agricultural systems (Connah 1985) and had something to do with the development of the new circular pise wall houses (Connah 1981). The DaYma archaeological section, exposed in a large trench 60 m in length, 5 m in width, and 11.5 m in thickness, and divided into Dalma I (550 B.C.-A.D. 50, spits 41-52: 8.2-10.5 m), Dalma II (A.D. 50700, spits 22-40: 4.4-8.2 m), and Dalma III (A.D. 700-1400, spits 1-22: 0-4.4 m) is a reference sequence in West African archaeology (Connah 1976). Connah's research program provided important and clear archaeological information on Chadian Plain settlement types, stratigraphies, and prehistoric foodways, as well as a chronological gradient for the expansion of human settlement from the south to the north. More recently, starting in 1990, a multidisciplinary research project including archaeologists, soil scientists, archaeozoologists and archaeobotanists, directed by P. Breunig from the University of Frankfurt and in collaboration with the University of Maiduguri, was launched in Bornu. The project aims to document the development of food-producing societies in the West African Sahel. Two study areas were selected for detailed investigation: the area around MaYduguri and the new excavation of Kursakata (Breunig 1994, 1995a, b; Breunig et al. 1992; 1993a, b; Groenenborn 1995; Neumann 1995, Garba 1993). Several archaeological sites have been mapped in the first study area ranging from the Bama Ridge to the western part of the Chad lagoonal complex. Two of them were selected for excavation: Konduga on the ridge (dated to 4000-5500 B.C.) and Gajiganna further north (dated to 1500-900 B.C.). Gajiganna economy was based on livestock husbandry, with cattle largely predominating. The reinvestigation of Kursakata confirms earlier Connah findings (Groenenborn 1995), with the discovery of plant macroremains of domesticated millet (Pennisetum sp.), wild rice (Oryza sp.), and other wild grain and fruits dated to the beginnings of the first millennium B.C. (Neumann 1995). In summary, different aspects of Chadian Plain archaeology have been investigated, ranging from the characterization of the Sao civilization to the development of food-producing economies. In general, research tactics were based on a single-site

3

approach, the net being too wide to allow any convincing approach to past social formations. The Houlouf archaeological project, conducted in the Cameroonian part of the Chadian Plain from 1982, was devised to achieve such an aim.

Modeling Site Location Strategies Let us consider that the receding of the Lake Chad, from 320 m asl to present-day 282 m asl, was not a straightforward and single-episode process. The location of the lake shoreline fluctuated, with episodes of retreat followed by episodes of expansion, even if, overall, it receded during the Late Holocene. In such a context, depending on the concatenation of climatic parameters and slope gradients, new lands may have been available for human settlement at some periods, while at other the same area may have been under water. Site location strategies and movements of colonization may thus be conceptualized as a nonlinear process comprising sequences of expansion and dispersal, contraction and clustering, and consolidation and reorganization. In the perspective outlined above, several models can be built to explain the processes of settlement expansion that generated the present-day distribution of archaeological sites. In general, decisions concerning site location in the landscape depend on the dominant aspect of actual socioeconomic systems and relations with neighboring social groups (Holl 1993b). Theoretically, in a new land opened to human colonization without friction with other inhabitants, the new settlers are relatively free to make decisions about the location of their site. Such decisions may be based on the requirements of their socioeconomic system, the avoidance of nuisance, and an awareness of the dynamics of the actual ecosystem. The Chadian Plain situated in the Sahel, is an open low-energy environment. It is a poorly drained and flat land mass comprising various kinds of savanna. The landscape is largely flooded during rainy seasons. Droughts and floods are the major natural catastrophes which may have threatened human communities of this area. It can be expected that decisions concerning site location may have resulted from an evaluation of risks of flood and drought. Long-term settlements are therefore expected to be located on relatively safe topographic situations, not far from a water drainage, but above the annual flood level, in an area with fertile lands suitable for agriculture, if the new settlers are agriculturalists, in grasslands if they are pastoralists, in an ecotone combining both if they are mixed farmers, or along major river courses if they are primarily fishing people. Depending on the patterns of demography, a sustained increase in popUlation may have generated a directional movement of settlement on all available land with similar optimal potentials. According to this model, an understanding of site location strategies that developed in the Chadian Plain requires analyses of changing aspects of the physical environment. A few of these ecological parameters will be considered in more detail: hydrographic networks, vegetation zones and types of soils.

4

The Land of Houlouf

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2: Fluctuations of Lake Chad levels during the second millennium AD.

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Figure 2. Fluctuations of Lake Chad levels at different time scales.

The Landscape: Past and Present The Chad Basin sits in the center of gravity of Africa. It is a sedimentary basin ranging from the Sudanian savanna vegetation zone in the south to the desert landscape of the Tenere in the north. Climatic zones range from desertic in the north, to Sahelian, and then Sudano-Sahelian in the south. It is an endorelc watershed fed by watercourses coming from the south and west: the Logone, the Chari, the El Beid, the Yedseram and the Yobe. The area under consideration, here termed Chadian Plain, is situated in the southern part of the basin, extending from the Maiduguri-Bama-Limani-Bongor Ridge, the former Early Holocene Mega-Chad shoreline at 320 m asl, to the present-day lake situated at 282 m asl. It is dotted with hundreds of mound

sites of varying sizes (Fig. 1). Archaeological research carried out from the 1920s has shown that all of them are the result of long-term human occupation. At present, more than one thousand mounds have been recorded and mapped; 449 are deserted settlements, 272 are still inhabited and information on the rest is uncertain (Lebeuf 1981:14). The present-day inhabitants of the Chadian Plain belong to several ethnic groups, the most important being the Kotoko, Babalia, Bulala, Kanuri, Mouloui and Shuwa-Arabs. In general, however, ethnohistorical and some written historical records suggest that most, if not all, the mound sites were settled by a people called the Sao. According to Lebeuf (1981:15), this term "is used to refer to black people, from diverse origins up to the end of the XVIth C. A.D." From this perspective, the term "Sao" cannot be considered a precise ethnonym; it is more probably a generic term coined by neighboring groups, most of them speakers of Saharan languages, lumping together within the same category all the pre-sixteenth century Chadian Plain mound-dwellers who were speakers of Chadic languages. As a starting point, a discussion of some of the larger, more general patterns of mounds in the Chadian Plain may be useful in clarifying the scientific issues which will be considered in this work (Lebeuf 1969,1981; Connah 1981, 1984; Holl1993a; Holl et al. 1991). The Chadian Plain archaeological maps available (Lebeuf 1969, 1981; Connah 1981) show the overall distribution of sites to be uneven (Fig. 1); some patterns can, however, be suggested. The study area can be partitioned into three broad west-east transects. Transect 1, situated in the north, runs from the southern shore of Lake Chad to the parallel of the Logone-Chari confluence. It measures 110 km on the east-west axis and 65 km north-south, and includes 310 mounds according to Lebeuf (1969, 1981) or 293 mounds according to Connah (1981 :46). Transect 2, in the middle section of the plain, measures 110 km long and 50 km wide and comprises an unoccupied area of about 50 km in diameter, which corresponds to the heavily flooded depression of the Waza National Park. The number of recorded mound si tes, all of them si tuated on the western and eastern periphery of the depression, is 58 according to the Lebeuf (1969, 1981) census, or 50 following that of Connah (1981). Transect 3, the southernmost one, measures 100 km long and 75 km wide; it contains 125 sites according to Connah (1981) or 132 following Lebeuf (1969, 1981). In general, as can be seen from the figures presented above, differences between Lebeuf and Connah censuses are not very significant: a difference of 17 si tes in transect 1, 8 in transect 2 and 7 in transect 3. General trends in the spatial distribution of mounds sites are therefore similar. It appears that transect I situated on the shore of Lake Chad was the most densely settled, followed by transect 3 and then transect 2. The densities of sites per square kilometer thus vary from 0.043/0.048 in transect 1 to 0.017/0.016 in ransect 3, and 0.010/0.009 in transect 2. It is clear that the spatial pattern of site distribution presented above resulted from long-term and cumulative settlement history, probably with various sequences of expansion, reorgani-

Chadian Plain Archaeology: An Outline

zation and contraction. The hypothesized settlement sequences may have been dependent upon the dynamics of the Chad Basin ecosystems, characterized by a phase of receding of the Lake Chad level from its Early Holocene MaYduguri-Bama-LimaniBongor 320 m asl shoreline to its present-day 282 asllevel. It can be hypothesized that short- (seasonal), middle- (decadal, centennial), and long- (millennial) term variations in the depth as well as extension of the receding lake, may have generated diverse site location strategies. Depending on the topographic characteristics of the inhabited areas, some short-term occupations may have been wiped out by natural forces, while other localities were preserved. It is this last category which is relevant for our discussion. The question may be framed as follows: What are the major characteristics of the ecosystem which may have dictated the imperatives for optimal site location? During the Early Holocene (ca. 9000-7000 B.P.), the MegaChad was in general at its maximum height, with its shoreline fluctuating between 325 and 320 m asl. Its extent is estimated to 330,000 square km (Fig. 2) and its maximum depth may have fluctuated between 100 and 150 m (Schneider 1994:43). According to Servant and Servant (1980), Servant (1983) and Servant-Vildary (1978), and based on geological, palynological studies and the analysis of diatomites, the climate was cold in general, with minor seasonal variation in rainfall. There are, however, important fluctuations which have been recorded. In 8500 B.P. the lake level was high followed by a sharp drop between 7600 and 7300 B.P. (Fig. 2). The lake was probably divided into distinct smaller lakes or lagoons, with large amounts of land accessible to human colonization. The general characteristics of the Early Holocene Mega-Chad are still hotly debated by specialists. It appears that microregional and even local factors may have affected the depths of such an extensive lake. It is not yet known clearly if the lake was always a single body of permanent water, or if it was composed of distinct minor lakes that were fused from time to time depending on water input (Servant 1983; Maley 1981; Durand et al. 1983). Another high lake level recorded at 6900 B.p.lasted for 1500 years with a minor regression in 6500 B.P. A relatively arid episode is recorded beginning 5500 B.P., thus initiating a sustained trend toward decreasing lake levels down to the present. From 5500 to 3500 B.P., the extent of the lake was reduced compared to the previous period; its shoreline may have fluctuated between 300 and 295 m asl. The climate was tropical-subdesertic to Sudano-Sahelian-and characterized by sharply contrasted seasons, with drastic seasonal variation in lake levels. The present-day lake averaging 282 m asl extends over 20,000 to 25,000 square km, and was probably formed in the middle of the second millennium A.D. During the last millennium the amplitude of lake level fluctuations was narrower. The lake's open water has disappeared several times in the past as well as during the last ten years, as was the case in 1984 and 1990. The paleoecological changes of the Holocene Lake Chad outlined above offered new opportunities as well as new constraints to Late Stone Age populations, pushing and pulling their move-

5

ments of expansion and colonization. Some of these opportunities and constraints that affected them were: an ever-changing landscape, the nature and distribution of soils types, vegetation zones, animal resources, and patterns of rainfall. With a low slope gradient, the Chadian Plain is above all a flat land mass, poorly drained. In elevation, there is a difference of 38 meters between the Early Holocene shoreline and the present-day lake level (320 m to 282 m asl) stretched across 250 to 300 kilometers. A large proportion of the study area is flooded during the rainy seasons; permanent settlements had therefore to be located in relatively safe positions according to the risk of flood. Watercourses, poorly drained plains and depressions, the changing distribution of permanent bodies of standing water, intermittent ponds, marshes, and processes of erosion and aggradation have generated an intricate pattern of distribution of soils types all over the plain. The recorded types of soil formations consist of clays, silts, sands and varying combination of all of them (Brabant and Gavaud 1985; Pi as 1970; Thiemeyer and Buschbeck 1993). However, most of later soil formations, dating from the early Holocene onwards, are deposited on thick sand formations resulting from the erasing of previous dunal systems dating to the Late Pleistocene Kanemian and Mid-Holocene arid phases, 20,000 to 12-10,000 B.P. and 5500 to 4000 B.P. (Servant 1983; Pi as 1970; Thiemeyer and Buschbeck 1993). The MaYduguri-Bama-Limani-Bongor Ridge, situated at 320 m asl and measuring 7 to 12 m in height, is a remnant of an older dunal system deposited on a red sandy soil formation in which a few micro lithic stone tools have been found at Douboule in Cameroon (Thiem eyer and Buschbeck 1993; Brabant and Gavaud 1985: 199). Within the context of a generally humid and wet Early Holocene phase, and depending on seasonal variation of climatic parameters and lake levels, the ridge was formed by combined effects of lake seepage, erosion of former dunes and aggradation between 9000 and 5300 B.P. During the same period, clayey soils were deposited at the bottom of the lake and interdunal depressions, most of them containing limestone nodules. Soils from former lacustrine beaches are composed of a mosaic of coarse sands. In northern Cameroon, such soil formations are found between 320 and 306 m asl. Deltaic soil formations are deposited above clay levels with limestone nodules, and consist of fine clayey sand, fine sandy clay interspersed with siltier layers (Brabant and Gavaud 1985:205). Such sedimentary units situated between 300 and 296 m asl are considered to have been deposited by active watercourses between 5000 and 3500 B.P. They have been recorded in Nigeria in the Barna deltaic formation (Connah 1981), in Cameroon in the former Logone deltaic formation (Brabant and Gavaud 1985:205) and in the Chad Republic in the former Chari delta (Pias 1970). The Barna deltaic complex was formed with deposits accumulated by Yedseram and Ngadda rivers (Fig. 3). The landscape is flat and consists of sand plains and clayey depressions in the central part of the complex, with stabilized longitudinal dunes located in the north and southeast. Recent

6

The Land of Houlouf

Lake Chad

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Figure 3. Major sedimentary formations and distribution of Late Stone Age sites.

alluvium (3500 B.P. onwards) is found along watercourses and in areas situated at elevations from 290 to 285 m asl with presentday lacustrine soils along the shores of the modern lake. Recent dating of northeastern Nigeria paleodunes with thermoluminescence techniques (Thiemeyer and Buschbeck 1993) has addressed three main tasks: (1) dating the different recorded dune complexes; (2) assessing whether the longitudinal dunes of the Barna deltaic complex are remnants of a former larger Lantewa dunefield; and (3) working out a relative chronology of the Chad lagoonal complex sand pads and the firki clays (Thiemeyer and Buscbeck 1993:222). The authors emphasize that the research protocol implemented to date sand dunes is still at an experimental stage; the preliminary results are nonetheless highly promising. It thus appears that the Lantewa dune fields situated in the southwestern side of the Maiduguri-Bama Ridge is older than the Gudumbali dunefield in the northeast (Fig. 3), even if there are some older thermoluminescence dates (TL) in the latter that presumably belong to older remnants of remobilized transversal dunes. It also appears that longitudinal dunes from

the Barna deltaic complex are of mixed origin, comprising both older and younger TL dates than the Maiduguri-Bama Ridge. It is therefore thought that remnants of older longitudinal dunes are included in this sedimentary formation. The answer to the third question is based on a single sample and more data are needed to clarify the issue; but the sand pads of the Chad lagoonal complex appear to be older than the firki clays (Thiemeyer and Buschbeck 1993:223). These new data nicely support the proposals formulated above. The present-day vegetation, only partly relevant for understanding the early stages of human colonization of the Chadian Plain, is composed of arbustive savanna with thorny trees on sandy and silty soils, grasslands on clayey and flooded soils, and Sahelian steppes on lacustrine and poorly evolved soils (Connah 1981; Letouzey 1985). Recent anthracological and palynological studies, conducted by K. Neumann on the material from Gajiganna (Breunig et al. 1993 :57 -59), provide some glimpses of earlier Late Holocene local vegetation. Palynological samples collected from Gajigann'a layer 9, the earliest of the

Chadian Plain Archaeology: An Outline

archaeological sequence, suggest the existence of a closed woody vegetation ca. 3200-3500 B.P. They contain a small amount of grass pollen, more than half of the dominating species being Eugenia, "a shrub growing today in gallery forest (next to the edge of open water),' (Breunig et al. 1993:57). Samples from layer 3, dated to 2700 B.P., present "a more diversified vegetation indicative of a more open plant cover" (Breunig et al. 1993:58). Charcoal samples have been collected in all levels; only those from the earliest parts of the archaeological sequence have been analysed. "Most of all the identified trees and shrubs still grow today in the region, but others like Prosopis africana or Diospyros mespiliformis (ebony) are not present" (Breunig et al. 1993:58-59). In general, the reconstructed types of vegetation are similar to the present; but with a larger number of species in earlier cultural layers, a change probably due to both climatic change and human interference.

Holocene Settlement Expansion Geological, palynological and paleoecological research carried out in the Chad Basin during the last thirty years has shown that the area and depth of Lake Chad has varied several times in the past. For the last 10,000 years, the major transgressive episode dates from the Early Holocene time range, when the MegaChad southern shoreline was situated on the Maiduguri-BamaLimani-Bongor Ridge, at 320 m above sea level and oriented northwest-southeast. From Mid-Holocene times, climatic conditions have changed and generated a long-term trend toward the reduction of both size and depth of the former Early Holocene lake (Durand et al. 1983; Maley 1981; Schneider 1994; Servant 1983; Servant-Vildary 1978; Servant and ServantVi1dary 1980). The remaining part of this chapter presents an updated reconstruction of the expansion of human settlement into the southern part of the Chad Basin. Unfortunately, archaeological data collected from well-dated contexts are at a premium. It is, however, important to note that in the extensive study area under consideration here, the number of tested sites is small compared to the total number of recorded and mapped settlements, which amounts to more than one thousand (Lebeuf 1969, 1981; Lebeuf et al. 1980; Connah 1981, 1984, Ho1l1987, 1988, 1993a, b, c; Holl et al. 1991; Breunig n.d. a, b; Breunig 1994, 1995; Breunig et al. 1992; Breunig et al. 1993; David and Sterner 1987, 1989; Rapp 1984; Gronenborn 1995; Neumann 1995 ). The discussion will focus on this relatively small sample of tested sites (Fig. 3). It will consider site location, especially in regard to sedimentary matrixes; recorded archaeological features; items of material culture; and data on foodways collected in stratigraphic sections dating from ca. 7000 to 2000 B.P. An attempt will be made to single out some of the major characteristics of the Chadian Plain Late Stone Age settlement types and societies, as well as the direction of the movement of colonization, and the archaeological evidence will be compared with linguis-

7

tic evidence (Dieu and Renaud 1983; Barreteau 1987a, b; lungraithmayr 1987,1988; Barreteau andlungraithmayr 1993). The Early Holocene Settlement Phase (ca. 7000-5000 B.?) During the Early Holocene settlement phase, shifting lake levels, with their corollary erosion and aggradation cycles, may have been detrimental to the preservation of the archaeological record. The lake's level was in general at its maximum height; important fluctuations have, however, been recorded. Up to 8500 B.P. the level of the lake was high, followed by a sharp decrease between 7600 and 7300 B.P. It was probably divided into distinct smaller lakes and lagoons, dotted with peninsulas and series of islands, providing large tracts of lands accessible to human settlement. Another high lake level, beginning 6900 B.P. appears to have lasted for one and half millennia with a minor regression ca. 6500 B.P. (Schneider 1994). An arid episode, characterized by the formation of longitudinal northwest-southeast sand dunes 5100 to 4000-3500 B.P., seems to have initiated a sustained trend toward the reduction of Lake Chad to its presentday size. Specific characteristics of the Early Holocene MegaChad Basin in regard to paleoclimates, paleoecology and topography are still hotly debated by specialists (Servant 1980, 1983; Servant-Vildary 1978, 1980; Maley 1981; Durand et al. 1983; Lamotte 1993; Schneider 1994). According to some researchers, the Bama Ridge, usually thought to be a remnant of the Early Holocene Mega-Chad shoreline, is more likely a topographic feature created by a northwest-southeast fault line. It appears that microregional and even local factors such as height of water table may have affected the depths of such an extensive lake. It is not yet known if the lake was a single body of permanent water, or if it was composed of distinct smaller lakes, fused from time to time. A few sites have been recorded, all of them on or near the 320 m shoreline, including Blabli in Cameroon and Konduga in Nigeria (Fig. 4). Even if it cannot be considered as a settlement in the strictest sense, the Dufuna dugout, found in the upper Yobe Valley along the Komadugu Gana in 1987 and dated to 8000 B.P., is the earliest evidence of human presence in the Chadian Plain and the oldest boat in Africa. The boat, 8.5 m long, is fully preserved and was found buried under five meters of lacustrine sediment. It was made from Detarium senegalensis wood, a tree usually found in closed forest and fringing forest of the moister savanna regions (Breunig 1995a: 16). The spectacular find of the Duguna dugout attests to the mastering of watercraft by early Late Stone Age inhabitants of the Chadian Plain. No early and contemporaneous habitation site has yet been found in the area. Blabli, discovered in 1984 by the Mandara Archaeological Expedition, is a flat site, a presumed small camp of one hectare, situated I km north of the Barna Ridge (David and Sterner 1987:2-8). The site consists of a single cultural horizon, 20 cm thick, surrounded by fluviolacustrine deposits (Figs. 3, 4) Radiocarbon dates run on ovicaprine bone fragments suggest that

The Land of Houlouf

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the locality was settled in 7000 B.P. and 4500 B.P. (TO 1127 4390 ± 220 B.P. and TO 1128 6960 ± 200 B.P.). There has been so far no comment on the cultural implications of the unexpected antiquity of ovicaprine bones in the southernmost part of the Chadian Plain (David and Sterner 1989:7). The evidence at hand, if confirmed by further investigation, suggests that a single cultural horizon site does not always mean that a settlement was inhabited for a short episode, the formation of a cultural horizon depending on the bulk of the building material used and the duration of occupation. Different and distinct small

groups may have settled on the 1 ha site of Blabli at different periods of the Early and Middle Holocene. A few potsherds have been recorded; they show a well-made and well-fired fine pottery, mainly decorated with comb impressions. One terra-cotta figurine of Bos sp. was found, as well as ground and polished stone axes. Bones that could be of domesticated cattle were identified among the faunal remains, as well domestic sheep/goat bones (David and Sterner 1987:5). No evidence of plant remains have been recorded. Minimally at least, the former inhabitants of Blabli can be considered mobile stock breeders, who settled

Chadian Plain Archaeology: An Outline

several times on Lake Chad beaches during episodes of relatively low water levels, a site location strategy commonly practiced by present-day nomadic pastoralists along the shores of Lake Chad. The Barna Ridge consists of nearly parallel series of sandy bars. The inter-bar valleys are filled with sandy deposits several meters deep located in former river channels. Surveys carried out between Barna and Maiduguri in Nigeria, show that cultural materials are often found in such channel fills. According to Breunig et al. (1992:14), "the most probable origin of this re-deposited material might have been the top of the ridges. The large number of sites suggests an intense prehistoric settlement in the area under consideration." Unfortunately, none of these recorded site has yet been tested, and we are left with the evidence from Konduga (Figs. 3,4). The total area of the site found in the sand formation of the ridge is unknown. In the direction of Lake Chad in the north, the ridge has a height of 12 m while the landscape behind it is 5 m lower (Breunig n.d.a 1994, 1995). Two areas of the site were tested, section 1 measuring about 20 square meters situated near a sand pit, and section 2 (5 by 5 m) few meters away. The stratigraphy of the site appears to be simple. The top layer (0-0.50 m) consists of a greyish brown sand. Layer 2 (0.50-0.80 m) is composed of a light yellowish brown sand. Layer 3 (0.80-1.20 m) is pale brown fine gravel. A total of 450 finds have been collected. Cultural material items, mostly potsherds, were found in and around a sandpit situated on the top of the ridge. The pit was discovered below one meter of consolidated sand (Breunig et al. 1992: 14, 1995b). The collected potsherds are decorated with rockerstamping (or comb) technique. Pieces of rounded charcoal which seem to have been transported by running water have been dated to 6340 ± 250 b.p. (cal. B.C. 5515-4994, KN-4300). A second date obtained from a charcoal sample collected in a stratified deposit from an excavated trench provided a similar reading of 6180 ± 60 b.p. (cal. B.C. 5241-5004, UtC 2248). The Early Holocene settlement phase is still poorly documented. If there were any inhabited sites in the clayey plain as suggested by the Dufuna dugout, they have yet to be discovered. The Late Holocene Settlement Phase (ca. 4000-2000 B.?)

Within the dearth of well excavated and dated sites sequences, the Late Holocene settlement phase, lasting from 4000 B.P. to 2000 B.P. is better documented. Five sites have been tested in Nigeria: Barna Road site and Gajiganna A and B in the Barna deltaic complex; Shilma, Kursakata and Dalma in the Chad lagoonal complex; one site in Cameroon at Sou Blame Radjil, and one in Chad Republic at Mdaga (Figs. 3,4). Late Holocene paleoclimatology and paleoecology are comparatively poorly investigated (Maley 1981; Schneider 1994). In general, however, it is thought that there were two humid episodes, the first approximately 3000 to 2500 B.P., during which the lake level may have fluctuated between 296 and 290 m asl, and the second with a peak in 1500-1600 B.P., with the lake level varying

9

from 290 to 285 m. The present discussion will therefore be based on evidence from seven sites, proceeding from the earliest to the latest. Barna Road site (11 32' N-13 40' E) is an elongated mound, 300 m long, 250 m wide and 3 m high located at some 2.5 km northwest of Barna (Figs. 3, 4). Two trenches 3 by 2 m each (cutting I and II), were tested on the site. The archaeological deposit measuring 3.4 m in maximum thickness sits above a dark grey sand and gravel sedimentary unit. The site seems to have been settled from the beginning of the second millennium B.C. The earlier settlement phase has been recorded in spits 1417 (cutting I), at depths varying from 2.8 to 3.4 m and dated to 3830 ± 250 B.P. (N 793). The material culture items collected from basal Late Stone Age levels consist of 34 potsherds, some decorated with comb-stamping technique, and two bone tools. The bulk of Late Stone Age occupation occurred during the first millennium B.C. as suggested by material evidence collected from spits 1 to 13 in both cuttings. Series of superimposed living surfaces containing burnt soil, ash lenses and charcoal, suggest that the site may have been settled permanently during the accumulation of spits 6 to 10, between 1 and 2 meters in the stratigraphic section. In general, the repertoire of cultural material consists of pottery, bone tools, stone axes, grinding equipment and very few pieces of flaked stone. The pottery was highly fragmented; among the recognizable vessels shapes however, globular and subhemispherical pots, some with fully everted rims, and small bowls, were the most common. Much of the pottery was plain. When present, decoration consisted of mat impressions, grooving, ridging and comb-stamping (Connah 1981 :87). A few fish and mammal bones were collected but they were not identified; remains of freshwater mussels (Aspartharia spp.) have also been recorded, thus suggesting their use as a food resource (Connah 1981; Connah and McMillan 1995). Four burials, two infants and two adults, were found within both trial trenches. According to Connah (1981:85), Barna Road site can be considered as consisting "of a series of at least semi permanent villages" at the end of the second millennium B.C. If freshwater mussels were an important food resource, they may have been collected on a seasonal basis, probably at the end of the rainy season and the beginning of the dry season. The location of the site was probably optimal for herding livestock. The buildup of an archaeological deposit some 3.40 m thick may suggest that the settlement may have been visited from time to time during the early occupation phase, frequently occupied for longer periods, or even on a permanent sedentary basis during the later part of the first millennium B.C. SOU Blame Radjil (1212' N-14 41' E) is a twin mound complex located today on the shore of an intermittent stream. The mound complex covers 14 hectares (Figs. 3, 4). A test excavation measuring 25 square meters was carried out on the highest point of the western and larger mound (Rapp 1984). The recorded cultural deposit is 4.4 m thick, comprising eleven occupation levels. Late Stone Age occupations were found in levels V (2.2-2.7 m) to XI (4.05-4.40 m), bracketed between 2280 ±

10

The Land of Houlouf

170 B.P. (Ly 2004) in the former to 3280 ± 360 B.P. (Ly 2284) in the latter. The settlers from level XI built their dwellings on a hard silty clay, overlying yellow to white sand. The earlier occupation debris, which was exposed on a smaller surface of one square meter, consists of 36 sherds found above a thin fire-hardened surface, and decorated with roulette impression and combstamping. Most of the deposits in levels VII (3.00-3.25 m) to XI (4.05-4.4 m), 1.4 m of the stratigraphic section, consist predominantly of hard clay with a minor component of silt, varying in color from brown to grey, and interspersed with burnt living surfaces. Such archaeological deposits may have been formed by a combination of three factors: (1) clay deposited by water during rainy season floods alternating with short seasonal occupations; (2) clay deposited during shorter episodes of higher lake/lagoon levels; (3) lagoonal clay sediment used as building material. The size of the test excavation (12 x 2 m + 1 x 1 m) did not allow the exposure of complete dwelling units; the shapes of dwellings and actual building techniques are therefore unknown. Evidence from DaYma, which will be considered later, suggests Late Stone Age habitations prior to the advent of iron metallurgy consisted of wood and grass. If this was the case at Sou Blame Radjil, the accumulation of clay deposits in the archaeological section must be linked to the interplay of natural forces. In general however, it is not yet possible to choose between the hypotheses formulated above without more detailed analysis or the archaeological record, which is still largely unpublished. However, the sample of available radiocarbon dates suggests that the buildup of levels XI to VII lasted from 3280 ± 360 B.P. (Ly 2284) to 2530 ± 120 B.P. (Ly 2005), close to the accumulation rate of 1 m per millennium suggested by Maley (1981) for Lake Chad sedimentation. The deposit thus seems to have accumulated by natural process of aggradation generated by successive episodes of flood. The material culture is predominantly composed of potsherds. The quantity is smaller for earlier levels X and XI, partly because a smaller surface was exposed. Nine bone tools consisting of points and harpoons were collected from the excavation, while 116 others-90 complete and broken harpoons, 20 points and 6 chisels-were collected from the surface. Stone implements consist of ground axes, grinding equipment and a few flakes. Stone tool raw material, syenite and sandstone, has been taken from the Mora hills and Mandara mountains range 150 km in the south. The bulk of the Sou Blame Radjil Late Stone Age occupation occurred during the second half of the second millennium B.C., between 2500 B.P. and 2200 B.P., when the pattern of occupation may have shifted from an intermittently settled sand island site to a more permanent village. Gajiganna (1215' N-13 12' E) is a low twin mound complex situated on the edge of a clayey depression located in the western part of the Bama deltaic formation, 60 km northwest of Maiduguri in Nigeria (Figs. 3,4). The highest part of the mound complex (Gajiganna B) is one meter higher than the surrounding floodplain (Breunig et al. 1992, 1993; Breunig 1994, 1995b). The site complex covers about 2 ha, the larger Mound B mea-

suring 150 m in diameter. Three test excavations,S by 5 m each, were carried out, two from the highest point of each mound, with a third one on the edge of Mound B (Breunig et al. 1993; Breunig 1995b). The archaeological sequence of Gajiganna A is 2 m thick. It comprises two cultural horizons capped by a 0.4 m thick sand layer. The lower cultural layer, dated to 2930 ± 60 b.p. (UtC-2329, cal. 1236-1009 B.C.) is 0.2 m thick. It is overlaid by a virgin sand layer some 0.25 m in thickness. The upper cultural layer, is thicker, measuring 0.95 to 1.00 m and composed of bright brownish sandy clay, presumed to be the remains of mud-brick or wattle and daub structures. The stratigraphic sequence of Gajiganna B is 3 to 3.5 m thick, comprising three cultural horizons bracketed between two levels of virgin sand. The earlier cultural layer, called the basal layer, measures 0.4 m in thickness and is dated to 3140 ± 110 b.p. (UtC 2332, cal. 1499-1259 B.C.). The next one, the lower cultural layer with 1.05 m in thickness, is dated to almost the same period with dates ranging from 3040 ± 120 b.p. (KI 3605, cal. 1429-1052 B.C.) to 3150 ± 70 b.p. (UtC-2330, cal. 1490-1318 B.C.), while the upper cultural layer, 0.70 m thick is dated to 2740 ± 50 b.p. (UtC 2331, cal. 967-813 B.C.), 2730 ± 50 b.p. (UtC 2796, cal. 966-811 B.C.) and 2750 ± 70 b.p. (UtC 2797, cal. 971-811 B.C.) (Breunig 1995b:23-24). The stratigraphic sequences of both mounds suggest a complex settlement history. The settlement started at the western part of the complex, with an installation on an erased dune sloping from east to west. If the height of the probed sand substratum is considered in relation to distance between both test excavations, there is a difference of 1.2 m for a distance of 250 m, between the -1.8 m of the sand substratum of Mound A and the -3 m of that from Mound B, 250 m in the west. The succession of phases of settlement is continuous in Mound B and discontinuous in Mound A; this feature may have resulted from differential sequencing of extension/reduction of the inhabited space, as well as shifting location of dwelling facilities. If radiocarbon dates are considered, it seems that there are at least four settlement phases at Gajiganna instead of two, ranging from 1500 to 900 B.C. From earliest to latest these are: basal cultural layer (Mound B), lower cultural layer (Mound B), lower cultural layer (Mound A), upper cultural layer (Mounds A and B). Conditions of preservation of the archaeological record are excellent; 18,000 mammal and fish bones were collected, with 179,000 potsherds as well as numerous stone artifacts, arrow tips, ground axes and grinding tools (Breunig n.d.a, b, 1995; Breunig et al. 1993:31-32). Subsistence patterns suggest a combination of livestock breeding, hunting, mollusc-collecting and fishing. More than one thousand fish remains and many different birds species linked to water habitat have been identified. A few bones of forest duiker were also found. Numerous cattle figurines and numerous bones of cattle and sheep/goat were recovered. The economy of the prehistoric settlements was dominated by domestic animals: goat, sheep, and cattle. Domestic dogs were

Chadian Plain Archaeology: An Outline probably raised as well. Sheep were rare in comparison to goats. Cattle played the most important role among livestock. More than 60% of the bones of all mammals represented in the archaeological record are of cattle. Small clay figurines indicate a southern breed. [Breunig et al. 1993:31]

In both mounds' archaeological deposits, pottery is characterized by the presence of large jugs, open bowls and globular vessels, without any known parallel with pottery assemblages in the Chadian Plain archaeological record. Numerous bifacially retouched arrowpoints with a concave base made of chalcedony or quartz have been found. Most of the grinding material is made of sandstone from the Damboa area, 130 km to the southwest. Granite and microdiorite have been collected from the Mandara Hills, while volcanic rocks, mainly basalt, used for the manufacture of celts and adzes originated from the Bui area (Garba 1993), and "the bone industry is attested by chisels, one harpoon, points and ornaments" (Breunig et al. 1993). Four burials were found in Gajiganna A upper cultural layer: three adults and one young girl, 7 to 10 years old (Breunig 1995:28). The dead were probably buried within domestic space, in tightly contracted positions, one to two meters from each other. Their legs and arms were flexed, with hands over face. Each skeleton had a specific orientation. The easternmost child burial was oriented southeast-northwest, on its left side, face turned southwest. The adult burial in the north was oriented northeast-southwest, on its left side, face turned east. The third, southernmost burial is oriented east-west, on its right side, face turned south (Breunig et al. 1993; Breunig n.d.b, 1995b:27; see Fig. 14). The adult burial with missing cranium and arm is particularly interesting. The missing parts of the skeleton were probably reburied in a secondary burial at a complementary site. This is a good indication of settlement mobility. The predominance of cattle among animal bone remains does not automatically mean that the former inhabitants of Gajiganna were nomadic pastoralists. The large amount of recorded pottery indicates sedentary groups; there is, however, no positive evidence of agriculture. The site situated on the edge of a clayey depression in a mainly flat landscape was probably under permanent threat of flood during rainy seasons. Instead of being considered a sedentary village, the settlement of Gajiganna is better viewed as a regularly visited place, probably a "permanent" dry season camping area. A large pit more than 2.5 m wide and 2.0 m deep situated downslope in the exposed section of Mound B might be a shallow well dug in an area with a high water table, a practice commonly used during dry season by Arab pastoralists in the clay depression of the Yaere in northern Cameroon (Holl 1993; Holl and Levy 1993). Kursakata mound (12 19' N-14 14' E), 450 m long, 275 m wide and 5 m high, is situated on a presumed beach ridge along the 3500-2500 B.P. lake shoreline (Figs. 3, 4). The settlement was located in a lacustrine microenvironment, on the shore of the lake. A test excavation, 2.13 by 2.13 m, was carried out from the central and highest point of the mound. The archaeological sequence is 5.87 m thick. It was divided into 17 spits

11

measuring in average 0.30 m in thickness. The thickness of these arbitrary excavation units varies from 0.25 m to 0.5 m. The recorded cultural deposit sits on naturalfirki clay, "but the immediate surroundings suggested that the mound had accumulated on the edge of a slightly elevated sandy area adjacent to a Firki plain. Such sandy areas in the Firki most commonly consist of the sand islands rising through the clay" (Connah 1981 :91; Gronenborn 1995). The site stratigraphic sequence consists of finely banded clay layers, some of them iron-hard. With the exception of a shallow hearth discovered in spit 16 (5.44-5.50 m) at the bottom of the cultural deposit, no other dwelling feature has been recorded. A charcoal sample from the above-mentioned hearth has been dated to 2880 ± 140 B.P. (N 480). Recent research carried out by Gronenborn (1995) shows that the earliest level of the site dates to 3000 B.P. The buildup of the mound seems to have resulted from successive semipermanent settlements, inhabited from the beginning ofthe first millennium B.C. to some time in the first millennium A.D. A statistical analysis of potsherd decorative patterns suggests a break in decorative traditions between spit 11 and 10 (Connah 1981 :95). Tentatively, spits 11 to 17 can be considered Late Stone Age occupations, with the upper part of the stratigraphy coeval with more recent periods. Late Stone Age occupation levels (spits 11 to> 17) are generally characterized by low quantities of cultural materials. The number of potsherds varies from 26 to 38, with the majority of clay figurines and all stone artifacts found in these early deposits. "Bone tools and ground axes are absent; even grindstones and grinders/pounders are rare but clay figurines of animals, figurines of strange upright type, and fired fragments of the distinctive figurine clay are relatively common" (Connah 1981:97). Decoration of Kursakata Late Stone Age potsherds shows strong similarities with to those from Barna Road site and Sou Blame Radjil. Five main decoration techniques have been recorded: comb-stamping, grooving and ridging, wiping and smoothing, rouletting and mat impressions. Mixed farming, hunting and fishing appear to have been regular food procurement strategies. Animal bones have been collected; unfortunately, much of the material is highly fragmented and virtually unidentifiable. Cattle and sheep/goat bones have however been identified and fish bones were retrieved all along the stratigraphic sequence. Seventy percent of the identified fish remains belong to two species, Lates niloticus and Clarias sp. (Connah 1981 :98; Gronenborn 1995). Evidence of cultivated Pennisetum sp. dated to 1000 B.C. has been recorded recently (Neumann 1995). Wild rice (Oriza sp.) and wild fruits (Celtis integrifolia, Ziziphus sp. and Vites sp.) were also extensively collected. Some aspects of burial customs can be gleaned from the sample of ten excavated tombs. All the tombs were discovered in spits 11 to 13, suggesting the presence of a cemetery. "Four or five of the burials were infants but five were adults or at least adolescents" (Connah 1981 :95). The dead were lying on their sides, flexed, without specifically dominant orientation. They were mostly buried without grave goods, with the exception of one with eight clay beads. "The burials appeared to have been placed in shal-

12

The Land oj HoulouJ

low graves which were then filled with lumps of Firki clay and appeared to have been put in 'blind,' without much idea of the position of previous burials" (Connah 1981: 95). Such a feature suggests an intermittent settlement. Kursakata Late Stone Age occupation seems to have been highly intermittent. This pattern of occupation may have been dependent on the amplitude of the 4000-3000 B.P. Lake Chad seepage seasonal fluctuations and changing levels. According to paleoclimatic research (Maley 1981, Schneider 1994), the actual Lake Chad level and shoreline may have fluctuated between 296 and 290 m as!. Thus depending on actual concatenation of climatic parameters, the site may have been accessible or flooded. It is highly probable that during the Late Stone Age, Kursakata may have been situated on the lakeshore. Shilma or Bornu 70 (11 55' N-14 21' E) is a flat site located in the middle of an extensive clay plain within the Chad lagoonal complex (Figs. 3, 4). Judging from surface finds, the site is 800 m long and 400 m wide. Two test excavations, 3.00 m by 1.50 m each, were carried out on highest spots and have revealed an archaeological deposit 1 m in maximum thickness (Connah 1981: 142). The recorded cultural deposit, sitting on a thick layer of virgin Jirki clay is capped by a compact to loose mixed sediment of sand and clay, with vertical cracks resulting from later mud-building debris. It comprises finely bedded horizontal bands of iron-hard clay containing some ash, probably representing remains of dwelling floors or living surfaces. The occupation of the site seems to have occurred at the end of the first half of the first millennium B.C., as suggested by radiocarbon dates run on charcoal samples collected from spit 2 in cutting II, 2720 ± 120 B.P. (N 792), and spit 3 in cutting 1,2680 ± 180 B.P. (N 791). The settlement, which did not develop in the shape of a standard mound, seems to have been inhabited for only few centuries and then abandoned, probably during the second half of the first millennium B.C. According to Connah (1981: 145): The conclusion seems inescapable that we are dealing with a mixed assemblage resulting from periodic occupation spread over a considerable time. Even now a tiny settlement still exists at Shilma, actually on the site, and over the years I have seen it both abandoned (1967, 1969) and occupied (1978). Add to the probable intermittent occupation that this site has experienced the fact that the firki clay (of which it is mostly composed) is subject to deep, regular cracking and gradually inverts its profile ... and it may be guessed why the assemblage is mixed. If the process of deep and regular cracking of clay is present at all sites located in similar contexts, one can but wonder why the case of Shilma is singled out. If profiles are gradually inverted in this case, the same process may have occurred for assemblages from Barna Road site, Sou Blame Radjil, Gajiganna, Kursakata, Da'ima and Mdaga. The evidence from Shilma does not fit in the model of steady emergence of sedentary settlement, with a unidirectional shift from mobile hunting-gathering to sedentary food-producing societies, a model

assumed to explain the development of human colonization of the Chadian Plain as epitomized by the "success" of DaYma; This conception is at odds with more recent observations on local and contemporary settlement dynamics (Connah 1981; Holl et a!. 1991; Holl 1993; Holl and Levy 1993) and needs to be reconsidered. It appears that Shilma may have been above all a locality settled on a seasonal basis, frequently visited during a few centuries, and then abandoned. Shilma may better be considered an indication of an alternative site location tactic, part of broader spectrum of diversified settlement location strategies, encompassing short duration seasonal camps at the one end, and more permanent and even sedentary villages at the other end. The repertoire of the recorded material culture remains mostly consists of potsherds, with a few bone tools: harpoons, points and miscellaneous worked objects and grinding equipment, the last found in spit 1. Potsherds are predominantly decorated with five techniques: grooving and ridging, twisted cord roulette, miscellaneous rouletting, wiping and smoothing, and mat impression. The ceramic material shows strong similarities with ceramics from the Barna Road site, Sou Blame Radjil, and Kursakata, and seems to belong to the same or closely linked decorative grand tradition. Nothing is known about food remains. No evidence of faunal remains or botanical macroremains have been reported. Shilma seems to have been settled during a relatively dry period. The paleoclimatological record of Lake Chad indicates a low level fluctuating between 282 and 283 m (Maley 1981: 145). Slightly wetter episodes occurred 3000-2500 and 1500-1600 B.P. Even if the importance of the local environmental setting was predominant, from 3000 to 2500 B.P. the extensiveJirki was generally found in shallow lagoons, marshy land or regularly flooded grasslands not conducive to long-term human occupation. But the area was accessible to human settlement during drier but shorter episodes. Higher or safer spots may therefore have been more attractive for Late Stone Age groups. Da'ima (1212' N-14 30' E) is a subcircular mound measuring 250 m in length and 170 m width, situated not far from the shore of EI Beid River which is an intermittent stream (Figs. 3, 4). Eight trenches were excavated, the most impressive being cutting VIII (50 by 6 m). The recorded sequence of cultural deposits measures 11.50 m in maximum thickness. Excavation has demonstrated that the base of the mound actually rests on the Firki, but the immediate surroundings of DaYma consist of a moderately extensive sandy area which like Kursakata, seems not to be a typical sand island rising through the clay.... Aerial photographs of the area suggest that the sand of the Dai'ma area is later than the Firki and is possibly alluvial and it seems likely that the proximity of the EI Beid river has complicated the geomorphology of the area. However, as the excavation showed, the Firki beneath the DaYma mound is relatively thin and has sand beneath it, suggesting that the original Dai'ma settlement might have grown up on a small sand island and then extended onto the edge of the Firki as time went on. [Connah 1981: 100]

Chadian Plain Archaeology: An Outline

The site was excavated and archaeological evidence recorded following artificial stratigraphic units (spits) 0.20-0.40 m thick, mainly because "the section was micro-banded in a way quite undrawable," some of the bands being one to two centimeters thick, "interleaved in a complex way," with "little contrast in colour or texture" (Connah 1981: 111). Da"ima I consists of spits 41 to 52 at the base of the mound stratigraphic sequence and is dated from 550 B.C. to A.D. 50. Charcoal samples from spits 4950 and 47-48 have been dated to 2520 ± 110 B.P. (12945) for the former and 2400 ± 95 B.P. (12372) for the latter, collected from a refuse dump 1.50 m long, 1.00 wide and 3.5 cm thick, containing animal bones, potsherds, a bone harpoon and a clay animal figurine (Connah 1981:113). A few postholes were found but they were not organized into meaningful dwelling plans. Cultural remains are diverse and consist of potsherds, anthropomorphic and zoomorphic clay figurines, bone tools, stone artifacts, grinding equipment and animal bones. Six main techniques were used to decorate pottery: comb-stamping, combdrawing, grooving and ridging, wiping and smoothing, plaited cord rouletting, and mat impressions. Small pots and bowls, the former with thickened rims and everted curved necks, and pot lids, were the most frequent vessels shapes. Most of the grinding equipment and axes were manufactured of stone raw material from the Mandara mountain range (Connah 1981; Connah and Freeth 1989). Bone tools comprise numerous harpoons, spatulae tools, a few points and miscellaneous pieces. As shown by a burial from spit 51 in which the inhumated individual was wounded with a harpoon, this class of bone tools was a dangerous weapon, not only for fishing (Connah 1981: 117). Twenty burials were found within Da'ima I deposits, though possibly only seven of them are Late Stone Age. The recorded burials, all of them without grave goods, "ranged from some with merely flexed legs to others that were so tightly contracted that the knees almost touch the chest" (Connah 1981: 115). Subsistence systems of Da"ima I Late Stone Age people seem to have consisted of livestock husbandry of sheep/goats and cattle, with cattle dominant, fishing, and hunting of waterfowl and to a lesser extent, wild mammals. It was probably part of a larger mixed economy which may have been complemented by the cultivation of Sorghum, even if plant macroremains were not found in the earlier deposits but only later in Dalma III occupation levels. In contrast to Shilma, the settlement at Dalma was successful, but it is far from certain that Dalma I inhabitants were sedentary from the beginning. The site may have been frequently settled on a seasonal basis for few centuries, and then turned into a permanent village-based community, tentatively during Da'ima II in the first half of the first millennium A.D. Situated in the northwestern portion of the Chari deltaic formation, Mdaga (1212' N-15 03' E) is an elliptical mound, 300 m long in the north-south axis, 185 m average width in the eastwest axis, and 8 m high (Figs. 3, 4). The site is located on the shore of the Linia, a seasonal stream tributary of the Chari River and is surrounded by an earthen wall of 4 m in average width at

13

its base with four recorded gates. The earthen wall was built A.D. 1000-1200, suggested by stratigraphic correlation and radiocarbon dates (Lebeuf et al. 1980; Ho1l1987, 1988, 1993c). Fifteen trenches were dug, 13 of them on the mound. Trenches IV and VII contained Late Stone Age deposits which will be considered here. Both trenches, measuring 70 by 2 m (trench IV) and 36 by 4 m (trench VII), are oriented east-west and situated about 100 m from each other. The recorded archaeological deposits are more than 5 m thick, 5.5 m in trench IV and 5.2 m in trench VII. Eleven occupation levels were recorded in trench IV; levels 10 (4.2-4.4 m) and 11 (4.4-4.9 m) are dated to Late Stone Age with a radiocarbon date of 2375 ± 150 B.P. (Oif 742) run on a charcoal sample from level 11. Late Stone Age people settled on a sand island; the earliest cultural deposit (level 11) containing Late Stone Age cultural remains consists of a yellow to white sand. Level 10 consists of hard and compact grey to dark-grey clay. The repertoire of cultural material from levels 10 and 11 of trench IV is rather poor: level 10 contained one elongated burial oriented southwest-northeast and two potsherds, one decorated with cross-hatched lines; level 11 contained three burials equally elongated with similar orientation, one pot lid decorated with twisted-cord impressions, the base of an undecorated four-legged pot and one grooved stone. Bones of Lates niloticus (nile perch) and Gymnarchus niloticus (catfish) were the only faunal remains. Late Stone Age levels of trench VII (levels 10 to 12) have been found at depths varying from 3.15 to 4.8 m. The sedimentary material consists of silty clay to hard and compact grey to dark-grey clay. They are overlaid by level 9, dated to 2150 ± 135 (Dak 10), in which a few pieces of iron slag were found. As with trench IV, no evidence of dwelling features has been uncovered, with the repertoire of cultural remains equally poor. They consist of one bone point in level 12 (4.3-4.8 m), one burial oriented north-south and few coarse and undecorated potsherds in level 11 (3.8-4.3 m), and finally, a fire-hardened surface, one burial, one large fragment of a grindstone and one bone axe in level 10 (3.15-3.8 m). The quantity of collected cultural remains on a tested mound surface of 284 square meters suggests this locality was inhabited in a highly discontinuous fashion. At the time of its pioneer occupation, the settlement was probably situated on a Lake Chad island or more specifically in the ancient Chari delta. Clay sediment which characterized most of the Late Stone Age deposits may thus have accumulated during seasonal floods and/or at the bottom of a shallow lake/lagoon during shorter periods of higher water levels. The clay deposit of trench IV situated on top of the sand island is only 0.2 m thick, while that of trench VII about 100 m in the south measures 1.65 m in thickness. Difference in elevation (about 2 m) between the bottom of these deposits thus suggests that the former sand island had a north-south slope. Later archaeological sites spanning the last 2000 years, will not be considered in details in this chapter. Many of themMakari, Maltam, Waza, Kusseri, Ooulfey, Woulki, Logone-Birni, Afade and Sao in Cameroon, and Midigue, Tago, Azguene in

14

The Land of Houlouf

Chad Republic tested by Griaule and Lebeuf in the 1950swere not dated directly. Stylistically however, the cultural material collected from walled cities presents strong similarities. The tested archaeological deposits appear to be relatively contemporaneous, dating from about A.D. 1400 to 1700. It is highly probable that none of the sites was tested down to its bottom virgin levels; the dating for their earliest settlement phase is unknown. Few settlement were dated. Amkoundjo was settled in 100 B.C., Messo in A.D. 300-400, the walled site of Sou in 500-700, and Gawi in 900-1000 (Lebeuf 1969, 1981). The Chadian Plain seems to have been extensively inhabited, and dotted with numerous mound sites, but the available chronological framework is particularly loose.

Tempo and Modes of Late Stone Age Colonization As suggested by paleoclimatic data, the Chadian Plain was formed during a relatively long period spanning the second half of the Early Holocene to the present. Late Stone Age people may have mastered a broad range of navigation techniques which may have allowed the exploitation of the Paleo-Chad resources as shown by the recent discovery of the 8000 years B.P. Dufuna dugout, found in the upper Yobe Valley (Breunig 1995a). The tempo and modes of Late Stone Age colonization of the Chadian Plain have certainly depended on series of "punctuated" combinations of several factors, ranging from actual dominant subsistence patterns, concatenation of climatic parameters, densities of population, levels of achieved technological expertise and types of social organization, to mention but a few of the most important. The direction of population movement, judging from the recorded chronological gradient, clearly appears to have proceeded from the south and west to the north/northeast. Considered from this perspective, the process of colonization is better viewed as nonlinear but directional space-time "Brownian movement" generated by push and pull factors, both social and environmental (Ijere and Gadzama 1993; Cameron 1995). Chadian Plain prehistoric societies devised several strategies to cope with stochastic phenomena when faced with the differential distribution of potential resources in space and time in any given area. The space-time availability of important resources may have been highly predictable in certain circumstances, but not in others. Risk-avoidance tactics, optimallocation strategies for settlement, and "return-maximizing" behaviors may have developed to cope with environmental hazards (Carl stein 1982; Halstead and O'Shea 1989). In the Chadian Plain, such environmental hazards may have included the unpredictable quantity and timing of rainfall; seasonal, decadal, centennial fluctuations of lake levels; and changing patterns of flood regimes. Consequently, the same locality may have been settled differentially, for shorter or longer segments of time; a former seasonal camp may have been turned into a semipermanent settlement, then a permanent village, and then again, shifted into a seasonal camp, and so on. The colonization process can

thus be thought to consist of varying and dynamic combinations of different kinds of space-time managing devices. According to the mechanical properties of facili ties needed to sustain human life, productive activities, their locations in space, the equipment required, logistics and labor force, "some activities may have been sequential and/or simultaneous, may have lasted for short or long duration, and may have mobilized few individuals or larger groups" (Holl1993b: 99). The size of the human groups moving on the frontier may thus have been dependent on the actual sets of performed socioeconomic activities. Keeping in mind that only a handful of archaeological sites have been tested and dated in the area under consideration, some suggestions can be made on the tempo and modes of Late Stone Age colonization of the Chadian Plain. Recorded earliest sites (ca. 8000-5000 B.P.) situated along the Barna Ridge and the Upper Yobe valley are still poorly known (Fig. 5). Cattle and sheep/goat husbandry is present at Blabli, a flat one hectare settlement with a unique cultural deposit, under and overlaid by fluviolacustrine sediment. No animal bones have been reported from Konduga, located on the top of the Barna Ridge, with a cultural deposit composed of three occupation levels. Both sites seem to have been settled several times, Blabli with a probable palimpsest of different horizontally adjusted occupation episodes, and Konduga with superimposed occupation horizons. It therefore appears that comparable settlement strategies have resulted in different types of archaeological sites. Both sites were probably seasonal camps and semipermanent villages. Konduga, situated on top of the sand ridge and well above the level of annual flood, may have been a permanent or semipermanent village. Blabli, in a flat fluviolacustrine context, in what can be considered the lake's seepage zone, was more probably a dry-season camping area. Numerous sites have been reported on the Barna Ridge in the surroundings of Konduga (Breunig n.d.a, b, 1995b; Breunig et al. 1992) and according to Wilson (1988:43-45), several ca. 7000-4000 B.P. settlements can be found on the Mora Plain where they are masked by aggradation. During the Late Holocene settlement phase (ca. 4000-2000 B.P.), the major part of the Chadian Plain seems to have been settled by Late Stone Age people. Burials in inhabited areas are found in almost all of the tested sites with some variation in the positions of the dead. Bone tools, harpoons, points and other miscellaneous artifacts are present and decoration techniques used for pottery show strong similarities from one site to another. Settlements are situated in the Barna deltaic formation (Barna Road site and Gajiganna), the westernmost portion of the Chari deltaic formation (Mdaga), and in the Chad lagoonal complex (Kursakata, Shilma, Sou Blame Radjil, DaYma). With the notable exception of Shilma, which has the shallowest cultural deposit and is thus interpreted as a case of unsuccessful settlement (Connah 1981), all the tested sites are situated near or on top of sand islands. These morphological features seem to have been in high consideration in decisions concerning settle-

15

Chadian Plain Archaeology: An Outline

8

10 WESTERN CHADIC

12

14

16

18

EASTERN CHADIC

10

Figure 5. Glottochronological ordering and distribution of the Chadic linguistic family.

ment location strategies. Subsistence systems comprised a broad range of food procurement tactics, including cattle and sheep/ goat husbandry, heavily represented at Gajiganna and DaYma I, fishing, hunting, exploitation of molluscs, wild grain and fruits, and cultivation of Pennisetum and probably sorghum. The stone raw material used to manufacture adzes, axes, and grinding equipment was obtained from southern sources, in the Mora hills, the Bui plateau and the Mandara mountain range. The lack of clearly season-specific evidence prevents any accurate consideration of the developed settlement strategies; it is difficult to characterize an episode of occupation as intermittent, seasonal, semipermanent or permanent without more data on subsistence, technology and dwelling facilities. The available archaeological data on sample size of the recorded cultural remains, and thickness of deposits are important but not sufficient. Based on the reconstructed dynamics of local and regional ecosystems, most if not all of the studied Late Stone Age settlements seem to have been seasonal to semipermanent settlements. More permanent and virtually sedentary village-based communities seem to have developed from 2500 B.P. onwards, as suggested by archaeological evidence from Kursakata with its presumed cemetery, DaYma with its mud-built houses, and Sou Blame Radjil and Mdaga. It is thus suggested that the settlements on sand islands may have been used as rainy season semipermanent villages inhabited for a part of the year and abandoned during dry seasons. Bones tools may have been used as fishing equipment to exploit lake/lagoon resources during the periods of high water levels. For the remaining part of the year,

mainly during the dry seasons, clay depressions, as suggested by the archaeological sequence of Shilma and Gajiganna, may have been visited by smaller groups. The settlement system may thus have consisted of: (1) dry season camping in the extensive clay plain of the Chad lagoonal complex, with site shifting from one place to another, a system not conducive to long-lasting archaeological sites; and (2) semipermanent rainy season villages, and then sedentary village-based communities settled on sand islands above the average annual flood level, in which the successive accumulation of cultural deposits have generated the formation of mound sites.

Learning from Historical Linguistics Results from historical linguistic research cannot be used as straightforward support for archaeological reconstruction of past cultural evolution. Both sets of scientific evidence have to be considered independently. However, historical linguistic material provides students of the past with exciting and challenging models of a peculiar kind of historical processes that do no have to be neglected. Details of linguistic evidence, methodological and theoretical diversity of historical linguistics will not be discussed here (Ehret 1993; Blunch 1993; Vansina 1994; Blust 1995). Linguists as well as archaeologists agree and disagree on different issues of their disciplines. Suffice it to say that languages are dynamic systems made up of a multiplicity of subsets, such as idiolects (individual speach), sociolects (idioms of specific social group), and dialects (localized variants). "A lan-

16

The Land of Houlouf

_+______

~2000

t

BP

2650 BP

N

Eastern Central Chadic Languages

\1450 BP

, ,,

I

Western Central Chadic (Tera- ,..) Dzepaw ~ sub-branch) ,

, \

3900 BP

o, Figure 6. Glottochronological ordering and distribution of eastern Central Chadic languages.

guage is therefore a dialect continuum" (Vansina 1994: 174). In such a dynamic system and depending on circumstances, forces of differentiation are countered and balanced by those of homogenization. Two families of models have been developed by linguists to study the history of languages. The first and earliest to have been developed is the group of tree models. It is based on the analogy of a family in which daughter languages split from a mother language. In this case, any language has one and only one ancestor. The tree model thus conceals the problem of the multiplicity of origins of languages. The second and more recent is the set of wave models based on the observation that change spreads from idiolects and dialects (Vansina 1994: 175; Renfrew 1987). Thus change in one or many ancestral dialects may generate the formation of a new language. It is thus possible to document multiple parent languages which can be represented as a set of overlapping circles of greater and lesser similarity. As shown by Vansina (1994), the tree model produces many research artifacts that preclude an accurate understanding of the history of languages; while the wave model, which is favored in recent historical linguistic research, illuminates more subtle aspects of language change. For our purposes,

we will rely on recent research conducted on genetic relationships between Chadic languages based on the family tree model, while waiting for the development of alternatives by expert linguists (Wolff 1987a, b; Barreteau 1987; Jungraithmayr 1987, 1988; Barreteau and Jungraithmayr 1993; Ibriszimov 1993). Chadic languages are distributed into three major branches; the Western Chadic, exclusively in Nigeria today, the Central Chadic, in Nigeria and Cameroon, and the Eastern Chadic almost exclusively in Chad Republic. Each of these branches is divided into two subbranches; northwestern and southwestern subbranches in the first, southwestern and northeastern subbranches in Central as well as Eastern Chadic (Fig. 5). The glottochronological work carried out by Barreteau and Jungraithmayr is based on a comparative list of 100 words from 52 Chadic languages, 14 languages from the Western branch, 28 languages from the Central branch and 10 languages from the Eastern branch (Barreteau 1987b; Barreteau and Jungraithmayr 1987, 1993:106). The glottochronological method was formulated by Swadesh (1955) and is based on the retention rate of basic vocabulary from an earlier linguistic background. Simply stated, it can be said that retention rate decreases with time (Swadesh 1955; Embleton 1986). According to Barreteau and Jungraithmayr (1993), the earliest split occurred around 4500 B.P. between Eastern and Western/Central branches which have 26% common word roots. It was followed around 4200 B.P. by a second split between Western and Central branches. Between 4100 and 4000 B.P., the three branches were divided into two subbranches each, mostly into an eastern and western language groups. If we now narrow the focus and concentrate on the Central Chadic branch, the Kanuri language which expanded during the last millennium A.D. probably accelerated the divergence between southwestern and northeastern Central Chadic subbranches. According to glottochronological data, this split occurred around 3900 B.P. Approximately one millennium later, from 2650 B.P. to 1450 B.P., linguistic drift generated the development of nine languages within the Cameroonian part of the Chadian Plain (Fig. 6). It is worth emphasizing that it is not absolute dating per se of splits between languages that is really relevant here, but the time-ordering or the relati ve chronology of the sequence. Considered from this perspective, the glottochronological research on Chadic languages provides an exciting and useful research tool and a much needed and welcomed challenge for archaeologists.

Concluding Remarks There are amazing parallels between historical linguistic reconstruction of the expansion of Chadic languages and what can be learned from the scanty available archaeological evidence. It can thus be suggested that speakers of proto-Chadic dialects were settled along the MaYduguri-Bama-Limani-Bongor Ridge during the period of maximum extent of the Early Holocene Megalake Chad (ca. 10,000~6000 B.P.). Their territories

Chadian Plain Archaeology: An Outline

""/

,.

, ,,

f

,

'\

I

,

I

I

\ \

/ /

f

I

"- 300m contour line (:; Hypothetical homeland

\i

Inferred directions of colonization

Figure 7. Hypothetical Proto-Chadic homeland.

may have extended from the western part of the ridge to the Early Chari delta in the east and between the Early Holocene shoreline in the north and the Mandara Mountains in the south (Fig. 7). The long-term reduction of the size and depth of the lake probably generated diverse strategies to cope with the everchanging ecosystems and favored the development of several Chadic dialects. Archaeological research provides some clues on the process of colonization and human adaptation to different Chadian Plain biomes. It appears that major deltaic formations coincide with the three branches of the Chadic linguistic family (Fig. 7). The ancient Chari delta is consistent with the present-day distribution of the western Kera-Tobanga (KT) subbranch of Eastern Chadic; the ancient Logone delta coincides with what can be considered the area of the Jina-Yedina (JY) subbranch of northeastern Central Chadic; while the Barna deltaic formation coincides with the Western/Central Chadic interaction zone. Unfortunately, nothing is known about the archaeology of the ancient Chari delta in the eastern part of the area under consideration. Most of the investigated archaeological sites are situated between the Logone and Yedseram rivers. This area is inhabited today by speakers of Central Chadic from the Jina-Yedina sub-

17

branch and Kanuri. Kanuri, a Saharan language, expanded through conquest and assimilation of former Chadic speakers during the first half of the second millennium A.D. The development oflanguage variants can be seriously constrained and oriented by sociopolitical organization. Centralized political institutions favor the expansion of dialectal forms of dominant groups at the expense of others, as shown by the extension of Kanuri coeval with the rise to primacy and sociopolitical domination of ancient Bornu Kingdom. It can be hypothesized that a similar process occurred, but at a smaller territorial scale, among Kotoko chiefdoms and kingdoms during the last 400 to 200 years, with Logone-Birni dialect (Lagwan) dominant in the south, Mser at Kusseri, Maslam at Maltam, Afade at Afade in the center, Malgbe at Gulfey in the northeast, and Mpade at Makari in the northwest (Fig. 6). It is remarkable that the distribution of northeastern Central Chadic languages corresponds exactly with the geographic distribution of ancient Kotoko polities. Each of the former cities with earthen ramparts, probably had its own dialect. Those from Kala-Kafra and Maltam are considered by some specialists to be the most archaic (Tourneux, pers. comm.) The expansion of settlement and colonization of the central part of the Chadian Plain can therefore be considered to be coeval with the movements of speakers of proto-Central Chadic languages (Fig. 7). Material culture remains collected in earlier occupation levels of Blabli, Barna Road site, Shilma, Kursakata, Sou Blame Radjil and Da"ima present some strong similarities in pottery decoration techniques and procurement zones of lithic raw material obtained from the south (Garba 1993). According to Breunig (1994, 1995b), pottery decoration pattern found at Gajiganna in the northwestern portion of the Barna deltaic formation, have no known parallels elsewhere in the Chadian Plain archaeological record, and the major stone procurement zone is located in the area of Damboa, some 130 km to the southwest, the Bui plateau and partly the Mandara Mountains. Nothing is known about the stone procurement systems developed by ancient inhabitants of the Chadian Plain. Were they based on a "down-the-line" network of exchange between neighboring communities, long-distance trade partnerships, or direct procurement? The last seems the least probable for settlements situated more than 100 km from the southern rock outcrops (Holl 1995). It can therefore be suggested that the settlement of Gajiganna, the westernmost of the tested archaeological sites, is more connected to the expansion of speakers of proto-Western Chadic languages. The case ofMdaga, situated in the northwestern part of the extensive Mid-Holocene Chari delta cannot be reliably analyzed; the sample of cultural material collected in Late Stone Age occupations is too small to allow any meaningful discussion. The recorded pattern of disposal of the dead found in Late Stone Age levels from Mdaga, consisting exclusively of elongated burials, does not resemble other sites. It is tempting to link this peculiarity to a particular cultural world, perhaps speakers of proto-Eastern Chadic dialects from the ancient Chari delta. The database is however too slim and the problem is better left pending.

18

The Land of Houlouf

The proposals formulated above constitute an exciting group of working hypotheses. Most, if not all of them, are based on a very narrow database which needs to be expanded. Archaeologists involved in the study of social evolution cannot simply ignore the challenging and provocative results from historical linguistic research because there is no isomorphic relationship between material culture and languages. While waiting for the

development of finer historical linguistic research based on various kinds of wave models, the data already available can be used with caution. Studies of past societies deserve to b~ framed in broader concepts; the results may be contradictory and conflicting. Is there any other known way to improve our understanding of past social systems?

Chapter 2

Social Formations An Archaeological Perspective

Introduction At a theoretical level, "archaeological evidence" is an ambiguous concept submitted to a continual process of redefinition as new classes of data are included within the realm of archaeological investigation (Holl and Levy 1995; Levy and Holl 1995). From this perspective, the diversity and range of the material record suitable for archaeological consideration are intrinsically open-ended. The same is true for sets of ideas, theories, models and scientific expectations of archaeologists and the wider audience. It is considered almost axiomatic that without variation, social as well as conceptual change would be impossible. The process of knowledge-seeking is characterized by tensions, controversies and paradoxes (Popper 1991; Kuhn 1990; Hull 1988). If archaeological knowledge is thought of as a dynamic interplay between all the components of scientific investigation, and thus subject to a kind of evolutionary process of selection, one may be in a better position to understand the development of archaeological science. It appears that (l) archaeology is not simply a straightforward record of discoveries; (2) that data recorded in fieldwork and processed by different researchers are mixtures of empirical facts, scientific theories, social and ideological assumptions; and finally, (3) scientists challenge certain tenets and take other for granted. In this work, archaeology is viewed as a historical science, and as such, based on the singularity of past human experience which cannot be reenacted, the master concept being contingency (Gould 1991).

Archaeology and Social Change Diverse and conflicting views haunt the aims and methods of archaeological investigations. Accounts of the evolution of human societies are usually shaped as hero tales in folklore: a struggle for survival against blind forces of Mother Nature, the

19

outcome being the development of civilization-control and then domestication of plants, animals and nature, sedentarization, the emergence of villages, "intermediate societies," cities, states, empires, "nation-states," and finally, human domination over everything and even exploration and colonization of intergalactic provinces. Most general textbooks in prehistory and archaeology seem to be based upon this narrative which appears to be a genuine genre litteraire. Following Isaac (1989: 101), one should be seriously worried and embarrassed by such a strong bias. Is it possible to avoid falling in that trap? At first glance, the position taken by Glynn Isaac (ibid.) for the research field of paleoanthropology is partly relevant here: I have got used to the idea now-and would counter-argue that provided the fit between the stories and empirical evidence is improvable through testing and falsification, then this is indeed science. If any of the rest of the scientific community is inclined to snigger at the embarassment of the paleoanthropologists [here archaeologists] over all this, pause and reflect. I bet the same basic findings would apply to accounts of the origin of mammals, or the flowering plants, or of life ... or even the big bang and the cosmos. [Isaac 1989: 101]

However, one is not fatally condemned to follow this strict "anthropic principle" whether strong or weak, if the very nature of historical processes are taken into account. Contingency plays a major role in the fabric and evolution of human social social systems (Gould 1991). In this regard, the long-term transformations which occurred in past social systems were certainly unpredictable for actual prehistoric peoples. Problem-oriented strategies and hypothesis-testing are therefore the main possibilities offered to archaeologists to assess and evaluate their narratives on the evolution of past social systems. In this work, "social change" refers to the archaeological study of social dynamics; the issues concern a broad range of topics and can be addressed from different points of view such as analysis of

20

The Land of Houlouf

settlement patterns, subsistence systems, technical systems, and patterns of social organization at different time scales. Efforts to devise particular sets of characteristics specific to different past societies have always been an integral part of archaeological research. They have been boosted by landmark synthethic works produced by scholars such as Fried (1967), Service (1962), and Sahlins (1958), to cite but a handful of them. As is always the case with ground-breaking research, these works, sharing a common view of social evolution based on a band-tribe-chiefdom-state system conceptualized as evolutionary types, initiated a long cycle of debates and controversies. Without going further in that important and long debate, suffice it to say that a few decades of archaeological and anthropological research have generated important shifts in modem understanding of the processes of social evolution (Yoffee and Sherratt 1993; Earle 1991; Arnold 1996; Eisenstadt et al. 1988). Bandtribe-chiefdom-state are at the same time social evolutionary types and synchronous, mutually interacting social formations (Friedman and Rowlands 1977; Van der Leeuw 1981; Yoffee 1992, 1995; Chapman 1990, 1996; Kristiansen 1991; Wright 1986). In this perspective, social formations are specific blends of distinctive space/time social, political, ideological and economic characteristics. The change from one social formation to another is open ended; it may be cyclical, with period of highly integrated and centralized social formations followed by devolution and deconcentration. Nurtured by several generations of anthropological research and characterized by extensive variability (Earle 1991; Kirch 1984; Yoffee and Cowgill 1988; Yoffee and Sherratt 1993), the chiefdom concept has been under heavy fire. Less stigmatized concepts emphasizing intrinsic intermediate developmental stages of such social formations were coined (Chapman 1990; Arnold 1996). Beyond the "common sense" understanding of the new construct, a question nonetheless deserves to be asked at this juncture: intermediate societies relative to what? By definition, in nonlinear dynamic systems, all specific spaceltime punctuated system-states are intermediate. Village-based tribes, city-states, centralized states, empires, and "nation-states" are prone to cyclical emergence and collapse; they are merely specific space and/or time bifurcation points along a continuum (Van der Leeuw 1981; Kristiansen 1991; Wallerstein 1974, 1980). In this work, the concept of chiefdom (Holl 1985, 1993; Levy and Holl 1988a, b) will be used to single out a specific social formation which occurred in the Chadian Plain, characterized by a three-tiered settlement system, craft specialization, social ranking, and intensive involvement in long-distance exchange network, absorbed later within a state social formation. The development of Chadic chiefdoms was not an isolated local process. It occurred within a larger framework involving changing relationships between local more or less self-sustaining mixed farming villages, peer-polity (Renfrew and Cherry 1986), center-periphery (Rowlands et al. 1987), as well as world systems interaction. The discussion conducted by Kristiansen (1991) in his paper entitled "Chiefdoms, States and Systems of Social Evolution"

is particularly enlightening and appropriate for the work presented here: "if we are to consider chiefdoms within [such] a spatial framework we need to understand the principles that lead to and distinguish various social formations. We need to go behind the prevailing evolutionary typology of chiefdoms and states to define the structuring principles which create spatially dependent social formations" (Kristiansen 1991 :24). The model he presents comprises both diachronic and synchronic dimensions, with social formations arranged spatially and chronologically according to their levels of organizational complexity. The model radiates from world systems centers comprising a range of social formations spanning centralized empires to decentralized city-states. They are in constant economic and sociopolitical interaction with peripheries at increasing distance. On their close space/time periphery, there are a series of stratified societies, then chiefdoms in a spectrum comprising staple-financed political systems at one end and wealth-financed at the other end, and finally, tribal societies shifting from segmented and dispersed to territorial and clustered (Kristiansen 1991 :25). In this model, polarization between production and exchange becomes irrelevant, and the dichotomy between internal and external domination contextualized.

Within the Black Box Why societal evolution at all? Societies are multi component nested dynamic systems composed of connected, overlapping nonlinear subsystems (Prigogine and Stengers 1984). With each subsystem following a specific dynamic path, the outcome can be a cascade of amplifying or inhibiting effects. A strong convergence of amplifying effects will generate an evolution toward greater organizational complexity, while a coalescence of inhibiting effects will result in devolution. Timing, duration, sequencing, and scheduling are fundamental variables of nonlinear dynamic systems which deserve to be considered in detail with specific material relevant for archaeological research. The individual is the smallest component of social systems. Provided the individual lives long enough, his or her life, from birth to death, is segmented into a number of unavoidable and irreversible steps. Four steps will be singled out for purpose of analysis. From birth to the end of childhood the individual is totally defenseless and depends on parents and mature kin for everything. Adolescence, which follows, is characterized by increased involvement in daily activities, learning and socializing. The social status is that of son/daughter of X. Then comes the threshold to adulthood; with its resulting broader range of social statuses: son/daughter, husband/wife, in-law, father/ mother, varied or specialized activities, sociopolitical positions. With children grown, the adult finally achieves the status of elder, with a broader spectrum of social statuses. Individuals with identical lifecycles belong to a generation, and societies are constituted of overlapping generation cohorts. The individual lifecycle is contained in a broader ·family/domestic unit. The

Social Formations: An Archaeological Perspective

overlap of different individual lifecycles generates a specific dynamic of domestic units (Chayanov 1966). Through what he termed the "natural history" of the family, Chayanov (1966) has shown that, depending on its position in his lifecycle, a domestic unit is a totally different "working machine." Chayanov analysis is based on changing consumer/ producer ratios (C/P). At its initial stage, with a young married couple, the C/P ratio is at equilibrium. With the birth of children and depending on their number, C/P ratio increases, generating raised workload on the productive members of the domestic unit. It starts to decrease with involvement of children in domestic and subsistence activities, to reach a new equilibrium with grown and married children. The lifecycle of domestic units is also irreversible. As is the case for individuals, different domestic units in an identicallifecycle are family generations, also arranged into overlapping cohort. The amplitude of their fluctuations are wider, buffering faster fluctuations of individual lifecycles. Their structural bases are relatively more stable. The same kind of analysis can be carried out at the level of village communities and even regional populations. Warfare, epidemics, birth and death rates, life expectancy, and morbidity may create a large amount of variability within the same geographic zone. What needs to be emphasized here is that human social systems are intrinsically irreversible nonlinear dynamic systems with several nested nodes (Van der Leeuw 1981). Devolution is not a return back to a former organizational state but a bifurcation toward less complexity. Conversely, evolution toward more complex and centralized social formations is a punctuated shift generated by a contingent combination of mutually amplifying factors.

West African Social Formations: An Outline Social formations is not one of the usual subjects of West African archaeology. It is clear that it cannot be investigated, even approached, within the dominant single-site research strategy. When available, historical, ethnohistorical as weIl as ethnographic evidence provides invaluable information which can be integrated in the general research frame. West Africa has been involved in different world systems and extensive longdistance exchange networks (Connah 1987). The expansion of livestock husbandry, with cattle and sheep/goat, and later horses and camels, provides clear indisputable cases (Shaw et al. 1993). Amazonite beads dated to middle of the fourth millennium B.C. were recorded at Wadi Zegag in western Algeria (Lihoreau 1993). A few pieces of obsidian originating from the Lipari Island were found in third millennium B.C. hunter-gatherer sites in eastern Algeria (Aumassip 1986). Some clear imports from Africa, mainly ivory, were found in Millaran and Argaric (3500 to 1500 B.C.) contexts in Spain, and Iberian contemporary exports, essentially beakers and metal weapons, were found in North Africa (Gilman 1991; Harrison and Gilman 1977). From the end of the second millennium B.C., seafaring merchant ships,

21

shortly followed by Phoenician colonies along the North African coast, initiated long-term interaction between the African interior and the Mediterranean world. Romans, Byzantine, ArabMoslems and finally European colonization were different successive world systems imposing far-reaching consequences on West African social formations. The early stages, prior to the Arab-Moslem world system, are poorly documented. A firstmillennium B.C. Phoenician navigator, Hannon, is claimed to have sailed as far south as the Guinean Gulf, from where he reported to have seen the "God-chariot" interpreted as Cameroon Mountain. Such a voyage is considered highly improbable by several historians (Mauny 1961). From the onset and phenomenal expansion of the Dar al Islam-the Land of Islam-(A.D. 700 to 1000), West Africa has been integrated as the periphery of the Arab-Moslem world system. With the development of trans-Saharan trade, commercial entrepots and extensive cities were created along the southern Sahara margins, settled by groups of Arab and Berber merchant diasporas (Curtin 1984; Devisse 1983; Polet 1988; Robert-Chaleix 1991; Vanacker 1979). This is the case for Tegdaoust (the medieval Awdaghost) and to a certain degree, Koumbi Saley, the capital of the Ghana Kingdom, Gao, Timbuktu, Tadmekka, Takkedda, BirniNgazzarghamo, and Kukawa. West African gold, slaves and wild animals skins were the major exports. Saharan salt from Taoudenni and Bilma, as well as luxuries, books, horses, dates, copper and brass ingots, were among the major imported goods. The Ghana Kingdom, usually considered to be the earliest West African empire (Levtzion 1973; HoIl 1985), seized the opportunity offered by its strong involvement in the long distance trade and connection with the Arab-Moslem world system to achieve extensive regional domination. Craft specialization with the intensification of iron production occurred in the area of Merna (Haaland 1980). Copper-production workshops were excavated at Tegdaoust, clustered in a special craft neighborhood (Vanacker 1979). The society was ranked, with a hereditary king at its top. The development of social ranking finally resulted in an evolutionary paradox. It can be speculated that at its initial phase, the state systems may have been financed by taxing different types of production. In order to secure a relatively stable income base, different activity groups crystallized into rigid occupation groups, ranked according to their contributions to the state's income. The new system later superseded the older social organization, and became fossilized in a "castelike" social system. It is here argued that extensive systems with endogamic occupation groups found almost universaIly in West Africa from the Sahara to the southern Sudanian belt are a sociopolitical artifact of the Arab-Moslem world system. Tegdaoust was attacked and sacked by an Almoravid military expedition in the middle of the eleventh century A.D., but was not abandoned immediately. Its prosperity and wealth steadily dwindled and major trade routes shifted east toward the Niger Bend (Ajayi and Crowder 1978; Levtzion and Hopkins 1981). From A.D. 700 to 1100, societies from the inland Niger delta and the Niger Bend, situated on the periphery of Ghana King-

22

The Land of Houlouf

dom, were characterized by competing polities. This was the case for Jenne-Jeno (McIntosh and McIntosh 1980), Gao, EsSuk (Tadmekka), Azelik (Takkedda), and probably many other settlements. Large earth tumuli comprising the burial of a single individual with luxuries, copper items, and carnelian beads were recorded as early as the 1920s (Raimbault and Sanogo 1994). At Es-Suk, a few clear prince's burials with epitaphed tombstones dated to the tenth-eleventh century were recorded (Morais-Farias 1990). The tombstones are made with marble imported from Andalusia in Ummayad Spain. The cradle of the Mali Kingdom situated at the Niger River headwater was probably one of the interacting peer polities. Malian epic poetry is replete with combat between competing princes (Johnson 1992). A new development cycle was initiated with the rise to primacy of Mali, epitomized in Mande epics by the memorable fight between Sunjata Keita, the founding hero, and Sumaoro Kante, a blacksmith expert in witchcraft (Johnson 1992). At its climax, Mali state social formation was characterized by an increased religious fervor, widespread learning and the development of bard corporations patronized by rulers (Ajayi and Crowder 1978). Kankan Mussa, probably one of the most famous among Mali rulers after the founding hero Sundjata Keita, made a memorable pilgrimage to Mecca in the fourteenth century. He distributed so much gold at Cairo, that the precious metal was devalued for few years. All these kingdoms were in an almost permanent state of warfare, engaged in an endless cycle of predatory expansion (Reyna 1991). They achieved the status of extensive multi-ethnic empires comprising at least three nested kinds of territorial/administrative units. The center, more or less extending around the capital city, was under the tight control of central institutions, and characterized by a lesser degree of cultural heterogeneity. The center was surrounded by a ring of conquered polities, the tributary zone (Reyna 1990). Some of the conquered territories were ruled by junior members of ruling dynasties, others by kings' appointees, and some others by allied highly ranked dependents. The third ring was the predatory zone (dar al gharb, "land of war"), with constantly shifting boundaries. Military expeditions geared toward the accumulation of booty were launched by central authorities and district rulers. District elites revolted several times. From the middle of the first millennium A.D., extensive interregional exchange networks developed all over West Africa. Thousands of carnelian beads, probably transported along the Niger River, were recorded at Igbo Ukwu in a high ranking individual tomb dated to the ninth/tenth century (Shaw 1977; Holl 1996). Evidence for carnelian bead production and the exploitation of chalcedony outcrops situated in the Adrar-n-Ifogha have been recorded in the Tilemsi in Mali (Gaussen and Gaussen 1980). Despite precise historical records (Levtzion and Hopkins 1981), the recorded archaeological data are still misinterpreted and assigned to an unspecified neolithic period, on the sole criterion of absence of metal artifacts. It is clear from the "medieval" Arabic source (the anonymous' Kitab al-Istibsar fi aja'ib

al-amsardated to July-August, 1191) that metals were not used in the manufacture of carnelian beads (Levtzion and Hopkins 1981: 138-51), which were extensively traded in different West African polities where they were highly valued luxuries. From the land Wargalan to Ghadames is about twenty days through desert country with little water. In this desert there is a mine of stone resembling agate (aqiq). Occasionally you may find in one stone various colors such as red, yellow or white. This stone is the most precious thing in the land of the SudanGhana and other places-and in their opinion is like the ruby and even more beautiful. Sometimes, though very rarely, a large stone is found. When such a stone is brought to the people of Ghana they value it extravagantly and pay a high price for it. It resembles ruby in that iron makes no impression on it at all. It is worked and pierced by another stone called ti-n-tuwas as ruby is worked, and it is pierced with emery stone. The deposit of this stone is not visible until a camel is slaughtered and the place is sprinkled with its blood, whereupon this stone appears and may be picked up. In this desert also there is a mine of good white alum (shabb) the like of which is not found in any country and from there it is exported to all countries. ['Kitab al-Istibsar in Levtzion and Hopkins 1981:151]

Intensive copper production occurred at Azelik (Takkedda). Ingots were exported to Mali, Ghana and Bornu (Ibn Battuta in Levtzion and Hopkins 1981:302). The alluded commercial networks were an integral component of West African political economies, intrumental in the rise and fall of regional elites. The Mali Kingdom collapsed and a new Songhai Kingdom emerged, with its capital city at Gao. A new cycle started with dominant commercial entrepots shifting east. Hawsa and Berber polities from the Teguidda-n-Tesemt area in modern Niger (Bemus et Cressier 1994; Saens 1991) were actively involved in long-distance trade networks as well as peer-polity interaction. Mameluk Egyptian gold coins were found at Azelik (Bemus and Cressier 1994). Songhai and the emerging Bornu Kingdom, with Hawsa and Berber polities in between, were involved in a lengthy competiton for zonal primacy. Following Morocco/ Songhai struggle for the control of Saharan salt mines (Teghazza and Taoudenni), Songhai troops were crushed by a Moroccan military expedition led by Djouder Pacha at Tondibi in A.D. 1515. Combined with the dwindling Arab-Moslem world system manifest by the loss of the Iberian Peninsula which had been reconquered by a coalition of European troops, and by the increased prosperity of Mamluk Egypt, zonal leadership shifted further east in the Bornu Kingdom. Approximately from the eighteenth to the nineteenth century, Bornu was constantly challenged by the Barma Kingdom with its capital at Massenya. In between, Kotoko polities, and consequently the study area, were used several times as battle grounds. The Barma state, however, was situated too far south to seize any control over the trans-Saharan trade. In the study area, European interference began with exploration expeditions in the first decades of the nineteenth century and ended with the Colonial conquest in 1900. It consisted successively of Major Denham, Captain Clapperton and

Social Formations: An Archaeological Perspective

Dr. Oudney's expedition in the 1820s for the British Crown (Denham et al. 1828), followed thirty years later (1850-1856) by the H. Barth (1965) expedition also for the British Foreign Office and sponsored by the Royal Exploration Society, G. Nachtigal (1980) in the 1870s for Kaiser Bismarck, and finally the French military expedition led by Foureau and Lamy in 1900 (Foureau 1902). During the fifteenth century, after the Reconquista of the Iberian Peninsula by a coalition European Christian kingdoms, the European world system launched several programs of longrange seafaring expeditions (Fa vier 1991). Prince Henri the Navigator (of Portugal) launched a scientifically organized program for the circumnavigation of Africa. The project aimed, among other things, to have direct access to African gold sources and Indian spices. It resulted in the development of the Atlantic slave trade and the construction of a constellation of sea trade entrepots along West African coast. Specific West African social formations based on differential involvement in Atlantic trade were developed. Firearms, alcohol, textiles, glass beads, copper manillas and iron tools were exchanged for slaves. Endemic warfare, development of social ranking, extensive migrations and population relocation, depopulation, and social devolution were some of the major impacts of European world system along West African coast. From the onset of the ArabMoslem world system in A.D. 700 to the Colonial period, West African social formations were diversified, ranging from decentralized dispersed hamlet-based kin groups to predatory kingdoms, chiefdoms, city-states, and Big Man-like clan leaders. Some new regional power centers emerged, while others collapsed, depending on their capacity to be involved and maintained in long-distance trade networks.

World Systems, Center-Periphery, and Peer-Polity Interaction: A Case Study Archaeological evidence recorded in different parts of the Cameroons, from the Chadian Plain in the north, the Fali hills and the Benoue Valley, the southwestern part of the Adamaoua mountain range, the Grassfields Plateau in the southwest, and the forested area in the south, provide an interesting documentation of the far-reaching sociopolitical consequences of world systems, center-periphery and peer-polity interaction. Different kinds of patterns have been singled out. They can be subsumed under four major headings: (1) warfare, migration and settlement relocation; (2) the development and amplification of local, regional and long-distance trade networks; (3) craft specialization and intensification of production; and (4) social ranking and unequal access to wealth and prestige within, as well as between, ethnic and cultural groups of various sorts. Depending on the resolution and diversity of the archaeological data at hand in each of the selected case studies, it is possible to highlight differences or similarities in the evolutionary pathways followed by the actual societies.

23

Warfare, Migrations and Settlement Relocation Warfare, migrations and settlement relocation are certainly among the most recurrent themes in ethnohistorical narratives (Tardits 1981a). In some cases, these oral accounts are supported by the archaeological and historical record. This is the case for the Chadian Plain (Holl 1988, 1994), the Fali domain in the Tinguelin Plateau (Gauthier 1969,1979,1981,1990,1992), the Upper Benue Basin (David 1981) and the Adamaoua Plateau (Mohammadou 1981) in general. Elsewhere, in the Western Grassfields (Warnier 1981, 1984, 1985, 1992; Rowlands and Warnier 1993; Warnier and Fowler 1979), the western Adamaoua Plateau (Hurault 1979, 1986) and the southern forested zone (Essomba 1985,1992,1993; Ossah 1990,1991; Mbida 1992a, b; Atangana 1989, 1992), the situation is far less clear. However, these last three study areas seem to have witnessed a grand scale movement of popUlation during the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth centuries. It is not yet known if these "events" were connected with each other; but the Chamba migration, which may have started from the Tikar Plain in the southern part of the western Adamaoua Plateau have resulted in the formation of the Bamun Kingdom and the development of major village-kingdoms of the Western Grassfields (Tardits 1981b; Warnier 1985), is partly contemporaneous with the Beti migration with its grand episode of "crossing the Sanaga River" (Laburthe-Tolra 1981a, b; Essomba 1993) in the direction of the southwest. During the nineteenth century, the expansion of the Vute, from the Adamoua Plateau toward the Sanaga River valley in the south, was probably another facet of the same sequence of "events" (Von Morgen 1982). It appears as if all these groups were rushing toward the Atlantic coast in order to take advantage of the new trade opportunities. In the northern part of the country, the rise of Fulani domination generated a radical transformation of relations between actual ethnic groups. At least from the fifteenth century, the presence of Fulani pastoralists is attested in the historical record in Bornu and the southern part of the Chadian Plain (Mohamadou 1981; Seignobos 1993). The beginning of the Fulani jihad at the end of the eighteenth century resulted in an unprecedented expansion of Fulani cultural identity with their transformation from a primarily nomadic pastoral way of life to that of a sedentary nobility residing in towns (lamidats). These lamidats were polities of various sizes organized from central localities such as Maroua, Garoua, and Ngaoundere (Mahammadou 1981). The ensuing Fulani conquest of defeated communities probably generated the long-lasting movement of peoples in a "domino" chain reaction. Different patterns of settlement are attested in the reviewed regional samples, a system characterized by dispersed homesteads in the southern forested area and the Tinguelin Plateau, central villages protected by defensive systems of ditches and earth embankment or walls in the Western Grassfields and the Chadian Plain, or a combination of both types as observed in the western Adamaoua. In general, population movement and settlement relocation have produced extensive interaction spheres, with

24

The Land of Houlouf

overlapping social, economic, political and ideological networks. Pattern of Exchange, Rank and Hierarchy Trade items are extremely rare in the archaeological record from the southern forested area and the Western Grassfields, partly because of the stronger focus of research on iron technology. Elsewhere, in the Fali area of the Tinguelin Plateau, the Chadian Plain, carnelian and glass beads, and copper alloy artifacts shed some light on long distance trade. Very little is known about local and intraregional exchange systems for the whole period extending over the last 500 years. Historical and ethnographic research (Dillon 1981; Warnier 1981, 1985; Kopytoff 1981; Tardits 1981b; Von Morgen 1982; Barth 1965; Denham et al. 1828; Nachtigal 1980) provide some important insights showing that a wide range of goods, foodstuff, drinks, crafts items, were involved in short, middle and long distance trade in various parts of the Cameroons. From ethnohistorical info::-mation, it can be inferred that iron ore and artifacts were an important part of local exchange networks in the southern forested area (Essomba 1993). Iron artifacts were used as "universal" currency as well as in matrimonial transactions, warfare and productive subsistence activities. Blacksmiths were highly esteemed, and evidence for intensified iron production recorded in the Western Grassfields with the "clump furnace technology," and in the Matomb and Ndom site clusters with natural large draft furnaces, seem to be consistent with radical changes witnessed by actual societies, with the development of "Great Men-like" features (Vansina 1990; Laburthe-Tolra 1981b) which will be discussed latter. Access to "exotic" goods, some them used for displaying achieved wealth and prestige, may have played a crucial role in the rise and fall of some leaders, families, lineages, clans and even whole ethnic groups. Depending on area, different "packages" of goods were involved in interregional and long distance trade transactions which can be subdivided into three main forms: the trans-Saharan and continental long distance trade network in the north, the Atlantic trade system in the south, and a wide area of overlap between both systems, extending from the Upper Benue basin in the north to the Adamaoua Plateau, the Western Grassfields and the savanna zone situated on the north of the Sanaga Valley. In the northern trade system, as seen from the archaeological record from the Chadian Plain (Connah 1981; Lebeuf and Lebeuf 1977; Holl 1988, 1994, 1995), exotic goods like carnelian and glass beads, copper alloy artifacts, horses, books, special kinds of Saharan salt, and textiles were obtained through Hawsa and Kanuri traders or from central market places in Bornu (Lovejoy 1986) in exchange for grain, smoked and dried fish, and local cotton clothes, but mostly slaves. Slave trade was monopolized by members of ruling families. In general, slaves were captured among the neighboring southern groups in purposeful expeditions or were acquired as war captives. It was, however, common to enslave those who were unable to pay

their debts. The pressure exerted by slave raiding and warfare on target ethnic groups resulted in two kinds of settlement patterns. One pattern was highly dispersed and relatively mobile kin groups, as seen from the settlement patterns of the Fali on the Tinguelin Plateau (Gauthier 1992), a system which probably increased the cost of slave procurement. The other pattern was densely packed and fortified settlements which were able to fight and defeat slave raiders, as shown by evidence from the western Adamaoua (Hurault 1979, 1986). In the Western Grassfields, population relocation and the reorganization of settlement patterns resulted in the emergence of competing peer polities, known as village chiefdoms (Warnier 1985, 1992; Rowlands and Warnier 1993). In the Atlantic trade zone, sea salt, brass manillas, glass beads, firearms, alcohol, tobacco, and clothes were obtained in exchange for ivory, wild animal skins and mostly, slaves. The inland part of the Atlantic trade network was organized by a chain of middlemen with two kinds of procurement systems (Warnier 1985; Rowlands 1986; Tardits 1981b). The first one, present in the centralized societies of the Western Grassfields, was in the hands of appointed officials-slave dealers with a slave "string"-granted the hereditary privilege to manage transactions with middlemen of the coastal trade entrepots of Calabar, Bimbia, Duala and Malimba. The second procurement system was less tightly organized and was probably in the hands of inland community leaders. Each of the involved ethnic group had its own traders, and transactions took place in border areas between neighbors as was the case for Edea at Sanaga Falls between the Bassa and the Malimba. Coastal communities of fishermen were organized into competing lineages led by "entrepreneurs" and some of them became wealthy and prestigeous "Great Men." They were later called "kings," but they were not, strictly speaking, rulers of kingdoms (Bekombo-Priso 1981). Such an evolution was also observed in sixteenth- through ninteenth-century Congo and Loango (Vansina 1990), with brokers who invested no "capital" at all, and therefore avoided any commercial risk, but played an indispensable role of intermediaries in the trade system. European goods were first in demand as exotic luxury items, which African leaders used as instruments to increase their prestige, attract more clients and dependents, and hence increase their power. The demand for such imports was self-sustaining. These imported instruments of power upset the balance of regional power to a greater or lesser degree, so that leaders farther away from the coast also sought them to right the balance of power again. Among them textiles and guns were especially important. The imported goods themselves thus exerted a pressure to expand the area affected by trade right from the start. [Vansina 1990: 202-3]

As can be seen from the record published by E. and S. Ardener (1981) on slave shipment along the Cameroonian Atlantic coast (certainly not complete, because not all the ships involved in the area slave trade were reported in the British Parliamentary papers), shipment of slaves was a routine at Malimba, Wouri

Social Formations: An Archaeological Perspective

(Duala) and probably Bimbia during the heyday of the slave trade. Due to severe competition between these trade entrepots, "traffic stopped at Malimba [between 1812 and 1817] because of attacks on a trading ship and abolition" (E. and S. Ardener 1981 :565). Conflicts and fights between the Duala and Bassa in the beginning of the nineteenth century related to competition in trade are also suggested in the epic poem "Les Fils de Hitong, " recorded by Ngijol (1980). The increasing pressure toward abolition and the founding of a new factory at Kribi on the southern part of the Cameroonian coast in 1828 was probably one of the reasons for the extensive movement of Beti groups toward the southwest, which brought them in direct contact with the Ngumba (Laburthe-Tolra 1981; Von Morgen 1982). In the nineteenth century, the Atlantic trade had generated some peculiar regional patterns of exchange, like a "domino" sequence from the coast to the hinterland. Factories were located according to preferential relations between trade partners; coastal leaders from the Duala, Malimba and Batanga ethnic groups offered security and peace for transactions. Some of them became landlords with large farms of maize and cassava worked by slaves in order to produce enough food for slave populations and ship crews. Farther inland, the Mbo in the north toward the Bamileke Plateau, the Bassa in the center along the Sanaga valley and toward the forest-savanna mosaic, and the Ngumba in the south toward the land of the Beti played the role of intermediaries between the coast and the communities inhabiting the hinterland. With the abolition of slavery, new opportunities were offered by the founding of the factory of Kribi on the one hand, but the demographic and social consequences of more than three centuries of slave trade have generated intensive warfare and technological setbacks almost everywhere in the Cameroons, mostly in areas situated between the Adamaoua mountain range . and the southern forested area (Von Morgen 1982). The lack of archaeological evidence collected from controlled excavations precludes any discussion of the pattern of exchange present in the western Adamaoua mountain range. However, information provided by German explorers at the end of the nineteenth century and the ethnographic record suggests some aspects of trade and sociopolitical dynamics (Von Morgen 1982; Mohammadou 1981). At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Adamaoua mountain range was conquered by the Fulani. The conquered land was divided into competing petty chiefdoms, lamidat (plur. lamibej, such as Banyo, Tibati, Tignere and Ngaoundere. One of the consequences of this conquest has been a long-term process of relocation of different ethnic groups allied with the Fulani or fighting against them. This process also opened new opportunities for trade and intensified slave raiding on the northern shore of the Sanaga River. The Vute expanded southwards in search of slaves and ivory. Slave labor was used for farming activities and iron production was highly intensive. According to von Morgen (1982:252), in the village of Ngila, where he resided for few months, there were twelve blacksmith workshops with five to seven craftsmen each, working every day from the morning to night. The purpose of their

25

intensive work was exclusively the production of weapons. Numerous Hawsa traders were present during Von Morgen's sojourn. Exchanging cotton clothes, glass beads and horse equipment, they received slaves and ivory. There was however some competition between the inland side of the Atlantic trade network, represented this time by the Germans, and the Hawsa continental trade system. The village headman named Ngilla solved the problem and decided to provide the Germans with the needed ivory, and the Hawsa with slaves. In his speech at the reception ceremony of the German officer, N gilla said: "You, white king, Allah led you to my home, to make me much more powerful than I am. Now that you are my friend, I am no more afraid of anyone, even among the most powerful; I will defeat them all, even the overlord of Tibati, from now, I will cease to pay a tribute" (Von Morgen 1982:252). This official address shed some light on the relation between Fulani overlords and their dependents from the periphery. The annual tribute to which he alluded mostly consisted of slaves and elephant tusks. It can therefore be considered that the emergence of Fulani domination had generated long cycles of predatory expansion and accumulation (Reyna 1990). Kingdoms, chiefdoms, Great Men, "entrepreneurs," slave labor and the adoption of new species of plants have been different responses of past Cameroonian societies to the onset, development and intensification of Atlantic and continental trade system from ca. A.D. 1500 to 1900.

Archaeological Perspectives All the variables instrumental in the analysis of social formations operate at regional scales, each site being a signpost. To understand evolution, research must focus on sequences of long-term change. Despite a utility in developing evolutionary theory, further cross-cultural studies of ethnographic cases have limited utility. Emphasis on ethnographic cases tends to stress functionalist theories with little possibility for rigorous evaluation. Rather, research should now document archaeological and historical sequences and evaluate the similarities and differences in societal change from region to region. [Earle 1991:3-4]

How to deal with regional archaeological sequences? What are the most relevant units to be used? It is not difficult to achieve a general consensus on the most relevant variables and parameters. Analyses of settlement patterns, subsistence systems, craft specialization, social ranking, differential access to luxuries, overarching ideological system, and so forth are all important and indisputable variables. But how can they be used to measure genuine social transformations at different space/time scales? The archaeological record generally reflects the accumulation of repeated activities carried out in the same place through time. The tactic adopted in this work is to use well-identified research problem and to study their different implications as much as possible. Interaction loops between distinct initial research problems generate new issues which are in turn investi-

26

The Land of Houlouf

gated, and so on. In this regard, a set of concepts currently used by historians is particularly enlightening (BraudeI1962; Bloch 1939-40). These are: "events," "conjonctures, " and "mentalites." Events are short-term sequences of individual collective actions. Digging a pit, burying the dead, and burying an offering pot are different kinds of events retrievable in archaeological excavation. The identity of the actors does not need to be known for the features to be interpreted adequately. Conjonctures are much more difficult to define; they are specific space/time blends of economic, social, political, and ideological trends characterizing a period of historical evolution. The difficulty resides in the fact that all the alluded parameters are not strictly patterned and coevolving ones. Archaeological phases or subphases can be considered as an acceptable approximation of a conjoncture. Mentalite is still fuzzier but no less useful. It is derived from the ideological and symbolic domain and aims to delineate specific space/time idiosyncrasies, sets of abstract rules constraining and defining acceptable/unacceptable patterns of behavior in private as well as public domains. Mortuary programs, patterns of disposal of the deceased, and disposition of structural features within the house and the courtyards are aspects of mentalites retrievable in the archaeological record. And finally, nested times scales are fundamental to assess the pace and cycles of social evolution.

Settlement patterns are probably one of the most sensitive variables for the investigation of past social formation. A dispersed settlement system without any trend toward preferential clustering can be equated with politically equal and predominantly autonomous hamlet- or village-based communities. Depending on the degree of clustering and the recorded settlement hierachy, varying kinds of social ranking can be considered to make up the fabric of a new social formation. Change in settlement patterns can thus be used as the initial research problem, setting the pace for the analysis of other facets of the archaeological record. Dwelling features; architectural styles; evidence for craft activities; burials; and cultic, sacrifice or offering features can then be used to single out some specific space/time segments characterized by a particular combination of characteristics, consistent with a conjoncture or more simply a social formation. The research program outlined above will be implemented with the archaeological record from the Houlouf region. The concept of chiefdom used in this work is consistent with local historical experience, largely supported by the extensive historical and ethnohistorical record. It sheds some refreshing light on earlier attempts to delineate chiefdom social formations from archaeological record (Ho1l1985, 1993; Levy and Holl1988a, b).

Chapter 3

The Research Program Introduction The Houlouf region, selected as the study area for longitudinal analysis of the evolution of past Chadic social formations, is a tiny portion of a more extensive Sudano-Sahelian bioclimatic zone. The Chadian Plain extends to Nigeria in the west, Cameroon in the center, and the Chad Republic in the east. This chapter will focus on the Cameroonian part, delimited by international boundaries coinciding with major rivers courses, the Cameroon/Chad border with Chari and Logone rivers in the east, and the Nigeria/Cameroon border along the EI-Obeid intermittent river in the west. The Sudano-Sahelian climatic zone is characterized by sharply contrasting seasons of unequal length. A four to six month dry season (December-May) has diurnal maximum temperatures varying from 30° to 40°C and frequent northeast harmattan winds. The four to six month (June-November) wet season's rainfall is concentrated in a two-three month period (July-September), followed by a flood episode. In general the average annual amount of precipitation varies from 1200 mm in the south to 800 mm in the north (Maley 1981). The timing, amount and distribution pattern of rainfall is, however, subject to erratic and drastic fluctuations, the area being prone to severe cyclical droughts. Several subregional vegetation groups have been identified (Pi as 1970; Letouzey 1985). They can be grouped into four major vegetation zones. Proceeding from the south to the north (Fig. 8), these are (1) the seasonally flooded grassland with Oriza longistaminata, Vertiveria nigritana and Echinochloa pyramidalis; (2) the Sudano-Sahelian arbustive savanna with Acacia seyal and Balanites aegyptiaca; (3) the temporary Sudano-Sahelian ponds and marshes with Acacia nilotica and Mitragyna inermis; and finally, (4) the Sahelian steppes with Salvadora persica, Acacia senegal and Ziziphus mauritiana (Letouzey 1985). Several soil formations deposited and rearranged by Holocene lacustrine, fluviolacustrine, fluviatile and eolian agencies have been identified

27

(Pias 1970; Brabant and Gavaud 1985). Loosely patterned along a nouth-sorth presumed time-gradient, identified soil formations present a basically overlapping distribution. Proceeding from the south to the north (Fig. 9), the recorded units consist of (1) fluviolacustrine black clay with large quantities of limestone nodules found in seasonally flooded Yaere depressions; (2) more localized deposits of lacustrine sandy clay and sand; (3) widespread lacustrine to fluviolacustrine brown clay with a few rare limestone nodules; (4) alluvial fine sand; (5) more compact alluvial silty sand; (6) alluvial sand and silt; and finally, (7) recent fluviolacustrine fine sand with localized clay (Brabant and Gavaud 1985). As can be seen in both Figures 8 and 9, major settlements with earthen ramparts are preferentially located in Sudano-Sahelian arbustive savanna and temporary pond vegetation subzones, on lacustrine to fluviolacustrine brown clay and alluvial fine sand. Such a skewed distribution appears at first glance totally consistent with present-day ecosystem dynamics, resulting from long-term human-land relationships. It is however highly doubtful that this was always the case in the past, an issue which will be considered in detail in the selected study area. Fieldwork conducted in the Houlouf region from 1982 to 1991 progressed through several steps. From 1982 to 1984, archaeological research directed by J.P. and A.M.D. Lebeuffocused on the excavation of the fortified settlement of Houlouf. The program shifted toward a regional archaeology project in 1985, involving extensi ve surveys, and test excavations of some selected localities. At its initial stage, the regional archaeology project was framed in ecological terms, aiming to document changing human-land relationships through time. Three major ecological microzones comprising the Logone River valley, the arbustive savanna ecotone, and the Yaere grasslands, were selected, surveyed and settlements were mapped. During that initial stage, better acquaintance with previous ethnographic research conducted among Kotoko polities (Griaule and Lebeuf

28

The Land of Houlouf

Flooded grassland with Oryza longistaminata, Vetiveria nigritana and Echinochloa pyramidalis Temporary Sudano-Sahelian ponds with Acacia nilotica and Mytragyna inermis Sahelian steppes with Salvadora persica, Acacia senegal and Ziziphus mauritiana

1 - Makari; 2 - Woulki; 3 - Gulfey; 5 - Sao; 6 - Maltam; 4 - Afade; 8 - Tilde; 7 - Kala-Malouse; 10 - Kusseri; 9 - Kala-Kafra; 11 - Houlouf; 12 - Jilbe; 13 - Kabe; 14 - Zigue; 15 - Logone-Bimi; 16 - Zgague Figure 8. Vegetation zones of northern Cameroon.

1948, 1950, 1951; Lebeuf 1969), in addition to new ethnographic and ethnohistorical data collected at Houlouf, were instrumental in an adjustment of the spatial scale of the fieldwork. More specifically, it quickly appeared that the selected study area based on major environmental parameters was largely inappropriate as a spatial unit for an adequate study of the Houlouf polity development. The selected study area, situated across former boundary lines, was distributed into three neighboring polities lands, Kusseri in the northeast, Kabe in the east and Houlouf in the west. The study area was thus narrowed, recast to fit in the acknowledged limits of Houlouf traditional lands, and all the recorded sites were tested. In concert, graded, extensive, judgmental and selective survey operations were implemented on the entire Cameroonian part of the Chadian Plain and a narrower southnorth stretch of land along the Chari and Logone rivers, in order to collect clearer information on the sociopolitical landscape in which Houlouf land was included. Some data on settlement location were also recorded.

Survey Operations The settlement data published in available archaeological atlases and site distribution maps (Lebeuf 1969, 1981; Connah 1981) were not useful for a research project geared toward an archaeology of social formations. Survey operations aimed at recording of more precise and accurate settlement data were implemented at three nested spatial scales. First, extensive and highly selective survey was carried out on the entire Cameroonian part of the Chadian Plain (10-13 N, 13 50' to 15 15' E), from an east-west Logone-Bimi-Zgague line in the south to Lake Chad islands in the Chari River delta in the north. Second, judgmental and slightly more intensive survey was conducted in a namower area (50 by 20 km) bounded in the east by the Chari and Logone rivers (Cameroon and Chad borders) and stretching from Logone-Birni in the south to Kala-Maloue in the north. Finally, intensive survey was conducted in a smaller area measuring 20 by 20 km, bounded in the east by the Logone River.

The Research Program

29

o N

a

B

I

Fluvio-lacustrine sand with localized clay

[;] Alluvial sand and silt ~

o

Alluvial fine sand Lacustrine sand and sandy clay 14 Fluvio-lacustrine black clay Fluviatile black to brown clay Fluvio-lacustrine brown clay with sparse limestone modules 1 - Makari; 2 - Woulki; 3 - Gulfey; 4 - Afade; 5 - Sao; 6 - Maltam; 7 - Kala-Maloue; 8 - Tilde; 9 - Kala-Kafra; 10 - Kusseri; 11 - Houlouf; 12 - Jilbe; 13 - Kabe; 14 - Zigue; 15 - Logone-Bimi; 16 - Zgague Figure 9. Soils of northern Cameroon.

Extensive and Selective Survey Extensive and selective surveys provided sociopolitically significant settlement data. The parameters were presence/absence of earthen ramparts and rulers' palace complexes, the setting and disposition of the palace complex relative to other settlement features, and, in the Lake Chad islands, evidence of a dry season fishing campaign. The presence of decayed earthen ramparts already reported in archaeological atlases (Lebeuf 1969, 1981) was confirmed for all the visited settlements. A short visit to Nigeria was devised to check the evidence from former Zoulbou, called today Djilbe (Figs. 8, 9). Palace complexes were nonexistent at Zgague, Zigue, Djilbe, Tilde and reduced to a relatively high mound of collapsed features atKala-Kafra, KalaMaloue, Kabe and Houlouf. They were still inhabited and maintained in varying degrees at Afade, Makari, Woulki, Gulfey, Kusseri and Logone-Birni.

At Afade, the Sultan's palace, a two-story massive building, is situated on the highest point of the settlement. It faces east with an extensive plaza comprising a south-facing palace official's finely made shelter in the north. There are no buildings directly in front of the palace. The exterior walls were lined with a pale-grey cement, producing a strange appearance which seriously departs from local architectural style. At Makari, the palace complex is also situated on the highest point and central part of the settlement, with a large former plaza in the east-southeast, now used partly as a crossroad. It is an extensive architectural unit delimited by a pise wall and oriented east-southeast. The whole complex is poorly maintained and was found in an advanced state of degradation. A small palace officials' shelter, built with wood and reed mats, was situated on the eastern side of the palace doorway facing southeast. At Woulki, the palace complex is situated in the northern part of the settlement, abutting the former city walls. The former

30

The Land of Houlouf

.

"

"," Kala-Kafra Bamcherafa. - - \ -.. ',-- .." Deguesse

e\

,

\

~

Kusseri -.... Permanent river

'

>.futuni I I Hamci "\ Madanna. I • Houlouf.' ' --", ,". - ~awadji - • Krenak Madaf. r ,,' .... ,, \ , I

.,'

",

.

.: Sororo

(ffP #'. Amachita

'._ Intermittent stream () Ponds ~ Fossil channel

•

Settlement with earthen rampart

, • Mishiskwa '] ~ U

t N

Figure 10, Site distribution following judgmental survey.

plaza was transformed into a road track, with buildings on both sides. The palace is an extensive quadrangular complex facing south. The Woulki palace walls are particularly impressive. They are approximately five meters thick at the base and two meters thick at the top; the inner side is straight and the outer one oblique. A large palace official's shelter built with mud-brick pillars is situated along the palace wall, on the eastern side of the

doorway, and turned south. The palace is in an advanced state of degradation. The present "Sultan," sitting under the shade of the official's shelter, complained that he was no longer able to cope with the maintenance costs of the palace complex. A guided visit of the palace complex allowed some insights in the spatial and architectural translation ofWoulki palace politics. The doorway gives access to a small courtyard delimited by high walls. There is a large staircase on the left, leading to the Sultan's former audience room, situated approximately 2.5-3 m above the courtyard. The exact dimensions of the courtyard are unknown, but it appears longer than 20 m, leading to a long corridor with series of small lateral rooms containing attributes of rulership: drums, spears, and swords. The corridor becomes darker as one proceeds from the courtyard (public) toward the rear side part (private) of the palace, with the rulers and his official's private apartments. The Sultan's horse was seen in the rear side of the complex, in a large empty space abandoned to weed grasses, which was probably the former living quarters of the Sultan's kin and dependents. Present-day habitation is confined to a minute portion of the complex, and comprises a two-story house. At Gulfey, on the left bank of the Chari River, the palace complex is still well maintained. It is a three-story extensive and massive building complex, situated in the northern part of the settlement, and facing important officials' residences. A small palace official's shelter built with mud-brick pillars, is situated along the palace wall, on the western side of the doorway. If architecture reflects political configurations, a few recurrent structural features can be inferred from survey evidence. Rulers' palaces are always associated with a wide plaza. Offi-

Figure 11. Logone-Birni: the Sultan 's palace viewed from the northwest.

31

The Research Program

...... L?' ..

t

.. ··O-o:C?: :. . :: . : Mishlskwa

o

........... .

N

5km --'---'-~'---"

'-'

D

Above flood level

~ Ponds

0

Flooded

..... Permanent river course

N

Intermittent'lremn

o Walled settlement

Figure 12. Physiography of the study area.

cials' shelters are always situated on the right-hand side of palace doorways when facing them. On another level, the visited palaces present orientations converging in the same direction, east for Afade, southeast for Makari, and south for Woulki, with the notable north orientation at Goulfey. It is as if this convergence emphasized a common broad cultural universe and/or common history. The case of Goulfey is particularly interesting. In 1900, after the defeat of Rabeh troops by the French, the Gulfey Sultan considered to have been a Rabeh ally, was deposed by the French High Commissioner who appointed his Arab ally (Lebeuf 1949,1950,1951). The new appointee revived all ancient Kotoko traditions, but never succeeded to be considered a "real Sultan" by Goulfey elders and other Kotoko polities. The orientation of the Goulfey palace as well as the presence of facing officials' residences which depart from the recorded spatial patterns discovered during the extensive survey program, was probably a reaction of the new marginalized elite.

site. Another is Kala-Maloue, a large high but unmeasured settlement with remains of a collapsed earthen rampart and two anonymous smaller mounds situated at distances varying from 3 to 5 km within the Kala-Maloue game reserve (Fig. 10). Three sites were recorded in the northwest. One is Kabo-Bere, a large 10m high and 24 ha (800 by 300 m) elliptical settlement, situated on the left bank of the Abani River channel. House-pavements made with specially manufactured clay pieces were recorded, as well as a copper alloy figurine of a horseman. Kala-Kafra is still inhabited. It is a 15.75 ha (450 by 350 m) subcircular settlement, 10 m in height above the surrounding floodplain, and situated on the bank of an intermittent stream, a tributary of the Abani. A high smaller mound situated in the northern part of the settlement is claimed by informants to be the remains of the collapsed Sultan's palace. And fi nally, Bamcherafa is a low elongated mound approximately 3 m high, 0.8 ha (400 by 200 m) situated on the left bank of the Abani. Kabo-Bere, Kala-Kafra, and Bamcherafa were presumably part of the Kala-Kafra polity. In the south, six settlements were recorded in what can be considered the northern part of the Logone-Birni polity (Fig. 10). Logone-Birni is a flat, elongated 24 ha (1200 by 200 m) settlement, comprising a relatively well-maintained palace complex (Fig. 11) and numerous large two- to three-story buildings. The Sultan's palace faces northwest, with an extensive plaza and with nothing in front of it. During the colonial period, however, offices as well as residences of the French administrators were built in front of the palace. Five other settlements, all of them situated along the Logone River or fossil river channels with surface areas varying from 1 to 5 ha were found at Bague and Angush in the Yaere, at Bourgouma and Kidam, on the bank of the Logone, and finally at Massaki, along a former Logone River channel (Fig. 10). Angush, located near a permanent pond, is an unusually high circular mound, approximately 300 m in diameter and more than 15 m in height. Situated along the major route between Logone-Birni and the Bornu Kingdom (Barth 1965; Nachtigal 1980), Angush was probably one of the Lagwan Kingdom's border watchtowers. In general, the mapped settlements are surprisingly equidistant in the eastern part of the surveyed area as well as between east and west (Fig. 10).

Judgmental Survey Intensive Survey The judgmental survey was slightly more intensi ve and conducted at a smaller scale. Survey operations were severely handicapped by the dense cover of thorny acacia trees found in southern part of the surveyed area. A few sites distributed among three-polity units were recorded and mapped. The uninhabited mounds are not named. They were usually referred to by the nearest inhabited settlement (Fig. 10). In the north, four sites were recorded along the left bank of the Chari River. Kusseri, whose ancient city limits have been blurred by the extension of the modern crowded city, with the Sultan's palace facing west and situated in the east-central part of the settlement is one such

Intensive survey operations were conducted in a smaller territorial unit, situated at 1140' to 12 10' Nand 1450' to 15 15' E, measuring 400 square km, bounded in the east by the Logone River (Fig. 12). Eighteen mounds were recorded. Only those that were not submitted to further archaeological investigation will be described here. Three sites, Kabe, Kawadji and Madanna, were recorded along the Logone River. Kabe is a relatively large fortified settlement, situated in a Logone Ri ver meander. It is an elongated elliptical site of 12 ha (600 by 200 m), 4 to 10 m in height above the Logone. A smaller

32

The Land of Houlouf

,~.

ment is situated at some distance from the low mound, which is nonetheless used as a burial ground. Stone artifacts and iron slag are particularly rare on the site surface. The tested onesquare-meter exploratory sample comprised 89 potsherds (3 rim sherds, 1 decorated, and 86 body sherds, 19 decorated). Futuni is situated at 6.5 km northeast of Houlouf, on the shore of a wide fossil river channel. The first survey episode was handicapped by a visiting elephant herd which settled on the mound and its immediate surroundings for few days. Futuni is an elongated, elliptically shaped 6 ha mound, 300 m east-west, 200 m north-south, approximately 6 m in height above the surrounding floodplain. The density of surface data is high, consisting predominantly of potsherds, with iron slag and fragmented stone artifacts also present.

o

5km

_

Permanent river course

The Study Area •

Mound site

- - -, -~ Intermittent stream • ~

Ponds

o

Brown clay

~ ~

Silt and sand

Large site with an earthen rampart

Thick black clay with limestone nodules Figure 13. Site distribution and soil types from the study area.

high mound at the center of the settlement is the remaining evidence of the former palace complex. A cemetery with numerous burial jars exposed by erosion was discovered in the northern uninhabited portion of the site. Kawadji is located 6.5 km north of Kabe, along a fossil river channel and at the apex of a Logone River curve. It is an elongated oval-shaped 1.48 ha mound, 186 m long north-south, 80 m wide east-west, and 4 m in maximum height. Numerous potsherds, stone artifacts and iron slag were found scattered on surface and a concentration of large jars was discovered in the northeast. An exploratory one-square-meter sample was inspected; the recorded archaeological evidence comprises 71 potsherds (8 rim sherds with 3 decorated specimens, 61 body sherds, 2 decorated, and a single decorated base sherd). Twenty small iron slags as well as 29 stone artifacts (grindstones, grinders and hammerstones fragments) were collected. Madanna is situated 6 km north of Kawadji. It is also an elongated oval-shaped 1.56 ha mound, 240 m north-south, 65 m east-west, and approximately 3 m in height. Present-day settle-

According to both ethnographic and ethnohistorical records collected at Houlouf, the former boundary of the Houlouf polity was situated along the Abani River course. The land in the northwestern part belonged to Kusseri, while that in the west belonged to the Kabe polity with much of its territories located on the right bank of the Logone River, in the modern Chad Republic. Fourteen mounds recorded within the limits of Houlouf traditional land were tested (Figs. 12, 13). Elevation varied from 296 to 290 m above sea level (asl), the study area being divided into two main components. The first component is a southeastnorthwest stretch of land, permanently above the annual flood level, along with several localized and dispersed pieces ofland in a similar situation; the other component is subject to annual floods. Ten mounds-Deguesse, Krenak, Hamei, Houlouf, Krenak-Sao, Ble Mound A to E-were recorded in the former land component which coincides with the arbustive savanna ecotone with predominantly thorny trees; four in the latter component (Madaf, Mishiskwa, Amachita and Sororo) correspond to the Yaere seasonally flooded grassland. The recorded archaeological sites are set in neatly distinct soil types. Yaere sites are situated on black clay soils, with here and there, more or less permanent ponds. Other settlements are on silty sand and sandy silt sediments, along fossil rivers channels or intermittent streams (Fig. 13). No site has been recorded located directly on brown clay sedimentary formation. Distance between mapped sites varies from a maximum of 20 km between Deguesse and Mishiskwa, to a minimum of 3-3.5 km between Houlouf and Hamei (Figs. 12, 13). Measured from the central fortified settlement of Houlouf, distances range from 12 and 13 km (HouloufKrenak-Sao and Houlouf-Mishiskwa), to 6 and 7 km (HouloufDeguesse, Houlouf-Krenak, Houlouf-Amachita, and HouloufSororo), and finally, 3.5 to 4 km (Houlouf-Hamei and HouloufMadaf). Considered from a wider regional perspective, neighboring fortified polity centers were situated at distances varying from 20 km between Houlouf and Kabe, 15 km from Houlouf to Kusseri and finally, 10 km from Houlouf to Kala-Kafra and

The Research Program

Kala-Maloue. At this juncture, a few questions can be asked: What are the causes for such a regional pattern of distribution? Are all the settlements contemporary?

Excavation Strategies Different excavation strategies were implemented in order to provide answers to the questions formulated above. A large excavation unit (by local standards), with a sample size varying from 96 to 110 square meters, depending on the areas of the required smaller extensions, was carried out at the main fortified site of Houlouf. Other sites were investigated with smaller excavation probes, varying in size from 9 square meters (3 by 3 m) at Madaf to 18 square meters (2 by 9 m) at Deguesse, using a more consistent 12-square-meter (3 by 4 m) sampling unit at all the other sites. High resolution archaeological collection from culturallylbehaviorally meaningful contexts was the prerequisite for the investigation of the evolution of Chadic social formations in the selected study area. Two excavation tactics were tried. The first implemented at Madaf and Deguesse in 1985, at the initial stage of the regional archaeological project, attempted to record cultural material following the so-called natural stratigraphy. Such an excavation tactic quickly appeared inappropriate for a precise analysis of mound formation processes. The collected populations of sherds were distributed throughout generally thick cultural deposits. It was virtually impossible to identify their precise provenience relative to recorded living surfaces or house floors. Different components of cultural deposits could not be identified. This tactic was abandoned in favor of a second one, based on the use of artificial stratigraphic units, 0.20 m in thickness, adjusted to successive exposed living surfaces and house floors. Each recorded living surface/house floor, was exposed in totality and mapped. The emphasis on the development of excavation strategies may sound particularly strange for readers who consider this aspect of fieldwork to be routine. In West Africa, and more specifically in the Chadian Plain, time-ordering of archaeological data is still based on large segments of a site's stratigraphic sections, compressing several

33

occupation/habitation episodes to be used as space/time units. The identification of different depositional units contributing to the formation of the archaeological record was a particularly important research issue for the program presented here. The concept of "horizon" used in this work is adapted from soil sciences (Lamotte 1988; Brabant and Gavaud 1985) and refers to a distinct complex of depositional units. The buildup of a mound's stratigraphic sequence is generated by a combination of several factors, both natural and cultural (Schiffer 1987; Holl 1987). The so-called natural stratigraphy of archaeological sites is not always coeval with the time scales of past cultural transformations. Theoretically, an occupation horizon is a product of four distinct but connected depositional trajectories, ranked according to their "taphonomic integrity." The first, with high taphonomic resolution, and most relevant for fine-tuned analysis of social transformation, is a dwelling/house floor or living surface with evidence of structural features, house floors, walls, hearths, or storage pits. The second is a loosely modified (living) surface with such archaeological evidence as large potsherds, in situ complete vessels, portions of burnt or fire hardened surfaces, or, in general, well-preserved evidence of material culture but without structural features or habitation facilities, as is the case for exposed portions of courtyard. The third is the fill generated by the decay and collapse of structural features, often accumulated above house and living floors as well as living surfaces, and containing unintentionally recycled pieces of material culture which may have been included for example in former wall courses (Figs. 14, 15). The fourth consists of sediment and archaeological evidence transported a short distance and redeposited by natural agencies. Depending on the time lag between abandonment of structural features and the following building episode, archaeological material removed and redeposited by natural agencies can be found directly on house floors and living surfaces, above fills of collapsed material, or both. If we add sound behavioral aspects linked to cultural activities such as pit digging (Fig. 14) and animal burrowing, the issue appears in all its complexity. In the studied stratigraphic sequence, the "behavioral" nature of each of the depositional unit has been emphasized and clarified as much as possible.

34

The Land of H oulouf

Figure 14. A construction pit from Houlouf.

Figure 15. Potsherds included in a present-day waH course.

Chapter 4

Excavations at Deguesse, Krenak, and Hamei

Excavations at Deguesse Introduction Deguesse is situated at 1205' Nand 1454' E, on the left bank of the Abani, a fossil river channel. The mound, subcircular in shape, is 10 m high, 190 m north-south, and 140 m east-west (Fig. 16). Estimated from the site's limits visible from the surface, the settlement covers a surface of 2.66 ha, with the estimated volume of accumulated sediment amounting to 119,700 cubic meters. According to oral tradition, Deguesse is considered to be the earliest settlement of this part of the Chadian Plain. Accounts also claim that the settlement was surrounded by an earthen wall which has been totally erased by erosion. The test excavation carried out on the site was implemented with oral accounts in mind. A trial trench, 9 m by 2 m was dug on the eastern side of the mound, across the visible limit of the site. Limited research funds did not allow for efficient field equipment, and concerns about safety on the field prevented testing the whole stratigraphic sequence of the mound, which is more than 13 m thick from top to bottom. Therefore, archaeological data presented here only concern the earliest part of the settlement history. Additional fieldwork will be needed to complete the picture of Deguesse history.

1) The bottom sedimentary unit, archaeologically virgin, and uncovered at a depth of 4.5 m, consists of a pale yellow (2.5 Y 7/4) well sorted fine sand (Fig. 17). The sedimentary material, exposed in a smaller sub trench, 3 m long and 1 m wide, down to a depth of 5 m, is probably lacustrine in origins (Table 1). 2) Sedimentary unit 2 (4-4.5 m) is 0.5 m thick. It consists of brown-olive (2.5 Y 4/4) cross-bedded and soft silty sand with

t

N

The Stratigraphic Sequence The eastern side of the mound presents a gentler slope; it is the main reason why the trial trench, 9 m long in its east-west axis and 2 m wide (18 square meters) was situated on that side of the site. The tested archaeological deposit was 4.5 m thick, with 2.5 m below present-day surface and 2 m above it. The recorded stratigraphy consists of 10 sedimentary units (1 to 10). They will be presented from the bottom to the top of the sequence.

o

SOm

i.....,~~~~-',

Figure 16. Deguesse: site contour map.

35

36

The Land of Houlouf

w

1m

0I

I

.. D

Reworked light brown sandy clay

[Ill]

Compact brown-yellow silty clay

II]

Loose and dusty dark grey silty sand

§

Compact brown-grey silty clay

~ Compact brown-yellow clay .. Brown-olive soft silty sand ~ ~ Pale yellow fine sand

Figure 17. Deguesse: the stratigraphic section.

TABLE 1 Deguesse: The Stratigraphic Sequence Sedimentary Unit 10

Depth (m) 0-1.5

Thickness (cm) 150

9

1.5-1.75

25

8

1.75-2.2

45

7

2.2-2.6

40

6

2.6-3.1

50

5

3/3.3-3.113.8

30/60

4

3.3/3.5-3.8/4.5

20/70

3

3.5-4.0

50

2

4.0A.5

50

4.5-5.0

>50

small lenses of ash (Fig. 17, Table 1). The deposit seems to contain domestic animal dung which appears to have been homogenized by water following multiple episodes of floods. A sample of charcoal collected throughout the deposit, at a depth varying from 4.2 to 4.4 m, has been dated to 3350 ± 270 B.P. (Ly-4177), calibrated to 1890-1430 B.C. The formation of the sedimentary unit resulted from the combination of several fac-

Characteristics Brown-grey moderately hard sandy clay material Brown-yellow compact silty clay Dark-grey loose and dusty silty sand Brown-grey soft and dusty sandy silt Brown-yellow compact silty clay Brown-yellow compact silty clay Moderately compact brown-grey silty clay Brown-yellow compact clay Cross-bedded and soft brown-oli ve sandy silt, with ash lenses and animals dung Well sorted yellow fine sand

Origins Reworked and redeposited Collapsed material above an habitation surface Collapsed fill material Collapsed fill material Collapsed fill material Fluviatile to fluviolacustrine deposits Fluviatile deposits Fluviolacustrine deposits Composite fluviolacustrine deposits Lacustrine deposit

tors: silty sand material deposited by annual floods, accumulation of domestic animals dung, and the discard of ash. The site thus appears to have been a seasonal station settled by mobile Late Stone Age groups. 3) Sedimentary unit 3 (3.5-4 m) is 0.5 m in maximum thickness, and consists of compact brown-yellow (10 YR 5/6) clay. The deposit accumulated during a wetter period, probably at the

Excavations at Deguesse, Krenak, and Hamei

bottom of a small lake or lagoon, on an east-west slope. The feature suggests that part of sedimentary unit 3 may have been eroded away prior to the accumulation of the overlying layer. 4) Sedimentary unit 4, 0.2 to 0.7 m thick, is laid unevenly above the previous one and presents an east-west slope, from 3.3-3.5 m in the eastern side of the section to 3.8-4.5 m in the western one. It consists of a moderately compact brown-grey (10 YR 5/2) silty clay. The deposit is fluviatile or fluviolacustrine in origin. Pieces of charcoal collected in the western part of the deposit, at depths varying from 4.4 to 4.5 m, have been dated to 1870 ± 180 B.P. (Ly-4178) and calibrated to 40 B.C.-A.D. 340. 5) Sedimentary unit 5 is 0.3 to 0.6 m thick. Uncovered at a depth varying from 3-3.3 to 3.1-3.8 m, it consists ofrelatively compact brown-yellow (10 YR 5/6) silty clay. The formation of the deposit seems to have resulted from the accumulation of decayed building material following'th€ abandonment and collapse of structural features. 6) Sedimentary unit 6,0.5 m thick, is horizontal (2.6-3.1 m) and consists of compact brown-yellow 00 YR 5/6) silty clay encompassed between two habitation surfaces. These habitation surfaces are constituted of horizontal fire-hardened reddish layers. As is the case for the preceding sedimentary unit, this one too results from the accumulation of decayed building material. 7) Sedimentary unit 7 (2.2-2.6 m) is 0.4 m thick on average. It is deposited above a fire-hardened habitation surface and consists of a loose and dusty brown-grey (10 YR 5/2) sandy silt. The sedimentary material may have resulted from the collapse of structural features built with lighter raw materials such as wood and grass. 8) Sedimentary unit 8 (1. 75-2.2 m) is a horizontal layer 0.45 m thick, constituted of a dark-grey (7.5 R 4/0) loose and dusty silty sand. The decay and collapse of structural features in a general context of a drier climate may explain the loose and dusty nature of the sedimentary material fecorded in this unit. Pieces of charcoal collected throughout the deposit have been dated to 1275 ± 220 B.P. (Ly-4176), calibrated to A.D. 560-980. 9) Sedimentary unit 9 (1.5-1.75 m), 0.25 m thick, is comJ:osed of a compact brown-yellow (10 YR 5/6) silty clay. Part of the deposit was probably eroded, as suggested by the overlying reworked layer. 10) Sedimentary unit 10, 1.5 m thick (0-1.5 m), is composed of reworked and redeposited material. Its major constituent is a moderately hard sandy clay, light-brown (7.5 YR 6/4) in color. The stratigraphic sequence described above can be divided into four major parts, described from bottom to top. The bottom part of the stratigraphic section represented by sedimentary units 2 to 4 (3.3-4.5 m), dated from 1890-1430 B.C. to 40 B.C.-A,D. 340 and lying on top of a lacustrine sand layer, was deposited by hydrologic agencies, fluviatile to fluviolacustrine. This 1.2 m thick section represents a time slice of more than two millennia. Tentatively, it can be suggested that the main part of the earliest site was situated further eastward; in this case, the accumulation of decayed structural feature materials as well as refuse may have generated the buildup of a low mound

37

sloping westward. Erosion may have removed portions of sedimentary units 2 and 3 prior to the accumulation of sedimentary unit 4 which presents an east-west slope (Fig. 17). The locality, presumably a sand island accessible when water was low and situated 1.5 to 2.5 meters below the present-day floodplain, thus seems to have been settled intermittently. The second set of deposits is represented by sedimentary units 5 and 6, with an accumulation measuring 1.2 m (2.6-3.8 m). The material consists of harder and more compact silty clay with an average thickness of 0.5 m per occupation horizon. The recorded sedimentary material accumulated as a result of the decay and collapse of human-made structural features. The lack of charcoal samples has precluded direct dating of this settlement phase which probably spanned the first millennium A.D. The settlement however seems to have been a permanent sedentary village. The third set, sedimentary units 7 to 9 (2.6-1.5 m), is 1.1 m thick, with the thickness of individual occupation horizons varying from 0.45 (unit 8), to 0.4 (unit 7) and 0.25 m (unit 9). The comparative thinness of unit 9 is probably best explained by erosion on the relatively steep slope of the mound. The darkgrey loose and dusty fill of sedimentary unit 8, dated to A.D. 560-980, is unusual. The tested area was probably part of, or close to, an ash dumping place; the settlement may also have experienced an episode of fire or even warfare. This issue will be considered later. The fourth set is represented by sedimentary unit 10, a reworked and redeposited material 1.5 m thick. This unit was exposed all along the 9 m long trial trench. It appears that an important structural feature, like an earthen wall, situated higher on the mound slope probably around the top flat surface of the site (Fig. 16), may have eroded and its sedimentary material redeposited on the slope.

Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence Occupation horizon I, dated to 1890-1430 B.C., was uncovered at a depth varying from 4 to 4.5 m. It consists of an intricate series of ash lenses exposed on 6 square meters (3 x 2 m) at the eastern end of the trial trench. A series of five such lenses was exposed on a presumed occupation surface discovered at 4.3 to 4.4 m (Fig. 18.1). They are elongated to circular features, consolidated by the chemical reaction of ash in the presence of water. Even though pieces of charcoal were found dispersed in the sedimentary unit, these features do not seem to have been used as hearths. They were probably piles of discarded ash resulting from hearth cleaning. One complete specimen was exposed, measuring 0.8 m long and 0.6 m wide. A single undecorated but eroded body sherd 0.7 cm thick was found. Faunal mammal remains consist of 9 Bovidae sp. in the size range of gazelles and sheep/goats (2 vertebrae and 7 small fragments), and 1 undetermined. A partial skeleton of a predatory bird, with some of its bones still in anatomic connection, was found in the deposit. The absence of any evidence of human action in con-

38

The Land of Houlouf 2 - Occupation horizon IV

1 - Occupation horizon I

· · · · . :· · CD . .. . . . '.

-.

.

'.,

.' .-

.'

"

~

.

,,'

..

.," ",

.. ':

3 - Occupation horizon V

4 - Occupation horizon VII

o

5m

,

I

o

Indurated ash

~ Hardened ashy surface

•

Pise wall

[IJ]

B

Fire-hardened floor

Pise wall fragments

Figure 18. Living floors and surfaces from Deguesse.

nection with the bird skeleton suggests that its inclusion in the archaeological deposit was accidental. The presence of domestic animals is not directly evidenced in the bone sample, but is suggested by thick deposits of livestock dung, which is the major component of the deposit, interspersed with cross-bedded layers of sandy silt. Similar dung deposits in a comparable environmental settings in Nigeria Bornu have been uncovered at the base of the mound of Kursakata, recently excavated by Gronenborn (1995), and dated to 1000 B.C. Intensive livestock husbandry of cattle and sheep-goats dating from 1750 to 850 B.C. is also in evidence at Gajiganna, further southwest (Breunig 1995). The absence of material remains in this occupation horizon is particularly vexing. The earliest trace of human settlement appears to be in this part of the Chadian Plain, but nothing

can be said about their cultural universe, beyond the fact that they were probably mobile groups of collectors-herders. There is an important time lag between occupation horizons I and II during which fluviolacustrine material from sedimentary unit 3 was deposited and eroded. Occupation horizon II (sedimentary unit 4 at a depth of 3.3/3.5-3.8/4.5 m) dated to 40 B.C.-A.D. 340. Exposed on 6 square meters, the deposit is 0.2 to 0.7 m thick and lies unevenly over sedimentary units 3 and 2 (Fig. 17). Occupation horizon III was eroded away and redeposited along the slope; the accumulation seems to have been redeposited by hydrologic agencies, transported from a settled area which may have been situated further east. Its archaeological content is rather poor with 8 sherds: 6 undecorated body sherds, 1 decorated but badly eroded bottom sherd and 1 undiagnostic frag-

39

Excavations at Deguesse, Krenak, and Hamei

4

Figure 19 (right). Deguesse: vessels from occupation horizon VII (scale in cm).

7.~_~ ...,,\

( .

.

,

1 .I

~...

.

~ 2

Figure 20 (left). Deguesse: decorated sherds from occupation horizon VIII (scale in cm). 7

40

The Land of Houlouf

9

., 7

8

~

\

)

I

,

4

7 5

o Figure 21. Deguesse: vessels from occupation horizon VIII (scale in em).

ment. Six of the recorded sherds have thicknesses varying from 4 to 7.5 mm. No faunal remains have been found. Occupation horizon IV (2.6-3.1 m), a horizontal hardened surface situated on top of sedimentary unit 5 (Fig. 18.2) was exposed on 6 square meters. As is the case for the previous occupation horizon, the repertoire of archaeological evidence is poor: 7 sherds. Six of the sherds, 2 rim sherds, 3 body sherds and 1 base, are undecorated. One bottom sherd is decorated

with roulette impressions. Five of the sherds have thicknesses varying from 6 to 9.5 mm. No animal bone has been found. Exposed on 12 square meters, occupation horizon V (2.22.6 m, sedimentary unit 7) comprises a portion offire-hardened surface (Fig. 18.3) 2 meters square. Four undecorated body sherds were found associated with the deposit. The sedimentary material of the fill above the occupation, which consists of a brown-grey soft and dusty sandy stIt, suggests that the build-

Excavations at Deguesse, Krenak, and Hamei

ing materials used during this settlement episode may have differed from those used previously. Straw and wood seem to have been the major components of settlement facilities. Occupation horizon VI (1.75-2.2 m) may have resulted from the accumulation of burnt feature debris on the edge of an inhabited area. The recorded sedimentary material which consists of a dark-grey loose and dusty silty sand is particularly unusual in the study area. This settlement episode is dated to A.D. 560980 and the collected archaeological evidence comprises 54 potsherds and 61 animal bones. The pottery material is fragmented into tiny pieces, preventing the reconstruction of vessel shapes. The sample of sherds includes 25 decorated bodysherds (8 rim sherds, 1 base, 17 body sherds and 3 undiagnostic pieces). One undecorated fragment was from an undetermined figurine. Roulette and comb impressions appear to have been the predominant decoration technique, while 27 out of 54 sherds have thicknesses ranging from 8 to 9.5 mm. Faunal remains include 20 mammal bones, 18 bird bones, 1 catfish spine (Gymnarchus niloticus) and 22 undetermined fragments. Avifauna material has not been determined to species levels. Mammalian bones are composed of 1 second phalange of Bos sp., 1 mandible and 2 distal femurs of Ovis-Capra sp., 3 teeth fragments and 13 fragments of long bones of Bovidae sp. Occupation horizon VII (1.5-1.75 m) was exposed on 18 square meters. Its eastern end was probably severely eroded. It includes the remains of half of a circular hut measuring 3.5 m in diameter (Fig. 18.4). The base of the pise wall hardened by fire has been preserved as well as large fragments of the hut wall. An interruption found in the wall course is too narrow to be considered an entrance. The hut floor, also well preserved, is a pink-grey fire-hardened surface. A sample of 94 sherds was collected; 52 sherds-12 rims, 39 body and 1 base-are decorated. Roulette and comb impressions are the dominant decoration techniques. In general, sherds appear to be thicker: 30 out of 89 have thicknesses ranging from 8 to 9.5 mm. Two major vessel shapes, a globular pot and five variants of bowls, were reconstructed. The globular pot, with a mouth diameter of 12 cm, is decorated with two symmetrical buttons on the shoulders combined with bands of roulette impressions (Fig. 19.1). The bowls are differentiated by their rims: two variants have everted rims (Figs. 19.2,22.3); two, straight sides and rounded lips (Figs. 19.4, 19.5); and one, a straight rim (Fig. 19.6). One convexo-concave pot lid was also found (Fig. 19.7). There were 37 animal bones, composed of 3 mesial portions of undetermined birds long bones; 4 fish bones (2 large vertebrae of nile perch [Lates niloticus] and 2 dorsal spines of catfish [Gymnarchus niloticus]); and 30 mammalian bones (28 were undetermined fragmentary and tiny pieces). One first phalange of Bos sp. and one metapodial of a small bovid in the size range of sheep/goats were the only pieces that could be identified. Occupation horizon VIII (0-1.5) is the result of the redeposition of sediment and archaeological material transported downslope. A sample of 146 sherds and 33 animal bones were collected. One iron slag and a fragment of a rhyolite ground

41

axe have also been uncovered. Sixty of the recorded potsherds are decorated: 14 rims, 45 body sherds and 1 base. Roulette impression dominates as a decoration technique. Sherd thickness reproduces and amplifies the pattern observed in the previous occupation horizon: 42 sherds belong to the 8-9.5 mm thickness class but thicker sherds are gaining in frequency. Rim shapes are highly diversified and some of the thicker sherds may have been part of large jars, but their shapes cannot be accurately reconstructed (Fig. 20). Four major vessel classes have been determined: globular pots with straight to everted rims (Figs. 21.1-21.4); hole-mouth pots with rounded lips (Figs. 21.5, 21.6); a straight-sided pot with inverted rim (Fig. 21.7); and a flat-bottom plate with straight (Fig. 21.8) and everted sides (Fig. 21.9). Faunal remains comprise 6 unidentifiable bird bones, 10 catfish vertebrae (Gymnarchus niloticus), and 17 mammal bones. Fourteen of the mammal bones belong to sheep/goats; they consist of 1 horn core, 4 distal femurs, 4 metapodial, and 5 mandibles or fragments of mandibles. Two rib fragments have been assigned to Bovidae sp. and the first phalange of an antelope of average size assigned to Kobus kobo Though the set of archaeological finds uncovered in occupation horizon VII is probably composite in origin, it probably dates to part of the first half of the second millennium A.D. The major part of the mound, about 8 meters of the site sequence, has not been tested but the site surface has been sampled. Two research tactics were used to collect information on archaeological material scattered over the site surface. One was selective and the other systematic. The selective sampling technique was designed to discover archaeological features visible on the surface and to collect all artifacts made with rare materials, such as stones that are absent from the Chadian Plain and metal slag connected to specialized craft production. The systematic sampling tactic was implemented to gather information on the concentration and diversity of archaeological finds over a known surface of the site. The sampled areas were selected from areas with both high and low concentrations of artifacts. Selective sampling was carried out by the whole working crew of fifteen individuals, five paces or approximately five meters from each other, moving in parallel bands from one end of the site to the other. The site was thus surveyed in successive transects. A hut floor paved with potsherds in a herringbone pattern was discovered on the eastern side of the site. The hut was circular, measuring 4 m in diameter. The base of the pise wall, hardened by fire and pink-grey in color, was well preserved. Three storage pits were recorded, measuring one meter in diameter each, of unknown depth because they were filled with sediment. According to one informant, these pits were dug recently by Arab pastoralists who settled on the mound during a year of unusual flooding. Large surfaces of grey, hard and compact features, presumed to be the remains of an earthen wall or a fortified building exposed by erosion were found on the western slope of the mound. The collected artifacts consist of 9 stone artifacts; 3 fragments of grinding stones, 2 hammers tones, 1 polisher, 1 pounder and 2 undetermined fragments. Six of the

42

The Land of Houlouf

2

L

Ej} 3

r-------.... Figure 22. Deguesse: decorated sherds and vessels from surface (scale in cm).

5

\J}

6

---==

TABLE 2 Krenak: The Stratigraphic Sequence Sedimentary Unit 10

Depth (m) 0-0.4

Thickness (cm) 40

9 8 7 6 5

0.4-0.9/1.2 1.2-1.4 0.9/1.2-1.8 \.8-2.6/2.8 2.6/2.8-3

50/80 20 60/80 801100 20/40

4

3-3.7

70

3 2

3.7-3.8 3.8-4.5 4.5-5

10 70 >100

I

Characteristics Light brown-grey soft and dusty sandy clay Compact brown-grey sandy clay Moderately hard brown-grey sand clay Compact brown-yellow clayey sand Soft light brown-grey clayey sand Light grey sandy clay with horizontal beds of ash Olive deposit interpersed with brown yellow silt and brown)grey sandy clay Finely bedded brown-grey sandy clay Compact brown-yellow clay Well sorted fine yellow sand

pieces were made of syenite, 2 of microdiorite and 1 of quartzite. Also, 207 iron smelting slags weighing 27 kg were collected, the weight of individual pieces varying from 10 to 500 g. Four vessels were found, 2 bowls and 2 pots (Fig. 22). Systematic sampling was implemented within a circle measuring 6 m in diameter. The recorded archaeological material consists exclusively of 2,144 potsherds, weighing 35 kg. The average density of sherds is 75.84 per square meter: 1,259 are decorated, including all of the 114 rim sherds. Some of the sherds with elaborate decoration are illustrated in Figure 22. Because of the lack of continuity between the stratigraphic

Origins Reworked fill of collapsed material Collapsed fill above a habitation surface Collapsed fill Collapsed fill above a habitation surface Collapsed fill above a habitation surface Collapsed fill Livestock dung accumulation including habitation surfaces Fluviatile deposit Fluviolacustrine deposit Lacustrine deposit

sequence of the trial trench and the surface of the site, it is far from certain that much can be learned from surface material. Whatever the case, it appears that iron smelting may have played an important role during the second millennium A.D. in the way of life of Deguesse village inhabitants. Summary The archaeological sequence of Deguesse probably spans the whole 4000 year range, from the early beginnings of human settlement of this part of the Chadian Plain almost to the present.

Excavations at Deguesse, Krenak, and Hamei

It is not known precisely when the site was abandoned. The site's archaeological sequence was not exposed in its totality. Approximately 8 m of the deposit above the trench was not tested. Inhabited areas may have shifted from one part of the site to another, and an absence of settlement evidence in the tested stratigraphic section does not automatically mean that the locality was abandoned. With these words of caution in mind, one may dare suggest an outline of the settlement history. The earliest settlers were mobile groups of collector-herders. They selected a sand island which was probably accessible during low water periods or the dry season. The settlement may have consisted of groups of dwellings distributed on a large surface. This settlement strategy may have lasted up to the formation of sedimentary unit 5, at the end of the first millennium B.C. and the first half of the first millennium A.D. From that period, the use of silt and clay as building materials and the trend toward concentration ofhabitation on a smaller surface generated the formation of a mound. During the second half of the first millennium A.D. the peculiar fill of sedimentary unit 8, with its high content of ash, may be interpreted as evidence of accidental fire, a rubbish area or an indication of warfare. Later, a presumed earthen wall which may have been built around the flat top surface of the mound was eroded and its sedimentary material redeposited along the slope. If oral accounts collected on the field are considered, Deguesse appears to have been used as a watchtower during the period of Houlouf primacy, as well as later, at the time of Logone Kingdom in the eighteenth-nineteenth centuries.

Excavations at Krenak Introduction Krenak is situated at 1202' Nand 1459' W, on the left bank of the Abani River. Elliptical in shape, the mound is 5 m high, 100 m long east to west, and 60 m wide north to south. The southern side presents a steeper slope (Fig. 23). The site covers a surface of 0.6 ha and has a theoretical volume of 42,000 cubic meters. A test excavation covering 12 meters (4 by 3 m), 0.2% of the site, was carried out from the top to the bottom of the mound stratigraphic sequence.

The Stratigraphic Sequence Ten sedimentary units have been recorded in the site's stratigraphic section which is 5 meters thick (Fig. 24, Table 2). 1) Sedimentary unit 1 consists of a pale-yellow (2.5 Y 7/4) well sorted fine sand. It was exposed in a smaller trench, 3 m long and 1.5 m wide, down to a depth of 0.5 m. The deposit found at a depth of 4.5 m is similar to that of Deguesse and is lacustrine in origin. 2) Sedimentary unit 2, 0.8 m thick (3.8-4.5 m), is composed of compact brown-yellow (2.5 Y 6/4) clay. This sedimentary material is probably from fluviolacustrine to lacustrine origins.

43

\

N

Figure 23. Krenak: site contour map.

Both units 1 and 2 are devoid of any archaeological material. 3) Sedimentary unit 3 (3.7-3.8 m) is a relatively thin layer of finely bedded brown-grey (10 YR 512) sandy clay. The sedimentary material appears to have been deposited during a period of flood or higher lagoon level. 4) Sedimentary unit 4 (3-3.7 m), 0.7 m thick, consists of an impressive deposit of olive (5 Y 5/6) livestock dung, interspersed with beds of brown-grey (10 YR 5/2) sandy clay and brownyellow (2.5 Y 6/4) silt. A sample of charcoal collected from a hearth at a depth of 3.2 m has been dated to 1720 ± 65 B.P. (Hv 16379) and calibrated to A.D. 230-405. 5) Sedimentary unit 5 (2.6-3 m) is a light-grey (2.5 Y 7/2) sandy clay material. The deposit resulted from the decay and collapse of habitation features. 6) Sedimentary unit 6 (1.8-2.6 m) also resulted from the decay and collapse of habitation facilities. It is 0.8 m thick and consists of a light brown-grey clayey sand. A sample of charcoal collected at the bottom of the deposit, from 2.4 to 2.6 m, has been dated to 1630 ± 60 B.P. (Hv 16378) and calibrated to A.D. 345-530. 7) Sedimentary unit 7 (0.9/1.4-1.8 m) consists of a brownyellow (2.5 Y 6/4) clayey sand. Its thickness varies from, 0.4 m in the eastern part of the stratigraphic section, to 0.9 in the west. A charcoal sample collected at the bottom of the deposit, at 1.6 to 1.8 m, has been dated to 1825 ± 50 B.P. (Hv 16377) and calibrated to A.D. 80-315. This date is slightly older than that from the previous sedimentary unit 6 and may have been run on a sample of material remobilized from older fills. This date, situated in the time-range of the first half of the first millennium A.D., can nonetheless be accepted as it indicates an important early settlement phase in this part of the study area by livestock herder-collectors.

44

I I I I I I

The Land of Houlouf

I I I IJJ.I I I I

I IT

Soft and dusty light brown grey and clayey sand Brown.grey sandy clay

.

'::;::;; Brown-yellow clayey sand

Light brown-grey clayey sand Light grey sandy clay Olive soft dung deposit

Brown-grey sandy clay Compact brown-yellow clay

~:~~~:N$?~~l~;t'm?i'~r

", -., ''''''~'. .'.'

"'·o·x" ,-'

"I'~--'"

".",

Pale yellow fine sand

,

Figure 24. Krenak: the stratigraphic section.

8) Sedimentary unit 8 (1.2-1.4 m) has been exposed in the eastern section of the excavation probe (Fig. 24). It consists of a moderately hard brown-grey (10 YR 5/2) sandy clay. A charcoal sample provided a surprising date of 2110 ± 90 B.P. (Rv 16376) calibrated to B.C. 360-320 which does not fit with the available series of dates. The collected charcoal probably resulted from the reuse of old wood or remobilized earlier sediment; it is considered irrelevant to the chronology of the site. 9) Sedimentary unit 9 (0.4-0.911.2 m) is composed of a brown-grey (10 YR 5/2) compact sandy clay, its thickness varying from 0.5 to 0.8 m. 10) Sedimentary unit 10 (0-0.4 m) is reworked topsoil deposited above a shallow pit of ash (Fig. 24). The sedimentary material is a soft and dusty light brown-grey clayey sand. Extensive animal burrowing has been recorded on the site, and a den, probably of a jackal, was exposed in the section of this sedimentary unit. The stratigraphic section of Krenak can be divided into three clearly distinct parts. The first one, at the bottom of the section, from 3.4 m downward, comprises three sedimentary units (1 to 3) devoid of archaeological data and deposited by hydrologic agencies. A sand island appears to have been present in the area and the climate seems to have been wetter, the locality shifting from small lake to lagoonal and marsh environments. The second part, sedimentary unit 4, is found at a depth varying from 3 to 3.7 m, and consists of a thick deposit of livestock dung interspersed with localized beds of silt and sandy clay. This part of the stratigraphic sequence appears to have accumulated ca. A.D. 100500. The third component is the thickest; it consists of sedimentary units 5 to 10 (0-3 m) constituted of sandy clay to clayey sand, resulting from the decay and collapse of habitation facilities.

Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence Occupation horizon I, covering the entire 12 meters of the excavated area, and found at a depth varying from 3.4 to 3.7 m, is a habitation surface (3.6 m) comprising two hearths. Neither hearth was completely exposed by the excavation (Fig. 25.1). The hearths were built on the underlying brown-grey sandy clay sediment, surrounded and overlaid by a .3 m thick deposit of livestock dung. The larger hearth is a shallow, probably horseshoe-shaped pink-red feature measuring 1 by 0.65 m and 10 cm deep. Only a minute portion of the second hearth was exposed. The artifacts from this horizon consist exclusively of 100 highly fragmented sherds, 41 decorated with roulette and comb impression, mostly from thickness classes 6.5-8 mm (36 sherds) and 8.5-10 mm (37 sherds). Occupation horizon II, uncovered at a depth of 3.2-3.4 m, comprises two features exposed at 3.3 m, a shallow ash pit with tiny pieces of charcoal and a large portion of a circular hut. Both were surrounded and overlaid with livestock dung. The exposed part of the shallow pit measUres 2 m in length, 1 m in maximum width and 0.25 m in maximum depth. The hut consists of a fire-hardened surface, 3 m in radius, without evidence of a pise wall (Fig. 25.2). The feature seems to have been built with straw and wood. Two nile perch bones (Lates niloticus) and a sample of 79 sherds were collected. Roulette and comb impressions decorated 37 of the sherds (Fig. 25.4). As with the sherd sample from occupation horizon I, the 6.5-8 (39 sherds) and 8.5-10 mm (19 sherds) thickness classes predominate. Four small well-polished clay balls with diameters varying from 11 to 13.5 mm and weighing from 2.5 to 3 grams were found. Their function is unknown; they may have been used as game tokens. Occupation horizon III dated to A.D. 230-405. A portion of a circular hut with a fire-hardened floor sunk in the dung deposit and two small shallow pits filled with ash (Fig. 25.3) were uncovered at 3.1 m. No evidence of a wall was found, and the exposed floor portion measures 3 m in maximum radius. The small ash pit in the hut floor is 0.2 m deep and measures 0.5 min diameter. The outside ash pit measures 1 m in diameter and 0.3 m in depth. The recorded archaeological evidence consists of 81 sherds and 47 animal bones. Of the 81 sherds found, 45 are decorated with roulette impressions. The proportion of thin sherds (4-6 mm) is increasing, even if the 8.5-10 mm class is still predominant. There are 47 animal bones: 40 undetermined fragments, 2 fragments of scapula, 1 carpal, 2 tarsals, 1 patella and one calcaneum all belonging to Bos sp., and one distal end of metapodial belonging to an antelope of the size range of Kobus kobo Occupation horizon IV in sedimentary unit 5 (2.6/2.8-3 m) comprises two distinct occupation surfaces consisting of hardened ashy surfaces. Living surface IVA at 2.75 m is a stretch of pale-grey ash, 5 cm thick and 1.5 m wide, oriented north-south across the excavation probe (Fig. 26.1). Living surface IVB at 2.6 m is 0.8 to 1.8 m wide and extends off the eastern side of the test excavation (Fig. 26.2). These features are probably remains of eroded ash heaps accumulated ort the peripheries of habita-

45

Excavations at Deguesse, Krenak, and Hamei

2 - Occupation horizon II

1 - Occupation horizon I

t

N

.

,

.

Dung,

t

N

Health

o I

1m I

3 - Occupation horizon III

4 - Decorated sherds

t

N

,

.

Floor

Dung

Figure 25. Krenak: living floors and surfaces and decorated sherds,

tion facilities. The sample of archaeological data collected from both surfaces consists of only 34 sherds, 15 decorated. Roulette and comb impressions are the dominant decoration techniques and 17 of the sherds belong to the 6.5-8 mm thickness class. A large sherd, from a plain flat-bottom vessel has also been collected (Fig. 26.3) Occupation horizon V is dated to A.D. 345-530. It is a living surface with a flat rubefied oval-shaped feature, 0.6 m long and

0.3 m wide, with a pile of ash exposed at 2.5 m (Fig. 27.1). The flat feature is probably an open-air fireplace. Of the 71 sherds retrieved from this thick deposit, 33 are decorated, most of them with roulette impressions. The 6.5-8 (24 sherds) and 8.5-10 mm (22 sherds) are the dominant thickness classes. Dated to A,D. 80-315, occupation horizon VI was uncovered at the bottom of sedimentary unit 7, at 1.8 m. The living surface consists of a portion of a circular hut floor, 2.6 m long and 1.2

46

The Land of Houlouf

2 - Occupation horizon IVE

1 - Occupation horizon IVA

t

+

N

N

o

1m I

3

c::J__l m wide, containing a small circular hearth, 0.45 m in diameter; one small pot; and two rubefied features, probably outside hearths. The hearth, totally exposed, is oval-shaped and measures 1 m in length and 0.8 m in width (Fig. 27.2). One terracotta tube of unknown function was uncovered, as well as one cylindrical flat-bottomed cup (Fig. 28). A total of 281 sherds were collected from the sedimentary unit, 227 from the collapsed fill, which will not be presented here in detail, and 54 from the living surface deposit. Thirty are decorated with comb impressions, the dominant decoration technique. Fifteen sherds belong to the 6.5-8 mm thickness class, 19 sherds to the 8.5-10 mm class. Two finely polished small clay balls both measuring 13 mm in diameter and weighing 3 grams, as well as one iron slag, were found. Occupation horizon VII, exposed at 1.2 m, is a living surface with a portion of a circular fire-hardened hut floor comprising a hearth and an ash pit. The hut floor is 3.5 m long and 1.5 m wide (Fig. 29.1). The associated hearth with three clay "hearth-stones" is circular and measures 0.8 m in diameter. The exposed portion of the ash pit is situated on the eastern side of the hut floor and measures 0.6 m in length. Part of an adult burial belonging to horizon VIII (see below) was discovered.

Figure 26. Ware and occupation horizon IV living surfaces.

The fill above the living surface contained 121 sherds: 35 sherds were collected, 14 decorated with roulette impressions. Fourteen sherds are in the 8.5-10 mm thickness category. Two polished small clay balls, 11.5 mm in diameter and weighing 2 g each, as well as one syenite grinder, were found. Faunal remains consist of 21 molar fragments and 1 wild boar vertebra (Phacochoerus aethiopicus) and 2 undetermined fragments of long bones. The fill above occupation horizon VIII was heavily reworked and contained 602 sherds. The exposed living surface contained one small outside hearth, oval in shape and measuring 0.5 m in length and 0.4 m in width (Fig. 29.2). A minute portion of an ash pit was exposed in the northern part of the excavation unit and the skull of a child, six to nine years old, probably part of a complete but intrusive burial, was uncovered. The body was buried in a slightly flexed position, on its left side, oriented northsouth with the face probably turned east. (This burial also intruded into occupation horizon VII.) There were 189 sherds, 88 decorated with roulette impressions (Fig. 30). The 8.5-10 mm thickness class predominates but there is a trend toward increased thickness of sherds. Five polished clay balls measuring 14 to 16 mm in diameter and weighing 3.5 to 4 g, as well as 9 fragments offigurines-3 anthropomorphic, 3 zoomorphic and

47

Excavations at Deguesse, Krenak, and Hamei

1

t

N

Hearth

~

2

Figure 28. Pottery from occupation horizon VI.

Floor

Pot

Figure 27. Living surface and floor from occupation horizons V and VI.

3 undetermined. Faunal remains consist of a single molar of Bos sp. Extensive selective sampling produced a set of21 iron slags weighing 2.24 kg and 4 syenite artifacts, 2 fragments of grinding stone, 1 hammers tone and 1 pounder. Systematic sampling in a 10 m diamter circle produced 2,959 sherds; the average density of sherds was 37.69 per square meter.

units. The recorded pattern seems to be related to increasing settlement intensity. The frequency of sherds is more important in the three upper occupation horizons (Table 3) and their fragmentation lower. Sandy clay and clayey sand appear to have been used as building materials, even if no evidence of wall has been found. This part of the archaeological sequence, from 2.62.8 m upwards, seems to have accumulated during the second half of the first millennium A.D. The lower occupation horizons from 3 m downwards, dated to the first half of the first millennium A.D., consist almost exclusively of livestock dung deposits. During the accumulation of this portion of the archaeological deposit, the settlement seems to have been used both as livestock pen and inhabited space. The density of sherds is low and they are, on average, highly fragmented (Table 3). Occupation horizon IV in sedimentary unit 5 (2.6/2.8-3 m) suggests the transition between two settlement tactics, and maybe modes of life. There seems to have been a shift from a mobile collector-herder way of life, of the kind seen at Deguesse, as early as the first half of the second millennium B.C. to a sedentary hamlet or village-based settlement strategy. The period of abandonment of Krenak is unknown, but the absence of any archaeological evidence characteristic of the second millennium A.D. suggests that this may have happened at the end of the first millennium A.D.

Excavations at Hamei S11111111 a ry

Introduction In general, the average thickness of occupation horizon deposits increases with time, shifting from 20-30 em at the bottom of the stratigraphic sequence to 50-100 em in the upper

Situated at 12 02' Nand 1456' E, on the right bank of the Abani, a fossil river channel, Hamei is an elliptical mound 130

48

The Land of Houlouf

m west-east, 60 m north-south, and 4 m higher than the surrounding floodplain. The site covers 0.78 ha, for a theoretical volume of 20,232 cubic meters, and has been loosely partitioned into two smaller mounds by erosion. A 12 square meter excavation probe, 0.15% of the site area, was carried out from the top of the eastern mound (Fig. 31). A stratigraphic section 3.1 m thick comprising five occupation horizons was recorded.

1

t

N

I

,

J

"

The Stratigraphic Sequence

The stratigraphic sequence of the site is divided into four sedimentary units; two of them, found at the bottom of the deposit, are devoid of any archaeological evidence. The other two are human made and comprise all the uncovered occupation horizons (Fig. 32, Table 4) 1) Sedimentary unit 1 was exposed at the bottom of the sequence, from 3 to 3.1 m. The sedimentary material, probably from former erased dunes and remobilized by lacustrine agencies, consists of a well sorted fine yellow (2.5 Y 7/6) sand (Fig. 32). 2) Sedimentary unit 2, uncovered from 1.8 m to 3 m, is a compact brown-yellow (10 YR 5/6) silty clay, accumulated by fluviolacustrine to lacustrine agencies. 3) Sedimentary unit 3 (0.2-1.8 m), 1.6 m thick, is composed of superimposed habitation surfaces and fills of collapsed and decayed building material. It is a loose clayey silt, with color varying from brown-grey (10 YR 5/2) to light brown-grey. 4) Sedimentary unit 4 (0-0.2 m) is reworked topsoil, and consists of a compact brown-grey (10 YR 5/2) sandy clay.

2

t

Hearth

N

Figure 29. Living floor and surface from occupation horizons VII and VIII.

2

3

I ~ / ,

f'

L....&...a.....

[ ~.

,,

Figure 30. Krenak vessels from occupation horizon VIII and surface.

49

Excavations at Deguesse, Krenak, and Hamei

N

s

Figure 31. Hamei: site contour map.

o

~Ocm

,

~ Yellow tine sand

Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence Occupation horizon I was found at 1.8 to 2.2 m. It is 0.6 m thick and comprises a living surface exposed at 1.8 m. Two archaeological features have been uncovered, one intrusive burial probably from occupation horizon II which will be described in that context, and a shallow circular hearth, found along the southern section of the excavation probe (Fig. 33). The excavated portion of the hearth, consisting of a rubefied pink-red clay, measures 1.1 m in maximum diameter and 10 cm in maximum depth. One large plain bell-shaped jar with a small flat base was found crushed at the northwestern corner of the test excavation; it measures 0.5 m in diameter at mouth and 0.8 m in height (Fig. 34.1). A fragment of a miniature flat-bottom dugout made with clay (Fig. 34.2) and two pieces of anthropomorphic figurines were recorded. A sample of 126 sherds has been collected from the sediment in direct association with the living surface, from 1.6 to 1.8 m: 73 (68 body sherds) are decorated, 56 of them with twisted roulette impressions. Their thickness distribution is bimodal: 46 sherds in the >14.5 mm class, 26 in the 8.5-10 mm class. There are 37 faunal remains: 17 undetermined fragments, 8 birds, 3 Gazella sp., 4 Bovidae sp., 1 nile perch and 4 catfish. The occupation horizon II deposit was recorded at 1.2 to 1.6 m. A living floor comprising a small portion of a probably circular house of beaten brown-yellow sediment, was exposed at 1.5 m. The excavated portion of the house floor, found in the southeastern part of the probe, measures 3 m in length and 2 m in width (Fig. 35). An adult male primary burial was found 0.3 m below the occupation horizon II surface. The deceased was buried without grave goods in a flexed position, lying on his right side, oriented southwest-northeast, face tumed southeast. No vessel shape has been reconstructed from the sample of 98 sherds, most of them highly fragmented. Fifty-five sherds are decorated; twisted roulette impressions predominate, followed by carved roulette impres-

Ii§!

Brown-yellow silty clay

B

Brown-grey to light brown-grey soft clayey silt

o

Compact brown-grey sandy clay

.... Fire-hardened sUlfaces

Figure 32. Hamei: the stratigraphic section.

ia

Jar

t

N

-

Hearth

Figure 33. Hamei: occupation horizon I living surface.

sions. The 8.5-10 mm thickness class (26 sherds) is slightly predominant, followed by the 6.5-8 mm and then the >14.5 mm classes. One fragment of a syenite grinding stone was found. Faunal remains consist of 42 pieces: 4 undetermined fragments, 2 cattle, 3 sheep/goat, 2 Gazella sp., 3 Bovidae sp., 13 nile perch, 12 catfish, and 2 shell fragments of land snail. Occupation horizon III (0.8-1.2 m) comprises a living surface exposed at 1.2 m. A shallow, probably circular hearth was found at the southwestern corner of the excavation probe. The uncovered feature, 0.6 m in maximum radius and 15 em in maxi-

50

The Land of Houlouf

TABLE 3 Krenak: Summary of the Occupation Sequence Occupation horizon (m)

Thickness (cm)

VIII (0-0.4)

40

VII (0.4-0.9/1.2)

50/80

VI (0.9/1.2-1.8)

60/80

V (1.8-2.612.8) IV (2.6/2.8-3) III (3-3.2) II (3.2-3.4) I (3.4-3.7)

801100 20/40 20 20 30

Component Fill Surface Fill Surface Fill Surface Surface Surface Surface Surface Surface Surface

Number of sherds

Weight (kg)

Density (m 3 )

Fragmentation index

602 189 121 35 227 54 71 34 81 79 100

21.5 6.6 4 0.8 6.6 1.3 1.2

125.41 78.75 25.2 14.58 30.26 22.5 29.58 14.16 33.75 32.91 20.83

3.57 3.49 3.3 2.28 2.9 2.4 1.69 2.94 2.46 1.64 1.8

I

2 1.3 1.8

TABLE 4 Hamei. The Stratigraphic Sequence Sedimentary Unit 4

Depth (m) 0-0.4

40

3

0.4-1.8

140

2

1.8-3

120

3-3.1

>10

Thickness (cm)

Compact browngrey sandy clay Loose brown-grey to light brown-grey clayey sand Compact brownyellow silty clay Well sorted fine yellow sand

~ "0

Characteristics

'

Origins Reworked fill of collapsed material above a habitation surface Superimposed fills of collapsed material above habitation surfaces Fluviolacustrine to lacustrine deposit Lacustrine deposi t

Figure 34 (left). Hamei: archaeological finds from occupation horizons I and II.

Excavations at Deguesse, Krenak, and Hamei

t

N

Figure 35. Hamei: house floor from occupation horizon II.

Secondary burial

t

N

Hearth

Figure 36. Hamei: living surface from occupation horizon III.

mum depth, consists of rubefied pink-red clay filled with grey ash (Fig. 36). A concentration of human adult bones was found slightly below the living surface, along the north section of the test excavation, at 1.3 to 1.4 m. It is not known if the recorded bones, two tibias, left and right, and a femur, with a fragmented iron bracelet, were part of a primary but disturbed burial, or if they belong to a secondary burial. Sixty-three sherds were collected, 18 decorated with twisted and carved roulette impressi.ons. Sherd thickness ranges from 10.5 to 12 mm (19 sherds) to 8.5-10 mm (15 sherds). Two syenite grinding stone fragments were found. The 21 faunal remains consist of 2 cattle, 1 sheep/ goat, 2 Bovidae sp., 2 birds, 1 catfish, 1 freshwater mussel shell fragment, and 12 undetermined pieces. Occupation horizon IV (0.4-0.8 m) comprises a deposit 0.4 m thick, divided into a fill of collapsed material 0.2 to 0.3 m

51

thick, and a living floor exposed at 0.6 m. Three main archaeological features have been recorded: a portion of a fire-hardened house floor, 3.7 m long and 2.7 m wide (Fig. 37), and two hearths uncovered along the southern section of the probe. Both hearths are probably circular in shape, one measuring approximately 0.5 m in diameter, and the other an exposed portion of 0.45 m in maximum radius. An adult human jaw and an occipital bone were found 0.2 m below the house floor level, without any evidence of a pit. It is not known if the skeletal material belongs to a secondary burial associated with the recorded house floor, or if it has resulted from redeposition from an ancient burial disturbed by burrowing animals or scavengers. Of the 125 sherds collected, 53 are body sherds, 50 decorated, with twisted roulette impressions as the predominant technique (Table 5). The thickness classes are 8.5-10 mm (40 sherds) and >14.5 mm (29 sherds). Six stone artifacts were found: 1 fragment of a grinding-stone, 4 grinders and 1 hammerstone (4 syenite, 1 microdiorite and 1 rhyolite). Twenty-four of the 45 pieces of faunal remains are undetermined fragments. The rest have been identified as: 2 sheep-goat, 7 birds, 5 nile perch, 7 catfish, 1 freshwater mussel shell fragment, and 1 lizard (Varanus niloticus). Finally 2 biconical clay spindle whorls were collected (Fig. 34). A charcoal sample collected from the central hearth fill of ash dated to 845 ± 55 B.P. (Rv 16373), calibrated to A.D. 1045-1388. Occupation horizon V (0-0.4 m) at the top of the stratigraphic sequence is a fill of reworked topsoil, accumulated above a living surface exposed at 0.3 m. The recorded surface includes a shallow hearth (probably circular), approximately 0.8 m in maximum diameter and 10 cm in maximum depth, found along the southern section of the probe, and a series of seven pots and ten stone artifacts (Fig. 38). A distal end of a cattle humerus was found in one of the pots. A secondary burial comprising an adult jawbone was found at the northwestern corner of the excavation probe slightly below the living surface level, at 0.4 m. The spatial distribution of vessels found on the occupation horizon V living surface suggests the existence of a circular house, assuming pots were disposed of along the house wall. The recorded set of pottery, including three complete vessels, is divided into four shapes. The first shape category includes three similarly globular pots with slightly conical base, rounded lip and everted rim, decorated with chevrons made with carved roulette impressions on the body up to the shoulder (Fig. 39.1). They measure 18 cm in diameter at mouth and 20 cm in height, with 12 mm thick walls. The second category comprises two similar, larger hemispheric pots, presumed rounded bases, restricted mouths and everted rims, decorated with extensive twisted roulette impressions on the body (Fig. 39.2). They measure 20 cm in diameter at mouth, 26 cm in maximum diameter, and probably more than 22 cm in total height, with 11 mm thick wall. The third and fourth shapes are represented by a single vessel each; the former is a slightly elongated pot with constricted neck, everted rim and rounded lip, measuring 12.5 cm in diameter at the mouth and 15 cm in maximum diameter, deco-

52

The Land of Houlouf

TABLE 5 Hamei: Summary of the Occupation Sequence SU

OH (m)

Depth of sherds

Number (kg)

Weight (m3)

Density index

Fragmentation

Component

4

V

0-0.2

643

30.1

267.91

4.68

IV

0.2-0.4 0.4-0.6

187 148

8.5 6.5

77.91 61.66

4.54 4.39

III

0.6-0.8 0.8-1

124 102

6.3 5.2

52.08 42.5

5.04 5.09

II

1-1.2 1.2-1.4

63 130

3 8.1

26.25 54.16

4.76 6.23

1.4-1.6 1.6-1.8

98 76

4.1 4.8

40.83 31.66

4.18 6.31

1.8-2 2-2.2

27 23

6 1.9

11.25 9.58

22.22 8.26

Topsoil, reworked fill Habitation surface Fill of collapsed material Habitation surface Fill of collapsed material Habitation surface Fill of collapsed material Habitation surface Fill of collapsed material Habitation surface Fill below habitation surface

3

Key: SU

=Sedimentary Unit; OH =Occupation Horizon

, .... ' .~

~c...-;I ~

S~c~ndary burial

o@ o

Pots

o

Floor

Hearth Figure 37. Hamei: house floor from occupation horizon IV.

rated with extensive twisted roulette impressions up to the shoulder (Fig. 39.3); and the last, a large jug, of which only the upper part has been preserved, measuring 10 cm in diameter at the mouth and decorated with twisted roulette impressions from the neck downward (Fig. 39.4). A sample of 187 sherds was collected, 90 decorated, 60 with twisted roulettes. The thickness distribution is bimodal, with one peak in the 8.5-10 mm class (49 sherds), and the other in the >14.5 mm class (42 sherds). In general however, with the exception of the 4-6 mm class (only 2 sherds), the distribution among the five recorded thickness classes is relatively smooth, with frequencies varying from 26 to 49. Stone artifacts amount to 10 pieces: 5 grindstones, 2 hammerstones and 3 grinders (9

...:::::::::... Hearth

n

Figure 38. Hamei: living surface from occupation horizon V.

syenite, 1 rhyolite). The largest faunal remains sample of the site sequence was collected here: 145 pieces. Of these, 81 are unfortunately unidentifiable fragments. The remaining include: 7 birds, 6 cattle, 7 Gazella sp., 3 Bovidae sp., 6 nile perch, 30 catfish, 3 freshwater mussel shell fragments, and 2 lizard (Varanus niloticus). Finally, one cylindrical clay net sinker was found (Fig. 39.5). A charcoal sample collected from the fill above the occupation surface, at 0.2 m, dated 85 ± 65 (Hv 16374) and calibrated to A.D. 1750-1850. The formation of the occupation horizon habitation surface thus ranges between the fourteenth and the seventeenth century A.D. In all, 936 archaeological finds were collected from systematic sampling of a circle measuring 4 m in diameter, for an av-

53

Excavations at Deguesse, Krenak, and Hamei

2

be sorted into: 432 decorated sherds (8 rims, 423 bodies and 1 base); 385 undecorated sherds (42 rims, 341 bodies and 2 bases); and 110 miscellaneous pieces. A total of 40 stone artifacts (7.55 kg) and 40 pieces of iron slag (2 kg) were collected. Summary

3

I ell '----'

Figure 39. Hamei: vessels and net sinker from occupation horizon V.

erage density of 75.15 per square meter. The collected sample was made up of 927 sherds and fired clay items, weighing 5 kg; 5 stone artifacts, weighing 0.15 kg; and 4 pieces of iron slag, 0.2 weighing kg. The sample of sherds and fired clay items can

The recorded occupation sequence of Hamei is made up of five occupation horizons. With the exception of occupation horizon I which has a deposit 0.6 m thick, probably because a few sherds were integrated within the fill below the habitation surface, all the recorded deposits are 0.4 m thick. This thickness is almost equal to that recorded from the ethnoarchaeological research conducted in some West African villages, in which dwelling features consisted mostly of circular pise wall houses (McIntosh 1971; Agorsah 1985, 1993). Based on an average of one to two centuries per occupation horizon, the locality may have been settled during the first half of the first millennium A.D. The earliest inhabitants settled on a yellow-brown silty clay deposit after the disappearance of a small lake or lagoon, at the bottom of which this sedimentary unit was deposited by fluviolacustrine to lacustrine agencies. As can be expected, fragmentation of sherds is, in general, higher on living surfaces than in fills. In the former, with the exception of occupation horizon I (due to the presence of a crushed large jar), fragmentation indexes range from 5.04 to 4.18 in living surfaces, and in fill, they range from 8.26 to 4.39. Hamei thus appears to have been a small village, situated on the immediate shore of the Abani River and settled by a mixed farming community. The settlement lasted for approximately 1,500 years, with an occupation hiatus between ca. 140011500 and 1700, when it was reoccupied.

54

The Land of Houlouf

Chapter 5

Excavations at Yaere Sites

Excavations at Mishiskwa

Introduction Mishiskwa is a low circular and tabular mound, 170 m in diameter and 1 m in height above the surrounding floodplain. The site, settled by Shuwa-Arab pastoralists, is situated at 11 55' Nand 14 55' E in the clayey depression, an area flooded during rainy seasons. The mound covers a surface area of 2.26 hectares, with an estimated volume of 45,396 cubic meters. A test excavation, measuring 12 square meters (4 by 3 m) and covering 0.05 % of the mound surface, was carried out in the southwestern part of the site. The exposed stratigraphic sequence was 2 m thick and comprised five occupation horizons. The Stratigraphic Sequence The stratigraphic section of the mound comprises five horizontal sedimentary units without any visible break in the sequence (Fig. 40). 1) Sedimentary unit 1 exposed at 1.8 to 2 m consists of a prismatic very dark grey (5 Y 3.1) extremely compact and hard clay with vertical cracks (Fig. 40). The sedimentary material, lacustrine in origin, is overlaid by a deposit of livestock dung 0.2 m in maximum thickness. 2) Sedimentary unit 2, 0.8 m thick (1-1.8 m), consists of a dark brown (7.5 YR 3/2) hard and compact clay and is made up of two subunits: the upper, 0.4 m (1-1.4 m) thick, contains lenses and pockets of ash, and the lower (1.4-1.8 m), of similar thickness, has numerous limestone nodules. The sedimentary material seems to be lacustrine in origins. 3) Sedimentary unit 3 (0.6-1 m) is 0.4 m thick. It is a hard and compact dark brown-grey (2.5 YR 4/2) silty clay, interspersed with thin lenses of ash. The deposit is fluviolacustrine

55

to lacustrine in origins. A large sample of charcoal collected at a depth of 0.8 m has been dated to 635 ± 45 B.P. (RT-1685) and calibrated to A.D. 1285-1388. 4) Sedimentary unit 4 (0.2-0.6), like unit 3, is 0.4 m thick and is composed of a moderately compact brown-grey (10 YR 5/2) clayey sand. The deposit is anthropic in origin, and probably consists of decayed and collapsed habitation facilities. A sample of charcoal collected at a depth of 0.5 m has been dated to 510 ± 85 B.P. (BDY 228) and calibrated to A.D. 1280-1480. 5) Sedimentary unit 5 (0-0.2 m) is reworked topsoil of light brown (7.5 YR 7/4) fine loose and dusty sand. The deposit, partly anthropic in origins with probably an important component of windblown sand, has been intensively trampled by pastoralist herds. The stratigraphic sequence described above can be divided into three main parts. The first part, comprising sedimentary units 1 and 2, from 1 m downward, appears to have been deposited under wetter climatic circumstances, in a small lake or lagoonal environmental setting. The locality was probably visited during periods of low water regimes, for instance during dry seasons. The second part, sedimentary unit 3 (0.6-1 m), accumulated through annual flooding. The third part, with sedimentary units 4 and 5 (0-0.6 m), is generally anthropic in origins. Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence Six occupation horizons were recorded from the tested probe. Depending on levels, settlement evidence varies from scatters of archaeological evidence to collapsed building remains. Occupation horizon I, uncovered at a depth of 1.8 to 2 m, is characterized by the presence of a deposit of livestock dung, 0.2 m in maximum thickness, exposed on the eastern part of the excavation probe (Fig. 41). No other archaeological remains

56

The Land of Houlouf

TABLE 6 Mishiskwa: The Stratigraphic Sequence Sedimentary Unit 5 4

Depth (m) 0-0.2 0.2-0.6

Thickness (cm) 20 40

3

0.6-1

40

2

1-1.8

80

1.8-2

>20

Characteristics Loose and dusty light brown fine sand Soft to moderately compact browngrey clayey sand Hard and compact dark brown-grey silty clay Dark brown hard and compact clay with ash pockets and limestone nodules Extremely hard and compact very dark grey prismatic clay with small vertical cracks overlaid by livestock dung

Origins Anthropic and reworked Anthropic, fill above an occupation surface Fluviolacustrine and anthropic Lacustrine deposit

Frank lacustrine deposit

TABLE 7 Mishiskwa: Summary of the Occupation Sequence Occupation Horizon (m) VI (0-0.2) V(0.2-0.6) IV(0.6-1) IlI(I-1.4) II(1.4-1.8) 1(1.8-2)

Thickness (cm) 20 20 20 20 20 40 40 20

Component sherds fill fill surface fill floor palimpsest palimpsest surface

Number of (kg) 116 94 288 91 91 364 272

..

-

Weight (m 3 ) 3 3 17 2.5 3 21.5 15.5

. , .

Density 48.33 39.16 120 37.91 37.91 75.83 56.66

Fragmentation index 2.58 3.19 5.9 2.74 3.29 5.9 5.69

E ~

D EI

Light brown loose sand

I§

Dark brown-grey silty clay

§

Compact dark brown clay

Brown-grey clayey sand

m Dung deposit '"

o

9

1m

Very dark grey clay

Figure 40. Mishiskwa: the stratigraphic section.

have been found associated with this deposit and the lack of charcoal has precluded any direct dating of this occupation horizon. If considered in relation to the data from Deguesse and Krenak, a conservative estimate might date this occupation horizon from the first half of the first millennium A.D. Occupation horizon II (1.4-1.8 m) is not distinguished by any specific feature, but three large crushed vessels were found at a depth of l.6 m (Fig. 42). One of the specimens is incom-

plete; their diameter at mouth varies from 20 to 25 cm with wall thickness ranging from 9 to 10 mm. 1\vo vessel shapes are represented: two specimens of conical pots with everted rims (Figs. 43.1, 43.2), both decorated with roulette impressions on the body, and one straight-sided flat bottom plain pot (Fig. 43.3). An additional spherical miniature pot, 3 cm in diameter, was also collected (Fig. 43.4). Two other vessels shapes were found among sherds, a necked pot and a black, shallow carinated ware

Excavations at Yaere Sites

t

N

" , " .; :'41

57

t

N

//1111

//1111111

Ifll/IIII,'/ /1/(/1 1 (//1(1/ 1/ I I f l l l l l l l l l l /1/ II I (11/111/(1 'II / (I I ( I I, I 1/ 1/,

I I Dung I / ( I ( ' / /(11 If((/'It If II {/ ( ( /1/(1/1 II/'{l/IIIIII

o

(111(r/(f/(,II' 1/((((/'/1(/

//111111(// IIIIII(III~

r',t

// /1 1/ I I, ',,,, Illl/II,

1/ ,

Q

II It', 'l-I/ t f 1,1 I I

Figure 41. Mishiskwa: living surface from occupation horizon 1.

Figure 42. Mishiskwa: living surface from occupation horizon II.

m 6

4

Figure 43 (left). Mishiskwa: vessels and clay arm ring from occupation horizon II (scale in em).

2

with an inverted rim (Figs. 43.5, 43.6). A sample of 199 sherds was collected, 98 decorated predominantly with twisted (42) and carved roulette (27) impressions. Sherd thickness is bimodal, with peaks in the 10-11.5 mm class and the >14 mm class. The latter thickness class probably comprised large jars and storage vessels, while the former represents the range of cooking and serving vessels. Other artifacts in clay include two fragments of clay arm rings, one lip plug, one small bell presumably for livestock, and one fragment of a head rest. Faunal evidence consists of 67 remains: 14 mammalian, 3 birds and 42 catfish bones (Gymnarchus niloticus), as well as 3

fragments of land snail shell (Limicolaria sp.) and 6 undetermined fragments. Bird bones were indeterminate. Mammalian bones belong exclusively to domestic animals: 2 cattle and 12 sheep/goat bones. Finally, 3 stone artifacts (2 syenite grinders and 1 syenite grindstone) and 5 pieces of iron slag were collected. As with occupation horizon I, there was no datable material. This occupation horizon was assigned to the second half of the first millennium A.D. for reasons that will be explained in the second part of this work. Occupation horizon III (1-1.4 m) was found in the upper part of sedimentary unit 2. A blacksmith's worskshop was ex-

58

The Land of Houlouf

I

•

•

•

o

20cm

Figure 45. Mishiskwa: profile of the iron-smelting furnace.

Figure 44. Mishiskwa: living surface from occupation horizon III with iron-smelting furnace.

rn 12

Figure 46 (right). Mishiskwa: vessels and other archaeological finds from occupation horizon III (scale in cm).

posed at 1.2 m (Fig. 44). The workshop was made up of a pinkred fire-hardened floor, 0.2 m thick and 2 to 3 m in radius overlying two child pot burials. It is not known if the association of the burials with the workshop was intentional or accidental, but the recorded superposition suggests that it may have been unintentional. Five features were recorded: a forge furnace and four pits. The forge furnace measuring 1.2 m in diameter contained a freshly made and unused crucible of sun-dried clay, 0.4 m in diameter. The bottom of the furnace was preserved to a height of 0.25 m and its wall was 10 to 15 cm thick at the base (Fig.

'Ov-J

10

_8----.

" u ,.ro , ,\r7'

~-.

9

,:;

,

45). Bellows installations, situated on the northern side of the furnace are suggested by two circular and two elongated small pits. The circular pits, 0.2 to 0.3 m in diameter and 10 cm deep, are the remains of bellows. The elongated pits, 10 cm wide and 45 cm long, were probably part of the venting system to which tuyeres leading to the furnace were added. The uncovered child pot burials were found beneath the forge furnace level and surrounded by the fire-hardened layer. Based on evidence of tooth erruption, both children were six to nine years old and their bones show clear traces of being affected by

59

Excavations at Yaere Sites

t

N

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.

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,

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46.5). Five additional vessel shapes were reconstructed from large sherds, all of them in the size range of bowls (Fig. 46.6). Two are open bowls (Figs. 46.7, 46.8), one decorated with twisted roulette impressions, one carinated plain bowl (Fig. 55.9); one straight-sided plain bowl (Fig. 46.10); one flat bottom V-shaped bowl (Fig, 46.11); as well as one large piece of a handled jar (Fig. 46.13) decorated with twisted and carved roulettes . A sample of 364 sherds was collected, 174 decorated predominantly with twisted and carved roulette. The most frequent sherd thickness classes were 8-9.5mm (92 sherds) and 10-11.5 mm (97 sherds). In general, sherds thicker than 10 mm predominate. Nine clay arm rings (Fig. 46.6) and two fragments of undetermined figurines were among the clay artifacts. One fragment of a syenite grinding stone, two iron slags and one iron spear broken into two pieces (Fig. 46.7) were also recorded. Faunal remains consist of 95 bones: 8 undetermined fragments, 74 fish, 2 birds, 3 reptiles, and 10 mammalian bones. Reptile bones consist of two vertebrae of Varanus niloticus and one carapace fragment of Crocodylus niloticus. All the fish bones belong to catfish (Gymnarchus niloticus) with the exception of one vertebra of nile perch (Lates niloticus). Six of the mammalian bones are from cattle and two from sheep/goat. Occupation horizon IV (0.6-1 m), dated to A.D. 1285-1388, consists of a small exposed portion of a hearth with its associated ash. The hearth was found at the southwestern corner of the excavation probe. Ninety-one highly fragmented sherds were collected. Two vessel shapes were reconstructed: a flat bottom Vshaped bowl and a carinated bowl. Among the collected sherds, 51 are decorated (26 with twisted roulettes and 16 with motifs too worn to identify). The 8-9.5 mm and 10-11.5 mm thickness classes each had 27 sherds. Four fragments of clay arm rings, two circular and perforated sherds, and two fragments of undetermined figurines were also found. Metal items are represented by one undetermined iron wire and one slag. Faunal material is extremely poor and consists of three catfish, four cattle, two sheep/goat bones, and one undetermined fragment.

u .

..

.0'·:· .

Figure 47, Mishiskwa: Jiving surface from occupation horizon V.

the high temperatures generated the furnace. The burials, one with three pots and the other with two, were equidistant to the furnace, on opposite sides of it. The pots used for burials have strong similarities. Those pots used as containers are elongated, with conical bases, measuring 50 and 55 cm in total height and 27 and 30 cm in mouth diameter. They are decorated with roulette impressions all over the body, from the bottom to the shoulder (Figs. 46.1,46.2), with one of the specimens decorated with a band of roulette impressions on the rim. The pot containers were capped with smaller conical to rounded-base pots, 23 to 45 cm high and 21 to 30 cm in mouth diameter. Both pots are decorated with twisted roulettes from the base to shoulder, with the shoulder outlined by a band of chevrons made with carved roulettes (Figs. 46.3, 46.4). The third pot, associated with the southernmost of the two burials, is also decorated with roulette impressions but has a flat base and an asymmetrical mouth (Fig.

2

Figure 48 (left). Mishiskwa: pottery from occupation horizons V and VI (scale in cm).

7

[~

60

The Land of Houlouf

Occupation horizon V (0.2-0.6 m) dated to A.D. 1280-1480. Three crushed vessels were found lying on a surface without any significant disturbance at 0.5 m (Fig. 47). Four vessel shapes were present: a large pot with conical base, decorated with twisted roulette impressions from bottom to shoulder (Fig. 48.1); the upper part of a pot with everted rim and evidence of twisted roulette decorations (Fig. 48.2); a plain carinated bowl with a flat base (Fig. 48.3); and finally, a flat-base V-shaped bowl (Fig. 48.6). One plain pot lid (Fig. 48.4) and two sherds with peculiar decorations were also uncovered. There were 288 sherds recorded from the loose living surface; 131 are decorated predominantly with twisted and carved roulettes. Unfortunately, a large number of decorated sherds (64) are badly preserved, with patterns too worn to distinguish. The >14 mm thickness class (80 sherds) predominates, followed by the 10-11.5 mm class. Other recorded clay items include a fragment of a zoomorphic figurine, 1 bead, 1 lip plug, 1 bell and 5 undetermined fragments. Eight iron slags and 11 stone artifacts were found. Of the stone artifacts, there are 4 hammerstones (1 rhyolite, 3 microdiorite), 2 syenite grinders, and 4 fragments of grindstones (1 microdiorite, 3 syenite), and finally, 1 syenite flake. Fauna is represented by 98 remains, 1 shell of freshwater mussel (Aspartharia sp.), 2 fragments of land snails (Limicolaria sp), 56 catfish bones, 13 sheep/goat bones and 4 cattle bones. Occupation horizon VI (0-0.20 m) was severely disturbed. Frequently trampled by pasture animals, the collected sample of 116 sherds is highly fragmented. Two vessel shapes, both bowls, were reconstructed: a flat bottom V-shaped bowl (Fig. 48.6), and a straight-sided bowl (Fig. 48.5). One fragment of a decorated smoking-pipe stem was found (Fig. 48.7). Fifty of the sherds are decorated, 24 with twisted roulette impressions and 19 too worn to distinguish. The 8-9.5 mm thickness class is predominant. From a rather poor sample of 25 faunal remains, 20 were undetermined fragments. The identified remains were: 3 catfish bones, 1 freshwater mussel shell, and one sheep/goat bone. Summary

With the exception of the blacksmith workshop uncovered in occupation horizon III at 1.2 m, no significant habitation evidence was recorded in the Mishiskwa archaeological sequence. Surfaces with crushed pots found in occupation horizons II (1.6 m) and V (0.5 m) are presumed to be the remains of living surfaces or floors eroded by low energy hydrologic agencies. The locale was probably settled during the long periods of drought that characterize this region. The predominance of catfish bones among faunal remains suggests dry-season occupations. From the bottom deposit to sedimentary unit 3 (0.6-1 m), the mound buildup seems to have resulted from natural accumulation of clay and silty clay. Fragmentation of sherds is relatively low in occupation horizons II, III (1-1.8 m) and V(0.4-0.6 m), moderate in occupation horizon IV (0.6-1 m), and high in occupation horizon VI (0-0.2 m). The difference in fragmentation indexes between deposits associated to living surfaces and those

from fills (presumed to be the remains of collapsed dwelling features) is particularly striking (Table 7). It suggests that the collected pottery material was probably included in feature walls built with the earth collected from pits dug on the site. Excavations at Madaf Introduction

Situated on the edge of the hinterland depression Yaere, at 1201' Nand 1453' E, Madafis a relatively high crescent-shaped mound, measuring 280 m in length northeast-south, 140 m in width in its northwest-southeast, and 8 m in height (Fig. 49). The mound appears to be on top of an incurved portion of an ancient dunal system oriented northwest-southeast, overlooking the hinterland depression some 20 to 30 m below on its northern and western sides. The settlement covers a surface of 1.96 ha, for a theoretical volume of 117,000 cubic meters. A small excavation probe, 9 square meters (3 by 3 m), 0.04% of the site surface, was carried out from the central and highest part of the mound. A stratigraphic sequence 3.2 m thick, comprising five sedimentary units with six occupation horizons, was recorded (Fig. 50, Table 8). The Stratigraphic Sequence

The archaeological deposit of Madaf, 3 m in thickness, accumulated on a sandy formation, presumably the remains of an ancient dunal system. 1) Sedimentary unit 1 is the bottom virgin layer found at the base of the earliest cultural deposit at 3 m, and exposed 0.2 m below. The sedimentary material consists of a pale yellow (2.5 Y 7/4) well sorted fine sand, probably from former eolian sand remobilized by lacustrine agencies. 2) Sedimentary unit 2, exposed from 2.75 to 3 m, is 0.25 m thick, consists of a compact dark grey (5 Y 4/1) silty clay, lacustrine to fluviolacustrine in origins. 3) Sedimentary unit 3, 0.5 m thick, was exposed from 2.25 to 2.75 m, and is composed of a hard and compact light brown (7.5 YR 6/4) silty clay. It is a lacustrine to fluviolacustrine deposit mixed with settlement refuse. 4) Sedimentary unit 4 (0.8-2.25 m) is exclusively humanmade. It is a 1.55 m thick deposit comprising a series of superimposed living floors and surfaces with fills of collapsed material and settlement refuse. The recorded sedimentary material consists of loose brown-grey (10 YR 5/2) to light brown (7.5 YR 6/4) silty sand to sandy silt. 5) Sedimentary unit 5, the top deposit, is 0.8 m thick and consists of a compact brown-grey (10 YR 5/2) clayey sand from a reworked fill of collapsed material accumulated on a living surface. In general, the recorded stratigraphic sequence can be divided into two main parts. The first and earliest part comprises sedimentary units 1 and 2, deposited by lacustrine to

61

Excavations at Yaere Sites

fluviolacustrine agencies and devoid of any archaeological evidence. The second part comprises sedimentary units 4 and 5, which are exclusively human-made. The earliest traces of human settlement are recorded in sedimentary unit 3, which is consequently of mixed origins-partly lacustrine to fluviolacustrine and partly human-made-thus providing a transition from the first to the second part of the stratigraphic section.

Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence The occupation horizon I deposit was found at 2.25 to 2.75 m, within a 0.5 m thick compact light brown silty clay sedimentary unit. A living surface was exposed at 2.7 m. It comprises a tiny portion a fire hardened, presumably circular house floor, overlaid by a thin layer of ash, found at the southwestern corner of the excavation probe (Fig. 51). The exposed house floor portion measures 1 m in maximum radius. One set of superimposed grinding equipment comprising a grindstone and a grinder, both syenite, was found laying on the house floor. The grindstone, 500 g, is subcircular, 11.5 cm long, 9.5 cm wide and 4.5 cm in maximum thickness (Fig. 52.1). The grinder is semicircular and measures 10 cm by 5.3 cm by 2 cm thick, and weighs 130 g (Fig. 52.2). One vessel shape has been reconstructed: a small globular pot with everted rim decorated with bands of horizontal and parallel lines of awl-stabbed depressions, complemented by oblique and crosshatched grooved lines on the shoulder (Fig. 52.3). The sample of collected sherds amounts to 102 highly fragmented pieces, 57 of which (56 body sherds, 1 rim sherd) are decorated, with twisted roulette impressions the predominant technique. The arrangement of sherds into thickness classes presents a unimodal distribution, with the highest frequency recorded in the 8-9.5 mm class (33 sherds) followed by the 6-7.5 mm class (22 sherds). Finally, 10 pieces of faunal remains, comprising 9 bones assigned to Bovidae sp. and 1 catfish vertebra, were collected. Occupation horizon II recorded from 1.75 to 2.25 m at the bottom of sedimentary unit 4 is a 0.5 m deposit of loose brown-

grey silty sand. A slightly compacted occupation surface, probably due to intensive trampling, was found at 2.2 m. The repertoire of the recorded archaeological evidence is poor: 8 sherds (4 decorated with twisted roulette impressions), and 3 pieces of faunal remains (2 Bovidae sp., 1 catfish). The tested area from occupation horizon II was probably part of a courtyard or a passageway. Occupation horizon III (1.5-1.75 m) is a 0.25 m deposit. A living surface with a gentle east-west slope was exposed at 1.7 m. All of the exposed surface was overlaid by a thick deposit of ash. A crushed fire-hardened storage bin was found lying on its side (Fig. 53). The recorded feature measured 2 m by I m, with a 5 cm thick wall. Similar storage bins, cylindrical with a circular flat bottom, made with sun-dried or fired clay, are still in use today among several ethnic groups in northern Cameroon. They are usually laid 0.5 to 1 m above the ground on a tray made of wooden poles and grain is taken from a hole on the side at the top of the storage bin. The recorded evidence from occupation horizon III may have resulted from an accidental fire or an act

E~

I

______________________________

50cm

I

rI Pale yellow fine sand

~VV

illllilli

~ Dark grey silty clay

§

Light brown silty clay

B Brown-grey to light brown silty sand and sandy silt [j Brown-grey clayey sand ,

Figure 49. Madaf: site contour map.

Hardened living surfaces

Figure 50. Madaf: the stratigraphic section.

62

The Land of Houlouf

TABLE 8 Madaf: The Stratigraphic Sequence Sedimentary Unit 5

Depth (m) 0-0.8

Thickness (cm). 80

4

0.8-2.25

145

Loose brown-grey to light brown silty sand and sandy silt

3

2.25-2.75

50

Compact light brown silty clay

2

2.75-3 3-3.2

25 >20

Compact dark grey silty clay Well sorted fine pale yellow sand

Characteristics

Origins

Compact brown-grey clayey sand

Reworked fill of collapsed material above a habitation surface Series of superimposed fills of collapsed material above occupation and habitation surfaces Fill of collapsed material and habitation surface in a lacustrine to fluviolacustrine deposit Lacustrine to fluviolacustrine deposit Lacustrine deposit of remobilized eolian sand

TABLE 9 Madaf: Summary of the Occupation Sequence SU

OH(m)

Depth of sherds

Number (kg)

Weight (m 3)

Density

7

VI

0-0.8

59

5

8.19

Fragmentation index 8.47

6

V

0.8-1

24

4.2

13.33

17.5

IV

1-1.5

4

0.2

0.88

5

III II

1.5-1.75 1.75-2.25

6 8

0.5 0.4

2.66 1.77

8.33 5

2.5

22.88

2.47

5 4

3 2.25-2.75 103 Key: SU = Sedimentary Unit; OH = Occupation Horizon

of war. The archaeological record is as poor as that from occupation horizon II, with 6 undecorated sherds, 4 to 9.5 mm thick, and 4 animal bones, including 1 undetermined fragment, 1 catfish and 2 Bovidae sp. A charcoal sample collected from the ashy layer accumulated above the habitation surface has been dated to 1050±70 B.P. (Gif 7241), and calibrated to A.D. 9001050. The occupation horizon IV deposit, recorded at 1 to 1.5 m, is 0.5 m thick and comprises a loose, slightly harder living surface exposed at 1.5 m. The archaeological evidence is the poorest of all the recorded occupation horizons, with only 4 undecorated body sherds, 6 to 9.5 mm thick, and 2 Bovidae sp. bones. One vessel shape, a plain bowl with a straight rim (Fig. 54.1), was nonetheless reconstructed. Occupation horizon V (0.8-1 m) comprises a relatively shallow fill of collapsed building material accumulated above a living surface exposed at 1 m. Two vessel shapes have been reconstructed: a presumably globular pot with everted rim, decorated with a horizontal band of twisted roulette impressions on the shoulder (Fig. 54.2), and a hole-mouth pot with everted rim decorated with dragged comb impressions on the body (Fig.

Component Reworked fill above living surface Fill above living surface Fill above living surface Fill above living floor Fill above living surface Fill above living floor

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Figure 51. Madaf: living surface from occupation horizon I.

63

Excavations at Yaere Sites

t

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........ ',':". ";I'. ': ':: ~e~rth ... ~ ...., .. '.': . . . ...

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Figure 55. Madaf: living surface from occupation horizon VI.

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Figure 53. Madaf: living surface from occupation horizon III.

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Figure 54. Madaf: vessels from occupation horizon IV.

54.3). A sample of 24 sherds was collected. Ten are decorated with twisted roulettes, the predominant technique. The sherd thickness classes present a bimodal pattern. The first peak, with 9 sherds, is found in the 8-9.5 mm class, and the second, with 8 sherds, in the >14 mm class. Faunal remains consist of 118 bones: 84 sheep/goat, 1 cattle, 1 nile perch, 2 catfish and 30 undetermined fragments. Finally, 1 stone artifact, a syenite hammerstone, was recorded. A sample of charcoal collected from the living surface at 1 m, has been dated to 1205±60 B.P. (Rv 16375) and calibrated to A.D. 690-935. This reading is slightly earlier than the date from occupation horizon III. The dated sample of charcoal may have been from earth collected from pits dug in earlier occupation I or II deposits. It therefore suggests that the site may have been settled as early as the end of the first half of the first millennium A.D. The occupation horizon VI deposit comprises a thick fill of certainly reworked collapsed material, accumulated above a living surface exposed at 0.75 m. Three archaeological features were found on the uncovered surface (Fig. 55). They consist of two horseshoe-shaped hearths made with fired clay blocks, both measuring approximately 0.5 m in diameter and surrounded by ash, and a small portion of a rubefied surface exposed along the northern section of the excavation probe. This last feature, 0.75 m long and 0.45 m wide, is probably a part of another kind of hearth. Three vessel shapes have been reconstructed: a large presumably globular pot with missing rim, decorated with twisted roulette impressions on the lower part of the body (Fig. 56.1); a spherical pot, also with missing rim, decorated with a horizontal line of chevrons on shoulder complemented by sparse twisted roulette impressions on the body (Fig. 56.2); and finally, a pot with constricted neck and everted rim decorated

64

The Land of Houlouf

3

I,

,

Figure 56. Madaf: pottery from occupation horizon VI and surface (scale in ern).

with two horizontal bands of chevron lines, one on the rim and the other on the shoulder (Fig. 56.3). A sample of 59 sherds was collected, 43 decorated. Twisted roulette impressions, recorded on 21 sherds, are clearly the predominant decoration technique, followed by carved roulette impressions. Four thickness classes are represented with frequencies varying from 10 (6-7.5 mm class) to 15 (1O~11.5 mm class). Faunal remains amount to 5 bones (3 undetermined fragments, 1 nile perch and 1 catfish). Nineteen stone artifacts were found: 12 syenite, 4 microdiorite, 2 rhyolite and 1 granite. They are distributed into three functional classes: 3 grinders (all syenite), 8 hammerstones (1 rhyolite, 3 microdiorite, 4 syenite); and 3 grindstone fragments (5 syenite, and 1 each granite, rhyolite and microdiorite). A sample of charcoal collected from one of the hearths dated to B.P. >50 (Gif 7240), a date ranging from A.D. 1650 to 1850. In general, the density of surface material is rather low, 18.07

per square meters obtained through systematic sampling of a 6 m diameter circle. The archaeological evidence collected in systematic sampling consists exclusively of 511 potsherds, 8.5 kg in weight. They are distributed into: 400 decorated sherds (9 rims, 390 bodies and 1 base) and III undecorated body sherds (Table 8). Also collected through selective sampling were 263 stone artifacts (19.89 kg), 19 pieces of iron slag (0.94 kg), and a well-preserved specimen of clay mortar, decorated extensively with chevrons made of carved roulette impressions (Fig. 56). Summary

The test excavation at Madaf was carried out following the so-called natural stratigraphy. One of the drawbacks of such a research strategy is the impossibility of studying mound formation processes beyond the recovery of superimposed cultural

TABLE 10 Arnachita: The Stratigraphic Sequence Sedimentary Unit

3 2 1

Depth (rn) 0-0.2 0.2-1.2 1.2-1.8

Thickness (em) 20 100 >60

Characteristics

Origins

Loose and dusty light brown-grey sand Soft brown-grey clayey sand Dark brown clay with ferruginous oolites

Fill, fluviatile and eolian deposit Fills above a loose occupation surfaces Oolithic ironstones

Excavations at Yaere Sites

65

levels. In general, the recorded repertoire of archaeological remains is relatively poor. The excavation probe seems to have been situated in an area with a low density of cultural remains, varying from 22.88 per cubic meter in occupation horizon I to 0.88 per cubic meter in occupation horizon IV (Table 9). The collected sherd material is not only rather small in quantity, but also extremely fragmented, with fragmentation indexes varying from 2.47 in occupation horizon I and thus suggesting high intensity of trampling, to 17.5 in occupation horizon V (Table 9). Occupation horizon I (2.25-2.75 m) and II (1.75-2.25 m) were not dated directly, but they can be considered to have accumulated from the end of the first half of the first millenniun A.D. to the eighth-ninth century A.D. Evidence for dwelling is particularly shallow, but the buildup of the mound itself, exclusively human-made, suggests a long-term permanent settlement by mixed farming communities.

Excavations at Amachita

N~

o

25m

~-~~--'--"

'-'

Introduction Situated at 11 58' Nand 1453' E, Amachita is a small mound located in the Yaere, the hinterland depression usually flooded during the rainy season. The mound, 4 m high above the surrounding plain, is subcircular in shape, measuring 60 m northsouth, and 40 m east-west. The site covers a surface of 0.24 ha for a theoretical volume of 3,360 cubic meters. A test excavation, 12 square meters (4 by 3 m), 0.5% of the site surface, was carried out from the top of the mound (Fig. 57). A stratigraphic section, 1.2 m thick and comprising three sedimentary units including three occupation horizons, was recorded (Table 10). The Stratigraphic Sequence, Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence The stratigraphic sequence exposed comprises three sedimentary units. Sedimentary unit 1, found at 0.6 to 1.2 m, consists of dark brown (10 YR 4/3) oolithic ironstones resulting

Figure 57. Amachita: site contour map.

from the weathering of ancient ferruginous crust. It is an ironhard deposit with a southwest-northeast slope (Fig. 58-60). Sedimentary unit 2, found at a depth varying from 0.2 to 1.2 m, consists of brown-grey (10 YR 5/2) clayey sand containing a few ash lenses. It has been completely eroded in the southeastern part of the excavation probe (Fig. 60). Finally, sedimentary unit 3, 0.2 m in maximum thickness, is a loose and dusty light brown-grey sand, of mixed eolian and fluviatile origins. Archaeological evidence from occupation horizon I was collected throughout the deposit. A small plain globular bowl with everted rim was found lying on top of the oolithic ironstone deposit at 0.8 m. A single structural feature, the lower part of a large pit, was found associated with the occupation horizon I

TABLE 11 Amachita: Summary of the Occupation Sequence

SU

OH III

Depth (m) 0-0.2

3 2

II

Number of sherds

Density (m 3) 28.33

Fragmentation index 2.94

Component

68

Weight (kg) 2

0.2-0.6

147

5.3

30.62

3.6

0.6-1.2/1.8

182

6.7

25.27

3.68

Fill above a loose occupation surface Fill above a loose occupation surface

Key: SU =Sedimentary Unit; OH = Occupation Horizon

Reworked topsoil

66

The Land ofHoulouf

sw

.. -. .... ; (IUlf/lf, . ~

~-..; ..:--:::::

.. .

.

~

:::::
14.5 mm class (26 sherds). Six stone artifacts, 1 grinding stone fragment and 5 hammers tones, all of them syenite, were retrieved. Six animal bones were found: 6 catfish, 1 bird phalanx and 1 bovid molar fragment. Occupation horizon XII (0.8-1.2 m) is 0.4 m thick and was situated at the bottom of sedimentary unit 6 (0-1.2 m). Evi-

Figure 93. Ble Mound A: vessels from occupation horizon X.

dence of settlement consists of localized shallow concentrations of ash. A few complete to almost -complete vessels and large sherds were concentrated at 0.8 to 1.2 m. Eleven vessel shapes are represented: a rounded base plain bowl with straight rim (Fig. 97.1); a plain hole-mouth flat-base bowl (Fig. 97.2); a plain bowl with everted rim (Fig. 97.3); a miniature flat bottom and carinated juglet (Fig. 97.4); a necked jug with everted rim (Fig. 97.5); a small pot with everted rim and three pairs of applique buttons (Fig. 97.6); a jar with thickened rim, decorated with carved roulette impressions on a horizontal cordon at the shoulder and comb impressions on the body (Fig. 97.7); two hole-mouth pots with small applique buttons on the rim (Fig. 97.8-9); the bottom part of a plain footed pot (Fig. 97.10); and a flat-bottom globular pot decorated with dragged comb impressions (Fig. 97.11). A sample of 251 sherds was recorded: 51 rim sherds, 156 body sherds, l3 base sherds and 31 miscellaneous. Of these,

84

The Land of Houlouf

2

9rJ I

'

o_.......L_---',2cm L.'

Figure 94 (left), Bit Mound A: figurines collected from occupation horizon X fish-smoking feature,

13

Figure 95 (below left), Bit Mound A: living surface from occupation horizon XI. Figure 96 (below right), Bit Mound A: pottery from occupation horizon XI.

..... '" '....... _ ............. , ...... ' ...

,,

t

o

3cm

"--(~T

85

Excavations at Southeastern Sites

2

.'

4

5

6

)

,

0

Figure 97 (left). Ble Mound A: vessels from occupation horizon XII.

5 I

I

8

tOOOOQo:J

...............

t o

Pot

Hearth

Figure 98. Ble Mound A: living surface from occupation horizon XIII.

103 sherds are decorated, predominantly with twisted roulette technique. The distribution of sherds into thickness classes is bimodal, with one peak in the 8.5-10 mm class (69 sherds) and another in the >14.5 mm class (59 sherds). Stone artifacts consist of one grindstone fragment and one hammers tone, both syenite. Faunal remains consist of 21 pieces: 1 nile perch vertebra (Lates niloticus), 6 catfish bones (Gymnarchus niloticus), 6 land snail shell fragments (Limicolaria sp.), 1 distal femur and distal tibia of an undetermined bird, 1 large cattle rib and a proximal calcaneum, 1 sheep/goat mandible, 1 antelope distal metapodial in the size range of Kobus kob, 2 Bovidae sp. long bones, and 2 undetermined fragments. Occupation horizon XIII was uncovered from 0.4 to 0.8 m. The sedimentary material accumulated above the surface consists of a brown-grey, dusty silty sand with lenses of ash. A living surface was exposed at 0.7 m. It comprises a hearth and a tiny portion of a fire-hardened surface, presumably a hut floor, situated in the southeastern corner of the excavation probe (Fig. 98). The hearth is semicircular, measuring 0.5 m in maximum diameter. The bottom part of a large plain basin (Fig. 99.1) was found one meter northwest of the hearth. A sample of252 sherds was collected: 48 rim sherds, 163 body sherds, 18 base sherds and 23 miscellaneous. Of these, 100 sherds are decorated, 51 with twisted roulette impressions, and IS each decorated with carved roulette and comb impressions. As with horizon XII, the

The Land of Houlouf

86

Figure 99 (right). Bie Mound A: pottery from occupation horizon XIII.

2

4

3

S

6

o'L-L-.L-..L.-....L-..J'Scm 7

\ ,

Figure 100 (left). Ble Mound A: vessels and figurines from occupation horizon XIV.

10~ ~:.-. .. ~.

87

Excavations at Southeastern Sites

o I

5 !

!

!

,

I

4

6

5

--

-

-

.~--------,

Figure 101. Ble Mound A: vessels from occupation horizon Xv.

7

8

\ 8.4-10 mm thickness class is predominant (70 sherds) followed by the 10.5-12 mm class (56 sherds). Five stone artifacts were found: 2 grindstone fragments, 2 grinders and 1 hammers tone (5 syenite, 1 rhyolite). Faunal remains consist of 9 pieces: 2 catfish skull bones, and 7 fragments of a left tibia of an elephant (Loxodonta africana). Also found was one piece of iron slag weighing 60 g. Occupation horizon XIV (0.2-0.4 m) was contained in a finely bedded sedimentary series. Human occupation is indicated by thin beds of ash and a high density of sherds, but no meaningful surface was recorded for occupation horizons XIV and Xv. Three complete to almost complete vessels have been recorded, nine shapes reconstructed: (1) a hemispheric plain bowl (Fig. 100.1); (2) a dimple-base, plain, straight-rim bowl (Fig. 100.2); (3) a conical plain cup (Fig. 100.3); (4) a carinated, plain, small pot with everted rim (Fig. 100.4); (5) a globular pot with everted

rim, decorated with three series of four oblique grooved depressions (Fig. 100.5); (6) the lower part of a flat-base pot decorated with series of parallel and vertical grooved lines combined with panels of dragged comb impressions (Fig. 100.6); (7) a large hole-mouth pot decorated with series of small applique buttons on the rim (Fig. 100.7); (8) the upper part of a necked pot with straight rim decorated with a horizontal band of twisted roulette impressions at the neck base (Fig. 100.8); and (9) a hole-mouth jar with everted rim decorated with a horizontal band of chevrons made of carved roulette impressions on the shoulder and dragged comb impressions on the body (Fig. 100.9). A spoon, or more probably an oil lamp (Fig. 100.10), and two animal figurines (Figs. 100.11, 100.12) were also recorded. A sample of 925 sherds was collected, 366 decorated predominantly with twisted roulette impressions. The sherds thickness is bimodal, with one peak in the 8.5-10 mm class (255

88

The Land of Houlouf

Figure 102. Bit Mound A: vessels and miscellaneous fired clay objects from occupation horizon xv.

3

o,

,

,

Scm

8

sherds) and the other in the >14.5 mm class (219 sherds). There are 13 stone artifacts: 3 grindstone fragments, 3 grinders and 7 hammerstones (8 syenite, 2 microdiorite, 2 rhyolite, 1 granite). Faunal remains include 43 bones: 5 cattle (1 second phalanx and 4 tibia fragments); 7 tibia fragments of an elephant (Loxodonta africana), 1 first sheep/goat phalanx, 1 wild boar molar (Phacochoerus aethiopicus), 4 undetermined bird long bones, 4 land snail shell fragments (Limicolaria sp.), 16 fish bones (1 nile perch dorsal spine, 15 catfish bones), and 2 fragments assigned to Bovidae sp. The remaining 5 were undetermined fragments (3 mammal, 2 fish bones). Finally, one piece of iron slag was found.

Occupation horizon XV (0-0.2 m) was found in a reworked and loose silty sand deposit, similar to occupation horizon XIV. Loose concentrations of ash were found. A few complete vessels were uncovered and nine shapes were reconstructed: (1) a miniature plain dimple-base, footed bowl (Fig. 101.1); (2) a miniature plain flat-base juglet (Fig. 101.2); (3) a rounded-base plain bowl with everted rim (Fig. 101.3); (4) a flat-bottom plain straight-sided pot (Fig. 101.4); (5) a plain hole-mouth pot with everted rim (Fig. 101.5); (6) a necked pot decorated with a band of horizontal grooves at the base of the neck and dragged comb impressions on the body (Fig. 101.6); (7, 8) two hole-mouth large bowls, one with thickened rim decorated with wavy lines

89

Excavations at Southeastern Sites

Figure 103. Ble Mound A: head rest specimens found on surface.

on rim (Fig. 101.7) and the other decorated with oblique twisted roulette impressions (Fig. 1Ol.8); and (9) a legged cooking pot decorated with series of small applique elongated buttons on body (Fig. 102.1). Two pot legs (Fig. 102.2-3), four complete to almost-complete pot lids (Fig. 102.4-7), and one base of unknown clay item (Fig. 102.8) were also collected. A sample of 989 sherds was collected, 444 decorated (269 with twisted roulette impressions). The 8.5-10 mm thickness class is predominant (268 sherds), followed by the 10.5-12 mm class (220 sherds) and the >14.5 mm class (210 sherds). Twenty stone artifacts were recorded: 2 beads (l carnelian, 1 agate), 9 hammerstones, 7 grinders and 2 grindstone fragments (16 of

the coarse stones pieces syenite, 2 rhyolite). Faunal remains consist of 85 bones. There are 57 fish bones: 1 nile perch skull bone, 56 catfish bones. Also founG! were 5 undetermined birds, 4 land snail shell fragments (Limicolaria sp.), 1 fragment of freshwater tortoise shell; 1 fragment of freshwater mussel (Aspartharia sp.). Seventeen mammalian bones include 1 cattle, 3 sheep/goat, 1 Kobus kob, 2 Gazella sp., 1 Canis aureus, and 6 Bovidae sp., and 3 undetermined fragments. Two pieces of iron slag weighing 50 and 60 g were also recorded. Three methods were used to collect information on archaeological remains scattered on the site surface: selective and systematic sampling and a test excavation of a relatively large fish-

90

The Land of Houlouf

8

10

1l~~1

-

!!12 I

I

Figure 104. Ble Mound A: head rest specimens, zoomorphic and anthropomorphic figurines, and broken effigy jars found on surface.

smoking feature situated in the northern part of the settlement. There were 445 fish-smoking features on the site, isolated or clustered into groups of two to six. Also collected were 452 pieces of iron slag, weighing 26 kg, and 1,676 stone artifacts, 200 kg. The functional division was 643 grindstone fragments, 417 hammerstones and stone balls, 319 grinders and 297 undetermined fragments. Syenite (1,537 pieces) largely predominates, rhyolite (63), granite (25), microdiorite (10) and quartzite (4).

Numerous fragments of head rests of different shapes were recorded. The almost-complete specimen is plain and finely polished. It has a hollow interior with a hole in its flat base (Fig. 103.1). Five specimens are legged head rests, plain or decorated with a combination of grooved lines, stabbing, twisted roulette impressions and cowry-shaped applique buttons (Figs. 103.2,3,5, 7 and 104.1). Three specimens (Figs. 103.4,6 and 104.2) are footed, decorated with stabbing and grooved lines.

91

Excavations at Southeastern Sites

I

N

1 - Profile

o,-'

20cm

_~_-J'

2 - Plan Figure 105. Ble Mound A: plan and profile of a tested surface large fish-smoking feature.

The last specimen (Fig. 104.3), badly preserved and decorated on the side with grooved lines, belongs to an unknown category. It appears that the decorations are always found at both ends of the head rests. The high concentration of head rests on the surface of the site suggests that the locality may have been a production center for this piece of domestic equipment. Hundreds of zoomorphic and anthropomorphic figurines were found (Fig. 104.4-12). Most of them, with very few exceptions (Fig. 104.5), are broken, partly through intensive trampling by humans and livestock herds. Particularly interesting are two large jar fragments with representations of a human head. Such an effigy jar was found in the cemetery of Houlouf, which will be considered later. It is thus suggested that Ble was also a production center for these peculiar jars and terra-cotta figurines. Systematic sampling was carried out in a circle measuring 6 m in diameter and situated in the southeastern part of the site. The average density of finds was 410.22 per square meter. The recorded archaeological finds comprise 141 small pieces of iron slag weighing 0.5 kg, 151 stone fragments weighing 0.5 kg, and 11,305 sherds weighing 43.9 kg. The ceramics include 729 rim sherds (65 decorated), 10,270 body sherds (3,268 decorated), 18 base sherds (5 decorated), and finally 288 miscellaneous sherds. A fish-smoking feature at the northern part of the site was tested. The pit is elongated and measured 0.8 m north-south, 0.6 m east-west, and 0.8 m deep (Fig. 105.1-2). Its bottom and sides consist of fire-hardened clay walls 5 to 8 cm thick. Large pieces of what seem to have been above-ground clay walls were found in the upper part of the pit fill. The fill is composed of a

layer of ash with a few catfish bones, overlaid by a brown-grey loose sandy silt mixed with greyer ash, and then a deposit of brown sand with large pieces of the collapsed feature superstructure (Fig. 105.2). During its last settlement phase, considering the diversity and density of surface finds, Ble Mound A seems to have been an important craft center with intensive fishing and fish-smoking activities, iron metallurgy and the production of terra-cotta figurines, specific types of jars and head rests.

Summary Ble Mound A appears to have accumulated above a sand and silt island situated in an ancient Logone delta. The sand island was settled at the end of the first millennium B.C. or at the very beginning of the first millennium A.D. Evidence for long distance exchange was found in the cultural deposit from occupation horizon II (4-4.2 m): a syenite grindstone fragment and an amazonite pendant. Iron metallurgy is represepted by an iron slag and an undetermined fragment of iron wire. The nearest source of amazonite is Tibesti Mountain, at Eguei Zoumma (Monod in Aumassip 1986:516), more than 800 krn to the north, while syenite is found in the Waza-Mora area, 200 km to the southwest. Changes in settlement size through time are not known. From the tight regularity of the thicknesses of occupation horizons, which vary from 0.4 to 0.2 m (Table 14), it can be argued that the settlement was inhabited permanently up to the abandonment of the site, presumably during the sixteenth century A.D.

92

The Land ofHoulouf

TABLE 15 Ble Mound B: The Stratigraphic Sequence Sedimentary Unit 5

Depth (m) 0-0.4

Thickness (em) 40

4

0.4-2.2

180

3

2.2-3.2

100

2

3.2-3.6

40

3.6-4

>40

Characteristics

Origins

Light brown-grey fine sand with ahs lenses Brown-grey to light brown-grey compact sandy silt Brown-grey loose and dusty sandy silt and silty sand, with thick dung deposit Hard and compact dark brown-grey silt Very hard and compact yellow silt

Reworked fill and livestock dung Superimposed habitation surfaces and fills of coUapsed and decayed material Superimposed habitation surfaces and fills of coUapsed and decayed material Habitation surface under and overlaid by fluviolacustrine deposit Lacustrine to fluviolacustrine deposit

TABLE 16 Ble Mound B: Summary of the Occupation Sequence SU

OH

Depth (m)

Number of sherds

Weight (kg)

291 12.2 0-0.4 0.4-0.6 202 10 0.6-0.8 164 5.7 0.8-1 X 15 1 IX 1-1.2 113 4.7 1.2-1.4 91 5 VIII 1.4-1.6 6 1.5 1.6-1.8 62 VII 4 1.8-2 VI 76 3.5 2-2.2 41 3.2 2.2-2.4 V 154 9.8 3 2.4-2.6 IV 86 4.5 2.6-2.8 III 80 4.7 2.8-3 3-3.2 II 22 1.5 3.2-3.4 I 2 SU =Sedimentary Unit; OH =Occupation Horizon 5 4

XII XI

Density (m3)

Fragmentation index

Component

60.62 84.12 68.33 6.25 47.08 37.91 2.5 25.83 31.66 17.08 64.16 35.83 33.33

4.19 4.95 3.47 6.66 4.15 5.49 25 6.45 4.6 7.8 6.36 5.23 5.87 6.81

Reworked fill with loose surfaces Fill Habitation surface Habitation surface Loose occupation surface Fill Habitation surface Habitation surface Fill Habitation surface Habitation surface Habitation surface Fill Habitation surface Habitation surface Habitation surface

-

9.16

Excavations at Ble Mound B

Introduction BIe Mound B I is the smallest site of the Ble Mound Complex. It is situated twenty m southeast of Ble Mound A. The elliptical site measures 100 m west-northwest and 50 in maximum width, and is 3.5 m high above the surrounding plain (Fig. 106). It extends over 5,000 square meters, for a theoretical volume of 17,500 cubic meters. A test excavation of 12 square meters (4 by 3 m) was carried out on the highest point of the mound in its southeastern part. The exposed stratigraphic section is 4 m thick and comprises 12 occupation horizons.

The Stratigraphic Sequence The uncovered stratigraphic section consists of five sedimentary units of varying thickness, ranging from 0.4 to 1.8 m (Fig. 107, Table 18).

1) Sedimentary unit 1 is the bottom virgin deposit which was exposed down to a depth of 40 em, from 3.6 to 4 m. It consists of a hard and compact yellow (2.5 Y 7/6) silty sand. The deposit is probably lacustrine to fluviolacustrine in origin. 2) Sedimentary unit 2, exposed at 3.2 to 3.6 m, is 0.4 m thick. It is a dark brown-grey (2.5 YR 4/2) compact silt, presumably of lacustrine and fluviolacustrine origins. The sedimentary material may have been deposited during wetter climatic episodes by successive periods of floods or sustained high water levels of the receding Lake Chad or lagoons. 3) Sedimentary unit 3 is 1 m thick (2.2-3.2 m) and consists of a gradation of loose and dusty brown-grey (10 YR 5/2) sandy silt to silty sand. A large pit filled with soft, olive (5 Y 5/4) Ii vestock dung was found at the bottom of the deposit. The sedimentary material resulted from collapse and decay of settlement features. 4) Sedimentary unit 4 (0.4-2.2 m) is 1.8 m thick. It is a browngrey (10 YR 5/2) to light brown-grey sandy silt. The lower portion of the deposit, from 1.6 to 2.2 m, is moderately hard, and

93

Excavations at Southeastern Sites

\

N

o Figure 106.

Bie Mound B: site contour map.

the upper one, from 0.4 to 1.6 m, is more compact. The deposit is composed of collapsed and decayed building material. 5) Sedimentary unit 5 (0-0.4 m) is a reworked and trampled deposit which includes a few ash lenses and livestock dung. It is a loose light brown-grey fine sand, partially of eolian origins. In general, with the exception of two pits recorded at the bottom and top of the stratigraphic section (Fig. 107), the tested sequence is composed of almost perfectly horizontal layers of sediment. Clearly, sedimentary units 1 and 2 accumulated by hydrologic agencies during a wetter period. The earliest inhabitants settled immediately above the surface of hard and compact dark brown-grey silt. From that period on, the buildup of the mound was exclusively the result of human activities.

a large pit filled with livestock dung and ash dug from levels above (Fig. 109). The portion of the hearth, presumably circular in shape, measures 1 by 0.6 m. One vessel shape has been reconstructed: a globular pot with everted rim, its body decorated with criss-cross panels of dragged comb impressions complemented by a horizontal line of holes stabbed with an awl (Fig. 110.1). No faunal remains were recorded. A sample of 22 sherds was collected: 10 ofthem (2 rims, 8 body sherds) are decorated, predominantly with twisted roulette impressions. Ten of the sherds are more than 14.5 mm thick. Occupation horizon III (2.6-3 m) comprises a living surface exposed at 2.6 m. Two features were uncovered (Fig. 111). One large pit, extending over almost all of the excavation probe, measured 3.5 m in length, 3 m in width and 0.5 m in maximum depth. Half of a circular feature measuring 1.6 m in diameter was found next to the pit, on the eastern side. It had a firehardened wall 5 cm thick on average, preserved to a height of 10 cm. It was filled with ash and large pieces of fire hardened blocks, resulting from the inward collapse of the feature superstructure, but no charcoal was found. This feature seems to have been a forge furnace, but the absence of any piece of iron slag precludes any clearer functional assignment. No potsherds were found but faunal remains consist of 52 bones, among which 9 are undetermined fragments. The identified bones comprise 40 fish bones (38 from catfish [Gymnarchus niloticus] and 2 from

Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence

Occupation horizon I was uncovered at 3.2-3.4 m in sedimentary unit 2. Its deposit is 0.4 m thick. A living surface was exposed at 3.4 m, sandwiched between two layers of dark browngrey and compact silt. The surface is composed of a portion of fire-hardened circular hut floor with a series of five shallow postholes along its edge. The exposed hut floor is 2.8 m long and 2.7 m wide. The postholes measure 10 cm in average diameter and are 4 to 8 cm deep (Fig. 108). No further archaeological material was found associated to the hut floor. Occupation horizons II to V are found in sedimentary unit 3 (2.2-3.2 m). Occupation horizon II (3-3.2 m) is situated at the bottom of the sedimentary unit. A Ii ving surface with a partially exposed hearth situated at the northeastern corner of the excavation probe was found at 3.1 m. The surface was disturbed by

------

• 50cm

....

_-

,

~Compact yellow silt

BOark brown-grey silt

~ Ash and dung

D Brown-grey fine sand

Figure 107.

[ZI Dung

~ Brown-grey sandy silt

-... Fire-hardened layers

Bie Mound B: the stratigraphic section.

94

The Land of Houlouf

Floor

t Figure 108. Bl€ Mound B: house floor from occupation horizon I .

t Figure 109. Bl€ Mound B: living surface from occupation horizon II.

- Dung - ,

o

\

Scm

2

Figure 111. BJe Mound B: living surface from occupation horizon III. Figure 110. Bl€ Mound B: vessels from occupation horizons II and III.

Alestes sp.), 1 undetermined bird bone, 1 Gazella sp. and 1 Bovidae sp. bone. Occupation horizon IV(2.4-2.6 m) comprises a living surface with two hearths (Fig. 111). One, situated in the center of the excavation probe, is flat and circular, measuring 0.7 min diameter. The other, exposed in the northeastern corner of the probe, is horseshoe-shaped and 1 m long and 0.7 wide, its wall still preserved up to a height of 4 to 8 cm. One vessel shape has been reconstructed from the sample of highly fragmented sherds. It is a flat-base plainware with straight sides, with bored holes in the bottom and the wall (Fig. 110.2). Of the 86 sherds collect\!d, 51 are decorated, with twisted roulette the predominant

technique, followed by carved roulette. The 6.5-8 mm (21 sherds) and 8.5-10 mm (19 sherds) thickness classes are predominant. No animal bones were recorded. Occupation horizon V (2.2-2.4 m) is a surface without any features, but has small, loose concentrations of ash. The deposit, 0.2 m thick, consists of a loose and dusty light browngrey sandy silt material. A sample of 154 sherds was collected: 12 rims, 88 body sherds, 2 base and 52 miscellaneous fired clay pieces. The 64 decorated sherds represent five decoration techniques, among which twisted roulette impression is largely dominant. Sherd thickness is bimodal, wi.th one peak (36 sherds) in the 6.5-8 mm class and the other in the> 14.5 mm class. A sample

95

Excavations at Southeastern Sites

•

t

HearthS• •

~

-

•

Floor

•

Figure 112. BIe Mound B: living surface from occupation horizon IV.

\

t Figure 113. BIe Mound B: house floor from occupation horizon VI.

1

2

Figure 115. Ble Mound B: house floor from occupation horizon VII.

Figure 114. Ble Mound B: vessels from occupation horizons VI and VII.

of 56 faunal remains was recorded: 22 fish bones (3 nile perch [Lates niloticus], 17 catfish, 2 Alestes sp.) and 31 mammalian bones (2 Kobus kob, 7 Bovidae sp., 22 undetermined fragments). Occupation horizon VI (1.8-2.2 m) is 0.4 m thick. A living surface, consisting of a fire-hardened circular hut floor and two partly excavated hearths, was exposed at 2 m (Fig. 113). The hut floor extended over almost all of the test excavation probe, giving an approximate surface of 11 square meters. The ex-

posed shallow hearths, probably circular to subcircular in shape, measured 0.5 by 0.3 m for the smaller and 0.8 by 0.5 for the larger. One vessel shape was recorded: the lower part of a flatbottom large V-shaped bowl decorated with twisted roulette impressions, delimited by a horizontal zigzag grooved line (Fig. 114.1). Of the 41 sherds collected, 19 are decorated with either twisted or carved roulette impressions, the former slightly predominant. No faunal remains were recorded .. Occupation horizon VII (1.6-1.8 m) comprises a living surface exposed at 1.8 m. It is a fire-hardened circular hut floor with an oval-shaped hearth (Fig. 115). The exposed hut floor is 4 m long and 2.5 m in maximum width. The hearth is a shallow feature, 0.8 m long, 0.5 m wide and approximately 5 cm deep. One almost complete pot with straight sides and an everted rim and entirely decorated with twisted roulette impressions with

The Land of Houlouf

96

Hearth

t

t

Figure 117. Hie Mound H: living surface from occupation horizon IX.

Figure 116. Hie Mound H: house floor from occupation horizon VIII.

,

\ 2

o I

4

3

5

Figure 118 (left). Hie Mound B: vessels from occupation horizons IX and X.

o

2cm

L...-.-..J

Excavations at Southeastern Sites

Hearth

•

t

Floor

Figure 119. BIt Mound B: house floor from occupation horizon X.

Hearth

t

Stone @

Figure 120. BIt Mound B: house floor from occupation horizon XI.

its bottom missing has been found (Fig. 114.2). Of the sherds collected, 25 are decorated, predominantly with twisted roulette impressions. The sherd thickness distribution is similar to that of occupation horizon VI, with peaks in the 8.5-10 mm and >14.5 mm classes. Fifteen animal bones were found: 7 catfish, 3 Kobus kob and 5 Bovidae sp. A sample of charcoal collected from the hut hearth dated to 560±SO (RT-1670), calibrated to A.D. 1331-1418. Occupation horizon VIII (1.2-1.6 m) is OA m thick and comprises a living surface exposed at 1.6 m (Fig. 116). The surface consists of a small portion of a fire-hardened circular hut floor, measuring 3 by 2A m. The deposit was particularly poor in archaeological evidence with only 6 sherds and 11 animal bones. There are two rim sherds (one decorated, carved roulette), two decorated body sherds (also carved roulette), and two miscellaneous sherds. Sherd thickness distribution is: >4.S mm thick (1

97

sherd), 8.S-1O mm (2 sherds), 6.S-8 mm (3 sherds). Animal bones belong to Kobus kob (1), Gazella sp. (1), Lates niloticus (1), with 8 undetermined fragments. Occupation horizon IX (1-1.2 m), 0.2 m thick, comprises a living surface overlaid by a fill of collapsed and decayed building material. The uncovered feature signaling the habitation surface and exposed at 1.2 m was a portion of a presumably circular hearth, 0.6 m in diameter. This feature is situated in the northeastern corner of the excavation probe (Fig. 117). Four vessel shapes were found: a flat-base V-shaped bowl decorated with wavy lines and twisted roulette impressions (Fig. 118.1); the lower part of a convex base globular pot decorated with twisted roulette impressions (Fig. 118.2); a presumably roundedbase pot with everted rim decorated with dragged comb impressions on the body, delimited by a series of horizontal grooved lines at the neck (Fig. 118.3); and the upper part of a necked pot or jug with thickened and everted rim decorated with twisted roulette impressions (Fig. 118A). Of 113 sherds, 73 are decorated. Twisted roulette impression is the largely predominant technique. The 8.5-10 mm (42 sherds) and 6.5-8 mm (31 sherds) thickness classes predominate. Three stone artifacts were uncovered, 1 grindstone and 2 hammers tones (2 syenite, 1 granite). Faunal remains consist of SO pieces: 6 fish bones (1 nile perch, 5 catfish), 2 freshwater mussel fragments (Aspartharia sp.), 9 freshwater tortoise fragments (Pelusio sp.), 1 undetermined bird, 6 cattle, 1 sheep/goat, 5 Kobus kob, and 20 undetermined fragments. Occupation horizon X was uncovered at 0.8-1 m, with a deposit 0.2 m thick. A living surface was exposed at 1 m, and consists of a fire-hardened circular hut floor, with four shallow postholes found on its edge, associated with a horseshoe-shaped hearth (Fig. 119). The excavated portion of the hut floor has a radius of approximately 3 m. The exposed hearth, with parts of its wall preserved to a height of 3 to 8 cm, is 0.8 m long and 0.6 m wide. One vessel shape was reconstructed: the upper part of a presumably globular pot with restricted mouth and everted rim, with a large band of twisted roulette impressions delimited by parallel and horizontal grooved lines on the shoulder (Fig. 118.S). No faunal remains were found. The sample of pottery is composed of 15 sherds; 11 are decorated, S with twisted roulette, 3 with carved roulette and 3 are composite. Predominant thickness classes are 6.5-8 mm (4 sherds) and >14.S mm (4 sherds). Finally, one syenite grinder was collected. Occupation horizon XI (OA-0.8 m) is OA m thick. A living surface comprising a fire-hardenoo circular hut floor with a circular hearth was exposed at 0.6 m (Fig. 120). The hut floor is 3A m long and 3 m wide, and the shallow hearth, 8 cm in maximum depth, measures 0.6 m in diameter. One complete miniature plain bowl with everted rim (Fig. 121.1) and nine vessel shapes were reconstructed. The nine vessels are: (1) a small plain open bowl with thickened rim and three applique buttons (Fig. 121.2); (2) the upper part of a long-necked plain miniature juglet (Fig. 121.3); (3) a large necked pot decorated with a narrow horizontal band of twisted roulette impressions (Fig.

98

The Land of Houlouf

2

3

\4 LoJ

.JR,

,,

,,

5

4

,,

8

o I

I

,

,

I

5cm I

10

I

Figure 121.

Ble Mound B: vessels from occupation horizon XI.

Excavations at Southeastern Sites

99

2

o

Scm -1-...1..--'--"---1'

1-'

4

Figure 122. Bie Mound B: miscellaneous fired clay objects from occupation horizon XI.

[~J

\ 2

(

) 3

~I

)

(,

4

\ [] 'c;:J,-,G =AI' : '

J

,

,

Figure 123, Ble Mound B: vessels and head rest specimen from occupation horizon XII,

121.4); (4) a globular pot with pointed everted rim, decorated with dragged comb impressions on the body (Fig, 121.5); (5) a presumably globular pot with rounded everted rim decorated with loose dragged comb impressions on the body (Fig, 121.6); (6) a necked pot with stabbed and dragged decorations on the shoulder (Fig. 121.7); (7) a plain(?)-necked pot with rounded everted rim (Fig. 121.8); (8) a large pot with a straight conical rim, decorated with parallel horizontal grooved lines encompassing a narrow band of zigzag elongated depressions (Fig. 121.9); and (9) a large hole-mouth plain bowl with an applique cordon below the rim (Fig. 121.10). Also found were one fragment of a legged head rest decorated with a combination of twisted roulette impressions and grooved parallel and perpendicular lines (Fig. 122.1), two clay bells (Fig. 122.2-3), one fragment of a figurine representing a human leg (Fig. 122.4), and one recycled circular sherd (Fig. 122.5). The collected pottery sample amounts to 164 sherds, 92 of which are decorated predominantly with twisted roulette impressions. The 8.5-10 mm thickness class is predominant (58 sherds). Stone artifacts consist of two syenite pieces-one fragment of a grindstone and one grinder. There are 318 animal remains. Fish predominate: 193 tatfish, 9 nile perch, and 1 Alestes sp. Mammalian remains comprise 9 cattle, 1 sheep/goat, 8 Kobus kob, 3 Gazella sp., 22 Bovidae sp. Reptiles include 1 shell fragment of freshwater tortoise. There are also 70 undetermined fragments. Occupation horizon XII (0-0.4 m) consists of loose concentrations of ash lenses and a shallow accumulation of livestock dung. It has experienced severe disturbance, as shown by a contaminated charcoal sample dated to modern times (RT-1669). Four vessel shapes, all of them relatively large plain pots with

100

The Land of Houlouf

2

1

Figure 124. BIt! Mound B: surface finds.

more orless everted rim, were reconstructed (Fig. 123.1-4). One large fragment of a plain, flat head rest was found (Fig. 123.5). A sample of 291 sherds was collected, 150 decorated predominantly with twisted roulette impressions. The >14.5 mm thickness class is slightly predominant (78 sherds), followed by 8.510 mm. The faunal remains sample collected in this occupation horizon is the largest of the whole site sequence, totaling 336 pieces. The mammal bones totaled 212: 149 undetermined fragments, 18 cattle bones, 6 sheep/goat, 22 Kobus kob, 10 elephant (Loxodonta africana) and 7 Bovidae sp. The remaining pieces

are: 99 catfish bones, 1 Alestes sp., 4 land snail shell fragments (Limicolaria sp.), 3 freshwater mussel shell fragments, and 17 freshwater tortoise fragments. Surface material was collected by two methods, selective and systematic sampling. Through selective sampling, 29 fishsmoking features were recorded on the site surface, as well as 213 stone artifacts weighing 25 kg, and 30 pieces of iron slag, 1.6 kg. Systematic sampling was implemented in a circle 6 m in diameter and yielded 9,917 sherds (71.9 kg), 92 small to tiny stone pieces (0.2 kg), and 275 fragments of iron slag (0.5 kg). A

101

Excavations at Southeastern Sites

few special finds were selected: a head rest fragment decorated with grooved lines in a herringbone pattern (Fig. 124.1), a plain jug neck with bored holes (Fig. 124.2), a pot lid decorated with symmetrical panels of grooved lines (Fig. 124.3), and one almost-complete terra-cotta human head decorated with chevron motifs made of carved roulette impressions (Fig. 124.4).

Summary The earliest settlement phase of Ble Mound B occurred during the period of accumulation of the compact dark brown-grey silt of sedimentary unit 2 (3.2-3.6 m). This sedimentary material was deposited in wetter climatic circumstances by higher lake/lagoon levels or tight successive episodes of major floods. The absence of archaeological evidence on the exposed habitation surface from occupation horizon 1(3.4 m) can probably be explained by water transport. From occupation horizon II (33.2 m) upward to the top of the stratigraphic sequence, the buildup of the mound resulted from successive accumulation of settlement facilities and ensuing refuse by humans, with the top deposit heavily disturbed during relatively recent periods. The evidence of built habitation features consists of fire-hardened circular hut floors, often associated with one to two hearths. In some cases, the presence of shallow postholes suggests clearly that grass and wood may have been used as the principal building material. This hypothesis is partially supported by the recorded thickness of occupation horizon deposits, which vary from 0.2 to 0.4 m (Table 16). With the exception of the sherd material from the living surface of occupation horizon VIII (1.41.6 m), fragmentation indexes range from 3.47 to 7.8 (Table 16), suggesting a relative high degree of trampling in a sedentary village settled by a mixed-farming community. No adequate dating material has been found in the archaeological deposit from occupation horizons I to VI (3.2-1.8 m). Occupation horizon VII (1.6-1.8 m) dated to A.D. 1331-1418 and the sample from the top deposit (RT-1669) was contaminated. It is highly probable that Ble Mound A and B may have belonged to the same widely extended sand island. Linear erosion and gUllying created a geomorphological artifact resulting in the formation of two distinct mounds. Based on the data from Ble Mound A, Ble Mound B was probably settled by the middle of the first millennium A.D. up to the fifteenth century. The area was certainly visited since then by fishing parties or other activities groups as suggested by data from the top deposit of the Ble Mound B archaeological sequence.

Excavations at Ble Mound C Introduction Ble Mound C, the third site of the studied complex of five mounds, is situated 20 m east of Ble Mound B. It is an elliptical mound, 200 m long in its east-west axis, and 100 m in maxi-

mum width in the north-south axis (Fig. 125). The mound is 3.5 m high above the surrounding floodplain and covers a surface of 2 ha, for a theoretical volume of 60,000 cubic meters. A test excavation, 12 square meters (4 by 3 m) and 0.06% of the site surface, was carried out from the highest point of the mound, in its eastern part. The exposed stratigraphic section measures 3.2 m in thickness and comprises six sedimentary units with eight occupation horizons.

The Stratigraphic Sequence The mound stratigraphic sequence is composed of six sedimentary units, with thickness varying from 0.2 to 1 m. As shown by previous mound sections, bottom deposits are lacustrine to fluviolacustrine while the upper ones resulted from humans settlement actitvities (Fig. 126, Table 17). 1) Sedimentary unit 1, found at 2.8 m, was excavated 40 cm further down, to 3.2 m. It is the bottom archaeologically virgin deposit, consisting of an extremely hard and compact, very dark grey (2.5 Y 3/0) prismatic clay, with numerous vertical cracks. The deposit is clearly lacustrine to fluviolacustrine, and may have accumulated in lagoonal to marshy environmental contexts. 2) Sedimentary unit 2 (2-2.8 m) is 0.8 m thick. It is a compact light brown-grey to brown-grey (10 YR 5/2) silty sand at the bottom, shifting to sandy silt at the top of the deposit. The sedimentary material is partly the result of floodwater aggradation, and partly the result of human settlement activities. 3) Sedimentary unit 3, uncovered at 1.4 m to 2 m, is 0.6 m thick and consists of a superimposed series of fourteen thin house floors made of compact brown-yellow (10 YR 5/6) silt. The recorded deposit, exclusively human-made, suggests relatively long-term maintenance of dwelling facilities. 4) Sedimentary unit 4 (0.4-1.4 m), 1 m thick, is composed of a succession of living surfaces overlaid by fills of collapsed and decayed building material. The recorded sediment is a light brown (7.5 YR 6/4) sandy silt. 5) Sedimentary unit 5, 0.2 m thick (0.2-0.4 m), consists of a loose and dusty brown-grey (10 YR 5/2) silty sand with a few dispersed ash lenses. 6) Sedimentary unit 6, 0.2 m thick and situated on top of the stratigraphic sequence, has been heavily reworked by livestock and human trampling. The deposit consists of a brown-grey (10 YR 5/2) loose and dusty fine sand, with dispersed ash lenses. Windblown sand is probably one important component of the recorded sedimentary material. The stratigraphic sequence from Ble Mound C is singicd out by the presence at its bottom of a thick deposit of very dark grey prismatic clay with vertical cracks. Cracks develop in clayey soils during dry episodes, be they dry seasons or dry climates. The occupation of Ble Mound C developed above a former channel of the ancient Logone delta situated in the east of the Ble Mound A-B sand island, a channel that was progressively silted and colmated as will be demonstrated later.

102

The Land of Houlouf TABLE 17 Ble Mound C: The Stratigraphic Sequence Sedimentary Unit

Depth (m)

Thickness (cm)

Characteristics

Origins

6

0-0.2

20

5

0.2-0.4

20

Reworked fill above a habitation surface Fill above a habitation surface

4

0.4-1.4

100

Brown-grey soft and dusty fine sand with ash lenses Brown-grey soft and dusty silty sand with ash lenses Compact light brown silty sand

3

1.4-2

60

Compact yellow silt

2

2-2.8

80

2.8-3.2

>40

Compact light brown-grey to brown-grey sandy silt and silty sand Very dark clay with vertical cracks

Superimposed fills and habitation surfaces Series of 14 superimposed thin house floors Habi tation surface Lacustrine to fluviolacustrine deposit

TABLE 18 Ble Mound C: Summary of the Occupation Sequence SU

OH

6

VlII

5 4

VII VI

Depth (m) 0-0.2

Number of sherds 238

Weight (kg) 24.4

0.2-0.4 77 5.3 0.4-0.6 116 7 0.6-0.8 117 8 V 0.8-1 110 8.7 IV 1-1.2 98 13 1.2-1.4 22 1 3 III 1.4-1.6 11 0.5 1.6-1.8 55 2.3 1.8-2 2 II 2-2.2 105 5.2 2.2-2.4 23 1 2.4-2.6 93 8.8 2.6-2.8 54 4.7 Key: SU - Sedimentary Unit; OH =Occupation Horizon

Density (m') 99.16

Fragmentation index 10.25

32.08 48.33 48.75 45.83 40.83 9.16 4.58 22.91

6.88 6.03 6.83 7.9 13.26 4.54 4.54 4.18

43.75 9.58 38.75 22.5

4.95 4.34 9.46 8.7

Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence

The mound sequence comprises eight occupation horizons differentially distributed among sedimentary units, one each in sedimentary units 3, 5 and 6, two in sedimentary unit 2 and three in sedimentary unit 4 (Fig. 126). Occupation horizon I was found at 2.2 to 2.8 m. Small and dispersed burnt surfaces were exposed at 2.3 m, associated with a portion of a circular feature found at the southeastern corner of the excavation probe (Fig. 127). A primary burial, oriented southwest-northeast, was found on this surface. It belongs to a later episode of settlement, probably occupation horizon II, the context in which it will be described in detail. The southeastern circular feature is a bell-shaped burial, capped with large pieces of fire-hardened clay blocks. Unfortunately, the largest portion of the burial was included in the probe's southern section. It was nonetheless totally excavated. The burial pit, dug in a hard and compact prismatic clay formation, measures 0.8 m in diameter at its top, 1.2 m in diameter at its base, and 0.8 m in depth (2.3-3.1 m) (Fig. 128). The pit was enlarged at its base on

Component Reworked fill above a Ii ving surface Fill with loose habitation evidence Fill Occupation surface Living surface Fill Li ving surface Living surface Living surface Living surface Living surface Fill and loose occupation surface

the eastern side and the body was buried in a tightly flexed position, oriented west-east, face turned to the south. Grave goods consist of a jug and a carnelian bead, both found a few centimeters west of the skull. The vessel is a finely made flat-base jug with everted rim, decorated with narrow bands of twisted roulette impressions at the base, connected to grooved lines on the shoulder (Fig. 129.1). From the presumed living surface, one vessel shape was reconstructed: the neck of a rounded lip plaine?) pot (Fig. 129.2). No faunal remains were recorded. Stone artifacts consist of two fragments of syenite grindstones. Of the 170 sherds collected, 69 are decorated, predominantly with twisted roulette, followed by comb impressions. Sherd thickness is bimodal in distribution: one peak in the >14.5 mm class (93 sherds), the other in the 8.5-10 mm class. A charcoal sample collected at 2.2 m, a few centimeters under the house floor, dated to 905±45 B.P. (RT-1673) and calibrated to A.D. 1043-1166. Occupation horizon II was uncovered at 2 to 2.2 m. It is a 0.2 m thick compact brown-grey sandy silt deposit comprising two superimposed living surfaces. The surfaces, exposed at 2.1 m, consist of beaten circular house floors with six shallow

103

Excavations at Southeastern Sites

t

t

N

o 5

o,

[

Figure 125. BJ€ Mound C: site contour map.

Figure 127. Burials from occupation horizons I and II .

. ~.

o I

!

9

50cm I

50cm Very dark prismatic clay

~ Ash

B

Light brown-grey to brown-grey silty sand

Figure 128. Profile of occupation horizon I burial.

~ Series of superimpoased house floors[] Light brown sandy silt 'Fire-hardened layers

Figure 126. BJ€ Mound C: the stratigraphic section.

postholes associated with a circular hearth for the upper, and a bare surface for the lower (Fig. 130). The lower surface is 3.5 m long and 2 m wide, while the upper is 3 m wide and 3.8 m long. The distribution of postholes does not show any clear patterning, even if different rows can be reconstructed. Possibly these shallow features were part of a bed supported by short poles as recorded in present-day Shuwa-Arab houses (Holl 1993). The exposed portion of the shallow hearth measures 0.5 m in diameter. Three vessel shapes have been recorded: a plain

hemispheric pot with a hole at its bottom (Fig. 131.1); an elongated pot with a restricted neck and everted rim, decorated with a band of wavy lines on rim and three restoration holes (Fig. 131.2); and a plain V-shaped bowl with a hole in the bottom (Fig. 131.3). One headless and plain animal figurine was also found. The burial found at 2.3 m, assigned because of its stratigraphy to occupation horizon II, was probably dug during the occupation of the lower house floor. It is an adult tomb. The skel-

104

The Land of Houlouf 2

)

\ Scm

o I

Figure 129 (left). Ble Mound C: vessels from occupation horizon I.

~Posthole

~ Hearth

5cm

3

L-L----'---'-..!.-l'

\U Figure 130. Ble Mound C: superimposed house floors from occupation horizon II.

eton, oriented southwest-northeast was found in a slightly flexed position, on its right side, arms before the face, which is turned south (Fig. 127). Grave goods consist of one complete flat-base pot with everted rim, decorated with a narrow band of twisted roulette impressions on the rim, a larger band of combined horizontal/zigzag grooved lines and twisted roulette impressions on the shoulder, including two symmetrical pairs of applique buttons (Fig. 132.1). A complete freshwater mussel shell was found in the pot. According to informants, mussel shells were used in ancient times as spoons. This finding thus suggests the deceased was buried with food for his voyage into the afterworld. The rest of the grave goods consist of the lower part of a flatbase pot decorated with twisted roulette impressions (Fig. 132.2), and a plain hollow interior head rest (Fig. 132.3). A sample of 105 sherds was collected; 21 decorated with twisted roulette

Figure 131. Bie Mound C: vessels and figurine from occupation horizon II.

impressions. Carved roulette and comb impressions occur in similar numbers (7 and 8 sherds). Thirty-six sherds belong to the 8.5-10 mm thickness class, and 24 to the 6.5-8 mm and > 14.5 mm classes. One syenite hammerstone was found, as well as a poor sample of 8 animal bones: 3 undetermined fragments, 3 catfish, 1 Gazella sp., and 1 fragment of freshwater mussel. Occupation horizon III comprises a series offourteen tightly superimposed beaten floors made with yellow to brown-yellow silt. The 0.6 m thick deposit was uncovered from 1.4 to 2 m. The discovered house floors extended all over the excavation probe and most of them, with the exception of surfaces exposed at 1.65 and 1.6 m, were not associated with features of any interest. Three shallow postholes, a short linear piece of burnt clay 0.5 m long, and an oval, shallow hearth, 0.5 m long and 0.4 m wide, were found on the 1.65 m floor (Fig. 133). The 1.6 m

105

Excavations at Southeastern Sites

2

3

Figure 132 (left). Ble Mound C: occupation horizon II: vessels and head rest from the burial, and a bone awl.

Post-holes

t'J

/

.

. ~

()

~

~

-

Post-hole

,.,..-

Hearth

f3

t

Floor

~

Floor

•

t

Figure 133. Ble Mound C: lower house floor from occupation horizon III.

Figure 134. Ble Mound C: the upper house floor from occupation horizon III.

floor has two distant postholes and a short linear piece of burnt clay (Fig. 134). The floors appear to have been cleared of refuse. The retrieved fragments of sherds are rather small in size (Fig. 135). A broken bone awl was found (Fig. 132.4). No vessels were reconstructed. A sample of 66 sherds was collected, most of them body sherds, 25 decorated. The predominant decorative technique was twisted roulette impression (20 sherds), and other techniques

were marginal. Three thickness classes are well represented: 8.5-10 mm (19 sherds), 6.5-8 mm (16 sherds), and >14.5 mm (16 sherds). Faunal remains consist of 6 bird bones, 2 Kobus kob, 1 Bovidae sp., 1 nile perch and 4 catfish. One stone of wild fruit Ziziphus sp., 2 pieces of iron slag, and 1 of red ochre were also collected. A sample of charcoal collected from 1.4 to 1.8 m was dated to 915±50 B.P. (RT-1672) and calibrated to A.D. 10411160, a time range similar to occupation horizon II.

106

The Land of Houlouf

I

,

2

Figure 135 (left). Ble Mound C: decorated sherds from occupation horizon III.

I

t

•

Postholes

~ , ~rr::'.:1 Grindstone :-\.".

€3

Hearth Floor

,

~

- ,,

I~' ,~,

Hearth

Figure 136. Ble Mound C: house floor from occupation horizon IV with occupation horizon V secondary burials.

Occupation horizon IV(I-1.4 m) comprises a habitation surface overlaid by a fill of collapsed material. The living surface consists of a circular house beaten floor with series of postholes, an exposed minor portion of a hearth and two secondary burials containing human skulls (Fig. 136). These secondary burials found on the house floor are assigned stratigraphically to occupation horizon V and will be described in that context. The house floor is 3.8 m long and 3 m wide. Two distinct series of postholes were recorded. The first series, with four postholes, is situated along the edge of the floor and thus ~eems to have been part of the house superstructure. The second series has seven postholes on the house floor; they may have been part of house interior installations or may be from a feature or smaller house built a short time after the collapse of the larger one. Twenty-two sherds were collected, seven decorated with twisted roulette impressions, one with series of grooved lines, and another with a com-

t Figure 137. Ble Mound C: living surface from occupation horizon V.

bination of twisted roulette and grooved lines. Sherd thickness peaks in the >14.5 mm thickness class. Faunal remains include bones of one Bovidae sp., four catfish, one Alestes sp., and shell fragments of one land snail and one freshwater tortoise. Half of the sample consists of undetermined fragments. Occupation horizon V is situated at the middle of sedimentary unit 4, from 0.8 to 1 m. It is a 0.2 m thick deposit with an extensive living surface exposed at 1 m, and found all over the excavation probe (Fig. 137). The surface is a beaten house floor with an elliptical, flat fireplace at its center. The excavated fireplace is 1 m long and 0.5 m wide. A complete small and portable syenite grindstone (Fig. 138.5) was found at 1.5 m, northeast of the fireplace. Two secondary burials were uncovered at 0.3 m below the house floor, situated 1.5 m from each other. These are made up of two adult skulls without jaw bones, with their faces oriented northward. TwO" vessel shapes were found:

Excavations at Southeastern Sites

107

2

o I

Scm

Figure 138 (left). BItS Mound C: archaeological finds from occupation horizon V.

I

J

c

t

Ij ".

'I.

t"

:

r

I I

(dIt :J==:rJ ,..

-- -

-

,-------

I

I

r

Figure 139. BItS Mound C: occupation horizon VII burials.

a flat-base bowl with straight sides in two pieces, decorated with extensive twisted roulette impressions (Fig. 138.1), and the upper part of a necked, plaine?) pot with everted rim (Fig. 138.2). Also collected were one complete pot lid (Fig. 138.3) and a body sherd decorated with twisted roulette impressions and grooved lines (Fig. 138.4). Of 110 sherds, 66 are decorated, 43 with twisted roulette impression, which is the predominant technique, followed by carved roulette and comb impressions (7 sherds each). Predomi-

Figure 140. BItS Mound C: calcite lip plugs and cylinder from occupation horizon VII burials.

nant thickness classes are >14.5 mm (29 sherds), 8.5-10 mm (26 sherds), and 10.5-12 mm (26 sherds). Ten stone artifacts were collected, 6 syenite and 4 rhyolite (4 grindstones, 6 hammerstones). The sample of faunal remains is rather poor; the 9 pieces include 4 undetermined fragments, 4 catfish bones and 1 sheep/goat. Occupation horizon VI (0.4-0.8 m) is 0.4 m thick. A living surface without any feature, but with a few complete vessels, was found at 0.6 m. Two primary adult burials were exposed at

The Land of Houlouf

108

2

1

3

, 4

..J? em

-L......L_.L..-........

0L,.!

5

6

Figure 141. Ble Mound C: vessels and miscellaneous fired clay objects from occupation horizon VI.

0.8 m, overlaid by a fill of collapsed material (Fig. 139). None of the burials was totally excavated. Burial 1, oriented westeast, was exposed from skull to knees, supine, hands on chest, face turned north. Grave goods consist of one calcite lip plug (Fig. 140.2) and two beads, one calcite, the other carnelian. The presence of a lip plug suggests that the deceased was probably female. Burial 2, oriented southwest-northeast, was exposed from the feet to mid-chest. It is a female, supine, legs very slightly flexed. One lip plug and one calcite cylinder (Figs. 140.1, 104.3) were found as grave goods. Seven vessel shapes were recorded: (1) a flat-bottom plain open bowl (Fig. 141.1); (2) a taller, plain open bowl with ogiveshaped lip (Fig. 141.2); (3) the lower part of an hemispheric plain pot (Fig. 141.3); (4) a hole-mouth pot with a slightly conical base decorated with twisted roulettes and dragged comb impressions on the body (Fig. 141.4); (5) a flat-based pot with everted rim and decorated with twisted roulette impressions on

the body (Fig. 141.5); (6) the upper part of a necked pot with everted rim decorated with a horizontal band of dragged comb impressions (Fig. 141.6); and (7) the lower part of a flat-base pot decorated with twisted roulette impressions (Fig. 141.7). Also found were the tip of what appears to have been a clay harpoon (Fig. 141.8) and a headless animal figurine (Fig. 141.9). A sample of 117 sherds was collected; 69 of them are decorated with twisted roulette impressions, followed by carved roulette and comb impressions. The distribution of sherds into thickness classes is relatively even from the 6.5-8 mm to >14.5 mm classes, ranging from 17 to 29. One microdiorite hammerstone and one piece of iron slag were retrieved. Faunal remains consist of 259 bones: 54 undetermined fragments, 157 catfish bones, 20 Alestes sp., 9 nile perch, 1 cattle, 2 Kobus kob, shell fragments of 5 freshwater mussels, 1 freshwater oyster, and 5 freshwater tortoise. A composite sample of small pieces of charcoal collected from 0.4 to 0.6 m dated to t080±50 B.P. (RT-1671) and

Excavations at Southeastern Sites

109

2

o I

5cm I

3 Figure 142 (left). Ble Mound C: vessel, clay bell and decorated sherds from occupation horizon VII.

Fish-smoking features

() t Figure 143. Ble Mound C: living surface from occupation horizon VIII.

calibrated to A.D. 897-1003. Even if this date appears a slightly older than the dates from previous occupation horizons, it falls within an acceptable range of variation and may have resulted from the use of earth collected from pits dug on the site. Occupation horizon VII (0.2-0.4 m) is a deposit of loose and dusty brown-grey silty sand with a few dispersed ash lenses. One vessel shape was reconstructed: a pot with an everted rim and rounded lip, decorated with chevrons made with carved rou-

lette impressions on the body (Fig. 142.1). Also found were one clay bell in two pieces (Fig. 142.2) and two large sherds of jars decorated with twisted and carved roulette impressions (Fig. 142.3-4). A sample of 77 sherds was collected, 19 decorated with carved roulette impressions, the slightly predominant decoration technique, followed by twisted roulette. The sherd thickness distribution presents a trend toward thicker vessels. This trend suggests a larger number of storage pots and jars. Stone material is represented by a single fragment of a syenite grinding stone. The sample of faunal remains comprises 70 pieces: 2 undetermined fragments, 60 catfish bones, 1 nile perch, 1 Alestes sp., 2 shell fragments of freshwater tortoise, 2 bird bones, 1 Kobus kob and 1 Bovidae sp. Occupation horizon VIII (0-0.2 m) at the top of the mound sequence consists of a reworked fill that accumulated above a loose and eroded surface. A cluster of three fish-smoking features, visible from the surface was exposed at 0.2 m, and an adult primary burial was found at 0.4 m (Fig. 143). The fishsmoking features measure 1 m in'diameter, their depth varying from 0.45 (feature 1, Fig. 144.1) to 0.6 m (features 2 and 3, Fig. 144.2-3). They have flat bottoms and present minor variations in shape. Feature 2 has incurved sides and the two others, everted walls. Bottoms and walls consist of 10 em thick fire-hardened pink-red clay. They were filled with stratified deposits. Feature I contained a layer of ash, overlaid by ashy sand and capped by a compact layer from the decayed superstructure which contained large fragments of burnt clay pieces. Feature 2 contained

110

The Land of Houlouf

Feature I

Feature 2

o'-'_-'----I,50cm

Feature 3

Large fired-clay blocks Compact silty clay Soft ash fill Brown silty sand

Figure 144. BI6 Mound C: profiles of occupation horizon VIII fish-smoking features.

a thicker layer of ash capped by a harder fill with large pieces of burnt clay. Feature 3 contained a bottom deposit of silty sand with large pieces of burnt clay, overlaid by a softer fill of silt, then a layer of ash capped by a more compact layer of silty sand with large pieces of burnt clay. Such variation in feature fill stratigraphies suggests that they may have been active sequentially within a relatively short slice of time, operated by special-purpose fishing parties prior to the abandonment of the site, or even after. The adult burial devoid of grave goods and uncovered at 0.4 m is oriented southwest-northeast. The deceased was buried in a slightly flexed position, supine, arms on chest. Six vessel shapes were found: (1) a plain flat-base V-shaped bowl (Fig. 145.1); (2) the lower part of a presumably flat-bottom bowl decorated with shallow holes and series of grooved lines (Fig. 145.2); (3) the lower part of a flat-base pot decorated with chevron motifs made with carved roulette (Fig. 145.3); (4) a plain flat-base small basin with straight sides (Fig. 145.4); (5) a hole-mouth pot with everted rim and decorated with wavy lines made with a dragged comb (Fig. 145.5); (6) a necked pot with everted rim decorated extensively on the body with chevrons and a narrow band on the rim (Fig. 145.6); and (7) a large jug neck made with successive thin clay coils (Fig. 145.7). In addition, two female figurines were found (Fig. 145.8-9). A sample of 238 sherds was collected; 120 are decorated, predominantly with twisted roulette followed by carved roulette

impressions. Sherd thickness distribution is bimodal; one peak in the 8.5-lO mm class (67 sherds) and the other in the >14.5 mm class (92 sherds). The density of surface material recorded in the systematic sampling unit, consisting of a circle measuring 6 m in diameter, was 185.66 per square meter; 5,246 sherds (53 kg), 63 stone artifacts (1.21 kg) and 80 pieces of iron slag (0.5 kg) were collected. The sherd breakdown is as follows: 76 decorated and 396 undecorated rim sherds; 1,567 decorated and 3,065 undecorated body sherds; 4 decorated and 13 undecorated bottom sherds, and 125 miscellaneous sherds. Selective sampling yielded 181 fish-smoking pits, 273 stone artifacts (64.5 kg), and 247 pieces of iron slag (14.5 kg). A rich but badly damaged burial was found eroding on the southern slope of the mound. Bones were reduced to tiny pieces and most of them were missing. The excavation of the burial produced 13 conical, copperalloy tokens with one or two bored holes (Fig. 146), arranged in two perpendicular lines, 20 cowry shells in a line, thousands of ostrich eggshell beads in parallel lines, 4,000 of which were collected, and one carnelian bead. The ostrich eggshell beads, the cowry shells and the copper-alloy cones appear to have been part of an elaborate garment, presumably with a detachable front. If this were the case, the burial may have been a female. A handle of a small bowl was also found.

111

Excavations at Southeastern Sites

,

o

Scm

4

Figure 145. Ble Mound C: vessls and female figurines from occupation horizon VIII.

Summary Ble Mound C appears to have accumulated within a relatively short time period (ca. A.D. 900-1200), with approximately three centuries representing occupation horizon I to VI (0.4-2.8 m). The earliest inhabitants had settled on a clay deposit, probab1y on the eastern edge of the Ble Mound A-B site complex, when one of the ancient Logone delta channels was silted and colmated. The thickness of occupation horizon deposits· varies from 0.6 to 0.2 m, and the tight series of superimposed house floors recorded in occupation horizon III (1.4-2 m) is a clear indication of a sedentary mixed farming community (Table 18). The fragmentation of sherd material, suggested by fragmenta-

tion indexes, is more pronounced for the lower part of the archaeological sequence, from 1.2-1.4 m downward (Table 18), ranging from 9.46 to 4~18. In the upper part, it ranges from 13.26 to 6.03. The period of abandonment of the site is unknown, but the presence of cowry shells in the surface burial suggests a date ranging from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century.

Excavations at Ble Mound D Introduction Ble Mound D is located 60 m east of Ble Mound C. It is an elliptical mound oriented northeast-southwest, 120 m long, 80 m

112

The Land of Houlouf

Figure 146. Ble Mound C: copper cones and ostrich eggshell beads from a disturbed burial.

wide, and 4 m high above the floodplain (Fig. 147). The site extends over 0.96 ha, for a theoretical volume of 38,400 cubic meters. An excavation probe 12 square meters (4 by 3 m), 0.12% of the mound surface, was carried out from top to bottom. An archaeological deposit 4.5 m thick and comprising thirteen sedimentary units with eight occupation horizons was recorded (Fig. 148).

The Stratigraphic Sequence The exposed stratigraphic section is composed of thirteen sedimentary units with thickness varying from 0.1 to 1 m. As with other sites sections from the B16 Mound Complex, the bottom deposits accumulated by natural hydrologic agencies and the upper ones accumulated as a result of human activities. 1) Sedimentary unit I, the bottom archaeologically virgin deposit, was found at a depth of 4 m and tested 0.5 m further down. It is a compact yellow (5 Y 8/8) well-sorted fine sand, probably of lacustrine origins (Fig. 148). 2) Sedimentary unit 2 (3.2/3.8-4 m) is 0.2 to 0.8 m thick and consists of a hard and compact yellow (5 Y 8/8) sandy silt, accumulated by lacustrine to fluviolacustrine agencies. 3) Sedimentary unit 3 (2.8/3.2-3.8 m) is a thick deposit of settlement refuse. The fill consists of a loose brown-grey (10 YR 5/2) sand mixed with ash and pieces of charcoal. 4) Sedimentary unit 4 (2.6-2.8 m) is a series a tightly superimposed thin house floors, made up of a compact yellow (5 Y 8/8) silt.

5) Sedimentary unit 5 (2.2-2.6 m), 0.4 m in maximum thickness, is a fill of grey (10 YR 5/1) ash sloping toward the middle of the excavation probe, deposited above the series of house floors. 6) Sedimentary unit 6 (2-2.8 m), measuring 0.8 m in maximum thickness, consists of brown-grey (10 YR 5/2) soft and loose sandy silt with shallow and dispersed lenses of ash. 7) Sedimentary unit 7 (1.8-2 m) is another series of tightly superimposed thin house floors made with yellow (5 Y 8/8) silt, 0.2 m thick, partially disturbed by pit fill from sedimentary unit 11. 8) Sedimentary unit 8 (1.6-1.8 m), disturbed by the storage pit fill, is 0.2 m thick and consists of a soft and loose browngrey (10 YR 5/2) sandy silt, probably resulting from the collapse and decay of built features. 9) Sedimentary unit 9 (l.5-1.6 m), 0.1 m thick and partly disturbed by the pit, consists of a series of beaten house floors made with a compact yellow (5 Y 8/8) silt material. 10) Sedimentary unit 10 (1.2-1.5 m) is the fill of collapsed building material laid above house floors and consisting of soft and loose brown-grey (10 YR 5/2) silty sand. It is also partly disturbed by the pit. 11) Sedimentary unit 11 (1-1.2 m) is a 0.2 m thick series of superimposed house floors made up of compact yellow (5 Y 8/ 8) silt. The storage pit was dug from this unit and its mouth was used as a den by a burrowing animal. 12) Sedimentary unit 12 (0.6-1 m) is a 0.4 m thick fill of collapsed material consisting of a dark brown-grey (10 YR 4/2) silty sand.

113

Excavations at Southeastern Sites

o I

25m I

I

Figure 147. Bl6 Mound D: site contour map.

13) Sedimentary unit 13 (0-0.6 m) is the top deposit. It is 0.6 m thick and is composed of a loose and dusty brown-grey (10 YR 5/2) silty sand. The deposit comprises extensive layers of ash and was probably reworked by human and livestock trampling. The numerous sets of thick, tightly superimposed house floors appear to be the dominant characteristic of the BIe Mound D stratigraphic sequence. Such a massive presence of built houses is consistent with a sedentary way of life. The earliest inhabitants settled on a sedimentary unit accumulated by lacustrine to fluviolacustrine agencies above a probably low sand island in the ancient Logone delta.

~Ocrn

~Yellow sandy silt ~Yellow silty sand

B

IrJI Ash

D Yellow fine sand

IilllD Series of super-

imposed houses

Brown-grey silty sand DBrowl1-grey sand with and sandy silt ash and charcoal

~ Animal burrows with finely bedded sand

Figure 148. Bl6 Mound D: the stratigraphic section.

Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence The archaeological deposit from BIe Mound D is organized into clearly distinct horizontal occupation horizons. With the exception of the two top deposits, each of the recorded occupation horizons contains a thick series of tightly superimposed beaten floors made with yellow silt to sandy silt, overlaid by a fill of collapsed and decayed building materials mixed with cultural remains. In general, the frequency of sherds is rather low and they are usually highly fragmented. Consequently, very few vessel shapes have been reconstructed from the collected material. Sherds from broken vessels were probably removed by frequent house cleaning. Occupation horizon I recorded in sedimentary unit 3 was found at a depth varying from 2.8/3.2 m to 3.8 m. It is a loose ashy fill 0.4 to 1 m thick. A large pit with a flat bottom, of which a portion measuring 3.2 m long, 3 m wide and 0.6 m deep was excavated, was dug in the underlying yellow sandy silt deposit (Fig. 149). The pit was probably dug in order to

t

Figure 149.

Large ash pit

Bie Mound D: living surface from occupation horizon 1.

The Land of Houlouf

114

1

2

, 3

4

~-.:.,. . ~ ~

: .. ' .: ~ .: : . . .. . . . . .. ..... _".0:t .. '":-

6

7

8

9

o,

Scm I

-0 Figure 150. Ble Mound D: vessels and miscellaneous fired clay objects from occupation horizons 1 to III.

_.

,lcm,

115

Excavations at Southeastern Sites

TABLE 19 Ble Mound D: The Stratigraphic Sequence Sedimentary Unit 13

12 11

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Depth (m) 0-0.2

Thickness (cm) 20

Characteristics

Origins

Loose and dusty brown-grey sandy silt

0.2-0.6

40

Loose and dusty brown-grey sandy silt

0.6-1 1-1.2 1.2-1.5 1.5-1.6 1.6-2 2-2.2 2-2.8 2.2-2.6 2.6-2.8 2.8/3.2-3.8 3.2-3.8/4 4-4.5

40 20 30 10 40 20 80 40 20 401100 20/80 >50

Dark brown-grey silty sand Yellow silt Loose and dusty brown-grey silty sand Yellow silt Loose and dusty brown-grey sandy silt Yellow silt Loose and dusty brown-grey silty sand Ligth grey ash Yellow silt Ashy sand with pieces of charcoal Yellow sandy silt with ferruginous concretions Yellow sand

Reworked fill above habitation surface Fill above an occupation surface with layers of ash Fill of collapsed material Series of house floors Fill of collapsed material Series of house floors Fill of collapsed material Series of house floors Fill of collapsed material refuse dump Series of house floors Refuse dump Fluviolacustrine to lacustrine deposit Lacustrine deposit

TABLE 20 Ble Mound D: Summary of the Occupation Sequence SU

OH

Depth (m)

Number of sherds

Weight (kg)

0-0.2 278 24.4 0.2-0.4 227 15.4 0.4-0.6 28 1 12 VI 0.6-0.8 85 5.9 0.8-1 28 1.2 1-1.2 11 54 3.8 10 V 1.2-1.5 20 1.2 9 1.5-1.6 65 5.8 8 IV 1.6-1.8 56 2.8 1.8-2 33 1.5 2-2.2 7 32 III 2.5 5-6 II 2.2-2.6 121 10 4 2.6-2.8 34 2.1 3 2.8/3.2-3.8 296 19.8 SU = Sedimentary Unit; OH = Occupation Horizon 13

VIII VII

Density (m3)

Fragmentation index

Component

115.83 94.58 11.66 35.41 11.66 22.5 5.55 54.16 23.33 13.75 13.33 25.2 14.16 24.66

8.77 6.78 3.57 6.94 4.28 7.03 6 8.92 5 4.54 7.81 8.26 6.17 6.68

Reworked fill on habitation surface Fill of collapsed material Loose surface Fill of collapsed material Fill of collapsed material Habitation surfaces Fill of collapsed material Habitation surfaces Fill of collapsed material Habitation surface Habitation surface Fill of dumped andcollapsed material Habitation surfaces Refuse dump

collect building material used for house floors. The empty pit, probably situated on the periphery of an inhabited area, was used afterward for refuse disposal before the extension of habitation in that part of the settlement during occupation horizon II. A sample of 296 sherds was collected from the pit fill: 121 are decorated predominantly with twisted roulette impressions. The 8.5-10 mm sherd thickness class predominates (97 sherds), followed by 6.5-8 mm (86 sherds). A few sherds with rare decoration combining twisted roulette impressions, grooved lines and awl stabbing are illustrated in Figure 150.1-3. A fragment of a net sinker (Fig. 150.4) and a biconical spindle whorl (Fig. 150.5) were also found. Stone artifacts include 6 grindstones, 1 hammerstone and 1 flake (7 syenite, 1 rhyolite). Faunal remains comprise 483 pieces: 231 mammals, 4 birds, 194 fish and 18 pieces of malacofauna. Mammals comprise 141 catlle, 5 sheep/

goat, 13 Gazella sp., 23 Kobus kob, 8 Bovidae sp., 13 Loxodonta africana, 3 jackals (Canis aureus), and 45 undetermined fragments. Ajackal coprolite was found in the pit fill and thus gives additional support to the hypothesis of a garbage area. Fish remains comprise 51 nile perch, 143 catfish and 1 Alestes sp. And finally, malacofauna comprises shell fragments of 13 land snails (Limicolaria sp.) and 3 freshwater mussels (Aspartharia sp.). One vertebra of a lizard (Varanus niloticus ) was also found. A large sample of several pieces of charcoal collected in the pit fill from 3 to 3.4 m dated to 1050±45 B.P. (RT-1678) and calibrated to A.D. 952-1021. This reading conflicts with the coherent series of dates obtained from the Ble Mound D occupation sequence, and is therefore rejected. Occupation horizon II, uncovered at 2 to 2.8 m, comprises three distinct sedimentary units: a series of superimposed beaten

116

The Land of Houlouf

t Floor

~Hearth Figure 151. Ble Mound D: house floor from occupation horizon II.

t

•

"

Pit

t

. \

Floor

-,

- Ash-

Figure 153. Ble Mound D: house floor from occupation horizon IV.

-\

.-

- -\ - -\

-

-\

-.

-

-.-

-.

\ -

-\

Figure 152. Ble Mound D: living surface from occupation horizon III.

Figure 154. Ble Mound D: house floor from occupation horizon V.

house floors made with yellow silt, a thick layer of ash and a deposit of collapsed building material. The recorded series of house floors extends over almost all of the excavation probe. A portion of the base of a fire-hardened pise wall, 3.2 m long, 10 cm thick and preserved to a height of 8 cm was found on the western side of the floors (Fig. 151). An oval-shaped shallow hearth, 0.6 m long and 0.3 m wide, was recorded on the top floor. Finally, a shallow, elongated pit filled with ash, partly exposed, was found next to the pise wall. A small sample of 34 sherds was collected: 17 decorated, 11 with twisted roulette impressions. The 8.5-10 mm thickness class predominates (13 sherds). Two vessel shapes were reconstructed: a flat-base bowl decorated with a band of twisted roulette impressions (Fig. 150.6) and a plain(?)-necked pot with everted rim (Fig. 150.7). One rim sherd, presumably from a globular pot and decorated with series of grooved lines (Fig. 150.8), as well as one clay

pendant and bead (Fig. 150.9-10) were also found. The sample of 380 faunal remains contains 265 fish bones, 48 mammal bones, 3 bird bones, and 37 pieces of malacofauna. The mammal bones comprise 28 undetermined fragments, 17 cattle bones, 3 sheep/goat, 3 Gazella sp., 5 Kobus kob, and 17 Bovidae sp. Fish bones include 44 nile perch, 174 catfish, 13 Alestes sp., and 34 undetermined fragments. Malacofauna consists of 12 shell fragments of Limicolaria sp., 23 Aspartharia sp., and 3 Etheria elliptica (freshwater oyster). Also collected was 1 Varanus niloticus bone. A sample of charcoal collected from the house floor, but not directly from the hearth, dated to 1395±55 B.P. (RT-1677) and calibrated to A.D. 567-657. Occupation horizon III (2-2.2 m) is a thin 0.2 m deposit comprising a house floor overlaid by a shallow fill of collapsed material. The house surface of unknown shape extends over all of the excavation probe and is not associated with any feature.

117

Excavations at Southeastern Sites

I

Storage pit

\

t

Floor

~ Hearth Figure 155. Ble Mound D: house floor from occupation horizon VI .

_ -J

Ash '-

--

-

....

-;; ./"

t Figure 156. Ble Mound D: living surface from occupation horizon VII.

The northern side of the floor was disturbed by a pit and an animal burrow (Fig. 152). A pot leg decorated with bands of twisted roulette impressions was found among the sherds (Fig. 150.11). From the small sample of 32 collected sherds, 15 are decorated, most of them body sherds. Twisted roulette and carved roulette impression are almost equal among the decoration techniques used, and the 8.5-10 mm thickness class predominates (10 sherds). As with occupation horizon II, fish dominate the sample of 238 faunal remains: 5 nile perch, 139 catfish and 11 Alestes sp. The rest were: 7 bird bones, 1 mammal bone of the size range of Kobus kob, 4 land snail shell fragments, 6 freshwater mussel fragments and 65 undetermined malacofauna fragments. A charcoal sample collected at 2.2 m, a few centimeters below the house floor, dated to 1165±50 BP (RT-1676) and calibrated to A.D. 787-943. Occupation horizon IV (1.6-2 m) is also a 0.4 m thick deposit, comprising a 0.2 m thick series of tightly superimposed

Figure 157. Ble Mound D: living surface from occupation horizon VIII.

house floors, overlaid by a fill of collapsed building material also 0.2 m thick. The uncovered house floors are circular, with the exposed portion measuring 4 m in length and 3.2 m in maximum width (Fig. 153). The top floor, exposed at 1.8 m, is the only one with archaeological features. This series of floors is also disturbed along the northern section by the intrusive pit and an animal burrow. Two shallow hearths, both circular, were identified but not totally excavated. The smaller specimen found on the house floor measures 0.5 m in diameter. The larger, situated along the southern section of the probe, measures approximately 0.75 m in diameter. A sample of 56 sherds was collected; 29 (24 body sherds) are decorated, with twisted roulette impression as dominant technique. The 8.5-10 mm thickness is slightly predominant with 19 sherds, followed by the 6.5-8 mm one with 14 sherds. Ten of the 48 recorded faunal remains are undetermined fragments. No mammal bones were recorded. The sample consists of 3 bird bones, 1 nile perch, 27 catfish, 2 Alestes sp., 2 shell fragments of land snail and 3 of freshwater mussel. Occupation horizon V (1.2-1.6 m) consists of a house floor 0.1 m thick, composed of yellow silt and overlaid by a fill 0.3 m thick. The house floor, presumably circular and partly disturbed by the intrusive pit, was exposed at 1.5 m (Fig. 154). The excavated portion measured 3 m in radius, and was not associated with any feature. One clay ball with a bored hole and one grooved sherd were found (Fig. 158.12-13). Of the 65 sherds collected, 24 are decorated, predominantly with twisted roulette impressions. The predominant thickness class is 6.5-8 mm (22 sherds), followed by 8.5-10 mm (19 sherds). Three stone artifacts, all syenite were found; two are grinders and one a fragment of grinding stone. The 97 pieces of faunal remains comprise 3 cattle bones, 2 Gazella sp., 6 nile perch, 78 catfish, 2 shell fragments of freshwater mussel, 1 land snail, 1 freshwater oyster, and 4 undetermined fragments. A sample of charcoal collected at 1.4-1.6 m dated to 1010±50 B.P. (RT-1675), and calibrated to A.D. 963-1045.

118

The Land of Houlouf

1

2

3 6

-0

8

~ I.~

9

Figure 158. Ble Mound D: vessels and miscellaneous fired clay objects from occupation horizons IV to VIII.

Occupation horizon VI (0.6-1.2 m) is composed of two sedimentary units. Sedimentary unit 11 (1-1.2 m) consists of a series of beaten yellow silt house floors 0.2 m thick, overlaid by sedimentary unit 12 (0.6-1 m), a dark brown-grey silty sand fill of collapsed building material 0.4 m thick. The top of the floor series was exposed at 1.1 m. The excavated portion, measuring 3.8 m in length and 3 m in width, extended over almost all of the probe. It is associated with a storage pit, partially exposed along the northern section (Fig. 155). The spherical storage pit measures approximately 0.8 m in diameter at its mouth, 1.5 m in depth and 1.2 m in maximum diameter. The pit fill consisted of a brown sandy silt and its top contained an animal burrow filled with finely bedded brown to light sand. Two rims and one body sherds decorated with twisted roulette impressions and grooved lines were found (Fig. 158.14-16) among a collected sample of 54 sherds. Twisted roulette impression appears to be the predominant decoration technique, found on 26 sherds. Predominant thickness classes are 6.5-8 mm (10 sherds), 8.5-10 mm (16 sherds) and 10.5-12 mm (13 sherds). On syenite grinder

and one syenite hammerstone were found. Faunal remains consist of two nile perch and one catfish. Occupation horizon VII (0.2-0.6 m), 0.4 m thick, comprises a living surface overlaid by an important ash deposit and capped by a brown-grey fill of loose and dusty silty sand (Fig. 156). One vessel shape was reconstructed: a globular pot with an inverted rim decorated with a horizontal band of chevrons of carved roulette and symmetrical pairs of applique buttons below the rim (Fig. 158.17). Of the sample of 85 sherds, 37 are decorated (9 rim, 28 body sherds). Twisted roulette impression predominates (24 sherds), followed by carved roulette impression (7 sherds). With the exception of the 4-6 mm class with only 2 sherds, the sherd thickness is relatively even from the 6.5-8 mm to the 12.5-14 mm classes, with frequencies varying from 18 to 14 sherds. Six stone artifacts,S syenite and 1 rhyolite (5 hammerstones, 1 grinder), were found. Faunal remains consists of 125 pieces: 8 bird bones, 7 cattle, 2 Gazella sp., 5 Bovidae sp., 7 undetermined mammal bones, 14 nile perch, 56 catfish, 7 shell fragments of land snail (Limicoloria sp.), 4 fresh-

Excavations at Southeastern Sites

[ ] Ash

~ Loose silty sand ~ Compact silty clay

Figure 159. Ble Mound D: plan and sections of the tested surface fishsmoking features.

water mussel, and 1 bone of Varanus niloticus. The large deposits of ash suggest the surface of occupation horizon VII later became a refuse dumping area. Occupation horizon VIII (0-0.2 m) is the top deposit. It is 0.2 m thick and was partly reworked by later trampling. It comprises a living surface with an elliptical hearth 0.8 m long and 0.4 m wide, and a portion of a rubefied feature, 0.5 m long, 5 cm thick, preserved to a height of 5 cm (Fig. 157). The recorded surface was overlaid by a shallow layer of ash capped by a reworked fill of loose and dusty brown-grey silty sand. Three vessel shapes were reconstructed: the upper part of a long neck pot or large jug decorated with one horizontal grooved line and comb stabbing (Fig. 158.1); the upper part of a necked globular pot with everted rim decorated with carved roulette impressions (Fig. 158.2); and finally, a complete rounded-base plain bowl with everted rim (Fig. 158.3). Also collected were a complete plain pot lid (Fig. 158.4); a miniature flat-bottom dug-out (Fig. 158.5); a clay whistle (Fig. 158.6); a fragment of a legged plain head rest (Fig. 158.7); a fragment of a three-coil clay arm ring (Fig. 158.8); and finally, a rim sherd decorated with a narrow

119

line of twisted roulette impressions and crescent-shaped grooved lines. A relatively large sample of 270 sherds was collected, 145 decorated predominantly with twisted roulette impressions. The predominant thickness class is 8.5-10 mm (73 sherds). However, with the exception of the 4-6 mm class with a single sherd, the frequencies in other classes is relatively even, varying from 42 to 49 sherds. Five stone artifacts, 2 fragments of grindstones, 2 grinders and 1 hammers tone (4 syenite, 1 rhyolite) were found. The sample of 21 faunal remains comprises 5 undetermined fragments, 6 bird bones, 3 Gazella sp., 1 Kobus kob, 3 nile perch, 2 catfish, and 1 shell fragment of Limicolaria sp. A sample of charcoal, collected from the hearth at 0.2 m, dated to 740±50 B.P. (RT-1674), and calibrated to A.D. 12321285. Surface archaeological evidence was obtained by three methods: systematic and selective sampling and a test excavation of a cluster of five fish-smoking features. Systematic sampling was implemented in a circle 6 m in diameter. The average density of finds was 92.87 per square meter. The collected material consists of2,610 pot sherds (65 kg), 9 stone artifacts (0.15 kg) and 4 pieces of iron slag (0.4 kg). The sherds comprise 191 rim sherds (38 decorated), 2,127 body sherds (1,203 decorated), 24 base sherds (13 decorated) and 268 miscellaneous sherds/clay fragments. One complete flat-base plain open bowl (Fig. 158.10) was collected through selective sampling and 169 fish-smoking features recorded. There were 805 stone artifacts (100 kg), as well as 10 pieces of iron slag (0.8 kg). Five fish-smoking features clustered on a surface of24 square meters (6 by 4 m) in the northeastern part of the mound were excavated (Fig. 159). The diameter of the tested features varies from 1 m for the largest (feature 1) to 0.8 m (features 3 and 4), and their depths from 0.45 to 0.25 m. Their profiles revealed four shapes: (1) a rounded-bottom shape represented by feature 5, filled with a bottom layer of ash overlaid by a grey sandy silt deposit, and capped by a harder crust of brown silt; (2) a flatbottom and straight-sided shape respresented by feature 4, filled with a layer of ash overlaid by a sandy silt deposit; (3) an asymmetrical flat-bottom shape with straight sides represented by feature 2, with a fill similar to feature 5; and (4) a flat-bottom shape with everted sides represented by features 1 and 3, with fills similar to both cases described above. A few sherds and 7 stone artifacts were collected from features 2, 4 and 5. Of 80 pieces of faunal remains, 61 are fish bones (7 nile perch, 54 catfish). Feature 4 deserves a special mention; the ashy bottom layer contained a secondary burial of a child's skull without jawbone. The skull was from a five- to seven-year-old, based on tooth eruption. Three carnelian beads, three syenite hammers tones, and one clay figurine representing a bull were found in the same sedimentary context. The burial remains are not burnt, suggesting that they were deposited after the abandonment of the feature, but how long after cannot be specified. However, the association between a production feature and an infant burial (also found at Mishiskwa) seems to be something other than casual. This issue will be discussed later.

120

The Land of Houlouf

Summary The occupation sequence from Ble Mound D, with its coherently superpimposed sets of house floors and fills of collapsed material, clearly results from a long-term settlement by sedentary mixed farming communities. The earliest inhabitants built their houses with yellow sandy silt material collected from pits, one of which was excavated in occupation horizon 1. This settlement episode probably occurred during the first half of the first millennium A.D., and was probably contemporaneous with Ble Mound A and B, occupation horizons I and/or II. The thickness of occupation horizon deposits varies from a maximum of 0.411 m to 0.2, for an average of 0.4 m (Table 20). Fragmentation indexes of sherd populations collected from living floors and surfaces are characterized by a relatively narrow range of variation, from 5 to 8.92, a pattern that may have resulted from frequent cleaning of house floors. In contrast, fragmentation indexes of sherds from fills present more erratic variation, ranging from 3.57 to 19.04 (Table 20). The mound seems to have been inhabited up to the end of the thirteenth century A.D. The fish-smoking features tested in the northeastern part of the mound, found as deep as 0.45 m, unfortunately cannot be dated directly. They can be considered contemporaneous with occupation horizon VIII, dated to ca. A.D. 1200-1300, or more probably later when the area became a rich fishing ground visited seasonally. In general, even if clear evidence was not found in all the exposed house floors, the dwellings seem to have consisted of circular houses with finely made and well-maintained floors, with pise walls in two cases. The tiny size of the excavation probe, less than the surface of a small 4 m diameter circular hut, precludes any attempt to analyze on-site patterning of habitation units.

Excavations at Ble Mound E Introduction Ble Mound E, the fifth of the Ble Mound Complex, is situated 50 m north of Ble Mound C and D and 200 m east of Ble Mound A. The elliptical mound is oriented northwest-southeast. It measures 185 m in length, 50 m in width, and 4 m in height above the surrounding floodplain (Fig. 160). The site extends over 0.92 ha, for a theoretical volume of 27,750 cubic meters. A test excavation measuring 12 square meters (3 by 4 m), 0.13% of the visible site surface, was carried out from the central and highest part of the mound. The exposed stratigraphic section, 3 m thick, consists of an intricate and complex succession oflarge pits and fills from which five occupation horizons were identified. Occupation horizon VI is elusive and was recorded from a few intrusive pits; its associated fill and presumed occupation surface appear to have been eroded. In the recorded stratigraphic sequence, occupation horizons are coeval with sedimentary units, and as such will be described simultaneously (Figs. 161-163, Table 21).

The Stratigraphic Sequence, Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence Sedimentary unit 1 (2.8-3 m), uncovered at the bottom of the mound sequence, from 2.8 downward, consists of a yellow (5 Y 817) sandy silt. The deposit, excavated 0.5 m further down, is devoid of any archaeological material and is probably lacustrine to fluviolacustrine in origin (Figs. 161-163). Sedimentary unit 2 (1.7-2.8 m) is a relatively hard and compact brown (10 YR 5/3) silty clay, 1.1 m in maximum thickness. The deposit probably accumulated through fluviolacustrine agencies in a lagoonal or marshy deltaic ecological setting. Several small fire-hardened surfaces were recorded throughout the deposit. Two habitation surfaces, 1.7 and 1.9 m, with hearths but heavily disturbed by intrusive pits and burials, were found in this sedimentary unit. Occupation horizon I (1.9-2.5 m) consists of relatively thick layers of grey ash (0.3 m thick) accumulated above a living surface, found in the western part of the excavation probe (Fig. 164). The eastern part has been destroyed by large pits. The hearth from living surface I, found at 1.9 m, was not exposed totally. It is an elliptical shallow feature, 0.8 m long, 0.75 m wide and 0.2 deep. A minor portion of a burial, of which only feet were excavated, but containing a pot and probably belonging on stratigraphic ground to occupation horizon I, was found at 2.6 m (Fig. 165). A series of complete vessels and a few large sherds allowed the reconstruction of eight shapes: (1) a plain hemispheric bowl (Fig. 166.1); (2) a flat-base plain open bowl (Fig. 166.2); (3) a flat-base V-shaped bowl decorated with two parallel and horizontal bands of twisted roulette impressions (Fig. 166.3); (4) a miniature plain-footed bow I (Fig. 166.4); (5) the lower part of a flat-base plain pot or large bowl (Fig. 166.5); (6) a small hemispheric plain pot with everted rim (Fig. 166.6); (7) the upper part of a presumably globular pot with everted rim, decorated with twisted roulette impressions (Fig. 166.7); and (8) from the burial, a flat-base pot with everted rim decorated with twisted roulette impressions on the body (Fig. 166.8). A clay net sinker with a bored hole was also collected (Fig. 166.9). A sample of 32 sherds was collected, 18 decorated (16 body sherds). Twisted roulette impression slightly predominates among the recorded decoration techniques, followed by comb impression. On average, pottery tends toward thin-walled vessels, as attested by the high frequency of 6.5-8 and 8.5-10 rnm thick sherds. The recorded stone artifacts consist of two syenite grindstone fragments. Mammal bones are slightly predominant among faunal remains (35 pieces), followed by fish and malacofauna. Mammal bones include 6 cattle, 3 sheep/goat, 7 Kobus kob, 1 tibia of a young elephant (Loxodonta africana ), 5 Bovidae sp. and 13 undetermined fragments. Fish remains include 4 nile perch and 12 catfish. The rest of the remains consist of 3 shell fragments of land snail (Limicolaria sp.), 5 freshwater mussels (Aspartharia sp.), 1 freshwater tortoise (Pelusio sp.), 4 undetermined bird bones, and 25 undetermined fragments. A sample of charcoal collected from the exposed surface and

121

Excavations at Southeastern Sites

TABLE 21 Ble Mound E: The Stratigraphic Sequence Sedimentary Unit

Depth (m)

Thickness (cm)

Characteristics

Origins

6

0-0.4

40

5

0.4-1

60

Reworked fill above an occupation surface Fill of collapsed material

4 3 2

1-1.2 1.2-1.9 1.7-2.8

20 65 110

Loose and dusty brown-grey silty sand with thin lenses of ash Loose and dusty brown-grey silty sand with ashy layers Hard and compact yellow silt Compact light grey silty sand with white ash lenses Compact brown silty clay

2.8-3

>20

Compact yellow sandy silt

Occupation surface Truncated pit fill Fill of collapsed material above a habitation surface Fluviolacustrine deposit

TABLE 22 Ble Mound E: Summary of the Sequence of Occupation SU

OH

V IV

Depth (m)

Number of sherds

Weight (kg)

0-0.4 650 0.4-1.2 839 III 1.2-1.9 1,232 1.7-1.8 II I 1.9-2.8 32 >2.8 SU = Sedimentary Unit; OH = Occupation Horizon

6 5 4 3 2

50.2 49.4 53.8

Density (m 3)

Fragmentation index

135.41 174.79 146.66

-

8.88

slightly below (1.8-2 m) dated to 992±40 B.P. (RT-1681), and calibrated to A.D. 986-1045. Archaeological evidence from occupation horizon I appears to have been abandoned above a silty clay deposit accumulated through fluviolacustrine agencies. The area thus seems to have been used by villagers from the other mounds of the complex when accessible, probably during dry seasons prior to the silting of one of the ancient Logone channels. From this perspective, it is remarkable that Ble Mound C, 50 m south, was settled within the same time range. The archaeological evidence from Ble Mound E occupation horizon I provides further support for the theory that the Ble Mound Complex had expanded dramatically by the ninth or tenth century A.D. Occupation horizon II comprises a living surface with a complete horseshoe-shaped hearth made with large clay blocks laid on an extensive rubefied surface 1.5 m long and 0.75 m wide (Fig. 167). The hearth is almost circular, measuring 0.6 m in diameter. Most of the living surface was destroyed by heavy pit digging, and the cultural deposit mixed with later materials from pit fills. Two adult primary burials were found at 1.9 m, their stratigraphic positions suggesting they belong to occupation horizon II. The first burial, oriented south-north, was not exposed totally. Only part of the legs were in the section. The burial did not include grave goods; the skeleton was found on its left side in a slightly flexed position, face turned west and one arm on

7.72 5.88 7.17

-

3.12

Component

Pits fills Disturbed fill and habitation surface Cross-cut pits fills Disturbed habitation surface Fill above habitation surface Virgin soil

the chest. The second, oriented southwest-northeast was buried in a similar position, with face turned northwest. One carnelian bead was found in the burial. A few archaeological artifacts found in proximity to the uncovered hearth can be assigned unambiguously to occupation horizon II. They consist of: (1) a flat-base V-shaped bowl decorated with parallel horizontal grooved lines at its bottom (Fig. 168.1); (2) the upper part of a long-necked pot with everted rim, decorated with a band of cross-hatched grooved lines on the shoulder (Fig. 168.2); (3) a rim sherd decorated with a horizontal band of twisted roulette impressions (Fig. 168.3), and (4) a fragment of a clay clapper (Fig. 168.4). Occupation horizon III, uncovered at 1.2 to 1.9 m, 0.9 m in maximum thickness, is a complex of two crosscut large pits (Figs. 162, 163). Theirfills consist of a moderately hard to compact brown-grey (10 YR 5/2) sandy silt, interspersed with numerous ash layers and thick portions of yellow sandy silt in localized surfaces. The quantity of fish bones found in the deposit that was not sieved is remarkable. As shown in the northeastern section of the excavation probe (Fig. 163), there is a tight superimposition of fish-smoking features. It thus appears that occupation horizon III formed as a result of intensive fishsmoking activities performed on this mound. Ble Mound E can therefore be considered to have been a special purpose site. One adult primary burial was found at 1.5 m and assigned to occupation horizon III. The deceased was buried in an extended

122

The Land of Houlouf

........ .

-;....r. .... .' i'/Jiflp I/J)

•••

•=n~'~'~'~~~~~~~~~'~~~'~'~.~·.-·.~:~~:~1I~1I11l1l1~1/1!1I1111111111

o,

25m ,

I

,

50cm

,

El Brown silty clay

"

Fire-hardened layers

Figure 160. Bie Mound E: site contour map.

,50cm clay

IiII Ash layers

B

I:tj

~ How silt e

9I::::::]

~ Burial fill

~rown-grey silty sand ,

W Yellow silt

rLm features

Fire-hardened layers

Figure 161. Ble Mound E: the southeastern section.

I7ihI Yellow silt I!lLd features

~Burial fill

EI Yellow silt

O.: Loose brown sand

Figure 162. Bie Mound E: the southwestern section.

,

~ Brown silty

~ Brown-grey ~ silty sand

jOcm

,

~ Brown silty

El

clay

BBrown-grey .. silty s.and

Yellow sill

,

Fire·hardened layers

III Ash layers ~ Yellow silt features CJ Loose brown sand

Figure 163. Bie Mound E: the northeastern section.

123

Excavations at Southeastern Sites

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Figure 164. Bl€ Mound E: living surface from occupation horizon I with two occupation horizon II burials.

Figure 165.

Ble Mound E: occupation horizon I burial.

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Ble Mound E: vessels and a net sinker from occupation horizon I.

124

The Land of Houlouf

Large pit

Hearth

Figure 167. Bl6 Mound E: living surface from occupation horizon II.

position, supine and oriented west-east (Fig. 169). The body was laid on top of a layer of livestock dung, the head resting on a finely polished clay head rest (Fig. 170.6). The burial further included: one fired clay block (a hearthstone) and one flat-base pot with everted rim decorated with comb stamping, dragged comb wavy lines and twisted roulette impressions (Fig. 170.5) containing a complete shell of freshwater mussel (a spoon). A chain with 30 iron beads was found on the pelvis tinted with red ochre. The red ochre was probably on a garment worn by the deceased, presumably a leather skirt. Potsherds were in general highly fragmented. Ten vessel shapes have nevertheless been reconstructed: (1) a small plain open bowl with numerous bored holes (Fig. 170.1); (2) a straightsided plain bowl (Fig. 170.2); (3) a shallow hemispheric holemouth bowl with four pairs of applique buttons (Fig. 170.3); (4) the lower part of a flat-base pot or large bowl decorated with twisted impressions (Fig. 170.4); (5) a plain dimple-base juglet with everted rim (Fig. 170.5); (6) a plain-necked pot with everted rim (Fig. 170.6); (7) a necked pot with carinated shoulder and a straight rim, decorated with horizontal and parallel oblique, elongated, grooved depressions on the shoulder (Fig. 170.7); (8) the upper part of a long-necked pot with everted rim decorated with bands of comb stamped depressions, grooved lines and oblique, elongated depressions on the shoulder and neck (Fig. 170.8); (9) a plain egg-shaped jug (Fig. 170.9); and (10) the upper part of a plain pot with inverted rim, decorated with a series of applique buttons (Fig. 170.10). A well-preserved piece of what can be considered an oil lamp (Fig. 170.11), a horn-shaped clay whistle, a rim sherd with four buttons and the tip of a miniature necked juglet were also recorded. A sample of 1,232 sherds was collected, 592 of them, predominantly body sherds, decorated. Twisted roulette impressions (378 sherds) predominates as the decoration technique, followed by carved roulette impression (82 sherds). Sherd thick-

ness is bimodal with a peak at 8.5-10 mm (341 sherds), and >14.5 mm (322 sherds). Three syenite artifacts (2 grindstone fragments, 1 flake) were collected. Faunal remains consist of 341 pieces: 24 mammal, 7 bird, 288 fish, 16 malacofauna, 6 reptile. The mammal bones include: 8 undetermined fragments, 7 cattle, 4 sheep/goat, 1 Kobus kob, 1 Gazella sp., and 3 Bovidae sp. Fish remains comprise: 12 nile perch, 182 catfish and 9 Alestes sp. Malacofauna consists of 6 fragments of land snail, 9 freshwater mussels and 1 freshwater oyster. There is an almost complete carapace of a small freshwater tortoise among the 6 reptile remains. This find suggests the use of fykes and fishing nets. Occupation horizon IV, uncovered from 004 to 1.2 m and disturbed by later pits, comprises a portion of a floor made with yellow sandy silt, and a quadrangular feature situated in the western corner of the excavation probe (Fig. 171). The 0.8 m deposit of sedimentary material is primarily a loose and dusty brown-grey (10 YR 5/2) silty sand with thin layers of white to grey ash, laid on harder surfaces made with yellow (2 Y 7/6) sandy silt. The floor, 0.2 m thick, was probably a circular house. The exposed portion measures 3.2 m by 3 m. A hearth made of three large, fired clay blocks in a horseshoe arrangement was found on the house floor. The quadrangular feature uncovered next to the house floor was not excavated totally. The exposed portion is 1.5 m by 1.2 m, and consists of a series of superimposed surfaces made of yellow sandy silt. It is not known if this feature was the corner of a quadrangular house or a peculiar feature of unknown function. An adult primary burial oriented southwest-northeast, but unfortunately inserted into the southeastern section, was found immediately below the house floor. Five vessel shapes were reconstructed: (1) a complete carinated and rounded-base plain pot with everted rim (Fig. 172.1); (2) a rounded base and necked pot with everted rim, decorated with comb stamping and dragging (Fig. 172.2); (3) the upper part of a slightly necked pot with everted rim and rounded lip, decorated with carved roulette chevrons on the body (Fig. 172.3); (4) the upper part of a presumably elongated pot with everted rim, decorated with twisted roulette impressions on the body (Fig. 17204); and (5) the body of a globular pot decorated with comb stamping, comb dragging and twisted roulette impressions at the bottom (Fig. 172.5). Of the 357 sherds collected, 149 are decorated, predominantly with twisted roulette impressions. As with occupation horizon III, sherd thickness is bimodal, but here the highest frequency is in the >14.5 mm class (106 sherds), followed by the 8.5-10 mm class (90 sherds). Six syenite artifacts were collected: 3 grindstone fragments, 2 grinders and 1 hammers tone. The 529 pieces of faunal remains include 69 mammal bones, 7 birds, 378 fish, 46 malacofauna, and 29 reptiles. The mammal bones comprise 34 cattle, 4 sheep/goat, 2 Kobus kob, 13 Bovidae sp. and 16 undetermined fragments. Fish remains consist of 8 nile perch, 310 catfish and 3 Alestes sp., Malacofauna comprise 33 shells fragments ofland snails, and 13 freshwater mussels. Reptiles include 29 shell fragments of freshwater tortoise. The remaining 57 pieces are undetermined fragments. A sample of

125

Excavations at Southeastern Sites

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Figure 168. Ele Mound E: vessels from occupation horizon II and occupation horizon III burial.

5

charcoal collected from 0.6 to 0.8 m dated to 1355±45 B.P. (RT1680), and calibrated to A.D. 628-698. This date is much earlier than the date from occupation horizon I. By that time, the locality was already inhabited, and it is highly probable that earlier pieces of charcoal may have been included in the sedimentary material collected from pits dug in earlier archaeological levels and used for the construction of dwelling facilities and craft installations. Occupation horizon V consists of the top sedimentary unit down to a depth of 0.4 m. The deposit consists of a loose and dusty brown-grey (10 YR 512) silty sand. There are extensive pits all over the excavated probe (Fig. 173) and their relationship with the above-mentioned fill is far from certain because of the combined effects of erosion and trampling. They can nevertheless be considered contemporaneous. Almost all the archaeological evidence presented here was collected from pit fills. None of the uncovered pits was totally excavated. The exposed portion of the largest is 3 m long, 2 m wide, and 0.8 m in maximum depth. Its fill consists of superimposed layers of light brown-grey sand and ash, full of fish bones. The second pit, found in the eastern corner of the excavation probe, measures 1.8 m in diameter and 1.2 m in maximum depth. Its fill also consists of a well-stratified deposit oflight brown-grey sand and ashy layers with large fire-hardened clay blocks, suggest-

Figure 169. Ele Mound E: occupation horizon III burial.

ing it was probably a large fish-smoking feature (Fig. 173). All of the miniature pots collected from occupation horizon V were found in this pit fill. Less than half of the third pit was exposed. The feature seemed to have been eroded and the remaining portion consisted of a shallow depression, 0.5 m deep and 1 m in maximum diameter.

The Land of Houlouf

126

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Figure 171 (left). Ble Mound E: living surface from occupation horizon IV.

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Figure 172 (right). Ble Mound E: vessels from occupation horizon IV.

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128

The Land of Houlouf

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Figure 173. Ble Mound E: living surface from occupation horizon V with large pits.

Figure 174. Ble Mound E: occupation horizon V burials.

The skull and the legs of two burials, recorded at 0.8 to 1 m, were exposed (Fig. 174), and assigned to occupation horizon V. The position of the legs suggests the deceased was buried in a slightly flexed position, oriented southwest-northeast. Fourteen vessel shapes, including miniature bowls and juglets, were recorded. The miniature bowls include is a footed bowl (Fig. 175.1) and a rounded-base bowl with everted rim (Fig. 175.2). Juglets include a neckedjuglet with everted rim (Fig. 175.3); a flat-base jug with straight rim, decorated with comb dragged impressions on the body (Fig. 187.4); two egg-shaped bottles with slightly everted rims, decorated with horizontal grooved lines (Fig. 175.5-6); and a globular juglet with straight rim (Fig. 175.7). Larger vessels include: three long-necked pots with everted rim, two of them decorated with twisted roulette im-

pressions (Fig. 175.8-10); the upper part of a necked pot with everted rim (Fig. 175.11); a presumably globular pot decorated with a band of grooved lines filled with twisted roulette impressions combined with triangular panels of grooved lines (Fig. 175.12); a flat-bottom hole-mouth pot decorated with oblique lines oftwisted roulette impressions (Fig. 175.13); and a small flat-base basin decorated with oblique lines of twisted roulette impressions (Fig. 175.14). Miscellaneous clay pieces include one pot leg decorated with horizontal grooved lines (Fig. 175.15), a human torso (Fig. 175.16), a sherd with applique buttons and comb-stamped depressions (Fig. 175.17), a sherd with a combination of twisted roulette impressions and grooved lines (Fig. 175.17), a hom-shaped clay whistle (Fig. 175.19), and one clay bead (Fig. 175.20). A sample of 650 sherds was collected, 269 decorated (235 body sherds). Twisted roulette impressions, found on 161 sherds, largely predominates as a decoration technique, followed by carved roulette impressions (58 sherds). Thickness class >14.5 mm predominates, and there is a slight shift toward thicker sherds with 105 sherds in the 12.5-14 mm class and 160 in the 8.5-10 mm. One grindstone fragment and 3 hammerstones were recorded. The raw materials are highly diversified: rhyolite, granite, microdiorite and syenite. There were 103 pieces of fish bone, 16 mammal bones, 14 malacofauna, and 3 reptiles. Mammal bones include 14 tiny undetermined pieces, with only 1 sheep/goat and 1 Kobus kob identified. Fish include 3 nile perch, 170 catfish and 6 Alestes sp. bones. Malacofauna consists of 13 shell fragments of land snail and 1 freshwater mussel. There were 3 shell fragments of freshwater tortoise, and 38 undetermined faunal fragments. A sample of charcoal pieces collected in the largest pit fill at a depth varying from 0.2 to 0.6 m dated to 850±50 B.P. (RT-1679), and calibrated to A.D. 1184-1267. Surface material was recorded by systematic and selective sampling. Systematic sampling was implemented within a circle 6 m in diameter and located in the southeastern part of the mound. The collected sample of cultural remains amounts to 3,752 (46.6 kg) with an average density of 122.63 per square meter. There are 3,647 sherds and fired clay pieces (45.2 kg), 13 stone artifacts, highly fragmented (0.2 kg), and 92 pieces of iron slag (1.2 kg). The sample of sherds and fired clay items consists of, 1,356 decorated sherds (24 rims, 1,325 bodies, 7 bases), 1,828 undecorated sherds (209 rims, 1,605 bodies, 14 bases), and 283 miscellaneous pieces. Selective sampling yielded 81 fish-smoking features, 521 stone artifiacts and fragments (56 kg), and 298 pieces of iron slag (19.5 kg). Additional finds included the upper part of a canteen with a two-hole mouth (Fig. 176.1), a complete flat-base pot with everted rim, decorated with twisted roulette impressions on the body and a line of chevrons on the shoulder (Fig. 176.2), a clay bell decorated with discrete series of comb-stamped motifs (Fig. 176.3), and a series of clay beads (Fig. 176.4-7). Figure 175 (opposite). Bie Mound E: vessels. and miscellaneous fired clay objects from occupation horizon V.

129

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Summary

Based on the available radiocarbon dates, the occupation sequence from Ble Mound E mound ranges from the tenth to the thirteenth century A.D., strictly parallel to Ble Mound C. The early stage of settlement was, however, characterized by relatively loose settlement evidence, largely disturbed by later extensive pit-digging. Intensive fish-smoking is attested all along the settlement occupation sequence but fish-smoking features were not directly recorded in occupation horizons I, II and IV. In these occupation horizons, structural features seem to be linked to ordinary habitation, even though most of the record was heavily disturbed. Fish-smoking activities are, however, suggested by numerous ash layers and large quantities of fish bones. There seems to have been a lateral shift of activity areas with fish-smoking features situated beyond the excavation probe. In occupation horizons III and V, the pattern is reversed, with fish-smoking features heavily represented in the excavation probe, and dwelling evidence virtually absent. Sherd material is in general highly fragmented. Those from presumed living surfaces with house floors and hearths are more fragmented, with fragmentation indexes varying from 3.12 in occupation horizon I to 5.88 in occupation horizon IV (Table 22). Larger sherds and most of the complete vessels were found in pit fill, where fragmentation indexes vary from 7.17 to 7.72. Analysis of the complex and intricate stratigraphic section of

Ble Mound E suggests a special purpose mound site, devoted to fish processing and smoking activities.

Excavations at Krenak-Sao Introduction

Krenak-Sao is small elliptical mound situated in a bend on the right bank of the Abani, 2 km east of the Ble Mound Complex, at 11 59' Nand 15 01' E. The site measures 90 m southwest-northeast, 65 m northwest-southeast, and 5 m in height above the surrounding floodplain (Fig. 177). The settlement extends over 0.58 ha, for a theoretical volume of 23,400 cubic meters. Two distinct but complementary excavations were conducted here. A geomorphological excavation was implemented with a transect of five trenches from the middle of the Abani fossil channel to the mound to collect information on the sedimentological history of that part of the study area; this aspect will be considered later in details. Simultaneously, two test excavations situated 35 m from each other and integrated along the transect of geomorphological trenches were carried out on the mound. The first, trench 6 situated at the center and top of the mound, measures 12 square meters (4 by 3 m), and the second, trench 7, located 35 m southeast was a smaller probe, measuring 2 by 2 m. The tested portion thus amounts to 16 square meters, 0.27%

131

Excavations at Southeastern Sites

TABLE 23 Krenak-Sao: The Stratigraphic Sequence for Trench 6 Sedimentary Unit 6 5

Depth (m) 0-0.6 0.6-1.2

4

1.2-1.8

3 2

1.8-2.25 2.25-2.45 2.45-3.3

Thickness (cm) 60 60

60 20 >85

Characteristics

Origins

Loose and dusty brown-grey silty sand Brown-grey to light brown-grey soft to compact clayey sand Moderately compact light grey silty clay Yellow red fine sand Brown-grey sandy clay Very hard grey to light grey clay with ferruginous concretions

Reworked fill above habitation surface Fills of collapsed material above habitation surfaces Fill of collapsed material above habitation surface Fluviatile deposit of remobilized eolian sand Fluviolacustrine deposit Fluviolacustrine to lacustrine deposit

TABLE 24 Krenak-Sao: The Stratigraphic Sequence for Trench 7 Sedimentary Unit

Depth (m)

Thickness (cm)

Characteristics

Origins

5

0-0.6

60

Loose and dusty brown-grey silty sand

4

0.6-1.4

80

Soft brown clayey sand

3

1.4-2.2

80

2 1

2.2-2.6 2.6-3

40 >40

Hard grey clay with ferruginous concretions Compact yellow red fine sand Fine indurated pale yellow to white sand

Partly reworked fills of collapsed material above habitation surfaces Fills of collapsed material above occupation surfaces Fluviolacustrine to lacustine deposit Eolian deposit Lacustrine deposit

TABLE 25 Krenak-Sao: Summary of the Occupation Sequence SU

5 4

3 SU

OH (m)

Depth

0-0.4 0.4-0.6 0.6-0.8 III 0.8-1 II 1-1.2 1.2-1.6 1.6-1.8 Sedimentary Unit; OH IV

Number of sherds

Weight (kg)

129 10.1 5.7 53 70 5.5 19 219 108 7.2 270 13.4 31 2.2 Occupation Horizon

Density (ml)

Fragmentation index

Component

26.87 22.08 29.16 91.25 45 56.25 12.91

7.82 10.75 7.57 8.67 6.66 4.96 7.09

Partially reworked fill of collapsed material Habitation surface Habitation surface Fill of collapsed material Habitation surface Fill of collapsed material Habitation surface

of the settlement surface. Stratigraphic sequences 3.3 m thick (trench 6) and 3 m thick (trench 7) comprising four occupation horizons that accumulated above lacustrine to fluviolacustrine deposits were recorded (Figs. 178, 179, Tables 23, 24). The Stratigraphic Sequence The stratigraphic sequences recorded in both trenches present important and interesting differences which deserve to be considered in detail. Each section will thus be described prior to any attempt at stratigraphic correlations. Six sedimentary units have been recorded from the 3.3 m trench 6 stratigraphic section (Fig. 178, Table 23).

1) Sedimentary unit 1, found at the bottom of the deposit and exposed from 2.45 to 3.3 m, is certainly more than 1 m thick. It consists of a light grey (2.5 Y 7/2) shifting to darker grey (10 YR 6/1) clay with white toot concretions. 2) Sedimentary unit 2, exposed from 2.25 to 2.45 m, is 0.2 m thick. Its sedimentary material is a brown-grey (10 YR 512) sandy clay with numerous small ferruginous dots. 3) Sedimentary unit 3 (1.8-2.25 m), 0.45 m thick, is composed of a yellow-red (5 YR 6/8) sand with numerous root concretions and small ferruginous dots. 4) Sedimentary unit 4 is a 0.6 m thick deposit, exposed from 1.2 to 1.8 m and composed of a moderately compact light grey (2.5 Y 7/2) silty clay.

The Land of Houlouf

132

stratigraphic section from trench 7 comprises five sedimentary units (Fig. 179, Table 24). 1) Sedimentary unit 1, exposed from 2.6 to 3 m, is thicker than the excavated 0.4 m. It is a pale-yellow (5 Y 7/4) to white fine sand, highly indurated and shifting to sandstone toward its bottom. 2) Sedimentary unit 2, 0.4 m thick, was exposed from 2.2 to 2.6 m. The sedimentary material consists of a yellow-red (7.5 YR 7/8) fine sand, slightly indurated at its bottom. 3) Sedimentary unit 3 is 0.6 m thick. Recorded from 1.4 to 2.2 m, it consists of a grey (10 YR 6/1) compact clay deposit, accumulated by fluviolacustrine to lacustrine agencies. 4) Sedimentary unit 4 (0.6-1.4 m) is a 0.8 m thick deposit of brown (10 YR 5/4) loose clayey sand, resulting from an accuFigure 177. Krenak-Sao: site contour map. mulation of collapsed and decayed building material and settlement refuse. 5) Sedimentary unit 5 (0-0.6 m), at the top of the stratigraphic sequence, is composed of loose and dusty brown-grey (10 YR s 5/2) silty sand. Situated on the mound slope, this top deposit is . . probably a palimpsest resulting from erosion and redeposition of sediment and archaeological material. ~.~.--=-~---I In both trenches, the recorded stratigraphic sections com.......... ~ . . . .. . . prise two distinct series of deposits. The first accumulated through lacustrine to fluviolacustrine agencies; it is composed of sedimentary units 1 to 3, found at 1.8-3.3 m in trench 6, and 1.4 -3 m in trench 7. The second was human-made and consists of superimposed deposits of house floors and living surfaces overlaid by fills of collapsed building material. It consists of sedimentary units 4 to 6, 1.8 m thick in trench 6, and units 4 to ... . . . . 5, 1.4 m thick in trench 7. If considered in relation to mound elevation and slope, sedimentary unit 1, recorded in trench 7 and consisting of an indurated deposit of fine sand, appears to have been part of an extensive, presumably mid-Holocene lakeshore with a south-north gentle slope, as will be demonstrated later. This sedimentary unit is probably the remains of an erased ancient dunal system oriented northwest-southeast. ~ 50 em With the onset of a drier climatic phase, yellow-red fine sand from sedimentary unit 2 (trench 7), probably of eolian origins, ~ Dark grey clay E3 Light grey silty clay accumulated above the lakeshore deposit. A change in climate generated the formation of lakelets or lagoons, as shown by the § Brown-grey sandy clay Light brown-grey silty sand accumulation of a clay deposit, 0.8 to 0.95 m thick, in sedimenD Yellow-red sand .... Fire-hardened layers tary units 3 (trench 7), 1 and 2 (trench 6). An important part of the sedimentary material from trench 7, sedimentary unit 2, eroded and was transported downslope to be redeposited in trench 6, sedimentary unit 3. Human settlement thus started with Figure 178. Krenak-Sao: trench 6 stratigraphic section. dwelling facilities built above yellow-red sand in trench 6 and grey compact clay in trench 7, some 35 m south. Silty clay, clayey sand, and silty sand appear to have been used as build5) Sedimentary unit 5, 0.6 m thick and exposed from 0.6 to ing materials throughout the occupation of Krenak-Sao. 1.2 m, is a loose to compact deposit of a brown (7.5 YR 5/4) to Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence light brown-grey clayey sand. 6) Sedimentary unit 6, the top deposit exposed from the surface Four occupation horizons were recorded from both trenches, down to 0.6 m, is a loose light brown-grey silty sand material. Situated 35 m southeast of trench 6 and 1.5 m lower, the but no archaeological feature has been found in trench 7. The col-

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133

Excavations at Southeastern Sites

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-----~ Brown-grey silty sand

E3 Brown clayey sand ~ Yellow-red slightly indurated fine sand ~ Pale-yellow to white fine sand, highly indurated

[G Ash layers ..... Fire-hardened layers

o

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Figure 179. Krenak-Sao: trench 7 stratigraphic section.

lected archaeological material will nonetheless be presented in detail. Occupation horizon I deposits were found from 1.2 to 1.8 m in trench 6, and from 1 to 1.4 m in trench 7. A living surface with a massive horseshoe-shaped feature was exposed at 1.7 m in trench 6, as well as an adult primary burial uncovered at 2.2 m. The uncovered horseshoe-shaped feature is oriented southwest-northeast, and measures 1.8 m by 1 m (Fig. 180). Its bottom is flat with a thin ash deposit. Its walls were not preserved. On morphological ground, this feature is similar to some presentday fish-smoking features recorded on Yaere sites at Amachita and Sororo. It is therefore likely that the recorded feature was a fish-smoking installation. One clay net sinker (Fig. 181.1) was found in the deposit. The burial was found 0.5 m below the living surface. The skeleton was found in a flexed position, oriented west-east, on its left side, left arm extended and the right one flexed with the hand before the face.

Four vessel shapes were reconstructed: a hole-mouth pot in two large pieces, 35 cm in diameter at the mouth, decorated with a line of twisted roulette impressions (Fig. 181.2); a hemispheric large bowl, 15 cm in mouth diameter, decorated with a horizontal band of twisted roulette impressions below the rim (Fig. 181.3); a poorly preserved flat-base plain pot, 6.5 cm in base diameter (Fig. 181.4); and the upper part of a presumably globular large pot with restricted mouth, decorated with horizontal lines of awl-stabbing and twisted roulette impressions (Fig. 181.5). A relatively large fragment of a syenite grindstone, 9.8 cm long, 5.6 cm wide, 3 cm thick, weighing 0.25 kg (Fig. 181.6) was found. Of the 187 sherds collected from both trenches, including 54 miscellaneous clay items, 77 are decorated, with twisted roulette impression the largely predominant technique. Sherds thicker than 10 mm are the most numerous, with a maximum of 36 recorded in the 12.5-14 mm class. Faunal remains include 35

134

The Land of Houlouf

t Fish-smoking feature

Figure 180. Krenak-Sao: living surface from occupation horizon I with an occupation horizon II burial.

... ----...,;.."f----_

(.--~-'; , ~ ~/ ......... _-_ .. -----,

1

2

v

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5

Figure 181. Krenak-Sao: vessels and miscellaneous fired clay objects from occupation horizon I (scale in cm).

Excavations at Southeastern Sites

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Pot Rubefied Figure 182. Krenak-Sao: living surface from occupation horizon II with occupation horizon III burials.

pieces, 11 of them undetermined fragments. The remaining pieces are: 4 cattle, 7 sheep/goat, 1 Kobus kob, 1 Bovidae sp., 2 nile perch, 1 shell fragment of land snail, and 8 freshwater mussels. No datable material was found in the deposits, but occupation horizon I may date to the middle of the first millennium A.D. Occupation horizon II deposits found at 0.8 to 1.2 m in trench 6, and 0.6 to 1 m in trench 7, are both 0.4 m thick and consist of a loose to moderately compact brown-grey clayey sand. A firehardened living surface with a small horseshoe-shaped hearth, 0.6 m by 0.4 m, was found at 1 m in trench 7. In trench 6, a l~ving surface with a higher density of archaeological features was exposed at 1.2 m. The recorded features consist of: two horseshoe-shaped hearths, one large pot found on a rubefied semicircular surface, and two probably intrusive burials. One of the uncovered hearths, found along the western section of the excavation probe, was partially exposed (Fig. 182), and the other, oriented southwest-northeast, measures 0.75 m by 0.5 m. The rubefied semicircular surface found along the southern section measures 1 m in length and 0.3 m in maximum width. A large pot with missing rim, probably used for storage, was laid on the surface. It is decorated with extensive twisted roulette impressions and measures 32 cm in diameter at the mouth, 35 cm in height, and 35 cm in maximum diameter (Fig. 183.1). An additonal vessel shape, the upper part of a large jug with an applique cordon at the neck base, was found (Fig. 183.2), as well as a rim sherd of a large pot decorated with a combination of awl-stabbing, grooved lines and twisted roulette impressions

135

(Fig. 183.3). One burnt stone of Ziziphus sp., a piece of iron, a tang fragment of a dagger or a spear (Fig. 183.4), and a syenite grinder were also collected, A sample of 187 sherds was collected in both trenches, 67 decorated, predominantly with twisted roulette impression. Higher frequencies of sherds were recorded in the 8.5-10 mm (31) and 10.5-12 mm (24 sherds) classes. Faunal remains consist of 110 pieces, 69 of them undetermined fragments. The rest include: 1 sheep/goat, 25 Gazella sp., 12 Kobus kob, 3 Bovidae sp., 8 birds, 5 catfish, 1 shell fragment of land snail, and 20 of freshwater mussels. A sample of charcoal collected from the fill immediately above the living surface, at 1 to 1.2 m, dated to 1120±45 B.P. (RT-1684) and calibrated to A.D. 887-975 . Occupation horizon III deposits were found at 0.6-0.8 m in trench 6 and 0.2-0.6 m in trench 7, the thickness varying from 0.2 to 0.4 m. A living surface with several archaeological features was exposed at 0.8 m in trench 6 (Fig. 184). The recorded features consist of: a fire-hardened circular house floor, two hearths, a secondary burial, and two adult primary burials found 0.4 m below, on the occupation horizon II surface. The exposed portion of the circular house floor found along the southern and western sections of the probe measures 2.7 m in length and 1.9 m in width. Minor portions of two connected hearths were found on the house floor along the southern section, exposed as archshaped features 1 m long and 0.25 m wide. A secondary burial composed of an adult skull without jawbone was uncovered near the house floor, 10 cm below the surface. Two superimposed adult primary burials exposed on the occupation horizon II surface were assigned stratigraphically to occupation horizon III (Fig. 184). The earlier burial, partly destroyed by the later one, was oriented northwest-southeast. The original position of the deceased cannot be reconstructed. Most of the bones were disturbed. Preserved was part of the skull, one humerus, one radio-ulna and two femurs, as well as a pot containing a sheep/goat bone. The second burial, devoid of grave goods, was oriented west-east. The skeleton was found in a flexed position, on its right side, with hands before face, which is turned south. Three vessel shapes were recorded: a flat-base pot with constricted neck and everted rim collected from the burial, 14.5 cm in mouth diameter, 7 cm in base diameter, 15.5 cm in maximum diameter, and 13 cm in height, decorated with extensive twisted roulette impressions (Fig. 185.1); a large presumably globular pot with restricted mouth 16 cm in diameter, found on the house floor between the hearths, and decorated with different combinations of grooved lines (Fig. 185.2); and the lower part of a footed large bowl, 11 cm in diameter, and decorated with two horizontal lines of stabbed triangular depressions combined with extensive chevrons made with carved roulette impressions (Fig. 185.3). An iron hoe-blade was found on the house floor; the blade was poorly preserved and broken into fifteen highly corroded fragments, while preservation was slightly better for the U-shaped socket, 6 mm thick, 8 cm long and 3-5 cm in diameter(Fig.185.4).

136

The Land of Houlouf

Figure 183. Krenak-Sao: pottery and an iron tang from occupation horizon II.

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Floor

Figure 184. Krenak-Sao: house floor and a secondary burial from occupation horizon III.

A sample of 166 sherds was collected, 91 decorated, 60 with twisted roulette impressions. Thickness distribution is unimodal, with 52 sherds in the 8.5-10 mm class. Faunal remains consist of 21 pieces: 2 birds, 1 cattle, 2 sheep/goat, 6 catfish, 3 shell fragments of land snails, 1 freshwater mussel, and 6 undetermined fragments. A large charcoal sample collected from one of the hearths dates to 1160 ± 45 B.P. (RT-1683), and calibrates to A.D. 791-898, a reading slightly earlier than that from occupation horizon II, falling within an acceptable time range. Occupation horizon IV, the top deposit composed of a loose brown-grey silty sand, is 0.6 m thick (0-0.6 m) in trench 6 and 0.2 m (0-0.2 m) in trench 7. The deposit from trench 7 clearly appears to have experienced severe erosion. A living surface was exposed at 0.5 m in trench 6. It comprises an ash heap found in the northeastern corner of the probe, a fire-hardened circular house floor, a hearth, and a storage bin (Fig. 186). The exposed house floor measures 2.5 m by 2 m, delimited by the remain of a pise wall 10 cm thick, preserved up to a height of 5 cm. The uncovered hearth, found along the eastern section, was not exposed totally. The excavated portion is an elongated feature, 1.5 m long and 0.25 m wide. A storage bin was found next to the western side of the house floor, 1 m deep, 0.5 m in diameter at the mouth, and 0.75 m in maximum diameter, lined with a finely smoothed 5 cm thick clay wall (Fig. 187.1). A complete large pot, 23 cm in mouth diameter, 32 cm in maximum diameter, 32 cm in height, with a 10 mm thick wall, was found at the bottom of the storage bin. It has a conical base with a constricted neck and slightly everted rim, decorated with extensive twisted roulette impressions from the bottom to a few

137

Excavations at Southeastern Sites

2

Figure 185. Krenak-Sao: vessels and iron hoe-blade from occupation horizon III (scale in cm).

·U

J>-.

'.:

•

~

,\1

t

..............

Figure 186: Krenak-Sao: house floor from occupation horizon IV.

centimeters below rim (Fig. 187.2). There was another complete hemispheric pot with everted rim, 19 cm in mouth diameter, 22.5 cm in maximum diameter, 18 cm in height, and with a 10 mm thick wall, decorated with a horizontal line of awlstabbed depressions, a horizontal pair of grooved zigzag lines, and extensive twisted roulette impressions (Fig. 187.3). In addition, a large lower fragment of a clay grinder, 16 cm long, 12 cm wide and 4 cm thick (Fig. 187.4), a triangular iron axe-blade, measuring 7 cm in length, 4.S cm in maximum width and O.S cm thick (Fig. 187.S), and a syenite grinder (Fig. 199.6), were collected.

Of the sample of 244 sherds and fired clay items, 105 are decorated, 66 with twisted roulette and 27 with carved roulette impression. Two thickness classes predominate: 8.S-1O mm (76 sherds) and 1O.S-12 mm (S6 sherds). Of the 93 pieces of faunal remains, 32 are undetermined fragments. The rest include: 3 Kobus kob, 1 Gazella sp., 12 Bovidae sp., 22 catfish, 1 Alestes sp., 4 shell fragments of land snails, and 13 freshwater mussels. A charcoal sample collected from the house floor dated to 1200±50 B.P. (RT-1682), and calibrated to A.D. 727-891, consistent with the radiocarbon dates series obtained from KrenakSao occupation sequence. There were 2,319 archaeological remains (40.33 kg) collected from systematic sampling, implemented in a circle measuring 6 m in diameter. The average density of finds was 82.03 per square meter. The sampled material comprises 2,30S sherds and fired clay items (40 kg), S stone artifacts (0.3 kg), 8 pieces of iron slag (0.03 kg), and one piece of copper slag. The pottery material is composed of 1,114 decorated sherds (S7 rims, 1,049 bodies, 8 bases), 761 undecorated sherds (116 rims, 628 bodies, 17 bases), and 430 miscellaneous fired clay pieces. Selective sampling yielded a plain hemispheric bowl with straight rim, 10.5 cm in mouth diameter, 7 cm in height and 1.5 cm thick wall, 236 stone artifacts (1S.5 kg), and 36 pieces of iron slag (2 kg). Summary

Krenak-Sao appears to have been settled by small mixed farming communities for approximately half a millennium, ca. A.D. SOO to 1000. Occupation horizon I was not dated directly. The proposed chronology appears largely acceptable, however; the accumulated occupation horizon deposits, on average 0.4 m thick (Table 17), are consistent with a permanent sedentary occupation, and the series of radiocarbon dates suggest a range of

138

The Land of Houlouf

2

Figure 187. Krenak-Sao: archaeological finds from occupation horizon IV (scale in cm).

/

100 to 150 years per occupation horizon. This proposal is further, but certainly loosely, supported by evidence from the nearby Ble Mound Complex, which started to be settled during the first half of the first millennium A.D. Sherd fragmentation is generally high. Fragmentation indexes vary from 6.66 to 10.75 in house floors and living surface deposits recorded in trench 6 (Table 25), and from 6.78 to 14.06 in trench 7. The fragmentation indexes of sherd material collected from fills of collapsed

settlement features present a more erratic pattern, with figures varying from 4.96 to 7.82 in trench 6 (Table 25), and 4.18 to 14.28 in trench 7. It is particularly interesting to note that the ninth and tenth century A.D., the period of abandonment of Krenak-Sao, coincides with the remarkable settlement expansion at Ble Mound Complex. A daring hypothesis, but practically unprovable, is to consider that Krenak-Sao inhabitants had decided to join the nearby larger settlement of Ble Mound Complex.

Chapter 7

Excavations at Houlouf

Introduction Surrounded by an earthen rampart, Houlouf is the largest settlement of the study area. It is the ancient political center of the Houlouf chiefdom conquered and superseded by LogoneBirni during the second half of the second millennium A.D. Situated by 1202' Nand 1455' E, Houlouf is an "island-like" site, surrounded by two arms of the Malingwa, a present-day intermittent stream, feeding the Abani River (Fig. 188). The site is subcircular in shape, measuring 450 m in diameter in its maximum north-south axis, 400 m east-west, and 10 m in maximum height above the surrounding floodplain. The mound surface extends over 15.9 ha, and has an theoretical accumulated volume of 1,767,145 cubic meters. In general however, the mound measures 5 m in average height. Higher elevation has been recorded in the northeastern part of the site, on the spot of the ancient Sultan's palace. This spot is forbidden by taboo, no excavation being allowed on such a culturally significant area. Fieldwork has thus consisted of mapping and surface sampling, without any collection of archaeological material. Today, the predominant architectural style consists of rectangular mud-brick houses with flat roofs, organized into walled compounds (Fig. 189). The site contour map presents a series of five localized smaller mounds more than 5 m in height, aligned according to the northeast-southwest axis (Fig. 190). As suggested by the remains of the ancient Sultan's palace situated in the northeast, the recorded series of smaller mounds are probably heaps of former important residential units which appear to have been situated on the edge of an open plaza located in the northern part of the mound. The surrounding earthen rampart collapsed at the end of the nineteenth century and is totally eroded today. As suggested by two trial trenches tested across the ramparts in the southeast, as well as in the southwest, it may have measured three to four meters in thickness at its base. Six large basins, from which sedi-

ment used to build the earthen rampart was obtained, were found around the site (Fig. 188). According to ethnohistorical information collected in the field in 1982, at its climax, the city was divided into six quarters with one gate each. Three ofthe quarters were named after ancient rulers. These are, following the chronological order of foundation: (1) Msedougo, founded by the first ruler of the city Mayna Kirdi; (2) Saw, meaning "the ancient"; (3) Matouake, the second ruler; (4) Meke, literally "headquarter," comprising the Sultan's palace or village headman residence; (5) Badi in the east, "may the city be granted a long existence," also called valblum vae ("next year"). It is worth noting that in the Kotoko traditional calendar system, vae represents a period of twenty-four months (Lebeuf 1976: 87). And finally, (6) Koudougo, named after the last non-Moslem ruler. It is significant that all the city quarters are named after non-Moslem rulers. The selection process leading to the formation of the ethnohistorical record seems to have de-emphasized the imprint of Islam. Ironically, however, the name of the first ruler of the city, Mayna Kirdi includes the derogative term kirdi ("pagans") used by Moslems to refer to non-Moslem societies. The ethnohistorical account thus appears to be based on a cultural ambiguity. The settlement spatial layout was, and is still, centered on the ruler's residence, each quarter being partitioned into two parts, the upper part in the "upper city," gae ("which is like an upright man), and the lower one in the "lower city," naten ("which is like a sitting man"). It is remarkable that this ideological construct, a metaphor of actual social hierarchy, was literally transferred into the mortuary program, as will be shown later. Aspects of social ranking are clear in this patterning of the city layout. The upper city surrounds the Sultan's palace, and comprises residences of high ranked families, while the lower city abuts the earthen wall and was inhabited by the commoners. The excavated area is situated in the ancient upper city and the archaeological evidence recorded from the later

139

The Land of Houlouf

140

East

en

Malingwa channels

"

Eatmen rampart

~ Large earthen rampart construction pit

0:51

Compounds

= Archaeological and geomorphical trenches Fl1ZI Excavation unit

Figure 188. Block diagramatic presentation of Houlouf.

occupation horizons provides some support to the ethnohistorical data, as will be demonstrated later. A series of air photos taken in 1939 by Marcel Griaule show that the inhabited area was confined to the northwestern part of the mound, habitation features surrounded by a ring of gardens. In the 1980s, the inhabited area shifted to the southeast, expanding toward the southwest in 1990 and 1991. In 1982 the population of Houlouf was 433, most of them speakers of the Houlouf dialect of the Lagwan language, but with an important proportion of refugees from the neighboring Chad Republic, of diverse linguistic and ethnic backgrounds. During the first half of the 1980s, the population fluctuated, depending on the intensity of Chad Republic civil wars. After an agreement with the village council of elders, an excavation unit 12 m from north to south (1 to 6) and 8 m east to west (A to DIE) was implemented almost in the center of the site, on one of the smaller mounds (Fig. 190). The excavation grid was made up of 2 by 2 m squares, and was extended when needed, thus varying from 96 to 110 square meters. A stratigraphic section, 4.5 m thick and comprising six sedimentary units with eight occupation horizons was recorded. The Houlouf excavation was the largest probe tested among all the fourteen mounds in the study area. In addition to normal chronological clarification of the site occupation sequence, the field strategy implemented at Houloufwas designed to address a broad range of research issues, such as mound formation processes and spatial organization of domestic space, as well as the actual disposal patterns of material culture items.

The Stratigraphic Sequence The stratigraphic section recorded at Houlouf was exposed down to a depth of 4.5 m. It comprises an archaeological deposit 3.8 m thick accumulated above archaeologically virgin deposits of sand, silt and clay. The stratigraphic sequence consists of six sedimentary units, described from the bottom to the top (Fig. 191, Table 26) 1) Sedimentary unit 1, at 4.15 m to 4.5 m in three distinct smaller trenches distributed along the north-south axis of the excavated unit. The deposit consists of pale yellow (2.5 Y 7/4) well sorted sand with ferruginous concretions, with a gentle north-south slope (Fig. 191). The sedimentary material is probably lacustrine in origin and may consist of erased and remobilized ancient sand dunes. 2) Sedimentary unit 2, at 4-4.15 m, is a 0.15 m thick deposit, fluviolacustrine to lacustrine in origin. It seems to have been deposited during a wet climatic phase, characterized by higher lake/lagoon levels. The sedimentary material consists of compact brown (7.5 YR 5/2) clayey and sandy silt. 3) Sedimentary unit 3, at 3.8-4 m, is hard and compact light brown (7.5 YR 6/4) clay, 0.2 m thick. It is a lacustrine to fluviolacustrine deposit. The bottom deposits from the Houlouf stratigraphic sequence are evidence of the onset of a wetter climatic episode fitting the model of rising lake/lagoon levels prior to human settlement on what was probably an island. 4) Sedimentary unit 4, at 3.4-3.8 m, is a 0.4 m thick deposit of soft brown-grey (10 YR 5/2) clayey and sandy silt, with ar-

141

Excavations at Houlouf

Figure 189. Houlouf street with mud-brick flat-roofed houses.

chaeological remains from occupation horizon 1. It comprises sedimentary material from diverse origins, interdigitated as suggested by particle-size analysis (Table 27). Habitation features were built on a layer of lacustrine to fluviolacustrine clay exposed at 3.8 m, a deposit overlaid by clayey and sandy silt (3.7 m and 3.5 m) and silt with medium sand on top (3.6 m and 3.4 m), resulting from the collapse and decay of building materials. 5) Sedimentary unit 5, at 3-3.4 m, is 0.4 m thick. It corresponds to accumulated remains from occupation horizon II. The deposit consists of soft brown-grey (10 YR 5/2) sandy silt. It is exclusively human-made, and particle-size analysis does not show any significant difference between sedimentary material from the living surface and the fill of collapsed building remains (Figs. 192-198, Table 27). 6) Sedimentary unit 6, at 0-3 m, consists of a series of superimposed living surfaces intertwined with fills of collapsed material from occupation horizons III to VIII. The recorded sedimentary material consists of compact brown-grey (10 YR 5/2) to light brown-grey clayey and sandy silt. Living surfaces are singled out by fire-hardened house floors, numerous archaeological features and in situ evidence of material culture. The pattern suggested by particle-size analysis and already reported for previous occupation horizons is reproduced in sedimentary unit 6. In occupation horizon III (2.4-3 m), samples collected at 2.8 and 2.5 m (Table 27, Fig. 195) consist of silt with medium sand. Those from occupation horizon IV (1.8-2.4 m), collected at 2 m and 1.8 m (Table 27, Fig. 196),

o'-'- - - ' - - - - - - ' '90m .

.... "

Earthen rampart

Figure 190. Houlouf: site contour map.

'-

~

TABLE 26 Houlouf: The Stratigraphic Sequence

N

Sedimentary Unit 6

Depth (m) 0-3

Thickness (cm) 300

5

3-3.4

40

4

3.4-3.8

40

3

3.8-4 4-4.15

20 15

4.15-4.5

>35

2

Characteristics

Origins

Compact brown-grey to light brown-grey clayey silt Soft brown-grey sandy silt

Superimposed fills of collapsed material and habitation surfaces Fill of collapsed material above a habitation surface Fill of collapsed material above a habitation surface Fluviolacustrine to lacustrine deposit Fluviolacustrine to lacustrine deposit

Soft brown-grey clayey and sandy silt Hard and compact light brown clay Compact brown clayey and sandy silt Pale yellow well sorted sand with ferruginous concretions

Lacustrine deposit

TABLE 27 Particle-Size Analysis of the Houlouf Archaeological Section