280 97 19MB
English Pages 196 Year 1992
dg)
Ballantine/37b«5/$10.00
An
in
USA
extraordinary glimpse into the
work
of therapy
and the process of achieving ones ultimate potential
THE
INTEGRITY OF THE
PERSONALITY -»
'The eminent
British psychiatrist
essayist of] penetrating insight
Anthony and
Storr...
[is
an
first-rate writing."
The New York Times Book Review
ANTHONY STORR AUTHOR OF SOLITUDE
THE INTEGRITY OF
THE PERSONALITY
Also by Anthony Storr
SEXUAL DEVIATION
HUMAN AGGRESSION THE DYNAMICS OF CREATION JUNG
THE ART OF PSYCHOTHERAPY
THE ESSENTIAL JUNG (selected
and
SOLITUDE:
edited by
Anthony
Storr)
A RETURN TO THE
SELF
CHURCHILL'S BLACK DOG, KAFKA'S MICE AND OTHER PHENOMENA OF THE HUMAN MIND
HUMAN
DESTRUCTIVENESS
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
ANTHONY STORR
BALLANTINE BOOKS
NEW YORK
To
C.S.
Sale of this book without a front cover
unauthorized.
If this
book
is
coverless,
been reported to the publisher
as
it
may be may have
"unsold or
destroyed" and neither the author nor the publisher
may have
received payment for
it.
Foreword © 1992 by Anthony Storr Copyright © 1960 by Anthony Storr Copyright renewed 1988 by Anthony Storr
All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright
Conventions. Published in the United States by Ballantine Books,
Random House,
a division of
Inc.,
New
Originally published in Great Britain by William
Books Ltd. Library of Congress Catalog
York.
Heinemann Medical
in 1960.
Card Number: 91-92254
ISBN: 0-345-37585-8 Text design by Holly Johnson
Cover
art:
Land of
the
Midnight Sun by Diana
Manufactured
in the
First Ballantine
10
Ong
(Superstock, Inc.)
United States of America
Books Edition: January 1992
987654321
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My
thanks are due to the following authors and publishers for
permission to use various quotations:
Mr. E. M. Forster and Edward Arnold Ltd for passages from Howards End and Two Cheers for Democracy. Dr. A. W. Heim and Methuen Co. for an extract from The Appraisal of Intelligence.
&
Dr.
W. Ronald
for several passages
and
D. Fairbairn and Tavistock Publications Ltd from Psycho-Analytic Studies of the Personality,
same author
to the
British Journal of
for extracts
from papers published in the
Medical Psychology.
Mr. Leonard Woolf for a quotation from Virginia Woolf's "The Patron and the Crocus" in The Common Reader.
essay
Messrs. Chatto and Windus for a sentence from Proper Studies, by Aldous Huxley; and for two extracts from Remembrance of
Things Past, by Marcel Proust, translated by C. K. Scott Moncrieff.
The Hogarth and
New
Press for extracts from Outline of Psycho-Analysis
Introductory Lectures on Psycho- Analysis, by
Sigmund
Freud.
The Hutchinson Group Conception of Nature, by Cassell
W.
for a passage
from The
Physicist's
Heisenberg.
& Co. for excerpts from Clinical Psychiatry, by Mayer-
Gross, Slater, and Roth.
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
vi
The Syndics of the Cambridge University Press for extracts from The Nature of the Physical World, by A. S. Eddington, and from Science and the Modern World, by A. N. Whitehead. J.
M. Dent and Sons
for a passage
from Joseph Conrad's
Nostromo.
Routledge and Kegan Paul for quotations from The Fear of Freedom, by Erich Fromm; from The Interpretation of Nature and the Psyche, by C. G. Jung and W. Pauli; and from the following works by C. G. Jung: Psychological Types, Two Essays on Analytical
Psychology, Modern Man in Search of a Soul, The Undiscovered Self, and The Development of Personality Penguin Books Ltd. for extracts from W. Hamilton's translation of Plato's Symposium; and for a passage from Child Care and the Growth of Love, by John Bowlby. Macmillan Co. for a passage by T. H. Huxley quoted by Aldous Huxley in T. H. Huxley as a Literary Man-, and for a sentence from Reality, by B. H. Streeter. George Allen and Unwin Ltd. for two quotations from Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, by Sigmund Freud; for extracts from The Way and Its Power, by Arthur Waley; and for a sentence from History of Western Philosophy, by Bertrand Russell. Gerald Duckworth Co. for a passage from Psycho-Andy sis and Politics, by R. E. Money-Kyrle. G. Bell
I.
was suggested that a
man can
neither
develop nor realize his personality in isolation; and that maturity of the individual personality and maturity in relationships with other people go
maturity? is
Can we
hand
in hand.
describe or reach agreement
a mature relationship? This
is
But what
is
upon what
by no means an easy ques-
tion to answer, since the concept of a mature relationship
depends upon subjective assumptions which are deeply rooted.
interesting to note that, in the index to
It is
Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis, Fenichel's masterly
com-
pendium, the word maturity does not occur; and while easy to discover is
more
The
have
is
immature,
it
what idea they have of maturity.
Abraham used
'genital primacy"; and, for
to
writers think
it is
psycho-analytic concept of maturity derived from
the work of 4
what various
difficult to find
The
to be comprised by the phrase
some psychoanalysts, the
satisfying genital relationships
ability
with the opposite
sex constitutes the acid test of maturity in interpersonal relationships. satisfied
It is
with this
her Trends
true that certain psycholanalysts are distest.
Marjorie Brierley, 2 for instance, in
in Psycho-Analysis says:
31
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
32
But experience
that
testifies
.
.
.
genital potency
with incapacity for personal appreciation of the sexual partner,
by no means uncommon;
is
it
is,
per-
among men, where
its
development may have been aided by the long
tra-
haps,
more
frequent
'
dition of 'feminine inferiority."
The term
"personal appreciation"
my
is
not defined or en-
larged upon;
and
for
"personal appreciation" which
it is
this
this
is,
to
mind, a regrettable omission;
the final expression of maturity in a
human
I
believe to be
relationships. In
famous passage Jung 3 describes what he conceives to be
the ideal relationship between doctor and patient in the therapeutic situation.
If
the doctor wants to offer guidance to another,
or even to
accompany him
must be in touch with life.
He
is
or keeps
them
To
difference.
when he
his
to himself,
passes judge-
judgement into words,
makes not the
slightest
take the opposite position, and to
no
use,
condemnation.
We
agree with the patient offhand,
but estranges
he
this other person's psychic
never in touch
ment. Whether he puts
a step of the way,
him
as
much
as
is
also of
can get in touch with another person only by an attitude of unprejudiced objectivity. This like a scientific precept,
a purely intellectual
may sound
and may be confused with
and detached attitude of mind.
mean to convey is something quite difhuman quality— a kind of deep respect for facts and events and for the person who suffers from them — a respect for the secret of such a human But what
I
ferent. It
is
life.
a
THE MATURE RELATIONSHIP
may be
It
33
objected that this statement refers to a special
situation, that
between doctor and patient; but,
constantly emphasizes, the doctor
is
volved in the therapeutic situation
as a person;
not think that
as
Jung
himself always in-
and
do
I
misrepresents Jung's views to quote this
it
passage as an example of his picture of what a lationship should be. In this extract,
it
human
re-
be noted that
will
the ideal of "unprejudiced objectivity" occupies a middle position between two opposites
which
are
expressed as
"passing judgement"
on the one hand, and "agreeing
hand" on the
To be
therefore,
in
is
To
pass judge-
which each
ship in
right,
In the
own attitude is less The ideal is a relation-
to imply that one's
valid than that of the other person.
of
from oneself, and,
to respect this difference.
to imply that the other person should alter himself;
is
to agree offhand
own
respects the other as a person in his
without trying to alter the other. last
made of the concept the name that Fairbairn 4
chapter mention was
"Mature Dependence" which
is
Here
gives to his final stage of emotional development.
what he
says about
What fantile
it:
distinguishes mature
dependence
is
that
it is
dependence from
in-
characterized neither
by a one-sided attitude of incorporation nor by an attitude of primary emotional identification.
contrary,
it is
characterized by a capacity
On
on the
the part
of a differentiated individual for cooperative relationships with differentiated objects. priate biological object is,
off-
touch with another person,
to recognize his difference
same time,
at the
ment
is
other.
is
of course, genital; but
So
far as
the appro-
concerned, the relationship it is
a relationship involving
evenly matched giving and taking between two
dif-
is
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
34
who
ferentiated individuals
and between
whom
there
are mutually dependent,
no
is
dence. Further, the relationship
disparity of depen-
is
characterized by an
absence of primary identification and an absence of incorporation.
At
least, this
is
the ideal picture; but
of course, never completely realized in practice,
it is,
since there
is
no one whose
libidinal
development
proceeds wholly without a hitch.
This but
much more
a
is
elaborate statement than Jung's—
believe the underlying idea to be the same.
I
teresting that
neither
X
both writers
start
It is in-
with negatives: the ideal
nor Y, but something which
is
the two, or which transcends both. Scylla
either
is,
between
for Jung, pass-
ing judgement; for Fairbairn, one-sided incorporation. rybdis
is,
for Fairbairn, primary
is
Cha-
emotional identification;
for
Jung, offhand agreement.
The
attitudes described by Fairbairn as incorporation
identification are connected with,
more
familiar concepts of
and
and may underlie, the
dominance and submission, or
sadism and masochism. To incorporate another person is to swallow him up, to overwhelm him, and to destroy him;
and thus to son.
To
treat
him
ultimately as less than a whole per-
identify with another person
submerge one's own identity
overwhelmed, and hence to than a whole person. is
to place oneself in
offhandedly
is
To
is
to lose oneself, to
in that of the other, to be
treat oneself ultimately as less
pass judgement, in Jung's sense,
an attitude of
to place oneself in
superiority; to agree
an attitude of
inferiority.
Scylla and Charybdis are graphic representations of psychological truths:
ways— either by
the personality can cease to exist in two destroying the other, or by being absorbed
by the other— and maturity in interpersonal relationships
THE MATURE RELATIONSHIP
35
demands that neither oneself nor the other
shall disappear,
but that each shall contribute to the affirmation and realization of the other's personality.
Although both
attitudes
equally
are
destructive
of
mature relationships, we tend, in our pseudo-Christian democracy, to condemn the one more than the other. The greedy seeker for power who, like Tamburlaine, makes use of others as footstools from excites a general
may
which
to ascend his throne,
condemnation: and, however much he
man
secretly be admired, the ruthless
invite criticism than to
But the others
is
commended, although
often
own
abrogate one's
wishes and to
others even at one's
how
been reared
'
likely to
himself with
equally impossi-
compliant, to
in with the desires of
It is difficult
admirable,
for those
how
who have
odour of sanctity to perceive that an
undue submissiveness ness,
fit
it is
To be
own expense— how
'Christian!"
in the
more
command respect. person who identifies
less assertive
ble to have a relationship with him.
unselfish,
is
is
as culpable as
an undue
assertive-
and that maturity demands a relationship on equal
terms. In his concept of maturity Fairbairn includes the genital relationship, which, as
the touchstone of maturity for
I
have already remarked,
many
is
psycho-analysts. But,
for Fairbairn, 5 maturity in interpersonal relationship, while it
includes the possibility of genital relationship between
the sexes, implies more than
At
the same time,
it
this:
must be
stressed that
it is
not in virtue of the fact that the genital level has
been reached that object-relationships tory.
On
the contrary,
satisfactory
it is
are satisfac-
in virtue of the fact that
object-relationships have
lished that true genital sexuality
is
been estab-
attained.
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
36
And
in a footnote to this extension of conventional
psycho-analytic concepts he adds:
It
my
should be explained that
it is
not any part of
intention to depreciate the significance of the
"genital" stage in comparison with the oral stage.
My
intention
is
rather to point out that the real
significance of the "genital" stage lies in a maturity
of object-relationships, and that a genital attitude
is
but an element in that maturity.
Throughout
his writings, Fairbairn
concerned with
is
persons as whole persons, not simply as vehicles for instinct.
He
reiterates that a child's basic
need
is
to be loved
"as a person." Writing of the origin of schizoid and depressive states
case
is
he
says:
6
"The traumatic
one in which the child
loved as a person, and that his
But
anyone
it
far
is
love
is
as a person:
and
I
know from experience
is
not really
not accepted."
from easy to describe what
tions given above, although
it
is
to love
think that both Jung and Fair-
it is
it
difficult in
the quota-
abundantly clear that both
the relationship that they are trying
and that they are convinced of
Fairbairn postulates an initial stage in is
he
feels that
own
bairn are showing that they find
to delineate,
situation in either
its
value.
which the
infant
both completely dependent upon, and completely iden-
tified
with,
its
object, the mother. Progress towards maturity
in relationship consists of a gradual differentiation of subject
and
a process
object. 7
"Normal development
is
characterized by
whereby progressive differentiation of the object
accompanied by a progressive decrease in identification." In other words, the more an individual becomes a separate is
THE MATURE RELATIONSHIP individual in his
own
right, the
more
others as separate individuals in their
Writers vary in
how
is
37
he able to regard
own
right.
they describe the psychological
journey towards maturity. Some, like Jung, are chiefly con-
cerned with dynamic changes within the individual; others, like Fairbairn, depict his
individuals.
But
if
changing relationships with other
one searches the pages of Jung one
finds
that he describes maturity also in terms of interpersonal
and Fairbairn can be found
relationships:
of changing intrapsychic dynamics.
It is
to paint a picture clear that the de-
velopment of the individual and the development of relationships proceed pari passu;
his
and that the one cannot
take place without the other. In the analytic process, which, I
believe,
is
a
microcosm
reflecting the
macrocosm of the
patient's relationships in the world outside the consulting
room, the changing relationship to the analyst and the changing dynamics of the patient can be observed to occur as part of the
One therefore,
same
process.
aspect of maturity in relationship seems to be,
the avoidance of either dominating or being
dominated by the other person. But, since
means
equal,
it
may be argued
never occur: since
it is
that such relationship could
which one would not be supe-
the other in at least one facet of his
achievement. Erich Fromm,
8
in
endowment
The Fear of Freedom,
swers this argument as follows:
The uniqueness
of the self in
dicts the principle of equality.
are
of
The
born equal implies that they
fundamental
human
no
are by
impossible to conceive of a relation-
ship between two people in rior to
men
all
no way
contra-
thesis that
men
share the same
qualities, that they share the basic fate
beings, that they
all
have the same
in-
or
an-r
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
38
alienable claim
on freedom and happiness.
thermore means that their relationship solidarity,
are alike.
Such
mean
is
a concept of equality
activities today. In the relation
man who
who
buys and the one
sells,
What
that
all
derived
is
from the role that the individual plays in
nomic
one of
is
not one of domination-submission.
the concept of equality does not
men
It fur-
his eco-
between the the concrete
differences of personality are eliminated. In this
sit-
uation only one thing matters, that the one has
something to it.
and the other has money to buy
sell
In economic
one man
life
not different from
is
another; as real persons they are, and the cultivation of their uniqueness
It is
is
unfortunate that
thesis that
men
are
the essence of individuality.
Fromm
they are not, and, although quality in terms
he
says,
it
is
should use the phrase "the
born equal."
It is
Fromm
which indicate that he does not mean what
a pity that
he chooses these words.
not born equal; but they share the
however disparate
their genetic
their inequality, they
they are this fact.
human
still
beings,
Moreover, the
fined to the highly gifted:
individuals of
abundantly clear that goes on to define this
humble
human
Men
endowment, however
have in
and they
are
condition and,
common
great
the fact that
are linked emotionally by
possibility of
maturation
is
not con-
and most of us have probably known
social position
and limited intelligence
who have nevertheless impressed us as personalities in their own right with their own individual style of life. Disparity of endowment by no means precludes, although it may make more difficult, the kind of relationship which
I
should
call
mature; just as disparity of social back-
ground may be a hindrance but
is
not a bar to a happy
THE MATURE RELATIONSHIP marriage.
The
psychotherapist
in
is
an especially favourable
position to appreciate this, since he
enough
know
to get to
39
usually fortunate
is
intimately people of vastly different
backgrounds and endowments, both superior and inferior to his
own, and thus may have a wider
men
tances than do
fail
Much
in other professions.
intercourse with people
often
circle of close acquain-
is
to treat the people with
as individuals in their
of our daily
regulated by convention; and
own
right.
whom we
we
have dealings
The shopkeeper
is
the
shopkeeper, the doctor a doctor— not a person, but simply
an impersonal function or at the time.
We
skill
which we happen
do not know these people
and indeed might be surprised
if
we knew
need
to
as individuals,
the person
who
Even apparently intimate relaand many sexual encounters are examples of meetings in which the man is a man and the woman a woman, and neither knows more or wishes to know more about the other than that. But the lay
behind the
social role.
tionships can be of this impersonal kind;
psychotherapist
is
daily confronted with problems of rela-
tionship in which he and the patient face each other as people, and in which the social role
Any
of
psychotherapist with experience will
he has got to know a patient ments of recognition that
is
some new
by each other. veils of
in
no importance.
know
really well, there
that,
when
occur mo-
which both he and the patient
feel
some area of truth, has been seen In such moments the barriers are down, the insight,
concealment melt, and two people face each other
just as they are,
without fear and without pretence. There
no longer any question of superiority and inferiority; of dominance or submission; of intelligence or dullness; of givis
ing or taking. Rather as a personality,
is
there the recognition of the other
and therefore of
therefore of the other.
oneself: of oneself
and
CHAPTER
4
THE DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY For
I
was:
I
was
alive:
I
could
my
which
being was derived.
my
could guard
feel: I
personality, the imprint of that mysterious unity s*r.
from
augustine
In the preceding chapter an attempt has been
made
lineate the characteristics of a mature relationship,
1
to de-
and the
hypothesis that the development of the individual and the
development of
his relationship with others are inseparably
linked has been propounded. out,
It
has already been pointed
and may here be emphasized, that such a concept of
maturity of personality and of interpersonal relationships
an
ment is
which
ideal
is
is
never wholly attained; for the develop-
of personality seems to be a continuous process
which
never completed. This
one reason why analytical treatment may go on
is
interminably: there
opment
is
is
no good reason
always proceeding. This
shall revert
when
is
to stop, since devel-
a subject to
which
I
discussing analysis as a maturing agent.
Ideals are always suspect,
and the blind pursuit of them if we are to have a
frequently leads to destruction. But
coherent scheme of the development of personality some
concept of maturity in
is
some sense "ideal"
of personality
must be.
A
is
inevitable, if
and
this
is
bound
to be
the postulate that the development
never complete
is
accepted, as
I
think
it
concept of maturity, however, presupposes a
40
THE DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY
41
concept of immaturity; and here we run into
difficulties.
The development
of personality must obviously have a be-
ginning as well as the end which
we have attempted
to
sketch above; but, unfortunately, the beginnings of person-
shrouded in obscurity. In dealing with adults the
ality are
distorting mirror of our subjective
to us only our
own
can protest, and
if
scheme may
reflect
back
psychopathology; but at least the patient our interpretations
fail
to
fit
his material
or illumine his difficulties he can rise up in wrath and
tell
us so. But, in considering the small child, subjective prej-
udice has no limit. Speculation can be unconfined, and the
baby
We
unable to argue with our concepts of his inner world.
is
may, perhaps, take comfort once again from physics.
It
has been necessary to construct mental pictures, imaginary
models of the atom in order to understand the behaviour of atoms.
No
one has ever seen an atom, but they can be
weighed, their behaviour can be predicted, and they can
even be transformed,
as
we know
to our cost. Various pic-
atom have been constructed, each incomplete, each imperfect, but each stimulating observation and re-
tures of the
search which has led to
new
discoveries and, correspond-
ingly, to modifications in the original picture.
the baby
is
The mind
of
atom
to
as inaccessible as the interior of the
some sort of scheme is necessary if make valid observations about infantile
direct observation; but
we
are to be able to
behaviour or to understand those persistent emotional actions in adult
seem
to be
life
grated.
belief
and with which
the beginning of against
call
re-
immature, and which
one foundation of neurotic symptoms.
The predominant share,
which we
itself,
its
I
which many workers appear
find myself in sympathy,
existence the child
harmonious and,
The assumption
is
is
is
to
that at
a unity, undivided
in a certain sense,
inte-
that, in the natural state of af-
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
42
fairs,
the baby has no problems, and that
course of
its
culties arise.
only in the
is
development towards adulthood that the
We have
a state of maturity
now we
striving;
it
diffi-
already postulated an ideal final state,
which appears
to be the
end of human
postulate an ideal initial state, from
the child has necessarily to emerge.
tween the two which gives
which
the transition be-
It is
and
rise to difficulties
tribula-
tion. Just
where
this ideal state
some
controversy; and
is
to be found
is
a matter of
writers believe that the process of
birth necessarily terminates the idyllic unity of the child by
separating
it
from the mother within
whom
it
been contained. Others believe that the child it
needs
at
the breast of the mother, and that the satisfac-
which succeeds the
tion
all later satisfaction,
will
act of suckling
never again be attained
It is
amusing, and
is
the prototype of
so that the idyllic conflict-free state genital primacy
till
isfactory contrasexual partner has
ilar ideas
has hitherto finds all that
may be
and
a sat-
been won.*
instructive, to note that sim-
were current three centuries before Christ. 3
For Tao
is
itself
unconditioned, that
the always-so, the fixed, the
which
"is to itself"
cause "so." In the individual
it
is
and
for
no
the Uncarved
Block, the consciousness on which no impression
has been "notched," in the universe
it is
the Primal
Unity underlying apparent multiplicity. Nearest then to Tao
is
the infant.
""'Satisfaction at the breast
satisfaction" (Freud). 2
is
.
.
.
the unattainable prototype of every later
THE DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY
The author
adds in a footnote that the idea of the in-
fant being nearest to
become popular
till
Tao "was probably one
that did not
about 300 B.C. In the early centuries of
the Christian era, on the other hand,
womb
infant but the child in the
Even Freud and Rank have
We
43
that
it is
is
no longer the
the Taoist ideal."
their precursors.
are here dealing with a mythology, a hypothetical
construct; but such a construct
is
necessary
if
we
are to
understand the development of the individual, and, however reluctant
we may be
to adopt a theory
which cannot
be confirmed by direct observation, any scheme of devel-
opment demands not only an end but
Some
analysts
also a beginning.
would claim that the material produced
by adult patients in analysis
is
reliable
evidence of the ear-
liest stages
of infantile development; but such material, like
dreams,
susceptible of different interpretations
is
can be made to I
fit
different theoretical schemes.
and thus
We
must,
think, be content to accept the fact that our pictures are
only pictures; and eschew dogmatism in a
bound
to be speculative.
What we need
which
field
here
is
a
is
compar-
ative psychopathology: a serious study of all the varying
points of view propounded by writers in the development
of personality. This would be a formidable task and cannot
be attempted here. But even a brief examination of three different writers reveals a similarity of
conception which
is
interesting.
Freud 4 regarded instincts as being divided into two
groups— "erotic
instincts,
which
are always trying to collect
living substances together into ever larger unities,
and the
death instincts, which act against that tendency and
try to
bring living matter back into an inorganic condition.
The
cooperation and opposition of these two forces produces the
phenomena
of
life
to
which death puts an end." He
rec-
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
44
ognized, and indeed stated, that this concept was a mythology. 5
"The
instincts are mythical beings, superb in their
At
indefiniteness."
sight
first
it
would appear that Freud
therefore postulated an innate state of conflict from the
beginning, a primal opposition between love and hate. But
same paper he
in a later passage in this
We
recognize two fundamental instincts, and
ascribe to each of
mingle in the is
says 6
them
its
vital process,
own aim. How how the death
the two instinct
pressed into the service of Eros, especially
it is
when
turned outwards in the form of aggressiveness—
these are problems tigation.
which
We
this prospect
tion whether
which remain
all
opens up before
lier state
do not seek
of things,
us.
when
question too must be
at
ques-
do not
whether the erotic
the reinstatement of
an
ear-
they strive towards the syn-
thesis of living substances into larger
And,
The
instincts without exception
possess a conservative character, instincts also
for future inves-
can go no further than the point
left
wholes— this
unanswered.
in another passage, Freud says: 7
We
may
picture an initial state of things by
supposing that the whole available energy of Eros, to
which we
bido, id
is
name
of Li-
present in the as yet undifferentiated ego-
and serves
which
shall henceforth give the
to neutralize the destructive impulses
are simultaneously present.
The views
of Melanie Klein are put forward by
Kyrle 8 later as follows:
Money-
THE DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY
The
in reality the
fact that
mother's breast,
sometimes
is
times frustrating, in splits.
later
But
this
itself
may not be
45
object, the
first
satisfying
and some-
tends to initiate such their only cause.
What
appear as the opposite emotions of protective
love and destructive hate ple representations of
groups of instincts. inate in
To
may be by no means simtwo externally opposing
a great extent they
one confused and violent
inherently unstable because in
threatens to destroy what
it
may
its
orig-
which
desire
very greed
is
it
would most ardently
preserve.
This seems to be an advance on Freud's conception. Fairbairn's views are
still
further advanced, as
I
see
it.
Fair-
bairn also conceives of an initial unity which he calls a "central ego." This
namic
structure,
is
9
"conceived
from which,
as
we
as a
primary and dy-
shall shortly see, the
other mental structures are subsequently derived." From this central ego first
he
is
derived a pair of opposites which Fairbairn at
and the "internal saboteur";
called the "libidinal ego"
later
changed the name of the
latter to "anti-libidinal
ego." In his paper on hysterical states Fairbairn gives a synopsis of his views in ality of It
series.
which he
says:
10
"The
pristine person-
the child consists of a unitary dynamic ego."
seems to
me
that these views are a developmental
Freud postulates a basic conflict with two instincts
fundamentally opposed to one another but with a remote possibility there
might be a unity prior to
Money-Kyrle goes a definite unity, albeit
Fairbairn
is
little
further
this.
and postulates a more
an extremely unstable one.
much more
specific,
and postulates a unity
of a very definite kind before his pair of opposites
is
split
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
46
off.
This
human
is,
nature propounded by
The views
apists.
the
esis,
beliefs
necessity o{ a lost
Age
men
men
many
of
primitive
peoples,
Gen-
attest
the
conceiving their development in terms of
of Innocence or perfect state— a condition prior
advisedly, for
we have
in the views of
other than psychother-
of Rousseau, the second chapter of
knowledge of good and
to the
theme
of course, a recurrent
it
evil.
say "the necessity"
human mind
seems a limitation of the
to think in terms of time;
of a scheme of
I
and
I
that
cannot conceive
human development which would not have and an end— even though both be-
a beginning, a middle,
ginning and end might
about them; that
which
still
have something hypothetical
be logical extensions of the theories
is,
are necessary to explain our observations of the here
and now — just
as the existence or,
existence of a distant star
which we
see from
it
is
it
may
be, the former
necessary to explain the light
this evening,
although so
many
years" intervene between the star and the earth that
have ceased to
"light it
The concept
of the death instinct
psychopathologists; but, whatever
is
rejected by most
we may think
of this, a
dichotomy between love and hate or good and bad
is
capable; and the psychotherapist, whatever school he
belong
to,
sion at
is
may
exist long ago.
ines-
may
bound to be faced with the problem of aggres-
some
stage in his thought.
schools of opinion.
One
There are two main
school, with a sombre regard for
the actual state of the world, propounds the view that aggression bly
is
bound
primary and instinctive; that to be hostile
men
are inescapa-
and destructive; and
that, while
love and affection are certainly preferable to hate and violence, the actions of less as
men
are as
much
influenced by the
by the more desirable group of propensities.
The
other school, more hopefully and, some would say,
THE DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY
47
too idealistically, proposes that aggression arises only in
men
sponse to frustration: and that
re-
only exhibit hate and
violence in so far as their loving impulses have been rejected or in
some way blocked. They recognize
being
is
some
frustrated to
that every
human
extent, and therefore manifests a
certain degree of aggression: but they feel that,
if
the devel-
opment stages of infancy and childhood were attended with that completeness of loving acceptance quires, aggressiveness
ideal circumstances,
which the child
would be reduced to a minimum and,
re-
in
would disappear altogether.
In considering this problem
am
I
struck by the follow-
ing considerations. Firstly, everyone agrees that the dichot-
omy between
loving and hating, between
"good" and
"bad" or "exciting" and "rejecting" objects occurs extremely early in the child's existence— so early that one
might be forgiven for saying that there was no objective
dence of
opment
it.
evi-
Secondly, the further back in infantile devel-
aggression
and destructive
it
is
more
traced the
terrifyingly violent
becomes; the findings of Melanie Klein
can only be matched by horror comics or Foxe's Book of Martyrs. Thirdly, although there horrors of ble,
it
is
no
limit to the sadistic
which supposedly adult human beings
are capa-
seems to be generally true under normal conditions
of civilization that children are
other than adults, and that adults
ambitions are
less aggressive in
not. Fourthly,
more
aggressive to each
who have
attained their
general than those
who have
dependence and aggression are indissolubly
linked; for to be dependent upon another person implies some degree of restriction by that person. Restriction, as one form of frustration, evokes aggression; and thus the child is inevitably bound to want to bite the hand that
feeds
it.
The hand
that rocks the cradle erects the play-pen;
and, whilst security
is
given on the one hand, restriction
is
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
48
imposed upon the other, with the
bound
to be ambivalent figures
result that all parents are
and to excite both love and
hatred in their offspring.
view of aggression
historical
If this
seen that
become
for separateness, for the
is
is
is
differen-
if
expect a millen-
every living being
ideally secure childhood; but there
to suppose that aggressive tensions
sibling
and should diminish
futile to
of brotherly love to occur, even
had an
both
necessary for devel-
achievement of
characteristic of immaturity
as self-realization proceeds. It
nium
is
from the parents. Competitive aggressiveness,
rivalry,
be
will
it
progressively less important as
development proceeds. Aggression
tiation
taken,
can be postulated that aggressiveness
it
innate and likely to
opment,
is
is
some reason
can be lessened
if
the
grosser inequalities
between peoples can be diminished. Ag-
gressiveness
at its
maximum when dependence
at
maximum;
inequality)
becomes
is
is
less
its
important
velopment, only so
till,
much
as
(and hence
development proceeds
at the point of
maximum
aggression exists as
is
it
de-
necessary
to maintain the personality as a separate entity.
Development parents,
the
less
and
it is
is
often impeded by the immaturity of
true to say that the less a parent
can he tolerate rebellion
in his children,
is
mature
and the more
does he require their subservience and their agreement with
him. Neurotic, insecure parents tend to have neurotic, secure children; and
it
is
largely because
in-
immature parents
cannot tolerate differentiation from themselves that this is so. But differentiation is essential for individuality; two people
who
share the same views, hold the same opinions, and
have the same
interests are
not differentiated but identified;
and the wish of parents that
them
is
a narcissistic
their children should be like
one. They want
to hold a mirror to
themselves and see that what they have created
is
both
THE DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY good and
own
in their
wrong or dangerous
image.
The notion anyone
to oppose
that
else
49
it
is
is
always im-
easily
planted in the child, but the behaviour which such a notion
imposes
crippling to the personality as a whole, for indi-
is
viduality implies opposition It
and
differentiation.
has already been emphasized that,
if
men are to achieve
mature relationships on equal terms, submission to another person
as undesirable as
is
domination of that person. Unfor-
we have no word which
tunately,
way
describes the middle
between these two opposites— and most terms which we employ carry emotional overtones of condemnation.
opposition to others in adult is
necessary
life is
to be maintained as a separate entity;
if
A
certain
the personality
and
this
is
clearly
connected with the aggressive impulses which are characteristic
of childhood; but to use the word
*
'aggression" in con-
nexion with the dignity and independence of the mature personality
is
to create a
the personality
is
*
wrong impression. All
'aggressive"— but there
conveys the idea of aggression without concept It
I
am
is
affirmation of
no word which
hostility,
which
is
the
trying to convey.
seems to
me
that maturity
is
characterized by asser-
tion and affirmation of the personality without hostility and
without competitiveness, both of which characteristics are typical of childhood.
own
realizing his
The more
feel to
be competitive and the
others.
Men
of the
man
that of the
can make reason self
a
man
has succeeded in
personality, the less compulsion will
are very differently
less hostile will
he
he be to
endowed; and the maturity
with an I.Q. of 80 will be very different from
man
full
with an I.Q. of 140; but, provided each
use of his differing endowments, there
why each should not be
and with
his neighbour.
ness to the fact that
it
Common
is
is
no
equally at peace with him-
experience bears wit-
the people
who have
least
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
50
most
hostile,
own
who
are the
and that the best way of dealing with
a rebel
succeeded in realizing their
potentialities
him in a position of authority. Most psychotherapists are struck by the alternation of "love" and "hate" in the personality and put forward vary-
is
often to put
ing points of view about this dichotomy. Extreme oscilla-
tion between love and hate, especially of the same person, is
most important
characteristic of childhood, since the
lationship of childhood, that with the parents,
which the loved object
is
bound
ideally, cooperative rather
than
is,
one
in
and hence
to be restrictive,
also resented. In adult life the loved object
is
re-
at
any rate
and hence can
restrictive;
be loved unconditionally without the admixture of hate,
though every times he treat
is
him
man
bound
is
aware that
this
to treat his wife as a
is
an
ideal, since at
mother— and
she to
as a father.
Adults sometimes want to go back to childhood, and
most of those who do have repressed the pains of that period of their lives. after a return to school are it
is
their failure to attain
which prompts
vicissitudes
and
"Old boys" who hanker
indeed "boys" emotionally; and
any more mature relationship
their wish to regress. Nevertheless, small
children exert a fascination which psychologically interesting; and
I
is
both universal and
suggest that, under
some
circumstances, children do possess something valuable
which
is
in adult
lost as life,
they grow up, which
may never be
regained
and which therefore excites both nostalgia and
admiration in adults
who have
to
do with them.
Historically, our attitudes to children
have varied. At
times they have been treated like adults; at other times
secluded in nurseries.
We
are, perhaps, still inclined to the
sentimentalization of the child so characteristic of the late
Victorian era, which Freud disturbed by his emphasis on
THE DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY
51
infantile sexuality; and the financial success of campaigns on behalf of children demonstrates their superiority to adults
in emotional appeal. Children are far
and
gels,
their
"innocence"
is
from being
not what
little
an-
was thought to
it
be in pre-Freudian times; but, nevertheless, most adults have at times
been charmed by small children and have a
attitude towards them.
charm
their
At
It is
of interest to inquire in what
consists.
the very beginning of
the baby
life
cepted without conditions, and there that those
special
which
is
usually ac-
evidence
are not so accepted suffer in later
a result. Babies are
what they
expected to be anything
else.
are,
and whatever they do
Crumpled,
we have
red, vociferous,
to their mothers,
accepted. Although those of us
is
who cannot be mothers may never be neity, unaffectedness,
life as
and are not generally
and incontinent, they are yet wonderful
entire devotion,
is
now some
all at
and
joie
able to manifest this
times admired the spontade vivre of small children.
Children are also excessively demanding, require constant attention,
and
are far
from always exhibiting the
sort of
behaviour which we find endearing; but given the right
show a freedom of expression and an unnaturalness which we as adults may envy; for we
conditions, they affected
can no longer display
it.
This freedom of the child
course, only possible in a sheltered it
feels at ease.
spell,
who
and
it
is
The
environment
intrusion of a stranger
in
is,
of
which
may break
the
probably only parents or parent surrogates
see the child behaving in a completely uncomplicated
way. Children need a playground of emotional security
if
they are to be most surely themselves and behave in the unsophisticated, naive, and charming
manner which
elicits
our delight in them. If
I
am
right in thinking that
it
is
the spontaneity and
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
52
freedom which children can exhibit which constitutes their appeal,
it
is
not
difficult to see
why
there seems to be a
connexion, a similarity, between the two extremes of immaturity and maturity.
As
and freedom grows
the child develops,
its
sponta-
bound to come into conflict with parents and other authorities; and in its efforts to adapt, to be what it conceives others want it to be, to neity
fit
in with society,
lic state
started
less, for it is
must necessarily leave behind the
it
of completeness with which
and of which
traces
can
still
ditions suggested above. But, as lost
freedom of childhood
is
we
idyl-
postulate that
it
be seen under the con-
development proceeds, the
new freedom accepted child may once
replaced by the
of maturity, and the security of the
again be attained in the achievement of a fully adult relationship with others.
The wish to return to childhood is, in most instances, a regressive wish— a desire to abrogate adult responsibilities and to return to a state of dependence. But this wish may also have another aspect. To seek after the spontaneity and freedom of the secure child perhaps, be what
is
meant
is
a different matter
in the saying of Christ:
ye be converted and become as enter into the
Kingdom
little
"Except
children ye shall not
of heaven." This
to childishness, but rather
and may, 11
is
no
regression
an advance to such security and
freedom with our fellow-men that we can be whatever we are
and allow them
to be the same.
CHAPTER
5
THE EMERGENT PERSONALITY
The most
that
we can hope
to
do
is
good deal of
who
those
result of
that
it
and become
aldous huxley
completely himself.
A
train every
to
individual to realize all his potentialities
fruitless
controversy takes place between
consider that personality
is
predominantly the
environmental influences and those
is
1
who
believe
determined by the inherited genetic en-
chiefly
dowment. Psycho-analysis, while never denying that men differ innately,
much emphasis upon
has laid so
pothetical influences in early childhood that atrists
have
real or hy-
some psychi-
that the genetic factors in the personality
felt
were being undervalued, and that psycho-analysts assumed that a silk purse could be
made out
of every sow's ear
if
only the analysis were deep enough in extent and prolonged
enough
in time.
On
the other hand, genetic research
complicated, and has progressed so
little,
that
it
is
so
remains
impossible to say in the majority of cases of persons with psychiatric disorders
netic and as is
how
far the disorder
is
related to ge-
environmental causes. Diseases such
Huntington's chorea, in which a single dominant gene responsible, are the exception rather than the rule,
it is
generally agreed that the inheritance of most
characteristics in
far to
how
how
is
multifactorial.
One
has only to consider
very few instances of mental disorder one
53
and
human
is
justified
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
54
in advising against reproduction little
evidence there really
is
upon eugenic grounds; how
for the widespread belief that
how
certain types of neurosis are "constitutional" in origin;
inadequate our knowledge of what realize that,
may
is
actually inherited, to
however shaky our psycho-dynamic concepts knowledge is still shakier. A recent
be, our genetic
textbook 2 of psychiatry, of which one of the co-authors
is
the leading expert on psychiatric genetics in this country, states of the manic-depressive psychosis:
To summarize edge,
we may
the present state of our knowl-
say that the significance of hereditary
factors in the causation of manic-depressive psychoses
is
established.
The mode
of inheritance tends to
take a dominant form, but the gene-carriers develop
the psychosis in only a minority of cases.
The
effect
of non-genital factors has to be taken into account. Finally, the relative
importance of single
specific
and of multifactorial genes, and the degree of netical hetero-geneity, are
still
ge-
unclarified.
In other words, although "the significance of hereditary factors ...
impossible; disorder,
is
established," prediction of any accurate kind
one can
is
carry the gene without developing the
and no one can
tell
which of the
vast population
is likely to develop it. The presence of hemay have been demonstrated, but it seems
carrying the gene reditary factors
premature to say that their until
some
clearer statement
significance
has been established
can be made
as to their relative
importance compared with factors in the environment. It is
clear that
it is
easier to predict the character struc-
ture of a child reared in certain specific ways than foretell his future
from
his ancestry.
Even
if
both
it
is
to
his parents
THE EMERGENT PERSONALITY and
are manic-depressive,
before them,
it
manic-depressive. But,
if
and
their parents,
would not be he
55
upon
safe to bet
their parents his
becoming
separated from his mother in
is
infancy and then persistently ill-treated,
if
he
is
reared in
and cowed and beaten, his adult character may be compounded of variable degrees of fear and hatred— and it is
fear
safe to say that
both those attributes
will exist as part of his
adult personality in extreme measure. Let us revert to the
textbook of psychiatry 3 and see what the authors have to say of schizophrenia:
Our knowledge
of the genetics of schizophrenia
provides the basis for some conclusions about prophylaxis.
These conclusions
however, best ex-
are,
pressed in terms of probabilities, and provide certainty in the individual case.
among
of schizophrenia
phrenics
is
.
.
.
The
no
incidence
the children of schizo-
between 10 and 20 per cent depending
on the type
So
of psychosis.
might be expected
it
that sterilizing schizophrenics would prevent the birth of a substantial later to
ever,
have a very low
as they
number
of persons destined
develop the disease. Schizophrenics, howfertility,
and, of such children
do have, only a small proportion are born
after the onset of the
schizophrenic has
psychosis— that
become
is,
after the
recognizable as such.
The
great majority of schizophrenics are the children of
non-schizophrenic parents.
And
zation of schizophrenics
almost useless as a pro-
is
in fact the sterili-
phylactic measure.
It
appears from these quotations that so
known about
little
is
yet
the genetics of even the major psychoses that
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
56
an overwhelming importance
to attribute
in the causation of
mental disorder
is
to genetic factors
as yet
premature; and,
although one may hope that future research in genetics may illumine the study of personality and mental disorder, the
present contribution of genetic knowledge small.
It
extremely
is
reasonable to argue the schizophrenic parents
is
are as likely to produce schizophrenic offspring because of
the way they treat their children, as because of the genes
which they transmit
to them;
and
gross instances of neglect
and ill-treatment of children are not infrequently the of schizophrenia in the mother. in
It is
result
generally agreed that
most cases of schizophrenia schizoid character
traits
can
be detected in the pre-psychotic personality; so that, even if
children are born prior to the onset of the psychosis,
is
reasonable to assume that there will have been a certain
lack of emotional
warmth and
security in their early envi-
ronment which may well predispose them a schizophrenic
breakdown
sent stage of knowledge
in early adult
it is
it
in their turn to life.
At our
pre-
premature to argue that either
the genetic factor or the effect of the early emotional en-
vironment
is
supreme, and
it is
are engaged in genetic research
unfortunate that those
have so
little
psycho-therapy, and that psychotherapists genetics.
The admirable
firm basis for research, factors
for a yard-stick
can be separated from other
little
of
by which genetic
factors, provides the
certainly as emotionally determined as
A
so
importance of genetics which
overwhelming importance o{ the ment.
experience in
know
desire for scientific certainty, for a
and
basis for a belief in the
who
is
is
the belief in the
early emotional environ-
further quotation from the
same textbook 4 may
serve to illustrate this. Referring to schizophrenia, the authors go on:
THE EMERGENT PERSONALITY
The races
57
universal incidence of the disease in
all
and cultures weighs heavily against any argu-
ments that environmental and psychological
factors
of any specific kind play an important part in causing the disease; and so does the experience of the
who
clinician tients
from
verse
family
sees identical clinical pictures in pa-
all
walks of
life
and from the most
di-
and educational backgrounds. The
dangers of being misled by facile optimism are ex-
adopted
known
by a patient
emplified
as a child
by a
to
woman
who was
us,
psychiatrist
and
brought up in the most favourable circumstances by
methods derived from
his mother's great experi-
He
ences in analytical psychopathology. less
developed
neverthe-
after puberty a simple schizophrenia,
changed school several times, and
finally
had
to be
admitted to a hospital for treatment.
But the
facts that schizophrenia
of universal occur-
is
rence and that the patients suffering from alike, are really
psychological factors. also very
much
it
are very
much
not evidence against environmental and
alike,
Men
suffering
behave
found daily anywhere in the world. posed, however, that anger
determined and not
from extreme anger are
in the
is
same way, and can be It is
hardly to be sup-
for this reason genetically
at all the result of
environmental and
psychological factors of a specific kind. Schizophrenia generally a chronic condition, whilst anger sitory;
but
Every
effort to
it is
equally a
human
is
usually tran-
reaction and not a disease.
prove that schizophrenia
sense that general paralysis of the insane far failed. It
is
is
surely time that this
is
is
a disease in the a disease has so
way of looking
at schizo-
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
58
ophrenia was dropped, and that
was recognized
it
of reaction of the personality which
is
latent in
only comparatively recently that
It is
ognized that everyone
have an epileptic
fit
is
only
if
an
electric current
Other people may
leptazol.
still
react with a
others have
some people
taneously. Just as
stimulus to produce a
so
fit,
of us.
people will
is
applied to
an intravenous injection of
their brain or they are given
of various kinds, while
ail
mode
has been rec-
it
Some
liable to epilepsy.
as a
fit
fits
to
minor stimuli
apparently spon-
require a major physiological
some need
isolation
and mes-
caline to produce a schizophrenic condition.
Others may be so constituted that
it
requires only very
moderate adversity to cause their psyche to disintegrate; and, although twin studies show a very high incidence of
schizophrenia in uniovular partners, that 5
"some of the uniovular
it
is
also true to say
partners of schizophrenics not
only did not develop schizophrenia, but showed no note-
worthy psychiatric abnormality."
We
need to know not so much what causes schizophre-
nia but what prevents
and the ity
it.
similarity of the
of the
human
schizophrenia
is
The
universality of the disorder
symptoms
psyche; but this
attest the basic similar-
is
scarcely evidence that
dependent of any external
factors. In the
what age
example given above the authors do not
tell us at
the child was adopted.
though unproven,
It
is
a tenable,
hypothesis that the tendency to become schizophrenic related to emotional
damage
at
an early age— and the
environment of a child who has likely to
be adopted
is
un-
be favourable. Moreover, the authors show an ex-
cessive naivete
mother
later to
is
early
is
when
they assume that because the adopting
a psychiatrist with "great experience in analytical
psychopathology" the child will be brought up in "the most favourable circumstances." Even the least sophisticated of
THE EMERGENT PERSONALITY
59
became
psychotherapists will usually admit that he
inter-
own emotional
ested in psychotherapy because of his
prob-
lems; and that, although his psychopathological insight
have given him the a constructive way,
he
is
no
loves his children unthinkingly
them
book or
in
better equipped to bring up
who
children than a completely unsophisticated person
of consulting a
may
human problems
handle
ability to
and who would never dream
on how
a psychiatrist
to bring
up.
People are not attacked by schizophrenia enza; they regress or relapse into
it;
by
influ-
and, although
many
as
cases of the disorder appear to be irreversible, striking in-
stances of the temporary " recovery" of the most chronic cases are
known
to every psychiatrist.
No organic pathology
of a definite kind has ever been demonstrated in schizo-
phrenia; but
it
is
comparatively easy to demonstrate that
the schizophrenic condition
making that
is
is
improved by any attempt
a relationship with the patient.
The more
given to schizophrenics in hospital the
rated, the less ''schizophrenic,"
less deterio-
do they become; and the
increasing use of occupational therapy for patients
been mentally
ill
for
many
and appearance of those
the chronic wards of the mental hospitals.
The mute,
continent, cyanosed, oedematous schizophrenic in time
who have
years has resulted in a consid-
erable change in the behavior
he was, and
at
attention
rarer
is
in in-
than
he may disappear altogether. Schizo-
phrenia seems to be a failure of the personality to cohere as a
whole, and this failure of inner cohesion
the outer absence of relationships which feature of schizophrenia.
is
is
reflected in
the most striking
In his Introductory Lectures on
Psycho-Analysis Freud 6 says: "Already in 1908, K.
expressed the view after a discussion with characteristic of
me
dementia praecox (reckoned
Abraham
that the as
main
one of the
60
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
psychoses)
is
with libido
that in this disease the investments of objects
is
lacking."
It is
as
if
one was talking
to a series
of complexes or mental processes, not to a person; as
was presented with
if
one
the parts of the body dissected from
all
each other with no unity to bind them into a single body. Schizophrenia will continue to be a mystery so long as we to understand the forces
fail
make
for the
and the organization which
wholeness of personality.
and
ality
is
which 'personality"
in
lost.
The
similarity of schizophrenic is
good evidence
collective unconscious
functioning which
is
lack-
is
in the sense of individu-
'
and experience
seems to be an
which something
essentially negative condition in ing,
It
symptomatology
for the hypothesis of the
advanced by Jung;
a level of physical
characterized by the recurrence of cer-
tain basic archetypal themes
sonal psychological material
and
in
which individual
largely absent.
is
per-
Whatever
views are held on this point, there can be no disputing the fact that schizophrenics
improve
taken in them, and deteriorate it
if
if
a personal interest
they are
left
alone.
I
is
find
helpful to think of schizophrenia as the very opposite of
self-realization.
It
is
the negation of personality, the ab-
sence of individuality, the disintegration as opposed to the integration of the whole person.
It
has recently been sug-
gested that the comparative success of the insulin
coma
treatment of schizophrenia depends upon the fact that the treatment
is
many people
difficult to
administer and necessitates a good
giving a great deal of attention over a long
period to each patient. This to assume that the
most
may
well be true.
If it is
right
striking feature of schizophrenia
is
the emotional isolation of the patient, one would expect that any lation It
method of treatment which broke down
would be
this iso-
at least partially effective.
seems absurd that there should be any serious diver-
THE EMERGENT PERSONALITY
61
gence between geneticists and psychopathologists, for
development of personality
surely obvious that the
it
de-
is
pendent both on heredity and environment, and that seeking to evaluate which of the two factors
is
in
the most
is
important we are probably trying to over-simplify something which differ widely;
is
extremely complicated.
It is
tween them are inborn and constitutional; but how particular characteristic tal
men
clear that
and probable that many of the differences be-
conditioning and
any
far
the product of early environmen-
is
how
far
it is
inherited as such
is
quite
unknown. As an example, one might consider Jung's dichotomy of introversion— extraversion; a classification which has appeared even more valuable to psychologists and research workers than
to psychotherapists. Jung himself
seems to regard his types
as
predominantly constitutional
in origin, not the result of infantile emotional experience.
Fairbairn also recognizes two basic types schizoid
which he
and depressive, which he recognizes
ilar to Jung's;
as
calls
being sim-
but, although admitting hereditary factors,
attributes the differences
he
between the types predominantly
to infantile experience.
My own working hypothesis
is
that personality
genetically determined, but that the extent to
personality reaches maturity, fruition,
dependent upon environmental
largely
and
is
indeed
which each
realization
factors.
The
is
seed
contains the promise of the future plant, and nothing will
make oranges grow from plum pips; but the soil
may be
stones, or
plums from orange
and climate which encourage the orange
too exotic for the plum, and the orange will find
too rigorous conditions in which the plum It
seems to
me
inescapable that
different in constitution;
pacity of detachment
and
it
men
requires
and toleration
may
flourish.
are profoundly
an exceptional
ca-
for the psychotherapist
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
62
to treat people
who may be
temperament and outlook.
poles apart from himself in
It
is,
however, one of the
re-
wards of an exacting profession that the psychotherapist gets to
know
can be universal, yet chotherapist self
who
intimately people
are very differently con-
from himself; and although no one's sympathies
stituted
it
is
become wider
probable that those of the psyrather than narrower as he him-
matures.
The most extensive contemporary investigation human constitution has been that of Sheldon, whose 7
into
con-
mesomorphy, endomorphy, and ectomorphy with temperamental equivalents of somatotonia, viscero-
cepts of their
tonia,
and cerebrotonia are becoming increasingly widely
adopted. Sheldon and his associates have advanced the interesting suggestion that neurosis
struggle of people to be
which
their constitutional
cline them.
is
due to the unavailing
something different from that to
endowment would
are intimately related;
and anyone who has studied
his writ-
and those of Kretschmer 8 must be impressed with the
ings
case they put forward, although proof J.
naturally in-
Sheldon believes that physique and character
M. Tanner, 9 who
interesting article that there scientific
is
at present lacking.
has worked with Sheldon, admits in an is
not yet very
physique and character. But he goes on to
This admission places I
much confirmed
evidence in favour of a close relationship between
me
in a
say:
quandary because
think that the evidence of everyday
life is
strongly
in favour of the existence of a relationship,
and of
one very much of the sort described by Kretschmer and by Sheldon. I would go even further and say that
I
think that
I
see neurotic behaviour quite often
coming from an attempt
to
behave
in a fashion out
THE EMERGENT PERSONALITY
63
of character with what one might predict from the
physique.
neurotic
comes
I
think
traits
more
to act
more often than by chance
see
I
diminishing as the person concerned in accordance with theoretical
expectation.
The
men can
idea that
act, so to speak,
and that they become neurotic very valuable one. that a
man can
If this
if
hypothesis
also reach
some
out of character
they do so seems to is
accepted
it is
me
a
implied
sort of solution to his prob-
lems by learning more about himself and acting more in
accordance with his
own
view that the psyche
symptoms of,
is
nature. Jung has long held the
self-regulating,
and that neurotic
are not just unpleasant disturbances to be got rid
but are also attempts on the part of the psyche to restore
equilibrium.
The view
Tanner seems
One
of neurosis put forward above by
to contain the
of the
common
same
idea.
objections to psychodynamic con-
cepts of the causation of mental illness a given family,
is
the fact that, in
one child may develop such an
illness
whereas another does not. Assuming that the environment
and the type of upbringing has remained more or less constant, the argument is that genetic factors must be allimportant.
Of
course
it
can be argued that no two children
have exactly the same upbringing; that position ily is
important; that early experiences of feeding difficulties
may be same
in the fam-
decisive
family,
and quite
and
all
this
objection remains, and
different for
may be
it is
one
in the
true. Nevertheless, the
foolish to
of inherited constitution. But
two children
deny the importance
child's
meat may be an-
other child's poison, and, whereas parental attitudes and
temperaments may encourage the development of one child's personality, they
may
inhibit that of another child
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
64
who happens to be differently endowed. In psychotherapy we are constantly dealing with the interaction between child and parent; with a relative, not an absolute, situation. The same parents may take on one aspect when seen through the eyes of an introverted child, and quite another when described by his more extraverted brother; and both descriptions
may be "true"
in that
what
is
being described
is
not the actual personality of the parents, but the interaction between
them and the
child.
believe that
I
it
ulti-
is
mately possible to describe another person objectively, but only
if
one has been able to form with them that
ship which, in an earlier chapter,
relation-
have called mature; and,
I
by definition, such a relationship cannot exist between child
and parents while the child
is
When
upon them by
describe the restrictions imposed ents, the disapproval with
young.
still
which
patients
their par-
their struggle to assert
themselves was attended, the guilt with which their emergent sexuality was surrounded,
take their description as
I
being the truth for them but not
be seen by an outside observer. miles an hour
on the
may seem
at the
station platform, but
its
speed by
its
A
if I
which would
train travelling at
to be going fast
a train going at seventy miles
not by
as the truth
am
am
shall
I
its
it
in
be impressed
The same
train going
same speed can appear slow on one occasion,
another; and both descriptions of
fifty
standing
gradually passing
an hour
sluggishness.
if I
fast
on
behaviour are "true,"
relative to the different circumstances of the observer.
Any-
one who has worked
have
in a child-guidance clinic will
noticed that the parents as seen by the
staff
of the clinic
are very often extremely different from the parents as seen
by the child; and fathers and mothers staff
who
appear to the
to be no more than normally solicitous may be
garded by the child
as
monstrously restrictive.
re-
THE EMERGENT PERSONALITY
65
Analysts of every school are so often criticized for blaming the parents for subsequent neuroses of their children
that
it
worth labouring the point that the
is
development cannot be regarded objectively, but
strains of
only through the eyes of the patient whose
none the stituted,
less real
is
difficulties are
because another person, differently con-
might not have found them
Environment
which
and
stresses
is
difficulties at all.
both very important, and
why schemes
also relative—
of education, advice to parents, and
psychological textbooks are of comparatively
There seems to
me
to be only
one
can make about bringing up children— and that should be accepted as individuals in their their differences from their parents
what they
are,
one
is
own
that they
and
right
and each other tolerated
and encouraged. Children develop most are loved for
use.
little
definite statement
satisfactorily
if
they
not for what anyone thinks
they ought to be. It
seems probable that
this irrational acceptance, this
sense of being loved as a whole without reservation, basis of adult confidence in oneself as a person, satisfying relationships
harmony occurs ceptance.
its
human
the withdrawal of their protecting love.
may come and
to
helplessness,
conform with what
is
dis-
imagined lack of ac-
to the long period of
bound to have to parents want it to be—for to be anything
the child
the
also of
with others; and that neurotic
as a result of real or
Owing
and
is
else
And
is
it
thinks
to court
so the child
what it is not on the one hand, on the other.
to pretend to be
deny what
it is
These mechanisms of pretence and denial can be seen in every neurosis in the adult,
of neurosis
is
and
I
believe that the type
dependent upon which mechanism
is
predom-
inant.
The concepts
of pretence and denial are closely con-
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
66
nected with introjection and projection; but whereas some psycho-analysts seem to regard the personality as largely
would incline to Jung's view that the child has a discrete personality of its own from the
built-up introjections,
beginning.
I
would therefore consider that both projection
and introjection
owing to
its
are defensive devices.
since
what
it
its
This
shift it
child,
personality happens to coincide ex-
comes
to believe
no child can be wholly
bound to like what
The young
weakness and dependence, cannot dare to be
entirely itself unless actly with
I
is
in this
from being simply
required of
it;
happy position,
itself
and, it
is
towards being more
thinks the parents want.
shift
away from the positive
state of being itself
involves a partial identification with the parents and an introjection of their attitudes;
becoming mature ality
and part of the process of
will consist of expelling
from the person-
those attitudes and modes of behaviour which have
been introjected
for reasons of security, but
which do not
necessarily belong to the person concerned as part of his
own
personality.
CHAPTER
6
AND
IDENTIFICATION
INTROJECTION Just as everything serves serves a purpose in the full
nature in
it.
This
some purpose or
scheme of
is
to
things
develop
other, so
and
his depth,
identification,
logical expressions, ing. It
is
in
common
susceptible of
or inborn
bowra
capacities so far as he possibly can.
The term
man
realizes his
with most psycho-
more than one mean-
therefore important to define the sense in
is
the word
used.
is
phenomenon
in
As
I
1
which
use the term, identification
which subject and object
is
a
are not differ-
entiated from each other, but assumed to be the same,
although the real situation
is
the chapter
in
"Definitions"
that they are different. In Psychological
Types,
Jung 2
says:
Identification
is
an estrangement of the subject
from himself in favour of an object in which the subject
is,
to a certain extent, disguised. For ex-
ample, identification with the father practically nifies
sig-
an adoption of the ways and manners of the
father, as
though the son were the same
as the fa-
ther and not a separate individual. Identification
is
distinguished from imitation by the fact that identification
tion
is
is
an unconscious imitation, whereas imita-
a conscious copying.
67
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
68
The view
that the acceptance of other people as differ-
ent, as existing as separate entities in their
criterion of a
vanced; and
son
it is
them.
I
is
characterized by a process whereby is
accompanied by
a progressive decrease in identification." This
is
an admi-
and succinct exposition of a basic psychological I
a
have already quoted Fairbairn's 3 statement that
"Normal development
rable
is
have an adult relationship with
progressive differentiation of the object
and
right,
clear that identification with another per-
a bar to being able to
is
own
mature relationship has already been ad-
truth;
believe that the decrease in identification and the
increase in differentiation proceeds as long as the personality
continues to develop. But Fairbairn omits to indicate
the fact that the later stages of development are also characterized by identifications of various kinds
which serve
a
positive function in the maturation of the personality; and,
although such identifications serve to evoke qualities
mained
latent,
may be
temporary, they
and thus play a valuable part
ment. Identification can also be regarded self-discovery,
and
is
may
which might otherwise have as
re-
in develop-
an aid to
not merely a state of infancy which
should be discarded.
The most tion
is
primitive and elementary type of identifica-
that of the infant with
its
mother; and
it
seems
justifiable to assume that the infant only gradually becomes
aware of himself
who
as
having a separate existence from her
so recently contained him. In the beginning
that the infant's world
is
a solipsistic one,
it
seems
and people are
treated entirely from the subjective point of view.
That
is,
the small child treats people as being there solely to minister to its
their
needs, and not at
all as
creatures having lives of
own. The baby usually goes to sleep when its needs and those who serve it may, from the baby's
are satisfied;
IDENTIFICATION
AND INTROJECTION
69
viewpoint, temporarily cease to exist, only to be raised again
when hunger demands their revival. We cannot know exactly how long or needed person persists after satisfying the baby's need; but
it
has
the image of a loved
fulfilled its
modern opinion
the time-span increases with age.
We
know
function of
suggests that
that in early
childhood any prolonged absence of the mother
mean her total disappearance. The small child cannot conceive ued existence it.
if
she
is
is
likely to
of a person's contin-
not there in the
flesh to substantiate
Bowlby, 4 for instance, distinguishes these main phases
in the
development of the
child's capacity for
human
rela-
tionships:
In broad outline, the following are the most important: (a)
The phase
during which the infant
is
in the
course of establishing a relation with a clearly iden-
person— his mother; this by five or six months of age. tified
(b)
The phase
is
normally achieved
during which he needs her as an
ever-present companion; this usually continues until
about his third birthday. (c)
The phase during which he
is
becoming able
to maintain a relationship with her in her absence.
During the fourth and
fifth years
such a relationship
can only be maintained in favourable circumstances
and
for a
few days or weeks
at a time; after
seven
or eight the relationship can be maintained, though
not without
One can scious of the
strain, for periods of a year or
speculate as to
mother
how
as a separate
more.
the infant becomes con-
person at
all. Is it
by the
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
70
discovery of the boundaries of divides itself from
need
not immediately
is
an object other than
its
own body
environment? Or
its
satisfied,
itself
is
is
it
that the baby
when
that,
some vague concept
necessary to satisfy
a
that
arises?
it
Perhaps both these mechanisms operate together. But we
can perhaps disagree with Bowlby's phraseology delineation.
The
infant
recurrently recognized
may
is
seems
it
"clearly identified." In adult
not rare to meet neurotics
who
still
cannot
distin-
guish between what they feel and what their mother
and who
attribute to their
first
establish a relationship with a
person— his mother; but
highly doubtful whether she life it is
in his
feels,
mothers thoughts and even bodily
sensations which, to an outside observer, have nothing to
do with anyone but themselves. The infant can hardly be expected to identify anyone else
ment even really
clearly. It
is
an achieve-
same person again; and
to recognize the
this
may
be a recognition of expected pleasure— not a response
who is identified as such. know and expect that the love of a small child is We 'cupboard" love; and that we who look after it are going
to a person
4
to be treated not as people with lives of our
who
as slaves
are there to serve the child,
"loved" in so far as
we
far as
refuse them.
omnipotence
fantile
we
fulfil its
The
its
and who
will
be
wishes, and "hated" in so
psycho-analytic concept of in-
refers to the
of feeling of the infant in
be centred round
own, but simply
supposed subjective state
which the whole world seems
wishes and subservient to
Absolute dependence does indeed arouse the
its
to
desires.
maximum
re-
sponse from others: and the complete helplessness of the infant
is
its
most powerful weapon.
It
has only to cry and
and
ecstatic voices will
willing hands will tend
it;
commend
and comforting shoulders
port
it.
it;
It is
to belch,
to smile,
will sup-
not surprising that the external fact of help-
IDENTIFICATION
lessness
matched by an
is
AND INTROJECTION
71
internal sense of omnipotence,
and that these two apparent incompatibles march thus hand in hand.
In adult
life it is
always the most helpless patients
make the most demands upon
who
the therapist; and such pa-
tients are unconscious of the fact that they treat people as
slaves
with
who
them
are there to serve
whom
rather than as people
they could have cooperative relationships on
equal terms.
It
is
because they
from being on
feel so far
demanding—for they do
equal terms that they can be so
not believe that they have anything to give to anyone, and
and not
so other people are treated simply as givers ceivers,
with a consequent absence of any reciprocal
tionship.
Love
is
who have been
conceived
as a
deprived of
one has nothing to
is
if
rela-
by those
traffic
one believes that
the only possible relationship
give,
with another person
one-way
and,
it:
as re-
of passive
that
receptivity— in
psycho-analytic terminology, the early oral stage of devel-
opment.
The
hypothesis seems inescapable that the infant's
world consists originally simply of
from the mother cover
it,
who
tends
nor from the
milk which
air
it,
itself; itself
not separated
nor from the blankets which
which
it
breathes, nor from the
imbibes. In the beginning was the All and
it
Everything, the wholeness which comes from total depen-
dence, the wholeness which tion that, since every desire
is
only broken by the realiza-
is
not immediately
fulfilled,
there must be something external to the infant,
who
is
therefore not whole but incomplete.
The Buddhist
ideal of
freedom from desire
for this original wholeness: since only
desire
is
one
free
wants anything
is
if
from dependence; only
one complete
one if
is is
a search
free
from
one no longer
in oneself. In schizophrenia
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
72
we can sometimes fant
what
this solipsistic
world of the
who had "the
Jung quotes a patient
like.
is
see
5
in-
magnifi-
cent idea that the world was his picture-book, the pages of
which he could turn at will. The proof was quite simple: he had only to turn round, and there was a new page for
him
A
is omnipotence in all its pristine glory. mine used to represent himself by drawing a He had the fantasy of the circle expanding until it
to see." This
patient of
circle.
included the whole world, so that he and the whole world
would be
who was
finally indistinguishable.
He was
a schizophrenic
quite incompetent to deal with the world in fact,
and whose helplessness
in the face of reality
was accurately
balanced by the omnipotence which existed in his inner world of fantasy. It
is
only gradually that the small child begins to be
aware of himself
as a separate entity,
and
at the
to be aware of other people as separate also.
same time
It is
probably
that this loss of the original or primary identification with
the mother takes place partly by means of the child becoming orientated in space through the discovery of the boundaries of
there
is
its
own
both a
body. self
To
and a
kick an object
is
to discover that
not-self. Frustration
is
therefore
important in self-discovery— the frustration of finding that all
wants are not immediately
ery that
one
is
the discov-
satisfied leads to
dependent upon others: the frustration of
finding intransigent objects to the realization that one has
physical limitations and that there
which one is
is
is
an external world with
not coexistent, and over which one's power
limited.
This realization of separateness leads, iety
and
fear; for, in
I
believe, to anx-
the infant, this realization
is
necessarily
attended by the simultaneous realization of dependence and helplessness.
The
small child
who becomes
increasingly
IDENTIFICATION aware of
its
AND INTROJECTION
separate existence from the mother
to realize the
73
is
also liable
dangers attendant upon her departure. Parents
sometimes notice that a child, hitherto secure, may begin
They wonder what they have done wrong: but often there is no particular external reason to account for the change. The anxiety which the child exhibits often goes hand in hand with an increase in to exhibit anxiety about being
aggressive
left.
behaviour— the tempers which
the fourth and
years
fifth
when
that
its
One way
in
of looking at
to say that, unconsciously,
is
common
the beginnings of indepen-
dence make themselves manifest. the child's anxiety
are so
it
was
afraid
aggression had destroyed the parents; and this would
perhaps be the orthodox psycho-analytic view.
It is
also of
value to look upon the anxiety as being related to the be-
ginning of the child's emergence as a separate individual. It
by means of
is
parents— and so that
is
aggression that
its
it
it
separates from the
indeed the fear caused by aggression
is
the cause of the child's anxiety: but this fear
that of being
is
more
abandoned than that the parents have been
destroyed.
The more a will of her
the mother becomes a separate person with
own, not merely a source of supply
at will, the greater
is
the danger that she will disregard the
needs or wishes of the child.
If
child and
identified, the
mother
and therefore
partly subservient to
mother's separateness
is
is
life is
mother
are
still
treated by the child as part of itself its will:
but directly the
realized her necessary support
become dubious. That such an adult
to be tapped
identification
can
must
persist into
attested by the almost daily clinical experience
of seeing daughters
roof to get married.
who are In many
about to leave the maternal instances the strong link be-
tween mother and daughter has been completely unconscious until the time of separation draws near.
The daughter
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
74
has considered the mother so so
little as
of
life
much
as part of herself
and
a separate person that she has never conceived
without her: and the realization that she
is
hence-
forward to be without her mother's support gives
rise to
fear.
Many mothers
encourage
this
unconsciousness on the
part of their children by always doing everything for them,
and thus never allowing the children to develop
own
right.
The mother
then treating the child merely
is
an extension of her own personality and not its
own right— and
identity shall
in their
as a
as
person in
so herself ensures that the unconscious
In such cases the dependence of
persist.
mother upon daughter
is
as great as that of
daughter upon
mother: and each fears abandonment by the other.
Throughout ings
adhered in
this
need each other
book the hypothesis that human befor their own development has been
and the idea that maturity
to;
independence
as in the
consists not so
much
achievement of a mature
tionship with others has been underlined.
It
rela-
will therefore
no one who has so far followed my argument that I consider the fear of abandonment to be one of the basic fears of mankind. Even in adult life we are inescapably dependent upon each other for our mental health; and no surprise
one can accept emotional ality intact.
'To
feel
isolation
and retain
his person-
completely alone and isolated leads
to mental disintegration just as physical starvation leads to
death." 6
It is
not therefore surprising that the child dreads
the loss of those upon
whom
he
is
dependent— not only
because of his physical needs, but also because the preservation of the developing structure of his personality de-
pends upon a sustained relationship with people him. That
disintegration of personality
relationships
march together can be
and
who
accept
loss of object-
clearly seen in schizo-
AND INTROJECTION
IDENTIFICATION phrenia: and the fear of
75
abandonment can be taken
as
being
an attempt
to re-
in essence equivalent to the fear of insanity.
The
fear of being
abandoned
leads to
and to an introjection of
identify with the parents
their
standards and attitudes— in other words, to the establish'
ment
of that internal and primitive type of conscience
which psycho-analysis has made familiar as the super-ego. The small baby which is unconscious of its separateness
may
both omnipotent and secure so long
feel
helplessness
is
as
begins to be aware of
its
itself as a
it
is
needs. But directly
it
separate individual, and
adults are not so immediately ready to serve
expedient for the child to
try
actual
whom
complete and the adults with
surrounded minister at once to
its
it,
it
becomes
and please the adults
for fear
may abandon it or punish it. When in Rome it to do as the Romans do, or one may arouse their
that they is
safer
wrath: and
it
is
therefore expedient to assume the aspect,
and mimic the behaviour, of those upon whose benevolence one's security depends.
One
way, therefore, of dealing with the anxiety which
the loss of primary identification inevitably entails troject the standards
and thus to titudes child:
may
them. Such standards and
at-
coincide with the inherited disposition of the
and there are many
and
their forefathers
men who
go through
persist in the
mode
life
content
of existence
have handed down to them. Others
are destined to find their traditions
to in-
attitudes of the parental figures
re-identify with
to hold the beliefs
which
and
is
own
way; to rebel against the
which have been transmitted
to them; to suffer
anxiety and the fear which attends separation from the parents; and, finally, to
point of view. Such
win
men
their
way to a new individual whose genetic endow-
are those
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
76
ment makes
own
of their
impossible for
it
them
to preserve the integrity
personalities and, at the
same time, preserve
the parental attitudes which they have introjected. are compelled to fight their
own
individual
way of
life;
which they have been
way
to freedom; to find their
and to discard the reared,
traditions in
for such people
becoming conscious
realization consists partly in
They
self-
and
of,
subsequently discarding, introjected parental attitudes: and the earlier some degree of emotional security
is
attained,
the sooner will this discarding take place. Emotional security
more
is
likely to
be attained in a household in which
the parents are secure enough to be able to tolerate
differ-
ence from themselves, and mature enough to make
who
tionships with children
are not just little
themselves, but individuals in their
people
who
rela-
models of
own right. It is only who have to insist their own tastes and
themselves need reassurance
that those around
them conform
to
opinions; the ability to tolerate difference from oneself
good
test of maturity.
when
interests
dren
and
who
a
Parents often treat children not as
discrete entities but as parts of themselves,
turbed
is
and become
dis-
they find that their children have separate identities. It
most
are
is
my
impression that the chil-
identified with their parents are those
whose upbringing has been most fraught with anxiety; and, if they become patients in adult life, one can observe with what
irrational fear
tal
standards
to
emerge and
is
even the smallest departure from paren-
attended.
To
see the true personality trying
to cast off identifications
which have been
on grounds of security is rewarding, and it is a process which is accompanied by a new firmness and certainty on the part o{ the patient. But the preliminary at-
made
solely
tempts are
like
watching a timorous bather
to dive into the water.
Many
who
is
frightened
testings of the temperature,
IDENTIFICATION
many
AND INTROJECTION
77
cautious extensions of the limbs, are necessary before
the final plunge
is
taken.
This type of identification with parents
ultimately
is
based upon the primitive morality of the super-ego, which is
the morality of fear. "I must be the same as they are or
they will be angry"
what parents approve
is
the operative phrase.
and "bad"
of,
is
"Good"
what they
is
dislike;
and, naturally, they like themselves and their opinions.
Most adults exhibit modes of behaviour which are not based upon reason or upon conscious choice, but upon parental attitudes
which were introjected
in childhood
and which
have never been discarded even though they may be inappropriate to present conditions. Super-ego standards are rigid,
unrelated to the present, and emotionally defended.
Reasoned argument makes but ions
little
impression upon opin-
and modes of behaviour which cannot be altered with-
out making the person concerned feel like a threatened child.
We
must
all
be familiar with people
pelled to be perpetually busy;
who cannot
uncomfortable unless they are
*
who
rest
are
com-
and who
'doing something."
feel
Such
people have taken into their psychic structure the notion that idleness sult that
is
"bad" and
activity
is
"good"; with the
re-
they will engage in any activity, however useless,
rather than incur the inner reproach of laziness
ments them
if
they
which
tor-
sit still.
Part of the process of self-realization consists, therefore, in discarding introjected beliefs
and
attitudes
to be foreign to the developing personality:
which prove and
this
may
be attended by considerable anxiety and depression. In adolescence, for example, a
new
piece of self-discovery
is
of-
ten initiated by depression. Adolescents are notoriously
moody, and often
their
fits
of depression express their de-
spair at finding that they are not
"good"
in the sense that
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
78
they do not correspond to what they believe their parents
expect of them, and are not just pocket editions of the parental models.
Becoming free of identification with others completed; and most of us remain to some extent
is
never
prisoners
of our family background, of our social class, or of our nationality.
The
club, the old boys' reunion, the perpetuation
of hierarchical social structure, are mechanisms of reassur-
What
ance.
a sense of solidarity,
mutual grandeur,
The most
dinner!
is
to be
found
what an affirmation of at,
for instance, a City
platitudinous speech
is
acceptable in the
alcoholic haze of good fellowship, and everything conspires to
make
us feel that
we
are all jolly
of course, for the waiters).
The
good fellows (except,
sense of mutual support
which men gain from such gatherings
is
matched by the
and the
loss of their individual characteristics,
subtleties of
personality disappear in the simplicities of the crowd.
So
far
I
have attempted to discuss identification from
the negative point of view; but, as
I
pointed out at the
beginning of this chapter, identification may also serve a positive function in the
searching for his
may need
own
development of the personality. In
individuality the developing person
to discard his identifications with those
whom he
has been dependent, and from
to differ.
He who
with people
will also,
upon
whom he has feared
however, tend to identify himself
appeal to
him and who may
play a valu-
able role in his development by evoking aspects of his personality
which might otherwise
lie latent.
CHAPTER
7
PROJECTION AND DISSOCIATION Homo
sum; humani
nihil
a
me alienum
puto.
TERENCE
In the previous chapter
we
discussed the importance of rid-
ding the personality of introjected attitudes and beliefs
which did not belong
to
it,
but which had been taken over
wholesale from parents and other people upon whose goodwill the child
depended.
site process: that
characteristics
in
must now consider the oppo-
which
Whereas
to terms with
introjection
is
in the
the phe-
characteristics belonging to others are
attributed to oneself, projection
which
coming
which have been denied and rejected
course of development.
nomenon
We
of recognizing and
is
the
phenomenon
in
characteristics belonging to oneself are attributed to
others. In the search for one's
own
individuality
it
is
as
important to recognize those parts of oneself which are projected
upon others
as to discard those parts of others
which
have been taken into oneself.
We its
have already postulated that the
dependence upon parental approval,
itself
upon those
whom
it
child, because of strives to
has to please. This
is
model
a shift of
the child's personality towards that of the parents, or to-
wards what the child comes to believe that the parents are
demanding of
it.
At
the same time there will be a shift
79
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
80
away from whatever seems to displease the parents; an attempt to deny and expel what they condemn, or what cannot be brought into the relationship with them. The child comes, therefore, to regard certain aspects of himself
as
dan-
gerous or unpleasant, and so denies them. But these same characteristics,
to
later
meets them in other people,
will
tend to attribute to others,
him; and he
will disturb
and
when he
condemn
in
them, that which he cannot accept in
himself.
The most extreme form
of this type of projection
is
found in the paranoid psychoses, in which the patient believes himself to be the
The
persecution.
delusional systems
monotonously
tients exhibit are
variations
innocent victim of an unprovoked
upon the same
which paranoid pa-
similar, since they are but
basic themes; themes
which stem
from the sexual and aggressive impulses which the subject has been unable to accept himself, and which he therefore
upon others. It is "they"— the others— who fill mind with obscenities and excite peculiar sensations in
his
who
are
projects
body, not he
who
has erotic feelings.
plotting to destroy him, not he
fellow-men.
It is
who
"they"
It is
his
hates and shuns his
"their" voices which whisper abuse in his
ear at night, not his
own
ment him. That which
thoughts and fantasies which
tor-
completely
dis-
is
unacceptable
is
owned, but found to be projected upon other people. The complete projection of the "bad" in such instances is a measure of the basic weakness and helplessness o{ the patient. It
is
only those
who
are emotionally extremely de-
pendent who
cannot afford to admit any of those they believed as children to be rewhich characteristics garded as "bad" by the parents, and which might, there-
fore,
if
admitted, threaten their security.
that those
who
later
The
observation
develop schizophrenia have often been
PROJECTION AND DISSOCIATION
81
unusually compliant, ''good" children supports this concep-
But in order to see
this type of projection in action
we need not examine the
psychotic, nor even penetrate the
tion.
psychotherapist's consulting-room; our daily experience will furnish a plenitude of examples.
Only
a very moderate acquaintance with psychology
required to recognize that
men
which they cannot accept
that
own unadmitted
is
constantly deplore in others
and that
in themselves,
it
inferiorities
which
violent condemnation.
And
so
find that
the latent homosexual
who
fulminates against homosexu-
their
is
ality,
it
is
generally
and the man who cannot come to terms with
violent impulses
the
we
excite their most
who demands
woman who
is
his
own
the revival of flogging.
It is
unable to accept her
own dependence
and helplessness who cannot stand babies: and the denunciations of the militant atheist reveal
how
powerfully he
has been affected by the religion against which he inveighs.
A
study of those people
warding
if
and hence unadmitted,
The
one most
parts of one's
bond which
peculiar
often been described.
dislikes
more
if
likely to
own
is
a re-
personality.
links together
Two men who
closer emotionally than
ultimately
whom
painful task; for such a study reveals projected,
enemies has
detest each other are
they were politely detached, and
make
a relationship. This
an
is
expression of the fact that hatred— like love— invariably
contains a subjective element, and that there in
common between two
people
who
something
is
hate each other; for
they hate that in themselves which the other appears to personify.
The
principle that
some unadmitted
what we most condemn
part of ourselves
accepted. Accepting a principle tually
coming
is,
is
in others
is
becoming generally
however, easy: but ac-
to terms with infantile aggression
and sexu-
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
82
ality
which has been repressed
is
a painful
what
is
projected
is
is
difficult
and anxiety. To
process, attended by considerable fear
similate
and
as difficult as to discard
as-
what
introjected; and, in the psychotherapeutic endeavour,
perhaps even more time will generally be spent in the
mer than
in the latter process.
Unadmitted
for-
parts of the
personality generally display three characteristic features.
They tend infantile,
to be projected
upon other people, they remain
and they cause disturbance
in the
form of symp-
toms. Their projection upon others has been discussed
above, but the other two features require further
clarifica-
tion. It is
a remarkable
remain
and interesting
fact that parts of the
which have been disowned
personality
in early
childhood
and even the experienced psychotherapist
infantile;
may sometimes be
surprised by the appearance, in an ap-
parently mature adult, of beliefs and attitudes appropriate to early childhood.
adult personality acteristics
ued to
—a
It
is
as
if
a child coexisted with the
whose
child, moreover,
earliest char-
had been accurately preserved and who contin-
feel
and think
in exactly the
same way
as in times
long past.
Many
estimable people are, for example, plagued with
sexual fantasies and compulsions of an infantile, primitive
kind which occasion them considerable
distress
and which
are admitted to the psychotherapist only with the greatest difficulty. if
But
if
such fantasies are
fully
and honestly faced,
they are accepted to such an extent that they can be
completely revealed to another person, their compulsive quality disappears,
and the energy with which they are
in-
vested becomes available to the personality as a whole. That
which cannot be
fully
admitted to another person
is
that
which cannot be completely accepted by the individual
PROJECTION AND DISSOCIATION himself; that self
is
which
is
83
unacceptable to the individual him-
inadmissible to another person.
It
is
commonly
be-
what can be admitted to oneself in the privacy of one's own solitude has been accepted: and that it is only lieved that
material of
which
it is
which the individual
is
completely unconscious
hard for him to tolerate. But the
difficulty
which
people experience in revealing disturbing fantasies, which
may be
fully conscious, indicates that there
in fact a vast
is
between admitting something to oneself and
difference
tually telling
someone
else
earlier chapters of this
about
and, as
it;
is
ac-
implied in
book, the maturing process, which
includes the acceptance of the rejected, infantile parts of
the personality, cannot take place in isolation. This
is,
I
believe, the raison d'etre of the psychotherapeutic process,
which ultimately depends upon the relationship formed between patient and therapist. That the unadmitted, rejected
parts of the personality
which cause symptoms is generally recognized; some concept of self-realization, it is
are those
but, in the absence of
hard to see why this should be
so.
Freud gave us the valu-
able observations of "repetition-compulsion" and of the '
'return of the repressed"— and every psychotherapist
surely recognize that
to persist
demand
and repeat
must
what has been rejected tends not only itself in its infantile
form, but also to
recognition in the form of symptoms. Rejected parts
of the personality are like children clamouring to be let into a room: they will continue to cause a disturbance until they are admitted.
It is as if
even the most
the personality, the aspects of which to rid ourselves, were
demanded
endowed with
a
infantile aspects of
we should most
that they too should seek expression. Personality
ultimately seeks realization as a whole, and,
the ego
like
dynamic energy which
may
seek to reject that which
it
however much
finds
hard to
tol-
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
84
erate, the rejected parts will
make
where, whether as symptoms or
The
people.
final
aim
is
their appearance some-
as projections
upon other
the realization of the total person-
ality.
This chapter
is
headed "Projection and Dissociation"
rather than "Projection and Repression" because
need of
a
word which
will express the rejection
ting off of mental contents, but
which does not
I
feel the
and
split-
necessarily
imply that such contents are unconscious. Repression
is,
by
definition, a process in
which mental contents become un-
conscious; and what
repressed can only be disinterred by
is
the use of one or other specialized techniques. There are,
however, mental contents
which
— thoughts,
feelings, fantasies
are felt to be alien to the personality, but
which
are
not themselves deeply unconscious, although they may be
masking other material which
is.
The
sexual fantasies
luded to above come into such a category, and so do obsessional thoughts.
The term
both such phenomena repression,
and
I
as these,
propose to use
contents which are
felt
it
al-
many
dissociation can include
and
also the
concept of
as referring to all
mental
to be alien to the personality,
whether conscious or unconscious. Why is it that the mental contents which tend to be dissociated,
and hence projected,
chiefly consist of sexual
and aggressive impulses? In the next chapter I hope to show that such contents are by no means the only ones to be projected, but it is in general true that the aspects of themselves
which
in this civilization people find hardest to con-
front are connected with sexuality and the drive for power.
Jung,
2
in
The Undiscovered
Self, talks
of "the world of un-
conscious instinct dominated by sexuality and the power drive (or self-assertion), corresponding to the twin moral
concepts of Saint Augustine: concupiscentia and superbia.
PROJECTION AND DISSOCIATION
The
85
clash between these two fundamental instincts (pres-
ervation of the species and self-preservation)
the source
is
of numerous conflicts."
The
urge to power and the sexual instinct are also those
which cannot
aspects of the personality
find expression in
childhood and which necessitate conflict with the parents.
So long
the parents are in power, so long
as
the child's
is
assertion of itself incomplete: so long as the parents are
principal love-objects, so long
is
the expression of
its
its
sex-
uality impaired.
The
hypothesis has been advanced in an earlier chapter
that dependence
since every child
every child
is
and aggression is
are linked together: and,
necessarily dependent,
inevitably aggressive.
If
lish itself as a separate personality,
should oppose loving they
it
follows that
the child
it
is
is
to estab-
necessary that
it
the parents, however tolerant and
itself to
may be— or
else the child
remains identified
with the parents, a mere reflection of the parental psychology.
Some
parents seldom oppose their children at
give the children everything that they stantly at their
beck and
call,
demand,
and subordinate
all.
They
are con-
their
own
personal lives completely to the wishes of the children.
Such
whom
they
parents are depriving their children of anyone
can legitimately oppose, and by doing so are preventing their development.
It is
who
in;
at
once gives
tyrant or else
aggressive feelings.
who never to a
life
and so the child either
becomes
A
guilty about his perfectly
mother who
asserts herself,
of her
own
is,
someone becomes a
impossible to fight with
is
normal
always self-sacrificing,
and who has given up any claim
by her example, likely to create the
impression in her children that to oppose anyone else
is
wrong: and this may result in their disowning and trying to split off
from their personalities those aggressive impulses
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
86
which should play
The
a valuable part in their development.
old-fashioned "progressive" school
on the same grounds.
impossible since everything for individual
tolerated, there
development than
as well as pupils
mean
is
have their
always giving in to
fact that rebelliousness
one
in
criticized
is
is
scope
less
which teachers
in
Loving a child does not
rights.
it,
may be
which rebellion
In a regime in
but does imply accepting the
and opposition are
a necessary
and
valuable part of growing up. Children need to fight with their parents, is
and
for the parents to refuse ever to fight
to treat the child as less than a person
maintain a relationship with
which the
it.
One
child's aggressive feelings
ated and partially denied
is
for
and to
back
fail
to
way, therefore, in
may become
dissoci-
to be faced with a parent
it
who always gives in: another is for it to confront a parent who never does so. The tyrannical parent is perhaps less frequent than he was; and for many educated people the problem is rather that of exerting authority than that of tempering is
clear that a child
and so
terrified of its parents that
In such circumstances the child
expression to
its
it.
But
it
can be cowed by an excess of authority,
aggressive feelings,
also inhibited. Since
dare not oppose them.
it is
equally unable to give
and
its
development
is
any show of aggression on the part of
the child results in punishment,
it is
natural that
it
should
seek to deny feelings which arouse parental wrath and therefore induce insecurity. Aggression ciated because a parent
is
too compliant: the ideal
may
thus be disso-
too domineering or because he is
balance between two opposites. Since this balance to attain,
it
sive feelings
is
is
to be found, as always, in the
not surprising that, in
have been subjected
many
is
hard
people, aggres-
to dissociation
and may
give rise to neurotic symptoms. Indeed, the efforts of a con-
PROJECTION AND DISSOCIATION body of psychopathologists have
siderable
87
for
some time
been directed much more to the understanding of aggressive impulses within the personality than to the study of sexuality. It is
become
easy to see
how
its
personality in the ways
attempted to outline. Perhaps
it is
became
may
its
how,
come
in
to be
no longer condemn the manifestations of
found that they did in
and
have
equipment of every educated
fantile sexuality in their children in the
ality
also
I
Since the concepts of psycho-analysis
part of the mental
adult, parents
easy to see
less
these days of enlightenment, sexuality felt as partially alien.
may
the child's aggressive impulses
dissociated from
fin-de-siecle
way
Vienna.
offshoots remain a major
in
in-
which Freud
And
yet sexu-
and potent source of
neurotic conflict; and such evidence as there
is
seems to
indicate that children brought up in complete sexual free-
dom
suffer
the same difficulties at adolescence as their more
conventionally reared contemporaries. that
It
seems probable
some degree of guilt and anxiety about sexuality is however tolerant the upbringing, it is gen-
inevitable: for,
erally impossible for sexual impulses to find full satisfaction
within the still
home
circle.
So long
as
the child's behaviour
is
predominantly under parental control, whether from
without, by the actual parents, or from within, by the superego, so long will sexuality be to
of the personality; for
it is
some extent a rejected part which cannot be expressed between parent and child,
a part
in actual behaviour, at least
without the parent-child relationship being damaged. It is
worth considering why incest excites universal con-
demnation.
It is
chiatrists will
not particularly uncommon, and most psy-
have seen a number of examples.
It
is
my
impression that an incestuous relationship with a parent usually harmful to a child,
is
though incest with a brother or
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
88
sister
is
not necessarily
poraries,
that, in the absence of ents,
I
emotional
cannot believe that
difficulties. Incest firstly
Indeed, sexual play with contem-
so.
whether consanguineous or not,
it
is
so
is
difficulties
productive of later
itself
between parent and child
is
objectionable
because, in a sexual situation, the parent abrogates
parenthood. In our civilization a parent
command,
is
required to be in
to give security by being able to deal with cir-
cumstances and situations with which the child able to deal.
he
is
common
with the par-
a parent
If
no longer
not yet
is
possessed by any violent emotion
is
a safe person,
no longer
Drunk
a parent.
parents, violent parents, frightened parents are also threats
even
to a child's security,
if
they are not amorous parents
as well; for their loss of control
temporarily, to
fulfil
Moreover, sex
makes them unable,
at least
the parental role. apt to be terrifying where there
is
is
a
marked discrepancy of power between the two people concerned; and most of us recoil from a situation in which intercourse
is
upon a weaker by
forced
a stronger person.
Observation of the so-called ''primal scene" preted by the child as frightening, for ceives the sexual act as an attack by the
Since to the small child love protection,
it is
means
it
is
often inter-
frequently con-
man on
the
woman.
chiefly tenderness
not surprising that adult passion
is
and
equated
with violence, and that the incestuous advances of a parent are felt as a threat rather than as a manifestation of affection. In cases
where the son or daughter
does not apply: and
I
is
grown up
this
have seen an example of an incestu-
ous relationship between father and daughter which persisted for a considerable time. Eventually the father
became
intensely jealous of the daughter's feelings for another
she reported him
and created such a disturbance that he was convicted and
police, with the result that
man
to the impris-
PROJECTION AND DISSOCIATION
The continuance
oned.
89
months
of such a relationship for
without undue disturbance on either side tends to demonstrate that
it is
not necessarily incest
is
exploited by an older and
between
one
to be
since It is
a parent
it
so
is
which
in
is
not treated
is
incest
bound
as a person,
cannot participate in the situation on equal terms.
thus being used rather than loved, treated as a thing,
not an individual, and misused by the very person to it
dam-
a child
more powerful person. In
and a young child the situation
which the child
in
which
itself
an emotional situation
aging, but rather
would normally turn In adult
life
for protection
and
whom
security.
the complete expression of sexual love
is
only possible where each partner feels on equal terms with the other, where giving and taking
is
and where each
equal,
accepts the other as a whole person. This
is
why
analytic test of maturity, "genital primacy,"
the psychois
valid; al-
though the terminology employed suggests a more limited concept than
is
actually implied. If
dependent upon the other, child is
if,
one partner
is
markedly
emotionally, one partner
is
a
and the other a parent, then the sexual relationship
bound
more powerful
to be unsatisfactory, for fear of the
partner will impair the free expression of what either
When
one partner
one partner
is
is
treated as a parent
it
is
weaker and the other stronger.
expression of sexual love requires that a
man
feels.
implied that
A
complete
should be free
of the fear that she will hurt him, and the same holds true of the
woman
also.
The
persistence of fears of this kind
is
usually related to the persistence of a childish sense of being less
than the partner. This sense of inequality excites
re-
sentment on the one hand, and apprehension on the other:
and so the freely
is
An
ability to give
and receive physical
affection
impaired by the fear of physical hurt. adult patient
whose father had made repeated
in-
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
90
cestuous advances to her in childhood was frightened of arousing any sexual feeling in a man, for to do so implied
She projected the image of her
that he would hurt her.
upon every man, felt that every man was powerful and that she was weak, and believed that any manifestation
father
of affection towards her was
than in pleasure, since she
bound
felt like
to result in pain rather
a helpless victim
when
woman who
could
confronted with a man, rather than like a play the feminine part
She had
sure.
on equal terms
to avoid evoking love
do so meant that they would be
The
in a cooperative plea-
from
men
because to
cruel to her.
sexual advances of a parent to a child need not
necessarily be frightening; but there
is
a further, and per-
haps even more important, objection to such incestuous relationships. Sexuality
which makes
for
is,
in adolescence, the
The
independence.
main
adolescent
force
com-
is
pelled by his increasingly urgent sexuality to seek relation-
home, since
ships outside the
events there If
sexuality
there
and
is
so
is
but
little
can find
much
strike out
on
scope for
its
expression within
it.
free expression within the family circle
the its
dependence are the
in the ordinary course of
less
reason for the child to leave
own, and
persistent immaturity
it
and
result.
A patient told me that his mother used to
"act the part
of a prostitute" towards him. His incestuous fantasies about
her were perfectly conscious, and there was no evidence of the incest taboo in his material. But his immaturity was
and he was quite unable to act or take decisions an adult or masculine way. He had never had to do so,
striking,
in
and
his reluctance to
grow up was reinforced by the
tuous relationship with his mother,
for,
inces-
since he could gain
a partial satisfaction with her, there was so
much
the
less
PROJECTION AND DISSOCIATION reason for his forming outside the Incest to
new and more
91
adult relationships
home.
between parent and child
individuality,
is,
therefore, opposed
opposed to maturity, opposed to
self-
realization. By making sexuality either too easily accessible on the one hand, or too terrifying on the other, incest may
encourage the persistence of immaturity or prevent the de-
velopment of more adult taste for incest
attached to
it
which
is
attitudes.
deeply rooted
dis-
attested by the legal penalties
in our society
rational as well as
The
can be shown to be based on
on emotional grounds;
can
for incest
prevent or interfere with the growth and development of the individual, and, provided our basic hypothesis
cepted that the development of the individual to his extent
is
desirable,
it
is
is
ac-
fullest
easy to demonstrate that incest
is
to be deplored.
Since sexuality cannot be brought into the relationship
between parent and child without disturbance of that tionship,
it
becomes evident that
sexuality, like the aggres-
sive impulses previously referred to,
from the
total personality
and
may become
felt to
though the parents may have never the early manifestations of
it
rela-
dissociated
be alien to
explicitly
it,
even
condemned
in their children or uttered the
castration threats so often emphasized by the pioneers in
psycho-analysis.
The
integration of sexuality, the full ac-
ceptance and recognition of
which
it
its
importance and the way in
pervades every aspect of our being,
of maturity; for to realize sexuality in
all its
is
a valid test
richness
acknowledge separation from the parents and to act
is
as
to
an
independent person. Parents often blame themselves unnecessarily for supposedly causing guilt
children.
Of
and anxiety
in their
course they often do, and nobody supposes
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
92
which the child
that a fiercely authoritarian upbringing, in
becomes cowed,
remember
anything but harmful. But
is
bound
to be attended with
this anxiety will
aspects of the personality as sexuality
the child It is
it
is
well to
that the gradual emergence of the child as a sep-
arate individual
and that
is
some
anxiety,
be chiefly manifested in those
which we
artificially
dichotomize
and aggression, even though the upbringing of
may have been
as nearly ideal as
can be imagined.
therefore not surprising that, in adult
life,
those parts
of himself which are denied by the subject, which tend to
be projected, and which may give
rise to
symptoms, are
intimately connected with the twin drives of power and sexuality
gence
which constitute the individual
as a separate individual.
roots of his emer-
CHAPTER
8
AND
IDENTIFICATION
PROJECTION Now we
have agreed that Love
and does not
lacks
is
plato
In a previous chapter an attempt was
two types of at
first
identification.
what he
in love with
possess.
We
made
1
to distinguish
pictured an infant
quite unaware of his separate identity; and
who was we
pos-
tulated that the beginnings of personality development con-
with the parents— the
sisted in a gradual disidentification
slow emergence from a matrix of a
We
concluded that
also
new and
this loss of
was replaced by a secondary identification acteristics
introjected for security reasons:
longed not to
An
itself
come
and we were thus able to
but to those upon
whom
it
which bewas depen-
introverted child brought up in a predominantly
in contact with other people
may appear than
it
to be
actually
much is
be-
has assumed modes of behaviour which are foreign
cause
it
to
real personality.
its
which char-
to exhibit traits
extraverted household, for instance,
more
in
belonging to parents and others in authority were
see that a child might
dent.
distinct person.
primary identification
Parents are bound to prove unsatisfactory objects of lationship for the developing child;
and
this
is
re-
so for three
reasons. First, since parents are in a position of authority,
they are bound to be to some degree restrictive, and hence
93
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
94
to excite resentment as well as affection. Second, a sexual
relationship of a satisfactory kind with parents ble. Third, since
may
lack qualities
which
in the child,
of
them
to find
expansion.
is
impossi-
no parents are perfectly endowed, they which would help to evoke potentialities will
what
it
It is difficult
be forced to turn to others instead needs. This third postulate requires to imagine that
Mozart could have
been anything but a musician. But suppose that Leopold had been unmusical. Would Wolfgang's talent have matured so
would he have acquired
fast,
at so early
an age that
mastery of technique which laid the foundation for his later
achievement? will force
its
A
phenomenal endowment such
as Mozart's
and
realization against considerable opposition;
the example of Handel attests the fact that even elderly
and
irascible physicians
gifted sons; but there
can be vanquished by their more
can be
little
doubt that the realization
of an innate potentiality in a child proceeds at a faster pace if
his parents themselves exhibit
or interest
which
something of the same
gift
seeking expression.
is
During the course of development various people other than the parents, with
whom
the child comes in contact,
may become emotionally important stance
is
the school-teacher.
to
it.
The
A favourite teacher may evoke
latent potentialities in the child by providing a
which the child can
typical in-
identify
itself.
model with
Often such an
identifi-
cation goes temporarily too far and the child may, in
its
enthusiasm, take over attitudes and characteristics which again will be later discarded— just as in the case of the parents.
But often something remains; some part of the child's
personality has been evoked and continues to play in actual
its
part
life.
Often the traits which are evoked in this way are those which the parents themselves do not exhibit, and which are
IDENTIFICATION
AND PROJECTION
95
therefore liable to remain latent unless the child across
someone who
identification
is
will
an argument
for the widest possible type of
education; for the school with a wide range of
is
in hereditary
tact, the
not the
variety of
represented, not the specialized technical insti-
tution. For the varieties of
ple with
staff,
which every
private tutor; for the university in
opinion
comes
evoke them. This positive type of
endowment
whom
temperament and the
are extensive,
and the more peo-
the child and adolescent can
more quickly
is
he
differences
come
in con-
likely to find himself. It
may
be as well to emphasize here that this type of identification with school-teachers and others
is
not a conscious process
upon an emotional link between teacher and pupil which cannot be produced consciously. I am reminded here of a boy who, although intelligent, remained near the bottom of the class for a whole term. Next term he rose to a place near the top: and this was simply the result of a change of teacher. The boy was one who had failed to realize his potentialities partly because his father's attitude of anxious expectation had induced in him
of copying, but rests
the conviction that nothing he did was worth while or ever likely to be.
He was much
would give him what
in need, therefore, of a
his father
had been unable
a feeling that his efforts were worth while
and that he was
capable of some achievement. Whereas the failed to this
convey
this to the boy, the
man who
to provide;
first
teacher
second succeeded; and
was reflected in the boy's change of position in the
class.
This
is
the kind of situation which leads to a partial
identification of pupil with teacher. Because the pupil feels
that the teacher approves of him, he reacts by taking over
some of the
teacher's characteristics. But this process does
not occur with anyone:
it
occurs in response to a subjective
need which the teacher happens to
fulfil at
that particular
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
96
moment.
In such a situation
it
likely that, temporarily,
is
the teacher will be seen as wholly "good" by the pupil, and that his attitudes and opinions will be taken over whole-
Time
sale.
will
modify
and further experience
this,
will re-
how much of what has been taken over really belongs the pupil's own personality. The type of identification described above is often, if
veal to
not invariably, preceded by projection.
We
which charac-
discussed the familiar type of projection in teristics
which we cannot accept
to others.
more this
It
is
have already
in ourselves are attributed
not, however, so generally recognized that
positive qualities are often projected also,
and that
phenomenon is an important part of development. The developing child is often fascinated by certain peo-
ple; that
is,
upon him.
these people have a strongly emotional effect
enough that people should be attracted by those who resemble themselves and whom they It
is
natural
recognize to be like themselves.
the previous chapter that
whom we
with
darity us.
and
we
It
has been pointed out in
like to
can identify— for
it
have
to
do with people
gives us a sense of soli-
security in the world to find others
who
resemble
rests upon the more powerful than the link
But the compulsive attraction which
mechanism
of projection
between those with
is
whom
far it is
easy to identify; and this
attested by the type of language which
describe
is
is
generally used to
it.
The phenomenon
I
mean
is
commonly
referred to in
the language of magic; and, although the words used have lost their
can
ing,"
we
them the awe oi the irrational which in all of us. When we refer to a person as "fascinat"bewitching," "enchanting," we may recognize that
still
lurks
compelling power through the abuse oi habit, one detect in
are using terms originally appropriate to witchcraft
and
AND PROJECTION
IDENTIFICATION
wizardry.
A
"glamorous"; an orator
is
us— we
are at
once in a realm where
recognize that their effect
upon
us
"casts his spell" over
we
woman
beautiful
97
is
based upon some-
thing more powerful than reason. In the course of development children are usually emotionally attracted to a
Such people
are
whole
commonly
series of
people of both sexes.
school-teachers and older chil-
home with The glamorization and much a part of normal
dren; since these are the people outside the
whom
the child has most to do.
idealization of such people
development that
it is
who have
few parents
is
so
taken for granted; but there can be not sometimes been surprised by the
intensity of feeling aroused in the breast of their child by
some apparently
dull
believe that
I
it
and undistinguished person.
can generally be shown that these peo-
ple epitomize undeveloped parts of the child's
and that they
ality,
attract
a subjective response.
It
him
own
person-
so strongly because they stir
seems probably that those parts of
the personality which are latent, undeveloped— and only potential, those parts, therefore,
which can be
said to be
unconscious— are in fact recognized by the individual concerned, but, to start with, are thought to belong to others rather than to himself. Personality
Not
strings.
may
all
lie silent
is
like a
many
harp with
the strings are plucked at once, and some
throughout
life.
Others may be
set into vi-
bration by the impact of personalities with the same
quency.
The
irrational attraction
and sometimes adoration
which an older child or a teacher
may be explained in terms of a the former. The child can be love" with
The sion"
is
its
own
fre-
will inspire in a pupil
projection of the latter said, as
it
upon
were, to "fall in
latent potentialities.
psychological
phenomenon
of the "crush" or "pas-
often undervalued, and the explanations of
it
which
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
98
me
advanced seem to
are usually
that the child
other that this
One
inadequate.
such
is
simply looking for a substitute parent; an-
is
merely a manifestation of the homosexual
is
phase through which everyone passes are usually towards
such attractions
(for
members of the same
sex).
I
believe that
these attractions are of great importance in psychological
development, and that
it is
through such emotional attach-
ments that the child discovers
comes more aware of both
To
his
own
his abilities
the small child every adult
is
personality and be-
and
his limitations.
invested with a certain
glamour simply because the adult can do things which the
The
child cannot. itself
very attribute of being
*
'grown up"
is
an attraction and something which every small child
longs to exhibit in
which
more
am
I
its
own
person. But the attractions with
here concerned are both more powerful and
than
specific
How
this.
often, for instance, will a la-
tent capacity for appreciation or performance in the arts or in music be
awakened
child admires. exhibits
is
in a child
by a teacher
a projection
upon the teacher of the
capacity which, until the teacher evoked latent and unrecognized. curs, there are
whom
The emotional attachment which
When
this
is
child's
own
may have been
kind of projection oc-
two courses open to the
and desirable development
it,
the
the child
child.
The normal
that the child should proceed
from the stage of projecting upon the adult to that of idenwith him, and thus begin to model himself upon the
tifying
As
teacher. erto has
the child himself becomes capable of what hith-
been thought to belong only
to the teacher
and
not to himself, the emotional fervour of the attachment will die
down.
We
those
who have
selves
have got
degree.
A
child
only become emotionally involved with
got "something for us"; and it 4
when we
our-
they no longer attract us to the same
'grows out" of
someone
to
whom
he was
AND PROJECTION
IDENTIFICATION attracted because he has
which was
that
in adult
life
we
been able to develop
upon the
originally projected all
99
in himself
other.
Even
skills which we do not no longer admire in others
tend to overvalue
ourselves possess; but
we
also
which we can easily do ourselves. The second and less desirable course
that
rest in
is
for the child to
the attitude of adoration in which he feels that the
teacher continues to be wonderful but that he himself
is
incapable of reaching such heights. In such a case identification does not take place and the projection
is
not with-
drawn. This persistence of projection without identification is
an important feature of homosexuality. Children in adolescence and during the years immedi-
ately preceding adolescence
their
love
own is
sex.
The
commonly
idealize
a natural
is
often attributed to segrega-
phenomenon which
plays a positive
though passionately interested
between the
sexes,
female groups,
it is
do not usually
my
view,
in
the
up into male and
split
characteristic of older groups that they
small child simply wants to "grow up," to gain
striving to be a
chil-
differences
denigrate the opposite sex while exalting their own.
power which adults
it
and impor-
Whereas small
tant part in emotional development.
dren,
of
fact that this initial type of falling in
generally homosexual
tion or to other environmental factors; but, in is
members
childhood the boy
possess. In later
man, and the
girl to
The
some of the is
be a woman; and they
tend to be fascinated by those people
who
possess qualities
of masculinity and femininity which are as yet only latent in themselves.
The
over-valuation of one's
under-valuation of the other
is,
own
development; and in the initiation eties, in
which youths
pass from
sex
combined with the
perhaps, a necessary part of rites
boyhood
of primitive socito
manhood,
it is
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
100
women
usual for
of
at puberty,
girls
The
to be rigorously excluded. 2
though
supposedly evil effects of their menstruation,
adduced
scribes
M.
at certain stages of
Forster, 3 in his essay
how
in his
first
shameful to have a
preparatory school
who had
it
de-
was considered
a sister hid her as
and forbade her to
in a very formal
his
development.
on "Jew-consciousness,"
prize-giving or to speak to
At
also be
sister.
Naturally anyone far as possible,
and
may
an example of the segregation of the sexes being
as
thought desirable E.
seclusion
chiefly practised to avert the
sit
with him
him except
at a
in passing
manner.
second school,
Sisters
were negligible, but
have a mother. Many
it
was a disgrace to
tried to divert suspicion
by
being aggressive and foisting female parents upon the weak.
One
and had a
large popularity-surplus, took
or two,
who were good
at
games
up a
really
heroic line, acknowledged their mother brazenly
and would even be seen walking with her the playing
field,
like
across
King Carol with Madame
Lupescu.
Although concepts of masculinity and femininity vary widely from era to era and from place to place,
it
may be
been no era, and that there which such concepts do not exist; and that
firmly asserted that there has is
no
it is
place, in
a vital part of every child's development that
become
firmly
established
emotionally as a
it
should
member
of
IDENTIFICATION whichever sex
it
AND PROJECTION
101
belongs to anatomically, and feel able to
compete with other members of the same sex on equal terms. It is
generally accepted that an emotional interest
which
is
predominantly directed towards members of the same sex
is
characteristic of childhood
and the period up to the be-
ginning of adolescence; and that, in
homosexual
interest
may
many
instances, this
persist until early adult life with-
out there being anything abnormal or unusual about
it.
Ho-
mosexuality in the sense of a fixed adult pattern of behaviour cannot be said to exist until the middle twenties; for often the pattern spontaneously alters
becomes heterosexual long
and the person
after the legal age of maturity
many men and women remain prein their own sex in exactly the same
has been attained. But
dominantly interested
way
as
we
accept as being natural at an earlier age. This
is
not simply a matter of the misdirection of the genital impulse, but of falling in love with a person, or at least with
an idealized aspect of a person. Whether or not in love
is
accompanied by a conscious wish
tact with the desired person
seems to depend on age and
on previous experience. Children of their
own
this falling
for genital con-
habitually adore
members
sex without wishing for genital contact be-
become the most important channel for the expression of their loving impulses. Adolescents and young adults may be more aware of the physcause the genitals have not yet
ical aspect of their desire,
but homosexual fantasy
is
often
only vaguely concerned with physical contact unless physical
seduction has already occurred. There
is
a wish to be
with the beloved person; to be noticed by him talk of him;
and a compulsive
(or her); to
interest in all that
he does;
but the desire for physical union usually follows, rather than
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
102
accompanies, the fascination which the beloved person ex-
may never
and, in the ordinary course of development,
erts
be made manifest
at all.
Clinical experience of both male and female homosexual patients has
convinced
me
that the most important psy-
chological fact about confirmed homosexuals
is
their inner
conviction that they can never be adequate members of their
own
For them
who can compete with others on equal terms. is always "the other man" who possesses mas"the other woman" who has feminine charm.
sex it
culinity, or
Homosexuals
are fascinated by that in others
which they
believe to be lacking in themselves— and, in the normal
course of development, this fascination disappears because
most people succeed
in identifying themselves with adult
their own sex. If you, a man, man among men, you will no longer
members of
feel yourself to
be a
accord to
men
which you gave them woman, feel yourself to be and poised member of your own sex, you will
that degree of admiration and esteem
when you were an attractive
a boy.
If
you, a
no longer be fascinated by the charms of those women upon whom you had "crushes" when you were growing up.
The
persistence of a predominantly homosexual incli-
nation indicates a failure of maturation— but a failure of a special
kind— a
failure to identify
with adult members of
the same sex, and a persistence of the projection upon them of those qualities of male and female maturity which, in the
no more than latent. that homosexual men (and
child and in the adult homosexual, are
The
psycho-analytic view
is
other perverts) suffer from an intensification of the fear of castration
which
tion leads
me
is
a universal complex.
to suppose that
it is
not so
My own much
castration as the conviction of being castrated chiefly operative.
Homosexual men
observa-
the fear of
which
is
are usually fascinated
IDENTIFICATION by the penis— both by their
AND PROJECTION own
103
organ, which they often
regard as too small, and by that belonging to others, which
they admire as being larger.
over again that
men who
has been observed over and
It
are uncertain of themselves as
men have
a conviction that they
that other
men
are
have a small penis, and
more generously endowed. This
belief
has, as a rule, nothing to
do with
concretistic expression of
an inner emotional conviction of
reality. It
is
an outward,
being lacking in masculinity and unable to compete with other
men on
equal terms.
The
fascination
which the male
organ exerts compels homosexuals to look for
and the
it;
compulsion to go into public lavatories in order to gaze
at,
men is a symptom which some homosexuals and not infrequently
or to touch, the genitals of other is
distressing to
leads
them
more does
to seek treatment.
it
The
larger the penis, the
excite their interest— an interest
of a wider and
more general
which
is
part
interest in "masculinity."
Homosexual men may themselves be effeminate, but they do not generally admire effeminacy in others.
On
the
contrary, they are attracted by a rather extreme type of
masculinity; and the over-muscular, tough young
men who
appear on the outside of physical culture magazines are the pin-ups of the homosexual male.
They
are
drawn
to just
those qualities which they feel to be lacking in themselves, qualities
which may
Proust,
opens
4
in the
in fact be latent rather
famous essay on homosexuality which
Cities of the Plain, describes
lovers
from
whom
bility of that
than absent.
is
homosexual
men
as
always precluded the possi-
love the hope of which gives
the strength to endure so
many
risks
them
and so much
loneliness, since they fall in love with precisely that
type of
man who
has nothing feminine about him,
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
104
who
not an invert and consequently cannot love
is
them
in return, with the result that their desire
would be
for ever insatiable did not their
money
procure for them real men, and their imagination
end by making them take to
whom
for real
Proust conceived of homosexual logically feminine. In describing
He
men
men
in their
life
temperament
is
5
less para-
manly sim-
feminine and
who
resemble in their appearance only the
men; that where each of
in the universe, a
us carries, inscribed
which he beholds everything
in those eyes through
human
surface of the pupil, for
nymph
is
being psychosays:
belonged to that race of beings,
ply because their
We
as
Charlus he
doxical than they appear, whose ideal
rest of
the inverts
they had prostituted themselves.
outline engraved
them
it
is
on the
that not of a
but of a youth.
may sympathize with
insight, his observation,
and
Proust's view
and envy
his
his superbly subtle awareness
men and women: but we must disagree his idea with that the homosexual man is feminine. Rather is he a child whose development is incomplete — a boy who of the motives of
has not yet matured into a man.
The homosexual
search
is
often determined by an absence of a satisfactory identification in early
homosexual father has
with. ing
life
men
with the parent of the same sex; and in it
A father who
may
is
common
is
to find that the patient's
some way impossible to identify hard, unapproachable, and overbear-
been absent or
in
inspire such fear that the developing
away from him.
A
weak,
soft,
and
boy turns
ineffective father does
AND PROJECTION
IDENTIFICATION
105
not provide a sufficiently forceful personality to evoke masculine qualities in his son. In either case there
a failure
is
of identification, and the son turns away from his father to
seek in others those masculine attributes which he needs for his
own development.
If all
upon
goes well he finds
them and, by modelling himself
a teacher or friend, himself
looking for in others. But, or frightened, he sess
if
he
may continue
becomes what he has been is
sufficiently discouraged
to feel that other
something to which he can never
aspire,
men
pos-
and so remain
in a state of immaturity.
A paradoxical effect of the failure of identification with one's sex:
of
own
sex
is
the attempt to identify with the opposite
and the tweeds and
manner
flat
assumed dominance
heels, the
woman, conceal
of the homosexual
a deep hurt
and feeling of inadequacy. In homosexual men the
women
is
usually strong
them; but trans vest ists,
enough
who
fear of
to forbid identification with
are, as
it
were, half-way be-
tween homosexuality and heterosexuality, exhibit
identifi-
men men and
cation with the opposite sex in clear-cut form. Such are usually deeply discouraged with themselves as feel
they cannot possibly compete with others. But a
lin-
gering desire to shine, a normal wish to be recognized as
somebody, finds expression in the fantasy that,
if
only they
could be female, then they would be acceptable and even admired. In such cases of transvestism as treated there has
been no wish
I
have seen and
for sexual contact
with men,
but an envy of women, a wish to give up the struggle of
man and a desire to be a woman instead. Similarly, a woman who has felt herself to be a failure as a member of her own sex often feels that life is so much easier for men; that if only she had been born a man her
trying to be a
problems would be solved; and that
it
is
an unfortunate
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
106
endowed with a female body when her soul is that of a man. The process of becoming an adult member of one's own accident that she
is
sex emotionally as well as physically serves as a striking illustration of
their part
which
is
how both
in the
projection and identification play
development of the personality. That
originally unconscious
is
at first
conceived of
as
belonging to others, then assimilated as part of the person's
own
personality;
and
it
is
through contact with other per-
sonalities that the individual finds and identifies his own.
CHAPTER
9
HETEROSEXUAL LOVE
AND I
RELATIONSHIP
attempt from love 's sickness to
Since
I
am
myself
my own
fly in
fever
and
vain
pain.
DRYDEN AND HOWARD
1
In the last chapter the hypothesis was advanced that the
compulsive attractions
felt
by the developing child towards
members of its own sex were based upon projection, and that what was projected was an undeveloped part of the child's
own
personality.
It
was further suggested
when
that,
a sufficient degree of maturity has been attained for identification
with adult members of the same sex to take place,
the projections upon
them
are
withdrawn and emotional
interest shifts to the opposite sex.
To be
able to
with the opposite sex implies a more or
fall
in love
less firm identifi-
cation with one's own, and also an identification with being
"grown up," although,
as
with
processes, outlines are never sharp pleted.
and
all
psychological
stages never
com-
There are obviously many people who seek a parent
in their heterosexual partner; but such people
be said to be
falling in love in the full sense,
can hardly
and a study
of their psychology invariably reveals the presence of sexual fantasies
ner, but
which have little or nothing to do with the partwhich contain those aspects of sexuality which
they feel to be incompatible with the real person.
who
A woman
has married a kind and gentle elderly man, to
107
whom
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
108
she
is
really a daughter, will
ruthless
tend to have fantasies of a
and powerful young lover who
is
perpetually en-
A
gaged in abducting her to some romantic destination.
man whose woman
a
is
mother
to
him
will
be preoccupied
with day-dreams of an invariably seductive courtesan whose sole raison d* etre
to inflame his sensuality.
is
paternal or maternal the partner, the
more
The more
insistent will be
the fantasies: and a study of the conscious relationship enables
one
to predict
the type of day-dream with some
confidence.
In addition to this type of parent-child relationship be-
tween the
sexes, all kinds of stages of intermediate
homo- and
between
heterosexuality can be observed: and a study of
the fantasies of those people in yet not firmly established
is
whom
heterosexuality
of considerable interest.
material could be adequately codified
it
If
is
as
such
would provide us
with objective evidence of the process of sexual develop-
ment; for
it
is
not generally realized (except by purveyors
of pornographic literature) that these fantasies are far more collective than individual and, as such, give a picture of
the general development of the sexual instinct in
man
rather than in a particular person.
For instance, some male homosexuals
who
are
still
pre-
dominantly fascinated by the male may yet admit to fantasies in which their favourite man is observed to be having intercourse with a is
woman. Sometimes the
watching the procedure with
interest;
subject himself
sometimes he then,
or concurrently, has relations with the man: and frequently
he follows the
man
in
Uncertain himself of
own
instinct to be
from the
having intercourse with the woman.
how
to deal with her,
and feeling
his
an inadequate guide, he requires a lead
man whom he
so
much
can only then attempt to emulate.
admires, and
whom
he
HETEROSEXUAL LOVE AND RELATIONSHIP
Of
a similar kind are the fantasies in
man
to be brought to heel by another sufficiently
which
109
a wife has
before she will be
compliant to submit to her husband. Elaborate
sadistic fantasies in
which, for example, the
which she
to a school for wives in
is
woman
is
sent
beaten into submission
by a stern schoolmaster, are not uncommon, and form the stock in trade of pornographers whose function
is
to provide
who are not yet able to find love in orthodox manner. Nor are such fantasies confined solace for those
pages of vulgar magazines. Several writers of
work
acclaimed by the
is
books which are
more
to the
whose
and public, have produced
critics
more than
little
thrillers,
a
a series of such fantasies
interspersed with padding designed to give the appearance
of coherent stories.
The
yet to be compiled in such a
which
I
am
way
as to illustrate the thesis
advancing; that such fantasies are not merely
compensatory strivings
distasteful aberrations, but also
may be
of development, as in
mentioned here simply to
hesitant stages
illustrate
the fact that there are
intermediate steps on the way to sexual maturity.
There may be no realizes that, for
clearly defined
him, magic
is
moment
no longer
at
which the boy
to be found in the
toughness of the male, but rather in the softness and cacy of her
whom
hard for the
he so
girl to
lately despised:
remember when
faster at the sight of the
as
to-
on the path the examples given above. They are
wards normality, which
many
phenomena has
catalogue of these
boy
whom
and
first
it
deli-
might be
her heart beat
yesterday she dismissed
rough and noisy. In the last chapter
we noted
that those compulsive at-
upon projection are referred to in the language of magic; and we assumed that this magical quality was due to the projection of a subjective element— tractions
which
are based
an undeveloped part of the personality. This conception
is,
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
110
I
and apprehomosexual infatuations of young people. Does it
believe, valuable in helping us to understand
ciate the
also apply to heterosexual falling in love?
In the Symposium 2 the idea that
what seems
or are fascinated by, is
advanced by Socrates 4
men
fall
in love with,
to be lacking in themselves
in characteristic fashion:
the nature of Love such that he must be
'Is
love of something, or can he exist absolutely with-
out an object?
don't
I
mother or
ticular
mean
father?'
'Is
— to
love love of a par-
ask whether Love
love of a mother or father would be absurd— but
can make
my
point clear by analogy.
If
I
is I
were to
take the single notion Father and ask 'Does Father
mean
the father of someone or not?' you,
wanted
to give the right answer,
reply that Father
means the
if
you
would presumably
father of a son or a
daughter, wouldn't you?"
"Certainly," said Agathon.
"And
similarly with Mother?"
"Agreed." "Let us go a quite clear.
little further,
The notion
to
make my meaning
Brother, does that intrinsi-
cally imply brother of someone, or not?"
"Of "In
course
it
fact, of a
does."
brother or sister?"
"Yes."
"Very
well.
Now
try to tell
me whether Love
means love of something, or whether there can be Love which is love of nothing." "Quite clearly, it means love of something."
"Take a firm grasp of this point then," said Socrates, "remembering also, though you may keep
HETEROSEXUAL LOVE AND RELATIONSHIP it
to yourself for the
is
love
moment, what
And now
of.
"Of
is
isn't
it
you
is
in possession of
when he
reflect for a
is
what one
Agathon,
I
one does
To me
as certain as
any
at
anything can
think?"
think
"Good.
it
is."
Now would anybody wish to be big who who was strong?" from my previous admission
big, or strong
"It follows is
will see that
lacks, or rather that
seems
it
What do you "Yes,
was
or
not."
moment, you
not desire what one does not lack.
be.
it
merely probable but absolutely certain that
desires
rate,
Does Love
or not?"
of,
not?"
"Probably
one
this:
Love
does he desire and love the thing that he
and loves when he
when he "If
me
love
is
that
course he does."
"And desires
just tell
he
desire the thing that
it is
111
that this
impossible."
"Because a be in need of
man who
possesses a quality cannot
it?"
"Yes."
man wanted to be strong who was swift-footed who was swift-footed. I labour
"Suppose a strong or
the point in order to avoid any possibility of mistake, for all
one might perhaps suppose
who
similar cases that people
character or qualities
who
and
in these
are of a certain
possess certain qualities also desire
which they
possess.
But
you consider the
if
matter, Agathon, you will see that these people
must inevitably possess these ent
moment, whether they
one presumably would
desire
qualities at the pres-
like
it
what
is
no No,
or not, and inevitable.
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
112
if
a
man
says:
who am
'I,
am
healthy, or
rich,
none-
may
theless desire to be healthy or rich, as the case
be,
and
I
desire the very qualities
we should
reply:
'My
friend,
which
I
possess,'
what you, who
are in
possession of health and wealth and strength, really
wish,
is
have the possession of these
to
continued to you in the future, since
moment you
them whether you wish
possess
whether when you say
not.' Consider, then, sire
what
that
may continue
I
which
things
like this, '
4
you do not
possess'
I
really
mean
he would agree,
I
If it
'I
de-
wish
were put to him
think."
'Yes," said
Agathon.
'But this
to be in love with a thing
is
or
it 'I
to possess in the future the
possess now.'
I
qualities
at the present
which
is
not yet in one's power or possession, namely the
continuance and preservation of one's present blessings in the future."
"Certainly."
"Such
a
man, then, and everyone
desire, desires
possession,
what
and
and love have
things or qualities which a possess but
which he
who
feels
not in his present power or
is
desire
else
man
for their object
does not at present
lacks."
"Yes."
"Come
then," said Socrates, "let us sum up the which we have reached agreement. Are on points they not
first
that
Love
exists only in relation to
and second that that object must be something of which he is at present in want?"
some
object,
Like poor Agathon,
we can only answer "Yes"
remorseless argument: but,
if
to this
our hypothesis that compul-
HETEROSEXUAL LOVE AND RELATIONSHIP sive attractions are based
upon projection
113
to stand,
is
need to add something to the statement of Socrates.
we
We
have already suggested that the compulsive, magical quality
which love,
the characteristic feature of the state of being in
is
due to the projection of
is
Greeks were well aware of
known
a subjective element.
The
and, in an even better-
this,
passage in the Symposium
,
Aristophanes puts
for-
ward an explanation.
He
recalls the
myth
that there were originally three
When
sexes— hermaphrodite, male, and female.
Zeus, in-
censed by the hubris of these creatures, decided to sever
them
in half,
each sex was
left
incomplete and was com-
pelled, therefore, to seek out a partner
who would make
it
whole once more. Thus the male sought a male, the female a female,
and the bisected hermaphrodite
its
contrasexual
name
partner. "Love," says Aristophranes, "is simply the for the desire
and pursuit of the whole."
The Greeks same need
of the fifth century B.C. evidently felt the
as ourselves for
an explanation of the compulsive
and magical quality of Love, and recognized the subjective element which they personified whole. In finding a lover a
as the lost half of the bisected
man was
therefore discovering
the other side of himself, and the same was true for a
woman. Recognizing and accepting homosexuality did, the
Greeks found
it
ent original types of people: whereas
and female homosexuality uality,
pass
as
necessary to postulate three
we
they
differ-
regard both male
as precursive stages to heterosex-
although realizing that
many people
are unable to
beyond the homosexual phase of development. The
high value which the Greeks attributed to masculinity, and the comparatively lowly position of
women
why male homosexual of women. Our values are
in their society,
perhaps explains
love was valued
above the love
different
and we
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
114
regard homosexual love as inferior and is
prolonged into adult
condemn
it
when
it
But we can entirely agree with
life.
the conception of the desire and pursuit of the whole, and
with the idea that people in love are seeking not only for sexual satisfaction but for the other half of themselves. It
seems that no sooner have adolescents reached the
own
stage of identifying with their
sex in a
more or less which
adult fashion than they begin to be fascinated by that
they appear to lack— the attributes of the opposite sex. That heterosexual falling in love
is
based upon projection
versally accepted, although the technical
used. is
uni-
is
term may not be
We all know that the beloved as regarded by the lover
not identical with the person seen by everyone
and
else:
that falling in love involves an over-valuation, and a distorted picture, of the person
seem ordinary:
To
us a
hero.
man
It is
to
who
him she "walks
is
loved.
To
may
in beauty like the night."
appears commonplace: to her he
inevitable that beauty
us a girl
is
a romantic
is
predominantly in the
eye of the beholder, and that the image of the beloved
is
an expression of a subjective need rather than a picture of an actual person. But what
is
this subjective
need and from
where does the contrasexual image originate? It is
obvious that the sexual instinct
ment, and that to
its
without
seeks
men
men
without women, and
will, inevitably, like St.
surrounded by a host of incubi and succubi
Antony, be
who
take pos-
session of their imagination and personify the object is
missing. But to be in love
mind
is
fulfil-
frustration or lack of object will give rise
an imaginary object: so that
women
itself
is
which
an experience which to
my
inadequately explained in terms only of the need
for genital satisfaction; for this
may be and
often
is
without two people being in love with each other.
attained If
we
are
to be consistent in assuming that the irrational, magical
HETEROSEXUAL LOVE AND RELATIONSHIP
1
15
is
always due to the
projection of a subjective element, then
we cannot escape
quality associated with falling in love
we
the hypothesis that rather, that all those
are all in
some sense bisexual— or,
who become
capable of falling in love
with the opposite sex are so constituted, for
is
also
it is
clear that
more magical than falling in love; and it apparent that no experience is more manifestly sub-
no experience
is
seems to con-
jective. In his state of infatuation the lover
ceive of union with the beloved as the be-all and end-all of existence. Lovers feel as as
if
no one
else
one could conceivably be
made
they were
if
could possibly
fulfil
for
each other;
their need; as
no
if
as fortunate as themselves; as
if
they themselves were incomplete without the other person.
The
projection of the subjective element
In this connexion
it
is
is
obvious.
interesting to note that, at the
outbreak of a schizophrenic psychosis, the patient quently believes that a change of sex
is
taking place.
suggested that identification with one's
portant part of development: and
it
is
own
sex
fied in this
in
way. In acute schizophrenia the ego
command;
it is,
and the patient his emotions.
is
The
as
it
were,
at the
is
it is
fre-
have
an im-
is
clear that
conscious part of the personality, the ego, which
I
is
the
identi-
no longer
swamped by the unconscious,
mercy, rather than in control, of
patient not infrequently expresses his
way
fear of being
overwhelmed
of sex; as
the ego was identified with the anatomical,
if
actual, sex of the patient,
in this
as a fear of
change
and the unconscious with the
opposite sex.
The anatomical abnormality
of hermaphroditism
rare as to be a medical curiosity.
maphrodite that
is,
will elect, or
to adopt the
is
so
But occasionally a her-
be encouraged, to "change sex";
manners and behaviour of the sex
opposite to that in which he or she had up to date been
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
116
reared.
Such an occurrence
excites
an outburst of publicity
of such proportions as to suggest that the emotional interest in
change of sex
a collective rather than
is
phenomenon, and tends
an individual
to attest the fundamental bisexu-
of human beings. The mutual projection which
ality
occurs between lovers
seems to indicate a search for completeness, a reaching out after wholeness, a
union between conscious and uncon-
scious: so that, to the all
that
his
life;
is
man, the woman appears to contain all that would complete
missing in himself and
and, while a fundamental part of what
a partner with
whom
the only need which she promises to
fulfil.
personifies whatever, in his particular culture,
inine;
and
for her
he
is
the
missing
is
he can have intercourse,
this
is
is
not
For him she is
called fem-
embodiment of masculinity. The
image which each projects upon the other exhibits the psychological, as well as the anatomical, attributes
which
dis-
tinguish the sexes; and the fact that the psychological attributes vary
from time to time and from place to place
does not invalidate this concept. differ
The Mundugumor may 3
from the Arapesh in their ideas of what
and what
is
masculine
feminine; yet the fact that the sexes are distin-
guished by more than their anatomy civilization.
is
is
common
to every
The forms in which masculinity and femininity may vary; the fact that there are such
manifest themselves
manifestations remains the same.
The scheme
of development propounded by the older
type of psycho-analysis ends, like the Victorian novel, with
happy marriage— or, to use jargon, with the attainment of genital primacy: and, in earlier Freudian writings, one might a
be forgiven for assuming that the achievement of tory heterosexual intercourse was the final
relationship.
satisfac-
aim of human
HETEROSEXUAL LOVE AND RELATIONSHIP
Of
course, the fascination
which each sex
117
upon
exerts
the other leads to heterosexual relationships, and to the
establishment of the genital, as the main channel for the giving and receiving of love: but,
our view
if
is
correct,
the achievement of genital primacy and the becoming an
member
adult
opment.
A
projection
own
is
not the whole of devel-
further stage exists in
which the heterosexual
of one's
sex
withdrawn, in the same way
is
homo-
as in the
sexual phase; a stage of development in which being "in
love"
is
superseded by loving, in which projection
is
re-
placed by relationship.
This
is
not to deny the continuing need of each sex for
the other; anatomy alone demands that this be recognized.
But the absence of compulsion— the withdrawal of projec-
tion—must be recognized that in ings.
as a stage of
which the individual
However
delightful
it
is
is
development beyond
at the
to be in
mercy of such
love— and,
spect, the torments
which accompany the
to be forgotten— it
is
still
feel-
in retro-
delights are apt
an advance to be able to love
without the distortion of the other person which the projection of the contrasexual image necessarily involves.
a
man
to be
companion
marooned on it
is
we no
Were
one female
probable that his subjective need would
invest her with a glamour possess under
a desert island with
which she would not appear
more normal circumstances:
it
longer compulsively need someone that
a real relationship with them.
None
of us
is
to
only when we can have
is
ever completely
whole; nor can our need of each other, and therefore our distortion of each other, be entirely dispelled; but, sufficiently fortunate in is
our partner, and
if
if
we
a progressive thing, not merely a static achievement,
may approximate
to a stage in which, because each
the other's need, each
is
also treated as a
are
our relationship
we
fulfils
whole person by
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
118
the other. Whereas formerly two people in love served only to complete
what each
felt to
be lacking— now two whole
people confront each other as individuals.
The attainment
of this stage of development
is
marked
by a diminution of the competitive striving so charac-
also
teristic
who
of young people
selves as
men
or
are not yet certain of them-
women. Much psychotherapeutic time
is
habitually spent in exploring such uncertainties, and in try-
ing to reduce the compulsive struggles in
which men
feel
forced to prove themselves stronger than other men; in
which women have
to
show that they
are better than other
women. To the adolescent the world is peopled with impossibly masculine men, and inconceivably feminine women, none of whom could ever be emulated by an actual
human
being. But, with the attainment of a real relation-
ship with the opposite sex, the need for such affirmation of one's
own
of a real relationship with oneself is
neither
A man
all
male nor
vehement
sex disappears; and the possibility
all
emerges— that
self
which
female, but a mixture of both.
happy marriage perhaps represents the
ideal of hu-
relationship— a setting in which each partner, while
acknowledging the need of the other,
he or she by nature
is:
feels free to
a relationship in
well as intellect can find expression; in
which
be what
instinct as
which giving and
taking are equal; in which each accepts the other, and confronts Thou.
I
CHAPTER
10
THE PSYCHOTHERAPEUTIC PROCESS Only connect
and
the prose
be exalted, and
human
the passion,
and both
love will be seen at
will
height.
its
Live in fragments no longer. Only connect and the beast
and
the
monk, robbed of
the isolation that
either, will die.
e
m.
.
is
to
life
forster
This book began with the observation that the
1
results of
psychotherapy did not seem to depend upon the school to
which the psychotherapist belonged, nor upon the method
which he employed (although there
is
an important
vation with regard to method to which
There have
in fact
I
reser-
shall refer later).
been investigations into psychoanalytic
technique which show that, even within the same school, therapists differ widely in in the beliefs
what they do. They vary not only
which they hold, but
in innumerable lesser
ways which may, nevertheless, be of importance; example, in
how
often the patient
is
lies
on
and
in the degree of activity of the therapist.
a couch or
sits
as,
seen, in whether
for
he
up, in the timing of interpretations,
able schemes of technique
may
be, there
is
However no doubt
in practice, there are all kinds of variations in
how
valuthat,
thera-
behave; and that, since investigation within
pists actually
the comparatively formalized school of psychoanalysis has
shown such other,
less
variability, investigation into the practice of
formalized,
show an even
psychotherapeutic schools would
greater range of individual differences. This
119
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
120
being
so,
hard to defend the proposition that the
it is
results
upon the technique employed. It can, of course, be argued that there are no results of psychotherapy, and that the recovery of some patients who have been treated by psychotherapy is fortuitous. The fact of psychotherapy depend
symptoms vary
that neurotic
many
in severity,
and that a good
people appear to lose their symptoms spontaneously
has been adduced as evidence that psychotherapy essary, its
and that
aid. It
as
many people
most virulent attack upon
significant that the
is
unnec-
is
recover without, as with,
psychotherapy in recent years has come from a professor of psychology
who
has no medical qualification and
who
has
never been responsible for the clinical care of patients; and,
we may accept
while
evidence
tific
upon the lack of
his strictures
the results of psychotherapy,
as to
scien-
we may
ence in the treatment of neurosis, and
who has no experiwho has never felt
human
being in distress of
justifiably suspect
the opinions of one
obliged to try and help a fellow
mind, even though there such help
am
I
and
I
is
effective.
believe that
it
and
is
in
effective in a large proportion of
some psychotic
cases also. But,
could be proven that psychotherapy was not
(and that still,
upon
is
as
hard to do
as patients,
to
that
inevitably prejudiced in favour of psychotherapy,
cases of neurosis if it
no absolute proof
as yet
is
and
still
as to
more
make some attempt
prove that as
human
it is)
even
effective
we should
beings, be called
to care for people in distress
of mind: and this would inevitably result in our trying to
make some
relationship with such people.
therefore, be driven into psychotherapy
lieved in
its
efficacy: for, as
I
see
it,
even
We if
should,
we
disbe-
psychotherapy consists
fundamentally in two people attempting to make a relationship with each other.
The view
of
human development
THE PSYCHOTHERAPEUTIC PROCESS which esis
I
have outlined
is
121
based upon a fundamental hypoth-
derived from the practice of psychotherapy: this
is,
that
the development of personality and the development of object-relationships are ultimately aspects of the cess,
and that
to talk of personality as
from interpersonal relationships
my
In
is
if it
same pro-
existed apart
meaningless.
search for an explanation of the efficacy of psy-
I am forced to the conclusion that the undercommon factor is the development of the relationship
chotherapy lying
between the patient and the psychotherapist. Methods and theories differ widely: but every psychotherapeutic situation
contains at least two people— a therapist and a patient— and,
although in group psychotherapy the relationship
formed between members of the group may be more important than that formed between therapist and patient, this
does not contradict the hypothesis: for in group psychotherapy the other members of the group are acting as therapists vis-a-vis
each other, since they provide for each other
the possibility of
new
setting— which
the characteristic feature of the situation
is
relationships in a special therapeutic
in individual psychotherapy also.
At
this point
I
feel obliged to state the reservation as
to method in psychotherapy to
ginning of this chapter.
I
which
I
referred at the be-
believe that there
able difference between psychotherapy in suggestion,
is
predominantly ana-
Analysts of quite different training and fundamental
beliefs will unite in regarding suggestion
inferior forms of treatment. is
Even
if
a place in psychotherapy for such
that suggestion
There
a consider-
and hypnosis are the principal methods em-
ployed, and psychotherapy which lytic.
is
which persuasion,
is
is
in a
way opposed
and hypnosis
as
they admit that there
methods they to the
a very real divergence of practice
will agree
aim of
analysis.
and personality
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
122
between those
therapists
and those who
rely
divergence
rests
ple example
use an analytical approach this
A
sim-
upon
may
who
predominantly on suggestion; and a different fundamental aim.
serve to illustrate this. Suppose that a
hypnotist suggests to a patient that he will become more
independent, more able to make his confident.
may appear it
If
independence
rests.
If
a
upon what
basis this
man becomes more
simply because another person it
more
decisions,
it
that a satisfactory result has been achieved. But
justifiable to inquire
is
own
the patient responds to these suggestions
tells
must be doubtful whether he
new-found
independent
him he ought
really
do
to
so,
wants to be more
independent, and even more doubtful whether his apparent
independence is
told
is
turity. It
will
be sustained. The
ability to
do what one
not good evidence of a development towards mais
the dominant position of the therapist and the
correspondingly submissive position of the patient which
makes suspect gestion; for to
techniques of psychotherapy based on sug-
dominate another person
is
to treat
him
as
than a whole person and, ultimately, to interfere with
less
his
all
development towards being a whole person
in his
own
right.
This
is
not to deny that suggestion plays a part in psy-
bound to do so; and even the most detached, impersonal, and unemotional anchotherapy of an analytical type.
alyst
It is
cannot avoid influencing the patient by tone of voice,
emphasis, and inflexion, and even by comparatively impersonal things such as the
room
in
which the patient
is
seen.
But the attitude towards the patient of the therapist
who
deliberately uses hypnosis
and suggestion
ent from that of the analyst, and to encourage the
is, I
is
very
differ-
believe, less calculated
development of the individual. Jung
states
THE PSYCHOTHERAPEUTIC PROCESS
men
that
123
only react positively to those suggestions with
which they
and so implies
are secretly in accord anyway:
that the part played by suggestion in analytical psychother-
apy
is
unimportant, although admitting that
it
occurs. But
the difference in attitude of the analyst compared with that of the hypnotist as hypnosis,
is
which
important. rests
A
method of treatment such
upon the
prestige of the doctor
which inevitably keeps the patient upon an
may be
and
inferior footing,
of temporary service: but ultimately
fails
to encour-
age the separate development of the individual as a unique person, since
it
depends upon the patient accepting what
the doctor suggests, which
is
bound
him from
to prevent
forming a relationship with the doctor on equal terms.
The
analytical approach,
on the other hand, constantly
demands of the patient that he should himself solve his own problems, and does not require that he should agree with the doctor or take over his ideas. alyst
is
to
make
clear
The
function of the an-
what the problems
are,
not to provide
ready-made solutions; and the avoidance of didacticism
is
designed to encourage the patient's independence.
Marcus Aurelius obtained sible teachers;
for
Commodus
the best pos-
but the solicitousness of the most cultured
served only to produce the most vicious of
all
the
Roman
Emperors. Lord Chesterfield subjected his son to the most intensive correspondence course in manners of
which we
have a record: but Stanhope remained obdurately unaffected and continued to prefer his library to the world of
which
power and fashion
in
he should posture
successfully. Analysts
his father
was so anxious that
do well to shun
didactic types of psychotherapy, just as fathers are best ad-
vised to avoid trying to instruct their sons; for in either
case
the
recipient
of their
well-intentioned
but
ill-
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
124
considered teachings
who this
are
rise
up
tell
wrath and
in
me how
most pertinent question there I
ical
may
you that you should
say,
to live?"
no adequate
is
"But
And
to
reply.
have suggested above that the effectiveness of analytpsychotherapy depends upon the relationship formed
between analyst and patient. This
is, I
factor underlying the diverse beliefs
believe, the
common
and practices of the
various analytical schools. This hypothesis can be further
extended by postulating that the degree of recovery which takes place in the patient
is
proportional to the degree of
maturity of the relationship which he
with the therapist.
symptoms
are
If
I
am
is
enabled to make
right in believing that neurotic
an expression not only of disharmony within
the individual himself, but also of a failure in the maturation of his relationship with others;
two ways of looking
at the
if
in fact these are but
same thing, then
that the gradual resolution of neurotic
it
must follow
symptoms
is
accom-
panied by an increasing maturity in the relationship be-
tween the patient and therapist which,
in
the most
favourable instances, culminates in their confronting each
human beings upon equal terms. No one is more aware than I am that such an outcome of psychotherapy is not always possible; but I like to know the direction in which I am aiming, even if many of my arrows fall other as whole
short of the mark.
All psychological schools of an analytic kind, and some others which are not (for example, those concerned with
learning theory) seem to agree that neurosis and psychosis are intimately related to disturbances in development.
The
Freudian school lays emphasis upon emotional disturbances in the early years of childhood; the Kleinians postulate difficulties in
Jung,
who
the
first
few weeks or months of
stresses the present
life;
and even
disharmony of the psyche
THE PSYCHOTHERAPEUTIC PROCESS
125
and the pointers to the future which may be implicit on the patient's material, states that neurosis sided development of personality
is
due to a one-
which can be traced back
to the slenderest beginnings in childhood.
In an earlier chapter
we
discussed the dissociation and
rejection of those parts of the personality to be alien to the subject:
which were
felt
and we concluded that these
aspects of himself were rejected because the child
had come
to feel, rightly or wrongly, that they were incompatible with
the parents; and that, because he was not yet ready to be
independent of his parents, he was compelled to personality to
other words,
fit
it
tailor his
in with their supposed requirements. In
was postulated that a
partial dissociation of
the child's personality took place because he was either not accepted, or at any rate
came
to feel that he was not ac-
cepted, as a whole person, by the parents, and consequently
could not accept himself as a whole person.
One
result of
acceptance was that the
this (partially inevitable) failure of
child tended to identify himself with only that in himself
of which the parents seemed to approve, and to reject that in himself of it
which the parents seemed
was suggested that
it
to disapprove;
personality, chiefly consisting of aggressive pulses,
which gave
The can,
I
rise to
symptoms
come
life.
grosser degrees of dissociation of the personality
more accept himself more
to feel accepted to
and sexual im-
in later
development of a
believe, only be healed by the
relationship with another person
comes
in
which the patient
as a
whole and can therefore
as a
whole.
At
the beginning
bound
of the psychotherapeutic process the therapist
is
be more or
vis-a-vis
patient.
and
was these rejected aspects of the
The
less
in the position of a parent
fact that neurosis
is
to
the
a kind of immaturity or
childishness, as well as the fact that the patient
is
seeking
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
126
help from the therapist, inevitably puts the latter in a position of authority; although
it is
a position from
which he
hopes to descend progressively during the course of
ment.
one who
development and differentiation
its
separate individual and
which does not demand that
conform to a prearranged pattern. is
It is this
same
as a
shall
it
attitude
required of the psychotherapist; the attitude which
Jung describes lieve that
it
nor which
"unprejudiced objectivity."
as
is
I
do not be-
matters to which school the therapist belongs,
beliefs or theories
he holds,
if
pable of this attitude of objective love.
tude he
is
able to give the child that loving acceptance
is
which encourages
which
treat-
has already been suggested that a good parent
It
providing what
is
he himself
If
he has
is
ca-
this atti-
possibly the most important
requirement for the patient in any form of psychotherapy—
which development can proceed.
a milieu in lated
that
all
men
are
I
have postu-
seeking self-realization— the
full
flowering of the personality; and that such a flowering can
only take place in the sonal relationships.
It
fruitful soil of satisfactory interper-
may be
that
the therapeutist can provide this
it is
soil
the degree to which
which determines
his
above
this
therapeutic success or failure. If
am
I
right in supposing that
it
milieu in which he feels accepted as patient
is
seeking,
it is
who
it
is
not
why he needs
a
There are a great many peo-
are anxious to help others
are prepared to spend time
Moreover,
it.
all,
a whole which the
pertinent to inquire
psychotherapist to provide ple in the world
is,
and trouble over
uncommon
and who
their problems.
that during the course of
analytical psychotherapy the patient forms a relationship
with someone other than the therapist
who
proves of as
more help to him. Some therapists discourage such relationships on the ground that they interfere with the
much
or
THE PSYCHOTHERAPEUTIC PROCESS
127
transference situation; but, as a general rule, any relation-
which
ship
lessens the emotional isolation of the patient
to be
welcomed provided that
he
liable to
is
it
is
not also one in which
is
be swamped. Psychotherapists tend to
feel
uneasy about the help proffered to their patients by friends, not because they wish to keep the therapeutic situation a closed one, but because they fear that the friend
may
into the trap of trying to order the patient's
for
rather than enabling ficult
enough
him
better to order his
own
the analysis of his
It is dif-
personality, to avoid interfering with
much more
it is
own.
fall
him,
he should be by
for the therapist, trained as
his patients: but
life
difficult for friends.
The
reason for seeking help from a psychotherapist rather than
from a friend
that the former
is
tively involved
is
less likely to
be subjec-
with the patient, and therefore more
likely
to be able to provide
what the patient needs. Moreover,
the psychotherapist
often confronted with people whose
friends
is
have long ago given up trying to make any intimate
relationship with them, since they have found cult to
do
contact
who
so. It
find
is
it
of others preclude
and
who
are
most
impossible to procure
them from ever
is
who
too dim-
need of human
it,
since their fears
getting close to anyone;
either rebuffs
them
from attempting or shrinks away.
perhaps especially the very introverted, schizoid pa-
tients that the psychotherapist finds
also
it
in
their acquaintances are apt to desist
intimacy with one It
those
most rewarding;
for
it is
both most
such people
greatest skill. Simple cases of anxiety
by anyone
who
difficult
who demand
and his
can often be helped
has the goodwill and time to give to them;
but really isolated personalities
demand an approach and
an understanding which can be acquired only through
spe-
cialized training.
The
relationship with the therapist
makes
possible the
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
128
healing of the dissociation within the patient; the accep-
tance of the previously unacceptable, the integration of the formerly inadmissible. But, the inquirer surely such repulsive aspects of
within
all
of us, that
Many
them.
and perverse
ask, there are
nature, such horrors
impossible to accept or integrate
it is
people are horrified by the
phenomena— the
psychopathologicai ous,
human
may
fantasies
which
catalogue of
grisly
murderous,
lurk in the
back bedrooms
may bring such but while insight may illumine,
of our minds. Analytical investigation into consciousness;
quently
fails
incestu-
to dispel these fantasies;
and the
things it
fre-
intellectual
appreciation of their infantile origins does not necessarily
speed maturation.
not the only possible course to admit
Is
and face the primitive the door and allow
no
vanced are
further expression?
correct,
it
is
origin.
if
and
they are unrelated to the whole, and therefore
The
devil only remains devilish
dissociated from the deity from
The
which
aggressive fantasies
of early childhood and which, life,
been ad-
follows that the horrifying and prim-
unrelated to other people.
he
far
aspects of the psyche only remain horrifying
primitive
if
firmly to close
however, the hypotheses which have so
If,
itive
it
and then
in ourselves
if
whom
they are
still
cause such distress to kindly characters
reality
not harm a
fly,
remain in
he took
his
are so characteristic
active in adult
who would
this primitive
in
form because
the person concerned has also remained childish, and has
never been able to
utilize
the aggressive energy which would
have become available to him at
an early stage
in his
if it
had not been disowned
development.
There are many people who,
for instance, suffer
obsessional thoughts of violence and
who
from
are frightened of
seeing or reading about any manifestation of violence fear
which
greatly
restricts
—
the forms of entertainment
THE PSYCHOTHERAPEUTIC PROCESS
them
available to
in our civilization.
It
129
can regularly be
demonstrated that, in their daily relationships with each other, such people are too compliant, too yielding, too submissive.
The
symptoms
is
aggressive energy actually energy
which
is
locked up in their
which should be
finding ex-
life; and which would contribute to the achievement of a more adult attitude if it were allowed to do so. The more submissive the patient is in reality, the more aggressive will he be in dream and fantasy: the more he is able to make adult relationships on equal terms, the more
pression in
will the infantile, pathological,
and unacceptable aspects of
his aggressiveness disappear. It
is
the attainment of a
new
kind of relationship with others and with himself which ultimately heals the patient; and, in the
more severe
dis-
sociations of personality, this healing can only take place via the psychotherapist. therapist
more adult tion,
and
The changing
becomes a bridge which ties
it is
relationship with the
leads to the formation of
with people outside the therapeutic
this
the transference.
situa-
changing relationship which constitutes
CHAPTER
1
TRANSFERENCE AND COUNTER-TRANSFERENCE Opposition
is
william blake
true friendship.
1
In spite of innumerable expositions the subject of transfer-
ence remains controversial. There analytical psychotherapy
picion or with
ence
is
less
which
is
probably no aspect of
regarded with more sus-
is
understanding.
The
fact that transfer-
both spontaneous and inevitable; that
it
occurs
outside as well as inside the therapeutic situation; that
cannot be engineered, and that to induce this
is
but
even by
it
artificially
little
even
if it
it
it
would not be desirable
were possible to do so— all
appreciated by the public, by doctors, and
psychiatrists without analytical training.
The pop-
ular belief that analysis involves falling in love with the analyst,
and that therapeutic success depends upon
dies hard; and, in the face of such a belief,
ing that the analytical process
For
who would choose
is
it is
this,
not surpris-
regarded with suspicion.
deliberately to enter a situation so
fraught with danger, so apt for exploitation, and so potentially painful as falling in
love with an
unknown person
who, by the nature of that same situation, is unable to reciprocate? It would be idle to deny that, in the course of analytical psychotherapy, powerful feelings of both love and hate do often, though not invariably, become focused upon
130
TRANSFERENCE AND COUNTER-TRANSFERENCE the therapist: but,
enon
fully
is
if
131
the nature of the transference phenom-
apprehended, the fact of the emergence of
such feelings will be appreciated as a spontaneous and
phenomenon, which
evitable
state of the patient rather
the therapist,
who
springs from the subjective
than from the machinations of
indeed would be thankful to be spared
the labour of dealing with such
That transference appreciated; and
in-
difficult manifestations.
a form of projection
is
we owe
to Freud the original
is
generally
and
illumi-
nating concept of the projection of parental figures upon the therapist. in this
way
It is
not surprising that the
are, in
the
first
figures projected
instance, chiefly parental, al-
though the image of any person who has been emotionally
may
important to the patient
also appear: for, as suggested
between patient and
in the last chapter, the relationship
therapist
is
bound
to be emotionally comparable to that
between child and parent, for
which the patient
when
is
at least as regards the
seeking help.
faced with difficulties which
and, although a patient respects, his
may be
We
are
we do not
all
problems children
understand,
adult and mature in
many
emotional problems will disclose the child con-
cealed behind the adult exterior. Moreover, to state that our relationship to
it
is
a truism
an unknown person
is
con-
we have had in the new person, especially
ditioned by the kind of relationships past. It
is
one from
impossible for us to meet a
whom we
hope
for help, without
some degree of
prejudice derived from previous experience.
It is
common
to find out our opinion of a
new acquaintance changes
we
and
get to
know him
better;
this
change
is
as
not simply
the result of finding out more about him, but of correcting the partially distorted picture of
him which our imagination ideally we should ap-
had already constructed. Perhaps
proach a stranger without preconceptions; but, in practice,
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
132
our image of him
is
complex one, compounded
a
from our experience of people
and
in the past,
from our needs and hopes of people in the
partly
partly also
future.
In the therapeutic situation, the more disturbed and isolated the patient, the
more "parental"
will his projec-
upon the therapist tend to be. It has so far been assumed that neurosis is a state of inner disharmony which reflects a disorder of interpersonal relationships; and that tions
can ultimately be traced to a
this disorder
failure of rela-
tionship between the child and his parents.
been pointed
out,
has already
It
and may here be emphasized, that
this
is
not a simple matter of blaming the parents for everything that goes
wrong with the
child's
development, but of an
extremely complex interaction between differing personalities
which
always relative, not absolute. For instance, a
is
may complain
patient
of his father being restrictive and
tyrannical whereas the father might affirm that, since the
patient never
was
little
made any attempt
chance of
to stand
up to him, there
his being regarded in
any other
faults,
human
The more complete, however,
situation.
and
on both
There are always
virtues,
light.
sides in
any
the failure
of the relationship between the child and his parents, the less will
own
potentialities
satisfactory object-relationships;
and the more
the former be able to realize his
and to make
will he be arrested in a stage of development where every
person to
One ment,
as
whom he turns for help will be regarded as a parent. of the most striking features of
human
compared with that of other animals,
period of immaturity of the young; and
which renders man sible his greatest
it
is
The
child
is
the long
probably this
liable to neurosis as well as
achievements.
is
develop-
making
for
many
pos-
years
bound to consider himself as feeble, and adults as powerful, and one characteristic of emotional immaturity in later life
TRANSFERENCE AND COUNTER-TRANSFERENCE is
133
that the subject believes himself to be comparatively
weak, while regarding the object If
as
comparatively strong.
a person believes himself to be relatively
helpless,
he may react to other people
He may
posite ways.
protection, or he
in either
weak and of two opand
cling to others as affording help
may avoid them as threatening dominaThe developing child usually shows
tion and restriction.
these two attitudes quite clearly.
he
will
When
hurt or frightened
run to the mother for aid and comfort; but,
if
she
threatens his independence by being overprotective or dictatorial,
he
will react
with avoidance and anger. The child
both needs objects, and
and
this
is
fears
being dominated by objects;
one fundamental reason
for the
ambivalent na-
ture of the parent-child relationship.
In the transference situation these alternative attitudes are faithfully reproduced and, although both in every patient,
it is
usual for
can be detected
one or other to predominate.
Any experienced psychotherapist will be familiar with the fact that there are two extreme types of patient who cause him particular difficulty. One type is always struggling to get closer to him, clings desperately to him,
and
involved in the analytical situation.
him off, is
is
apparently intensely
The
other
tries to
keep
avoids any personal relationship as far as possible, and
apparently quite indifferent to his therapeutic
former behaves as
moment; the
if
the therapist might abandon
latter as
if
efforts.
him
at
The any
the therapist perpetually threatened
his separate existence.
These opposing attitudes are but one manifestation of a dichotomy which, I believe, runs right through the various types of psychiatric disorder and which various guises in the works of different approaches.
The
many
first
is
familiar under
psychiatrists with very
attitude
is
characteristic of
the more extra verted, the second of the more introverted
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
134
personality.
By
most complete and searching descrip-
far the
tion of these opposing types chobgical Types.
I
am
to be found in Jung's Psy-
is
not here attempting to recapitulate
or summarize Jung's work, but rather to examine in the light of
it
what
I
conceive to be a difference in the basic
attitude to objects as
it
appears in the transference situa-
on the development
tion, since this throws a light
of object-
general. Jung is more concerned with normal than with neurotic psychology, whereas, in the
relationships
in
dichotomy which
I
am
attempting to portray,
I
am
spe-
concerned with the persistence of childish attitudes
cifically
towards objects; in other words, with psychopathology. In order to underline this, attitude
depressive,
schizoid.
Both
I
more extraverted
shall call the
attitude
are essentially negative attitudes based
but the type of fear
fear,
I
and the more introverted
is
different in
have come to regard the
each
fear of being
the object as characteristic of the types
upon
case.
abandoned by
who can be
de-
scribed under the headings extraverted, hysterical, cycloid,
manic-depressive. In contrast, the fear of being dominated
by the object
is
the basic fear of the types characterized as
introverted, obsessional, schizoid, schizophrenic. In an earlier
chapter
I
men need
suggested that
each other on equal terms
as
alize their full potentialities:
relationships with
whole people
and
I
in order to re-
also suggested that there
could be a failure to achieve such a relationship by one of the two people becoming identified with and incorporated in the other,
and hence
failing to
maintain a separate ex-
istence. In the transference situation,
superior position,
it
is
owing
to his initially
unlikely that the therapist will be
incorporated by the patient; but there
is
a danger that the
patient will lose his identity in that of the therapist, and is
this
which the schizoid patient
principally fears.
it
The
TRANSFERENCE AND COUNTER-TRANSFERENCE preservation of the integrity of the personality
135
demands that
there shall be relationships with others; but essentially that
these relationships shall be
The
fear of being
on equal
terms.
dominated and overwhelmed by the
object results in the schizoid subjects keeping away from
any close relationship, and accounts
tachment and sons,
who
air
for the apparent de-
of superiority exhibited by schizoid per-
no need of them. There is
give the impression that they have
other people, and no particular regard for
considerable difficulty in both giving and receiving affection; for to the schizoid subject the establishment of affec-
tionate ties with others to put
him
is
always dangerous, since
it
seems
in their power. Fairbairn, in his brilliant delin-
why come
eation of the schizoid character, states that one reason
the latter
is
unable to show affection
to believe that his love I
am more
is
is
that he has
bad and even damaging
to others.
impressed with what might be called the para-
noid side of the picture, the fear that showing affection may lead to the subject's personality being invaded or domi-
nated.
and
I
entirely agree with the
view expressed by both Jung
Fairbairn, that the values of the introverted schizoid
subject are heaped up in his inner world,
and that he there-
fore tends to undervalue the object. This
people are apt to for
we
make an
to feel that
all like
initially
we
why
schizoid
unpleasant impression;
are valued,
certing to be confronted by a person satisfaction.
is
and
who
it
is
discon-
denies us this
have the impression, not yet confirmed, that
I
the schizoid subject,
when he
is
phobic,
is
more
likely to
be claustrophobic than agoraphobic, in accordance with his
tendency to fear and resent
treatment
it
is
restriction. In the course of
easy for the therapist to underestimate the
patient's progress;
and he may sometimes be surprised to how much improvement he
hear from relatives or friends
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
136
is
The
showing.
projection upon the therapist which con-
stitutes the negative aspect of the transference will
of a parent
who
is
liable to
be that
dominate, to overwhelm, and
ultimately to destroy the patient: and the patient's progress
be dependent upon the extent to which
will
this projection
can be withdrawn. The principal danger of the schizoid that he
becomes so isolated from other people development as an individual cannot proceed.
subject
is
that his
The
fear of being
abandoned by the object
depressive subject clinging to people at
he
easily
all costs.
Above
left
himself too closely with them. His chief difficulty
tify
showing any aggression towards
have to be placated
him
all,
alone— and hence he becomes emotionally involved with others and tends to iden-
frightened of being
is
leads to the
(it
is
in
his fellows, for they always
in order that they
may not abandon
has already been pointed out that a certain aggres-
siveness
is
necessary for the maintenance of a separate ex-
istence as a personality).
The
object tends to be overvalued,
and the subject undervalued, with the consequent danger
may come to feel himself worthless and become dangerously depressed. (In this regard it is worth repeating the clinical observation which has been frequently made that patients recovering from an attack of depression tend to become aggressive to those who are lookthat the subject
thus
ing after them.) Since the object
make he seems more tends to
a pleasant
first
likely to suffer
overvalued, the subject
left
it
is
he
is
phobic, claus-
alone in an empty space
cribbed, cabined,
course of treatment,
If
from agoraphobia than
trophobia, since he fears being
more than being
is
impression.
and confined. In the
easy for the therapist to over-
estimate the patient's progress owing to the latter's anxiety to please him.
The
projection
upon the
therapist
which con-
TRANSFERENCE AND COUNTER-TRANSFERENCE
the negative aspect of the transference will be that of
stitutes
who
a parent
is
abandon the
to
liable to
subject;
withdraw support, to disappear, and
and the
patient's progress will be de-
pendent upon the extent to which
The
drawn.
he becomes to
this projection
can be with-
principal danger of the depressive subject lost as a personality, in that his
he disappears will
that
is
dependence leads
an over-identification with the object, with the
It
137
result that
as a separate entity.
be observed that the schizoid subject
overwhelmed, and so tends to become
being
whereas the
isolated;
depressive subject fears being isolated and so
fears
may become
overwhelmed.
These fundamental in the patient's
flected
which
some
towards objects are
attitudes
relationship with the
in the initial stages of treatment
is
bound
re-
therapist,
to be in
respects a repetition of his relationship with his par-
ents. It has
had been
been assumed
that,
perfect, the subject
if
that earlier relationship
would have developed
in
an
and hence would not be presenting himself treatment; and it follows from this that these transfer-
ideal fashion, for
ence projections upon the therapist are essentially negative.
To 4
put this in a different way, the patient must have had
'bad" parents, at least relatively to himself, or he would
not be a patient; and, since he
by his
past,
is
upon the
parents
As
he
equally
is
bound
bound
therapist.
the therapeutic situation develops
the patient will
come
it
is
is,
above.
and
The
in
is
hoped that
which he
is
emo-
him to have a which he is accepted
possible for
relationship with a parental figure in
he
it
to realize, through repeated
tional experiences, that
as
to be conditioned
to project images of such
safe
from the dangers outlined
negative parental projection will be withdrawn
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
138
new
in so far as this
and
established; tient
comes
It
it
is
relationship with the analyst
to accept himself as
is
becomes
by means of this process that the pa-
he
is.
As
Fairbairn 2 states:
the patient's relationship to the analyst
that mediates the "curing" or "saving" effect of
psychotherapy.
treatment
is
Where
long-term psycho-analytical
concerned, what mediates the "cur-
ing" or "saving" process more specifically
development of the patient's relationship alyst,
through a phase in which
earlier
the
is
to the an-
pathogenic
relationships are repeated under the influence of
transference, into a at
is
once
new kind
of relationship
and adapted
satisfying
which
to the circum-
stances of outer reality.
The
gradual discovery that the therapist
able to accept the patient as he resolve the negative transference, pist as a
"good" rather than
considered that this immaturity, since he
still
a
is
and
genuinely
to regard the thera-
"bad" parent.
It
might be
leaves the patient in a state of
is still
theoretically related to the ther-
apist as child to parent. In practice, since
lack of this
is
enables the latter to
it is
precisely the
"good" relationship with the parent which has and laid
led to the dissociation of the patient's personality,
the foundations of his neurosis,
it
is
usual to find that the
patient does not remain in the dependent position, and that his growth towards maturity proceeds pari passu with
the development of his
new
This generally becomes
less parental, in accordance with
relationship to the therapist.
the idea previously advanced, that a good parent tially a It
parent
who can encourage and
is
essen-
tolerate separation.
might be concluded from what has been
said that the
TRANSFERENCE AND COUNTER-TRANSFERENCE whole of the therapeutic process consisted
in the with-
drawal of negative projections from the therapist.
were
therapy would
so,
no reason
If this
be impossible, for there would be
for the patient to
continue in a situation which
was nothing but a repetition of the
"good" parents
139
past. Positive
upon the
images of
and
it
seems probable that these images have two sources. First,
it
are also projected
can confidently be asserted that no parent
and
however distorted the
that,
may have been, he pression of
he
patient's early experience
will probably
it is
like to
have retained some im-
have a good parent by
Second,
this.
it
animals deprived of
a
A
and there
be a tendency for people to imagine and to seek
out what has been missing in their
lick.
whom
seems highly probable that Jung
right in regarding the psyche as self-regulating;
will thus
as
wholly "bad,"
accepted, even though his conscious recollection
felt
may deny is
what
is
analyst,
own development
salt will travel
practical demonstration of this
miles to find a
was afforded
just salt-
me
by
an orphanage where the majority of the children
visit to
could not remember their mothers, and in most instances
know who
did not this,
all
they were.
I
was told
that, in spite of
the children had invented mothers, whose exis-
tence was usually substantiated with a wealth of fantasy. In the case of patients whose early relationships have been very
much
disturbed or absent,
it
is
not unusual to see a
compulsive search for the missing parent, whose image may
be projected upon many different people, including the therapist;
and
I
take this to be a compensatory activity of
the psyche to remedy jection
is
whom
The
own
deficiency. This type of pro-
comparable to that already described
in pre-adolescence,
people
its
it
when
needs for
as occurring
the child seeks out and idealizes its
own development.
degree to which the patient regards himself as
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
140
weak, and the therapist
as powerful,
is
one measure of the
severity of the patient's failure to mature: the degree to
which he regards the "bad"
is
therapist as wholly
Those with experience tients will recognize that
ence, and that this
it is
who
original expectation)
such patients (contrary to Freud's
exhibit the most intense transfer-
may occur with bewildering
rapid-
All transference relationships are necessarily ambivalent,
just as is
in the analysis of psychotic pa-
extremely unstable in that alterations in
is
the picture of the therapist ity.
"good" or wholly
another.
it is
inevitable that a child's relationship to
ambivalent: but
it is
parents
its
characteristic of the transference
formed
by the most severely disturbed patients that there can be a
sudden alternation between the extremes of positive and negative, so that
on one occasion the
and on another
These incompatible images tient
on the one hand, and
clearly derived
"good"
is
is
treated as a god,
reflect
his fears
the hopes of the pa-
on the
other:
and are
from early childhood, when a parent was
in so far as
in so far as pist
therapist
as a devil.
he
gratified the child's wishes,
and "bad"
he frustrated them. In a phase when the thera-
regarded as bad, the patient will often break off treat-
ment or threaten suicide, only to return at a later stage demanding an increased number of appointments and affirming the absolute necessity of seeing the therapist as fre-
quently as possible. This type of transference indicates a failure to
develop beyond a primitive stage of infantile de-
pendence
in
which,
as
I
have already attempted to describe,
people are regarded entirely from the subjective point of
view and not
at all as separate entities in their
own
right:
and patients at this stage may require the additional support and freedom from the problems of daily life which can be given by admitting them to hospital.
TRANSFERENCE AND COUNTER-TRANSFERENCE
The images
projected
upon the
are extremely primitive and, as like personifications of
being.
I
is
therapist by such patients
have implied above,
good and
No human mother
141
than any actual
evil
more
are
human and so
so wise, so understanding,
beneficent as the
Mother of God: nor could any mortal woman
be
demanding, and
as vengeful, as
as destructive as Kali.
images of the good and evil mother can be found
world in various forms; and
this
it is
all
These
over the
kind of fact which led
Jung to advance his theory of archetypes. Psycho-analysis, stressing the helplessness of the infant, solipsistic
view which
it
and the
necessarily
must have of objects, conceives that
these primitive images originate in actual pathogenic experi-
ences of infancy and become established as "internal objects" in the infant psyche. Analytical psychology,
hand, would regard such images
on the other
as archetypal, as underlying
the normal experience which any infant has of
and would only consider life as
It
mother,
its
their continued projection in adult
pathological.
does not seem to
me
of paramount importance, at
any rate in the practice of psychotherapy, whether one believes
in the
such phenomena to be the result of very early events life
of the infant or as the expression of inborn char-
acteristics of the
human
psyche.
What
is
important
recognition that the projection of these images
is
an
is
the
indi-
cation of a lack of any real relationship with the person
who nor for
carries the projection. devils, but
good nor
human
Actual people are neither gods
beings
who
are neither so powerful
for evil as these terms imply;
when we have no
real contact
and
it
is
only
with another person that we
can project upon them so wholeheartedly. In war-time,
when
the majority of people feel at the mercy rather than
in control of events, there
childish condition in
is
a general regression to a
which projections of
this
more
kind are
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
142
The enemy, blackened by propaganda, become devilish, whereas the leader of one's own side can do no wrong. But the enemy will remain wholly evil only so long as there is no fraternization with them; and the saviour of his people had better keep aloof from them if he wishes to preserve his moral superiority. Professor Cohn, in The almost universal.
3
and
Pursuit of the Millennium, has demonstrated that misery social disintegration
saviour
who
evoke a collective tendency to seek a people to millenniary
will lead his
bliss:
and,
whereas the saviour and his followers are wholly good, those
who oppose him
are wholly bad. This
is,
as the
author
in-
on a mass scale. phenomenon springs from misery
dicates, a paranoid system Just as the collective
and
social disintegration, so the personal manifestation of
it
in the transference situation demonstrates the patient's pro-
found isolation and lack of any adult contact with others.
But the therapeutic relationship wholly consist of projections:
tween two people which
is
relationship based entirely
therefore
no
relationship at
it
is
is
one which does not
also a relationship be-
taking place here and now.
on projection all:
and
I
whom
The
psychotic, and
cannot agree with the
popular conception that the therapist screen upon
is
A
is
merely a blank
the patient can project his fantasies.
question of whether the relationship between patient
and therapist is a real one, or whether the therapist's apparent concern for the patient is simply assumed for the purpose of therapy,
is
who have never been
often raised, especially by patients able to trust anyone and
threatened by an offer to help. So far as
from
my own
experience,
I
to care for his patient in a genuine basis for treatment.
tive
way
is,
I
Caring
believe,
I
would say that for
way
is
am
who
feel
able to judge
for the therapist
the best possible
another person in an objec-
both possible and
desirable,
and
is
TRANSFERENCE AND COUNTER-TRANSFERENCE entirely different
143
from being involved with them emotion-
ally in a subjective fashion. If
either by projecting
upon
the therapist
his
so involved,
is
patient or by
identifying
with him, he may be described as exhibiting countertransference. If
his
a child
own
right,
is
to develop satisfactorily as
it is
a vested interest in him. Parents their children
an individual
in
necessary that his parents should not have
who
identify themselves with
and demand that the children
be
shall
as like
themselves as possible are simply loving themselves narcissistically,
not the children. Parents
who demand
that the chil-
dren shall be different from themselves in the sense of achieving more, or being better than themselves, are projecting into the children their
own
unrealized potentialities and,
by living vicariously in the children, are as separate entities.
tion
is
ultimately self-love, not love
differentiation. tively
if
failing to regard
Love based on projection and
The
them
identifica-
which speeds growth and
parent needs to love his children objec-
they are to develop happily: the psychotherapist
should have a similar attitude to his patients
if
they are to
become more mature. In other words, the psychotherapist needs to be free from counter-transference.
The
essential feature of counter-transference
that the
is
patient becomes of emotional importance to the therapist in a subjective rather
than in an objective way.
I
have
already expressed the belief that the therapist needs to care for his patients in a itations,
comes
and no one can
to consult him.
is
We
all
have our lim-
like or care for every patient
Where
who
long-term psychotherapy
is
trial
period will usually reveal whether or not
likely to
be any insurmountable incompatibility.
concerned, a there
genuine fashion.
Psychotherapists must be able to care for their patients; but there
is
a world of difference between caring for
someone
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
144
and becoming emotionally involved with them. What are the ways in which counter-transference can show itself? Perhaps the commonest
difficulty
is
identify himself with his patient. This
to
happen with patients who
himself, or
who happen
for the therapist to is
especially likely
are temperamentally similar to
have the same kind of emotional
to
problems from which he himself has
suffered. If this occurs
the patient will lack any real relationship with the therapist, for the latter,
to
though intensely sympathetic with him,
is
bound
to provide that degree of difference from the patient
fail
without which the entity.
A
bond of
latter
cannot discover himself as a separate
identity
ness—an interaction
in
is
a
bond of mutual unconscious-
which two people simply
reflect
each
other and support each other, but in which no development is
possible, since there
ther to
is
not sufficient differentiation for
become more aware of his
A second type of difficulty projects
He
some unrealized
is
ei-
separate identity.
that in
which the
therapist
part of himself into the patient.
then becomes too anxious that the patient
what he himself has been unable
to achieve.
shall fulfil
Most people,
including psychotherapists, have unrealized potentialities, or feel that
if
only (fatal phrase) their course in
slightly different they
ent, or
would have achieved
a greater success in
other than that which they have chosen. psychotherapist to
become
tient's personality
which
had been
It is
differ-
some
field
easy for the
fascinated by aspects of the pa-
are in fact unrealized parts of his
try and which properly belongs to
own: and thus to
life
themselves would have been
steer the patient in a direction
his
own
personality and not to
that of the patient. Falling in love with the patient
most
is
a danger of
psychotherapists are well aware, but to
which
which they
nevertheless occasionally succumb. Such a misfortune
is
fa-
TRANSFERENCE AND COUNTER-TRANSFERENCE
the progress of treatment since, owing to the nature
tal to
of the therapeutic relationship, a sexual
and patient
apist
145
is
bound
bond between
to be incestuous,
and
ther-
to interfere
with the development of the patient's personality in precisely
the same way as
parent-child incest
More
subtle
is
we have
liable to do.
is
the danger that the psychotherapist will
use the patient to bolster his as
someone
to
already indicated that
show
own
therapist has ideas of his
self-esteem,
and
him
treat
even to dominate.
off to, or
If
own, he may use the patient
the as a
proof of a theory and encourage the production of interesting psychopathological material
which he can use
for writ-
may
ing papers and books. Occasionally a psychotherapist
be a fanatic
who
wishes to convert his patient to a partic-
and thus
ular philosophy or set of beliefs,
to indoctrinate
him, rather than encourage him to find his
own
construct his
philosophy of
life.
own way and
This possibility
is
dis-
cussed in the next chapter. It is
desirable,
scious of,
however, for psychotherapists to be con-
and prepared to
state, their
fundamental
Since a man's convictions are bound to
and
his attitude towards others,
it
is
affect his
beliefs.
conduct
possible for a patient
to be influenced by the beliefs of the psychotherapist,
though these have never been there
may be
a stage at
which
explicitly stated. it
is
even
Moreover,
necessary for the psy-
chotherapist to say quite openly what he believes in order that the patient differentiation.
may be
One
able to reach a further stage of
cannot differentiate oneself from an
enigma; and, although
I
am
convinced of the necessity of the
therapist keeping himself entirely in the
nearly
all
the time he spends in therapy,
also recognize that
when he may have to reveal more of the patient can make further progress.
there are times in order that
I
background during
himself
CHAPTER
12
PSYCHOTHERAPY AND INDOCTRINATION But
the
power of instruction
is
seldom of much
except in those happy dispositions where
superfluous
It
it
efficacy,
is
largely
gibbon
.
1
has been suggested above that the efficacy of analytical
psychotherapy depends upon the development of the
rela-
tionship between the therapist and his patient; and that
the degree of therapeutic success
is
proportional to the de-
gree of maturity attained in this relationship. lationship has already been defined as one in
A
mature
re-
which neither
submits to or dominates the other; in which each treats the other as a whole person in his
own
right;
and
in
which
each accepts and respects his differences from the other. this hypothesis
is
correct,
it
follows that such therapeutic
may be obtained does not depend upon
success as
If
the ac-
ceptance by the patient of the therapist's convictions, but rather
upon the patient reaching
which he his
own This
feels free to
make up
a stage of
his
development
own mind and
in
to reach
convictions. is
not to imply that the therapist should himself
were possible; for he would
have no convictions, even
if
then be a nonentity with
whom no
lationship.
It is
this
one could make a
re-
indeed important that the therapist should
have a point of view of
his
own and 146
that he should be as
PSYCHOTHERAPY AND INDOCTRINATION aware of
right to
But the
whom
the patient can relate.
fact that the therapist holds a certain point of
view does not mean that life
only so can he be a personality
as possible; for
it
own
in his
147
this particular
way of looking
at
has to be implanted within the patient for therapeutic
and
success to be achieved;
it is
actually a sign of failure
if
the patient emerges from the analytical situation merely
echoing the psychotherapist's opinions. successful,
it
If
psychotherapy
independent entities and, therefore, to find their of
in terms of their
life
is
encourages people to be more themselves as
own
inherited dispositions.
own way The idea
of indoctrination, of implanting dogmatic beliefs,
is,
or
should be, entirely foreign to the spirit of any form of analytical psychotherapy.
Nevertheless, some psychiatrists have compared the analytical process to a
conversion experience, and have sup-
posed that such effectiveness as they concede
it
to possess
depends upon the indoctrination of the patient with a
set
of dogmas derived from the analytical school to which the
psychotherapist happens to adhere. In other words, they suggest that a successfully treated patient religion;
intent as to Is
a convert to a
is
and that the therapist must be a fervent believer,
on acquiring
imbue
who desires nothing so much with his own dogmatic beliefs.
proselytes,
his patients
analytical psychotherapy really brain-washing of a
more humane
variety?
peutic relationship, are
By exposing patients
we
individuality, putting our
verting them?
The
in fact depriving
own
way of
life.
Is
of their
ideas into their minds, con-
indoctrinator
to compel his victim to accept a to a different
to the thera-
them
tries,
by force
dogma and
if
necessary,
to convert
him
the psychotherapist, however
well-intentioned, pursuing the same path and achieving by kindlier
means that conversion which the indoctrinator
at-
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
148
tempts to ensure by forceful persuasion?
drop our attempts at analysis.
If so,
we had
better
surely better that people
It is
should be allowed to continue in neurotic misery than that they should have their freedom interfered with to this extent. It is
he cannot avoid influencing
to be, is
obvious that, however detached the therapist
Even
his patient.
tries if
he
scrupulous in eschewing the use of direct suggestion, his
attitude to
the kind of person he himself
life,
communicated
to the patient
to obtrude his
own
however
personality.
carefully
The popular
is,
he
will tries
be not
picture of the
analyst as a completely impersonal interpreter of behaviour,
who
whom
simply a blank screen upon
is
project images of people from his past,
can be sustained in
reality.
There
also
is
is
the patient can
not one which
an actual relation-
ship between patient and therapist at the time of meeting;
and there can be no actual relationship between human beings without mutual influence. Indoctrination, however, unlike analytical psychotherapy,
is
not a matter of mutual influence but of the complete
domination of one person by another. authority
hand and who,
who a
is
more or
less
trination
is
presupposes an
which
didactic,
is
on the one
misguided victim on the other,
like the guests of Procrustes,
a rigid structure
It
in possession of "the truth"
is
unlikely to
coercive,
forced to conform to
fit
him
exactly. Indoc-
and authoritarian.
It
is,
therefore, entirely opposed to the kind of development of
the individual personality which,
aim
I
have suggested,
is
the
of analytical psychotherapy.
Although
I
do not believe that the psychotherapeutic
upon or should involve indoctrination, some excuse for those who, knowing little of ana-
process depends
there lytical
is
methods, have advanced such a view: for the behav-
PSYCHOTHERAPY AND INDOCTRINATION iour of certain
patients
on the
analysts
149
on the one hand, and
other, might be thought to imply
certain it.
The
tendency of psychotherapists to form esoteric groups has already been admitted, and deplored, in an earlier part of
book: and
this
it
true that
is
verts to a religion
whose
some
analysts resemble con*
to the exclusion of any other activity.
who who
communicate
are unable to is
not of their persuasion;
Such
are the analysts
with anyone
effectively
who
on
insist
children being analysed from an early age; selves
by their faith
lives are enthralled
who
their are
own
them-
permanently "in analysis" with one or other of their
colleagues;
and who,
spending ten or more hours of
after
the day treating patients, seem unable to find any more agreeable
way of spending an evening than by attending an
analytical meeting.
Behaviour of that those
who
this
kind
is
practise any
likely to give rise to the idea
form of analytical psychother-
apy are fanatics intent on forcing their patients to accept doctrinaire assertions. Nevertheless, there
that
I
know
is
no evidence
of to support the hypothesis that patients
who
have been treated by even the most fanatical of analysts necessarily continue to subscribe to the particular views ei-
ther of the therapist to
which the
who
latter
themselves there groups; but the
is
has treated them or of the school
belongs.
Amongst
psychotherapists
certainly a tendency to form esoteric
number and
variety of such groups,
and the
frequent disagreements both within and between them, do
not suggest that dogmas are handed
down unchanged from
generation to generation as they are in some religious and political sects.
The
many splinter may be thought
very fact that there are so
groups within the various analytical schools
to imply that the analytical process leads not to uniformity
but to a greater diversity of
belief.
"Quot homines,
tot sen-
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
150
tentxat'
is
an aphorism which
confirmed rather than un-
is
dermined by psychotherapy: and different groups of analysts
is
common
ground between
to be found, not in their the-
oretical assumptions, but in their attitude to the individual. It is
not only the behaviour of certain therapists which
gives rise to the suspicion that analysis
some
doctrination:
patients also
having been indoctrinated, last
chapter
it
at
may
is
a process of in-
give the impression of
any rate temporarily. In the
was pointed out that there were two extreme
types of patient
who
could be distinguished by their attitude
to the therapist: those
whose basic
fear
was of being aban-
doned, and those whose principal dread was of being over-
whelmed. These two in all
fears
seem
men, although one may
to be present to
be,
and
usually
some extent is,
far
more
in evidence than the other. Their existence accords well
with the hypothesis already presented, that the satisfactory
development of personality requires that the individual
shall
have relationships with other individuals, but that these relationships
need to be of a kind which allows
his assertion
of his uniqueness. In general
it
is
true to say that the
more extraverted
number of contacts with other may be of a rather superficial protect him from complete isolation.
patient generally has a fair
people; and, although these kind, they at least
Such people are liable to identify themselves with the therapist and thus, for a time, adopt his point of view as if it were their own: but the
fact that there are other people of
emotional importance in their
lives dilutes the effect of this
and makes the resolution of the positive The more introverted paisolated, but not as a rule markedly dependent; and
identification
transference comparatively easy. tient
is
so
not generally in
is
much danger
of over-identification
with the therapist or of taking over his
beliefs wholesale.
PSYCHOTHERAPY AND INDOCTRINATION
151
who exhibit both characwho are both extremely iso-
But there are a few patients teristics in
profound measure,
and extremely dependent. Such people, because of
lated
their isolation, find in the therapist the only person
means anything
to
who
them. At the same time their depen-
dence makes them identify with him and hang on
his every
word. Sometimes they alternate between trying to get as close as possible to the therapist for fear that
he
will aban-
don them, and withdrawing as far as they can for fear of being crushed by him. Such patients seem to be those who have never had any secure relationship with either parent, or indeed with any
human
being; and to them, for a time,
the therapeutic situation
is
all-important, just as for the
infant at the beginning of
life
the relationship to the mother
is
vital. It
come
is
probable that this small group of patients do be-
temporarily indoctrinated, in the sense of identifying
themselves with the analyst's ideas, in the same way that a small child at beliefs of rily,
this
deepen
its
first
adopts the standards and takes over the
parents: but,
if
treatment proceeds satisfacto-
phase will pass, for the patient will extend and
his relationship
fear of differing
with other people, and also lose his
from the therapist,
just as a child
secure becomes less and less afraid of differing ents.
on
Not
all
who its
is
par-
such patients are curable, and some may go
what has been missing
indefinitely looking for
early
from
development.
It is, I
believe, this group
in their
who may,
in
default of achieving any real relationship with another per-
son, hold
on
to Jungian or Freudian or any other variety of
psychological theory as
if it
were a dogmatic
give rise to the impression (since
about tion.
it)
it
that the analytical process
is
they
is
faith;
who
and thus
talk
most
one of indoctrina-
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
152
Since the Americans became disturbed
men who
portion of
collaborated in
enemy while imprisoned
the
high pro-
at the
some way or other with Communist methods
in Korea,
The
of indoctrination have been exhaustively studied. sults of these studies are actually reassuring to
who
therapist
is
alarmed
at the
re-
the psycho-
thought that he may be
indoctrinating his patients rather than aiding their devel-
opment
as individuals.
The
figures
show that
diffi-
men who
the promise of alleviation, to persuade some
unprepared for
emy
this
But, contrary to popular supposition,
it
and the
him
to
forced to
is
far
is
produce a permanent change in a man's
There
are
treatment to collaborate with the en-
to the extent of signing peace pledges
vert
not
it is
under appalling conditions, by the threat of torture or
cult,
like.
from easy to
beliefs or to
con-
an alien point of view. evidence that even those Americans
make
who were
the statements that the U.S.A. was using
germ warfare did not believe what they were in a study of these
saying: and,
men, Winokur concluded that the 2
sub-
jects
knew
guilt
which was aroused by the making of the statements
that they were
making
false statements,
but "the
was handled by the mechanism of rationalization in which the subjects questioned whether telling
could be harmful to their
own
lies
to the
enemy
country."
Less than five per cent of the soldiers exposed to
Com-
munist indoctrination in prison camps in Korea came back
convinced Communists; and, of these, a number were
known
to be sympathetic to
Korea, and a vious
Communism
number have probably
way of thinking since
before going to
reverted to their pre-
their return.
Both the Ameri-
cans and the British agree that the indoctrination programme in Korea was ineffective in producing converts to
Communism.
PSYCHOTHERAPY AND INDOCTRINATION
153
However, the cases which have caused most concern
men who made
are those of
spectacular confessions of guilt
and
in the Russia treason trials,
who emerged from Chinese their captors.
It is
also those of the prisoners
prisons singing the praises of
these cases which have given rise to the
fear that there exists
some
infallible
method
of
4
'brain-
washing," of extracting one set of ideas from a man's head
and replacing them with another. In fact,
only a very small minority even of impor-
it is
tant political prisoners lic trials
who
are
deemed
fit
to appear at pub-
in Russia. Hinkle and Wolff, 3 in their admirable
Communist methods, point out that there are many reasons why a prisoner should sign a confession and repeat it in court. He may think that no one will believe it in any
study of
case, or that
he
will
be released and can then repudiate his
confession. There are even "instances of prisoners
who
signed depositions largely out of sympathy for their interrogators because they felt that they
proper deposition thors have
made
would be punished
were not forthcoming." The same
a study of those
who,
after
if
a
au-
prolonged de-
tention in Chinese prisons, have emerged saying that their
imprisonment was deserved and a valuable experience, and
who thus appear to have been thoroughly indoctrinated. It is now known that such people form a small and special group described
as
emotionally rootless. They were
ple in rebellion against their parents
all
and the way of
peo-
life
of
the segment of society to which their parents belonged.
They
all
spoke Chinese and were anxious to remain in
China: and they were familiar with Marxism already, even if
not actually members of "fellow-traveller" groups. Hinkle
and Wolff conclude: "Thus
it
is
quite erroneous to think
that those who have experienced prison indoctrination in Communist China emerge as thoroughly indoctrinated
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
154
Communists who express praise and admiration for their captors. Such people are as unusual as the public confessors in Russian purge trials." It
may be
that the small percentage of people
converted by Communist indoctrination have
common
with the patients described above as showing both
extreme isolation and extreme dependence. this
who are much in
To determine
would require further research; but the two groups
one
tainly share
characteristic feature— the
cer-
lack of any
strong attachments in their past lives. It
must come
as a relief to
everyone
freedom of the individual to know
if
tell lies,
man
or so stu-
he cannot distinguish truth from falsehood,
he returns to a normal environment, he
tainly recover his judgement,
once again be his
values the
that, although a
can be temporarily broken, compelled to pefied that
who
own way
free to
of
life.
form his
A
come back
own
yet,
will almost cer-
to himself,
and
conclusions and choose
study of the literature of indoctri-
nation induces the realization that the toughness and powers
of recovery of the
human psyche
are
even more
remarkable than had been supposed; and the contemplation of so
much
horror
is
relieved by the vision of such
resil-
ience. It is
certainly possible that those
cal psychotherapy
who undergo
become imbued with
humanism—for example,
analyti-
a kind of liberal
with the idea, implicit in any psy-
chotherapeutic procedure, that the individual or with the belief that love
is
is
important;
better than hate, or freedom
than tyranny. They may even be indoctrinated with the notion that indoctrination
is
an unwarrantable
infringe-
ment of human liberty. But it seems highly unlikely that more than a very small proportion of patients become devoted "Freudians," or "Jungians," or "Kleinians," and any
PSYCHOTHERAPY AND INDOCTRINATION
who do must be accounted is
155
therapeutic failures. Conversion
certainly a subject of psychological interest; but as a
method of treatment
it
has nothing to
commend
it
to the
psychotherapist. In fact, the total acceptance of a creed
which was previously unacceptable must arouse cions.
The
instability, sal to
reversal of a
and
it
his suspi-
man's basic tenets argues a certain
can never be certain that a further rever-
the original condition will not occur.
exhibit fanaticism and dogmatism
switch their allegiance, just as
it
is
who
are
those
It is
those
most
who
who
likely to
exhibit the
most powerful feelings in the transference situation who
most
easily reverse their picture of the analyst.
Dogmatism and fanaticism
mony
are signs of
an inner dishar-
of personality, of a precarious adjustment which
is
own beliefs and those of others which characterizes the man who is at peace with himself. Maturity requires that a man shall know his own mind and be aware of his own convictions; but the more he achieves the realization of his own personality the the very opposite of the calm acceptance of his
less
bigoted will he generally become.
CHAPTER
13
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY The
greatest thing in the world
to
is
know how
I
believe that each
to
belong
montaigne
to ourselves.
human
being, in spite of sharing
1
many
endowed with
characteristics with his fellows,
is
a unique personality. Just as
living things grow, develop,
and come to be whatever
all
their inherited structure prede-
termines that they shall be, so a of which he
may be
genetically
man
is
urged on by forces
largely unconscious to express his
uniqueness, to be himself, to realize his
That
it is
genetic variation which
for differences in personality
what
is
inherited and
how
is
own
personality.
ultimately responsible
seems certain;
for,
although
remains obscure, the differences
are too wide to be accounted for by It
own
environment alone.
has already been pointed out that
it is
the long period
of men's immaturity compared with that of other animals
which makes
possible the achievements of civilization; for
a prolonged immaturity implies a continuing plasticity
an extended capacity to sible the
partial
learn. His large brain
and
makes pos-
complexity of man's psychic structure, and his
emancipation from the tyranny of instinct
is
depen-
dent upon this complexity. For, although the broad outlines of his behaviour are laid
down and he can never
from the confines of his biological 156
endowment, man
escape is
less
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY bound by
rigid instinctual patterns
The fundamental, men;
parently indefinite. instinct
compels
same way. The
than any other animal.
common
archetypal themes are
the individual variations
A bird or to
it
157
upon these themes
insect
to all are ap-
rigidly confined,
is
do exactly the same things
and
in the
relative simplicity of the nervous system
enforces stereotypy of behaviour; and so birds and insects of the same species are practically indistinguishable from
each other. Men, on the other hand, though sharing the
same basic
instincts,
because of their complexity, express
these instincts in varying, indirect,
and subtle ways; and so
exhibit that differentiation from each other personality.
Although
in the species as a
whole the
limited by inheritance.
No
one can
tell
son a baby will become; but within continuing which will lead to
its
what
sort of a per-
becoming
itself
alone;
Something
human ovum determines that it human foetus and nothing else; it seems
within the
is
possi-
a mysterious process
it
to the emergence of a new, a unique individual.
into a
call
of variation are infinite, in the individual they are
bilities
is
which we
will
develop
that there
a similar pre-formed organization independent of con-
sciousness
which
is
struggling to emerge
and which
will
ultimately manifest itself as the mature personality.
But the protracted immaturity of the human child
means
that, for
many
years,
he
is
consequently liable to influence. security of
He
an objective love which
which, by accepting him as he himself in the
full
weak and
is,
is
helpless
needs, above
all,
and the
unconditional, a love
enables
him
flower of his individuality.
to
If
become
such love
were unequivocally available, perhaps his development could proceed without hindrance and his mature personality
emerge without conflict and without
child
is
distortion.
ever so fortunate; and some deflection from
But no its
own
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
158
true path
is
therefore inevitable,
ity
however benevolent
own
parents and however robust his
nature.
his
The complex-
of his psychic structure makes possible dissociation and
repression; his helplessness ensures his conformity,
a condition
and so
created in which parts of his personality are
is
denied expression and he becomes, and may remain, something
"There
fully himself.
is
no one whose
development proceeds wholly without
inal
we
than
less
are all partially neurotic,
all,
in
lib id-
a hitch";
some degree,
less
and than
entirely ourselves.
The
difference
between people who
are sufficiently neu-
rotic to seek, or to need, psychotherapeutic help,
and that
man is one of degree, not no one who has not at times
mysterious being the "normal" of kind; and there can be suffered rotic
from the inner disharmony which gives
To
symptoms.
chic conflict.
is
be neurotic
is
to suffer
neu-
from intrapsy-
a subjective state manifesting itself in
symptoms of which none but the victim may be
subjective
aware.
It
rise to
The
existence of a severe degree of neurosis does not
preclude considerable success, in the sense of conventional
achievement; in
fact, certain types of success
can probably
not be attained without a compulsive drive for power which
most psychiatrists would regard correlation
as pathological.
between neurosis and
There
intelligence, nor
is
no
between
many inefwho are not neurotic, just as who are far from ineffective. But
neurosis and practical effectiveness. There are fective people in the world
there are
many
neurotics
inquiry into the interpersonal relationships of neurotics reveals a lack of maturity, a failure to progress ish
beyond a
child-
preoccupation with being worse than, or better than,
others;
an
inability to love
and be lovable; a
failure to
achieve that relationship of whole person to whole person
which
is
the outward sign of an inward integration.
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
159
"Neurotics are persons whose real actions are blocked." 2 In other words, they are people whose personalities are only partially manifested,
and neurotic symptoms
are essentially
due to a conflict between the attempted emergence of the
and the
true individual
No
fears
which
child can conceivably have
opment; but,
if
forbid this emergence.
an
ideally
things go reasonably well, he will, as he gets
older, gradually discover
and accept
him
own nature. his own powers
emerge from identification with
to
His
his
increasing security and recognition of able
smooth devel-
his parents
en-
and
to dispense with those introjected aspects of their psychol-
own with new
ogy which do not accord with his projecting
upon and
identifying
tions
from
in adult
We
grad-
is
potentialities, to
own personality, and to correct such divagaown path as have been imposed upon his The degree to which this process of self-
his
immaturity. realization
people he
own dormant
ually able to disclose his
discover his
inner nature. By
completed determines the degree of neurosis
is
life.
know
that
called objective
if
all
children need that love which
I
have
they are to develop satisfactorily: but
we
are far from understanding all the complexities of the in-
teraction between heredity
mines how much realizing his
men
as
own
difficulty
and environment which
the individual
personality. In spite of the
Kretschmer and Sheldon, in
reliable yardstick of innate
in
work of such
spite of the typology
of Jung and the researches of the geneticists,
no
deter-
may encounter
human
we have
as yet
differences,
no
knowledge which would enable us to predict and make provision for the differing requirements of different tempera-
mental endowments. Parents and children may be very variously constituted; but,
if
there obtains between
them
a
love which accepts and welcomes differences, the majority
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
160
of emotional difficulties will be solved in the course of the child's
to
fail
development; and such parts of his personality
as
emerge or are disowned within the home
be
evoked by the contacts he makes outside the child has
him
ficult for
rosis
which
It
is
become
however,
it
to be dif-
not outgrown may
a condition of neu-
persist.
may prove
at this point that the psychotherapist
is
of value.
he
If
accept and
is
adequately trained, he should be able to
make contact with
a wider range of personalities
than the average person. Moreover, the therapy
If,
sufficiently disturbed for
new attachments,
to form
it.
is
his
own
with someone whose is
fact that psycho-
chosen profession renders tolerable and even
exciting the adventure of attempting to
and who
will
make
a relationship
efforts in this regard
have
failed,
therefore unable to progress in his
own
devel-
One cannot foretell how far any individual will be progress towards his own maturity; but the psycho-
opment. able to
therapist, least
if
he
is
sufficiently at
peace with himself, can at
provide the background of emotional security against
which further development his essential function.
which he holds,
is
possible;
and
this
is, I
The technique he employs,
are probably of comparatively
believe,
the views
little
impor-
tance; the attitude he has to the patient and the relation-
makes with him
ship he Is
it
possible for a
to strive to
man
ever to belong to himself, as
know who he is, to be no less, be no more, than his endowment demands
Montaigne expresses and
are vital.
it;
to
of him? Jung says, 3 "Personality
is
the supreme realization
of the innate idiosyncrasy of a living being.
high courage flung in the face of tion of ful
all
life,
It is
an act of
the absolute affirma-
that constitutes the individual, the most success-
adaptation to the universal conditions of existence
coupled
with
the
greatest
possible
freedom
for
self-
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
161
determination." These are fine words; but are they any more
than that?
Can
a
man
ever really achieve unity and whole-
we simply spinning empty phrases, toying with phantom ideals, which may arouse our ardour without afness; or are
fecting our behaviour?
do not believe that anyone ever
I
reaches a condition of complete inner harmony; but those
who seem
to approach
most nearly to
this ideal share cer-
tain attributes. Jung says:
4
definiteness, wholeness,
and ripeness": and
'There
is
no personality without
one might add consistency, freedom from com-
acteristics
and maturity of interpersonal
pulsion,
to these char-
whose public and private
relationships. People
can
lives are widely discrepant
hardly be said to be integrated; and maturity demands that
the personality shall be recognizably the same under varying
The
circumstances.
an alien
force,
and neurotic realize his
sense of compulsion, of being driven by
which attends neurotic
own powers and
achieve the best one
is
striving for
when
sexuality, disappears
a
man
is
power
able to
to express his sexuality.
capable of
is
To
from the
to be freed
'
compulsion to do 'better than": to be able to give and to receive love in a mature relationship
is
to be freed
from
compulsive sexuality.
We
are
from our but
we
both limited and
instincts,
and we can never escape
free,
which must,
therefore, find expression;
attain the greatest freedom
limitations. If
we do not
strive to
when we
recognize our
be superior
to,
we
shall
not be dominated by, our instinctive dispositions. That the
achievement of personality interpersonal relationships
and the man who
is
icily
is
is
characterized by maturity of
a principal
remote
theme of
dent upon, his fellows cannot be regarded his full stature as a
observation,
human
this
book;
from, or slavishly depenas
having reached
being. But, however detailed our
we cannot from
outside
comprehend what
is
162
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
essentially
an inner experience.
point out that neurosis
have been
I
at pains to
and
a subjective state,
is
that, al-
though certain aspects of a person's behaviour may enable
one
to deduce
self
can know the extent to which he
an inner disturbance, only the subject him-
Similarly, the sense of being at
true to
and
in
is
harmony with one's own
it is
recognize
when
a
man
oneself, of being
nature,
is
ultimately
we may think
a subjective experience; and, although
we can
riven by conflict.
one with
that
has attained this condition,
who knows
really only the individual himself
his
own
truth.
At the beginning
of this chapter
postulated a pre-
I
formed organization independent of consciousness which in the child
is
struggling to emerge,
and which
Some such working is
hypothesis seems inescapable, since
clear that consciousness
person. Part of the
know
in the adult
mature personality.
will ultimately manifest itself as the
it
can never comprehend the whole
human
condition
ourselves completely; for
we
is
that
we can never
are both observer
and
observed and must, therefore, in some degree perpetually elude our
we
own
surveillance.
However much
insight
we
have,
can never see the whole of ourselves, never be conscious
of the totality of our being.
It
cannot therefore be con-
sciousness alone which directs the course of the individual
towards his ing
if it
own
maturity; and, indeed,
live out their lives
without showing
sessing consciousness in the
The
human
would be
surpris-
pole to neurosis, that there is,
much
evidence oi pos-
sense at
all.
subjective sense of being at one with oneself, of
possessing that inner serenity
which
it
were, since other living things grow, develop, and
as
is
it
is,
which stands
in fact, often
at the opposite
accompanied by a
feeling
something superior to the ego, something were, directing the course of the individual's
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY development and to which If
such phrases
of one's
own
as
163
behoves him to pay attention.
it
"personal integrity," "fidelity to the law
being," being "true to oneself" are anything
more than catchwords, one is bound to postulate some totality of the personality which is greater than that ego with which we habitually
identify ourselves; for,
a
if
either true or untrue to himself, the self to
man can which he
be is
either true or untrue cannot be identical with that execu-
him
tive part of
ego,
which these epithets
to
will recognize his
Jung
concept of a
which represents the individual
ply that aspect of himself of
apply. Readers of
self,
superior to the
in his totality, not sim-
which he happens
to be con-
scious.
Those
uncongenial,
when
whom
to
such a concept
is
strange, or initially
may perhaps be more prepared to entertain it we often use such ideas in another
they recall that
context.
A work of art such
as a
novel or a symphony
is, if
of high calibre, often referred to as possessing the qualities of inner coherence and inevitability.
We feel
that only this
phrase could have followed that; that this incident, and no other, could appear at a particular point, that only thus
could the work be ended. There zation or inner structural pattern
the work as a whole and
and the
it
is
sum
is
its
parts
which
it
appears, an organi-
which somehow embraces
superior to
partly this sense of the
of
is,
its
individual phrases;
whole being greater than
excites our admiration.
The nu-
merous descriptions of the creative process afforded us by artists
test
of
all
kinds,
and indeed by
the fact that the
artist
himself
scientists also, is
often unaware of
his creation will finally manifest itself,
to find If,
the
how
surely
its
end
is
amply
at-
how
and may be surprised
foreshadowed in
its
beginning.
however, we admit such a hypothesis to our view of
human
psyche,
we
are certainly inviting criticism of the
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
164
most devastating kind. History can parade before us an im-
mense number of deluded cranks who have felt themselves to be the agents of a superior force, and who have justified their for
most abominable actions by placing the
them on God, on
whom
Fate, or
on some
responsibility
lesser
luminary by
they believed themselves to be guided or inspired.
Aldous Huxley, 5
in his brilliant essay "Justifications," tells
us of the Swiss Anabaptist,
manded
as
Thomas Schucker, who, com-
he believed by the
deity, cut off his brother's
head with a sword in the presence of a people.
Was Thomas Schucker
large
number
being true to himself,
of
fol-
was he simply acting out
own development, or an infantile fantasy? He himself
asserted the former view;
most of us would incline to the
lowing the predestined path of his
latter:
lem.
but this extreme example raises an interesting prob-
we admit
If
the hypothesis of a self to which the in-
dividual can be true, are to distinguish
we not
inviting delusion
and
failing
between the maturely integrated individual
and the psychotic?
Once
again
we meet
the curious link which joins the
opposite poles of the development of personality, and to
which
I
referred in
an
sense, a whole; for, in
earlier chapter. its
The
infant
solipsistic isolation,
is,
in
one
it is itself,
no
6
no more. "Nearest then to Tao is the infant." But its upon the fact that its only relationship with people is one of total dependence, which, in the less,
entire spontaneity rests
most primitive
stage,
is
not a relationship
people are not distinguished as part of the subject.
as separate objects
still
in
an
but treated
This attitude towards objects
characteristic of the psychotic,
emotionally
at all, since other
who may be assumed
infantile stage of
is
also
to be
development; and
our theoretical difficulty over such people as
Thomas
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY Schucker may be resolved beliefs
if
we pay
165
attention not to their
but to their object relationships.
In the introduction acterized not so
suggested that a delusion
I
much by
tional intensity with
its
which
is
char-
truth or falsity as by the
emo-
it
is
held:
it
is
a citadel to be
defended against other people, not a hypothesis which can be discussed with them. liefs
Many
reasonable people hold be-
which other reasonable people may regard
monopoly of the truth and that everyone their sanity
is
as fantastic;
do not think that they alone have a
but, provided they
else
about a man's delusions
He Knew He was
Right, a title
aptly underlines the essential feature of paranoia.
one
is
right
wrong,
is
not in question. Trollope 7 entitled his novel
is
to disregard the beliefs of others
which
To know
and to
fail
them as persons in their own right, entitled to their own views. Thomas Schucker knew that he was right, but we may doubt whether his brother would have shared his conviction if he had realized what was to happen to him. to treat
A
tolerant scepticism,
an
ability to
as well as those of other people,
fanaticism, insanity,
and an
is
doubt one's
own
ideas
a good test of maturity:
infantile attitude to others are
closely related. Self-realization, so far as
anyone ever achieves
it,
is
manifested by the widest exercise of the individual's potentialities
combined with the attainment of a mature
ship with others. Subjectively,
it
relation-
seems to be attended by a
sense of being fully adapted to, rather than attempting entirely to direct,
latter attitude
the course of one's
is,
own development.
in the wide sense in
word, religious: for
it
which Jung
implies that the individual
is
This
uses the
acknowl-
edging his ultimate dependence upon forces which
may be
depicted as either inside or outside himself, but which are
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
166
The
nevertheless not of his making.
use of the word "reli-
gious" generally causes alarm to those
the outmoded idea that there patibility
is
who
adhere to
still
some fundamental incom-
between religion and science; but
it
perhaps
will
them to realize that, in seeking to understand these phenomena, we do not have to postulate a deity ensconced within the psyche which directs the course of development. reassure
Shakespeare 8 could ends, rough-hew therapist
may
say:
'There's a divinity that shapes our
them how we
modern psycho-
prefer to use the terminology of cybernetics.
Physiologically the body structure which, until
No
will": the
is
an enormously complicated
final dissolution,
its
is
self-regulating.
automatic factory, no calculating machine can
rival the
complexity and the subtlety by which the internal environ-
ment of the body is kept constant so that each individual cell may function at its optimum efficiency. Wiener, 9 in his book Cybernetics, gives many examples of such selfregulating mechanisms. The control of body temperature, the regulation of heart-rate and blood-pressure, the main-
tenance of the hydrogen-ion concentration and the calcium content of the blood
at the appropriate levels are
many examples. These
of
by means of negative feed-backs: that a
is
to say that,
when
one
direc-
change in the internal environment occurs
tion, processes are set in
again:
whole
series of
an increase in the
actions to occur
limits.
A
a
change
body temperature
changes which tend to lower
it
alkalinity of the blood causes re-
which encourage the excretion of
and the retention of narrow
in
motion which encourage
in the opposite direction. Thus, a rise in sets off a
but a few
self-regulating devices function
acid, thus maintaining the
perpetual oscillation
is
pH
alkali
within
constantly taking
place around an ideal state of equilibrium, a opposites. This condition of homeostasis
mean between
is
always being
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY sought but never quite attained, is
or, if
167
temporarily achieved,
immediately departed from again, because either the ex-
ternal or the internal
environment changes. The body may
be said to "know" what
best for
is
itself;
but
it is
a knowl-
edge without consciousness, and the goal of homeostasis
is
sought automatically without the deliberate direction of a conscious ego.
seems probable that the psyche
It
similarly consti-
is
own
tuted,
and that
it
rium.
We
to Jung the valuable hypothesis that the
psyche
owe
is
automatically seeking
self-regulating.
is
He
its
believes that,
in
equilib-
many
in-
and other manifestations of unconscious,
stances, dreams
spontaneous mental activity are attempts of the mind to correct
own
its
errors— a hypothesis which necessarily im-
plies a "right" state of affairs
from which divergence can
take place. In the practice of psychotherapy this theory
is
of great value in the interpretation and understanding of
and
clinical material;
examples of
how
it
would be possible to give many
dreams, fantasies, and neurotic symptoms
tend to counterbalance and correct a one-sided conscious attitude.
Those who
demic and
clinical
regret the divergence
between aca-
psychology will be glad to recognize that
the compensatory function of the unconscious esis
which can be
tested,
is
a hypoth-
and one which has already been
the subject of experimental investigation. 10 I
have made the assumption that each human being
endowed with realization. is
a unique personality
The
which
is
seeking
man
own
hypothesis of a psyche which, like the body,
self-regulating lends support to the idea that
for a
its
is
to discover his
own
personality
and
it is
possible
to belong to
himself. Just as too wide a divergence from physiological
equilibrium leads to discomfort, disease, and death; so the
attempt to be what one
is
not, or the failure to be
what
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
168
one
is,
lead to internal conflicts, neurosis, and emotional
isolation. I
believe the development of personality to be a natural
process which, ideally, follows
conclusion. But, since
throughout
its
the
full
is
extent upon
interfered with. tive love that
it
It is
only
its
human
if
own
course to
also a process
relationships,
it is
easily
a child has experienced objec-
becomes an adult capable of
it
own
its
which depends
loving;
and
development of personality can only take place in
a setting of adult loving and being loved. In seeking to define the fundamentals
chotherapy
rests,
I
upon which the
a belief in the integrity of the personality
of
human
practice of psy-
find myself returning again
relationships.
and again to
and the
limitations imposed by inheritance preclude each
from seeing more than a small part of
anyone can do
is
validity
Truth has many aspects; and the
it.
one of us
The most
to be faithful to that aspect
that
which he
own interpretation of the truth; but our very differences may link us more closely when we recognize that the man who is capable of the deepest human relationship is the man who is most himself
is
able to see.
surely himself.
Each of
us has his
REFERENCES
INTRODUCTION 1.
Gibbon, Edward, The Decline and pire
2.
(Methuen, 1897), Vol.
Butterfield, Herbert,
Ill, p.
Christianity
Fall of the
Roman Em-
24.
and History (G.
Bell,
1949), p. 46. 3.
Vallentin, Antonina, Einstein (Weidenfeld and Nicol-
London, 1954), p. 105. Heim, A. W., The Appraisal of
son, 4.
Intelligence
(Methuen,
1954), p. 33. 5.
Whitehead, A. N., Science and
Modern World (Cam-
the
bridge University Press, 1928), p. 9. 6.
Heisenberg, W., The
(Hutchinson, 1958), 7.
Eddington, A.
S.,
Physicist's
Conception of Nature
p. 29.
The Nature of the
Physical
World (Cam-
bridge University Press, 1928), pp. 294-5. 8.
Jung, C. G., and Pauli, W., The Interpretation of Nature
and
the
Psyche (Routledge and
Kegan
Paul, 1955), pp.
151-2. 9.
Huxley, Aldous, T. H. Huxley as a Literary millan, Huxley
Memorial Lecture, 1932).
169
Man
(Mac-
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
170
CHAPTER
1:
SELF-REALIZATION
1.
Streeter, B. H., Reality (Macmillan, 1935) pp. 313-14.
2.
Richter,
Derek
Perspectives
(Ed.),
in
Neuropsychiatry
(H. K. Lewis and Co., 1950), p. 79.
CHAPTER 1.
2:
THE RELATIVITY OF PERSONALITY
Eddington, A.
S.,
The Nature of the Physical World (Cam-
bridge University Press, 1928), p. 144. 2.
Russell, Bertrand, History of Western Phibsophy (Allen
3.
Donne, John, "Devotions upon Emergent Occasions," from the complete poetry and selected prose, ed. John
andUnwin,
1955), p. 710.
Hayward (The Nonesuch 4.
Conrad, Joseph, Nostromo p.
5.
J.
M. Dent,
1955),
Freeman and McGhie, "The Psychopathology of SchizoMed. Psychol, pp. 30, 187. Fromm, Erich, The Fear of Freedom (Routledge and KeBrit. ).
gan Paul, 1950), 7.
(Coll. ed.
497.
phrenia," 6.
Press, 1939), p. 538.
p. 15.
Woolf, Virginia, The
Common
Reader (Hogarth Press,
1925), p. 262. 8.
Maclay,
W.
S.,
Guttmann,
E.,
and Mayer-Gross, "Spon-
taneous Drawing as an Approach to some Problems of
Psychopathology," Proc. Roy. Soc. Med., 1938.
CHAPTER
3:
THE MATURE RELATIONSHIP
Martin,
1.
Buber,
2.
Brierley, Marjorie,
(T.
I
and
O. T. Clark, 1953),
Thou,
R.
G.
Smith
p. 28.
Trends
Press, 1951), pp. 192-3.
transl.
in
Psycho- Analysis (Hogarth
REFERENCES
3.
Jung, C. G., Modern
Man
in
171
Search of a Soul (Kegan Paul,
1941), p. 270. 4. Fairbairn,
W. Ronald
D., Psycho-Analytic Studies of the
Personality (Tavistock Publications, 1952), p. 145. 5.
ibid., p. 32.
6.
ibid., p. 55.
7.
ibid., p. 47.
8.
Fromm,
Erich, The Fear of Freedom (Routledge
gan Paul, 1950),
CHAPTER
4:
and Ke-
p. 228.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY
1.
Confessions of
2.
Ch. XX, p. 64. Freud, Sigmund,
Augustine (Methuen,
St.
1929),
Bk
I,
Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis
(Allen and Unwin, 1943), p. 264. 3.
Waley, Arthur, The
Way
and
Its
Power (Allen and Un-
win, 1949), p. 55. 4.
Freud, Sigmund,
New
Introductory Lectures on Psycho-
Analysis (Hogarth Press, 1937), p. 139. 5.
ibid., p. 124.
6.
ibid., p.
139.
7. Freud, Sigmund, Outline of Psycho-Analysis (Hogarth
Press, 1949), p. 7. 8.
Money-Kyrle, R.
E., Psychoanalysis
and
Politics
(Duck-
worth, 1951), p. 49. 9.
Fairbairn,
W. Ronald
D., Psycho-Analytic Studies of the
Personality (Tavistock Publications, 1952), p. 106. 10. Fairbairn,
W. Ronald
of Hysterical States,"
on the Nature Med. Psych., 1954, XXVII,
D., ''Observations Brit. ].
p. 107.
11.
The Gospel According
to St.
Matthew,
18, 3.
172
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
CHAPTER
5:
1.
THE EMERGENT PERSONALITY
Huxley, Aldous, Proper Studies (Chatto and Windus, 1933), p. 99.
2.
Mayer-Gross, Slater, Roth, Clinical Psychiatry (Cassell, 1954), p. 190.
3.
ibid., p.
277.
4.
ibid., p.
279.
5.
ibid., p.
220.
6.
Freud, Sigmund, Introductory Lectures on Psycho- Analysis
(Allen and Unwin, 1943),
W.
p.
346.
H., The Varieties of Temperament (Harper,
7.
Sheldon,
8.
Kretschmer, Ernst, Physique and Character (Kegan Paul,
9.
Tanner,
1942).
1936). J.
M., "Physique, Character, and Disease," The
Lancet, 1956, p. 637.
CHAPTER 1.
6:
IDENTIFICATION
AND INTROJECTION
Bowra, C. M., The Greek Experience (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1957), p. 198.
2.
Jung, C. G., Psychological Types (Kegan Paul,
1938),
p. 551. 3.
Fairbairn,
W. Ronald
D., Psycho-Analytic Studies of the
Personality (Tavistock Publications, 1952), p. 47. 4.
Bowley, John, Child Care and guin Books, 1957),
Two
the
Growth of Love (Pen-
p. 58.
on Analytical Psychology (Rou-
5.
Jung, C. G.,
6.
and Kegan Paul, 1953), p. 141. Fromm, Erich, The Fear of Freedom (Routledge and Ke-
Essays
tledge
gan Paul, 1950),
p. 15.
REFERENCES
CHAPTER
7:
PROJECTION
AND
173
DISSOCIATIOIN
1.
Terence, Heauton timorumenos,
2.
Jung, C. G., The Undiscovered
I,
i,
25.
Self (Routledge and Kegan
Paul, 1958), pp. 77-8.
CHAPTER 1.
Plato,
8:
IDENTIFICATION
The Symposium,
Books, 1951), 2.
Frazer, Sir
3.
Forster, E.
tion,
AND PROJECTION
transl.
W. Hamilton
(Penguin
p. 78.
James G., The Golden Bough (Abridged
Macmillan, 1922), M.,
Two
p.
edi-
692.
Cheers for Democracy (Arnold, 1951),
p. 24.
Remembrance of Things Past, transl. Scott MoncriefT (Chatto and Windus, 1949), Vol. VII, p. 21.
4.
Proust, Marcel,
5.
ibid., p. 20.
CHAPTER
9:
HETEROSEXUAL LOVE AND
RELATIONSHIP 1.
2.
Song from The Indian Queen, words by Dry den and Howard, music by Henry Purcell. Plato, The Symposium, transl. W. Hamilton (Penguin Books, 1951),
3.
CHAPTER 1.
p. 75.
Mead, Margaret, Male and Female (Gollancz, 1950).
10:
Forster, E.
THE PSYCHOTHERAPEUTIC PROCESS M., Howards End (Arnold, 1910), pp. 183-4.
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
174
CHAPTER 11: TRANSFERENCE AND COUNTER-TRANSFERENCE 1.
Blake, William,
'The Marriage
Poetry and Prose of William Blake
Heaven and
of
(Nonesuch
Hell,"
Press, 1927),
p. 201. 2.
Fairbairn,
W. Ronald
D., "Observations in Defence of
the Object-relations Theory of the Personality,"
Med. 3.
XXVIII,
Psych., Vol.
Cohn, Norman, The and Warburg, 1957).
Brit. ].
1955.
p. 156,
Pursuit of the Millennium (Seeker
CHAPTER 12: PSYCHOTHERAPY AND INDOCTRINATION 1.
Gibbon, Edward, The Decline and pire
2.
(Methuen, 1897), Vol.
I,
Fall of the
Roman Em-
p. 84.
Winokur, G., "The Germ Warfare Statements," Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 1955, Vol. 122.
3.
Hinkle and Wolff, "Communist Interrogation and doctrination of 'Enemies of the State,' " chives of Neurology
No.
In-
A.M. A. Ar-
and Psychiatry, August 1956, Vol. 76,
2.
CHAPTER
13:
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY Trechmann (The
1.
The Essays of Montaigne,
2.
Fenichel, Otto, The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis
Modern (W. 3.
W.
J.
Library- Edition, 1946), p. 206.
Norton,
New
York, 1945), p. 50.
Jung, C. G., The Development of Personality (Routledge
and Kegan Paul, 1954), 4.
trans. E.
ibid., p. 171.
p. 171.
REFERENCES
5.
175
Huxley, Aldous, The Olive Tree and Other Essays (Albatross Collected Edition, 1937), p. 91.
6.
Waley, Arthur, The win, 1949),
7.
Way
and
Its
Power (Allen and Un-
p. 55.
Trollope, Anthony,
He Knew He was
Right (Oxford
University Press, World's Classics, 1951). 8.
Shakespeare, William, Hamlet, Act V, Sc.
2.
9.
Wiener, Norbert, Cybernetics (Technology
Press,
Wiley and Sons
Inc.,
New
John
York, 1948).
W., "Zur experimentellen Grundlegung der Jungschen Traumanalyse," Schweiz. Z. Psychol. An-
10. Bash, K.
wend., 1952,
II,
282-95.
1
11
INDEX
Abandonment:
Buber, Martin, 31
fear of, 73, 74, 75, 133, 150
Butler, Samuel, 14
fear of in depressive type, 134,
Butterfield, Herbert, 2
136
Abraham,
Karl,
59-60
Castration complex, 102
Character and physique, 62-3
Acceptance: 125
failure of,
Chesterfield, Lord, 123
of baby, 51
Child:
of child, 65
acceptance
Aggression, 46, 128, 129
aggression
and dependence, 47, 85 and
47-8, 85, 86-7
and parent, relationship between, 63-4, 76, 85-6, 132, 133
47
frustration,
65
of,
of,
and immaturity, 48
basic
dissociation of, 86, 87
fascination of, 50
of child, 47-8, 85, 86-7
36
long immaturity
Art, 163
of,
132-3, 156,
157
and communication, in psychosis, 28-9
W.
of,
identification of, with parent, 143
Agoraphobia, 135, 136
Ashby,
need
27, 28
projection on, by parent, 143
spontaneity
of,
51-2
Christ, 29, 42, 52
R., 18
Claustrophobia, 135, 136
Cohn, Norman, 142
Baby:
acceptance
Collective unconscious, 60
of, 5
identification with mother, idyllic unity of, 42,
inner world
of,
omnipotence sexuality of, 5
70
,
Conrad, Joseph, 25-6 Counter-transference, and transference, 130-45
Cybernetics, 18, 166
87
solipsism of, 68-9, 164
wholeness
68
41
of, 1
45
Dissociation:
and projection, 79-92
of, 7
128
Blake, William, 130
healing
Brain-washing, 147
of aggression, 86
Brierley, Marjorie,
31-2
of personality, 84, 125
Bowlby, John, 69, 70
Bowra,
CM.,
67
of,
of sexuality, 87, 91
Domination, 34, 37-8, 39, 133
177
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
178
Domination, (continued)
Howard,
Sir Robert, 107
fear of, 150
Huxley, Aldous, 53, 164
fear of in schizoid type, 134, 135
Huxley, T. H., 10
Donne, John, 23
Hypnosis, 121-3
"Doodles," 28
Hypotheses:
Dryden, John, 107 Eddington, A.
compared with delusion, 4-5 in physical sciences, 6-7 21
S., 8,
of psychologist, 3
Einstein, Albert, 3
of psychotherapist, 1-2, 12
Epilepsy, 58
of self-realization, 21
Erewhon, 14 Extraversion, 61, 93
66
Identification,
and introjection, 67-78 Fairbairn,
W.
R. D., 23-4, 33-7,
45-6,61,68, 135, 138 Fascination, 96, 114, 117
of child, 50
definition of, 67
of parents and children, 68, 143
Fenichel, Otto, 31
of therapist with patient, 144
Forster, E. M., 100,
119
primary, 72
with adult, 107
Free-will, 9
Freud, Sigmund, 16, 42-5, 59-60,
Erich, 27,
with the mother, 68 Immaturity, 41
124, 131, 140
Fromm,
and projection, 93-106 and submission, 34
37-8
and aggression, 48 long, of
Frustration:
human
and aggression, 47 and self-discovery, 72
of parents, 48
of sexual instinct, 114
Incest, 87-9, 145
child, 132, 156,
157
Individual:
Gibbon, Edward,
1,
146
Goal-seeking, 17-18
and criminal law, 14-15
in cybernetics, 18
and state, 15 development
of individual, 18
goal-seeking
of, 12, 16,
of,
in isolation, 24-6,
Handel, George Frederick, 94 Hate and love, relation between,
44,50 Heim, A. W., 4 Helsenberg, W., 7-8 Heterosexuality and relationship,
107-18 Hinkle, 153
Homosexuality, 81, 98-106, 108
22,
36-7
18
28-9
13-14
in medicine,
lack of self-sufficiency of, 23, 25 totality of, 162,
value
of,
163
13
Indoctrination:
and psychotherapy, 146-55 Communist, 152-4 in Korea, 152
Introjection, 66
INDEX and
identification,
67-78
179
Personality:
and constitution, 61-2
Introversion, 61, 93
development Jung, C.
C,
16,33,34,36-7,
11,
60-1,63,67,72,84, 122-3, 124-5, 134, 135, 139, 141,
159-61, 163, 165, 167
of, 12, 16,
40-52
dissociation of, 84, 125
influence on, environmental or genetic, 53
156-68
integrity of, 134-5,
latent potentialities in, 94, 97
Klein, Melanie, 44-5, 47, 124
Korea, indoctrination
152
in,
Kretschmer, Ernst, 62, 159
maturity
161
of,
realization of, 17, 21 relativity of,
uniqueness Love:
unity
and hate, relationship between,
44,50
21-30, 65
of, 17,
167
42, 45-6, 161
of,
Physique and character, 62 Plato, 93
Symposium
objective, 126, 159, 168
110-13
of,
Power, 35, 85
Marcus Aurelius, 130 "Mature Dependence," 24, 33
Projection, 66, 93
and dissociation, 79-92 and
Maturity: assertion in,
identification,
between
49
development and, 16
93-106
116
between parents and children,
of object-relationships, 35-6
143
between therapist and
of personality, 161 of relationship, 31-9, 40, 49, 146
varying concepts
lovers,
of,
16-17
in transference, 131
Montaigne, Michel de, 156, 160
Proust, Marcel, 103-4
Mozart, Leopold, 94
Psyche:
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 94
patient,
140-4
primitive aspects
of,
128
self-regulating, 63, 139, 167
Omnipotence,
infantile,
70-1
toughness
of,
154
Psychological types, 134 depressive, 61, 134
Parents:
and
child, relationship
between,
63-4, 75-7, 85-6, 132, 133
"goodness and badness"
of, 19,
139-40
extravert, 61,
133-4
introvert, 61, 127,
133-4
schizoid, 61, 127, 134
Psychosis:
28-9
identification with, 68, 143
and
immaturity
manic-depressive, 54
of,
48 48
paranoid, 80
child, 143
Psychotherapist:
narcissistic wishes of,
projections Pauli,
of,
W., 9-10
on
art,
attitude to patient of, 11, 12, 39
THE INTEGRITY OF THE PERSONALITY
180
genetics of, 55-6
Psychotherapist, (continued) basic assumptions of, 2, 12
in twins,
convictions
isolation in, 24,
of,
146
emotional problems
of,
59
60
loss of identity in,
identification of, with patient,
144
25
relationships in, 26
Science: basic hypothesis of, 6-7
objectivity of, 7, 126
projection from, and
on
patient,
140-4
causality and,
8-9
subjectivity of,
relationship with patient, 120-1,
124, 142
school
58
9-10
Sexual fantasy, 82-4, 107-8
Psychotherapy: analytical
in,
and neurosis, 138-9
119
of, 11,
7-8
unproven assumptions Self-realization, 12-20
and other methods,
121-5
Sexual frustration, 114
Sexual maturity, 17, 33, 116-18
and conversion, 147
Sexuality, 161
and indoctrination, 146-55
dissociation of, 87, 91
length
in adolescence, 90,
of,
12
120
results o(, 16,
infantile,
99
51,87
Shakespeare, William, 166
W.
Rank, Otto, 43
Sheldon,
Relationship:
Streeter, B. H., 12
H., 62, 159
and heterosexuality, 107-18 Tanner,
genital, 17, 33 in schizophrenia,
maturity
of,
M., 62-3
Terence, 79
31-9, 49, 146
of child and parent, 64, 76, 85, 86, 132, 133
of psychotherapist and patient,
Transference:
ambivalence in, 133, 140 and counter-transference, 130-45 as projection, 131
120-1, 124, 142 relativity of,
J.
"Tao," 42, 164
26
Trollope, Anthony, 165
65
therapeutic, 11, 32-3
Uncertainty principle, 7
Russell, Bertrand, 21, 22
St.
Whitehead, A. M.,
Augustine, 40, 84-5
causation
of,
60
Winokur, G., 152
57-8
disintegration of personality
5
Wiener, Norbert, 166
Schizophrenia, 80, 115
in,
Wolff, 153
Woolf, Virginia, 27-8
Both parties to the therapeutic relationship will find much to challenge and encourage them in this thoughtful, thought-provoking work by eminent psychiatrist Anthony Storr, the widely acclaimed author of Solitude.
The
Integrity of the Personality is rooted in the conviction that the particular psychoanalytical school to which a therapist belongs is
less
ability to
important to the outcome of treatment than his or her
nurture the patient. Tolerant and impartial, Dr. Storr draws
on Freudian, Jungian, and other psychological approaches
own
construct a statement of his
basic assumptions about
to
human
nature and the goals of the therapeutic process. In doing he illuminates the development of the human personality, the process by which we become our individual human selves, and demonstrates that healing takes place in a matrix
so,
where analyst and analysand meet
as equals.
Essential reading for therapists and their clients,
The Integrity of the Personality
is
eloquent
capacity to change and grow, and in
in its belief in
its
have the courage to
the
support of those
human who
try.
"Unfailingly judicious, undogmatic, humane, and modest. True expertise, he knows, leavens reasons
with compassion."
Newsday
37585
o
"70999"01000 M
7
ISBN D-3MS-375A5-A
Cover printed
in
USA