The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Green Societies: Environmental Sustainability 3030664899, 9783030664893

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Chinmay Chakraborty Swapnila Roy Susmita Sharma Tien Anh Tran   Editors

The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Green Societies Environmental Sustainability

The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Green Societies

Chinmay Chakraborty · Swapnila Roy · Susmita Sharma · Tien Anh Tran Editors

The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Green Societies Environmental Sustainability

Editors Chinmay Chakraborty Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering Birla Institute of Technology Mesra, Jharkhand, India Susmita Sharma Department of Civil Engineering National Institute of Technology Shillong, Meghalaya, India

Swapnila Roy Applied Science, KK University Nepura, Bihar Sharif, India Tien Anh Tran Department of Marine Engineering Vietnam Maritime University Haiphong City, Vietnam

ISBN 978-3-030-66489-3 ISBN 978-3-030-66490-9 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66490-9 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic elaborates on the contemporary issues viz., social, environmental, economic impact, and different policies concerning COVID19. This timely book surveys COVID-19 in a very holistic manner, entailing an interdisciplinary approach to integrate the response of the COVID-19 pandemic in understanding and preventing future environmental impairment. It is understood that the absolute impact of this perpetuating pandemic is yet to be fully evaluated but it has opened a new scheme of integrated understanding incorporating the vitality of conservation of biodiversity with traditional and state of the art medicine, diagnostic, and treatment technologies. COVID-19, a disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), was recognized as a pandemic in March 2020 by the World Health Organization. Though the COVID-19-based crisis has drastically reduced the global Gross Domestic Product (GDP) owing to restriction and confinement over sectorwise activities, it has a positive impact on our environment. The period of global lockdown “THE GREAT PAUSE” can be utilized as a baseline data for determining the pollution extent in different sectors, a developing a sustainable development model for the nation. The impact of lockdown spread and extension of COVID-19 is assessed based on the compartmental model of epidemiology to estimate its growth during and post lockdown. This book focuses on the detection of the dominant mode of SARS-CoV-2 transmission via advanced healthcare monitoring systems such as microsensors, biosensors, and wearable sensors which are highly sensitive and give fast response with less consumption of power. The impact of air quality variations both in the natural environment as well as closed air-conditioned and the ventilated environment is discussed using highly sensitive measuring equipment. Additionally, the book also proposes the psychosocial model focused on pro-environmental behavior which further enhances one’s self-efficacy. It incorporates studies to identify the issue of food security in today’s modern cities in encountering and preparing for future epidemic outbreaks, making cities truly smart and sustainable. The book also highlights the significance of uplifting the sustainable environment for Indian smart cities, by providing smart solutions using Information and Communication Technology, the Internet of Things, Artificial Intelligence, and Machine v

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Preface

Learning as an integrated part of governance for development both on social and economic fronts. The book also highlights the issues associated with the transport sector include congestion, carbon emissions, and inadequate public transit service supply which can be overcome by the utilization of new smart technologies. Utilization of big data through spatial-statistical analysis and App-Based Shared Mobility services can be used as a precautionary measure to analyze any future epidemic. The book also emphasizes the recent waste management rules adopted in the healthcare sector around the world for countering the transmission through the oral-feral route via sludge hyalinization technology, to eradicate the viral particles from entering the ecosystem. Further, it identifies different social, economical, and technical challenges related to industrial pollution during the lockdown stage. The editors are grateful to the authors for their contribution to the book by illustrating the influences of various environmental sustainability during the critical times of COVID-19. We believe that this book is an important contribution to the community in assembling research work on developing a sustainable environment during the isolation period due to COVID-19. It is our sincere hope that many more will join us in this time-critical endeavor. Happy reading! Ranchi, Jharkhand, India Nepura, Bihar Sharif, India Shillong, India Haiphong City, Vietnam

Chinmay Chakraborty, Ph.D. Swapnila Roy, Ph.D. Susmita Sharma, Ph.D. Tien Anh Tran, Ph.D.

Contents

1

2

3

4

COVID-19: An Opportunity for Smart and Sustainable Cities in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Meet Fatewar and Vaishali

1

Reassessment of Urban Sustainability and Food Security in the Light of COVID-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Basu Anindya and Kar Nabendu Sekhar

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Disruptive Mobility in Pre- and Post-COVID Times: App-Based Shared Mobility in Indian Cities—The Case of Bengaluru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nausheen Akhtar and Paulose N. Kuriakose Finding the Long-Lost Path: Developing Environmental Awareness Through the Pandemic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T. S. Shwetha and Avneet Kaur

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The Dual Impact of Lockdown on Curbing COVID-19 Spread and Rise of Air Quality Index in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Swagatam Roy and Ahan Chatterjee

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Aftermath of Industrial Pollution, Post COVID-19 Quarantine on Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Raj Shekhar Sharma, Divyansh Panthari, Shikha Semwal, and Tripti Uniyal

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COVID-19: Disaster or an Opportunity for Environmental Sustainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Abhishek Chauhan

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COVID-19 and Its Impact on Carbon Dioxide Emissions . . . . . . . . . . 195 Ankit Dasgotra, Vishal Kumar Singh, Suvendu Manna, Gurpreet Singh, S. M. Tauseef, and Jitendra K. Pandey

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Contents

Sustainable Attainment of Solar E-waste Recycling Concerning to COVID-19 Crisis: A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Nidhi Jariwala and Jaykumar Soni

10 Impact of Biomedical Waste Management System on Infection Control in the Midst of COVID-19 Pandemic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 Johnson Retnaraj Samuel Selvan Christyraj, Jackson Durairaj Selvan Christyraj, Prasannan Adhimoorthy, Kamarajan Rajagopalan, and J. Nimita Jebaranjitham 11 Sludge Hygienisation—A Novel Technology for Urban Areas to Deal with Incursion of COVID-19 Viral Particles in Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Rudrodip Majumdar 12 Trends and Innovations in Biosensors for COVID-19 Detection in Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Geetha Palani, Karthik Kannan, and Devi Radhika 13 IoT Based Wearable Healthcare System: Post COVID-19 . . . . . . . . . 305 Priyanka Dwivedi and Monoj Kumar Singha 14 Biodiversity Conservation: An Imperial Need in Combatting Pandemic and Healthcare Emergencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 Umme Abiha, Sparsh Phutela, and Susmita Shukla 15 COVID-19 Pandemic: An Unprecedented Blessing for Nature . . . . . 349 Suravi Kalita and Hrishikesh Talukdar 16 Green Economy Approach to Develop Bioactive Dexamethasone Analogue Scaffold Against SARS CoV-2 . . . . . . . . . . 371 Kavita Singhal and Ajay Kumar

About the Editors

Dr. Chinmay Chakraborty is an Assistant Professor (Sr.) in the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, BIT Mesra, India. His primary areas of research include wireless body area network, Internet of Medical Things, point-of-care diagnosis, Smart City, Green Technology, m-Health/e-health, and medical imaging. Dr. Chakraborty is coediting ten books on Smart IoMT, Healthcare Technology, and Sensor Data Analytics with CRC Press, IET, Pan Stanford, and Springer. He has received the Young Research Excellence Award, Global Peer Review Award, Young Faculty Award, and Outstanding Researcher Award. Dr. Swapnila Roy is an Assistant Professor in the Dept. of Chemistry, K K University, Nalanda, Bihar. She worked as an Editor in a reputed publishing house (Chhaya Prakashani). She also worked as an Analytical Chemist in different pharmaceutical and chemical companies. Her primary areas of research include defluoridation in waste water, adsorption method for remediation, design expert tool, and application of artificial neural network. She is skilled in handling of sophisticated instruments such as ICP-OES, AAS, FT-IR, HPLC, GCMS, Bomb Calorimeter, Soxlet Apparatus, and different instruments used for analysis of hazardous waste. She has authored 25 reputed journals, book chapters, and international conferences. She received a young research excellence award and outstanding researcher award.

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About the Editors

Dr. Susmita Sharma is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering at the National Institute of Technology Meghalaya, India since 2016. She has obtained her Ph.D. Degree, in Geotechnical Engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay in the year 2016. She specializes in Environmental Geotechnology, with particular emphasis on utilization of anthropogenic generated sediments of waste water treatment plants. She is passionate about geochemistry of soils and sediments and skilled in material characterization techniques using sophisticated instruments such as SEM, Zeta potential, Thermal Analysis, XRay diffraction, Particle Sizing, and FT-IR. Currently, her primary areas of research include stability analysis of earthen slope, soil/sediment characterization for contamination evaluation, and characterization of biomass as Non-Conventional Fuels. Dr. Tien Anh Tran is a Lecturer at Faculty of Marine Engineering, Vietnam Maritime University, Hai Phong City, Vietnam from 2011 to the present. He has been a research fellow at Marine Research Institute, Vietnam Maritime University, Hai Phong City, Vietnam since 2018. He has participated in international conferences as Speaker and an invited technical committee member for the international conferences in Australia, United Kingdom, Canada, Japan, South Korea, Singapore, India, and Hong Kong. He is an author, reviewer for the international journals indexed in SCI/SCIE, EI. His current research interests include ocean engineering, marine engineering, environmental engineering, machine learning, applied mathematics, fuzzy logic theory, multi criteria decision making (MCDM), maritime safety, risk management, simulation and optimization, system control engineering, renewable energy, and fuels.

Chapter 1

COVID-19: An Opportunity for Smart and Sustainable Cities in India Meet Fatewar and Vaishali

Abstract The major portion of the world’s population, i.e. around 55%, resides in urban settlements, which is expected to increase to 68% by 2050. Economic development is always given more preference over environmental sustainability. The COVID-19 pandemic is the result of ignorance to have an adequate number of basic infrastructure facilities including healthcare infrastructure and less importance to sustainable environment. The number of confirmed COVID-19 cases are more in the high-density settlements both at global and national level. Therefore, it becomes crucial to develop Indian cities, which are sustainable and capable to fulfil the needs of the citizens by providing smart solutions. A smart city provides smart services to the residents by using Information and Communication Technology, Information Technology, Internet of Things, Artificial Intelligence, and Machine Learning as an integrated part of governance for development. Hence, it is essential to develop smart sustainable cities followed by smart regions, which are well synchronised with the digital technology, as a precautionary measure before an epidemic becomes a pandemic through spatial-statistical analysis. The aforesaid digital model of smart cities is capable of reducing the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic by analysing the real-time data, which can further be extended to smart regions. Keywords COVID-19 · Smart city · Smart regions · Sustainable cities · Pandemic

M. Fatewar (B) · Vaishali Faculty of Planning and Architecture, Pandit Lakhmi Chand State University of Performing and Visual Arts, Rohtak, Haryana, India e-mail: [email protected] Vaishali e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 C. Chakraborty et al. (eds.), The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Green Societies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66490-9_1

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1.1 Introduction The urban settlements of the world are already facing multifaceted problems and a new challenge of COVID-19 seems to be the worst nightmare. As per the estimate of United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) in 2018 [34], 55% of the world’s total population resides in the urban settlements and the share of urban population is expected to increase to 68% by 2050. The infectious diseases are either originating from the urban settlements or transmitting rapidly due to high population density [19]. New York (USA), Madrid (Spain), Milan (Italy), Moscow (Russia), and Sao Paulo (Brazil) are some of the worst COVID-19 affected cities in the world [41]. Therefore, it is important to ensure that urban settlements are well prepared to combat any infectious disease. The urban population is concentrated in the large metropolis cities and its surrounding areas in many countries including India [12]. The pandemic is expanding continuously all around the globe and impacting adversely the demographic profile of India. On the one hand, cities provide better infrastructure facilities and more employment opportunities. Whereas, on the other hand, cities have also become more vulnerable during the pandemic. In India, a high number of confirmed COVID-19 cases has been reported in the cities including metropolis such as Ahmedabad (Gujarat), Delhi (NCT of Delhi), Chennai (Tamil Nadu), and Mumbai (Maharashtra), etc. [25]. Thus, it becomes important to develop smart cities and smart regions, which are sustainable and capable to fulfil the needs of the present as well as future generations, by providing smart solutions. A smart city provides smart services to the residents by using Information and Communication Technology (ICT), Information Technology (IT) services, Internet of Things (IoT), Artificial Intelligence (AI), and Machine Learning (ML) as an integrated part of governance for development [18, 32, 43]. It leads to the integrated development of physical, institutional, social, and economic infrastructure through retrofitting, redevelopment, greenfield development, and pan-city development [10]. However, a sustainable city focuses to reduce the ecological footprint through environmental management. It aims to provide a safe and healthy environment to the people along with the economic growth of the nation. Moreover, ICT has significantly helpful to attain sustainable development through Digital Citizen Participation (DCP), giving rise to the concept of Smart Sustainable City [3]. Though, as per the Indian Smart Cities Mission Statement and Guidelines (2015), sustainable environment is considered under one of the core infrastructure elements. Therefore, the term sustainable is silent in the case of Indian smart cities. Additionally, smart cities have laid down its foundation on high-density development. Thus, the smart cities need to be well synchronised with the digital technology to take precautionary measures, before an epidemic becomes a pandemic, through spatial-statistical analysis. The contribution of the chapter lies in developing a digital model for Indian smart cities by integrating spatial data with digital technology. Moreover, the research tries to assess the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic at global, national, state, and district

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level through spatial-statistical analysis, in order to efficiently turn the weakness into the opportunities for the future smart cities of India. Section 1.2 describes the major sources used for data collection besides the research design adopted by the authors in the research. Section 1.3 illustrates the etymology of COVID-19 from a mysterious pneumonia to an epidemic, which later declared as a pandemic by the World Health Organisation (WHO). The impact of the pandemic is also analysed through descriptive and analytical research at the global level. Section 1.4 focuses on the spatial-statistical analysis at national and state level supported by the available literature. The analysis helps to perceive the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic on India’s demographic structure. Section 1.5 explains the need of smart and sustainable cities and emphasises the importance of latest digital technology in the modern era. The performance of districts having identified smart cities has been assessed along with the government initiative to combat against the COVID-19 pandemic. Section 1.6 highlights the major issues, which are identified through the research. Then, Sect. 1.7 discusses the recommendations formulated to overcome the identified issues and needs to create smart regions. In addition, a future digital model is proposed, which can be replicated under the same and different geographical locations, to reduce the adverse effect of a pandemic on the smart and sustainable cities. At last, Sect. 1.8 concludes the chapter with a summary.

1.2 Data Collection and Research Design The 27 weeks (from 11 January 2020 to 17 July 2020) data have been analysed to examine the impact of COVID-19 across the globe. The data shared by WHO has been used for the analysis of the COVID-19 pandemic at the world level. The data has been downloaded by the authors on 18 July 2020, which is last updated at 7:47 pm Central European Summer Time (CEST) on 17 July 2020. The day-wise data of the pandemic before 11 January 2020 is not available on the WHO website, which acts as one of the limitations. As a result of which, the authors are compelled to rely on articles to get the initial spreading details of the COVID-19. Furthermore, WHO does not provide the state-wise data of COVID-19 for India. Therefore, ‘Coronavirus Outbreak in India’ website is referred to get the COVID-19 data at national, state, and district level. In the case of India, 24 weeks data has been collected and analysed, i.e. from 30 January 2020 to 15 July 2020, as the first confirmed case of COVID-19 has been reported on 30 January 2020 in the state of Kerala [26]. The COVID-19 data at the city level is not available as of 20 July 2020 on the official website of India i.e. ‘Coronavirus Outbreak in India’. Thus, city-level analysis is beyond the scope of this chapter. Furthermore, the demographic profile of the country is collected from the Census of India, which is available on the website of Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India (ORGI). The analytical research is a combination of both quantitative and qualitative analysis. The data is analysed by using big-data sets through spatial-statistical and geospatial analysis at world level, all-India level, state level, and district level. The accessible

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data sets do not allow for spatial analysis at a scale smaller than district due to the non-availability of data at the city level. Therefore, the districts having smart cities are identified and their data is compared with the remaining districts of the respective state of India. The spatial and non-spatial issues are identified based on the analysis. Finally, the digital model is proposed along with the recommendations to overcome the identified issues with the help of latest digital technology.

1.3 COVID-19: A Pandemic The first case of an outbreak of mysterious pneumonia was reported in November 2019 at Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market, Wuhan, Hubei, China. The symptoms associated with the mysterious pneumonia were fever, fatigue, dry cough, and occasional gastrointestinal. Later, the pathogen of the outbreak was identified as a novel beta-coronavirus and named as 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV). As per the official data, the first confirmed case of 2019-nCoV had been reported in China in the first week of December 2019. The local health authority of the city had announced the epidemiologic alert in the area on 31 December 2019. Thus, the market area was shut down as a precautionary measure to control the spread of nCoV-19 on 1 January 2020. Outside China, the first case was reported in Thailand on 13 January 2020. After that, the 2019-nCoV was started spreading across the world in the few weeks of January 2020. Ultimately, WHO had declared the outbreak constitutes a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) on 30 January 2020. The nCoV-19 outbreak expanded to at least 25 countries till 6 February 2020. WHO had given the name to the disease as Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19) on 11 February 2020. The virus, which causes the COVID-19, was named as Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) on the same date, i.e. 11 February 2020 [37, 39, 40]. Finally, WHO had declared the disease as a ‘Pandemic’ due to increase in the number of COVID-19 confirmed cases all across the globe (in 114 countries) on 11 March 2020 [38] (Fig. 1.1).

1.3.1 Current Scenario in the World The COVID-19 outbreak has made it clear, that today’s urban settlements are not well prepared to combat an epidemic and pandemic. The urban settlements have now become either the originator of infectious diseases or propagate it exponentially because of the high population density and urbanisation rate, e.g. the COVID-19 pandemic emerged in Wuhan city of China [17]. Later, the virus spread through different modes of transport based on the travelling behaviour of an individual at both international and domestic level through airways and domestic public transport, respectively [19]. Economic development has always given more importance

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Fig. 1.1 Etymology of COVID-19. Source Authors, data from [37, 39, 40]

over environmental sustainability. It leads to an increase in the level of urbanisation, creates an ecological imbalance, degradation of environment, and so on. All such phenomenon has the ability to accelerate the process of virus transmission from one person to another [4]. Globally, the total number of confirmed COVID19 cases has exceeded 13.61 million mark with a Case Fatality Rate (CFR) of around 4.30% (0.58 million people) till 17 July 2020 [35]. Out of the six regions on the globe, the American region is the worst affected region due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The maximum number of confirmed cases and death due to COVID-19 have been recorded in the American Region with 52.55% (7.15 million) and 50.85% (0.29 million), respectively, followed by Europe and Eastern Mediterranean Region (Table 1.1). However, the CFR of the world has decreased significantly from 15 to 4.30% [20]. The analysis of COVID-19 data has given some valuable insides about the spread of SARS-CoV-2. The trend shows that, in the initial 6 weeks, the number of cases increased at a constant rate and followed a linear curve. From the 6th week onwards, the trend showed an exponential hike in the total number of confirmed COVID-19 cases. However, some regions were able to control the spread of COVID-19 and slow down the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 from the 12th week onwards as best exemplified by Europe Region (Figs. 1.2 and 1.3). In the EURO, there was a sudden change in the graph from exponential to almost linear after the 12th week onwards due to the decrease in the average number of reported COVID-19 cases per week. Furthermore, the WPRO was able to control the situation within the initial 6 weeks. As a result of which, the WPRO has registered the minimum number of COVID-19 cases in the region. But the AMRO was not able to control the spread of SARS-CoV-2 in the initial 14 weeks. In turn, AMRO had registered the maximum number of confirmed cases per week and experienced an exponential increase in the total number of cases from the 15th week onwards (Figs. 1.2 and 1.3). From the analysis, it is observed that the three weeks period is

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Table 1.1 Region-wise existing scenario of the COVID-19 pandemic S. No. Region name

Region code Confirmed cases (in No.)

Confirmed death

(in %)

(in No.)

CFR (in %)

(in %)

1

American Region

AMRO

7,154,840

52.55

297,855

50.85 4.16

2

Europe Region EURO

3,008,972

22.10

205,482

35.08 6.83

3

Eastern EMRO Mediterranean Region

1,346,982

9.89

33,281

5.68 2.47

4

South-East Asia Region

SEARO

1,308,441

9.61

32,100

5.48 2.45

5

African Region

AFRO

543,122

3.99

9,130

1.56 1.68

6

Western WPRO Pacific Region

253,495

1.86

7,866

1.34 3.10

7

Other

741

0.01

13

0.00 1.75

8

Total

13,616,593 100.00 585,727

100.00 4.30

Other

Source Based on Authors calculation, data from [35]

Fig. 1.2 Region-wise COVID-19 cumulative cases in the world. Source Authors, data from [35]

very crucial, which lasts from the 12th to 15th week, in order to control the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic by taking appropriate measures. Moreover, the number of new cases per week in SEARO and AFRO regions is increasing continuously week after week; whereas, EMRO region shows a decline from the 23rd week onwards.

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Fig. 1.3 Region-wise COVID-19 new cases per week in the world. Source Authors, data from [35]

The AMRO has also recorded the highest number of death due to COVID-19 with 0.29 million till 17 July 2020 followed by EURO and EMRO with 0.21 million and 0.03 million, respectively (Fig. 1.4). The exponential increase led to more fatalities as the AMRO was not able to check on the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 during the initial 14 weeks. As a consequence of which, the total number of deaths in the AMRO is increasing linearly. On the other hand, EURO has recorded the maximum number

Fig. 1.4 Region-wise cumulative death in the world. Source Authors, data from [35]

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Fig. 1.5 Region-wise new death per week in the world. Source Authors, data from [35]

of deaths per week for the initial 15 weeks in the world but, after that, managed to control the situation in the latter weeks (Fig. 1.5). Additionally, lesser number of deaths are recorded in EMRO, SEARO, AFRO, and WPRO due to less number of confirmed COVID-19 cases as compared to AMRO and EURO. Presently, the world neither has any vaccine to cure SARS-CoV-2 nor validated treatment for COVID-19 [40]. Therefore, WHO has suggested to quarantine (or home quarantine) the patient for 14 days or 2 weeks [36]. The positive results of 2 weeks quarantine period are clearly visible in the case of EURO. The number of fatalities due to COVID-19 had decreased significantly in European Region during the 14th week, i.e. just 2 weeks after the region had also been able to reduce the number of COVID-19 cases per week. The same trend was visible till the 27th week (17 July 2020). However, the American Region was able to control the exponential increase in the new number of registered COVID-19 cases into the linear one (more or less) from the 13th week onwards. The positive impacts of the change in graph were also visible in the number of new deaths during the 15th week and thereafter (i.e. just after 2 weeks). Thus, the impact on the control of COVID-19 spread is visible after a period of 2 consecutive weeks, which results in the reduction of fatality cases. In the world, the United States of America (USA) is the most affected country due to COVID-19. The share of confirmed COVID-19 cases of USA in the world is more than one-fourth (25.50%) with 3.4 million cases followed by Brazil and India with 1.9 million and 1.0 million, respectively, till 17 July 2020. Surprisingly, the top 20 worst affected countries constitute 81.70% of the world’s total confirmed COVID-19 cases (Table 1.2). The impact of the pandemic is more in the high population density areas as compared to the low population density areas as observed in metropolis. As a result

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Table 1.2 Most affected countries by COVID-19 pandemic in the world S. No.

Country name

Total cases (in No.)

Total death

CFR (in %)

(in %)

(in No.)

(in %)

1

United States of America

3,472,659

25.50

136,753

23.35

3.9

2

Brazil

1,966,748

14.44

75,366

12.87

3.8

3

India

1,003,832

7.37

25,602

4.37

2.6

4

Russian Federation

759,203

5.58

12,123

2.07

1.6

5

Peru

337,724

2.48

12,417

2.12

3.7

6

South Africa

324,221

2.38

4,669

0.80

1.4

7

Chile

323,698

2.38

7,290

1.24

2.3

8

Mexico

317,635

2.33

36,906

6.30

11.6

9

The United Kingdom

292,556

2.15

45,119

7.70

15.4

10

Iran

267,061

1.96

13,608

2.32

5.1

11

Pakistan

259,999

1.91

5,475

0.93

2.1

12

Spain

258,855

1.90

28,416

4.85

11.0

13

Italy

243,736

1.79

35,017

5.98

14.4

14

Saudi Arabia

243,238

1.79

2,370

0.40

1.0

116

Turkey

216,873

1.59

5,440

0.93

2.5

17

Germany

200,843

1.47

9,082

1.55

4.5

18

Bangladesh

196,323

1.44

2,496

0.43

1.3

19

Colombia

165,169

1.21

5,814

0.99

3.5

20

France

163,550

1.20

30,032

5.13

18.4

21

Argentina

111,160

0.82

2,072

0.35

1.9

22

Rest of the World

2,491,510

18.30

89,660

15.31

3.6

23

Total

13,616,593

100.00

585,727

100.00

4.3

Source Based on Authors calculation, data from [35]

of which, a greater number of confirmed COVID-19 cases are registered in the densely populated cities of the world, i.e. London (UK), Madrid (Spain), Milan (Italy), Moscow (Russia), New York (USA), and Sao Paulo (Brazil). The cities which were once promising to improve the urban infrastructure, provide a better quality of life along with a safe and healthy environment have astonishingly crashed. The pandemic has not only shuddered the economy of the cities and metropolis, but also led to interrupt the global production, demand and supply chain, and consumption networks of the urbanised areas [9, 41]. Thus, compact development and competitive business environment with inadequate infrastructure facilities affect the city’s sustainability.

10

M. Fatewar and Vaishali

1.4 Assessment of COVID-19 in India The first case of COVID-19 has been recorded in the Kerala state of India on 30 January 2020 [26]. From the first confirmed COVID-19 case in India, it took 58 days to reach the 1,000 mark (on 29 March 2020). Whereas, India had crossed the cumulative sum of 10,000 COVID-19 cases in just another 16 days (on 14 April 2020). The confirmed cases figure breached the mark of 1,00,000 (0.1 million) in the next 35 days (20 May 2020). As of 17 July 2020, the total number of COVID-19 cases in India had crossed the 1 million mark in another 59 days [23]. However, the first death due to COVID-19 had been reported on 12 March 2020 in India [30]. The Honourable Prime Minister (PM) of India, Shri Narendra Modi, had announced one-day Janta Curfew as a precautionary measure to control the spread of COVID-19. After the successful trial of one-day Janta Curfew, the lockdown was extended till 14 April 2020 under Phase-1. The citizens were informed about the do’s and don’ts while stepping out from the premises. Social distancing was suggested by the Government of India (GoI) to slow down the rate of disease transmission. The exponential increase in the number of COVID-19 cases had led the further extension of lockdown under Phase-2 (15 April to 3 May 2020), Phase 3 (4 May to 17 May 2020), and Phase 4 (18 May to 31 May 2020). For the purpose of controlling the spread of SARS-CoV-2 virus, GoI had divided the districts into three major zones based on the number of COVID-19 cases, i.e. (i) Red Zone: areas with high number of cases besides doubling rate of less than 4 days; (ii) Orange Zone: areas with few cases and no increase in new cases; (iii) Green Zone: areas with no case. The list of restricted and permissible activities had also been issued by the GoI for all the three aforesaid zones. Finally, GoI had proposed some relaxation and implemented Unlock-1 (1 June to 30 June 2020) followed by Unlock-2 (1 July to 31 July 2020) with a complete shut down of educational and recreational space [21] (Fig. 1.6).

Fig. 1.6 COVID-19: Chronology of changes in India, 2020 Source Authors, data from [21, 23, 26]

1 COVID-19: An Opportunity for Smart and Sustainable …

11

Fig. 1.7 Trend of COVID-19 in India. Source Authors, data from [7]

As per the analysis, it is observed that the number of reported cases is less due to a lesser number of testing in the initial six weeks. After that, the reported cases have started to increase in an exponential number. However, as of 15 July 2020, India has managed to improve the recovery rate and decrease the CFR with 63.3% and 2.6%, respectively (Fig. 1.7).

1.4.1 State-Wise Analysis of COVID-19 in India In India, the spread of SARS-CoV-2 virus is increasing day after day. The highest number of COVID-19 cases has been confirmed in the state of Maharashtra (second most populous state of India) followed by Tamil Nadu and Delhi with 0.27 million (2.7 lakh), 0.15 million (1.5 lakh), and 0.11 million (1.1 lakh), respectively. However, Lakshadweep is the only UT in India, which has not recorded a single COVID-19 case. The maximum number of active cases is also observed in Maharashtra (0.11 million) and Tamil Nadu (0.04 million). Whereas, Delhi has managed to control the situation more efficiently as compared to the other top two most affected states of India with 17,807 active cases and slipped to number four in the tally. While, 20 states and 6 UTs (excluding Lakshadweep) are having less than 8,000 active cases within the respective geographical boundaries, which is a good symbol for one of the most populated countries of the world (Table 1.3). Interestingly, out of the 28 states and 8 UTs, only 1 state and 5 UTs are able to test more than 3% of its population. Goa (state) has tested around 6.81% of its total population followed by Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu (UT), and Ladakh (UT) with 6.38% and 5.69%,

State name

Maharashtra

Tamil Nadu

Delhi

Karnataka

Gujarat

Uttar Pradesh

Telangana

Andhra Pradesh

West Bengal

Rajasthan

Haryana

Bihar

Assam

Madhya Pradesh

Odisha

Jammu and Kashmir

Kerala

S. No.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

33.4

12.3

41.9

72.6

31.2

103.8

25.4

68.6

91.3

49.5

35.2

199.6

60.4

61.1

16.8

72.1

112.4

State population (in Million)

453.7

474.1

353.8

540.5

589.2

337.2

400.2

1123.9

649.9

1218.0

208.7

1277.2

487.7

902.0

736.4

1736.7

1413.2

Sample tested (in Thousand)

Table 1.3 State-wise COVID-19 status, India

1.36

3.86

0.84

0.74

1.89

0.32

1.58

1.64

0.71

2.46

0.59

0.64

0.81

1.48

4.40

2.41

1.26

Share of tested population (in %)

9.6

11.7

14.9

19.6

19.8

20.2

23.3

26.4

34.4

35.5

39.3

41.4

44.6

47.3

117.0

151.8

275.6

Confirmed cases (in Thousand)

2.11

2.46

4.21

3.63

3.35

5.98

5.82

2.35

5.30

2.91

18.85

3.24

9.15

5.24

15.89

8.74

19.50

Test positivity rate (in %)

4.9

5.1

4.3

5.1

6.8

6.5

5.3

6.4

12.7

16.6

13.0

14.6

11.2

27.8

17.8

47.3

111.8

Active cases (in Thousand)

4.6

6.3

10.5

13.9

12.9

13.5

17.7

19.5

20.7

18.4

26.0

25.7

31.3

18.5

95.7

102.3

152.6

Recovered cases (in Thousand)

48.50

54.32

70.32

70.80

65.24

67.08

75.80

73.77

60.07

51.84

66.08

62.21

70.21

39.08

81.80

67.39

55.37

Recovery rate (in %)

36

206

101

682

53

157

319

530

1,000

452

386

1,012

2,080

933

3,487

2,167

10,928

0.38

1.77

0.68

3.47

0.27

0.78

1.37

2.00

2.90

1.27

0.98

2.45

4.66

1.97

2.98

1.43

3.96

CFR (in %)

(continued)

Deceased cases (in No.)

12 M. Fatewar and Vaishali

State name

Punjab

Jharkhand

Chhattisgarh

Uttarakhand

Goa

Tripura

Manipur

Puducherry

Himachal Pradesh

Ladakh

Nagaland

Chandigarh

Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu

Arunachal Pradesh

Meghalaya

S. No.

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

Table 1.3 (continued)

3.0

1.4

0.6

1.1

2.0

0.3

6.9

1.2

2.7

3.7

1.5

10.1

25.5

33.0

27.7

State population (in Million)

24.9

34.6

37.4

10.1

27.4

15.6

105.7

27.9

65.9

92.3

99.2

102.5

222.1

196.1

421.6

Sample tested (in Thousand)

0.84

2.50

6.38

0.95

1.38

5.69

1.54

2.24

2.42

2.51

6.81

1.01

0.87

0.59

1.52

Share of tested population (in %)

0.3

0.5

0.6

0.6

0.9

1.1

1.3

1.6

1.7

2.3

3.0

3.8

4.6

4.6

8.8

Confirmed cases (in Thousand)

1.35

1.42

1.49

6.16

3.29

7.32

1.27

5.72

2.58

2.47

2.97

3.69

2.05

2.33

2.09

Test positivity rate (in %)

0.3

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.6

0.2

0.4

0.7

0.6

0.7

1.3

0.8

1.2

2.0

2.7

Active cases (in Thousand)

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.5

0.3

1.0

1.0

0.9

1.1

1.6

1.7

2.9

3.3

2.5

5.9

Recovered cases (in Thousand)

13.65

31.16

66.49

74.15

38.58

84.41

72.04

55.70

63.53

70.32

56.73

77.89

72.96

54.47

66.68

Recovery rate (in %)

2

3

2

11

0

1

10

21

0

3

18

50

20

38

221

0.59

0.61

0.36

1.78

0.00

0.09

0.75

1.32

0.00

0.13

0.61

1.32

0.44

0.83

2.51

CFR (in %)

(continued)

Deceased cases (in No.)

1 COVID-19: An Opportunity for Smart and Sustainable … 13

0.1

0.0

Sikkim

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Lakshadweep

Unassigned*

India

34

35

36

37

38

14,435.5

0.0

0.0

19.1

13.4

17.2

Sample tested (in Thousand)

1.5 970.2

1.19

0.0

0.2

0.2

0.2

Confirmed cases (in Thousand)

0.00

0.00

5.02

2.20

1.57

Share of tested population (in %)

Source Authors Calculation, data from [6, 7, 27, 33] Note * refer [13] for official definition of Unassigned State

1,210.2

0.4

0.6

1.1

Mizoram

33

State population (in Million)

State name

S. No.

Table 1.3 (continued)

6.72

0.00

0.00

0.92

1.66

1.39

Test positivity rate (in %)

331.1

1.5

0.0

0.0

0.1

0.1

Active cases (in Thousand)

613.7

0.0

0.0

0.1

0.1

0.2

Recovered cases (in Thousand)

63.26

0.00

0.00

73.86

39.19

66.81

Recovery rate (in %)

24,929

0

0

0

0

0

Deceased cases (in No.)

2.57

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

CFR (in %)

14 M. Fatewar and Vaishali

1 COVID-19: An Opportunity for Smart and Sustainable …

15

respectively. While, Bihar, with 0.32%, has tested the least percentage of its total population. Presently, the average recovery rate of India is observed to be around 63.26% (as of 15 July 2020). In India, the recovery rate of individual states varies from 13.65% in Meghalaya to 84.41% in Ladakh. The recovery rate of India has been improving continuously since the 9th week onwards. Out of the 28 states and 8 UTs of India, 15 states and 6 UTs have a recovery rate more than the national average. Furthermore, there are only two UTs, which have registered a recovery rate of more than 80%, i.e. Ladakh and Delhi with 84.41% and 81.80%, respectively. The Kerala state of India, which recorded the first case of COVID-19, has recorded a recovery rate of 48.50%. Moreover, Maharashtra with 10,928 deaths is the only state, which has reported more than 10,000 deaths due to COVID-19. In India, 4 states and 1 UT (excluding Lakshadweep) have not recorded any death case due to COVID-19, whereas, 23 states and 6 UTs (excluding Lakshadweep) have recorded less than 1,000 deaths each within the respective geographical boundary. India is also able to maintain a continuous decrease in the CFR in the last 4 weeks. The average CFR of India is 2.57%, which is lesser than the average CFR of the world, i.e. 4.30%. In India, the highest CFR is recorded in the state of Gujarat followed by Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh with 4.66%, 3.96%, and 3.47%, respectively. Additionally, 23 states and 6 UTs (excluding Lakshadweep) of India are having CFR less than the national average. From the spatial-statistical analysis, it is clear that some North-East (NE), Northern states, and UTs of India have performed much better and have fewer cases of COVID-19 as compared to the other part of the nation. In the whole nation, 5 states and 3 UTs (excluding Lakshadweep) have recorded less than 1,000 COVID19 cases. Interestingly, all the 5 states with less than 1,000 belong to the NE region, i.e. Sikkim (222), Mizoram (238), Meghalaya (337), Arunachal Pradesh (491), and Nagaland (902); whereas, UTs are distributed unevenly, i.e. Andaman and Nicobar Islands (176), Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu (558), and Chandigarh (619), throughout the nation (Fig. 1.8). Moreover, Southern and Western states are the most affected states of India followed by Central and Eastern states. It is because of the high number of confirmed COVID-19 cases in Maharashtra (Southern state) and Tamil Nadu (Western state), which further act as hotspot for the neighbouring states. Additionally, usually the Himalayas, NE regions, and islands are having less connectivity with other parts of the country and have scattered settlements with low population density. It is one of the major reasons behind the COVID-19 free UT of India, i.e. Lakshadweep, and lesser number of confirmed COVID-19 in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Northern regions, and NE region of India. As per Kapoor et al. [15], in India, the total number of hospital beds is around 1.9 million. Out of which, the share of Intensive Care Unit (ICU) is about 5% (95,000). Whereas, only 50% (48,000) of the ICU beds are equipped with ventilators. From the 28 states and 8 UTs of India, the maximum number of hospital beds and ventilators are concentrated in only 7 states with a share of approximately 65.2%, i.e. Uttar Pradesh (14.8%), Karnataka (13.8%), Maharashtra (12.2%), Tamil Nadu (8.1%),

16

M. Fatewar and Vaishali

Fig. 1.8 Existing scenario of COVID-19 (state-wise) in India. Source Authors Calculation, data from [7]

West Bengal (5.9%), Telangana (5.2%), and Kerala (5.2%). Interestingly, all the aforesaid states have recorded a high number of confirmed COVID-19 cases and death as compared to other states. In India, the total number of people tested till 15 July 2020 is 14.45 million, which is equivalent to just 1.19% of the total population of India, with a test positivity rate of around 6.72% (0.97 million). Out of the total recorded cases, 0.33 million are active cases, whereas, the average recovery rate of the nation is 63.26% (0.61 million). However, 2.57% (24,929) people died due to COVID-19. As per the author’s estimate based on the current trend, after testing the total population of the nation, the total number of confirmed COVID-19 cases may rise to 81.33 million or even more. Out of the total confirmed cases, around 2.1 million people may either in a

1 COVID-19: An Opportunity for Smart and Sustainable …

17

critical condition or die. Thus, the people, who are in critical condition, need ICU beds with ventilator facility. However, at present, India has around 48,000 ICU beds and ventilators. It means that India can only provide ICU beds with ventilators to approximately 2.30% of total critical cases at a time. Therefore, the country does not seem to be ready to combat any health emergency, especially an epidemic and/or a pandemic (COVID-19).

1.5 Smart and Sustainable Cities The cities are considered as the engines of economic growth along with social development [16]. The metropolitan areas around the cities have begun with a number of initiatives aimed to upgrade the urban infrastructure and associated services, in order to improve the environment, uplift social conditions, and enhance economic growth. As a result of which, the new concept of smart and sustainable cities has evolved over a period of time [14]. Smart cities improve quality of life by providing sustainable environment with the help of efficient use of digital technology, which follows the fundamentals of spatial intelligence [8]. The digital technology used to build a smart city also helps to innovate new solutions to resolve the problems of everyday life, more effectively in less time, by analysing the big data [31]. Smart city provides smart services to the residents by converging the use of digital technology, such as Information and Communication Technology (ICT), Information Technology (IT) services, Internet of Things (IoT), Machine Learning (ML), and Artificial Intelligence (AI), as an integrated part of governance for development [18, 32, 43]. Whereas sustainable city focuses on reducing the ecological footprint through environmental management. It intends to develop a clean and healthy environment to the people along with the economic growth of the nation. Moreover, ICT has significantly been helpful to attain sustainable development through Digital Citizen Participation (DCP), giving rise to the concept of Smart Sustainable City [3]. In India, the total population has increased from 1.03 billion in 2001 to 1.21 billion in 2011 with a decadal growth rate of around 17.64% [6]. Out of the total population (1.21 billion), 31% population (0.62 billion) resides in urban settlements and contributes 63% of India’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The urban population is expected to be increased to 40% with the contribution of 75% of India’s GDP by 2030. It can be achieved with the overall development of physical, institutional, social, and economic infrastructure facilities in the nation [2]. Therefore, a new concept of Smart Cities Mission (SCM) has emerged, which is launched by the Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD) on 25 June 2015 as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS), to achieve the desired growth and development in a city [1]. The objective of the SCM is to develop future cities with the provision of adequate infrastructure facilities along with a sustainable environment, which in turn provides a better quality of life through the application of smart solutions. The focus is to create a sustainable and inclusive city development model, which can be replicated

18

M. Fatewar and Vaishali

in other parts of the nation [10]. In India, 100 smart cities have been selected across the nation under four rounds. Tamil Nadu state of India is having the maximum number of smart cities followed by Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra with 11, 10, and 8, respectively (Fig. 1.9). The SCM has adopted two approaches for the development of Indian smart cities, i.e. Area Based Development (ABD) and pan-city development. The ABD encourages the compact development of the city, based on the three models, i.e. (i) retrofitting development: focuses on the city improvement (for an area more than 500 acres); (ii) redevelopment: follows the process of city renewal (for an area more than 50 acres); and (iii) greenfield development: emphasises on city extension (for an area more than 250 acres). Whereas, the pan-city development provides smart

Fig. 1.9 Location of 100 selected smart cities (round-wise) in India. Source Authors, data from [28]

1 COVID-19: An Opportunity for Smart and Sustainable …

19

Table 1.4 Selected cities under SCM, India S. No.

Round No.

Month, year

No. of selected cities

Population impacted (in million)

1

Round 1: Light House

Jan. 2016

20

37.3

2

Round 1: Fast Track

May 2016

13

3

Round 2 Sep. 2016

4

Round 3 Jun. 2017

5

Round 4 Jan. 2018

6

Total

Area based development cost (in Rs. billion)

Pan city solution cost (in Rs. billion)

Total cost (in Rs. billion)

371.23

109.41

480.64

9.4

259.74

38.21

297.95

27

25.5

425.24

113.79

539.03

30

23.7

469.79

105.15

574.94

10

3.7

116.05

22.58

138.63

100

99.6

1,642.05

389.14

2,031.19*

Source Authors, data from [22, 28, 29] Note * denotes the cost excluding other costs, i.e. Operation and Maintenance (O&M), contingency, etc.

solutions for the existing infrastructure problems with the use of latest digital technology. Additionally, sustainable environment is considered under one of the core infrastructure elements. Therefore, the term sustainable is used silently under the SCM of India. The government will spend Rs. 1 billion (Rs. 100 crores) per city per year within a span of 5 years (from 2015–16 to 2019–20). The contribution of the Central government is limited to Rs. 480 billion (Rs. 48,000 crores) over a period of five years [1, 10]. The total estimated project cost required for the development of 100 smart cities is around Rs. 2,050.18 billion (including other costs such as Operation and Maintenance (O&M), contingency, etc.). Out of which, 80.8% (Rs. 1,642.05 billion) is assigned for the development under ABD and the remaining 19.2% (Rs. 389.14 billion) is assigned for pan-city development (Table 1.4).

1.5.1 Smart City Analysis From the 100 smart cities identified under SCM, 49 cities are located in just 6 states of India, such as Tamil Nadu (11), Uttar Pradesh (10), Maharashtra (8), Karnataka (7), Madhya Pradesh (7), and Gujarat (6). All these 6 states are connected in a continuous manner spatially, starting from Uttar Pradesh in the North and ending at Tamil Nadu in the South (Fig. 1.10). In India, the share of total confirmed and active COVID-19 cases in the aforesaid 6 states is also high with 59.82% (0.58 million) and 65.81% (0.21 million), respectively.

20

M. Fatewar and Vaishali

Fig. 1.10 Impact of COVID-19 in the states of identified smart cities, India. Source Authors Calculation, data from [7, 28]

Furthermore, the average recovery rate of these 6 states is 59.34%, which is lower than the average recovery rate at national level, i.e. 63.26%. The same trend has been observed in the total number of deaths. From the total deaths (24,929), 71.41% (17,802) deaths are reported in these 6 states of India (Table 1.5). Hence, high number of confirmed cases, active cases, and deaths are recorded in the aforesaid 6 states along with the lower recovery rate. Whereas, in the remaining 22 states and 7 UTs (excluding Lakshadweep), the percentage of confirmed and active cases is 40.68% and 34.19%, respectively. The COVID-19 data at the city level is not available on an open-access portal of India (as of 15 July 2020). Therefore, the data at the district level has been analysed by

1 COVID-19: An Opportunity for Smart and Sustainable …

21

Table 1.5 Impact of COVID-19 in the states of selected smart cities S. No. State name

No. of smart cities

Confirmed cases (in No.)

Active cases (in No.)

Recovered cases (in No.)

Death recorded (in No.)

1

Tamil Nadu

11

151,820

47,343

102,310

2,167

2

Uttar Pradesh

10

41,383

14,628

25,743

1,012

3

Maharashtra

8

275,640

111,801

152,613

10,928

4

Karnataka

7

47,253

27,849

18,467

933

5

Madhya Pradesh

7

19,643

5,053

13,908

682

6

Gujarat

6

44,648

11,222

31,346

2,080

7

Sub-Total

49

580,387 (59.82%)*

217,896 (65.81%)**

344,387 (59.34%)##

8

Remaining states & UTs

51

389,782

113,220

269,348

7,127

9

Total

100

970,169

331,116

613,735

24,929

17,802 (71.41%)#

Source Authors Calculation, data from [7] Note 1. Percentage of Confirmed Case is marked with * ; 2. Percentage of Active Cases is marked with ** ; 3. Average recovery rate of top 6 affected states is marked with ## ; 4. CFR is marked with #

the authors. The district-level data has been collected and compared with the nationallevel data. In India, the total number of districts are 640 [5]. The 100 smart cities have been distributed in the 97 districts (15%) of the nation. The share of COVID-19 confirmed cases in these 97 districts is around 52.65% (0.51 million). Moreover, out of the total death (0.02 million) due to COVID-19, 54.18% (0.01 million) people died in these 15% (97) districts of India. Additionally, the share of COVID-19 cases registered in the districts of identified smart cities with the remaining districts of the respective state is high in all aforesaid 6 states as compared to the remaining state of India (Fig. 1.11). All these states are also having a high number of confirmed COVID-19 cases in the state as well as in the respective districts of identified smart cities. Hence, as per the analysis, it is observed that the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic is comparatively more in the states having more number of smart cities. Also, the states with maximum number of smart cities are dynamic in nature, i.e. Delhi (National Capital of the country), Maharashtra (Nashik: Wine Capital of India; Pune: Queen of Deccan; Nagpur: Orange City; Thane: City of Lakes), Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore: Manchester of South India; Chennai: Health Capital of India; Madurai: Temple City; Tiruchirappalli: Rock Fort City; Tirunelveli: Oxford City of South India), Uttar Pradesh (Agra: City of Taj; Allahabad: Abode of the God; Kanpur: Leather City of the World; Lucknow: City of Nawabs; Varanasi: Religious Capital of India), etc [24]. Thus, the vibrant function of cities has become a node for the surrounding areas, which attracts the major part of the population from the surrounding areas as well as neighbouring districts. In turn, the process leads to more interaction and increases the overall population density of the cities and regions. As

22

M. Fatewar and Vaishali

Fig. 1.11 Impact of COVID-19 in the districts of identified smart cities, India. Source Authors, data from [7]. Note 1. Lakshadweep is the COVID-19 free UT as no case has been registered as of 15 July 2020; 2. District-level data is not available for the state of Telangana and NCT Delhi (UT); 3. Ladakh (UT) does not have any smart city

a consequence of which, the rapid transmission of SARS-CoV-2 has been recorded in the states having more number of smart cities.

1.6 Issues The issues have been identified based on the spatial-statistical analysis supported by the literature. The identified issues are categorised into two categories, i.e. spatial and non-spatial. The spatial issues are related to the land-use of variegated activities in

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the cities, which are described as follows: (i) High Density (Compact Development): the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic is observed more in the cities having high population density both at the international and national level. The compact development with inadequate infrastructure facilities increases the spread of the virus in the city; (ii) Limited focus on Smart Cities: In India, the states having more number of smart cities are the most affected states due to pandemic. The less focus on the regional development and surrounding areas puts extra pressure on the city healthcare facilities and increases the process of transmission of virus; (iii) Good Connectivity: The states with good connectivity to other parts of the nation, have reported a large number of confirmed COVID-19 cases along with high fatality rate. However, the disadvantage of lesser connectivity of Himalayas, NE regions and islands is proved to the biggest advantage during a pandemic for such regions; and (iv) City Functionality: the dynamic nature and vibrant function attracts more people in the cities and increases the speed of transmission of infected due to more interaction during the pandemic situation. Additionally, the non-spatial issues are linked with the complex nexuses of societies, authorities, and departments, which are as follows: (i) Less Awareness: neither the people nor the government was aware of the deadliest virus and its impact on the physical and mental health of a human being. It has led to an increase in the number of cases frequently all around the globe; (ii) Immoral Behaviour: people are either hiding the personal travelling history details or not obeying government orders, which has increased the transmission of virus exponentially; (iii) Low Testing Percentage: India is able to test only 1.19% of its total population till 15 July 2020, with a test positivity rate of around 6.72%. Thus, it is a major challenge with such a populous country to test its total population with a limited number of health infrastructure facilities; (iv) Inadequate Healthcare Infrastructure: With a population of more than 1,210 million, India has lesser number of ICU beds with the ventilator. The states constitute the major portion healthcare facilities have registered higher COVID-19 cases is also a major concern; (v) Non-Availability of Latest Demographic Data: Census of India conduct the survey and collect data once in ten years. The last census has been carried out before 9 years, i.e. in 2011. Thus, the non-availability of demographic data is one of the major concerns as all the infrastructure facilities including healthcare infrastructure are provided based on the settlement population threshold limit; and (vi) Data Discrepancy: State government and Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) have failed miserably to maintain the demographic record of their respective region/settlements. The people do not share the correct personal information with authorities. As a result of which, more than 1,500 COVID-19 cases are under the unassigned category as of 15 July 2020.

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1.7 Recommendations The cities are known for the complex nexus of economic activities and constantly changing demographic profile. To build the cities, which can provide a safe and secure place for its citizens during the pandemic situation is a bigger challenge for the planner as well as GoI. However, the smart city can respond in a much better way by integrating the latest digital technology and DCP with the governance system. The authors have formulated the recommendation to keep the adverse impact of any epidemic or pandemic minimum, which are as follows: (i) Smart Region: the government shall focus on the development of smart regions besides smart cities [42]. The compact development in the smart region shall be supported by the provision of adequate infrastructure facilities (including healthcare). Digital technology will be used as an integrated part of planning, which includes the use of ICT, IT services, IoT, ML, and AI. (ii) Consolidation of Spatial and Non-Spatial Data: the two forms of data, i.e. spatial data and non-spatial data, will be consolidated by using the latest digital technology. (a) Spatial Data: includes the consolidation of spatial plans at different hierarchy based on the order of settlements. The detailed spatial plans shall be prepared on Geographic Information System (GIS) at grassroots levels, i.e. wards, and linked with the city, district, state, and national. The potential areas to be utilised under any pandemic situation shall also be marked spatially on the spatial plan. It will enable the government to geo-tag the patient’s location and identify the hotspot areas; (b) Non-Spatial Data: includes the demographic profile of the city including big data related to infrastructure such as number of beds, ICU, ventilators, and so on. The interlinkage of spatial and non-spatial data with the help of digital technology, i.e. through Geographic Information System (GIS), will provide the real-time status of each settlement of the nation. It will be a revolutionary step and help to stop any pandemic-like situation at the initial stage. (iii) Mobility Control: the interaction of people is more in high population density areas as compared to the low and medium population density areas, which increases the speed of transmission of the virus from one person to another. Thus, the travelling behaviour of the citizens shall be monitored spatially by geo-tagging their locations during the pandemic situation. The different users will be allowed to go out at a different time to reduce the spread of the virus. (iv) Convergence of Government and Non-Government Institutes: all the staff of government and non-government institutes shall be converged for the mitigation and response phase of a pandemic. The convergence will be carried at both levels, i.e. horizontal and vertical. (a) Horizontal Convergence: includes the identification of staff in different departments but at the same or equivalent designation. (b) Vertical Convergence: identifies the staff within the same department but at different hierarchies. The identification of staff will be carried out in advance by an appropriate government as a precautionary measure to control the spread of virus at the initial stage.

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(v) Digital Data Collection: In the future smart cities and smart regions, smartphones shall be used as the major source of primary data collection instead of conducting census once in 10 years. Through Global Positioning System (GPS), the position will be geo-tagged by using internet services. In this way, the real-time demographic data shall be available with the government along with the updated contact number and email id of an individual. (vi) Dissemination of Knowledge: The government will disseminate the knowledge and share useful information to its citizens through e-mails and messages for better functioning of smart cities. This process will be appropriate to reduce the transmission of the virus under any pandemic situation as well. (vii) Contact-Less or No-Touch Policy: The contact-less or no-touch policy shall be adopted in day-to-day activities so that the transmission of disease under any adverse circumstances will be reduced. For example: booking online tickets followed by digital scanning of tickets through smartphones, automated sensor doors in the buses and at public buildings, voice-operated devices, and so on.

1.7.1 Personal and Non-personal Data From the research, it is clear that the data plays a vital role in the development of smart cities and smart regions. So, it is important to understand the sensitivity of the data and use it without disclosing the personal identity of the citizens. Therefore, the data categorisation is essential. As per the document of ‘DataSmart Cities: Empowering Cities Through Data’, which has been published by the Government of India in 2019, the data can broadly be categorised into two categories, i.e. Personal Data and Non-Personal Data (NPD). (i) Personal data: includes the information related to individuals, from which the individual can be identified. The information collected at a different time or from different sources, when collected together can lead to the identification of an individual, also consider a part of personal data. Such data is either not published by the government on the open-access platforms under any data set or must be anonymised before publishing; (ii) Non-Personal Data: consists of anonymous information, which does not possess any personally identifiable information. The non-personal data can also be prepared by excluding the personal identifier information from the personal data of an individual. Hence, it is important not to disclose the identity and maintain the privacy of the citizens. Therefore, personal and non-personal data has been classified into five levels. Level 1 constitutes the data, which is available on open access portal for ‘Public Use’. It is the non-personal information, which can easily be downloaded or seen by anyone in the country. Level 2 refers to the data available for ‘Internal Use’ of ULBs. The Level 2 information is available to the ULBs and associated employees in order to deliver the public services efficiently. Level 3 constitutes the ‘Sensitive Data’, which has some attributes of individual personal information. At this level, the data is regulated through the laws and regulations by the ULBs or District or State or Central such as Privacy Law. Level 4 includes the ‘Protected Data’. It contains all the

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identity details of the citizens of the country. Level 5 comprises the ‘Restricted Data’. It is the most sensitive data, which includes personal information besides the assets. The data of critical infrastructure and national security is also stored at this level. The data is accessible through a prescribed process, which is regulated by the respected ministry or department of Central and State government, respectively. Therefore, the breach of restricted data could prompt danger to life or a threat to national security. The City Data Cell, State Level Data Analytics and Management Unit, and Data Analytics and Management (DAM) Unit is proposed to monitor the process at city, state, and national level [11]. The data, under all the five levels, can easily be shared between the proposed 100 smart cities as well. All the non-personal information shall be linked with the GIS, which will allow to run the real-time spatial-statistical analysis by using digital technology.

1.7.2 Digital Model To control the spread of an epidemic or pandemic, the best way is to stop the disease at the initial stage. It is possible by identifying the patients and individuals, who got infected. Therefore, a digital model is proposed by the authors, which can be used in the future smart cities and smart regions, to stop the spread of the virus during the initial stage. The working of the model is based on the digital system through the integration of latest technology, i.e. ICT, IoT, ML, AI, which will provide real-time information (Fig. 1.12). The medical report of a person is uploaded on a level 4 database. In the case of detection of any unknown infection or disease to the patient, the patient will be examined and quarantine in order to stop the spread. After the approval from the appropriate government, the level 5 information (such as travelling history, location tracking record of the last one month, and other personal details) can be checked out. Whereas, all the affected persons will be geo-tagged with the help of level 3 information. The digital model will help to record the health status and its associated side effects, which might be visible after a certain period from the recovery. In a pandemic situation, such as COVID-19, the healthcare infrastructure facilities data can easily be extracted from the level 2 information. It will be useful to know the demand and supply gap in the healthcare infrastructure facilities at the very initial stage by doing real-time spatial-statistical analysis. However, only the non-personal data of patients will be uploaded on the open-access portal for citizens of the country. So, the citizens will be aware of the current pandemic scenario. The information will be linked to the GIS for spatial-statistical analysis at the ward, city, district, state, and national level. The model will provide the day-wise real-time spatial-statistical analysis through AI. Therefore, the proposed digital model will be a critical tool to control the transmission or spread of disease at the initial stage for the future smart cities of India, which can be replicated under the same and different geographical locations.

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Fig. 1.12 Digital model of smart city to combat a pandemic (COVID-19). Source Authors Interpretation

1.8 Conclusion This chapter intends to describe the effect of a pandemic on the world and analyse the impact of COVID-19 on the smart cities of India. In doing so, the big data has been analysed at the international, national, state, and district level through spatialstatistical analysis. The continuous increase in the share of urban population has forced the world to rethink and reshape the concept of future cities. The cities are still not able to overcome the challenges and issues related to infrastructure and environmental sustainability. The pandemic has created a problematic situation by highlighting the drawbacks of high population density areas. The COVID-19 has adversely affected the economy of all countries. In India, the states and UTs having more number of smart

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cities are worst affected by the pandemic. The same trend is visible at the district level. The districts with more number of smart cities have registered more number of COVID-19 cases as compared to the remaining districts of the respective state of India. However, the regions with less number of smart cities have performed better such as the Himalayas region, NE regions, and some UTs. Majorly, all the compact cities including smart cities, which are developed on the concept of high population density, good connectivity, and city functionality, have failed to sustain during the pandemic situation due to less awareness among the people, immoral behaviour of individuals, inappropriate healthcare infrastructure facilities, and non-availability of updated demographic data. To resolve all such issues, a rearticulated model for assimilation and dissemination of data is required. The digital model uses two sets of data, i.e. personal data and nonpersonal data. It is important to maintain the privacy of an individual while using the personal and non-personal data set for analysis. Additionally, an appropriate government will collect the demographic details by using a smartphone as the smallest unit of data collection under DCP through the internet and locate the people’s location spatially through GPS. The integration of the collected information through digital technology on GIS will allow real-time spatial-statistical analysis. The digital model will be extended to cover other infrastructure facilities in all smart cities of the nation and can be replicated under the same and different geographical locations. Therefore, the smart sustainable cities will integrate the digital technology (to make the cities smart), infrastructure (including sustainable environment), and people (through DCP) under one umbrella. The aforesaid digital model of smart cities will allow to control the spread of the virus at the initial stage and reduce the impact of a pandemic by analysing the real-time data, which can further be extended to smart regions. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to Mrs. Priya Bhardwaj (Architect and Regional Planner) for her detailed comments and suggestions on the first draft of the chapter. The authors are also thankful to Ar. Suraj Panwar and Ar. Sandeep Kumar for providing help in data collection.

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Chapter 2

Reassessment of Urban Sustainability and Food Security in the Light of COVID-19 Basu Anindya and Kar Nabendu Sekhar

Abstract The world which is now dominated by cities has to address the issue of urban sustainability. Though the ecology of the cities is deeply influenced by urban agriculture, the discussions about that has not been included with due importance in the urban planning discourse emphasising on smart cities. The need for self-reliant cities has been felt deeply by all when the world was struck by the global pandemic COVID-19, which halted the normal supply chain creating a panic in the urban areas that primarily are consumption-oriented. The need for modern version of ‘back-yard gardening’ is being reconsidered to add to the viability of the bustling cities. In the context of the COVID-19 situation, this article tries to identify the issue of food security in today’s modern cities and to assess the practical avenues available to achieve self-reliance and sustainability. Urban food production is not only a matter of scientific curiosity but now has become an urban policy issue and development tool. Both change in urban developmental plans and ‘urban’ mindset in the ‘new normal’ will help the cities in encountering the coming hard days and be prepared for such outbreaks in future, making cities truly smart and sustainable. Keywords Smart cities · Sustainability · Food security · Urban farming · COVID-19

2.1 Introduction ‘Change is one thing; progress is another. Change is scientific, progress is ethical. Change is indubitable, whereas progress is a matter of controversy’ Bertrand Russell (1872–1970). B. Anindya (B) Department of Geography, Diamond Harbour Women’s University, Diamond Harbour, India e-mail: [email protected] K. N. Sekhar Department of Geography, Shahid Matangini Hazra Government College for Women, Kulberia, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 C. Chakraborty et al. (eds.), The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Green Societies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66490-9_2

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To make existing cities and upcoming urban centres more ecologically viable there is an urgent priority in the global push for sustainability. A city that strives to be more ecologically sound has to be concerned about access to green space and food security. Most of the modern cities exclusively rely on the import of all sorts of resources to meet their daily basic needs. Food and other essential materials and goods are transported from long distances, within the country or even from other nations and in some cases often across continents. As the future population growth is expected to crowd the cities more and more, there is a need to look into the potential for local self-reliance in food within the cities. Achievement of high levels of local self-reliance requires the active role of city government, planners, citizens involving a high degree of physical labour and financial investment but the returns like benefits to human health and well-being, local economy and environment must outweigh the costs involved. The main hindrance in pursuing the path of food security in urban areas is the mindset of the ‘urbanites’—there is an ingrained belief that ‘urban’ is intrinsically related with built-up areas and economic sectors like tertiary and quaternary ones. The web is flooded with urban farming jokes, cartoons and memes (Fig. 2.1). Use of knowledge, technology, information and communication holds the key for development and through those pathways the city dwellers will earn money and will be able to afford basic necessities like food and clothing. To put things more lucidly the city residents will show a kind of high-handedness being the rich, choosy customers while the rural regions will remain as the poor providers. The need for self-reliant cities has been felt deeply by all when the world was struck by the global pandemic COVID-19, which halted the normal supply chain creating a panic in the urban areas that primarily are consumption-oriented. The need of modern version of ‘back-yard gardening’ is being reconsidered to add to the viability of the bustling cities.

Fig. 2.1 The web is flooded with urban farming jokes, cartoons and memes. The ‘urbanite’ mindset that ‘urban’ is intrinsically related with built-up areas and light coloured collars is one of the main hindrances in pursuing the path of food security in urban areas

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The article tries to identify the issue of food security in today’s modern cities. It delves into how, in the context of COVID-19 situation, the ignorance about urban agriculture has proved costly for the cities currently facing logistics issues in food delivery and finally assesses the practical avenues available to achieve self-reliance and sustainability.

2.2 Covid-19 Situation and the Urban Scenario Prior to the Corona virus outbreak, in the past decades, several new diseases have emerged in new geographical areas, with pathogens including Ebola, Zika and Nipah which has affected the physical and economic well-being of several regions. The local outbreak of pneumonia from unknown virus was detected in Wuhan, Hubei, China in December 2019—later identified to be caused by a novel corona virus creating (SARS-CoV-2) acute respiratory syndrome [63] took the shape of global pandemic creating an unprecedented disruption. With reports of high cases and infectivity coming in to break the transmission cycle several countries took measures like temporary restrictions on international and even internal travel, decelerating mobility, social distancing, etc., with an eye towards slowing the spread of this new disease till any substantial vaccine production. Stier et al. [51] estimated that there is a positive relation between city population size and number of COVID cases based on data collected from US cities and advocated for stricter distancing policies in larger cities alongside maintaining socio-economic activities. This is also true for metropolitan cities of India like Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, Bengaluru and others. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the world became very familiar with the concept of ‘lockdown’ or ‘stay-at-home’. By early April 2020, 3.9 billion people worldwide, i.e. half of the world population, were under some form of lockdown [9]. For India, the second highest populated country of the world, the lockdown since 25 March, 2020 has been in place with varying stringency, involving 1.3 billion people. Corburn et al. [13] offered a set of policy suggestions to have more effective containment policies in the highly populated urban informal settlements like improved medical facilities,application of an immediate moratorium on evictions, where possible,provision of food assistance, immediate guarantee of payments to the poor, etc. Fernandez [24] while discussing about economic impacts due to COVID-19, rightly pointed out that in a strongly connected and integrated world, the impact of COVID-19 would be way beyond the absolute number of deaths reported,there would be global economic crisis even recessions for which governments have to prepare contingency plans, and aid packages to sustain their economies. He argued that due to lockdowns and shutdowns the service-oriented economies would be worst-hit and the food industry too shall not be exempted for long. Even before the pandemic situation, extreme weather conditions indicated that global food prices could surge soon and COVID-19 amplified the risk of price spike many times. As the coronavirus crisis unfolded, interruptions in global and local food supply chains were felt; labour shortages due to morbidity, movement restrictions,

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social distancing rules; shortages of animal feed, fertilisers, and pesticides affected the production and supply logistics; alongside transportation bottlenecks. Several countries in response to the pandemic took resort to temporary measures like Russia and Kazakhstan levied a ban on wheat export while India and Vietnam imposed an embargo on rice. The United Nations World Food Programme warned that approximately 265 million people could face acute food insecurity by the end of 2020, which is twice that of 2019 [62]. Many pointed that the actual problem lies with food supply disruption rather than food shortages. In India, lockdown measures had a detrimental effect on the economy and even on local food systems. India’s estimated total food grain production for 2019–20 is 292 million tonnes which is 6.74 million tonnes greater than the previous year [10]. But still, initially there was a huge surge in demand due to panic buying and hoarding of food items fearing an acute shortage which created undue pressure on the supply. The problem in the urban centres has been two-pronged: inadequate supply (both fresh supplies from nearby and packaged goods) and unaffordability by the poorer section who are reeling under joblessness as the prices of the food items shot up steeply. This exposed that the modern cities who eye for comfort and ease of life have largely ignored the need of being self-reliant in terms of food security and were complacent being the ‘buyer’. World Health Organization (WHO) on 30 January 2020 declared COVID-19 as a public health emergency of international concern. Globally, as on 7 August 2020, there have been 1.89 crores of confirmed cases of COVID-19, including 7.09 deaths, across 213 countries; region-wise the number of cases is highest in America, followed by Europe and South-east Asia and India registering 2,027,074 confirmed cases as of now [64]. Though initially, the outbreak reached severe proportions in European nations like Spain, Italy, France and England; at present the countries which have surpassed others to attain the dubious distinction of being leaders are United States of America, Brazil, India, Russia and South Africa. Except for USA, an interesting grouping of emerging economies under the newly restructured BRICS confederacy can be seen including China which was the first country to be hit by COVID-19. These populous developing countries having high urbanising trend represent about 42% of the population, 23% of GDP, 30% of the territory and 18% of the global trade indicates enough about the situation [4]. If this pandemic trend continues for long, then prolonged lockdowns, severe movement restrictions have to be imposed which would affect the longer food chain supplies for sure and that would be a real test for the food resilience of the urban areas.

2.3 Urban Sustainability: Issues and Perspectives The world which is dominated by cities has to address the issue of urban sustainability. This process was initiated with Agenda 21 at Rio-de-Janeiro, 1992 and was formalised at UN City Summit in Istanbul through Habitat Agenda, 1996. From

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then several dimensions of urban sustainability have emerged. The ecological footprint analysis involving energy and material consumption and waste discharge of the defined population of selected urban areas reveals that though it apparently seemed sustainable there is growing competition over the usage of natural capital raising questions about equity and sustainability. Bioregionalism—which can be a tool for sustainability refers to a place primarily defined by its life forms, topography and biota rather than by human dictates, i.e. a region governed by nature, not legislature and bioregional mapping is also done for local empowerment. To safeguard the right of food democracy the future plans need to be flexible having combined land use and creating land reserves for productive green space. There have been concerted efforts for global mainstreaming of urban sustainability—through several initiatives like ‘eco-city’, ‘ecological city’, ‘zero-carbon city’, ‘solar city’, ‘smart city’ and ‘sustainable city’ were taken but needed certain internationally accepted specifications and standards.

2.3.1 Eco-City Engwicht [18] advocated that eco-cities should encourage inventions for maximising exchange and minimising travel. Urban Ecology [60] formulated ten principles to be followed by ecological cities, one of which was revised land-use priorities to create compact, diverse and green environment. According to the global census of eco-city initiatives, there are 178 eco-city initiatives under development [30]. The goals of urban sustainability involve several environmental, economic and social elements in relation to urban settings. However, more emphasis was given on the environmental parameters than the social ones and the prime goal became to reduce greenhouse gas emission. The threefold governance function of eco-sustainability indicators involves definitional work like conceptualising and designing, performance assessment like monitoring and implementation along with social learning through encouragement of local knowledge and practices.

2.3.2 Smart City The origin of the concept of smart cities can be traced back to the Smart Growth Movement of the late 1990s [41]. Urban development can be achieved by judicious use of human, collective and technological capital. Metropolitan areas across the globe have taken several initiatives to develop urban infrastructure and services intending to improve upon socio-economic conditions, environmental status and competitiveness of the cities. While pursuing these goals the concept of ‘intelligent cities’ came in where usage of technology was higher and it was taken to be the predecessor of smart cities. The term smart is a feature rather than a sign of performance where the main characteristics of smart cities are usage of digital information

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in various spheres like mobility, energy use, education, health, urban governance, etc. [54]. But still there is lack of consensus about the actual definition of smart city and there are overlapping ideas for this umbrella term which often coincides with the concept of ‘tech-city’ depending heavily on information and communication technology to provide their competitive edge. Several instances of smart city can be seen—Barcelona which is an advanced, high-tech city striving for sustainable greener environment along with increased quality of life, the city of Amsterdam uses innovative technology for energy-related applications to tackle climate challenges [36],while in Doha, smart city practices are more akin to economic activities [12], in Brisbane, smart technologies are used for designing efficient urban spaces [42]. In India too Smart City Mission was launched in June 2015 with an objective ‘to promote sustainable and inclusive cities that provide core infrastructure and give a decent quality of life to its citizens, a clean and sustainable environment and application of “Smart” Solutions’ [40]. The three main components are—city improvement (retrofitting), city renewal (redevelopment) and city extension (Greenfield development); the third one trying to take care of urban food supply issues. A shift in approach from sustainability assessment to smart city goals was seen in the twenty-first century. A recent report published that only 1% of the total allocated amount of little over rupees two lakh crores for hundred cities under the Smart City Project was spent on health infrastructure, though it is one of ten prime parameters. Interestingly, from the COVID figures derived till May 2020, it came out that—thirty municipalities, including seventeen smart cities accounted for 79% of Corona cases. This pandemic has clearly shown that importance of health and easy access to healthy food as a driving force for economic growth has largely been ignored [39].

2.3.3 Sustainable City Sustainable urban development has become a prerequisite for sustainable development and it is said that there can be no sustainable world without sustainable cities. The sustainability of an urban region is not strictly limited within its boundaries and is deeply influenced by its peri-urban hinterland as it plays a major role in providing resources. ‘Our Common Future’ published in 1987 highlighted the meaning and principle of sustainable development; which was further carried forward through Agenda 21 published in Earth Summit, 1992. At later periods, more importance was attached to the involvement of local community in attaining the sustainability goals within the global framework. The concept of sustainable city became popular from the 1990s which designated the relationship among economic, social and environmental sustainability aspects from a combination of indicators. Sustainable urban development is the core issue, which can be analysed under four themes—society, economy, environment and governance. Dhingra and Chattopadhyay [15] charted several goals for smart and sustainable city, one of them being ensuring efficient service delivery of basic services, which included food supply. To make the concepts

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of sustainable city work only formulation of policies would not suffice, the regulations have to be practical and there has to be community involvement along with accountability of practice.

2.3.4 Green City The Green city movement believed in four pillars—ecology, social responsibility, grassroot democracy and non-violence which would guide to improved quality of life, harmony with nature, self-reliance and decentralisation. To achieve the potential for ‘green living’ there are opposing views about the low- versus high-density living and regarding the treatment of the ‘urban commons’. One school suggests that green living is only possible in low-density, semi-rural context and thus cities need to be fragmented into smaller units to bring those qualities back. But the other school points out that this sort of philosophy is absolutely against the spirit of urbanisation where main features are high density and diversity. It further suggests that highdensity development leads to more compact, mixed-use urban form and reduced car use reducing the sprawl—leaving more land for open space, gardens, urban agriculture, forestry and horticulture which are to be managed through ‘urban commons’ approach [46]. Zurich, Stockholm and Helsinki are among the cities which have adopted the ‘urban commons’ structure like urban agriculture, forests and community gardens along with exceptional public transport system and have become much greener [6].

2.3.5 Self-reliant City Benjamin Franklin more than two hundred years ago cautioned that ‘the man who would trade independence for security usually deserves to wind up with neither’ and that has been the case in present times. Currently, the world economy is based on distribution lines and people are immensely dependent on supplies which results in fragmented and passive communities. The World Health Organization Constitution adopted long back in 1946 defined health as ‘a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity’. To achieve this ideal situation, provision of some aspects like harmony, social justice, suitable food and safe drinking water supply, elementary education, basic housing facilities, etc., were endorsed particularly for the densely populated cities. The idea of ‘global village’ having wide network emerged with improved technological and transportation system. Self-reliance is not only the capacity for self-sufficiency but something more also. It is believed that a selfreliant city has a self-conscious and self-confident community who has the capacity

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to produce bulk of its basic requirements utilising the local resource base. Schumacher through his pivotal publication ‘Small Is Beautiful’ [47] advocated for shortening of long-distance distribution lines; he devised the term ‘Buddhist Economics’ where transportation is regarded as necessary evil which needs to be reduced through increased local production. Apart from ecological concerns, the rising energy prices have forced the planners to reduce the movements of materials and concentrate more on local self-reliance.

2.3.6 Continuing Metropolitan Mayhem Long back in 1875, Benjamin Ward Richardson in his presidential address entitled, ‘Hygeia: The City of Health’ to the Health Department of the Social Science Association at Brighton projected an idea of ‘Utopian City’ [45] in the line of Greek, Roman thinkers where public health would be the primary design consideration. But even in modern times, this idea still remains ignored and regarded as utopian. Undoubtedly COVID-19 is a global phenomenon but case incidences have been much higher in the urban areas having dense population. There have been efforts to ‘decongest’ the cities by following policies of decentralisation of industries and service sectors but not much has been achieved, the demographic dividend has over the years become a burden on the cities. The cities which have been badly hit are— New York, USA; Sao Paolo, Brazil; Moscow, Russia; London, UK; Madrid, Spain; besides many others. All these are bustling cities with robust economic activities and high population density. Similar situation has been mirrored for India. Cabinet Secretary, Government of India pointed out that 13 cities accounted for 70% of the total COVID-19 cases in the country [52] with metropolitan clusters like Mumbai, Delhi, Chennai, Kolkata unceremoniously leading the pack accounting for nearly half of the nationwide COVID-19 tally [44].

2.4 Urban Pantry: A Saga of Neglect A healthy city is one that is self-reliant through holistic planning with engaged citizenry emphasising efficient localism. Though the ecology of the cities is deeply influenced by urban agriculture, the discussions about that have not been included with due importance in the urban planning discourse. This lacuna was first pointed out by Pothukuchi and Kaufman [43] and they conducted a survey on 22 US city planning agencies to establish the issue. In 2007, for the first time, American Planning Association formulated a Policy Guide on Community and Regional Food Planning [3]. Food planning, after a period of ignorance, has now earned a place in the planning agenda of many developed and developing countries. Grewal et al. [26] analysed three separate hypothetical situations for the city of Cleveland, in terms of implementation of urban agriculture, which suffered from lack of access to locally produced healthy

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food in spite of available vacant areas and determined the respective levels of potential self-reliance. A study on Sarajevo was conducted by Sommers and Smit [50] which highlighted the fact that a two-year-long blockade forced the country to pursue selfreliance in urban food production leading to a 30% increase in vegetable and minor livestock production. Similar situation was narrated by Brown and Jameton [8] for the United States during the ‘victory garden’ movement of World War II when the households were able to meet 40% of the country’s total vegetable demand. Few cities that have already achieved a degree of self-sufficiency in urban agriculture as documented by Lee-Smith [37] are—Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, Sanghai and Beijing, China which internally produced more than 80% of their vegetable demand. While explaining the importance of urban agriculture, Masi [38] coined the term ‘food desert’ where fast-food restaurants are much closer than grocery stores selling fresh produce in a neighbourhood. To have an idea about how the second highest populated country of the world, India is doing with internal food provisions—supervised MXL Classification of Landsat 5 images of four metropolitan entities (Table 2.1), Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai—currently the ones worst affected by COVID-19 was done with a temporal framework (1991–2011) with 80% overall accuracy using Q-GIS v3.10.4 (Fig. 2.2). From Fig. 2.2, it becomes evident that over time the extent of agricultural plots within the city limits have drastically dwindled. Mumbai the commercial capital has become almost devoid of agricultural land. The cities eying development, have focused on built-up areas sacrificing their already limited internal food-procuring zones making them completely dependent on peri-urban and rural food supply. As a response to the challenges posed by the rapid unstable urbanisation to a more sustainable one, Kenworthy [32] set out ten critical responses primarily based Table 2.1 Details for the images used for determining the extent of agricultural land in the selected metropolitan cities (downloaded from USGS Earth Explorer) Metropolitan cities

Satellite

Sensor

Path

Row

Date of acquisition

Delhi

Landsat 5

Thematic mapper

146

040

04/03/1991 05/02/2001 05/03/2011

Mumbai

Landsat 5

Thematic mapper

147

047

21/03/1991 03/05/2001 08/02/2011

148

047

12/03/1991 18/01/2001 30/01/2011

Kolkata

Landsat 5

Thematic mapper

138

044

06/03/1991 07/03/2001 13/03/2011

Chennai

Landsat 5

Thematic mapper

142

051

18/03/1991 30/04/2001 09/03/2011

40 Fig. 2.2 Extent of agricultural land (in greenish yellow tint) of Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai (1991, 2001 and 2011) derived from supervised classification of LANDSAT 5 images (See Table 2.1 for detailed information) with the graph showing the steadily declining trend of the share of agricultural land

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on transport and planning dimensions. Among those, he accentuated that a city having a compact, mixed-use urban form has to efficiently protect the natural environment, biodiversity and food-producing areas, and the city space in and around the city has to be used judiciously for catering to the food needs. Trindade et al. [55] provided a systematic review of the literature selected from three databases covering six hundred and thirty articles using ‘smart city’ and ‘sustainability’ as keywords; addressing the relationship between smart city and environmental sustainability as portrayed by the selected papers and cited the issue of green economic strategies too. As due to the ongoing processes of industrialisation, urbanisation and globalisation, an increasing share of the goods consumed in the city is produced far away making urban sustainability an issue beyond borders having global consequences.

2.5 Cities and Food Resource For the first time in 2007, greater number of people started living in urban areas than in rural regions as the population density is very high in the former one. The total urban population per cent recorded in 2018 was fifty-five and absolute number of people living in urban areas globally is more than four billion. It is projected that in 2050 it would reach close to seven billion [59]. Cities which house large number of people require vast areas of land for their sustenance which are often not available within their limits and have to depend on imported food. So, presently they are completely dependent on retailing food distribution systems, based on motorised transport accentuating fossil-fuel use and in turn air pollution. In general, the main problems that had been identified in cities across the globe were home foreclosures and resulting vacant land, lack of access to healthy food, hunger and even obesity. The vacant lands, open spaces of residential plots and industrial and commercial rooftops have to be utilised to generate fresh produce of vegetables and fruits through conventional gardening, intensive gardening or hydroponics; to create poultries to cater to basic meat and egg demand and to pursue apiculture for generating honey for achieving the desired level of self-sufficiency. Food items are broadly categorised into—a. grains, b. vegetables, c. fruits, d. milk and dairy products, e. meats, eggs and nuts and f. fats and oils [56]. Food and Agricultural Association recommended a minimum of 73 kg/person/year each of vegetables and fruits for a healthy livelihood [56]. Barrs [5] reasoned that grain production is not appropriate in urban areas as the yield is low and production of hardy crops are less necessary within the city limits. A portion of vegetables, fruits, small livestock and honey which are part of dietary requirements can be produced within urban limits.

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2.5.1 Food Security Food security is defined as the all-time access to certain amount of food required to lead a healthy life, for all [7]. Since, the twentieth century, food security for millions of urban dwellers has become a concern (Fig. 2.3). Following FAO’s definition, the four key components of food security identified are—availability, accessibility, acceptability and adequacy. It is not possible to study urban food security in isolation as complex interrelationships among rural–urban and local–global are intertwined. Four major areas of concern were identified by Koc et al. [34]: (i) The unprecedented growth of the urban centres is causing stress on food security and it is predicted to grow at a steady rate—by 2050 it is projected that more than two-thirds of the world population will be living in cities [59]. (ii) Urban poverty especially in the cities of the developing world has swelled due to continuous rural migration and non-availability of job opportunities for all. (iii) The existing food markets in the cities often fail to respond to the diverse socio-cultural need of the population and indirectly pressurise them to modify their dietary habits. (iv) Due to the growing commodification and globalisation of the agro-food system the urban consumers have very little idea about the food production and supply chain and often neglect local produce in lieu of cheaper, imported ones creating sustainability issues. The main efforts worldwide have been regarding basic staple food availability and supply. Few issues regarding

Fig. 2.3 Factors ensuring urban food security and sustainable progress

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food have been largely ignored—the availability of healthy, bioactive ingredients of food which are much needed to strengthen the immunity system,ensuring food safety and taking stringent measures to avoid virus spread among the stakeholders of food supply chain, taking care of food sustainability in the long run. With the increasing level of poverty in the cities, food insecurity has also been on the rise. The cost of food has gone up much higher in major cities of Latin American, West African and East Asian countries and is often beyond the means of urban poor due to insufficient and unreliable food supplies from rural and foreign sources, urban food production has expanded enormously since the 1970s. It is needless to say that worldwide the urban demand of food will continue to rise and thus, eventually the large cities have to take initiatives for agricultural production within urban areas or in the urban fringe to reduce the large-scale import. The concept of food system resilience concerning financial capital (production infrastructure), social capital (connections) and human capital (knowledge) covers the issues like food—security, availability, accessibility, utilisation and stability [20] and these can be easily attained by the urban community if there is the reach to the affordable local food systems. As per Drakakis-Smith [16], the urban food system has three main components: food-producing areas (domestic rural and urban along with foreign), marketing networks and urban consumption centres. For achieving security and resilience the risk management strategies have to involve—diversification of produce, substitution of items, entrepreneurship of the locals, cooperation among the regional players, healthy competition, inclusiveness and connectivity among several other factors. HLPE [27] did provide a detailed definition of food system, relating elements, activities and outputs. Only lip service about ‘farm to plate’ will not help, the dynamic interaction among the factors have to be dealt in a holistic way, then only the local food systems serving the urban areas within or nearby the cities can flourish.

2.5.2 Globalisation and Urbanisation Simai [48] defined globalisation as ‘the entirety of such universal processes as technological transformation; interdependence caused by mass communications; trade and capital flows; homogenization and standardization of production and consumption; the predominance of the world market in trade, investment and other corporate transactions; special and institutional integration of markets; and growing identity or similarity of economic regulations, institutions, and policies’. Globalisation has facilitated massive exchange of information and ideas through modern technological advances. This has led to widespread assimilation of cultures and tolerance to diversity. But there are certain negative aspects involved too. The autonomy of local communities is often compromised and unnecessary excessive dependence on foreign commodity develops. The emergence and prominence of Multi-National Companies (MNCs), having little understanding about socio-economic fabric of the local

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community, in providing necessary goods like food have displaced the local initiatives. Besides, the MNCs care little about the environment, their exploitative production system and global goods transportation results in severe pollution. Moreover, it creates a culture of excessive consumption leading to unsustainable consumerism. Therefore, globalisation negatively affects local economic resilience, autonomy, the environment and sustainability. For á developing country like India, the semi-literate farmers who are not market savvy and are unaware of the market nuances are often controlled by middlemen and are forced to have indirect access in the urban markets. This absence of direct link with the consumers affects the availability and price too affecting both rural farmers and urban consumers which can only be catered by shortening the supply chain, bringing producers close to the consumers. When the twentieth century began, about 12.5% or 200 million people lived in cities [54]. As per the prediction of United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs [57] in Urban Ecology 2050 the urban population is going to account for 67% of the global population. Knorr et al. [33], estimated that by the end of 2020, the global urban population will be 54% and is expected to shoot over 60% by 2030 with the trend being stronger for the developing countries. Out of the 34 megacities, 19 are located in Asia and it has been predicted that by 2030, there would be 41 megacities, of which the majority would be in low-to-middle-income countries [28] which creates more concern for adequate food supply during phases of severe disruptions. With the increasing trend of globalisation, rapid urbanisation is intrinsically linked. Though the universally accepted definition of ‘urban’ is still not there, certain parameters are considered in most cases—population threshold, population density, level of infrastructure, employment type, etc. The urban areas and their resource uses are dynamic in nature, the challenge faced is to transform the cities into self-regulating, sustainable systems where those will become viable—socially, economically, as well as environmentally. It has been aptly put, that urban dwellers do not actually live in a civilisation, but in a mobilisation concerning natural resources, people and products [14]. One of the major goals of United Nations Development Programme [58] is to ‘make cities inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable’ through implementation of Sustainable Development Goals. It was globalisation that made several food items available all over the world through improved trade and logistics management, increasing the profitability of the food industry and flexibility of choices for the consumers. This led to the changed dietary habits of the consumers who instead of local produces and markets became more dependent on imported produce and supermarket chains. It is difficult to be unequivocal about the impact of globalisation. Undoubtedly, it expanded the horizon of food produce exchange but at the same time the local producers and short food supply chains were not able to get integrated into the global business due to limited production capacity, non-competitive prices which are dominated by the big multinational players. The ones who oppose the wave of globalisation and resultant urbanisation mention that it creates predatory markets for production and consumption hampering diversity and self-reliance. It is often cited that cities of northern countries are engaged in exporting the surpluses of less nutritious food and importing nutritious ones mostly from the global south [34].

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2.5.3 Paradigm Shift The Agenda 21 (1992) slogan ‘think global, act local’ caught the fancy of many and importance was given on local actions to abate global issues. Local self-reliance emphasises the principle that the localities should be able to derive their basic necessities from within their own physical footprints. To achieve this, local communities have to learn efficient and sustainable use of the limited resources available to them generating resilience. However, at the same time it is overzealous to think of a system which would be completely cut-off from the rest of the world; there would be obviously interactions and exchanges but the thrust would be primarily on the local production system. The relationship between urban forms and its corresponding bioregion decides whether it is consumption-oriented or is able to meet its dietary requirements from its own boundaries or surroundings, delineating the city’s ecological footprint [32]. The same has to be applicable for the urban areas too. Food production in the cities can be initiated in home gardens, windowsill gardens, community gardens in the vacant places, rooftop gardens in commercial spaces, government-supported urban farms—depending on the circumstances and choice of the residents. Various scholars have pointed out the importance of urban agriculture highlighting the potential a) in reducing the local economic leakages; b) in providing increased access to indigenous nutritious food and healthy lifestyle; c) in reducing detrimental environmental impact due to anthropogenic activities and d) in generating a kind of close-knit community feeling.

2.6 Role of Urban Agriculture in Delivering Results Urban agriculture has been defined by Smit et al. [49] as an industry which produces food (crops and livestock) and fuel mainly through intensive production methods, processes them and even markets them as a response to the daily demand of the consumers of the urban and peri-urban areas. The most befitting answer to food insecurity in urban centres will be home gardening and urban agriculture which can provide regular access to fresh produce and assure a balanced, nutritious diet. Urban agriculture can be defined as all sorts of agricultural production occurring in or around cities. The modern cities characterised by urban sprawl face amplified travel distance in procuring food through complicated distribution networks which lead to growing carbon footprints and higher cost of procurement—affecting the urban poor. To address these challenges rethinking about vacant spaces, available logistics and existing manpower has to be done, where urban agriculture comes in. It has the potential to modify the entire urban and agricultural landscape, improving local food security and nutrition especially for the urban poor.

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There has been an inherent assumption that cities where tertiary activities are predominant will not produce food for themselves but will buy food. Gradually, with the increasing number of mouths to feed production of food within urban area became a necessity and urban agriculture was the only viable way out. In 1975, ‘Slow Street Movement’ was initiated in Berkeley with an aim to ensure sustainability through usage of non-conventional energy, alternative transportation modes along with planting and harvesting fruit trees along the streets. Long back in the 1980s and 1990s US census documented that urban metropolitan areas produced 30 and 40% of the total agriculture produce respectively, going by the dollar value [49]. There has been meteoric rise of urban agriculture in Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania with the number of families engaged in farming increasing from 18% in 1967 to 67% in 2000 [29]. Similar, has been the case for Moscow—the families involved in food production rose from 20% in 1970 to 65% in 1991 [49]. Urban agriculture has become an acceptable practice with a share of 15–20% of the world’s food supply [35] and during this trying period it is bound to get bigger. Much before, in 2013 42 million households were actively involved with urban agriculture through individual or community efforts [1]. From the estimates of Thomas [53], encouraging figures were seen in smaller Siberian and Asian cities where over 80% of the families were engaged in urban agricultural practices. Every time, during severe crises like war, civil disobedience and recession the importance of growing food in and around the cities has been felt by the community. One of the first such initiative was Schrebergaerten, in Germany after World War I, when city people had the option to either go hungry or to at least grow their own food partially. In a similar situation during the Second World War, the Dig for Victory campaign in Britain was successful to a certain extent in bringing a portion of urban land into cultivation [25]. For pursuing agricultural activities there are vacant open spaces, derelict land within the cities. Like in Essen, Germany abandoned coalmining areas were earmarked for urban agriculture projects [14]. In Britain, city farm projects were set up in more than twenty cities on deserted lands [25]. The country with the highest population in the world, i.e. China has several of its densely populated cities including Beijing practising highly intensive urban cropping system. It was also planned that to tackle the issue of growing unemployment in the cities the excess labour can be utilised to adopt new survival strategies like urban agriculture [5]. This has already been done in American cities like Detroit and New York where vast amount of vacant land has been put to use for growing food with active involvement of unemployed workers [14]. The cities of Africa like Harare, Zimbabwe or Cairo in Egypt which are affected by frequent droughts have arranged for their own back-up plans like open-space cultivation, utilising the city fringe and keeping of poultries too [17]. In India, though there have been initiatives to create smart and sustainable cities, little efforts have been taken. From Table 2.2 it is clear that the share of urban population involved in the selected developing countries is quite promising, sole exception being Indonesia where the urban participation is abysmally low. But the disappointing indicator is the share of total income where this sector performs poorly, the case is more severe in Asian and Latin American countries. Besides, under the National Food Security Programmes several success stories have emerged

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Table 2.2 Urban agriculture scenario in selected countries (Data Source: Zezza and Tasciotti [65]) Country

Year

Urban population participating in agricultural activities (in %)

Share of total income from agriculture in urban areas (in %)

Bangladesh

2000

30

3

Bulgaria

2001

27

2

Guatemala

2000

42

5

Indonesia

2000

11

3

Madagascar

2001

33

21

Malawi

2004

46

12

Nepal

2003

57

11

Nicaragua

2001

68

5

Nigeria

2004

32

27

in urban agriculture interventions like—Congo, Bolivia, Sri Lanka, Namibia, Senegal and Brazil which have been able to tackle the issues like space crunch, irrigation, technical know-hows, food processing and urban food marketing systematically and have managed to tide over the food crisis situation in urban areas effectively [21]. Local food systems link productive activities of the adjacent bioregion to the consumers in metropolitan centres and apart from meeting the food security demand, providing fresher and nutritious seasonal produce; it also has several positive impacts on the city like productive space utilisation, micro-climate improvement, conservation of urban climate, reducing atmospheric pollution, judicious waste and nutrient recycling, efficient water management, lessening ecological footprint and enriching biodiversity policy. The positive impacts of urban agriculture that can be documented are—increased opportunity for job creation; overall marked reduction in crime in the cities; utilisation of vacant lots; meeting up of household dietary requirements; gardening acting as a productive alternative for physical exercise; acting as stress reliever; increased green space helping in reducing the urban heat island effect; reducing carbon emission through shorter supply chains and evoking a community spirit and empowerment. The all-round utility of urban agriculture has been highlighted covering factors like— ecosystem services, provision of nutrition, safeguarding human health, generation of jobs, increasing aesthetical appeal and increasing community resilience. The avenues through which urban agriculture can be pursued are—outdoor urban gardens and farms, hydroponic or aquaponic indoor production with options like vertical farming, sky farming, rooftop gardening-landscaping and even opting for urban livestock rearing. Individual attempts for persuasion of agricultural pursuits in urban areas might not be very viable but community-gardening may be a more productive option. It needs to be clarified that practising urban agriculture does not mean that all the citizens would get involved in food production because such an idea would be utopian. Rather, the citizens would have to be sensitised to support the seasonal local production, i.e. encouraging community-supported agriculture

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through closer grower–consumer interaction which would also lift up the community spirit and strengthen social cohesion.

2.7 Tackling the Menace of COVID-19 In the face of a planetary crisis like COVID-19 pandemic when the scale of produce, the transportation of food gets affected how will the world deal with it is the moot question? The critical issues that are intricately related are—food security, food safety and food nutrition; which need to be addressed in the light of sustainability. Lockdown refers to limited free movements and activities for people to address specific risks, threatening loss of human lives. Lockdowns are generally preventive in nature which anticipates danger and its degree of strictness in protocol depends on the gravity of the threat. Emergency lockdowns are implemented when due to a looming danger, abrupt restrictions are imposed discontinuing regular activities. There might be continuous or periodic lockdowns depending on the intensity and total duration. Though lockdown in some cases is referred to as ‘mass quarantine’, there is a difference between lockdown and quarantine. While lockdown involves society in general, quarantine separates and restricts the movement of people who are not really ill but have high chances of contracting the disease due to high exposure. China (on January 2020) followed by Italy, Spain, France, UK, New Zealand, India, South Africa (March 2020) took the lockdown measures at various stages of infectivity [31]. It was estimated that the average distance covered for urban food supply in megacities are between 800 and 1500 km [2] which might face many hurdles during the time of pandemics. So, the COVID situation destabilises food security in urban areas both directly by unsettling the food systems through muffled movements and indirectly by limiting physical and economic access of the urban residents during lockdown phases. The perishable food items like fruits, vegetables, raw meat, etc., are difficult to stock for a long time, so to procure all these during the time of restricted movement the informal local markets are the only fallback option. If the local sources are unavailable then the urban middle and lower class are forced to opt for highly expensive supermarket alternatives which are scarce. Though the initial shock wave of COVID-19 has been absorbed to certain extent; following the guideline of FAO (2008) governments at all levels despite all odds has tried to maintain the food value chain uninterrupted. To ensure food security, many of the national authorities of Asia and Latin America have arranged for food rations (India, Indonesia) or have provided monetary allocation for procuring food (Peru, Singapore) but this cannot be a long-term solution as the local food supply needs to be stable, with minimal supply interruptions and has to be within reach for the growing urban population of these regions. The tackling techniques for COVID-19 are bringing the world together by creating ‘social distance’ among them in unprecedented manners. The connections through commuting, travelling are being restricted while technological connectivity is on the rise. Though there have been no official

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restrictions on trade exchanges, due to limited movement supply chain vulnerabilities globally, nationally and locally has been exposed; the outbreak has impacted business and economies severely and is predicted to be much greater than that of the 2003 SARS outbreak. US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued its ‘Business Pandemic Influenza Planning Checklist’ in 2005 to encourage preparedness but such pandemic plans have mostly been shelved [23]. As response to severe pandemic is complex, it cannot really be devised ‘on the fly mode’, now the world is at a loss to tackle the devastating impact. The shocks of the initial lockdown during Covid-19 crisis were sufficient enough to jeopardise the food security especially that of the low-income households which was not directly related to supply of staples or logistics of food distribution but has its root in the fear of economic collapse and drop in earnings. To do away with this food insecurity several governments took steps like providing free food grains or cash transfers to buy foods. But that covered the staples only, the supply of exotic items which became ‘indispensable’ in kitchen due to globalisation wave were either unavailable or too expensive to afford and the local producers and dealers were not equipped enough to step in to fill that gap. To be very specific COVID-19 is not the issue which created the food security problem but the one which unravelled the underlying simmering issue of food insecurity in the urban areas, it highlighted the fragility of our urban food systems and questioned the resilience of food systems. The local food systems already tend to face several structural issues such as inadequate infrastructure, locational isolation, lack of access and linkage, etc., which have hindered them to grow and cater to the entire urban population around them. The local and regional food supply chain especially in the developing world involves—apart from food producers, transporters, retailers and sellers, a class of middlemen (aggregators, wholesalers and brokers) who try to maximise the profit detrimentally affecting the agri-business supply and value chain from operating efficiently causing artificial food shortages and price volatility. So, it is obvious that mobility restrictions and lockdowns will worsen the situation through ripple effects. Though keeping mortality as low as possible is a priority of all the governments, measures to ameliorate the inevitable economic downturn are also imperative. While taking drastic measures to curb the menace of the pandemic imposition of strict lockdown indirectly affected global trade hampering movement of food from areas of surplus to areas of shortage; to avoid severe shortages and associated food insecurity reliance only on local production with shorter supply chain is the only alternative. But if that supply chain is weak then, indirect export bans will pose serious threats to the access of the poor to food who already face a crumbling economy specially in the developing countries like India. India, the country with second highest population in the world also took resort to strict lockdown as precautionary measures but as it took a toll on the economic activities along with livelihood of the economically weaker section, the government took resort to Public Distribution System (PDS) to ensure the supply of basic food for all.

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2.8 Conclusion The conventional idea that agriculture is a negligible entity in urban setup is no more a reality. A formidable number of urban households are involved in this genre, mostly in Africa, but the role is limited when income generation is noted. To attract more people across economic background towards making cities self-reliant on food supply the issue of food security ensuring dietary diversity and calorie availability needs to be highlighted. Once urban agriculture becomes economically viable and profitable the idea for urban food justice shall become a rage in near future. Getting Accustomed to the ‘New Normal’ In a strongly connected and integrated world, the impact of COVID-19 would be way beyond absolute number of deaths reported; there would be food crunch, global economic crisis even recessions for which governments have to prepare contingency plans. Today, when the global pandemic of COVID-19 has created huge stress on urban areas; with restrictions on movements, high fear of contamination—import of food articles has been a hassle, urban agriculture emerges as a saviour. Urban food production is not only a matter of scientific curiosity but now has become an urban policy issue and development tool. The food systems integrate various stages of food production, i.e. form ‘farm to fork’ encompassing infrastructure, inputs, institutions and manpower [19] and as this intricate network grows longer the chances of complication increases. FAO Report [22] indicated that due to lengthy large-scale lockdowns farmers were barred from accessing markets and their fresh produce was wasted or sold at a very cheap rate while on the other hand the collection centres in the urban areas faced severe scarcity and there was a steep rise in price. To deal with this, shortening of chain along with facilitation of e-commerce platform has been suggested. It pointed out that like the big brands, the small local producers and suppliers can go for app usage for door-step deliveries covering limited radius. Collection of real-time data taking the aid of information and communication technologies (ICTs), Internet of Things (IoT) platforms might help to improve the connection between local suppliers and buyers when physical contact is an issue. Creating database and dashboard maps with urban agriculture-related production will help in planning urban farm produce movement and would flourish further if partnerships among urban farmers and resultant community-networking is taken seriously. Wesana et al. [61] advocated for value stream mapping for identifying gaps in the supply chain and judicious management of those. Future Scope Putting forward specific recommendations for improving urban sustainability and food security is a tough ask because urban areas are unique in their own ways and a blanket scheme is not going to serve the purpose; each case might require different approaches. However, it can be stated very clearly that the importance of urban agriculture has to be highlighted among the urban planners and policymakers so that

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they recognise food products as an intrinsic part of urban economy, land use and lifestyle. To empower the interested urban residents imparting ecological, horticultural skills through agroecological training and extension programmes can be helpful in capacity-building. This pandemic has brought a host of new challenges, out of which the urban food security is one. Emphasis should be given to develop a robust plan for overcoming that and there are several practical ways of handling the issue involving high population density, lockdown vulnerabilities and shortage of supply as discussed in the paper. However, in the long run only policy formulation by the government, involvement of the city dwellers not only out of the fear of food shortage due to the pandemic shall be paying. The ‘uber-urbans’ need to note urban agriculture as ‘chic’, ‘cool’, ‘happening’ and ‘awesome’ then only they would be genuinely involved directly or indirectly in pursuing it in the open spaces of their condominiums, backyard of their houses or on the vacant plot in their neighbourhood (Fig. 2.4). Both change in plans and mindset in the ‘new normal’ scenario will help the cities in encountering the coming hard days and be prepared for such outbreaks in future making cities truly smart and sustainable. Acknowledgements Authors are thankful to Ms. Susmita Bhattacharjee, P.G. Student of Geography, Women’s College, Calcutta, for preparing an art for this article.

Fig. 2.4 Proud and wise city folk braving all negativity pursuing urban agriculture, published during the ‘Victory Garden’ movement after WW-I. Change in urban planning approaches and mindset in the ‘new normal’ will help the cities to be prepared for outbreaks like COVID-19 in future, making them truly smart and sustainable. Source Benefits of Home Gardening (25.07.1920) in City Farmer News [11]

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Chapter 3

Disruptive Mobility in Preand Post-COVID Times: App-Based Shared Mobility in Indian Cities—The Case of Bengaluru Nausheen Akhtar and Paulose N. Kuriakose Abstract Smart Sustainable city is an emerging concept of a complex long-term vision to overcome the problems arising in the cities with the help of new technologies. Some of such problems in the transport sector include congestion, carbon emissions, and inadequate public transit service supply. One probable solution to these can be through optimum utilization of disruptive mobility, which has hit this sector like a storm. This chapter presents the scenario of App-Based Shared Mobility (ABSM) services in the city of Bengaluru and the consequent impact it is creating on the urban travel trends, travel behavior, and car ownership. These services generate city-level data, which can be utilized to judge various aspects of city-wide traffic to improve the overall mobility. Moreover, the change in consumer desire from ownership to the accessibility of goods and services has penetrated the transport sector in the form of Transport Network Companies (TNCs), which has great potential to impact the public transit ridership as well as private vehicle ownership which is further explored in the chapter. Keywords Disruptive mobility · Carbon emission · Congestion · Public transport · Shared mobility · Smart mobility · Environment · COVID-19

3.1 Introduction The emergence of the concept of ‘Sustainability’ can be traced back to 1645–1714 to Hans Carl von [28], the term ‘Smart City’ came into being just a few years back. However, the development of interlinked issues in the past few decades led to their N. Akhtar · P. N. Kuriakose (B) Department of Transport Planning, School of Planning and Architecture, Bhopal, India e-mail: [email protected] N. Akhtar e-mail: [email protected] P. N. Kuriakose Department of Urban and Regional Planning, School of Planning and Architecture, Bhopal, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 C. Chakraborty et al. (eds.), The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Green Societies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66490-9_3

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convergence under a new heading, i.e., Smart Sustainable Cities. There are five developments which can be said to be the seeds from which this concept has emerged. They include Sustainable Urban Development and Sustainable Cities, Problems and Sustainable Development, Globalization of Environmental Urbanization and Urban Growth, Information and Communication Technologies, and Smart Cities. The definition of smart sustainable city can be written as a rewrite of Brundtland definition of sustainability with a small addition as follows: A Smart Sustainable City is one which meets the needs of its present inhabitants, without compromising the ability for other people or future generations to meet their needs, and thus, does not exceed local or planetary environmental limitations, and where this is supported by Information and Communication Technologies [19]. Mobility forms an integral aspect of a smart city [4, 6] and hence stays as an important factor of a smart sustainable city. Research conclusions and the present state of mobility in most of the urbanized areas are enough proof of the adverse impacts badly managed mobility systems have on the quality of life. One prominent way to achieve sustainable transport systems is through smart mobility. Smart mobility is a set of actions and projects, with different goals, contents, and technological intensity. In conclusion, it can be said that smart mobility is a multidimensional topic, which involves all paradigms of smart city and generates multiple benefits for all stakeholders of a smart city [35]. The organization HERE Mobility defines smart mobility as an integration of different modes of transport and infrastructure to make travel cleaner, safer, and efficient. It facilitates communication between a user and the mode of transport using Internet of Things (IoT) [27]. A smart city cannot possibly exist without smart mobility which integrates automation and smart connectivity into existing infrastructure to help reshape the city’s transport system [16]. Disruptive mobility (ridesourcing, carsharing, bikesharing, ABSM, electric vehicles, autonomous vehicles, etc.) prevalent these days forms an integral part of smart mobility. It focuses on the accessibility of products/services to the consumers rather than its ownership. This study will particularly focus on App-based Shared Mobility. It has been observed that the markets in the last decade are giving way to networks as a result of which alternative modes of consumption and acquisition have emerged. It has become a popular trend of the market wherein consumers, instead of buying/owning things, are shifting their focus toward having access to goods and experiencing temporary access to them. In short, ownership is no longer the ultimate desire of consumers [6]. Hence, many business models have come up wherein such customer-demands are satisfied by sharing resources, services, and products with the help of peer communities or technology. Examples of such access models include a wide variety across a range of products, like carsharing (Ola, Uber, Zoom, Zipcar), bike-rentals (Hubway, Yulu), fashion (Bag borrow, Rent the Runway, Borrowed bling), etc. Though this idea of shared resources has been prevalent since a long time now, it is gaining much more popularity, all thanks to the Internet and capitalist marketplace trading in cultural resources instead of material objects [7]. Such consumption which is primarily access-based is defined as a market-mediated transaction wherein no transfer of ownership is done and only consumption time of the item is acquired by the customer. In the case of market-mediated cases of access,

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for use of the object, the consumer is willing to pay a premium. This way, consumers can access networks and objects without going through the hassles of ownership and the maintenance it might demand. Similarly, the transport sector underwent a humongous change with the coming of Transport Network Companies (TNCs) in the last decade. The concept of shared resources was applied by these companies, and hence, now a ride in a variety of cars is just a click away from the desiring customers. The car may not belong to the person riding it and the same ride may be shared by many people having the same or close by destinations. Some companies even offer rental services with daily or hourly charges. These TNCs (like Uber, Ola, Yulu, Zoomcar, etc.) have made a major impact on a lot of aspects like travel behavior, mode choice, and even the attitude toward car ownership, as suggested by various studies quoted in later sections of this chapter. The Indian TNC market is dominated by two companies: Uber Technologies Inc. and ANI Technologies Pvt. Ltd. [43] which are American and Indian originated TNCs, respectively. Customers access their services via apps on their mobile phones, hence they are termed as App-Based Shared Mobility (ABSM). They have a wide variety of mode options to choose from, i.e., from bikes, autos, cars to even limousines. The prices vary according to the mode and timing of the ride. The customers also have varied payment options like cash, coupons, Google Pay, or even through credit cards. As a result of the ease of travel offered by these TNCs, their customers increased, and moreover, a gradual shift was also observed in the mode choice impacting the car ownership and public transit ridership. This study is an attempt to observe the same aspects in India, taking the case study of Bengaluru. In this chapter, an attempt is made to highlight the slow yet significant transportation paradigm shift occurring in major cities of India like Bengaluru. A comparison between public transportation and ABSM is done and factors identified due to which disruptive mobility is gaining popularity. TNCs generate large amount of city-level data on a daily basis, which can be utilized for the betterment of our cities. Hence, the data generated by Uber is utilized to find the annual cost of carbon emissions occurring due to consumption of additional fuel because of congestion. In this chapter, public transport and ABSM have been compared on two grounds: spatially and considering waiting time, total travel time, and fare. It must be kept in mind that public transport and ABSM translate to buses and Uber in the first case, while in the second both buses and metro have been considered for public transport, and Uber and Ola for ABSM. The Public Transport Accessibility Map was made considering the bus stops and only phase-I of the Bengaluru metro. The 2019 trip generation-attraction maps of Uber rides could not be made given the unavailability of data on Uber movement website, as on January 2020.

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3.1.1 Disruptive Mobility Several innovations have come up with the potential to disrupt mobility, thereby causing major consequences on the transport system, city development, and energy system. The innovations and trends of disrupted mobility which are majorly responsible for it include Electrification, Shared economy, as well as Automation. The trends show that none of these new innovations, as of now, have been able to make any major changes in the existing mobility which is majorly personal vehicle dominated. Some indications showed a decline of motorization in previous years but the current mobility trends showed a recovery, indicating the main reason of decline to be the economic factors. Research of Sweden showed that the attitude of customers toward car-usage and cars, in general, has not changed since the past decade. This fact was further strengthened by the increase in the number of two-car households. However, it is undeniable that niches have been emerging in major cities which have a strong presence of carsharing services, and that they are increasing. The young people in these countries are taking their driving licenses later than the previous generation did and vehicle ownership is decreasing moderately. Shaheen and Christensen [30] defines disruptive technologies as those which have the worst performance at the start with lower prices as compared to the mainstream technologies, but due to the technological improvement as well as convenience, they have the potential to take over the market. This is how disruption might occur from the market’s lower end. Similarly, a disruption from above might occur as well, which might have superior performance than the mainstream but is more costly. These disrupt the market through cost reductions. In terms of transportation, the term ‘disruptive’ is also interpreted as having the ability to create a major impact, thereby interrupting the normal course of the system. This might be a shift from the mobility through a privately owned vehicle, as majorly prevalent today. Shared mobility describes those transport services, which are shared among the users and contains various options. Car sharing, both traditional station-based and free-floating, bikesharing, car rentals, and public transits fall under the term shared mobility. A public transport company in one of their commercials highlighted that the features which are being praised in the next-generation mobility are actually already present in public transport [33]. Carsharing was first established in Switzerland as early as 1948. During World War II, America ran a government campaign urging its common people to conserve resources and opt for carsharing. Americans, at that time, owned and drove automobiles more than ever before, which prompted an urgent need to save oil and gasoline. The only difference today is the convenience and ease of accessibility to these services, provided by the Internet, GPS, and smartphones. Existing services improved dramatically and new ones were offered due to the convergence of different technological advances. Nevertheless, the marketing strategies of these companies and even some municipalities have played a role in making carsharing services accessible and attractive to the customers. For example, the city council of Paris started an electric carsharing service by the name of Autolib. Municipalities, at times, choose not to support such services if the drawbacks feared

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are more than the benefits offered. For example, the municipal corporation of San Francisco decided not to provide any preferential parking to the carsharing services as it was speculated that they will substitute the public transit and bike rides and induce more vehicle use causing environmental issues and loss to the public transit providers.

3.1.2 Worldwide Scenario of Disruptive Mobility The American Automobile Association reports that the average annual cost of owning and maintaining a motorized four-wheeler to be $8,469 [12]. On the other hand, a member of CityCarshare, a San Francisco based non-profit carshare organization, only needs to pay annually $540 on an average [17]. Several studies showed that these carsharing members either avoided or reduced car purchase. Studies confirm that carsharing can remove 4.6 to 2 cars per shared vehicle [29] which creates a huge benefit both financially for customers and environmentally in general. It has been observed that ridesourcing has had a negative economic impact on the taxi industry, given the fact that their market share is similar and the ease of accessibility is better than the traditional taxis. Researchers have confirmed that the growth of Uber is primarily due to the substitution of taxi trips. The price of taxi medallion in New York reduced from $1,100,000 in 2013 to $600,000 in 2015 [21]. The entry of ridesharing companies in the market was cited as the cause for this decrease [5]. Many factors collectively fall in favor of Uber, including lower fares, wider service coverage, and lower wait times for the under-served areas and population. For example, a study of New York revealed that Uber services provided the minority and lower income neighborhoods with more transportation services and choice. Also, in Chicago and New York, lesser complaints were received by the taxi services after the introduction of Uber, since the market competition had increased and the taxi service providers were compelled to perform better [42]. When looked at from the environmental perspective, there are studies having both the positive and negative point of view. The University of California Transportation Centre researchers concluded in their study that Ridesourcing users tend to own lesser vehicles which leads to lesser Vehicle Kilometer Travelled (VKT). Though 90% of vehicle-owning survey respondents said they did not change vehicle ownership even after using Uber, 40% of them reported that they drive lesser than earlier. One drawback of TNCs is that cab drivers often deadhead (operating the vehicle without any passenger) either to match passengers or to seek passengers in high-demand areas, which results in higher VKT and increased congestion [25].

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3.1.3 Disruptive Mobility in India On-demand mobility is no longer a foreign concept to India. Uber crossed 500 million rides in Indian cities in August 2017. In four years, the company outreached 29 cities and achieved this mark [38]. Ola cabs, the homegrown competitor of Uber, is growing just as rapidly. World Resources Institute (WRI), India found that impacts of disruptive/new mobility companies can be classified into four categories [41]. The term ‘new mobility’ refers to those companies which utilize technology to provide transportation services in new ways. The disruptions focus on re-inventing delivery, ownership, utilizing connectivity and data in different ways and even decreasing or eliminating the exploitation of non-renewable resources. WRI India, after interviewing representatives from the 60 companies, classified them into 21 categories based on Business models, Target audience, and Services offered. These 21 categories were then grouped on the basis of additional factors like technology employed, potential impact, and area of disruption. This created four major areas of activity and this categorization further helps us to understand the ways in which this new mobility is impacting urban transportation. Shared mobility describes the transportation models wherein options are shared among its customers. This includes the Transit Network Companies (TNCs) like Uber, Ola, and Lyft. Though all mass transit and public transit modes come under the category of shared modes, the term ‘shared mobility’ is used for those models which accelerate their market presence and accessibility by utilizing mobile technology, especially GPS and smartphone applications. There are further three varieties of shared mobility models: • Ridesharing is the mutual sharing of transportation facilities for passengers moving in the same direction at the same time. It includes carpool, auto-rickshaw sharing, taxi sharing, and bus aggregator. • Ridehailing or drive procurement applies to Internet-based for-hire vehicles used consecutively by travelers, like taxis, road taxis, and auto-rickshaws and are referred to as aggregators and on-demand firms. • Vehicle sharing is a constant usage of properties without possession. Such versions provide riders with exposure to automobiles such as motorcycles, cars, and motorbikes for limited periods of time. Commuter experience applies to models that often promote increased accessibility environment for commuters, mostly by information exchange that lets consumers make smarter decisions. There are two sectors in India in which private enterprises have emerged: • Seamless payments and technology include models that provide consumers with transit routing/ scheduling, trip planning and traffic flow (congestion) details across modes and the opportunity to pay directly for public transport as well as privately provided transportation services.

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• Commuter security and safety includes technologies/models that help passengers, car diagnostics, trip tracking, and crowd-sourced health expectations, with an emphasis on women’s safety. • Product innovation applies to businesses that are seeking to improvise or develop transport vehicles and assets. In India, operation in this segment has been minimal but is expected to expand on the basis of the government’s recent commitment to electric vehicles. Such companies can be mapped into through three major segments: • Alternate engines and fuels involve advancements in technology across hybrid buses, two-wheelers, electric vehicle charging infrastructure, and electric autos. • Bicycle innovation involves the increasing advent of early-stage firms making electric bicycles. • Autonomous technology development is a recent segment creating a buzz in India, powered by the driverless car challenge of the leading car manufacturer, Mahindra. Data-driven decision-making applies to models that utilize technology such as sensors and GPS data that offer unique information to drivers as well as planners. It is a new area of the Indian industry with a few specialized items coming from early-stage firms and customized strategies from major IT corporations. Thus far, two major groups are. • Insights for businesses which include models utilizing data collected to provide better services including fleet management, routing analytics, vehicle maintenance, and driver safety. • Insights for city administrators like such kind of models which help city agencies with integrating services, traffic management, and road maintenance [41].

3.2 Problem Statement The Greater Bangalore Municipal Corporation, i.e., Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagar Pallike (BBMP) is selected as the study area. Bengaluru is the fifth largest metropolis of India with a population of 6.71 million [8], which is expected to increase to 11.22 million by the year 2025 [24]. Apart from private vehicles, the residents of Bengaluru have a number of transport services to choose from, be it the buses run by the state under Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation (BMTC) or metro services by Bengaluru Metro Rail Corporation Limited (BMRCL), and even a range of App-Based Shared Mobility (ABSM) services including motorized two-, three-, and four-wheeler vehicles. These ABSM services are prevalent all over the city with some providing carpooling services and other on-demand taxi rides. The study area was finalized considering the varying transportation trends observed in the city after the introduction of Uber in the city during the Financial Year (FY) 2013. The BMTC bus service of Bengaluru is one of the best public transit services of India and is the first bus system in India to have the least losses over six years till 2016 among eight metropolitan bus systems of India [22].

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Fig. 3.1 Fleet operated by BMTC (FY 2012–19). Source BMTC

Fig. 3.2 Effective km traveled per day by BMTC buses (FY 2012–2019). Source BMTC

Sridhar et al. [34] drew a comparison among eight executing authorities in the transport sector of India on the basis of 20 indicators. BMTC was found to be one of the authorities performing better than the others. However, the corporation has faced a decline in the number of vehicles held, fleet operated, and effective km traveled per day since the FY 2013–14, as per the data collected from BMTC (see Figs. 3.1 and 3.2). Though not the only one but a major reason for the decline in BMTC services could be the inception of ABSM services in the area. Apparently, the year from which BMTC saw a decline in the fleet operated and the effective km traveled by its buses, is the year when Uber taxi services were first launched in India in Bengaluru. Moreover, there was a spike observed in the registration of the Hiring motorized two-wheeler and Hiring four-wheeler vehicles after FY 2013–14 (See Fig. 3.3). Hence, this chapter will aim to study the impacts of app-based shared mobility on various aspects of urban travel trends and travel behavior in context of the city Bengaluru, India. The objectives of the study will be as follows: Objective 1: To find the additional monetary and environmental cost incurred due to congestion through TNC data (Uber). Objective 2: To study the recent trends of app-based shared mobility and factors which influence their use, along with its impact on car ownership behavior. Objective 3: To assess the relationship between public transport accessibility and usage of app-based shared mobility.

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Fig. 3.3 Trend of hiring vehicle registrations in BBMP (2010–19). Source RTO Bengaluru

3.3 Methodology 3.3.1 Data Collection The data used for the analysis was acquired from the offices of BMTC, BMRCL, and the Transport Commissioner of Bengaluru. Further, the TNC data was collected from the open-source platform of Uber [39]. Uber, one of the largest ridesharing operators has made some of its data available on its website ‘Uber Movement’, which is free for researchers to use. The traffic data hence available has been used for various kinds of research [15]. As per the company, the data may be utilized by urban planners and city officials to address the problems of the city to make decisions based on proper information and actual ground conditions. Uber plans to make the city transportation picture clear so that a proper dataset can explain the why, when, and where of the changes happening across the city. The data is released in an organized manner around traffic analysis zones of cities, which are agreed upon geographic demarcations which makes it easier to work with for the planners. The users are free to control the parameters like time of the day, day of the week and zones and download the specific data as per their use [32]. The hourly aggregate of weekdays for the years 2016 to 2018 was utilized for further analysis. Data for 2019 was available only until February, and hence it was not considered. A pan-city Revealed Preference Survey was conducted in BBMP. To calculate the sample size, sampling technique adopted by the Bureau of Transportation Statistics, UK was referred [9]. For a population of 12.3 million taking a confidence level of 95% and a confidence interval of 7, the sample size came out to be 223. A total of 23 questions were asked from the residents of Bengaluru regarding their daily travel

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behavior and the effect of the influx of ABSM services on their travel. The survey sample consisted of 67% males and 33% females with the majority of them lying in the age group of 20–30 and working as professionals. 51% of survey respondents did not own a vehicle, 41% owned motorized two-wheelers, 4% owned four-wheelers, and another 4% owned more than one vehicle including both motorized two-wheelers and four-wheelers.

3.3.2 Carbon Emission Due to Congestion For the purpose of the study, 25 routes between the major commercial areas and residential areas were finalized, as per the Comprehensive Mobility Plan of Bengaluru [24]. By calculating the Travel Time Index of these major routes, the issue of extreme congestion is highlighted. Moreover, the TNC–Uber data is utilized to estimate the economic and environmental cost of congestion. By highlighting the economic and environmental loss occurring at these major routes, recommendations are drawn to improve the traffic conditions on them, which will save a huge amount of resources, presently going down the drain on a daily basis. Five wards each with dominant residential landuse and dominant commercial landuse were selected (See Table 3.1). It has been observed that major commercial and economic activities have clustered in various Central Business Districts (CBDs) and the most important ones include ward numbers 38, 84, 86, 110, and 192. The administrative offices of Bengaluru are located in ward 110, whereas all the others comprise major IT Tech parks which attract most of the crowd from all over the city every day. To assess the commuting pattern between the wards described, the travel times received from Uber Movement data [39], from each origin to each destination in both AM—peak hour (8–11 a.m.) and PM—peak hour (4:30–7:30 p.m.) were used [37]. The cost incurred due to additional petrol consumed by motorized two-wheeler and four-wheeler vehicles due to congestion was calculated. The steps followed are as given below: Volume of fuel consumed during free flow = Distance * Fuel consumption Volume of fuel consumed during peak hours (for each route) = Volume of fuel consumed per route * Route-level Travel Time Index (TTI). Additional volume of fuel consumed per route owing to congestion = Volume of fuel consumed during peak hours – Volume of fuel consumed during free flow. Additional fuel cost (for each route) = Additional volume of fuel consumed * Cost of fuel per liter. The cost of carbon dioxide emissions due to congestion in environmental terms and monetary terms was calculated signifying the amount of CO2 emitted during traffic as per the following steps: 1. The steps to calculate the additional amount of fuel consumed are the same as explained in the previous section.

3 Disruptive Mobility in Pre- and Post-COVID Times … Table 3.1 Major routes between dominant residential and commercial wards of BBMP

67

Origin (Residential)

Destination (Commercial)

Ward name

Ward no

Ward name

Ward no

Cottonpete

138

Vidhan Souda

110

138

Yeshwanthpur

38

138

Whitefield

84

138

Electronic city

138

Marathahalli

86

153

Vidhan Souda

110

153

Yeshwanthpur

38

153

Whitefield

153

Electronic city

Hombegowda

Shanthinagar

Malleshwaram

Neelasandra

192

84 192

153

Marathahalli

86

117

Vidhan Souda

110

117

Yeshwanthpur

38

117

Whitefield

117

Electronic city

117

Marathahalli

86

45

VidhanSouda

110

45

Yeshwanthpur

38

45

Whitefield

84

45

Electronic city

45

Marathahalli

86

115

Vidhan Souda

110

115

Yeshwanthpur

38

115

Whitefield

84

115

Electronic city

115

Marathahalli

84 192

192

192 86

Source Primary Survey

2. Using the additional amount of fuel consumed calculated in the above step, the additional carbon dioxide emitted was calculated by multiplying additional volume of fuel consumed and CO2 emissions. Now, to quantify these emissions in economic terms, the calculated additional CO2 emitted was multiplied with the cost of emissions to find cost of additional fuel emissions. Studies have estimated that in Indian cities, carbon dioxide per kg costs the economy USD 0.086 [26]. The above-mentioned steps were separately performed for 2-wheelers and cars, both petrol only. Finally, the same weights as applied in the previous section were used to arrive at the total cost of additional petrol emissions

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in Indian National Rupees (INR) terms (using the current exchange rate of USD 1 to INR 74.93).

3.3.3 Public Transport Accessibility Level (PTAL) In order to analyze the present public transit infrastructure of BBMP, a Public Transport Accessibility Level (PTAL) map was drawn by measuring the Accessibility Index (AI). The AI is calculated by utilizing the walking distance from Point of Interest (PoI) and Service Access Points (SAP), peak hour frequency of transits (busbased and rail-based), walk speed, and reliability factor. The procedure followed is the same as that of London PTAL [36], with changes in walking speed and reliability factor as per Surat PTAL methodology [1]. • Point of Interests (PoI): In London PTAL methodology, PoIs were considered to build development. However, due to lack of availability of building footprint data, the study area was divided into grids of 500 × 500 km2 and their centroids taken as PoIs. • Service Access Points (SAPs): These are the transit stops like bus stops and metro stations. 2,673 bus stops and 24 metro stations were mapped in the study area. • Walking speed: The London methodology followed walk speed of 4.8 kmph. However, as per the Indian NMT infra conditions Surat PTAL considered a walk speed of 3.6 kmph and the same was adopted for this study. • Reliability factor (k): Reliability factor is taken to account for the various unaccounted delays, which may be occurring at the ground level. Following the mixed traffic conditions prevailing in our country, since Surat PTAL methodology considered k = 0.75 for Metrorail and k = 2.5 for buses (non-BRTS), the same was adopted for this study. • Public transit frequency: The frequency of metro and buses are as per the primary survey conducted. The PTAL map was formed after calculating AI as per the following steps: • The whole BBMP area was divided into 3,318 grids of 500 × 500 m2 and each of their centroids were marked as PoI • The shortest walking distance was calculated from these PoI to the SAPs (bus stops and metro stations) • The Waiting time (WT) is calculated by dividing the walking distance by the walking speed, considered to be 3.6 kmph • The average waiting time (minutes) is calculated by the following formula. AWT = ( 0.5 ∗ (60/frequency) ) + k

(3.1)

Now the Waiting time (WT) and Average Waiting time (AWT) are added to find the Total Access Time (TAT) in minutes.

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TAT = WT + AWT

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(3.2)

• Next, weights are assigned to each route for each of the PoI with a weight of 1 for the route of highest frequency and 0.5 for all the others. • Next, Equivalent Doorstep Frequency (EDF) is calculated to treat access time as a notional average waiting time as though the route was available at the ‘doorstep’ of the selected PoI. EDF = {0.5 ∗ (60/TAT)} = 30/TAT

(3.3)

• Accessibility Index is calculated for each PoI, differently for the different modes, using the formula AIm = EDFmax + (0.5 ∗ Sum of EDF of all other routes)

(3.4)

AIPOI = Sum of all AIm

(3.5)

• After calculating AI for each of the POIs, they were grouped into nine levels as explained below and mapped accordingly (Table 3.2). Table 3.2 Representation of accessibility index on PTAL map

PTAL

Access index range Map color

0 (worst) 0 1a

0.01–2.5

1b

2.51–5.0

2

5.01–10.0

3

10.01–15.0

4

15.01–20.0

5

20.01–25.0

6a

25.01–40.0

6b (best)

40.01+

Source TfL [36]

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3.4 Bengaluru: The Case Study 3.4.1 City Profile and Institutional Structure Bengaluru, earlier named Bangalore, is the capital city of Karnataka state of India lying almost equidistant from both the western and the eastern coast of South Indian peninsula and lies 920 m above mean sea level. Bengaluru has a flat topography except for the central ridge. Many rivers cross the city including river Vrishabhavathi, Arkavathi, and South Pennar cross at the Nandi hills. Due to the undulating terrain of the region, a large number of tank formations have occurred in the area, which facilitates traditional uses of irrigation, drinking, washing, and fishing. In 1961, the number of lakes were around 262, but were later seriously affected due to increasing urbanization and their numbers came down to only 33 in the year 2003. The pleasant weather of Bengaluru makes it one of the most preferred cities to settle. The temperature there varies from 39 degrees to 11 degree Celsius, and summer temperature barely exceeds it. The atmosphere neither gets very humid nor very dry and the average rainfall received is 923 mm. The municipal governance of Bengaluru’s history can be traced back to March 27, 1862, when a Municipal Board under the Improvement of Towns Act of 1850 was formed by nine leading citizens of the city. After this, the Cantonment area of the city was also allocated with a similar municipal board. These two boards after being legalized in 1881, functioned as independent bodies by the terms Bangalore City Municipality and the Bangalore Civil and Military Station Municipality. After India’s independence from the British, the two municipal boards were merged as per the Bangalore City Corporation Act to form the Corporation of the City of Bangalore in 1949. This corporation had 70 elected representatives along with 50 electoral divisions. The name of the council also went through changes. It was first named Bangalore City Corporation (BCC), then Bangalore Mahanagar Pallike (BMP), and finally to Bruhat Bangalore Mahanagar Pallike (BBMP) in April 2007. BBMP was formed with 198 wards after a notification issued by the Karnataka Government to form one administrative body by merging the areas under existing BMP with 7 CMCs (City Municipal Council), 1 TMC (Town Municipal Council), and 111 villages around the city. BBMP presently comprises eight zones, i.e., East, West, South, Bommanahalli, Yelahanka, Darasahalli, Mahadevpura, and RajajeshwariNagar zone. BBMP follows decentralized administration at the zonal level. The Joint/ Zonal additional Commissioner drawn from State Administrative Services head the zonal office. All of the eight zonal offices are assigned the following functions and departments within jurisdiction: Welfare department, Education department, Revenue department, Health department, Horticulture department, and General administration (Fig. 3.4 and Table 3.3).

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Fig. 3.4 Map of Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagar Pallike (BBMP). Source Primary survey

3.4.2 Transportation in BBMP Bengaluru has a radial pattern of road network which covers 4000 km from which arterial and sub-arterial are about 350 km. The road network in the central part developed organically through the years with inadequate Right-of-Way. An outer ring road cuts across various radial roads and spans a length of 62 km. Also, an intermediate ring road was constructed at the southeast of the city between Old Airport Road and Koramangala. National Highways crossing the city include NH-4, NH-7, and NH-209 and the State Highways include SH-17, SH-17E, SH-19, and SH-86 [24]. Bengaluru has always had the reputation of having more motorized two-wheelers than other modes (See Table 3.4). Out of the 36.8 lakhs of total vehicles registered in 2010, 70% are motorized two-wheelers. Autos and taxis are also a popular form of transport available in the city. The bus services are operated by Bengaluru Metropolitan Transport Corporation (BMTC), which is fully owned by the State Government. The daily ridership crosses a 40-lakh mark with 578 city and 1756 suburban routes per day. To provide direction-oriented services instead of destinationoriented services, a total of 27 high-density corridors were identified and services were started along these ‘grid-routes’. However, they were withdrawn due to poor patronage and instead BIG10 services were launched. In this, 12 major corridors

4.3

800

Source Verma [40]

1991 (millions)

Area (km2 )

6.17

2001 (million)

3.68

CAGR (%) 1991–01

Table 3.3 Decadal growth trends of BBMP

43.49

Decadal growth 1991–01 3.26

CAGR (%) 2001–11 37.78

Decadal growth 2001–11 8.5

2011 (in millions) 2.83

CAGR (%) 2001–11

32.21

Decadal growth 2001–11

9.77

2016* (million)

11.24

2021* (in million)

72 N. Akhtar and P. N. Kuriakose

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Table 3.4 Growth in registration of motorized two-wheeler and hiring vehicles in Bengaluru (2010– 2019) Year

Motorized two-wheeler vehicles registered

Hiring motorized two-wheeler vehicles registered

Four-wheeler vehicles registered

Hiring four-wheeler vehicles registered

2010

1,493,884

44,438

347,424

41,052

2011

1,921,370

44,576

370,334

44,760

2012

2,067,302

34,136

389,410

49,620

2013

2,140,180

34,418

358,728

41,112

2014

2,433,130

34,946

358,728

44,492

2015

2,118,974

38,045

375,992

80,416

2016

2,515,298

41,480

409,756

96,072

2017

2,438,822

44,476

400,824

87,010

2018

2,538,370

52,470

372,018

57,130

2019

2,238,566

68,138

357,106

47,400

Source RTO Office, Bengaluru

were identified and buses were run on the direction where commuter takes the next bus [24].

3.4.3 Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation (BMTC) BMTC is a renowned public sector transport undertaking owned by Karnataka state and is governed by the Board of Directors appointed by the State. BMTC, founded in 1940, was originally called Bangalore Transport Company. It was catering to the whole city by a fleet of 98 buses. In 1956, the Government of Mysore took over the city transport from the company and named it Bangalore Transport Services. On August 15, 1997, Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation was incorporated. Presently, BMTC is providing services both in the city center and suburban areas of Bengaluru in a radius of about 40.4 km. In view of Greater Bengaluru, the services were expanded from 3527 to 5130 km2 . During the FY 2018, total 6143 schedules were being operated. BMTC makes it a point to curtail low earning schedules and scrap off aged vehicles from its fleet along with adding better schedules and adding new buses to its fleet. Presently, BBMP is operating a fleet of 6466 buses. The corporation had a staff strength of 34,114 in 2018 consisting of both regular and temporary/ trainee employees. The total staff ratio for the FY 2017–18 stood at 5.6. BMTC also has a Control Command Centre at Central Office to increase the efficiency of its depots and schedules using Intelligent Transport System. To carry this out, the operations are supervised in six zones, i.e., North, South, North-east, East,

74 Table 3.5 Details of infrastructure held by BMTC, as in 2018

N. Akhtar and P. N. Kuriakose S. No

Factor

Quantity

1

Bus stations Permanent (3 major, 40 minor, 10 TTMCs)

2

Bus shelters in BBMP

3

Bus stops with bus shelter

992

4

Bus stops without shelter

1220

5

Depots

6

Canteens

7

Commercial establishments

53 2212

44 24 368

Source BMTC [3]

West and Central zones. It also has two major workshops situated at Shanthinagar and Krishnarajapuram [3]. Each zone has varied schedules as shown in Table 3.5.

3.4.4 Bengaluru Metro Rail Corporation Limited (BMRCL) The metro services in Bengaluru are provided by Bangalore Metro Rail Corporation Limited (BMRCL), known as Namma Metro (literally ‘our’ metro). The Phase-1 of Namma metro is currently functional, while Phase-2 is under construction. The Phase-1 was opened for the public in June 2017 and consists of two corridors. The Purple line has 16 stations and spans across 18.1 km and the Green line runs along 24.2 km with 24 stations on it. From the total 42.3 km system, 8.8 km lies underground, while 33.5 km is elevated. Out of the total 40 stations, 7 are underground, 2 are at-grade and 31 are elevated. The Phase-2 of Namma metro includes a total length of 72.095 km of which 13.79 km is planned to be underground, having 61 stations (12 underground) [2].

3.5 Data Analysis and Discussion 3.5.1 Travel Preferences for Work and Recreational Trips The mode share of Bengaluru, as reported in a study conducted by UMTC 37, showed that maximum share was of public transit (30%), then walking (29%), followed by motorized two-wheelers (26%), then IPT (10%), and least by taxis/shared taxis/motorized four-wheelers (5%). Another study conducted by CLIMATRANS [40] reported the modal split of Bengaluru Metropolitan Region, comprising BBMP and the surrounding sub-regional areas. The share of buses (50%) and motorized

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two-wheelers (29%) was observed to be the highest. It was followed by cycle (11%), IPT (4%), and walk (4%). During the revealed preference survey, residents were inquired about their daily travel mode preference. The metropolis has various travel options to choose from and hence the respondents were asked regarding their mode preference for daily work/education purpose trips and recreational trips separately. Maximum of the respondents (37%) said they prefer to travel to their workplace/ education centers via two-wheeler vehicles. The vehicle registration data also shows that two-wheelers form the major part of the vehicle fleet of Bengaluru (See Table 3.4). The second most popular mode of travel was found to be BMTC buses followed by ABSM services. Though metro services are pretty efficient in Bengaluru, only 7% prefer it as their daily travel mode since it presently covers very few areas of BBMP and is under construction. The survey respondents usually prefer two-wheelers (34%) for their recreational trips, followed by ABSM services (27%) and BMTC buses (10%). Two-wheelers being a flexible and readily available mode of travel is popular among the users. ABSM services prove to be comfortable and free the users of the responsibility of driving and finding parking places and hence is the second most preferred mode for recreational trips. During the survey, respondents were also asked to list down the reasons which led them to choose their daily travel mode. All the reasons were further grouped into eight classes as shown below. Though ABSM services did not outperform other modes in any of the ‘Reasons for daily mode preference’, they fared pretty well in terms of comfort, security, and avoiding parking stress. It was observed that users mainly prefer it due to comfort (23%) and lesser travel time (23%), followed by value for money (20%) (See Fig. 3.5). ABSM is also preferred when there is no option of any public transit in certain areas of the city.

Fig. 3.5 Major reasons for mode choice preference. Source Primary Survey

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Table 3.6 Routes surveyed to compare ABSM and BMTC services Route no

Route length (km)

Origin

Destination

1

6.3

Palace Ground

KR Market

2

15.4

TTMC Shanthinagar

Indranagar

3

8

Domlur

Chickpete

4

2

Chamrajpet

National College

5

5

Mysore Bank circle

Jayamahal

6

20

KR Market

Don Bosco Institute of Technology

7

17.8

Brigade Road

Electronic city

8

4

Electronic city phase I

Electronic city phase II

9

21.2

Electronic city phase II

MG Road

10

8.2

NGO Colony

Frazer town

Source Primary Survey

To draw a comparison between Uber and BMTC, ten smaller routes lying within the proximity of the major 25 routes were surveyed. These ten routes covered those places which were found to be the major trip generating and trip attracting areas during the recce survey. The mix of ten Origin–Destination (OD) pairs comprise major commercial areas, educational institutes, bus depots, metro station, IT Park, and dense residential areas to draw conclusions taking reference from almost all the possible type of trips. The Origin and Destination were kept the same and the trip was undertaken at the same time of the day, i.e., during AM peak hour (7–10 a.m.) (Table 3.6). The Uber drivers followed the shortest or fastest path indicated by Google while buses followed their specific routes, which made a huge difference in the total travel time. On one hand, though the travel time of Uber rides was comparatively lesser, their fares were much higher. A steep difference was also observed in the waiting time for these modes. Given the service of different charges for different modes opted in TNCs, separate comparison of ABSM cabs and BMTC buses was carried out. It was also kept in mind that the cab charging the least is opted from Uber. The comparison of total travel time, waiting time for mode arrival, and fares is presented with the help of graphs (See Figs. 3.6 and 3.7). The waiting time for BMTC buses was observed to be highest in almost all the places except one, i.e., Mysore Bank Circle. The ABSM IPTs made their customers wait for the least time, followed by ABSM cabs, followed by BMTC buses. The ABSM modes, be it a cab or IPT, used the shortest path instructed by GPS between the origin and destination. However, the public buses had to halt at the designated bus stops and given their size were more prone to being stuck in the frequent traffic-jams the city faces. Hence, ABSM provides faster services than BMTC buses. Lesser waiting time and travel time further depends on the availability and distance of Cab/IPT from the user at the time of booking, if the service is demanded immediately.

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Fig. 3.6 Comparing waiting time and travel time of ABSM and BMTC. Source Primary Survey

Fig. 3.7 Comparing fares of ABSM and BMTC. Source Primary Survey

Figure 3.7 clearly shows the wide variation which occurs in the fare charged by ABSM services (be it Cab or IPT) in comparison to that of BMTC buses. Hence, it was established that ABSM provides better services in terms of waiting time and travel time, but BMTC buses are cost-friendly.

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3.5.2 Cost of Additional Carbon Emissions Due to Congestion Travel Time Index (TTI) is the ratio between how long it would take to complete a trip during peak hours as compared to that during free-flow hours. Suppose TTI of a certain route comes out to be 3, it indicates that the traffic would be moving three times slower than that at free-flow speeds. TTI is measured as the ratio of travel time between peak hour speed and speed limits as decided by the government; however, given the weak implementation of speed limits across India, travel time in free-flow conditions was used [10]. The TTI for all the 25 major routes (See Table 3.7) was calculated for both AM and PM peak hours and found to be 2.75 and 2.46, respectively. This signifies that a 30-min trip with no traffic takes 82.5 min during AM peak hours and 73.8 min during PM peak hours. Further, the cost of additional petrol consumed and hence the cost of carbon emissions due to the additional petrol consumed was calculated for the 25 routes. The route from Malleshwaram to Whitefield was observed to have the maximum cost of additional petrol consumed during both AM and PM peak hours, i.e., 419.2 INR and 400 INR, respectively (Table 3.8). This additional petrol being consumed by vehicles further leads to additional carbon emissions, which were calculated for each of the 25 routes. The cost was found to be highest on the route where the maximum additional petrol was being consumed, i.e., Malleshwaram to Whitefield. During the AM peak hour, the additional carbon emissions cost 99.9 INR and that during PM peak hour 95.3 INR (See Tables 3.9 and 3.10). Table 3.7 Cost of additional petrol consumed (INR) during AM peak hours Ward name

Ward no

Cost of additional petrol consumed (INR) AM peak hour

Cottonpete

138

0

0.2

53.4

25.1

34.9

Hembegowda

153

6.1

32.1

25.1

203.4

2.1

Shanthinagar

117

3.4

82.3

7.2

11.6

0

Malleshwaram

45

0

0

419.2

31.7

105.3

Neelasandra

115

199

75.6

13.8

6.4

3.4

Ward no

110

38

84

192

86

Ward name

Vidhan Souda

Yeshwanthpur

Whitefield

Electronic City

Marathahalli

Source UberMovement [39]

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Table 3.8 Cost of additional petrol (INR) consumed during PM peak hours Ward name

Ward Cost of additional petrol consumed (INR) no PM peak hour

Cottonpete

138

0

0

37.8

1.2

25.8

Hembegowda

153

1.0

24.2

2.0

197.7

0.2

Shanthinagar

117

2.3

67.2

4.6

8.5

0

Malleshwaram 45

0

0

400

18.0

103.5

Neelasandra

15

59.2

11.5

3.7

3.4

38

84

192

86

115

Ward 110 no

Ward VidhanSouda Yeshwanthpur Whitefield Electronic Marathahalli name City Source UberMovement [39]

Table 3.9 Cost of carbon emissions due to additional petrol consumed (INR) during AM peak hour Ward name

Ward no

Cost of carbon emissions due to additional petrol consumed (INR)

Cottonpete

138

0

0

9

4.3

6.2

Hembegowda

153

0.2

5.8

0.5

47.1

0.1

Shanthinagar

117

0.5

16

1.1

2.0

0

Malleshwaram

45

0

0

95.3

4.3

24.7

Neelasandra

115

3.6

14.1

2.7

0.9

0.8

Ward no

110

38

84

192

86

Ward name

Vidhan Souda

Yeshwanthpur

Whitefield

Electronic City

Marathahalli

PM peak hour

Source UberMovement [39]

3.5.3 Relation Between Yearly Uber Rides and PTAL Map 3.5.3.1

Yearly Trend Uber-Trips in BBMP (2016–18)

The weekly aggregate Uber trip data was utilized to make ward-wise Uber trip generation and trip attraction maps. The ward-wise trip generation map of BBMP shows that the number of trips generated increased from 2016–17 and remained almost equal in 2018 as compared to the previous year. Maximum of the trips are observed to generate from the central wards, which have the highest population density and the wards lying toward the west of BBMP. Maximum of trip attraction was observed again in the central wards with highest population density and wards

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Table 3.10 Cost of carbon emissions due to additional petrol consumed (INR) during PM peak hour Ward name

Ward No

Cost of carbon emissions due to additional petrol consumed (INR) AM peak hour

Cottonpete

138

0

0

12.7

6

8.3

Hembegowda

153

1.5

7.6

6

48.5

0.5

Shanthinagar

117

0.8

19.6

1.7

2.8

0

Malleshwaram

45

0

0

99.9

7.5

25.1

Neelasandra

115

4.7

18

3.3

1.5

0.8

Ward no

110

38

84

192

86

Ward name

Vidhan Souda

Yeshwanthpur

Whitefield

Electronic City

Marathahalli

Source UberMovement [39]

lying south of BBMP. During 2018, an increase in trip attraction was observed in wards lying toward the south (Figs. 3.8, 3.9, 3.10, 3.11, 3.12 and 3.13).

3.5.3.2

Public Transport Accessibility of BBMP

The PTAL map of Bengaluru (Fig. 3.14) clearly shows that the ease of accessibility is still concentrated in the central wards lying in the southwest of BBMP. The areas housing the major IT parks, like Electronic City toward the south, Marathahalli, and major residential area like Whitefield lying eastwards of BBMP have extremely low public transport accessibility, indicated by AI ranging from 1a to 3 (See Table 3.2). On comparing the Uber trip generation and attraction map with the PTAL map, it can be seen that though core areas have high AI, the Uber trip generation is highest in them. Further, the Uber trip attraction has been the maximum in eastward wards, which have the least AI. This emboldens the fact that the lack of public transport services in that area is being compensated for by Uber and similar ABSM services.

3.5.4 Car, a Status Symbol? Culturally, the normative ideal of the mode of consumption had always been ownership. This idea was based on the perceived advantages that ownership provides including it as a means of capital accumulation, sense of independence, security, and flexibility of use including reselling the commodity. However, some studies report that in recent times, ownership has become more precarious owing to various factors, which include increased costs of maintaining and acquiring the ownership of the commodity over time, unstable social relations, and uncertain labor markets.

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Fig. 3.8 Ward-wise trips generated by Uber in 2016. Source UberMovement [39]

Nevertheless, access has especially been popular in the urbanized areas that have limited space, be it for parking or storage even after being stigmatized and seen as an inferior consumption mode. Afterall, renters could not acquire investment, sense of security, pride of ownership, and depreciation benefits as offered by ownership; and hence were always looked down upon as people with lower financial status and power [11]. Hence, on the same lines, people were asked about their opinion on car ownership being a status symbol and their plans to buy one. Surprisingly, 68% of survey respondents no longer consider a car to be a status symbol and hence 9% from among them had decided not to buy one. Another 16% of people are unsure regarding their car ownership given that they do not consider it to be a status symbol and their transportation needs are being well satisfied without owning one. However, there is another factor in the play here which cannot be ignored. Bengaluru being a metropolis attracts a large number of migrants from other states of India who are in search of jobs. Primary survey revealed that many are unsure of their future in the city and

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Fig. 3.9 Ward-wise trips generated by Uber in 2017. Source UberMovement [39]

hence refrain from indulging in long-term assets like vehicles and rely on public transit and ABSM services (Fig. 3.15).

3.6 Post-Covid Scenario of ABSM App-Based Shared Mobility is one of the worst affected sectors due to the hostile conditions created by Covid-19. It is estimated that the carsharing market will lose 50–60% of its shares during 2020 but hopefully bounce back to gain its market by 70–80% in the year 2021 [18]. Ipsos recently conducted a study in China and found that 66% of respondents are thinking of buying a car. These numbers were a mere 34% before the outbreak of worldwide pandemic. Similarly, as opposed to 21% before, now only 15% survey respondents plan to opt for cab services of any kind. 77% of respondents who now plan to buy a car reached this conclusion in the impression that this will help reduce the chances of infection. The consumer behavior

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Fig. 3.10 Ward-wise trips generated by Uber in 2017. Source UberMovement [39]

of Indians varies from Chinese due to various reasons; however, industry experts still believe that those who had been availing cab-service but have the ability to buy a car, will be inclined toward it. Hence, some changes in consumer psyche are expected in the country [13]. Companies are adopting various measures to win the confidence of people. Uber distributed disinfectants to drivers, reduced fares during pandemic, facilitated disinfection for bikes and scooters in depots and also developed an app to help drivers find alternative jobs. Ola also responded by reducing its fares, providing sanitizers free of cost, and pausing its Ola-share services to help contain the spread of the virus and maintain social distancing [18]. The Google Covid-19 Community Report provides a comprehensive view of the category-wise trip changes in various cities of the world. It compares the change in trips of six categories with a baseline, which is the median value during January 3 to February 6, 2020. For ‘Bangalore Urban’ the following changes were observed [14]: Retail and recreation: −51% Supermarket and pharmacy: −19% Parks: −74%

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Fig. 3.11 Ward-wise trips attracted by Uber in 2016. Source UberMovement [39]

Public transport: −43% Workplaces: −22% Residential: +9%. Both the public as well as disruptive mobility have been bearing the heat of the pandemic. The fear has led to suspicion of getting infected by using any kind of shared mobility. Though Namma metro was stopped after a nationwide lockdown in April 2020, BMTC buses resumed services for medical staff and migrant laborers after a short while. In July 2020, the buses started plying at 50% ridership to ensure social distancing. However, around 171 employees contracted the virus while one succumbed to it. Though optimum measures have been taken to keep both the commuters and staffers safe, plying buses at low ridership and high frequency is proving to be a tough task [23].

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Fig. 3.12 Ward-wise trips attracted by Uber in 2017. Source UberMovement [39]

ABSM resumed their services in May 2020 after closing down due to the nationwide lockdown followed by frequent closures and regulations from time to time. Their drivers are daily wage earners, and hence were the most affected. In June, 2020, Karnataka Transport Department imposed a ban on all the carpooling services to contain the spread of virus. This was a major financial setback for the regular users of these services since they were cheaper than other mobility options in the city. This move was, however, welcomed by the service providers because carpooling, though popular, had yet not proved profitable to them [20]. Uber grabbed the opportunity of providing last-mile delivery for online retailers like Flipkart and Bigbasket while Ola joined hands with the State government to provide services to non-covid patients [31]. In the present conditions too, the cities will keep evolving toward becoming smart sustainable cities. And the way forward is not much different from what it would have been in the pre-covid times, i.e., for all the stakeholders to work in conjunction with each other, share the data generated, analyze it, and reach the best possible solutions for the cities intended.

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Fig. 3.13 Ward-wise trips attracted by Uber in 2018. Source UberMovement [39]

3.7 Conclusion The areas having high population density, lying in the southwestern part of BBMP have quite a high AI, ranging from 6a to 6b (very good to best public transport accessibility). Interestingly, the Uber trip generation maps of 2016–18 establish the fact that the wards comprising these areas itself have the maximum number of Uber trip generation. Since these wards house the maximum number of app-based shared mobility users, this potential must be utilized to integrate ABSM with public transit to provide the residents with Mobility as a Service (MaaS). Any such kind of pilot project has more chances of succeeding in these wards as compared to others since its residents are already well versed with the technological requirements to access these services. Moreover, it was observed during the recce survey that BMTC bus stops were not at a walkable distance in the IT hub-Electronic City. However, the dock-stations of Yulu bike services were close by to both the commercial and residential areas, and

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Fig. 3.14 Public transport accessibility level map of BBMP. Source Primary Survey

This year

Coming 5 years

Coming 10 years

Won’t buy

Might buy

Fig. 3.15 Perception on private car ownership of the survey respondents. Source Primary Survey

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pretty popular among the residents. This again provides an opportunity for integration of public transit and app-based shared mobility wherein the Yulu bike services can be utilized for first- or last-mile connectivity. The same can be utilized to improve the metro ridership as well. On an average, a 30 min trip in Bengaluru during the off-peak hours is now covered in 82.5 min during the AM peak hours and 73.8 min during the PM peak hours due to congestion. As a result, the maximum cost (INR) of additional petrol consumed during daily trips, AM and PM peak hours ranged unto Rs. 420 per day in the major routes analyzed. The cost of additional fuel emissions per day in terms of carbon dioxide was also recorded to be Rs. 99 per day during AM peak hours and Rs. 95 during PM peak hours. The maximum cost incurred has been observed on the route connecting Malleshwaram to Whitefield. Hence, it is recommended to form such rules for the workforce of companies present in these areas that they are compelled to use carpooling services if not the public transit. It is recommended that carsharing services and industry/office specific shuttle services be encouraged for these areas to reduce congestion. It is very clear from the PTAL map of BBMP that the public transit services are not equally accessible for the residents. The areas having lower Accessibility Index are observed to have higher numbers of Uber trip generation and attraction. This case is observed specifically in the eastern wards of BBMP which recorded an Accessibility Index ranging from 1a to 3 (very poor public transit accessibility). It confirms the fact that people living in the eastern wards of BBMP rely on either their personal vehicles or ABSM for their transportation. This is again the reason why the route toward Whitefield was found to be the most congested in Sect. 3.5.2. To combat these issues, it is recommended that the focus of mode integration be accessibility and equity of services in the whole of BBMP. Covid-19 has taken a toll on ABSM services with more people fearing sanitation issues in the shared vehicles and hence opting for either no travel or personalized vehicles. This will further lead to increase in carbon emissions in the cities, which is why immediate steps need to be taken to improve the confidence of customers in the services.

3.8 Future Work The methodology of this chapter can be adopted for the study of other cities. The Travel Time Index of various areas can be analyzed with respect to the landuse to conclude which areas are best suited for residential purpose. Hence, commuting data of a city can be utilized to assess the labor market efficiencies [10]. Further, the long-term effect of these changing priorities from ownership to accessibility can be forecasted to see the change it will have on mode-share of the city. Also, the revealed preference survey can be conducted in a much more organized manner to gain insights on travel behavior of city-residents. For example, separate surveys can be conducted for peripheral and central business district or else for the employees

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of government sector and private sector. This is so because various research papers have concluded that their travel behavior are significantly different and impact the traffic in different ways. Acknowledgements The authors present their deep gratitude to School of Planning and Architecture, Bhopal for providing an opportunity to work on this topic. They are thankful to ‘Uber movement’ for sharing the city-wide mobility data through an open-source platform which will play a crucial role in the planning of cities across the globe. The study could not have been possible without the constant support of the authorities and staffers of Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation, Bangalore Metro Rail Corporation Limited, and Regional Transport Offices. Lastly, they are extremely thankful to the citizens of Bengaluru who participated wholeheartedly in the survey conducted and provided their valuable suggestions to make their city a smart and sustainable one.

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Chapter 4

Finding the Long-Lost Path: Developing Environmental Awareness Through the Pandemic T. S. Shwetha and Avneet Kaur

Abstract The continuous degradation and mass destruction of the environment has led environmentalists to believe that our planet would become uninhabitable for any species in the future. As a result of the restrictions in place due to the pandemic, critical aspects of our impact on the environment have been brought to our attention. This chapter focuses on such insights, and emphasises on how the observations during this time could help us understand the need of the hour, i.e., learning to share the same space with other species on the planet. To achieve this state, the priorities would have to shift from an attitude of constant consumption and shortterm satisfaction, to a sense of well-being based on community and harmony with nature. The chapter further goes on to explore the contribution of psychology in changing the existing unsustainable actions of humans towards pro-environment and sustainable behaviour through an examination of both the contributing factors as well as obstacles to achieving such a change. Finally, a psychosocial model for sustainable action is proposed, focusing on promoting global health, wealth and peace; thus, creating a safe and secure space for all living beings. Keywords Pandemic · Well-being · Community · Harmony

4.1 Introduction The continuous degradation of the environment in terms of pollution, extreme weather conditions, rising sea levels, accumulation of waste and contamination of oceans has led to mass exploitation, resulting in a planet we may no longer be able to inhabit in the future. Humans seem to have taken the phrase “ignorance is bliss” way too literally in this context. Extreme complacency on our part, along with an T. S. Shwetha (B) · A. Kaur Department of Clinical Psychology, Manipal College of Health Professions (MCHP), Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE), Manipal 576104, Karnataka, India e-mail: [email protected] A. Kaur e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 C. Chakraborty et al. (eds.), The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Green Societies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66490-9_4

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arrogant assumption that as the “superior species”, we have the right over anything and everything we touch. This self-acclaimed superior status and the intelligence that caused it does not seem to have been used for the collective benefit; rather, it has been utilised for the exploitation of all plausible resources on Earth for their own benefit. What’s worse is that humans tend to share the belief that sustainability can be achieved through exploitation of nature by further controlling it in a “better” manner. Human kind’s reluctance to take meaningful action has severely delayed any progress towards the betterment of the environment and it is imperative that it be brought to attention now. Although such a bleak view might seem to be true, and to a great extent it actually is, there is hope that humans are now rising up to the occasion and are recognising the harm that their behaviours from centuries of exploitation have done to the environment. And the current pandemic may have some hand at bringing about this change. According to the World Health Organization’s report, almost 30% of the nations had no ways of being prepared and dealing with the COVID-19 spread. In the absence of any vaccine, precautionary measures like frequent washing of hands and other exposed areas, wearing a mask, practising social distancing and avoidance of crowded spaces are being excessively promoted. In order to overcome the paucity in social interactions, video conferencing, online learning, work from home are a few measures that have been propagated among the public to engage in [76]. As a result of large-scale industrial shut down some direct effects on the environment have been observed, such as reduced air, noise and water pollution. Furthermore, due to the pandemic there has been significant reduction of human movements across the globe which revealed critical aspects of our impact on the environment. Insights from the changes during this time would be able to better assist us on how to further share the same space with other species in a more harmonising manner. Rutz et al. [56, p. 1] elaborated on this and introduced a term for the “pause” the entire globe experienced: “We noticed that people started referring to the lockdown period as the ‘Great Pause’, but felt that a more precise term would be helpful. We propose ‘anthropause’ to refer specifically to a considerable global slowing of modern human activities, notably travel.” The lockdown has had a huge impact on wildlife, with animals that had never been sighted before walking freely around in the vicinity. Generally, it seemed like there are more animals than before. Perhaps this change would pave the way for a greater change that would be a result of direct human intervention towards better future. However, for that to occur, we must ensure that we understand the linkages between human and animal behaviour, and how our destructive behaviour impacts the other animals that share the same space as us. Such an extremely vital knowledge, although known, has been very conveniently ignored this far. Furthermore, an indirect effect of people being isolated and house-bound has resulted in them engaging more with the environment than before. As the speedy rush of the mundane life has come to a slow halt, people are finding themselves noticing more birds in the sky, feeling the freshness of the air while doing yoga in their backyard and figuring out new trails on their morning runs—thus experiencing

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first-hand the effects of caring for the environment, or in this context, letting nature be, and heal itself. Therefore, on the brighter side, the pandemic may have vividly amplified the awareness that humans have been facing an environmental crisis from time immemorial, and the pandemic may have provided the right conditions to rise up to the occasion. Horton & Horton [41] hypothesised that in order for change to occur, two possible paths could be taken. The first being a large-scale catastrophe leading all governments to unite for change. This global uprising can be equated to a revolution or an uprising. The second scenario took into account an age of enlightenment, where evidence and past failings are recognised, and necessary changes are made in a democratic fashion. The pandemic, in one way or another, may have brought both these scenarios into the current picture. The pandemic in itself is a global catastrophe, and increasing media attention has been given to the changes in the environment during the periods of lockdown all over the world. As the media directed attention towards the selfhealing properties of nature, most people became increasingly aware of the extent of environmental degradation that had been caused due to human interference, while several of them became more active in showing concerns for the environment—thus reaching the hypothesised “new age of enlightenment”. Perhaps then, we may have reached this arena of revolutionary change today, as an indirect consequence of the pandemic situation. Increased harmony between the environment and the people is the need of the day, and such a new way of being can be achieved by increasing focus on environmental knowledge and communication, eco-technology, environment-friendly policies and international global agreements. Here, the priorities would shift from the immediate satisfaction resulting from the constant consumption towards a sense of betterment and well-being, that relies on community living that is in accordance with nature—an unsurprising insight that has come to surface during the pandemic, which is a focus of the present chapter. This chapter first mentions how the COVID-19 pandemic has impacted the environment, and then goes on to explore how the environment impacts the well-being of humans. It goes further beyond to explain how psychology can be used to change human behaviour to make it more pro-environment, so as to promote sustainable behaviour. It explores both the contributing factors as well as obstacles in achieving the same. Finally, a psychosocial model for sustainable action is proposed, which focuses on promoting global health, wealth and peace, thus creating a safe and secure space for all living beings, and existing in harmony with nature. This lockdown and our observations of its impact on the environment tell us that small changes to our lifestyle can have a huge impact on the environment, and these insights may help us from irretrievably losing our precious planet to destruction and greed. One can only hope that humanity emerges from this shock into a sustainable, cleaner world.

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4.2 Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Environment There have been several major pandemics that have swept the globe in the period between 2000 and 2019, such as Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome, H1N1, Ebola virus, and Zika fever and so on. However, the COVID-19 pandemic is the only pandemic with such widespread and large-scale impacts [46]. Several studies have been done to examine the impact of the novel coronavirus on several aspects of our environment, as mentioned below: 1. Crowding and the physical environment Due to overcrowding and high population in the cities, most live in crammed houses with lesser space between people. The impact of the virus in terms of the safety measures like social distancing and being locked at home meant that the psychological impact of the pandemic was larger in cities. Lesser people outside meant less crowding and more space per person [14]. 2. Air quality The pandemic has caused a decline in the economic activities of several industries, such as energy and resources, retail, manufacturing, high-tech and communication, and transportation [15]. However, the positive impact of this reduction in activities on the quality of the air we breathe in has been visible since March. The degree of air pollution reported in various countries like China and Italy, as well as in cities like New York and Delhi showed a sharp reduction. Furthermore, the level of greenhouse gas emission has been predicted to reduce in a similar manner for the rest of the year [67]. 3. Fossil fuels and reduction in emissions The reduction in human domination on the environment resulted in drastic climate change. As a result of the halt in the functioning of industries, as well as the constraints in movement of vehicles, the utilisation of fossil fuels has been reduced substantially [52]. Therefore, nitrogen dioxide and carbon dioxide emissions have reduced in a huge manner in many of the metropolitan cities across the world. Due to the decrease in air and water pollution in several places such as China, Italy, Spain, India and France, people are experiencing surprising change in their surroundings—a form of environmental revival—as they see cleaner air, and clear waters, as well as an increase in the visibility of wild animals around cities and other human habitats. We are directly experiencing the nature bouncing back. The pandemic has been successful at one thing—in providing us a hint of what our planet might look like, with sustained efforts and a decrease in the use of fossil fuels. 4. Impact on other areas A better impact on other areas was seen, such as betterment of health and well-being, availability of clean water, education, sanitation, sustainable cities and communities, clean energy, consumption and production in a responsible manner,

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peace, partnerships and international cooperation, improvement in aquatic and marine life, etc. [69]. It is very likely that once the world walks out of the pandemic, the previous levels of pollution would bounce back, therefore, it becomes imperative to make changes to our lives at a personal and political level to ensure that such effects do not go to waste. How we make the best use of these unprecedented circumstances that seem to have had a good impact on the environment still remains a question. Rutz et al. [56] have provided certain recommendations for the same. First, the biologists must continue to collect data even during the lockdown, while ensuring appropriate caution [42, 57]. The exact data on the restrictions on human mobility and its impact on the environment of the area is important to take account of. The leaders of local projects must contact and communicate with the larger organisations that are launching projects in order to enable data standardisation, as well as an exchange of expertise and increased coordination. Lastly, increased funding must be allocated to research in this area as it is the need for this hour. These projects can become a critical source of data for the future of our environmental policies and developments. A global crisis such as this has shown us that more focus on research related to such disasters, greater political focus on climate change, as well as emphasis on increased availability of ecosystem services must be made a priority. Stakeholders must reconsider the strategies and development plans keeping such unlikely events in their mind. Eventually, it is highly likely that the COVID-19 pandemic will result in profound changes in both social and economic behaviour at a global scale. Furthermore, continued research on “anthropause” effects would lead to an elaborate understanding of the interactions between human and wildlife. We will not only be able to identify the species that have been highly affected by human activity, but also those species that could possibly respond to change, along with other species that appear to be vulnerable. The research will also throw light on the critical thresholds of human disturbance, going beyond which would have serious effects not only on wildlife alone, but also on the dynamics of the ecosystem, thus eventually negatively impacting human well-being.

4.3 The Relationship Between Ecosystem and Human Well-Being A sustainable society is able to fulfil several needs such as that of increased access to fresh and clean water, control of greenhouse gas emissions (physical–environmental needs); social justice, better living conditions, better access to education (social needs); better infrastructure, increased participation of science (political/institutional needs); lower levels of corruption, better income distribution, higher employment rates (economic needs; [29, 31, 35]. Therefore, a sustainable society is able to fulfil the basic needs of its citizens, is able to distribute natural and social resources in an

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equitable manner, promote progress in the acquisition of knowledge and maintain the integrity of all its natural resources. This state of satisfaction from sustainable societies has been explored in research [22]. The development of personal capacities and growth, also known as personal well-being, is enhanced in altruistic and pro-ecological individuals [18]. All of these contribute to happiness and psychological well-being of the individual [66]. Therefore, engaging in pro-environmental behaviours and living in a sustainable society would contribute to one’s subjective well-being and happiness. Moreover, some European countries and Australia have recognised the importance of this concept and have taken into account the subjective well-being of their citizens as a national and sustainable policy goal. In fact, the Kingdom of Bhutan declared that its official goal is to measure the growth of the country and economy not by the “Gross National Product”, but through measures of happiness of its citizens through “Gross National Happiness” [32]. The effects of pro-environmental behaviour on human well-being can also be explained through the exploration of the causes (antecedents) and results (consequences) of such behaviour, as identified by environmental psychologists. Some of the antecedents identified so far include knowledge and attitudes towards the environment and sustainable behaviours, personal morals and attitudes towards diversity, conservationist motives, as well as beliefs and values regarding the ecology (see [4, 16]. As one can notice, most of these values are learnt through culture, therefore bringing to light the importance of placing emphasis on corrective socialisation in order to make pro-environment behaviours more common among the public. The importance of culture in promoting pro-environment behaviour has been discussed later in the chapter. The consequences of sustainable behaviour are both intrinsic (from within) and extrinsic (from outside) in nature. Research has identified extrinsic motivation, such as receiving external rewards for engaging in sustainable or pro-environmental behaviour as problematic [47], the reason being that although the individual will engage in pro-environment behaviour, the dependency on extrinsic consequences would mean that such sustainable behaviour will reduce once the source for rewards is removed. Furthermore, there is also an additional cost to the society for providing these rewards to the individuals [17]. Also, individuals motivated extrinsically could engage more in behaviours for materialistic gains, greed and consumption, which could indeed be more harmful [19]. On the other hand, intrinsically motivated people are not only cost-effective for their communities, but are also an asset as their engagement in pro-environment behaviour would continue regardless of the presence of an external source of reward. Research has shown that intrinsic motivation occurs as a consequence of being pro-environmental [23], and that being intrinsically pro-environmental could result in a state of psychological restoration [38]. In fact, engaging in pro-environmental behaviours intrinsically leads people to perceive themselves to be happier than those who don’t [6, 12, 68]. Similar to the concept of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are the basic human values involved in engagement in pro-environmental actions. There are four types of

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values that appear particularly important to understand the individuals’ engagement with regard to their pro-environmental actions, which are explained as follows [64]: a. b. c. d.

Biospheric Altruistic Egoistic Hedonic values.

Biospheric values focus on goals for larger areas like the nature and environment, while altruistic values focus on the same towards other people and for the society in general. As humans’ actions affect the environment which in turn affect the humans again, these values generally encourage pro-environmental actions as they would be profitable for the nature and the environment, as well as the society in the larger run. Egoistic values prioritise goals that better one’s own selfish motives, such as that of status, materialistic possessions, power, etc., while hedonic values focus on increasing one’s level of comfort and pleasure. These two values do not promote proenvironmental behaviours as these actions would generally be associated with higher costs and lesser benefits to the individuals personally. Therefore, it could be assumed that the ignorance and delay in taking pro-environmental action could largely be due to the execution and promotion of egoistic and hedonistic values among people; and on the other hand, due to a lack in promoting and altruistic values [10]. Such an explanation seems very valid until one checks the available empirical evidence. Surprisingly, research has shown that the biospheric and altruistic values are promoted more than the egoistic and hedonic values [28]. Further studies showed that when one advertised bioshpheric values and consequential benefits, it seemed to be more effective in encouraging individuals to engage in energy-saving programmes than providing financial benefits to people [59]. Additionally, other proenvironmental actions associated with the biospheric values, such as switching off lights when not in use, encouraging eco-driving or dietary changes were found to be more rewarding than any associated financial benefit for people [27]. Such findings on improved well-being based on sustainable behaviour can be explained through evolutionary mechanisms as well. According to these theories, humans are wired to experience positive emotions, which increase by behaving in ways that profit the communities as well as themselves [39]. On the contrary, acting in ways that would profit the person would lead to immediate rewards but would affect the society in the long term, thus leading the people to dislike and not approve of the person’s behaviour, leading to the “tragedy of the commons” [37, 73]. Altruism, therefore, helps the individual as well as the community in the long term, boosts psychological well-being of all and improves their happiness. Now that we have an idea of how the environment impacts our well-being, let us now understand how human psychology is linked to the environment.

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4.4 How Can Psychology Help to Promote Sustainable Behaviour? The Brundtland Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) in 1987 defined sustainable development as “meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (p. 363). Therefore, in order to make the switch to sustainable development, sustainable behaviours must be emphasised and promoted. Psychology is the science of human behaviour. Therefore, it seems imperative for the study of environmental policy, especially with regard to the more complex environmental problems. Environmental problems, are in fact social and behavioural problems, and they need to be addressed as such [44]. Such behaviours are in fact a result of the underlying cognitions—our thoughts, values, beliefs and feelings. Psychology can help in understanding the factors that drive non-sustainable behaviour, identifying barriers to sustainable behaviours, develop strategies that can encourage proenvironmental action and motivate people and governments alike to move towards change, enhancing communication among the stakeholders regarding environmental issues, inspire environmental education, policy development, as well as assist in the final implementation and enforcement of such changes [43]. Currently, the major threat to the world is the continuous reckless consumption of human beings and degradation that is causing irreversible harmful changes to the environment. This behaviour impacts the entire population, and further, the generation to come as well. Therefore, it is important that a psychological perspective to this problem is gained. The major aspect of environmental psychology is the focus on human behaviour as a cause of such problems, which can all be reversed by adapting more pro-environmental behaviour by the individuals [51]. It had been predicted earlier by George [34] that by the year 2020, about 20% of the population would become “environmental refugees” because of the widespread damage that would be done to the different regions. We cannot be sure of the exact estimate of these group of people today, but one can say with assurance that the people are now becoming more sensitive to environmental issues and are genuinely changing towards adopting sustainable and eco-friendly ways. There has been a shift on the factors for sustainability that we currently focus on. Earlier, in the more traditional sense, sustainable development [13], Harris, 2003) was based on the three “Es”, i.e., economy, equity, ecology. Along with these was a focus on the right of the future generations to enjoy the environment and access and make better use of the resources. Psychologically, sustainability views not only the ecological and social environment but focuses on bettering and enhancing everyone’s well-being [25]. Here we see the difference—while the earlier description of sustainable development focused on the destruction, exploitation, irreversible depletion, etc., the new description emphasises on the promotion of change, growth, enrichment (Di Fabio, 2016).

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4.4.1 Culture and Pro-Environment Behaviour Individuals may engage in pro-environment behaviour for different reasons—cultural values being one of them [78]. Culture is a form of mental programming that is acquired at birth and which continues to influence us throughout our lives [40], the cultural values being used as guiding principles [78]. The individualism/collectivism dimension is one of the most common ways used to distinguish cultures. Although it’s an effective way to conceptualise cultural influences and predict group behaviour, it is important to keep in mind that while these orientations may exist at the macrolevel, at an individual level, both these dimensions could exist simultaneously— one becoming more salient than the other based on the situation [79]. Gammoh, et al. [30] compared India and the United States on this dimension, relating it to the degree of environmental consciousness and pro-green behaviour. Contrary to belief, it was found that collectivism in both countries significantly predicted environmental consciousness, irrespective of the individualism/collectivism orientation. Therefore, while the influence of individualistic principles remained non-significant, collectivistic beliefs significantly influenced green consciousness. Similarly, the authors also found that harmony, as compared to mastery, influenced environmental consciousness. As the behavioural sciences are now gaining importance through their contributions to promoting sustainable efforts through research, aiding policy decisions and guiding experts such as conservational biologists in pro-environmental efforts, the recognition of basic and applied psychology for promoting a more pro-environment behaviour is a relatively new development [45]. Although very little of the earlier efforts of environmental psychologists were aimed towards conservation of the environment (see [54, 55]), such a trend seems to be increasing, with major developments in psychology and related-research, such as that in conservation psychology [58]. One of the major developments in this area reflects the role of culture in the deficit of environmental consciousness and awareness in the individuals. To be more specific, the culture of valuing immediate or short-term individual goals and ignoring its long-term group effects seems to be at the heart of unsustainable behaviour [33]. This occurs when individuals overuse and degrade a shared resource for their own personal benefit [45]. Such behaviour can be explained using operational conditioning principles, where short-term rewards seem to be more compelling than long-term or delayed costs of the behaviour [63]. Similarly, the perceived costs of making change in behaviour to benefit the shared resources on a long-term basis represent a significant barrier. Therefore, the adverse future consequences of climate change, which are more abstract, are discounted in the light of immediate concrete and definite rewards that one receives by engaging in degrading and unsustainable behaviours [74]. When one takes this direction, it seems imperative that the governmental policies, laws and regulations promote pro-environment behaviour by mobilising prosocial behaviour and ethos of collectivism and harmony [37], along with encouraging individuals to take action on a personal basis to focus on more long-term benefits on the environment rather than immediate rewards of their behaviour, which contribute

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to the environmental degradation. In fact, research has shown that it is plausible to improve environmental engagement by promoting future orientation, while at the same time, reducing immediate concerns [2]. Furthermore, exposure to the environment can improve this future orientation [70]. This is good news, as people seem to be focusing more on the environment during the period of lockdown that the pandemic brought onto the world. Thus, such an enhanced awareness of the effects of our collective behaviour on the environment would pave the way for better knowledge and informed actions towards a better future. Furthermore, by focusing on group dynamics and harmony, we can succeed in increasing the feeling of collectiveness among the people, and such has been backed by research which showed that individuals with readily let go of immediate rewards for long-term group goals if they identify with a group and feel responsible for it [21, 71]. The focus here is on developing a collective consciousness by realising and accepting the impact of each and every individual’s behaviour on the environment, and the need for acting in synchrony and with the feeling of togetherness in order to overcome the hurdles and achieve pro-environment consciousness, as “what’s good for the environment is also good for us” [60]. It is therefore evident that by modifying and changing certain human behaviour towards pro-environmental behaviour is the key for sustainability. This can be further understood by the action carried out in the Yellow Stone National Park situated in the United States of America [11]. It is an authoritative example of how nature can be used in order to both heal and balance itself, and eventually, to help humans. After being absent for about 70 years, a pack of wolves was introduced to the forest by the park authorities. As would be expected due to the removal of top predators, their absence had led to a trophic cascade in the forest. Considering the future challenges of the same, the wolves were introduced in order to utilise their hunting instincts. This in fact led to positive outcomes such as population control, reforestation, stabilised river banks, as well as increased vegetation, resulting in habitation and flourishment of many other species of birds and animals. Therefore, this act proved that there was absolutely no need for any artificial human interference into nature—only through natural means we can bring the necessary change. World Wide Fund for Nature’s (WWFN) June report [77] suggested that more than 200 countries have been affected by COVID-19, thus causing chaos to humankind existence. In 70% of the cases, the root cause of such epidemic diseases has been attributed to animals that have come in close encounter or interactions with humans. It is therefore imperative to understand that without giving enough importance to environmental and animal health, it is impossible to stabilise human health as well. Such a concern has been raised by many environmentalists. Fostering the feeling of collective harmony has become a major challenge during this pandemic as people are encouraged not to engage with each other, or to attend events that involve large groups. Earlier, these events would have been the major source of ensuring the feeling of harmony and collectiveness among people. Protests, demonstrations and other such group activities are largely discouraged. However, there are ways one can feel better connected to nature and the society by engaging in some very simple practices.

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4.4.2 Actions to Develop the Feeling of Collectivism It is important to understand two major concepts in psychology that are implicated in behaviour change—motivation and psychological needs. Motivational force that drives us to complete some action can either be intrinsic or extrinsic in nature, or various other possibilities in between. It is believed that intrinsic motivation is stronger and more effective than extrinsic motivation, as has been explained before. Furthermore, the concept of psychological needs consists of autonomy (making meaningful choices about our needs), competence (interacting with the environment to see that we are making some difference) and relatedness (connection with the people and environment). During the pandemic, most people were asked to completely change the way they functioned. From going outside and socialising to minimal interactions and social distancing—there are very significant changes that people, till date, are trying to adjust to. These changes threaten all the basic psychological needs our sense of autonomy by not allowing certain choices, competence by not being able to do much or be productive and connectedness by not being able to interact with significant people. The focus therefore becomes that of enhancing these basic needs and keeping them in check. We can increase collective feelings of autonomy, competence and connectedness by doing some very small things such as ordering a take-out from our local store. It is also important to stay in touch with ourselves. Practices like mindfulness seem to help gain control over the present moment and over our own selves, thus enhancing competence and autonomy. Connecting with people using online tools, video calls, etc., can be helpful, although it will not be an exact substitute for direct social interactions. We must also keep in mind that this situation was brought onto us in a very sudden manner, and in order to adjust and effectively change our behaviour according to it would take some time. Anything that is rooted in motivation and changes our basic psychological needs would take a long time to adjust to. Although many people would agree that the environment needs to be saved, a lot of them would, at the same time, not engage in behaviours aimed towards fulfilling these attitudes. There are many explanations for such a behaviour, ranging from undervaluing the environment in order to profit financially and economically, thus prioritising one’s own self-interests over the environment [8, 36]. On the other hand, some studies have shown that people in fact care for the environment and are supportive of the pro-environment changes [26, 64]. Similar to this, Bourman and Steg [9] showed that it is not the undervaluing of the environment among people that is causing the environment concerns to be ignored, rather, people tend to underestimate how much other people care. This also explains why politicians seem cautious in declaring pro-environmental actions as policies unless change is very openly demanded by the pubic, as they underestimate their group members’ values regarding the care for environment.

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A quick solution to this would be making these values more visible and known to the public, as we have seen recently in terms of organised marches for the environment and against climate change, the organisations such as WHO advocating pro-environment change, etc. Such actions have the ability to undo, or rather, reduce the structural underestimation of people’s pro-environmental values. Therefore, what is also important is that the media cover such events and give it enough attention for it to reach larger public, something that unfortunately, still seems missing. It could be vital to correct the beliefs that the society favours personal gains over the larger environmental concerns and replace them with a sense of unity and awareness of collective care for the environment (Bourman & Steg, 2019). One can also invest in eco-friendlier products over time. Existing literature has demonstrated that larger one-time investments, such as purchasing environmentfriendly vehicles can be a better way of saving energy, when compared to rather minor efforts such that turning off lights and using less water in the shower [33]. Therefore, although the investment might look huge at the outset, it definitely works out better for the environment as well as the individual in the long run. Further research has also emphasised the possibility of interventions in increasing sustainable behaviour. Remarkable results can be achieved by using a blend of several types of interventions, such as educating the masses while also providing rewards and incentives, while also focusing on removing blocks that hinder the shift to pro-environment action [65]. Improvement in technology can help us to use the available resources in a much more efficient manner as well (see [3, 62]. Engaging in such activities through online platforms can make environmental education more accessible and affordable and will thus help create sense of collectivism in the people. However, it is also important that people be motivated enough to change their lifestyle towards adopting more sustainable ways. Such can be achieved through certain actions at the individual, as well as the national level.

4.4.3 Creating Motivation to Change What usually tends to happen when people try to change is that they perceive the costs of making the change higher than the benefits, thus making it look like they have to make a sacrifice. De Young’s [24] motivational concept looks at four types of intrinsic satisfactions that are important to achieve pro-environmental behaviour. These include not only the sense of satisfaction achieved from behavioural competence due to a more thoughtful consumption and from being an active member of one’s community activities, but also from making the fullest use of the luxuries that one attains as a member of the community. Such a view therefore displaces the sense of “self-sacrifice” that is often dominating when altruistic motivations for pro-environment behaviour are emphasised. Furthermore, motivation can be improved through engagement in organised group activity, which could lead to the development of collective self-efficacy among the masses [5]. This form of organised activism would be necessary in a more frequent

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manner, in order to help reduce or prevent damage caused to the environment, because more often than not, the major polluters are certain corporations that hold enough power to ignore individual criticisms. The mass media can also be a very important influence in making this process happen. In fact, it has played an important role in promoting awareness among the masses, in helping to organise, conduct and call for environmental action. Through promotion of the campaigns, showing models behaving in a pro-environmental and sustainable manner and adopting eco-friendlier ways of functioning, the media can motivate individuals to also engage in such behaviours. Another means of creating the motivation for change would be to provide clear behavioural norms—which would have to be done at the larger global or national level. Some countries have already moved in this direction, such as The United States, and many other countries that signed the Montreal Protocol, phasing out the production of CFCs; banning open fire in Los Angeles County as a means to reduce smog and other stringent smog checks in America. These are some of the examples for laws, rules, policies and norms that can be implemented in order to create motivation among people to adopt more environmentally appropriate behaviours. Another way to unite the people towards larger change would be to make them aware of the achievement of sustainable lifestyle as a superordinate goal that can be shared among all nations and people [61]. The common enemy would be the enemy of an uninhabitable Earth. This would definitely bring people together and make them realise the urgency of the matter. Again, the pandemic has been successful to a degree in achieving such a state. It has shown people what the world could look like without their interruption, and if such short-term effects can create the sense of urgency among the masses to come together to save their planet, a long-term, consistent and dedicated effort could definitely do wonders. Therefore, now is the perfect time for the environmental activists and governmental agencies to come together and work towards educating and making the public aware of the concerns for the environment, creating and fostering motivation among them, while at the same time providing avenues to move towards the required change. These stakeholders would also have to keep in mind certain obstacles that could come in the way of achieving such goals.

4.4.4 Blocks to Sustainable Action There have been several warnings over the course of years, or rather decades, about the irretrievable environmental degradation and mutilation that the humans, or particularly the Homo economicus have taken upon. Although he has reached the top of the food chain in much a god-like manner, he has contradictorily ceased to behave in that fashion [49]. Similarly, despite several environmental activists and organisations cautioning the world leaders, there haven’t been many stringent actions being taken to protect the environmental resources. In fact, some countries still seem to pay no heed to such warnings, thus continuing to walk the glorified path to environmental destruction. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA), a comprehensive assessment

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of the human impact on the environment called forth by the United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan in 2000, reflected the urgent need to focus on environmental sustainability: “At the heart of this assessment is a stark warning. Human activity is putting such a strain on the natural functions of the Earth that the ability of the planet’s ecosystems to sustain future generations can no longer be taken for granted” [48]. It is time to acknowledge and pay attention to the factors that are influencing and feeding such growing ignorance among the individuals, economies and the world at large [50]. What is more surprising is that we, as an “intelligent” race, have failed to recognise that we are walking the path to destruction and annihilation of our own selves. Closing our eyes to the problem isn’t anything other than a faulty coping mechanism that humans have conveniently developed. So, what is it that is causing such a deep ignorance on our part? Rees [75] provides a novel understanding of this problem. The author argues that as a result of our habitat and resource-based competitiveness, humans have been evolutionary trained to value instant over delayed gratification, thus making our tendency to discount the future— a trait that has evolved through natural selection—simply meaning that such is the nature of Homo sapiens. Rees [75] goes on to further elaborate on these explanations through sociocultural reinforcement. Through the socially constructed means of economic expansion and trade, humans have come to believe that their ingenuity will find alternatives and substitutes to any problem (in other words, called the expansionist myth), thus creating the illusion of unlimited resources which further encourages environmental depletion and unsustainable behaviour. Such evolutionary factors are of course present at a subconscious or unconscious level [53]. Such a situation is further complicated by the assumptions of free will that is held by humans [7], thus giving an illusion of making active rational choices, when all this while we have been nothing but slaves to our evolutionary and biological predispositions [20]. Apart from these, other influences have shaped how we humans look at our current needs, which in turn affect how we view our resources and continue to engage in unsustainable behaviour. The basic needs for existence, relatedness and growth seem to be the centre of environmental exploitation. Individuals are convinced that “existence” means accumulating materialistic possessions and consumptive behaviours; while “relatedness” has become mass events and activities, and all these are influence people to reduce their perceived social deprivation. On the other hand, “growth” has come to mean strong preference for rapid innovation and change, becoming desperately future focused such that the present has lost its value [1, 72]. Apart from the biological and evolutionary mechanisms, several other practical issues surface when considering change to sustainable behaviours. The multinational corporations benefit in a humongous manner through the use of various fossils and through the degradation of the forests, minerals, industries that dump waste into the rivers and pollute the air, use of pesticides and other chemicals. These companies are able to resist the policies and laws at the centre, and seem to act like the laws don’t apply to them, as they have influence on the government. Communities and societies that are directly impacted by these actions of the corporate world come into action

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because they are the ones who suffer. However, some individuals are themselves against making any changes to their lifestyle, which could be due to various factors such as [51]: (a) (b) (c) (d)

inertia which may delay the action until permanent damage is done denial among the people of any threat to the environment due to fear belief in technology as the saviour of the environment opposing any lifestyle changes as it is perceived to include making self-sacrifice.

This chapter has focused on all of the above-mentioned obstacles and how to tackle the same. It is important that active action is taken and changes are made as soon as possible. The pandemic may have provided us an opening to dealing with such obstacles by initiating environmental awareness among the public. We must take this opportunity and enhance it, while effectively dealing with inertia and other obstacles that appear on the way. Hopefully, the human race will emerge from the pandemic more aware about environmental concerns in the least, and at the most, actively working towards collectively creating a sustainable planet.

4.5 Psychosocial Model for Promoting Pro-Environmental Behaviour Based on the existing literature and resources, the authors have developed the following model which focuses on the what and how of promoting pro-environmental behaviour among human beings. It brings to light the multidimensional aspect of sustainable behaviour by focusing on different aspects of development that are necessary to bring about the required change Fig. 4.1. The Psychosocial model of pro-environmental behaviour for sustainability has to be validated by the researchers before implementing. The model focuses on basic human values which place emphasis on understanding group dynamics, culture and hedonic values. The education mainly highlights training in sustainable proenvironmental actions and implementing environmental policies, providing scholarships, incentives and increasing funding to promote necessary pro-environmental innovations. One of the major innovations has been the use of the cactus plant as fabric in order to replace animal skin. Such a development would reduce poaching, illegal trade and not to mention, animal cruelty. As mentioned in the model, pro-environmental behaviour can be achieved through life skills training which is very essential in everyday problem solving, in promoting the development of empathy and awareness of self, creative as well as critical thinking skills. The model also emphasises the importance of giving enough weightage to risk assessment and management, further upholding the importance of lifestyle changes and unpredictable environment. The model also focuses on promoting awareness among public towards pro-environmental behaviour. Alternatively, it brings to light a new factor in pro-environmental behaviour—the understanding of human perception by applying psychology in order to understand the different motives, psychological

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Fig. 4.1 Psychosocial Model focused on pro-environmental behaviour for sustainability

needs as well as the different values held by humans. All of these factors, when taken into account, would not only promote pro-environmental and sustainable behaviour, it would also lead to the creation of a comfortable and interactive space for humankind as well as to the other species. It is important to understand that the implications of such a step would be very wide-reaching—i.e., from the local to the global level. As mentioned earlier, sustainable and healthy ecosystem of the country would lead to the betterment of the health and well-being of the citizens. This would further encourage pro-environmental attitudes among the people. Such actions are therefore of local, national, and ultimately, global significance. The Kingdom of Bhutan has been measuring the country’s economy through the Gross National Happiness index. It is the same country that has a negative carbon footprint; i.e., it absorbs more greenhouse gases than it emits. Perhaps Bhutan is way ahead of the rest of the world in valuing both the nature and human life, and in understanding the interdependence of both—something the rest of the world is finding extremely hard to understand.

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4.6 Conclusion The COVID-19 pandemic has given rise to various issues such as downfall of economy, threat to human existence and survival, loss of loved once and significant rates of unemployment further weakening the individual mentally and physically. As most of the activities are now confined indoors, there has been a positive shift of attention towards the world outside which showed tremendous changes in nature as a result of the absence of human interference, highlighting how disconnected the human race is from this important aspect of themselves and of the world. Furthermore, as nature slowly replenishes itself, people are noticing the scent of fresh air, hearing the birds chirp and watching the lakes reflect the clear skies. As a result of these, and many other factors, people are not only having a first-hand experience of the advantages of lack of human influence on nature, but are also becoming more aware of the importance of staying in harmony with it. Undoubtedly, an improvement in quality of life of the nature will in turn improve our physical and psychological well-being, and such has been shown in the chapter, and by the Psychosocial Model. As we learn to adapt to the new normal, we must finally come to acknowledge what we have largely been neglecting on social, political and humanitarian grounds, and the chaos of the pandemic has provided a much-needed reminder for the same. There is a vital need to focus all our energy into the prevention of future catastrophe, a possibility that seems much more likely now than it ever did before. This could be only chance the environment has given us to raise like phoenix from the ashes, with only one option that is to live and let live. By focusing on “one health” and adapting to nature’s rules, we can engage in sustainable actions that not only promote global health, wealth and peace, but also create a safe and secure space for all living beings existing in harmony with mother nature.

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Chapter 5

The Dual Impact of Lockdown on Curbing COVID-19 Spread and Rise of Air Quality Index in India Swagatam Roy and Ahan Chatterjee

Abstract The number of reported cases in India has been scaling up in geometric progression despite the stringent lockdown norms imposed to keep people indoors since late March. Interestingly, on 31st March there were 1117 affected cases, 33,610 on 30th April and 511,478 till June 26—an unprecedented rise in the numbers. In the present research article, we propose a differential equation-based mathematical model for modeling India’s COVID-19 that incorporates the lockdown effect while looking at the future predictions in terms of the spread and the extent to which lockdown has been effective in India. We have estimated the growth of COVID19 across India using modified SIR modeling, which is a Compartmental model in Epidemiology. Further, the use of SIQR model to estimate the growth of this disease across the country. Also, a constant factor has been introduced in the model to measure the number of corona-affected patients count due to any accidental mass crowd gathering. Along with that, we analyse the pollution level of India under three conditional scenarios viz. Pre-Lockdown, During Lockdown and After Lockdown. From the epidemiological evidences, it is evident that several pollutants like pm 2.5, NO2 , SO2 , O3 , CO noxious effects of pollution. Here we will analyse the basic contributing factor of pollution and which majorly impacts AQI. We will also visualise the change of AQI in the context of the season or a particular time, i.e. during the festive season and Diwali pollution highly increases and it continues till April. During COVID-19, to avoid the contamination and spreading of the virus, Govt of India declared Lockdown and due to this all the industrial works gets stopped and the reduction of vehicular waste also reduced and thus the concentration of pollutants (μg/m3 ) decreases immensely. It can be interpreted that due to closure of industries and decreases in the number of vehicles, the concentration of the pollutants decreases thus it can be said that COVID-19 is a blessing to nature. But after reopening, i.e. unlock 1 the concentration, increases rapidly and immensely and from the reports, it is evident that in only in ecological regions, there is an increase of 400%. Thus after S. Roy · A. Chatterjee (B) Department of Computer Science and Engineering, The Neotia University, Sarisha, India e-mail: [email protected] S. Roy e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 C. Chakraborty et al. (eds.), The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Green Societies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66490-9_5

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unlock, people are avoiding social gathering maintaining social distance preferring own vehicle rather than the public vehicle. Also, sales of the cycle are increasing promoting greenery and the use of pollution-free vehicles. Is the Nightmare and pandemic situation helps to maintain ecological balance? In this paper we try to analyse these facts keeping different factors into consideration, we will deal with the trend and seasonality of AQI and predict using time series analysis and LSTM. We will build a model which will give a satisfactory output of the quality of air and how the pollutants hamper human health using mathematical models. The novelty in the paper is the comparative study of the models under two scenarios viz., what could have been the figure without lockdown and social distancing and with lockdown and social distancing, along with the AQI Analysis on the same said scenarios. Simultaneously, this is correlated with the predictions for the rise of air quality level. Keywords LSTM · COVID-19 · SIQR model · AQI

5.1 Introduction In 1720 Plague, followed by the Cholera outbreak in 1820 and Spanish Flu in 1920; it seems that in every 100 years a pandemic chases the existence of human race and no one has a clue to prevent that. As the famous saying goes,—‘History repeats itself’ and in 2020 we witnessed another pandemic with the name of Novel-Corona Virus (COVID-19). This disease was first identified in December 2019, in the Wuhan province of China and as the fate would have been, it has spread around the globe. The WHO had declared this as a public health emergency on 30 January 2020 and subsequently the first case of COVID-19 in India has been detected on that day itself. The seriousness and complexity of this pandemic could be assessed by the figure of infected people which is close to 1,00,000 as on date. Moreover, the outbreak of this disease has now spread to over 200 countries. Following the trends in other countries, the Government of India announced a nation-wide lockdown on 24 March 2020 to prevent and slow down the spread of COVID-19 across the length and breadth of India. The lockdown has been imposed to buy time and get things ready to fight the pandemic, i.e. it has allowed the government to follow the rulebook of pandemics, which is to add more hospital beds, to increase the number of test kits, to increase the number of PPE kit for the frontline workers. In India, conditions are very much challenging as there is a high-density population across the country, unavailability of vaccines adding to the woes, thus, making it a herculean task as the numbers go up continuously [1]. The lockdown which has been imposed across the nation completed two months as on 24 May 2020. This lockdown has ‘a pro and a con’, where on the one side the spread of the virus is getting slowed due to implementation of social distancing. But on the other hand, there is a massive recession the economy is going to experience in the coming months. The GDP could possibly go down below the zero benchmark as the Reserve Bank of India has predicted. With regards to India’s employment

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figures as ILO (International Labour Organisation) reports, only about 18 per cent belong to the salaried class1 ; so for 467 million belonging to the self-employed class and the non-salaried class (including contractual and non-contractual and especially, the migrant labourers), the prolonged lockdown is becoming far more threatening than the danger of being affected with COVID-19 and many might die from hunger, fatigue, suicides etc.,—a question of life versus livelihood as the possibility of layoff looms large. Susceptible-Infected-Recovered (SIR) model is an important tool to understand the coronavirus transmission-based statistical simulations. In this work of ours, we have taken the window of daily infected counts from 2 March 2020 to 31 June 2020 and fitted the Susceptible-Infectious-Quarantine-Recovered (SIQR) model into the data. We have introduced a constant factor in this model which will measure the growth of COVID-19 infected cases due to any accidental mass gathering. In addition, we have created a situation-based modeling to create the results. Mainly, two scenarios have been taken into account. In the first scenario, we have assessed the growth of coronavirus without any lockdown and social distancing and in the second case, we have assessed the same with lockdown and social distancing for comparison purposes. The paper is structured as follows. Section 5.2 contains the Literature Review. In Sect. 5.3, we have briefly described our proposed SIQR model (after the incorporation of a constant) along with the numerical analysis and simulation results regarding the spread of coronavirus in India under two circumstances viz. with lockdown and social distancing and without social distancing and lockdown. Section 5.3, contains the AQI forecasting using Time Series Decomposition and using deep learning models. Section 5.4 presents a correlative study of lockdown and AQI across three scenarios viz. With no such COVID-19 scenario, what would be under lockdown and finally after lockdown scenario?

5.2 SIQR Dynamic Model The study of COVID-19 spread can be executed by the fundamental rules of SIR modeling. The model was introduced by Kermack and McKendrik [2]. In this modeling approach, they divide the entire population into partial groups and study the contagion and spread of the disease across the groups using the parameter of the rate of change of the size of these groups. For our case, the basic model has been improvised by assumptions to accommodate the spread of the virus and different GDP growth rate simulations by bringing in more parameterised restrictions for better results in the Indian context [3, 4].

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5.2.1 Theoretical Framework In this section, we propose our dynamic model to predict the spread of COVID-19 across the nation. The spread of this virus is following an exponential growth rate path, creating a massacre around the globe. The aim of this section is to forecast the path of daily infected cases and to measure the extent of the epidemic in India [5]. In this paper, we use Susceptible-Infectious-Quarantine-Recovered (SIQR) model. In this model, we divide our entire population of 130 crores in India into four categories or sub-parts. The entire population is assumed to be N and it has been normalised to one for better assessment. The different categories in which we have divided are as follows—Susceptible S, Infectious I, Quarantine Q, Removed (either recovered or deceased). The total number of active cases is being denoted by C, and it’s the sum of Infectious and Removed, i.e. C = I + R [6]. The rate of change of these quantities has been shown using differential forms and they are denoted as ddtS , ddtI , ddtQ , ddtR , respectively. The equations of this model are shown below: βt S dS =− I dt N

(5.1)

dI = σE −γI dt

(5.2)

dQ βt S = I −σE dt N

(5.3)

dR = γr i dt

(5.4)

dD = dγ I − τ D dt

(5.5)

dC = σE dt

(5.6)

dCn = Nm dt

(5.7)

where γ = Infectious period time. γr = Relation between infected population and infected one. σ = Mean Latent Period. d = Proportion of severe cases. τ = Mean duration of public reaction time. Nm = Fraction of population, infected due to accidental mass gathering like the Jamat case.

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βt = Transmission rate. The transmission rate is governed by the factor α, which is the government policies or measures to curb the spreading pandemic. The function of the transmission rate is represented by Eq. 5.8 [5].   D k βt = β0 (1 − α) 1 − N

(5.8)

where β0 = The numerical value is assumed from basic reproduction number. i.e. R0 = βγ0 .   1 − ND = Impact of governmental and individual action through pandemic. k = Intensity of Self Reaction varied from [0, 105 ], increasing over time. D = Public perception of risk w.r.t death and serious cases varied from [0, 105 ] also. The above said parameters will vary from country to country even from state to state in line with the policies implemented by the governments as protective measures. In our study we have used a step function to define the transmission factor represented in Eq. 5.9 [7]. In this study, we have assumed that the virus is not mutating at a constant rate, thus taking the reaction of the system as constant and exogenous [8].  Rt =

R 0 0 < t < t1 R 1 t > t1

5.2.2 Estimation of Initial Transmission Rate In India, the policy which has been followed is that the positive tested patient will be transferred to the quarantined facility immediately for a 14-day period. The infected people’s status is soon converted to quarantine status thus there is a change of dynamics in this process [1, 9]. In order to implement this factor in our model, we consider the total and the susceptible population as equivalent, i.e. NS ≈ 1. I + (γ + σ )I − σ (β − γ )I = 0

(5.9)

Integrating Eq. 5.9 we get, It = I1 e −

1(γ +σ −

√

(γ +σ )2 +4σβ)t 2

+ I2 e −

1(γ +σ +

√

(γ +σ )2 +4σβ)t 2

(5.10)

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Table 5.1 Parametric values used in our model

Parameter

Description

Value

N0

Initial population

130 Crore

S0

Initial susceptible population

0.9 N0 (constant)

E0

Exposed population for each infected

24 I0 (assumed)

I0

Initial state of infected person 4

α

Lockdown and other action strength

varied

k

Intensity of people’s reaction

1117 (constant)

σ −1

Latent period (mean)

3 days

γ −1

Infectious period (mean)

6 days

d

Ratio of severe cases

0.26

τ −1

Duration of public reaction (mean)

12 days

Now, the curve is being fitted to the data available for infected COVID-19 patients. In our model, we have varied the parameters for better visualisation across cases by simulating the same and choosing the best possible outcome. Table 5.1 shows the parametric values which have been taken into consideration while modeling the SIQR epidemic model based on some recent epidemic and pandemic studies.

5.2.3 Simulation of Mathematical Modeling In this section, the results of our mathematical modeling have been presented. The parametric values which have been used to assess our model should be treated as an average value for India [10]. At first, we have calculated the growth factor for India across the time duration taken. The growth factor will help us to analyse the transmission rate and α representing government action policies [11]. From Fig. 5.1 we can clearly see that the growth factor (as given below) of India is more than 1.5 (approximately). According to the rule, if the growth factor of a country is more than 1 then it denotes that the disease is spreading at a very rapid pace. (This graph is for scenario II, i.e. with lockdown and social distancing). Based on the growth factor calculated we have approached the transmission rates [12]. Growth Factor =

Cases on day t Cases on day t − 1

The initial value of the transmission rate β0 in our model is taken as 0.50. In the first case, we have assumed that there would be no lockdown across the country. In this case, the value of α is taken as 0.8 as there is no government intervention and the

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Fig. 5.1 COVID-19 growth factor across India

situation is normal [9, 13]. The value of α depends on the strict measures on social distancing and lockdown. In Figs. 5.2 and 5.3 we have shown a graph which will denote the scenario for ‘no lockdown’ in India [14].

Fig. 5.2 Potential COVID-19 scenario in India if there would be no lockdown and social distancing, initial date taken 31st March 2020

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Fig. 5.3 Infected scenario with no lockdown, and social distancing in India, α is the p in Fig. 5.4

From Figs. 5.2, and 5.3 we can see the scenario in India could have been much more devastating if there were no lockdown measures implemented under two circumstantial conditions, namely, with more crowds gathering and low crowd gathering. We can see that infected people count could have been crossed the 1 lakh mark ‘without lockdown and more mass gathering’ (Fig. 5.2) as compared to the ‘low crowd gathering’ (Fig. 5.3). These two cases under ‘without lockdown and social distancing’ could have led to more deaths across the nation much ahead of the expected time as seen from Figs. 5.2 and 5.3. Thus, from this simulation, we are confident that lockdown was needed to limit the spread of COVID-19 [15]. But is lockdown a permanent solution when we look at the fall in growth rate? We analyse this in the coming sections. In the next scene we have simulated the COVID-19 spread across India with social distancing and lockdown. In this case, the α value taken was very small near 0.2 [16, 17]. Lower value indicates there are stronger restrictions of lockdown across the country. In Fig. 5.4 we have presented the scenario with lockdown till October in the graph based on the assumption of taking the initial month to be April 2020. With lockdown measures, the numbers are expected to go down from mid-August onwards [18, 19].

5.3 Introduction to Air Pollution Everything in this world is changing. Man lives within technology and technology is increasing gradually but still in this tech-savvy world the basic essential needs of a human life like air, water remains the same. As we know from the wise old saying that love is in the air but most pathetic thing is that air is polluted. So, it has to be ensured that pollution shouldn’t be the price of development and prosperity and being a responsible citizen, it is our duty as well as responsibility to be a part of the solution to stop the pollution. Basically, pollution is the consequence of the incapability of proper recycling of waste and pollutants. Pollutants are basically a substance that

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Fig. 5.4 Newly infected scenario in India if there would be lockdown and social distancing

instigates distasteful effects, or and hampers the natural resources of the environment. It has a long as well as short-term ravaging effect to the environment and hampers as well as destroys human amenities, health, etc. Among them some are biodegradable that means they get decomposed into organic matters by bacteria, fungus, etc., and some are non-biodegradable (like plastic) which means they are incapable or takes a huge amount of time for decomposition and even cannot decompose at all in some cases. These non-biodegradable wastes have more adverse effect. In the highly populated and fast developing countries in the world like India, the upswings and fluctuations in the economy led to environmental threats and the urbanisation as well as industrialisation paved the way to increase air pollution leading to social instability. From Fig. 5.5, a question can be raised that is the global growth-promoting the growth of air pollution?[20–23] As per reports and the facts published worldwide, more than 2 million premature deaths are the adverse effect of air pollution only and more than 4 million deaths are consequence to the household pollutions only. From the different results, it is evident that 10% of total death in the world is only due to air pollution and so it is becoming a major threat to mankind and India is among the top five countries having the highest pollution. The other countries of southeast like Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal are highly polluted. In India, some of the polluted cities according to different reports are New-Delhi, Kanpur, Faridabad, Ghaziabad, Gaya (the report is considered mainly based on concentration on the pollutants. Also South as well as Southeast Asia, are facing a worse conditions. In Fig. 5.2, deaths per day from air pollution of two most densely populated countries in the world, i.e. India and China are taken into account. It is evident that the death rate is increasing. Air pollution can be said as the damaging effect caused to the air due to release of several toxic pollutants which is life-threatening and detrimental to mankind which may cause several chronic diseases and other problems like lung cancer, asthma, anoxaemia, corneal opacity,

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Fig. 5.5 Representing global GDP per capital and increase in primary pollutant of air pollution

irritation, etc. The lungs is the organ which is mainly responsible for the respiration and it is spongy in nature. Due to smoking and exposure to smoke as well as inhaling of toxic gases compelled the cells to divide and this led to the growth of tumours resulting in breathing problems and developing lung cancer and also asthma is also a major consequence which is designated by inflammation of lungs, obstruction in the path as well as high mucous formation rate. Also, environmental hazards like global warming, acid rain, temperature inversion are effects. Due to global warming, there is high climatic distress and rise in sea level has also become a major reason to worry. Acid rain has a high range of destructive effects on the environment as well as on human health. Several respiratory diseases like asthma, bronchitis, pneumonia are some of the harmful effects of it. Also, acid rain disturbs the PH of the water level by making it acidic and thus hampers the aquatic life. Apart from that, it has corrosion effect on marble and its marble statues. Several matrices used for calculation and understanding the pollution are PSI (Pollution Standard Index) which is used for the risk assessment. It is mainly based on the concentration (ug/m3) of pollutants. AQI (Air Quality Index) is the estimation of the condition of air and it is divided into six ranges. AQI is first introduced in 1986. Based on concentration, the calculation of AQI takes place over a particular averaging period. AQI is a Piecewise Linear function which is also known as segmented function of the concentration of the pollutants.In terms of mathematics, concentration can be transformed to AQI as [24, 25]: AQI =

IH − IL · (C − C L ) + I L CH − CL

where C is the concentration of the pollutants.

5 The Dual Impact of Lockdown on Curbing COVID-19 Spread … Table 5.2 Showing quality of air based on AQI

AQI value 0–50 51–100

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Condition Good Satisfactory

101–200

Moderate

201–300

Poor

301–400

Very poor

401–500

Bad

C L , C H are concentration breakpoint. I H , I L are index breakpoint. There are six ranges based on which the quality of the air is determined. It can be understood further by Table 5.2. In these upcoming sections, we will try to understand the pollution from different sectors, the relationship among the pollutants and how they are affecting AQI and causing pollution. Later we will go into deep analysis and prediction will be done and we will have a view on how COVID-19 is affecting air pollution and how it has become a blessing in disguise to the environment.

5.4 Pollution from Different Sectors From the smoke and ashes of a small cigarette to smoke of large chimneys of industries, there are pollutants everywhere. In the context of the current scenario, pollution is increasing with the increase in technology. In the next sections, we will have a brief walk through the different pollution sector prevailing in our environment [26]. From vehicles: Growth of the economy of a country is paving a way for the growth of different sectors. Many automobile sectors are growing and nowadays preferring more of private or self-owned vehicles over public transport which leads to the growth of sales of car worldwide. The emission of CO (Leading to production of carboxyhaemoglobin), Hydrocarbon, VOC, different oxides of nitrogen (NOx ) takes place and apart from that in heavy-duty vehicles, emission of particulate matters, lead particles takes place which is harmful to respiratory tracks [27]. From Industries: High growth in technology is developing the industries and thus developing a large amount of pollutants. From the industries and wastes of industries emission of different pollutants like (NOx ), sulphur dioxide (SO2 ), ethylene, formaldehyde, toluene, benzene, etc., takes place. Also smoke from chimneys and wastes from the battery industries, ore and mining industries as well as burning of coal and fossil fuels like natural gas; petroleum is polluting the environment a lot [28–30].

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From Household works: Still today in many houses, cooking is done using the burning of biomass and kerosene which is a high source of pollution. Also, emission of CFC from AC and fridges causes a lot of pollution. These are some of the sources of indoor air pollution. Also RSPM, SPM is one of the key pollutants of household pollution.

5.5 Dataset Preparation The dataset has been taken from Kaggle, IQAir, air-quality.com, aqicn and other different sources. The AQI value and concentration of other pollutants from June 2018 to June 2020 is taken into account. Doing basic analysis, we can conclude that AQI value changes with the season as during festival time, i.e. from September end to February end. There are numerous number of festivals and lighting of crackers promotes the rise in the value of AQI and this value again gets down from March to August. Also, it is observed that AQI is directly proportional to the concentration of the pollutants but each pollutant has a different contributing factor. This is further elaborated in the next section.[31, 32]

5.6 Understanding Basic Relationship of Pollutants with Pollution From the data, we are trying to analyse the consequence and affecting the rate of different pollutants and how they are affecting AQI. In Fig. 5.6 the dataset of the pollutants is plotted [33–35]. From the correlation map, it is evident that particulate matters (PM 2.5, PM 10) NOx has a high correlation with AQI value. Top 6 are tabulated in Table 5.3

Fig. 5.6 Different pollutants along with AQI over time

5 The Dual Impact of Lockdown on Curbing COVID-19 Spread … Table 5.3 Top 6 pollutants affecting AQI

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Name of the particle

Correlation

Pm 2.5

0.965206

Pm 10

0.971774

NO

0.815388

NO2

0.862036

NOx

0.891316

SO2

0.783169

Here, the spearman’s correlation is calculated. From Table 5.2 it is evident that particulate matter has a high positive correlation with AQI means that AQI value is directly proportional to the concentration of pollutants and it has a high impact on AQI value.

5.7 Detailed Analysis Here, we will be mainly focusing on time series analysis, i.e. using the theoretical approach. In the later part for higher accuracy, we will be focusing on RNN and LSTM based modeling.

5.7.1 Time Series Analysis Time series is one of the significant analytical tools which is widely used in the analysis of time-dependent data. It is a cluster of points taken at a regular interval of time over a period i.e. in lemans language in a single line, time series represents the points on a graph or listed data collected based on time periods By doing so we can get data which can be misplaced during the collection of data at random points or times, thus taking elements and collecting data at a particular interval may help in the compilation of the data providing a better view to the problem. It helps to detect how the points are affected due to pacing of time we can make time series modules and develop them as it will make the data we have more explanatory and support the predictions that we can derive by this periodic data and models. In mathematical term, for a single point it is represented as follows: y p (t) = y(t − 1) For multiple points it is represented as:

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y p (t) =

i−1 

yt−i

i=0

As we all know that monitoring and measurement of error is important which represented as (εt ) error at a particular time and βi is the coefficient of the first lag. For moving average model, it is represented as y = c + εt + θ1 · εt−1 + θ2 · εt−2 + · · · For weighted average model: y p (t) =

i−1 

βi · yt−i

i=0

The smoothing is required. If α, be smoothing factor then it is represented: 



y p (t) = α · yt + (1 − α)y p (t − 1)

There are four parts in which a series need to be decomposed for further analysis: (a) (b) (c) (d)

Trend Seasonality Irregularity/noise cyclic.

Here, we mainly test the trend which is basically the tendency of movement of data and seasonality which is a certain pattern of repetition over time. For implementing models the first step is to understand the stationary and the difference and steps required for the series to make it stationary. For that DickeyFuller’s Test is a unit root test which tests the null hypothesis in the equation where α is the first lag coefficient: y(t) = c + βt + α · yt−1 + ϕ yt−1 + εt In augmented Dickey-Fuller test the equation becomes: y(t) = c + βt + α · yt−1 + θ1 yt−1 + θ2 yt−2 + · · · + εt Here, the ADF test is performed. The rolling mean along with rolling standard deviation is plotted. Rolling mean is the running average and here window of 12 is taken, i.e. month-wise moving average is taken to make a finite impulse filter and to understand fluctuations and trends. To understand how the original series of data is deviating from average data, we have to take care of the standard deviation and since it is on a running basis so it is called rolling std deviation.

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Fig. 5.7 Seasonal difference of AQI

From the graph, it can be said that it has a seasonal factor which can be further understood by plotting the seasonal difference in Fig. 5.7. We can understand about the seasonal component of the series. Then for stationary check ADF is performed. Then the result of ADF can be seen from Table 5.4. Here, the obtained p-value is greater than 0.05 significance level and ADF/T stats is greater than all critical values so the null hypothesis is accepted that means the series is not stationary. For the visualisation purpose, if we plot individually the concentration of pollutants we can get even clear about the biasness of the pollutants toward the season. It is evident that apart from particulate matters, the concentration of sulphur and sulphur dioxide increases during the seasonal time. This is because the crackers contain sulphur in it and due to burring sulphur dioxide is formed and thus the concentration increases to a large extent during this season. For further analysis of trend, seasonality and other components, seasonal decomposition is done and the results are plotted in Fig. 5.8 (Table 5.5). Table 5.4 Result of ADF

Name of parameter

Value

ADF/T statistic

−1.37128

P-value

0.595969

1% critical

−3.440147

5% critical value

−2.86586

10% critical value

−2.56905

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Fig. 5.8 Seasonal decomposition results

Table 5.5 Result seasonal decomposition Date

AQI Res

AQI seas

AQI trend

Date

AQI Res

15-10-2018 −12.9174 −3.65398 109.5714 15-10-2019 16-10-2018 −24.9431 1.514481

118.4286 16-10-2019

17-10-2018 23.69669

141

2.303306

18-10-2018 −8.43585 0.578711

AQI seas AQI trend

7.628376 1.514481 125.8571 −4.16045

17-10-2019 −37.7216

163.8571 18-10-2019

12.48609

2.303306 130.8571 0.578711 131.1429 0.228195 136.2857

5.7.2 Autoregressive Model Here, the observations of previous steps are taken as input to an equation for forecasting the next step values. Here, the aim is to forecast value for (t + 1) when input is for (t − 1 and t − 2). ARIMA (Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average) When we handle time series the ARMIA model or the autoregressive integrated moving average model becomes a key in forecasting and predicting solutions for problems. It is a class of statistical models. In terms of mathematics, if L be a lag operator, p −d

1−

 i=1

ϕi L i = (1 − L)d

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It is the process which expresses this polynomial factorisation property with p = p − d, and is given by: (1 −

p 

ϕi L i ) · (1 − L)d · X t = (1 +

i=1

q 

θi L i )εt

i=1

So at a particular case in the ARMA ( p + d, q) model, having an autoregressive equation of polynomial consisting d unit-roots the equation becomes: (1 −

p 

ϕi L ) · (1 − L) · X t = δ + (1 + i

i=1

d

q 

θi L i )εt

i=1

Here, AR means autoregression means the relationship between dependent variables and lags observation is taken into account. Integrating means to understand the difference and implementing it to make series stationery. It is represented as ARIMA (p, d, q) where p is lag order, d is the degree of difference and q is the order of MA. The best two fitted model are with order 001 which can be visualised in Figs. 5.9 and 5.10 So the best fit for above two comes in p = 0 q = 1 and d varies. SARIMAX (Seasonal Autoregressive Integrated Moving Averages with Exogenous Regressors) Here, the seasonal component is mainly focused. But for systematic way PCF and ACF are needed [36]. There is a large spike at lower lag, i.e. high autocorrelation will be a higher effect. Sarimax is applied and the results are seen (Figs. 5.11 and 5.12).

Fig. 5.9 Result of ARIMA with order 001

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Fig. 5.10 PCF, ACF of AQI

Fig. 5.11 Result of Sarimax

5.8 Artificial Neural Network and LSTM-Based Modeling Artificial intelligence is the study of intelligent agents. It was coined in 1956 by John McCarthy. Actually, the concept was brought in this area mainly for software which could perform smart computation like humans. The systems capable of smart

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Fig. 5.12 Prediction of Sarimax model with 0, 0, 1 order

and intelligent high-level computations are just an extended version of conventional computing. They are basically roots of the fifth generation. The ANN approach is inspired from the Neurons of the Nervous system of the human brain where there are numerous numbers of interconnected systems along with fast, rapid and parallel execution is going on. ANN is also a data-driven model based on mathematics and the large interconnected architecture. It basically learns from the data by training and giving better results over time and training letting it to think in a rational way to do things with accuracy. The main goal is to understand the complex relationship between the input and the output node. It mainly consisted of three layers: Input, Hidden and Output layers. Neural networks get the knowledge by identifying the patterns as well as insights in data. The MLP is composed of multiple layers of operation nodes that derive the data and are connected to the input and output layers in a directed graph combination. The hidden layers are responsible to perform the various calculations and make predicted outputs. The finer the layers become the more accurate the output is tended to be. The number of layers is not fixed and depends totally on the problem. There are other two terms, i.e. weights and biases. Each node is connected and weight, i.e. coefficients determine the impact of input features which constitute its structure. RNN is basically a type of Neural Network. Recurrent Networks is able to process a successive recursion with the help of transition function to internal hidden vector state of the input. It is an MLP where the earlier hidden unit activations have a loop rather feedback loop which goes into the neural network along with the input features. The input at instance t has some previous data which is at time t − 1. The cyclic connections are the ultimate power of RNN which makes it more powerful than the normal neural

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Fig. 5.13 Loss function curve of LSTM architecture

network to handle sequence data and implement sequence modeling. RNNs had achieved great success in sequence labeling and prediction of time series data. LSTM is the modified version of RNN which is basically done to overcome the drawbacks of the recurrent network. It has some special blocks known as memory block in the hidden layer which are having a good self-connection network which stores the information of the temporary state and the flow is operated by the input (save vector) and output gates (focus vector). There are mainly three gates input gate, output gate and forget gate. The equation cell state is: pt = f t  pt−1 + i t  pt Remember vectors are the forget cells. If the output of this gate is 1 then the information is preserved else deleted. In this way it works. LSTM is widely for predication of Univariate as well as multivariate time series models. In our paper, the observation of AQI over time period of two years from June 2018 to June 2020 is considered and it is modeled (Figs. 5.13 and 5.14). Here, we used the different optimiser and tested loss which is illustrated in Table 5.6.

5.9 Effect of COVID-19 on Air Pollution COVID-19 is creating a pandemic situation throughout the world breaking the different pillars like the economy of a country. The epidemic broke at a rapid pace creating an exponential growth. It is taking away the jobs and as a result unemployability rate is increasing creating a dangerous economic crisis. It causes fibrosis of

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Fig. 5.14 Prediction to original data

Table 5.6 Showing Loss with different optimiser

Name of the optimiser

Training loss

Validation loss

Adam

7.6063e−06

0.0121

Adagrad

3.4833e−04

0.0158

SGD

6.3899e−05

0.0496

lungs, i.e. lungs tissues is been replaced non-working tissues which sometimes result in death. First, it is present in the upper respiratory tract and it causes the dryness of the threat resulting in cough and then through the respiratory tract it goes to the lungs. Enveloped in the non-separated positive RNA virus belongs to the mother family of Coronaviridae and Nidovirales. Initially, it was assumed that 2019-nCoV is only transmitted from animal–human contact, but later found that human–human transmission is also occurring. The death rate is increasing day-by-day which is a big reason to worry. The number of total affected cases is increasing insignificance [37]. The first case in India was detected on 30th January 2020 and after that affected cases were increasing rapidly. Also, the people affected in a day is increasing exponentially (Fig. 5.15). As per reports published by different top institutes of India as well as foreign institutes it is evident that this is increasing day-by-day and may reach to peak point between November 2020–February 2021. It is highly contagious and to avoid spread or rather community spread, the Govt. of India announced lockdown from March end to May end 2020. Due to this the industrial works, offices were stopped and due to this number of vehicles operating on the roads also decreased. So this lockdown became a blessing to the environment

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Fig. 5.15 Increasing trend of newly affected cases per day in COVID-19 in India

and the pollution amount got reduced. AQI value decreased significantly which can be visualised using Fig. 5.16. Due to lockdown, the amount vehicles, industries operating were reduced and thus pollutant amount also dropped significantly and the concentration amount is very less than the same time of last year which can be visualised. During early lockdown, AQI

Fig. 5.16 Representing AQI during the lockdown in Kolkata

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Fig. 5.17 Showing AQI value decreasing

Table 5.7 Showing average AQI

Average AQI before lockdown

Average AQI after lockdown

174.094118

75.648649

value decreases to a high extent resulting in pollution-free environment which is plotted in Fig. 5.17 [38] After Lockdown we can see that the average AQI is decreasing which can be seen in Fig. 5.17 and Table 5.7. The upper line is for before the lockdown and the lower line is for after lockdown. We can also see that due to lockdown and due to high spreading of the corona, people are trying to avoid social gathering and it also affects the air quality which can be visualised using Figs. 5.18 and 5.19. It is predicted that if less amount of festivals and less amount of crackers are there, then AQI value will be highly decreased which is predicted as in Table 5.8.

5.10 Conclusion and Future Scope In this paper we have tried to find the liaison between lockdown and the AQI Index of the air. At first we have proposed a lockdown model using SIQR modeling, through which we have demonstrated how the COVID-19 spread has been capped using lockdown and consequently we have shown how the AQI Index varied during the lockdown period. We have also presented conditional scenarios where it has been shown that without lockdown how would be the figure of COVID-19 across the nation and subsequently the AQI. Now, currently the Unlock 1, 2 are on the cards to revive

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Fig. 5.18 Yearly and monthly box plot for NO2

Fig. 5.19 Yearly and monthly box plot for PM 2.5 Table 5.8 Prediction of AQI

Month

Monthly average AQI

March

52.41

April

52.21

May

52.15

June

51.14

July

52.917

August

52.854

September

53.760

October

58.765

November

59.658

December

62.652

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the down trotting economy the cases per day is increasing in a stipulated manner along with the AQI is also increasing as shown through our analyses. Mother Nature has definitely being healed through this period but with the advent of the people and vehicles on the street it is getting polluted once again but at a much lower rate. As per our predictions we estimate a much lower pollution rate over upcoming Diwali festive season for mainly two reasons viz. One driving factor will be lowering economy and it is expected that people wouldn’t hold much money to spend on the crackers rather than trying to meet their needs. And the other would be, definitely COVID-19, as with the current figures it is pretty evident that it will not end anywhere near November 2020 unless and until the vaccines arrive which is also pretty much difficult on the cards. The paper also shows two-dimensional analysis of the AQI fluctuations, i.e. one is through the time series statistical modeling and the other through the LSTM Based modeling which is heavily used for time series prediction, and both the models are giving similar predictions.

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16. Ghorani-Azam A, Riahi-Zanjani B, Balali-Mood M (2016) Effects of air pollution on human health and practical measures for prevention in Iran. J Res Med Sci 21:65. Published 2016 Sep 1. https://doi.org/10.4103/1735-1995.189646 17. Sherstinsky A (2020) Fundamentals of Recurrent Neural Network (RNN) and Long ShortTerm Memory (LSTM) network. Physica D 404:132306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physd.2019. 132306 18. Sharma VK, Nigam U (2020) Modeling and forecasting for Covid-19 growth curve in India. medRxiv 19. Shekhar H (2020) Prediction of spreads of COVID-19 in India from current trend. medRxiv 20. Agatonovic-Kustrin S, Beresford R (2000) Basic concepts of artificial neural network (ANN) modeling and its application in pharmaceutical research. J Pharm Biomed Anal 22(5):717–727. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0731-7085(99)00272-1 21. Bergstra A, Brunekreef B, Burdorf A (2018) The effect of industry-related air pollution on lung function and respiratory symptoms in school children. Environ Health A Global Access Sci Source 17:30. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-018-0373-2 22. Sinnott RO, Guan Z (2018) Prediction of air pollution through machine learning approaches on the cloud. In: 2018 IEEE/ACM 5th international conference on big data computing applications and technologies (BDCAT). Zurich, pp 51–60. https://doi.org/10.1109/BDCAT.2018.00015. 23. Bhalgat P, Bhoite S, Pitare S (2019) Air quality prediction using machine learning algorithms. Int J Comput Appl Technol Res 8. https://doi.org/10.7753/IJCATR0809.1006 24. Carbajal-Hernández JJ (2012) Assessment and prediction of air quality using fuzzy logic and autoregressive models. Atmos Environ 60:37–50 25. Nallakaruppan MK, SurejIlango H (2017) Location aware climate sensing and real time data analysis. In: 2017 world congress on computing and communication technologies (WCCCT). IEEE 26. Li Y, Chen Q, Zhao H, Wang L, Tao R (2015) Variations in pm10, pm2.5 and pm1.0 in an urban area of the Sichuan basin and their relation to meteorological factors. Atmosphere 6(1):150–163 27. Mahajan S, Chen L-J, Tsai T-C (2017) An empirical study of PM2.5 forecasting using neural network. In: IEEE smart world congress, At San Francisco, USA 28. Franklin BA, Brook R, Pope CA (2015) Air pollution and cardiovascular disease. Curr Prob Cardiol 40(5):207–238. ISSN 0146-2806 29. Bansal M, Aggarwal A, Verma T, Sood A (2019) Air quality index prediction of Delhi using LSTM. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.26885.70884 30. Chang Y-S, Chiao H-T, Abimannan S, Huang Y-P, Tsai Y-T, Lin K-M (2020) An LSTM-based aggregated model for air pollution forecasting. Atmos Pollut Res 11(8):1451–1463. ISSN 1309-1042. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apr.2020.05.015 31. Belavadi S, Rajagopal S, Ranjani R, Mohan R (2020) Air quality forecasting using LSTM RNN and wireless sensor networks. Procedia Comput Sci 170:241–248. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.procs.2020.03.036 32. Gul S, Khan GM (2020) Forecasting hazard level of air pollutants using LSTM’s. In: Maglogiannis I, Iliadis L, Pimenidis E (eds) Artificial intelligence applications and innovations. AIAI 2020. IFIP advances in information and communication technology, vol 584. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-49186-4_13 33. Jiao Y, Wang Z, Zhang Y (2019) Prediction of air quality index based on LSTM. In: 2019 IEEE 8th joint international information technology and artificial intelligence conference (ITAIC). Chongqing, China, pp 17–20. https://doi.org/10.1109/ITAIC.2019.8785602 34. Chaudhary V, Deshbhratar A, Kumar V, Paul D, Samsung (2018) Time series based LSTM model to predict air pollutant’s concentration for prominent cities in India 35. Kumar A, Goyal P (2013) Forecasting of air quality index in Delhi using neural network based on principal component analysis. Pure Appl Geophys 170:711–722. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s00024-012-0583-4 36. Chatterjee A, Mukherjee S (2020) The impact of lockdown on GDP growth & COVID-19 spread: insights from a mathematical simulation exercise for India

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Chapter 6

Aftermath of Industrial Pollution, Post COVID-19 Quarantine on Environment Raj Shekhar Sharma, Divyansh Panthari, Shikha Semwal, and Tripti Uniyal

Abstract Human beings always stride toward the protection of the environment and global climate change at various levels. Though, due to diverse reasons our efforts were not enough. But now as the outbreak of COVID-19 has hit mankind globally, many countries are forced to implement self-quarantine, resulting in anthropogenic activities across the globe coming to a halt, especially in production/manufacturing. It has been clearly established that ever growing industrialization for the last two decades has immensely polluted the atmosphere, biosphere, and hydrosphere; also other overlooked concerns like noise pollution, soil pollution, etc., never gets adequate attention. As recently, all the activities have been seized considerably, the pollution level in the environment is expected to go down within a curtailed period. This chapter undertakes a brief and specific scenario of industrial pollution during lockdown; hence, the aim is to be focused on the dissemination of information in general, related to the current parameters regarding the status of the decreased level of industrial pollution in air, water, and soil. In the context of water pollution we have discussed the improvement of water quality in terms of change in pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), suspended particulate matter (SPM), biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), heavy metal contamination in sewage as well as ground water, and biological parameters like reduction in coliforms, fecal coliforms, organic wastes, planktonic population, etc., whereas in case of air pollution it was found that there has been a sharp drop in the major air R. S. Sharma Department of Microbiology, School of Basic and Applied Science, Sri Guru Ram Rai University, Dehradun, India e-mail: [email protected] T. Uniyal Department of Zoology, Ram Chandra Uniyal PG College, Uttarkashi, India e-mail: [email protected] D. Panthari (B) · S. Semwal Department of Botany, School of Basic and Applied Science, Sri Guru Ram Rai University, Dehradun, India e-mail: [email protected] S. Semwal e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 C. Chakraborty et al. (eds.), The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Green Societies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66490-9_6

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pollutants like PM2.5, PM10, O3 , SO2 , CO, hydrocarbons, and NO2 as compared to the pre-lockdown phase, same consequences were also obtained in case issues related to the soil pollution. Also recent observations suggest that the ozone hole at Earth’s polar regions has begun to heal. These changing statistics of pollution rate can help us in the exploration of various public and private views, which could further encourage us to adopt better pollution controlling strategies; highlighting and also examining different social, economical, and technical challenges related to industrial pollution. Keywords Lockdown · COVID-19 · Pollution · Environmental impact · Industrial pollution · Air quality

6.1 Introduction From the scratch of human history the world has faced numerous pandemic situations which have led to heavy casualties in the past. History of pandemic goes ages before industrial revolution; from every pandemic disease world majorly faced various other problems like poverty, economic crisis, health-related issues. etc. And now in this twenty-first century, with the advancement of the modern world, COVID19 pandemic has hit very hard globally in the end of 2019 (December, 2019) [61]. Novel corona disease (COVID-19) is highly contagious that resulted due to recently evolved virus emerging from the city of Wuhan, Hubei mainland province of China [39]. The disease is caused by a novel lineage B beta coronavirus better known as SARS-CoV2 (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2) [53]. Emerging from Wuhan, the virus took no time to spread across the globe. According to the WHO’s report updated on July 23, 2020, there are 14,731,563 confirmed cases of COVID-19 while 611,284 has lost their life from 216 countries and most of the fatalities were reported in America (WHO report 2020 dated 07-22-2020). Due to the high spreading rate of this virus by the means of personal contact, respiratory droplets of infected people, privation of proper treatment and unavailability of a vaccine, several countries imposed complete lockdown to break the infectious chain, and maintain social distancing hence reducing the rate of casualties. Ultimately, all the human activities, industries, schools, religious, and sports activities ceased and the economic crises rose drastically to a point that even developed countries failed to stand against this virus. Normal life of people halts around the globe since February 2020 [70]. However, other than negative aspects there are also some positive facets of this global pandemic as it has been proved by various studies that the principle factor responsible for pollution in this sphere is due to uncontrolled anthropogenic activities [56]. From the very start of industrial revolution, environmental pollution increased vigorously affecting our hydrosphere, lithosphere as well as our atmosphere and causing major health risks to humans, animals as well as to our mother Earth. Before the COVID-19 outbreak [32] the pollution levels were continuously reaching the threshold, due to ever existing issues like traffic, modern

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industries, new inventions, excessive chemical and pesticide uses; caused air, water, soil, as well as noise pollution. On top of that various other problems like thinning of the ozone layer to an alarming range were causing a serious disturbance in our environment. Since due to lockdown most of the anthropogenic activities have been restricted for months, it has been predicted that the pollution levels in the environment are experiencing a sharp decline [70]. Other than that, the industries are also temporarily non-functional, so for now the production is off or minimal because of which the resulting byproducts, generally in the form of effluents and emission has cut down a lot, leading to a humongous decrease in water and air pollution. Minimal traffic, lesser activities in industries or factories and also in the construction sectors have improved the air quality by a giant stride (Fig. 6.1). According to the Environmental and Energy Study Institute (EESI) the aviation emissions, which globally holds for 2.4% of CO2 emissions in 2018, have now declined considerably [50]. These changes have resulted in the resurgence of nature and finally the Earth’s ecosystem is responding positively and giving signals of improvement in context of natural parameters of hydrosphere, biosphere and atmosphere [2]. The obvious effect of this quarantine situation has also been noticed by the increase in sudden appearance of many indigenous birds, also vultures, especially in the cities. Abundance in insect pollinators has appeared on crops and other plants. Consequently, all this

Fig. 6.1 Collateral advantage of SARS-COV2 on environment

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together comprises to be a positive indicator towards the rejuvenation of ecological balance and biodiversity. Sadly, the most disastrous and alarming situation of our environment, which Earth was suffering for decades was nothing but the result of ever growing greed of mankind to enforce its sovereignty globally [50]. Crystal clear water bodies, fresh air, blue skies, or the overcast weather in metropolitan cities are the pure indicators of the reduced pollution levels markedly during lockdown. These reductions in pollution levels have also helped the aquatic ecosystem to heal and flourish. With this understanding of natural recovery, we try to focus on the further reduction in water, air, noise, and soil pollution of the entire world as these upgraded environmental improvements are temporary for now. So there is an immense need to discover a better and sustainable way of fighting with the increasing pollution levels for our better tomorrow [70].

6.2 Categories and Impact of Industrial Pollution Humans have always thrived to obtain more and more, the consequence of this never ending greed of humans continued with the setting up of various types of industries including both small as well as large-scale industries [64]. From the mid-eighteenth century to the early nineteenth century the industrial revolution has brought an extreme change in the social and economical lives of humans. The benefits of this revolution are experienced even today but with that come to the consequences as well. One thing that has followed the industrial revolution is industrial pollution. These industries prepare a variety of products from raw materials as per the increasing demand but with never ceasing greed and desire to be perfect, a large amount of load has turned on toward the environment which is now surrounded from technoecosystem. At the start only small-scale industries existed and the pollution was limited to minimum, smog being the primary pollutant. However, advancement in science and technology changed the situation and these industries got converted into large plants, spreading all across the globe, resulting in increased level of pollutants which are today a major concern globally. Industrial installation largely takes place in the areas which are closer to the urban areas and near water bodies. This makes waste management and supplies easier for the companies plus more labor at cheap cost allows the industries to work day and night. The government set up large industries to boost their economies, they have also made sure of some ground rules which do not allow malfunctioning industries to release all their waste into the surrounding environment hence, they need to take some proper measures. However, the execution of these laws is quite poor and the government is also overlooking this issue. To maintain the resilience in the society and to make sure it doesn’t get vulnerable to extreme events demographic, industrial, or economic it is important to make sure that the natural balance does not get disturbed [23]. These recurring environmental problems are not just intensifying the disasters but also can make sure to lead a potential secondary disaster. Japan’s Ministry of Environment has a study conducted on air pollution which suggests that acid rain during hurricanes and typhoons is

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the result of pollution from urban cities and industries. Environmental degradation contributes to be a key factor in turning utmost weather events into natural disasters; therefore this issue needs our foremost attention [49]. The challenge includes desertification, deforestation, pollution, and climate change. Industrial pollution being the ground cause of the major environmental issues; our sole purpose is to emphasize problems sourced from industries to obviate environmental degradation which eventually helps us counter society’s vulnerability toward nature. Figure 6.2 is describing how industrial pollution is generated. The 1984 Bhopal Disaster in India contributed to the world’s first civilian pollution crisis. Union Carbide factory was responsible for the leakage of industrial vapors which belonged to Union Carbide, Inc., U.S.A. This incident took away the lives of more than 3787 people in one day and injured up to 150,000–600,000. The worst air pollution event for the United Kingdom goes to the Great Smog (London 1952). In around 6 days 4,000 people died and a recent study suggests that the estimate rose to the figure of around 12,000 deaths. Former USSR in 1979 had a biological warfare laboratory near Sverdlovsk which had an accidental leakage of anthrax which is believed to be a reason for nearly 64 deaths. Single worst incident of air pollution in the US occurred in 1948 in Borough Donora in late October, where 20 people died and over 7,000 got injured [20]. Pollution can be of various types as the source and affected areas vary, while industrial pollution refers explicitly to any contamination to the environment caused by industries, making it the major source of pollution on the planet. Industries are

Fig. 6.2 Generation of industrial pollution

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the source for a diverse range of pollutants which significantly is a burden to society. Usually this burden fails to get compensated because of the economic benefits and local jobs for income. The common type of pollution caused by industrial pollution is air pollution, water pollution, soil pollution, and to some extent noise pollution as well. Some other type of pollution created by industries includes radioactive pollution and thermal pollution, although their amount is quite less in comparison to the above-mentioned types of pollution. Air pollution can be given as introduction of any unwanted substance in the air with concentration more than the desirable amount is called as air pollution. There are commonly two sources of air pollution on the earth namely Anthropogenic (man-made sources) and Natural sources. The major cause of air pollution is related to the combustion of fossil fuels for example coal, diesel, etc. The primary pollutants of air pollution are CO2 , CO, SO2 , NOx , CFC, NH3 , Volatile organic compounds (VOC), and Particulate matter [35]. Depending upon the concentrations of pollutants in the exposed reason with high concentration of air pollution emitted from the industrial zone decides the morbidity and mortality level. Health hazard of these pollutants are discussed below: Sulfur dioxide: disturbances in the respiratory symptoms and malfunctioning of lung especially among asthmatic, bronchitis patients, and patients of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) [35]. Nitrogen oxides: inflammation of respiratory system; increased respiratory symptoms (attacks) among asthmatics and COPD patients; exposure to pregnant women can cause fetal damage. Carbon monoxide: decreased carrying capacity of oxygen in blood, resulting in dizziness, headaches, and nausea; affects concentration; damage physical ability and awareness. Major risk to fetuses and the elderly population [14]. Particulates: respiratory, cardiac morbidity, and mortality. Smaller sized particulates cause serious health damage as they penetrate deep into the respiratory tract. Non-methane volatile organic compounds: Mostly carcinogenic; can cause damage to liver, kidney, digestive tract, and central nervous system; irritation in eye, nose, and throat; headaches; loss in coordination; breath shortening; nausea; allergic reactions; vexation [52]. Human activities add up to the contamination of water sources. Major water sources include lake, river, oceans, aquifer, and groundwater. Direct release of inadequate treated water can lead to severe damage to aquatic ecosystem. This directly affects the nearby population by inflicting major health problems. Scarcity of fresh water leads to the contamination of public water sources, ultimately leading people to use same polluted water. Consecutively, water pollution has become the world’s leading cause of death and diseases (e.g. waterborne diseases). Industrial wastewater contains pollutants such as heavy metals, organic burden, oil, and salts which impacts widely, starting with damage to wastewater transportation system and wastewater treatment systems, ending up with even more adverse quality of released effluents which are later recovered for irrigation purpose. Concluding, industrial wastewater is significantly more negatively potent toward the environment than its corresponding

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share in urban wastewater. Usually after pre-treatment the industrial wastewater is discharged directly to the public sewage system [30]. Waterborne diseases are highly contagious in nature. Heavy rainfall and floods promote the growth of infectious diseases even more, mainly in under developed and developing countries. Near about 10% of the population consumes edibles that are irrigated by contaminated water. Health risk associated with industrial water pollutants includes neurological disorders, cardiovascular diseases, respiratory disorders, cancer, diarrhoea, etc. Nitrogenous chemicals potently used in industries and irrigation are carcinogenic and are also linked to blue baby syndrome. Cancer mortality rate is higher in rural areas than it is in urban areas as urban inhabitants use treated water while rural population suffer lack of facilities. Pregnant ladies are more susceptible to the negative effects of contaminated water; resulting in increased rate of premature births, stillbirths, and low birth rates [63]. Polluted water declines the crop production rate, contaminates soil, and infects food through biomagnification. It is also quite hazardous for aquatic life as the water bodies are loaded with heavy metals (mainly iron) which interfere with the respiratory system of aquatic animals. Iron deposits in the gills of fishes which is fatal for them; which in turn are consumed by the man leading to major health issues. High concentration of metals leads to renal failure, liver cirrhosis, neural disorder, and hair loss. Pathogenic diseases are spread more efficiently via polluted water hence affecting human health [24]. Soil pollution simply refers to the contamination of soil and deteriorated soil quality. The pollutants reduce the quality of soil by affecting the pH and nutrient level, which makes soil inhabitable for micro and macroorganisms which are crucially add to soil composition. Natural processes and human activities both could results in soil contamination hence, soil pollution. Although, soil contamination is majorly the result of human activities. The presence of chemicals like ammonia, petroleum hydrocarbons, pesticides, herbicides, nitrate, mercury, lead, naphthalene in excessive amount contributes in soil contamination. The improper ways of chemical waste disposal from industries also cause contamination of soil, which in the long run lead to soil acidification. It causes detrimental effects on the soil ecosystem and the environment at large. Living, working, or playing in the contaminated soil leads to skin diseases, respiratory disorders, and toxification. After rain the surface run off adds to water bodies carrying pollutants in it eventually polluting underground water as well. This water becomes unfit for human consumption as well as for animals, as attributed with toxic chemicals. As soil is an important habitat for different microbes and other animals like reptiles, mammals, birds, and insects therefore its contamination can cause a massive imbalance in soil ecosystem. The soil pollution negatively impacts the life of microflora as well as creating huge threat to grazing animals [55]. Another remotely discussed issue of industries is noise pollution which is refers to the noise produced in factories which is jarring and intolerable. The unwanted amplitude of sound becomes noise when it starts bothering the sanity of an individual. Industrial noise pollution is harmful to an alarming rate specifically to the people who are in close surrounding to these industries. Noise more than 85 decibel, is scientifically proved that it leads to hearing impairment and does not meet the

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criteria of a healthy working environment. Various other effects other than hearing impairment are increased stress, high blood pressure, fatigue, stomach ulcers, stress, sleep disturbance, aggression, and anxiety. High volume increases adrenaline levels resulting in increased blood pressure and stress. The problems are well analyzed but the solutions are probably not easy to accomplish since the contradiction in thoughts differs in legislation, guidance, and documents [8].

6.3 Comparison Between Pre and Active Lockdown Conditions 6.3.1 Air Pollution As the world got affected by the deadly virus (COVID-19), this resulted in isolation of more than 3.9 billion people living in 90 different countries across the globe; which ultimately lead to the shutdown of all forms of transports, factories, markets, and other social and economic activities [54]. This caused a lot of problems in the human lives, affecting their social life, global mobility, and economy. But for the environment this lockdown for the humans came out as a boon; as the major parameters of pollution began to show improvements. This enhanced the overall air quality around the globe as the air pollution levels experienced a steep decline in an unparalleled way and provided new opportunities to study air pollution and various ways to control it when the lockdown gets lifted [65]. A healthy human life needs clean air with an adult individual breathing almost 20 m3 of air each day. But according to the reports of WHO [69], right now air pollution has become a substantial environmental health risk on the earth causing premature death of seven million people annually, worldwide. Number of deaths caused by air pollution stands quite less than the other causes of deaths such as diseases like tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS, and also road accidents combined together. The severity of air pollution in our environment can be determined easily by the data that shows 9 out of 10 people breathe air with high levels of pollutants [69]. It is estimated that each individual dies 28 years earlier of their actual lifespan than they would do if they inhale fresh and clean air. Along with the health issues air pollution also affects our economy and is one of the potent causes in the degradation of the environment [33]. Developing countries (India and China) experience the worst effects of air pollution and also the underdeveloped countries (Bangladesh, Pakistan, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Iraq, Nepal, etc.). Around 94% of the deaths caused due to air pollution occur in countries with low and middle incomes. Besides this the South East Asia and Western Pacific regions carries maximum burden with 2.4 and 2.2 million annual deaths, respectively. In Africa the number of deaths is around 980,000 followed by the Eastern Mediterranean region and the least

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Where, HAP: Household air pollution; AAP: Ambient air pollution; Amr: America;Emr: Eastern Mediterranean, Sear: South-East Asia; Wpr: Western Pacific; LMIC: Low and Middle- income countries; HIC: High income countries Fig. 6.3 Death per capita by the joint effect of HAP and AAP in 2016, region wise (Source [68])

number comes from Europe and America with 348,000 and 233,000 deaths, respectively. The remaining deaths are seen in countries with high income like Europe, America, Eastern Mediterranean, and Western Pacific (Fig. 6.3) [68]. Air pollution is fundamentally of two types—Ambient air pollution (outdoor air pollution) and Indoor air pollution. The chief cause of ambient air pollution are power generation, transport industry, building heating systems, agriculture, waste incineration, and various forms of industries releasing pollutants like CO2 , CO, SO2 , NO2 , lead, ozone, etc. However, for the indoor air pollution the major sources include burning of fuel such as coal, wood, and cow-dung in inefficient stoves releasing a variety of health hazardous pollutants like the particulate matter (PM2.5, PM10), carbon monoxide, methane, poly-aromatic hydrocarbons, and volatile organic compounds [9, 16, 73]. Exposure to these pollutants may cause a large number of diseases affecting mostly children causing stroke, heart diseases, chronic obstructive diseases, cancer, musculoskeletal injuries, and even poisonings [16, 52]. In most of the countries the implementation of lockdown resulted in clean air, blue skies, and a better visibility especially in the urban cities. Improvement in the

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Fig. 6.4 Pictures of a Himalayan peaks visible from Punjab, India b change in air quality before and during lock down, Delhi, India (Source [15])

visibility can be confirmed from the various local media reports of Punjab (Jalandhar) a state in India, where people were able to clearly sight far away snow-capped Himalayan peaks for the very first time in decades within the third day of lockdown. Himalayan mountain range is 130 km (100 miles) away from the city Punjab (Fig. 6.4); the view itself isn’t usual as the atmosphere is almost always covered with smog due to air pollution [15]. The Global Carbon Project [22] estimates that greenhouse gasses could drop to a proportion never seen before since World War II. According to the report by IQAir [25] there is a drastic drop in the gasses and particulate matter in the atmosphere, over ten major cities which are currently under lockdown; Delhi, Mumbai, Wuhan, London, Los Angeles, Milan, New York, São Paulo, Seoul, Rome, all of these cities has showed reduction between −9 and −60% as compared to data of 2019 and between +2 and −55% compared with the average of prior four years [4]. NASA [45], Gautam [21] have stated that within the first week of the lockdown the reduction in levels of aerosol strike is 20 years low in the Northern parts of India (Fig. 6.5). They also noted that the air quality index (AQI) reduced between 44 and 15% in different areas of the study. The results of the study done by Wang and Su [66] in China suggest that the outbreak of coronavirus resulted in the concentration reduction of NO2 12.9 µg/m3 (Fig. 6.6) and this improved the air quality in a very short span of time. NO2 concentration also fell down significantly in Rome, Paris, and Madrid, the first cities in Europe to execute a complete lockdown. While PM2.5 showed a decline by 1.4 µg/m3 in Wuhan and an average decline of 18.9 µg/m3 in 367 other cities. The overall drop in the PM2.5 was approximately 20–30% all over China as compared to the monthly average of February for the previous three years. Another study mentions that China’s carbon emission (the world’s largest source of carbon emission) went down to 18% (250 m tones) in the middle of early February

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Fig. 6.5 Change in the level of aerosol in India over the period of time (Source [45])

Fig. 6.6 Evolution of NO2 concentrations in China (Source [72])

and March which was more than equivalent to the UK’s annual output. Similarly in Europe the carbon emission is expected to go down by 390 m tones while in America it has fallen up to 40%, where vehicular traffic is the major source of carbon emission [50]. In the Indian subcontinent there was a slight decrease in the carbon emission between 11th and 16th week of 2020. For the Northern parts of India, substantial

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amount of reduction was observed in the mid of March to the end of April duly because of efficient enforcement of lockdown [31]. Almaty, a city in Kazakhstan and Salé city in Morocco enforced lockdown as soon as they had the first case of COVID-19 on March 19, 2020. As they learned the lesson from other countries that delayed implementation of lockdown can cause severe damage to many lives. Usually the quality of air improves in Kazakhstan after the end of February due to reduction in coal use but for this year there was a remarkable improvement in air quality in contrast to the previous years. Here concentration of PM2.5 decreased by 23% in 2020 in comparison to the concurrent period in previous years, where the reduction was up to 18% only. Similarly there was a substantial reduction in the concentration of CO and NO2 by 49% and 35%, respectively [26]. Likewise the concentration of PM10, NO2 , and SO2 decreased by 75%, 96%, and 49% respectively, within the few days after enforcement of COVID-19 countermeasures [46].

6.3.1.1

Comparison of Air Pollution Between Major Countries Affected by Corona Virus

As of now the death toll due to COVID-19 reached up to 14,731,563, most countries are under complete or partial lockdown, are facing substantial arduousness in various sectors like health care, social relationships, economical aspects, and many more apart from the large number of deaths ascribed to the ongoing pandemic. The countries with the most deaths include the United States of America, Brazil, India, Russia, Spain, the United Kingdom, China, etc [17]. These countries have faced a lot of difficulties and have implemented lockdown for a long time in contrast to other countries as some of them were not prepared for the situation beforehand and saw early cases of COVID-19 while others saw a huge number of cases in a very short span of time. Here we are going to give a more elaborated account of comparison on how the implication of lockdown rejuvenated the air quality of the major countries with most number of cases or most number of deaths [60]. The USA is the most affected country by coronavirus with 4,706,180 affected people and 156,764 deaths. Bermen and Ebisu [5] reported that the decline in the concentration of PM2.5 and NO2 was observed in urban areas due to the closer of non-essential business in the USA during COVID-19 period (Fig. 6.7). China was the first country to have coronavirus cases and due to insufficient preparation they experienced a huge number of cases in a short span of time in the Hubei Province due to which they implemented lockdown to a greater extent. During this period, China’s major industries operation level was much lower than the normal. From last 3–5 years the production and consumption level of the energy has decreased, while this year it came up to its lowest point. The average consumption of coal reached its minimum in the last four years and the demand for oil reached the minimum since autumn 2015. In addition, demand for various other products such as petroleum products, steel, and other metals saw a sharp decline. Overall the use of crude oil and coal reduced up to its maximum levels during the lockdown phase

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Fig. 6.7 Current (2020) and historical (2017–2019) county concentrations of NO2 (a) and PM2.5 (b) during the COVID-19 period (March 13 through April 8th) Shapes denote county urban–rural status; triangles = rural, square = urban, dots = major urban (Source [5])

in China. Also in correspondence to the time stretch, followed by the spring festival holidays in 2019 (within the same 2 weeks), the CO2 emission got lowered by 25% or more. The above data explains that China has dwindled to about 1 million tons of carbon emissions, analogous to the 6% of global emissions over the same period. These fall in levels coincided with the lockdown during the pandemic. Another study done by Li et al. [36] on Yangtze River Delta (YRD) which is a group of major economic cities of China suggests that concentration of PM2.5, PM10, CO, SO2, and NO2 got reduced by 33.2, 29.0, 14.7, 25.9, 27.2, and 7.6% in comparison with 2019 before the epidemic (Fig. 6.8). This reasoning gained attention, especially in the winters as the air quality worsens as compared to other seasons. The improvement in the AQI of this reason has a direct relationship with restrictions in human activities. Another major country affected by COVID-19 is India. India is a developing country with lots of industries, construction work, mining, and a huge population. Due to these reasons Indian cities have always been making their way in the top twenty polluted cities of the world for the recent past few years and exceeding the ambient air quality standards suggested by WHO and Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) [59]. As the government of India implemented a complete lockdown of 21 days starting from March 23, 2020, North India saw a great decline in the concentration of PM2.5, PM10, NO, and NO2 . For example, the PM2.5 concentration decreased by 34% in 2020 while it had decreased by only 12% in recent years. Similar results were observed in the other parts of India. There was a slight increase in the concentration

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Fig. 6.8 Changes in concentration of PM2.5, PM10, CO, NO2 , SO2, and O3 in 41 cities in the YRD during January 1st to Mar 31st, 2020 (Source [36])

of SO2 in comparison to 2019. This was due to consumption of coal in the power plants. Similar to SO2, the O3 concentration decreased in comparison to 2019, while it increased by 10% when compared with the average of the last three years (Fig. 6.9). Few countries in Europe started the count of COVID-19 from the mid of January. A country of Europe that was severely struck with this pandemic is Spain with 28,445 numbers of casualties till date. The lockdown in Spain came late into enforcement (March, 14, 2020) due to which it saw a very large number of cases. Following the similar pattern like other major countries under lockdown, the concentration of major air pollutants came to a sharp decline as recorded in various studies. In a study done by Baldasano [4] in the 2 biggest cities of Spain (Barcelona and Madrid) saw that the concentration of NO2 fell by an average of 53% during the first week of lockdown and reductions of 62% was observed in the second week.

6.3.2 Water Pollution Genesis of life occurred on water and therefore is considered the most important element of life for every living creature on earth, while other planets in the solar system do not possess water that is why they are not proficient in origin of life.

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Fig. 6.9 Mean concentration of PM2.5, PM10, CO, NO2 , NO, NOx, and O3 from March 16th to April 14th of years 2017 to 2020 of various parts of India. The line in each plot indicates the corresponding WHO limit for all pollutants but CO (Source [59])

According to most of the studies the 2/3 of earth surface is submerged in water, out of which only 3% is drinkable water; and out of this 3% water, the surface acquires only 1% water and the rest is underground or in frozen state [42]. According to WHO, approximately 2 billion people across the globe drink contaminated water due to the release of huge variety of pollutants by the industries and public sources directly into the water bodies, as a result various diseases such as cholera, polio, diarrhea, typhoid, dysentery, etc., spread at a large scale. Not only the human lives, industrial water pollution also plays a chief role in ecosystem degradation, this type of damage mainly affects the people of developing and underdeveloped countries (India, Bangladesh,

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Nepal) which solely rely on ecosystem services [51]. Industrial discharge (waterwaste) is one of the major causes for irreversible ecosystem degradation [3] hence; several countries around the world are struggling to form effective laws to control the industrial discharge into their ecosystem. Lockdown was quite helpful in revival of water resources by reducing both direct and indirect sources of water pollution. Direct source of water pollution includes effluents, wastewater released from factories, refineries, sewage treatment plants, etc., that releases fluids directly into the water bodies [13]. The indirect source consists of contaminants that enter in water supply through groundwater systems or from the atmosphere directly through rain. Sources for groundwater contaminants are the improperly disposed industrial wastes, residues of human/agricultural practices (pesticide, fertilizers, etc.); atmospheric pollutants are also the consequence of human practices such as emission of gasses from factories, automobiles, burning of plastic products, etc. [62]. Due to worldwide lockdown, most of the industries were closed and if open they were manufactured with lower demand, which directly affects the amount of contaminated water discharged by these industries as their byproducts and this directly saves our surface water resources. About 70% of industrial effluent directly adds up to the drinking water resources in developing countries because of the lack of funds and contribution toward water pollution but due to COVID-19 outbreak, water sources have once again started to clean out effectively. According to Selvam et al. [57] the quality of groundwater in Tuticorin industrial city (South India) with reference to the concentration of NO3 , As, Fe, Pb, Se, fecal coliforms, and total coliforms has improved throughout the lockdown period of COVID-19 and this decrease in the levels of pollution was due to measures taken to restrict the anthropogenic activities and closure of several small- and largescale industries. Yunus et al. [70] reported that the longest freshwater lake of India (Vembanad lake), the concentration of suspended particulate matter has decreased by 15.9% on average during this period as compared to pre-lockdown conditions (Fig. 6.10), this decrease was noticed in 18 out of 20 zones of the lake and also stated that pollution from industrial wastes and tourism had severely damaged water quality and lake ecosystem. Water pollution was directly associated with the health of an individual and the common pollutants present in the water bodies, as industrial waste had a differential impact on the overall health outcomes of the society and these effects were mainly harsh on low-income respondents [67]. A sudden fall in the concentration of dissolved zinc and other heavy metal was observed in the coastal region of the maritime state of West Bengal during lockdown phase in April [1]. The entire world is showing some positive environmental impact due to COVID19 outbreak; the lagoon of Venice has always got affected by anthropogenic stress but when the lockdown was enforced in Italy the water jam around Venice stopped leading to a reduction in suspended matters and hence transparency of water increased. The high water transparency is because of the combined effects of both COVID-19 restrictions (Fig. 6.11) and natural seasonal factors [6]. Chinese government advised its water treatment plant to strengthen its disinfection routine to prevent new coronavirus infection spreading through wastewater [72].

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Fig. 6.10 Comparison between the concentrations of suspended particulate matter dissolved in Vembanad lake during pre-lockdown (April 19) and lockdown (April 2020) phases (Source [70])

Fig. 6.11 Lagoon of Venice a February 20, 2020 (Pre-lockdown) b March 19, 2020 (Lockdown) (Source [6])

(i) Aftermath of Lockdown on Water Quality of Major Rivers in India. India is known as the land of rivers as it is blessed with the extensive network of Himalayan and peninsular rivers. Most rivers from the northern region are perennial in nature and originate from Himalayan Glaciers, while peninsular rivers are largely fed by rainwater and mainly arise from Westerns Ghats. Many ancient civilizations took birth on the laps of river banks as they provide a rich source of life and these rivers are still considered sacred in Hindu mythology as well as some other mythologies.

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Table 6.1 Major rivers of India S. No.

River

Originates from

Falls into

Major Indian cities on the banks

1

Ganges

Gangotri Glacier

Bay of Bengal

Varanasi, Allahabad, Haridwar, Patna

2

Yamuna

Yamunotri Glacier Ganges River

Delhi, Agra, Mathura

3

Brahmaputra

Angsi Glacier [Tibet]

Bay of Bengal

Guwahati, Dibrugarh

4

Narmada

Amarkantak, MadhyaPradesh

Arabian Sea

Jabalpur, Harda, Bharuch

5

Godavari

Trimbakeshwar, Maharashtra

Bay of Bengal

Trimbakeshwar, Nashik, Rajahmundry

River system in India plays an important role as it provides potable water, cheap transportation, livelihoods, electricity, irrigation water, etc. Table 6.1 describe some major rivers in India. Due to fast growing industrialization in India, especially in the last two decades; has helped to improve the living standard of people but for that we had paid a nasty amount to nature in the form of increasing pollution. Hence, both the river water we take and the air we respire is heavily poisoned [38]. The anthropogenic activities in and around the river are continuously destroying the marine life and are responsible for the imbalance of aquatic ecosystem, also for the increase in the process of eutrophication hence, unplanned industrial setup is rapidly adding on to marine discharge and to the total amount of pollutants being disposed in the river or sea [27]. These discharges consist of heavy metal and other toxic elements which may get accumulated or biomagnified as they first get transferred into our food chain and then to the food web [1]. In this section of the chapter we will see how the water quality of major rivers in India got differently affected during social lockdown caused by the deadly virus, COVID-19. (ii) Eco-Revival of River Ganga during Lockdown. Currently there are several industries and cities which are present along the bank of river Ganga and ceaselessly discharging tons of industrial, municipal, and domestic wastes straight into the river which directly increases the biological oxygen demand (BOD) and reduce the concentration of dissolved oxygen (DO) in water which is essential for aquatic life [12]. River pollution has become an emerging issue for various developing countries due to the fast growing industries, uncontrolled population, and management issues. This leads to ill-handling of byproducts from all waste producing sources that are now entering into the river directly and is the foremost cause of environmental toxicity, which has ruined the water quality with aquatic flora and fauna [12]. The river water has a significant influence on the growth of microbial flora, since the microbes take up their nutrition from surrounding water. The level of fecal coliforms in Ganga’s water from the human waste is hundred times higher in some areas than the permissible limit assigned by the government [44]. Coliforms

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are the group of gram-negative, rod-shaped, aerobic, or facultative anaerobes which ferment lactose and produce acid and gaseous as their byproducts [34]. This group of bacteria makes most of the microflora of fecal matter of warm-blooded animals including humans as they add up to the major microflora of our gut. The coliforms do not cause any kind of serious illness however their excessive presence in drinking water is a strong indicator of contaminated or polluted water [34]. Lockdown has significantly changed the water quality standards of river Ganga. Mukherjee et al. [44] reported that there was a sharp decrease observed in the number of total coliforms values in the Ganges during COVID-19 lockdown period (April 2020) and this sudden drop is due to the non-functioning of industries, less traffic, and closed tourism in conjunction with the reduced waste disposal activities. According to Dutta et al. [19] river, Ganga has shown significant signs of revival and also other improvements on different parameters. This change of impact can be noticed in terms of increased dissolved oxygen (DO), reduction in numbers of total coliform especially fecal coliform, nitrate (NO3 ) concentration, etc., this data was observed in many districts falling under the Ganga basin, during lockdown. Decline in the concentration of nitrate was observed due to limited industrial activities and limited agriculture runoff (Fig. 6.12). A sharp reduction was observed in the nutrient load of phosphate and nitrate, confirming the constructive role of lockdown for the aquatic system of river Ganga which leads to a balanced ecosystem of the river. Lockdown also allowed aquatic life to revive and also reduced the strain from aquatic flora and fauna [58]. The pH levels of the aquatic ecosystem of river Ganga has reduced due to climate change, which results in increased dissolution of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and caused acidification (carbonic acid formation) of water, however during lockdown there has been a uniform increase of pH confirming reversal process of acidification [18, 19].

Fig. 6.12 Source of biggest untreated municipal wastewater in Ganga river a before lockdown b during lockdown (Source [19])

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(iii) Observed Changes Occurred in the Water Quality of River Yamuna. The Yamuna is another major river of India and unfortunately is among distinctively dirtiest rivers in India. It is the second largest and longest tributary of Ganga hence the polluted water of Yamuna ultimately affects the water parameters of Ganga River. The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) had identified more than 351 polluted river sites across India in 2018 and many of these sites were situated alongside large urban cities and industrial areas [48]. Yamuna is considered as the most polluted river in the world [43]. Yamuna’s water quality mainly degrades when it enters into Delhi National Capital Territory (NCT) about 23 km upstream of Wazirabad Barrage (Palla) and travels around 6.9 km downstream of Okhla Barrage, this area of about 48 km in Delhi NCT consist of only 2% of total Yamuna’s path but receives almost 79% of its total pollutant load [48]. According to Kumar et al. [29] the water quality of Yamuna from the Himalayan segment up to Palla (before entering in Delhi) is moderate, whereas the Delhi segment is the worst affected area of entire river length. The spread of COVID-19 has provided a ray of hope to improve the water quality of the Yamuna River, as the industries are operating partially within Delhi and also on other regions located on the banks of Yamuna. Patel et al. [48] analyzed the aftermath of lockdown on Yamuna’s water at different sites in Delhi and reported that, there is an improvement in water quality of 37%, which is a huge increment. The biological oxygen demand and chemical oxygen demand were reduced by 42.83% and 39.25%, respectively, with respect to the pre-lockdown phase and fecal coliforms decreased more than 40%. During lockdown the Yamuna possesses a declined effluent load, low levels of turbidity, suspended particulate matter, and algal signatures. Arif et al. [2] said that a general improvement in the water quality of river Yamuna has been observed during lockdown, the concentrations of pH, BOD, DO, electrical conductivity (EC), and COD has showed a cut down of 1–10%, 45–90%, 51%, 33–66%, and 33–82%, respectively, in comparison to pre-lockdown state. The water quality of Yamuna has improved much better during lockdown even when several efforts and actions were taken before for cleaning the river, where also an enormous amount of money was invested but no satisfactory results were obtained until now [2]. It seems that COVID-19 lockdown has provided us with a perfect opportunity to revive all those water bodies which are on the verge of dying; not only in India but also in the entire world. Of course there are several disturbing issues related to this pandemic situation which cannot be appreciated at all but as a society we need to accept that the lockdown has taught us an important lesson that we have to care for our nature for a better and glorious tomorrow.

6.3.3 Revamped Noise and Soil Pollution With increasing human activities, the magnitude of anthropogenic noise as well as the noise pollution also increases. Environmental noise is known as the unwanted sound that is generated by anthropogenic activities, i.e. industries, traffic, music at high volumes, commercial activities, etc. [72]. Man-made noise reduces the capability

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to receive natural sounds which play a crucial role in the reproduction and survival of wildlife [8]. In the past, noise pollution was considered to be a city problem but due to rapid growth and development of humans in rural areas, its reach has been extended [8]. Environmental noise is the main causal agent of health-related problems, discomfort in environment and population, and finally alters the natural conditions of this ecosystem [71]. According to Zambrano-Monserrate et al. [72] the imposition of lockdown measures by most of the governments of different countries in the world ordered people to stay at home resulting in the significantly decreased use of public and private transportation, many commercial activities, and air traffic have halted. All these changes help in dropping the level of noise considerably in various cities of the world. Mandal and Pal [41] reported that a decrease in the levels of noise was observed in the stone crushing and quarrying site situated in Dwarka, the river basin of Eastern India the noise level dropped to 1 MW) systems in most counterparts, particularly since the mid 2000s. “As these long-lived PV systems mature, it is anticipated that large quantities of PV modulus waste will be produced by the year 2030. Endof-life management with resource recovery is preferable to recycling as a way of managing end-of-life PV systems with respect to environmental impacts and energy use” [20]. Recycling not only eliminates waste and waste-related pollution when recycling processes themselves are successful, but also provides the ability to minimize the energy usage and pollution associated with the processing of virgin materials. “This may be particularly important for raw materials with high levels of impurity (e.g., semi-conductor precursor material), which often require an energy-intensive pretreatment to achieve the required levels of purity. Recycling is also important for the long-term management of resource-constrained metals used in PV modules” [21]. Till date, aging or damaged solar panels have typically been recycled in all-purpose glass processing plants, where only their glass and aluminium frames are recovered, and their specialist glass combined with other glasses. Typically the left over is then burned in cement stoves. So are solar panels completely recyclable? The short and simple answer is “yes.” “Essentially, silicon PV modules are made of glass, plastic, and aluminium: three materials that can be recycled in massive quantities. Given the recyclability of the PV modules, the process of separating materials may be tedious and involves modern machinery and technology”[22]. Below are the four basic steps for efficient recycling of a silicon module: 1. The aluminium frame (100% reusable) could be removed. 2. Separating the glass by means of a conveyor belt (reusable 95%). 3. Thermal treatment with temperature of 500 °C. It allows the tiny plastic components to evaporate which allows for quick separation of the cells. 4. Etching away and smelting silicon wafers into reusable slabs (reusable 85%). “A variety of methods are currently being developed for extracting useful metal components from PV wastes. Several process steps need to be incorporated to remove the metal frame, back panel, EVA resins and protective tempered glass coating before recovery of the PV modules” [23]. “The most successful recycling method to date for c-Si PV modules is focused on mechanical, thermal and chemical processes” [17]. “The new state-of-the-art recycling process aims to recycle more than 80% of the PV module by weight. For the recovery of value-added components or products, EoL products or scraps collected under various schemes are shipped to the consolidation sites” [8]. The method flow starts with aluminium frame disassembly and junction box disassembly. Since the size, profiles, and frame fastening vary from one maker to another, frame disassembly is often performed manually. Then shredded, sorted, and separated after frame. The materials isolation allows them to be sent through different

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recycling processes relating to each item. “The frameless PV module consists of the active silicon cell contained in an EVA polymer layer that allows the cell to be laminated onto the back sheets of hard polymer and onto the front sheet of glass” [7]. “Recycling of solar cells requires placing the components in a smelter or acid bath to recover the elements, including selenium (Se), indium (In), and gallium (Ga). The glass is cleaned and collected by thermal decomposition; dissolution of solvent or acid to eliminate any residual PV layers” [24]. “With the aid of a hammer mill, the recycling process begins with the shredding of the PV modules into large parts and then into small fragments (5 mm or less). The semiconductor films are then removed over the next 4–6 h in a slow leaching drum. The remaining glass is exposed to a combination of sulfuric acid (H2 SO4 ) and hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) for optimal solid-liquid ratio. Following that, the isolation from the glass is repeated. A vibrating screen is used in the next step to isolate the glass from the larger pieces of ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA), via. After cleaning it the glass is sent for recycling. Sodium hydroxide is used to deposit the metal compounds, after which they are transported to another industry where they can be processed into raw materials of semiconductor quality for use in the modern solar PV modules. This entire process recovers 90% of the glass used in the manufacture of new products, and 95% of the semiconductor materials and metals used in new solar PV modules” [21] (Fig. 9.5).

9.3.1 Advanced Recycling Technologies “Advanced or specialized PV recycling uses a combination of mechanical, thermal, and chemical processes to recover most materials including glass, aluminium, copper, silicon, silver, lead, and tin. The polymer fraction remains unrecoverable, 8-10 per cent by weight, and must be landfilled and incinerated” [17]. Various chemical, thermal, and a mix of mechanical methods or processes of advanced or specialized levels for PV recycling to recover most material, including metals, are used. Even then, the polymer fraction has to be landfilled and incinerated, 8–10% by weight, is unrecoverable. The advanced recycling method consists of three processes: (1) Thermal Process: Here, the components are passed through the combustion chamber and through the process of pyrolysis (thermal decomposition in an inert atmosphere), etching (the process of cutting metal into unprotected pieces by using strong acid or mordant), the recovered metals from PV cells are sent to metal refinery for metal recovery. (2) Mechanical Process: In the mechanical process, the crushing or grinding method is used to sort the waste by size and magnetism, which goes to waste along with glass if the waste is nonmagnetic. Other processes scape and cut the encapsulation layer for the solvent treatment of components so that metal components obtain can be sent to the metal refinery for metal purification processes.

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Retired PV modules Delamination

Thermal decomposition

Physical separation

Metal Glass

Si cells

Material Separation/Extraction/Purific ation

Chemical etching

Clean wafers Fig. 9.5 PV recycling process

(3) Chemical process: The chemical process identifies and separates the metal fraction and glass & plastic fraction through solvent treatment. The glass and plastic are discarded separately, and metal fractions are sent to the metal refinery for recovery of metals. In all the three processes, the silicon metal recovered is separated and further converted into silicon wafers, also called slice or substrate (A slice of silicon semiconductor mainly used for fabrication of integrated circuits). Pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical techniques are used in the metal refinery for the purification of metals and to obtain metals such as silver, aluminium, copper from the supplied waste. These metals can be further used in many domains depending upon the availability and degree of purity. Other processes that could be used in the recycling process are given in the Table 9.3.

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Table 9.3 PV module waste recycling technologies [16, 22] Technology

Advantages

Disadvantages

Filtration

1. Efficient 2. Able to filter particles with minimal inclusions

1. In industrial practice, pollution from the container must be reduced before filtration can be used

Centrifugation

1. High purity of Silicon Recovered

1. Uses toxic heavy liquid 2. Process is slow 3. Unable to extract c-Si particles from submicron

Phase-transfer separation

1. Strong purity and reclaimed – silicon yield 2. No heavy toxic substance used 3. Simple and cost–effective

Electrophoresis and gravitational settling

1. High efficiency of separating Si/Al2 O3

Electrical field

1.High efficiency of separating 1. Metal impurity removal Si/SiC pretreatment needed 2.No hard, poisonous liquid used

1. Contamination of Al in silicon recycled

Al–Si alloying

1. Complete omission of SiC

1. The Process is complicated

Hydrobromination

1. High-purity Si recovery without SiC extracted first

–

Supercritical water

1. High-purity Si recovery from oily silicon ingot cutting wastes

–

Sedimentation and leaching

1. Separation of Si and SiC by – physical approaches 2. Less complicated operation and simpler to produce

Czochralski mono c-Si process

1. Low power consumption

1. Recovery of c-Si Mono 2. Lowering the boron concentration to increase cell performance

Electrokinetic separation

1. High efficiency of removal of iron particles in slurry wastes 2. Does not use additives

–

Hydrometallurgy: oxidation, evaporation, reduction by inorganic reducing agents

1. Recovery of high pure – selenium which can be used directly in new solar cells (continued)

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Table 9.3 (continued) Technology

Advantages

Disadvantages

Hydrometallurgy: dissolution, 1. CIS mixed waste recycling filtration, liquid–liquid 2. Application of normal extraction, stripping, hydrometallurgic and precipitation electroplating chemical processes 3. Recovers pure indium

1. Further refining of the processes needed

Organic solvent dissolution

1. The EVA is easy to access 2. Minimum damage to cells 3. Receiving of glass

1. Delamination period is calculated by area 2. Noxious Pollution and waste

Organic solvent and ultrasonic irradiation

1. More effective than dissolving solvent 2. Easy EVA Access

1. Expensive equipment 2. Harmful emissions and wastes

Electro-thermal heating

1. Easy glass removal

1. Time taking process

Mechanical separation by hotwire cutting

1. Minimum cell damage 2. Glass recovery

1. Other separation processes needed to eliminate EVA entirely

Pyrolysis (conveyer belt furnace and fluidized bed reactor)

1. Separate 80% of wafers, and nearly 100% of glass sheets 2. Cost-effective method for industrial recycling

1. Texturization marginally worse (damage to cell surface)

Solvent (Nitric acid) dissolution

1. Full removal of EVA and metal wafer coating 2. The recovery of intact cells is possible

1. The inorganic acid can cause cell defects 2. Produces polluting emissions and waste

Physical disintegration

1. Able to handle waste

1. Other separation processes needed for complete elimination of EVA 2. Dusts which contain heavy metals 3. Solar Cell Breakage 4. Corrosion of equipment

Dry and wet mechanical process

1. No chemical processes 2. Made readily available equipment 3. Low energy demands

1. Dissolved solids not removed

Thermal treatment (two steps heating)

1. To complete elimination of EVA 2. Possible recuperation of intact cells 3. Measurably viable cycle

1. Toxic emissions 2. High energy demands 3. Cell defects and high-temperature degradation

Chemical etching

1. To recover products of high 1. Chemicals are used purity 2. Process is quick and efficient

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9.4 Result and Discussion 9.4.1 Economic Benefits of Recycling “A research carried out in 2016 by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) along with the International Energy Agency (IEA) found that the recycling panel would represent an opportunity of approximately $ 15 billion by 2050 [20] (Fig. 9.6). IRENA has projected that global PV panel waste could reach as high as 78 million tons in just about three decades. This waste, which consists primarily of glass, may be a goldmine for recovery of raw materials. Recycling has the ability to generate thousands of jobs for employees, in addition to the economic value of the content and people included in the process, and also for the new industries focused on utilizing Fig. 9.6 Potential value creation of materials in the coming decades”

CumulaƟve PV Capacity: 1,600 GW

Life cycle: Raw material recovered to produce 60 million new panels (equivalent to 18 GW)

PV panel waste:

2030

1.7-8 million tonnes

Value : USD 450 million for raw material recovery New Industries and Employment

CumulaƟve PV Capacity:

4,500 GW

Life cycle: Raw material recovered to produce 2 billion new panels (equivalent to 630 GW)

PV panel waste: 60-78 million tonnes

2050 Value :

USD 15 billion for raw material recovery New Industries and Employment

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Table 9.4 Expected economic values for the weight content of a waste PV module for aluminium, copper, silver, and waste glass Name of element Percentages by of PV waste module weight (%)

Component weights for a single PV module (kg)

Glass

Unit prices forecast for products in 2040–2050 (USD/kg)

2040–2050 Gross economic prices (USD) of recycled materials for a unit module

70

14.53

–

–

Aluminium (frame) 18

3.74

2.35

8.78

Aluminium (conductor)

0.53

0.11

2.35

0.26

Copper

0.11

0.02

7.5

0.17

Silver

0.053

0.01

495.2

5.45

recovered materials. “The recovery of metals for use in the modern manufacturing sectors is a way to minimize costs, which directly affects prices and thus motivates the productivity power of the country. Being a resource supplier nation, lowering prices could be a tremendous merit in lowering manufacturing expenses to compete with other resource suppliers on the market and thus dominating the market as a strong resource supplier. In short, they all give rise to the country’s cash inflow, and thus motivate the creation and become a strong candidate” [25]. All this plays an important part for the economy of the country. “World Bank estimates for copper, aluminium and silver prices for the year 2030 are USD 7000 t−1 , USD 2200 t−1 , and USD 514.47 kg−1 , respectively” [26]. “Although the aluminium and copper prices have gone up, the estimates for silver have declined. Under these conditions, copper, aluminium and silver prices are expected to be on average as USD 7,500 t−1 , USD 2350 t−1 , and USD 495, 18 kg−1 between 2040 and 2050. In this regard, the economic revenue from PV waste is shown in Table 9.4, showing waste PV module metals (silver, aluminium and copper), weights, unit prices and estimated economic values for a single module” [25].

9.4.2 Environmental Benefits of Recycling “Many studies have analyzed the influence of recycling processes for PV modules upon the environment. There are advantages as well as drawbacks of various methods, considering all the stages, from gathering of the PV modules till the end of the recycling process” [27, 28].

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231

Water

Intact waste in open dump sites gives rise to a risk to water sources, from leachate going into the ground and surface water resources, causing contamination and health hazard.

9.4.2.2

Air and Soil

Waste is burned in open places to decrease build-up, reduce hazards from disease point of view, and expose the market of materials that could be sold—which is especially relevant for e-waste. In general, uncontrolled and haphazard burning of e-waste generates airborne particle emissions which may be inhaled. This is a vital source of PM10 generation in regions that implements it frequently. The more broadly known environmental pollutants from majority of e-waste are from compounds that are exposed during (often crude) dismantling of the PV panels: heavy metals, polychlorinated biphenyls, and brominated flame retardants. Regardless of that, heating of plastics (including polyvinyl chloride wire casings), and circuit boards produces another variety of pollutants which includes chlorinated and brominated dioxinrelated products. Human and environment is exposed to the burning of this e-waste in a considerable amount. Burning activities also rises up the amount of inhaled particulate matter which is toxic in nature, in addition to enlarging their geographical scale of influence.

9.4.2.3

Health

Batteries aside, the amount of hazardous materials in off-grid PV devices are present in very little quantity. But, the East African region has a huge, informal recycling module which uses discarded waste materials as a source of income generation by dismantling or burning of products to extract metals that could be sold. The vast majority of the informal recycling quarter which is involved in this material extraction does it with very little to almost no safety equipments. Although hazardous materials constitutes of a small part of solar products, the close propinquity and high frequency of exposure causes increase in the concentration and rate of inflow of these materials into the body. The transfer of particles from the skin and clothing of a person to family members is a secondary effect of exposure to these materials in the informal recycling sector. Even a little concentration of certain materials could cause harm to human health and it is especially prejudicial to the growth of children.

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9.4.3 Ecological Impact and Cost Analysis A life cycle analysis is conducted using a module of 125 × 125 mm multicrystalline silicon cells. Compared to a module using recycled wafers, a standard module results in a reduced energy consumption of 40 percent per kWh produced. For 20 years the generation of electricity is assumed in a sunny region resulting in a total generation of 33 kWh/Wp or 71.9 kWh/waf. The reuse of recycled silicon wafer for a second lifetime with high energy content significantly increases the carbon payback rate. With the small additional energy consumption for recycling solar cell and module cycle, we can again produce the same amount of energy for sunny regions, namely 165 kWh/Wp and 86 kWh/Wp for continental regions [29].

9.5 Conclusion Traditional approaches to solar e-waste recycling don’t have all the solutions to this growing crisis. Such approaches are energy-intensive, inefficient, and unsustainable and pose both environmental and safety hazards. This review presents existing and potential off-grid photovoltaic recycling systems. This paper analyzes the structure of c-Si PV modules and discusses the status and trends of the treatment methods used to recycle the silicon PV module. We have developed recycling process for the waste photovoltaic module through this research. We recycle tempered glass using organic solvent. And, the EVA had been discarded with thermal decomposition. The silicon was eventually obtained by chemical etching process by removing metal impurities on the recovered surface of the PV cells. In particular, we were able to achieve a high yield of silicon by using a surfactant that may be useful to researchers interested in recycling the PV components. This work sheds new light on air conservation and on the successful use of the human-friendly waste materials. Recycling of photovoltaic modules is not currently feasible, experts claim, since the volume of waste produced is still too limited to be economically viable for recycling. However, by 2030 the waste generated from PV modules is expected to exceed 130,000 tpa, the volume that is sustainable for its recycling, according to the European PV modules recovery association. It is also found that while studies have shown that photovoltaic waste recycling and end-of-life recycling modules have significant positive effects on the reduction of environmental loads, the economic feasibility of photovoltaic module recycling remains unfavorable and policies are required to promote producers’ accountability not only in the photovoltaic sector, but also in the energy sector. There will be a need for recycling technology soon as the waste generated from solar panels is increasing rapidly. The methods for recycling of solar panels are described in detail in this paper. However, the quality of recycled materials is yet to be known. Research on how to use the recovered materials can be performed, which form the future scope regarding the enhancement of this work.

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References 1. Bergera W, Simona F-G, Weimanna K, EAA (n.d.) A novel approach for the recycling of thin film photovoltaic modules 2. Kang S, Yoo S, Le J, Boo B, HR (n.d.) Experimental investigations for recycling of silicon and glass from waste photovoltaic modules 3. Bogacka M, Pikon K, ML (n.d.) Environmental impact of PV cell waste scenario 4. Adamo ID, Miliacca M, Rosa P (2017) Economic feasibility for recycling of waste crystalline silicon photovoltaic modules 1–7 5. Choi J, Ph D, Fthenakis V, Ph D (2013) AC SC. J Clean Prod. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro. 2013.11.022 6. Sinha P, Solar F, Cossette M, Menard J (2012) End-of-life CdTe PV recycling with semiconductor refining 27–28. https://doi.org/10.4229/27thEUPVSEC2012-6CV.4.9 7. Olson C, Geerligs B, Goris M, I B, JC (2013) Current and future priorities for mass and material in silicon PV module figure 1. Schematic of state-of-the-art PV recycling process flow 2–6 8. Choi J, Fthenakis V (2010) Econ Feasibility Recycl Photovoltaic Surv Model 14(6):947–964. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-9290.2010.00289.x 9. Greenmatch.co.uk—Match Quotes & Suppliers|GreenMatch. (n.d.). Retrieved 1 Aug 2020, from https://www.greenmatch.co.uk/ 10. Lalit G, Emeka C, Nasser N, Chinmay C, Garg G (2020) Anonymity preserving IoT-based COVID-19 and other infectious disease contact tracing model. IEEE Access 14. https://doi. org/10.1109/access.2020.3020513 11. Impact of COVID-19 on Operational Projects and Rooftop Solar: Report (n.d.). Retrieved 3 Sept 2020, from https://www.saurenergy.com/solar-energy-news/impact-of-covid-19-on-ope rational-projects-and-rooftop-solar-report 12. PSB Academy|Diplomas, Degrees, Postgraduate & Other Courses (n.d.). Retrieved 1 Aug 2020, from https://www.psb-academy.edu.sg/ 13. Solar Panels, Solar Panels For Sale For Your Home & Business (n.d.). Retrieved 1 Aug 2020, from https://www.mrsolar.com/ 14. Home-Mana Energy (n.d.). Retrieved 1 Aug 2020, from https://mepcell.com/ 15. Kim H (2018) PV waste management at the crossroads of circular economy and energy transition : the case of South Korea. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10103565 16. Jing Tao SY (n.d.) Review on feasible recycling pathways and technologies of solar photovoltaic modules 17. Suresh S, Singhvi S, Rustagi V (2019) Managing India’s PV module waste 1–32 18. Advances in Solar Photovoltaic Power Plants|Md Rabiul Islam|Springer (n.d.). Retrieved 1 Aug 2020, from https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783662505199 19. Solar Power Installation|Development|Technology News and Features (n.d.). Retrieved 1 August 2020, from https://www.solarpowerworldonline.com/ 20. Agency E, Co-operation E, Climate G (n.d.) About IEA-PVPS 21. Task IEAP, Lee J (2018) End of life management of photovoltaic panels : trends in PV Module Recycling Technologies end-of-life management of photovoltaic panels : trends in PV module recycling technologies 22. Access O (n.d.) We are IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open Access books Built by scientists, for scientists TOP 1% 23. Yi YK, Kim HS, Tran T, Hong SK, Kim MJ (2014) Recovering valuable metals from recycled photovoltaic modules. J Air Waste Manag Assoc 64(7):797–807. https://doi.org/10.1080/109 62247.2014.891540 24. McDonald NC, JMP (n.d.) Producer responsibility and recycling solar photovoltaic modules 25. Gönen Ç, Kaplano˘glu E (2019) Environmental and economic evaluation of solar panel wastes recycling. Waste Manage Res 37(4):412–418. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X19826331 26. World Bank (2017) The Word Bank—Annual Report 2017. 80. Retrieved from http://pubdocs. worldbank.org/en/908481507403754670/Annual-Report-2017-WBG.pdf

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27. A Review of Recycling Processes for Photovoltaic Modules|IntechOpen (n.d.) Retrieved 1 Aug 2020, from https://www.intechopen.com/books/solar-panels-and-photovoltaic-materials/a-rev iew-of-recycling-processes-for-photovoltaic-modules 28. Lunardi MM, Alvarez-Gaitan JP, Bilbao JI, Corkish R (2018) A review of recycling processes for photovoltaic modules. Solar Panels Photovoltaic Mater. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen. 74390 29. Frisson L, Lieten K, Bruton T, Declercq K, Szlufcik J, HDM, Goris M, Benali A, OA (n.d.) Recent improvements in industrial PV module recycling

Chapter 10

Impact of Biomedical Waste Management System on Infection Control in the Midst of COVID-19 Pandemic Johnson Retnaraj Samuel Selvan Christyraj, Jackson Durairaj Selvan Christyraj, Prasannan Adhimoorthy, Kamarajan Rajagopalan, and J. Nimita Jebaranjitham Abstract The emergence of modern medicinal practices and diagnosis process has resulted in health risks and threat to the environment, and thus it is a matter of global concern. However, the improper waste management rules adopted in healthcare hospitals around the world cause a potential health impact to ecosystem which generates contagious and deadly diseases affected by human beings. In this chapter, an attempt is made to investigate an overview of biomedical waste management practices in healthcare facilities in India as well as around the world. This chapter intends to provide the origin and types of biomedical waste, requirement of waste management rules and containment in hospitals and research centres and followed by the safe disposal of wastes which are unaffected to the environment. More emphasis was given to the biomedical health risks, handling and disposal methodologies adopted by different countries and the steps taken to eradicate the infections caused due to COVID-19 pandemic in much reliable ways. Keywords Biomedical waste management · Incinerator · COVID-19 · Infection control · Health risks · Segregation of wastes · Colour codes for wastes · Treatment of waste · Disposal methods Authors Dr.Jackson Durairaj and Dr. Johnson Retnaraj Samuel have contributed equally. J. R. S. Selvan Christyraj · J. D. Selvan Christyraj · K. Rajagopalan Regeneration and Stem Cell Biology Lab, Centre for Molecular and Nanomedical Sciences, International Research Centre, Sathyabama Institute of Science & Technology (Deemed to be University), Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India P. Adhimoorthy Department of Materials Science & Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC e-mail: [email protected] J. Nimita Jebaranjitham (B) PG Department of Chemistry, Women’s Christian College (An Autonomous Institution Affiliated to the University of Madras), College Road, Chennai 600006, Tamil Nadu, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 C. Chakraborty et al. (eds.), The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Green Societies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66490-9_10

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10.1 Introduction 10.1.1 Biomedical Waste: Universal Problem Resembling other industrial pollutants, biomedical waste pollutants produced from healthcare units also have a huge impact on the survival risk of human, animals and plants. More specifically, the proper management of biomedical wastes has become a recent research interest on worldwide level due to this highly infectious pandemic state. A study on biomedical wastes by “The Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India (ASSOCHAM)” stated that India can generate 550.9 tons of medical waste per day of 2020 from hospitals and research laboratories. Improper management of biomedical wastes is taken into account and concern all over the world as it may lead to serious harmful effects on human health, aquatic systems and environment. The exposure to untreated biomedical wastes can cause serious health risks and can induce infectious diseases including tuberculosis, typhoid, cholera, hepatitis, AIDS, respiratory and abdominal infections. Additionally, the hazardous biomedical waste can also affect the natural water reservoirs and aquatic life when it is directly discharged into the streams without prior treatment with reduced toxic effects. Generally, the biomedical wastes are classified into three major categories such as chemical/radioactive (5%), infectious (10%) and general municipal (85%) wastes respectively. As recommended by Worlds Health Organization (WHO), the biomedical wastes can be segregated into infectious, pharmaceutical, pathological, sharps and radioactive wastes and suggested to practice suitable disposal method for the total eradication of the effects. Hence, in order to have improved healthcare waste management system, it is necessary to have better understanding and knowledge on how to handle, segregate, store and dispose different types of hazardous medical wastes to avoid serious health risks. This chapter provides an overview of the urgent need for the proper management of biomedical wastes through better treatment processes on par with environmental regulatory acts during this pandemic condition. In addition, it also gives an idea about the global scenario and the biomedical health risks and different methodologies adopted to reduce the COVID-19 infected persons and death ratio through following proper biomedical waste management systems.

10.1.2 Types and Sources of Biomedical Waste Classification of Biomedical waste According to World Health Organization (WHO) biomedical waste has been classified into eight categories such as General Waste, Infectious waste, Chemical, Sharps, Radioactive, Pathological, Pharmaceuticals, and Pressurized containers.

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Primary sources Hospitals

Mortuaries

Nursing homes

Research and training centres (Medical)

Clinics

Biotechnology Institution/Manufacturing units

Medical laboratories Animal houses Blood banks

Home healthcare unit

Whereas, according to Bio-medical Waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 1998 [1], wastes were classified into ten categories as Human Anatomical Waste, Microbiology & Biotechnology Waste, Animal Waste, Waste Sharps, Liquid Waste, Soiled Waste, Unwanted Medicines & Cytotoxic drugs, Incineration Ash, Solid Waste, and Chemical Waste. Bio Medical Waste Management Rules, 2016 categorizes the biomedical wastes into four categories and the medical wastes are segregated based on four colour code as yellow, blue, red and white category. Sources of biomedical waste Biomedical wastes generated during analysis, handling/treatment or vaccination of human beings or animals are considered to be more infectious than the municipal solid waste. Hence, management of biomedical waste is an essential part of controlling infections and conducting healthcare training programs. The sources of biomedical waste [2] can be classified into two types as primary and secondary sources based on the amount of waste produced. Based on training component of the Project “Environmentally Sound Management of Medical Wastes in India”, 2018, primary sources of biomedical waste are as follows in Table 10.1. The secondary sources include industries, educational institutes, ambulance service, funeral service, research centres and slaughter houses.

10.1.3 Levels and Analysis of Biomedical Waste Location of source Based on the BMWM rule of 2016, the biomedical wastes are first collected at a particular point of source location e.g. nearby area of hospital or medical research institute [3]. The collection and accumulation of BMW has to be supervised by ring of doctors or nurses. Based on BWM rule 2016 the anatomical wastes from human and animal, biotechnology waste has to be collected on daily basis form each ward of the hospital and must be disposed within 48 h. Segregation of waste After sorting out the source of BMW, segregation of waste has to be performed using coded colour bags and containers. Only three fourths of the waste bags are filled with its capacity, and packaged securely with proper labelling about that material. The materials which need pre-treatment such as plastic, metals and sharps must be removed. BMW has four categories of colour coded bags as

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yellow, white, red and blue. A detailed discussion about segregation was given in Sect. 10.4.2. Handling and Storage of waste The coded colour plastic bags should be properly labelled with the cytotoxic symbols, date of entry, types of materials and exact quantity of BMW as well as the sender’s and collector’s information to which waste was transported to disposal points. Used bags, containers and bins should be labelled with Bio-Hazard and Cytotoxic-Hazard symbols in order to have effective BMW management. Untreated BMW should not be stored beyond 48 h in any case if necessary prior permission should be acquired from the authorized person to store even after 48 h. The BMW must be stored in a separate common room or place facility which is situated very far from the patient and visitor paths in accordance with BMW guideline, 2018. Transportation BMW has to be transported within limits of same hospital or only across the nearby district level with secured packaging and means of transport [4] without any leakage of bio-wastes. Separate wheeled trolleys are used within the hospital premises and they should be frequently disinfected after usage to avoid infections due to spillage of wastes. BMW has to be transported only in authorized vehicles by skilled authority as stated by the government to the common disposal point for the treatment process. Treatment and Disposal of Waste (General and biomedical) As 80–90% of waste produced in the hospital is covered under general waste category, this waste has to be collected separately in black coloured polyethylene plastic bags and has to be hand-over to the local municipal authorities for proper disposal procedures. Biomedical wastes are segregated as per BMWM rules, 2016 and are disposed by adopting appropriate disposal treatment methods like autoclaves, incineration, landfills, pit dump, deep-burial, etc. The following flowchart defines the different levels of BMW management Fig. 10.1.

Fig. 10.1 Different levels of BMW management

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Statistical Analysis of BMW Management Systems BMW management is solely dependent on various steps of handling wastes including collection, segregation, transportation, treatment and final disposal of waste. Therefore, District Level Health Survey (DLHS) has been recorded to get recommendations based on biomedical waste management systems in accordance with Annual Health Survey (AHS). The DLHS-4 was conducted in 30 states and Union Territories (UTs) comprising of nine states (AHS) and 21 states were non-AHS states preceded by DLHS-1 (1998–1999), DLHS-2 (2002–2003) and DLHS-3 (2008–2009) [5]. Therefore, statistical survey analysis can be conducted at district levels and city levels to collect the ideas and recommendations from public and hospital managements to arrive at the best BMW management system to protect human health and environment. Generally, survey analysis was conducted on the following parameters such as, role of segregations of waste-coloured bins/bags (yellow, red, blue, white and black) having cytotoxic symbols, biohazard symbol, usage of huge plastic container for needles and syringes, treatment and disposal methods adopted in waste management such as autoclave, microwave, chemical disinfectant, shredder, incinerator, deep burial pit, Sharp pit and usage of Personal Protection Equipment (PPE) aids.

10.2 Biomedical Waste Management System in India and Other Countries 10.2.1 History and Development of Biomedical Waste Management System (BWMS) The first BMW rules were introduced by the government of India (G.S.R. 343(E), S.O. 630 (E)) dated 20 July 1998. This act describes the segregations of wastes into 10 categories which are found to be a difficult task for the scavengers/housekeeper staff to sort out different kinds of biomedical wastes without having prior knowledge about its infectious risks. The major drawback of this act was, the scavengers were found to get exposed to infectious waste with no gloves, masks and used syringes without sterilization. Before this act, there was only general environmental act (The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986). Later on, International Clinical Epidemiology Network (2002–2004) reframed the BMW setup as 10 , 20 & 30 Healthcare facility (HCF) among 20 states of India. They found that there is no incredible BMW System for 82%, 60% and 54% of 10 , 20 & 30 HCF units in India [6]. More specifically, it was reposted that around 240 peoples were infected with Hepatitis B due to the reuse of unsterilized syringes (Gujarat). After this incidence, India made necessary action to improve the already existing regulatory acts for better management of biomedical waste. Further, minor modifications of 1998 BMWM rules were proposed on 2000, 2003 & 2011. Again in 2016, the Ministry of Environment and forest climate change has introduced

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BMWM rules with wider coverage among all areas of protection. The New BMWM rules formulated in 2016 consist of Four Schedules, five forms and eighteen rules to bring about the clarity of handling biomedical wastes. Other wastes which are not categorized under biomedical wastes are collected and segregated based on specific rules for municipal wastes, solid wastes, lead acid batteries, e-waste and radioactive substances. Further, amendments of BMWM rules, 2016 was given (G.S.R. 234(E) dated 16 March 2018) in order to have improved waste management system. Salient features of BMWM (Amendment) Rules, 2018 are as follows: All Biomedical waste source units will have to totally eradicate the usage of chlorinated plastic bags (excluding blood bags) and gloves by 27 March 2019. As per amended BMWM rules 2018, blood bags are exempted from phase-out, and all healthcare facilities should post their regular annual report on their portal within two years of period. The most recent revised guidelines were given by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) on 10 June 2020 stresses the safety of sanitation workers who handle the biomedical waste in isolation wards. These guidelines state that all the basic necessities used by COVID-19 patients were classified as biomedical waste and should be put in yellow-coloured bags, while the used gloves must be collected in red bags. It also describes the role of Nodal officers, Operators and Maintenance Staff in sample collection centres, isolation wards of COVID-19, confinement centres, diagnostic and research laboratories, Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) and common biomedical waste treatment and disposal facilities (CBWTFs).

10.2.2 Prominent Hallmarks of Biomedical Waste Rule 2016 in India (a) Scope to conduct various camps like vaccination, blood donation, surgical or training pertinent to healthcare hygiene; (b) Ruled-out the use of gloves, chlorinated plastic bags, and blood bags within two years; (c) Pre-treatment of biomedical wastes such as wastes from laboratory, microbiological units, blood samples and blood bags through appropriate decontamination or sterilization as prescribed by World Health Organization (WHO) or National AIDS Control Organization (NACO); (d) Provide training to all its healthcare workers and protect them from diseases such as hepatitis B and tetanus by immunization regularly; (e) Launching a Bar-Code System for bags or containers containing BMW for disposal; (f) Existing incinerators have to achieve the standards for permissible emission of Dioxin and Furans and retention time in secondary chamber within two years;

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(g) Biomedical waste was classified into 4 categories rather than 10 according to BMWM, 1998 to enhance the segregation process of waste from different sources; (h) Processing rules to get authorization was simplified. For bedded hospitals automatic authorization was provided and one-time approval for Non-bedded HCFs; (i) It describes the operating standards for incinerator to control the pollutants emission. (j) Insisting the State Government to offer land area to set up CBMWTF. (k) Duties of the occupier of HCFs have been revised. There should not be any on-site treatment and disposal facility, CBMWTF must be setup at distance of 75 kms. (l) Operator of a CBMWTF is responsible for timely collection of biomedical waste from the HCFs and training of HCF. (m) Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate change will monitor/follow up the execution of rules yearly and the committee shall submit its report for every 6 months once to the State Pollution Control Board.

10.2.3 Global Scenario of COVID-19 Pandemic Globally, as of 3 September 2020, there have been 25,842,652 confirmed cases of COVID-19 and 858,629 deaths reported to WHO. The number of confirmed cases in WHO regions like (1) United States of America, (2) South-East, (3) Europe, (4) East-Mediterranean, (5) Africa and (6) Western Pacific and the major COVID-19 affected countries are given in Fig. 10.2. The current scenario of COVID-19 has made tremendous deviations from our everyday routines and affected the flow chain

Fig. 10.2 Global scenario of COVID-19

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of usual happenings globally [7]. More specifically, it disrupted the production and supply chains, it caused political, logistical and economical challenges. Importantly, it twisted the well-being of human beings and imparts an acute health risk. The economy is under recession in many countries because of this pandemic. To emphasize, countries with already weaker growth and economy are facing greater challenges during this crisis period. Apart from these above mentioned issues, each country is facing its difficult times to manage the biomedical wastes generated during this crisis time. Many countries are now taking efforts to monitor and report on the therapeutic uses of antibiotics to control this infectious disease. Several Universities and Research Institutions are thriving their complete energies to discover a Novel/New vaccine which can act as an appropriate shield to save this human era from the deadly effects of corona virus. Recently, the United Nations Industrial Organization (UNIDO) has sanctioned a project titled “Environmental Sound Management of Medical Waste” to India to reduce the Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) which was due to the emission of toxic gases during incineration process. This project was launched in five states viz., Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Orissa and Punjab.

10.2.4 Critical Appraisal on BWMS in India and Other Countries Due to the existence of large population in India, huge amount of biomedical wastes is generated which needs special treatment facilities. Various treatment processes are existing for the disposal of biomedical wastes in India including autoclave treatment, microwave irradiation, dielectric heating, chemical disinfectant, depolymerization, landfills, dry heat, Pyrolysis-Oxidation, etc. Among other methods, incineration of biomedical waste is the usually used method in India because of its low cost. The following Fig. 10.3 gives an idea of various treatment and disposal methods employed in India and other countries [8–13].

10.2.5 Requirement of Biomedical Waste Management in Hospitals and Research Centres Hospitals and Research labs can act as a source for various hazardous wastes and infectious contaminants which can cause harmful effects. The hospitals and labs working with biological organs or organisms are prone to generate huge sources of biomedical waste. There is great need of BMW management in hospitals wastes because, the injuries from sharps can lead to infection, transmission of disease through air, water and soil, risk of infection to the outsiders and general public who are nearby hospital area, risk of allergies to the inside patients and possibility of

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Fig. 10.3 Various disposal methods adopted for BMWM in India and other countries

reselling disposable items. Number of experiments were performed in Research labs which employs the usage of either microorganisms, animal cells, animals, animal wastes, pathological wastes, human wastes or sharps and specialized apparatus used for handling those wastes. These materials can serve as a source of bio-hazardous wastes. Hence, most of the research labs follow the guidelines of the RCRA (Resource Conservation and Recovery Act) for handling, storage and nature of treatment process and disposal methods. According to these rules, all the infectious wastes should be totally decontaminated or disinfected before its disposal stage. The Center for Disease Control (CDC) considers medical waste which are sourced at research labs to be the most hazardous of all medical waste that is generated. Hence the waste generated from hospitals and research labs needs extra caution and protector action in BMW management system.

10.3 Risk of Biomedical Waste With the increase in population, the number of hospitals, clinics and nursing homes increases drastically leading to increase in the generation of biomedical waste. More than 30 tons of biomedical is generated by hospitals in metropolitan cities each day [14]. Bio-medical waste is hazardous to the open population and causes great risk to patients, healthcare workers, scavengers and the community at large, if the disposal is not methodically managed properly. Babanyara et al. [15] have shown that the inadequate management of biomedical waste can cause pollution to the environment, produce unpleasant odour, growth and division of insects, rodents and worms which

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further enhances the spread of diseases like cholera, typhoid and hepatitis through injuries caused by sharps which are contaminated with blood.

10.3.1 Biomedical Effects of COVID-19 According to the World Health Organisation report, the Non-communicable disease (Cardiovascular disease, Cancer, Chronic respiratory disease, and Diabetes) and other health services are highly influenced by COVID-19. Almost majority of countries (53%) are partially or completely interrupted by COVID-19. The medical emergency was highly concerned for patients with diabetes (49%), cancer (42%) and cardiovascular (31%). Significantly, COVID-19 infection rate is increasing day by day, this imposes pressure on the demand of hospitals and medicines to tackle the challenges. Specifically, the requirement for medical resources (ventilators, masks, gloves, face shields, gowns and hand sanitizer) is in greater demand. In addition, the mental and physical pressure of healthcare workers on hospitals is becoming very high. The inadequate providence or inappropriate usage of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) has highly affected many healthcare workers and general public. Especially, psychological context of humans has been profoundly affected by this pandemic. Notably, many adolescents have committed suicide by stress, anxiety, fears and loneliness. The over reactions of the body immune system (cytokine storm) also have induced in COVID-19 cases [16], because their infection did not only affect the lungs, but some of them have reported with gut issues, kidney failure and multi organ failure [17]. Even after global quarantine and containment, COVID-19 reported 26.3 Million infected persons with 869 K reported deaths (3.3% mortality) as on 04-09-2020. At present, there is no proper medication reported for treating COVID-19, government and private organizations are struggling to find out the effective drugs to fight against new coronavirus. The spread of COVID-19 infected patient and more asymptomatic carriers are the reason for pandemic emergence of the disease which are reported with minimal of 7–14 days of incubation period, and the longest in few cases are reported with 21 days [18]. Dry cough, fever, fatigue, conditions of respiratory distress syndrome, shock, sepsis followed with death are the most commonly observed. Even though COVID-19 shows varying symptoms from mild to moderate level, most of the infected people recover by their own without hospitalization. Meanwhile, many patients have recovered from the COVID-19, whereas the effects of COVID-19 may influence the future health of comorbidity patients.

10.3.2 Understanding the Actual Status of Medical Waste According to World Health Organization (WHO), biomedical waste may be defined as clinical waste resulting from patient operations and clinical specimens and all

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related to laboratory diagnostic tests within the research centres or resulting from the medical and research laboratories during the training of students. Health care is indispensable for our life, however the waste produced from medical actions may be highly toxic and hazardous and are likely responsible for disease transmission. The waste products produced include sharps, non-sharps, blood, body parts, pharmaceuticals products, chemicals, medical outfits, radioactive substances, etc. 75–90% of biomedical waste is non-hazardous which comprises of food remains, paper cartoons, fruit peels, packaging materials, etc., and 10–25% is hazardous also known as risk medical waste such as injuries to humans or animals and cause pollution to the environment [19]. It is very crucial to be aware of the fact that if both hazardous and non-hazardous wastes are mixed the whole waste becomes harmful. World Health Organization in 2000 had given a statement that the improper treatment of medical waste caused 21 million infections of Hepatitis B, 2 million infections of Hepatitis C and 260,000 infections of HIV each year worldwide due to very poor waste management systems. Hospitals and other healthcare facilities, laboratories and research institutes are some of the major source of medical waste. Akter [20] has shown that about 5.2 million people die every year from waste-related diseases. Medical waste also contains infectious microorganisms which can infect other patients, sanitation workers and the general public. BMWM rules introduced on 20 July 1998, provides uniform guidelines for the entire nation. Under this law, it is mentioned clearly that a person/ institute who is the source of generation of biomedical waste will take the responsibility of collecting, handling and segregation of wastes properly without causing any contrary effect to environment and human health.

10.3.3 Inappropriate Biomedical Waste Disposal Quantification Medical waste can be infectious to both people and the environment causing high contamination and cross contamination risks. Based on the references of World Health Organization (WHO) and other guidelines medical waste must be treated near to its source of its generation. This needs responsibility from every employee working in the hospital who is involved in the segregation process. Suitable location and equipped waste disposal facilities can reduce the necessary transportation of hazardous materials. There is high risk considering the transportation of biomedical waste such as illegal or inappropriate disposal (dumping and obsolete treatment technologies) by haulage personnel and accidents. In addition, transportation of hazardous waste to the treatment centres is prohibited in some urban areas. Dumping or landfilling of biomedical waste cause pollution to the ground water if the site is not managed properly. Some of the various techniques used for the disposal of biomedical waste include incineration, chemical disinfection, wet thermal treatment also known as steam sterilization, landfill disposal, microwave irradiation,

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and inertization. Increase in population increases the generation of biomedical waste. Hospitals in metropolitan cities especially government run hospitals have become a matter of great concern as the biomedical waste produced is dumped alongside city garbage and not managed properly and appropriately. According to Mohankumar and Kottaiveeran [21], India has 6 lakh hospital beds in 23,000 (primary healthcare units) and 15,000 (private and small hospitals), majority of which fail to follow the Bio-Medical Waste Rule 1998 which is mandatory for every hospital and hence we are facing challenging conditions due to the improper management of pathological wastes. Hospitals safeguard human life however the biomedical waste generated causes countless damage to the environment as it is not managed properly. This improper management of biomedical waste upsurges the airborne pathogenic infectious organisms, which also affects the hospital environment and society. The most affected people are healthcare workers, patients, scavengers, members of the public, visitors of health care establishment workers at waste disposal facilities [22]. Researchers have found that about 82% (primary), 60% (secondary) and 54% (tertiary) health care facilities (HCFs) across 20 states in India had no sustainable biomedical waste management systems (INCLEN Program Evaluation Network et al. [23]. Despite India, being continuously taking vital steps for the safe disposal of Bio-Medical Waste, in 2009 around 240 people contacted hepatitis B due to the usage of unsterilized syringes in Gujarat [24].

10.3.4 Exposure and Emission of Toxic Gases During Incineration As per the regulations all biomedical waste should be treated within 48 h and hence every hospital and other HCFs generating bio-medical waste is required to set up proper BMW treatment facilities to ensure proper treatment of waste. Incineration in a widely used and the most popular method of disposing majority of hazardous medical waste. However open burning or burning of medical waste in incinerator emits harmful and toxic gases such as black smoke, toxic flue gas, fly ash, and odors which lead to atmospheric pollution causing respiratory and skin disease or even cancer. US Environmental agency has found that medical waste was the third main source of dioxin emission and 10% of mercury emission. Burning of medical waste such as plastic materials which are generated from polyvinyl chloride (PVC) products is the major producer of dioxin [25]. Incineration of materials and heavy metals containing chlorine, mercury, lead and cadmium in particular generate dioxin and furan and can lead to the evolution of toxic metals in the environment. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) recognized dioxin cancer causing potential and regarded as human carcinogen. Dioxin is one of the most toxic chemical development which cause cancer, immune

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system disorder, birth defects, diabetes, and sexual disorder [26]. To check the presence of dioxin in the atmosphere, a collaborative research was initiated by Council of Scientific and Industrial Research and National institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology in Thiruvananthapuram in January 2017.

10.3.5 Spread of COVID-19 Pandemic Meanwhile scientist and researcher are giving attention for finding the cure of the ongoing Coronavirus (COVID-19), medical garbage waste contaminated with body fluids or other infectious materials is becoming a larger distress for hospitals and other healthcare facilities as they can spread COVID-19 worldwide. In China’s Wuhan, with the support from government officials and strategic plan of healthcare professionals, new hospitals along with new medical waste storage units were built to handle 30 tonnes of wastes and use 46 mobile treatment systems [27]. The waste generated during this crisis time was an outbreak than normal wastage as six times greater. The daily output of medical waste was about 240 metric tons, which is similar to the weight of an adult blue whale. Patients, healthcare and sanitation workers are accessing the medical provisions and disposable PPEs, like masks, gloves etc., in larger quantities these days therefore, these materials requires safety disposal. The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) of India, apart from the Bio-Medical Waste Management Rule, 2016 it already had, recently released a new specific guidelines to ensure the handling and safe disposal of biomedical wastes during this COVID-19 in a scientific and logical manner. According to the Bio-Medical Waste Management Rule 2008, medical waste would not be combined with any waste and it must be segregated and processed separately based on the classification. Waste formed during patient’s treatment inclusive of those person with confirmed COVID-19 infection is infectious and should be safely handled and managed with best practices. People handling healthcare waste are in dangerous risk of infectious diseases since the medical waste out of COVID-19 can be contagious when in contact with skin, inhalation or ingestion. However, there is no proof that, defenseless human interaction will transmit COVID-19 virus, according WHO report. As the pandemic situation grows, the quantification of waste also increases and custody of safe management of waste and containment of wastes will be a great task for societies until the crisis situation is over.

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10.4 Biomedical Waste Containment 10.4.1 Formation of Containment Vision and Missions The healthcare sector has unpredictable demand because of the overpopulation on the earth. The huge volume of medical waste has been generated by improper medical waste mismanagement as well as inadequate knowledge and awareness of medical waste containment that will influence various diseases [28]. Generally, the vision of the bio-containment is properly organized form of management which generates biomedical waste such as healthcare and health research facilities and associated laboratories to control the spread of disease as well as prevent the hazards of land, air, and water pollution. Amelioration of healthcare efficiency and effectiveness is the only key to control the biomedical wastes. The government of India has realized and the Ministry of Environment & Forests has revealed the rules for Bio-Medical Waste (Management & Handling) under the Environment Protection Act 1971. In 2016, these rules have upgraded and ameliorated their standards for biomedical waste containment. These rules and regulations have used to achieve the vision of biomedical waste management systems and these rules are shall apply for all healthcare research facilities and workers. The schedule-I rule is to define the biomedical waste as well as indicating the standard methods for handling and disposal methods of biomedical waste. Importantly, the National Policy document have explored infection control, medical waste management and Infection Management and Environment Plan (IMEP) framework for the amelioration of healthcare facilities by Ministry of Health & Family Welfare. Infection Management and Environment Plan (IMEP) consists of two documents includes policy framework and operation guidelines for healthcare facilities. The current status of biocontainment system is step forwarding whereas, Gadicherla et al., have revealed the actual status of biocontainment in healthcare facilities of Karnataka, India. Among 116 HCF categorized into large (9), medium (17), small (90). Segregation, storage efficiency, containment of sharps have focused. Except for storage efficiency rest of the things have revealed their poor condition, viz segregation efficiency (24.4%) in small HCF’s, containment of sharps (small—34.7%, medium—23.4%, large—26.8%) and the final disposal treatment facility ratio is about large 88.8% and medium 88.2%.

10.4.2 Medical Waste Regulations and Segregations Even though BMWM has various rules and guidelines for appropriate management system, the real challenge lies in the segregation of biowastes from different sources. HCFs units are instructed to segregate the BMW in approved colour codes. In case of general public, people should collect their household waste as wet and dry wastes in individual containers or bags in order to minimize the spread of infections to the

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Fig. 10.4 Segregation of waste based on colour code and its disposal

sanitary workers. Authorities have to provide emphasis on the benefits of the usage of PPEs, collection bins and isolated vehicles and to conduct appropriate training programs to maintenance staffs in their regional languages. The different colour codes as mentioned in BMWM rules, 2016 and its appropriate disposal method are given below in Fig. 10.4.

10.4.3 Restricted Access for Medical Waste Waste minimization is termed as the inhibition of waste creation and/or its decrease. It includes explicit approaches, variations in waste management and environmental changes. Approaches of waste lessening include modification of manufacturing, procuring actions, control of invention and generation of less toxic materials. But that should not compromise the quality of healthcare products and its access and usage. General solid and liquid wastes are disposed as municipal wastes and the infectious and contagious wastes are treated first before disposal. Generally, the disposal of infectious wastes is 10 times more costly than ordinary waste disposal. Any method which reduces the quantity of infectious waste generation as well as the cost of waste disposal is said to be the better method for BMW management. In a

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nutshell, the “4Rs” are most important in minimization of waste, (i.e.,) reusing, repurposing, recycling and reducing offer more effective strategies for garbage disposal. Reducing the amount of waste produced at source, reusing the waste products for useful purpose, e.g. as manure for garden plants, recycling the waste products with proper decontamination. When these strategies are followed we can definitely have waste minimization and have better management system to segregate, process and dispose small quantities of wastes in high-level decontamination.

10.4.4 Awareness and Training to the HealthCare Professionals The recent existing BMWM rules have to be displayed and circulated among all the healthcare professionals, scavengers and waste management staffs to create awareness on how to collect, handle, segregate, treat and dispose bio-wastes which are more infectious and hazardous [29]. In order to create awareness among the hospital staff, a survey analysis containing about 100 questionnaire on BMWM rules and regulations can be performed among doctors, nurses, management staff, scavengers, training students. Based on the results obtained from those survey analysis, appropriate training can be given to different professionals based on the requirements, risky environment and their knowledge about safety on handling wastes. Training for scavengers and waste segregating staff has to be given in the local regional languages for better understanding and practice. Existing rules for collection, segregation of bio-wastes from general waste, the risk of untreated wastes and the measures to minimize the risks must be elaborated to each individual who was engaged in the BMW management process. Training on Standard operating procedures for handling safety equipment, chemicals and infected patients and animals must also be provided. Safety laboratory acts like Occupational Exposure to Hazardous Chemicals in Laboratories, the Hazard Communication Standard and the Formaldehyde Standard acts should be explained to the staff working biohazards, chemical hazards, and radiation hazards to reduce the infectious risks. The importance of usage of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) like gloves, masks, goggles, etc., during collection or segregation of wastes from different contaminated sources of areas and importance of immunization must be clearly explained to the scavengers in order to reduce environmental and health risk of air-prone infectious hazards through transmission.

10.4.5 Alternatives for PolyvinylChloride Products Polyvinylchlorides (PVC) is mainly used for the manufacture of flexible bags/containers and un-breakable tubes in medical devices. PVC offers excellent durability, bio-compatibility, flexibility, chemical resistance, low maintenance costs

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and affordability, which have made this material a best choice of usage in all healthcare units. Almost 40% of all hospitals use this PVC made medical devices [30]. Even though it has many beneficial properties, when it is incinerated or burned during disposal process it liberates toxic gases. PVC produces carbon monoxide, dioxins, water, hydrogen chloride, metal chlorides and chlorinated furans on combustion process which threatens human health habits. Even the lower concentration of Dioxins and furans products can cause diseases such as, cancer and birth defects. In addition, the hazardous chemical additives exist in PVC such as phthalates, lead, cadmium, and/or organotins, can be toxic and affect child’s health. When PVC containing medical devices are incinerated, HCl gas emission from incinerators has to be removed from the emission products by continuous monitoring and filtration with suitable scrubbers. Due to the emission of toxic gases into the environment, the usage of PVC in making medical devices is taken into concern to have efficient waste management system. In recent years, many non-PVC materials are also available commercially for a wide variety of medical applications. PVC products softened with plasticizers other than Di (2-Ethylhexyl) Phthalate (DEHP) are also available on the markets such as citrates, adipates and trimellitates. Furthermore, since the alternative products of PVC are free from PVC, they can be more easily recycled or disposed. The following table provides an idea of medical devices fabricated from alternative materials for PVC used in Neonatal Intensive Care Units (Fig. 10.5). Fig. 10.5 Alternative materials to PVC in Neonatal care unit

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10.5 Biomedical Waste Treatment 10.5.1 Conventional Methods The main objective of BMW management was to either minimize or to totally eradicate the hazardous waste with better treatment method. Various conventional waste treatment methods are existing to decontaminate or destroy or disinfect the infectious bio-wastes such as autoclaves, pyrolysis, incineration, landfills, chemical disinfectants, plasma pyrolysis, microwave irradiation and gasification methods. This section explains in detail about the role of autoclaves, dry heat (pyrolysis), chemicals disinfectants and landfills in the BMW management process. Autoclaves Autoclave is a heat treatment process which is more similar to the working of standard pressure cooker. Autoclaves are operated at high temperatures of about 121 °C for 60–90 min and under steam pressure of 15 psi. At higher temperatures, the steam produced inside the system interacts with the waste materials and destroys the microorganisms. Three types of autoclaves are commercially available viz., Gravity type, Pre-vacuum type and Retort type [31]. In Gravity type, air is evacuated with the influence of gravity alone. In pre-vacuum type, vacuum pumps are used to remove air with the reduced time cycle (30–60 min) at 132 °C. Retort type autoclaves are manufactured to achieve much higher steam temperature and pressure to destroy the infectants. Categories like waste sharps, soiled, solid wastes, microbiology and biotechnology waste can be effectively treated with autoclave treatment method. Dry heat (Pyrolysis) Pyrolysis is a treatment process for bio-waste decomposition with heat in an oxygen deficient atmosphere. Before dry heating the bio-wastes, metallic components have to be segregated as metals cannot be decomposed at that temperature. During heating process, there is emission of gases like (methane, ethane, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide); liquids (oil and tar); and solids (char and carbon black). The gases can be stored or purified and used as fuel for other purposes to heat the radiant tubes. The solid residues left over after heating process was landfilled. Chemical Disinfection Disinfection is one of the best methods to reduce the pathogenic organisms which are involved in the transmission of infectious diseases. The cleaning and disinfection protocols can be performed in many approaches such as simple surface cleaning, sterilization, usage of chemical disinfectants like antiseptics, biocides and sanitizers. Plentiful chemical agents are available to disinfect healthcare facilities. Generally, liquid-based chemical disinfectants are classified into nine wide categories as acids, alcohols, alkalis, halogens (hypochlorites and iodine-based iodophors) aldehydes, biguanides, phenolics, oxidizing agents, and quaternary ammonium

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Fig. 10.6 Common chemical disinfectants

compounds [32]. Very recently, hydrogen peroxide silver nitrate products, accelerated hydrogen peroxide products, and Quaternary ammonium/glutaraldehyde or formaldehyde combinations were developed and are shown successful as disinfectants but they are not permitted for usage in veterinary hospitals. No-touch approaches of surface decontamination technologies with hydrogen peroxide dry-mist or vapor (HPV) fogging method and ultraviolet (UV) light are also employed for disinfectant process. An ideal disinfectant should possess the ability to kill wide range of pathogens or microorganisms. It should hold stability, chemical & surface compatibility, non-toxicity, easy solubility in water, non-flammable, pleasantable odour, cleaning ability and more economic. The following figure gives a category-wise detailed list of disinfectants used to reduce pathogenic infections (Fig. 10.6). LandFills Treated and untreated waste can be disposed in three ways such as in open dumps, sanitary landfills and landfills. In the case of open dumps, untreated and not segregated solid wastes are dumped in uncovered areas. This open dump will become the place of breeding of many insects and flies through which infectious diseases are transmitted. In rainy season, these dumps run off and contaminate the whole area and affect the ground water purity as well. Hence this kind of open dumps is totally eradicated in many cities in India, e.g. Bilaspur City. Landfills are generally located in urban areas, where huge amount of solid wastes are dumped into a pit. The pit was covered each day with a layer of soil through which the breeding of insects and flies can be prevented. After some time the wastes in the dumped landfills were compressed into cells tightly and then the total area is covered with a thick layer of soil. This kind of landfills is used as parking lot or park in near future. However, landfills also suffer from leachates and contamination of ground water. Sanitary landfills are an alternative to landfills [33]. This sanitary landfill can solve the leaching problem

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to some extent. In this method the pits were lined or covered with impermeable materials like plastic and special clays to avoid liquid spillage. Researchers reported that the plastic liner was cracked due to the reaction with different solvents generated from wastes. This method is costlier than the other two methods and the rate of decay of waste is also comparatively better. This was due to the fact that there is existence of less oxygen when the garbage is compressed very tightly. Another drawback is the generation of methane gas, which happens when there is little amount of oxygen during decomposition process. In some countries, the methane gas liberated from the sanitary landfills was stored and retailed as fuel.

10.5.2 Incineration Method—Pros and Cons Incineration, a treatment method which includes the burning/ignition of organic substances found in waste at higher temperatures. Particularly, this incineration process was employed in various regional zones to treat infectious waste from pharmaceutical, chemical industries, hospitals and research institutes. Incineration process transforms waste into flue gas, ashes and heat, which can be utilized as energy for other processes, for example the generation of electricity [34]. Incineration plants can lessen the quantity of waste in landfills as it produces lower mass of waste from 95 to 96%. Incineration process has plentiful profits, in terms of destruction of contaminant biomedical wastes. The energy production through this incineration plants is in greater demand in Japan, Germany and Sweden as it requires a small area of land. The beneficial advantages and disadvantages of this incineration process in the treatment of biomedical and hazardous wastes will be discussed in the following section. Pros of Incineration Method as a BMWM Systems Efficient Waste Management The key advantage of incineration was decrease in the quantity of waste generation after the combustion process. Almost 90–95% of the solid waste was reduced during organic decomposition process. Therefore this method is found to be in demand rather than dumping of bio-wastes into the landfills. Further, this incineration system occupies a relatively smaller space which is convenient for construction and managing waste. This method is more suited for Nations with shortage of lands like Japan. In addition, these plants can be constructed in the permissible areas of nearby cities or districts which are easily accessible there by ignoring transportation difficulties. Production of thermal and power Energy Incineration plants produce energy from waste and that energy can be utilized to generate electricity or heat. In 1950s, due to the higher energy costs, lot of countries (European) have utilized this thermal or power energy generated from the incinerators for the production of electricity by steam turbines. It can be utilized to fulfil the power

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requirements of people living in the surroundings of the plant or warming homes and workplaces. Reduced pollutants and role of emissions treatment systems Incineration is found to be a more eco-friendly treatment method than landfills due to its reduced pollutant generation. Landfills usually release higher quantities of dioxin, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, greenhouse gases, non-methane organic compounds and leachate fluids. Leachate water will destroy the underground water systems. Comparing incineration with that of landfill process, methane gas is generated in landfills and the generation of this gas has to be controlled in order to avoid explosion. The methane gas production also causes serious global warming issues. Whereas, in the case of incineration process there is no generation of methane gas. More over as most of the incineration plants are operated at 850 °C or even higher temperatures, most of the germs and chemical hazardous materials are destroyed to the maximum level. Further, the incineration treatment process can provide better control over the odour and noise pollution. Existing incineration plants are equipped with suitable filters and appropriate emission systems on par with pollution limits recommended by respective pollution control boards, Environmental Protection Agencies and Regulatory Legislations. Incinerators coupled with computerized monitoring system and metal recycling The incineration plant units were equipped with a computer system to continuously monitor the operation efficiency and emission of products after completion of process. The coupling of plants with computerized system will enable the operator to find out the particular problem and to sort out the exact solution for it in a more precise manner. After incineration process, the metals will remain as such in many cases as it possess higher melting points. The metallic residues can be collected from the respective units and it can be reused for any other application before the disposal stage. Incinerators can operate in any weather Incinerators operations are not dependent on weather changes, as they ignite waste without any leakages. During drizzling season, waste cannot be disposed in landfills because there is a possibility of washout and formation of leachates due to rain water after the natural underground water system. Incineration plants can work non-stop for 24 h and are more well-organized and effective in managing waste compared to other treatment methods. Cons of Incineration Method in BMWM System Expensive Treatment Process The infrastructure cost for the construction of incineration plants is very expensive. In addition, the plants require trained manpower to operate by following exact standard operation procedures and regular maintenance is an essential factor to monitor the emission processes.

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Environment Pollution and Public Health Defects During combustion process, incinerators liberates smoke into the atmosphere. The evolved smoke produces many toxic pollutants which includes particulates, dioxin, heavy metals, furans, acid gases and nitrogen oxide. These gases are poisonous to the living systems. Long term exposure to these gases may affect the human public health. The people around the incineration plant area will have serious health defects such as birth defects, cancers, reproductive and neurological dysfunctions. An improved technology should focus and encourage about recycling and waste generation process. Whereas, this incineration process does not promote those two factors. Even though the resultant ash content from the incinerated process is very minimum, it requires proper treatment and disposal as it comprises of many toxic which can harm the public health and environmental impact.

10.5.3 Operating and Emission Standards of Incineration Biomedical waste management rules formulated in 2016 has a detailed explanation on the operation and emission standards of incineration. Operation Standards of Incineration Effective incinerator should possess a combustion efficiency (CE) of atleast 99%. The primary and the secondary chamber of the incinerator should be maintained at a temperature of 800 °C and a minimum to maximum level of 50–1050 °C. The gas residence time in the secondary chamber should be atleast two seconds. Combustion Efficiency can be calculated using the given equation as CE = …….% of CO2 / ….. % of CO2 + …….% of CO × 100. The minimum stack height of the incinerator should be 30 m from the ground and the stacks should be fitted with appropriate accessories to have effective incineration process. Preferably, fuels containing low sulfur content like light diesel, sulphur heavy stock, diesel or compressed nitrogen gas, liquid natural gas or liquid petroleum gas can be utilized for incineration in order to have control over emission of toxic gases. Efficient incinerator should produce permissible Total Oxygen Content (TOC) in slag and bottom ashes less than 3% or the loss on ignition should be 5–10 μm (they travel over short distances, L ~< 1 m), as well as, (b) virus-laden aerosolized droplets or droplet nuclei (droplets with diameter smaller than 5 μm) (they travel over distances >1 m). Droplet transmission from the infected individual to the uninfected people may occur due to coughing and sneezing while being in close contact. In such cases, upon getting exposed to the infective respiratory droplets, the mucosae of mouth and nose, as well as, the conjunctiva of the eyes may facilitate the entry of virus particulates into the body of an uninfected individual [51]. The COVID 19 virus has also been reported to be active and alive for substantial period on the surfaces of the fomites, thereby enhancing the possibility of transmission via the contact route. Figure 11.2 depicts

Fig. 11.2 Schematic representation of manifestation of SARS-CoV-2 in the host, sustenance of virus particulate in the environment and transmission into the receptor

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schematically the possible interaction mechanism between the SARS-CoV-2 particulates and its surrounding, that includes both the host, as well as, the environment. It encompasses the manifestation in the host, sustenance in the environment and subsequent transmission into the receptor. Overall, from the samples analysed at different geographical locations, it has emerged that the SARS-CoV-2 particles emerging from the infected individuals via the respiratory droplets and through the faeces cause a definite level of contamination in the environment [61], and it is likely that both the mediums serve as the potential pathways towards large-scale transmission of the disease, which may eventually lead to community spread. Consequently, the hygienisation becomes an issue of prime importance. Therefore, apart from thorough sanitization of the spaces of mass gathering, and maintenance of the hand hygiene at the individual level; it is also of importance to employ a suitable technology towards hygienising the municipal sewage sludge of the densely populated urban centres, as the sludges serve as the breeding ground for a lot of pathogens that can be transmitted to the community during the time of handling or through accidental indirect contact with the contaminated wastewater flowing through the urban canals. International experts have opined and advised that the countries should adopt the waste treatment pathways that are environmentally sound, following the guidelines provided by UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) regarding Sustainability Assessment of Technologies (SAT) pertinent to Best Available Technology and Best Environmental Practices (BAT/BEP) [62].

11.3 Overview of Sludge Hygienisation Techniques—Focus on the Irradiation Treatment Technology Since early years of 1980s, some of the European countries have been directing substantial research effort towards innovating effective sludge hygienisation technology. In Switzerland, a 2-stage biological procedure emerged in 1983, which encompassed partial aerobic thermophilic fermentation in the first stage followed by anaerobic sludge digestion in the second stage. Researchers associated with this development had claimed to have achieved effective hygienisation of sludge, along with improved sludge thickening and reduced digestion time. The innovators also claimed that the abovementioned process facilitated lesser energy consumption and enhanced process stability [63]. Serious research work went on for about a decade with a view to optimizing the procedure and a few pilot plants had been installed at the wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) in and around the city of Altenrhein. During those times, it was pointed out that processes like sludge drying and sludge composting might not be capable of entirely preventing the regrowth of pathogenic microorganisms. Keller pointed out that liquid sludge irradiation could be an effective pathway towards disinfecting the sewage sludge [63].

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In a research article published in 1983, Breer mentioned that the application of gamma rays or accelerated electrons could be a better alternative as compared to the thermal processes, such as the aerobic-thermophilic fermentation of liquid sludge and the drying of sewage sludge [64]. The advantage with the gamma rays is that they exhibit adequate penetration into the water and the concentrated liquid sludges. The half-value thicknesses of 1.33 meV γ-rays from Co-60 source, for water and the normal liquid sludge are about 28 cm and 25 cm, respectively [65], and such penetration depths ensure effective delivery of intended irradiation dose across the thick layers of slurry, into the interior parts of liquid sludge. Although during 1990s the future prospects of irradiation-based sludge hygienisation facilities looked quite promising, with several facilities being in various stages of planning and some under construction; many of those plants were shut down later on. However, most of them did not cite any particular operational difficulties [66]. The most common γ-ray sources used in the industrial-scale radiation facilities are Co-60 (Cobalt-60) and Cs-137 (Caesium-137). Co-60 is produced by exposing non-radioactive Co-59 to a neutron flux in a nuclear reactor, whereas, Cs-137 can be obtained as a by-product of the spent-fuel reprocessing cycle in the form of CsCl (Caesium Chloride). However, as Co-60 has a lesser half-life (~5.3 years) as compared to Cs-137 (half-life ~30.17 years), and the γ-photons emitted by the Co60 (1.17 and 1.33 meV) are more energetic as compared to that emitted by Cs-137 (0.662 meV); therefore, Co-60 has emerged as a preferred γ-radiation source in the high activity irradiation facilities, such as the sludge hygienisation plant [65]. Disintegration of 60 Co atoms produces two photons with isotopic yield of 100% and the cumulative energy released by the two gamma photons is 2.5 meV. Another advantage of using Co-60 is that it cannot make artificial radiation, which means it does not produce any radiation on being bombarded with high speed (i.e. high energy) particles [67]. On the other hand, CsCl is soluble in water and therefore, it poses great risk of widespread radioactive contamination in case of a leakage from the sludge hygienisation facility [65]. In order to promote the use of γ-radiation for hygienising municipal sewage sludge, an indigenous Sludge Hygienization Research Irradiator (SHRI) was set up in 1992 at Baroda (now Vadodara) in the State of Gujarat, by the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) in India. It was a collaborative program between Bhabha Atomic Research Center (BARC) at Mumbai, Vadodara City Municipal Corporation, and the Government of Gujarat, India. The installed irradiator had a provision for a Co-60 source with radiation strength of 18.5 PBq (1 PBq = 1015 Bq) to disinfect the digested sludge. As reported in a more recent study, the strength of Co-60 source in the SHRI facility was about 220 kCi in 2005, which was provided by 13 pairs of Co-60 pencils housed in horizontally placed pencil slots to impart irradiation into the stainless-steel vessel [68]. The main objective of SHRI project was to treat about 110 m3 sewage-sludge output per day, so that the hygienised sludge can be used as safe fertilizer on agricultural farmland [69]. Over an operational period of about six months, it was found from the results obtained from SHRI facility that 3 kGy dose of gamma radiation (Note: The thermal equivalent of 1 Gy radiation dose is 1 J/kg) is adequate for making the normal sludge free from pathogen and odour

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[70]. The process parameters in SHRI facility were adjusted while irradiating the sludge received from the primary settling tank of a WWTP, so that fecal coliform bacteria present in the sludge were completely eliminated and the residence time of the irradiated liquid slurry was controlled to prevent their regrowth. Irradiated sludge was found to be appropriate for using direct disposal in a landfill or for us as manure after drying. It could also be used as a medium for growing of Rhizobium sp., a plant growth promoting microorganism, facilitating the formation of an effective bio-fertilizer. Another major industrial-scale sewage sludge hygienisation facility based on Co60 radiation sources was developed at Tucuman in Argentina by PIBA [71]. In this facility, a concentric source loading tank was located inside the irradiation tank. The facility was designed to have 32 locations, where a specially constructed support structure would lodge nine sources in vertical position. Industrial Co-60 sources (model FIS 60–05) with the average activity of each source ranging between 7 and 10 kCi were employed. As the hygienisation facility was designed for peak radiation capacity of 700 kCi, therefore, 70 number of Co-60 sources of 10 kCi activity were needed. At the initial phase, only 8 of the available 32 locations were chosen to place the radiation sources in the source loading tank, whereas, the other 24 locations were kept free to facilitate any changes in the arrangements of the radiation sources. The facility was designed to enable hygienisation of a sludge volume of 140 m3 /day, with the batch volume and irradiation time being 6 m3 and 30 min, respectively [71]. As per the successful bidding, the capital cost of this facility turned out to be USD 3,200,000, whereas, the operating cost for 25 years was estimated to be about USD 4, 69,000. Recently in March 2019, the first sewage sludge hygienisation plant in the country became operational in Ahmedabad, Gujarat [72]. This dry sewage sludge irradiation facility envisages a peak dry sludge load of 100 TPD (tons/day) when it becomes fully operational [73]. The plant is designed for a peak radiation capacity of 1.5 MCi which will be provided by the Co-60 sources procured from the Board of Radiation and Isotope Technology (BRIT)) [74]. However, the source strength will be augmented in the steps of 150 kCi, looking at the increase in the sludge load. Currently, the facility hygienises about 6 tons of dry sludge per day and within next 3–4 years, an average dry sewage sludge load of 30–40 tons/ day is expected [74]. The author visited the facility in September 2019; and from the discussions with the technical experts it emerged that the aforesaid hygienisation facility presently receives dewatered sludge mainly from the Sewage Treatment Plant (STP) of 180 MLD (Million liters per day) capacity, located at the Pirana Road. On an average, the Pirana Road STP experiences daily accumulation of 12–15 m3 of sludge, the weight being in the range of 8–10 TPD. It was also found that the STP treats 160–165 MLD of wastewater. Assuming uniform composition of raw municipal sewage as a rough estimate, it was found that for 1 ton of sludge accumulation, about 16.5 Million liters of wastewater needs to be treated. It is to be noted that for hygienising the present sludge load of 6 TPD, 150 kCi Co60 pencil is used [73]. The dried sludge is first sent to the crusher and grinder, so that particle sizes are reduced to less than or equal to 5 mm. The crushed sludge is then

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loaded in the parallelepiped tanks made of stainless steel. Each tank has a carrying capacity of about 250 kg; however, the sludge per tank is limited to about 220 kg. The tanks are placed on a conveyer belt which facilitates only linear translation of the loaded tanks. The sludge-loaded tanks on the conveyer belt move through a U-shaped path so that both the vertical faces of the tank that represent the largest area of exposure are exposed to the Co-60 radiation. The calculated optimized dose for killing all the pathogens is 10 kGy and for each of the tanks to receive this optimal radiation dose, the required exposure time is about 54 min. The radiation facility abides by the radiation safety protocol as per the regulations of BARC. The irradiation unit is controlled using an automated routine in a Programmable Logic Control (PLC) software platform developed by SYMEC Engineers (India) Private Ltd. A source loading scheme is already available with BARC for the industrial-scale irradiation units, and after every source loading, dosimetry is performed. The final product following the hygienisation is supposed to contain less than 1000 coliforms or 3 Salmonella sp./4 g < 1 pfu/4 g of enteric viruses 2 h

No

[77]

2

qRT-PCR

ORF1ab, N gene, S gene, MS2

10 copies/μL

>2 h

No

[77]

3

qRT-PCR

ORF1a

9 copies/μL

>2 h

No

[77]

4

qRT-PCR

ORF1ab, N Gene

0.025 copies/μL >2 h

No

[77]

5

Lateral-flow assay

Nucleocapsid protein

80% sensitivity

~15 min

Yes, SOFIA system

[77]

6

CRISPR-based lateral-flow assays

E-gene, N-gene

70–300 copies/μL

~30 min

Yes

[77]

7

Surface plasmon resonance

DNA

0.22 pM to 50 μM

–

–

[75]

8

Field effect transistor

Protein

1.6*101 pfu/mL to 1.6*104 pfu/mL

4h

–

[76]

298

G. Palani et al.

Table 12.3 List of considerable biomarkers for coronavirus disease, source from [78–80] S. no

Biomarker

Normal patient

Affected patient

Biological samples

Reference

1

Serum ferritin (ng/mL)

15.0–150.0

800.4 (452.9–1451.6)

Serum

[78]

2

C-reactive protein (mg/L)

0–1

57.9 (20.9–103.2)

Plasma

[78]

3

Interleukin-2R (U/mL)

223.0–710.0

757.0 (528.5–1136.3)

Serum

[79]

4

IL-6 (pg/mL)

0–7

7–9

Blood

[79]

5

Serum amyloid A (SAA) (mg/L)

0–10

108.4

Saliva

[80]

duplicates per response (0.5 cp/μL). However, the affectability differs relying upon the picked packs and PCR instrument.

12.6 Preventive Measures Though we have tremendous development in technology most of the highly developed countries and developing countries haven’t find the vaccine for this coronavirus disease-19, and still there is no confirmation of medications for this coronavirus, so we need to protect and take of our self and our family members [60]. Some of the precautions to be taken to avoid this virus are listed below: (1)

(2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Limit close contact between infectious people and others. Ensure a social distance of nearly around one meter from another person. In areas where COVID-19 is circulating and the distance cannot assure us, so better wear a mask [61]. Find the infected people quickly and isolate them as much as soon and care for and all of their close contacts can be quarantined in appropriate facilities. Clean hands, and during cough and sneezing cover with a cloth or tissue or bent elbow at all times. Avoid public gatherings, close-contact meetings, and restricted and enclosed spaces with poor ventilation. Indoor settings must be ensuring good ventilation, including homes and offices. Stay home if feeling unwell and call your medical provider as soon as possible to determine whether medical care is needed [62]. In countries or areas where COVID-19 is circulating, health workers should use medical masks continuously in their daily activities in clinical areas in health care facilities [81].

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(8)

(9) (10)

(11)

(12)

(13)

(14)

299

Health workers must use additional personal protective equipment and safety measures must be taken care when helping/treating for coronavirus infected person. More details for medical professionals are available here and here [63]. Workplaces should have in place protective measures, details here. During the cleaning process, it is mandatory to wear disposable gloves and gowns and needs to change it often, if not there is a huge chance to get infected quickly. So it requires loads of advanced protective equipment [64, 65]. On a regular basis, all floors, counters, bathrooms, housekeeping surfaces should be cleaned, or when some third person entered in. Hot water, Dettol, or any kind of detergent can be used as a disinfectant [66, 67]. There is more number of ways of diluted disinfectant mixtures to get contaminated with resistant pathogens. So it is compulsory to discard the remaining mixtures and clean the container with detergents [68, 69]. To avoid cleaning solution contamination, it should be reduced. Two buckets can be used for the wetting of mop. Suppose if you are using a single bucket, the detergent must be changed often [70]. Outside walls, gates, windows, and door curtains should be cleaned when it gets contaminated or if you see dust particles [71].

This corona virus has taken over our lives, filling everything with a deafening silence and a distressing void that stops everything as it passes by; “we feel it in the air/surrounding/environment. We find ourselves afraid and lost.” “Healing people, not saving (money) to help the economy (is important), healing people, who are more important than the economy. People are temples of the Holy Spirit, the economy is not.” We all fight together and against this deadly virus.

12.7 Conclusion Current evidence suggests that COVID-19 spreads between people through direct, indirect such as spread via contaminated objects or surfaces, or close contact with infected people via mouth and nose secretions. These include sputum, secretions, or death rattles. Usually, these are secreted from the open pores like mouth and nose when an affected person sneezes, coughs, talks, or kisses, for example. People who are in direct contact within the range of one meter with an affected person can catch COVID-19 when those infectious droplets get into their throat, nose, or eyelids. To avoid contact with these wet particles, it is must/compulsory to stay away at least one meter away from the infected person, wash your hands often in running water, and cover the lips and jaws with a tissue or mask or hand key while sneezing or coughing; it will reduce the spread. When standing one meter or more away is not possible, wearing a fabric mask is an important measure to protect others. Cleaning hands frequently is also critical. Shortly, if we find an airborne route, it does not consider being the major transmission of the virus. This sensor can be used as another method and more precisely to know the virus aggregation in the

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surrounding/air in day to day life, but it won’t be the replacement for laboratory tests. Advanced technology, time-consuming and low-cost equipment for the current coronavirus is in need to bring the pandemic under control at possible earliest. This biosensor is well defined, advanced, and can detect even very small amounts of viruses present in the air and environment. Acknowledgements Dr. GP would like to express my special heart whelming appreciation and thanks to my co-author Dr. Karthik Kannan, this book chapter would not have been possible without his constant support and encouragement. Conflict of interest There is no conflict of interest for this chapter. Funding information No funds are received from any institution.

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Chapter 13

IoT Based Wearable Healthcare System: Post COVID-19 Priyanka Dwivedi and Monoj Kumar Singha

Abstract Pandemic like Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) shows that there is an urgent need for changing our traditional healthcare monitoring system which produces a lot of waste and pollutes the environment. At present patients need to visit a doctor/clinic to check-up their health. Due to COVID-19, there are risks for doctors and patients to be infected by COVID-19. There are many cases reported worldwide where doctors/nurses and low immunity power people are easily affected by Coronavirus. Many clinics, hospitals are not able to treat regular patients. Therefore, there is a need to change the system for healthcare monitoring. Different types of micro/nano, wearable sensors and devices are developed for diagnosing diseases. The advantages of these micro and wearable sensors are higher sensitivity, fast response and low power consumption. Other hand, Instead of bulky instruments these wearable microsensors can be embedded/attached with the patient and it can monitor the patient’s health remotely. Using modern computer and electronics technology like the Internet of Things (IoT) platform (which includes computer vision, Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI), big data analysis, deep learning, machine learning and artificial intelligence), it will become a real time health monitoring system. In this chapter we will initially discuss the present day’s healthcare system, followed by micro and wearable sensors used for diagnostic purposes. Further focus of the chapter will be on the electronics used for driving the sensors, devices and the collected data will be transmitted. Finally the frameworks for IoT based wearable sensors will be discussed. These IoT based wearable sensors will be a solution for sustainable healthcare systems. Keywords Wearable sensor · IoT in healthcare · COVID-19 · Flexible devices · Smart healthcare

P. Dwivedi (B) Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Indian Institute of Information Technology, Sri City, Chittoor, India e-mail: [email protected] M. K. Singha Department of Instrumentation and Applied Physics, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 C. Chakraborty et al. (eds.), The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Green Societies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66490-9_13

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13.1 Introduction Healthcare of a human being is part of their life. A healthy person always produces better outcomes. Like season changes, human health also changes due to various effects like environment, age, immunity, virus attack, etc. Our lifestyle has changed drastically since the last three-four decades. Invention in modern technology makes our lifestyle easier and the average lifespan of human beings increases. Whenever a person becomes sick, he or she has to visit a doctor in a hospital, or a doctor visit to a patient home. According to their health condition if necessary they have to go for a diagnostics test. Till now this is the common practice anywhere in the world. But elderly people have problems visiting the hospitals due to their age. Recently pandemic like COVID-19 makes it tougher for doctors, nurses and patients [1]. There are many reports throughout the world, especially in third world countries, where normal patients are getting infected from COVID-19 during they hospital visit. Even some hospitals are completely transformed into COVID-19 hospitals. Therefore many normal activities are closed in the hospital/clinic/diagnostic centre. There are three problems present in the modern day’s healthcare system for third world countries like India. Most of the hospital or diagnostics centres are situated in the cities and urban areas. But a large number of people are residing in the villages. They do not have any access to doctors or hospitals. They are mostly untreated and suffering from the diseases. When the patients in rural areas are in serious and critical conditions, then only they visit the hospitals. Another problem we mentioned earlier is that old age people. Due to their age they need more care and medical treatment than others. But moving from home to hospitals or vice versa is a painful memory to these people. They also need constant observations either in the hospital or at home. If these old age patients are staying in hospital then they are observed by the nurse, but at home real time continuous monitoring is not possible for this type of patient. Another aspect of the recent problem is a pandemic situation like COVID-19 which halts almost all the activities of doctors and patients in the hospital [2]. Present days natural environments and ecosystems are also declining due to rapid industrialization and it creates pollution. These phenomena also affect the health conditions of human beings in many countries in the world [3, 4]. For a healthy body, a good and clean environment is required. It is found that one quarter of health problems is due to the environment [5]. Rising healthcare problems generate solid waste which also damages the ecosystem and environment. Another problem with modern healthcare systems is use of biological, pharmaceutical products, toxic byproducts from medication, infectious waste, radioactive materials and solid water waste. By-products of these are thrown out to the environment and create more damage to our health [6]. Healthcare systems generate solid waste, waste water, greenhouse gas emissions, toxic chemicals, resource consumption-water and energy. These can affect the environmental conditions such as pollution level, temperature, drinking water, humidity, etc. [7]. In comparison to consulting patients more waste is generated by the admitted patients. Waste generation by patients varies from country to country. High income countries produce more waste than low and middle

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income countries per capita, but they (high income countries) have strict regulation of waste disposal. Mostly solid waste (which contains heavy metals and other toxic pollutants) is disposed of as a landfill which pollutes the soil. Wastewater from the health system (hospital) generates waste in terms of pharmaceutical products, microorganisms, heavy metals, etc. Since materials are discharged in water as an untreated substance, therefore, they tremendously pollute the ground and drinkable water resources. Greenhouse gas emission from the healthcare system is another concern for health. Significant amount of heating and cooling systems are used in the hospital. This also increases the carbon emission in the environment. A large amount of chemicals in the world is consumed/used by the healthcare industry [7]. Processing of the chemicals can indirectly pollute the environment. When a patient comes to a doctor and if the doctor advised him/her to go for a full body check-up to find the disease source, he/she has to go under different tests. These tests are carried out in a diagnostic centre/hospital. The instruments used for diagnostics purposes are big and it needs a suitable operator to operate it. This method directly or indirectly generates pollution in the environment. Since the last few decades technology has improved drastically specially micro and nanotechnology. Nowadays micro/nano sensors and devices are found everywhere in every instrument. These micro/nano sensors are small in size and it consumes less power [8]. Similarly a recent research is going on wearable sensors and devices for the diagnostics purposes. To solve all these problems in healthcare, we can use the electronic health (e-health) technology. Presently most of the people are carrying smartphones. Using health App patients can directly know their health status. This way smartphones can act as a medium between doctors and patients. Patients (staying in remote locations) will use the wearable microsensors and devices which will collect the data in real time. If any abnormalities are found in the data, it will immediately be sent/transferred to patients and doctors through Wi-Fi/Bluetooth modules. Then doctors will analyse these data sets and send the reports to patients in their mobile. Wearable sensors and e-healthcare systems reduce the energy consumption in the hospitals as patients do not need to visit the clinic/hospital to test their health. In this chapter we will discuss the future of micro/nano sensors/devices and wearable sensors/devices with technology like artificial intelligence, machine learning, IoT for the future treatment of the patient. Use of these IoT enabled sensors/devices can reduce the pollution directly or indirectly and reach toward a sustainable environment. This chapter first talk about the wearable sensors and devices that can be used for sensing application and the second part of the chapter will discuss IoT for healthcare applications.

13.2 Wearable Sensors and Devices In this part we will discuss the wearable sensors and devices used for healthcare monitoring systems. Materials used for fabricating sensors and different types of devices will be discussed.

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Flexible wearable sensors and devices are also known as “electronics skin” or “E-skin”. E-skins are used for continuous monitoring of human health in real time. These e-skins are in general having very good flexibility, transparency, stretchability and stability [9–11]. Since wearable sensors are in contact with skin, therefore these devices/sensors must not be toxic. This type of sensor must have high flexibility and they should not create any discomfortability to the human skin. Few examples of the flexible sensors used in modern days are tactile pressure sensor, strain, temperature sensor and sweat sensors. There are two types of wearable sensors: physical sensors and chemical sensors.

13.2.1 Flexible Wearable Physical Sensors Flexible wearable physical sensors are used to measure the physical activities and detect any abnormalities in the body like temperature, heart rate, etc. [12]. These types of sensors work on the stimulus of the body by changing them into electrical signals. Various nanostructures are engineered or functional nanomaterials are used to fabricate these types of devices. Mostly piezoresistivity, piezoelectricity, capacitance and strain mechanisms are used to measure the signals [12, 13]. Strain sensors are among the pioneers for measuring any deformation due to external stimuli in the body. For example, if the heart rate increases, then signal from the strain/pressure sensor also varies accordingly. But for continuous measurement of patients, it needs to keep the tactile information. Few research groups have included memory function in the wearable strain sensors [14–16]. According to their findings they have shown that this data can be preserved for as little as one week to six months of time [14, 15]. Metal oxide thin films are used for making the flexible Random-access memory (RAM) structures. Body temperature is an important parameter which describes whether the human being is healthy or sick. If there is any increase in temperature from normal human body temperature then it is referred to as fever. Traditionally thermometers are used worldwide to measure the body temperature. As earlier we have mentioned, this process of measuring temperature using a thermometer is not continuous. Due to pandemic situations like COVID-19, or elderly people need to measure the temperature continuously for their safety purposes. Pulse oximeter is recently used to know the amount of oxygen in blood for COVID-19 infected person. Traditionally it is small devices packaged in a hard plastic chamber where a soft part of the skin like fingers is placed and then by the principle of optics, it measures the oxygen in the blood levels. Recently a Japanese research group has used organic polymer-based light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and organic photodetector to fabricate the wearable pulse oximeter [17, 18].

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13.2.2 Flexible Wearable Chemical Sensors In the diagnostic centre, doctors used to take blood and by analysing the blood’s many diseases, molecular levels have been identified. This is a completely invasive method which requires many more individuals to conduct the test and analyse the results. This results in lack of the dynamic and continuous real time health monitoring. Human sweat is another fluid that also contains the molecular level information of chemicals, which can be used as an alternative strategy to diagnose the diseases and physiological state of the body [19–21]. There are different chemical compositions found in the healthy and unhealthy human beings. If a person has not good health, he/she will have different sweat concentrations which have different analytes [22–24]. By analysing these analytes within sweat we can diagnose the disease of a human body. Mostly flexible electrochemical sensors are used for this type of activity to measure the pH, Na+ , K+ , Ca2+ ions, dehydration, glucose and lactate [22]. The increase of Na + ions in the sweat suggests the dehydration in the body [22]. Changes in Cl− ions in sweat can be used to identify the cystic fibrosis [25, 26]. Takei groups in Japan have used the iontophoresis principle in sweat to measure the glucose level in the body. Recently a wearable sweatband was introduced in continuous mode for detecting methylxanthine drug levels in a body by sensing caffeine [27]. Some of the research groups are trying to fabricate multifunctional wearable sensors by including both physical and chemical sensors. While incorporating these sensors, they have to keep in mind that wearable sensors should not be thick and it should stick to the skin and not to cause any itchy sensation. Figure 13.1 shows the schematic diagram of multifunctional wearable flexible sensors which consist of pH sensor, glucose sensor as well as temperature and strain sensors. Sensing films of the pH and glucose sensorare mostly oxide materials like InGaZnO, MoO3 , TiO2 , ZnO etc. In this case ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET) principles will be used to measure the pH and glucose of the body from sweat. Similarly Ag is used as temperature sensors, Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and Carbon PDMS was used

Fig. 13.1 Schematic diagram of the flexible sensor (includes pH, glucose, temperature and strain sensors)

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to fabricate strain sensors to measure the heart rate. Polyimide film was used as substrate to fabricate the pH and glucose sensor and later it was transferred on the flexible polyethylene terephthalate (PET) substrate. Other sensors and devices are fabricated on PET substrate. Total thickness of all the devices is less than 400 µm.

13.2.3 Materials Used for Flexible Wearable Sensors Substrates used for both physical and chemical wearable sensors should be flexible. Different substrates like PDMS, polyimide, PET, cloth and papers are used for fabricating the sensors. Different materials are used for making sensing films. It includes ZnO, InGaZnO thin-film on Polyimide substrate as sensing material of ISFET devices with Al2 O3 as dielectric materials. Single walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT), silver (Ag) also used for either sensing materials for circuits for the readout data or providing electrical signals to the devices. Mostly silver nanoparticles in ink or 1D metallic nanowires (Ag), graphene, conducting polymer like Polyaniline (PANI), polypyrrole, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS), mXenes are used as sensing materials or energy storage materials [28–31]. Thickness of these devices ranges from a few µm to 1 mm.

13.2.4 Techniques to Fabricate Wearable Sensors Wearable sensors do not use traditional fabrication processes. These wearable sensors are needed to be flexible and biocompatible. So, researchers have used different techniques. Printing process is the most readily available process to fabricate the devices on a large number of substrates. If any materials need to deposit as a sensing or electrical line, then the ink of those materials need to be prepared first. The size of the materials should be less than 50 nm. Otherwise it will block the nozzle orifice. Organic solvents are used to prepare the ink. We must be careful while preparing the ink so that post processing of the ink (heating) should not damage the substrate. Laser cutters are also used to cut these devices and the same system can be used to fabricate graphene as a sensing material that can be used in wearable sensors. Polyimide is an organic compound which can withstand up to 400 °C without damaging its flexibility. By varying the round per minute (RPM) in the spin coater, thickness of the films can be varied as low as 2 µm. Many wearable flexible sensors were fabricated on spin coated polyimide substrates [12, 26].

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13.2.5 Power Source for Wearable Sensors and Electronics Power source is required to drive the sensors, read its value and transmission of the data. Various research groups have been employed to design and fabricate wearable power sources. Mainly supercapacitors, batteries, thermoelectric and piezoelectric generators are used as a power source. Since the advancement of triboelectric nanogenerators (TENG) in the last decade many research groups have advanced the flexible wearable triboelectric generator [32]. Recently a heart rate sensor was found to be working condition which was driven by the TENG. This TENG is not only used to provide the power supply to the sensors but also used for providing power to the signal processing unit and Bluetooth module [33]. Not only this flexible organic materials are used for power generation, but non organic materials like Pb[Zrx ,Ti1−x ]O3 (PZT) film was also used for self-power TENG applications [34]. Recently Someya et al. group have developed the world’s most thinly flexible solar cells which can be used to charge the flexible batteries, supercapacitors [35]. This power source was used to drive the sensor for measuring the cardiac signal. Yun et al. have shown that their micro supercapacitors are stretchable and it can be charged with solar cells and further these supercapacitors were used to measure the arterial pulse [36]. Recently in 2020 a group of researchers in Purdue University have used polymers like gelatin, Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) modified with NaCl and KCL to make a flexible thermoelectricity generator [37]. Thermoelectric generator is a very old concept which uses the Seebeck effect to generate the voltage. If the junctions of the materials are kept in two different temperatures, then electricity generates. Many research groups have employed thermoelectric generators for the power supply to drive these sensors and transmit the data. Table 13.1 shows the different wearable sensors that can be used for continuous healthcare monitoring systems.

13.2.6 Implantable Devices for Healthcare Monitoring System Invention on biocompatible material and advances in nanotechnology makes a new room for implantable devices and sensors. This decade and upcoming decades will enhance the research on implantable devices. These devices have many applications like home security and human healthcare monitoring systems. Implantable devices are so small (maximum size of 2 × 2 mm2 ) that it does not create any discomfort to the human body. Table 13.1 shows some examples of implantable devices which are used to monitor human health continuously. These implantable devices are used in many physiological parameters measurement like glucose, pH, electrolytes, heart beat, etc. Some of the commercially available sensors for healthcare monitoring are also shown in Table 13.1. These commercially available devices are mainly used to measure blood pressure, glucose, lactate, etc.

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Table 13.1 Wearable sensors for healthcare monitoring Device type Diagnostics

Physical parameters

Skin patch

Heart rate

Skin patch

Sensing mechanism

References

Electrocardiogram Yes (ECG)

Pressure

[37]

Heart rate

ECG

Yes

Piezo-resistive

[38]

Skin patch

Blood pressure

ECG

Yes

Ultrasonic

[39]

Sweat

Physiological OH− , H+ , Cu+ , health and Fe2+ ions, pH

Yes

Impedance

[40]

Sweat and epidermal bio-fluids

Blood glucose

Yes

Electrochemical, [41] reverse iontophoretic

Sweat

Physiological Na+ and K+ ion health, body electrolyte

Yes

Electrochemical

[42]

Patch, sweat Physiological Lactate, pH, Na, health

Yes

Electrochemical

[43]

Patch, sweat Physiological Glucose and pH health, blood glucose

Yes

Electrochemical

[44]

Patch, sweat Physiological Hypoglycemia health

Yes

Enzymatic fuel cell

[45]

Wrist wearable pulsimeter

Pulse

No, but wearable

Hall measurement

[46]

Wearable Blood skin surface pressure

Pulse wave velocity

No, but wearable

MEMS based pressure sensor

[47]

Conductive thread on textile

Glucose and lactate

Yes but lacks electronics

Electrochemical

[48]

Implantable Optical neural simulators

Brain or neural system

Implantable Optical

[49]

Implantable Respiration and bacteria detection

Saliva

Implantable Electrical

[50]

Blood pressure

–

Glucose

Flexible

Tattoo, sweat

Physiological Glycemic, glucose Yes health

Reverse iontophoretic and amperometric

[51]

Tattoo, sweat

Metabolic disorder

Ammonia

Yes

Potentiometric

[52]

Tattoo, sweat

Human perspiration

Lactate

Yes

Electrochemical

[53] (continued)

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Table 13.1 (continued) Device type Diagnostics Sweat

Physical parameters

Physiological pH and body health temperature

Flexible

Sensing mechanism

References

Yes

ISFET

[54]

13.3 Internet of Things (IoT) The term, internet of things (IoT), is relatively new and introduced in 1999 by Kevin Ashton. But it was popularized in this decade only (after 2010) [56]. IoT integrates many parameters like sensing of sensors, data storage, connectivity, power, computation, protocols [57, 58]. IoT has many applications found in various places like smart cities, remote monitoring, agriculture, healthcare, etc. The advancement of information technology with manufacturing capabilities enhances the IoT operation. In this chapter we are more concerned about wearable sensors for healthcare monitoring using IoT. Till now healthcare systems in most of the countries are reliable on paper based records received from the doctors or clinics. It is very rare to share the data between patients, doctors, and clinics in third world countries. But there is a huge scope of IoT in healthcare systems. IoTs are real time systems as they connect sensing, storage, computation, and communication to sense physical systems and respond in real time. These systems also connect nodes with cloud or fog computing and designing chips for IoT requires a new strategy i.e., big chips are not certainly the perfect fit for fog and edge devices in the IoT domain. Since, IoT devices are cheap and are being used in various departments like healthcare, smart transportation, pollution monitoring, etc. As the number of devices is increasing rapidly, challenges are increasing and one of the primary challenges is low power consumption and performing machine learning (ML) at the device, security, and safety. Even though standardization of technical terms has not done but some of the common terminologies are given below: • • • •

Nodes are the edge devices that offer communication and sensing. Hubs/gateways are devices which connect one or more nodes. Fog means nodes that are placed in between the edge devices and cloud. Cloud is used to do remote computations and for storing the data.

Traditional systems on chip (SoC) design with sensors have features like big chipsets whereas IoT device design features like low power consumption and lower device area. It is required to join both mature manufacturing and novel technologies in system-in-package configurations to make a combination of low power consumption, computation, sensing, and communication. There are several parts in the IoT based healthcare system. First we need wearable sensors, then these sensors need to read the data and send it to the machine. Machines will process these data and finally provide the outcomes. In this total process communication or networking and security plays an important role for IoT enabled healthcare systems. There are a total

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three communications established for IoT based healthcare systems [56, 59]. These healthcare systems are as follows: i. People to people connection, ii. Machine to people connection and iii. Machine to machine connection.

13.3.1 Network in IoT After obtaining the sensing data it needs to be transmitted to the system where it will be post processed [60]. Due to the diversity of the nature of physical sensors, especially in healthcare systems, there are many communication systems that exist. These communication systems are used either in device to device communication, device to cloud communication, etc. [58, 60]. IoT not only exists in healthcare, but also in smart cities, agricultural fields. So there is an increase of traffic volume in IoT based communication and networking systems. So some of the network requirement was established on IoT based system which includes different variables like: identifying individual objects and its connection, location of the object, security and individuality with total privacy, reliability, automatic networking, bandwidth, optimum spectrum uses and flexibility of spectrum uses, highly scalable, self-configuration and energy efficient, etc. [61]. Like many IoT based systems, IoT in wearable continuous healthcare monitoring will depend on wireless technology. Two types of network available: Access network (AN) or local network and core network (CN) or global network. Access network is used to connect between physical objects and CN whereas CN is used to interconnect between other networks within CNs. Radio-frequency identification (RFID), Near-Field-Communication (NFC), Bluetooth module and low power wireless communications are examples of access networks and Mobile phones, 3G, 4G, are the core network example. While accessing or transmitting data, each person should have one unique identification number. Without this identification, IoT will not work. Figure 13.2 shows the different wireless network systems that are used in IoT based systems. Proximity and wireless personal area networks are attached with embedded sensors and devices (wearable sensors). They will transmit the data according to the programming. Then these data will be sent to doctors/nurses through Wi-Fi to the working station. For the remote people, it will use wireless wide area networks like 2G, 3G, and 4G in mobile. Then through the system protocols like App, it will send the information to concerned doctors and after analyzing those data doctors will send the report through mobile. Patients will then receive the report on their individual smartphones. Nowadays all of the smartphones have Bluetooth, Wi-Fi modules and the internet is accessible to most of the people. Therefore, a low power wireless network in wearable sensors like RFID (if the patient is in hospital), Bluetooth, Zigbee module is sufficient to send the data from a remote place to a doctor in a city using a smartphone. IoT have thus capabilities to connect between patient to machine (P2M), Device to machine (D2M), Sensor to mobile (S2M), Patient to doctor (P2D), doctor to machine (D2M), Machine to sensor (M2S) and mobile to human (M2H) [62].

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Fig. 13.2 Wireless network used in IoT

13.3.2 Architecture of IoT Based Wearable Healthcare System Framework of an IoT based system not only comprises the physical sensors or wireless network but also comprises of web technologies, controller for the sensors and power supply, system components (it consists of data collector, IoT gateway, backend facilitator, access applications), proposed applications, security model, modelling exercise, implementation details, experimental details, implementation scenario [63]. Figure 13.3 shows the schematic architecture of IoT based wearable sensor systems using mobile for continuous healthcare monitoring systems.

Fig. 13.3 Mobile phone based IoT healthcare system

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There are two types of sensors that can be used for healthcare IoT. One is wearable flexible sensors and another is traditional Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) based wearable sensors and devices but without flexibility. Though MEMS based sensors and devices lack flexibility, they can be integrated in a printed circuit board (PCB) circuit easily. Therefore these types of devices have the opportunity to have their own microcontroller and coin types batteries which power the controller circuit and are able to transmit data through Zigbee or Bluetooth to the smartphones. Recently a flexible microcontroller circuit or RAM is fabricated on a flexible substrate by PragmaticIC. They can customize the design based on customers’ demand and applications. Mostly 32 bit microcontroller is used worldwide for IoT based applications. Intel and ARM have their own 32 bit specialized processor which is used for large scale IoT applications. For small scale applications, JAVA ME embedded (128 KB RAM and 1 MB ROM) can be used. It has its own operating system [64]. Any IoT system requires numerous numbers of communication and network. It was discussed earlier in the “Network in IoT” section. System components are another part of IoT. Sensors sense the body and then it converts it to digital form. Then these digital data will be sent through different network protocols and gateway. During transmission of data from the patient to doctor and doctor to patient needs a serious security-enabled protocol. A password for each individual and devices should be generated and TLS/SSL protocol should be followed between mobile and cloud communication. Table 13.2 shows the IoT based different healthcare systems. Table 13.2 IoT based healthcare system Device

Application

Communication medium

Method of testing References

Microphone and smart sensor

Voice monitoring

Wireless, bluetooth

App, cloud computing

[64]

RF ID based

Patients disease monitoring

Radio frequency identification (RFID)

Directional antenna, softwares

[65]

–

Sensors

[66] [67]

Biomedical sensors Real time health monitoring Wearable device

Diabetes monitoring Using App

Smartphone and smartwatch

Wearable electrocardiogram monitoring system (ECG)

ECG monitoring

Bluetooth, 4G LTE RF

Analog front end, [68] BLE, cloud

Sensor array

Diabetes management based on IoT

Internet, Bluetooth

Blood sugar, and blood pressure

[69]

Smart T-shirt

ECG monitoring

Bluetooth low energy (BLE)

App, AFE chip, MCU,

[70]

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The Edge IoT devices can be all kinds of smart homes, smarter healthcare, intelligent transport, intelligent buildings and smart cities with different capabilities, and a large array of appliances can be installed. In the current cloud and application facilities, it is normal for such vast quantities of edge devices, as a majority of the computing, storage and networking resources of these power data centres that come from application-service providers (ASP) that operate directly with the web servers on a limited number of dispersed larger data centres [72, 73]. The same process is applicable for sensing devices also. In general, this cutting-edge cloud work is in the beginning and a lot of problems must be dealt with. There are several exhaustive analyses of the current state of research and edge cloud activities are reported by different researchers. In which emphasis was on the future main technologies such as Network functions virtualization (NFV), Software-defined networking (SDN), sensors and a new insight in a potential IoT application. Yet, security is crucial for IoT systems in the deployment as demand for sensitive data protection in applications like healthcare.

13.4 Conclusion In this chapter we have discussed the flexible wearable sensors for IoT based continuous health monitoring systems. There are two types of wearable sensors present. One is a flexible wearable skin sensor and the other one is non-flexible like a wrist watch. Flexible wearable sensors are able to monitor health continuously. At present it has some limitations and can monitor only few things like heart rate monitoring, body analytes, pH, temperature, glucose. Flexible wearable sensors mainly used organic materials with printing and spin coating as main instruments to fabricate the devices and sensors. Even different RAM and electronic circuits are fabricated with these techniques. A wearable energy source is also under studied. Finally these sensors can be attached with different communication systems for the realization of a true IoT based healthcare system. Mostly local proximity connection with smartphones is used for these applications. Security in IoT based healthcare systems is another challenge. In future it may be possible to have an individual lab on body with IoT for day to day healthcare monitoring systems. These IoT based wearable healthcare systems will reduce pollution in the environment and make a sustainable environment for future generations.

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Chapter 14

Biodiversity Conservation: An Imperial Need in Combatting Pandemic and Healthcare Emergencies Umme Abiha, Sparsh Phutela, and Susmita Shukla

Abstract The advent of COVID-19 has infected millions of people causing healthcare emergencies worldwide. Biologists and environmentalists have always stressed on the impact of habitat fragmentation, deforestation, and animal poaching on human health. The outbreak of various zoonotic scourges has incremented the levels of risk in human population because of direct and indirect interaction with human chain. Human health is directly associated with animal health and is one of the important part of an ecosystem, the balance of which is disrupted due to anthropogenic activities which has disrupted an ecological balance due to which biodiversity is greatly affected and is reducing at a faster pace promoting a spread of diseases through animals to humans. COVID-19 is a serious concern that puts human life to risk, however, strategies like Global Lockdown which is referred as the period of “Great Pause” has helped to recover rare species of Flora and Fauna with reduced pollution levels, cleaner air and water. In order to quell the further on-spread of pandemic or any other avant-guarded health emergency, biodiversity shall be preserved. This chapter highlights the vitality of conserving biodiversity to renounce the healthcare challenges addressing the scenario of novel coronavirus. Keywords Habitat destruction · COVID-19 · Ecosystem · Anthropogenic · Biodiversity

U. Abiha · S. Phutela · S. Shukla (B) Applied Plant Biotechnology Research Lab, Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University, Noida, UP, India e-mail: [email protected] U. Abiha e-mail: [email protected] S. Phutela e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 C. Chakraborty et al. (eds.), The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Green Societies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66490-9_14

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14.1 Introduction The Earth’s ecosystem plays an instrumental role in shaping human sustainance and curbing global issues. The menace of anthropogenic activities has been an issue for environment conservationalist. Since a long time anthropogenic activities which include excessive land use, new specie introduction, changing environment, habitat destruction, and thriving population indefinitely have greatly affected the biotic components of the Earth [1]. This has created a change in transmission swing of zoonotic pathogens, disrupting ecosystem health and putting life in danger. COVID19 being an unmapped situation has impacted life in all spheres. The impact of perpetuating pandemic is yet to be fully evaluated but it has revolutionized the concept of medicine, treatments driven from biodiversity. In order to find the medication for the infection of SARS-2, the knowledge of traditional medicinal system across the globe has been systematically utilized. Traditional medicinal knowledge believes in the conservation and strategic utilization of biodiversity as a resource. Thus, the use of traditional knowledge based on ethanobotanic and naturopathic fundamentals has created an incessant need to conserve ecosystem [2]. To evaluate the biodiversity conservation as a relevant and viable strategy to curb public health on a global level, it is a necessity to find answers for the following questions: (i) What is the synergy between biodiversity and human health? (ii) What is the relation between pathogen transmission and biodiversity? (iii) How does biodiversity bring back strengthened immune system, in terms of traditional requisites? (iv) What is the current scenario in terms of COVID-19? (v) quantification of impact of pandemic on environment and future challenges? Here, we summarize the current available knowledge about biodiversity and its related interventions to address human health and a clear understanding of the five questions. This chapter highlights the relevance of biodiversity in human health. During the period of the coronavirus pandemic due to lack in the treatment measures, the conventional methods of treatment have been a great aid. This has encompassed the need to preserve and conservation of biodiversity to curb the unseen medical challenges. Also, the use of biodiversity as medical resource has displayed promising results in past for various infections and for coronavirus pandemic as well; preservation of biodiversity can also be the reason for meeting the treatment measures in the time of future outbreak of diseases. The use of various plants and their derivative extracts on the basis of docking scores have provided to consolidate the biodiversity preservation. One of the common measure adopted to check the perpetuating infection was quarantine and worldwide lockdown. The procedure of lockdown manifested various changes in the extent of environmental pollution. Huge improvization in the air, water quality, and territorial expansion for animals harboring in wild was seen. The measures of quarantine are adverse for the economy of nations and in order to recover the drift, the environmentalists have predicted the overexploitation of biodiversity in future. Thus need for legal policy changes are recommended to make the biodiversity preservation laws stringent to avoid the post-pandemic exploitation. The existential measures of biodiversity conservations are also to be further strengthened for future challenges.

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14.2 Synergy Between Natural Environment and Human Health The natural existing ecosystem and environment in proximity with humans have positive effects on the well-being of the individual [3]. The positive effects on physiology and psychology are in association with the natural ecosystems and manmade ecosystems; are highly dependent upon the time period and timings of duration. Sojourning to the forests, Parks in cities, gardens, and orchids for a shorter duration of time renounces anxiety, mental turbulence, stress, and helps in restoring strength. It also helps in apprehending a positive sphere of emotions, apprehending self-esteem of individual, and encompassing the overall health of person. The enhancement in the physical movement and activity is also seen when an individual is exposed to the natural environment. This leads to improvisation of physical health, thereby reducing the risk of type 2 diabetes [4]. The proximate visits to natural environments, such as harboring in areas with higher foliage or in the zones with higher diverse landscape are also pivotal in relinquishing the chances of respiratory, mortality, cardiovascular disorders, and cancer. The actual repercussions of greenery on the health of an individual have been calculated by the implication of various spatial scales for a wide range of distance between 150 m and 5 km [5]. The weight of natal is also influenced by the exposure of mother to the natural environment during her pregnancy. The chances of occurrence of Schizophrenia, prevalence of obesity and atopic sensitization is also reduced due to the exposure to the green environment during childhood. It also helps in managing blood pressure during adolescence. The process of development of immunity is also highly influenced by exposing an individual to natural environment in early life. The environment has gargantuan of microbiota and exposing to which reduces the chances of chronic inflammatory diseases. The exposure in life to the greenery and foliage is amplified by the exposure in the other phases of life. This might include the monitory effects on stress reduction and the therapeutic immersion. There are copious catastrophic ailments which are associated with the deficient exposure to the natural environment. These are collectively called as “nature deficit disorder” (NDD). The various difficulties which arise in kids such as emotional disturbances, cognitive ailments, and various other chronic physical ailments [6]. On the basis of time period which an individual spends in proximate contact with the natural environment the services offered by the ecosystem can be categorized as short and long-term “ecosystem services.” Perturbing the vitality of ecosystem services these are the characteristic features, factors, and facets which directly or indirectly show its effect on the being hale and hearty of human. Ecosystem services are pivotal in the growth of an individual in various aspects. The variety of ecosystem services that have beneficiary impacts such as stress regulation quelling the toxicants and noxious elements present due to air pollution, temperature regulation, noise barging. Now conceding the investigations conducted on synergy between human health and biodiversity, the majority of effects are based on the presence of foliage, accessibility to greenery, seize of the gardens, proximity to the green spaces. The

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Fig. 14.1 The diagrammatic flow shows the channel of synergy between environment and human health

natural environment comprises of humongous microbial diversity which is crucial in preventing chronic diseases. The variety of plant diversity present is supposed to have high impacts directly or indirectly on controlling air pollution. This pollution has an impact on health by aiding the prevalence of various diseases such as asthma, cardiovascular disorders, and pre-mature deaths [7] (Figs. 14.1 and 14.2). Amalgamation of instigations displays that ecosystem comprising of rich biodiversity are highly supportive in the provision of the more efficient ecosystem services this concept has nomenclature of (“biodiversity-ecosystem-functioning theory.” Highly diverse ecosystem has higher resilience to the turbulence caused due to the anthropogenic actions which is known as “ecosystem-resilience theory” [8]. This resilience is pivotal for the ecosystem which is functioning in the proximity to the urban zones. Now conceding the evidences and the finding for encompassing the effect of the actual biodiversity on the various preliminary mechanisms that are responsible for the alignment of the human health to the natural greenery and foliage. These mechanisms are: “biophillia hypothesis,” “dilution effect hypothesis,” and the “biodiversity hypothesis.” The biophillia hypothesis is formulated on the belief that humans have intrinsic affinity for the other species and the natural environment which is the consolidated reason for the evolution of the species. As per the statuary of this hypothesis the

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Fig. 14.2 The diagrammatic flow demonstrates how environment manages chronic diseases

people are supposed to prefer and select an environment which is very diverse biologically for rendering the most of the mental and psychological benefits. This hypothesis has also formulated the “stress recovery theory” (this signifies environment helps in providing relief from the physiological stress) [9]. This hypothesis has also formulated “attention restoration theory” this signifies that environmental exposure helps in restoring mental fatigue and recovers the directed attention. While considering the statuary of biodiversity hypothesis it states that association with biodiversity strengthens the immunity of an individual by monitoring the species present in the human microbiome. As, the species present in the diminishing the prevalence of the various diseases such as allergies, asthma, and various other chronic inflammatory diseases [10]. The very resembling “hygiene hypothesis” and also the “microflora hypothesis” which implies that a controlled early life exposure to the pathogens and the parasites is related to the development of allergies, related diseases, asthma, and various other forms of the hypersensitivity disorders as because of its derogatory impacts on the human (intestinal) microbiome (dysbiosis) and also on the immune system development of the infant. Conglomerating the evidences of commensal microbiota and parasitic helminths on human health is very difficult to encompass. The “dilution effect hypothesis proposes that the risk of adhere infectious diseases circumspects for humans due to presence of the higher number of chordates as the dilution of the pathogens happens in the larger range of host chordates present in the same environment. The statuary of this hypothesis states that the dilution effect hypothesis, the furthering of the infectious diseases are expected to decrease and shrink where the prevalence of the infected vector organism as a carriage is low. Despite the higher

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population of organisms having pathogenic activity the flow of the organism from various other hosts to human is decreased.

14.3 Impact of Worldwide Lockdown on Environment To quell the perpetual outspreading of the COVID-19 pandemic, several containment measures were implemented across the globe. Despite the alarming health crisis generated due to the SARS-Cov-2 virus, there was a gargantuan of positive impacts that are seen in various facets of the environment [11]. There are significant improvisations evident for the air quality index, quality of water, reduction in buzzing noise pollution, carbon emission, and helped the wildlife to heal. Also; there is a diligent increase in the manifestation of plastic as it widely used for the manufacturing of sanitizer bottles, personal protection equipments, and masks in general. Alike all the other areas the waste management systems had no effective management strategy to combat this copious waste generation.

14.3.1 Air Pollution Poor Quality of Air is a pragmatic root cause for various health constraints that are lethal at times across the world. These health constraints several disorders like asthma, bronchitis, respiratory allergies, and empyema. Scientific investigations have evaluated that nearly 4.6 million humans lose their life each year by such disorders. One of the main causes of air pollution is the exhaust eliminated from the Automobile and manufacturing industries [12]. The current ongoing condition of the pandemic has aided in the reduction of air quality especially in countries that implemented lockdown and quarantine measures. The index of pollution given by NASA and ESA has shown a decrease of 30% in the places of extreme outspread like Italy, Spain, and the USA, etc. There is a decrease in NO2 and CO2 which are majorly produced as exhausts by 30% and 25%, respectively [13]. The data given by ESA for the city of Italy has shown a 35% decrease in pollution during the course of lockdown. The lockdown was significant in decreasing the AOD (Aerosol Optical Depth) over the oceanic and sea region. The concentration of NO2 in the tropospheric was also expected to be lowered. When a comparison was taken for the count of flowing gases concentration from 2018 to the present day. There was decrease in PM10, PM 2.5, NO2 , So2 , and CO concentration by 26–31%, 23–32%, 63–64%, 9– 20%, and 25–30%, respectively. The reduction in electricity consumption in Europe was 2–7% which has contributed to the reduction of CO2 due to the lower fossil fuel exhaust emission. There was a study to conceptualize the relationship between the mortality of people due to COVID-19 and its association with air pollution in worsening the disease. The repercussions were highly catastrophe due to high traces

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Fig. 14.3 Impact of lockdown on air pollution

of air pollutants. It was figured out that air pollution has intensified the chrorogenity of respiratory tract infections and diseases [14] (Fig. 14.3).

14.3.2 Wildlife The pandemic has also caused a colossal impact on wildlife across the globe. The daily routine of humans is manifested as the anthropogenic actions for the wildlife. Noise causes the high-scale disturbance to the sensory systems of the animals. This affects the process of communication, the cues of certain gregarious animals lose track of location, finding mates, etc. [15]. This later impacts the quality of habitat animal population is harboring in. The stern lockdown measures adopted to check the transmission of the infection have actually depreciated the number of visitors sojourning the national parks and even their mobility out of the urban areas; thus quelling the count of human interventions in the wildlife. The habitat that has been fragmented by humans from decades has created a smaller circumference for animals, during the course of lockdown plenty of animals have been spotted in areas where they were not seen for years. There are various positive effects that have been seen on the wildlife due to this lockdown. It was seen that due to heavy automobile congestion and human activities during the daylight, various animals have been accustomed to the nocturnal pattern of living [16]. After the provision of this lockdown, such sensitive species can be seen during the course of the day even. Despite all these positive effects of lockdown on wildlife, there were adverse effects on those facets of life that are dependent on humans for food. Now various animals are seen be to be sojourning the urban areas in search of food; if the pandemic is persistent this may highly endanger the lives of certain species due to lack of food Also, The food procured from wild sources is the major dietary item and even source of living for many societal sections in rural portions. The food shortage in these areas might be compensated by the

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Fig. 14.4 Impact of lockdown on wildlife

extensive killing of wild animals. The conservationist is suggesting that African nations may experience massive meat poaching due to lockdown. Due to economic struggle rhino horns and ivory will be poached. While Gabon has banned the use of the bat as it was seen to be the root cause of the coronaviruses. The reduced tourism has also had an instrumental impact on the reduction of the sewage discharge into the canals which has improvized the quality of water. The decline seen for global and local shipping has manifested several positive impacts on the aquatic ecosystem as well. The population parameters measuring for the turbidity and murkiness of water caused by the boats and voyages have also been minimized [17]. Lockdown due to COVID-19 has highly renounced the noise parameters due to transportation and the industrial activities making the environment peaceful for co-existing species as well (Fig. 14.4).

14.3.3 Water Bodies There is a gargantuan of improvement in the water quality of the water bodies. Since after the administration of lockdown measures the shutdown for the industrial setup and functioning has led to a decrease in water usage and demand. Also, there is a humongous reduction in the noxious and toxic discharge in the river bodies. The

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demand for fishes has declined across the world as per the pandemic and fleets can be seen unoccupied. It has been proposed that the increase in the biomass of fishes will be seen as fishing is decreased. By the end of April 2020, it was noticed that the aquatic recovery was in a very anecdotal manner. People are quarantined in houses due to the lockdown measures reducing the tourism and sojourning of beaches as a recreation activity. Oviparous animals such as turtles are noticed to have been laying eggs on the beaches, which was not before due to pollution and human interference. The river Ganga and Yamuna were having alarming parameters of pollution, the condition for both the rivers have started to improve Water quality in the rivers has improved massively including that of Ganga and Yamuna both. The clearing of water bodies is seen as per the stern enforcement of laws and the data obtained from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPBB) has manifested instrumental data in pollution decrease. The data collected at 27 reference points of river Ganga showed that the water now suitable for human use like bathing and also, the wildlife and fisheries can be propagated in the water. Another study conducted for the Lake of Vemba and also showed a decrease in the pollution and improvization in the water quality. The statistical data are taken through remote sensing images showed for surface water quality. The concentration of particles decreased by 15.9% which signifies 8 mg/L decrease which later turned to be decreased by 34% [18] (Fig. 14.5).

Fig. 14.5 Effect of lockdown on the water bodies

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14.3.4 Medical Waste as Another Havoc The mass breakout of coronavirus has also caused certain serious environmental concerns. One such concern is an uncharted and unmanaged medical waste as the repercussion of the increased clinical and precautionary activities. The very first epicenter of the pandemic was China where there was the production of nearly 200 tons of clinical waste each day. Each day with the on-spread of pandemic medically generated waste became the major issue globally. The movement of “Seas without Plastic” was conceptualized in Hong Kong, which stated that wearing masks based on plastic for fabrication is a part of environmental concern [19]. Plastics are a very vital section of the materials that are available and are inexpensive. Mismanagement of the widely used Personal protection equipments (PPE) during the pandemic, has been anticipated to generate 129 billion face masks and 65 gloves globally. As a repercussion it is a risk for the community, it is seen that the SARS-Cov-2 virus can survive for up to three days on the surface of the plastic and also has a broader impact on the health of organisms. Thus concerns over the reusable masks as the contagious vectors for the SARS-Cov-2 are placed. In several parts of the world the single used plastic manufacturing was prohibited which has been reversed to meet the demand of plastic masks and gloves and others. This has also underlined a need to look for the possible alternative for the use of plastic. Also, proper awareness regarding the disposal of this waste is also needed [20]. This unmapped need for the use of plastic has created the need for the strict plastic reduction policies compelled reinforcement. There is a need for a dynamic responsive waste management system and is the perspective for novel research for environmental policies. The concept of Plastic Waste Footprint (PWF) is formulated to capture the environmental impact of plastic made products on the environment. This is another bilateral problem along with the clinical crisis of the Pandemic (Fig. 14.6).

14.4 Traditional Health and Immune System The unprecedented outbreak of the pandemic of COVID-19 that created a menace worldwide has no prophylactic measures. The unabated chain of cases of the epidemic has been enormous along with extensive fundamental research. Despite experimental isolation of potential chemical and herbal antiviral targets and prior experience with SARS respiratory syndrome, the knowledge seems to be insufficient and therefore calls for conventional medicinal approaches. The study of Ayurveda, Unani, Naturopathy, Siddha, and Homeopathy can serve suitable interactions to answer the public health discourse as well as develop strategies and bring concern toward adopting available traditional knowledge and practices in today’s time to help curb the problem. There are historical shreds of evidence of traditional knowledge for managing epidemics and they have also been listed by AYUSH, Government of India for COVID-19 management discussed in Table 14.1. Although the central

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Fig. 14.6 Plastic as an additive issue of pandemic

government brought together these sectors for managing the pandemic of COVID19, several challenges stand at the forefront. The first is the general thought of modern rationalists who reject the idea of traditional knowledge and the second is the development of a holistic ayurvedic system in conjunction with modern scientific approach [21]. There was an advisory released as a precautionary measure for COVID-19 by the ministry of AYUSH that led to remarks like “placebo” and “myths,” ludicrously criticizing the traditional healthcare approach as farce and baseless. The advisory focused on boosting the immunity of every individual to be healthy and fit to combat any disease. Even Siddha came up with management protocols for the pandemic including economical herbal drinks and concoctions for different intensities of progression of COVID-19 that were distributed in Tamil Nadu. Asymptomatic or individuals at high risk of encountering the coronavirus need to build a strong and efficient immunity [23]. To develop Vyaadhikshamatva, Ayurveda emphasizes social distancing, building resistance against infection, and fumigation of individual residents [22]. Using herbs like turmeric, garlic, carom, and loban can aid in disinfecting inhabited areas while consuming home-made herbal drinks and Rasayana which includes Brahma Rasayana, Chyavanprasha, or Amrit Bhallataka acts as antioxidant and helps in immunity building [24]. Another intervention of ayurvedic treatment is for a group of home-quarantined individuals who have

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Table 14.1 Historical evidence of traditional knowledge in epidemic management [22] S. no

Medicinal plant

Extract

Trade name

Traditional medicinal practice

Treatment

1

Tinospora cordifolia

Aqueous

Samshamani Vati

Ayurveda

Chronic fever

2

Andrograhis paniculata

Aqueous

Nilavembu kudineer

Siddha

Fever and cold

3

Cydonia oblonga

Aqueous

Behidana Unnab

Unani

Antioxidant, immune-modulatory, anti-allergic, smooth muscle relaxant, anti-influenza activity

4

Arsenicum album 30

Tablet

Arsenicum album 30

Homeopathy

Effective against SARS-CoV-2, immune-modulator

5

Agastya Haritaki

Powder

Agasthya Rasayanam

Ayurveda

Upper respiratory infections

6

Anuthaila

Oil

Sesame oil

Ayurveda

Respiratory infections

7

Adathodai Manapagu

Aqueous

Adathodai Manapagu

Siddha

Fever

8

Bryonia alba

Tablet

Bryonia

Homeopathy

Reduce lung inflammation

9

Rhus toxico Dendron

Tablet

Rhus tox

Homeopathy

Viral infections

10

Atropa belladonna

Tablet

Belladonna

Homeopathy

Asthma and chronic lung diseases

11

Bignonia sempervirens

Tablet

Gelsemium

Homeopathy

Asthma

12

Eupatorium perfoliatum

Tablet

Eupatorium perfoliatum

Homeopathy

Respiratory symptoms

13

Vishasura kudineer

Tablet

Poly-herbal formulation

Siddha

Fever

14

Kaba sura kudineer

Tablet

Poly-herbal formulation

Siddha

Fever, cough, sore throat, shortness of breath

encountered COVID-19, can consume Sanjeevani Vati, Chitrakadi Vati, and combination of Guduchi, Shunthi, and Haridra which prevents the progression of disease at an initial level [25]. They can also be consumed with a combination of the herbal concoction of Guduchi, Shunthi, Turmeric, Basil, Liquorice, Malabar nut, Green chiretta, Drumstick, Triphala, and Trikatu which have antiviral properties [26].

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14.5 Ayurveda—Aid in the Prophylaxis of Pandemics As mentioned in the previous section, Ayurveda plays a pivotal role in developing a strong immune system in a host and can also control the progression of infection at a primary stage. It works on the principle of Chakra Samhita which aims at bringing stability and refining the immune system. Similar to the principle and concept of clinical immunology, Ayurveda functions as both innate and acquired immunity which includes mutualistic and separate interaction of personal and environmental factors. To combat respiratory problems, local and systemic strategies have been advised for its management. Coronavirus manages its invasion into the host through droplets via eyes, mouth, and nasal cavity. The local strategy involves the prevention of virus transmission to the lungs by improving immune response through steam inhalation, repeated gargles, and consuming hot food and water. Herbal concoction of water is an old practice of consuming warm water and food to relieve pain in the throat and is used as homeopathy for many diseases. Ayurveda helps to improve digestive problems which are the major promoters of infections. The herbal concoction of water is prepared by adding spices, like ginger, khus, fennel, coriander, and cinnamon in water, and then boiling it. This is a popular remedy in most parts of India which is usually used to treat problems related to digestion, allergy, and inflammation [27]. Cleansing the oral cavity and throat using warm water and oil induces a systemic effect and creates a barrier on the mucosal lining to prevent any oxidating or microbial activity. Medicated solutions are prepared by using herbal extracts or regular iodized salt for gargling and cleaning mouth. Several herbs that are reported to have been used are turmeric, licorice, neem, and catechu bark. A reported active constituent of Glycyrrhiza glabra, Glycyrrhizin is more functional in inducing antagonistic behavior than other antivirals, preventing replication of SARS virus. Randomized controlled trials have reported that cleaning nasal cavity with salt water helps in eliminating any upper respiratory infection but, there is no strong ground to hold this evidence [28]. This practice has been traditionally used to relieve nasal congestion, sinusitis, and bronchoconstriction through improved nasal cleansing and entangling nasal mucus constriction. There is evidence of using medicated oils prepared from animal fat and butter to limit pathogen invasion in the host via nasal passage. Oiling nasal passage performs a similar function to what is performed through mouth rinsing and hence it is advised to be used for preventing infection via SARS-Cov2. The study of Ayurveda supports the importance of a healthy body that is achieved through non-pharmacological approaches. A healthy lifestyle which includes regular sleep patterns, a balanced diet, mental relaxation through yoga, and exercises play a pivotal role in optimum health. Studies suggest that pre-existing mental illness like anxiety and depression leads to respiratory illness. In the current scenario of COVID-19, the lockdown has immensely resulted in the rise of anxiety and depression cases, merely because they are living aloof. Yoga postures and techniques like pranayama and meditation have proved to improve lung functioning and mental well-being, respectively. A healthy diet mainly includes consuming shorba (soup) cooked or steamed vegetables which includes vegetables like radish, Trigonella leaves, and drum sticks.

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Several pulses like lentils, green gram, and chickpeas are also consumed along with added spices such as ginger, garlic, cumin seeds, and mustard seeds. Along with it, colors play an important role in easing mental pressure and illness that is even supported by scientific evidence. Color therapy is widely used to cure psychological problems of people dealing with a mental breakdown which in turn influences the mood and mental well-being of an individual. The color green is a representation of nature and signifies harmony, effective decision-making, and promotes concentration. Therefore long walks, jogging, and exercising in nature boost mental well-being and helps to cure depression. Rasayana is a specialized branch of Ayurveda that uses herbal formulations, a balanced diet, and a disciplined lifestyle with systemic functioning of the human body to bring about an equilibrium in body and soul. The human body develops immunity such that it gets unaffected by etiological changes and hence also develops an acquired mechanism to combat premature aging which is regarded as an illness. It works as immunomodulators and rejuvenators enhancing growth and promoting immunity, providing resistance against various diseases. A research study presents Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha), Tinospora cordifolia (Guduchi), Asparagus racemosus (Shatavari), Phylanthus embelica (Amalaki), and Glycyrrhiza glabra (Yashtimadhu) as potential botanicals for COVID-19 prophylaxis. Ashwagandha is reported to exhibit an antioxidant effect through upregulating Th-1 levels in a prepared extract, proving as a broad-spectrum dose I solved in regulating the immune system [29]. Several clinical effects have been compiled on the potential mechanisms involved in antiviral, immune-boosting, vascular integrity, and management of related clinical targets of COVID-19. However, there is a need to check the clinical efficacy of these botanical targets.

14.6 Herbal Inhibitors as Antiviral Targets Human civilization dates the application of herbal medication [30]. Herbal medication includes plant extracts and plant derivatives that are prepared from plant parts like the seed, barks, stem, roots, pulp, food, and flowers. It provides an integral alternative to treat viral diseases depending on severity, one such example is of Traditional Chinese medicine that aids in boosting the immune system through herbal medicines and acupuncture. Human beings of developing nations depend on traditional plants for their health, reports WHO. Evidence supported in research papers suggests the efficacy of herbal preparations against viral diseases. Natural and herbal medicines have low toxicity levels and this becomes a ground for bioinformatics research to look for potential targets against viral diseases like it is extensively been studied for COVID-19 by using molecular docking tools [31]. Refer Table 14.2 for potential docking results of natural products in terms of binding affinity (kcal/mol), the interaction of natural products with the COVID-19 main protease (PDB ID:

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Table 14.2 Docking results in terms of interaction of natural products with the COVID-19 main protease (PDB ID: 6LU7) [36] S. no

Natural products

Molecular formula

Molecular weight

Log P

H-bond donor

H-bond acceptor

Violations

1

Glycyrrhizin

C42 H62 O16

(