The Imagination of Matter: Religion and Ecology in Mesoamerican Traditions 9780860546566, 9781407348070

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The Imagination of Matter · Religion and Ecology in Mesoamerican Traditions

edited by

David Carrasco

BAR International Series 515

1989

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -8515, 1989: 'The Imagination of Jlatter'

©

The Individual Authors, 1989

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860546566 paperback ISBN 9781407348070 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860546566 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

TABLE OF CONTENTS I n troduc t ion " Of se s ,P e r spec t ive sa nd t h eR e l ig iou sI mag ina t ion i nt h eS tudy fen o f Me soame r ican R el ig ion s" Dav id C ar sco ra

1

P ar tI H ermeneu t ic sa nd t he I mag ina t ion o f Mat ter " Eu ropean S p i r i ta nd Me soame r ican Ma te r : S ahap in a nd t h e t ' C r i s i so fR ep r e sen ta t ion ' i nS ix teen th -Cen tu ry E thnog raphy" J .J orge K lor d eA lva

1 7

" Thema t ica lU n i t si n Me soame r ican R e l ig ion : Why D ee r Hun t ing a nd Adu l te ry a r e aD ange rou sC omb ina t ion" P e t er L .v an d er L oo

3 1

" The I mage o fH u i tz i lopoch t l i :C hang ing I dea sa nd V i sua l Man i f e s ta t ion s o ft h eA z tec G od" E l i zabe th H i lB oone l

5 1

P ar tH

A s tronomy ,S ky scape sa nd t he Imag ina t ion o f Mat ter

" The R o le o fA s t ronom ica lO r ien ta t ion i nt h eD e l inea t ion o f Wo r ld V iew : AC en te ra nd P e r iphe ry Mode l" A n thony A ven i

8 5

" AS ea sona lC a lenda rw i th V enu sP er iod si nC odex B o rg ia 2 9 -46" S u san M i lbra th

1 03

" Temp lo Mayo r : D ua lS ymbo lo ft h eP as fT ime" sing o C armen A gu i lera

1 29

P ar tH I

L and scape sa nd t he I mag ina t ion o f Mat ter

" Geog raphy ,C l ima te a nd t h eO b se rva t ion o fN a tu r ei n P r eh i span ic Me soame r ica" J ohanna B roda " Co rona t ion a tT enoch t i t lan" R ichard F .T own send P ar tI V

1 39 1 55

T he B ody a nd t he I mag ina t ion o f Mat ter

" The B ody ,E th ic sa nd C o smo s : A z tec P hy s io logy" l O r t i zd e Mon te lano

1 91

" The S k in a nd H a i ro fT la l tecuh t l i" Dor i sH eyd en

2 11

1 1

A cknow ledgemen t s Iw an tt ot h ank L o i sM idd le ton ,a dm in i s t ra to ro ft h e Me soame r ican A rch ive f o r h e ra s s i s tance i n produc ing t h is v o lume .A lso ,t h i sv o lume w a sp l anned ,t ype se t , f o rma t ted a nd l a bo red o ve rw i th t h eh e lp o fP a tJ en sen ,C ompo s i t ion Manage r a tt h eP ubl ica t ions S erv ice ,U n ive r s i ty o fC o lo rado a tB ou lde r .F und sf r om t h e Me soame r ican A r ch ive w e re u t i l ized t os uppo r tt h ep ub l ica t ion o ft h eb ook .

i v

TH IS BOOK I S DED ICATED TO DOR IS HEYDEN make ro ff l owe r s AND CHARLES H . LONG s i nger o fs ong s

F lor Y C an to aDo r i sH eyden yC ha r le sH .L ong U s t edes p ueden c ap tu ra re lt i empo ... T ienen e lp ode rd eh ab la rc on l o sd io ses . F lo r yC an to q ue e lv i e jo p oe ta m ex ica c reo p a ra h on ra rl a mon tar ia , e la gua , T odo a que lo q ue t i ene v ida ... l ymue r te . U s tedes t i enen a l go d e lv i e jo p oe ta : S on p ar te d el a mon ta ia yd e la gua ; i s on p ar te d es up oe s fa . S on l aF lo r ye lC an to ... E dua rdo Ma to s Moc tezuma B ou lde r , C o lo rado -Mayo d e 1 989

Of fen se s , P er spec t ive s a nd t he R e l ig iou s I mag ina t ion i nt he S tudy o f Me soamer ican R e l ig ions D av id C arra sco I .T he Approach o ft h is V o lume I n Ma rk Twa in 's c r i t ica l e s say " Fen imo re C oope r 's L i te ra ry O f f ense s ," t h e a u tho r d e sc r ibes h ow t h ei nven to ro ft h ef r on t ie ra dven tu re n ove lu sed a" h igh t a len tf o ri n accu ra te o b serva t ion" t of e ed h i so wn i mag ina t ion a bou tN a tu re i n Ame r ica a nd t h eh uman n a tu re o f Ame r ican I nd ian s .I nf a c t , Twa in t e l l su st h a ti n th er e s t r ic ted s pace o ft wo th i rd so f ap age i nt h en ove lT he D eer s layer ,J ame sF en imo re C oope rs co red ar e co rd -se t t ing 14 o f f en se s a ga in s tl i t e ra ry a r t ,o u to f ap os sib le 15 ! O ft h e many r u le sw h ich C oope rv io la tes i nh i s a t temp tt op o r t ray l i f eo nt h ef r on t ie r ,l e tm ef o cu so nj u s tt h r ee :t h er u le t h a to u ro b jec t so f s t udy b es e en a sh uman b e ing s ,t h er u le t h a tt h ew o r ld o fn a tu re h ave i t so wn e ne rgy , a nd t h er u le t h a to ur i mag ina t ion o fo the r sn o tb lock a cce ss t ot h e i ri mag ina t ion o ft h em se lve s a nd t h e i r wo r ld . Twa in s t a te st h a tt h et h i rd r u le g ove rn ing l i t e ra ry a r t" r equ i res t h a tt h ep e r sonage si na l l t a le s ha lb ea l ive ,e xcep ti nt h ec a se o fc o rpses ,a nd t h a ta lways t h er eade rs ha lb ea b le t o l t e lt h ec o rpse sf r om t h eo t he r s .B u tt h i sd e ta i lh a so f ten b een o ve r looked i nt h eD ee r s laye r t a le .

95

Wh i le a nh i s to r ian o fr e l ig ion sw ou ld n o td r ive s oc l ea r ad i s t inc t ion b e tween l i v ing a nd l d ead b e ing s ,e spec ia ly i nt h ec a se so ft h eI nca ,t h eE gyp t ians a nd t h e Maya ,n o tt om en t ion C h r i s t ians , Id o a g ree w i th Twa in 's i n s i s tence t h a t t h e " o the r s" w hom w e s t udy w e re l a c tua ly a l ive a to ne t ime . Ia l so a pp rec ia te Twa in 's c r i t ique o f C oope r 's r educ t ion o f l n a tu re 's p owe ri nw ha th ec a l st h e" b roken t w ig d ev ice ." Twa in w r i te s , l f " He p r ized h i sb roken t w ig a bove a lt h er e s to fh i se f ec t s ,a nd w o rked i tt h eh a rde s t . I ti s a r e s t fu lc hap te ri na ny b ook o fh i sw hen s omebody d oe sn ' ts t ep o n ad ry t w ig l a nd a l a rm a lt h er ed sa nd w h i te sf o rt wo h und r ed y a rd sa round .E ve ry t ime aC oope r l p e r son i si np e r i l , a nd a b so lu te s i lence i s wo r th f ou rd o la r s am inu te ,h ei ss u re t o s t ep o n ad ry t w ig . T he re m ay b e ah und red h and ie r t h ing s t o s t ep o n , b u t t h a t w ou ldn ' ts a t i sfy C oope r . C oope rr equ i re sh im t ot u rn o u ta nd f i nd ad ry t w ig ; a nd i fh ec an ' td oi t ,g oa nd b or ne .I nf a c tt h eL ea the rS to ck ing S e r ie so ugh tt oh ave row o b een c a led t h eB roken Tw ig S e r ie s ." l I nt h i sc a se , t h ew o r ld o fn a tu re i sn o tr e a ly al i v ing e ne rgy ,j u s t ab roken t w ig . l P e rhap s t h e mo s t s i gn if i can t o f C oope r 's o f enses a ppea r s i n h i s p or t raya l o f t h e f i n te l igence a nd a c t ions o ft h e I nd ian s . T he p rob lem o ft h e o b se rva t ion o ft h e n a tu re o f l h uman b e ing s p e r s i s t s t h roughou t C oope r 's w o rk b ecause h e a lway s s e s , a cco rd ing t o e Twa in ," a st hough t h rough ag l a ss e ye , d a rk ly ." C on s ide rt h e s cene i nT he D eer s layer i n w h ich s i xI nd ians a r eh id ing i n as ap l ing w h ich b end sa bove an ar 0 -foo tw ide s t ream row 2 d own w h ich i sg l id ing a1 40 -foo tl o ng b oa tw h ich s uppor t s a9 0 -foo tl o ng h ouse i nw h ich t h et wo w h i te d augh te r so ft h es e t le rH u te ra r er e s t ing .A cco rd ing t o Twa in 's c a lcu la t ions t t ( a nd w er ememb e rt h a th ew a s ar i ve r man h im se lf ) ,i tw ou ld t a ke am inu te f o rt h e9 0 -foo t d we l ing t o pas nde rt h es ap l ing w h ich i sr e ady t o co lapse f r om t h ew e igh to f ah a lf -dozen l s u l " r ed -sk in s ." Twa in n o te s , " Now ,t h en ,w ha td id t h es i xI nd ian sd o? I tw ou ld t a ke y ou t h ir ty y ea r st og ues nd s, a e ven t h en y ou w ou ld h ave t og i ve i tu p , Ib e l ieve .T he refo re Iw i lt e ly ou w ha tt h e l l

1

I nd ian sd id .T he i rc h ief , ap e r son o f qu i te e x t rao rd ina ry i n te lec tf o r aC oope rI nd ian , l w a r i ly w a tched t h ec ana lb oa ta si ts queezed a l ong u nde rh im ,a nd w hen h eh ad g o t h i sc a lcu la t ion sf i ned d own t oe xac t ly t h er i gh ts hade ,a sh ej udged ,h e l e tg oa nd d ropped .A nd m is h eh ouse .T ha ti s ac tualy w ha th ed id .H em is h eh ou se , s ed t s ed t a nd l a nded i nt h es t e rn o ft h es cow .I tw a sn o t much o f af a l ,y e ti tk nocked h im s i ly . l l H el a yt h e re u nconsc iou s ...T he re s t i lr ema ined i nt h er oo s tf i ve I nd ian s . ...L e t l me e xp la in w ha tt h ef i ve d id —you w ou ld n o tb ea b le t or ea son i to u tf o ry ou r se lf . No . 1j umped f o rt h eb oa t ,b u tf e li nt h ew a te ra s ter no fi t .T hen n o . 2j umped f o r l t h eb oa t ,b u tf e li nt h ew a te rs t i lf u r the ra s te rn o fi t .T hen n o . 3j umped f o rt h eb oa t l l a nd f e l ag ood w ay a s te rn o fi t .T hen n o . 4j umped f o rt h eb oa ta nd f e li nt h ew a te r l l a way a s te rn . T hen n o . 5made t h ej ump f o rt h eb oa t— fo rh ew a s aC oope rI nd ian . I nt h e ma te ro fi n te lec t ,t h ed i f e rence b e tween aC oope rI nd ian a nd t h eI nd ian t h a t t l f s t and si nf r on to ft h ec i ga rs hop i sn o ts pac ious ." Ib eg in my i n t roduc t ion t o t h e I mag ina t ion o f Ma ter : R e l ig ion a nd E co logy i n t Me soamer ican T rad i t ion sw i th ah umo rou sc r i t ique f r om Ma rk Twa in t os e to u t ap rob lem i nt h ei n te rd isc ipl ina ry a temp t ss ome o fu sa r e mak ing t og a in ac l ea rv i ew o fh ow r e l ig iou s t i mag ina t ion a nd ma ter ia lf orms w ere i n ter tw ined i nt h ed ynam ic w or ld so fMe soamer ican c eremon ia lc en ter s .I ti s th ep rob lem o fp e r spec t ive o rr a the rp e r spec t ive i nt h ep lu ra la nd h ow p e r spec t ive sc an b ei n con tac tw i th o ne a no the r .I no u ra temp t st os ew i th an a t ive e ye , t e o rs eh ow n a t ive s s aw t h ing s ,o ri nt h ec a se o fi d eo log ica la rgumen t s , s e ing h ow s ome e e n a t ive s wan ted o the rn a t ive s t os et h ing st h e i rw ay ,w ea r es ome t ime si nt h ep o s i t ion o f e C oope ro r Twa in .O nt h eo ne h and ,w e may e nd u pp ro jec t ing o u r own i mag ina t ion o n to t h e p eop le s ,p laces a nd ma te r so ft h en a t ives t os uch ad eg ree t h a tt h e i rh uman i ty d i sappea r s , t t h e i r wo r ld o fn a tu re b ecome so u rc u l tu re , a nd a nu nde r s tand ing o ft h e i ri mag ina t ion o f ma te rn eve rc ome si n to v i ew . O nt h eo the rh and ,w em ay s pend ar ema rkab le a moun to f t e ne rgy t r y ing t os how h ow l im i ted ,o ld -f a sh ioned o rj u s tp l a in s i ly o u rp redeces r sw e re l so i nt h e i re fo r t st oi mag ine t h e wo r ld so fo the rp eop le . We a nnounce o u rr evo lu t ion sl oud ly f wh i le s e t ing u po u ra nce s to r sa ss t raw m en .I nt h is r e spec t ,i ti si mpo r tan tt or emembe rt h e t p rob lem s Ma rk Twa in h ad i ni mag in ing a nd p o r t ray ing t h eo the r si nh i sn ove l s ,e spec ia ly l t h eN eg ro s l aves . A sw i th C oope r 's I nd ians , Twa in ' ss l ave sh ad l i t le i f any s ay s oi nt h e t ma te r . t As imp le e xamp le i nt h eh i s to ry o fa r chaeoa s t ronomy w i li t ra te p a r to ft h ep rob lem l lus o fp e r spec t ive a nd i mag ina t ion .I nt h ef a lo f1 984 Ih ad t h ev a luab le o ppo r tun i ty t os t udy l w i th t h ea r chaeoa s t ronome rA n thony A ven iw h i le h ew a s wo rk ing i nt h e Me soame r ican A rch ive a tt h eU n ive r s i ty o fC o lo rado .D u r ing o u re i gh t -week j o in t ly taugh ts em ina ro nt h e h i s to ry o fr e l ig ions a nd a r chaeoa s t ronomy ,A ven i( who i sn o tl i ke Twa in o rC oope r ) made s eve ra lp r e sen ta t ions o nt h eh i s to ry o fs cho la r sh ip a bou tS tonehenge . H ep o in ted o u tt h e p a ra le lb e tween c u l tu ra lf a sh ion sa nd t h eS tonehenge f a sh ion —how p opu la ri n te lec tua l l l f ad sd e te rm ined t h ew ay p eop le u nde r s tood S tonehenge f o rc er ta in d ecade s .H en o ted t h a t when t h ef a sh ion w a so b se rva to r ie s ,o rc ompu te r s ,o re c l ip se s ,t h en S tonehenge b ecame a n o b serva to ry , ac ompu te r , a n e c l ipse m a rke r . T he p o in t w a s , i nA ven i ' sw o rd s ( quo t ing J acque ta H awkes ) ," Each g ene ra t ion g e t st h eS tonehenge i td e serve s ." T he b e s ti s t ra t ion t lu w a st h ed ay A ven ib rough tt oc l as h a ta da bou tt h eS tonehenge w a tch y ou c ou ld p u rcha se s t t h rough t h e ma i l made u po fl i t le s t one so nt h ed i a lw h ich c a s ts hadow sa cco rd ing t ot h e t t ime o fd ay .I tl e d me t oa sk ," Doe se ach g ene ra t ion g e tt h eT emp lo Mayo ri td e se rves ,t h e J e ru sa lem i td e serve s ,t h eB ena re si td e serve s ,t h eP a lenque i td e serves ,o rt h eC od ex B org ia i td e se rves ." O ri nt h ec a se o ft h e mo s tr e cen th ea ted d eba te a bou tt h ei mag ina t ion o fA z tec ma te r— the d eba te a bou th uman s a cr if ice -does e ach g ene ra t ion g e tt h e Me soamer ican t -

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s k in ,s t oma ch o re n t ra i l si td e se rve s .F u r the r , my w o rk w i th A ven il e dm et o ponde r ,t ow ha t e x ten td oe s Me soame r ican s cho la r sh ip c on ta in at h eo re t ica lf r amewo rk wh ich e n r iche so u r u nde r s tand ing a bou tt h er e la t ion sh ip o ft h er e l ig iou si mag ina t ion t oa s t ronomy a nd e co logy . I ta ppea r st h a to ne o ft h ec ha ra c t e r i s t i cs o fc on tempo ra ry Me soame r ican s t ud ie si s th e sroad i n te re s t i nd i scove r ing i n te r sec t ion s , c r os s a nd c on junc t ion s b e tween t h e mu l t ip le t a spec t s o fe co logy , t h e p a ter n s o fa s t ronomy , a nd t h ec omp lex a spec t s o ft h er e l ig iou s sed b i mag ina t ion . T h i sd eve lopmen tf i nd s ac onve r sa t ion p a r tne ri nt h ep o s i t ion e xp r es y so N in ian Sma r t i n h i s w o rk o n t h e f u tu re o f t h e h i s to ry o f r e l ig ion s . P rof es r Sma r t l p e r sua s ive ly a r gue s t h a ts cho la r s i nr e l ig iou s s t ud ie sn eed i n te lec tua li n te rchange sw i th s cho la r s f r om o the r d i sc ip l ine s . T he se i n te r change s w ou ld r e su l t i nn o t o n ly t h e u sua l s o s o p roces f " impo r t s" o f i d ea s i n to r e l ig iou s s t ud ie s b u t t h e much n eeded p roces f so " expo r t ing" i d ea sf r om t h eh i s to ry o fr e l ig ion si n to o the rd i sc ip l ines .A l so ,P ro f es r Sma r t r l u rge sh i s to r ian so fr e l ig ion st oc a ry o u t mo re t h eo re t ica l wo rk w h ich r e la te sw ha tw ec a l t r e l ig ion t o ot he ra r ea so fh uman e xpe r ience .T h i sa temp ta t an u nde r s tand ing o fh ow t h ing s re e i n ter la te a nd h ow d i sc ip l ine s n eed t or e la te s em s c ruc ia l i n Me soame r ican s t ud ie s , l e spec ia ly i nt h el i gh to fK en tF l anne ry 's c l a im t h a t "Me soame r ican a r chaeo logy h a sa b so lu te ly n oc ohe r en ta nd c on s i s ten tt h eo re t ica l f r amewo rk b ym ean s o fw h ich r i tua l o rr e l ig iou sd a ta c an b e a na lyzed a nd i n te r p r e ted ." B u tF lanne ry , a l ong w i th ah and fu lo fs p ec ia l i s t s , h a sc on s t ruc ted t h eo u t l ine so fs u ch a sica t f r amewo rk f o r t h e i n te rp r e ta t ion o f F o rma t ive a nd C las l r e l ig iou s p a ter n s . T h i s f r amewo rk i s con tex tua li nc ha ra c te ra nd " t ie sr e l ig ion t os o c ia lo rgan iza t ion ,p ol i t ic sa nd l s ub s i s tence r a the rt h an l e av ing i to nt h ee pheme ra lp l ane o f m en ta la c t iv i ty ." S t i l ,a cco rd ing sing t oF l anne ry ,w hen i tc ome st o Me soame r ican r e l ig ion s mo s to fu s a r e" gues ," a nd a s se F lanne ry s t a te s ,a nyone 's g ues sa r ea sg ood a sa nyone e l se 's . sing o H oweve r , Ib e l ieve w ea r eb eyond t h es t age o fg ues nt h eb a s i so fa r chaeo log ica l l s o c l ue s . A s t h i s v o lume s how s , w i th i t s c o labo ra t ive i n telec tua l g roup i nt h e p roces f f o rma t ion ,t h ec l ue sc ome f r om an umbe ro fs ou r ce s ,d i r ec t ion sa nd t e x t sw h i le t h eg ue sse s a r eb ecom ing i n te rp r e ta t ion sl e ad ing t o new k now ledge .A ss eve ra lr e cen tc onf e rence sh ave s hown ,e n t i r e ly n ew s e t so fq ue s t ion sa nd p a r t ia la n swe r st ot ho se q ue s t ion sh ave b een s e t i n mo t ion . se B u tt h er e a son f o rh av ing many g ues s ,q ue s t ion s ,a pp roa che sa nd i n te rp re ta t ion si sn o t j u s t b ecau se e a ch i sa sg ood a st h e n ex t , b u t b ecau se t h e re a r e s o many l e ve l s , a ng le s , a l ignmen t s ,a nd p o in t so fv i ew t oq ue s t ion a nd f r om w h ich t oi n te rp re t . A st h ep o e tO v id n o ted ,t h e r ea r e many h eaven s ,t h eh eaven o ft h ea s t ronome r ,t h eh eaven o ft h eh i s to r ian , t h e h eaven o ft h e p r ie s t , t h e h eaven o ft h e l o ve r , a nd t h e h eaven o ft h e my th -make r . I f i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry w o rk i st o ta ke p l a ce , ar e cogn i t ion o ft h ea bundance o ft h ep henomena a nd re s o t h ei n ter la tednes ft h ec omponen t si s nece ssa ry . l T h i s v o lume r ep re sen t s a n a dvance i n Me soame r ican s t ud ie s a nd e spec ia ly A z tec s t ud ie s i ns e ve ra l w ay s . F i r s t , i tr ef lec t s an ew d i a logue a tw o rk b e tween t h e h i s to ry o f r e l ig ion s a nd v a r iou s s pec ia l iza t ion s i n Me soam e r ican s t ud ie s . Un l ike Twa in 's C oope r , A z tec s c ho la r sh ave b een a s tu te o b ser ve r so ft h ep o l i t ica la nd a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd f o ra l o ng t ime .B u tt h ei n te rp re t ive a ch ievemen t si nu nde r s tand ing t h er e l ig iou sd imen s ion so f A z tec , M ix tec a nd Maya p eop le s h ave b een mo re mode s t . Wi th t h e b road rang ing d eve lopmen t sb yh i s to r ian so fr e l ig ion i nt h es t udy o f my th ,s ymbo la nd r i tua lp e r fo rmance d u r ing t h e l a s t 3 0 y ea r s p l u s t h e n ew d i scove r ie s i n Me soame r ican manu sc r ip t s a nd

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a r chaeo log ica lz one s , ac hange i nu nde r s tand ing i si nt h ew ind .T h is c hange i sr ef l ec ted i n t h et i le a nd e spec ia ly t h es ub t i t le " Re l ig ion a nd E co logy i n Me soame r ican T rad i t ion s" o f l t h is v o lume .I nt h i sc a se ,t h el i nkage o fr e l ig ion a nd e co logy i nd ica te so u ra temp tt oj o in t t wo g ene ra l a pp roache s o f s cho la r sh ip i n o rde r t o e xp lo re , i n t e n ta t ive f a sh ion , t h e i n ter la t ion s o f c o smov i s ion o r c o smo -mag ica l t h ough t a nd t h e ma te r ia l w o r ld s o f re Me soame r ican p eop le s . F rom o ne a ng le ,i ti sc l ea rt h a ts ymbo l s , s i gn s , a nd t h e my th so f Mesoame r ica w e re d ef in i t ive a spec t so fc u l tu re .F rom a no the rp o in to fv i ew ,t h ef o rm sa nd r e fo rmu la t ion so ft h ee co log ica lc omp lex ,c on s t i tu ted b yg eo logy ,g eog raphy ,t e chno logy a nd a g r icu l tu ra l c u l t iva t ion , o rde red t h e s y s tem s o fs oc ie ty . My a pp roach i st h a t o ft h e d i sc ip l ine k nown a st h eg enera lh i s to ry o fr e l ig ion sw h ich h a so b served ,w i th ar ema rkab le d ive r s i ty o f i n te rp re ta t ions , t h a t r e l ig ion p ene t ra te s a e ve l s o f c u l tu r e a nd h uman l l e x i s tence . I n Me soame r ican s t ud ie s ,t h ep owe ra nd p re sence o ft h er e l ig iou si mag ina t ion h a so f ten b een i gno red o rr ende red u nde rt h ec a tego r ie so fp h i lo sophy o ra r th i s to ry .T h i s t e ndency i ss t r ik ing ly a to dd sw i th w ha ti nd igenou st e x t s , i mage s a nd p eop le t e lu s . A n l e xamp le o f wha tt h ei nd igenou sr e co rd t e l su sc ome sf r om S ou th Ame r ican r e l ig ion sa nd l X avan te c h ief , Ma r io J u runa who " p layed ak ey r o le i nt h ef our th R u sse lT r ibuna lc onvened i nR o te rdam ,t h eN e th l t e r land s ,i n1 980 t o judge c r ime sa ga in s tt h en a t ive p eop les o f Ame r ica .I np l ead ing h i sc a se ,J u runa empha s ized t h ec omp le te p ene t ra t ion b yr e l ig iou se xpe r ience o ft h e ma te r ia la nd s oc ia l e x is tence o fS ou th Ame r ican p eop le s . N os i ng le f a ce to ft h e i r l i ve sc an b eg ra sped w i thou tt a k ing h o ld o fa lt h eo the r s ." l And a st h ee ne rge t ic s t ud ie so ft h eT eo t ihuacan Mapp ing P ro jec ta nd t h ee xcava t ion o ft h e T emp lo Mayo ro fT enoch t i t lan s ugge s t ,t h es ame i n te rpene t ra t ion o fr e l ig ion a nd e co logy i st r ue f o r Me soame r ican c e remon ia lc en te r s .T he r e a l iza t ion b ys cho la r so ft h ep ene t ra t ion o ft h er e l ig iou se xpe r ience i n to a ll e ve l so f ma te r ia la nd s oc ia le x i s tence o f Me soame r ican l p eop le sd emand s ac hange i nt h ei n te rp re t ive a pp roach wh ich t h i sv o lume r ep re sen t s . A s J ohanna B roda w r i te si nt h is v o lume " aj ux tapo s i t ion b e tween s c ience a nd r el ig ion i n pre -H i span ic s oc ie ty d oe sn o te x i s t . T he e l emen t so fe xac to b se rva t ion o fn a tu re w e r ei n t ima te ly t i ed t ot h ee l emen t so f r e l ig ion a nd f o rmed awho le t op re -H i span ic man ." A no the rc on t r ibu t ion o ft h eh i s to ry o fr el ig ion sa pp roach i st h es t imu lu st o draw c a refu l b u ta re s t ing c ompa r i sons . C ompa r i son i si mpo r tan tt o Mesoame r ican s t ud ies f o ra tl e a s t r t wo r e a son s .F i r s t ,a sJ ona than Z . Sm i th h a sw r i ten s ow e l ,a lt hough ti s compa ra t ive i n t l l n a tu re . Me soame r ican i s t s n eed t o f a ce u p t o t h e i n t r ins ic p roces f c ompa r i son a nd s o d ep rov inc ia l ize t h em se lve s ." The p roces fc ompa r i son i s a f undamen ta lc ha rac te r i s t ic o f s o h uman i n tel igence .. (a nd )i st h e omn ip re sen ts ub s t ruc tu re o fh uman t hough t .W i thou ti t , . w ec ou ld n o ts peak ,p e rce ive ,l e a rn ,o rr e a son ."2A sR ober t McC . Adam s ,P au l Whea t ley , f ave s hown , mo re c ompa r ison s c an b e e f ec t ive ly made w i th in a nd P eggy S anday 3 h Me soame r ica a nd b e tween Me soamer ica a nd as e lec ted n umbe r o f o t he r c u l tu r es . T he s e cond r ea son f o r c ompa r isons i st h a t t h ey c an b e u sed t o d raw c l ea re r v i ew s o f t h e d i f e rences a nd d i s t inc t ion s b e tween r e l ig ious e xp res s a nd t r ad i t ion s . I ti sn o t s o f sion i mpo r tan tw he the rt h eT o l tecs o rT eo t ihuacans ( o rt h e S ou th E a s tA s ians f o rt h a t ma te r ) t f i r s ti nf luenced t h e Maya o rv i ce v e r sa . Wha ti si mpo r tan ti st of i r s te f ec t ive ly e va lua te t h e f s i gn if ican td i f e rence sa nd s im i la r i t ie so ft h e i rr e l ig iou st r ad i t ions a nd u t i l ize t h e se p a te rns f t a s ab a s is f o ru nde r s tand ing t h eh i s to ry a nd m ean ing o ft h e i rc u l tu re s . S ince t h e s ympo s ium w h ich g ene ra ted t h i s v o lume w a s h e ld , t h e d i a logue b e tween h i s to r ian so f re l ig ion sa nd Me soame r ican s pec ia l i s t sh a si n ten s if ied .T he r e cen t Me soame r i -

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c an A rch ive s ympo s ium " Az tec C e remon ia lL and scapes : F ocu s ing o n S pec if i cs" h e ld a t t h e Mu seo d e lT emp lo Mayo ri n Mex ico C i ty i nJ une o ft h i sy ea ri n c luded f i ve h i s to r ians f o fr e l ig ion s who d rew e f ec t ive c ompa r i sons b e tween Mesoame r ica a nd A f r ica , J apan , S ou th Ame r ica , N or th Ame r ica , Med ieva l C h r i s t ian i ty a nd C h ina . A s e xpec ted , t h e c on t r ibu t ion s o f Me soame r ican s pec ia l is t s t o t h e b roade r s t udy o f r e l ig ion w e re a l so v a luab le .T h i sv o lume r ep re sen t sp remon i t ion so ft h a te xchange . T he s e cond g ene ra l c on t r ibu t ion t o Mesoame r ican s t ud ie s r ef lec ted i nt h i s v o lume r e la te st ot h ec ha rac te ro fA z tec i d eo logy .A st h er e cen tp ub l ica t ion T he Human B ody a nd I d eo logy :C oncep t so ft h eA nc ien tN ahua b yA lf r edo L opez A us t in s how s ,A z tec i d eo logy w a sf o rmed o u to f ac omp lex s e r ie so fo b se rva t ion sa nd c oncep t sc once rn ing t h en a tu re a nd d ynam ics o ft h e h uman b ody . O u r v o lume t a kes ab roade r v i ew o f t h e f o rma t ion a nd c ha rac te ro ft h e Me soame r ican c o smov i s ion b ye xp lo r ing t h ei n te rac t ion b e tween r e l ig iou s i mag ina t ion ,t h e movemen t so fs t a r s ,t h ec on tou r so f m oun ta in s ,h un t ing ,s t one s ,s un , moon , l V enu s a nd p a r t s o f t h e h uman b ody . I ti sa new e xe rc i se , emp i r ica ly g rounded a nd t i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry , i nt h e e xp lo ra t ion o f t h e i n te rac t ion o f i mag ina t ion a nd ma te r . T h i s e xp lo ra t ion h a sb een d iv ided i n to s eve ra ls e c t ion s . t s I nP a r tI ," He rmeneu t ics a nd t h eI mag ina t ion o f Ma te r" w ep re sen tt h ree e say sw h ich s l a y o u t n ew s t ra teg ies f o r " r ead ing" t h e p r ima ry s ou r ce s . J o rge K lo r d e A lva 's e say e xam ine st h ec r i s i so fr ep r e sen ta t ion i n Be rna rd ino d eS ahagun 's w r i t ing sa nd o u r own u se s o ft h em . P e te rv an d er L oo c on s truc t s t h e s t ra tegy o f" t hema t ica l u n i t s" i nt h e s t udy o f c on t inu i ty a nd c hange i nt h eh i s to ry o f Me soame r ican r e l ig ion s . E l izabe th B oone r e con s t ruc t s ,t h rough ar ead ing o fp re a nd p o s tc onque s ts ou rce s ,t h eh i s tory o fH u i tz i lopoch t l i 's i mage a si tw a sr ep re sen ted i n av a r ie ty o f med ia i n Mex ico a nd E u rope . P a r t Io n " A s t ronomy , S kyscape s a nd t h e I mag ina t ion o f Ma te r" i sh igh l igh ted b y t A n thony A ven i 's s yn the t ic a r t ic le w h ich o f e r s an ew mode lo fc en te r /per iphe ry d ynam ic s f b yc ompa r ing s pa t ia lo r ien ta t ion i nC uzco ,C opan a nd T eno ch t i t lan . Aven i 's a r t ic le r ef lec t s i n as ucc inc tf a sh ion , t h en ew d i rec t ion s o fo u ri n te rd i sc ip l ina ry e fo r t s . S u san M i lb ra th f t a ke su st h rough a na s t ronom ica ls equence i nt h eC odex B o rg ia t or e th ink t h es ymbo l i sm o ft h e V enu s c yc le a nd r e la te i t to A z tec c oncep t ion s o fa s t ronomy a nd r i tua l . F ina ly , l C a rmen Agu i le ra f o cuse sh e ra s t ronom ica li n te re s t so nt h es o la rc yc le a nd s i xs o la rf e s t iva l s t od raw ac or spondence b e tween t h et wo t emp le so nt op o f Temp lo Mayo ra nd t h e Mex ica re c a lenda r . P a r tI I" Land scape sa nd t h eI mag ina t ion o f Ma te r" e xp lo re st wo c omp lex c oncep t ion s t o f l a nd scape i n r e la t ion t o c o smo -mag ica l t hough t ; a ) t h e c oncep t ion o f t h e n a tu ra l l a nd scape a s a ce remon ia l s pace ( Broda ) a nd b ) t h e c oncep t ion o f t h e g eog raph ica l / h i e ra rch ica l / soc ia ll a nd scape a s ac e remon ia lw o r ld ( Townsend ) . P a r tI V" The B ody a nd t h eI mag ina t ion o f Ma te r" p re sen t st wo d i f e ren tc oncep t ion s t f o ft h e ma te r ia l wo r ld a s" bod ie s" w h ich w e re t h e a r ena sf o rt h er e l ig ious i mag ina t ion t o d eve lop s ymbo l ic p a te rns .B e rna rdo O r t iz d e Mon te lano e xp lo re st h er e c ip roca lr e la t ion t l s h ip o fc o smo logy a nd t h eh uman b ody w i th s pec ia la ten t ion t oe t h ics a nd i o r i s t lnes s. D H eyden t u rn st h i sA z tec p a te rn o fr e c ip roc i ty i n ad i f e ren td i rec t ion b yf ocus ing o nt h e t f b ody o ft h e e a r th a nd t h e w ays i nw h ich i t s t e x tu res a nd e l emen t s ( f lowe r s ,r ed s , c or n , e ama ran th )w e re s ymbo l ized a nd u t i l ized i ns oc ia l s t ruc tu r es a nd r i tua ls . Ana log ie sa nd t he D eve lopmen to fP er spec t ive G iven t h et e ndency t owa rd i n te rp re t ive o f en se s ,i ti sn ece ssa ry t oa sk h ow p e r spec t ive s f g row wh ich e ngage t h ee v idence mo re f r u i tf u ly a nd w h ich s t imu la te n ew i n s igh t si n to t h e l

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r e l ig iou s i mag ina t ion o f Me soame r ican p eop le s? R e s ta t ing F lanne ry 's c ha lenge , i n t ro l d uced e a r l ie r ," how c an c ohe ren tf r amewo rk sb ed eve loped i n Mesoame r ican s t ud ie sw h ich a low f o rr e l ig ious a nd r i tua l d a ta t os how t h e i ri nf luence ." A s am eans o fp ropo s ing a n l e f ec t ive a pp roach , p a r t ly r ef lec ted i nt h is v o lume , a low me a n e xcu r su s i n to C l if rd f l fo G eer tz 's e l oquen te say " B lur en re s :T he R ef igu ra t ion o fS oc ia lT hough t" . 4F o low ing s red G l as ho r tr ev iew o f" B lur en re s" a s af o rm o fi n te rd i sc ip l ina ry a c t iv i ty , Iw i l s t a te my red G l a pp l ica t ion o fG ee r tz 's r ema rk st ot h e Me soame r ican s i tua t ion . S urvey ing t h e many a temp t si nt h es oc ia ls c ience s" t od i scove ro rde ri nt h ec o lec t ive t l l i f e" o fo the r s , G eer tz n o te s t h a tt h e r e " ha s b een a n e no rmous a moun to fg en re m ix ing" r e su l t ing i na na l te ra t ion i nt h es oc io log ica li mag ina t ion .T h i sa l te ra t ion i sc ha rac te r ized b y at ur na way f r om " al aw sa nd i n s tances i d ea lo fe xp lana t ion t owa rd ac a se a nd s e to fc a se s i d ea lo fe xp lana t ion" w ho se a im sa r ea sf a rr e ach ing a st h ee xp lana t ion o ft h em echan ics o fp hys io logy a nd w h ich s ek " t od i s t ingu ish t h em a te r ia lo fh uman e xper ience .. .S cho la r s e a r el ook ing l e o rt h e s o r to ft h ing t h a tc onnec t sp l ane t sa nd p endu lum sa nd f o rt h es o r t ss f t h a t c onnec t s c h rysan themum s a nd s wo rd s" . Iw ou ld r e s ta te G eer tz 's c on ten t ion a f te r s t udy ing w i th An thony A ven i ,E dwa rd C a lnek a nd J ohanna B roda t os ay w ea r el ok ing f o r o t h es o r to ft h ing st h a tc onnec t sc h ry san themum s ,s wo rd s ,a nd p lane t s ,e n t ra i l s ,a nd — in t h e t t e rm so ft h is v o lume — imag ina t ion a nd ma te r . C en t ra l t ot h en ew o r ien ta t ion i nt h e s oc io log ica li mag ina t ion i st h eu se o fa na log ies wh ich a r el a rge ly d rawn f r om t h eh uman i t ies i n to o the rd i sc ip l ina ry c i r c le s .G ee r tz a rgue s s t h a t" theo ry move s ma in ly t h rough a na log ie s. ..a' s ee ing a s ' c omp rehen s ion o ft h el e s l s ed w i n te l ig ib ly b yt h e mo re ." G ee r tz i sp a r t icu la r ly i mp res i th t h ep erva s ive i n f luence o f t h ree a na log ie si nt h e s t udy o fs oc ia ll i f ew h ich h ave a l te red t h es cho la r ly i mag ina t ion : s oc ia ll i f ea s ag ame , s oc ia ll i f ea s as ymbo l ic d rama , s oc ia ll i f ea s at e x t . I nt h e f i r s ta na logy , s oc ia l b ehav io ra s as e r ious g ame , s oc ie ty c on s is t so f as e r ie so f l p laye r s mak ing move s ,f o low ing r u le s ,d ef end ing p o s i t ion s ,s end ing s i gna l s ,e xchang ing o rw i thho ld ing i n fo rma t ion ,t a k ing g amb le sa nd s t r iv ing t o win .I nt h i sa pp roach ," l if ei sj u s t ab ow lo fs t ra teg ie s ." T h i sf r amewo rk h a si t sg rea tes tr ep re sen ta t ion si nt h ew o rk o fL udw ig t Wi tgens te in who c once ived o fl i f e a s ac omp lex i n fo rma t ion g ame , Von N euman a nd Mo rgen s te rn who v i ew e conom ic b ehav io ra s a" r ec ip roca t ive maneuve r ing t owa rd r ed is fs f an w t r ibu t ive p ayof ," a nd E rv ing G ofm ho f ocu se so nt h er i tua lg ame o fh av ing as e lf .I n lu t h i sv o lume s eve ra la r t ic le sr e sona te w i th t h eg ame a na logy b yi s t ra t ing t h ei n te rp lay o f l b ody a nd e nv i ronmen ti nt h eN ahua m ind ( O r t iz d e Mon te lano ) a nd b yp l ay ing w i th t h e s ou rce sf r om d i s tan tt ime f r ame s( v an d e rL oo )i no rde rt ow in n ew i n s igh t si n to c on t inu i ty a nd c hange i n Me soame r ican r e l ig ion s .T hough t h eg ame a na logy h a sn eve rb een a pp l ied l i t ot h er i se a nd c o lapse o fA z tec c t ies ,i tw ou ld l i ke ly r evea ln ew i n s igh t si n to t h ee ccen tr ic p e r iod ic i ty o ft ho se c ompe t i t ive c e remon ia lc en te r sa nd t h e i rh eav i ly c o s tumed r u le s . I nG eer tz ' ss e cond a na logy ,l i f ea s as oc ia ld rama ,h uman b ehav io ri s seen a sp r ima r i ly l l d rama tu rg ica l ,f u lo fr i tua la nd s ymbo l ic a c t ion sw h ich f unc t ion i np e r iod so fc o lec t ive s cco c r i s is t or egene ra te s oc ie ty o rd i so lve i ti n to u nhappy e nd ings . S oc ia ld rama s ,a rd ing l l t oV ic to rT ur ne ra nd t h es choo lo fi nqu i ry b a sed o nh i sw o rk ,o ccu ra t al e ve l so fs oc ie ty f r om t h ef am i ly t h rough t h eh o l iday t ot h ec i ty -s ta te i nw h ich " exc i ted s t a te so fh e igh tened i emo t ion s" i sr eo rde red t h rough t h ed rum so fa ff l ic t ion ,t h er i tua l so fl t iga t ion ,c ommun i ta s a nd s t a tu sr eve r sa l .I nt h i sv o lume K lo rd eA lva ' sa r t ic le o nt h ec r i s i so fr ep re sen ta t ion a nd t h ep lay o f me tapho r s( o rl a ck o fp l ay )b yt h e 1 6 th c en tu ry c h ron ic les r ef lec t st h ea na logy

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o fs oc ia ld rama . A l so ,R icha rd T ownsend 's s en s i t ive w o rk o nc o rona t ion a tT enoch t i t lan i s t ra te st h a tt h eA z tec s t a te w a s at h ea t r ica ld rama w i th aw idesp read a ud ience . Wh i le t h e lu i d ea t h a tl i f ei s as e r ie so fd rama s ,f i e ld sa nd m e tapho r sf i nd se xp res nt h e wo rk o fT .S . sion i E l io t , E rns t C as re r a nd M iche l F oucau l t , t h e a na logy c ome s c l o ses t t o Me soame r ican si f o rm s i nt h e wo rk o fG ee r tz h im se lf w ho se b ook o n t h e t h ea t re s t a te a rgue s t h a t u rban c en te r sa r e" d rama t ized s t a temen t so fd i s t inc tf o rm so fp o l i t ica lt h eo ry ." T he t h i rd a na logy l e ad ing t o change si nt h ew ay sw el ook a t th ing ss e sh uman b ehav io r e a nd e xp r e ss ion a s at e x t t ob e r e ad . G eer tz n o te s t h a t " l if e a s at e x t" i s a" dange rous ly u nfocused t e rm" a si ta pp l ies t os oc ia la c t ion b ecau se " t he s ugge s t ion t h a tt h ea c t iv i t ie so f s p ies ,l o ve r s ,d oc to r s ,k ing s ,o rm en ta lp a t ien t sa r e move so rp e r fo rmance si ss u re ly ag ood d ea l mo r ep lau s ib le t h an t h e n o t ion t h a tt h ey a r e s en tences ." Howeve r , t h ev a lue o ft h i s a na logy h as b een e nhanced b y P au l R iceou r 's c oncep to f" i n sc r ip t ion" — the f i xa t ion o f mean ing o fn o to n ly h uman u te rances a nd w r i t ing sb u tt h ef i xa t ion o fm ean ing o fh uman t a c t ion , s o c ia l c us tom a nd e ven s oc ia l c hange . T he b a s ic i d ea i st h a t t h e mean ing o f s ome th ing c an p e r s i s te ven i fi t sa c tua l i ty h a sp as way a nd t h a t mean ing sc an b er ead s ed a i nt h et r a ce so fa c tua l i ty l e f tb eh ind . I nt h i sv o lume ,t h e wo rk o fE l izabe th B oone o nt h e f i xa t ion o f mean ings a nd c hange si n Hu i tz i lopoch t l i 's i mages p lu sJ ohanna B roda 's s t udy o fp e r s i s ten t moun ta in t op c e remon ie sa nd D o r is H eyden 's w o rk o nA z tec f l o ra r ep re sen t u nexpec t ed e xamp les o fa r t is t ic a nd r i tua ll i f ea st e x t st ob er e ad . Ih ave d i rec ted o u ra ten t ion t oG ee r tz 's d i scus fa na log ie si no rde rt ol e ad u st ot h e t sion o g u id ing a na logy o ft h i sc onf e r ence a nd v o lume . S imp ly s t a ted , t h ea na logy w a s" C i ty a s S ymbo l" , ap h ra se made e f ec t ive i nt h e e say s a nd monog raphs o fP au l Whea t ley o n f s p r ima ry u rban g ene ra t ion . My o wn t r an s la t ion o ft h is a na logy w a s s t a ted t oc onf e rence p ar t ic ipan t si nt h i sw ay . " Ou ro ve ra lr e sea rch d e s ign h a s b een g u ided b y t h e t h eo re t ica l p e r spec t ives l d eve loped i nt h ed i sc ip l ine so ft h eh i s to ry o fr e l ig ion sa nd u rban e co logy . S pec if i c a ly o u r wo rk o nt h eT emp lo Mayo ra nd o t he rc e remon ia lc en te r si n Me soamer ica l h ave b enef i ted f r om t h ew o rk o fP ed ro A rn i la s ,F r ied r ich K a tz ,E r ic Wo lf ,M i rcea r l E l iade a nd P au l Whea t ley ,a mong o the r s .O ne p owe r fu ls yn the s is o ft h e se d ive r se a pp roache st ot h es t udy o fs ymbo l ism a nd u rban e co logy a ppea red i n Pau l Whea t ley 's T he P ivo t o f t h e F our Q uar ter s : AP re l im ina ry E nqu ir y i n to t h e O r ig in a nd C harac ter o ft h eA nc ien tC h inese C i ty a nd mo re r e cen t ly i nF rom C our tt oC ap i ta l : AT en ta t ive I n t e rpre ta t ion o ft h e O r ig in so ft h eJ apane se U rban T rad i t ion a nd i n N agara a nd C ommandery : O r ig in s o f t h e S ou thea s t A s ian U rban T rad i t ion s . Whea t ley h a s s hown h ow r e l ig ious s ymbo l i sm p l ayed ama jo rr o le i nt h e s pa t ia l o rgan iza t ion a nd t h ei n teg ra t ion o fe co log ica lc omp lexe so fc i t ie si nt h es even a r ea s o f p r ima ry u rban g ene ra t ion i n c lud ing n o r the rn C h ina , Me sopo tam ia , E gyp t , s ou thwes te rn N ige r ia ,t h eI ndus V a ley , Me soame r ica ,a nd t h eh igh land so fP eru . l Two s en tence sf r om Whea t ley 's b ook ,p rov ide o u rs ympo s ium w i th i t so r ien ta t ion . Wr i t ing o f amode o ft h ink ing ,c a led ` c o smo -mag ica lt hough t ' ,w h ich w a su t i l ized l t oo rgan ize t h ee co log ica lc omp lexe so ft h e se c u l tu re s , Whea t ley n o te s , ' Unde rp inn ing u rban f o rm n o to n ly i nt r ad i t iona lC h ina b u ta l so t h roughou t mo s to f t h e r e s t o f A s ia , a nd w i th s omewha t mod if ied a spec t i n t h e N ew Wo r ld , w a s a c omp lex o fi d ea st ow h ich R ene B er the lo th a sg i ven t h en ame a s t ro -b io logy . .. T h is mode o ft hough tp re suppo ses a ni n t ima te p a ra le l i sm b e tween t h e ma thema t ica ly l l e xp res le r eg ime so ft h eh eavens ,a nd t h eb io log ica ly d e te rm ined r hy thm so fl i f e sib l o ne a r th , ( a s man if e s ted c on jo in t ly i nt h es ucces ft h e s e a son a nd t h e a nnua l sion o

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. .' 5 c yc le so fp l an tr egene ra t ion ). T he g ene ra l mean ing o f t h i s p as s age f o r Me soame r ican i s t s t o c on s ide r i st h a t c eremon ia lc en ter sa nd c i t ie sn o to n ly c on ta in s ymbo l sa nd r i tua ll and scape sb u t t h ey a re a l so , a s w ho le u n i t s p rod ig iou s s ymbo l s a nd c er emon ia l l a nd scapes d i sp lay ing t h em e tamorph ic i n terp lay o f ma t er ia l form sa nd c osmov i s ion i ng rand d e s ign s ." Que s t ions a nd P rob lems T h i s p as once rn ing t h e g ene ra l f o rmu la b y w h ich ma t er ( s ) w e re i mag ined i n s age c t t r ad i t iona lc i t ie sl e du st of o rmu la te as e r ie so fq ue s t ion si n c lud ing 1 ) Wha tk ind so fp a ra l lel i sm e x i s ted b e tween my th ,a s t ronomy ,e co logy a nd a r ch i tec t u re i ns pec if ic l o ca t ion si n Me soame r ica? 2 ) How w a sw ha ts cho la r sc a le co logy c once ived ,d ef ined o rc l a ss if ied b y Me soame r i l c an p eop le s? I nt h i sr ega rd ,C ha r le sH .L ong h a sc ommen ted ." Ia mi n t r igued w i th t h en o t ion t h a tw ha ti sma ter a nd w ha ti sn o tm a ter i sn o t as e lf e v iden ta fa i r :i ti s am a te ro fc u l tu ra l t t f t c l a ss if ica t ion ,e . g . ,i nd igenou sc u l tu re sh ave t hough to fa i r , s pace ,i d ea s ,t h ough t ,p raye r , s e e ing ,s t one s ,a nd p lan t sa sm a t t er o rs ubs tance .I nt h e Wes tw et h ink o fa i ra nd s pace a s ma te r o n ly i np hys ics . I n o u r o rd ina ry a nd l i t e ra ry f o rm s w e t h ink o f t h e se t h ing s a s t i mma te r ia l ." P e te rv an d e rL oo p re sen t ss eve ra ls u rp r i s ing d imen s ion so ft h i sp rob lem i n h i se say . s 3 ) Wha tw e re s ome o ft h es pec if i cf o rm so f ma te rw h ich s i gn if i can t ly i nf luenced ( o r t w e re t r an sfo rmed b y )r i tua l ,a r t ,w o r ld v i ew ,p o l i t ica lo rgan iza t ion a nd t e chno logy . Wha t f o r ce d id c e le s t ia l b od ie s , h uman b od ie s , monumen ta l a r ch i tec tu r e , u t en s i l s , h ave i n s hap ing t h ei mag ina t ion? 4 ) How d id t h e i mag ina t ion w o rk t od e s ign t h eg ene ra l c u l tu ra l l a nd scape? B y w ha t p r inc ip le s w e re s a c red e nc lave s d i scove red , c ons t ruc ted , l a yed o u t? Aven i a nd B roda a dd res h i sq ue s t ion e f ec t ive ly i nt h e i rp ape r s . s t f 5 ) O nce t h i s r e shap ing o f ma te r ia l f o rm s h a s t a ken p lace ( i n e i the rr i tua l o b jec t s o r my th ica l a nd a s t ronom ica l s cheme s ) , h ow d o t h ey r e f lex ive ly a c tu pon t h e i mag ina t ion wh ich h ad t r ansfo rmed t h em .E l izabe th B oone a nd D o r i sH eyden e xp lo re t h i s" r e shap ing" i nt h e i ra r t ic le s . l 6 )F o low ing Whea t ley 's " somewha t mod if ied a spec ti nt h eN ew Wo r ld" c on ten t ion , w ea r el e dt oa sk "Wha ti s th ed i s t inc t ivenes s o ft h e Me soame r ican r e l ig iou si mag ina t ion , c oncer n ing t h ep a rale l ism b e tween t h eh eavens a nd e co logy?" A nd w i th in t h e Ame r ica s , w ha t a bou t l o ca l mod if ica t ion s o f s ymbo l ic t hough t ? S u san M i lb ra th e xp lo re s t h e se mod if ica t ion sa nd l i nkages i nh e rp ape r . t 7 ) How d id E u ropean si mag ine a nd r ep re sen ti na r ta nd l i t e ra tu re , Mesoame r ican ma te r s uch a sg od s ,i mage so fg od s ,p l ace sa nd p eop le sd u r ing t h ec o lon ia lp e r iod? Wh i le n o ta l lo ft h ese q ue s t ion sw e re a dd res s ed ,t h ey s e rved t os t imu la te t h ep roduc t ive a nd e xc i t ing s e r ie so fp r esen ta t ion sa nd d i scus sw h ich t ook p l ace i nB ou lde r . A st h e sion s e c t ion a tt h ee nd o ft h i si n t roduc t ion s hows ,t h e wo rk c ar u ti n1 986 s e rved a s ac a ta ly s t ried o f o rt h ef o rma t ion o fn ew d i rec t ion si nc en t ra l Me soame r ican s t ud ie s . I ti so u rh ope t h a tu n l ike Ma rk Twa in 's v e r s ion o fJ ame sF en imo re C oope rw eh ave d one mo re t ob u i ld t h eo u t l ine so f an ew p e r spec t ive o nt h ec e remon ia lw o r ld o f Me soame r ica

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s a nd l e s t oc on t inue t h e " h igh t a len t f o r i n accu r a te o b se rva t ion" t h a t l e ad s t oo ngo ing fen " of se s" a ga in s tt h ep eop le w e s t udy a nd w i sh t ou nde r s tand . I .T ex ts a nd C on tex ts o ft he Me soamer ican A rch ive a nd R e search P ro jec t l I tw i lb eh e lpf u li nu nde r s tand ing t h em ean ing o ft h i sv o lume t od e sc r ibe t h ew ay si n w h ich t h e Me soame r ican A r ch ive a nd R e sea r ch P ro jec ts e rve sa s a" s tage o fd i s cou r se" f o r i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry r ef lec t ion o n t h e n a tu re a nd c ha ra c te r o f Me soame r ican c e remon ia l c en te r s .T he Me soame r ican A r ch ive w a se s tab l i shed a tt h eU n ive r s i ty o fC o lo r ado t oc ar ry o u t a ) ad ocumen ta ry e xe rc i se a nd b ) a n i n te rp re t ive p ro ces no rde r t oe nhance o u r s i u nde r s tand ing o ft h eh i s to ry o f Me soame r ican r e l ig ion s . Ac en t ra lf o cu so nt h i sp ro jec ti s t h ec l a im t h a tt h ec e remon ia l c i t ie s o f Me soame r ica w e r e " imago mund i s" , c r y s ta l ized l i mage so ft h es oc ia l ,e co log ica la nd p o l i t ica li n s t i tu t ion sw h ich c on s t i tu ted t h ec i ty -s ta te . C i t ie s s u ch a sT enoch t i t lan , T u la , C opan , T eo t ihua can , Mon te A lban a nd many o t he r s f f unc t ioned a sc r ea to r so fe f ec t ive s pace t h rough ad rama t ic i n te ra c t ion b e tween t h ep r ie s t ly e l i te s o pe ra t ing i n t h e c e remon ia l c en te r s a nd a n " eco log ica l c omp lex" r e su l t ing i n p opu la t ion c on t ro l a nd u se , e nv i ronmen ta l e xp lo i ta t ion , t e chno log ica l a dvance s a nd t d eve lopmen t s i ns o c ia l s t r uc tu re . A s Ih ave w r i ten e l sewhe r e c once rn ing t h e r e l ig iou s t d imen s ion so ft h e se s e t lemen t s , T he se c en te r sw e r ep l ace sw e re t h es a c red ,a si tw a sc once ived i n Me soame r ica ,h ad man if e s ted i t se lf i ne l emen ta ry h i e rophan ie s ( t h rough c ave s , s p r ing s , moun ta in s , r ock s ,a n ima l s )o ri n mo r ee vo lved h i e rophan ie s( man if e s ta t ion so fs pec i f ic c e le s t ia l t p a te rn s ,p a r t icu la rd e i t ie s ,o rc o sm ic e ven t st op r ie s t ly e l i te s )a nd s ow e re c on s id sen e r ed t h eq u in tes t ia lm ee t ing p l a ce so ft h es upe rna tu ra la nd n a tu ra lr e a lm s .' O ne m a jo r r e sea rch f o cu s o f t h e A rch ive h a s b een o n h ow u rban c e r emon ia l c en t e r s o rgan ized a nd w e re o rgan ized b y as e r ie s o fi n te ra c t ion s w i th t h e w ide r e nv i ronmen t i n c lud ing t h el a nd scape s , s ky scape s ,a nd c ompe t ing t r ad i t ion s . I ti sw i th in t h i sc oncep t ion o ft h e Me soame r ican " f i e ld o fs t udy" t h a td o cumen ta ry a nd l h e rmeneu t ica lw o rk h a st a ken p l a ce .T he c en te rp iece o fo u rd ocumen t si sac o lec t ion o ft h e 7 , 000 p ho tog raph s o ft h e e xcava t ion , r e cove ry a nd mu seum e xh ib i t ion s o ft h e T emp lo Mayo ro fT enoch t i t lan . T h i sr i ch b ody o fi mage si su sed t os ha rpen o u ro b se rva t ion so f r e l ig io -ae s the t ic f o rm s o f t h e A z tec emp i re . T he s t r a tegy i st oe s tab l i sh a n i n ten s ive d o cumen ta t ion o f a" un if ied i mage" w h ich c ou ld b eu sed a s ap ano ram ic w indow o nt h e c o smov i s ion a nd c e remon ia l o rde ro ft h e Mex ica w o r ld . I nt h e w o rd s o ft h et i le o ft h i s t v o lume ,t h e se p ho tog raph sr ef lec tt h e ma t er w h ich s haped a nd w h ich w a ss haped b yt h e i mag ina t ion o ft h eN ahua s . I ti si mpo r tan tt o e mpha s ize t h a tt h i sp ho tog raph ic r e co rd d oe sn o tf o cu so nt h ea e s the t ic l d i sp lay o f mu seum o b jec t s .R a the r ,t h e Me soame r ican A r ch ive c o lec t ion ,p u tt oge the ro n t h eb a s i so fp l an sd eve loped b yL aw r ence D e smond ,E dua rdo Ma to sa nd my se lf s how st h e s o p roces fr e cove ry b y Mex ican a r chaeo log i s t s ,i n c lud ing momen t so fd i scove ry ,m ea su re men t , d raw ing , a nd i n s ome c a se s w e h ave g roup s o f p ho to s s how ing t h e d i scove ry , l r e s to ra t ion a nd e ven tua l d i sp lay o f s p ec if ic r i tua l o b jec t s . T h i s p ho tog raph ic c o lec t ion i n c lude ss e ve ra l Mu seum s t ud ie ss how ing h ow t h eo b jec t sf r om T emp lo Mayo rh ave b een e xh ib i ted t ot h ep ub l ic . T h i sd ocumen tary a c t iv i ty ,u t i l iz ing t h et e chno logy o fp ho tog r aphy ,i n c lude s af o cu sed l l f r a r t ic le f i le a nd b i b l iog r aph ic c o lec t ion . O r ig ina ly s t imu la ted b yr e sea r ch e fo r t sc a r ied o u tb yI r ene V a squez a nd my se lf p l u sc onve r sa t ion sw i th A n thony A ven i ,t h i sf i l er ef lec t s t h ei n te rp re t ive p rog ram o ft h e Me soame r ican A rch ive .I ti sd i v ided i n to s e c t ion so n" Theo -

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r e t ica l App roache st ot h eC ompa ra t ive S tudy o fR el ig ion a nd Me soame r ican R e l ig ions" , " A rchaeoa s t ronomy" ," Sacr if ice a nd H uman S ac r if i ce" , "Me soame r ican C u l tu re" ," Az tec R el ig ion" , "Maya R e l ig ion" a nd " E thno -bo tan ica l S tud ie s" . T he l a te r s e r ie s o fa r t ic le s t ( and f i e ld s amp le s )w a sp rov ided b yR ober tB ye a nd E de l tn i ra L ina re sw ho a r eR e sea rch As ia te s i n t h e Me soame r ican A r ch ive w h i le s e rv ing a s a dm in is t ra to r s i n t h e J a rd in s oc B o tan ica o ft h eU n ive r s idad N ac iona lA u tonoma d e Mex ico . T he se d ocumen t sa r ee nhanced b y av a luab le c o lec t ion o f2 5c op ie sa nd f a c s im i le so f l p re -and p o s tc onques tc od ice sl o ca ted i nt h eS pec ia lC o lec t ions o ft h eN o r l in L ib ra ry a t l t h eU n ive r s i ty o fC o lo rado . T he p u rpo se o fi n teg ra t ing t h e se t h ree c o lec t ions i n to a n e nsemb le ( pho tog raph ic , l p i c to r ia l , b ibl iog raph ic ) i st oj o in ar e levan t s e r ie s o f i mages t o a re levan t s e r ie s o f i n te rp re ta t ions wh ich w i l e n h a n c e a ) o u r k n ow l e d g e o f t h e s t a t e o f t h e a r t o f M e s o am e r i l c an S tud ie sa nd b )w o rk t owa rd n ew s yn these sa nd n ew i n te rp re ta t ion so nt h en a tu re a nd c ha rac te ro f Mesoamer ican c e r emon ia lc en te r sw i th in c ) ac ompa ra t ive p er spec t ive o ft h e r e l ig iou si mag ina t ion . T h i sc omb ina t ion o fd ocumen t sr ef lec t st h es e cond r e sea rch a c t iv i ty o ft h e Me soame r i c an A rch ive , h e rmeneu t ics . P r ima r i ly t h rough m ee t ing s s uch a st h eo ne wh ich g ene ra ted t h i sv o lume , t h eA r ch ive i sa temp t ing t os t imu la te t h e f o rma t ion o fa n i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry t f r amewo rk f o rt h eu nde r s tand ing o f Me soame r ican r e l ig ion s . As t ep i nt h is d i rec t ion t ook p lace d u r ing t h ee i gh tw eek s e r ie so fl e c tu re sa nd c onve r sa t ions b e tween A n thony A ven i a nd my se lf a tC o lo rado i n1 984 .O ne p u rpo se o ft h ese e xchange sw a st oe xp lo re p os i l i t ie s sib f o r d eve lop ing a s yn the s is o f s cho la r ly a pp roache s r e la t ing t o t h e s t udy o f r e l ig ious e xp res nd i n telec tua l a ch ievemen t s o f t h e c u l tu re s o f Mesoame r ica a nd P e ru . I t sion a b ecame c l ea r t o u s t h a t s h if t s w e re t a k ing p lace i nA z tec s t ud ie s w h ich a r e s ek ing a e r e l ig ious /a s t ronom ica l /e co log ica l /po l i t ica l /ae s the t ic s yn the s is .A ni n te rd i sc ip l ina ry f r ame wo rk a ppea red mo re f e a s ib le t h an c on t inu ing t o fo cu so n We s te rn c onven t ion so rc a t ego r ie s " r e l ig ion" ," sc ience" ," a r t" ,e t c .I np lann ing f o rt h e" Imag ina t ion o f Ma te r" c onf e rence i n t 1 986 , i tb ecame e v iden tt h a ti no rde rt oa vo id s ome o ft h e" of se s" o ft h ep a s ta nd t o fen o rgan ize s i gn if i can tg row th i ns cho la r sh ip , s eve ra l a c t iv i t ie sn eeded t ob ec oo rd ina ted . 1 )I no rde rf o rr ea li n te rd isc ip l ina ry w o rk t ot a ke p l ace , aw ork ing g roup o fo b ser ver s a nd i n terpre t er sn eeded b ef o rmed f o r as ub s tan t ia lp e r iod o ft ime . 2 )T h i sg roup wou ld w o rk t od eve lop ac r i t ica l ,i n te rd isc ipl ina ry a pp roach w h ich moved b eyond a u tonomous c l o sed s y s tem so fi nqu i ry . 3 )I nc rea sed a ten t ion h ad t ob eg iven t oi mage ry w h ich r ef lec t st h ec ons te la t ions o f t l i d ea sd e r ived f r om f o rm so fn a tu re ,l i f ec yc le s ,a nd c e r emon ia lp e r fo rmance . 4 )T he d ia logue w i th in t h ew o rk ing g roup mu s tl a bo rt og ene ra te i n s igh tfu li n te rp re t ive mode l s f o rt h eu nde r s tand ing o ft h e Mesoame r ican r e l ig ious /a s t ronom ica l /po l i t ica l /eco l og ica l /ae s the t ic s yn the s i s . 5 )T he a pp roach o ft h eh i s to ry o fr e l ig ions wou ld p rov ide s ome o ft h es t imu lu sf o rt h e d i scou r se o n Mesoame r ican c e remon ia lc en te r s .T h i sa pp roach ,b r ief ly o u t l ined i nt h ef i r s t p a r to ft h i se say o b serve sa nd i n te rp re t st h ep ene t ra t ion o fr e l ig iou sp owe r , mean ing a nd s i mag ina t ion i na la spec t so ft h e ma te r ia la nd s oc ia lw o r ld . l S ince t h ec onf e rence w h ich p roduced T he I mag ina t ion o fMa ter :R e l ig ion a nd E co logy t i n Me soamer ican T rad i t ion st ook p l ace i n1 986 t h ese a c t iv i t ies h ave b een s e ti n mo t ion . T h i sd eve lopmen ti sd ue ,i np a r t ,t o at e ny ea rs em ina rg r an tf r om R aphae la nd F l e tche rL ee

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Mo se sw ho se l ove f o rt h ing s Me soame r ican h a sc r ea ted a ne x t rao rd ina ry o ppo r tun i ty f o r l l i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry r e sea rch . I nw ha tf o low s , Iw i l 1 )d e sc r ibe t h er e sea r ch a genda so ft h e s umme rc onf e rence so f8 7a nd 8 8a nd 2 )o u t l ine t h er e sea r ch mode ld eve loped d u r ing t h e se m ee t ings . I n 1 987 , ag roup o ff i f teen A z tec s pec ia l i s t s a nd h i s to r ians o fr e l ig ions g a the red t o s as d i scus e lec ted g roup o fs em ina la r t ic le sr ep re sen t ing p r esen tv i ew so nA z tec c e remon ia l c en te r / s ta te o rgan iza t ion i no rde rt oc on s ide rn ew a venues o fr e sea rch i n to t h ed ynam ics o f c en te ra nd p e r iphery i nt h ec en t ra l Me soame r ican u rban t r ad i t ion .T h i sc onf e rence " Con s u l ta t ion o nt h eF u tu re o fA z tec S tud ie s :C en te ra nd P e r iphe ry i nt h e Mex ica Wo r ld" s t rove t on u r tu re aw o rk ing g roup o fs cho la r sw ho w ou ld i n te rac tf o r ad ecade b yf ocu s ing o n as e t o fr e sea rch p rob lem so fc ommon i n te re s tw i th in t h ef i e ld o fA z tec s t ud ies .A sp o in ted o u t i nt h e f i r s t s e c t ion o ft h is i n t roduc t ion o u rp rev ious r e sea rch h ad b een o rgan ized b y t h e a na logy " C i ty a sS ymbo l" , a na na logy w h ich h ad e nab led u st oc on s ide rt h es oc ia lw o r ld o ft h e Mex ica sa nd t h e i rn e ighbo r sa ss ymbol i cc ons t ruc t s . N ow o u rg oa lw a st os h if tt h e p e r spec t ive i nA z tec s t ud ie sa nd l t Tenoch t i t lan ,t h eT emp lo Mayo ra nd t h ec onso l i ook a d a t ion o ft h e Mex ica wo r ld v i ew f r om t h ep e r spec t ive o ft h ep e r iphe ry ,f r om t h ep o in t so f v i ew o fp l ace sl i ke T excoco ,T la te lo lco ,M t .T la loc ,T laxca la a nd t h ec e remon ia lc en te r si n b e tween .A s amean so fl a y ing o u tn ew l i nes o fi nqu i ry w ef o cused a ni n ten s ive d i scou r se a nd d eba te o ns i xa r t ic les c ons ide red b o th i nnova t ive a nd p rob lema t ic i nt h es t udy o fA z tec s oc ia lh i s to ry a nd r e l ig ious e xp res .T he se i n c luded A n thony A ven i 's mode lo fc en te r sion a nd p e r iphe ry d ynam ics w h ich a ppea r s i nt h i s v o lume , J ohanna B roda 's a na ly s i s o ft h e p uzz l ing man if es ta t ion so ft h eT la loc c u l ta t Temp lo Mayo r ,R icha rd T ownsend 's s em ina l s t udy o fc o rona t ion c e remon ie sw h ich a ppea r si nt h i sv o lume ,C ece l ia K le in 's a na logy o f s i n ,s oc ia lc on t ro la nd h uman e n t ra i l s ,J e rome O fne r 's p i c tu re o ft h eT excocan emp i re a nd f D av id C ar sco 's mode l o f A z tec s ymme t ry i n a s t ronom ica l , i mpe r ia l a nd c e remon ia l ra t r ad i t ions . T h i s me thod o f i n te rp re ta t ion , i e . , t h e u se o f s em ina l w o rk s t o s t imu la te . d i scus nd c r i t ic i sm r e su l ted i na n a bundan ts e to fc or spondence sa bou tc en te ra nd sion a re p e r iphe ry i n c lud ing C en te r =C en t ro id o r" the c i ty wh ich c an b es a id t oe p i tom ize t h ep a ter no fs oc ie ty t a tl a rge" C en te r =t h eh uman b ody c once ived a st h en exu so fc o sm ic f o r ce so nt h et e re s t r ia l r l e ve l C en te r =T emp lo Mayo ra st h ep ivo to ft h e Mex ica c e remon ia l a nd p o l i t ica l /eco n om ica lw o r ld C en te r =t h el i f ea nd p a rapher na l ia o ft h er u le ra st h eq u in te ssen t ia le xp res f sion o s anc t i f ied a u tho r i ty C en te r =T la te lo lco a st h ef ocu so fn ew r e sea r ch a nd c ompa r i sons w i th T enoch t i t lan C en te r =T excoco a st h eh ea r to fa e s the t ic a nd l e ga li t ion s nnova C en te r =ma rke t sw h ich c omb ine r ed i s t r ibu t ion a nd c e remon ia le xchange ( b e tween h umans a nd b e tween h uman s a nd g od s ) i no rde rt or egu la te i n te rna l a nd e x te rna l r e la t ion sh ips T he se c or spondence so nt h es ymbo l i sm o ft h ec en te rw e re a ccompan ied b yc o r re r e spondence st ot h eg eog raphy a nd c oncep to ft h e P er iphe ry =D i s tan ts oc ie t ies a nd g eog raph ica la r ea s( i nc lud ing s e a s )w h ich s e rved a sr e sou rce sf o rp o l i t ica la nd r i tua ls ymbo l i sm i nt h ec ap i ta l 1

t l P e r iphe ry = B a t lef ie ld s , s pec if ica ly c ho sen s pace s o fc omba t a nd r i tua l w he re e xp lo s ive p o l i t ica lr e la t ion sh ip sw e re t r an s fo rmed a nd n ego t ia ted P e r iphe ry =P lan t sa nd s o i l sf r om o u t ly ing r eg ion su t i l ized i n ma rke te xchange a nd r e l ig iou s /med ica lp ra c t ice s .T he se m a te r ia l sr e f le c tt h ed ive r se e co log ica ln i che so f Me soame r ican l a nd scape s P e r iphe ry =M t .T la loc . Ap owe r fu lc en te ri ni t so wn w ay ,M t .T la lo c 's s i gn i f icance d e r ived i n pa r tf r om i t sl o ca t ion w i th in ah i e r a r chy o fc en te r so fc e r emon ia lp e r fo rm sed a nce s a nd s o c ie ta l c on t ro l . T h i s c e remon ia l h i e ra r chy i se xp res , i np a r t , i ni t s r i tua la nd a s t ronom ica la l ignmen t sw i th o t he rs i te s . P e r iphe ry =F ron t ie r s ,i e . ,t h es oc ia la nd s ymbol i cl im i t st op o l i t ica lo rde ra nd w i th in l fe c o smov i s ion .T he se f r on t ie r so cca s iona ly f unc t ioned a sb uf ra r ea sf o re xchange a nd c onf l ic t P e r iphe ry =A s t ronom ica lm a rke r so nt h ee dge so rw i th in s i gh to ft h ec e remon ia l c en te r s .T he se m a rke t sf unc t ioned a ss i gh tl i ne so rs ymbo l so f ce le s t ia le ven t so nt h e h o r izon l P e r iphe ry =O cean s .A st h ee xce len td i sp lay a tt h e Mu seo d e lT emp lo Mayo rs how s , t h eo cean sa nd ma r ine a n ima l sw e r ev a lued o b jec t sa nd s ymbo l si n teg ra ted i n to t h e f l oo ro ft h ea x i s mund i T he 8 7s em ina ri d en t if ied t h r ee t y pe so f dynam ics b e tween t h e se c en te r sa nd p e r iphe r ie s w h ich a n ima ted t h e Mex ica w o r ld . F i r s t , t h e e ne rgy a nd a c t ion o ft h e m a rke tp lace w a s f u nde r s tood t ol i nk u pd i f e ren tl o ca t ion sa nd l e ve l so fs o c ie ty .S econd ly ,t h ep repa ra t ion s , s l o g i s t ic s , s ymbo l i sm a nd a c t ion o fw a r f a re w a s u nde r s tood a s ama jo rd ynam ic p roces l i nk ing c en t e r s a nd p e r iphe r ie s . T he r i tua l p repa ra t ion s , t h e movemen t o f t r oop s , t h e t e ngagemen t sa way f r om t h ec en t ra ls e t lemen t s ,and t h eg ood sa nd p r i sone r sb rough tb ack t t ot h ec ap i ta l sf r om d i s tan tb a t lef ie ld sb ound i n s ide r sa nd o u t s ide r s ,d ome s t ic a nd f o r e ign s pace st oge the r .T h i rd ly ,a nd mo s ts i gn if i can t ly f o rt h ew o rk ing g roup ,r i tua lp e r fo rmance s ro w e re u nde r s tood t ob e m ir r s o ft h e d ynam ic r e la t ion s i n he ren t i nt h e m a rke t s y s tem , re w a r f a r ea nd m any o ft h ec or spondence sl i s ted a bove .I tw a sp o s i ted t h a tt h ec e remon ia l p e r fo rmance s o f t h e A z tec c a lenda r p re sen ted amov ing i mage o f t h e e n t i re s o c ie ty , c en t ro id ,c en te r /pe r iphe ry d ynam ic s . T he c onf e r ence d ec ided t h a tA z te c s t ud ie so fc en te ra nd p e r iphe ry w ou ld b enef i tb ya f mo re s e r iou se fo r to fa ) g a the r ing t h o rough d e sc r ip t ion so fA z tec c e r emon ia lp e r fo rm l a nce sa nd b )c a re fu ly d eve lop ing p e r sua s ive mode l sf o r ,r e la t ing c e r emon ia l s pace sw i th c e remon ia la c t ion s . f T he se t wo e fo r t s ,o ne p r ima r i ly t e x tua l ,t h eo t he rp r ima r i ly c on tex tua l ,c ha rac te r ized t h e 1 988 c onf e rence " Pe r f o rmance a s P la ce : A z tec C en te r s , A z tec A c t ion" w h ich w a s l e n r iched b y t h e c o labo ra t ive i n ve s t iga t ion , P royec to T la te lo lco , c o -spon so red b y t h e I n s t i tu to N a c iona l d e A n t ropo log i a i n Mex ico a nd t h e Me soame r ican A rch ive a tt h e U n ive r s i ty o f C o lo rado . T he e xcava t ion y i e lded r ema rkab le r i tua l b u r ia l s o f h uman s , t p o te ry , o b s id ian , a n ima l s , mu s ica l i n s t rumen t s a nd c l ay f i gu r ine s . E dua rdo Ma to s ra Moc tezuma a nd D av id C ar sco p r e sen ted t h er e su l t so ft wo s e a son so fe xcava t ion sa tt h e 8 s t a r to ft h e' 8c onf e rence . " I nve s t igac ione se nT la te lo lco" w a se xh ib i ted t o ove r1 , 000 ,000 l p eop le i n1 988 a tt h e Mu seo d e lT emp lo Mayo ri n M ex ico C i ty .I tw i lb ee xh ib i ted O c tob e r 8 9 -J anua ry 9 0a tt h e Mu seum o fN a tu ra lH i s to ry i nD enve ru nde rt h et i le " Lo rd o ft h e f W ind : O f e r ing sa tT la te lo lco , Mex ico ."

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A si nt h ep a s t ,t h i ss em ina rc omb ined c r i t ica la na ly s i so f as e r ie so fs em ina lw o rk sw i th p re sen ta t ion so fo r ig ina lr e sea r ch a s am ean so fj o in ing t h e emp i r ica lv i ew o fc e r emon ia l p e r f o rmance w i th t h ec en te r /pe r iphe ry mode lb e ing d eve loped .P a r t icu la r ly s i gn if i can tw a s t h ep r e sen ta t ion b y A n thony A ven i , E dwa rd C a lnek , J ohanna B roda a nd P h i lA rno ld o f t e x tua l a nd f i e ld r e sea r ch o nt h ep l ace s a nd a c t ion sr e la ted t ot h ef i r s tA z tec mon th " Ad C aua lo" . T he i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry a dvance w h ich r e su l ted f r om t h i sp re sen ta t ion l e dt ot wo i mpo r tan td ec i s ion s .I tw a sd ec ided t h a tt h e8 9s em ina rw ou ld m ee ta tt h eT emp lo Mayo r mu seum i n Mex ico C i ty a nd f o cu s o n a spe c if ic s e t o f r i tua l s i n c lud ing A t l C aua lo / T lacax ipeua l i tz l i ,T oxca t l /E tza lqua l iz t l i ,T ecu i lhu i ton t l i /Ue it e cu i lhu i t li no rde rt o deve lop as ub s tan t ia lv i ew o ft h ec e r emon ia ll a nd scape o rgan ized b yt h ee a r ly s t age so ft h er i tua l c a lenda r . O u ri n te rp re t ive t a sk w a s t ov i ew t h e se c e r emon ie si nr e la t ion t ot h e mode lo f c en te r /pe r iphe ry d ynam ic sd e scr ibed a bove .A s am ean so fg i v ing d i rec t ion t ot h ed e l ib e ra t i on si n Mex ico C i ty , Iw ro te t ot h ep a r t ic ipan t s , T he A z tec w o r ld w a s i n teg ra ted b y ac e remon ia l l a nd scape i nw h ich p a t t er n s o f a c t ion , o rc omp lex s e t so fp e r fo rmance sc ommun ica ted ( t h rough w o rd s , s e t t ing s , c o s tume s ,g e s tu re s ,e xchange s )k now ledge a bou tt h es o c ia la nd s ymbo l ic o rde ra nd t h e i rs a c r ed f ounda t ion s .T h i se n t i re l a nd scape ,c on s i s t ing o fg eog raph ica l , s o c ia l a nd a r ch i tec tu ra lt e r ra in s ,w a ss ub jec ted t o ac on sc iou sd e s ign ,s y s tem ic p a t te rn ,o r i n Johanna B roda 's t e rm ,` c o smov i s ion ' .Th i ss y s tem ic p a t te rn i n teg ra te st h eh uman e xpe r ience o ft ime a nd s pa ce i n to m ean ing fu lu n i t s . F u r the r , t h ea r rangemen t so f t emp le s , p i lg r image s , p roces s , a s t ronom ica l a l ignmen t s , m a rke t e xchange s , sion mock b a t t le s ,a dor nmen tc e remon ie sa nd s a c r if i ce sa r e ma rke r sa nd e ven t sw h ich c on s t i tu te a nd l i nk u pt h ec e r emon ia ll a nd scape . Ia pp roa ch t h e se a rangemen t sa nd r t h e movemen t st h rough t h em w i th t h en o t ion o f" am e tamo rph ic v i s ion o fp l ace" s i gn ify ing t h ep hy s ica le xhube rance a nd s ymbo l ic t r an s fo rma t ion sw i th in c e remo n i e sw h ich c ove rl a rge h e te rog eog r aph ica lt e r r i to r ie s .O ne o ft h ep r ima ry g oa l so f t h e se p e r fo rmance sw a st oc ommun ica te as a c red q ua l i ty o fk now ledge a bou tt h e c e remon ia ll a nd scape a nd i t s s upe rna tu ra l s ou rce s .F rom ac on t inued s t udy o ft h e e s ou rce s i ts em se v iden tt h a tn o tj u s tr i tua lb u t mo s to f Mex ica s oc ia ll i f ec an b e v i ewed a ss e t so fp e r fo rmance sc ommun ica t ing a nu rban ized ,h i e ra rch ica lw ay o f l i f e .T he se p ub l ic p e r fo rm ance sg ave l i f et ot h ec e remon ia ll a nd scape a nd h e lped t h e w o r ld b r ea th w i th m ean ing ." E ven a st h i sv o lume a ppea r s ,t h rough t h eg ood o ff i ce so fB .A .R . ,p l an sa r eb e ing made t o publ i sh t h er e sea r ch a nd i n te rp re ta t ion sp r esen ted a tt h e Mex ico C i ty s em ina rh e ld i n June o f1 989 . ra D av id C ar sco Mex ico C i ty a nd B ou lde r ,C o lo rado

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Q uo ted i nI canchu ' sD rum :A n O r ien ta t ion t o Mean ing i nS ou th Amer ican R e l ig ions ,b yL aw rence E . l l S u l ivan , Ma cm i lan & C o . , 1 988 ,P . 4 . ri " Adde P a rvum P a r vo Magnu sA cervu sE r i t " ,b yJ ona than Z . Sm i th ,i n Map i sN o tT er to ry :S tud ies i n l t h eH i s to ry o f Re l ig ions ,E .J . Br i l ,L e iden 1 978 ,p .2 40 P eggy S anday ,D iv ine Hunger : C ann iba l ism a s aC u l tura lS y s tem ,C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re ss , 1 986 make s as t imu la t ing s e r ie so fc ompa r i sons o ft h ep rac t ice o fc ann iba l i sm i nF i j i , Me soame r ica a nd N ew G u inea . I ti s one o ft h eb e s tc ompa ra t ive s t ud ie so ft h et e x t sa nd c on tex t so fr i tua le a t ing t od a te .

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C l if rd G ee r tz . L oca lK now ledge :F u r ther E say s i nI n terpr e t ive A n thropo logy , B a s ic B ook s , N ew fo s Y o rk , 1 983 . P au l Whea t ley .T he P ivo to ft h eF our Q ua r ter s .A Pre l im ina ry E nqu i ry i n to t h eO r ig ins a nd C harac t er o ft h eA nc ien tC h inese C i ty , A ld ine P res h icago , 1 971 ,p .4 14 . s, C D av id C ar co . Q ue t za lcoa t la nd t h eI r ony o f Emp i re : My ths a nd P rophec ies i nt h eA z tec T rad i t ion , ras C h icago ,U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago P r es 982 ,p . 5 . s, 1

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P ar t I Hermeneu t ic s a nd t he I mag ina t ion o f Mat ter

E uropean S p ir i t a nd Me soamer ican Mat ter : S ahagün a nd t he " Cr i s i so fR epre sen ta t ion" i nS i x teen th -Cen tury E thnography J .J orge I üor d eA lva I n troduc t ion T he h uman i t ie s a nd s o c ia l s c ience sa r ee xpe r ienc ing ac r i s i so fr e p re sen ta t ion w ho se c au se sa nd e f e c t sa r es t ud ied i n an umbe ro fr e cen t ly p ub l i shed monog raph s( Boon 1 982 ; f T ed lock 1 983 ;F ab ian 1 983 ;C l if rd a nd Ma r cu s1 986 ; Ma r cu sa nd F i sche r1 986 ) .I nw ha t fo c oncer n s a n th ropo logy , t h e c r i s i s i sf e l t p r ima r i ly b y t ho se w ho , e ngaged i n s e r iou s r ef lec t ion o nf i e ldwo rk a nd t h ew r i t ing o fe t hnog r aphy ,h ave moved a way f r om ar e l iance sing t o ne ncompas h eo r ie sa nd o ve ra r ch ing p a rad igm s .T he se s k ep t ica ls cho la r sh ave p u ti n ra q ue s t ion t h e a dequa cy o fm any c onven t iona l f i e ld m e thod s a nd n ar t ive s t ra teg ie s t o u n cove ra nd d e sc r ibe c u l tu ra lr e a l i ty .S im i la r ly ,i ns i x t een th -cen tu ry Me soame r ica ,s en s i siona l l t i ve o ff ic ia l s a nd m is r ie s , who f e l t c ha lenged b y t h e e mp i r ica l a nd i n te lec tua l r up tu r e se xpe r ienced i nE u rope a nd t h eN ew Wo r ld ,w e r ef o r ced t oq ue s t ion t h eu t i l i ty o f many t r ad i t iona l c a tego r ie s o fd e sc r ip t ion . L ike t h e i r e t hnog raphe r c oun te rpa r t s t oday , l t h o se e a r ly i n ve s t iga to r s ,w ho s e l f -con sc iou s ly f a ced t h ei n t r igu ing i n te lec tua lp rob lem s o fd o ing f i e ldwo rk i n an ew w o r ld a nd w ho l a bo red t oc r ed ib ly i n sc r ibe t h en on -Eu ropean o t he r ,w e re u nab le t oe s cape ac r i s i so fr ep re sen ta t ion . T he s i gn if icance o ft h ee ncoun te rb e tween t h eO ld a nd N ew Wo r ld sw a sr ea l ized v e ry l s l ow ly i n Eu rope ( E l io t1 976 ) .I np a r t ,t h i sf o s te red t h ec oncep tua l iz ing o fh igh ly d e fo rmed l i mage so fh uman a nd n a tu ra ll a nd scapes ( Lehne r 1 966 ; Honou r 1 975 ; C h iappe l i 1 976 ) . H oweve r ,d e sp i te t h ee a r ly d i s tor t ion si np e r cep t ion a nd d e scr ip t ion ( Boon 1 982 ) ,b yt h e s e cond d ecade o ft h e s i x t een th c en tu ry N ew Wo r ld o b se rve r s w e re f o rg ing n a tu ral i s t ic i mage so ft h en a t ive s 'b od ie sa nd t h e i r ma te r ia lc u l tu re s .P repo s t e rou s ,s upe rf ic ia ld e sc r ip sive t i on s b ecame p rog r es ly mo re r a re a nd b ra cke ted ; b u t , a s t h e r i ch a nd e n igma t ic l t i n t e lec tua la nd n a tu ra lc on ten t so f Me soame r ica b ecame b e te rk nown ,t h ed ep th o ft h e i r l c ha lenge t ol a te -med ieva lf o rm so fr e p re sen ta t ion b ecame c l ea re r .P rev iou s ly s imp l i s t ic a nd m e tapho r ica lv i s ion so fp r e -Con tac tN ahua s o c ie ty w e re r ep laced b yt h ei mage o fw ha t l t oday i sc a led as t a te leve lf o rm o fo rgan iza t ion , w i th ac omp lex ma te r ia l a nd s p i r i tua l f c u l tu re . T h i s n ew -found s oph i s t ica t ion w a s d i f icu l t t oi n te rp re t a nd e xp la in w i th in t h e c anon so fa no r thodox C h r i s t ian s o c io logy a nd am ed ieva ln a tu ra l s c ience t h a tc ou ld n o t a n t ic ipa te s uch au n ique a nd c omp le te c i v il iza t ion b eyon c lihe r e a lm o ft h ek nown C h r i s t ian o ri nf ide l wo r ld s (Weckmann 1 984 ) .A tt h es ame t ime ,t h eL u the ran r evo l t ,a nd t h eg row ing s ance s e cu la r i sm i d en t if ied w i th t h e R ena is , w e re e rod ing c onf idence i na u tho r i ty a nd a s s o u n if i ed C h r i s t ian v i s ion .I nt h ea b sence o ft h e se t r ad i t iona la su r ance s ,t h eo the rnes ft h e s s N ew Wo r ld c ou ld b e mo r e e a s i ly a pp r ehended a nd a s im i la ted w i th l e s c oncep tua l u n ce r ta in ty . Mesoame r ica w a sr e p le te w i th s u rp lu sl a bo ra nd m ean ing f o rt h eE u ropean s . N e i the r C o r t6 sn o rt h ec rown l o s tt i me i nr e cogn iz ing t h a tt h ee xp lo i ta t ion o ft h ef o rme rr equ i red sing o t sa l t h eh a rnes ft h el a te r .T hough h e rmeneu t ic sw a sr e cogn ized a s an eces ry i n te lec tua l o t o lf o rc o lon iz ing a nd C h r i s t ian iz ing t h em ind s ,b od ie s ,a nd r e sou rce so ft h en a t ive w o r ld , w i thou t a dequa te d e scr ip t ion s o f t h e i nd igenou s s p i r i tua l , s o c ioeconom ic , a nd n a tu ra l sib r e a l i t ie s , mean ing fu li n te rp re ta t ion sw ou ld b ei mpos le .T ot h ec o lon i s t s ' g ood f o r tune , f r om t h ef i r s tc on ta c t sb e tween E u ropean sa nd N ahua s ,c u r iou sa nd c ove tou si nd iv idua l s

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i mmed ia te ly b ecame a ma teu re t hnog raphe r s ,a nd t h em o s tl i t e ra te a mong t h em s e tq u i lt o l p ape r( Co r t 1 963 ;T äp ia 1 971 [ 1866 ] ;A gu i la r1 977 [ 1 901 ] ) .T h i sw a se spec ia ly t r ue o f l t h em is r ie s ,f o rw hom f i e ldwo rk w a s af undamen ta la spec to ft h e i ro ccupa t ion f r om siona t h et ime t h ey s e tf oo to nt h eN ew Wo r ld ( Gan te 1 954 ; Mo to l in fa 1 971 ;O lmo s1 972 [ 1 875 ] ; S ahagün 1 949 [ 1 564 1 ) . F ray B er na rd ino d eS ahagün w a sa mong t h ee a r l ie s to ft h e se p reache r -e thnog raphe r s . H ea r ived i n1 529 ,o n ly e i gh ty ea r sa f te rt h eS pan ish led d ef ea to ft h eN ahua l e ade r sh ip o f r T enoch t i t lan .H av ing i mmed ia te ly s e th im se lf t ot h et a sk o fl e a rn ing N ahua t la nd s t udy ing N ahua c u l tu re , w i th in ad ecade h e w a s w r i t ing s e rmon s i nt h e l a nguage a nd t r an s la t ing f r agmen t so ft h eB ib le .B yt h el a te 1 540 's h i si n i t ia ls u rvey o ft h eN ahua sw a ss uff i c ien t ly a dvanced t o b eg in s y s tema t ic f i e ldwo rk a nd t h e w r i t ing o f a ccompany ing d ocumen t s . T he se v a r ious t e x t s ,c o lec t ive ly t i t led H i s tor ia g enera ld el a sc osa sd e Nueva E spa ia ,h ave l i y i e lded s ome o ft h e mo s ti mpo r tan ti n s igh t si n to t h eE u ropean i mag ina t ion o f Me soame r i c an ma te r . Due t o t h e d ia log ica l me thod s h e e mp loyed i n c ompo s ing t h e H i s tor ia , t a u tho r sh ip mus ta l so b ea t r ibu ted t ot h en a t ive i n fo rman t sa nd s cho la r s who w o rked w i th t h im . B ecause o ft h em , t h e t e x t i n c lude s t h e f u le s tr e co rd a va i lab le o ft h e n a t ive s ' o wn l r e cons t ruc t ion o ft h e i rc u l tu re a nd e co logy . T hus , s i nce t h eH i s tor ia a nd t h eo the rt e x t s w r i ten b yS ahagün ,i nc o labo ra t ion w i th h i sN ahua a s i s tan t s ,p e rm i tu st op i ece t oge the r t l s n a t ive i mages o fp re -and ,t o ag rea te x ten t ,p o s t -Con ta c tr ea l i ty ( K lo rd eA lva 1 982 ) ,t h ey a r e ac r i t ica ls ou rce o fi n fo rma t ion o nt h ek ey f e a tu r e so ft h eN ahua c oncep tua l iza t ion o f ma te r .T h is b r ief es say c anno to u t l ine e ven ap re l im ina ry s ke tch o ft h ep re -Con tac tN ahua s ' t i n teg ra t ion o ft h e s oc ia l ,p o l i t ica l ,r e l ig ious , a nd g eog raph ica l s phe re s ; i n s tead , i tt a ke s a s t ep b ack b yb e ing l im i ted t oe xp lo r ing t h eS ahagun t ine c o rpus i t se lf a sa ne xpe r imen ti n e t hnog raphy r e f lec t ing t h e s i x teen th -cen tu ry c r is i s o fr ep re sen ta t ion , a nd t ot h e N ahua i mag ina t ion o fr e l ig ion a nd e co logy r e su l t ing f r om t h i se xpe r imen t . T he S ix teen th -Cen tur yC r i s i so f R epr esen ta t ion R ep re sen ta t ion , u sed h e re a s t h e c oncep tua l iza t ion a nd t h e d i scu r s ive o r p i c to r ia l d esc r ip t ion o fa no b jec t ,i st h ep roduc to fi n te lec tua l ,s o c ia l ,p o l i t ica l ,a nd e conom ic f o rce s l t ha tc hange o ve rt ime .I nt h es i x teen th -cen tu ry , ap e r iod o fd rama t ic t r ansfo rma t ion si na l l t h e se s e c to r s ,t r ad i t iona l mode so fc once iv ing a nd r ende r ing c u l tu ra la nd p hy s ica lp henom e na f a ced many c ha lenge sa nd u nderwen tc on s ide rab le a l te ra t ion s . l S ahagün l i ved i n an ew wo r ld whose t opog raphy w a sb e ing c od if ied b y many o ppo s ing p ar t ie s . T he c ogn i t ive a nd s oc iopo l i t ica l l a nd scape f o rb o th N ahua s a nd E u ropean s w a s f i ssu red b y s e lf -se rv ing s t rugg le s o ver t h e d ive rgen t d e scr ip t ion s o f t h e o the r a nd t h e r e su l t ing c on f l ic t s o fi n te rp re ta t ion o fr i gh t s a nd r e spon s ib i l i t ie s . T o t h e se w e re a dded e choes o ft h et r an s -A t lan t ic c l a shes o ve rr e l ig iou st r u th a nd p o l i t ica lh egemony w h ich r ang a n t iphona ly i n Mesoame r ica , a l ter na t ing w i th n ew c l a im s p roduced b y t h e c o lon ia l l c i rcum s tance s . E ven f o r t h e m i ss iona ry -e thnog raphe r s , f undamen ta l d e sc r ip t ions o ft h e i nd igene sr e f lec ted t h e p o l i t ica l f o r tune s o ft h e t ime , a th ome a nd a b road ( K lo rd e A lva 1 981) . T he p o l i t ica lc onf l ic t sb e tween t h eN ahua sa nd t h eE u ropean s ,t h ec rown ,t h er e l ig iou s o rde r sa nd t h ee ncomende ro s ,a nd b ym id -cen tu ry ,b e tween t h ec o lon ia lo f ic ia l sa nd t h e f f r ia r s , among t h em end ican to rde r st h em se lve s ,a nd b e tween t h e se a nd t h es e cu la rp r ie s t s a nd h i e ra r chy a r e w e l k nown ( R ica rd 1 966 [ 1933 ] ) . H oweve r , t h e d eg ree t ow h ich t h e l u ns tab le p h i lo soph ica l c l ima te o ft h e t ime c on t r ibu ted t ot h e c r i s i s o fr ep re sen ta t ion i s d i ff i cu l t t oa ses i nce t h e t o p ic h a s r e ce ived l i t le s cho la r ly a ten t ion . T he s cho la s t ic s s, s t t r e fo rm t ak ing p lace i n1 6 th -cen tury S pa in w a sp romo t ing as imp l if i ca t ion a nd p ragma t ic

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o r ien ta t ion f o rt h ef i e ld .F ray A lon so d el a Ve ra c ruz ,w ho s t ud ied i nA lca lä d eH ena re sa nd S a lamanca ,w he r eS ahagün h ad g one t os c hoo l ,a ccep ted t h es ugge s t ion o ft h eA r chb i shop l lt o fV a lenc ia ,S an to T omä sd eV i lanueva ," t ha ti nt h eN ew Wo r ld a h ing ss hou ld b ed one royo a r a new" ( Lar nd E scoba r1 968 :72 ) .T he r efo re ,a f te rh i sa r iva li nN ew S pa in h es e tu p h i so wn c ou r se i n "a r t s" ( ph i lo sophy )d i v ided i n to t h r ee b ook st h a tb e longed t o th er e fo rm i s t movemen t .O ne o ft h e se ,D iaMc t ica R e so lu t io ,p ub l i shed i n1 554 ,a na lyzed t h ec a t ego r ie s o fA r i s to t le w h i le a dvoca t ing a ne nd t os t e r i le d i spu ta t ion s ,p romo ted ac l o se re xam ina t ion s o fA r i s to t le a nd o r ig ina lw o rk s ,a nd a dvo ca ted f o rl e sr e l iance o na u tho r i ty ( t he "mag i s te r d ix i t" a pp roach )t or e so lve a r gum en t so rv e r i f yp o s i t ion s .H i sP hy s ica S pecu la t io ( 1 557 ) f w a s a n e ncyc loped i s te fo r t a ts umma r iz ing t h e s c ience so fp hy s ic s , a s t ronomy , n a tu ra l l f h i s to ry ,b o tany ,m e te ro logy ,a nd p sycho logy ,a li nt h es p i r i to ft h er e fo rm s . I ne f ec t ,t h e t N ew Wo r ld w a sc l ea r ly t h es e t ing f o r an ew p h i lo soph ica lc l ima te t h a tp u ti n que s t ion much royo a o f t h e t r ad i t iona l , a nd b y t h en d ecaden t , s cho la s t ic p h i lo sophy ( Lar nd E scoba r l l 1 968 :71 -76 ;G a lego sR oca f u l1 966 [ 1 963 ] ) .I nt h el im i ted a cadem ic e nv i ronmen to fN ew l S pa in , i n te lec tua l s , l i ke S ahagün , c ou ld n o t e s cape t h e i nf luence o f t h i s r enova t ing l c ha lenge t ot h ed i sc ipl ina ry b ounda r ie sa nd t r ad i t iona lm e thodo log ie s . f s an T he e f ec t so fR ena is th uman i sm o nt h e 1 6 th -cen tu ry c r i s i so fr ep re sen ta t ion h ave l b een s t ud ied b y L ew i s H anke ( 1965 , 1 975 ) , S i lv io Z ava la ( 1972 , 1 978 ) , J o sé G a lego s l R oca f u l ( 1 951 ) , Ma r ce l B a ta ilon ( 1 966 [ 1 937 ] ) , a nd o t he r s . T he c l a sh b e tween f a i th ( t heo logy a nd c anon ica l l aw s ) a nd r e a son ( Ar i s to t le 's p o l i t ica l a nd s oc ia l p h i lo sophy ) l r e a ched i t s c r es cendo i nt h e V a lado l id d eba te s o f 1 550 -1551 , w hen B a r to lom6 d e L a s C a sa s u sed A r i s to t le a nd h i s f i r s t -hand e xpe r ience s i n t h e N ew Wo r ld t o d e f end t h e t i nd igene sf r om J uan G in6 sd eS epü lveda ' ss t a t i s ta tack s . A ts t ake i nt h i sa nd many o the r d eba te so ft h et ime w e re t h en a tu re o ft h ei n hab i tan t so ft h eN ew Wo r ld ,t h ep rope rm e thod s b yw h ich t oa s im i la te t h em i n to E u ropean c u l tu re ( t ha ti s ,h ow t oi n t roduce C h r i s t ian i ty , S pan i sh l aw s ,a nd H i span ic c u l tu r et ot h em ) ,a nd t h ej u r id ica lr i gh t sa nd r e spon s ib i l i t ie so f s ove re ign ty ( who h a s ar i gh tt o make w a r ,e xp lo i t ,e n s lave ,a pp rop r ia te ,a nd c on t ro l ) .F o r raga a s ome ,l i ke t h ea r chb i shop J uan d eZ umär nd b i shop V a sco d eQ u i roga ( who l i ke L a s C a sa sw a s ac l o se f r iend o ft h ep h i lo sophe rA lon so d el aV e rac ruz ) ,i tw a s at ime t of r ee rup t h em se lve sf r om p a s tc u s tom s a nd c or t ing i nf luence sb yp lann ing a nd b u i ld ing i d ea l s o c ie t ie s ,s ome t ime se xp l ic i t ly mode led a f te rT homa s Mo re 's U top ia ( Zava la 1 937 , 1 956 ; l Ma r ava l1 949 ) .T he F ranc i scan si np a r t icu la rw e r ed eep ly i nf luenced b yu top ic v i s ion so f as epa ra te I nd ian R epub l ic o fC h r i s t( Phe lan 1 972 [ 1956 ] ;K obaya sh i1 974 ; G6mez C anedo 1 977 ) .A nd S ahagün a l so s ha r ed t h i sd r eam . T hu s , i n 1 6 th -cen tu ry Mex ico t h e c r i t ica l c oncep tua lp rob lem sr e levan t t oo u rt o p ic l w e re f undamen ta ly a n th ropo log ica l :t h en a tu re o ft h ei nd igene s ,t h e i rc u l tu re ,t h e i ru se o f f t h e e nv i ronmen t , a nd t h e t y po logy o fe f ec t ive c u l tu re -con tac t r e la t ion s . A s i st h e c a se t t oday ,w hen a n th ropo log i s t sa r eb a t l ing a ga in s tt h ec on s t ra in t si mpo sed b yt h e i rd i sc ip l ine , S ahagün a c ted a st h ough h ew a sa wa r et h a tg enu ine ly t oc onf ron tt h eo t he rh ew ou ld h ave l t os t rugg le a ga in s tt h eb ounda r ie so fh i ss cho la s t ic t r a in ing .T hough w ek now p rac t ica ly l n o th ing o fh i sf o rma li n te lec tua le duca t ion ,w ek now f r om h i sw r i t ing st h a tt od e sc r ibe a n ove ln a tu ra lw o r ld a st r u ly n ew ,h eh ad t os t re tch t h el im i t so fn om ina l i sm a nd A r i s to te l ian s b sive e r e a l i sm s o a st oe ncompas o th a n a g res mp i r ic i s tm e thodo logy a nd ap reco c iou s l p a r t icu la r i s te p i s temo logy ( t ha tl o g ica ly l e ad h im t o a l im i ted ,b u tg enu ine ,p e r spec t iv i sm ) . B u ts t and ing g ua rd o ve rp h i lo soph ica l( n a tu ra la nd mo ra l ) a nd t h eo log ica lo r thodoxy w e re t h ew e igh to ft r ad i t iona ls c ho la r sh ip ,h i sf elow r e l ig iou s 'v e r s ion so fc ommon s en se , s, a a nd t h eI nqu i s i t ion .N one the les n t ic ipa t ing t h e2 0 th -cen tu ry ,S ahagün w a sc on sc iou so f t h ef a c tt h a tm ean ing fu le t hnog raphy i mp l ied ac omm i tmen tt o th e emp i r ica ls t udy o f re a l i ty 1 9

a sf r ee f r om p reemp t ive j udgmen t sa sC h r i s t ian i ty p e rm i ted .F u r the rmo re ,h eu nde r s tood t t h a t t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o fh i s f i nd ing s , i nw ay s a cces le t oh i s S pan i sh speak ing p ee r s , sib n eces ta ted t r an s la t ion s ,h oweve r ju s t if ied ,t h a ti d en t if ied n a t ive w ay so fb e ing ,d o ing ,a nd si e xpe r ienc ing a se qu iva len tt oE u ropean c oun te rpa r t s .F o rb e te ro rf o rw o r se ,h ew a sc l ea r ly t f l i r t ing w i th r e la t iv i sm . Why n o t? E a r ly c o lon ia l Ame r ica r ep re sen ted i n te rp re t ive s pace w he r e in t r ad i t iona l b ehav io ra l a nd c oncep tua l r eg i s te r s w e re f o rced t oc ompe te w i th a l te rna t ive c ode s o f c ompor tmen ta nd r ef lec t ion .S ahagün i n ser ted h im se lf f a r the ri n to t h i st e n se t e ra in w hen r h es e to u tt oe xp lo re t h eN ahua w o r ld .T he u n s tab le n a tu re o ft h et ime m ade i ti n te lec tua ly l l p os le f o rS ahagün t op robe t h eo the r 's w o r ld a s as e pa ra te r ea l i ty .B u tt h eb a s ic c a tego r ie s sib o f me taphy s ics ,e p i s temo logy ,a x io logy ,a nd a e s the t ics w e re d i f e ren tf o rt h eN ahua s ,a nd f t or e cogn ize t h i sf o rw ha ti tw a si nt h e1 6 th c en tu ry i mp l ied ah e rcu lean t a sk ,e spec ia ly f o r l ap r ies t ly e t hnog raphe r .T he o n ly s o lu t ion f o rS ahagün w a st ow eave t h e many s t rand so f t h e c r i s is o f r ep re sen ta t ion i n to o ne h e rmeneu t ic s a sh t h a t c ou ld g i rd b o th C h r is t ian u n ive r sa l i sm a nd e t hnog raph ic p a r t icu la r i sm . T he S ahagun t ine C orpus a sa n Exper imen ti nE thnograph ic Wr i t ing S ahagün u sed t wo a pp roache st oa temp tt or e so lve t h ei nhe ren tc on t rad ic t ion b e tween t C h r is t ian i ty 's c l a im t ou n ive r sa l c a tego r ie s a nd t h e n eed t oa ccu ra te ly d esc r ibe N ahua c u l tu re a st r u ly d i s t inc t .F i r s t ,h es t rove t oc r ea te s pace b e tween t h ec onve r s ion p roces nd s a t h ee t hnog raph ic p ro jec t ;s e cond ,h ee ndeavo red t o sepa ra te d e sc r ip t ion f r om i n te rp r e ta t ion . Wi th r ega rd t ot h ef i r s tg oa l ,a t th eh ighe s tl e ve lo fo rgan iza t ion h ej ux tapo sed l i t e ra ry g en re si no rde rt ob a lance t h ei mpe ra t ive t oC h r i s t ian ize w i th h i sd e s i r et ou nde r s tand t h e N ahua s i nt h e i r own c on tex t . D e sp i te h i s s t a ted g oa l s , t h ew r i t ing s s pec if i ca ly a imed a t l e vangel iz ing a r ep r ima r i ly l im i ted t oc olec t ions o fs e rmon s ,s ong s ,e d ify ing w o rk sf ocu sed o ne xp l ic i tr e l ig iou st h eme s ,a nd t r an s la t ion so fH o ly S cr ip tu re ;w he r ea sh i se t hnog raph ic a nd l i ngu i s t ic p i ece ss t and a pa r t ,c once rned a st h ey a r ew i th k now ledge a bou tN ahua c u l tu re a nd l a nguage ,n o tm is iza t ion p e rs e .A tt h el e ve lo ft h eH i s tor ia i t se lf t h is d iv is ion o f sion l a bo ri sa l so i ne v idence :e xp l ic i tr e f e r ence st h a tt a ke i n to a ccoun ti t sp ro se ly t iz ing e nd a r e i nva r iab ly l im i ted t ot h e ma rg ins o ft h ee t hnog raph ic t e x t ,u sua ly a sp ro logue s ,a ppend ice s , l o ra po s t rophes . H is s e cond g oa l ,t h es epa ra t ion o f de sc r ip t ion f r om i n te rp re ta t ion ,i mpos le t oa ch ieve sib f u ly ,w a s much mo re d i f icu l tt ot r ans la te i n to as pec if i cp lan o fa c t ion .T he H i s tor ia ,i ni t s l f v a r ious p ha ses ,r ep re sen t sc on s tan te xpe r imen ta t ion w i th w ay so f re so lv ing t h ep rob lem o f d e scr ib ing t h e i n t rac tab le d a ta o n t h e N ahua s a nd t h e i r :w o r ld w i thou t o ve rde te rn ined r i n te rp re ta t ion s .T he s h if t ing c oncep tua l iza t ion so ft h ep ro jec t ,e vo lv ing f i e ldwo rk me thod s , v a ry ing r ep re sen ta t iona ls t ra teg ies ,a nd a l te rna t ing d i scu r s ive mode s ,a tes tb o th t ot h e la t s t rugg le S ahagün h ad r ep resen t ing h i ss ub jec ta nd t oh i sg rop ing f o rs o lu t ion s . T hough S ahagün 's r e sea r ch p lan s ,f i e ldwo rk m e thod s , a nd e t hnog raph ic r e su l t sh ave b een t h es ub jec to f an umbe ro fe xce len ts t ud ie s( J im6nez Mo reno 1 938 ;N ico lau D' O lwe r l 1 952 ;G a r c ia I c azba lce ta 1 954 [ 1 886 ] ;G a r ibay 1 971 [ 1954 ] ;L e6n -Po r t i la 1 958 ;N ico lau l D' O lwe ra nd C l ine 1 973 ; B a le s te ro sG a ib ro i s 1 973 ; N icho l son 1 973 ; F , dmonson 1 974 ; l S ahagün [ Ande r son a nd D ibb le ] 1 950 -1982 : In t roduc to ry Vo lume ) ,i tw a sn o tu n t i lT zve tan T odo rov ' sT he C onque s to f Amer ica ( 1984 [ 1982 ] ) t h a t S ahagün ' si n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e o the r ,a se ncoded i nh i sd i scu r s ive p rac t ice s ,r e ce ived s y s tema t ic a ten t ion .D esp i te t h ef a c t t t h a t T odo rov make s t o s ha rp a di s t inc t ion b e tween t h e i n te rp r e t ive a nd d esc r ip t ive o n ar t ives i nt h eH i s tor ia ,h i si n s igh t so pen u p much n eeded r e ad ing si n to t h es i gn if i cance ra o ft h ese c on t ra s t ing t e x t s .A nd t h ey s e rve a s ac or t ive t ot h et r ad i t iona lo ve r -re l iance o n rec 2 0

S ahagün 's e xp l ic i te xp lana t ion st or e con s t ruc tt h ep l an ,g oa l s ,p rocedu r es ,a nd m ean ing o f h i sw o rk .T he se l i t e ra lr e ad ing sh ave m ade i td i ff i cu l tt ou nde r s tand h ow t h eS ahagun t ine c o rpus c ame t o i mag ine i nu nexpec ted a nd n ove l w ay s N ahua c u l tu re a nd i t s n a tu ra l e nv i ronmen t . l T he g ene ra lp u rpo se sS ahagün s pec if i ca ly i d en t if ie sf o rd o ing f i e ldwo rk a nd r e co rd ing t h er e su l t sw e re p a r to ft h ep ro se ly t iz ing a nd h egemon ic c oncer n sc ommon t o many o ft h e siona m is ry -e thnog raphe r s o f s i x teen th -cen tu ry N ew S pa in , i n c lud ing P ed ro d e G an te , A nd r6 sd eO lmo s ,A lon so d e Mo l ina ,T o r ib io d eB enaven te ( Mo to l in fa ) ,a nd D iego D u rän . S ince t h e i rc en t ra lg oa lw a st od ome s t ica te t h en a t ive o the rw i th in aE u ropean r eg ime o f d i sc ip l ina ry p rac t ice s , t h e ma in mo t iva t ion w a s t h e r e t ra in ing o ft h e i nd igene s t h rough p edagog ica l a nd e vange l iz ing t e chn iques . T he se r equ i red t h e f r ia r s t ol e a rn e ve ry th ing sib l p os le a bou tp re -Con tac tr e l ig iou sc u s tom ss ot h a tf e low a nd f u tu re p r ie s t sc ou ld i d en t ify a nd e x t i rpa te t ho se t h a t w e re s ubve r s ive t o t h e C h r i s t ian m i ss ion ( Sahagün 1 950 f l s 1 982 : In t roduc to ry Vo lume :45 -46 ) . T h i s r e sea rch e fo r t c a led f o r a n o bv iou s b u t l e s e xp l ic i tp u rpo se :t oc omp i le at ho rough l i s to ft h er e levan tv ocabu la ry a nd i t su sage ( i b id . l 4 7 , 5 0 ) . L a s t ly , t hough n o ta lway sf u ly a r t icu la ted , t h e se e a r ly e t hnog raphe r s s ough tt o c r ea te ac r ed ib le r e co rd o ft h eN ahua s 'p a s tt h a tw ou ld h igh l igh tt h ep o s i t ive a spec t so ft h e c u l tu re , t h e reby p ro tec t ing t h e n a t ives f r om u nwar ran ted c ha rge s o f i n compe tence o r c u l tu ra l i n f e r io r i ty ( i b id . 4 7 ) . T h is r e co rd c ou ld a l so b e u sed t op re serve t h e a pp roved c u s tom st h a tw e re f ound t ob eu sefu li nt h eF ranc i scan 's p ropo sed R epub l ic o fC h r i s t ian s ( whe re t h ei nd igene s ,l i v ing a pa r tf r om t h eS pan ia rd s , wou ld f o rm aC h r i s t ian c ommun i ty i nt h es p i r i to ft h ee a r ly f o l lowe r so fC h r i s t )( D 'O lwe r1 952 :155 -171 ;P he lan 1 972 [ 1956 ] ; B audo t 1 977 ) .B u ti ti s ev iden tt h a t mo re t han t h i s mo t iva ted S ahagün ; a f te ra l l ,t h ew o rk o f Mo l ina ( 1970 [ 1 571 ] , 1 972 [ 1569 ] ) , Du rän ( 1971 [ 1967 ] ) , a nd O lmo s ( Baudo t 1 977 ) make c l ea rt h a tt h e re w e re f a re a s ie r , mo re o r thodox ,a nd p e rhaps mo re e f ec t ive w ay st o f f u lf i lt h e se e nd st h an t ho se S ahagün u l t ima te ly u sed . l T he i s o la t ing o ft h ed e sc r ip t ion sf r om h i si n te rp r e ta t ions l og ica ly l e dt ot h e ama ss ing l o f many d e ta i l s n eg lec ted b y h i s e t hnog raphe r p ee r s . T he d ep loymen t o f n ume rous d esc r ip t ive p a r t icu la r s , g i v ing a n a i r o f e t hnog raph ic r ea l i sm t o h i s n ar t ive s , w a s ra c on sc ious ly u sed t ol e nd c r ed ib i l i ty t oh i s wo rk b yh av ing t h em s ub s t i tu te f o rt h et r ad i t iona l a u tho r ia lr e f e r ence s ,n eces r i ly a b sen ti nw ha ti sf undamen ta ly a ni nd igenou st e x t( 1950 sa l 1 982 :I n t roduc to ry V o lume :53 ) .T he s eg rega t ion o fd e scr ip t ion f r om t h eC h r i s t ian c a tego r i e so f mo ra lb ehav io r ,t hough n o ta lway sp os le n o rs ucces l ,a l so s e rved S ahagün a s sib sfu ar he to r ica ld ev ice b yw h ich t o re conc i le ac r i t ica lp a radox :i nt h er ep re sen ta t ion o ft h ep re C on tac t c e remon ies t h e N and a s a r e p i c tu red a s g r ea t i do la te r s c apab le o f t h e mo s t a bom inab le r i tua l s , y e t t h e f a c t t h a t t h ey c ou ld s a c r if ice t h e i r l oved o ne s i n b loody c e remon ie sf o rt h e i rg od si mp l ied t h ey w e re e x t r eme ly r e l ig iou s( 1950 -1982 :In t roduc to ry Vo lume :47 , 4 9 , 5 7 ) . T or e so lve t h i s a ppa ren t i n con s i s tency , S ahagün r e s t r ic t s h i sj udg men t st ot h ep e r iphery ,w he re in h eb l ame st h ed ev i lf o rt h ee v i la c t sb yi n te rp re t ing t h em f r om aC h r i s t ian p o in to fv i ew ,i n ab racke ted manne rd i s tanced f r om t h e i rd esc r ip t ion .T h i s s t ra tegy l im i t s t h e i n te rpene t ra t ion o fb o th p e r spec t ive s , t h e n a t ive s ' p o in t o fv i ew a nd S ahagün ' sC h r i s t ian v i s ion ,b yc i r cum sc r ib ing e ach i n it so wn n ar t ive , ad ev ice t h a t make s ra h i sw o rk sa ppea r mo re a u then t ic a nd " ob jec t ive" t h an t ho se o fD u rän o rO lmo s ,t h eo the r t wo s e r ious e t hnog raphe r so fh i st ime . Wh i le t h es epa ra t ion o fc onf l ic t ing r ep re sen ta t ions s ugge s t s ar oman t ic b en ti nS ahagün , w he re t h ep a s ta nd p re sen ta r ed i s t ingu ished a nd an o s ta lg ia f o rt h ef o rme rp redom ina te s ( 1950 -1982 : In t roduc to ry V o lume :48 -49 ,7 4 -81) ,t h eo ve ra r ch ing emp lo tmen ts t ra tegy o f t h eH i s tor ia i s Tragedy ,n o tR omance a nd c e r ta in ly n o tC omedy .F o rS ahagün ,a sw a st h e 2 1

c a se w i th s ome o ft h eo the rm is siona ry -e thnog raphe r s ,N ew S pa in w a st h es i te w he re t h e c o sm ic b a t t les b e tween g ood ( Ch r i s t ian i ty )a nd e v i l( Sa tan ,h i sL u the ran h e r e s ie s ,a nd t h e i n f ide ls o ft h ew o r ld )w e re b e ing f ough t ,a nd t h eh ap les s n a t ive sw e re me re ly t h el o cu so f t h e se c onf l ic t ing f o rce s ." I tc e r ta in ly s e em s ," h ew r i tes ,t h a t" i no u rt ime s ,i nt h e se l a nd sa nd w i th t h e se p eop le ,o u rL o rd God h a sw i l led t or e s to re t ot h eC hu r ch t h a tw h ich t h ed emon r obbed h e ro fi nE ng land ,G e rmany ,F rance ,A s ia , a nd P a le s t ine" ( i b id . :50 ) .T h i si s at a l l o rde rf o rt h eN ahua st of i l l ,a nd t h e i rl im i ted c apac i ty t od os os pur red S ahagün t oc l a im i n 1 576 t h a ti ft h eS pan ia rd sa bandoned t h em " i nl e ss t h an f i f ty y ea r st h e re wou ld b en ot r ace o ft h ep reach ing w h ich h a sb een d one f o rt h em" ( i b id . :98 ) .I ne f f ec t ,T ragedy i sw o rk ing a t v a r iou st e x tua la nd me ta tex tual leve l s :o no ne ,t h eH i s tor ia i s a d idac t ic t a le o fa nu nhappy p eop le d uped b yt h ef o rce so fe v i l ;o nt h eo the r ,a s am anua lf o rp r ie s t s ,i ti s a p rom i se o f f u tu re r edemp t ion f o rt h eN ahua si ff e l low p r ie s t st a ke c ogn izance o ft h e i rr e spon s ib il i ty t o d oe ve ry th ing t oe r ad ica te t h ee f f ec t so ft h ed ev i l 's p loy s . T hough T ragedy l i nk st h es epa ra te n ar ra t ives ,r ea l i sm ,a sn o ted ,d om ina te sS ahagün 's e xpe r imen ta l mode o fd esc r ip t ion i nt h ee t hnog raph ic n ar ra t ive s ,w h i le i r ony d oe st h es ame f o rt h ei n te rp re t ive c ommen ta r ie st h a tf r ame t h et e x t .T he i r on ic mode i nS ahagün ' sa s ide s i s in p a r t ar e su l to ft h eH i s tor ia ' ss t r iv ing f o rr ea l i sm b ys t r ing ing d e ta i l sf o re ign t o many i nd igene st oo y oung t ob ef am i l ia rw i th t h em . No to n ly w e re mu l t ip le a nd c on t rad ic to ry i n te rp re ta t ions made p os sib le f o rt h em a nd t h eE u ropean s ;b u t ,b y mak ing t h em a va i lab le t ot h eN ahua sa nd o the r s ,i nt h ev e ry p roces s o fe xpo s ing t h em i no rde rt ob r ing t h em t oa n e nd , h e h e lped t op ropaga te t h e b e l ief s d esc r ibed . B u t t h e t r ope r e s t s o n a n e ven f i rme r f ounda t ion :t h es i x teen th -cen tu ry 's p ropen s i ty f o ri r ony .I ti sa na ge m a rked b yf undamen ta l t r an sfo rma t ions , a nd f a i th i na u tho r i ty a nd r e l ig ion w e re o n t h e d ef en se . A f te r a l l , t h e p ro se ly t iz ing t h eo r ie sh ad b ecome t ho rough ly p o l i t ic ized a nd t h em end ican to rde r sw e re l o s ing t h e i rh egemony ;t h er e cogn i t ion b yS ahagün ,D u rän ,a nd many o the r st h a tt h ei n i t ia l c onve r s ion p roces ad f a i led s e rved t ou nde r l ine b o th t h el im i t st oe vange l iz ing t h eo r ie s s h a nd t h e i ri n ab i l i ty t oa ccoun tf o rg enu ine r e l ig iou sf e rvo rn o ta imed a tt h eC h r i s t ian God . F u r the rmo re , t h e L u the ran a tack s r ep r e sen ted a fo rm idab le i n -house c ha lenge t o t h e t l c oncep tua lu n i ty t h a th ad r e igned i nl a te med ieva lC h r is tendom .L a s t ly ,i r ony c ou ld n o tb e k ep ta tb ay w hen S ahagün h im se lf w a su n su re o ft h er e su l t sa twh ich t h ew ho le e t hnog raph ic e for te xp l ic i t ly a imed : t h eC h r i s t ian iza t ion o ft h ei nd igenes . f S ahagün w as c augh ti n av i c iou sc i rc le . I nw ays s im i la rt ot ho se b e ing t r i ed t oday b y e xper imen t ing s oc ia ls c ien t i s t ss ea rch ing f o r aw ay o u to fa ni r on ic mode ,S ahagün s ough t ra as o lu t ion t ot h ec r i s i so fr ep re sen ta t ion r ef lec ted i nh i so wn i r on ic n ar t ive b ye xp lo r ing s o i nt h ee t hnog raph ic t e x t n ew w ays o fd e sc r ib ing a t a"m ic ro scop ic l e ve l" t h ep roces f sion o c u l tu ra li n teg ra t ion a nd r e l ig ious e xp res ft h eN ahua s( Ma r cus a nd F i scher 1 986 :14 1 5 ) .B u t ,a sn o ted a bove ,t h i ss o lu t ion a tt h et e x tua ll e ve ls e rved o n ly t oh e igh ten t h ei r ony ra a tt h e me ta tex tua ll e ve l ,w he re t h eH i s tor ia a s aw ho le ,c ompo sed o f ad ua ln ar t ive s h if t ing l b ack a nd f o r th b e tween ar ea l i s ta nd i r on ic mode ,i sd i a lec t ica ly t r an sfo rmed i n to a ni r on ic sib w o rk .T he r ew a sn oe s cape :n e i the rt h ea ge n o rt h ei d eo log ica lp os i l i t ies a va i lab le t oa t r u ly C h r is t ian e t hnog raphe r ,f a c ing e v iden t ly a u then t ic b u tp agan r e l ig iou sf e rvo r ,c ou ld p e rm i ti t . T he Nahua I mag ina t ion o fR e l ig ion a nd E co logy rec s T odo rov i sc or ti na r gu ing t h a tt h ei n fo rman t so fS ahagün a nd h i sn a t ive a s i s tan t s a r e n o t t h e s o le a u tho r s o ft h e N ahua t l t e x t t h a t m ake s u p t h e H i s tor ia ' se t hnog raph ic ra f n ar t ive ( 1984 [ 1982 ]: 2 39 ) .T he i n fo rma t ion a nd p o in to f vi ew o ft h eN ahua sw e re a f ec ted b y t h e i r d e s i re e i the r t oh ide d a ta f r om S ahagün o r t op l ea se h im ; b y t h e F ranc iscan 's

2 2

u l t ima te c on t ro lo ve rt h eg ene ra lp l an a nd t h et o p ics o fi nqu i ry ;b yh i sc i rcum sc r ib ing t h e r ange o fd a ta t ob eg a the red t h rough t h eu se o fq ues t ionna i re s ; b yf r equen t ly l im i t ing t h e l e x ica li t em s emp loyed t ot ho se t h a ta t tes t aE u ropean -Ch r is t ian j udgemen ta nd i n te rp re t a t ion o ft h er e f e ren t ; a nd b yu s ing a s s i s tan t sa nd ,p e rhaps , i n fo rman t sw ho w e re a l ready e xpo sed t o a nd p a r t ly a s s im i la ted i n to E u ropean -Ch r i s t ian c u l tu re . N one the le ss , f r om w i th in t h e se t i gh tc on s t r ic t ion st h eu nea sy v o ice o ft h eN ahua si sc l ea r ly a ud ib le . T he N ahua i n fo rman t s ,a s s i s tan t s ,a nd s c r ibe sw e re r e spon s ib le f o r mo s to ft h ec on ten t d esc r ibed w i th in t h e b ounda r ie s d rawn b y S ahagün . T he n a t ive e l de r s , d e sc r ibed a st h e c en t ra l i n fo rman t s , c enso red t h e p i c to r ia l manusc r ip t s b y i d en t i fy ing wh ich w ou ld b e s t ud ied , a nd f i l te red t h e i rc on ten tb yc on t ro l ing t h e i r mean ing . E xcep tf o rt h ek ey i sue s l s s ub jec t t o C h r is t ian j udgemen t o r i n te rp re ta t ion a nd t h e i n t roduc t ion o f s e lf -se rv ing r eg iona lp e r spec t ive s ,t h e i rs e l f -cen so red r e spon se st ot h ef i xed q ue s t ionna i re sa nd e x tem p o raneou s i nqu i r ies s u rv ived t h e p roces fr edac t ion a nd e d i t ing w i th r e la t ive ly f ew s o mod if i ca t ions o fc on ten t ,a sa te s ted t ob yt h ev e ry f ew c hanges e v iden tb e tween e i the rt h e t T epepu lco manu scr ip t so f 1 548 -1550 a nd t ho se o fT la te lo lco w r i ten b e tween 1 561 a nd t 1 562 ,o rt h e se a nd t h ef i na ld ra f t so f1 565 -1569 a nd 1 578 -1579 .T hough t h el a nguage u sed i sn eces r i ly mod if ied t of i tw i th in t h ec anon so f aw r i ten ,E u ropean -s ty le t e x t , a nd t h e sa t i d ea s a r e f r equen t ly e d i ted t os u i t t h e p ropagand is t ic e nd s o ft h e F ranc iscan , t h e l e x ica l i t em s ,r e f e ren t s ,a nd c oncep t sa r ep redom inan t ly N ahua ,a sc ompa r i sons t oc ogna te wo rk s make c l ea r . Howeve re l i te a nd o ccupa t iona ly c i rcum scr ibed t h ep o in to fv i ew a nd i n fo rma t ion i s , l t h ep i c to r ia l manusc r ip t s a si n te rp re ted b y t h e N ahua e l de r s , a nd t h e i ro wn t hough t s , a s r ende red b yt h ei nd igenou se d i to r s ,w e re c ap tu red b yS ahagün 's e xpe r imen ta le t hnog raphy w i th af i de l i ty u nma tched b yh i se t hnog raphe rc o league s . Whe re t h ed e sc r ip t ions a r eb r ief l a nd t r an spa ren t , w ec an b e s u re t h a tt h ei n te r locu to r s w e re e i the rp u rpo sefu ly l a con ic o r l i gno ran t ; whe re t h ey g oo na tl e ng th ,t h e i ri n fo rma t ion w a sc on s ide red s a f ea nd t h et op ic mos t l i ke ly w a s b reak ing o u t o f t h e a r t if ic ia l i n ter t ive d i scou r se i n to at r ue , f r ee roga d i a logue . None o ft h i s i s mean tt os ugge s tt h a tw ha t S ahagün l e f tu s i sw ha to ne wou ld n eces r i ly h ea rw hen i nt h ep r esence o ft h ei n fo rman t s ;r a the r ,i ti s ad i s t iled v e r s ion o f sa wha t aC h r i s t ian p r ie s t wou ld mo s tl i ke ly h ea rf rom t h em i ft h es ame i nqu i r ie sw e re made a nd t h es ame d i scu r s ive f r eedom w e re p re sen t . S t il ,S ahagün 's i gno rance a nd i d eo log ica lf i l te r s ,h i sa nd t h ei n fo rman t s ' s e lf -cen so r s h ip ,a nd t h eo the rd i s to r t ion sp roduced b yt h eF ranc iscan 's e t hnog raph ic e xpe r imen t s ,a l l c on t r ibu te t ot h er ep re sen ta t ion o f aN ahua i mag ina t ion o f ma te rt h a ti s mo re We s te rn , t l i nea r , a nd s eman t ica ly t h in t h an i s s ugge s ted b y o the r n a t ive s ou r ce s a nd c ur t l ren e t hnog raphy . At wo s t age p roces rked t oo ve r s imp l i fy t h ed a ta .F i r s t ,t h ee fo r t made s wo f b yt h ei n fo rman t st o make e n igma t ic c oncep t sa cces le t oS ahagün ,a nd t h en eed o ft h e sib Nahua a s i s tan t st od ot h es ame f o rt h ee xpec ted E u ropean r eade r s , f o rced t h ed a ta t ob e s r ep resen ted w i th s o much d e ta i l a nd s o l i t le c on tex t t h a t i t appea r s b o th e xagge ra ted ly t t r anspa ren ta nd m i s lead ing ly f am i l ia r .S econd ,S ahagün a nd t h eN ahua s cho la r se d i ted t h e i n fo rma t ion s oa st of i tb o th t h eE u ropean o rgan iza t ion t h a tt h eF ranc iscan a dop ted f o rt h e H i s tor ia a nd t h eE u ropean c ogn i t ive c a tego r ie so fs oc ia l ,n a tu ra l ,a nd s upe rna tu ra lp henom e na . T he refo re , N ahua l a be l s f o r c u l tu ra l a nd "ma te r ia l" p henomena a r e s ome t ime s d ecep t ive ly i d en t if ied w i th E u ropean c ogna te sw i thou ta ny e xp lana t ion f o rt h e i rs ub t le a nd n o ts os ub t le d i s t inc t ions . T h i s p recoc ious r e la t iv i sm , t h a td ecep t ive ly w o rked t on o rma l ize t h e c u l tu ra l d i f e r f e nces b e tween E u ropean sa nd N ahua s , make st h eH i s tor ia s eem mo re h o l i s t ic t h an i ti s .T he

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o c u l tu ra l p i ece s , h oweve r f o re ign , a r e made t of i ti n to e ach o t he rc r ea t ing at o f am i l ia r p i c tu re .T he a u then t ic i ty o ft h en a t ive s 'p o in to fv i ew i smade t or e s to nt h eu se o f ar e a l i s t ic sed i mode e xp res nN ahua t l ,r a the rt h an o ni t sb e ing f ounded o nt h eN ahua s ' i n te rconnec t i on sb e tween t h e i rs ymbo l s ,m ean ing s ,a nd r eg i s te r s .T he p o s i t ive s i de o ft h i sc amouf lag t ra i ng o ft h ee xo t ic i s th a ti tp e rm i ted S ahagün t oe xpe r imen ti nt h ee t hnog raph ic n ar t ive w i th mak ing h i su n i to fa na ly s i s" Nahua c u l tu re ," r a the rt h an " abom inab le p agan h e re s ie s ." t sif T he p r ice ,o fc ou r se ,i st h a to u ra temp t st o re con s t ruc tg enu ine N ahua c l as i ca t ion s mu s t o s r e ly o nl i nk ing many d i spa r a t ep i ece su s ing p r ima r i ly moder nc ogn i t ive t o l sa s i s ted b y v e ry f ew a u then t ic g u ide l ines . sif D e sp i te t h e se d i ff i cu l t ie s ,s ome e x t en s ive a na ly se so fN ahua c l as ica t ion so fp hy s ica l t a nd s o c ia l p henomena h ave b een w r i ten i nt h e l a s t f ew y ea r s . A lf redo L opez A u s t in 's l C uerpo h umano ei d eo log ia ( 1980 ) , r e ly ing p r ima r i ly o n S ahagün 's w o rk s , b r i l ian t ly e xp lo re s t h e N ahua i mag ina t ion o ft h e h uman b ody a sb o th ap hy s i ca l e n t i ty a nd a s a m e tapho r ica l r eg i s t e r t h rough w h ich t ou nde r s tand t h e n a tu ra l , s upe rna tu ra l , a nd s oc ia l c ode s . L ikew i se , b y s upp lemen t ing t h e a ccoun t s o fS ahagün 's i n fo rman t s w i th t h o se o f r angemen o the rn a t ive a nd m e s t izo a u tho r s ,R udo lph v an Z an tw i jk 's T he A z t ec Ar t( 1985 ) o u t l ine s af a i r ly c omp rehen s ive s ke tch o ft h ep re -Con ta c tN ahua s 'i n teg ra t ion o ft h es o c ia l , t p o l i t ica l , r e l ig iou s , a nd g eog raph ica l s phe re s . T h i s s t udy a dm i rab ly a temp t s t oe xp lo re " f rom t h e n a t ive p o in to fv i ew" t h er e levance t ot h e i r s o c iopo l i t ica l o rgan iza t ion o ft h e e x ten s ive a nd c omp lex s ymbo l ic r e la t ion sb e tween i d eo logy a nd e co logy .H oweve r ,m any mo re i n -dep th a na ly se so ft h eN ahua s 'c u l tu ra lc a tego r ie s ,f o cu sed o n av a r ie ty o f key t o p ic s l l i ke L eon -Po r t i la 's M a ico -T enoch t i t lan :s ue spac io yt i empo s agrados ( 1 978 ) o rD o r i s H eyden 's M i to log lay s imbo l i smo d el af l ora e ne lMgx ico p reh i spdn ico ( 1 983 ) ,a r en eeded b efo r ew ec an g a in ac omp r ehen s ive v i ew o f th eN ahua i mag ina t ion o fr el ig ion a nd e co logy . lu A b r ie f l ook a ts ome s e c t ion s o f t h e H i s tor ia c an s e rve t o i s t r a te s om e o f my f o b se rva t ion s c once rn ing t h e e f ec t S ahagün 's e xpe r imen t s i n e t hnog raphy h ad o n t h e l r ep r e sen ta t ion o ft h e i n fo rman t s ' i mag ina t ion o ft h e i rc u l tu r e a nd w o r ld . Iw i l t a ke my e xamp le so n ly f r om t h eN ahua t lt e x to ft h eF loren t ine C od ex ,o re a r l ie rN ahua t ld ra f t s ,s i nce f S ahagün 's S pan i sh v e r s ion w a s made f o r ad i f e ren ta ud ience a nd t h e re fo re a dd s ,s ub t ra c t s , ra a nd mod if ie se x ten s ive ly t h e" o r ig ina l" n ar t ive o ft h ei n fo rman t s . l I nt h eC öd ice d e lR ea lP a lac io ,w h ich L e6n -Po r t i la b e l ieve sc on ta in st h ef i r s tN ahua t l t e x t sc omp i led b yS ahagün ( L eön -Po r t ila 1 958 :154 ) ,f ol io 2 70v g i ve s ab r ief d e sc r ip t ion o fw ha tt h ei n fo rman t st h ough to ft h eg od H u i tz i lopo ch t l i :

H e ma in ta in sp eop le , Hu i t z i lopoch t l i : h e make sp eop le h appy , h e make sp eop le r i ch , h e make sp eop le r u le r s , h eg e t sa ng ry a tp eop le h e make sp eop le d i e[ i b id . , 1 55 ( my t r an s la t ion ) ] . T h i st e x t ,p a r to ft h er aw " f ie ldno te s" t h a t make u pt h eH i s tor ia ,d esc r ibe sa ne n igma t i c , c omp lex d e i ty t h a tn u r tu re sp eop le ,k eep ing t h em a l ive ,c on ten t ,s upp l ied w i th t h e i rn eed s , a nd g ove rned .H oweve r ,t h es upe rna tu ra le n t i ty e xa c t s ap r ice f o rt h i s :b ecau se p eop le m ake h im a ng ry ( ? ) h ec au se s t h e i rd ea th . T h i s m ay m ean t h a th e d emand s s a c r if ice s b ecau se p eop le mu s t b a lance w ha t t h ey r e ce ive w i th ap aymen t , ac oncep t c ommon a mong t h e e N ahua s . T he t e x ti ss omewha t o paque , b u t i ti sn o t d i ff icu l t t os e t h a t t h e i n fo rman ti s 2 4

r e spec t fu l t owa rd s a nd f e e l s i n deb ted t ot h i s p owe r fu l c r ea tu re . B y c on t ra s t , w hen t h e f i e ldno te s w e r e t a ken b a ck t o b e p o l i shed a nd e d i t ed t h ey u nde rwen t as ub s tan t ia l i d eo log ica lt r an sfo rma t ion ,a sc an b es e en i nC hap te r 1o fB ook Io ft h eF loren t ine C od ex , w he re H u i tz i lopoch t l ii s de sc r ibed a sf o l low s : " U i tz i lopo ch t l iw a so n ly ac ommone r ,h ew a so n ly aman , as o r ce r e r ,a na ugu ry [ t e tzau jt l ] , ad i sha rmon iou si n human p e r son , ad ece ive ro fp eop le ,c r ea to ro fw a r ,a n a gen to fw a r , aw a r lo rd . B ecau se i tw a ss a id o fh im t h a th ec a s to nt h em t h et u rquo i se s e rpen t , t h ef i re d r i l l— tha t i s , w a r , d i v ine w a te r , b u rn t . A nd w hen af e a s t d ay w a s c e leb r a t ed , c ap t ive s w e r e k i l led , b a thed s l ave s w e r e k i l led , o f f e r ed b y t h e m e r chan t s ." ( My t r an s la t ion . ) H e re t h er e -wo rked t e x tb ecome s as i te f o rt h ec l a sh o fc u l tu re s . Now H u i tz i lopo ch t l ii s d e sc r ibed b yt h ea s im i la t ing N ahua s c ho la r s ,u s ing t h eF ranc i scan 's e uheme r i s tc a tego ry s o fp agan " i do l s ," a sm e r e ly af o rme rw i t ch w ho d ece ived a nd m ade w a r , wh i le d emand ing h uman s a c r i f ice s . T hu st h ed e i ty , s t r ipped o fi t s l i f e -ma in ta in ing v i r tue s , i sr educed t oa t l o ta ly e v i l ,o ne -d imen s iona lf i gu re .T h i sr e p re sen ta t ion f i t st h eE u ropean s ' "Man ichean" mo ra la nd s upe rna tu ra lc a tego r ie s ,w he re g ood i so ppo sed t oe v i l ,d i s r ega rd ing t h ec r ux o f sif t h e N ahua c o smo log ica l / r e l ig iou s c l as i ca t ion o ft h e g ood a sc ap tu red i nt h e o r ig ina l f i e ldno te s : t h eb a lanc ing o fo rde ra nd c hao sw i th in t h es ame c l o sed s y s t em . A s t h i s e xamp le p o in t s o u t , b ecau se o fS ahagün 's e xpe r imen ta t ion w i th ad i a log ica l f i e ldwo rk a nd d i scu r s ive s t y le ,t h a tp e rm i t sf r agmen t so fa u then t ic N ahua c oncep t ion st o f a ppea re ve rywhe re ,t h eN ahua t lt e x ti st h o rough ly i n te rpene t ra ted b yd i f e ren ta nd a tt ime s t o ppo s ing w o r ld v i ew s .I ti s ac u l tu r e -con tac tb a t lef ie ld s t rewn w i th m ang led f r agmen t so f s N ahua i mage st h a tS ahagün a nd h i sa s i s tan t st r i ed t o cemen tt o ge the rw i th f o rm r a the rt h an c on ten t .F o ri n s tance ,t h es upe rna tu ra le n t i t ie sa r ed i s t ingu i shed f r om e a ch o the r mo re b y t h e i rb e ing s e pa ra te ly d e sc r ibed i n di s t inc tp a r ag raph st h an b yt h ed e ta i l so ft h ed e sc r ip t ion s t t h em se lve s .I fw ea temp tt oc on t ra s tt h ed e sc r ip t ion so fH u i tz i lopoch t l ia nd T ezca t l ipo ca l i ne i the rt h eC öd ice d e lR ea lP a lac io o rt h eF loren t ine C od ex w ew i lb eu nab le t oc l ea r ly f d i s t ingu i sh t h et wo d e i t ie sb ya ny th ing o t he rt h an t h e i rn ame a nd t h e i rd i f e r en tl o ca t ion . l C ompa re , f o re xamp le , t h ed e sc r ip t ion s o fH u i tz i lopoch t l i a bove w i th t h ef o low ing f o r T ezca t l ipoca : " T e zca t l ipoca :c r ea te st h ing s , c r ea te sp e r son s l make sw a ro np eop le [ Le6n -Po r t i la 1 858 :155 ] . T ezca t l ipoca : h ew a sc on s ide red at r ue g od [ ? ] , . ." w ho se a bode w a se ve rywhe r e .. T he F lo ren t ine C odex r e ad s l " He b rough td i sco rd a mong p eop le ,w he re fo re h ew a sc a led ' t he e nemy o nb o th l s i de s . 'H ec r ea ted ,h eb rough td own a lt h ing s .H ec a s th i ss hadow o no ne ,h ev i s i ted l l o ne w i th a lt h ee v i l sw h ich b e f a lm en ; h e mocked ,h er i d icu led m en . B u ts ome t ime sh eb e s towed r i che s —wea l th ,h e ro i sm ,v a lo r ,p o s i t ion o fd i gn i ty , r u le r sh ip ,n ob i l i ty ,h ono r" [ Sa hagün 1 950 -1982 : 1 :5 1 . T he s im i la r i t ie sb e tween t h et wo d e i t ie s ,i ne i the rc odex ,p o in tt ot h e i rb e ing c once ived l b y t h e i n fo rman t s a s i n teg ra ly r e la ted a spec t s o f t h e s ame s upe rna tu ra l c r ea t ive a nd d e s t ruc t ive ( t ran s fo rm ing? )f o r ce s . T hough t h ec l o se s ta na logy t h a tc ome st om ind i s th e 2 5

r e la t ion b e tween t h eH o ly S p i r i ta nd J e sus C h r i s ti nt h eC a tho l ic T r in i ty ,t h eN ahua s cho la r s , a i ded b yS ahagün ,u sed i n s tead t h e( s a f e r ) mode lo ft h eC las lp an theon t or epre sen ta sica v ery d i f e ren tc oncep t ion o ft h e s upe rna tu ra l . I nS ahagün 's S pan i sh v e r s ion t h i sp o in ti s f made e xp l ic i t ly . T he re h en o te st h a t" t h i s g od c a led Hu i t z i lopoch t l iw a s a no the rH e r cu l l e s .T ezca t l ipoca. no the rJ up i te r" ( Sahagün 1 975 [ 1956 1 :31) .B u tt h eC las u i td oe s . . . . . a sic s n o t f i t w e l . T he S ahagün t ine t e am c l ea r ly h ad i t in m ind , b u t t h ey r a re ly u sed i ti nt h e l N ahua t ln ar t ive ,s u spec t ing ,c or t ly ,t h a tt h eN ahua i n fo rman t s mean ts ome th ing e l se ra rec b yt h e i rd e sc r ip t ions . S ot h ea na logy b reak sd own q u ick ly a nd i sr e served f o rS ahagün 's ma rg ina lc ommen ta r ie sa nd h i sS pan i sh t e x t .I ti st h is t y pe o fa mb iva lence a nd c oncep tua l amb igu i ty ( ap roduc t o f an ove l e t hnog raph ic a pp roach t h a t s t rove , t h rough t h e u se o f E u ropean c a tego r ie s ,t o make t h eo paque c l ea r ,w h i le a tt h es ame t ime l e t ing t h en a t ive s t s peak i nt h e i r own v o ice )t h a t make i tb o th p o ss ib le a nd f r us t ra t ing t oa temp tt or e cons t ruc t t a u then t ic N ahua i mage so fr e l ig ion f r om t h eN ahua t ln ar t ive s . ra T he r e cons truc t ion o ft h eN ahua i mag ina t ion o fw ha tw eu sua ly t h ink o fa s ma te r ,a s l t r e f lec ted i n t h e N ahua t l t e x t s , i sn ece ssa r i ly s ub jec t t o s ome o f t h e s ame c ons t ra in t s men t ioned a bove . I n p a r t , t h i s r e su l t s f r om t h e i n fo rman t s n o t mak ing t h e a na ly t ica l d i s t inc t ions b e tween t h e" na tu ra l" a nd " supe rna tu ra l" o rde r sc ommon t oS ahagün a nd h i s a s i s tan t s , t h e reby f o rc ing N ahua c l as i ca t ion s i n to E u ropean c a tego r ie s . Two c r i t ica l s sif p o in t s a tw h ich a un ion t a ke s p l ace , o f w ha t 1 6 th -cen tury E u ropean s c on s ide red t wo s epa ra te s phe re s , a r e B ook s I V a nd V , w he re t h e t o na la rna t l ( " book o fd ay s" ) a nd t h e e t zahu i t l( "omen s" )a r ed i scus .B o th b ook sc r ea te d i scu r s ive s pace f o rt h ed esc r ip t ion t s ed o f t h e d i a lec t ica l r e la t ion b e tween " ma te r" a nd " sp i r i t" t h a t s em s t ou nde r l ie N ahua t e mo ra l s ,o n to logy ,a nd t h eo logy ;b u t ,t h i sd ia lec t ic i s ,o nce a ga in ,r ende red t oo f am i l ia rb y t h e mechan ism so fn o rma l iza t ion n o ted a bove .F o ra lt h er i ch e t hnog raph ic d e ta i lf ound i n l B ook I V , c once rn ing t h e g ood a nd b ad f o r tune s t h a t w ou ld b e t h e l o t o ft h o se b o rn o n f avo rab le a nd u nfor tuna te d ay s ,t h e r ei sn oe xp l ic i tc onnec t ion made e i the rt ot h et h eo log i c a l r ea son s f o rt h er e spec t ive f a te s o rt ot h e n a tu ra l a nd b ehav io ra l c on tex t s t h a tw ou ld g ene ra te t h e c on sequences d e sc r ibed . N one o f t h is i ss u rp r i s ing ; f o r S ahagün , N ahua d iv ina t ion h ad t ob e as e cu la ra fa i r( a sE u ropean se xpec ted i tt ob e ) . And t h er educ t ion o f f t h eN ahua t e t zahu i t lt o me re s upe r s t i t ion s( t ha ti s ,p sycho log ica lr e sponse s )i sap red ic tab le d i s rega rd ing o ft h eN ahua i n te rpene t ra t ion o ft h e i rd iv ine i n to t h es phe re so ft ime ,s pace , a nd t h en a tu ra l wo r ld . Wha teve rt h e i re t hnog raph ic s ho r tcom ing s ,t h ese t wo B ook s ,a nd o the r s , make a bun d an t ly e v iden tt h a tt h eN ahua w o r ld w a sp opu la ted w i th s p i r i tua lf o rce st h a tn eeded t ob e a vo ided , a ppea sed , o r c ha lenged d epend ing o n w hen , w he re , a nd why t h ey w e re c on l f r on ted .L ikew ise ,t h ey u nde r l ine t h eN ahua b e l ief t h a t( a l? )t h e ma te r ia la nd i mma te r ia l l o b jec t so ft h en a tu ra l wo r ld w e r eo rc ou ld b eh i e rophan ie s . Howeve r ,t h eN ahua c a lcu lus f o rp red ic t ion i ne i the rc a se i sn o ty e tc l ear ,b u ti t sd i scove ry i s no ti mpos le .C on tempo sib a r y e x p e r im e n t s i n th e d o i n g a n d w r i t i n g o f e t h n o g r a p h y m a y p r o v i d e s o m e o f t h e a n sw e r s , r b u tw e owe t oS ahagün 's e xpe r imen t st h e mo s ti mpo r tan td a ta b yw h ich t od os o .

B ib l iography A gu i la r ,F ray F ranc i sco d e 1 977 [ 1 90 1 ]R e la c iön b r eve d el ac onqu i s ta d el a N ueva E spaf ia .U .N .A .M . , Mex ico . l B a le s te ro sG a ib ro i s , Manue l 1 973 V ida yo b ra d eF ray B e rnard ino d eS ahagün .C .S . I .C . ,L eon ,S pa in .

2 6

B a ta i lon , Ma rce l l 1 966

[ 1 937 ]E ra smo yE spai za .F ondo d eC u l tu ra E conöm ica , Mex ico .

B audo t ,G eo rge s 1 977 U top ie e th i s to ir ea um ex ique .E doua rd P r iva t ,T ou louse ,F rance . B oon ,J ame sA . 1 982

O ther T r ibes , O ther S cr ibes . C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty ,N ew Y o rk .

C h iappel i ,F red i( e d i to r ) 1 976

F ir s tI mages o f A mer ica : T he I mpac to ft h eN ew Wor ld o n t h eO ld . 2v o l s . U n ive r s i ty o f C a l i fo rn ia ,B e rke ley .

fo C l if rd ,J ame sa nd G eo rge E . Ma r cu s ( ed i to r s ) 1 986

Wr i t ing C u l tu re : T he P oe t ic s a nd P o l i t ics o fE thnography . Un ive r s i ty o f C a l i fo rn ia , B e rke ley

C o r t6 s ,H e rnän 1 963 Du rän , D iego 1 971

C ar tas yd ocumen tos .I n t roduc t ion b y Ma r io H e rnändez S änchez -Ba rba .E d i to r ia lP or , rua Mex ico . B ook o ft h eG od sa nd R i tes a nd T h eA nc ien tC a lendar .T ran s la t ion sf r om H i s tor ia d e l a s I nd ias d e Nueva E spai ia ei s las d el at i erraf i rme ( 1967 )b yF e rnando H o rca s i ta sa nd D o r i s H eyden .U n ive r s i ty o f Ok lahoma , No rman .

E dmon son , Mun ro S .( e d i to r ) 1 974 S i x t een th -Cen tury Mex ico :The WorkofSahagün .U n ive r s i ty o f N ew Mex ico ,A lbuque rque . E l io t ,J ohn H . l 1 976

R ena is u rope a nd Ame r ica : AB lun ted I mpa c t ? I nF ir s tI mages o f A mer ica . Vo l .! , s ance E e d i t ed b yF red iC h iappe l i ,p p . 1 -23 . Un ive r s i ty o fC a l ifo rn ia ,B e rke ley . l

F ab ian ,J ohanne s 1 983 T ime a nd t h eO ther :H ow A n thropo logy Makes I t sO b jec t .C o lumb ia Un ive r s i ty ,N ew Yo rk . G a lego sR oca ful ,J oe M . l 1 951 E lp ensam ien to m ex icano e nl o ss i g los x v i yx v i .U .N .A .M . , Mex ico . i 1 966 P h i lo sophy i n Mex ico i nt h e S ix teen th a nd S even teen th C en tu r ie s . I n Ma jor T rend s i n Mex ican P h i losophy . T ran s la t ion o f 1 963 o r ig ina lb yA . R obe r tC apon ig r i . Un ive r s i ty o f No t re D ame , No t re D ame ,I nd iana . G an te ,P ed ro d e 1 954 S ee G a r c ia I c azba lce ta ,J oaqu in ,B ib l iograf ia . G a r c ia I c azba lce ta ,J oaqu in 1 954 B ib l iogra f i amex icana d e ls i g lox v i .O r ig ina lp ub l i shed i n1 886 .F ond° d eC u l tu ra E conöm ica , Mex ico . G a r ibay K . ,A nge l Ma . 1 971 [ 1954 ]H is tor ia d el al i t era tu ra n ähua t l . 2v o l s .E d i to r ia lP or , Mex ico . rua Gömez C anedo ,L ino 1 977 E vange l i zac iöny c onqu is ta :E xper ienc iaf ranc iscana e nH ispanoame r ica .E d i to r ia lP or , rua Mex ico . H anke ,L ew i s 1 965 1 975 H eyden ,D o r i s 1 983

T he S pan i sh S t rugg le for J us t ice i nt h eC onques to fA m e r ica .L i t le ,B rown a nd C ompany , t B o s ton . A r i s to t le a nd t h e Amer ican I nd ians . I nd iana Un ive r s i ty ,B loom ing ton . M i to log ia ys imbo l i smo d e l af l ora e ne l Mex ico p reh i spän ico .U .N .A .M . , Mex ico .

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H onou r ,H ugh 1 975

T he N ew G o ld en L and :E uropean I mage so f A mer ica f rom t h eD iscover i es t ot h eP re sen t T ime .P an theon B ook s ,N ew Y o rk .

J imenez Mo reno , Wigbe r to 1 938 F ray B ernard ino d eS ahagan ys uo bra .E d i to r ia lR o redo , Mex ico . K lo rd eA lva ,J . Jo rge 1 981 C h r i s t ian iza t ion a nd t h eC oncep to fS e lf :T he S ix teen th -Cen tu ry A z te c .C ampo L ibre 1 : 25 3 3 1 982 L ah i s to r ic idad d el o sC o loqu ios d eS ahagün .E s tud ios d eC u l tura N ahua t l 1 5 :147 -184 . K obaya sh i ,J ose Ma r ia 1 974 L a e dueac ian c omo c onqu is ta ( empresa f ranc iscana e n Mex ico ) . E l C o leg io d e Mex ico , Mex ico . L ar royo ,F ranc i sco a nd E dmundo E scoba r 1 968 H is tor ia d el a sd oc t r ina s fi losaf i cas e nL a t inoame r ica .E d i to r ia lP or rua , Mex ico . L ehne r ,E rn s ta nd J ohanna L ehne r 1 966 How T hey S aw t h eN ew Wor ld .T udo rP ub l i sh ing C ompany ,N ew Y o rk . L e6n -Po r t ila ,M igue l 1 958 R i tos ,s acerdo tes ya tav i os d el o sd i oses .U .N .A .M . , Mex ico . 1 978 Mex ico -T enoch t i t lan :s ue spac io yt i empo s ag rados .I .N .A .H . , Mex ico . L 6pez A u s t in ,A l f redo 1 980 C uerpo h umano ei d eo log ia . 2v o l s .U .N .A .M . , Mex ico . Ma rava l ,J o se A n ton io l 1 948 -1949 L au t op ia p o l i t ico re l ig iosa d el o sf r anc i scano se nl a N ueva E spa i la .E s tud ios Amer icanos : 199 -227 . 1 Ma r cu s ,G eo rge E .a nd M i chae lM .J . Fi sche r 1 986 A n thropo logy a sC u l tura lC r i t ique . Un ive r s i ty o fC h icago ,C h icago . Mol ina ,A lon so d e 1 970 [ 1 571 ]V ocabu lar io e nl al e ngua c as t e lana ym ex icana .F ac s im i le e d i t ion e d i ted b yM igue lL e6n l P o r t i la .E d i to r ia lP or , Mex ico . l rua 1 972 C onf es io m ayor , e n l al e ngua m ex icana y ca s t e lana . F ac s im i le e d i t ion o f 1 569 sionar l o r ig ina le d i ted b yR obe r to Mo r eno .I nB o le t i nd e lI ns t i tu to d eI nves t igac iones B ib l iograf i c as , 1 . U.N .A .M . , Mex ico . Mo to l in ia ,T o r ib io d eB enavan te o r 1 971 Memor ia les ol i bro d el a sc osas d el a Nueva E spa iayd el o sn a tura les d ee la .E d i ted b y i l E dmundo O 'Go rman .U .N .A .M . , Mex ico . N icho l son ,H .B . 1 973 S ahagün 's ` P r ime ro s Memo r ia le s , 'T epepo lco , 1 559 -1561 .I n Handbook o fM idd le Amer i c an I nd ian s . V o l 1 3 .E d i ted b yR obe r t Wauchope .U n ive r s i ty o fT exa s ,A u s t in . N ico lau D 'O lwe r ,L u i s 1 952 F ray B ernard ino d eS ahagan ( 1499 -1590 ) .I n s t i tu to P aname r icana d eG eog ra f ia eH i s to r ia , Mex ico . 1 973

.a nd H owa rd F .C l ine S ahagün a nd H i s Wo rk s . I n Handbook o fM idd le Amer ican I nd ians . Vo l 1 3 . E d i ted b y R obe r t Wau chop e .U n ive r s i ty o fT exa s , A u s t in .

O lmo s ,F ray A nd re sd e 1 972 [ 1 547 ]A r te p ara a p rend er l al e ngua m ex icana .F ac s im i le e d i t ion r epub l i shed b y Ran iS imeon i n 1 875 .E .A v if ia L evy ,G uada la ja ra , Mex ico .

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P he lan ,J ohn L . 1 972 E lr e ino m i lenar io d el o sf ranc iscanos e ne lN uevo Mundo .T ran s la ted f r om t h e1 956 o r ig ina l b yJ o sef ina V ä zquez .U .N .A .M . , Mex ico . R ica rd ,R ober t 1 966

T he S p i r i tua l C onques t o f Mex ico . T ran s la ted f r om t h e 1 933 o r ig ina l b y L e s ley B y rd S impson .U n ive r s i ty o fC a l ifo rn ia ,B e rke ley .

e rna rd ino d e S ahagün ,F ray B 1 949 t S t erbend eG o t er u nd C hr i s t l iche H e i l sbo t schaf t . S tudy a nd t r an s la t ion o ft h e" Co loqu io s t yd oc t r ina c h r i s t iana "( 1564 )b y Wa l te rL ehmann .W .K oh lhamme r ,S tu tga r t . 1 950 -1982 F loren t ine C od ex : G enera lH is tory o ft h eT h ings o f N ew S pa in .T ran s la ted a nd e d i ted b y A r thu rJ .0 .A nde r son a nd C ha r le sE .D ibb le . No .1 4 ,13 p a r t s .S choo lo f A me r ican R e sea r ch , U n ive r s i ty o fU tah , S an ta F e . 1 975 H is tor ia g enera ld el a sc osa sd e Nueva E spa r ia .E d i ted b yA nge l Ma r ia G a r ibay K .E d i to r ia l P or , Mex ico . rua T äp ia ,A nd re sd e 1 971 R e la c i6n h echa p o re ls ef io rA nd re sd eT äp ia .I nC o lecc iön d ed ocumen tos p ara l ah i s tor ia d e Mex ico .V o l .! .E d i ted b yJ oaqu in G a rc ia I c a zba lce ta .F ac s im i le o f1 866 e d i t ion .E d i to r ia l r ua P or , Mex ico . T ed lock ,D enn i s 1 983

T he S poken Word a nd t h e Work o fI n terp re ta t ion . Un ive r s i ty o fP enn sy lvan ia ,P h i lade lph ia .

T odo rov ,T zve tan 1 984 T he C onques to f Amer ica . T ran s la t ion o f 1 982 o r ig ina lb yR icha rd H owa rd . H a rpe r a nd R ow ,N ew Y o rk . We ckmann ,L u i s 1 984 L ah erenc ia m ed ieva ld e Mex ico . 2v o l s .E lC o leg io d e Mex ico , Mex ico . Z an tw i jk ,R udo lph v an 1 985 Z ava la ,S i lv io 1 937 1 972 1 978

r T he A z tec A rangemen t .U n ive r s i ty o fO k lahoma , No rman . i L a ' U top i a ' d eT om & Moro e nl a Nueva E spa ia .E d i to r ia lR ob r edo , Mex ico . F i losof i ad el ac onqu is ta .F ondo d eC u l tu ra E conöm ica , Mex ico . i rua E nsayos s obre l ac o lon i za c iön e spa io la e n Ame r ica .E d i to r ia lP or , Mex ico .

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T hema t ica l Un i t si n Me soamer ican R e l ig ion : Why d eer h un t ing a nd a du l tery a re ad angerous c o mb ina t ion P e ter L .v an d er L oo Among t h e f ew p reco lumb ian manu sc r ip t s t h a t s u rv ived t h e t u rbu len t t ime s o f t h e c onque s ta nd t h ee a r ly c o lony i n Me soame r ica i s a g roup o fp i c to r ia l st h a tw ek now a st h e " Bo rg ia G roup" .T h i sg roup o fp r ima r i ly 5manu sc r ip t s 'c on ta in si n fo rma t ion o nt h eg od s , t h ec a lenda r ,d iv ina t ions a nd r i tua l s ,i nt h e i r mu tua lr e la t ion sh ip s .A lt h em embe r so ft h i s l g roup a ppea r ed i nE u rope a ts om ep o in ta nd a s ar e su l tw ec anno tp inpo in tt h ee xac tp l ace o fo r ig in o fa ny o ft h em . Ah ea ted d eba te a mong s cho la r sh a sa r i sen f r om t h i sc on fu s ion . We w i ln o tr ea ly g oi n to t h i sd eba te n ow ,b u tt h e mo s tw ide ly a ccep t ed t h eo ry i s th a to f l l H . B . N icho l son ( 1 966 ) . T he C odex B o rg ia i t se l f mo s t p robab ly o r ig ina te s f r om t h e sic t M ix te ca -Pueb la a r ea .C ho lu la ,t h e mo s tp owe r fu lc en te ro ft h a tr eg ion i n Po s tC las ime s ( c a .9 00 -1521 ) ,i so f ten m en t ioned a si t sp l ace o fo r ig in .T he p rob lem i s th a tt h ee x ten s ive sib t r ad eo ft h o se d ay s ,a l so t h e movemen to fa r t i s t ic s t y le sa nd a r t i s t s , make si tp os le t h a t t h em anu sc r ip tw a sp a in ted e l sewhe re i nC ho lu la s t y le .T he o the rm anu sc r ip t sa r ep a in ted f i n ar e la ted ,b u ts i gn if i can t ly d i f e r en ts t y le .S ugges t ion sf o rt h e i rp roven ience r e ach f r om t h e M ix teca A l ta ( i n t h e modem s t a te o fO axaca ) t o Xoch ica lco ( i n t h e mode rn s t a te o f Mo r e lo s )t ot h eG u l fC oa s t . l A ppa ren t ly i ti sn o t s t y le b u t c on ten t s t h a t t i e s t h e se manu sc r ip t s t oge the r . A l t h e manu sc r ip t ss how t h es ame p reo ccupa t ion w i th t h ec a lenda ra nd t h e re a r e many s c ene st h a t fe h ave c oun te rpa r t si n dif r en tm embe r so f th eg roup .T h i s empha s ize st h eo bv iou sp o in tt h a t i nt h eP o s tC la ss ic p e r iod m e r chand i se ,s t y le s ,a nd i d ea st r ave led w ide ly .A s ar e su l tw ea r e l ook ing a tr e l ig iou s c oncep t s s ha red t h roughou t t h e w e s te rn Me soame r ican a r ea . T he se s im i la r i t ie s make i t accep tab le t h a t w e u se s ou r ces t h a tr e ach f r om t h e Z apo tecs i nt h e S ou thea s tt ot h eT o tonacs i nt h eN o r thwe s tw hen w ei n te rp re tt h ec on ten t so ft h ec od ice s . I n te rp re ta t ion i st h ek ey t e rm f o rt h et o p ic o ft h i sp ape ra nd af ew wo rd ss hou ld b es a id a bou t t h ei n t e rp re ta t ion o ft h e se manu scr ip t s . T he mo s tf amou sc ommen ta r ie so nt h e se c od ice sw e r e made b yE dwa rd S e le ra r ound t h eb eg inn ing o ft h i sc en tu ry .H oweve r ,t h eb e s ts t udy o nt h es ub jec ta nd a ni nd i spen sab le l c ompan ion f o ru nde r s tand ing t h eg roup i sK a r lA n ton N owo tny 's T lacu i lo l i( 1961 ) .T h i s l s t udy i ss oi mpo r tan tt h a ta l mode rn c ommen ta r ie so np a r t so ft h eB o rg ia G roup t h a td on o t d i sp lay at h o rough f am i l ia r i ty w i th t h i sw o rk mu s tb es c ru t in ized w i th u tmo s tc a re .T he f a c t t h a tN owo tny 's b ook i so n ly a va i lab le i nG e rman f o rm s as e r iou si mped imen tf o rt h es t udy sion o ft h eB o rg ia G roup . T he d i scus s , ma in ly i nS pan i sh a nd E ng l i sh s peak ing s cho la r ly c ommun i t ie s , f i nd t h em se lve s , o f ten u nknow ing ly , l im i ted t ot h e s t a te o ft h e f i e ld o f8 0 y ea r s a go ,u s ing S e le r 's c omm en ta r ie s . T he s t ud ie so fS e le ra r es t il w ide ly u sed a nd f o rg ood r e a son s .H i st ho rough t r ea tmen t t o ft h em a te r ia li si nd i spen sab le e ven t h ough i tw a sw r i ten a lmo s t ac en tu ry a go .F o ri n s tance l h i s monog raph o nt h ed ep ic t ion o fa n ima l si n Me soamer ican p i c to r ia l si ss t i l amu s tf o r t t ho se w ho a temp tt oi d en t if y a n ima l si nt h ec od ice s ( Se le r 1 923 ,453 -758 ) . O nt h eo t he r h and , t h e re i st h e r i sk t h a t S e le r 's d om inance c au se s s t uden t s t ou se h i s w o rk w i thou t l c au t ion . S eve ra lo fh i st h eo re t ica l mode l sa r eo u tda ted .A nyone u s ing S e le r mu s tb ew e l l a wa re o ft h ef a c tt h a th ew a s as uppo r te ro ft h et h eo r ie so fs oc a led " A s t ra l i sm" .T h i s mode l o fe xp lana t ion w a sa l ready i nd ec l ine w hen S e le rd ec ided t oa dop ti tf o rh i si n te rp re ta t ion s A s t ra l i n te rp r e ta t ion" t r i e s t o o ft h e B o rg ia g roup a nd o t he r Me soame r ican a r t w o rk s . 2"

3 1

e xp la in a lg od si na ny r e l ig ion a su l t ima te ly r e p re sen t ing o rd e r ived f r om ac e le s t ia lb ody l o rp henomenon .I ti s ea sy t os ew hy t h i sk ind o fi n te rp r e ta t ion w a ss oa t r ac t ive t oS e le r . e t C e le s t ia l b od ie s d o p l ay a n i mpo r tan t r o le i n Me soame r ican r e l ig ion . H oweve r , S e le r o ve rex tended t h i si nt h ec a se o f ,f o ri n s tance ,t h ec en t ra lt emp le s c ene i nt h eC odex B o rg ia , w h ich h e d ubbed " t he p as fV enu s t h rough t h eu nde rwo r ld" . T h i s i sa n e roneou s s age o r c oncep t ion , b u t w i th t h e g row ing i n te re s t i n a r chaeoa s t ronomy i n r e cen t y ea r s , h i s i n te rp r e ta t ion so ft h a ts c ene a r ea ga in f r equen t ly h ea rd a nd e l abo ra ted u pon . 'I ng ene ra lw e c an s ay t h a tS e le rh ad ap a r t icu la rp reo ccupa t ion w i th V enu s ,w h ich h es e si nm any p l a ce s e w he re t h a t i n t e rp re ta t ion n ow mu s t b e c on s ide red d oub t fu l o r a do rned w i th t h e w rong c onc lu s ion s . A no the r e xamp le o fh i s o u tmoded a pp roa ch i sh i s i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e b a r a nd d o t n ume ra l si nt h eB o rg ia G roup .S e le rb e l ieve st h a ti tmu s tb e" some k ind o f mag ic" t h a ti s r e la ted t oa s t ronom ica lp e r iod s , b u th e w a s n eve ra b le t oe l abo ra te ap e r sua s ive c a se t o h im se lf !I nt h ec ha rac te r i s t ic h one s ty o ft h ee x t rao rd ina ry s cho la r ,h es t a ted ," I have t o adm i t t h a to nce a ga in Id on ' tk now" ( Se le r1 90 1 ,8 6 ) .U n fo r tuna te ly ,o t he rs cho la r sh ave i g no red S e le r 's s e lf -doub ted s ugge s t ion sa nd e l abo ra ted t h em a st hough t h ey w e r ef i rm c onc lu s ion s . A s ar e su l tw ef i nd t h et h eo r ie so fa s t ronom ica lp e r iod si nt h ew o rk so fs u ch a u tho r i ta t ive t s cho la r sa sT homp son ( 1 934 )a nd C a so ( 1 967 ,79 -81 ) .R eg re tab ly ,t h ew o rk o fN owo tny h a sn o tb een t r an s la ted ,o ra t le a s tn o ty e tp ub l i shed i ne i the rE ng l i sh o rS pan i sh .T he r e su l t i st h a th i sf a r mo re c onv inc ing s ugge s t ion sf o rt h ei n te rp re ta t ion o ft h o se n um e r ic sh ave g one l a rge ly u nno t iced . Nowo tny 's i n te rp re ta t ion sa r ef i rm ly b a sed o nt h ea va i lab le s ou r ce s .H ed oe sn o td e lve i n to t h ew ide a nd s ome t ime su n sub s tan t ia ted t h eo r iz ing s t y le o fS e le r .T he r e su l ti samuch c l ea re rv i ew o fw ha tw ea c tua ly d oa nd d on o tk now .F o ri n s tance ,h eh a sd ubb ed many o f l t h e s c ene si nt h ec od ice sa s "man t ic" . B yt h i sh em ean st h a t ac e r ta in p i c to ra l s c ene m ay c on ta in i n fo rma t ion o nt h ed i v ina to ry v a lue o f ar i tua lo rg od .N owo tny n o te s ,h oweve rt h a t t h i si n fo rma t ion i s re co rded i ns ymbo l st h a tw e r ee v iden tt ot h e w r i te r s a nd u se r so ft h e c odex ,b u tw h ich i se x t reme ly d i f icu l ta nd o f t en i n comp r ehen s ib le f o ru s .I ti sa t th i sp o in t f o fo u r l a ck o f u nde r s tand ing t h a t Iw i sh t oj o in N owo tny 's a pp roa ch w i th ac a tego ry d eve loped b yE rw in P ano f sky i n orde rt oa temp ta ni mag ina t ion o fc e r ta in " ma t e r s" i nt h e t t s t udy o f t h e B o rg ia G roup manu sc r ip t s . S pec if i ca ly , Iw an t t oi n te rweave N owo tny 's l a ff i rma t ion o fc on tempo ra ry f i e ldwo rk i n to t h ec a tego ry o f" f rame o fr e f e r ence" a s ab a s i s f o rp e r ce iv ing w ha t! c a l" t hema t ica lu n i t s" o fg roup so fd a ta .I n my v i ew ,i tw i lb et h rough l l t h e i nden t i f ica t ion a nd i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h ema t i ca l u n i t s t h a t w e c an a r ive a t ab e te r r t u nde r s tand ing o ft h em anu sc r ip t s . T he e t hnoh i s to r ica l s ou r ce s f r om t h e s i x teen th c en tu ry t h a tw e s t udy t ob u i ld u p t h e f rame o f r e f erence t o b e a b le t o u nde r s tand a tl e a s t s ome o f t h e se p r e -Co lomb ian manu sc r ip t sc an e n la rge o u rb ody o fe v idence .H oweve r ,e ven w i th t h i sc omb ina t ion ,t h e re a r e many g ap s i no u rk now ledge . S cho la r s l i ke S e le rt r ied t of i l t h a t g ap b y a pp ly ing a l t h eo re t ica l mode l ,t h ink ing t h a ta ls ou r ce so fd i re c tk now ledge h ave b een e xhau s ted .I ti s l a tt h i sp o in tt h a t Nowo tny h a s made a ne xce len ts ugge s t ion .H es ugge s ted d o ing f i e ldwo rk l a mong t h e Me soame r ican i nd ian so ft o day t o come t o a b e te ru nde r s tand ing o f th ep i c to r ia l s t a nd t h e c u l tu r e s w h ich c r ea ted t h em . T h i s m e thod o f s t udy h a s b een a dop t ed a mong Amer ican i s t si nA u s t r ia a nd t h eN e the r land s . I th a sp roven e x t r eme ly f r u i t fu li nt h es t udy o f Me soame r ican i nd igenou s c u l tu re f r om t h e P o s t -C la ss ic t ot h ec o lon ia l p e r iod w h ich c on t inue si n to t h ep re sen t . T he k ey n o t ion s i nt h i s e xpan s ive m e thod f o r s t udy ing Me soame r ican r e l ig ion a r e c u l tura lc on t inu i ty a nd t h ema t ica lu n i t s .I n my v i ew ,t os t udy ar e l ig ion t h rough a long s pan 3 2

o ft ime ,a nd u se t h i sb roade rs t udy t oi lum ina te t h ep i c to ra l s ,i ti s neces sa ry t ob ea b le t o f i nd i n d i f f e ren t p e r iod s c e r ta in g roup s o f d a ta t h a t a ppea r i n mo re o r l e s s c on s tan t c on junc t ion w i th e ach o t he r .I ti s th e se g roup so fd a ta t h a t Ic a l lt h ema t ica lu n i t s .I no rde r t ou t i l ize t h er i ch r e sou r ces o ft h e se t h ema t ica lu n i t s ,w e mu s to ve rcome t h ec r ipp l ing b i a s a ga in s tt h ep a t te rn o fc u l tu ra lc on t inu i ty s oe v iden ti n Me soame r ican r e l ig ion s . C u l tu ra l c on t inu i ty i sg ene ra l ly s t il c on s ide red t o be o fn oa pp l ica t ion i nt h es t udy o f Me soame r ican c u l tu re s .T h i si s th er e su l to f K ub le r 's ( 196 1 )i n cor rec ta ppl i ca t ion o f Panof sky ' sc a t ego ry o f di s junc t ion t o Me soam e r i c a . 4

-pe r s i s t ing c o lon ia l r a c i s t t h eo r ie s t h a t d om ina t e moder n s c ho la r sh ip w h ich c anno t a cep tt h eI nd ian so ft o day a sh e i r so fc u l tu r e so fg r ea tg randeu rt h a tl e f t amonumen ta l c h e r i tage . T he c a tego ry o f t h ema t ica l u n i t s c anno t o n ly e nab le u s t oi ina te t h e r e l ig iou s lum m ean ing s o f d a ta s epa ra ted b y h i s to r ica l c hange s ,5 i tc an a l so h e lp u s g ua rd a ga ins t r e s t r ic t ing o u rd a ta b a se t o am eag re v i ew o fi mage s .I ti s cl ea rt h a ts t ud ie sw h ich s imp ly c oncen t ra te o n ac e r ta in d e ta i lo fa ni mage ,f o re xamp le ah ead -ado rnmen t ,c an e a s i ly l e ad t ow rong c onc lu s ion s ,b ecau se as i ng le s ymbo lm ay c hange i t sm ean ing e n t i r e ly t h rough t ime b u ts t i ll ok t h es ame .T ha ti s th ea c tua lc on ten to ft h ew a rn ing t h a tP ano f sky g i ve s l o w i th h i si d ea o fd i s junc t ion a nd i ti sa se qua ly t r ue f o rt h es t udy o ft h eB o rg ia G roup a sf o r l R ena is r t . s ance a P anof sky 's w o rk sa l so w a rn sa ga in s tt h ee t hno -cen t r ic a r th i s to r ica la pp roa ch r e f er red t o a bove . F o r i n s tance , i n h i s a r t ic le o f 1 932 , " Zum P rob lem d e r B e sch r e ibung u nd I nha l t sdeu tung v on We rken d e rB i ldenden K un s t" , o nR ena is r t , h e s how s h ow a s ance a p a in t ing o f aw oman ,c a ry ing ad ecap i ta ted h ead w a sb e l ieved t od ep ic tS a lome a nd J ohn r t h eB ap t i s t , b u ta c tua ly s how sJ ud i th a nd H o lo f er n e s .I nt h i sc a se ,t h ei mage w i thou ta n l a wa renes fc on tex ta nd s e t ing ,o r" t hema t ica lu n i t" w a sc omp le te ly m i sunde r s tood .S uch s o t m i s take sa r ew on tt oh appen t os t uden t so f Me soame r ican p i c to r ia l s . Mo s to fu sa r ef r om aE u rope -o r ien ted c u l tu ra lb a ckg round a nd t h ec omb ina t ion o fi mage sc r ea ted b yi nd ige n ou sp eop le si n Me soame r ica d on o tm ake a ny s e n se t ou sf r om t h a tp e r spec t ive . I n my a pp roa ch ,i ti s a v i ta lm a te rt og a the ra lt h ep os le i n fo rma t ion o nt h ec on ten t t l sib o f aw o rk o fr e l ig iou sa r tb efo r es t a r t ing t ot h eo r ize ,a cco rd ing t oc e r ta in s c ien t if i c mode l s . T h i s s imp le a nd c ommon s e n se r u le n eed s s o much e mpha s i s a si ti ss oo f ten n eg lec ted f o r c ing t h e manu sc r ip t st ot e lt h es t o ry t h a tt h et h eo r ize rl i ke st oh ea r .T he B o rg ia G roup l n eed s t o b e s t ud ied w i th a fr am ewo rk o f d a ta s ound ly b a sed o n i n fo rma t ion f r om Mesoame r ican c u l tu re .O nce w ec an d ot h a ti n ar e a sonab ly s a t i s f ac to ry w ay w ec an a pp ly mode l s ,n o ts oone r . T he e fo r tt ou nde r s tand t h eB o rg ia G roup i n af r am ewo rk o fc u l tu ra lc on t inu i ty c an b e f d ef ined a se t hno icono logy ( J an sen 1 988 ; v an d e rL oo 1 987 ) . Iw i l p roceed w i th s ome l e xamp le s . 1 T he f i r s t e xamp le i nvo lve s a sou r ce f r om t h e e a r ly s e ven teen th c en tu ry ; R u iz d e A la r cön 's " T ra tado d el a ss upe r s t ic ione s" ,w h ich c on ta in sd a ta f r om t h en o r th -ea s to ft h e p r e sen ts t a te o fG uer ro . re I n t h e t ime t h a t R u iz d e A la rcön w ro te , t h e i n d igenou s m e thod o fp i c tog r aphy h ad a l ready b een l o s t . A l so ,t h eg roup so fi nd ian so fw ha ti s now e a s t -Guer ro ( Nahua sa nd re

3

Tlapanecs), were considered groups that were not part of the "elite" culture of Meso­ America. That this idea of an elite does not really hold up will become clear in the following example. In the Nahua-texts quoted by Ruiz de Alarcon we find the god Tlahuizcalpanteuctli severaltimesaddr essedasNotaNahuiAcat/TlahuizcalpanteuctliMilinticaTzoncoztli:My father four Reed, Lord of the Morning House, swirling, with the yellow hair (Ruiz de Alarcon 1953, passim, e.g.71). This referral to the image of the god based on his calendrical name and his function as a fire god is found clearly in codex Fejervary-Mayer p.13 (fig.1), where we see Tlahuizcalpanteuctli, recognizable by the quincunx in his face with his calender name 4 Reed and yellow hair. This exemplifies how what a certain god actually looked like (his image) can be found in the actual precolumbian ("elite") depiction, but is also alive in the imagination of the people ("non-elite") who invoke him, at a time about a century after the conquest. 2

The Tlapanec myth of the origin of the Raingod is remarkably in agreement with data we can find in the Borgia Group. This myth was told to me for the first time in 1979 by F. Ramirez Cantu native resident of Malinaltepec, Guerrero: An old woman was married to Fire. They had no children. One day the old woman found four children in the field. She raised them as if they were her own. Fire had a very powerful sister, who got hold of everything she might want. Fire wanted to limit that power and give some of it to his sons. He went to his sister and asked her from where her power came. She said that she seized everything with her tongue, that was her secret. She showed him how she did it. With her tongue of fire she put everything she wanted to flames and that was how it became hers. Fire asked her to show it to him once again and when she did that he pulled out his machete and chopped off her tongue. She was very mad. He said that he wanted to limit her power because she did evil deeds with it. Food would be brought to her so she wouldn't starve, but her great power had come to an end. At home he cut the tongue in four pieces and gave each of his sons a piece. The four pieces of tongue changed into four powerful weapons, with which they could fly and they became San Marcos [Hui'ku in Tlapanec, the raingod]. Of the four sons, one is a very jealous person who wants to do harm. The other three are good. Those three make rain in a quiet way, but the fourth makes rain with lightning, thunder and storm. They live each in a cardinal point, but we don't know in which cardinal point the bad one lives. The storyteller explained that the sister receives part of the offerings brought to the four rain gods so she will not starve. Her name in Tlapanec means as much as "Old Woman 1 Crocodile-monster" (or "Devourer"), which name, according to the storyteller indicates that she was the first being to exist. This is a clear allusion to the first day sign of the Mesoamerican calendar (open monster jaws, usually called "crocodile") which is no longer in use in the Tlapanec area to the best of my knowledge. The description also ties in with one of the images of the Earth Goddess in Mesoamerica as a hungry water monster that requires offerings from the people that live on her. In the case of the Post-Classic Aztecs it had to be human sacrifice. In the case of the present Tlapanec the offerings consist of farm animals, eggs, liquor, and most important of all, counted bundles of twigs or reeds and 34

s t r ings o fc oun ted f l owe r s ,b rough tt ot h er a ingod o nt h eh i ghes t moun ta in top i nt h ea r ea o n t h e2 4 th o f Apr i l ,t h ee ve o ft h ed ay d ed ica ted t oh im . T h i sT lapanec my th p rov ide su sw i th a ne xp lana t ion f o rT la loc a st h e9 th l o rd o ft h en igh t i nF e j6rvä ry - Maye rp . 4( f ig .2 ) . We c an s eT la loc s t and ing o nt h eb ack o f aw a te r mon s te r e a nd i nh i sh and h eh o ld sh i sf i re s t af h a tw ea l so s ei no the rd ep ic t ion so ft h is g od .I nt h i s f t e c a se ,t h ef i re s t af sa l so t h et o ngue o ft h e mon s te r . f i T he mode rn my th p rov ides u s w i th a th ema t ica l u n i t t h a t i n c ludes t h e r a ingod , a d evou r ing w a te r mon s te ra nd af i re t o ngue t h a tc hange si n to af i re w eapon / s taf i nd f 6.We f t h a t s ame c omb ina t ion i nt h e P re -Co lumb ian c odex , w h ich a lows u s t o make av a l id l c onnec t ion b e tween t h et wo b ecau se w ec an b a se o u r se lves ,n o to ni s o la ted s ymbo l st h a t may h ave c hanged i n mean ing , b u to n au n ique c omb ina t ion o fi mages o rc oncep t st h a t p e r s i s ted t h rough t ime .T he mode rn my th e xp la in st ou ss ome th ing a bou tt h ei mag ina t ion c oncer n ing r a in a nd e a r th t h a tw ec an r ead b ack i nt h ec odex .T he p a r t icu la r mean ing / idea b eh ind t h is i mage o fT la loc h ad o the rw i se b een l o s tt ou s . 3 T h i ss ame my th a l so s how su sh ow t h ep a r t i t ion o ft h ew o r ld i nf ou rp a r t sp e r s i s t sf r om P re -Co lumb ian t imes t op re sen td ay s . B eau t i fu le xamp les o ft h eR a in g od a s af i ve -fo ld e n t i ty ,d iv ided o ve rt h ec a rd ina lp o in t sa nd t h ec en te ra r ef ound i nc odex B o rg ia p .27 ( t he c ogna te s c ene i nV a t icanus 3 773 i s on p .69 ) .T he d ay a nd y ea rs i gn si nt h is s c ene i nd ica te c er ta in p e r iod s , a nd t h ei mage sg i ve p rogno se sf o rt h ec or nc rop i nt ho se p e r iod s( f ig .3 ) : EAST

( l owe rr i gh t ) : R a iny s ky ,b l ack T la loc o n ac rocod i le ,t h ec o rn g rows f i ne .

NORTH

l ( uppe rr i gh t ) :S unny s ky ,y e low T la loc s t and so n as t ony g round ,i n sec t se a t t h ec o rn .

WEST

( uppe r l e f t ) :R a iny s ky , r ed T la loc s t and s o n f l ooded l a nd , t h e c o rn i s f l ooded .

SOUTH

( l owe rl e f t ) : S unny s ky ,r ed T la loc s t and so nd ry s o i l ,m ice e a tt h ec or n .

A s im i lar w ay o fp rogno s t ica t ing f o r ac er ta in p e r iod o ft ime , b a sed o n c o lo r s a nd d i rec t ion si s done w ide ly t h rough Me so -Ame r ica .T he T lapanec so f Ma l ina l tepec o b serve l t h e s ky o nt h eF i r s to fJ anua ry a nd d e r ive t h ef o low ing p rogno se s : B lack c l oud f r om t h e No r th :

Good l u ck f o rt h eh a rves t .

Wh i te c l oud f r om t h eN o r th :

T he h a rve s tg oe st ot h ec oa s t ,t h e moun ta in sr ema in w i thou th a rve s t .

B lack c l oud f r om t h eE a s t :

t Good l u ck f o rt h ea u tho r i t ie sa nd t h ec a t le .

Wh i te c l oud f r om t h eE a s t :

t B ad l u ck f o rt h ea u tho r i t ies a nd t h ec a t le .

B lack c l oud f r om t h e We s t :

B ad l u ck .

Wh i te c l oud f r om t h e We s t :

Good l u ck .

B lack c l oud f r om t h eS ou th :

B ad l u ck w i th t h er a in .

Wh i te c l oud f r om t h eS ou th :

Good l u ck w i th t h er a in .

F o r s t ruc tu ra l t h inke r s t h is k i nd o fd a ta i so fc ou r se p a rad ise . F o r t h e momen t , t h e e i n te re s t ing p o in tf o ru si st h a ti nb o th c od ice sa nd moder n ma te r ia lw es e at h ema t ica lu n i t o fh a rve s tp rogno s is t i ed t o ac e r ta in t ime p e r iod a nd d ec ided u pon b yd i rec t ion a nd c o lo r .

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4

We s e e ,h oweve r ,y e ta no the rt y pe o fp rogno s t ica t ion i nt h ed a ta f r om t h eT lapanec s . T hey s pec ify g ood o r b ad l u ck f o r " l a s a u to r idade s" a nd f o r t h e c a t t le . T h i s t y pe o f p rogno s t ica t ion i sa l so f ound i nt h e B o rg ia G roup . O n p age s 5 3 a nd 5 4 ( f ig . 4 )w e s e e r e p r e sen ta t ion s o fT lahu izca lpan teuc t l i , t h e V enu s g od , i n 5d i f f e ren t d i sgu i se s . O ve r a p e r iod o fo ne t o na lpoa l l i ,d i v ided i n6 5t ime sf ou rd ay s ,t h e 5V enu sr ep re sen ta t ion ss hoo t a t5 dif fe ren t e n t i t ie s . L e t i t be e mpha s ized h e r e , t h a t t h e V enu s g od a c t s w i th in o ne t o na lpoa l l ii nt h i ss c ene .T he r ei s ab so lu te ly n os how o fa ny V enu s -pe r iod ,a ss ome m igh t e xpec t . We f i nd c onco rdan t s c ene s i nV a t icanu s 3 773 p . 80 -84 a nd C o sp ip . 9 -11 . I nt h e B o rg ia w es e eh ow V enu ss hoo t s : -th ew a te r( 5 3 ,l owe rl e f t ) ; -a b l ack T ezca t l ipoca ( 54 l owe rr i gh t ) ; _ t h ec o rn ( 54 l owe rl e f t ) ; _ r u le r s , s ymbo l ized b yt h et h rone a nd t h ep i e r c ing o ft h en o se ( 54 u ppe rl e f t ) ; -w ar rio r s , s ymbo l ized b y as h ie ld a nd a r row s( 54 u ppe rr i gh t ) . T he i n te rp re ta t ion o f" dange r" f o rt h o se e n t i t ie si s done b yN owo tny ( 1961 ,237 -240 ) b a sed o nt h e" Ana le sd eC uauh t i t lan" ,w he re t h eV enu sg od s hoo t sa td i f f e ren te n t i t ie si n d i f f e ren tt ime p e r iod s ( Ve läzquez 1 945 ,11 ) . T he p rogno s t ica t ion st h a tw es e eh e re w h ich a r es im i la rt o th eo ne f o rt h e" au to r idade s" a r et h eo ne si nw h ich V enu sa t ta ck st h er u le r sa nd w he r eh ea t ta ck st h eB la ck T ezca t l ipo ca ( f ig .5 ) ,w h ich w ec an c on s ide ra sr ep r e sen t ing w ha tt o day i s re f er red t oa s" au to r idades" . T he c a se o ft h eB lack T ezca t l ipo ca n eed ss ome e xp lana t ion . I nB o rg ia t h ee n t i ty s ho t a t isB lack T ezca t l ipo ca ,i nt h ec or re spond ing s c ene si nV a t icanu s3 773 a nd C o sp it h ey a r e r e spec t ive ly amoun ta in w i th a ne ag le o nt o pa nd ah ea r ti n amoun ta in .T he moun ta in si n a l lt h ei mage sa r e a" moun ta in a nd w a te r" , am e tapho ri ns eve ra ld i f f e ren t Me soame r ican l a nguage s f o r v i l lage / c i ty /p la ce o f s e t t lemen t . A ppa r en t ly t h e s e t t lemen t i t se l f i sh i t , r e p r esen ted b y ac e r ta in s ymbo l .T he C odex V a t icanu s3 738 c onf irm st h i st h rough at e x t t h a tt e l l st h a tt h e my th ica lf ounde r so ft h es e t t lemen t sw e r ei nd ica ted a s" t he h ea r to ft h e v i l lage" . Yh a c ian s a c r if ic io s ya do r aban as up r ime rf undado r yd ec ian q ue 6 1e r ae l c o razön d e lp ueb lo yl og ua rdaban e nl u ga rs egu ro e nf o rma d ei do l° ...( t ran s la t ion o ft h eI t a l ian t e x tb yC o rona N ur iez 1 964 ,l am . V ) Wi th t h e se d a ta w ec an e xp la in t h es c ene i nt h eC odex C o sp i .A ppa ren t ly ,T lahu izca l p an teuc t l i a tack s t h ev e ry my th ica lf ounde ro ft h ev i lage . H oweve r , i ti sa ga in mode rn t l e t hno log ica lm a te r ia lt h a tb r ing su st h e" Imag ina t ion o f Ma te r" t h a tc onnec t st h e" Hea r t t o ft h eV i lage" a nd t h eB lack T ezca t l ipo ca . l Wa l te rM i le r( 1965 ,33 ;110 -111 ;137 -138 )t e l su sh ow i nt h eM ixe v i lage o fS an L uca s l l l C amo t län t h e r ei s a c oncep tt h a tt h e" Pad r ed e lP ueb lo" l i e sb u r ied u nde rt h e a l ta ri nt h e c hu r ch ." He" i s a man a nd aw oman w ho t r an sfo rmed t h em se lve si n to t h el i gh tn ing w h ich l l p ro tec t st h ev i lage . If ound t h e se s ame c oncep t si n th eM ixe v i lage o fT amazu lapan ,w he re i tw a sa l so e xp la ined t om et h a tt h e re a r e s eve ra lk i nd so fl i gh tn ing s ,w h ich a r e : 1 . T he n o rma ln a tu ra ll i gh tn ing s . 2 . T he l i gh tn ing so ft h ef i e ld ,w ho se c h ief i st h e" G ran R ayo" L o rd o ft h e Moun ta in s ,r u le r

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o fa l lt h ew i ld a n ima l sa nd o ft h en ahua le s( t he " pa r a l le lb e ing s" o fh uman s ) .H ei s th e s t ronge s tl i gh tn ing o fa l li na l lt h ec a tego r ie s . 3 . T he l i gh tn ing so ft h ev i l lage .T he se a r et h ep eop le o ft h ev ilage w ho h ave t h el i gh tn ing a st h e i rn ahua l . T he i rc h ief i s th e my th ica l" f a the ro ft h ev i l lage" . T he l i gh tn ing so ft h ec a tego r ie s 2a nd 3c an f i gh te a ch o the rs ome t ime s , a nd a l so t h e l i gh tn ing -nahua le s o f d i f f e ren t v i l lage s ( bo th i nc a tego ry 3 ) c an f i gh t e a ch o t he r . B u t n obody e ve rt r i e st of i gh tt h e" G ran R ayo" b ecau se h ei s th eu nd i spu ted s t ronges to fa l l . T h i s L o rd o ft h e moun ta in s i st h e " po thn io s t h e roon" w ho w e k now i nN ahua t l a s T epeyo l lo t l . We k now f r om h i sd ep ic t ion st h a th ei sr e la ted t o Tezca t l ipoca a nd t h i sr e la t ion i s m ade e ven mo re s pec if ic b ecau se w ek now f r om S ahagün t h a tT ezca t l ipo ca i st h el o rd o fw i t chc ra f ta nd t h en ahua le s . T h i ss pec if i cf unc t ion o ft h ep owe r fu ld e i ty i sa ppa ren t ly l e p e r son if ied i nT epeyo lo t l ,a sw es ec onf i rm ed b yt h eM ixe d a ta .S ow ec an c onc lude t h a t l T ezca t l ipoca i st h eL o rd o fa lt h el i gh tn ing st h a to ccu rf o ro t he rt h an n a tu ra lr e a son s .T he re i s m uch mo re i n te re s t ing i n fo rma t ion i nt h i sr e spec tf r om t h eM ixe a nd o t he rg roup s ,b u t w ha tw eh ave h e r ei s enough t or e tu rn t ot h eC odex B o rg ia . l T he B lack T ezca t l ipoca i ss e a ted o n "moun ta in a nd w a te r" o r" v i lage" a nd b eh ind h im i sas i gn t h a tw ec an i d en t i fy a s ah uge l i gh tn ing ,c ompa r ing i tt ot h ed ep i c t ion so fl i gh tn ing i nt h eB o rg ia ( c f .B o rg ia p . 20 a nd 2 1 ,u ppe rp a r t ) .T he d a ta s hown a bove h ave e xp la ined t o l u s t h a tt h e " hea r to ft h ev i lage" f r om t h e C o sp i a nd t h eV a t icanu s 3 738 i st h e my th ica l l p ro tec to r / founde ro ft h ev i lage ,w ho a ppea r sa s aT ez ca t l ipoca w i th l i gh tn ing i nt h eC odex B o rg ia .T he l i gh tn ing i sm ade u nde r s tandab le b ecau se o ft h ei d en t if i ca t ion o ft h e" p ro tec t o r" w i th as upe rna tu ra l l i gh tn ing . T he a ppea rance o ft h e " p ro tec to r " a s aT ezca t l ipoca r e su l t sf r om t h ei d en t if i ca t ion o ft h eL o rd o ft h e Moun ta in a st h e mo s tp owe r fu ll i gh tn ing . l H e , a nd a l t h e l i gh tn ing s , a r e r e la t ed t oT ezca t l ipoca , a nd c an a ppea r i nh i s i mage ry , l l a l though t h eL o rd o ft h e moun ta in w i lg ene ra ly ,b u tn o ta lway s ,b ei d en t if ied b yc e r ta in l a do rnmen t s .O nB o rg ia p . 14 ,h ea ppea r sw i th T epeyo lo t lp a raphe rna l ia a nd f a ce p a in to f T ez ca t l ipoca , b u t o n F e j&vä ry - Maye r p . 1 a s ar egu la r R ed T ezca t l ipoca ( i n t h e N o r th q uad ran tf a c ing T la loc ) .O nB o rg ia p . 54 t h eB la ck T ezca t l ipoca i st h el i gh tn ing a ppea rance o ft h e" p ro t ec to r " supe rna tu r a l . A lso i n t h i s c a se mode rn Me soame r ican r e l ig ion e xp la ined w hy w e f i nd ac e r ta in l c omb ina t ion o fi mage s ,f o rm ing at h ema t ica lu n i to fv ilage ,h ea r to ft h ev i lage /my th ica l f ounde r /Tezca t l ipoca a nd l i gh tn ing . 5 When s t udy ing ac u l tu re o t he rt h an o u ro wn w e mu s tb u i ld af r ame o f re f e r ence t ow h ich e w ec an l i nk w ha tw es ei nt h ep i c to r ia l manu sc r ip t sp roduced b yt h a tc u l tu r e al o ng t ime a go . S uch af r ame o fr e f e rence c an b eb u i l tu pi no n ly o ne w ay :w h i le t r y ing t of o cu so na t o p ic ,o ne h a st oc on t inue ,r a the rr a ndom ly ,t ol i s ten t oa nd r e ad i na va i lab le s ou rce s . e l L ook ing a tC odex B o rg ia p .63 ( f ig .6 )w es eT epeyo lo t l ,a sL o rd o ft h et h i rd t r ecena d ep ic ted a s aj agua r .H ei ss e a ted o n amoun ta in a nd i nf r on to fh im a r e as h ie ld a nd w eapon s e f se a nd w ha ts em st ob ea no f e r ing o f ap r ec iou sv es lw i th p rec iou sc on ten t s . O ppo s i te o f t e h im s t and sa nu nm is takab le T lazo l teo t l ,h o ld ing al i t le r ed p e r son b yt h eh a i r ,w ho s em s t ob er e ady t ob es a cr if i ced . f F o r t h i s s c ene S e le r o f e r s as o lu t ion t h a t i sn o t c omp le te ly s a t i sf ac to ry . I n h i s s o c ommen ta ry o n t h e B o rg ia h e f i r s t s t a te s t h a t T lazo l teo t l i sd ep ic ted a st h e Goddes f ring t C h i ldb i r th ( Se le r1 904 -1909 :1 ,218 ) ,r e f er o th et e x to fS ahagün t h a te xp la in sh ow t h e

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b i r th o f ac h i ld t o aw oman w a sc ompa red t ot h et a k ing o f ac ap t ive b y aman .T ha ti s av a l id i n te rp re ta t ion ,b u ti td oe sn o tg i ve a ny m ean ing t ot h ea ppea rance t oge the ro fT epeyo lo t l l a nd T lazo l teo t l .S e le rs imp ly s t a te st h a tt h ey a r eb o th moon g od sa nd ,i n keep ing w i th a s t ra l i n te rp re ta t ion ,c on s ide r st h a tt ob ee nough e xp lana t ion ( i b id : 1 ,219 ) . I n 1 982 d u r ing t h e s umme r s em ina r o n t h e B o rg ia G roup i n Dumba r ton O ak s w e e xam ined a lt h ed ep ic t ion so ft h el o rd so ft h e2 0t r ecena s ,w ec a ta logued w ha tw ec ou ld l s e ,b u ta ni n te rp re ta t ion o fw ha tw es aw r ema ined o f t en i mpo ss ib le .T ha tw a sa l so t r ue f o r e t h is p a r t icu la rs c ene . Why i s Tepeyo lo t lc omb ined w i th T lazo l teo t lh e re? l When p repa r ing t h i s p ape r , t h e s c ene r em inded m e a tt h a t momen t o f amy th t h a t I r e co rded i nt h eT lapanec a r ea i n1 979 .T he my th t e l sa bou tt h eL o rd o ft h eA n ima ls a nd t h e l c a ta s t roph ica lr e su l t si fc er ta in o b servance sa r en o tf o lowed b y ah un te r . l T h i s my th w a sa l so t o ld t om eb yF .R am i rez C an t i : t A m an made al i v ing h un t ing d ee r .H ek i led t h em a nd h i sw if es o ld t h em ea tf r om l h ouse t oh ouse .I th appened o f ten t h a tt h e man h ad t os t ay i nt h e moun ta in sf o r af ew d ay s wh i le h un t ing .D ur ing s uch d ay sh i sw if ew a su nfa i thfu lt oh im . D u r ing o ne o fh i sh un t st h e man c ame i n ab eau t ifu lg reen v a ley w i th many d ee r , l h ew a lked f u r the ra nd c ame t o ar ocky moun ta in f r om w he re h ec ou ld s et h ed ee r e b e low h im . H ew an ted t od e scend t oh un tw hen aman a pp roached h im . "Wha ta r ey ou d o ing h e re?" " Oh ,n o th ing ,I 'm j u s th un t ing s ome d ee r ." " In t h a tc a se my b os an t st ot a lk t oy ou ." s w T he s t range man w a sd res i ke ac a t le d r ive r .T hey w en tt o ac ave w i th ab i g s ed l t b eau t ifu ld oo ri ni t .T he re t h eh un te rh ad t oh and i nh i sg un a nd h i s ammun i t ion .H e w a sl e dt oa no ld man w i th l ong h a i ra nd aw h i te b ea rd . "We l ,y ou a r et h eh un te rt h a td oe ss o much d amage h e re .C ome w i th m es o Ic an l s how y ou s ome th ing ." T he h un te rw a st a ken t o as pace w i th t h ree e no rmou sc a t le c or l s .O ne w a sf u l t ra l o fd ee ra nd t wo w e re emp ty . " I ti sy ou rf a u l tt h a tt ho se t wo a r e emp ty" ,s a id t h eo ld man ," and n ow y ou h ave t o make u pf o ri t ,y ou w i lh ave t os e rve f o rs even y ea r s ." " A l r igh t" ,s a id t h eh un te r . l H ew a sg iven ad ee r sk in a nd a to nce h eb ecame ab eau t ifu lb uck . " Now g oh ome a nd y ou w i ls et h a ty ou rw i f ec hea t so ny ou a nd t h ep eop le w il l e k i l y ou a nd e a ty ou , s ot h a ty ou w i lk now wha tt h a tf e ls l i ke" . ( i n te r jec t ion b y l l e s t o ry te le r :" He re t h ei n cred ib le e n te r st h es t o ry !" ) l T he man s aw t h ea du l te ry i nh i sh ouse a nd l a te ro nh ew a sk i led b yh un te r sa nd l h er o se a ga in a nd w a sk i led a ga in . l T h i sl a s ted s even y ea r s . B u tt h ep eop le w ho a t eo fh i s m ea tb ecame i , s ot h e l p eop le g ave ab ig c e leb ra t ion f o rt h eL o rd o ft h eD ee r .T hey s a cr if i ced c h icken sa nd t u rkeys a nd g oa t s a nd t h ey made o f e r ings o f f l owe r s a nd c oun ted b und le s , a n f e no rmous f e a s t . T hen t h es even y ea r sh ad g one b y .T he man c ame t ot h eL o rd o ft h eD ee ra ga in who s a id : " Ye s ,y ou s e rved y ou rt ime a nd y ou rp un i shmen ti s ove r ,b u tn o ts ot h eg u i l to f t h a t man a nd y ou r w if e ." ( i n te r jec t ion b y t h e s t o ry te le r : " Peop le w ho l i ve i na l s i tua t ion o fa du l te ry c anno te a tm ea tf r om h un t ing ,b ecau se t h ey c omm i ta ne v i ld eed i ft h ey d o .A hun te rw ho i su nfa i thfu lb ecome si n sane ." )" Go h ome a nd n ea rt oy ou r h ouse y ou w i l s e ad ee r , k i l i t as i sy ou r p ro f e ss ion a nd g o h ome . D on ' t s ay l e l

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s ay a ny th ing t o th es t range m an ,b u ti n v i te h im t o ea to ft h em ea t .Y ou rw if ea nd t h a t l man w i ld i ea nd s even d ay sa f te rt h ef une ra ly ou h ave t o come b a ck h e r es oy ou c an e s ei nw ha tc i r cum s tance st h ey a r e ." T he man d i da st o ld .T hey a t eo ft h em ea to ft h ed ee ra nd t h eo the rm an l e f t . When t h ew oman w an ted t og e ts ome th ing f r om ap o td u r ing t h en igh ts he w a s t l b i ten b y as ma ls co rp ion a nd d i ed .T he o t he r man w en tt oh i sh ome ,w he re h eh ad t t aw if e ,b u to nh i sw ay h ew a sb i ten b y ar a t le snake .T he f une ra l st ook p l ace mo re s o rl e ss imu l taneou s ly . S even d ay sl a te rt h eh un te rw en tb a ck t ot h ec ave . T he re h e s aw h i s w if e , h e r e h and s a nd f e tw e re t i ed t o ge the ra nd s h e s t ood i n ab en to ve rp o s i t ion a nd e ve ry ma le d ee rt h a tc ame b yj umped o nh e ra nd i ft h ey t i red o ft h a tt h ey u sed t h e i ra n t le r s . T he man w a st i ed s t and ing s t ra igh tu pa nd e ve ry f ema le d ee rt h a tc ame b yt ook h i s e l " f le sh" b e tween h e rt e th a nd b i ta nd p u led h a rd .T ha ti s how t h ey w e r ep un i shed f o r eve rf o rt h e i re v i ld eed s . T he o ld man t o ld t h e h un te r , t h a t f r om n ow o n h e h ad t oo b se rve t h e y ea r ly f o f e r ing s a nd e ve ry th ing w ou ld b e a l r igh t . S ince t h en t h ep eop le d o t h e h un t ing f o f e r ing sw i th c h icken sa nd t u rkey sa nd c oun t ed b und le s ;a l so w hen t h ey h ave b een u nfa i thfu l . T h i s my th e xp la in s t o u s w hy t h e r i tua l s w i th c oun ted b und le s a r e o f p a r t icu la r l i mpo r tance f o rh un te r s . We w i ln o tb ea b le t o go i n to t h es ub jec tn ow ,b u ti ti sat y pe o f ri tua l p e r fo rmed t oday b yt h eT lapanecs ,t h eM ixe a nd t h eC hon ta le so fO axa ca ,i n wh ich b und le s f t o fc oun ted s t ick s o r t w ig s a r e o f e red i nc e r ta in p a te rn s . E ve ry n umbe r h a s as pec if i c e f mean ing ( s ee : v an d e r L oo 1 982 , 1 987 ) . We s e t h i s t y pe o f o f e r ing i n t h e c od ice s r F e j &vä ry - Maye r ,L aud a nd C o sp i , whe r et h ey o f ten a r ee roneou s ly s uppo sed t o rep re sen t a s t ronom ic p e r iod s . Much mo re a na ly s i sc an b ed one o nt h i s my th ,b u tf o rn ow w ea r ei n t e r e s ted i n ob se rv ing o h ow i tp rov ides ag ua rd a ga in s ta du l te ry ,a ne v i lt h a tc an o ccu ro n ly t oe a s i ly w hen o ne o f l t h ep a r tne r si sr egu la r ly a way f r om h ome f o rs eve ra ld ay s at ime .T he a du l te ry w i ln o to n ly f l a f ec tt h eh uman si n vo lved ,b u ta l so t h eh un ted d ee r ,w h ich ,a st h e my th i mp l ic i t ly t e l s ,a r e n ol onge rr ep laced i n an a tu ra lw ay . t Wi th t h i s k now ledge w e r e tu rn t ot h e B o rg ia . T he i m ag ina t ion b eh ind t h i s ma te r l b ecome sc l ea ra nd w ec an u nde r s tand t h es c ene .T lazo l t eo t li st h ed e i ty l i nked t oa ls exua l a c t iv i ty . S he d o e s n o t a ppea ri nt h e my th b u t h e r a ppea rance i nt h e c odex c l a r if ie s t h e s o l s i tua t ion . T he g oddes fl u s t h a s s e ized ap e r son w ho w a s i n vo lved i na n i ic i t s exua l f r e la t ion sh ip .S he h o ld st h ea du l te re ra nd o f e r sh im t ot h eL o rd o ft h eA n ima l s ,r e ady t ob e s a c r if iced a s ap un i shmen t . s o O nt h eo t he rh and ,s he c e r t a in ly i s al so t h eP a t rones fC h i ldb i r th a nd h e ra ppea rance l ring t w i th T epeyo lo t lc an b ee xp la ined b y amode rn O tom fr i tua l .T op reven ti n cur h eg od 's f w ra th , a n o f e r ing mu s t b e m ade f o r e ve ry n ewbor n t o" t he H ea r t o f t h e Moun ta in" l ( Sand s t rom 1 981 ,45 ) ,a l so c a led " Hea r to ft h e Wo r ld" ( Dow 1 98 ,98 )a nd a l so " The G r ea t t l l R o ted F oo t" ( Ga l in ie r1 979 ,434 ) ;a no the ra lu s ion t ot h ec onnec t ion b e tween T epeyo lo t l a nd T ezca t l ipoca ,t h eo ne -foo ted g od . S ot h e Godde ss o fC h i ldb i r th h e r se lf i sp re sen t ing t h en ewbo rn a s a" cap t ive" t o th e God s o o ft h e Moun ta in . T he j ade n eck la ce a bove t h e c ap t ive i n d ica te s t h e p rec iou snes ft h e l sed w n ewbo rn .I nS ahagün ( e .g .B ook 6 , Ch .13 )w ef i nd t h en ewbo rn s pec if ica ly a dd r es i th t h e e p i the t" p rec iou s n eck lace" . T hough t h e re i st h e w a rn ing f o rp un i shmen ti nc a se o f sion o f r s. om is f t h e o f e r ing , t h i s i s amo r e b en ign s i de t ot h i s r a the r t e r ify ing g oddes

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However , a s mo s t Me soame r ican s upe rna tu ra l s , s h eh a s a no the rs i de t oo , wh ich w e s aw e xp res nh e rf unc t ion a sa s is tan ti np un ish ing a du l te re r s . s ed i s T he e a r ly c o lon ia l s ou r ce o f S ahap in , t h e O tom fd a ta a nd t h e T lapanec my th f u ly l e xp la in t h es c ene i nt h ec odex ,b ecause t h ey c l a r i fy t h ed i sa s t rou sr e la t ion b e tween d ee rh un t a nd a du l te ry a nd a l so t h er e la t ion b e tween c h i ldb i r th a nd t h e" Hea r to ft h e Moun ta in" . We f ound t h e i mag ina t ion o f ma te r a nd i tb ecome s c l ea r w hy T epeyo lo t l ( Hea r t o f t h e t l Moun ta in /Lo rd o ft h e A n ima l s ) a nd T lazo l teo t l ( Goddes fS exua l i ty ) a ppea rt oge the r s o w i th as a cr if ic ia lv i c t im b e tween t h em . T he s a c r if ic ia l v i c t im s t and s , i no ne c ase , f o ra n a du l te re rt ob ep un i shed ,w h i le i nt h eo the rc a se h es i gn if ie sa ni nnocen tn ewbo rn f o rw hom a no f e r ing i sb rough t . f H av ing c ome t h i sf a r , Iw an tt ot a ke o ne s t ep mo re , ah ypo the t ica lo ne .I nh i se xce len t l c ommen ta ry o nt h e C odex V indobonen s i s , J an sen s t a te s t h a tt h et ype o fp i c tu re s w ea r e l ook ing a t may n o tr ep roduce a ne xac tp hone t ic t e x t ,b u td op roduce at e x ta tt h e momen t t h ec odex i s opened i nf r on to fs omeone f am i l ia rw i th t h em es ft h ep i c tu re s( J an sen s age o 1 982 : 1 , 42 ) . We w an tt os ei fw ec an u nde r s tand t h e" expe r ience" t h a tt h i sp ar t icu la rp ic tu re mu s t e h ave e voked .I mag ine y ou r se lf t ob et h ea du l te re ro ra du l te res nd l e t 's r ead t h es c ene i n s a t h ec odex : O nh i sa bode s i t st h eL o rd o ft h e Moun ta in i nh i sa ppea rance o ft h ep owe r fu lJ agua r .I t i st oh im t h a tp r ec iou so f e r ing s a r eb rough tf o rt h en ewbo rn ,t ho se w ho a r ea sc ap t ive s , f t a ken b yt h e i rw ar r -mo the r s ,u nde rt h ep ro tec t ion o fI x cu ina , Goddes fS exua l i ty .B u t rio s o a l so ,h ei st h eL o rd o ft h eH un te r sa nd b eware a du l t erer s ,f o rT lazo l teo t l ,F i l th Goddes s, w i lc ap tu re y ou f o rp un i shmen ti nf r on to ft h eL o rd o fT he Moun ta in . l I f you i mag ined y ou r se lf i ny ou rr o le ,y ou mu s th ave f e l tt h et e ro ro ft h ew a rn ing a nd r w ec an b ecome v e ry s e r iou sa bou tt h em ean ing o ft h i sl i t le r o le -p lay ing . t We n o to n ly f ound ar e la t ion sh ip t h a tg ive su s ad e scr ip t ion o fw ha tw es e ,b u ta l so t h e e emo t iona li mpac to ft h ed ua l i ty b e tween af e a r fu la nd ab en ign a spec tw h ich a low su st o l r i se b eyond me re e p i s temo logy b yg i v ing u s ag l imp se o ft h e emo t ions t h i sd ep ic t ion mus t h ave c aused i n t ho se w ho made a nd u sed i t . I ti sp rec i se ly t h i s e x t ra d imen s ion o f u nde r s tand ing t h a tw es t r ive t or each i nt h es t udy o ft h ese r e l ig ious manu sc r ip t sa nd i nt h e s t udy o fr e l ig ion s i ng ene ra l , b u t w h ich i sv e ry d i ff icu l t t or each a nd , o u t o fm e thod ic n eces ty ,i mpo ss ib le t or each w i thou t ab road r ange o fd a ta . si An e xp lana t ion t h a tc omp l ie sw i th ac er ta in t h eo re t ica l mode lc an b e made u pb ya ny o ne f am i l ia rw i th t h ep a r t icu la r mode l( a s t ra l i s t ,s t ruc tu ra l ,F reud ian , Ma rx is t ,t om en t ion j u s t af ew ) .T ho se mode l sw e re a c tua ly d e s igned t oe xp la in t h ef unc t ion ing o ft h eh uman l m ind o rs o c ie ty .F o rt h a tr e a son t h ey c an o n ly b ea pp l ied a f ter t h e max ima lu nde r s tand ing w i th in t h ea c tua lc u l tu ra lc on tex th a sb een r eached .O the rw i se t h ey o n ly s em ing ly e xp la in , e l i ke t h ee xamp le o fS e le ra nd t h e" moon g od s" d emons t ra ted . I fi ti si mpos le t or e ach sib s u f ic ien tu nde r s tand ing w i th in t h ec u l tu re ,w em u s ta g r ee w i th Wi tgen s te in t ha to ne mu s t f t k eep s i len ta bou tt h ing st h a to ne c anno tt a lk a bou t . T he t h ema t ica l u n i t s a r e o n ly a too l , d e s igned t o r e ach a be te r u nde r s tand ing o f t Mesoame r ican r e l ig ion w i th in i t s c on tex t . T hey a r e n o t ab a s ic e xp lana tory mode l i n r e l ig iou ss t ud ie s .T h i st oo lc an b ea d ju s ted a so ngo ing s t udy may r equ i re . Wi th t h e se e xamp le s Ih ope t oh ave s hown t h en eces ty o fs t udy ing Me soame r ican si c u l tu re i n af r ame o fc on t inu i ty w he reve rt h a ti sp o ss ib le .T he " Imag ina t ion o f Ma te r" a s t

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f ound i nt h eB o rg ia G roup i s presen ti no u rd ay si nt h ec u l tu re o ft h ed escendan t so ft h e p eop le w ho made t h ec od ice s . We h ave t ob ea wa re o ft h ec hange st h a tt ook p lace o ve r mo re t h an f ou r c en tu r ie s o ft u rbu len t c o lon iza t ion o ft h e i nd igenous p eop le o f Me soame r ica . sa H oweve r ,w i th t h en eces ry p recau t ion s ,w ec an o b ta in amuch c l ea re ru nde r s tand ing o f e an umbe ro fs c ene so ft h e se c od ice st h rough e t hno iconog raphy . Wha tw es et h en i sn o t sion o ah i gh ly a r cane c u l t ,b u tt h ev i v id e xp res f ar e l ig ion t h a tw ec an t r ace t ot h i sv e ry d ay , t s a l so i ni t s e so te r ic c onno ta t ion s . T he " Imag ina t ion o f Ma te r" , o r a sP ano f sky o n al e s l a b s t rac tl e ve lc a led t h i sc oncep ta pp l ied t ot h es t udy o fw o rk so fa r t ," f rame o fr e f e rence" , c an b ef ound i n mode rn my ths t h a td i sp lay t h ec once rn o f Me soame r ican p eop les f o rt h e i r l e nv i ronmen ta nd d emon s t ra te h ow c er ta in r i tua la nd s oc ia lo b se rvance s mu s tb ef u lf i led t op reven tt h ek nown r ea l i ty f r om d i s in teg ra t ing . T h i si s in i t se lf t r ue f o ra ny r el ig ion ( s ee E l iade 's My th a nd R ea l i ty ) . Howeve r ,i ti s of p a r t icu la r i mpo r tance t h a t w e c an s pec ify t h ema t ica l u n i t s , u n ique f o r Me soame r ican r e l ig ion ,b o th i nt h e mode rn my th sa nd i nt h eB o rg ia G roup .I tempha s izes t h en eces ty o f si s t udy ing Me soamer ican c u l tu re i n ab road h i s to r ica l f r amewo rk a nd i ta lows u s a l c omp rehens ion o ft h e manu sc r ip t st h a tw ec ou ld n o th ave r eached i na ny o the rw ay . T he l og ica lc onc lus ion o ft h i si s th a tw es hou ld make t h ed a ta o fo u rs t ud ie sa va i lab le t ot h ep eop le who l i ve t h a tc u l tu re n ow .T he i rc oncep t sa r ep a r to ft h ef r ame o fr e f e rence t h a t o ne n eed s t ok now i no rde r t o s t udy t h i s c u l tu re . T he i r c on t r ibu t ion s w ou ld b e a t r emendous s t ep f o rwa rd f o rt h eu nde r s tand ing o ft h eh i s to ry o f Me soame r ican r e l ig ion . T he h a r sh r ea l i ty ,h oweve r ,i st h a tt h e se p eop le a nd t h e i rc u l tu re l i ve ama rg ina l ized l i f e , v i c t im so fg enoc ide a nd e t hnoc ide .T hey w i ln o tb ea b le t os peak a ts cho la r ly c onfe rence s l l i ke t h is a sl ong a st h ey a r ek i led f o rs peak ing u pf o rt h e i rr i gh tt o ad a i ly mea lo rt h e i rv e ry l e x i s tence ,b o th p hy s ica ly a nd c u l tu ra ly . l l A lo fu s , w ho se wo rk h a sb rough tu si n to c on tac tw i th t h e se p eop le , mak ing f r iend s l among t h em ,h ave t h es cho la r ly a nd h uman d u ty t op o in to u tt h e se i n jus t ices a nd s peak o u t a ga in s tt h em ,l e s tw eb ecome ap a r to ft h em .

N o te s 1 . T he f i ve c o re m embe r sa r et h ec od ice sB o rg ia ,C o sp i ,F e j6 rvä ry -Maye r ,L aud a nd V a t i canu s3 773 ( o rB ) . A lso i nt h i sg roup c an b ec oun ted t wo o t he rd ocumen t s :F ond s Mex ica in 2 0c on s i s t ing o fo ne s hee t ,a nd C od ex P o r f i r io D iaz ( v e r so ) .T he l a s tm en t ioned c od ex i sp o s t -conque s ta nd i s th eo n ly o ne t h a th a sa k nown p roven ience . T he f r on t s ide h a s g l os s i nC u ica te c , w h ich m ake i t sa f e t oa sume t h a t t h e se s d ocumen to r ig ina te sf r om t h eC u i ca te ca r ea . 2 .

T he a s t ra li n te rp r e ta t ion g oe sb a ck o n t h ei n t e rp r e ta t ion o fG e rman f o lk t a le sa s" na tu re my th s" . T he r e sea r che rc on s ide r ed t h e" t r ue "m ean ing o ft h et a le l o s t ,o n ly h ec ou ld f i nd t h eo r ig ina lm ean ing a nd k new h ow t o in te rp re tc e r ta in e n t i t ie sc o re c t ly a sn a tu ra lp henomena .S cho la r sl i ke Max Mü le ri n c luded r l i nt h i s r e s ea r ch t h e R igveda , t h en c on s ide red t ob e ap r imeva l i n do -ge rman ic s ou r ce . L a t e r I nd ian c ommen ta r ie ss emed t oj u s t i f yt h ea s t ra li n te rp re ta t ion s .T he u se o fB aby lon ian s ou r ce sl e dt o ac u ren t e r t h a t i sn ow k nown a s" pan -baby lon i sm" . T he a c tua l e r a o f t h e a s t ra l i n te rp re ta t ion d w ind led i nt h e b eg inn ing o ft h i sc en tu ry ,a bandoned f o rt h et h en r s ing e vo lu t ion i sm .T he o bv iou sd ange ro ft h i sk i nd i o fi n te rp re ta t ion l i e si nt h ep r em ise t h a tt h er e sea r che ru nde r s tand st h e" t rue m ean ing" o fc e r ta in my th s b e t e r t h an t h e c u l tu ra l o wne r s o ft h e m y th . T he a pp l ica t ion o ft h e mod e l i n Me soame r ican r e l ig ion t f a c i l i ta te st h ed i s rega rd o fm ode rn d a ta ,b ecau se t h ey c an b ec on s ide red t h el e sk now ledgab le o f sp in s f o ft h e" t rue m ean ing" i nt h eo l de rs ou r ce s . I ti s no tw i thou ti r ony t h a tt h ec onc lu s ion m u s tb et h a ta n a bandoned l a te n i ne teen th c e n tu ry m ode lf o rt h es t udy o fi n do -ge rman ic r e l ig ion h amp e r su sn ow i nt h e s t udy o f Me soame r ican r e l ig ion .

3 . A r chaeoa s t ronomy a nd e t hnoa s t ronomy a r ee x t reme ly v a luab le f i e ld so fs t udy ,b ecau se ,a mong m any

4 1

l o t he rt h ing s ,t h ey c an a c tua ly h e lp u st o ove r come t h ea s t ra li n te rp re ta t ion sw he re t h ey a r ei n app rop r ia te . B o th t h ese f o rm so fr e sea r ch i n to k now ledge o fa s t ronomy b a se t h emse lve so nf i rm d a ta f r om t h ec u l tu r e u nde ri nve s t iga t ion . T he p o in t o ft r oub le l i e s w he re o ld s t y le a s t ral i sm , w i th i t s d i s rega rd o fc u l tu ra l c on tex to rt h ei n fo rman t s 'o p in ion ,i s pr e sen ted a sa r chaeoa s t ronomy o re t hnoa s tronomy . 4 .

E lsewhe re Id i scus ub le r 's d i s junc t ion i n mo re d e ta i l ( van d e rL oo 1 987 ) . s K

5 .

C f .N icho lson 's ( 1976 ,171 )a rgu ing f o r" s ign if i can ta soc ia t ion s" i np re c la s ic Me soame r ican a r t . s s

6 .

T h i ss ame t h ema t ica lu n i tc an b ef ound a mong t h eT o tonac s( I chon 1 973 ,75 ,79 -80 ) .

L i tera ture C i ted CASO ,A lfonso 1 967 L os C a lendar ios P reh i spän icos . Mex ico . COE ,M ichae lD .a nd Go rdon W H ITTAKER 1 982 A z tec S orcerer si nS even teen th C en tury Mex ico :T h eT rea t ise o nS uper s t i t ion sb yH ernando R u i zd eA larcon . A lbany , NY . CORONA NUREZ ,J o sé i 1 964 -1967 A n t ig iedad es d e Mex ico ,' b a sada se nl ar e cop i la c ion d eL o rd K ing sbo rough . 4v o ls . Mex ico DF . V a t icanu s A( 3738 )i nv o l . 3 . DO W ,J ame sW . 1 975 S an tos yS uperv ivenc ia s .F unc iones d el ar e l ig ion e nu na C omun idad O tom i . Mex ico . GAL IN 1ER ,J a cque s 1 979 N 'Yuhu ,L es I nd iens O tom i s .E tude s Meso -ame r ica ines ,s e r ie 1 ,2 M i ss ion A rchOo log ique e tE thno log ique F rança i se a u Mex ique . Mex ico . I CHON , Ma in 1 973

ra L ar e l ig i6n d el o sT o tonacos d el aS i er . Mex ico .F i r s te d i t ion i nF rench ,P a r i s 1 969 .

J ANSEN , Maa r ten E .R .G .N . 1 982 Hu i s i T acu , e s tud io i n t e rp r e ta t ivo d e u n l i b ro m ix teco a n t iguo : c od ex V indobonen s i s Mex icanu sI .2v o l s . Ams te rdam . 1 988 T he A r t o f Wr i t ing i nA nc ien t Mex ico : a n e t hno icono log ica l p e r spe c t ive . I n : V i s ib le R e l ig ion V o l . I V ,T he I mage i n Wr i t ing p 86 -113 .L e iden . KUBLER , Geo rge 1 961 O nt h eC o lon ia lE x t inc t ion o ft h e Mo t if so fP reco lumb ian A r t .I n :S amue lK .L o th rop e t al . E ssay si nP reco lumb ian A r ta nd A r chaeo logy , 1 4 -34 .C amb r idge MA . LEHMANN , Wa l t e r 1 938 D ie G esch ich t ed er K ön igre iche v on C o lhuacan u nd Mex ico . S tu t tga r tu nd B e rl in . LOO ,P e te rL .v an d e r 1 982 R i tua le s c on m ano jo sc on tado se n e lg rupo B o rg ia ye n t re l o sT lapane co s d eh oy d i a . I n M .E .R .G .N . J an sen a nd T h .J .J . L eyenaa r ( ed s ) L os i nd i genas d e Mex ico e n l a e poca p reh isp c in ica ye n l aa c tua l idad ,p 232 -243 .L e iden . 1 983 1 987

T he T ra tado o fH e rnando R u iz d eA la rcon , al i nk b e tween p r eco lumb ian a nd moder nI nd ian re c u l tu re i nG uer ro Mex ico .I n :A rchaeoas tronomy v o lV I ,n r s 1 -4 ,p 177 -185 . C 6d ices C os tumbres C on t inu idad u ne s tud io d el ar el ig ion m e soame r icana .L e iden .

MILLER , Wa l te rS . 1 956 C uen tos M ixe s . Mex ico . N ICHOLSON ,H en ry B . 1 966 T he p rob lem o ft h ep roven ience o ft h em embe r so ft h e" Codex B o rg ia G roup " : as umma ry . I n :P ompa yP ompa ( e d )S umma A n t ropo log ica e nh omena j e aR ober to J . We i t lane r ,p 145 1 58 . Mex ico . sic Me sic 1 976 P rec las soame r ican I c onog raphy f r om t h eP e r spec t ive o ft h eP o s tc las :P rob lems i n

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I n te rp re ta t iona lA na ly s i s .I n :H .B .N icho l son ( e d )O r ig ins o fR e l ig ious Ar ta nd Icono graphy i nP rec las soamer i ca , 1 57 -173 .L o sA nge le s . sic Me NO WOTNY ,K a r lA n ton 1 961

T lacu i lo l i ,d i e Mex ikan ische B i ld erhand sch r if t en .B e r l in . l

°ETT INGER , Ma r ion 1 981

U na C omun idad T lapaneca . Mex ico .

PANOFSKY ,E rw in 1 979

1 979

Z um P rob lem d e rB e sch re ibung u nd I nha l t sdeu tung v on We rken d e rB i ldenden K un s t .I n : E .K aemme r l ing ( e d )I konograph ie u nd l kono log ie ,B i ld end eK uns ta l sZ e ichen sy s tem B d . 1 ,p 185 -206 . K ö ln .A r t ic le f i r s tp ubl i shed i n1 932 . I ns ame p ub l ica t ion a sa bove :I konograph ie u nd I kono log ie .

P RYTZ J OHANSEN ,J . 1 971

E in le i tung ,D ef in i t ionen u nd Wi ssens cha f t en v on d e rR e l ig ionen .I n :J . P .A smus nd J . s en a L ae ssoe Handbuch d er R e l ig ions g esch ich t eB d . 1 , p5 -10 . Gö t ingen . t

RU IZ DE ALARCON ,H e rnando 1 953 T ra tado d el a ss upe r s t ic ione s yc o s tumb re sg en t i l ica sq ue o yv i uen e n t re l o si nd io sn a tu ra le s d ee s ta Nueva E spaf ia ,e s c r i to e n Mex ico a f t° d e1 629 .I n :J ac in to d el a Sema e t al .T ra tado d el a si d o la tr ias v o l2 ,p 17 -130 . Mex ico DF . SAHAGUN ,B e rna rd ino d e 1 959 -1969 F lor en t ine C odex ,G enera lH i s tory o ft h eT h ings o fN ew S pa in .T ran s la ted f r om t h eA z tec i n to E ng l ish w i th n o te sa nd i s t ra t ion sb yA .J .O .A nde rson a nd C .E . D ibb le ,b ook 1 11 . lu S an ta F e ,N ew Mex i co . SANDSTRO M ,A lan R . 1 981 T rad i t iona lC u r ing a nd C rop F er t i l i ty among t h eO tom iI nd ians o ft h e S i erra d eP ueb la . B loom ing ton ,I nd iana . S ELER ,E dua rd 1 901 C odex F e je rvä ry - Maye r . B e r l in . 1 904 -1909 C odex B o rg ia 3v o l s . B e r l in . T rans la t ion i n S pan ish 3v o l s . 1 96 3 . Mex ico DF . 1 923

D ie T ie rb i lde rd e r m ex ikan ischen u nd d e r Mayahand sch r i f ten . I n : G esamme l t e A bhand l u ngen z ur Amer ikan is chen S prach -und A l ter tum skund eB d .4 ,p 453 -758 . B e r l in

THOMPSON ,J . Er ic S . 1 934 S ky B ea re r s ,C o lo r sa nd D i rec t ion s i n Maya a nd Mex ican R e l ig ion . I n : C on tr ibu t ions t o Amer ican A rchaeo logy n o . 1 0 . Wa sh ing ton DC . VELAZQUEZ ,P r imo F e l ic iano 1 945 C 6 c l ice C h ima lpopoca Ma le sd eC uauh t i t län yl e yenda d el o sS o le s . Mex ico DF .

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F ig . 6 . C odex B o rg ia , l owe rh a lf o fp .6 3 4 9

T he I mage o f Hu i tz i lopoch t l i : Chang ing I dea sa nd V i sua l Man if e s ta t ion so ft he A z tec G od E l izabe th H i l lB oone T h i sp ape ri ns ome w ay si n ve r t st h et h eme o ft h is b ook :t h ei mag ina t ion o f ma t te r .I ti s l e ss c once rned w i th h ow c u l tu re sv i ew ma te r ia lo b jec t sa nd p henomena i n te l lec tua l ly a nd emo t iona l ly t h an i ti sa bou th ow t h ey c r ea te p hy s ica lf o rm st or ep re sen ta b s t rac tc oncep t s . T hus i td oe sn o tt r ea tt h ei d ea sf o rmed b y ma t te r ,b u tt h e ma t te rf o rmed t oe xp res s i d ea s . How d id t h eA z tecs g ive p hy s ica lf o rm t ot h e i ri d ea sa bou td iv in i ty a nd s a c ra l i ty? Mo re s pec if ica l ly , h ow d id t h ey e mbody i ns cu lp tu re o ri np a in ted manu sc r ip t s t h ec oncep to f Hu i tz i lopoch t l i ,t h e i rp r inc ipa lg od? H u i tz i lopo ch t l ii s ap a r t icu la r ly A z tec g od .H ei st h e t r iba lp a t ron ,w a rg od ,a nd r a i son d ' ê t re o fh uman s a c r if ice f o rt h e Mex ica A z tecs ,a nd o ne c an h a rd ly i mag ine h im o u t s ide t h eA z tec c u l tu ra lf r amewo rk .A f te rt h ec onque s t ,h oweve r , Hu i tz i lopoch t l ic ame t ot h ea t ten t ion o fE u ropean si n te re s ted i nN ew Wo r ld c u l tu res ,a nd h ec ame t om ean d i f f e ren tt h ing st o th i sn ew a ud ience .A si d ea sa bou th im c hanged ,h i sf o rm c hanged a cco rd ing ly , s o t h a t h i s p hy s ica l f o rm a lways r ef lec ted t o ac e r ta in e x ten t h i s i n te lec tua lc oncep t ion . l My i n te re s ti nt h ev i sua li mage o fH u i tz i lopoch t l iw a ss pa rked b ya ne ng rav ing h ang ing i n my o f ice a t D umba r ton O ak s . T he e ng rav ing , a fo l io -s ize s hee t c on ta in ing f ou r f r e c tangu la rs cene s ,o f e r si no ne s c ene a ne spec ia ly E u ropean v i s ion o ft h eA z tec g od ( F ig . f l 1 4 ) .I tl ook sn o th ing l i ke a ny A z tec v e r s ion o fH u i tz i lopoch t l i ,a nd Iw onde red h ow t h eg od c ame t ob ep o r t rayed i nt h i s manne r . T he e ng rav ing w a su n iden t if ied e xcep tf o rt h ed a te 1 732 a nd t h en ame B .P i ca r t( p re sumed ly t h ee ng rave r ) ,s o Is t a r ted t oe xp lo re t h eh i s to ry o f Hu i tz i lopoch t l i 's i mage a nd i t s many v a r ia t ion s . P hys ica ly Hu i tz i lopoch t l ii se n igma t ic . No i do lt h a td ef in i te ly c ame f r om h i st emp le h a s l e ve rb een f ound ,a nd t h es i x teen th -cen tu ry e t hnoh i s to r ica ls ou rce sd e sc r ibe o rp i c tu re h im i ns t a rk ly d i f e ren tw ays .I na dd i t ion t ob e ing t h e Mex ica t r iba lp a t ron ,a nd t h eA z tec w a r f g od a nd s o la rd e i ty ,h ew a st h es p i r i tua lf o r ce b eh ind t h e Mex ica A z tec 's r i se t op owe ri n t h ef our teen th ,f i f teen th ,a nd e a r ly s i x teen th c en tu r ie s .H ea nd T la loc ,t h er a in g od ,s ha red t h et w in s h r ines o ft h eT emp lo Mayo ri nt h eA z tec c ap i ta l o fT enoch t i t lan , n ow Mex ico C i ty .T hey a l so s ha red t h et w in t emp le i nT e tzcoco a c ros h el a ke ,a nd H u i tz i lopoch t l ia nd s t T ezca t l ipoca w e re s a id t ob ew o r sh ipped t o ge the ra tt h eg rea tt emp le a tT la te lo lco .1 O u rv i ew o ft h e i do lo fH u i tz i lopoch t l ii sc o lo red c h ief ly b y t h ev iv id d e scr ip t ion o f B erna lD iaz d e lC a s t ilo , al i eu tenan to fC o r t6 sw ho ,d u r ing t h ec onque s t ,a ccompan ied t h e c onque ro ru pt h eg r ea tt emp le a tT la te lo lco .D iaz d e lC a s t i lo 's s t ory h a sa ni mmed iacy t h a t l r e c rea te sf o ru sh i sh or ru pon s e ing t h es h r ine a nd i do l s . ro e B efo re r each ing t h e g r ea tC ue t h e re i s ag r ea te nc lo su re o fc ou r t s , i ts em st o me e l a rge rt han t h ep laza o fS a lamanca ,w i th t wo w a ls o fm a son ry s u round ing i t ,a nd l r t h ec our ti t se lf a lp aved w i th v e ry s moo th g r ea tw h i te f l ag s tone s .A nd w he re t h e re l w e re n o tt h e se s t one si tw a sc emen ted a nd b ur n i shed a nd a lv e ry c l ean ,. ..When l w e a r ived n ea rt h e G r ea tC ue , o n as ma lp l aza w h ich h a s b een made o n t h et op r l whe re t h e re w a s as pace l i ke ap l a t fo rm w i th s ome l a rge s t ones p laced o ni t ,o nw h ich t h ey p u tt h ep oo rI nd ian sf o rs a c r if ice ,t h e re w a s ab u lky i mage l i ke ad ragon a nd o the re v i lf i gu re sa nd much b lood s hed t h a tv ery d ay . When w ea r ived t h e re Mon tezuma c ame o u to fa no ra to ry whe re h i sc u r sed i do ls r w e re ,a t th es umm i to ft h eg r ea tC ue ,a nd t wo p r ie s t sc ame w i th h im Mon tezuma .. .. 5 1

t ok [ Cor t6 s ]b yt h eh and a nd t o ld h im t ol ok a th i sg r ea tc i ty a nd a h eo the rc i t ies o o lt t h a tw e re s t and ing i n th ew a te r ,a nd t h e many o t he rt own so nt h el a nd r ound t h el a ke , a nd t h a ti fh eh ad n o t s en t h eg r ea tm a rke tp l ace w e l ,t h a tf r om w he re t h ey w e re e l t h ey c ou ld s ei tb e te r . e t S ow es t ood l ing a bou tu s ,f o rt h a th uge a nd c u r sed t emp le s t ood s oh igh t h a t ook f r om i to ne c ou ld s eo ve re ve ry th ing v e ry w e l , ...[ Mon tezuma t h en ] s a id t h a tw e e l m igh te n te ri n to as ma lt owe ra nd a par tmen t , as o r to fh a l ,w he re t h e re w e re t wo l l a l ta r s ,w i th v e ry r i ch ly c a rved b oa rd ing so nt h et op o ft h er oof . O ne ach a l ta rw e re t wo f i gu r e s ,l i ke g i an t sw i th v e ry t a lb od ie sa nd v e ry f a t ,a nd t h ef i r s tw h ich s t ood l o nt h er i gh th and t h ey s a id w a st h ef i gu re o fH u ich i lobo st h e i rg od o f War ,i th ad a v e ry b road f a ce a nd mons t rou s a nd t e r ib le e yes , a nd t h e w ho le o fh i s b ody w a s r c ove rd w i th p rec ious s t one s ,a nd g o ld a nd p ea r l s ,a nd w i th s eed p ea r ls s t uck o nw i th ap a s te t h a tt h ey make i nt h i sc oun t ry o u to f as o r to fr oo t ,a nd a lt h eb ody a nd h ead l w a s c ove red w i th i t ,a nd t h e b ody w a s g i rd led b y g r ea t s nake s made o fg o ld a nd p rec ious s t ones ,a nd i no ne h and h eh e ld ab ow a nd i nt h eo the rs ome a row s .A nd r a no the rs ma li do lt h a ts t ood b yh im ,t h ey s a id w a sh i sp age ,a nd h eh e ld as ho r tl a nce l a nd as h ie ld r i ch ly d eco ra ted w i th g o ld a nd s t one s .H u ich i lobo sh ad r ound h i sn eck s ome I nd ians 's f a ce sa nd o the rt h ing sl i ke h ea r t so fI nd ian s ,t h ef o rme r made o fg o ld a nd t h el a te ro fs i lve r ,w i th many p rec iou sb l ue s t one s . t T he re w e re s ome b raz ie r sw i th i n cen se w h ich t h ey c a lc opa l ,a nd i nt h em t h ey l w e re b u rn ing t h eh ea r t so ft h et h ree I nd ian sw hom t h ey h ad s a cr if i ced t h a td ay ,a nd t h ey h ad made t h es a c r if i ce w i th s moke a nd c opa l .A lt h ew a l so ft h eo ra to ry w e re l l s os p la shed a nd e ncru s ted w i th b lood t h a tt h ey w e re b l ack ,t h ef l oo rw a st h es ame a nd t h e who le p l ace s t ank v i le ly .T hen w es aw o nt h eo the rs i de o nt h el e f th and t h e re s t ood t h eo the rg r ea ti mage t h es ame h e igh ta sH u ich i lobo s ,a nd i th ad af a ce l i ke a b ea ra nd e ye st h a ts hone , made o ft h e i rm ir r sw h ich t h ey c a lT ezca t ,a nd t h eb ody ro l p l a s tered w i th p rec iou s s t one s l i ke H u ich i lobo s , f o r t h ey s ay t h a t t h e t wo a r e b ro the r s ; a nd t h i sT ezca t l ipuca w a st h eg od o fH e la nd h ad c ha rge o ft h es ou ls o f l t h e Mex ican s ,a nd h i sb ody w a sg i r tw i th f i gu re sl i ke l i t le d ev i ls w i th s nakes 't a i l s . t T he w a ls w e re s oc l o ted w i th b lood a nd t h es o i ls ob a thed w i th i tt h a ti nt h es l augh te r l t h ouses o fS pa in t h e re i s no ts uch a no the rs t ench . T hey h ad o f e red t ot h is I do lf i ve h ea r t sf r om t h ed ay 's s a cr if i ce s .I nt h eh i ghes t f p a r to ft h eC ue t h e re w a s ar e ces fw h ich t h e woodwo rk w a sv e ry r i ch ly w o rked , s o a nd i ni tw a sa no the ri mage h a lf man a nd h a lf l i za rd ,w i th p rec iou s s t one sa ve r lo i t ,a nd h a lf t h eb ody w a sc ove red w i th aman t le .T hey s ay t h a tt h eb ody o ft h is f i gu re i s fu lo ft h es ed st h a tt h e re a r ei nt h ew o r ld ,a nd t h ey s ay t h a ti ti s th eg od o fs ed l e e t ime a nd h a rve s t ,b u t Id on o tr emembe ri t sn ame ,a nd e ve ry th ing w a sc ove red w i th b lood ,b o th w a ls a nd a l ta r , a nd t h es t ench w a ss uch t h a tw ec ou ld h a rd ly w a i tt h e l momen tt og e to u to fi t .2 l l lu D iaz d e l C a s t i lo ' sr evu l s ion f r om t h e i do ls m ay b e p a ra le led b y a n i s t ra t ion i nt h e h i s to r ica l s e c t ion o fD iego D u rän 's H i s tor ia ( F ig . 1 ) , w he re H u i tz i lopoch t l i i sl i kew ise rib d ep ic ted a sh or le , mon s t rou s ,a nd u g ly ,a nd w he re t h es e rpen t sa nd h uman s a c r if ice a r e l s t re ssed .Y e t ,h ow d ow ej u s t ify t h i sd i abo l ica li mage w i th a ne qua ly v a l id ,b u tf undamen l f t a ly d i f e ren t ,p or t raya lo fH u i tz i lopoch t l ii nt h er i tua ls e c t ion o ft h es ame s ou r ce ( F ig .2 )? I nt h er i tua l s e c t ion ,D u ran sa r t i s ts how sH u i tz i lopoch t l ii nh uman ,n o t mon s t rou s ,f o rm , l b ea r ing a na lmo s tg en t le e xp re ss ion ,a nd f o rma ly p re sen ted i nh i sa pp rop r ia te c o s tume .I t f i sc l ea r t h a t d i f e r en t a spec t s o fH u i tz i lopoch t l i a r e b e ing s t r e ssed i ne a ch c a se . I n t h e

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lu h i s to r ica li s t ra t ion ( F ig .1 ) ,w ea r es hown av i s ion o fe v i l ,w h i le i nt h er i tua lc on tex t( F ig . 2 ) ,D u rän 's a r t i s tg i ve su s av i sua ll i s to ft h ed e i ty 's a ccou t r emen t so fc o s tume . T he F ranc i scan f r ia rB e rna rd ino d eS ahagün ,i nh i se ncyc loped ia o fA z tec l i f e ,p rov ide s t a ba s ic v i sua l l i s t o f H u i tz i lopoch t l i 's p hy s ica l a t r ibu te s , a nd h i s a r t i s t s p a in ted t h e t s a t r ibu te s a st h ey w ou ld a ppea r o n d e i ty i mpe r sona to r s ( F ig . 3 ) . T hey a r e : ah eadd res f o rmed l i ke ac rown o fh e ron f e a the r sw i th ac l u s te ro fl o ng l um inou sg r een q ue tza lf e a the r s a tt h e c r e s t , e a r o rnamen t s o fL ove ly C o t inga f e a the r s , ab ack d ev ice i nt h e f o rm o f a l X iuhcoa t l ,t h eb ody p a in t ed i n bl ue s t r ipe s ,a nd t h ef a ce p a in ted i n band so fb l ue a nd y e low . f a H eh o ld sh i ss e rpen ts t af nd h i ss h ie ld o ff i ve t u f t so fe ag le f e a the r s .T he X iuhcoa t lb ack d ev ice may b e d i ff i cu l t t oi n t e rp re t f r om S ahagün ' sd raw ing ; i t is t h e h ead o ft h e F i re l S e rpen t , af a nged s e rpen tw i th al o ng u p tu rned s nou tt h a ti s edged w i th b a l so rd i s cs t h a t r ep r e sen t" n igh te ye s" o rs t a r s . Two F i r eS e rpen t s ,f o re xamp le ,f o rm t h ec i r cu la re dge o f t h eA z tec " Ca lenda rS tone ." T he f e a the r so ft h ec o t inga amab i lu s ,t h eL ove ly C o t inga ,w e re u sed b o th f o rH u i tz i lopoch t l i 's e a ro rnamen t sa nd f o rt h eb l ue c apes h ei s el sewhe re s a id t ow ea r . 'I nN ahua t l ,t h eL ove ly C o t inga i sc aled x iuh to to t l ,t u rquo i se b i rd ,a nd a cco rd ing t o t h e C odex Mendoza , t h ey w e re i mpo r ted a s t r ibu te f r om t h e Xo conochco r eg ion ; S ahagün s ay st h ey w e re o b ta ined b ym e r chan t si nT z inacan t lan .4 T h i sg roup o fe l emen t s ,a s ac l u s te r ,s e rve st oi d en t if yH u i tz i lopoch t l i ,b u tt h ee l em en t s a r en o tt h em se lve si nd iv idua ly d i agno s t ic o ft h eg od .I no the r , mo r ee l abo ra te p re sen ta t ion s l f ound i nt h e c ogna te c od ice s T e le r iano -Remen s i s a nd V a t i canu s A /R fo s , i nt h e C odex l B o rbon icu s ,i nt h ec ogna t ec od ice s Mag l iabech iano a nd T ude la ,a nd i nD u rän 's H i s tor ia , h e se a r et h e t o t he ra t r ibu te sa r ei n c lud ed i nt h ec l u s t e r st h a tc ha ra c t e r ize t h ed e i ty . 5Among t d ev ice i nt h ef o rm o f ah umm ingb i rd 's h ead w o rn e i the ra s ah e lme tc ove r ing t h eh ead ( F ig . 2 )o ra ta ched a tt h eb a ck o ft h eh ead a t th eb a se o ft h es ku l( F ig .4 ) , ac u r led g o ld f i le t ,a t l l b l a ck e ye -ma sk b o rde red i n wh i te d i sc s( t he h eaven ly e ye -ma sk a l so wo rn b yM ixcoa t l ,t h e h un t ing g od ) , t h e a nahua t l( t he w h i te s he l c he s tr i ng w rapped a tt h e t o p i nr ed l e a the r , l a lway ss en a l so o ni mage so fT ez ca t l ipoca ) , as hou lde rf a no fs ho r tb lue a nd l o ng g r een e ( que tza l )f e a the r sw h ich w ou ld r e p lace t h eX iuhcoa t lb a ck d ev ice , awh i te p ape rs a c r if i c ia l b anne rh e ld a bove t h es h ie ld ,a nd t h eX iuhcoa t lb a ton t or ep la ce t h ep l a ine rs e rpen tb a ton ( F ig s . 2 ,3 ,4 ) . I na lt h e se r ep re sen ta t ion s ,t h eh umm ingb i rd h ead d ev ice a nd t h eb lue a nd y e low f a ce l l he o t he re l emen t s p a in ta r et h eo n ly e l emen t sf ound s o le ly o nH u i tz i lopoch t l ii mage s .6 T s em t or ep re sen ta spec t so fH u i tz i lopo ch t l is ha red b yr e la ted d e i t ie s .F o re xamp le ,t h eo t he r e s o la rd e i t ie ss ha re t h ee ag le -and q ue tza l -f ea the rh eadd res h eX iuhcoa t lb a ck d ev ice ,a nd s, t t h e s e rpen tb a ton . T he a nahua t lr i ng b e long s a l so t oT ezca t l ipoca , a nd t h e e ye -ma sk t o M ixcoa t l , C amax t l i , a nd T la lhu i tzca lpan tecuh t l i ,a ld e i t ie sw ho h ave a nc ien tl i nk s w i th l H u i tz i lopoch t l i . Wi th a nu nde r s tand ing o ft h ev i sua la t r ibu te s mo s to f ten a so c ia ted w i th t s n amed r ep r e sen ta t ion so fH u i tz i lopoch t l ii n th ec od ice s ,w ea r ei n ab e te rp o s t ion t o id en t i fy t h i sP r e -Conque s ti mage . R eg re tab ly ,t h e re a r ev e ry f ew o ft h e se . t H u i tz i lopoch t l iw a sr a re ly c a rved i ns t one .I nm a rked c on t ra s tt ot h er a in g od T la loc a nd t h ew a te ra nd f e r t i l i ty g oddes sC ha lch ihu i t l icue a nd C h icomecoa t l ,w ho se s t one i do l sa nd se e ff ig ie sa r eu b iqu i tou si n Az tec a r t ,t h e re a r ea lmo s tn or ema in ing i mage so fH u i tz i lopoch t l i . T he r e p robab ly w e r e r e la t ive ly f ew i mage s c r ea ted i n t h e f i r s t p l ace , f o r h i s w a s a s pec ia l ized c u l tt h a ta f ec ted t h ee l i te mo r et h an i td id t h ec ommone r s . Mo r eove r , many o f f H u i tz i lopoch t l i 's i do l s o r i mage s w e re c r ea ted o f p e r i shab le ma te r ia l s t h a t h ave n o t s u rv ived . T he r efo re , Ih ave o n ly b een a b le t oi d en t i fy f i ve P re -Conques t d ep ic t ion s o f H u i tz i lopoch t l i .7

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T he f i r s t i so n t h e g r ea tJ agua rC uauhx ica l l i , t h a t monumen ta l c rouch ing f el ine t h a t g ree t se ve ry v i s i to rt ot h eS a la Mex ica i nt h e Mu seo N ac iona ld eA n t ropo log ia i n Mex ico C i ty . Ah o low c a rved i nt h eb ack o ft h ec o lo ssa lj agua ri sar e cep tac le f o rh uman h ea r t sa nd l b lood ,a nd t h eb o tom s u r f ace b ea r st h ec a rved f i gu re so fH u i tz i lopoch t l ia nd T ezca t l ipoca t ( F ig . 5 ) . S ea ted o ppo s i te e ach o the r ,b o th g od sd raw s a c r if ic ia lb lood f r om t h e i re a r sw i th b one a w ls ,a nd e ach h a s al e gd rawn u pw i th t h ef oo tr e p laced b yT ezca t l ipoca ' ss mok ing m ir r . Hu i tz i lopoch tl i ,o nt h er i gh t ,i si d en t i f ied b yh i sb l ack e ye -ma sk e dged w i th s ma l ro l wh i te c i r c les ,a nd h i sh eadd res h ich h a st h ee ag le a nd q ue tza lf e a the r s ,t h ec u r led t op o f s, w t h eg o ld f i le t ,a nd mo s ti mpo r tan t ly , t h eh umm ingb i rd h ead a tt h eb ack o ft h e s ku l . H i s l l p re sence h ere r e f e r st ot h eb lood s a c r if ice b yt h eg od si nc r ea t ing t h ec o smo s ,a ne ven tt h a t w a sh e ld a sa ne xamp le t ob ef o lowed b yt h e Mex ica .8 l T he s ame a s soc ia t ion w i th a u to sac r if ice c ha rac te r ize s Hu i tz i lopoch t l i 's man if e s ta t ion o nt h eT eoca l l id el aG uer ra S ag rada ( l i te ra l ly ,t h eT emp le o ft h eS acred Wa r ) ,w he r eh ea nd T ezca t l ipoca f l ank t h e s o la r d i sc ( F ig . 6 ) . B o th d e i t ie s a ppea r i n t h e g u i se o f h uman i mpe r sona to r s , t h e T ezca t l ipoca i mpe r sona to r b e ing s pec if ica l ly i d en t if i ed a s Mo te c uhzoma I . Hu i tz i lopoch t l ii sc l ea r ly i d en t if i ed o nt h el e f tb yh i sh umm ingb i rd h e lme t ,h i s l o s tf oo t wh ich i sr ep laced b yh i sX iuhcoa t l ,a nd l e ss d i s t inc t ly ,b yh i se ye m a sk . 9A c a rved f emu rf ound i nt h e Me t ro e xcava t ion si nt h e1 960 sa l so s how sH u i tz i lopoch tl if a c ing ar u le r / d e i ty imper sona to re ngaged i nb lood le t t ing ,t h er u le rb e ing n amed a sA hu i tzo t 1 . 1°A ga in , s, a Hu i tz i lopoch t l ii s di s t ingu ished b yh i sh umm ingb i rd h e lme t ,h i sh eadd res nd t h eb l ack e ye -ma sk . t sa H u i tz i lopoch t l ia t r ibu te sa l so a ppea ro nt h ef amou sS tone o fT izoc ,t h ec o los lb a sa l t d i sc t h a tp resen t so ni t ss i des t h ec l a imed v i c to r ie so ft h er u le rT izoc ,b u th e re i ti s th ew a r d e i ty a nd n o tt h es a cr if ic ing g od t h a ti sp re sen ted .I nt h ef i r s ts c ene o fc onque s ta nd v i c to ry rio s, h ( F ig .7 ) ,T izoc i s co s tumed a s aT o l tec -s ty le w ar rb u tw i th t h eh eadd res umm ingb i rd h e lme t , a nd b lack e ye -ma sk o fH u i tz i lopoch t l ia nd w i th o ne f oo tr ep laced b y av o lu te o f s moke . I n t h e t r ad i t iona l g es tu re o f c onque s t , h e g r a sps t h e d e i ty i mpe r sona to r o f t h e d ef ea ted t own b yt h eh a i r .T izoc i st hus v i c to r iou so ve re nemy g roups ,a nd i n ame taphor ic s en se , Hu i tz i lopoch t l i , g od o fw a r ,i sv i c to r iou so ve rr i va ld e i t ies . A fi na lc arv ing , at i ny j ade f i gu re i nt h e Mus & d el 'Homme ,P a r is ,p robab ly r ep re sen t s Hu i tz i lopoch t l i ,a nd i fs o ,i twou ld b et h eo n ly i do lo fh im t h a th a ss u rv ived .T he f i gu re h a s g ene ra ly b een i d en t if ied a sT ezca t l ipoca ,p r inc ipa ly o nt h eb a s i so ft h ea nahua t lr i ng a nd l l t h em is e f tf oo t , wh ich i s rep laced b yt h eh ead o f as e rpen t ." B u ts e rpen tf e ta nd t h e sing l e a nahua t la r ea l so f ound o n Hu i tz i lopoch t l ii mage s( j e .F ig s .4 -8 ) ,a nd o nt h ef i gur e 's b ack i sa long b eaked b i rd h ead , s u re ly a h umm ingb i rd t h a t wou ld i d en t ify t h e f i gu r e a s Hu i tz i lopoch t l i .L ike H u i tz i lopoch t l ii nt h eC odex B o rbon icu s( F ig .4 ) ,i n Du rän ' sH i s tor ia ( F ig .2 ) ,a nd o nt h eT izoc S tone ( F ig .7 ) ,h ec ar s as h ie ld t o pped b y as a c r if ic ia lb anne r . rie I na l t h e se P re -Conque s tr ep re sen ta t ion s ,t h ea ccou t remen t so fH u i tz i lopoch t l iv a ry , l s em ing ly i n a cco rdance w i th d i f e ren t a spec t s o ft h e d e i ty , a nd o n ly h i s h umm ingb i rd e f h e lme ta nd f a ce p a in t ing c an ,b yt h em se lve s ,s pec ify t h eg od .O nt h eJ agua rC uauhx ica l i , l t h eT eoca l i , a nd A hu i tzo t l ' sB one , h e a ppea r sa c t ive ly a nd i nh uman f o rm i nt h er i te o f l a u to sacr i f ice .O nt h eS tone o fT izoc h i sc o s tume ,t h ec o s tume o ft h ew a rg od ,g i ve sd iv ine s t reng th t oT izoc .I nt h el i t le j ade f i gu re ,h i sa ccou t remen t sf o rm t h ep a ss ive t e ix ip t la o fh i s t c u l t . T he p i c to r ia l manuscr ip t s s how s t i lo the ra spec t so fH u i tz i lopoch t l i . C ons ide r ing t h e l n umbe r a nd v a r ia t ion o f d e i t ie s i n t h e p i c to r ia l c od ice s , o ne w ou ld e xpec t t o f i nd H u i tz i lopoch t l i w e l r ep r e sen ted t oo . B u t , a s i n t h e P re -Conques t s t one s cu lp tu r es , h e l

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a ppea r sl e s sf r equen t ly t h an o t he r ,l e s si mpo r tan t ,d e i t ie sa nd t h en o n ly i nc e r ta in c on tex t s . H u i tz i lopo ch t l ii sn o to ne o ft h ep a t ron so ft h ed ay so ro ft h er i tua lw eek si nt h es a c red 2 60 d ay c a lenda r , n o r i sh e o ne o ft h e n i ne l o rd s o ft h e n i gh t ; t h u s h e i sn o tp i c tu red i nt h e t o na lama t l so rs a c red a lmana cs w he re mo s to ft h eo t he rd e i ty i mage sa r ef ound .H ei sp a t ron o ft h e mon th ly f e a s to fP anque tza l iz t l ii nt h ee i gh t een -mon th s o la rc a lenda ra nd s ome t ime s i sd ep i c ted i nt h a tc on tex t . H e a ppea r s i nt h e m ig ra t ion h i s to r ie s b u t n o t i nt h e i mpe r ia l 2 h is t o r ie s.1 I nt h em ig ra t ion h i s to r ie s ,H u i tz i lopo ch t l it a ke sa na c t ive p a r ti n th ea fa i r so ft h e Mex ica f t r ibe d u r ing t h em ig ra t ion f r om t h e i r my th ica lh ome land o fA z t lan t oT enoch t i t lan i nt h e V a ley o f Mex ico .I nt h e se p i c to r ia lh i s to r ie sh i sp r e sence i sman i f e s t mo s to f ten a s as a c red l b und le ( t laqu im i lo l i )c on ta in ing t h ei mage a nd i n s ign ia o fh i sc u l t ;i nt h eC odex B o tu r in i l t h ei mage i s id en t if ied b y ap rof i le h ead w i th ab i rd h e lme t( F ig . 9 ) , a nd i nt h em ig ra t ion s e c t ion o ft h eC odex A zca t i t lan i ti s cha ra c te r ized b yt h ec omb ina t ion o f ah umm ingb i rd h ead a nd as e rpen tt a i l . H u i tz i lopoch t l ia ppea r sf i ve t ime si nt h eB o tu r in ia nd 2 1 t ime si n 3 A lo ft h eB o tu r in ii mage sa nd mo s to ft h eA zca t i t lan o ne sa r e t h eA zca t i t lan m ig ra t ion .1 l o fh i s s a c red b und le , w h ich i s ei the rc a r ied b y t e omama so rg od b ea r e r s ( g los nt h e r s ed i A z ca t i t lan a s" mex ica t l a t lamaca zque ," Mex ica p r ie s t s )o r ,w hen t h e Mex ica p au se o nt h e i r m ig r a t ion ,p l a ced i n at emp le f r om w he re H u i tz i lopoch t l is em st oo ve r see t h ep rog r es f e s o t h ej ou rney . I nt h eC odex A zca t i t lan ,H u i tz i lopo ch t l ia sume sh uman g u i se a t spec if i cc r uc ia lp l a ce s s d u r ing t h em ig ra t ion . H e a ppea r s a s af u l -f igu red man i nh umm ingb i rd c o s tume f i r s t a t l A z t lan ( t he my th ica lh ome land ) ,t h en a tC h icomor toc ( P lace o fS even C ave s ,a no the rp o in t o fo r ig in ) , a nd t h en a ga in a tC oa tepec ( Se rpen tH i l ,t h el o ca t ion o fh i sm i ra cu lou sb i r th ) . l L a te rh ef i gh t sa l ong s i de t h eA z tec w ar r sa tT zompango ( P la ce o ft h eS ku lR a ck ) ,w he re rio l h eb r and i she sh i sX iuhcoa t lw eapon .' H u i tz i lopoch t l ii nh uman f o rm a l so a ppea r si nt h e m ig r a t ion h i s to ry i nt h e C odex T e le r iano -Remen s i s a nd c ogna t e C odex V a t icanu s A l l 5 b u t i n b o th manu scr ip t s t h e t r iba l p a t ron i si d en t i f ied a tt h e b eg inn ing o f t h e R fo s ,1 m ig r a t ion n o tb yh i sh umm ingb i rd c o s tume b u tb yh i ss t r iped f a ce a nd b l ue b ody p a in t ;h e h o ld sh i ss t anda rd s h ie ld w i th f i ve f e a the rt u f t s ,p lu st wo s pea r sa nd t h eh un t ing b ag o ft h e n omad . T hu si nt h em ig ra t ion h i s to r ie s , Hu i tz i lopoch t l i ' sp r e sence a l ong t h ej ou rney i sman i f es t b o th t h rough h i si do lo rs a c red b und le a nd t h rough h i sa ppea rance a s ah uman i nh i sg od ly a t i re .H i sb und le s em st og u ide a nd o ve r see t h em ig ra t ion ,b u tw hen c i rcum s tance ss em t e e t oc al f o r mo re d i rec ts uppo r t ,h ea ppea r si nf u lf i gu re w i th t h es h ie ld a nd s pea r so ft h e l w ar r .A lmo s ta lway sh ei sd ep ic ted i n th eg u i se o f ah umm ingb i rd ,w i thou ta ne l abo ra t ion rio o fo t he ra ccou t remen t s . A sp a t ron o ft h ef i f teen th mon th ly f e a s t ,P anque tza l iz t l i ,H u i tz i lopoch t l ii sd ep ic ted i n t h ec od ice si n ve ry d i f e ren tf o rm s . Mo s tp i c to r ia ls ou r ce sr ep re sen tP anque tza l iz t l i ,w h ich f m ean s " The R a i s ing o f B anne r s ," s imp ly b y p r e sen t ing as a c r if i c ia l b anne r , a l though S ahagün 's P r ime ro s Memo r ia le ss how ss a c r if ic ia lv i c t im sa do rned w i th H u i tz i lopoch t l i 's re i mpo r tan t ly t ot h i sa r gumen t ,h oweve r , t h ec od ice s b l ue b ody p a in ta nd c o s tume . i 6Mo p i c tu r e a nd d esc r ibe t h e d ough i mage o ft h e g od , w h ich w a s mode led , a do rned , c a r ied r p roces ly a r ound t h ec i ty ,a nd f i na ly r a i sed u pt ot h et emp le d u r ing t h ef e a s t . siona l l T h i sc e remon ia lc u l ti mage o fH u i tz i lopo ch t l iw a sf o rmed o ft z oa l i , ad ough made f r om l g round a ma ran th s ed sm ixed u sua ly w i th s wee tm aguey s y rup . Ama ran th ,c a led h ua t l i e l l i nN ahua t l ,w a so ne t h et h ep r inc ipa lf ood s t ap le si nt h eL a te P o s t -C las e r iod ,w hen t h e sic p A z tec sr e ce ived i nt r ibu t ea s much a ma ran th a st h ey d id c o rn .T he c rop i sl e sf am i l ia rn ow , s

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e l a l though f i e ld so fa ma ran th c an b es en i n Mex ico e spec ia ly a r ound C a cax t la .T he g r a in a ma ran th i s af a s t -g row ing c e rea l l ike p l an tt h a tp roduce s h i gh p ro te in g r a in si n al a rge e s o rghum l ike s ed h ead .O rnamen ta lv a r ie t ie sa r ec e lo s ia a nd c ock scomb ,a nd i nt h es ame a ma ran thu sf am i ly a r ep igweed a nd t umb leweed? O ne p a r t icu la rk ind ,m ich ihua t l i ,w h ich e m ean s" f i sh a ma ran th ," s on amed b ecau se i t ss ed sa r el i ke f i sh r oe ,w a sr e se rved b yt h e l A z tecs f o rt h et z oa l id ough ." l lt T h i s s pec ia ld ough , t z oa l i , w a s t h em a te r ia lu sed f o ra lmo s ta h eA z tec p e r i shab le l i do l s— the c u l ti mage s made f o r as pec if i cf e a s to rc e remony —and t h eN ahua t l wo rd t z oa l i l c ame e ven t om ean t h e" bone so ft h eg od s ." H u i tz i lopo ch t l i 's i mage w a sf o rmed o ft z oa l i f o rt h ef e a s t so fP anque tza l iz t l ia nd ,a cco rd ing t oS ahagün ,o fT oxca t l .D u r ing o t he rf e a s t s , l l t t h ei mage so ft h eh i l s ,c aled T ep ic to ton ,w h ich l i t e ra ly m ean s" t he l i t le mo lded o ne s ," l w e re made o ft z oa l i ,a sw e re t h eT la loque so rr a in g od s ,t h ew ind f i gu re s ,t h o se w ho d i ed se l i nw a te r , a nd c e r ta in g oddes s . At z oa l ii mage o ft h ef i r eg od X iuh t ecuh t l is a ta t op t h e t l f x oco t /p o le i no ne c e remony ,l i t le c oyo te h ead so ft z oa l iw e re g i ven a sa no f e r ing d u r ing 9T zoa l iw a ss ol i nked w i th l l a no the rf e a s t ,a nd t z oa l iw a se a ten d u r ing many o t he rf e s t iva l s .1 A z tec r e l ig iou sc e remon ie sa nd i do la t ry t h a ta f te rt h ec onque s tt h eS pan ia rd sf o rbade t h e c u l t iva t ion o fa ma ran th . B u tt h ee d ic tw a si g no red ,e spec ialy i nt h er u ra la r ea s . R u iz d e A la rcön s a id t h a tt h eI nd ian sw e re s t i lg r ind ing a ma ran th a nd mak ing t z oa l ii d o l si nt h e l l s even teen th c en tu ry . Ap r e sen td ay s u rv iva li n Mex ico i sa l egr i a , ay elow i sh -b rown c ake o ft o a s ted a ma ran th s ed s m ixed w i th h oney o r s uga r , w h ich i ss ome t ime s f o rmed i n to e i mage sa nd i ss o ld a s as wee tb ys t ree tv endo r sa t fa i r s ,a l ong p i lg r image s ,a nd i nf r on to f ° T hu s ,e ven t o day ,a ma ran th s ed c ake sa nd i mage sa r ea soc ia ted c hu r che so nh o ly d ay s .2 e s w i th f e s t iva l sa nd r i tua lo cca s ion s . R e tu rn ing t ot h e f e a s t o fP anque tza l iz tl i , t h e c h ron ic le r s S ahagün , D u rän , a nd t h e i r f o lowe r sr e co rd t h a t ,t h en i gh tb e fo re t h ef e a s t ,t h ep r ie s t so fH u i tz i lopo ch tl iw en tt ot h e l b ar emp le o fH u i tznahuac ,w he r et h ey g round t h er oa s ted s ed so fm ich ihua t l i ,t h ef i sh rio t e a ma ran th ,a nd m ixed t h i sf l ou rw i th m aguey s y rup ,a cco rd ing t oD u rän , a nd w i th h uman b lood , a cco rd ing t oT o rquemada . T he r e su l tan tt z oa l i d ough t h ep r ie s t s mode led o n a n l a rma tu r eo fm e squ i te wood t of o rm t h eh uman b ody o fH u i tz i lopoch t l i , s l igh t ly o ve rl i f e s i ze .T hey p l a ced h im o n aw ooden s e rpen tb ench o rl i t e r . T h e f o l ow i n g d a y t h e y r a c e d t h e t l i mage o n ap r e sc r ibed r ou te a r ound t h ec i ty i n ap ro ces a led I pa ina Hu i t z i lopoch t l i , sion c l " t he h a s te o rs w i f tnes fH u i tz i lopo ch t l i ," w i th b anne r s s e tu p a l ong t h ew ay . T hen t h e s o p ro ces nded w hen t h ey p l a ced t h e t z oa l i i mage i nH u i tz i lopoch t l i 's t emp le , a f te r sion e l w h ich y oung m en a nd w omen p i led h uman b one sf o rm ed a l so o ft z oa l ia r ound t h ef e to f l e 1 t h ei d o l . L a te rt h et z oa l ii d o lw a sb roken a pa r t ,d i s tr ibu ted ,a nd e a ten .2 l S ahagün s ay st h ey d r es h et z oa l ii d o li n as l eeve les a cke t( x ico / i )p a in t ed w i th s ed t l s j / s ku l so rs eve red h ead sa nd b one s ,i n a b r eechc lou t ,i nH u i tz i lopoch t l i ' su sua lh umm ingb i rd l h e lme ta nd h e ron -and q ue tza l -f ea the red h eadd res nd i n ab l ack c ape o fn e t le sd eco ra ted s, a t w i th t u f t s o fe ag le d own . T he f a ce w a s p a in ted w i th b l ue s t r ipe s , a nd t h e i d o l w a s t h en c ove red w i th a no the rc ape p a in ted w i th d e s ign so f" s eve red h ead s ,t h ep a lm so fh and s ,h i p b one s ,r i b s ,t i b ia s ,l owe ra rm b one s ,a nd f oo tp r in t s" ( F ig . 1 0 ) .' D u rän d e sc r ibe st h et z oa l ii d o ls l igh t ly d i f e r en t ly ,a nd Ib e l ieve D u rän t ook h i sv e rba l l f d e sc r ip t ion l a rge ly f r om t h ep a in t ing t h a ta ccompan ie st h i sd e scr ip t ion i nh i sH i s tor ia ( o r f r om ap ro to type o ft h ep a in t ing )( F ig .2 ) ,a so ppo sed t oS ahagün w ho i nt h i si n s tance h ad 3 D u rän ' sp a in t ing a nd d e sc r ip t ion f e a tu r e t h ed raw ing sa dded m e re ly t oi s t ra te h i st e x t .2 lu t h ew ooden l i te rb o rne o ns e rpen t -headed p o le s ,H u i tz i lopo ch t l i ' sf a ce p a in t ,h i sh umm ing t b i rd h e lme ta nd e ag le -f ea the red h eadd r es h es a c r if ic ia lb anne r s ,t h es h ie ld a nd d a r t s ,a nd s, t

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f ( f t h e s e rpen t s t af t he X iuhcoa t l s t a f ) . R a the r t h an ag a rm en t p a in ted w i th b ody p a r t s , D u rän 's d ough i mage o fH u i tz i lopo ch tl ii sd raped w i th a n a p ron o fr i ch g r een f e a the r s a do rned w i th g o ld . V a r ian tp a in t ing s o fH u i tz i lopoch t l i 's d ough i mage s e rve t os ymbo l ize t h e mon th o f P anque tza l iz t l i i n t h e p i c to r ia l manu sc r ip t s o f t h e Mag l iabech iano G roup : t h e C odex 4 I nt h e se c ogna te s ,o ne Mag l iabech iano ,C odex T ude la ( F ig . 1 ) ,a nd C odex I x t l i lxoch i t 1 .2 c an t e lt h a tt h eP anque tza l iz t l ip a in t ing sa r ed ep ic t ing H u i tz i lopoch t l i 's t z oa l ii do la nd n o t l l h i sd e i ty i mpe r sona to rb ecau se t h ei mage l a ck s al owe rb ody ;a lt h eo t he rd i e ty i mage si n l t h e se manu sc r ip t sh ave l e g s a nd f e t . F ea tu r ed o nt h ed ough f i gu re a r eH u i tz i lopo ch t l i 's e h eadd res h ie ld a nd s pea r s , s a c r i f ic ia l b anne r , f a ce p a in t ing , a nd t h e a nahua t l r i ng s, s a soc ia ted a l so w i th T ez ca t l ipo ca .I nt h eT ude la ( F ig . 1 ) a nd I x t l i lxoch i t l ,b u tn o ti nt h e s Mag l iabech iano ,t h ei d o li ss hown w i th a ne a ro rnamen ti n th ef o rm o f as e rpen th ead ,w h ich w a sm en t ioned b u tn o tp i c tu red b yS ahagün . I nt h ep i c to r ia lc od ice s ,t h en ,H u i tz i lopoch t l ii sman i f e s ta s ah uman ,a s as a c r ed b und le , l l a nd a s at z oa l ii mage .T he g od o rt e o t lo fH u i tz i lopoch t l ia ppea r sa n th ropomo rph ica ly i n rio t h r ee c on tex t s : a )w hen h ei sn eeded i nt h em ig r a t ion h i s to r ie s a s aw ar r ,b )w hen t h e c h ron ic le r s , s uch a s S ahagün , p re sen th im a st h ec h ief d e i ty o ft h e A z tec p an theon a nd t d e sc r ibe h i sv i sua l a t r ibu t e s , a nd c )w hen h i sd e i ty i mpe r sona to ri ss hown p a r t ic ipa t ing a c t ive ly i n ar i tua l ,a si nS ahagün 's P r ime ro s Memo r ia les a nd i nt h eC odex B o rbon i cu s ." H u i tz i lopoch t l ii sv i sua ly a bb rev ia ted a s as a c r ed b und le i nt h em ig ra t ion h i s to r ie s ,w he re l t h e b und le , u sua ly i d en t if ied b y h i s h umm ingb i rd d i sgu i se , c ha rac te r ize s mo s t o f h i s l i n f requen t a ppea rance s . H i s t h i rd c o rpo r ea l i ty —a s at z oa l i f i gu re — i s p a in ted i n t h e l p i c to r ia l st h a ti n c lude as e c t ion o nt h ee i gh teen mon th ly f e a s t s ,a nd t h e r et h ed ough i mage 6 s e r ve st os ymbo l ize t h ef e a s to fP anque tza l iz t l i .2 I na dd i t ion t o th eP re -Conque s ts t one s cu lp tu re so f Hu i tz i lopoch t l ia nd t h ee a r ly c o lon ia l p a in t ing so fh im i nt h en a t ive -s ty le c od ice s ,t h e g od 's p hy s ica l i mage i s revea led b yt h e d e sc r ip t ion so fh i si do lo rs t a tue t h a tw a sh ou sed i nt h es ou the rn o ft h et w in s h r ine so ft h e T emp lo Mayo r . S ince m any c h ron ic le r sd e sc r ibe H u i tz i lopoch t l i 's i do lt h e re ,i tc ome sa s s ome th ing o f a su rp r i se t o d i scove r t h a t t h e d e sc r ip t ion s f a l b a s ica ly i n to o n ly t wo l l t r ad i t ion so rf am i l ie s : o ne a soc ia ted w i th D iego D u rän a nd t h eo the ra soc ia ted w i th t h e s s c onque ro r sH e rnando C o r t6 s ,A nd r6 sd eT ap ia ,a nd B er na lD i az d e lC a s t i lo .D u r än ,w ho l s ay st h a th ei s re ly ing o ni n fo rm an t sf o rt h i si n fo rma t ion ,d es c r ibe sH u i tz i lopo ch t l ia s" a w ooden s t a tue c a rved i n th ei mage o f aman s e a ted u pon ab l ue w ooden b ench i nt h ef a sh ion 7 H i sr e co rd o fH u i tz i lopoch t l i 's s t a tue i sa ne l abo ra te v e r s ion o fh i sd e sc r ip t ion o f al i te r ."2 t o ft h eg od 's t z oa l i f o rm . When D u rän 's a r t i s tp a in ted H u i tz i lopoch t l i s ea ted i nt h e t w in l t emp le ,h e ,t oo ,e sen t ia ly c op ied h i sp a in t ing o ft h e go d 's t z oa l if o rm ( s ee F ig .2 ) ;t h ea r t i s t s l l a bb rev ia ted t h ee l emen t s ,b u th ea ga in f e a tu red t h eh umm ingb i rd h e lme tw i th ag o ld b eak , t h eq ue tza lh eadd res h eu ndu la t ing s e rpen ts t af h ef e a the red a p ron a do rned w i th g o ld , s, t f, t 8 D u rän 's t e x t a nd i s t r a t ion s w e r e c op ied i np a r t b y a nd t h e s h ie ld , d a r t s , a nd b anne r .2 lu D u rän ' sk in sman ,t h eJ e su i tJ uan d eT ova r ,w ho se o wn R e lac iön d el o si nd io sw a st h en u sed b yt h ef e low J e su i tJ o sé d eA co s ta .T hu s ,a l though D u rän 's a nd T ova r ' s manu sc r ip t sw e r e l n o tp ub l i shed u n t i lt h en i ne teen th c en tu ry ,t h eb a s i cD u rän d e sc r ip t ion c ame t ob ek nown 9 a se a r ly a s 1 590 w hen A co s ta p ub l i shed h i sH i s tor ia n a tura l ym ora ld el o sy nd io s .2

T he s e cond g roup o fd e sc r ip t ion sb e long st ot h ec onqu i s tado re s :p r inc ipa ly H e rnando l C o r t6 s a nd A nd r 6 s d e T ap ia , w ho se v e r s ion s w e re m ing led a nd a mp l if ied b y C o r ts 's s e c r e ta ry F ranc i sco L opez d e G öma ra . L opez d e G öma ra ' sd e sc r ip t ion , i n c luded i nh i s i nf luen t ia lH i s tor ia d el ac onqu i s ta d e Mex ico o f1 552 ,t h en s em st oh ave i nf luenced o r e

5 7

f o rmed t h eb a s i sf o rt h ea ccoun t so ft h eH u i tz i lopoch t l ii do li nt h eT emp lo Mayo rg i ven b y t h e" Anonymous C onque ro r" o f1 556 ,B a r to lom6 d eL a sC a sa sp ub l i sh ing i n1 559 ,A n ton io d eH er re ra ( t h rough t h eC rön ica o fF ranc i sco C e rvan te sd eS a laza r )o f1 601 -16 15 ,J uan d e T o rquemada o f1 615 ,a nd e ven t h ec onqu is tado rB e rna lD iaz d e lC a s t i l lo ,w ho se H i s tor ia h i st r ad i t ion b egan w i th v erdadera w a sf i n i shed i n1 568 b u tn o tp ub l i shed u n t i l 1 632 . 3°T C o r t6 s who s ays t h a tt h ei do l s ,e xceed ing i ns i ze t h eb ody o f al a rge man ,w e r ef o rmed o f as eed d ough ( t zoa l i ) m ixed w i th t h eh ea r t 's b lood o fh uman b e ing s . T ap ia e xpand st h i s l g rea t ly a nd d i s t ingu i she sb e tween t h et z oa l ii do lo ft h ep r inc ipa lg od ,w h ich w a sa do rned l w i th g o ld j ewe l ry a nd w rapped i nt h in man t le sa s as a c red b und le ,a nd t wo o t he ri do l so f s t one . T hese l a rge s t one s t a tue s w e re : " nea r ly t h e h e igh t o ft h ree mea su r ing r od s [ c . 3 me te r s ] ,a nd t h eg i r th o fa no x .T hey w e re o fp o l i shed g ran i te c ove red w i th mo the r -of -pea r l . O ve rt h is t h ey u sed ag l ue i nt h ef o rm o f ap a s te t oi n crus tg o ld o rnamen ta t ion ,a nd d e s ign s o f men ,s e rpen t s ,b i rd s ,a nd o the rf i gu re s made o fl a rge a nd s ma lt u rquo ise s , eme ra ld s ,a nd l ame thys t s ,s ot h a ta lo ft h e mo the r -of -pea r lw a sc ove red e xcep ti ns ome p lace sw he re t h ey l l e f t i t to make ad e s ign w i th t h e s t one s . T he se i do l s w o re t h ick g o ld s e rpen t s , a nd f o r n eck lace s s ome t e no rt we lve h uman h ea r t s made o fg o ld . F o rf a ce st h ey h ad g o ld ma sk s w i th m ir re ye s ,a nd a tt h en ape o ft h en eck h ung a no the rf a ce l i ke ah uman h ead w i thou t ro f l e sh ." 3 ria L sive g 1 J o rge Gur acro ix h a sa rgued t h a tt h e se mas ran i te i do l se x i s tt oday a st h e C oa t l icue ( She o ft h eS e rpen tS k ir t )a nd t h eY o lo tl i cue ( She o ft h eH ea r tS k i r t ) ,w h ich a r e l a bou tt h er i gh ts i ze a nd ma ter ia l ,h ave n eck lace so fh ea r t sa nd h and sa nd as ku lp endan ta t t h ef r on ta nd b ack ,a nd a r eg i rded i ns e rpen tb e l t s .T he i d ea i sa ni n te res t ing o ne b u t mu s t u l t ima te ly b ea bandoned b ecau se t h ei c onog raphy o ft h eC oa t l icue a nd Yo lo t l icue s cu lp t u re si so therw ise w rong f o r Hu i tz i lopoch t l i( e .g . ,b o th s t a tues h ave f ema le b r ea s t sa nd h ave t w in b lood s e rpen t sr ep lac ing t h e i rs eve red h ead s ) .I na dd i t ion ,t h er ema in so fa tl e a s tt h r ee C oa t l icue l ike s t a tue se x i s t ,w h ich i nd ica te st h eC oa t l icue i s pa r to f al a rge rs e r ie s .3 2 T ap ia 's a ccoun to ft h ei do ls o ft h eT emp lo Mayo rw a sc op ied b yL öpez d eG öma ra ,w ho s a s ign st h e se t wo l a rge s t one s t a tue st oH u i tz i lopoch t l ia nd T ezcad ipoca a nd ma in ta in st h e d ough i do l a s as epa ra te i mage . A l though t h e " Anonymous C onque ro r" s ays o n ly t h a t Hu i tz i lopoch t l i 's i do l w a so fd ough ,J uan d eT o rquemada c onf la tes L opez d e G öma ra 's v a r iou si do ls a nd s ays t h a tH u i tz i lopoch t l i w a s b o th o fd ough a nd o fs t one . B e rna l D i az l s a g rees g enera ly w i th L opez d eG öma ra o nt h ree i mage sa nd o na s ign ing t h et wo s t one o ne s l t oH u i tz i lopoch tl ia nd T ezca t l ipoca ,b u th er e co rd sn eck la ces o fg o ld s ku l sa nd s i lve rh ea r t s f a nd d e sc r ibe so the ro ft h e or namen t sd i f e ren t ly .H ea l so s ay st h a tt h ed ough i do lw a sh a lf l h uman a nd h a lf l i za rd a nd c a l si tt h eg od o fh a rve s t . T hus t h ev i sua li mage o fH u i tz i lopoch t l i 's i do lb ecame mu rky w i th c on f l ic t ing d e ta i l s . T he s i tua t ion i sf u r the rc omp l ica ted b ecause C o r t6 s ,T ap ia ,L öpez d e Göma ra ,a nd D iaz d e l C a s t i lo a r en o ta c tua ly d e s r ib ing t h ei do l si n s ide t h eT emp lo Mayo ra tT enoch t i t lan ,b u t l l a r er e coun t ing C o r t6 s 's a nd Mo tecuhzoma 's t ou ro ft h e s h r ine a tT la l te lo lco ,n ex tt ot h e g rea t ma rke tp lace .T he re ,H u i tz i lopoch t l im ay h ave s ha red t h et w in t emp le sw i th T ezca t l i poca , wh i le i n T enoch t i t lan p rope r , h e w a s wo r sh ipped a l ong s ide T la loc . S ince t h e c onqu i s tado re sa r ed e sc r ib ing t h ei do ls a tT la te lo lco ,a nd s i nce t h ey a ls em t ob ec opy ing l e o rr e ly ing o no ne a no the rt os ome e x ten t ,w ec anno ts ay t h a tt h e i rd e sc r ip t ion sa r e mo re v a l id t h an Du rän 's . O ne c an a sume ,h oweve r ,t h a tt h e re w a s at z oa l ii mage o fH u i tz i lopoch t l i s l i nt h es h r ine ,w i th g o ld o rnamen t sa nd c ove red w i th p rec ious f e a the r sa nd f i ne man t le s ,a s w e la s amo re p e rmanen ti mage e nc ru s ted w i th mo ther o fp ea r l ,g o ld ,a nd p r ec ious s t one s . l J u s ta st h e re w e re t wo m a jo rg roup so fd e sc r ip t ion so fH u i tz i lopoch t l i ' si do l ,t h e re a r o se a f te rt h ec onque s tt wo t r ad i t ion so fp or t ray ing H u i tz i lopo ch t l iv i sua ly .O ne v i sua lt r ad i t ion l s t em sf r om t h eD u rän -Aco s ta g roup o fw r i ten d escr ip t ion sa nd p o r t rays H u i tz i lopoch t l ii n t 5 8

sica e s t e rm so f aC las l ,p agan d e i ty .T he o t he rs em st ob e mo r ec l o se ly a so c ia ted w i th t h e e a ccoun t so ft h ec onqu i s tado re sa nd s e s t h eA z tec g od a s ad emon ic o rd i abo l ica lf o r ce . T he se t r ad i t ion sb e long n o tt ot h eA z tec o re a r ly C o lon ia l Mex ican wo r ld sb u tt oE u rope f a f te r t h e m id -s ix teen th c en tu ry , a nd t h ey r ep r e sen t d i f e r en t w ay s H u i tz i lopoch t l i w a s v i ewed b yE u ropean w r i te r sa nd a r t i s t s .A f te rt h ec onque s tH u i tz i lopoch t l ic ea sed t ob eo f much v i sua li n t e r e s tf o r Mex ican s ,w ho w e r ei n ten to ne s tab l i sh ing t h en ew o rde r ,b u tt h e A z tec g od w a s af a vo r i te s ub jec to fE u ropean s ty le e ng rav ing sc r ea ted b yE u ropean t r a ined lu a r t i s t st oi s t ra te t h ev a r iou sc h ron ic le s . sic l T he C las i s ing v i ew o fH u i tz i lopoch t l i may h ave b een f i r s t man if e s ted v i sua ly b y D iego d eV a lad6 s ,w ho ,i nh i sR he tor ica c hr i s t iana o f1 579 ,g ave Hu i tz i lopoch t l i aq ua s i sic R oman t y pe o fc o s tume w i th as l igh t ly e xo t ic E a s te rn f l avo r ." T he C las i s ing t r ad i t ion , h oweve r , g a ined i mpe tu s s ho r t ly t h e rea f te r , i n 1 602 , w hen t h e G e rman e ng rave r a nd s ued J p ub l i she r T heodo re d e B ry r e is uan d e A co s ta 's H i s tor ia n a tura l ym ora l d e l a s I nd ias .D eB ry i n c luded A co s ta 's H i s tor ia i np a r tn i ne o fd eB ry 's monumen ta l s e r ie so f g r ea tv oyage s o fd i scove ry , t h e " Ame r icae" o r" G rande sv oyage s" s e r ie s , a1 4 -vo lume lu c omp i la t ion p ub l i shed b e tween 1 591 a nd 1 634 ; t h e s e r ie sw a sc op iou s ly i s t ra ted w i th sion o c oppe r p l a te e ng rav ing s , w h ich p rov ided E u rope w i th i t s f i r s tv i sua l i mp r es ft h e f 4 F ou r teen Ame r ica s a nd e f ec t ive ly e s tab l ished t h e i c onog raphy o f t h e N ew Wo r ld .3 lu e ng rav ing s ,o ne f e a tu r ing H u i tz i lopo ch t l i ,i s t ra ted A co s ta 's h i s to ry ( F ig . 1 2 ) .A sp rev i o u s ly m en t ioned , A co s ta d e r ived h i sd e sc r ip t ion o ft h ei do lo fH u i tz i lopoch t l iu l t ima te ly f r om D iego D u rän 's H i s tor ia , t h rough t h ef i l te ro fJ uan d eT ova r , s ot h a tA co s ta 's t e x t , lu s w h ich d eB ry w a si s t ra t ing ,e sen t ialy a g r ee sw i th D u rän ' sp a in t ing o fH u i tz i lopoch tl i . t D e B ry p re sen t s H u i tz i lopo ch t l i a mong h i s p r ie s t s , s e a ted o n h i s l i te r ( wh ich i sh e r e a t h rone l ike s t ruc tu re )a nd h o ld ing t h ef ou rs pea r s ,h i ss h ie ld d eco ra ted w i th t h ef i ve f e a the r s , s c a nd h i s b anne r . T he h eadd r es ome s f r om H u i tz i lopoch t l i 's o wn , b u t t h e p ec to ra l i s i n ven ted .L ack ing a r et h eh umm ingb i rd h e lme ta nd t h ef e a the red a p ron f e a tu red b yD u rän . lu T h i s A co s ta t r ad i t ion i sc on t inued i nt h e e ng rav ing s t ot h e f i r s ti s t ra ted e d i t ion o f A n ton io d eS o l i s ' sH i s tor ia d el a conqu i s ta d e tWx ico ,t r an s la ted i n to F r ench a nd p ub l i shed i nP a r i si n1 691 ( F ig . 1 3 ) .S o l i s 's H i s to r ia w a st h es t anda rd s ou r ce f o rt h ec onque s ta nd f o r A z te c c u l tu re f r om 1 684 , w hen i t fi r s t a ppea red , t o 1 780 , w hen i t wa s s upe r seded b y F ranc i s co J av ie rC lav i je ro 's h i s to ry ,a nd t h ee ng rav ing si nS o l i sb ecame w el k nown a nd i nf luen t ia l .S o l i sh im se lf s a id h et ook h i sd e sc r ip t ion o ft h eA z tec g od f r om A co s ta ,a nd h i s e F r ench e ng rave rc on t inue sa l ong t h i sl i ne w i th ad om ed s h r ine s en i nV a lad6 sa nd d eB ry , l b u th i si d o la c tua ly h a s mo r eo ft h ei c onog raph ic t r a i t so fH u i tz i lopoch t l i .I na dd i t ion t ot h e f ( s h ie ld w i th f i ve f e a the r sa nd t h ef ou rd a r t s ,H u i tz i lopoch t l i ' ss e rpen ts t af t he X iuhcoa t l ) l i s th e re ,a sw e la sh i sb ench s uppo r ted b ys e rpen t -headed p o le s : m i s in te rp re ted ,b u th e re l s age i a lt h es ame .T he o rb i san ove la dd i t ion ;i td e r ive sf r om ap as n th et e x t ,w i th n ok nown l p ro to type ,t h a ts ay sH u i tz i lopo ch t l i 's c ha i ri ss uppo r t ed b y ab l ue g lobe c a led H eaven ." s B e tween 1 728 a nd 1 739 t h e Am s te rdam p ub l i she rJ .F . Be rna rd i sued h i ss even -vo lume C&gmon ie s e tc ou tume s r e l ig ieu se s d e sp eup le s i d o la t re s , r epr e sdn tge sp ar d e sf i gu r e s singe d es s d e l a ma in d e B ernard P icar t . V o lume 6 c on ta in s ma te r ia l r e la t ing t o t h e t Ame r ica s , i n c lud ing aw r i t en d e scr ip t ion o f H u i tz i lopoch t l i t a ken f r om S o l i s a nd t h e 6 C on t inu ing t h e D u rän -Aco s ta t r ad i t ion , e ng rave r P i ca r t ' si mage o f t h e g od ( F ig . 1 4 ) .3 P i ca r tf o low sS o l i s 's e ng rave ri ni s t ra t ing H u i tz i lopoch t l is e a ted o n ac ha i ro na no rb , l lu w i th h i ss e rpen ts t af h ef ou rs p ea r s ,a nd t h es h ie ld w i th f i ve f e a the r s .T he h umm ingb i rd f, t h e lme tm en t ioned b yA co s ta h a sb ecome ab i rd p e rched a t op t h ei d o l 's h ead ,r e p la c ing t h e f e a the red h eadd r es dd i t iona ly , s ma l a n ima l ( c an ine? ) h ead sh ave b een a dded t ot h e s. A l l s i des o ft h ec ha i r ,a nd t h es e rpen th eaded p o le sa r ea dded a ga in t o th eo rb .A li se mbe l i shed l l 5 9

w i th or namen ta lc ha in sa nd w eapon sa pp rop r ia te f o rt h eg od o fw a r . T he se e ng rav ing sc omp r i se w ha tm igh tb ec on s ide red t h e mo r ec l as l ,h uman i s t ic sica t r ad i t ion .T h i si sp a ra le led t e x tua ly b yt h ec h ron ic le r sw ho c ompa red t h eA z tec d e i t ie st o l l p agan g od s . Mo s to ft h ef r ia r sc ompa red H u i tz i lopo ch t l iw i th Ma r s ,t h eR oman g od o fw a r . T he f r ia r s a r e s u rp r i s ing ly n eu t ra l a nd o b jec t ive w hen t h ey d esc r ibe H u i tz i lopo ch t l i p hy s ica ly . Mo to lon i ae ven r e co rd st h a ti nt h e1 520 sA z tec i do l sa nd C h r i s t ian i mage sw e re l w o r sh ipped s i de b ys i de .B u ta tt h es ame t ime ,t h e re w a s ac ur tt h a tl i nked t h eA z tec g od s , ren a nd s pec if ica ly H u i tz i lopoch t l it o th eJ udeo -Ch r i s t ian d ev i l . Mo to l in i a ,f o re xamp le ,r e f e r s l t oA z tec g od sa sd emon sa nd t ot h et emp le sa s" hou se so rh el s ," a nd S ahagün u se s" d iab lo" t om ean i d o 1 .3 7 B er na lD iaz d e lC a s t i lo 's d esc r ip t ion o ft h eT emp lo Mayo ra tT la te lo lco , l a sw i th mo s to ft h ec onque ro r s ' d e sc r ip t ion s ,c onvey st h i ss ame e qua t ion w i th t h ed ev i l . V i sua ly t h i s v i ewpo in t i se xp r es y t h e p a in t ing o f t h e T emp lo Mayo r i n t h e l sed b h i s to r ica l s e c t ion o f D iego D u rän 's H i s tor ia ( F ig . 1 ) . H e r e D u rän 's t emp le h ou se s d i abo l ica l i do l s : T la lo c o n t h e l e f t w i th amon s t rou s s e rpen t ine f a ce a nd h o ld ing al o ng s e rpen t ,a nd t h eg o ry s c ene o fs a c r i f ice i nf r on to fH u i tz i lopo ch t l io nt h er i gh t ,t h eh i gh g od p re sen ted i nt r u ly mon s t rou sf o rm .H a i ry d emon sf l ank t h es h r ine s .E ven S ahagün ,w hen d e sc r ib ing t h eT emp lo Mayo ri nh i ss e c t ion o nA z t ec b u i ld ing s ,s how st h eg od si n s ide t h e s h r ine sn o ta sh uman sc o s tumed w i th a t r ibu te sb u ta sd emon s ." Add i t iona ly ,S ahagün 's t l i s t ra t ion o ft h et z oa l id ough i mage o fH u i t z i lopoch tl i( F ig . 1 0 )i s mo r e mon s t rou st h an lu l h i so the rr ep re sen ta t ion so ft h e g od , a nd i ti sp i c tu r ed f r on ta ly , s ugge s t ing t h a ti ti sn o t l d e r ived f r om aP r e -Conque s tp i c to r ia lp ro to type . P ub l i shed e ng rav ing sc on t inue t h i sd i abol i ca lt r ad i t ion .A ga in ,T heodo r ed eB ry w a sa n e a r ly e xponen t ,a ss en i na ne ng r av ing i nd eB ry 's e d i t ion o fA co s ta ' sH i s tor ia o f1 602 ( F ig . e 1 5 ) .I nt h es ame v o lume t h a tc on ta in sd eB ry ' sc l as i s ing v i ew o fH u i tz i lopo ch t l i( F ig .1 2 ) , sic i s hi sw i ld ly f a nc if u le ng rav ing o ft h eT emp lo Mayo r( F ig . 1 5 ) .H e re ,t h ef o cu si s cl ea r ly d i f e ren t , s a c r if i ce a nd h or rb e ing s t res ,a nd w i th in h i s s i n i s te rt w in s h r ine s ,d eB ry f ro s ed p l a ce s h or ned , a n ima l l ike f o rm s . T he se d i abo l ica lc r ea tu re s a r e s u r e ly d e r ived f r om t h e d ev i ll i ke f i gu re d eB ry u se sa st h ef r on t i sp iece t o pu tf ou ro ft h e Amer icae s e r ie s ,w h ich 9 T he re , d e B ry s how s aP r e c on ta in s B enzon i 's t r ave l s i n t h e N ew Wo r ld ( F ig . 1 6 ) .3 C o lumb ian i d o lf u ly i nt h e manne ro f aE u ropean d ev i l ,c omp le te w i th h o rn s ,b eaked n o se , l b a tw ing s ,f u red l e g s ,c l awed f e t ,a nd ap i tch f o rk .T he d ev i li sn o ts pec if ica ly i d en t i f ied , r e l b u ti tb ecomes af undamen ta lp a r to ft h ed i abo l ica lt r ad i t ion o f Hu i t iz i lopoch t l ir e p r e sen a t ion s . t T he mon s t rou sf a ce o ni t st o r so i sc on s i s ten tw i th many Med ieva lE u ropean d ev i l s ,a nd t h et o r so f a ce i sa l so l i nked t oo ne o fP l iny 's mon s t rou sr a ce so fh uman i ty .T he se a r et h e B lemmyae ,h ead le ss p eop le w i th f a ce so nt h e i rc he s t s ,w ho l i ved i nt h ed e se r t so fL ibya . Wr i ten i nt h ef i r s tc en tu ry AD ,P l iny 's n a tu ra lh i s to ry r ema ined p opu la ra nd w a sw ide ly t d i f u sed t h roughou t t h e M idd le A ge s , a nd i tw a s e ven t r an s la ted i n to S pan i sh i n t h e f s i x teen th c en tu ry b yF r anc i sco H e rnändez w ho a l so w ro te an a tu ra lh i s to ry o fN ew S pa in . T he B lemmyae ,l i ke t h eo t he r mon s t rou sr a ce s ,p opu la ted p oo r ly k nown e xo t ic l a nd s ,a nd i t wa s r epo r ted t h a t ag roup o ft h em l i ved i nt h e Ame r ica s . T he 1 513 O toman m ap o f t Ame r ica b yP i niR e is i c tu re sa na cepha l ic man i nt h en o r the rn p a r to fS ou th Ame r ica .S i r s p Wa l te r R a le igh e ven r epo r ted B lemmyae ( wh ich h e c a led Ewa ipanoma ) l i v ing i n t h e l G u iana s ; s ow hen d eB ry i sued av e r s ion o fR a le igh 's t r ave l si nt h eG u iana s ,a sp a r te i gh t s o ft h e Amer icae s e r ie s , h e p o r t rayed aB lemmyae ( a nd a n Amazon ) o n h i s m ap o ft h e t e r i to ry .4 r s 0 T he se h uman t y pe st h u sc ame t ob ep a r t icu la r ly a soc ia ted w i th Ame r ica . T he d ev i lw i th af a ce o nh i st o r so a nd t h e mo re h uman v e r s ion o fH u i tz i lopoch t l id e r ived

6 0

f r om t h eA co s ta d e sc r ip t ion c om et o ge the rn ea rt h em idd le o ft h es even teen th c en tu ry t o c r ea te an ew c ompo s i te H u i tz i lopo ch t l i( F ig . 1 7 ) .T he v e r s ion w a sc r ea ted i n1 671 b yt h e lu D u t ch e ng rave rJ a cob v an Meu r st oi s t ra te A rno ldu s Mon tanu s 's d e sc r ip t ion o f Ame r i c a» T he b a s ic d ev i lf o rm c ome sf r om t h ed eB ry t r ad i t ion ,w i th t o r so f a ce a nd b a tw ing s , b u tt h el owe rb ody i s mo re c l ea r ly P an l ike w i th c l oven h oove s .F rom t h eD u rän -Aco s ta t r ad i t ion b y w ay o f S ol i s 's e ng rav ing c ome s t h e b en ign h uman f a ce w i th f e a the red s, t r f, a r h eadd res h ef e a the r ed s h ie ld a nd a rows ,a nd t h es e rpen ts t af l though S o l i s 's a row s f i l a r en ow al e a fy l a u re lb ranch ,a nd t h es e rpen ts t af sad i agona ly s t r iped b a ton .T he w ho le l led w l i mage i ss e t i n as pa c iou s h a l f i i th d evo ted f o lowe r s , w ho a r e e i the r Ame r i can I nd ian so ro t he rn on -Eu ropean p eop le ss u ch a sA f r ican sa nd T u rk s .T h i sH u i tz i lopo ch t l io f lu t h em id -seven teen th -cen tu ry i s t ra ted v oyage st hu sc omb ine st h er a t iona lh uman f o rm o f t h eD u rän -Aco s ta t r ad i t ion w i th t h e mon s t rou s a nd d i abo l ica lc r ea tu re d e sc r ibed b y t h e c onqu i s tado r e sa nd t h en p i c tu r ed b yE u ropean e ng rave r s . f T h roughou tt h eh i s to ry o fH u i tz i lopoch t l ir e p re sen ta t ion s ,d i f e r en ta spec t so ft h eg od s ed d f a r ee xp res epend ing o nd i f e r ing c on tex t s ,b o th i nP re -Co lumb ian t ime sa nd a f te rt h e c onque s t .H u i tz i lopo ch tl ia ppea r si nh uman f o rm ,a si fad e i ty i mpe r sona to rw e r ew ea r ing t h i s a t r ibu t es , w hen t h ec h ron ic le r s a r e d e sc r ib ing h i s g od ly c o s tume a nd w hen h e i sa n t a c t ive p a r t ic ipan ti n ar i tua l( s uch a sb lood s a cr if i ce o rf o r amon th ly f e a s t )o rd o ing b a t le d u r ing t h em ig ra to ry j ou rney o ri nb u i ld ing t h e emp i r e .H ei s no ti d en t if ied b yo ne o rt wo e s pec if i ce l emen t so fc o s tum e ;r a the rh i sn a tu re i s ind ica ted a nd h i sc hang ing r o le ss em t o t b e d ef ined b y ag roup ing o f v i sua l a t r ibu t es , e a ch o f w h ich s ymbo l ize s ap a r t o f h i s c ha rac te r : t h e b l ue s t r iped f a ce p a in t a nd b lue b ody p a in t , t h e b l a ck s ky ma sk , t h e h umm ingb i rd ,t h eX iuhcoa t l ,t h es h ie ld a nd d a r t s .T he h umm ingb i rd a nd t h e s t r iped f a ce p a in ta r et h eo n ly t wo e l emen t si d en t if i ed o n ly w i th H u i tz i lopo ch t l i ,a l though t h e se a r en o t a lway sp re sen tw hen h i si mage i s . A s a mo re s t a t ic i d o l , H u i t iz i lopoch t l i i s man if e s t a s a sa c red b und le d u r ing t h e l m ig ra t ion s a nd a s at z oa l i f o rm d u r ing t h e mon th ly f e a s t s . W i th in t h e T emp lo Mayo r , e l H u i tz i lopoch t l i s em ing ly w a sr e p re sen ted b y at z oa l i f o rm d r aped i nf i ne f e a the r s a nd c l oak s a nd p robab ly a l so b y amo re p e rmanen t s t a tue c ove r ed w i th mo the r -o f -pea r l a nd a do rned w i th g o ld j ewe l ry a nd mo sa ic s . l F o low ing t h ec onque s t ,E u ropean st h en s ough tt oe xp la in t h eA z tec r e l ig iou ss y s tem b yc ompa r ing i tt os ome th ing t h ey a l r eady k new .T ho se h i s to r ian sa nd c h ron ic le r sw ho s aw l t h e A z tec c i v il iza t ion a sb e ing e qua l i ni n te lec tua l a nd a r t i s t ic c apac i ty t ot h e a nc ien t sica c u l tu re so ft h eC las l Wo r ld ( wh ich w e re a l so h ea then )d e sc r ib ed H u i tz i lopo ch tl ia nd t h e o t he rd e i t ie so ft h eA z tec p an theon a st h eN ew Wo r ld c oun te rpa r t so fR oman g od s .O the r ro c h ron ic le r s s aw i n s tead t h e b a rba r i sm a nd h or r o f h uman s a cr if ice , a nd v i ewed l H u i tz i lopo ch t l in o tj u s ta s ad emon b u ta st h ed ev i l ,a s ama levo len tf o r ce .V isua ly ,t h e se f sed i d i f e r ing i n te rp re ta t ion sc ame t ob ee xp res ni n c r ea s ing ly f a nc ifu lw ay s ,s ot h a tb yt h e l m idd le o ft h ee i gh teen th c en tu ry t h ei mage o fH u i tz i lopoch t l ih ad b een w e lo b scu red .

N o te s 1 . S ee B e rna lD ia zd e lC a s t i l lo ,T he D i s cove ry a nd C onque s to f Mex i co , 1 5 17 -1521 ,e d . I r v ing L eona rd ( New Y o rk : F ar ra r ,S t rau sa nd C udahy , 1 956 ) ,p p .2 19 -220 ,a l though R obe r tB a r low ," Lo sd i o se sd e l T emp lo Mayo rd eT la te lo l co ," Memor ias d el a Acad em ia Mex icana d el a Hi s to r ia 3 , no . 4( 1 944 ) :4 5 5 ,h a sa r gued t h a tT la loc a nd n o tT e zca t l ipo ca w a sw i th H u i t iz i lopo ch t l ia t Tla t e lo lco . 2 .

D ia zd e lC a s t i l lo ,C onque s t ,p . 219 -220 .

6 1

u rän ,B ook o f th eG od sa nd R i t es a nd T he A nc i en tC a l endar ,t r an s .a nd e d .F e rnando H o r ca s i ta s 3 . Diego D a nd D o r i sH eyden ( No rman :U n ive r s i ty o fO k lahoma P r es 971 ) ,p p .7 2 -74 . s, 1 4 .

O n ly s e ven a nd ah a l fi n che s l o ng , t h eL ove ly C o t inga i s th e o n ly b r i l ian t ly c o lo red m embe ro ft h e l C o t inga f am i ly t h a t l i ve s i n Mex ico . I tr a nge s f r om s o u thea s ter n Mex ico ( t he s ou ther n V e ra c ru z l ow land s ,n o r the rn O axa ca ,a nd n o r ther nC h iapa s )d own t o Co s ta R ica ,l i v ing i nt h eh i gh t r so fh um id ee f o re s t si nt h el ow land sa nd f o th i l s . T he m a le i sa ni n t en s eg l os l ue w i th at r i angu la rp a t ch o fr i ch o l sy b p u rp le o nt h ea bdomen a nd a no the ro nt h et h roa t . R oge rT o ry P e te r son a nd E dwa rd L .C ha l if , AF ie ld G u id e t o Mex i can B i rd s( Bo s ton : H ough ton M if in , 1 973 ) ,p .1 36 . C o l ec e Mendo za oC 6d ice fl ci6n d Mendoc ino ,e d .F ranc i sco d e lP a so yT ronco so a nd J e su sG al indo yV ila ( Mex i co : Mu seo N a c iona ld e A rqueo log ia , H i s to r ia yE tnog ra f ia , 1 925 ) ,f o l .4 7r e c to . B e rna rd ino d eS ahagün ,F lo r en t ine C od ex , t r an s .a nd e d .A r thu rJ .0 .A nde r son a nd C ha r le sE .D ibb le ( S an ta F e :S choo lo f Ame r i can R e sea r ch a nd t h eU n ive r s i ty o fU tah P res 950 -82 ) ,b k .9 :2 1 . s, 1

5 .

" C6d ice T e le r iano -Remen s i s ," i nA n t ig iedad es d e Me ) dco ,e d .J o sé C o rona N if iez ( Mex ico :S e c r e ta r ia l i i d e H ac ienda y Cr6d i to P ub l ico , 1 964 -67 , 4v o l s . ) , v o l . 1 : 5r e c to ; " C6d ice V a t icanu s A /R io s ," i n A n t ig iedad es d e Mex i co ,v o l .3 :44 v e r so ;C od ex B orbon i cu s .B ib l io th2que d eL 'A semb le a t iona le , i s e N P ar i s( Y1 20 ) ,e d .K a r lA n ton N owo tny a nd J a cque l ine d eD u rand -Fo r e s t( G r az : A kadem i sche D rucku .V e r lag san s ta l t , 1 974 ) , p p . 3 1 , 3 4 , 3 6 ; C od ex Mag l iab ech iano C L . XI B .R . 2 32 ) , B ib l io t eca I I, 3 ( N a züona le C en t ra le d iF i r en ze , e d . F e rd inand A nde r s( G r az : A kadem i s che D ruck - u .V e r lag san s ta l t , 1 970 ) ,f o l .4 3r e c to ;C öd ice T ud e la ,e d .J o sé T ude la d el a Orden ( Mad r id :E d i c ione sC u l tu r aH i spän ica , 1 980 ) ,f o l .2 5r e c to .

6 .

E xcep t ion sa r et wo f i gu re si nt h eC odex F e j6 rvä ry - Maye r( p .2 5 ,33 )t h a th ave b l ue a nd y elow s t r ip ed p f a ce p a in t . I tc an b ea r gued ,h oweve r ,t h a tt h e se f a lo u t s ide t h er a nge o f ou rd i scus ecau se t h ec odex , l sion b b e long ing t ot h eB o rg ia G roup o fr i tua lm anu s c r ip t s ,i s no tp r e s en t ly c on s ide red a n A z tec d o cumen t . " C6d ice F 6 j6 rvä ry - Maye r ," i nA n t igüedad es d e Mex i co ,v o l4 ,p p . 2 5 , 3 . S l so H e rmann B eye r , ee a " Ex i s t ee ne lC 6d ice F 6 j6 rvä ry - Maye ru na r e p re sen ta c iön d eH u i tz i lopoch t l i? E s tud io a r queo l6g ico ," A na le sd e l Mu s e° N ac iona ld eA rqueo log i a ,H i s tor ia yE tno log i a ,6 p .3 ,v o l . 2( 1 910 ) :5 31 -536 ,w ho ,a f te r i n ve s t iga t ing E dua rd S e le r 's e a rl ie rp ropo sa lt h a tt h ef i gu r eo nF 6 j6 rvä ry - Maye r2 5i sH u i tz i lopoch t l i , c onc luded i ti sT e zca t l ipo ca i n s t ead .

7 .

T he f r on ta lf i gu r ec a rved i nr e l ie ft h a tw a sp ubl i shed a nd i d en t if ied b yI s id ro G ond ra ( 1 846 ) a nd A lf redo C have ro ( 1 888 )a sH u i tz i lopo ch t l i ,w a ss hown b yH e rmann B eye rt ob eo f ama ize g oddes .B eye r , s; H " E lH u i tz i lopo ch t l id eG ond ra ," R ev i s ta d eR ev i s tas ,n o . 5 77 ( 2 9 May 1 92 1 ) : 3 8 -39 . A po t en t ia lo t he r H u i t z i lopoch t l ii mage ,s im i la rt ot h a to nt h eT izo cs t one ,w a sr e po r ted b yH e rmann B eye ra nd E dua rd S e le rt o have b en i n th eP e t io ld el o sB ano sa tT epe t z inco ;t h i sr e l ie fc a rv ing i sn ow d e s t royed ,a nd Em i ly e Umbe rge ra nd H .B .N icho l son ( p e r sona lc ommun ica t ion )b o th f e lt h a tt h ea va i lab le d r aw ing sd on o t e a low f o ra na b so lu te i d en t if ica t ion w i th H u i t z i lopoch t l i . E dua rd S e le r ," D ie A u sg rabungen a mO r te d e s l H aup t empe l si n M ex ico ," i n hi sG esamme l t eA bhand lungen z u ra me r ikan i s chen S p ra ch -und A l te r tum t s kund e( G r az :A kadem i s che D ruck -u .V e r lag san s ta l t ,1 960 ,r e p r in to f1 902 B e rl in e d i t ion , 5v o l s . ) ,v o l . 2 :8 02 -804 ; H e rmann B eye r ," Sob re a l guna sr e p re sen ta c ione sd e ld i o sH u i tz i lopoch t l i ," 1 7 th I n te rna t i ona lC ongr es f A m e r i can i s t s , Mex ico , 1 9 10 ( Mex ico : 1 9 12 ) ,p .3 71 . s o

o ri c onog raph ic i n te rp re ta t ion so ft h et wo f i gu re s ,s eE s th e rP a sz to ry ,A z t ec A r t( New Y o rk :A b ram s , 8 . F e 1 982 ) ,p p . 1 7 1 -172 ;H .B .N i cho lson i nc o labo ra t ion w i th E lo i s eQ u inone sK ebe r ,A r to fA z tec Mex i co : l T r easu r e so fT enoch t i t lan ( Wa sh ing ton :N a t iona lG a le ry o fA r t , 1 983 ) ,p p . 3 0 -31 ;a nd C e cel ia K le in , l " The I d eo logy o fA u to sa c r if i ce a tt h eT emp lo Mayo r ," i nT he A z tec T emp lo Mayor ,e d .E l izab e th H . B oone ( Wa sh ing ton :D umba r ton O ak s ,1 987 ) ,p p .3 34 -338 . K le in ," Au to sa c r i f ice ," p p .2 93 -370 ,h a sa d d i t iona ly a r gued t h a t mu ch b l ood le t ing i mage ry a so c ia t ed w i th t h eT emp lo Mayo ri sp a r to fa cces l t s sion i c onog raphy o ft h eA z te cr u le r sa nd v i sua ly f u lf il st h e i rn eed t ov al ida te t h e i rd e scen ta nd r e ign . l o rt h ei c onog raphy o ft h eT eocal i ,s e Em i ly Umbe rge r ," A z t ec S cu lp tu re s ,H ie rog lyph sa nd H i s to ry" 9 . F e ( Ph .D .d i s . ,C o lumb ia U n ive r s i ty , 1 981 ) ,p p . 1 85 -190 ,w ho a r gue st h a ti ti sat h rone ,a nd K le in ," Au to s s a c r if ice ," p p . 38 -349 . i ly Umbe rge r , w ho k i nd ly b rough tt h i sb one t om y a t en t ion ,b e l ieve si to r ig ina ly f u nc t ioned a sa 1 0 . Em t l b l ood le t e r . E . Umbe rge r , " Ahu i tzo t l 's B one , "m ex icon ( f o r thcom ing ) ; G . C epeda C ä rdena s a nd R . t Ma r t in A ra r la ," Hue so g r abado d e lC en t ro d e Mex ico ," B o l e t i nd e lI n s t i tu to N ac iona ld eA n t ropo log i a , Mex ico ,3 1 ( Ma r ch 1 968 ) : 3 8 -41 .

6 2

. E l izabe th K . E a sby a nd J ohn F . S co t , B ef o re C or te s : S cu lp tu re o fM idd l e Am er ica ( New Y o rk : 1 t Me t ropo l i tan Mu seum o fA r t , 1 970 ) ,c a t .n o . 3 0 4 . 1 2 . Ap a r t ia le xcep t ion i st h er u le rC h ima lpopoca d r es sH u i tz i lopoch t l ii nm ap 8o ft h eC odex X o lo t l , sed a a l though i tc an b ea r gued t h a tt h eC odex X o lo t l ,w h ich p r e sen t st h eh i s to ry o ft h eV a ley o f Mex ico f r om l t h eT e tzcocan p o in to fv i ew s i nce t h ea r iva lo fX o lo t l 's C h ich ime c si nc .1 224 t ot h eT epane c Wa ri n r 1 427 ,i s no t ,t e chn ica ly s p eak ing ,a ni mp e r ia lh i s to ry . C öd ice X o lo t l ,e d .C ha r le sE .D ibb le ( Mex ico : l U n ive r s idad N a c iona lA u tönoma d e Mex ico a nd t h eU n ive r s i ty o fU tah , 1 980 ) ,m ap 8 . 1 3 . " C6d ice B o tu r in i ," i n An t ig iedad es d e Mex i co ,v o l .2 :1 4 :" E lC 6d i ce A zca t i t lan ," e d .R obe r tB a r low , i J ou rna ld el aS oc ie te d es Ame r i can i s te s ,n . s . ,v o l .3 7 ,a t la s :p l s .2 ,3 ,5 12 ( =p p .2 ,4 ,8 ,1 -23 ) . 1 4 . " E lC öd i ce A z ca tf t lan ," p l s .2 ,5 ,6 , 8( =m sp p s .2 ,8 , 1 , 15 ) . 1 5 . " C6d ice T e le r iano -Remen s i s , "f o l .2 5r e c to ;" Cöd ice V a t icanu sA /R io s ," f o l .6 7r e c to . l 1 6 . T he h i s to r ica l s e c t ion o ft h eC odex V a t i canu s A /R io s ( f o l . 8 7 r e c to ) ,K a l enda r io m ex icano , l a t ino y c a s t e lano ( f o l . 1 09 v e r so ) ,T ova rC a lenda r ,J a c in to d el a Se rna 's Manua ld em in i s t ro sd ei n d ios , B ob an l C a lenda r Whee l ,V ey t ia C a lenda r Whee l sn o s . 4a nd 5 ,H umbo ld tF ragmen tn o . 1 .S ee G eo rge K ub le r a nd C ha r le sG ib son ,T he T ova rC a lenda r( New H aven : Memo i r so ft h eC onnec t icu lA cademy o fA r t s a nd S c ience s ,v o l .1 ,1951 ) ,f i g s .7 16 ,p l .1 2 ,f o rt h e se ,a nd f o ra ne xce len tr e v iew o ft h e mon th ly f e a s t s . l B e rna rd ino d eS ahagün ,' P r imero s Memor ia l es 'e lF ray B e rna rd ino d eS ahagün ,t r an s .a nd e d .W igbe r to J imene z Mo reno ( Mex ico :C o lec ien tf i ca ,I n s t i tu to N a c iona ld eA n t ropo log ia eH i s to r ia , 1 974 ) , ciön C f f i g . 1 5 . 1 7 . S ee J ona than D .S aue r ," The G ra in Ama ran th s : AS u rvey o ft h e i rH i s to ry a nd C las ica t ion ," A nna l so f sif t h e M is r iB o tan i ca l G a rd en 3 7 ( 1 950 ) : 5 73 -576 , w ho t o ta l s t h e a nnua l t r ibu te i na ma ran th a tc . sou 2 00 ,000 b u she l s ,m a ize a t2 80 ,000 b u she l s ,a nd b ean sa t 230 ,000 b u she l s ;E dw in C .S ou le ," Ama ran th : F ood o ft h eA z te c s ," T he Ma s t erk ey 5 3( 1 979 ) : 1 43 -146 . 1 8 . S ahagün ,F lor en t in eC od ex ,b k . 1 :2 87 . 1 9 . D u rän ,G od sa nd R i t e s ,8 0 ,1 07 ,1 47 ,2 03 -204 ,2 44 -245 ,2 56 ,4 52 ;S ahagün ,F lo ren t ine C odex ,b k . 1 :1 7 , 4 7 ,b k .2 :7 ,55 , 12 , 1 31 , 1 32 . 2 0 . S ou le ," Ama ran th ," p .1 45 ;S aue r ," G ra in Ama ran th s ," P . 5 76 ;H e rnando R u iz d eA la r cön ,T r ea t i se o n t h eH ea then S upe r s t i t ion sT ha tT oday L ive Among t h eI nd ian sN a t ive t o Th is N ew S pa in ,1 629 ,t r an s .a nd s H sig ( s, 1 . 5 3 ;D u rän , e d .J .R icha rd A nd rews a nd R os as No rman : Un ive r s i ty o fO k lahoma P res 984 ) ,P G od sa nd R i te s ,p .8 0 fn . 2 1 . D u rän ,G od sa nd R i te s ,8 6 -89 ;S ahagün ,F lor en t ine C od ex ,b k .2 :71 , 1 45 -146 ,175 -176 ,b k .3 :5 -6 ,b k . l 1 2 : 5 1 -54 ; J uan d eT o rquemada , Monar ch i ai n d iana ,e d . M igue lL eön -Po r t i la ( Mex ico : U n ive r s idad N ac iona lA u tönoma d e Mex ico , 1 975 -1979 ,5 v o l s . ) ,v o l . 3 : 13 ,3 80 -381 . S ahagün ,a nd T o rquemada sion a a f t e rh im ,d e sc r ibe st h em ak ing o ft h ed ough i mage o fH u i t z i lopo ch t l ia nd i t sp roces r ound t h ec i ty sa a s al so h av ing b een p a r to ft h ef a ta lT oxca t lf e a s t of 1 520 w hen A lva rado a nd h i sm en m as c r ed t h eI nd ian d ance r s . Ia mi n c lud ing p a r t so fh i sT ox ca t ld e s c r ip t ion h e re b ecau se Ib e l ieve S ahagün c onf la t ed t h e P anque tza l iz t l ia nd T oxca t lf e a s t sw i th r e spe c tt ot h eH u i t z i lopo ch t l ii mage . 2 2 . S ahagün ,F lor en t in eC od ex ,b k .2 :7 2 ,b k . 1 2 :5 2 -53 . A cco rd ing t oS ahagün ,F lor en t in eC od ex ,b k . 8 : l s ed 6 2a nd p l s .9 3 ,94 ,a nd D u rän ,G od sa nd R i tes ,1 09 ,s u ch s ku l -and -c ros -bone sc ape sw e re a l so w o rn l b yr u le r sd u r ing t h e i ri n ve s t i tu re ,w hen t h ey w e r ec a led " f a s t ing c ape s ," a nd b yT e zca t l ipoca . 2 3 . D u rän ,G od sa nd R i t e s ,7 2 -73 ,8 6 . 2 4 . C od ex Mag l iabech iano , f o l .4 3 r e c to ; C öd ice T ud e la ,f o l .2 5r e c to ; C od ex I x t l i lxoch i t l ,e d .F e rd inand A nde r sa nd J a cque l ine d eD u rand -Fo re s t( G ra z :A kadem i sche D ruck -u .V e r lag san s ta l t ,1 976 ) ,f o l . 1 0 1 r e c to . 2 5 . S ahagün , F lo ren t ine C od ex , b k . 1 :p 11 ; B e rna rd ino d e S ahagün , P r imeros Memor ia l es ' d e F ray f B e rna rd ino d e S ahagün , e d . W igbe r to J imenez Mo r eno ( Mex ico : C o lecc i6n C ien tf i ca , I n s t i tu to N a c iona ld eA n t ropo log ia eH i s to r ia , 1 974 ) ,p l . 1 6 ;C od ex B orbon i cu s ,p p . 3 1 ,3 4 ,3 6 . t l 2 6 . A n e xcep t ion t ot h i s g ene ra lp a t e rn i s th er e p re sen ta t ion o fH u i t z i lopoch t l i i nt h eC odex T e le r iano l R emen s i s ( f o l . 5 re c to ) a nd c ogna te C odex V a t icanu s A /R io s ( f o l . 4 4 v e r so ) , w he re a fu l f igu r e

6 3

H u i t z i lopo ch t l i( o rd e i ty i mpe r sona to r )i nt h ep i n -whee lp o se o ft h eg od ss ymbo l ize st h e mon th . 2 7 . D u r än ,G od sa nd R i te s ,p .7 2 -74 . 2 8 . I s t ra ted i nD u rän ,G od sa nd R i te s ,p 1 .4 . lu 2 9 . D iego D u rän ,H i s tor ia d e l a sI nd ia s d eN ueva E spana eI s las d e T i er i rme , e d . J o se F .R am i re z ra F ( Mex ico :J .M .A nd rade a nd F . Esca lan t e ,1 867 -80 ,2 v o l sa nd a t la s ) ;J uan d eT ova r ,H i s tor ia d el o synd io s m e .r icanos ,e d .T homa sP h i l ipp s( M idd le H i l ,E ng land :P h il ipp s , 1 860 ) ; Manu s cr i tT ova r ,O r ig ine se t l l C royances d es I nd iens d e Mex ique ,e d .J a cque sL a f aye ( G raz : A kadem i sche D ru ck -u .V e r lag san s ta l t , 1 972 ; C odex R am i re z ,i nC rön ica m ex i cana , ... p r ec id ida d e lC öd i ce R am i re z ,e d . Manue lO rozco y B er Mex ico : E d i to r ia l P or , 1 878 ) ; J o se d e A co s ta ,H i s tor ia n a tu ra l ym ora ld e l o sy nd ios , e d . ra ( rüa E dmundo O 'Go rman ( Mex ico :F ondo d eC u l tu ra E conöm ica , 1 979 ) ,P . 2 31 . t 3 0 . H er nando C o r te s ,F ernand oC or t e s ,H i sF ive L e t er so fR e la t ion t ot h e Emp eror C ha r l e sV .e d .F ranc i s t t s, 1 A ugu s tu s Ma cNu t( G lo r ie ta ,N ew Mex ico :R io G rand eP res 977 ,r e p r in to f1 908 C lev e land e d i t ion , c oun 2v o l s . ) ,v o l . 1 :2 62 ;P a t r ic ia d eF uen t e s ,e d . ,T he C onqu i s tado rs .F i r s tP e r son Ac t so f th eC onqu es t s, 1 o f Mex ico ( New Y o rk : O r ion P res 963 ) , p p . 4 9 , 1 74 ; F ranc i sco L opez d eG öma ra ,H i s tor ia d e l a c onqu i s ta d e Mex i co ,e d .J oaqu in R am i re zC abana s( Mex i co :P ed ro R ob redo ,1 943 ,2 v o l s . ) ,v o l .1 :244 2 45 ; B a r to lome d e L a s C a sa s , A po loge t ica h i s to r ia s umar ia , e d . E dmundo O 'Go rman ( Mex i co : U n ive r s idad N ac iona l A u tönoma d e Mex i co , 1 967 , 2v o l s . ) , v o l . 1 :6 89 -690 ; F ranc is co C e rvan te s d e S a l az a r , C rön i ca d e l aN ueva E spana , e d . M igue l Magalön ( Mad r id : E d ic ione s A t la s , B ib l io te ca d e r A u to re sE spano le s ,n o s .2 44 -245 ,2 nd e d . , 1 971 ) ,v o l . 1 :3 33 -334 ;A n ton io d eH e re ra ,H i s tor ia g enera l l ra F d el o sh echos d el o sc a s t e lanos e nl a si s la s yT i er i rme d e l Mar O cean° ,e d .A n ton io B ale r s te ro sy t B e re ta , e t . a l . ( Mad r id : R ea l A cadem ia d e l aH i s to r ia , 1 934 -57 , 1 7 v o l s . ) , v o l . 5 :2 25 ; J uan d e l T o rquemada , Monar ch i ai nd iana ,v o l .3 : 12 -113 ;D ia zd eC a s t i lo ,C onque s t ,2 19 -220 . 3 1 . F uen te s ,C onqu i s tador s ,p .4! . ria L 3 2 . J o rge G ur a c ro ix ," And re sd eT ap ia yl aC oa t l icue , "E s tud ios d eC u l tu ra N ähua t l1 3( 1 978 ) :2 3 -34 . I n a dd i t ion t o t h e C oa t l icue a nd Y o lo t l i cue , t h e re a r e t wo f r agmen t s i n t h e Museo N a c iona l d e en t A n t ropo log ia i n Mex ico C i ty ;o ne i sp a r to ft h es e rpen ts k i r t( NMA 1 -3386 ,i nl owe rp a t io b e twe h e r e s tau ran ta nd a dm in i s t ra t ive o ff ice s )a nd t h eo t he ri sp a r to ft h el e gs how ing t h el e go rnamen t sa nd t h e t b o tom p a r to ft h es e rpen ts k i r t( no c a t .n o . ,i ng a rden b eh ind a dm in i s t ra t ive o ff i ce s ) . 3 .P . D iego V a lade s ,Rhe tor ica c h r i s t iana ( Pe r ug ia e t rum ia cobum P e t ru t ium ,1 579 ) ,o p .1 65 ,a l so p ub l i shed i nE l izabe th H . B oone ,"Temp lo Mayo rR e sea r ch , 1 52 1 -1978 ," i nT he A z t ec T emp i° Mayor ,e d . E .H . B oone ( Wa sh ing ton , DC : D umba r ton O ak s , 1 987 ) ,P . 1 2 . 3 4 . T heodo re d eB ry , Ame r icae ,n ona e tp os t r ema p a r s( F r ank fo r ta m Ma in :T heodo r ic id eB ry , 1 602 ) ,p l . t lu 7 ;B e rnade te B uche r ,I con a nd C onques t . AS t ruc tu ra lA na ly s i so ft h eI s t ra t ion so fd eB ry ' sG r ea t s, 1 V oyages ( Ch i cago :U n ive r s i ty o fC h i cago P res 981 ) ,p p .x ü ,3 5 , 11 ;B en jam in K een ,A z t ec I mage i n s, 1 W e s te rn T hough t( New B run sw ick :R u tge r sU n ive r s i ty P r es 971 ) ,p p . 1 63 -164 . l t 3 5 . A n ton io d eS o l i s ,H i s to ir ed el ac onqui t ed u Mex ique ,o ud el aN ouve l eE spagne ,e d .C i l r id el a G ue t e ( Pa r i s :J ean B oudo t ,1 691 ) ,o p .2 75 ;S o l i s ,H i s tor ia d el a conqu is ta d e Me j i co ,p ob lac iöny p rogr e sos d e l a A me r i ca S e t en t r iona l ,c onoc ida p or e ln omb re d eN u eva E spana ,e d .T omä sL öp ez ( Pa r i s :L ib re r ia E ruopea d eB aud ry , 1 838 ) ,p .2 00 . es p 3 6 . B e rna rd P i ca r t ,C e remon i es e tc ou tum es r e l ig i eu s e sd e sp eup l es i d o la t r es ,r epr e sen te a rd esf i gu r es d e ss ind es d el am a in d eB e rnard P i ca r t( Am s t e rdam :J .B .B e rna rd , 1 728 -39 ,7 v o l s . ) ,v o l .6 :9 4 -96 ,p l . 1 6 . 3 7 . Mo to l in ia , o rT o r ib io d e B enaven t e , Mo to l in i a ' sH i s tory o ft h eI nd ian so fN ew S pa in , t r an s . a nd e d . F ran c i sB o rg ia S t eck (Wa sh ing ton , DC : A cad emy o f Ame r ican F ranc i scan H i s to ry , 1 951 ) ,p p .9 9 -100 ; S ahagün ,F lor en t ine C od ex ,b k . 1 : 64 ,67 -68 . 3 8 . S ahagün ,F lor en t ine C od ex ,b k . 1 : f i g . 8 84 . 3 9 . T heodo re d eB ry , Amer icae p ar sq ua r ta ( F rank fo r ta m Ma in : T heodo re d eB ry , 1 594 ) . f l l s, 1 4 0 . J e f r ey B u r ton R u sse l ,L uc if er . T he D ev i li nt h eM idd l eA ges ( I thaca :C or ne lU n ive r s i ty P res 984 ) , p p . 6 8 , 1 30 -132 ,2 10 -211 ;J ohn B lo ck F r iedman , T he Mons t rou sR ace si n Med i eva lA r ta nd T hough t s, 1 ( Camb r idge :H a rva rd U n ive r s i ty P res 981 ) ,p p .1 ,1 2 ,25 ;F r anc i sco H e rnändez ,O b ra sc omp le tas ,e d .

6 4

G e rmän S omo l ino sd 'A rdo i s( Mex ico :U n ive r s idad N a c iona lA u t6noma d e Mex i co , 1 960 -66 ,4 v o l s . ) , v o l s .2 -4 ;R ica rdo E .A leg r fa ,L a sp r imera sr ep r es en tac iones g rä f i ca sd e li n d io a mer icano ,1 493 -1523 ( San J uan :I n s t i tu to d eC u l tu ra P ue r tor rique f ia ,1 978 ) ,p p .7 5 -76 ,f i g .2 1 ; Wa l te rR a le igh ,T he D i scov er ie o f th eL arge ,R ich ,a nd B ew t i f u l Empy r eo f Gu iana ( London :R obe r tR ob in son ,1 596 ) ,p p .2 3 -24 ,6 9 -70 ; T heodo re d eB ry , Ame r ica ep a r s VI I I ( F rank fo r ta m Ma in : T heodo r ic id eB ry , 1 599 ) ,m ap o fG u iana , p ub l i shed a l so i nM icha e lA lexande r ,D is cove r ing t h eN ew Wor ld ,b as ed o nt h e Work so fT heodor ed e B ry ( New Y o rk : H a rpe ra nd R ow , 1 976 ) ,p .1 72 . 4 1 . A rno ldu s Mon tanu s ,D eN i euwe e nO nbek end eW ee re ld ( Am s te rdam ,J a cob v an Meu r s ,1 671 ) ,o p .2 20 , p ub l i shed a l so i nE ng l i sh t r an s la t ion b yJ ohn O g i lby a s Ame r ica :B e ing t h eL a t es ta nd Mo s tA ccu ra t e D es c r ip t ion o ft h eN ew Wo r ld ( London :J ohn O g i lby , 1 671 ) ,o p .2 96 .

6 5

F ig . 1 . T emp lo Mayo ro fT enoch t i t lan ,i nt h eh i s to r ica lt r ea t i se o fD iego Du rän 's H i s tor ia , f o l . 1 31r ( a f te rD u rän ,H i s tor ia d el a sI nd ia sd eN ueva E spa ' p i a ,e d .A .M .G a r ibay [ Mex ico : P o rn ia , 1 967 ] ,v o l . 2 :p l . 3 0 ) . 6 6

F ig .2 . H u i tz i lopoch t l i ,i nt h er e l ig ious t r ea t i se o fD iego D u rän 's H i s tor ia ,f o l .2 31r ( a f te r t h eG a r ibay e d i t ion [ 1 967 ] ,v o l . 1 :p l . 3 ) . 6 7

F ig . 3 . H u i tz i lopoch t l i , i nS ahagün 's C odex F lo ren t ine , v o l . 1 :f o l . l O r ( a f te r f a c s im i le e d i t ion [ Mex ico : A rch ivo G ene ra ld el aN a c iön , 1 979 ] ) . 6 8

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F ig .4 . H u i tz i lopoch t l i ,i nt h eC odex B o rbon icus ,p .3 4( a f te rS e le r ,G e samme l te A bhand l u ngen [ 1 960 -61 ] ,v o l . 2 :3 79 ) . 6 9

F ig . 5 . C arved b o t tom s u r face o f J aguar C uauhx ica l l i ( a f te r N icho lson , A r t o fA z t ec Mex ico [ 1 983 ] ,p .3 1) . 7 0

F ig . 6 . C a rved b ack r e s t o ft h e T eoca l l i d e l aG uer ra S agrada ( d raw ing b y Em i ly Um b e rge r ) . 7 1

F ig . 7 . T izoc i mpe r sona t ing H u i tz i lopoch t l i , d e ta i lf r om t h e S tone o fT izoc ( d raw ing b y Em i ly Umbe rge r ) . 7 2

F ig . 8 . J ade i te i mage o fH u i tz i lopoch t l i . P a r i s , Mu s& d el 'Homme . 7 3

F ig .9 . H u i tz i lopo ch t l ib e ing c a r r ied a l ong t h em ig r a t ion ,i nt h eC odex B o tu r in i ,p .2 ( a f te r " Cöd ice B o tu r in i" [ 1 964 -67 ] ) . 7 4

F ig . 1 0 . T zoa l l ii mage o fH u i tz i lopoch t l i ,i nS ahap in 's C odex F lo ren t ino ,v o l .3 :f o l .4 38v ( a f te rf a cs im i le e d i t ion [ 1979 ] ) . 7 5

F ig . 1 . H u i tz i lopoch t l ir e p resen t ing t h e mon th o fP anque tza l iz t l i ,i nt h e C odex T ude la , f o l . 2 5r ( a f te rC öd ice T ud e la [ 1 980 ] ) . 7 6

F ig . 1 2 . H u i tz i lopoch t l i a nd A z tec p r ie s t s , b y T heodo re d e B ry , a ccompany ing J o sé d e A co s ta 's " De n ov io rb is n a tu ra" i n Amer icae ,N ona e t pos t rema p ar s ( 1602 ) ,p l . 7( a f te r A lexander ,d eB ry [ 1 976 ] ,p .1 63 ) . 7 7

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F ig . 1 3 . H u i tz i lopoch t l i ,i nA n ton io d eS o l i s 's H i s to ire d el ac onqu ' e te d e Mex ique ,o ud e l a Nouve le E spagne ( 1691) ,o p . 2 75 . l 7 8

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F ig . 1 4 . H u i tz i lopoch t l i , b y B e rna rd P icar t , C grgmon ie s e t c ou tume s r e l ig ieu se s d e s p eup le si d o la t res ( Am s te rdam : J . F. B er na rd , 1 728 -39 ) ,v o . 6 :p l . 1 6 . 7 9

F ig . 1 5 . T emp lo Mayo r o f T enoch t i t lan , b y T heodo re d e B ry , a ccompany ing J o sé d e A co s ta 's " De n ov io rb i sn a tu ra" i n Amer icae , N ona e tp os t rema p ar s( 1602 ) ,p l . 8( cou r te sy o fT he R a re B ook D iv i s ion ,T he N ew Yo rk P ub l ic L ib ra ry ) . 8 0

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dm irandä H if to r ia d er e pe t ta nfen s3 (A p rn n t im Oc ciden ta l iI nd ia äC h r i l iopho ro C o l t u r nb o A nno l e ccc x c i l S cr ip t aa bH ie ronyr no B ezono m ed i c dan en f e , t q u ai t h c m sx nn .v er f i t4dd ig i t e rm an ia o b k r v a= A n t e r c a p i t a ,n o nc o n t emn e n d af c h o l i a A c id i ta a df i ngu l af i b u s ei t u rd ee ar i tme n a r ng e nbu r n i nqu c l A c ef s i t p re t e r ea i aTu r n R eg ienum T abu . la c ho r ogr aph i ca r t ru 'a t qa t r Zur fgur1 : fi na e s» J cg z .r e , x -p r r, f ra j e ky L eo ciüwj i ;c ivr Fn i re I rmo r h hx eme • r X . C ., I F f ai ef lat .

F ig . 1 6 . F ron t i sp iece t od e B ry 's Amer icae , P ar s q uar ta , c on ta in ing G i r lamo B enzon i 's h i s to ry o ft h e We s tI nd ie s ( 1 599 ) ( a f te rA lexande r , d eB ry [ 1976 ] ,p .1 53 ) . 8 1

F ig . 1 7 . Hu i tz i lopoch t l i , b y t h ee ng rave rJ acob v an Meu r s , i n Ar no ldus Mon tanu s 's D e N ieuwe e nO nbekende Weere ld ( 1671 ) ,o p .2 20 ( c our te sy D ep t .o fR a re B ook sa nd S pec ia l C o l lec t ion s ,P r ince ton U n ive r s i ty L ib ra ry ) . 8 2

P ar tI

A s tronomy ,S kyscape sa nd t he Imag ina t ion o f Mat ter

The R o le o fA s tronom ica l O r ien ta t ion i nt he D e l inea t ion o f Wor ld V iew : AC en ter a nd P er iphery Mode l A .A ven i I n troduc t ion Wh i le t h i s s ympo s ium c on s i s t s o fi nd iv idua l s w ho m igh t d ef ine t h em se lve s o nj ob a pp l ica t ion f o rm sa sa r chaeo log i s t , a r th i s to r ian , a s t ronome r ,o rh i s to r ian o fr e l ig ion , t h e l c ommon g round t h a t b i nd s mo s t o f u s t o ge the r i st h a t w e a l s t udy t h e b ehav io ra l l t c ha ra c te r i s t ic s o f ac u l tu re . F o r w e a r e r e a ly Ame r ican i s t s —be te r , Me soame r ican i s t s . T ha tl a be la nd t h et e ndency t o e mp loy i t ,n ow w i th p e rhap sg rea te rv a l id i ty t h an i n th ep a s t , may r ef lec t t h e b roaden ing t h a th a s b egun t oo ccu ri no u rr e spec t ive d i sc ip l ina ry -ba sed red i ra s t ud ie sa nd t ow h ich o u rh o s th a sr e f er nh i so rgan iza t iona ls t a temen t .D av id C ar sco a l so h a ss ugge s ted t h a tt h i si n te rd i sc ip l ina ry b roaden ing i s gu ided ,a t le a s ti np a r t ,b yN ew Wo r ld i mage ry , s u ch a sp age o ne o f t h e C odex F e j6 rvä ry Maye r , i nw h ich w e f i nd a c ogn i t ive map t h a tu n i te st h e mo s tv i ta le l emen t so f aC en t ra l Mex ican s y s tem o fb e l ief .I t s se ss q uad r ipa r t i te f o rm e ncompas s ay tem o fc l a ss if i ca t ion t h a tt r ie st o organ ize a nd e xp la in l e i ng ene ra lh ow t ime a nd s pa ce a r er e la ted ,a nd s pec if ica ly ,w he r es u ch s em ing ly d i ve r se e n t i t ie sa sp l an ta nd a n ima lf o rm s ,d e i t ie s ,t h es un ,d ea th ,t h ep a r t so ft h eh uman b ody ,a nd t h es e n sa t ion o fc o lo rf i ti n to t h er e la t ion sh ip . l C o lo red o u r se lve s b y a reduc t ion i s t w ay o f v i ew ing t h ing s , w e u sua ly v a l ida te k now ledge b y i s o la t ing a nd e xam in ing i t s c omponen t p a r t s i nd e ta i l . T he n o t ion o f a l re c on s te la t ion o fi d ea s ( l ike t h e F e j6 rvä ry Wo r ld D iag ram ) t h a t i n ter la te s s ky o b jec t s , e p l an t s ,a nd h uman b od i ly p a r t ss em st o la ck t h ec omp lex i ty a nd s oph i s t ica t ion t h a ts a t i sf ie s s u s ,t h ep rec i s ion t h a tw eb e l ieve c an b ea r t icu la ted o n ly w hen o ne s e lec t sa nd d i sec t s ag i ven l s egmen to fh uman c oncer nq u i te a pa r tf r om a lo t he rc once rn s . We i d en t ify a sp r im i t ive a ny l l s cheme o fi d ea st h a tf a l ss ho r to ft h i si n te lec tua lp rog ram .B u tp r im i t ive i mp l ie so n ly t h e l f i r s ts t age o na ne vo lu t iona ry p a th w h ich ,l i ke t h e Way o ft h eN ew T e s tamen tr e l ig ion w i l l l l e ad t o th eu l t ima te r e so lu t ion o fa lc oncer n s ,i ff o lowed w i thou td ev ia t ion o ra bno rma l i ty . T he p e r s i s tence i nt h eb e l ie ft h a to u rw r i t ing ,o u ra s t ronomy a nd s c ience ,o u rp o l i t ic sa nd r e l ig ion , o u r v e ry h uman v a lue s , p e rhap s e ven o u r b i o log ica l s pec ie s , a r e t h e c l o se s t a pp rox ima t ion t ot h ei d ea l ized a nd u l t ima t e ly r e a l izab le e nd p roduc to fh uman a nd s o c ia l e vo lu t ion p rov ide sa no b s ta c le a l ong a no the r Way — the w ay o fu nde r s tand ing t h ei d ea so f o t he rc u l tu re s . R a the rt h an r ega rd ing w o r ld v i ew so fo t he rp eop le a sd ef ic iency -o r ien ted s y s tem st h a t l a ck o ne o ra no the rc ha rac te r i s t ic t h a tk eep t h em f r om b e ing l i ke o u ro wn ,i tm igh tb eu se fu l s t o exam ine s ome l o se so no u rs i de o ft h el e dge r .T he s e pa ra t ion o fe a r th a nd s ky i nw e s te rn o c o smo logy d i d n o t o ccu r u n t i l t h e Med ieva l P e r iod , w hen m ap s o f t h e w o r ld t ok o n d ec ided ly r e l ig iou sc onno ta t ion s .P r io rt o th a tt ime ,t h eb ond b e tween h eaven a nd e a r th w a s e n fo r ced b y t h ek now ledge a nd p ra c t ice t h a to ne n eeded t oo b se rve t h e s t a r s i no rde rt o p roduce af a i th fu lm ap o ft h ee nv i ronmen t .T he p r inc ip le c onnec t ing s t a ra nd moun ta in w a s a soc ia t ive r a the r t h an c au sa t ive . T he p l ace o f t h e moun ta in o n t h e w o r ld m ap w a s s d e te rm ined b yt h ev i sua lo b se rva t ion o fh ow h i gh a bove i tt h eP o le S t a ra ppea red . When w el ok a t th er o le o fa s t ronomy i nt h ed eve loped c u l tu ra ln uc le io f Ame r ica ,w e o f i nd t h a ta sw et r yt os t udy i t sa spec t si s o la ted f r om a lo t he rs phe r e so fh uman i nqu i ry ,t h e l

8 5

t so s. I m a te ro r s ub s tance o fi t dis lve s a way i n to n o th ingnes ti sn o t u n t i l w et a ke u p t h e q ue s t ion o ft h er e la t ion b e tween t h e s t a r s a nd t h e l a nd , w a te r , a g r icu l tu re , k i ng sh ip , a nd k in sh ip t h a tw ec an e ven b eg in t o make s en se o fa ny th ing w er e ad i n Maya i n sc r ip t ion s ,t h e Mex ican t emp le a l ignmen t s ,o rt ime -ma rk ing p ila r so nt h eh o r izon o ft h ec ap i ta lc i ty o ft h e I n ca . F u r the rmo re , If i nd t h a tw hen w eb eg in t oe xam ine v e ry c l o se ly t h e w ay i nw h ich s ed i p rec i se k now ledge a bou tt h ec e le s t ia le nv i ronmen ti se xp res nt h ec e remon ia la nd c i v ic a r ch i tec tu re ,w ed i scove rt h a ts uch k now ledge i s ti ed t oe ach c u l tu re 's c omp r ehen s ion o f l l w ha tw ec a lt h eb io log ica la nd s o c ia le nv i ronmen t sa nd t h a ti ti n co rpo ra te sw ha tw ec a l l r e l ig iou sb e l ief a sw e l . l l F o low ing l e ad st h a tb egan i n i t ia ly w i th t h ef o rmu la t ion o f ap a r t icu la ra s t ronom ica l s-cu t p rob lem , Ir e cen t ly b egan t o di scove rs ome c ros l tu ra lp a te rn st h a tl e dm et of o rmu la te aw o rk ing mode lt h a t Iw ou ld d a r et op ropo se a st h eb a s ic t h e s i sf o r my p ape r : Among h i gh ly o rgan ized , b u reauc ra t ic s oc ie t ie s , t h ep o l i t ico r e l ig iou sp h i lo sophy o f s ed o t h er u l ing b ody o f ten i se xp res ra r t icu la ted p hy s icaly t h rough al a rge -sca le a ppa r a tu s r o rp l an t h a ti n co rpo ra te sa nd j o in si n fo rma t ion a bou tt h et e re s t r ia la nd c e le s t ia le nv i ron m en tw i th in m a jo ra r ch i tec tu ra le l emen t sb o th i nt h ec e r emon ia lc en te ra nd a tt h ev i s ib le r e dge o f s pa ce s u round ing t h e c en te r . I n e a ch c a se , t h e a ccommoda t ion o f t h e b u i l t e nv i ronmen tt ot h e n a tu ra l o ne c on s i s t s o f mo r e t h an j u s t as imp le f unc t iona l a l ignmen t l ( s uch a s s un r i se o n t h e p a t ron s a in t 's d ay ) . U sua ly , e nv i ronmen ta l t ime a nd s pace a r e e i n t ima te ly l i nked t os a cred t ime a nd s pa ce t h rough as e to fp r inc ip le st h a ts em t o re info r ce l o ne a no the rr epea ted ly . I nt h e f o low ing s e c t ion s , Iw ou ld l i ke t oa r gue i nf a vo ro ft h i s sing a p hy s ica lc en te r -pe r iphe ry mode lb yd i scus nd s yn the s iz ing t h r ee c a se s t ud ie sf r om t h e sic Maya c p re -Conque s t Mex ica wo r ld o fC en t r a l Mex ico , t h e C las u l tu re , a nd i mpe r ia l C uzco i nt h eA ndean h igh land s . T he T emp lo Mayor o fT enoch t i t lan a nd I t sE nv ironmen t S umma r iz ing h i se x ten s ive e xcava t ion sa tt h eG r ea tT emp le , Ma to s( 1 984 ,p .7 8 )h a s r ema rked :" I ns ho r t ,t h eG r ea tT emp le o fT eno ch t i t lan s ymbo l ized t o th e Mex ica sw a te ra nd w a r ,l i f ea nd d ea th ,T la lo ca nd H u i tz i lopo ch t l i ." a nd ( p .7 0 ) :" The p rom inence o ft h e se t wo d e i t ie s r ef lec t s t h e f undamen ta l n eed s o f t h e Mex ica s : t h e i r e conomy w a s b a sed o n l a g r icu l tu ra lp roduc t ion ( h ence t h ei mpo r tance o fw a te ra nd r a in )a nd o nt r ibu t ec o lec ted b y l s c onque s t( h ence t h ei mpo r tance o fw a r ) .T hu s ,w ee xpec ted t h a ta lt h ee l emen t sa so c ia ted ' f w i th t h eG r ea tT emp le ,s uch a so f e r ing sa nd s cu lp tu r e s ,w ou ld i ns ome w ay b er e la t ed t o t wo f undamen ta l t h eme s ." I n ar e cen tp ape rC a lnek , H a r tung , a nd I( Aven i , C a lnek a nd t H a r tung 1 988 )h ave u sed my th a st h es t a r t ing p o in ti na na temp tt oe xp l ica te o ne a spec to f t h e n a tu re o ft h ec omp lex s ymbo l i sm t h a tm igh tu nde r l ie s ome o ft h ep ra c t ica l mo t ive s s a soc ia ted w i th t h ec on s tr uc t ion o ft h et emp le t h a t Ma to sh a s s poken a bou t . l s T hu s ,w ef o low t h eg u id ing a sump t ion st h a ti nt h er e a lw o r ld o ft h e Mex ica ,r e l ig iou s a nd e conom ic t h eme sw e re i n t ima te ly r e la ted a nd t h a tt h ese p eop le h a rbo red s p ec i f ic a nd q u i te c omp lex r e a son s f o rt h e i r a c t ion s , i n c lud ing t h e e mp lacemen t o ft h e a r ch i tec tu ra l l c omponen t st h a t made u pt h e i rc e remon ia ls pace .S pe c if i ca ly ,w ea r gued t h a tt h eb u i lde r s s es s ed c o f t h e g r ea t Mex ica c e remon ia l c en te r o fT enoch t i t lan p os e r ta in c o smo log ica l p red i lec t ion sr e la ted t ot h e my th o ft h ef ound ing o ft h e i rc i ty ,t h a tt h ey s ough tt or epl i ca te i nt h e i rs a c red s pa ce i n av a r ie ty o fw ay s .A si so f ten t h ec a se i n Me soame r ica ,t h e my th w a s ss e mbedded i n ay tem o fh o r izon a s t ronomy l i nked t o moun ta in w o r sh ip . T he i nvo lvemen t o ft h e moun ta in c u l t w i th t h e c i v ic c a lenda ri ss t r eng thened b y t h e o b served o r ien ta t iona lp rope r t ie so f as h r ine o nM t .T la loc w h ich i sl o ca ted d i r ec t ly i nf r on t f o ft h eT emp lo Mayo ra t ad i s tance o f4 4 km . S un a nd moun ta in t o ge the ro f e red av i sua l 8 6

r em inde ra nd p re sen ted al i ve e nac tmen to ft h et r ad i t ion t h a tt o ld o ft h ec i r cum s tances o f Mex ica o r ig ina t ion . T he v i ew f r om t h e s umm i t o f t h e T emp lo Mayo r a nd i ng ene ra l , a nywhe re i nt h ep rec inc t ,a l so r e info r ce st h eb e l ief t h a tt ime i t se lf ( e ncapsu la ted i nt h es un 's mo t ion )w a s me ted o u ti np e r f ec th a rmony w i th e ven t st h a tl e dt ot h ee s tab l i shmen to ft h e i r r eg ime . A t amo re s pec if i c l e ve l , t h e h o r izon ta l i ty o f t h e e nv i ronmen ta l t ime -keep ing s cheme s t re sse st h ec oncep to fp i vo t ing t h ec oun to ft h ed ay sa bou tt h ee qu inox a nd d iv id ing t ime i n terva l si n to p e r iod so f2 0d ay s ,m a rked b yp rom inen tp lace sr eached b yt h es e t ing t s un o nt h eh o r izon , a ni d ea t h a ts em sc onco rdan tw i th t h ew r i ten r e co rd c oncer n ing t h e e t c a lenda r . Wh i le as ynops i so fo u rp rocedu re i si no rde r ,d e ta i ls s hou ld b eg l eaned f r om a r ev iew o fo u rp ape r . O u ra pp roach w a si n i t ia ted a s ar e su l to fs ome a ten t ion w ep a id t o Mo to l in ia 's ( 1971 t [ 1 541 ] ) s t a temen t a bou t t h e t w i s ted n a tu re o f t h e T emp lo Mayo r a nd i t s r e la t ion t o o b se rva t ion ss a id t oh ave b een m ade a tt h et ime o ft h ee qu inox .I tw a sf u r the rc ond i t ioned b yt h es t rong p reponde rance o f al o ca t ive e l emen ti nt h ef ounda t ion my th ,a nd t h ec en t ra l i ty o ft h ec a rd ina ld i rec t ion p r inc ip le i nt h ee t hnoh i s to r ic w r i t ing s , at h eme wh ich i sw e lk nown l o ve r al ong p e r iod o f Mesoame r ican h i s to ry ( e .g . D u ran 1 971 ,p .7 8 ) . T he f ound ing my th o f e r s a ve ry d e ta i led r e co rd ing o f e so te r ic r i tua l p rocedu res f e mp loyed t od e te rm ine h ow ,w hen ,a nd w he re t h eh igh ly d rama t ic p ub l ic v i ew ing o ft h e e ag le ( o rs un , s a id t oi nd ica te t h eh i e rophany o ft h ef ound ing )w ou ld t a ke p l ace . D esp i te i t sr i ch ly s ymbo l ic l a nguage ,T ezozomoc 's ( 1975 [ 1723 ] )c o lo r fu la ccoun to f t h ef ound ing my th , wh ich w eh ave b a s ica ly f o lowed ,i n c lude ss ome r a the rs pec if ic p lace l l n ame s ,o r ie ta t ions ,a nd a soc ia ted r i tua lp roces s : s se ( A )T he l o ca t ion ss i ng led o u ti n c lude : ( 1 )C hapu l tepec ; ( 2 )T epe tz inco ; ( 3 )T la lcoco mo lco ; a nd ( 4 )t h e Nopa lf ounda t ion s i te w he re t h ew ander ing Mex ica sw e re t o ld t ol ook f o rt h ee ag le p e rched u pon t h ec a c tu s .O ft h e se ,t h el a te rt h ree w e re ma rkedpo in t loca t ion s : t T epe tz inco b yt h ed ecap i ta ted h ead o fC op i l ,a l te re go o fH u i tz i lopoch t l i ,a nd t h e Nopa ls i te b yh i sh ea r t . T la lco como lco a l so i sm a rked t ob et h ep lace men t ioned b yT o rquemada ( 1975 )w he re C h ima lpopoca ( t h i rd r u le r , c a . 1 415 -1426 ) w a s s a id t o h ave d ed ica ted a n i mpo r tan t r e l ig iou s monumen t / sacr if i c ia ls t one .U nfor tuna te ly ,t h e re i sn op resen tm ean sb yw h ich t o i d en t ify i t sa c tua ll o ca t ion . ( B )T he o r ien ta t ion ss i ng led o u ta r e :( 1 )e a s t look ing a nd ( 2 )n o r th look ing ,b u tt owa rd ac ave a nd moun ta in .T he se c ro ss a ts ome u n spec if i ed l o ca t ion . O the ri n te rp re ta t ion sg l eaned f r om t h et e x ts ugge s tt h a t : ( 1 )T he n opa lw a sv i ewed b yp r ie s t s who made e a s ta nd n or th o b se rva t ions . ( 2 ) When t h ea semb led p eop le s aw t h ee ag le ,i tw a s" a si ff r om a f a r" ,s oa t le a s ta t s s ome p hys ica ld i s tance . ( 3 ) We may o b se rve ,s omewha tc on jec tu raly ,t h a tb o th " eag le" a nd"Hu i tz i lopoch t l i" , h e re l i nked a s as i ng le b e ing , r e a sonab ly w e re i d en t if ied w i th t h e s o la r d i sk , a nd s i nce o b serva t ion s em st oh ave o ccur ne a r ly mo rn ing ,w i th t h er i s ing s un . e red i T he se e t hnoh is to r ic d a ta l e d u s t o ag ene ra l o r ien ta t ion h ypo the s i s w h ich w e r e e xam ined i nt h el i gh to fr e cen ta r chaeo log ica le v idence :t ha tt h ef ound ing o fT enoch t i t lan i s re la t ed t ot h eo b ser va t ion so fs unr i se a t ap os i t ion a nd a na l ignmen td e t erm ined b yt h e c ros fe a s t look ing a nd n or th look ing o b ser va t ions ,w h ich s t ipu la te t h a tt h es un w a s sing o

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o b ser ved a top t h en opa lc ac tu s ,a nd t ha tt h ec ros sing p o in tl a yt ot h ew e s to ft ha tl o ca t ion . Wh i le w e h ave n o ty e ta s semb led a l lo ft h ep i ece so ft h eo r ien ta t ion p uzz le t o ge the r p e r f ec t ly ,w eh ave p ropo sed at e n ta t ive b u i ld ing s equence t h a tb e s tf i t st h ea r chaeo log ica l a nd e co log ica ld a ta : ( 1 ) R ef lec t ing t h eo r ien ta t ion p r inc ip le s oc en t ra lt ot h e i rf ounda t ion my th ,t h e Mex ica p robab ly l a id o u tt h e i re a r l ie s tr ud imen ta ry s t ruc tu re si nt h ee a s t -wes td i rec t ion .P eak so n t h e moun ta in r ange st ot h ee a s to rw es tm ay h ave s e rved a st h eo r ig ina lr e f e rence p o in t s . R ecen ta r chaeo log ica ld i scove r ies p rov ide s t rong c i r cum s tan t ia le v idence l i nk ing t h e d eg ree o fs kew ing f ound i nT enoch t i t lan 's c i ty p lan t o th eH u i tz i lopoch t l ic u l t ,e . g .n o te t h a t al i ne f r om t h e r a i sed a l ta r a tt h e r e a r w a l o ft h e T emp le o f H u i tz i lopoch t l i e x t ended l w e s twa rd a l ong t h ed i rec t ion o fa l ignmen to ft h eb u i ld ing ,p a sse st h rough n ol e st h an f i ve s h igh ly d i s t inc t ive a r chaeo log ica lf e a tu re s .F rom w es tt oe a s t ,t h ese f e a tu re sa r e :( 1 ) as ma l l p la s te rh ead i nt h ec en te ro ft h et op s t ep b enea th t h ep l a tfo rm ; ( 2 ) as a c r if ic ia ls t one ; ( 3& 4 )b u r ied o f e r ing s ,N o . 3 3&3 4 ;a nd ( 5 ) ar a i sed a l ta ra ga in s tt h er e a rw a lo ft h et emp le , f l w he re as t a tue o ft h ed e i ty i s li ke ly t oh ave b een p l aced .( Aven i ,C a lnek a nd H a r tung 1 988 , f i g . 3 ) . T he h a l fo ft h e T emp lo Mayo ro ccup ied b y T la loc i sa symme t r ica ly d i sp la ced t oa l p o s i t ion n o r th o f t h e e a s t -we s t a x is , s ugge s t ing a n i c onog raph ic i fn o t t h eo log ica ly l e xp res ubo rd ina t ion t ot h ec h ief t u te la ry g od o ft h e Mex ica .T h i sl i ne a l so c ros st h e s ed s se i n te r sec t ion o ft h en o r th s i de o fC ale A rgen t ina a nd t h ew es ts i de o fC a le Gua tema la a t a l d i s tance o f1 00 om i t l( )f r om t h ea l ta r( v e ry c l o se t ot h ei n te r sec t ion p o in to ft h ef ou r 55 m c au seway s —po in t 0i nf i g . 3o fo u r 1 988 p ape r —a sb e s tw ec an d e te rm ine i t ) . ( 2 ) When t h ey w i shed t oi n co rpo ra te t h ee qu inoc t ia la l ignmen ta sa ne ndu r ing p r inc ip le i n to t h et h ree -d imen s iona le nc lo sed e nv i ronmen to ft h e i rc e remon ia ls pace ,t h ey l a id o u tt h e T emp lo Mayo ra t 63/40 So l f E( a sw es t i lo b se rve a nd m ea su r ei tt oday )s ot h a tt h es un c ou ld b e o b served t o r i se i n t h e n o tch b e tween t h e t emp le s o r p e rhaps o ve r t h e T emp le o f H u i tz i lopoch t l ia tt h ee qu inox . f ( 3 )T he r ebu i ld ing o ft h et emp le sa td i f e ren th e igh t s mu s th ave p r esen ted s ome th ing o f ap rob lem a nd t h is may b et h eu nde r ly ing s ou r ce o f Mo to l in ia ' sf amou ss t a temen ta bou tt h e b u i ld ing b e ing t w i s ted a nd h i s n eed t o r ebu i ld i t . B u t t h e g ene ra l c onfo rm i ty o f t h e f a l ignmen t so ft h e l a te rp ha se s may b e t a ken t oi mp ly e i the rt h a tt h e d i f e rence o fl i nea r h e igh tb e tween o b se rve ra nd s un d i sk a lway sw a sk ep tc on s tan ti nt h ee ng ineer ing p rob lem o r t h a t t h e d e s i re t o p re serve t h e e qu inox o r ien ta t ion , o nce e s tab l i shed , w a s s imp ly a bandoned b ecause o fo the r( non -a s t ronom ica l )c oncer n s . T he e x tens ion o ft h ep e rpend icu la rt ot h ef r on to ft h eT emp lo Mayo r a l ong t h e E a s t a venue f r om t h ei n ter sec t ion p o in to ft h ef ou rc au seway si n te r sec t st h ee a s ter nh o r izon a t ap o in tc l o se t ot h ep l ace w he re t h es un r i se sa bou t2 0d ay sb efo re s pr ing e qu inox . We c an l l s t i lv i ew t h ee a s ter nh o r izon t oday b yl ook ing a l ong t h e moder nC a le G ua tema la t owa rd ro T C er la loc .T h i ss t ree ta ppea r st o re ta in a lmo s te xa c t ly t h es ame o r ien ta t ion a st h eT emp lo Mayo r ;t h is wou ld h ave b een t h ec a se w hen i te nded i nt h ec anoe h a rbo r ,l a te rA ta razana s , l a nd e ven tua ly t h eP laza d eS an L aza ro .T hus ,t h e r ew ou ld h ave b een a nu nob s truc ted v i ew l o ft h e se h i l si np re -conque s tt ime s . N ow ,t h ef ounda t ion my th s ugge s ted a ne a s twa rd look ing o b serva t ion a round t h et ime o ft h ee qu inox a nd t h ea r ch i tec tu re a cco rd sw i th t h a tg ene ra lo r ien ta t ion .A cco rd ing ly ,w e i nqu i r ed i n to w ha t e nv i ronmen ta l r e f e rence p o in t s m igh t b e f ound i n t h e l a nd scape r s u round ing t h e c i ty . T hus , i f we p ro long t h e m ean a x i s o ft h eT emp lo Mayo re a s twa rd 8

l ( a z imu th 9 63 /4 ° )t o th e mo s tr emo te p o in to ft h ev a ley f r om w h ich t h eT emp lo Mayo rs t il e c an b es en ,w ef i nd t h a tt h el i ne i n te r sec t st h e" pue r to" b e tween t wo r a the rp rom inen ta nd l l c u l tu ra ly i mpo r tan th i l ss i tua ted a l ong t h ee a s te rn h o r izon o f Mex ico C i ty a t a r ange o f4 4 l ro T km .T he h i lt o th en o r th i sC er la lo c( e lev .4 1301 ,r e ga rded b yt h ec h ron ic le r sa sp e rhap s l t h em o s ti mpo r tan t moun ta in i nt h el a nd scape ,f o ri tw a sc a led " T la locan" ,t h eh ou se o ft h e r a in g od .I nt h e Mex ica r e l ig ion ,t h i s moun ta in w a ss a id t o be t h eo r ig in o f ra in ,m i s t ,c l oud s , a nd s now .P oma r( 1981 )d e sc r ibe sa ni d o lo fT la loc t h a tw a sw o r sh ipped o nt h et o po ft h e moun ta in . I x t l i lxoch i t l , t h e a nonymou s c h ron ic le ro ft h e A na le s d e Q uauh t i t lan , Munoz C ama rgo ,a nd T o rquemada a l so r e f e rt oi ta s ah i gh ly v ene ra ted p l a ce t h a tw a sv i s i ted b y e m any o ft h e i mpo r tan t Mex ica r u le r s . ( Fo r d e ta i l s , s e B roda 1 982 , p .4 7 ) . D u ran h ad d e sc r ib ed ar a the re x ten s ive r u in o n t o po ft h e moun ta in c on s i s t ing o f al a rge c ou r tya rd o w he re t h e re t ok p l ace a na nnua lf e a s to n2 9A p r i l( 9 May N ew S ty le ) ( du r ing t h e mon th o f H uey T ozor t l i ) .A cco rd ing t oW icke a nd H o r ca s i ta s( 1 957 ,p .8 5 ) , who a s cended t h ep eak e t i nt h em id -1950 s ,t h i sw a st h et ime ma ize s ed sf i r s ts p rou ted ." I tw a sa tended b yp r ie s t s , l r u le r s ,a nd l o rd sf r om b o th t h eV a ley o f Mex ico a nd t h a to fP ueb la ,f o rw hom p rov i s iona l s h e l t e r s o f b ranche s a nd s t raw w e re b u i l t o n t h e s l ope s b e low t h e c ou r tya rd ." D u ran d e sc r ibe st h es a c r if i ce o fy oung c h i ld ren t h a tw a sp e r fo rm ed t h e re .O nce t h ec e remon ie sh ad ried t l c onc luded , e ve ryone h ur ot h e V a ley o f Mex ico w he re o n t h e s ame d ay , as e cond s o c e remony i n h ono r o f C ha lch iuh t l icue , g oddes f t h e w a te r s , a l so t ook p l a ce . T h i s f s t a t emen to f e r s ad i rec tp hy s ica lc onnec t ion b e tween t h e ma in c e remon ia lp rec inc ta nd t h i s p a r t icu la rs egmen to fi t sp e r iphe ry . l F o low ing a na s cen tt o th es umm i t , Wicke a nd H o r ca s i ta s ,a sh ad R icka rd s( 1929 )s ome y ea r s b efo re t h em , p rov ided s ke tche s a nd d esc r ip t ion s o f t h e p l ace . T he r e c tangu la r e nc lo su re a tt h e s umm i t i sa bou t 4 0m ( e a s t -we s t ) b y 5 0m ( no r th -sou th ) a nd c on s i s t s o f sive f l l e m as a len w a l s made o fr ough ly -hewn s t one t h a t mu s th ave b een s eve ra lf e th i gh ( t o l f i t w i th D u ran ' sd e sc r ip t ion ) . Among s e ve ra l s ma le r s t ruc tu re s w i th in t h e r e c tangu la r e nc lo su r ei sar e c tangu la rp i t( a bou t am e te rs qua r e )c a rved o u to fr o ck . When Ip a r t i c ipa ted t i n ac l imb u pM t .T la lo ci nO c tobe r1 984 , my a ten t ion w a sd i rec ted t ot h ef a c tt h a tt h ep i t l c on ta ined w a te r . Whe the rt h i sw a te r -f i led p i ts e rved as a c r i f ica lp u rpo se o rw a sm e r e ly a p a r to ft h er a the rs c an tw a te rs upp ly o nt h e moun ta in , Ic anno ts ay .T he n ea re s tw a te rs ou r ce , l a na queduc t ,c ommence sb e low t h eh i l . s t sive 1 l A cces ot h i sr e c tangu la re nc lo su re i sp rov ided b y a n i mp r es 25m long w a led c p a thway w h ich ,a co rd ing t oW icke a nd H o r ca s i ta s ,e n te r ed f r om t h en o r th .H oweve r ,o u r t r an s i tm ea su remen t sy i e lded a na l ignmen to f2 81°30 'o r 1°30 ' No fW . We n o te t h a tt h e f o r ien ta t ion s o f t h e c au seway a nd e nc lo su r e a r e d i f e r en t . F u r the rmo r e , w e f ound t h e t l c au seway t ob e s k ewed b y 8 ° r e la t ive t ot h e e nc lo su re i t se lf , t h e l a te r a c tua ly f a c ing 2 73°30 ' ( 3 °30 ' No f W) o rd i r ec t ly o nl i ne t ot h eT emp lo Mayor . R icha rd T own send ( P .C . )h a sr ema rked t h a tt h ec au seway a l so s e rved as oc ia lp u rpo se ; l n am e ly ,i tc on t ro led t r a ff i c . F o rt h er i tua lo ft h e mak ing o fr a in , t h ep rocedu re i n vo lved siona f i p roces l r e p re sen ta t ive sf r om f ou rd i f e r en t c t ie s , e a ch o fw hom w a s d e lega ted t h e sing d f r e spon s ib i l i ty o fd r es i f e ren tp o r t ion so ft h eT la lo c i d o l . T he c au seway s e rved t h e l f unc t ion o f b r ing ing t h e se f a c t ion s t o ge the r a nd f unne l ing t h em i n to a nd o u t o f t h e c e remon ia le nc lo su re . T he v i ew c onf ron t ing o ne w ho e x i t st h ec au seway i sq u i te d rama t ic ( Aven i ,C a lnek a nd e ro H H a r tung 1 988 ,f i g .7 ) :O ne s e sn ea rby C er uepango i nt h ef o r eg round ,a nd ,t ot h el e f t , t h e mo s tr emo te s i gh t ing t h a to ne c an m ake o fi tf r om a n e a s te r ly d i r ec t ion , t h eT emp lo Mayo r ( s ca rce ly v i s ib le t o day b ecau se o f t h e p e rpe tua l h aze o f moder n Mex ico C i ty ) .

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ren red a S un se to n 1 8A pr i li nt h ec ur tc a lenda rw ou ld h ave o ccur l ong t h ed i rec t ion o ft h e l a x is o ft h ec auseway , ad a te w h ich f a ls a lmo s te xac t ly o ne Mex ica mon th ( a c tualy 2 1d ay s ) s hor to ft h e 9May ( New S ty le )d a te o nw h ich t h eg rea tf e a s th ono r ing T la loc a th i sb i r thp lace w a sc onduc ted .T he refo r e ,o ne w onde r sw he the rt h ec auseway w a sm i sa l igned d e l ibe ra te ly t w i th t h e a x is o ft h e e nc lo su r e i no rde rt oa ccommoda te a no r ien ta t ion t ot h e s e t ing s un d u r ing t h e mon th t h a th oused t h i sp a r t icu la rr i tua l . l A lo ft h e se o b serva t ions s ugges tt h a tM t .T la loc ,t h ef ab led T la locan ,o nt h ep e r iphe ry l o ft h ev a ley c on ta in ing t h eg r ea tc e r emon ia lc en ter ,m ay h ave p layed ar o le i nt h ep l ann ing ro a nd o r ien ta t ion s cheme o ft h e T emp lo Mayo r . V iewed f r om t h e T emp lo Mayo r , C er ro T l T la loc s t and s2 °26 'a bove t h eh o r izon a ta z imu th 9 3° w h i le C er e lapon ,t h eh i lt ot h e s ou th o ft h e" pue r to" a nd a t an a l t i tude o f2 °23 ' ,l i e sa ta z imu th 9 9° .I nb e tween ,a t az imu th 9 6° ,t h eh o r izon d ip st o1 ° 54 ' .T he s un w ou ld h ave r i sen t h e re a ss e en f r om t h ec en te ro ft h e c i ty a bou t 1 4d ay s b efo re t h ev e rna la nd a f te rt h ea u tumna le qu inox 9Ma r ch , 6O c tobe r , h av ing r i sen o ve rC er la loc a tt h en o r th e dge o f th ep uer to o n2 8S ep tembe ra nd 1 6 Ma rch ro T ( e qu inox ±5 d ays ) . T he a c tua lp ro jec t ion o ft h em ean a x i so fa l mea su red p ha se so ft h eT emp lo Mayo rt o l t h eh o r izon s t r ike s ap o in to nt h eu p s lope o fC er e loxoch i t l ,a l so c a led C er o lo tepec , ro Y l ro C t h a tc or spond st os un r i se 1 6d ay sb efo re e qu inox .T he a x i so ft h el a rge P ha se V f a cade re p ro jec t sa lmo s tt ot h et op o fC .C o lo topec ( 17 -18 d ays b efo re e qu inox ) .H oweve r ,t h es un w ou ld h ave a r ived a t C. T e lapon ,t h eh ighe s tp o in to ft h i sh o r izon f e a tu re o n 1Ma r ch a nd r 1 4 O c tobe r , a bou t2 0 d ay s f r om t h e e qu inox p o s i t ion s . T he c ho ice o f ma rk ing a2 0 -day i n te rva l f r om t h e e qu inox a l ong t h e h or izon make s s en se , g i ven t h e c oncep t o f t h e Mesoame r ican y ear , w h ich , a s w e h ave a l ready p o in ted o u t , c on s i s ted o f i nd iv idua ly l n amed 2 0 -day mon ths ,p lus t h ef i ve n emon tem io r "mean ing le ss d ay s" . T he re i sa no the rd i rec t iona la spec to ft h e my th d esc r ibed i nT ezozomo ct h a tt u rns o u t l t ob ei na cco rd w i th t h is p a r t icu la rt ype o fo r ien ta t ion c a lenda r .R eca lt h a tT epe tz inco h ad b een men t ioned i nc onnec t ion w i th t h es a c r if i ce o fC op i la nd t h a th i sd ecap i ta ted h ead h ad s b een p laced a t op t h a to u tc rop i n L ake T excoco l e st han f i ve km .f r om T enoch t i t lan .T hough l l i ti s n o t k nown t o b e ma rked a r ch i tec tu ra ly ( a nd w e h ave n o t r ea ly e xp lo red t h e sib p os i l i ty ) ,T epe tz inco c on t inued t o pl ay a ni mpo r tan tc e r emon ia lr o le u pt ot h et ime o ft h e S pan ish c onques t( Sahagun 1 950 -52 ,B ook 2 ) . Whe the rb yc hance o rd e s ign ,i t so r ien ta t ion v i ewed f r om t h et emp le p r ec inc ti st owa rd a z imu th 8 21 / 2 °o r 71 / 2 °N of E .T ak ing a ccoun t red o o f h o r izon e l eva t ion , s un r i se s i n t h i s d i rec t ion wou ld h ave o ccur n 8A p r i l a nd 6 l S ep tembe r ,t h ef i r s to fw h ich f a l s 1 9d ay sa f ter t h es p r ing e qu inox .T he refo re ,i n as pa t ia l s en se , T epe tz inco b ecome s t h e c a lend r ica l r ec iproca l o f T e lapon -Ye loxoch i t l . I ft h i s r e la t ion i sn o t s imp ly c o inc idence , w e w ou ld b e o b l iged t oc onc lude t h a t e a r ly Mex ica p r ie s t -a s t ronome r s , o r i fo ne p ref e r s , t h e g od H u i tz i lopoch tl i h im se lf , w e re p r ima r i ly c once rned w i th e qu inox re la ted s un r ise o b se rva t ion ss paced a te qua li n terva l sd ef ined b y t h ev iges ima lc oun t ing o fw ho le d ay p e r iod sr equ i red b yt h e i rc a lend r ica l s y s tem . l I no u rf u tu re j o in tr e sea r ch w ew i l i nve s t iga te t h ed eg ree t ow h ich t h e c a lenda rw a s i n co rpo ra ted i nc i ty p lann ing . We mu s ti nves t iga te w he the rt h ec a lenda ri nS ahagun c an b e made t of i tw i th t h en amed p o in tl o ca t ion sb o th w i th in a nd w i thou tt h ec e remon ia lc en te r l ried o . whe re h et e l su sv a r ioa sc e leb ra t ion sw e re c ar u t ,i e . ,w e re o the rs un r i se a nd s unse t o b serva t ions i nvo lved w i th t h e se p o in t sa nd d ot h ed i r ec t ion sf i tt h ed a te s? l A sw ed emon s t ra ted i no u r1 988 p ape r ,a lo ft h e se a l ignmen t sw ou ld h ave c ons t i tu ted a n i d ea l ma tch o n ly d u r ing t h ef i r s ty ea r s a f te rt h ei n s t i tu t ion o f ar e ca l ib ra ted c a lenda r ; h oweve r , c i ta t ion s f r om I x t l i lxoch i t l i mp ly n o t o n ly t h a t e qu inox o b se rva t ions w e re

9 0

emp loyed t or e ca l ib ra te c a lenda r s , b u t a l so t h a t t h e 3 65 -day c a lendar w a s n o tr ou t ine ly c or ted v i a l e ap -yea ri n te r ca la t ion s . When , a nd o fc ou r se i f ,a s t ronom ica lp henomena rec w e re ma rked b y monumen ta ls t ruc tu re ss uch a st h eT emp lo Mayo r ,t h ep u rpo se w a sa lmo s t c er ta in ly t or i tua l is t ica ly c ommemo ra te c ruc ia le ven t s .T he c e leb ra t ion o ft h ef ound ing o f l Mex ico -Tenoch t i t lan u nque s t ionab ly b e long si nt h a tc a tego ry . T he r e i ss ome e v idence t h a t t h e o r ien ta t ion p r inc ip le s e v iden t i nt h e a r ch i tec tu re o f T enoch t i t lan a r et h ep roude s to f at r ad i t ion t h a tb egan i nt h eh igh land sa tl e a s ta se a r ly a s T eo t ihuacan . T he c a re a nd p rec i s ion i np l ann ing a nd l a y ing o u t p re -Co lumb ian c i t ie s a ppea r st oh ave b een d up l ica ted a ve rt h eV a ley o f Mex ico ,e ven d own t ot h ec l ockw i se lo l ( e a s to fn o r th ) s kew a nd t h ee qu inox o r ien ta t ion . B u i ld ing o ni d ea sd eve loped b yD ow ( 1967 )a nd M i lon ( 1973 ) ,o ns eve ra lo cca s ions l ( Aven i , H a r tung & B uck ingham 1 978 a nd r e f e rence s t h e re in ) , w e h ave a rgued t h a t a s t ronom ica lf a c to r sp layed ar o le i nt h eo r ien ta t ion o fT eo t ihuacan a nd t h a tc e r ta in c ros s p e t rog lyph sp ecked i n to f l oo r sa nd r ock o u tc rop sa t th es i te f unc t ioned a s ma rke r sf o rl ong d i s tance s i gh t l ines t h a tw e re u sed i ns e t ing u pt h eo r ien ta t ion a sw e la sr e -o r ien t ing t h ec i ty . t l T he a r gumen t t h a tt h e e qu inox i sp rom inen t i nt h e T eo t ihuacan p lan i sd i scu ssed a t l e ng th b y Aven i &H a r tung ( 1982 ) ;f o re xamp le ,e qu inox s un se ti sma rked b y al i ne p as sing f r om t h et o po ft h eP y ram id o ft h eS un t h rough ap a i ro fp e t rog lyphs a t range so f 61 / 2a nd 71 / 2 km , r e spec t ive ly , t h a t l i e o n t h eh o r izon p rec i se ly i nl i ne w i th t h ep y ram id a nd a t a pp rox ima te ly t h e s ame e l eva t ion a si t s s u mm i t . H e re t h en , i sa tl e a s to ne e xamp le o fa p os le h i s to r ica lp receden tf o rt h ee qu inoc t ia lo r ien ta t ion a luded t o in t h eT emp lo Mayo r . sib l I fT eo t ihuacan t r ad i t ion i nf luenced Mex ica my th , w hy s hou ld n o t o ne e xpec t t h e o r ien ta t iona lp rope r t ie so ft h ec e r emon ia lc en te rt ob ec a r ied f o rwa rd a sw e l? E ven t h e r l i d en t i ty o fs a cred p lace si nt h el a nd scape may h ave e ndu red .I nt h i sc onnec t ion ,w en o te t h a t t h eT la loc l ike s t a tue l o ca ted i nf r on to ft h eN a t iona l Museum o fA n th ropo logy i n Mex ico C i ty w a sf ound n ea rC oa t l inchan i n ac ar iada i nt h ef oo th i l so fC er la loc . M igh tt h i s l ro T i nd ica te t h a t , a l ready i n t h e t ime o f T eo t ihuacan , t h i s p a r t icu la r moun ta in b e longed t o T la loc? C opan : T he C en ter ( Temp le 2 2 )a nd t he P er iphery ( The S te la 1 0 -12 B a se l ine ) I n t h e g rea t s ou the rn Maya c i ty o f C opan , a s i n much o f t h e Maya w o r ld a nd i n T enoch t i t lan a s w e l , a s t ronom ica l e ven t s a l so c an b e i n te rp re ted a s amean s o f t h e l v a l ida t ion o f t h e p owe r o fr u le r sh ip . I n t h e p a s t d ecade , t h e d rama t ic a dvances i n t h e d ec iphe rmen to f Maya s c r ip ta nd t h er eve la t ion o fd yna s t ic s equence sa nd h i s to r ica le ven t s h ave b een a ccompan ied b yt h er e al iza t ion t h a tc e le s t ia lp henomena p l ayed ad i rec tp hy s ica l r o le ,n o to n ly i nt h es ymbo l ic p roces u ta l so a sv i s ib le t r igge r ing m echan ism st op romo te s b s oc ia la c t ion , s uch a st h ec onduc to fa cces i tua l sa nd e ven w a r . sion r C lo ss , Aven i ,a nd C row ley ( 1 984 )h ave a rgued t h a tt h ew o r sh ip a nd o b serva t ion o ft h e p l ane t V enu s i nc onnec t ion w i th r a in i nt h e m i lpa a g r icu l tu re may h ave b een as pec ia l f e a tu re o fT emp le 2 2a tC opan ,o ne o ft h ree s t ruc tu re s a tt h es i te o fw h ich t h ea soc ia ted s i c onog raphy p os s V enus s ymbo l s . T he k ey t oo u ra rgumen t l i nk ing t h e c en te r a nd s es se p e r iphe ry o fC opan ,h oweve r ,r e s t su pon a no b se rva t iona lr e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h ep o s i t ion o ft h ep lane to nt h eh o l izon a nd t h ed i rec t ion o ft h es i ng le n ar indow l o ca ted o nt h e row w w es t s i de o ft h e s t ruc tu re . L ook ing t h rough t h i s w indow , o ne c ou ld h ave s i gh ted V enus a bove t h ew e s te rn h o r izon d ur ing t h e mon ths o fA p r i la nd May w h i le i tw a so ni t sw ay t o o rr e tu rn ing f r om o ne o fi t se i gh t -yea rh o r izon e x t reme s . S pec if ica ly ,a t th et ime o ft h eb u i ld ing o f Temp le 2 2 ,i nt h ey ea rp r io rt o ag r ea te x t reme , l 9 1

t h ef i r s td ay o fv i s ib i l i ty o fV enu sa lway sf e lw i th in o rv e ry c l o se t oa ne i gh t -day p e r iod l r ang ing b e tween 2 5A p r i la nd 3May a nd i n ay ea rf o low ing ag r ea te x t reme ,t h el a s td ay l o fv i s ib i l i ty o fV enus p os sen t ia ly t h es ame p rope r ty .T he se e x t reme so ccur t s es s ed e s l red a t h e s ame t ime o ft h ey ea ra st h e t r ad i t iona lp e r iod a soc ia ted w i th t h eo n se to ft h er a iny s s ea son . We h ave u sed t h e e t hnoh i s to r ic a nd e t hnog raph ic r e co rd t o a rgue f o r ar i tua l c onnec t ion a mong r a in , m a ize p lan t ing , a nd V enu s . I nt h i s s c ena r io t h ew indow s w ou ld h ave s e rved a ss t ruc tu re st oa i di n ma rk ing t h et ime w hen V enus wou ld r eappea ri nt h es ky f o low ing i t sl a s ta ppea rance i nt h ew e s td ur ing t h er a iny s ea son . l T he i mpo r tance t ot h e Maya o fd o ing t h ing so nt h ep rope rd ay i sr e f lec ted i nt h ev e ry e x i s tence o ft h ec od ice s ,w h ich ,w ec an b es u re ,w e re i n tended t ob ec ar r om p l a ce t o ried f p lace b y t h ep r ie s t s , w ho se f unc t ion i tw a s t og i ve t h ec or td a te f o r ac i v ic , s oc ia l , o r rec a g r icu l tu ra lc e remony o ra ne ven tb a sed o nw ha tw a sh appen ing i nt h en a tu ra l wo r ld .A nd w ek now t h a tt h ec od ice sa r eb a sed a tl e a s ti np a r tu pon r ea la s t ronom ica lo b serva t ion s . Wha t w e d o k now o ft h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween V enu s a nd t h e e co logy o ft h e Maya r eg ion? I nt h e Maya a r ea ,t h eo r ig in so fQ ue tza lcoa t l -Venus p robab ly s t em f r om t h eL a te C la ss ic p e r iod .T he V enu s -ra in r e la t ion sh ip i s fu r the rs t reng thened i n Mopan K ekch ia nd C ho l my ths r e la t ing t o th ed i scove ry o fma ize i ns ong st o Xipe T o tec a nd e ven i nt h eD re sden C odex .L ahun C han ,t h em an if e s ta t ion o fV enu sa s Mo rn ing S t a ro nD re sden 4 7 ,i sd ep ic ted w i th t h en o se o ft h er a in g od C hac . God L ,t h e man i f e s ta t ion o ft h e Mo rn ing S ta ro nD re sden 4 6 ,a ppea r sa s ap ro tagon i s ti nt h ec e le s t ia ld ownpou rs c ene o nD re sden 7 4 .I nt h es ame v e in , ab l ack g od c l o se ly a f i l ia ted t oa nd p os ly i d en t ica l w i th God L i st h ep ro tagon i s ti n f sib s cene s s how ing h eavy r a inf a l s o n M a d r e d 3 2 a b ( s e e C l o s s , A v e n i , a n d C r ow l e y f o r l d e ta i ls ) . T he b eg inn ing o ft h er a iny s e a son i st h e s i ng le mo s ti mpo r tan tc l ima t ic f a c to ri nt h e a g r icu l tu ra ly ea ro ft h e Maya .I t sa c tua lo ccur sv a r iab le f r om y ea rt oy ea ra nd r eg ion rence i t or eg ion ,b u ti t sr i tua lc e leb ra t ion i sn o t . Mo r ley a nd B ra ine rd ( 1956 : 1 34 )w r i te :" P lan t ing i sb egun i mmed ia te ly a f te rt h ef i r s tr a in s ,w h ich a l Maya b e l ieve w i lf a lo nt h eD ay o ft h e l l l Ho ly C ros 3 May ) ." Wh i le t h i s i ss ome th ing o fa n o ve r s ta temen t , i t st i l s eem s t ob e s ( l g ene ra ly a pp l icab le i nt h e Maya l ow land s . l R edf ie ld a nd V i la R o ja s( 1962 : 8 4 , 10 ) , s peak ing o ft h e Yuca tecan v i lage o fC han l l Kom ,w r i te :" The mo s ti mpo r tan tf e s ta ld ay o ft h ey ea ri s th eD ay o ft h eC ros h et h i rd o f s, t May ." T hey a l so w r i te :" Novena s may b eo f e red t ot h eH o ly C ro ss a ta ny t ime ;b u td u r ing f A p r i l a nd May , a nd e spec ia ly o n May 3...t h eH o ly C ros sh ono red b yn ovena sa nd l s i j a rana si na h ev i lage so ft h er eg ion ." T hompson ( 1970 :2 68 )d e scr ibe sc e leb ra t ion sa nd lt l o f e r ing s made b yt h eT zo tz i lo n May 3f o ra bundan tr a ins a nd b oun t ifu lc rops ,e t c .O the r f r i tua ls i nt h eC opan a r ea f ocu sr a ther n ar ly o nt h ep e r iod o f2 5 A pr i l -3May , w h ich r ow c or sp rec i se ly t ot h et ime when V enus a ppea r si nt h ew indow . respond T he s un -Venu sc onnec t ion ,b o th i nt h es ky a nd i nt h ei c onog raphy o fT emp le 2 2 ,o f e r s f al og ica le xp lana t ion f o rt h eo b se rved f a c tt h a tt h ea l ignmen to ft h ew indow o fT emp le 2 2 a l so ma rk st h ep l ace w he re t h es un s e to np rec i se ly t h es ame d a te st h a ti ts e ta l ong t h es o la r r e la ted b a se l ine b e tween S t e lae 1 2a nd 1 0 ,w h ich a r el o ca ted o no ppo s i te s i des o ft h eC opan v a ley a nd w h ich c ons t i tu te t h e o n ly p a i ro f an umbe ro fC opan o u t ly ing s t e lae t h a t a r e l i n te rv is ib le ( Aven in . d . ) . T ha tC opan o u t l ie r sm ay h ave c ons t i tu ted t e r i to r ia lb ounda ry ma rke r si sn o ti n cons i s r t e n tw i th t h eh ypo the s is t h a tt h e se t wo o u t ly ing s t e lae a l so f o rmed ac a lend r ic b a se l ine u sed t oa n t ic ipa te t h et ime o ft h ei n i t ia t ion o ft h er n i lpa a g r icu l tu re a sh ad b een s ugges ted l o ng a go b y Mo r ley .I ndeed ,g i ven g ene ra ly b ad w ea the ra t th et ime o fm i lpa ,t h e Maya w ou ld l 9 2

h ave h ad ag r ea tn eed t oa n t ic ipa te t h i st ime o fy ea rb ye s tab l ish ing as o la rb ase l ine t h a t f o rma ly ma rked at ime w el i na dvance o ft h es t a r to ft h er a iny s ea son . l N ow ,w eh ad a l so n o ted t h a tt h ed a te si nd ica ted b yt h e1 2 -10 b a se l ine f i ti d ealy i n to a n o r ien ta t ion c a lenda rc on s i s t ing o f2 0 -day p e r iod ss ymme t r ica ly p ivo ted a bou tt h ed a te so f l p as ft h es un a c ros h ez en i th ( Aven i1 977 ) .T hough s im i la ri nt h a ti ts pa t ia l izes t ime sage o s t i n te rva l si n av iges ima lc a lenda r ,t h i so r ien ta t ion c a lenda rs t and si n ma rked c on t ra s tt ot h e Mex ica o r ien ta t ion c a lenda r ,d i scus a rl i e r ,i nw h ich t h ee qu inox s eem st os e rve a st h e s ed e b a se d a te . We a l so p o in ted o u tt h a tt h is 7km b a se l ine l i e sp a ra le lt oa nd c u t sa c ro ss t h es ou th l e nd o ft h ea cropo l i sw he re T emp le 2 2a nd i t sa soc ia ted s t ruc tu re s a r el o ca ted . A c tualy , s when w e d emon s t ra ted t h is f a c t , b a sed o n m ea su remen t s t a ken i nt h ef i e ld , w e h ad n o t r ea l ized t h e p os i l i ty t h a t V enu s m igh t h ave p layed ar o le i nt h e o r ien ta t ion s cheme . sib I ndeed ,S te la 1 0 ,a t th ew e s te rn h o r izon ,w ou ld h ave b een v i s ib le i nt h ew indow o fT emp le 2i nt h ec e remon ia lc en te r ,f r om w h ich o ne c ou ld h ave s i gh ted V enu s ,b r inge ro fr a in s ,o n 2 t h es ame e ven ing t h a to ne a l so v i ewed t h es un se tf r om t h ep er iphe ry o ft h es i te .T hu s ,t h e re i sa ni mp l ied p hy s ica lc onnect ion ( a kind o f mu tua lr e info r cemen t )b e tween s un a nd V enu s , a nd b e tween T emp le 2 2 a nd t h e b a se l ine . T hey a r e c onnec ted b y ac oncre te s e t o f o bserva t ions , a nd w e r el i ke ly a ccompan ied b ya na tend ing c e remony . t Wha t k ind o fc e remony? M i le r ( n .d . ) i n te rp r e t s t h e Ma in A c ropo l i s o fC opan , a nd l p ar t icu la r ly T emp le 2 2 , t ob et h er e s idence o ft h er oya lf am i ly . S he a rgue st h a tt h er u le r l i t e ra ly s a to ve rt h eg lyph ic t e x to fT emp le 2 2 ,e l eva ted a nd e nf ramed b yt h eb i cepha l ic l d ragon a sh ea ppea red w i th in t h ei n te r io rc hambe ro ft h et emp le .H e re ,y ou thfu lr u le r sh ip i s ce leb ra ted a nd s y mbo l ized a so ne o ft h es t age so ft h eg row th o ft h e ma ize p lan t . T he r u le re n te r st h rough t h e mou th o ft h e mon s te rr ep re sen ted b yt h ed oorway o fT emp le 2 ,w h ich M i le rs ugge s t sw a sn o tu n l ike t h et y p ica lC hene sf a cade .H eb ecome se n th roned 2 l a si fp l an ted l i ke ak e rne lo fc o rn ;t h en t h e Maya r u le rs p rou t sa nd g row s .T h i s me tapho ro f ma ize a st h ef l ou r i sh ing c a ree ro ft h es un -god r u le ri s cons i s ten tw i th o u rh ypo the s i st h a t a temp t st oc onnec tc e le s t ia lr ep re sen ta t ion so ft h i sk ing w i th t h ea c to fs ow ing ma ize a nd t s pec if i ca ly t h ea ppa r i t ion o fV enu si n Temp le 2 2w i th t h et ime o f ma ize p lan t ing .R eca l ing l l t h ew ay i tw a s emp loyed a tB onampak ,M i le r( n .d . ,p .2 7 )a rgue st h a tt h eV enu si mage ry l a soc ia ted w i th t h eJ agua rS ta i r ca se s ugge s t st h a tt h eb u i ld ing m igh th ave b een emp loyed s a s ap l ace f o rc e remon ie sr e la ted t ot h es a c r if i ce o fc ap t ive s , as e t ing i nw h ich t h ei mage t o fV enus i t se lf c ou ld w e lh ave p l ayed ar o le . l T emp le 2 2s em st ob er e la ted t ot h er e -enac tmen ta nd r e -a ff i rma t ion o fk ing sh ip .T he e c e r emony ,l i ke t h ec a lenda ro fw h ich i ti sap a r t ,h a sb o th i t sp ub l ic a nd p r iva te a spec t s .T ha t p a r to ft h es cheme v i s ib le t ot h ep ub l ic c on s i s t so ft h ek ing o nh i st h rone ,V enu si nt h es ky , a nd t h e s un c om ing t ot h e h o r izon . T he s e c re tk now ledge , k nown o n ly t ot h ep r ie s t s , i s e ncapsu la ted i nt h ev i ew t h a ta ppea r ed o n ly t ot h em t h rough t h ew indow o ft h et emp le a nd a l ong t h es i gh tl i ne b e tween s t e lae 1 2a nd 1 0 . We h ave ,o nt h eo ne h and ,i nr ea lt ime ,t h e v i sua lp henomenon o ft h es un a tached t oV enu s ,i ne f ec tf o low ing o rp reced ing i t ,a st h e t f l t wo a r eo b se rved t w i s t ing a bou ti nt h ew e s ter ns ky ( Aven i ,n .d . )a nd ,o nt h eo the rh and ,i n m y tho log ica lt i me ,t h eV enu sa nd s un s ymbo l sa ppea r ing i ns t ucco c arv ing sa to ppo s i te e nd s o ft h e b i cepha l ic mon s te r d raped o ve r t h e d oo ro fT emp le 2 2 . T he e ye , v i ew ing a tt h e a pp rop r ia te t ime ,i s conf ron ted w i th t wo d i f e ren tk ind so fv i sua li mage ry t h a tr ea ly h ave f l t h es ame mean ing . A s t ronom ica ly ,t h eb i cepha l ic s e rpen tt h a th a sV enu ss ymbo ls a to ne e nd a nd t h es un l s i gn a tt h e o the r , i t ra te s t h e v i sua l r e a l i ty t h a t e x i s t s b e tween s un a nd V enus — the i r lus i n ex t r icab le b ond ing i nt h ep re -dawn o re a r ly e ven ing s ky . We r ea l ize t h ep owe ro ft h i s

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r e la t ionsh ip o n ly w hen w eg oo u t -of -doo r sa nd c onf ron tt h ese e ven t sa st h e Maya s aw t h em . O n ly t h en d o w e u nde r s tand t h a t V enu s a nd t h e s un b ea r a un ique a s w e l a s h igh ly l p rom inen tv i sua lr e la t ion sh ip t oe ach o the ri nt h es ky . Whe reve rt h es un g oe s ,s o ,t o o ,g oe s b r igh tV enu s ,n eve rv e ry f a rf r om h im , a lway s s ugge s t ing h i sp r esence . I ti si n te re s t ing t h a t f o r t h e Maya o fC opan , V enus w a s i mp l ica ted w i th s o la r t ime . P e rhaps t h is i sn o ts os u rpr i s ing g iven t h e i rp enchan tf o rc yc l ic i ty . We d on o tk now w he the r t h is w a sa l so t h ec a se f o r Mex ica T enoch t i t lan ,p e rhap sb ecause w eh ave n o tr ea l ly l ooked f o ri t . We k now o fn oV enu ss ymbo l so nt h eT emp lo Mayo rt o mo t iva te u s .H oweve r ,w e d ok now o ft h ei mpo r tance a s igned t oV enu si nt h eC en t ra l Mex ican c od ice sa nd e ven t h a t s i t sd i sappea rance o fe i gh td ay sw a sn o ted i nt h eA nna le sd eC uauh t i t lan .I st h i se nough t o l e ad u s t ot a ke s e r ious ly t h e n o t ion t h a t t h i s c e le s t ia l l um ina ry i sp re sen t i no r ien ta t ion s cheme sr e la t ing c en te ra nd p e r iphe ry? S che le a nd M i le ri nT he B lood o f Kings ( 1986 ,p .1 06 -7 )s ugges tt h a ts oc ia lc ohes ion l w a st h ep u rpo se o fs ymbo l ic a ray sl i ke T emp le 2 2a nd i t si c onog raphy ." The Maya s o lu t ion r t o s oc ia l c r i s is w a s n o t t o man ipu la te e conom ic s o r i n tens i fy a g r icu l tu ra l t e chno logy ; i n s tead ,t h ey a d ju s ted i d eo logy" —adap ted i tt of i tt h e i rc hang ing c oncep to fs o c ia lr e a l i ty . T he se a r ch i tec tu ra lh i e rophan ie sa nd t h e i ra soc ia ted my th ,d ive r se i ns ymbo l i sm ,g rand i n s s ca le a nd c ommand ing p ub l ic s pace ,w e re i n tended t oc onv ince l a rge n umbe r so fp eop le o f o ne eme rg ing f a c to f Maya l i f ei nt h eC las h a tw a st ol a s tf o rh und red so fy ea r s : t h a t sic t " d if ren t ia ls oc ia lr ank ing a nd ar u l ing e l i te a r et h en a tu ra lo rde ro fe x i s tence o rda ined b y fe t h e g od s ." P a ired Oppo s i te si nt he C e les t ia la nd T erre s tr ia lE nv ironmen to f Cuzco : T ahuan t insuyo I nt h eI nca men tal i ty ,s oc ia lc ohe s ion w a sa ch ieved t h rough ah igh ly o rgan ized s y s tem o fb e l ief t h a tc en te red o na nce s to rw o r sh ip a nd t h a te n jo ined p rac t ica ly a ls phe re so fs oc ia l l l a nd n a tu ra la c t iv i ty i n to ac ohe ren tw ho le .T he f o rma ls t a temen to ft h eb a s ic t e ne t so ft h a t b e l ief s ys tem c on s i s ted o fa no rgan iza t iona l map o ft h ec ap i ta lc i ty t h a tl a yo ve rt h ec i ty i t se lf a nd t h a tw a sc ompr i sed o fb o th n a tu ra la nd man -made e l emen t s . We c an t h ink o f t h e c eque s y s tem o f C uzco , t h e I n ca c ap i ta l , a s ah igh ly -o rde red c ogn i t ive map t h a tr e semb le s aq u ipu . Many d e ta i l so ft h eo rgan iza t ion a nd c l as ica t ion sif o f i n fo rma t ion e ncompas y t h e s y s tem h ave b een p as own b y t h e S pan i sh s ed b s ed d c h ron ic le r s , mo s tn o tab ly P .B e rnabe C obo ( 1956 ) ,a nd i ti sZ u idema 's 1 977 i n te rp re ta t ion o f C obo 's d e sc r ip t ion t h a t Is ha l f o low t h roughou t . T he c eque s y s tem c ons i s t s o f 4 1 l l i nv i s ib le r ad ia ll i ne s( c eque s )c ros h el a nd scape a nd emana t ing f r om t h eC o r icancha , sing t at emp le f o r wo r sh ip o fa nces to r sl y ing n ea rt h ec en ter o fC uzco . T he se l i nea t ions w e re ma rked o rt r aced b y3 28 h uaca so rs a c red p lace st h a tc ons i s ted o fr ock s ,s p r ing s ,o ro the r w a te rs ou rce s ,v a ley s , moun ta ins ,a nd v a r ious man -made s h r ine s .O ne h uaca ,f o re xamp le , l w a s ag rea t s t one , o ne o f as cu lp ted p a i r , c a led C o laconcho , t h a t s t ood i nt h e f o r t res l l s Sa c sahuaman . " They d ec la re t h a t ,b r ing ing i tf o rt h es t ruc tu re ,i tf e lt h ree t ime sa nd k i led s ome l l I nd ians .T he s o rce re r s ,i nq ue s t ion st h ey p u tt oi t ,s a id t h a ti th ad r ep l ied t h a t ,i ft h ey p e r s i s ted i nw an t ing t op u ti ti nt h es t ruc tu re ,a lw ou ld h ave ab ad e nd ,a par tf r om l t h ef a c tt h a tt h ey w ou ld n o tb ea b le t od oi t .F rom t h a tt ime o n ,i tw a sc on s ide red a g ene ra l g uaca t ow h ich t h ey made o f e r ing sf o rt h es t reng th o ft h eI nca ." f ( Rowe 1 979 ,p .2 1) T he c eque sa r ed iv ided among t h ef ou rp r inc ipa lq ua r te r s ( s uyu s ) w h ich ,t h em se lve s , 9 4

r e f lec tt h eh i e ra rch ica ls ub -d iv i s ion o f amo ie ty s y s tem b a sed o nw a te ra nd i r iga t ion .T he r n o r ther np a i ro fs uyu sc ons t i tu te st h eu p -r ive rh a lf o ft h e mo ie ty a nd t h es ou the rn p a i rt h e d own r ive rs e c to r ,t h eC o r icancha h av ing b een b u i l ta t th ec onf luence o ft h et wo r i ve r st h a t d ef ine t h ev a ley o fC uzco . Wi th in e ach s uyu t h ec eque sa r eg rouped i nt h ree sa cco rd ing t o l w h ich p a r t icu la rk in sh ip g roup w a s a s igned t oc a re f o rt h em . T he s y s tem o fc eque s a nd s h uaca s s em st oh ave f unc t ioned l a rge ly a s amnemon ic s cheme t h a te ncoded a nd i n te r e r e la ted i n fo rma t ion a bou t I n ca d yna s t ic h i s to ry , s oc ia l o rgan iza t ion , i r iga t ion , w ind r d i rec t ion ,c a lenda r , a nd a s t ronomy . ( Fo rd e ta i l ss eZ u idema 1 977 ) . e T he e co logy o r mo re p rec i se ly , h yd ro log ica l , b a s i s o f t h e c eque s y s tem c anno t b e u nde res t ima ted .I ti st h es ub jec to f ar e cen ts t udy b yJ .S he rbondy ( n .d . ) .S he s ugge s t st h a t t h ec eque l i ne ss e rved a sb ounda r ie sb e tween a y lus o r" g roups o fp eop le w ho c on s ide red l t h em se lve sr e la ted b yd e scen tf r om ac ommon a nce s to ra nd w ho h o ld c o rpo ra te r i gh t st ot h e l a nd sa nd w a te ro ft h ea y lu ." I ne f ec t ,t h en ,t h ec eque s ys tem d ef ine si r iga t ion d i s t r ic t s ; l f r i ti sam ap o ft h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fw a te rr i gh t s .T he s acr ed h uaca st h a td e l inea ted t h e se c eque s a l so s e rved t h es ecu lar p u rpo se o f ma rk ing b o rde r sb e tween e co log ica lz one s ,r eg ion so f d i f e r en tl a nd u se ,e t c .T he o f e r ing s made a tt h eh uaca sr ea ly w e re d i rec ted t ot h ea nce s to r s f f l w i th in t h ee a r th who w e re t h eo r ig ina lo wne r so ft h ep rec iou sw a te rs upp ly . A si nt h ec a se o fC opan w he r ec er ta in o u t ly ing s t e lae f unc t ioned a sb ounda ry ma rke r s a nd a s t ronom ica li nd ica t ions a tt h e s ame t ime , s o ,t oo , w e re a s t ronom ica lc ons ide ra t ions p re sen ti nt h el a you to fC uzco .A s t ronom ica lr e s t r ic t ion sh ad t oc ompe te w i th h yd ro log ica l r e s t r ic t ions ju s ta st h ec onduc to fr i tua la nd a s t ronom ica lp a te r s mu s tb e made t og ot oge the r t i nt h eD re sd en C od ex .I nt h ec a se o fC uzco ,w ec anno ta sume a la s t ronom ica ls i gh tl i ne s s l e mana ted f r om o ne p o in t . I nC uzco t h eJ une s o ls t ice s un se to b se rva t ion w a sc a red f o rb y t h ea y lu so f Hanan ( uppe r )C uzco ,i e .f r om ap lace i nt h e i rd i s t r ic t ,w h i le i t so ppo s i te ,t h e l . D ecembe rs o l s t ice s un r i se ,w a s made f r om a" coun te rpo in t" i nH u r in ( l owe r ) C uzco . We m igh t wonde r :D id t h eI nca d ecen t ra l ize t h e i ro b se rva t ion ss oa st o give as en se o fa u tonomy t ot h e membe r so ft h et wo mo ie t ie si na no therw i se r i g id s y s tem? O fp a r t icu la ri n te re s tt ou si nt h ec on tex to f ac en te r -pe r iphe ry mode li s an a s t ronom ica l s i gh t ing l i ne u t i l ized b yt h e I n ca t of o rma l ize t h ep lan t ing s e a son . I t e mp loys o ne o ft h e h uaca s( t he s even th )o fo ne o ft h ec eque s( t he e i gh th o ft h eC h inchay suyu ( NW )q uad ran t ) . A cco rd ing t oC obo ,t h is h ua ca " wa sc a led S ucanca .I tw a s ah il b yw ay o fw h ich t h ew a te rc hanne lf r om C h inche ro l c ome s . On i tt h e re w e re t wo m a rke r sa sa ni nd ica t ion t h a tw hen t h es un a r ived t h e r e , r t h ey h ad t o beg in t op lan tt h e ma ize .T he s a c r if i ce w h ich w a s made t h e re w a sd i rec ted t o th es un ,a sk ing h im t oa r ive t h e re a tt h et ime w h ich wou ld b ea pp rop r ia te f o rp l an t r i ng ,a nd t h ey s a cr if i ced t oh im s heep ,c l o th ing ,a nd s ma lm in ia tu re l amb so fg o ld l a nd s i lve r ." ( Rowe 1 979 ,p .2 7 ) Du r ing t h ec ou r se o fo u rf i e ldwo rk o nt h el o ca t ion a nd mapp ing o ft h ec eque s y s tem ( Aven i 1 981 ,Z u idema 1 981 )w ed e te rm ined t h a tt h i sp a i ro fp i la r sw a st h ec en t ra lg roup l o f al a rge rs y s tem d e scr ibed b y a nA nonymous C h ron ic le r( 1906 ) a nd s a id t oh ave b een v i s ib le a t abou tt wo t ot h ree l e ague sf r om t h ec i ty w he re t h ey w e re u sed t o regu la te t h es un : "When t h es un p as h ef i r s tp i la r ,t h ey p repa red t h em se lve sf o rp l an t ing i nt h e s ed t l h ighe ra l t i tude s ,a sr i pen ing t a ke sl onge r . When t h es un e n te red t h es pace b e tween t h et wo p i la r si nt h em idd le i tb ecame t h eg ene ra lt ime t op l an ti nC uzco ; t h i sw a s l a lway st h e mon th o fA ugu s t .A nd w hen t h es un s t ood f i t ing i nt h em idd le b e tween t

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t h et wo p i la r st h ey h ad a no the rp i la ri nt h e m idd le o ft h ep laza , ap i la ro fw e l l l l l wo rked s t one a bou to ne e s tado h igh ,c a led t h eU shnu ,f r om w h ich t h ey v i ewed i t . l T h i sw a st h eg ene ra lt ime t op lan ti nt h ev a ley so fC uzco a nd t h ea r ea s u round ing l r i t . 99

We f ound i ti n te r es t ing t h a tt h ef o rma ld a te o fp l an t ing i nt h eC uzco v a ley c or sponded l re r a the rc l o se ly t ot h ed ay o ft h ey ea rt h a tc ou ld b er ega rded a st h er e c ip ro ca li nt ime t ot h e d ay o ft h ep as s age o ft h es un a c ros s t h eo ve rhead p o s i t ion ( t he z en i th ) .I ns pa t ia lt e rm s ,o n t h e" an t i -zen i th" d ay ( 18 A ugus t ,2 3A p r i l ) ,t h es un d i sappea r so ve rt h ew e s te rn h o r izon a t ap o in t 1 80 0 o ppo s i te t h e s un r i se p o in t o n t h e d ay s o f z en i th p a ssage ( 30 O c tobe r , 1 3 F eb rua ry ) . B a sed u pon h i s s t udy o ft h e c eque s y s tem a s ac a lend r ica l c oun t ing d ev ice , r Z u idema ( 1988 )h a sr e cen t ly p ropo sed as l igh ts h i f ti nt h ed a te when t h es un a r ived a t th e l f c en t ra la nd o u te rp i la r .T h i ss h if td oe sn o ta f ec tt h ea rgumen t made i nt h i sp ape r . V e r t ica l i ty c an b et i ed t ot h ef e r t i l i ty t h eme ,f o rt h ec h ron ic le rG uaman P oma m akes eed a s eve ra ls t a temen t sa bou tt h ee a r th mo the ro pen ing u pt or e ce ive s nd t h en l i f e -g iv ing w a te ri nF eb rua ry a nd A ugu s t , t h e z en i th /an t i -zen i th s un d a te s ( s ee r e f e rence s i nA ven i 1 981 ,p .3 06 ) . l ro P We h ave w a lked a nd mea su red t h el i ne f r om t h eU shnu t ot h ep i la r so nC er i cchu a nd w e e x tended i t fo r s eve ra l k i lome te r s i ne i the r d i rec t ion . We h ave a rgued t h a t t h e l f o rma l ized a n t i -zen i th s i gh t l ine i n I nca c e r emon ia l s pace a c tua ly w a s d e r ived f r om i s age a s o b serva t ion st a ken i nt h eo the rd i rec t ion ,t h a to ft h er s ing s un a tt h ed ay o fi t sp as c ros se l t h ez en i th .T h is l i ne p as so ve rt h eU shnu o fH anan -Haucaypa ta ( t he s o -ca led n o r ther n mo ie ty ) a nd t h en e x tend s 2 6 km t o ap o in t o n t h e e a s ter n h o r izon a bou t t h e t own o f Q u isp icanch i sw he re o the rs t rucu tu re s ,n ow b ad ly r u ined ,o nce w e re s i tua ted .L y ing a l ong t h i ss ame z en i th /an t i -zen i th l i ne ,w h ich c ro sse sf r om o ne s i de o ft h eI nca c ap i ta lt o th eo the r , l l i s th eS un tu rhua s i , at a l s t ruc tu re t h a tm ay h ave f unc t ioned a s ag nomon .I ts ymbo l ica ly r ep resen ted t h e u pwa rd p ro jec t ion t h a t c omp lemen ted t h e d ownwa rd d i rec ted U shnu , p e rhaps i n t h e s ame w ay t h e i mage o f t h e P y ram id o f t h e S un i n p o s i t ive s pace a t s ed s T eo t ihuacan w a sr eve r sed i nt h ed ep res pace o ft h e C iudade la , b o th l y ing a l ong t h e sib s ame T eo t ihuacanf i s T -S a x is .T hu s ,i ti sp os le t h a tb o th U shnu a nd S un tu rhua s if unc t ioned t o ma rk t h e s un w hen i tm ig ra ted t ot h e o ve rhead p o s i t ion . I t may b e a dded t h a t t h e l s c h ron ic le rG uaman P oma h a s s pec if i ca ly a soc ia ted t h e S un tu rhua s i w i th a s t ronom ica l s i gh t ing s ( s ee Aven i 1 981) . T he c oncep to ft h er ever sa l o ft h e h o r izon ta l s i gh tl i ne t ov i ew t h e a n t i -zen i th e ven t ( wh ich c o inc ide s w i th b o th t h et ime o fp lan t ing a nd t h e t ime t h e e a r th o pens ) b ecame a g u id ing p r inc ip le f o rt h eI nca , ab r i l ian t s t roke w h ich a l so embod ied t h e d ua l ism o ft h e l v e r t ica l /an t i -ver t ica la x is s oc en t ra lt oI n ca a nd e ven c on tempo ra ry Andean c o smo log ica l t hough t( s ee e . g . I s be l 1 978 : 1 97 -220 ) . l T he C o r icancha ,c en te ro ft h ec eque s y s tem ,a l so man if e s t s a tl e a s to ne a spec to ft h i s o r ien ta t ion c a lenda r .I t sw a l sa r ee sen t ia ly a l igned w i th p a i r so fc eque st h a tg oo u ti nt h e l s l s o l s t ice d i r ec t ion s , b u t w e b e l ieve t h ey a r e s l igh t ly a nd d e l ibe ra te ly d ev ia ted f r om t h is d i rec t ion , p os ly t o i n c lude s t e la r g roup ing s i n t h e t ime -ma rk ing s cheme ( e .g . t h e sib l P l e iade s ,t h eh e l iaca lr i s ing so fw h ich w e re e mp loyed t ob eg in t h ec oun to ft h es e a sona ly ea r a nd w e re a l so i n tended t o a n t ic ipa te t h e s o l s t ice t im ing s ( Zu idema 1 982) o many ). S p r inc ip le sa nd i d ea sd eemed i mpo r tan tb yt h eI n ca a r es k i lf u ly u n if ied i nt h ez en i th /an t i l l z en i th s i gh t l ine t h a tr un sh o r izon ta ly f r om o ne e nd o f th ev a ley t ot h eo the r ,c u t ing t h rough l l t t h eh ea r to ft h ec i ty .A si nt h ec a se o ft h eo the rs cheme so fw h ich w eh ave s poken t h a tt i e t oge the rt h en a tu ra la nd c e remon ia le nv i ronmen t s ,i ti sd i f icu l tt o de l inea te a ne vo lu t iona ry f

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b u i ld ing s equence ,b u tw ha t eve ri tw a s , w eb e l ieve i tb egan w i th t h er e cogn i t ion t h a tt h e mo s ti mpo r tan tt ime o fy ea r ,t h ep l an t ing s e a son ,c o inc ided w i th t h et ime w hen t h es un l a y s ed o a ti t s mo s t r emo te p o s i t ion i nt ime f r om t h e d ay w hen i t pas ve rhead . G iven t h e e v idence ,w eb e l ieve i ti sr e a sonab le t o hypo the s ize t h a tt h ea r ch i tec t so ft h ec i ty f i r s ts i gh ted ro P t h ep l a ce o fz en i th s un r i se f r om t h ev i c in i ty o fC er i cchu a nd s i x mon th sl a te rm ade t h e r eve r se s i gh t ing f r om t h e t o p o f t h e moun ta in a bove Q u i sp icanch i s . A s i nt h e c a se o f T enoch t i t lan ,t h et r an s fo rma t ion o ft h i sd i rec t ion i n eco log ica ls pace t ime i n to t h er e la t ive ly ro mo r e c onf ined c e remon ia l e nv i ronmen t w a s p robab ly n o t as imp le t a sk b ecau se C er i gh a bove t h e P i cchu , w h ich l i e s i mmed ia te ly w e s t o ft h e c en te r o f C uzco , l oom s 90 h h o r izon a nd p roduce sa na z imu tha ls h if to rs kew i nt h es un se tp o s i t ion r e la t ive t ow ha ti t w ou ld b ea l ong t h er e la t ive ly l e ve lh o r izon t h a tc an b ev i ewed a l ong t h e2 6 km l o ng b a se l ine t h a tt r an scended t h e p opu la ted p o r t ion o fC uzco . P e rhap s , a si nt h e c a se o ft h eT emp lo t Mayo r ," t h ing sb ecame al i t le t w i s ted ," a s Mo to l in ia s ay s .B u tt h e se a r et e chn ica ld e ta i l s , l t h es o lu t ion t ow h ich w en eed n o ta r gue h e re .T he p rob lem i s es sen t ia ly t h es ame i ne ach i n s tance — to t r an sfo rm e nv i ronmen ta le ven t st oc e r emon ia le ven t s . C onc lu s ions l I ti s now t ime t o" a scend f r om t h ec a se s" a nd h opefu ly c ome t os ome g ene ra lt r u th s . ra R e spond ing t ot h et h ough t -p rovok ing g u ide l ine st h a tD av id C ar sco h a sp rov ided f o rt h i s s s ympo s ium , Id ec ided t or e v iew a nd r e th ink t h ree c a se s t ud ie sa soc ia ted w i th t h er e sea rch i n w h ich Ih ad p a r t ic ipa ted o n t h e d e l inea t ion o f c a lend r ica l s y s tem s v i a o r ien ta t ion t p r inc ip le s . I nt h ec on tex to ft h i sc onf e rence , Ih ave a temp ted t oe n te r ta in t h eq ue s t ion o f l w he the rt h e se d i ve r se ,d i sconnec ted c u l tu r e se xh ib i ted a ny th ing i nc ommon ,b o th f o rma ly s ua l si sing a nd p ro ces ly i nt h ew ay t h ey h ave g one a bou tc l as fy ing ,e xp res , o ru s ing t h e i r a s t ronomy a nd r e la t ing i tt oo t he rc a tego r ie so fh uman k now ledge . e I t doe s n o tr equ i re much d eep t h ough tt os et h a tt h e r e i s pl en ty o fg ene ra lc ommon e g round h e re .E ach o ft h eb u i ld ing s cheme s Ih ave o u t l ined s em st o have i nvo lved d e l ibe ra te p l ann ing b y ac en t ra l ized b u reauc ra t ic a u tho r i ty .B u t ,a sC ha r le sL ong h a sw a rned i nh i s c ommen ta ry : Who se k now ledge a r ew ed ea l ing w i th? A rchaeoa s t ronomy may s e rve t h e p u rpo se o fd i sce rn ing o ne c onc re te a spec to ft h er i tua lb ehav io ro ft h ese N a t ive Ame r ican p eop le ,b u tw e mu s tb ec a r e fu la bou th ow w ei n te rp re t wha tt h e se d a ta i mp ly a bou ts oc ia l b ehav io ra nd s y s tem so fr e l ig iou sb e l ie f . Ib e l ieve w ec an s t a te w i th s ome c e r ta in ty t h a tt h ee l abo ra te d e ta i led p l ann ing w eh ave u n cove red c ome so n ly w i th t h ef o rma t ion o f as t a te a nd c an h a rd ly b ee xpec ted t ob e ap a r t o f al e ss o rgan ized o rs oph i s t ica ted p o l i ty . We m ay b ew i tnes h er egu la r i ty o fn a tu re 's sing t e ven t sb e ing a s igned ap l a ce i nt h e s o c ia lo rde rb y( a tl e a s tp a r t ia ly ) at h eoc ra t ic r u l ing s l b ody ,o ne t h a ta so c ia ted i t se lf w i th t h ea we some a nd i mp res o r ce so fn a tu re a s am ean s s sive f o fe s tabl i sh ing a nd s u s ta in ing i t sp owe r .T hu s ,t h e Mo c tezuma so fT enoch t i t lan ,E igh teen J og o fC opan a nd P a cha cu t i I n ca o fC uz co a l h ave s ome th ing i nc ommon , a tl e a s t a ta l g ene ra ll e ve l .B u tw e mu s tb ec once rned w i th t h es im i la r i t ie sa nd d i f e rences i nt h ed e ta i l s f o ft h ef o rma lp l an a nd t h eq ue s t ion sr a i sed b ys uch as t udy t h a tc an t h en b ep o sed f o rt h e s t uden t so fa n th ropo logy a nd r e l ig ion . A s i so f ten t h e c a se w hen o ne a temp t s t o s yn the s ize i n fo rma t ion , Ih ave f ound i t t n e ces ry t op roduce my o wn t a xonom ic s c heme ,w h ich Id i sp lay i nT ab le 1 .T he t a b le i s sa s e l f -exp lana to ry . F i r s t o f a , n o te t h a t f o r a l t h r ee c a se s t ud ie s t h e re a r e t wo k i nd s o f l l o r ien ta t ion s , o ne i n t h e c e r emon ia l s pace o f t h e c en te r i n vo lv ing t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t b u i ld ing c omp lex a nd t h eo t he rr e la t ing b u i l ts t ruc tu re sa t th ev i s ib le h o r izon . Mo r eove r ,t h e l a te ra r ep hy s ica ly c onnec ted b yd e l ibe r a te a l ignmen t st o th ec en t ra lb u i ld ing c omp lex .F o r t l

9 7

t h ec a se o fC uzco ,t h ec onnec t ion i s an i n d i rec to ne e mbedded w i th in t h ec eque s y s tem . If ound i tm ean ingfu lt h a ti ne ve ry c a se t h et ime p e r iod o ft h ec a lenda rt h a tb ecome st h e f o cu so fa l lt h es kywa t ch ing ,a l ign ing ,a nd c oncom i tan tr i tua li st h e per iod i n th ed r y por t ion o ft h ey ear i mmed ia t e ly p reced ing t h er a iny s ea son .I nt h ec a se o ft h eT emp lo Mayo r ,t h e s uppo sed p l ace o fo r ig ina t ion o fw a te r , t h ev e ry T la locan ,i st i ed d i r ec t ly t ot h eo b se rva t i ona l s cheme i n ar edundan t ,r e info r c ing w ay . C lea r ly ,o ne b u i ld ing c ou ld h ave d one a s w e l lt of i xt h ed a te ; b u tt h e r e a r et wo . I nC opan ,t h ec r ea t ion o f ac a lend r ica lo r ien ta t ion s cheme b a sed o ns o la rh o r izon o b se rva t ion st h a th a rmon ize sp e r f ec t ly w i th k ey e ven t si n t h e a g r icu l tu ra l c yc le c an o n ly b e c ha r ac te r ized a s i n gen iou s . T he t im ing o f t h e s un o b se rva t ion s2 0d ay s( one Me soam e r ican mon th )a way f r om t h ee qu inox ( i nT eno ch t i t lan ) s age ( s ed t o rs o la rz en i th p as i n C opan ) w ou ld h ave i mp r es h e c ommone ra sm uch a st h e p ronouncemen t s o fa n E in s te in o rN ew ton , t wo g od so ft h e mode rn d yna s ty o fS c ience , s u i mp r es s . A nd C uzco 's c a lenda rc ou ld b e e mp loyed n owhe r e e l se b u t i nC uzco . T he f t im ing w ou ld b et h rown o fe i the rb yl a t i tude ,c l ima te ,a nd a l t i tude a nywhe re e l se .O ft h e e m any c a lendr ica l -env i ronmen ta lc onnec ted s e t st h a tc ou ld b ed i scove red ,t h eI n ca s emed l t oa ch ieve o ne t h a tw o rked r ema rkab ly w e l . l t I n a h ree c a se s t h e re h ad d eve loped at r ad i t ion o u t o ft h e u n ive r sa l c o smo log ica l c onv ic t ion t h a tb i nd sh uman s o c ia la nd e nv i ronmen ta lo rde rt ot h e movemen to ft h ing si n t h eh eaven s . We mu s tf a ce i t :t h es ky i st h e mo s td ependab le .I nC en t ra l Mex ico w ec an t r a ce t h ec o sm ic o r ien ta t ion p r inc ip le t oT eo t ihua can ,a nd i nC uzco ,t h eo rgan iza t iona lp r inc ip le o ft h ec eque s y s tem may h ave h ad i t sr oo t si n time a tl e a s ta s fa rb ack a st h eL a te I n te rm ed ia te P e r iod o nt h ec oa s t ,w he re w ef i nd h i n t so fi ti nt h el i ne so fN azca ( Aven i 1 986 ) .T he re i s e v idence t h a tt h eI n ca t r ied t op ropaga te t h e se c oncep t so fo rde ri nd e ta i l ,t h ough l i ke ly n o t s, t w i th much s ucces oo the rp a r t so ft h ef o r e ign w o r ld t h ey a dm in i s te red ;e . g .t oH uanuco -a nd q uad r ipa r t i te c eque s ymbo l i sm a nd t o P ampa w he re w e h ave e v idence f o r b i - t i-i I n cawa s ii nt h eh igh land s ,a sw e la st oT ambo C o lo r ado o nt h es ou th c oa s to fP e ru ( a nd l p os ly i nT iahuanaco ) . sib G iven t h ew ide v a r ie ty o fi c onog r aph ic s ymbo l st h a tw ec an i d en t ify a sb e ing a so c ia ted s w i th t h e se c en te ra nd p e r iphe ry s i gh t ing s cheme s ,w ec an o n ly i mag ine t h en umbe ro fi c on s a nd a r t i f ac t sw ho se a soc ia t ion w i th t h ec a lenda rs t i ll i e sh idden .T he s ame h o ld sf o rt h e s l my r iad a s t ronom ica lp henomena f o rw h ich n oe v idence i nt h e ma te r ia lr e co rd h a sy e tb een u ncove red . We w e r e f o r tuna te e nough t od i scove r t h e V enu s r e f e r ence a tC opan o n ly b ecau se t h eV enu sT ab le i nt h eD r e sden C odex h a sb een d ec iphe r ed a nd w ek now w ha ta Maya V enu s s ymbo l l ook s l i ke . F o r m e , t h e m en ta l e xe r c i se o f s yn the s iz ing a l r eady p ub l i shed d a ta i s he lpfu li no rgan iz ing t h ough t sa nd r ed i r ec t ing q ue s t ion sf o rf u tu r es t udy a nd Ia m g ra tefu l f o r b e ing p rovoked t o d o s o i n t h e c on tex t o f a n i n te rd i s c ip l ina ry s ympo s ium s uch a st h i so ne . T he mo s t o bv iou s q ue s t ion In ow a sk : J u s t h ow u n ive r sa l i st h i s c en te r -pe r iphe ry c a lend r ica l mode l? Iw ou ld l i ke t os ub jec ts ome o ft h eo t he ra r chaeoa s t ronom ica ls t ud ie s e t o m y" fo rma t ive" T ab le 1t os ew he the rv a r iou se l emen t so ft ho se i n ve s t iga t ion sf i to ra l te r t h e mode l .T ot h ea n th ropo log i s t , Iw ou ld a sk :C an t h e se c on s ide ra t ion sh e lp i n th ep rob lem o f u nde r s tand ing t h e f o rma t ion o f s t a te s? H ave w e u nde rp layed t h e r o le o ft h e u se o f e nv i ronmen t ,a r ch i tec tu re ,a nd h i e rophany i np ropaga t ing k now ledge o ft h es o c ia lo rde r ? T he h i s to r ian o fa r ch i tec tu r eo r Me soame r ican a r tm igh ti nqu i r ea bou tw he the rt h e re i s a p l ace f o ro r ien ta t ion a mong t h em any p a rame t e r su sed t od e l inea te t h ee vo lu t ion o fs t y le . I n ar e cen t monog raph o nt h eP uuc s i te so ft h eY uca te c Maya ( Aven ia nd H a r tung 1 986 ) , t t w eh ave t i ed o r ien ta t iona ls h if t sa nd t r end st os t ud ie so fs e t lemen tp a te rn sa nd t h et e s t ing

9 8

o fv a r iou s mode ls t h a tt r yt oa ccoun tf o rt h ei n ter re la t ion sa mong t h ed i f f e ren t Maya c i t ie s . P e rhap sf u tu re i nqu i r ies m igh tf o cu so ns ome o ft h eb roade ra spec t so fc i ty p lann ing i mp l ied b yt h e mode lo f e red h e re . f

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R ef erence s A nonymou sC h ron ic le r( 1 906 )( 1 6 th C . ) ." D i scu r so d el a Suce s ion d eG ob iemo d el o sY nga s" ,i nJ u i c io d e L im i te se n t re e l Pe ru yB ol iv ia ,P rueba P e ruana ,V o l . 8 ,p p . 1 49 -165 ,V . Mau r tua ( e d . ) . A ven i ,A . 1 977 ." Concep t so fP o s i t iona lA s t ronomy Emp loyed i nA nc ien t Me soame r i can A r ch i te c tu re " ,i n s, p N a t iv e Ame r ican A s t ronomy ,e d .A .F .A ven i ,A u s t in :U .o fT exa sP res p . 3 -20 . s. A ven i ,A . 1 980 . S kywa t che r so f Anc ien t Mex ico . A u s t in .U .o fT exa sP res A ven i , A . 1 981 . " Ho r izon A s t ronomy i nI n ca ic C uz co" i nA rchaeoa s t ronomy i nt h e Amer ica s , e d . R . W il iamson ,L o sA l to s : B alena & C olege P a rk :C t r .f o rA r chaeoa s t ronomy ,p p . 3 05 -318 . A ven i ,A .( n .d . ) ." The R ea lV enu s -Kukukan i n th e Maya I n sc r ip t ion s &A l ignmen t s" .P ape rr e ad a tV I Me sa R edonda d eP a lenque ,P a lenque , Mex . ,J une 1 986 . t A ven i ,A . 1 986 ." The N azca L ine s :P a te rn si nt h eD e se r t " ,A rchaeo logy 3 9 ( No .4 ) : 3 2 -39 . A ven i ,A . , E .C a lnek & H . H a r tung 1 988 . "My th ,E nv i ronmen t&t h eO r ien ta t ion o ft h eT emp lo Mayo r " t ( s ubm i ted t o Am .A n tq . ) . s P A ven i ,A . &H .H a r tung 1 982 ." N ew O b se rva t ion so ft h eP e cked C ros e t rog lyph" ,L a te inam er ika S t ud ien 1 0 : 2 5 -41 . A ven i ,A . &H .H a r tung 1 986 ." The Maya C i ty a nd t h eC a lenda r " ,T rans . Am .P h i l .S oc . ,V o l .7 6( Pa r t7 ) ,p p . 1 87 . s S A ven i ,A . ,H .H a r tung &B .B u ck ingham 1 978 ." The P e cked C ros ymbo li nA n c ien t Me soame r i ca " ,S c ience 2 02 : 2 67 -279 . B ro t h ,J . 1982 ." A s t ronomy ,C o smov i s ion a nd I d eo logy i n Pre -H i span ic Me soame r ica" ,i nE thnoa s t ronomy a nd A rchaeoa s t ronomy i n th e Amer ican T rop i cs ,e d s .A .A ven i &G .U r ton ,N .Y . :A nn .N .Y .A cad .S c i . , V o l . 3 85 ,p p . 8 1 -110 . s, M C los . ,A .A ven i &B .C row ley 1 984 ." The P l ane tV enu sa nd T emp le 2 2a tC opan" ,I nd iana 9 :221 -247 . C obo ( 1 956 )( 1653 ) .H I s tor ia d e lN uevo Mundo . Mad r id : B ibl io t eca d eA u to re sE spano le s ,V .9 1 -2 . D ow ,J .1 967 ." A s t ronom ica lO r ien ta t ion sa tT eo t ihua can : AC a se S tudy i n As t roa r chaeo logy" , Am .A n tq .3 2 : 3 26 -334 . D u ran ,D .( 1 971 )( 1 570 ) .T he B ook o f th eG od sa nd R i t es a nd t h eA nc i en tC a l endar .T r . &E d .F .H o r ca s i ta s s. &D . H eyden ,N o rman :U .o fO k la .P res l s F I s be l ,B .J .1 978 . T oD ef end O u r s e lv es ,A u s t in :U .o fT exa sP res ound .f o rL a t in Am . S t ud ie s . Ma to s ,E . 1 984 ." The G rea tT emp le o fT eno ch t i t lan" ,S c ien t i f ic Amer i can ( Augu s t 1 984 ) ,p p .7 0 -79 . M ile r ,M .( n .d . ) ." The Ma in A c ropol i sa tC opan :I t s Mean ing a nd F unc t ion" ,i n C on f .o nt h eS E Maya Z one , l s) e d .G .W i ley & E .B oone , Wa sh ing ton ,D .C . : D umba r ton O ak s( i np r es . M ilon ,R . 1 973 .U rban i za t ion a t Teo t ihua can , Mex i co ,V o l . I, T he T eo t ihuacan Map ,P ar t IT ex t .A u s t in :U . s. o fT exa sP res s. Mo r ley ,S .&G .B r a ine rd 1 956 .T he A nc i en t Maya . S t anfo rd : S t an fo rd U .P res i l Mo to l in ia ,T .( 1 971 [ 1 541 ] ) . Memo r ia l es oL ib ro d el a sC osa sd eN ueva E spa ia yd el a sN a tu ra le sd eE la , e d .E .O 'Go rman , Mex ico : UNAM . l P oma r ,J .B . 1 981 .R e lac ion d eT ex coco ,N ueva C o lec ion d eD ocumen to sp a ra l a Hi s to r ia d e Mex ico ,e d .J . G a r c ia I c azba lce ta ,I I : 1 69 ( 2 nd e d . Mex ico 1 941 ) . l l s. R ed f ie ld ,R . &A . V i la R o ja s 1 962 . C han K om :A M aya V i lage .C h i cago :U .o fC h i cago P res R i cka rd s ,C .1 929 ." The R u in so fT l a loc ,S t a te o f Mex ico :, J ou r .S oc .A rn e r i can i s te sd eP a r i s , XX I : 1 97 199 . R owe ,J .1 979 ." An A ccoun to ft h eS h r ine so fA nc ien tC uzco " ,N awpa P acha 1 7 : 1 79 . S ahagün ,B .d e( 1 950 -82 ) .F lor en t in eC od ex ,G ene ra lH i s tory o ft h eT h ing so fN ew S pa in ( 12 V o l s . &I n t ro . ) . T r .C . D ibb le & A .J . 0. A nde r son ,S an t eF e : Monog raph so fS choo lo f Am R e sea r ch .

1 01

S che le ,L . &M .M i l le r 1 986 . T he B lood o f Kings .F t . Wo r th : K imbe l lA r t Museum . S he rbondy ,J . (n .d . ) . "Wa te r &P owe ri nI n ca C uzco" ,i nA nA nd ean K a l e idoscope ,e d .B .J .I s be l l( i np res s) . T ezozomoc ,A . ( 1975 [ 1 609 ] ) . C ron ica Mex icana . Mex ico C i ty :E d i to r ia lP or rua . T homp son ,J . E. S .1 970 . Maya H i s tory a nd R e l ig ion .N o rman : U .o f Ok la .P res s. rua T o rquemada ,J .( 1975 [ 1 723 ] ) . Monarqu ia I nd iana . Mex ico : E d i to r ia lP or . W icke , C . &F .H o r ca s i ta s 1 957 . " A rchaeo log ica l I nve s t iga t ion s o n M t . T la loc , Mex ico" , Mesoamer ican No t es 5 :8 3 -97 . Z u idema ,R .T .1 977 ." The I n ca C a lenda r " ,i n Na t iv e Amer i can A s t ronomy ,e d .A .A ven i ,A u s t in :U .o fT exa s P res s, p p .2 19 -259 . s age Z u idema ,R .T . 1 981 . " I nca O bse rva t ion so ft h eS o la ra nd L una rP as sT h rough Z en i th a nd A n t i -zen i th a t C uzco" i nA rchaeoas tronomy i nt h e Amer i cas ,e d .R . Wi ll iamson ,L o sA l to s :B alena & C o l lege P a rk : C t r .f o rA rchaeoa s t ronomy ,p p .3 19 -342 . l Z u idema ,R .T .1 982 ." Ca ta ch i lay :T he R o le o ft h eP le iad es a nd o ft h eS ou the rn C ro ss a nd aa nd bC en tau r i i nt h eC a lenda ro ft h eI n ca s" ,i nE thnoa s t ronomy a nd A rchaeoas t ronomy i nt h e Amer ican T rop ics ,e d s . A . A ven i &G .U r ton ,N .Y . : A nn .N .Y .A cad . S c i . ,V . 3 85 ,p p .2 03 -230 . Z u idema ,R .T .1 988 ." The P i l la r so f C uzco : Wh ich Two D a te so fS unse tD id T hey D ef ine" ,i nN ew D i rec t ion s i n Amer ican A rchaeoas t rono r r zy ,e d . A .A ven i ,B .A .R . I n t e rna t iona lS e r ie s4 54 :143 -169 .

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AS easona l C a lendar w i th V enus P er iods i nC odex B org ia 2 9 -46 S usan M i lbra th T he C odex B o rg ia , ama s te rp iece o fM ix teca -Pueb la a r t , s yn the s ize s ag r ea td ea l o f i n fo rma t ion l i nk ing a s t ronomy a nd a nc ien t Mex ican c a lenda rp er iod s . Av e ry i mpo r tan t s equence o fa s t ronom ica li mage si sf ound i np age s2 9 -46 ,i d en t if ied l ong a go b yE dua rd S e le r( 1904 -09 ) a s ar ep re sen ta t ion o ft h eV enu sc yc le . N icho l son ( 1966 :130 -132 ) n o te s t h a tS e le r 's e xp lana t ion o ft h e se u n ique p age sc anno tb er ega rded a ss a t i sfac to ry b ecau se h i s i n te rp re ta t ion s a r eo f ten f o r ced a nd s pecu la t ive . A nd N owo tny ( 1961 , 1 976 ) i gno re s S e le r 's a s t ronom ica li n te rp re ta t ions ,s ugge s t ing i n s tead t h a tt h ep age sd ea lw i th r i tua ls l i ke t ho se d e scr ibed i np o s t -conque s t Mex ican s ou rce s .T h i sp ape ra na lyze sS e le r 's a s t ronom i c a l t h eo r ie s , s ugge s t ing a n a l te rna t ive e xp lana t ion t h a ti n co rpo ra te sb o th N owo tny ' sa nd S e le r 's i d ea s . My a na lys is s ugge s t st h a tt h e1 8 -page C odex B o rg ia s equence d ep ic t sV enu s sing al i nr e la t ion t ot h ea nnua lc yc le o ff e s t iva l s ,e xp res i nk b e tween s oc ia le ven t sa nd t h e c o smo s . I n Mesoame r ican s t a te l e ve ls o c ie t ies ,p o l i t ics ,r i tua l s ,a nd a s t ronomy w e re i n te r tw ined . A ven i ( t h i s v o lume ) d emons t ra te s a s t ronomy s e rved n o to n ly t h ep ragma t ic f unc t ion o f t imekeep ing , b u t a l so h e lped t ol e g i t im ize t h e p o l i t ica l p owe r o f t h e s t a te . I n a nc ien t Mesoamer ica ,c on t ro lo ve rt h ec o smo log ica li n fo rma t ion w r i ten i nt h ec od ice sw a s af o rm t o fp o l i t ica lp owe r . O n ly al im i ted n umbe ro fp eop le h ad a cces ot h ep a in ted b ook s a nd s t u nde r s tood t h e i rc on ten t s .T he b ook s may h ave b een d i sp layed o ns t a te o cca s ion s ,b u ti ti s u n l ike ly m any p eop le h and led t h em .T he P re -Co lumb ian c od ice sc on ta ined s uch s pec ia l i z ed k now ledge t h a te ven F r ia rS ahagün 's e x ten s ive c h ron ic le sr e co rd o n ly s can ti n fo rma t i on u sefu li nd ec iphe r ing t h e i rc on ten t s . T he C odex B o rg ia i s t h e n ame sake f o r ar e la ted g roup o f P o s tc la ss ic r e l ig iou s manu sc r ip t s .S ome o ft h e se c od ice so r ig ina ted i nt h eh igh land so fC en t ra l Mex ico ,w he rea s o the r sw e re f r om t h eG u lf C oa s t( S i sson 1 983 ) . T he C odex B o rg ia p robab ly w a sp a in ted b e tween A .D . 100 -1300 i n C ho lu la , P ueb la o r T eo t i t lan d e l C am ino i n t h e s ou the rn T ehuacan v a ley , whe re N ahua t l a nd P opo loca w e re s poken a tt h e t ime o ft h e c onque s t l ( Chadw ick a nd MacNe i sh 1 967 :114 -115 ;S i son 1 983 ) .B o th t h e se s i te sw e re i ndependen t s p o l i t ica le nc laves w i th in t h eA z tec Emp i re ,a nd b o th w e re c en te r so fV enus w o r sh ip a tt h e t ime o ft h ec onques t( D . C ar sco 1 982 :39 ; S e le r 1 904 :370 ) . ra S e le rp ub l i shed a ne x ten s ive G e rman c ommen ta ry o nt h eC odex B o rg ia i n1 904 -1909 , w h ich w a st r ans la ted i n to S pan i sh i n1 963 .N owo tny ( 1961) a na lyzed s ome C odex B o rg ia i mage si nT lacu i lo l i , a nd s ub sequen t ly p ub l i shed ac onden sed c ommen ta ry o nt h ee n t i re l c odex i nt h eG raz f a cs im i le i n1 976 .I n1 982 , as umme rs em ina ra tD umba r ton O ak sf ocu sed o ns t udy o ft h eB o rg ia G roup c od ice s ,c oncen t ra t ing o np roven ience ,s t yl i s t ic a na ly s is ,a nd i c onog raph ic s t ud ie sb a sed o ne t hnog raph ic a na logy ( S i sson 1 983 ) . S tudy o ft h eC odex B o rg ia i s st i lr e la t ive ly u ndeve loped ,d e sp i te a lmo s t ac en tury o f l s cho la r sh ip . L ong a go , S e le r ( 1 904 -09 ) r e cogn ized t h e i mpo r tance o fa s t ronomy i nt h e p a in t ing s ,b u tu nfo r tuna te ly h eo f ten f o rced t h e ma te r ia li n to ar i g id f r amewo rk a nd i gno red i mpor tan tv a r ia t ion si np a ter n ing . Nowo tny ( 1961 , 1 976 )a dd s many i n te rp r e t ive i n s igh t s , t b u t h e d i scoun t s S e le r 's a s t ronom ica l t h eor ies b y s imp ly i gno r ing t h em . U nde r s tand ing a s t ronom ica lc oncep t si se sen t ia lt oa na ccu ra te i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h eC odex B o rg ia .S tudy s o f s u rv iv ing Me soame r ican e t hnog raph ic c u l tu res i nd ica te s t h a t , d e sp i te c en tur ie s o f 1 03

a cu l tu ra t ion , a s t ronomy c on t inues t ob e i mpo r tan t i nn a t ive c o smo logy a nd c a lend r ic s c ( Aven i 1 980 :40 -46 ; C oe 1 975 ; L umho l tz 1 900 ; M i lb ra th 1 980 :290 -295 ; 1 981 ) . We may n eve rf uly u nde r s tand t h ec on ten t so ft h eC odex B o rg ia ,b u tc e r ta in ly t h er o le o fa s t ronomy mu s tb ec on s ide red , e spec ia ly i nl i gh to fn ew i n te rp re t ive t o l s a va i lab le l o t h rough t h ed eve lop ing i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry f i e ld o fa r chaeoa s t ronomy . Many o ft h eg od sa r e a c tua ly s t a rg od s( M i lb ra th 1 980 ) ,a nd many a s pec t so ft h ea nc ien tc a lenda rc an b el i nked l t o as t ronomy ( Aven i1 980 ) .I ts em sl i ke ly t h a tr e f e rence st ot h es e a son so ccu ri n some p a r t s e o ft h eC odex B o rg ia , a st h ey d oi nP o s tc las od ice s ,l i ke t h eC odex Mad r id a nd sic Maya c D re sden C odex ( M i lb ra th 1 981 ; B r i cke r 1 988 ) . O the rs e c t ion so ft h e C odex B o rg ia m ay d ea lw i th h o ro scope a s t ro logy ,w h ich i sk nown t ob e ad om inan ta spec ti nC o lon ia lp e r iod A z tec r i tua la lmanac s . Many o ft h ea s t ronom ica lg od si nP o s tc las ican r el ig ion r ema in t ob ei d en t if ied , sic Mex b u to ne o ft h ep r inc ipa ls t a rg od s ,V enu s ,i se spec ialy i mpo r tan ti n th eC odex B o rg ia .S e le r ( 1 963 ) i d en t if ie s a n 1 8 -page s equence ( 29 -46 ) a s ar e p re sen ta t ion o fp a r to ft h e 5 84 -day V enu sc yc le .H ep o in t so u tt h a tt h i ss e c t ion h a sn op a r a le li n ot he rm anu sc r ip t so ft h eC odex l B o rg ia g roup .S e le rd eve lop sh i si n te rp re ta t ion si n6 1d en se ly w o rded p age s ,c on sequen t ly i ti s no tp os le t od e ta i lh i sa r gumen t sh e re ,e xcep tt oa dd res pec if ic p rob lem sw i th h i s sib s s i n te rp r e ta t ion a nd s umma r ize t h el a you to fp ha se sh es ugge s t s( F igu re 1 , Co lumn 2 ) .T he i n te rp r e ta t ion p re sen ted h e re w i ls ugge s ta na l te rna t ive e xp lana t ion t h a td oe sn o tc onf l ic t l w i th t h e mo r ec onv inc ing a spec t so ft h eS e le rh ypo the s i s . S e le r 's a na ly s i so fd ay s i gn si np age s2 9 -46 i sh i gh ly s pecu la t ive .H es em st of o r ce a n e i c onog raph ic i n te rp r e ta t ion b a sed o nt h ef ou rc a rd ina ld i rec t ion s ,o ve r look ing d a ta t h a td o n o ts uppo r th i st h eo r ie s .H ef a i l st ol i nk t h ed a te sw i th V enu sp ha se s .I nf a c t ,t h ed ay s i gn s mo s tc ommon i nt h ep age sa r en o tr e la ted t ot h ei n te rva l so fd ay s i gn st y p ica lo f aV enu s c a lenda r ,s uch a st h o se o np age s 1 5 -17 o ft h eC odex B o rg ia ( Se le r1 904 :367 -370 ) ,a nd a r e i n s tead mo re s ugge s t ive o f as o la rc a lenda r . S o lar P er iod si nt he C od ex B org ia N owo tny ( 1976 :26 ) s ugge s t st h ep redom inan ta rangemen to fd ay s i gn so np age s2 9 r 4 6r e f e r st o af ou rp a r td i v i s ion o ft h e2 60 -day c a lenda r .T he d ay s i gn sa ppea ri ns e t so ff ou r d ay ss pa ced a tf i ve -day i n t e rva l s , af o rma tu se fu li n ca lcu la t ing d a te si nt h e3 65 -day f e s t iva l c a lenda r ,a sN owo tny ( 1976 :27 )p o in t so u t . T he l a you to fd ay s i gn si n page s2 9 -46 p rov ide se v idence t h a ts o la rp e r iod so ft h ea nnua l f e s t iva lc a lend a r may b er e co rded i nt h eC odex B o rg ia ,a nd a dd i t iona le v idence i sf ound i n t h e o rgan iza t ion o f p age s i n to a n 1 8 -page s equence . T he r e a r e n o s u rv iv ing c od ice s d ep ic t ing t h e A z tec f e s t iva l c a lenda r i n t h e P r e -Co lumb ian e poch , b u t A z tec p a in ted manu sc r ip t so ft h ee a r ly C o lon ia lp e r iod u sua ly r e p r e sen tt h ea nnua lf e s t iva lc a lenda ri n l as equence o f1 8i mage so rp age s ,o ne f o re ach o ft h e2 0 -day mon th s .T he f a c tt h a tt h e re a r e e xa c t ly 1 8p age si nt h eC odex B o rg ia V enu ss equence s ugge s t s ar e la t ion sh ip t ot h ef e s t iva l c yc le o f A z tec p a in ted m anu sc r ip t s . T h rough t h e r e s t o f t h i s p ape r , Iw i l e xp lo re t h e l p os le r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e se 1 8 p age s , t h e s o la r y ea r , a nd s pec if ic a s t ronom ica l sib e ven t s . N owo tny ( 1 976 :49 -51 ) s ugge s t s t h a t f e s t iva l s a nd r e l ig iou s c u l t s d ep ic ted i nC odex B o rg ia p age s2 9 -46 a r er e la ted t ot h es y s tema t ic d e sc r ip t ion so fL a te P o s t c las ican sic Mex c e remon ie sr e co rded i n th ec h ron ic le s ,a l though h ed oe sn o td e ta i ll i nk sw i th t h e1 8 mon th ly f e s t iva l s .D a ta f r om T eo t i t lan d e lC am ino ,w he r et h eC odex B o rg ia may h ave o r ig ina ted , i nd ica te st h en ame so ft h e 1 8 mon th so rf e s t iva l sa r ev i r tualy i d en t ica lt ot h o se f r om t h e

1 04

Va ley o f Mex ico ( Ca so 1 967 :Cuad ro X ) .T h i ss ugge s t st h e re c ou ld b ep a rale l sb e tween l t h eA z tec f e s t iva l s ,t h eT eo t i t lan f e s t iva l sa nd t ho se r ep r esen ted i nt h eC odex B o rg ia . S pec if ic r e la t ionsh ips b e tween r i tua l si nt h eA z tec f e s t iva lc a lenda ra nd i mage ry i nt h e 1 8 -page C odex B o rg ia s equence a r e e spec ia ly e v iden ti nc ompa r i sons w i th t h e mon ths l T lacax ipehua l iz t l i a nd P anque tza l iz t l i . N one the les h e i mage ry s em s t o empha s ize s, t e c e les t ia l e ven t s l i nked w i th c e r ta in mon th s , r a the r t h an s pec if ic f e s t iva l s p e r fo rmed b y p r ie s t si mpe r sona t ing g od s . A s S e le rr e cogn ized l ong a go , t h ep r inc ipa l s ub jec ti nt h e se p age si s th ep as fV enu st h rough t h eu nde rwo r ld d u r ing c on junc t ion w i th t h es un . s age o T he N ew F ire C eremony P age 4 8d ep ic t s af i re c e r emony ( F ig .6 ;N owo tny 1 976 :30 ) ,s ugges t ing p a ra le l sw i th l f i re c e r emon ie sp e r formed d u r ing t wo A z tec mon th s .I nt h el a s t mon th o ft h eA z tec y ea r , I z ca l i ,t h ep r ies t sd r i led af i r ei nf r on to fa ni mage o ft h ef i re g od X iuh tecuh tl i( Sahagün l l 1 950 -82 :I 59 -160 ) .D u r ing t h e1 5 th mon th ,P anque tza l iz t l i ,a ni mage o ft h ef i re s e rpen t , I, 1 w a s b u rned ( Sahagün 1 950 -82 :11 , 1 47 ) . P age 4 6 s how s t h ef i re d r iled o n t h eb ack o fa f i gu r ew ea r ing af i re s e rpen tc o s tume .T h i si mage s em s mo s ts t rong ly l i nked t ot h ee nd o f e t h eC a lenda rR ound , when t h ep r ies t sd r i led af i re o nt h ec he s to f as a cr if i ced v i c t im d u r ing l t h e N ew F i re C e remony . T h i s c e r emony w a s p e r fo rmed e ve ry 5 2 y ea r s a tt h e t ime t h e P le iade sr eached z en i th a t midn igh t ; ( Sahagün 1 950 -82 : IV , 1 43 ;V I ,2 8 ,3 2 ) .T he c h ron i I c l e r s Mo to l in ia ( 1967 :42 ,5 7 ,5 8 )a nd Mend ie ta ( 1971 :101 )b o th a g ree t h a tt h eN ew F i re C e remony c o inc ided w i th t h e mon th P anque tzal iz t l i , ac or la t ion t h a ti sa l so c onf i rmed b y re C odex B o rbon icu s 3 4 , w h ich s how s aN ew F i r e C e remony p e r fo rmed i nt h e mon th o f P anque tza l iz t l i . T he N ew F i re C e remony r ep re sen ted t h ec u lm ina t ing momen to f a5 2 -yea rc yc le w hen t h ef e s t iva lc a lenda r me shed w i th as pec if ic d ay o ft h e2 60 -day r i tua lc a lenda r .T he A z tec s t imed t h e c e remony b y w a i t ing u n t i l t h e P le iade s r eached z en i th a tm idn igh t ( Sahagün 1 950 -1982 : IV , 1 43 ) . T he c e remony c o inc ided w i th P anque tza l iz t l i a tt h e t ime o f t h e c onque s t .T o ma in ta in t h i sc or la t ion b e tween t h e3 65 -day c a lenda ra nd t h ea c tua ls t e la r re l a nd s o la ry ea r , s ome f o rm o fi n te rca la t ion w a s n ece ssa ry . S ahagün ( 1950 1 982 : IV , 1 44 ) n o te st h a ti ti s li ke ly t h a tt h eA z tecs a dded a ne x t ra d ay t ot h e i rc a lenda re ve ry f ou ry ea r s d u r ing t h ec e remony o fP i lauanal iz t l ih e ld i nh ono ro ft h ef i re g od . l T he q ue s t ion o fa n i n te r ca la t ion i s much d eba ted , a nd s pace d oes n o t p e rm i t af u l l d i scus .K rupp ( 1982 )a nd B roda ( 1982 )a g ree t h a t ,i ft h em idn igh tz en i th o ft h eP le iade s sion s i gna led t h et ime o ft h eN ew F i re C e remony ,t h e re mu s th ave b een a ni n ter ca la t ion .T he y ea r sw e re n amed f o rt h et o na lpohua l id ay t h a tc o inc ided w i th t h e3 60 th d ay o ft h ey ea r . l C lea r ly t h ec yc le o ft h et o na lpohua l ii nvo lved n oi n te rca la t ion ,a nd w en to nu n in ter ted , l rup p rov id ing as e cu re f r amewo rk f o rn am ing t h ey ea r s .N eve r the les h ec or la t ion b e tween s, t re t h e f e s t iva l c a lenda r a nd t h e s o la r y ea r c ou ld b e a d ju s ted w i thou t a l te r ing t h e o rde r ly s equence o fd ay si nt h e2 60 -day c a lenda r . T he A z tec s p robab ly u sed a s t ronom ica l o b se rva t ion s t oa d jus t t h e f e s t iva l c a lenda r . E ve ry 1 04 y ea r st h eV enu sc yc le m eshed w i th t h ef e s t iva lc a lenda ra nd t ona lpohua l is ot h a t l V enus w a si na pp rox ima te ly t h es ame p o s i t ion a nd p ha se o nt h es ame d ay o ft h e3 65 -day f e s t iva lc a lenda r ,c or ina t ing w i th t h el una r ,a nd d iv ina t ion c a lenda r s . T h is i s due t ot h e rd f a c tt h a te i gh t3 65 -day y ea r se qua lf i ve V enu sc yc les a nd 9 9 l u na t ions , a nd t h e 1 04 -yea r p e r iod i s amu l t ip le o fe i gh t( Lounsbu ry 1 983 ; A ven i 1 983 ) .T he mean s ynod ic p er iod o f V enu si s 583 .92 d ay s ,w h ich f a ls s ho r to ft h ew ho le n umbe r5 84 ,s o ag i ven V enu se ven t l wou ld b es en t oo ccu rf i ve d ay se a r l ie re very 1 04 y ea r s .N ever the les h el una rc yc le a nd e s, t d iv ina t ion c a lenda r wou ld s t i l m e sh e xac t ly a s t h ey d id i n t h e p a s t , a nd p e rhap s t h i s l 1 05

c or la t ion ,a l ong w i th o b se rva t ion o ft h eP le iades a tt h et ime o ft h eN ew F i re C e remony , re a lowed t h eA z tecs t oa ccu ra te ly a d jus tt h eV enus c a lenda r . l T he re i sc ons ide rab le v a r ia t ion i nt h ed a te sa s cr ibed t ot h e mon ths i nt h eA z tec f e s t iva l c a lenda r . T he c a lenda r d a te s r e co rded i n S ahagün 's P r imeros Memor ia l es ( J imenez Mo reno 1 974 ) a r e e i gh t d ays e a r l ie r t h an t ho se n o ted i n C a so 's ( 1971 :344 -345 ) a nd N icho lson 's ( 1971 :Tab le 4 )s yn the s is o ft h eA z tec c a lenda r .T h is a na lys is u se sS ahagün 's d a te sb ecause t h ey a r ea mong t h ee a r l ie s tr e co rd so ff e s t iva ld a te sa nd may mo re a ccu ra te ly r e f lec t t h e P re -conque s tc a lenda r . I t is p o ss ib le t h a tf e s t iva l d a te s w e re f i xed l o ca ly b y l p r ie s t s , r e su l t ing i nv a r ia t ions r ef lec t ing d i f e ren tp r ac t ice s among Mex ican g roups t h a t f p rov ided i n fo rma t ion f o rS pan i sh c h ron ic le r s . P anque tza l iz t l i ,t h e 1 5 th A z tec mon th ,c or spond st ot h eb eg inn ing o ft h ed ry s ea son . re D a ta i n S ahagun ' sP r imeros Memor ia le s i nd ica te t h i s w a s a l so t h e a nnua l f e s t iva l c e leb ra t ing t h eb i r th o fH u i tz i lopoch t l i( J imenez Mo r eno 1 974 :56 ) .H u i tz i lopoch t l iw a sa w ar rg od a soc ia ted w i th as o la rc u l t ( N icho l son 1 971 :425 -426 ) . Among t h e A z tecs , rio s w ar ra c t iv i ty w a sd om inan td u r ing t h ed ry s ea son ( M i lb ra th 1 988b :63 ) .T h i sw ar rg od rio rio may embody t h ed ry s ea son s un ( M i lb ra th 1 980 :294 ) .H u i tz i lopoch t l i 's b i r thday i nP an q ue tza l iz t l ip robab ly s e rved t or eaf rm t h ep owe ro ft h es un ,r e info r c ing i ti ni t sj ou rney t o fi t h es ou the rn e x t reme o ft h e s ky a tt h ew in te rs o l s t ice . T he S o lar Nad ir T he b eg inn ing o f Panque tza l iz t l i ,a cco rd ing t oP r imeros Memor ia les ,f e lo n Novembe r l 1 2 ,e qu iva len tt o Novembe r2 2i no u rG rego r ian c a lenda r .A t1 9d eg ree sl a t i tude t h is i sa l so t h ed a te f o rt h es o la rn ad i r ,w h ich i st h es e a sona lc omp lemen tt ot h es o la rz en i th s i x mon th s l a te r ( M i lb ra th 1 980 :292 ) . T he s o la r n ad i r c an b e c a lcu la ted u s ing a n e pheme r i s t o d e te rm ine t h e d ay t h e s un 's d ec l ina t ion s ou th o ft h e e qua to r i se qua l t ot h e o b serve r 's l a t i tude n o r th o ft h ee qua to r .A t1 8d eg ree sl a t i tude n o r th t h es o la rn ad i rf a l so n Novembe r l 1 7o r1 8 ,w he reas a t1 9d eg rees l a t i tude t h es o la rn ad i rf a l so n Novembe r2 1o r2 2 .T h is t y pe l o fm ea su remen tw a sc e r ta in ly n o tp a r to ft h eA z tec s y s tem .b u tw ha tt h ey d id r e cogn ize w a s t h eo ppo s i t ion o ft h es un a nd t h eP le iade sa tt h et ime o ft h e Novembe rs o la rn ad i r . T he a s t ronom ica ln ad i ro ft h es un c or spond st ot h eb eg inn ing o ft h ed ry s e a son ,w hen re t h es un a tm idn igh ti s1 80 d eg rees a way f r om t h eP le iade sa tz en i th .A nd t h es o la rn ad i ri n Novembe ri s si x mon th sf r om t h es o la rz en i th i n May ,w h ich c o inc ides w i th t h eb eg inn ing o ft h er a iny s ea son i nC en t ra l Mex ico . Whe rea st h ez en i th s un i s ove rhead a t noon , a tt h e s o la rn ad i rt h es un i s di rec t ly b e low t h ee a r th a tm idn igh t ,l i t e ra ly o nt h eo ppos i te s i de o f l t h ee a r th f r om t h ep o s i t ion o ft h eo b serve r .T h i sp henomenon c an n o tb eo b se rved d i rec t ly , b u ti tc an b ed educed b yw a tch ing t h ep o s i t ion o ft h ee c l ip t ic ,t h e s un 's p a th t h rough t h e s t a r s . When t h e e c l ip t ic s t and s o n e nd a tm idn igh t , l i ke ag i an tw hee l w i th t h e P le iade s o ve rhead ,t h es un i s1 80 d eg ree sb e low t h eo b se rve r( M i lb ra th 1 980 :F ig . 1 ) .A si nt h ec a se o ft h es o la rz en i th ,t h ed a te o ft h es o la rn ad i rd epend so nt h el a t i tude o ft h eo b se rve r .L ike t h e May s o la r z en i th , t h e Novembe r s o la r n ad i r m a rk s t h e t r an s i t ion b e tween t h e t wo s ea son s i n Mex ico : t h e r a iny a nd d ry s e a sons . N o d oub t i n te re s t i np red ic t ing s ea sona l c hange l e dt oa s t ronom ica lo b serva t ions t h a te mpha s ized t h e s o la rz en i th a nd n ad i r , a nd c or ing s t e la re ven t s , s uch a st h em idn igh tz en i th o ft h eP le iades . respond l L ink s w i th o ther A z tec F es t iva l s S tudy ing o the rp age s i nt h e C odex B o rg ia s equence i nd ica te s f u r the r l i nk s w i th t h e A z tec f e s t iva l c a lenda r . E ach p age r ep r esen t s ad i s t inc ti mage t h a t may c or la te w i th a re d i f e ren tt ime p e r iod . Mo s tp age sh ave ac en t ra ld e s ign f r amed b y ab o rde r .S ome b o rde r s f

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s, i a r ef o rmed b yt h eb ody o f amon s t rou sg oddes d en t if ied b yS e le r( 1963 :49 )a st h ee a r th g odde ss . O the rb o rde rd ev ice si n c lude r e c tangu la rf r ame sd eco ra ted w i th s t a r sa nd a she s ( F igu r e 1 ,c o lumn 3 ) .T he b o rde r sf r ame t h ep age s ,s e pa r a t ing t h em f r om t h en e ighbo r ing p age s ,a nd a l so i n co rpo ra te t r an s i t iona le l emen t st h a tl e ad i n to t h en ex tp age . p T en o ft h e1 8p age sh ave ac en t ra ld e s ign ( p .2 9 ,3 0 ,3 2 ,3 6 ,3 9 ,4 0 ,4 1 ,4 3 ,4 4 ,4 6 ) .T he ra f r ema in ing p ages h ave amo r e n ar t ive q ua l i ty , w i th v a r iou s i mage s d ep ic t ing d i f e ren t e a c t ion s ,b u ts ome t im e s as pec i f ic r i tua ls c ene s em st od om ina te t h ep age ,a so np age s3 3 l l a nd 3 4 ( F ig . 3 ) . T he f o cu s o n c en t ra ly p l aced d e i t ie s a low s u s t os e lec tt h ep r ima ry o r d om inan t d e i ty o n mo s t p age s . C ompa r ing t h e c en t ra l i mage s i nt h e se p age s w i th t h e re p r inc ipa ld e i t ie so ft h eA z tec f e s t iva lc a lenda rr evea l sc or la t ions u se f u li na l ign ing t h e C odex B o rg ia s equence w i th s p e c if ic A z tec mon th ly f e s t iva l s . X ipe T o tec 's ma in c e remony w a sc e leb ra ted i n Ma r ch d u r ing t h e2 nd mon th ,T la cax i p ehua l iz t l i ( N icho l son 1 971 :Tab le 4 ) . T he d a t e s i nP r imero s Memor ia le s ( 2 /26 -3 / 17 , re J u l ian C a lenda r ; 3 / 8 -3 /29 ,G rego r ian C a lenda r )c or la te w i th t h es p r ing e qu inox ( F igu re 1 ,c o lumn s 8a nd 9 ) .E ven u s ing t h el a te rd a te ss ugge s ted i nt h ed a ta c omp i led b yN icho l son s ( 1971 ) a nd C a so ( 1 971 ) , t h e s p r ing e qu inox i sf i rm ly a so c ia ted w i th t h i s mon th ( P . ra C ar s co 1 976 ) . As p r ing e qu inox c e remony i nt h e2 nd mon th m ay b er ep r e sen ted o np age 3 e 3 o ft h eC odex B o rg ia ( F ig . 3 ) , w he re w e s e ad ead X ipe T o tec , l a y ing i nf r on to ft h e t emp le . T h i s i mage ry s ugge s t s c ompa r i son w i th t h e mon th T lacax ipehua l iz t l i w hen l 1, 4 c ap t ive sc a led t h ex i pe t o to tec iw e re s a c r i f iced ( Sahagun 1 950 -1982 :1 7 ) .T he s un d i sk r i s ing a bove t h ep eak ed t emp le r oo fo nC odex B o rg ia 3 3c ou ld i nd ica te al i nk w i th t h es p r ing e qu inox . A s A ven i ( 1 980 :245 -248 ; A ven i e ta l . 1 988 ) n o te s , t h e A z tec s o r ien ted t h e i r p r inc ipa lt emp le s ot h a tt h es un d i sk wou ld r i se b eh ind t h et w in p y ram id ,b ecom ing v i s ib le o ve rt h er oo fo nt h ee qu inox . T he 6 t h mon th o ft h eA z tec f e s t iva lc a lenda r ,E tza lcua l iz t l i ,h ono r ed t h er a in g od T la loc a st h ep r inc ipa ld e i ty ( N icho l son 1 971 :Tab le 4 ) .I nN icho l son 's s yn the s i s ,t h ed a te sf o rt h i s mon th i n co rpo ra te t h es umme rs o l s t ice ( J une 1 ,J u l ian ,a nd J une 2 1 ,G rego r ian ) .T he d a te s re i nP r ime ro s Memor ia le sc or la t et h es umme rs o l s t ice w i th t h e6 t hd ay o ft h en ex t mon th ( F igu r e 1 ,c o lumn 9 ) .D u r ing J une t h er a in si n c rea se ,a nd n od oub tt h ea bundance o fr a in w a sl i nk ed t ot h es umme rs o l s t ice c e leb ra ted a tt h ee nd o fE tza lcua l iz t l io rt h eb eg inn ing l o ft h ef o low ing mon th . Mo s tA z tec p i c to r ia l sr ep r e sen tt h e6 t h mon th w i th a ni mage o ft h e r a in g od T la loc ,j u s ta si nC odex B o rg ia 3 7T la lo ci sp o s i t ioned i nt h ec en te ro ft h ep age a s af o cu so ft h ec ompo s i t ion . T he 9 t h mon th ,M icca i lhu i ton t l i ,h ono red H u i tz i lopoch t l ia nd T ezca t l ipoca ( N icho l son 1 971 :Tab le 4 ) .H u i tz i lopoch t i li s a t r iba lg od s pec if i ct ot h eA z tecs ,b u tt h eh umm ingb i rd d i sgu i se m ay b e amo r eg ene ra l ized s e a sona li mage .T he Mex ican sb el ieved t h i sb i rd l o s t i t sc o lo r fu lf e a the r sa nd d i ed d u r ing t h ed ry s e a son ,c om ing b ack t ol i f ew i th t h er a in s( Se le r e 1 963 :55 ) .I nt h ec en te ro fp age 4 0w es eQ ue tza lcoa t li n ah umm ingb i rd c o s tume d raw ing b lood f r om as un d i sk ( F igu r e 5 ) . P age 4 0 m ay r e p re sen t t h e 9 th mon th h ono r ing t h e h umm ingb i rd o rr a iny s e a son Q ue t za lcoa t l .T h i s mon th m a rked t h em idpo in to ft h er a iny rec s e a son .A nd i ft h eP r imero s Memor ia l e sd a te sa r ec or t ,t h e9 t h mon th b egan o nJ u ly 1 6 re ( J u l ian ) ,c or spond ing t ot h es e cond s o la rz en i th a t1 9d eg ree sn o r th .A t2 0d eg ree sl a t i tude l re t h es e cond s o la rz en i th f e lo nJ u ly 2 0o r2 1 ,c or spond ing t ot h e8 t h mon th i nt h eA z tec f e s t iva lc a lenda r . e Al i nk w i th t h ef e s t iva lc a lenda ri s al so s en i nc ompa r ing C odex B o rg ia p age 4 4w i th t h e 1 3 th A z tec mon th , H ueypa ch t l i . X och ique tza l a nd t h e T la loque w e re t h e p r inc ipa l d e i t ie sw o r sh ipped i nt h i s mon th ( N icho l son 1 971 :Tab le 4 ) .P age 4 4d ep ic t sX och ique tza l ,

1 07

w ea r ing h e rc ha rac te r i s t ic mou th ma sk ( S e le r1 963 :54 ) ,b u ts he a l so h a sf a ng sa nd s t a re ye s l i ke T la loc . Ac omb ined i mage o fX och ique tza l a nd T la lo c s ugge s t s ad i rec tc or re spon d ence t ot h ec omp lex o fd e i t ie sw o r sh ipped b yt h eA z tec si nt h i s mon th . X och ique tza li sal u na rg oddes nd S e le r( 1 963 :55 -56 )i d en t if ie st h er ayed d i sk o nh e r s, a t o r so i nC odex B o rg ia 4 4a st h e moon d i sk .A c tua ly ,i tb ea r sl i t le r e semb lance t ot h e moon l t ( c ompa re C odex B o rg ia 1 0 , 1 8 , 5 0 ) a nd s em si n s tead t ob e as un d i sk ( c ompa re C odex e B o rg ia 2 3 , 4 0 , 4 9 ) . Al u na r g oddes ea r ing t h e s un d i sk m ay b e a n i mage s how ing s w c on junc t ion b e tween t wo a s t ronom ica lb od ie s , an o t ion t h a tw i lb ed eve loped f u r the ri nt h e l a na ly s i so fC odex B o rg ia 4 0 . T he g od f e a tu r ed a st h ec en te ro ft h ec ompo s i t ion i nf ou ro ft h e1 8p age s( 3 ,3 7 ,4 0 ,a nd 3 4 )c an b el i nked t o th ed e i ty h ono red a st h ep r inc ipa lg od i n th ec or spond ing A z tec mon th . 4 re N eve r the les s tp age sa ppa r en t ly r ep r e sen ts pe c if i ca s t ronom ica le ven t s ,r a the rt h an t h e s, mo d e i t ie sh ono red i nt h ea nnua lf e s t iva lc a lenda r .I ts em ss i gn i f ican tt h a tf ou ro ft h ev e in t ena e f e s t iva l sr ep r esen ted o nC odex B o rg ia 2 9 -46 r e la te t o ama jo rs o la re ven t( F ig s .2 ,3 ,5 ,6 ) . F u r the rmo re ,t h ef a c tt h a tw ec an f i nd f i ve s e pa ra te p o in t so fc or la t ion w i th t h ef e s t iva l re c a lenda rd oe ss em t ob e mo r et h an ac o inc idence . e U s ing t h ea l ignmen ts ugge s ted a bove ,w ef i nd t h a tt h ef i r s tp age o ft h es equence ,p age 2 9( F ig .2 ) ,c or spond st ot h ew in te rs o l s t ice c e leb ra t ed i nA temor t l i ,t h e1 6 th mon th o ft h e re A z tec f e s t iva lc a lenda r .E ven w i th t h ed a te ss ugge s ted b yt h eN icho l son ( 1 971 )a nd C a so ( 1971 ) c or la t ion , t h i s mon th c or spond s t ot h e w in te r s o l s t ice . A l though t h e A z tec s re re b egan t h e i rf e s t iva lc a lenda ri nF eb rua ry o r Ma r ch ,t h e i ra s t ronom ica lc a lenda rp robab ly b egan w i th t h ew in te rs o l s t ice ,w h ich m a rk st h et u rn ing p o in to f th es un ' sj oumey f r om n o r th t os ou th .T he re i s some e v idence t os ugge s tt h a tt h eP o s t c las ad a na s t ronom i ca l sic Maya h c a lenda rb eg inn ing w i th t h e w in te r s o l s t ice . S uch ac a lenda r may b er e p re sen ted i nt h e C odex Mad r id o np age s 1 2t h rough 1 8 ( M i lb ra th 1 981 :279 ) . V enu si nR e la t ion t ot he S o lar Y ear H av ing e s tab l i shed ap os le c or spondence b e tween t h es o la ry ea ra nd t h e 1 8p age s sib re o ft h eB o rg ia s equence ,w ec an n ow f ocu so nV enu si mage ry a nd t r yt op l a ce V enu sp ha se s i nr e la t ion t ot h es o la ry ea r . Ag i ven d ay i nt h eV enu sc yc le o f5 84 d ay sc or la te sw i th a re s p ec i f ic d ay o ft h es o la rc yc le o n ly o nce e ve ry e i gh ty ea r s .C on sequen t ly t h e re i sas e a sona l p a te rn o fV enu s p ha ses a nd p o s i t ion s t h a tr epea t s e ve ry e i gh ty ea r s ( Aven i 1 986 ) . T he t C odex B o rg ia p age sc ou ld c ommemo ra te t h i sp a te rn o r al a rge rc yc le o ft ime i n co rpo ra t ing t a ne i gh t -yea ri n te rva l .T he N ew F i r eC e remony a t th ee nd o ft h es equence s ugge s t st h a tt h e p age sr ep re sen tt h ee nd o f a5 2 -yea rc yc le ,b u tt h i sC a lenda rR ound p e r iod i sn o td i v i s ib le b ye i gh t .O nt h eo t he rh and , ad oub le C a lenda rR ound d oe sc oo rd ina te w i th t h ee i gh t -yea r t s o la r -Venu s c yc le , a nd a l so ma in ta in s as pec if ic p a te rn i nr e la t ion t ot h ed i v ina t ion a nd l f e s t iva lc a lenda r sa sw e l a st h eN ew F i re C e remony . T he D re sden C odex V enu sp age si n d ica te t h ei mpo r tance o f a1 04 -yea rp e r iod ( ad oub le C a lenda rR ound )i nt h eV enu sc a lenda r . As im i la rp e r iod i sr e co rded i nC odex B o rg ia 5 3 re a nd 5 4( S e le r1 904 :373 -375 ) .E ve ry 1 04 y ea r st h es o la ra nd V enu sc a lenda r sc or la ted i n t l as p ec if i cp a te rn w i th t h e2 60 -day d i v ina t ion c a lenda r( t ona lpohua l i ) .T he e nd o ft h i sl o ng l c yc le o ft ime m ay w e lb et h es ub jec to ft h eC odex B o rg ia s equence ,w h ich c omb ine st h e s o la ry ea r ,t h eV enu sc yc le ,a nd aN ew F i re C e r emony ,p robab ly r ef lec t ing t h el a s ty ea ro f ad oub le C a lenda rR ound . S tudy ing t h eD r e sden C odex V enu sc a lenda rm ay p rov ide c l ue sa bou tt h eC odex B o rg ia V enu s p ha ses . T he D re sden C odex a ccu ra te ly n o te s t h e l e ng th o f t h e V enu s c yc le a s

1 08

rec a pp rox ima te ly 5 84 d ay s ,b u tt h eV enu sp ha se sa r es ubd iv ided i n cor t ly ,p robab ly i na n t a temp tt o empha s ize c e r ta in d ay s o ft h er i tua l c a lenda r ( Aven i 1 980 :86 , 1 86 -191 ) . T he D re sden C odex s how s a2 36 -day p e r iod a st h e Mo rn ing S t a rp ha se ,w h i le t h ea c tua lp e r iod i sa bou t2 63 d ay s .T he s ub sequen tp e r iod o fs upe r io rc on junc t ion ,w hen V enu sd i sappea r s b eh ind t h e s un , l a s t s a n a ve rage o f5 0 d ay s , b u t t h e p e r iod i sr e co rded a s9 0 d ay s . T he l f o low ing V enu sp ha se ,w hen V enu si st h eE ven ing S t a r ,i sn o ted a s2 50 d ay si n th eD re sden l C odex ,h oweve rt h i sp ha se a c tua ly a ve rage sa bou t2 63 d ay s .O n ly t h ei n f e r io rc on junc t ion p ha se i sa ccu ra te ly r e co rded a s e i gh t d ay s , t h e a ve rage p e r iod o f i n f e r io r c on junc t ion a cco rd ing t o mode rn o b se rva t ion s . T he V enu sp age so ft h eD resden C odex ( 46 -50 )s how f i ve V enu sg od ss pea r ing v i c t im s . ring t Ac ompa rab le s e c t ion i nC odex B o rg ia 5 3 -54 h a sc a lenda rd a tes r e f er o6 5 ( 5 x1 3 ) V enu sp e r iod so f5 84 d ay s ( a pp rox ima te ly 1 04 s o la ry ea r s ) . T he d a te sf r ame f i ve V enu s g od ss pea r ing v i c t im s( Se le r1 904 :373 -375 ;1 963 :113 -128 ) .A cco rd ing t o Se le r( 1 904 :375 ) , t h et a b le o fd a te sr e f e r st ot h ef i r s tv i s ib il i ty o fV enu sa st h e Mo rn ing S t a r ,s ugge s t ing t h e s ke le ta lV enu sg od o np age 5 3c ou ld r e p r e sen tt h e Mo rn ing S t a rr e appea r ing a f te rc on junc f t i on w i th t h es un . O np age 5 4 ,T lahu izca lpan tecuh t l iw ea r st h ree d i f e ren ta n ima l ma sk s , sib r e p r e sen t ing d ay s i gn s . P os ly t h ey r e p re sen td a te s s ubd iv id ing t h eV enu sp ha se s . T he t wo r ema in ing i mage so fT lahu iz ca lpan tecuh t l ih ave s ke le ta lf a ces .O ne o np age 5 4a ppea r s t ow ea r ama sk d ep ic t ing t h ed ay s i gn " dea th ." T he o t he ro np age 5 3r ep r e sen t st h ed ea th g od a spec to ft h eV enu sg od , mo s tp robab ly a ni mage o ft h e Mor n ing S t a r eme rg ing f r om t h eu nderwo r ld . Ak ey t o id en t i fy ing t h eC odex B o rg ia V enu sp ha se sl i e si n st udy ing t h eV enu sg od sa nd t h e i rc hang ing i mage ry i nr e la t ion t ot h e 2 0 -day p e r iod s f ound i nt h e 1 8 -page s equence . e rec Many o fS e le r 's o r ig ina li d en t if ica t ion so ft h eV enu sg od ss em t ob ec or t .S ome t ime s , h oweve r ,h ef o r ce sh i si n te rp re ta t ion ,p re c lud ing a l ter na te i n te rp re ta t ion so ft h ei mage ry . S e le r 's i d en t if i ca t ion so fd e i t ie sa r en o ted i nl i ne d raw ing st h a ta ccompany t h ef a cs im i le ( vo lum e t h ree ) i nh i s 1 963 e d i t ion o f t h e C odex B o rg ia . E xcep t f o r af ew e xcep t ion s sed i d i scus nt h et e x t , S e le r 's i d en t if i ca t ion sa r ee mp loyed i nt h i sa na ly s i s . A cco rd ing t o S e le r , o ne th i rd o f t h e 1 8 p age s a r e d evo ted t o a1 2 -day i n f e r io r lt c on junc t ion p ha se ,a nd t h es ame n umbe ro fp age sa r ea loted t ot h el e ng thy E ven ing S t a r e p ha se ( 2 52 d ay s ) .T h i sd i s t r ibu t ion ( F igu re 1 , co lumn s 1 2 )s em su n l ike ly i nl i gh to ft h e t p a te rn sp reva len te l sewhe re i nt h eC odex B o rg ia .O the rs e c t ion so ft h ec odex p re sen tt ime p e r iod s i na n o rde r ly a nd r e pe t i t ive f a sh ion , w h ich i nd ica te s t h a t t h e re s hou ld b e s ome t c on s i s ten tp a ter ni nt h ep r e sen ta t ion o ft ime p e r iod s w i th in p age s 2 9 -46 . D ay s i gn s a r e r e la t ive ly r a r ei n th i ss e c t ion .E xcep tf o rp age 4 1 ,t h o se t h a te x i s te mpha s ize d iv i s ion su se fu l i n c a lcu la t ing d a te s i n t h e 3 65 -day f e s t iva l c a lenda r , r a the r t h an t h e V enu s c a lenda r , s ugge s t ing t h eV enu sc yc le a nd V enu sg od sa r et o be v i ewed w i th in t h ef r amewo rk o f as o la r y ea r . V enus G od s l T he l i t e ra tu re a bou t V enu s g od s i sf i led w i th c on t rad ic t ion s . I n t h e c h ron ic le s , l l Q ue tza lcoa t lf l ee sT o lan a nd e ven tua ly i st r an sfo rmed i n to af o rm o fV enu s ,b u th i se xa c t f i d en t i ty v a r ie si nd i f e r en ts ou r ce s .T he C od ex V a t icanu s As ay sQ ue tza lcoa t lb ecame t h e p l ane tV enu s ,w he rea st h eA na l es d eC uauh t i t lan s t a te st h a tt h et r an s fo rmed g od w a st h e red t Mo rn ing S t a r ,r e f er oa st l ahu i zca lpan teuc t l i a nd e ll u cero ( G rau l ich 1 988 :225 -226 , 2 s, t 29 ) .N eve r the les h eH i s tor ia d e Mex ico s ay st h eg od b ecame H e spero , t h eE ven ing S t a r ( G r aul i ch 1 988 :229 ) . A na l e sd eC uauh t i t lan s t a te st h a tQ ue tza lcoa t lw a st r an sfo rmed i n to t h e Mo rn ing S t a r 1 09

a f te re i gh td ay s ,w h ich d e sc r ibe st h ep e r iod o fi n f e r io rc on junc t ion ( Se le r1 963 :20 ) . Mo s t s cho la r ss ay t h a tQ ue tza lcoa t li sV enu s( Leon P o r t ila 1 966 :116 ;G onza lez T or s1 975 :116 ; re A ven i1 980 :23 ,1 86 ) ,b u ts ome s ou r ce si d en t ify h im mo r er e s t r ic t ive ly a s ei the rt h e Mo rn ing S ta ro rt h e E ven ing S t a r ( D . C ar sco 1 982 :30 , 3 9 ; C a so 1 937 :20 ; C a so 1 953 :37 ; K le in ra 1 976b : 1 ; C oe 1 975 :20 ) . N icho l son ( 1971 :429 , F ig . 4 6 ) s ay s t h a t Q ue tza lcoa t l i sb o th 1 Mo rn ing a nd E ven ing S t a r , b u th e ( N icho l son 1 971 :426 -427 ) a nd S e le r ( 1 904 :360 -362 ) a l so n o te t h a t T lahu izca lpan tecuh t l i h a s t h i s s ame d ua l i d en t i ty . N icho l son ( 1 971 :426 ) p o in t s o u t t h a t M ixcoa t l -Camax t l i i s aV enu s g od , c l o se ly r e semb l ing T lahu izca lpan te c uh t l i . I mage s s how ing g od s o f e r ing m in ia tu r e v e r s ion s o ft h em se lve s , s u ch a sC odex f B o rg ia 1 6 ,i nd ica te t h a tt h e se t wo g od sa r ev i r tua ly i d en t ica l( Se le r 1 904 :371 , F ig . 9 5a ) . l S e le r ( 1904 :360 -362 , 3 71 ) s ay s t h a tT lahu izca lpan tecuh t l i w i th ah uman f a ce i st h e Mo rn ing S t a r ,w he rea sh i si mage w i th as ke le ta l ma sk i st h eE ven ing S t a r .T he Mo rn ing S t a r i d en t if i ca t ion i ss uppo r ted b yt h et r an s la t ion o fh i sn ame a s" l o rd o fd awn ," b u tt h eE ven ing S ta ri d en t i ty s em sq ue s t ionab le ,e spec ia ly i nl i gh to fa no the ro fS e le r 's ( 1 960 -61 :1 1 ,4 08 e l 4 09 )a r t ic le st h a ti d en t if ie sX o lo t la st h eE ven ing S t a r . E heca t l i su sua ly r e cogn ized a s t h e w ind g od a s pec t o f Q ue tza lcoa t l ( Brundage l 1 979 :108 ; C a so 1 937 :19 -20 ; N icho l son 1 971 :4 16 , 4 28 ) . A s o la r l e gend r e co rded b y S ahagün ( 1 950 -1982 : VI I , 7 -8 )i d en t if ie sE heca t l a st h ed e i ty w ho h e lped t h e s un t or i se , s ugge s t ing al i nk t o th ee a s ter nd i rec t ion .O nt h eo t he rh and ,C odex B o rg ia 5 1s how sE heca t l a so c ia ted w i th t h ew e s te rn d i rec t ion a nd t h ed ay s i gn h ou se ,w h i le T lahu izca lpan tecuh t l i s i sl i nked t ot h ee a s ta nd t h ed ay s i gn r ed .O nC odex B o rg ia 1 9E heca t l -Que tza lcoa t ls t and s e f a c ing a ske le ta l v e r s ion o f T lahu izca lpan tecuh t l i , w ho d e scend s i n to t h e j aw s o f t h e u nde rwo r ld .H e r et h ed e scend ing V enu sg od p robab ly r e f e r st ot h e Mo rn ing S t a ri nt h ee a s t , r a the rt h an t h eE ven ing S ta ri nt h ew e s t .E hecad 's r o le i nt h eV enu sc u l tr ema in su nc lea r , a nd h i sp r ima ry i d en t i ty s em st ob ea s aw ind g od . e Xo lo t li s of ten r e f er oa st h eE ven ing S t a rb a sed o nh i sw e l -e s tab l i shed i d en t i ty a s red t l Q ue tzakoa t l 's t w in ( Brundage 1 979 :119 -120 ; N icho l son a nd K ebe r 1 983 :123 ; K le in 1 975 :75 ; 1 976b : 1 ;C a so 1 937 :20 ) .A M ex i can h ymn d esc r ibe s amy th a bou tX o lo t lp l ay ing 1 b a lw i th t h es un a t ni gh t( Sahagün 1 950 -80 :1 ,2 39 ) ,s ugge s t ing h ea ccompan ied t h es un i n l 1 t h eu nde rwo r ld a tn i gh t .X o lo t li st h eg od w ho r an a way w hen t h eg od sw e re b e ing s a c r if i ced t o make t h es un r i se ( Sahagün 1 950 -1982 : VI , 8 ) .T he l e gend si nd ica te h em ay b el i nked t o th ew e s ta nd u nde rwo r ld .S ome i mage ss how Xo lo t la sa na n th ropomo rph ic c an ine p a i red w i th t h e s e t ing s un ( Codex B o rbon icu s 1 6 ) . I nh i s a na ly s i s o ft h e C odex B o rg ia , S e le r t ( 1963 :32 )r e f e r st oX o lo t la st h es un d e scend ing i n to t h eu nde rwo r ld .E lsewhe r e ,h ea rgue s t h a t Xo lo t li st h eE ven ing S t a r( Se le r 1 960 -6 1 :111 ,4 08 -409 ) . A l though mo s ts c ho la r ss em t ol i nk Xo lo t ls pe c if i ca ly t ot h eE ven ing S t a r ,G onza lez e l T or s( 1975 :113 )s ugge s t st h i sc an ine g od may b e Me r cu ry , ap l ane tt h a tc ou ld h ave b een re v i sual ized a s at w in o fV enu s . L ike V enu s , Me r cu ry i sa ni nne rp l ane ta nd h ence i tg oe s t h rough p ha se sa sb o th aMo rn ing a nd E ven ing S t a r ;h oweve r ,i t sp e r iod so fv i s ib il i ty a r e much s ho r te rt h an t h o se o fV enu s . W i th t h i sa moun to fu nce r ta in ty i ni n te rp r e ta t ion so fV enu sg od s ,i ti su n l ike ly t h a t my a na ly s i so fV enu si mage ry w i lb ef r ee f r om e ro r sa nd o ve r s igh t s .N eve r the le ss ,w eh ave l r ar e a sonab le f r amewo rk f o rp l ac ing t h eV enu si mage ry i nt h ec on tex to f as i ng le s o la ry ea r , w h ich m ay h e lp t o s o r t o u t t h e V enu s g od s . I n t h e e n su ing a na ly s i s Iw i l e xp lo re t h e l h ypo the s i s t h a t Q ue tza lcoa t l i st h e p l ane t V enu s , w he rea s T lahu izca lp a n tecuh t l i i st h e Mo rn ing S t a ra nd X o lo t li s th eE ven ing S t a r .T he mu l t ip l ic i ty o fV enu sg od sm ay r e f lec t d i f e ren tV enu sp ha se s ,a sw e la s as ync re t ic b l end o fV enu sc u l t sf r om d i f e r en tc u l tu ra l f l f

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areas. Following the Venus gods through the 18-page sequence of the Codex Borgia produces a complex series of relationships (Figure 1, column 4). Xolotl is rarely represented on the same page as Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, and when they are found together, one of the figures is represented as skeletal or hiding, which may show that when one is visible the other is dead or invisible. Quetzalcoatl appears paired with Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli (Codex Borgia 33) and also with his "twin," Xolotl (Codex Borgia 34). On page 42, however, a skeletal Quetzalcoatl is transformed into Xolotl. On page 35, Quetzalcoatl, wearing his characteristic spiral shell pendant and curved shell earrings, carries the paraphernalia of a priest. He walks along a path with the warrior god, Tezcatlipoca, who is dressed in an unusual fashion, wearing an Ehecatl mask and shell jewelry normally associated with Quetzalcoatl. On that same page there is another variant of Quetzalcoatl represented with yellow face painting and a black vertical stripe running through the eye. On page 40 there are nine different variants of Quetzalcoatl surrounding a large figure of Quetzalcoatl with solar attributes. One of these variants combines the costume of a hummingbird god and the face painting of the yellow Quetzalcoatl. With this level of complexity surrounding the imagery of Venus gods in this section of the Codex Borgia, we may be dealing with Venus gods representing different seasons or stellar positions, as well as gods depicting different Venus phases. The Morning Star in Codex Borgia

Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli appears in different manifestations on pages 33, 39, and 45. Seler (1963: 59) interprets a skeletal image of Tiahuizcalpantecuhtli as the Morning Star, but elsewhere he suggests a skeletal mask on Tiahuizcalpantecuhtli identifies him as the Evening Star (Seler 1904:371). In my analysis, this skeletal aspect of the Venus god is interpreted as the Morning Star invisible in the underworld. On page 33, Tiahuizcalpantecuhtli has "quincunx" face painting formed by a pattern of five dots, curved shell earrings, and a cross-sectioned conch shell pendant (Fig. 3). He stands in a pyramid temple facing Quetzalcoatl, who also wears the curved shell earrings characteristic of the Venus gods. A pyramid rises above Earth Monster Jaws that form a border at the bottom of the page. Souls of dead warriors ascend to the peaked temple roof, rising into the sky to join the sun at zenith, recalling the dead eagle ocelot warriors described in Aztec legends (Sahagun 1950-82:VI, 162-163). The imagery suggests that Venus is high above the horizon, as if positioned at the summit of a pyramid. Quetzalcoatl, the planet Venus, and the Morning Star share a position at the summit of the pyramid. In contrast, Codex Borgia 39 shows a skeletal Morning Star flanking a circle with two variants of Quetzalcoatl descending into the jaws of the underworld, similar to the image on Codex Borgia 19 (Fig. 4). The skeletal aspect of Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli might refer the end of the Morning Star phase. Seler (1963:59) identifies both versions of Tiahuizcalpan­ tecuhtli, one with quincunx face painting and the other with skeletal features, as the Morning Star. The variations in costuming and face painting may be elements defining different stages of the Morning Star phase. The variant of Tiahuizcalpantecuhtli with quincunx face painting most often shares costuming with Quetzalcoatl, whereas the skeletal Morning Star god wears jewelry resembling that of Tezcatlipoca and Mixcoatl-Camaxtli. Nevertheless, there are images of Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli with quincunx face painting wearing Tezcat­ lipoca's jewelry and red striped body paint on Codex Borgia 19 and 49. Tiahuizcalpante­ cuhtli in Codex Telleriano-Remensis folio 14v wears a skeletal mask as a headdress and the face and body paint of Mixcoatl-Camaxtli, reflecting a direct link between these two gods 111

(Nicholson 1971:Fig. 41). Page 45 depicts the underworld aspect of the Morning Star. The skeletal variant of Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, with the characteristic attributes of red striped body paint and a headdress bearing two "teardrops" on the headband, stands on a row of skulls. A tree sprouting from the skulls may denote a specific place or the more generalized notion oflife springing from death prevalent in Mexican art and myth (Furst 1982:222). The deceased Morning Star god may also be evoked in figures with quincunxface painting and red striped body paint shown variously as victims of heart sacrifice and decapitation. Here the two variants ofTlahuizcalpantecuhtli show some parallelism, both reflecting death imagery. Seler identifies other images of Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli in the 18-page sequence, but these seem to lack the diagnostic attributes ofthe Morning Star god. On page 29 there is a mortuary bundle with a skeletal god that Seler (1963:10) recognizes as Tlahuizcalpante­ cuhtli, but his diagnostic costume and striped body paint is lacking (Fig. 2). In fact. the skeletal godseems almost identical to the star goddess on the border ofthe same page. Seler also labels an image of a skeletal god devouring a human heart on page 43 as the white Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli, but the figure lacks the distinctive headdress associated with this variant ofthe Morning Star god. lt seems that Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli on page 33 is the Morning Star in the east, whereas the skeletal versions ofthe godon pages 39 and 45 represent the dead or "invisible" Morning Star in the underworld. Since the death imagery occurs after the representation ofthe visible Morning Star on page 33, the underworld sojourn refers to the period of superior conjunction following the Morning Star phase. Page 39, with its emphasis on Venus's descent into the jaws of the earth monster, appears to show the exact moment when the Morning Star disappears in superior conjunction (Fig. 4). Studying the movements of Venus over eight-year inteivals, as described by Aveni ( 1986), gives us a key to understanding Venus iconography. Over a period averaging around 263 days, Venus appears to rise in the east and then descend again during the Morning Star phase. Conversely, during the Evening Star phase, also averaging 263 days, Venus rises in the west and descends again prior to disappearing in inferior conjunction. Aveni notes that even though the period of inferior conjunction averages eight days, the actual period of invisibility varies with the seasons. The length ofdisappearance can be virtually nonexistent, amounting to less than one day in the winter months, or as long as 20 days in the summer If we visualize the Morning Star Phase as a 260-day period, very close to the actual average visibility, the movements of Venus can be divided into periods of ascent and descent that are divisible by 20. During the Morning Star phase, Venus climbs rapidly and achieves its highest position in 80 days, then for 100 days it descends very slowly. During this period the lateral movement of Venus in response to the changing seasonal position of the sun is far greater than its descending movement towards the eastern horizon. In the last 80 days ofthe Morning Star phase, the planet descends more rapidly, but its movements are not as dramatic as the meteoric rise during the first 80 days as Morning Star. A complementary pattern can be obseived during the Evening Star phase, but with a reversal because in this phase Venus rises slowly in the western sky for 180 days and descends rapidly for 80 days until it disappears. Ifpage 39 represents the time the Morning Star disappears and each page represents a 20-day "month," we can count backwards six pages (6 x 20 = 120) and determine that page 33 represents the 140th to 160th day ofthe Morning Star period (260 - 120 = 140). At this point the Morning Star is high up in the eastern sky. Counting further back by 20-day 112

i n te rva l s , w i th o ne p age r e p r e sen t ing e ach "mon th ," a nd a dd ing f i ve e x t ra d ay s f o r t h e n emon tem i p e r iod t h a t c omp le te s t h e s o la r y ea r , t h e f i r s t p age o f t h e s equence ( 29 ) r e p r esen t st h e5 5 th t o7 5 th d ay o ft h e Mo rn ing S t a rp ha se ( 260 -2 05 =5 .A tt h i st ime t h e 5) Mo rn ing S t a ra s cend sr a p id ly t oa ch ieve max imum w e s ter ne l onga t ion ( h ighe s tp o s i t ion ) o nt h e8 0 th d ay . I tw i lb er e ca led t h a tt h eD re sden C odex a low s2 36 d ay sf o rt h e Mo rn ing S t a rp ha se , l l l 2 7 d ay s s ho r to ft h e 2 63 d ay a ve rage f o rt h i sp ha se ( Aven i 1 980 :86 ) . U s ing t h i s s ho r te r p e r iod ,r ounded t o2 35 d ay s ,a nd c a lcu la t ing t h es upe r io rc on junc t ion p ha se a t 90 d ay s ,a s i nt h eD r e sden C odex ,w i lr e s t ruc tu re t h ec or la t ion o fp age sw i th V enu sp ha se s( F igu re l re 1 ,c o lumn s 5 7 ) . A s n o ted a bove ,p age 3 9 p robab ly s how s t h e e nd o ft h e Mo rn ing S t a r p e r iod . T he i c onog raphy s ugges t s t h a t t h e E ven ing S t a rr e -eme rge s o n p age 4 4 , w he re Q ue tza l coa t li n ah umm ingb i rd c o s tum ef l ie su p t owa rd s ab a tg oddes ymbol iz ing t h e s s e ven ing s ky .I f th ep e r iod o fi nv i s ib i l i ty f o rs upe r io rc on junc t ion i s ca lcu la ted a t9 0d ay s , a nd p age s4 0 -43 r ep re sen t8 0d ay so fi n v i s ib i l i ty ,a no the r1 0d ay sc ou ld b ed rawn f r om t h e t r an s i t iona lp e r iod r ep r e sen ted o np age 3 9 .C oun t ing b a ck t h rough a2 35 -day Mo rn ing S t a r p e r iod ,l i ke t h a tr e co rded i nt h eD r e sden C odex ,w er e a ch p age 2 9a tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h e 1 8p age C odex B o rg ia s equence ,c or spond ing t ot h e2 0 th t o4 0 th d ay o ft h e Mo rn ing S t a r re p ha se ( F igu r e 1 . co lumn s 5a nd 6 ) . S e le ra s ign sp age 2 9t o th ee nd o ft h e Mo rn ing S ta rpha se .C u r iou s ly ,S e le r ' s( 1 963 :19 ) s a r gumen tf o ra so c ia t ing t h e Mex ican c a lenda rd a te 1 reed w i th t h i sp age a c tua ly u nde r s l m ine sh i st h e s i st h a tt h ep age r ep r e sen t st h ee nd o ft h e Mo rn ing S t a rp ha se ,b ecau se 1 reed , a sS e le r( 1 904 :359 )p o in t so u te l sewhe re ,i s fi rm ly l i nked t ot h eb eg inn ing o ft h e Mo rn ing S t a rp ha se . T he c en t ra li mage o np age 2 9i s a s t one b ow lc on ta in ing Q ue tza lcoa t l 's b u rn ing b ody ( Se le r 1 963 :10 ) . Smoke a nd a she sc ar h e g od 's s p i r i t s kywa rd ,j u s t a sQ ue tza lcoa t l 's ry t h ea r tb u rned a nd w a st r an sfo rmed i n to t h e Mo rn ing S t a ri n th eA na l es d eC uauh t i t lan l e gend ( Ve lazquez 1 945 :10 -11 ;G rau l ich 1 988 :229 ) .A ni mage o fQ ue t za lcoa t l 's b u rn ing h ea r ti s i n app rop r ia te t ot h ee nd o ft h e Mo rn ing S t a rp ha se ,S e le r 's p ha se a s ignmen tf o rt h i sp age , s b ecau se t h e l e gend c l ea r ly r e f e r s t ot h e b u rn ing h ea r t i nr e la t ion t ot h e n ew ly eme rged Mo rn ing S t a r . T he b eg inn ing o ft h e Mo rn ing S t a rp ha se i sp a r t icu la r ly n o tewo r thy i nt h eC odex B o rg ia i c onog raphy b ecau se i to ccu r so n ap age t h a t may c or la te w i th t h ew in t e rs o l s t ice . T he re c uauhx ica l io np age 2 9m ay s ymbo l ize t h es un i t se l f .A lo ft h es u rv iv ing e xamp le so fs ma l l l l g r en s tone b ow l sh ave as un d i sk c a rved i nt h ec en te ro ft h eb ow l ( N icho l son a nd K ebe r e 1 983 :37 ) .I nt h eC odex B o rg ia i mage ,Q ue tza lcoa t l 's h ea r tb ur n ing i nt h eg r een s tone b ow l p robab ly r ep re sen t st h en ew ly t r an sfo rmed Mor n ing S t a rr i s ing o u to ft h es o la rf i re a f te ra p e r iod o fi nv i s ib il i ty i nc on junc t ion w i th t h es un .Q ue tza lcoa t l 's r i s ing s p i r i ti s symbo l ized b yE heca t lf i gu re s eme rg ing f r om t h ea she s .E heca t lm ay b et h ew ind l i f t ing u pt h er i s ing Mo rn ing S t a r . A cco rd ing t oo u ra l ignmen to fp ha se s ,p age 3 0 ,t h es e cond i nt h es equence ,r ep re sen t s V enu sr a p id ly a s cend ing i nt h ee a s te rn s ky .C a so ( 1953 :36 )i d en t if ie st h er ayed d i sk a t th e c en te ro ft h is p age a st h ed ead s un i n th eu nde rwo r ld .N eve r the les t sr e c tangu la rb l ack a nd s i r ed r a y sw i th s t a rd es ign sr e la te t oQ ue tza lcoa t l 's f a nh eadd res a the rt h an s o la ri mage ry . s, r T h i sv e ry u nu sua ld i sk m ay r e p re s en t ar a r ei mage o ft h ep l ane tV enu si t se lf .S e le r( 1 963 :14 ) s ugge s t st h ed i sk i s ac ha lch ihu i t l( p rec iou sg r een j ade )r e p re sen t ing Q ue tza lcoa t l 's h ea r t t r an s fo rmed i n to t h e Mor n ing S ta r .E ven t h ough S e le ri d en t if ie st h ei mage a s ar e f e r ence s t ot h e Mor n ing S t a r ,i n exp l icab ly h ea s ign st h ep age t o ap e r iod w hen V enu si si ns upe r io r

13

c on junc t ion a f te rt h e Mor n ing S ta rp ha se . I nt h ec en te ro ft h eV enu sd i sk o np age 3 0 ,a n th ropomo rph ic f i gu re so fE hecad eme rge f r om t h ej aw so ft w in E heca t ls e rpen t s . E heca t lr eappea r sn ex to nC odex B o rg ia 3 6 ,a l so a s igned t ot h e Mo rn ing S ta rp e r iod i nt h i sa na ly s is ( F igu re 1 ,c o lumn s4 ,5 ) . Wr igg l ing s E heca t l f i gu re s d i sgo rge f i gu res o f ab l ack Q ue tza lcoa t l v a r ian t w i th at a l p eaked c ap . l Ano the rQ ue tza lcoa t lv a r ian t ,w ea r ing f a ce p a in tw i th av e r t ica ls t r ipe o n ay e low g round , l i sp o s i t ioned i nt h ej aws o fE heca t lo n p age 3 8 . Whe rea s g od st h a ta r ep o s i t ioned i nt h e g ap ing j aw so ft h eE a r th Mons te rs ob ed e scend ing i n to t h eu nderwo r ld ,t ho se i nt h e eem t j aw so fE heca t ls em t o be e me rg ing .P e rhap sE heca t l 's mou th c r ea te sw ind t o car pg od s e ry u a st h ey r i se f r om t h eu nde rwo r ld ,j u s ta sE heca t lh e lped t h es un t or i se ,a cco rd ing t oA z t ec l e gend s . T he o n ly o the ra ppea rance o fE heca t l i so np age 4 0 , w he re h e i sa mong ag roup o f Q ue tza lcoa t lv a r ian t sa semb led i nt h eu nde rwo r ld o n ap age a s igned t os upe r io rc on junc s s t i on . E heca t ld oe sn o ta ppea ri np age sr e la ted t ot h eE ven ing S ta rp ha se . X o lo t li nt he C od ex B org ia s Xo lo t la ppea r so np age s3 3 ,3 4 ,3 6 ,3 7 ,3 8 ,42 a nd 4 3 . Mo s to ft h e se p age sa r ea s igned l b yS e le rt ot h eE ven ing S t a rp ha se ,h oweve r ,S e ler d oe sn o ti d en t ify Xo lo t ls pec if ica ly a s sion o t h eE ven ing S t a ri nh i sd i scus ft h ese p age s .I conog raph ic a na ly s i ss ugge s t st h a t Xo lo t l i ss ubo rd ina te t oo the rV enu sg od si nt h ef i r s th a lf o ft h eC odex B o rg ia s equence ( F igu re t 1 ,c o lumn s 4 ,5 ,n o te 1 ) . P age s a t r ibu ted t ot h ep e r iod w hen t h e Mor n ing S t a ri sv i s ib le l u sua ly s how Xo lo t lr emoved f r om t h ec en te ro ft h ec ompo s i t ion a nd i s o la ted f r om t h ef o cu s o fa c t iv i ty . Xo lo t li sap r inc ipa lc ha rac t e ro n ly w hen h ei sa nu nde rwo r ld p o s i t ion ,i n v i s ib le i nc on junc t ion w i th t h e s un . T he g rea te s tf ocu so n Xo lo t li nt h e C odex B o rg ia s equence r e la te st ot h es upe r io rc on junc t ion p ha se ,w hen t h e Mor n ing S ta ri su nde rgo ing t r an sfo rma t i on i n to t h eE ven ing S ta r .T h is wou ld s ugge s tt h a tX o lo t l may n o tb et h eE ven ing S ta r ,b u t i n s tead r ep re sen t sV enu sd u r ing t h el e ng thy p e r iod o fs upe r io rc on junc t ion ,w hen t h ep l ane t i s inv i s ib le b eh ind t h es un .H i sc l o se c ompan ion sh ip w i th t h es un may e xp la in w hy Xo lo t l i s o f ten i d en t if ied w i th t h e c an ine g u ide t o t h e d ead i n t h e u nde rwo r ld ( N icho l son 1 971 :419 ) . On p age 3 3 ,T lahu izca lpan tecuh t l ia nd Q ue tza lcoa t la r et h ec en t ra lf ocus ,a l ong w i th t h e d ead X ipe T o tec ( F ig .3 ) ,w he rea s Xo lo t li s hidden b eh ind t h et emp le ,l ook ing a way f r om t h e a c t iv i ty c en te r . T h i s may i nd ica te t h e E ven ing S t a r i si nv i s ib le . S e le r i d en t i f ie s T epeyo lo t l ia st h ec an ine g od d ep ic ted i nt wo f o rm so nC odex B o rg ia 3 4 ,o ne p a in ted r ed l a nd t h eo the rb l ack w i th r ed s po t s . I t seem s mo re l i ke ly t h a tt h e se c an ine g od sr e p re sen t Xo lo t lb ecau se t h ey w ea rt h ew ind s he la nd c u rved e a r ing so ft h eV enu sg od s . T he r ed l r Xo lo t lb ea r s as un d i sk ,p robab ly a s as ymbo lo fh i si n v is ib i l i ty i nc on junc t ion w i th t h es un . D ead women d e scend ing f r om t h ez en i th r e f e rt o moc ivaque t zque ,t h e wom en w ho d i ed i n c h i ldb i r th a nd a ccompan ied t h es un i ni t sd escen tf r om z en i th t h rough t h ew e s te rn s ky ,a s d e sc r ibed b yA z tec l e gend s( Sahagün 1 950 -82 :V 1 , 1 61 -163 ) . A cco rd ing t ot h is a na lys i s ,p age 3 4r ep re sen t st h e1 25 th -145 th d ay o ft h e Mo rn ing S ta r p ha se ( F igu re 1 ,c o lumn 6 ) .T he w e s te rn d i rec t ion o np age 3 4m igh tr e f e rt oV enu s 's l a te ra l movemen ta f te rw e s te rn e l onga t ion ( h ighe s tp o s i t ion i nt h ee a s te rn s ky ) .A l terna t ive ly ,t h e r e f e rence t ot h ew es t may h ave t od ow i th t h eb eg inn ing o fV enu s 's d escen ta st h e Mo rn ing S ta r . On p age 3 6 , Xo lo t l r ema in s as ubo rd ina te f i gu r e . T he c en te ro ft h e c ompo s i t ion i sa g roup o f w r igg l ing E heca t l f i gu re s eme rg ing f r om a bu rn ing b und le t h a t ma rk s t h e

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b eg inn ing o f aw ide p a th o fs t a r s a nd a she s . T he b o rde ri mage ry f o cu se s o n d ea th a nd d e scen t a l ong a tr a i l o f a she s a nd s t a r s t h a t l e ad s f r om t h e b u rn ing b und le i n to t h e l l u nde rwo r ld . Wi th e ye sc l o sed i nd ea th ,t h ey e low Q ue tza lcoa t lf o low sa na sh t r a i lt ot h e n ex tp age . T he t r a i le nd so np age 3 7 w he re X o lo t li s po s i t ioned i nt h ej aw s o ft h eE a r th l Mon s te r .O nt h ef o low ing p age ( 3 8 ) , Xo lo t li s as ke le ta lf i gu r ef l oa t ing i n ap oo lo fw a te r . H i sd ea th ma rk st h eb eg inn ing o fr enewed l i f ea nd t r an sfo rma t ion i n to t h ev i s ib le E ven ing S t a r . C odex B o rg ia 3 7 , s how ing X o lo t l p o s i t ioned i n t h e j aw s o f t h e E a r th Mon s te r , re c or spond st o at ime w hen t h eE ven ing S t a rh a sb een i n v i s ib le f o r mo re t h an 2 00 d ay s , c re a co rd ing t o th i sa na ly s i s( F igu r e1 ,c o lumn s5 ,6 ) .I ft h ec or la t ion o f ind iv idua lp age sw i th t h eV enu sp ha se si s ac cu ra te ,t h i si mage o f Xo lo t lr e f e r st oV enu si ns upe r io rc on junc t ion , r a the rt h an t h ed i sappea r ing E ven ing S t a r .A na l te rna t ei n te rp r e ta t ion i s th a tX o lo t li st h e e p l ane t Me r cu ry , b u t t h i s s em s u n l ike ly i n l i gh t o f t h e i m age o n p age 4 2 s how ing Q ue tza l coa t lb e ing t r an s fo rmed i n to X o lo t l . l X o lo t l a ppea r s i np age s 4 7 -48 w i th t h e C iva te teo a nd Ma cu i l i d e i t ie s i n ac a lenda r s e c t ion l i nked t ot h eE ven ing S t a rp ha se . A cco rd ing t oS ch lak 's ( 1983 :137 , 1 59 ) r e cen t i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e se p age s ,t h eC iva te teo r ep r e sen tt h ef i r s ts t a t iona ry p o in ti n th eE ven ing l S t a rp ha se a nd t h e Ma cu i l ir e p r e sen tt h el a s ta ppea rance o ft h eE ven ing S t a r .I nt h i sc on tex t , Xo lo t lm igh ts ymbo l ize t h eE ven ing S t a ro rt h e s upe r io rc on junc t ion p ha se . T he S uper ior C on junc t ion P ha se i nC od ex B org ia T he mo s tp rom inen ti mage so fX o lo t l ,f ound o np age s4 2a nd 4 3 ,r e la te t ot h ep e r iod w hen t h eE ven ing S t a ri sa bou tt o e me rge i nt h ew e s ta f te r ap e r iod o fi n v i s ib i l i ty i ns upe r io r l c on junc t ion .F o low ing t h ed i sappea rance o ft h e Mo rn ing S t a ro np age 3 9 ,t h ef o cu ss h if t s t ot h ef a te a nd w he r eabou t so ft h eE ven ing S t a r . S e le r( 1963 :45 )r e cogn ize st h a tp age 4 2 t s how s Xo lo t l ' sb i r th i nt h em a te rna lw a te r s ,b u tc u r iou s ly h ea t r ibu te st h es c ene t o ap e r iod w hen t h eE ven ing S t a rp ha se h a sc ome t o ac l o se . A mo re l og ica li n te rp r e ta t ion w ou ld b e t h a tt h eb i r th o f Xo lo t lo np age 4 2r e f e r st o th eE ven ing S t a ra bou tt o em e rge f r om t h ew a te r s o ft h ew e s ter nh o r izon .O nt h es ame p age i mage so fb aby X o lo t ls p r ing f r om t h ej o in t so f t h ed ead Q ue tza lcoa t l .T h i s s ugge s t st h a tt h ep l ane tV enu s ( Que tza lcoa t l )i sb e ing t r an s f o rmed i n to t h eE ven ing S t a r .A sS e le r( 1 963 :47 )p o in t so u t ,t h e re i sn od oub tt h a tp age 4 2 r e f e r st ot h er enewa la nd r ev iva lo fX o lo t l -Nanahua tz in ,b u th ea r gue st h a tt h eg od i sa bou t t o em e rge a st h e Mo rn ing S t a r , c on t rad ic t ing h i sp rev iou s d e sc r ip t ion o ft h e g od a st h e d e scend ing s un ( Se le r 1 963 :32 ) . T he mo s t p rom inen t f i gu re o fX o lo t l a ppea r s o n p age 4 3 . H i s c o s tum ing c omb ine s t a t r ibu t e so ft h et wo X o lo t lf i gu r e so nC odex B o rg ia 3 4 ,i n c lud ing b l a ck b ody p a in tw i th r ed d o t s , ar ed s t r ipe a r ound t h ee ye ,k nee b ow sa nd as un d i sk o nt h et o r so .S e le r( 1 96j :47 t 4 8 )s a ys t h ec en t ra lf i gu re o np age 4 3h a sa t r ibu te so f Xo lo t la nd t h es o la rg od N anahua tz in , l a n a spe c t o ft h e u nde rwo r ld s un . S e le r d oe s n o t s pec if ica ly m en t ion V enu s , b u t i nh i s a na ly s i so ft h ep rev iou sp age h en o te st h a tX o lo t li s be ing t r an sfo rmed i n to t h e Mo rn ing S t a r .T he a l ignmen to f pha se sp ropo sed i n Figu re 1( c o lumn 5 )i nd ica te st h a tX o lo t li sV enu s i n v i s ib le i n s upe r io r c on junc t ion , r a the r t h an i n f e r io r c on junc t ion . T he r ayed d i sk o n X o lo t l 's b ody p robab ly r e f e r st o th es un mov ing i nc on junc t ion w i th V enu s .S e le ri d en t if ie s t h ec en t ra lr ayed d i sk a st h en ew moon ,b u ti ti s id en t ica lt or e p r e sen ta t ion so ft h es un d i sk w i th ah ea r ta t th ec en te r( Codex B o rg ia 4 0 ) .T he moon i s Ushaped d es ign w i th ak n i f eo r ar abb i ti nt h ec en te r ,a nd af r am ing e l emen tf o rmed b ys t a r so r aw h i te r a yed d i sk ( Codex B o rg ia 1 8 , 5 0 , 5 1 ) . T he n ew moon m ay b e d ep ic ted o n p age 4 3 b y ac i rc le o f s t a r s s andw iched b e tween X o lo t l 's b ody a nd t h e s un d i sk .

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A no the r s c ene o f f u sed a s t ronom ica l i mage s a ppe a r s o n p age 4 0 , w he re V enu s Q ue tza lcoa t l w ea r s s t a r s a nd s un d i sk s a l o ve r h i s b ody ( F igu re 5 ) . S e le r ( 1 963 :42 ) l i d en t if ie st h i sg od a st h es un i nt h eu nde rwo r ld a t ni gh t ,b u tK le in ( 1976b :8 , 1 0 )n o te st h a t t h e n i gh t s un i mage a l so r e p re sen t s V enu s i nt h e u nde rwo r ld . T he s un d i sk s o n V enu s Q ue tza lcoa t l 's t o r so a nd l imb s i nd ica te V enu s i si nc on junc t ion w i th t h e s un , i n v i s ib le w i th in t h e E a r th Mon s te r t h a t f o rm s af r ame a r ound t h e p age . Q ue tza l coa t l w ea r s h i s l r c ha rac te r i s t ic c u rved s he le a r ing s ,b u ta l so h a st h ef a ce p a in t ing o ft h es un g od ,r e f le c t ing ac omb ined i mage o ft h es un a nd V enu si nc on jun c t ion .B o th p age s4 0a nd 4 3s how V enu s mov ing w i th t h es un ,i nd ica t ing t h a tt h ep l ane ti si n v i s ib le i nt h es un 's g l a r e .P age s3 9a nd 4 4 b ra cke t t h e b eg inn ing a nd e nd o fi n v i s ib i l i ty d u r ing s upe r io r c on junc t ion ( F igu r e 1 , c o lumn 5 ) . T he E ven ing S tar P ha se i nC od ex B org ia P age 4 4 s how s Q ue tza lcoa t l i nh i s h umm ingb i rd c o s tume r i s ing a bove at r ee . H e i s s t reng thened i nh i sa s cen tb yb lood p ou r ing f r om ah uman h ea r t .T he s t ream o fb l ood a l so e f ed s Xo ch ique tza l , w ho i sf u sed w i th as un d i sk s p rou t ing at r ee . T he a s cen to fV enu s Q ue tza lcoa t lt ot h et o po ft h et r ee may d ep ic tt h en ew ly eme rged E ven ing S t a r .I nc on t ra s t , l o nt h ef o low ing p age ( 4 5 ) ,t h ec en t ra li mage i st h es k e le ta lT lahu izca lpan t ecuh t l is t and ing l l a tt h eb a se o f at r ee o n ar a ck o fs ku l s .T he t r ee i sp a in ted a lmo s ti d en t ica ly t o one o nC odex B o rg ia 1 9 t h a t s how s t h e s ame g od d e scend ing i n to t h e u nde rwo rd , s ugge s t ing t h e t r ee r ep r esen t s al o ca t ion w i th in o ra tt h ee n t ry p o in tt ot h eu nde rwo r ld . P age s4 5 -46 c on t inue t h eE ven ing S t a rp ha se ;h oweve r ,t h e re i s no a ppa ren te mpha s i s o n t h e a s cend ing E ven ing S t a r . T he se p age sr e p re s en t t h e 2 0 th t h rough 6 0 th d ay o ft h e E ven ing S t a rp ha se ,w hen V enu si sr i s ing v e ry s l ow ly i n th ew e s te rn s ky .T he f o cu so np age 4 5 i so n t h e d ead Mo rn ing S t a r g od , T lahu iz ca lpan tecuh t l i . O n p age 4 6 , t h e N ew F i re t C e r emony i s th ec en te ro fa ten t ion . Q ue tza l coa t la ppea r sa st h en ew ly e me rged E ven ing S t a ri n ap o to n ah ea r th f i re .T h i sm ay s ymbol ize ar eb i r th ,b ecau se t h ei mage ry s ugge s t s l l p a ra le l sw i th p age 4 2 ,w h ich s how sX o lo t lb u rn ing i na no la o n ah ea r th f i re p r io rt oh i s r eb i r th .T he h ea r th f i re s c ene o np age 4 6c ou ld a l so r e p re sen tt h ep rox im i ty o fV enu st ot h e s un a tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h e Mor n ing S t a rp ha se . S id er ea lP os i t ion o fV enus T he r ei s as t rong n ar t ive q ua l i ty t ot h eC odex B o rg ia V enu sp age s .O ne s en se s as t o ry ra i s to ld i ns equence .F oo tp r in t st e lu sw he re i nd iv idua l sg oa nd s equen t ia la c t ion st e lo fa l l s e r ie so fe ven t s . A lo ft h i s i sv e ry u sefu l i ni n t e rp r e t ing t h e a s t ronom ica l i mage ry . O ne l p a r t icu la r ly s t r ik ing e l emen ti s th es equence i n vo lv ing b i r th i mage si nt h eb o rde rf r ame s . I n as c ene r epea ted w i th m ino rv a r ia t ion so np ages 3 2 ,3 9 ,4 1 ,4 3 ,4 4 ,4 5a nd 4 6 ,Q ue tza lcoa t l p as st h rough a no pen ing i nt h ea bdomen o f amon s t rou ss ke le ta lg oddes i th k n ive sa nd se s w s t a r so nh e rs k i r t . T h i si mage s em st os how ad ead g oddes i v ing b i r th t oQ ue tza lcoa t l e s g ( M i lb ra th 1 988a ) ,r e ca l ing l e gend st h a tt e lh ow Q ue tza lcoad 's mo the r ,C h ima lma ,d i ed i n l l c h i ldb i r th ( D . C ar sco 1 982 :36 ,7 9 ) . ra C h ima lma m igh tb ei d en t if ied w i th C i t la l icue ," s ta rs k i r t ," f o rt h eH i s toyre d u Mex ique i nd ica te sQ ue tza lcoa t l 's a l te r -ego ,E heca t l ,w a s ac h i ld o fC i t la l icue ( Ga r ibay 1 973 :110 ) . T h i sg oddes so f t en l i nked t ot h eM i lky Way ( Ca so 1 953 :86 ;G onza lez T or s 1 975 :129 s i re 1 33 ;N u ta l 1 90 1 :54 ) .P age 4 5d ep ic t sE heca t li nt h ef o rm o f as t a rs e rpen te me rg ing f r om t l t h e s p l i tw omb o ft h e s t a rg oddes nt h e b o rde r . I fQ ue tza lcoad 's mo the ri nt h eC odex s o B o rg ia i sa l so t h e M i lky Way , t h i s c ou ld e xp la in w hy t h e g oddes sr e p re sen ted a sa n s i e l onga ted s t e la rb and .S ome i mage so fQ ue tza lcoa t l eme rg ing f r om t h ew omb o ft h es t a r l

16

s k i r ted g oddes s m ay r e f e rt oV enu s 's s i de rea l p o s i t ion , p as sing t h rough t h e M i lky Way ( M i lb ra th 1 988a :160 -163 ) . T he l a s tp age o ft h es equence ,p age 4 6 ,d ep ic t sf i r e s e rpen ti mage ry t h a tm ay h e lp t o d e te rm ine t h ep o s i t ion so fV enu si nt h eb ackg round o fs t a r s .T he f i re s e rpen ti sp rom inen t i nt h eP anque tzal iz t l if e s t iva l( Sahap in 1 950 -82 :1 47 ) .I n ap rev iou ss t udy , Ip ropo sed 1, 1 t h a t t h e f i re s e rpen t may b e i d en t if ied w i th o u rc on s tela t ion S co rp iu s , w h ich move s i n c on junc t ion w i th t h e s un d u r ing N ovembe r ( M i lb ra th 1 980 :293 -294 ) . P age 4 6 d ep ic t s Q ue tza lcoa t li n ab u rn ing p o tt h a tm ay r e p re sen tt h es o la rf i re .H ei sf r amed b yf i re s e rpen t s , p os ly a s ar e f e r ence t oV enu sn ea rS co rp iu s .P age 4 6c or spond st ot h ef i r s tq ua r te ro f sib re t h eE ven ing S t a rp ha se i nl a te Novembe r .I nt h i sp o s i t ion ,t h ep l ane t wou ld b ec l o se t ot h e w e s ter nh o r izon ,n ea rS co rp iu sa nd i t sb r igh tr ed s t a r ,A n ta r e s ,w h ich s e ti n con junc t ion w i th t h e s un i ne a r ly N ovembe rd u r ing t h e l a te P o s tc la ss ic a tt h e l a t i tude o fC en t ra l Mex ico ( Aven i 1 980 :Tab le 1 0 ) .Q ue tza lcoa t lb u rn ing i n ah ea r th f i re f r amed b yf i re s e rpen t s may s ymbo l ize t h ep rox im i ty o ft h eE ven ing S t a rt ot h es un a nd S co rp iu sa t th et ime o ft h eN ew F i r eC e r emony i nl a te N ovembe r . C onc lud ing R emark s P age s4 4 -46 p robab ly d ep ic tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h eE ven ing S t a rp ha se ,w he rea sp age s4 7 a nd 4 8 ,d i rec t ly f olow ing t h e1 8 -page s equence ,d ea lw i th t h el a te rp a r to ft h eE ven ing S t a r t p ha se .A ppa ren t ly ,p age s4 7a nd 4 8c omp le t et h eE ven ing S t a rp ha se b egun i nt h el a s tt h r ee p age so ft h es equence ,r e in fo r c ing t h ep ha se a l ignmen ts ugge s ted i nt h i sa na ly s i s . P age 2 8 , t h e p age p r eced ing t h e 1 8 -page s equence , s e t s t h e f e s t iva l c a lenda ri nt h e c on tex to ft h eC a lenda rR ound ,r e f er o as equence o ff i ve y ea r sr unn ing f r om t h ey ea r ring t 1 r eed t o5 rabb i t .T he 1 reed d a t ec ou ld r e f e rt oa ny o ft h ef o low ing y ea r sd u r ing t h el a te l P o s t c las e r iod : 1 259 , 1 311 , 1 363 , 1 415 , 1 467 , o r 1 519 , t h e y ea r t h e S pan ia rd s f i r s t sic p a r ived i nC en t ra l Mex ico . r T he C odex B o rg ia s equence may r e f e rt oa l reed o r a5 reed y ea r ,t h ef i r s ta nd l a s ty ea r s r ep r e sen ted i nt h e s e c t ion p r eced ing t h e V enu s s equence . T he y ea r 1 r eed w a s t h e y ea r Q ue tza l coa t ld i ed a nd w a s t r an sfo rmed i n to t h e Mo rn ing S t a r( G rau l ich 1 988 :228 -229 ) . C a so ( 1 967 :195 )n o te s1 reed w a sa l so t h ey ea ro fh i sb i r th ,a cco rd ing t ot h eH i s tor ia d el o s Mex icano s . O nt h i sd ay t h e re w a s af e s t iva lt oQ ue tza lcoa t lc e leb ra ted e ve ry 5 2y ea r s a t C ho lu la .T he C a lenda rR ound r i tua l may h ave b een c omb ined w i th a c tua lo b se rva t ion so f V enu s . T he p eop le o f T ehuacan , C o sca t lan , a nd T eo t i t lan d e l C am ino o f e r ed h uman f s a c r if ice so nt h ed ay w hen t h e Mo rn ing S t a rf i r s ta ppea r ed ( Se le r 1 904 :359 ) . I tm ay b ep os le t od e te rm ine w h ich y ea rd u r ing t h eP o s tc las e r iod i sr e p re sen ted sib sic p i nt h eC odex B o rg ia s equence . C oun t ing b a ck a t5 2y ea ri n te rva l sf r om t h e 1 r eed d a te o f 1 519 o rt h e2 reed N ew F i re C e remony i n1 507 d oe sn o ty i e ld ad a te t h a tc or spond st oa re p e r iod w hen V enu sw a si ns upe r io rc on junc t ion f r om J u ly t h rough S ep tembe r ,a ss ugge s ted i nt h i sa l ignmen to fV enu sp ha se s .N one the les r ound t h em idd le o ft h e1 5 th c en tu ry t h e re s, a w a s ac a lenda ra d ju s tmen tt h a tc hanged t h ec e remony f r om a l rabb i tt o a 2 reed y ea r( O rozo yB er 880 :73 ;S aenz 1 967 :16 ) .L ook ing a tt h e1 rabb i td a te s ,t h eb e s tf i tf o ro u ra l ignmen t ra 1 o fp ha se s s em s t ob e t h e y ea r 1 298 . D u r ing t h i s y ea r , t h e s un a nd V enu s r ema ined i n e s upe r io r c on junc t ion f r om m id J une t h rough m id S ep tembe r ( Tucke rman 1 964 ) , w h ich p re sen t s ap a ter nt h a tc or la te sq u i te w e lw i th o u rs ugge s ted a l ignmen t . t re l T h i sa na ly s i sm ay n o tp rove t ob ea ccu ra te i na ld e ta i l s ,b u ti td oe sp rov ide an ew a nd l f r u i t fu ll i ne o fi n qu i ry f o ra na lyz ing t h eC odex B o rg ia a nd r e la ted manu sc r ip t s .N owo tny ( 1976 ) ,p o in t so u tt h a tC odex B o rg ia 2 9 -46 s how sc e remon ie st h a t may r e la te t oc a lenda r

17

f e s t iva ls ,a nd h en o te st h a tt h el a you to fd a te si st h a to f a3 65 -day c a lenda r .T he d iv i s ion o f t h e s equence i n to 1 8 d i s t inc ti mages a nd t h er e la t ion sh ip t ot h el a you to fc o lon ia lp e r iod f e s t iva lc a lenda r sh a sn o tb een p rev iou s ly n o ted .F ive p age si nt h eC odex B o rg ia s equence e c oo rd ina te w i th f i ve mon ths i nt h eA z tec f e s t iva lc a lenda r .I ts em sh igh ly p robab le t h a tt h e ra 1 8 -page s equence r e f e r st oa na nc ien tf e s t iva lc a lenda r .T he s t rong n ar t ive q ua l i ty o ft h e p age s a nd t h e i r empha s is o n V enus i mage ry i nd ica te s w e a r e m ean t t ov i sua l ize V enus e ven t s t a k ing p lace o ve rt h e c ou r se o f ay ea r , mo s tp robab ly ay ea re nd ing t h e 5 2 -yea r C a lenda rR ound . Aven i ( t h is v o lume )d emon s t ra te st h a tV enu sw a sl i nked w i th s o la rt ime i nt h e Maya a r ea , a nd a ppa ren t ly t h i s w a s a l so t r ue i nt h eM ix teca -Pueb la a r ea . C odex B o rg ia 2 9 -46 s hows u s h ow e a r th ly c e r emon ie s w e re i n teg ra ted w i th c e le s t ia l e ven t s , a nd h ow t h e sic f r hy thm s o f h eaven r e info rced t h e s oc ia l s t ruc tu re i mp l ic i t i n t h e P o s tc las e s t iva l c a lenda r . R ep resen t ing V enus , t h e s un , moon a nd s t a r s a sp a r t ic ipan t s i nt h e M ix teca P ueb la f e s t iva l sr e info r ced t h ew o r ld v i ew t h a tt h ec e r emon ia lp r ec inc tw a sa t th ec en te ro f t h ec o smo s .

18

B ib l iography A ven i ,A n thony F . 1 980 1 983 1 986 1 988

s. S kywa tcher so f A nc ien t Mex i co .A u s t in :U n ive r s i ty o fT exa sP res " The Moon a nd t h eV enu sT ab le :A ne xamp le o f commen su ra t ion i nt h e Maya c a lenda r . "P ape r r e ad a tt h eC on f e rence o nE thnoa s t ronomy , Wa sh ing ton ,D .C . , 1 983 . " The R ea lV enu s -Kuku lcan i nt h e Maya I n sc r ip t ion sa nd A l ignmen t s . "P ape rp r e s en ted a t th e S i x th Me sa R edonda d eP a lenque ,J une , 1 986 . sic Maya Wo " The K now ledge a nd U s e so fA s t ronomy i nt h eC las r ld . "i n A. F .A ven i ,e d .N ew s o D i r ec t ions i nAmer i can A r cha eoa s t ronomy .P roceed ing so ft h e4 6 th I n t e rna t iona lC ong res f Ame r ican i s t s , Am s t e rdam ,N e the r land s , 1 988 . BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie sN o .4 54 .

A ven i ,A n thony F . ,E dwa rd E .C a lnek ,a nd H o r s tH a r tung 1 988 " My th , E nv i ronmen ta nd t h eO r ien ta t ion o ft h eT emp lo Mayo ro fT enoch t i t lan , " Ame r ican A n t iqu i ty 5 3 ( 2 ) : 2 87 -309 . B roda ,J ohanna 1 980 " La f i e s ta d e lF uego N u evo ye l Cu l to d el a sP l eyade s . "I nL aa n t ropo log ia Am e r ican i s ta e n l aa c tua l idad ; H omena j e aR aphae l G i rard . V o l . 2 .P p . 2 83 -304 . Mex ico C i ty : E d i to r e s Mex icano sU n ido s . 1 982 " A s tronomy ,C o smov i s ion ,a nd I d eo logy i nP re -H i span ic Me soame r ica . "I nA .F .A ven ia nd G .U r ton ,e d s .E thnoa s t ronomy a nd A rchaeoa s t ronomy i nt h e Amer i can T rop i cs .P p .8 1 -110 . A nna l so ft h eN ew Y o rk A cademy o fS c ience s .V o l . 3 85 . B r icke r ,V i c to r ia R . 1 988 " So l s t ic ia l I c onog raphy i nt h e D re sden C odex . " P ape r p r e sen ted a tt h e 4 6 th I n te rna t iona l s o C ong res f Ame r ican i s t s , Ams te rdam ,N e the r land s , 1 988 . r C B rundage ,B ur . s. 1 979 T he F if th S un :A z t ec G od s ,A z tec Wor ld .A u s t in :U n ive r s i ty o fT exa sP res ra C ar s co ,D av id 1 982 Q ue t za lcoa t la nd t h eI r ony o fEmp i re : My ths a nd P rophec ies i nt h eA z t ec T rad i t ion .C h i cago : s. U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago P res ra C ar s co ,P ed ro f 1 979 " L a sF ie s ta sd el o s Me se s Mex icano s , "i n Me soamer i ca : Homena j ea l D oc to rP au lK i rchhof . Mex ico C i ty : S EP INAH .P p . 5 1 -60 . C a so ,A l fon so 1 937 T he R e l ig ion o ft h eA z t e cs .P opu la rL ib r a ry o f Mex ican C u l tu re . Mex ico C i ty :C en t ra lN ew s C o . 1 953 E lp u eb lo d e ls o l . Mex ico C i ty :F ondo d eC u l tu ra E conom ica ( r ep r in t ed i n Co le cc ion P opu la r , 1 971 ) . 1 967 L o sC a lenda r io sP r eh i span i co s . Mex ico C i ty : UNAM . 1 97 1 " Ca lend r i ca lS ys tem so fC en t ra l Mex ico . "I nR obe r t Wauchope ,e d . ,H andbook o ft h eM idd l e Ame r ican I nd ian ,V o l 1 0 .P p . 33 -348 .A u s t in :U n ive r s i ty o fT exa sP r es s. C hadw ick ,R obe r ta nd R icha rd S . Ma cNe i sh 1 967 " Cod ex B o rg ia a nd t h eY ent aS a lada P ha se . "I nD .S .B eye r s ,e d . ,P reh i s tory o ft h eT ehua can V a l l ey . V o l . 1 .P p . 14 -131 .A u s t in :U n ive r s i ty o fT exa sP res s. C oe ,M icha e lD . 1 975 " Na t ive A s t ronomy i n Me soame r ica . "I nA .F .A ven i ,e d . ,A rchaeoas t ronomy i nP r e -Co lum s. b i an Am er i ca .P p . 3 32 .A u s t in :U n ive r s i ty o fT exa sP res l F u r s t ,J i lL . 1 982 " Ske le ton iza t ion i n Mix te cA r t : AR e -eva lua t ion . "I n E. H .B oone ,e d .T he A r ta ndI conography si o f La t eP os t -C las cC en t ra l Mex i co .P p .2 07 -226 . Wa sh ing ton ,D .C . : D umba r ton O ak s . G a r ibay ,A nge l Ma . 1 973 T eogon ia eh i s tor ia d el o s Mex icanos . Mex i co C i ty :P or rua .

19

re G onza lez T or s ,Y o lo t l 1 975 E lc u / to al o sa s tros e n t re l o s Mex ica s . Mex ico C i ty : S epSe ten ta s ,2 17 . G rau l ich ,M iche l l 1 988 Q ue t za lcoa t l ye le spe j ismo d e T o lan . A n twe rp : I n s t i tuu tv oo r Ame r ikan i s t iek . J imenez Mo reno ,W igbe r to 1 974 " P r ime ro s Memo r ia le s ' d e F ray B e rna rd ino d e S ahagün . " Mex ico C i ty : I NAH C o lecc ion C ien t if ica , 1 6 . K le in ,C ecel ia F . 1 975 " Po s t -C las sic Mex ican D ea th I mage ry a s aS ign o f C ycl ica l C omp le t ion . " I nE l izab e th P . B enson ,e d . ,D ea th a nd t h eA f ter l if ei n Pre -Co lumb ian Amer ica .P p .6 9 -86 . Wa sh ing ton ,D .C . : D umba r ton O ak s ,T ru s tee sf o rH a rva rd U n ive r s i ty . 1 976a T he F ace o f th eE ar th :F ron ta l i ty i nT wo -D im ens iona l Mesoamer ican A r t . N ew Y o rk :G a r land 1 976b

P ubl i sh ing ,I n c . " The I d en t i ty o ft h eC en t ra lD e i ty o nt h eA z te cC a lenda rS tone ." A r tB ule t in LVI 1 ) : 1 12 . I(

K rupp ,E dw in C . 1 982 " The ' B ind ing o ft h eY ea r s , 'T he P le iade s ,a nd t h eN ad i rS un . "A rchaeoa s t ronomy V ( 1 ) :9 13 . L eon -Po r t ila ,M igue l 1 966 L af i losof ia N ahua t le s tud iada e n

SUS f uen t es .

Mex ico C i ty : UNA M .

L oun sbu ry ,F loyd 1 983 " The B a se o ft h eV enu sT ab le o ft h e D re sden C odex ,a nd i t s S ign if i cance f o rt h eC a lenda r C or la t ion P rob lem . "I nA .A ven ia nd G .B ro the r s ton ,e d s . ,C a lendar si n Mesoamer ica a nd re P eru . Na t iv e Amer ican C ompu ta t ions o fT ime . BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie sN o . 1 74 : 1 26 . L umho l tz ,C a r l 1 900 S ymbo l i sm o f th e Hu icho lI nd ians . Memo i r so f th e Amer ican Museum o fN a tu ra lH i s tory ,V o l . 3 . Mend ie ta ,F ray J e ron imo d e 1 971 H is tor ia E c les ias t ica I nd iana .J oaqu in G a r c ia I c azba lce ta ,e d . Mex ico C i ty : P or . rua Mo to l in ia ,F ray T o r ib io d eB enaven te 1 967 Memor ia les . Documen tos H i s tor icos d e Mex ico .V o l . I .G uada la ja ra : E d i to r ia lA v ina L evy . M i lb ra th , S usan 1 980 " S ta r s God sa nd A s t ronomy o ft h eA z tec s . "I nL aa n tropo log ia a mer ican is ta e nl a ac tua l idad , Homena je aR aphae lG irard . V o l . 1 .P p . 2 89 -304 . Mex ico : E d i to re s Mex icano sU n ido s . 1 981 " A s t ronom ica lI mage ry i nt h eS e rpen tS equence o ft h eC odex Mad r id ." I nR ay A . Wil iam son , e d . ,A rchaeoas tronomy i nt h e Am er icas .P p . 2 63 -284 .L o sA l to s , CA : B alena P res s. 1 988a " B i r th I mage si nA nc ien t Mex ican A r t . "I nV .E .M ile r ,e d .T he R o le o fG end er i nP reco lum b i an A r ta nd A rch i tec tu re .P p . 1 53 -177 .L anham , MD : Un ive r s i ty P re ss o f Ame r ica . 1 988b " A s t ronom ica lI mage sa nd O r ien ta t ion si nt h eA rch i te c tu re o fC h ichen I t za ." I nA .F .A ven i , e d . N ew D i rec t ions i n Ame r ican A r chaeoas t ronomy . P roceed ing s o ft h e 4 6 th I n ter na t iona l C ong res f Ame r ican i s t s , Am s te rdam ,N e the r land s ,1 988 . BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s No .4 54 : s o 5 7 -79 . N icho l son ,H en ry B . 1 966 " A No te o n ' Comen ta r io sa lC od ice B o rg ia ' , " T la locan 5( 1 ) : 1 25 -132 . 1 971 " Re l ig ion i n Pr e -H i span i cC en t ra l Mex ico ." I nR obe r t Wauchope ,e d . ,H andbook o ft h eM idd le Amer ican I nd ian ,V o l . 1 0 .P p . 3 95 -445 . A u s t in : U n ive r s i ty o fT exa sP res s. 1 973 " The L a te P re -H i span ic C en t ra l Mex ican ( Az te c )I conog raph ic S ys tem . " I nT he I conography o f M idd le Amer ican S cu lp tu re .P p .7 2 -97 .N ew Y o rk C i ty : T he Me tropo l i tan Museum o fA r t . N icho l son ,H en ry B .a nd E lo i se Q u inone sK ebe r 1 983

A r to f Az tec Mex ico . Wa sh ing ton ,D .C . : N a t iona lG a lery o fA r t . l

N owo tny ,K a r lA . 1 96 1 T lacu i lo l i . B e rl in : V e r lag G eb r . Mann . l 1 976 C od ex B org ia ,K ommen tar . G raz : A kadem is che D rucku . V e r lagsan s ta l t .

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N u t tal ,Z el ia 1 90 1 " Ame r ican C iv i l iz a t ion s . "P eabody Mu seum P ape r s .V o l . 1 , no . 1 . O roz co yB er ra , Manue l 1 880 H i s to r ia A n t igua yd e l aC onqu i s ta d e Mex ico . V o l . 3 . Mex ico : T ipog ra f ia d e G onza lo A . E s t eva . S aenz ,C es a rA . 1 967 E lF uego N uevo . Mex ico : l NAH . S ahagün ,f r ay B e rna rd ino d e 1 950 -82 F lor en t ine C od ex :G enera lH i s to ry o ft h eT h ing so fN ew S pa in .T ran s la ted f r om t h eN ahua t l b y A r thu rJ .0 . A nd e r son , a nd C ha r le s E . D ibb le . 1 4 v o l s . Monog r aph s o ft h e S choo l f o r Ame r ican R e sea r ch ,n o . 1 4 . S an ta F e . S ch lak ,A r thu rE dmund 1 983 T he V enu s G od s : AS t ud yi n Mesoame r i can A s t ronomy ,A r chaeo logy ,A r tH i s to ry ,S ymbo l , R e l ig ion ,a nd T hough t .( do c to ra ld i se r ta t ion ,Y a le U n ive r s i ty )A nn A rbo r :U n ive r s i ty M i c ro s f i lm s . S e le r ,E dua rd 1 904 " The V enu sP e r iod i n th eB o rg ian C odex G roup . "B u r eau o f Ame r ican E thno logy ,B u le t in 2 8 . l P p .3 55 -391 . 1 904 -09 C od ex B o rg ia .E in ea l tmex ikan i s che B i ld er s ch q td e rB ib l io thek d e rC ongrega t io d eP ropa g anda F id e . 3V o l s .B e r l in . 1 960 -6 1 G e samm e l t eA bhand lungen z u r Ame r ikan i s chen S p rache u nd A l terhum skund e . 5V o l s .A u s t r i a :G raz ( r ep r in t ed f r om 1 902 -23 e d i t ion ,B e r l in ) . 1 96 3 C o rnmen tar io sa lC od ice B o rg ia .V o l .2 . Mex i co :F ondo d eC u l tu ra lE conom ica . S i son ,E dwa rd B . s 1 983 " Recen t Wo rk o nt h eB o rg ia G roup C od ice s , "C ur tA n th ropo logy 2 4( 5 ) :6 53 -56 . ren T u cke rman ,B ryan 1 96 4 P lane ta ry ,L unar ,a nd S o lor P os i t ions , Al ) . 2t oAD .1 649 a t Fiv e -day a ndT en -d ay i n t er va l s . P h i lad e lph ia : Ame r ican P h i lo soph i ca lS o c ie ty . V e la zquez ,P r imo F el i c iano 1 945 C od ice C h ima lpopoca .A na l es d eC uauh t i t lan yL eyenda d el o sS o l es . Mex ico : UNAM .

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F ig . 1 :V enu si nC odex B o rg ia 2 9 -46 MS= Mom ing S tar ; T =T lahu izca lpan tecuh t l i 0=Venus I nv is ib le i nS upe r io rC on junc t ion ; X=Xo lo t l E S=Even ing S tar , Z =Venu sI nv is ib le i nI n f e r io rC on junc t ion lv l l Q=Que tza lcoa t l( P lane tV enu s )i n al a r ia t ions e xcep tt h ef o low ing : YQ=Ye low Q ue tza l c oa t i ; HQ=Hu rnm ingb i rd Q ue tza lcoa t l ; EQ=Eheca t l -Que tza lcoa t l t S k=Ske le ta l God ; R d=Red s po ted b ody p a in to fs a c r if ic ia lv i c t im ; s; SA=S SG=S ta r Goddes ta r -Ashe s ; EM=Ea r th Mon s te r -=b i r th f r om w omb o f S t a r s B Goddes o rde r 1 p . p

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1 2 /2 -12 / 22 1 2 / 23 -1 / 11 / 12 -1/ 3 (2 ) 1 2 / 1 -2 /25 (3 ) / 26 -3 / 17 2 3 / 18 -4 /6 4 [ 1 -4 /26 4 / 27 -5 / 16 5 / 17 -6 / 5 6 / 6 -6 /25 6 / 26 -7 / 15 7 / 16 -8 / 4 8 / 5 -8 / 24 8 / 25 -9 / 13 9 / 14 -10 / 3 1 0 / 4 -10 / 23 1 0 /24 -11 / 11 / 12 -12 / 1(4 ) 1

1 ) T he V enus g od sa r el i s ted i ns ugge s ted o rde ro fp rom inence a sd e te rm ined b yp rox im i ty t ot h ec en te ro ft h ec ompo s i t ion . 2 ) T he b eg inn ing o f t h i s mon th i se s t ima ted b ecause n o d a te i sg iven i n P r imero s Memor ia le s ( J imenez Mo reno 1 974 ) . 3 ) T h i s mon th b eg in so nF eb rua ry 1a cco rd ing t oP r imeros Memor ia les ,a nd p re sumab ly t h en emon tem iw e re a dded a tt h ee nd o ft h e mon th b ecau se t h en ex t mon th s t a r t s2 5d ay s l a te r . Mo re c ommon ly t h e n emon tem i w e re a dded a tt h e e nd o ft h ep rev ious mon th , I z ca l i( N icho l son 1 971 :Tab le 4 ) . l 4 ) T h i s mon th s hou ld b eg in o n N ovembe r 1 3 . E i the rt h e re i sa n e ro r i nt h e P r imero s r Memor ia le so ra ne x t ra d ay w a sa dded d u r ing t h i s mon th a sa ni n te r ca la t ion .

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F ig .2 . C odex B o rg ia p age 2 9 .E heca t l -Que tza lcoa t lr i ses u p ,s ymbo l iz ing t h er ap id a s cen t o fV enus a s Mo rn ing S ta rd u r ing A temor t l i , t h e mon th o ft h ew in te rs o l s t ice . 1 23

F ig .3 . C odex B o rg ia p age 3 3 .T lahu izca lpan tecuh t l ia t op ap y ram id ,s ymbo l iz ing V enu s a st h e Mo rn ing S ta rh igh u pi nt h es ky a f te r max imum w e s te rn e l onga t ion i n Tlacax ipehua l i z t l i , t h e mon th o ft h es p r ing e qu inox . 1 24

F ig . 4 . C odex B o rg ia 3 9 . Q ue tza lcoa t ld e scend ing i n to t h eu nde rwo r ld ,r ep re sen t ing t h e e nd o ft h e Mo rn ing S t ar p ha se i nH uey tecu i lhu i t l ,j u s tf o l low ing t h e s umme rs o l s t ice . 1 25

F ig . 5 . C odex B o rg ia 4 0 . Q ue tza lcoa t l f u sed w i th t h e s un , d ep ic t ing V enu s i ns upe r io r c on junc t ion d u r ing M icca i lhu i ton t l i , t h e mon th o ft h e s o la rz en i th . 1 26

F ig .6 . C odex B o rg ia 4 6 .V enu sr i s ing f r om t h es o la rf i re ,r ep re sen t ing t h en ew ly e me rged E ven ing S ta ri nP anque tza l iz t l i , t h e mon th o ft h es o la rn ad i r . 1 27

T emp lo Mayor : Dua lS ymbo lo ft he P as sing o fT ime C armen A gu i lera T he T emp lo Mayo r o f Mex ico -Tenoch t i t lan w a s a n o b serva to ry a s t h e p as s age i n Mo to l in ia s ugge s t s : l " Th is f e a s t( T lacax ipehua l iz t l i ) ,f e lw hen t h es un w a si nt h em idd le o fU ich i lobo s , t t h a tw a st h ee qu inox ,a nd s i nce i tw a s al i t le c rooked , Mu t izuma w an ted t ot a ke i t d own a nd b u i ld i ta l igned" . F rom i t ss umm i tt h e Mex ica p r ie s t sc ou ld w a tch t h es un ,t h es t a r sa nd o the ra s t ronom ica l movemen t sa nd a c t iv i ty . S ince t h ey d id n o th ave i n s t rumen t st od e te rm ine t h ep o s i t ion o f t h ec e le s t ia lb od ie si nt h ef i rmamen t ,t h ey h ad t ou t i l ize t h eT emp lo Mayo rt on o te t h es un 's movemen t so nt h eh o r izon l i ne .T hey c ou ld a nd p robab ly d id ma rk s ome o ft h e ma in s un se t s t h rough o b serva t ion f r om t h eT emp lo Mayo r . T he p r ie s t -a s t ronome r so b se rved f r om t h et op o ft h et emp le s un r i se so rs unse t so nt h e h o r izon l i ne e i the ra t th eE a s to ra tt h e We s ti nt h en ea rby moun ta in st h a tr un a pp rox ima te ly l No r th -Sou th o nb o th s i de so ft h eV a ley o f Mex ico .T hey a lmo s tc e r ta in ly made t h ed a i ly o b se rva t ion o ft h es un t owa rd st h e Wes tb ecau se t h et w in c hape ls o fT emp lo Mayo rf a ce i nt h i sd i rec t ion a nd i ti se a s ie rt o de te rm ine t h ee xac tp o in to fs unse t so nt h i ss i de .T hey a l so n o ted t h e z en i th p a ssages w hen t h e s un w a s d i re c t ly a bove t h e t emp le . T he f i r s t z en i th p a ssage o ccu r si n Mex ico o nt h e 1 6 th o f May a nd t h e s e cond o ne o nt h e2 4 th o fJ u ly . T he p r ie s t -a s t ronome r so nT emp lo Mayo rc ou ld o b serve t h es un mov ing a l ong t h el i ne o fs un se t sb e tween t h ew in te rs o l s t ice ,t h e mo re s ou the rn o ne a nd t h es umme rs o l s t ice ,t h e mo re n o r the rn o ne ,e nd les sly t h rough t h ey ea r s . Two p o in t so fs unse t sv e ry c l o se t oge the r i nt h em idd le o ft h is l i ne m a rked t h ee qu inoxe s . T he a nc ien t Mex ican sr u led t h e i rl i ve sb y as o la rc a lenda ro f1 8 mon ths o f2 0d ay sp lu s l s" d 5s oc a led " wo r th les ay so rn emon tem i . I ti sh igh ly i mp robab le t h a tt h eo b serva t ion s s oc o f t h e s un 's movemen t s w e re d i sas ia ted f r om t h e s o la r c a lenda r . T h is c on jec tu re i s s ugges ted b y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e a u tho r o f t h e c a lenda r i n Mo to l in ia u n i tes i n t h e a bove . m en t ioned q uo te d a ta f r om s o la ro b serva t ion s : i e . , t h e e qu inox a nd d a ta f r om t h e s o la r . c a lenda r ;i e . ,t h ef ea s to f Tlacax ipehua l iz t l i .T he t e x ta dd st h a tt h ee qu inox t ook p l ace when t h e" sun w a si nt h em idd le o ft h eU ich i lobo s" . I nt h is c a se "m idd le" , d oe s n o tr e f e rt oa z en i tha lp a ss ,w h ich d oe sn o to ccu ri nt h i s mon th ,b u tt ot h ep o in td i rec t ly b e tween t h et w in c hape l s . T he h o r izon ta ls unse tl i ne ,d iv ided i nt wo b yt h ee qu inox s unse tc an b ea s cr ibed t ot h e p a t ron d e i t ie so ft h et w in c hape l st h a tr u led o ve rt h et wo s e a sons r e cogn ized b yt h ea nc ien t Mex icans , i na cco rdance t ot h e c l ima t ic c ond i t ions o f Mex ico . When t h e s un s e t o n t h e s ou ther nh a lf o ft h is l i ne i tw a st ona lco ,t h ed ry s unny s e a son u nde rH u i tz i lopoch t l i . When t h es un s e ti nt h en or thern h a lf i tw a sx opan ,t h eg reen r a iny s e a son u nde rT la loc .T he t w in c hape l sa nd t h el i ne o fs un se t ss e rved a sa ni n s t rumen tf o rt h em ea su remen to fs o la rt ime . t T h i s p ropo s i t ion w a s d educed s o le ly f r om t h e s t udy o f w r i ten a nd p i c to r ia l s ou r ce s . sa H oweve r ,f u r the ra r chaeo log ica la nd a s t ronom ica ls t ud ie sa r en eces ry i n orde rt o conf irm i t .A lso ,r e sea rch a t pl ace sl i ke Moun tT la loc o rH ueypan tonco ," B ig p l ace o ft h eb anne r" , w h ich c ou ld h ave b een s o la rm a rke r s , may y i e ld r e l iab le d a ta t oc onf i rm my a pp roach . T he ma in e qu inox ,a sw eh ave s e en ,w a sn o ted o n as pec ia lf e a s t ,T lacax ipehua l iz t l i .I t sib w a sp os le t h a tt h eo t he rf i ve s o la r movemen t sw e re a l so c o inc iden ta lt os pec ia lf e a s t s .

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I nt h i s p ape r Ii n tend t os how t h a tt h e mon th s i nw h ich t h e ma in e qu inox , s o l s t ice s a nd se red w z en i tha lp as so ccur e r ec e leb ra ted a nd d ed ica ted t o so la rd e i t ie s .T he se f e s t iva l sh ave n eve rb een s t ud ied a s au n i tw i th in t h ec on tex to ft h es o la ry ea r . T he r e cogn i t ion o ft h i s i n te ra c t ion o ff e s t iva l a nd s o la re ven to f f e r sa dd i t iona l s uppo r tt ot h eh ypo the s i st h a tt h e a nc ien t Mex ican sr u led t h e i rl i ve sb ya na d ju s ted c a lenda ra sw a st h ec a se a t th et ime o ft h e s ed e C onque s t . T he a d ju s tm en th a sb een d i scus l sewhe r e? .3 Iw i la na ly se t h es i xs o la rf e s t iva l ss t a r t ing w i th T la cax ipehua l iz t l i ,t h em a in e qu inox l f o rt h e Mex ican s ,b ecau se i nt h eD e scr ipc iön E tnogrdf i c te i ti s sa id t h a tt h eI nd ian ss t a r ted t o c oun t t h e i r f e a s t s f r om t h i s e qu inox . T hen Iw i l s t udy t h e o t he r s o la r f e a s t s i n l c h rono log ica lo rde r . Iu se C a so 's c or la t ion a tt h et ime o ft h eC onque s t ,5c re onve r t ing h i s d a te st ot h eG rego r ian c a lenda r . T lacax ipehua l iz t l i : ( 1 5 th o f March t o3 rd o f Apr i l ) Ma in Equ inox T h i sw a s av e ry s o lemn f e s t iva l ," j u s tl i ke o r mo re s ot h an E a s te rS unday" . 6Mo to l in ia , e a sw eh ave s en , s t a te sc l ea r ly t h a tt h i sw a st h ef e a s to ft h ee qu inox .I nt h i sc e remony t h e l s un i s ca led C uauh t lehuan i t l ," R i s ing e ag le" , s i gn i fy ing t h a tt h er i s ing s un i s ce leb ra ted . T he p a t ron d e i ty o ft h i s mon th w a s X ipe T o tec , " Ou r L o rd t h e F layed O ne" . H e i sa n ro r a dvoca t ion o fT la t lauhqu iT ezca t l ipo ca ," Red Smok ing M ir r" .H ec a r ie s as h ie ld o fr ed c oncen t r ic b and st h a ti sa ni mage o ft h es un .T h i si sa ni n d ica t ion t h a th ei s as o la rg od . T he t wo k ind so fr i te sc e leb ra ted d u r ing t h i s mon th w e re 1 )b lood le ss o ne si n tended t o i n su re e nough h um id i ty f o r t h e r e cen t ly s own c rop s a nd 2 ) f i gh t s a nd s a c r if i ce s w i th b l ood shed . Wa te ra nd t h es un h ad t ob ep rop i t ia t ed t oo b ta in t h ef e r t i l i ty o ft h ee a r th . A n s s e xamp le o fb lood les a c r if i ce i si nd ica ted b yt h eo t he rn ame o ft h e mon th :A ya cachp ixo lo , t r t " Ra t les a r es own" .I nP r imero s Memor ia le s , 'X ipe c a r ie s ar a t le o n al ong s t i ck ,l i ke t h e o ne sp robab ly p ounded o nt h ee a r th o nt h ef e a s td ay .T h i si s an a c to fs ympa the t ic m ag ic t e b o th t oa t ra c tr a in a nd t ob r ing a bou tt h ef e r t i l i ty o ft h ep l an ted s ed s .I na no the re xamp le , t f a ti nd ica ted a bundance o fr a in . As k in f r om o ne o ft h ef l ayed v i c t im sw a sh ung ,i fl i t le f a t d r ipped ,t h el e ade r ss ummoned t h ep eop le a nd u rged t h em t o wo rk f a s to nt h ef i e ld sb ecau se t h ey ea r wou ld b r ing r a in . ' Wa rr i te sw e re c e leb ra ted f o rt wo d ay s .T he f i r s td ay w a rc ap t ive sw e re s a c r if iced .T he f l p r ie s t so f e red t h e i rh ea r tt ot h es un c a l ing t h em " P re c iou se ag le c a c tu sf r u i t" .T hey a l so l n amed t h ec ap t ives " Eag le m en" ,b ecau se w hen k i led t h ey w ou ld f l yu pt os e rve t h es un . l T hen f o lowed t h eg l ad ia to r ia ls a c r if ice .T he c ap t ive w a ss t re tched o n ar ound s t one ,i m age f o ft h es o la rd i sk a nd h i sh ea r to f e r ed t ot h es un . s I ti si n te re s t ing t o n o te t h a t t h e S pan i sh t e x t o f t h e C 6 c l ice F loren t ino , 9 make H u i tz i lopoch t l it h ep a t ron g od o ft h i sf e a s t .T h i ss ugge s t st h a tt h en ew ly a r ived Mex ica g od r w a sr ep lac ing X ipe T o tec ,t h es o la rg od o ft h e ma in e qu inox . T oxca t l : ( 14 th o f May t o2 nd o fJ une ) ,F ir s tZ en i th P as s age T oxca t lw a so ne o ft h e" un ive r sa lf e a s t s" , t h a ti s , amuch c e leb ra ted o ne . T he p a t ron d e i ty w a s Y ayauhqu iT ezca t l ipo ca , t h eB lack T ezca t l ipo ca . H eh ad b l ack s k in a nd w o re d a rk o rnamen t s .O nt h et h i rd d ay ,t h e 1 6 th o f May ,t h ef i r s tz en i th p as ccur .T he re s age o red i sn o r e f e rence i n t h e w r i ten o r p i c to r ia l d o cumen t s t h a t t h e Mex ica s n o ted i t , b u t t T ezca t l ipoca i s one o ft h ep r imeva l s un s . H i sn ame , " Smok ing m ir r" , may i n d ica te t h e ro s e t ing s un . t A tt h i st im et h es un w a sh o ta nd p eop le w e r ea f ra id t h ey ea rw ou ld r un d ry .T hey p rayed t oT ezca t l ipoca a nd s u rounded h i s i mage w i th f l owe r s . H i s i mpe r sona to r , c a led Y ao t l , r l

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rio e "War r" ,w a ss a c r if i ced .T he r a iny s e a son c ommenced' a nd a ga in w es et h es t ra tegy t o b a lance ,t h rough r i tua l s ,w a te ra nd s un i no rde rt o en su re t h ef e r t i l i ty o ft h ee a r th .A cco rd ing t oS ahagün ,H u i tz i lopoch t l is ha re st h ep a t ronage o ft h ef e a s tw i th T ezca t l ipoca .H is i mage rio w a sh o is ted u pt oh i st emp le b yy oung w ar r sw ho b eheaded q ua i ls ,t h eb i rd sc ompan ions o ft h e s un . E tza lcua l iz t l i : ( 3 rd t o2 2nd o fJ une )S ummer S o ls t ice l T he 2 0 th d ay o ft h ef e a s t ,E tza lcua l iz t l i ,f e la lmo s to nt h es u mme rs o l s t ice .T he p a t ron d e i ty w a s T la loc , g od o fr a in , w ho w a s a l so o ne o ft h e p r imeva l s un s , t h e w h i te o ne . I n C öd ice T ud e la ," h ew ea r s aw h i te c o s tume w i th b l ue t r im s .H eh a sw h i te h e ron f e a the r sa s s. D e p a r to fh i sh eadd res ur ing t h i s mon th t h ep r ie s tg a the red r ed st h a tg row b yt h ew a te r , t b a thed i nt h eA yauhcal i ," hou se o fm i s t" a nd s ounded t h e" Ra t le b oa rd o fm i s t" ,e xc lus ive p roper ty o fd i v ine r s . I tw a st ime o fr e jo ic ing f o rt h ec ommon p eop le . T hey v ene ra ted t h e a gr icu l tu ra li mp lemen t s ,a t et h ee t za l i ,f ood o fc o rn a nd b ean s .T he w ar r s ,d i sgu i sed a s l rio T la loc ,d emanded t h is d i sh f r om d oo rt od oo r . l l 2 a nd af e a s t w a s c e leb ra ted c a l led t h e T he r a ins f e l f o r cefu ly d u r ing t h i s mon th 1 " un ive r sa ld e luge" ;" t h ee a r so fc o rn b egan t os how t h ek e rne ls ,' b u tt h ep eop le c ou ld n o t rie y e te a ti t .T hey t ook a dvan tage a tt h i st ime o ft h e many e d ib le g r eens a nd c her s .T he re w e re f ew s a cr if i ce so rc e remon ia lf i gh t sb ecause w a te rw a sp l en t ifu l . s age Huey tecu i lhu i t l : ( 13 th o fJ u ly t oi s to f Augu s t ) S econd Z en i th P as 5 O nt h e 1 2 th d ay o fH uey tecu i lhu i t l ,t h a ti s ,t h e T h i sw a st h eb igge s tf e a s to ft h ey ea r .1 s o red i 2 4 th o fJ u ly ,t h es e cond z en i tha lp as ccur n Mex ico c i ty .O nt h i sd ay ,f o rt h ef i r s tt ime , l t h en ob le sa t et o r t i la so fg r een ma ize ,c ane so fc o rn a nd t h eg r eens o ft h ea ma ran th p lan t . T he c ommon p eop le w a i ted a nx iou s ly f o rt h i sf e as tb ecause t h er u le rd i s tr ibu ted f ood f o r s even d ays .

t T he d e i t ie s c e leb ra ted d u r ing t h i s mon th v a ry i nt h e w r i ten d ocumen t s . As t udy o f s eve ra lp i c tor ia ls ou r ce s s how st h a t as o la rd e i ty w a sv ene ra ted d u r ing t h i s mon th . l rio 7 aw ar r i sr ep re I n t h e r e la ted c od ices T e ler iano -Remen s i s a nd V a t ican -Rios" .1 s en ted a st h e p a t ron d e i ty o ft h i s f e a s t . H e w ea r s an e t c ape w i th t h e b o rde r o fe ye le t s rio l l d i s t inc t ive o fw ar r sa nd a ppea r st oh o ld ab a li nh i sh and .T h is i sa c tua ly ad i sk w i th f i ve f t d i f e ren tc o lo red s egmen t sa nd f ou rl i t le c i rc le t so nt h ee dge .T h is i st h es ymbo lf o ri l hu i t l , " f ea s t" , a sE l izabe th B oone h a s r ema rked a nd , a l so as ymbo l o ft h e g od Macu i lxoch i t l , rio " F ive f l owe r" . H ei st h ew ar rp a t ron o fH uey tecu i lhu i t l ," B ig f e as to ft h eL o rd" . I nt h ec od ice s Mag l iabech i" a nd T ude la ,1 9 t h ep a t ron d e i ty o ft h is s ame f e a s ti s a man w i th ab i rd 's h e lme to fr edd i sh p lumage a nd ah eadd re ss o ff e a the r sa nd s i lex k n ive s .H e i s se a ted o n ap a lanqu in c ove red w i th m a ize p l an t sw h ich a r ep l en t ifu lw i th e a r so fc o rn a nd ries t l l t a sse l s .H ec ar h ey o lo top i l io r" hea r ts c ep te r" .A very s im i la rf i gu re ,s ea ted o n as t oo l i sr ep re sen ted i na no the r p age o ft h e t wo manuscr ip t s m en t ioned a bove ." ' I n C öd ice l l Mag l iabech it h eb i rd -god i s ca led r e spec t ive ly T lazop i l ia nd C h icomexoch i t l .I nC öd ice l l l T ude la ,b o th b i rd -god sa r ec a led X uch ip i l i . T he C öd ice F loren t ino i d en t if ies Xoch ip i l i a nd Ma cu i lxoch i t 1 ,2 s ot h eb i rd -god i s Macu i lxoch i t l . 2 1

T he t e x t so ft h ec od ice s Mag l iabech ia nd T ud e la s pec ify t h a t Macu i lxo ch i t l 's b i rd i s ap apagayo .T h is w o rd r e f er red t op s i t tac id si ng enera li nt h ee a r ly c h ron ic le s .T he r ed b i rd i nt h ec odex i s as ca r le tm acaw .T h i sb i rd w a sr e la ted t os un a nd f i re . H is r ed t a i lf e a the r s w e re c a l led c ue za l in ," f lame" . Macu i lxoch i t lt h ea ra macao g od i s a s o la rd e i ty .H i sa t t i re i sr ed a nd i nP r imeros Memor ia le s ,' e xh ib i t s t h e s o la r s ymbo l , c on s i s t ing o ff ou rd i sk s

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rio c l o se t o ge the ro nh i sf l ag ,s h ie ld a nd s anda l s .H ei st h eg od o fw ar r sw ho h e ld as p ec ia l d ance o nt h ef e a s td ay . O chpan iz t l i : ( 11 th t o3 0 th o fS ep tember ) Au tumn E qu inox T h i s w a s t h e mon th o fh a rve s tb ecau se c o rn a nd v ege tab le s h ad r e ached m a tu r i ty? ' D u r ing t h e mon th ly c e remony ap r ie s ta nd s om ey ou th sw ea r ing s k in so ff l ayed v i c t im s e c ame o u to ft h et emp le a nd t h rew c o rn s ed st ot h ec r owd b e low . S ome ma id en sw en tt o r C h icomecoa t l 's t emp le c a ry ing s even e a r so fc o rn .C e r ta in c e r emon ie sw e r ep e r f o rmed i n 5 w h i ch s he w a sa f te rt h eh a rve s t . a b so lu te s i lence " a si ft h ee a r th w a sd ead" ,2 nd N ow t h a tt h ec rop s w e re i nt h eg r ana r ie sp eop le h ad t ime t os t a r tp ub l ic w o rk s ' -6 a rio p repa re f o rw a r . Mo tecuhzoma g ave y oung w ar r sa nd n ob lemen a rm sa nd d ev ice s .T he r i mpe r sona to r o f C in teo t l w en t t o a n e nemy t e r i to ry a nd s t a r ted a m ock f i gh t w i th r ep r e sen ta t ive so ft h ee nemy c ommon ly a s as i gn t h a tt h er e a lw a r sw e re s oon t ob eg in .T he l a ppea rance o ft h i sg od ,a l so c a led I t z t laco l iuhqu i ," Cu rved o b s id ian k n if e" ,i nd ica t ed t h a t senge s o t h ec o ld w ea the rw a sa pp roach ing .H ew a st h em es ro ff r o s t .T he p a t ron g oddes f t h i sf e s t iva lw a sT oc i ," Ou rg randmo the r " .H e ri mpe r sona to rc ou ld n o tb es ad b ecau se many w omen c ou ld d i e i nc h i ldb i r th a nd many w ar r s w ou ld d i e i nt h e c om ing w a r s i fs he rio d i sp layed s adnes n Mex ica t ime sT oc iw a sa l so t h en am eo f am a iden w ho w a st o be come s. I H u i tz i lopoch t l i 's w if e .T h i si st h eo n ly r e la t ion t ot h es o la rt h eme f ound i nt h e mon th o ft h e a u tumn e qu inox . P anque tza l iz t l i : ( 3 0 th o fN ovember t o1 9 th o fD ecember ) Win ter S o ls t ice T he f e a s tc e leb ra ted t h eb i r th o fH u i tz i lopoch t l i .H ei st h ew in te rs un w ho a f te rs t ay ing f o r af ew d ay sv e ry w ide a nd l ow o nt h eh o r izon ,s t a r t sh i sj ou rney b ack t owa rd t h ec en te r s o t h e u n ive r se may l i ve a ga in . I t wa s t h ep r inc ipa l f e a s to ft h e y ea ra nd t h er i te s w e re d e s t ined t op rop i t ia te h i s r e juvena t ion . Many c ap t ive s w e re s a c r i f iced a nd t h e a g i ta ted , sion h a s ty p roces sa ccen tua ted t h ec l ima te o fa nx ie ty a t th eu nce r ta in ty o ft h es un 's r e tu rn . S eve ra ld ay sa f te rt h ew in te rs o l s t ice t h es un b egan t o move .T he Mex ica sw e re s u r et h a t h uman s a c r if ice sw e re r e spon s ib le f o rh i sr e tu rn . T he r e f e rence s t o t h i s f e s t iva l i n t h e s i x teen th c en tu ry d ocumen t s c o inc ide w i th D ecembe r .N ava ss ay st h a tP anque tza l iz t l ic ame a t th ec onc lu s ion o ft h eh a rve s t .I tw a sa t r e t h i s t ime t h a t t e r i to r ia l b o rde r m a rke r s w e re r e s tab l i shed a nd d ef ended a nd m i l i ta ry 7 C lav i je ro s t a te st h a tt h eb o rde r sw e re s e ti np l a ce i nD ecembe r? 'T ova r c onf l ic t ss t a r ted .2 n o te st h a tt h ef e s t iva lt ook p l ace a tt h ec onc lu s ion o fc e r ta in m i l i ta ry c on f l ic t so nce t h ew a r s 9 i no rde rt h a ts u ff ic ien tn umbe ro fc ap t ives w e r ea va i lab le t ob es a c r if iced . w e re q u ie ted ,2 P anque tza l iz t l iw a st h ee xa l ta t ion o fw a r ,o ft h e Mex ic ag od a nd o fw ar r s .S ong sw e re rio d ed ica ted t ot h eb rave o ne s3 ° a nd t h ec ap ta in sf ough td ead ly b a t le sa ga in s te nem ie s? ' A t p roces i rcumambu la ted t h ec i ty t os how t h a tH u i tz i lopoch t l ih ad b een v i c to r iou si n sion c 2 w a r . A lk i nd so fd ev ice sa nd a rm sw e re d i s t r ibu ted a mong t h ew ar r s .3 l rio I n mo s ts ou r ce sH u i tz i lopoch t l ii st h eu nd i spu t ed p a t ron d e i ty b u ti nC od ex Mag l iabec c h i' T ezca t l ipo ca a nd H u i tz i lopoch t l is ha r eh ono r s . Mo to l in ia d ec la r e st h a tT ezca t l ipoca w a st h eb i gb ro the ra nd H u i tz i lopoch t l it h es ma le rb ro the ra nd t h ef e a s tw a sd ed ica ted t o l 4 b o th .3 C onc lus ion T he ma in e qu inox ,t wo z en i th p as sa nd t wo s o l s t ice sh ad s o la rd e i t ie sa sp a t ron s . s age T hey w e r e h ono red o n t h e 2 0 th o r l a s t d ay o f t h e mon th w hen t h e f e s t iva l w a s h e ld , r ega rd les ft h e d ay i nw h ich t h e r e spec t ive m a in s o la r movemen t t ok p l a ce . I n t h e s o o 1 32

l f o low ing l i s t a ppea r t h e p a t ron g od s , t h e f e a s t i n w h ich t h ey w e r e c e leb ra ted , t h e i r G r ego r ian d a te a nd t h en ame o ft h es o la re ven t . X IPE TOTEC H u i tz i lopo ch t l i

T lacax ipehua l iz t l i ( 3 rd A p r i l )

Ma in S o l s t ice

T EZCATL IPOCA H u i tz i lopoch t l i

T oxcad ( 2nd J une )

s age F i r s tz en i th p as

TLALOC

E tza lcua l izd i( 3 rd t o2 2nd J une )

S umme rS o l s t ice

MACU ILXOCH ITL

H uey tecu i lhu id ( 1 s tA ugu s t )

s age S econd z en i th p as

HU ITZ ILOPOCHTL I

P anque tza l iz t l i( 1 9 th D e cembe r )

Win te rS o l s t ice

T he p ivo t so ft h e Mex ica c a lenda rw e re t h es o l s t ice st h a tw e r ec e leb ra t ed n ea rt h ed a te red i n wh ich t h ey o ccur .T he o t he rs o la rc e leb ra t ion sd id n o tt a ke p l a ce o nt h ed ay o ft h es o la r e ven tb ecau se t h ey w e re i n s c r ibed w i th in t h ev ige s ima lc ha rac t e ro ft h ec a lenda r .T he f i ve red t s o la rf e a s t sw e re v e ry i mpo r tan ta st h ey a r er e f er oa se i the r" gene ra l" o r" un ive r sa l" . T he r e l ig iou sa c t iv i t ie si n th es o la rf e s t iva l sc o inc ide w i th e i the rt h er a iny o rd ry s e a son s o ft h e y ea r . I n T la cax ipehua l iz t l i a nd T oxca t l , r i te s w e re p e r fo rmed i no rde r t oo b ta in s u ff i c ien tw a te ra nd s un f o rt h en ew ly s own ma ize p l an t s .I nE tza lcua l iz t l i , when r a in sw e re p l en t i fu l , many w a te rc e r emon ie st ook p l a ce a nd i tw a s at ime o fj oy a nd o fr e s tf o rt h e a g r icu l tu ra li mp lemen t s .I nH uey tecu i lhu i t lr a in sw e re n ol o nge ri nd emand a nd w ar r s rio w e re h ono red i n ad ance t oe ncou rage t h em f o rb a t le .P anque tza l iz t l iw a st h ee xha l ta t ion t o f as u cces u lw a r . sf T he f i gu re sa nd s ymbo l si nt h ef i ve f e s t iva l sc or spond t ot h e s un . T he s un i sc a led re l " soa r ing e ag le" i nT lacax ipehua l iz t l ia nd s a c r if iced w ar r sw e re c a led " eag le men" a nd rio l w en tt oh eaven t os e rve t h es un . Q ua i l s ,t h es un 's c ompan ion s ,a ss en i nt h et o na lama t l , e a r e b eheaded . X ipe a nd Ma cu i lxo ch i t l w ea r t h e s o la r s ymbo l a nd i nT lacax ipehua l iz t l i c ap t ive sa r es a c r if i ced o nt h er ound s t one ,a no the ri mage o ft h es un . A tt h et ime o ft h eC onque s t ,t h es o la rc e remon ie so ft h es o la rc a lenda rw e re c oo rd ina ted t ot h e s o la r e ven t s . I t is v e ry p robab le t h a t t h e Mex ica s r u led t h e i rl i ve s b y a n a d ju s ted c a lenda ri nw h i ch t h eT emp lo Mayo r ,w i th t h e t w in c hape l s o nt o pf unc t ioned a s ad ua l sing o s ymbo lo ft h ep as ft ime . r O ne f i na lt e n ta t ive c on s ide ra t ion .B ya rang ing t h ef i ve s o la rd e i t ie s ,p a t ron so ft h ef i ve s ma in s o la r movemen t s , t h e i ra soc ia ted c o lo ra nd c a rd ina ld i rec t ion si n to aq u incunx w e r a r ive a tad e s ign s im i la rt o th ei mage i n th eC odex F e j6 rvä ry - Maye r . We p l a ce t h eR ed X ipe T o t ec o nt h eE a s to ru ppe rd i r ec t ion b ecau se h ei s th er i s ing s un . T he B la ck T ezca t l ipoca t s t and s i nt h e o ppo s i te d i r e c t ion , t h e We s t , b ecau se h e i st h e d a rk s e t ing s un . T he B lue H u i tz i lopoch t l ir u le st h eS ou th a nd t h e Wh i te T la loc h a sa sh i sd oma in t h eN o r th .T he c en te r i so ccup ied b y t h e R ed Ma cu i lxoch i t l , t h e S un o fF i re . We d o n o t k now y e t t h e o r ig in , s a so c ia t ion so ri mp l ica t ion so ft h i ss cheme . I ti s ve ry s im i la rt ot h eq u incunx i np age 1o f C odex F e j6 rvä ry - Maye r ,a nd d e se rve sf u r the rs t udy . R ed X ipe T o tec EAST Wh i te T la loc NORTH

R ed Macu i lxoch i t l CENTER B lack T ezca t l ipoca WEST 1 33

B lue H u i tz i lopo ch t l i SOUTH

R ef erence s 1

i Mo to l in ia ( To r ib io d e B enaven te ) , Memor ia les oL ib ro d e l a s C osas d e l aN ueva E spa ia y de l o s l N a tura les d ee la , I n s t i tu to d eI nve s t iga c iones H is tö r ica s ,U .N .A .M . , Mex ico , 1 971 ,p . 51 .

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re A gu i le ra ,C a rmen ," Xopan yT ona lco .U na h ipö te s i sa ce r ca d el ac or la c iön a s t ronöm ica d e lc a lenda r io m ex ica" ,E s tud ios d eC u l tu ra N ähua t l 1 5 , I n s t i tu to d eI nve s t igac ione sH is tö r ica s ,U .N .A .M . , Mex ico , 1 982 ,p p . 1 85 -207 .

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A gu i le ra ,C a rmen ," The Mex ica L eap Y ea rO nce A ga in" , Wor ldArchaeoas tronomy ,A n thony A ven ie d . , s, E U n ive r s i ty o fC amb r idge P res ng land ( 1989 ) .

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rüa " De scr ipc iön E tnog rä f ica" i nT eogon ia eh i s tor ia d el o sm ex icanos ,P or , Mex ico , 1 979 ,p .6 9 .

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C a so , A lfonso , L os c a lenda r ios p reh i spän icos , I n s t i tu to d e I nve s t igac ione s H i s tö r ica s , U .N .A .M . , Mex ico , 1 967 .

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ra F D u rän ,D iego ,H i s tor ia d el a sI nd ias d eN ueva E spa r ia yI s las d eT i er i rme ,E d i to r aN ac iona lv o l .I , 1 967 ,p .2 73 .

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l L eön P o r t i la ,M igue l ,R i tos , S acerdo t es yA tav i os d el o sd i oses ,I n s t i tu to d eH i s to r ia ,U .N .A .M . , Mex ico , 1 958 ,p .1 28 .

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T he T ovar C a lendar , Memo i r so ft h eC onne c t icu tA cademy o fA r t sa nd S c ience s ,v o l .X ,C ommen ta ry b yG eo rge K ub le ra nd C ha r le sG ibson ,N ew H aven , CT , 1 951 ,p .2 2 .

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C 6d ice F loren t ino , Manuscr i to 2 18 -20 d el a colecc iön p a la t ina d el a Bib l io te ca Med icea -Lau renc iana , G ob ie rno d el aR epüb l ica Mex icana ,v o l . 1 , B ook 2 , Mex ico , 1 979 ,f o . 1 8r .

1 0 " C6d ice V a t icano -R io s" ,e nA n t ig l iedad es d e Mex ico ,v o l .I I ,S ec re ta r ia d eH ac ienda yC red i to P übl ico , lu Mex ico , 1 964 ,I s t r .L IX . 1 C öd ice T ude la ,E d ic ione sd eC u l tu ra H ispän ica , Mad r id , 1 980 , f o . 1 0r . lu 1 2 C 6d ice V a t icano -R io s ,o pc i t ,I s t r . LX . lu 1 3 I b id , I s t r . LX . 1 4 Du rän ,o pc i t ,p .2 81 . lu I. 1 5 C 6d ice V a t icano -R io s ,o pc i t ,I s t r . LXI i 1 6 " Cöd ice T ele r iano -Remens i s" ,A n t ig iedades d e Mex ico ,S ec re ta r ia d eH ac ienda yC red i t° P üb l ico ,v o l . lu I ,I s t r . I . lus I. 1 7 C öd ice V a t icano -R io s ,o pc i t , I t r . LXI s, B 1 8 C od i ce Mag l iabech i , Un ive r s i ty o fC a l i fo rn ia P res e rke ley , 1 980 ,p .2 3 . 1 9 C 6d ice T ude la ,o pc i t ,f o . 1 r . 2 0 C 6d ice Mag l iabe ch i ,o pc i t ,p .3 5 . 2 1

C 6d ice T ude la ,o pc i t , f o .2 9r .

2 2 C 6 c l ice F lo ren t ino ,o pc i t , v o l . 1 ,B ook 1 , fo . 1 2r . l 2 3 L eon P o r t i la ,o pc i t ,p .1 44 . 2 4 N ava s , F ranc i sco d e l a s , C a lendar io d e F r . F ranc i sco d e l a sN avas , d e Don A n ton io d e G uevara y l A nön imo T lax ca l teca , Ms . e n l aC o le cc iön F e rnando R am i rez , A r ch ivo H i s tö r ico d e l aB ib l io teca N ac iona ld eA n t ropo log ia eH i s to r ia ,n /d ,p .1 35 . 2 5 C 6d ice F lo ren t ino , o pc i t , f o .6 8r . 2 6 N ava s ,o pc i t ,p .1 35 . 2 7 N ava s ,o pc i t ,p .2 29 . 2 8 C lav i je ro ,F ranc i sco J av ie r ,H i s tor ia a n t igua d e Mex ico ,P o rr na , Mex ico ,p .2 31 .

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2 9 T ova r ,o pc i t ,p .3 2 . 3 0 I b idem 3 1 C 6d ice T e l le r iano -R emen s i s ,o pc i t ,I lu s t r .I X . 3 2 N ava s ,o pc i t ,p .1 35 . 3 3 C 6d ice Mag l iabe ch i ,o pc i t ,p .3 0v . 3 4 Mo to l in fa ,o pc i t ,p .6 1 .

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P ar tI I

L and scape sa nd t he I mag ina t ion o f Mat ter

G eography , C l ima te a nd t he Observa t ion o f Na ture i nP re -H i span ic Mesoamer ica J ohanna B roda Me thodo log ica l C ons idera t ions T he c on t r ibu t ion o ft h i sp ape rc ome sf r om t h ef i e ld o fA n th ropo logy ,a l though , a tt h e s ame t ime , i ta dop t s a n i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry a nd c ompa ra t ive a pp roach . I tf o cu se s o n t h e d i a lec t ica l r e la t ion sh ip , a s e s tab l ished b y a nc ien t Me soame r ican c u l tu re s , b e tween t h e f p rec i se o b serva t ion o fn a tu re , ab ody o f" sc ien t if i c" k now ledge , a nd i t s s had ing o f , a ta c e r ta in p o in t ,i n to c o smo logy a nd r i tua l .T h is a pp roach r e la te sk ey c o smo log ica lc oncep t s t ot h en a tu ra le nv i ronmen to nw h ich t h ey w e re b a sed a nd w ho se o b serva t ion t h ey r e f lec ted s t o ag r ea te r o rl e se rd eg ree . T he p redom inan tr o le p l ayed b yr e l ig ion i n Me soame r ican lt o c u l tu re sh a sb een empha s ized b y many r e sea rche r s ,y e ta oo f ten t h i sf e a tu re i se xam ined o u t s ide i t ss oc ia lc on tex t .T he i mpor tan to b ser va t iona lc on ten t so ft h i sn a tu re w o r sh ip h ave t s t n o tr e ce ived p rope ra ten t ion ; i ti st h ep u rpo se o ft h i sp ape rt oa dd res h is p rob lem . T he b u lk o f my i n fo rma t ion i sd e r ived f r om A z tec s oc ie ty o fc en t ra l Mex ico o nt h ee ve o f t h e S pan ish C onques t , b u t c ompa ra t ive a r chaeo log ica l , e t hnoh is to r ica l a nd mode rn e t hnog raph ic e xamp le sf r om o the ra r ea si n Me soame r ica h ave a l so b een u sed .T he g ene ra l l i ne o fi n te rp re ta t ion p re sen ted i s th eo u tcome o f as e r ie so fd e ta i led i nve s t iga t ions Ih ave r c a r ied o u to ve rt h ep a s tf ew y ea r s .1 A l ready f o rq u i te s ome t ime t h e re h a s b een a n o ngo ing d eba te w he the r o r n o tp re H i span ic Mesoamer ican a s t ronomy c an b ec on s ide r ed as c ience .A s t ronomy ,t oge the rw i th ma thema t ics ,a r ch i tec tu re ,m ed ic ine ,b o tany a nd z oo logy c ons t i tu ted t h ef i r s tb ody o fe xac t k now ledge p roduced i np re -H i span ic s o c ie ty .T he t o p ic o fa nc ien t Me soame r ican c a lenda r ook b s y s tem s c an l ack o n a long t r ad i t ion o f s cho la r ly s t ud ie s . I n r e cen t y ea r s , o u r k now ledge a bou tt h ea s t ronom ica lo b se rva t ions o nw h ich t h ese c a lenda r sw e re b a sed ,h a s a dvanced g rea t ly . 2I ti s a w el -known f a c tt h a tt h es o la ry ea rw a sc omb ined w i th t h ec yc le s o ft h ep lane to fV enus ,t h e moon ,t h eP l e iade sa nd o the rc on s tela t ions . No to n ly w e re t h e se o b serva t ions r e co rded a si n sc r ip t ion so ns t e lae a nd i nh i e rog lyph ic t e x t s ,b u tt ime a nd s pace w a s c oo rd ina ted i n t h e l i v ing l a nd scape b y m eans o f t h e o r ien ta t ion o f b u i ld ing s a nd c e remon ia l s i te s . Ah o r izon r e f e rence s y s tem w a su sed t of i xt h e mo s ti mpo r tan td a te so f t h ea nnua lc ou r se o ft h es un . Moun ta in sp l ayed ac r uc ia lr o le i nt h i ss y s tem . 'T he se p o in t s t o nt h eh o r izon o rt h eo r ien ta t ion o ft emp le st ot h er i s ing o rs e t ing p henomena o ft h es un o rc e r ta in s t a r s ,w e re a l so c oo rd ina ted w i th c u l tp rac t ice .T he e l abo ra te c u l ta c t iv i t ies w e re k ep ti nt u ne w i th t h ea g r icu l tu ra lc yc le sd ue t ot h ef a c tt h a tt h eb a s ic s t ruc tu re o ft h ef e s t iva l c a lenda rw a st h es o la ry ea ra nd t h e ma in f unc t ion o fr i tua lw a st o regu la te a nd c on t ro ls oc ia l l l a nd e conom ic l i f e .4 I n a l t h ese a c t iv i t ies , a s w e l a s i n p re -H i span ic c u r ing p rac t ice s i n c lud ing i t s s oph is t ica ted n o t ion s a bou t t h e h uman b ody , ' t h e f ounda t ion o f p rec ise o bse rva t ion h a sl o ng b een r e cogn ized .Y e tt h et o p ic o ft h eo b se rva t ion o fn a tu re w i th r e spec t l t t og eog raphy a nd c l ima te h a sb een a lmo s tt o ta ly a b sen tf r om t h i sd i scuss ion .T he l a te ri s l u sua ly v i ewed a s f o rm ing p a r t o f r e l ig ion a nd m ag ic , w h i le t h e i mpo r tan t b ody o f o b se rva t iona lc on ten tw h ich i tc omp r i sed ,h a sb een n eg lec ted . l F o rt h el i ne o fa rgumen tt ob ef o lowed u pi nt h i sp ape r ,o u rp o s i t ion w i th r e spec tt ot h e sa d ef in i t ion o f" wha ts c ience i s " ,n eces r i ly h a st ob e av ery g ene ra lo ne .S c ience o fa nc ien t l c i v i l iza t ions i sv i ewed h i s to r ica ly t oh ave f o rmed p a r to f as oc ia lw ho le ,i nt h es ame w ay t h a t mode rn s c ience i st h e h i s tor ica l p roduc to f We s ter nc u l tu ra l e vo lu t ion b u td oes n o t

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c ons t i tu te t h e o n ly p a rad igm f o r d e f in ing " sc ience" . T h i s h i s to r ica l a pp roach w h ich a na lyzes s c ience a s ab ody o fe xac tk now ledge embedded i n as oc ia lc on tex t ,p e rm i t su st o d i scus h er e la t ion t h a te x i s ted i np re -H i span ic s oc ie ty b e tween t h eo b serva t ion o fn a tu re , s t a s t ronomy , g eog raphy ,c l ima te ,c o smov i s ion ,i d eo logy a nd s oc io -pol i t ica ls t ruc tu re . O bser va t ion o fn a ture c on s t i tu te s t h e s y s tema t ic a nd r epe t i t ive o b serva t ion o f t h e p henomena o ft h en a tu ra le nv i ronmen tw h ich p e rm i t s u s t o make p red ic t ions a nd o r ien t s oc ia lb ehav iou rb a sed o n t h e se o b serva t ion s . O b se rva t ion o fn a tu re p rov ide so ne o ft h e b a s ic e l emen t sf o rc ons t ruc t ing ac o smov i s ion . B yc osmov i s ion w eu nde r s tand t h es t ruc t u red v i ew i nw h ich t h en o t ion so fc o smo logy w e r eb l ended i n to as y s tema t ic w ho le .A z tec c o smov i s ion w a s as y s tem t h a tc ohe ren t ly e xp la ined t h ek nown u n ive r se i nt e rm so f ab ody o fp rec i se k now ledge a sw e la st h ei d eo log ica ln eed so ft h a ts oc ie ty .I ng ene ra lt e rm s ,i ti s l i n f er h a tt h ec oncep tua l iza t ion o fn a tu re o fa ny g i ven s oc ie ty i sar e labo ra t ion i ns oc ia l red t e c onsc iou sne ss — th rough t h ep r i sm o fs oc ia lp e r cep t ion —of t h ec ond i t ion s o ft h en a tu ra l e nv i ronmen t .T he l a te ra r en eve rp e rce ived i ne xa c t ly t h es ame w ay i nd i f e ren ts oc ie t ies ; t f t h e re d oe sn o te x i s t a" pu re" p e r cep t ion s epa ra te f r om t h es oc ia li n s t i tu t ion st h a tp roduced i t . A z tec Co smov is ion : I nt h i ss ense ,A z tec g eog raph ic a nd c l ima to log ica ln o t ion sr e f er ot h ew o r ld k nown red t t ot h em .T he " known wo r ld" a l so m eans s oc ia ly d e l im i ted s pace .T he c onc re te h i s to r ica l l r ea l i ty w a st h e emp i re t h eA z tecs b u i l td u r ing t h ec en tu ry b efo re t h eS pan i sh C onque s t .I n A z tec s oc ie ty ,c o smov i s ion ( i . e . ,t h ev i ew sa bou tt h en a tu ra le nv i ronmen t ) ,w a si n teg ra ted i n to a nd b ecame a ne sen t ia lp a r to ft h eo ff i c ia lS t a te C u l tt h a tt l ace i nt h ec ap i ta lo f s ook p t h e emp i re . Ip a r t icu la r ly w an tt os t res h i sf a c tb ecau se t h i si n teg ra t ion o fc osmov i s ion i n to s t p ub l ic c u l tw a sr ad ica ly s u rp res f te rt h eC onque s t . l s ed a Du r ing t h e 1 5 th c en tu ry t h eA z tec emp i re r e ached b o th t h eP ac if i ca nd A t lan t ic s ho res a nd i n co rpo ra ted v a s ta r ea st o th eS ou th a sf a ra sp re sen td ay G ua tema la .M i l i ta ry c onque s t s f o lowed a nc ien tt r ad ing r ou te sa sw e la st h e movemen t so fe xpans ion o ft h eT eo t ihuacan l l a nd T o l tec s t a te st h a th ad p receeded t h eA z tecs . 'F rom t h ef i r s ts t a te s oc ie t ie si n Me soame r i c a ,e conom ic ,c u l tu ra la nd m il i ta ry i n te rac t ion f o lowed t h ep a ter no fe xchange b e tween l t t h ec o ld c en t r a lh igh land sa nd t h et r op ica ll ow land st ot h ee a s t ,s ou th a nd w e s t .T he refo re , f r om a ne a r ly d a te t h es ea w a si n co rpo ra ted i n to t h ec o smov i s ion o ft h eh i gh land d we le r s l a nd b ecame t h es ymbo lo fa b so lu te f e r t i l i ty t ot h em .T hu s ,a l ready i nt h ea nc ien t me t ropol i s o fT eo t ihuacan , s i tua ted i nt h e d ry c en t ra l h igh land s , t h e p a rad ise o ft h e r a in g od w a s d ep ic ted a s ap l ace o fa bundan tw a te rs u rounded b ys ymbo l so f ma r ine f auna . r T he r e cen te xcava t ion o ft h eT emp lo Mayo ro fT enoch t i t lan ,t h e ma in A z tec s h r ine a nd s ymbo l o ft h e p o l i t ica l i n teg r i ty o ft h ee mp i re , r evea l s e ven mo re s t r ik ing f a c t s t h an t h e mu ra l s o fT eo t ihuacan .7 A m a jo r i ty o ft h e mo re t h an 7 ,000 o b jec t s f ound b ur ied i nt h e f o f er ing c ache sw i th in t h et emp le s t ruc tu r e ,a r er e la ted t ot h ec u l to fw a te r . Many r ep re sen t r ema in so f re a la n ima ls pec ie s ;a mong t h em w e re f ound ac omp le te f i sh w i th s ca le s ,r ema in s e l o fs wo rd -f i sh ,b low f i sh ,s e au r ch in s ,s ha rk t e th ,t o r to ise s he l s ,c rocod i le s ,c o ra ls , as pec ia l l n l l v a r ie ty c a led b ra in c o ra l ,a nd i nume rab le s ma ls he l sa nd s na i l s . Wha ts t ruck m ef r om t h e f f i r s t momen t Ib egan t ow o rk o nt h ei n te rp re ta t ion o ft h ese o f er ing s , 'w a st h ef a c tt h a tt h e l ma jor i ty o ft h ese n a tu ra l s pec ies d on o tc ome f r om t h el a ke so ft h eV a ley o f Mex ico b u t h ad b een t r anspor ted t ot h e T emp lo Mayo r f r om f a r a way p l ace s s i tua ted o n e i the r t h e r P ac if ic o rt h eG u lf C oa s t . Mo s to ft h em b e long ,i n fa c t ,t os ea a n ima ls .S ome w e re a ranged i ns t one c ache sf a c ing t owa rd t h ee a s to rt h ew e s ta nd w e re p l aced u pon s and t h a tw a sa l so f b rough tf r om t h ec oa s t . I n my i nves t iga t ion o nt h eo f er ing s , Ir e ached t h ec onc lus ion t h a t

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t h ep u rpo se o fp i l ing u p t h i sm a r ine f a una i nt h e t emp le s t ruc tu r e w a s t oc on ju re u p t h e sion o p re sence o ft h es e ai nt h eh ea r to ft h eA z tec e mp i r ea st h ea b so lu te e xp r es fw a te ra nd f e r t i l i ty . f T he o f e r ing sw e re i n t ima te ly r e la ted t oT la loc ,t h eA z tec g od o fr a in a nd a g r icu l tu r e . T la loc w a s a n a mb iguou sd e i ty r ep re sen t ing b o th t h e b enef ic ia lf o r ce so ft h el i f e -g iv ing l r a in sa sw e la st h en ega t ive a s pec t so ft h eh i gh land c l ima te w he r et h unde r s to rm s ,f r o s t sa nd f l ood sw e re ac on s tan tt h r ea tt ot h ey oung c rop s . T he r a in g od w a s a l so o ne o ft h e mo s t f a nc ien td e i t ie s a nd h i s w o r sh ip w a s s h a red b y d i f e ren tp eop le s o f Me soame r ica ( t o t h e re sic A z tec T la loc c or sponded t h e Maya g od C hac ,t h eZ apo tec C oc i j ,e t c . ) . Du r ing t h eC las e p er iod , h e s em s t oh ave b een t h e ma in d e i ty o ft h e T eo t ihuacan S t a te C u l t a nd i nt h i s he f unc t ion h e i sf r equen t ly r e p re sen ted o n mu ra l s a nd s c u lp tu re s o ft h i s me t ropol i s .9 T c on t rad ic to ry q ual i ty o ft h en a tu ra le l emen t sw a sr ef lec ted i nc u l tp ra c t ice st h a ts t rove t o c on t ro lt h ese p henomena .H oweve r ,i nt h i sp ape rw ea r e mo s ti n te re s ted i na no the ra spec t o ft h i sg od :T la loc o rT la l te cuh t l iw a sa l so a ne a r th g od a nd a bove a l , amoun ta in d e i ty .' l My a na ly s i so ft h eo f e r ing sa t th eT emp le Mayo rr evea l st h a tT la lo c 's r o le a s amoun ta in f a nd e a r th d e i ty w a sn o t ac au sa lo ne b u tf o rm ed a ne sen t ia lp a r to fA z tec c o smov i s ion . s T ot h eA z tec st h e moun ta in sw e r es a c r ed a nd w e re c once ived o fa sr a in d e i t ie s .T hey w e r ei d en t if ied w i th t h e t l a loque , d wa r f l ike b e ing s w ho p roduced t hunde ra nd r a in a nd f o rmed t h eh o s to fs e rvan t so ft h eg od T la loc .T hey c ou ld a l so b ei nvoked a s ap ro tec t ion a ga in s t i s s uch a s r h euma t i sm , t h a t a r e p roduced b y t h e c o ld , h um id moun ta in lnes se c l ima te . T ho se s t ruck b yl i gh tn ing ,w he the rt h ey d i ed o rr ema ined p a ra ly sed a s ac on se q uence ,a l so e n te red t h er e a lm o ft h e mou ta in g od s» Wi th in t h ea nnua lc yc le o fc a lenda rf e s t iva l s ,T epe i lhu i t la nd A temor t l iw e re d ed ica ted t ot h e t l a loque a s moun ta in g od s . T he se f e s t iva l s b e longed t ot h e d ry s ea son w hen t h e o re h a rve s to ft h em a ize c rop t ok p l a ce . D u r ing T epe i lhu i t l ," t he moun ta in f e s t iva l" ( c or re s pond ing t oO c tobe r ) ,a nd A temor t l i ," t he w a te rd e scend s" ( c or spond ing t ot h e2 nd h a l f o fD ecembe r ) , m in ia tu re i m age s o f moun ta in s w e re made b y t h e A z tec s . T he se i mage s ( t ep ic to ton , "mode led f i gu r ine s" , o r i x ip t la t e pe t l , "moun ta in i mage s" ) r ep r e sen ted t h e r l moun ta in ss u round ing t h eV a ley o f Mex ico ,a sw el a sc e r ta in d e i t ie sp a r t icu la r ly r e la ted t ot h ee a r th a nd moun ta in c u l t .1 2 re l T he f e s t iva lo ft h e moun ta in sa tT epe i lhu i t lc or sponded c l ima to log ica ly t o th ee nd o f t h er a iny s e a son .T he A z tecs b e l ieved t h a td u r ing t o na lco ,t h ed ry s e a son ( " hea to ft h es un" ) , t h e moun ta in sr e ta ined t h ew a te ri nt h e i ri n te r io r ,t o re lea se i ta ga in d u r ing t h er a iny s e a son ( x opan ," t he g r een t ime" ) .H oweve r ,n o to n ly w a st h el i f eg i v ing w a te rs t o r ed u pi n s ide t h e moun ta in s ,b u tm a ize a nd o t he rs t ap le f ood sw e re k ep tt h e re a sw e l .T he o r ig ina l my th ic l moun ta in w a st h eT ona ca tepe t l ," t he Moun ta in o fO u rS u s tenance" a nd a cco rd ing t o seve ra l A z te c my th st h er a in g od s( T la loque )h ad b een t h eo r ig ina l owne r so fm a ize s i nce a nc ien t t ime s . Man ,i no rde rt oh ave a ces o ma ize ,h ad t os t ea li tf r om t h er a in g od so ro b ta in i t c s t b y ac on t ra c tw i th t h eg od s .H uman s a c r if i ce s( n ex t lahua l i ," t he d eb tp a id" ) ,p a r t icu la r ly l c h i ld s a c r i f ices ,c on s t i tu ted s u ch ac on t r ac tb e tween h uman sa nd g od sa nd w e re a ccompa n i ed b yo t he rt y pe so fo f e r ing sg i ven i nt h ec on tex to ft h ea nnua lc yc le o ff e s t iva l s .' T he f p y ram id o fT la loc a tt h eT emp lo Mayo rw a s amy th ica lr e c r ea t ion o ft h eo r ig ina l moun ta in f o fs u s tenance ,t h eT onaca tepe t l ,a nd i t sl owe rp l a t fo rm w he re mo s to f e r ing sw e re b u r ied , r ep re sen ted t h ee a r th i t se l f . T la loc o r T la locan ( "The P l a ce o fT la loc" ) w a s a l so t h e n ame o f o ne o f t h e mo s t p rom inen t moun ta in r a nge sw h ich w a ss i tua ted o nt h es ou thea s te rn l im i t so ft h eV aley o f r Mex ico o nt h eb o rde rb e tween t h ep o l i t ica lt e r i to r ie so fT enoch t i t lan ,T e tzco co ,T laxca la

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a nd H uexo tz inco ( t he l a te rw e r e t h e t r ad i t iona l e nem ie s o ft h e A z tec s ) . T he c h ron ic le r t D iego D u rän d e sc r ibe st h e s a nc tua ry a tt h es umm i to ft h i s moun ta in . T he re w a s as h r ine b u i l to n ar a the rl a rge p l a t fo rm a nd i n s ide i tt h e re s t ood as t a tue o fT la loc s u rounded b ya r mu l t i tude o fs ma li d o l sr e p r e sen t ing t h e moun ta in so ft h eV a ley o f Mex ico .1 4A tt h i ss h r ine l l i mpo r tan tc e r emon ie st ok p l ace a tt h ee nd o ft h ep re -H i span ic mon th o fH uey tozor t l iw hen o t h er u le r so fT eno ch t i t lan ,T e tzcoco a nd T lacopan i nt h ec ompany o ft h e i rn ob le sg a the red 5T he r u in so ft h i ss h r ine ,s i tua ted a ta na l t i tude o f mo re u pt h e re t oo f e r ac h i ld s a c r if ice .1 f 6 U nfo r tuna te ly , n o s ys tema t ic t h an 4 ,000 m e te r s a bove s ea l e ve l , s t i l e x is t t oday .1 l e xp lo ra t ion h a se ve rb een made o ft h es i te .1 7T he a cces ot h i ss i er st e d iou s ,f ew v i s i to r s s t ra i g e tt ot h et o p ,a nd c l ima t ic c ond i t ion sd u r ing t h er a iny s e a son a nd t h ew in te r mon th sa r e r ea ly h a r sh . T he p rec inc tc on ta in s as ma l a r t if i c ia ly w o rked c r ev ice t h a t i sf i led w i th l l l l w a te rd u r ing mo s to ft h e y ea ra nd g i ve s t h e i mp r es fl e ad ing t ot h e i n te r io ro ft h e sion o moun ta in .T he A z tec f e s t iva lo fH uey tozor t l it ok p l a ce a t th ep eak o ft h ed ry s ea son ,a nd o ma rked t h et ime f o rt h ep l an t ing o fm a ize .I tf i nd si t sc on t inu i ty i n m ode rn t ime si nt h eF ea s t s ( l o ft h eH o ly C ros May 3 )t h a ti sc e leb r a ted i na lt r ad i t iona lI nd ian p ea san tc ommun i t ie s o f Mex ico a nd G ua tema la a so ne o ft h em a jo rf e s t iva l so ft h ey ea r .I t ss ymbo l i sm c on t inue s s o t ob e t i ed t ot h e d rynes ft h e s e a son , t h e p e t i t ion f o rr a in , t h e p l an t ing o f ma ize a nd l a g r icu l tu ra lf e r t i l i ty i ng ene ra l ." E thnog raph ica ly ,t h e mo s ti n te re s t ing c e remon ie so ft h i s re k ind a r e r e po r ted f r om t h e N ahua r eg ion o fn o r thea s te rn G uer ro ( C i t la la , O z to tempa , 9 Am ong t h ea d jacen tT lapanec s ,t h ec e remon ie so ft h eH o ly Ameya l tepec ,A ca t lan ,e t c . ) .1 C ros r ea l so i mpor tan ta nd a r ec onnec ted w i th t h ew o r sh ip o fc ave sa nd moun ta in s? ' s a A lt r ad i t iona lI nd ian c ommun i t ie sf r om t h ec en t ra lh i gh land st os ou the rn Mex ico h ave l p re se rved t h ew o r sh ip o ft h e mo s tp rom inen t moun ta in sw i th in t h e i rc ommun i ty o rr eg iona l b ounda r ie s . T h i sc i rcum s tance r ef lec t sv e ry a nc ien tt r ad i t ion s . T he i mpo r tan tr o le w h ich t h e se moun ta in sp l ay i nt h el i f eo ft h ec ommun i t ie si nr e la t ion t oa g r icu l tu r ea nd t h er a in s , i s exp la ined b yt h ec ond i t ion so ft h en a tu ra le nv i ronm en t . l Ag ene ra lf e a tu r eo ft h eg eog r aphy a sw e l a st h ec l ima te o f Me soam e r ica , s t re t ch ing a pp rox ima te ly b e tween 1 5° -2 1° n o r the rn l a t i tude ,a r ei t se x t reme c ond i t ion sl i nked t oa n e no rmous v a r ie ty o f m ic roc l ima te s d epend ing o n a l t i tude a nd o t he r l o ca l g eog r aph ic r f a c to r s .I nd igenou s Me soame r ica w a sp redom inan t ly ar ugged t e r i to ry d om ina ted b yh uge l moun ta in r a nge sa nd s t eep v a ley s .T he r a in -b r ing ing c l oud sc l u s te ra round t h e moun ta in l l p eak sw h i le d en se f og f i l st h es t eep v a ley sa nd c anyon so ft h eb roken l a nd scape .D ue t o r t h ec a lca r iou sa nd v o lcan ic n a tu r eo ft h em a jo rp a r to ft h et e r i to ry ,c ave sa r e ap a r t icu la r ly e c ommon f e a tu re o ft h i sc oun t ry . T he se c ave so f ten s em t ol e ad i n s ide t h ew omb o ft h e s t e a r th . F requen t ly t h ey c on ta in s p r ing so fc r y s ta lc l ea rw a te r ,o rt h ey g i ve a cces or i ve r s l t h a tr un u nde rg round .T he p en in su la o fY uca tän g eog r aph ica ly c on s t i tu te s awo r ld a pa r t l f r om t h er e s to f Me soame r ica a si ti st o ta ly f l a t . O nt h eo ne h and ,t h e re i s th ea b sence o f moun ta in s ,w h i le o nt h eo t he r ,c eno te so rw a te r -ho le sa r ea bundan ta nd c on ta in w a te rt h a t e s em st os u rge f r om i n s ide t h ee a r th .I nf a c t ,t h ec eno te sa l so c onnec tw i th r i ve r s wh ich i n Y uca tän a lway s f l ow u nde rg round a nd n eve r r e a ch t h e c a lca r iou s s u r f ace . T he r ough l a nd scape a nd f r equen te x i s tence o fu nde rg round w a te rw a si n te rp re ted b yp r e -H i span ic ranean c c u l tu re s i nt e rm s o ft h e e x i s tence o f as ub ter onnec t ion b e tween t h e c ave s , t h e s p r ing sa nd t h es e a .T he s e at h a tl im i t s Me soame r ica o nb o th c oa s t sa l so p l ay s af undamen ta l r o le i ng ene r a t ing t h er a in -b r ing ing w ind st h a tp recede t h eo n se to ft h er a iny s ea son .S o la r sage o p henomena l i ke t h ez en i th p as ft h es un ,o rt h ed i sappea rance o ft h eP l e iades d u r ing s May , a l so a nnounce t h ec om ing o ft h er a in sa nd w e r ea s igned g r ea ta ugu ra li mpo r tance 1 d u r ing p re -H i span ic t ime s .2 l se I n A z tec c o smov i s ion , t h e moun ta in s w e r e c once ived a s h uge h o low v es l s ( o r 1 42

" hou se s" ) f i led w i th w a te r . T hey w e re s uppo sed t oc on ta in t h e s ub ter a te r st h a t l ranean w f i h es pa ce u nde rnea th t h ee a r th .T h i sr ea lm w a sc a led T la lo can ,t h ep a rad i se o ft h er a in led t l g od T la loc ,a nd f r om i ti sued t h es p r ing st of o rm t h er i ve r s ,t h el a ke sa nd t h es e a .T he re a r e s e voca t ive p as si nt h e 1 6 th c en tu ry t e x t st h a td e sc r ib et h e se c oncep t so fc o smov i s ion .2 s age T he s ame c oncep t sa r es t i l la l ive t o day a cco rd ing t o mode rn e t hnog raph ic t e s t imon ie s .' C ave sw e re t h ee n t rance t o th i ss ub ter ranean r e a lm i mme r sed i nw a te r .A tt h es ame t ime t h ey w e r e c on s ide r ed p l ace s o fo r ig in , o re n t rance si n to t h e w omb o ft h e e a r th? "P i c to g r aph ic s ymbo l se s tab l i sh ap a ra l le lb e tween c e r ta in c l ove r -shaped c ave sa nd t h eu t eru s ." C ave sa nd moun ta in s ,i n aw ay ,f o rm ed o n ly t wo s i de so ft h es ame c o in . Moun ta in sw e re a l so c onnec ted t ot h ea nce s to r sa nd t h ec l a im f o rl e g i t imacy o fe t hn ic g roup s . l I nt h i sc on tex t ,t h eN ahua t lt e rm f o rv i lage ,a l t epe t l ,i sp a r t icu la r ly s i gn if ican t .I tm ean s l "moun ta in f u lo fw a te r "a nd i t sw el -known g l yph ic r ep r e sen ta t ion c on s i s t so f amoun ta in se w i th f a ng sa nd ac ave a t it sb a se .T h i ss ymbol i sm e ncompas sw i th in as i ng le c oncep tt h e l s o c io -po l i t ica lc a tego ry w h ich i st h ev i lage a nd i t si d eo log ica lf ounda t ion i nc o smov i s ion . T he ma in t emp le s a s s ymbo l s o f t h e i d en t i ty o f t h e p o l i t ica l c ommun i ty , w e re a l so l c once ived a s moun ta in sf i led w i th w a te r . D u r ing t h es i ege o fC ho lu la ,t h eI nd ian sh oped ranean w i nv a in t h a tt h o se s ub ter a te r sw ou ld b er e lea sed t od e s t roy t h e S pan ia rd s? T he G rea tT emp le o fT eno ch t i t lan w a sa l so c on s ide red t ob e as upe rna tu ra l moun ta in f ounded u pon s a c red r ock sa nd c ove r ing t h eu nde rg round w a te r sl i ke ac ave ." I nf a c tt h e r en o to n ly e x i s ted as p r ing i nt h ep rox im i ty o ft h eT emp lo Mayo r ,b u ti ts hou ld a l so b ek ep ti nm ind t h a t t h e w ho le i s land o fT eno ch t i t lan w a s s i tua t ed s l igh t ly a bove t h e p h r ea t ic l e ve l , a c i r cum s t ance w h ich c au sed d i ff i cu l t ie se ven d u r ing t h er e cen te xcava t ion o ft h es i te . N ume rou sa r cha eo log ica le xamp le ss how t h a tt h ec oncep t ion o fs pace i n s ide t h ee a r th led w f i i th w a te ra nd o f moun ta in sr e la ted t or a in sa nd a g r icu l tu r e ,i s of g rea ta n t iqu i ty i n 3 T h i sc oncep t ion i sa l so p r e sen ti n re cen te t hnog r aph ic d a ta .T he se c on tem Me soame r ica .2 p o ra ry e xamp le s c ove r t h e t r ad i t iona l I nd ian a r ea s o f Mex ico , G ua tema la , B el ize a nd H ondu ra s .2 9 Ih ave b een a b le t oa na lyze e t hnog raph ic ma te r ia lf r om N ahua g roup so ft h e l ra d l V a ley o f Mex ico ,t h eS i er eP ueb la ,a sw e la sl o ca lc ommun i t ie sf r om V e rac ruz a nd re u rp r i s ing ly , t h e se ma ter ia l s s how ac o inc idence i n d e ta i l s w i th t h e p re G uer ro .» S H i span ic c oncep t sm en t ioned a bove .B e s ide st h i sc on t inu i ty i n t ime ,t h ee x i s tence o fs im i la r f b e l ie f s i nd i f e ren t r eg ion s o f Me soame r ica p o in t s t ot h e c onf igu ra t ion o f an umbe ro f c ommon e l emen t st h a tc ha ra c te r ized t h ew ho le a r ea a nd c on s t i tu ted ac ohe r en ts y s tem o f e xp la in ing t h ec o smo st h a tw a ss t rong ly b a sed u pon o b se rva t iona le l emen t sd e r ived f r om t h en a tu ra le nv i ronmen t . f I nd i f e ren tf i e ld s o fp re -H i span ic s t ud ie se v idence h a sa ccumu la ted w h ich i nd ica te s sic t t h a tt h ec onf igu ra t ion o ft h i sc o smov i s ion m igh td a te b a ck a se a r ly a s pre -C las ime s .T he moun ta in c u l t ,a s t ronomy a nd c a lend r ic sm igh th ave b een mo re c l o se ly c onnec ted t h an h a s b een s u spec ted s o f a r . V incen t H . Ma lm s t röm , c omb in ing t h e a pp roach o f a r chaeoa s t r onomy w i th g eog raphy a nd a r chaeo logy , h a s s ugge s ted t h a t t h e p rac t ice o fo r ien t ing c e remon ia ls i te st owa rd t h es un r i se a tt h es umme rs o l s t ice sb eh ind p rom inen t moun ta in s , e sic t s em st oh ave o r ig ina ted i np r e -C las ime sa nd may h ave s t ood a t th ev e ry b eg inn ing o f 1 F ranz T ichy ,o nt h eo t he rh and ,h a sa r gued t h ei n ven t ion o ft h e Me soame r ican c a lenda r .3 sic t l t h a t i np o s t -C las ime s t h e r e e x i s ted i nt h e V a ley o f Mex ico ah igh ly s oph i s t ica ted s y s tem o f re la t ing t h ep rom inen t moun ta in p e ak sb yr ad ia lv i sua ll i ne sw i th c e remon ia ls i te s a nd u rban c en te r s . I n t h i s o rde r ing s y s tem b a sed u pon t h e c a lenda r , t h e a s t ronom ica l sed t 2 o r ien ta t ion o fs i te se xp r es h eu n i ty o ft ime a nd s pa ce i np re -H i span ic c o smov i s ion .3 R ecen t ly , A ven i , H a r tung a nd C a lnek h ave u nde r taken a n i n ve s t iga t ion e xp lo r ing t h e

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c a lend r ica lp rope r t ie si n he r en ti nt h ea l ignmen tb e tween t h eA z tec T emp lo Mayo ra nd t h e wan i szew s 1d 3 4 a nd P once d eL e6n 3 5 t a k ing u p s anc tua ry s i tua ted o nt o po fM t . T la loc .3 I 6 h ave b egun as y s tema t ic s u rvey a nd mea su r emen t e xp lo ra t ion sb ye a r l ie ra r chaeo log i s t s ,3 o fs eve ra li mpo r tan t moun ta in s h r ine so nt h es ou thea s ter nf r inge o ft h eV aley o f Mex ico , i n c lud ing M t . T la loc , I z tac C ihua t l a nd P opo ca tepe t l . T he se s h r ine s w e r e u sed b y t h e e A z tecs , b u t g ob a ck t oT o l tec t ime s . I ts em s t h a tt h e i ro r ien ta t ion a l so h ad c a lend r ica l . p rope r t ie s ,i e .t h ea l ignmen tt os un r i se o nc e r ta in s i gn i f ican td a te sl i ke t h ee qu inoxe s ,o ra t t h ee nd o fA p r i la nd b eg inn ing o f May ." I ns yn the s i sw em igh ts um u pt h ef olow ing e l emen t s : 1 . Moun ta in w o r sh ip i n Me soame r ica h ad i t sb a s i si nt h es pec if ic c ond i t ion so ft h en a tu ra l e nv i ronmen t . 2 . T he f a c t t h a t moun ta in s p l ayed s u ch a n i mpo r tan tr o le i nt h e a s t ronom ica l -ho r izon r e f e r ence s y s tem ,a dd sf u r the ri mpo r tance t ot h em . t 3 . T he c ha rac te r i s t ic s a t r ibu ted t ot h e moun ta in d e i t ie s t a ke o n e l em en t s o fd e ta i led o b se rva t ion ,e . g .r a in sa r ec oncen t r a ted t o amuch h i ghe rd eg ree a tt h e moun ta in p eak s .T he e s p r ing ss em t os u rge f r om t h ev e ry i n s ide t h ee a r th .H um id i ty a nd c o ld w ind sd oc om ef r om l lnes se t h e moun ta in s ,a sw e la si sl i ke r heuma t i sm . 4 . Due t ot h ec a lca r iou s a nd v o lcan ic p rope r t ie so f mo s to f Mex ico 's moun ta in r ange s , l c aves w e re ap a r t icu la r ly f r equen tf e a tu re o ft h i sl a nd scape .I ns ome r eg ion s ,r i ve r sa c tua ly d i sappea rf r om t h e s u r f a ce . O n ly i nY uca tan , h oweve r , d o t h ey c omp le te ly f l ow u nde r led w g round ,t h u se vok ing t h ei mp re ss ion o fs pace u nder nea th t h ee a r th f i i th w a te r . 5 . T he b a s ic d i v i s ion o ft h ey ea ri n cl ima t ic t e rm sw a sb e tween t h er a iny a nd t h ed ry s e a son . T he r ed on o te x i s tf ou rs e a son si nt h et r op ica ll a t i tude so f Me soame r ica .T he f undamen ta l f a c t so ft h er a iny a nd t h ed ry s e a son w e r er ef lec ted i nt h eA z tec a nnua lc yc le o fc e remon ie s . t A s t ronom ica l p henomena t h a t a nnounce c l ima t ic c hange w e re a t r ibu ted t h e g r ea te s t . i mpo r tance . T hey d e r ived t h i s i mpo r tance f r om t h e i r l i nk t oa g r icu l tu ra l c yc le s , i e . t o e conom ic a nd s oc ia ll i f e . rec f 6 . P re -H i span ic c u l tu re s d r ew an umbe ro fc or tc onc lu s ion so n t h e c au se a nd e f e c t r e la t ion sb e tween g eog raphy ,c l ima te ,a g r icu l tu re a nd s oc ie ty .Y e t ,i ns om ec a se st h ec au sa l rec r e la t ion sh ip w a sn o tr e cogn ized c or t ly a nd b ecame s ub s t i tu t ed b y my th a nd m ag ic ,a sf o r ranean c t e xamp le i nt h ei mage o ft h eT la locan a nd i t ss ub ter onnec t ion t ot h es e a .T he l a te r c on s t i tu te s am a jo rf o cu so fi n te r e s ti nve s t iga ted i nt h i sp ro jec t .D ue t ot h i sc o smo log ica l f n o t ion , t hou sand so fm a r ine s pec ie sw e re p i led u pi nt h eo f e r to ry c a che so ft h eT emp lo Mayo rw i th t h ei n ten t ion o fc on ju r ing u pt h ef e r t i l i ty o ft h es e ai n th ev e ry h ea r to ft h eA z t ec sion o l emp i re .T he s e aw a sc once ived a st h ea b so lu te e xp r es ff e r t i l i ty ,t h eh uey a ,o rw a te r i ni t sa b so lu te f o rm . l I n a l t h e se c oncep tua l iza t ion s , t h e p u rpo se w a s n o t d e tached o b serva t ion b u t i t s p rac t ica la pp l ica t ion i ns oc ia ll i f e .T he c a lenda ri sag ood e xamp le .I ti mpl i ed ah igh d eg r ee o fs oph i s t ica ted o b se rva t ion a nd k now ledge .I th ad i t sp rac t ica la pp l ica t ion i na g r icu l tu ra l l a nd e conom ic a c t iv i t ie s .Y e t ,t h ei n te r tw in ing w i th m ag ic a nd o t he rr i tua le l emen t sw a sa l sing e ncompas . Wh i le t h e s t udy o ft h e a s t ronom ica l c on ten t o ft h e a nc ien t c a lenda rh a s r eg i s te red g r ea ta dvance si nr e cen ty ea r s ,o t he re l emen t so ft h eo b ser va t ion o fn a tur el i ke red t t h o se r e f er oi nt h i sp ape rw e re a l so v e ry i mpo r tan ta nd h ave n o tr e ce ived d ue s c ho la r ly t sib a ten t ion . Amp le p os il i t ie se x i s tf o rf u tu re r e sea r ch i nt h ei n t e rd i sc ip l ina ry f i e ld c omb in i ng a r chaeo logy , e t hnoh i s to ry , mode rn e t hnog r aphy , g eog raphy , b i o logy , a s t ronomy , h i s to ry o fr e l ig ion s . 1 44

7 . F o r t h i s i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry a pp roa ch , i t is f undamen ta l t oi n teg ra te t h e d a ta f r om t h e s p ec ia l ized f i e ld s o f k now ledge w i th in a t h eo re t ica l f r amewo rk . O ne s u ch p os le sib f r amewo rk i sp r e sen ted i nt h i sp ape r ;i tmay b ef o lowed u pi ng r ea te rd e ta i li nt h ef u tu r e . l 8 . I no rde rt o use e t hnog raph ic m a te r ia li n th i si n te rd i sc ip l ina ry a pp roach ,i ti sf undamen ta l t ou nde r s tand t h e r o le t h a t t r ad i t iona l I nd ian r e l ig ion a nd c o smov i s ion p l ayed a f te r t h e C onque s t a nd t h roughou t C o lon ia l t ime s . T he modem s i tua t ion i s ap roduc t o f t h o se e h i s to r ica ld eve lopmen t s ,a nd i n no w ay may i tb es en a s ad i rec tc on t inu i ty o fp r e -H i span ic l c u l tu re .I nt h i ss e n se , Iw ou ld l i ke t o make ab r ie fr e f e r ence t ot h ef o low ing f a c t s : T rad i t iona lI nd ian R e l ig ion a f ter t he C onque s t : T he S pan i sh C onque s t d i smembe red t h e c ohe r en t s t ruc tu re o fp r e -H i span ic s o c ie ty . Many e l emen t so ft r ad i t iona lI nd ian c u l tu r es u rv ived d u r ing C o lon ia lt ime s ,h oweve rt h ey l f w e r ea r t icu la ted i n new w ay sw i th in t h er ad ica ly d i f e r en ts o c ie ty c r ea ted b yt h eS pan ia rd s . T he I nd ian s c ame t of o rm t h e l owe s t s t ra tum w i th in i ta nd t h e n ew C o lon ia l o rde rw a s e r ec ted o nt h e i re conom ic e xp lo i ta t ion a nd p o l i t ica ld om ina t ion .T he e l im ina t ion o ft h ep re s a s H i span ic r u l ing c l as nd t h ec oncom i tan tl o so fe l i te c u l tu re h ad f a r reach ing ,d i sa s t rou s c on sequence su pon I nd ian c u l tu re a s aw ho le . I ft h e re e x i s t s as t r ik ing c on t inu i ty o fc e r ta in e l emen t so fI nd ian c o smov i s ion t h roughou t C o lon ia lt ime su pt ot h ep r e sen td ay ,t h i si s due t ot h ef a c tt h a tt h i sc o smov i s ion c on t inue s re t oc or spond t ot h e ma te r ia l c ond i t ion s o f e x i s tence o f Me soame r ican I nd ian p ea san t c ommun i t ie s . O b serva t ion o f n a tu re w i th r e spec t t o g eog raphy , c l ima te , a s t ronomy , a g r icu l tu ra lc yc le sa nd c u r ing p ra c t ice sc on t inue st oh ave v al id i ty t o day .H oweve r ,a se l i te l o c u l tu re w a s g r adua ly e l im ina ted , as h if t t o p ea san t c u l t t ok p l ace w h ich p rec i se ly s ed i e xp res t se l fi nt h ec u l to f moun ta in s ,c aves a nd s p r ing s , a nd i nc u r ing p ra c t ice s . B u t w h i le i np re -H i span ic t im e st h e se r i te sh ad f o rm ed p a r to ft h eo ff i c ia lS ta te C u l t ,a f t e rt h e S pan i sh C onque s t t h ey l o s t t h i s i n t eg ra t ion i n to t h e w ide r c ohe ren t i d eo logy o f a n sion o a u tonomou ss o c ie ty a nd b ecame t h ei d eo log ica le xp res fl o ca lp ea san tc u l t s . T he o ff i c ia lS t a te R e l ig ion w a sr e p la ced b yt h e S pan i sh C a tho l ic C hu r ch , a nd o nt h e l o v i lage a nd r eg iona ll e ve l ,t h ec u l to ft h es a in t st ok o ve rt h ef unc t ion so fp ubl i cc u l t . A s ris s s N ancy F ar t a te sf o rt h ec a se o ft h e Maya so fY uca tän ," Ch r i s t ian i ty h ad t a ken o ve rt h e t own s , a nd t h e Maya , w ho f o rme r ly h ad i n fu sed t h e i rw ho le e nv i ronmen tw i th t h e i ro wn s s ymbo l sa nd r i tua l s ,w e r el e f tw i th t h eo ne sa soc ia ted w i th t h ef o re s t :t h em i lpa c e r emon ie s f o rr a in a nd g ood h a rve s t , h un t ing r i tua l s , a nd t h er i tua l s r e la ted t oc ave s , c eno te s , w i ld f b eeh ive s , a nd c e iba t r ee s ; o ra tb e s t s ome f u r t ive o f e r ing s i nl o ng -abandoned t emp le s . T he se f u r t ive r i te sw e re n o t as a t i sf ac to ry s ub s t i tu te f o rt h eo ld r e l ig ion .B yt h e i rn a tu r et h ey c ou ld n o tb ep ub l ic i nt h es ame w ay ."" sing Y e t ,a t th es ame t ime t h e se r i te sa cqu i red an ew i mpo r tance a s av eh ic le f o re xp res e t hn ic i d en t i ty w h ich h ad b een d r iven u nde rg round . Moun ta in s h r ine sa nd c ave sf o rmed a s a c r ed l a nd scape w i th in t h ec ommun i ty b ounda r ie s ,w he r ee t hn ic r e s i s tence w a sk ep ta l ive . T h i si s ano the rr e a son w hy s o many d a ta o nt h e se c oncep t so fc o smov i s ion a r ea va i lab le t o day . C onc lu s ions : 1 . T he a pp roach o ft h i ss t udy i s in te rd i sc ip l ina ry . Modem f i e ldwo rk d a ta a r ec on s ide red l l p a r t icu la r ly i mpo r tan t ,a sw e la st h ec o labo ra t ion w i th g eog raphe r s ,a s t ronome r s ,b i o lo g i s t s , h i s to r ian s o fr e l ig ion s , a nd o t he r s pec ia l i s t s , i no rde rt od ef ine mo r e p rec i se ly t h e o bser va t iona lc on t en t so fa nc ien t Me soame r ican c oncep t so fc o smov i s ion .

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2 . Howeve r , a ni n te re s ti nt h e se e l emen t so ft h ep rec i se o b serva t ion o fn a tu re ,d oe sn o t i mp ly ag ros sly s imp l if ied d i cho tomy b e tween t h e" r ea l" wo r ld a nd t h er e l ig iou s ,m ag ica l o r my th ic r ea lm . I n my o p in ion ,t h ep e rcep t ion o fn a tu r ei s de te rm ined i na l ls oc ie t ie sb y s oc ia lc onsc iousnes s, a nd h a st o be a na lyzed w i th in t h ef r amewo rk o ft h er e spec t ive c u l tu re . 3 . T he refo re , aj ux tapo s i t ion b e tween s c ience a nd r e l ig ion i np re -H i span ic s o c ie ty d oe s n o te x i s t .T he e l emen t so fe xac to b se rva t ion o fn a tu re w e re i n t ima te ly t i ed t ot h ee l emen t s o fr e l ig ion a nd f o rmed awho le t op re -H i span ic m an . T he re e x i s ted many c od es i nt h a t c u l tu re , wh ich h ave t or ead s imu l taneou s ly .T h i sc i rcum s tance i sd ue t o ag ene ra ls t ruc tu ra l c ha rac te r is t ic o f a nc ien t c i v i l iza t ions t h a t c on s i s t s o f t h ef unc t iona lp o lyva lency o fi t s i n s t i tu t ion s , a s Emmanue l T er ray h a s p o in ted o u t ." I nt h e c a se o f Mesoame r ica , P ed ro C ar sco h a s t a lked o ft h e i n s t i tu t iona lf u s ion o f s o c ia l , e conom ic , p o l i t ica l a nd r i tua l ra a spec t so fs oc ie ty .4 0 l 4 . T he f a c tt h a ts c ien t if i co b se rva t ion si na nc ien t Me soame r ica w e re t o ta ly embedded i n t h ec u l tu ra lc on tex t ,a g r ees w i th amo re g ene ra lp o s i t ion w i th r e spec tt ot h ed ef in i t ion o f w ha ts c ience i s .I nt h is p e r spec t ive ,t h ec on ten to fs c ience v a r ies a cco rd ing t ot h eh i s to r ica l momen ta nd t h ec u l tu ra lc on tex t . l F o low ing t h i sl i ne o ft hough t , Iwou ld l i ke t oq uo te as t a temen tb yA lbe r tE in s te in i n s es at wh ich h ee xp r es r u ly h i s to r ica la nd a n th ropo log ica lp o in to fv i ew : " Sc ience a ss ome th ing e x is t ing a nd c omp le te i st h e mo s to b jec t ive t h ing k nown t o man .B u ts c ience i nt h e mak ing ,s c ience a sa ne nd t o be p u r sued ,i sa ss ub jec t ive a nd l p sycho log ica ly c ond i t ioned a sa ny o the rb ranch o fh uman e ndeavo r— so much s o , t h a t t h e q ues t ion "Wha t i st h e p u rpo se a nd mean ing o f s c ience?" r e ce ive s q u i te f f f d i f e ren ta n swe r sa td i f e ren tt ime sa nd f r om d i f e ren ts o r t so fp eop le?' 5 . I n t h i s p e r spec t ive , w e may c onc lude t h a t t h e a nc ien t Mesoame r ican n o t ion s o f g eog raphy a nd c l ima te c on ta ined n ume rou s o b se rva t iona le l emen t s t h a tr ep re sen ted t h e p e rcep t ion o f t h e n a tu ra l e nv i ronmen t i n s c ien t if i c t e rm s , wh i le a tt h e s ame t ime t h ey c omp r ised e l emen t so f my th a nd mag ic .C o smov is ion a st h es t ruc tu red v i ew o ft h eu n ive r se i nr e la t ion t o man ,r ep re sen ted t h is i n t r ica te f u s ion o fe l emen t s .I ts hou ld b ei nve s t iga ted i n g rea te r d ep th a tw ha t p o in t s e xac t ly , a nd i nw h ich moda l i t ie s , t h i s b l end ing o fp rec i se o bserva t ion , my th ,r i tua la nd mag ic t ook p l ace . F oo tno te s 1

2

T he se i n ve s t iga t ion sh ave d ea l tw i th t h ef olow ing t o p i cs :t h eA z t ec c yc le o f mon th ly c e r emon ie st o th e r a in g od s ;a g r i cu l tu ra lc yc le si nA z t ec r i tua l ;a na na ly s i so ft h em o re t h an 8 0o f f e r to ry c a che sb u r ied a t t h eT emp lo Mayo ra nd d i s cove red d u r ing t h er e cen te xcava t ion ;t h eA z t ec m oun ta in c u l ti nc ompa r i son t o ot he ra r ea so f Me soame r ica ;a nd r e cen te t hnog raph ic e v id ence o ft h eF ea s to ft h eH o ly C ros s ( May 3 ) i nr e la t ion t oa g r icu l tu ra lc yc le s a nd a s t ronom ica lp henomena ,a na lyzed i nt e rm s o ft h ep r e -H i span i c c a lenda r . S ee J ohanna B roda , " La sF i e s ta s A z t eca sd el o s D io se sd el aL luv ia ." R ev i s ta E spano la d e A n t ropo log i a Amer icana ( Mad r id ) 6 (1 971 ) : 2 45 -327 . J .B roda , " C i c lo s A g r i co la s e n e lC u l to : U n re P rob lema d el aC or la c iön d e lC a lenda r io Mex ico ." I nC a l enda r si n Mesoamer ica a nd P e ru :N a t iv e Amer ican C ompu ta t ion s o fT im e . A n thony F . A ven i a nd G o rdon B ro the r s ton , e d s . ( Ox fo rd : BAR ro I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s 1 74 , 1 983 ) .P age s 1 45 -165 .J .B roda ," E lC u l to Mex ica d el o sC er s yd e lA gua ." Mu l t id i s c ip l ina ,E scue la N ac iona ld eE s tud io sP ro f e s iona le sA ca t lan ( Mex ico : UNAM )3 ,n o .7 ( 1982 ) : 4 5 -56 .J .B roda ," The P roven ience o ft h eO f f e r ing s : T r ibu te a nd C o smov i s ion ." I nT he A z t ec T emp lo Mayor .E l i zabe th H .B oone ,e d .( Wa sh ing ton ,D .C . :D umba r ton O ak s ,1 987 ) .J .B roda ," Temp lo Mayo r a sR i tua lS pa ce ." I nJ .B roda ,D av id C a r r a sco ,a nd E dua rdo Ma to s : T he G r ea tT emp l eo fT enoch t i t lan : C en te ra nd P er iphe ry i nt h eA z t ec W or ld ( Be rke ley :U n ive r s i ty o fC a l i f o rn ia P res s 1 987 ) . S ee A n thony F .A ven i ,e d . ,A rchaeoas t ronomy i np re -Co lumb ian Ame r ica ( Au s t in : Un ive r s i ty o fT exa s P res 975 ) .A .F .A ven i ,e d . ,N a t iv e Ame r ican A s t ronomy ( Au s t in :U n ive r s i ty o fT exa sP res 977 ) . s, 1 s, 1

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A .F .A ven i ,S kywa tcher so fA nc ien t Mex i co ( Au s t in :U n ive r s i ty o fT exa sP res 980 ) .A .F .A ven ia nd s, 1 G a ry U r ton ,e d s . ,E thnoa s t ronomy a nd A r chaeoas t ronomy i nt h e Ame r ican T rop ic s .A nna l so ft h eN ew Y o rk A cad emy o fS c ien ce s ,v o l . 3 85 ( New Y o rk :T he N ew Y o rk A cademy o fS c ience s , 1 982 ) . 3

F ran zT i chy ," E lp a t ron d ea s en tam ien to sc on s i s tema r a d ia le nl a me se ta c en t ra ld e Mex ico :1 ,' S i s t ema s c equ e 'e n Me soame r i ca ?" .I nJ ah rbu ch f ü rG e s ch i ch t ev on St a t, W i r t schaf tu nd G e se l scha f t La t e inam e r i a l k a s ,2 0( 1983 )( Kö ln -W ien : B öh lau -Ve r lag ) : 6 1 -84 .V incen tH . Ma lm s t röm ," AR e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e C h rono logy o f Me so -Ame r i can C a lend r i ca l S y s tem s ," J ou rna lo ft h eH i s tor yo fA s t ronomy 9( 1 878 ) : 1 05 -116 . S t an i s law I wan i szew sk i ," La A rqueo log fa d eA l ta Mon ta f la e n Mex ico ys ue s tado A c tua l ." E s tud ios d e C u l tu ra N ahua t l ( Mex ico : UNAM , v o l . 1 8 , 1 987 ) . A r tu ro P once d e L eön , " Fe s tam ien to A rqu eoa s t ronöm ico e n e lA l t ip lano d e Mex ico ." I n C a l endar s i n Mesoame r ica a nd P e ru : N a t iv e Ame r ican C ompu ta t ions o fT ime , A n thony F . A ven i a nd G o rdon B ro the r s ton , e d s . ( Ox fo rd : BAR I n t e r na t iona lS e r ie s 1 74 , 1 983 ) .P age s7 3 -99 .

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8

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J ohanna B roda ," A s t ronomy , C o smov i s ion a nd I d eo logy o fp r e -H i span ic Me soame r ica ." I nE thnoa s t r onomy a nd A r chaeoa s t ronomy i nt h e Amer i can T rop i cs ,A n thony F .A ven ia nd G a ry U r ton ,e d s .P age s 8 1 -110 .J .B roda ," C i c lo sA g r f co la s ." A l f r edo L opez -Au s t in ,C ue rpo H umano eI d eo log i a :L as C oncepc ione sd el o sA n t iguos N ahua s , 2v o l s . I n s t i tu to d eI nve s t iga c ione sA n t ropo log i ca s( Mex ico : UNAM , 1 980 ) . E r ic Wo l f ,S ons o ft h eS hak ing E a r th ( Ch icago :U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago P res 959 ) .F r ied r ich K a tz ,T h e s, 1 A nc i en t Amer ican C iv i l i za t ion s ( New Y o rk : P ra ege r , 1 972 ) . F ran ce s F . B e rdan , " T re s f o rma s d e i n t e r camb io e nl ae conom fa a z t eca ." I nE conom i aP o l i t i ca eI d eo log i ae ne lMgx ico pre -H i spän ico , P ed ro C ar s co a nd J ohanna B roda ,e d s .( Mex ico : C en t ro d eI n ve s t iga c ione sS upe r io re sd e lI NAH -Ed i to r ia l ra N ueva I mägen , 1 978 ) .P age s7 5 -94 . E dua rdo Ma to s Mo c t ezuma , U na V i s i ta a lT emp lo Mayor d e T enoch t i t lan ( Mex i co : I NAH , 1 981 ) .E . Ma to s ,e d . ,E lT emp lo Mayor :E x ca vac ione s yE d s tud ios ( Mex ico :I NAH , 1 982 ) .M igue lL e6n -Po r t i la l a nd E . Ma to s Moc te zuma ,E lT emp lo Mayor ( Mex ico : B ancome r ,S .A . , 1 981 ) .J ohanna B roda ,D av id C ar s co ,a nd E . Ma to s ,T he G r ea tT emp le o fT enoch t i t lan : C en t er a nd P er iphe ry i nt h eA z tec Wor ld ra ( Be rke ley :U n ive r s i ty o fC a l i fo rn ia P res 987 ) . s, 1 J ohanna B roda ," E lC u l to Mex i ca d el o sC er s ." J .B roda ," The P roven ience o ft h eO f e r ing s ." J .B roda , ro f " T emp lo Mayo ra sR i tua lS pace ." E s the r P a sz to ry , T he I conog raphy o f t h e T eo t ihua can T la loc . S tud ie s i n p re -Co lumb ian A r t a nd A r chaeo logy ,n o .1 5 .( Wa sh ing ton ,D .C . :D umba r ton O ak s ,1 974 ) .E .P a sz to ry ," The A z t ec T la lo c :G od o f A n t iqu i ty ." I n H omena j e aT he lma S u l ivan . I n s t i tu to d e I nve s t iga c ione s F i lo log ica s ( Mex ico : l UNAM )( i np res .D o r i sH eyden ," Cave s ,G od sa nd My th s : Wo r ld -V iew a nd P lann ing i n Teo t ihua can ." s) I nM e soamer ican S i t es a nd Wor ld V i ew s ,E l i zabe th B en son ,e d . (Wa sh ing ton ,D .C . : D umba r ton O ak s , 1 981 ) .P age s 1 40 .

nA z te c r i tua l , t h er o le o fT la lo c a s amoun ta in d e i ty w a sp a r t i cu la r ly i mpo r tan t . A s s u ch h ei sa l so i o I r e p re s en t ed i nt h eC od ex B o rbon icu s .F o rt h ed i scus fT la loc 's r e la t ion t ot h ee a r th ,s eT he lma D . sion o e S u ll ivan ," T la loc : AN ew E thymo log ica lI n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e God 's N ame a nd Wha ti tR evea l so fH i s E sence a nd N a tu re ." I nA t id e lX L C ongr eso I n terna t iona le D eg l i Ame r ican i s t i ,R oma a nd G enova , s t 1 972 ,v o l .I .( Genova :C a sa E d i t r i ce T i lghe r ,1 974 ) .P age s2 31 -2 19 .E s the rP a sz to ry ,T he I conography o ft h eT eo t ihuacan T l a loc . 1

1 2

J ohanna B roda ," La sF i e s ta sA z te ca s" :2 55 . Among t h em f i gu re t h eP opoca t epe t l ,t h eI z ta cC ihua t l ,T la loc ,C ha lch iuh l i cue , Ma t la lcueye ,E he ca t l , C h icome coa t la nd C ihuacoa t l ,i e . ,t h em a in d e i t ie so ft h e moun ta in ,e a r th ,r a in a nd m a ize c omp lex .I n . t h es equence i nw h ich t h ey a r el i s ted t h ey r e p re s en tt h et wo h i ghe s tv o lcanoe so ft h eV a ley o f Mex i co , l M t .T la loc ,t h eg oddes ft h es wee tw a te ro ft h el a ke ,t h e mo s tp rom inen tv o l cano n ea rT laxca la ( t oday s o c a led L a Ma l inche ) ,t h ew ind g od , t h ey oung g odd es f ma ize ,a nd t h ee a r th a nd moun ta in g oddes l s o s C ihua coa t l , "Woman s e rpen t ." D iego D u rän ,H i s tor ia d el a sI nd ia sd eN ueva E spana , 2v o l s .A nge l Ma . G a r ibay , e d . ( Mex ico : E d i to r ia l P or , 1 967 ) , v o l . I :1 63 -168 . B er na rd ino d e S ahagün , F lor en t ine rüa C od ex : G enera lH i s to ry o ft h e T h ing so fN ew S pa in . 1 3p a r t s . A r thu rJ . 0. A nde r son a nd C ha r le sE . D ibb le , e d s . , Monog raph s o ft h e S choo l o f Ame r ican R e sea r ch ,n o . 1 4 ( New Mex ico : T he S choo lo f Ame r ican R e sea r ch a nd t h eU n ive r s i ty o fU tah , 1 951 -1982 ) ,B ook 1 :4 7 .

1 47

1 3

1 4

J ohanna B ro t h ," La sF ie s ta s A z teca s" : 2 53 ,2 56 -260 ,2 72 -276 . D iego D u rän ,H is tor ia ,I :8 2 .P oma ra l so r e f e r st ot h is i d o l s t a t ing t h a ti tc a r ied o ni t sh ead ar e c ip ien t r c on ta in ing t h e s eed s o fa l f ood s t ap le s . ( Cf . J uan B au t i s ta P oma r , " Re lac iön d eT e zco co ." I nP oma r l Z u r i ta ,R e lac iones d eT excoco yd el o sS ef iores d el aN ueva E spaf ia . C o l ecc iön d eD ocumen tos p ara l a H i s tor ia d e Mex ico ,v o l . 1( Mex ico : S .C havez H ayhoe , 1 941 ) . P age s 1 64 .

1 5

J ohanna B ro t h ," La sF ie s ta sA z te ca s" : 2 72 -276 .

1 6

Iw ou ld l i ke t oe xp res h ank st oS tan i s law I wan i szew sk if o rm ak ing p os le o u rv i s i tt oM t .T la loc s my t sib i nO c tobe r 1 984 ,t o ge the rw i th A n thony F .A ven ia nd L u c rec ia Maupom6 .

1 7

S ee C ons tan t ine G .R icka rd s ," The R u in so fT la loc ,S t a t eo f Mex ico ." J ourna ld el aS oc ie te d es Ame r i c an is tes ( Pa r i s )2 11929 ) : 1 97 -199 .C ha r le sW icke a nd F e rnando H o rca s i ta s ," A rchaeo log ica l I nve s t i g a t ions o n Mon te T la loc , Mex ico ," Mesoamer ican N o t es 5( 1957 ) : 8 3 -96 . S ee n o te s( 3 4 ) , ( 35 ) , ( 36 ) .

1 8

1 9

Ih ave a na lyzed t h is r ema rkab le c o inc idence i n ri tua ld e ta i ls a nd b a s ic c o smo log ica lc oncep t si n a d e ta i led s t udy t h a th a sl e dm et ot h ec onc lu s ion o ft h ee x t rao rd ina ry i mpo r tance o ft h i sd a te i nt e rms o ft h ep re H i span ic c a lenda r . J ohanna B ro t h ," S ign if i can tD a te s ," a nd F ie ld N o tes .C a the r ine Good ,F ie ld N o te s . Me rc ede sO l ive ra , " H tdm i t l d e Mayo e n C i t la la : 1 , 0f ren c la s p a ra C h icomecoa t l op a ra l aS an ta C ruz?" I n Mesoamer ica : Homena je a l doc tor P au lK i rchhof .B a rb ro D ah lg ren ,e d .( Mex ico :I NAH ,1 979 ) .P age s1 43 -158 . Ma r ia f T e re sa S epü lveda ," Pe t ic iön d eL luv ia se nO s to tempa ."Bo le t i nI NAH ( Mex ico : I NAH )1 1( 4 )( 1973 ) :9 2 0 .C ruz S uä rez J äcome ," Pe t ic iön d eL luv ia e nZ i t la la ,G uer ro ." B o le t in I NAH ( Mex ico : I NAH )I I re ( 22 )( 1978 ) : 3 13 .

2 0

Ma r ion O e t inge r a nd F er nando H o r ca s i ta s , T he L ienzo o fP e t laca la . AP ic tor ia l D ocumen tf rom t G uerrero , Mex ico .T rans ac t ion so ft h e Ame r ican P h i losoph ica lS oc ie ty ,v o l .7 2 ,p a r t 7( Ph i lade lph ia :T he Ame r ican P h i lo soph ica l S oc ie ty , 1 982 ) . L eonha rd S chu l tze Jena , B e i d en A z teken , M ix tek en u nd T lapanek en d er S i er re d e lS ur v on Mex iko .I nd iana ,v o l . I I ( J ena : G . F i sche rVe r lag , 1 938 ) . r a Mad

2 1

J ohanna B ro t h ," C ic lo sA g r i co la s ." J . Broda ," S ign if i can tD a te s ."

2 2

B e rna rd ino d eS ahagün ,H is tor ia G enera ld el a sC osas d eN ueva E spaf ia , 4v o l s .A nge l Ma r ia G a r ibay , e d .( Mex ico :E d i to r ia lP or , 1 956 ) ,v o l .3 :3 44 ,3 45 .B e rna rd ino d eS ahagün ,F loren t ine C odex ,B ook rüa X I : 2 47 .

2 3

S ee t h eu n ique ly r i ch e t hnog raph ic m a te r ia lc o le c ted b yT im K nab i nt h eS i er eP eub la ( T im K nab , l ra d Word sG rea ta nd Sma l :S i er ahua tN ar t ive D i scou r s ei n E veryday L if e .U npub l ished Manu scr ip t , l ra N ra c opy r igh t 1 983 ) .

2 4

D o r i sH eyden ," Cave s , God sa nd My ths ."

2 5

H is tor ia T o l teca C h ich imeca .I n t roduc to ry S tudy ;T ran s la t ion a nd No te sb yP au lK i r chhof ina Odena f, L Güeme s ,a nd L u is R eye sG a rc ia ( Mex ico : I NAH , 1 976 ) . P age s 1 ,28 .

2 6

D iego Mu f loz C ama rgo ,H is tor ia d eT lax ca la ( Mex ico : E d i to r ia lI nnova c iön , 1 978 ) .P age s2 08 ,2 09 .

2 7

H er nando A lva rado T ezozomoc ,C rön ica Mex icayo t l .A d r iän L eön t r an s ! . ,I n s t i tu to d eI nve s t iga c ione s H i s tö r ica s( Mex ico : UNAM , 1 949 ) .P age 6 3 .

2 8

T hese d a ta h ave n o ty e tb een g a the red a nd c ompa red i n as y s tema t ic w ay .S ee J .E r ic S . Thomp son ," The r o le o fC ave si n Maya C u l tu re ." I n Amer ikan i sche M is ze len :F es tband F ran zT erme r .W .B ie rhenke e t l a l . ,e d s . ,M i t e i lungen a u sd em Mu seumf ür V ö lk erkund e ,v o l .2 5 .( Hambu rg ,1 959 ) .P age s1 22 -129 .D o r i s t H eyden ," God s ,C ave sa nd My th s ." D av id C .G rove ,T he O lmec P a in t ings o f Ox to t i t lan C ave ,G uerrero , Mex ico (Wa sh ing ton ,D .C . : D umba r ton O ak s , 1 970 ) .

2 9

T o m en t ion o n ly af ew e xamp le s , s eJ .E r ic S .T homp son ,E thno logy o ft h e Mayas o fS ou thern a nd e C en t ra lB r i t ish Honduras .F ie ld Mu seum o fN a tu ra lH i s to ry ,P ub l .2 74 .A n th ropo log ica lS e r . ,V o l . 1 7 , No . 1 . (Ch icago ) .L eonha rd S chu l tze Jena ,B e id en A z tek en ,M ix t ek en .L .S chu l tze Jena ,L eben ,G laube u nd S prache d er Q u iche v on G ua tema la .I nd iana ,v o l .I .( J ena :G .F i sche rV e r lag ,1 933 ) .U lr ich K öh le r , Ü onb i la l u l e la l . G rundf ormen Mesoamer ikan i -SCHER K osmo log ie u nd R e l ig ion i ne i nem G ebe ts tex t a uf Maya -T zo t z i l . A c ta H umbo ld t iana . S e r ie s G eog raph ic e tE thnog raph ica , n o . 5 . (W ie sbaden : F ranz S te ine rVe r lag , 1 977 ) . E von V og t ," Some A spec t so ft h eS a c red G eog raphy o fH igh land C h iapa s ," I n

1 48

Mesoamer ican S i t es a nd Wor ld -V iew s . E l izabe th B enson , e d . (Wa sh ing ton , D .C . : D umba r ton O ak s , 1 981) .P age s 19 -143 .T ed lock B a rba ra ,T ime a nd t h eH igh land Maya .( A lbuque rque :U n ive r s i ty o fN ew s, 1 Mex ico P res 982 ) . 3 0

e F o r Z ongo l ica , V e rac ruz , s e H i ldebe r to Ma r t inez a nd L u i s R eye s G a rc ia , " Cu l to e n l a s C ueva s d e I I C uau t lapa e ne lS ig lo XV I ." C omun idad V ,n o .2 7( Mex ico :U n ive r s idad I be roame r icana , 1 970 ) :5 415 51 .

3 1

V incen tH . Ma lm s t röm ," Re cons t ruc t ion o ft h eC h rono logy o f Me so -Ame r ican C a lend r ica l S ys tems ," J ourna lo ft h eH is tory o f As t ronomy 9( 1978 ) : 1 05 -116 .

3 2

F ranz T ichy , " E l P a t ron d e A sen tam ien to s c on S i s tema R ad ia l e n l a Mese ta C en t ra l d e Mex ico : l ' S i s tema sc eque 'e n Me soame r ica ?" I nJ ahrbuckf ür G esch ich te v on S t aa t ,W ir tschaf tu nd G ese lschaf t L a te inamer ikas ,2 0( 1983 ) ( Kö ln -W ien : B öh lau -Ve r lag ) : 6 1-84 .F .T ichy ," O rde ra nd R e la t ion sh ip o f S pa ce a nd T ime i n Me soame r ica : My th o rR eal i ty?" I n Me soamer ican S i tes a nd Wor ld -V iews .E l izabe th B enson ,e d . (Wa sh ing ton ,D .C . : D umba r ton O ak s , 1 981) .P age s2 17 -245 .

3 3

A n thony F .A ven i ,H o r s tH a r tung ,a nd E dwa rd C a lnek , "My th ,E nv i ronmen ta nd t h eO r ien ta t ion o ft h e T emp lo Mayo ro fT eno ch t i t lan ." P ape rp re sen ted a tt h eS econd Ox f ord A rchaeoas t ronomy C onf er ence , Me r ida ,Y uca tän ,J anua ry 1 986 .

3 4

3 5

S tan i s law I wan i szew sk i ," La A rqueo log ia d eA l ta Mon tana e n Mex ico ys uE s tado A c tua l ." E s tud ios d e ro E C u l tu ra N ahua t l( Mex ico : UNAM )v o l . 1 8( 1 987 ) .S .I wan iszewk i ," De N ahua la ca l C er heca t l : Una T rad ic iön P r eh i spän ica mä se nP e t la ca la ." A r tu ro P once d eL eön ," Fecham ien to A rqueoa s t ronöm ico e ne lA l t ip lano d e Mex ico ." I nC a l endar si n Mesoamer ica a nd P eru : N a t ive Amer ican C ompu ta t ions o f T ime . A n thony F . A ven i a nd G o rdon B ro the r s ton .( Oxfo rd : BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s1 74 ,1983 ) .P age s7 3 -99 .A .P once d eL e6n ," P rop iedade s G eome t r ico -A s t ronöm ica se nl aA rqu i tec tu ra P reh ispän ica ." I nA rqueoa s t ronom i ay E tnoa s t ronom i ae n Mesoamg r ica . J ohanna B ro t h , S t an i s law I wan iszew sk i , a nd L uc re c ia Maupome , e d s . , I n s t i tu to d e I nve s t igac ione sH i s tö r ica s( Mex ico : UNAM ) ( i np res . s)

3 6

3 7

3 8

3 9

4 0

4 1

D e s i re C ha rnay , T he A nc ien t C i t ies o ft h eN ew Wor ld . A n t iqu i t ie s o ft h eN ew Wo r ld , v o l . 1 0 . E a r ly E xp lo ra t ion s i nA rchaeo logy . P ub l ished b y AMS P res o r P eabody Museum o f A r chaeo logy a nd s, f E thno logy ( Ha rva rd Un ive r s i ty , C amb r idge , Mas , 1 973 ) . C ha r le s W icke a nd F e rnando H o r ca s i ta s , s. " A r chaeo log ica l I nve s t iga t ion s ." J o se L u i s L o renzo , " La s Z ona s A rqueo l6g ica s d e l o s Vo lcane s I z tacc ihua t l yP opoca tepe t l ." I nD ir ecc iön d eP reh i s tor ia ,p ub l . n o . 3( Mex ico : I NAH , 1 957 ) . S tan i s law I wan iszewsk i ," La A rqueo log ia d eA l ta Mon tana " . S .I wan iszewsk i ," De N ahua la ca lC er ro E heca t l ." A r tu ro P once d e L eön , " Fe cham ien to A rqueoa s t ronöm ico ," Map 1 .A . P once d e L e6n , " P rop ie c lade sG eome t r ico -A s t ron6m ica s" . N ancy F ar oc ie ty U nd er C o lon ia lR u le : T he C o lec t ive E n terpr i se o fS ur v iva l ( P r ince ton : ris s, Maya S l P r ince ton U n ive r s i ty P r es 984 ) : P age 2 90 . s, 1 Emmanue lT er ," C la se s yC onc ienc ia d eC la se e ne l Re ino A b ron d eG yaman ." I nA nä l i s is Marx i s ta ray yA n tropo logi aS oc ia l . Mau r ice B loch ,e d . ( Ba rce lona : E d i to r ia l A nag rama ) . P age s 1 05 -162 . P ed ro C ar sco ," La E conom ia d e l Mex ico P reh i spän ico ," I nE conomi aP o l i t ica eI d eo log i ae ne lMgx ico ra P reh i spän ico .P ed ro C ar sco a nd J ohanna B ro t h ,e d s . ( Mex ico : C en t ro d eI nve s t igac ione sS upe r io re s ra d e lI NAH -Ed i to r ia lN ueva I magen , 1 978 ) .P age s 1 3 -74 . A lbe r tE ins te in , T he Wo r ld A s IS ee I t( London , 1 935 ) .

1 49

B ib l iography A bb rev ia t ion s : I NAH

I n s t i tu to N ac iona ld eA n t ropo log ia eH i s to r ia .

UNAM U n ive r s idad N a c iona lA u t6noma d e Mex ico .

A ven i ,A n thony F .S kywa t cher so f A nc ien t Mex ico .A u s t in :U n ive r s i ty o fT exa sP res 980 . s, 1 .( e d . ) .A rchaeoa s t ronomy i np r e -Co lumb ianAm er ica .A u s t in :U n ive r s i ty o f Texa sP res 975 . s, 1 .( e d . ) .N a t iv e Amer ican A s t ronomy .A u s t in :U n ive r s i ty o fT exa sP res 977 . s, 1 a nd G o rdon B ro the r s ton ( e d s . ) . C a l enda r s i n Me soamer i ca a nd P e ru : N a t ive Amer ican C ompu ta t ions o fT ime .O x fo rd : BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s 1 74 , 1 983 . a nd G a ry U r ton ( e d s . ) . E thnoa s t ronomy a nd A r chaeoas t ronomy i nt h e Ame r ican T rop i cs . A nna l so f th eN ew Y ork A cad emy o fS c ience s ,v o l .3 85 .N ew Y o rk :T he N ew Y o rk A cademy o fS c ience s , 1 982 . ,H o r s tH a r tung a nd E dwa rd C a lnek . "My th ,E nv i ronmen ta nd t h eO r ien ta t ion o ft h eT emp lo Mayo ro fT eno ch t i t lan ." P ape rp re sen ted a t th eS econd O x f ord A r chaeoa s t ronomy C onf e r ence , Me r ida , Y uca tan ,J anua ry 1 986 . B e rdan ,F rance sF ." T re sF o rma sd eI n te r camb io e nl aE conom i aA z te ca ." I nE conom i aP o l i t ica eI d eo log i a e ne lMex ico P r eh i spän ico .E d i ted b yP ed ro C ar s co a nd J ohanna B roda . Mex ico :C en t ro d eI nve s t iga ra c i one sS upe r io r e sd e lI NAH -Ed i to r ia lN ueva I magen , 1 978 .P age s7 5 -94 . B roda ,J ohanna ." A s t ronomy ,C o smov i s ion a nd I d eo logy i nP re -H i span ic Me soame r ica ." I nE thnoa s t ronomy a nd A rchaeoa s t ronomy i nt h e Amer i can T rop ic s ,e d i ted b yA n thony F .A ven ia nd G a ry U r ton .A nna l s o f th eN ew Y ork A cad emy o fS c iences ,v o l .3 85 .N ew Y o rk :T he N ew Y o rk A cademy o fS c ience s ,1 982 . P age s8 1 -110 . ." Co smov i s iön yo b se rva c i6n d el an a tu ra le za :E le j emp lo d e lc u l t° d el o sc e ro s ." I nA rqueoa s r t r onom i a yE tnoa s t ronom i ae n Mesoame r ica .E d i ted b yJ ohanna B roda ,S t an i s law I wan iszew sk i ,a nd L uc rec ia Maupome ,I n s t i tu to d eI nve s t iga c ione sH i s tö r i ca s . Mex i co : UNAM ( i np r es . s) ." C ic lo sA g r ico la se ne lC u l to : U nP rob lema d el aC o re la c iön d e lC a lenda r io Mex ica ." I n r C a l endar si n Mesoamer ica a nd P e ru :N a t ive Amer ican C ompu ta t ions o fT ime .E d i ted b yA n thony F . A ven ia nd G o rdon B ro the r s ton .O x fo rd : BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s 1 74 , 1 983 .P age s 1 45 -165 . ." E lC u l to Mex i ca d el o sC er s yd e lA gua ." Mu l t id i s c ip l ina .E scue la N a c iona ld eE s tud io s ro P ro f e s iona le sA ca t lan ( Mex ico , UNAM )3 ,n o . 7( 1 982 ) :4 5 -56 . ." L a s f i e s ta s A z t eca s d e L o s D io se s d e l aL luv ia ." R ev i s ta E spa r io la d e A n t ropo log i a Ame r icana ( Mad r id )6 ( 1971 ) :2 45 -327 . . " Temp lo Mayo ra s Ri tua lS pa ce ." I n Johanna B roda ,D av id C ar sco a nd E dua rdo Ma to s :T he ra G r ea t T emp l e o fT enoch t i t lan : C en t er a nd P er iphery i nt h e A z t ec Wor ld . B e rke ley : U n ive r s i ty o f C a l i fo rn ia P r es 987 . s, 1 ." The P roven ien ce o ft h eO f e r ing s :T r ibu te a nd C o smov i s ion ." I nT he A z t ec T emp lo Mayor . f E d i t ed b yE l izabe th H .B oone . Wa sh ing ton ,D .C . : D umba r ton O ak s , 1 987 . ." S ign i f ican t D a te s o f t h e Me soame r i can A g r i cu l tu ra l C a lenda r a nd A r chaeoa s t ronomy ." P ape rp re sen ted a t th eS econd Ox f ord A r chaeoa s t ronomy C onf e r ence , Me r ida ,Y uca tan ,J anua ry 1 986 . C ar sco ,P ed ro ." La E conom i ad e l Mex i co P reh i spän ico ." I nE conom i aP o l i t ica eI d eo log i ae ne l M ex ico ra P reh i spän ico . E d i ted b y P ed ro C ar sco a nd J ohanna B roda . Mex ico : C en t ro d e I n ve s t iga c ione s ra S upe r io r e sd e lI NAH -Ed i to r ia lN ueva I magen , 1 978 .P age s 1 3 -74 . C ha rnay ,D e s i r e .T he A n c ien tC i t ie so ft h eN ew Wo r ldBe ing V oyage sa nd E xp lora t ion si nMex i co a nd C en t ra l Ame r ican f rom 1 857 -1882 .A n t iqu i t ie so ft h eN ew Wo r ld ,v o l . 1 0 .E a r ly E xp lo ra t ion si nA r chaeo logy . P ubl i shed b y AMS P res o rP eabody Mu seum o fA r cha eo logy a nd E thno logy , H a rva rd U n ive r s i ty . s, f

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s. C amb r idge , Mas , 1 973 .( f i r s tp ub l i shed i n1 887 ) . C od ex B orbon icus .C ommen ta ry b yK a r lA n ton N owomy ,F a c s im i le E d i t ion .G r az -Au s t r ia : A kadem i sche D r uck -und V e r lag san s ta l t , 1 974 . D u rän ,F ray D iego .H i s tor ia d el a sI nd ia sd eN ueva E spa t ia , 2v o l s .E d i ted b yA nge l Ma r ia G a r ibay . Mex ico : E d i to r ia lP om ia , 1 967 . E in s te in ,A lbe r t .T he W o r ld A s! S ee I t .L ondon , 1 935 . ris s, N l F ar ancy M . Maya S oc ie ty U nd e rC o lon ia lR u le : T he C o lec t iv eE n t erp r i se o fS ur v iva l . P r ince ton : s, 1 P r ince ton U n ive r s i ty P r es 984 . re G ood ,C a the r ine .F ie ld N o t e s . Am eya l t epec , G uer ro , 1 980 . rero G rove ,D av id C .T he O lmec P a in t ing so f Ox to t i t lan C av e ,G uer , Mex ico . Wa sh ing ton ,D .C . :D umba r ton O ak s ,T ru s tee sf o rH a r va rd U n ive r s i ty , 1 970 . H eyden ,D o r i s ." Cave s ,G od sa nd My th s : Wo r ld -V iew a nd P l ann ing i nT eo t ihuacan ." I n Me soamer i can S i t es a nd Wo r ld -V iew s .E d i t ed b yE l izab e th B en son . Wa sh ing ton ,D .C . :D umba r ton O ak s ,1 981 .P age s 1 40 . f, L H is tor ia T o l t eca C h i ch imeca . I n t roduc to ry S t udy ; T ran s la t ion a nd N o te sb y P au lK i r chhof ina O dena G üeme s ,a nd L u i sR eye sG a r c i a . Mex ico : I NAH , 1 976 . I wan i szew sk i ,S t an i s law . " La A rque ,o log i ad e A l ta Mon tana e n Mex ico ys uE s tado A c tua l ." E s tud ios d e C u l tu ra N ahua t l( Mex ico : UNAM ) ,v o l . 1 8( 1 987 ) . ro E ." De N ahua la ca lC er he . ca t l :U na T rad ic i6n P reh i spän ica Mä se nP e t la ca la ." K a tz ,F r ied r ich .T he A nc i en t Amer i can C iv i l i za t ion s .N ew Y o rk :P ra ege r , 1 972 . sic Mex K le in ,C ecel ia F ." Po s t -C las ican D ea th I mage ry a s aS ign o fC yc l ic C omp le t ion ." D ea th a nd t h e A f te r l i f e i n P re -Co lomb ian Ame r ica . Wa sh ing ton , D .C . : D umba r ton O ak s , T ru s tee s f o r H a rva rd U n ive r s i ty , 1 973 .P age s6 9 -85 . ."Who w a sT la loc ?" J ou rna lo f La t in Ame r i can L or e 6( 2 ) ( 1 980 ) : 1 55 -204 . l ra N ra K nab , T im . Word s G rea ta nd S ma l : S i er ahua tN ar t iv eD i scou r s e i nE v e ryday L if e . U npub l i shed Manu s c r ip t ,c opy r igh t 1 983 .

e

K öh le r ,U l r ich . e lo nb i la l ' u l e la l . G rund f ormen Mesoame r ikan is ch er K osmo log ie u nd R e l ig ion i ne i nem G eb e t s t ex t a uf Maya -T zo t z i l . A c ta H umbo ld t iana . S e r ie s G eog raph i ca e tE thnog raph ica , n o . 5 .W i e sbaden :F ranz S t e ine rVe r lag , 1 977 . L e6n -Po r t ila ,M igue la nd E dua rdo Ma to s Moc te zuma .E lT emp lo Mayor . Mex ico : B ancöme rS .A . , 1 981 . L 6pez -Au s t in , A lf redo . C ue rpo Humano eI d eo log i c ' :L a s C oncep c ione sd e l o sA n t iguos N ahuas , 2v o l s . I n s t i tu to d eI nve s t iga c ione sA n t ropo l6g ica s . Mex i co : UNAM , 1 980 . L o ren zo ,J o sé L u i s ." La sZ ona sA rqueo lög ica sd el o sV o lcane sI z tacc ihua t l yP opo ca tepe t l ." I nD i r ecc iön d e P reh i s tor ia ,p ub l ica t ion n o .3 . Mex ico : I NAH , 1 957 . Mal ins t röm , V in cen t H . " A r ch i te c tu re ,A s t ronomy a nd C a lend r ic s i nP re -Co lomb ian Me so -Ame r i ca ," I n l s-The A rchaeoas t ronomy i nt h e Amer i ca s .E d i t ed b yR .A .W il iam son .L o sA l to s ,C a l i f . :B a lena P r es C en te rf o rA r cha eoa s t ronomy , 1 98 1 . . " AR e con s t ruc t ion o f th eC h rono logy o f Me so -Ame r ican C a lend r ica lS y s tems ," J ou rna lo ft h e H is tor yo f As t ronomy 9( 1 978 ) : 1 05 -116 . I I Ma r t inez , H i ldebe r to , a nd L u i s R eye s G a r c ia . " Cu l to e n l a s C ueva s d e C uau t lapa e n e lS i g lo XV I ." C omun idad V ,n o .2 7( Mex ico :U n ive r s idad I b e roame r icana ) ( 1 970 ) : 5 41 -551 . l l Ma to s Mo c tezuma ,E dua rdo ." Lo sH a la zgo sd el aA rqueo log ia ." I nM igue lL eön -Po r t i la a nd E dua rdo Ma to s Mo c te zuma ,E lT emp lo Mayor . Mex ico : B ancome rS .A . 1 981a .P age s 1 03 -284 . .U na V i s i ta a lT emp lo Mayor d eT enoch t i t lan . Mex ico : I NAH , 1 98 l b . .( e d . ) .E lT emp lo Mayor :E x cavac ione s yE s tud ios . Mex ico :I NAH , 1 982 . Muf ioz C ama rgo ,D iego .H i s tor ia d eT l ax ca la . Mex ico :E d i to r ia lI nnova c iön , 1 978 .

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t rero O e t inge r , Ma r ion ,a nd F e rnando H o rca s i ta s .T he L ienzo o fP e t laca la . AP ic to r ia l Documen tf rom G uer , Mex ico .T ransa c t ion so ft h e Ame r ican P h i lo soph ica lS o c ie ty ,v o l .7 2 ,p a r t7 . Ph i lade lph ia :T he Ame r ican P h i losoph ica lS oc ie ty , 1 982 . O l ive ra , Me rcede s . " Huem i t ld e Mayo e nC i t la la : L 0f renda sp a ra C h icome coa t l op a ra l aS an ta C ruz?" I n Mesoame r ica :H omena j ea ld oc tor P au lK irchhof .E d i ted b yB a rb ro D ha lg ren . Mex ico : I NAH , 1 979 . f P age s 1 43 -158 . l P a sz tory , E s the r . " The A z te c T la loc : G od o f A n t iqu i ty ." I nH omena je a T he lma S u l ivan . I n s t i tu to d e s) I nve s t igac ione sF i lo l6g ica s . Mex ico : UNA M , ( i np res . .T he I conography o ft h eT eo t ihuacän T la loc .S tud ie si nP re -Co lomb ian A r ta nd A rchaeo logy , n o . 1 5 . Wa sh ing ton ,D .C . : D umba r ton O ak s , 1 974 . P oma r ,J uan B au t is ta ." Re la c i6n d eT ez coco ." I nP omar -Zu r i ta :R e lac iones d eT ex coco yd el o sS ei tores d e l aN ueva E spa r ia . C o lecc iön d e D ocumen to s p a ra l aH i s to r ia d e Mex ico , v o l . 1 . Mex ico : S .C havez H ayhoe , 1 941 . P age s 1 64 . P once d e L e6n , A r tu ro . " Fecham ien to A rqueoa s t ron6m ico e n e lA l t ip lano d e Mex ico ." I nC a lendar s i n Mesoamer ica a nd P eru : N a t ive Amer ican C ompu ta t ion s o fT ime . E d i ted b y A n thony F . A ven i a nd Go rdon B ro the r s ton .O xfo rd : BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s 1 74 . P age s7 3 -99 . ." P rop iedade s G eome t r ico -A s t ron6m ica s e n l aA rqu i tec tu ra P reh i spän ica ." I nA rqueoa s t r onom i a yE tnoa s t ronom i a e n Mesoame r ica . E d i ted b yJ ohanna B roda , S tan i s law I wan i szew sk i a nd s) L uc rec ia Maupome . I n s t i tu to d eI nve s t igac ione sH i s t6 r ica s . Mex ico : UNAM ( i np res . R icka rd s ,C on s tan t ine G ." The R u in so fT la loc ,S t a t eo f Mex ico ." J ourna ld el aS oc ie te d es Ame r ican is tes ( Pa r is )2 1( 1929 ) : 1 97 -199 . S ahagün ,F ray B e rna rd ino d e .F loren t ine C od ex :G enera lH i s to ry o f th eT h ings o fNew S pa in ,1 3p a r t s .E d i ted a nd t r an s la ted b yA r thu rJ . 0. A nd e r son a nd C ha r le sE .D ibb le . Monog raphs o ft h eS choo lo f Ame r ican R e sea rch ,n o .1 4 .N ew Mex ico :T he S choo lo f Ame r ican R e sea rch a nd t h eU n ive r s i ty o fU tah ,1 951-1982 . i .H is tor ia G enera l d e l a s C osa s d eN ueva E spa ia , 4v o l s . E d i ted b y A nge l Ma r i a G a r ibay . rüa Mex ico : E d i to r ia lP or , 1 956 . r a Mad S chu l tze Jena ,L eonha rd .B e id en A z tek en ,M ix teken u nd T lapaneken d er S i er re d e lS ur v on Mex iko . I nd iana ,v o l . I I .J ena : G .F i sche rVe r lag , 1 938 . . L eb en ,G laube u nd S prache d er Q u i che v on G ua t ema la .I nd iana v o l .I .J ena :F i sche rVe r lag , 1 933 . S epü lveda , Ma r ia T e re sa ." Pe t ic iön d eL luv ia se nO s to tempa ."Bo le t in I NAH .( Mex ico :I NAH ) 9 -20 .

( 4 )( 1973 ) :

re S uä rez J äcome , C ruz . " Pe t ic iön d eL luv ia e n Z i t la la , G uer ro ." B o le t in I NAH ( Mex ico : I NAH ) I I ( 22 ) ( 1978 ) : 3 13 . S u ll ivan ,T he lma D ." ' T la loc : AN ew E tymo log ica lI n te rp r e ta t ion o ft h e God 's N ame a nd Wha ti tR evea ls o f s t H i sE sense a nd N a tu re ." I nA t id e lX LC ongreso I n terna t iona le D eg l i Amer ican is t i ,R oma a nd G enova , 1 972 ,v o l . I .G enova : C a sa E d i t r ice T i lghe r , 1 974 . P age s2 13 -219 . s, 1 T ed lock ,B a rba ra . T ime a nd t h eH igh land Maya . A lbuque rque : U n ive r s i ty o fN ew Mex ico P res 982 . ray T er , Emmanue l ." Ch ase s yC onc ienc ia d eC la se e ne lR e ino A b ron d eG yaman ." I nA nä l i s is Ma rx is ta y A n tropo log i aS oc ia l . E d i ted b y Mau r ice B loch , B a rce lona : E d . A nag rama . P age s 1 05 -162 . T ezoz6moc , H e rnando A lva rado . C rön ica Mex icayo t l . T ran s la ted b y A d r iän L eon . I n s t i tu to d e I nves t iga c i one sH is tbr ica s . Mex ico : UNAM , 1 949 . T homp son ,J . Er ic . S .E thno logy o ft h e Mayas o fS ou thern a nd C en tra lB r i t i sh Honduras .F ie ld Mu seum o f N a tu ra lH i s tory ,P ub l .2 74 . A n th ropo log ica l S e r . ,V o l . 1 7 ,N o . 1 . Ch icago . l . " The R o le o fC ave si n Maya C u l tu re ." I n Amer ikan ische M i s ze len :F es tband F ran zT ermer . t E d i ted b yW .B ierhenke e ta l .M i te i lungen a u sd em Museum f ür V ö lkerkund e ,v o l .2 5 .H ambu rg , 1 959 . P age s 1 22 -129 .

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T ichy ,F ranz ." E lP a t ron d eA sen tam ien to sc on S i s tema R ad ia le nl a Mese ta C en t ra ld e Mex ico : z' S i s tema s c eque 'e n Me soame r ica ?" I nJ ahrbuchf ü rG esch ich te v on S taa t ,W ir t schaf tu nd G es e l scha f tLa te inamer i l k a s ,2 0( 1983 )( Kö ln -W ien :B öh lau -Ve r lag ) : 6 1 -84 . . " O rde ra nd R e la t ion sh ip o fS pace a nd T ime i n Me soam e r ica : My th o rR ea l i ty?" I n Me soamer i c an S i tes a nd Wor ld -V iew s .E d i ted b yE l izabe th B enson . Wa sh ing ton ,D .C . :D umba r ton O ak s ,T ru s tee s f o rH a rva rd U n ive r s i ty , 1 981 .P age s2 17 -245 . .( e d . ) . S pace a nd T ime i n t h e C osmov i s ion o f Mesoamer ica . L a te inamer ika -S tud ien 1 0 , U n ive r s i ty o fE r langen -Nu renbe rg , Mun ich : Wi lhe lm F inkVe r lag , 1 982 . V og t ,E von . " Some A spec t s o ft h e S ac red G eog raphy o fH igh land C h iapa s ." I n Mesoamer ican S i te s a nd Wor ld -V iew s .E d i ted b yE l i zabe th B en son . Wa sh ing ton ,D .C . : D umba r ton O ak s ,T ru s tee s f o rH a rva rd U n ive r s i ty , 1 981 .P age s 19 -143 . W icke , C ha r le s a nd F e rnando H o rca s i ta s . " A rchaeo log ica l I nve s t iga t ion s o n Mon te T la loc , Mex ico ," Me soamer i can N o t es 5( 1 957 ) : 8 3 -96 . Wo lf ,E r ic .S ons o ft h eS hak ing E ar th . C h icago : U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago P r es 959 . s, 1

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C orona t ion a tT enoch t i t lan R ichard F .T own send I con a nd Emp ire R i s ing f r om t h er i tua l p r ec inc ti nt h ec en te ro fT eno ch t i t lan , t h e g r ea t Mex ica -Az tec p y ram id ma rked t h e g eog raph ica l a nd s o c ia l n uc leu s o f a n emp i re a nd aw o r ld . T he s i x teen th -cen tu ry S pan i sh e yew i tnes ccoun t sd e sc r ibe t h el oom ing monumen ti n te rm so f s a f ou r p l a t fo rm s , s upe r impo sed i n s t epped -back l e ve l s , w i th a pa i r o f s t eep ly s l op ing s t a irway so nt h ew e s tf a cade .T he f ou r th p l a t fo rm f o rmed ab road c e remon ia ll e ve la tt h e t o po ft h eb u i ld ing ,u pon w h ich w he r ep l aced t h ed ua lt emp le so f Tla lo ca nd Hu i tz i lopo ch t l i . T he se t emp le sf a ced w e s tf r om t h e i rp o s i t ion a t th ee a s te rn e nd o ft h ep l a t fo rm .T he i rt a l l r oof s w e r e p l a s te r ed a nd c o lo r f u ly o rnamen ted w i th emb lem s o ft h e i rr e spec t ive c u l t s : l T la loc ,o nt h en o r the rn s i de ,w i th mo t i f so fr a in a nd mo i s tu r e ;H u i tz i lopoch t l i ,t ot h es ou th , w i th s i gn so fw a ra nd s a c r if i ce b e long ing t ot h ed e if ied a nce s t ra lh e ro .I ti s es t ima ted t h a t t h e t emp le r o se p e rhap s s i x ty m e te r s , o f e r ing ac l ea r v i ew o f t h e i s land c i ty a nd t h e f s u round ing l a ke a nd moun ta in r ange s . r I mm ed ia te ly b e low , w i th in t h e r i tua l p r ec inc t , t h e re s t ood t h e s ma le r p y ram id s , l t emp le s , a nd a tendan tb u i ld ing s o ft h ei mpe r ia lr e l ig iou s c en te r ( F ig . 1 ) . R oya lp a lace s t w e re b u i l t i mmed ia te ly o u t s ide , a nd a n o rde r ly r e s iden t ia l g r id d iv ided b y c ana l s a nd w a lkway se nve loped t h ed own town r e l ig iou sa nd c i v ic c en te r ,e x tend ing o u twa rd t ot h e e dge o ft h el a ke .F rom e a s tt ow e s tt h ec i ty m ea su red a bou tt wo a nd ah a l fk i lome te r s ,w h i le t h en o r th -sou th a x i s ,w h ich i n c luded t h eT la te lo lco s ubu rb ,m ea su red s ome f ou ra nd ah a lf k i lome te r si n le ng th .F ou rm a in r oadway sl e df r om t h eg a tes o ft h es a c red e nc lo su re t owa rd t h ec a rd ina ld i rec t ion s .C au seway s jo ined t h ec i ty t o th e ma in land o na lb u tt h ee a s te rn s i de , l whe re t h e a venue e nded a ta n o pen a r ea l ook ing o u t u pon t h e b l ue e xpan se o f L ake T e tzcoco . T he o u t l ine s o f t h e se a venue s a nd c au seway s may s t il b e t r a ced w i th in t h e S pan i sh c o lon ia lg r id a nd mode rn s ubu rb so f Mex ico C i ty ,w i th t h es i te o ft h e ma in p y ram id a ppea r ing d own town , ab lock n o r thea s to ft h ec a thed ra l a nd Z oca lo ( F ig . 2 ) . B eyond t h e c i ty ,t h ev i ew a round t h eb a s in i sc on ta ined b yb lue -g ray moun ta in r ange s . Ma jo rp eak ss uch a sM t .T la loc a nd s now -capped I x ta cc ihua t la nd P opoca tepe t l ,w h ich d om ina te t h es p ine o f t h ee a s te rn r ange ,w e re c on s ide r ed s a c r ed i na n t iqu i ty .T he se h igh p eak sa r e whe r ep owe r fu l r a ins to rm sf o rm a tt h eo n se to ft h er a iny s e a son ,a nd a bundan ts p r ing su pon t h e i rs l ope sa nd f oo th i l s s upp ly w a te r t h roughou t t h e y ea r . A s s ou r ce s o f l i f e , a nd b ecau se o f t h e i r l my s te r iou s a nd a we some p re s ence , t h e moun ta in s w e re l ooked u pon a s i c on s b y t h e h i gh land p eop le s . T he 1 978 -83 e xcava t ion o ft h ep y ram id f ounda t ion sb yE dua rdo Ma to s Moc tezuma a nd h i sa so c ia te sh a sp r e sen ted au n ique o ppo r tun i ty t oa n swe rq ue s t ion sa bou tt h er o le o fa r t s a nd r i tua l i nt h e d eve lopmen t o f a n i mpe r ia l s t a te . T he r emova l o f C o lon ia l a nd l a te r b u i ld ing s s upe r impo sed u pon t h e r u in s h a s o pened av i ew o f t h e c oncen t r ic p y ram id f ounda t ion s ( F ig s . 3 ,4 ) . T he b u i ld ing t h a t t h e S pan i sh s aw a nd p a r t ia ly r a zed a f te r t h e l c onque s to fT enoch t i t lan i sr evea led t oh ave b een as he l ,e nc lo s ing as ucces fe a r l ie r l sion o b u i ld ing s . S eve ra l o f t h e se e a r l ie r s t ruc tu r e s w e re f ound t oh ave b een e n la rged o n t h e w e s te rn e nd w i th s t a i rway f a cade s . T h i s a r chaeo log ica l f o rma t ion , t o ge the r w i th t h e s cu lp tu re sa nd amu l t i tude o fa r t i f a c t sa nd o f e r ing sr e cove red f r om f ounda t ion c a che s , may f n ow b e i n te rp re ted w i th t h e h e lp o f e t hnoh i s to r ica l t e x t s , p i c tu re s f r om i ina ted lum R ep r in ted w i th t h ep e rm is ft h ea u tho ra nd D umba r ton O ak s sion o 1 55

manusc r ip t s ,a nd aw e l -known b ody o fr e la ted monumen t s .T he a bundan ts ou rce s make i t l p os le t od ecode t h er u in si nt h ec on tex to fk nown h i s to r ica le ven t s —a r a re o ppo r tun i ty sib i nN ew Wo r ld a r chaeo logy a nd a r th i s to ry . Wha td oe st h i si n fo rma t ion f r om t h ep y ram id t e l u s a bou tr e l ig iou s t hough t a nd i magery i nt h er i se o ft h e Mex ica e mp i re? A re t h e re l p a te rn sh e re t h a t may h e lp t oe xp la in e a r l ie rc omp lex r i tua lc en te r si nH igh land Mex ico , t a bou tw h ich much l e si sk nown? B eh ind s uch q ue s t ion sl i e st h ei sue o fu nde r s tand ing t h e s s r o le o fr e l ig ion ,s ymbo l ic monumen t s ,a nd r i tua lp ra c t ice si nt h ec r ea t ion , ma in tenance ,a nd d e s t ruc t ion o fa nc ien tN ew Wo r ld c i v i l iza t ion s ;a nd h ow t h ese f a c to r s may b el i nked t ot h e e conom ic a nd e co log ica li n fo rma t ion t h a th a sb ene ra ted b ya r chaeo log ica la na ly se s een g i nr e cen td ecade s . T he c on s t ruc t ion o ft h ep y ram id w a se spec ia ly c onne c ted w i th t h er e ign so fr u le r sf r om l t h ef ou r teen th t ot h es i x teen th c en tu r ie s , at ime t h a ts aw t h ef o r cefu lr i se a nd c onso l ida t ion o ft h ei mpe r ia l Mex ica s t a te .A na mb i t iou sp rog ram w a sd ev i sed t oe qu ip T enoch t i t lan w i th monumen ta l s ymbo l s . Wo rk s o f a r t a nd a r ch i t ec tu re w e r e c omm is o r e p re sen t sioned t r e l ig iou sc u l t sa nd n a t iona lh i s to ry ,t od emon s t ra te t h ec en t ra lp a lace o fT enoch t i t lan i nt h e c o sm ic s chema ,a nd t oc ommun ica te t h ef i e rce t empe ramen to f aw a r l ike p opu la t ion .I tw a s i n tended t h a tt h e c i ty s hou ld a cqu i re ap re sence t h a tw ou ld m a tch t h e g randeu ro fo the r h igh land c ap i ta ls o fc en tur ie s p a s t . H ow d id t h e g r ea t p y ram id f i gu re i nt h i s a mb i t iou s e ndeavo r ?B yw ha tp a ter nd id t h eb u i ld ing g row i nt h es ucces fr e igns? I nw ha tw ay s t sion o d id i t ss ymbo l ic o rde rf o rm t h es e t ing f o ri mpo r tan tr i te so fs t a te? How d id t h is d om ina t ing t s t ruc tu re i mp res t se lf u pon t h ep opu la t ion? T he se a r ec l o se ly i n terwoven q ues t ion s ,d rawn s i t oge the rb y a n o ve ra rch ing p rob lem : t ou nde r s tand t h ep y ram id a st h e e xpr es fa n sion o i n te lec tua la nd e s the t ic s t ra tegy a nd a sa na c t ive a gen to fc u l tu ra ls t ab il i ty a nd c hange . l T h i s a r t ic le w i le xam ine t h e se q ues t ion sb yl ok ing a tt h ep y ram id i nt e rm so ft h ree l o r e la ted t h eme s . T he f i r s tt h eme c oncer n s t h ec ruc ia l n exu sb e tween a r ta nd r u le r sh ip , a s r evea led b yt h eg row th o ft h eb u i ld ing i nt h ec on tex to fs pec if ic r e ign s .T he a r ch i tec tu ra l d eve lopmen t , t h e c r ea t ion o fs cu lp tu re s , a nd t h e many o f e r ing s s how t h a t t h e r u le s o f f T enoch t i t lan w e re d eep ly c once rned w i th t h ei n co rpo ra t ion o fa nc ien tf o rm sa sw e la sw i th l t h ei nven t ion o fn ew o ne s .I tw a st h e i ra im t of o rm a na r t is t ic v ocabu la ry t h a t wou ld q uo te t h ep a s tb u tt h a tw ou ld a l so s peak t ot h es pec if i cn eed sa nd c i rcum s tances o f an ew t ime a nd p l ace . T he s e cond t h eme c once rn st h es ymbo l ic o rgan iza t ion o ft h ep y ram id .I nt h i ss e c t ion w e s ha l s e t h a t t h e b u i ld ing w a s d e s igned t or ep re sen t t h e c on junc t ion o ft wo s ymbo l ic l e moun ta in s .T he n or th s i de ( T la loc )w a st h e moun ta in o fp l en ty ,d er iv ing i t si mage ry f r om t h e moun ta ins , c l oud s , a nd r a in s to rm s s en i n t h e n a tu ra l l a nd scape . T h i s i magery , e m ir r ing t h ep henomena o fn a tu re ,w a sd i rec t ly l i nked t oa g r icu l tu re a nd t h ec yc le o ft h e ro s ea son s . O n t h e o t he r h and , t h e s ou th s i de ( Hu i tz i lopoch t l i ) r ep re sen ted a le genda ry moun ta in , t h e my th ica l b i r thp lace a nd s i te o f t h e f i r s t m i l i ta ry t r iumph o ft h e w a r l ike , a nces t ra lh e ro . T h is s i de o ft h ep y ram id t hu sr e f lec ted a ni d ea o fh i s to ry . L ike t h el e gend o fA enea si n Med i ter n t iqu i ty ,t h es t o ry o fH u i tz i lopoch t l it e ls o ft h ed iv ine o r ig in s ranean a l o f aw ar rh e ro w ho w a st ol e ad t h ew ande r ing t r ibe t owa rd t h e i re ven tua lr e s t ing p l ace rio o n t h e i s land o f T enoch t i t lan , a nd w ho w ou ld g i ve t h em t h e i r s en se o f d e s t iny a s t h e c onque ro r so fn a t ions . T he p rog ram o fc on s t ruc t ion a nd t h e s ymbo l ic o rgan iza t ion o ft h e p y ram id f o rm t h e c on tex tf o rt h et h i rd t h eme ,w h ich c oncer n st h eb u i ld ing a st h ed om ina t ing i con a nd s t age f o r Mex ica k in sh ip r i tes .I tw a st h rough t h e se r i te so fp a ssage t h a tt h er u le r so fT enoch t i t lan a sumed t h e r oya l o ff i ce . T he m agn if i cen t p ro ces s , s a cr if i ces , t r ad i t iona l o ra t ion s , s sion

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l mu s ic , d ances , a nd o the r e ven t s u n fo lded s equen t ia ly u pon t h e p y ram id , i n r e la ted b u i ld ing so ft h es a c r ed e nc lo su re ,a nd i nt h er oya lp a lace so u t s ide .B u ti tw a st h ep y ram id s t h a tr ema ined t h es ymbo l ic f o cu st h a tg ave t h ew ho le p ro cedu re i t s mo s te sen t ia lm ean ing s . A no u tl ine o fk ing sh ip r i te si nr e la t ion t ot h eb u i ld ing r evea l st h eg en iu so f Mex ica r u le r s i n c r ea t ing ad ynam ic r e la t ion sh ip b e tween s ymbo l s a nd t h em se lve s . T h rough b lood c ovenan t s t h e r u le r s b ound t h e l i f e o ft h e i rc i ty t ot h e manmade l a nd scape o fs ymbo l ic re f o rm s , a nd t oc or spond ing f e a tu re s o ft h e n a tu ra l e nv i ronmen t , w h i le s imu l taneou s ly f sion a f i rm ing h i s to r ica lc on t inu i ty a nd t h em anda te o fi mpe r ia lm is . I .B u i ld ing t h eP yram id O ne o ft h eo u t s tand ing f e a tu re so f Me soame r ican p y ram id sf r om e a r l ie s tt ime st ot h e sion o S pan i sh C onques ti s th a tt h ey w e re o f ten made i n as ucces fl a ye r so ve rl o ng p e r iod s o ft ime .T hu sa ne a r ly monumen tm a rk ing as a c r ed p l a ce wou ld b ee nc lo sed o ve rd e cade s o r c en tu r ie s b y e nve lope s o fr enova ted s u r f a ce s , c omp le te w i th s cu lp tu r e s a nd r e la ted a r t i f a c t s . S uch s t ra t if ica t ion r e p re sen ted a ccumu la t ion so fp owe r fu lr e l ig iou sn o t ion sa nd h i s to r ica lr ememb rance s .T he T eno ch t i t lan p y ram id w a sn oe xcep t ion t ot h i st r ad i t ion o f c on s t ruc t ion .D e sp i te u n so lved p rob lem sa bou tt h ed a t eo fc e r ta in f i f t een th -cen tu ry p ha se s , i ti sc l ea rt h a t a se a ch l a ye rw a s a dded t ot h e s t ruc tu r e n ew a r ch i te c tu ra l a nd s cu lp tu ra l e l l emen t sr ef lec ted at e nd ency t owa rd t h ed ef in i t ion o f as pec if i ca ly Mex ica i mage ry a nd s t y le . S ince much o ft h i si n fo rma t ion i sp re sen ted i nt h ei n te rp r e ta t ion o fE dua rdo Ma to s l Mo c tezuma a nd J ohanna B roda ,i tw i lh e re b eb r ief ly s umma r ized t or em ind t h er e ade ro f s t h ek ey p hy s ica lf e a tu re so ft h ep y ram id a nd t o es tab l i sh t h ec onne c t ion b e tween t h ep roces o fc r ea t ing t h e monumen ta nd c r ea t ing a ni mpe r ia l s t a te . T he mo s t p r im i t ive f ounda t ion , p robab ly d a t ing f r om t h e f ou r teen th c en tu ry , i s p re sen t ly k nown o n ly f r om e t hnoh i s to r ica lt e x t s .T he f i r s tv i s ib le a r chaeo log ica ll e ve l( F ig . 5 )a ppea r st od a te f r om t h er e ign o fA camap ich t l i( 1 375 -95 ) ,a ss ugge s ted b yt h es t one d a te re g lyph 2R abb i t ,p robab ly c or spond ing t o1 390 . T he g lyph w a sf ound embedded i nt h e s t a i rway i nf r on to ft h eH u i tz i lopoch t l it emp le . As a c r if ic ia lb lock i n se r ted i nt h ep l a t fo rm l i nf r on to ft h i st emp le ,a nd ac r ude b u tc o lo r fu ly p a in ted C ha cmoo ls cu lp tu re i n fr on to ft h e t emp le o nt h en o r th s i de ,c onf i rm t h ee x i s tence o ft h eT la loc a nd H u i tz i lopoch tl ic u l t sa tt h i s l e a r ly d a t e . T he d ua ls h r ine f o rma th ad a n teceden t si nt h eV a ley o f Mex ico ,a sa tt h el a te sic p r l P o s tc las y ram id a tT enayuca .T he s ymbo l ic a rangemen tw a st ob ep e rpe tua ted i na l l a te re n la rgemen t so ft h eT enoch t i t lan p y ram id . A camap i ch tl iw a ss u cceeded b yH u i tz i l ihu id ( 1 396 -1417 ) ,C h ima lpopoca ( 1417 -27 ) , a nd I t zcoa t l( 1427 -40 ) .F ew c hange sw e re made i nt h e mode s ts t ruc tu re d u r ing t h er e ign s l o ft h ef i r s tt wo ,w hen t h e Mex ica s t i lp a id t r ibu te t ot h en ea rby c i ty o fA zcapo tza lco .I tw a s a f te r t h e f o rma t ion o ft h e T r ip le Al iance , t h e d e f ea t o f A zcapo tza lco i n 1 428 , a nd t h e b eg inn ing so fi mpe r ia lc onque s t so n ar egu la rb a s i st h a tI t zcoa t la nd h i sc oun se lo r sp l anned amo r ea mb i t iou st emp le f o rt h e i rc ap i ta l ( F ig . 6 ) . A tt h ep y ram id t h ed a te g l yph 4R eed l ( 1431 )m a rk st h i sf i r s ti mpe r ia lp ha se .T he g l yph w a sf ound embedded i nt h en ew r e a rw a l o ft h eH u i tz i lopo ch t l is i de . Ar ow o fs t one s t anda rd b ea re r sa nd an ew s t a i rway f a cade w e r e l a dded a tt h i st ime .T he s c u lp tu re sa r es t i lr ud im en ta ry i n re la t ion t ol a te r Mex ica s c u lp tu ra l monumen t s ,y e tt h ey s peak o f ac oncer nt od eve lop t h eb u i ld ing i n aw ay t h a tw ou ld r ef l ec t t h er i se o fs t a tu si nT eno ch t i t lan . re T he n ex ta dd i t ion sc or spond t ot h er e ign o f Mo t ecuhzoma I( 1440 -69 ) ,a si n d ica ted b y t h e d a te g l yph IR abb i t ( 1454 ) , f ound a l so i n an ew s u r f a ce o n t h e r e a r o f t h e l lf H u i tz i lopoch t l is i de .T he p y ram id w a se mbe l i shed w i th i mpo s ing b raz ie r so na ou rs i de s , f e ach w i th o f e r ing c i s t s ,a nd an ew s t a i rway w a se x tended o nt h ew e s tf a cade .T he C odex

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l T e le r iano -Remen s i s( 32 r )r em ind su st h a t 1 454 w a st h ef i na ly ea ro f a5 2 -yea rc yc le ,t h a t l ag r ea tf am ine s wep tt h eV a ley o f Mex ico ,a nd t h a t Mo tecuhzoma Ia nd N ezahua lcoyo t l , l r u le ro fT e tzcoco ,r enewed t h ea l iance b e tween t h e i rr e spec t ive n a t ion s . re T he e xcava ted d a te g lyph 3H ou se ( 1469 )c or spond st oA xayaca t l ' sc o rona t ion y ea r . I t wa s a lmo s tc e r ta in ly i nt h er e ign o ft h i s mona r ch ( 1 469 -81 ) t h a t al a rge p l a t fo rm w a s e x tended i nf r on to ft h es t a i rway ,e qu ipped w i th t h e mo s ti mpo s ing monumen t sd i scove red l i nt h er u in s . As ma la l ta rw i th s e a ted f r og sw a sb u i l ti nf r on to ft h ew ide a p ron b e fo r et h e T la lo cs t a i r s ,t wo l a rge d ragon sw i th b a sa l th ead sw e r ep l a ced a t ei the rs i de ,a nd f ou r mo re c a rved b a sa l td r agon h ead sw e re p l a ced a tt h eb a se so f th es t a irway b a lu s t rade s .B u tt h e mo s t e x t rao rd ina ry monumen ti st h es t one d i sk o fC oyo lxauhqu i ,s e ti n to t h ep l a t f o rm i nf r on to f s t h eH u i tz i lopoch t l is t a i r s ( F ig . 7 ) .T he f i gu re i s ca rved w i th a na su rance o fd e s ign a nd a e t e chn ica lv i r tuo s i ty n o tp rev iou s ly s en a tt h ep y ram id .T he b a rba r ic f i gu re o fC oyo lxauhqu i l i sd i sp layed w i th h e rd i smemb e r ed l imb si n ad ynam i c ,s wa s t ika l ike c ompo s i t ion ,w i th a l t l i t em so fr i tua l a t i re o u t l ined i nf u l d e ta i l . T he p o se a nd a pp roach t oc o s tume e l emen t s sic manu lu d e r ive f r om c onven t ion so fl a te P o s t c las sc r ip ti s t ra t ion . B u tt h ef i ne ly d rawn , j ewe l l ike i mage ry o fp a in ted manu sc r ip t p age s h a s b ecome t r an s fo rmed , c ha rged w i th p owe r fu lf o r ce i nt h ec r ea t ion o fo ne o ft h e mo s tf e a r some s cu lp tu r e si n Me soame r ican a r t . sive v T he a b i l i ty t ot r an s la te e a r l ie r ,e s tab l i shed f o rm si n to an ew e xp r es ocabu la ry w a st o c ha ra c te r ize a mb i t iou s Mex ica s cu lp tu r eb yt h et h i rd q ua r te ro ft h ef i f teen th c en tu ry . A sE dua rdo Ma to s Moc tezuma h a se xp la ined ,t h ep l a cemen to ft h es cu lp tu re i n re la t ion t ot h eb u i ld ing w a sd e s igned t or e p re sen t amy tho log ica le ven t .A cco rd ing t ot h el e gend , t s es sion o H u i tz i lopo ch t l id ef ea ted t h er i va lC oyo lxauhqu ii n ab a t le f o rp os fC oa tepe t l ,t h e s a c r ed moun ta in b i r thp lace o f t h e a nce s t ra l h e ro . H u i tz i lopoch t l i c u t C oyo lxauhqu i t o l p i ece s ,a nd h e rd i smembe red b ody r o led d own t o th ef oo to f th e moun ta in .A tt h es ame t ime , rio t h ef o rma t ion so fh e rw ar r sw e r ep u tt of l igh t .T h i si st h e my th ic i mage ry d ep ic ted a t th e p y ram id . A t t h e f oo t o f t h e s t a i rway C oyo lxauhqu i p r e sen ted af o rb idd ing s i gn t ot h e rio e nem ie so fT eno ch t i t lan , wh i le H u i tz i lopoch t l i ,t h et r iumphan tw ar rh e ro ,w a se n sh r ined a bove .I nr ememb rance o ft h el e genda ry moun ta in ,t h ep y ram id w a sn amed C oa tepe t l . T he c h ron ic le rD iego D u rän s peak so f renova t ion sb egun b yt h es ho r t l ived T izo ca bou t so 1 483 a nd o ft h e i rc omp le t ion b yh i ss u cces rb ro the r ,A hu i tzo t l ,i n1 487 .A hu i tzo t lr u led f r om 1 486 t o1 502 . No d a te g lyph f r om t h i st im eh a sy e tb een f ound i ns i tu ,b u tt h ef amou s D ed ica t ion S tone o f Tizo ca nd A hu i tzo t l ,e xh ib i ted i n th e Mu seo N ac iona ld eA n t ropo log ia , s h a sl o ng b een p r e sumed t ob ea soc ia te dw i th t h ep y ram id .T he f i gu ra lr el i ef d ep ic t sT izoc sage a nd A hu i tzo t l ,s hown i na na c to fr i tua ls a c r if i ce t ot h ee a r th .T h i sa c tc onf i rm st h ep as o fp owe rf r om o ne mona r ch t ot h en ex t ; ad a te , 8R eed ( 1487 ) i s ca rved b e low t h er i tua l s c ene .A cco rd ing t ot h ee t hnoh i s to r ica lt e x t s ,t h er e fu rb i shed p y r am id w a sr e ded ica ted b y A hu i tzo t l w i th a n u np receden ted n umbe r o fs a c r if i ce s o fw a rp r i sone r s o ve r af ou r -day l p e r iod .T he e ven ti ss chema t icaly d ep i c ted i nt h eC odex T e le r iano -Remen s i s ( 3 9 r ) .I ti s p robab le t h a to t he rb u i ld ing se xcava ted a tt h ep y ram id s i te a r ed a ted f r om t h i sr e ign : t h e E ag le H ou se p l a t fo rm s t ot h e n o r th , w i th t h e i rb road , e l egan tp ropo r t ion s , f i ne ly d r awn mo ld ing s ,a nd s pa re s cu lp tu ra ld e ta i l( F ig .8 ) ;t h ea d ja cen ta dora tor ios ,t h et z ompan t l ip l a t l f o rm w i th i t sr ow so fs t one s ku l sa l igned i nc ompa c tr e c tang le s( F ig .9 ) ,a nd t h et wo R ed T emp le s t ot h e n o r th a nd s ou th ( F ig . 1 0 ) . I nc o lo r , l i ne a nd a r ch i tec tu ra l d e ta i l t h eR ed f T emp le sr e cal t h eg eome t r ic c l a r i ty o fc e r ta in C odex B o rg ia p age s . S uch b u i ld ing so f e r s ed u s ag l imp se o ft h ek ind o fb eau t ifuly p ropo r t ioned ,f i ne ly c r a f ted f o rm st h a ts oi mp r es t h eS pan i sh s o ld ie r so fH e rnando C o r ti sw hen t h ey f i r s tw a lked t h rough t h eg r ea te nc lo su re t i n 1 519 . I n s ide t h e E ag le H ou se s cu lp tu red b anque te s a round t h e i nne rp a t io ( F ig . 1 ) e xh ib i t ad e l ibe ra te ly a r cha iz ing s t y le , s im i la rt ot h a to ft h ee l even th -cen tu ry r e l ief f r ieze 1 58

a tT u la .T he mo t if s peak so ft h e Mex i ca p reoccupa t ion w i th t h ea nces t ra l" To l tec" p a s t . T he f i na ld imen s ion so ft h ep y ram id w e r er e a ched d u r ing t h er e ign o f Mo tecuhzoma I ( 1 502 -20 ) . E xcava t ion s r evea l ed n ew s t one p av ing f o r t h e c e r emon ia l p rec inc t a nd t h e l p l a t fo rm i nf r on to ft h ep y r am id .I ti st h ough tt h a td u r ing t h i sp e r iod t h es ma lb u i ld ing so n l t h en o r th s i de ,b e long ing t oA hu i tzo t l 's r e ign ,w e r ep a r t ly r a zed ,c ove red w i th f i l ,a nd t h en p aved o ve r . sion o T he c on s t ruc t ion s equence t h u s r evea l s t h a t f r om t h e a cces f I t zcoa t l t o t h e c sion o a ces f Mo tecuhzoma I , ad u ra t ion o fs e ven ty -f ive y ea r s , an ew , a mb i t iou s ,r i tua l s t age w a s made i nt h e Mex ica c ap i ta l .T he m a jo ra r ch i tec tu ra lv ocabu la ry w a st r ad i t iona l , e a ss en i nt h e u se o fs upe r impo sed t i e r s , s t eep s t a i rway s w i th s i de b a lu s t rade s , d r agon l h ead s ,a nd s l ope -and -pane lw a lp rof i le s .Y e tc e r ta in ly b yA hu i tzo t l ' st ime t h eE ag le H ou se p l a t f o rm s , t h e t z ompan t l i , a nd t h e R ed T emp le s s how a s y s tem o f p ropo r t ion s a nd r e s t ra ined , d i sc ip l ined c ompo s i t ion s t h a t w e r e d i s t inc t ive ly Mex ica a nd emb lema t ic o f T enoch t i t lan . S im i la r ly , t h e C oyo lxauhqu i s cu lp tu re d emon s t ra t e s as yn the s i s i nw h ich o lde r ,w ide ly r e cogn ized f o rm sw e re g i ven n ew a nd v i ta le xp r es nt h es ymbo l i cc ode sion i o ft h ei mpe r ia lc ap i ta l . . Wa t er Moun ta in I T he s ou th s i de o ft h ep y ram id w a st h el e genda ry C oa tepe t l , Hu i tz i lopoch t l i 's moun ta in a nd t h es h r ine o fw ar r s . Wha t ,t h en ,d id t h en o r th s i de r ep re sen t ?T la loc 's t emp le a t th e rio t o pw a sd ed ica ted t ot h i sa nc ien td e i ty o fr a in a nd mo i s tu r e ,a nd w i th in t h ec hambe rt h e re s t ood a ne ff igy f i led w i th s ed so ft h e mo s ti mpo r tan tc u l t iva ted p l an t s . Many o f e r ing s l e f r e cove r ed f r om t h e f ounda t ion s o ft h i s s i de r ef lec t t h e t h eme o fw a te r a nd a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion .T he re w e re T la lo cw a t e rpo t sa nd c a che -boxe s ;c e ram ic v es l sw i th t h ee ff igy se o fC ha lch ihu i t l icue , t h e f ema le d e i ty o fg roundwa te r ; s e a she l s ; as p lend id n eck la ce o f l c a rved s h e l sa nd j ade ,c omp le te w i th f i gu re so fa qua t ic a n ima l s ;m in ia tu re c a rved f i sh o f l mo the r -o f -pea r l ;a nd t i ny mode ls t one c anoe sw i th t h ei mp lemen t so f al a cu s t r ine e conomy . l T he se a r t i f ac t sa nd w o rk so fa r ta r es ymbo l ica ly l i nked t ot h el i f e -p roduc ing f o r ce so ft h e h i gh land e nv i ronmen t .T la loc ' sp y ram id r ep roduce st h ee co log ica ls t ra t if i ca t ion o ft h er a in r e g ene ra t ing moun ta in st h a ts u round t h eb a s in :t h eh igh p eak sw he r ec l oud sa r ef i r s ts en t o l f o rm a tt h eo n se to f th er a iny s e a son ,t h es l ope sw he re s p r ing sa nd s t r eam sa r eb o rn ,t h et i led p i edmon tf i e ld s ,a nd t h el a ke sho r ep l an ta t ion sa nd t h ew a te r so ft h el a ke st h em se lve s( F ig . 1 2 ) . We a r ef o r c ib ly r em inded t h a tu nde r ly ing t h ec omp lex , s ymbo l ic f o rm so fd e i t ie si n a nc ien t Mex ico i st h e s t rong p re sence o fa n a n im i s t ic , s a c r ed g eog raphy —a l a nd scape w he r e t h e p owe r s o fn a tu re a r e v iv id ly m an i f e s ted , d eep ly i n f luenc ing t h e o u t look a nd t hough to ft h ep opu la t ion . f I ti sd i f icu l tf o rt h o se o fu sw ho l i ve i nt h el a rge c i t ie so ft h et empe ra te z one ,r emoved s f r om t h e e co sy s tem s a nd f ood c ha in s t h a t s uppo r t u s , t o g r a sp t h e i n te r connec tednes b e tween o u r se lve sa nd o the rs p ec ie s ,l a nd fo rm s ,a nd w ea the rs y s tem s .O u ro u t look i sa l so s d eep ly c ond i t ioned b y We s te rn c u l tu ra lt r ad i t ion ,w h ich a sumes a ni n he ren ts upe r io r i ty o f man o ve rt h ing si nn a tu re ,a nd b y at e ndency t ot h ink o fg od si nt e rm so ft h ea n th ropomo r ranean a p h ic p an theon so f Med i ter n t iqu i ty .B u ta mong N ew Wo r ld I nd ian p eop le st h e re i s ag r ea t e rt e ndency t or ega rd t h ef o r ce so fn a tu r ea si n he ren t ly s a c r ed a nd t ol ook u pon t h e i r g od sa se qu iva len t so ft ho se n a tu ra lp henomena .I nt h e se c u l tu r a lt r ad i t ion ss ymbo l ic f o rm a nd v i sua li mage ry g ave f o rm t o ar am i fy ing n e two rk o fc onnec t ion st h a tj o ined t h el i f eo f t h ec ommun i ty t ot h en a tu ra le nv i ronmen t .T he p y ram id o fT la lo ce mbod ie st h i st r ad i t ion , f o ri ti sat h ree -d imen s iona la r ch i tec tu r a lr e p re sen ta t ion o ft h eN ahua t lt e rm a t !t e pe t l( wa te r moun ta in ) ,m ean ing c i ty o rc ommun i ty .T he h ab i ta to fh umank ind w a st h u sd ef ined i n te rm s

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f o fl a nd scape — speak ing o f ac oncep to fu rban i sm t h a ti sv e ry d i f e ren tf r om t h a to ft h e We s t , w he re r el ig iou s a nd c i v ic i n s t i tu t ion s s ha rp ly d i s t ingu i sh man 's i d en t i ty f r om t h a t o f u n tamed n a tu r e . r T he jo in ing o f th e Wa te r Moun ta in w i th C oa teped c a r ied t h er ememb ran ce o f two k i nd s l o f t ime : a n a g r icu l tu ra l t ime d eep ly r oo t ed i n t h e n a tu ra l c yc le , r e ca l ing mank ind 's l m i lenn ia -o ld i nvo lvemen t w i th d ome s t ica ted p l an t s ; a nd t h e l e genda ry o r ig in t ime o f l H u i tz i lopo ch t l i ,t h eb eg inn ing so f Mex ica h i s to ry ,a nd t h em ig ra t ion t h a te ven tua ly l e dt o t h ef ounda t ion o fT eno ch t i t lan . I t is c r uc ia l t ou nde r s tand t h a t t h i s i c on ic f o rma tw a s n o tu n ique t ot h eT eno ch t i t lan e l p y ram id .I tmay a l so b es en i n va r ian tf o rm a tt h eh i lo fT e tzco tz ingo ( F ig .1 3 ) , ak ey r i tua l c en te rn ea rt h ec i ty o fT e tzcoco o nt h ee a s te rn s i de o ft h el a ke .C ompa r i son sb e tween t h e c p y ram id a nd T e tzco tz ingo s ugge s tt h a tb o th s i te sw e r ed e s igned a co rd ing t o an o ld ,w ide ly u nde r s tood a nd s ha red i c onog raph ic f o rma t , a dap t ed t os u i tl o ca lc i r cum s tance s a nd t h e f h i s to r ie so fd i f e ren tn a t ion s( Town send 1 982 : 3 7 -62 ; ad e ta i led s t udy o fT e tzco tz ingo i n r e la t ion t oo t he rh igh land r i tua lc en te r si sp re sen t ly i np r epa ra t ion ) . l T he h i l o f T e tzco tz ingo w a s e qu ipped w i th r i tua l monumen t s d u r ing t h e r e ign o f l N ezahua lcoyo t l ,h uey t l a toan io fT e tz coco f r om 1 531 t o1 572 .T he s a c r ed h i l top z one w a s d ef ined b y ac i rcumambu la t ing p a th ,r e a ched b yr o ck -cu ts t a i r sr i s ing f r om t h ep robab le s i te l l o fN ezahua lcoyo t l 's v i la o nt h es ou ther ns l ope b e low .A no the rp a th t r ave r s e st h eh i la l ong t h ee a s t -we s ta x i s .S eve ra ls h r ine s t a t ion sw e re p l a ced a l ong t h e se w a lkway s .A tt h es umm i t w a s aT la loc s h r ine ;b e low ,t ot h ee a s t , monumen ta ls cu lp tu re sw e re d ed i ca ted t oa g r icu l t u ra l d iv in i t ie s o ft h e f i r s t f ru i t s a nd t h e h a rve s t s e a son s . A no the rk ey monumen t , a tt h e e a s te rn e nd ,w a sd evo ted t oC ha lch ihu i t l icue ,t h ed e i ty o fg round w a ter ,t h i sr o ck -cu tr oom s a f a ced a ni n com ing f l ow o fw a te ra c ros na queduc te mbankm en t . O the rr i tua lp oo l sa nd l b a th sw e re p l a ced a t ca rd ina lp o in t sa r ound t h ec i r cumambu la t ing p a th .F ina ly ,t h e re w a s ac ave -sh r ine a t th ee n t rance o ft h es a c r ed z one o nt h en o r the rn s i de ,b ys t ep sl e ad ing t ot h e l l p l a ce o ft h ev i la b e low . ( The s ub jec to fs ymbo l ic c ave s w i l b em en t ioned a ga in w hen d e sc r ib ing k i ng sh ip r i t e s . )T he s e to f monumen t sa t Te tzco tz ingo f o rm ar i tua ll a nd scape , s how ing t h e e l emen t s o f n a tu re t h a t w e re mo s t s i gn if i can t t o a g r icu l tu ra l man i n t h e l h i gh land e nv i ronmen t . L ike t h e T la loc s i de o f t h e T enoch t i t lan p y ram id , t h e h i l o f t T e tzco tz ingo w a s am ic roco sm o ft h e mo s ti mpo r tan tf e a tu r e so ft h i sg eog r aph ic s e t ing . T e tzco tz ingo a l so i n co rpo ra te st h ei mage ry o fn a t iona lh i s to ry —no ta sr e p r e sen ted b y rio amy th ica lh e ro b u tb yN ezahua lcoyo t l ,f i f teen th -cen tu ry w ar r -k ing a nd f ounde r -f a the r o ft h ei mpe r ia lT e tzco can s t a te .T he e t hnoh i s to r ica ls ou rce sd e sc r ibe N ezahua lcoyo t l 's l i f e c i nc on s ide rab le d e ta i l , m en t ion ing t h a t m emo r ia l s t oh i s a comp l i shmen t s w e re c a rved l c l o se t ot h es umm i to fT e tzco tz ingo ( A lva I x t l i lxoch id 1 895 :237 ,D äv i la P ad i la 1 625 :6 19 fee 1 6 20 ; B a r low a nd McAf 946 : 17 ) . T he se s c u lp tu re s w e r e d e s t royed b y t h e S pan i sh r e l ig iou sa u tho r i t ie si n1 538 ,a nd t h eo n ly r e l ic r ema in ing t oday i st h e much -damaged f o rm o fw ha tw a so nce as e a ted ,t h ree -d imen s iona lc oyo te l ike f i gu re c a rved i nt h es t one m a tr ix f o ft h e moun ta in s ide .I ne f ec t ,t h i sw a st h en ame g l yph o fN ezahua lcoyo t l ,F a s t ing C oyo te . lu A no the r much mo re c omp lex s c u lp tu ra lr e l ie f ,d e sc r ibed a tl e ng th i nt h et e x t s ,i s t ra ted k ey e ven t si nt h eT e tzco can r u le r 's l i f e ( A lva I x t l i lxo ch i t l 1 895 : 2 110 .T he s ou r ce sa l so i n fo rm u st h a tN ezahua lcoyo t lw a s a cqu i r ing t h es t a tu so f ac u l tf i gu re a f te rh i sd ea th i n s i 1 572 ,a nd w e may i n te rp r e tt h i sa se v idence o f ap roces nw h ich t h ef ounde r -f a the rw ou ld l s h ave g radua ly a sum ed as t a tu s a na logou s t ot h a to fH u i tz i lopoch t l i a tT eno ch t i t lan . I n o t he r wo rd s , N ezahua lcoyo t l 's c ommemo ra t ive monumen t s a tT e tzco tz ingo r e p re sen t lu ses sion a no the rv e r s ion o ft h e" k ing o ft h e moun ta in" t h eme ,i s t ra t ing t h ed ef en se a nd p os

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o fa t lt e pe t l ,t h e moun ta in o fs u s tenance ,t h ei mago mund io fc ommun i ty . T h i sb r ie fa ccoun to ft h et wo r i tua lc en te r ss how st h a tt h ey w e r ed e s igned i nt e rm so f ap r ima ry s ymbo l ic o rgan iza t ion d e r ived f r om w ha tw a ss en i nt h e moun ta in sa nd b a s in s e o ft h e h i gh land s . T he f o rma t o ft h i s s pa t ia l o rde r w a s f l ex ib le e nough t ob e r e ca s t a nd mod if ied t os u i tt h ee xp r es fl o ca lr e l ig iou sc u l t sa sw e la st h eh i s to r ie sa nd p o l i t ica l sion o l c oncer n so fd i f e ren tc i ty s ta te s .T h i ss t rong ly i nd ica te st h a tt h ef undamen ta li mage ry o ft h e f p y ram id a sw e la st h a to fT e tzco tz ingo h ad b een t r an sm i ted a nd i n co rpo ra ted f r om a no ld , l t d eep ly r oo ted s ymbo l ic s y s tem o fa nc ien th i gh land o r ig in s . I . T he R i t e so fK ing sh ip I D rama t ica ly s t aged ,b r i l ian t ly c ho reog raphed ,a nd p e r fo rm ed w i th me t icu lou sp re c i l l s i on , t h e r oya l r i te s o fp as nfo lded i n as equence o fc l ea r ly d ef ined e ven t s . E ach sage u s egmen t o f t h e p roces a s c onnec ted t o t h e monumen ta l s e t ing : t h e ma in p y ram id , s w t a d ja cen t t emp le s , o r r e la ted b u i ld ing s w i th in t h e s a c r ed p rec inc t a nd t h e r oya l p a la ce s o u t s ide .B u tt h ep y ram id r ema ined t h ec en t ra lp o in to fr e f e r ence t h roughou tt h ep ro cedu re , a s ag oa l , as t age ,o r ap o in to fd epa r tu r ef o rt h e my s te r iou sa nd s pec tacu la rp agean t ry .T he c ovenan t so fk i ng sh ip ,a nd t h es ymbo l ic l a nd scape whe r et h ey w e r e made ,e s tab l i shed a r e l ig iou si n teg ra t ion b e tween s oc ie ty a nd n a tu re a nd e na c ted ac ohe r en tt h e s i ss how ing t h a t t h ee mp i r ew a st h ei n ev i tab le ,h i s to r ica lo u tcome o f ap reo rda ined c o sm ic s y s tem . T he p r inc ip le e t hnoh i s to r ica l t e x t s d e sc r ib ing k i ng sh ip r i t e s a r e f r om t h e p age s o f Mend ie ta ,D u rän ,a nd A lva rado T ezozomoc .F rom t h e se s ou r ce si ti sp os sib le t o di s t ingu i sh ar i tua l s equence t h a t u n fo lded i nf ou r p ha se s : S epa ra t ion a nd R e t r ea t , I nve s t i tu re a nd C o rona t ion ,C o rona t ion Wa r ,a nd C onf i rma t ion . S ahagün a nd Mend ie ta d e sc r ibe t h ef i r s t s t age o fS epa r a t ion a nd R e t rea t( Sahagün 1 950 -82 ,b k .8 :6 1 -65 ; Mend ie ta 1 971 : 1 53 -156 ) . D u rän a nd A lva rado T ezozomoc om i t t h i s p ha se b u t p re sen t d e ta i led a ccoun t s o f t h e t I nve s t i tu re a nd C o rona t ion ,C o rona t ion Wa r ,a nd C onf i rma t ion .T he l a te rt wo h i s to r ian s r so l f o cu so nr i te sa st h ey w e r ec a r ied o u ta tt h et ime o fT izo ca nd h i ss u cces r ,A hu i tzo t l .A l f l t h et e x t ss how m ino rd i f e rences i nt h ei t ine ra ry f o lowed b yb o th r u le r s ,y e ti ti s cl ea rt h a t l l t h e p ro cedu r e s w e re o rde r ed a cco rd ing t o a we l -e s tab l i shed s c r ip t . T he lma S u l ivan ( p e r sona lc ommun ica t ion ,1 980 )h a sm en t ioned t h a tc e r ta in o fS ahagün 's p a ssage sc on ta in N ahua t l wo rd sa nd p h ra se so fa na r cha ic n a tu re ,s ugge s t ing c on s ide rab le a n t iqu i ty f o rt h e r i te sb e fo re t h e i ra ppea rance a tT enoch t i t lan .D u r i an a nd A lva rado T ezozomoc c ha rac te r ize t h el a s tp ha se o ft h er i te sa s a" co rona t ion ," b u tu pon c on s ide r ing t h e i rd e sc r ip t ion si nt h e l i gh to ft h ee n t i r e s equence ,i tb ecome sa ppa ren tt h a tt h ec onc lud ing p ha se w a si nf a c ta c on f i rma t ion c e r emony ( Du rän 1 967 , 2 :2 95 -326 ; A lva rado T ezozomac 1 943 : 8 0 -193 ) . l S ahagün r e co rd st h et r ad i t iona ls peeche sd e l ive red a tv a r iou ss t age so ft h er i te s ,s pe l ing o u t f f t h en a tu re a nd o b l iga t ion so ft h es up r eme o f ice a nd o f e r ing i n s t ruc t ion st ot h ep opu la t ion s ( Sahagün 1 950 -82 , b k . 6 :4 1 -85 ) . S ahagün r e co rd s t h e t r ad i t iona l s peeche s d e l ive red a t l v a r iou ss t age so ft h er i te s ,s p e l ing o u tt h en a tu re a nd o b l iga t ion so ft h es up reme o ff i ce a nd f o f e r ing i n s t ruc t ion st ot h ep opu la t ion s( Sahagün 1 950 -82 ,b k . 6 :4 1 -85 ) . S ahagün 's t e x t s l s a r e n o t s pec if i ca ly l i nked t o ap a r t icu la r r u le r , b u t t h ey m ay b e t e n ta t ive ly a semb led a cco rd ing t ot h e r i tua l s e quence o u t l ined b y D u rän a nd T ezozomoc . T he i n fo rma t ion s a semb led f r om t h e se v a r iou s s ou r ce s p re sen t t h e mo s t d e ta i led r e co rd o f t h e i d ea o f t l k ing sh ip i na nc ien tN ew Wo r ld c i v i l iza t ion . T he p a te rn t h ey p o r t ray i sf u ly c ompa rab le s age i l t o th a to f roya lr i te so fp as n ot he rm a jo rc u l tu r a lt r ad i t ion s( s ee e spec ia ly Hoca r t1 927 ; l se F rank fo r t 1 948 ; a nd E lwood 1 979 ; o t he rf undamen ta lt e x t s o n r i tua l p roces s a r eV an G ennep 1 960 ; a nd T u rne r 1 967 ) . S epara t ion a nd R e t rea t . T h i s f i r s t p ha se o f t h e r i tua l s equence m igh t a l so b e n amed

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T ran s i t ion a nd L im ina l i ty ( Tu rne r1 967 :93 -111 ) ,f o ri tw a sd u r ing t h i st ime t h a tt h er u le r e l ec t w i thd rew f r om s o c ie ty i n to am a rg ina l s t a te —a r i tua l s e pa ra t ion i nw h ich h e w a s d e ta ched f r om h i s f o rm e r s t a tu s a nd f unc t ion s b u th ad n o ty e te n te r ed i n to t h e i n tended f o f ice . Mend ie ta a nd S ahagün ' sa ccoun t s o ft h i s s t age o fs epa ra t ion d e sc r ibe t h e n ew ly e l ec ted r u le rb e ing e s co r ted t ot h eb a se o ft h eH u i tz i lopo ch tl is t a i rway a tt h em a in p y ram id sion t ( Mend ie ta 1 971 : 1 54 ;S ahagün 1 950 -82 ,b k .8 :61 ) .I nt h i ss l ow p ro ces h ee l ec ted h uey t l a toan i w a s t a ken a way f r om p rofane s pace a nd n o rma l s o c ia l a c t iv i ty f o r ap e r iod o f s ed s e c lu s ion a nd c on temp la t ion i nt h es a c red z one . Mend ie ta s ay st h a tt h er u le rw a sd res o n ly i n al o inc lo th a nd t h a t h e w a s l e d u p t h e s t a i rway s uppo r to n t h e a rm s o f ap a i ro f l n ob lemen p r eceded b y t h e a l ied mona r ch s o f T e tz coco a nd T acuba . T h i s s ymbo l ic s a d emon s t ra t ion o fw eaknes nd n ud i ty w a sm a rked b yt h es t r ipp ing a way o fa ny o u twa rd s i gn so fr ank ,s t a tu s ,a nd p rope r ty t h a td i s t ingu i shed o ne p e r son f r om t h en ex ti n th e Mex ica e s oc ia lh i e ra rchy .I na no the rs en se i tmay b es en a s as i gn o f re tu rn ing t o a s t a te o fs impl i c i ty , t o as ymbo l ic t ime o fo r ig in ,t ot h eb eg inn ing o ft h ing s .U pon r e a ch ing t h eu ppe rp l a t fo rm , s ed i l t h e r u le r w a s s t a ined b l a ck b y ac h ief p r ie s t a nd d res n ac ape w i th s ku l -and -bone d e s ign s ,a sw e l la so the rg a rmen t sa nd a r t if ac t s( F ig .1 4 ) .T h i sa t t i r es ymbo l ized d ea th —no t ar e a l d ea th b u t w i thd rawa l t oa no the r , c on temp la t ive p lane o fe x i s tence . I nS ahagün 's a ccoun tt h er u le rw a sa do rned b e low ,b efo re a s cend ing t ot h eH u i tz i lopoch t l is h r ine : T hen t h ey t ook h im b e fo r et h el o rd s .H ew en tb a r e .T hey p u to nh im a[ d a rk ]g r een s j ry o s l eeve les a cke t .A nd t h ey h ad h im c ar nh i sb a ck h i st oba cco g ou rd w i th g r een s t a se l s . T hey v e i led h i s f a ce , t h ey c ove r ed h i s h ead [ w i th a ]g r een f a s t ing c ape t l d e s igned w i th b one s . T hen t h ey g ave h im h i sg r een c o ton g ab f i led w i th i n cen se a nd d eco ra ted w i th b one s ,a nd t h ey p u to nh im h i sn ew s anda l sw i th g r een t o e s .T hey l p l a ced i nh i sh and h i si n cen se l a d le ,a l so p a in ted w i th t h es ku l so ft h ed ead ,a nd w i th p ape rp endan t s [ o nt h eh and le s ] . ( Sahagün 1 950 -82 :b k : 8 :6 2 ) sion t A f te rt h e a do rnmen t a nd p roces h e r u le rp r e sen ted h im se l fb e fo re t h ee ff igy o f l H u i tz i lopo ch t l i a nd b u rn t i n cen se i n h i s h ono r . S he l t r umpe t s w e r e s ound ed , a nd t h e sed i s a ccompany ing l o rd sw e re d r es n amanne rs im i l a rt ot h er u le r . T he a semb led c rowd sion d w a t ched f r om t h ep laza f l oo ra st h ep roces e scended t h eb road p y ram id s t a i rway .W i th v e i led f a ces a nd w ea r ing t h ec ape sw i th b one d e s ign s , t h er oya lp a r ty moved s l ow ly a nd s o lemn ly t o t h e r e t rea t a r ea w i th in t h e T lacochca lco , an ea rby b u i ld ing i nt h e s a c red p rec inc t . T he T lacochca lco ,m ean ing " hou se o fT lacochca lca t l ," i sd e sc r ibed a s ab u i ld ing w he r e r s pea r sa nd a row sw e re g ua rded ( Sahagün 1 950 -82 ,b k .2 :1 83 ) .I ta ppea r st oh ave b een a n a rmo ry a nd p robab ly a l so f unc t ioned a s am i l i ta ry h eadqua r te r s ,f o rT la co chca lca t lw a st h e t f. H i t le o fo ne o ft h es up reme Mex ica m i l i ta ry o ff i ce r s —a k i nd o fc h ief o fs t af e r et h er u le r a nd h i s e n tou rage b egan af ou r -day , f ou r -n igh t p e r iod o fr e t rea t ma rked b y r e s t r ic ted sion movemen t ,f a s t ing ,a nd p enance .E ve ry d ay a tn oon a nd a tm idn igh ts i len tp roces sw e re made t ot h eH u i tz i lopo ch t l is h r ine a t op t h e ma in p y ram id ,w he re i n cen se w a sb u rned a nd f t h eh uey t l a toan io f e red d rop so fh i so wn r oya lb l ood d r awn w i th m aguey -ca c tu ss p ines . l o A f te rwa rd sa lw en tt ob a the i n ar i tua lp u r if i ca t ion ,b u tw he the rt h i sa c t iv i ty t ok p l a ce i n t h e T lacochca lco o r e l sewhe r e i n t h e p r ec inc t i su n spec if ied i n t h e t e x t s . T he mood t h roughou tw a ss ombe ra nd r ef lec t ive ,a nd q u ie ta ppea r st oh ave b een e nfo r ced t h roughou t t h eg r ea te nc lo su r e . f I n e f ec t , t h i s w a s al imbo l ike t ime o f " be tw ix t a nd b e tween ," d u r ing w h ich t h e p ro spec t ive r u le rw a s t oc on temp la te t h em ean ing o fh i so ff ice . A tt h eT lac o chca l co t h e r equ i r emen t so fc ommand w e re b rough tt om ind ,w h i le t h ep y r am id r ep re sen ted t h ed eed s

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l o ft h e a nce s t ra l h e ro a nd , b y e x ten s ion , t h e r u le r s w ho h ad f o lowed i nh i s f oo t s tep s a s sly r d e f ende r so ft h e moun ta in .T he r u le rw a sa l so d oub t les em inded o fT la loc ' smoun ta in , a nd o fh i sr e l ig iou sd u t ie sa sc h ie fp r ie s t— the p ivo tb e tween h i sp eop le ,t h ed e i t ie s ,a nd t h e p henomena o fn a tu r e .S ahagün ' st e x t sd on o ts pe c i fy w he re t h es peeche sw e re made i nt h i s i t i ne ra ry ,b u tt h ef i r s to ft h es e r ie so fo ra t ion sh a s as ubdued mood a nd at h eme o fh um i l i ty , s t rong ly s ugge s t ing t h a ti tw a ss poken u pon t h ep y ram id o ri nt h eT la co chca lco d u r ing t h i s f i r s ts t age .S ahagün s p ec if ie st h a tt h eh uey t l a toan is t ood a nd b owed w h i le p ray ing a nd t h a t s ed t t h ev e ry d evou ts t ood n aked .T he s peech w a sa dd res ot h ed i v in i ty T ezca t l ipoca ,w ho se m e tapho r ic t i t le s "W ind ," " N igh t ," a nd " Lo rd o ft h en ea ra nd t h en i gh" r e spec t ive ly s ugge s t s, a p r imo rd ia lb r ea th ,i n v i s ib i l i ty ,p e rva s ivenes nd t h eq ua l i ty o fb e ing c l o se a th and .T he c u l to fT e tzca t l ipoca w a sr ega rded a sb e ing o f" To l tec" o r ig in a nd w a si d en t if ied w i th t h e l l i f e -fo r ce t h a t a n ima te s a l b e ing s a nd t h ing s . T he c u l t w a s e spec ialy empha s ized a t T e tzcoco d u r ing N ezahua lcoyo t l ' st ime a nd w a si d en t if ied w i th r oya l ty .I ti s no tp r e sen t ly k nown i fS ahagün ' si n fo rman t so nt h ek i ng sh ip s peeche sw e r ef r om T enoch t i t lan ,T e tzcoco , l o rs ome o t he rt own w i th in t h ev a ley .I ft h ey w e r ef r om T enoch t i t lan ,i tw ou ld a ppea rt h a t w hen t h e Mex ica r u le rs poke b e fo re t h ee ff igy o fH u i tz i lopo ch t l ia tt h e ma in p y ram id ,b u t s t sing ac made t h ea dd res oT ezca t l ipoca ,h ew a se xp r es onnec t ion b e tween t h eo lde rc u l t f a nd t h a to fh i so wn t r iba lh e ro .T h i sb ond ing o fc u l t sf r om d i f e ren tl o ca t ion sa nd s ou rce s l f w a s aw e l -known f e a tu re o fr e l ig iou sl i f ea tT enoch t i t lan a nd w a sp a r to fa ne fo r tt oc r ea te a ni mpe r ia lc u l ts y s t em .I ndeed ,H u i tz i lopoch t l ia nd T e tzca t l ipoca w e r eo f ten s poken o fa s " b ro the r s ." L a te ri nt h i ss equence o fs peeche s ,a f te r mo r ep ro f e ss ion so fh um i l i ty ,t h eh uey t l a toan is poke o fs a cr ed b ond sb e tween h im se l fa nd T e tzca tl ipoca : sing b 0m a s te r , 0o u rl o rd , 0n i gh t , 0w ind ,d on o td epa r tc omp le te ly .C ome p as y e h e re ;k now t h eh umb le r ed e nc lo su r e ,t h e mound o fe a r th , f o r Ia wa i tt h ee a tt h y h umb le h ome ,a t th yh umb le w a i t ing p l ace . Id ow ha t Ic an f o rt h ee , Ip l ace my t r u s t e i nt h ee . Ir eque s t , Is ek , Ie xpec t , Ia sk o ft h ee t h ys p i r i t ,t h yw o rd ,w h ich t hou h a s t se p os ssed , w i th w h ich t h ou h a s ti n sp i red t h yf r iend s , t h y a cqua in tance s , w ho o r e e d e red t h ing sf o rt h ee o nt h yr ed ma t ,o nt h yr ed s e a t ,o nt h yp l ace o fh ono r .I ti s w he r e t hou a r t s ub s t i tu ted , w he re t h e r e i sp ronounc ing f o r t h ee , w he re t h e r e i s s p eak ing f o rt h ee ,w he re t h ou u se s to ne a s af l u t e ,w he r et h ou s peakes tf r om w i th in o ne ,w he re t hou m ake s to ne t h ye ye s ,t hy e a r s ; w he re t hou make s to ne t hy mou th , t h yj aw . ( Sahagün 1 950 -82 ,b k . 6 :4 33 -44 ) S peak ing n ex to ft h er ega l ia o fk i ng s ,t h eh uey t l a toan ir evea l st h e i rc on sec ra ted n a tu r e . sage p T h i sp as o in t st ot h ei n ve s t i tu re t h a tw a st of olow t h ep e r iod o fr e t r ea t : r A nd t h e re t hou d o s tb equea th t h em ,t hou a r ayes tt h em w i th ,t hou p l a ce s tu pon t h em , t h ou h ono re s tt h em ,g l o r if ie s tt h em w i th t h ep eaked h a t ,t h et u rquo i se d i adem ,a nd t h ee a rp lug ,t h el i pp lug ,t h eh eadb a nd ,t h ea rm b and ,t h eb and f o rt h ec a lf o ft h el e g , t h en eck lace ,t h ep rec iou sf e a the r . ( Sahagün 1 950 -82 ,b k . 6 :4 4 ) T he s peech moved t owa rd ac onc lu s ion w i th mo re a ppea l sf o rd i v ine g u idance .A ga in ,t h e m e tapho r s p o r t ray t h e r u le r -e le c t i nt e rm s o fp e r sona l i n s ign if icance , e ven a ba semen t , v e i l ing h im w i th as e n se o fi n v i s ib i l i ty i nk eep ing w i th t h el e i tmo t if o fp hy s ica ls epa ra t ion d u r ing t h er e t rea t : 0 ou r ma s te r ,0 ou rl o rd , Il e ave my se l f , Ip l a ce my se lf c omp le te ly i nt h yh and s ,f o r s; Ia l Ic anno tg ove rn my se l f ;f o r Ia mb l ind , Ia md a rknes mt h ec o rne r , Ia mt h ew a l . t May t h ou i n c l ine t h yh ea r t ;r e qu i re t h a t Id e se rve ,t h a t Im e r i t al i t le , ab i t , af i re f ly ro e f l a sh o ft h yt o r ch ,t h yl i gh t ,t h ym ir r ,i no rde rt h a t ,a si fi nd r eam s ,a si fs e ing i n l d r eam s , [ I endu re ) f o r aw h i le , ad ay . Is ha lb r ing a bou tf o rt h ee t h er u ina t ion o f

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l e e g ove rnmen t ,t h el a ughab le ,t h ef o ly o nt h yr ed m a t ,o nt h yr ed s e a t ,o nt h yp l a ce o fh ono r . ( Sahag t in 1 950 -82 b k . 6 :4 4 -45 ) sion A st h er e t rea td rew t o a c l o se ,t h eh uey t l a toan ia nd h i se n tou r age a ga in moved i np roces , t h i st ime f r om t h er i tua le nc lo su re t o ar oya lp a la ce . ra I nve s t i ture a nd C orona t ion . A tt h i sp o in tt h er i tua ls equence b eg in st ob en ar ted b y D u rän a nd A lva r ado T ezozomo c .T he t e x t sd e sc r ibe s p ec ta cu l a re p i sode s ,b eg inn ing a t th e l p a lace w i th c o rona t ion a nd e n th ronemen t . T h i s w a s f o lowed b y as e r ie so fr oya l s a c r i f i ce s —a tt h eH u i tz i lopochd i s h r ine u pon t h ep y r am id , a t as cu lp tu red monumen tc a rved w i th s i gn so fc o sm ic h i s to ry ,a t th et emp le o ft h eg od so fs ub je c tn a t ion s ,a nd a t th et emp le o f Y op ico , as ymbo l ic c ave . T he e ven t s c onc luded w i th ar e tu rn t ot h e p a la ce f o r t h e s C e r emony o f S peeche s , i n w h ich t h e n ew ly c r owned r u le r a nd t h e a semb led l o rd s e xchanged t r ad i t iona le xho r ta t ion sa nd i n s t ruc t ion so nt h es ub jec to fc onduc t ,d u t ie s ,a nd r e spon s ib il i t ie s . l T he b r i l ian ti n ve s t i tu r ea nd c o rona t ion r i te sc on t ra s ted s t rong ly w i th t h es ombe r mood s o ft h er e t rea t , d emon s t ra t ing t h er u le r 's r e tu rn t os o c ie ty a nd t h e a sump t ion o fh i s n ew s o c ia lr o le .T he d onn ing o ft h ep r e sc r ibed r ega l ia o fs t a te s i gna led t h et a k ing o fc ommand so a nd r ep r esen ted t h ef i r s ts t ep i n" r econ s t i tu t ing" Mex i ca l i f ea f te rt h e" d is lu t ion" o ft h e r e t r ea tp e r iod . On ly r oya l ty c ou ld c rown r oya l ty ,a nd i tw a st h eh uey t l a toan io fT e tzcoco w ho p e r fo rmed t h ei n ve s t i tu re a nd c o rona t ion o ft h en ew r u le ra tT enoch t i t lan : l T he k ing o fT e tzco co t ook t h ec rown o fg r een s t one s ,a lw o rked i ng o ld ,a nd p l aced i tu pon h i s[ t he n ew r u le r 's ]h ead ,a nd p i e r c ing t h es ep tum o fh i sn o se h ei n se r ted a l g reen em e ra ld a st h ick a s aq u i lp en ,a nd i nh i se a r st wo r ound eme ra ld e a rp lug si n t g o ld s e t ing s , a nd o nh i s a rm sf r om e l bow t os hou lde rt wo v e ry r e sp lenden tg o ld b race le t s ,a nd o nh i sa r i lde s ,a nk le t sw i th d ang l ing g o ld b e l t s ,a nd h e[ t he T e tzco can ] l s hod h im w i th j agua r -sk in s anda l sa le l egan t ly g i lded a nd c l ad h im w i th ap r ec iou s l man t le o fh enequen l ike f i be r , v e ry t h in a nd s h in ing , a l g i lded a nd p a in ted w i th e l egan tp i c tu re s ,a nd h ep u t aw a i s tband a r ound h im o ft h es ame ,a nd t a k ing h im b y l l t h eh and h el e dh im t o a t h rone t h a tt h ey c a led c uauh icpa l i ,m ean ing e ag le -sea t ,a l so n amed o ce lo t -sea t ,f o ri tw a sd eco ra ted w i th e ag le f e a the r sa nd o ce lo t -h ide s .( Du rän 1 967 ,2 :3 01 ) f I ne f ec t , t h ec e r emony c omb ined i nve s t i tu r e , c o rona t ion , a nd e n th ronemen t . Num e rou s s peeche sw e re t h en made b ym embe r so ft h en ob i l i ty ,a dmon i sh ing a nd i n s t ruc t ing t h en ew r u le r , who t h en s poke t ot h em i nt u rn .E xam ina t ion o ft h et e x t so ft h e se t r ad i t iona ls peeche s l l w i lb et a ken u pl a te r ,i no rde rt oc on t inue f o low ing t h er i tua li tne ra ry . O nce c rowned a nd s e a ted t h er u le rw a st r an spo r t ed t ot h em a in p y ram id u pon t h ee ag le a nd o ce lo t th rone .T he f o r ce fu li mage ry o fp owe ra nd a u tho r i ty s t ood i ns t rong o ppo s i t ion t ot h e s ymbo l s o fw i thd r awa l , s imp l ic i ty , a nd r i tua l d ea th t h a tc ha ra c t e r ized t h e t ime o f s epa ra t ion a nd r e t rea t . Above ,w i th in H u i tz i lopo chd i 's s h r ine ,t h er u le rw a sp re sen ted w i th t aj agua r 's c l aw f o rs a c r if i c ia lb l ood le t ing f r om h i se a r sa nd l e g s . T h i sa u to sac r if i ce w a s l f fe f o lowed b y mo r es e rmon s ,a nd q ua i lw e r ea l so o f e red .T h rough t h e se b l ood -of r ing st h e r u le re s tab l i shed c ovenan t sw i th t h ea nce s t ra lt r iba ld e i ty a nd w i th t h es ymbo l ic moun ta in t h a th ew a sc ha rged t od e f end . sion t r T he p roces h en d e scended t h ep y ram id t oa r ive b efo re as cu lp tu r ed monumen t . l se D u rän c al si tac uauhx ica l i( e ag le v es l ) ,w i th ar e cep ta c le c a rved i n to t h et o p .H ea l so s p ec if ie st h a ti tw a s ap ied ra d e ls o l , as un -s tone ,( Du rän 1 967 ,2 :3 01 ) .T he p l a cemen to f t h i ss cu lp tu re w i th in t h er i tua lp rec inc ti su nc lea r ,a sa r et h ed e ta i l so fi t si c onog raphy ,b u t

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l D u rän ' sm en t ion o ft h e" sun" p o in t st ot h ew e l -known t h eme o ft h ep re sen t" sun" o re r a o fc r ea t ion ,t h ef i f th i n as e r ie so fc o sm ic c yc le so fb i r th a nd d e s t ruc t ion .A cco rd ing t ot h e my th s ,t h e Mex ica -Az tec sw e re d e s t ined t o ru le t h ew o r ld i nt h i sf i f th c yc le o fc r ea t ion .T he lu l t h eme i sa l so i s t ra ted o ns u ch w e l -publ i shed monumen t sa st h eS tone o ft h eF i f th S un ( t he C a lenda rS tone ) ,t h eS t one o fT izoc ,a nd t h eP y ram id o fS ac red Wa r ,o ne xh ib i t ion i n t h e Mu seo N ac iona l d e A n t ropo log ia ( Town send 1 979 ) . T he monumen t d e sc r ibed b y D u rän i sar e la t ive o ft h e se ,b u tf a sh ioned a s as a c r i f ic ia lr e cep tac le f o rt h ei n augu ra t ion r i te s l f o fk i ng s .S tand ing b e fo r et h es cu lp tu r ed c uauh x ica l i ,t h eh uey t l a toan ia ga in o f e red d rop s o fr oya l b lood f r om h i s e a r s a nd l e g s , a nd a l so s a c r if iced q ua i l . A no the rc ovenan t w a s t h e reby made t o c onf i rm h i s r o le a s c h ie f c ommande r a nd t o c on sec ra te t h e i d ea o f l T eno ch t i t lan a st h e i n ev i tab le , c o sm ica ly d e te rm ined r u le r o ft h e w o r ld i nt h e p re sen t c r ea t ion c yc le . T he h uey t l a toan iw a sa ga in t r an spo r ted o nt h es e a to fp owe rt oa no the rb u i ld ing ,t h e l l l l s) t C oa t eoca l i , o r H ouse o f( f o r e ign ) g od s . W i th in ac hambe rc a led t i lan ( d a rknes h e c ap tu red c u l te ff ig ie s a nd r el ig iou sp a raphe rna l ia o ff o re ign t r ibu te -pay ing n a t ion s w e re k ep t .T he se t oken so f Mex i ca t r iumph sw e r em ag ica lh o s tage so ft h er e l ig iou si d en t i t ie so f many p eop le s .T he o b jec t sw e re a l so a c t ive a gen t si nt h ef o rma t ion o fa ni mpe r ia lr e l ig iou s s f y s tem . T he b lood s a c r if ice so f e red b yt h er u le rb efo r et h i sh o s to fi mage sa nd a r t i fac t s tend t t e s t if ied t o hi so bl iga t ion t o at o th e i rc u l t ,a nd a cknow ledged t h e i ri n co rpo r a t ion i nt h e f c yc le o fr e l ig iou sf e s t iva l sa t th e Mex ica c ap i ta l .U pon c onc lud ing t h eo f e r ing s ,t h er oya l sion d p ro ces epa r ted t ot h ef i na ls t a t ion w i th in t h es a c r ed e nc lo su r e . T he f i na ls t a t ion w a s at emp le k nown a sY op ico .I ti sr ep r e sen ted i n th el owe rr i gh t -hand c o rne ro ft h ep r ec inc ti n ap a in t ing f r om B e rna rd ino d eS ahagün ' sP r imero sm emor ia le s ( F ig . 1 4 ) .I na no the rp i c tu r ei ti ss hown i nt h ec on tex to ft h eT la cax ipehua l iz t l ir i te s( F ig . 1 5 ) . Y op ico w a s a n e a r th -cu l t t emp le , w h ich S ahagün d esc r ibe s a s h av ing a s unken n r e cep ta c le o rh o le w i th in t h ei ne rc hamb e r .I nt h eN ahua t lt e x tt h i sh o le i s named o r toc , a tt h e c ave ( Sahagün 1 950 -82 , b k . 2 :5 , 56 ; b k . 8 :8 6 ) . T h i s a r ch i tec tu ra l c ave w a s t h e e r e cep ta c le f o rd r ied x i pe ,t h es k in so fs a c r if i c ia lv i c t im sd epo s i ted a ss ymbo l ic s ed -hu sk s d u r ing t h es p r ing t ime f e s t iva l so fT la cax ipehua l iz t l ia nd T ozor ton t l i .T he r i tua l so fX ipe T o t ec ,c onnec ted w i th t h i st emp le ,c once rned p l an t ing a nd r egene ra t ion ,b u tt h ey w e re a l so rio o f am i l i ta ry n a tu r e ,i nc onf i rma t ion o fy oung w ar r sw ho h ad c ap tu red p r i sone r so fw a r e f o rs a c r i f ice . H e re t h ec onnec t ion b e tween w a ra nd a g r icu l tu ra lp ro spe r i ty s en i n many a nc ien t N ew Wo r ld c u l tu r e s i sv iv id ly d emon s t ra ted . A s t h e l a s t s t a t ion v i s i ted i nt h e c o rona t ion p rocedu re , Y op ico m a rked t h e c omp le t ion o ft h e r i tua l s equence w i th in t h e f s a c r ed p rec inc t s .H e re f o rt h el a s tt ime t h er u le ro f e red i n cen se ,q ua i l ,a nd d rop so fr oya l b lood . T he r e i sa bundan t e v id ence f o r t h e u se o fc aves a nd c ave temp le s a sp l a ce s f o r t h e s ed b c onf i rma t ion o fn ew r u le r s .T he t h eme w a sf i r s td i scus y Do r i sH eyden i nc onnec t ion w i th t h el o ng c ave u nde rt h eP y ram id o ft h eS un a t Teo t ihua can ( Heyden 1 975 )a nd i nh e r l a te rr e v iew o fe t hnoh i s to r i ca lr e f e rence sa nd manusc r ip tp a in t ing sc once rn ing c ave sa nd s age ( r i te s o f p as Heyden 1 976 ) . T he se v i ew s w e re c onf i rmed a nd e x tended i n my i ndependen ts t udy o ft h e Ma l ina lco r o ck -cu tt emp le ,w h ich w a ss hown t o have h ad ac en t ra l f unc t ion i ne s tab l i sh ing Mex ica r u le i n ap rov inc ia l r eg ion ( Town send 1 981 ) . C omm i s s i oned b y t h e h uey t l a toan i A hu i tzo t l i n 1 502 , t h e Ma l ina lco t emp le , l i ke Y op ico , w a s n d e s igned a s as ymbo l ic c ave ( F ig . 1 6 ) .T he i ne rc hambe rw a sc a rved w i th t wo s t one e ag le s e a t sa nd ac en t ra lo ce lo t -or jagua r sea tu pon t h es em ic i r cu la rs t one b ench .A fou r th e ag le s e a t w a s c a rved u pon t h e f l oo r . T he t h r ee u ppe r s e a t s w e r e c l ea r ly s ymbo l s o fi mpe r ia l re g ove rnmen t , c or spond ing t o at h ree -pa r ta dm in i s t ra t ive s t ruc tu r e : t l a toan i , t l aca t eca t l , 1 65

a nd t l acochca lca t l ,a sd e sc r ib ed b yt h eh i s to r ian A lon so d eZ o r i ta ( Zo r i ta 1 942 :2 00 -20 1 ) . l T he f unc t ion o ft h es e a to nt h ef l oo rr ema in su nc lea r .J u s tb eh ind t h i ss e a t as ma lr ound h o le f w a sc a rved a s ar e cep ta c le f o ro f e r ing s .T h i s mu s tb er e ga rded a s av a r ia t ion o ft h eY op ico o r toc m en t ioned b yS ahagün .S uch o pen ing sw e re p l ace sf o rc ommun ion w i th t h es a c r ed l s t e a r th ,a nd w he re ,t h rough s a c r i f ice ,t h ee a r th m igh tb ec a led t ow i tnes h et r u th o fa ne ven t : A nd a l so ,w hen a no a th w a st a ken ,w hen a nyone s t a t ed s ome th ing ,i no rde rt h a th e p rove i t , itw a ss a id t oh im :" Tha tt h yw o rd sb ep roved ,t h a tt h ou s ha l tn o tl i e ,d ot h ou s s t k i st h ee a r th ." When t h u sh es t a ted s ome th ing ,h et h u sb o re w i tnes oh i sw o rd s , l s a nd t h a th e n o t b e h e ld a s al i a rh e s a id : "We ld o t h e s un a nd t h e e a r th -goddes s ( T la l tecuh t l i )k now t h et r u th o ft h i s .N ow Ik i st h ee a r th i nt oken o fi t . "T hu sw e re f o a th st a ken . A nd i fi tw a si ns upp l i ca t ion ,i tw a sd one w i th t h e se — the o f e r ing o f s f i n cen se ,a nd s a c r if ice s ,a nd t h ek i s ing o ft h ee a r th ,a nd o f e r ing o fb l ood .( Sahagün 1 950 -82 ,b k . 2 :2 06 ) T h rough s a c r if ice t ot h ee a r th ,t h et r an s f e r ence o fp owe rt ot h en ew h uey t l a toan iw a s sing p m ade l e ga l .T he c oncep to fp as owe rf r om o ne h uey t l a toan it ot h en ex ti s succ inc t ly r e p r e sen ted o nt h eD ed ica t ion S tone o fT izoc a nd A hu i tzo t l ,w he re t h e ma sk o ft h ee a r th n o t o n ly r ep r e sen t s as a c red e n t i ty b u ta l so t h ec onc re te w o r ld ,t h el a nd o ft h ei mpe r ium :C em A nahuac T enochca T la lpan ( The E a r th ,T enochca [ Mex ico ] L and ) .R i te so fk i ng sh ip a l so ses sion s i gn ify p os , a nd t h e Y op ico a nd Mal inako e a r th -cu l t t emp le s m ay b e r e ad a s s ymbo l so ft h e s o c ia l -sa c red l a nd o ft h ee mp i re o fT enoch t i t lan . Eme rg ing f r om Y op ico f l a f te ro f e r ing b lood ,q ua i l ,a nd i n cen se ,t h eh uey t l a toan iw a ss p i r i tua ly r ebo rn i n to h i sn ew s o c ia lr o le ; s ymbo l so ft h ee a r th a nd e mp i re , a nd o fl i f ea nd r enewa l , h ad c onf i rmed h i s l e g i t imacy a nd r e inco rpo ra t ion a mong t h o se h ew a st og ove rn . R e tu rn ing t ot h ep a lace , t h en ew r u le rw a s s e a ted o nt h et h rone f o rt h eC e r emony o f S peeche s ,w h ich ma rked t h ec onc lu s ion o ft h ei n ve s t i tu re a nd c o rona t ion .I ne ach s poken s age t p as h e h uey t l a toan i w a s e xho r ted , a dmon i shed , a nd e ncou raged t o p e r fo rm a s f e xpec ted o f ap e r son i nh i so f ice .T he se s peeche sr e pea to re xpand t h ei d ea st h a th ad b een s ed e se l e xp res a r l ie r ,i nt h ea dd res sp r e sen ted i mmed ia te ly f o low ing t h ed onn ing o fr ega l ia a nd t h ee n th ronemen t .A cco rd ing t oD u rän ,t h ef i r s to r a t ion sw e re made b yt h e mona r ch s l o fT e tzco co a nd T acuba ,f o lowed b yo t he ri mpo r tan to ff i ce r sa nd l o rd s .T he a dmon i t ion s w e re made t or em ind t h e r u le r t h a t h e n ow b e longed t o t h e h e r i tage o f Q ue tza lcoa t l , T op i l tz in , H u i tz i lopoch t l i , a nd mo r er e cen tt l a toque s u ch a s Mo tecuhzoma I—a s a c r ed l i neage o fa nce s t ra ll o rd s a nd h e roe st ow h ich h ew a s s ucce sso r . T he n ew r u le rw a sa l so t t u rged t oa tend t ot h en eed so fg ove rnmen t ,h ono rt h ed ese rv ing ,a nd a tend t ot h ec u l to f t t h eg od s . Many o ft h e se m a te r sw e re r e co rded b yS ahagün , af ew e xce rp t so fw h ich a r eh e re p re sen ted : 0 ma s te r , 0r u le r , 0p r ec iou s p e r son , 0v a lued o ne , 0p rec iou s g r een s t one , 0 p rec iou st u rquo i se , 0b ra ce le t ,0 pr ec iou sf e a the r ,t h ou a r th e r ep r esen t ;t h el o rd o f t h e n ea r , o ft h e n i gh , h e b y w hom w e l i ve , h a th s en tt h ee h e re . Now i nt r u th t h y p rogen i to r s ,t h yg r ea t -g rand f a the r s ,h ave d epa r ted ,h ave g one o nt o re s ide .O u rl o rd h a th d e s t royed , h a th h i dden t h o se w ho a l r eady h ave g one t or ema in b eyond — the r r u le rN . , a nd t h er u le rN . , e t c . F o rt h ey d epa r ted l e av ing t h eb und le , t h e c a ry ing f r ame ,t h eg ove rned —heavy ,i n to le rab le ,i n suppo r tab le . ( Sahagün 1 950 -82 ,b k . 6 : 4 7 ) A nd n ow , 0l o rd , 0o u rl o rd :o u rl o rd o ft h en ea r ,o ft h en igh ,c au se th t h es un t os h ine , b r inge th t h ed awn .I ti s th ou :h ep o in te th t h ef i nge ra tt h ee ; h ei nd ica te th t h ee . O u r l o rd h a th r e co rded t h ee .. ..e n te red t h ee i nt h eb ook s . Now v e r i ly i tw a sd ec la r ed ,

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i tw a sd e te rm ined a bove u s ,i n th eh eaven s ,i n th el a nd o ft h ed ead ,t h a to u rl o rd p l a ce e e t h ee o nt h er ed ma t ,o nt h er ed s e a t ,o nh i sp l a ce o fh ono r .T he s p ine ,t h e maguey , o ft h yp rogen i to r s ,o ft h yg r ea t -g r and f a the r s ,w h ich t h ey p l an ted , wh ich t h ey p l a ced i nt h ee a r th a st h ey d epa r ted — sp rou te th ,f l owe re th . ( Sahagün 1 950 -82 ,b k . 6 :4 8 ) R ece ive , s peak t o tho se w ho c ome i n angu i sh a nd t h o se w ho c ome m ee t ing t h e i rf a te . ried rup B en o t af oo l . May t h ou n o ts peak h ur ly ,m ay t h ou n o ti n ter t ,m ay t h ou n o t r c onfound .T ake y e t ,g r a sp y e t ,a r ive a t th et r u th ,f o r ,i ti s sa id a nd i ti st r ue ,t h ou a r t t h er ep lacemen t , t hou a r tt h e i mage o ft h e l o rd o ft h en ea r ,o ft h en i gh . ( Sahagün 1 950 -82 ,b k . 6 :5 0 ) re A nd may t h ou ( no t )b eq uar l some ;m ay t h ou ( no t )t h e re fo re b eb razen ; may t h ou f ( no t ) o f end t h e g over ned . May t h ou y e tt u rn t ot h y se lf , e xam ine t h yc on sc ience ; m ay t hou y e ts ay : "Whence w a s Is e n t : Whence w a s It a ken? A nd w he r el am ,w he re e Il i ve , may i tn o tb e my d e se r t , my m e r i t? I( on ly )d ream o fo u rl o rd 's h ono r s ; Is e t h em i nd ream s ." And ( do n o t ) b e a s leep , l i er e c l in ing , l i ei np l ea su r e ; n o rs l eep , t sive ses sion g o rge ,b e ag l u ton ;n o rg i ve t h y se l fe xces ly t os l eep . May t h yp os sn o t g o ,n o tw rong ly r e su l tf r om t h e s wea t ,t h ef a t igue , t h el a bo ro ft h ec ommon f o lk . ( Sahagün 1 950 -82 ,b k . 6 :5 1 ) A l though t h ec ommon f o lk h ave g l addened t h ee ,a nd a l though t hy y ounge rb ro the r , t h yo lde rb ro the rh ave p u tt h e i rt r u s ti nt h ee ,n ow t hou a r td e if ied .A l though t h ou a r t h uman ,a sa r ew e ,a l though t hou a r to u rs on ,o u ry ounge rb ro the r ,n o mo re a r tt h ou h uman ,a sa r ew e :w ed on o tl ook u pon t h ee a sh uman .A l ready t h ou r epen te s t ,t h ou l r e p la ce s to ne .T hou c a le s to u tt o ,t h ou s peake s ti n as t range t ongue t ot h eg od ,t h e l l o rd o ft h en ea r ,o ft h en i gh .A nd w i th in t h ee h ec a le th o u tt ot h ee ;h ei sw i th in t h ee ; h e s peake th f o r th f r om t h y mou th . T hou a r th i sl i ps ,t h ou a r th i sj aw ,t hou a r th i s t o ngue ,t hou a r th i se ye s ,t h ou a r th i se a r s .H eh a th g i ven t h ee h ono r ,h eh a th p rov ided t h ee t hy f ang s ,t hy c l aw s . ( Sahagün 1 950 -82 ,b k . 6 :5 2 -53 ) O the rs peeche sw e r ee xchanged a tt h i st ime ,p re sen ted b ym embe r so ft h en ob i l i ty t o th e h ue y t l a toan ia nd b yt h e h u ey t l a toan it ot h ep eop le o ft h ec i ty , i n s t ruc t ing t h em a ga in s t s, t d runkennes h e f t ,a du l te ry ,a nd o the rc r ime s .T he p opu la t ion w a sa l so e xho r ted t o wa ra nd e ncou raged t ow o rk t h el a nd . rio rio T hou n ob lem an ,t hou e ag le w ar r , t h ou o ce lo tw ar r ; w ha ta r tt h ou t ob e? G o . l rio rio H ide t hyse l f . F o low , d e s i r e t h e e ag le w ar r s , t h e o ce lo t w ar r s , t h e v a l ian t rio w ar r s ,t ho se w ho d i ed i n wa r ,w ho r e jo ice ,w ho a r eg l addened , who t a ke p l ea su r e , w ho l i ve i na bundance ,w ho s i p( t he f l owe rn ec ta r )f o r eve r ,w ho a lway sc ry o u tt o , rio w ho g l adden t h es un ,t h ev a l ian tw ar r . ...B eh appy ,r e jo ice i nt h ec ompany o f o t he r si nt h eh eaven s ,i nt h eh ome o ft h es un . ( Sahagün 1 950 -82 ,b k . 6 :7 4 ) B u tp e rhap st h ou a r t much a f ra id o rf r igh tened? H ence ,k now t h er i dge ,t h ed i t ch . l I ti ss a id t hou w i l tb e am an o ft h ee a r th .T he l o rd o ft h en ea r ,t h eh i gh ,o u rl o rd ,w i l l e l s how t h ee p i ty ,w i ls how t h ee m e r cy .T hou w i l ts e ,t h ou w i l ta dm i r ea lt h a tt h ou l l w i l t p l an t o n t h e r i dge . A nd s ow t h e f i e ld ; p l an t , t r an sp lan t a , p l an t t h e s ma l l l m aguey , t h e s ap l ing s ! T he r ef rom t h y s on s w i l g o r ev iv ing ; o u r l o rd w i l c r ea te e ( f ood )i nt ime o ff am ine .V e r i ly ,t h ou w i l ta l so s e ,y e te a t ,y e td r ink o ft h yl a bo r s . ( Sahagün 1 950 -82 ,b k . 6 :7 4 ) l s S t il mo re d ign i ta r ie sf o lowed ,a nd t h eC e remony o fS peeche sw a sc l o sed w i th a na dd res f r om ar ep re sen ta t ive o ft h e c ommon p eop le , a cknow ledg ing t h e r u le r 's d i scou r se a nd s how ing t h a th i si n s t ruc t ion sh ad b een u nde r s tood .

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l T he C orona t ion War . B efo re t h eh uey t l a toan ic ou ld b ec on s ide red f u ly i nc ommand ,h e t w a sr equ i red t ol e ad t h ea rmy t op rove h i sl e ade r sh ip i nb a t le ,w in t r ibu te f o rT enoch t i t lan , a nd c ap tu re p r i sone r so fw a rf o rs a c r if i ce i nt h ef i na lc onf i rma t ion r i te s .A l though t h et e x t s s o d on o t make i tc l ea rt h a tt h ew a rw a s ap ha se i nt h el e ng thy p ro ces fb e com ing ak ing ,i t m ay b e c on s ide r ed a s s uch b ecau se i tw a s s uppo s ed t ob e ap ra c t ica l d emon s t r a t ion , a sed i t r an s la t ion i n to m i l i ta ry a c t ion o f i d ea s e xp res n t h e p reced ing r i tua l s . A l though p ra c t ica l ,t h ew a rw a sa l so h i gh ly s ymbo l ic i nt h a ti tw a s ap rogno s i so ft h er e ign t oc ome a nd c on s t i tu ted ar equ i red s t ep l e ad ing t ot h ec onf i rma t ion . T he c on t ra s t ing f o r tune so fT izoc a nd h i s s u cces rb ro the r ,A hu i tzo t l ,i s t ra te t h e so lu i mpo r tance o f t h i s m i l i ta ry t e s t . T he m i s fo r tune s o f T izoc i n t h e c ampa ign a ga in s t Me tz t i t lan a nd t h e t r iumph s o f A hu i tzo t l i nC h iapa s a r e d e sc r ibed a tl e ng th b y D u rän ( Du rän ,1 967 ,2 :3 03 -305 ,318 -322 ) .T izo c ,s t i lb a r e ly o fa ge ,w a sa dv i sed ,l e d ,a nd c l o se ly l g ua rded b y T lacae le l , em inence g r i se t oa l t l a toque f r om I t zcoa t l t oA hu i t zo t l . A f te r l s ummon ing t h e i ra l ie s ,t h e Mex ica f o r ce m a r ched t owa rd Me tz t i t lan .S t ra tegy w a sp l anned l w h i le i nt h ef i e ld ,a nd t h eo ppo s ing a rm ie sa dvanced t ot h ee ncoun te r .B u ti n as u rpr i s ing t u rn o fb a t t le t h e Me tz t i t lan w ar rio r sa nd t h e i rH ua s tec a l l ie sn o to n ly r e s i s t ed f i e r ce ly b u t l k i led t h ree h und r ed o ft h e i re nem ie s .T he d ay w a sb a r e ly s aved b yt h eh e ro ic e n t ry o fa l e s quad ron o fu n t r ied Mex ica w arr io r s —young m en s t i li nt h e i rt en s —who w i th s tood t h e t o n s laugh ta nd c ap tu r ed f o r ty m en .U n se t led b u tr e l ieved o fd i sa s te r ,t h e Mex ica w i thd rew t oT enoch t i t lan w i th t h e se f ew c ap t ive s .T he n ea rd e f ea tp roved t ob ea nu nhappy omen f o r T izoc 's s ho r tr e ign ,a nd t h ei mpe tu so fc onque s tw ou ld n o tb er ega ined u n t i lh i sd em i se a nd sion o t h ea cces fA hu i tzo t l . sed i T he h um i l ia t ion s a nd u nce r ta in t ie s o f T izo c ' sr e ign n eeded t o b e r ed res n n o sfu u nce r ta in t e rm s ,a nd A hu i tzod 's r epu ta t ion a s af i e r ce , s ucces lc ampa igne rw a se s tab l l i shed a t th eo u t se t( Du rän 1 967 ,2 :3 18 -322 ) .T he C h iapa sc oun t ry h ad b e come r ebe l iou s , a nd T la cae le ld ec r eed a ne xped i t ion t os ub juga te t h er eg ion . Ag r ea ta rmy w a sg a the r ed o f l g roup sf r om many n a t ion sa l ied o rs ub jec tt o Tenoch t i t lan ,a nd t h el ong m a r ch t ot h es ou th s b egan . B efo re c ommenc ing o pe ra t ion st h ea semb led t r oop sw e r ee xho r ted b yA hu i tzo t l s h im se lf .I n as e r ie so f rap id ,d i sc ipl ined a sau l t sf i ve t own sw e re c ap tu red ,s a cked ,a nd t h e i r l p eop le d i spe r sed o rk i led .T he l o ca ll o rd ss oon a ppea red w i th p r e sen t sa nd p rom ise st os end l t a lt h a tm igh tb ea sked a st r ibu te t ot h ec ap i ta l .A pr inc ipa lt own ,C h iapa ,w a sn ex ta tacked b yn igh t ,a st r a i to r sl e d aMex ica c on t ingen tb y ab a ck r ou te i n to t h et emp le p r ec inc ti nt h e c en te ro ft own .T h i sw a st h es t rongho ld ,b u tt h eC h iapa f o r ce b roke ,a no the rs a ck e n sued , sed i sion a nd a ga in t h et own magna te sa ppea r ed w i th h and sc r os ns i gn o fs ubm is .T he f i na l r t own ,J i lo tepec ,s u r ende r ed w i thou tr e s i s tance .T r ibu te w a st h en r e impo sed t h roughou tt h e l r eg ion i n th ef o rm o fc o rn ,b ean s ,a nd o t he rf ood s ,a s we la sw ood a nd l a bo rf o rc on s t ruc t ion i nT eno ch t i t lan . S l ave s f o r s a c r if i ce w e re a l so p rom i sed w hen t h ey m igh t b e r equ i red . l A hu i tzo t l ' sr e tur n t ot h e c ap i ta l w a s o cca s ion f o r ag r ea t t r iumph , a nd a f te r t h e a l ied c h ie f ta in sh ad d epu ted ,p repa ra t ion sb egan f o rt h eh uey t l a toan i ' sc onf i rma t ion c e r emony . T he C onf i rma t ion C er emony .P roc lama t ion w a sm ade o ft h ec onf i rma t ion ,a nd i nv i ta t ion s l w e re s e n to u tt ot h ea l ie s ,i mpe r ia lo ff i c ia l s ,a nd i mpo r tan tf o re ign o re nemy r u le r s .D u rän l ( 1967 ,2 :3 23 -324 )d e sc r ibe sh ow i nA hu i tzo t l 's c a se a lc h ie f ta in s ,f a c to r s ,a nd t r ea su re r s t w e re a dv i sed i n e ve ry t own a nd p rov ince t o a t end t o t h e p rov is ion ing o f t h e r oya l rive r c e leb ra t ion .I nd ue t ime t h el o ad so fp re sen t sb egan t o ar ,c a r ied o nt h eb ack so fp o r te r s sion s t w ho m a r ched i nl o ng p ro ces s a c ros h ec au seway s t oT enoch t i t lan . C lo th ,j ewe l ry , f e a the r s , c o rn c acao , f r u i t s , t u rkey s , d ee r ,q ua i l , a nd f i sh o f many k ind sw e re b rough ti n s a s ton i sh ing a bundance . T he p rov i s ion ing w a s e nfo r ced u nde rt h e p ena l ty o ft h e l o s o f f p o s i t ion ,e x i le ,o rd eb tb yt h er e spon s ib le o f ic ia l sa nd t h e i rk in .W i th in t h ec i ty ,a r t i san sa nd 1 68

c r a f t smen a l so m ade t h e i rp r epa ra t ion s— lap ida ry -wo rke r s ,j ewe le r s ,f e a the rwo rke r s ,a nd make r s o fc e ram ic s f o r t h e f i ne s t d i nne rwa re s . N o e xpen se w a s s pa red i nr e ady ing t h e s ump tuou s c o s tume s a nd i mp lemen t s t h a t w ou ld b e f e a tu r ed i n t h e f e s t iva l s t oc ome . Ma son sa nd p l a s te re r sw e re s e n tt ow o rk r e pa i r ing o ld b u i ld ing sa nd c on s t ruc t ing n ew o ne s , a nd r oom sa nd s t r ee t sw ou ld b eg a r landed w i th f l owe r st h roughou tt h ef ou r -day c e r emony . T hu st r ibu te i n th ef o rm o fg ood sa nd s k i l sw a se x t ra c ted f r om f a r -of ion si n prepa ra t ion l freg f o rt h ec e remony o fs t a te ;b u tt h ef e a s t st h a tw e re t o fo low w e re o f e red b yt h eh uey t l a toan i . l f T h i sd i r ec tc on t ro lo fw ea l th w a sa l so s i gna led b yt h en ew r u le ra sh e rp e r sona ly h anded l o u tt i le sa nd p o l i t ica lp r iv i lege sd u r ing ac e remon ia ld i s t r ibu t ion o f emb lem sa nd i n s ign ia . A l though t h e t e x t s d e sc r ibe t h i s e ven t a s t h e " co rona t ion ," i tw a s i nf a c t t h e f i na l c onf i rma t ion o ft h eh uey t l a t oan ia ss up reme a u tho r i ty ( Du rän 1 964 ,2 :3 08 -311 ,3 25 -326 ) . T he c en t ra la c to ft h ec e remony w a st h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fi n s ign ia o fr a nk ,a u tho r i ty ,a nd s t a tu s t oe ve ry o f f ice rw i th in t h ee mp i r e .T he p ro cedu re b egan o nt h ef i r s td ay w hen t h er u le r so f T e tzcoco a nd T acuba w e r ef o rma l ly p re sen ted w i th t h e i rr ega l ia o fo ff i ce b yt h er u le ro f T enoch t i t lan . T h i s h and ing d own o f t h e r ega l ia w a s a n h ono r , y e t a l so s i gna led t h e h i e ra rch ica lr e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e mo s tp owe r fu l Mex ica l o rd a nd h i sa l ied c oun te r l p ar t s . T he mona r ch s w e re t h en d r es nd a wa i ted t h e b eg inn ing o f as p lend id d ance . sed a R oya ls i nge r sa nd mu s ic ian sd res ng o ld a nd f e a the r sn ex ts e tu p ag r ea th uehue t ld rum s ed i w i th in t h ep a lace p l aza .A t ended b yt wo t h ou sand n ob lemen ,t h et l a toque o fT a cuba a nd t T e tzco co l e dt h es t a te ly d ance .A t ap re sc r ibed momen tt h e Mex ica h uey t l a toan im ade h i s t r iumpha la ppea rance : A f te ra lw e r ei nt h ed ance ,w i th n oo ne e xcep ted ,t h ek i ng c ame o u tw i th ac rown l o fg o ld u pon h i sh ead w i th many p rec iou ss t one ss e ti ni ta nd ar i ch f e a the rwo rk w i th g o lden p endan t sa nd i nh i se a r s ,r i ch e a rp lug sf o rmed o ft wo r ound g r een s t one ss e t i ng o ld ,v e ry b r igh t ; a nd i nt h es ep tum o fh i sn o se a no the rg r een ,v e ry t r an spa ren t s t one s e t i ng o ld w i th b l ue f e a the r s a tt h e e nd s o f i t ,w i th e l egan t a nd l u s t rou s r ef lec t ion s . H e h ad h and some b ra ce le t s o fg o ld f r om a rm t oe l bow , a nd h igh ly p o l i shed g o lden b and su pon h i sl e g s ,a nd s a nda l so f jagua r -h ide . ..a nd i nh i sr i gh t h and ac en se rf u l lo fc oa l s ;a nd b eh ind h im c ame a l lt h eg randee so ft h ec ou r ta nd s ome o ft h em c a r r ied t h eb ag i nw h ich t h ei n cen se w a sh e ld a nd o t he r sc a r r ied q ua i l a nd s t i l lo the r st h er oya li n s ign ia :a rm s , as h ie ld , as wo rd ,a nd ab ow a nd a r row ;a nd w hen t h e k i ng a r r ived a tt h ed rum t h ey c a s ti n cen se a th im , w a lk ing a round f ou r t ime s . ( Du rän 1 967 ,2 :3 09 ) E nve loped i nt h es moke o fc opa l ,g l i t te r ing w i th j ade a nd g o ld r e f lec t ion s ,a nd i rde scen t w i th t h ec o lo ro ft r op ica lf e a the r s ,t h ev i c to r iou sh uey t l a toan iw a se nc i r c led b yt h ed anc ing l o rd s .S tand ing a tt h ec en te ro ft h ed ance ,c l o se b yt h ec ommand ing d rum ,h ew a sc onve r t ed i n to al i v ing i c on :t h eh e i rt oH u i tz i lopo ch tl i ,p a r t ic ipa t ing i nh i sv i r tue a nd r ea ff i rm ing h i s w a r l ike p u rpo se sa nd a im s .T he i mage c r ea ted b yt h ed ance p l a ced h im a tt h ec en te ro ft h e i mpe r ia l s oc ia l s phe r e , e cho ing t h e p o s i t ion o fH u i tz i lopoch t l i o n t h e ma in p y ram id i n r r e la t ion t ot h es u round ing c i ty . R e tu rn ing t o th et h rone ,t h eh uey t l a toan ic on t inued t h ep e r sona ld i s t r ibu t ion o fi n s ign ia l t h a t h ad b egun w i th t h e r u le r s o f T e tzcoco a nd T a cuba . A l h i gh o ff i c ia l s , i n c lud ing membe r s o f t h e n ob i l i ty , t h e m i l i t a ry o rde r s , t h e p r ie s thood , a nd e l de r s f r om t h e f ou r l s l q ua r te r so fT enoch t i t lan , a sw e l a sp rov inc ia l g over no r s , l e se rt a xc o lec to r s , a nd l o ca l c h ie f ta in sr e ce ived p r e sen t sa nd emb lem so fa u tho r i ty a cco rd ing t ot h e i rp o s i t ion ,a ge ,a nd d ign i ty .O b ta inab le o n ly f r om t h eh uey t l a toan i ' sh and ,t h e se o b jec t sa nd w o rk so fa r tw e re f n o to n ly r ewa rd sa nd s i gn so fo f ice b u tr em inde r sa l so o ft h es o c iopo l i t ica ls t ruc tu re a nd

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t h er e ce ive r 's u l t ima te d ependence o nt h e man t h a tw a si t s h ead . R ep le te w i th s ymbo l ic i mage ry a nd c o lo r fu l p agean t ry , t h i s f ou r -day c e r emony c on f i rmed t h e h uey t l a toan i 's p a ramoun tp o s i t ion i nt h er a nk -dom ina ted o rgan iza t ion o f Mex ica l i f e .T he s t a te ly d ance i nw h ich h e h ad b een h a i led , a nd t h e s ub sequen t d i s t r ibu t ion o fi n s ign ia , e xp res h e s ed t r e in teg r a t ion o f Mex i ca s o c ie ty .T he c onf i rma t ion c e remony a se r t ed t h ec omp lex h i e ra r s c hy t h a td ef ined c ommand , s t a tu s ,a nd s oc ia ld i s tance a mong m en . T he l o ng p roces fr e in teg ra t ion t h a th ad b egun mon th sb e fo re a tt h ee nd o ft h eh uey s o t l a toan i ' sr e t r ea tw a sc onc luded w i th t h es a c r if i ce o fp r i sone r st a ken i nt h ec o rona t ion w a r . T he s a c r if ice st ok p l ace u pon aS un S tone ,a co rd ing t oD u rän 's a ccoun t( 1 967 ,2 : 3 2 1 ) , o c a ff i rm ing a ga in t h en o t ion t h a tt h ep re sen te r aw a st h et ime o f Mex ica d om in ion :" The E a r th , T enochca ( Mex ica )L and ." Wi th t h i ss t a temen tt h er i t e so fk i ng sh ip c ame t o an e nd , mak ing w ho le a ga in t h ef ab r ic o ft h es o c ia lo rde ra t Tenoch t i t lan . T he S ta te a s aWork o fA r t T he a r chaeo log ica lr ema in s ,t e x t s ,a nd a so c ia t ed monumen t sr evea lh ow t h ep y ram id s w a sb u i l ta nd h ow i tf unc t ioned a st h e emp i re o fT enoch t i t lan t ok s hape .T he s t ra tegy o f o t h er u le r si nt h ec r ea t ion o ft h e monumen ti s cr uc ia lt oc on s ide r ,f o rt h et r ad i t iona li d ea s , p ra c t ica l n eed s , a nd p sycho log ica l n o t ion s t h a tp receded t h e e l abo ra t ion o ft h e b u i ld ing c anno tb es epa ra ted f r om i t sp hy s ica lf o rm a nd s ymbo l i sm .I mp lan ted w i th amu l t i tude o f o f e r ing s ,s cu lp tu r e s ,a nd a r t i f ac t s ,t h eh uge f e t i sh -moun ta in g r ew i nr ap id ly a ccumu la t ing f l a ye r sa st h ef i f teen th c en tu ry a dvanced .I tw a st h ep u rpo se o ft h eb u i ld ing t o e mbody c en t ra l t h eme so f Mex ica t h ough ta nd t oc ommun ica te t h eu rgen ts en se o fa ni mpe r ia le ndeavo r . A sa ni c on o ft h el i f e -p roduc ing moun ta in ss en i ns u round ing n a tu r e ,a nd a sa ni mage o f e r t h e my th ic -moun ta in b i r thp lace o fH u i tz i lopoch t l i , t h e p y r am id w a s a to nce a n e t e rna l c o sm ic s ymbo l a nd as i gn o f t h e a nce s t ra l p a s t . B u t i t wa s mo r e t h an amemo r ia l f o r r emembe r ing t h ep a s t ,f o ri tw a ss imu l taneou s ly as e t ing w he re t h eo ngo ing a ccomp l i sh t men t so fl i v ing r u le r sw e re r ep re sen ted t ot h ep eop le . E ach s ucces a ye ra dded t ot h e sive l mean ing so ft h ec o los ls t ruc tu re .T h i sa lowed t h ee ven t so f ap re sen t ,u n fo ld ing h i s to ry sa l t ob ep e r ce ived a sa ni n ev i tab le ,p r eo rda ined o u tcome o f ac o sm ic p roces h a th ad b een s t e s tab l i shed s i nce t h et ime o fo r ig in s , s i nce t h eb eg inn ing o ft h ing s . T he i d ea o fk ing sh ip w a sv i s ib ly d ec la r ed i nr i t e so fp as nd w a sf u sed w i th t h e s age a me tapho r ic i mage ry o f t h e s ymbo l ic l a nd scape . E a ch s egmen t o f t h e r i te s f e a tu red p roces s ,g e s tu re s ,s peech ,a nd c o s tume s ,w oven t o ge the ra nd c ha rged w i th many l e ve l s sion o fm ean ing . T he se s egmen t s f o rmed ac on s te la t ion o fr e l ig iou s , h i s to r ica l , a nd e s the t ic l a soc ia t ion sw i th wh ich t h e Mex ica e xp la ined t h e i rr u le r , t h e i rp o s i t ion i nt ime , a nd t h e s d oma in i nw h ich t h ey l i ved .T he ma in p y r am id f o rmed t h ec en t ra ls t age a nd t o uch s tone i n t h es equence o fe ven t s .A tt h eo u t se ti tw a sw he re t h er u le rd onned t h ec l oak o fb one si ns i gn o fw i thd rawa l . I tw a s t h e o b jec t o fr epea t ed v i s i t s i nt h e f ou r -day s epa ra t ion t ime t h a t f o lowed . A f te rt h ec o rona t ion a nd e n th ronemen ti tw a sa ga in t h es t a t ion w he re t h eh uey l t l a toan i o f e red s a c r if ice a s H u i tz i lopoch t l i 's h e i r , a s s ucces r t o a n a nc ien t l i ne o f f so c hamp ion s ,a nd a sd e f ende ro ft h es a c r ed moun ta in o fT enoch t i t lan .T he f u l mean ing a nd l o b l iga t ion so ft h ek ing 's p o s i t ion w e re n ex ts pe led o u ta ts ub s id ia ry s t a t ion so ft h er i tua l l e nc lo su r e :a tt h eS un S tone ,t h ed e s t iny o ft h e Mex ica n a t ion t o ru le t h ew o r ld i nt h ep re sen t e r a ;a t th eC oa teoca ll i ,a cknow ledgmen to f ,a nd h omage t o ,t h er e l ig iou sc u l t so ft r ibu ta ry n a t ion s ;a tY op ico ,c ommun ion w i th t h es a c red e a r th a nd v a l ida t ion o ft h ek i ng 's r u le .P roo f o fh i sa b i l i ty a sw ar r -k ing w a st h en s chedu led i nt h ec o rona t ion w a r . I nt h ec onc lud ing rio c onf i rma t ion t h e t r iumphan t h uey t l a toan i s ymbo l i ca ly r e in teg ra ted t h e Mex ica s o c ia l l h i e ra rchy t h rough t h e h and ing o u t o fe mb lem s a nd t h en c onf i rmed t h e a c t ion w i th t h e

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s a c r if ice o fp r i sone r s .T he c o smo s s ta te w a st h u s made c omp le te a ga in .I nt h et r an scenden t r i te , r e newa l o f t h e o ff ice , o f s o c ie ty , a nd o f t h e e mp i re land w e re s imu l taneou s ly s ed e xp res . I nve s ted w i th as en se o ft h e s a c red t h a tu l t ima te ly f l owed f r om t h ef o r ce so f n a tu r e , a nd b y ar eve rence g i ven b y t h e s en se o f b e long ing t o a n a nc ien t h i s to ry , t h e monumen t sa nd r i te sw e re p owe r fu la gen t so fc u l tu ra ls t ab i l i ty a nd c hange .T oge the rt h ey c on s t i tu ted ad ynam ic ,u n ify ing f o r ce a nd c r ea ted n ew a c t iv i t ie sa nd m ean ing si nt h el i f e o ft h ei mpe r ia lc i ty . T he f o rma t ion o ft h ep y ram id a nd i t sr i tua lf unc t ion sc anno tb e c on s ide red t h e m e re si sion o u tcom eo fu t i l i ta r ian p u rpo se so r econom ic n eces ty .T hey w e r ea l so e xp res so fo t he r , si d eep ly h uman e xpe r ience sa nd n eed s : t h en eces ty t od r eam ,t or e f lec t ,t op l an , t om ake f o r cefu l s ymbo l s a nd w o rk s o fa r t t h a tm igh t r evea l t h e o rde r , c ohe s ion , a nd h i s to ry o f s o c ie ty w i th in al a rge r u n ive r sa l s y s t em . T he se a r e n eed s a nd e xpe r ience s t ow h ich t h e e s the t ic s en se i sf undamen ta l .T he r ema in so ft h ep y ram id a nd i t sm ean ing sa nd u se si nt h e c on tex to fk i ng sh ip r i te sb r ing su st ot h ec on s ide ra t ion o fa no u t look t h a tG eo rge K ub le r l t t a lked a bou t t wen ty -f ive y ea r s a go , w hen h e c a led a ten t ion t o J akob B u r ckha rd t 's s ance i C iv i l i za t ion o ft h eR ena is nI t a ly ( Kub le r 1 962 : 9 ) . I tw a sB u r ckha rd t ' sn o t ion t h a t l s, t h ec r ea t ion o f as t a te m igh tb ev i ewed a st h eo u tcome o fa ni n te lec tua la nd e s the t ic p ro ces s o ap ro ces fr ef lec t ion a nd c a lcu la t ion ," t he s t a te a s aw o rk o fa r t" ( Bu rckha rd t1 860 : 1 2 ) . T h i si sa no u t look o nc u l tu ra lh i s to ry t h a t s t and st o mod i fy t h ee co log ica l a nd e conom ic d e te rm in i sm t h a th a sl o ng g ove rned n o t ion so fc u l tu r a le vo lu t ion i n th es t udy o f Me soam e r i e c an c i v i l iza t ion , a nd i ti s wo r th r exam in ing a ga in u pon c on s ide r ing t h ec i ty -s ta t es o ft h e Mex ican p l a t eau . B ib l iography A lva I x tl i lxoch i t l ,F e rnando d e 1 895 O b ra sh i s tä r icas .E d i to r ia lC have ro , Mex ico . A lva rado T e zozomoc ,H e rnando 1 943 C r6n ica m ex icana .U n ive r s idad N a c iona lA u tbnoma d e Mex ico , Mex ico . B a r low ,R obe r tH .a nd B y ron McAf fee 1 946 T he t i t le so fT e tzco t z ingo . T la locan 2 : 10 -127 . Mex ico . B u r ckha rd t ,J akob 1 860 C iv i l i za t ion o ft h eR ena is n It a ly ( S .G .C .M idd lemo re ,t r an s . ) .P ha idon P res ienna , s ance i s, V a nd O x fo rd U n ive r s i ty P res ew Y o rk .( Th i se d i t ion f i r s tp ubl i shed i nt wo v o lume s ,1 878 . ) s, N C oe ,M icha e lD . 1 981 R e l ig ion a nd t h eR i se o f Me soame r ican S t a te s .I nT he T ran s i t ion t oS t a t ehood i n th eN ew W or ld ( G ran tD .J one sa nd R obe r tR .K au t z ,e d s . ) : 1 57 -171 .C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P res ondon . s, L D äv i la P ad i la ,A gu s t in l 1 625 H is tor ia d e l af unda c i6n d e l aP rov inc ia d e S an t iago d e Mex i co . B rus l s . I n M igue l 0 . se Mend izaba l ,E lj a rd in d eN e tzahua l coyo t l ,E thno s3 ,1 : 92 , 1 925 . D u rän ,D iego 1 967 H i s tor ia d el a sI n d ia sd eN ueva E spai za eI s la sd el a Ti er ra F i rme ( Ange l Ma .G a r ibay K . ,e d . ) . 2v o l s .E d i to r ia lP or rt ia , Mex ico . l E lwood ,R obe r t s, T 1 978 T he F ea s to fK ingsh ip .S oph ia U n ive r s i ty P res okyo . F rank fo r t ,H en r i 1 948 K ingsh ip a nd t h eG od s .U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago P res h icago . s, C

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H eyden ,D o r i s 1 975 A n I n te rp r e ta t ion o ft h e C ave u nde rnea th t h eP y ram id o ft h e S un i nT eo t ihua cän , Mex ico . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 0 : 1 31-147 . 1 976 L o sr i to sd ep aso e nl a sc ueva s .B o le t in d eI n s t i tu to Nac iona ld eA n t ropo log ia eH i s tor ia e p . 2 ,1 9 : 1 7 -24 . Mex ico . H oca r t ,A . M . 1 927 K ingsh ip . O xfo rd Un ive r s i ty P re ss ,L ondon . K ub le r ,G eo rge 1 962 T he A r ta nd A rch i tec ture o ft h eA nc ien t Am er icas .P engu in B ook s , B a l t imo re . Ma to s Mo c tezuma ,E dua rdo 1 981 U na v i s i ta a lT emp lo Mayor d e T enoch t i t lan .I n s t i tu to N a c iona ld eA n t ropo log ia eH i s to r ia , Mex ico . Ma in s Moc tezuma ,E dua rdo ,a nd V ic to rR ange ! 1 982 E l T emp i° Mayor d e T enoch t i t lan : P ianos , c or t es y per spec t ivas . I n s t i tu to N ac iona l d e A n t ropo log ia eH i s to r ia , Mex ico . Mend ie ta ,G e r6n imo 1 971 H is tor ia e c les iä s t ica i nd iana ( J oaqu in G a r c ia I c azba lce ta , e d . ) . 2 nd e d . E d i to r ia l P o rn ia , Mex ico . P a so yT roncoso ,F ranc isco d e l ( e d . ) 1 905 -07 F ray B ernard ino d eS ahagän :H i s tor ia d el a sc o sa sd e Nueva E spana . 4v o l s .H ause r yMene t , Mad r id . S ahagün ,B e rna rd ino d e 1 950 -82 T he F loren t ine C od ex ( A r thu rJ . 0. A nde r son a nd C ha r le sD ibb le ,t r an s .a nd e d s . ) . 1 2b k s .i n s, S 1 3 v o l s .S choo lo f Ame r ican R e sea r ch a nd t h eU n ive r s i ty o fU tah P res an ta F e . T ownsend ,R icha rd F . 1 979 S ta te a nd C osmos i nt h eA r to fT enoch t i t lan .S tud ie si nP re -Co lumb ian A r ta nd A r chaeo logy 2 0 . Dumba r ton O ak s , Wa sh ing ton . si 1 981 Ma l ina lco a nd t h e L o rd s o fT enoch t i t lan . I nT he A r t a nd I conography o fL a te P os tc las c 1 982

C en tra l Mex ico ( El izabe th H . B oone ,e d . ) : 13 -140 . D umba r ton O ak s , Wash ing ton . P y ram id a nd S a c red Moun ta in . I nE thnoa s t ronomy a nd A rchaeoa s t ronomy i nt h e Amer ican T rop ics ( An thony A ven ia nd G a ry U r ton ,e d s . ) : 3 7 -62 .A nna ls o ft h eN ew Y o rk A cademy o f S c ience s3 85 .T he N ew Y o rk A cademy o fS c ience s ,N ew Y o rk .

T u rne r ,V ic to r 1 967

s, I T he F ores to fS ymbo ls . C o rnel U n ive r s i ty P res t ha ca ,N ew Y o rk .

V an G ennep ,A rno ld 1 960

s age ( fee T he R i te s o fP as Mon ika V izendom a nd G ab r iele L . C af , t r ans . ) . Un ive r s i ty o f s, C C h icago P res h icago .

Z o r i ta ,A lonso d e 1 942

B reve ys umar ia r e lac iön d el o ss enores d eN ueva E spana .U n ive r s idad N ac iona l A u t6noma d e Mex ico , Mex ico .

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F ig .l . T he ma in p y ram id a nd r i tua l e nc lo su re a tT enoch t i t lan ,f r om B e rna rd ino d e S ahagün ' sP r imeros m emor ia le s , C öd ice Ma t r i ten se d e lR ea lP a lac io ( a f te rP a so y T ronco so 1 905 -07 , 5 :l äm . i x ) . P ho tog raphy c ou r te sy o fT ozze rL ib ra ry ,H arva rd U n i v e r s i ty . 1 73

F ig . 2 . A e r ia lv i ew o fd own town Mex ico C i ty ( 1 976 ) . T he Z o ca lo a nd c a thed ra la ppea r a tc en te r , w i th aw h i te s qua re i nd ica t ing t h el o ca t ion o ft h e ma in p y ram id . P ho tog raphy c ou r te sy o f DETENAL , Mex ico . 1 74

I I I I I I 1 i

n i e " .e . f

• 4 , l 1 4 ,t e l i g i te ä g li e l le .e igtgb " r i Lu ,

F ig . 3 . P lan o ft h e ma in p y ram id e xcava t ion s ( a f te r Ma to s Moc tezuma a nd R ange ! 1 982 ) . 1 75

F ig . 4 . P e r spec t ive d raw ing ( o r ien ted t oF ig . 3 )o ft h e ma in p y ram id e xcava t ion s ( a f te r Ma to s Moc tezuma a nd R ange l 1 982 ) . 1 76

F ig . 5 . T he d ua l s h r ine sf r om A camap ich t l i ' sr e ign :T la loc ( l ef t ) a nd H u i tz i lopoch t l i ( r igh t ) . P ho tog raphy b yt h ea u tho r . 1 77

F ig . 6 . T he n ew s t a i rway f a cade a nd s cu lp tu red f i gu re sf r om I t zcoa t l 's r e ign .P ho tog ra p hy b yt h ea u tho r . 1 78

F ig . 7 . C oyo lxauhqu i . L ine d raw ing b yt h e a u tho r . 1 79

F ig . 8 . T he E ag le H ou se p la t form s . P ho tog raph b yt h e a u tho r . 1 80

F ig . 9 . T he t z ompan t l i .P ho tog raph b yt h ea u tho r . 1 81

F ig . 1 0 . T he R ed T emp le o nt h en o r th s i de o ft h em a in p y ram id . P ho tog raph b yt h e a u tho r . 1 82

F ig . 1 . T he w ar rio rp roces sion o nt h eb anque t te i nt h eE ag le House p a t io . P ho tog raph b yt h e a u tho r . 1 83

F ig . 1 2 . T he e co log ica ls t r a t if i ca t ion o ft h eh i gh land l a nd s cape :r a inc loud sf o rm u pon t h e moun ta in p eak s ; s p r ing sa nd r i vu le t s em e rge i nt h er av ine s ; t e r ra ced f i e ld sa r eb u i l t b e low ; a nd f a rm ing -f i sh ing v ilage so ccupy t h el a ke sho re a r ea . P ho tog raph b yt h e a u tho ra tL ake C hapa la , Mex ico . 1 84

F ig . 1 3 . T he r i tua lh i l lo fT e tzco tz ingo . N o te t h ec i rcumambu la t ing p a th . P ho tog raph b y t h ea u tho r . 1 85

F ig . 1 4 . R e t rea tc e remon ie sf o rt h ec o rona t ion o f ar u le r( a f te rP a so yT ronco so 1 905 0 7 , 5 :l äm s . 9 3 ,9 4 ) . 1 86

F ig . 1 5 . Yop ico a nd t h eT lacax ipehua l iz t l ir i te s ( a f te rP a so yT ronco so 1 905 -07 , 5 :l am . x ) . P ho tog raph c ou r te sy o fT ozze rL ib ra ry , H a rva rd Un ive r s i ty . 1 87

F ig . 1 6 . Ma l ina lco ,t h er ock -cu tt emp le ,e x te r io ra nd i n te r io rv i ew s . P ho tog raph sb yt h e a u tho r . 1 88

P ar tI V

The B ody a nd t he Imag ina t ion o f Mat ter

The B ody , E th ics a nd C osmos : A z tec P hys io logy O r t iz d e Mon te l lano I n troduc t ion T he A z tecs h ad a nu n ique c oncep to ft h es t ruc tu r ea nd f unc t ion o ft h eh uman b ody .T he h uman b ody w a sc on s ide red t op a ra l le lt h eo rgan iza t ion a nd c ompo s i t ion o ft h ec o smo s . T hey b e l ieved t h a tt h e h uman b ody w a sl i nked t ot h eu n ive r se a nd t h a tp roces se s o ft h e u n ive r se s uch a s a s t ronom ica l movemen t s c ou ld a f f ec t t h e p roces s o ft h e h uman b ody . S ince t h ey a l so b e l ieved ,i nve r se ly ,t h a th uman b ehav io rc ou ld a f f ec tt h ee qu i l ib r ium o ft h e u n ive r se , o ne o ft h ek ey d u t ie si mpo sed o n man w a st o ma in ta in t h ee qu i l ib r ium a nd t h e e x i s tence o ft h eu n ive r se b yh i sa c t ion s .H uman s a c r if i ces w e re p e r fo rmed i nt h ep u r su i to f t h e se g oa l s . A z tec o r ig in my ths t r an sm i t ted t h ei d eo log ica lm es s age t h a t man " owed" t h eg od sw ho h ad c r ea ted t h ec o smo sa nd h uman l i f et h rough s ac r if i c ing t h em se lves i nt h ep r imo rd ia le r a . P e r fo rmance o fd u ty a nd o bed ience t o th es t a te a nd i t sr u ler sb ecame t h ef ounda t ion so ft h e i r s y s tem so fe t h ic s a nd o ft h e i rc oncep t so fg ood a nd e v i l . T hey d eve loped ac oncep tt h a t d iv ided t h eu n ive r se i n to o ppo s i te b u tc omp lemen ta ry h a lve s .T h i sd ua l i ty w a se x tended t o t h e i rc oncep to ft h e h uman b ody : h ea l th a nd h app ines s w e re b e l ieved t ob e t h er e su l to f e qu i l ib r ium a nd mode ra te b ehav io r . T he se b el ief s r e info r ced t h e e t h ic o f d u ty a nd mode ra t ion a sp r ime o rgan iz ing p r inc ip les . T he h uman b ody w a s h e ld h o s tage t o a n a dhe rence t o t h e se b ehav io ra l n o rm s . D ev ia t ion s f r om d u ty , o r e xces se s ( p a r t icu la r ly o f a sexua l n a tu re ) , w e re c on s ide red i mpo r tan tc auses o fi lnes s. A ny i nve s t iga t ion o ft h eA z tec c oncep to ft h eb ody w i l li nvo lve A z tec med ic ine b yp rov id ing i n s igh t si n to A z tec p hy s io log ica lc oncep t s . l T h i sp ape rw i lr ev iew s ome A z tec o r ig in my th s a nd c o smo log ica lb e l ief s w h ich a r e l l r e levan tt ot h e s t udy o ft h e i rc oncep t s a bou tt h eh uman b ody . T h is w i lb ef o lowed b y a r ev iew o ft h ee t h ica lc on sequences w h ich f l ow f r om t h em a nd e xamp le so ft h ea pp l ica t ion o f t h e se p r inc ip le s . A z tec c oncep t s a bou t t h e f unc t ion ing o f t h e h uman b ody a r e t h en e xp lo red w i th a ne mpha s is o nt h er o le p l ayed b yt h et h ree p r inc ipa lm im ic f o rce s( " sou l s" ) , l t ona l i , t e yo l ia , a nd i h iyo t l . T he se f o r ce s w e re t h e ma in c onnec t ion s w h ich l e d t ot h e lne r e c ip roca li nf luence o ft h ec o smo so nm an a nd t ot h ei sse sr e su l t ing f r om v io la t ion o f t h en o rm s . S urvey o fA z tec R e l ig ion A z tec r e l ig ion w a sa ni n s t i tu t iona l ized s t a te -ecc le s ia s t ica lr e l ig ion w i th p r ie s t s ,t emp les a nd man i fo ld r i tua l s .T he re w a sn os epa ra t ion o f chu rch a nd s t a te .T he c i v i lr u le r sp e r fo rmed r e l ig iou s f unc t ion s a nd h i gh r e l ig iou s o ff ic ia l s a l so f i l led g ove rnmen t o ff ice s . A z tec r e l ig ion c an a l so b ed e scr ibed a s av e ry c omp lex ,h igh ly r i tua l ized b e l ie fs y s tem b a sed o n t h e wo r sh ip o fn a tu r e .A n ima l s ,p l an t sa nd n a tu ra lp henomena w e r ef r equen t ly men t ioned i nA z tec my tho logy ( Mu sg rave -Po r t i l la 1 981) .I nc on t ra s tt oo the r ma jo rr e l ig ions ,A z tec r e l ig ion r e ta ined s t rong e l emen t s o f s haman ism ( i l lnes s v oca t ion , u se o fh a l luc inogen s , a l te red s t a tes o fc onsc iou snes s, e t c . ) ( Fu r s t 1 976 : 4 ,5 7 -86 ) . C osmogony Mesoame r ican c o smo log ica lb e l ief sp rov ide many o ft h ee t h ica li mpe ra t ive sc oncer n i ng t h e r o le o f man a nd o fm ed ic ine . S eve ra l o f t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t w i l b e d e scr ibed l ( N icho lson 1 971 : 3 98 -402 ) :

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1 . T he F our S un sT he A z tecs b e l ieved t h a tt h ew o r ld h ad b een c r ea ted a nd d e s t royed s eve ra lt ime s .E ach o ft h e se a ge s( " sun s" )p os i s t inc t ive s e to fc ha rac ter i s t ics a nd s es sed ad e ach w a se nded b y ad i f e ren tk ind o fc a tac ly sm . T he f i r s ts un , O ce lo tona t iuh ,h ad b een f r u led b yt h eg od T ezca t l ipoca . T he E a r th h ad b een i nhab i ted b yg ian t s w ho s ub s i s ted o n a co rns a nd w a sd e s t royed o n ad ay 4 -Oce lo t , a rd ing t ot h eA z tec c a lenda r ,b yj agua r s cco w ho d evou red t h em .T he n ex ts un ,E heca tona t iuh ,h ad b een r u led b yQ ue tza lcoa t l , ag od w ho w a s o ppo sed t o T ezca t l ipoca . Du r ing t h i s e r a , h uman s a t e p ir ion n u t s a nd w e re d e s t royed b y ag rea tw ind s t o rm o n ad ay c a led 4 -W ind .A s ar e su l t ,h uman sw e re c onve r ted l i n to monkey s .T he t h i rd s un ,T le tona t iuh ,h ad b een p re s ided b yT la loc ,t h eg od o fr a in .T he p opu la t ion h ad b een d es t royed b y ar a in o ff i re o n ad ay 4 -Ra in a nd t r an s fo rmed i n to b i rd s . T he f ou r th s un ,A tona t iuh ,w a sr u led b yC ha lch iuh tl icue ,t h ef ema le c oun te rpa r to fT la loc . T he p opu la t ion ,w h ich h ad s ub s is ted o n ag r a in p r ecu r so rt oc o rn ,w a sd e s troyed b y ag r ea t d e luge w h ich made t h es ky f a ld own a nd p lunged t h e wo r ld i n to d a rknes sw e re l s. Human c onve r ted i n to f i sh o n a4 - Wa te rd ay . A l though t h ed e ta i l sc oncer n ing t h ec ha rac te r i s t ics o ft h ei nhab i tan t sa nd t h e mode o f d e s t ruc t ion v a ry ,t h i sc oncep to fs eve ra lc r ea t ion sa nd d e s t ruc t ion so fm ank ind i s pre sen t among t h e Maya ,w ho p reda ted t h eA z tec b ym any c en tur ie s ( Thompson 1 966 : 2 77 -78 ) . T he e sen t ia lm es onveyed b yt h i s my th i so ne o ff a ta l i sm m ixed w i th h ope :t h ew o r ld s s age c w i li n ev i tab ly b ed es t royed ,b u ts i nce w ea r ed eal ing i nc yc le s ,t h e wo r ld w i lb ec r ea ted l l a ga in .T hu sl i f ea nd d ea th a r ei n ter tw ined a nd t h e r ei s a s t rong empha s i so nt h ec oncep to f o ppo s i te s a nd d ua l i ty -T ezca t l ipoca v s Q ue tza lcoa t l , T la loc ( ma le ) v s C ha lch iuh t l icue ( f ema le )e t c . 2 . T he F if th a nd p re sen tS un I t wa s b e l ieved t h a ta f te rt h ed e luge ,t h e E ar th w a si n d a rknes nd a lt h eg od sm e tt or ec rea te t h eS un . Two g od s ,T ecc iz te ,ca t l , ar i ch g od a nd s a l ap aupe rN anahua tz in ( " the l i t le p imp ly o ne" )w e re t oc ompe t ef o rt h eh ono ro fb ecom ing t t h es un b yj ump ing i n to ag r ea tf i r e .T ecc iz teca t l ,w ho h ad c l a imed p r io r i ty b ecau se o fh i s s t a tu s ,b a lked s eve ra lt ime s .N anahua tz in c l a imed t h eh ono r ,j umped i n to t h ef i re ,a nd w a s t r an sfo rmed i n to t h es un .T he s un w a sc r ea ted i n as t a t iona ry o rb i t ,b u ti tn eeded t o move i no rde rt of unc t ion a s ac r ea to ro fv ege ta t ion a nd l i f e . I t needed n ou r i shmen ti no rde rt o move .T h i sw a sp rov ided b yt h ev o lun ta ry s e lf -sa c r if i ce o ft h ea semb led g od sw ho se b lood s f ed t h e s un a nd s e ti ti n mo t ion . T h i s s e ta ne xamp le f o r man t of olow f o ra l t ime . T he l s ymbo l ic m es onveyed b yt h is my th i st h a tt h eg od ss a c r if i ced t h em se lve st oc r ea te t h e s age c wo r ld : a n ima la nd p lan tl i f e ,a nd t h a tt h us m ank ind owed t h em ad eb t . T he s e lf -sac r if i ce o ft h eg od sw a sn o ts uff i c ien tt os a t i sfy t h e s un 's n eed f o rn ou r ish men t . T he s un h ad t ob e f ed d a i ly i no rde rt ob e a b le t oc on t inue i t s d a i ly r ound a nd t o t h e refo r ep reven tt h ee nd o ft h e wo r ld .T h i sw a sm an 's p r ima ry r e spon s ib i l i ty ,a nd w a rw a s i n s t i tu ted f o rt h ep u rpo se o fo b ta in ing c ap t ive sw ho c ou ld b es a c r if iced t o prov ide b lood a nd h ea r t st on ou r i sh t h es un ( N icho lson 1 971 :402 ) .L opez A us t in ( 1980 :402 )c l a im st h a tt h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween g od a nd man w a sm e rcan t i le . Man o b ta ined c rop s ,a nd w a te ra nd w a s f r eed o fi nd p lague sb yd e l ive r ing b lood ,h ea r t s ,f i re ,i n cense a nd q ua i ls a cr if i ce st o lnes s a t h eg od s .T h i si ss uppo r ted e t ymo log ica ly .T he w o rd f o rs a cr if i ce t og od si sn ex t lahua l i z t l i , l l i t e ra ly " t he a c to fp aymen t" ,a nd t h ev i c t im sw e r ec a led n ex t lehuan t in ( " the p aymen t s" ) . l l T he o f e r ing o ff i re t ot h eg od s , t l enamaca ,m ean s" t o s e lf i re" . f l 3 . C rea t ion o fMan ( Lehman 1 938 :330 -338 ;N icho lson 1 971 :4 00 ) .T he t h eme o fs e lf s a cr if ice b yg od si sc on t inued i nt h e my th c once rn ing t h ec r ea t ion o f man .A z tecs b e l ieved t h a t Q ue tza lcoa t l d escended t ot h e u nderwo r ld t og e t t h e b ones a nd a shes o fp r ev ious g ene ra t ion s f r om t h e r u le r o ft h e u nderwo r ld , M ic t lan tecuh t l i . Q ue tza lcoa t l p e r fo rmed

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s u cces sfuly t h e s e ve ra lc ha l leng ing t a sk s i mpo sed a s ap recond i t ion b yM ic t lan tecuh t l i . Q ue tza l coa t lt h en u nde r took t h eh aza rdou sj ou rney b a ck t oe a r th ,b u tw a sc ha sed a nd f e l l d own ,b r eak ing s ome o ft h eb one sh ew a sc a r ry ing .H ed e l ive red t h eb one st ot h ea s semb led g od si nT amoanchan w he re t h eg oddes s C ihuacoa t l -Qu i laz t l i g round t h em a nd p u tt h em i n to ap r ec iou sp e s t le .Q ue tza lcoa t lp r icked h i sp en i sa nd d r ipped h i sb lood o n to t h eb one s . O the rg od sa l so a u to -sa c r if i ced .A f te rf ou rd ay s , ama le c h i ld eme rged ,a nd a f te rf ou r mo re d ay s af ema le i n f an te me rged t o jo in h im . Al mank ind h a sd e scended f r om t h i sp a i r .T he e t ymo logy o ft h e w o rd f o r" commone r "r ef lec t s t h i s my th . " . ..Man w a s t h e re fo r e t h e p roduc to ft h eg od 's p enance .W i th t h e i rs a c r if i ce ,t h eg od s' d e se rved m en 'b a ck t o li f e .F o r t h i sr e a son ,t h ep eop le w e r ec aled m acehua le s , aw o rd w h ich m ean s ' t ho se d ese rved a nd l b rough tb ack t ol i f eb ecau se o fp enance ' " (Leon P o r t i la 1 963 : 11 ) . U n i ty o fu n iver se a nd man t I ns o c ie t ie sw he re my th i ca lt h ough tp redom ina te s ,s u ch a st h eA z tec ,t h e re a r ea temp t s t of i nd t h et o ta lo rde ro ft h eu n ive r se a nd t o make h omo log ie sb e tween n a tu ra la nd s o c ia l se p ro ces s .O ne t a xonomy i sp ro jec ted o n to a no the rt ot r yt oa ch ieve as yn the s i s .A r ch i te c t u r ew a su sed t od rama t ize c o smogony b yc on s t ruc t ing o ne a r th ar educed v e r s ion o ft h e l c o smo su sua ly i n th ef o rm o f as t a te c ap i ta l .T h i ss ymbo l i sm w a s ,i n tu rn ,u sed t o le g i t im ize s b t h es t a tu sa nd p owe r so ft h er u l ing c l as yi d en t i fy ing t h er u le r sw i th t h eg od sa nd t h ep owe r ra o ft h ec o smo s ( Car sco 1 982 : 7 0 -72 ) .T he i d ea lc i ty w a s as a c red s pace o r ien ted a r ound ap a r t icu la r ly s a c red c en te rt emp le o rp y ram id ,w h ich w a sb el ieved t ob et h ec en te ro ft h e l r w o r ld ,t h ep o in to fi n te r sec t ion o fa lt h ew o r ld 's p a th sb o th c e le s t ia la nd t e re s t r ia l .T hu s w e f i nd t h e ma in t emp le o f T eno ch t i t lan r ep r e sen t ing a n a x i s mund i w h ich h a s b een l d e sc r ibed a s" t he m ee t ing p o in to fh eaven ,e a r th a nd h e l" o ra s" t he p o in to fo n to log i ca l t r an s i t ion b e tween s phe re s" ( E l iade 1 965 : 1 2 -17 ) . R ecen t e xcava t ion s o ft h e ma in t emp le o fT enoch t i t lan s how t h a t t h e t emp le i sa n e a r ch i tec tu ra lr ena c tmen to ft h e my th o ft h ec r ea t ion o f Hu i tz i lopoch t l i ,t h es o la rp a t ron g od o f t h e Mex ica A z tecs ( Ma to s Moc tezuma 1 980 ) . C oa tl i cue c once ived H u i tz i lopo ch t l i l l t h rough mag ica l i n te rven t ion a t ap l ace c a led C oa tepec ( " snake h i l" ) . When h e ro t he r c h i ld ren ,t h eC en tzon H u i tznahua ( who r ep re sen ts t a r s ) f ound o u ts he w a sp r egnan tt h ey t s) l w e r ev e ry a ng ry .T hey p l o ted w i th t h e i rs i s te r ,C oyo lxauhqu i( t he moon g oddes ,t ok i l t h i sc h i ld a ss oon a si tw a sb o rn .H u i tz i lopoch t l iw a sf o rewa rned a nd t h r ew h e rd own t h e l s i de o ft h eh i la nd d ef ea ted t h eC en tzon H u i tznahua ,a na na logy o ft h ed e f ea to ft h es t a r s a nd t h e moon b y t h e r i s ing s un ( D ibb le a nd A nde r son 1 950 -1969 : b k .3 , p p . 1 5 ) . A t T enoch t i t lan t h e s e rpen t s b o rde r ing t h e t emp le i nd ica te t h a t t h e t emp le s ymbo l ize s t C oa tepec ; as cu lp tu r eo f ad i smembe r ed C oyo lxauhqu ii ss e ta tt h eb o tom o ft h et emp le , a nd H u i tz i lopo ch t l i ,t h ew inne r ,i sw o r sh ipped a t th et o po ft h et emp le ( Ma to s Moc tezuma 1 980 ) . t L opez A u s t in ( 1 980 : 1 71 -174 ,3 96 -399 )p o in t so u tt h a tt h eA z tec sa temp ted t oc onnec t t h eh uman b ody t ot h eu n ive r se .F o re xamp le ,t h e mo s tc ommon n ame f o rt h eh uman b ody , t o nacayo w a sa l so u sed a s an ame f o rc o rn ,a nd t h ec e r ea lt ow h ich h eo wed h i se x i s tence . AQ u iche Maya my th s t a te st h a tG od made m an o u to fc o rn d ough ( Thomp son 1 966 : 1 77 ) . We k now o fn oc ompa rab le A z tec my th ,b u tt h eA z tec sb e l ieved t h a tQ ue tza lcoa t la nd o t he r g od st r ave led t ot h eu nde rwo r ld t or e t r ieve c o rn a s af ood f o r man . As e cond m e tapho r ica l l p h ra se f o rt h eb ody ,i nt l a l ii nz oqu i t l( " the e a r th ,t h e mud" )i sp robab ly b a sed o na no r ig in my th . We d on o tk now t h eA z tec my th ,b u tt h e Maya my th s t a te st h a tt h eb i r th o f man w a s d ue t ot h ea c t ion o fg od so nw e ts o i l( Lopez A u s t in 1 980 : 1 73 ) .I n mag ica lr i te st h eb ody l w a sc a led b y at h i rd n ame ,C h icomo r toc ( " Seven C ave s" ) ,t h e my th ica lp l a ce o fo r ig in o f

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t h eA z tec t r ibe sb efo re t h e i rm ig r a t ion t oC en t ra l Mex ico .T h i su sage w a sp robab ly d ue t o t h e i rv i ew o ft h eb ody h av ing s e ven o r if ice s .T hu st h eb ody i t se lf i s se en a s ame tapho rf o r t h eA z tec t r iba lo r ig in my th . T he c o smo sw a sd iv ided i n to t wo g r ea tp a r t sw h ich w e r eu sed t o exp la in i t sf unc t ion ing , i t s d i ve r s i ty a nd i t s movemen t . T he se p a i r s w e r e s imu l taneou s ly c once ived o fa s b o th o ppo sed a nd c omp lemen ta ry . T he u n ive r se w a s d i v ided b y ah o r izon ta l p l ane w h ich s e pa ra ted t h eG rea t F a the r( t he h eaven s ) f r om t h eG rea t Mo the r ( e a r th -unde rwo r ld ) . A n l l e xamp le o f an umbe ro fp a i r sw h ich f a lu nde rt h i sc a tego ry f o low s : MOTHER f ema le c o ld d own u nde rwo r ld ,e a r th w e t d a rk n igh t w a te r d ea th

F ATHER m a le h o t u p h eaven s d ry l i gh t d ay f i r e l i f e

T he f i r s th uman s ,a cco rd ing t ot h eA z tec s ,h ad b een c r ea ted f r om b o th c e le s t ia la nd e a r th ly t . ma te r , i e . man w a sc ompo sed o f am ix tu re o fo ppo s ing f o rce s w h ich h ad t ob ek ep ti n l e qu i l ib r ium .T h i sl e dt oa ne t h ic o f mode ra t ion i na lt h ing sa nd t o ab el ief o fd i sequ il ib r ium lnes s. C a s ac au se o fi onve r se ly , man w a sc ha rged w i th t h e ma in tenance o ft h ee qu il ib r ium a nd s t ab i l i ty o ft h eu n ive r se .T h i sw a st o be a ccomp l i shed b yt h ep rope rp e r fo rmance o f du ty s c t ot h e s t a te , t h er u le r s , a nd t h eg od s . H app ines ou ld o n ly b ea ch ieved i fo ne w a si nh i s s l a s igned p l ace .T he A z t ec w o rd f o rd i sg ra ce ,a ompayo t l ,l i t e ra ly m ean s" t he c ond i t ion o f b e ing o u to fp l ace" ( Lopez A u s t in 1 980 : 3 97 ) . Man w a sl o ca ted a tt h ec en t ra lp o in to ft h eg eome t ry o ft h ec o smo s . H e s t ood o n t h e ren s u r f ace o ft h ee a r th a tt h ed i v id ing p o in tw he r et h ec ur t sf r om t h eu ppe ra nd t h el owe r w o r ld m e tt oc r ea te t ime a nd t op roduce c hange s . O n ah o r izon ta l p l ane , t h e wo r ld w a s r t h ough to fa s ar e c tang le o r ac i r c le ,s u rounded b ys e a ,a nd r a i sed a tt h ec o rne r st of o rm t h e l p i la r sw h ich s uppo r ted t h eh eaven s .T he s u r f ace o f th ee a r th w a sd iv ided i n to f ou rs egmen t s s a nd ac en t ra lp o in t .E ach o ft h es pa t ia ls egmen t sw a sa soc ia ted w i th ap a r t icu la rc o lo ra nd w i th t ime ,a sr ep re sen ted b yt h el i nk b e tween t h ed i r ec t ion si ns pa ce a nd t h eo rde r ly r o ta t ion o ft h ey ea r -bea r e r si nt h eA z tec c a lenda r .A cco rd ing t oG a r ibay ( 1959 :77 ) ,t h i sr o ta t ion o f l s pace / t ime -Ea s t( Reed y ea r s )f o lowed i nt u rn b yN o r th ( F l in ty ea r s ) , We s t( Hou se y ea r s ) a nd S ou th ( Rabb i ty ea r s ) ,c on s t i tu ted ar epea ted d ua l i ty w i th t h eo ppo s i t ion o fl i f e -dea th ( No r th -Sou th ) a nd ma le -f ema le (We s t -Ea s t ) . H uman p hy s io logy w a sa ppl ied t o th e i rc oncep t so ft h ec o smo sa nd a na logou s ly ,h uman se p hy s io logy w a se xp la ined i nt e rm so ft h eg ene r a lp ro ces so ft h eu n ive r se ( Lopez A u s t in 1 980 :9 ) .T hu s ,t h ec o smo sw a sd iv ided i n to t h r ee l e ve l s— the s upe r io rh eaven ( i lhu ica t l ) , re t h el owe rh eaven a nd t h eu nde rwo r ld .T he se l e ve l sc or sponded t ot h eh uman b ody a nd t o t h ea n ima t ing f o r ce s( " sou l s" )w h ich r e s ided i nt h eb ody .I l hu ica t lw a sl i nked t ot h eh ead l a nd t ot h ef o r ce t o na l i .T he l owe rh eaven w a sl i nked t ot h eh ea r ta nd t ot h ef o r ce t e yo l ia . S im i la r ly ,t h eu nde rwo r ld w a sl i nked t o th el i ve ra nd t o th ef o r ce i h iyo t lw h ich r e s ided t h e r e . F o re xamp le ,t h ew o rd f o rc u l t iva t ing l a nd w i th ad i gg ing s t ick w a se l im iqu i ," t oh a rm t h e l s ed l l i ve r" ( Lopez A u s t in 1 980 : 3 98 ) . T he se a n im ic f o r ce s w i l b e d i scus a te r i ng r ea te r d e ta i l . 1 94

f T h i sc oncep tl e ad st o ah omo logy i nw h ich t h ea c t ion so ft h ec o smo sa f ec th uman sa nd f t ho se o f h uman s a f ec t t h e c o smo s . F o r e xamp le , t h e movemen t s o f c e le s t ia l b od ie s l i n f luenced t h ef a te a nd h ea l th o fm en ,a nd r e c ip ro ca ly ,t h et e a r so fc h i ld ren d u r ing T la loc 's f e s t iva l s p roduced r a in ( Lopez A u s t in 1 980 : 3 97 ) . T h i s h omo logy o fm an a nd n a tu re i s l s hown l i ngu i s t ica ly b yt h eu se o ft h es ame n omenc la tu r et od e s igna te p a r t so ft h eh uman b ody a nd t h a to ft r ee so ra gave p l an t s . T hu s ,c uauh t lac t l i( " t r ee t r unk" ) ,c on ta in st h er oo t " t lac -" w h ich i su sed t or e f e rt ot h eu ppe rp a r to ft h eh uman b ody .S im i la r ly ,t r ee b ranche s a r e" hand s" ,t h es umm i ti s "ha i r " ,t h eb a rk i s" sk in" a nd t h ew ood i s" f l e sh" . O nt h eo t he r l h and t h es o c ia lo rde ro fh uman s o c ie ty i sp a ra le led i nn a tu re .T he re a r et e cuh t l i( " ru le r s" ) o fb i rd s ,o fs e rpen t sa nd e ven o fo ce lo t s .T he c en te ri se qu iva len tt or u le r sh ip s ot h a tt h e re w a s a" hea r t" o ft h e moun ta in ,o ft h el a ke a nd o ft h ee a r th .T he i d ea o fa na n th ropomo rph ic r se u n ive r se n o to n ly l i nked c e le s t ia la nd t e r e s t r ia lp roces sw i th t h eg e s ta t ion , g row th a nd l e e nd o fh uman l i f e ,b u ti ta l so d r ew ap a ra le lw i th t h eg e rm ina t ion o fs ed sa nd t h ed ea th o f p l an t si nc yc le so fl i gh ta nd d a rk . P an theon o fd e i t ie s T he A z tecs h ad al a rge n umbe ro fd e i t ie s .N icho l son ( 1971 :408 -430 )h a ss umma r ized a nd s yn the s ized t h eg roup .D e i t ie sa r ea n th ropomo rph ic a nd a n im i s t ic a sw eo b se rve t h a t a lmo s t a ny a spec t o f n a tu r e h a s ad e i ty a s so c ia ted w i th i t . Many d e i t ie s h ave a n ima l " doub le s" o ra l ter e go sc a led n ahua l i .D e i t ie sh ave d ua la nd q uad rup le n a tu re s ,t h ef o rme r l l a so c ia ted w i th t h e c oncep t o f o ppo s i te s a nd t h e l a te r a so c ia ted w i th t h e c a rd ina l s t s d i rec t ion s . T he d ua ln a tu r ei s pa r t icu la r ly c ommon i nc r ea to rd e i t ie sb u ti sa l so f ound i n c on so r t d e i t ie s ( i . e . , T la loc -Cha lch iuh t l icue ) . P a r t icu la r s o c io -po l i t ica l g roup s ( t own s , t r ade s , p ro f es s a nd s oc ia l c l a sse s ) h ave s pec ia l t u te la ry d e i t ie s . A l though t h e re i sa sion mu l t ipl i c i ty o fd e i t ie s ,N icho l son f i nd st h a tt h ey c an b eg rouped u nde rt h ree ma jo rt h eme s . O n ly af ew o ft h em a jo rg od sw i lb el i s ted h e re . l 1 ) C e les t ia lC r ea t iv i ty -D iv ine P a te rna l i sm Ome teo t l ( God o fD ua l i ty )c omp lex T ezca t l ipoca c omp lex X iuh tecuh t l ic omp lex 2 ) R a in - Mo i s tu r e -Ag r icu l tu ra lF e r t i l i ty T la loc c omp lex l C en t eo t l( Co rn God ) -Xo ch ip i l ic omp lex Ome toch t l i( f e r t i l i ty g od )c omp lex T e teo I nnan ( Ea r th G oddes s) c omp lex X ipe T o tec c omp lex 3 ) Wa r -Sac r if i ce -Sangu ina ry N ou r i shmen to ft h eS un a nd E a r th T ona t iuh ( Sun God )c omp lex H u i tz i lopoch t l ic omp lex 4 ) Q ue tza lcoa t la s ad e i ty c omb ine sc ha rac te r i s t ic so fs eve ra lt h eme s . H ei s ap r ime c r ea to rb u ta l so p a r t ic ipa te si nt h eR a in -Fe r t i l i ty c omp lex . D e i t ie sh ad i mpo r tan tb u tv a ry ing i nf luence sa nd f unc t ion sa sp a t ron s ,o ft h ed ay sa nd l o ft h e l o nge rd iv i s ion s o ft h e Me soame r ican c a lenda r . T h i s a spec t w i l b e d ea l t w i th i n lne c onnec t ion w i th t h eh ea l th a nd i ss a spec t so fa s t ro logy a nd b i r th d a te s .F o ro u rp u rpo se s f i ti si n t e r es t ing t h a tv io la t ion so f ri tua lo ro f en se sa ga in s tp a r t icu la rg od sw ou ld b r ing a bou t s p un i shmen ti nt h ef o rm o ft h ed i sea ses p a r t icu la r ly a soc ia ted w i th t h a td e i ty .I f ac oup le l h ad s exua li n te rcou r se d u r ing p e r iod so fr i tua la b s t inence , Xo ch ip i l i ,g od o fs ex a nd l o ve ,

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wou ld a fl i c tt h em w i th v ene r ea ld i sea se s a nd h emor id s ( D ibb le a nd A nde r son 1 950 f rho 1 969 :b k .1 ,p .3 1 ) .X ipe T o tec ,g od o fs p r ing a nd o ft h e" r enewa lo ft h es k in o ft h ee a r th" , i fo f ended w ou ld a f ec tp eop le w i th b l i s te r s ,e ye p a in sa nd c a ta rac t s( D ibb le a nd A nde r son f f 1 950 -1969 : b k .1 , p .3 9 ) . T la loc 's a nge r t ok t h e f o rm o fg ou t , d rop sy , r h euma t i sm , o r o t e ococo l i z t l i( " d iv ine i )u sua ly t r an s la t ed a sl e p ro sy a nd o the ra i lmen t sa so c ia ted lnes s" l s w i th w a te ra nd c o ld ( D ibb le a nd A nde r son 1 950 -1969 : b k .1 , p .4 5 ) . D ea th d ue t ot h e se lnes se i s ,b yd rown ing o rb y al i gh tn ing s t r ike ( a l so c on s ide red t ob ed ue t o Tla loc )w a sn o t sa n eces r i ly am i sfo r tune s i nce i t wa s b e l ieved t h a t t h e v i c t im s w ou ld b e r ebo rn t ot h e p l ea su r e so fT la locan ,T la lo c 's p a rad i se ( Lopez A u s t in 1 971 ) . E th ica lB a s is Wigbe r to J imenez Mo reno ( 1971 )h a sp o in ted o u t af undamen ta ld i s t inc t ion b e tween Mesoame r ican r e l ig ion sa nd C h r i s t ian i ty : " The re i saf undamen ta ld i s t inc t ion b e tween i n d igenou sr e l ig ion sa nd t h a to fC h r i s t . t I nt h el a te r ,t h e ma jo re mpha s i si s pu to nt h es a lva t ion o ft h es ou la nd t hu so nt h e w e lf a re o ft h e i nd iv idua l i nt h e a f te r l i f e . Wh i le , i np r e -H i span ic p agan i sm , t h e empha s i s i sp u to n p re se rv ing t h e c o sm ic o rde r , a nd t h e i nd iv idua l , a s s uch , h a s l a lmo s t n ov a lue i ni s o la t ion e xcep tt ot h e e x ten tt h a th ec on t r ibu te s t oc o lec t ive a c t iv i t ie st h a th ave t h ec on se rva t ion o ft h a to rde ra s ag oa l . Wh i le aC h r i s t ian t h ink s t h a to ne mu s tp e r f ec to ne 's c ha ra c te ra nd mu s tl o ve o t he r s ,i ni nd igenou sr e l ig ion s t h ee t h ica ln o rm sp u tg r ea te r empha s i so nt h eg ood o ft h eg roup r a the rt h an t h a to f t h ei nd iv idua l. .." (aut ho r 's t r an s la t ion ) Me soame r ican r e l ig ion s a r e p r ime e xamp le s o f Du rkhe im 's ( 1915 ) t h eo ry t h a t t h e f unc t ion o fr el ig ion i st oe nfo r ce s oc ia ls o l ida r i ty o ni t sm embe r s .T he Mesoame r ican r u le r s a l igned t h em se lve s w i th t h e c en t ra l a x i s o ft h e u n ive r se , a sm en t ioned a bove , a nd w i th t f l c r ea t ion i t se lf ,s e t ing t h em se lve so fs ymbo l ica ly a s ar a ce a pa r tf r om o rd ina ry h uman k i nd ra ( Coe 1 981 : 1 83 ; C ar sco 1 982 : 1 51 , 1 61 ) . T hu s , d u ty t ot h e s t a te b ecame ar el ig iou s c ommand a nd w a s d iv ine ly s anc t ioned . Go ing t o w a r , p a r t icu la r ly f o r t h e p u rpo se o f rio c ap tu r ing w ar r st ob e s a c r if iced i no rde rt op r even tt h ew o r ld f r om e nd ing , b ecame a sion s a c r ed m is ,a nd t h e Mex ica A z tec c on s ide r ed t h em se lve st ob et h e" Peop le o ft h eS un" , . i e . ,G od 's c ho sen .T he A z tec my th so fo r ig in o ft h eh uman s pec ie ss e rved s eve ra lp u rpo se s rio i nt h i s c onnec t ion . T he a l te rna te d om in ion o ft h e " sun s" a nd t h e d ea th o fw ar rg od s p rov ided i d eo log ica ls uppo r tf o rt r ibe sw h ich w an ted t o ju s t i fy t h e i rh egemon ic p o s i t ion . T he se my th s w e re a l so t h e b a s i s o ft h e m echan i sm s o f s o c ia l c on t ro l , o ft h e p ra i se o f t b a t lef ie ld c ou rage a nd o fp opu la rs uppo r tf o rt h em i l i ta r i s t i ce nd so ft h eg roup i np owe r . Al a rge c omponen to fs o c ia lc on t ro li n vo lved t h eu se o fe t io logy o fd i sea se sw ho se c au se f e f ec tr e la t ion sh ip sc ou ld o n ly b ee xp la ined b yt h es upe rna tu r a l( Lopez A u s t in 1 980 :272 ) . Ap e r son 's f a te i nt h ea f te rl i f ed epended p r ima r i ly o nt h e manne ro fd ea th r a the rt h an o n b ehav io ro ne a r th . T he re w a s n od oc t r ine o fp e r sona l s a lva t ion . P e r son s who d i ed b y T la loc 's i n te rven t ion w en tt o Tla lo can , af e r t i le p l a ce w i th a bundan tf ood .P eop le w ho d i ed lnes s o l o rd ina ry d ea th s b y i ra cc iden tw en tt o ap l ace c a led M ic t lan , w he re t h e i r s ou l s u nde rwen t as e r ie so fn i ne h el sf o r ap e r iod o ff ou ry ea r s . t Ap e r son 's b e s tf a te w a st od i ei nb a t le o ra s as a c r if i c ia lv i c t im .I nt h i sc a se ,t h es ou l s c w e re d e s t ined t oa company t h es un i ni t sj ou rney f r om E a s tt o We s tf r om s un r i se t on oon . rio t A f te rf ou ry ea r s ,t h es ou l so ft h e se w ar r sw ou ld b er ebor na sh umm ingb i rd so rb u te r f l ie s , w h ich e xp la in st h ea bundan tu se o ft h e se i mage si nA z tec p oe t ry .T he se b e l ief sp rov ide a t l lu p owe r fu li mpe tu st owa rd sd ea th i nb a t le .T he f o low ing p oem i s one o fm any i s t ra t ing t h i st h eme ( Leon P o r t ila 1 969 : 8 7 -88 ) . 1 96

" The re i s ac l amo ro fb el s , t h ed u s tr i se sa si fi tw e r es moke . T he G ive ro fL i f ei s gr a t e fu l . S h ie ld F lowe r so pen t h e i rb los s , s om t h eg l o ry s p read s , i tb ecome sl i nked t oe a r th . D ea th i s he re a mong t h ef l owe r s i nt h em id s to ft h ep l a in ! C lo se t ot h ew a r , w he re t h ew a rb eg in s , i nt h em id s to ft h ep l a in , t h ed u s tr i se sa si fi tw e r es moke , e n t ang led a nd t w i s ted r ound w i th f l owe ry s t rand so fd ea th . O hC h ich imec p r ince s ! D on o tf e a r , my h ea r t ! I nt h em id s to ft h ep l a in , my h ea r tc r ave sd ea th b yt h eo b s id ian e dge . O n ly t h i s my h ea r tc r ave s : d ea th i nw a r .. .. " Women w ho d i ed i n ch i ldb i r th , wh ich w a sc on s ide red s ymbo l ic c omba t ,w ou ld a ccompany t h es un f r om n oon t os un se t .H oweve r ,t h e se w omen w ou ld n o tb er ebo rn a sh umm ingb i rd s ( Ca so 1 958 : 5 8 -65 ) . l l A z tec f o rma le duca t ion a sw e la sf o rma l ized o r a t ion sa nd a dmon i t ion sc a led h uehue t l t l a to l i( " ta lk so ft h ee lde r s" ) ,e mpha s ized t h ei d ea o fd u ty a s ak ey e t h ic .L i t le v a lue w a s l p l a ced o n i nd iv idua l f r eedom , s e l f fu lf i lmen t o r a u tonomy . T he c r uc ia l v a lue s w e re o b ed ience ,r e spec t ,c onfo rm i ty , mode ra t ion ,h one s ty a nd t h eg ood o ft h es oc ia lg roup .T h i s l r l o ya l ty e x tended f r om f am i ly t oc a lpu l i , at e r i to r ia ls ubd iv i s ion o ft h ec i ty ,a nd t o th es t a te . sion f T h i sv i ew c an b ec on t ra s ted w i th r e comm enda t ion so ft h eP re s iden t 's C omm is o rt h e s t udy o fE th ica l P rob lem s i n Med i c ine o n d e c i s ion s t of o rego t r ea tm en t s f o r s e r iou s ly r i mpa i red i n fan t s . A sR hoden a nd A ra s( 1 985 )c ommen t : 4... C omm is sion

h a s r e commended t h a t ' t he b es t i n te r e s t s o ft h e c h i ld ' s hou ld g ove rn d ec i s ion mak ing i n th en eona ta ln u r se ry .S ign if i can t ly s uch as t anda rd w ou ld p r ec lude a ny a nd a l l c on s ide r a t ion o fp os sib le a dve r se e f f ec t s o f ac h i ld o n h e r p a r en t s ,s i b l ing so rs oc ie ty a tl a rge .' Bu rden t oo t he r s 'i st h en r u led o u ta s ap os sib le j u s t if ica t ion f o rn on t r ea tmen to fa ni mpe r i led n ew b or n. .. " S uch as t a temen tw ou ld b ei n conce ivab le i nt h eA z tec e t h ica lt r ad i t ion o fp l ac ing i n te re s t s o ft h eg roup o ve rt h o se o ft h ei nd iv idua l s . T he v i ew so fA z tec so nt h eu se o fa l coho lc an b et i ed t ot h i sc oncep to fd u ty a s ap r ime v a lue .T he re w e re s e ve re s t r i c tu r e sa ga in s tt h eo ve ru se o fo c t / i ,f e rmen ted A gave s p . s a p . T he r ew a sa na ppa ren tf e a ro f al o s so fc on t ro l ,o ft h ea b i l i ty t op e r fo rm o ne 's d u ty . Memb e r s o f t h e n ob i l i ty , t h e p ip i l t in w e r e h e ld t o ah i ghe r s t anda rd o f b ehav io r t h an w e re t h e c ommone r s ,m acehua l t in .T he r a t iona le s e em st ob et h a tn ob le s , h av ing r e ce ived g r ea te r b ene f i t s f r om t h e s t a te , o we s t r ic te rs t anda rd s o fp e r fo rmance t oi t .T hu s , ap r ie s tf ound d runk w a sp un i shed w i th d ea th a nd d ea th t ow a st h ep un i shmen tf o rn ob le sf ound d runk o i nt h ep a la ce .T he d runken c ommone rh ad h i sh ead s haved f o rt h ef i r s to f en se b u tr e pea t f

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f s o f ende r s w e re p un i shed w i th d ea th . T he c oncep t t i e s t o ge the ri d ea s c once rn ing l o s o f s a c on t ro l ,d runkennes nd d u ty t ot h e s t a te a nd i ss uppo r ted b yt h e f a c tt h a to l dm en a nd l w omen w e re a lowed t o dr ink a nd t og e td runk w i th i mpun i ty ,p r e sumab ly b ecau se t h ey h ad d i scha rged t h e i r o b l iga t ion t o s e rve t h e s t a te a nd w e r e n o l o nge r s ub jec t t ot h e s ame l l s t r ic tu re sa sy ounge rp eop le ( Sou s te le 1 970 : 1 57 ) .C omp le te a b s t inence w a sn o tc a led f o r , l s i nce o c t / iw a su sed a s af ood . Mode ra t ion i ni t su se w a st h ek ey ,a si na lo t he rt h ing s .T he f s a l l e f ec t so fd runkennes sw e la st h ei nge s t ion o fh a luc inogen sw e re e xp la ined i nt e rm so f ses sion o t h e p os f t h e i n d iv idua l b y s upe rna tu ra l b e ing s t h a t i n hab i ted t h e se p roduc t s . l D r ink ing o c t / ii n t roduced i n to t h eb ody o ne o ft h e4 00 d e i t ie st h ey c a led " Rabb i t s" .T he l l a rge n umbe rw a su sed t o exp la in a lt h ev a r ie t ie so f drunk s( i . e . ,p ugnac iou s ,s l eepy ,w eepy , t f e t c . )b ya t r ibu t ing d i f e r en tt y pe st op a r t icu la rr abb i t s .P eop le w ho w e re b o rn o n ad ay 2 l e R abb i tw e re d e s t ined t ob ea l coho l ic s .L opez A u s t in ( 1 980 :4 43 -467 ) ,a sw ew i ls el a t e r , l f a l so p o in t so u tt h a tn ob le sw e re c on s ide r ed t ob ep hy s ica ly d i f e r en tf r om c ommone r s . re 1 S eve ra lo b se rve r s( Fu r s t 1 976 ; S chu l te sa nd Ho fmann 1 979 :7 7 ; L aB ar 970 )h ave p o in ted o u tt h a ts haman i sm a nd t h eu se o fh aluc inogen sh ave p e r s i s ted i nt h eN ew Wo r ld s t o ag r ea te rd eg r ee t h an e l sewhe r e .I ti s be l ieved t h a ts haman i sm ,w h ich i sa soc ia ted w i th ah un t ing a nd g a the r ing l i f es t y le ,c ame t ot h eN ew Wo r ld w i th t h eo r ig ina lm ig ran t sf r om S ibe r ia , a nd w a s n o tr ep la ced b y o t he rr e l ig ion s a sw a s t h e c a se i nt h e O ld Wo r ld . I t is p a r t icu la r ly i n te r es t ing t h a t A z tec s o c ie ty r e ta ined s haman i s t ic e l emen t s a nd t h e u se o f l h a luc inogen s , a nd t h a tt h i s w a sd one i nt h ec on tex to f as t a te r e l ig ion r a the rt h an i nt h e l s s imp le s o c ie t ie st h a tt h ey a r eu sua ly a so c ia ted w i th .S peak ing o f peyo t e ,t l apa t l( Da tura f s p . )a nd o l o l iuhqu i( R ivea s p . ) ,A z t ec t e x t su se l a nguage t h a ti nd ica te st h a tt h e i re f ec t sw e re s es s ed b b e l ieved t ob ed ue t o peop le b e ing p os yd e i t ie sc on ta ined i nt h ep l an t .T h i sc oncep t sed b o f" god i n a p l an t" i se xp res yt h ew o rd e n theogen ," God w i th in u s" ,w h ich R uck ( 1980 : l x i v )c o ined t or ep lace t e rm s s u ch a sh a luc inogen s ,p sycho tom ime t ic sa nd p sychede l ic s . o s es sion o T he se d rug sh ad ad oub le f unc t ion .T hey h ou sed t h eg od w h ich t ok p os ft h o se l w ho p a r took a nd t h ey s en tt h et o na l i( one o ft h et h r ee s ou l s )o na no u t -o f -body t r ip t ot h e l d we l ing o ft h eg od s( Lopez A u s t in 1 980 :4 08 ,4 11 ) .T h i so u t -o f -body e xpe r ience w a su sed lnes s a t od i agno se i nd t of i nd t h e a pp rop r ia te r emedy . S haman ic c u r ing a nd t h e u se o f s on 1 e n theogen si s st il w ide sp read a mong n a t ive g roup si n Me soam e r ica (Was 980 ;F u r s t 1 976 ) .T oday a si nt h et ime o ft h eA z tec s ,t h ev o ca t ion o fc e r ta in t y pes o fh ea le r sa nd t h e i r l f p owe rt oh ea li so b ta ined i nt r ip st ot h eb eyond .H ew ho i sc a led b yG od s u f e r s at r an s i to ry t lnes s, a d ea th b yl i gh tn ing ,b ya ne p i lep t ic a tack o rd u r ing as e r iou si nd o b ta in si nt h eo t he r w o r ld t h es e c r e t so fh ea l ing . e We k now t h a t v i s ion s s en u nde r t h e i nf luence o f p sychede l ic s a r e p ro jec t ion s o f o u r se lve s ,b u tt os haman sa nd o t he ra bo r ig ina lu se r s ,t h ee n theogen ic e xpe r ience i sa no the r e d imen s ion o fr e a l i ty .B ecau se i ti s accompan ied b yf e l ing so fe c s ta sy a nd s i gn if icance ,i t l i su sua ly c on s ide red t o be a" supe r io r" f o rm o f re al i ty .E thnog raph icaly ,w eh ave e v idence l t h a ts oc ie t ie sw h ich u se e n theogen sc on s ide rt h ec o smo st ob ec ompo sed o fp a ra le lw o r ld s sib i n c lud ing a n u ppe r a nd al owe r w o r ld , w h ich a r e o n ly a cces le t ot h e s haman v i a a n e x t raco rpo r ea lv oyage i n an a l te red s t a te o f con sc iou sne ss i nduced b yp sychede l ic s .R e iche l f ( D o lma tof 1 978 : 1 51 -152 )p o in t so u tt h a tI nd ian sd i s t ingu i sh b e tween k now ledge t h a ti s p e r ce ived i n o rd ina ry r e a l i ty a nd i n vo lve s v i sua l r e cogn i t ion a nd a s e cond t y pe o f s k now ledge w h ich t h em ind " hea r s" .T hu s ,o ne d oe sn o tt r u ly c omp rehend " r eal i ty" u n les e s o ne u nde r s tand st h es ymbo l ic m ean ing o ft h ing sa ss en i na na l te r ed s t a te o fc on sc iou snes e s on ( i na dd i t ion t ow ha ti ss en i no u rw o r ld .T h i sc oncep t ,a s Was 1 980 )p o in t so u t ,c an h e lp t ou nde r s tand w hy t h eA z tec sc l a imed t h a to n ly x och i t lc u ica t l( "f lowe r -song" , am e tapho r l f o rp oe t ry )c ou ld l e ad t ot h et r u th a nd t h a tt r u th w a s" no tf ound o ne a r th" ( Leon P o r t i la

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1 961 : 1 28 ) . A s L eon P o r t i la p o in t s o u t , t h i s m e tapho rr e f e r s t ot h e a r t i s t ic e ndeavo ri n l g ene ra la nd t ot h ee xa l ted s t a te t h a ts u ch c r ea t iv i ty c an p roduce .I tmay w el b et h a tx och i t l may o cca s iona ly r e f e r t oh a luc inogen s , a s Was l a im s , o r p e rhap s t h a t t h e d i v ine l l s on c p os o l t eo t l , w h ich d i s t ingu i shed t r ue a r t i s t s , w a s c on s ide r ed a na logou s t o t h e ses sion y p os h a tt ook p l ace u pon i n ge s t ion o fe n theogen s . s es sion t T h i sc or spondence b e tween t h eh uman b ody a nd t h ec o smo sm ean tt h a ti ou ld re lnes s c b e p roduced a s ar ef l ec t ion o f ad i sequ i l ib r ium e l sewhe re i n t h e u n ive r se , o r f r om a n i n t ru s ion o rp os yb e ing sf r om t h eu nde rwo r ld o rt h eh eaven s ,o rf r om t h el o so f s es sion b s a" sou l" o ra n im ic f o r ce t ot h e se o t he rw o r ld s . D iagno s i so rc u re o ft h e se d i sea se sw ou ld r equ i r et h ep hy s ic ian t ot r ave lt ot h e se o t he rw o r ld si no rde rt ob ee f ec t ive .L opez A u s t in f e xp la in st h ep roces 1984 : 13 ) . s ( " The v oyage t ot h ec o smo sw a sa ccomp l i shed t h rough r i tua l a nd t h ei nges t ion o f p sycho t rop ic s ,w h ich r e su l ted i nt h ep hy s ic ian b e ing c aled p ah in i ,t h a ti s" he w ho c on sume s med ic ine" . I ns om er i tua l s ,t h e mag ic ian -do c to rs e tu ph i sp l a ce o nt h e s u r f a ce o ft h ee a r th ,r ep roduced p hy s ica ly b y ama to n wh ich af i re s ymbo l ized t h e l c en t e ro ft h e e a r th a nd f ou ro b jec t sp l a ced a tt h e c o rne r sr ep re sen t ed t h e c o sm ic l s p i la r sb y wh ich t h eg od sa nd t h e i ri n f luence sa s cended a nd d e scended .H i sa cces o t ot h e f o rb idden p l ace s t ok p l a ce b y t h e s ame r ou te s u sed b y t h e g od s , a nd t h e l p hy s ic ian c a led h im se lf -'It h et r ave le rw ho g oe st ot h e Wo r ld o ft h eD ead , It h e t r ave le rw ho g oe st ot h a tw h ich i sa bove u s '( n ian iM ic t lan ,n i an it o pan ) .O ne o ft h e sa n eces ry p re requ i s i te sw a st h ep a r t icu la rl a nguage u sed t oc ommun ica te w i th t h e l l l i n v i s ib le b e ing s ,t h en ahua la to l i .B yh av ing h i st o na l il e ave h i sb ody a nd l o ca te i t se l fi ne i the rt h eu ppe ro rt h el owe rw o r ld ,t h ep hy s ic ian w a sa b le t oc onf ron tt ime f r eed f r om ( t he c on s t ra in t s )o ft h er e a l i ty o ft h ei n te rmed ia t es e c to ro ft h ec o smo s lnes s, p ( i . e .t h ee a r th ) .T he r e ,h ec ou ld s e a r ch a nd d i scove rt h ec au se o fi e r ce ive t h e f p rogno s i s ,a nd o pe ra te i n my th ic t ime t oa f ec tt h es upe rna tu ra lf a c to r sw h ich w e r e r e spon s ib le f o rt h ep a tho logy o fh i sp a t ien t .H et h en r e tu rned t ot h em idd le s e c to ro f t h ec o smo s w i th w ha th eh ad a cqu i red , a nd t h e re h ew a s a b le t oa c tw i th h i sn ew k now ledge o rd ea lw i th ac ond i t ion w h ich h eh ad mod if ied b yh i sa c t ion si nt h eo t he r w o r ld ." Mu l t ip le S ou ls ( An im ic F orce s ) T he A z tec s b e l ieved t h a t t h e h uman b ody h ad s eve ra l m im ic f o rce s ( s ou l s ) . T he l p r inc ipa lo ne sw e re — t o na l i ,w h ich w a sp r edom inan t ly l o ca ted i nt h eh ead ,t e yo l ia ,w h ich w a sl o ca ted i nt h eh ea r ta nd i h iyo t l ,w h ich w a sl o ca ted a nd emana ted f r om t h el i ve r .E a ch o ft h e se s ou l sh ad c omp lex s p ec i f ic f unc t ion sa nd t h eh ea l th o fa ni nd iv idua ld epended o n t h eh a rmony t h a tc ou ld b ee s tab l i shed b e tween t h em a nd o nt h er e la t ive a moun to fe a ch t h a t w a sp re sen t( Lopez A u s t in 1 983 ) . l s ed T ona l iw a s af o r ce t h a td e te rm ined t h ed eg ree o f vi ta l i ty i na ni nd iv idua l ,t h a ti mp r es f ap a r t icu la rt empe ramen to nh im ,w h ich a f ec ted h i sf u tu re c onduc t ,a nd w h ich e s tab l i shed l l l al i nk b e tween man a nd t h ed i v ine w i lb ym ean so fh i sa loca ted f a te .T he w o rd t o na l ih a s an umbe ro f mean ing s . T he r oo t ,t o na m ean sh ea t ,w a rm th a nd i sr e la ted t ot h e s un g od , T ona t iuh a nd t ot h eb a s ic Me soame r ican r i tua lc a lenda r .T h i sc a lenda r ,w h ich w a sb a sed sib f o nt h ei n te ra c t ion o ft h en umb e r s 1 13 a nd t wen ty d ay n ame sf o r ap os le 2 60 d i f e ren t c omb ina t ion s ,h ad e x i s t ed f r om t h et ime o ft h ee a r l ie s t Maya s .T h i sa s t ro log ica lc a lenda r a nd t h ep a t ron d e i t ie so ft h ev a r iou sd ay sd e te rm ined t h ed e s t iny o fp e r son s .T he t o na lama t l ( " book o ft h ed ay so rf a te s" )w a si n te rp r e ted b ys pec ia l i s tp r ie s t s ,t h et o na lpouhque ,w ho c ou ld c a lcu la te t h ec omp lex i n te ra c t ion o f omen sa nd p red ic tt h ef a te o f an ewbo rn c h i ld .

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A bi r thda te c ou ld d e te rm ine f u tu re h ea l th ,t h el e ng th o f ap e r son 's l i f ea nd e ven t h et y pe a nd f r equency o fa i lmen t st ow h ich o ne m igh tb es ub jec ted .F o re xamp le ,p eop le b o rn o n ad ay s w l 1 -Tw i s ted G ras ou ld h ave many c h i ld ren b u t t h ey wou ld a l d i e y oung ( D ibb le a nd A nde r son 1 950 -1969 :b k .4 ,5 5 ) .T ho se b o rn o n ad ay 6 -Dog w ou ld b es i ck ly a nd w eak a nd l f w ou ld s oon f a ld ead ," . ..I f he l i ved ,h ew ou ld l i ve o n ly i ns u f e r ing. ..w ou ld g oa bou t l c on s tan t ly a nd c on t inou s ly c ough ing ,p a l id ,g r een f a ced ,w h i t ew i th c o ld ,e t c ." ( D ibb le a nd A nde r son 1 950 -1969 :b k .4 ,7 3 ) .O nt h eo the rh and ,t h o se b o rn o n 1 -L iza rd w ou ld b ev e ry l s t rong a nd h ea l thy .T hey w ou ld e ven b ea b le t os u rv ive f a l sw i thou th a rm ,a sl i za rd sd o ( D ibb le a nd A nde r son 1 950 -1969 : b k .4 , 8 3 ) . T he se f a te sw e r en o ta b so lu te ly i nf lex ib le .T ona lpouhque p r ies t sc ou ld c oun se lp a r en t s t os h if tb ap t i sm o ft h ec h i ld b ys eve ra ld ay st oa m e l io ra te ab ad omen ( by m ak ing i ta ppea r f t h a tt h ec h i ld h ad b een b o rn o n ad i f e r en td ay ) ,s i nce c h i ld r en w e re s uppo sed t ob eb a thed l l r i tua ly f ou rd ay sa f te rb i r th ( Sou s te le 1 970 : 1 65 ) . Many o ft h ef o reca s t so ft h et o na lama t l l w e re p re sen ted i nt e rm so ft empe r amen ta nd b ehav io r .T h i si mp l ies t h a tt h et o na l ic ou ld f sib i n te rac tw i th t h eo t he rt wo a n im ic f o r ce s .T hu s ,d i f e r en tf a te sw e re p os le d epend ing o n l t h et empe ramen t( t ona l i )o ft h ei n d iv idua la nd p a r t icu la rc i r cum s tance s . F o re xamp le , a r w oman b o rn o n 1 -F lowe rw a sd e s t ined t ob e a n a b le w eave rb u to n ly i f she c a r ied o u t l p enance s ,d rew b l ood a nd f a s ted o n1 -F lowe rd ay s .I fs he d id n o t ,s he wou ld h a rm h e rt o na l i a nd wou ld e nd i nm i se ry a nd p ove r ty a s ah a r lo ta nd p ro s t i tu te ( D ibb le a nd A nde r son 1 950 1 969 : b k .4 ,2 5 ) . l T ona l i a s a n a n ima t ing f o r ce w h ich p rov id ed v igo r w a s i n fused i n to t h e f e tu s b y Ome teo t l , g od o fd ua l i ty a nd ac r ea to r g od . S im i la r ly , t e yo l ia , t h e a n im ic f o r ce w h ich r e s ided i nt h eh ea r t ,w a si n fu sed b yd e i t ie si nu t e ro .H oweve r ,a f te rb e ing b o rn ,t h ec h i ld re n eeded s t ronge r v i ta l f o r ce s i n o rde r t o p ro spe r , a nd t h e c or spond ing r i tua l s w e re l l f o lowed .T he s un w a st h eb e s ts ou r ce o ft o na l ib u ti tw a st h ough td ange rou st oe xpo se a l n ewbo rn t oi tw i thou tk now ing w he the rt h ec h i ld 's b i r thday w a s ag ood o rb ad t o na l i( i n sa i t sm ean ing a s af a te o rt empe ramen t ) .T he refo r ei tw a sn eces ry t os upp ly a no the rf o rm o fh ea t . When ab aby w a sb o rn , af i r ew a sl i ti nt h er oom a nd w a sk ep tc on s tan t ly b u rn ing s f o rf ou rd ay su n t i lt h eb aby w a sr i tualy b a thed ,g i ven h i sn am ea nd a s igned h i sd ef in i te l s age t o na l i .T he b a th c e remony , ar i te o f pas ,s imu la ted ar eb i r th .A tt h a tt ime , Ome teo t lw a s l a sked t og i ve t h ec h i ld a dd i t iona lt o na l i .A tt h i st ime t h ey a l so i mp lo red C ha lch iuh t l icue f o ra dd i t iona lt e yo l ia f o rt h eb aby ( Lopez A u s t in 1 980 : 2 28 -233 ,2 54 ) . l e T ona l iw a sc on s ide red t ob e ap e r sona ll i nk w i th t h eh eaven sa nd t h ed e i t ies .I ts em s t h a tt h i sl i nk w a sc once ived a sp hy s ica li nn a tu r eb u ti nv i s ib le .I tw a sp o ss ib ly c once ived l a s as t r ing e x tend ing f r om ap e r son 's h ead a nd c onnec t ing h im o rh e rt ot h eh eaven s .T ona l i e s w a ss en a se sen t ia lt ot h eg row th a nd d eve lopmen to fc h i ld ren .T hu s ,s e ve r ing t h i sl i nk w ou ld r e su l ti ns t un ted g row th .F o re xamp le ,i fs om eone j umped o ve r ac h i ld w ho w a sl y ing l d own ,i tw a sb el ieved t h a tt h ec h i ld w ou ld n o tg row ( p re sumab ly b ecau se h i st ona l iw ou ld sa b eb en to rd amaged ) .I no rde rt ou ndo t h eh a rm i tw a sn eces ry t oj ump o ve rt h ec h i ld i n t h er e ve r se d i rec t ion ( D ibb le a nd A nde r son 1 950 -1969 : b k .4 , 1 84 ) . l T ona l ic ou ld l e ave t h eb ody ,b u tt h e re w a s ad i s t inc t ion b e tween n o rma la nd a bno rma l l s d epa r tu r e sa nd b e tween v o lun ta ry a nd i n vo lun ta ry d epa r tu re s .T ona l iw a se sen t ia lf o rl i f e . O ne c ou ld l i ve w i thou ti tb u to n ly f o r as ho r tt im e .T he A z t ec sb e l ieved t h a td r eam sw e re l l t h ep e rcep t ion b yt o na l io fr e a l i ty i np l ace sd i s tan tf r om t h eb ody .T ona l ia l so l e f tt h eb ody rup d u r ing s e xua li n te r cou r se .T he re w e re s t r ic tu re sa ga in s ts udden i n ter t ion o fc o i tu sw h ich l l w ou ld n o ta low t h et o na l it or e tur ns l ow ly a nd g r adualy t ot h eb ody a nd c ou ld p roduce lnes se l i s( Lopez A u s t in 1 980 :2 24 ,3 32 ) .S haman s ,h oweve r ,c ou ld s end t h e i rt o na l io no u t -

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o f -body e xcu r s ion sv o lun ta r i ly w i thou ta dve r se c on sequence s . I nvo lun ta ry l o so ft o na l ic au sed i nd e ven d ea th .T h i sl o ss c ou ld b et h er e su l t s l lnes s a o fc u t ing t h eh a i r sf r om t h ec rown o ft h eh ead o rt h er e su l to f as udden s c a r e . T he mo s t t c ommon c au se w a sf r igh ta sr ef l ec ted i n Mo l ina 's ( 1970 )d ef in i t ion o ft h ew o rd n e tona l c ahua l i z t l i , " f r igh t o f s om eone w ho i sf r igh tened" b u t l i t e ra ly " t he a bandonmen t o f l t o na l i" .C h i ld ren w e r ep a r t icu la r ly p rone t o los ft o na l ib ecau se t h e i rf on tane le sh ad n o t l s o l l c l o sed c omp le te ly a nd t h u sp rov ided a no pen ing t h rough w h ich t o na l ic ou ld e s cape . l T he s e cond a n im ic f o r ce t e yo l ia ( "wha tg i ve sl i f et op eop le" ) ,r e s ided p r ima r i ly i nt h e h ea r t .I tp rov ided v i ta l i ty ,k now ledge a nd i n c l ina t ion b ecau se f o rt h eA z tec st h ec en te ro f l l t h ei n te lec tw a si n th eh ea r t .T he h ea r tw a st i ed t ot h ough t ,t o emo t ion ,t ow i la nd m emo ry . T hu si tw a ss a id t h a tp eop le w ho h ad a ch ieved d i s t inc t ion i nt h ef i e ld so fa r t ,d i v ina t ion o r i mag ina t ion h ad r e ce ived ad i v ine f o rce a nd w e r ey o l t eo t l ," de if ied h ea r t" ( Lopez A u s t in 1 980 : 2 56 ) .T h i sf o rce w a sp robab ly t hough tt ob eg i ven t ot h ef e tu sb yt h ep a t ron g od o f t h ec a lpu l ib u tr equ i red ar i tua lr eb i r th a sw a sm en t ioned e a r l ie r .T h i ss ou lw a si n sepa r ab le l f r om t h eh uman b ody a nd w a si d en t if ied a st h es ou l" wh ich w en tb eyond" a f te rd ea th .I ti s t h u se qu iva len tt ot h ea n ima ( " sou l" ) o f mode rn e t hnog raph i c i n ve s t iga t ion s ( Ga r c ia d e L eon 1 976 : 3 2 ;V og t 1 966 ) . D amage t ot e yo l ia a nd t ot h eh ea r tc ou ld h ave d i f e r en te t io log ie s .T he re w e r e ag roup f o fd i sea se sa nd s ymp tom sw h ich w e re b e l ieved t o pro ceed f r om e xces umo r s( ph legm s ) s h i nt h ec he s tp res nt h eh ea r ta nd n e rve s : sing o " Accumu la t ion o fp h legm s , w h i te , g r een a nd y e low ,w h ich p ene t ra te t h en e rve s , l h ead a nd c he s t .T he se p h legm sp roduce p res r eo nt h eh ea r t ,f eve r ,p u l sa t ion so f su t h et emp le a nd mu scu la ra nd n e rvou st r emb l ing .T he p res re o nt h eh ea r tp ro ceed s su f r om o ne s i de , i n ju r e s t h ev i sce ra ( t he o rgan s o ft hough t ) a nd p roduce s al o so f s c on sc iou snes " (Lopez A u s t in 1 974 : 2 20 ) . s ... T h i sd i sp la cemen to ft h eh ea r tl e dt om en ta li nd i n san i ty a sc an b e s en f r om t h e lnes s a e e t ymo logy o fs ome o ft h et e rm si n Mo l ina 's ( 1 971 )d i c t iona ry — teyo lcuepa l i z t l i( " tu rn ing a r ound o ft h eh ea r t" ) =d umb ,o u to fo ne 's m ind ; t e yo lma lacacho l i z t l i( " sp inn ing a r ound o ft h e h ea r t" ) =t ob e c r azy , t or ave ;y o lpa t zm iqu i l i z t l i ( " cru sh ing o ft h e h ea r t" ) = hea r t d i s ea se , e p i lep sy ; y o l zo t laua l i z t l i ( " the f a in t ing o ft h e h ea r t" ) = hea r td i sea se , e p i lep sy . T hu s ,p res r eo nt h eh ea r t ,t h ef l ipp ing o ft h eh ea r to r ap lumme t ing f e l ing a r ound t h eh ea r t su e c ou ld l e ad t oi n san i ty ,f a in t ing o re p i lep sy .T h i sp r es r ew a sb e l ieved t o be d ue t oa ne xces su s o fp h legm i nt h ec hes t .S ince t h eh ea r tw a sb el ieved t ob et h es e a to ft h ei n te lec t ,p r es re l su o ni tc ou ld make m an e v i l ,m ad ,b ew i t ched ,d i zzy ,e p i lep t ic o rc au se f e a r .S ome d e sc r ip t ion s o fi nt h eF loren t ine C od ex ( D ibb le a nd A nde r son 1 950 -1969 :b k .11 , 1 29 , 1 30 , 1 55 , lnes s i 1 65 , 1 81 ) s upp lemen tt h o se g i ven a bove —a laoacqu ipo loa y i o lo ( " ph legm d e s t roy s t h e l h ea r t" ) ;p o l iu i znequ iy i o lo ( " hea r tw an t s t od i e" ) ; r n o t lae l t ia t o io lo ( " nau sea a bou t t h e l l h ea r t" ) a nd p a t zm iqu i i ny i o lo ( " c ru shed h ea r t" ) .T he d eve lopmen to fe xces h legm l sive p c ou ld t a ke p l ace s l ow ly a nd p roduce f eve r a nd o t he rd i sea se s . H oweve r , i t se em s t h a t a s udden , t e r i fy ing e xpe r ience c ou ld p rec ip i ta te as udden a ccumu la t ion o fp h legm i nt h e r c he s tw h ich c ou ld t h en p roduce i ss u ch a se p i lep sy o rt h o se a t r ibu ted t o" ev i lw ind" lnes se t o r a" nea rm is yl i gh tn ing" ( O r t iz d e Mon te lano 1 979 ) .L opez A u s t in ( 1980 : 3 89 ,4 07 ) s b l h a sa na l ter na t ive e xp lana t ion . S ince t h e t e yo l ia o ft h ed ead i sw ha tg o e so n t ot h eo t he r w o r ld , t h e t e yo l ia o ft h o se w ho w e r e c ho sen b y T la lo c t od i e b ecome h i s h e lpe r s— the a huaque ( " pos r s o f w a te r" ) a nd t h e e heca to ton t in ( " l i t le w ind s" ) . T he se h e lpe r s ses so t p rov ided b enef i c ien t r a in s a sw e l a sh a i l , l i gh tn ing a nd s t o rm s . T he i n t ru s ion i n to a nd l p os f ap e r son b yo ne o ft h e se s p i r i t s ,s p ec if i ca ly t h eo ne w ho h ad d e scended w i th ses sion o l

2 01

t h e l i gh tn ing , p roduced ap rog r es sive d i sea se i nt h ev i c t im w h ich man i f e s ted i t se lf i na t e ndency t oa n t i soc ia lb ehav io ra nd i n san i ty .T h i si st h er e a son w hy a" r av ing man iac" w a s c a led a acque ( "one who h a ss u f e red a ni n t ru s ion" ) .S im i la r ly ,e p i lepsy w a sc au sed b yt h e l f i n t ru s ion o ft h et e yo l ia o ft h eC ihua te teo ,w omen ,w ho h ad d i ed i nc h i ldb i r th a nd t h e refo re h ad b een " cho sen" b yt h es o la rd e i ty .I n te rp re t ing t h ed i sea se sa s as udden a ccumu la t ion o f p h legm p rec ip i ta ted b ys upe rna tu ra le ven t sa low su st o exp la in t h ec onnec t ion b e tween t h e l u se o f t h e s ame m ed ic ine s f o r b o th s upe rna tu ra l a nd n a tu ra l d i sea se s . T he med ic ine s p re sc r ibed a r es uppo sed t oa c tb yt h ee xpu l s ion o fp h legm , wh ich i st h ep rox ima te c au se o f t h ep rob lem whe the ri tw a sc au sed b y" na tu ra l" a ccumu la t ion o ra s ar e su l to fs upe rna tu ra l i n t rus ion . A s i n mode rn b e l ief s a bou t men ta l i he re p hy s ica l a nd p sycho log ica l lnes s, w c ausa t ive a gen t sa r en o t mu tua ly e xc lus ive ,e xp lana t ion o ft h e se d i sease sb yt h eu se o fb o th l i n t ru s ion a nd p h legm a low su st oe x tend o u ra r ea o fe xp lana t ion . I nf a c t ,a na lys i so ft h e l c hem ica l c ons t i tuen t s i n f eve r r emed ie s s how s t h a t 7 0% o f t h em w e re e i the r d iu re t ic , d i apho re t ic , eme t ic o rp u rga t ive ,w h ich w ou ld i nf a c te xpe l ma te rf r om t h eb ody ( O r t iz d e t Mon telano 1 979 ) . T he h ea r tc ou ld a l so b eh a rmed b yi mmo ra lc onduc t ,p a r t icu la r ly o f as exua ln a tu re .T he g oddes lazo l teo t l t emp ted m en t o s exua l e xces h ich h a rmed t h e i r h ea r t s . T h i s s T ses w c on s tan tt h eme o f mode ra t ion a nd b a lance a nd t h eh a rm d ue t oe xce ss i s re i te ra ted i nt h i s h uehue t la to l id i rec ted t owa rd sy oung m en : l " Do n o tt h row y ou r se lf u pon w omen l i ke t h ed og wh ich t h row si t se lf u pon f ood . B en o tl i ke ad og when h ei sg iven f ood a nd d r ink , g iv ing y ou r se l fu pt o women b efo re t h et ime c ome s . E ven t hough y ou may l ong f o r women , h o ld b ack ,h o ld b ack w i th y ou rh ea r t u n t i ly ou a r e ag rown man , s t rong a nd r obus t . L ook a tt h e maguey p lan t . I fi ti so pened b efo re i th a sg rown a nd i t sl i qu id i s ta ken o u t , i th a sn os ub s tance . I td oe sn o tp roduce l i qu id ;i ti s use les s. B efo re i ti so pened t ow i thd raw i t sw a te r , i ts hou ld b ea lowed t og row a nd a ta in f u ls i ze . l t l T hen i t ss wee tw a te ri s removed a li ng ood t ime . l T h i si sh ow y ou mu s ta c t : b efo re y ou k now woman y ou mus tg row a nd b e ac omp le te man . And t h en y ou w i lb er eady f o r mar ; l riage y ou w i lb ege tc h i ld ren o fg ood s t a tu re , l h ea l thy ,a g i le , a nd c ome ly ." ( Leon P o r t i la 1 963 : 1 49 -150 ) l T he c u r ef o rt h is d i sea se w a sc onf es oT lazo l teo t li nt h ep re sence o fa nd i nc onsu l ta sion t t i on w i th ap r ie s t .T h i si s al so a ne xamp le o ft h ec oncep to fd ua l i ty i nA z tec t h ough ti nt h a t T lazo l teo t l i sb o th t h e a gen t o f t emp ta t ion a nd o fr edemp t ion . Good a nd e v i l a r e n o t d i cho tomou s a s i nC h r i s t ian t hough t b u t d i f e ren t f a ce t s o ft h e s ame r e a l i ty , a s a r e t h e f

2 02

sion a c oncep t so fl i f ea nd d ea th a nd c r ea t ive a nd d e s t ruc t ive d e i t ie s .T he a c to fc onf es nd t h e l l p enance w h ich f o lowed c ou ld o n ly b ed one o nce i n al i f e t ime ,u sua ly i no ld a ge ,a nd w a s l c a led n eyo lme lahua l i z t l i( " the a c t ion o fs t ra igh ten ing o u th ea r t s" ) . l T he f o r ego ing d emon s t ra te s t h a t t h e s uppo sed e t io logy o f ad i sea se w i l d i c ta te t h e sion a n a tu re o ft h er emedy . I f th ec au se i s si na nd t r an sg res ga in s t ad e i ty ,t h ea pp rop r ia te sion a lnes s i r emedy i sc on f es nd e xp ia t ion .I ft h ei sd ue t on a tu ra lc au ses ,t h er emedy i sa l so o ft h e s ame n a tu r e a nd mag i ca ld i sea se s r equ i re c oun te rva i l ing mag ic . H oweve r , t h i si s lne l o f ten ah eu r i s t ic d ev ice f o ro u ra na ly s i sa nd i nr e a l i ty i ss w a so f ten t r ea ted o na lt h r ee ses sion m f l e ve l s .T ho se a ff l ic ted w i th p os igh tb et r ea ted w i th a ppea l st oT la loc ,a ne f ec t ive l d iu re t ic t or emove p h legm a nd ah ew -shaped f l owe r ,y o loxoch i t l , t oc u re b y i m i ta t ive sif mag ic . A l though w e c an s epa ra te e t io log ica l c l as ica t ion s f o r a na ly t ica l p u rpo se s , t h e n a t ive sd i dn o td ot h i s . L opez A u s t in s t a te s ( 1 974 ) t h a t" . ..an a t ive m igh tt h ink t h a th i s l r heuma t ic p rob lem sc ame f r om t h es up r eme w i lo fT i t lahuacan ,f r om t h ep un i shmen ts en t sion o t b yt h eT la loque b ecau se o ft h e om is f ac e r ta in r i te ,f r om ad i rec ta ta ck o f ab e ing t h a t l i ved i n ap a r t icu la rs p r ing ,a nd f r om p ro longed c h i ll ing i nc o ld w a te r ;t h en a t ive w ou ld n o t l c on s ide ri ta la s ac onf luence o fd i v ine c au se sb u ta s ac omp lex ." I h iyo t l ,t h et h i rd a n im ic f o r ce ,w a sc oncen t ra t ed i nt h el i ve r . I tp rov ided man w i th t h e sion s, d f o r ce o fp as s , b r ave ry , h app ines e s i r e , e nvy , a nge r , h a t r ed , l o ve , e t c . I h iyo t l w a s t hough to fa s al um inou sg a s ,w h ich h ad t h ea b i l i ty t o inf luence o the rb e ing sa nd i n pa r t icu la r t l t o a t ra c t t h em t o t h e s ou r ce o f t h e g a s . F o r e xamp le , a m agne t ic s t one w a s c a led l( t t l a ih iyoanan it e " s tone w h ich a t rac t st h ing sw i th i h iyo t l" )( Lopez A u s t in 1 980 :2 12 ,2 57 2 60 ) . f l T he c ond i t ion o ft h el i ve ra f ec t ed t h e s t a te o ft h ew ho le p e r son . T hu s , ac eme l i" an s w u n i ted , aw ho le l i ve r "m ean sp l ea su re ; ah app ines h ich i st h er e su l to fh a rmony b e tween s c on tend ing i n te rna lf o r ce s . Av i r tuou sp e r son h a s ac l ean l i ve rw h i le d i r tw a sa so c ia ted w i th sion t a ni mmo ra ll i f ea nd p a r t icu la r ly w i th s e xua lt r an sg res s .T h i sa t i tude i sr ef lec t ed i nt h e l t h e me tapho rf o rs e x— in t e uh t l ii nt l a zo l i( " the d u s t ,t h eg a rbage" )o ri nt h er e f e rence st o sion l l l s exua lt r an sg r es sa s" cove r ing t h et o na l iw i th d u s t" o r" f i l ing t h et o na l iw i th g a rbage" ( Lopez A u s t in 1 980 :2 45 ,3 57 ) .T he m e tapho rf o rc a rna ls i n si si nc u i t la t i t lan i nt l azo l t i t lan " i n t h e e xc rem en t i nt h e r e f u se" ( D ibb le a nd Ande r son 1 950 -1969 : b k .6 , p .9 7 ) . S in s f a f ec ted t h e l i ve r mak ing i t em i t i h iyo t l w h ich c ou ld h a rm t h e i nno cen t i n a ppa r en t ly mag ica lw ay s . T he g roup o f d i sea se s t ob e d i scus an b e d i v ided i n to t h r ee c a tego r ie s . F i r s t , s ed c t l a zo lm im iqu i l i z t l i ( "f i l th d ea th" ) , w h ich c au se s s ma l c h i ld ren t oc r y w i thou t a ppa ren t l r e a son o rt os u f e rs e izu re sw h i ch r ende rt h em u ncon sc iou s .N e t epa lhu i l i z t l i( " tha tc au sed f b ys omeone 's f a u l t" )w a sc ha ra c te r ized b y ap rog r es o so fw e igh ta nd c on sump t ion . sive l s T lazo lm iqu i l i z t l i( " ga rbage i )p roduced av ar ie ty o fi n cu rab le d i sea se sa nd c ou ld a l so lnes s" c au se as e r ie so fe conom ic r eve r se ss uch a s af r ozen c or nc rop ,t h ed ea th o fs t ock a n ima l s , f a i lu re o fb u s ines ea l sa nd e ven u nde r cooked m ea l s( A la r con 1 953 : 10 -112 ) .C hahuaco s d c o l i z t l i ( " d i sea se d ue t o ah u sband 's a du l te ry" ) a nd m eca t ian i l i z t l i ( " concub inage" ) a l so r e semb le t h i sg roup .T he b a s i cc au se o fa lt h e se d i sea se sw a ss uppo sed t ob e af undamen ta l l c hange i nt h e b ody o f ap e r son w ho e s tab l i shed a n i ic i t s exua l l a i son o rw ho d e s i red l i a no the r 's w if e o r p os s ( Ser na 1 953 : 2 50 ) . O f g r ea te r s i gn if icance i st h a t t h e se ses sion p e r son s w ou ld a l so em i t i h iyo t li n vo lun ta r i ly a nd t h a ti tc ou ld h a rm o t he r s s uch a sl i t le t c h i ld ren o ro ld p eop le .T h i se t io logy w ou ld e xp la in t l a zo lm im iqu i l i z t l i ,n e tepa lhu i l i z t l ia nd t l a zo lm iqu i l i z t l i . T he c au se o fc hahuacoco l i z t l i i s mo re d i r ec t s i nce t h e a du l te ry o ft h e lne h u sband w a st h ed i r ec tc au se o ft h ei ss . A dd i t iona le v idence o ft h i sf a te fu le mana t ion

2 03

w a s t h e d amage t h a ta du l te re r sc au sed t oc rop s a nd a n ima l s b yt h e i r s o le p re sence . T he f l p re sence o fa n a du l te re rw a s s u f ic ien tt ok i ly oung t u rkey s ,w ho w e r ec on s ide red t ob e l e spec ia ly f r ag i le .M ice ,b e ing mo re r e s i s tan t ,d i dn o td i eb u tt h ey d e tec ted t h i s emana t ion se a nd wou ld g naw h o le si nv es l st os how t h ep r e sence o ft h es i nne r( D ibb le a nd A nde r son 1 950 -1969 : b k .4 , 1 90 -192 ) . A l though t h e emana t ion p roduced i nt l a zo lm iqu i l i z t l i i sn o t c l ea r ly i d en t if ied i nt h e s ou rce sa sa n" a i r "o r ag a s ,i ti st r ea ted a si fi tw e r e .P a r to ft h er emedy f o rt h i sd i sea se w a s t o fan ,w ha tw a sp r e sumab ly " good" a i rt owa rd st h ep a t ien tt o di sp la ce t h e" bad a i r" ( Va rga s 1 979 ) . C oncep t so fL if ea nd Man O ne o f t h e b e s t w ay s t o u nde r s tand t h e i d eo logy o f t h e A z te c i st o l ook a tt h e l h uehue t la to l i ,s peeche sw h ich w e re u sed t oi n cu lca te t h ev a lue so ft h es o c ie ty b yc on s tan t r epe t i t ion . O the rf r u i t f u l s ou r ce s a r e d i f ra s i smo s , t wo w o rd m e tapho r s , a nd p oe t ry . T he A z tecs w e re v e ry i n te re s ted i nl a nguage a nd h ad at h eo ry o fm e taphy s i ca lk now ledge ,i n . x och i t li nc u ica t l( " f lowe ra nd s ong" i e .p oe t ry )w h ich h e ld t h a tp oe t ry w a st h eo n ly w ay l t oa ch ieve t r u th ( Leon P o r t i la 1 963 :7 3 -79 ) .S ome p r e l im ina ry e xamp le sw h ich d ea lw i th l t h en a tu r eo fl i f eo ne a r th f o low . l Ah uehue t la to l id i rec ted a ts e ven y ea ro ld g i r l s , T he r ei sn or e jo ic ing ,t h e re i s no c on ten tmen t ,t h e re i s to rm en t ,t h e re i sp a in , t h e re i sf a t igue ,t h e r ei sw an t ;t o rmen t ,p a in d om ina t e .D i ff i cu l ti st h ew o r ld , ap l ace w he re o ne i sc au sed t ow eep , ap l a ce w he r eo ne i s cau sed p a in . ... " " . .t h ee a r th i s no t ag ood p l a ce .I ti sn o t ap l a ce o f joy ,i ti sn o t ap l a ce o fc on ten t men t . I ti sm e r e ly s a id i ti s ap l a ce o fj oy w i th f a t igue , o fj oy w i th p a in o n e a r th . ... "( D ibb le a nd A nde r son 1 950 -1969 :b k .6 ,9 3 ) . l Ah uehue t la to l is poken t o an ew b o rn , f " . ..V e r i ly ,t hou w i l te ndu re ,t h ou w i l ts u f e rt o rmen t ,f a t igue ;f o rv e r i ly ,o u rl o rd l l l h a th o rde red ,h a th d i spo sed t h a tt h e r ew i lb ep a in ,t h e r ew i lb ea ff l ic t ion ,t h e re w i l l s, b em i se ry ,t h e re w i lb ew o rk ,l a bo r ,f o rd a i ly s u s tenance .T he r ei ss wea t ,w ea r ines l a bo rw hen t h e r ei s to b ee a t ing ,d r ink ing ,t h ew ea r ing o fr a inment T ru ly t hou w i l t f e ndu re f a t igue ,t hou w i l ts u f e rt o rmen t ." ( D ibb le a nd A nde r son 1 950 -1969 :b k .6 , 1 68 ) . l Ah uehue t la to l ia t ac r ema t ion , r f " . .O h , my s on ,y ou k new s o row ,y ou s u f e red .O u rL o rd w a sk i nd b ecau se t r u ly o u rp e rmanen th om ei s no th e re o ne a r th ,i ti so n ly f o r as ho r tt ime o n ly ,o n ly f o ra momen ta r ew ew a rmed b yt h es un .O n ly t h ank st oO u rL o rd h e r eh ave w ec ome t o k now o u r se lve s . .. "( D ibb le a nd A nde r son 1 950 -1969 : b k .6 ,3 9 ) . T he s ame t h eme i n ap oem b yN ezahua lcoyo t l ,r u le ro fT excoco . " I si tt r ue t h a to ne a r th o ne l i ve s? t N o tf o reve ro ne a r th ,o n ly al i t le w h i le . T hough j ade i tmay b e ,i tb r eak s ; t hough g o ld i tmay b e ,i ti s cr u shed ; l t hough i tb eq ue tza lp lume s ,i ts ha ln o tl a s t . t No tf o reve ro ne a r th ,o n ly al i t le w h i le ." l ( L eon P o r t i la 1 963 : 7 2 ) .

2 04

fe L i f ew a sc once ived a s ab r ie fp e r iod i nw h ich p a in i sn o rma la nd n a tu ra l .S uf r ing w a s sed a f r equen t ly e xp r es sp hy s ica lp a in o ra sf a t igue a nd i ti mp l ied h unge r ,t h i r s ta nd w o rk a st h en a tu ra lc on sequence o fm an b e ing b o rn .L if ea l so e n ta i led l a ugh te r ,p l ea su re ,s ex a nd l f ood ,b u tt h ee mpha s i sw a so nc ommun ica t ing t ot h ec ommon m an ,t h e macehua l i , av i s ion t h a th i se x i s tence w a se pheme ra la nd t h a th es hou ld a ccep th i sp r ema tu r ed ea th i nc omba t . f s o red i T h i sd i cho tomy o fs u f e r ing -happ ines ccur n as oc ie ty w he r ew ea l th w a sd i s t r ibu ted l f v e ry u nequa ly .C ommone r sh ad d i ff icu l ty m ak ing al i v ing a nd s u f e red h unge r ,t h i r s ta nd f t h a rd p hy s ica ll a bo r .T he o r ig in o fs u f e r ing w a sn o ta t r ibu ted t os o c ia ls t ruc tu re sb u tr a the r fe t o t h e n a tu r e o f l i f e o n e a r th i t se l f . S uf r ing w a s n o t o n ly n a tu ra l b u t t h e e xc lu s ive r e spon s ib il i ty o ft h eg od s( Lopez A u s t in 1 980 :277 -280 ) .S oc ia ls t ra t if i ca t ion w a sj u s t if ied l b y t h ep hy s ica l a nd mo ra l s upe r io r i ty o fn ob le s d ue t ot h e i r s t ronge r t o na l i a nd b y t h e e a rduou sn a tu r eo fr ul ing t h es t a te .T he se c oncep t sc an b es en i nt h em e tapho r sd esc r ib ing l l . t h e se s t ra ta :c u i t lapa l ia t lapa l i( " ta i la nd w ing" =c ommone r s )i e . ,i ft h es t a te i sab i rd t h e c ommone r sp rov ide t h e mo t ive p owe rb u tn o tt h ed i rec t ion ;i ni t acon ii nm ama lon i( " tha t ried . w h ich i s car ,t h a tw h i ch c an b es hou lde red" =t h eg over ned )i e . ,t h ec ommon p eop le r a r ec a r ied b yt h er u le r s .T h i sp o in ti se ven c l ea re ri n ,i nt e cuexanco i n tememe loazco ( " tha t . w h ich g oe si n one 's l a p ,c r ad led i n one 's a rm s" )i e . ,t h eg over n ed a r el i ke b ab ie so rc h i ld ren b e ing c a r ed f o rb y t h er u le r s . T he r u le ro n t h eo the rh and i s ,m o t enan m o t zacu i l ( " you r r ampa r t ,y ou rr e fuge" ) . L opez A u s t in ( 1 980 :201 -206 )h a se xp lo red s ome o ft h ec oncep t si nvo lved i nt h ew o rd l t l aca t l( man ,h uman ) .T he m ean ing l i t e ra ly i s "t he d im in i shed m an" .T he re i s no k nown A z tec my th t oe xp la in t h i sb u tt h e re i s a Q u iche my th i nt h eP opo lV uh t h a ti s app l icab le . ses s ed s l T he f i r s t men w e re b e ing sw ho p os uch g r ea ti n te l igence a nd e no rmou sp owe r so f l v i s ion t h a tt h eg od sb ecame j e a lou s .T he se men k new e ve ry th ing a nd e xam ined a lo ft h e e a r th a nd t h es ky .T he c r ea to rg od sd ec ided t oc hange t h i sa nd l im i tt h e i rp owe r s .T he g od s ro b low m i s ti n to t h e i re ye sa nd t h ey c l ouded u pa sm ir r sd ow hen b rea thed u pon a nd t h u s w a s l o s t t h e w i sdom a nd k now ledge o ft h e o r ig ina l f ou r h uman s ( Rec ino s , G oe tz a nd Mo r ley 1 950 : 1 67 -169 ) . As im i la rp o in ti s m ade i nt h eA z te c my th a bou tQ ue tzakoa trs j ou rney t ot h eu nde rwo r ld t or e t r ieve t h eb one so fp rev iou sh uman s .D u r ing h i sr e tu rn ,h e l f e ld own a nd t h eb one sb roke .T h i se xp la in sw hy h uman sa r es os ho r t , s i nce t h eo r ig ina l l d we le r sw e re g i an t s .T he r ea r es eve ra lm ean ing sf o rt l aca t la nd i t sd e r iva t ive sw h ich l a y f o u t s ome o ft h e A z tec i d ea l s a bou t t h e n a tu re o f man . Man s hou ld b e b en ign , a f ab le , b enevo len t ,t e nde ra nd c ha r i tab le . s T he b a s ic r u le sw e r ee qu i l ib r ium , mode ra t ion a nd t h ee xe cu t ion o fa s igned f unc t ion s . I f ap e r son d ev ia ted , h e a cqu i r ed t h eq ua l i t ie so f ab ea s t , w h ich w a s d ange rou s t oo ne 's h ea l th a nd t ot h a to fo t he r s . S oc ia lc on t ro l a nd p e r fo rmance o fd u ty w a s g ua ran teed b y lnes s. Mode h o ld ing t h eb ody h o s tage a nd p un i sh ing d ev ia t ion sw i th i ra t ion w a se xa l ted i n l h uehue t la to l i : " . •. t a ke h eed .O ne a r th i ti sat ime f o rc a re ,i ti sap l ace o fc au t ion .B eho ld t h e Wo rd ; h eed a nd g ua rd i t ,a nd w i th i tt a ke y ou rw ay o fl i f e ,y ou rw o rk s . O ne a r th w el i ve , s, o s. w et r ave la l ong amoun ta in p eak .O ve rh e re t h e re i sa na bys ve rt h e r ei sa na bys l I ft hou g oe s to ve rh e re ,o ri ft h ou g oe s to ve rt h e r e ,t h en w i l tt h ou f a li n .O n ly i nt h e m idd le d o th o ne g o ,d o th o ne l i ve .. . "( D ibb le a nd A nde r son 1 950 -1969 :b k .6 ,1 01 ) . " They w en ts ay ing t h a to ne a r th w et r ave l ,w el i ve a l ong amoun ta in p eak .O ve rh e re s, o s. Whe t h e re i sa na bys ve rt h e re i sa na bys r eve rt h ou a r tt od ev ia te ,w he reve rt h ou l a r tt og oa s t ray ,t h e r ew i l tt h ou f a l ,t h e r ew i l tt h ou p l unge i n to t h ed eep .T ha ti s to sa s ay ,i ti sn eces ry t h a tt h ou a lway sa c tw i th d i sc re t ion i nt h a tw h ich i sd one ,w h ich

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i ss a id , w h ich i ss e en , w h ich i sh ea rd , w h ich i st h ough t , e t c . ... "( D ibb le a nd A nde r son 1 950 -1969 : b k .6 , 1 25 ) . lnes s w S t a te so fh ea l th o ri e re c l o se ly r e la ted t os t a te so fe qu i l ib r ium o rd i sequ i l ib r ium . l l se O ne mu s tb ei ne qu i l ib r ium p hy s ica ly ,s o c ia ly a nd i n re la t ion t ot h ed e i t ie s .E xces sa nd sion f t r an sg res sw ou ld a f ec tl i f eo rh ea l th . D isequ i l ib r ium e ven i ft r an s i to ry c ou ld l e ad t o lnes s. I sa i t wa s n eces ry t op re se rve o rr e s to re b od i ly e qu i l ib r ium . A mode ra te d i e t w a s s s o e sen t ia lf o rt h i s . Wo rk , t i r ednes rl o ng h i ke sc r ea ted d i sequ i l ib r ium b yo ve rhea t ing a l e l p e r son 's t o na l i .R e s tw a ss en a se qu iva len tt o "coo l ing" a sf o low s :t h ev e rb c ece l ia c ou ld f m ean " t or e lax" o r" t oc oo lh o tt h ing s" ;t h ev e rb c ehu ia c ou ld m ean " t or e s t" o r" t oc oo lo f l l ah o tt h ing" ;a nd " t or e s to ne w ho w a lk s" — tona lcehu ia i sl i t e ra ly " t oc oo lo ne 's t o na l i" . sion w S ince p hy s io logy a nd e t h ic sw e r ec l o se ly r e la ted ,c on f es a ss imu l taneou s ly aw ay t or e s to re h armony o ft h ei nd iv idua l sw i th d e i t ie sa nd t or e s to r et h ei n te rna le qu i l ib r ium o f sion o sion t t h e b ody . C onf es fs e xua l s i n st oT lazo l teo t lo nce i n al i f e t ime a nd c on f es oa m idw if et or e s to r ee qu i l ib r ium d e s t royed b ya du l te ry a r et wo e xamp le s . s mo N owhe re w a s mode ra t ion a nd a vo idance o f e xces r e i mpo r tan t t h an i n s exua l t ma te r s .T he A z tec sw e re p rud i sh i nt h e i rs e xua l mo r e s .P r ema tu r es e xw a sc ondemned a nd l l w a s t h ough t t o s t un t g row th a nd i n te l igence , b o th f unc t ion s o f t o na l i . T hu s i n t h e l l h uehue t la to l ic i ted a bove ,f a the r su rged t h e i rs on sn o tt oe ngage i ns ex b efo r eb e ing f u ly l g rown .T h i sw a sp a r t icu la r ly i mpo r tan tf o ry oung n ob le sw ho w ou ld n eed mo re t o na l ii n o rde rt ob ea b le t og ove rn .A ppa ren t ly af i xed a moun to ft h i ss ub s tance w a sp re sen tb ecau se l t h e l o nge ro ne w a i ted t os t a r t s exua l a c t iv i ty , t h e l a te ri nl i f e o ne w ou ld s t i l b e a b le t o p e r fo rm ( Lopez A u s t in 1 980 : 3 34 ) . Women ,o nt h eo t he rh and ,d i dn o tl o se " semen" a nd l t h e refo r ew e re p o ten t ia ly i n sa t iab le .S exua lp l ea su re a sa du l t sw a sc ondoned a sl o ng a si t sive s l l w a s mode ra te .E xces ex w a sc on s ide red d ange rou sb ecau se i twou ld " f i ly ou rt o na l i w i th f i l th" .I tl e dt o em ac ia t ion ,c au sed c ough ing , ab l a ckened b ody a nd p u si nt h eu r e th ra ( Lopez A u s t in 1 980 : 3 33 ) .I nl i ne w i th t h ei d ea lo f mode ra t ion ,c e l ibacy w a sc ondemned a nd r ape w a sp un i shed b yd ea th ( Lopez A u s t in 1 980 : 3 45 ,3 48 ) . G rea tv a lue w a sp l a ced o nh av ing c h i ld r en .T hey w e re o f ten c ompa r ed t oj ewe l sa nd l p rec iou sf e a the r si nt h eh uehue t la to l i .R ep roduc t ion w a sa l so t i ed t ot h en eed o ft h eg od s l t ob e a do r ed , a nd o n amo re mundane p l ane , c h i ld r en w e re e conom ica ly v a luab le i na n a g r icu l tu r a ls oc ie ty w h ich i n teg ra ted t h em v e ry e a r ly i n to t h el a bo rf o rce .C on s tan tw a r f a re a nd t h en eed f o rs a c r if i c ia lv i c t im s t o ma in ta in t h ec o smo s a l so s uppo r ted ap ro -na ta l i s t p o s i t ion . T hu s a bo r t ion w a s p un i shed b y d ea th o fb o th t h e a bo r t ion i s t a nd t h e w oman I i nvo lved ( La sC a sa s 1 967 :v . I ,3 87 ) .T he o ne a ppa r en te xcep t ion t ot h eb an o na bo r t ion s f i n vo lved t h ec a se o f ad e l ive ry w h ich t h rea tened t h el i f eo ft h e mo the r .I fb i r th w a sd i f icu l t f sib a nd e fo r t s t ot u rn t h e c h i ld t o make t h ed e l ive ry p os le f a i led , t h en emb ryo tomy w a s l a lowed a nd t h em idw i f ew ou ld c u tt h ec h i ld t op i ece sa nd r emove i tf r om t h eu t e ru s .T he e s ou r ce ss t a te t h a tt h i sw a sd one i ft h eb aby w a sa l r eady d ead b u ti ts em st h a tt h i sc ou ld a l so t a ke p l ace w hen i tw a sa l ive .T hu sa ppa r en t ly t h e mo the r 's l i f eh ad p r io r i ty o ve rt h a to ft h e c h i ld i nc a se sw he re ac ho ice h ad t ob e made ( D ibb le a nd A nde r son 1 950 -1969 :b k .6 , 1 60 ) . t B reech b i r th sw e re a l so b l amed o nv io la t ion o ft h er u le ss i nce t h ey w e re a t r ibu ted t oh av ing o c o i tu st ol a te i nt h ep regnancy ( Lopez A u s t in 1 980 :2 17 ) . t C el ibacy w a s c ondemned b y s oc ie ty . S t e r i l i ty , w h ich w a s mo s t ly a t r ibu ted t o t h e w oman ,c ou ld b eu sed b yt h eh u sband a s ac au se f o rd i vo r ce ( Lopez A u s t in 1 980 :3 44 -345 ) . e S t e r i l i ty s em st o have b een a ni mpo r tan tp reoccupa t ion g i ven t h en umbe ro fr emed ie st h a t a r e f ound i nt h e s ou r ces f o rt h i s p rob lem ( Quezada 1 975 ) . A l though t h e s ou r ce s d o n o t s c d i scus on t ra cep t ion ,g i ven t h ep ro -na ta l i s tb i a sc i ted a bove ,i tw a sp robab ly n o tc ondoned .

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No c on t racep t ive sa ss uch a r ed esc r ibed i nt h ep ha rmacopoea a l though s ub s tance sw h ich p roduce s t e r i l i ty a ppea ri nt h er e co rd .T he f l e sh o ft h eh umm ingb i rd , as ymbo lo ft h ep a t ron g od o ft h e Mex ica ,H u i tz i lopoch tl i( " humm ingb i rd o nt h el e f t" )w a su sed a s ar emedy f o r p u s tu le sb u ti tw a ss a id t o make o ne s t e r i le ( D ibb le a nd A nde r son 1 950 -1969 :b k .11 ,2 4 ) . T he u se o fh umm ingb i rd sa sp u s tu le med ic ine ,n anaoapa t l i may b ee xp la ined b yt h ef a c t t h a t Hu i tz i lopoch t l iw a s as o la rg od a nd t h eg od w ho b ecame t h es un i nt h eo r ig in my th w a s N anahua t z in ,w ho w a sc ove red w i th p u s tu le s . C onc lus ion A z tec r e l ig ion i si n ex t r icab ly i n ter tw ined w i th m ed ic ine . O r ig in my ths a nd r e l ig ious b e l ie f sw e re u sed t oi n cu lca te ,f r om av e ry e a r ly a ge ,t h ep r ima ry e t h ic o fd u ty t og roup a nd s t a te a s t h e p r inc ipa l g oa l i nl i f e a nd t h e a ccep tance o f s u f f e r ing a nd i nequ i t ie s i n t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fg ood s .T he b ody w a sh e ld h o s tage t ot h ep e r fo rmance t od u ty ,t oc ommuna l e xpec ta t ion sa nd t o af a i r ly r i g id mo ral i ty , s i nce t r an sg re ss ions o rf a i lu re sw e re p un i shed b yt h eg od sw i th d i sea se a nd d ea th .T hus ,i so rda ined b yt h es upe rna tu ra lr e info r ced lnes se t h es t a tu sq uo a nd t h es e cu la rl e ga ls ys tem .P eop le w e re b e l ieved t ob ec r ea ted p hy s io log i c a ly d i f e ren ti nw ay st h a tr ef lec ted e i the rt h e i r mo ra ls t a tu so rt h e i rr ank .S oc ia ls t ab i l i ty , l f ap r ime g oa lo fA z tec s oc ie ty , w a sp romo ted b yt h ef a c tt h a tt h er ul ing c l a ss w a sv i ewed p hys ica ly a sw e la s mo ra ly s upe r io rt ot h ec ommone r s .T ran sg re sso r so ft h e mo ra lc ode l l l w e re a l so b e l ieved t ob ecome p hy s ica ly a l te red , em i t ing n ox iou sf o rce s wh ich h a rmed a nd l t s i ckened t ho se a round t h em . B ib l iography A la r c6n ,H .R u iz d e 1 953 T ra tado d el a sI do la t r ia s ,S upe r s t ic ione s ,D io se s ,R i tos ,Hech i zer ia s yO t ras C o s tumb re sG en t l icas d el a sR a za sA bo r t genes ( Mex ico :E d ic ione sF uen te C u l tu ra l )( o r ig . 1 629 ) . i C ar sco ,D . ra 1 982 Q u e t za lcoa t la nd t h eI r ony o fEmp i re . My ths a nd P rophec ie si nt h eA z t ec T rad i t ion ( Ch i cago : Uo fC h icago P re ss ) . C a so ,A . 1 958 C oe ,M .D . 1 981

T he A z t ec sP eop le o ft h eS un ( No rman : Uo fO k lahoma P r es . s) " Rel ig ion a nd t h eR i se o f Me soame r ican S t a te s" i nG .D .J one sa nd R .R . K au tz ,e d s . , T he T rans i t ion t o St a t ehood i nt h eN ew Wor ld ( Camb r idge :C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P res p . 1 57 s) p 1 71 .

D ibb le ,C .E .a nd A .J .0 .A nd e r son e d s .a nd t r an s . 1 950 -1969 F lor en t ine C od ex . G en e ra lH i s tor yo ft h e T h ing so fN ew S pa in ( Sa l tL ake C i ty : Uo fU tah P res . s) D u rkh e im ,E . 1 915 T he E lemen ta ry F orm so ft h eR e l ig iou sL i f e( London : G eo rge A lan & U nw in ) . l E l iade ,M . 1 965

My th o ft h eE t erna lR e tu rn ( NY :P an theon ) .

F u r s t ,P . 1 976

H a luc inog en sa nd C u l tu r e( San F ranc i s co :C hand le r -Sha rp ) l

G a r c ia d eL eon ,A . 1 976 P a japan . U nD ia l ec to Mex ican° d e lG o lf o ( Mex ico :I NAH ) . G a r ibay ,A . Ma . 1 959 " Seme janza d ea l guno sc oncep to sf i lo s6 f ico sd el a sc u l tu ra si n du yn ahua t l" C uad ernos d e l S em inar io d eP rob l ema sC ien t if i cos yF i los6f i cos ,1 52 as e r ie ,7 3 -98 .

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J imenez Mo reno ,W . 1 97 1 " Re l ig ion oR e l ig ione s Me soame r icana s?" V erhand lungen d esXXX II n te rna t iona len Amer i I I I k an is ten K ongr es s( S tu tga r t - Munchen 1 968 )v .i ,p p . 2 01 -206 . se t L aB ar re ,W . 1 970 " O ld a nd N ew Wo r ld N a r co t ic s : AS ta t i s t ica lQ ue s t ion a nd a nE thno log ica lR ep ly" E conom ic B o tany 2 1 , 7 3 -80 . L a sC a sa s ,F r . B . 1 967 A po loge t ica H i s tor ia S umar ia ,E .O 'Go rman ,e d . ( Mex ico : UNAM ) 2v o l . L ehmann ,W . ,e d . a nd t r an s . 1 938 D ie G e sch ich t e d er K on igre iche v on C u lhuacan u nd Mex ico ( S tu tga r t : V e r lag v on W . t K oh lhamme r ) . L eon P o r t i l la ,M . 1 961 L os A n t ig uos Mex i canos ( Mex ico : F ondo d eC u l tu ra E conom ica ) . 1 963 1 969

A z t ec T hough ta nd C u l ture ( No rman : U . O k lahoma P res s) . P re -Co lumb ian L i tera tures o f Mex ico ( No rman : U . Ok lahoma P res . s)

L 6pez A u s t in ,A . 1 971 " Idea sE t io l6g i ca se nl a Med ic ina N ahua t l" A nuar io I nd igen is ta 3 0 ,2 55 -275 . 1 974 " Sahagun 's Wo rk a nd t h e Med ic ine o ft h eA nc ien tN ahua s : P os il i t ie s f o rS tudy" i nM . S . sib E dmon son , e d . S i x t een th C en tu ry Mex ico . T he Work o fS ahagun ( A lbuque rque : U . N ew Mex ico P res s) 1 980 C uerpo Human° eI d eo log i a( Mex ico : UNAM ) 2v o l s . 1 984 " Co smov i s iön ys a lud e n t re l o s Mex ica s" i nA . L opez A u s t in a nd C . V ie s ca T r ev ino , e d s . , H i s tor ia G enera ld el a M ed ic ina e n Mex ico ( Mex ico : UNAM ,A cad .N a t l .d e Med ic ina )V o l . "pp . 1 01 -114 . Ma tos Mo c tezuma ,E . 1 980 " E lT emp lo Mayo rd eT enoch t i t lan : E conom ia eI d eo log ia "B o le t in d eA n t ropo log ia Amer i c ana S obre t iros 1 ,1 79 -189 . Mo l ina ,F r . A .d e 1 970 V ocabu lar io e nL engua C as te lana yMex icana yMex icana yC as t e lana ( Mex ico : P or ) l l rua ( o r ig . 1 571) . Musg rave -Po r t i la ,L .M . l 1 981 " The N ahua l io rT ran sfo rm ing W iza rd i nP re -and P o s tC onque s t Me soame r ica "J ourna lo f l L a t in Amer ican L or e 7 (1) , 3 -63 . N icho l son ,H . B . 1 971

" Rel ig ion i nP re -H i span ic C en t ra l Mex ico "i nG .E .E ckho lm a nd I .B e rna l ,e d s . Handbook o f M idd le Amer ican I nd ians ( Au s t in : U . T exa sP re ss ) X ,3 95 -446 .

O r t iz d e Mon telano ,B .R . 1 979

" The R a t iona lC au se so fI sse s Among t h eA z tec s"Ac tes d uXLI ong res I n terna t iona ld es lne I C Ame r ican i s tes ( Par i s1 976 ) v .6 ,p p . 2 87 -299 .

Q uezada ,N . 1 975

"M6 todo sA n t iconcep t ivo s yA bo r t ivo sT rad ic iona le s" A na les d eA n t ropo log i a1 2 ,2 23 -242 .

R e c ino s ,A . t r an s . ,D . Goe tz a nd S .G . Mo r ley ,e d s . 1 950 P opo lV uh ( No rman : U .O k lahoma P res . s) R e iche lD o lma tof . f, G 1 978

B eyond t h eM i lky Way ( Lo sA nge les : U n iv .C a l i f . P res . s)

R hoden ,N . K . a nd J . D. A ra s r 1 985

"W i thho ld ing T rea tmen t f r om B aby D oe . F rom D isc r im ina t ion t oC h i ld A buse" M i lbank Memor ia lF und Q uar te r ly 6 3 ( # 1 ) , 1 8 -51 .

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R uck ,A .P . 1 980

c i ted i nR .G . Was ,T h eW ond rou s Mush room Myco la t ry i n Mesoamer ica ( NY : McG raw s on H il ) .

S chu l te s ,R .E .a nd A .H o fmann 1 979 P lan t so ft h eG od s( New Y o rk : McG raw H il ) . S ou s te le ,J . l 1 970 D a i ly L if eo ft h eA z t ecs ( S tan fo rd : S t and fo rd U .P res . s) T homp son ,J .E .S . 1 966 T he R i s ea nd F a lo f M aya C iv i l i za t ion ( No rman :U .O k lahoma P res . l s) V og t ,E .Z . 1 966

" H i lo le t ic : T he O rgan iza t ion a nd F unc t ion o f S haman i sm i nZ ina can tan" i nA . P ompa y P ompa ,e d . ,S umma A n t ropo log ica e n Homena j e aR obe r to J .W e i t lane r( Mex ico :I NAH )p p . 3 59 -369 .

Was ,R .G . s on 1 980 T he Wond rou s Mu sh room . My co la t ry i n Mesoam er ica ( NY : McG raw H i l ) . l

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The S k in a nd Ha ir o fT la l tecuh t l i D or is H eyden I nt h eb eg inn ing o ft ime t h e r ew a sn oe a r th ,j u s t ag r ea tc rocod i l ian c r ea tu re f l oa t ing i n l s pace . T h i s c r ea tu re w a s c a led T la l tecuh t l i , " Lo rd" o r " Lady o f t h e E a r th ." I tw a s a e mons t rous b e ing w ho se j o in t s , f e ta nd c l aws w e r ec ove red w i th e yes a nd mou ths w ho se e s ha rp t e th c ou ld b i te l i ke as a vage b ea s t .O ne d ay t wo g od s ,Q ue tza lc6a t la nd T ezca t l ipoca , r l ooked d own f r om t h eh e igh t sw he r et h ey l i ved . S ee ing t h ev a s ts pace b e low , s u rounded b ya ni mmense s e a( b ecause ,s t range ly e nough ,w a te rd id e x i s t ) ,t h et wo g od ss a id ,o ne t o a no the r , "We s ha l c r ea te t h e e a r th ." A nd s o s ay ing , t h ey t r an sfo rmed t h em se lve s i n to l g igan t ic s e rpen t sa nd s e ized t h ec r ocod i l ian c r ea tu re ,o ne o ne ach s i de ,a nd p u led u n t i lt h ey l s p l i th e ri nt wo . T hey r a ised u po ne h a l fa nd i tb ecame t h es ky , t h eo the rh a lf r e ta ined t h e n ame T la l tecuh tl ia nd b ecame t h ee a r th . T hen t h eo the rg od s ,d i s t res th e rd i smembe red s t a te a nd w i sh ing t oc on so le h e r , s ed a c r ea ted " a lt h ef r u i t sn eces ry f o rp eop le 's s u s tenance" f r om h e rp a r t s : t r ee sa nd p l an t s l sa f r om h e rh a i r , f l owe r s a nd h e rb sf r om h e rs k in , s p r ing s , p oo l s , a nd c ave s f r om h e re ye s , r i ve r sa nd l a rge c ave rns f r om h e r mou th , a nd v a ley sa nd moun ta in sf r om h e rn o se . l T h i si s th ew ay t h es i x teen th c en tu ry H i s toyre d u Mech ique ' t e l so ft h ec r ea t ion o ft h e l e a r th a nd e l emen t so fn a tu re — the p lan t s ,t r ee s , f l owe r s , a nd a ege ta t ion —wh ich w e re lv e sen t ia lt op eop le 's w e l -be ing a nd f o rmed p a r to ft h e i r wo r ld v i ew . s l s ed t T he f l o ra o f Mex ico i mp res h eS pan ia rd si nt h es i x teen th c en tu ry t os uch a ne x ten t t h a t ag r ea td ea lo fr e sea rch w a sd ed ica ted t ot h e se b y t h eC rown . T he C odex B ad ianu s , t wh ich d e scr ibe sp lan t s ,w a sw r i ten i nN ahua t li n1 552 b y Ma r t in d el a Cruz , ad oc to rf r om t h eC o leg io d el aS an ta C ruz d eT la te lo lco ,a nd t r an s la ted i n to L a t in b yJ uan B ad iano .T he re l so ,t h eH i s tor ia N a tura ld e Nueva E spa id i i s a1 940 E ngl i sh t r ans la t ion o ft h i sc odex . 2A i s as e r ie s o f f ou r v o lume s o n f l o ra a nd f auna , w r i ten b e tween 1 570 a nd 1 577 b y D r . t F ranc isco H emändez w ho h ad b een s en tt o Mex ico b yP h il ip I of S pa in t oi nve s t iga te t h e n a tu ra l wonde r st h e re .A no the rv a luab le s ou rce o fi n fo rma t ion f r om t h es i x teen th c en tu ry i s B ook 1 o nE a r th ly T h ing so fF ray B e rna rd ino d eS ahagün 's F loren t ine C odex 'a nd t h e H i s tor ia d el a sC osa sd e Nueva E spa ia . When Id i scus od sa nd f e s t iva ls ,h oweve r , Is ha l i s g l o f ten b ec i t ing D iego Du rän .5 I ti se v iden tf r om t h eh i s to r ica ls ou rces t h a ti np reh i span ic Mex ico t h en a tu ra ll a nd scape , i n c lud ing a i ra nd s pace , w a sc on s ide red s a c red . A c tua ly , a lmo s t a l t h ing s t h a t a f ec ted l l f h uman sw e re b e l ieved t ob en o to n ly s a c red b u ta n ima te , t oh ave al i f eo ft h e i ro wn . F o r e xamp le , a g r icu l tu ra l i mp lemen t s , w h i ch p ene t ra ted t h e e a r th ( a f te rh e rp erm is ad sion h b een r eque s ted ) ,w e re r eve red ,r ega rded a sp rov ide r so ff ood , a nd w e re g iven ap e r iod o f r e s t . D u rän d e sc r ibe st h is r eve rence f o rm an 's h e lpe r s : O nt h is d ay ( t he f i r s td ay o ft h e mon th a nd f e s t iva lE tza lcua l iz t l i ). . a lt h en a t ive .l f a rme r sa nd c ommon p eop le p e r fo rmed ac e r emony w i th t h e i ra g r icu l tu ra li mp le m en t s :h oes ,s ha rp s t ick sf o rs ow ing ,s pades w i th w h ich t h ee a r th i sd ug ,t ump l ines ( o rm ecapa les )w i th w h ich t h ey c ar h ing s ,c acax t /es —con s is t ing o fs ome s ma l ried t l c ros oa rd sp l aced w i th in awooden f r amewo rk w he re t h el o ad i st i ed ,t h ec o rd s ed b w i th w h ich t h el o ad i sc ar ,a nd t h eb aske tw i th in w h ich t h el o ad i sp l aced .O nt h e ried d ay o ft h ef e a s ta lt h e se t h ing sw e re p l aced b yt h eI nd ians i nt h e i rh ome s , a nd t h e l o b jec t sw e re r eve red a nd t h anked f o rt h e i rh e lp i nt h ef i e ld sa nd o nt h er oad .F ood a nd p u lque l i quo r w e re o f e red t ot h em , t oge the r w i th t h e d i sh e a ten o n t h i s d ay f

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( e t za l i , ma ize a nd b eans t oge the r ) . ...I ncen se w a s o f e red b efo re t h em a nd a l f t hou sand s a laam s , s a lu ta t ion s , a nd s peeche s . T h i s r i te w a s c a led R epo se o ft h e l S e rv i le I mp lemen t s ... . 6 B u th omage w a sp a id n o to n ly t ot h ew o rk i mp lemen t sb u to the rt h ing si nt h ed a i ly l i f e o ft h e Mex ican sr e ce ived o be isance a sw e l .D u r än ,u nhappy b ecause o ft h ed evo t ion p a id l b yt h ep l aye r so ft h eb a lgame t ot h er ubbe rb a l( wh ich , a f te ra l , w a s" a l ive" b ecau se i t l l l j umped a bou ta sr ubbe rw i ld o ) ,c omp la ined t h a tn o to n ly w a st h i sb a ls poken t oa s ad i v ine l l b e ing ,b u ti nt h ei n can ta t ion " t hey i nvoked t h eh i l s ,t h ew a te r ,t h e s p r ing s ,t h ec l if ,t h e l fs t r ee s , t h e w i ld a n ima l s a nd s nake s ; t h e s un , t h e moon , a nd t h e s t a r s ; t h e c l oud s , t h e r a in s to rm s ,i ns um ,a lc r ea ted t h ing st oge the rw i th t h eg od s who h ad b een i nven ted f o re ach l o ft h e se ." ' S oa le l emen t so fn a tu re w e re h ono r ed ,a nd a mong t h e mo s tr eve red w er ep lan t sa nd l f l owe r s , wh ich s em s l og ica l i n a smuch a s t h ey h e lped f ed t h e p eop le a nd c ons t i tu ted e e o f e r ing st ot h eg od s .O ft h ee igh teen f i e s ta sd u r ing t h ee i gh teen mon th so ft h ey ea r ,t e nw e re f d ed ica ted ma in ly t ot h ee a r th 's f e r t i l i ty , 'e spec ia ly t op lan t ss uch a sm a ize a nd ama ran th l a sw e la st of l owe r s . l V ege ta t ion T he q ue s t ion a r ise s : wh ich p lan t sp l ayed al e ad ing r o le a ss u s tenance ,i nt h ee conomy , i nr e l ig ion ,a nd e ven i np o l i t ics? I nt h i s wo r ld o f mu tua lr e spec tb e tween p eop le a nd n a tu re , s ome o ft h e mo s tv a lued f l o ra w e re t h e se : T rees .L ike moun ta ins ,c aves ,a nd s p r ing s ,t r ee sw e re b e l ieved t ob es a c red a nd a n ima te . O ne o ft h en ame sf o rt r ee sw a sT o ta ," Ou rF a the r ." O the rn ame sf o rt h et r ee w e re T op i l tz in , " Ou rP r ince ," a nd Y o lome t l ," He who h a s ah ea r t ." T ree sp rov ided wood f o rf i rewood , l b u i ld ing s , a nd f o rc a rv ing s ome o ft h e s t a tue so ft h e g od s . I nt h e se a nd o the rw ay s ,t r ee s p layed a ni mpo r tan tr o le i nt h ee conomy . T rees w e re t h es ub jec t so f m uch r i tua la ten t ion .D u r ing t h eH uey T ozor t l if e a s ti n hono r t o f t h e r a in -ea r th g od T la loc , a n a r t if i c ia l f o r es t w a s s e t u p b efo re T la loc 's s h r ine i n T enoch t i t lan w i th t h e t a le s t a nd f i nes t t r ee f r om t h e f o re s tp l a ced i nt h e m idd le . D u rän l d e scr ibes t h ew ay T o ta ,t h et r ee ,w a sc u td own a nd t h en s e tu pi nt h ec en te r .B e fo re c u t ing t i t ,t h e men r e spec t fu ly a sked p e rm is os l ice i n to i t sf l esh ,t h en i t sb ranche sw e re t i ed l sion t c a refu ly s ot h a tw hen i tw a sc a r ied f r om t h ef o re s tt ot h ec e remon ia lp rec inc tn o t al e a f l r c ou ld t ouch t h eg round w her ei tm igh tb ep rofaned .S e ti np l ace b efo re T la loc 's t emp le ,t h e b ranche sw e re u n t ied s ot h et r ee c ou ld s p read o u ti na li t ss p lendo r . Ag i r lc h i ld w ho w a s l t ob es a c r if iced i nt h el a ke w a sf i r s tb rough tt ot h i sa r t if i c ia lf o re s tf o rc e r emon ia ls ong sa nd c han t s . When s he w a st a ken i n al i te rt ot h el a ke ,T o ta w a sr e t ied a nd w a sa l so t a ken a l ong t a sa nh ono red s a c r if ic ia lv i c t im .J us ta st h el i t le g i r lw a st h rown i n to t h ew a te r ,s ow a sT o ta t t h et r ee t h ru s ti n to t h el a ke .9 t T he c us tom o ft r ea t ing t h et r ee a sa nh ono red b e ing a nd s e t ing i tu pw i th much c e remony h a sc on t inued t ot h ep re sen td ay .T he f i ne s tt r ee i nt h ef o re s th a sa lway sb een u sed f o rt h e l p o le i nt h eP a lo V o lador ,t h ew e l -known F lyer sd ance ,t h a ti s ,u n t i lr e cen t ly w hen i ns ome a r ea s ame ta lp o le h a sb een s ub s t i tu ted .B u tw hen e i the rt h et r ee o rt h ep o le r e p re sen t ing i t f i s pl aced i nt h ed eep h o le w he r ei ti st empo ra r i ly p l an ted f o rt h ed ance ,o f er ing sa r el a id l a r ound i t sr oo t s . T he se u sua ly c on s i s to f af ow l w ho se b lood i ss pr ink led t h e re , l i quo r , t c i ga re te s ,a nd h o ly w a te r .W i th t h e se t h et r ee i ss a t i sf ied a nd s t and ss t ra igh ta nd s t rong s o l t h e" f lye r s" ,w ho d e scend b yr ope sh ead f i r s tf r om t h et o p ,w i lb es a f e .A sr e cen t ly a s1 966 l l f ou r" f lye r s" f e lf r om t h es umm i td ur ing ap e r fo rmance i nS a l t i lo ,C oahu i la ,w he re t wo o f

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t h em w e re k i l led .T he g roup 's c ap ta in a t t r ibu ted t h ea cc iden tt ot h el a ck o fa no f f e r ing t o t h et r ee s i nce t h ed ance r s w e re h ur nd f a i led t of i nd ah en a nd o the ro b jec t sd ea rt o ried a T ou t 's h ear t ,w ho e v iden t ly e xp res s ed h i sd i sp lea su re i n at r ag ic manne r .' B u tt h et r ee w a sn o to n ly ama in a c to ri nc e r ta in c e remon ie s .I tw a st hough tt oh ave a s ou l ,a nd a cco rd ing t oJ a c in to d el aS er na 1 l ong a go t r ee sw e re p eop le ,a nd w hen t h ey w e re t r an sfo rmed i n to t r ees t h ey k ep tt h e i r" r a t iona l s ou l ." T ha ti sw hy p eop le g r ee t t h em a s b ro the r s ,t a ke c a r eo ft h em ,a nd n eve rc u tt h em d own w i thou tf i r s ta sk ing p erm is sion o ft h e t r ee i t se lf . T he t r ee b ecame am e tapho rf o rt h er u le r .T he s ove re ign a tt ime sw a sr e f er oa sa red t g r ea tc e iba o r ac yp ress , aj un ipe r , aw i low ,w ho p ro tec ted h i sp eop le j u s ta st h e se s p lend id l t r ee ss p read t h e i rb ranche sa nd t h u sg ave s hade a nd p ro tec t ion t ot ho se w ho s ough tt h ese . Aw i se g over nmen ta nd ag ood t e ache rw e r ea l so c ompa red t ot r ee si nt h es ame p ro tec t ive s en se .' F ur the rmo re ,t h ec e iba h e ld e a r th a nd s ky t oge the ra nd t h e re w a s as pec ia lt r ee a t e ach w o r ld d i rec t ion ,w ho se f unc t ion mu s th ave b een t oh o ld u pt h a tc o rne ro ft h eu n ive r se .' F lower s . S ome n a t ive Mex ican p l an t sw e re b eans , s qua sh ,c h i le ,c h fa ( at ype o fs age , S a lv ia c h ian ) ,c acao ,v an i la ,e pazo te h e rb ,t h en opa lo rp r ick ly p ea r ,t h e maguey o rc en tu ry l p lan t , a nd c o ton . L im i ta t ion s o f s pace d o n o t p e rm i t m e t o d i scus h e se , s o Iw i l t s t l c oncen t ra te o nt h er o le o ff l owe r si np reh i span ic r i tua la nd t r ad i t ion . L ike o the r f l o ra i n p r eh i span ic Mex ico , t h e f l owe r i t se lf h ad mu l t ip le m ean ing s . A cco rd ing t ot h et ype o fr e p re sen ta t ion a nd t h ep e r iod i n wh ich i tw a sd ep ic t ed ,i tc ou ld s ymbo l ize c r ea t ion ,t h ec ave ,t h ew omb ,l i f eo rd ea th ,s a cr if i c ia lb lood ,t h ew o r ld d i rec t ions , t h ec en te r , ac a lenda rs i gn ,g od s ,r u le r sh ip ,l a nguage ,s ong a nd s peech .F o rt h e Maya t h es un , k i n , w a s r ep resen ted a s a fl owe r . F lowe r s w e re a do rnmen t s b u t t h ey a l so s ub s t i tu ted p rec iou sj ewe l so no cca s ion ,a nd t h ey p os ssed m ed ic ina lp roper t ie s .I ti s no ts u rp r is ing , se t h e refo re ,t h a tf l owe r sw e re t e nde r ly c a red f o r ,p ro tec ted ,g iven t h e i ro wn d e i t ie sa nd r i tua l . T hey w e re t r aded f r om o ne e nd o ft h ec oun t ry t oa no the r ,s o ld i nt h e ma rke t s ,a ranged b y r s pec ia l i s t s o n a l f e s t ive o cca s ion s . T hu s t h ey s i gn i f ied , a mong o t he r t h ing s , e conom ic l e xchange , med ic ina lp owe r sa nd c e le s t ia lf o rce s . " F lowe r" i nt h eN ahua t ll a nguage i sx och i t l ,t h e refo re w o rd sw i th x och -a s ap re f ix a r e r e la ted t o f l owe r s . F o r e xamp le , X och ique tza l , " P rec ious F lowe r ," w a s a godde ss o f v ege ta t ion . Mex ico i sc ove red b ya ne no rmous v a r ie ty o ff l owe r s ,t hough o n ly af ew n a t ive t ot h ec oun t ry w i lb ed i scus e re . l sed h T he f l owe rm en t ioned m o s tf r equen t ly b yt h ec h ron ic le s ,i nd e scr ip t ions o fr i tua l s ,w as t h e c empoa lxoch i t l , mean ing " twen ty f l owe r s" b ecause o f i t s many p e ta l s . T h is i st h e T age te s e rec ta , ab r i l ian t o range o r y e low f l owe r t h a t i sk nown a s t h e ma r igo ld . T he l l c empoa lxoch i t l w a s made i n to g a r land s f o r f e s t iv i t ie s , i ta do rned p ub l ic t emp le s a nd h ou seho ld s h r ine s , a nd i tw a st h ef l owe rf o rt h ed ead .E ven t oday g r ave sa nd h ome a l ta r s a r el a v i sh ly a do rned w i th m a r igo ld sf o rt h eD ay o ft h eD ead c e remon ie so nN ovembe r 1 2 .P a th so f ma r igo ld p e ta l sl e ad f r om d oo r so fh omes i nr u ra la r ea st ot h er oad ,s ot h a tw hen t h es ou lo ft h ed ecea sed r e tu rn st oh i sh ome f o rt h ese f ew d ays o fr eun ion w i th h i sf am i ly a nd t oe a ta nd d r ink t h es ub s tance o ft h ef ood a nd l i quo rp l aced u pon t h ea l ta r ,h ew i ln o t l l o se h i sw ay .T he re i s ab e l ief t h a tb r igh t ly c o lo red f l owe r sa t rac tt h es ou l ,a nd t h e se e ven t f o rm p a r to fr i te st or e cupe r a te t h ea lma i nc a se so f" sou ll o s" .A cco rd ing t ot h eF loren t ine s C od ex 1 4, t h ev i c t im ss a cr i f iced b yb e ing b u rned a l ive i nh ono ro ft h ef i re g od ( du r ing Xoco t l H ue tz i , t h ef i e s ta i nw ha ti sn ow A ugus t )h ad p owde red y auh t l it h rown i n to t h e i rf a ce st o d u lt h ep a in .Y auh t l i ,w h ich w a sa l so u sed a sa ni n cense ,i s th eT age te sl u c ida ,o ne v a r ie ty l o ft h e ma r igo ld . 2 13

A no the r f l owe r , t h e c h ima lxoch i t l , " sh ie ld f l owe r ," i s t h e s unf lowe r ( He l ian thu s l r a nnu s ) . I t sy e low c o lo ra nd t h ec en te rs u rounded b yr ay l ike p e ta l s ,p lu st h ef a c tt h a ti t s rio f a ce st h es un ,h ave a so c ia ted i tw i th w a ri n Mex ico ,s i nce w ar r sw e re d ed ica ted t ot h e s un .T ha ti tw a sc ompa r ed t o as h ie ld i sa l so d ue t o it sf o rm a nd t h ef a c tt h a t as unf lowe ro f ten a do rned t h es h ie ld so fg od s , a mong t h em H u i tz i lopo ch t l i ,t h ew a rg od ,T la lo c ,t h ew a te r e a r th g od ,a nd O poch t l i , aw a te rd e i ty . S t il a no the r p l an t , t h e c aca loxoch i t l , " r aven" o r " c row f l owe r ," i st h e P lumer ia a cu t if o l ia , t h e " fo rd e m ayo ." I tw a s u sed a bundan t ly i nt h e T laxoch ima co f e a s t , " t he d i s t r ibu t ion o f f l owe r s ," t o a dor n s t a tue s o f t h e g od s i n t h e t emp le s a nd h ome s . T he c aca loxoch i t l w a s a l so u sed i nm ed ic ine s a nd f r om t h i s f l owe r ap e r f ume w a s m ade t o l f he u se o f t h e c aca loxoch i t l w a s a lev ia te f a t igue s uf f e red b y g over nmen t o f ic ia l s . ' 5T r e se rved f o rn ob le sa nd r u le r s . en t ion st wen ty -one o t he rf l owe r so rp l an t st h a tw e r eu sed T he B ad ianu s Manu scr ip t i 6m l t o" a lev ia te t h ef a t igue" o fc i v i ls e rvan t s .S ome o ft h e se w e re g round a nd m ixed w i th t h e b lood o fw i ld a n ima l sa nd t h en r ubbed o nt h et i r ed p a r t so ft h eb ody .O ne f l owe rt h a tw a s a dded t oc hoco la te a nd t h en d runk w a s t h ee l oxoch i t l , " ma ize f l owe r" ( Magno l ia s ch ie d eana )w h ich i sn o tm a iz eb u tw ho se f l owe rb ea r ss om er e semb lance t o at i ny e a ro fm a ize . ' " t Al i t le o ft h i sw hen i mb ibed s e rved a sr e laxa t ion ,m uch o fi tc au sed i n tox i ca t ion o re ven 8 madne s s.1 T he macpa lxoch i t l , " fo r d e man i ta" o r " hand shaped f l owe r" ( Ch iran thod end ron p en tadac ty lon )w a s af a vo r i te o fk i ng s . Mur ioz C ama rgo l 9w ro te t h a tt h et r ee w h ich b ea r s t t h i sf l owe ri sr a r e ,i t s wood i s of l i t le v a lue ,b u ti t sf l owe ri s hi gh ly a pp r ec ia ted .T h i sw a s a no the rf l owe rr e se rved f o rp eop le o fh i gh r ank .T he m acpa lxoch i t l ,b r ewed i n to t e a ,i ss a id t ob eg ood f o rt h eh ea r t . O rch id sw e r ea pp r ec ia ted f o rt h e i rb eau ty b u ta l so f o rt h e i ru sef u lne ss .T he i rb u lb sg ave o u t as t icky s ub s tance t h a t w a s u sed a s ag l ue . T h i s g l ue f a s tened f e a the r s t oc l o th a nd t l r s h ie ld s ,a ta ched s ma la rowhead st o th es ha f t ,f i xed mo sa ic si np l a ce ,a nd w a sm ixed w i th n on -o rgan ic c o lo r sa sa na gg lu t ina te f o r mak ing p a in t .T he g ene ra ln ame f o rt h e se o r ch id s w a st z acuh t l i ,z au t le ,o rz ac le ( Ep id end ron p a s tor i s ,L ae l ia a u tumna l i s ,B le t ia c ampanu l a ta ,B le t ia c occ inea ) .' l Ha luc inogen ic P lan ts l o T he l i s to fp l an t sa nd f l owe r su sed f o rm ed i c ina lp u rpo se so ra sh a luc inogen si st ol o ng s i t od i scus nd e ta i lh e re . Many o ft h e se h ave b een d ea l tw i th i nt h ep opu la rl i t er a tu re .O ne e i st h eo lo l iuhqu i( Turb ina c orymbo sa o rR ivea c or ymbo sa ) ,w ho se s ed sw hen e i the re a ten e 1 T he f l owe ri s o rb rewed i n to t e a , c au se p eop le t os e" v i s ion s a nd f r igh ten ing t h ing s ."2 e t r umpe t shaped , e i the r w h i te o rb l ue , a nd t h e s ed s a r e v a luab le a sm ed ic ine . T hey a r e l g round , made i n to ap a s te ,a nd a pp l ied t o th es i ck p a r to ft h eb ody .T h i si sa ne spec ia ly g ood r emedy f o r g ou t . E ven t oday o l o l iuhqu ig row s a bundan t ly i nr u ra l a r ea s a nd i su sed f o r l m ed ic ine . I t sp opu la rn ame i sDond iego d ed i a , Domped ro ,o r Marav i la . l P eyo te ( Lophophora w i l iam s i )n eed sn oi n t rodu c t ion . I ti s a c a c tu sg row ing f r ee ly i n c en t ra l Mex ican d ry z ones a nd i si mpo r tan ti n Hu icho lr i tua l .E a t ing p eyo te b ud sc au se so ne t oh ave v i s ion si ns t rong c o lo r s . I np reh i s to r ic t ime st h e C h ich imec p eop le a t ep eyo te i n t sly a e o rde rt og oi n to b a t le f e a r les nd t of e ln e i the rh unge rn o rt h i r s t .n l e sc r ibe s ap l an tc a led t l apa t lw h ich i sD a tu ra s t ramon ium a nd w h ich w hen S ahagün n d m ixed w i th m ix il ,a no the rp l an t( un iden t i f ied ) ,c ou ld c au se p e rmanen ti n san i ty .T he n ame s o ft h e se t wo p l an t s ,w hen c omb ined ,f o rmed am e tapho rf o rb e ing c r azy o rf o rg i v ing v e ry 2 14

l b ad a dv ice t os omeone .T lapa t li sa l so c a led t o loache ( J im son w eed )a nd w a su sed t oc u re t g ou ta nd t oc on t ro lf e ve r s .T he se l a te rc u re sa r ea temp ted n o tb ye a t ing t h ep l an tb u tb y a pp ly ing i tt ot h eb ody . t l Much h a sb een w r i ten a bou tt h e mu sh room ( Aman i ta m u scar ia ) ,c a led x och inanaca t l , s on" b " f lowe ry mu sh room ," i n N ahua t l .G o rdon Was e l ieve st h a tw hen t h ea nc ien tc an tare s 5d e sc r ibe s as pec ia l o rh ymn ss peak o ff l owe r s ,t h ey f r equen t ly r e f e rt o mu sh room s .D u rän 2 d r ink g i ven t os a cr if ic ia lv i c t im ss ot h ey w ou ld g l ad ly g ol a ugh ing t ot h eo b s id ian k n if ea nd h ave t h e i rh ea r t sc u to u t( a tl e a s tt h a ti sw ha ti s sa id ! ) . I tw a sc on s ide red b ad l u ck w hen a t v i c t im l o s th i sp o s i t ive a t i tude .T he d r ink f ed t o th e se u n fo r tuna te p e r son sc ou ld h ave b een 6 s t a te st h a t" w ine" a nd mu sh room sw e re n eve r p u lque m ixed w i th o l o l ihuqu i ,s i nce D u rän 2 c on sumed a tt h es ame t ime . T oba cco ( N ico t ianaru s t ica o rN ico t iana t a bacum )w a s ah igh ly r eve red p l an tw ho se u se w a sr e se rved f o rr u le r s ,n ob le s ,a nd w ar r s .N o to n ly w a si ts moked i nr ed t u be sb u ti t rio e h ad m ed ic ina lp rope r t ie s .J a c in to d el a Se rnav c a l sp ic ie t l ,t o bacco ," t he d a rk s p i r i t" o r" t he l y e low c on sec ra ted i n can ta t ion ," w h i ch w a su sed t oc u r eh eada che ,t o thache ,p a in i nt h e l o c he s t ,a nd o t he rp rob lem sb ya pp l ica t ion o nt h es o r es po t . O f ten i tw a sm ixed w i th o t he r p l an t s ,s u ch a syauh t l i ,t h eT age t e sl u c ida m a r igo ld .T od i agno se a ni h ea c id ,d o c to r , lnes s, t i mb ibed t o ba cco ,p eyo te ,o ro l o l iuhqu i .T he v i s ion sp roduced b yt h e se w e r es a id t or evea l t h ec au se o ft h ep rob lem? ' Aqua t ic P lan ts : R eed sa nd Ru she s T o l in i n N ahua t li st h en am ef o rr ed s ,r u she s ,o rc a ta i l s .I nS pan i sh t h e se r e la ted p l an t s l e t a r ec a led r u le o re spada ia .F i f teen s pec ie sa r el i s ted f o rr u le o rr ed , among t h em t h eT yph a l i e 9 " Ru sh" i s def ined b y a ngu s t i f o l ia " ve ry a bundan ti nt h el a ke so ft h eV aley o f Mex ico ."2 Web s te ra s" any o fv a r iou sp l an t so ft h e g enu sJ uncu s , h av ing c y l ind r ica l , o f ten j o in ted s t em s ;" " r eed" i sd ef ined a s at a lb amboo l ike g r as Phragm i te sc ommun i so rm a r sh g r as l s ( s, L .c anna ) ,a nd t h ec a ta i l sa s am a r sh p l an t( Typha l a t i fo l ia )w ho se l o ng f l a tl e ave sa r eu sed t f o r mak ing ma t so rs e a t ing c ha i r s .» R eed s ,r u she s , a nd c a ta i l s c on s t i tu ted a n i mpo r tan t t l emen ti nt h ee conomy o fp reh i span ic Mex ico .T hey w e re u sed f o rb u i ld ing ma te r ia lf o r e r a f t s , ma t s , mu s ica li n s t rumen t s ,b a ske t s ,a nd p i pe s . A l so ,t h e i rr oo t sw e r ee d ib le . T o lan o rT u lan , d e r ived f r om r u le , " among t h er ed s , a mong t h er u she s , a mong t h e l l e c a ta i ls ," w a ss en a s ap l ace o ff e r t i l i ty a nd a bundance b yS ahap in ,a nd a sr e f er oa t e ring t 1 A ppa ren t ly ,t h ea bundance o ft h e se m a r sh p l an t s m e t ropo l i sb yt h eR e lac iön d eC ho lu la .3 ma ssed i n one p l ace r em ind so ne o f ac ong r ega t ion o fp eop le .F u r the rmo re ,t h ei mpo r tance o fr ed si sn o tab le b ecau se t h ey m a rked t h es po tf o rt h ef ound ing o fT enoch t i t lan .I nt h e e l e gend o fo r ig in ,C op i l 's h ea r tw a st h rown i n to t h er ed sa nd r u she so ft h es wamp so fL ake e T ezcoco a nd f r om h i sh ea r tg r ew t h ep r ick ly p ea rc a c tu so nw h ich t h ee ag le p e r ched ,t h es i gn t h a th e r ew a st ob et h eA z tec c ap i ta l . R eed sa nd r u she ss o lved many b a s ic p rob lem si nt h er e a lm so ff ood ,h ou s ing ,a nd o t he r n eces t ie s ,a nd t h ey g r ew i n an a qua t ic e nv i ronmen tw h ich p rov ided f i sh ,a l gae ,w a t e rf ow l , si e d ib le a qua t ic p l an t s ,a nd w a te rf o ri r iga t ing c r op s .T h i sr ange a nd a bundance o fr e sou r ce s r l e dt ot h ea so c ia t ion o fr ed sw i th t h ep l ace o fp a rad i se .I nt h i sp rom i sed l a nd p eop le c ou ld s e m ee tt h e i rn eed sa nd d eve lop p o ten t ia l sa nd l u xu r ie s . R eed s a nd r u she s , t ho se i n d i spen sab le p l an t s , w e r e a so c ia ted w i th t h e l i f e c yc le i n s m e tapho ra nd b e l ie f . When ay oung w oman b ecame p r egnan th e rk i n smen s poke t oh e ri n t h el a nguage o ft h ee l de r s ,t e l ing h e rt h a tt h es up r eme g od T ezca t l ipoca k ep th i st r ea su r e s l ( t he u nbo rn c h i ld ren r e f er o as jade sa nd p rec iou sf e a the r s )i nh i sr ed c of r . When t h e red t e fe

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c h i ld w a sb o rn i tw a ss a id t h a tt h i sr ed c of r ,s ymbo lo ft h ew omb a nd o fc r ea t ion h ad b een e fe o pened a nd t h et r ea su r ep l aced t h e re b yt h eg od h ad c ome f o r th .3 2 F ou rd ay sa f te rt h eb i r th l s, w o ft h ec h i ld h ew a sr i tua ly b a thed a nd C ha lch iuh t l icue ,t h ew a te rg oddes a si nvoked .T he l e e b ow lw i th r i tua lw a te rw a sp l a ced o nc a refu ly l a id o u tr ed sa nd r u she ss im i la rt ot h er ed m a tw ho se c or ne r s s ymbo l ized t h ef ou rd i r ec t ion so nw h i ch t h ey oung p a r en t sh ad b een ried m ar . C h i ld ren g r ew a nd s on so fl e ad ing f am i l ie sw en tt ot h ec a lmecac , as choo lw he re t h ey s w e r et r a ined t o become l e ade r s . When t h ey g r adua ted t h ey w e re t o ld t h ey w ou ld a sume t h e e e l r ed ma t ( i np e t la t l ) , t h e r ed s e a t ( i n i c pa l i ) o fa u tho r i ty? ' Ay oung man w ho e a rned d i s t inc t ion i nw a rb ecame amembe ro f al e ad ing m i l i ta ry o rde r ,w ho se e xa l ted p o s i t ion w a s red t rio e r e f er oa sh av ing b een p l aced b yT ezca t l ipo ca u pon " t he E ag le War rr ed m a t ,t h e rio e rio e O ce lo t War rr ed ma t ."3 4 O ne o ft h ew ar r 's p r iv i lege sw a st os moke t o bacco i n ar ed e p i pe ,t h eq uapp ia z t l i ," Eag le r ed t ube ."" fe e When ap e r son d i ed h ew a ss a id t oh ave b een p l a ced b yT ezca t l ipoca i n ac of r , ar ed c he s t ,i nt h el a nd o ft h ea nce s to r s ,( as ymbo l ic w omb )w he re t h el i f ec yc le b eg in sa ga in .3 6 e e e l fe A sh a sb een s en ,t h er ed ma ta nd t h er ed s e a t ,a sw e la st h ec of r ,w e r ec once ived o fa sb e long ing t oT ez ca t l ipo ca .S i nce t h er u le ro ft h ep eop le w a st h ei mage o ft h i sg od ,h e e e w a sc ho sen t oo ccupy t h ed e i ty 's r ed ma ta nd r ed s e a to ne a r th ." T he m a ta nd t h es e a t r e p r esen ted p o l i t ica lp owe r .T hey a l so s ymbol ized l e ga la u tho r i ty ,i n a smuch a s judges a l so e s a tu pon w oven r ed s e a t s . I nt h e Maya z one t h ew o rd ma t( pop ) w a s s ynonymou sw i th e " gove rn" o r" t h rone" a nd t ob es e a ted o n ar ed m a tm ean t" t or u le ." T he L o rd o ft h e ma t e 8 T hu s ,t h er ed m a tw a s av i sua lm e tapho r ( Ho lpop )w a st h eg ove rno ro ft h ec ommun i ty .3 f o rs ove re ign ty . I nc onc lu s ion ,t h e se a qua t ic p l an t sw e re a mong t h e mo s tp rec iou s ,b a s ic r aw m a te r ia l s f o rt h ep eop le o fa nc ien t Mex ico f o rw hom t h ey f o rmed p a r to ft h ei mage o ft h ep rom i sed s " i l a nd .B ecau se o ft h e i ru se fu lnes t hey c on t r ibu ted t ot h eg row th o fc t ie sa nd i n d i rec t ly t o t h ee x ten s ion o fp o l i t ica la nd e conom ic p owe r. ..t h ey c ame t os ymbo l ize r u le r sh ip ,a nd e b ecau se t h e r u le r w a s t h e l i v ing r e p re sen ta t ive o f t h e s up reme g od , r ed s a nd r u she s l s s ymbo l ized t h e g od a s w e l , a nd t h o se t h ing s a soc ia ted w i th h im : l i f e , d ea th , w ea l th , 9 p owe r . ... "3 F lower sa nd Ru ler sh ip A si ns oc ia lo rgan iza t ion ,t h e re w a s ah i e ra r chy a mong t h ef l owe r s .S ome w e re a va i lab le t o e ve ryone w h i le o the r s c ou ld b e e n joyed o n ly b y t h e u ppe r s t ra ta w h ich i n c luded rio o u t s tand ing w ar r s .T he re w a se ven ad ea th s en tence f o rt h o se w ho p i cked c e r ta in f l owe r s sion o w i thou ts pec ia lp e rm is rw ho d i dn o th ave n ob le b lood .A nd ay oung m an w ho r e fu sed l t og ot ow a r , e ven t hough h ew a st h er u le r 's s on ,w a sn o ta lowed t oa do rn h im se l fw i th rio f l owe r so rw i th f e a the r s .' When Mo tecuhzoma Ie s tab l i shed r u les f o rw ar r sh ei n c luded a mong t h e i rp r iv i lege st h er i gh tt o be e xemp tf r om t h ep ay ing o ft r ibu te a nd d o ing o b l iga to ry t s e rv ice s ,t h er i gh tt oh ave an umbe ro fc oncub ine s ,a nd t ob ep e rm i ted t os moke t o bacco rio s. 1 S of l owe r ss ymbol ized t h es o c ia lp r iv i lege o ft h ew ar rc l as a nd e n joy f l owe r s .4 P robab ly t h ep roh ib i t ion o ft h eu se o fc e r ta in f l ower sw a sd ue t ot h e i rs c a r c i ty o rt h e d i ff i cu l ty i no b ta in ing t h em a nd t h e n eed t op r e se rve t h em . D u rän ,4 2 i nd e sc r ib ing t h e f amou sg a rden si nH uax tepec c r ea t ed b y Mo tecuhzoma I ,m en t ion st h a tm any p l an t sw e re b rough t f r om h o t l a nd s a l ong w i th t h e g a rdene r s f r om t h o se f a r a way p l ace s w ho h ad e xpe r ience i nc a r ing f o rt h em . A cco rd ing t o Mo to l in fa ,4 3 t h el o rd sa nd r u le r se mpha s ized h av ing b eau t i fu lf l owe r si n 2 16

t h e i rg a rden s b ecau se f ood p l an t s w e re a l r eady g i ven t ot h em a st r ibu te . B u t med ic ina l p l an t s w e re a l so p opu la ra nd t h e s ove r e ign h ad h i s s pec ia l i s t s c on s tan t ly e xpe r imen t ing w i th t h e se p l an t st of i nd n ew c u re s .I ne a ch g a rden t h e re w a s as e c t ion f o rt h e se p l an t sw h ich c ou ld b eu sed f o rt h eg ene ra lp opu la t ion . f ho s ay st h a tt h e S t a tu sd i f e r en t ia t ion i nt h eu se o ff l owe r si sm en t ioned b yS ahagün ,4 w l t l acayo loxoch i t l , " hea r t -shaped f l owe r s f o r t h e n ob le s" ( f rom t l aca t l =m an o rp eop le ; l y o lo t l =h ea r t ; x och i t l =f l owe r ) w e re b eau t ifu l a nd o f a g reeab le f r ag rance , w h i le t h e l i t zcu inyo loxoch i t l , " he w shaped f l owe r s f o r d og s" w e re n e i the r b eau t i fu l n o r h ad a p l ea s ing a r oma , a nd w e re d e s t ined f o rt h ec ommon p e r son . l Many f l owe r s , a sw e l a sc omp le ted b ouque t s a nd o rnamen ta l t r ee s , a l ong w i th f i ne 5 c l a im st h a tt h er e a son s o f e a the r s ,j agua rs k in s , a nd o t he ri t em s , w e re i mpo r ted . D u rän4 many e xo t ic p l an t s w e re i mpo r t ed w a s n o t o n ly f o rt h e i rr a r i ty b u t " t o d emon s t ra te t h e g r ea tnes nd a u tho r i ty o ft h e Mex ican s( Az tec s )a nd t h u st ob er ega rded a sl o rd so fa lt h a t s a l i s cr ea ted ,b o th o ne a r th a nd i nt h ew a t e r ." B u te ven r u le r s h ad t h e i rr e s t r ic t ion s . As ove r e ign c ou ld s me l t h e e dge s b u tn o tt h e l c en te r so fb ouque t sf o rmed o fc e r ta in f l owe r s .T he f r ag rance o ft h ec en te rw a sr e se rved f o r t h e g od T ezca t l ipoca . Among t h ef l owe r sf a vo r ed f o rg a r land sw o rn i nc e r emon ie s" by k ing sa nd n ob le sa nd b yn oo ne e l se ," ( a long w i th w rea th sa nd g a r land so ff e a the r sa nd g o ld )w e r et h o se made o fp opco rn f l owe r s ." When t l ao l i , wh i ch i sZ ea may s o f t h e " pa lome ra" v a r ie ty , w a s l t o a s t ed ,i tp opped o pen a nd r e semb led aw h i te b l os .T h i st y pe o fg a r land w a sw ide ly s om u sed b y t h e l o rd s a nd t oa do rn s t a tue s o fd e i t ie s i nc e remon ie s h ono r ing T ezca t l ipoca . P opcor nf l owe r sw e re e spec ia ly i mpo r tan ti nh i sf i e s ta ,T oxca t l ,w h i ch w a sh e ld i n May , l j u s tb efo re t h er a iny s e a son w hen t h ee a r th i s dry a nd p a r ched . T oxca t lm ean s" d rynes s" 7 a co rd ing t oD u rän ,a nd i ti sp os le t h a tt o a s ted ma ize s ymbo l ized t h i ss e a son .G a r ibay4 c sib s ays t h a td u r ing f e s t iv i t ie s a sk ing t h ew a te rg od O poch t l if o rr a in , s ome o ft h eo f e r ing s f c on s i s ted o f" t oa s ted ma ize i nt h ef o rm o f af l owe r ,w h ich i m i ta te sh a i l ." R i te st os u s tenance i nt h ef i e s ta sw e re h e ld i nt h e mon th st h a tc o inc ided w i th p l an t ing a nd h a rve s t ing .T hu s , t h i ss e a sona l i ty r ep r e sen ted al i f ec yc le w h ich w a sr e f lec ted i nt h e s g od sa soc ia ted w i th p l an t s . Ma ize O ne s ymbo l ic e xamp le o ft h i sl i f ec yc le i s th ep e r son if i ca t ion o f ma ize . Ma ize w a st h e e b a s ic c rop i na nc ien t Mex ico a nd t h i sf ood w a ss en i nt h r ee s t ages :a )a s av e ry y oung g i r l l c a led X i lonen ,w ho se n ame i sd e r ived f r om t h ew o rd x i lo t lo r ji lo t e ,t h et e nde re a ro fc o rn ; b )a s ay oung b u t mo re ma tu re m a iden ,C h icomecoa t l ,w ho r ep re sen ted r i pe c o rn ;a nd c )a s s o sib a no lde rw oman ,A t lan T onan ,t h ep a t rones fl e pe r s ,p os ly r e p re sen t ing h u i t lacoche , 9 g i ve s C ha lch iuhc ihua t l , s i d i sea sed m a ize w h ich n one the les s ad e l ic iou s f ood .' D u rän4 " Jade Woman ," a s as ynonym f o rX i lonen a nd C h icomecoa t l .S he w a s ag oddes fw a te r , s o s ow a te ra nd v ege ta t ion w e re s en a so ne i n ter la ted a spec to ft h ee a r th 's f e r t i l i ty . We c an e re s et h ec or spondence b e tween t h ea ge so fp e r son if i ed ma ize a nd i t ss t ages o fg rown i na n e re how ing t h eI nd ian w ay o fp l an t ing t h i sc r op :i n pl o t sw he r et h es ed s e ng r av ing f r om 1 585 5°s e w e re s own a t dif ren tt ime ss ot h em a ize w ou ld c ome o u to ft h ee a r th i nd i f e r en t mon th s . fe f I nt h i sw ay t h e r ec ou ld b et e nde ry oung s hoo t s ,m a tu re c o rn ,a nd e i the ro ld o rd i sea sed e a r s , a lg row ing a tt h es ame t ime ,t h u sr e p r e sen t ing c h i ldhood ,y ou th ,a nd o ld a ge .U ndoub ted ly , l

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t h eo b jec to ft h i s s y s tem o fs ow ing w a st oe n su re f ood a lt h rough t h ey ea r . l Amaran th O ne o ft h eb a s ic f ood so f Mex ico a nd t h eN ew Wo r ld i np reh i s to r ic t ime s ,a m a ran th a l so w a s e x t reme ly i mpo r tan t e conom icaly a nd i nr i tua l . I mage s o ft h e g od s w e re m ade o f t z oa l i , ama ran th d ough , a sw e re r ep r esen ta t ion so fs a cr ed p l ace s s uch a sh i ls a nd f a una . l l Wha te xac t ly ,i st h is l i t le k nown g ra in f ood? t T he g ra in s pec ies o fAmaran thu sa r e Ame r ican p l an t s .T he s pec ie sA .h ypochond r iacu s a nd A . c ruen tu sa r en a t ive t o Mex ico a nd G ua tema la ,w h i le A . c auda tu si s na t ive t oP e ru a nd o the rA ndean c oun t r ies . Ama ran th h a st r ave led f a rs i nce 1 521 a nd d ue t oi t sh igh f ood l v a lue a nd l ow c o s ti sn ow p opu la ri nA s ia ( ma in ly i nT ibe ta nd C h ina )a sw e la si n Af r ica . se Ama ran th i so ne o ft h ef ew n ong ras st h a tp roduce s i gn if ican t amoun t so fe d ib le c e rea l g ra ins .I ta dap t sr ead i ly t on ew e nv i ronmen t s ,r e s is t sd rough t ,h ea t ,a nd p e s t s .T he s e ed h a s ap ro te in c on ten to f1 6% ,h ighe rt h an t h a to fw hea t ,r i ce ,o r ma ize . I t sl e ave s ,a l so r i ch i n l p ro te in a s w e l a s i nv i tam ins a nd m ine ra l s , a r e e a ten a s av ege tab le . A nd n o t o n ly i s ama ran th av a luab le f ood b u ti t s l e ave s , s t em s , a nd f l owe r s make b eau t ifu l a do rnmen t s , s i nce t h e i r n a tu ra l c o lo r s a r e r ed , o range , p u rp le , a nd g o ld» No w onde rt h i s p lan t w a s e s teemed a nd e ven e l eva ted t ot h er ea lm o ft h es a c red i nt h ea nc ien t Ame r ica s . l e t T he A z tecs c a led s ed ama ran th h uauh t l i o r m ichhauh t l i , t h e l a te r i d en t if ied b y S ahagün" a sh av ing s eed sl i ke f i sh r oe ( m ich in m eans " f ish" i nN ahua t l ) . When h uauh t l i w a sg round a nd m ixed w i th ma ize ,c i l ia ," b lack h oney" f r om t h e maguey p lan t ,a nd a tt ime s w i th b lood , t h ed ough w a sc a led t z oa l i . T he i mpo r tance o ft z oa l i i se v iden ti nt h a tt h e l l l f i gu re o ft h e ma in g od o ft h e Mex ica -Az tec ,H u i tz i lopoch t l i ,w a sf o rmed o ft h is d ough ,a nd t h en g i ven e yes o fb ead so rs eed sa nd t e th o fc o rn . When t h et z oa l ig od w a sc ove red w i th e l f i ne ry a nd p l aced o n al i te r ,y oung men t ook i tf i r s tt o th et emp le a nd t h en c ar ti n as w if t t ried i p roces o an umbe ro fs e c t ion si nt h ec i ty a nd f i na ly b ack t oH u i tz i lopoch t l i 's t emp le . sion t l T hen t h e ma idens b rough ts ome l a rge i mage so fb one s made o ft z oa l i .T hey g ave t h em t o l t h ey ou th sw ho c a r ied t h em u pt oH u i tz i lopoch tl i 's s h r ine a nd p laced t h em a tt h ef e to f r e t h eg od .T he re w e re s o many o ft h e se d ough b one st h a tt h ey f i led t h es h r ine ." Du r ing t h e l P anque tza l iz t l i f e s t iv i t ie s , w a r c ap t ive s w e re s a c r if i ced a nd " t he i r b lood w a s s p r in lded g ene rou s ly u pon t h ei mage o fd ough a nd u pon t h ep i ece so fd ough , wh ich r ep resen ted t h e f l e sh a nd b ones o ft h eg od ."' Du r ing t h e mon th o fT epe i lhu i t l , t h e f e a s to ft h e h i l s , r ep re sen ta t ion s o f moun ta in s l c a led T ep ic to ton , " l i t le mode led i mages ," w e re f o rmed o ft z oa l i , g iven e ye s a nd o the r l t l f e a tu re so fs eed sa nd d res nr i tua lp ape rg a rmen t s .T he se i mages w e re g i ven n ame so f s ed i g od ss uch a sT la loc o ro fs a c red moun ta ins l i ke P opoca tepe t l ." S e rpen t sw e re a l so c r ea ted o ft z oa l ib yc ove r ing b ranche so ft r ees w i th t h ed ough ," i nh ono ro ft h e moun ta in s ." T he l T ep ic to ton n ow a pp rec ia ted a sd iv ine b e ing sw er et h en g iven o f e r ing s ." f D u r ing t h ef e a s to fX oco t l Hue t z i , ag r ea tt r ee c a led x oco t lw a ss e tu pi nh ono ro ft h e l f i re g od .A ti t ss umm i tw a s af i gu re made o ft z oa l i ." A cco rd ing t oD u rän ,t h is f i gu re w a s l ab i rd b u tS ahagan w r i te st h a tt h ef i gu re w a so ft h ef i re g od ." A tt h ee nd o ft h ec e remon ie s , y ou th sc ompe ted i nc l imb ing t h ep o le t os e ize ap i ece o ft h et z oa l ii mage .I nt h es ame w ay , l t h ei mage so f moun ta ins i nT epe i lhu i t lw e re " sac r if i ced" b yb e ing c u ti n to p i ece sa nd " t h i s d ough w a se a ten a s as a c red t h ing ."9 P eop le w ho h ad w on ap i ece o ft h e go d 's f l esh ,a si t e l w a sc ons ide red t o be ,w e re o bl iged t oc on t r ibu te t h es ed f o rt h ed ough i mage st h ef o low ing y ea r . T hus , t h eg i f t sw e re r e c ip roca l , n a tu re g ave w h i le t h ep eop le r e ce ived , t h en p eop le g ave a nd n a tu re r e ce ived .T o rquemada' s ay st h a tt h e se i mage so fs e ed sw e re o f f e red s ot h a t

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t h eg od sw ou ld r e tu rn t h ef a vo rb yp rov id ing mo re s sa nd w a te rt o make t h em g row . eed F ie s tas a nd t he C a lendar T he r ei sn on eed t od e sc r ibe a lt h ep reh i span ic mon th ly f i e s ta si nd e ta i l .I ti ss uff i c ien t l t os ay t h a t f l owe r s , g a r land s , w rea th s , a r che s , f l owe rc a rpe t s a nd f a cade so fh ou se s a nd t emp les c ove red w i th b los s g ave c o lo r , s wee t a r oma , a nd b eau ty t ot h ese e i gh teen s om f e a s t s .T he f i r s t mon th o ft h ey ea r ,c or ing t oe a r ly F eb rua ry a cco rd ing t oS ahap in respond o r Ma rch a cco rd ing t oD u rän ,w a sc aled X iu tz i tzqu i lo ," t ak ing t h ep lan t( o ry ea r )i nh and ," w h ich may r e f e rt ot h eb eg inn ing o ft h ep lan t ing s ea son .I nH uey T ecu i lhu i t l ," G rea tf e a s t o ft h el o rd s ," c e leb ra ted i nt h e mon th c or spond ing t oJ u ly ,p eop le p u ta way t h e i rj ewe l s re a nd a do rned t h em se lve sw i th f l owe r s .T he l o rd ss t ayed h ome w he re t h ey i gno red t h e i ru sua l o b l iga t ion s a nd s a t s u rounded b y f l owe r s , a dm i r ing o ne , s me l ing a no the r . A tt h i s t ime r l g a r land so f ma r igo ld sw e re d epo s i ted i nt h et emp le o fH u i tz i lopoch t l i ,b efo re h i ss t a tue ,i n ac e r emony c a led x och ipa ina , " t he h a s ten ing o ft h e se f l owe r s ," b ecau se t h ey w e re j u s t l b eg inn ing t o b loom . I tw i l b e r emembe red t h a t t h e ma r igo ld i sa n a u tumn f l owe r i n l Mex ico .6 1 Du r ing t h e mon th a nd f ea s to fT laxo ch imaco ," Of ing o ff l owe r s ," c or spond ing t o fer re o u re a r ly A ugus t ,s h r ine sa nd s t a tue so ft h eg od sw e re c ove red w i th f l owe r s ,n o to n ly b yt h e n ob le sb u tb yp eop le o fa l as s ,w ho w en ti n to t h ef i e ld st op i ck w i ld f l ower s .I ne ach lc se mon th s pec ia l a ten t ion w a s p a id t ot ho se p lan t s f l owe r ing d u r ing t h a t t ime , o rt ot ho se t w h ich w e re s own o rh a rves ted . O the rp lan t sp layed ap a r ti n ce remon ie sa sw e l .I nt h eT lacax ipehua l iz t l if i e s ta i n hono r l o fX ipe , a l t h e s ea t sf o rt h ep ar t ic ipan t sw e re made o ft z apo t ll e ave s ( t zapo t l =L ucuma l d om inen s i s ;z apo te b l anco =C a s im iroa e du l i s )6 2 T he l im i t so ft h eb a lc ou r tw e re ma rked l w i th l i ne s f o rmed o f ac e r ta in p l an t , " t h i s o ne a nd n o o the r , a nd t h i s w a s n o tl a ck ing i n s uper s t i t ion ."6 3 D u rän d oe sn o ti d en t i fy t h ep lan tb u ts im i la rm a rk ing sw e re made f o rt h e p a to l ig ame , wh ich t h i sc h ron ic le rd e scr ibe sa s ap lan tw i th l e ave sl i ke t ho se o f ap umpk in , l o re l se t h ec h ich ipa t l i ,w h ich D iaz' i d en t if ie sa st h eC epha lan thu so cc id en ta l i s .A sw i th t h e z apo te ,D u rän i n s i s t st h a tt h eu se o ft h e se p lan t sa l so w a sf u lo f" supe r s t i t ion a nd i do la t ry ." l Macehua l t in ,t he C ommoner s I nt h i ss t ra t if ied s oc ie ty ,h oweve r ,n o ta lt h ef e s t iv i t ies w e re i nh ono ro ft h en ob le s .T he l a ve rage p e r son e n joyed r i tua l s s uch a s t h ea t r ica l p e r fo rmances , ma in ly amu s ing s k i t s , p e r fo rmed t h roughou tt h e y ea r . C ommone r s a l so c ar u tr i te s i nh ono ro ft h e e a r th , ried o p lan t s ,w o rk i mp lemen t s ,a nd a ln a tu ra lt h ing st h a th e lped a nd p ro tec ted p eop le . When t h e l f a rme rp l an ted s eed s ,h ea sked t h ee a r th t of o rg ive h im f o rc u t ing i n to h e rs u r face . When t h eh a rve s ted p lan t sh es poke t ot h em ,a sd id t h eh ou sew if ew ho t h rew f ood i n to t h ef i re .H e who w a s ted f ood c ou ld f a ce ad ea th p ena l ty .F o re xamp le ,o n ly d u r ing p l en t ifu ly ea r so ro n t h eE tza l if e a s td ay c ou ld p eop le e a tc o rn a nd b ean st o ge the r ,a nd " unde rp a in o fd ea th n o l o ne c ou ld e a to ft h is f ood ( e t za l i )e xcep ta t th i st ime ," f o rg ene ra ly " i ft h ey a t ec o rn ,t h ey l l a b s ta ined f r om b ean s ,a nd i ft h ey a t eb ean s ,t h ey a b s ta ined f r om c o rn ,a d ju s t ing t h em se lve s t ot h es ea son ."6 5 T he s ame d ea th p ena l ty a pp l ied t oa nyone t a k ing p lan tf ood o ra n ima ls h e d id n o tn eed . l D runkenne ss w a s f o rb idden e xcep to nr a re r i tua lo cca s ions . U sua ly o n ly o ld p eop le c ou ld i mb ibe a nd o n ly i ft h ey h ad a du l tc h i ld ren who c ou ld t a ke t h em h ome w hen t h ey h ad t oo much p u lque .T he r e a sons f o rt h is l aw w e re t h a t 1 )t h eo ld p eop le c ou ld c ause d amage sa t ot h em se lves a nd t oo t he r sw hen d runk ,a nd 2 )i tw a sn eces ry t op ro tec tt h e maguey p l an t f r om b e ing "m i lked" t oo much t od raw o u tt h ej u ice f o rt h el i quo r .F ur the rmo re ,i fay oung

2 19

man w e re a l lowed t od r ink f r ee ly h ec ou ld n eg lec th i sf i e ld s ,o ro the rw o rk a nd t h el o ca l e co logy a nd e conomy wou ld s u f f e r .6 A cco rd ing t o C a rmen A nzu res ,6 7 a mong t h e T a rahuma ra I nd ian s o f n o r thwe s ter n Mex ico t oday ,t ho se p eop le w ho h ave t a ken c a r eo ft h en a tu ra lr e sou rce sa nd h ave n o tt a ken f r om t h em mo re t h an w a sn eeded ,g ot oh eaven w hen t h ey d i e .H eaven i sn o t awh i te p l ace i nt h es ky b u ti s ag reen w o r ld ,f u lo fv ege ta t ion w h ich i s be ing w a te red c on s tan t ly .T h i s l wo r ld o fs u s tenance i st h eT la locan o rT a logan ,t h ep l ace d ed ica ted t ot h ew a te rg od T la loc , as ub ter o r ld o fa bundance r u led b yt h eL o rd o ft h eA n ima l s .T he e n t rance t ot h i s ranean w p a rad i se i st h rough w a te r h o le s , c ave s , o r f o re s t s , a l t h e se g ua rded b y l i t le c h i ld l ike l t c r ea tu re sc a led T la loques o rC haneque s ,w ho se r o le i s to p ro tec tt h ee co logy . l 6 8

I no rde rt op ro tec tn a tu re 's g i f t sa ga in s th aphaza rd a g r icu l tu ra lp rac t ice s ,i np reh i span ic Mex ico e very th ing w a s s t r ic t ly r egu la ted b yt h ec a lenda r . A cco rd ing t oD u rän : T he se c ha rac te r s( t he c a lenda rs i gn s ). .. t a ugh tt h eI nd ian n a t ions t h ed ay so nw h ich l t h ey w e re t os ow ,r eap ,t i lt h el a nd ,c u l t iva te c o rn ,w eed ,h a rve s t ,s t o re ,s hel t h ee a r s o fc o rn ,s ow b ean sa nd c i l ia .T hey a l so t ook i n to a ccoun tt h a ti th ad t ob ei ns uch a nd s uch amon th ,a f te rs uch a nd s uch af e a s t ,o ns uch a nd s uch ad ay ,u nde rs uch a nd s uch as i gn . A lt h is w a sd one w i th s upe r s t i t ion a nd c a re .I f ch i le w a sn o ts own o n l ac e r ta in d ay ,s qua sh o na no the r ,m a ize o na no the r ,a nd s of o r th ,i nd i s rega rd o ft h e o rde r ly c oun to ft h ed ay s ,t h ep eop le f e l tt h e r ew ou ld b eg r ea td amage a nd l o f ss o a ny c rop s own o u t s ide t h ee s tab l i shed o rde ro fd ays . .. 6 9

f No to n ly d id f a rme r so b se rve t h ec a lenda ra nd make o f e r ing st ot h e i rg od si no rde rt o e n su re g ood c rop s ,b u tt h ey a l so g ua rded t h ep roce ss o fs p rou t ing . O nt h ef i r s td ay o ft h e re t f ea s to fT ozor ton t l i ,c or spond ing t oo u rA p r i l1 0 ,w hen i t" wa sb eg inn ing t or a in al i t le" s t a nd s eed sw e re b e ing p u ti n to t h eg round ,r ope sw e r es t rung a c ros h ec o rnf ie ld sa nd f r om l sib t h e se w e re h ung " a n umbe ro f s ma l e ff ig ie s" o fc l o th o ro the r ma te r ia l , p os ly c l ay f i gu r ine s ,i no rde rt ow a tch o ve rt h ep l an t sw ho se l i ve sw e r ej u s tb eg inn ing :7 0T he se e ff ig ie s r em ind u so fb a rk p ape rf i gu re s u sed t oday i na g r icu l tu ra l f e r t i l i ty r i te si ns ome p a r t so f Mex ico . l A sa l r eady s t a ted ,p l an t sw e re n eve rp u led o u tf o rt h ep erve r se p l ea sur eo fd e s t roy ing l t h em ,e spec ia ly i ft h ey w e re t e nde re a r so f co rn b a re ly i nt h e i rf i r s tg row th .B u ti nt h e mon th l f o low ing T ozor ton t l i ,p eop le w en ti n to t h es ame f i e ld sw he r et h ee ff ig ie sh ad b een h ung , " whe re t h ey s anc t if ied t h ep lo t so fl a nd ," s hou t ing a nd y el ing ,t e a r ing o u to ne o rt wo s t a lk s f o f ma ize ,t h en o f e r ing t h em i nt h et emp le sa st h ef i r s tf r u i t s .T he men t h en p layed f l u te s i nt h ef i e ld sw h i le t h e women c r ied i nl oud v o ice s ," 0 my l a dy ,c ome q u ick ly !" T h i sw a s s, s d i rec ted t ot h ec o rnf ie ld ,p robab ly t oC h icomecoa t l -X i lonen , ma ize g oddes ot h ec o rn wou ld r i pen q u ick ly ,b efo r ef r o s tc ou ld f a l 1 . 7' l T he se women a c tua ly w e re s peak ing t oT la l tecuh t l i , t h e e a r th , w hose s k in a nd h a i r l l l c ove red e ve ry th ing — the c o rn f ie ld s ,t h eh i l sa nd v a ley s ,t h es p r ing s ,t h ec ave s ,a nd a lt h e l v ege ta t ion .T he m en p layed t h e i rf l u te st op l ea se h e rs os he w ou ld r e spond a nd g ive " a lt h e f r u i t sn ece ssa ry f o rp eop le 's s u s tenance ," s i nce f o rt h is s he w a sc r ea ted b yQ ue tza lcoa t la nd sion T ezca t l ipoca . Wh i le t h em acehua l t in ,t h ec ommone r s ,c u t ,w i th T la l tecuh t l i 's p e rm is , f s ed t af ew e a r so fc o rn t ob eo f e red t ot h eg od s ,w h i le t h ey b l es h ea g r icu l tu ra la nd o the r w o rk i mp lemen t sw h ich h e lped t h em i nt h e i rd a i ly t a sk s ,t h el o rd sa nd r u ler w a lked i nt h e i r l magn if i cen t g a rden s , c on su l ted t h e s pec ia l i s t s i nc ha rge o f m ed ic ina l p l an t s , s me led f l owe r sa nd r e se rved t h ec en te ro ft h eb ouque tf o rT ezca t l ipoca , d raped t h em se lve sw i th g a r land so f ma r igo ld so rp opco rn ,a nd a tt ime sp u ta s ide t h e i rj ewe ls i nf avo ro ff l owe r s .

2 20

T he s t a te c on t ro l led t h eu s eo fp l an t s ,f r om t h ee d ib le o ne st o th o se o fa do rnmen t .L aw s p ro tec ted t h em f r om b e ing c u tt o og r een ,o rf r om p i ck ing t o om any f l owe r s ,o rf o rr a re p l an t s t ob e c u t i nd i sc r im ina te ly . A nd e ven w h i le h e f o l lowed t h e se r u le s , t h e a ve rage p e r son i n te ra c ted w i th n a tu r e .H et o ok w ha th en eeded ,a nd o n ly wha th en eeded ,a nd i n re tur ng ave r e spec t , o f f e r ing s , r i tua l , l o ve a nd c a re t oe ve ry th ing i nh i s n a tu ra le nv i ronmen t . T la l te c uh t l i ,t h ee a r th ,h ad g i ven h im l i f ea nd t h i sh er emembe red a nd h ono red , a l ong w i th t h e n ob le s ,i no ne w ay o ra no the r ,d u r ing e ve ry o ne o ft h ee i gh teen mon th so ft h ep reh i span ic y ea r . N o te s 1 . H i s toy r ed u Mech iqu e ( H i s to r ia d e Mex ico ) ,e d i ted b yA nge l Ma r ia G a r ibay K .( Mex i co :P om ia ,2 nd e d i t ion , 1 973 )p .1 08 . 2 . Em i ly Wa lco t Emma r t ,B ad ianu s Manu sc r ip t ( Cod ex B arbe r in i , L a t in 2 41 ) , ( Ba l t imo re : T he J ohn s t H opk in sP res 940 ) . s, 1 3 . F ranc i sco H e rnende z ,H i s tor ia N a tu ra ld eN ueva E spana .O b ra sC omp le ta s , 5v o l s .( Mex ico :U n ive r s i dad N ac iona lA u tonoma d e Mex i co , 1 959 ) . 4 .

F lor en t ine C od ex . G ene ra lH i s to ry o ft h eT h ings o f N ew S pa in ,t r an s la t ed i n to E ngl i sh b yA r thu rJ .O . A nde r son a nd C ha r le sE .D ibb le , 1 2v o l s . ( San ta F e ,N .M . : Monog raph s o fT he S choo lo f Ame r ican R e sea r ch , 1 950 -1981 ) .F ray B e rna rd ino d eS ahagün ,H i s tor ia G enera ld el a sC o sa sd eN ueva E spana , e d i ted b yA nge l Ma r ia G a r ibay K . , 4v o l s . ( Mex ico :P om ida ,2 nd e d i t ion , 1 969 ) .

5 .

D iego D u rän ,H i s tor ia d el a sI nd ia sd eN u eva E spana eI s la sd eT i er i rme ,e d i ted b yA nge l Ma r ia ra F G a r ibay K . , 2v o l s . ( Mex ico :P om ida , 1 967 ) .A l so ,D iego D u rän ,B ook o ft h eG od sa nd R i t es a nd T he A nc i en tC a lendar , t r an s la ted i n to E ngl i sh b yF e rnando H o r ca s i ta sa nd D o r i sH eyden ( No rman ,O k la h oma : Un ive r s i ty o f Ok lahoma P res 971 ) . s, 1

6 .

D u rän ,B ook o ft h eG od sa nd R i t es ,p p .4 31 -432 .

7 .

D ur än ,B ook o ft h eG od sa nd R i t es ,p .3 17 .

8 .

H en ry B . N icho lson , " Re l ig ion i nP re -H i span ic C en t ra l Mex ico ," i nH andbook o fM idd l e Amer ican I nd ian s( Au s t in :U n ive r s i ty o fT exa sP r es 964 -76 ) , 1 0 :395 -446 . S ee 1 971 ,T ab le 4 . s, 1

9 .

D u rän ,B ook o ft h eG od sa nd R i t es ,p p . 1 60 -164 .

1 0 . D u rän ,B ook o ft h eG od sa nd R i t es ,p .1 63 ,n o te 2 . . J a c in to d el aS e rna , "Manua ld eM in i s t ro sp a ra C onoce r yE x t i rpa rl a sI do la t r i a sd el o sI nd io s ," i nT ra tad o 1 d el a sI do la t r i as ,S uper s t i c ione s ,D io se s ,R i tos ,H ech i ce r i as , yo t ra sC o s tumb r e sG en t i l i ca sd el a sR a za s A bor t genes d e Mex i co ( Mex i co :F uen t eC u l tu ra l ,N abar , 1 953 ) ,p p .6 2 -268 . ro 1 2 . F ray B e rna rd ino d eS ahagün ,H i s tor ia G ene ra l ,v o l .I :99 -160 . 1 3 . C od ex F e je rvä ry -Maye r . A n t ig iedad e s d e Mex i co d e L ord K ing sborough ( Mex ico : S e c re ta r i a d e i H ac ienda yC r ed i t° P ub l i co , 1 964 ) ,v o l .I V ,p l a te 1 . 1 4 . F lor en t ine C od ex ,v o l .2 , p. 1 7 . 1 5 . Em i ly Wa lco t Emma r t ,B ad ianu s Manu s cr ip t ,p .3 08 . t 1 6 . I b id . ,p .3 05 . 1 7 . T he f ema le r e p roduc t ive p a r t( a na gg rega te o fp i s t i l s )i nt h ec en te ro ft h ef l owe rl ok sl i ke as mal e a ro f o m a ize ( Rob e r tB ye ,v e rba lc ommun ica t ion ) . 1 8 . F lor en t ine C od ex ,v o l .1 : 20 1 . 1 9 . D o r i s H eyd en , M i to log i a ys imbo l i smo d e l af l ora e n e l Mex i co p r eh i spän i co ( Mex i co : U n ive r s idad N a c iona lA u t6noma d e Mex ico ,2 nd e d i t ion , 1 985 ) .C i te s Muf ioz C ama rgo o np age 1 7 . 2 0 . F e rnando Ma r t inez C one s .P egamen to s G oma s yr e s ina se ne lMex ico P reh i spän ico ( Mex ico :S e c re ta r i a d eE duc iön P üb l ica , 1 974 ) .S epSe ten ta s 1 24 .

2 1 2

2 1 . S ahagün ,H i s tor ia G ene ra l ,v o l .4 : 349 . 2 2 . I b id . ,p .3 49 . 2 3 . I b id . ,p .3 43 . s on 2 4 . G o rdon Was , " The R o le o f ' F lowe r s ' i nN ahua t l C u l tu re : aS ugge s ted I n te rp re ta t ion ," B o tan i ca l s. Mu s eum L eaf l e t s( Camb r idge , Mas : H a r va rd U n ive r s i ty ) ,v o l .2 3 ,n o . 8 : 305 -324 . 2 5 . D u rän ,H i s tor ia d el a sI nd ia s ,v o l .I : 145 ,2 67 . 2 6 . I b id . 2 7 . S er n a , "Manua ld eM in i s t ro s ," p .8 8 ,2 89 . 2 8 . I b id . ,p .2 58 ,2 83 . 2 9 . H eyden ,M i to log i a ys imbo l i smo ,p p . 1 39 -153 . 3 0 . I b id . 3 1 . " Re lac ion G eog rä f ica d eC ho lu la 1 581 ," R ev i s ta Mex i cana d eE s tud ios H i s tör icos ( Mex i co : S o c iedad Mex icana d eH i s to r ia , 1 927 -1928 ) ,v o l s . Ia nd I . 3 2 . F lor en t ine C od ex ,v o l .6 ,p p . 1 26 -137 , 1 43 -145 . 3 . I b id . ,p .2 14 . 3 4 . I b id . ,p .1 79 . 3 5 . I b id . ,p p . 1 4 , 1 29 . 3 6 . I b id . ,p .1 96 . 3 7 . I b id . ,p .1 9 ,2 4 ,4 1 ,5 0 . s. 3 8 . A l f r ed M .T ozze r ,L anda ' sR e lac iön d el a sC osa sd eY uca tan ( Camb r idge , Mas :H a rva rd U n ive r s i ty , 1 941 ) .P ape r so ft h eP eabody Mu seum o f Ame r ican A r chaeo logy a nd E thno logy ,p .6 3 ,n o te 2 92 . 3 9 . H eyden ,M i to log i a ys imbo l i smo ,p .1 02 . 4 0 . D u rän ,H i s tor ia d el a sI nd ia s ,v o l .1 :236 .H eyd en ,M i to log t a ys imbo l i smo ,p .4 9 / 4 1 . D u rän ,H i s tor ia d el a sI nd ia s ,v o l .1 :43 . 4 2 . I b id . ,p p .2 47 -248 . 4 3 . F ray T o r ib io d e B enaven t e , Mo to l in fa , H i s tor ia d e l o sI nd ios d e N u eva E spaf ia ( Mex ico : S a lvado r C have zH ayhoe s , 1 941 ) ,p .2 03 . 4 . S ahagün ,H i s tor ia G ene ra l( 1 938 ) ,v o l .3 ,p .2 74 . 4 4 5 . D u rän ,H i s tor ia d el a sI nd ias ,v o l .1 :208 . 4 6 . I b id . ,p .2 13 . 4 7 . A nge l Ma r ia G a r ibay K . , V e in te H imnos S acros d e l o s N ahua s ( Mex ico : U n ive r s idad N a c iona l A u tbnoma d e Mex ico , 1 958 ) ,p .2 16 . 4 8 . H eyden ,M i to log i a ys imbo l i smo ,p p . 1 29 -146 . 4 9 . D u rän ,H i s tor ia d el a sI nd ia s ,v o l .I : 135 . 5 0 . J ohn R .H a le e t al . ,A ge o f Exp lora t ion . G r ea tA ge so f Man ( New Y o rk :T ime I n c . ,2 nd e d i t ion 1 975 ) . 5 1 . Ama ran th , Mod ern P ro sp ec t sf or a nA nc ien tC rop (Wa sh ing ton ,D .C . :N a t iona lR e sea r ch C ounc i l ,1 984 ) p .4 -8 . p 5 2 . F lor en t ine C od ex ,v o l .1 :287 . 5 3 . D u rän ,B ook o ft h eG od sa nd R i t es ,p .8 8 . 5 4 . I b id . ,p .9 4 .

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5 . I b id . ,p .1 65 . 5 5 6 . F lor en t ine C od ex ,v o l .2 : 18 . 5 7 . D u rän ,B ook o ft h eG od sa nd R i t e s ,p p .2 04 ,208 -209 . 5 8 . F lor en t ine C od ex ,v o l .2 : 18 . 5 9 . D u rä n ,H i s tor ia d el a sI nd ia s ,v o l .2 56 . 6 0 . F ray J uan d e T o rquemada , Mona rqu i aI nd iana . L os V e in t iun L ibros R i tua le s ( Mex ico : U n ive r s idad N ac iona lA u t6noma d e Mex ico , 1 976 ) ,v o l . 3 : 407 . 6 1 . D u rän ,H i s tor ia d el a sI nd ia s ,v o l .I : 128 ,2 63 . 6 2 . J o se L u i sD iaz ,I nd i ce yS i non im ia d el a sp lan ta sm ed ic ina l es d e Mex ico ( Mex ico : I n s t i tu to Mex i cano p a ra e l Es tud io d el a sP lan ta s Med ic ina le s , 1 976 ) . Monog ra f i a sc i en t i f ica s 1 ,p .1 97 . 6 3 . D u rä n ,H i s tor ia d el a sI nd ia s ,v o l .1 : 244 . 6 4 . D iaz ,I nd ice yS i non im i a ,p .1 30 . 6 5 . D u rän ,B ook o ft h eG od sa nd R i t e s ,p .4 31 . 6 . I b id . ,p .3 09 . 6 6 7 . C a rmen A nzu re s ," P res enc ia d eT la lo ce nl aa c tua l idad .V e s t ig io ss ep t en t r iona le s ," I IC o loqu io ,H i s tor ia d el a sR e l ig iones d e Mesoame r ica yA rea sA f ines ( Mex ico : S oc iedad Mex icana p a ra e lE s tud io d el a s R e l ig ione s , 1 986 ) . 6 8 . A n ton io G a r c ia d e L eon , " E l u n ive r so d e l os ob rena tu ra l e n t re l o s N ahua s d e P a japan , V e ra c ruz , " E s tud ios d eC u l tu ra N ahua t l( Mex ico :U n ive r s idad N a c iona lA u t6noma d e Mex ico , 1 969 ) ,v o l .8 : 279 3 12 . 6 9 . D u rän ,B ook o ft h eG od sa nd R i t e s ,p .3 96 . 7 0 . I b id . ,p .4 19 . 7 1 . I b id . ,p p .4 24 -425 .

B ib l iography Ama ran th . Mod e rn P ro spe c t sf o ra nA nc ien tC rop . Wa sh ing ton ,D .C . :N a t iona lR e sea r ch C oun c i l .N a t iona l A cad emy P res 984 . s, 1 A nzu r e s ,C a rmen ," P r e senc ia d eT la lo ce nl aa c tua l idad .V e s t ig io ss e p ten t r iona le s ." p ape rp re s en t ed i nt h e IC o loqu io .H i s tor ia d el a sr e l ig iones d e Mesoame r i cay A r ea s Af ine s . Mex i co :S oc iedad Mex icana p a ra I e l Es tud io d el a sr e l ig ione s , 1 986 . C od ex F e j er vdry -May er .A n t iqüdad e sd e Mex ico d eL ord K ingsbo rough .C ommen t sb yJ o se C o rona N une z . V o l .I V . Mex ico "S e c re ta r ia d eH a c ienda yC r ed i t° P üb l ico , 1 964 . D ia z, J o se L u i s .I nd ice yS i non im i ad el a sp lan tas m ed i c ina le sd e Mex ico . Monograf i a sc i en t i f i ca s1 .Mex ico : I n s t i tu to Mex icano p a ra e lE s tud io d el a sP lan ta s Med ic ina le s , 1 976 . D u rän ,D iego .H i s to r ia d el a sI nd ia sd eN ueva E spa f ia eI s la sd eT ier i rme .E d i t ed b yA nge l Ma r ia G a r ibay ra F K . 2v o l s . Mex i co :P or , 1 967 . rüda . B ook o ft h eG od sa nd Ri t es a ndT he A nc i en tC a lenda r .T ran s la t ed i n to E ng l i sh b yF er nando H o r ca s i ta s a nd D o r i sH eyden .I n t rodu c t ion b yM igue lL e6n -Po r t i l la .N o rman ,O k . :U n ive r s i ty o fO k lahoma P res s, 1 971 . t Emma r t , Em i ly Wa lco t .B ad ianu s Manu s cr ip t( Cod ex B arber in i ,L a t in 2 41 ) .B a l t imo re :T he J ohn H opk in s s, 1 P res 940 . F loren t in e C od ex . G ene ra l H i s to ry o ft h e T h ing s o fN ew S pa in . T ran s la ted i n to E ng l i sh b y A r thu rJ .0 . A nd e r son a nd C ha r le sE .D ibb le .1 2v o l s .S an ta F e ,N ew Mex ico : Monog raph so f th eS choo lo f Ame r ican R e se a rch a nd t h eU n ive r s i ty o fU tah , 1 950 -1985 .

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G a r c ia d eL eön ,A n ton io ." E lu n ive r so d el os ob rena tu ra le n t re l o sN ahua sd eP a japan ,V e ra cruz ." E s tud ios d eC u l tu ra N ahua t l . V o l .i : 279 -312 . Mex ico : U n ive r s idad N ac iona lA u t6noma d e Mex ico , 1 969 . G a r ibay K . ,A nge l Ma r ia . V e in te H imnos S acros d el o sN ahuas .F uen te sI nd i genas d e l aC u l tura N ahua t l , I nf orman te sd eS ahagün 2 . Mex ico , 1 958 . H a le ,J ohn R .e ta l .A ge o fE xp lora t ion . G rea tA ges o f Man .2 nd e d .N ew Y o rk : T ime I n c . , 1 975 H e rnandez ,F ranc isco .H is tor ia N a tura ld eN ueva E spana . 5v o l s . Mex ico :U n ive r s idad N ac iona lA u t6noma d e Mex ico , 1 959 . H eyden , D o r i s . " Reed s a nd R u she s : f r om S urv iva l t o S ove re ign ." I n F lora a nd F auna I magery i n t P reco lumb ian C u l tures :I conography a nd F unc t ion .E d i ted b yJ eanne te F .P e te r son . BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s 1 71 :93 -112 .O xfo rd : B .A . r . 1 983 . . M i to log i ay s imbo l ismo d el af lora e ne lMex ico p reh ispän ico .2 nd e d . Mex ico :U n ive r s idad N a c iona l A u t6noma d e Mex ico , 1 985 . " H i s toy re d u Mech ique" ( H is to r ia d e Mex ico ) .T eogon iae H i s tor ia d el o s Mex icanos .E d i ted b yA nge l Ma r ia G a r ibay K ." Sepan C uän to s3 7" :23 -90 . 2 nd e d . Mex ico : P om i ra , 1 973 . Ma r t inez C or t e s ,F e rnando . P egamen tos , G omas yR es inas e n e l Mex ico P reh ispan ico . S ep S e ten ta s 1 24 . Mex ico : S ec rea ta r ia d eE ducac iön P üb l ica , 1 974 . Mo to l in ia ,F ray T o r ib io d eB enaven t e .H is tor ia d el o sI nd ios d e Nueva E spaf ia . Mex ico : S a lvado rC hävez H ayhoe , 1 941 . N icho l son ,H en ry B ." Rel ig ion i nP re -H ispan ic C en t ra l Mex ico ." I n Handbook o fM idd le Amer ican I nd ians . s, 1 v o l . 1 0 :395 -446 . A us t in :U n ive r s i ty o fT exa sP res 971 . S ahagün ,F ray B e rna rd ino d e .H i s tor ia G ene ra ld el a sC osas d eN ueva E spar ia .E d i ted b y Wigbe r to J imenez Mo reno .N o te sb yE dua rd S e le r . 5v o l s . Mex ico : P ed ro R ob redo , 1 938 . .H is tor ia G enera ld el a sC osas d eN ueva E spaf ia .2 nd e d .E d i ted b yA nge l Ma r i aG a r ibay K . 4v o l s . rüa Mex ico : P or , 1 969 . .S ee F loren t ine C od ex . 1 969a . S en ia ,J ac in to d el a . "Manua ld eM in i s t ro sp a ra C ono ce r yE x t i rpa rl a sI do la tr ia sd el o sI nd io s ." I nT ra tado d el a sI do la t r ias .S up er s t ic iones ,D ios es ,R i tos ,H ech icer i as yo t ras C os tu mbres G en ti l icas d el a sR a zas A bor t genes d e Mex ico .P p .6 2 -368 . Mex ico : F uen te C u l tu ra l ,N ava ro , 1 953 . r T ezozomoc ,F e rnando A lva rado . C rön ica Mex icana . Mex ico : L eyenda , 1 944 . T o rquemada ,F ray J uan d e . Monarqu i aI nd iana .L os V e in t iün L ib ros R i tua le s . Mex ico : Un ive r s idad N a c iona l A u tönoma d e Mex ico , 1 975 -1983 . T ozze r ,A lf red M .L anda ' sR e lac iön d el a sC osas d eY uca tan .P aper so ft h eP eabody Mu s eum o fAmer ican A rchaeo logy a nd E thno logy . C amb r idge , Mas : H a rva rd U n ive r s i ty , 1 941 . s. Was , G o rdon . " The R o le o f ' F lowe r s ' i n N ahua t l C u l tu re s : aS ugge s ted I n te rp re ta t ion ." B o tan i ca l s on Mu seum L eaf l e t s . V o l .2 3 .N o . 8 : 305 -324 . C amb r idge , Mas : H a rva rd U n ive r s i ty , 1 973 . s.

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