The Illuminated Ark: Interrogating Evidence from Manuscript Illuminations and Archaeological Remains for Medieval Vessels 9781407300580, 9781407330839

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The Illuminated Ark Interrogating Evidence from Manuscript Illuminations and Archaeological Remains for Medieval Vessels

Joe Flatman

BAR International Series 1616 2007

The Illuminated Ark

The Illuminated Ark Interrogating Evidence from Manuscript Illuminations and Archaeological Remains for Medieval Vessels

Joe Flatman

BAR International Series 1616 2007

Published in 2016 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 1616 The Illuminated Ark © J Flatman and the Publisher 2007 The author's moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407300580 paperback ISBN 9781407330839 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407300580 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges Ltd. in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2007. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2016.

BAR PUBLISHING BAR titles are available from: BAR Publishing 122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK E MAIL [email protected] P HONE +44 (0)1865 310431 F AX +44 (0)1865 316916 www.barpublishing.com

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Contents List of Illustrations Preface and Acknowledgements Abbreviations CHAPTER ONE: Introduction

1

Intellectual Frameworks Historiography Materials Constraints Methodology Boundaries Synopsis Common Terms Time Period Geographic Area Ships, Boats and Vessels Manuscripts, Illuminations and Books

1 1 3 4 4 6 6 7 7 7 7 7

CHAPTER TWO: Archaeological Remains and Vessel Traditions

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Excavated Evidence Shipbuilding Traditions Excavated Evidence for Medieval Vessel Traditions The Early Nordic Tradition The Middle Nordic Tradition The Later Nordic Tradition The Cog Tradition The Hulc Tradition The Carrack Tradition

9 10 10 11 12 14 14 16 17

CHAPTER THREE: Manuscript Illuminations

19

The Manuscripts Database The Problems of Using Manuscript Illuminations as Tools Recognising Features of Vessels in Manuscript Illuminations Artists Patrons Books and Libraries Illuminations

19 22 22 23 24 25 26

CHAPTER FOUR: Thematic Comparisons

29

The Middle Nordic Tradition Middle Nordic Hull Form Middle Nordic Components The Later Nordic Tradition Later Nordic Hull Form Later Nordic Components The Cog Tradition Cog Hull Form Cog Components The Hulc Tradition Hulc Hull Form Hulc Components The Carrack Tradition Carrack Hull Form Carrack Components Vessel Components Hull Structures, Timbers and Boards, Fastenings and Caulking Superstructures and Internal Features Free-standing Superstructures

29 29 29 31 31 31 33 33 34 35 36 36 36 37 38 39 39 40 41 i

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Integrated Superstructures Steering Gear, Poles, Oars and Oar-Power Oars Quarter Rudders Median Rudders Rigging, Cordage, Masthead Equipment, Masts, Spars and Sails Rigging Cordage Masthead Equipment Masts and Spars Sails Pumping and Sanitary Equipment Winding Gear Anchors Embellishment Trading Equipment Military Equipment Vessel-Related Activities Shore-Side Activities Shipbuilding Diving and Swimming Shipwreck and Rescue Fishing and Hunting Ship-to-Shore Activities Embark- and Disembarkation Transhipment Anchoring Seaborne Assault Shipboard Activities Chain of Command and Signalling Steering Rowing and Sculling Working the Rigging Shipboard Conflict

41 42 42 43 44 44 44 45 45 45 45 46 47 47 47 48 49 50 50 50 51 51 51 52 52 53 53 53 54 54 55 56 56 56

CHAPTER FIVE: Conclusions

59

Comparisons between Archaeological and Iconographic Remains of Vessels Catalogues of Archaeological and Iconographic Remains of Vessels Contextual Environments of Archaeological and Iconographic Data Shipbuilding Traditions within Comparative Manuscript Illuminations The Middle and Later Nordic Traditions The Cog Tradition The Hulc Tradition The Carrack Tradition Vessel Components within Comparative Manuscript Illuminations Medieval and Renaissance Concepts of Shipbuilding Conclusion: Advances in Archaeological Research Methodologies

59 59 59 60 61 63 64 64 65 67 69

REFERENCES CITED

71

APPENDIX 1: Archaeological Remains of Vessels from Northern Europe

87

APPENDIX 1, ADDENDUM 1: Archaeological Remains of Vessels from the Mediterranean

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APPENDIX 1, ADDENDUM 2: Recent Discoveries of Archaeological Remains from Northern Europe

103

APPENDIX 2: Illuminations of Vessels in Manuscripts

107

Introduction Organisation Index Group A: Miscellaneous British Holdings Group B: University Libraries, Oxford Group C: University Libraries, Cambridge Group D: the British Library, London

107 107 107 108 110 117 119 ii

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Group E: the Bibliothèque de Arsenal and Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris

131

APPENDIX 2, ADDENDUM 1: List of Manuscripts by Date Order

135

APPENDIX 3: Glossary of Vessel Terms and Components

151

APPENDIX 4: A Guide to Published Illustrations of Ships and Shipping in Illuminated Manuscripts

161

Group A: Miscellaneous British Holdings Group B: University Libraries, Oxford Group C: University Libraries, Cambridge Group D: the British Library, London Group E: the Bibliothèque de Arsenal and Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris

161 161 164 165 170

APPENDIX 5: A Guide to Published and Unpublished Details of Ships and Shipping in Illuminated Manuscripts

173

PLATES

177

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List of Illustrations Illustration Acknowledgements All images from the Bibliothèque Nationale de France are granted by kind permission of the Bibliothèque Nationale de France. All images from the Bodleian Library are granted by kind permission of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford. All images from the British Library are granted by kind permission of the British Library, © The British Library, All Rights Reserved. All images from Cambridge University Library are granted by kind permission of the Syndics of Cambridge University Library. All images from Corpus Christi College Oxford are reproduced by kind permission of the President and Fellows of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. All images from the Fitzwilliam Museum are reproduced by kind permission of the Syndics of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. All images from Glasgow University Library are reproduced by kind permission of the Department of Special Collections, Glasgow University Library. All images from the John Rylands University Library reproduced by the courtesy of the University Librarian and Director, The John Rylands University Library, University of Manchester. Figure 1: British Library Harley MS 4751, f. 69 – Bestiary and Moralised Natural History, English (Christ Church Canterbury or Salisbury?), 12 th to 14th century (c. 1230-40 or c. 1300). Figure 2: Corpus Christi College, Oxford MS 157, f. 383 – Chronicle of John of Worcester, English, early 12 th century (c. 1118-40). Figure 3: British Library Additional MS 42130, f. 161v – The Luttrell Psalter, English (East Anglia), mid 14th century (c. 1325-35). Figure 4: Fitzwilliam Museum Library Marlay Additional MS I, f. 86 – Vegetius’s De Re Militari, English, later 13th century (c. 1270). Figure 5: Bodleian Library Bodley MS 264, part 3, f. 218 – Li Livres du Graunt Caam, English, 14th to 15th century (c. 1400). Figure 6: BL Egerton MS 1894, f. 4 – Illustrated Genesis (the Egerton Genesis), English or French, late 14th century. Figure 7: BNF Francais MS 2643, f. 72 – Froissart’s Chronicles, French, 15th century. Figure 8: Bodleian Library Douce MS 208, f. 120v – Caesar’s Commentaries and de Bello Gallico, Flemish, later 15 th century (after 1474). Figure 9: John Rylands University Library English MS 1, f. 23 – The Troy Book, English (London?), mid 15th century (c. 1440-50). Figure 10: British Library Royal MS 15 E iv, f. 36 – Jean de Wavrin’s Chronicles of England, Flemish (Bruges), late 15th century (c. 1461-83). Figure 11: British Library Royal MS 15 E iv, f. 57v – Jean de Wavrin’s Anchiennes et Nouvelles Chroniques d’ Angleterre, Flemish (Bruges), later 15th century (c. 1470-80). Figure 12: Glasgow University Library Hunterian MS 398, f. 1v – Apocalypse, French (Provencal), late 15th century (c. 1480). Figure 13: BNF Francais MS 2829, f. 32 – Le Livre des Faiz Monseigneur Saint Loys, French (Vers), later 15 th century (c. 1482). Figure 14: BNF Francais MS 2829, f. 47v – Le Livre des Faiz Monseigneur Saint Loys, French (Vers), later 15th century (c. 1482). Figure 15: BNF Latin MS 10491, f. 166v – Diurnal de Rene II de Lorraine, French (Lorraine), late 15 th century (c. 1492-93). Figure 16: Bodleian Library Douce MS 353, f. 31 – Romance of the Destruction of Troy, French, later 15th century. Figure 17: British Library Royal MS 16 F ii, f. 73 – The Poems of Charles d’Orleans, Flemish or English, 15th to 16th century (c. 1500). Figure 18: Bodleian Library Junius MS 11, f. 66 – Anglo-Saxon poetry on Old Testament subjects (the ‘Caedmon’ manuscript), English (Christ Church, Canterbury), 10th to 11th century (c. 1000). Figure 19: British Library Harlerian Roll Y6, Roundel 4 – The Legend and Life of St Guthlac of Croyland, English, late 12 th or early 13th century (c. 1210?).

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Figure 20: British Library Royal MS 13 B viii, f. 29 – Gerald of Wales’ Topographia Hibernica, English (Lincoln?), early 13th century (c. 1220). Figure 21: British Library Yates Thompson MS 26, f. 26 – Bede’s Life and Miracles of St Cuthbert, English (Durham), 12 th to 13th century (c. 1200). Figure 22: Bodleian Library Ashmole MS 1511, f. 86v – The Ashmole Bestiary, English (Peterborough?), early 13 th century). Figure 23: Bodleian Library Auctarian MS D 4.17, f. 1v – Apocalypse, English, mid 13th century (c. 1250-60); (miniature only). Figure 24: Bodleian Library Auctarian MS D 4.17, f. 3 – Apocalypse, English, mid 13th century (c. 1250-60). Figure 25: British Library Additional MS 15268, f. 136v – Universal History, Italian or Levantine (Acre?), mid 13th century (c. 1225-75-85 or later). Figure 26: Bodleian Library Bodley MS 602, f. 22v – Bestiary, English (St Albans?), mid 13 th century. Figure 27: Bodleian Library Bodley MS 764, f. 74v – Bestiary, English, mid 13 th century. Figure 28: Bodleian Library Douce MS 366, f. 89 – The Ormesby Psalter, English (Norwich?), late 13 th or early 14th century (c. 1300-1330?). Figure 29: Bodleian Library Bodley MS 764, f. 107 – Bestiary, English, mid 13th century. Figure 30: British Library Royal MS 14 C vii, f. 116v – Matthew Paris’ Historia Anglorum and Chronica Majora, English (St Albans), mid 13th century (c. 1250-90). Figure 31: Cambridge University Library MS Ee. 3. 59, f. 8v – Life of Edward the Confessor, English (Westminster?), mid 13th century (c. 125560). Figure 32: Cambridge University Library MS Ee. 3. 59, f. 12v – Life of Edward the Confessor, English (Westminster?), mid 13th century (c. 125560). Figure 33: Cambridge University Library MS Ee. 3. 59, f. 14 – Life of Edward the Confessor, English (Westminster?), mid 13 th century (c. 125560). Figure 34: Cambridge University Library MS Ee. 3. 59, f. 17v – Life of Edward the Confessor, English (Westminster?), mid 13th century (c. 125560). Figure 35: Cambridge University Library MS Ee. 3. 59, f. 18v – Life of Edward the Confessor, English (Westminster?), mid 13th century (c. 125560). Figure 36: Cambridge University Library MS Ee. 3. 59, f. 31 – Life of Edward the Confessor, English (Westminster?), mid 13th century (c. 125560). Figure 37: British Library Additional MS 10294, f. 65v – La Mort le Roi Arturs, French, early 14 th century (c. 1316). Figure 38: British Library Cotton Claudius MS D ii, f. 45v – Legal Compilation, English (London), early 14th century (c. 1321). Figure 39: British Library Additional MS 47682, f. 7v – Illustrated Bible (the Holkham Picture Book), English (Holkham, Norfolk), early 14th century (c.1327-35). Figure 40: British Library Additional MS 47682, f. 22 – Illustrated Bible (the Holkham Picture Book), English (Holkham, Norfolk), early 14th century (c.1327-35). Figure 41: British Library Additional MS 42130, f. 160 – The Luttrell Psalter, English (East Anglia), mid 14th century (c. 1325-35). Figure 42: Bodleian Library Bodley MS 401, f. 55v – Apocalypse, English, mid 14 th century. Figure 43: BNF Francais MS 4274, f. 6 – Statutes de l‘Ordre et Status de Forde du Saint Esprit, French, mid 14 th century (c. 1352). Figure 44: John Rylands University Library French MS 1, f. 226 – Arthurian Romances, French, 14th century. Figure 45: British Library Royal MS 2 B vii, f. 73 – Queen Mary’s Psalter and Historia Veteris Testamenti, English, mid 14th century (c. 1325-53). Figure 46: British Library Royal MS 2 B vii, f. 7 – Queen Mary’s Psalter and Historia Veteris Testamenti, English, mid 14th century (c. 1325-53). Figure 47: British Library Royal MS 2 B vii, f. 111 – Queen Mary’s Psalter and Historia Veteris Testamenti, English, mid 14th century (c. 1325-53).

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Figure 48: British Library Royal MS 2 B vii, f. 159 – Queen Mary’s Psalter and Historia Veteris Testamenti, English, mid 14th century (c. 1325-53). Figure 49: British Library Sloane MS 278, f. 47 – Bestiary and Aviarium of Hugh of Folieto, French, 14th century. Figure 50: British Library Royal MS 20 C vii, f. 189v – Chroniques de France, French, late 14 th century. Figure 51: British Library Additional MS 38121, f. 3v – Apocalypse, Southern Netherlands; 14th to 15th century (c. 1400). Figure 52: British Library Harley MS 1319, f. 18 – Jehan de Creton’s History of Richard II of England, French, 14 th to 15 th century (c. 1399 or later). Figure 53: Bodleian Library Bodley MS 264, part 1, f. 144 – Jehan de Grise’s Romance of Alexander, English, 14 th to 15th century (c. 1400). Figure 54: Bodleian Library Bodley MS 264, part 1, f. 183v – Jehan de Grise’s Romance of Alexander, English, 14th to 15th century (c. 1400). Figure 55: Bodleian Library Bodley MS 264, part 3, f. 245v – Li Livres du Graunt Caam, English, 14th to 15th century (c. 1400). Figure 56: Bodleian Library Bodley MS 264, part 3, f. 246v – Li Livres du Graunt Caam, English, 14th to 15th century (c. 1400). Figure 57: Bodleian Library Bodley MS 264, part 3, f. 259v – Li Livres du Graunt Caam, English, 14th to 15th century (c. 1400). Figure 58: British Library Egerton MS 2709, f. 2 – Gadifer de la Salle and Jehan de Bethencourt’s History of the Conquest of the Canary Islands, French (Paris), early 15th century (c. 1420-1430). Figure 59: British Library Additional MS 24189, f. 4v – The Travels of Sir John Mandeville, Flemish or Bohemian (Prague?), early 15th century (c. 1400-1410). Figure 60: British Library Additional. MS 24189, f. 8 – The Travels of Sir John Mandeville, Flemish or Bohemian (Prague?), early 15th century (c. 1400-1410). Figure 61: British Library Royal MS 19 E vi, f. 403 – Universal History and Les Croniques de Burgues, French, early 15th century (1400-07). Figure 62: British Library Royal MS 20 B xx, f. 77v – Life of Alexander the Great, French, early 15th century (c. 1400-25)). Figure 63: British Library Additional MS 11575, f. 65v – Spiegel van der Menschen Behoudenisse, Northern Netherlands, 15th century. Figure 64: British Library Stowe MS 54, f. 82v – Universal History, French or English, 15th century. Figure 65: Bodleian Library Barlow MS 53 R, 2nd miniature – Peter of Poiter’s Compendium Historiae in Genealogia Christi, English, mid 15th century (c. 1420-30). Figure 66: British Library Harley MS 2278, f. 98v – John Lydgate’s Lives of Saints Edmund and Fremund, English (Bury St Edmunds), mid 15 th century (c. 1434-44). Figure 67: Bodleian Library Laud. Misc. MS 733, f. 18 – Johannes de Bado Aureo’s Early English History and Chronicle of England to Henry V, English, mid 15th century (c. 1440-50). Figure 68: Bodleian Library Laud. Misc. MS 733, f. 22v – Johannes de Bado Aureo’s Early English History and Chronicle of England to Henry V, English, mid 15th century (c. 1440-50). Figure 69: Glasgow University Library Hunterian MS 370, f. 253 – Titus Livius Patavinus’ Decas Tertia, Italian (Milan), 15th century (c. 1450). Figure 70: British Library Royal MS 15 E vi, f. 20v – The Romance of Alexander (the Shrewsbury Talbot Book of Romances), French (Rouen), mid 15th century (c. 1445). Figure 71: Bodleian Library Canon Classical Latin MS 185, f. 181v – Roberto Valturio’s translation of De Re Militari, Italian (Rimini?), mid 15 th century (before 1462). Figure 72: Bodleian Library Canon Classical Latin MS 185, f. 191 – Roberto Valturio’s translation of De Re Militari, Italian (Rimini?), mid 15th century (before 1462). Figure 73: BNF Francais MS 22547, f. 65 – Quinte Curce’s Histoire du Grant Alexandre de Macedoine, French, mid 15th century (c. 1470). Figure 74: BNF Latin MS 8200, f. 49v – Virgil’s Geography of the Aeneid. French (Vers), mid 15 th century (c. 1460). Figure 75: BNF Francais MS 2643, f. 42v – Froissart’s Chronicles, French, 15th century. vii

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Figure 76: BNF Francais MS 2643, f. 393 – Froissart’s Chronicles, French, 15th century. Figure 77: BNF Francais MS 2644, f. 85 – Froissart’s Chronicles, French, 15th century. Figure 78: BNF Francais MS 38, f. 157 – Jean Duchesne’s Commentaires de César, French or Netherlands, later 15th century (c. 1483). Figure 79: BNF Francais MS 2829, f. 18 – Le Livre des Faiz Monseigneur Saint Loys, French (Vers), later 15 th century (c. 1482). Figure 80: British Library Additional MS 24945, f. 231v – Robertus Valturius’ translation of De re militari, Italian, later 15 th century (c. 1467). Figure 81: British Library Harley MS 4379, f. 60v – Froissart’s Chronicles, French, later 15th century (c. 1470). Figure 82: British Library Harley MS 4379, f. 104v – Froissart’s Chronicles, French, later 15th century (c. 1470). Figure 83: Bodleian Library Douce MS 374, f. 40 – Jean Miélot’s Les Miracles de Nostre Dame, Flemish, later 15th century (after c. 1456). Figure 84: British Library Royal MS 14 D vi, f. 84v – Jean Froissart’s Chroniques de France et d’Angleterre, English or French, late 15th century. Figure 85: British Library Royal MS 14 E iv, f.232 – Jean de Wavrin’s Chronicles of England, Flemish (Bruges), late 15th century (c. 1461-83. Figure 86: British Library Royal MS 18 E i, f. 103v – Jean Froissart’s Chroniques de France et d’Angleterre, French, later 15 th century (c. 1460-80). Figure 87: British Library Royal MS 14 E iv, f. 276 – Jean de Wavrin’s Chronicles of England, Flemish (Bruges), late 15th century (c. 1461-83). Figure 88: Bodleian Library Kennicott MS 1, f. 305 – Old Testament, Spanish (Corruna), mid 15 th century (c. 1476). Figure 89: British Library Harley MS 326, f. 29v – Edward IV’s Descent from Rollo and The Romance of the Three Kings Sons. English (London), later 15th century (c. 1475-85). Figure 90: British Library Royal MS 15 E iv, f. 287 – Jean de Wavrin’s Anchiennes et Nouvelles Chroniques d’ Angleterre, Flemish (Bruges), later 15th century (c. 1470-80). Figure 91: British Library Additional MS 35322, f. 227v – Boccaccio’s Decameron, Netherlands, later 15th century (c. 1475). Figure 92: British Library Harley MS 4425, f. 86 – Roman de la Rose, Southern Netherlands (Bruges), later 15th century (c. 1490-1500). Figure 93: British Library Cotton Vespasian MS B ii, f. 4v – Pierre Gringore’s Pageants for the marriage of Mary Tudor to Louis XII of France, France (Paris), early 16th century (1514). Figure 94: BNF Francais MS 10420, f. 1v – Pierre Sala’s Les Prouesses de Plusieurs Vays, French (Lyon), early 16 th century (c. 1523). Figure 95: Bodleian Library Ashmole MS 1504, f. 20v – Herbal or Pattern Book, English (?), early 16 th century (c. 1520-30). Figure 96: British Library Additional MS 15217, f. 38 – Private Book of the Coder family of Nuremberg, German, late 16 th century (1560 onwards). Figure 97: British Library Additional MS 24098, f. 22v – Calendar, and Book of Hours of the Blessed Virgin (the ‘Golf Book’), Southern Netherlands (Bruges), early 16th century (c. 1520-30). Figure 98: Glasgow University Library MS Bq. 2.11, f. 1v – Caius Valerius’ Flaccus Argonauticon, French (Paris), late 16 th century (c. 1579).

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Preface and Acknowledgements This book is based on the text of my PhD thesis (Flatman 2003). Changes have been made in order to make the text more readable, clarify points of discussion, correct errors and include new data which has since become available. The illustrations of this published work vary significantly from those of the unpublished thesis, which contained 270 images. The cost of purchasing publication-quality images and copyright/reproduction rights and waivers make such a range of imagery impossible to reproduce in a published work, and the 98 images reproduced in this volume are only possible due to the generosity of the Marc Fitch Fund in providing the necessary funds. The completion of this work would not have been possible without the financial support of the following organisations:     

The Arts & Humanities Research Council (formerly the Arts & Humanities Research Board). The Marc Fitch Fund. The Tomlin Fund of the Society for Nautical Research. The Hardship Fund of the University of Southampton. The Small Grants Committee of the Graduate School, University of Southampton.

Thanks are also owed to the following organisations for allowing images from within their collections to be reproduced here, often for free or at a greatly reduced cost:       

The British Library, London. The Bodleian Library, University of Oxford. The Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris. The Syndics of Cambridge University Library. The President and Fellows of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. The Syndics of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. The Glasgow University Library. The John Rylands University Library, University of Manchester.

I also wish to acknowledge the financial (as well as psychological) support of my parents Martin and Frances Flatman and my grandparents Florence Seager and the late Roy Seager. David Hinton, Seán McGrail, Jon Adams, Lucy Blue and Mark Redknap are owed an enormous debt of gratitude for their advice and support as supervisors, advisors and examiners. Katrin Their, Robert Mowat and Sarah Scarlet are owed special recognition for kindly sharing much useful data. Sincere thanks are also due to Nicola Anderson, Alec Badenoch, Richard Barker, Jenny Black, Rebecca Bridgman, Claire Calgano, James Carey, Jenni Chambers, Alistair Chaplin, Fiona Coward, Ole Crumlin-Pedersen, Virginia Dellino-Musgrave, Jo Derevenski, Niamh Doheny, Chris Duke, Sophia Exelby, Mette Felbo, Valerie Fenwick, Annabel Field, Erica Gittins, Helen Gittos, Damian Goodburn, Kate Grenyer, Yannis Hamilakis, Naomi Hetherington, Sarah Holland, Doortje van Hove, Jason Lucas, Alex Luchetti, Chris Loveluck, JW and Rebecca McCombs, Kathy MacDonald, Douglas McElvogue, Colin McKewan, John McNabb, Gustav Milne, Paolo Palmer, Toby Parker, Colin Platt, Karen Randall, Marsha Robbins, Marcy Rockman, Heather Sebire, Damian Sutton, Maryanne Tafuri, Timm Weski, Alex Woodcock, Harriet Watkins, Cathy and Dave Young, and last, but most certainly not least, my wife Jennifer Young. This work is dedicated to the memory of the late Roy Seager

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Abbreviations ** - unknown AA - Acta Archaeologica ACL - Alnwick Castle Library, Alnwick Add. - Additional [MS] AH - Art History AJ - Antiquaries Journal AJA - American Journal of Archaeology Amer. A - American Antiquity Arch. J - Archaeological Journal Ar. - Arundel [MS] ARA - Annual Review of Anthropology ARC - Archaeological Review from Cambridge ASC - All Souls College, Oxford ASE - Anglo-Saxon England Auct. - Auctarium [MS] BA - British Archaeology Balliol - Balliol College, Oxford BAR BS/IS/SS - British Archaeological Reports (British Series/International Series/Supplementary Series) BCL – Berkeley Castle Library Bib. Ars. - Bibliothèque de Arsenale, Paris Bibl. - Biblical [MS] BIHR - Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research BL - British Library, London Blackburn – Blackburn Museum & Art Gallery, Blackburn BM - British Museum, London BMP – British Museum Press, London BNF - Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris Bod. Lib. - Bodleian Library, Oxford Burn. - Burney [MS] CA - Current Anthropology CAJ - Cambridge Archaeological Journal Canon. Bibl - Canonici Biblical [MS] Canon. Class. Lat. - Canonici Latin Classical [MS] Canon. Ital. - Canonici Italian [MS] Canon. Liturg. - Canonici Liturgical [MS] Canon. Misc. - Canonici Miscellaneous [MS] CBA RR - Council for British Archaeology (Research Report) CCCC - Corpus Christi College, Cambridge CCCO - Corpus Christi College, Oxford Ch. Ch. Ca. - Christ Church, Canterbury Ch. Ch. CO - Christ Church College, Oxford Ch. Ch. Gr. - Christ Church Grange [MS] CL – Cheltenham Library, Cheltenham Coll. - College Copt. - Coptic [MS] Cott. - Cottonian [MS] Cott. Aug. - Cottonian Augustus [MS] Cott. Claud. - Cottonian Claudius [MS] Cott. Cleo. - Cottonian Cleopatra [MS] Cott. Dom. - Cottonian Domitian [MS] Cott. Faust. - Cottonian Faustian [MS] Cott. Jul. - Cottonian Julius [MS] Cott. Tib. - Cottonian Tiberius [MS] Cott. Vesp. - Cottonian Vespasian [MS] Cott. Vit. - Cottonian Vitelius [MS] CA - Current Archaeology CAJ - Cambridge Antiquities Journal CSA - Current Swedish Archaeology CUL - Cambridge University Library, Cambridge xi

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CUP - Cambridge University Press, Cambridge DCL – Durham Dean & Chapter Cathedral Library Dr William’s - Dr. William’s Library, London ECL - Eton College Library, Eton Eg./Eger. - Egerton [MS] E Mus. - English Miscellaneous [MS] EH - English Heritage EHR - English Historical Review Ec. HR - Economic History Review Emmanuel – Emmanuel College Library, Cambridge Eng. Hist. - English Historical [MS] EUL - Edinburgh University Library, Edinburgh Exeter - Exeter College, Oxford f./ff. - Folio/s Fitz. - Fitzwilliam Library, Cambridge Fr. - Francais [MS] Grec. - Grecian [MS] Gonville & Caius - Gonville & Caius College, Cambridge Gough Gen. Top. - Gough General Topography [MS] Gough Liturg. - Gough Liturgies [MS] GUL - Glasgow University Library, Glasgow Harl. - Harleian [MS] Harl. Roll - Harleian Roll [MS] HCL - Hereford Cathedral Library HIPNT - Hellenic Institute for the Preservation of Nautical Tradition HMSO - Her Majesties Stationery Office IJHA - International Journal of Historical Archaeology IJNA - International Journal of Nautical Archaeology IJOA - International Journal of Osteoarchaeology IP - Institutional Press JAA - Journal of Anthropological Archaeology JAR - Journal of Archaeological Research JAS - Journal of Archaeological Science JBAA - Journal of the British Archaeological Association JBS - Journal of British Studies JCC - Jesus College, Cambridge JCO - Jesus College, Oxford JDA - Journal of Danish Archaeology JEA - Journal of European Archaeology JHG - Journal of Historical Geography JLH - Journal of Legal History JMA - Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology JMC - Journal of Material Culture JMH - Journal of Medieval History J. Mar. H - Journal of Maritime History JRAI - Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute JRUL - John Rylands University Library, Manchester KAR - Kent Archaeological Review Keble - Keble College, Oxford Lans. - Lansdowne [MS] Lat. - Latin [MS] Lat. Bibl. - Latin Biblical [MS] Lat. Class. - Latin Classical [MS] Lat. Liturg. - Latin Liturgical [MS] Lat. Misc. - Latin Miscellaneous [MS] LPL - Lambeth Palace Library, London Lat. Th. - Latin Theology [MS] xii

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Laud. Lat. - Laud Latin [MS] Laud. Misc. - Laud Miscellaneous [MS] LIL – Lincoln’s Inn Library, London Liturg. - Liturgical [MS] LCL – Liverpool City Library, Liverpool LRO – London Records Office, London LHL – Longleat House Library, Wiltshire Magd. - Magdalene College, Cambridge MANRD - Maritime Archaeological Newsletter from Roskilde, Denmark Med A - Medieval Archaeology Med. H - Medieval History Medit. HR - Mediterranean Historical Review MCML – Merseyside County Museum and Library, Liverpool Merton - Merton College, Oxford MHR - Material History Review MS/MSS - Manuscript/s MM - Mariner’s Mirror NA – National Archives (formerly Public Records Office), Kew New Coll. - New College, Oxford NAR - Norwegian Archaeological Review NAS - Nautical Archaeology Society NMM - National Maritime Museum, Greenwich NRS - Navy Records Society OJA - Oxford Journal of Archaeology Oriel - Oriel College, Oxford OUP - Oxford University Press, Oxford P&P - Past & Present PCL – Peterborough Cathedral Library, Peterborough Post-Med. A. – Post-Medieval Archaeology PPS - Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society PRO – see NA PRIA – Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy PSAS - Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland Queen’s - Queen’s College, Oxford r - recto Rawl. - Rawlinson [MS] Rawl. Liturg. - Rawlinson Liturgical [MS] RCL – Ripon Cathedral Library, Ripon Roy. - Royal [MS] SAR - Scottish Archaeological Review SAS - South Asian Studies SELRC - Severn Estuary Levels Research Committee SHA - Society for Historical Archaeology Slo. - Sloane [MS] SSCC - Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge SMA - Society for Medieval Archaeology SNR - Society for Nautical Research Soc. Antiq. – Society of Antiquaries, London St. Helen – Parish Church of St. Helen, Ranworth, Norfolk St John’s - St John’s College, Cambridge Supp. Lat. - Supplementary Latin [MS] T&H - Thames & Hudson, London Top. Lincs. - Lincolnshire Topographical [MS] TCC - Trinity College, Cambridge TCO – Trinity College, Oxford UCL - University College, London UCO – University College, Oxford xiii

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Univ. - University [MS] UP - University Press v - verso VSM - Viking Ship Museum, Roskilde V&A - Victoria & Albert Museum (National Art Library), London WML - Waddesdon Manor Library, Berkshire WAL – Westminster Abbey Library WA - World Archaeology Wadham – Wadham College, Oxford WARP - Wetlands Archaeological Research Project WCL – Winchester Cathedral Library Windsor – Royal Library, Windsor W&I – Word & Image YAJ - Yorkshire Archaeological Journal YML – York Minster Library, York YT - Yates Thompson [MS]

xiv

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Chapter One: Introduction

evidence, manuscript illuminations remain too large a resource for maritime archaeology to be sidelined:

This book makes comparisons between archaeological remains and manuscript illuminations of medieval vessels. It explores the contextual environments of these materials, examining the potential for shipbuilding traditions to be identified within such a comparative assessment, thus highlighting the potential for vessel components, vessel-related activities and processes to be identified within comparative manuscript illuminations. Testing the relationship between excavated and iconographic remains from an explicitly archaeological perspective, this process helps to identify information of added value to maritime archaeologists within manuscript illuminations, which have sometimes been sidelined in favour of archaeological and documentary evidence (Rodger 1998: 61, passim.).

The artists rarely saw particular vessels they were purporting to represent and not all of them were always successful in handling the perspectives they attempted to draw. However, these artists obviously satisfied their audience. The ships they drew must have been recognised as representing… ships of the time. As with caricatures, many relative dimensions will be accurately represented even though the overall form is distorted (Burningham and de Jong 1997: 287-88).

One way to explore the comparative potential of such sources is to compare a single example of iconography (manuscript illuminations) with a single primary source (archaeological remains). Thus, while documentary and ethnographic data are referred to at times within this book, these sources are not considered in detail.

Throughout this book, extensive reference is made to two datasets created specifically for the purposes of this analysis. One th th dataset is a catalogue of excavated remains of 6 to 16 century vessels from northern Europe. The other dataset is a sample of depictions of ships in illuminated manuscripts of the 6th to 16 th century from a selection of British and French libraries. All details of archaeological remains are followed by the unique reference number of each specific find, as listed in appendix 1 (e.g. 1: 118 refers to the Gokstad ship). Similarly, all details of manuscript illuminations are followed by the unique reference number of each specific manuscript, as listed in appendix 2 (e.g. 2: 249 refers to Bod. Lib. Junius MS 11). Because of problems of access to significant collections of medieval iconography, most previous analyses of archaeological and iconographic evidence have only been able to draw on a narrow range of available iconographic data, often selected to a great extent at random because of these access problems, making sustained critical comment about the value of iconography of vessels as evidence very difficult. This is demonstrated in the narrow range of iconography discussed over the years in key works of this type, such as Basch (1976, 1982a, 1987b), Friel (1995), Hutchinson (1994a), Tilley and Fenwick (1973, 1980), and Villain-Gandossi (1985a, 1985b, 1994). This book demonstrates how a wider range of manuscript illuminations may ‘seek explanations for data in terms of the known history of the region and the time represented by their material’ (Deetz 1995: 12). A cross-section of vessel traditions and components, shipboard activities and processes are used to explore the costs and benefits of such largescale analyses. These case-studies examine how far analogies can be drawn between excavated and iconographic evidence.

Historiography The value of analysing in isolation the various sources for medieval vessels has long been demonstrated: examples include Burwash (1947) and Rose (1982) for documentary data, Steffy (1994) and McGrail (1998) for archaeological and ethnographic data, and Moll (1929), Ewe (1972) and Villain-Gandossi (1979, 1985a, 1985b) for iconographic data. Archaeologically-based analyses of medieval shipping build on independent studies of documentary and iconographic evidence begun in the 19th century. The benefits of correlating documentary and archaeological data have similarly long been appreciated (see Deetz 1995: 12), especially for the medieval world. Examples of the latter include Jaritz’s (1995) analysis of the lives of medieval peasants, Duby’s (1999) study of the relationship between medieval art and society, and Piponnier and Mane’s (2000) study of medieval dress. While analyses of excavated remains of vessels have progressed exponentially over the past century (Greenhill 1995b; McGrail 1998), and the understanding of documentary data has similarly advanced (Friel 1983a, 1991), studies of the iconography of vessels have failed to keep pace (Göttlicher 1996: 279). In particular, the specific combination of approaches undertaken here has never been attempted before on this scale. Although the potential for large-scale analysis has always been clear (see Ellmers 1972; Villain-Gandossi 1985a; Parker 1992; Varenius 1992), few medieval maritime archaeologists have ever attempted the comparison of excavated and iconographic data on anything other than a one-to-one basis. One of the only examples of this approach is Fenwick et al’s (1978a) work on the Graveney boat. Even fewer authors have overtly considered the underlying methodology behind such analyses: Wedde (2000) remains virtually the sole innovator in this respect. The closest comparisons to the data and approaches of this book are Binding and Nussbaum’s (1978) analysis of medieval building techniques and equipment (see also Binding 2004), Unger’s (1991) The Art of Medieval Technology, Martin’s (2001) Art and Archaeology of Venetian Ships, and Burningham and de Jong (1997) and de Winter and Burningham’s (2001) work on multivariate

Intellectual Frameworks A study combining two key sources of data creates more information than any source used on its own (Shanks and Tilley 1994: 172-73; Jaritz 1995: 164; Burningham and de Jong 1997: 287). However, it is essential to consider both the advantages and disadvantages of combining different types of data. It is the author’s belief that while there are risks involved in employing iconographic data in direct analogy with archaeological 1

Chapter One - Introduction th

morphometric analyses of 17 century maritime art. Only in a general sense has the validity of comparative approaches to data been demonstrated, in research into the cog tradition (see Abel et al. 1969; Lahn 1993; Weski 1999a, 1999b; Crumlin-Pedersen 2000a). The excavation of the Bremen cog (1: 347) in the 1960s reenergized a long-running appraisal of the many different sources for the cog shipbuilding tradition (Heinsius 1956; Fliedner 1969), when it became clear that features such as the Bremen cog’s distinctive longitudinal shape and clinker planked hull were similar to a range of iconographic examples, particularly impressions of city and guild seals of the Hanseatic League (Vogel 1915; Heinsius 1956). Two practical, seaworthy reconstructions of cogs were built (Baykowski 1994), and excavated remains of vessels like those from Kolding (1: 284), Kollerup (1: 315) and Vejby (1: 394) identified as being the remains of cogs (Crumlin-Pedersen 1979). This process demonstrated that in the comparison of excavated and iconographic evidence - particularly when supported by documentary data - the sum of these sources was greater than their individual parts.

The roots of processual analyses of the iconographic and archaeological data for vessels lie in long-established research into vessel iconography, research begun during the late 19th century. The work of individuals such as Anderson, Brindley, Callendar, Carr Laughton, Moore, Morton Nance, Robinson and Vaughan (Greenhill 1995a: 9-14) initiated the study of ancient shipping, indeed the whole of what eventually became known as ‘maritime archaeology’ (Muckelroy 1978; Greenhill 1995a, 2000). The basic approaches of these authors remained predominant for a long time (e.g. Greenhill 1970, 1972, 1988, 1993, 1995a, 1995b, 1996; Göttlicher 1996; Westerdahl 1998), until developed in a strictly theoretical sense by the archaeological pioneers of the 1960s onwards. Thereafter, an increasing number of vessel remains were found in archaeological contexts, revealing a range of data on shipbuilding that could be correlated with this accumulated iconographic (also documentary) record (see Unger 1994; Christensen 1996a, both passim). The technological interpretation of such remains was felt to be of paramount importance, and because many of these discoveries were made by chance, such analyses did not fit into any research framework concerned to expand debate. Many analyses also took place when the growth of the ‘new’ archaeology was at its zenith, which in hindsight had a profound effect (see Binford 1962, 1972, 1983, 1989; Clarke 1973; Muckelroy 1978: passim; Gould 1983a: passim; Trigger 1989; Patterson 1990; Watson 1991; Trigger 1996a, 1996b).

Within Europe, the most common approach of maritime archaeologists to excavated and iconographic data for watercraft remains positivist in outlook. This was greatly influenced by USled historical archaeology, together with the ‘processual’ (‘new’) archaeologists of the 1970s, during which time many of the key figures of the then expanding sub-discipline of maritime archaeology emerged. These include Muckelroy (1975, 1976, 1977a, 1977b, 1978, 1980) and McGrail (1977, 1978a, 1985, 1986a) in Britain, and Crumlin-Pedersen (1972a, 1972b, 1977, 1978, 1979), Christensen (1968a, 1972a, 1979, 1982a, 1982b, 1996a, 1996b), and Ellmers (1972, 1973, 1979, 1984) in mainland Europe. In the works of the majority of maritime archaeologists, iconography acts as supporting data for hypotheses initiated via conceptually more ‘reliable’ excavated data (increasingly informed by ethnographic analogy - see Blue et al. 1997, 1998; McGrail et al. 1999). Excavated and iconographic evidence is thus placed within strict methodological boundaries (e.g. Basch 1976; Fenwick et al. 1978a; Basch 1980, 1982, 1987b; Jaritz 1995). Focused towards technical considerations - especially technological details of the excavated remains of vessels - iconography acts as secondary data in this situation, allowing further conclusions to be reached within research parameters defined by archaeological analyses. In particular, detailed, technically informed analyses of hull forms - and the subsequent classification of these finds into different ‘traditions’ - have predominated (e.g. Fliedner 1969; Ellmers 1973; Crumlin-Pedersen 1983; Unger 1994; Landstrom 1961). Along these lines have been projected a semievolutionary development of vessels from different times and places, associated with documentary, iconographic and ethnographic research (e.g. Hasslof 1963, 1966, 1972a-c; McGrail 1977, 1981a, 1984a, 1984b, 1985). Only recently have authors such as McGrail (1998: 3) overtly stressed that there was never an ‘evolution’ of vessels in a Darwinian sense, as implied by Hornell (1946).

In the light of theoretical and methodological developments within archaeology, variations on the established approaches of maritime archaeology have increasingly appeared, broadening the analytical concerns of the 1970s and 1980s. This has included the use of various perspectives associated with the rise of ‘post-processual’ archaeology (see Shanks and Tilley 1987; Patterson 1990; Hodder 1991a, 1991b; Preucel 1991; Trigger 1996a, 1996b; Veth and McCarthy 1999). In fact, maritime archaeologists such as McGrail were employing ostensibly ‘postprocessual’ sources of (and approaches to) data long before these approaches became fashionable, particularly ethnographic parallels (Greenhill 1995b, Litwin 1995; McGrail 1998; McGrail et al. 1999), and historical analogies (McGrail 1977, 1981a, 1983b, 1984b, 1985, 1986a, 1992b). However, Muckelroy never structured his approaches fully around processual theory, while the approaches of McGrail, Crumlin-Pedersen and Ellmers have altered considerably over the years, becoming increasingly broad in scope, data and approach (see Ellmers 1995a, 1995b; Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a; McGrail 1997a, 1997c; Gibbins and Adams 2001: 286). The approaches of certain European and US archaeologists (sometimes known as ‘shipwreck anthropologists’) have also differed considerably, with both a greater focus on historically particularist studies (see Bass 1983), and more anthropologically informed studies (see Gould 1983a; 1997, 2000). In this sense, this book is part of a wider movement in the sub-discipline of maritime archaeology that builds on a range of well-established approaches. Influenced by both the processual and post-processual schools of archaeological theory and method, this work ‘encompasses the tenets of historical particularism and inductivism… within a wider brief which 2

The Illuminated Ark

accommodates and seeks a multiplicity of contexts and meanings’ (Gibbins and Adams 2001: 286).

comparative analysis of different types of data through structured analogies is mirrored in this book:

As both ‘post-processual’ and art historical analyses demonstrate (e.g. Camille 1985a, 1985b, 1987a, 1987b; Shanks and Tilley 1987; Camille 1989a, 1989b, 1990-1991; Tilley 1990, 1991a; Camille 1992; Shanks and Tilley 1994; Camille 1995; Jaritz 1995; Gilchrist 1996; Camille 1996, 1998a, 1998b, 2001), the appreciation of the broader context of material cultural remains plays a vital role in any interpretation, helping bridge gaps between datasets (Ahlström 1997: 36; Adams 2001: 307). Examples include studies of a range of issues relating to medieval ships and shipping, such as the economy (Unger 1980) and the arts (Unger 1991). Work since the early 1990s, particularly within northern Europe, has gained an increasingly high profile, gaining respect within an archaeological mainstream which has often had a low opinion of ‘theoretical’ maritime archaeology (Parker 1984; Gibbins and Adams 2001: 283). A number of recent publications have called this into perspective, such as Jasinski (1999), Weski (1999a, 1999b), Gould (2000), Adams (2001) and Gibbins and Adams (2001). Such analyses move beyond the traditional, technologicallyfocused concerns of maritime archaeologists. These have included the exploration of the symbolic roles and meanings of vessels (e.g. Kobylinski 1988; Cederlund 1994; CrumlinPedersen and Munch Thye 1995; Kobylinski 1995), of the concept of the ‘maritime cultural landscape’ (Westerdahl 1992a, 1992b, 1993; Jasinski 1993; Westerdahl 1994b, 1995; Allan 1995a; Parker 1999; Westerdahl 2000), and the continuing research of Wedde (1996, 2000) into different methodological approaches to the iconographic evidence for early Aegean shipbuilding.

We ask different questions of the historical record, different to the very nature of the material being studied, which is rarely employed by those whose historiography is based on written sources… maintaining the balance between two bodies of information which can support each other through the simple fact that they are complementary as well as supplementary, producing results that provide a more satisfactory explanation than would be forthcoming from either set of data alone (Deetz 1995: 161).

Deetzian comparative historical archaeology includes an awareness of the costs and benefits of such comparison - the ‘limits of inference’. The analytical tools that can be used within this process are also made clear (Deetz 1996: 32). Mixing analytical approaches from often opposed theoretical schools, the lasting appeal of such an approach reflects an awareness across archaeology that researchers must combine both ‘processual’ and ‘post-processual’ archaeology, benefiting from each perspective, ‘leading to new insights concerning larger historical issues’ (Deetz 1995: 14). Other scholars (including recently Hatcher and Bailey 2001: 4-5 and Moreland 1999, 2001) have made similar critiques of the theoretical and methodological approaches of British historical archaeology. Beyond the specific perspectives of archaeologists, a number of other critical analyses require consideration here. These include philosophical analyses of the nature of art (e.g. Burke 1991; Freedberg and DeVries 1991; Hedengran 1995; Molyneaux 1997; Burke 2001; Eco 2002). In particular, research of this type must consider the perspectives of art-history. Focused on historically particularist analyses, art history requires manuscript illuminations to be placed within historical, social, and artistic narratives (Backhouse 1979: 7; Eco 2002). Camille’s (1998a) work is an excellent example of this process, demonstrating how illuminations within a single manuscript - the Luttrell Psalter (BL Add. MS 42130) (2: 514, see figs. 3, 41) - need to be seen in the context of the individual work from which they come (see also Harthan 1983; Wormald 1984; De Hamel 1994), extending down to the specific relationship of a single manuscript illumination both to the other illuminations and also texts on the same and adjoining pages and manuscripts. Marner (1994) has made a similar study of the manuscript illuminations in the Bible of Hugh le Puiset, demonstrating the extent of the multiple meanings and contexts of illuminations, their close relation to other texts, theology, history, and many other issues, such as the aims, desires and ambitions of patrons (see chapter three). Both Camille and Marner also point out the difficulty of fully recognising these interrelationships of influence on manuscript illuminations, given the sophistication and subtlety of such influences. Art-history also emphasises the importance of appreciating iconographic parallels, symbolism and ideology.

A related theoretical approach is that taken by archaeological analyses of art, particularly rock- and ‘landscape art’ such as ship-settings, burial stones and graffiti (e.g. Crumlin-Pedersen and Munch-Thye 1995; Ellmers 1995a, 1995b). This area of archaeology has developed its own highly specific forms of analysis, derived from anthropology, ethnography and art history (e.g. Helskog 1985; Hviding 1992, 1995; Hedengran 1995). Much as in art history, the context of art - especially its actual physical, spatial position - is regarded as paramount, the base meanings of imagery frequently taken as self-evident (Coles 1993: 25). Images are validated in this context by their association with other ‘landscape’ art held to depict elements of the real, material world, an approach which has relevance to the study of illuminated manuscripts. Illuminations both exist and can be interpreted within their own ‘cultural landscape’, in relation to the text (that immediately adjacent and also elsewhere in the manuscript) and other images (particularly when a part of illustrative schemes and cycles), and where they are placed – as a full- or half-page miniature, ‘free-floating’ page image, marginalia or within capital letters.

Materials

Beyond the focus of European archaeologists, the approaches of the US-led school of historical archaeology must be borne in mind. The ‘Deetzian’ use of historically-informed archaeological evidence as a ‘point of departure’ (Deetz 1995: 12; 1996) for the

Two forms of raw data are analysed in this book: depictions of medieval vessels in illuminated manuscripts, and the excavated remains of these actual vessels. Many examples of both forms of 3

Chapter One - Introduction

Constraints

evidence survive, albeit spread throughout the world, and often poorly catalogued. A subsidiary result of this research is a better appreciation of the extent of both sources.

Many potential hazards exist within the research scope of this book, of which the dangers of directly evaluating the technological content of medieval manuscript illuminations are but the best known. Such artwork was never intended to be directly analysed in such a way; any evaluation requires extreme caution, and the problems of correlating manuscript illuminations with archaeological data need to be recognised. Definitions of shipbuilding traditions are especially fluid, particularly vis-à-vis manuscript illuminations of vessels, causing further problems for the correlation of manuscript illuminations with excavated remains (see Christensen 1972b; Kentley 1984; McGrail 1985).

The existence of depictions of vessels in illuminated manuscripts has long been recognised by maritime archaeology, although the total extent of these manuscript illuminations remains unknown (Farrell 1979: 237). However, as De Hamel (1994: 10) notes: ‘rarity is not their most obvious characteristic, and there is no doubt that more… [manuscripts] survive than any other artefact from the Middle Ages’. Both the British Library and the Bibliothèque Nationale de France hold more than 100,000 ancient, medieval and early-modern manuscripts each. Admittedly these are exceptional collections, and only a small proportion of these manuscripts contain any illuminations at all, but even less well known libraries like that at Glasgow University still hold at least as 5,000 manuscripts. However, it remains unclear how many illuminated manuscripts contain depictions of vessels since there have never been any national or international analyses of medieval manuscript illuminations of this sort. The most comprehensive analyses at this time remain those of Villain-Gandossi on manuscripts in the Bibliothèque de l’Arsenal and Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris (VillainGandossi 1985a, 1985b). Unfortunately, it is not feasible for any private individual to create a comprehensive catalogue of illuminations of vessels in even British manuscript collections, as access to full contents of most collections of illuminated manuscripts is difficult, and the iconographic archives of most British libraries deplorable: the last full survey of illuminated manuscripts in the British Library was made in the 1870s (Birch and Jenner 1879). A selection of manuscripts thus had to be chosen suitable for the purposes of this analysis (appendix 2). This consists of 2335 individual folios containing maritimerelated illuminations in 925 manuscripts from 55 libraries in Britain and France.

The general problems of using manuscript illuminations as either direct evidence or as comparative tools for archaeology are well understood. Assuming that such problems are not felt to be insurmountable - many art historians would argue that these are, unless qualified by overwhelming contextual data (e.g. Smith and Taylor 1996: 15; Camille 1998a: 228) - the solutions to these problems are relatively simple, relying on the provision of comparative contexts. As many different examples of any tradition or component identified in a manuscript illumination are cumulatively assessed in this book, in order to allow firmer conclusions to be reached about commonly stylised features. The demand of Basch (1976: 231) should be constantly borne in mind: ‘the only canon of interpretation - and it is hard and fast is that one must subject each document to individual critical examination’. Comparative analyses also rely on understanding the context that any manuscript illumination was created in, and the underlying (covert and overt) aims of the artist. As chapter three discusses, the meanings of medieval manuscript illuminations were meant to change, to be understood at multiple levels by different people at the same or different times. It must be appreciated that such levels of interpretation are not always possible in the modern world. Furthermore, a level of selfreflexivity is inherent within this process. Regarding such a ‘personal’ issue as the interpretation of the context and meaning of any artwork, modern perceptions will always come into play. While cautious comparison and cross-reference can help mitigate this influence, misconceptions can never be totally avoided. The difficulties of identifying socio-cultural concerns within archaeological data should similarly not be underestimated. While this book is concerned primarily with technologically focused analyses of shipbuilding traditions and components, it also explicitly seeks wider questions surrounding the context of such technology. While it is easy enough to suggest that such information can be identified in sources, especially when different types of data are compared in this way, it is far harder to provide concrete examples: ‘the aim… must not be to create yet another specialisation, uninfluencing and uninfluenced by mainstream studies, but to help build up an holistic view of the past’ (McGrail 1995b: 12).

Excavated remains of medieval vessels are more widely dispersed than manuscripts, but are more comprehensively published and accessible. While no definitive catalogue of all north-west European vessel finds has ever been compiled, a few partial lists do exist, such as Ellmers (1972), McGrail (1978a), Westerdahl (1985), Parker (1992), Varenius (1992), Mowat (1996), McGrail (1998), Fry (2000) and Juriðiã (2000). These lists were used as a basis for comparison within this book, together with data held on ‘Navis I’, a database of European ship-finds on the internet (European Commission 1999). The catalogue contained within appendix 1 subsequently includes 996 entries. This catalogue is as comprehensive as time and data have allowed. No one should be under the illusion that this catalogue is definitive: as the addendum to appendix 1 demonstrates, new finds are being made all the time, and older, often unpublished, finds also exist that the author is not aware of: corrections, amendments and additions would be greatly appreciated.

Methodology The approaches of this book reflect an awareness across archaeology that researchers need to combine the best of both 4

The Illuminated Ark

‘processual’ and ‘post-processual’ archaeology. Benefiting from each perspective, this allows the factional baggage to be shed that has bedevilled archaeologists since the first growth of selfconsciously ‘theoretical’ thinking in the 1960s (Gilchrist 1996: 120; Gibbins and Adams 2001: 286). There is a need for the hard data, ‘scientific’ analyses and general models of ‘processualism’ together with the more ephemeral, ‘socio-cultural’ analyses of the role of individual agents of ‘post-processualism’.



Even if one accepts that interpretation of humans demands a ‘softer’ science, an interpretative and ‘poetic’ text can still be judged. Archaeological writing differs from fiction because it is a dialogue between an ‘author’ and real physical material remains… differences and similarities in the archaeological record are real and possible to record and can therefore be a tool (Rönnby 1995: 128).

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  

 

Only in such a way can the particular problems associated with the interpretation of the iconography of vessels better be tackled. Indeed, while this book presents new information on medieval vessel technology, it also looks to make wider insights on ancient society. Through better understanding examples of complex organisation such as ships, archaeologists can begin to investigate the broader socio-cultural processes that vessels mirror (see Heilbroner 1967; Gould 1983a, 2000; Dobres 2000; Adams 2001: 301; Gibbins and Adams 2001: all passim). This book furthers the argument that ships are particularly significant and ‘fine grained’ examples of organisation and change of many different kinds, not simply technological change (Adams 2001: 307). Deeply intermeshed within ‘parent’ societies, the broad study of ships offers profound insights on ancient society and interaction between groups and individuals.

A consideration of other issues surrounding each form of evidence, both general and specific, is also necessary. Examples include:    

The most essential component of a study such as this is that ‘one must subject each document to individual critical examination’ (Basch 1976: 213, author’s emphasis). Every hypothesis proposed for a vessel tradition or component depicted in an illuminated manuscript must be supported by at least one other form of data, in order for conclusions to be at least partially verified, either a direct archaeological or ethnographic parallel, a parallel with documentary or other historical records, or the repetition of a feature in a series of manuscript illuminations from different sources. A study such as this must also establish as many ‘securing points’ as possible between manuscript illuminations, from as wide a variety of different sources, including:       

Those specific known details in individual manuscript illuminations that can be securely identified in the archaeological, documentary or ethnographic records. The main symbolic themes within any manuscript illumination. The specific context of production of any illuminated manuscript. The likely reasons for the reproduction of a manuscript illumination of a vessel. Links between a manuscript or manuscript illumination with manuscripts and manuscript illumination from elsewhere. The known limitations of the artistic medium (including concerns with issues of scale, distortion, stylisation, etc.). The artistic or iconographic traditions that each manuscript illumination falls into, and the main artistic conventions (style and idiom) of these.

Artistic contexts, including the nature, form and traditions of medieval arts and crafts. International, national, local and personal historical contexts, including genealogical contexts (e.g. the influence of artistic patrons). Ideological, symbolic, mythical, ritual and iconographic contexts. Socio-cultural contexts, and the nature of change and continuity within these, including technological contexts.

Wider economic, political and environmental-geographic contexts should also be evaluated (see Hasslöf 1972b, 1972c, 1972d; Hasslöf et al. 1972; Muckelroy 1978: 227, fig. 7.1; Steffy 2000; Adams 2001). However, ‘no golden rule exists to govern the interpretation of ancient documents… it is necessary to examine the mentality of the period’ (Basch 1976: 233): neither all manuscript illuminations, nor all archaeological remains, can or will ever be fully understood. This is not relativism, but merely the recognition that a study such as this can only achieve so much in the light of incomplete datasets and the numerous problems associated with the comparative analysis of different forms of data, and that such problems will never be fully overcome. Through such recognition comes an inherent belief in the value of merging different datasets as an approach that leads to new information concerning medieval vessels (Tilley and Fenwick 1980: 151; Burningham and de Jong 1997: 286-88, 291; de Winter and Burningham 2001: 57-58, 72). Consequently, data is subjected to a carefully constructed and multidirectional comparison. It is not enough to mesh data together unthinkingly, as this is too blunt an approach: data must be meaningfully integrated (Deetz 1995: 153, 159-61), accepting that:

The dates of manuscripts. The likely tradition of shipbuilding that any vessel depicted in a manuscript illumination fits into. The countries of origin of manuscripts. The types of illuminated manuscript containing depictions of vessels. The range of different manuscript illuminations of vessels. The hypothesised hull forms of different vessels depicted (clinker or carvel, shell- or skeleton-first construction, etc.). The range of commonly reoccurring vessel elements in manuscript illuminations.



5

Documents and artefacts can mutually complement each other, giving rise to new ways of thinking about the past.

Chapter One - Introduction

  



distinct because of their different form and medium. This is not to suggest that middle range theory is suitable for all archaeological analyses, or even that it works fully here: rather, this book is an exploration of Binford’s basic theory.

Archaeology, when used properly, prompts different questions of the historical record, related to the very nature of the material being studied. A multidirectional approach is most suitable, using the material record as the point of departure to work back and forth between historical and archaeological data. A multidirectional use of data depends heavily on maintaining the balance between the two bodies of information - i.e. that historical and archaeological data are complementary as well as supplementary. The product of all the above should be results that provide a more satisfactory explanation than would be forthcoming from either set of data alone.

In terms of the development of a ‘middle range’ theory for archaeological remains and manuscript illuminations of medieval vessels, the theoretical solution is to take existing classifications of vessels and their components (e.g. McGrail 1985; Kemp 1988; Smyth 1996; McGrail 1993a, 1998), and identify similar classificatory attributes for these vessels/components when depicted in manuscript illuminations, attributes that can be identified within archaeological remains. In practice, this requires the identification of distinctive, repetitive, external longitudinal characteristics of both excavated remains and manuscript illuminations of medieval vessels. Although such a correlation is not always possible due to the stylisation inherent to manuscript illuminations of medieval vessels, sufficient external longitudinal characteristics of vessels can be repeatedly identified for common ground to be established between archaeological remains and manuscript illuminations. The formalised deconstruction and reconstruction of different concepts of vessel ‘tradition’ in such a way leads to new information of value to maritime archaeology.

By deploying plentiful amounts of iconographic and archaeological data, this book helps bridge the analytical gap that exists between archaeological remains and manuscript illuminations of medieval vessels. By creating a ‘middle way’ between the two sources, this process assists the comparison of such data. A version of Binford’s (1983) middle range theory is one way in which this analytical gap between archaeological remains and manuscript illuminations can be bridged. A series of approaches designed to help bring archaeological remains and manuscript illuminations into closer relation, in this context middle range theory involves identifying where these types of data are complementary to one another, and how their similarities can be formally acknowledged (Leone and Crosby 1987: 397; Deetz 1995: 12).

Boundaries This study is not comprehensive in terms of data, analyses, temporal or geographic space. The aim here is not to create a new methodological approach to the analysis of medieval manuscript illuminations and archaeological remains, nor solve all of the problems related to such analyses. Nor is this work designed to fully integrate archaeological remains and manuscript illuminations of these vessels, or provide specific new information on these vessels. Rather, this book is concerned to explore potential approaches to the comparison of archaeological remains and manuscript illuminations of medieval European shipbuilding traditions and components from the particular perspective of maritime archaeology. The key word is exploration.

Binford developed middle range theory at the height of the 1970s ‘new’ archaeology as a way of asking questions about the past, especially the dynamics of ancient societies, and how to develop generalising theories about them: My aim was to study the relation between statics and dynamics in a modern setting. If understood in great detail, it would give us a kind of Rosetta stone: a way of ‘translating’ the static material… into the vibrant life of a group of people (Binford 1983: 24).

Middle range theory has often been criticised, seen as one of the central tenets of ‘processual’ theory, an overly complex way of perceiving the otherwise ‘straightforward’ process of analogy (consider the arguments of Wylie 1985b; Hodder 1987; Wylie 1992a, 1992b). While middle range theory is indeed analogy, it is also more than analogy. Middle range theory is analogy that has been formalised and structured, in order to assist a greater level of comparison between data than informal, unstructured analogy allows. Such formalised processes can help to bridge the gap between ‘data’ and ‘interpretation’, ‘present’ and ‘past’ what Binford called ‘statics’ and ‘dynamics’ (Binford 1983: 24) within a consideration of the social context, the environment surrounding the data and approaches to it (e.g. Deetz 1995, 1996: passim). This is exactly the type of analysis required if greater links are to be established between archaeological and iconographic data, which have much in common (in this case, information concerning medieval vessels), and yet remain

Synopsis Chapter one has formed a general introduction, scene- and boundary setting, and outlining the methodological stance of this book. It focused on the aims and objectives of the study, how this study approaches data in a novel way, and why this is necessary. From the theoretical and methodological basis established here, chapter two discusses the key issues associated with the study of archaeological remains of medieval vessels, outlining in detail the specific shipbuilding traditions of the period. Chapter three makes a similar analysis of medieval illuminated manuscripts. Chapter four draws the archaeological and iconographic data together, undertaking themed comparisons grouped around specific archaeological examples of different shipbuilding traditions, testing and discussing the proposals for data comparison made in chapter two. The case-studies are complemented by comparisons of vessel components 6

The Illuminated Ark

Classification - a process of partitioning objects such as vessels into classes. In the nautical world, such classes are known as ‘traditions’, and so as understood here, ‘tradition’ and ‘classification’ are one and the same. Craft - a boat, ship or other form of waterborne vessel. Latitudinal (cross-section) characteristics - definitions of vessel traditions based primarily on cross-sections (e.g. body plans) of vessels. Longitudinal (profile) characteristics - definitions of vessel traditions based primarily on profiles of vessels. Ship - a vessel of considerable size for deepwater navigation. Traditions - ‘key-words’ designed to focus attention on specific times and places, in this particular case based either on a ‘code-word’ (‘hulc’, ‘cog’), or a geographic region (‘Nordic’). Vessel - all watercraft in use on both the sea and freshwater, including logboats, planked-, skin-, and reed vessels and rafts. Watercraft - a boat or a ship; and/or water vehicles considered as a group.

recognisable in archaeological and iconographic data. Chapter five concludes the book, returning to the aims and objectives outlined in chapter one, drawing together the data and analyses of preceding chapters, and making further suggestions and analyses. Common Terms To avoid confusion, certain terms and definitions used throughout this book are defined here: these do not necessarily represent the popular definition. Time Period th

th

The overall time period analysed is the 6 -16 Within this:

centuries AD.

Antiquity - refers to the classical world of Greece and Rome, prior to the decline of the Roman Empire in the west during th the 5 century AD. Late Antique - refers to approximately the 2nd to 4th centuries AD. th th Dark Ages - refers to approximately the 5 to 8 centuries AD. th th Early Middle Ages - refers to approximately the 6 to 10 centuries AD. Middle Ages and Medieval - refers to approximately the 10th to th 14 centuries AD. th th Late Medieval - refers to approximately the 14 to 15 centuries AD. Renaissance - refers to the cross-over period between ‘Late th Medieval’ and ‘Early Modern’, approximately the 15 to th 16 centuries AD. Early Modern - refers to approximately the 16th to 17 th centuries AD.

For specific shipbuilding terms and definitions, please refer to the glossary. Manuscripts, Illuminations and Books Book – a set of pages fastened along one side and encased between protective covers. Depiction – a pictorial representation. Folio - a sheet of writing material. The front and back of a folio are referred to as the recto and verso respectively. Iconography - in general terms, the subject of a picture; more specifically, the study of the meaning of images, including their symbolic content. Illuminated - an illustration in a manuscript that uses bright colours, silver and gold (Brown 1994: 69) Illumination[s] or Manuscript Illumination[s] - the embellishment of a manuscript with luminous colours (from the Latin illuminare, ‘to enlighten or illuminate’). A ‘miniature’ is sometimes referred to as an illumination. For the purposes of this work, taken to generically refer to all images within an illuminated manuscript. Illuminated Manuscript - a handwritten book that is embellished with brilliant inks and dyes (especially silver and gold) (Brown 1994: 70). Manuscript - literally ‘handwritten’; has since come to be used to describe a book written by hand. It is abbreviated as ms. (singular) and mss. (plural). Marginalia - illustrations and decorations in the margins, usually not related to the nearby text. Miniature - an independent illustration, as opposed to a scene incorporated into another element of the decorative scheme such as a border of initial. Recto - the front side of a folio or leaf, abbreviated as r and sometimes denoted as a. Symbolic - of, relating to, or expressed by means of symbols or a symbol; serving as a symbol; using symbolism.

Geographic Area The geographic areas in question, northern Europe and Scandinavia, are defined by the provenance of the manuscripts in the selected libraries, including modern-day Britain (England, Scotland and Wales), Ireland (Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland), France, Germany, Belgium, Holland, the Netherlands, Poland, Denmark, Sweden and Norway. Reference is also made to manuscripts from southern Europe, including Italy, Spain and Greece, as well as to modern-day Israel and Palestine. Modern place-names are used throughout, except for the use of the term ‘Low Countries’ to describe the manuscript products of modern-day NE France, Belgium, Holland and the Netherlands, and the term ‘Holy Land’ to describe the manuscript products of modern-day Israel and Palestine. Ships, Boats and Vessels Boat - a relatively small, usually open craft of a size that might be used in shallow or confined waters and be carried on board a ship. 7

Chapter One - Introduction

Verso. The back of a folio or leaf, abbreviated as v and sometimes as denoted as b. [The above is based on M. P. Brown 1994. Understanding Illuminating Manuscripts: A Guide to Technical Terms. London: British Library].

8

The Illuminated Ark

Chapter Two: Archaeological Remains and Vessel Traditions

also the large number of logboats identified in Britain by McGrail (1978a) and Mowat (1996). Many of the timbers from London contain only fragmentary remains that cannot be securely ascribed to any tradition, form or age, and which are consequently of limited value to this analysis. Logboats, meanwhile, are seldom depicted in manuscript illuminations.

Excavated Evidence th

th

The list of excavated remains of 6 to 16 century vessels from northern Europe in appendix 1 contains details of all of vessels known to the author in August 2006 (including vessels built in th Europe but lost elsewhere). Appendix 1 begins in the 6 century because this date broadly coincides with the first archaeological appearance of major developments in ‘Nordic’ shipbuilding. The term ‘vessel’ is taken to include all watercraft in use on the sea, lakes and rivers, including logboats, planked-, skin-, and reed vessels, rafts, etc. Where available, a name for a vessel is given. If not, vessel finds are identified by find-spot. A primary reference is provided for each entry. The source information for a few finds is unknown, as stated in the entry. The total number of vessel finds represents only the total number of individual find-spot entries in the catalogue. Within some of these individual entries are included the details of more than one vessel, although this has been avoided wherever possible.

Relatively few vessel finds can be placed within any more than the broadest of definitions of tradition, with the sizes and types of vessel frequently in question - including some notable absences from the record. The search for Greenhill’s ‘mysterious hulc’ (2000) continues, while other vessel traditions - especially those in the Nordic and cog traditions - include numerous examples. The Nordic tradition is the best represented overall, indicative of both the long history of research into the tradition by organisations such as the Viking Ship Museum, Roskilde, and also the sheer number of surviving vessels (Crumlin-Pedersen 1991b: 72; McGrail 2001: 223). A small number of vessels finds have been identified by name (the earliest being the Grace Dieu of c.1418). Such identification is of limited value in the comparison of archaeological and iconographic materials. While the possibility of comparing a known archaeological find with a specific named vessel in a manuscript illumination must be acknowledged, so far there is only one known example, that of the ‘Anthony Roll’ (Magd. MS 2991 and BL Add. Roll 22047) (2: 374, 399) depiction of the vessel Mary Rose (1: 508). The exceptional circumstances of both the Anthony Roll illustrations and the survival of the Mary Rose are an exciting but unique case. The Anthony Roll is in any case an extremely unusual manuscript, and its contents are hardly comparable to the majority of the illuminations discussed in this work.

Appendix 1 is not a definitive catalogue: other vessel remains undoubtedly survive that are not listed, and some finds listed may be argued to be of a different tradition or age to that suggested. It was never the aim of this book to create a definitive catalogue of medieval vessel remains, but rather to establish a database suitable for comparison with depictions of vessels in illuminated manuscripts. Appendix 1 thus represents the best available data for excavated remains of vessels from this region and time. The author would be delighted to receive amendments and additions. Various trends can be observed within appendix 1. Analysis of the entries by date demonstrates that these finds are unequally th th spread across the 6 to 16 centuries, that many vessels cannot be dated to a specific period at all, and that there is no observable correlation between specific periods and the number of finds. The discovery of large numbers of finds from a specific site, such as the nine vessels discovered during work at the Viking Ship Museum, Roskilde (1: 214, 276-77, 303, 365, 387, 680-82) influences such analyses, slewing the record in favour of a specific location, period or vessel tradition. The scientific dating of finds (e.g. radiocarbon and dendrochronological analyses) is also sporadic. Even when dated using such techniques, the exact date of certain finds remains unclear - consider the revisions of date to Utrecht vessel 1 (1: 154), originally thought to have been th th of the late 8 century, now re-dated to the later 11 century. This variability in archaeological date is of significance given the similar difficulties of accurately dating illuminated manuscripts.

If evidence from documentary sources is even briefly considered, it becomes clear that the relatively small total number of finds, when spread across 1000 years, represents only a tiny fraction of the real extent of medieval vessel use (see Burwash 1947: 14564). Friel (1995: 32) calculates a possible figure for the total number of ships in English hands during the second half of the fourteenth century alone being anywhere between one- and two thousand vessels. Friel (ibid.) further notes that the most extensive of the Elizabethan national shipping surveys (c.1582) list 1630 vessels of twenty tons upwards. Consider then the numbers of vessels in use hinted at by sources like port and brokerage books (e.g. Studer 1913; Quinn and Ruddock 1937, 1938; Lewis 1993), legal records (e.g. Marsden 1915; Senegallia 1940), building accounts (e.g. Anderson 1924; Hickmore 1937; Carpenter 1954; Friel 1986; Pepper 1981), royal inventories (e.g. Rose 1982; Knighton and Loades 2000), notarial (e.g. Ciciliot 1996) and other private records (e.g. Mathias and Pearsall 1971; Knight 1977, 1980), and miscellaneous accounts of trade (e.g. Carus Wilson 1937, 1967; Carus Wilson and Coleman 1963). It remains impossible to establish a coherent narrative of medieval vessel traditions without recourse to other sources, particularly documentary data (see Heinsius 1956; Unger 1980, 1991). The fact remains that the excavated evidence for medieval European vessels is scanty, despite the examples in appendix 1 forming

Consideration of the country of find-spot similarly needs to be taken with caution. For instance, the number of finds listed for Britain should not be taken at face value as this is the result of the range of sites identified on the London waterfront (1: 77, 100, 148, 170, 185-86, 206-08, 286-87, 295-96, 318-321, 362, 38991, 403-07, 431-34, 452, 469-73, 504-05, 546-51, 646-57), and 9

Chapter Two - Archaeology

arguably the best corpora of data on ancient vessels in the world. More than anything else, however, this imbalance in numbers of medieval vessels known compared to other periods and locations reflects the appalling lack of knowledge about archaeological remains from other periods and places in comparison to medieval Europe (McGrail 1997c: 68).

In the specific circumstances of this book, polythetic shipbuilding groupings are narrowed by the identification of crucial, distinctive defining characteristics of each tradition which can be consistently ascertained in both archaeological and iconographic sources. While these groupings allow certain shipbuilding characteristics to occur outside of the overall criteria of tradition, a small number of essential hull forms and components of each tradition are identified for each tradition to ensure methodological consistency in the comparison of iconographic and archaeological data. Such an analysis is made below and explored in chapter four, within which are identified extra features of such definitions particularly distinctive to illuminations, missing features of the excavated evidence that illuminations imply, and changes to vessel traditions over time.

Shipbuilding Traditions Medieval vessels can be sub-divided by shipbuilding tradition, as in Crumlin-Pedersen’s (1978; 1997a: 28) division into the Nordic, cog, hulc and punt traditions. Alternatively, vessels can be classified by their origin, as in Greenhill’s (1995b) division into rafts, skin-, bark- and log-boats. Both of these approaches are valid ways of perceiving the evidence while structuring analyses in specific ways. How this structuration occurs, and even the difference between what a ‘tradition’ and a ‘classification’ really is, thus continues to be a point of discussion (e.g. Hasslöf 1963, 1966; Hasslöf et al. 1972; Christensen 1972b; McGrail and Denford 1982; McKee 1983a; Ellmers 1984; McGrail 1985; Weski 1999a, 1999b). Consequently, many different definitions of shipbuilding tradition have been proposed over the years. Cederlund (1984: 173-74) defines ‘traditions’ as ‘hypothetical lines of development [for] boats and ships on the basis of a few main traits’. McGrail (1995b: 139-40; 1997a: 205; 2001: 9-10, 207, 223, passim.) has similar views. While ‘traditions’ unquestionably comprise such forms, they have also been understood in broader terms. The result can be definitions more concerned with aspects of ‘cultural transmission’ in vessels, such as:

Traditions as understood here are ‘key-words’ that focus attention on specific times and places (ibid.), in this particular case based either on a ‘code-word’ (hulc, cog, etc.), or a geographic region (Nordic, etc.). Concerns with definitions of tradition encompassing cultural transmission - how changes to vessels are indicative of broader change and innovation in society (see van der Leeuw and Torrence 1989; Adams 2001: 306-07) are a different concern. However, definitions are capable of changing over time and place: no contradiction occurs when different types of definition coexist. Alongside the classification of technological attributes of data exist other definitions concerned with cultural transmission. The inclusion of wider subject material and the utilisation of ‘alternative’ perspectives is not the abandonment of definition, but rather a natural progression, the evaluation of the other contributory forces on vessel design beyond the purely technological and utilitarian (McGrail 1997a: 68; Crumlin-Pedersen 2000a: 240).

A unifying array of material, technological, artistic, and symbolic characteristics, none of which are necessarily exclusive, but which together characterise a coherent assemblage of vessels in time and space (Adams: pers. comm.).

Excavated Evidence for Medieval Vessel Traditions To understand northern European medieval vessels is to understand a number of different shipbuilding traditions, and changes to these in response to both internal and external stimuli, not only developments in technology, but social and political factors (e.g. Westerdahl 1995), economic demands (e.g. Unger 1980, 1991) and environmental conditions (e.g. CrumlinPedersen 1991b: 79). These traditions changed through time as they interacted with one another, consistently expanding the previous extent of their design in a process distinctive to the Middle Ages, until coalescing into one general vessel - the threemasted, full-rigged, carvel-planked, skeleton-first built sailing ship - by approximately the later 15th century. What is clear is that vessel traditions in Europe changed throughout the medieval and early modern periods, the result of both design and accident. These vessels eventually coalesced into a series of more stable forms during the closing stages of the Middle Ages, the basic design of which developed to a technological peak reached th during the later 17 century. However, the exact process underlying these developments has never been fully explicated, nor the exact form of these changes totally understood.

As understood in this work, tradition and classification are one and the same: classification is a process of partitioning objects (e.g. ships and boats, ceramics, stone tools, etc.) into classes (e.g. ceramic classes like ‘Bell Beakers’, ‘Dressel 1A’, ‘Bar Lug’, ‘New Forest 3’, etc.), and in the nautical world of rafts, boats and ships, such classes are frequently known as ‘building traditions’ (McGrail 2001: 10). In particular, in this book these traditions focus on four particularly distinctive characteristics of vessels which can be determined within both archaeological and iconographic data: [a] vessel form; [b] vessel structure; [c] propulsion, and; [d] steering. This form of definition is a polythetic (as opposed to monothetic) grouping (ibid.): that is, each shipbuilding tradition is characterised by a set of defining criteria of which either its archaeological or iconographic form include a majority. This allows certain characteristics to occur outside of the overall criteria of tradition (e.g. be shared by other shipbuilding traditions), and certain specific vessels to lack some of these characteristics while remaining within a specific tradition. ‘Subjective’ interpretations can consequently come into play, enabling archaeological and iconographic data to be closely compared.

The history of medieval shipbuilding is thus one of change in the face of altered demands, until a vessel emerged capable of 10

The Illuminated Ark

broadly - meeting these demands simultaneously. Tracing these changes is less easy, confused as they are by the diversity of regional variation and stasis. The interrelationships of change and stasis are not always clear-cut, especially later-on in the course of this process of technological intermixing, when it becomes increasingly hard to identify exactly what tradition a vessel falls into - particularly if understood in medieval terms. More than sixty names of ship types can be found in English records alone between 1200 and 1520 (Friel 1995: 35); few of these can be identified directly in either the archaeological or iconographic record, and the understanding of these traditions continues to evolve as new evidence becomes available (McGrail 1997c: 68). However, a linear, Darwinian process of vessel ‘evolution’ demonstrably did not occur in the Middle Ages. While at times this appears to be the case, the real situation was more complex, traditions interacting in ways that archaeologists will only ever partially understand (see Unger 1980: 278). Medieval society saw no incongruity in different traditions of vessel coexisting alongside one another, despite the vast technological gulfs that might divide these vessels.

reflecting changes over time and the survival of excavated evidence. 





‘Early Nordic’ vessels of the 4 th to 8 th centuries such as Gredstetedbro (1: 16), and variants such as the ‘Southern British’ variant typified by the Graveney boat (1: 112) (see Christensen 1968a-b; McGrail 1981a; Greenhill 1995b). ‘Middle Nordic’ vessels of the 8 th to 9th centuries onwards such as the Skuldelev ships (1: 215-17, 230, 268), and variants such as the ‘Eastern Baltic’/‘Slav’ variant (see Christensen 1968a-b, 1972a; Crumlin-Pedersen 1978, 1992, 1994, 2002, 2004; Greenhill 1988; McGrail 1981a; 2001). th ‘Later Nordic’ vessels of the 13 century onwards such as Kalmar 1 (1: 330), and variants such as the ‘Late Southern British’ variant typified by the Sandwich ship (1: 411) (see Christensen 1968b; McGrail 1981a; Greenhill 1988, 1995b).

The overall Nordic (or ‘northern-clinker’) tradition has a date th th range of roughly the 6 to 14 centuries. In various forms it existed both before and after this period, growing out of much earlier roots, possibly several different types of planked-, skinand logboats (see Christensen 1972a). McGrail (2001: 210) notes increases in size and developments in the form of these vessels from the seventh century onwards, as seen in remains such as the 6th to 7th century frames from Kongsgärde (1: 19) (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: fig. 9.1.2). Evidence also comes from th th th the late 7 century Kvalsund vessels (1: 22-23), and the 6 to 8 century Gredstetedbro (1: 16) and Sutton Hoo vessels (1: 48-49) (McGrail 2001: 210).

The shipbuilding traditions used as an analytical framework here are based on Crumlin-Pedersen’s (1978, 1997a: 28) division into the Nordic, cog, hulc and punt traditions. This division has been narrowed by the exclusion of the punt, a vessel with broad dispersal over the world that is not distinctive to the European Middle Ages, and which never developed into a seagoing ship. The division has also been widened by the inclusion of the carrack for the later Middle Ages. The analyses below concentrate on formalising existing definitions of traditions so that these can be used to analyse manuscript illuminations of vessels in later chapters. Listing the distinctive features of each tradition (as based on archaeological interpretation), these analyses focus on features identifiable in profile. These are split into:

Early Nordic vessels were essentially clinker-planked boats with oars and probably without sail (although the latter is debated) (see Westerdahl 1995; Gifford and Gifford 1996; Christensen 1996b: 79-84; Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: fig. 5; 1997b: 188-90; McGrail 1997c: 314-15; McGrail 2001: 211-12). The distinctive characteristics of Early Nordic vessels include:

[1] Defining features, clearly identifiable in the majority of profile perspectives of vessels in manuscript illuminations; [2] Distinctive features identifiable in a significant majority of profile perspectives of vessels in manuscript illuminations; [3] Features implied in profile perspectives of vessels, but rarely if ever actually depicted in manuscript illuminations; [4] Features not identifiable in profile in manuscript illuminations.

[Group 1 - Defining Features]   

Double-ended. High-rising ends. Rudder on starboard quarter.

[Group 2 - Distinctive Features]

In particular, this involves identifying distinguishing features within three-dimensional archaeological remains of vessels as well as in two-dimensional iconography, including those aspects of three-dimensional characteristics that can safely be eliminated from a two-dimensional conception of a vessel without loosing the central ‘essence’ of a specific tradition.

  

Clinker planking. No sail. Plank-keel joined to rabbeted posts with a horizontal scarf.

[Group 3 – Implied Features]

The Early Nordic Tradition

 

Of all the shipbuilding traditions discussed in this work, the Nordic tradition is the best understood, with a plentiful supply of reliable data (Crumlin-Pedersen 1991b: 72, fig. 10; McGrail 2001: 223). In this book the tradition is split into three phases, 11

Built plank-first. Propelled by oars held to grown crook tholes by grommets.

Chapter Two - Archaeology

[Group 4 – Unidentifiable Features]   



Moderate deadrise of garboards. Thin, split oak planking fastened by iron clench nails. Grown oak crooks fashioned into frames, fitted symmetrically around centreline. Fitted bottom boards. Posts fastened by treenails.

 

Strake ends hooked to allow more nail to be used (replacing sealers). Plank-fastening nails driven through treenails inserted in holes through the laps. Binding strakes (replacing meginhufr). th

Within the Early Nordic tradition, specific variations can be noted. The Early Nordic tradition was itself a variant of sorts, the first form of the Nordic tradition to have enough distinctive characteristics to link it to later variants (Crumlin-Pedersen 1978; McGrail 1981a: 30-31; Roberts 1994; Christensen 1996b; Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a; McGrail 2001: 207-12). Further variation of the Early Nordic tradition can be recognised in the archaeological record, such as the ‘Early Southern British’ variant. Primarily implied by archaeological data, some iconographic and documentary sources feed into this hypothesis. Built shell-first, with many shared characteristics of the Early Nordic tradition, the ‘Early South British’ variant’s distinctive attributes (see McGrail 2001: 219-20) are hard to identify when considered in relation to manuscript illuminations, with exceptionally few distinctive characteristics visible in profile. As understood from the vessel thought to be the primary example of the variant, the Graveney boat (1: 112), these attributes include:

The discovery of the early 10 century Graveney boat (1: 112) (Fenwick 1978a: 193) led to the suggestion that such a distinctive variant of the Nordic tradition existed. Illsley (pers. comm.) argues that when reconstructed, the Graveney boat displays a flatter sheer line than contemporary Early Nordic vessels and is thus potentially a mixture of a number of different styles of shipbuilding within the Nordic tradition. A number of other vessels are suggested to have similarities with the Graveney boat, th including the 7 century Ashby Dell vessel (1: 4), and the two th early 7 century vessels from Sutton Hoo (1: 49-49). McGrail (1981a: 34) has noted that aspects of the structure of the Graveney boat are ‘unrepresentative of 10th century Anglo-Saxon shipbuilding’, and ‘how difficult [it is] to assess whether the features of the English post-Viking ship were solely due to the impact the Vikings had or whether there was a continuity of indigenous development’ (ibid.). There is evidence for the influence of the Romano-Celtic tradition on these types of vessel, with similarities between the Graveney boat and the Romano-Celtic Barland’s Farm boat, St. Peter Port ship, and Blackfriars vessel 1 (McGrail 2001: 220).

[Group 1 - Defining Features]

The Middle Nordic Tradition

 

 

The Middle Nordic tradition has a rough date range of the 8th to 9th centuries onwards. This tradition is an enhanced form of the Early Nordic tradition. The socio-economic requirements of society in this period necessitated a growth in the capacity, seaworthiness, defensibility and technological sophistication of vessels. This process accelerated and peaked in the Later Nordic tradition (see section 3.4.3). The result was vessels with the basic characteristics of the Nordic tradition but some modifications in size, together with the addition of several innovations:

Angular forefoot. Nearly vertical ends blend into keel-line in a continuous curve.

[Group 2 - Distinctive Features] 

Raking, overhanging ends in elevation.

[Group 3 – Implied Features] 

The principal changes arose from the adoption of propulsion by sail as well as by oar. The midships section became more V-shaped than rounded; the keel protruded more, and was more foil-shaped… and the garboard strakes had a greater deadrise… The relative depth of hull… and the relative breadth increased… These two changes gave the extra stability and freeboard required when under sail rather than oars (McGrail 2001: 214-15).

Raking post with prolonged horizontal spar joined to plank-keel in a horizontal scarf (rather than a vertical scarf).

[Group 4 – Unidentifiable Features]       

Transverse section very full. Minimal protrusion of plank-keel below hull. Virtually flat-bottomed out to third strake. Massive floor timbers placed closely together. L-shaped half-frame floors placed alternately to port and starboard with a side timber scarfed to one end (to make a composite frame from sheer to sheer). Longitudinal stringers set into frames towards upper ends (replacing knees). Clenching grooves worked in the inner face of the post (so that nails can be clenched rather than the post hollowed or stepped).

The suggestion that Nordic vessels were made obsolete by the development of the cog has now been discounted. Vessels of this tradition continued to be built in the later Middle Ages, keeping up with cogs in terms of both size and capacity (see CrumlinPedersen 1994, 1997a, 1997b), until both traditions began to be eclipsed by more radical developments in hull form, steering equipment and rig. A number of distinct forms of the Middle Nordic tradition also emerged, including: [a] larger oared warships (drekkars) with a substantially higher freeboard; [b] smaller sailing warships with free-standing endcastles and sometimes a masthead fighting top 12

The Illuminated Ark

(nefs?), and; [c] larger, tubbier merchant ships (known variously as ceols, keols, keels, knarrs and lengs) with deeper hulls and keels, and a higher freeboard. Smaller craft [d] also continued to be built, such as faerings and sekserings (see Jesch 2001: 11979). Developments from the Early Nordic tradition are reflected in a variety of different sources, not simply excavated remains. While maintaining the distinctive components of the Early Nordic tradition, these vessels also go beyond it:

   

[Group 1 - Defining Features]  



(Near) double-ended. Smooth keel/post transition.

[Group 2 - Distinctive Features]    

The best excavated examples of the Middle Nordic tradition include the five vessels from Skuldelev (1: 215-17, 230, 268), the series of nine vessels from Roskilde Havn (1: 214, 229, 276-77, 303, 365, 387, 680-82), the Gokstad, Oseberg and Tune vessels (1: 118, 94, 153), and the three vessels from Hedeby. A number of other vessel finds can also be placed in relation to these finds, th th including the five 11 to 12 century Fotevik vessels [1: 251-55], th th th the 12 century Knösen ship [1: 283], and the 10 to 11 century Äskekärr ship [1: 174].

Vessel propelled by square sail on a mast stepped (near) amidships. Distinctive sheerline leading to high ends. Stems sometimes stepped in profile. Rudder on starboard quarter.

[Group 3 – Implied Features]             

At least one variant of the Middle Nordic tradition must be considered: the ‘Eastern Baltic’ or ‘Slav’ variant. A number of vessel finds potentially fall into this grouping (Crumlin-Pedersen 1969: 24-27; McGrail 1981a: 34; Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 21, 96-99; McGrail 2001: 217-18). Vessels in this variation had a Tshaped keel broader than it was deep, a mast set in a transverse floor timber or step alongside a floor timber (rather than a longitudinal keelson), and clinker-laid planks fastened by treenails rather than clenched nails, lutted with moss rather than hair or wool in the overlap. In this respect, these vessels have much in common with the Nordic tradition, but differed from the latter in one important respect: the use of treenails rather than clenched iron nails to attach the clinker planks (Bill 1994a). Vessel finds with these characteristics include the Baumgarth (1: 59-60) and Frauenburg vessels (1: 65-66), and two of the boats from Ralswiek (1: 95-96, 128 192). These are discussed by McGrail (1981a: 34; 2001: 217-18), who is sceptical of a full tradition being hypothesised from so small a cross-section of excavated evidence with so many shared characteristics with the Nordic tradition. As McGrail (ibid.) notes:

Planks and strakes fastened together clinker fashion. Keel protrudes well below hull. Stems sometimes rabbeted to receive plank ends. Standing rigging of forestay, shrouds and parral between yard and mast. Running rigging of halyard and sheets. Braces and reef points introduced towards the end of the period. Warships propelled by both sail and by oar. Cargo vessels may not have retained the ability to be propelled by oar alone. Rudder attached at two points on its shaft (so that it can be rotated about its long axis by an athwartships tiller). Rudders protrude well below the level of the keel. Planks within strakes joined in a simple overlapping scarf. Rounded bottom. Hull built plank-first.

[Group 4 – Unidentifiable Features]        

Lower crossbeam at every station supported by standing (vertical), and sometimes lodging (horizontal) knees to the planking. Second level of crossbeams and knees installed at every station in warships and at selected stations in cargo ships. Some cargo ships include a third level of beams. Pillars (snelles) fastened between floor and beam, and lower and higher beams. Side timbers support planking between the frame stations in the upper hull. Mast stepped in a longitudinal keelson, joggled to fit over several floors so that it rests on the keel which is fastened directly onto the floors.

Keel, uppermost and waterline strakes constitute main longitudinal strength members of the hull. Flaring sides. Thin, split planks. Uppermost and waterline strakes thicker than other strakes. Planks and strakes clenched inboard by distorting the point over a rove. Keel of T-shaped cross-section, joined to the stems in a vertical scarf fastened by clenched nails. Stems sometimes hollowed in section. Evenly spaced, symmetrically placed floor timbers fastened to the lower planking by treenails.

Treenail plank fastenings have also been found in medieval Scandinavian boats where the principal technique was clench nail fastening: these include Skuldelev 1 and 5, Schuby, Kalmar I and Sjøvollen… There would seem to have been an intermingling of fastening techniques in the western Baltic region during the seventh to eleventh centuries.

It is virtually impossible to identify such subtle changes to hull forms within the iconographic record since these changes can only be seen inside the hull rather than influencing the external hull profile.

13

Chapter Two - Archaeology

The Later Nordic Tradition

[Group 4 – Unidentifiable Features]

The Nordic tradition underwent a number of developments th th between the 6 to 7 centuries when it first began to appear and th th the 13 to 15 centuries when it reached its final form. While the basic techniques that underlie this tradition are sound, this is a technology that can only be taken so far before fundamental problems begin regarding the longitudinal strength of the hull and the requirements of frame support (Steffy 1994: 8-20; McGrail 1998: 12-22). While these vessels represent the upper limits of this technological tradition prior to their replacement by other technologies allowing larger and more seaworthy vessels to be constructed, small craft continue to be built in this tradition to the present day (Greenhill 1995b: 216-24).

  

Certain vessels from the English Channel area are argued (Milne, pers. comm.) to fall into a variant of the Later Nordic tradition, defined here as the ‘Late Southern British’ variant. Based on the remains of the Sandwich ship (1: 411) (Milne et al. 2004), together with historical and iconographic data, at present it is not possible to list the possible defining attributes that make the type distinctive from the Later Nordic tradition. Archaeological data provide an approximate date range for the appearance of such th th variants of the 13 to 15 centuries. The Sandwich ship (1: 411) is felt by Milne (pers. comm.) to fall into this specific variant: this has yet to be proven by other archaeological data or the specific defining features of the variant identified. The Sandwich ship dates from between the 13th and 14 th centuries, and dendrochronological analyses suggest a timber source in southeastern England. Few other vessel finds related to the Sandwich ship are known at present due to the highly fragmentary nature of the find, although it is likely the vessel is similar to one or all of th th the 13 to 15 century vessels from St Peter Port (1: 367-68, 413). Such comparison is not helped by the fact that both the Sandwich ship and the St Peter Port vessels comprise of only fragmentary remains rather than coherent hull structure. Hutchinson (1994a: 27-34) puts the Sandwich ship with a series of contemporary vessels built just prior to the main surge of southern European shipbuilding influence in the north, including the early 15th century Grace Dieu (1: 422), the mid 15th century th Aber Wrac’h vessel (1: 415), and the 15 century Gdansk vessel th W5 (1: 436). To this might reasonably be added the 15 century Newport ship (1: 927).

The vessels in this section are essentially the same as those in sections 3.3.1 and 3.3.2. The only significant variation from their predecessors is that these are larger vessels which include the addition of several innovations such as integrated endcastles and median rudders (Mott 1997: 100-19). Excavated examples include Ellingå (1: 282), Kyholm (1: 294), Sjövoll (1: 304), Magor Pill 1 (1: 323), Kalmar 1 (1: 334) and Gedesby (1: 349) (McGrail 2001: 230). [Group 1 - Defining Features]  

Relatively bigger vessels. Castle superstructures at bow and stern.

[Group 2 - Distinctive Features]              

Superstructures, where present, increasingly merge into hull. Single square sail set on a mast near amidships. Rudder on the starboard quarter increasingly replaced by median rudder. Canvas awning sometimes spread above the deck. Top for lookout and fighting purposes fitted near masthead. Protruding crossbeams, some with fairings over their ends. Some vessels have straight outer edges to raked posts. Bowsprits appear. Sometimes a deck at each end: bigger ships may have a full deck. Increase in relative breadth and depth of hull. Planking sometimes prolonged to cover the faces of the sternpost. Yard held to the mast either by a parral made from a crook or by a composite parral with trucks and ribs. Reef points and bonnets introduced. Braces to the yardarms appear.

The Cog Tradition th

th

The cog tradition has a rough date range of the 11 to 14 centuries. Utilising certain building characteristics of the Nordic tradition, the cog also has clearly distinct design traditions of its own, possibly sharing with the hulc a background in what has been called the ‘Frisian’ tradition (Crumlin-Pedersen 1972a, 1978; McGrail 2001: 222, 232-33), a term first noted in 9th century documents referring to Frisian shipping (McGrail 2001: 233). The cog is particularly associated with northern European mercantile states during the High Middle Ages, notably the Hanseatic League: Fliedner (1969) established a vital link between documentary and iconographic evidence when he realised that the fifteenth-century citizens of Stralsund had called their fourteenth-century town seal ‘the cog’. The ship portrayed in profile… has some features in common with Nordic ships… but it also has distinctive features… The large, almost complete, ship excavated from… Bremen, in 1962 had many of these features and thus could be identified as a cog (ibid.).

[Group 3 – Implied Features]   

Ceiling planking sometimes nailed to the floors. Planking both split and sawn. Use of knee-shaped lower posts.

Shorter lengths of planking used. Plank scarfs become longer. Windlass used to work anchors and bilge pumps, raise and lower yards.

Debate on the defining attributes of the cog has recently resurfaced after a period of dormancy. Following Maarleveld’s 14

The Illuminated Ark

(1995) work on type-names for excavated finds of ships, Weski (1999a, 1999b) has questioned the use of the term cog, arguing that many of the supposedly significant features of cog construction remain unclear (Crumlin-Pedersen 2000a: 235-36). Weski’s concerns about the use of terms like cog and hulc derived from documentary data to provide descriptive framework for excavated data are valid, as are his concerns that that correlation of the Bremen cog find (1: 347). Both documentary and iconographic data by scholars such as Heinsius (1956) and Litwin (1989: 153) have arguably focused the definition of the cog too tightly (Weski 1999b: 367-70). These debates are of only limited importance here. Most importantly for this study, Weski points to the clear archaeological and iconographic evidence for the intermingling of the cog and Nordic traditions, including the evidence of both some cogs with more curved stems typical of Nordic vessels, and also some Nordic vessels with more cog-like characteristics, such as the Gedesby ship (1: 349) and Kollerup cog (1: 315) (see McGrail 2001: 232). Clearly, once the basic form of the cog had been established, variations to it emerged as it interacted with other building traditions, in particular the Nordic (McGrail 2001: 238-39). This implies that such transfers of technology between different traditions also occurred between the cog and other traditions of vessel, as clearly implied by some of the iconographic data in appendix 2.



[Group 3 – Implied Features]            

   

[Group 1 - Defining Features]





Straight, raked posts. Flat bottom longitudinally with a sharp transition between bottom and posts. Propelled by sail alone.

  

[Group 2 – Distinctive Features]          

Full form. Planks within strakes joined in vertical scarfs. Flat bottom, or rising slightly towards the ends. Rounded bilges. Crossbeams fitted above waterline. Upper sides of seagoing cogs flared (inland vessels have near vertical sides). Bottom planking laid edge-to-edge over most of its length, not fastened together nor attached to the plank-keel. In later vessels, side planking sometimes overlaps posts with a false stem. Some scarfs lipped. Relatively thick, sawn planking. Removable deck planking laid on athwartships beams. Windlass aft and/or capstan at a higher level.

[Group 4 – Unidentifiable Features]

The ‘classic’ high medieval cog is the most sophisticated of a family of vessels, some of which continued in use into the 19th to th 20 centuries (Ellmers 1979), such as the Danish kaag (CrumlinPedersen 1979). The characteristics of these vessels include:

 

Mast moves closer to the midships station over time th (implying a change in rig during the early 14 century from a fore-and-aft to square sail).

 

Double-ended hull. Some vessels have a straight sternpost but a slightly curved stem or endposts. Sheerline rises gently at the stern, more so at the bow, where the stempost extends above the planking. Fighting top near masthead. Crossbeams sometimes notched, protruding through planking. Crenellated platforms rest on stanchions at bow and stern: stern platform gradually integrated into the hull while forecastles reduced in size. Rigging mainly consists of stays and shrouds. Exclusive use of square sails. Earlier cogs use a side rudder (possibly a firrer): cogs of th the 13 century onwards use a median rudder. Clinker or reverse-clinker planking on sides of hull.



Slight deadrise of the garboards from plank-keel. Plank-keel roughly twice the thickness of the garboards. Transition timbers fashioned from a crook (to give a skeg), and heel scarfed to plank-keel and posts. Lower planking overlaps towards ends as it turns through right angle, before being nailed into rabbets in the stem hook and the lower stems. Side planking fastened together by nails clenched inboard by hooking. Floor timbers alternately laid with a longer arm to port and starboard. Substantial floors treenailed to planking. Crossbeams rest on tenons protruding from the futtocks, fastened to the planking by hanging and standing knees. Large, deep knees, sometimes supported by small knees. Mast step in keelson treenailed to the floors (but not plank-keel). Seagoing cogs have plank-keels that barely protrude below the bottom planking, with a negligible rise of garboards.

For the ‘early’ period of the tradition, the exact origins of the cog remain unclear: some suggest that it lies in various forms of early and extended planked logboat (Ellmers 1979), which developed initially into small, flat-bottomed vessels, probably designed for fishing in tidal and coastal waters. Crumlin-Pedersen (1965) suggests that ships depicted on ninth-century coins issued at Haithabu/Hedeby in the western Baltic represent ‘proto-cogs’ (McGrail 2001: 222). More recently Weski (1999a, 1999b) has begun to reconsider the much debated links between this tradition and the ‘Romano-Celtic’ tradition, particularly a specific form of Roman river vessel from the Rhine area (see Marsden 1977; Roberts 1983, 1994; McGrail 1990a). 15

Chapter Two - Archaeology

The Bremen cog (1: 347) remains the best example of a late version of the tradition. The remains comprise a virtually complete and substantial vessel 23.80m long x 7.60m broad, of mixed clinker and carvel construction and with a median rudder. th The vessel has been dated using dendrochronology to the 13 to 14th century AD (Abel et al. 1969; Ellmers 1979; Varenius 1992; Lahn 1993). The vessel demonstrates the cog tradition at the height of its development: as Illsley (pers. comm.) has suggested, the Bremen cog even shows signs of the merging of techniques and technologies which ultimately led to a new tradition of hybridised ‘large ship’ (carrack?) during the fifteenth century.

It may be that archaeology has been unlucky so far, and that eventually the remains of a hulc will be found and dated: equally, the term hulc may be a generic description of a range of different medieval vessels. Fliedner (1969), Ellmers (1994), Greenhill (1988: 61-65; 1995b: 250-55; 2000: 5-17) and other authors have identified numerous iconographic examples that repeat common hull features for vessels known as hulcs, holcs, and hulks in the documentary sources, including the seal of the New Shoreham, Sussex (previously known as Hulkesmouth), dated to c.1295, and bearing the legend ‘by this sign of a hulc I am called mouth, which is a worthy name’, and the vessel carved into the side of th the 12 century Winchester font. These and other sources have been taken to imply that a hulc shipbuilding tradition did exist, with identifiable characteristics, including:

Other finds that help identify the main attributes of the cog include the 12th to 13th century remains from Kollerup (1: 315) and Kolding Fjord (1: 284), and the late 14th century remains from Vejby (1: 394). There are also other finds from Germany, Poland and the Ijsselmeer Polders. The one country which so far has failed to produce any definitive cog finds, but which is known from documentary records to have seen the use of cogs, is th Britain, where the only finds of cogs appear to be the late 10 th century vessel fragments from Bull Wharf (1: 170), and the 13 century hull timbers from Westminster (1: 321).

[Group 1 – Defining Features]   

As the basic design of the cog met with success, it began to be adopted and developed in the Mediterranean, first by the Genoese, and later on by other groups such as the Venetians and Bayonnese (Hutchinson 1994a: 84-87; Greenhill 1995a: 227; McGrail 2001: 243). A variation of the cog subsequently began to appear in the form of the coche, a cog-like vessel built in the th southern European style from approximately the late 13 century onwards (Rieth 1989, 1996; McGrail 2001: 243). Based on a skeleton-first frame, the coche apparently had carvel-laid planks throughout (rather than just on the lower hull as in cogs), and either two stepped masts with a square sail forward and a lateenrigged mizzenmast, or else two square sails. This was one of the first real steps towards the full-rigged ship that would evolve later on in the Middle Ages out of the mixture of the hulc, cog, cocha, and other Mediterranean traditions (see also McGrail 1981a; Friel 1994a; Pryor 1994). Unfortunately, no definitive excavated evidence for a coche has yet been discovered, and so defining attributes cannot be ascertained for the vessel tradition.

Double-ended. No visible stems. Planking runs in a uniform curve parallel both to sheerline and bottom of the hull, ending on a horizontal line well above the waterline.

[Group 2 – Distinctive Features]        

Castles at bow and stern. Keel not discernible. Clinker or reverse-clinker planking. Mast stepped (near) amidships. Rudder on starboard quarter. A number of oars carried in some cases. ‘Hybrid hulc’ with hulc-like planking ending on a horizontal surface at the bow, but ending at a post or an upward-turned, extension of a plank-keel at the stern. ‘Hybrid hulc’ has a median rudder.

[Groups 3-4 – Implied and Unidentifiable Features] 

N/A.

Weski (1999b: 103-06) has demonstrated how ambiguous much iconographic and documentary data for the hulc is, and criticises the entire study of the tradition. As noted, this problem is compounded by the fact that no single vessel has ever been found which appears to fully correlate with the iconographic data. There are only two European sites from which reverse-clinker planking is thought to have been excavated (1: 472) (both reused timber fragments from London), and even these are in doubt (McGrail et al. 1999: 148-49, 2000: 453). A series of vessel discoveries from the Low Countries offer the best excavated analogies to the hulc, including vessels from Utrecht (1: 53, 154, 219, 280-81), Deventer (1: 141-42, 202), Tiel (1: 151-52, 218) and Velsen (1: 269). McGrail (2001: 242) notes that many of these are the remains of extended logboats rather than hulcs. McGrail (ibid.) also provides a range of ethnographic evidence from the reverse-clinker boats of south Asia that suggest what the hull of the medieval hulc was like (ibid.: 242-43).

The Hulc Tradition A discussion of the hulc tradition is problematic, as no proven example has been found in the archaeological record, even allowing for the possible ‘reverse-clinker’ planking from Morgan’s Lane in Southwark and Utrecht vessel 2 (1: 472, 280) (see McGrail 2000: 453; McGrail et al. 1999: 148-49). Knowledge of the tradition thus comes from documentary and iconographic data, supported by ethnographic analogies. Consequently, it is hard to establish either a date range or securely define typological characteristics, although the latter has been attempted, most notably by Greenhill (1988: 61-65; 1995b: 250-55; 2000: 5-17), as outlined below. The best that can be said is that hulcs appear to have been in use during the high Middle th Ages, possibly as early as the second half of the 8 century and th as late as the 15 century. 16

The Illuminated Ark

The Carrack Tradition



Sometimes known as the ‘Atlantic’ or ‘Ibero-Atlantic’ tradition, a discussion of the carrack tradition is in some ways as problematic as that of the hulc. No definitive example has yet been found in the archaeological record, although numerous possible examples exist, and much knowledge of the tradition comes from the considerable documentary and iconographic sources available. Consequently, as with the hulc, it is hard to establish either a date range, or to securely define distinctive, typological characteristics.

[Group 3 – Implied Features]  

Full body with heavy, closely spaced frames. Main frames assembled before erection, fastened to keel.

[Group 4 – Unidentifiable Features]  

A development of both the cog and hulc traditions, with elements also of the Nordic and Romano-Celtic traditions within this, carracks represent a complex coalescence of northern European traditions within the influence of southern and western European shipbuilding traditions, particularly caravels and Mediterranean ‘round-ships’ (McGrail 2001: 245-47). These other vessels may themselves have been based on earlier modifications of lateclassical and even Roman vessels, although this is debated. There is even evidence for indirect Islamic influences in the design of the carrack via southern-European traditions (see White 1962, 1978).





A number of excavated remains potentially represent carracks. The best surviving of these is the Mary Rose (1: 508), an example indicative of the tradition as it developed in the 16th century (Rule 1983: 13-21). A number of other vessel finds can also be related to the Mary Rose, although as noted, none represent definite finds of carracks. Rule (1983: 16) argues that the closest comparison for the Mary Rose is the Elephanten, lost c.1564-65 (1: 527). Another find important in this respect are the remains at Woolwich which may be the Sovereign of c.1488 (1: 505). Adams (pers. comm.) also notes the similarities between the Mary Rose and the early 16th century Kravel (1: 502). Similarities of hull form have been suggested between the Kravel th and the 16 century Basque galleon from Red Bay (1: 562). McGrail (2001: 245-46) notes a series of vessels with several features in common that may have been built in the Iberian peninsula, representing possible forms frame-first constructed vessels such as carracks, caravels, galleons or similar. These include Highborn Cay (1: 496), Molasses Reef (1: 476), and Red Bay (1: 562) in the Americas, Cattewater (1: 489) and Studland Bay (1: 515) in Britain. McGrail (ibid.) also notes two Mediterranean vessels generally akin to these vessels, Villefranche 1 (Rieth 1991; Guerout et al. 1989) and Yassi Ada 3 (Steffy 1994: 134) (1: 851, 855). This complex intermixing of so many different traditions is not fully understood, but certain distinctive characteristics can be suggested: [Group 1 – Defining Features] 

Substantial keel.

‘Backbone’ of raked sternpost, keel and gently curved stem.

[Group 2 – Distinctive Features] 17

Futtocks overlap main floors: at the turn of the bilge little if any space between timbers. Floor and futtock usually held together by a dovetail scarf, fastened by treenails and iron nails driven from opposite faces. Master frame near amidships has futtocks fastened both to after and forward faces of the floor: other designed frames forward of the main frame have futtocks fastened to their forward face, those aft of the main frame have futtocks on their after face. Frame components not fastened together towards the ends of the vessel beyond the region of standing frames.

Chapter Two - Archaeology

18

The Illuminated Ark

Chapter Three: Manuscript Illuminations

manuscript within these collections. This information derives from the iconographic and digital archives of each library, published guides to these collections, and miscellaneous published works containing manuscript illuminations. This appendix is a sample of illuminated manuscripts from northern Europe containing vessel depictions. Further examples of manuscript illuminations of vessels are known to exist in other libraries, and the appendix is not the definitive guide to even the holdings in the listed collections: more illuminations exist within these collections than in appendix 2, as none of these libraries maintain full iconographic archives. It was never an aim to create a comprehensive catalogue of illuminated manuscripts containing vessel imagery from northern Europe, but rather to provide a corpus of data sufficient to evaluate the extent to which a largescale comparison can be made between excavated remains and manuscript illuminations of medieval vessels. To this end, 2335 folios are plentiful.

The Manuscripts Database Illuminations of vessels in selected British and French manuscripts in appendix 2 comprise 2335 individual folios in 925 manuscripts from 55 libraries. The manuscripts were originally split into five groups to aid analysis: A. B. C. D. E.

Miscellaneous British libraries (27 libraries, 87 manuscripts and 110 folios) (2: 1-87). Libraries within the University of Oxford (15 libraries, 246 manuscripts and 495 folios) (2: 88-333). Libraries within the University of Cambridge (10 libraries, 61 manuscripts and 134 folios) (2: 334-94). The British Library, London (1 library, 403 manuscripts and 1366 folios) (2: 395-797). The Bibliothèque de l’Arsenal and Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris (2 libraries, 128 manuscripts and 230 folios) (2: 798-925).

Various trends can be observed within appendix 2 in relation to the countries of origin of manuscripts, their dates and relative ages, the volumes containing illuminations of ships, and the overall themes of illumination. It is unclear how indicative these trends are of broader patterns within medieval iconography, as some of the categories utilised within this assessment are not mutually exclusive. Value judgements have to be made in the selection process concerning the predominant feature of each illumination. Some of the descriptions used within appendix 2 are also drawn from the reference indices of the libraries assessed (e.g. Birch and Jenner 1878 for the British Library, Ohlgren 1977, 1978 for the Bodleian Library), and do not necessarily reflect the opinions of the author.

Chronologically, these manuscripts comprise:                           

th

th

Early 6 to late 8 Century [1 manuscript] 8th-9th Century [0 manuscripts] th Early 9 Century [1 manuscript] th Late 9 Century [0 manuscripts] 9th to 10th Century [0 manuscripts] th Early 10 Century [0 manuscripts] th Late 10 Century [1 manuscript] 10th to 11th Century [3 manuscripts] th Early 11 Century [3 manuscripts] th Late 11 Century [2 manuscripts] 11th to 12th Century [0 manuscripts] th Early 12 Century [10 manuscripts] th Late 12 Century[11 manuscripts] th th 12 to 13 Century [25 manuscripts] th Early 13 Century [67 manuscripts] Late 13th Century [100 manuscripts] th th 13 to 14 Century [43 manuscripts] th Early 14 Century [123 manuscripts] Late 14th Century [40 manuscripts] th th 14 to 15 Century [25 manuscripts] th Early 15 Century [165 manuscripts] Late 15th Century [168 manuscripts] th th 15 to 16 Century [17 manuscripts] th Early 16 Century [51 manuscripts] Late 16th Century [38 manuscripts] th 16 Century onwards [7 manuscripts] Unsure/Unknown [17 manuscripts]

Regarding countries of origin of manuscripts, appendix 2 reflects the trends of British and French libraries: a bias towards the major production centres of England, France and the Low Countries. Some of these manuscripts, usually due to clues like inscriptions, dedications, and the style of known scribes or illuminators, can be tied down to specific centres of production, particularly monastic houses or specific schools of illumination. In this respect, it would be interesting to study in the future the specific origins of manuscripts containing vessel depictions to identify any correlation between individuals and their depictions. Medieval clergy, monks and even nuns were commonly cosmopolitan, well-educated and well-travelled members of the aristocracy, and were just as, if not more, familiar with vessels as the lay population. Church councils regularly brought together the principal dignitaries of ecclesiastical provinces and countries; bishops were expected to travel across their diocese on pastoral visits (Verdon 2003: 225-27); there were also regular longdistance movements by specific groups of religious or individuals (Verdon 2003: 228-31, 237-38). The Church also owed and operated vessels and associated infrastructure, such as the ‘wool house’ in Southampton that once belonged to Beaulieu Abbey (Hockey 1975, 1976), or the entire port of King’s Lynn in th Norfolk, established by the local bishop in the late 11 century (Clark 1979, 1981; Clark and Carter 1977). There is also diverse evidence for the involvement of the Church in trade and exchange such as the wine (James 1971; Davey and Hodges

Appendix 2 is not a definitive catalogue of manuscript illuminations of vessels: the nature of the research programme that produced this data means that omissions are inevitable, it being impossible to individually check every page of every 19

Chapter Three - Manuscripts th

1983), wool (Power 1949, Lloyd 1973, 1977), fish (Bond 1988; Hutchinson 1994: 130, 144-45) and salt (Bridbury 1955) trades, as well as coastal reclamation (Williams 1984: 87, 96-108; Silvester 1999: 134-36), and defence (Fleming 1985) (see also Snape 1926, Bowen 1950; Hutchinson 1994: chapters 5-8; Williams 2001: chapters 15-20). The majority of both lay and religious scriptoria were also near rivers (and in some cases had control of them – see Hutchinson 1994: 121), upon which smallcraft would have been used for trade, transport and pleasure (see Knowles and St. Joseph 1952). Other monasteries were on or near the coast; the best-known examples being island communities like Lindesfarne, St Michael’s Mount and Iona (see Cramp 1981). Water - both fresh and salt - was of central symbolic importance to medieval Christianity (see Gilchrist 1999). Thus it should not be automatically assumed that monks in particular - where they are identified as the artists of depictions of vessels - were unfamiliar with nautical technology. At some point in the future it would be worth analysing manuscript illuminations in relation to the country of origin of a manuscript as regards the specific emphases of details of ships (and traditions), the types of volumes vessel depictions appear in, and changes to these characteristics over time. Certainly, some depictions have a localised value and ‘intimacy’ which enhance their significance: while the late 12th century depictions of the life of St Cuthbert in BL Add. MS 39943 (2: 507) are stylised, these were made by a monk at work in the scriptoria at Durham who may well have had local knowledge of the locations (and vessel types?) depicted, such as Tynemouth, Lindesfarne or the Farne Islands (see also BL YT. MS 26) (2: 787, fig. 21). So too may have the unknown artist of BL Harl. Roll Y6 (2: 658, fig. th 19), at work in late 12 century Crowland abbey in the fens on scenes from the life of the Abbey’s great hero, St Guthlac of Crowland (see also Magd. MS 5) (2: 375).

approximately the mid-13 century onwards – the dates of manuscripts in question are usually to broad and/or too vague to be of specific benefit to such focused technological enquiry (although see Unger 1991 on long-term changes to depictions of Noah as both shipwright and naval architect). For example, BNF Supp. Lat. MS 773 (2: 922) is not unusual in having a manufacture date of c. 1154-1235, an eighty-year production window within which a wealth of technological development took place. Many manuscripts are simply ascribed to a century, with no more specific a date. When the range of unique vessel developments that took place in, for instance, the fifteenth century are considered, it is clear how rarely manuscript depictions can be of such specific technological/chronological comparison. The impact of copying from pre-existing exemplars on images or other forms of art should also be noted. For instance, all three of th th the manuscripts in appendix 2 that survive from the 10 to 11 centuries (Bod. Lib. Junius MS 11; BL Cott. Claud. MS B iv; BL Harl. MS 603) (2: 249, 549, 604, fig. 18) are stylistically related to the ‘Utrecht’ psalter (Universiteitsbibliotheek, Utrecht MS 32/484) made between 816-34 at the abbey of Hautvillers (Altumvillare) near Rheims. Two further manuscripts in the appendix (Trinity MS. R.17.1, c. 1150; BNF Lat. MS 8846) (2: 386, 911) are copies of the Utrecht psalter. All of the vessels in these different manuscripts are modelled on those of the Utrecht exemplar, and together cover a date range of nearly two-hundred years - from Bod. Lib. Junius MS 11 (2: 249, fig. 18) of c. 1000 to BNF Lat. MS 8846 (2: 911) of c. 1180-90 – or nearly four hundred years if the Utrecht psalter itself is included. While this is an extreme example, it makes clear how dangerous copying can be to assessments of relatively short-term technological change as experienced in shipbuilding. A different problem is highlighted by examples such as BNF Fr. MSS 2643 – 2646 (2: th 852-55, figs. 7, 75, 76, 77). All 15 century French copies of Froissart’s Chronicles, these four manuscripts are stylistically identical, and – if they did not come from the same point and artist of manufacture – share a common exemplar. Meanwhile, specific themes of illumination can highlight suspect links between manuscripts: of the four manuscripts in appendix 2 which depict the loss of the ‘white ship’ (the loss at sea in c. 1120 of the only son and heir of Henry I) three manuscripts (LRO MS G, f. 45v, BL Cott. Claud. MS D ii, f. 45v and BL Roy. MS 20 A ii, f. 6v) (2: 54, 550, 750, fig. 38) date from c. 1300 - 1327, most probably from the 1320s. There is a strong likelihood of copying in such circumstances. As a corollary to this stand examples like CCCO MS 157 (2: 303, fig. 2), one of the earliest and most famous suggested representations of a ‘hulc’ (dating to c. 1118-40). Folio 383 of this manuscript has no known exemplar, a reminder that while copying from exemplars undoubtedly took place and influenced depictions of vessels, the medieval concept of the past was frequently visualised in contemporary terms. Many images are thus not archaic, and if the vessel in folio 383 is indeed a hulc, then this representation is cutting-edge, depicting the very latest in vessel technology. Another example of this tendency is Bod. Lib. Auct. MS F. 2. 29 th (2: 122), a late 15 century copy of Justinius’s Epitome of Pompeius Trogus depicting scenes from the history of ancient

Appendix 2 demonstrates that the dating of manuscripts is an inexact science, based on a variety of different evidence including styles of script, illumination and binding, types of parchment, and more occasionally direct provenances, references in the text, dedications, and deduction by reference to specific personalities, events and saints days (see De Hamel 1994: 188). Rarely have manuscripts been subjected to the types of scientific dating common to archaeology, and the dates of manuscripts are frequently less secure than popularly assumed. This is important in the comparison of archaeological and iconographic data, particularly as regards changing medieval technologies like shipbuilding. Information on the date-range of manuscripts in appendix 2 provides a confusing mix of evidence, and it remains unclear whether specific manuscript illuminations can be used to help date excavated remains of vessels (or vice-versa), or changes and innovations to vessels, such as the transition from quarter to median rudders. In particular, the impact of any ‘time lag’ between innovations in vessel technology and the appearance of such innovation in manuscript illuminations remains unclear (see Sleeswyk and Lehmann 1982; Sleeswyk 1990; Simmons 1991; Unger 1991: 4-6; Villain-Gandossi 1994: 171-72; Oertling 1996; Mott 1997). Although the analysis of the manuscripts in appendix 2 by date order reveals general patterns – in particular the waning of depictions of ‘Nordic’ vessels from 20

The Illuminated Ark

Troy using the latest vessel technology, armour and weaponry. Similarly, the different copies of Vegetius’s De Re Militari, which in appendix 2 range from Fitz. Marlay Add. MS I of c. th 1270 to BL Roy. MS 20 B i of the late 15 century (2: 364, 753, fig. 4), see each different copy and successive generation updating Vegetius’s already archaic ideas for their own time. Meanwhile, examples such as BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art 6 (the ‘Pageant of Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick’ known as the Warwick Roll) (2: 558) may not represent any specific moment of technological change or innovation, but are of undoubted use in considering the state of technological development in late 15th century Britain (see Sinclair 2003). The excellent and detailed range of vessel depictions in the Warwick Roll date to c. 148493, and represent the latest developments in technology when placed against comparable archaeological evidence such as the Newport ship (1: 902). The sophistication of the vessels within the Warwick Roll also become apparent when compared to vessels within illuminated manuscripts of comparable date, such as Bod. Lib. Douce MS 353 (2: 229, fig. 16). Meanwhile, the barge being unloaded on the Rhine in folio 120v of the later 15th century (c. 1474 onwards) Bod. Lib. Douce MS 208 (2: 211, fig. 8) is another example of a sophisticated vessel without a hint of an archaic exemplar in its form. Certain depictions are more timeless: BNF MSS Fr. 2090 - 2091 (c. 1280) and 2092 (c. 1317) (2: 848-49) all depict small craft on the Seine at Paris: such vessels are likely to have remained largely unchanged for many centuries. These may again represent the use of an exemplar.

370, 391), this is due to the numbers of Bibles produced (and thus survival rates) as well as the possibilities for maritime themed imagery within these given biblical themes. Other manuscripts containing vessel depictions include Chronicles (BL Cott. Faust. MS B vii; BL Harl. MS 4379; BL Roy. MS 14 E iv) (2: 588, 642, 702, figs. 81, 82), histories (BL Cott. Jul. MS A v; BL Cott. Vitellius MS A xx) (2: 559, 579), Psalters (BL Eger. MS 1066; BL Harl. MS 273), and books of hours (BL Harl. MS 2971; BNF Lat. MS 9473) (2: 587, 604, 621, 916). There are also illuminations of vessels in less likely manuscripts, including the works of the church fathers (Cheltenham MS 4417; BNF Fr. MS 19), the Speculum Humanae Salvationis (JRUL MS 18; Bod. Lib. Douce MS 204), missals (Bod. Lib. Douce MS 313; Bod. Lib. Hatton MS 1), works of philosophy (BL Add. MS 34113; BL Ar. MS 339), and liturgies, prayer books and vespers (e.g. BL Stowe MS 17; V&A Reid MS 19) (2: 5, 816, 37, 210, 225, 247, 492, 536, 782, 79). These suggest that illuminations of vessels were ubiquitous in the Middle Ages, with important consequences as regards the popular awareness of maritime technology. Regarding specific illuminations of vessels, what is most significant is the range of iconographic themes that include vessel depictions; thirty-eight iconographic themes can be identified in appendix 2, from the expected like Noah and the ark (Bod. Lib. MSS Junius 11; BL Roy. MS 1 B x, f. 9v; BNF Fr. MS 20125, ff. 9; BNF Roth MS 2529, ff. 175v, 409v) (2: 249, 677, 890, 923, fig. 18) and Jonah and the whale (BL Add. MS 9345; BL Harl. MS 326, ff. 7v, 18, 29v, 40; BL Harl. MS 1526, f. 89) (2: 402, 605, 613, fig. 89), through those demonstrating potential for vessel depictions - Jesus saving Peter on the sea of Tiberias and other scenes from the life of Christ (e.g. Bod. Lib. Douce MS 313; Bod. Lib. Laud. Misc. MS 165) (2: 225, 261), the apocalypse (BL Add. MS 11695, f. 79v, 175, 193, BL Add. MS 38121, ff. 1v, 2v, 3v, 10v; BL Harl. MS 4382, f. 234v) (2: 410, 504, 645, fig. 51), King David in the waters, pilgrim voyages, sea battles, saints on board vessels, scenes from British and French history, shipwrecks, etc. - and on to the unexpected, the latter including everything from vessels in bestiaries and natural histories (e.g. Bod. Lib. Ashmole MS 1511, f. 86; Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 764, f. 74v) (2: 99, 141, figs. 22, 27, 29), popular romances (BL Add. MS 10290; BL Eger. MS 3028; BL Roy. MS 14 E iii) (2: 404, 601, 701), epics of the Trojan wars and the Crusades (Bod. Lib. Tanner MS 190, ff. 17-22, BNF Fr. MS 2631, f. 111v, BNF Fr. MS 5594, f. 217) (2: 296, 854, 868), and Alexander the Great, and the search for the Holy Grail (Bod. Lib. Auct. MS F. 2. 29; Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 264, part 1) (2: 122, 133, figs. 5, 53, 54).

What is notable within ‘early’ manuscripts (i.e. those from before th the 13 century AD) is the distinct lack of imagery in comparison to later periods. Appendix 2 contains details of only eight manuscripts containing illuminations of ships from between the late 9th to 10 th centuries. Even the start of the ‘golden age’ of th th illuminated manuscripts of the 11 to 12 centuries furnishes details of only another 27 manuscripts. These proportions undoubtedly reflect real trends in manuscript illumination; early Christian manuscripts represent a very specific style of illumination involving considerable amounts of multi-coloured text and different sizes, but very little abstract imagery. These manuscripts reflect both very different uses of early manuscripts and illuminations in comparison with later periods, and also the different desires of artists and patrons. The specific forms of decoration which are present also reflect the sources and themes of illumination - including specific illuminations like those of vessels. However, these early manuscripts represent as diverse a range of origins, sources and themes as in later periods. Manuscripts within appendix 2 include forty-seven different types of work containing illuminations of vessels, including all the major types of illuminated manuscript. No one manuscript type stands out as particularly likely to include a vessel illumination, and nor is there any bias towards specific genres of manuscript: both secular and religious manuscripts contained illuminations of vessels. Although the largest number of illuminations comes from copies of the Bible (e.g. Lincoln’s Inn Hale MS 123; Peterborough MS 10; All Souls MS 2; Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 1. 17; Bod. Lib. Canon. Ital. MS 280; Gonville and Caius MS 350/567; CUL MS Ee. 2 .23) (2: 52, 58, 88, 106, 171,

The age-spread and manuscript types represented here are also broadly indicative of general fluctuations in the survival of manuscripts and phased production of different types over the Middle Ages. At the start of the period, just as in the library collections themselves, there are very few manuscripts and these few are ‘exotica’ – the earliest manuscript analysed, for instance, is the extremely unusual 7th century English ‘Ashburnham Pentateuch’ (BNF MS. Lat. 2334) (2: 808) held by the Bibliothèque Nationale de France, a rare survivor of a known 21

Chapter Three - Manuscripts th

type. The 10-11 century then produces three exceptional related manuscripts of (or influenced by) the ‘Utrecht’ school of illumination – the Bodleian Junius ‘Caedmon’ manuscript of Anglo-Saxon poetry (Bod. Lib. MS Junius 11) (2: 249, fig. 18), one of the two surviving English copies of the Utrecht Psalter, the Harley Psalter (BL Harl. MS 603) (2: 604), and the equally unusual Aelfric Paraphrase (BL Cott. Claud. MS B iv) (2: 549). All of these manuscripts were produced within approximately one generation at Christ Church, Canterbury), from c. 1000 th onwards (van der Horst et al. 1996). By the 13 century, the manuscripts under analysis again broadly reflect both library collections and medieval production, with much higher survival rates of the favoured manuscripts of this era – bibles and psalters – alongside the first generation of Romances, Histories and Chronicles. The ‘stars’ of these collections include the lavishly illustrated early 13th century English Ashmole Bestiary (Bod. th Lib. Ashmole MS 1511) (2: 99, fig. 22), the mid 13 century English Trinity Apocalypse (Trinity MS R. 16. 2) (2: 385), and in particular several of the finest surviving psalters in the world, including the mid 13th century English Amesbury and Evesham psalters (ASC MS 6; BL Add. MS 44874) (2: 89, 513), later 13 th century English Grandisson, Oscott, York and Bird psalters (BL Add. MSS 21926, 50000, 54179, and Fitz. MS 2 - 1954) (2: 455, 518, 520, 356), and the late 13th or early 14 th century English Ormesby, Bardolf-Vaux and Gorleston psalters (Bod. Lib. Douce MS 366; LPL MS 233; BL Add. MS 49622) (2: 232, 48, th 517, fig. 28). By the 14 century this focus shifts to far more Lives, Histories, Miracles and Romances, and far fewer Psalters – manuscripts which also survive less well for various reasons. th The 15 century then witnesses a massive increase in surviving manuscripts, which also represents a genuine flourishing in the th trade, the last great period of manuscript production. The 15 century thus accounts for over 300 of the manuscripts analysed here, and the types of manuscripts under analysis very much reflect the period in question; while there is a good smattering of religious texts of various kinds, including bibles, psalters, prayer books and hymnals, the majority of the manuscripts are lay texts – Histories, Lives, Chronicles, Romances – produced in lay scriptoria by laymen, for laymen. We also witness works of scientific observation and (frequently stylised and spurious) ‘scientific’ experimentation, especially illustrated volumes of the works or re-works of Classical authors and texts like the De Re th Militari. The close of the 15 century then witnesses a virtual collapse of manuscript production and thus survival, more akin to the start of the period, with fewer, rarer manuscripts – this time not because of any lack of manuscripts but because of the rise of the printed book (see also appendix 2, addendum 1).

sufficiently important to be recorded, particularly scenes of everyday life. Thus, when it was felt worth making a record this was usually for economic reasons, because what was being described was a threat to the established social hierarchy, because those aspects depicted served as a positive or negative role model, or because those aspects depicted were amusing or motivational. Nor was it considered contradictory for the same author to describe a lifestyle as a positive ideal for human existence and simultaneously the negative model, especially in the case of the lives and material culture of the lower classes.

The Problems of Using Manuscript Illuminations as Tools

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Manuscripts were in most cases created for those members of society who were not directly involved or interested in what those depicted were actually doing. However, the social groups depicted still had to be recognisable as coming from a specific group within the regimented hierarchy of medieval society - i.e. possessing identifiable characteristics, attributes and behaviour, or living in a socially recognisable environment. This is also true for depictions of specific features of the medieval world like vessels, which saw similar stylistic characterisation (Burningham and de Jong 1997: 287-88). These signs would have been recognised and understood by a medieval spectator, and modern analyses often lack this specialist perception, leading to misinterpretation of the data. To avoid erroneous conclusions, great care must thus be taken in the use of such data (Jaritz 1995: 184-85). Jaritz (ibid.) also argues that a number of previous efforts to reconstruct ‘realities’ have failed, and that current attempts to investigate attitudes and mentalities must be considered vague and uncertain. Archaeologists and historians need another, broader ‘image’ of medieval ‘reality’; a number of different or equivalent ‘images’, ‘realities’ and attitudes towards groups dependent on context. Yet the extent to which contemporary perceptions of the past influence how both excavated and iconographic remains are interpreted remain unclear - i.e. whether or not it is possible to be sufficiently ‘subjective’, the extent of ‘subjectivity’ usually achieved, and the form that this takes. Recognising Features of Vessels in Manuscript Illuminations Recognising features of vessels in manuscript illuminations, both shipbuilding traditions and vessel components, is an inexact science. This is confused by the variety of problems outlined above, and the concerns with analysing three-dimensional excavated remains of vessels in relation to two-dimensional depictions discussed in chapter one. Nonetheless, a number of factors can assist this process:

Jaritz (1995) raises a number of concerns regarding the use of medieval iconography as a direct source of information, and its comparison with excavated remains. Farrell (1979) and VillainGandossi (1994) reach similar conclusions. Regarding the ‘reality’ of representations, modern views of events and materials can be very different from those of the medieval world, different sections of which had differing expectations of art and artists. Most aspects of medieval material culture were not considered

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Extrapolating features from excavated remains of vessels and comparable surviving tools and features, such as carpentry and agricultural equipment, architecture, etc. (e.g. Goodman 1962; Binding 2004; Binding and Nussbaum 1978; McGrail 1982; Jaritz 1995; Morris 2001). Extrapolating features from experimental archaeology, real and hypothetical vessel reconstructions and replicas (e.g. McGrail 1974; McKee 1974; Crumlin-Pedersen 1986a-b; Crumlin-Pedersen and Vinner 1986; Burningham 1987;

The Illuminated Ark

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McGrail 1990b, 1992b; Baykowski 1994; Hoheisel 1994; Burningham and de Jong 1997). Extrapolating features from surviving historical vessels, plans and models (allowing for technological change throughout vessels use-life) (e.g. Anderson and Salisbury 1958; Lavery 1981; Anderson 1984; Harland 1984; Lees 1984; Goodwin 1987; Lavery 1988; Marquardt 1992). Extrapolating features from modern vessels and studies of shipbuilding, naval architecture, etc., and the use of equipment on board vessels (e.g. the use of ropes and lines in standing and running rigging, relative positions of helmsmen in relation to different types of rudder, etc.) (e.g. Greenhill 1970; McGrail and Denford 1982; McKee 1983a; Kemp 1988; Smyth 1996; Paasch 1997). Extrapolating features from ethnographic examples of vessels, shipbuilding and shipboard activities (e.g. Weibust 1969; Hasslöf et al. 1972; McCaughan 1988; Blue et al. 1997, 1998; Kentley et al. 1999; McGrail et al. 1999).

features of illuminations are depicted out of proportion, meaning that the relative dimensions of different vessels cannot be compared directly to one-another. While it is possible to make comparison between the features of a specific vessel in a lone illumination (e.g. planks can be said to be ‘relatively short’ in relation to overall strake length), it is wrong to suggest that the features of one vessel in a specific illumination are shorter or longer compared to those of another vessel in a different illumination. In certain illuminations, specific activities or features can help identify probable scale of components (e.g. the diameter of cordage being implied by whether or not it is grasped in the hand of a figure or held between the fingers). Often, this process comes down to pure deduction. The same is true of features like ‘grown’ timbers, features which it is likely were in use in the period in question, are plausible deductions given the context - e.g. grown crooks often appear to be used as anchor fairleads in manuscript illuminations, which, given their natural strength, would make sense, as timbers used for such a purpose cut across the grain would be structurally weaker - but which cannot be proven.

A percentage of manuscript illuminations of vessels cannot be analysed in relation to the themes indicated above. Many represent stylistic error or invention; an example is the timber ‘side boards’ on BL Add. MS 24189, f. 3v (2: 467, figs. 59, 60) (see Eckoldt 1982; Moseley 1990), which have no obvious use. Other illuminations, however, are highly stylised but may nonetheless depict real vessels or components: an example of the latter is the pillar at the end of the deck of the left-hand ship in BNF Fr. MS 2810, f. 263v (2: 860), one of the only representations of a capstan in appendix 2. This feature cannot be proven to be a capstan, but its form and position on board the vessel implies this. A key aspect of recognising features of vessels in manuscript illuminations is thus the context of use both the role of a feature in direct or implied relation to other shipboard components, activities, and the entire vessel, and also the social and cultural context of a manuscript, particularly its likely date and provenance:

Artists A range of information is available on medieval illuminators, hinting at their skills, training, inclinations and abilities, social background and experience, all of which had an impact on the types of illuminations produced. Sources include written evidence such as literary texts, iconographic representations of artists at work, and even signatures (Alexander 1992: 4, 6, 11). Such sources allow a comparison of the artwork of a monastic illuminator such as Abbot Otbert of St Bertin near Boulogne who decorated a copy of the Gospels (New York, Pierpont Morgan Library MS M. 333) with a lay artist like Alan Strayler who decorated the St Albans’ Abbey Benefactors book (BL Cott. Nero MS D vii, f. 108) (ibid.: 31, 32). Both artists could have produced images of ships (although neither of these manuscripts is included in appendix 2), but these two men come from very different ends of the artistic and social spectrum, which is important in any assessment of the accuracy of their artwork. As noted above, the greatest accuracy does not necessarily lie where it is most expected; it is popularly assumed that a lay illuminator like Strayler would produce a more accurate depiction of a ship, due to his greater experience of daily life. However, Abbot Otbert was head of a large Benedictine monastery close to the sea, and is likely to have travelled extensively. Under such circumstances, one has to be extremely careful when considering the context and ‘relative reliability’ of any illumination.

In assessing the use of visual representation as data for technological innovation, the two naïve options of either saying that nothing can be reliable or that everything must be taken at face value are equally unacceptable (Husa et al. 1967: 15-18). Since images are the best source for the study of medieval technology, much of what they have to offer has to be treated seriously (Unger 1991: 25).

Certain features, even if outlandish to the modern eye, may indeed represent genuine features of medieval vessels that have survived in no other form beyond manuscript illuminations: one only has to consider the speed of technological development in the modern world to see examples of this phenomenon, such as the phenomenal rate of change in personal computers and mobile phones over the past twenty years. Other features can be entirely false (Unger 1991: 6-14; Villain-Gandossi 1994: 171-72; de Winter and Burningham 2001: 72). How to improve on this situation by identifying repetitive, defining characteristics for vessel traditions and components, particularly in profile, is discussed in chapters four and five. Part of this process includes exploring how ‘proportionate’ and/or ‘scaled’ characteristics such as length, breadth, and relative size can be evaluated. Many

The survival of information on both scribes and artists is extremely variable; although manuscripts survive in large numbers, there is frequently little information as to who was actually responsible for these works. That evidence which does survive is almost invariably concerned with scribes (Alexander 1992: 6), who were not necessarily the artist of any illumination. Particularly earlier in the period, both scribes and artists – two very distinct types of craftsman requiring different skills and equipment - were often anonymous monks. From ‘the eleventh 23

Chapter Three - Manuscripts

Patrons

century and increasingly in the twelfth, we [also] begin to hear of lay illuminators who are professionals working directly for a stipend of cash or kind’ (ibid.: 12). The growth of the medieval monetary economy and mercantile trade was undoubtedly a factor in such developments, with intimate links to shipping. By the later 15th century the development of printing led to even more profound changes in the mass production of books and the gradual disappearance of individual artists and scribes.

Although tied to established traditions of illumination as much as the artists they employed, patrons also had some impact on forms and themes of manuscript illumination, even if only in relation to their ability to pay for lesser or greater schemes of illumination and richer colours (Alexander 1992: 26-27). In the case of lay artists, money also undoubtedly bought a ‘better’ artist (although this does not necessarily correlate to any greater or lesser degree of artistic realism). In certain circumstances, however, the influence of patrons was considerable, their different requirements occasionally overriding established artistic conventions. This is particularly the case for manuscripts made for the very highest echelons of society like the kings of Britain and France and their senior magnates (ibid.). An example from lower-down the social order is the fourteenth-century psalter BL Add. MS 42130 (2: 514, figs. 3, 41), made for Sir Geoffrey Luttrell of Irnham, County Lincoln. Camille (1987b, 1998a) has demonstrated that while the overall scheme of illumination of this manuscript varies little from established artistic norms for a psalter, its illuminations contain numerous references to Sir Geoffrey and his estate. At one level, the psalter’s depictions of rural life and labour presented Sir Geoffrey with a vivid reminder of the yearly cycle of his lands; at another level, these illuminations also made subtle commentary on the contemporary social order and hierarchy in relation to Christian teaching, ingeniously critiquing this established order (Camille 1992: 26). Folio 161v (fig. 3) contains a depiction of either a cog- or Nordic tradition vessel (possibly a mixture of both) with a heavy median rudder set on two pintle-and-gudgeon arrangements, a vessel well suited to the shallow seas off Sir Geoffrey’s Lincolnshire estate.

Specific artistic masters and schools also had a profound impact on whole generations of artists. The masters of illumination named after various books of hours are particularly good examples, such as the Master of the Bedford Hours (BL Add. MS 18850), the Master of the Boucicaut Hours, and the Master of the Egerton Hours (BL Eger. MS 1894), all of whom produced manuscripts containing illuminations of ships (2: 443, 593, fig. 6). Such information often helps to identify the place of production of a manuscript, which can impact on the accuracy of any illuminations of vessels. Examples include Bod. Lib. Douce MS 366 and Bod. Lib. Hatton MS 1 (2: 232, 247, fig. 28), both from the East Anglian School focused around Norwich, or Fitz. MS 294 (2: 352), made by the Bruges school of Simon Bening. There are also examples of images begun by one illuminator and completed by another in the same or even different styles, or of two or more illuminators working together on a single cycle of th illuminations. The series of illuminations in the early 15 century Bod. Lib. Bodley MS 264, part 3 (2: 134, figs. 5, 55, 56, 57) are an example of the former, the miniatures by both the Master Johannes and other members of his school, themselves drawn in the style of the Master John Siferwas (Rickert 1953: 178-81; Wormald 1969: 336). Even within the three main sources of pictorial inspiration - other illuminated manuscripts or artworks, model books, and written descriptions of miniatures composed for the use of the artists there was room for manoeuvre. While stylistic continuity was undoubtedly strong, artists did exercise artistic freedom, with possibilities for aesthetic choice, and opportunities to evade or even deliberately challenge the authority of existing artistic cycles (Alexander 1992: 53-54). Thus, while narrative cycles are seen, it can be hard to directly recognise or identify specific earlier sources or to allow for such copying in comparative analyses, given both the numbers of manuscripts that exist and the numbers of earlier exemplars which are now lost (Wormald 1969: 320). An example is the illustrative theme used throughout Balliol MS 383 (2: 93), in which depictions of ships play an important part in an allegorical tale concerning famous women of Antiquity, and which, although based on established artistic forms, show deviations from the artistic norm. This manuscript supports Unger’s (1991: 3-6) suggestion that technical and technological change directly informed medieval artwork; i.e. that artists observed and recorded technical matters and noted changes, and that broader socio-cultural changes influenced the speed and frequency of occurrence of this observation and copying. The illuminations in MS 383 depict broadly contemporary carracks rather than making any attempt to represent archaic vessels.

Manuscripts are inherently portable objects, and were given as gifts, sold on by their owners, or dispersed by theft, war and inheritance (Hoffman 2001: 17). The tradition of giving specific volumes as gifts is known to have been particularly influential on the types of illumination seen. A number of manuscripts designed to be given to specific individuals - and with illuminations tailored to suit - are included in appendix 2 and contain depictions of ships. These include BL Roy. MS 16 F ii (2: 717, fig. 17), made for Edward IV of England and BL Roy. MS 20 E iii and Roy. MS 20 E vi (2: 771-72), made for Henry VII on the orders of Thomas Thwaytes, Treasurer of Calais. How specific patrons used a manuscript must also be considered, for this too can influence illuminations. On the one hand, manuscripts such as BL Add. MS 24686 (2: 470) (a late 13th century manuscript containing several depictions of ships) reflect monastic priorities. On the other hand, manuscripts such as BL th Add. MS 25884 (2: 474) (an early 15 century manuscript which also contains depictions of ships) reflect a patron with a very different set of priorities. As Camille (1985a: 29) comments, the images in volumes like the former were used as: ‘a mnemonic trigger to regulate the reading performance of the liturgy and the opus dei… [a] tool for musical performance’ (see also Nordenfalk 1951). In comparison, the latter volume is from the private collection of one of the wealthiest and most literate 24

The Illuminated Ark

gentlewomen of her day, and is designed to be read in private, with the illuminations informing directly on the text.

For the majority of this period, another factor that must be borne in mind regarding the impact of broader society on manuscript illuminations is the limited range of volumes in use. Only seven th bibliographic distinctions can be identified until the early 14 century:

Books and Libraries The resources and skills required to produce books had an influence on the illuminations within them. Book production was a bespoke trade until the development of printing, these were expensive items. The evidence for the exact costs of manuscripts is poor, and dependent on the size and type of volume and level of illumination (De Hamel 1992: 12-13, 39-41, 63-65). However, manuscripts undoubtedly required considerable economic resources, both of labour, and also of materials like animals for parchment, bee hives for wax, water for power, and luxury imports of gold, dyes and inks for decoration. The nature of economic power in early medieval society means that these equate directly with land ownership, explaining the predominance of large, landed monastic houses and aristocrats in book production and ownership (who were also the only groups with the requisite levels of education to fully benefit from books in the early Middle Ages). In later medieval society the growth of mercantile trade and associated developments in education and the spread of lay literature meant that new groups purchased and used manuscripts, in particular the urban middle classes associated with trade and exchange - some doubtless very familiar with ships. Such concerns had a direct impact on types and schemes of illumination (see Alexander 1992: 35; De Hamel 1992: 27-44, 91, 98).

 

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The nature of libraries must also be appreciated, for these changed radically during this period, reflecting the priorities and concerns of patrons, and influencing the availability and accessibility of exemplars from which to copy illuminations. For instance, the monastery of Christ Church, Canterbury - one of most important monastic houses in Britain - was entering a period of major reorganisation when it produced Bod. Lib. th Junius MS 11 (2: 249, fig. 18) in the 11 century, a manuscript which includes depictions of Noah’s ark in the Nordic tradition. Related to Edward the Confessor’s imposition of Norman aristocrats in positions of lay and ecclesiastical authority, this reorganisation of the library was associated to changes in England in the generation prior to the Norman conquest, which was eventually to alter every monastic library and scriptorium across the country (Gibson 1978: 177). In this sense, both the Junius manuscript, and the early Nordic vessels depicted within it, became an anachronism after the conquest, a reflection of the old monastic house and its Scandinavian perspectives rather than the new monastery being rebuilt (literally, after a fire in 1067) under the influence of the Norman abbot Lanfranc of Bec (see Raw 1976). This manuscript is also a good example of an exemplar at work, its artwork influenced by a variety of other manuscripts, including the tenth century Utrecht Psalter (Utrecht University Library MS 32), which was copied several times th th between the 10 and 12 centuries in Canterbury, as in BL Harl. MS 603 and Trinity MS R 17.1 (2: 607, 389) (Hart 1997, 2000), and which also influenced the Bayeaux tapestry.

Biblical texts and psalters (e.g. Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 2. 2; Bod. Lib. MS Bodley 270b) (2: 107, 135). Patristic texts and biblical commentaries (the ‘Church Fathers’ such as Augustine, Jerome, Ambrose and Gregory, e.g. Bod. Lib. Bodley MS 725; Bod. Lib. Barocci MS 170) (2: 140, 128). Personal devotional works, including books of hours (e.g. Bod. Lib. Laud. Lat. MS 15; Bod. Lib. E Mus. MS 160) (2: 258, 276). Medieval authors from Bede onwards (including a wide range of works such as genealogies, biblical and contemporary histories and commentaries, calendars, theology, religious doctrine, prayer books and missals, etc., devotional meditations, bestiaries and herbals, and romances, e.g. Bod. Lib. Add. MS A. 2; Bod. Lib. Canon. Ital. MS 38) (2: 94, 164). Classical and late antique texts, both Christian and pagan (the images in which often link back to late antique models, e.g. Bod. Lib. Douce MS 117; Bod. Lib. Douce MS 208) (2: 201, 211, fig. 8). Saints lives (e.g. Keble MS 49; BL Add. MS 39943) (2: 316, 510). Medical, scientific and quasi-scientific texts (e.g. Bod. Lib. Canon. Class. Lat. MS 185; Bod. Lib. Ashmole MS 1504) (2: 162, 98, figs. 71, 72, 95).

These categories cover the vast majority of the manuscripts in appendix 2, and narrow the potential range of themes chosen in any illumination, the artistic cycles deployed, and even where within a manuscript an illumination is placed. Horizons broadened once lay demand for books began to expand (and prices of books fell) in the 14th and 15th centuries. One addition to the list above of particular relevance to this study was the appearance of courtly romances, adventures and epics. Designed to feed the growing lay appetite for books, volumes detailing the various ‘Romances of the Rose’ (e.g. BL Eger. MS 3028, BL Roy. MS 20 C ii; BNF Fr. MS 124) (2: 601, 799, 828), adventures of historical, mythical and semi-mythical heroes like King Arthur (e.g. BL Add. MS 10294; BL Roy. MS 14 E iii) (2: 406, 701, fig. 37), Alexander the Great (e.g. BL Roy. MS 15 E vi; BL Roy. MS 17 F i) (2: 714, 732, fig. 70), Jason and the Argonauts (e.g. BNF Fr. MS 20125; BL Add. MS 10290) (2: 890, 404), Marco Polo (e.g. Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 264, part 3) (2: 134, figs. 5, 55, 56, 57), and Sir John Mandeville (e.g. BL Add. MS 24189) (2: 467, figs. 59, 60) opened up the potential for illuminations to deal with a far wider range of themes, and for artists to exercise greater levels of artistic licence, such as in BL Harl. MS 4751 (2: 651, fig. 1), which includes three noteworthy illuminations (folios 25, 47v and 69), and BNF Fr. MS 14969 (2: 889), depicting a ship in folio 42.

25

Chapter Three - Manuscripts

Illuminations

historiated or inhabited initials - that is, in which the written record was itself used as a visual symbol.

Within surviving illuminated manuscripts, colour of any type beyond the most simple of single-colour initials is rare, and fully illuminated scenes account for an even smaller total number of manuscripts. Large, detailed colour depictions are the expensive exception rather than the rule (see Wormald 1955; Alexander 1978b). The range of locations for illuminations within manuscripts was also limited mainly to initials, borders and margins, and more rarely to actual pages. Furthermore, the exact relationship of illuminated scenes to texts, and the inter-relation of texts to illuminations on the page to one another is extremely complex. Within manuscript illumination was also a hierarchy of artistic and symbolic importance, with (from most common to least common): 

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 

The relationship of texts to images also changed during this period. As Camille (1985a: 26) notes, Gregory the Great commented that pictures are the ‘books of the illiterate’, the architecture of Gothic churches ‘a sacred writing of which every artists must learn the characters’. But for much of this period ‘culture’ was primarily oral, with visual art not so much an expression of the visible world as of the spoken word (see Clanchy 1993). Relatively late into the Middle Ages - as late as the fifteenth century, when books of all sorts were becoming relatively more common - a general mistrust of texts lingered (Camille 1985a: 28). The complex medieval relationship between spoken-, written- and pictorial- language, and the different levels of medieval literacy within this, so different from modern concepts of ‘literacy’ and ‘illiteracy’, must be appreciated, for it influenced the types of illuminations produced. The situation was not a clear-cut alternative of ‘literate’ vs. ‘illiterate’, ‘image’ vs. ‘text’, ‘spoken’ vs. ‘written word’, ‘reading’ vs. ‘seeing’ (Noakes 1977: 10-11; Camille 1985a: 32-33). The image: text relationship evolved on multiple levels within a society with such a ‘hierarchy’ of literacy, in which single illuminations were interpreted at a variety of different levels both on their own, and in relation to other illuminations and texts with which they were both directly and indirectly associated (see O’Reilly 1987-88; Eco 2002: 52-64). Even subtle shifts in the location of a text on a page in relation to an illumination are significant: the whole interplay of the hierarchy of text and art has to be appreciated. Camille (1985b: 133-34) points to folio 7 of the fourteenth century St Omer psalter (BL YT. MS 14) (2: 789) as a particularly good example of this interplay. This single page includes virtually all the different hierarchies of illumination working in relation to both one-another and also the text, including both formal and informal imagery and symbolism. It includes a notable depiction of Noah’s ark akin to a high-sided - possibly Nordic-influenced – cog.

‘Decorated’ initials: the lowest grade of illuminated initial, in which the embellishment is an initial elaborated in colour with what can only be interpreted as purely decorative motifs. ‘Inhabited/zoomorphic’ initials: elaborated colour with animals and humans as part of the infill making symbolic and mnemonic comment, but still with a primarily decorative value. ‘Inhabited’ initials are human or animal forms extraneous to the letter form, ‘zoomorphic’ initials those in which a human or animal form itself forms part or all of the letter. ‘Historiated’ initials: the highest grade of initial, elaborated with pictures containing often multiple literal and symbolic scenes, and in which the embellishment takes the form of either a static figure of known identity - e.g. an author portrait - or a narrative scene, and which may not relate to the text that it follows. ‘Miniatures’. ‘Free-floating’ illuminations.

There is even ambiguity within these, as demonstrated by Camille (1992), highlighting the significance and complexity of meaning of free-floating marginal art (see also Randall 1966; Camille 1992: 10). Running against the accepted wisdom that such art was virtually meaningless, Camille argues that: ‘things written or drawn in the margins add an extra dimension, a supplement, that is able to gloss, parody, modernise and problematise the text’s authority while never totally undermining it’ (ibid.). Many examples of marginalia are not in fact ‘scribbled doodles’, but conventional image-types derived from the GraecoRoman tradition (ibid.: 37). These frequently refer to the text, to one-another, and also to more formal imagery within the manuscript and indeed elsewhere - ‘a successive series of meanings and zones of liminality’ (ibid.). However, the exact place of such marginalia within any such hierarchy remains unclear, assuming that a clear-cut hierarchy was ever even intended. This is not helped by additional complexities such as the fact that some manuscripts contain only decorated initials, but employ within this a hierarchy of initial decoration in which decorated initials are used to mark minor divisions in the text, and the beginning of the text or major divisions marked with

Manuscript illumination had numerous roles, and it is essential that the nature, form, aims and meanings of illuminations are properly appreciated (see Heslop 1986: 2). These include assisting the organisation of a manuscript, acting as a memory jog, literally ‘illustrating’ key themes, and symbolic illustration. Illuminations often also had a further personal value to a specific religious community or even individual, and were usually intended to be meditated on at length in order to appreciate the different levels - allegorical, moral (tropological), spiritual (anagogical), and sublime - at which they operated (ibid.: 7). For example, the St Albans Psalter (owned by St. Godehard’s Church, Hildesheim) was made for Christina of Markyate, a semi-literate female recluse, but was also intended to be returned to the abbey of St Albans on her death: it thus had intentional, specific multiple uses from the very start (see Wormald 1960). Given that divisions between ‘literacy’ and ‘illiteracy’ were more flexible in the Middle Ages, the symbolic value of images must be careful assessed in specific relation to this, as texts could be ‘read’ at a variety of different levels by different people. This 26

The Illuminated Ark

could include preventing understanding, for as William of Conches put it when discussing the interpretation of, and allegory in, classical mythology:

Charles V of France in honour of the Emperor Charles IV and King Wenceslaus of Bohemia in BNF Fr. MS 2813, f. 473v (2: 861). A similar kind of symbolism (also influenced by the later rediscovery of classical imagery during the Renaissance) is evoked by manuscripts such as Magd. MS 2991 (2: 374), which includes a depiction of the vessel Mary Rose:

There is a reason why naked and open exposition is repugnant: namely that only the wise should know the secret of the gods. As for churls and foolish men, let them not know, only believe (Heslop 1986: 7, citing Dronke 1974: 48).

For a monarch eager to flaunt the symbols and tokens of his royal power, there could be few more telling vehicles for dynastic display than warships - at sea or in reproduction … that it is not a realistic picture… or accurate depiction … is immaterial compared with the main symbolism contained in the assembly of many ships (Payne 2000: 20).

As Heslop (ibid.) comments: ‘the impression one forms from such passages is that the arcane was advantageous partly because it limited access to the cognoscenti’. In the light of this, St Bernard’s famous passage in which he calls hybrid beasts and exotic creatures ‘purposeless and profitless’ (ibid.) needs to be taken with renewed caution.

Amid such a complex set of circumstances, how, why, where, when, and by whom an illumination of a vessel was depicted is exceedingly complex. Manuscripts and their illuminations remain not only a tremendously complex resource, but also a rare and heavily depleted one, and must be placed within the unique, changing, and above all radically different contexts of their age. These are exactly the same set of factors that influenced medieval shipbuilding, as recognised in Unger’s (1980, 1991) studies of the economic and artistic context of medieval ships and shipbuilding. Shipbuilders and artists, while not necessarily sharing a common mindset, were certainly being influenced by shared social and economic factors, understood within the same cultural milieu.

Bernard was a practical puritan. The fact that he bothered to condemn the cloister capitals that tempted monks to read in the marble proves that there were people who tried to do precisely that… there is an obvious danger in twentieth-century historians imputing unprovable intentions to twelfth-century artists. However, analysis of the syntax and connotations of their imagery does produce results which require some kind of explanation (Heslop 1986: 8).

Symbolic values are inherent to the structure of illuminations, providing context to, and explanation of, their form and style, reflecting socio-cultural emphases within ‘mainstream’ society. Ships had mixed connotations to medieval society, and dual symbolism was common, the same reason for positive associations from one point-of-view - a successful trading voyage for a ship and its crew - becoming the reason for negative associations in another - the loss of a ship and its crew. Christianity has an ambiguous relationship with the maritime environment: basic Christian belief stresses the importance of the sea and vessels, but from a negative angle (Wright 1967; Andrea 1982; Linder 1996). The sea and water, for the inland peoples of the Levant where Christianity first emerged, represented chaos and uncontrollable power, and most mythology involves the salvation of a few from the sea: in the Creation God creates a ‘firmament’ (a safe place to live), dividing the waters of chaos; Noah’s ark is used when God saves a chosen few from flood; Jesus calms a storm while in a boat; Jonah is saved by a whale; the fishermen Peter and Andrew are called to become ‘fishers-ofmen’, redeeming themselves and their fellow man. The key image is that in saving people from the tempest, vessels became a symbol of the church, a safe refuge from the world - and acceptable within contemporary imagery. There is also the association of ships with peripheral themes with roots in the secret symbols of early Christianity, particularly fish, a powerful Christian symbol associated to imagery such as the miraculous draft of fishes, and of finding a coin in the mouth of a fish. Paganism also exerted an influence, especially in the north with its strong cultural associations surrounding the ship, where many more positive associations were incorporated into the specific forms of northern Christianity that emerged. This strength of medieval vessel symbolism is reflected in numerous other forms of ship-image evidence that survive (see Moll 1929). An example is the model ship depicted at the banquet given by King 27

Chapter Three - Manuscripts

28

The Illuminated Ark

Chapter Four: Thematic Analyses

and while establishing the relative ‘size’ of vessels in illuminations in anything other than the broadest of terms is based on personal judgement, to see no examples at all of ‘longships’ within illuminations is unlikely. A plausible hypothesis for this scarcity of the longship ‘form’ is that such vessels were rare, high-status craft too valuable to regularly make the voyage to those areas where manuscript production flourished (Britain, France and the Low Countries), for which the more seaworthy ships of the Skuldelev 1 (1: 215) and 3 (1: 216) form were more practical. This hypothesis is strengthened when those artistic mediums produced by the societies which built these vessels are considered, especially literature and poetry: these specifically distinguish between skeið and dreki (forms of long, narrow, oared warship), and knorr ‘cargo’ vessels (Jesch 2001: 123-32).

The Middle Nordic Tradition Middle Nordic Hull Form Within the archaeological schema in chapter two, the defining profile characteristics of the Middle Nordic tradition that all sources must share comprise: [i] a (near) double-ended profile and; [ii] a smooth keel-to-post transition. Profile characteristics to be expected in a majority of these sources include a distinctively curved sheerline leading to high posts, and stems stepped in profile. These definitions derive from ongoing archaeological analyses initiated by the excavation of the five Skuldelev vessels in Roskilde Fjord, Denmark, and reinforced by the 20+ finds of similar vessels since that discovery (see Olsen and Crumlin-Pedersen 1967; Crumlin-Pedersen 1970, 1972a, 1978, 1985b, 1986a, 1991a, 1991b, 1997a, 1997b, 2002, 2004). All of these characteristics can be identified in contextually similar manuscript illuminations with an approximate date range th h 1 of the 9 to 13 centuries and a northern European focus.

The manuscript illuminations most suitable for comparison to Middle Nordic vessels date from relatively later than the main period of actual use of this form of the tradition. By the period of the 13th century when the illuminations in BL Roy. MS 14 C vii and CCCC MS 16 (2: 695, 334, fig. 30) were created, excavated remains suggest a distinctive form of Later Nordic vessel had emerged, distinct from the Middle Nordic form: this is a hypothesis supported by the evidence from manuscript illuminations. Villain-Gandossi (1994: 171-72) suggests that such a ‘time-lag’ between innovation in shipbuilding and its depiction in the arts always occurred during the Middle Ages. However, it is also true that manuscripts of the 9 th to 11th centuries rarely if ever depicted either vessels (a rare example is Bod. Lib. Junius MS 11) (2: 249, fig. 18) or indeed any craft or th technology. The 13 century may also have been the period when the ‘myth of the Norsemen’ and their ships fully developed. Rarely depicted by artists, it is possible that Nordic ‘longships’ were only ever known by rumour alone to ‘continental’ Europe, being the ‘stealth bomber’ of their age, distinctive and with a vaunted reputation, but rarely seen by the majority of the populace.

Manuscript illuminations share with excavated remains features which are potentially distinctive of the tradition, but for which there is insufficient excavated evidence to be certain. Comparison of archaeological and iconographic sources helps confirm or contradict the diagnostic capacity of these characteristics. For instance, the sheer-strakes of illuminations of such vessels are prominent in comparison to the other strakes in illuminations like BL Cott. Nero MS D i, ff. 11-11v, 22v (2: 560). Certain vessels with these characteristics are also relatively shallower in hull depth comparative to overall length, with a gently rounded symmetrical form, as in CCCC MS 16, ff. 42v, 46v, 52, 55-55v, 75v, 125, 126, 146, 155, 160v, 163v, 164 (2: 334). In comparison, other vessels tend to have relatively deeper hulls comparative to overall length, and by implication have more rounded hulls, as in Fitz. Marlay Add. MS 1, f. 86, BL Roy. MS 20 C vii, ff. 25v, 26v, 83v, 162, 184v, 189v, 214v and BL Add. MS 10043, f. 11v (2: 364, 763, 403, figs. 4, 50). Such features should be distinctive in excavated assemblages, and are indicative of changes in the tradition over time. It is certainly notable that all Nordic vessels depicted within the manuscripts of appendix 2 are relatively short comparative to their overall length, making these comparable to the shape of excavated remains of cargo ships of the period (knorr’s or knarr’s?) such as Skuldelev 1 and 3 (1: 215-16) rather than longer, narrow vessels like Skuldelev 2/4 and Hedeby 1 (1: 164, 230) (skeið or dreki?) (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 93, fig. 4.20). While foreshortening of perspective is a commonly noted error of medieval vessel iconography (Villain-Gandossi 1994: 172-73),

Middle Nordic Components Within the archaeological schema in chapter two there are no defining characteristics of vessel components within definitions of the Middle Nordic tradition that all sources must share. However, characteristics expected in a majority of sources include: [i] vessels being propelled by a square sail on a mast stepped near amidships; [ii] steering via a rudder held to the hull structure on the starboard quarter, and [iii] quarter rudders used with the shaft pivoted clockwise on the rudder boss to a position where the entire blade was above keel level. Illuminations and archaeological remains also share features which are potentially distinctive of the overall tradition, but for which there is insufficient excavated evidence.

1

Examples include Bod. Lib. Ashmole MS 1511, f. 86v (fig. 22), BL YT. MS 26, f. 26 (fig. 21), BL Harl. MS 4751, f. 69 (fig. 1), BL Roy. MS 2B vii (figs. 45, 46, 47, 48), BL Roy. MS 14 C vii, f. 116v (fig. 30), BNF Fr. MS 14969, f. 42v, BL Add. MS 35166, f. 2v, Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D 4.17, ff. 2v, 3 (fig. 24), Bod. Lib. Laud. Misc. MS 733, f. 18 (fig. 67), BL Harl. Roll Y6, roundels 4 and 15 (fig. 19), BL Harl. MS 4979, ff. 4v, 24, 36, 70, 71 and BL Slo. MS 278, ff. 42, 47, 51 (fig. 49) (2: 100, 790, 651, 695, 889, 495, 118, 267, 661, 656, 776).

Manuscript illuminations support the archaeological evidence for the way that the planks of vessels like Hedeby 1 (1: 164) distinctively widen near the ends (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 89), identifiable within illuminations such as BL YT. MS 26, f. 26 and Bod. Lib. Junius MS 11, ff. 65, 66 (2: 790, 249, figs. 18, 29

Chapter Four – Thematic Analyses

21). Illuminations also indirectly reflect the regular spacing of the floor timbers of many archaeological remains of Nordic vessels via external nail patterns, as in BL Harl. MS 4751, f. 69, Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 764, ff. 74v, 107 and BL Roy. MS 15 E vi, f. 207 (2: 651, 141, 714, figs. 1, 27, 29). The former characteristic is broadly distinctive of the Middle Nordic tradition, although not essential to it: the latter characteristic is too sporadic and prone to potential error to be useful. Many illuminations also depict planks that are relatively ‘long’ and ‘broad’ in comparison both to the overall hull shape of specific vessels, and also the relatively ‘shorter’, ‘narrower’ ‘brickwork’ planks within illuminations of other vessel traditions; the former may be an attempt to represent large, radially-hewn strakes such as survive from Middle Nordic vessels like Gokstad, Oseberg and Hedeby 2 (1: 118, 94, 164-65).

f. 86, Bod. Lib. Douce MS 88, ff. 138, 139) (2: 99, 197, fig. 22); this distinction is reflected by relative strake and plank shape, nail-head arrangement and plank shadow. Reverse-clinker planking is implied on part or all of the hull in certain cases, such as Fitz. McClean MS 44, f. 33 (2: 368). Illuminations also reinforce the excavated evidence for the continued use of oars late into the time-range of the Middle Nordic tradition, frequently depicting oars projecting through oar-holes in the sheerstrake (e.g. BL Slo. MS 3983, f. 13, BL Cott. Vesp. MS A vii, f. 6) (2: 780, 577), or placed over the sheerstrake (e.g. BL Harl. MS 5102, f. 129, BL Slo. MS 278, f. 42) (2: 657, 776, fig. 49), sometimes with pintles and grommets (e.g. GUL Hunter. MS 229, f. 13v) (2: 19). Evidence also exists that the masts of vessels could be completely lowered (e.g. CUL MS Ii. 4. 26) (2: 394), to reduce drag when under oars.

Features [ii] and [iii] above (steering via a rudder held to the hull structure on the starboard quarter, and quarter rudders used with the shaft pivoted clockwise on the rudder boss to a position where the entire blade was above keel level) are contradicted by the evidence from illuminations. These cannot be considered a defining feature of the Middle Nordic tradition, since illuminations depict a number of Middle Nordic vessels with port quarter rudders (e.g. Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 602, f. 22v) (2: 138, fig. 26). This is supported by finds of port quarter rudders such as that from Jungshoved (see Crumlin-Pedersen 1966, fig. 3; McGrail 1998: 245, 249). Illuminations also rarely depict quarter rudders with the upper shaft canted forward to a position where the entire blade is above keel level. Instead, illuminations emphasise that rudders extended considerably below keel level (e.g. Bod. Lib. Barlow MS 6, f. 155v, Bod. Lib. Junius MS 11, ff. 65, 66, 67, CUL MS Ee. 3. 59, f. 12v) (2: 124, 249, 392, figs. 18, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36). Except in specific coastal conditions implying imminent arrival or departure by beaching (when helmsmen are often depicted leaning forward, angling the rudder upwards to prevent damage), pivoting the rudder in such a way is not a defining feature of the Middle Nordic tradition. Other vessels with Middle Nordic characteristics even have median rudders (e.g. BL Add. MS 42130, f. 161v, Bod. Lib. Douce MS 353, f. 31) (2: 514, 229, figs. 3, 16): it is unclear from illuminations exactly when this shift from quarter- to medianrudder occurred, or if there was a definite and permanent move from the one technology to the other, as suggested by Mott (1997: 104), since the manuscripts noted above are anachronistic th th and range in date from across the 14 and 15 centuries. A number of manuscript illuminations of Middle Nordic vessels include features which survive less well within excavated assemblages but which are depicted in multiple illuminations. These include the upper strakes and planks of vessels, the upper parts of the posts, masts and spars, rigging, sail and steering elements. Illuminations of such vessels are always - at least by implication - clinker planked (e.g. Bod. Lib. Ashmole MS 1511,

Occasional illuminations are of specific interest to the tradition, such as St John’s MS 231, f. 9 depicting part of a clinker vessel without frames, which supports excavated evidence for the shellfirst building sequence of Nordic tradition vessels (see Greenhill 1995a: 47-72). Illuminations also provide evidence for the shelter provided on board these open vessels (e.g. CCCC MS 22, ff. 166, 169, CCCC MS 26, ff. 3v, 4, 222) (2: 334, 336), which often had cloth canopies hung over their lowered yards aft of the mast. There are also regular depictions of decorated and carved prows (e.g. BL Slo. MS 278, f. 51, Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 614, f. 32) (2: 776, 139, fig. 49) sometimes in the shape of animal heads, together with frequent carving elsewhere on the hull. Decorated prows are popularly thought distinctive of the tradition, but insufficient archaeological and iconographic data survives to be certain of this hypothesis. More distinctive of the Middle Nordic tradition are in fact masthead pennants (some bearing heraldry), which are exceptionally common (e.g. BL Cott. Claud. MS D ii, ff. 42v, 45v, BL Cott. Claud. MS D vi, ff. 6v, 12v) (2: 553-54, fig. 38), together with similarly decorated sails (e.g. BL Harl. MS 5102, f. 129, BL Roy. MS 14 C vii, f. 116v) (2: 657, 695, fig. 30). The former are not only technically feasible, but would have served a practical function in showing the direction of the wind: some may have been used to identify the superior rank of individuals on board, although illuminations do not confirm this. Illuminations also imply that some Middle Nordic vessels had coloured strakes (e.g. Bod. Lib. Ashmole MS 1511, f. 86v, BL Cott. Nero. MS C iv, f. 3) (2: 99, 565, fig. 22), presumably from tars or paints, which make archaeological analyses of residues on strakes worthwhile. Similarly, illuminations depict metallic ‘mast-vanes’ in use (e.g. Bod. Lib. Ashmole MS 1511, f. 86v) (2: 99, fig. 22). These have never been discovered in situ on a vessel, and it has been suggested from their discovery in contexts such as churches and burials that these ‘vanes’ were designed for other uses, either as portable prow ornaments and/or moveable decoration while moored, to be removed when at sea, or even in contexts entirely unrelated to vessels (see Bugge 1931; Blindheim 1982; Engström and Nykänen 1996; Christensen 1998). Illuminations contradict this hypothesis.

2 Examples include Bod. Lib. Douce MS 366, f. 89 (fig. 28), Bod. Lib. Junius MS 11, pp. 65, 66 (fig. 18), CCCC MS 16, f. 46v, CUL MS Ii. 4. 26, BL Add. MS 21926, f. 97v, BL Cott. Nero. MS A x, art 3, f, 60, BL Slo. MS 278, ff. 42, 51 (fig. 49), BL YT. MS 8, f. 249, BNF Fr. MS 20125, ff. 9, 156 (2: 231, 249, 334, 394, 459, 562, 776, 785, 890).

30

The Illuminated Ark

The Later Nordic Tradition

high-sides comparative to length. Furthermore, these characteristics are shared with illuminations such as BL Eger. MS 1894, f. 4 (2: 593, fig. 6), which does not have such close contextual ties as the other illuminations (MS 1894 is an th illustrated genesis of late 14 century English or French origin): this illumination also depicts the hull strakes stepped into the posts, another Nordic characteristic.

Later Nordic Hull Form The Later Nordic shipbuilding tradition is inherently related to the Middle Nordic tradition, as its defining characteristics are the same. Its’ own distinctive archaeological characteristics come from Crumlin-Pedersen’s and others analyses, and include enhanced depth, breadth and length [group one], and the addition of new hull components [group 2], including the appearance of protruding crossbeams (some with fairings over their ends), straight outer edges to raking posts (a possible influence of intermixing with the cog tradition), and planking prolonged to cover the faces of the stern post. All of these characteristics can be identified in contextually similar illuminations with an th h approximate date range of the 12 to 15 centuries and a northern European focus.

A number of other features distinctive of the Later Nordic hull form are also demonstrated in manuscript illuminations. These include comparatively ‘elongated’ and nearly symmetrical hulls in relation to overall depth of specific ships than other vessels (e.g. BL Slo. MS 278, ff. 42, 47, 51) (2: 776, fig. 49), the depiction of wales and rubbing strakes, and the implication of relatively larger (and thus stronger) timbers at wear-points like the sheerstrake (e.g. BL Cott. Nero MS D i, ff. 11-11v, 22v, BNF Fr. MS 100, ff. 71, 109 and BL Add. MS 10043, f. 11v) (2: 566, 824, 403), together with flat ends above the sternpost (e.g. Society of Antiquaries MS 501, Gen. Table, Membrane 3) (2: 70).

BL Add. MS 42130, f. 161v depicts a vessel with a similar hull shape and structure to the characteristics noted above (2: 514). The size of the anchor also implies the capacity of vessel, as do the number of people on board. Similarly, BL Harl. MS 4418, f. 80v (2: 648) depicts vessels in the background of the folio akin to the likely hull shape of such vessels, those in the foreground of the folio depicting similar clinker-built hulls. Bod. Lib. Douce MS 353, f. 31 (2: 229, fig. 16) is also a good comparison with archaeological hypotheses, depicting a relatively large vessel with a single mainmast with furled square sail, median rudder, castles that have been partially merged into the hull, and nascent masts fore-and-aft, many of the characteristics which make Later Nordic vessels distinctive from both other Nordic vessels and also other traditions.

Later Nordic Components The addition of superstructures at the bow and stern particularly the increasing integration into the hull – is a defining characteristic of the Later Nordic tradition in manuscript illuminations. While Middle Nordic vessels had free-standing structures in certain cases, there is no excavated evidence for this. In comparison, those few excavated finds of Later Nordic vessels noted in chapter two have at least circumstantial evidence for castles, particularly at the stern, with strengthened and enlarged frames running beyond those required simply for a watertight hull. Assemblages like that from Sandwich also imply the merging of castles into the hull. Both of these characteristics are depicted in a distinctive range of illuminations of Later Nordic vessels which imply the advancement on the Middle Nordic form from the 11th to 12th centuries onwards.

Comparison of archaeological and iconographic evidence demonstrate an intermixing of the Later Nordic and cog traditions. Illuminations reflecting such intermixing include Bod. Lib. Douce MS 353, f. 31, BL Add. MS 47682, f. 22 and Bib. 3 Ars. MS 5070, f. 91v (2: 229, 519, 804, figs. 16, 39, 40). These vessels are stylistically within the Later Nordic tradition, but have relatively straighter outer edges on more raking posts comparative to overall hull shape, a distinctive characteristic of this intermixing of traditions. An intriguing set of interrelated examples are then JRUL French MS 1, f. 226, BL Add. MS 10294, ff. 44, 47v, 65v, 79, 94v and BL Roy. MS 14 E iii, ff. 9, 32, 36, 45, 51, 68, 125, 125v, 153, 153v (2: 42, 406, 701, figs. 37, 44). All of these are of the 14th century, either northern French or English, and copies of various Arthurian Romances (Loomis and Loomis 1938: 243-47): this correlation raises concerns about a common origin. However, all include the cog characteristics noted below together with both the Nordic characteristic of a (near) double-ended form, and the characteristics shared by intermingling of the cog and Nordic traditions of slightly curved posts at bow and stern, and relatively

A few excavated examples of the keel and major load-bearing planks and frames of Later Nordic vessels survive (including the early 15th century Grace Dieu (1: 422), the mid 15th century Aber Wrac’h vessel [1: 415], the 15th century Gdansk vessel find W5 [1: 436] and the St Peter Port vessels [1: 367-68, 413]), but these are implied by the hull form of many illuminations of vessels. Such features are also occasionally depicted, at least in part, as in the fleeting appearance of frame heads and ends in Bib. Ars. MS 5070, f. 91v, Bod. Lib. Douce MS 353, f. 31 and BL Roy. MS 15 E vi, f. 207 (2: 804, 229, 714, fig. 16). Comparisons with the form of the keel also include BNF Fr. MS 20125, f. 9, CUL MS Ee. 3.59, f. 8, BL Harl. MS 4751, f. 69, Trinity MS R 17.1 and CUL MS Ii. 4.26 (2: 890, 392, 651, 389, 394, figs. 1, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36). Similarly, the majority of the major frame elements of the upper hull of such vessels are implied by illuminations such as BNF Fr. MS 1454, f. 1, BL Roy. MS 15 E vi, f. 207, Bib. Ars. MS 5070, f. 91v, BL Roy. MS 16 G i, f. 9 and Bod. Lib. Douce MS 353, f. 31 (2: 849, 714, 804, 721, 229, fig. 16).

3

Examples include BL Add. MS 47682, f. 22 (fig. 40), BNF Lat. MS 8200, f. 49v (fig. 7), BL Roy. MS 16 G i, f. 9 and BL Harl. MS 4418, f. 80v, BL Cott. Claud. MS D ii, f. 43v (fig. 38), BL Eger. MS 2709, f. 2 ( fig. 58), BL Harl. MS 4418, f. 80v, BL Add. MS 42130, f. 161v (fig. 3), and BL Roy. MS 15 E vi, f. 207 (2: 520, 913, 721, 648, 551, 599, 648, 514, 714). 31

Chapter Four – Thematic Analyses

Illuminations prompt debate on the exact form of the ends of Later Nordic vessels and the arrangement of their upper works, particularly whether or not these vessels had some form of castle assembly in the stern and/or bow: examples include BL Add. MS 47682, f. 22 and Bod. Lib. Douce MS 353, f. 31 (2: 519, 229, figs. 16, 39, 40). The size and shape of the partially surviving sternpost timber and median rudder of the Sandwich vessel (1: 411) links into this. Mott (1997: 104) notes:

between Early, Middle and Late Nordic vessels. For instance, the St Peter Port vessels (1: 367-68, 413) have relatively ‘heavy’, closely spaced frames and strake overlap, and also use features such as beam-shelves and knees fitting into crossbeams, an innovation previously thought to have been a later technological development to the broad Nordic tradition (Adams, pers. comm.), but witnessed on a variety of Nordic and also Nordicinfluenced vessels, including those of both the ‘early’ period such as the Graveney Boat (1: 122) and also those of ‘later’ th period and beyond, such as the 15 century Newport Boat (1: 927) which appears to be an amalgam of the Nordic tradition with some elements of the Iberian-Atlantic tradition. Such examples serve as a reminder of how fluid and flexible shipbuilding ‘traditions’ clearly were during the Middle Ages; for all the technological conservatism usually ascribed to this community, a host of iconographic and more recently archaeological evidence suggests a far greater willingness to embrace technological innovation than previously thought.

A length of four metres may have been near the upper limit for rudder length that the withy system could sustain… economic developments demanding larger vessels that the old steering mechanism could not accommodate.

This suggests that the Sandwich ship’s 4m high median rudder was at the lower end of the scale in terms of the medieval use of the median rudder - i.e. that the vessel could have carried either a median or a quarter rudder, perhaps even changing between these during its use-life, and that the median rudder found may have been a deliberate choice for the vessel rather than an automatic provision.

Illuminations also imply changes for which the excavated evidence is ephemeral. For instance, assemblages such as Sandwich (1: 411) and St Peter Port (1: 367-68, 413) include much larger joggled frames than Middle Nordic vessels, with broader planks and more closely spaced frames: such a form is implied in the shape of the planking of vessels in BL Add. MS 47682, f. 22, BL Cott. Claud. MS D ii, f. 43v, Bib. Ars. MS 5070, f. 91v and Bod. Lib. Douce MS 353, f. 31 (2: 519, 553, 804, 229, figs. 16, 38, 39, 40). The relatively ‘large’ and elongated form of the planks depicted in relation to overall vessel sizes in Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 764, f. 74v, Fitz. Marlay Add. MS 1, f. 86 and GUL Hunter. MS 229, f. 13v (2: 141, 364, 19, fig. 4) may be an attempt to depict such relatively ‘larger’, ‘longer’ planks, distinct from the shorter (potentially sawn) lengths known from excavated remains of cogs, and depicted in 5 illuminations of these. This could be, as has long been hypothesised, evidence for a ‘crisis’ in timber supply during the later Middle Ages. Similarly, the use of narrow, elongated frame members akin to the two V- or Y-shaped floor frames that survive from the stern of the Sandwich vessel are implied in depictions such as BL Cott. Claud. MS D ii, f. 45v, Bib. Ars. MS 5070, f. 91v, BL Add. MS 42130, f. 161v, BNF Fr. MS 1454, f. 1, BL Roy. MS 15 E vi, f. 207 and Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 764, f. 74v (2: 553, 804, 514, 849, 714, 141, figs. 3, 27, 38): these vessels all have relatively ‘steep’ and ‘narrow’ ends comparative to their overall form, and distinct from the more ‘rounded’ ends of other Nordic vessels depicted. In purely technical terms, this can be taken to imply a faster, narrower vessel more suited to warfare than trade, seaworthiness and stability sacrificed for speed and manoeuvrability. Several pillars to support the upper decking at the stern also survived from the Sandwich ship: BL Roy. MS 15 E vi, f. 207 directly depicts vertical pillars of this style, as do BL Roy. MS 16 G i, f. 9, Bod. Lib. Douce MS 353,

Excavated evidence for vessels of the tradition highlight a number of features of Later Nordic vessels shared by iconographic and archaeological evidence that are indicative of the tradition. These features include a single square sail set on a mast near amidships; side rudders mounted on the starboard quarter (increasingly replaced by median rudders); a top for lookout and fighting purposes fitted near the masthead; the regular appearance of bowsprits; the emergence of proper, permanent decking (and related strengthening of frames); the yard held to the mast either by the ‘loop’ parral common to the Middle Nordic tradition, or a composite parral of trucks and ribs; and the appearance of specific innovations in the rigging like reef points, bonnets and braces. Examples of illuminations of vessels with some or all of these features include BL Roy. MS 15 E vi, f. 207, BNF Fr. MS 1454, f. 1, Bib. Ars. MS 5070, f. 91v 4 (2: 714, 849, 804). Remains of vessels like St Peter Port 2/4 (1: 413) imply that Later Nordic vessels had crossbeams butted into the internal frame timbers rather than projecting out through the sides - a feature which would be effectively invisible in the iconographic evidence but which is diagnostic of Middle Nordic tradition vessels. However, manuscripts such as BL Add. MS 47682, f. 22, BL Roy. MS 16 G i, f.9, BL Harl. MS 4418, f. 80v, BL Eger. MS 2709, f. 2 and BNF Lat. MS 8200, f. 49v (2: 519, 721, 648, 599, 913, figs. 39, 40, 58, 74) contradict this conclusion, implying that some Later Nordic vessels had crossbeams projecting through the sides, with considerable implications both for other forms of iconography such as seals, which do depict such beam projection, and also for archaeology, where the evidence for such placement of crossbeams through the hull is more ambiguous. Illuminations also shed light on differences

5 Examples include Bod. Lib. Ashmole MS 1511, f. 86v (fig. 22), Bod. Lib. Douce MS 366, f. 89 (fig. 28), Bod. Lib. Junius MS 11, pp. 65, 66 (fig. 18), CCCC MS 16, f. 46v, CUL MS Ii. 4. 26, St John’s MS 231, BL Add. MS 21926, f. 97v, BL Cott. Nero MS A x, art 3, f, 60, BL Slo. MS 278, ff. 42, 51 (fig. 49), BL YT. MS 8, f. 249, BNF Fr. MS 95, f. 59, and BNF Fr. MS 20125, ff. 9, 156 (2: 100, 231, 249, 334, 394, 380, 459, 562, 776, 785, 823, 890).

4 Examples include BNF Fr. MS 2810, f. 14v etc., BL Harl. MS 4418, f. 80v, BL Add. MS 47682, f. 22 (fig. 40), BNF Lat. MS 8200, f. 49v (fig. 74), BL Add. MS 42130, f. 161v (fig. 3) and BL Roy. MS 16 G i, f. 9 (2: 860, 648, 520, 913, 514, 721).

32

The Illuminated Ark

th

f. 31 and BL Add. MS 47682, f. 22 (2: 714, 721, 229, 519, figs. 16, 39, 40). The latter two illuminations are distinctive in having what appear to be naturally grown crooks at the ends, allowing the pillars to slot neatly over the sheerstrake: such components should be readily identified within excavated assemblages, and would also leave marks on associated strakes and planks.

approximate date range of the 13 northern European focus.6

to 15

h

centuries and a th

Although cogs feature most prominently on town seals of the 13 century onwards, especially those of the Hanseatic league (see Ewe 1972: passim, especially 115-17, 147-48, 197-99; Gøthche and Myrhøj 1996: 14-15), a number of authors have compared the remains of the Bremen cog to the vessels in folio 19 of BL Roy. MS 10 E iv (2: 687) (Crumlin-Pedersen 1972a: 204; Runyan 1994: 51; Friel 1995: 143; Throckmorton 1996: 141). The vessels in this folio have low profile castling at the stem and the stern, and angular, raked posts. The illuminations imply clinker-laid sides, and depict open vessels with median rudders, central masts carrying square sails set slightly aft of amidships, and bowsprits. They have fittings near the stem which may be fairleads for the anchor-ropes. Villain-Gandossi (1985b: 34-42) includes within a related assessment examples such as Bib. Ars. MS 630 and Bib. Ars. MS 5070 (2: 801, 804), and also a large number of manuscripts from the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris.7

Manuscript illuminations also imply the form of features such as decks and decking, given the survival of pillars to support the deck from assemblages such as Sandwich (1: 411). Some illuminations suggest that such vessels had a quarterdeck running to a flat-ended sterncastle, and an open hull from amidships forward, such as BL Harl. MS 4418, f. 80v, BL Roy MS 15 E vi, f. 207 and BNF Fr. MS 1454, f. 1 (2: 599, 714, 849). Other illuminations imply continuous decking across the entire length of the vessel, such as in BL Add. MS 42130, f. 161v, BL Add. MS 47682, f. 22 and BL Roy. MS 16 G i, f. 9 (2: 514, 519, 721, figs. 3, 41). Distinctions can even be noted between the Middle and Late Nordic traditions in terms of embellishment: Later Nordic tradition vessel have the decorated and carved prows of the Middle Nordic tradition, as well as the pennants flying from the masthead (e.g. BL Cott. Claud. MS D ii, ff. 42v, 45v, BL Cott. Claud. MS D vi, ff. 6v, 12v) (2: 553-54), crenellated castles (e.g. BL Roy. MS 17 E vii, ff. 11v, 111, 369, BL Roy. MS 19 D i, ff. 30, 37, 37v, 55, 58, 136, 187v, 213) (2: 731, 746), and heraldic shields carried by troops or fixed along the sheer (e.g. CUL MS Ee. 3.59, f. 12v) (2: 392, figs. 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36). There is also a greater association of such vessels with armoured troops and military contexts in comparison to Middle Nordic vessels, many of which are associated with trade: examples include BNF Fr. MS 2813, ff. 237, 245v, 281, 298v, 299v, BNF Fr. MS 301, f. 153v, BL Roy. MS 14 C vii, ff. 4v, 5, 116v and CUL MS Ee. 3.59, f. 12v (2: 861, 836, 695, 392, figs. 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36).

Illuminations of vessels in Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 264, part 3 (2: 134, figs. 5, 55, 56, 57) bear a strong resemblance to the archaeological evidence for the cog tradition, but also have features that may reflect cochas or carracks (Hutchinson 1994a: 41-44; Friel 1995: 158-60, 173-74; Gould 2000: 191). Although no definite examples of cochas are known within the illuminations of appendix 2, nor any excavated finds, and while there is similarly ambiguous iconographic and archaeological evidence for carracks, the context and realism of this particular th manuscript is noteworthy. MS 264 is an early 15 century copy of Li Livres du Graunt Caam, with miniatures by the Master Johannes and his School. Folio 218 presents an oblique aerial view of the Bacini di San Marco, Venice, and other folios the journeys of Marco Polo through Asia (fig. 5). The folio (218) depicts both oared and sailed ‘galley’- and sailed cog-like vessels, a virtually unique example of northern and southern European tradition vessels depicted by the same artist in the same scene. While the depictions of vessels are drawn in an uninformed hand (the ‘galleys’ in particular being rather stylised), other features, particularly the relative placement of major civic and religious buildings, suggest an intimate knowledge of Venice and its urban layout. While ephemeral, such an example makes the point that interaction between northern and southern shipbuilding traditions can be reflected in illuminations by apparently well-travelled artists.

The Cog Tradition Cog Hull Form As outlined in chapter two, the Bremen cog (1: 347) and other finds have led to two characteristic features of the tradition being consistently identified which are visible in profile: [i] straight, raked posts, and [ii] flat bottom with a sharp transition between the bottom and these posts (see Crumlin-Pedersen 1965; Abel et al. 1969; Crumlin-Pedersen 1979; Ellmers 1979; Lahn 1993). Features regularly identifiable in profile perspectives of vessels include a (near) double-ended form; a straight stern post but slightly curved stem, or slightly curved posts at both bow and stern (an intermixing with the Nordic tradition); a sheerline rising gently at the stern and more at the bow, the stempost extending above the planking; crossbeams protruding through the planking; clinker planking on the sides; and relatively high sides comparative to length. All of these characteristics can be identified in contextually similar illuminations with an

6

Examples include BL Roy. MS 10 E iv, f. 19, BL Eger. MS 1894, f. 4 (fig. 6), BL Roy. MS 15 E vi, f. 20v (fig. 70), BL Roy. MS 10 E iv, f. 19, BNF Fr. MS 2810, f. 263, BNF Fr. MS 9199, f. 33 and Bod. Lib. Douce MS 374, f. 40 (fig. 83) (2: 687, 593, 714, 687, 860, 884, 234). 7 Including BNF Fr. MS 53, BNF Fr. MS 102, BNF Fr. MS 103, BNF Fr. MS 257, BNF Fr. MS 301, BNF Fr. MS 874, BNF Fr. MS 2810, BNF Fr. MS 4274, BNF Fr. MS 5594, BNF Fr. MS 12420, BNF Fr. MS 22540, BNF Grec. MS 510, BNF Lat. MS 1, and BNF Lat. MS 1673 (2: 819, 826-27, 836, 844, 860, 864, 868, 887, 892, 897, 899, 905). 33

Chapter Four – Thematic Analyses

Cog Components

Add. MS 19896, f. 1v, BL Add. MS 22318, ff. 2, 4, 44, BL Add. MS 24189, ff. 3v, 4v, 5, 8, 8v, 9 and BL Roy. MS 14 C vii, f. 2) (2: 453, 460, 467, 695, figs. 30, 59, 60). This is in marked comparison with numerous highly realistic illuminations of cogs with distinctive hull characteristics combined with detailed depictions of median rudders, often with pintle-and-gudgeon arrangements (e.g. BL Harl. MS 4431, ff. 127, 128) (2: 650), and sometimes tiller arrangements through a helm-port into an enclosed cabin (e.g. BL Harl. MS 4425, ff. 86, 117v) (2: 649, fig. 92). This evidence throws the use of quarter rudders or firrers into doubt: given that this hypothesis was based largely on the evidence from seals such as those of Lübeck and Neustadt (Ewe 1972: figs. 91-93, 124), without real archaeological support, it is not unreasonable to suggest that cogs almost always carried a median rudder: this may even be a defining characteristic of the tradition, the use of other forms of steering gear being only in exceptional circumstances.

Only one characteristic feature of the hull components of cogs can be consistently identified in profile: propulsion by sail alone. Together, this component and the hull characteristics noted above are sufficient to render the cog distinct from other traditions, particularly the Nordic and hulc traditions, both of which can include sails and oars used together: there are no depictions of cogs with oars in appendix 2. There are also components regularly identifiable in profile perspectives of vessels which build on this narrow range of distinctive characteristics, including fighting tops near the masthead; crenellated platforms resting on stanchions at the bow and stern; stern platforms gradually becoming more integrated into the hull; forecastles gradually reducing in size; standing rigging mainly consisting of stays and shrouds. Most of the components distinctive of the cog tradition identified in chapter two have comparative illuminations. Straight posts and associated end sections occur in illuminations including BL Roy. MS 10 E iv, BL Add. MS 42130 and BNF Fr. MS 9198 (2: 8 687, 514, 883, figs. 3, 41). Clinker bottom and side planks appear in BL Eger. MS 1894, ff. 2v, 4, BL YT. MS 14, f. 7 and BL Roy. MS 15 E vi, f. 20v (2: 593, 789, 714, figs. 6, 70):9 some illuminations imply a mixture of both clinker and carvel planking, such as BL Add. MS 15268, f. 7v (2: 418, fig. 25), or perhaps a mixture of both at different points around the hull – particularly above and below the turn of the bilge? Projecting upper crossbeams, frames and planks appear in illuminations in manuscripts like BL Roy. MS 10 E iv and BNF Fr. MS 9198 (2: 687, 883). ‘Crooks’ on the sheerstrake and a variety of other upper hull elements are implied by illuminations in manuscripts like BL Roy. MS 15 E vi and BL Roy MS 10 E iv (2: 714, 687, fig. 70), while crossbeams supporting the sterncastle, and also some of the fittings for chain plates, appear in illuminations like BNF Fr. MS 9198 and Fr. MS 9199, BL Roy. MS 15 E vi and BL Roy. MS 10 E iv (2: 883-84, 714, 687, figs. 10, 11, 70, 85, 87, 90). While often very stylised, many of these have steeply angled posts in relation to their keel-line, as in BL YT. MS 14, f.7 (2: 789).

The second profile characteristic hypothesised by earlier iconographers as distinctive of the tradition but thrown into doubt by manuscript illuminations is the suggestion that cogs sometimes experimented with other sail forms than a square sail. The excavated evidence for this proposition is the movement of the mast-step closer to the midships station over time, taken to indicate a change in rig during the early fourteenth century from a fore-and-aft to a square sail. Fore-and-aft sails have not been identified in manuscript illuminations of cogs; rather, illuminations most frequently depict single central masts set at or slightly forward of amidships (e.g. BL Roy. MS 18 E ii, f. 70v) (2: 737), with set or furled square or rectangular sails (e.g. BL Roy. MS 20 B xx, f. 77v) (2: 757, fig. 62), a crow’s nest at the top of the single, ‘pole’ mast (e.g. BL Eger. MS 2709, f. 2) (2: 599, fig. 58), ratlines and limited standing and running rigging (e.g. Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 264, ff. 1, 89, 209v) (2: 133), especially fore and backstays, stays and halliards (e.g. Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 264, part 3, f. 218) (2: 134, fig. 5). The sails of these vessels frequently have reefing points/crow’s feet across them (e.g. BL Cott. Dom. MS A xvii, f. 123) (2: 557), and bowsprits begin to appear (e.g. CCCC MS 171A and B, f. 35v) (2: 341). No distinctive change in the shape of sails depicted occurs in manuscript illuminations over time, and so, as with the firrer, manuscript illuminations question the likelihood of a shift from a fore-and-aft to a square sail in this period. It is fair to suggest that a broadly distinctive characteristic of the cog (at least in the later period of the tradition) is the predominance of the square sail, the use of other types of sail again only being in exceptional circumstances.

Two of the profile characteristics hypothesised by earlier iconographers as distinctive of the tradition are thrown into doubt by manuscript illuminations. Firstly, there is the suggestion that some ‘earlier’ cogs used a quarter rudder, th possibly a firrer, while cogs of the 13 century onwards used a median rudder. None of the excavated remains of cogs within appendix 1 can be absolutely sure to have carried either a quarter rudder or firrer, whereas many can be proven to have carried median rudders. Similarly, only a few stylised illuminations of vessels with cog hull characteristics carry quarter rudders (BL

Hull elements that do not survive from excavated assemblages of cogs include internal decking and forecastles. These are depicted in illuminations in BNF Fr. MS 9198 and Fr. MS 9199, BL Roy. MS 10 E iv, BL Roy. MS 15 E vi and BL Add. MS 42130 (2: 883-84, 687, 514, figs. 3, 10, 11, 70, 85, 87, 90). Illuminations often depict open vessels with raised, integrated decks fore and aft, and it is exceptionally rare to see any form of free-standing castle as depicted on comparable Nordic vessels. The earliest use of castles on cogs remains unclear. Over time, there is a growing occurrence of forecastles in conjunction with raised, integrated

8

Examples include Bib. Ars. MS 5187, BL Add. MS 10294 (fig. 37), BL Roy. MS 14 E iii, JRUL French MS 1 (fig. 44), BL Eger. MS 1894, f. 4 (fig. 6), BL YT. MS 14, f. 7, BNF Fr. MS 9199, and BL Roy. MS 15 E vi, f. 20v (fig. 70) (2: 807, 407, 701, 42, 593, 789, 884, 714). 9 Examples include BNF Fr. MS 9198, Bib. Ars. MS 5187, BL Add. MS 41230 (figs. 3, 41 ) and BL Roy. MS 10 E iv (figs. 10, 11, 85, 87, 90) (2: 883, 807, 515, 687). 34

The Illuminated Ark

noted that the inscription on the c.1295 seal of New Shoreham, Sussex, referred to the hulc: this vessel is similar to those depicted on the sides of the Winchester and Zedelgem fonts of c.1180. These series of representations have been central in proposing the defining characteristics of the hulc tradition, as suggested by Greenhill (1995b: 250-55; 2000: 5-17) and others. These characteristics comprise: [i] a double-ended form, [ii] no visible stems, and [iii] planking that runs in a curve parallel both to the sheerline and bottom of the hull, ending on a horizontal line well above the waterline. Characteristics expected in a majority of sources but not essential to the definition include castles at the bow and stern; the keel not being discernible; planking that appears to be laid in clinker or reverse-clinker; and a mast stepped near amidships; a starboard quarter rudder; a number of oars in some cases. A ‘hybrid’ hulc has also been suggested, distinct in that its planking ends on a horizontal surface on the bow at a post, and an upward-turned, extension of a plank-keel at the stern, with some form of deadwood beyond this carrying a median rudder.

decks fore and aft (with low rails and panels around the sides, supported by knees or crossbeams - as in BNF Fr. MS 2810, f. 263 and BL Cott. Dom. MS A xvii, f. 123) (2: 860, 557), with the waist open between these fore and quarter-decks, perhaps implying a single hold below amidships, as in BL Add. MS 10290, f. 118 (2: 404). Some of the only depictions of probable capstans come from illuminations of cogs (e.g. BNF Fr. MS 9199 and BNF Fr. MS 2810, f. 263v) (2: 884, 860): such vessels also often include hawseholes below any bowcastles structure, as in BL Cott. Tib. MS A vii/A viii, ff. 40, 52v, 81v) (2: 571), and cables sometimes run off these into the water (e.g. Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 264, part 3, f. 245v) (2: 134, fig. 55). Excavated remains of cogs also include evidence of such equipment. Together, this specific conjunction of winding and anchoring gear is distinct from other contemporary vessel traditions identified in manuscript illuminations: cogs are the only vessels consistently depicted with mechanical winding gear. This potentially implies heavier yards, sails and anchoring gear requiring mechanical assistance on cogs, and heavier cargoes shipped aboard using the mast and spar[s] as cranes (see Tipping 1994; Ward 1994; Tipping 1995; McGrail 1998: 198-203). These imply in turn larger vessels, enhanced cargo capacity and longer voyages. Future examinations of excavated remains should attempt to substantiate this hypothesis through reconstructions of the hull, analyses of cargo, and wear patterns on fittings and fixtures.

A wide range of iconographic evidence for the hulc tradition has been suggested based upon the characteristics noted above. This range of sources appears plentiful, albeit repetitive, but looking more closely at the major works relating to the hulc (including McGrail 1981a; Greenhill 1988; Ellmers 1994; Hutchinson 1994a; Friel 1995; Greenhill 1995a; Greenhill 1995b; Blue et al. 1997; McGrail et al. 1999; Greenhill 2000; McGrail 2000, 2001), it becomes clear that a small range of sources is responsible for almost all the iconography said to support the existence of the tradition. These sources are repeated by different 10 authors, and, specifically as regards illuminations in appendix 2, include:

Two features of cogs not directly visible in excavated remains are made clear by manuscript illuminations: firstly, that in comparison to illuminations of other vessel traditions, cogs have relatively less embellishment, and that which is present can be struck down - including flagpoles on the deck (e.g. BL Add. MS 10294, ff. 44, 47v, 65v, 79, 94v), and flags and pennants in the rigging (e.g. BL Cott. Claud. MS D ii, ff. 42v, 45v) (2: 406, 553, figs. 37, 38) - allowing these vessels to appear very dull. On its own, this is meaningless. However, illuminations also demonstrate the use of cogs as much for military as trading purposes. Together with the ability to strike down most embellishment, this raises the possibility that while cogs were cargo vessels, they also saw more widespread military use than previously thought, and illuminations of cogs consistently include crenellated castles (e.g. BL Harl. MS 3448, f. 42) (2: 627), and a wide variety of weapons carried by mass groups of armoured troops (e.g. BL Add. MS 42130, f. 161v, BL Burn. MS 257, ff. 77v, 148v, 152v, 155, 155v, 226v, 245v, 261, 250v, 290v, 450v) (2: 514, 543, fig. 3). Manuscripts reinforce overall what a useful and adaptive technology the cog was.

th

12 Century - BL Harl. Roll Y6 and CCCO MS 157, f. 383 (2: 658, 303, figs. 2, 19). 13th Century - BL Loan MS 88, f. 4v and CCCC MS 16, ff. 42v, 55v (2: 671, 334). th 14 Century - BL Add. MS 47682, f. 24, Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 401, f. 55v and BNF Fr. MS 101, f. 349 (2: 516, 136, 822, figs. 40, 42).

Others include: [a] Pre 12th Century: Roman relief; engraved Merovingian strap end; coins from Dorestad; [b] 12th Century: capital in a manuscript from Lewes priory; manuscript from St Athos; sculptures from Puri, Orissa; Winchester and Zedelgem fonts; sculptures on the campanile at Pisa; English enamel plaques; [c] 13th Century: carvings in Salisbury cathedral; seal of Southampton; cross at St Oran’s Chapel, Iona; common seal of Haverford West; seal of New Shoreham; stone frieze in the Chapter House of Salisbury Cathedral; [d] 14 th Century: seal of Amsterdam; seal of Kingston-upon -Hull; seal of the Provostry of Southampton; seal of Poole; window in the Abbaye-aux-Hommes, Caen, France; seal of Kiel; coins found from the Vejby wreck; seal of Edward Plantagenet, Admiral of the North and West; [e] 15th Century: seal of Danzig; seal of Gdansk; seals of Thomas Beaufort, Admiral of England; drawings of Maso Finiguerra; Admiralty seal of John Holland; first and second seals of the Admiralty Court of Bristol; seal of the Paris bolt-makers guild; east window of Malvern Priory church; brass in Nousiainez church, Turku, Finland; coins from the naval college, Greenwich; [f] 16th Century: north transept window of Malvern Priory; St Jean Baptiste window, Church of St Martin, Villequier, France; window in Vatteville church, France; [g] 17th Century onwards: oil painting in the church on the island of Fårö, Gotland. 10

The Hulc Tradition Hulc Hull Form McGrail (2001: 239-43) and Weski (1999b: passim.) note a variety of iconographic and documentary references made to the ‘hulc’, the earliest from c.AD1000 in England, the latest in the th th 14 and 15 centuries (see also McCusker 1966: 279 -80; Ellmers 1994: 44-45). However, it was Heinsius (1956) who first 35

Chapter Four – Thematic Analyses

th

15 Century - BNF Fr. MS 2829, f. 32v, BL MS E iii J, BNF Fr. MS 5594 and BL Roy. MS 16 G i, f. 9 (2: 860, 578, 865, 718, figs. 13, 14, 79).

sectors of that same society such as pilots and ground crew (see Lemonnier 1989) Although this is not to suggest that medieval shipwrights ever produced specific standard ‘models’ of vessel, it is to suggest that subtleties of variation to broader traditions of hull construction were not always understood nor appreciated by artists or contemporary society. The shape of the hulc in BL Add. MS 47682 (2: 519, fig. 40) implies this is the case in this example: folio 22 of the manuscript depicts a vessel with the Nordic characteristics identified above, but folio 24 - stylistically the same or a similar vessel, drawn by the same artist - depicts instead a vessel of mixed hulc and Nordic characteristics. While remaining true to the excavated data for vessels, such a hypothesis matches better with the iconographic and documentary data available.

Within appendix 2 over one hundred other illuminations share a majority of hulc characteristics and are of comparable date and provenance.11 However, analysis of these makes clear that the identification of a hulc is in fact usually based on one or all of four rather less ‘distinctive’ features rather Greenhill’s (1995b: 250-55; 2000: 5-17) definition, the former comprising: [i] a crescent-shape to the hull, variously described as ‘peapod-’ (McGrail 1981a: 38), ‘banana-’ (Greenhill 1988: 61-65) or ‘dish’ shaped (Greenhill 2000: 5), [ii] vertical ends secured with bands (‘gammonings’), usually immediately surmounted either by end-carvings or castles, [iii] reverse-clinker planks, distinguishable from ‘normal’ clinker planks in illuminations through strake shadows and nail patterns, and [iv] the apparent absence of any keel or posts, with plank runs ending above the waterline on a horizontal or angled surface.

Hulc Components Possible manuscript illuminations of hulcs are distinctive in a number of other ways not previously noted, ways which may be distinctive of the tradition. For instance, many vessels depicted have castles placed immediately above or resting on the ends of beams (e.g. BL Roy. MS 16 F ix, ff. 3, 8v) (2: 720), with knees curving round from the planks to the base of the castle to support these (e.g. BL Harl. MS 4431, f. 112v) (2: 650). Furthermore, while some vessels have starboard quarter rudders (e.g. BL Add. MS 22318, f. 4, BNF Lat. MS 10136, f. 105v) (2: 460, 918), most vessels have a median rudder (e.g. BL Roy. MS 19 E vi, ff. 10, 15, 78, 115v, 126, 281, 388v, 396v, 403, etc.) (2: 752, fig. 61), occasionally with a tiller and whipstaff (e.g. BL Roy. MS 18 E v, f. 62v) (2: 739), which is frequently combined with oars running through the sheerstrake (e.g. BL Loan MS 88, ff. 4-4v) (2: 674), rarely along the top of the strake. Together with a central mast and single yard near amidships (e.g. BL Roy. MS 14 C vii, ff. 2, 4v, 5, 116v, 134v) (2: 695, fig. 30), this combination of rudder, oars and sail appears distinctive of the tradition as depicted in manuscript illuminations at least - and the tendency to depict oars running through the sheerstrake can also be taken to imply a smaller size of vessel. Hulcs were also the most brightly decorated of all medieval vessel traditions, with heraldic shields, flags and pennants (e.g. Bod. Lib. Auct. MS F. 2. 29) (2: 122), carved, painted and decorated strakes and posts (e.g. BL Harl. MS 1766, ff. 31, 112 and Harl. MS 3244, ff. 27, 71, 60, 60v, 61, 62) (2: 615, 625), and masthead crosses, weathervanes and pennants (e.g. Bod. Lib. Tanner MS 184, ff. 1, 14, 18, 49) (2: 295).

In fact, comparison of archaeological and iconographic data highlight that the only consistently distinctive characteristic of the hulc is the vertical termination of the strakes rather than a horizontal closure at a post. This is technologically profound, a fundamentally different form of ending to the Nordic, cog or carrack traditions, and a decisive choice by shipbuilder[s] rather than mere technological ‘accident’ or whim. Such a technological difference is also hard to explain as either artistic licence or error – this is not an immediately obvious solution to plank closure at the ends, and is in no way similar to comparable ‘normal’ clinker- or carvel-planking ending at defined endposts, either in technology or the arts. However, the comparison of large quantities of excavated and iconographic data also call into question the existence of the hulc as currently defined. Comparative analyses imply a strong relationship of some or all hulc vessels with the broad overall Nordic tradition, with a series of characteristics that rendered some vessels sufficiently distinctive from the Nordic ‘norm’ to become known as hulcs/holcs by specific sections of contemporary society, but not sufficiently distinctive to be consistently identifiable within the archaeological record. A rough modern analogy for this process is the nicknaming of the Boeing 747 100 passenger aircraft introduced in 1969 (and subsequent large aircraft) as ‘Jumbo Jets’ within popular culture, while remaining technologically distinct from one another although sharing many characteristics, and while simultaneously still known by their ‘formal’ classification names (e.g. ‘747 100’, ‘747 200’) by certain

The Carrack Tradition The term carrack (or kraeck/karrack) first emerged in northern Europe, referring to variants of cog tradition with a different rig, skeleton-based hull and carvel-laid planks. This term expanded into a more generic reference to a new breed of full-rigged, multi-masted vessels when northern European shipwrights were initially influenced by southern European design, and subsequently inspired to develop beyond it. Different names were given for these vessels beyond that of carrack, including cocha, nao and nave (Friel 1995: 158-60), and further changes in rig and sail form apparently led to an increased use of the two-masted rig

11

Examples include GUL Hunter. MS 370, f. 253 (fig. 69), Trinity MS R. 17. 1, ff. 100, 135, BL Add. Roll 14819, c. 22, BL Cott. Nero MS C iv, ff. 1v, 3, BNF Fr. MS 6440, f. 163, GUL Hunter. MS Bq. 2. 11, f. 1v (fig. 98), Bod. Lib. Auct. MS F. 2. 29, Bod. Lib. Douce MS 217, Bod. Lib. Douce MS 300, Bod. Lib. Laud Misc. MS 165, Fitz. McClean MS 44, f. 33, Jesus MS Q. A. 11, f. 143v; Trinity MS R. 17. 1, ff. 100, 135, BL Add. MS 17275, f. 341, BL Add. MS 25884, f. 108v, BL Add. MS 50000, ff. 10, 101, BL Harl. MS 4411, ff. 48, 60v, 93v, BL Roy. MS 19 C vi, ff. 64v, 78, 83, 107, etc., BL YT. MS 32, f. 10v, BL YT. MS 33, ff. 1, 35v, 244v, Bib. Ars. MS 5090, f. 86, BNF Fr. MS 101, f. 349, BNF Fr. MS 136, f. 26, BNF Fr. MS 257, f. 39v, and BNF Fr. MS 9081, f. 26v (2: 21, 389, 399, 563, 872, 24, 122, 214, 221, 261, 368, 372, 389, 434, 475, 522, 647, 744, 792-93, 806, 825, 831, 834, 878). 36

The Illuminated Ark

(i.e. a square-rigged mainmast and lateen-rigged mizzenmast) in the north, together with developments including the final acceptance of carvel-planking techniques over skeleton-built frames, a relative growth in size, and the introduction of innovations such as gun-ports. Further developments lie outside the time-scale of this book (see Unger 1980: 203; McGowan 1981a: 15; Rule 1983: 103-16; Phillips 1994: 98-111; Loewen 1998a, 1998b; McGrail 2001: 247).

103, f. 1) (2: 827). There is evidence too for the influence of earlier exemplars, leading to stylised features taken from illuminations of other vessel traditions, such as hulcs (e.g. BNF Lat. MS 8200, f. 49v) and cogs (e.g. Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 264, part 3, ff. 218, 245v, 246v, 253v, 259v) (2: 913, 134, figs. 5, 55, 56, 57, 74). A range of illuminations exist which, while including carrack features and being relatively more complex than cogs, hulcs and Later Nordic vessels, are still comparatively simple in form. The characteristic features of such ‘proto’ carracks include squareended sterncastles, framing and planking at locations like the sheer that is implied as being ‘heavier’ relative to the other planks, the use of deadwood at the stern with median rudders attached (their tillers running through helm-ports below this into implied stern cabins), and increasingly detailed rigging. All of these features reflect a form of the carrack tradition: examples include illuminations such as BL Harl. MS 4205, f. 1, BL Add. MS 35311, f. 348v, BNF Fr. MS 136, f. 26, Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 264, part 3 and BNF Fr. MS 2810, f. 263 (2: 635, 496, 831, 134, 860, figs. 5, 55, 56, 57). With an open waist and small, integrated quarter-deck but un-tiered castles (particularly sterncastles), and only a single, central mast and yard with a square mainsail, it is implied that these vessels depicted are broadly contemporaneous in size to cogs: indeed, were a vessel of this style to be found in an excavated context, it remains unclear how distinctive the assemblage would from that of a cog.

As noted in chapter two, the definite excavated remains of a carrack have never been recovered, nor the defining attributes of the tradition securely identified. Even those remains of vessels which may be carracks or which inform on the tradition are relatively few in number in comparison to the Nordic and cog traditions. Those vessel remains that do survive also reflect such a degree of technological complexity as to potentially go beyond a simply definable series of characteristics in the sense of the earlier Nordic, cog and hulc traditions. Such complexity is certainly reflected in illuminations, which become ever more sophisticated from the 14th century onwards, making their analysis and interpretation exceptionally problematic. At the very least, the internal complexity of skeleton built carracks is almost impossible to reflect in the external - particularly profile - form of illuminations (e.g. BNF MS Lat. 10491, f. 166v) (2: 919, fig. 15), rendering manuscript illuminations of carracks relatively less useful than representations of previous vessels traditions. Carrack Hull Form

A second distinct style of carrack-like vessel appears within illuminations such as in BNF Fr. MSS 2643-2646 (2: 855-58, figs. 7, 75, 76, 77). The vessels depicted combine square-rigged, single masts with steep-sided, carvel-planked hulls and rounded posts, hinting at the integration of northern and southern European shipbuilding forms. These represent a more ‘advanced’ form of carrack than the ‘proto’ carrack’s noted above which, while sharing similarities with earlier shipbuilding traditions, moved beyond these in reflecting developments to late-medieval vessel styles suggested by other archaeological and iconographic data.

Because of the scarcity of excavated remains, only one distinctive characteristic of the hull form of the carrack has been identified that all sources must share, regardless of age or origin: a ‘backbone’ consisting of a raked stern post, keel and gently curved stem. Similarly, only one other characteristic can be expected in a majority of these sources: the implication of a substantial keel. Illuminations of vessels with these two characteristics, and which are contextually comparable (having an approximate date range of the late 14th to late 16th centuries and a primarily northern European origin) highlight a number of other distinctive characteristics of the tradition. However, it should be noted that, working from the basis of only two characteristics, a broad range of illuminations of vessels potentially bear comparison with carracks, including many which may lie within the extended cog tradition which may reflect real archaeological and documentary ambiguities. Within this range of manuscripts is also an increasing level of stylisation: while a few fine and detailed illuminations of carracks exist (e.g. BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art 6, ff. 18v, 25, BNF Fr. MS 5594, ff. 112, 269v, BNF Lat. MS 10491, f. 166v and BNF Lat. MS 6142, f. 1v) (2: 561, 868, 919, 909, fig. 15), there are numerous examples of gross stylisation (e.g. BNF Fr. MS 103, f. 1, BNF Fr. MS 874, f. 145, Bib. Ars. MS 630, f. 61v and Bod. Lib. Ashmole MS 1504, f. 20v) (2: 827, 844, 801, 98, fig. 95). Large numbers of illuminations also depict vessels only from the waterline upwards (e.g. BNF Fr. MS 38, f. 157v) (2: 818, fig. 78), in the far distance (e.g. BL Roy. MS 11 E xi, f. 2) (2: 689), or simply as stylised outlines (e.g. BNF Fr. MS

Other illuminations of carracks take the features noted above and appear to develop them further. A third distinct carrack-type depiction can be identified in illuminations like Harl. 4380, f. 189v, Harl. 4425, f. 86, BNF Fr. MS 53, f. 142, BL Roy. MS 11 E xi, f. 2, BNF Fr. MS 38, f. 157 and BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art 6 (2: 643, 649, 819, 689, 818, 561, figs. 78, 92). Relative hull ratios are on the increase in these illuminations, with a comparative increase length, breath and height proportionate to mast-, spar-, rudder- and tiller arrangements and lengths. These vessels also include multiple masts and sails, and more detailed rigs and castles. Innovations in armament can also be identified: these are the first illuminations to regularly depict gunpowder weaponry. A fourth and final distinct series of carrack-like illuminations can be identified with proportionately even more advanced rigging and sail plan, tiered castles and complexity and relative scale of armament, including the first depiction of ranks of 37

Chapter Four – Thematic Analyses

15

571, 829, fig. 15), which also carry different tiered upperworks with and without forecastles, crenellations, gun- and cargo-ports and decoration. While there is little evidence for internal features in the vessel depicted, their multi-decked form is implied in the tiered ends and rows of gunports (e.g. BNF Lat. MS 5565A, f. 101) (2: 907), and also the open waists with ladders and companionways to other decks (e.g. BNF Fr. MS 5594, f. 112) (2: 868).16

projectile artillery firing through gunports. These are visible in illuminations such as BNF Fr. MS 5594, ff. 112, 232 and 269v, BNF Lat. MS 10491, f. 166v, BL MS c. 74. G.5, pl. 9 and BNF Fr. MS 22540, f. 59 (2: 865, 916, 542, 889, fig. 15).12 It is this fourth group of illuminations which bear the strongest resemblance to the remains of the Mary Rose (1: 508), one of the best preserved excavated finds of a carrack. These illuminations also incorporate features such as beakheads and a reduction in top-hamper brought to fruition in the galleon, the technological step beyond the Mary Rose (see Taylor 1950, 1958, 1959, 1963; McKee 1972b; Phillips 1994; Green 1998; McGee 1999).

Manuscript illuminations are also comparable to the rarer features of excavated vessels like the Mary Rose (1: 508): an example is the rigging, including features such as chainplates and chainwales, deadeyes and channels, blindages, and other elements of the standing and running rigging like ropes, blocks, shaves, thimbles and parral fragments, all of which were found on board the vessel (Rule 1983: 136-48). Illuminations match exceptionally well with these artefacts, and emphasise the likelihood that the Mary Rose was at least a form of carrack. Elements of mast-related equipment were also found on board the vessel, including an almost complete fighting top stored in the hold, matching with that depicted in Magd. MS 2991 (2: 374) (Vine and Hildred 2000: 15-16). A complete set of five ribs and related trucks for a large mast parral similarly compare with illuminations like BNF Fr. MS 38, f. 157v and BL Harl. MS 4425, f. 86 (2: 818, 649, figs. 78, 92).17

Carrack Components Manuscript illuminations of carracks include a variety of external hull components distinctive of this tradition. Used in conjunction with analyses of hull form, these allow a more complex series of defining attributes to be suggested as being indicative of the tradition, assisting the interpretation of excavated remains. Some manuscript illuminations depict the full depth of the hull of carracks, intimating the form of the keel, which appears relatively ‘heavy’ in comparison to the planks and strakes (implying greater strength?), running the full length of the vessel and projecting significantly below the garboard in examples like BNF Fr. MS 25374, f. 28v, BNF Fr. MS 102, f. 1 and BL Cott. Titus MS A xxvi (2: 894, 826, 575).13 There is also evidence for rubbing strakes on both the upper and lower hull, such as in BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, BNF Fr. MS 102, BL Harl. MS 4425, BNF Lat. MS 5565A and BNF Lat. MS 6142 (2: 561, 826, 649, 907, 909, fig. 92). Numerous illuminations also apparently depict carvel planking,14 being distinct from depictions of clinker planks in their lack of any identifiable plank-edge shadow, and the relative simplicity of their plank and strake lines (e.g. BNF Fr. MS 2810, f. 14v) (2: 860), especially in comparison to depictions of the Nordic, cog and hulc tradition vessels.

Defining characteristics of masts and spars in use on carracks depicted in illuminations include bowsprits, sometimes carrying small sails (Bod. Lib. Kennicott MS 1, f. 305) (2: 250, fig. 88), either projecting directly out of forecastles and forecastle decks at an angle (e.g. BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art 6, f. 18v) (2: 561), or running from within the forecastle assembly, out of sight (e.g. BNF Fr. MS 5594, f. 217) (2: 868). Foremasts are also depicted, carrying square sails on single yards (e.g. BNF Lat. MS 10491, f. 166v) (2: 919, fig. 15), sometimes also fore-topmasts and yards/sails (e.g. Magd. 2991, BL MS c. 74. G5, pl. 12) (2: 374, 545). Mainmasts are always depicted, carrying a large square or rectangular sail on a single yard, sometimes also topmasts and yards/sails (e.g. BL Cott. Titus MS A xxvi) (2: 575). Reef points/crow’s feet are often visible on the mainsail, sometimes even reefing of the mainsail (e.g. BNF Fr. MS 2643, f. 72) (2: 855, figs. 7, 75, 76). Mizzen masts are less commonly depicted (e.g. BNF Fr. MS 38, f. 157v) (2: 818, fig. 78), but when present always carry lateen sails (e.g. BL MS c.74. G5, pl. 17) (2: 545), while a very few illuminations depict bonaventure mizzenmasts with lateen sails (e.g. Magd. MS 2991, BL MS c. 74. G5, pl. 12) (2: 374, 545). Composite yards and masts are also implied at times by lashings and bands around masts at different points (e.g. BNF Lat. MS 10491, f. 166v) (2: 919, fig. 15).

A variety of different forms of bow are depicted within illuminations, including cut-waters, beak-heads, sharp and blunt bows. These bow shapes are particularly distinctive characteristics not shared with other shipbuilding traditions. Examples include BNF Lat. MS 10491, f. 166v, BNF Fr. MS 77, BL Cott. Tib. MS A vii, f. 81 and BNF Fr. MS 124 (2: 919, 822, 12

Examples include: Magd. MS 2820, GUL MS SMM 2, p.11, BL Add. MS 15217, f. 38v (fig. 96), BL MS C74. G.5, pl. 11, BL MS C133. E. 34, BL MS E iii J, BNF Fr. MS 25374, f. 28v, BNF Lat. MS 5565A, f. 101, and BNF Lat. MS 6142, f. 2v (2: 373, 28, 416, 579-81, 894, 907, 909). 13 Examples include BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, BNF Lat. MS 6067, BL MS E iii J, BL MS C74. g. 5, Plate 11 and BL MS C133. e. 34 (2: 559, 908, 579-81). 14 See also BNF Lat. MS 10491 (fig. 15), BNF Fr. MS 365, BNF Fr. MS 366, BNF Fr. MS 874, BNF Fr. MS 6465, BNF Fr. MS 8266, BNF Fr. MS 102, BNF Fr. MS 2643 (figs. 7, 76), BNF Fr. MS 2644 (fig. 77), BNF Fr. MS 2645, Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 264, part 3 (figs. 5, 55, 56, 57), BNF Fr. MS 6440, f. 163, BL Harl. MS 4418, f. 80v, BL Harl. MS 4205, BNF Fr. MS 25374, BNF Fr. MS 2810, BNF Fr. MS 53, BNF Fr. MS 2829 (figs. 13, 14, 79), GUL MS SMM 2, BNF Lat. MS 8200 (fig. 74), BL Cott. Titus MS A xxvi, BNF Fr. MS 77, BNF Lat. MS 5565A and BNF Lat. MS 6142 (2: 919, 837-38, 844, 874, 877, 826, 855-57, 134, 872, 648, 635, 894, 860, 819, 863, 28, 913, 573, 822, 907, 909).

‘Admiralty’ pattern anchors are frequently depicted in relation to probable carracks, often with associated cables (e.g. BNF Fr. 15

Ibid. See also BL Harl. MS 326 (fig. 89), BNF Fr. MS 38 (fig. 78), BNF Fr. MS 5594, BNF Fr. MS 22540, BNF Fr. MS 6465, BNF Fr. MS 8266, BL Harl. MS 4425 (fig. 92 ) and BNF Lat. MS 6067 (2: 605, 818, 868, 892, 874, 877, 649, 909). 17 Ibid. 16

38

The Illuminated Ark

MS 2810, f. 263) (2: 860). Implying a deeper hull and need for multiple, deep-water anchoring equipment, this equipment includes catheads of different forms shipping anchors in the bows (e.g. BNF Fr. MS 5594, f. 112) (2: 868), and also hawseholes (e.g. BL Roy. MS 14 E iv, f. 195, BL Roy. MS 15 E iv, f. 36, Bib. Ars. MS 630, f. 61v) (2: 702, 713, 801, figs. 85, 87). Forms of embellishment specific to traditions also prove distinctive. Carrack-type vessels include much carving, particularly at the stern (e.g. Bod. Lib. Ashmole MS 1504, f. 20v) (2: 98, fig. 95): flags and pennants are also almost always depicted (e.g. BNF Fr. MS 2829, f. 47v) (2: 863), sometimes even flagpoles on the castles (e.g. BL Harl. MS 4205, f. 1) (2: 635, fig. 14). However, it is rare to see much decoration of the main hull or other forms of embellishment other than flags, pennants and carving. Depictions of carracks are also only ever associated with military applications (e.g. BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art 6, f. 18v, BNF Fr. MS 77, f. 386v and BNF Fr. MS 2643, f. 72) (2: 561, 822, 855, figs. 7, 75, 76), never trade. This is in marked contrast to all other vessel traditions.

although nail patterns and positions, the shadow thrown by planks, and other, non-profile perspectives of vessels in illuminations can all help mitigate this. Numerous individual planks and runs of planking have been excavated from such sites as London (1: 77, 100, 148, 170, 185-86, 206-08, 286-87, 29596, 318-321, 362, 389-91, 403-07, 431-34, 452, 469-73, 504-05, 546-51, 646-57), Poole (1: 398), Dublin (1: 143, 203-04, 24648), Hedeby (1: 89, 164-65, 205) (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 8687, 96-97, 120-25) and the Ijsselmeer Polders (1: 312, 351-55, 380-82, 400-01, 428-29, 446-48, 464, 498-99, 535-40, 630). Hull features identifiable in illuminations include plank and strake widths and lengths (relative to the vessel depicted), the forms of ending of strakes and planks, and the nature of fastenings and connections. Examples such as Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. inf. 2. 11, f. 59v and BL Roy. MS 2 B vii (2: 121, 683, figs. 45, 46, 47, 48) provide a starting-point for comparison, with a mixture of relative comparative plank lengths within strakes, and plank ends with both single and double nails next to them in a ‘brick-work’ pattern, a common theme shared with many other 18 There is great variety in the different illuminations. combinations of nail form, plank end and plank length, implying differences between split planks (which the excavated evidence from sites like Oseberg suggests tended to be longer, as visible on some Middle Nordic vessels like Bod. Lib. Ashmole MS 1511, f. 86v or BL Add. MS 21926, f. 97v) (2: 99, 458, fig. 22), and sawn planks (which tended to be shorter, as visible on vessels such as in Balliol MS 383, f. 34v or BL Roy. MS 15 E vi, f. 20v) (2: 93, 714, fig. 70).

Vessel Components Excavated data for vessel components are frequently poor or non-existent. Many hull components were constructed from highly perishable or fragile materials, and subjected to loss, damage and other human and natural ‘filtering’ processes (see Muckelroy 1978: 157-82; Ward et al. 1999). Iconographic evidence is a particularly significant source for such features, as demonstrated in early volumes of the Mariner’s Mirror (see the index in Greenhill 1995a: 260-64). Much of this older data also has the potential to be reassessed in the light of the last halfcentury of archaeological fieldwork, prompting future research into specific materials and features in archaeology and iconography (Göttlicher 1996: 279; Greenhill 2000: 3). Furthermore, the study of vessel components helps explore how iconographic and excavated remains can be described in ways more suitable for comparison. In particular, some features seen in excavated remains may not be directly visible in any manuscript illumination but have cause-and-effect on other features which are visible. Identifying these features and their sequential impact on visible features in illuminations of vessels is a fruitful avenue of enquiry.

Distinctions in nail form, plank end and plank length in manuscript illuminations come down to a few standard variations across the thousands of depictions within appendix 2. Thus, even if unintentionally, such patterns probably reflect differing forms of internal framing of vessel traditions. The planks of a framefirst vessel must end at either a frame or stem/sternpost end, but in plank-first vessels, these may end anywhere since they are scarfed to adjacent planks, although in practice the ends tend to be staggered in adjacent strakes for reasons of strength and stability (Smyth 1996: 615). These distinctions are consistently followed in manuscript illuminations, although there is insufficient data to distinguish between frame-first and plankfirst construction. Examples like Bod. Lib. Laud Misc. MS 733, f. 18, Bod. Lib. Laud. Misc. MS 740, f. 118v and BL Add. MS 42130, f. 160 (2: 267-68, 514, figs. 41, 67, 68) also depict the insides of vessels, providing insight into the internal frame layouts of vessels in relation to plank and strake forms. Illuminations indirectly depict numerous, closely-spaced frames in all vessel traditions during the Middle Ages through the patterns of fastenings, together with a move towards relatively shorter plank lengths over time: stylised or not, this implies an innate conservatism and caution in medieval shipbuilding,

Hull Structures, Timbers and Boards, Fastenings and Caulking Hull details involve perhaps the most contentious of debates surrounding medieval vessels, reflecting fundamental differences in construction technique (Steffy 1994: 8-20; McGrail 1998: 1243). However, hull remains also provide some of the strongest clues to the origins of building traditions (March 1970; McKee 1972; Rudolph 1974; McKee 1983a; Christensen 1985; Filguerias 1988; Kehoe 1990; Roberts 1994: 18; Greenhill 1995b: 14-72; Greenhill and Mannering 1997). While some manuscript illuminations unambiguously depict different forms of planking, frames are rarely depicted. The two-dimensional perspective of illuminations frequently renders depictions of different hull forms ambiguous, unlike the three-dimensional perspectives of carving, sculpture and excavated remains,

18 Examples include Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 264, f. 1, Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 2. 2, f. 75, CCCO MS 157, f. 383 (fig. 2), Bod. Lib. Douce MS 217, f. 276, Bod. Lib. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 62, f. 17, BL Loan MS 88, f. 4v, Bod. Lib. Douce MS 374, f. 5, Bod. Lib. Laud. Misc. MS 165, f. 33, Exeter MS 47, ff. 9, 11, Balliol MS 383, f. 34v, and ASC MS 6, f. 79 (2: 134, 107, 303, 214, 155, 674, 234, 261, 306, 93, 89).

39

Chapter Four – Thematic Analyses

Likely clinker-built hulls are depicted in illuminations like Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 270b, f. 10 A1 or CCCO MS 157, f. 383 (2: 135, 303, fig. 2), where nails run along the length of the hull, bearing a resemblance to the carving on the Winchester font thought to be a hulc. Similarly, examples like St John’s MS 231, f. 9 (2: 380) depict a half-built clinker-planked vessel, implying the shell-first building sequence of the Nordic tradition. These illuminations offer the potential to be compared with remains of clinker planking from sites like Upper Thames Street in London (1: 170, 206, 286-87, 318, 648-49).19 Other illuminations apparently depict carvel planking, such as Bod. Lib. Bod. Rolls 3, Rows 4 and 5, Bod. Lib. Douce MS 208, f. 120v and Bod. Lib. Lat. Misc. MS b. 2 (R), No. 4 (2: 143, 211, 254, fig. 8). Some illuminations even depict reverse-clinker planking: 20 these are distinct due to the fastening nails being depicted along the upper edge of the strakes rather than along the lover edge as in ‘conventional’ clinker planking, and also in the ‘shadow’ of the strake edge facing upwards not downwards.

Lib. Douce MS 88, ff. 138, 139) (2: 99, 197, fig. 22): reverseclinker planking is sometimes depicted on part or all of the hull of such vessels (e.g. Fitz. McClean MS 44, f. 33) (2: 368). In comparison, depictions of carracks always appear to be carvel planked, without a distinct relationship between plank-edge shadow and nail location (implying not plank but frame fastenings ?), and with a relative simplicity of plank- and strake line (e.g. BNF Fr. MS 2810, f. 14v) (2: 860). Middle and Later Nordic vessels also include considerable variation in plank end and nail patterns, implying the form of internal frames (e.g. BL Harl. MS 4418, f. 80v, Bib. Ars. MS 5070, f. 91v, St Johns MS 231, f. 9) (2: 648, 804, 380): some of these vessels also actually depict frames. When depictions of cogs and hulcs begin to appear, depictions of fastenings decline, although variations in plank-edge shadow and nail locations remain visible (e.g. BL Roy. 14 MS E iii, f. 153v, JRUL French MS 1, f. 226) (2: 701, 42, fig. 44). Depictions of carracks include virtually no evidence for plank and frame fastenings, frequently not even nails, and it becomes impossible to distinguish differences between depictions of fastenings.

What is particularly noticeable is that the two possible stylised and technically impossible - combinations of clinker planking and nail placement open to artists are never taken by artists. That is reverse-clinker planking is never depicted with ‘clinker’ planked nail locations, and clinker planking is never depicted with ‘reverse-clinker’ nail locations in any depiction, in any manuscript, within appendix 2. These two artistic possibilities are both technologically unworkable combinations, as nails placed in such erroneous positions would not run through both planks of the clinker join, only one, and so would not fasten the hull. Thus, never does the ‘shadow’ phenomenon contradict the ‘nail’ phenomenon. That only technologically feasible reverseclinker fastening solutions are depicted is significant: that such a large sample of illuminations never depict two unworkable combinations of plank form and nail location is unlikely to be the result of random chance, particularly given the potential for artistic confusion of these combinations, the significance of which is not immediately obvious to the casual observer. This implies either that artists were aware of this technological faux pas and strove not to depict it, with important consequences for artistic knowledge of technology, or that such artists slavishly followed reality, never making an error, implying a level of accuracy at odds with errors elsewhere in illuminations

Hull details commonly depicted in illuminations include hawse 21 22 holes and rope catches/snatches or fair leads, rubbing strakes, and gun- and cargo- ports. 23 Illuminations like BL Eger. MS 1894, ff. 2v, 4 (2: 593, fig. 6) also demonstrate how planks integrated into the posts of vessels, with stepped and raked posts, as known from archaeological examples like Gokstad and Skuldelev (1: 118, 215-17, 230, 268). There are also regular depictions of ‘crooks’ and other naturally curved timbers in use, as in the pillars supporting the aftercastle of the vessels in Bod. Lib. Douce MS 353, f. 31 (2: 229, fig. 16) which project out from the hull to support the overhanging sides of the castles, the tiller fittings in the vessels in BL Add. MS 47682 ff. 22 and 24 (2: 519, 687, figs. 39, 40), and the fairleads for the anchors in the bows of the vessels in BL Roy. MS 10 E iv, f. 19 (2: 687, figs. 85, 87). Stepped posts, together with the use of naturally curved timbers, are indicative of [a] a skilled workforce and [b] plentiful supplies of the right sizes and shapes of timber. It is notable that the appearance of such features declines in illuminations from later periods. Together with the relative reduction in plank lengths in illuminations of vessels, this implies greater variation in timber supplies during the later Middle Ages, matching data from elsewhere (see Crumlin-Pedersen 1989; Goodburn 1992ab), with a good selection of timber probably still available.

Various distinctive forms of hull depiction appear within appendix 2, including planking in varying ‘brick-work’ patterns of plank-end and nail form that may be meant to depict sawn planks, forms of likely clinker and reverse-clinker construction, and other details that may represent carvel planking. Vessels of the Nordic, cog and hulc traditions almost always appear to be clinker planked (e.g. Bod. Lib. Ashmole MS 1511, f. 86, Bod.

Superstructures and Internal Features

without distinction for vessel size or tradition.

Superstructures survive more poorly in the excavated record than hulls because these were less strongly built, more prone to destruction during the wrecking process, and were easily salvaged (see Marsden 1963b; Rule 1983: 117-35; van 21

Examples include Balliol Coll. MS 383, f. 6v and Bod. Lib. Laud Misc. MS 733, f. 22v (fig. 68) (2: 93, 267). Oar-holes and rowlocks can be seen in Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 264, part 3, f. 228 and Bod. Lib. Lat. Th. MS B. 1 (R), No. 4 (2: 93, 267, 134, 257). 22 Examples include Balliol Coll. MS 383, f. 132v (2: 93). 23 Examples include Bod. Lib. Barocci MS 170, f. 9, Bod. Lib. Douce MS 363, f. 3, f. 115 and Bod. Lib. Kennicott MS 1, f. 305 (fig. 88) (2: 128, 230, 250).

19

Examples include Bod. Lib. Ashmole MS 1511, f. 86 (fig. 22), Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 401, f. 55v (fig. 42), Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 764, f. 74v, f. 107 (figs. 27, 29), Bod. Lib. Junius MS 11, f. 66 (fig. 18), and Bod. Lib. Douce MS 366, f. 89 (fig. 28) (2: 100, 136, 141, 249, 231). 20 Examples include Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 270b, f. 10 A1 and CCCO MS 157, f. 383 (fig. 2) (2: 135, 303). 40

The Illuminated Ark

Doorninck 1985; Hutchinson 1994a: 47; Friel 1995: 73-75, 7981; Vine and Hildred 2000: 15). However, such features were a significant component of any vessel, and are well-represented in manuscript illuminations, influencing seaworthiness, social activities and hierarchy on board, weaponry, propulsion and steering. Documentary records offer additional information (see Fourquin 1988; Friel 1995: 79-81). Together, these sources suggest that superstructure was initially built solely for offence/defence, only later being used with more general roles in mind or being anything more than temporary (Hutchinson 1994a: 146, 160; Friel 1994a: 86-90, 1994b, 1995: 76-78, 79-81).

42555, f. 5, BNF Fr. MS 14969, f. 42v, BL Add. MS 17333, f. 11 (2: 515, 889, 435), and that on a small boat in Bod. Lib. Douce MS 8, f. 12 (2: 193). These are a feature used to this day on sailing yachts, hung over the lowered boom. Without exception illuminations including such equipment are of Nordic tradition vessels: this is not an activity depicted in association with cogs, hulcs or carracks. The only other vessels depicted with comparative equipment are oared vessels of various kinds with small canopies used for more ephemeral purposes including decoration, including those on board the pleasure boats in BL Add. MS 35313, f. 3v, BL Add. MS 24098, f. 22v and BL Add. MS 54782, f. 54 (2: 497, 466, 525, fig. 97).

Although the Bremen cog (1: 347) includes fragments of an integrated sterncastle (Lahn 1993: 90), overall there is little excavated evidence for castles, especially in smaller, lighter, and earlier vessels. Clearly, some of these materials were lost during the wrecking and salvage process. Alternatively, elements of superstructure may survive but lie unrecognised within excavated assemblages: excavated remains of deck planks are certainly hard to discern within general hull remains in the case of the Hedeby ships (1: 89, 164-65, 205) or the Mary Rose (1: 508) (Rule 1983: 117-35; Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 87-88). It is also possible that castles were simply not as common as comparable manuscript illuminations suggest. Similarly, the earliest definite excavated evidence in northern Europe for internal features comes from the evidence for the multiple decks, cabins and internal partitions of the Mary Rose (1: 508) (Rule 1983: 117-35, 184-201), although documents include mention of cabins by the th 13 century (Friel 1995: 77). The form of the hull, nature of the hold and design of superstructures clearly influenced internal features, but both documentary and archaeological data provide little direct evidence. Illuminations are of virtually no use in this respect, with no known example of a depiction of the inside of larger vessels beyond a few brief obliquely-angled glimpses through ports and hatches, as in BNF Fr. MS 2829 (2: 863, figs. 13, 14, 79).

Middle Nordic vessels carrying tilts and awnings are also the only vessels in which crews are depicted beaching their vessels in order to cook on land, as in Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 764, f. 74v, Fitz. MS 254, f. 33 and Gonville and Caius MS 384/604, f. 189v (2: 141, 347, 371, fig. 27). Such activity not only implies a lack of any superstructure on board such vessels for anything but military purposes, but also provides rare insights into life and routine aboard such vessels and the equipment carried, including a cauldron and stand, firewood and tinder (somehow kept dry), a means of making fire, fresh water for cooking and drinking, utensils and foodstuffs. Such depictions also raise questions concerning life on board when vessels were out of sight of land, preventing opportunities to moor and gather water, firewood and foodstuffs. What becomes clear from documentary sources, however, is that food was probably simple, boring and inadequate, and living conditions poor (Oppenheim 1961: 74; Loades 1992: 34, 54; Rodger 1998: 319; Stirland 2000: 38-39), th especially given the 13 century law defining a ship as seaworthy if it need not be bailed out more than three times in twenty-four hours (Christensen 1968b: 138-39). Integrated Superstructures Once vessels developed in size and complexity, a variety of forms of superstructure can be recognised, eventually resulting in fully integrated, multi-level superstructures rising in tiers. Indeed, the appearance of illuminations of vessels with castles (particularly the gradual integration of these into the hull as time goes by) is one of the most interesting of developments given the lack of excavated evidence, especially free-standing examples such as appear in Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 764, ff. 74v and 107 and Fitz. Marlay Add. MS I, f. 86 (2: 141, 364, figs. 4, 27, 29). The next step beyond free-standing castles are those in illuminations like BL Eger. MS 2709, f. 2, BL Cott. Dom. MS A xvii, f. 123 and GUL Hunter. MS 398, f. 1v (2: 599, 557, 22, figs. 12, 58), depicting small, open, castles resting on horizontal timbers laid across the width of the vessel on the level of the gunwale, projecting out over the sides: there is no excavated evidence for such features, yet these are eminently practical, associated with the use of both quarter- and median rudders. Depictions of different carracks then include at least bow- and sterncastles, of which a variety are depicted, such as those in Bod. Lib. Laud Misc. MS 653, f. 13 (2: 265), open, simply-framed buildings which compare dramatically with examples such as Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 264, part 3 (2: 134, figs. 5, 55, 56, 57) which depict

Free-Standing Superstructures Manuscript illuminations imply that simple, free-standing bowand stern-castles were added to Middle Nordic vessels: there is no direct excavated evidence for this process (see Landstrom 1961: 66-69; Runyan 1994: 47), nor for cogs or hulcs (Greenhill 1988: 61-66). Illuminations also demonstrate the increasingly permanency of such features (Ellmers 1972: 257, 295, 1979: 115; Lahn 1993; Varenius 1992: 190). Until the appearance of th multi-decked and castellated vessels from the later 13 century onwards, illuminations demonstrate a distinct lack of superstructure on vessels of all sizes, periods and environments.24 Many watercraft doubtless had minimal protection for either crew or cargo until this time, although fabric tilts, canopies and awnings are depicted, such as the stern of the ship in Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 264, part 1, f. 34v (2: 133), those covering the full length of Middle Nordic vessels in BL Add. MS 24 Examples include Bod. Lib. Ashmole MS 1511, f. 86 (fig. 22), Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 4. 17, f. 1v (fig. 23), Bod. Lib. Douce MS 88, f. 139 and CCCO MS 157, f. 383 (fig. 2) (2: 100, 116, 197, 303).

41

Chapter Four – Thematic Analyses

Oars

structures both more solid and more integrated into the hull. Examples of more sophisticated vessels go beyond this: Bod. Lib. Barocci MS 170, f. 10v and Bod. Lib. Douce MS 363, f. 3 (2: 128, 231), both depict large, Mary Rose style vessels with fully integrated superstructures rising in tiers.

While oars can be used to steer a vessel (McGrail 1998: 214-16), their main role is one of propulsion, and, being unhindered by wind, oared vessels of startling variety are known throughout the Middle Ages. Archaeological remains of paddles and oars are known from Dublin (1: 246-48), poles from Dorestad (1: 86, 607), Mainz (1: 552), Novogorod (1: 210-11, 262-63, 297-98, 435) and Hedeby (1: 89, 164-65, 205), the latter including oarport shutters and rowlocks (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 12630).

Whatever the form of superstructure depicted, manuscript illuminations make clear that these were borne purely of necessity. Castles are particularly associated to military activity, both defence and offence, including lookout positions and boarding points during ship-to-ship or ship-to-shore activities. Depictions of forecastles rapidly become associated to anchor storage and control, including the use of hawseholes, catheads and other fixing positions: hawseholes in the bow imply the use of a cable-tier and/or capstan/windlass, as in BL Eger. MS 2709, f. 2, BNF Fr. MS 2810, f. 263 and GUL Hunter. MS 370, f. 253 (2: 599, 860, 21, fig. 58, 69). Sterncastles similarly soon have the role of command and steering positions (not necessarily one and the same). This can include protecting the helmsman, as in Fitz. Marlay Add. MS I, f. 86 (2: 364, fig. 4). The extent to which such structures impaired the view of helmsmen must also be considered: free-standing structures placed directly over the helmsman offer only limited protection from attack while seriously restricting their view, particularly if similar structures are placed in the bows. This is probably one reason for the rapid shift in illuminations to more integrated sterncastles in which the helmsman is raised up to the quarterdeck, improving his view. Experimental archaeologists would do well to explore such concerns: maritime archaeologists should also search for evidence of the vertical supports of these free-standing structures, which were attached to plank and frame elements of the hull and may also have pierced decks. Furthermore, despite such pragmatic origins, superstructures rapidly gained embellishment, including carving, gilding and painting, flags and banners. At times these verge on the grotesque, and must have impaired the stability and seaworthiness of vessels, as in the case of later vessels like the Vasa (see Soop 1985, 1992; Cederlund 1994).

A range of different poles and oars are depicted in illuminations like Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 4. 17, f. 3 and BL Harl. Roll Y6, no. 4 (2: 116, 661, figs. 19, 23, 24), both of which depict a man fending-off from shore using a pole akin to a quant. 25 Some illuminations even depict ‘steering oars’: a series of depictions of punt-like vessels on rivers in BNF Lat. MS 1673, f. 97v (2: 905) have large oars running over the stern supported by braced crossframes set about two-thirds of the way aft.26 There is also evidence for different styles of oarport and cover, pintles, ties, ropes and related equipment, such as the vessel in BL Cott. Vesp. MS A vii, f. 6 (2: 577) which has three oar ports with slots for the blades, the vessel in BL Loan. MS 88, f. 4v (2: 674) which has four oar ports of the same slotted form, or the vessel in GUL Hunter. MS 229 (2: 19) which has three oars each side pivoted on tholes along the gunwale. These depictions are of interest in relation to the processes of rowing and steering. Various styles of oared craft are known from different evidence, particularly documentary records (see Whitwell and Johnson 1926; Tinniswood 1949; Glasgow 1966b; Anderson 1976; Sherborne 1977; Bennell 2000). Purely oared vessels in manuscript illuminations are only ever associated with one of two roles: military applications such as galleys and ‘landing craft’ of various forms, or ceremonial applications such as barges. Examples of military craft include a variety of large and small oared vessels, such as Bod. Lib. Laud. Misc. MS 587, f. 1, BNF Fr. MS 4274, f. 6, Bod. Ars. MS 5070, f. 60v, BL Roy. MS 16 F ii, f. 73 and Add. MS 10290, f. 79v (2: 263, 864, 804, 717, 404, figs. 17, 43), all of which depict vessels carrying as many as thirteen oars per side. In contrast, an interesting example of a ceremonial oared vessel is the fifteenth century English ‘royal state barge’ in BL Add. MS 54782, f. 126 (2: 525) bearing the arms of France and England. The vessel is reminiscent of examples of state barges surviving to this day, such as Queen Mary’s shallop, commissioned by William III and now in the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich.

Steering Gear, Poles, Oars and Oar-Power Steering gear falls into a variety of different forms, the main difference being between quarter- and median rudders. Sources of evidence include iconographic and documentary data (Scammell 1966; Sleeswyk and Lehmann 1982; Mott 1997). Archaeological examples of quarter rudders include examples from Bergen (1: 266), Rye (1: 343-45), Kolding (1: 183) and Southwold (1: 111-12). Rudder gudgeons for a median rudder have been found at Bremen (1: 347), Vigsø (1: 703) and Sandwich (1: 411), and median rudders themselves at Rye (1: 410). Mott (1997) has discussed the differences between these in detail. Steering technology gradually shifted over the Middle Ages in response to changes in vessel forms and sizes, as steering oars and quarter rudders were only really suitable for vessels up to a certain size (Mott 1997: 104).

It is certainly notable that, within the manuscripts surveyed, many hulcs depicted have a median rudder combined with oars run through the sheerstrake (e.g. BL Loan MS 88, ff. 4-4v) (2: 25

Examples include BL YT. MS 8, f. 249v, BNF Fr. MS 9198, BNF Fr. MS 9199, Bod. Lib. Canon. Class. Lat. MS 185, f. 191 (fig. 72), Bod. Lib. Douce MS 208, f. 120v (fig. 8), and Balliol Coll. MS 383, f. 6v (2: 785, 883-84, 161, 211, 93). 26 Examples include BL Roy. MS 15 D iii, f. 12, BNF Fr. MS 10420, f. 1v and BNF Fr. MS 5594, f. 267v (2: 707, 886, 868). 42

The Illuminated Ark

674), together with a central mast and single yard near amidships (e.g. BL Roy. MS 14 C vii, ff. 2, 4v, 5, 116v, 134v) (2: 695, fig. 30). This combination of rudder, oars and sail appears distinctive of the tradition, and is surprising given the implied size and scale of hulcs, which would seem to make rowing impractical. However, when one considers the size and scale of Mediterranean oared and sailed galleys, this combination seems less surprising. Hulcs, as currently hypothesised, were also apparently designed for inshore, tight and shallow-water manoeuvres given their likely hull shape and origins in the Low Countries, and this particular rudder/oars/sail configuration could have made hulcs extremely manoeuvrable warships, capable of high-speed attacks even when there was no wind, and of rapid and unexpected turns, a marked tactical advantage in comparison to both the Nordic and cog traditions. Manuscript illuminations also imply that hulcs had a lower draught than cogs, making them capable of coming close to shore, another benefit in war. Such vessels, being relatively broader, may also have provided a more stable fighting platform than cogs, and have been useful in the more ceremonial aspects of medieval warfare, when massed fleets of ships decked-out in heraldic liveries made clear the power and might of various monarchs, as in Harlerian MS 4379, folio 60v (2: 642). It may be fair to suggest, therefore, that the hulc was a form of ‘proto’-galleass, influenced by earlier developments in the Mediterranean since the Classical era. Such a hypothesis would also explain the marked absence of the hulc in the archaeological record of Northern Europe – the Mediterranean oared galley is similarly absent from the archaeological record, despite the plentiful iconographic evidence, because the hull structures of such vessels, together with their use, equipment and maintenance, simply does not favour survival.

MS 5, f. 1 are particularly interesting, depicting quarter rudders swung round on their mounting out of the water to prevent damage on beaching or for repair: Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 602, f. 22v (2: 138) even depicts a port quarter rudder and tiller disengaged from its hull fixing. A number of other illuminations depict a variety of different fittings for the attachment of quarter rudders to the hull, such as Trinity MS O. 9. 34, f. 5, Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 602, f. 22v, BNF Lat. MS 8846, f. 3v, BNF Lat. MS 1165B, f. 174, Add. MS 34294, f. 211v, and Bod. Lib. Douce MS 167, f. 7v (2: 390, 138, 914, 902, 493, 206, fig. 26): these include withies, metal loops, bolts and chains (e.g. BL Loan. MS 88, f. 4v) (2: 674), bosses of different styles, and wooden brackets. Such illuminations frequently involve ropes running around the stern from the trailing edge of the rudder to the other side of the hull and secondary attachment points lower down the rudder shaft (e.g. Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 764, f. 74v) (2: 141, fig. 27), which may be meant to depict attempts to keep the rudder closer to the hull for hydrodynamic purposes, and/or depict mechanisms for lifting the rudder above the keel-line in shallow water or when beaching the vessel. There are even instances of ‘secondary’ rudders placed at or near amidships, possibly meant to depict a side/dagger/lee board to reduce sideways drift when at sea (BL Add. MS 24189, f. 4v) (2: 467, fig. 59). It is notable how much attention to detail occurs in relation to quarter rudders: the majority of illuminations of these features depict their full length in startling accuracy, together with details like angled ‘shoe’ footings and heels, some apparently shod in iron and using different styles of tiller; the use of these in relation to steering arrangements is outlined below. A small but significant number of examples of Middle Nordic style vessels with starboard quarter rudders include a pole with a small ‘shoe’ end akin to an elongated quarter rudder angled over the bows on a painter. It is unclear whether such examples are purely error, are meant to depict a ‘spare’ or even bow rudder, or else are another feature entirely, perhaps a stylised bowsprit or part of the 28 anchoring equipment.

Manuscript illuminations highlight the range and frequency of oared vessels within the medieval world, and the familiarity of artists with such craft. Depictions of rowing position, face and direction are usually accurate, and the range of different equipment clear and often unstylised, in contrast to contemporary depictions of rigging. Oared and poled craft abound in the fringes of illuminations, used for pleasure, personal travel, trade and transhipment of cargoes, movement between both vessels and the shore, and military activities. Given the nature of medieval society, this is not surprising: small craft riverine movement was vital to trade, exchange and communication in medieval Europe (see Baker 1938, Leighton 1972, Eckoldt 1984, Edwards and Hindle 1991, Redknap 1992, Edwards and Hindle 1993, Langdon 1993, Jones 2000, Langdon 2000).

Quarter rudders are exclusively depicted on Middle Nordic (e.g. Bod. Lib. MS Barlow 6, f. 155v, Bod. Lib. Junius MS 11, ff. 65, 66, 67) (2: 124, 249, fig. 18) and hulc (e.g. BL Add. MS 22318, f. 4) (2: 460) tradition vessels in appendix 2, never on cogs or carracks. One of the distinctive characteristics of Later Nordic vessels (and also hulcs) is the shift to sternpost-mounted median rudders, often with pintles and gudgeons visible (e.g. BL Add. MS 42130, f. 161v, Bod. Lib. Douce MS 353, f. 31 for Later Nordic vessels, BL Roy. MS 19 E vi, ff. 10, 15, 78, 115v, 126, 281, 388v, 396v, 403 for hulcs) (2: 514, 229, 752, figs. 3, 16, 61). Many of these vessels include a tiller running from the rudder-head around the post and into the hull in a dog-leg or yoked form (e.g. BL Add. MS 47682, f. 22, Magd. MS 5, f. 31, Bod. Lib. Canon. Bibl. MS 62, f. 31) (2: 519, 375, 156, figs. 39, 40), features for which there is no excavated evidence. Such

Quarter Rudders Manuscript illuminations illustrate a range of steering gear. Quarter rudders are represented in examples including Bod. Lib. Ashmole MS 1511, f. 86, Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 4.17, f. 1v and New Coll. MS 322, f. 75 (2: 99, 116, 326, 375, figs. 22, 23, 24), 27 all of which depict their full length. Examples such as Magd. 27

ff. 74v, 107 (figs. 27, 29), CCCC MS 16, f. 163, Bod. Lib. Junius MS 11, f. 66 (fig. 18) and CCCO MS 157, f. 383 (fig. 2) (2: 124, 141, 334, 249, 303). 28 Examples include Bod. Lib. Auct. D. 4. 17, f. 2v, BNF Lat. MS 8846, f. 3v (2; 116, 914).

Examples include Bod. Lib. Barlow MS 6, f. 155v, Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 764, 43

Chapter Four – Thematic Analyses

as rollers from the Mary Rose (1: 508). ‘Deadeye’ holes for shrouds are also sometimes seen on the sheerstrakes of vessels (McGrail 1998: 224-25), and the Bremen cog (1: 347) had a wale treenailed to the outside of the planking for the attachment of rigging elements (Lahn 1992: 109). Mast-crutches (mykes) are known both from manuscript illuminations and archaeological sites including Dublin (1: 246-48), Newcastle (1: 326) and Poole (1: 398). Excavated evidence for other rigging components is equally sparse: finds of gear from Hedeby harbour (1: 89, 16465, 205) constitute the most numerous group of rigging elements recorded from any site in Europe (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 13040). Sails were some of the most easily damaged components of a ship, requiring constant repair or replacement (see Christensen 1979; Roberts 1981, 1982; Black and Samuel 1991; Andersen 1995): fragments of sail material are known only from Oseberg (1: 94), Gokstad (1: 118) and Lynaes (1: 288), and ropes from Dublin, Milton Keynes and St Peter Port (1: 246-48, 367-68, 413, 488). Overall this is a far from complete selection of the rigging and sail equipment that would have been used on even quite simple vessels, let alone ships with multiple masts and sails.

vessel depictions also frequently include oars running through oar-holes in side of the sheerstrake (e.g. BL Slo. MS 3983, f. 13, BL Cott. Vesp. MS A vii, f. 6) 92: 780, 577), or else placed over the gunwale (e.g. BL Harl. MS 5102, f. 129, BL Slo. MS 278, f. 42) (2; 657, 776, fig. 49), sometimes with tholes and grommets (e.g. GUL Hunter. MS 229, f. 13v) (2: 19). Median Rudders Median rudders are depicted in a variety of manuscript illuminations, including Bod. Lib. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 62, f. 31, with a diagonal ‘bite’ in the keel plank allowing the rudder to fit neatly into the base of the hull in a streamlined fashion, along 29 with a series of visible pintles down its length. In contrast to the Nordic and hulc traditions, cogs and carracks exclusively carry median rudders, sometimes with pintle-and-gudgeon arrangements (e.g. BL Harl. MS 4431, ff. 127, 128 for cogs, BNF Fr. MS 5594, f. 217 for carracks) (2: 650, 868), and often with tiller and whipstaff arrangements. Carracks particularly include helm-ports for the tiller running into a covered area below the stern, as in BNF Fr. MS 101, f. 349 (2: 825). Such features imply a quarterdeck with a cabin below from which the vessel was steered on a tiller and whipstaff (see Pipping 2000): examples such as BNF Fr. MS 1454, f. 1 (2: 849) depict the tiller running inboard in this fashion onto an open quarterdeck. There is virtually no excavated evidence for these aspects of steering gear There is no evidence in manuscript illuminations for the use of other steering arrangements, nor oars or poles on such vessels.

Rigging Manuscript illuminations make clear that the basic rigging of northern European, single-masted, square-sailed vessels of the Middle Ages included standing rigging of ratlines, fore- and backstays, and shrouds, and running rigging including ropes and pulleys, sheets and tacks, bowlines, halyards, yard-ropes and 30 Later changes (beyond general braces, lifts and clews. increases in relative scale and complexity) include an increase in the number of shrouds and backstays. Used in association with these is an increasing range of equipment, including capstans and windlasses, blocks, parrals, and pulleys (see McGrail 1998: 21825, 229-39). Examples of rigging attachments to the masts and yards include the vessels in BL Add. MS 47682, ff. 22, 24 and BNF Lat. MS 7239, f. 24 (2: 529, 912, figs. 39, 40) which have pulleys built in to the tops of their masts to support the parral, a feature which would be particularly recognisable if found in an archaeological context. In contrast, examples of rigging attachments to the hull include the simple looping of stays around the ends of vessels in CUL MS Ee. 3.59, f. 8v (2: 392, fig. 31), the holes for shrouds - operating as deadeyes [?] on the vessels in Bod. Lib. Laud. Misc. MS 733, f. f 22v, JRUL English MS 1, f. 23 and BNF Fr. MS 6440, f. 163 (2: 267, 41, 872, figs. 9, 68), and the ‘toggles’ on the sheerstrake of the vessel in BL Add. MS 42130, f. 161v (2: 514, fig. 3), right up to the complex arrangements of chainplates, deadeyes, lanyards and ratlines in BNF MS Lat 6142, f. 1v and BNF Fr. MS 22540, f. 59 (2: 909, 892).

Rigging, Cordage, Masthead Equipment, Masts, Spars and Sails Masts, spars, rigging and sails changed considerably during the Middle Ages, as the different traditions - simply speaking, of the single square sail, central mast and single yard in the north, and the single or double lateen sail and rig in the south - began to merge and evolve, developing further once the basis of the threemasted, multi-rigged ship had been established (see Moore 1912, 1913; Anderson 1927; Laird 1931; Pepper 1981; Anderson 1982; Friel 1983b, 1994a, 1994b, 1995). Much time has been spent analysing these different developments in medieval artwork, supported by considerable documentary evidence (see Greenhill 1995a; Lavery 1988). The excavated evidence for rigging and sail materials is rare: only one complete mast has been found from a medieval vessel, th a 14 century example from Bryggen (1: 343-45) (McGrail 1998: 200, 232). There are also the stumps of masts from Woolwich (1: 505), Waterford (1: 271), and some Nordic vessels (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 18-29). Yards are even more elusive, probably because they were suitable for reuse or were easily lost at sea, although one example has been recovered from Hedeby (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 131). ‘Loop’ parrals survive from Dublin (1: 246-48), and ‘truck’ parrals with wooden beads acting

However stylised manuscript illuminations of rigging are at times, within the larger sample offered in appendix 2 virtually all 30

Examples include Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 2. 2, f. 75, Bod. Lib. Auct D. MS 4.17, f. 1v (fig. 23), Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 264, part 3, ff. 218, 245v, 246v, 253, 257, 259v and 265 (figs. 5, 55, 56, 57), Bod. Lib. Auct MS F. 2. 29, ff. 36, 42, 48, 62, and 7), Bod. Lib. Barocci MS 170, f. 9v-10v, and Bod. Lib. Canon. Class. Lat. MS E i, f. 70 (2: 107, 116, 134, 122, 128, 162).

29

Examples include Bod. Lib. Barocci MS 170f, f. 9v and Bod. Lib. Douce MS 363, f. 3, MS Roy. MS 2B vii, ff. 6-7 (fig. 46), Bod. Lib. Douce MS 208, f. 120v (fig. 8), Bod. Lib. Douce MS 374, f. 40 (fig. 83) and Bod. Lib. Douce MS 353, f. 31 (fig. 16) (2: 128, 230, 683, 211, 234, 228). 44

The Illuminated Ark

Masts and Spars

the major running and standing rigging elements, sail-, yard-, mast- and associated equipment are depicted: a ‘composite’ vessel created from these illuminations, therefore, has virtually all the necessary equipment in roughly the correct places. This is not information available from excavated remains, and is not a level of accuracy and detail usually ascribed to illuminated manuscripts, within which the rigging is always assumed to be the point of greatest inaccuracy in any depiction.

Mast forms and sizes can be understood only in relation to the other features of specific vessels: absolute rules for their size and development cannot be identified in illuminations. However, it appears that mast lengths were generally on the increase throughout this period (with a corresponding rise in the relative lengths of yards and sizes of sail in relation to hull sizes), with composite masts becoming increasingly common (e.g. BL Eger. MS 2709, f. 2) (2: 599, fig. 58), and with the comparative distances between the top of shrouds and the foot of the mast increasing. Multi-masted ships also occur with increasing frequency, and examples like Bod. Lib. Ashmole MS 1504, f. 20v and BL Eger. MS 2709, f. 2 (2: 98, 599, figs. 58, 95) have blocks on a number of braces. The appearance of such features from roughly the 13th century onwards implies not only that the distances between masts, yards and decks had outgrown the feasible length of single ropes without splicing or support, but also that the weights of yards and sails had reached the point where mechanical assistance was required to help raise and lower these. Bowsprits are also a common feature in illuminations from this period onwards, such as those depicted in Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 764, ff. 74v, 107, Bod. Lib. Canon. Misc. MS 46, f. 119v, and BL Add. MS 47682, f. 22 (2: 141, 180, 519, figs. 27, 29, 40). Some multi-masted vessels include top-masts, yards and sails, such as the vessels in BL Cott. Titus. MS A xxvi (2: 575). Manuscript illuminations of yards take a variety of forms, from single spars in BL Add. MS 47682, ff. 22, 24 and BL YT. MS 26, f. 26 (2: 519, 790, figs. 21, 39, 40), to two spars lashed together to form the yard in BL Eger. MS 2709, f. 2 (2: 599, fig. 58).

Cordage There is plentiful iconographic evidence for cordage. Examples include the right-hand laid painter in Gonville and Caius MS 384/604, f. 189v (2: 371), the line of the duck-catching net depicted in BL Roy. MS 14 E vi, f. 270 (2: 704) held in a tight ball on a dowel and looped around the right hand of the hunter, and also examples like BL Harl. MS 326, f. 29v and BL Add. MS 19720, f. 27 (2: 605, 452, fig. 89) with relatively extensive runs of neat, right-hand laid stays. The relative strength and lengths of medieval rope is implied in many manuscript illuminations, with ropes used for halliards and stays (with stress-reversal in stays), to attach rudders and oars, as anchor cables, and in many other roles. In comparison, there are only extremely fragmentary traces of cordage within the archaeological record, although experimental archaeologists have explored the forms, uses and stresses of different types of cordage (Christensen 1979; Crumlin-Pedersen and Vinner 1986). Furthermore, what is notable within the illuminations in appendix 2 is that no depictions of left-hand laid rope can be noted. This is surprising given the possibilities for artistic error. Altogether, illuminations of ropes imply a sound artistic knowledge of the form, uses and capabilities of medieval cordage (see Runyan 1974; Anderson 1975; Bradley 1981; Friel 1995: 34, 48-49, 95-97, 127, 204; Sayers 1999).

Sails A variety of sail shapes are depicted in manuscript illuminations, including both square and rectangular forms as in Balliol MS 383, f. 34v and Bod. Lib. Douce MS 336-337, f. 32 (2: 93, 226), and more rarely, lateen forms as in Bod. Lib. Tanner MS 190, f. 17v, Bod. Lib. Douce MS 178, f. 70v, BNF Grec. MS 510, f. 3 and Bod. Lib. Canon. Misc. MS 493, f. 266v (2: 296, 208, 897, 186). Lateen sails can be harder to identify, given that a square sail set at an odd angle with a canted yard can appear to be a lateen sail in some cases. Sails in illuminations hang both directly from the yard from the sailcloth itself, without support, as in Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 764, ff. 74v, 107 (2: 141), or else are suspended by cordage, as in Bod. Lib. Douce MS 374, f. 40 and Bod. Lib. Barocci MS 170, ff. 9v-10v (2: 235, 128, fig. 83). Some illuminations include reefs and reef points, as in Bod. Lib. Douce MS 353, f. 31 (2: 229, fig. 16), including crow’s feet, as in BL Harl MS 1319, ff. 14 and 18 (2: 611, fig. 52). Many of these sails are coloured, as in Bod. Lib. Ashmole MS 1511, f. 86 with a red sail, Oriel Coll. MS 46, f. 196v with blue and white striped sail and Bod. Lib. Canon. Misc. MS 493, f. 266v with a ‘rainbow’ sail (2: 99, 327, 186, fig. 22). This is a known tradition with both symbolic and practical connotations (Marazi 1988; Westerdahl 1995): ships of the Hanse tended to have red and white striped sails, those of the Nordic ‘nations’ had a series of designs, including geometrical patterns, and Crusader

Masthead Equipment ‘Loop’ parrals are a common feature of manuscript illuminations, as in Bod. Lib. Ashmole MS 1511, f. 86, Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 4.17, f. 1v and Bod. Lib. Douce MS 88, f. 139 (2: 99, 116, 197, figs. 22, 23). ‘Truck’ parrals are also depicted, as in BNF Fr. MS 2829, f. 18 (2: 863, fig. 79). BL Add. MS 47682, f. 22 (2: 519, fig. 40) which illustrates a variation, a loop parral comprising of a horseshoe-shaped single piece of timber tied onto the yard (akin the saddle of a gaff rig), and ropes running up from the butt of the saddle to halliard pulleys built into the masthead. Various examples of lookout position and fighting top are known, running from the small barrel-like forms at the tops of vessels in BL Roy. MS 20 D i, f. 176v (2: 766), to the fighting top depicted on the Magd. MS 2991 (2: 374) view of the Mary Rose, which is identical to the spare actually recovered from the remains of the vessel (Vine and Hildred 2000: 16). Crow’s nests in manuscript illuminations are only ever used for military purposes, both defence and offence, including a role in battle as a point to fire bows, crossbows and even gunpowder and incendiary devices, and throw spears and rocks. There is no evidence for crow’s nests being used to work the rigging or for navigational or other observation. 45

Chapter Four – Thematic Analyses

transports often had crosses, as in Bod. Lib. Douce MS 374, f. 40 and Bod. Lib. Tanner MS 190, f. 22 (2: 235, 296) (see Pryor 1982, 1984, 1990). It is notable that the one feature of sails that cannot be discerned in illuminations is evidence for their construction. Documentary and experimental research (see Christensen 1979; Crumlin-Pedersen and Vinner 1986; Andersen 1995) suggest that sails in this period were made from strips or squares of flax, wool, canvas or other materials, but there are no known depictions of sails under construction, and illuminations are unclear about the composition form of any sails or the use of features such as bonnets (see Bengtsson 1975; Black and Samuel 1991).

century (e.g. Magd. MS 2991, BL MS c. 74. G5, pl. 12) (2: 374, 545). Mainmasts are always depicted, inevitably carrying a square or rectangular sail on a single yard relatively large in relation to the hull, and sometimes also topmasts and yards/sails (e.g. BL Cott. Titus MS A xxvi) (2: 575). Reef points/crow’s feet are frequently visible on the mainsail, sometimes even reefing (e.g. BNF Fr. MS 2643, f. 72) (2: 855, fig. 7), and truck rather than ‘loop’ parrals (e.g. BNF Fr. MS 2829, f. 47v) (2: 863, fig. 14). Mizzenmasts are less commonly depicted (e.g. BNF Fr. MS 38, f. 157v) (2: 818, fig. 78), but when present always carry lateen sails (e.g. BL MS c.74. G5, pl. 12) (2: 545): some depictions include bonaventure mizzenmasts with lateen sails (e.g. Magd. MS 2991, BL MS C74. G5, pl. 12) (2: 374, 545). Most notably, numerous rigging details are depicted for carracks (e.g. BNF Lat. MS 6142, f. 1) (2: 909), together with composite masts and yards.

The only sail and mast combination ever seen on Middle and Later Nordic vessels are single masts at or near amidships, with single yards carrying square or rectangular sails (e.g. Magd. MS 5, f. 31, Bod. Lib. Canon. Bibl. MS 62, f. 31) (2: 375, 156), the sails furled using ropes, or else simply wrapped around the mast or yard (e.g. BL YT. MS 26, f. 26) (2: 790, fig. 21). These include simple loop parrals (e.g. CUL MS Ee. 3. 59, f. 12v, Bod. Lib. Douce MS 88, f. 139) (2: 392, 197, fig. 32), mast-head pulleys (e.g. CUL MS Ii. 4. 26) (2: 394) and mykes at the stern (e.g. CUL MS Ee. 3. 59, f. 12v, Bod. Lib. Douce MS 167, f. 7v, GUL Hunter. MS Ds. 2.3, f. 4) (2: 392, 206, 25, fig. 32). In contrast, cogs most commonly have a single mast set at or slightly forward of amidships (e.g. BL Roy. MS 18 E ii, f. 70v) (2; 737), with set or furled square or rectangular sails (e.g. BL Roy. MS 20 B xx, f. 77v) (2: 757, fig. 62), crow’s nests at the top of ‘pole’ masts (e.g. BL Eger. MS 2709, f. 2) (2: 599, fig. 58), and relatively more detailed rigging, including ratlines and limited standing and running rigging (e.g. Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 264, ff. 1, 89, 209v) (2: 132), especially stays, shrouds and halliards (e.g. Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 264, part 3, f. 218) (2: 134, fig. 5). The sails of cogs frequently have reefing points/crow’s feet across them (e.g. BL Cott. Dom. MS A xvii, f. 123) (2: 557), a feature not identifiable in depictions of Nordic vessels. Cogs also depict an increasing use of bowsprits (e.g. CCCC MS 171A/B, f. 35v) (2: 341). Hulcs have a sail and rig combination broadly the same as cogs, but include hogging trusses (e.g. Bod. Lib. Rawl MS D. 939, part 2) (2: 282), a feature only ever associated with hulcs in manuscript illuminations. Hulcs also include distinctively large numbers of reef points on their sails in comparison to other vessels, and frequently include mykes at the stern (e.g. Trinity MS R. 17. 1, ff. 40v, 82v, 100, 117, 124, 133, 135, 156v, 166, 170v, 182, 192) (2: 389), a feature unique to the Middle Nordic and hulc traditions.

Pumping and Sanitary Equipment Pumping equipment included a range of different tools, the simplest being hand-held bailers and scoops (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 143-44). Limber holes were also cut into floor timbers to allow the free movement of bilge water, prevent problems with vessel stability, and facilitate bailing or pumping (McGrail 1998: 145). Excavated examples include ‘drain plugs’ and scoop bailers from Hedeby (1: 89, 164-65, 205), Bryggen (1: 338-40) and Novogorod (1: 210-11, 262-63, 297-98, 435) (CrumlinPedersen 1997a: 142-44), the ‘draining box’ of the Bremen cog (1: 347), and the pump from the 16th century Studland Bay vessel (1: 515). Little attention has been paid to these features by either archaeologists or historians (Oertling 1996), and there is in fact no comparable iconographic evidence for pumping gear: it is hard to imagine how such features are depicted in illuminations. The Newport ship (1: 902) of the 1440-60s provides an insight into the pumping arrangement of such a vessel, with a series of pump-wells spread across the vessel with wicker baskets lining the bottom of these to prevent clogging, together with a hollowed-out log with a leather sleeve used as a pump, as well as numerous limber-holes (Nayling, pers. comm.). Evidence for sanitary equipment is slimmer that for pumping. There must have been provision on medieval vessels for this even if simply a case of being thrown over the side (see Simmons 1991; Fenwick 2000: 1-2) - but documentary records and illuminations provide few clues, although the small houses projecting off the sides of the kraek of Willem â Cruce may be quarter galleries. One of the only excavated examples is the wooden toilet box from the stern of the Bremen cog (1: 347) (Lahn 1993: 49, 165-66), and experimental archaeologists usually remain silent on the subject (although an amateur voyage in a replica Norse vessel sailing between Greenland and Newfoundland makes frequent reference to these practicalities: see Carter 2000). Problems of waste management would have been particularly significant as larger vessels began to travel further out to sea for longer periods of time: these problems are implied in illuminations of the multiple decks and relatively larger hulls of later vessels. Cultural mores may have prevented

Carracks are the most complex rigged vessels, a distinctive characteristic of their tradition. They regularly include bowsprits, sometimes carrying small square sails on single yards (Bod. Lib. Kennicott MS 1, f. 305) (2: 250, fig. 88), and either projecting directly out of forecastles and forecastle decks at an angle (e.g. BL Cott. Jul MS E iv, art 6, f. 18v) (2: 561), or else projecting from further into the point of the bows and forecastle assembly, out of sight (e.g. BNF Fr. MS 5594, f. 217) (2: 868). Foremasts are sometimes depicted on such vessels, usually carrying square sails on single yards (e.g. BNF Lat. MS 10491, f. 166v) (2: 919, fig. 15) - and fore-topmasts and yards/sails from the early 16th 46

The Illuminated Ark

the detailed depiction of sanitary equipment (see Camille 1992, 1998a, 1998b, 2001).

and forms of anchor in the archaeological record. The constant appearance of the ‘admiralty’ anchor is probably the result of successive copying and the instantly recognised profile of that distinctive shape of anchor. Anchors probably appear more frequently than other vessel features because of their greater visibility and obvious use. Manuscript illuminations are still of use, however, as the demonstrate the range of positions and fastenings for shipped anchors, including attached to the bows (e.g. Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 764, ff. 74v, 107, figs. 27, 29) (2: 141) or stern (e.g. GUL Hunter. MS 398, f. 1v, Bod. Lib. Douce MS 374, f. 40) (2: 22, 235, figs. 12, 83), hooked over the bow sheerstrake (e.g. BNF Fr. MS 2810, f. 263) (2: 860), run from hawsers aft to be hooked over the sheer (e.g. Bod. Lib. Ashmole MS 1504, f. 20v) (2: 98) or run between lines from the hawsehole towards the stern (e.g. BNF Lat. MS 10491, f. 166v, BL Eger. MS 2709, f. 2) (2: 919, 599, figs. 15, 58), and even hung directly from cables looped around the ends (e.g. Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 602, f. 22v) (2: 138, fig. 26). Examples such as Bod. Lib. Auct. D 4.17, f. 1v (2: 116, fig. 23) also imply that anchors were carried off from ships in small boats to assist the correct laying of the anchor: the scenes of shipwreck noted below suggest this was not always successful. Cables and lines are also included in examples such as Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 264, part 3 (2: 134, figs. 5, 55, 56, 57), both on larger vessels (ff. 218, 265), 31 and also smaller craft (ff. 228, 246v, 257), and depictions include vessels anchored or even beached in numerous different contexts and conditions, with lines running down to anchors and also onto land. Such illuminations make clear that, for all the stylisation present, medieval artists were aware of even peripheral equipment used in seafaring, and the uses and needs of such tools in different contexts.

Winding Gear Winding gear in medieval vessels essentially meant either windlasses or capstans: larger vessels probably carried both. Examples include those from Bremen (1: 347), and Bryggen (1: 343-45) (Hutchinson 1994a: 47-48). These features are also known from documentary and other iconographic sources (see Ellmers 1989; Tipping 1994: 10-11; Ward 1994: 329). Winding gear is occasionally depicted, such as the pillar on the poop deck of the ship in BNF Fr. MS 9199 (2: 884), the capstan just forward of mast on a barge-like vessel in BL Eger. MS 1065, ff. 116-116v (2: 586), the capstans turned by cattle in Bod. Lib. Canon. Misc. MS 378, ff. 75v (2: 185), and the feature on the poop deck of the left-hand ship in BNF Fr. MS 2810, f. 263v (2: 860) with what may be pigeon-holes for capstan bars. Such equipment is also depicted in illuminations of building work on land (see Binding and Nussbaum 1978: 2, 93, 135, 141, 161-63, 165, 169, 191-92, 211, 236-37, 241), such as BL Add. MS 19720, f. 27. It is notable that these few depictions with winding gear are almost exclusively on cog-type vessels, implying that these vessels were particularly associated by medieval artists with regular voyaging, anchoring and cargo carrying. Anchors Anchors are frequently depicted in illuminations, mentioned in documentary records, and found within the archaeological record (Curryer 1999). Fragmentary elements of anchor stock are known from Hedeby (1: 89, 164-65, 205), Vimose, Nydam, Ribe, Oseberg and Gokstad (1: 94, 118) (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 145; McGrail 1998: 253-55), and later on Gdansk W5 (1: 436) and Vejby (1: 394) (Crumlin-Pedersen 1985a: 373; Hutchinson 1994a: 49). Stone anchors are known from Kaupang in Norway, and Dorset and Guernsey in Britain (Hurst 1969; Markey 1991; Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 145-46). These sources all imply that the ‘typical’ northern-European medieval anchor was of the form now known as the fisherman’s or ‘admiralty’ pattern (Kemp 1988: 21-22), and that all but the smallest of vessels carried at least two anchors (Friel 1995: 121-27), including a range of simpler stone anchors. Less well represented in both archaeological and iconographic sources are anchoring equipment like hooks and chains, hemp or bast painters and cables, or ancillary equipment such as buoys (Hutchinson 1994a: 49-50, 174-75; McGrail 1998: 255-57).

Embellishment Embellishment on ships has mixed survival within the archaeological record. Several good examples of carving survive from Scandinavia, especially from ship-burials like Oseberg (1: 94). Carved posts have also been recovered from the River Scheldt (1: 3, 34), and hull decoration is known from later vessels like the Vasa (Soop 1992). ‘Weather vanes’ designed to fix to the masthead also survive, items with both practical and symbolic roles (Blindheim 1982; Engström and Nykänen 1996; Christensen 1998): at least two illuminations offers direct examples of the latter, Bod. Lib. Ashmole MS 1511, f. 86 and Balliol MS 238 E, f. 133v (2: 99, 92, fig. 22). Painted and dyed sails were also used (Marazi 1988; Westerdahl 1995); flags and pennants are also known for signalling, identification and decoration (Hobbs 1994; Wilson and Hayward 2000). Internal hangings and tapestries must also have been in use, if only to make cabins more comfortable for passengers. Few of the latter forms of embellishment survive in the archaeological record, however, and documentary data are similarly scarce (see Whitwell and Johnson 1926). Consequently, there is great reliance on iconographic data, supplemented by ethnographic and anthropological analogies and surviving materials from land.

Anchors, cables and painters can be identified in examples such as Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 764, f. 74v, Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 4.17, f. 1v, Bod. Lib. Ashmole MS 1504, f. 20v, BL Eger. MS 2709, f. 2 and BL Harl. MS 4379, f. 60v (2: 141, 116, 98, 599, 642, figs. 23, 27, 58, 81, 95). All depict fisherman’s/admiralty pattern anchors: examples such as Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 764, f. 107 (2: 141, fig. 29) even depict such anchors being deployed. No other styles of anchor are depicted within the illuminations in appendix 2, despite the frequent appearance of a variety of different shapes

31 Examples include Bod. Lib. Douce MS 8, f. 12 and Bod. Lib. Laud. Misc. MS 733, f. 22v (figs. 67, 68) (2: 193, 267).

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Chapter Four – Thematic Analyses

Lib. Bod. MS 614, f. 32) (2: 776, 139, fig. 49): these fulfil traditional notions of ‘Viking’ longships. However, depictions of many Nordic vessels include pennants flying from mastheads (e.g. BL Cott. Claud. MS D ii, ff. 42v, 45v, BL Cott. Claud. MS D vi, ff. 6v, 12v) (2: 553-54, fig. 38), painted or decorated sails (e.g. BL Harl. MS 5102, f. 129, BL Roy. MS 14 C vii, f. 116v) (2: 657, 695, fig. 30) and multicoloured hull strakes (e.g. Bod. Lib. Ashmole MS 1511, f. 86v, BL Cott. Nero. MS C iv, f. 3) (2: 99, 565, fig. 22), as well as being the only vessels ever depicted with mast-vanes. Later Nordic vessels continue this pattern, but witness the introduction of crenellated castles and heraldic shields carried by troops or fixed along the sheerstrake (e.g. BL Roy. MS 17 E vii, ff. 11v, 111, 369, BL Roy. MS 19 D i, ff. 30, 37, 37v, 55, 58, 136, 187v, 213 and CUL MS Ee. 3. 59, f. 12v) (2: 731, 746, 392, fig. 32). In comparison, cogs rarely if ever include carved posts, decoration instead focused on flags and pennants, often bearing heraldic designs (e.g. BL Cott. Claud. MS D ii, ff. 42v, 45v) (2: 553, fig. 38), and also decorated sails (e.g. BL Harl. MS 1319, ff. 7v, 14v, 18, 19v, 53v) (2: 611, fig. 52).

If illuminations are to be believed, the slim excavated evidence for embellishment reflects poorly on the actual nature of medieval vessels, which would have been brightly coloured. Fernández-Armesto (1999: 240) has likened warships of the period to war-horses, in terms of both their gaudy displays of ‘chivalric’ heraldry, and also the idealised perception of many medieval authors that sea-battles were akin to knightly jousts. But illuminations also depict a large range of ‘workaday’ vessels enlivened by little decoration: Friel (1995: 76) argues that the majority of medieval vessels were undecorated. Even if a certain proportion of embellishment in illuminations can be disregarded as being overly stylistic or accentuated, numerous examples depicting reality still remain. Illuminations include flags and pennants, shields and crests, painted and decorated sails, prow carvings and figureheads, mast 32 head crucifixes and even entire decorated hulls. These elements help bring to life the Middle Ages, for excavated remains of ships have been stripped of their true range of art and decoration over centuries of deposition (see Cederlund 1994; CrumlinPedersen and Munch-Thye 1995). Although a different medium and the result of different causes, these dour vessel remains are analogous to surviving medieval churches in that their austerity does not reflect medieval reality (Duffy 1992). Both medieval churches and vessels were a riot of two- and three-dimensional colour, as glimpsed both in surviving examples of churches and also ethnographic comparisons of vessel decoration (see Hviding 1992). Warships in particular were brightly decorated, in direct contrast to their modern counterparts. Embellishment performed different functions during the Middle Ages, the meanings of which can be taken at a variety of levels. The evidence for heraldry implies that decoration could be both practical, in the identification of individual combatants and their troops (heraldry can even help identify specific individuals or families, dating manuscripts), and also symbolic (see Strickland 1992; Prestwich 1996; Piponnier and Mane 1997; Curry 1998; FernándezArmesto 1999; Keen 1999; Porter 2000). An example of the latter is BNF Fr. MS 38, f. 157v (2: 818, fig. 78), a manuscript made for Louis de Bruges, Lord of Gruythuse, whose emblem was a bombard, as depicted in the margin of the folio in what is clearly a direct analogy between the characteristics of the bombard - strength, power, accuracy - and Louis himself.

Hulcs are distinctively the most gaudily decorated of all medieval vessels. Notably, hulcs are also most frequently depicted in ceremonial and other ‘symbolic’ contexts, which is of significance given the lack of excavated data for such vessels and also the frequent suggestion that these were primarily cargo vessels. Illuminations in appendix 2 contradict this archaeological conclusion, implying instead that hulcs were often ceremonial vessels. An example are the series of illuminations in BNF Fr. MS 2829 (2: 863, figs. 13, 14, 79), especially folio 47v. Depictions of hulcs include heraldic shields, flags and pennants (e.g. Bod. Lib. Auct. MS F. 2. 29) (2: 122), brightly painted and decorated hulls (e.g. BL Harl. MS 1766, ff. 31, 112, BL Harl. MS 3244, ff. 27, 71, 60, 60v, 61, 62) (2: 615, 625), numerous carving across the hull (e.g. BL Add. MS 38658, ff. 1, 36) (2: 506), animal head prows (e.g. Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 270b, ff. 9v B1, 9v C1, 10 A1, 10 C1, 10 D1, 214 C1, 214 C2, Trinity MS R. 17. 1, ff. 40v, 82v, 100, 117, 124, 133) (2: 135, 389) and crosses and pennants at the masthead (e.g. Bod. Lib. Tanner MS 184, ff. 1, 14, 18, 49) (2: 295). Carracks have limited carving focused on the castles alone (e.g. Bod. Lib. Ashmole MS 1504, f. 20v) (2: 98, fig. 95), and a greater focus on flags and pennants, usually bearing heraldry: this is distinctive in comparison to the embellishment of other vessels. Notably, much decoration of carracks is capable of being removed, unlike that of earlier vessel traditions: these are the first vessels that may have seen design created expressly for war, and date from a period of rapid military innovation. Illuminations may thus reflect the first moves towards more austere warships in which it was tactically advantageous to make a vessel as drab as possible (see Tavender 1972).

There is a demonstrable change in embellishment of vessels over the period, which reflects not only the shape of vessels and opportunities for embellishment, but also their uses and operating environments. This is reflected in excavated remains. Middle Nordic vessels include decorated and carved prows, often in the shape of animal heads, together with frequent carving elsewhere on the hull (e.g. BL Slo. MS 278, f. 51, Bod. 32

Respectively, examples include: [a] Examples include Bod. Lib. Tanner MS 190, ff. 17v-22 and Bod. Lib. Laud Misc. MS 740, f. 118v (2: 296, 268); [b] Bod. Lib. Douce MS 353, ff. 31v, 175 (fig. 16) (2: 227); [c] Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 4. 17, f. 1v, Bod. Lib. Barlow MS 6, f. 155v, Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 270b, f. 10 A1, Bod. Lib. Laud. Misc. MS 733, f. 18 (fig. 67) and New Coll. MS 322, f. 75 (2: 116, 124, 135, 267, 326); [d] BL YT. MS 26, f. 26 (fig. 21) (2: 790, 100) and [e] Bod. Lib. Ashmole MS 1511, f. 86 (fig. 22) (2: 99).

Trading Equipment Trading equipment covers a wide range of different features. Most vessels of the Middle Ages were probably used for trade at some time, usually being (with the occasional notable 48

The Illuminated Ark

33

exceptions), the result of socio-economic stimuli. Despite this, the evidence for specific trading equipment on board medieval vessels is slim, the way in which cargoes were packaged and stowed being overlooked and poorly documented (Tipping 1994; Ward 1994; Tipping 1995; McGrail 1998: 198-203). Some research has been undertaken into sea transportation during the Crusades (Pryor 1982, 1984, 1990) (complemented by experimental research into the sea transport of horses – see Pryor 1982; Gillmor 1984: 112-14; Greenhill 1995b: 199). However, beyond the remains of specific cargoes, particularly ceramics (see Davey and Hodges 1983; Grenville 1989), only one type of archaeological evidence for trade regularly survives in association with medieval vessels: barrel staves from sites such as Hedeby (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 192-93) and St Peter Port (1: 367-68, 413). Circumstantial excavated evidence for trade comes from the many wharves and jetties known throughout northern Europe, including London (1: 77, 100, 148, 170, 18586, 206-08, 286-87, 295-96, 318-321, 362, 389-91, 403-07, 43134, 452, 469-73, 504-05, 546-51, 646-57), Dorestad, Birka and Kaupang (McGrail 1981c; Ellmers 1989; Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 35-40). One of the few technical analyses of relevance to this discussion are those into the cargo capacity of the cog (Tipping 1994, 1995; Ward 1994; von der Porten 1995), a vessel particularly associated with trade, and notably the only vessel tradition depicted in manuscript illuminations with capstans. What these different sources make clear is the apparent lack of specialised trading equipment carried. Tipping (1994: 4-8) notes that documentary records of cogs attest these carried cargoes including timber, wool, grain, fruit, wine, fish, salt, minerals and ships’ stores, but that the range of specialist equipment associated was slim: beyond dunnage on top of the ballast to prevent breakage, damage and spoilage, and the use of loose timber pieces (known as ‘garners’ or ‘granaries’) to help barrels fit neatly together, little other specifically specialised equipment is known (see Tipping 1994: 4-10; Friel 1995: 135-38; McGrail 1998: 198-203).

not simply cargo ships. Examples such as Bod. Lib. Kennicott MS 1, f. 305 (2: 250, fig. 88) also depict loading ports similar to that in the kraeck of Willem â Cruce, and examples such as BNF Fr. MSS 2090-2092 (2: 851-52) imply the transhipment of goods using the river and coasting trade, depicting lighters on the River Seine at Paris. BNF Fr. MS 2810, f. 14v, BL Slo. MS 3983, f. 13, Bib. Ars. MS 5070, f. 51v and BNF Fr. MS 59, f. 308 (2: 860, 780, 804, 821) also illustrate the range of goods carried on board ships, the former including elephants and camels. In purely quantitative terms, Middle and Later Nordic vessels are those watercraft most likely to be associated with trade in manuscript illuminations, including activities like loading and unloading cargoes, and also simply ‘trade’ goods depicted on board, including cargoes of barrels, wrapped bundles, ceramics, boxes and chests (e.g. BL Slo. MS 3983, f. 13, BNF Fr. MS 2810, f. 86v) (2: 780, 860), and even loose produce (including fish and fruit) and live cargoes of animals. It is also notable that for all their alleged trade links, depictions of cogs as frequently are associated to war, and hulcs to ceremonial activities. Nor is there any illumination within appendix 2 depicting a carrack in specific relation to trade. Military Equipment Military equipment carried on board vessels is well understood, if only because there was little specifically maritime medieval weaponry. Few medieval sea-battles can be seen as decisive to a campaign, and the equipment was derived largely from that used on land (see Kiff 1984; van Creveld 1989: 9-66; Friel 1995: 139; Prestwich 1996: 263, 280; Porter 2000: 39-40). Documentary evidence serves only to highlight that ‘specialist’ maritime military gear designed to help the ships’ crews board one another’s vessel comprised mainly grapnels and chains, groundtackle and buoys (see Rose 2002): even this equipment was probably extemporised from fishing equipment (see Aston 1988). Archaeological sites tend to produce ‘long’ guns of the early-modern period onwards, smaller projectile weapons of the same period, and associated shot and tools, together with weapons like longbows and arrows, armour of various styles, edged and staff weapons, and incendiary devices. These variously represent tools for defence and offence, personal property, trophies of war and spoils of looting, export and import, ballast, gifts, and even evidence of smuggling and gunrunning (see Brown 1997: passim). Often the use of these items is unclear.

A range of components within illuminations are associated to trade, but overall, specific equipment is as rare in these as elsewhere. Manuscripts were largely created for those members of society who were not directly involved or interested in what those depicted were actually doing, and aspects like cargo loading in particular were doubtless not considered sufficiently important, unlike other laborious activities like harvesting, with which patrons might at least be familiar (Jaritz 1995: 163). It is certainly notable that in the majority of depictions of vessels loading and unloading, such activities are either peripheral to the main theme of a scene (e.g. Bib. Ars. MS 5070, f. 51 in which the primary theme is a shipwrecked man washed up on a beach) (2: 804), or else associated to these social elites (e.g. BNF Fr. MS 4274, f. 6, in which a fleet of galleys and carracks are prepared for departure while an army awaits embarkation) (2: 864, fig. 43).

An example of the range of military equipment depicted in manuscript illuminations is Fitz. Marlay Add. MS I, f. 86 (2: 364, fig. 4), which includes long- and crossbows, swords, pikes, spears, axes, billhooks, rocks thrown from the crow’s nest and castles, shields, and a variety of both plate- and sheet-armour. A variety of gun-ports and different forms of gunpowder weapon are depicted elsewhere, as in Bod. Lib. Douce MS 363, f. 3,

Gangplanks are commonly depicted in manuscript illuminations, but these were an essential piece of equipment for most vessels,

33 Examples include Bod. Lib. Junius MS 11, f. 66 (fig. 18), Bod. Lib. Laud. Misc. MS 733, f 18 (fig. 67) and Bod. Lib. Douce MS 353, f. 31 (fig. 16) (2: 249, 267, 277).

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Chapter Four – Thematic Analyses

Vessel-Related Activities

BNF Fr. MS 38, f. 157v and BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, ff. 12, 18v, 25 (2: 231, 818, 561, fig. 78). Some illuminations also include simple fighting platforms erected at the ends of vessels, as in Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 764, ff. 74v, 107 (2: 141, figs. 27, 29). Another interesting example is BL Harl. MS 326, f. 29v (2: 605, fig. 89), depicting a man in the starboard bow firing a ‘hackbutt’ (see DeVries 1992, 1998; Phillips 1999).

Vessels like the Mary Rose (1: 508) demonstrate that an array of equipment was carried on board medieval ships over and above that mentioned elsewhere in this chapter. The position of these artefacts within excavated assemblages reflect contexts of shipboard life and the nature of wrecking and site-formation processes (see Muckelroy 1978: 157-214; Martin 1983; McGrail 1996; Hildred 1997; van Holk 1997; Ward et al. 1999). While the Mary Rose is an exceptional find, many of the items found on board would have been routinely carried by medieval vessels, can be identified in other sources, and are visible in distinctive contexts within manuscript illuminations (Rule 1983: 184-201). Beyond vessel-specific assemblages exists evidence for related tools, equipment, activities and processes, with illuminations of crafts like shipbuilding, waterside structures like wharves and revetments, and activities like rowing, sailing and steering. These objects and activities aid an interrogative analysis of the maritime cultural landscape within which vessels were created and used and their builders and crews lived and died.

Depictions of Middle and Later Nordic vessels (e.g. BNF Fr. MS 2813, ff. 237, 245v, 281, 298v, 299v, BNF Fr. MS 301, f. 153v, BL Roy. MS 14 C vii, ff. 4v, 5, 116v, CUL MS Ee. 3. 59, f. 12v) (2: 861, 836, 695, 392, figs. 30, 32) and hulcs (e.g. BL Add. MS 15477, ff. 2v, 3v, 8, 11, 17v, 21, 22-22v, 26, 49-50, 51v, BL Ar. MS 66, f. 45, BL Harl. MS 4374, ff. 88, 105, 165) (2: 422, 531, 639) only ever include one war-like element: large numbers of armed and armoured troops on board, embarking or disembarking. In comparison, depictions of cogs frequently include crenellated castles (e.g. BL Harl. MS 3448, f. 42) (2: 627): whether or not these are purely stylised or actually imply a real military function is unclear. Massed troops also appear (e.g. illuminations in BL Burn. MS 257) (2: 543), together with an increasingly broad variety of weapons (e.g. BL Add. MS 42130, f. 161v) (2: 514, fig. 3). In this sense, the only really noteworthy depictions are those of carracks, varying from the unusually repetitive norm of the depictions above by virtue of being the only vessels depicting the use of guns and gunports, including lids and sills (e.g. BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art 6, f. 25) (2: 561). Such depictions again include heavily armed and armoured troops on deck (e.g. BNF Fr. MS 54, f. 160v) (2: 820).

Shore-Side Activities Shipbuilding Unger (1991) has made an exhaustive survey of depictions of medieval shipbuilding, particularly in relation to Noah’s construction of the ark, responsible for virtually all illuminations of shipbuilding, including those in appendix 2 (see also Allen 1949; Cohn 1996). Unger’s hypotheses need not be repeated, and his most significant conclusions do not directly concern this book. More directly relevant are the range of shipbuilding tools and techniques identified (ibid.: 62-86, 107-26): illustrations such as St John’s MS 231, f. 9, BL Add. MS 18850, ff. 15-15v, BL Roy. MS 15 D iii, f. 12 and BL Roy. MS 15 E iv, f. 57v (2: 380, 707, 713, fig. 11) all depict shipwrights’ tools that can be directly linked to excavated finds from sites such as London, Hedeby, Alt-Schleswig, Amsterdam and Stockholm (Walker 1982: 354; Hutchinson 1994a: 21; Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 146-47). Remains from such sites are complementary to illuminations such as the blacksmith working at his anvil in Trinity MS O. 9.34, f. 24 (2: 390), for iron-working tools have been found on archaeological sites across Europe (McGrail 2001: 226), together with woodworking tools like those depicted in BL Add. MS 18193, f. 48v (2: 439) (see also Olsen and Crumlin-Pedersen 1967: 154-62; Bill 1994b; McGrail 1998: 149-58).

Illuminations reinforce the oft-made point that for most of the medieval period, maritime warfare was largely a matter of land warfare conducted on the floating platforms provided by ships rather than specific maritime technology and ‘naval’ techniques, although the first naval artillery does become visible at the end of the period. There was also a theoretical body of work surrounding naval warfare, particularly rediscovered works such as illuminated copies of Vegetius’s De Re Militari, as in the case of BNF Lat. MS 7239, GUL Hunter. MS Be. 1. 10 and GUL 34 Hunter. MS 220 (2: 912, 23, 18). Copies of this work inevitably include illuminations depicting shipboard catapults, spikes, trebuchets and rams (see van Creveld 1989: 67-81). The depiction of such equipment appears to have offered a greater than usual scope for artists’ imagination (particularly in comparison to the extreme stylisation noted above). This is visible in the range of often very imaginative maritime ‘war machines’ depicted in illuminations like Bod. Lib. Can. Class. Lat. MS 185, ff. 181v and 191 (2: 162) (figs. 71, 72).35 Stylised though many of these are, they highlight a growing medieval interest in mechanical innovation of all kinds, some of which may actually have existed and been instrumental in the development of the early-modern warship.

Specifically within the illuminations in appendix 2, it is notable that the only examples of shipbuilding depicted are of Middle Nordic and cog vessels (e.g. Bod. Lib. Junius MS 11, f. 66, BL Roy. MS 2B vii, ff. 5v, 6 for the Middle Nordic, BL Eger. MS 1894, f. 2v for cogs) (2: 249, 683, 593, figs. 6, 18 ). Vessels like hulcs or carracks are never depicted under construction in these collections. While this may be the result of chance, it is feasible that this is a consequence of the Nordic and cog traditions being directly observed under construction (or repair?) on beach- and riverfronts (e.g. St Johns MS 231, f. 9 (which depicts either

34

Examples include Fitz. Marlay Add. MS I, f. 86 (fig. 4), BL Harl. MS 4372, f. 79v, BL Harl. MS 4373, f. 47v and BL Harl. MS 4375, ff. 49v, 55, 96, 123, 159, 179, 196v, 214 (2: 364, 637, 640). 35 Examples include BL Add. MS 15276, BL Add. MS 17921, BL Add. MS 34113, BNF Lat. MS 7236, and BNF Lat. MS 7239 (2; 421, 439, 911-12). 50

The Illuminated Ark

shipbuilding, repair or ship-breaking) (2: 380), and because the building processes of such traditions are essentially the same whatever the size of vessel. This is not true of hulcs and carracks, which require relatively more complex shipbuilding facilities and which do not have direct analogies in small craft that local craftsmen could have been observed building. The primary skills of shipwright-carpenters and blacksmiths were also known in mainstream medieval society, unlike specialised shipwrightry skills such as lutting, caulking, masting and rigging: shipwright-carpenters and blacksmiths are rarely depicted in manuscript illuminations (an example is BL Roy. MS 15 E iv, f. 57v) (2: 702, fig. 11), and specialised shipwrights never depicted. Stylised though depictions such as BL Add. MS 18850, ff. 15, 15v and BL Roy. MS 15 D iii, f. 12 are in their depiction of house-like arks (2: 443, 707), manuscript illuminations are a reminder that many of the essential skills of Nordic and cog shipbuilding were shared with skilled craftsmen of the age who were involved in the construction of houses, bridges and other complex timber structures (see Binding 2004). This also have had further cause-and-effect in illuminations. There are numerous illuminations depicting the full depth of the hull of Nordic and cog tradition vessels, but rarely if ever of hulcs and carracks, even when at anchor or alongside a quay: this may be because Nordic and cog tradition vessels were observed under construction and also when moored pulled up on beaches and hards at low tide, their full profile observed, which is not true of later vessels.

documentary evidence what, if any, equipment such divers used, and even whether they were diving regularly: Owen may simply have been an opportunistic workman who knew how to swim and thought the risks involved worth the payment offered. However, illuminations such as BL Add. MS 38126, f. 7, Trinity MS B. 11. 22, f. 121 and BL Roy. MS 2B vii, f. 170 (2: 505, 385, 683) all depict people swimming – or at least, voluntarily immersed, and imply that some medieval individuals knew how to swim, as do depictions like King David bathing in Bod. Lib. Lat. Liturg. MS A. 3, ff. 1, 71v (2: 253). Occasional illuminations like BL Roy. MS 19 D i, f. 37v and Bod. Lib. Canon. Class. Lat. MS 185, f. 192v-193 (2: 764, 321, figs. 71, 72) even depict diving equipment in use. Archaeological data could support this with evidence from bones with features specific to regular swimmers or divers, and even the remains of diving engines. Shipwreck and Rescue Illuminations like GUL MS SMM 2, p. 11, BL Add. MS 17333, f. 11, Bod. Lib. Douce MS 366, f. 89 and Bib. Ars. MS 630, f. 61v (2: 28, 435, 232, 801, figs. 28) depict a side of maritime life in which swimming could have been vital: shipwreck. The causes of shipwreck are made clear by illuminations: BL Add. MS 34294, f. 211v (2: 493) depicts a vessel manoeuvring through tight, rocky narrows, the crew using poles and oars to fend off, and Bod. Lib. Douce MS 374, f. 40 (2: 235, fig. 83) depicts a cog actually striking a rock, with large cracks appearing in the lower hull. Illuminations like Balliol MS 238 E, f. 113v (2: 92) even depict last-minute attempts to avoid shipwreck, a ship lightened via cargo thrown overboard. A rich body of medieval maritime law exists in relation to jettison, shipwreck and salvage (see Marsden 1915; McMillan 1922; Melikan 1990; Constable 1994). Occasionally, men and materials were rescued: Bib. Ars. MS 5070, f. 51v (2: 804) depicts a shipwrecked man clinging to a chest who is washed ashore, while in BL Add. MS 16955, f. 73v (2: 430) Jonah is saved from the whale by two men out hunting. If more recent records are any indication (e.g. Lloyd 1968: 258-64), the loss rates of sailors were high in this period. As the scenes of battle identified above indicate, life was held cheaply in the Middle Ages, and sailors were probably accustomed to a level of loss of life far higher than today, where offshore fishing remains one of the statistically most dangerous occupations in the world.

Sadly there are no illuminations in appendix 2 of launching ceremonies, an activity which would surely have been as memorable then as now, and the origin of the launching ceremonies performed to this day. Diving and Swimming BL Roy. MS 15 E vi, f. 20v (2: 714, fig, 70) depicts a barrel let over the side of a vessel on chains, allowing Alexander the Great to view the wonders of the deep, a depiction of a story originally attributed to one Callisthenes, Alexander’s official historian (Diolé 1955: 35; Dugan 1960: 17). Such illuminations raise the issue of activities like diving and swimming in the Middle Ages. Diving, according to Homer, was known in the 1st millennium BC Mediterranean. The Romans used divers, who had their own guild of urinatores, and sporadic evidence for diving exists in the works of ancient authors, including Herodotus, Thucydides, Aristotle, Plutarch and Pliny (Diolé 1955: 33, 36; Dugan 1960: 17; Casson 1995: 370). Evidence for medieval diving is slimmer: the earliest mention of diving equipment comes from various medieval and later reprints of Vegetius’s De Re Militari, originally of the 4th century AD (Diolé 1955: 36; Kemp 1988: 251). Some of the earliest depictions of diving are sketches by Leonardo da Vinci in his Codex Atlanticus (Ambrosiana Library, Milan) (Dugan 1960: 19; 204, White 2001: 25-06). There is also fragmentary evidence for the use of divers (Diolé 1955: 13, 3739). One of the few documentary records is that of Davy Owen the dyver, paid 6 shillings and 8 pence as a bonus for repairing the Holigost de la Tour underwater somewhere between c.142227 (Rose 1982: 101; McGrail 1998: 161). It is unclear from this

Fishing and Hunting Medieval fishhooks have been found in London (Chapman 1986: 235-39; Steane and Foreman 1988: 92-93; Marsden 1994: 1617), and evidence for nets and floats, netting tools and twine in the Netherlands, Norway, Russia and Poland (Steane and Foreman 1988: 92-93), together with fish-traps, anchors and net weights (Hurst 1969; Markey 1991). There is also plentiful evidence from illuminated manuscripts, with examples such as BL Roy. MS 2B vii, f. 73, BL YT. MS 8, f. 249v and BL Harl. MS 4751, f. 69 (2: 683, 785, 651, figs. 1, 45) depicting fish, fishermen, fishing boats, tackle, and nets (see Aston 1988; Payne

51

Chapter Four – Thematic Analyses

36

Ship-to-Shore Activities

1990; Hutchinson 1994a: 129-45). BL Roy. MS 14 E vi, f. 270 (2: 704) even depicts a man line-fishing from a bank, for which there is no excavated evidence (this manuscript also depicts the related activity of duck-trapping using nets). There is good documentary evidence for other forms of medieval fishing, th th including works of the 15 to 16 centuries such as the ‘Heidelburg Booklet’ How to Catch Fish of 1493 (Hoffman 1997: 31-110), the Tegernsee Fishing Advice of c. 1500 (Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, München MS Cgm 8137, ff. 7109v) (Hoffmann 1997: 111-90), and Fernando Basurto’s Dialogue Between a Hunter and a Fisher of c. 1539 (Bib. Ars. MS 2213) (Hoffmann 1997: 191-319).

Embark- and Disembarkation Preparations for the departure of vessels include the embarkation and disembarkation of both people and materials: examples like Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 401, f. 55v, Bod. Lib. Gough. Liturg. MS 7, f. 7 and Bod. Lib. Douce MS 208, f. 120v (2: 136, 244, 211, figs. 8, 42) depict such activities. CUL MS Ee. 3.59, f. 31 (2: 392, fig. 36) depicts gangplanks attached to the sheerstrake with large metal hooks on the end of the gangplank, and BNF Fr. MS 2829, f. 18 (2: 863, fig. 79) a stepped gangplank depicted in cross-section. BL Roy. MS 16 G i, f. 9 (2: 721) shows the loading of cattle and sheep onto a vessel by two men driving the animals up wide gangways from stone-built quaysides within a city. The latter example is a reminder that ostensibly ‘rural’ activities could take place within urban environments in the Middle Ages, and may be visible within excavated assemblages. Bib. Ars. MS 5070, f. 51v (2: 804) illustrates a similar scene in the countryside, a man loading cargo up into a vessel moored in a rocky cove (fig, 188). BNF Fr. MS 59, f. 308 (2: 821) ostensibly depicts a similar scene of cargo loaded by a team of men; closer observation suggests that the men are actually loading looted items: the presence of such activity (together with piracy and privateering) may explain the random nature of excavated assemblages in which an unusually varied array of materials have been recovered (see Hutchinson 1994a: 73, 81, 98, 154; Friel 1995: 15, 141-43, 158, 177, 187).

Fishing frequently appears in manuscript illuminations because of its importance to Judaeo-Christian mythology. There is also evidence in illuminations for whales, supported by contemporaneous archaeological and documentary sources (Clark 1946, 1947; Kolsrud 1984; Laughton 1996: 57; Gardiner 1997: 189-92). An example of this documentary evidence are the series of Late Saxon charters referring to rights of access over beached whale carcasses (Loveluck: pers. comm.): the hides of these animals could have been used to make ropes, as known from documentary records, but not excavated remains (McGrail 1998: 231). BL Add. MS 16955, f. 73v (2: 430), for example, depicts two men in a Nordic tradition boat saving Jonah from the whale, by capturing it and releasing him. One man uses a toothed harpoon on the animal, another an axe. This form of whaling can be associated to archaeological evidence for the active hunting (rather than simply the collection of accidental strandings) of bottlenose dolphins at Flixborough in Yorkshire, implied by the fact that bottlenose dolphins are known estuary dwellers, and as such are less prone to accidental beaching than other species (Loveluck: pers. comm.). Whales and dolphins were also thought to be lured to ships with music being played on-board, specifically from a hurdy-gurdy, stemming from the classical Greek notion that dolphins are susceptible to music, and depicted in BL Slo. MS 3544, f. 42v (2: 779).

BNF Fr. MS 5594, ff. 112 and 232 (2: 868) depict the embarkation of massed troops together with actual preparations for departure: crew (whose soft clothing single them out from armour-clad troops) haul on yards in the latter folio. BL Harl. MS 4431, f. 112v and BNF Fr. MS 103, f. 1 (2: 650, 827) depict a similar scenes. Bod. Lib. Douce MS 353, f. 31 (2: 229, fig. 16) illustrates a more laid-back preparation for departure: carpenters and cooks congregate on the quayside while Negro stevedores carry bales up gangplanks into a vessel and two men (Jason and Hercules) play a game of chess in the forecastle. GUL Hunter. MS 370, f. 253 (2: 21, fig. 69) demonstrates the reverse of this process, with the offloading of troops via beaching in the shallows. Comparable excavated evidence for such activity is sparse, but large movements of troops through relatively small medieval ports must have had considerable impact. The shortterm nature of such activity means that such evidence is hard to identify in excavated assemblages, but is often noted in contemporary documents like journals and diaries.

Bestiaries often include a wider variety of aquatic creatures, both specialised animals like the serra (swordfish) (e.g. BL Cott. Vesp. MS A vii, f. 6, BL Eger. MS 613, f. 33v, BL Slo. MS 278, f. 51) (2: 577, 582, 776, fig. 49), and also those that - like the sea-horse and sea-calf - had counterparts on land (Druce 191819; Payne 1990: 92-93). Mermaids and mermen also frequently appear, with tales of sailors being lured to their deaths with entrancing songs, used in moralised forms to warn of the lure of the devil to human foolishness and pride. Sirens were also depicted (e.g. BL Slo. MS 3544, f. 28v, BL Roy. MS 10 E iv, f. 47, BL Harl. MS 3244, f. 55) (2: 779, 687, 625), their attacks on sailors lulled to sleep with their singing allegories of the corruption of humans before redemption by Christ and the seductive dangers of women-kind in general.

Examples like BL Harl. MS 4380, f. 189 (2: 643) depict the landing of personal possessions from a large vessel moored alongside an undeveloped shoreline. This implies not only inshore moorings for relatively deep-draught vessels in this period, but also how materials were loaded and unloaded – i.e. a man carrying a large trunk on his back held via straps. This illumination also demonstrates temporary mooring techniques: a man uses a pole to hold the vessel close alongside, pushing the vessel ashore, while another waits to pull at a brace to bring the yard around and into the wind once offloading is complete (with

36

Examples include BL Cott. Vesp. MS A vii, f. 6, BL Eger. MS 613, f. 33v and BL Slo. MS 278, f. 51 (fig. 49) (2: 575, 582, 776). 52

The Illuminated Ark

by implication an offshore wind assisting the vessel in coming about). This is a technique used to this day on small yachts. Such activities imply a fast turn around without mooring fully bringing the vessel alongside and offloading personnel and equipment before moving back offshore using the winds and tides.

and aft: the water depth in such circumstances is unlikely to be more than c.3m if such poles are to be comfortably used (McGrail, pers. comm.). Illuminations such as Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 4.17, ff. 1v to 3 (2: 116, figs. 23, 24) depict similar tools such as boat-hooks, poles and oars in use in such contexts, which have rarely survived in excavated contexts. These folios also depict what was a common form of embarkation throughout this period, with St John boarding a Nordic vessel pulled up by the stern in the shallows: holding onto a stern-mounted myke for support, he jumps aboard. This type of activity is archaeologically invisible. BL Loan MS 88, f. 4v (2: 674) similarly implies such landings, which were possible even in quite rough and harsh conditions, as demonstrated by Tim Severin when he safely landed his replica skin boat Brendan on an uninhabited and rock-strewn Newfoundland island after 51 days at sea from Iceland in 1977 (Severin 1978: 252). Notably, both the beaching and the inshore mooring of vessels most often takes place at ‘informal’ landing places in illuminations (e.g. beaches and riverfronts) rather than formal harbours, which although depicted (e.g. Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 264, part 3, f. 218) (2: 134, fig. 5), are markedly less common. This manuscript evidence highlights once again how ephemeral most medieval landing sites were. But while such techniques were common in the Middle Ages, beaching and mooring using posts and lines is an inherently ‘small craft’ solution: larger vessels require more permanent moorings. Illuminations depict a range of techniques for which there is little excavated evidence beyond random anchorage debris, and which relate to the types of vessel in use. Examples like Bod. Lib. Laud. Misc. MS 733, f. f 22v (2: 267, fig. 68) depict ships moored bow-to-land, with ropes running both on to land and into the shallows. In contrast, BNF Fr. MS 2829, ff. 18 and 47v and Bib. Ars. MS 630, f. 90v (2: 863, 801, figs. 14, 79) illustrate vessels moored side-on to the bank, mooring lines running ashore around rocks and trees, and also into the water to anchors: this also implies deep water close inshore. In BNF Fr. MS 366, f. 114v (2: 838) some vessels then raft-up alongside one-another while anchored in deep water, as occurs on small vessels to this day, while others anchor individually. Rafting-up in this form calls for good shiphandling, a secure and sheltered anchorage, and no need to rapidly break-up the formation. Illuminations like BL Harl. MS 4425, f. 86 and BL Roy. MS 14 E iv, f. 195 (2: 649, 702, fig. 92) depict a similar rafting manoeuvre, with small boats running ashore from larger vessels anchored en-masse well offshore. This is also implied in examples like BNF Fr. MS 2685, f. 159 (2: 859), where a number of different sizes of vessel are moored in what by implication is deep water amid a cityscape. Illuminations like BL Roy. MS 15 E iv, f. 57v (2: 702, fig. 11) are also a reminder that such mooring could occur inland, depicting a fleet of ships anchored in a river, although the risk of attack under such circumstances, including by fire-ship, is clear when one considers the evidence for such strategies in both the antique and early-modern periods.

BNF Fr. MS 2829, f. 47v (2: 863, fig. 14) depicts a royal party boarding a ship, and is notable for the ceremony that this involves: the vessel is ablaze with an assortment of carving and gilding, flags, and tapestries; sumptuous cabins have been prepared in the castles; trumpets sound. The central individuals are richly dressed as a crowd bid farewell, and the queen boarding the vessel has a pet monkey - a symbol of international trade and wealth. Around the edges are more lowly individuals: crew preparing the vessel for departure, and servants bringing possessions on board. Folio 18 of MS 2829 (2: 863, fig, 79) illustrates the reverse of this process, a knight coming ashore from a vessel moored alongside in deep water to a ceremonial greeting by high-ranking individuals. Embarkation and disembarkation clearly involved ceremony in this period; activity which is invisible in the excavated record but which continues to this day in the piping and saluting of important individuals when boarding vessels. Transhipment The transhipment of materials onto small craft also occurred in this period. Finds like the Egernsund barge (1: 220) imply the use of lighters and related craft, with cargoes offloaded onto these for transhipment (McGrail 1981c; Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 192). Such activities are depicted in illuminations such as BNF Fr. MSS 2090-2092 (2: 851-52) which illustrate lighters on the River Seine at Paris, or BNF Fr. MS 10420, f. 1v (2: 886, 37 fig, 94), depicting barges moored on a cityscape riverfront. Bod. Lib. Douce MS 208, f. 120v (2: 211, fig. 8) depicts a similar scene in a more sophisticated context: a gaff-rigged barge with a central cabin, median rudder and small boat alongside is loaded with cargo from a stone quay, while in the distance another barge runs before the wind. This is a Flemish manuscript that illustrates local trade activity: it is so exceptionally realistic that it implies direct observation by the artist of what must have been a common sight in fifteenth century Flanders. This manuscript is also the earliest positive identification of a gaff rig in a manuscript illumination. Anchoring Gonville and Caius MS 384/604, f. 189v (2: 371) is an example of a small vessel moored by a line to a post driven into the back of a surfaced whale mistaken for an island. Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 764, f. 74v (2: 141, fig. 27) depicts a similar scene of a vessel moored on the back of a whale, as does BL Harl. MS 4751, f. 69 (2: 643, fig. 1). BL Harl. MS 4380, f. 149 (2: 116) illustrates a departure, with two men pushing-off from shore using poles fore

Seaborne Assault BNF Fr. MS 366, f. 114v (2: 838) depicts the pitching of a military camp for troops landed from a fleet. The troops remain

37

Other examples include BNF Fr. MS 1436, f. 133 and BNF Fr. MS 5594, f. 267v (2: 848, 868). 53

Chapter Four – Thematic Analyses

on board vessels anchored offshore, and small boats pull ashore with a ‘field crew’ to pitch tents and ship baggage before the body of the army disembarks. Sea-chests are depicted in use in this manuscript, with the cautious manoeuvring of the chests into small boats almost dwarfed by their cargo: the difficulties of moving cargo from ships into small boats even in sheltered conditions cannot be underestimated, especially as vessel sizes and tumblehome began to increase in this period. BNF Fr. MS 54, f. 160v (2: 820) illustrates a rather more cautious anchoring of a fleet of warships, pikes at the ready as an anti-boarding precaution. The need for such concern is emphasised by illuminations such as BNF Lat. MS 8200, f. 49v (2: 913, fig. 74), where a lone warship anchored inshore is overrun by troops attacking simultaneously from a series of small boats, the warship’s defences overwhelmed despite the efforts of the crew.

War (see Ford Maddox 1900; Brooks 1929b, 1933; Sherborne 1967, 1969; Public Record Office 1973; Rodger 1996). Vessels also appear to have been used directly as gigantic floating siege engines, as in BL Roy. MS 15 E vi, f. 207 (2: 714), where troops climb up onto the defences of a walled city directly from ships. This is a reminder that the direct ‘naval’ blockade of besieged cities or castles was important in this period, and also the relief of besieged defences by sea, as in BL Harl. MS 1319, f. 14 (2: 611), where the Earl of Salisbury relieves Conway castle. Examples like BNF Fr. MS 990, f. 2 and BNF Fr. MS 77, f. 386v (2: 846, 822) are a further reminder that such activities were often directly observed by the populace in this period: in the latter, a crowd stands on the quayside of a deepwater port (implied by the tops of the masts of sunken ships just visible) watching a fleet of warships in the aftermath of battle, with two shipwrecks close inshore and an attempt at salvage underway. Illuminations also make it abundantly clear that the worlds of trade and war were inherently interlinked in this period, particularly in the coastal environment: BNF Fr. MS 2644, f. 85 (2: 856, fig. 77) illustrate the harsh vengeance undertaken for the death of Roger d’Auterive during the Hundred Years War, with the city of Oudenarde razed, and the merchants of Ghent massacred aboard their ships.

Broader evidence for coastal fighting tactics can be ascertained from illuminations, as in BNF Fr. MSS 2643-2646, BNF Lat. MS 6067, f. 82 and BNF Fr. MS 2813, ff. 4, 165, 245, 281, 317, 368, 417 (2: 855-58, 861, figs. 7, 75, 76, 77), which depict a range of ship-to-ship and ship-to-shore activity. Examples such as BL Harl. MS 4379, f. 60v, BNF Fr. MS 2643, f. 42v, Bib. Ars. MS 5090, f. 86 and Bib. Ars. 5187, f. 59 (2: 642, 855, 80607, figs. 75, 81, 82) imply the military use of relatively ‘long’, low, flat-bottomed barge-like vessels propelled by either oar th and/or sail, which emerged by the 14 century as a fully recognisable tradition, the balinger, a form of troop-carrying vessel akin to modern landing craft (see Brooks 1929a; Sherborne 1977; Rodger 1998: 67). Some of these vessels have wooden coverings overhead to protect the crew and troops from enemy fire in the final stages of an assault, as in Bib. Ars. 5090, f. 86 (2: 806).

Shipboard Activities Chain of Command and Signalling While a hierarchical structure may often have existed aboard medieval vessels, this should not be automatically assumed. The Laws of Oleron gave seamen certain rights, including the captain consulting with them prior to sailing to determine the safety of the conditions. Various other requirements were enshrined in the laws and ordinances of the Hanse towns, although the penalties that captains could mete out to disobedient crew under these laws were equally harsh (see Bouvier 1856; Naish 1914; Wood 1914; Marsden 1915; McMillan 1922; Senegallia 1940; Senior 1952). Ambiguous examples of hierarchy exist elsewhere in this period, such as the relationships between ‘share-‘ or ‘stakeholder’ crews on board Nordic trading vessels in documentary sources (see Jesch 1991). How the chain-ofcommand was interpreted under such circumstances may have been very different to land-based social hierarchies, and this ambiguity is reflected in some manuscript illuminations (see Creighton and Norling 1996; Dugaw 1996; Rediker 1996; Stark 1996; Tabili 1996).

Illuminations make clear how important amphibious assaults were in the Middle Ages, with combined operations of troops and ships. BNF Fr. MS 2829, f. 32 (2: 863, fig. 13) depicts a seaborne attack by the troops of St Louis, repelled by artillery and small-arms fire from shore while bowchasers return fire. BNF Fr. MS 6440, f. 163 and BL Harl. MS 326, f. 29v depict a similar amphibious assault (2: 872, 605, fig. 89): in the latter, two separate fleets make a simultaneous attack, with trumpeters on-board a vessel sounding the attack while a man fires a hackbutt from the bows. Numerous depictions within BNF Fr. MS 2813 and CCCC MS 16 (2: 861, 334) also reinforce the understanding of such actions from earlier in the period before artillery came into use. The latter manuscript depicts vessels carrying forms of free-standing castle, attacking coastal defences with a variety of weapons including slingshots and arrows loaded with incendiaries. Such actions involve massed fleets of vessels running up into shallow water, with poles at the ready to push back off in an emergency (e.g. f. 163v). Such activity was clearly often the case, with a number of major military engagements of the Middle Ages either at ports along the coasts of the Holy Land, Levant and Eastern Mediterranean during the Crusades,38 or the coasts of France and England during the Hundred Years

Functional differences are implied in some illuminations, such as in the notable differences in clothing between crew and passengers in BNF Fr. MS 2829, f. 47v (2: 863, fig. 14), and troops and crew in GUL Hunter. MS 370, f. 253 (2: 21, fig. 69). Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D 4.17, f. 2v (2: 116) implies a chain of command between the three men amidships looking towards the helmsman for instruction. The loose, hooded jackets of the seamen, worn over a tight-fitting armed robe, contrast with the lighter smocks of others on board, who are seated and may be passengers (for further evidence of social hierarchies in medieval

38

Other examples include BNF Fr. MS 5594, f. 217, BNF Lat. MS 6067, f. 82 and BNF Fr. MS 9087, f. 207v (2: 868, 908, 881). 54

The Illuminated Ark

Steering

dress see Manwaring 1922; Lloyd 1968: 15-51; Piponnier and Mane 2000). There are also examples of helmsmen who appear to hold a dominant position on board, as in BNF Grec. MS 54, f. 124 (2: 895). Examples like Bod. Lib. MS Ashmole 1511, f. 86 (2: 99, fig. 22) imply at least communication between the crew, and GUL Hunter. MS Bq. 2.11, f. 1v (2: 24, fig. 98) suggests authority expressed through dress, position, manner and bearing. Other examples include Bod. Lib. Douce MS 167, f. 7v (2; 206), where the helmsman both steers and directs the crew.

A variety of steering positions are depicted in illuminations that are of interest to archaeologists, although notably, illuminations of median rudders attract much less variation in handling than quarter rudders, one of the few examples being Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 264, part 1, f. 144, the tiller held in the crook of the right arm of the helmsman (2: 133, fig. 53). BL Loan MS 88, f. 4v (2: 674), depicts a starboard quarter rudder with a yoke-shaped ‘crook’ tiller, the arms of the yoke held in each hand of the helmsman, his palms facing inwards to allow maximum leverage, using his elbows to pull the rudder closer to his body. In comparison, CUL MS Ee. 3.59, f. 14 (2: 392, fig. 33) illustrates a vessel with a starboard quarter rudder with the helmsman holding on to the tiller with both hands, the left hand closest to the rudder head and palm-side out, the right hand further along the tiller shaft and palm-side down as if holding an oar. A different form of handling is depicted in Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D 4.17, f. 2v (2: 116), where a starboard quarter rudder has its tiller held in the right hand of the helmsman while his left hand has control of the braces, akin to GUL Hunter. MS Ds. 2.3, plate D (2: 25), illustrating a median rudder with tiller whose helmsman also has control of the mainsheets of a square sail, a technique still in use on small sailing vessels. BL Harl. MS 4751, f. 69 (2: 651, fig. 1) instead depicts a helmsman with both hands on a tiller-less quarter rudder, holding its loom almost like that of a scull; a similar scene is depicted in GUL Hunter. MS 229, f. 13v (2: 19), where the helmsman’s left hand is on top of the T-shaped tiller of a starboard quarter rudder, gripping and twisting the tiller while the helmsman’s right hand acts as pivot in a sculling motion.

The need for a clear chain of command on board vessels is emphasised by illuminations like BL Add. MS 34294, f. 211v (2: 493), where a helmsman manoeuvres a boat through rocky narrows. Illuminations such as BNF Fr. MS 9084, f. 125v (2: 880) provide other clues: here the helmsman holds a boatswains’ call in his hand, a potent symbol of authority (Wood 1919; Whitlock 1985: 167-68; Lawson 1986; Kemp 1988: 92; Stirland 2000: 45-46). Authority of a different kind is reflected in depictions of Jonah being thrown to the whale from a ship (e.g. Lambeth MS 233, f. 101, Ripon MS 1, f. 217, Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 3. 5, f. 210v and BL Add. MS 16955, f. 73v) (2: 48, 66, 111, 430), and also the martyrdom of St Clement, thrown overboard from a vessel with either a millstone or an anchor around his neck in Keble MS 49, f. 271, BL. Add. MS 18851, f. 494 and BL Roy. MS 20 D vi, f. 97 (2: 316, 444, 769). Manuscript illuminations provide unique evidence for musical instruments on board medieval military vessels, probably for signalling, as in BNF Fr. MS 4274, f. 6 (2: 864, fig. 43). Together with the riot of colourful flags and pennants, the massed troops in their armour, the clashing and firing of weapons, and the noise of the sea and the ships themselves, these are a reminder that this was a noisy and chaotic environment, military or otherwise (see van Creveld 1989: 39-40, 68, 74, 76; Prestwich 1996: 136). BL Eger. MS 2709, f. 2 (2: 599, fig. 58) is an excellent example of this cacophony, depicting a large, singlemasted, carrack carrying armed and armoured troops. The vessel is decorated with flags and coats of arms. One man plays the bugle, and other musicians ride in the crow’s nest. JRUL Hunter. MS Bq 2.11, f. 1v (2: 24, fig. 98) even depicts a harp.

What is notable in appendix 2 is the scanty evidence for port quarter rudders, the majority of illuminations (and also archaeological remains) come from the starboard side. Only fourteen folios in appendix 2 depict port quarter rudders:39 many dozens depict starboard quarter rudders. Furthermore, there is no evidence within these fourteen illuminations of quarter rudders for a shared exemplar, since these include a French poetic miscellany of the later 14th century (BL. Add. MS 11619), a Greek psalter of the 11th century (BL Add. MS 19352), and an th English legal document of the 15 century (BL Add. MS 15692) (2: 409, 449, 426). This lack of illuminations of port quarter rudders may be a stylistic convention: reading from left to right, artists may have depicted vessels this way so they ‘sailed’ across the page with the eye. Alternatively, this lack may instead be related to handedness, for right-hand dominance appears to have occurred during antiquity (see Steele and Mays 1995), although this argument does not stand up to close scrutiny. As the tiller of a quarter rudder runs athwart the vessel, the helmsman’s left hand does as much of the work as the right, being further from the rudder’s pivot axis and having more leverage, but having to

Notably, one of the few musical ‘instruments’ not depicted on board vessels are bells, which is surprising given their importance in regulating shipboard life by the early-modern period: it is possible that bells were not being used for this role in the Middle Ages. Archaeological finds of bells on board ship date to after the period in question, one of the oldest known examples being the bell recovered from the Mary Rose (1: 508) (Rule 1983: frontispiece). Even assuming that bells were used on board ship and that artists were simply ignorant of this use, this is still surprising: medieval bell founders had one of the most important medieval guilds, and bells were frequently used across both urban and rural landscapes in the Middle Ages. Small bells were even carried or worn on clothing, and bells of brass, tin, copper, gunmetal and pewter have been found in excavated deposits from medieval London (see Egan and Pritchard 2002: 339).

39

CUL MS R. 17. 1; BL Add. MS 11619; BL Add. MS 15692; BL Add. MS 19352; BL Add. MS 34294; BL Add. MS 35166; BL Add. MS 40731; BL Burn. MS 198; BL Harl. MS 448; BL YT. MS 3; BL Grec. MS 2736; BL Lat. MS 1165 [B]; BL Lat. MS 1673; BL Lat. MS 9661 (2: 389, 410, 477, 450, 494-95, 513, 542, 627, 784, 898, 902, 917).

55

Chapter Four – Thematic Analyses

Working the Rigging

travel further: there is evidence for precisely this in illuminations. It remains possible that the driving force was convention and the comfort of helmsmen used to a layout in which the left arm did most of the steering while the right rested on or near the rudder head.

Examples like Bod. Lib. Ashmole 1511, f. 86v, CUL MS Ee. 3.59, f. 14 and BNF Fr. MS 2810, f. 263v (2: 99, 392, 860, figs. 22, 33) depict men hauling on the running rigging, in all these cases probably working the halliards, while in BL Roy. MS 14 E iv, f. 195 (2: 702) a man releases the yard-ropes. A number of illuminations also make clear that the masts and yards of vessels were lowered at times, including BL Roy. MS 16 G i, f. 9 (2: 721), illustrating a cargo vessel with the mast struck across the width of the vessel and its still rigged yard resting on shore. BL Harl. MS 4751, f. 69 (2: 651, fig. 1) depicts a mast in the process of being raised, with a man pushing from forward and four others pulling from astern, a sixth man ensuring the mast fits correctly into a hidden keelson or mast-step. Exactly why it was necessary to lower masts in particular is unclear: the modern requirement to pass under obstacles like bridges is unlikely to have been significant during the Middle Ages. Repairs would certainly have necessitated dropping the masts and spars at times: it is also possible that some vessels that used both oars and sails dropped the mast when rowing to reduce drag (or visibility from land when a warship), but these two scenarios are unlikely to be the case in BL Roy. MS 16 G i, f. 9 (2: 721), where the vessel is a cargo-carrying hulc without evidence for oars: the illumination may imply a repair, or else simply be stylised.

Rowing and Sculling Rowing arrangements in the Middle Ages have been little studied, although analysed for other periods (Tilley and Fenwick 1973, McGrail and Farrell 1979, Tilley 1992; Alertz 1995; Bondioli et al. 1995). Illuminations provide insights into rowing during the Middle Ages, and it is distinctive how accurate most depictions of rowing are. Medieval artists had a firm grasp of the technicalities of rowing, including the direction crew face, oar spacings, different ways of holding the loom, and the use of a coxswain to keep stroke. A good example of this accuracy is GUL Hunter. MS 229, f. 13v (2: 19), depicting a small Nordic vessel with three oars secured by thole pins on the starboard side. There is the indication of a similar arrangement on the port side, and the oarsmen have their left hands over the oar loom and their right hands under, pulling hard in symmetry at the start of the stroke against the thole, sitting in correct direction. Illuminations emphasise how important oared vessels were throughout this period, in association to a variety of shipbuilding traditions. As noted above, one of the distinctive characteristics of many hulc-like illuminations in appendix 2 is the combination of a median rudder, square sail on a midships mast and oars, as in BL Eger. MS 613, f. 33v, Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 401, f. 55v and BL Add. MS 47682, f. 24 (2: 582, 136, 519). Similarly, oared vessels were regularly used in amphibious assaults in this period, often supported by fleets of carracks offshore. Oared vessels were also depicted in more peaceful contexts, and illuminations imply that small, oared craft were endemic throughout the period: Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 264, part 3, f. 228 (2: 134) illustrates the River Balacian (an upper stream of the Oxus) with two boats on river, one rowed by a man using oars running through oarports in the sheerstrake while he sits on a thwart. In comparison, BL Add. MS 54782, f. 126 (2: 525) shows a barge with four pairs of crew with oars in oarholes. Similar oared vessels are depicted on the Thames by the Tower of London in BL Roy. MS 16 F ii, f. 73 (2; 717, fig. 17).

Illuminations such as Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 764, f. 107 (2: 141. fig. 29) depict crew working to the direction of the helmsman as a team on rigging both on deck and up the masts, with a man pulling himself up the standing rigging towards the crosstrees. BNF Fr. MS 2810, f. 263v and Bib. Ars. MS 5187, f. 21 (2: 860, 807) illustrate virtually the same scene. Another example in BNF Lat. MS 6142, f. 1v (2: 909) showing men high up in the standing rigging and (composite) yards of a carrack, some crew climbing up the ratlines while others straddle the yards as they work on the furled sails and mend various blocks and ropes. Similarly, BL Harl. MS 4425, f. 86 (2: 649, fig. 92) shows a man climbing up ratlines. These and other illuminations suggest that specific equipment like ratlines did not come into use until th roughly the 13 century: there are no depictions of ratlines before this period in appendix 2. Examples like JRUL English MS 1, f. 23 (2: 41, fig. 9) include a man forward of the sail smoothing out creases and ensuring the sail takes its proper shape and maximum potential. A similar scene is visible in GUL Hunter. MS Ds. 2.3, plate D and Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D 4.17, f. 2v (2: 25, 116), where a lookout in bows again keeps the sail at best angle. Finally, illuminations like BNF Fr. MS 2643, f. 118 (2: 855) are a reminder that even during battle such work carried on, a man tugging at a halliard amidst a melee of vessels off Guernsey during the Hundred Years War.

Illuminations including BNF Fr. MS 9198, f. 50 and BNF Fr. MS 9199, f. 5 (2: 883-84) depict vessels being sculled. In both cases, a relatively long-loomed oar or paddle is held virtually upright and a distinctive figure-of-eight motion is implied in the movement of the oar and positioning of the crewman’s hands, with the palm side of one hand gripping the top of the loom, and the other hand lower down the loom, gripping it firmly, as is also illustrated in BNF Lat. MS 1673, f. 97v (2: 905). It is clear from such illuminations that medieval artists were aware of the distinction between rowing and sculling, including the relative sizes of vessels involved and the optimum conditions for each technique.

Shipboard Conflict Seaborne battles are particularly depicted in relation to carracks, with either one-on-one actions between vessels (e.g. BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art 6, f. 18v) (2: 561) or else massed fleets (e.g. 56

The Illuminated Ark

BNF Fr. MS 77, f. 386v) (2: 822), sometimes meshed together (e.g. BNF Fr. MS 2643, f. 72) (2: 855, fig. 7). BL Roy. MS 10 E iv, f. 19 (2: 687) is a classic example of a ship-to-ship duel between cogs, while BNF Fr. MS 5594, f. 269v (2: 868) depicts a typical melee of ships running at different angles, including vessels hooked onto one-another with grappling irons run on chains from the bows. Nearby, a vessel is sinking (not easy to achieve before the introduction of seaborne artillery, nor the objective of seaborne battle in this period, which was to capture vessels, cargo and crew). BNF Fr. MS 365, f. 89 (2: 837) depicts a similar scene of massed carracks in battle, including the use of small boats to board vessels, with troops balancing precariously in the boats with shields to deflect enemy arrow-fire. Folio 89 also highlights the difficulties of boarding larger vessels from small craft, with height and tumblehome an increasingly crucial factor. Depictions of both ship-to-ship action or else pitched battles between masses of ships are probably a fairly accurate rendering of medieval reality, supported by the evidence from contemporary observers like Froissart (Brereton 1968). Boarding was central to this process, resulting in hand-to-hand combat with standard weapons. Guns only really developed in the fifteenth century, and came fully into use - in terms of the modern perception of long-range cannon fire being used to sink or disable a ship - after the period in question (see van Creveld 1989: 51-66; Friel 1995: 153-56; Rose 2002: 127-29, 132-33).

CCCC MS 16, f. 163v (2: 334) depicts a comparable ‘counterstrike’ of incendiary arrows and slingshots in use on board vessels: the risks inherent to firing incendiary devices from wooden ships are apparent. An archaeological analogy for such behaviour comes from Hedeby 1, which appears to have been filled with hay or brushwood and deliberately set on fire between AD990-1010 as part of a seaborne attack on the port of Hedeby (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 94-95). The injuries that could be sustained in such conflict were well understood in this period through various ‘wound man’ diagrams, reflected in excavated assemblages like those from the barber-surgeon’s cabin of the Mary Rose (1: 508) and numerous other depictions of death and disease (see Platt 1996: figs. 3, 4, 7, 67-69, 87), and borne out by broader archaeological and documentary data (see Dyer 1998: fig. 1, passim.; Stirland 2000).

Illuminations like BNF Lat. MS 5565A, f. 101 (2: 907) demonstrate specific naval tactics, with a series of galleys running across the bows of a fleet of carracks, using their superior manoeuvrability to avoid their broadside artillery, a th th tactic well known during the 17 and 18 centuries, representative of the early origin of such ship-handling tactics. Illuminations reinforce the brutality and confusion of medieval maritime military action. The depictions of naval engagements of the Hundred Years War in manuscripts such as BNF Fr. MSS 2643-2645 (2: 855-57, figs. 7, 76, 77) show the full horror of troops crammed together on board small vessels, engaging first with longbows, and as the range shortens with spears, pikes, swords and even their bare hands, men thrown overboard in armour foundering alongside. The looks of anguish and desperation on men’s faces as they struggle with one-another in full armour are emotive. Illuminations also highlight individual acts of bravery, desperation or cowardice, such as the man tugging at the rigging while a mass of ships full of fighting troops drifts inshore in BNF Fr. MS 2643, f 118 (2: 855), the unemotional helmsman of BNF Fr. MS 9198, f. 21 (2: 833) whose crew are in disorder, or the robed helmsman protected from the battle raging all around him by nothing more than a free-standing castle in Fitz. Marlay Add. MS I, f. 86 (2: 364, fig. 4). BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art 6 (2: 561) is also a reminder that together with sophisticated weaponry could come bloodthirsty crudity: the vessels depicted are forms of early carrack armed with a variety of different sizes of gunpowder artillery, yet alongside these rocks are being hand-thrown at the enemy. Examples such as BL Harl. MS 4418, f. 80v and BL Roy. MS 16 G viii, f. 317 (2: 648, 727) illustrate the ultimate form of attack on wooden ships: throwing flaming tar or pitch over them. 57

Chapter Four – Thematic Analyses

58

The Illuminated Ark

Chapter Five: Conclusions

individual illuminations in 925 manuscripts from fifty-five British and French libraries. These two appendices demonstrate how much iconographic and excavated data are available for analysis in different libraries, archives and archaeological sites.

Comparisons between Archaeological and Iconographic Remains of Vessels The comparison of illuminations directly depictions of medieval identified in a variety accuracy noted.

As regards excavated remains, although other vessels of this period doubtless exist, appendix 1 represents the largest catalogue currently in existence. A survey of British county Historic Environment Records and their international equivalents (where such exist) would undoubtedly provide further data, as would a survey of the British Marine National Monument Record, British and international museum archives, and private databases such as Lloyd’s Register of Shipping and the Shipwreck Index of the British Isles (Larn and Larn 1995 >). These data also have potential for quantitative and statistical analyses outside the scope of this work, and it would also be worthwhile comparing iconographic and archaeological data in relation to documentary sources such as port books or tax rolls (see Studer 1913; Quinn and Ruddock 1937, 1938; Lewis 1993).

excavated remains and manuscript informs on the accuracy of artistic vessels. Specific hull components can be of illuminations, and the differences in

Within illuminations are both great variability of technical accuracy, and also notable absences. Examples of this technical variation include the greater levels of error in depictions of rigging in comparison to depictions of hulls; examples of absences in the iconographic record include the almost complete lack of depictions of capstans and windlasses, pieces of deck equipment that the majority of medieval vessels must have carried, and which have been identified within illuminations of architectural work on land by Binding and Nussbaum (1978: 93, 141, 165, 169, see also Binding 2004). Such variation raises the question of why and how individual variability occurs within illuminations. Although presence/absence is partially informed by stylistic convention, copying and the variable knowledge, skill and accuracy of individual artists, various patterns can potentially be perceived within this range.

As regards manuscript illuminations, appendix 2 represents a significant list of illuminations not only of ships, but also of most other features of the medieval maritime cultural landscape. However, this is by no means a full catalogue, reflecting rather the data accessible within the logistics of the research project behind this book. The majority of the 925 manuscripts analysed probably contain further maritime-themed illuminations, but short of going through each and every manuscript by hand - a process unlikely ever to be undertaken due to conservation, logistical and financial constraints - their complete extent will never be known.

Despite such concerns, the use of large samples of illuminations and archaeological remains allows patterns of repetitive accuracy to be identified - features that are consistently depicted more or less accurately, and the interconnections of different iconographic examples. The particular utility of large data-sets in this respect becomes clearer when illuminations and excavated remains are analysed simultaneously.

Contextual Environments of Archaeological and Iconographic Data The need to place any data within a solid contextual framework should be made clear by this book. Chapters two and three explored the social, political, economic, artistic and other motives behind the production of such a diverse range of iconography and archaeology, ‘the study... [being] sterile unless associated with... environmental, economic, social, and historical contexts’ (McGrail 1997c: 68). The analyses of this book highlight how much artists and shipbuilders were influenced by a variety of social, economic and cultural pressures that affected their respective crafts, and the similarities of the impact of these filters on both. During the medieval period in particular these two craft specialisms have much in common, reflecting extremely similar philosophical outlooks.

It is perhaps a felicitous result of an arbitrary and small dataselection, but there is surely some significance … The more one looks at the data, the more one understands and conceptualises the vessel’s characteristics. Each different mode of interpretation reinterprets the data and thus presents new questions and understanding (de Winter and Burningham 2001: 72).

The creation of a large sample of illuminations and its comparison to excavated data have demonstrated that virtually all the external components of the major northern European medieval shipbuilding traditions are depicted, together with many other types of vessel comparable to documentary evidence. Internal features of vessels are also sometimes depicted, and others implied by external forms of illuminations of vessels such as nail and strake patterns. Manuscript illuminations represent an unparalleled source of information, and should be granted due respect.

The comparison of excavated remains and illuminations allows the archaeological data to be analysed more deeply, not simply providing comparable data to advance technological hypotheses, but broadening perspectives, better understanding the sociocultural impetuses and emphases underlying different data, and appreciating how medieval vessels (both real and imagined) were ‘understood’, ‘conceptualised’ by different sectors of society. The context of illuminations at times directly mirrors that of excavated remains. As such, manuscript illuminations enrich

Catalogues of Archaeological and Iconographic Remains of Vessels Appendices 1 and 2 contain details of 996 excavated remains from sites in twenty-four countries across the world, and 2335 59

Chapter Five - Conclusions

technological analyses of vessel traditions and components. Illuminations provide data on the accuracy of artists, their perspective, knowledge of shipping, what was and was not an ‘important’ feature of a vessel to them, the use of exemplars, and many other areas of significance. Such interrogation of the data is essential if archaeology is to fully appreciate both the physical and cognitive aspects of maritime cultural environments. There is evidence from the comparison of illuminations and archaeological remains for the levels of skill and interest of artists, and the demands of patrons, even of the limitations of the artistic medium. Comparisons also highlight artistic schemes in which there was room for enhanced freedom of expression, such as depictions of works like Vegetius’s De Re Militari, which offered a greater than usual scope for artistic imagination. No matter how stylised such depictions can be, these depictions, and their stylisation, reflect the medieval mindset of shipbuilders as much as artists, with conservatism increasingly met by innovation and imagination. This is one reason why shipbuilding of this period underwent significant change and explored so many technological avenues.

Iconography and the arts of all types were important during the Middle Ages, much more important than is necessarily appreciated in the modern world. The arts did not depict secondary concerns: art reflected and negotiated issues of importance to the whole of society, not just a narrow socioeconomic group, playing-out these concerns out in multiple vibrant and changing mediums (see Eco 2002, especially 10515). More than ‘simple sets of pretty pictures… [these are] ‘different human expressions [that] can be regarded as various representations of the past… contemporary analogies to each other’ (Andrén 1993: 52). A comparison can be drawn with modern advertising, ‘the official art of modern capitalist society… what we put up in our streets and use to fill up our newspapers and magazines’ (Shanks and Tilley 1994: 214). Parallels exist between the levels of understanding and recognition of the arts in medieval society, and the levels of product recognition and brand loyalty in the modern world. Although the actual meanings and values expressed differ, the cognitive tools required for understanding the signs and signifiers presented and forms of language utilised are similar (Eco 2002: 119). Both manuscript illuminations and modern advertising make subtle social commentary on contemporary society, providing a broad context placed within a technologically-recognisable cultural milieu. A certain (perhaps surprising to us) degree of technological accuracy is thus central to social recognition and motivation of both these forms of art, such accuracy providing the necessary signifiers, the ‘appropriate’ context. Medieval illuminated manuscripts are no more likely to make technologically unrealistic, arcane or archaic depictions than modern advertising, unless the specific aim in ether case is to be unrealistic, arcane or archaic.

Regarding strictly technological considerations, a better understanding of the context of illuminations and archaeological remains reinforces four interrelated conclusions: 1.

2.

3.

4.

As posited by Adams (2001: 303-04), ships - and the different data for these - reflect broader technological changes within their contemporary society particularly well. An example is the development of gunpowder-fired artillery, for which manuscript illuminations provide a clear chronological technological progression. As posited by Kobylinski (1988, 1995), Cederlund (1994) and Crumlin-Pedersen and Munch Thye (1995), it is clear that ships were of particular symbolic importance to medieval society. Manuscript illuminations such as BNF Fr. MS 2829, f. 47v, BL MS Add. 54782, f. 126 and BL MS Roy. 11 e xi (2: 860, 522 and 686, fig. 14) make abundantly clear the overt symbolic power of vessels to every level and sector of medieval society. As posited by Unger (1991: 142-45), medieval artists were aware of technological change in shipbuilding, potentially more so than for other contemporary technologies, consistently reflecting this in their art, which changed demonstrably and improved technically during the Middle Ages. For example, the clear progression of the different forms of the Nordic shipbuilding tradition in manuscript illuminations, including the appearance of ‘evolved’ forms of Nordic-cog hybrid, is particularly instructive of this process. Information of direct use to technological analyses can be gained from better understanding the context of sources (Phillips 1999: 593), with such technological information residing within all illuminated manuscripts. The evidence presented in this book for the likely hull construction, rig, propulsion, steering gear, use and distinctive characteristics of the hypothesised hulc tradition is an excellent example of this.

Shipbuilding Traditions within Comparative Manuscript Illuminations Chapter four demonstrates how the comparison of illuminations and excavated remains can both confirm established conclusions on medieval shipbuilding traditions and also provide new information. Changes to different medieval shipbuilding traditions - up to the emergence of the multi-masted ship during the early modern period - are the greatest example of technological change in pre-industrial Europe, reflecting in one generic development many thousands of changes to individual components of vessels (Muckelroy 1978: 3; Steffy 2000: 26667). Illuminations reflect this change in microcosm, with virtually all the key changes to shipbuilding traditions and components depicted in approximately - and increasingly accurate - chronological order. When excavated assemblages are compared to a large range of illuminations the immense number of comparisons possible is made clear here: numerous components of excavated assemblages can be compared with illuminations, with a high level of observable repetition of different features. Even those features that do not survive in the excavated assemblage reoccur so regularly and consistently in manuscript illuminations that it is likely many illuminations depict components that actually existed on original vessels rather than being artistic licence. 60

The Illuminated Ark

Archaeological remains also survive for parts of vessels that illuminations do not depict, such as frames: some of these are implied in manuscript illuminations in the form of such vessels or specific components depicted. The result is a composite, complementary and comparative exploration of vessel traditions, producing information incapable of being reached were either source to be used in isolation or a smaller range of data employed.

‘conservatism’ of medieval shipwrights was not mutually exclusive to technological interaction – a medieval shipwright could be both conservative and yet still experiment, especially where one established tradition was interacting with another established tradition, and no tradition developed in isolation, traditions being polythetic in form. The study of medieval shipbuilding has to accept this, has to see ‘traditions’ as being fluid and flexible ‘guidelines’ rather than rigid and inflexible boundaries. Only in such a way can this particular section of st archaeological inquiry continue and flourish in the 21 century.

In particular, the analyses of this book imply that medieval shipbuilding traditions frequently influenced one another, particularly the Nordic and cog traditions. Illuminations of vessels exist with repetitive, distinctive characteristics shared by the Nordic and cog traditions, such as JRUL French MS 1, f. 226 and BL Add. MS 10294, ff. 44, 47v, 65v, 79, 94v, Eger. MS 1894, f. 4 and Roy. MS 14 E iii, ff. 9, 32, 36, 45, 51, 68, 125, 125v, 153, 153v) (2: 42, 406, 593, 701, figs. 6, 37, 44). These correlate with archaeological evidence such as the Gedesby ship (1: 349), constructed in the Nordic tradition but displaying coglike features in the stern and in the system of beams and knees (Crumlin-Pedersen 2000a: 242, fig. 10). Together, archaeological and iconographic data imply that the interaction of the cog and Nordic shipbuilding traditions was ongoing, constant and complex throughout the period in question, with no tradition developing in isolation, traditions being polythetic in form. This interaction and development supports conclusions derived from the recent reinterpretation of both excavated data from sites such as Kollerup and Gedesby (1: 315, 349) (Weski 1999a: 364-66; Crumlin-Pedersen 2000a: 240-44, figs. 9-10) and place-name studies, runic inscriptions and other iconographic and textual sources (Weski 1999a: 364-66). In the light of these data, further work is required regarding the nature of interaction in medieval shipbuilding technology: after decades of development, current definitions of traditions are moving onto another level to reflect this (McGrail 1997a: 77, 205).

The Middle and Later Nordic Traditions Illuminations make clear that there was a time-lag between Nordic vessels being in use and illuminations of these appearing. Illuminations of the 11th to 13 th centuries depict Nordic vessels th more comparable to the (10 century) phase of the Nordic shipbuilding tradition. Illuminations also depict craft demonstrably smaller, lighter and less sophisticated in the earlier period. Partly this is an issue of art history: the illustrative arts of th the 10 century never depict either vessels or any similar technologies. However, this absence still means that later artists even the highly skilled and socially aware members of the monastic communities that largely produced the manuscripts in question - were working in deliberately archaic forms. This is interesting to note, particularly so in comparison to later examples of vessel traditions, for which the best manuscript comparisons are more contemporary with excavated remains. In comparison to the Middle Nordic tradition, it becomes clear that by the time Later Nordic vessels (like that from Sandwich) (1: 411) were being built, artists were depicting vessels almost contemporaneous to vessels actually in use at this time, a notable th th shift in circumstances. From the 12 to 13 centuries onwards, illuminations begin to catch up with archaeological remains, there being a smaller time-lapse between the dates of remains and comparable illuminations. This lack of time-lapse implies a growing awareness of technological change among artists, hinting at the relationship between shipbuilding and the arts, and how illuminations reflect change (see Unger 1991a; Adams 2001, passim.). This also reinforces archaeological hypotheses suggesting that later medieval Europe underwent dramatic technological advancement, in which maritime technology was at the forefront (see White 1962, 1978; Brandt and Hochkirch 1995; Friel 1995: 157-80; McGee 1999; Phillips 1999). Illuminations also imply an intermixing of the Later Nordic and cog traditions, depicting vessels stylistically within the Later Nordic tradition, but with relatively straighter outer edges on more raking posts comparative to overall hull shape (e.g. JRUL French MS 1, f. 226 and BL Add. MS 10294, ff. 44, 47v, 65v, 79, 94v, Eger. MS 1894, f. 4 and Roy. MS 14 E iii, ff. 9, 32, 36, 45, 51, 68, 125, 125v, 153, 153v) (2: 42, 406, 593, 701, figs. 6, 37, 44). This appears to be a distinctive characteristic of this intermixing of traditions, although insufficiently distinctive on its own to justify calling it a ‘tradition’ in itself.

It has also been suggested (see Sleeswyk and Lehmann 1982, 1990; Simmons 1991; Unger 1991: 4-6; Villain-Gandossi 1994: 171-72; Oertling 1996; Mott 1997) that there is a consistent time-lag between innovations in vessel technology and the appearance of such innovation in illuminations, the result of copying from exemplars and other forms of art, artistic ignorance of technological change, and other factors. While illuminations of the Nordic tradition support this hypothesis, illuminations of cogs demonstrate a narrowing of the ‘time-lag’, and illuminations of carracks its virtual disappearance. This implies that artistic knowledge of technological change increased in the Middle Ages, reflecting long-term shifts within popular culture that came to fruition during the Renaissance. A series of questions, concerns and observations are also raised here that other scholars might wish to consider. In particular, and above all other conclusions, the comparison of archaeological and iconographic data then makes one fact abundantly clear: medieval shipbuilding traditions interacted with one-another regularly and constantly. Thus, medieval shipbuilding, for all its ‘conservatism’, remained open to experimentation, innovation and alteration. The distinctive form of technological

It is interesting, if surprising, to note that there are a number of features in manuscript illuminations which contradict existing 61

Chapter Five - Conclusions

of the ends of beams into the hull can be characteristic of later vessels of the tradition.

(archaeologically-based) hypotheses regarding the hull form and components of Middle Nordic vessels. In particular, illuminations depict a number of Middle Nordic vessels with port quarter rudders (e.g. Bod. Lib. Bod. S 602, f. 22v) (2: 138), supported by occasional archaeological finds (e.g. the possible port quarter rudder from Jungshoved) (1: 257) (see CrumlinPedersen 1966, fig. 3; McGrail 1998: 245, 249), these imply that a small number of Middle Nordic vessels carried port quarter rudders, for reasons that are unclear. Illuminations also emphasise that quarter rudders extended considerably below keel level (e.g. Bod. Lib. Barlow MS 6, f. 155v and Junius MS 11, ff. 65, 66, 67, CUL MS Ee. 3. 59, f. 12v) (2: 124, 249, 392, figs. 18, 32), contradicting hypotheses that suggest Middle Nordic vessels had the entire blade above keel level: rudders appear to have been put into the latter position only in specific conditions when nearing land, beaching, etc. Some vessels with Middle/Late Nordic characteristics also had median rudders (e.g. BL Add. MS 42130, f. 161v and Bod. Lib. Douce MS 353, f. 31) (2: 514, 229, figs. 3, 16), and it is unclear from illuminations exactly when the shift from quarter to median rudders occurred, or even if there was a definite and permanent move from the one technology to the other (as suggested by Mott 1997: 104). Illuminations also reinforce the excavated evidence for the continued use of oars late into the time-range of the Nordic tradition, on all sizes of vessel, up to the present day (e.g. BL Slo. MS 3983, f. 13 and Cott. Vesp. MS A vii, f. 6) (2: 780, 577).

Manuscript illuminations also provide several details that excavated remains on their own do not provide, In particular, masthead pennants are as distinctive of the Nordic tradition as carved posts in manuscript illuminations, being exceptionally common (e.g. BL Cott. Claud. MS D ii, ff. 42v, 45v and Cott. Claud. MS D vi, ff. 6v, 12v) (2: 553-54, fig. 38), together with decorated sails (e.g. BL Harl. MS 5102, f. 129 and Roy. MS 14 C vii, f. 116v) (2: 657, 695, fig. 30). Given the occasional survival of fabric on waterlogged archaeological sites, future archaeological investigations would be strongly recommended to keep a close watch for such discoveries, and, if found, to consider whether fabric discoveries may not be those of clothing or sails as usually assumed, but rather flags and pennants. Distinctions can also be noted between the Middle and Later Nordic traditions in terms of embellishment: Later Nordic vessels have both the decorated and carved prows and pennants flying from the masthead of the Early Nordic tradition, but also crenellated castles and heraldic shields carried by troops or fixed along the sheer (e.g. BL Roy. MS 17 E vii, ff. 11v, 111, 369 and Roy. MS 19 D i, ff. 30, 37, 37v, 55, 58, 136, 187v, 213, CUL MS Ee. 3.59, f. 12v) (2: 731, 746, 392, fig. 32). Illuminations of Later Nordic vessels also have a greater association with armoured troops and other military contexts than Middle Nordic vessels (e.g. BNF Fr. MS 2813, ff. 237, 245v, 281, 298v, 299v, Fr. MS 301, f. 153v, BL Roy. MS 14 C vii, ff. 4v, 5, 116v and CUL MS Ee. 3.59, f. 12v) (2: 861, 836, 695, 392, figs. 30, 32).

Alongside such data can then also be placed the substantial evidence from manuscript illuminations that Later Nordic vessels in particular had more elongated and nearly symmetrical hulls in relation to overall depth than other vessels (e.g. BL Slo. MS 278, ff. 42, 47, 51) (2: 776, fig. 49), as well as heavy wales and rubbing strakes at key points like the sheerstrake (e.g. BL Add. MS 10043, f. 11v and Cott. Nero MS D i, ff. 11-11v, 22v, BNF Fr. MS 100, ff. 71, 109) (2: 403, 566, 824) (related to the use/introduction of median rudders?). Illuminations also imply square ended castles above the deadwood at the stern, possibly early forms of poop-deck with transoms (e.g. BL Add. 14 E MS 47682, f. 22 and Bod. Lib. Douce MS 353, f. 31) (2: 519, 229, figs. 16, 40). Such endworks both directly depict, or at least imply, the use of naturally shaped timbers, such as at the ends of the pillars supporting the castles, slotting over the sheerstrake (e.g. Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 764, f. 74v, BL Add. MS 42130, f. 161v, Cott. Claud. MS D ii, f. 45v and Roy. MS 15 E vi, f. 207, Bib. Ars. MS 5070, f. 91v and BNF Fr. MS 1454, f. 1) (2: 141, 514, 553, 714, 804, 849, figs. 27, 41). Such timbers would have been of relatively higher quality than sawn frames of the same shape, and imply that supplies of high quality timber were still available in this period, together with the skills to work such timber. Finally, illuminations imply that some Later Nordic vessels had crossbeams projecting through the sides, while others did not, with no consistent pattern (e.g. BL Add. MS 47682, f. 22, Roy. MS 16 G i, f.9, Harl. MS 4418, f. 80v, Eger. MS 2709, f. 2 and BNF Lat. MS 8200, f. 49v) (2: 519, 721, 648, 599, 913, figs. 40, 58, 74): crossbeams projecting through the side are characteristics of earlier vessels of the tradition, while the butting

Overall, these observations regarding steering gear and hull-form (especially at the stern) prompt an urgent need for additional investigation through experimental archaeology, in particular the relative merits and uses of port vs. starboard quarter rudders, and of quarter vs. median rudders, as well as the use of oars on the largest Nordic reconstructions available. If costs allowed, a halfor even-full-size ‘reconstruction’ or replica of a Later Nordic vessel of the St. Peter Port/Newport/Sandwich (1: 367-68, 413, 910-14, 927, 411) type would be most suitable, allowing a detailed consideration of the overall hull construction of such vessels and thus stability/seaworthiness, as well as details such as the integration of endcastles into the hull, the types of steering gear used, and the possibility of using oars under any conditions on such craft. At present, the numerous very fine replicas of Nordic vessels in use are entirely of earlier vessels of the 11thth 12 century: what is now needed is a vessel comparable to those th th in use in the 13 -14 centuries, which could reveal so much about the later stages of the tradition (including interaction with other traditions and thus responsive technological innovation), and could also be sailed in comparison to other contemporaries such as the various reconstructions of the Bremen cog. Admittedly the costs of such a reconstruction would be considerable, but from the evidence provided by manuscript illuminations, the cost would appear well worth it. The major barrier to such a project would seem, in any case, to be as much technological as financial – without a fully preserved single hull to study, such a reconstruction would inevitably have to be an amalgam of the data from several different vessel finds, and the 62

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happen, for instance, if a cog were found with artillery weapons or a gunport, or even the implication of such weapons such as scorching along a gunwale or the discovery of a powder-horn or other artillery equipment), and also for art-historical studies, since such a marked distinction implies once again an artistic awareness of and familiarity with this subtle but important distinction between vessel types, uses, and hull form.

tools, technologies and processes of construction would have to be learnt ‘on the job’. The Cog Tradition th

Manuscript illuminations imply that by approximately the 13 to 14th centuries, the ‘time-lag’ between the use of a vessel tradition and its depiction appears to have either ceased completely or been significantly reduced. Most illuminations comparable to th th those of cogs of the 13 to 14 centuries onwards are broadly contemporary with archaeological assemblages, supporting Unger’s (1991) hypotheses that artists were informed directly by contemporary technological developments.

Manuscript illuminations particularly contradict a number of longstanding hypotheses regarding the steering and sailing mechanisms of cogs that are derived both from archaeology and other iconographic sources, particularly seals. Firstly, illuminations contradict the suggestion that some early cogs used th a quarter rudder (possibly a firrer), while cogs of the 13 century onwards used a median rudder. None of the excavated remains of cogs within appendix 1 can be absolutely certain to have carried either a quarter rudder or firrer, whereas many can be proven to have carried median rudders. Similarly, only a few illuminations of vessels with cog hull characteristics carry quarter rudders (e.g. BL Add. MS 19896, f. 1v, Add. MS 22318, ff. 2, 4, 44, Add. MS 24189, ff. 3v, 4v, 5, 8, 8v, 9 and Roy. MS 14 C vii, f. 2) (2: 453, 460, 467, 695, figs. 59, 60), in comparison to numerous illuminations of cogs with distinctive hull characteristics combined with detailed depictions of median rudders, often with pintle and gudgeon arrangements (e.g. BL Harl. MS 4431, ff. 127, 128) (2: 650), and sometimes tiller arrangements through a helm-port into an enclosed cabin (e.g. BL Harl. MS 4425, ff. 86, 117v) (2: 649, fig. 92). This evidence throws the use of both quarter rudders and/or firrers into doubt on cogs. Secondly, illuminations contradict the hypothesis that cogs experimented with other sail forms than the square sail. The excavated evidence for this is scanty, and there is no distinctive change in the shape of cog sails depicted in manuscript illuminations. Fore-and-aft sails have not been identified in cog illuminations; most frequently illuminations depict single central masts set at or slightly forward of amidships (e.g. BL Roy. MS 18 E ii, f. 70v) (2: 737), with set or furled square or rectangular sails (e.g. BL Roy. MS 20 B xx, f. 77v) (2: 757, fig. 62).

Manuscript illuminations of cogs also demonstrate that this was a broad tradition comprising a range of different vessels that are more or less technologically related, some of which can be identified within the archaeological and iconographic record (Weski 1999a, 1999b). This in turn increases our understanding of different traditions of medieval vessels, particularly the need for broader analytical ‘band-width’, in which traditions are understood as having blurred boundaries. At the start, and up to the middle of the main period of cog-use, this breadth is exemplified by the interaction of the cog and Nordic traditions reflected in manuscript illuminations, with a distinctive style of vessel appearing in a number of illuminations with both cog and Nordic characteristics. Certain vessels depicted include the key cog characteristics noted in chapter four, together with the diagnostic Nordic characteristic of a (near) double-ended form. This small group of depictions also share distinctive characteristics amongst themselves, characteristics that are distinctive only of this intermingling of the cog and Nordic traditions. These unusual characteristics include slightly curved posts at bow and stern, relatively high sides comparative to length, and stepped posts (e.g. the strakes scarfed to winged posts) (e.g. JRUL French MS 1, f. 226, BL Add. MS 10294, ff. 44, 47v, 65v, 79, 94v and Roy. MS 14 E iii, ff. 9, 32, 36, 45, 51, 68, 125, 125v, 153, 153v (2: 42, 406, 701, figs. 37, 44).

Manuscript illuminations also make clear that, in comparison to illuminations of other vessel traditions, cogs were used as much if not more for military as for trading purposes (e.g. BL Harl. MS 3448, f. 42, Add. MS 42130, f. 161v and Burn. MS 257, ff. 77v, 148v, 152v, 155, 155v, 226v, 245v, 261, 250v, 290v, 450v) (2: 627, 514, 543, fig. 3). This hypothesis is supported by the fact that illuminations make clear that in comparison to other vessel traditions, cogs have relatively less embellishment, and that which is present can be struck down, including flagpoles on the deck (e.g. BL Add. MS 10294, ff. 44, 47v, 65v, 79, 94v), and flags and pennants in the rigging (e.g. BL Cott. Claud. MS D ii, ff. 42v, 45v) (2: 406, 553, figs. 37, 38). Such conclusions by no means diminish the clear evidence for a major trade role demonstrated by documentary and other iconographic evidence, but rather, puts a new and different ‘spin’ on this context of vessel use. There is plentiful evidence from other periods and locations for heavily armed merchant vessels used in both defensive and offensive capacities (such as the various East India th th companies of the 18 and 19 century); there is also clear

By the late era of cog-use, such iconographic and archaeological comparisons inform on the position of the cog in the development of later medieval ‘composite’ vessels. The comparison of such data reinforces the fact that the Bremen cog in particular was a late variant of the tradition, subtly reflecting in its hull characteristics movement towards the first generation of carracks in terms both of overall size (especially hull size), and the use of complex, hull-integrated median rudders running into at least proto-transom sterns. What marks a late-generation cog out from an early-generation carrack in manuscript illuminations is, more than anything else, not a question of hull form, size, rig or steering mechanism, but social/cultural context and, crucially, armament – no hypothesised depiction of a cog every carries gunpowder weapons of any kind; many depictions of hypothesised carracks do. This is significant both in terms of archaeological and art-historical analyses, since it carries major implications for future archaeological discoveries (what would 63

Chapter Five - Conclusions

circumstantial evidence from numerous medieval documents for ‘ships taken up from trade’, such as at the Cinque Ports in particular but more generally around many of the major ports and harbours of Europe, including vessels in the ownership of abbeys and priories (for instance, the Cistercian houses of Holm Cultram and Greyabbey on the Irish Sea which had vessels and services taken up by Edward I ) (see McErlean et al. 2002: 182-85). In this context of use, the cog can be seen as a far more flexible vessel, both in terms of its technological characteristics – particularly its hull form – and its use. Illuminations help free the cog from the stereotyped role forced upon it by reliance on data from seals, especially those of the Hanseatic League, where the socio-economic context of these artworks placed clear and powerful stylistic demands; there is more to the cog than Hanseatic trade.

BL Loan MS 88, ff. 4-4v) (2: 674). This combination appears distinctive of the tradition, and as discussed in chapter four, suggests that the hulc was a form of ‘proto’-galleass, influenced by earlier developments in the Mediterranean since the Classical era, such a hypothesis explaining both the unusual hull shape of the vessel and also the marked absence of the hulc in the archaeological record, because the hull structures of such vessels, use, equipment and maintenance, do not favour survival. Illuminations also provide a wealth of additional material contradicting virtually every hypothesis previous put forward for this vessel ‘tradition’, regarding not only its possible hull configuration but also its steering and sailing mechanisms, embellishment and use. For instance, hulcs are more associated with military and ceremonial than trading contexts in illuminated manuscripts (e.g. BL Add. MS 15477, ff. 2v, 3v, 8, 11, 17v, 21, 22-22v, 26, 49-50, 51v, Ar. MS 66, f. 45 and Harl. MS 4374, ff. 88, 105, 165) (2: 422, 531, 639). Hulcs were also the most brightly decorated of all medieval shipbuilding traditions in illuminated manuscripts, with heraldic shields, flags and pennants (e.g. Bod. Lib. Auct. MS F. 2. 29) (2: 122), carved, painted and decorated strakes and posts (e.g. BL Harl. MS 1766, ff. 31, 112 and Harl. MS 3244, ff. 27, 71, 60, 60v, 61, 62) (2: 615, 625), and masthead crosses, weathervanes and pennants (e.g. Bod. Lib. Tanner MS 184, ff. 1, 14, 18, 49) (2: 295). Together, these conclusions seriously question whether or not the hulc’s primary role was, as suggested, one of trade. As discussed in relation to the cog-tradition, such conclusions do not diminish the evidence for a trade role demonstrated by other iconographic evidence, but rather, put a new and different ‘spin’ on this context of vessel use, in which the hulc, like the cog, is understood to have been a far more flexible vessel, both in terms of its technological characteristics – particularly its hull form – and its use, illuminations freeing both the cog and the hulc from the stereotyped roles forced upon such vessels by reliance on the data from specific iconographic sources such as seals and coins, where the socio-economic context of these artworks placed clear and powerful stylistic demands.

The Hulc Tradition Illuminations demonstrate that many of the features frequently used to identify possible hulcs are in fact shared with other shipbuilding traditions, particularly variants of the Nordic tradition. Furthermore, a relatively narrow range of iconographic sources is used in almost all discussions of hulcs (e.g. Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 401, f. 55v, CCCO MS 157, f. 383, CCCC MS 16, ff. 42v, 55v, BL Add. MS 47682, f. 24, E iii J, Harl. Roll Y6, Loan MS 88, f. 4v and Roy. MS 16 G i, f. 9, BNF Fr. MS 101, f. 349, Fr. MS 2829, f. 32v and Fr. MS 5594) (2: 136, 303, 334, 519, 581, 661, 674, 721, 825, 863, 868, figs. 2, 13, 19, 42), the identification of a hulc usually based on one or all of four rather un-distinctive features. Few of the characteristics of these illuminations have any archaeological basis, and many have a disputed documentary presence (Weski 1999b: 101-03): out of the excavated assemblages in appendix 1, none provide evidence for all - or even a majority - of these distinctive features. While absence of evidence is never evidence of absence, such a consistently negative correlation of iconographic, documentary and archaeological evidence is unlikely. The comparison of excavated and iconographic remains implies a range of other hulc-type vessels sharing the common characteristic of ends terminating vertically without posts. For instance, illuminations such as BL Roy. MS 15 D iii, f. 12, BNF Fr. MS 10420, f. 1v and BNF Fr. MS 2091, ff. 125, 211 (2: 707, 886, 851, fig. 94) depict river craft with this and other hulc characteristics: a hulc tradition in this sense is a broad-reaching definition of a host of developments over time to different forms and sizes of vessel - a truly polythetic grouping. Illuminations also demonstrate that some features used to identify possible hulcs are shared with other shipbuilding traditions, particularly the Nordic tradition. These include the use of a starboard quarter rudder in earlier vessels (e.g. BL Add. MS 22318, f. 4 and BNF Lat. MS 10136, f. 105v) (2: 460, 918), and a median rudder in later vessels (e.g. BL Roy. MS 19 E vi, ff. 10, 15, 78, 115v, 126, 281, 388v, 396v, 403, etc.) (2: 752, fig. 61), a single mast at or near amidships with a square sail (e.g. BL Roy. MS 14 C vii, ff. 2, 4v, 5, 116v, 134v) (2: 695, fig. 30), and the introduction of endcastles (e.g. BL Roy. MS 16 F ix, ff. 3, 8v) (2: 720), frequently combined with oars run through the sheerstrake (e.g.

The Carrack Tradition Manuscript illuminations of the carrack highlight what a misunderstood tradition this remains, as much, if not more, misunderstood than the hulc, since the distinctive characteristics of the tradition remain unclear, that the date of the first ‘true’ appearance of the carrack remains unknown, definitive archaeological data is lacking, and the data used to identify the tradition is sparsely analysed. While numerous illuminations depict carrack-like vessels, and while archaeological remains such as those of the Mary Rose and San Juan (1: 508, 562) are carracks of some sort, the only really distinctive characteristic shared by all these is complexity of construction, hull form, components, rigging and use. The biggest question that remains is what this data implies for specific technological interaction between shipbuilding traditions in the ‘age of the carrack’. Manuscript illuminations strongly imply a consistent, long-term interaction between the Nordic and cog traditions, a hypothesis also demonstrated within archaeological remains. Other 64

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documentary and iconographic sources, together with archaeological evidence, also imply that numerous different shipbuilding traditions influenced the form of the carrack, including not only the Nordic and cog traditions, but also the Mediterranean ‘round ship’, and/or the connected ‘IberianAtlantic tradition’ by way of the caravel (a vessel far more mysterious than Greenhill’s hulc) – which may or may not have th been ‘the’ definitive ‘carrack’. Vessels such as the 15 century Newport ship (1: 927) then muddy the waters even further, given that this appears to be a skeleton-built, clinker-planked vessel with a combination of Nordic and Iberian shipbuilding characteristics made of (or substantially repaired using) Iberianoriginated timbers (and with a Portuguese coin in the mast-step) even if not definitively built in the Iberian peninsular – a Nordiccarrack? The carrack in this sense is the ultimate ‘polythetic’ tradition, and changes over time reflect the development of the carrack in manuscript illuminations, within four broad iconographic phases: 







5594, ff. 112, 232 and 269v, Lat. MS 10491, f. 166v and Fr. MS 22540, f. 59) (2: 868, 919, 892, fig. 15). Manuscript illuminations also provide ample evidence for a wealth of experimentation on board carracks, to an extent never witnessed on depictions of any other shipbuilding tradition, a fact which is significant in itself. Partly, this experimentation can be attributed to stylisation and artistic experimentation, th particularly as regards lay manuscripts of the 15 century onwards, where artists and patrons alike were not so tied to artistic cycles, exemplars and pattern-books. However, such constant and varied experimentation cannot solely be attributed to this tendency, and it is fair to argue that at least a proportion of such technological variation reflects genuine experimentation by shipwrights with a new, evolving form of shipbuilding. Illuminations in particular depict a variety of different forms of bow, including cut-waters, beak-heads, gripes, sharp and blunt bows (e.g. BNF Lat. MS 10491, f. 166v, Fr. 77 and Fr. MS 124, BL Cott. Tib. MS A vii, f. 81) (2: 919, 822, 829, 571, fig. 15), tiered upperworks, with and without castles, crenellations, gunand cargo-ports, and decoration (e.g. BNF Lat. MS 5565A, f. 101 and Fr. MS 594, f. 112) (2: 907, 868). Interestingly, the one major example of stability and lack of experimentation in illuminations of carracks is at the stern, where the basic structure and characteristics of an integrated, transom-stern above a median rudder is repeated constantly with virtually no significant variation. This is also arguably the most crucial technological section of such vessels – all of the other developments noted above can, to a lesser or greater extent, ‘pivot’ upon this one technological hinge, a strong argument in favour of the hypothesis that at least a proportion of such technological variation reflects genuine experimentation by shipwrights rather than artistic licence.

Early carrack-like vessels with a square-ended castle at the stern, extra framing and planking at locations like the sheer, deadwood at the stern to support a median rudder, an open waist, a small, integrated but un-tiered quarterdeck structure, and a single, central mast and yard with a square sail set without advanced rig or mast equipment (e.g. BL Harl. MS 4205, f. 1 and Add. MS 35311, f. 348v, BNF Fr. MS 136, f. 26 and Fr. MS 2810, f. 263, Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 264, part 3) (2: 635, 496, 831, 860, 134, figs. 5, 55, 56, 57). As noted above, such vessels bear numerous technological similarities to late cogs, the main if not only technological distinction between these two being the presence/absence of artillery weapons. Carrack-like vessels which include the characteristics noted for the phase above within a relative increase in overall size of the hull, with a more steeply-sided, carvel-planked hull shape and relatively more ‘rounded’ posts than the earlier vessels (e.g. BNF Fr. MSS 2643-2646) (2: 855-58, figs. 7, 75, 76, 77). Carrack-like vessels which include the characteristics noted for the two phases above together with a continued increase in the relative overall size of the hull, the appearance of multiple masts and sails, the use of more detailed rigs and castles, and innovations in weaponry, particularly the full appearance of – rather than occasional appearance and experimentation with - gunpowder weaponry (e.g. BL Harl. MS 4380, f. 189v, Harl. MS 4425, f. 86, Fr. MS 53, f. 142, Roy. MS 11 E xi, f. 2 and Cott. Julius MS E iv, art 6, BNF Fr. MS 38, f. 157) (2: 643, 649, 819, 689, 561, 818, figs. 78, 92). Later carrack-like vessels which include all the characteristics noted for the phases above together with a marked increase in relative overall size of the hull in comparison, proportionately advanced rigging and sail plan, fully, multiple-tiered castles (particularly at the stern), and a relative increase in the complexity and scale of armament, including the appearance of rows of projectile artillery firing through tiered gunports (e.g. as BNF Fr. MS

Vessel Components Illuminations

within

Comparative

Manuscript

A composite reconstruction of any medieval shipbuilding tradition created from the comparative evidence of illuminations and excavated remains would have most of the components of a real vessel. Neither archaeological nor iconographic data are capable of providing such an in-depth understanding of medieval vessels if considered in isolation. The large-scale analysis of illuminations demonstrates how many of the external features of a vessel are depicted at different times, with a high degree of technical accuracy. The majority of the excavated remains of vessel components detailed in appendix 1 can be usefully compared with the details of numerous illuminations, with a high level of observable repetition. Some features not directly portrayed in illuminations are implied by other features, particularly the likely form of the framing and internal layout of vessels. Manuscript illuminations help archaeologists to perceive and understand the vessel and its context in a form that the archaeological data alone cannot provide. Appendix 3 contains a detailed list of vessel components depicted in manuscript illuminations, and provides: 65

Chapter Five - Conclusions

1. 2. 3. 4.

A generic definition as derived from archaeology. Where applicable, a definition of the profile characteristics of each term/component as most commonly depicted in manuscript illuminations. Where present, a list of representative archaeological examples within appendix 1. Where present, a list of manuscript illuminations within appendix 2.

and this is a major gap in our understanding that there should, hypothetically, be archaeological data for. Regarding steering gear, manuscript illuminations lead to three significant conclusions; firstly, that oared vessels of great variety were known throughout the Middle Ages, with a wide range of types, sizes and uses of vessels from every period and location, particularly in military-associated contexts such as ‘landing’ craft’; secondly, that medieval artists also appear to have had a firm grasp of the practical technicalities and of and differences between rowing and sculling; thirdly, that as noted above many hulcs depicted carried a median rudder combined with oars run through the sheerstrake, a central mast and single yard near amidships, meaning that that the hulc may have been a form of ‘proto’-galleass, a fact which not only explains its unusual hypothesised hull configuration but also its absence from the archaeological record. Regarding vessel embellishment, it is clear from manuscript illuminations that the limited excavated data for embellishment reflects poorly on the actual nature of medieval vessels, which illuminations show to have frequently been brightly coloured. There is also a demonstrable change in embellishment of vessels over the period, which reflect not only the shape of vessels and opportunities for embellishment, but also their uses and operating environments. In particular, hulcs have the most embellishment of any vessel type, and cogs and carracks have decoration capable of being struck down, possibly reflecting the first moves towards more austere warships in which it was tactically advantageous to make a vessel more drab. In a similar vein, as regards trading equipment, depictions of cogs are associated with war as much as trade, and hulcs to ceremonial activities. Nor is there any illumination within appendix 2 depicting a carrack in specific relation to trade. In purely quantitative terms, it is interesting to note that Middle and Later Nordic vessels are those vessels most likely to be associated with trade.

A consideration of the numerous correlations between the archaeological and iconographic sources analysed reveals some intriguing results. So too does a consideration of the evidence from manuscript illuminations for features of vessels not currently known from archaeological analyses of the period, and also the evidence from archaeology that iconographic data does not provide. The specific details provided by manuscript illuminations that support, or contradict, archaeological data and hypotheses are discussed in chapter four. However, a few of these details are of particular significance and thus worthy of further discussion. As regards hull structures, the most significant discovery is the fact that illuminations of clinker and reverse-clinker planking demonstrate that the two artistic combinations of: [a] reverseclinker planking depicted with ‘clinker’ nail locations, and [b] clinker planking depicted with ‘reverse-clinker’ nail locations are not observed in the manuscripts in appendix 2: i.e. in no depiction does the ‘shadow’ phenomenon contradict the ‘nail’ phenomenon. That only practical reverse-clinker fastening solutions are depicted is significant: the two artistic possibilities noted above are both technologically unworkable combinations. That such a large sample of illuminations never depict the two unworkable combinations of plank form and nail location is unlikely to be the result of random chance, particularly given the potential for artistic confusion of these combinations, the significance of which is not immediately obvious to the casual observer. This implies either that artists were aware of this technological faux pas and strove not to depict it, with important consequences for artistic knowledge of technology, or that such artists slavishly followed reality, never making an error, implying a level of accuracy at odds with errors elsewhere in illuminations.

As regards military equipment and tactics, the most notable discovery is the use of small boats to board vessels. Illuminations also highlight in particular the difficulties of boarding larger vessels from small craft, with height and tumblehome an increasingly crucial factor. Manuscripts also demonstrate the development of other specific naval tactics well-known by the early-modern period, such as oared vessels running past the stern of sailing ships to attack the undefended stern galley. These sources thus provide an intriguing insight into the origins of many ‘classic’ naval tactics such as ‘cutting out’ expeditions upon large moored vessels by small craft, amphibious assaults by smaller craft under the covering fire provided by larger vessels offshore, and close-quarter combat tactics for ship-on-ship duels. Documentary history traditionally ascribes the development of such tactics to much later, in the post-medieval period once the ‘full-rigged’ ship had properly evolved into a stable format; manuscript illuminations demonstrate instead that at least the origins of many such techniques lie in the Middle Ages.

Regarding vessel superstructures, it is notable that manuscript illuminations imply that simple, free-standing bow- and sterncastles were regularly added to Middle and Later Nordic tradition vessels, and that such features became increasingly th permanent. Until the appearance of cogs from the later 13 century onwards, illuminations demonstrate a distinct lack of other types of superstructure on vessels: many ships have minimal protection for either crew or cargo, although fabric tilts, canopies and awnings are often depicted, such as the stern of Middle Nordic vessels. Archaeologically, such observations reinforce the need for particularly careful analysis of the ends of Nordic vessels discovered to hunt for signs of temporary and/or permanent endcastles. No published discussion of any Nordic vessel excavated includes even the mention of such concerns,

It is also worth considering the circumstances under which archaeological and iconographic data do not correlate with one66

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another. Illuminated manuscripts provide extensive evidence for features of vessels not currently known from archaeological analyses. Certain of these features cry out for the comparative reassessment of existing archaeological assemblages, in order to ascertain whether or not examples have been overlooked or ignored. This section should also be of interest to experimental archaeologists and to those who work on new vessel finds in the future. In particular, manuscript illuminations provide extensive evidence for rigging and other forms of upper works of medieval vessels. Rigging components depicted include backstays, braces, crow’s feet, gammoning, halliards, ratlines, reefs, shrouds, yards and even, occasionally, hogging trusses (see appendix 3 for specific manuscript details). Illuminations also provide a wealth of data upon the bow and stern sections of vessels, which traditionally survive very poorly in the archaeological record (although the recent re-excavation and partial recovery of sections of the bow of the Mary Rose [1: 508] should improve this situation as regards the carrack). For instance, manuscript illuminations provide considerable evidence for the development and form of different bowsprits, as well as the foremast and foresail (see appendix 3 for specific manuscript details). Similarly, manuscript illuminations provide considerable evidence for the development and form of different sternmounted masts, including the mizzenmast, lateen sails and yards, and even occasionally bonaventure masts (mizzens) (see appendix 3 for specific manuscript details).

crew working at a capstan or windlass could serve either as an ideal model of communal endeavour or Sisyphean moral pointlessness. Medieval and Renaissance Concepts of Shipbuilding Profile (longitudinal) and cross-section (latitudinal) definitions of vessels reflect the transition in shipbuilding between the late medieval and early-modern periods. Perceiving of vessels in longitudinal terms is an inherently medieval and earlier form of perception: in contrast, rationally defining vessels latitudinally is a Renaissance and post-Renaissance form. This concerns how vessels are understood both as items to be depicted and machines to be built, where this process begins and ends, and what skills, tools and techniques are used. It includes symbolic/ideational forces and otherwise ‘irrational’ elements. The longitudinal is more associated with the plank-first construction of vessels throughout the Middle Ages. The latitudinal is at least partially associated with new ways of defining of vessels in the light of knowledge of geometry and perspective [re]discovered during the Renaissance, the impact of humanism on levels of artistic realism and also of building vessels on frames (see Honour and Flemming 1999: 388-475). The longitudinal perspective is commonly expressed in the manuscript illuminations of vessels in appendix 2, the latitudinal perspective more often in the lines plans of vessels from the later th 16 century onwards that survive in collections outside the scope of this volume.

Finally, it is also worth considering the corollary to all the above – materials known from archaeology for which there are no iconographic examples. For obvious reasons, most internal details of medieval vessels are not depicted in manuscript illuminations (e.g. the bilge, bulkheads, floors, frames and futtocks, etc.), which generally provide only external views of such craft. More intriguingly, and archaeologically significant, however, several external fittings, fixtures and processes that one might expect manuscript illuminations to depict are conspicuously absent from the record. For instance, there are virtually no verified depictions of the process of caulking vessels – only two manuscripts appear to depict this process, both romances of the 15th century, Bod. Lib. MS Douce 353 and BL MS Roy. MS 16 F i (2: 229 and 713, fig. 16), with the vessels in question relatively sophisticated carrack-like vessels. Given that there are numerous highly accurate depictions of Nordic vessels being built/repaired on the foreshore, which seem to have frequently inspired by direct observation, not to depict this most frequent of repairs to early medieval vessels is extremely surprising. In a similar vein, there are relatively few depictions of winding equipment, with only five possible depictions of capstans, all dating to the 15th century and on board late-cog or early-carrack type vessels – Bod. Lib. MS Canon. Misc. 378, BL MSS Add. MS 20698, and Eger. MS 1070, and BNF MSS Fr. 2829 and MS 12420 (2: 185, 452, 586, 860 and 884, fig. 13, 14, 79). There are then no depictions at all of windlasses. Once again, given the importance and prominence of such components on board vessels, particularly those of the later period, this is a most surprising absence. This is particularly so given the noted tendency of manuscript illuminations to depict harsh physical activities as moralised symbols of human endeavour, in which a

Profile (Medieval and earlier conception) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Longitudinal representations Craftsman-shipwright Built ‘by eye’ - ‘hands-on’ involvement Clinker-planked Planks provide main strength Built plank-first

Cross-section (Renaissance conception) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Plans including more than one view Architect-designer Built ‘by plan’ - ‘hands-off’ involvement Carvel-planked Frames provide main strength Built frame-first

New concepts of geometrical space and proportion filtered down from the sciences during the Renaissance, eventually influencing the whole of society, including the arts and shipbuilding (see Singer et al 1957; Gille 1966; Pumfrey and Slawinski 1991; McGee 1999; Dear 2001). The adoption of various laws of geometry, perspective, proportion and realism in the arts also appear to have led directly both to the disappearance of gross stylisation and error in depictions of vessels of all kinds – not simply those on the printed page – and to the decline of any 67

Chapter Five - Conclusions

‘time-lag’ between the adoption of new technologies on vessels and the depiction of these in images of ships.

value of these sources in understanding the interaction between northern and southern European shipbuilding traditions in the late Middle Ages, but also to the conception of technological advances a generation on from such ‘hybrid’ vessels, particularly the ‘Ibero-Atlantic’ vessels of the early 16th century.

While there is clearly not a direct link between medieval illuminations and Renaissance vessel plans - these originated from different cultural backgrounds and had different uses in mind. Loewen (1998a: 45-46) notes that the earliest shipbuilding treatises form a relatively small corpus dating to about 14101620, which is also the period of the last illuminated manuscripts in Europe. Archaeological finds from the early part of this th period, especially the later 15 century, are also starting to rewrite our understanding of what was clearly a crucial phase of the transition from the ‘medieval’ to the ‘early modern’ ship, with vessels of the later 1400s from sites like Newport, St Peter Port, Aber Wrac’h and Sandwich (1: 913, 413, 415, 411) all demonstrating technological advances, particularly to the construction of their hull, with larger, closer-spaced frames and what may represent experimentation with partial frame-first rather than hull-first construction. In respect of the latter, it is interesting to note that all of these vessels have a tangible archaeological connection with both the Iberian peninsular and south-west France (particularly Gascony), either through ceramics, other small finds or timber. It is likely that such vessels represent a transitional phase in north-west European shipbuilding practices, a technological link between shell- and skeleton-building. It is also likely that Gascony, with technological, economic and social links to both northern and southern Europe as well as a prime geographical position halfway between Iberia and northern Europe functioned as the ‘hinge’ of this technological relationship. Parts of north-west Spain may also have been involved in this process of technological transfer, given both the documentary evidence for northern vessels having visited this area and also the ethnographic evidence for boatbuilding in north-west Iberia that includes aspects of both carvel- and clinker building techniques (see Alonso 1991), which indicates that this region of south-west France and north-west Iberia was particularly open to ‘experimentation’ in combined clinker- and carvel, shell- and skeleton-building technology, rendering the necessary leap of imagination required for the cross-fertilisation of these different techniques less extreme.

When the iconographic and archaeological evidence for the late th th th 14 and early 15 centuries is compared to that of the late 15 th and early 16 centuries, what becomes clear is that the latter reflect a conjunction of advances in shipbuilding, geometric perspective and artistic realism in northern Europe: ships had never before been built with such relative accuracy, and depictions of these ships had never been so realistic. Correspondingly, the status of shipwrights was also at an all time high, with named individuals appearing for the first time in the documentary sources, such as Matthew Barker in England and Garcia de Palacio and Ferdinando Oliveira in Iberia (see Unger 1991). This is not the result of mere chance, but rather a physical manifestation of the rediscovery of scientific knowledge. Particularly interesting here are thus those manuscripts and shipbuilding treatises from this transitional period, during which stylised illuminations began to be influenced by geometric realism while remaining self-consciously naïve, with no practical function, and simultaneously, shipbuilding began to be influenced in a more distinct way by these same ‘scientific’ impacts – geometric laws allowing larger, more complex hull forms to be explored, eventually inspiring the development of the first ‘lines plans’ of vessels designed solely for the practical purposes of shipbuilding. Mid 16th century manuscripts such as Magd. MS 2991 and BL Add. Roll 22047 (2: 374, 399) are arguably ‘medieval’ in their depiction of vessels, being only slightly influenced by the impact of the Renaissance (even allowing for these manuscripts complex dating, with contributions in c. 1545, c. 1586 and 1678-80), their focus is still longitudinal and stylised, and their purpose not to aid shipbuilding but merely to ‘represent’ ships. Manuscripts of roughly the same period, however, such as BL Cott. Titus MS A xxvi (2: 575), Timbotta’s Treatise, arguably represent a step beyond the Anthony Roll and its ilk, with what appear to be attempts to provide depictions of vessels at least subconsciously modelled on the ‘design-based’, geometrical perspectives of the emerging ‘science’ of naval architecture as understood from this period onwards in manuscripts such as Magd. MS 2820 (2: 373), Matthew Baker’s Fragments of Ancient English Shipwrightry (see Barker 1986; Martin 2001: 86-90). In these different manuscripts and treatises are reflected profound changes in shipbuilding processes, vessel traditions and technology, and a surrounding web of socio-cultural and artistic contexts over the fifty years that divide these works. Baker’s Fragments of Ancient English Shipwrightry of c.1585 is a completely different work to the Anthony’s Roll of c.1545. Broader changes to society are reflected in the distinction noted above: from an inherently ‘medieval’ perception of watercraft relating to the building vessels by ‘eye’, in which the longitudinal hull shape is key, to the early-modern definition of ships in which ordered, geometrically accurate plans are essential to the structured building process, and a cross-section (‘transverse section’) is the only successful way to define a ship in the light of this (although

The distinction between ‘clinker’ and ‘carvel’ was not so clearth th cut in the 16 to 17 centuries as it is today: changes in definition cause confusion, particularly as regards the extent to which ‘carvel’ in the early-modern period was or was not synonymous with ‘skeleton-’ building (see Greenhill 1995b: 60): ‘carvel in this sense… refers to a hull construction that is ‘frameled’ or ‘frame-orientated’ (Adams, pers. comm.: author’s emphasis). If Adams’ hypothesis is correct - that both the ‘practical’ and ‘conceptual’ differences between ‘clinker’ and ‘carvel’ shipbuilding were not as great as has previously been suggested, and that in fact both ‘traditions’ were advancing apace of one-another and even moving closer in the adoption of common/similar frame-elements - then this has important consequences for the interpretation of the convergence of archaeological and iconographic data noted above. The significance of such a conjunction of sources lies not only in the 68

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the plank-first method was never entirely eliminated) (see McGowan 1981a; Pepper 1981; Kemp 1988; Barker 1991; Gillmer 1991; Dotson 1994; Steffy 1994: 128-86; McGee 1999: 211-12).

perspective, particularly as regards the manipulation of such large quantities of data. The sad fact remains that appendices 1 and 2 demonstrate more than anything else the appalling state of most archaeological and iconographic archives. Given the financial and logistical constraints of access to these collections, that a single researcher could possibly accumulate such a large amount of data - and that such data-collection needs to be undertaken at all - suggests that much work needs to be done to develop accessible, comprehensive digital archives. In particular, libraries need to develop cross-referenced computerised archives. Ideally, such archives would include copies of all illuminations stored in a digital format, so that scholars can remotely access individual folios of manuscripts without needing to handle the original - frequently very fragile - manuscripts themselves. While the majority of the fifty-five library collections analysed already have some sort of digital archive, what is needed is a consistent programme of digitisation of entire collections. Similarly, while moves have been made to digitise details of excavated finds of vessels in the ‘Navis I’ project, this too has been sporadic, and again, requires a consistent programme of data referencing and digitisation. To these data might then be added both other manuscript illuminations (including those from outside Europe), and also other forms of iconography, particularly seal impressions, carvings and sculpture, which, given their (partially) three-dimensional form, provide further insight into the distinctive features of hull forms and components. This would further reduce reliance on the ‘subjective’ interpretation of specific features of vessels: the benefits of large data-sets in terms of ‘subjectivity’ are demonstrated here, and there should be no doubt that the more data can be collected for comparison and correlation, the more useful conclusions on vessel forms and components established from iconographic analyses become. The opportunities presented by ever-ongoing advances in computer technology, particularly as regards layered data through GIS and similar systems, are now too pressing to ignore, and could revolutionise analyses such as those undertaken in this book. The hope has to be that a book such as this will rapidly become an antiquarian curiosity, superseded by ever more sophisticated digital archives allowing global, independent access, manipulation and analysis of this data.

This shift from ‘craftsmanship to draughtsmanship’ noted by McGee (ibid.: 214). The ‘craft’ tradition of shipbuilding - in which no drawings were used, the defining characteristic of which was craftspeople working directly with their materials (ibid.) - is broadly synonymous with illuminations, reflecting in their stylisation genuine ambiguities in vessels identifiable in the archaeological record, ambiguities derived from the construction of vessels ‘by eye’ rather than by ‘design’. In the shift from craftsmanship to draughtsmanship, illuminations and archaeological remains reflect wider changes to the societies from which they came, changes brought about by the Renaissance (see Heilbroner 1967; Jones 1970; Layton 1974; Ferguson 1977; Lubar 1995; Phillips 1999). Within these changes, the ships and their environments of construction, use and loss were important in both positive and negative ways, and pragmatic values like economic worth were frequently reflected in esoteric tendencies like symbolism. The tendency has been to downplay the importance of the maritime aspects of the medieval world in the past, when in fact these were integral to society, as it has been hard to quantify (see Cunliffe 2001). A broad range of data survives in medieval iconography that archaeologists can utilise to reveal such contexts, perspectives and approaches that defined the social, political, economic, environmental and other landscapes of the medieval world. The theories and methodologies of integration of data explored here represent one potential approach to analysing these contexts. Conclusion: Advances Methodologies

in

Archaeological

Research

This book provides a very large amount of raw data, which, because of the constraints enforced by the timescale of the modern British PhD, has been analysed only at the most superficial level. The main justification for publishing this work at all, particularly some 3 years after the end of the research programme which underlies it, is thus to provide scholars with access to the raw data collected, rather than access to the very limited observations and insights of this book. That being said, this book demonstrates that it is virtually always possible to identify in illuminations known shipbuilding traditions (Nordic, cog, etc.), allowing general deductions to be made about vessel traditions, fittings and fixtures and related activities and processes. The analyses of this book also inform on the methodological and theoretical practicalities of the comparison of different types of data on a large scale. The potential of future comparison and integration of such data is thus made clear, the wider contexts surrounding these data identified, and realistic ways of advancing these analyses proposed. The advantages and disadvantages of using medieval depictions of vessels as a source have long been understood. This book also considers the particular advantages and disadvantages of using depictions from an archaeological rather than historical 69

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70

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19. Konsgårde, Denmark. 6th to 7 th century (Rieck & CrumlinPedersen 1988: 134). 20. Kopperstad, Herøy, Sunnmøre, Norway. 5th to 8th century (Ellmers 1972: 335, no. 178). 21. Krefeld-Gellup, Xanten, Kalkar, Nordheim-Westfalen, Lower River Rhine, Germany/Netherlands. Vessel 1. 8th to 9 th century (Opladen-Cauder 1993a, 1993b). 22. Kvalsund, Nerlandsøy, Sunnmøre, Norway. Vessel 1. Late 7 th or early 8th century (Brøgger & Shetelig 1971: 34-35, 36-39, 43, 81). 23. Kvalsund, Nerlandsøy, Sunnmøre, Norway. Vessel 2. Late 7 th or early 8th century (Brøgger & Shetelig 1971: 34-35, 36-39, 43, 81). 24. Lackalänga, Skåne, Sweden. Late 8th century (Mülle-Wille 1974: 200, no. 79). 25. Lapuri, Finland. 10th to 11th century (Alopaeus 1988: 21). 26. Mangersnes, Nesvågen Bay, Radøy Island, Norway. 3rd to 7 th century (Christensen 1993: 294). 27. Moerzeke-Mariekerke, Antwerp, Belgium. 6th century or earlier (Bruce-Mitford 1970: 147-48). 28. Lake Nesuatnet, Radøy Island, Norway. 6th to 7th century (Christensen 1993: 294). 29. Norre Kongerslev, Jylland, Denmark. 7th to 11th century (source unknown). 30. River Oka, Rolovskoye, Spasski District, Ryazan Region, Russia. Vessel 1. Early 6th century (Okorokov 1995: 40-41, no. 10). 31. Puck Bay, Gdansk, Poland. Wreck 2 (P2). Mid 6th to early 9 th century (Indruszewski 2000a: 45-46). 32. Sand, Tjeldøya, Nordland, Norway. 7th to 8th century (Westerdahl 1985: 131, no. 9). 33. Savel, Fjeldøya, Nordland, Norway. 7th to 8th century (Westerdahl 1985: 131). 34. Schelde, Belgium. 5 th to 6 th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 1829). 35. Sierzchów, Poland. Early 8th century (Ossowski 2000: 63-65). 36. Skagen, Årkvik, Herøy, Nordland, Norway. 5th to 8th century (Ellmers 1972: 339, no. 199). 37. Skien, Telemark, Norway. 6th to 7th century (Ellmers 1972: 339, no. 200). 38. Solbjørg, Gjerstad, Hordaland, Norway. 5th to 8th century (Ellmers 1972: 339, no. 201). 39. Snape, Suffolk, Britain. Vessel 1. 6th to 7th century (Phillips 1940a: 160, 190). 40. Snape, Suffolk, Britain. Logboat 1. Early 6th to 7th century (Filmer-Sankey 1992: 132). 41. Snape, Suffolk, Britain. Logboat 2. Early 6th to 7th century (Filmer-Sankey 1995: 81-88). 42. Snape, Suffolk, Britain. Logboat 3. Early 6th to 7th century (Filmer-Sankey 1995: 81-88). 43. Spaarndam, Netherlands. 8th century (Reinders 1985b: 408). 44. Speyer, Rhineland-Pfalz, Germany. 6 th to 7 th century (Ellmers 1974: 137-45). 45. Staraya Ladoga, Russia. Assemblage 1. Mid 8th century (Sorokin 1994: 129, 132; 2000: 37-38). 46. Strabane, Co. Tyrone, Ireland. 6th century (source unknown). 47. Streedagh Strand, Co. Sligo, Ireland. Early 6 th century (Thier 2000: pers. comm.). 48. Sutton Hoo, Suffolk, Britain. Mound 1. 7th century or earlier (Phillips 1940a, passim., esp. 177-92). 49. Sutton Hoo, Suffolk, Britain. Mound 2. 7th century or earlier (Phillips 1940a, passim., esp. 177-92). 50. Sutton Hoo, Suffolk, Britain. Mound 3. 7th century or earlier (Phillips 1940a, passim., esp. 177-92). 51. Tune, Badelunda, Västmanland, Sweden. Vessels 2-7. 7th to 10 th century (Westerdahl 1985: 129-30, no. 43). 52. Ulanów, Poland. Early 8th century (Ossowski 2000: 62-64).

Appendix 1: Archaeological Remains of Vessels from Northern Europe (Entries 1-714) Introduction This list is accurate as of the spring of 2002, and includes all archaeological remains of 6th to 16th century AD northern European vessels known to the author at that time. This includes vessels built in Europe but wrecked elsewhere. The term ‘vessel’ is taken to include all watercraft in use on the sea, lakes and rivers, including logboats, planked-, skin-, and reed-vessels, rafts, etc. Where possible, a name for a vessel is given. If not, vessel finds are identified by find-spot. A primary reference is provided for each entry. The source information for a few finds is unknown, as stated in the entry. Addendum 1 includes details of archaeological remains of vessels from the Mediterranean of the 6th to 16th centuries AD (entries 715-882); Addendum 2 includes details of discoveries of 6th – 16th Century AD European vessels (both from northern Europe and the Mediterranean) known to the author between May 2002 to August 2006 (entries 883996). Catalogue by Date Early 6th to Late 8th Century (entries 1-60): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

Amberley, Sussex, Britain. Mid 7th century (McGrail 1978a: No.’s 1-3). Antwerp, Belgium. 7th century (Ellmers 1972: 284-88, no. 35). Appels, Ostflandern, Belgium. 5th to 6 th century (Bruce-Mitford 1967: 205-07). Ashby Dell, Suffolk, Britain. 7th century (Green 1963: 48, 60-63). Augerum, Blekinge, Sweden. 6th to 8th century (Bruce-Mitford 1975: 684). Bårset, Helgøy, Nordkvaløy, Troms, Norway. Vessel 1. Late 7 th or early 8th century (Ellmers 1972: 329, no. 149). Bårset, Helgøy, Nordkvaløy, Troms, Norway. Vessel 2. Late 7 th or early 8th century (Ellmers 1972: 329, no. 149). Begtrup Vig, Denmark. 6th to 7th century (Dencker 1997a; 1997b). Le Bouveret (Bourget), Lake Geneva, Switzerland. Vessel VS 1984. Mid 7 th century (Arnold 1992: 121). Brugge (Bruges), Belgium. 5th to 6 th century (Ellmers 1972: 28990, no. 37). Buston/Buiston, Cunninghame, Kilmaurs, Strathclyde/Ayrshire, Scotland, Britain. Vessel 1. 4th to 7th century (Mowat 1996: 13-15, no. 11). Buston, Cunninghame, Strathclyde/Ayrshire, Scotland, Britain. Vessel 2. 4th to 7th century (Mowat 1996: 13-15, no. 12). Loch Doon, Straiton, Cumnock & Doon Valley, Ayrshire, Strathclyde, Scotland, Britain. Vessel 1. 6th to 7th century (Mowat 1996: 55-57, no. 96). Errol, Tayside, Perth & Kinross, Perthshire, Scotland, Britain. Vessel 2. 5th to 6th century (Mowat 1996: 29-30, no. 38). Gelsted Nederland, Jylland, Denmark. 7th to 12 th century (source unknown). Gredstetedbro (Gretstedbro), Konegeå River, West Schleswig, Jutland, Ribe, Denmark. 6th to 8 th century (Bruce-Mitford 1975: 368-435, passim., esp. 368, 425-26). Hasnaes, Denmark. Vessel 1. 6th to 7 th century (McGrail 1998: 202, 214, 226, 227, 228). Hessens, Kreis Wilhelmshaven, Niedersachsen, Germany. 7 th century (Ellmers 1972: 296, no. 53; 1974: 137-45). 87

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53. Utrecht, Waterstaat, Netherlands. Vessel 4. Late 8th century or else 11th Century? (Phillipsen 1965: 35-46). 54. Valsegärde (Valgärde), Uppland, Sweden. Vessel 6. Mid 8 th century (Arwidsson 1942, 1954, 1977). 55. Vendel, Uppland, Sweden. 6th to 8 th century (Boehmer 1892: 60607). 56. Walthamstow, River Lea, Greater London, Britain. Vessel Q1388. 7th to 8th century (Marsden 1996: 222). 57. Walthamstow, River Lea, Greater London, Britain. Vessel Q3041. 7th to 9th century (Marsden 1996: 222). 58. Walton, River Wey, Greater London, Britain. Vessel Q-3042. 4th to 6th century (Marsden 1996: 222). 59. Wojtkowice, Poland. 6th century (Ossowski 2000: 62-64). 60. Zele, Ostflandern, Belgium. Late 7th century (de Laet 1938: 133).

Early 9th Century (entries 85-98): 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91.

8th to 9th Century (entries 61-84): 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84.

92.

Algarve, Portugual. 8 th to 11th century (Alves 2001: pers. comm.). Baumgarth/Bagart (Bàgart), Vistula, Poland. Vessel 1 (DE 75a). 8 th to 9th century (Varenius 1992: 189). Baumgarth/Bagart (Bàgart), Vistula, Poland. Vessel 2 (DE 75b). 8 th to 11th century (Varenius 1992: 189). Bederkesaer See, Jylland, Denmark. 8th to 11th century (source unknown). Borre, Vestfold, Norway. 8 th to 9th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 18-29). Caister-on-Sea, Caister-by-Yarmouth, Norfolk, Britain. 8th to 9th century (Rumbelow 1937: 178-82). Dunwich Bank, Suffolk, Britain. 8 th to 9th century (Upton 2003: 1). Frauenburg (Frombork), Vistula, Braunsberg, Poland. Vessel 1. 8 th to 11th century (Ellmers 1972: 307, no. 85). Frauenburg (Frombork), Vistula, Braunsberg, Poland. Vessel 2. 8 th to 11th century (Ellmers 1972: 307, no. 85). Gåserkrug, Jylland, Denmark. 8 th to 12 th century (source unknown). Gnezdovo, Smolensk, NW Russia. 8th to 11th century (Sorokin 2000: 38). Grønhaug, Karmøy, Norway. 8 th to 9th century (Varenius 1992: 196). Haddeby, Kreis-Schleswig-Flensburg, Denmark. 8 th to 11th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 18-29, 148-55). Ingleby, Repton, River Trent, Derbyshire, Britain. 8 th to 9th century (Richards 2000: 114-15). Loch of Kinnordy, Kirriemuir, Angus, Tayside, Scotland, Britain. Late 8 th or early 9th century (Mowat 1996: 65-66, no. 118). Kolinsund, Jylland, Denmark. 8 th to 13 th century (source unknown). London, Britain. City, Billingsgate, New Fresh Wharf. 8 th to 9th century (Marsden 1996: 22, 220, fig. 1). Puck Bay, Gdansk, Poland. Wreck 4 (P4). 8th to 10 th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 18-29, 110). Puck Bay, Gdansk, Poland. Boatbuilding [?] Site. 8th to 10th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 18-29). Rääkkylä, Finland. 8th to 9th century (Grönhagen 1985). Rolvsøy, Østfold, Norway. 8th to 10th century (Mülle-Wille 1974: 201, no. 93). Stettin (Szcezin), Poland. Vessel 1 (DE 94). 8th to 9 th century (Varenius 1992: 209). Västergarn, Gotland, Sweden. 8 th to 10th century (Ellmers 1972: 323, no. 129). Wolin, Poland. 8th to 11 th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 1829).

93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98.

Czarnowsko, Lebsko, Poland. Vessel 2. Early 9 th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 18-29, 110). Dorestad, Wijk bij Duurstede, Netherlands. Vessel 1. Early 9th century (source unknown). Fjørtoft, Haram, Sunnmøre, Norway. Vessel 1. Early 9 th century (Bruce-Mitford 1975: 429). Fjørtoft, Haram, Sunnmøre, Norway. Vessel 2. Early 9 th century (Bruce-Mitford 1975: 429). Hedeby, Denmark. Vessel 4. Mid 9th century (Bruce-Mitford 1975: 234). Kolberg, Poland. Early 9th century (Ellmers 1972: 307, no. 87). Llyn Llangorse, Brecon, Wales, Britain. Early 9th century (McGrail 1978a: 233-236, fig’s. 29 & 69). Lüttingen, Kries Moers, Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany. 9 th century (Ellmers 1972: 297-98, no. 60). Nordre Kaupang, Vestfold, Norway. Early 9th century (Ellmers 1972: 334, no. 174). Oseberg, Tønsberg, Norway. Early 9th century (Brøndsted 1965: 128-33, passim., 139, 143-46, 148, 214, 221, 248). Ralswiek, Rugen, Germany. Vessel 1. Early 9 th century (Helfert 1968: 211-22). Ralswiek, Rugen, Germany. Vessel 4. Early 9 th century (Helfert 1968: 211-22). Scar, Burness, Sanday, Orkney Islands, Scotland, Britain. Mid 9 th century (Owen & Dalland 1999). Walthamstow, River Lea, Essex, Britain. 9th century (Müll e-Wille 1974: 204, no. 289).

Late 9th Century (entries 99-106): 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106.

Kiloran Bay, Colonsay, Western Isles, Hebridies, Scotland, Britain. Mid 9 th century (Ritchie 1993). London, Britain. Benfleet Creek. 9th century (Hutchinson 1994a: 5, 117, 130, 140, 193-94). Nyköping, Södermanland, Sweden. Late 9th century (Ellmers 1972: 320, no. 118). Orsmosse, Tensta, Uppland, Sweden. Late 9th century (Ellmers 1972: 320, no. 120). Paris, France. Late 9th century (Ellmers 1972: 283, no. 31). Rjurikovo Gorodischche, Russia. 9th to 15th century (Sorokin 1994: 129; 2000: 37-38). Staraya Ladoga, Russia. Assemblage 2. Late 9th century (Sorokin 1994: 129, 132; 2000: 37-38). Warrington, River Mersey, Britain. Vessel 3. Late 9th century (McGrail 1978a: no. 148).

9th to 10th Century (entries 107-37): 107. Alt-Archsum, Sylt Island, Germany. 9 th to 10th century (CrumlinPedersen 1997a: 18-26, 292-96). 108. Antwerp, River Scheldt, Belgium. 9th to 10 th century (Ellmers 1972: 284-88, no. 35). 109. Årby (Rasbokil), Uppland, Upsala, Sweden. 9 th to 10th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 18-29, 110). 110. Balladoole, Bay ny Carrickey, Arbory, Isle of Man, Britain. Late 9 th to early 10th century (Bersu & Wilson 1966). 111. Buss Creek, Southwold, Suffolk, Britain. Rudder A. 9th to 11th century (Hutchinson 1986: 219-21). 112. Buss Creek, Southwold, Suffolk, Britain. Rudder B. 9th to 11th century (Hutchinson 1986: 219-21). 113. Danzig-Ohra, Poland. Vessel 2 (DE82b). Late 9 th to mid 11th century (Varenius 1992: 191). 88

The Illuminated Ark

114. Danzig-Ohra, Poland. Vessel 3 (DE82c). Late 9 th to mid 11th century (Varenius 1992: 192). 115. Eckernförder, Poland. 9 th to 13th century (Indruszewski 2000: 4546). 116. Eigg, Inner Hebrides, Western Isles, Scotland, Britain. 9th to 11th century (MacPherson 1876-78: 577-63). 117. Glasgow, Springfield, Bankton, Lanarkshire, Scotland, Britain. Vessel 1. 9th to 11 th century (Ellmers 1972: 274, no. 8). 118. Gokstad, Oslo, Norway. Boat 1/2. Late 9 th to 10th century (Nicolaysen 1882: fig. 5). 119. Gokstad, Oslo, Norway. Boat 2/3. Late 9 th to 10th century (Nicolaysen 1882). 120. Gokstad, Norway. Boat 4. Late 9 th to 10th century (Nicolaysen 1882). 121. Grådträsk, Norrbotten, Sweden. 9 th to 11 th century (Ellmers 1972: 318, no. 110). 122. Graveney Marsh, Faversham, Kent, Britain. 9 th to 10 th century (Fenwick 1978a). 123. Haddeby, Kreis-Schleswig-Flensburg, Denmark. Boat 2. Late 9th to early 11 th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 18-29, 148-55). 124. Kjerringøy, Nordland, Norway. 9th to 10 th century (Westerdahl 1985: 131, no. 6) 125. ‘KP’, Poland. 9 th to 13th century (Indruszewski 2000: 45-46). 126. Newport, River Usk, Monmouthshire, Gwent, Wales, Britain. Alexandra Docks. 9 th to 13th century (Morgan 1878: 403-05). 127. Øsknes, Nordland, Norway. 9th to 10 th century (Westerdahl 1985: 132, no. 13). 128. Ralswiek, Tyskland, Germany. Vessel 3. 9 th to 11th century (Helfert 1968: 211-22). 129. Randers Fjord, Jylland, Denmark. 9th to 13th century (source unknown). 130. Rong auf Rongøy, Herdla, Hordaland, Norway. 9 th to 10 th century (Ellmers 1972: 328, no. 195). 131. Sewardstone, Chelmsford, River Lea, Greater London, Britain. Vessel Q-3040. 9th to 10 th century (Marsden 1996: 222). 132. Sewardstone, Chelmsford, River Lea, Greater London, Britain. Vessel Q-3052. 9th to 11 th century (Marsden 1996: 222). 133. Schuby-Strand, Schwansen, Denmark. 9th to 10th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 18-292-96). 134. Sebbersund, Limfjord, Jylland, Denmark. 9th to 11th century (source unknown). 135. Stettin (Szcezin), Poland. Vessel 2. 9th to 10th century (Smolarek 1981: 51-60). 136. Vietze, Jylland, Denmark. Boat 2. Late 9 th to mid 13th century (source unknown). 137. Wolin, Poland. Late 9 th century (Filipowiak 1981: 61-69 ).

145. Karrböle, Jomala, Åland, Finland. Early 10th century (Westerdahl 1985: 134, no. 8). 146. River Ladozhka, Russia. Early 10th century (Sorokin 1994: 129, 132-33). 147. Laivajärvi, Alatovuio, Övertorneå, Västerbolten, Finland. Vessel 1 (Hel-1749). Mid 10th century (Forssell 1984-85: 304-11). 148. London, Britain. City, Billingsgate, New Fresh Wharf. Early 10 th century (Marsden 1994: 128, 141-53, figs. 1, 124-37). 149. Pskov, Russia. 10th to 15th century (Sorokin 1994: 129; 2000: 3738). 150. Storhaugen, Avaldnes Bay, Bergens Stift, Norway. Early-mid 10 th century (Boehmer 1892: 609-12). 151. Tiel, Westluidense Straat-Borchgang, Netherlands. Vessel 1. Early 10 th century (source unknown). 152. Tiel, Westluidense Straat-Borchgang, Netherlands. Vessel 2. Early 10 th century (source unknown). 153. Tune, Badelunda, Västmanland, Norway. Vessel 1. Late 9 th or early 10th century (Varenius 1992: 210). 154. Utrecht, Van Hoornekade, Netherlands. Vessel 1. 8 th to 11 th century (Ellmers 1972: 292-93, no. 44). 155. Vähakyrö, Lillkyro, Rummukkajärvi, Vasa, Finland. 10 th century (Westerdahl 1985: 137, no. 25). 156. Vangsnes, Sogn og Fjordane, Norway. 10th century (Mülle-Wille 1974: 202, no. 175). 157. Vatnsdalur, Patreksfjord, Western Iceland. 10th century (Byock 2001: 294-97). 158. Warrington, Arpley, River Mersey, Britain. Vessel 5 (Q 1394). Mid 10 th century (McGrail 1978a: no. 150). 159. Westness, Rousay, Orkney, Scotland, Britain. Vessel 1. 10 th century (Hutchinson 1981: 153-54). 160. Westness, Rousay, Orkney, Scotland, Britain. Vessel 2. 10th century (Hutchinson 1981: 153-54). Late 10th Century (entries 161-72): 161. Barsø, Lillebaelt, Sønderjylland, Schleswig-Holstein, Denmark. Mid 10 th to 13 th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 18-29). 162. Fiholm, Svånö Bog, Ryttern, Västmanland, Sweden. Late 10 th century (Westerdahl 1985: 129, no. 41). 163. Groix Island, Brittany, France. Mid 10th century (Mülle-Wille 1978: 204, no. 290). 164. Hedeby/Haithabu, Schleswig-Holstein, Denmark. Vessel 1. Late 10th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 81-95). 165. Hedeby/Haithabu, Schleswig-Holstein, Denmark. Vessel 3. Late 10th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 99-104). 166. Lad, Warta, Poland. Late 10 th century (Indruszewski 2000: 4546). 167. Laivajärvi, Alatovuio, Övertorneå, Västerbolten, Finland. Vessel 2. Late 10th century (Westerdahl 1985: 135-36, no. 14). 168. Lednickie Lake, Poland. Boat 1. Late 10 th century (Ossowski 2000: 62-64). 169. Lod, Poland. Late 10th century (Varenius 1992: 203). 170. London, Britain. Bull Wharf, Upper Thames Street. Late 10 th century (Blue 1997: 252-62). 171. Nowa Cerkiew, Poland. Late 10 th century (Ossowski 2000: 64). 172. Söderbysjö, Södermanland, Sweden. Late 10th century (Ellmers 1972: 322, no. 124).

Early 10th Century (entries 138-60): 138. Alt-Ladoga, Staraja Ladoga, Russia. Early 10th century (Ellmers 1972: 310, no. 98). 139. Beloozero, NW Russia. 10th to 15th century (Sorokin 2000: 3738). 140. Cambuskenneth, St Ninians, Stirlingshire, Scotland, Britain. Early 10th century (Feachem 1958-59: 117). 141. Deventer, Ijsselstraat, Netherlands. Vessel 1. 10th century (source unknown). 142. Deventer, Ijsselstraat, Netherlands. Vessel 3. 10th century (source unknown). 143. Dublin, Ireland. High Street. Early-mid 10 th century (McGrail 1998: 117, 127, 129, 140, 213). 144. Puck Bay, Gdansk, Poland. Wreck 3 (P3). Mid 10 th century (Bill 1998: 101, no. 15).

10th to 11th Century (entries 173-98): 173. Århus Bay, Denmark. 10 th to 11th century (McGrail 1998: 226, 229). 174. Äskekärr, Göta älv River, Sweden. 10th to 11th century (Åkerlund 1963: 49). 89

Appendix One – Archaeological Remains

175. Ballinderry, Co. Westmeath, Ireland. 10 th to 11 th century (Hencken 1936: 133; Ellmers 1972: 272, no. 1). 176. Clapton, River Lea, Essex, Britain. 10th to 11 th century (Goodburn 1991: 105-15). 177. Czarnowsko (Lebafelde, Charbrow), Ùebsko, Poland. Vessel 3 (DE 89a). 10th to 11 th century (Varenius 1992: 191). 178. River Dnieper (Dnepr), Kortitsa Island, Russia. Vessel 2. Late 10th to mid 11 th century (Okorokov 1995: 39, no. 8). 179. Fannerup, Jylland, Denmark. 10th to 13 th century (source unknown). 180. Hadsund, Denmark. 10 th to 11th century (McGrail 1998: 226, 229). 181. Hasnaes, Denmark. Vessel 2. 10th to 11th century (McGrail 1998: 202, 214, 226, 227, 228). 182. Klåstad, Norway. 10 th to 11th century (McGrail 1998: 107, 11314, 158). 183. Kolding Fjord, Denmark. 10th to 12th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1979: 18-23). 184. Ladby, Kerteminde, Fyn, Denmark. 10 th to 11th century (Sølver 1946b: 120-22). 185. London, Britain. Billingsgate. 10th to 11 th century (Marsden 1994: 153-54, fig. 137). 186. London, Britain. Southwark, Fenning’s Wharf. 10th to 11 th century (Marsden 1994: 154-58, 170, 174, 177, 207, 211, figs. 1, 139-40, 175, tables 14, 21-22). 187. Lund, Scania/Skåne, Pk-Banken, Sweden. 10th to 11th century (Varenius 1992: 203). 188. Orunia, Gdansk, Poland. Vessel 1. 10 th to 11th century (CrumlinPedersen 1997a: 18-29, 110). 189. Orunia, Gdansk, Poland. Vessel 2. 10 th to 11th century (CrumlinPedersen 1997a: 18-29, 110). 190. Orunia, Gdansk, Poland. Vessel 3. 10 th to 11th century (CrumlinPedersen 1997a: 18-29, 110). 191. Östra Aros, Sweden. 10th to 13th century (Åkerlund 1965: 258). 192. Ralswiek, Rugen, Germany. Vessel 2. 10th to 11 th century (Helfert 1968: 211-22). 193. Sigtuna, Sweden. Vessel 1 (DE 121b). 10 th to 11 th century (Varenius 1992: 206). 194. Sigtuna, Sweden. Vessel 2. 10th to 11 th century (Varenius 1992: 207). 195. Stanley Ferry, River Calder, Wakefield, West Yorkshire, Britain. 10th to 11 th century (McGrail 1981b: 160-64). 196. Virolahti, Finland. 10 th to 11th century (Grönhagen 1985: 37-39). 197. Vorsa, Denmark. 10th to 13th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1966: 251-58). 198. Warrington, Gate Warth, River Mersey, Britain. Vessel Birm 269. 10th to 11 th century (McGrail & Switsure 1979: 229-31).

205. Hedeby/Haithabu, Schleswig-Holstein, Denmark. Vessel 3. Early 11th century (Bill 1995: 198). 206. London, Britain. City, Upper Thames Street. Thames Exchange. Early 11 th century (Marsden 1994: 141, 171-74). 207. London, Britain. Southwark, Fenning’s Wharf. Mid 11 th century (Marsden 1994: 154-58, 170, 174, 177, 207, 211, figs. 1, 139-40, 175, tables 14, 21-22). 208. London, Britain. Southwark, Vintners Place. Early 11th century (Marsden 1994: 138, fig. 122; 1996: 21, 31-37, 40, fig. 5). 209. Midtvåge, Onarheim, Hordaland, Norway. 11th century (Ellmers 1972: 336, no. 182). 210. Novogorod, Nerevsky, Russia. 11 th to 15th century (Sorokin 1994: 129, 133-34; 2000: 38). 211. Novogorod, Nerevsky, Russia. 11 th to 15th century (Sorokin 1994: 129, 133-34). 212. Ockelbo, Gästrikland, Sweden. 11th century (Ellmers 1972: 320, no. 119). 213. Orlac, Charente River, Port-Berteau, France. Early 11th century (Chapelot & Rieth 1995). 214. Roskilde, Roskilde Haven, Denmark. Vessel 6. Early 11th century (Bill 1997; Myrhøj & Gøthche 1997). 215. Skuldelev, Roskilde, Denmark. Vessel 1. Early 11th century (Olsen & Crumlin-Pedersen 1967). 216. Skuldelev, Roskilde, Denmark. Vessel 3. Early 11th century (Olsen & Crumlin-Pedersen 1967). 217. Skuldelev, Roskilde, Denmark. Vessel 5. Early 11th century (Olsen & Crumlin-Pedersen 1967). 218. Tiel, Tolhuisstraat, Netherlands. Vessel 3. Early 11th century (source unknown). 219. Utrecht, Waterstaat, Netherlands. Vessel 3. 11th to 12th century (source unknown). 220. Viks, Söderby-Karl, Uppland, Sweden. Early 11th century (Bill 1995: 198). 221. Vreta Gård, Uppland, Sweden. 11th century (Ellmers 1972: 106, 115, 323, no. 130, figs. 85-87). 222. Warrington, Barton, River Mersey, Britain. Vessel Q 1396. Early 11th century (McGrail & Switsure 1979: 229-31). 223. Warrington, River Mersey, Lincolnshire, Britain. Vessel 1I. Early 11th century (McGrail & Switsure 1979: 229-31). 224. Warrington, Walton Lock, River Mersey, Britain. Vessel 2 (Q 1391). Early 11 th century (McGrail & Switsure 1979: 229-31). Late 11th Century (entries 225-32): 225. Egernsund, Flensburg Fjord, North Slesvig, Denmark, Late 11th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 300-03). 226. Enköping, Uppland, Sweden. Late 11 th century (Ellmers 1972: 316, no. 105). 227. Irlam, River Mersey, Britain. Vessel Q 1456. Late 11th century (McGrail & Switsure 1979: 229-31). 228. Poznañ, Poland. 11th century (Litwin 2000: 9). 229. Roskilde, Roskilde Haven, Seeland, Denmark. Vessel 3. Late 11 th century (source unknown). 230. Skuldelev, Roskilde, Denmark. Vessel 2/4. Late 11 th century (Olsen & Crumlin-Pedersen 1967). 231. Warrington, Fairclough, River Mersey, Britain. Vessel 4 (Q 1393). Late 11th century (McGrail & Switsure 1979: 229-31). 232. Warrington, Walton Arches, River Mersey, Britain. Vessel 7 (Q 1395). Late 11th century (McGrail & Switsure 1979: 229-31).

Early 11th century (entries 199-224): 199. Alt-Lübeck (Old Lübeck), Hansestadt Lübeck, SchleswigHolstein, Germany/Denmark. 11th century (Ellmers 1972: 294-95, no. 49). 200. Bremen, Germany. The Schlachteschiff. Early 11 th century (Weski 1999a: 363). 201. Danzig-Ohra, Poland. Vessel 1 (DE82a). 10 th to 11th century (Varenius 1992: 191). 202. Deventer, Ijsselstraat, Netherlands. Vessel 2. 11th century (source unknown). 203. Dublin, Ireland. Christchurch Place. 11th century (McGrail 1993a; 1998: 117, 127, 129, 140, 213). 204. Dublin, Ireland. St. John's Lane. 11th century (McGrail 1993a: 145, 147, 149).

11th to 12th Century (entries 233-71): 233. Antwerp, Belgium. Vessel 1. 11 th to 13th century (Ellmers 1972: 284-88, no. 35, figs 182-83). 90

The Illuminated Ark

234. Antwerp, Belgium. Vessel 2. 11 th to 13th century (Ellmers 1972: cat. 284-88, no. 35, figs 182-83). 235. Antwerp, Belgium. Vessel 3. 11 th to 13th century (Ellmers 1972: 284-88, no. 35, figs 182-83). 236. Antwerp, Belgium. Vessel 4. 11th to 13th century (Ellmers 1972: 284-88, no. 35, figs 182-83). 237. Antwerp, Belgium. Vessel 5. 11 th to 13th century (Ellmers 1972: cat. 284-88, no. 35, figs 182-83). 238. Antwerp, Belgium. Vessel 7. 11 th to 12th century (Ellmers 1972: 284-88, no. 35). 239. Årslev Enge, Jylland, Denmark. Late 11 th to 14 th century (source unknown). 240. Asko, Jylland, Denmark. 11th to 13th century (source unknown). 241. Averlak, Jylland, Denmark. 11 th to 13 th century (source unknown). 242. Bulverket, Lake Tingstäde Träsk, Gotland, Sweden. 11 th to 13th century (Bendegard 1980: 5-8; 1983; 1989: 11). 243. Czarnowsko (Lebafelde, Charbrów), Ùebsko, Poland. Vessel 1 (DE 80a). 11th to 12 th century (Varenius 1992: 190). 244. Czarnowsko (Lebafelde, Charbrów), Ùebsko, Poland. Vessel 2. 11th to 12th century (Varenius 1992: 191). 245. Danzig-Brössen/Gdansk-Brzezño, Poland. Vessel DE81. 11 th to 13th century (Varenius 1992: 191). 246. Dublin, Ireland. Fishamble Street. Late 11 th to early 12th century (McGrail 1993a: 140-45). 247. Dublin, Ireland. Winetavern Street (Timber Group 10). Late 11th to early 12 th century (McGrail 1993a). 248. Dublin, Ireland. Wood Quay (Timber Group 7). Late 11th to early 12th century (McGrail 1993a: 103-40). 249. Eltang Vig, Koldingfjord, Denmark. 11th to 12th century (Bill 1995: 198). 250. Falsterbo, Skåne, southern Sweden. 11th to 14th century (CrumlinPedersen 1981: 28-65). 251. Fotevik, Sweden. Vessel 1. 11th to 12 th century (Varenius 1992: 193). 252. Fotevik, Sweden. Vessel 2. 11 th to 12th century (Bill 1995: 198). 253. Fotevik, Sweden. Vessel 3. 11 th to 12th century (Bill 1995: 198). 254. Fotevik, Sweden. Vessel 4. 11 th to 12th century (Bill 1995: 198). 255. Fotevik, Sweden. Vessel 5. 11 th to 12th century (Bill 1995: 198). 256. Galtabäck, Denmark. Vessel DE 109. 11th to 12 th century (Ellmers 1972: 256-57). 257. Jungshoved, Denmark. 11th to 13th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1966: fig. 3). 258. Kamieñ, Poland. 11th to 12 th century (Filipowiak 1994: 61-69). 259. Lille Kregme, Denmark. 11 th to 14th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 18-29). 260. Maglebraende, Fribrøde River, Falster Island, Sweden. 11th to 12th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 18-29). 261. Mechlinken (Mechlinki), Putzig, Poland. 11 th to 12th century (Smolarek 1981: 51-60). 262. Novogorod, Russia. 11th to 15th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 18-29). 263. Novogorod, Nerevsky, Russia. 11 th to 15th century (Sorokin 1994: 129, 133-34). 264. Perth, Perthshire, Scotland, Britain. High Street. 11 th to 12th century (Bowman 1992: 163-69). 265. Rebaek, Denmark. 11 th to 13th century (McGrail 1998: 245, table 12.9). 266. Rye Bay, East Sussex, Britain. Rudder A. 11 th to 12th century (Marsden 1992: 125-30). 267. Sandnes, Vesterbygd, Norway. 11th to 15 th century (source unknown). 268. Skuldelev, Roskilde, Denmark. Vessel 6. 11 th to 12th century (Olsen & Crumlin-Pedersen 1967).

269. Velsen, Buitenhuizer Polder, Netherlands. Vessel 1. 11th to 12 th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 18-29, 110). 270. Vordingborg, South Sjaelland, Denmark. 11th to 12 th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1981: 28-65). 271. Waterford, Ireland. 11 th to 12th century (McGrail 1997d: 634-42). Early 12th Century (entries 272-81): 272. Gislinge, Lammefjord, Denmark. Early 12th century (CrumlinPedersen 1997a: 15, 111). 273. Haus Meer, Kreis Grevenbroich, Nordrhine-Westfalen, Germany. Early 12 th century (Ellmers 1974: 137-45). 274. Karschau, Schlei Fjord, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. 12th century (Englert 2000: 57-58). 275. Koiralampi, Räkkylä, Finland. Vessel 1. Mid 12th century (Westerdahl 1985: 134-35, no. 12). 276. Roskilde, Roskilde Haven, Denmark. Vessel 4. Early 12th century (Bill 1997; Myrhøj & Gøthche 1997). 277. Roskilde, Roskilde Haven, Denmark. Vessel 5. Early 12th century (Bill 1997; Myrhøj & Gøthche 1997). 278. Schleswig, Schleswig-Altsadt, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany/Denmark. Early 12th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1972b: fig. 5). 279. Southchurch Hall, Southend-on-Sea, Essex, Britain. 12th century (Hutchinson 1994a: 197). 280. Utrecht, Waterstaat, Netherlands. Vessel 2. Mid 12 th century (Vlek 1987). 281. Utrecht, Lange Lauwersstraat, Netherlands. Vessel 5. 12th century (Vlek 1987). Late 12th Century (entries 282-90): 282. Ellingå (Elling), Hjørring, Denmark. Late 12th century (Ellmers 1972: 324, no. 135). 283. Knösen, Skåne, Scania, southern Sweden. Mid 12th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 18-29). 284. Kolding Fjord, Denmark. Late 12 th century (Hocker & Dokkedal 2001: 16-17). 285. Koiralampi, Räkkylä, Finland. Vessel 2. Later 12 th century (Westerdahl 1985: 134-35, no. 12). 286. London, Britain. City, Lower Thames Street. Custom House Boat 1. Late 12 th century (Marsden 1996: 42-44, 49, 52-53, tables 6, 11, 16). 287. London, Britain. City, Lower Thames Street. Custom House Boat 2. Mid 12th century (Marsden 1996: 42-44, 49, 52-53, tables 6, 11, 16). 288. Lynæs, Kattegat, Denmark. Mid 12th century (Varenius 1992: 203). 289. Forfar, Angus, Tayside, Scotland, Britain. Vessel 2. Late 12 th century (Mowat 1996: 32-34, no. 49). 290. Warrington, Arpley Meadow, River Mersey, Britain. Vessel 1 (Q 1390). Late 12th century (McGrail & Switsur 1979: 229-31). 12th to 13th Century (entries 291-307): 291. Closeburn, Nithsdale, Dumfriesshire, Dumfries & Galloway, Scotland, Britain. Castle Loch. 12 th to 13th century (Mowat 1996: 20, no. 21). 292. Kew, Surrey, Britain. Vessel Q-1453. 12th to 13th century (Marsden 1996: 222). 293. River Khuban, Krasnodar, Krasni Kut District, Russia. 12th to 14 th century (Okorokov 1995: 43, no. 13). 294. Kyholm, Samsø, Denmark. 12th to 13 th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1983). 91

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295. London, Britain. Billingsgate. 12th to 13 th century (Marsden 1996: 116-17, 198, 220, figs. 1, 102-06, tables 6, 8, 10). 296. London, Britain. Southwark, Bankside. 12 th to 13th century (Marsden 1996: 113, 160-67, 218-19, figs. 1, 101, 155, tables 6, 11, 16). 297. Novogorod, Nerevsky, Russia. 12 th to 13th century (Sorokin 1994: 129, 133-34). 298. Novogorod, Nerevsky, Russia. 12 th to 13th century (Sorokin 1994: 129, 133-34). 299. Llyn Peris, Llanberis, Gwynedd, North Wales, Britain. Vessel 2. 12th to 13 th century (Illsley & Roberts 1979; 1980). 300. Puck Bay, Gdansk, Poland. Wreck 5 (P5). 12th to 13th century (Stepien 1984: 311-21). 301. Rääkkylä, Finland. Vessel Hel-1005. 12th to 13 th century (Forssell 1984-85: 304-11). 302. Riga, Latvia. 12th to 13 th century (Mäss 1991: 393-20). 303. Roskilde, Roskilde Haven, Denmark. Vessel 2. 12 th to 13th century (Bill 1997). 304. Sjövold (Sjövoll), Norway. 12th to 13th century (Christensen 1968b). 305. Tønsberg, Oslofjord, Norway. 12th to 13th century (Lindh 1991: 67-75). 306. Västannorstjärn, Sweden. 12 th to 13th century (Varenius 1992: 210). 307. Visby (Wisby), Gotland, Sweden. Vessel DE 131b. 12th to 14th century (Ellmers 1972: 323-34, no. 131).

1988: 104-06). 327. Puck Bay, Gdansk, Poland. Wreck 1 (P1). Mid 13th century (Stepien 1984: 311-21). 328. Smäland, Sweden. 13th century (source unknown). 329. Soukolojärvi, Västerbolten, Sweden. Early 13 th century (Westerdahl 1985: 122-24, no. 21). 330. Staraya Ladoga, Russia. Assemblage 3. Early 13th century (Sorokin 1994: 129, 133-34; 2000: 37-38). 331. Turko-Åbo Castle, Finland. 13th century (source unknown). Late 13th Century (entries 332-40): 332. Breslau (Wroclaw), Poland. Late 13 th century (Ellmers 1972: 302, no. 79). 333. Henendoern (Helledorn), Netherlands. 13th century (source unknown). 334. Kalmar, Sweden. Vessel 1. Mid 13th century (Åkerlund 1951). 335. Keuru, Suojoki, Finland. Vessel 2. Late 13 th century (Forssell 1984-85: 304-11). 336. Oskarshamn, Bossholmen, Sweden. Mid-late 13th century (Cederlund 1990: 193-206). 337. Penner Wharf, Bristol, Avon, Britain. Late 13th century (Hutchinson 1994a: 191). 338. Rotterdam, Netherlands. 13 th century (Neyland 2000: 172). 339. Treiden, Lettische, Russia. Mid 13th century (Ellmers 1972: 314, no. 100). 340. Wisloujscie Fortress, Gdansk, Poland. 13th century (Smolarek 1985).

Early 13th Century (entries 308-31):

13th to 14th Century (entries 341-70):

308. Aggersund (Aggernsund), Limfjorden, Denmark. Early 13 th century (Damgård-Sørensen 1997). 309. Cornmarket Street, Cork, Ireland. 13th century (McGrail 1986b: 24). 310. Gdansk, Poland. Early 13 th century (Filipowiak 1994: 61-69). 311. Hartlepool, Cleveland, Britain. Southgate. Early 13th century (Daniels 1991: 45). 312. Ijsselmeer Polders, Zuidelijk Flevoland, Netherlands. Vessel OZ43. 13th century (Reinders 1985b: 400-02). 313. Keuru, Suojoki, Central Finland Vessel 1 (Hel-36). Early 13 th century (Forssell 1984-85: 304-11). 314. Knocke-ter-Zee, Ostflandern, Belgium. Mid 13th century (Ellmers 1972: 290-91, no. 38). 315. Kollerup, Jylland, Denmark. 13 th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1979: fig. 2.12). 316. Korsholm, Denmark. 13 th century (Bill 1995: 198). 317. Lincoln, Lincolnshire, Britain. Dickinson’s Mill. Early 13 th century (Jones & Jones 1981: 138). 318. London, Britain. City, Lower Thames Street. Custom House. 13 th century (Marsden 1981: 10-16; 1994: 26-29, 179, figs. 13, 15; 1996: 42-44, 49, 52-53, tables 6, 11, 16). 319. London, Britain. Southwark, 5-15 Bankside. 13th century (Marsden 1996: 113, 160-67, 218-19, figs. 1, 101, 155, tables 6, 11, 16). 320. London, Britain. Southwark, Morgan’s Lane. 13th century (Goodburn: pers. comm.). 321. London, Westminster, Britain. 13th century (Goodburn & Thomas 1997: 26-38). 322. Lubeck, Germany. Early 13 th century (Weski 1999a: 362). 323. Magor Pill, Severn Estuary, Gwent, Britain. Boat 1. 13th century (Nayling 1998). 324. Meinerswijk (Arnhem), Netherlands. 13th century (Neyland 2000: 172). 325. Mollösund, Sweden. 13th century (Cederlund 1990: 205). 326. Newcastle, Tyne and Wear, Britain. 13th century (O’Brien et al.

341. Åland Islands, Finland. 13 th to 14th century (source unknown). 342. Asker, Sjovoll, Oslo, Norway. 13 th to 14th century (Bill 1995: 198). 343. Bergen (Bryggen), Norway. 13 th to 14th century (Ellmers 1972: 257, 330, no. 150). 344. Bergen (Bryggen), Norway. ‘The Big Ship’. 13 th to 14 th century (Ellmers 1972: 257, 330, no. 150). 345. Bergen (Bryggen), Norway. 13 th to 14th century (Ellmers 1972: 257, 330, no. 150). 346. Bøtøminde, Denmark. 13 th to 14th century (Varenius 1992: 190). 347. Bremen, River Weser, Germany. 13th to 14 th century (Abel et al. 1969). 348. Folderøy, Norway. 13th to 15th century (Christensen 1968a: 137). 349. Gedesby, Bøtø Nor on Sydfalster, Denmark. 13th to 14 th century (Bill 1995: 198). 350. Grønsund, Denmark. 13th to 14 th century (Dencker 1998). 351. Ijsselmeer Polders, Noordostpolder, Netherlands. Vessel A57. 13th to 14 th century (Reinders 1985a: 13). 352. Ijsselmeer Polders, Noordostpolder, Netherlands. Vessel G37. 13th to 14 th century (Reinders 1985a: 7). 353. Ijsselmeer Polders, Noordostpolder, Netherlands. Vessel R1. 13th to 14th century (Reinders 1985a: 13). 354. Ijsselmeer Polders, Zuidelijk Flevoland, Netherlands. Vessel N5. 13th to 14 th century (Reinders 1985a: 13). 355. Ijsselmeer Polders, Zuidelijk Flevoland, Netherlands. Vessel NZ43. 13 th to 14th century (Reinders 1979, 1985a: 13; 1985b: 402). 356. Kew, Surrey, Britain. Vessel Q-3038AD. 13 th to 14th century (Marsden 1996: 222). 357. Kingsteignton, Newton Abbot, Devon, Britain. 13th to 14 th century (Dudley et al. 2001). 358. Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey, Britain. Horsefair Vessel 1. 13th to 14th century (Goodburn 1991: 108-11). 92

The Illuminated Ark

359. Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey, Britain. Horsefair Vessel 2. 13th to 14 th century (Goodburn 1991: 108-11). 360. Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey, Britain. Horsefair Vessel 3. 13th to 14 th century (Goodburn 1991: 108-11). 361. Krefeld-Gellup, Xanten, Kalkar, Nordheim-Westfalen, Lower River Rhine, Germany/Netherlands. Vessel 2. 13th to 14th century (Ellmers & Pirling 1972: 46). 362. London, Britain. City, Baynards Castle. 13th to 14 th century (Marsden 1996: 22, 126, 154, 219, figs. 1, 121). 363. Øresund vor Kastrup, Københavns, Denmark. 13th to 14th century (Ellmers 1972: 327, no. 141). 364. Pärnu River, Estonia. 13th to 14th century (Mäss 1991; 2000: 56). 365. Roskilde Harbour, Denmark. 13th to 14 th century (Bill 1996). 366. Stocksee, Jylland, Denmark. 13th to 15th century (source unknown). 367. St Peter Port, Guernsey, Channel Islands. Sites 2 & 3. 13th to 14 th century (Adams & Black 2004: 233-35). 368. St Peter Port, Guernsey, Channel Islands. Sites A, B1, B2, C & D. 13th to 14 th century (Adams & Black 2004). 369. Vestre Skarholmsrende, Rodby Fjord, Lolland, Denmark. 13th to 14th century (Bill 1998: 90-91, 92, 101-02, no. 17). 370. York, North Yorkshire, Britain. Hungate. 13th to 15th century (source unknown).

389. London, Britain. Southwark, Hays Wharf to Abbot’s Lane. Late 14th century (Marsden 1996: 107-12, 173-75). 390. London, Britain. Southwark, Hays Wharf to Abbot’s Lane. Late 14th century (Marsden 1996: 107-12, 173-75). 391. London, Britain. Southwark, Hays Wharf to Symonds Wharf. Mid 14th century (Marsden 1996: 117). 392. Skanör Harbour, Skåne, southern Sweden. Late 14th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 18-29). 393. Úliwiny, Poland. Late 14th century (Ossowski 2000: 63-64). 394. Vejby, North Sjaelland, Denmark. Late 14th century (CrumlinPedersen 1997a: 18-29). 395. Wismar-Wendorf, Germany. Late 14 th century (Per Åkesson, pers. comm.). 14th to 15th Century (entries 396-414): 396. River Dnieper (Dnepr), Kortitsa Island, Russia. Vessel 1. 14 th to 15th century (Okorokov 1995: 39, no. 7). 397. Dock Island, Holmen, Copenhagen, Denmark. Vessel 3. 14th to 15th century (Gothche & Host-Madsen 2001). 398. The Foundry, Poole, Dorset, Britain. 11th to 15th century (Hutchinson 1994b: 23-45). 399. Heilbronn, River Neckar, Baden-Württemberg, Rhineland, Germany. 14th to 15th century (source unknown). 400. Ijsselmeer Polders, Noordoostpolder, Netherlands. Vessel M107. 14th to 15 th century (Reinders 1979: 35-43). 401. Ijsselmeer Polders, Zuidelijk Flevoland, Netherlands. Vessel NZ42. 14th to 16th century (Reinders 1985a: 43; 1985b: 402). 402. Lödöse, Sweden (DE 115). 14th to 15 th century (Bill 1995: 198). 403. London, Britain. City, Bridewell. 14th to 16th century (Marsden 1996: 125-26, figs. 1, 118-20, table 7). 404. London, Britain. City, Trigg Lane. 13th to 14th century (Marsden 1996: 125, 220, figs. 115-17, table 6). 405. London, Britain. Blackfriars Wreck 3. 14th to 15 th century (Marsden 1996: 55-104, figs. 31-69, 71-81, 83-87, 89-91, tables 2-6). 406. London, Britain. Southwark, Gun and Shot Wharf. 14th to 15th century (Marsden 1996: 118-25, 167-68, 218, figs. 113-14, 16162, tables 6-7). 407. London, Britain. Southwark, Hays Wharf to Gun and Shot Wharf. 14th to 15 th century (Marsden 1996: 167). 408. Oaksmere (Oak Mere), Cumbria, Britain. 14 th to 15th century (Newstead 1935: 207-11). 409. Oreshek, Russia. 14th to 15 th century (Sorokin 1994: 129; 2000: 38). 410. Rye Bay, East Sussex, Britain. Rudder B. 14th to 15 th century (Marsden 1992: 126-27; Hutchinson 1994a: 196). 411. Sandwich, Kent, Britain. 14th to 15 th century (Trussler 1974: 16669; Milne et al. 2004). 412. Sørenga, Oslo, Norway. 14th to 15th century (Varenius 1992: 209). 413. St Peter Port, Guernsey, Channel Islands. Site 2/4. 14th to 15th century (Adams & Black 2004: 233, 236). 414. Threave Castle, Galloway, Ireland. 14 th to 15th century (Good & Tabraham 1981: 90-140).

Early 14th Century (entries 371-87): 371. Åbo Slott, Finland. Early 14 th century (Varenius 1992: 211). 372. Gellen, Hiddensee Island, Rügen, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany. Early 14th century (Association for Underwater Archaeology in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany 1999). 373. Giggleswick Tarn, North Yorkshire, Britain. Vessel Q 1245. Early 14 th century (McGrail & Switsur 1979: 229-31). 374. Helgeandsholmen, Stockholm, Sweden. Vessel 1. 14th century (source unknown). 375. Helgeandsholmen, Stockholm, Sweden. Vessel 2. Early 14 th century (Varenius 1992: 197). 376. Helgeandsholmen, Stockholm, Sweden. Vessel 3. Mid 14 th century (Varenius 1992: 197). 377. Helgeandsholmen, Stockholm, Sweden. Vessel 5. Early 14 th century (Varenius 1992: 198). 378. Helgeandsholmen, Stockholm, Sweden. Vessel 9. 14th century (Varenius 1992: 199). 379. Helgeandsholmen, Stockholm, Sweden. Vessel 11. Early 14 th century (Varenius 1992: 199). 380. Ijsselmeer Polders, Zuidelijk Flevoland, Netherlands. Vessel NZ74. Early 14 th century (Reinders 1985a: 27; 1985b: 402). 381. Ijsselmeer Polders, Zuidelijk Flevoland, Netherlands. Vessel OZ36. Early 14 th century (Hoekstra 2000: 120). 382. Ijsselmeer Polders, Zuidelijk Flevoland, Netherlands. Vessel Q75. Early 14 th century (Ellmers 1972: 292, no. 42). 383. Immenstaad (Lake Constance), Bodensee, Germany. 14 th century (Schlichtherle & Kramer 1996). 384. Kalmar, Sweden. Vessel 2. 14th century (Bill 1995: 198). 385. Kentmere, Westmorland, Cumbria, Britain. Vessel D 71. Early 14th century (Wilson 1966: fig. 6.15). 386. Navity Bank, Moray Firth, Scotland, Britain. Early 14th century (Hutchinson 1994a: 195). 387. Roskilde, Roskilde Haven, Denmark. Vessel 1. Early 14 th Century (Bill 1997).

Early 15th Century (entries 415-39): 415. Aber Wrac’h River, Brittany, France. Mid 15th century (L’Hour & Veyrat 1989). 416. Almere, Germany. Early 15th century (Redknap 1997: 31, 127, 140). 417. Camber, Sussex, Britain. Mid 15th century (Goodburn 1990: 32734).

Late 14th Century (entries 388-95): 388. Halmstad, Denmark. Mid 14th century (Bill 1995: 198).

93

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452. London, Britain. Bermondsey, Bermondsey Wall West, Adlards Wharf. 15th century (James 1997). 453. River Oka, Ostraya Luka, Russia. Vessel 2. Late 15th century (Okorokov 1995: 41-42, no. 11).

418. Dock Island, Holmen, Copenhagen, Denmark. Vessel 2. Early 15th century (Gothche & Host-Madsen 2001). 419. Dock Island, Holmen, Copenhagen, Denmark. Vessel 4. Early 15th century (Gothche & Host-Madsen 2001). 420. Dziwna, Russia. 15th century (Filipowiak 1994: 94-95). 421. Elbing, Vistula, Poland. 15 th century (Litwin 1994: 203-13). 422. Grace Dieu, Bursledon, River Hamble, near Southampton, Hampshire, Britain. Early 15th century (Anderson 1934: 158-70). 423. Granne, Poland. Early 15 th century (Ossowski 2000: 64). 424. Helgeandsholmen, Stockholm, Sweden. Vessel 4. 15th century (Bill 1995: 198). 425. Helgeandsholmen, Stockholm, Sweden. Vessel 8. 15th century (Bill 1995: 198). 426. Helgeandsholmen, Stockholm, Sweden. Vessel 10. Early 15 th century (Bill 1995: 198). 427. Himanka, Vasa, Finland. Early 15 th century (Westerdahl 1985: 133-34, no. 5). 428. Ijsselmeer Polders, Zuidelijk Flevoland, Netherlands. Vessel MZ66. Mid 15 th century (Redknap 1997: 162). 429. Ijsselmeer Polders, Zuidelijk Flevoland, Netherlands. Vessel NZ3. 15th century (Reinders 1985b: 401). 430. Kalmar, Sweden. Vessel 4. 15th century (Bill 1995: 198). 431. London, Britain. Blackfriars Wreck 4. 15th century (Marsden 1996: 105-06). 432. London, Britain. Blackfriars Wreck 5. 15th century (source unknown). 433. London, Britain. Bridwell. 15 th century (source unknown). 434. London, Britain. Southwark, Bankside Power Station. 15 th century (Marsden 1996: 113, 160-67, 218-19, figs. 1, 101, 155, tables 6, 11, 16). 435. Novogorod, Nerevsky, Russia. 15 th century (Sorokin 1994: 129, 133-34; 2000: 37-38). 436. Puck Bay, Gdansk, Poland. Wreck 5 (‘The Copper Wreck’, W5). 15th century (Litwin 1980: 221). 437. Tentsmuir, Port-on-Craig, Fife, Scotland, Britain. Early 15th century (Mowat 1996: 106, no. A69). 438. Vedby Hage, Storstrommen, Sjaelland, Denmark. Early 15 th century (Myrhøj 2000: 229-34). 439. Wolin, Dziwna, Poland. Early 15th century (Filipowiak 1981).

15th to 16th Century (entries 454-84): 454. Alt Bülk, Kreis Rendsburg-Eckernförde, Schleswig-Holstein, Denmark. 15th to 17th century (source unknown). 455. Angra, Azores. Vessel C. 15th to 16 th century (Alves 2001: pers. comm.). 456. Antwerp, Belgium. 15 th to 16 th century (Ellmers 1972: 284-88, no. 35). 457. Bohnert, Kreis Schleswig-Flensburg, Schleswig-Holstein. 15th to 17th century (source unknown). 458. Bredfjed, Dragsminde, Lolland, Falster, Rødby Fjord, Denmark. 15th to 16 th century (Bill 1995: 91-92, 93, 97, 99, 198, no .1). 459. Brouwerschavensche Gat, Netherlands. 15th to 16th century (Maarleveld & Stassen 1993: 283-85). 460. Bürgenstock, Lake of the Five Cantons, Switzerland. 15th to 16th century (Arnold & Berger 1988: 183-86). 461. Chapel Lane Staithe, River Hull, Hull, Britain. 15th to 17 th century (Mowat 2002: pers. comm.). 462. Dollerup, Kreis Schleswig-Flensburg, Schleswig-Holstein, Denmark. 15th to 17th century (source unknown). 463. Gull Rock, Lundy Island, Bristol Channel, Britain. 15th to 16th century (source unknown). 464. Ijsselmeer Polders, Zuidelijk Flevoland, Netherlands. Vessel U34. 15th to 16 th century (Redknap 1997: 19, 21, 26). 465. Kalmar, Sweden. Vessel 5. 15th to 16th century (Bill 1995: 198). 466. Kalmar, Sweden. Vessel 6. 15th to 16th century (Bill 1995: 198). 467. Kungser, Sweden. 15th to 16th century (Bill 1998: 101, no. 14). 468. Lisbon, Portugual. Lisbon Underground Railway Riverside Site. 15th to 16 th century (Alves 2001: pers. comm.). 469. London, Britain. Southwark, 37-46 Bankside. 15th to 16th century (Marsden 1996: 113, 160-67, 218-19, figs. 1, 101, 155, tables 6, 11, 16). 470. London, Britain. Southwark, Hays Wharf. 15th to 16 th century (Marsden 1996: 107-30, 160-81). 471. London, Britain. Southwark, Hays Wharf to Morgan’s Lane. 15 th to 16th century (Marsden 1996: 168). 472. London, Britain. Southwark, Morgan’s Lane. 15th to 16th century (Marsden 1996: 168). 473. London, Britain. Southwark, Symonds Wharf. 15th to 16th century (Marsden 1996: 117-18). 474. Magor Pill, Glamorgan, Gwent, Britain. Boat 2. 15th to 17 th century (Blue 1997: 252-62). 475. Mekrijärvi, North Karelia, Finland. Vessel Hel-1628. 15 th to 16th century (Forssell 1984-85: 304-11). 476. Molasses Reef, Turks and Caicos Islands, Caribbean. 15th to 16th century (Hoyt 1984). 477. Myra Channel, Portugual. 15th to 16th century (Alves 2001: pers. comm.). 478. Portør, Portørenga, Kragerø, Norway. 15th to 16th century (source unknown). 479. Ribero des Naus, Lisbon, Portugual. 15th to 16 th century (Alves 2001: pers. comm.). 480. Saaremaa, Northern Russia. 15th to 16th century (Okorokov 1993: 33-45). 481. Tolkmiko, Vistula, Poland. Vessel 1. 15th to 16th century (Indruszewski 2000a: 49). 482. Tolkmiko, Vistula, Poland. Vessel 2. 15th to 16th century (Indruszewski 2000a: 49).

Late 15th Century (entries 440-53): 440. Angra, Azores. Vessel D. 15th century (Alves 2001: pers. comm.). 441. Avafjärd, Sweden. Late 15 th century (Varenius 1992: 189). 442. Ria de Aveiro, Ria Lagoon, Mira Channel, Lisbon, Portugal. Vessel A. Mid 15 th century (Alves et. al. 2001: 12-36). 443. Beinwil am See, Lake Hallwill (Hallwil), Switzerland. Vessel AG 1977. Late 15th century (Lithberg 1932). 444. Cavalaire, France. Mid-late 15 th century (Parker 1992: 133). 445. Ellerwald, Elbing, Poland. Late 15th century (Ellmers 1972: 306, no. 84). 446. Ijsselmeer Polders, Zuidelijk Flevoland, Netherlands. Vessel B55. Late 15th century (Neyland 2000: 172). 447. Ijsselmeer Polders, Zuidelijk Flevoland, Netherlands. Vessel K73/K74. Late 15 th century (Reinders 1985a: 29). 448. Ijsselmeer Polders, Zuidelijk Flevoland, Netherlands. Vessel MZ22. Late 15 th century (Reinders 1985a: 27). 449. Katthavet, Stockholm, Sweden. Vessel 712: 37. 15 th century (Cederlund 1983). 450. Køge, Denmark. Late 15th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 1829). 451. Laneham, Nottinghamshire, Britain. Late 15 th century (Hutchinson 1994a: 193).

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483. Tolkmiko, Vistula, Poland. Vessel 3. 15 th to 16th century (Litwin 2000: 9). 484. Tolkmiko, Vistula, Poland. Vessel 4. 15 th to 16th century (Litwin 2000: 9).

513. Sao Bento, Transkei, Southern Africa. Mid 16th century (Auret & Maggs 1982: 1-39). 514. Schleswig, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany/Denmark. The Brick Wreck. Mid 16th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 18-29). 515. Studland Bay, Poole, Dorset, Britain. Early 16th century (Hutchinson 1991: 153-54). 516. Weybridge, Surrey, Britain. Mid 16th century (Hutchinson 1994a: 198). 517. Western Ledge Reef, Bermuda. Early 16 th century (Watts 1993: 103-24).

Early 16th Century (entries 485-517): 485. Bahia Mujeres, Yucatan Peninsula, Cancun, Mexico. Early 16th century (Keith 1988: 45-68). 486. Santo António, Boudeuse Cay, Seychelles. Early 16th century (Blake & Green 1986: 1-23). 487. Brighton Marina, West Sussex, Britain. 16th century (Bowman 1992: 163-69). 488. Caldecotte, Milton Keynes, Northamptonshire, Britain. Mid 16 th century (Hutchinson 1983: 7-8). 489. Cattewater Reach, Plymouth, Britain. Early 16th century (Redknap 1984). 490. Church Rocks, Teignmouth, Britain. Mid 16th century (Flatman & Blue 1999: 181). 491. Dunwich Bank, Suffolk, Britain. Mid 16th century (Flatman & Blue 1999: 198-99). 492. Flor de la Mar, Melaka, Eastern Sumatra, Malaysia. Early 16 th century (source unknown). 493. Girdler Sand, Whitstable, Kent, Britain. 16 th century (source unknown). 494. Heie, Hordaland, Norway. 16th century (Ellmers 1972: 334, no. 168). 495. Helgeandsholmen, Sweden. Vessel 7. Early 16 th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 18-29). 496. Highborn Cay, Northern Exuma Islands, Bahamas. Early 16 th century (Smith et al. 1985: 63-72). 497. Hull, East Yorkshire, Britain. Early 16 th century (McGrail 1978a: no. 65). 498. Ijsselmeer Polders, Zuidelijk Flevoland, Netherlands. Vessel K84. Early 16 th century (Reinders 1985b: 29). 499. Ijsselmeer Polders, Zuidelijk Flevoland, Netherlands. Vessel NZ44. Early 16 th century (Reinders 1985b: 402). 500. Kalmar, Sweden. Vessel 7. 16th century (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 18-29). 501. Kattegat, Denmark/Sweden. 16th century (source unknown). 502. Kravel, Franska Stenarna, Nämdöfjärden, Stockholm Archipelago, Sweden. Early 16 th century (Adams 2001). 503. Lednickie Lake, Poland. Boat 2. Early 16 th century (Ossowski 2000: 63-64). 504. London, Britain. Southwark, Bethel Estate. 16 th century (Marsden 1996: 179). 505. London, Britain. Woolwich. Early 16 th century (Anderson 1959: 94-99). 506. Looe Bar, Mounts Bay, Cornwall, Britain. Early 16th century (Redknap 1997a: 150). 507. Maasilinn, Saaremaa Island, West Estonian Archipelago, Estonia. Mid 16 th century (Mäss 1991: 313-20). 508. Mary Rose, Spithead, Portsmouth, Britain. Early 16th century (Rule 1983). 509. Matham, River Rother, Rye, Sussex, Britain. 16th century (Lindsay 1874-76 [volume 1]: 337). 510. Padre Island, Texas, USA. Mid 16th century (Barto Arnold & Weddle 1978) (nb. includes Espiritu Santo, San Esteban & Santa Maria de Yciar). 511. Riddarholmen, Stockholm, Sweden. Early 16 th century (Bill 1995: 198). 512. Ringaren (the Bell Ringer), Flatvarp, Östra Ed Parish, Småland, Västervik, SE Sweden. Early 16th century (source unknown).

Late 16th Century (entries 518-85): 518. Alderney Island, Channel Islands. Late 16th century (Bound 1995a; 1995b). 519. Bartholomew Ledges, St Mary’s Sound, Isles of Scilly, Britain. Late 16th century (Redknap 1997a: 153, no. 4; 33-44). 520. Cayo Nuevo, Bay of Campeche, Mexico. Mid 16th century (Smith 1988a, 1988b: 85-106). 521. Las Cinque Chagas, Azores. Late 16th century (source unknown). 522. Christianshavn (old Grønnegaard harbour), Copenhagen, Denmark. Wreck 1. Late 16th century (Lemée 1997a, 1997b). 523. Christianshavn (old Grønnegaard harbour), Copenhagen, Denmark. Wreck 4. Late 16th century (Lemée 1997a, 1997b). 524. Christianshavn (old Grønnegaard harbour), Copenhagen, Denmark. Wreck 7. Late 16th century (Lemée 1997a, 1997b). 525. Collieston, St Catherine’s Dub, Aberdeenshire, Scotland, Britain. Late 16th century (Martin 1998a: 113). 526. La Contessa, Algarve, Portugual. Mid 16th century (Alves 2001: pers. comm.). 527. Elephanten (or Elefanen), Kalmar, Sweden. 16th century (Cederlund 1983). 528. El Gran Grifón, Stroms Hellier, Fair Isle, Shetland Isles, Scotland, Britain. Late 16th century (Martin 1972). 529. Elsinore, Denmark. Late 16 th century (Probst 1994: 143-52). 530. Emanuel Point, Pensacola Bay, Florida, USA. Mid 16th century (Smith 1994: 14-18). 531. Girona, Lacada Point, Co. Antrim, Ireland. Late 16th century (Martin 1975). 532. Hamburg, Germany. Vessel 1. Late 16th century (Ellmers 1972: 296, no. 52). 533. Hamburg, Germany. Vessel 2. Late 16th century (Ellmers 1974: 137-145). 534. Hiltinen, Turku Archipelago, Finland. Mid 16th century (Grönhagen 1985: 37-39). 535. Ijsselmeer Polders, Zuidelijk Flevoland, Netherlands. Vessel AZ79. Late 16th century (Reinders 1985b: 401). 536. Ijsselmeer Polders, Zuidelijk Flevoland, Netherlands. Vessel GZ13. Mid 16th century (Reinders 1985b: 401). 537. Ijsselmeer Polders, Zuidelijk Flevoland, Netherlands. Vessel KZ47. Late 16th century (Reinders 1985b: 401). 538. Ijsselmeer Polders, Zuidelijk Flevoland, Netherlands. Vessel LZ1. Mid 16 th century (Reinders 1985b: 401). 539. Ijsselmeer Polders, Zuidelijk Flevoland, Netherlands. Vessel LZ5. 16th century (Reinders 1985a, 1985b). 540. Ijsselmeer Polders, Zuidelijk Flevoland, Netherlands. Vessel NZ13. Mid 16th century (Reinders 1985a, 1985b). 541. Inschot (Zuidoostrak), Netherlands. Late 16th century (source unknown). 542. La Juliana, Streedagh Strand, Co. Sligo, Ireland. Late 16th century (Martin 1975). 543. Knuds Grund, Løjtland, Denmark. Late 16th century (Dencker 1998).

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544. La Lavia, Streedagh Strand, Co. Sligo, Ireland. Late 16 th century (Martin 1975). 545. La Trinidad Valencera, Kinnagoe Bay, Co. Donegal, Ireland. Late 16th century (Martin 1975). 546. London, Britain. Southwark, Cherry Garden Street. Mid 16 th century (Marsden 1996: 175-78). 547. London, Britain. Southwark, Hays Wharf to Abbot’s Lane. 16 th century (Marsden 1996: 173-74). 548. London, Britain. Southwark, Hays Wharf to Bethel Estate. Late 16th century (Marsden 1996: 179). 549. London, Britain. Southwark, Hays Wharf to Butter Factory South. 16th century (Marsden 1996: 175). 550. London, Britain. Southwark, Hays Wharf to Gun and Shot Wharf. Mid 16 th century (Marsden 1996: 167). 551. London, Britain. Southwark, Hays Wharf to Morgan’s Lane. 16th century (Marsden 1996: 168). 552. Fort Malakoff, Mainz, Germany. Vessel MAL 1. 16th century (Höckmann 2000: 67-70). 553. Marstrand Harbour, Sweden. The ‘Ferry Wreck’. Mid 16 th century (Gregory 1999). 554. Marstrand Harbour, Sweden. Mid 16th century (Gregory 1999). 555. Mukran, Rügen, Germany. Mid 16th century (Keith 1989: 91-92). 556. Normalmstorg, Hästen, Stockholm, Sweden. Vessels 1-6. Late 16th century (source unknown). 557. Our Lady of the Americas, River Targus (Tejo), Lisbon, Portugual. 16th century (Alves 2001: pers. comm.). 558. Oxwich Bay, Gower Peninsular, Britain. Mid 16th century (Redknap 1997: 140). 559. Penningskären, Södermanland Archipelago, Sweden. Vessel 722: 23. 16th century (Cederlund 1983). 560. Penney Island, Red Bay, Labrador, Canada. Late 16 th century (Grenier 1988: 69-84). 561. Llyn Peris, Llanberis, Gwynedd, North Wales, Britain. Vessel 1. Mid 16 th century (Illsley & Roberts 1979, 1980: 45-67). 562. Red Bay, Labrador, Canada (Galleon San Juan). Late 16th century (Grenier 1988: 69-84). 563. Red Bay, Labrador, Canada (Batel). Late 16 th century (Grenier 1988: 69-84). 564. Red Bay, Labrador, Canada (Chalupa). Late 16 th century (Grenier 1988: 69-84). 565. Rikswasa, Brännskeppet, Djurhamn, Djurö, Sweden. Vessel 712: 20. Late 16th century (Cederlund 1983). 566. Rye, Sussex, Britain. Vessel 1. Late 16th century (Lovegrove 1964: 115-22). 567. Rye, Sussex, Britain. Vessel 2. Late 16 th century (Lovegrove 1964: 115-22). 568. Salcombe, Devon, Britain. Late 16 th century (Fenwick & Gale 1998: 86-87). 569. San Augustin, Point Reyes, Drakes Bay, California, USA. Late 16th century (Heizer 1942). 570. San Diego, Fortune Islands, Manilla Bay, Luzon, Phillipines. Late 16th century (Carré et al. 1994). 571. San Juan de Sicilia, Tobermory, Isle of Mull, Western Isles, Scotland, Britain. (The Tobermory Galleon). Late 16 th century (Martin 1975). 572. San Pedro, Bermuda. Late 16th century (Smith 1988b: 85-106). 573. Santa Lucia, Bermuda. Late 16th century (Watts 1993: 103-24). 574. Santa Maria de la Rosa, Blasket Sound, Co. Kerry, Ireland. Late 16th century (Martin 1975). 575. Santa Maria de Vison, Streedagh Strand, Co. Sligo, Ireland. Late 16th century (Martin 1975). 576. Sao Paulo, Western Sumatra, Malaysia. Late 16th century (source unknown).

577. Skanör Harbour, Skåne, southern Sweden. Vessel NSH 1967. Late 16th century (c. 1600?) (source unknown). 578. Skanör Harbour, Tegel, Skåne, southern Sweden. Mid 16 th century (source unknown). 579. Skheurrak, Waddensee, Netherlands. Vessel SO1. Late 16 th century (Zeiler 1993). 580. Tammisaari, Finland. Late 16 th century (Grönhagen 1985: 37-39). 581. Tobie, Cape Spartel, Straits of Gibraltar, Morocco. Late 16 th century (source unknown). 582. Vejle, Denmark. Late 16th century (Cederlund 1985). 583. Visby (Wisby), Gotland, Sweden. The 1566 Storm Wrecks. Late 16th century (source unknown). 584. Wokum, Friesland, Netherlands. Vessel WN92. Mid 16th century (Neyland 2000: 172-73). 585. Yarmouth Roads, Yarmouth, Isle of Wight, Britain. Late 16 th century (Watson & Gale 1990: 183-92). Unsure (entries 586-714): 586. American Wharf, Southampton, Britain. Medieval (Prynne 1973: 229). 587. Ballywillin, Co. Antrim, Ireland. Early medieval (Briggs 1974: 158-60; Breen & Forsythe 2000: 68-69, 168). 588. Bartins Bay, Ireland. Medieval (Farrell 1989: 221-28). 589. Barton-on-Humber, Humberside, Britain. St Peter’s Church. Early medieval (Richards 2000: 115). 590. Bexhill, Sussex, Britain. Early medieval (Ellmers 1972: 273, no. 3). 591. Björkö (Birka), Hille, Gästrickland, Uppland, Sweden. Site 1. Early medieval (Åkerlund 1963: 97, 157). 592. Björkö (Birka), Hille, Gästrickland, Uppland, Sweden. Site 2. Early medieval (Åkerlund 1963: 97, 157). 593. Bø, Karmoy, Norway. Medieval (Brøgger & Shertelig 1971: 130). 594. River Boh, Southwest Russia. Medieval (Sorokin 2000: 38). 595. Brokær, Kongeå River, West Schleswig, Jutland, Denmark. Early medieval (Crumlin-Pedersen 1997a: 289-90). 596. Byslätt, Istorp Stoke, Västergotland, Sweden. Early medieval (Humbla & von Post 1937: 111). 597. Caldicot Levels, Severn Estuary, Gwent, Britain. Medieval (Allen 1995b: 219-29). 598. Càrn a’ Bharraich, Oronsay, Hebridies, Western Isles, Scotland, Britain. Early medieval (Graham-Campbell & Batey 1998). 599. Catfield, East Sussex, Britain. Early medieval (Green 1963). 600. Catfield, Norfolk, Britain. Early medieval (Mülle-Wille 1974: 204). 601. Christianshavn (old Grønnegaard harbour), Copenhagen, Denmark. Wreck 6. Post-medieval (Lemée 1997a; 1997b). 602. Clonmacnoise, River Shannon, Ireland. Medieval (O’Sullivan & Boland 1999). 603. Cnoc nan Gall, Colonsay, Inner Hebridies, Scotland, Britain. Early medieval (source unknown). 604. Cummatrush Lake, Millstreet, Co. Cork, Ireland. Medieval (Bowman 1993: 175-77). 605. Dalmarnock, Little Dunkeld, Perth & Kinross, Tayside, Scotland, Britain. Medieval or post-medieval (Mowat 1996: 21-22, no. 25). 606. Derryco, Ireland. Medieval (Farrell 1989: 221-28). 607. Dorestad, Germany. Medieval (Weski 1999a: 362). 608. Dreye & Sudweye, Kreis Grafschaft Hoya, Niedersachsen, Germany. Late medieval (source unknown). 609. Druim Arstail, Oronsay, Inner Hebridies, Scotland, Britain. Early medieval (Mowat 2002: pers. comm.). 610. Dzierzgon (Dziergón), Poland. Medieval (Smolarek 1981: 51-60). 611. Eastbourne, East Sussex, Britain. Medieval (Gilbert 1964: 89).

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647. London, Britain. City, 9-11 Bridewell Place. Medieval (Marsden 1996: 125-26, figs. 1, 118-20, table 7). 648. London, Britain. City, Thames Street. Medieval (Marsden 1996: 220, fig. 1). 649. London, Britain. City, Upper Thames Street. Medieval (Marsden 1996: 219, fig. 1). 650. London, Britain. Hay’s Wharf. Medieval (Goodburn 1991: 10515). 651. London, Britain. Deptford. Medieval (Marsden 1996: 159, fig. 17). 652. London, Britain. Hackney Marsh. Medieval (Marsden 1996: 220, fig. 18). 653. London, Britain. Southwark, Abbots Lane. Medieval (Marsden 1996: 107-12, 217, figs. 94-100, table 6). 654. London, Britain. Southwark, Guy’s Hospital, New Guy’s House. Early medieval (Marsden 1996: 218, fig. 1). 655. London, Britain. Southwark, Hibernia Wharf. Medieval (Marsden 1994: 139-41, 159, fig. 1, 141). 656. London, Britain. Southwark, Park Street. Medieval (Marsden 1996: 218, fig. 1). 657. London, Britain. Westminster, Storey’s Gate. Medieval (Marsden 1996: 219, fig. 1). 658. Lubeck, Germany. Early medieval (Weski 1999a: 362). 659. Mälaren, Södertalje, Sweden. Medieval (Crumlin-Pedersen 1991b: 69-82). 660. Mangskog, Värmland, Sweden. Medieval (Eskeröd 1956: 60). 661. Mardal, Brønnøy, Norway. Early medieval (Brøgger & Shertelig 1971: 130). 662. Medmerry, Selsey Bill, Sussex, Britain. Mid-Saxon (Goodburn 1987: 213-24). 663. Melton, Humberside, Britain. Medieval (Hutchinson 1994a: 195). 664. Myklebostad (Mökklebyst), Eids, Nordfjord, Troms, Norway. Early medieval (Boehmer 1892: 599-601). 665. Norberg, Västermanland, Sweden. Medieval (Eskeröd 1956: 60). 666. North Stoke, Arundel, Sussex, Britain. Early medieval (Lindsay 1874-76 [volume 1]: 33). 667. Onega, White Sea, Northern Russia. Medieval or post-medieval (Okorokov 1995: 33-45). 668. Ottelei, Möre og Romsdal, Norway. Early medieval (Mülle-Wille 1974: 203, no. 315). 669. Øvre Dalland, Hordaland, Norway. Medieval (Fett 1950, 1951: 148). 670. Llyn Padarn, Llanberis, Gwynedd, North Wales, Britain. Medieval (Illsley & Roberts 1979; 1980). 671. Pierowall Links, Westray, Orkney, Scotland. Early medieval (Grieg 1940: 96). 672. Plakun, Estonia [?]. Medieval (Bill 1994: 60). 673. Polock, Southwest Russia. Medieval (Sorokin 2000: 38). 674. Proosa, Tallinn, Estonia. Medieval (Bill 1994: 60). 675. Pwll Fanog, Menai Strait, Wales Britain. Medieval (Illsley & Roberts 1979: 45-67). 676. Quttinirpaaq (Ellesmere Island), Bodie Sin Side Park, National Park of Canada. Early medieval? (Schledermann 1981: 575-601). 677. Rebala, Estonia [?]. Medieval (Bill 1994: 60). 678. Rieda, Gemeinde Döhlbergen, Kreis Verden/Aller, Niedersachsen, Germany. Medieval (Ellmers 1974: 137-145). 679. Rødsand, Rødby Fjord, Southeast Lolland, Denmark. Medieval (Gøthche 1996a: 21-22). 680. Roskilde, Roskilde Haven, Denmark. Vessel 7. Early medieval (Bill 1997). 681. Roskilde, Roskilde Haven, Denmark. Vessel 8. Early medieval (Bill 1997). 682. Roskilde, Roskilde Haven, Denmark. Vessel 9. Early medieval (Bill 1997).

612. Elisenhof, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. Raft 1. Early medieval (Ellmers 1972: 106, figs. 85-7). 613. Elisenhof, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. Raft 2. Early medieval (Ellmers 1972: 106, figs. 85-7). 614. Lough Enwell, Ireland. Medieval (Farrell 1989: 221-28). 615. Finnanger, Nord-Tröndelag, Norway. Early medieval (MülleWille 1974: 203, no. 243). 616. Fribrødre, Denmark. Medieval (Crumlin-Pedersen 1991b: 69-82). 617. Fuglem, Nord-Tröndelag, Denmark. Early medieval (Mülle-Wille 1974: 203, no. 251). 618. Gåsehage, South Ebeltoft, Denmark. Medieval or post-medieval (Dencker 1997b). 619. Lake Geneva, Switzerland. Early medieval (Neyland 2000: 172). 620. Goodwin Sands, Kent, Britain. Medieval (Hutchinson 1994a: 191-92). 621. Great Yarmouth, King Street, Norfolk, Britain. Early medieval (Green 1963: 63). 622. Guernica, Northern Spain. Medieval or post-medieval (Uldum 2001: pers. comm.). 623. Gunnarshaung, Karmö Island, Stavanger, Norway. Medieval (Anderson & Anderson 1926: 69-70). 624. Hamme, River Durme, Belgium. Early medieval (de Laet 1938: 131). 625. Haram, Möre og Romsdal, Norway. Early medieval (Mülle-Wille 1974: 203, no. 214). 626. Havnegade (Gammelholm), Copenhagen, Denmark. Medieval (Gøthche 1996b: 18-19). 627. Holemedal, Sundfjord, Norway. Early medieval (Brøgger & Shetelig 1971: 130). 628. Hvalsund, Denmark [?]. Early medieval or medieval (Mowat 2002, pers. comm.) 629. Inch Abbey, Co. Down, Ireland. Medieval or post-medieval (Bowman 1993: 175-77). 630. Ijsselmeer Polders, Zuidelijk Flevoland, Netherlands. Vessel NZ22. Medieval (Reinders 1985a, 1985b). 631. Jangarden, Möre og Romsdal, Norway. Early medieval (MülleWille 1974: 203, no. 211). 632. Jelkrem, Möre og Romsdal, Norway. Early medieval (MülleWille 1974: 203, no. 318). 633. Kalmar, Sweden. Vessel 3 (DE 114). Medieval (Varenius 1992: 200). 634. Karingen, Sweden. Late medieval (Bill 1998a: 101, no. 13). 635. Karsibórz, Swine River, Poland. Medieval (Filipowiak 1994). 636. Kiev, Southwest Russia. Medieval (Sorokin 2000: 38). 637. King Fergus’ Isle, Loch Laggan, Inverness, Britain. Medieval (Logan 1951: 162-63). 638. Knoc-y-Doonee, Kirk Bride, Andreas, Isle of Man, Britain. Early medieval (Kermode 1930: 26-33) 639. Kuggmaren, Sweden. Medieval (Adams & Rönnby 2002: 17281). 640. Loch Laggan, Highlands, Scotland. Medieval (Martin 1998a: 110). 641. Lapland, Sweden. Medieval (Eskeröd 1956: 60). 642. Lauvasvik, Bjørnør, Herfjord, Stocksund, Sør-Trondelag, Norway. Medieval (Westerdahl 1985: 131, no. 7). 643. Lough Lene, Castlepollard, Co. Westmeath, Ireland. Boat 1. Medieval (Farrell 1989: 221-22). 644. Lough Lene, Castlepollard, Co. Westmeath, Ireland. Boat 2. Medieval (Farrell 1989: 221-22). 645. Lough Lene, Castlepollard, Co. Westmeath, Ireland. Boat 3. Medieval (Farrell 1989: 221-22). 646. London, Britain. Bermondsey, Southwark Park Road (Grange Road ?). Medieval (Marsden 1996: 217, fig. 1).

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683. Sala, Västmanland, Sweden. Early medieval (Mülle-Wille 1974: 200, no. 52). 684. Salmorth, Kreis Kleve, Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany. Early medieval (Ellmers 1974: 137-145). 685. Senja, Rydningen, Sør-Senja, Troms, Norway. Early medieval (Ellmers 1972: 338, no. 196). 686. Själevad, Västernorrland, Sweden. Early medieval (source unknown). 687. Smallhythe, Tenterden, Kent, Britain. High medieval (Bellamy & Milne 2003: 376-77). 688. St. Albans, Herefordshire, Britain. Medieval (source unknown). 689. Stävspant, Skåne, southern Sweden. Early medieval (source unknown). 690. Stettiner Haff, Szczecin (Stettin), Poland. Vessel 3. Medieval (Christensen 1960: 135). 691. Strårup Vig, Denmark. Medieval (Hocker 2000: 50-55). 692. Sunnanå, Norway. Medieval (Christensen 1960: 135). 693. Tallinn, Estonia. Medieval (Mäss 1991: 313-20). 694. Thorpe-by-Norwich, Norwich, Norfolk, Britain. Early medieval (Richards 2000: 115). 695. Tjautjer, Västerbolten, Sweden. Early medieval (Westerdahl 1985: 122, no. 18). 696. Tormore, Arran, Strathclyde, Scotland, Britain. Early medieval (Grieg 1940). 697. Travemünde, Kreis Hansestadt Lübeck, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. Medieval or post-medieval (Ellmers 1974: 137-145). 698. Lake Ùebsko, Poland. Early medieval (Litwin 2000: 9). 699. Uppsala, Sweden. Medieval (Phillipsen 1965: 35-46). 700. Urvalla, Närke, Sweden. Early medieval (Mülle-Wille 1974: 200, no. 56). 701. Valkijärvi (Vittangi), Jukkasjärvi, Lappland, Sweden. Medieval (Ellmers 1972: 322-23, no. 128). 702. Veim, Sogn og Fjordane, Norway. Early medieval (Mülle-Wille 1974: 202, no. 169). 703. Vigsø, Jylland, Denmark. Medieval (McGrail 1998: 251). 704. Vinge, Möre og Romsdal, Norway. Early medieval (Mülle-Wille 1974: 203, no. 205). 705. Upper Volga, Northwest Russia. Early medieval (Sorokin 2000: 38). 706. Walberwick (Walberswick), Suffolk, Britain. Medieval (Hutchinson 1994a: 197-98). 707. Waltham Cross, Britain. Medieval (Marsden 1989: 89-111). 708. Winchelsea, Sussex, Britain. Early medieval (Marsden 1995: 76774). 709. Witebsk, Southwest Russia. Medieval (Sorokin 1994: 138). 710. Wolin, Oder Estuary, Poland. Vessel W2. Medieval (source unknown). 711. Yliskä, Perniö, Estonia. Medieval (Bill 1994: 60). 712. York, North Yorkshire, Britain. Coppergate. Early medieval (Youngs et al. 1987: 210). 713. York Minster, York, North Yorkshire, Britain. Early medieval (Richards 2000: 115). 714. Zuiderzee, Polders. Late-medieval (Greenhill 1995b: 56).

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743. Ískandíl Burnu, Turkey. Wreck A. Late 6th century (Parker 1992: 217, no. 518). 744. Israel (unnamed site off the coast). 6th century (Parker 1992: 220, no. 525). 745. Marsa Lucch, Ras el Grain, Libya. 6 th to 7 th century (Parker 1992: 262, no. 660). 746. Marzameni, Sicily, Italy. ‘The Church Wreck’. Wreck B. Early 6th century (Parker 1992: 267, no. 671). 747. Marzameni, Sicily, Italy. Wreck J. 5th to 7th century (Parker 1992: 269, no. 678). 748. Marzameni, Sicily, Italy. Wreck K. 5th to 7th century (Parker 1992: 269, no. 679). 749. Neseber, Rabda Bay, Bulgaria. Vessel B. 6th to 7th century (Parker 1992: 287, no. 738). 750. La Palu, l’Anse de la Palu, Port-Cros Island, France. 6th century (Parker 1992: 301, no. 782). 751. Pantano Longarini, Pachino, Sicily, Italy. 6th to 7 th century (Parker 1992: 303, no. 787). 752. Pefkos, Lindos, Rhodes, Greece. 5th to 7th century (Parker 1992: 305, no. 795). 753. Polaèe Bay, Mljet Island, Dalmatia, Croatia (?). 6th century (Juriðiã 2000: No. 59). 754. Porto Cheli (Limin Kheliou), Peloponnese, Greece. 6th century (Parker 1992: 335, no. 884). 755. Porto Longo, Sapientza Island, Methone, Greece. 5th to 7th century (Parker 1992: 337, no. 889). 756. Prasso, Prasso Island, Khios, Greece. 5th to 7th century (Parker 1992: 341, no. 900). 757. Premuda, Masarine Inlet, Croatia. Vessel B. 5 th to 7th century (Parker 1992: 341, no. 902). 758. Punta Secca, Palmento, southern Sicily, Italy. Vessel A. 7th century (Parker 1992: 362, no. 967). 759. Punta Secca, Palmento, southern Sicily, Italy. Vessel B. 7th century (Parker 1992: 362, no. 968). 760. Saint-Gervais, Fos-sur-mer, Golfe de Fos, Bouches du Rhone, France. Vessel B. Early 7th century (Parker 1992: 372, no. 1001). 761. Secche di Ugento, Torre san Giovanni, Ugento, Italy. Vessel C. 7th century (Parker 1992: 397, no. 1068). 762. Siracusa, Great Harbour, Syracuse, Italy. Vessel B. 5th to 7 th century (Parker 1992: 406, no. 1092). 763. Siracusa, Great Harbour, Syracuse, Italy. Vessel C. 5th to 7 th century (Parker 1992: 406, no. 1093). 764. Tantura Lagoon, Israel. Vessel A. 5th to 6th century (Kahanov 1996). 765. Taranto, southern Italy. Vessel A. 5th to 7 th century (Parker 1992: 419, no. 1131). 766. Thalassinies Spilies, Western Cyprus. 6th to 7th century (Parker 1992: 423, no. 1145). 767. Yassi Ada, Lodo Island, Bodrum (Helicarnassos), Turkey. Vessel A. Early 7th century (Parker 1992: 454, no. 1239). 768. Zakynthos, Greece. Vessel B. 5th to 7th century (Parker 1992: 457, no. 1244).

Appendix 1, Addendum 1: Archaeological Remains of Vessels from the Mediterranean (Entries 715-882) See appendix 1 introduction for notes Catalogue by Date Early 6th to Late 8th Century (entries 715-68): 715. Arwad, Rouad Reef, Syria. Vessel B. 6th to 7 th century (Parker 1992: 60, no. 59). 716. Assarca Islands, Eritrea. 6th-7th centuries (Per Åkesson, pers. comm.). 717. Cefalù, Sicily, Italy. Mid-6th century AD (Per Åkesson, pers. comm.). 718. Ayios Stephanos, Khios, Greece. 6th to 7th century (Parker 1992: 63, no. 71). 719. Port-Berteau, Charente-Maritime, Saintes, France. Vessel 2. 5th to 8th century (Rieth 2000: 225-28). 720. Bozburun, Southwest Turkey. 5th to 7th century (Parker 1992: 76, no. 111). 721. Cape Andreas, Eastern Cyprus. Vessel A. 5th to 7th century (Parker 1992: 108, no. 202). 722. Cape Andreas, Eastern Cyprus. Vessel B. 7th century (Parker 1992: 108, no. 203). 723. Cape Andreas, Eastern Cyprus. Vessel C. 5th to 7th century (Parker 1992: 108, no. 204). 724. Cape Andreas, Eastern Cyprus. Vessel E. 5th to 7th century (Parker 1992: 108, no. 206). 725. Cape Kiti, Larnaca, Cyprus. Wreck A. 7th to 8th century (Parker 1992: 110, no. 212). 726. Capo Passero, Sicily, Italy. 5th to 7th century (Parker 1992: 121, no. 245). 727. Carmel, near Haifa, Israel. 6th to 7th century (Galili et al. 2000). 728. Carro, Cap Couronne, France. Wreck A. 6th century (Parker 1992: 128, no. 268). 729. Charente-Maritime, Charente, Saintes, France. Logboat 1. 6th to 13th century (Rieth 2000: 225-28). 730. Charente-Maritime, Charente, Saintes, France. Logboat 2. 6th to 13th century (Rieth 2000: 225-28). 731. Charente-Maritime, Charente, Saintes, France. Logboat 3. 6th to 13th century (Rieth 2000: 225-28). 732. Charente-Maritime, Charente, Saintes, France. Logboat 4. 6th to 13th century (Rieth 2000: 225-28). 733. Charente-Maritime, Charente, Saintes, France. Logboat 5. 6 th to 13th century (Rieth 2000: 225-28). 734. Charente-Maritime, Charente, Saintes, France. Logboat 6. 6th to 13th century (Rieth 2000: 225-28). 735. Charente-Maritime, Charente, Saintes, France. Logboat 7. 6th to 13th century (Rieth 2000: 225-28). 736. Charente-Maritime, Charente, Saintes, France. Logboat 8. 6th to 13th century (Rieth 2000: 225-28). 737. Datça, Turkey. Vessel A1. 5th to 7th century (Parker 1992: 159, no. 351). 738. Datça, Datça Peninsula, Turkey. Vessel A2. 6th to 8th century (Parker 1992: 159, no. 352). 739. Dor, Tantura lagoon, Israel. 7 th century (Parker 1992: 164, no. 367). 740. Favaritix, Cape Favaritix, Es Capifort, Minorca, Spain. 5 th to 7th century (Parker 1992: 176, no. 397). 741. Filicudi Porto, Capo Graziano, Filicudi Porto Bay, Italy. 5th to 6th century (Parker 1992: 178, no . 401). 742. Grazel, Gruissan, France. Wreck B. Late 7th century (Parker 1992: 205, no. 483).

8th to 9th Century (entries 769-71): 769. Marmaris, Turkey. Wreck A. 8th to 9th century (Parker 1992: 261, no. 657). 770. Tantura Lagoon, Israel. Vessel B. 8th to 9th century (Kahanov 1996). 771. Tantura Lagoon, Israel. Vessel C. 8th to 9th century (Kahanov 1996).

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772. Syria (undisclosed location off the coast of Syria). 9th century (Parker 1992: 417).

793. Nin, Croatia. Vessel A. Late 11th century (Parker 1992: 289, no. 744). 794. Nin, Croatia. Vessel B. Late 11 th century (Parker 1992: 289, no. 745).

Late 9th Century (entry 773):

11th to 12th Century (entries 795-99):

773. Bozburun, Turkey. Later 9th century (Harpster 2005)

795. Capraia, Punta della Teglia, Northern Capraia, Italy. Wreck E. 11th to 15 th century (Parker 1992: 127, no. 265). 796. Puebla del Río, River Guadalquivir, Spain. 11th to 12th century (Parker 1992: 344, no. 911). 797. Sporades, Greece. Vessel B. 11th to 12th century (Parker 1992: 412, no. 1110). 798. Sporades, Greece. Vessel C. 11th to 12th century (Parker 1992: 412, no. 1111). 799. Tartus, Syria. 11 th to 12th century (Parker 1992: 420, no. 1136).

Early 9th Century (entry 772):

9th – 10th Century (entries 774-776): 774. Mljet, Cape Strob, Mljet Island, Croatia. Vessel A. 9 th to 10th century (Parker 1992: 278, no. 703). 775. Scoglio Della Formica, La Formica, Solunto, Porticello, Sicily, Italy. Vessel B. 9th to 11 th century (Parker 1992: 390, no. 1053). 776. Zdrijac, Nin, Croatia. 9th to 10 th century (Parker 1992: 458, no. 1250).

Early 12th Century (entries 800-804):

Early 10th Century (entries 777-80): 777. Agay (Var) Roads and Bay, Southern France. 10 th century (Parker 1992: 42, no. 8). 778. Dhia, Dhia Island, Crete, Greece. Wreck B. 10 th century (Parker 1992: 162, no. 360). 779. Mandalya, North of Bodrum, Turkey. Wreck C. 10th century (Parker 1992: 258, no. 644). 780. Plane (Calserange), Riou, Marseilles Bay, France. Vessel C. 10th century (Parker 1992: 314, no. 821).

800. Brindisi Harbour, Italy. 12th century (Parker 1992: 78, no. 117). 801. Camarina, Sicily, Italy. Vessel C. 12th century (Parker 1992: 95, no. 165). 802. Dhia, Dhia Island, Crete, Greece. Wreck C. 12 th century (Parker 1992: 162, no. 361). 803. Kyra Panagia, Pelagos Islands, nr. Alonnesos, Greece. 12 th century (Throckmorton & Kritzas 1971: 176-85). 804. Torre san Gennaro, Brindisi, Italy. 12th century (Parker 1992: 429, no. 1161).

Late 10th Century (entry 781):

Late 12th Century (entries 805-08):

781. Le Batéguier (le Bataiguier) Beacon, Ile Saint Marguerite, Cannes Bay, southern France. Mid 10th century (Parker 1992: 70, no. 97).

805. Marsala, La Bambina, Italy. Vessel A. 12th century (Parker 1992: 264, no. 663). 806. Marsala, La Bambina, Italy. Vessel B. 12th century (Parker 1992: 264, no. 664). 807. Pelagós (Pelagonnisos), Haghios Petros Bay, Greece. Mid 12th century (Parker 1992: 306, no. 796). 808. Skopelos, Greece. Late 12 th century (Parker 1992: 407, no. 1099).

10th-11th Century (entries 782-87): 782. Basiluzzo, Aeolian Islands, Italy. 10th to 13th century (Parker 1992: 69, no. 93). 783. Erdek, Turkey. 10 th to 12th century (Parker 1992: 172, no. 385). 784. Hayirsiz Ada, Marmara Island, Turkey. 10th to 11th century (Parker 1992: 210, no. 498). 785. Kötü Burun, Fethiye, Southwest Turkey. 10th to 11th century (Parker 1992: 230, no. 557). 786. Serçe Limani, Marmaris, Turkey. Vessel E. 10th to 11th century (Parker 1992: 400, no. 1074). 787. Ulu Burun, Akroterion, Kaþ, Turkey. 10th to 12th century (Parker 1992: 440, no. 1194).

12th to 13th Century (entries 809-10): 809. Ostuni, Brindisi, Italy. 12th to 13th century (Parker 1992: 296, no. 768). 810. Porto Cesareo, Italy. 12th to 13th century (Parker 1992: 335, no. 883). Early 13th Century (entries 811-17):

Early 11th Century (entries 788-91):

811. Camirus, Northern Rhodes, Greece. 13 th century (Parker 1992: 96, no. 167). 812. Contarina, Rovigo, Italy. Vessel A. Early 13th century (Bonino 1978: 13-15). 813. Kastellórizon, Castelrosso Island, Kaþ, Greece. Early 13th century (Parker 1992: 224, no. 538). 814. Secca del Mignone, Mignone Reef, Civitavecchia, Italy. 13 th century (Parker 1992: 395, no. 1062). 815. Soldaya, The Black Sea. 13th century (Per Åkesson, pers. comm.). 816. Tainaron, Cape Matapan, Peloponnese, Greece. 13 th century (Parker 1992: 417, no. 1128). 817. Tekmezar Burun, Marmara Island, Turkey. 13th century (Parker 1992: 421, no. 1138).

788. Ayios Ioannis Theologos, Pithiotis, Greece. 11th century (Parker 1992: 62, no. 70). 789. Borgo Caprile, Codigoro, River Poi, Italy. 11 th century or earlier (Parker 1992: 76, no. 109). 790. Serçe Limani, Marmaris, Turkey. Vessel A. Early 11 th century (Parker 1992: 400, no. 1070). 791. Tenedos, Bozcaada, Turkey. 11th century (Parker 1992: 421, no. 1139). Late 11th Century (entries 792-94): 792. Charente-Maritime, Charente, Saintes, France. The Orlac Vessel. Mid 11 th century (Rieth 200 225-28).

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Late 13th Century (entry 818):

842. Rocca di San Nicola, Licata, Sicily, Italy. Vessel A. 15th century (Parker 1992: 369, no. 989).

818. Atlit, Israel. Vessel B. Late 13 th century (Parker 1992: 40, no. 2).

Late 15th Century (entries 843-46):

13th to 14th Century (entries 819-26):

843. Cap Couronne, France. Late 15th century (Parker 1992: 101, no. 181). 844. La Frasca, Civitavecchia, Italy. Late 15th century (Parker 1992: 184, no. 427). 845. Logonovo, Lido di Spina, Comacchio, Italy. Late 15 th century (Bonino 1978: 15-18). 846. Urbieta, Gernika, Spain. Mid 15 th century (Izaguirre et al. 2000).

819. Cape Gelidonya, Kemer, Turkey. Wreck D. 13th to 15th century (Parker 1992: 110, no. 211). 820. Giglio, Giglio Island, Italy. 13th to 14 th century (Parker 1992: 191, no. 450). 821. Isola San Marco, Boccalama, Venice, Italy. Vessel 1. 13th-14th century (unknown, 2001). 822. Isola San Marco, Boccalama, Venice, Italy. Vessel 2. 13 th-14th century (unknown, 2001). 823. Kaþ, Turkey. 13th to 14th century (Parker 1992: 224, no. 537). 824. Knidos, Turkey. Wreck D. 13 th to 14 th century (Parker 1992: 228, no. 551). 825. Návplion (Nauplia), Tolón Island, Greece. Vessel B. 13 th to 15th century (Parker 1992: 286, no. 730). 826. San Vincenzo, Populonia Bay, Etruria, Italy. Vessel A. 13 th to 14th century (Parker 1992: 381, no. 1023).

15th-16th Century (entries 847-49): 847. Ajaccio (Corsica), France. 15th to 16 th century (Parker 1992: 48, no. 23). 848. Anthéor, France. 15th to 16 th century (Parker 1992: 55, no. 43). 849. Lake Garda, Italy. 15th to 16 th century (source unknown). Early 16th Century (entries 850-51):

Early 14th Century (entry 827): 827. Empoli, River Arno, Tuscany, Italy. 14th century (Parker 1992: 172, no. 384).

850. Calvi, Corsica, France. Vessel A. Early 16 th century (Parker 1992: 94, no. 162). 851. La Lomellina. Villefranche-sur-Mer, France. Early 16 th century (Calegari 1970).

Late 14th Century (entry 828):

Late 16th Century (entries 852-55):

828. Les Sorres, River Llobregat delta, Castelldefels, Catalonia, Spain. Vessel X. Late 14 th century (source unknown).

852. Calvi, Corsica, France. Vessel B. Mid to late 16th century (Parker 1992: 94). 853. Contarina, Rovigo, Italy. Vessel B. Mid 16th century (Bonino 1978: 18-21). 854. Seconda Isola, Northeast Sardinia, Italy. 16th century (Riccardi 2000: 147-50). 855. Yassi Ada, Lodo Island, Bodrum (Helicarnassos), Turkey. Vessel C. Late 16th century (Parker 1992: 454, no. 1239).

14th to 15th Century (entries 829-33): 829. Capo Vite (Vita), Northern Elba, Italy. 14th to 15 th century (Parker 1992: 126, no. 259). 830. Culip, Cala Culip, Cap de Creus, Freu de l’Encalladora, Spain. Wreck F. 14 th to 15th century (Parker 1992: 158, no. 349). 831. Mala Jana, Mala Jana Bay, Krk Island, Croatia. 14th to 16th century (Parker 1992: 256, no. 638). 832. Pernat, Cres Island, Croatia. Vessel A. 14th to 15 th century (Parker 1992: 308, no. 803). 833. Les Roquetes, between Vilasar de Mar and Premiá de Mar, Barcelona, Spain. 14th to 16th century (Parker 1992: 371, no. 995).

Unsure (entries 856-82 ): 856. Arenella, between Contrada Fanusa and Arenella, Syracuse, Sicily, Italy. Medieval (Parker 1992: 58, no. 53). 857. La Bourse, Marseille, France. Medieval or late medieval (Cederlund 1985). 858. Cap Ognina, Syracuse, Sicily. Vessel 1. Pre-medieval and medieval, up to c. 12th century (Per Åkesson, pers. comm.). 859. Cap Ognina, Syracuse, Sicily. Vessel 2. Pre-medieval and medieval, up to c. 12 th century (Per Åkesson, pers. comm.). 860. Cap Ognina, Syracuse, Sicily. Vessel 3. Pre-medieval and medieval, up to c. 12 th century (Per Åkesson, pers. comm.). 861. Cap Ognina, Syracuse, Sicily. Vessel 4. Pre-medieval and medieval, up to c. 12 th century (Per Åkesson, pers. comm.). 862. Cap Ognina, Syracuse, Sicily. Vessel 5. Pre-medieval and medieval, up to c. 12 th century (Per Åkesson, pers. comm.). 863. Cap Ognina, Syracuse, Sicily. Vessel 6. Pre-medieval and medieval, up to c. 12 th century (Per Åkesson, pers. comm.). 864. Cap Ognina, Syracuse, Sicily. Vessel 7. Pre-medieval and medieval, up to c. 12 th century (Per Åkesson, pers. comm.). 865. Cap Ognina, Syracuse, Sicily. Vessel 8. Pre-medieval and medieval, up to c. 12 th century (Per Åkesson, pers. comm.). 866. Cap Ognina, Syracuse, Sicily. Vessel 9. Pre-medieval and medieval, up to c. 12 th century (Per Åkesson, pers. comm.). 867. Cap Ognina, Syracuse, Sicily. Vessel 10. Pre-medieval and medieval, up to c. 12 th century (Per Åkesson, pers. comm.).

Early 15th Century (entries 834-42): 834. Atlit, Israel. Vessel C. 15 th century (Parker 1992: 40, no. 3). 835. Castellammare del Golfo, Sicily, Italy. 15 th century (Parker 1992: 131, no. 276). 836. Cavalaire, Provence, France. Early 15th century (Hamelink 2000: pers. com.). 837. Cavoli Island, Capo Carbonara, Sardinia, Italy. Early 15th century (Parker 1992: 136, no. 289). 838. Malamocco, Porto Malamocco, Venice, Italy. 15 th century (Parker 1992: 256, no. 639). 839. Megadim, Nahal Megadim, Atlit, Israel. Vessel B. Early 15th century (Parker 1992: 274, no. 690). 840. Montecristo, Cala Maestra, Western Montecristo, Italy. Vessel B. 15th century (Parker 1992: 282, no. 716). 841. Paþalìmani (Propontia), Turkey. Vessel B. 15 th century (Parker 1992: 305, no. 794).

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868. Cape Sidero, Eastern Crete, Greece. Wreck B. Byzantine (Parker 1992: 111, no. 215). 869. Gibralta, Mediterranean. Wreck C. Byzantine (Parker 1992: 190, no. 446). 870. Kerme Gulf, Sheytan Deresi, Turkey. Byzantine (Parker 1992: 226, no. 543). 871. Marsala, Isola Lunga, Italy. Vessel C. Medieval (Parker 1992: 265, no. 665). 872. Methone, Peloponnese, Greece. Vessel B. Medieval (Parker 1992: 275, no. 694). 873. Pelosa, Torre Pelosa, Punta Falcone, N Sardinia, Italy. Vessel B. Medieval (Parker 1992: 306, no. 799). 874. Þile-Aðva, Mamara Islands, Sea of Mamara, Turkey. Medieval (Günsenin 2000: 241-42). 875. Pomposa, Bosco Spada, Italy. Medieval or post-medieval (Parker 1992: 326, no. 862). 876. Pontelagoscuro, River Po, Italy. Early medieval (Parker 1992: 327, no. 864). 877. Premuda, Masarine Inlet, Croatia. Vessel C. Medieval (Parker 1992: 341, no. 903). 878. Punta del Diavolo, San Domino Island, Tremiti Islands, Italy. Medieval (Parker 1992: 349, no. 924). 879. Silba, Croatia. Vessel D. Medieval (Parker 1992: 404, no. 1087). 880. Tyre, Lebanon. Vessel H. Byzantine (Parker 1992: 438, no. 1191). 881. Vieste, Gargano Peninsula, Italy. Medieval (Parker 1992: 447, no. 1215). 882. Zapuntel, Zapuntel Passage, Ist and Moalt, Croatia. Medieval (Parker 1992: 457, no. 1246).

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Later 12th Century (entry 901):

Appendix 1, Addendum 2: Recent Discoveries from Northern Europe (May 2002 – January 2007) (Entries 883-1000) See appendix introduction for notes

901. Dublin, Ireland. Winetavern Street. Later 12th century (O’Sullivan 2000; Breen & Forsythe 2004: 65-66, 168).

Catalogue by Date

12th-13th century (entry 902):

Early 6th to Late 8th Century (entries 883-91):

902. River Blackwater [1], Derrygally td., Co. Tyrone, Ireland. 12th– 13th century (Fry 2000: 90, 126).

883. Lough Fingrean, Mountfield, Co. Tyrone, Ireland. 6th-9 th century (Fry 2000: 82-83, 125). 884. River Foyle, Lifford Bridge [1], Strabane, Co. Tyrone, Ireland. Mid 7th century (Fry 2000: 92, 126). 885. River Foyle, Strabane, West Ward td. [1], Co. Tyrone, Ireland. 6 th-7 th century (Fry 2000: 94, 126). 886. River Foyle, Strabane, West Ward td. [2], Co. Tyrone, Ireland. 6 th-7 th century (Fry 2000: 94-95, 126). 887. River Foyle, West Ward td., Strabane, Co. Tyrone, Ireland. 6 th-7 th century (Fry 2000: 100-01, 127). 888. Lough Neagh, Washing Bay, Aughamullan td., Co. Tyrone, Ireland. 5 th–9 th century (Fry 2000: 77, 125). 889. Lough Neagh, Upper Bann Mouth, Co. Armagh, Ireland. 7 th-8 th century (Fry 2000: 95-96, 126). 890. Lough Neagh, Scaddy Island, Co. Tyrone, Ireland. Late 6 th century (Fry 2000: 109-10, 128). 891. Welham Bridge, River Foulness, East Yorkshire, Britain. 7th century (http://www.yorkarchaeology.co.uk/welham.htm)

Early 13th Century (entry 903): 903. Kronsholmen, Gotland, Sweden. Early 13 th century (Rönnby & Zerpe 1995: 24; Rönnby 1996: 65). Later 13th Century (entries 904-05): 904. Darsser, Rügen, Germany. Later 13th century (Palma 2002). 905. Hundevika, Norway. Late 13 th century (Teisen 1994: 73-74). 13th – 14th Century (entries 906-14): 906. River Blackwater, Copney td., Co. Armagh, Ireland. 13th-14th century (Fry 2000: 91-92, 126). 907. River Foyle, Town Parks td., Strabane, Co. Tyrone, Ireland. 13 th16th century (Fry 2000: 84, 125). 908. Nantwich, Cheshire, Britain. 13th-14th century (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/3401473.stm). 909. River Skein, Telemark, Norway. 13th-14 th century (http://www.aftenposten.no/english/local/article864189.ece). 910. St Peter Port, Guernsey, Channel Islands. Vessel 5. 13th-14th century (Adams & Black 2004: 236-38). 911. St Peter Port, Guernsey, Channel Islands. Vessel 6. 13th-14th century (Adams & Black 2004: 238, 240). 912. St Peter Port, Guernsey, Channel Islands. Vessel 7. 13th-14th century (Adams & Black 2004: 238). 913. St Peter Port, Guernsey, Channel Islands. Vessel 8. 13th-14th century (Adams & Black 2004: 239). 914. St Peter Port, Guernsey, Channel Islands. Vessel 9. 13th-14th century (Adams & Black 2004: 236-38).

8th -9th Century (entry 892): 892. River Bann, Levaghery td., Portadown, Co. Armagh, Ireland. 8 th9 th century (Fry 2000: 98-99, 127). 9th Century (entry 893): 893. Skamby, Östergötland, Sweden. 9th century (Williams & Rundkvist 2005). 9th -10th Century (entries 894-95): 894. River Blackwater [3], Derrygally td., Co. Tyrone, Ireland. 9th-10th century (Fry 2000: 91, 126). 895. River Foyle, West Ward td., Strabane, Co. Tyrone, Ireland. 9th11th century (Fry 2000: 89, 126).

14th Century (entries 915-18): 915. Corpo Santo, Lisbon, Portugal. 14th century (Alves et al. 2001). 916. Poel, Wismar Bay, Germany. Mid 14th century (Per Åkesson, pers. comm.). 917. Doel, Deurganck, River Scheldt, Belgium. Mid 14th century (http://www.ping.be/urbiehome/KOGGE.html). 918. San Marco de Boccalama, Venice, Italy. 14 th century (D’Agostino, pers comm. 2005).

Early 11th Century (entry 896): 896. Summerville, Co. Galway, Ireland. Early 11 th century (Lanting & Brindley 1996: 90; Breen & Forsythe 2004: 70, 168). 11th-12th Century (entries 897-98):

14th-15th Century (entries 919-21):

897. Church Island, Lough Beg, Co. Londonderry, Ireland. 11th-12th century (Fry 2000: 88, 125). 898. River Foyle, Lifford Bridge [2], Strabane, Co. Tyrone, Ireland. 11th-12th century (Fry 2000: 93, 126).

919. River Blackwater, Maghery td., co. Armagh, Ireland. 14th-15th century (Fry 2000: 85, 125). 920. River Blackwater, Derryloughan td., Co. Tyrone, Ireland. 14 th15th century (Fry 2000: 86, 125). 921. Wessobrunn-Blaik, Bavaria, Germany. 14 th-15th century (Weski, T., 2005: 269-81).

Early 12th Century (entries 899-900): 899. Naven lighthouse, Lake Vänern, Sweden. 12th century [?] (Per Åkesson, pers. comm.). 900. Waterford, Ireland. 12th century (McGrail 1997d; Breen & Forsythe 2004: 65-66, 168).

Early 15th Century (entries 922-927): 922. Cais do Sodré, Lisbon, Portugal. 15th century (Rodrigues et al. 2001). 103

Appendix One – Archaeological Remains

Dokøen, Denmark. Vessel 1. 15th Century (Rieck 2002: 5). Dokøen, Denmark. Vessel 2. 15th Century (Rieck 2002: 5). Dokøen, Denmark. Vessel 3. 15th Century (Rieck 2002: 5). River Foyle, Lifford Bridge, Strabane, Co. Tyrone, Ireland. Early 15th century (Fry 2000: 102, 127). 927. Newport, Gwent, Wales, Britain. Mid 15th century (Nigel Nayling, pers. comm.).

950. Cape Padrone, Ponta do Ouro, Southern Africa. Vessel A. Later 16th century (Werz 1999: 194). 951. Cape Padrone, Ponta do Ouro, Southern Africa. Vessel B. Later 16th century (Werz 1999: 194). 952. Cape Padrone, Ponta do Ouro, Southern Africa. Vessel C. Later 16th century (Werz 1999: 194). 953. Cape Padrone, Ponta do Ouro, Southern Africa. Vessel D. Later 16th century (Werz 1999: 194). 954. Cape Padrone, Ponta do Ouro, Southern Africa. Vessel E. Later 16th century (Werz 1999: 194). Condessa, San Salvador. Late 16th century 955. La (http://www.activosysubastas.com/bell/history.pdf). th 956. Mauritius. Gabon, West Africa. Late 16 century (Per Åkesson, pers. comm.). 957. Santiago, Bassas da Índia, Madagascar/Mozambique. Late 16 th century (http://nautarch.tamu.edu/shiplab/). 958. Santo Alberto, Umtata River, South Africa. Late 16th century (http://nautarch.tamu.edu/shiplab/). 959. Sao João, Natal, South Africa. Late 16th century (Maggs 1984).

923. 924. 925. 926.

Late 15th Century (entry 928): 928. Wismar-Wendorf, Germany. Late 15 th century (Per Åkesson, pers. comm.). 15th – 16 th Centuries (entries 929-34): 929. River Bann, Derrybrughas td., Co. Armagh, Ireland. Cal. 15 th – 16th centuries (Fry 2000: 79, 125). 930. River Bann, Corcrain Tributary, Portadown, Co. Armagh, Ireland. 15th-16th century (Fry 2000: 113, 128). 931. River Bann/River Cusher, Hacknahay td., SE Portadown, Co. Armagh, Ireland. 15th-16th century (Fry 2000: 97-98, 127). 932. River Blackwater, Derryloughan td., Co. Tyrone, Ireland. 15 th16th century (Fry 2000: 87, 125). 933. River Finn, Urney Glebe td., Southwest Strabane, Co. Tyrone, Ireland. 15th-16th century (Fry 2000: 95, 126). 934. River Stillees, Carr td., Carr Bridge, Co. Fermanagh, Ireland. 15th-16th century (Fry 2000: 84, 125).

Unsure (entries 960-1000): 960. Angra, Azores. Vessel ‘B’. 16th century or later (Per Åkesson, pers. comm.). 961. Angra, Azores. Vessel ‘C’. 16th century or later (Per Åkesson, pers. comm.). 962. Bjørnstad, Østford, Norway. Early medieval (http://www.aftenposten.no/english/local/article1447966.ece?serv ice=print). 963. Cape Plaka, Crimea. Vessel 1. 7 h century? (Anon, http://www.fieldschoool.univ.kiev.ua/, no longer operative 16/03/06). 964. Cape Plaka, Crimea. Vessel 2. 9th-11th century? (Anon, http://www.fieldschoool.univ.kiev.ua/, no longer operative 16/03/06). 965. Drogheda, Boyne Estuary, Co. Louth, Ireland. Medieval (Breen & Forsythe 2004: 81, 169). 966. Dublin Bay, Ireland. Medieval (Breen & Forsythe 2004: 81, 169). 967. Gniew, Poland. 14th century or later (Brzeziński 1992: 78). 968. Gubbens Hôla, Lake Vänern, Sweden. Medieval or Post-medieval (Per Åkesson, pers. comm.). 969. Mozambique, Vessel IDM 002. Post-medieval (http://nautarch.tamu.edu/shiplab/). 970. Janów Pomorski, Lake Drużno, Poland. Vessel 1. Early Medieval (Jagodziński & Kasprzycka 1990, 1991). 971. Janów Pomorski, Lake Drużno, Poland. Vessel 2. Early Medieval (Jagodziński & Kasprzycka 1990, 1991). 972. Janów Pomorski, Lake Drużno, Poland. Vessel 3. Early Medieval (Jagodziński & Kasprzycka 1990, 1991). 973. Janów Pomorski, Lake Drużno, Poland. Vessel 4. Early Medieval (Jagodziński & Kasprzycka 1990, 1991). 974. Janów Pomorski, Lake Drużno, Poland. Vessel 5. Early Medieval (Jagodziński & Kasprzycka 1990, 1991). 975. Janów Pomorski, Lake Drużno, Poland. Vessel 6. Early Medieval (Jagodziński & Kasprzycka 1990, 1991). 976. Janów Pomorski, Lake Drużno, Poland. Vessel 7. Early Medieval (Jagodziński & Kasprzycka 1990, 1991). 977. Janów Pomorski, Lake Drużno, Poland. Vessel 8. Early Medieval (Jagodziński & Kasprzycka 1990, 1991). 978. Janów Pomorski, Lake Drużno , Poland. Vessel 9. Early Medieval (Jagodziński & Kasprzycka 1990, 1991). 979. Lagore, Co. Meath, Ireland. Medieval [?] (Breen & Forsythe 2004: 69-70).

Early 16th Century (entries 935-43): 935. Arade River, Portimão, Portugal. Vessel 1. Early 16 th Century (Castro 2005: 51-61). 936. Bøtø, Denmark. 16th Century (Rieck 2002: 5). 937. River Colebrooke, Mullynascarty td., Ballindarragh Bridge, Northwest Lisnaskea, Co. Fermanagh, Ireland. Mid 16 th century (Fry 2000: 103-04, 127). 938. Faro, Portugal. Vessel A. Early 16 th Century (http://nautarch.tamu.edu/shiplab/). 939. Ines de Soto, Cuba. Mid 16 th century (Konstam 1999). 940. La Nicolasa, Isla Cancún, Mexico. Mid 16 th century (Hudson 1979). 941. Tumboga, St. John’s, Bahamas Channel, Bahamas. Mid 16 th century (Chynoweth 1968; Craddock & Hook 1997: 144). 942. San Anthonio/San Salvador [?], Gunwalloe Cove/ Poldhu Cove, Lizard Peninsular, Cornwall, Britain. Early 16th century (Craddock & Hook 1997: 143). 943. Santa María de Jesús, Puerto Rico. Mid 16th century (Per Åkesson, pers. comm.). Later 16 th Century (entries 944-59): 944. Anne Francis [?], Margam, Port Talbot, Glamorgan, Wales, Britain. Late 16th century (Rees 1977: 57-59; Redknap & Besly 1997: 191-93). 945. River Blackwater, The Argory, Co. Armagh, Ireland. Mid-late 16th century or later (Fry 2000: 68-69, 124). 946. River Blackwater [2], Derrygally td., Co. Tyrone, Ireland. Later 16th century (Fry 2000: 90-91, 126). 947. Fuxa, Cuba. Late 16 th century (http://nautarch.tamu.edu/shiplab/). 948. Gravesend, Kent, Britain. Later 16 th century (http://www.wessexarch.co.uk/projects/marine/thameswreck/inde x.html). 949. Kinlochbervie, Cape Wrath, Scotland, Britain. Later 16th Century (Robertson 2004: 14-28). 104

The Illuminated Ark

980. Langstone Harbour, Portsmouth, Britain. Early medieval (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3096846.stm). 981. Landnám Farm, Eastern Settlement, Greenland. Early medieval (Andersen & Malmros 1993: 121). 982. L’Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland, Canada. Early medieval (Linderoth Wallace 1993: 37-38). 983. London, Britain. Southwark, Bankside. Medieval or Postmedieval (Ayre & Wroe-Brown 2003). 984. London, Britain. Southwark, Bankside. Medieval or Postmedieval (Ayre & Wroe-Brown 2003). 985. Louisiana (Gulf Coast), MAREX ‘Mystery Wreck’. Postmedieval (http://nautarch.tamu.edu/shiplab/). 986. Nordheim Farm, Hedrum, Larvik, Norway. Early medieval (http://www.aftenposten.no/english/local/article1498902.ece?serv ice=print). 987. Outer Nauvo Islands, Finland. 14th century (http://www.helsinkihs.net/news.asp?id=20020703IE3). 988. Østerå, Aalborg, Denmark. Medieval or Post-medieval (Rieck 2002: 5). 989. Perth, Scotland. Early medieval (Martin, pers. comm. 2006). 990. Puck, Wolin, Poland. Waterfront Site. Medieval (Brzeziński 1992: 78). 991. Rathlin Island, Co. Antrim, Ireland. Early medieval (Breen & Forsythe 2004: 69, 168) 992. Ria de Aveiro, Ria Lagoon, Mira Channel, Lisbon, Portugal. Vessel F. Post-medieval (http://nautarch.tamu.edu/shiplab). 993. Royraas Lake, Southern Norway. Early medieval (http://stacks.msnbc.com/news/964000.asp?cp1=1). 994. Sandnæs, Western Settlement, Greenland. Early medieval (Andersen & Malmros 1993: 118-19). 995. Skraeling Island, Bache Peninsula, Ellesmere Island, Greenland. Early medieval (Schledermann 1993: 59-60). 996. Suir Estuary, Waterford, Ireland. Medieval (Breen & Forsythe 2004: 81, 169). 997. Waterford, Ireland. Early medieval (McGrail 1997; Breen & Forsythe 2004: 65-66, 168). 998. Welham Bridge, River Foulness, Yorkshire, Britain. Early medieval, mid-6th century? (http://www.yorkarchaeology.co.uk/welham). 999. Wexford, Ireland. Early medieval (Breen & Forsythe 2004: 66, 168). 1000.River Boyne, Drogheda, Leinster, Ireland. Early medieval (http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/irelandhistoryvikings;_ylt=AoK_ZJ Zwtw1JDRJWx9YbEw8DW7oF;_ylu=X3oDMTBhcmljNmVhB HNlYwNtcm5ld3M-).

105

Appendix One – Archaeological Remains

106

The Illuminated Ark

Appendix 2: Illuminations of Vessels in Medieval Manuscripts from Selected British and French Collections

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27.

Introduction This appendix contains details of 925 medieval northern European manuscripts from 55 British and French collections. It contains 2335 individual illuminations of vessels dating from the 6th-16th centuries AD. This information is derived from:    

Observation of original manuscripts. Published guides to these manuscripts. Photographic indexes and archives relating to manuscripts, including digital archives. Miscellaneous published works containing manuscript illuminations.

Organisation The appendix is organised: 1.

By alphabetical division into groups: Group A, Miscellaneous British Holdings; Group B, the Bodleian Library and College Libraries, Oxford; Group C, the Fitzwilliam Library, University Library and College Libraries, Cambridge; Group D, the British Library, London, and; Group E, the Bibliothèque Nationale de France and Bibliothèque de l’Arsenal, Paris. By alphabetical order of collection name within each group. By alphabetical order of manuscript and numerical order of manuscript and folio within each collection.

2. 3.

Group B: University Libraries, Oxford (Libraries 28-42: Manuscripts 88-333). Includes fifteen libraries within the University of Oxford, including the Bodleian Library and various college libraries, providing 246 manuscripts (26.59% of total) and 495 folios (21.19% of total).

Individual manuscript entries contain some or all of the following information:

28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42.

406. Add. MS 10294, ff. 44, 47v, 65v, 79, 94v. Arthurian Romances. French, early 14 th century (c. 1316). [44] Shipping; [47v] Shipping; [65v] The Lady of Shalott or Maid of Astolat; [79] Shipping; [94v] Shipping.   



Alnwick Castle, Alnwick, Northumberland. Berkeley Castle, Berkeley, Gloucestershire. Blackburn Museum, Blackburn, Lancashire. Cheltenham Library, Cheltenham. Dr Williams’s Library, London. Durham Cathedral Library, Durham. Edinburgh University Library, Edinburgh. Eton College Library, Windsor. Glasgow University Library, Glasgow. Hereford Cathedral Library, Hereford. John Rylands University Library, Manchester. Lambeth Palace Library, London. Lincoln’s Inn Library, London. Liverpool City Library, Liverpool. London Records Office, London. Longleat House, Warminster, Wiltshire. Merseyside County Museum, Liverpool. National Archives, Kew. Peterborough Cathedral Library, Peterborough. Parish Church of St Helen, Ranworth, Norfolk. Ripon Cathedral Library, Ripon. Royal Library, Windsor Castle, Windsor. Society of Antiquaries, London. Victoria & Albert Museum, London. Waddesdon Manor, Buckinghamshire. Westminster Abbey Library, London. Winchester Cathedral Library, Winchester.

406 - reference number of specific manuscript in this appendix. Add. MS 10294, ff. 44, 47v, 65v, 79, 94v - manuscript name and number; folio numbers and sides (recto or verso). Arthurian Romances. French, early 14th century (c. 1316) manuscript details (including type of volume, title, author[s], owner[s], volume number[s], etc.); country of origin and/or supposed place of manufacture, [f] supposed date of manufacture. [44] Shipping; [47v] Shipping; [65v] The Lady of Shalott or Maid of Astolat; [79] Shipping; [94v] Shipping - details of general theme of specific folio.

All Souls College, Oxford. Balliol College, Oxford. The Bodleian Library, Oxford. Christ Church College, Oxford. Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Exeter College, Oxford. Jesus College, Oxford. Keble College, Oxford. Merton College, Oxford. New College, Oxford. Oriel College, Oxford. Queens College, Oxford. Trinity College, Oxford. University College, Oxford. Wadham College, Oxford.

Group C: University Libraries, Manuscripts 334-394)

Cambridge (Libraries 43-52:

Includes ten libraries within the University of Cambridge, including the Fitzwilliam Library, the University Library, and various college libraries, providing 61 manuscripts (6.59% of total) and 134 folios (5.73% of total).

Index Group A: Miscellaneous British Holdings (Libraries 1-27: Manuscripts 1-87)

43. 44. 45. 46. 47.

Include twenty-seven miscellaneous British libraries, providing 87 manuscripts (9.40% of total) and 110 folios (4.71% of total). 107

Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. Emmanuel College, Cambridge. Fitzwilliam Library, Cambridge. Gonville & Caius College, Cambridge. Jesus College, Cambridge.

Appendix Two – Illuminated Manuscripts

48. 49. 50. 51. 52.

Durham Cathedral Library, Durham (DCL):

Magdalene College, Cambridge. Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge. St John’s College, Cambridge. Trinity College, Cambridge. University Library, Cambridge.

7.

Edinburgh University Library, Edinburgh (EUL):

Group D: The British Library, London (Library 53: Manuscripts 395797)

MS **, f. 88. Historical Bible and Bible Moralisee. German, early 14th century (c. 1314). [88] Shipping. 9. MS 194, f. **. Guidius de Colonna’s History of the Trojan Wars. Low Countries, 14th to 15th century (c. 1400). [**] Shipping. 10. MS 195, f. **. Virgil’s Aeneid. French, 15th century. [**] Shipping. 11. MS 245, f. **. Johannis de Utino’s Chronicle. Italian, mid 14th century (c. 1358). [**] Shipping. 8.

Includes the British Library, London, providing 403 manuscripts (43.56% of total) and 1366 folios (58.50% of total). 53. British Library, London. Group E: The Bibliothèque de Arsenal and Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris (Libraries 54-55: Manuscripts 798-925)

Eton College Library, Windsor (ECL):

Group E includes the Bibliothèque de l’Arsenal and Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris, providing 128 manuscripts (13.83% of total) and 230 folios (9.85% of total).

12. MS 92, f. **. Johannes Tiroli’s Antiquities. Italian, mid 16th century (c. 1541). [**] Shipping. 13. MS 96, f. 2v. Peter of Poitier’s Compendium Veteris Testamenti and Universal Chronicle. English (St Albans), mid 13 th century (c. 1245-54). [2v] Noah’s ark. 14. MS 177, ff. 4, 6 [Part I] & ff. 4, 83 [Part II]. Old Testament with typological miniatures and Apocalypse, made by the Master Johannis. English (Worcester), later 13th century (c. 1260-70). Part I: [4] St John the Evangelist in a boat on his way to Rome; [6] St John the Evangelist in a boat on his way to exile on Patmos. Part II: [4] Noah’s ark; [83] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship.

54. Bibliothèque de Arsenal, Paris. 55. Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris. Group A: Miscellaneous British Holdings Alnwick Castle, Alnwick, Northumberland (ACL): 1.

2.

MS 82, ff. 16, 40, 64, 292. Benedictine Calendar and Missal with Bestiary (the Sherborne Missal), made for the Abbey Church of St Mary, Sherborne, Dorset. English (Sherborne), 13th or 14 th century, with 15th century additions (c. 1250-60 and c. 13961407). [16] Noah and the ark; [40] St John on Patmos, with ships at sea offshore; [64] Christ in a boat calling the apostles; [292] The apostles leaving a boat to follow Christ. MS 447, ff. 46v, 47, 48-48v. Bestiary. English, mid 13 th century (c. 1250-60). [46v] A serra near a ship; [47] A whale near a ship; [48-48v] Species of fish near some boats.

Glasgow University Library, Glasgow (GUL): 15. Euing MS BD 19 H9, f. 118v. Carmelite Missal (the ‘Reconstructed’ Carmelite Missal). English, late 14th century (written before c. 1391, illustrated before c. 1398). [118v] Jesus walks on water in front of the disciples seated in a boat. 16. Hunter. MS 41, f. 1. Niccolo da Ferrara’s Polistorio (books III and IV). Italian (Ferrara), mid 15th century (c. 1450). [1] Roman and Carthaginian battles, with ships in far background. 17. Hunter. MS 208, f. **. Boccacio’s De Casibus Virorum. French, 15th century (c. 1472). [**] Dido on board a ship. 18. Hunter. MS 220, f. 6. Poliorcetici Graeci, by an anonymous author. Italian, early 16th century (c. 1510). [6] Ship with grappling irons. 19. Hunter. MS 229, f. 13v. Psalter. English, late 12th century (c. 1170). [13v] Jesus saving Peter on the sea of Tiberias, with a ship in the background. 20. Hunter. MS 279, f. 45v. Boethius’ The Consolation of Philosophy. English, 12th century (c. 1120-40). [45v] Ulysses escaping from Circe, an angel helping him into a boat. 21. Hunter. MS 370, f. 253. Titus Livius Patavinus’ Decas Tertia, with miniatures by the Master of the Vitae Imperatorum. Italian (Milan), 15th century (c. 1450). [253] Decorated page with initial ‘S’ showing Scipio crossing by ship in a fleet of four vessels to Africa. 22. Hunter. MS 398, f. 1v. Apocalypse. French (Provencal), late 15th century (c. 1480). [1v] St John on Patmos, with a ship at sea in the bottom left-hand corner. 23. Hunter. MS Be. 1. 10, f. 168. Roberto Valturio’s De Re Militari. Italian (Verona), late 15th century (c. 1472). [168] A floating siege tower built upon two boats with oars. 24. Hunter. MS Bq. 2. 11, f. 1v. Caius Valerius’ Flaccus Argonauticon. French (Paris), late 16th century (c. 1579). [1v] The building of the argo and the argonauts departure from Iclos.

Berkeley Castle, Berkeley, Gloucestershire (BCL): 3.

MS 23, f. 26. Calendar, Hours of the Virgin and Hours of the Cross (the Neville Hours). English (London), early 15th century (c. 1405-10). [26] John the Evangelist on Patmos, with a ship at sea in the bottom left-hand corner.

Blackburn Museum and Art Gallery, Blackburn, Lancashire (Blackburn): 4.

MS 091. 21001, f. 69. Psalter and calendar. English (Oxford), later 13th century (c. 1270-80). [69] Jonah is throw to the whale from a ship.

Cheltenham Library, Cheltenham (CL): 5.

MS 4417, f. **. St Augustine’s La Cite de Dieu. English, undated. [**] Shipping.

Dr Williams’ Library, London (Dr Williams’): 6.

MS A 2. 10, f. 155. Psalter, with gloss by Peter Lombard. English (Oxford), later 13th century (c. 1260-70). [155] Jonah is thrown to the whale from a ship.

MS Ancillary 6, f. 87. Psalter. English, mid 14th century (c. 132840). [87] Jonah is saved from the whale by some sailors on board a ship.

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The Illuminated Ark

25. Hunter. MS Ds. 2. 3, f. 4. Xylographic Block-book. Flemish or German (?), mid 15th century (c. 1430-40). [4] St John on board a ship. 26. NR MS 37, f. 220. Ludolphi de Saxonia’s Vita Christi. French, late 15th century (c. 1495). [220] Jesus and some children on board a ship at Betsaida. 27. NR MS 389. 8. 8. 8, f. **. Apocalypse. French, 15th century. [**] Shipping. 28. Stirling Maxwell Collection MS SMM 2, pp. 11. Francesco Petvarca’s Standomi in Giorno Solo a la Tenestra. Italian, mid 15th century (c. 1425 onwards). [11] Opening page, with a galleon being wrecked in a storm.

48. 49. 50. 51.

Hereford Cathedral Library, Hereford (HCL):

drops a millstone into the sea near a sailing ship and a boat; [41] St John the Evangelist in a boat; [95] St John on the island of Patmos, with a boat offshore. MS 233, f. 101. Psalter (the Bardolf-Vaux Psalter). English, 13th to 14th century (c. 1300-10). [101] Jonah escapes from the whale to a passing ship. MS 265, f. **. Dictes and Sayings of the Philosophers, translated by Anthony, Earl Rivers. English (London), late 15th century (c. 1483 and before). [**] Shipping. MS 368, f. 51. Psalter. English (Norwich), late 13th century (c. 1270-80). [51] Jonah is thrown to a whale from a ship. MS 563, f. 62v. Psalter and Hymnal. English (St Neot’s?), early 13th century (c. 1220). [62v] Jonah is thrown to a whale from a ship.

Lincoln’s Inn Library, London (LIL):

29. The World Map. World Map. English (Hereford and Lincoln), later 13th century (c. 1277-89). An illustration of Noah’s ark, in the ‘Asia’ section of the map, at the edge of the frame.

52. Hale MS 123, f. 186. Bible. English, mid 13th century (c. 123040). [186] Jonah is thrown to a whale from a ship.

John Rylands University Library, Manchester (JRUL):

Liverpool City Library, Liverpool (LCL):

30. MS **, f. **. Bible and Speculum Humanae Salvationis. French, 13th century. [**] Noah’s ark. 31. MS **, f. **. Apocalypse and Block Book. English, mid 15th century (c. 1450). [**] Noah’s ark. 32. MS **, f. **. Speculum Salutatis. German, mid 15th century (c. 1450). [**] Shipping. 33. MS 1, f. **. History of the Trojan Wars. English, early 15th century (c. 1420). [**] Shipping. 34. MS 5, f. **. Bible of Images and Speculum Humanae Salvationis. Low Countries, early 13th century (c. 1225). [**] Shipping. 35. MS 8, f. **. Beatus Super Apocalypse. Spanish, late 12th century. [**] Shipping. 36. MS 14, f. **. Choir book. Flemish, 16th century. [**] Shipping. 37. MS 18, f. **. Arbor Caritatis et Misericordiae and Speculum Humanae Salvationis, by an anonymous author. German, 14th century. [**] Shipping. 38. MS 19, f. **. Apocalypse. North German, 15 th century (c. 1420). [**] Shipping. 39. MS 22, f. **. Psalter. French (Paris), mid 13th century. [**] Shipping. 40. MS 29, f. **. Nicolaus of Lyra’s Postilla and Super Omnes Libros. Italian (Pesaro), early 15th century (c. 1402). [**] Shipping. 41. English MS 1, f. 23, etc. The Troy Book, translated by John Lydgate. English (London?), mid 15th century (c. 1440-50). [23] Jason and Medea sailing away from Colchis; [**] Ships. 42. French MS 1, f. 226. Arthurian Romances. French or English, 14th century. [226] The Lady of Shalott asleep on board a ship. 43. Nr. MS 38, f. **. Book of Hours. French, 16th century. [**] A sinking ship. 44. Nr. MS 39, f. **. Book of Hours. Flemish, later 15th century (c. 1487). [**] Shipping. 45. Nr. MS 164, f. **. Book of Hours. French, mid 15 th century (c. 1430). [**] St Nicholas on board a ship. 46. Lat. MS 164, f. 254v. Book of Hours. French (Paris), mid 15th century (c. 1430-50). [254v] Rowing boat on the river Seine with St Guinevere, patron saint of Paris on board.

53. MS F. 091 PSA, f. 117. Psalms with gloss. English (Winchester), 12th to 13 th century (c. 1200-10). [117] Jonah is thrown to a whale from a ship. London Records Office, London (LRO): 54. MS G, f. 45v. Liber Custumarum. English (London), early 14th century (c. 1327). [45v] The loss of the ‘white ship’. Longleat House, Warminster, Wiltshire (LHL): 55. MS 10, f. 140v. Breviary (the Longleat Breviary). English (Kimbolton), early 14th century (c. 1316-22). [140v] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 56. MS 11, f. 184. Psalter. English, early 14th century (c. 1310-20). [184] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. Merseyside County Museum, Liverpool (MCM): 57. Mayer MS 12017, Roundel 4. Universal Chronicle, including Peter of Poitier’s Compendium Historiae in Genealogica Christi. English, mid 13th century (c. 1230-40). [Roundel 4] Noah and his family putting animals and birds on board the ark. National Archives, Kew (NA): 58. MS 11, f. **. Vertrag Zwischen Enlgand und Frankreich. German, mid 16th century (c. 1530). [**] Shipping. 59. MS E. 36 - 284, f. 2. Abbreviated Doomsday Book. English (London), mid 13th century (c. 1250-60). [2] Edward the Confessor envisages the drowning of the King of Denmark. 60. MS DL 42/3, Part 1, f. **. Metrical Introduction by Richard Esk, and the Cartulary of Furness Abbey. English (Furness), undated. [**] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 61. MS MPF 69, f. **. Map of Ireland, by John Goghe. English, later 16th century (c. 1567). [**] Shipping on map. 62. MS MPF 75. Map of Ireland (the Smerwick Map). English, later 16th century (c. 1580). [**] Shipping on map. 63. MS MPF 212. Map of Winchelsea and Rye. English, 16th Century. [**] Shipping on map.

Lambeth Palace Library, London (LPL): 47. MS 209, ff. 1v, 17v, 31, 41, 95. Apocalypse (the Lambeth Apocalypse), with gloss. English (London or Canterbury), mid 13th century (c. 1260-67). [1v] St John the Evangelist on the island of Patmos, with a boat nearby; [17v] Noah’s ark; [31] An angel 109

Appendix Two – Illuminated Manuscripts

78. Reid MS 16, f. 13. Book of Hours. French (Amiens?), later 15th century (c. 1480). [12] St John the Evangelist on the island of Patmos – ship in left foreground. 79. Reid MS 19, f. 13. Book of Hours, including The Fifteen Joys of the Virgin Mary and miscellaneous prayers. French (Paris or Rouen?), 15th to 16 th century (c. 1500). [13] St John the Evangelist on the island of Patmos – ship in left foreground. 80. Reid MS 20, f. 7. Book of Hours with Calendar. French (Rouen), early 16th century (c. 1510-20). [7] St John the Evangelist on the island of Patmos – ship in left foreground. 81. Reid MS 42, f. 77. Psalter (the Plantaganent Psalter) and Calendar. English (London), mid 15th century (c. 1435-45). [77] Jonah castup by the whale in a river, with a walled town and coastline with ships moored alongside in the background. 82. Salting MS 1222, f. 13v. Book of Hours (the Hours of Margaret de Foix). French, later 15th century (c. 1470-80). [13v] St John the Evangelist on the island of Patmos – ship in left foreground. 83. Salting MS 1223, f. 86v. Book of Hours. Italian (Florence), early 16th century (c. 1515-22). [86v] King David kneels in penitence, with a hill over rocky ground in the background, a town and seascape and ships.

Peterborough Cathedral Library, Peterborough (PCL): 64. MS 10, f. 163. Bible. English, early 13 th century (c. 1230-40). [163] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. Parish Church of St Helen, Ranworth, Norfolk (St Helen’s): 65. MS 1, f. 152. Antiphonal and Calendar. English (Norwich), later 15th century (c. 1460-80). [152] Jonah is rescued from the whale by a passing ship. Ripon Cathedral Library, Ripon (RCL): 66. MS 1, f. 217. Bible. English, later 13th century (c. 1260). [217] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. Royal Library, Windsor Castle, Windsor (Windsor): 67. MS **, f. **. The Codex Hammer, by Leonardo da Vinci. Italian, undated. [**] Designs for ships and naval engineering. 68. MS **, f. **. Book of Hours (the Sobiesky Book of Hours). French (Norman), early 15th century (c. 1425). [**] The archangel Gabriel sinks ships.

Waddesdon Manor, Buckinghamshire (WML):

Society of Antiquaries, London (Soc. Antiq.):

84. MS 11, ff. 9, 97. Jean de Courcy’s chronicle La Bouquechardiere. French (Rouen), later 15th century (c. 1465). [9] Noah leaving the ark and the building of Argos and Athens; [97] Paris leading Helen to his father Priam at the gates of Troy: two large vessels lie moored in the left background. 85. MS 26, f. 5v. Book of Hours, illuminated in the workshop of Simon Bening. Low Countries (Bruges?), mid 16th century (c. 1540). [5v] The calendar for May – boating and ‘Maying’ – a small boat with a cloth stern canopy punted by a man, with a man and a woman playing music with a pipe and lute on board.

69. MS 59, f. 113v. Psalter (the Psalter of Robert de Lindesey) and Calendar. English (Peterborough), early 13th century (c. 1222 and earlier). [113v] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 70. MS 501 General Table Roll, Membrane 3. Genealogical Chronicle of the Kings of England, Popes, Kings and Emperors of France. English (London), mid 15th century (c. 1447-55). [Memb. 3] Noah’s ark. Victoria & Albert Museum, London (V&A):

Westminster Abbey Library, London (WAL):

71. MS A. L. 1504-1896, ff. 42, 77v, 183, 450. Pliny the Elder’s Historia Naturalis. Italian (Rome), late 15th century (c. 1480). [42] Initial H with river scene of ships, boats, town and distant hills; [77v] Initial P with river, sea and walled town; [183] Initial H with two merchants riding camels to the sea where boats await them, part of the spice trade to the east; [450] Initial V with two men holding fish in their hands, a river and boats in the background. 72. MS L 475-1918, f. 64. Book of Hours (the Playfair Hours). French (Rouen), late 15th century. [64] Angel and shepherds, with river in background with boats and ducks in front of a distant walled town. 73. MS L 3691-1963, f. 1. Gradual. Italian (Brescia?), late 15th century. [1] St’s Andrew and Peter in a boat on a lake, drawing in their nets. 74. Reid MS 6, f. 44. Book of Hours and Calendar. French (Tournai or Cambrai), early 15th century (c. 1425). [55] An angel appearing to shepherds by a river scene with a bridge, men in boats, and swans. 75. Reid MS 7, f. 15. Book of Hours (the Salisbury Hours), made for the Montagu/Montacute family (the earls of Salisbury). French (Rouen), early 15th century (c. 1425). [15] St John the Evangelist on the island of Patmos – ship in left foreground. 76. Reid MS 9, f. 13. Book of Hours. French (Paris), mid 15th century (c. 1450). [13] St John the Evangelist on the island of Patmos – ship in left foreground. 77. Reid MS 14, f. 12. Book of Hours with Calendar. French (Rouen?), later 15th century (c. 1470). [12] St John the Evangelist on the island of Patmos – ship in left foreground.

86. MS 22, ff. 43, 43v, 44. Bestiary. English (York), later 13th century (c. 1270-90). [43] The whale; [43v] Dolphins; [44] Serra and a swordfish. Winchester Cathedral Library, Winchester (WCL): 87. Winchester Bible, f. 5. Bible (the Winchester Bible). English (Winchester), later 12th century (c. 1150-80). [5] Initial I - Noah’s ark in roundel on left-hand side. Group B: University Libraries, Oxford All Souls College, Oxford (ASC): 88. MS 2, f. 183. Bible. English, 13th century (c. 1250-75). [183] Jonah emerges from the whale and clutches a tree, with a figure nearby rowing a small boat. 89. MS 6, ff. 13, 79. Psalter (the Amesbury Psalter). English (Salisbury), mid 13th century (c. 1250-60). [13] Noah’s Ark in a roundel by initial ‘B’ [Beatus Vir] - Jesse Tree. [79] Five men in a small rowboat cast Jonah into the mouth of a whale emerging from the tempestuous sea. 90. MS 7, f. 61. Psalter. English (East Anglia), early 14 th century (c. 1320). [61] Jonah is cast to the whale from a boat.

Balliol College, Oxford (Balliol): 110

The Illuminated Ark

[18v] A ship of Alexander the Great’s lands to conquer Athens; [36v] A ship full of men with hoisted sail and poop deck covering; [48] Ships. 109. Auct MS D. 2. 4, f. 39, 43. Miscellaneous documents. Italian, 10th century. [39] A man fishing; [43] Boats. 110. Auct. MS D. 3. 4, f. 258v. Bible. English, mid 13th century. [258v] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 111. Auct. MS D. 3. 5, f. 210v. Bible. English, mid 13th century. [210v] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 112. Auct. MS D. 3. 8, f 369c. Bible. French, 13th century. [369c] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 113. Auct. MS D. 4. 4, f. **. Psalter and Book of Hours. English (Sarum?), later 14th century (after c. 1370-80). [**] Shipping. 114. Auct. MS D. 4. 8, f. 506v. Bible. English, later 13th century. [506v] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 115. Auct. MS D. 4. 14, ff. 42, 54v. Apocalypse. English, early 14th century. [42] Ships sinking when the second angel of the Lord pours his vial into the sea [54v] Noah is twice addressed by God the ark floating on the water - the dove released. 116. Auct MS D. 4. 17, ff. 1v, 2v, 3. Apocalypse. English, mid 13th century (c. 1250-60). [1v] Scenes from the life of St John - Boat with sail and oar; [2v] Scenes from the life of St John - Boats; [3] Scenes from the life of St John - Boatman pushing boat off from land with long boathook. 117. Auct. MS D. 5. 9, f. 461. Bible. English, 13th century. [461] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 118. Auct. MS D. 5. 13, f. 461v. Bible. English [?], 13th century. [461v] Jonah emerges from the whale’s mouth and is saved by a passing ship. 119. Auct. MS D. 5. 17, f. 401v. Bible. French (Paris), mid 13th century. [401v] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 120. Auct. MS D. inf. 2. 2, ff. 75, 75v. Bible. English, mid 13th century (c. 1250-75). [75] Jonah is cast to the whale by a ship; [75v] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 121. Auct. MS D. inf. 2. 11, ff. 59v, 93v. Book of Hours, with illuminations by the Falstoff Master. French (Norman), mid 15th century (c. 1440-50). [59v] A grey-bearded Noah appears through a hatch in the ark - a turbulent sea with Noah’s ark in its midst drowned men can be seen under the waves. [93v] Fisherman with reel. 122. Auct. MS F. 2. 29, ff. 15v (e), 18v (a/c), 36v (c), 42 (c), 48 (c), 62 (a), 71v (a/e), 83v (b). Unfinished miniatures from Justinius’s Epitome of Pompeius Trogus. French, later 15th century. [15v (e)] Troops assembling near a ship loot a church; [18v (a/c)] View of Mount Aetna with ship in background - battle between the Athenians and the Syracusians; [36v (c)] Alexander offers sacrifice on landing in Asia; [42 (c)] An armed man comes out of a castle to meet four soldiers - rough outline of a boat in foreground; [48 (c)] Alexander’s warship lands to conquer Athens; [62 (a)] Soldiers disembark from a ship by gangplank and fight; [71v (a/e)] The army of Agathocles, coming ashore from ships, attacks Syracuse - soldiers march towards the shore where Agathocles’ expedition ships to Africa are anchored; [83v (b)] The ship of Seleucus is wrecked on a rocky shore. 123. Auct. MS T. 2. 27, f. 1. Macribius’ Commentary on Cicero’s Somium Scripionis. French, late 10th century. [1] Noah’s ark. 124. Barlow MS 6, f. 155v. John of Salisbury’s Policraticus. English (Malmesbury?), mid 13th century (c. 1225-50). [155v] Initial ‘S’ [‘Solent’] - fish swimming below a masted sailing boat with four men in it. 125. Barlow MS 22, f. 82. Psalter. English (Peterborough), mid 14th century (c. 1321-41). [82] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 126. Barlow MS 53 (R), 2nd Miniature [detail]. Extracts from Peter of Poiter’s Compendium Historiae in Genealogia Christi. English,

91. MS 2, f. 358. Bible. French or Italian (Bologna?), late 13 th century (c. 1280-90). [358] Jonah. 92. MS 238 E, ff. 60, 81, 113v, 133v. Domenico Bandini’s Fons Memorabilium Universi. German and Italian (Cologne and Rome), mid 15 th century (c. 1445-48). [60] Ship sinking, with a man grabbing at the mast; [81] Shipwreck watched by fish; [113v] Ship being lightened by sacks thrown overboard; [133v] Ship with weather-vane on mast. 93. MS 383, ff. 6v, 12, 34v, 72, 132. Ovid’s Heroides, translated by Octavien de St Gelais. French, 15 th to 16th century (c. 1490-1503). [6v] Penelope sends a letter to Ulysses via a boatman; [12] Phylis looks towards the sea to espy Demophon returning; [34v] Oenone looks down from a rocky cliff to see Paris with his new love, Helen; [72] Ariadne watches Theseus’s ship sailing away having fixed a veil on a branch to attract his attention: ship with single sail and canopy at stern; [132] Leander talks to Hero explaining how the sea is too rough for swimming - he sends a letter instead. The Bodleian Library, Oxford (Bod. Lib.): 94. Add. MS A. 2, f. 100. Johannus de Sacro Bosco’s Tractatus de Sphera. Italian, mid 15th century. [100] Ship with a tall mast. 95. Add. MS A. 185. Book of Hours. French (Nantes?), mid 15th century (c. 1440-50). [185] Ship. 96. Ashmole MS 1, f. 151. Ludolf von dem Werder’s Album Amicorum. German, early 17 th century (c. 1618-27). [151] Boatmen at work. 97. Ashmole MS 828, ff. 6v, 63v, 66. Romance of Lancelot du Lac. Flemish, 14th century. [6v] Boat; [63v] Gawain and companion use a boat with boatman to reach La Dolorenor Garde; [66] Boat. 98. Ashmole MS 1504, f. 20v. Herbal or Pattern Book. English (?), early 16th century (c. 1520-30). [20v] Large, two masted, lateenrigged ship with anchor with boat tied-on at bow. 99. Ashmole MS 1511, f. 86v. Bestiary (the Ashmole Bestiary). English (Peterborough?), early 13th century. [86v] The whale: a ship rests on its back. 100. Ashmole MS 1773, f. **. English, early 14th century. [**] Crowded boat. 101. Ashmole Rolls 50. Genealogy of the Kings of England to Edward I. English, 13th to 14th century (c. 1300). The rape of Helen - the Trojan war - Brutus consults the oracle of the temple of Diana: boats and ships. 102. Astor MS A. 5, ff. 1v, 172. Missal of Pope John XXIII. Italian (Siena), early 15th century. [1v] Fishing from a boat; [172] Boat with a net over the side. 103. Astor MS A. 18, f. 2v. Hours of the Virgin Mary. French, late 15th century. [2v] Fishing from a boat. 104. Astor MS A. 24, ff. 9, 21, 22. Book of Hours of the Virgin (the Hours of Albrecht of Brandenburg, Volume 1). Flemish (Bruges), early 16th century (c. 1525). [9] Boat on castle moat; [21] Boating on a lake; [22] Ships on sea in background. 105. Astor MS A. 24, ff. 1, 18v, 26. Book of Hours of the Virgin (the Hours of Albrecht of Brandenburg, Volume 2). Flemish (Bruges), early 16th century (c. 1525). [1] Boats; [18v] Boats; [26] Boats. 106. Auct. MS D. 1. 17, f. 285v. Bible. French, late 13th century (c. 1250-1300). [285v] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 107. Auct. MS D. 2. 2, f. 75. Choir Psalter. English (Christ Church, Canterbury), mid 14 th century (after 1320). [75] Initial ‘S’ - [top] Jonah is pushed overboard from a boat with two men in it: [bottom] Jonah, numbed and naked, emerges from the whale and is rescued by a passing vessel. 108. Auct. MS D. 2. 29, ff. 18v, 36v, 48. Justin’s abbreviation of Trogus Pompeius. French or Italian, 15 th century (c. 1400-50?). 111

Appendix Two – Illuminated Manuscripts

mid 15th century (c. 1420-30). [2nd miniature] Noah building the ark, tools at his feet and an axe in his hand. 127. Barocci MS 145, f. 8. Bible. Byzantine, 15th or 16th century. [8] Fleet of ships besieging Constantinople. 128. Barocci MS 170, ff. 9v, 10v. Oracles of Leo the Wise. Byzantine, late 16th century. [9v] Ships; [10v] Ship approaching rocks. 129. Barocci MS 201, ff. 85, 233v. Bible. Byzantine, early 13th century. [85] The Story of Job - boat with a steeply curved prow and stern; [233v] The Story of Job - boat with three men in it. 130. Barocci MS 210, f. 242. Bible. Byzantine, early 13th century. [242] Ship in Catena on Job. 131. Bodley MS 263, f. 7. John Lydgate’s Fall of Princes. English, late 15th century (after c. 1493). [7] Noah’s ark. 132. Bodley MS 264, ff. 1, 89, 209v. Jehan de Grise’s Romance of Alexander. English, 14th to 15th century (c. 1400). [1] Three ships anchored in a river; [89] Boat paddled by four boys, one polling at stern; [209v] Boat on river. 133. Bodley MS 264, part 1, ff. 20v, 50, 55, 144, 183v. Jehan de Grise’s Romance of Alexander. English, 14th to 15th century (c. 1400). [20v] Boat with battlemented erection at each end; [50] Alexander the Great’s glass diving bell; [55] Boat with battlemented bow and stern castles; [144] A king in a ship with five other people, including the oarsmen; [183v] A king in a ship with a carved prow. 134. Bodley MS 264, part 3, ff. 218, 228, 245v, 246v, 253v, 257, 259v, 265. Li Livres du Graunt Caam, with miniatures by Johannes and his school. English, 14th to 15 th century (c. 1400). [218] View of Venice from the sea, showing the cathedral of St Mark, the Palace of the Doges, and other buildings, with ships moored offshore; [228] The great river Balacian which Marco Polo follows on his journey from the province of Badashan; [245v] Shipping on the River Karacoram - a driver and packhorse approach an inn; [246v] Shipping at the bridge of Sindufu, Tibet; [253v] Boats in front of a city; [257] Shipping outside the city of Quinsay, capital of the province of Manyi; [259v] Indian ships arriving at Carcan; [265] Pearl fishing from boats in the Gulf of Malabar. 135. Bodley MS 270b, ff. 9v B1, 9v C1, 10 A1, 10 C1, 10 D1, 214 C1, 214 C2. Bible Moralisée (Part 1). French (Paris), mid 13th century (c. 1235-45). [9v B1] Noah builds the ark of wood and pitch; [9v C1] Noah’s family enter the ark with him; [10 A1] The dove returns to the ark with the olive branch; [10 C1] Noah drinks, on board the ark; [10 D1] Noah’s sons on board the ark; [214 C1] Boatload of apples rowed by a man; [214 C2] Boatload of apples rowed by a man. 136. Bodley MS 401, ff. 20, 55v. Apocalypse. English, mid 14th century. [20] Boat with single sail; [55v] Two boats with sails, an oarsman in each, and a forecastle. 137. Bodley MS 421, ff. 15, 29, 31, 43v, 55. Christiane de Pisan and Alain Chartier’s L’epitre d’othea et Hector. French, later 15th century. [15] Merchant with wallet standing next to a ship; [29] Sailing ship with two figures in crow’s nest and sailor on poop over rudder; [31] A Greek warship with crow’s nest; [43v] Galalthee stands in a ship and speaks to Axis; [55] Ship of Ceys with broken mast and sailors trying to reduce sail. 138. Bodley MS 602, ff. 4, 22v. Bestiary. English (St Albans?), mid 13th century. [4] Boat; [22v] The whale. 139. Bodley MS 614, f. 32. Calendar and treatise on astronomy and the marvels of the East. English, mid 12th century. [32] Stern end of a ship. 140. Bodley MS 725, f. 132v. Peter Lombard’s Commentary on the Pauline Epistles. English (Exeter?), late 12 th century. [132v] Page with initial ‘P’ [Paulus]: fish in the sea, St Paul and companions in a small boat. 141. Bodley MS 764, ff. 74v, 107. Bestiary. English, mid 13th century. [74v] Ship grounded on the back of a whale, with a sailor kneeling

on its back fanning a fire under a pot using his coat as a fan; [107] Boat. 142. Bodley MS 971, f. 10v. Bible Historiale, by Guyart Desmoulins. French, late 14th century. [10v] Noah and his family in the ark. 143. Bodley Rolls 3, row 4, row 5. Mythical prehistory of Britain and genealogy of the kings of Britain to Edward I. English, late 13th century. [Row 4] the Abduction of Helen and the siege of Troy; [Row 5] Aeneas sails to Latinum - Brutus in exile wins Pandrasius’ daughter and sails for the island temple of Diana. 144. Bodley Rolls 6, Membrane 2. Genealogy of the kings of England to Henry V. English, mid 15th century (c. 1425-50). [Membrane 2] Noah’s ark. 145. Bodley Rolls 10, f. 1. Geneaological roll from Noah to king Henry V of England. English, mid 15th century (c. 1430-40). [1] Ship. 146. Buchanan MS E 13, f. 56. Book of Hours. French (Rouen?), later 15th century (c. 1470-80). [56] Annunciation to the shepherds, with ship at anchor in background. 147. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 11, f. 401v. Bible. French, later 13th century. [401v] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 148. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 41, f. 348. Bible. French, late 13th century. [348] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 149. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 44a, f. 9. Bible Commentary. Italian, mid 13th century. [9] Noah’s ark. 150. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 47, f. 346v. Bible. French, mid 13th century (c. 1200-50). [346v] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 151. Canon. Bibl. Lat MS 48, f. 341. Bible. Italian, late 13th century. [341] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 152. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 52, f. 374. Bible. French, 13th century. [374] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 153. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 56, f. 293v. Bible. Italian, later 13th century (c. 1267). [293v] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 154. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 57, f. 338v. Bible. Italian, 13th to 14th century (c. 1300). [338v] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 155. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 58, f. 340v. Bible. Italian, 13th century. [340v] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 156. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 62, ff. 7v, 9v, 17v, 31. Apocalypse (the Canonici Apocalypse). English (Peterborough), 13th or early 14th century (c. 1300). [7v] Boat with two sails and four sailors heads; [9v] Ship; [17v] Ships; [31] Ships. 157. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 65-69, f. 19v. Bible. French (Lyons), early 16th century (c. 1507-11). [19v] Two diagrams of Noah’s ark. 158. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 79, f. 355. Bible. French, mid 13th century. [355] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 159. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 92, f. 340v. Bible. French, mid 13th century. [340v] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 160. Canon. Class. Lat. MS 52, f. 2. Bible. Italian, 14th century. [2] Sailing boat with Aeneas and Trojans. 161. Canon. Class. Lat. MS 81, ff. 1b v, 16v, 70, 82v. Book of vespers by Basimio de Barani. Italian (Rimini), later 15th century (c. 145768). [1b v] Ships with three sails being rowed; [16v] Galleys; [70] Ship with rigging; [82v] Man coming ashore on a raft. 162. Canon. Class. Lat. MS 185, ff. 181v-182, 189v-190, 190v-191, 191v-192, 192v-193. Roberto Valturio’s translation of De Re Militari. Italian (Rimini?), mid 15th century (before 1462). [181v182] Construction diagrams showing details of boat-building; [189v-190] Bridges formed of linked boats; [190v-191] Bridges and rafts; [191v-192] Boats and rafts; [192v-193] Rafts. 163. Canon. Class. Lat. MS E1, f. 70. Bible. Italian (Rimini), later 15th century (c. 1457-68). [70] Ship. 164. Canon. Ital. MS 38, f. 54v. Bible. Italian, mid 15th century (c. 1456). [54v] Boat with sailor in it. 165. Canon. Ital. MS 106, f. 1. Dante’s Purgatorio. Italian (Venice), 15th century. [1] Ship model with full sail held by Dante. 112

The Illuminated Ark

166. Canon. Ital. MS 108, f. 32. Dante’s Divine Comedy. Italian, 14 th century. [32] Dante and Virgil in a sailing ship. 167. Canon. Ital. MS 109, f. 75. Dante’s Purgatorio. Italian, 14 th century. [75] Boat with sail. 168. MS Canon Ital. 196, f. 30. Bible. Italian, 16th century. [30] Fishing. 169. Canon. Ital. MS 244, ff. 39, 83v. Tratato del Modo de Insergmare oghi ragione. Italian, 15 th century. [39] Ship with three masts, each with a sail; [83v] Boat with mast, yard and billowing sail. 170. Canon. Ital. MS 275, f. 35. Bible. Italian, 15th century. [35] Boat St Peter rowing. 171. Canon. Ital. MS 280, ff. 81v, 100, 100v, 184v. Bible. Italian, 15th century. [81v] Fishing; [100-100v] Fishing boats; [184v] Boat with square sail. 172. Canon. Liturg. MS 126, ff. 98v, 141v. Psalter. French (Liege), 13th to 14th century (c. 1300). [98v] Jonah; [141v] Shipwreck with man below decks praying. 173. Canon. Liturg. MS 151, f. 118. Psalter. Italian (Naples?), mid 14 th century (c. 1350?). [118] Noah aboard the ark. 174. Canon. Liturg. MS 289, f. 1. Bible. Italian, 15th century. [1] Boats. 175. Canon. Liturg. MS 353, f. 125. Choir Breviary. Italian (Brescia), later 15th century (c. 1462). [125] Noah’s wife in the ark. 176. Canon. Liturg. MS 371, f. 175. Bible. Italian (Rome or Venice?), mid 15th century (c. 1450). [175] Boat with St Andrew and St Peter: one rows, the other pulls in a net full of fish. 177. Canon. Liturg. MS 383, f. 93. Bible. Italian, later 15 th century (c. 1470). [93] Boats in shallows of lake or river. 178. Canon. Liturg. MS 384, f. 196. Bible. Italian (Vicenza?), mid 15th century. [196] Fishing boat on the Sea of Galilee. 179. Canon. Liturg. MS 393, ff. 238v, 244v. Psalter. Italian or Levantine (?), late 13th century (c. 1275-1300). [238v] Noah and his sons at work on the ark; [244v] Half-spherical ark with oars. 180. Canon. Misc. MS 46, f. 119v. Hyginus Porticoli Astronomicon. Italian (Florence), late 15th century. [119v] Ship with square sail, bowsprit, crow’s next and steering oars. 181. Canon. Misc. MS 47, ff. 18, 58. Bible. Italian, later 15th century (c. 1450-1500). [18] Boat with sail; [58] Ship with two masts and a rudder, moored to a bollard on shore. 182. Canon. Misc. MS 221, f. 2. Bible. Italian, later 15th century. [2] Noah’s ark. 183. Canon. Misc. MS 249, f. 149. Bible Historiale, by Guyart Desmoulins. French (Paris), later 14th century (c. 1380-90). [149] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 184. Canon. Misc. MS 280, ff. 8v, 10v, 14v, 17v, 35, 38, 40, 43, 62v, 65. Christofino Buoliditlemoliti’s Die Insulis Archipelagi oli Papra. Italian, later 15 th century (c. 1474). [8v, 10v, 14v, 17v, 35] Ships at sea; [38] Fishing apparatus; [40] Ships at sea; [43] Boat on lake; [62v] Three-masted ship shown on land; [65] Ships at sea. 185. Canon. Misc. MS 378, ff. 75v, 84, 147. Cosmographa Scoti & Notitia Dignitatium. French, early 15 th century (c. 1436). [75v] Transport ship with Roman war engines and cattle used to turn capstans and wheels; [84] Ship with animal-head prow; [147] Grain ships under the insignia of the Proconsul Africae. 186. Canon. Misc. MS 493, f. 266v. Justinian’s Digestum Vetus, with gloss of Accursius. Italian (Bologna), 14th century. [266v] Boat. 187. Canon. Misc. MS 554, f. 158 [2]. Mathematical and astronomical work. Italian (Padua), 15th century. [158] Ship with square sail and twin rudders. 188. Digby MS 9, ff. 242, 385v. Bible. English, later 13th century (c. 1270-80). [242] Boat; [385v] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship.

189. Digby MS 86, f. 47. English and Anglo-Norman prose and poetry miscellany. English (Worcester?), later 13th century (c. 1272-82). [47] Three ships. 190. Digby MS 137, f. 308. Father Claudius’ Tractus in Artem Logicae. French, later 16th century (c. 1583). [308] Two ships, one with masts and rigging, one with an oar. 191. Digby MS 223, f. 25v. Romance of Lancelot du Lac. French, late 13th century. [25v] Ship with sail, castellated turrets, and shields over the side. 192. D’Orville MS 212, f. 388. Bible. French, late 13th century. [388] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 193. Douce MS 8, ff. 1, 4, 12. Private office and prayers. Flemish, later 15th century (c. 1450-1500). [1] Boat; [4] Noah’s ark; [12] Canopied boat. 194. Douce MS 10, f. 1. Breviary. French, later 16th century (c. 1563). [1] Boat. 195. Douce MS 12, ff. 6, 15 (margin), 72. Votive office and prayers for a lady. Flemish (Bruges?), later 15th century (c. 1450-1500). [6] Man sculling a boat; [15] Noah’s ark; [72] St John writing the Book of Revelations on the island of Patmos - ships and boats in background. 196. Douce MS 31, f. 15. Book of Hours. French, late 15th century. [15] Boat. 197. Douce MS 88, ff. 138, 139. Bestiary. English, 13th to 14th century (c. 1300). [138] Rowing boat with four men and one oar; [139] Sailing ship with three crew and one passenger in bows: two of the crew hoist a sail, another rows. 198. Douce MS 104, f. 40. William Langland’s Piers Plowman (‘C’ text). English, later 15th century (c. 1472). [40] Boat in rough water. 199. Douce MS 112, ff. 1, 1v, 2, 17, 151. Book of Hours. Flemish, early 16th century. [1] Fisherman in rowing boat; [1v] Legend of St Veronica - ship at anchor; [2] Ship being unloaded; [17] Ship in full sail; [151] St James the Great in a boat. 200. Douce MS 113, f. 300v. Bible. French, later 13 th century (after 1250). [300v] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 201. Douce MS 117, ff. 10, 18. Ovid’s Metamorphoses. French, early 16th century (after 1531). [10] Ship with full sail, curved prow and pointed stern, mast and a crow’s nest; [18] Boat. 202. Douce MS 118, ff. 36v, 76. Psalter and Book of Hours. French (Artois), later 13th century. [36v] Single-sail boat with oars; [76] Boat with animal-head prow and stern, single sail twisted around a central mast, and one oar showing. 203. Douce MS 131, f. 54. Psalter. English (East Anglia), mid 14th century (c. 1340). [54] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 204. Douce MS 132, f. 65a. Guillaume le Clerc’s Bestiaire Maralisé. English, mid 13th century. [65a] Boat with two men in it. 205. Douce MS 135, ff. 53v, 59v, 82. Book of Hours. French, mid 16th century. [53v] Boats; [59v] Boats; [82] Merchant watches a boat being unloaded at a quay. 206. Douce MS 167, ff. 1v (b), 7v. Bestiary. English, mid 13th century. [1v] Boat at sea with rudder, sail and figurehead; [7v] The whale. 207. Douce MS 168, ff. 7, 12. Olivier de la Marche’s Tracitier Instituté le Chevalier Deliberé. Flemish, mid 16 th century. [7] Ship; [12] Ship. 208. Douce MS 178, ff. 1, 49, 65, 70v, 79, 103, 133, 282, 237, 309, 369, 371v. Lestoire del Saint Graal and Lestoire du Merlin. Italian, 14th century. [1] Ship; [49] Boatman in boat visits Mordrain on a rock; [65] Ship with three spindles; [70v]\ Animals are loaded into ships; [79] Shipping; [103] Nascien seated in a boat; [133] Nascien seated in a boat; [282] Gawain arranges ships at Dover; [237] Three men in a boat with an oar/paddle; [309]

113

Appendix Two – Illuminated Manuscripts

[113] Bearded Noah in ark; [138v] Two men in a rowing boat; [140v] Boat with animal figure-heads at bow and stern; [197] Boat - the miraculous draught of fishes; [205] Boat; [210/7] Boat with wide-meshed net - the calling of St Peter and St Paul; [222] Boat; [222v] Boat with Christ and Apostles in it; [230v] Clinker-built boat with heads of nails visible, and a curved prow and stern; [333] Clinker-built boat with heads of nails visible, and identical bow and stern. 226. Douce MS 336-7, f. 32. Universal History from the creation to the birth of Christ. French, later 15th century (c. 1450-1500 or before 1463?). [32] Ships on lake - the Abduction of Helen. 227. Douce MS 346, ff. 239, 258. An Account of the Old Noble Families of Nuremberg. German (Nuremberg), late 16 th century (1590-1636-1640?). [239] Sailing ship; [258] Ship with wheels driving on grass. 228. Douce MS 352, f. 48v. Boethius’ De Consolatione Philosophiae. French, later 15th century (c. 1450 -1500). [48v] Boats with lateen sails. 229. Douce MS 353, ff. 26v, 31a, 31b, 31v, 175. Romance of the Destruction of Troy. French, later 15th century. [26v] Battle alongside the walls of Thebes with two ships; [31a] Equipping of the Argo: carpenters and cooks congregate on the quayside while Negro stevedores carry bales up gangplanks and Jason and Hercules play chess; [31b] The argonauts land on the island of Colchos: Jason steps off the gangplank armed with a drawn sword and Medea’s magic phial; [31v a] Pyrrhus lands from a ship and kills Polyxena at the tomb of Achilles: the Argo (sailing warships) have sails on their fore- and sterncastles, central masts with many ropes, ladders and ratlines; [31v b] Jason and Hercules land in Troy to be met by King Laomedon’s messenger, with the Argo moored in the background; [175] Boat with castle-like structure, roofed and with three masts and many long oars. 230. Douce MS 356, ff. 10 [b], 11v [a], 28 [b], 29. Histoire de Troye, translated by Jacques Milet of Orléans. French, 15th century. Ships in harbour; [10 b] Anthenors’ sailing ships; [11v a] Two ships laden with Trojan soldiers ready to sail; [28 b] Ships arrive at Giltharea and disembark their soldiers; [29] Ships. 231. Douce MS 363, ff. 3, 52v, 115v. George Cavendish’s Life of Cardinal Thomas Wolsey and a literary miscellany, partly in the hand of Stephen Batman and partly John Dee. English, later 16th century (c. 1578-80). [3] Large sailing ship; [52v] Cardinal Wolsey travels by barge to Greenwich; [115v] Ship at sea on a map of Milford Haven and its neighbourhood. 232. Douce MS 366, f. 89. Psalter (the Ormesby Psalter). English (Norwich?), late 13th or early 14th century (c. 1300-1330?). [89] Broken-masted boat of Jonah, who is shipwrecked and then emerges from the whale’s mouth. A peasant leads a wolf and lamb towards an empty boat nearby. 233. Douce MS 371, f. 113v. Guillaume de Lorris and Jean de Meung’s Le Roman de la Rose. French, 15 th century. [113v] Boat of Deucatio and Pyrrha. 234. Douce MS 373, ff. 11, 13. Poems by Joos van den Hecke. Belgian (Brussels), early 16th century (c. 1520-30 or before 1538). [11] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship; [13] Noah’s ark. 235. Douce MS 374, ff. 5, 40, 49v. Jean Miélot’s Les Miracles de Nostre Dame. Flemish, later 15th century (after c. 1456). [5] Devils taking the soul of Ebroin to hell meet five monks rowing; [40] A ship on pilgrimage to Jerusalem flounders and the souls of the drowned fly to heaven as doves; [49v] The body of a sacristan is recovered by men in a boat. 236. Douce MS b. 2., 65/85, ff. 52, 55. Machines et Utensils de Guerre. Portuguese (?), late 16th century (c. 1582). [52] A boat used as a pontoon with a ring at each end; [55] A boat used as a pontoon covered by a raft, roped onto a wheeled carrier.

King Arthur in a boat; [369] Boats; [371v] Boat - Sesnes escapes in it. 209. Douce MS 180, ff. 1, 24, 75. Heraldry from the Douce apocalypse. English (Christ Church, Canterbury or Westminster?), 12th to 13th century (c. 1150-1200 or before 1272?). [1] Boat with quarter rudder; [24] Ships sinking with their painted sterns visible; [75] Merchants await the return of their ships, seen in the distance. 210. Douce MS 204, ff. 2v [b], 5v, 27v [b], 32v [a], 54. Speculum Humanae Salvationis. Spanish (Catalan), mid 15 th century (c. 1430-50). [2v] Noah looks out of a trap-door in the top of the ark; [5v] Fishermen haul in a net; [27v] Jonah is cast into the sea from a ship; [32v] Jonah escapes the whale and grasps a tree on shore, with ship in the background; [54] Fishermen. 211. Douce MS 208, ff. 120v, 136. Caesar’s Commentaries & de Bello Gallico, translated by Jean Ducheshe. Flemish, later 15th century (after 1474). [120v] Barge being loaded by a water gate; [136] Germans crossing the Rhine by boat with a footbridge nearby. 212. Douce MS 211-12, ff. 11, 12, 13, 14, 131v. Guyart Desmoulins’ Bible Historiale. French (Paris), early 14th century. [1, 12, 13] Noah is instructed by God to built the ark. Building the ark: almost complete - at sea, the dove is released from a nut-shaped ark; [14] Sacrifice of a sheep after the flood by Noah; [131v] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 213. Douce MS 215, f. 35. Arthurian Romances - Romance of Lancelot du Lac. French, 13th to 14th century (c. 1300). [35] Galahad, Perceval and Bohors in a ship with beds. 214. Douce MS 217, ff. 214, 276. Grand Chronicle of France. French, mid 15th century (c. 1400-50). [214] Two ships on the river Loire besieging Tours; [276] The brother of King Louis of Sicily embarking on a ship. 215. Douce MS 241, f. 3. Bible. Italian, early 15th century (c. 1420). [3] Boat with two men inside looking out at a siren. 216. Douce MS 244, ff. 37, 49. Album Amicorum of Freidrich Rechlinger Junior von Goldenstein. German, late 16th century (c. 1598-1610). [37] Fishing; [49] A couple in a boat rowed by two men. 217. Douce MS 245, f. 169. Franciscan Breviary. French (Paris), mid 14th century. [169] Noah’s ark. 218. Douce MS 256, ff. 13v, 176. Book of Hours with calendar of the Opcrest of Rheims. Flemish (Bruges?), 15 th to 16th century. [13v] Masted ships moored to quays; [176] Ships. 219. Douce MS 261, f. 39v. Romances. English, later 16 th century (c. 1564). [39v] Boatbuilding - Christabel and her baby set adrift in a boat. 220. Douce MS 267, f. 5. Book of Hours. French (Besançon), later 15th century (c. 1470). [5] Boatman paddles St John across the water to the island of Patmos. 221. Douce MS 276, ff. 56v, 87v, 91v, 94v, 103, 114v. Book of Hours. French, 15th to 16th century. [56v] Fishing; [87v] Boating; [91v] Boating; [94v] Boating; [103] Fishing; [114v] Boat. 222. Douce MS 300, ff. 112, 113v, 114. Le Pelerinage de la Vie Humaine. French, 14th to 15th century (c. 1400?). [112] Ship of religion appears to a penitent pilgrim; [113v] Pilgrim asks fear-ofgod if he may come aboard the ship of religion; [114] Religious ships with many turrets and towers. 223. Douce MS 308, ff. 53, 101v [b], 105v [a]. Romances and Poetry. French (Metz or Lorraine?), early 14th century. [53] Boat with two oarsmen; [101v] Two men rowing a boat; [105v] A ship beached on a whale mistaken for an island. 224. Douce MS 311, f. 30. Book of Hours. Flemish, later 15th century (after 1488). [30] Boats on river. 225. Douce MS 313, ff. 33v, 98, 113, 138v, 140v, 197, 205, 210/7, 222, 222v, 230v, 333. Franciscan Missal. French, mid 14 th century. [33v] Boat in a storm - Christ is awakened by the disciples; [98] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship; 114

The Illuminated Ark

256. Laud Gr. MS 27, f. 27. Bible. Byzantine or Italian (?), 15th to 16th century. [27] Shipping in the Bosphorus. 257. Laud Gr. MS 86, f. 382. Bible. Italian, 15th century. [382] Sailing boat. 258. Laud. Lat. MS 15, f. 27v. Book of Hours. Flemish (?), early 14th century. [27v] Boat with oars. 259. Laud Lat. MS 95, f. 86v. Psalter. English (Ely), early 13th century (c. 1200-50). [86v] A ship resting vertically on its prow. 260. Laud Misc. MS 44, ff. 35, 45v, 48. Bible. German, 15th century. [35] Small boat at sea; [45v] Three monks in a boat; [48] Small boat with two passengers in it looking over the side. 261. Laud Misc. MS 165, ff. 116v, 121, 121v, 127v, 253. William of Nottingham’s Commentary on the Gospels. English, later 14th century (after c. 1397). [116v] Christ preaches from Simon’s boat on Lake Gennesaret, with two men on shore listening; [121] The calling of Andrew and Peter; [121v] The calling of James and John; [127v] Jesus and two disciples in a boat, Jesus sleeps and a great tempest arises in the sea; [253] Christ enters a boat from which to speak to the crowd. 262. Laud Misc. MS 173, ff. 115v, 123, 126. Bible. German, early 15th century. [115v] Boats; [123] Boats at water’s edge; [126] Boats. 263. Laud Misc. MS 587, f. 1. Geoffroi de Villehardouin’s Le Conquête de Constantinople. Italian (Venice), early 14th century (c. 1330). [1] page border - crusaders in ships. 264. Laud Misc. MS 644, f. 10. Astrological and astronomical manuscript. French (Bayeux), late 13th century (c. 1268-74). [10] Ship. 265. Laud Misc. MS 653, f. 13. Jean de Wavrin’s Ancientes Chroniques d’ Angleterre. Flemish, later 15th century. [13] Ships. 266. Laud Misc. MS 720, f. 226v. Gerald of Wales’ Topography of Ireland. English, later 13 th century. [226v] Two men in a boat or coracle (?). 267. Laud Misc. MS 733, ff. 18, 22v. Johannes de Bado Aureo’s Early English History and Chronicle of England to Henry V. English, mid 15th century (c. 1440-50). [18] Diocletian with courtiers and daughters disembarking from a boat; [22v] The arrival of Brutus and his people in Albion. 268. Laud Misc. MS 740, f. 118v. Guillaume Deguilleville’s Romance of the Pilgrimage of Man. English, mid 15th century. [118v] The pilgrim stands by the sea on which sails the ship of religion. 269. MS Liturg. 41, f. 66. Book of Hours. French, later 15th century (c. 1470-80). [66] Boat with sail and rowers. 270. Liturg. MS 80, f. 154. Book of Hours. French, 15th to 16th century (c. 1500). [154] Rowing boat. 271. Liturg. MS 198, f. 60. Psalter. English, later 14th century. [60] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 272. Liturg. MS 406, ff. 3v, 29, 36, 39. Processional. Flemish (?), mid 16th century (c. 1526-39). [3v-39] Sailing boats. 273. Liturg. MS 407, f. 94v. Psalter. English (Amesbury?), early 13th century. [94v] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 274. Lyell MS 72, f. 84v. Dominican processional and troper. Italian, 14th to 15th century (c. 1400). [84v] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 275. Lyell MS 95, f. 39v. Gospel of St Matthew. Italian (Milan), mid 15th century (c. 1457-61). [39v] Christ asleep in a boat during a storm. 276. E Mus. MS 160, f. 3. Devotional pieces. English, late 15th century. [3] Noah and his wife on board the ark. 277. Rawl. MS A. 192, ff. 20, 110. Miscellaneous papers of Samuel Pepys. English, late 16th century. [20] Four-masted ship; [110] Two upside-down ships in a diagram. 278. Rawl. MS A. 417, ff. 11, **. Baptismal Sacraments. French, early 16th century. [11] Noah in cupola on top of ark with family; [**] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship.

237. Douce MS F 4, ff. 15v, 22. Speculum Humanae Salvationis. Flemish (?), mid 15th century (c. 1460-70). [15v] Jonah with five men in a boat with rigging, patterned sail, forecastle and bowsprit; [22] Noah is mocked by his son Ham, with the ark in the background. 238. Douce MS FF 63, f. D 8v. Bible. French (Paris), early 16th century (c. 1522). [8v] Boat being rowed on a river. 239. E. D. Clarke MS 31F, f. 403v. Bible. French, 13th to 14th century (c. 1300). [403v] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 240. Eng. Hist. MS E. 198, f. 102v. William Woodall’s The Actes of Queen Elizabeth. English, late 16th century (c. 1580 or c. 15581600?). [102v] Ships at sea, two with large flags, two with crosses on the tops of their masts. 241. Eng. Misc. MS C 13 [R], f. **. Pictures of the Battle of Pinkie (1547). English, mid 16th century (c. 1550). [**] Six ships in stormy seas off a coastline. 242. Gough Gen. Top. MS 16. The Gough Map of Great Britain. English, later 14th century (c. 1360). Shipwrecked man in dark green gown - small boat with man in it and net over side. 243. Gough Liturg. MS 2, f. 82. Psalter. English, 12th to 13 th century (c. 1200). [82] Boat with two men in it, holding lines to regulate sail. 244. Gough Liturg. MS 7, f. 7. Private prayer and hymn book. Flemish (Ghent or Bruges?), 15th to 16th century (c. 1500). [7] Occupation of the month of August - unloading cargoes from boats. 245. Gough Liturg. MS 15, f. 63v. Book of Hours. Flemish (Ghent?), 15th century. [63v] Boats. 246. Greaves MS 52, f. 13. Arms of the nobility and gentry of Scotland. Scottish, mid 16th century (c. 1542-60). [13] Single masted ship on the coat-of-arms of the Hamilton family. 247. Hatton MS 1, f. 142. Missal. English (Norwich?), 15th century. [142] The calling of St Peter and St Andrew: elaborately drawn boat with bowsprit. 248. Ital. MS C. 73, ff. 26, 74, 135. Joachim of Fiore’s Vaticinia Pontificum to Pope Clement VIII. Italian, 16th to 17th century (c. 1600). [26] Long boat; [74] Ship with pennant and sterncastle and tilted raft with six men on board; [135] Ship rolling. 249. Junius MS 11, ff. 66, 68, 68v, 70, 74. Anglo-Saxon poetry on Old Testament subjects (the ‘Caedmon’ manuscript). English (Christ Church, Canterbury), 10th to 11th century (c. 1000). [66] Noah builds the ark; [68] The ark complete; [68v] Noah releases the dove from the ark; [70] ‘Noah’s Ark - two illustrations visible only under ultraviolet light; [74] Noah and his wife argue about embarking up the ladder into the ark. 250. Kennicott MS 1, f. 305. Old Testament. Spanish (Corruna), mid 15th century (c. 1476). [305] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 251. Lat. Bibl. MS e. 7, ff. 187, 300. Bible. English, 13th century. [187] Jonah is thrown to the whale from a ship; [300] Boats. 252. Lat. Class. MS D. 1, f. 13. Boethius’ De Consolatione Philosophiae. Italian, mid 15th century. [13] Ship sailing in capital ‘P’ initial. 253. Lat. Liturg. MS A. 3, ff. 1, 71v. Choir Psalter. Italian, later 15th century. [1] King David praying with ships nearby; [71v] King David in the waters with ships in the background. 254. Lat. Misc. MS B. 2 [R], No. 4. Pedigree of the kings of England and chronicle of the kings of England to 1431-32 and of Tewkesbury Abbey to 1435, and armorial of the patrons of Tewkesbury Abbey. English (Tewkesbury), mid 15th century (c. 1435, with additions c. 1475-8). [No. 4] Noah seated in the ark. 255. Lat. Th. MS B. 1 (R), No. 4. Peter of Poitiers’ Compendium Historiae in Genealogia Christi. English, early 13 th century (c. 1200-50). [No. 4] Noah and his wife and two of their sons on board the ark.

115

Appendix Two – Illuminated Manuscripts

Christ Church College, Oxford (Ch. Ch. CO):

279. Rawl. MS B. 483, f. 17v. Gerald of Wales’ Topography of Ireland. English, 13th century. [17v] Initial D - Caesara, Noah’s niece, makes the first voyage to Ireland in the year before the great flood. 280. Rawl. MS C. 117, f. 155. Book of astronomical texts and tables. English, 13th to 14th century. [155] Ship with figurehead, below an astronomical constellation. 281. Rawl. MS C. 563, f. 2. Peter of Poitiers’ Compendium Historiae in Genealogia Christi. English, 13th to 14th century (c.1300). [2] Noah, with axe in hand, stands by the half-built ark. 282. Rawl. MS D. 939, part 2. Astrological and ecclesiastical calendar. English, later 14th century (after c. 1350). [Part 2] October - Book of Saints - boat of St Simon and St Jude, plus guide drawing of a ship with an awning. 283. Rawl. MS D. 1220, f. 32v. Astrological treatises. English, later 15th century (c. 1450-75). [32v] Fishing with net and pole in river. 284. Rawl. MS G. 6, f. 319. Bible. French, later 13th century. [319] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 285. Rawl. MS G. 14, f. 367 [3]). Bible. English, 13th century. [367] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 286. Rawl. MS G. 21, f. 67v. Psalter. Flemish (Flanders), mid 14th century. [67v] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 287. Rawl. MS G. 126, f. 358. Bible. English, 13th to 14th century (c. 1300). [358] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 288. Rawl. Liturg. MS **, ff. 19, 26. Book of Hours. French (Paris), late 15th century (c. 1480). [19] Ship off the island of Patmos; [26] St John on Patmos with ships offshore. 289. Rawl Liturg. MS e. 14, f. 56. Book of Hours. French or Flemish (?), early 15th century (c. 1440). [56] The flight into Egypt shipping. 290. Rawl Liturg. MS e. 20, f. 13 [b]. Book of Hours. French (Evreux), late 14th or early 15th century (c. 1500). [13] Ships. 291. Rawl MS Q b. 6, ff. 39, 355v. Romance of Lancelot du Lac. French, early 14th century. [39] Gawain and his companions are invited from their boat into the castle of Dolororen Gard; [355v] Lancelot in prayer on board a ship. 292. Rylands MS d. 20, f. 1v [4]. Coats-of-arms of the knights of the Bath, made for the Coronation of Mary I. English, late 16th century. [1v] A black-hulled ship. 293. Selden Supra MS 38 part 2, f. 92. Apocalypse. English, early 14th century (c. 1320-30). [92] A boat is sunk by the emptying of an angel’s flask into the sea, releasing the wrath of God onto the earth - a boat sinking with a human head poking out of it. 294. Tanner MS 118, f. 20v [1]. Miscellaneous texts (Recusant commonplace book). English, 16th to 17th century (c. 1600-16). [20v] Shipwreck. 295. Tanner MS 184, ff. 1, 14, 18, 49. Apocalypse with commentary. English, later 13th century. [1] Boat with mast and three men with oars, and two small boats, covered-in, one with a mast; [14] Angels stand at the four corners of the earth; [18] The second, third and fourth angels of the Lord sound their trumpets and many catastrophes occur on the earth, including shipwrecks; [49] An angel drops a millstone into the earth and merchants in a ship watch the fall of Babylon. 296. Tanner MS 190, ff. 17v, 18, 20v, 22. Marino Sanudo’s Secreta Fidelium Crucis, with illuminations by Marius Sanctus (known as Joscelius). Italian (Venice), 14th century. [17v-18] Initial ‘P’: a two-masted ship flies the crusaders flag while sailing on a choppy sea; [20v] A galley with red pennant, rowers, oars and steering board; [22] A galley flying the crusaders pennant and loaded with crossbows. 297. Top. Lincs. MS d. 1, f. 36. Cartulary. English, 14th century. [36] Marginal sketch of ship.

298. MS 101, f. 36v. Epistolary. English, early 16th century (c. 1528). [36v] Fishing - sailing and fishing boats. 299. MS 107, f. 10. Bible. English, mid 13th century. [10] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 300. MS 178, ff. 55v, 66. Guyart Desmoulin’s Bible Historiale. French, later 13th century. [55v] Boat; [66] Fishing boat. 301. MS Gr. 25, f. 2. Bible. Byzantine, 13th century. [2] A boat with sail. Corpus Christi College, Oxford (CCCO): 302. MS 1, f. 355. Bible. French, later 13th century (c. 1250-60). [355] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 303. MS 157, ff. 77, 383. Chronicle of John of Worcester. English, early 12th century (c. 1118-40). [77] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship; [383] Nightmare of Henry I of England – a sailing ship with eagle’s head prow and six men on board depicting the return of Henry to England. 304. MS 161, ff. 18, 75, 108, 127. Speculum Humaniae Salvationis. English, early 15th century. [8] Fishermen with net between them; [75] Noah looking from the ark sees the dove returning; [108] Jonah is put in the whale’s mouth from a ship; [127] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship. 305. MS 410, ff. 44, 65, 67v, 166v. Bonaventura’s Meditations on the Life of Christ. Central Italian, late 14th century. [44] Boat of St Andrew and St Peter; [65] Boat with disciples in it; [67v] Disciples asleep in a boat - Peter attempts to walk on the water: boat with mast, rudders, oars and crow’s nest in background; [166v] Christ appears to the disciples before the Sea of Galilee Peter wades to him on the shore: boat with oars and rudders and net full of fish being pulled-up. Exeter College, Oxford (Exeter): 306. MS 47, ff. 9v, 10, 10v, 11-11v, 12, 14. Psalter (the Psalter of Humphrey de Bohun). English, mid 14th century (before c. 1370). [9v] Noah builds the ark of wood after God speaks to him; [10] God directs the entry of animals into the ark; [10v] God blesses the ark as it sets sail; [11-11v] Noah sends out the dove from the ark; [12] the dove returns to ark with branch in its mouth; [14] Noah and his family come to dry land with the ark in the background. Jesus College, Oxford (JCO): 307. MS 32, f. 17v. Book of Hours. Flemish, early 15th century. [17v] Small boat with paddle. 308. MS 40, f. 88v. Psalter. English, early 14th century. [88v] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 309. MS 56, f. 292v. Bible. French (Paris?), later 13 th century. [292v] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. Keble College, Oxford (Keble): 310. MS 17, ff. 20v, 87. Incomplete Psalter. German, mid 13th century. [20v] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship; [87] Jonah is rescued from the whale by a passing ship. 311. MS 20, f. 439v. Bible. French (Paris), later 13th century. [439v] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 312. MS 33, f. 183. Nogent le Routrou’s Cantiques de Noël. French, late 16th century (c. 1600). [183] Sailing boats. 313. MS 35, f. 12. Book of Hours, Prayers and Meditations. German, late 15th century (c. 1480-90?). [12] Shipping. 116

The Illuminated Ark

314. MS 40, f. 3. Book of Hours. French (Lyons), 15th to 16th century (c. 1500 or 1470-80?). [3] Small boats. 315. MS 41, f. 57. Book of Hours. French, mid 15th century. [57] Boats. 316. MS 49, f. 271. Lectionary - Book of Saints. German (Regensburg), later 13 th century (after 1271 or c. 1267-76). [271] Initial T - Boat from which St Clement is thrown into the sea. 317. MS 80, f. 71 [margin]. Bible. English or French, mid 13th century. [71] Dragon-prowed ship.

University College, Oxford (U. Coll. Ox.): 332. MS 165, f. 143. Bede’s Life of St Cuthbert. English (Durham), early 12th century (c. 1120). [143] Three waves falling on a ship carrying St Cuthbert’s body turn to blood. Wadham College, Oxford (Wadham): 333. MS 1, f. 311. Bible. French (Paris), mid 13th century (c. 1244?). [311] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship.

Merton College, Oxford (Merton): 318. MS B. 1. 7, ff. 7, 8. Bible. English, mid 13th century. [7] Boat with cross at top of mast; [8] A fish swim into the jaws of a monster, other fish swim towards a boat. 319. MS H. 2. 2, f. 308. Bible. English, mid 13 th century. [308] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 320. MS N. 2. 4, f. **. Bible. French, mid 14 h century. [308] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship.

Group C: University Libraries, Cambridge Corpus Christi College, Cambridge (CCCC):

327. MS 46, f. 196v. Liber Custumarum. English, early 14th century (c. 1320-30). [196v] Boat with square sail in initial ‘D’.

334. MS 16, ff. 42v, 46v, 52, 55-55v, 75v, 125, 126, 146, 155, 160v, 163v, 164. Matthew of Paris’s Chronica Majora (Volume II). English (St Albans), 13th century (c. 1240-53 and later). [42v] Shipwreck of Hugo de Boues; [55v] Crusaders besiege Damietta, Egypt, by sea in 1248; [163v] Henry III (1216-72) returns to France from England; [**] Boats; [**] The sea journeys of Henry III; [**] Duke Richard of Cornwall sailing to the Holy Land; [**] Sea battles; [**] The whale, a ship moored on its back. 335. MS 22, ff. 166, 169. Isidore’s Etymologia et Synonyma, Bestiary, etc. English, later 12th century. [166] A serra attacks a ship; [169] Ship. 336. MS 26, ff. 3v, 4, 222. Matthew of Paris’s Chronica Majora (Volume II). English (St Albans), mid 13th century (c. 1240-53 and later). [**] Boats; [**] The sea journeys of Henry III; [**] The whale; [**] Sea-battles; [**] Duke Richard of Cornwall sailing to the Holy Land; [222] The wreck of the ‘white ship’. 337. MS 49, f. 204. Bible. English (St Augustine’s, Canterbury), mid 13th century (c. 1260-70). [204] Jonah is cast to a whale from a ship. 338. MS 53, ff. 76v. Psalter (the Peterborough Psalter of Hugh of Stukeley) Chronicle (the Peterborough Chronicle) and Bestiary. English (Norwich and Peterborough), early 14th century (c. 130421). [**] Jonah is cast to a whale from a ship. 339. MS 75, f. 122. Psalter with gloss. English (East Anglia), early 13th century (c. 1220). [122] Jonah is cast to a whale from a ship. 340. MS 83, f. 2. Peter of Riga’s De Operibus Septem Dierum and Peter of Poitier’s Compendium Historia in Genealogica Christi. English, early 13th century (c. 1220). [2] Noah and the ark. 341. MS 171A & B, f. 35v. John of Fordun’s Scotichronicon. Scottish, mid 15th century (c. 1447-49). [35v] Voyage of Scota and her husband Gathelos.

Queens College, Oxford (Queens):

Emmanuel College, Cambridge (Emmanuel):

328. MS 299, f. 592. Bible. French (Paris), later 13 th century (1280-90). [592] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 329. MS 305, ff. 56v, 148. Book of Legends. French, late 15th century. [56v] Boat with rigging and crow’s nest; [148] Boat with masts and yellow sail. 330. MS 349, ff. 94, 246. Book of Hours. Flemish, later 15th century (c. 1480-90). [94] Ships; [246] Boats.

342. MS 70, f. 106v (1. 3. 18). Bartholemew of Parma’s Breviloqium and Astronomica. Italian, early 15th century (c. 1420-30). [106v] A triple-prowed boat with oars. 343. MS 116, f. 41. Bible. English, 13th century and later. [41] Jonah emerges from the whale and is rescued by a passing ship.

New College, Oxford (New Coll.): 321. MS 1, f. 297v. Bible. French (Paris), mid 13th century. [297v] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 322. MS 7, ff. 143v, 222. Bible. English, early 13th century (c. 122030). [143v] Boat with sail carrying two figures; [222] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 323. MS 44, f. 18. Books of the Prophets. Byzantine, 13th to 14th century. [18] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 324. MS 65, ff. 28, 56, 65. Apocalypse. English, later 13th century (c. 1280 or earlier?). [28] Second angel of the Lord at sea with men in a boat and a rower struggling in the water: boatman steering by paddle; [56] Angels empty their vials onto the earth: capsized boat; [65] Boat outside Babylon, which is aflame. 325. MS 274, f. 3v. Pliny the Elder’s Natural History. English (St Albans?) or French, late 12th century. [3v] Sailing boats with dragon-head endposts. 326. MS 322, ff. 67, 75. Choir Psalter. English (Oxford), mid 13th century (after 1246 or 1240-50). [67] Jonah is cast to the whale with the city of Nineveh in the background; [75] Jonah is thrown to the whale, swallowed and is disgorged - ship with prow and stern ending in dragon’s heads with mast and sail. Oriel College, Oxford (Oriel):

Fitzwilliam Library, Cambridge (Fitz.):

Trinity College, Oxford (TCO):

344. Fairfax Murray MS CFM 5, f. 202v. Noted Gradual. Italian (Certaldo?), early 14th century. [202v] The calling of the apostles Peter and Andrew from their fishing boat. 345. MS 244, f. 15. Hours of the Virgin. Low Countries (Ghent), late 14th century (c. 1470). [15] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship.

331. MS 53, f. 322v. Bible. French (Paris), mid 13th century. [322v] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship.

117

Appendix Two – Illuminated Manuscripts

367. McClean MS 15, f. 186v. Bible. English, early 14th century (c. 1300-10). [186v] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 368. McClean MS 44, f. 33. Psalter. English, mid 13th century (c. 126570). [33] Jonah is thrown to the whale from a ship. 369. McClean MS 123, ff. 33, 37v, 49v. Guillaume le Clerc’s bestiary and apocalypse (the Nuneaton Book). English, later 13th century (c. 1280-1300). [33] A serra attacks two men in a ship; [37v] A siren attacks a ship; [49v] A ship moored to a whale.

346. MS 246, f. 69v. Psalter, Hours and Hymnal. English (London), mid 13th century (c. 1250). [69v] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 347. MS 254, f. 33. Bestiary. English, early 13th century. [33] A whale, with sailors in a ship moored alongside. 348. MS 259, f. 7v. Poem on the Life of Christ. English, mid 14th century (c. 1350-60). [7v] The calling of the apostles Peter and Andrew from their fishing boat. 349. MS 268, f. 138v. Hours of the Virgin. Low Countries (Flemish?), late 15th century. [138v] Memoria of St Nicholas: a ship can be seen through a wall opening on the left-hand side, with men in the rigging and two white banners bearing the cross of St George. 350. MS 289, [vol. 2], f. 462. Bible, made for Herman von Lochorst. Low Countries (Utrecht), early 15th century (c. 1425). [462] Jonah is cast to the whale from a small boat with a square sail by three men. 351. MS 290, f. 180. Diurnal of the Augustinian canons of Mont St Eloi-les-Arras. French (Mont St Eloi-les-Arras?), early 14 th century, with 16th century additions. [180] The calling of Peter and Andrew – they draw up their nets into their boat. 352. MS 294, f. 4, leaf D. Apocalypse and Book of Hours. Made by the Bruges school of Simon Bening. Flemish (Bruges?), early 16th century (c. 1500). [4] Angels sinking ships during the apocalypse. 353. MS 317, f. 1, 1v. Apocalypse. English, late 13th century (c. 1290). [1-1v] Angels sinking ships during the apocalypse. 354. MS 333, f. 31v. Bible (fragmentary). English, early 13th century (c. 1230?). [31v] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 355. MS 382, ff. 48, 66. Costumes of the Nuremberg Schönbartlaufer from 1449-1539. German (Nuremberg?), later 16 th century. [48] Ship of fools; [66] Ship of fools. 356. MS 2 - 1954, f. 65v. Psalter (the Bird Psalter). English, late 13th century (c. 1280-90). [65v] Jonah escapes from the whale to a passing ship. 357. MS 2 - 1958, ff. 2v, 57, 216v. Breviary. French (Toulouse), later 15th century (c. 1460). [2v] The vision of Isaiah: ships at sea in background; [57] Noah next to the half-built ark, with tools and beams around him; [216v] St John on Patmos, with a ship at sea in the bottom left-hand corner. 358. MS 4 - 1969, f. 358. Bible. Latin. French, mid 13th century (c. 1250 onwards). [358] Jonah escapes from the whale to a passing ship. 359. MS 43 - 1950, ff. 2v, 5, 12. Speculum Humanae Salvationis. Italian (Florence), late 14th century (c. 1390). [2v] Noah’s ark; [5] Noah’s ark; [12] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 360. MS 86 - 1972, f. 3v. Notitia Dignitatium, made by the scribe Antonius Angeli de Aquilla. Italian (Naples), later 13th century. [3v] The Province of Africa, with corn ships offshore. 361. MS 1056 - 1975, f. 396. Bible. Italian, later 13th century (c. 1250). [396] Initial E: Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 362. MS 1058 - 1975, f. 5v. Book of Hours and Calendar. Flemish (Bruges?), early 16th century (c. 1500). [5v] The month of May: a boating party. 363. MS 1060 - 1975, f. 323. Bible. French or English, later 13th century (c. 1250). [323] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 364. Marlay Add. MS I, f. 86. Vegetius’s De Re Militari. English, later 13th century (c. 1270). [86] Fighting at sea. 365. Marlay Cutting MS It. 66, f. 1. Cuttings from choir books. Italian (Lombardy?), later 15th century (c. 1480). [1] Historiated initial ‘T’: the calling of Peter and Andrew, the apostles in a small boat. 366. Marlay MS 10, f. 163v. Missal, written and illuminated for Cardinal Oliviero Carata, Archbishop of Naples. Italian (Naples), later 15th century (c. 1488). [163v] Full-page miniature and border: Jerusalem and the Holy Land, with ships at sea off the coast.

Gonville & Caius College, Cambridge (Gonville & Caius): 370. MS 350/567, f. 2. Bible. English (Oxford), mid 13th century (c. 1230-40). [2] Noah’s ark. 371. MS 384/604, ff. 189, 189v. The Image of the World, with a Bestiary. English or French, late 13th century (c. 1270-90). [189] A serra with a ship nearby; [189v] A whale with a ship moored to it. Jesus College, Cambridge (JCC): 372. MS Q. A. 11, f. 143v. Bible. English (Oxford), later 13th century (c. 1265-70). [143v] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. Magdalene College, Cambridge (Pepysian Library) (Magd.): 373. MS 2820, ff. **, **. Matthew Baker’s Fragments of Ancient English Shipwrightry. English, 16th century (c. 1585). [**] Ships and boats; [**] The ark of Noah and a small English galleon. 374. MS 2991, pp. 2-3, 6-7, 10-11, 14-15, 18-19, 22-23, 26-27, 30-31, 34-35, 38-39, 42-43, 54-55, 58-59, 62-63, 66-67, 70-71, 74-75, 78-79, 82-83, 86-87, 90-91, 94-95, 98-99). Court Roll of Henry VIII (the Anthony Roll) (1st and 3rd rolls of three – 1 st roll of ships, 3rd roll of pinnaces and roo barges). English, mid 16th century (c. 1545, with later additions in 1586 and 1678-80). [p. 2-3] Henry Grace à Dieu /Harry Grace à Dieu; [p. 6-7] Mary Rose, Peter; [p. 10-11] Matthew, Great Bark/Greate Barcke; [p. 14-15] Jesus of Lubeck/Jhesus of Lubeke, Pauncy/Pawncey; [p. 18-19] Morian/Murrian, Strusse/Struse; [p. 22-23] Mary of Hamburg/Mary Hambrough, Christopher of Bremen/Christoffer of Breame; [p. 26-27] Trinity Harry/Trynite Harry, Small Bark/Small Barck; [p. 30-31] Sweepstake/Swypstake, Minion/Mynnyon; [p. 34-35] Lartique/Lartyque, Mary Thomas; [p. 38-39] Hoy Bark/Hoye Barcke, George; [p. 42-43] Mary James/Mary Jamys; [p. 54-55] Falcon/Phawcon, Saker/Sacar; [p. 58-59] Hind/Hynde, Roo; [p. 62-63] Phoenix/Phenyx, Merlin/Marlion; [p. 66-67] Less Pinnace/Less Pennas, Brigandine;/Bryggendyn; [p. 70-71] Hare, Trego Renneger/Trego Ronnyger; [p. 74-75] Double Rose; [p. 78-79] Flower de Luce/Flowre Deluce, Portcullis/Portquillice; [p. 82-83] Harp/Harpe, Cloud in the Sun/Clowde in the Sonne; [p. 86-87] Rose in the Sun/ Rose in the Sonne, Hawthorn/Hawthorne; [p. 9091] Three Ostrich Feathers/Thre Ostrydge Fethers, Falcon in the Fetterlock/Fawcon in the Fetterlock; [p. 94-95] Maiden Head/Mayden Hede, Rose Slip/Rose Slype; [p. 98-99] Gillyflower/Jyllyver Flowre, Sun/Sonne. 375. MS 5, ff. 1, 7v, 9v, 31. Apocalypse (the Crowland Apocalypse). English (Crowland?), 12th to 13th century. [1] St John on Patmos, with a ship at sea in the bottom left-hand corner; [7v] Ships in the centre of the earth; [9v] The second, third and fourth trumpets sound, and ships sink at sea; [31] An angel drops a millstone into the sea, sinking ships.

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The Illuminated Ark

Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge (SSCC):

(c. 1250). [3] A battle scene, with ships in the background; [4v - 5] The attack upon Tyre by ship; [15v] Alexander the great is dropped in a glass barrel from the side of a ship in order to see below the seas; [24v] Three men row an underwater boat in order to attack a surface ship; [25] Alexander walking down the gangplank of a ship; [26v] Alexander on board a ship armed with a large catapult; [27v] Alexander on board an underwater boat.

376. MS 76, f. **. Psalter. English (Exeter diocese), early 14 th century (c. 1325-30). [**]Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 377. MS 96, f. 29. Bible. English (Canterbury?), 13 th to 14th century (c. 1260-70 or c. 1300). [29] two men in a ship cast Jonah to a whale. St John’s College, Cambridge (St. John’s):

University Library, Cambridge (CUL):

378. MS 2, f. 143v (Q. 1). Bible. French (Paris?) or English (Oxford?), later 13th century (c. 1265-70). [143v] Jonah emerges from the whale and is rescued by a passing ship. 379. MS 81, f. 87 (D. 6). Psalter with gloss, and Hours of the Virgin. English (London), early 13th century (c. 1210-20). [87] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 380. MS 231, ff. 3, 9, 10, 11, 25v (K. 26). Psalter, with prefatory miniatures. English, 13th century (c. 1270-80) or 14th to 15 th century (c. 1397-1400). [3] Noah goes up a ladder into the ark; [9, 10, 11] Noah uses a breast auger to drill holes for clench nails in the hull of a clinker-built vessel; [25v] Jonah is cast to a whale from a ship.

388. MS Ee. 2 .23, f. 173v. Bible. English, mid 13th century (c. 123040). [173v] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 389. MS Ee. 3. 59, ff. 8v, 9, 12v, 14, 17v, 18v, 31, 34. Life of Edward the Confessor. English (Westminster?), mid 13th century (c. 125560). [8v] Shipping; [9] Edward lands in England; [12v] Edward hears reports of the drowning of the King of Denmark; [14] Shipping; [17v] Shipping; [18v] Shipping; [31] Shipping; [34] Shipping. 390. MS Gg. 6. 5, ff. 93v, 94v, 95, 95v, 96v, 97v, 98v, 99v. Liber de Bestiis et Aliis Rebus, with appendix on trees. English (London?), early 15th century (c. 1425). [93v] Fishermen and boats; [94v] Ship moored next to a whale; [95] Merman next to a ship; [95v] Sea-pig and fish next to a ship; [96v] Crab and electric ray next to a ship; [97v] Mullet and lamprey next to a ship; [98v] Large seafish next to a ship; [99v] Sea-urchin next to a ship. 391. MS Ii. 4. 26, f. 54v. Bestiary. English, late 12th century. [54v] Ship moored next to a whale.

Trinity College, Cambridge (TCC): 378. MS B. 10. 2, ff. 2, 3, 4, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 40v, 44 (213). Historical Bible, Apocalypse and Life of Edward the Confessor. English (Westminster), 14th to 15th century. [2] St John on board a boat going to Rome; [3] St John the Evangelist in a boat on his way to Rome; [4] St John the Evangelist in a boat on his way to exile on Patmos; [21-24] St Peter and a fisherman with a boat; [40v] Ships and boats; [44] A fisherman rowing St Peter across the Thames. 379. MS B. 10. 15, f. 14 (226). Poem on the Life of Christ. English, mid 14th century (c. 1370 -85). [14] Christ calls Peter and Andrew from their lives as fishermen, depicted on board their boat. 380. MS B. 11. 7, f. 33 (246). Calendar, Hours of the Virgin and Hours of the Passion. English (London), 14 th to 15th century. [33] St John on Patmos - ships at sea off the island. 381. MS B. 11. 11, f. ** (250). Missal and Calendar. English (Sarum), early 15th century (c. 1430). [**] Ships and boats. 382. MS B. 11. 22, f. 121 [2] (261). Book of Hours. Flemish, early 14th century (c. 1300). [121] People swimming, with ships nearby. 383. MS R. 14. 5, f. 1 (881). Liber Apologeticus de Omni Statu Humanae Naturae and Libelius de Laudibus Duarum Civitatum et Seddum Episcopalium, translated by Thomas Chaundler. English (Oxford), 15th century (c.1459-60). [1] Shipping. 384. MS R. 14. 9, f. 29 (884). Bestiary. English (Oxford), mid 13th century (c. 1260-70). [29] A siren attacks a ship. 385. MS R. 16. 2, ff. 1v, 2 (950). Apocalypse with gloss (the Trinity Apocalypse). English, early or mid 13th century (c. 1230 or c. 1255-60). [1v] St John the Evangelist in a boat on his way to Rome; [2] St John the Evangelist in a boat on his way to exile on Patmos. 386. MS R. 17. 1, ff. 40v, 82v, 100, 117, 124, 133, 135, 156v, 166, 170v, 182, 192 (110, 987). Psalter (the Psalter of Edward of Canterbury, the Eadwine Psalter), said to be illustrated by Eadwine. English (Christ Church, Canterbury, copied from an earlier Psalter made in Utrecht), mid 12th century (c. 1150). [40v] Boats; [82v] Boats; [100] Apocalypse - boats on river at base of folio; [117] Boats; [124] Boats; [133] Boats; [135] River boats; [156] Boats; [166] Boats; [170v] Boats; [182] Boats; [192] Boats; [**] The whale, with a ship alongside. 387. MS O. 9. 34, ff. 3, 4v - 5, 15v, 24v, 25, 26v, 27v (1446). Romance and Adventures of Alexander the Great. English, mid 13th century

Group D: The British Library, London British Library, London (BL): 392. MS **, f. **. Universal History. Holy Land (Acre), 13th century (c. 1285). [**] Pelias persuades Jason to build the Argo and depart on his quest. 393. MS **, f. **. Chronicle of John of Worcester. English, later 15th century (c. 1465). [**] Shipping. 394. Add. Roll 5023 [I], ff. 1, 1.5, 2, 3, 4. Collection of miscellaneous drawings. English, early 17th century. [1] A warship in full sail; [1.5] A warship at sea; [2] Warship; [3] Warship; [4] Warship. 395. Add. Roll 14819, c. 22. Peter of Poitier’s Genealogy of Christ. English or French, 13th to 14 th century (c. 1300). [c. 22] Noah and the ark. 396. Add. Roll 22047, membranes 1-6. Court Roll of Henry VIII by Anthony Anthony, Official of the Ordnance under Henry VIII (the ‘Anthony Roll’ – 2 nd roll of three, 2 nd roll of Galleasses). English, mid 16th century (c. 1545, with later additions in 1586 and 167880). [m.1] Grand Master/Graunde Masterys, Anne Gallant/Anne Gallante; [m.2] Hart/Harte, Antelope/Antelop, Tiger/Tegar; [m.3] Bull/Bulle, Salamander, Unicorn/Unicorne; [m.4] Swallow/Swallowe, Galley Subtle/Galie Subtille, New Bark/Newe Barcke; [m.5] Greyhound/Graye Hounde, Jennet, Lion/Lyon; [m.6] Dragon. 397. Add. Roll 48976, f. **. Illustrated armourial roll and chronicle (the Rous Roll). made by John Rous, chantry-priest of Guy’s Cliffe, County Warwick. English, late 15th century. [**] Shipping. 398. Add. Roll 60628, 2nd membrane. Chronicle of Peter of Poitiers. English, mid 13th century (c. 1250). [2nd membrane] Noah’s ark. 399. Add. MS 9345, ff. 7, 8, 16v, 21, 21v, 22, 57. Unknown, unprovenance, undated. [7] Ships and shipwrecks; [8] Ships and shipwrecks; [16v] Ships and shipwrecks; [21] Ships and shipwrecks; [21v] Ships and shipwrecks; [22] Ships and shipwrecks; [57] Ships and shipwrecks.

119

Appendix Two – Illuminated Manuscripts

417. Add. MS 15276, f. 30. Heronis Junioris’s Mathematica and Liber de Machinis Bellicis, Ejus dum Liber de Geodaesia. Greek, early 16th century. [30] Naval engineering. 418. Add. MS 15277, f. 15v. Biblical History of the Jews. Italian, 14 th to 15th century (c. 1400). [15v] A shipwright at work on a ship. 419. Add. MS 15477, ff. 2v, 3v, 8, 11, 17v, 21, 22-22v, 26, 49-50, 51v. Guidonis de Columnis’s Messanensis, Liber de Casu et Ruina Trojae. Italian, mid 14th century. [2v] Ships in battle; [3v] Shipping; [8] Two ships; [11] The city of Troy with shipping moored outside; [17v] Shipping; [21] Sailing ship; [22-22v] Boats; [26] Sailing ship; [49-50] The destruction of the city of Troy with the Trojan horse: sailing ships and boats moored offshore; [51v] Ships in battle. 420. Add. MS 15528, ff. 207v, 241v, 282v. Offices of the Blessed Virgin Mary, with Calendar, made for the Alessandri Family of Florence. Italian, early 15th century. [207v] Landscape with river and hills - ships on river; [241v] Landscape with river and hills ships on river; [282v] Landscape with river and hills - ships on river. 421. Add. MS 15677, ff. 8, 33v. Book of Hours, Calendar and Offices. French, early 16th century. [8] Boats; [33v] Ships. 422. Add. MS 15685, f. 27v. Offices, Liber Moralis and miscellaneous theological works. Italian (Venice?), 14th to 15th century (c.1400). [27v] A merchant stands next to his ship. 423. Add. MS 15692, f. 37v. Doctors of the Latin Church. French or English, 15th century. [37v] Two boats. 424. Add. MS 15707, f. 70. Nurnbergisches Schonbart Buch. German (Nuremberg), 15th to 16 th centuries. [70] Ship. 425. Add. MS 15813, f. 214v. Calendarium Sanctorum by Lorenziogazi of Cremona, illustrated by Beredetto Bourdoni of Padua for the monastery of St Justina of Padua. Italian (Padua?), early 16th century (c. 1525-26). [214v] Calling of St Peter, who sits in a boat together with St Andrew. 426. Add. MS 16561, f. 60. Poetical Anthology from various Persian poets, written in the ‘Turkman’ style. Persian (Shemakha), AH 873, late 15th century AD (c. 1468 AD). [60] Flooding in Baghdad, with boats on a river. 427. Add. MS 16955, f. 73v. Romance of Theseus of Cologne and his Son, Godifer. French, 15th century. [73v] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 428. Add. MS 16975, ff. 25, 73v. Psalter and Calendar, originally owned by Lire Abbey, Normandy, and then by the Earls of Leicester. French, 13th to 14th century. [25] The dove return to the ark; [73v] Jonah is cast from a ship to the whale. 429. Add. MS 16998, f. 87. Book of Offices, Liturgies and Prayers. English (London?), early 15th century, with later additions (c. 1405-10 and 1470). [87] John the Evangelist on Patmos, with ships at sea offshore. 430. Add. MS 17275, f. 341. La Vie des Sains, by the master known as Jehan Beleth. French, early 14th century. [341] Shipping. 431. Add. MS 17280, ff. 221v, 242. Hours and Calendar, made for the Dukes of Burgundy and Castile. Flemish, late 15th century. [221v] The ark; [242] Jonah is cast from a ship and swallowed by the whale. 432. Add. MS 17333, ff. 10v-11, 21v, 37v. Apocalypse (St John’s Apocalypse). French (Normandy), early 14 th century. [10v-11] The sounding of the first and second trumpets – three ships, one sinking; [21v] Ships; [37v] Ships. 433. Add. MS 17341, ff. 20, 20v, 21v, 27, 105, 123v, 144v, 153v, 169v. Evangelarium and Liturgies. French or English, early 14th century. [20] Boats; [20v] Boats; [21v] Small boat; [27] Boats; [105] Boats; [123v] Christ and the apostles in a boat; [144v] Boats; [153v] Fishing net; [169] Boats. 434. Add. MS 17399, f. **. Apocalypse with commentary. French or English, 15th century. [**] Shipping.

400. Add. MS 10043, f. 11v. Bible, with commentary by Petrus Comestor, taken from his Historia Scholastica. German or Flemish, 15th century. [11v] Noah’s ark. 401. Add. MS 10290, ff. 58, 77v, 91, 118. Romance of Jason and the Golden Fleece and The Game of Chess Moralised, by Jacobus de Cessolis. Low Countries, 15th century. [58] Boats; [77v] Boats; [91] Boats; [118] Boats; [**] A ten-oared vessel accompanying with other oared vessels - a sailing ship. 402. Add. MS 10292, ff. 56v, 69v, 129. Le Roman de Saint-Graal, Le Roman de Merlin, Le Roman de Lancelot du Lac and La Mort du Roi Artur. French, early 16 th century. [56v] Ships and boats; [69v] Boats; [129] Noah’s ark. 403. Add. MS 10294, ff. 44, 47v, 65v, 79, 94v. Arthurian Romances. French, early 14th century (c. 1316). [44] Shipping; [47v] Shipping; [65v] The Lady of Shalott or Maid of Astolat; [79] Shipping; [94v] Shipping. 404. Add. MS 11355, f. 79. Publii Virgilii Maronis Opera. Italian, made and owned by D’Estampes Abbey, late 15th century. [79] A battle. 405. Add. MS 11575, f. 65v. Speculum Humanae Salvationis. Dutch, 15th century. [65] Shipping. 406. Add. MS 11619, f. 8v-9. Miscellany, including Isidorus’s Liber Moralis, and various romances, sermons, theological tracts, and a History of Jesus Christ. Italian, later 14th century. [8v-9] Shipping. 407. Add. MS 11695, f. 79v, 175, 193. Apocalypse (the Silos Apocalypse). Spanish or Italian, early 12th century (c. 1109). [79v] The ark and its occupants; [175] The second and third angels pour phials over the sea and rivers, engulfing ships; [193] An angel drops a millstone in the sea, sinking ships. 408. Add. MS 11696, f. 40. Boccacio’s Le Livre des Cas des Nobles et Illustres Hommes. French, 15th century. [40] A battle. 409. Add. MS 12029, ff. 25, 148v. Les Hystoires des Roumains. French or English, early 14th century. [25] Ships; [148v] Ships full of troops off a castle. 410. Add. MS 12228, ff. 35v, 201v, 202, 218, 225, 238, 253v. Helie de Borron’s Le Roman du Roi, made for King Louis II of Naples. Italian, mid 14th century (c. 1352-62). [35v] Shipping; [201v] Shipping; [202] Shipping; [218] Shipping; [225] Shipping; [238] Shipping; [253v] Shipping. 411. Add. MS 12531, f. 7. Unfinished genealogical work by Simon Bening of Bruges, showing the descent and alliances of the royal houses of Spain and Portugal. Low Countries (Bruges), early 16th century (c. 1507-34). [7] Ships in use during a battle. 412. Add. MS 15217, f. 38v. Private Book of the Coder family of Nuremberg. German, late 16th century. [38v] The Galleon Holy Trinity. 413. Add. MS 15243, f. **. Apocalypse. German, early 14th century. [**] Shipping. 414. Add. MS 15248, f. **. La Bible Moralisee. French, early 15th century. [**] Dockside, including crane and ships alongside. 415. Add. MS 15268, ff. 7v, 9v, 81v, 101v, 105v, 122, 136v, 203, 204, 210. Universal History, illuminated in the Byzantine style. Italian or Holy Land (Acre?), mid 13th century (c. 1225-75 or later). [7v] Noah oversees seven workmen and also wields an axe himself on the construction of the ark, he also converses with God about its construction, and the animals then board the ark; [9v] The construction of the ark; [81v] A bridge, with ships alongside; [101v] Shipping; [105v] Pelias and Jason oversee the building and sailing of the Argo; [122] The city of Troy, with ships offshore; [136v] A naval battle; [203] Alexander seated on a throne with ships nearby; [204] Ships used during a battle; [210] Scenes from the life of Alexander - Alexander on board a ship. 416. Add. MS 15269, ff. 182v, 324v. Le Chroniques de France au de Seint Denis. French, early 15th century. [182v] Ships; [324v] Shipping. 120

The Illuminated Ark

435. Add. MS 17921, ff. 123, 127. Jacobi Bessoni’s Theatrum Instrumentorum et Machinarum, and Delphiolatis’s Mathematici cum Figuris Illustratum. French, late 16th century. [123] Naval engineering; [127] Shipping. 436. Add. MS 18193, f. 48v. Various incomplete Books of Hours and a Calendar. Spanish, mid 15th century. [48v] Shipwrightry. 437. Add. MS 18197, f. 1. Twelve miniatures by Italian artists of the 15th and 16 th centuries, cut out of choral service books. Italian, 15th to 16th century. [1] Landscape with sea views. 438. Add. MS 18633, f. 14. Bible, Apocalypse of St John, and Book of Hours. English, early 14th century (c. 1300), with some 16th century additions. [14] Boats. 439. Add. MS 18750, f. **. Le Livre de Jehan Boccace des cas des Nobles, translated by Laurens, secretary to the Duc de Berry. French or Flemish, mid 15th century. [**] A sea battle. 440. Add. MS 18850, ff. 15, 15v, 16v, 17v, 40. Book of Hours (the Bedford Hours). French (Paris), early 15th century (c. 1423). [15v] The building of the ark – Noah commands twelve men at work on it using carpenters tools, including hammers, adzes, hand-drills and axes, with God appearing in a ball of red light above. In the background Noah's family round up the animals, with ships on the sea in the distance; [16v] Noah leaves the ark, accompanied by his family and the animals; [17v] Shipwrightry tools, including a windlass; [40] Ships. 441. Add. MS 18851, ff. 3, 3v, 61v, 63, 67v, 71, 77, 106v, 241, 368, 494. Breviary (the Breviary of Queen Isabella of Castile). Flanders (Bruges?), late 15th century (c. 1490 onwards). [3] Boats; [3v] Boats; [61v] Noah’s ark; [63] Landscape with sea views; [67v] God appears to Noah after the flood; [71] Landscape with sea; [77] Landscape with sea views; [106] The sea; [241] Landscape with sea views; [368] Landscape with sea views; [494] St Clement on board a ship with a boat in tow in the background. 442. Add. MS 18852, ff. 5v, 102. Book of Hours, Offices and Calendar, made for Philip II of Spain. Flemish, late 15th century. [5v] Boats; [102] Mermaid alongside a vessel. 443. Add. MS 18854, f. 13v. Book of Hours of the Blessed Virgin Mary, various other Books of Hours, and a Calendar of Pope Gregory, made for Francois de Dinteville, Bishop of Auxerre. French, early 16th century (c. 1525). [13v] Landscape with sea views. 444. Add. MS 18855, f. 108. Book of Hours and Calendar. Flemish, 15th to 16th century (c. 1500). [108] The month of March – gardening, with a boat in the background. 445. Add. MS 18856, f. 14v. Historical Bible and Ecclesiastical History. French, later 13 th century (c. 1291-94), with early 15th century additions. [14v] Four men build the ark - Noah and his family stand next to the ark as the animals build it. 446. Add. MS 19352, f. 117v. Psalter (the Theodore Psalter), by Theodorus of Caesarea. Greek, later 11th century (c. 1066). [117v] Christ stilling the waves. 447. Add. MS 19587, ff. 61, 63. Extracts from Dante’s Divine Comedy. Italian, 14 th century. [61] Boats; [63] Boats. 448. Add. MS 19669, ff. 77, 96v, 201. Universal History. French, early 14th century. [77] Boat; [96v] Prow of a vessel; [201] Whale. 449. Add. MS 19720, ff. 18, 27. Le Livre de Rustican des Prouffiz Ruvaulx, compiled by Pierre Croissens of Boulogne. French, late 15th century. [18] A windlass; [27] Carpenter at work. 450. Add. MS 19896, f. 1v. Apocalypse, with miscellaneous commentaries and a Life of St John. German, 15th century. [1v] Shipping. 451. Add. MS 19962, ff. 38, 38v, 39, 39v, 41v. Book of Hours of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Calendar, Latin Prefix and Offices, by Jehan Baptiste Girault. French, mid 15 th century (c. 1451). [38] Building Noah’s ark; [38v] Noah and his family entering the ark; [39] Noah

and his family entering the ark; [39v] Noah leaves the ark, accompanied by his family and the animals; [41v] The passage of the Red Sea. 452. Add. MS 20698, ff. 47v, 64v, 247. Christine de Pisan’s Cite des Dames. Dutch, later 15 th century (c. 1475). [47v] People embarking on board a vessel; [64v] Coracle; [247] Ships. 453. Add. MS 20916, f. 2. Collection of miniatures, commissioned by the Doges of Venice. Italian, 15th to 17 th centuries (c. 1620). [2] Picture of Venice in the fifteenth and sixteenth century: a sea battle taking place. 454. Add. MS 21909, f. 148. Book of Hours of the Virgin, and Calendar. French or English, 15th century. [148] Ships. 455. Add. MS 21926, f. 97v. Psalter (the Grandisson Psalter). English (Chichester), later 13th century (c. 1270-80). [97v] Jonah emerges from the whale next to a ship. 456. Add. MS 22114, f. 132. The Maqumat of al Hariri. Egyptian or Syrian, 13th to 14th century (c. 1300). [123] Small boat-like punt. 457. Add. MS 22318, ff. 2, 4, 44, etc. Plutarch’s Vitae Quaedam, translated by Antonio Pacini of Todi, Giacope Lopo Birago of Florence & Leonardo Bruni of Arezzo. Italian, mid 15th century (c.1450). [2] Mark Anthony, in armour, watches a ship approach; [4] Ships; [44] Murder in a walled city: a man stabs another with a sword, centre, and a second body lies in a courtyard. Outside the city an army is encamped, with ships full of soldiers off the coast. 458. Add. MS 22493, f. **. Fragmentary Apocalypse (St John’s version) with gloss. French or English, 14th century. [**] Shipping. 459. Add. MS 22557, f. 48. Lo Libro de Miraculi. Italian, 14th century. [48] Varieties of fish. 460. Add. MS 22811, f. 184. Vegetius’s De Re Militari. Italian (?), 14 th to 15 th century (?). [184] Naval engineering diagrams: an annotated diagram of a large ship-grab on a dock, poised over a ship, with a cross-section of the mechanism. 461. Add. MS 23929, f. 5. Portion of the first part of the Romance of Tristam. Translated into French. English (Salisbury?), early 14th century. [5] Drowning man taken into a boat. 462. Add. MS 24065 [detail], f. **. Map of the world, with descriptions of the principal places, illuminated borders and drawings. French, mid 16th century (c. 1550?). [**] Shipping on map. 463. Add. MS 24098, ff. 22v. Calendar, and Book of Hours of the Blessed Virgin (known as the ‘Golf Book’) by Gerhard Hoornbach. Flemish, 16th century (c.1520). [22v] Occupation of the month of May – boating - young men and women relax and play music in a boat decorated with greenery. 464. Add. MS 24189, ff. 3v, 4v, 5, 8, 8v, 9. The Travels of Sir John Mandeville. Flemish or Bohemian (Prague?), early 15 th century (c. 1400-1410). [3v] Sir John sets out on his journey, on-board a large ship powered by both oars and sails, with a coastal view in the background; [4v] The land an sea journey to Constantinople – a large ship sails in the foreground while the Mandeville party makes part of the journey by land along the coast; [5] Memorable sites on the island of Cyprus – the port of Famagusta, where a merchant ship has just docked and is offloading its cargo onto a wooden pier. Mandeville’s ship also approaches, and three simple boats are seen tied by lines to the shore; [8] Shipping; [8v] Travellers sailing to Syria and paying a landing tax – a coracle is in the background as they approach the town dock of Jaffa; [9]Sir John on his way to Constantinople – his part wait on board a ship at the mouth of the river Danube. 465. Add. MS 24194, f. 81v. Dialogus or Disputatio inter Militem et Clericum, Fitzralph’s sermon Defensio Curatorum, and Ranulf Hidgen’s Polychronicon, translated by John Trevisia. English (London), early 15th century (c. 1401-08). [81v] Noah’s ark.

121

Appendix Two – Illuminated Manuscripts

485. Add. MS 29902, f. 1. Twenty-six miniatures and borders cut from Italian choral service book of the 14th to 15 th centuries. Italian, 15th century. [1] The calling of St Peter from his boat. 486. Add. MS 30084, f. 69. Portion of an antipohonal. Italian, 14th century. [69] Noah’s ark. 487. Add. MS 30864, f. **. Voeux du Paon, by Jacques de Longuyon (incomplete). French or English (Salisbury?), early 14th century. [**] A sea battle. 488. Add. MS 33244, Part 2, f. **. Metrical Introduction by Richard Esk, and Register of Furness Abbey. English (Furness), early 15th century (c. 1412). [**] Jonah is cast to a whale from a ship. 489. Add. MS 34113, ff. 31, 33, 34, 46, 58v, 102v, 103v, 104; 108, 126v, 301-31). Treatises on natural philosophy and machines. Italian, 16th to 17th centuries. [31] Shipping; [33] Shipping; [34] Shipping; [46] Shipping; [58v] Shipping; [102v] Shipping; [103v] Shipping; [104] Shipping; [108] Naval engineering; [126v] Naval engineering; [301-31] Naval engineering. 490. Add. MS 34294, f. 211v. Book of Hours (the Sforza Hours). Italian (Milan), late 15th century (c. 1460-80). [211v] Boat with a single mast carrying two shrouded yards, full of people, several with oars and poles. 491. Add. MS 35166, f. 2v. Apocalypse with gloss. English (London), late 13th century (c. 1260). [2v] St John is taken by boat to Patmos. 492. Add. MS 35254, f. ** D. Cutting from a choir book. Italian (Milan), 15th to 16th century (c. 1500). [D] The resurrection: a river with boats on it in the background. 493. Add. MS 35311, f. 348v. Breviary (the Burgundy Breviary, winter half). French (Paris?), early 15th century (c. 1413-19). [348v] Helsinus saved from drowning by the Virgin Mary. 494. Add. MS 35313, f. 3v. Book of Hours and Calendar, made for the Dukes of Burgundy. Flemish, late 15th century. [3v] Boating. 495. Add. MS 36684, ff. 144, 151 [2]. Book of Hours and calendar. French (St Omer), early 14th century (c. 1320).[144] Sailboat; [151] Sailboat. 496. Add. MS 37177v, f. **. Miniature depicting the landing of Hernando Cortes in Mexico in c. 1519. Spanish, 16th century. [**] Shipping. 497. Add. MS 37421, f. **. Single detached leaf from The Penitence of David, by Jean Fouquet. French, later 15th century (c. 1465-70). [**] Ships in background. 498. Add. MS 37472v [1] v. Miniatures, mostly enclosed within initials, cut from various manuscripts. French and Italian, mostly 15th century, but some as early as the 12th century. [1] Shipping. 499. Add. MS 37527, f. 57. Emblems illustrative of proverbs, with associated verses. French, early 16th century. [57] Shipping. 500. Add. MS 38117, ff. 97v. Arthurian Legends of Merlin. French, early 14th century (c. 1300-25). [97v] Arthur sets the children adrift. 501. Add. MS 38121, ff. 1v, 2v, 3v, 10v. Apocalypse, with prefaces. Dutch, undated. [1v] Boats; [2v] Shipping; [3v] Boats; [10v] Boats. 502. Add. MS 38126, f. 79v. Book of Hours (the Huth Hours). French (Valenciennes), late 15th century (c. 1480 onwards). [79v] The annunciation to the shepherds: river in background with boats on it. 503. Add. MS 38658, ff. 1, 36. Lectionary. German, 12th to 15 th centuries. [1] Ships and shipping; [36] Ships and shipping. 504. Add. MS 39644, ff. 49v, 56v, 65v. Le Livre du Tresor. French, late 15th century. [49v] Noah reading a book; [56v] A bearded Moses in a boat, with the Pharaoh’s daughter; [65v] The calling of St Andrew and St Peter from their boat. 505. Add. MS 39810, ff. 7, 70v. Psalter (the St Omer Psalter). English (Mulbarton, Norfolk), early 14th century (c. 1325-30). [7] Noah fitting frames inside a clinker-built ship; [70v] Jonah is thrown overboard from a ship, and then cast-up before Nineveh.

466. Add. MS 24678, f. 8. Calendar and miniatures, cut from French, German and Italian manuscripts. Flemish, 13th to 15th centuries. [8] Noah sends the animals out of the ark and offers sacrifice to God. 467. Add. MS 24686, f. 13. Psalter with the canticles and litany of saints and collects. English, late 13th century (c. 1284) [13] Mermaid alongside a ship. 468. Add. MS 24945, ff. 231v, 243, 244v. Roberti Valtuii’s translation of De Re Militari. Italian, later 15th century (c. 1467). [231v] Galleys; [243] Naval engineering; [244v] Boats built in separable compartments. 469. Add. MS 25697, f. 68. Breviary, Psalter and Calendar with miscellaneous sermons, made for the de Medici family of Florence. Italian, late 15th century. [68] Noah’s ark. 470. Add. MS 25709, f. 77. Miscellaneous liturgies. French, mid 16th century (c. 1544). [77] Jonah cast to the whale from a ship. 471. Add. MS 25884, f. 108v. Universal History, from the Duchess of Berry’s collection. Flemish, early 15th century. [108v] Boarding a ship. 472. Add. MS 25885, ff. 140, 143. Ludolphi de Saxonia’s Carthusianorum Argentinensium Prioris Vita Christi, from the Duchess of Berry’s collection. French or Flemish, later 15th century. [140] Jesus calls the apostles; [143] Ships. 473. Add. MS 25886, ff. 2, 40v. Unknown, unprovenanced, undated. [2] The Miracle of the loaves and fishes, with a boat nearby; [40v] Jesus walking on the sea, with the apostles nearby in a boat. 474. Add. MS 26667, f. 4. Universal History. French, 15th century. [4] Noah and his family entering the ark. 475. Add. MS 27376, f. 4v. Maps and plans, within a work on Palestine and the voyages and travels along its coasts made by Lucanus Annaeus. Italian, 14 th century. [4v] Ships and boats with rowers. 476. Add. MS 27695, f. 5. Tractatus de Septem Vitiis, illustrated by a monk of Hyeres. Italian (Genoa?), 14th century. [5] Galleys and ships. 477. Add. MS 27697, f. 13, 64v. Book of Hours (the Hours of the Family of Saluces of Piedmont), Liturgies and Offices. French, 15th century. [13] Landscape with lake and buildings, and boats on a lake nearby; [64v] Landscape with a lake and buildings, and boats on the lake. 478. Add. MS 28162, f. 7v. The Compendium of Christian Morals, by Friar Laurent, confessor to King Philippe le Hardi. French, early 14th century. [7v] Noah’s ark. 479. Add. MS 28681, f. 82v. Psalter with canticles and Calendar. English (London), later 13 th century (after c. 1262). [82v] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 480. Add. MS 28784 A, f. 29. Book of Hours. French, later 15th century. [29] Mermaid alongside a ship. 481. Add. MS 28785, ff. 14, 42v, 67. Book of Hours and calendar. French, later 15th century. [14] Landscape with lake and buildings; [42v] Landscape with lake and buildings; [67] Landscape with lake and buildings. 482. Add. MS 28962, ff. 67v, 151. Prayer Book of Alphonso the V of Aragon. Spanish, mid 15th century (c. 1442). [67v] Boats and galleys; [151] Landscape with sea views. [i-viii] too small to tell. 483. Add. MS 29301, f. 45v. Medical Treatises. English, early 15th century. [45v] Varieties of fish. 484. Add. MS 29704-5, ff. 5, 9, 118v, 162. Missal for Carmelite Use (the ‘Reconstructed’ Carmelite Missal). English, later 14th century (before c. 1391), with additions as late as the 16th century. [5] Jesus walks on water - Calling of St Peter and St Andrew; [9] Calling of Peter and the other apostles; Fishermen; [118v] Octave of the Apostles Peter and Paul – two boats within the upper and lower sections of an initial ‘S’; [162] The calling of Peter and Andrew – a fishing boat, while in the margin two youths have cast a net and caught three fish. 122

The Illuminated Ark

506. Add. MS 39844, ff. 49v, 56v, 65v. Le Livre du Tresor, PseudoAristotle and Secretum Secretorum. Italian, early 15 th century (c. 1425). [49v] Shipping; [56v] Shipping; [65v] Shipping. 507. Add. MS 39943, ff. 10v, 11, 16, 26, 47, 51, 71v, 73. Bede’s Life and Miracles of Saint Cuthbert. English (Durham), late 12th century (c. 1200). [10v] Cuthbert rescues some ships off Tynemouth; [11] Cuthbert rescues some ships off Tynemouth; [16] Shipping; [26] Cuthbert and two of the brethren return from the land of the Picts by boat: He wears a monk's habit, and sits between his companions in a small ship on the crest of a wave; [47] Prow of a vessel; [71v] Cuthbert takes a monk into his boat as he retires to Farne Island; [73] Cuthbert leaving Lindesfarne by boat. 508. Add. MS 40724, ff. 20v, 22. Metrical Paraphrase of Genesis and Exodus, by Georgios Chumnos of Candia. Greek, early 15th century (c. 1412). [20v] Noah’s ark; [22] Noah’s ark. 509. Add. MS 40731, ff. 147, 223, 253v. Psalter (the Bristol Psalter), canticles and liturgies. Greek, 11th century. [147] Christ stilling the waves on board a ship with a lateen sail; [223] The river of Babylon; [253v] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 510. Add. MS 41751, f. 150. Bible. French, mid 13th century. [150] Jonah is vomited fourth by the whale near to a ship. 511. Add. MS 42130, ff. 70v, 160, 161v, etc. Psalter (the Luttrell Psalter). English (East Anglia), mid 14th century (c. 1330-1340). [70v] A mermaid and a traveller next to a ship; [160] Man pulling a boat; [161v] Vessel with a median rudder. 512. Add. MS 42555, f. 5. Apocalypse with gloss. English (London?), later 13th century (c. 1270-75). [5] St John on Patmos. 513. Add. MS 44874, f. 93. Psalter (the Evesham Psalter). English, mid 13th century (after c. 1246). [93] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 514. Add. MS 44892, ff. 5, 9, 118v. Missal (the ‘Reconstructed’ Carmelite Missal). English, 14th century (before c. 1391), with additions as late as the 16th century. [5] Jesus walks on water, with vessels nearby; [9] the calling of St Peter from his boat; [118v] Octave of the Apostles Peter and Paul – two boats within the upper and lower sections of an initial ‘S’; [162] the calling of Peter and Andrew from their fishing boat, while in the margin two youths have cast a net and caught three fish. 515. Add. MS 47680, ff. 7, 7v, 8, 8v, 22, 24, 37, 39v). Illustrated Bible (the Holkham Picture Book). English (Holkham, Norfolk), early 14th century. [7- 7v] Noah builds the ark under God’s direction. 516. Add. MS 47682, ff. 7v, 8v, 22, 24. Illustrated Bible (the Holkham Picture Book). English (Holkham, Norfolk), early 14th century (c.1327-35). [7v] Building of Noah’s ark – boarding the ship; [8v] Noah sends the doves out from the Ark; [22] Christ preaching and the miraculous draught of fishes - Christ appears twice sitting in a boat preaching to a crowd on the banks of the Sea of Galilee; [24] Christ calms the storm in the sea of Galilee while on board a vessel. 517. Add. MS 49622, f. 86, 165. Psalter (the Gorleston Psalter). English (Gorleston, Suffolk), mid 13th century (c. 1250-70) or early 14th century (c. 1310-20). [86] Boat; [165] The return of the dove to the ark. 518. Add. MS 50000, ff. 10, 101. Psalter (the Oscott Psalter). English (Oxford), later 13th century (c. 1265-70). [10] Building the ark Noah and the dove; [101] Jonah emerges from the whale next to a ship. 519. Add. MS 52778, f. 306. Vulgate Bible. English (York?), later 13th century (c. 1260-80). [306] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 520. Add. MS 54179, f. 59v. Psalter (the York Psalter). English, later 13th century (c. 1260). [59v] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship.

521. Add. MS 54215, ff. 10, 101. Loose leaf from the Oscott Psalter. English (Oxford), later 13th century (c. 1265-70). [10] Building the ark; [101] Jonah emerges from the whale next to a ship. 522. Add. MS 54782, ff. 54, 126. Book of Hours (the Hours of William, Lord Hastings). Flemish (Bruges or Ghent), later 15th century (before 1483). [54] The month of May: pleasure boating, with a man punting a small boat with a stern canopy, and two people amidships playing a lute and a pipe; [126] A royal state barge with the arms of France and England, a cloth canopy at the stern, and four pairs of oarsmen with oars in oarholes. 523. Add. MS 60628, 2nd membrane [detail]. Unknown, unprovenanced, undated. [2nd membrane] Shipping. 524. Add. MS 62540. The Nowell-Burghley Atlas, drawn by Lawrence Nowell and William Cecil. English, later 16th century (c. 156470). Shipping on maps of Sicily, England, Wales, and parts of Scotland. 525. Add. MS 62925, f. 68v. Psalter (the Rutland Psalter). English (London or Salisbury), mid 13th century (c. 1250-60). [68v] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 526. Add. MS 65100, f. 14. Calendar, Book of Hours of the Virgin and Hours of the Cross (the Hours of Catherine of Valois). English (London), early 15th century (c. 1420-32). [14] John the Evangelist on the Island of Patmos. 527. Add. MS 513544, f. 28v. Unknown, unprovenanced, undated. [28v] Ship next to a mermaid. 528. Ar. MS 66, f. 45. Chillingworth’s Canons and Tables According to the Use of the University of Oxford, with other miscellaneous sheets. English (Oxford), late 15th century (c. 1490). [45] Ships and boats. 529. Ar. MS 83 I, f. 47. Psalter (the Howard Psalter), and fragmentary Book of Hours of the Passion. English, early 14th century (c. 131020). [**] Jonah is cast to a whale from a ship. 530. Ar. MS 91, f. **. Story of the Caesars, and Historical Bible. English, 12th century. [**] Shipping. 531. Ar. MS 157, ff. 7v, 11. Psalter and Book of Hours of the Virgin. English (Oxford), 12th to 13 th century (c. 1200-10). [7v] Peter is rescued from drowning by Jesus, who walks on the sea to reach him; [11] Boat. 532. Ar. MS 302, ff. **. Calendar and Book of Hours of the Virgin. English (Suffolk), mid 15th century (c. 1450). [**] Ships and boats; [**] Sea journeys. 533. Ar. MS 339, f. 83. Book of arithmetic and anonymous tracts on science, poetry and philosophy. German, 14th century. [83] The Argo. 534. Ar. MS 484, f. 169. Codex Membranaceus by Johannis Pirckheymer. German, late 13th century. [169] Boats. 535. Burn. MS 3, ff. 5v, 10v. Bible (the Bible of Robert/Richard de Bello, Abbot of St Augustine’s, Canterbury). English (Christ Church Canterbury?), 13th century (c. 1224-53). [5v] Genesis scenes - Noah’s ark; [10v] Genesis initial – scenes from the creation – Noah sends out the dove from the ark. 536. Burn. MS 97, f. **. De Animalium Proprietate, by Manuel Philes. French, mid 16th century. [**] Varieties of fish. 537. Burn. MS 169, ff. 57v, 66, 82, 193b. Philip Quintuis’s Life of Alexander, translated by Vasque de Lucene of Portugal, with a prologue addressed to Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. French, 15th century. [57v] Ships; [66] Boats are upset in the water; [82] Bridge; [169] A battle; [193v] Death of Alexander. 538. Burn. MS 192, ff. 4, 204v. Miscellaneous works by Juvenalis and Decius Junius and a copy of Thomas Aquinas’ Floruit sub Imperature Domitiano. French or Italian, 15th century. [4] Shipping; [204v] Shipping. 539. Burn. MS 198, f. **. Historical Breviary. French or Italian, 14th century. [**] Ships; [**] A battle. 123

Appendix Two – Illuminated Manuscripts

552. Cott. Cleopatra MS C xi, f. 10, 38v. Summonitiones Parliamentorum. English, 13th to 14th century. [38v] A traveller on board a ship or boat. 553. MS Cott. Cleopatra D ii, f. 1. Book of vespers with commentary. French, 12th to 14 th century. [1] A fight at sea from ships. 554. Cott. Dom. MS A xvii, ff. 121, 123. Psalter (the Psalter of Henry VI). French (Paris), early 15th century (c. 1425-30), with later additions. [121] Jonah is swallowed by the whale after being thrown from a ship; [123] Christ and his disciples are threatened with shipwreck. 555. Cott. Faust. MS B vii, ff. 45v, 50v. Universal Chronicle. English, early 13th century (c. 1208-16). [45v] Noah and the ark; [50v] Life of Alexander – Alexander on board a ship. 556. Cott. Jul. MS A v, f. 4v. The Early History of Britain, the Histories of the Kings of England and Scotland to Edward I, and the Prophecies of Merlin. English, 14th century. [4v] Vessel with reefs set in its sails. 557. Cott. Jul. MS D vii, f. **. Fragments of a work on astronomy by John of Wallingford, including a calendar and ecclesiastical tables. English, mid 13th century. [**] Shipping. 558. Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art 6, ff. 5, 5v, 8, 8v, 11, 12, 13, 13v, 18v, 19, 19v, 24v, 25, 25v, 49v, 203v, 208, 211, 216v, 218v, 219, 219v. The Beauchamp Pageants (the Pageant of Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, known as the Warwick Roll). English, later 15th century (c. 1484-93). [5] Richard Beauchamp embarks on board a ship for the voyage to the Holy Land; [5v] Richard arrives in France on way to the Holy Land; [8] Richard arrives in Venice on his way to the Holy Land, and is greeted by the doge; [8v] Richard lands at Jaffa; [11] Richard’s return to Venice after his visit to the Holy Land; [12] Henry V is informed of a heretical conspiracy; [13] Richard is made Captain of Calais by King Henry – ships bearing his standard are moored nearby; [13v] Richard visits Calais – ships bearing his standard are moored nearby; [18v] A sea battle between English vessels and two enemy carracks; [19] the siege of Caen by the English; [19v] the siege of Rouen by the English; [24v] scenes from the second siege of Calais; [25] King Henry makes Richard his Lieutenant of France and Normandy - a large, gun-armed, four-masted ship is moored in the background; [25v] Richard’s fleet is driven back onto the English coast; [49v] Vessel with crow’s nests; [203v] A battle; [208] View of the city of Venice; [211] View of the city of Venice; [216] A fight at sea; [218v] A carrack; [219v] A sea battle; [**] Coastal seascapes. 559. Cott. Jul. MS E vi, f. 205. Universal History. French, 14th century. [205] Ships. 560. Cott. Nero MS A iv, ff. 67v, 69, 77, 81, 87, 88v, 90, 93, 94, 94v. Poems, miscellaneous tracts and meditations. English, late 15th century (c. 1468). [67v] Ships; [69] Ships; [77] Ships; [81] Ships; [87] Ships; [88v] Ships; [90] Ships; [93] Ships; [94] Ships; [94v] Ships. 561. Cott. Nero MS A x, art 3, ff. 13, 60. 86. Pearl, Cleanliness and Patience, and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. English (Northwest Midlands?), 14th to 15 th century (c. 1400-1410). [13] Jonah is cast to a whale from a ship; [60] Noah and his family in the ark; [86] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship: the man on the right holds on to Jonah’s robes, whose head is in the grips of a large fish's mouth. The man on the left of the boat is ‘attacking’ the fish with a two pronged fork. 562. Cott. Nero MS C iv, ff. 1v, 3. Psalter (the Psalter of Henry of Blois). Spanish or Low Counties, 12th or 13th century. [3] Building the ark – the ark rides the flood while mankind drowns. 563. Cott. Nero MS D i, ff. 11-11v, 22v. Miscellaneous works by Matthew of Paris, including The Legend of Offa. English or French, 13th century. [11-11v] Boats; [22v] Shipping. 564. Cott. Nero MS D ii, ff. 17, 189v. Chronicle of the Reign of Edward I, Commentary on the Reign of Edward IV, and

540. Burn. MS 257, ff. 77v, 148v, 152v, 155, 155v, 226v, 245v, 261, 250v, 290v, 450v, 476v, 488v. Statius’s Thebaides. French, 14 th to 15th century (c. 1400). [77v] Ships; [148v] Boats; [152v] Boats; [155] Boats; [155v] Boats; [226v] Boats; [245v] Boats; [261] A battle; [290v] Scenes of drowning; [450v] Ships; [476v] Ships; [488v] Ships. 541. Burn. MS 275, f. 404. Collection of philosophical works by Aristotle, Boethius, Campanus, Cicero, Euclides, Priscianus and others. French, 12th to 13 th century. [404] A mermaid alongside a ship. 542. MS C. 74. g. 5, f. 12. Giralmo Benzoni’s Nau: nou; orbis histori… America Pars quata… occidentali India. Italian, early 17th century (c. 1617). [12] Columbus Lands in America. 543. MS C. 133. e. 34, f. **. Waerachtighe Beschrijuinche. Low Countries (Amsterdam), late 16th century (c. 1598). [**] William Barents expedition stranded in the Arctic, c. 1596. 544. Cott. Galba Charter 14. 4, Row I, roundels i-iv; Row II, roundels v-viii; Row III, roundels ix-xi; Row IV, roundels xiii-xvi; Row V, roundels xvii, xix-xx. Genealogy of the Kings of Britain to Edward I, and Pedigree of the Kings of England and Scotland. English (St Mary’s Abbey, York), late 13th century. Row I, [i] Pelias and Jason next to the argo; [ii] Jason and the argonauts with their ships; [iii] The argo sets sail; [iv] The argo at sea. Row II, [v] The argo landing at Colchis; [vi] The argo moored off Colchis; [vii] Jason and King Laomedon on board a ship; [viii] Jason carries the golden fleece on board a ship. Row III, [ix] Hercules disembarks from a ship near Troy; [x] The attack on Troy; [xi] The attack on Troy. Row IV, [xiii] Paris and Helen embark on board a ship; [xiv] The Greek fleet at sea; [xv] The sack of Troy; [xvi] The sack of Troy. Row V, [xvii] Aeneas arrives on board a ship at Latium; [xix] Pandrasius gives his daughter Imogen to Brutus, and they set sail for England; [xx] Brutus and Imogen on board a ship. 545. Cott. Aug. MS A v, ff. 67v, 222, 380v, 407. Universal History. French, undated. [67v] View of the city of Rome; [222] Bridge; [380v] View of the city of Rome; [407] A battle. 546. Cott. Aug. MS A vi, f. 245. Livre des Proprietez des Choses, translated by Jehan Corbechon for King Charles V of France. French, later 14th century (c. 1372). [245] Ships and boats. 547. Cott. Aug. MS I i, ff. 2, 3, 7, 16, 18, 22-23, 28, 29, 31, 36, 37, 39, 74, 83. Picture Map of Dover Harbour in 1538, possibly drawn by Richard Lee, surveyor, to illustrate the harbour works. English, mid 16 th century (c. 1538). [2] Shipping; [3] Fleet of ships; [7] Shipping; [16] Shipping; [18] Shipping; [22-23] Four large ships enter arbour, where a huge fleet of vessels lie at anchor; [28] Shipping; [29] Shipping; [31] Shipping; [36] Galleon (detail); [37] Shipping; [39] Shipping; [74] Shipping; [83] Ships. 548. Cott. Aug. MS I ii, ff. 1, 39, 42, 57v, 70. Panoramic Map of the Castle, Harbour and Town of Carrickfergus in Ireland, c. 1560. English, mid 16 th century (c. 1560-70 and/or 1592-1600). [1] Shipping; [39] Map showing the siege of Enniskillen Castle in 1592; [42] Map with ships and boats; [57v] Shipping; [70] Shipping. 549. Cott. Claud. MS B iv, ff. 10, 13v, 14, 14v, 15, 15v. Illustrated Hexateuch (the Aelfric Paraphrase). English, 10th to 11 th century (c. 1000 onwards). [10] Construction of Noah’s ark; [13v] Construction of Noah’s ark; [14] Noah shaping a plank; [14-15] Noah’s ark filled with birds and animals; [14v] Noah’s ark. 550. Cott. Claud. MS D ii, ff. 42v, 45v. Legal Compilation. English (London), early 14th century (c. 1321). [42v] Ships; [45v] The wreck of the white ship - king Henry sits mourning for his son and heir, William. The ship is shown below a royal family tree. 551. MS Cott. Claud. D vi, ff. 6v, 12v. Map of Britain by Matthew Paris, and miscellaneous papers. English, mid 13th century (c. 1250). [6v] A king enthroned, holding a model of a ship in his left hand and a sceptre in his right. 124

The Illuminated Ark

miscellaneous works. English, early 14th century (c. 1307). [17] View of the city of London; [189] A sea battle. 565. Cott. Nero MS D vi, ff. 76. Historical Compilation, including The Peace Between France and England. English (London), late 14th century (c. 1386-99). [76] Noah’s ark. 566. Cott. Nero MS D ix, f. 77v. Livre d’une Dame des Belles, Casines de France et du tres Valliant Chevallier, Le Sire de Saintre. French, 13 th to 14th century. [77v] A sea battle. 567. Cott. Nero MS E ii, f. 246. Chronicle of France. French, 15th century. [**]Ships; [**] A sea battle. 568. Cott. Tib. MS A vii & A viii, ff. 40, 52v, 81v. John Lydgate’s translation of The Pilgrimage of the Life of Man. English (East Anglia), early to mid 15th century (c. 1426 and c. 1430-50). [40] Pilgrims on board ships; [52v] The Devil fishing for men, with ships and boats nearby; [81] A one-masted vessel with a loading port near the stern; [81v] Ships. 569. Cott. Tib. MS B iii, f. 146. Calendar, Benedictionary, and History and Annals of England. English, mid 12th century. [146] Pilgrims on a sea voyage. 570. Cott. Tib. MS B v, ff. 40v, 84v. Anglo-Saxon Calendar. English or French, 11th century (c. 1025-50). [40v] Jason’s argo at sea; [84v] The Red Sea. 571. Cott. Tib. MS D ix, ff. 11v, 22, 80v-81. Roterio de Dom Johan de Castro’s Da Viagee que os Portugueses Fizeram desa Indinate Soez. French or Spanish, 14 th to 15 th century. [11v] Ships on a map; [22] Ships on a map; [80v-81] Shipping. 572. Cott. Titus MS A xxvi, f. 34v, 37, 38, 38v, 41, 45v, 48v, 57, 57v. Zorzi da Modon’s (known as Timbotta) Treatise (originally of the mid 13th century). Italian, mid 15th century (c. 1445). [34v] Ship; [37] Ship; [38] Ship plans; [38v] Ship plans; [41] Ship; [45v] Ship plans; [48v] A one-masted carrack and other vessels; [57] Ship plans; [57v] Ship plans. 573. Cott. Titus MS D iii, ff. 3 - 4v. Computational tables. French or English, 13th to 14 th century. [3v-4] Plans of Noah’s ark. 574. Cott. Vesp. MS A vii, f. 6. The Lives of Kings William of Normandy, Phillip of France and John of England. French, 13 th to 14th century. [6] A ship with two people on board attacked is attacked by a serra. 575. Cott. Vesp. MS B ii, f. 4v. Unknown, undated, unprovenanced. [4v] Ships. 576. Cott. Vitellius MS A xx, f. **. History of England. English, late 14th century. [**] Shipping. 577. Cott. Vitellius MS E ii, ff. 1v, 22. Fragmentary History of the Franks. French, 13 th to 14th century. [1v] Boats. 578. MS E iii J, ff. **, **, **. Sir Sidney Colvin’s Florentine Picture Chronicle. North Italian (Florentine?), 15th century (c. 1460-80). [**, **, **] Three ships at sea. 579. Eger. MS 613, ff. 33v, 34v. Miscellanies. French or English, 13 th century. [33v] A ship with two people on board attacked is attacked by a serra; [34v] Ship. 580. Eger. MS 745, f. 5v. Life of St Eustace. French, 14th century. [5v] A battle. 581. Eger. MS 912, ff. 14, 301v, 343. Universal History. French, early 15th century. [14] Noah’s ark; [301v] Ships; [343] Ships. 582. Eger. MS 943, ff. 7v, 31, 37-38, 63, 65, 65v, 80v. Dante’s Divine Comedy, with anonymous commentary. Italian (Parma?), mid 14 th century. [7v] Ferryboat; [31] Boats; [37-38] Bridge; [63] Purgatory – Dante embarks and then disembarks on board a ship; [65] An angel ferrying souls; [65v] The souls of the dead disembark from a boat; [80v] Dante and Virgil see a relief of the ark drawn in procession. 583. Eger. MS 1065, ff. 116, 116v, 146, 192. Caesar’s Commentaries. French, late 15th century. [116] Square-rigged sailing ship; [116v] Ships; [146] Ships; [192] Bridge.

584. Eger. MS 1066, f. 51v. Psalter and canticles. English (East Anglia), late 13th century (c. 1270-90). [51v] Jonah escapes from the whale to a passing vessel. 585. Eger. MS 1069, f. 130. Le Roman de Rose, made for Guillaume de Lorris by Jean de Meung. French or English, 15th century. [130] A sea battle. 586. Eger. MS 1070, f. 53. Book of Hours (Use of Rome), Divine Office and Calendar, made for Rene of Anjou, King of Naples. Italian, late 15th century (c. 1480). [53] Landscape with shipping on river and hills in background. 587. Eger. MS 1121, ff. 11, 48v. Collection of moral anthologies, translated into German. English or French, early 15 th century. [11] Ship moored alongside a whale; [48v] Shipping. 588. Eger. MS 1122, ff. 5, 32v, 48v. Unknown, undated, unprovenanced. [5] Ships; [32v] Ships; [48v] Ships. 589. Eger. MS 1500, ff. 13v, 46, 51v, 57v. Universal History. English, early 14th century. [46] A battle; [51v] Boats containing soldiers; [57v] Ships. 590. Eger. MS 1894, ff. 2v, 3, 3v, 4, 4v. Illustrated Genesis (the Egerton Genesis). English or French, late 14th century. [2v] Noah and his wife, Phurphura, addressed by God before Noah begins work on the ark; [3] Noah’s ark; [3v] Noah’s ark; [4] the exit from the ark; [4v] Noah’s ark. 591. Eger. MS 1895, f. 8v, 9. Old Testament. German, later 15th century (c. 1465). [8v] Noah’s ark [9] Noah’s ark. 592. Eger. MS 1896, f. 216v. Old Testament. German, later 15 th century (c. 1465). [216v] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 593. Eger. MS 1900, ff. 4, 4v-5. Itinerary and travels through Europe and the Near East. German, 15th century. [4] Ships and boats; [4v5] Shipping on a river outside a town. 594. Eger. MS 2076, f. 2v. Meditations and church services. Flemish, late 15th century. [2v] Jonah is cast into the sea from a ship. 595. Eger. MS 2579 [detail], f. **. Birds-eye view of the attack by Sir Francis Drake on the Island of St Jago in the Cape Verdi Islands, 17th November 1585. English, later 16th century. [**] Shipping. 596. Eger. MS 2709, f. 2. A History of the Conquest of the Canary Islands. French (Paris), early 15th century (c.1404-25). [2] The expedition to the Canary Islands – a large single-masted vessel. Soldiers in armour ride in a ship decorated with flags and coats of arms, including those of Gadifer de la Salle, conqueror of the Canary Islands. 597. Eger. MS 2781, ff. 8-8v. Book of Hours of the Virgin, and Calendar. English, mid 14th century (c. 1340-50). [8-8v] Noah and the ark. 598. Eger. MS 3028, ff. 11, 48. Miscellaneous Romances. English, mid 14th century (c.1325-75). [11] Ship full of troops outside a walled city; [48] King and knights asleep in a ship. 599. MS G. 6663, f. **. The Columbus letter. German (printed at Basel), late 15th century (c. 1493). [**] Woodcut print of a ship. 600. MS G. 7106, f. **. Of the Newe Landes. Netherlands (Antwerp), early 16th century (c. 1520). [**] Title page - shipping. 601. Harl. MS 273, ff. 73, 78, 80v. Calendar and Psalter. French. [73] Mermaid alongside a ship; [78] Mermaid alongside a ship; [80v] Mariners riding on a whale. 602. Harl. MS 326, ff. 7v, 18, 29v, 40. Edward IV’s Descent from Rollo and The Romance of the Three Kings Sons. English (London), later 15th century (c. 1475-85). [7v] Shipping; [18] Shipping; [29v] Christian fleet approaching Graeta; [40] A shipwreck; [**] A battle; [**] Ships and boats. 603. Harl. MS 433, f. **. Manual and Register of the Grants of the Privy Seal, Royal Signet and Sign made during the reigns of Edward V and Richard III, with miscellaneous papers. English, later 15th century (c. 1483-85). [**] Ship.

125

Appendix Two – Illuminated Manuscripts

604. Harl. MS 603, ff. 13v, 14v, 25, 27v, 51v, 54v. Psalter (AngloSaxon copy of the Utrecht Psalter). English, 10th to 11th century (c. 1000). [13v] Boats; [14v] Aqueduct; [27v] Ships; [51v] Ships; [54v] Ships. 605. Harl. 616, f. 150. Bible (incomplete). English or French, mid 13th century. [150] Jonah is vomited fourth by the whale next to a ship. 606. Harl. MS 1215, f. 13. The History of the Duchess of Savoy and A Romance of Knight Errantry, translated by Sir Hugh Poulet. French, 13 th to 14th century. [13] A rowing boat. 607. Harl. MS 1251, f. 43. Calendar, Oratores, Ellergies and Saints. English or French, early 15th century (c. 1435). [43] Boats. 608. Harl. MS 1319, ff. 7v, 14v, 18, 19v, 53v, 70. Jehan de Creton’s History of Richard II of England. French, 14th to 15 th century (c. 1399 or later). [7V] Arrival in Ireland of three provisioning ships from England; [14v] The Earl of Salisbury arrives by ship at Conway, Wales; [18] Richard II crosses from Ireland to Milford in Wales with four ships; [19v] Richard II re-joining the Earl of Salisbury at Conway castle; [53v] The inhabitants of the city of London; [70] Shipping; [**] A battle. 609. Harl. MS 1413, ff. 181v, 218. Vegetius’s De Re Militari , made for the Electors of Brandenburg. German or Swiss, 15th century. [181v] Shipping; [218] Shipwrightry tools. 610. Harl. MS 1526, f. 89. Bible Historiale et Moralisee. Spanish, late 13th century. [89] The shipwreck of St Paul. 611. Harl. MS 1527, f. 89. Bible Historiale et Moralisee. Spanish, late 13th century. [89] The shipwreck of St Paul. 612. Harl. MS 1766, ff. 31, 112. John of Lydgate’s translation and paraphrase of John Bocaccio’s De Casu Principum. English, mid 16th century (c. 1547-53). [31] Jason t sea during his quest by ship for the golden fleece; [112] A ship. 613. Harl. MS 1808, f. 30v. Genealogical and historical tables. English, 14th century. [30v] A sea battle. 614. Harl. MS 2278, ff. 12, 16v, 17, 20, 26, 27, 27v, 37, 41v, 42, 46, 47, 47v, 79v, 80, 85v, 96v, 97, 98v. John Lydgates’ Lives of Saints Edmund and Fremund. English (Bury St Edmunds), mid 15th century (c. 1434-44). [12] Alkmund on his way to Rome by sea for an audience with the Pope; [16v] King Offa journeys by ship to Saxony; [17] King Offa arrives by boat in Saxony; [20] King Offa embarks on board his ship; [26] Edmund says farewell to his parents and embarks on board ship to England; [27] Edmund sets sail for England, while his mother weeps on the shore; [27v] Edmund arrives by ship in England; [37] Edmund hunting and fishing; [41v] King Lothbrok of the Danes going hunting on a boat, but is driven out to sea; [42] King Lothbrok is cast-up on the Norfolk coast and brought to Edmund; [46] King Lothbrok’s murderer is cast adrift in a boat without mast or sail; [47] The murderer is cast-up in Denmark; [47v] Hingar and Hubba set-out for England by ship; [79v] Fremond sets off by boat for the ‘desert’; [80] Fremond sets sail and arrives in an uninhabited land; [85v] Fremond returns home by ship; [96v] Edelbert, a pilgrim, visits the Pope by sea; [97] Edelbert returns home to find five priests and a sow with piglets at Fremond’s grave, with their boat alongside; [98v] Arrival of the King of Sweden and the Danes in England by boat. 615. Harl. MS 2637, f. 36v, 40. Miscellaneous theological works and tracts. English, 13th to 14th century. [36v] Allegorical figures and shipping; [40] Allegorical figures and shipping. 616. Harl. MS 2677, f. 1. Miscellaneous theological works and tracts. English, 13th to 14 th century. [1] Shipping. 617. Harl. MS 2897, ff. 258, 282. Psalter, with hymns and antiphons, and a calendar. French, 15th century. [258] A sea battle; [282] Areas of land crossed by two rivers or canals, with a boat and land in the distance. 618. Harl. MS 2971, f. 13. Hours of the Virgin, with a Calendar. French, 15 th century. [13] Bridge with shipping alongside.

619. Harl. MS 2980, f. 14. Hours of the Virgin, with a Calendar and miscellaneous astronomical works. French, 15th century. [14v] Landscape with sea views. 620. Harl. MS 2989, f. 55. Hours of the Virgin, with a Calendar. French, 15th century. [55] Ships. 621. Harl. MS 3240, f. 6. Speculum Humanae Salvationis. English or French, 14th century. [6] Noah’s ark. 622. Harl. MS 3244, ff. 27, 71, 60, 60v, 61, 62. Peraldus’s Liber de Vitiis and a Bestiary. English, early 13 th century (c. 1235). [60] Jonah is cast to the whale from a boat; [60v] Ship anchored to a huge whale; [61] Jonah is saved from the whale by a passing ship; [62] Boats. 623. Harl. MS 3281, f. **. Very Accurate Draughts of Several Curious Mechanical and Mathematical Instruments. English, late 15th century. [**] Naval engines and buildings. 624. Harl. MS 3448, ff. 13, 24v, 42, 44. Flower of Virtue. Italian, 15 th century. [13] Coracle; [24v] Crane; [42] Shipping; [44] Ships; [**] Mermaid alongside a vessel. 625. Harl. MS 3461, f. 2. Book of Chronology. Italian, 15 th century. [2] Noah, with a model of the ark in his hand. 626. Harl. MS 3571, f. **. Legendary History of the Holy Family. Italian, 15th century. [**] Boats. 627. Harl. MS 3718, f. 1v. Luit Prandi Ticinensis Chronicorum. Italian, 10th century. [1v] Bridge with vessels alongside. 628. Harl. MS 3752, f. 108v. Miscellaneous works by Justinian. Italian, 14th century. [108v] Boat. 629. Harl. MS 3949, f. 15v. Works on rhetoric, including Plutarch’s Moralised Poems. Italian, early 15 th century (c. 1430). [15v] Jonah is cast up by the whale next to a vessel. 630. Harl. MS 3954, ff. 2, 3, 10, 29, 32v, 55. The Travels of Sir John Mandeville. English (East Anglia), early 15 th century (c. 1410-20). [2] Mandeville on board a ship leaving England; [3] The port and city of Constantinople, with ships and boats offshore; [10] Men loading a ship using a wheelbarrow; [29] Mandeville sees the remains of Noah’s ark on mount Ararat, with a monk taking a rib of the vessel away; [32v] Mandeville sees a ship being made without nails or iron strapping at Ormuz; [55] Sailors show Mandeville shipwrecks overgrown with trees. 631. Harl. MS 3978, f. 70. Book of services for saints days. French, 14th century. [70] Boats. 632. Harl. MS 4205, ff. 1, 1v. Sir Thomas Holmes Book of Arms, including Anonymous verses on the Kings of England to Henry VI. English (London), late 15th to early 16th century (mainly c. 143160, 1448-48 and 1482-94). [1] William the Conqueror disembarking in England; [1v] A knight disembarks from a ship in full armour. 633. Harl. MS 4330, f. 43. Boethius’s De Consolatione, translated by Jean Clopinel de Meun. French, 15th century. [43] The sea between England and France, with vessels offshore. 634. Harl. MS 4372, f. 79v. De Re Militari. French, 14th century. [79v] A mermaid near several ships. 635. Harl. MS 4373, f. 47v. De Re Militari. French, 14th century. [47v] A sea battle. 636. Harl. MS 4374, ff. 88, 105, 165. Valerius Maximus’s Memorabilia. French (Paris or Tours), mid to late 15th century (c. 1475). [88] Octavian’s Court and the siege of Capua from the sea by ships; [105] Shipping; [165] A bridge; [**] A battle; [**] Sergius Orata inspects his artificial preserves for sea-fish, made by the interception of tidal waters - three men in boat pull in a net full of fish. 637. Harl. MS 4375, ff. 49v, 55, 96, 123, 159, 179, 196v, 214. De Re Militari. French, 14th century. [123] A sea battle – a shipwright with tools; [159] Ships; [179] Fishermen with their nets – the calling of Peter and Andrew; [196v] Bridge with vessels alongside; [214] Death of Alexander. 126

The Illuminated Ark

638. Harl. MS 4376, f. 2v, 150-206v. De Re Militari. French, 14th century. [2v] Noah’s ark; [150] Ships; [150-206v] Dockside cranes with shipping alongside. 639. Harl. MS 4379, ff. 32v, 40v, 60v, 83v, 104v, 115, 140, 150. Froissart’s Chronicles, translated by Simon de Hesdin. French, later 15th century (c. 1470). [32v] Mermaid; [40v] Rowing boat; [60v] The expedition of the French and English to Barbary in galleys; [104v] Raising of the siege of the strong town of Africa: King Charles VI in armour boarding a boat; [115] Expedition of the knights of France and England under the Duke of Bourbon to Africa in 1390; [140] Shipping; [150] Crane and pulley. 640. Harl. MS 4380, ff. 43, 84, 134, 149, 174v, 181v, 189v. Froissart’s Chronicles, translated by Simon de Hesdin. French, later 15 th century (c. 1460-80). [43] Boats; [84] Shipping; [134] Shipping; [149] Shipping; [174v] View of the city of London – vessels on river; [181v] The deposed Richard II is put in the Tower of London by Bolingbroke, manhandled by a group of soldiers; [189v] Ships. 641. Harl. MS 4381, ff. 12, 13. Biblical History, made for the Dukes of Berry. French or Flemish, 15th century. [12] Noah’s ark; [13] Noah’s ark. 642. Harl. MS 4382, ff. 122v, 234v-258v. Biblical History, made for the Dukes of Berry. French or Flemish, 15th century. [122v] Jonah and the whale; [234v-258v] Apocalypse. 643. Harl. MS 4389, ff. 6v, 15v, 17, 19v. La Romant de Tristan. Italian, 13th to 14th century (c. 1300). [6v] Ships; [15v] Ships; [17] Crudely drawn ships; [19v] Boats; [**] A battle. 644. Harl. MS 4411, ff. 48, 60v, 93v. Universal History and Chronicle. French, mid 14th century (c. 1350). [48] Ships; [60v] Ships; [93v] Ships. 645. Harl. MS 4418, f. 80v. Chronicle of the History of France. French, mid 14th century (c. 1350). [80v] Ships in battle. 646. Harl. MS 4425, ff. 86, 117v. Le Romant de la Rose. Flemish, 15th century. [86] Jason takes the golden fleece – his ship is in the foreground with spectators in it; [117v] Dido runs upon a swordpoint – Aeneas’s ship is visible in the background. 647. Harl. MS 4431, ff. 100v, 110v, 111, 103v, 112, 112v, 120, 125, 127, 128, 323. Christine de Pisan’s Dichtungen, and other miscellaneous collected works, including The Book of Arms of Chivalry. French (Paris), early 15 th century (c. 1410). [100v] Waves on the sea; [103v] A battle; [110v] A shipwreck; [111] Cranes and pulleys for buildings; [112] A battle; [112v] Pyramus and Thisbe – a ship moored outside a walled city, along with two other boats; [120] Boats; [125] Knights approaching a shore line from various gates of a castle; [127] Boats; [128] Boats; [323] Dockside crane and pulley, with vessels alongside; [**] Ships. 648. Harl. MS 4751, ff. 25, 47v, 69. Bestiary and Moralised Natural History. English (Christ Church Canterbury or Salisbury?), 12th to 14th century (c. 1230-40 or c. 1300). [25] Shipping; [47v] Shipping; [69] Sailors land on the back of a surfaced whale mistaking it for land and light a fire; [**] Varieties of fish. 649. Harl. MS 4903, f. 16. A Romance, made for the Counts of Brienne in three columns. French, 14th century. [16] Boats. 650. Harl. MS 4939, f. 13. The First and Second Books of Apian, translated for the Bishop of Marseille. French, 16th century. [13] A sea battle. 651. Harl. MS 4940, ff. 27, 51. The First and Second Books of Apian (including a poem), translated for the Bishop of Marseille. French, 16th century. [27] Ships; [51] Noah plants a vine, with the ark alongside. 652. Harl. MS 4972, ff. 1, 20. Apocalypse, including an incomplete paraphrase of the Book of Revelations. French, 14th century. [1] Boats; [20] A mermaid alongside a vessel.

653. Harl. MS 4979, ff. 4v, 24, 36, 70, 71. Life of Alexander. French, 14th century. [24] Shipping; [26] Shipping; [70] Shipwright at work; [71] The flight of Alexander; [**] Ships. 654. Harl. MS 5102, f. 129. Psalter with canticles and scriptures. English (East Midlands?), early 13th century (c. 1220). [129] The calling of St Peter - he walks on water next to his boat. 655. Harl. MS 5256, f. **. Miscellaneous poetry. French, late 16th century (c. 1597). [**] Figure upon a dolphin, with vessel in background. 656. Harl. MS 6205, ff. 21v, 23. Caesar’s Commentaires de la Guerre Gallique. French, early 16th century (c. 1519). [21v] A night attack at the shore by boats; [23] Bridge to a building, where piles are being driven in from a fleet of small vessels; [**] A sea battle; [**] Ships. 657. Harl. MS 7026, f. 11. Lectionary and Missal (the Lovell Lectionary). English (London), mid 15th century (c. 1450-60). [11] John the Evangelist on Patmos, with ships and boats offshore. 658. Harl. Roll Y6, roundels 4, 15. The Legend and Life of St Guthlac of Croyland. English, late 12 th century. [4] St Guthlac travelling to Crowland by fishing boat in the fens, conveyed by Tatwin; [15] Shipping; [**] The Ark of God is taken by the Philistines, and then brought back; [**] Crane; [**] Oars; [**] Ships. 659. Harl. Roll 13, f. 44. Unknown. [44] Full-page map with boat off land. 660. Harl. Roll 7353, 10th Picture. Illustrated parliament roll, with historical passages on the life of Edward IV. English, early 14 th century. [10th Picture] Ships and boats. 661. Kings MS 5, f. 20. Biblia Pauperum. Flemish or Rheinish, 14 th to 15th century (c. 1400). [20] The resurrection, paralleled by Samson breaking down the gates and Jonah escaping from the whale. 662. Kings MS 24, ff. 55, 59, 73, 73v, 101v, 115, 148v, 164, 178. Virgilii Maronis Opera. Italian, late 15th century. [55] Shipping; [59] Shipping; [73] The city of Troy; [73v] The city of Troy and the brazen horse; [101v] Shipping; [115] Shipping; [148v] Ships; [164] Shipping; [178] A battle with ships. 663. Kings MS 156, f. **. Commission and Form of Oath of Hieronymous Zane, Procurator of the Citra canal, Venice. Italian (Venice), later 16th century (c. 1568). [**] Galleys. 664. Lans. MS 11, f. **. Miscellaneous English governmental papers and charters. English, 16th century. [**] Shipping. 665. Lans. MS 285, f. **. The Manner and Form of the Coronation of the Kings and Queens of England, miscellaneous Royal rolls and ordinances. English, mid 15th century (c. 1450?). [**] Shipping. 666. Lans. MS 383, f. 5. Psalter. English, early 12th century. [5] Two men in a boat. 667. Lans. MS 431, f. 53. Psalter and Calendar. English (East Anglia), early 13th century (c. 1220-30). [53] Jonah is thrown to a whale from a ship. 668. Lans. MS 782, f. 19. Fragment of the Romance of Gerard de Roussilon. French, 13 th century. [19] A sea battle. 669. Lans. MS 1179, f. 32, 135. Speculum Historiale of Vincent of Beauvais. French, mid 14th century (c. 1340). [32] Boats; [135] A sea battle. 670. Loan MS 82, ff. **. Benedictine Calendar and Missal with Bestiary (the Sherborne Missal). English (Sherborne?), mid 13th to early 15th century (c. 1250-60 or c. 1396-1407). [**] Noah and the ark; [**] Jesus walking on water near a boat bearing the Apostles; [**] John the Evangelist on Patmos, with a ship in the bottom lefthand corner; [**] A whale with a ship full of people moored to it. 671. Loan MS 88, ff. 4-4v, 46. Fragmentary Life of St Thomas Becket (the Becket Leaves - four loose leaves only). English, 13th century. [4-4v] Becket arrives by sea back in England; [46] Shipping.

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Appendix Two – Illuminated Manuscripts

672. MS M. 751, f. 109. Life of St Anselm of Canterbury. English, 12 th to 14th century. [109] Episode from the life of St Anselm – he travels in a small ship with two companions. 673. MS Maps C. 7. c. 1, f. **. Christopher Saxton’s Map of England and Wales. English, later 16th century (c. 1583). [**] Shipping on map. 674. Roy. MS 1 B x, f. 9v. Bible. English, 13th to 14th century. [9v] Noah’s ark. 675. Roy. MS 1 B xii, f. 186v. Bible (the Bible of William of Hales). English (Salisbury), mid 13th century (c. 1254). [186v] Jonah is thrown to a whale from a ship. 676. Roy. MS 1 D i, f. 394v. Bible (the Bible of William of Devon), made by William of Devon for an unnamed English religious house. English (Oxford), later 13th century (c. 1260-70). [394v] Jonah is thrown to the whale from a ship. 677. Roy. MS 1 E ix, ff. 232v, 240. Bible (the Bible of Richard II). English (London), early 15 th century (c. 1405-15). [232v] Jonah is cast up by the whale next to a boat; [240] A sea battle. 678. Roy. MS 2 A xvi, ff. 48. Psalter, with three additional canticles by St Luke, made for king Henry III of England in the Italian style. English, mid 16th century. [48] A sea battle. 679. Roy. MS 2 A xxii, f. 80v. Psalter (the Westminster Psalter). English (St Albans or Westminster), 12th to 13 th century (c. 1200). [80v] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 680. Roy. MS 2 B vii, ff. 5v, 6, 6 [roll], 6v, 7, 58v, 72, 73, 73v, 77, 89, 95v, 96, 96v, 97, 109v, 110, 110v, 111, 159 [2], 168v, 169v, 170, 205v, 224v, 272, 273, 292-292v, 293-293v, 296v-297, 316v-18, plus January [Aquarius], February [Pisces] and June [Cancer] in the calendar miniatures. Psalter (Queen Mary’s Psalter) and Historia Veteris Testamenti. English, mid 14 th century (c. 132553). [5v] Ships and boats; [6] Ships and boats; [6 roll] Noah building the ark; [6v] Noah’s ark; [7] Ships and boats; [58v] Ships and boats; [72] January – three men in a boat; [73] February – Pieces – three men in a boat, fishing; [73v] A small fishing boat; [77] June – Cancer – two men in a boat lifting-in a large crab; [89] Ships and boats; [95v] Ships and boats; [96] Ships and boats; [96v] Ship; [97] Shipping; [109v] Ships and boats; [110] Ships and boats; [110v] Ships and boats; [111] Sailors land on a whale’s back, mistaking it for land, and light a fire; [159 - 2] Ships and boats: two knights jousting, each standing up in a small rowing boat crewed by two oarsmen; [168v] Ships and boats; [169v, 170] Ships – men swimming; [205v] Ships and boats; [224] Ships and boats; [272] Ships and boats; [273] St Ursula on board a ship; [292-292v] Ships and boats; [293-293v] Ships and boats; [296297] Ships and boats; [316v-318] Ships and boats; [**] Shipwright at work. 681. Roy. MS 2 B ix, f. 2. Psalter (the Psalter of the Earl of Arundel). English (London), later 16 th century (c. 1565). [2] An angel appears to a man, with a seascape and ships in the background. 682. Roy. MS 6 E iv, ff. 2, 2v. Jacobus’ Encyclopaedia of Canon Law and Theology. English, mid 14th century (c. 1330 -40). [2] Noah’s ark [2v] Noah’s ark. 683. Roy. MS 10 D i, f. 136. Volumen Parvum. English, 14 th century. [136] Shipping. 684. Roy. MS 10 E iv, ff. 2, 3, 18v, 19, 47, 59, 121v, 122, 123v, 192192v, 196, 202, 207, 226, 227, 231, 246v, 272v, 273, 289v. Decretals of Pope Gregory IX (the Smithfield Decretals). English, 14th century (c. 1300-25). [2] Mermaid; [3] Merman; [19] A fight at sea between two ships, possibly cogs; [47] Mermaid; [59] Fishing net; [121v] Ships; [122] Ships; [123v] Ships; [192-192v] The Devil drowning a woman; [196] Carpenter; [226-227] Bridge - the Devil drowning a monk nearby; [231] Small boat; [246v] A windlass; [272-73] A mermaid; [289v] A windlass.

685. Roy. MS 10 E vi, f. 224. Commentary on the Gregorian Book of Decretals and New Constitution of Pope Innocent IV. English, 14th century. [224] Shipping. 686. Roy. MS 11 E xi, f. 2. Polyphonic music for king Henry VIII of England. Low Countries (Bruges), early 16th century (c. 1516). [2] Shipping moored off a walled castle with the red Tudor rose in its centre. 687. Roy. MS 12 C xix, ff. 46v, 47, 48, 48v. Bestiary. English, mid 13 th century (c. 1250-60). [46v] A serra near a ship; [47] A whale near a ship; [48-48v] Species of fish near some boats. 688. Roy. MS 13 A i, f. **. Romance and History of Alexander the Great. English, late 11th century. [**] Alexander seated on a throne. 689. Roy. MS 13 A iii, ff. 21v, 27, 56, 68. Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia Regum Britanniae. English, late 13th century. [21v] View of the city of Rome – shipping on the Tiber; [27] View of the city of London – shipping on the Thames; [56] The Tower of London with vessels on the Thames; [68] A sea battle. 690. Roy. MS 13 B viii, ff. 8v, 16v, 26, 29. Miscellaneous works by Gerald of Wales, Henry of Saltrey and Alain of Lille. English, 12th to 13th century (after c. 1170). [8v] Boats; [16v] Toothed allegorical figures alongside vessels; [26] The men of Connaught in a coracle; [29] Boats. 691. Roy. MS 14 B ix, f. **. Peter of Poitier’s Compendium Historia in Genealogica Christi. English or French, later 13th century (c. 1270-90). [**] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship - Noah, his family and the animals board the ark. 692. Roy. MS 14 C vii, ff. 2, 4v, 5, 116v, 134v. Matthew Paris’ Historia Anglorum and Chronica Majora. English (St Albans), mid 13th century (c. 1250-90). [2] Itinerary from London to Apulia – ships in foreground; [4v] Detail showing Acre and the Crusader Kingdom; [5] Henry III returns from Gascony; [116v] Henry III sailing to Brittany – a simple vessel with cog- or hulc-like form; [134v] Ships and boats; [**] The Itinerary from London to Jerusalem; [**] The Sea Journeys of Henry III; [**] Ships. 693. Roy. MS 14 D iv, ff. 39, 275. Jean Froissart’s Chroniques de France et d’Angleterre. English or French, late 15th century. [39] Boats; [275] A sea battle. 694. Roy. MS 14 D v, f. 130. Jean Froissart’s Chroniques de France et d’Angleterre. English or French, late 15 th century. [130] A sea battle. 695. Roy. MS 14 D vi, f. **. Jean Froissart’s Chroniques de France et d’Angleterre. English or French, late 15 th century. [**] Ships. 696. Roy. MS 14 E i, ff. 256, 356. Vincent of Beauvais’ Speculum Historiale. English or French, late 15 th century. [356] Bridge with ships moored alongside. 697. Roy. MS 14 E ii, ff. 51v, 217. Chemain de Vaillance and other works of French prose, made for king Edward IV of England. English or French, late 15th century. [51v] Bridge for foot passengers, running over piles across a moat; [217] Boats. 698. Roy. MS 14 E iii, ff. 9, 32, 36, 45, 51, 68, 125, 125v, 133v, 134v, 153, 153v. Arthurian Romances. French or English, later 14 th century (c. 1376). [9] Boats; [32] History of the uses of water; [36] Boats; [45] Varieties of fish; [51] Boats; [68] Ships; [125] Solomon’s ship; [125v] Boats; [133v] Shipping; [134v] Ships; [153] Boats; [153v] The lady of Shalott or maid of Astolat; [**] A battle. 699. Roy. MS 14 E iv, ff. 19, 23, 49v, 145, 186, 195, 224, 265v, 272v, 273, 276. Jean de Wavrin’s Chronicles of England, made for king Edward IV of England. Flemish (Bruges), late 15th century (c. 1461-83). [19] Sea battle; [23] Mortagne in France, held by the English, is besieged by the French from land and sea in 1377; [49v] The skipper of a vessel and a model of a boat; [145] Shipping; [186] Shipping; [195] John of Gaunt arrives by ship in Lisbon; [224] Shipping; [265v] Model of a boat; [272v] St Mary 128

The Illuminated Ark

714. Roy. MS 16 F ii, f. 73. The Poems of Charles d’Orleans, intended for king Edward IV of England. Flemish or English, 15th to 16 th century (c. 1500). [73] The Tower of London – Charles d’Orleans writing in the tower, with ships and boats on the river below. 715. Roy. MS 16 F iii, f. 11. Ancient Chronicles of Flanders. Flemish, late 15th century. [11] Bridge. 716. Roy. MS 16 F iv, ff. 3, 38v. Lestrif de Fortune et Vertu. Flemish, late 15th century. [3] A windlass; [38v] A windlass. 717. Roy. MS 16 F ix, ff. 3, 8v. History of the Trojan Wars. French, early 15th century. [3] Shipping; [8v] Ships. 718. Roy. MS 16 G i, ff. 1, 9. Chronicles of Pisa. Flemish, late 15 th century. [1] Ships and boats; [9] The loading of cattle and sheep onto a vessel by two men. 719. Roy. MS 16 G iii, f. 85. Vita Christi, by David Aubert, scribe to Phillip the Good, Duke of Burgundy. Low Countries (Ghent), later 15th century (c. 1479). [85] The miracle of the loaves and fishes, with fishing boats alongside. 720. Roy. MS 16 G iv, f. 7. Le Livre des Sains et Angeles. French, early 15th century. [7] Landscape with river and hills. 721. Roy. MS 16 G v, ff. 13, 26v, 31v, 39v, 54v. Bocaccio’s De Claris Mulieribus. French, early 15 th century. [13] Ships; [26v] Troops fording a river, with vessels in background; [31v] A fight at sea; [39v] Shipping; [54v] Troops fording a river, with vessels in background. 722. Roy. MS 16 G vi, ff. 147, 325, 337, 350v, 409v, 414, 437v, 440v. Chroniques de France ou de Saint Denis. French, later 14th century (c. 1325-50). [147] Ship full of troops; [325] Ship; [337] Prow of a vessel; [350v] Two moored ships; [409v] Three ships moored outside a castle; [414] Ship; [437v] Shipping; [440v] King Louis IX lands at Tunis; [**] A sea battle. 723. Roy. MS 16 G vii, ff. 70, 82. History of the Romans. French, later 14th century. [70] Ships; [82] Ships; [**] A sea battle. 724. Roy. MS 16 G viii, ff. 35, 67, 86v, 116, 133, 147v, 164v, 189, 277, 282, 297, 304v, 310v, 311, 317, 377. Caesar’s Commentaries, translated by Jehan de Chesne for Charles the Bold. France (Lille), later 15th century (c. 1473). [35] Ships; [67] A battle; [86v] A battle; [116] A battle; [133] A battle at sea with ships; [147v] Boat-houses; [164v] Ships; [189] A battle; [277] Ships; [282] An army; [297] Shipping; [304v] Shipping; [310v] Shipping; [311] Boats; [317] Boats; [377] Shipping. 725. Roy. MS 17 C xxxviii, f. 51. The Travels of Sir John Mandeville. English, early 15th century (c. 1410-20). [51] Mandeville sees the Port of Fear, with two ships moored nearby. 726. Roy. MS 17 E ii, f. 96. Raoul Fevre’s History of Troy, made for King Edward IV. Flemish, later 15th century (c. 1470-80). [96] Three ships. 727. Roy. MS 17 E iii, ff. 165. Bartholomaeus Anglicus’s Livre des Proprietez des Choses, translated by Jean Courbechon. French, early 15th century. [165] History of the uses of water. 728. Roy. MS 17 E vii, ff. 11v, 111, 369. Bible Historiale. French, mid 14th century (c. 1357). [11v] Noah’s ark; [111] A sea battle; [369] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 729. Roy. MS 17 F i, f. **. Life of Alexander, translated by Vasco de Lucena. French, later 15th century. [**] A battle. 730. Roy. MS 17 F ii, ff. 71, 125v, 196, 196v, 263, 299v, 300v. The Fate of the Romans, made for king Edward IV of England. Low Countries (Bruges), later 15th century (c. 1479). [71] Bridge constructed of rafts; [125v] An army alongside a fleet of ships; [196] A fight at sea from boats; [196v] Boats; [263] Boats; [299v] A bridge with vessels moored alongside; [300v] Boats; [**] A battle. 731. Roy. MS 18 D ii, ff. 67v, 75-76, 161v. The Troy Book and The Testament of John Lydgate, translated by John Lydgate. English (London), early 16th century (c. 1516-23). [67v] The battle of the

the Egyptian; [273] A white swan next to a vessel; [276] Sea battle. 700. Roy. MS 14 E v, ff. 64, 270, 280v, 318v, 329, 485. Jehan de Certald’s Des cas des Nobles Hommes et Femmes Malaeureux, made for king Edward IV of England. Flemish (Bruges), later 12 th century (c. 1170-83). [64] A sea battle; [270] A bridge with vessels alongside; [280v] A man is beheaded aboard a boat; [318v] A man is beheaded aboard a boat and his head held-up on a pole; [329] A king is shipwrecked; [485] Bridge. 701. Roy. MS 14 E vi, ff. 259v. Rustican’s Du Cultivement des Terres. Flemish (Bruges), later 15th century (c. 1473-83). [259v] An angler. 702. Roy. MS 15 D i, f. 12. Guyart des Moulin’s Biblical History. French, later 15th century (c. 1470). [12] Noah builds the ark. 703. Roy. MS 15 D ii, f. **. Apocalypse. English of French, early 14th century. [**] Apocalypse – scenes of sinking ships. 704. Roy. MS 15 D iii, ff. 12, 103v, 398, 398v, 410v, 516-34. Petrus Gilberti’s Bible Historiale ou les Hystoires Escolastres. French, 14th to 15th century (c. 1400). [12] Building of Noah’s ark; [103v] A sea battle; [398v] Jonah is cast up by the whale next to a ship; [410v] A sea battle; [516-34] Apocalypse – scenes of sinking ships. 705. Roy. MS 15 D iv, f. 39. Euritius Rufus by Fernandez de Lucena, a Portuguese civil servant in the service of Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy. French, later 15th century (c. 1470-80). French, 14th century. [39] An army on board a fleet of vessels. 706. Roy. MS 15 D vi, f. **. Le Livre que Fist Titus Liuius des Excellens Fais des Rommains. French, late 14th century. [**] A battle. 707. Roy. MS 15 E i, ff. 402. History of the Crusades, translated by Guillemlmus. French, late 15th century. [402] Boats; [**] A battle. 708. Roy. MS 15 E ii, ff. 218, 365. Bartholomaeus Anglicus’ Livre des Proprietez des Choses, translated by Jehan de Ries and Jehan Corbechon. Flemish (Bruges), late 15th century (c. 1482). [218] Boats; [365] Shipwright. 709. Roy. MS 15 E iii, ff. 11, 32, 165. Bartholomaeus Anglicus’ Livre des Proprietez des Choses, translated by Jehan de Ries and Jehan Corbechon. Belgium (Bruges), late 15th century (c. 1482). [11] Bridge with vessels moored alongside. 710. Roy. MS 15 E iv, ff. 15v, 24v, 35, 36, 53v, 57v, 65, 118, 119, 145, 179, 180, 192, 213, 232, 273, 287. Jean de Wavrin’s Anchiennes et Nouvelles Chroniques d’ Angleterre. Flemish (Bruges), later 15th century (c. 1470-80). [15v] Shipping; [24v] Ships; [35] Ships; [36] The camp of Brutus on the river Loire – four ships at anchor; [53v] Shipbuilding; [57v] A caulker working with a caulking iron on the plank seams of a ship, part of a scene depicting the building of Caesar's ships; [65] Shipbuilding; [118] Ships off a coastline; [119] A sea battle; [145] Pond in an island; [179] A shipwreck; [180] Defeat of Cadwal: a large crowd of soldiers on the edge of a cliff - ships are sinking, and the soldiers aboard are drowning; [192] Fleet of moored vessels; [213] Boats; [232] Fleet of ships; [273] Shipping; [287] Edward I returns from Gascony - a flotilla of ships sailing down the river. 711. Roy. MS 15 E vi, ff. 4v, 9, 19, 20v, 207, 217, 272. The Romance of Alexander. French (Rouen), mid 15th century (c. 1445). [9] Ships; [20v] Alexander the Great is let down in a glass barrel to view the wonders of the deep; [207] Ships; [217] Shipping; [272] Shipping; [**] A sea battle. 712. Roy. MS 16 E viii, ff. 8v, 19v, 39v. Miscellaneous Works of French literature. French, 15th century. [8v] Boats; [19v] Mermaid; [39v] Boats; [**] Varieties of fish. 713. Roy. MS 16 F i, f. 41. Jean Bueil’s Didactic Military Romance. French or Flemish, 15th century. [41] Ship.

129

Appendix Two – Illuminated Manuscripts

Ships; [396v] Shipping; [403] The landing of William the Conqueror in 1066 - William and his army disembark with trunks and wine casks. 750. Roy. MS 20 A ii, ff. 1v, 6v. Peter of Langtoft’s Chronicle of England. English or French, early 14 th century (c.1300-25). [1v] The battle of the city of Troy – vessels offshore; [6v] King Henry I and the ‘White Ship’ - Henry sits between two trees, mourning for his lost son and heir, William. 751. Roy. MS 20 A v, ff. 18, 54, 70v, 71v. The Life of Alexander the Great. French, early 14th century (c. 1309). [18] Ships; [54] Mermaid alongside a vessel; [70v] The flight of Alexander; [71v] Combat of mermen, with vessels in background. 752. Roy. MS 20 A xvii, f. 176v. Le Roman de la Rose et La Bataille d’Annezin. French, early 14th century. [176v] A sea battle. 753. Roy. MS 20 B i, f. 25v. Vegetius’s De Re Militari. French, early 15th century. [25v] Shipping. 754. Roy. MS 20 B xx, ff. 20, 22, 76v, 77v, 193. Life of Alexander the Great. French, early 15th century (c. 1400-25). [20] Ships; [22] Ships; [76v] The flight of Alexander; [77v] Alexander is let down in a glass barrel from a ship. 755. Roy. MS 20 C i, ff. 191v, 225. The Fate of the Romans. French, early 15th century. [191v] Ships; [225] A battle. 756. Roy. MS 20 C ii, f. 73v. Miscellaneous Romances. Flemish or French, later 15th century. [73v] Boats; [**] A sea battle. 757. Roy. MS 20 C iii, f. **. Quintin Curce’s Life of Alexander. French, late 15th century. [**] Shipping. 758. Roy. MS 20 C iv, ff. 119, 160. Jehan Bocaccio’s Des cas des Nobles Hommes et Femmes, translated by Laurens, a clerk of the diocese of Troyes. French (Troyes), early 15th century. [119] Shipping; [160] Shipping. 759. Roy. MS 20 C v, f. 54. Giovanni Bocaccio’s De Claris Mulieribus. French, early 15th century. [54] Ships full of troops off a walled city. 760. Roy. MS 20 C vii, ff. 25v, 26v, 83v, 162, 184v, 189v, 214v. Chroniques de France. French, late 14th century. [25v] Shipping; [26v] Shipping; [83v] Shipping; [162] Shipping; [184v] Shipping; [189v] Sea fight off La Rochelle; [214v] English soldiers at sea on their way to France. 761. Roy. MS 20 C viii, ff. 1, 2v. Larbre des Batailles, by Honore Bonet, Prior of Salon. French (Salon), early 15th century. [1] Shipping; [2v] Shipping. 762. Roy. MS 20 C ix, ff. 148, 267, 277v. Jean Chartier’s La Chronicque du Temps de Treschrestien Roy Charles de France. French, late 15th century. [148] Bridge with vessels alongside; [267] The Surrender of Bordeaux to a besieging army and fleet; [277] Boats; [**] A sea battle. 763. Roy. MS 20 D i, ff. 26v, 66v, 151, 176v, 222v, 246, 258, 305. History of the Caesars and The Fate of the Romans. French or Italian (Naples?), mid 14 th century (c. 1340?). [26v] The city of Troy – boats outside its walls; [66v] Fleet of ships - a formation of warships identified by their heraldic flags sail from left to right; [151] Two ships; [176v] A storm at sea – a fleet of ships; [222v] Shipping; [246] Fleet of ships; [258] Shipping; [305] Shipping. 764. Roy. MS 20 D ii, ff. 290v, 308. Romance of Tristan. French (Paris), 12th to 13th century (c. 1300 onwards). [290v] Horses in a boat before a battle; [308] Lancelot arrives by sea at night. 765. Roy. MS 20 D iv, f. **. Romance of Lancelot du Lac. French, early 14th century. [**] A sea battle. 766. Roy. MS 20 D vi, ff. 20, 22, 97, 153v, 161v. Legends of the Saints. French, later 13th or else 15th century. [20] Ship; [22] Ships; [97] The martyrdom of St Clement, drowned in the sea with an anchor attached to his neck; [153v] Ship; [161v] Ships. 767. Roy. MS 20 D xi, ff. 140v, 166, 185. Songs from the Cycle of William of Orange. French or Low Countries, early 14th century. [140v] A sea battle; [166] A fight at sea with ships; [185] Ships.

city of Troy – ships offshore; [75-76] The city of Troy and the brazen horse – ships offshore; [161v] St Michael driving out Lucifer and his angels - ships and boats in the background. 732. Roy. MS 18 D iii, ff. 15v-16, 62v-63, 64v-65). Map of the Counties of England and Wales, by Christopher Saxton. English, late 16th century (c. 1595). [15v-16] Three ships in a panoramic view; [62v-63] Shipping; [64v-65] Shipping. 733. Roy. MS 18 E i, ff. 87v, 97v, 103, 103v. Jean Froissart’s Chroniques de France et d’Angleterre. French, later 15th century (c. 1460-80). [87v] Ships full of troops attack a castle; [97v] Two vessels on a river are attacked by men from a small boat; [103] English reinforcements for the Duke of Brittany arrive by shipping bearing the arms of both England and France; [103v] English troops depart for France. 734. Roy. MS 18 E ii, ff. 70v, 108, 249v, 328v. Jean Froissart’s Chroniques de France et d’Angleterre. French, later 15th century (c. 1460-80). [70v] Troops embarking on board a vessel; [249v] The Virgin Mary appears to the crew of a ship; [108] A sea battle; [328v] Shipping. 735. Roy. MS 18 E iii, f. 4. Le Livre de Valerius Maximus. English or French, late 15th century (c. 1479). [4] A sea battle. 736. Roy. MS 18 E v, f. 62v. Universal History. Flemish, late 15th century (c. 1473). [62v] Ships. 737. Roy. MS 19 A ii, f. **. Apocalypse, with prologue and commentary. French, late 15th century. [**] Landscape with sea views. 738. Roy. MS 19 B xv, ff. 12, 14v. Apocalypse, with prologue and commentary. English, late 15th century. [12] Ships; [14v] Ships. 739. Roy. MS 19 C i, ff. 32v, 33v, 57v, 203v. Miscellaneous poems. French, early 14th century. [32v] A vessel is beset by devils; [33v] Ships beset by devils; [57v] Noah’s ark; [203v] A sea battle. 740. Roy. MS 19 C iv, f. 160. A Treatise by Phillipe de Maizienes of Cyprus, written for King Charles V of France. French, later 14th century (c. 1378). [160] A shipwreck. 741. Roy. MS 19 C vi, ff. 64v, 78, 83, 107. Xenophon’s Anabasis, translated by Claude de Sey, Bishop of Marseille. French (Marseille), early 16th century (c. 1508-09). [64v] Ships; [83] A Battle; [107] Ships. 742. Roy. MS 19 C ix, f. 8. Chronique de France. French, mid 15th century. [8] Boats. 743. Roy. MS 19 D i, ff. 30, 37, 37v, 55, 58, 136, 187v, 213. Life of Alexander, with miscellaneous romances and travels. French, mid 14th century. [30] Mermaid alongside a vessel; [37] The flight of Alexander; [37v] Diving apparatus and ships; [55] Boats; [58] Boats; [136] Boats; [187v] Boats: the king of France and crusaders approach a Saracen fortress; [213] Boats; [**] A sea battle. 744. Roy. MS 19 D ii, ff. 12, 12v, 13v, 20, 395. Bible Historiale. French, mid 14th century. [12] Noah’s ark; [12v] Building Noah’s ark; [13v] Noah entering the ark; [20] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship; [395] Jonah is cast up by the whale next to a vessel. 745. Roy. MS 19 D iii, ff. 12v, 13v. Bible Historiale. French, 14th to 15th century (c. 1411?). [12v] Shipbuilding; [13v] Noah's Ark. 746. Roy. MS 19 D iv, f. 14v. Bible Historiale. French, mid 14th century. [14v] Noah’s ark. 747. Roy. MS 19 D vi, f. 12v. Bible Historiale. French, mid 14th century. [12v] Noah’s ark. 748. Roy. MS 19 E v, f. 336v. Romuleon, translated by Jean Mielot, Canon of Lille. French, late 15th century (c. 1480). [336v] Rustic bridge with vessels alongside. 749. Roy. MS 19 E vi, ff. 10, 15, 78, 115v, 126, 281, 388v, 396v, 403. Universal History and Les Croniques de Burgues, owned by the Duc de Berry. French, early 15 th century (1400-07). [10] A battle; [15] Noah’s ark; [78] Ship; [115v] Life of Alexander – Alexander on board a vessel; [126] Ships in battle; [281] A battle; [388v] 130

The Illuminated Ark

768. Roy. MS 20 E iii, f. 223. Partial Chroniques de France ou de Saint Denis, written for Sir Thomas Thwaytes, Treasurer of Calais, to give as a present to Henry VII. French (Calais?), later 15 th century (c. 1487). [223] Shipping. 769. Roy. MS 20 E vi, f. 15v. Partial Chroniques de France ou de Saint Denis, written for Sir Thomas Thwaytes, Treasurer of Calais, to give as a present to Henry VII. French (Calais?), later 15 th century (c. 1487). [15v] Ships. 770. Roy. MS 20 E ix, ff. 25, 26, 30. Portolano or Boke of Larography by John Rotz. English, mid 16th century (c. 1542). [25] Shipping; [26] Shipping; [30] Shipping. 771. Slo. MS 61, f. 32. Narrative of the First Part of Sir Francis Drake’s Record Voyage Around the World in 1577, by Francis Fletcher. English, later 16th century. [32] Boats. 772. Slo. MS 239, ff. 6v, 24, 91, 106v-107, 133v-34. Captain Sharp’s South Sea Waggoner. American, later 16 th century (c. 1584). [6v] Fleet of ships; [24] Fleet of ships; [91] Fleet of ships; [106v-107] Fleet of ships; [133v-134] Fleet of ships. 773. Slo. MS 278, ff. 42, 47, 51. Bestiary and Aviarium of Hugh of Folieto. French, 14 th century. [42] Three men in a rowing boat are beset by a siren; [47] A mermaid and centaur below a small boat, with three sailors; [51] Ships attacked by a serra. 774. Slo. MS 2433 B, f. 113. Grand Chronicle of France and The Story of the Expedition to Conquer the Canary Islands. French, 14th century. [113] A sea battle. 775. Slo. MS 2452, f. 158. Boccacio’s and Premierfait’s Fall of Princes, translated by John Lydgate. English (Bury St Edmunds?), mid 15th century (c. 1438-39 and 1440-50). [158] A man is slain on board a ship. 776. Slo. MS 3544, ff. 28v, 41v, 42v, 43. Bestiary. French or English, 14th century. [28v] Two men in a boat with a single sail are beset by a siren; [41v] Varieties of fish; [42v] Dolphin charmed by music played by a man in a boat from a hurdy-gurdy; [43] Boats. 777. Slo. MS 3983, ff. 6v, 7, 10, 11, 13, 14v-15, 17v, 30. The Story of Albumazar. English, early 14th century. [6v] Ships; [7] Ships; [10] Shipping; [11] Shipping; [13] Boats; [14v-15] Shipping; [17v] Shipping; [30] Shipping. 778. Stowe MS 12, f. 184v. Calendar and Breviary (the Sarum Stowe Breviary). English (Norwich), early 14 th century (c. 1322-25, with later additions). [184v] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 779. Stowe MS 17, f. 76v [3]. Book of Hours and Liturgies, and a Bestiary. Low Countries (Maastricht), 13 th to 14th century. [76] Sailboat. 780. Stowe MS 54, ff. 30v, 82, 82v. Universal History. French or English, 15th century. [30v] Small ship; [82] Fleet of ships; [82v] An army of knights is being transported in a fleet of ships. 781. YT. MS 3, f. 278. Book of Hours (the Hours of Jean Dunois). French, mid 15th century (c. 1450). [278] Boats on a lake. 782. YT. MS 8, ff. 213v, 249v. Breviary (the Breviary of Marguerite de Bar, winter portion). French (Lorraine), 13th to 14 th century (c. 1290-1310). [213] Moses as an infant on the raft; [249v] Jesus calls Peter and Andrew – two men in a small fishing boat drawing in a net between them. 783. YT. MS 9, f. 150. Bible. French, mid 13th century (c. 1260). [150] Jonah is vomited fourth by the whale next to a vessel. 784. YT. MS 12, ff. 58v, 188v. Miscellaneous works by William of Tyre. French, mid 13th century (c. 1250-60). [58v] Ship in initial ‘C’ - Bohemond and Daimbert, the Patriarch of Jerusalem, sail for Apulia; [188v] King Richard I of France and the Queen of Sicily board a ship. 785. YT. MS 13, ff. 26v, 27. Book of Hours (the Taymouth Hours). English, early 14th century. [26v] Noah’s ark at sea; [27] Noah’s ark after the flood.

786. YT. MS 14, f. 7. Psalter (the St Omer Psalter). English (Mulbarton, Norfolk), early 14th century (c. 1325-30). [7] The construction of the ark of Noah. 787. YT. MS 26, ff. 10v, 11, 26, 71v, 73. Bede’s Life and Miracles of St Cuthbert. English (Durham), 12th to 13 th century (c. 1200). [10v] Cuthbert rescues some ships off Tynemouth; [11] Cuthbert rescues some ships off Tynemouth; [26] Cuthbert and two of the brethren sail to the land of the Picts; [71v] Cuthbert takes a monk into his boat as he retires to Farne Island; [73] Cuthbert leaving Lindesfarne by boat. 788. YT. MS 31, ff. 43, 223v, 252. Breviary of Love. Spanish (Catalonia), 14th to 15 th century (c. 1400 onwards). [43] The fall of the rebel angels – devils attack and try to sink shipping; [223v] Boats; [252] Boats. 789. YT. MS 32, f. 10v. Chroniques Abregees des Anciens Rois et Ducs de Bourgogne. French, 15th to 16 th century (c. 1500). [10v] Frederic Barbarossa about to embark on his crusade by ship. 790. YT. MS 33, ff. 1, 35v, 244v. Chroniques de Normandie. French (Rouen), later 15th century. [1] Ship; [35v] Ships and boats; [244v] Shipping. 791. YT. MS 36 [3], ff. 6, 14, 30v, 56r, 65, 68, 190. Dante’s Divine Comedy, made for King Alphonse of Aragon and Naples. Italian (Sienna), mid 15th century (c. 1440). [6] Charon, the ferryman across the river Styx with his boat; [14] Dante and Virgil are rowed across the river Styx; [30v] Dante and Virgil are transported by Geryon on a boat to the Usurers; [65] The sails are hoisted in the little ship carrying Virgil and Dante on their journey to Purgatory; [68] Shipping; [190] Neptune, a nude figure with a trident, emerges from the sea and marvels at the shadow cast by the Argo sailing on the deep. 792. YT. MS 47, ff. 37, 61, 63, 71, 72, 129, 130, 180, 188, 193. John Lydgate’s Lives of Saints Edmund and Fremund. English (Bury St Edmunds?), late 15th century (c. 1461 onwards). [37] Edmund boards a ship; [61] King Lothbrocus is swept out to sea in a ship while hunting; [63] Lothbrocus is cast ashore in Norfolk; [71] Bern, the killer of King Lothbrok, is cast adrift in a boat as punishment; [72] Bern’s boat washes up in Denmark; [129] Fremund and two companions, all dressed like pilgrims, walk towards a boat; [130] Fremund and his two companions land on a desert island; [180] Aylwyn, with a shrine, crosses the river Thames at Stratford-le-Bow; [188] A man rows a boat to rescue a boy who fell into the Thames near London bridge; [193] The man in the boat hands the boy back to his mother. 793. YT. MS 97, f. 122. Bocaccio’s Des Cleres et Noles Femmes. French, 14th to 15 th century. [122] Theoxena, fleeing in a ship from Philip of Macedon, jumps into the sea rather than fall into the hands of her enemies. 794. YT. MS 171, f. 83v. Psalter (the Douai Psalter). English (East Anglia), early 14th century (c. 1322). [83v] Noah’s ark; [**] Jonah is cast to the whale from a vessel. Group E: The Bibliothèque de Arsenal and Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris Bibliothèque de Arsenal, Paris (Bib. Ars.): 795. MS **, f. **. Bible (the Bible of Jean de Papeleu). French (Paris), later 14th century (c. 1377). [**] Noah builds the ark. 796. MS 2, f. **. Bible. French, 12th century. [**] St Paul, St Timothy and St Simon together in a boat. 797. MS 412, f. 1. Unknown, unprovenanced, undated. [1] Boat. 798. MS 630, ff. 15v, 61v, 90v. Basinii Parmensis’ Hesperidas. French, late 15th century (c. 1499). [15v] Ship; [61v] Ship; [90v] Ship.

131

Appendix Two – Illuminated Manuscripts

799. MS 283, f. **. Bestiary and Picardi’s Physiologus. German, 14th century. [*] Shipping. 800. MS 1186, f. 13v. Psalter (the Psalter of St Louis of Blanche de Castile). French, mid 13th century (c. 1250). [13v] Ship. 801. MS 5070, ff. 51v, 60v, 91v, 330v. Boccacio’s Li livre Appelé Decameron. French (Vers?), early to mid 15 th century (c, 1414 or else 1445-50). [51v] A shipwrecked man clinging to a wooden trunk is helped to shore – a man loads sacks onto a single-masted merchant vessel; [60v] Ship; [91v] Ship; [330v] Man loading cargo onto a small ship - a shipwrecked man is washed up onto a nearby beach clinging to a wooden box and is helped ashore by a woman. 802. MS 5086, f. 30. Livre de la Premiére Bataille Punique. French, mid 15th century (c. 1445). [30] Ship. 803. MS 5090, f. 86. Croniques Abregies. French, 15 th century. [86] Ship. 804. MS 5187, ff. 21, 59. Froissart’s Chronicles. French, 15th century. [21] Ship; [59] Ship.

825. Fr. MS 112.1, f. 239. Le Estoire de Artur. French, later 15th century (c. 1470). [239] Tristan and Yseult drink the potion while seated in a small vessel at sea. 826. Fr. MS 124, f. 1. Romances. French, 14th century. [1] Ship. 827. Fr. MS 126, f. **. De Regimine Principum. French (Rouen), 15 th century. [**] Ships. 828. Fr. MS 136, f. 26. Bartholomaeus Anglicus’ On The Properties of Things. French (Le Mans), 15 th century. [26] Ship. 829. Fr. MS 159, f. 13. Miscellaneous works, illustrated by the workshop of the Master of the Coronation. French, 13th to 14th century. [13] Noah and family entering the ark. 830. Fr. MS 247, ff. 25, 39v, 49, 135v. Flavius Josephus’s History of the Jews, translated by Jean Fouquet. French, early 15th century (c. 1410-15). [25] The story of Joseph - two vessels are at sea in the far background; [39v] Ships; [49] The Hebrews in the desert – two vessels are at sea in the far background; [135v] A king surrenders his crown to a mass of troops by a riverside, with oared vessels on the river in the background. 831. Fr. MS 257, f. 39v. Des Fais du Grant Alexandre. French, 15th century. [39v] Ships. 832. Fr. MS 275, ff. 14, 18. Jehan Creton’s Fonds St Victor. French, 13th to 14th century. [14] Ships; [18] Ships. 833. Fr. MS 301, ff. 25, 26v, 58v, 153. Compilation, including Histoire Ancienne Jusqu á César, Faits des Romains, and Les Livres des Histoires du Commencement du Monde. Italian or French, 14 th to 16th century. [25] Ships; [26v] The city of Troy – vessels offshore; [58v] Ships; [153] Ships. 834. Fr. MS 365, f. 89. Roumuelon’s Traduction de Sebastien Mamerot de Soyssons. French, 15th century. [89] Ships. 835. Fr. MS 366, f. 114v. Roumuelon’s Traduction de Sebastien Mamerot de Soyssons. French, 15 th century. [114v] Ships. 836. Fr. MS 403, f. 1v. Apocalypse (the Paris Apocalypse) with gloss. English (Salisbury), mid 13th century (c. 1250-55). [1v] St John the Evangelist is put on board a ship to go to Rome. 837. Fr. MS 598, f. 16v. Cleres Femmes, illuminated by the Duc de Berry Master. French, 13th to 14th century. [16v] Isis arriving in Egypt on-board a single masted vessel. 838. Fr. MS 645, f. **. Chronicle of Saint Denis. French, 15 th century. [**] Ship. 839. Fr. MS 730, f. 6. Henri Romain’s Compendium Romanorum. French (Vers), mid 15th century (c. 1465-70). [6] A couple disembark from a ship - a battle rages on land. 840. Fr. MS 784, f. 70v. Crusader Manuscript. Holy Land (Jerusalem), 12th to 13th century. [70v] Aeneas leaving Carthage by boat. 841. Fr. MS 874, ff. 145, 182. Les Epistes d’Ovide. French, 16 th century. [145] Ship; [182] Ship. 842. Fr. MS 875, ff. 71v. Les Epistes d’Ovide. French, 16 th century. [71v] Ship. 843. Fr. MS 990, f. 2v. Jean Gerson’s Livre de Contemplacion. French, 15th century. [2v] Ship. 844. Fr. MS 1098, f. **. The Legends of Saint Denis. French, late 12 th or early 13th century (c. 1200). [**] Ship. 845. Fr. MS 1436, f. 133. The Form, Sermons and Ordinances of the Knights of the Round Table. French, 16 th century. [133] Ships. 846. Fr. MS 1454, f. 1v. Master Wistace’s Le Brut d’Angleterre. French, 15th century. [1v] Brutus arrives in England by ship. 847. Fr. MS 1533, f. 185. Master Wistace’s Le Brut d’Angleterre. French, 15th century. [185] Ship. 848. Fr. MS 2090-91, ff. 111, 125, 185. Compendium, including Gautier de Coinci’s La Miracles de Notre Dame and Yves Vie de Seint Denise. French (Paris), 13 th to 14 th century (c. 1280 onwards). [111] River boats unloading cargoes on the River Seine at Paris; [125] Ship; [185] The fearful merchant at sea who took back his offering to the Virgin Mary once danger had passed.

Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris (BNF): 805. MS **, f. **. Life and Miracles of St Denis. French, 14 th century. [**] St Denis on board a ship. 806. MS **, f. **. Life and Miracles of St Louis. French, mid 14 th century (c. 1330-50). [**] St Louis arriving by ship at Damietta. 807. MS **, f. **. Apocalypse. French (Norman), 12th to 13th century (c. 1200). [**] Ships. 808. MS**, f. **. Religious work (the Ashburnham Pentateuch). English, 7 th century. [**] Noah’s Ark. 809. MS **, f. **. Atlas. Spanish (Catalonia), later 14th century (c. 1370). [**] ship. 810. MS **, f. **. Illustrated Bible. French (Paris). Early 15th century (c. 1412). [**] Ships. 811. Coptic MS E 13, f. **. Evangeliar and Psalter. Syrian, later 14th century (c. 1370). [**] Ships. 812. Cod. MS 2186, f. **. Roman de la Poire. French, later 13th century (c. 1270). [**] Vessel with three men and a woman on-board. 813. Fr. MS 19, f. **. St Augustine’s La Cite de Dieu. French (Paris), 15th century. [**] Ships. 814. Fr. MS 28, f. **. St Augustine’s La Cite de Dieu. French, later 15th century (c. 1460). [**] Ships. 815. Fr. MS 38, f. 157v. Jean Duchesne’s Commentaires de César. French or Netherlands, later 15th century (c. 1483). [157v] A sea battle. 816. Fr. MS 53, f. 142. Jehan Mansel’s La Fleur des Hystoires. French, 15th century. [142] Ships. 817. Fr. MS 54, f. 160. Jehan Mansel’s La Fleur des Hystoires. French, 16th century. [160] Ships. 818. Fr. MS 59, f. 308. Raoul le Fevre’s Le Recueil des Hystoires de Troyez. French, 15 th century. [308] Ships. 819. Fr. MS 77, f. 386v. Jehan de Warrin’s Anchiennes Cronieques d’Engleterre. French, 15 th century. [386v] Ships. 820. Fr. MS 95, ff. 61v, 89. La Estoire Merlin. French, late 13 th century (c. 1290). [61v] Phyllis and Aristotle on board a ship; [89] Celidoine and the lion set adrift. 821. Fr. MS 100, ff. 71, 109. Le Livre de Tristan … et Yseult. French, 14th century. [71] The departure from Ireland by ship; [109] Ship. 822. Fr. MS 101, f. 349. Le livre de Tristan … et Yseult. French, 16 th century. [349] Ship. 823. Fr. MS 102, f. 1. Le Roman de Tristan. French, 15 th century. [1] Ship. 824. Fr. MS 103, f. 1. Le Roman de Tristan. French, 15th century (c. 1470). [1] The love potion and the return of the bodies of the lovers by ship. 132

The Illuminated Ark

864. Fr. MS 5388, f. **. Chronicles of Normandy. French (Normandy), 14th century. [**] Ships. 865. Fr. MS 5594, ff. 33, 34, 34v, 35, 109, 112, 157, 205, 211, 217, 232, 248, 251, 267, 267v, 269, 274. Sebastien Mumerot de Soissons’ Les Passages Faiz Oultremer. French, later 15 th century (c. 1473). [33] Two one-masted vessels and a rowboat; [34] Ships; [34v] Three one-masted vessels; [35] Three-masted vessels; [109] One one-masted ship, a boat and a dock; [112] Three one-masted ships alongside a quay; [157] Several small craft and also a threemasted vessel; [205] Numerous vessels; [211] Three-masted vessel; [217] Fleets of one-masted vessels – Crusader carracks off Constantinople; [232] Fleets of one-masted vessels; [248] Vessels at a distance; [251] Vessels at a distance; [267] A flat-bottomed barge-like craft; [269] Fleets of one-masted vessels; [274] Fleets of one-masted vessels. 866. Fr. MS 5847, ff. **, **. Sherfer Ibn al-Harírí of Basrah’s Maqãmãt, illustrated by al-Wasiti. Middle Eastern (Syrian?), early 13th century (c. 1237 onwards). [**] A sewn boat on the river Tigris; [**]A sewn boat by the Eastern Isles. 867. Fr. MS 6272, f. **. St Augustine’s La Cite de Dieu. Flemish, early 15th century (c. 1405). [**] Ships. 868. Fr. MS 6275, f. 4. Vincent de Beauvais’ Miroir de la Salvation Humaine. French, mid 15th century (c. 1449). [4] Ships. 869. Fr. MS 6440, f. 163. Quinte Curce’s Histoire d’Alexandre. French, 15th century. [163] Ships. 870. Fr. MS 6446, f. 128v. Flavius Josephus’s Antiquites des Juifs. French, 14th century. [128v] Jonah is cast to the whale from a ship. 871. Fr. MS 6465, f. 284v. Flavius Josephus’s Antiquites des Juifs. French, 15th century. [284v] Ships. 872. Fr. MS 6646, f. 128v. Flavius Josephus’s Antiquites des Juifs. French, 15th century. [128v] Jonah escapes the whale near to a ship. 873. Fr. MS 7806, f. **. Unknown. Greek, 12th century. [**] Ships. 874. Fr. MS 8266, f. 53. Pierre le Baud’s Compillation des Chronicques et Ystoires des Bretons. French (Brittany), later 15th century (c. 1480-82). [53] An army lands from a fleet of vessels and immediately moves slightly inland to fight a battle. 875. Fr. MS 9081, f. 26. Crusader manuscript. Holy Land (Jerusalem), 12th to 13th century. [26] The siege of Niceae - Kilidj Arslan’s wife and sons are captured whilst trying to escape by boat. 876. Fr. MS 9082, f. 334. History of Outremer. Italian (Rome), late 13 th century (c. 1295). [334] (Book 27, Chapter 1) King Louis IX sails from the Holy Land for France. 877. Fr. MS 9084, f. 125v. History of Outremer. Holy Land (Acre), late 13 th century (c. 1286). [125v] Philippe I of France prepares to give two of his daughters as wives to Bohemond and Tancred – vessels in background. 878. Fr. MS 9087, f. 207v. Le Siege de Constantinople par le Grand Turc, and Bertrand de la Broquiere’s Voyage d’ Outremer. French (Lille), mid 15th century (c. 1455). [207v] A large fleet of ships off Constantinople, all in the background. 879. Fr. MS 9141, f. 217v. The Division of the World, with miniatures from the Bouciaut workshop. French, 13th to 14th century. [217v] Vessels at anchor before a cityscape. 880. Fr. MS 9198, ff. 21, 50, 51. Jean Mielot’s Miracles de Notre Dame et Miracles de l’Abbe Helsin. French (Paris?), 15th century. [21] Shipping; [51] Shipping. 881. Fr. MS 9199, ff. 5, 6, 30, 33, 61. Jean Mielot’s Miracles de Notre Dame et Miracles de l’Abbe Helsin. French (Paris?), 15th century. [5] Shipping; [6] Shiping; [30] Shipping; [33] Shipping. 882. Fr. MS 9682, f. 26. Miscellaneous crusader manuscript. Holy Land (Jerusalem), 12th to 13th century. [26] Aeneas leaving Carthage by boat.

849. Fr. MS 2092, ff. 1, 22v, 37v, 42, 111. Life of St Denis. French (Paris?), early 14th century (c, 1317). [1] River boats; [22v] A monk buys fresh fish from a boatman; [37v] Corn arriving by boat for grinding and coal leaving by ship for export; [42] River boats unloading cargoes on the River Seine at Paris; [111] Imports from around the world arrive by boat in Paris. 850. Fr. MS 2628, ff., 22, 89v, 293v, 300v, 313v, 328v. History of William of Tyre. Holy Land (Jerusalem), 12th to 13th century. [22] The siege of Niceae: Kilidj Arslan’s wife is captured while trying to escape by boat; [89v] Bohemond’s departure from Apulia, and his arrival, both by ship; [293v] Ships; [300v] John of Brieme arrives by ship in the Holy Land – he is crowned; [313v] The Empress Isabella’s death in childbirth – Frederick II leaves by ship for the Holy Land; [328v] St Louis at the ship-based siege of Damietta. 851. Fr. MS 2631, f. 111v. History of Outremer. France (Lombardy), late 13th century (c. 1291-95). [111v] (Book 13, Chapter 1) The Crusaders besiege Tyre. 852. Fr. MS 2643, ff. 7, 7v, 13v, 42v, 72, 74v, 118, 188, 352, 388v, 393. Froissart’s Chronicles. French, 15th century. [7] Arrival at Dover of Edward II and Queen Isabel of France in 1307; [7v] Ships; [13v] Ships; [42v] ships; [72] Battle of Sluys; [74v] ships; [118] Sea-battle off Guernsey; [188] Ships; [352] Ships; [388v] ships; [393] Ships. 853. Fr. MS 2644, ff. 85, 154v. Froissart’s Chronicles. French, 15 th century. [85] Ships; [154v] Ships. 854. Fr. MS 2645, ff. 1, 245v. Froissart’s Chronicles. French, 15th century. [1] ships; [245v] Ships. 855. Fr. MS 2646, ff. 58v, 79. Froissart’s Chronicles. Flanders (Bruges), 14th to 15th century. [58v] Ships; [79] Ships. 856. Fr. MS 2685, f. 159. Jean de Caray’s La Bouquechardiere. French (Normandy), mid 15th century (c. 1457-61). [159] Different types and sizes of vessel off a townscape. 857. Fr. MS 2810, ff. 14v, 28, 73v, 86v, 91, 188v, 263. Le Livre des Hystoires des Parties d’Orient et Le Livre de Merveille, with illuminations by the Bouiciaut workshop. French, early 14th century (c. 1307), with 16th century additions. [14v] A trading ship from India lands goods at Ormuz in Iran; [28] Ships; [73v] Ships; [86] Bales of wool unloaded from Boats; [91] Animals fed on fish in the city of Escier: four vessels are in the left foreground, all with single masts and piled with cargoes; [188v] Ships; [263] Two vessels; [**] Sea-fights, including the Battle of Sluys in 1340; [**] Noah’s ark. 858. Fr. MS 2813, ff. 4, 165, 237, 245v, 281, 285v, 298v, 299v, 368, 417, 473v. Les Grandes Chroniques de la France. French (Paris), early 14th century (c. 1307). [4] Ships; [165] Ships; [237] Ships; [245v] Ships; [281] Ships; [298v] Ships; [299v] Ships; [368] Ships; [417] Ships; [473v] Ships. 859. Fr. MS 2824, f. 80v. Unknown, unprovenanced, undated. [80v] Troops landed from ships attack a castle under supporting fire from the vessels. 860. Fr. MS 2829, ff. 8, 18, 32v, 47v. Le Livre des Faiz Monseigneur Saint Loys. French (Vers), later 15 th century (c. 1482). [8] ships; [18] Henry III lands in Aquitaine; [47v] A royal couple board a large and luxurious vessel. 861. Fr. MS 4274, f. 6. Statutes de l‘Ordre et Status de Forde du Saint Esprit. French, mid 14th century (c. 1352). [6] Departing by ship for the Crusades. 862. Fr. MS 5054, f. 216. Jean Chartier’s La Chronique du Temps su Tres Chrestien Roy de France. French, late 15 th century. [216] Surrender of the port of Bordeaux. 863. Fr. MS 5193, f. **. Boccacio’s Des Jean sans Peur. French, 14 th to 15th century. [**] Ships.

133

Appendix Two – Illuminated Manuscripts

909. Lat. MS 7239, ff. 24, 61v, 104, 108. Pauli Savetini’s Ducensis Tractus de re Militari et de Machinis Bellicis. French, 15th century. [24] Ship; [61v] Ship; [104] Ship; [108] Ship. 910. Lat. MS 8200, f. 49v. Virgil’s Geography of the Aeneid. French (Vers), mid 15th century (c. 1460). [49v] An inshore sea-battle. 911. Lat. MS 8846, ff. 1v, 3v. Psalter (the Great Canterbury Psalter) (Carolingian copy of the Utrecht Psalter). English (Christ Church Canterbury?), late 12th century (c. 1180-90?). [1v] Noah’s ark; [3v] Christ calms a storm at sea while on board a ship. 912. Lat. MS 8878, f. 139. Explicatio aus der Gascogne. French, 11 th century. [139] Ships. 913. Lat. MS 9473, f. 19. Book of Hours. French, 15th century. [19] Ship. 914. Lat. MS 9661, f. 123v. Aethicus. French, 15th century. [123v] Ship. 915. Lat. MS 10136, ff. 7, 105v, 108. Annales de Genes par Caffaro. French, 12th to 13th century. [105v] Ship; [108] Ship. 916. Lat. MS 10491, f. 166v. Diurnal de Rene II de Lorraine. French (Lorraine), late 15th century (c. 1492-93). [166v] Jonah is thrown to the whale from a vessel. 917. Lat. MS 18014, ff. 174v, 176v, 181v. Pseudo-Jacquemart. French, 13th to 14th century. [174v] Christ, St Martha and St Julian on a voyage; [176v] Christ, St Martha and St Julian on a voyage; [181v] Christ, St Martha and St Julian on a voyage. 918. Lat. MS 18104, f. 181v. Jean du Berry’s Petites Heures. French (Paris), 14th century. [181v] Ships. 919. Mazarine MS 870, f. 103. Le Livre de Piete ou le Miroir de l’ame. French, late 13th century (c. 1295). [103] Ship. 920. Roth MS 2529, ff. 175v, 409v. Breviary (the Breviary of Martin of Aragon). Spanish (Catalonia), 15th century. [409v] Ship. 921. Supp. Lat. MS 632/25, f. **. Bestiary. English, 14th century. [**] Ship. 922. Supp. Lat. MS 773, f. **. Annales Januenses. French, 12th to 13th century (c. 1154-1235). [**] Ship.

883. Fr. MS 10420, f. 1v. Pierre Sala’s Les Prouesses de Plusieurs Vays. French (Lyon), early 16th century (c. 1523). [1v] Four barges in front of a cityscape. 884. Fr. MS 12420, f. 31. Boccacio’s Des Femmes Nobles et Renommees. French, late 15th century. [31] Ships. 885. Fr. MS 12566, f. 1. Livre du Roy Flourimont. French, 13th to 14th century. [1] Ship. 886. Fr. MS 14969, f. 42v. Guillaume le Clerc’s Bestiary and Lapidary. French, mid to late 13th century (c. 1265-70). [42v] The whale, with ship alongside. 887. Fr. MS 20125, ff. 9, 123v, 156v. Histoire Universelle. Holy Land (Acre), later 13th century (c. 1287). [9] Noah’s ark; [123v] Beleus and Jason, with the sailing of the Argo; [156v] Aeneas leaving Carthage by boat. 888. Fr. MS 22495, f. 21. Miscellaneous crusader manuscript. [21] Crusaders embark for the Holy Land. 889. Fr. MS 22540, f. 59. Histoire de Julius Cesar et de Pompee le Grant. French, 15 th century. [59] Ships. 890. Fr. MS 22547, ff. 65, 242. Quinte Curce’s Histoire du Grant Alexandre de Macedoine. French, mid 15th century (c. 1470). [65] Ships; [242] Ships. 891. Fr. MS 25374, f. 28v. Unknown, unprovenanced, mid 16 th century (c. 1548). [28v] Detailed portrait of a mid 16th century warship. 892. MS Grec. 54, f. 124v. Evangelical. French, 13th century. [124v] Ship. 893. MS Grec. 135, f. 220v. Commentarius in Librum Jobi. French, later 14th century (c. 1368). [220v] Ship. 894. MS Grec. 510, f. 3v. Miscellaneous works by Gregor von Nazianz. French, 15th century. [3v] Vessel using an early version of the lateen rig. 895. MS Grec. 2736, ff. 2, 51v. Unknown, unprovenanced, undated. [2] Shipping; [51v] Shipping. 896. MS Lat. 1, ff. 3, 3v. Bible (the Bible of Charles the Bald). French, mid 9th century (c. 846-850). [3] The sea journey of St Hieronymus to Jerusalem; [3v] St Jerome in a boat. 897. MS Lat. 15, f. 350. Bible. English (Worcester), mid 13 th century (c. 1250). [350] Jonah is cast to a whale from a ship. 898. MS Lat. 1052, ff. 7, 283. Breviary (the Breviary of Charles V). French, 14th century. [7] Isaiah announcing the coming of the Messiah – vessels in background; [283] St Peter in a boat. 899. MS Lat. 1165 [B], f. 174. Book of Hours (the Hours of Margaret of Orleans). French (Vers), mid 15th century (c. 1430). [174] Six vessels in the lower border: one is a rowing boat with oars and a cloth canopy, the others all similar larger vessels with single square sails, one of which is tied-up alongside land and is unloading sacks onto a horse-drawn cart. 900. Lat. MS 1429, f. **. Liber Precum of Heinrich II. German, 16 th century. [**] Ship. 901. Lat. MS 1560, f. **. Bible Historiale et Moralisee. Spanish, 13th century. [**] Ship. 902. Lat. MS 1673, ff. 87, 97v. Albucasis’ Observations sur la Nature. French, 12 th to 15th century. [87] Ship; [97v] Ship. 903. Lat. MS 4915, f. 46v. Gianni Colonna’s Mare Historiarum. French, mid 15th century (c. 1447-55). [46v] Shipwrights work. 904. Lat. MS 5565 A, f. 101. Unknown, unprovenanced, 15 th century. [101 Shipping. 905. Lat. MS 6067, f. 82. Guillaume Caursin’s Prise de Rhodes. French, 15 th century. [82] Ship. 906. Lat. MS 6142, ff. 1, 2v. Manuscript of king Charles VIII of France. Italian (Naples), 15th century. [1] Ship; [2v] Ship. 907. Lat. MS 7234, f. 104v. Vegetius’s De Re Militari. French, 15 th century. [104v] Ship. 908. Lat. MS 7236, f. 170. Roberti Valturii’s Mahomet Bey Sultanum. French, mid 15th century (c. 1463). [170] Ship. 134

The Illuminated Ark

Appendix 2, Addendum 1: List of Manuscripts by Date Order



Early 6th to late 8th Century  BNF MS**. The Ashburnham Pentateuch. English, 7th century.



8th -9th Century  NIL

Late 12th Century  BNF Lat. MS 8846. The Great Canterbury Psalter. English (Christ Church Canterbury?), late 12 th century (c. 1180-90?).  Bod. Lib. Bodley MS 725. Peter Lombard’s Commentary on the Pauline Epistles. English (Exeter?), late 12th century.  BL Harl. Roll Y6. The Legend and Life of St Guthlac of Croyland. English, late 12th century.  BL Roy. MS 14 E v. Jehan de Certald’s Des cas des Nobles Hommes et Femmes Malaeureux. Bruges, later 12 th century (c. 1170-83).  CCCC MS 22. Isidore’s Etymologia et Synonyma. English, later 12th century.  GUL MS Hunter. 229. Psalter. English, late 12 th century (c. 1170).  JRUL MS 8. Beatus Super Apocalypse. Spanish, late 12th century.  New Coll. MS 274. Pliny’s Natural History. English (St Albans?) or French, late 12th century.  Trinity MS R. 17. 1. The Psalter of Edward of Canterbury. English (Christ Church, Canterbury), mid 12 th century (c. 1150).  CUL MS Ii. 4. 26. Bestiary. English, late 12th century.  Winchester, Winchester Bible. English (Winchester), later 12 th century (c. 1150-80).

Early 9th Century  BNF Lat. MS 1. Bible. French, mid 9th century (c. 846-850). Late 9th Century  NIL 9th to 10th Century  NIL Early 10th Century  Bod. Lib. Auct MS D. 2. 4. Miscellaneous documents. Italian, 10th century.  BL Harl. MS 3718. Luit Prandi Ticinensis Chronicorum. Italian, 10th century. Late 10th Century  Bod. Lib. Auct. MS T. 2. 27. Macribius’ Commentary on Cicero’s Somium Scripionis. French, late 10 th century. 10th to 11th Century  Bod. Lib. Junius MS 11. The ‘Caedmon’ manuscript. English (Christ Church, Canterbury), 10 th to 11th century (c. 1000).  BL Cott. Claud. MS B iv. The Aelfric Paraphrase. English, 10 th to 11th century (c. 1000 onwards).  BL Harl. MS 603. Psalter. English, 10th to 11 th century (c. 1000).

GUL Hunter. MS 279. Boethius’ Consolation of Philosophy. English, 12th century (c. 1120-40). Univ. MS 165. Bede’s Life of St Cuthbert. English (Durham), early 12th century (c. 1120).

12th to 13th Century  BNF MS **. Apocalypse. French (Norman), 12th to 13 th century (c. 1200).  BNF Fr. MS 784. Crusader Manuscript. Holy Land (Jerusalem), 12th to 13 th century.  BNF Fr. MS 1098. The Legends of Saint Denis. French, late 12th or early 13th century (c. 1200).  BNF Fr. MS 9081. Crusader manuscript. Holy Land (Jerusalem), 12th to 13 th century.  BNF Fr. MS 2628. History of William of Tyre. Holy Land (Jerusalem), 12th to 13 th century.  BNF Fr. MS 9682. Crusader manuscript. Holy Land (Jerusalem), 12th to 13 th century.  BNF Lat. MS 1673. Albucasis’ Observations sur la Nature. French, 12 th to 15th century.  BNF Lat. MS 10136. Annales de Genes par Caffaro. French, 12th to 13th century.  BNF Supp. Lat. MS 773. Annales Januenses. French, 12 th to 13th century (c. 1154-1235).  Bod. Lib. Douce MS 180. Heraldry. English (Christ Church, Canterbury?), 12th to 13 th century (c. 1150-1200 or before 1272?).  Bod. Lib. Gough Liturg. MS 2. Psalter. English, 12 th to 13 th century (c. 1200).  BL Add. MS 38658. Lectionary. German, 12th to 15 th centuries.  BL Add. MS 39943. Bede’s Life and Miracles of Saint Cuthbert. English (Durham), late 12th century (c. 1200).  BL Ar. MS 157. Psalter and Book of Hours. English (Oxford), 12th to 13 th century (c. 1200-10).  BL Burn. MS 275. Collection of philosophical works. French, 12th to 13 th century.  BL Cott. Cleo. MS D ii. Book of vespers. French, 12th to 14th century.  BL Cott. Nero MS C iv. The Psalter of Henry of Blois. Spanish or Low Counties, 12th or 13th century.

Early 11th Century  BNF Lat. MS 8878. Explicatio aus der Gascogne. French, 11th century.  BL Add. MS 40731. The Bristol Psalter. Greek, 11th century.  BL Cott. Tib. MS B v. Anglo-Saxon Calendar. English or French, 11th century (c. 1025-50). Late 11th Century  BL Add. MS 19352. The Theodore Psalter. Greek, later 11 th century (c. 1066).  BL Roy. MS 13 A i. Romance and History of Alexander the Great. English, late 11th century. 11th to 12th Century  NIL Early 12th Century  BNF Fr. MS 7806. Unknown. Greek, 12th century.  Bib. Ars. MS 2. Bible. French, 12 th century.  Bod. Lib. MS Bodley 614. Calendar and treatise on astronomy. English, mid 12 th century.  BL Add. MS 11695. The Silos Apocalypse. Spanish or Italian, early 12th century (c. 1109).  BL Ar. MS 91. Story of the Caesars. English, 12th century.  BL Cott. Tib. MS B iii. Calendar, Benedictionary and History. English, mid 12 th century.  BL MS Lans. 383. Psalter. English, early 12 th century.  CCCO MS 157. Chronicle of John of Worcester. English, early 12th century (c. 1118-40). 135

Appendix Two – Illuminated Manuscripts

BL Harl. MS 4751. Bestiary and Moralised Natural History. English (Christ Church Canterbury?), 12th to 14th century (c. 1230-40 or c. 1300). BL MS M. 751. Life of St Anselm of Canterbury. English, 12th to 14th century. BL Roy. MS 2 A xxii. The Westminster Psalter. English (St Albans or Westminster), 12 th to 13th century (c. 1200). BL Roy. MS 13 B viii. Miscellaneous works by Gerald of Wales, Henry of Saltrey and Alain of Lille. English, 12th to 13th century (after c. 1170). BL Roy. MS 20 D ii. Romance of Tristan. French (Paris), 12th to 13th century (c. 1300 onwards). BL MS YT 26. Bede’s Life and Miracles of St Cuthbert. English (Durham), 12th to 13 th century (c. 1200). LCL MS F. 091 PSA. Psalms. English (Winchester), 12th to 13th century (c. 1200-10). Magd. MS 5. The Crowland Apocalypse. English (Crowland?), 12th to 13 th century.

 

Early 13th Century  BNF Fr. MS 5847. Sherfer Ibn al-Harírí of Basrah’s Maqãmãt. Middle Eastern (Syrian?), early 13th century (c. 1237 onwards).  BNF Grec. MS 54. Evangelical. French, 13 th century.  BNF Lat. MS 1560. Bible. Spanish, 13th century.  Bod. Lib. MS Ashmole 1511. The Ashmole Bestiary. English (Peterborough?), early 13th century.  Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 3. 4. Bible. English, mid 13th century.  Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 3. 5. Bible. English, mid 13th century.  Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 3. 8. Bible. French, 13th century.  Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 5. 9. Bible. English, 13 th century.  Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 5. 13. Bible. English [?], 13th century.  Bod. Lib. MS Barlow 6. John of Salisbury’s Policraticus. English (Malmesbury?), mid 13th century (c. 1225-50).  Bod. Lib. Barocci MS 201. Bible. Byzantine, early 13 th century.  Bod. Lib. Barocci MS 210. Bible. Byzantine, early 13 th century.  Bod. Lib. Bodley MS 270b. Bible. French (Paris), mid 13 th century (c. 1235-45).  Bod. Lib. Bodley MS 602. Bestiary. English (St Albans?), mid 13th century.  Bod. Lib. Bodley MS 764. Bestiary. English, mid 13 th century.  Bod. Lib. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 44a. Bible Commentary. Italian, mid 13 th century.  Bod. Lib. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 47. Bible. French, mid 13 th century (c. 1200-50).  Bod. Lib. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 52. Bible. French, 13 th century.  Bod. Lib. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 58. Bible. Italian, 13 th century.  Bod. Lib. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 79. Bible. French, mid 13 th century.  Bod. Lib. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 92. Bible. French, mid 13 th century.  Bod. Lib. Douce MS 132. Moralised Bestiary. English, mid 13 th century.  Bod. Lib. Douce MS 167. Bestiary. English, mid 13th century.  Bod. Lib. Lat. Bibl. MS e. 7. Bible. English, 13th century.  Bod. Lib. Lat. Th. MS B. 1 (R). Peter of Poitiers’ Compendium Historiae. English, early 13th century (c. 1200-50).  Bod. Lib. Laud. Lat. MS 95. Psalter. English (Ely), early 13th century (c. 1200-50).  Bod. Lib. Liturg. MS 407. Psalter. English (Amesbury?), early 13th century.  Bod. Lib. Rawl. MS B. 483. Gerald of Wales’ Topography of Ireland. English, 13th century.  Bod. Lib. Rawl. MS G. 14. Bible. English, 13 th century.

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       

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                         136

BL Add. MS 41751. Bible. French, mid 13 th century. BL Add. MS 62925. The Rutland Psalter. English (London?), mid 13th century (c. 1250-60). BL Ar. MS 484. Codex Membranaceus by Johannis Pirckheymer. German, early 13th century. BL Burn. MS 3. Bible. English (Christ Church Canterbury?), 13 th century (c. 1224-53). BL Cott. Claud. MS D vi. Map of Britain by Matthew Paris. English, mid 13th century (c. 1250). BL Cott. Faust. MS B vii. Universal Chronicle. English, early 13th century (c. 1208-16). BL Cott. Jul. MS D vii. Fragments of a work on astronomy. English, mid 13th century. BL Cott. Nero MS D i. Miscellaneous works by Matthew of Paris. English or French, 13th century. BL Eger. MS 613. Miscellanies. French or English, 13th century. BL Harl. 616. Bible. English or French, mid 13th century. BL Harl. MS 3244. Peraldus’s Liber de Vitiis. English, early 13 th century (c. 1235). BL Harl. MS 5102. Psalter. English (East Midlands?), early 13 th century (c. 1220). BL Lans. MS 431. Psalter and Calendar. English (East Anglia), early 13th century (c. 1220-30). BL Lans. MS 782. Romance of Gerard de Roussilon. French, 13 th century. BL Loan MS 88. Fragmentary Life of St Thomas Becket. English, 13th century. CCCO MS 107. Bible. English, mid 13th century. CCCO MS Gr. 25. Bible. Byzantine, 13th century. CCCC MS 75. Psalter. English (East Anglia), early 13 th century (c. 1220). CCCC MS 83. Peter of Riga’s De Operibus and Peter of Poitier’s Compendium Historia. English, early 13th century (c. 1220). Eton MS 96. Peter of Poitier’s Compendium Veteris Testamenti. English (St Albans), mid 13th century (c. 1245-54). Fitz. MS 254. Bestiary. English, early 13th century. Fitz. MS 333. Bible. English, early 13 th century (c. 1230?). Gonville & Caius MS 350/567. Bible. English (Oxford), mid 13 th century (c. 1230-40). JRUL MS **. Bible and Speculum Humanae Salvationis. French, 13th century. JRUL MS 5. Bible and Speculum Humanae Salvationis. Low Countries, early 13th century (c. 1225). JRUL MS 22. Psalter. French (Paris), mid 13th century. Lamb. MS 563. Psalter and Hymnal. English (St Neot’s?), early 13th century (c. 1220). Lincoln’s Inn MS Hale 123. Bible. English, mid 13th century (c. 1230-40). Merseyside Mayer MS 12017. Universal Chronicle. English, mid 13th century (c. 1230-40). New Coll. MS 7. Bible. English, early 13th century (c. 1220-30). New Coll. MS 322. Choir Psalter. English (Oxford), mid 13 th century (after 1246 or 1240-50). PCL MS 10. Bible. English, early 13th century (c. 1230-40). Soc. Antiq. MS 59. The Psalter of Robert de Lindesey. English (Peterborough), early 13 th century (c. 1222 and earlier). St John’s MS 81. Psalter and Hours of the Virgin. English (London), early 13th century (c. 1210-20). Trinity MS R. 14. 9. Bestiary. English (Oxford), mid 13th century (c. 1260-70). Trinity MS R. 16. 2. The Trinity Apocalypse. English, early or mid 13th century (c. 1230 or c. 1255-60). CUL MS Ee. 2 .23. Bible. English, mid 13th century (c. 1230-40).

The Illuminated Ark



Wadham MS 1. Bible. French (Paris), mid 13 th century (c. 1244?).

 

Late 13th Century  ASC MS 2. Bible. English, 13 th century (c. 1250-75).  ASC MS 6. The Amesbury Psalter. English (Salisbury), mid 13 th century (c. 1250-60).  ACL MS 447. Bestiary. English, mid 13 th century (c. 1250-60).  Balliol MS 2. Bible. French or Italian (Bologna?), late 13th century (c. 1280-90).  BNF Cod. MS 2186. Roman de la Poire. French, later 13th century (c. 1270).  BNF Fr. MS 95. La Estoire Merlin. French, late 13 th century (c. 1290).  BNF Fr. MS 403. The Paris Apocalypse. English (Salisbury), mid 13th century (c. 1250-55).  BNF Fr. MS 2631. History of Outremer. France (Lombardy), late 13th century (c. 1291-95).  BNF Fr. MS 9082. History of Outremer. Italian (Rome), late 13 th century (c. 1295).  BNF Fr. MS 9084. History of Outremer. Holy Land (Acre), late 13th century (c. 1286).  BNF Fr. MS 14969. Bestiary and Lapidary. French, late 13 th century (c. 1265-70).  BNF Fr. MS 20125. Histoire Universelle. Holy Land (Acre), later 13th century (c. 1287).  BNF Lat. MS 15. Bible. English (Worcester), mid 13th century (c. 1250).  BNF Mazarine MS 870. Le Livre de Piete ou le Miroir de l’ame. French, late 13th century (c. 1295).  Blackburn MS 091. 21001. Psalter. English (Oxford), later 13 th century (c. 1270-80).  Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 1. 17. Bible. French, late 13th century (c. 1250-1300).  Bod. Lib. MS Auct D. 4. 17. Apocalypse. English, mid 13 th century (c. 1250-60).  Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 4. 8. Bible. English, later 13th century.  Bod. Lib. Bodley Rolls 3. Fistory of Britain and genealogy of the kings of Britain to Edward I. English, late 13th century.  Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 5. 17. Bible. French (Paris), mid 13 th century.  Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. inf. 2. 2. Bible. English, mid 13th century (c. 1250-75).  Bod. Lib. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 11. Bible. French, later 13 th century.  Bod. Lib. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 41. Bible. French, late 13 th century.  Bod. Lib. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 48. Bible. Italian, late 13 th century.  Bod. Lib. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 56. Bible. Italian, later 13 th century (c. 1267).  Bod. Lib. Canon. Liturg. MS 393. Psalter. Italian or Levantine (?), late 13th century (c. 1275-1300).  Bod. Lib. Digby MS 9. Bible. English, later 13 th century (c. 127080).  Bod. Lib. Digby MS 86. English and Anglo-Norman prose and poetry miscellany. English (Worcester?), later 13th century (c. 1272-82).  Bod. Lib. Digby MS 223. Romance of Lancelot du Lac. French, late 13 th century.  Bod. Lib. D’Orville MS 212. Bible. French, late 13 th century.

                             

137

Bod. Lib. Douce MS 113. Bible. French, later 13 th century (after 1250). Bod. Lib. Douce MS 11. Psalter and Book of Hours. French (Artois), later 13th century. Bod. Lib. Laud Misc. MS 644. Astrological and astronomical manuscript. French (Bayeux), late 13th century (c. 1268-74). Bod. Lib. Laud Misc. MS 720. Gerald of Wales’ Topography of Ireland. English, later 13 th century. Bod. Lib. Rawl. MS G. 6. Bible. French, later 13 th century. Bod. Lib. Tanner MS 184. Apocalypse with commentary. English, later 13 th century. BL MS **. Universal History. Holy Land (Acre), 13th century (c. 1285). BL Add. Roll 60628. Chronicle of Peter of Poitiers. English, mid 13th century (c. 1250). BL Add. MS 15268. Universal History. Italian or Holy Land (Acre?), mid 13th century (c. 1225-75 or later). BL Add. MS 21926. The Grandisson Psalter. English (Chichester), later 13th century (c. 1270-80). BL Add. MS 24686. Psalter. English, late 13th century (c. 1284). BL Add. MS 28681. Psalter. English (London), later 13th century (after c. 1262). BL Add. MS 35166. Apocalypse. English (London), late 13 th century (c. 1260). BL Add. MS 42555. Apocalypse. English (London?), later 13 th century (c. 1270-75). BL Add. MS 44874. The Evesham Psalter. English, mid 13 th century (after c. 1246). BL Add. MS 50000. The Oscott Psalter. English (Oxford), later 13th century (c. 1265-70). BL Add. MS 52778. Bible. English (York?), later 13th century (c. 1260-80). BL Add. MS 54179. The York Psalter. English, later 13th century (c. 1260). BL Add. MS 54215. Psalter. English (Oxford), later 13th century (c. 1265-70). BL Cott. Galba Charter 14. 4. Genealogy of the Kings of Britain to Edward I. English (St Mary’s Abbey, York), late 13th century. BL Eger. MS 1066. Psalter. English (East Anglia), late 13 th century (c. 1270-90). BL Harl. MS 1526. Bible. Spanish, late 13th century. BL Harl. MS 1527. Bible. Spanish, late 13th century. BL Roy. MS 1 B xii. The Bible of William of Hales. English (Salisbury), mid 13th century (c. 1254). BL Roy. MS 1 D i. The Bible of William of Devon. English (Oxford?), later 13th century (c. 1260-70). BL Roy. MS 12 C xix. Bestiary. English, mid 13th century (c. 1250-60). BL Roy. MS 13 A iii. Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia Regum Britanniae. English, late 13th century. BL Roy. MS 14 B ix. Peter of Poitier’s Compendium Historia in Genealogica Christi. English or French, later 13th century (c. 1270-90). BL Roy. MS 14 C vii. Matthew Paris’ Historia Anglorum and Chronica Majora. English (St Albans), mid 13th century (c. 125090). BL MS YT 9. Bible. French, mid 13th century (c. 1260). BL MS YT 12. Miscellaneous works by William of Tyre. French, mid 13th century (c. 1250-60). CCCO MS 178. Guyart Desmoulin’s Bible Historiale. French, later 13th century.

Appendix Two – Illuminated Manuscripts

                                    

CCCC MS 16. Matthew of Paris’s Chronica Majora. English (St Albans), 13th century (c. 1240-53 and later). CCCC MS 26. Matthew of Paris’s Chronica Majora. English (St Albans), mid 13 th century (c. 1240-53 and later). CCCC MS 49. Bible. English (St Augustine’s, Canterbury), mid 13th century (c. 1260-70). CCCO MS 1. Bible. French, later 13 th century (c. 1250-60). DCL MS A 2. 10. Psalter. English (Oxford), later 13 th century (c. 1260-70). Eton MS 177. Old Testament. English (Worcester), later 13 th century (c. 1260-70). Fitz. MS 246. Psalter. English (London), mid 13th century (c. 1250). Fitz. MS 317. Apocalypse. English, late 13 th century (c. 1290). Fitz. MS 2 - 1954. The Bird Psalter. English, late 13 th century (c. 1280-90). Fitz. MS 4 - 1969. Bible. French, mid 13th century (c. 1250 onwards). Fitz. MS 86 - 1972. Notitia Dignitatium. Italian (Naples), later 13th century. Fitz. MS 1056 - 1975. Bible. Italian, later 13th century (c. 1250). Fitz. MS 1060 - 1975. Bible. French or English, later 13 th century (c. 1250). Fitz. Marlay Add. MS I. Vegetius’s De Re Militari. English, later 13th century (c. 1270). Fitz. McClean MS 44. Psalter. English, mid 13 th century (c. 126570). Fitz. McClean MS 123. The Nuneaton Book. English, later 13 th century (c. 1280-1300). HCL The World Map. English (Hereford and Lincoln), later 13 th century (c. 1277-89). Gonville & Caius MS 384/604. The Image of the World. English or French, late 13th century (c. 1270-90). JCC MS Q. A. 11. Bible. English (Oxford), later 13th century (c. 1265-70). JCO MS 56. Bible. French (Paris?), later 13 th century. Keble MS 17. Psalter. German, mid 13 th century. Keble MS 20. Bible. French (Paris), later 13 th century. Keble MS 49. Book of Saints. German (Regensburg), later 13 th century (after 1271 or c. 1267-76). Keble MS 80. Bible. English or French, mid 13 th century. Lamb. MS 209. The Lambeth Apocalypse. English (London or Canterbury), mid 13 th century (c. 1260-67). Lamb. MS 368. Psalter. English (Norwich), late 13th century (c. 1270-80). Merton MS B. 1. 7. Bible. English, mid 13 th century. Merton MS H. 2. 2. Bible. English, mid 13th century. New Coll. MS 1. Bible. French (Paris), mid 13th century. New Coll. MS 65. Apocalypse. English, later 13 th century (c. 1280 or earlier?). NA MS E. 36 - 284. Abbreviated Doomsday Book. English (London), mid 13th century (c. 1250-60). Queen’s MS 299. Bible. French (Paris), later 13th century (128090). RCL MS 1. Bible. English, later 13 th century (c. 1260). St John’s MS 2. Bible. French (Paris?) or English (Oxford?), later 13th century (c. 1265-70). Trinity MS 53. Bible. French (Paris), mid 13 th century. Trinity MS O. 9. 34. Romance and Adventures of Alexander the Great. English, mid 13th century (c. 1250). CUL MS Ee. 3. 59. Life of Edward the Confessor. English (Westminster?), mid 13th century (c. 1255-60).

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WAL MS 22. Bestiary. English (York), later 13th century (c. 1270-90).

13th to 14th Century  ACL MS 82. The Sherborne Missal. English (Sherborne), 13th or 14th century, with 15 th century additions (c. 1250-60 and c. 13961407).  BNF Fr. MS 159. Miscellaneous works. French, 13th to 14th century.  BNF Fr. MS 275. Jehan Creton’s Fonds St Victor. French, 13th to 14th century.  BNF Fr. MS 598. Cleres Femmes. French, 13 th to 14th century.  BNF Fr. MS 2090-91. Compendium. French (Paris), 13 th to 14 th century (c. 1280 onwards).  BNF Fr. MS 9141. The Division of the World. French, 13 th to 14 th century.  BNF Fr. MS 12566. Livre du Roy Flourimont. French, 13th to 14 th century.  BNF Lat. MS 18014. Pseudo-Jacquemart. French, 13th to 14 th century.  Bod. Lib. Ashmole Rolls 50. Genealogy of the Kings of England to Edward I. English, 13th to 14 th century (c. 1300).  Bod. Lib. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 57. Bible. Italian, 13th to 14th century (c. 1300).  Bod. Lib. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 62. The Canonici Apocalypse. English (Peterborough), 13th or early 14th century (c. 1300).  Bod. Lib. Canon. Liturg. MS 126. Psalter. French (Liege), 13th to 14th century (c. 1300).  Bod. Lib. Douce MS 88. Bestiary. English, 13th to 14 th century (c. 1300).  Bod. Lib. Douce MS 215. Arthurian Romances. French, 13th to 14th century (c. 1300).  Bod. Lib. Douce MS 366. The Ormesby Psalter. English (Norwich?), late 13th or early 14th century (c. 1300-1330?).  Bod. Lib. E. D. Clarke MS 31F. Bible. French, 13th to 14th century (c. 1300).  Bod. Lib. Rawl. MS C. 117. Book of astronomical works. English, 13th to 14 th century.  Bod. Lib. Rawl. MS C. 563. Peter of Poitiers’ Compendium Historiae. English, 13th to 14th century (c.1300).  Bod. Lib. Rawl. MS G. 126. Bible. English, 13 th to 14 th century (c. 1300).  BL Add. Roll 14819. Peter of Poitier’s Genealogy of Christ. English or French, 13th to 14 th century (c. 1300).  BL Add. MS 16975. Psalter and Calendar. French, 13th to 14th century.  Lamb. MS 233. The Bardolf-Vaux Psalter. English, 13th to 14 th century (c. 1300-10).  BL Add. MS 18856. Bible and Ecclesiastical History. French, later 13th century (c. 1291-94), with early 15th century additions.  BL Add. MS 22114. The Maqumat of al Hariri. Egyptian or Syrian, 13th to 14 th century (c. 1300).  BL Add. MS 24678. Calendar. Flemish, 13th to 15 th centuries.  BL Add. MS 49622. The Gorleston Psalter. English (Gorleston, Suffolk), mid 13th century (c. 1250-70) or early 14th century (c. 1310-20).  BL MS Cott. Cleopatra C xi. Summonitiones Parliamentorum. English, 13th to 14 th century.  BL MS Cott. Nero D ix. Livre d’une Dame des Belles. French, 13th to 14 th century.  BL MS Cott. Titus D iii. Computational tables. French or English, 13th to 14 th century.

138

The Illuminated Ark

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BL MS Cott. Vesp. A vii. The Lives of the Kings’ William, Phillip and John. French, 13th to 14 th century. BL MS Cott. Vitellius E ii. History of the Franks. French, 13th to 14th century. BL Harl. MS 1215. The History of the Duchess of Savoy. French, 13th to 14 th century. BL Harl. MS 2637. Miscellaneous theological works and tracts. English, 13th to 14 th century. BL Harl. MS 2677. Miscellaneous theological works and tracts. English, 13th to 14 th century. BL Harl. MS 4389. La Romant de Tristan. Italian, 13 th to 14th century (c. 1300). BL Loan MS 82. Calendar and Missal. English (Sherborne?), mid 13th to early 15 th century (c. 1250-60 or c. 1396-1407). BL Roy. MS 1 B x. Bible. English, 13th to 14 th century. BL Roy. MS 20 D vi. Legends of the Saints. French, later 13 th or else 15 th century. BL Stowe MS 17. Book of Hours. Low Countries (Maastricht), 13th to 14 th century. BL YT MS 8. The Breviary of Marguerite de Bar. French (Lorraine), 13 th to 14th century (c. 1290-1310). New Coll. MS 44. Book of the Prophets. Byzantine, 13 th to 14th century. Sidney Sussex MS 96. Bible. English (Canterbury?), 13 th to 14th century (c. 1260-70 or c. 1300). St John’s MS 231. Psalter. English, 13th century (c. 1270-80) or 14th to 15th century (c. 1397-1400).

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Early 14th Century  ASC MS 7. Psalter. English (East Anglia), early 14 th century (c. 1320).  BNF Fr. MS 124. Romances. French, 14 th century.  BNF Fr. MS 2092. Life of St Denis. French (Paris?), early 14th century (c, 1317).  Bib. Ars. MS 283. Bestiary. German, 14 th century.  BNF MS **. Life and Miracles of St Denis. French, 14th century.  BNF MS **. Life and Miracles of St Louis. French, mid 14th century (c. 1330-50).  BNF Fr. MS 100. Le Livre de Tristan. French, 14 th century.  BNF Fr. MS 2813. Les Grandes Chroniques de la France. French (Paris), early 14th century (c. 1307).  BNF Fr. MS 5388. Chronicles of Normandy. French (Normandy), 14th century.  BNF Fr. MS 6446. Flavius Josephus’s Antiquites des Juifs. French, 14 th century.  BNF Lat. MS 1052. The Breviary of Charles V. French, 14th century.  BNF Lat. MS 18104. Book of Hours. French (Paris), 14 th century.  BNF Supp. Lat. MS 632/25. Bestiary. English, 14 th century.  Bod. Lib. Ashmole MS 828. Romance of Lancelot du Lac. Flemish, 14 th century.  Bod. Lib. Ashmole MS 1773. English, early 14th century.  Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 2. 2. Choir Psalter. English (Christ Church, Canterbury), mid 14 th century (after 1320).  Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 4. 14. Apocalypse. English, early 14 th century.  Bod. Lib. Barlow MS 22. Psalter. English (Peterborough), mid 14th century (c. 1321-41).  Bod. Lib. Canon. Class. Lat. MS 52. Bible. Italian, 14th century.  Bod. Lib. Canon. Ital. MS 108. Dante’s Divine Comedy. Italian, 14th century.

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139

Bod. Lib. Canon. Ital. MS 109. Dante’s Purgatorio. Italian, 14th century. Bod. Lib. Canon. Liturg. MS 151. Psalter. Italian (Naples?), mid 14th century (c. 1350?). Bod. Lib. Canon. Misc. MS 493. Justinian’s Digestum Vetus. Italian (Bologna), 14 th century. Bod. Lib. Douce MS 131. Psalter. English (East Anglia), mid 14th century (c. 1340). Bod. Lib. Douce MS 178. Lestoire del Saint Graal and Lestoire du Merlin. Italian, 14 th century. Bod. Lib. Douce MS 211-12. Guyart Desmoulins’ Bible Historiale. French (Paris), early 14th century. Bod. Lib. Douce MS 245. Breviary. French (Paris), mid 14 th century. Bod. Lib. Douce MS 308. Romances and Poetry. French (Metz or Lorraine?), early 14 th century. Bod. Lib. Douce MS 313. Missal. French, mid 14 th century. Bod. Lib. Laud. Lat. MS 15. Book of Hours. Flemish (?), early 14th century. Bod. Lib. Laud Misc. MS 587. Geoffroi de Villehardouin’s Le Conquête de Constantinople. Italian (Venice), early 14 th century (c. 1330). Bod. Lib. Rawl. MS G. 21. Psalter. Flemish (Flanders), mid 14 th century. Bod. Lib. Rawl. MS Q b. 6. Romance of Lancelot du Lac. French, early 14th century. Bod. Lib. Selden Supra MS 38, part 2. Apocalypse. English, early 14th century (c. 1320-30). Bod. Lib. Tanner MS 190. Marino Sanudo’s Secreta Fidelium Crucis. Italian (Venice), 14th century. Bod. Lib. Top. Lincs. MS d. 1. Cartulary. English, 14th century. BL Add. MS 10294. Arthurian Romances. French, early 14 th century (c. 1316). BL Add. MS 12029. Les Hystoires des Roumains. French or English, early 14th century. BL Add. MS 15243. Apocalypse. German, early 14 th century. BL Add. MS 15477. Guidonis de Columnis’s Messanensias. Italian, mid 14th century. BL Add. MS 17275. La Vie des Sains. French, early 14th century. BL Add. MS 17333. The St John’s Apocalypse. French (Normandy), early 14th century. BL Add. MS 17341. Evangelarium and Liturgies. French or English, early 14th century. BL Add. MS 18633. Bible, Apocalypse and Book of Hours. English, early 14th century (c. 1300), with some 16th century additions. BL Add. MS 19587. Extracts from Dante’s Divine Comedy. Italian, 14 th century. BL Add. MS 19669. Universal History. French, early 14 th century. BL Add. MS 22493. Apocalypse. French or English, 14 th century. BL Add. MS 22557. Lo Libro de Miraculi. Italian, 14th century. BL Add. MS 23929. Romance of Tristam. English (Salisbury?), early 14th century. BL Add. MS 27376. Maps and plans. Italian, 14th century. BL Add. MS 27695. Tractatus de Septem Vitiis. Italian (Genoa?), 14th century. BL Add. MS 28162. The Compendium of Christian Morals. French, early 14th century. BL Add. MS 30864. Voeux du Paon. French or English (Salisbury?), early 14 th century.

Appendix Two – Illuminated Manuscripts

                                    

BL Add. MS 36684. Book of Hours. French (St Omer), early 14 th century (c. 1320). BL Add. MS 38117. Arthurian Legends. French, early 14th century (c. 1300-25). BL Add. MS 39810. The St Omer Psalter. English (Mulbarton, Norfolk), early 14th century (c. 1325-30). BL Add. MS 42130. The Luttrell Psalter. English (East Anglia), mid 14 th century (c. 1330-1340). BL Add. MS 47680. The Holkham Picture Bible. English (Holkham, Norfolk), early 14th century. BL Add. MS 47682. Illustrated Bible. English (Holkham, Norfolk), early 14th century (c.1327-35). BL Ar. MS 83 I. The Howard Psalter. English, early 14th century (c. 1310-20). BL Ar. MS 339. Book of arithmetic. German, 14th century. BL Cott. Jul. MS A v. The Early History of Britain, the Histories of the Kings of England and Scotland to Edward I. English, 14th century. BL Cott. Jul. MS E vi. Universal History. French, 14th century. BL Cott. Nero MS D ii. Chronicle of the Reign of Edward I, Commentary on the Reign of Edward IV. English, early 14 th century (c. 1307). BL Eger. MS 745. Life of St Eustace. French, 14th century. BL Eger. MS 943. Dante’s Divine Comedy. Italian (Parma?), mid 14th century. BL Eger. MS 1500. Universal History. English, early 14th century. BL Harl. MS 3240. Speculum Humanae Salvationis. English or French, 14 th century. BL Harl. MS 4903. Romance. French, 14 th century. BL Harl. MS 4972. Apocalypse. French, 14th century. BL Harl. MS 4979. Life of Alexander. French, 14 th century. BL Lans. MS 1179. Speculum Historiale. French, mid 14 th century (c. 1340). BL Roy. MS 20 D11. Songs. French or Low Countries, early 14 th century. CCCC MS 53. The Peterborough Psalter, Chronicle and Bestiary. English (Norwich and Peterborough), early 14 th century (c. 130421). BL Burn. MS 198. Breviary. French or Italian, 14 th century. BL Cott. Claud. MS D ii. Legal Compilation. English (London), early 14th century (c. 1321). BL Eger. MS 2781. Book of Hours of the Virgin. English, mid 14th century (c. 1340-50). BL Eger. MS 3028. Romances. English, mid 14th century (c.132575). BL Harl. MS 1808. Genealogical and historical tables. English, 14th century. BL Harl. MS 3752. Miscellaneous works. Italian, 14th century. BL Harl. MS 3978. Book of services. French, 14 th century. BL Harl. MS 4372. De Re Militari. French, 14th century. BL Harl. MS 4373. De Re Militari. French, 14th century. BL Harl. MS 4375. De Re Militari. French, 14th century. BL Harl. MS 4376. De Re Militari. French, 14th century. BL Harl. Roll 7353. Illustrated parliament roll. English, early 14th century. BL Roy. MS 2 B vii. Queen Mary’s Psalter. English, mid 14 th century (c. 1325-53). BL Roy. MS 6 E vi. Encyclopaedia of Canon Law and Theology. English, mid 14 th century (c. 1330-40). BL Roy. MS 10 D i. Volumen Parvum. English, 14th century. BL Roy. MS 10 E iv. The Smithfield Decretals. English, 14 th century (c. 1300-25).

BL Roy. MS 10 E vi. Commentary on the Gregorian Book of Decretals and New Constitution of Pope Innocent IV. English, 14th century.  BL Roy. MS 15 D ii. Apocalypse. English of French, early 14 th century.  BL Roy. MS 16 G vi. Chroniques de France ou de Saint Denis. French, later 14th century (c. 1325-50).  BL Roy. MS 19 C i. Miscellaneous poems. French, early 14 th century.  BL Roy. MS 20 A ii. Peter of Langtoft’s Chronicle of England. English or French, early 14 th century (c.1300-25).  BL Roy. MS 20 A v. The Life of Alexander the Great. French, early 14th century (c. 1309).  BL Roy. MS 20 A xvii. Le Roman de la Rose et La Bataille d’Annezin. French, early 14th century.  BL Roy. MS 20 D i. History of the Caesars. French or Italian (Naples?), mid 14th century (c. 1340?).  BL Roy. MS 20 D iv. Romance of Lancelot du Lac. French, early 14th century.  BL Slo. MS 278. Bestiary. French, 14th century.  BL Slo. MS 2433 B. Grand Chronicle of France . French, 14th century.  BL Slo. MS 3544. Bestiary. French or English, 14th century.  BL Slo. MS 3983. The Story of Albumazar. English, early 14th century.  BL Stowe MS 12. The Sarum Stowe Breviary. English (Norwich), early 14th century (c. 1322-25, with later additions).  BL YT MS 13. The Taymouth Hours. English, early 14th century.  BL YT MS 14. The St Omer Psalter. English (Mulbarton, Norfolk), early 14th century (c. 1325-30).  BL YT MS 171. The Douai Psalter. English (East Anglia), early 14th century (c. 1322).  Dr Williams’s Ancillary MS 6. Psalter. English, mid 14th century (c. 1328-40).  EUL MS **. Bible. German, early 14 th century (c. 1314).  Fitz. Fairfax Murray MS CFM 5. Noted Gradual. Italian (Certaldo?), early 14 th century.  Fitz. MS 259. Poem on the Life of Christ. English, mid 14 th century (c. 1350-60).  Fitz. McClean MS 15. Bible. English, early 14th century (c. 130010).  JCO MS 40. Psalter. English, early 14 th century.  JRUL MS 18. Arbor Caritatis et Misericordiae. German, 14 th century.  JRUL MS French 1. Arthurian Romances. French or English, 14 th century.  London MS G. Liber Custumarum. English (London), early 14 th century (c. 1327).  Longleat MS 10. The Longleat Breviary. English (Kimbolton), early 14th century (c. 1316-22).  Longleat MS 11. Psalter. English, early 14 th century (c. 1310-20).  Merton MS N. 2. 4. Bible. French, mid 14 h century.  Oriel MS 46. Liber Custumarum. English, early 14th century (c. 1320-30).  Sidney Sussex MS 76. Psalter. English (Exeter diocese), early 14th century (c. 1325-30).  Trinity MS B. 10. 15. Poem on the Life of Christ. English, mid 14th century (c. 1370-85).  Trinity MS B. 11. 22. Book of Hours. Low Countries (Flemish), early 14th century (c. 1300). Late 14th Century  BNF MS **. Atlas. Spanish (Catalonia), later 14 th century (c. 1370). 

140

The Illuminated Ark

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BNF Coptic MS E 13. Evangeliar and Psalter. Syrian, later 14 th century (c. 1370). BNF Fr. MS 4274. Statutes de l‘Ordre et Status de Forde du Saint Esprit. French, mid 14th century (c. 1352). BNF Grec. MS 135. Commentarius in Librum Jobi. French, later 14th century (c. 1368). Bib. Ars. MS **. The Bible of Jean de Papeleu. French (Paris), later 14 th century (c. 1377). Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 4. 4. Psalter and Book of Hours. English (Sarum?), later 14th century (after c. 1370-80). Bod. Lib. Bodley MS 401. Apocalypse. English, mid 14th century. Bod. Lib. Bodley MS 971. Bible. French, late 14 th century. Bod. Lib. Canon. Misc. MS 249. Bible. French (Paris), later 14 th century (c. 1380-90). Bod. Lib. Gough Gen. Top. MS 16. The Gough Map of Great Britain. English, later 14th century (c. 1360). Bod. Lib. Laud Misc. MS 165. Commentary on the Gospels. English, later 14 th century (after c. 1397). Bod. Lib. Liturg. MS 198. Psalter. English, later 14th century. Bod. Lib. Rawl. MS D. 939. Astrological and ecclesiastical calendar. English, later 14 th century (after c. 1350). BL Add. MS 11619. Miscellany. Italian, later 14th century. BL Add. MS 12228. Helie de Borron’s Le Roman du Roi. Italian, mid 14 th century (c. 1352-62). BL Add. MS 29704-5. The ‘Reconstructed’ Carmelite Missal. English, later 14 th century (before c. 1391), with additions as late as the 16th century. BL Add. MS 30084. Antipohonal. Italian, 14th century. BL Add. MS 44892, The ‘Reconstructed’ Carmelite Missal. English, 14th century (before c. 1391), with additions as late as the 16th century. BL Cott. Aug. MS A vi. Livre des Proprietez des Choses. French, later 14 th century (c. 1372). BL Cott. Nero MS D vi. Historical Compilation. English (London), late 14th century (c. 1386-99). BL Cott. Vitellius MS A xx. History of England. English, late 14th century. BL Eger. MS 1894. The Egerton Genesis. English or French, late 14th century. BL Harl. MS 4411. Universal History. French, mid 14 th century (c. 1350). BL Harl. MS 4418. Chronicle of the History of France. French, mid 14 th century (c. 1350). BL Roy. MS 14 E iii. Arthurian Romances. French or English, later 14 th century (c. 1376). BL Roy. MS 15 D vi. Le Livre que Fist Titus Liuius des Excellens Fais des Rommains. French, late 14th century. BL Roy. MS 16 G vii. History of the Romans. French, later 14 th century. BL Roy. MS 17 E vii. Bible Historiale. French, mid 14th century (c. 1357). BL Roy. MS 19 C iv. Treatise by Phillipe de Maizienes of Cyprus. French, later 14 th century (c. 1378). BL Roy. MS 19 D ii. Bible. French, mid 14 th century. BL Roy. MS 19 D iv. Bible. French, mid 14th century. BL Roy. MS 19 D vi. Bible. French, mid 14th century. BL Roy. MS 19 D i. Life of Alexander. French, mid 14th century. BL Roy. MS 20 C vii. Chroniques de France. French, late 14th century. CCCO MS 410. Bonaventura’s Meditations on the Life of Christ. Central Italian, late 14 th century.

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Exeter MS 47. The Psalter of Humphrey de Bohun. English, mid 14th century (before c. 1370). EUL MS 245. Johannis de Utino’s Chronicle. Italian, mid 14th century (c. 1358). Fitz. MS 244. Hours of the Virgin. Low Countries (Ghent), late 14th century (c. 1470). Fitz. MS 43 - 1950. Speculum Humanae Salvationis. Italian (Florence), late 14th century (c. 1390). GUL Euing BD 19 H9. The ‘Reconstructed’ Carmelite Missal. English, late 14 th century (written before c. 1391, illustrated before c. 1398).

14th to 15th Century  BNF Fr. MS 301. Historical compilation. Italian or French, 14th to 16th century.  BNF Fr. MS 2646. Froissart’s Chronicles. Flemish (Bruges), 14th to 15th century.  BNF Fr. MS 2810. Le Livre des Hystoires des Parties d’Orient. French, early 14th century (c. 1307), with 16th century additions.  BNF Fr. MS 5193. Boccacio’s Des Jean sans Peur. French, 14 th to 15th century.  Bod. Lib. Bodley MS 264. Jehan de Grise’s Romance of Alexander. English, 14th to 15th century (c. 1400).  Bod. Lib. Bodley MS 264, part 1. Romance of Alexander. English, 14th to 15 th century (c. 1400).  Bod. Lib. Bodley MS 264 part 3. Li Livres du Graunt Caam. English, 14th to 15 th century (c. 1400).  Bod. Lib. Douce MS 300. Le Pelerinage de la Vie Humaine. French, 14 th to 15th century (c. 1400?).  Bod. Lib. Liturg. MS e. 20. Book of Hours. French (Evreux), late 14th or early 15th century (c. 1500).  BL Add. MS 15277. Biblical History of the Jews. Italian, 14 th to 15th century (c. 1400).  BL Add. MS 15685. Miscellaneous theological works. Italian (Venice?), 14th to 15 th century (c.1400).  BL Add. MS 22811. Vegetius’s De Re Militari. Italian (?), 14th to 15th century.  BL Burn. MS 257. Statius’s Thebaides. French, 14th to 15 th century (c. 1400).  BL Cott. Nero MS A x, art 3. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. English (Northwest Midlands?), 14th to 15 th century (c. 14001410).  BL Cott. MS Tib. D ix. Roterio de Dom Johan de Castro’s Da Viagee que os Portugueses Fizeram desa Indinate Soez. French or Spanish, 14th to 15 th century.  BL Harl. MS 1319. History of Richard II. French, 14th to 15th century (c. 1399 or later).  BL Kings MS 5. Bible. Flemish or Rheinish, 14th to 15th century (c. 1400).  BL Roy. MS 15 D iii. Bible. French, 14th to 15 th century (c. 1400).  BL Roy. MS 19 D iii. Bible. French, 14th to 15 th century (c. 1411?).  BL YT MS 31. Breviary. Spanish (Catalonia), 14 th to 15th century (c. 1400 onwards).  BL YT MS 97. Bocaccio’s Des Cleres et Noles Femmes. French, 14th to 15 th century.  EUL MS 194. Guidius de Colonna’s History of the Trojan Wars. Low Countries, 14th to 15 th century (c. 1400).  Fitz. MS 290. Diurnal of the Augustinian canons of Mont St Eloiles-Arras. French (Mont St Eloi-les-Arras?), early 14th century, with 16th century additions. 141

Appendix Two – Illuminated Manuscripts

Trinity MS B. 10. 2. Bible, Apocalypse and Life of Edward the Confessor. English (Westminster), 14th to 15 th century. Trinity MS B. 11. 7. Calendar and Hours. English (London), 14th to 15 th century.

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Early 15th Century  BCL MS 23. Calendar and Hours. English (London), early 15 th century (c. 1405-10).  BNF Fr. MS 59. Raoul le Fevre’s Le Recueil des Hystoires de Troyez. French, 15 th century.  BNF Fr. MS 77. Jehan de Warrin’s Anchiennes Cronieques d’Engleterre. French, 15 th century.  BNF Fr. MS 102. Le Roman de Tristan. French, 15 th century.  BNF Fr. MS 126. De Regimine Principum. French (Rouen), 15th century.  BNF Fr. MS 136. Bartholomaeus Anglicus’ On The Properties of Things. French (Le Mans), 15th century.  BNF Fr. MS 247. Flavius Josephus’s History of the Jews. French, early 15th century (c. 1410-15).  BNF Fr. MS 257. Des Fais du Grant Alexandre. French, 15 th century.  BNF Fr. MS 365. Roumuelon’s Traduction de Sebastien Mamerot de Soyssons. French, 15 th century.  BNF Fr. MS 366. Roumuelon’s Traduction de Sebastien Mamerot de Soyssons. French, 15 th century.  BNF Fr. MS 645. Chronicle of Saint Denis. French, 15th century.  BNF Fr. MS 990. Jean Gerson’s Livre de Contemplacion. French, 15th century.  BNF Fr. MS 1454. Master Wistace’s Le Brut d’Angleterre. French, 15 th century.  BNF Fr. MS 1533. Master Wistace’s Le Brut d’Angleterre. French, 15 th century.  BNF Fr. MS 2643. Froissart’s Chronicles. French, 15 th century.  BNF Fr. MS 2644. Froissart’s Chronicles. French, 15 th century.  BNF Fr. MS 2645. Froissart’s Chronicles. French, 15 th century.  BNF Fr. MS 6272. St Augustine’s La Cite de Dieu. Flemish, early 15th century (c. 1405).  BNF Fr. MS 6440. Quinte Curce’s Histoire d’Alexandre. French, 15th century.  BNF Fr. MS 6465. Flavius Josephus’s Antiquites des Juifs. French, 15 th century.  BNF Fr. MS 6646. Flavius Josephus’s Antiquites des Juifs. French, 15 th century.  BNF Fr. MS 9198. Jean Mielot’s Miracles de Notre Dame et Miracles de l’Abbe Helsin. French (Paris?), 15th century.  BNF Fr. MS 9199. Jean Mielot’s Miracles de Notre Dame et Miracles de l’Abbe Helsin. French (Paris?), 15th century.  BNF Fr. MS 22540. Histoire de Julius Cesar et de Pompee le Grant. French, 15 th century.  BNF Grec. MS 510. Miscellaneous works by Gregor von Nazianz. French, 15 th century.  BNF Lat. MS 1165 [B]. The Hours of Margaret of Orleans. French (Vers), mid 15th century (c. 1430).  BNF Lat. MS 5565 A. Unknown, unprovenanced, 15th century.  BNF Lat. MS 6067. Guillaume Caursin’s Prise de Rhodes. French, 15 th century.  BNF Lat. MS 6142. Manuscript of king Charles VIII of France. Italian (Naples), 15th century.  BNF Lat. MS 7234. Vegetius’s De Re Militari. French, 15 th century.  BNF Lat. MS 7239. Pauli Savetini’s Ducensis Tractus de re Militari et de Machinis Bellicis. French, 15th century.  BNF Lat. MS 9473. Book of Hours. French, 15 th century.

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142

BNF Lat. MS 9661. Aethicus. French, 15 th century. BNF Roth. MS 2529. The Breviary of Martin of Aragon. Spanish (Catalonia), 15th century. Bib. Ars. MS 5070. Boccacio’s Li livre Appelé Decameron. French (Vers?), early 15th century (c, 1414 or else 1445-50). Bib. Ars. MS 5086. Livre de la Premiére Bataille Punique. French, mid 15th century (c. 1445). Bib. Ars. MS 5090. Croniques Abregies. French, 15 th century. Bib. Ars. MS 5187. Froissart’s Chronicles. French, 15th century. Bod. Lib. Add. MS A. 185. Book of Hours. French (Nantes?), mid 15th century (c. 1440-50). Bod. Lib. Astor MS A v. Missal. Italian (Siena), early 15 th century. Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 2. 29. Justin’s abbreviation of Trogus Pompeius. French or Italian, 15th century (c. 1400-50?). Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. inf. 2. 11. Book of Hours. French (Norman), mid 15th century (c. 1440-50). Bod. Lib. MS Barlow 53 (R). Peter of Poiter’s Compendium Historiae in Genealogia Christi. English, mid 15th century (c. 1420-30). Bod. Lib. Bodley Rolls 6. Genealogy of the kings of England to Henry V. English, mid 15th century (c. 1425-50). Bod. Lib. Bodley Rolls 10. Geneaological roll from Noah to king Henry V of England. English, mid 15th century (c. 1430-40). Bod. Lib. Canon. Ital. MS 106. Dante’s Purgatorio. Italian (Venice), 15th century. Bod. Lib. Canon. Ital. MS 244. Tratato del Modo de Insergmare oghi ragione. Italian, 15th century. Bod. Lib. Canon. Ital. MS 275. Bible. Italian, 15th century. Bod. Lib. Canon. Ital. MS 280. Bible. Italian, 15th century. Bod. Lib. Canon. Liturg. MS 289. Bible. Italian, 15th century. Bod. Lib. Canon. Misc. MS 378. Cosmographa Scoti & Notitia Dignitatium. French, early 15th century (c. 1436). Bod. Lib. Canon. Misc. MS 554. Mathematical and astronomical work. Italian (Padua), 15th century. Bod. Lib. Douce MS 204. Speculum Humanae Salvationis. Spanish (Catalan), mid 15th century (c. 1430-50). Bod. Lib. Douce MS 217. Grand Chronicle of France. French, mid 15th century (c. 1400-50). Bod. Lib. Douce MS 241. Bible. Italian, early 15 th century (c. 1420). Bod. Lib. Douce MS 356. Histoire de Troye, translated by Jacques Milet of Orléans. French, 15th century. Bod. Lib. Douce MS 371. Guillaume de Lorris and Jean de Meung’s Le Roman de la Rose. French, 15 th century. Bod. Lib. MS Gough Liturg. 15. Book of Hours. Flemish (Ghent?), 15 th century. Bod. Lib. Hatton MS 1. Missal. English (Norwich?), 15 th century. Bod. Lib. Laud Gr. MS 86. Bible. Italian, 15th century. Bod. Lib. Laud Misc. MS 44. Bible. German, 15 th century. Bod. Lib. Laud Misc. MS 173. Bible. German, early 15th century. Bod. Lib. Laud Misc. MS 733. Johannes de Bado Aureo’s Early English History and Chronicle of England to Henry V. English, mid 15th century (c. 1440-50). Bod. Lib. Laud Misc. MS 740. Guillaume Deguilleville’s Romance of the Pilgrimage of Man. English, mid 15th century. Bod. Lib. Rawl. Liturg. MS e. 14. Book of Hours. French or Flemish (?), early 15th century (c. 1440).. JCO MS 32. Book of Hours. Flemish, early 15th century. BL Add. MS 10043. Bible. German or Flemish, 15th century. BL Add. MS 10290. Romance of Jason and the Golden Fleece. Low Countries, 15th century.

The Illuminated Ark

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BL Add. MS 11575. Speculum Humanae Salvationis. Dutch, 15th century. BL Add. MS 11696. Boccacio’s Le Livre des Cas des Nobles et Illustres Hommes. French, 15 th century. BL Add. MS 15248. La Bible Moralisee. French, early 15th century. BL Add. MS 15269. Le Chroniques de France au de Seint Denis. French, early 15th century. BL Add. MS 15528. Offices of the Virgin Mary. Italian, early 15 th century. BL Add. MS 15692. Doctors of the Latin Church. French or English, 15th century. BL Add. MS 16955. Romance of Theseus of Cologne. French, 15th century. BL Add. MS 16998. Book of Offices, Liturgies and Prayers. English (London?), early 15 th century, with later additions (c. 1405-10 and 1470). BL Add. MS 17399. Apocalypse. French or English, 15 th century. BL Add. MS 18750. Le Livre de Jehan Boccace des cas des Nobles. French or Flemish, mid 15th century. BL Add. MS 18850. The Bedford Hours. French (Paris), early 15th century (c. 1423). BL Add. MS 19896. Apocalypse. German, 15 th century. BL Add. MS 22318. Plutarch’s Vitae Quaedam. Italian, mid 15th century (c.1450). BL Add. MS 24189. The Travels of Sir John Mandeville. Flemish or Bohemian (Prague?), early 15th century (c. 1400-1410). BL Add. MS 24194. Ranulf Hidgen’s Polychronicon. English (London), early 15th century (c. 1401-08). BL Add. MS 25884. Universal History. Flemish, 15 th century. BL Add. MS 26667. Universal History. French, 15 th century. BL Add. MS 27697. The Hours of the Family of Saluces of Piedmont. French, 15th century. BL Add. MS 28962. Prayer Book. Spanish, mid 15 th century (c. 1442). BL Add. MS 29301. Medical Treatises. English, early 15 th century. BL Add. MS 29902. Choral service book. Italian, 15 th century. BL Add. MS 33244, Part 2. Metrical Introduction. English (Furness), early 15th century (c. 1412). BL Add. MS 37472v [1]. French and Italian, mostly 15th century, but some as early as the 12th century. BL Add. MS 39844. Le Livre du Tresor, Pseudo-Aristotle and Secretum Secretorum. Italian, early 15 th century (c. 1425). BL Add. MS 65100. Calendar and Book of Hours. English (London), early 15th century (c. 1420-32). BL Burn. MS 169. Philip Quintuis’s Life of Alexander. French, 15th century. BL Burn. MS 192. Miscellaneous works. French or Italian, 15 th century. BL Cott. Dom. MS A xvii. The Psalter of Henry VI. French (Paris), early 15th century (c. 1425-30), with later additions. BL Cott. Nero MS E ii. Chronicle of France. French, 15th century. BL Cott. Tib. MS A vii & A viii. John Lydgate’s translation of The Pilgrimage of the Life of Man. English (East Anglia), early to mid 15 th century (c. 1426 and c. 1430-50). BL Cott. Titus MS A xxvi. Zorzi da Modon’s Treatise. Italian, mid 15 th century (c. 1445). BL Eger. MS 912. Universal History. French, early 15th century. BL Eger. MS 1065. Caesar’s Commentaries. French, early 15th century.

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143

BL Eger. MS 1069. Le Roman de Rose. French or English, 15 th century. BL Eger. MS 1121. Collection of moral anthologies. English or French, early 15th century. BL Eger. MS 1900. Itinerary and travels. German, 15 th century. BL Eger. MS 2709. A History of the Conquest of the Canary Islands. French (Paris), early 15 th century (c.1404-25). BL Harl. MS 1251. Calendar, Oratores, Ellergies and Saints. English or French, early 15 th century (c. 1435). BL Harl. MS 1413. Vegetius’s De Re Militari. German or Swiss, 15th century. BL Harl. MS 2278. John Lydgates’ Lives of Saints Edmund and Fremund. English (Bury St Edmunds), mid 15 th century (c. 143444). BL Harl. MS 2897. Psalter. French, 15th century. BL Harl. MS 2971. Hours. French, 15 th century. BL Harl. MS 2980. Hours. French, 15 th century. BL Harl. MS 2989. Hours. French, 15 th century. BL Harl. MS 3448. Flower of Virtue. Italian, 15th century. BL Harl. MS 3461. Book of Chronology. Italian, 15th century. BL Harl. MS 3571. Legendary History of the Holy Family. Italian, 15 th century. BL Harl. MS 3949. Works on rhetoric. Italian, early 15th century (c. 1430). BL Harl. MS 3954. The Travels of Sir John Mandeville. English (East Anglia), early 15th century (c. 1410-20). BL Harl. MS 4330. Boethius’s De Consolatione. French, 15th century. BL Harl. MS 4381. Biblical History. French or Flemish, 15 th century. BL Harl. MS 4382. Biblical History. French or Flemish, 15 th century. BL Harl. MS 4425. Le Romant de la Rose. Flemish, 15 th century. BL Harl. MS 4431. Christine de Pisan’s Dichtungen. French (Paris), early 15th century (c. 1410). BL Roy. MS 1 E ix. The Bible of Richard II. English (London), early 15th century (c. 1405-15). BL Roy. MS 15 E vi. Romance of Alexander. French (Rouen), mid 15th century (c. 1445). BL Roy. MS 16 E viii. Miscellaneous works of French literature. French, 15 th century. BL Roy. MS 16 F i. Jean Bueil’s Didactic Military Romance. French or Flemish, 15th century. BL Roy. MS 16 F ix. History of the Trojan Wars. French, early 15th century. BL Roy. MS 16 G iv. Le Livre des Sains et Angeles. French, early 15th century. BL Roy. MS 16 G v. Bocaccio’s De Claris Mulieribus. French, early 15th century. BL Roy. MS 17 C xxxviii. The Travels of Sir John Mandeville. English, early 15th century (c. 1410-20). BL Roy. MS 17 E iii. Bartholomaeus Anglicus’s Livre des Proprietez des Choses. French, early 15th century. BL Roy. MS 19 Evi. Universal History. French, early 15 th century (1400-07). BL Roy. MS 20 B i. Vegetius’s De Re Militari. French, early 15th century. BL Roy. MS 20 B xx. Life of Alexander the Great. French, early 15th century (c. 1400-25). BL Roy. MS 20 C i. The Fate of the Romans. French, early 15 th century.

Appendix Two – Illuminated Manuscripts

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BL Roy. MS 20 C iv. Jehan Bocaccio’s Des cas des Nobles Hommes et Femmes. French (Troyes), early 15th century. BL Roy. MS 20 C v. Giovanni Bocaccio’s De Claris Mulieribus. French, early 15th century. BL Roy. MS 20 C viii. Larbre des Batailles. French (Salon), early 15th century. BL Slo. MS 2452. Boccacio’s and Premierfait’s Fall of Princes. English (Bury St Edmunds?), mid 15 th century (c. 1438-39 and 1440-50). BL Stowe MS 54. Universal History. French or English, 15 th century. BL YT MS 36 [3]. Dante’s Divine Comedy. Italian (Sienna), mid 15th century (c. 1440). BNF MS **. Bible. French (Paris). Early 15th century (c. 1412). BNF Fr. MS 19. St Augustine’s La Cite de Dieu. French (Paris), 15th century. BNF Fr. MS 53. Jehan Mansel’s La Fleur des Hystoires. French, 15th century. CCCO MS 161. Speculum Humaniae Salvationis. English, early 15th century. CCCC MS 171A & B. John of Fordun’s Scotichronicon. Scottish, mid 15 th century (c. 1447-49). EUL MS 195. Virgil’s Aeneid. French, 15th century. Emmanuel MS 70. Bartholemew of Parma’s Breviloqium and Astronomica. Italian, early 15 th century (c. 1420-30). Emmanuel MS 116. Bible. English, 13th century and later. Fitz. MS 289. Bible. Low Countries (Utrecht), early 15th century (c. 1425). GUL Hunter. MS Ds. 2. 3. Xylographic Block-book. Flemish or German (?), mid 15th century (c. 1430-40). GUL MS NR 389. 8. 8. 8. Apocalypse. French, 15th century. GUL Stirling Maxwell Collection MS SMM 2. Francesco Petvarca’s Standomi in Giorno Solo a la Tenestra. Italian, mid 15th century (c. 1425 onwards). JRUL MS 1. History of the Trojan Wars. English, early 15th century (c. 1420). JRUL MS 19. Apocalypse. North German, 15th century (c. 1420). JRUL MS 29. Nicolaus of Lyra’s Postilla and Super Omnes Libros. Italian (Pesaro), early 15 th century (c. 1402). JRUL English MS 1. The Troy Book. English (London?), mid 15th century (c. 1440-50). JRUL Nr. MS 164. Book of Hours. French, mid 15 th century (c. 1430). JRUL Lat. MS 164. Book of Hours. French (Paris), mid 15 th century (c. 1430-50). Windsor MS **. The Sobiesky Book of Hours. French (Norman), early 15th century (c. 1425). Trinity MS B. 11. 11. Missal. English (Sarum), early 15th century (c. 1430). CUL MS Gg. 6. 5. Liber de Bestiis et Aliis Rebus. English (London?), early 15th century (c. 1425). V&A Reid MS 6. Book of Hours and Calendar. French (Tournai or Cambrai), early 15 th century (c. 1425). V&A Reid MS 7. The Salisbury Hours. French (Rouen), early 15th century (c. 1425). V&A Reid MS 42. The Plantaganent Psalter. English (London), mid 15 th century (c. 1435-45).

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Late 15th Century

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144

Balliol MS 238 E. Domenico Bandini’s Fons Memorabilium Universi. German and Italian (Cologne and Rome), mid 15 th century (c. 1445-48). BNF Fr. MS 28. St Augustine’s La Cite de Dieu. French, later 15th century (c. 1460). BNF Fr. MS 38. French, later 15th century (c. 1483). BNF Fr. MS 103. Le Roman de Tristan. French, 15 th century (c. 1470). BNF Fr. MS 112.1. Le Estoire de Artur. French, later 15 th century (c. 1470). BNF Fr. MS 730. Henri Romain’s Compendium Romanorum. French (Vers), mid 15th century (c. 1465-70). BNF Fr. MS 5054. Jean Chartier’s La Chronique du Temps su Tres Chrestien Roy de France. French, late 15th century. BNF Fr. MS 5594. Sebastien Mumerot de Soissons’ Les Passages Faiz Oultremer. French, later 15th century (c. 1473). BNF Fr. MS 6275. Vincent de Beauvais’ Miroir de la Salvation Humaine. French, mid 15th century (c. 1449). BNF Fr. MS 8266. Pierre le Baud’s Compillation des Chronicques et Ystoires des Bretons. French (Brittany), later 15 th century (c. 1480-82). Bib. Ars. MS 630. Basinii Parmensis’ Hesperidas. French, late 15th century (c. 1499). BNF Fr. MS 2685. Jean de Caray’s La Bouquechardiere. French (Normandy), mid 15th century (c. 1457-61). BNF Fr. MS 2829. Le Livre des Faiz Monseigneur Saint Loys. French (Vers), later 15th century (c. 1482). BNF Fr. MS 9087. Le Siege de Constantinople par le Grand Turc, and Bertrand de la Broquiere’s Voyage d’ Outremer. French (Lille), mid 15th century (c. 1455). BNF Fr. MS 12420. Boccacio’s Des Femmes Nobles et Renommees. French, late 15th century. BNF Fr. MS 22547. Quinte Curce’s Histoire du Grant Alexandre de Macedoine. French, mid 15th century (c. 1470). BNF Lat. MS 4915. Gianni Colonna’s Mare Historiarum. French, mid 15th century (c. 1447-55). BNF Lat. MS 7236. Roberti Valturii’s Mahomet Bey Sultanum. French, mid 15th century (c. 1463). BNF Lat. MS 8200. Virgil’s Geography of the Aeneid. French (Vers), mid 15th century (c. 1460). BNF Lat. MS 10491. Diurnal de Rene II de Lorraine. French (Lorraine), late 15th century (c. 1492-93). Bod. Lib. Add. MS A. 2. Johannus de Sacro Bosco’s Tractatus de Sphera. Italian, mid 15th century. Bod. Lib. Astor MS A. 18. Hours of the Virgin. French, late 15 th century. Bod. Lib. Auct. MS F. 2. 29. Justinius’s Epitome of Pompeius Trogus. French, later 15th century. Bod. Lib. Bodley MS 263. John Lydgate’s Fall of Princes. English, late 15 th century (after c. 1493). Bod. Lib. Bodley MS 421. Christiane de Pisan’s L’epitre d’othea et Hector. French, later 15th century. Bod. Lib. MS Buchanan E xiii. Book of Hours. French (Rouen?), later 15th century (c. 1470-80). Bod. Lib. Canon. Class. Lat. MS 81. Book of vespers. Italian (Rimini), later 15th century (c. 1457-68). Bod. Lib. Canon. Class. Lat. MS 185. Roberto Valturio’s translation of De Re Militari. Italian (Rimini?), mid 15th century (before 1462). Bod. Lib. Canon. Class. Lat. MS E i. Bible. Italian (Rimini), later 15th century (c. 1457-68). Bod. Lib. Canon. Ital. MS 38. Bible. Italian, mid 15th century (c. 1456).

The Illuminated Ark

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Bod. Lib. Canon. Liturg. MS 353. Choir Breviary. Italian (Brescia), later 15th century (c. 1462). Bod. Lib. Canon. Liturg. MS 371. Bible. Italian (Rome or Venice?), mid 15 th century (c. 1450). Bod. Lib. Canon. Liturg. MS 383. Bible. Italian, later 15 th century (c. 1470). Bod. Lib. Canon. Liturg. MS 384. Bible. Italian (Vicenza?), mid 15th century. Bod. Lib. Canon. Misc. MS 46. Hyginus Porticoli Astronomicon. Italian (Florence), late 15th century. Bod. Lib. Canon. Misc. MS 47. Bible. Italian, later 15 th century (c. 1450-1500). Bod. Lib. Canon. Misc. MS 221. Bible. Italian, later 15th century. Bod. Lib. Canon. Misc. MS 280. Christofino Buoliditlemoliti’s Die Insulis Archipelagi oli Papra. Italian, later 15th century (c. 1474). Bod. Lib. Douce MS 8. Private office and prayers. Flemish, later 15th century (c. 1450-1500). Bod. Lib. Douce MS 12. Votive office. Flemish (Bruges?), later 15th century (c. 1450-1500). Bod. Lib. Douce MS 31. Book of Hours. French, late 15 th century. Bod. Lib. Douce MS 104. William Langland’s Piers Plowman. English, later 15 th century (c. 1472). Bod. Lib. Douce MS 208. Caesar’s Commentaries & de Bello Gallico. Flemish, later 15 th century (after 1474). Bod. Lib. Douce MS 267. Book of Hours. French (Besançon), later 15 th century (c. 1470). Bod. Lib. Douce MS 311. Book of Hours. Flemish, later 15 th century (after 1488). Bod. Lib. Douce MS 336-7. Universal History. French, later 15 th century (c. 1450-1500 or before 1463?). Bod. Lib. Douce MS 352. Boethius’ De Consolatione Philosophiae. French, later 15th century (c. 1450-1500). Bod. Lib. Douce MS 353. Romance of the Destruction of Troy. French, later 15th century. Bod. Lib. Douce MS 374. Jean Miélot’s Les Miracles de Nostre Dame. Flemish, later 15th century (after c. 1456). Bod. Lib. Douce MS F 4. Speculum Humanae Salvationis. Flemish (?), mid 15th century (c. 1460-70). Bod. Lib. Kennicott MS 1. Old Testament. Spanish (Corruna), mid 15 th century (c. 1476). Bod. Lib. Lat. Class. MS D. 1. Boethius’ De Consolatione Philosophiae. Italian, mid 15 th century. Bod. Lib. Lat. Liturg. MS A. 3. Choir Psalter. Italian, later 15 th century. Bod. Lib. Lat. Misc. MS B. 2. Pedigree of the kings of England and chronicle of the kings of England to 1431-32. English (Tewkesbury), mid 15th century (c. 1435, with additions c. 14758). Bod. Lib. Laud Misc. MS 653. Jean de Wavrin’s Ancientes Chroniques d’ Angleterre. Flemish, later 15th century. Bod. Lib. Liturg. MS 41. Book of Hours. French, later 15 th century (c. 1470-80). Bod. Lib. Lyell MS 95. Gospel of St Matthew. Italian (Milan), mid 15 th century (c. 1457-61). Bod. Lib. E Mus. MS 160. Devotional pieces. English, late 15th century. Bod. Lib. Rawl. MS D. 1220. Astrological treatises. English, later 15th century (c. 1450-75). Bod. Lib. Rawl. MS Liturg. **. Book of Hours. French (Paris), late 15 th century (c. 1480).

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BL MS **. Chronicle of John of Worcester. English, later 15 th century (c. 1465). BL Add. Roll 48976. The Rous Roll. English, late 15 th century. BL Add. MS 11355. Publii Virgilii Maronis Opera. Italian, late 15th century. BL Add. MS 16561. Poetical Anthology. Persian (Shemakha), AH 873, late 15 th century AD (c. 1468 AD). BL Add. MS 17280. Hours and Calendar. Flemish, late 15 th century. BL Add. MS 18193. Book of Hours and a Calendar. Spanish, mid 15th century. BL Add. MS 18851. the Breviary of Queen Isabella of Castile. Flanders (Bruges?), late 15 th century (c. 1490 onwards). BL Add. MS 18852. Book of Hours, Offices and Calendar. Flemish, late 15th century. BL Add. MS 19720. Le Livre de Rustican des Prouffiz Ruvaulx. French, late 15th century. BL Add. MS 19962. Book of Hours of the Virgin Mary. French, mid 15th century (c. 1451). BL Add. MS 20698. Christine de Pisan’s Cite des Dames. Dutch, later 15th century (c. 1475). BL Add. MS 21909. Book of Hours of the Virgin. French or English, 15th century. BL Add. MS 24945. Roberti Valtuii’s translation of De Re Militari. Italian, later 15 th century (c. 1467). BL Add. MS 25697. Breviary, Psalter and Calendar. Italian, late 15th century. BL Add. MS 25885. Ludolphi de Saxonia’s Carthusianorum Argentinensium Prioris Vita Christi. French or Flemish, later 15th century. BL Add. MS 28784 A. Book of Hours. French, later 15th century. BL Add. MS 28785. Book of Hours and calendar. French, later 15th century. BL Add. MS 34294. The Sforza Hours. Italian (Milan), late 15 th century (c. 1460-80). BL Add. MS 35313. Book of Hours and Calendar. Flemish, late 15th century. BL Add. MS 37421. The Penitence of David. French, later 15th century (c. 1465-70). BL Add. MS 38126. The Huth Hours. French (Valenciennes), late 15th century (c. 1480 onwards). BL Add. MS 39644. Le Livre d u Tresor. French, late 15th century. BL Add. MS 54782. The Hours of William, Lord Hastings. Flemish (Bruges or Ghent), later 15 th century (before 1483). BL Ar. MS 302. Calendar and Book of Hours. English (Suffolk), mid 15th century (c. 1450). BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art 6. The Beauchamp Pageants. English, later 15th century (c. 1484-93). BL Cott. Nero MS A iv. Poems, miscellaneous tracts and meditations. English, late 15th century (c. 1468). BL Ar. MS 66. Chillingworth’s Canons and Tables According to the Use of the University of Oxford. English (Oxford), late 15th century (c. 1490). BL MS E iii J. Sir Sidney Colvin’s Florentine Picture Chronicle. North Italian (Florentine?), 15 th century (c. 1460-80). BL Eger. MS 1070. Book of Hours. Italian, late 15th century (c. 1480). BL Eger. MS 1895. Old Testament. German, later 15 th century (c. 1465). BL Eger. MS 1896. Old Testament. German, later 15 th century (c. 1465). BL Eger. MS 207. Meditations. Flemish, late 15th century.

Appendix Two – Illuminated Manuscripts

                           

BL MS G. 6663. The Columbus letter. German (Basel), late 15th century (c. 1493). BL Harl. MS 326. Edward IV’s Descent from Rollo and The Romance of the Three Kings Sons. English (London), later 15 th century (c. 1475-85). BL Harl. MS 433. Manual and Register of the Grants of the Privy Seal. English, later 15th century (c. 1483-85). BL Harl. MS 3281. Very Accurate Draughts of Several Curious Mechanical and Mathematical Instruments. English, late 15th century. BL Harl. MS 4374. Valerius Maximus’s Memorabilia. French (Paris or Tours), late 15th century (c. 1475). BL Harl. MS 4379. Froissart’s Chronicles. French, later 15th century (c. 1470). BL Harl. MS 4380. Froissart’s Chronicles. French, later 15th century (c. 1460-80). BL Harl. MS 7026. The Lovell Lectionary. English (London), mid 15 th century (c. 1450-60). BL Kings MS 24. Virgilii Maronis Opera. Italian, late 15 th century. BL Lans. MS 285. The Manner and Form of the Coronation of the Kings and Queens of England. English, mid 15th century (c. 1450?). BL Roy. MS 14 D4. Jean Froissart’s Chroniques de France et d’Angleterre. English or French, late 15 th century. BL Roy. MS 14 D v. Jean Froissart’s Chroniques de France et d’Angleterre. English or French, late 15 th century. BL Roy. MS 14 D vi. Jean Froissart’s Chroniques de France et d’Angleterre. English or French, late 15 th century. BL Roy. MS 14 E i. Vincent of Beauvais’ Speculum Historiale. English or French, late 15 th century. BL Roy. MS 14 E ii. Chemain de Vaillance and other works of French prose. English or French, late 15th century. BL Roy. MS 14 E iv. Jean de Wavrin’s Chronicles of England. Flanders (Bruges), late 15 th century (c. 1461-83). BL Roy. MS 14 E vi. Rustican’s Du Cultivement des Terres. Bruges, later 15 th century (c. 1473-83). BL Roy. MS 15 D i. Guyart des Moulin’s Biblical History. French, later 15th century (c. 1470). BL Roy. MS 15 D iv. Euritius Rufus by Fernandez de Lucena. French, later 15th century (c. 1470-80). French, 14 th century. BL Roy. MS 15 E i. History of the Crusades. French, late 15 th century. BL Roy. MS 15 E ii. Bartholomaeus Anglicus’ Livre des Proprietez des Choses. Flemish (Bruges), late 15th century (c. 1482). BL Roy. MS 15 E iii. Bartholomaeus Anglicus’ Livre des Proprietez des Choses. Belgium (Bruges), late 15th century (c. 1482). BL Roy. MS 15 E iv. Jean de Wavrin’s Anchiennes et Nouvelles Chroniques d’ Angleterre. Flemish (Bruges), later 15 th century (c. 1470-80). BL Roy. MS 16 F iii. Ancient Chronicles of Flanders. Flemish, late 15 th century. BL Roy. MS 16 F iv. Lestrif de Fortune et Vertu. Flemish, late 15th century. BL Roy. MS 16 G i. Chronicles of Pisa. Flemish, late 15th century. BL Roy. MS 16 G iii. Vita Christi,. Low Countries (Ghent), later 15th century (c. 1479). BL Roy. MS 16 G viii. Caesar’s Commentaries. France (Lille), later 15 th century (c. 1473).

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146

BL Roy. MS 17 E ii. Raoul Fevre’s History of Troy. Flemish, later 15th century (c. 1470-80). BL Roy. MS 17 F i. Life of Alexander. French, later 15 th century. BL Roy. MS 17 F ii. The Fate of the Romans. Low Countries (Bruges), later 15th century (c. 1479). BL Roy. MS 18 E i. Jean Froissart’s Chroniques de France et d’Angleterre. French, later 15th century (c. 1460-80). BL Roy. MS 18 E ii. Jean Froissart’s Chroniques de France et d’Angleterre. French, later 15th century (c. 1460-80). BL Roy. MS 18 E iii. Le Livre de Valerius Maximus. English or French, late 15th century (c. 1479). BL Roy. MS 18 E v. Universal History. Flemish, late 15th century (c. 1473). BL Roy. MS 19 A ii. Apocalypse. French, late 15th century. BL Roy. MS 19 B xv. Apocalypse. English, late 15th century. BL Roy. MS 19 C ix. Chronique de France. French, mid 15th century. BL Roy. MS 19 E v. Romuleon. French, late 15th century (c. 1480). BL Roy. MS 20 C ii. Miscellaneous Romances. Flemish or French, later 15th century. BL Roy. MS 20 C iii. Quintin Curce’s Life of Alexander. French, late 15th century. BL Roy. MS 20 C ix. Jean Chartier’s La Chronicque du Temps de Treschrestien Roy Charles de France. French, late 15th century. BL Roy. MS 20 E iii. Partial Chroniques de France ou de Saint Denis. French (Calais?), later 15th century (c. 1487). BL Roy. MS 20 E vi. Partial Chroniques de France ou de Saint Denis. French (Calais?), later 15th century (c. 1487). BL YT MS 3. The Hours of Jean Dunois. French, mid 15 th century (c. 1450). BL YT MS 33. Chroniques de Normandie. French (Rouen), later 15th century. BL YT MS 47. John Lydgate’s Lives of Saints Edmund and Fremund. English (Bury St Edmunds?), late 15 th century (c. 1461 onwards). Fitz. MS 268. Hours of the Virgin. Low Countries (Flemish?), late 15th century. Fitz. MS 2 - 1958. Breviary. French (Toulouse), later 15th century (c. 1460).. Fitz. Marlay Cutting MS It. 66. Cuttings from choir books. Italian (Lombardy?), later 15th century (c. 1480). Fitz. Marlay MS 10. Missal. Italian (Naples), later 15 th century (c. 1488). GUL Hunter. MS 41. Niccolo da Ferrara’s Polistorio. Italian (Ferrara), mid 15th century (c. 1450) GUL Hunter. MS 208. Boccacio’s De Casibus Virorum. French, 15th century (c. 1472). GUL Hunter. MS 370. Titus Livius Patavinus’ Decas Tertia. Italian (Milan), 15 th century (c. 1450). GUL Hunter. MS 398. Apocalypse. French (Provencal), late 15 th century (c. 1480). GUL Hunter. MS Be. 1. 10. Roberto Valturio’s De Re Militari. Italian (Verona), late 15th century (c. 1472). GUL MS NR 37. Ludolphi de Saxonia’s Vita Christi. French, late 15th century (c. 1495). JRUL MS **. Apocalypse and Block Book. English, mid 15 th century (c. 1450). JRUL MS **. Speculum Salutatis. German, mid 15th century (c. 1450). JRUL MS Nr. 39. Book of Hours. Flemish, later 15 th century (c. 1487).

The Illuminated Ark

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Keble MS 35. Book of Hours. German, late 15th century (c. 148090?). Keble MS 41. Book of Hours. French, mid 15th century. Lamb. MS 265. Dictes and Sayings of the Philosophers. English (London), late 15th century (c. 1483 and before). St Helen MS 1. Antiphonal and Calendar. English (Norwich), later 15 th century (c. 1460-80). Queen’s MS 305. Book of Legends. French, late 15 th century. Queen’s MS 349. Book of Hours. Flemish, later 15 th century (c. 1480-90). Soc. Antiq. MS 501 General Table, Roll. Genealogical Chronicle of the Kings of England, Popes, Kings and Emperors of France. English (London), mid 15th century (c. 1447-55). Trinity MS R. 14. 5. Liber Apologeticus de Omni Statu Humanae Naturae and Libelius de Laudibus Duarum Civitatum et Seddum Episcopalium. English (Oxford), 15th century (c.1459-60). V&A MS A. L. 1504-1896. Pliny the Elder’s Historia Naturalis. Italian (Rome), late 15 th century (c. 1480). V&A MS L 475-1918. The Playfair Hours. French (Rouen), late 15th century. V&A MS L 3691-1963. Gradual. Italian (Brescia?), late 15th century. V&A Reid MS 9. Book of Hours. French (Paris), mid 15 th century (c. 1450). V&A Reid MS 14. Book of Hours. French (Rouen?), later 15 th century (c. 1470). V&A Reid MS 16. Book of Hours. French (Amiens?), later 15th century (c. 1480). V&A Salting MS 1222. The Hours of Margaret de Foix. French, later 15 th century (c. 1470-80). Waddesdon MS 11. Jean de Courcy’s chronicle La Bouquechardiere. French (Rouen), later 15th century (c. 1465).

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BL YT MS 32. Chroniques Abregees des Anciens Rois et Ducs de Bourgogne. French, 15 th to 16th century (c. 1500). Keble MS 40. Book of Hours. French (Lyons), 15 th to 16 th century (c. 1500 or 1470-80?). V&A Reid MS 19. Book of Hours. French (Paris or Rouen?), 15th to 16th century (c. 1500).

Early 16th Century  BNF Fr. MS 54. Jehan Mansel’s La Fleur des Hystoires. French, 16th century.  BNF Fr. MS 101. Le livre de Tristan. French, 16th century.  BNF Fr. MS 1436. The Form, Sermons and Ordinances of the Knights of the Round Table. French, 16th century.  BNF Fr. MS 10420. Pierre Sala’s Les Prouesses de Plusieurs Vays. French (Lyon), early 16th century (c. 1523).  Bod. Lib. Ashmole MS 1504. Herbal or Pattern Book. English (?), early 16 th century (c. 1520-30).  Bod. Lib. Astor MS A. 24. The Hours of Albrecht of Brandenburg, Volume 1. Flemish (Bruges), early 16th century (c. 1525).  Bod. Lib. Astor MS A. 24. The Hours of Albrecht of Brandenburg, Volume 2. Flemish (Bruges), early 16th century (c. 1525).  Bod. Lib. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 65-69. Bible. French (Lyons), early 16th century (c. 1507-11).  Bod. Lib. Canon Ital. MS 196. Bible. Italian, 16 th century.  Bod. Lib. Douce MS 112. Book of Hours. Flemish, early 16 th century.  Bod. Lib. Douce MS 117. Ovid’s Metamorphoses. French, early 16th century (after 1531).  Bod. Lib. Douce MS 135. Book of Hours. French, mid 16 th century.  Bod. Lib. Douce MS 168. Olivier de la Marche’s Tracitier Instituté le Chevalier Deliberé. Flemish, mid 16th century  Bod. Lib. Douce MS 373. Poems by Joos van den Hecke. Flemish (Brussels), early 16th century (c. 1520-30 or before 1538).  Bod. Lib. Douce MS FF 63. Bible. French (Paris), early 16 th century (c. 1522).  Bod. Lib. MS Liturg. 406. Processional. Flemish (?), mid 16 th century (c. 1526-39).  Bod. Lib. Rawl. MS A. 417. Baptismal Sacraments. French, early 16th century.  BL Add. MS 10292. Romances. French, early 16th century.  BL Add. MS 12531. Genealogical work by Simon Bening of Bruges. Low Countries (Bruges), early 16th century (c. 1507-34).  BL Add. MS 15276. Heronis Junioris’s Mathematica and Liber de Machinis Bellicis, Ejus dum Liber de Geodaesia. Greek, early 16th century.  BL Add. MS 15677. Book of Hours. French, early 16th century.  BL Add. MS 15813. Calendarium Sanctorum by Lorenziogazi of Cremona. Italian (Padua?), early 16 th century (c. 1525-26).  BL Add. MS 18854. Book of Hours. French, early 16th century (c. 1525).  BL Add. MS 24065. Map of the world. French, mid 16th century (c. 1550?).  BL Add. MS 24098. Calendar and Book of Hours. Flemish, 16th century (c.1520).  BL Add. MS 25709. Miscellaneous liturgies. French, mid 16 th century (c. 1544).  BL Add. MS 37177v. Miniature depicting the landing of Hernando Cortes in Mexico in c. 1519. Spanish, 16th century.

15th to 16th Century  Balliol MS 383. Ovid’s Heroides. French, 15th to 16th century (c. 1490-1503).  Bod. Lib. Barocci MS 145. Bible. Byzantine, 15 th or 16th century.  Bod. Lib. Douce MS 256. Book of Hours. Flemish (Bruges?), 15 th to 16 th century.  Bod. Lib. Douce MS 276. Book of Hours. French, 15 th to 16th century.  Bod. Lib. Gough Liturg. MS 7. Private prayer and hymn book. Flemish (Ghent or Bruges?), 15 th to 16th century (c. 1500).  Bod. Lib. Laud MS Gr. 27. Bible. Byzantine or Italian (?), 15th to 16th century.  Bod. Lib. Liturg. MS 80. Book of Hours. French, 15th to 16th century (c. 1500).  BL Add. MS 15707. Nurnbergisches Schonbart Buch. German (Nuremberg), 15 th to 16th centuries.  BL Add. MS 18197. Twelve miniatures by Italian artists of the 15th and 16 th centuries. Italian, 15 th to 16 th century.  BL Add. MS 18855. Book of Hours. Flemish, 15 th to 16 th century (c. 1500).  BL Add. MS 20916. Collection of miniatures. Italian, 15 th to 17th centuries (c. 1620).  BL Add. MS 35254. Cutting from a choir book. Italian (Milan), 15th to 16 th century (c. 1500).  BL Harl. MS 4205. Sir Thomas Holmes Book of Arms. English (London), late 15th to early 16 th century (mainly c. 1431-60, 144848 and 1482-94).  BL Roy. MS 16 F ii. The Poems of Charles d’Orleans. Flemish or English, 15th to 16 th century (c. 1500). 147

Appendix Two – Illuminated Manuscripts

                       

BL Add. MS 37527. Emblems illustrative of proverbs, with associated verses. French, early 16th century. BL Burn. MS 97. De Animalium Proprietate, by Manuel Philes. French, mid 16th century. BL Cott. Aug. MS I i. Picture Map of Dover Harbour in 1538. English, mid 16 th century (c. 1538). BL MS G. 7106. Of the Newe Landes. Netherlands (Antwerp), early 16th century (c. 1520). BL Harl. MS 1766. John of Lydgate’s translation and paraphrase of John Bocaccio’s De Casu Principum. English, mid 16th century (c. 1547-53). BL Harl. MS 4939. The First and Second Books of Apian, translated for the Bishop of Marseille. French, 16 th century. BL Harl. MS 4940. The First and Second Books of Apian. French, 16 th century. BL Harl. MS 6205. Caesar’s Commentaires de la Guerre Gallique. French, early 16th century (c. 1519). BL Roy. MS 2 A xvi. Psalter. English, mid 16 th century. BL Roy. MS 11 E xi. Polyphonic music. Low Countries (Bruges), early 16th century (c. 1516). BL Roy. MS 18 D ii. The Troy Book and The Testament of John Lydgate. English (London), early 16 th century (c. 1516-23). BL Roy. MS 19 C iv. Xenophon’s Anabasis. French (Marseille), early 16th century (c. 1508-09). BL Roy. MS 20 E ix. Boke of Larography by John Rotz. English, mid 16 th century (c. 1542). Eton MS 92. Johannes Tiroli’s Antiquities. Italian, mid 16th century (c. 1541). Fitz. MS 294. Apocalypse. Flemish (Bruges?), early 16th century (c. 1500). Fitz. MS 1058 - 1975. Book of Hours. Flemish (Bruges?), early 16th century (c. 1500). GUL Hunter. MS 220. Poliorcetici Graeci. Italian, early 16 th century (c. 1510). JRUL MS 14. Choir book. Flemish, 16th century. JRUL MS Nr. 38. Book of Hours. French, 16 th century. NA MS 11. Vertrag Zwischen Enlgand und Frankreich. German, mid 16 th century (c. 1530). NA MS MPF 212. Map of Winchelsea and Rye. English, 16th Century. V&A Reid MS 20. Book of Hours. French (Rouen), early 16 th century (c. 1510-20). V&A Salting MS 1223. Book of Hours. Italian (Florence), early 16th century (c. 1515-22). Waddesdon MS 26. Book of Hours. Low Countries (Bruges?), mid 16 th century (c. 1540).

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Late 16th Century  BNF Fr. MS 874. Les Epistes d’Ovide. French, 16 th century.  BNF Fr. MS 875. Les Epistes d’Ovide. French, 16 th century.  BNF Fr. MS 25374. Unknown, unprovenanced, mid 16th century (c. 1548).  BNF Lat. MS 1429. Liber Precum of Heinrich II. German, 16th century.  Bod. Lib. Barocci MS 170. Oracles of Leo the Wise. Byzantine, late 16 th century.  Bod. Lib. Digby MS 137. Father Claudius’ Tractus in Artem Logicae. French, later 16 th century (c. 1583).  Bod. Lib. Douce MS 10. Breviary. French, later 16th century (c. 1563).  Bod. Lib. Douce MS 244. Album Amicorum of Freidrich Rechlinger Junior von Goldenstein. German, late 16th century (c. 1598-1610).

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148

Bod. Lib. Douce MS 261. Romances. English, later 16 th century (c. 1564). Bod. Lib. Douce MS 346. An Account of the Old Noble Families of Nuremberg. German (Nuremberg), late 16th century (15901636-1640?). Bod. Lib. Douce MS 363. George Cavendish’s Life of Cardinal Thomas Wolsey. English, later 16th century (c. 1578-80). Bod. Lib. Douce MS b. 2., 65/85. Machines et Utensils de Guerre. Portuguese (?), late 16 th century (c. 1582). Bod. Lib. Eng. Hist. MS E. 198. William Woodall’s The Actes of Queen Elizabeth. English, late 16th century (c. 1580 or c. 15581600?). Bod. Lib. Eng. Misc. MS C 13 [R]. Pictures of the Battle of Pinkie (1547). English, mid 16 th century (c. 1550). Bod. Lib. Greaves MS 52. Arms of the nobility and gentry of Scotland. Scottish, mid 16th century (c. 1542-60). Bod. Lib. Rawl. MS A. 192. Miscellaneous papers of Samuel Pepys. English, late 16 th century. Bod. Lib. MS Rylands d. 20. Coats-of-arms of the knights of the Bath. English, late 16th century. BL Add. Roll 22047. Court Roll of Henry VIII. English, mid 16 th century (c. 1545, with later additions in 1586 and 1678-80). BL Add. MS 15217. Private Book of the Coder family of Nuremberg. German, late 16th century. BL Add. MS 17921. Jacobi Bessoni’s Theatrum Instrumentorum et Machinarum. French, late 16 th century. BL Add. MS 62540. The Nowell-Burghley Atlas. English, later 16th century (c. 1564-70). BL MS C. 133. e. 34. Waerachtighe Beschrijuinche. Low Countries (Amsterdam), late 16th century (c. 1598). BL Cott. Aug. MS I ii. Panoramic Map of the Castle, Harbour and Town of Carrickfergus in Ireland, c. 1560. English, mid 16 th century (c. 1560-70 and/or 1592-1600). BL Eger. MS 2579 [detail]. Birds-eye view of the attack by Sir Francis Drake on the Island of St Jago in the Cape Verdi Islands, November 1585. English, later 16th century. BL Harl. MS 5256. Miscellaneous poetry. French, late 16 th century (c. 1597). BL Kings MS 156. Commission and Form of Oath of Hieronymous Zane. Italian (Venice), later 16th century (c. 1568). BL Lans. MS 11. Miscellaneous governmental papers and charters. English, 16th century. BL Maps MS C. 7. c. 1. Christopher Saxton’s Map of England and Wales. English, later 16 th century (c. 1583). BL Roy. MS 2 B ix. The Psalter of the Earl of Arundel. English (London), later 16th century (c. 1565). BL Roy. MS 18 D iii. Map of the Counties of England and Wales, by Christopher Saxton. English, late 16th century (c. 1595). BL Slo. MS 61. Narrative of Sir Francis Drake’s Record Voyage Around the World. English, later 16th century. BL Slo. MS 239. Captain Sharp’s South Sea Waggoner. American, later 16th century (c. 1584). Fitz. MS 382. Costumes of the Nuremberg Schönbartlaufer. German (Nuremberg?), later 16 th century. GUL Hunter. MS Bq. 2. 11. Caius Valerius’ Flaccus Argonauticon. French (Paris), late 16th century (c. 1579). Magd. MS 2820. Matthew Baker’s Fragments of Ancient English Shipwrightry. English, 16th century (c. 1585). Magd. MS 2991. Court Roll of Henry VIII. English, mid 16 th century (c. 1545, with later additions in 1586 and 1678-80). NA MS MPF 69. Map of Ireland, by John Goghe. English, later 16th century (c. 1567).

The Illuminated Ark



NA MS MPF 75. The Smerwick Map. English, later 16th century (c. 1580).

16th Century onwards  Bod. Lib. Ashmole MS 1. Ludolf von dem Werder’s Album Amicorum. German, early 17th century (c. 1618-27).  Bod. Lib. Ital. MS C. 73. Joachim of Fiore’s Vaticinia Pontificum. Italian, 16th to 17 th century (c. 1600).  Bod. Lib. Tanner MS 118. Recusant commonplace book. English, 16th to 17 th century (c. 1600-16).  BL Add. Roll 5023. Collection of miscellaneous drawings. English, early 17 th century.  BL Add. MS 34113. Treatises on natural philosophy and machines. Italian, 16th to 17 th centuries.  BL MS C. 74. g. 5. Giralmo Benzoni’s Nau: nou; orbis histori… America Pars quata… occidentali India. Italian, early 17 th century (c. 1617).  Keble MS 33. Nogent le Routrou’s Cantiques de Noël. French, late 16 th century (c. 1600). Unsure/Unknown  BNF Fr. MS 2824. Unknown, unprovenanced, undated.  Bib. Ars. MS 412. Unknown, unprovenanced, undated.  BNF Fr. MS 22495. Miscellaneous crusader manuscript.  BNF Grec. MS 2736. Unknown, unprovenanced, undated.  BL Add. MS 9345. Unknown, unprovenance, undated.  BL Add. MS 25886. Unknown, unprovenanced, undated.  BL Add. MS 38121. Apocalypse, with prefaces. Dutch, undated.  BL Add. MS 60628. Unknown, unprovenanced, undated.  BL Add. MS 513544. Unknown, unprovenanced, undated.  BL Cott. Aug. MS A v. Universal History. French, undated.  BL Cott. Vesp. MS B ii. Unknown, undated, unprovenanced.  BL Eger. MS 1122. Unknown, undated, unprovenanced.  BL Harl. MS 273. Calendar and Psalter. French, undated.  BL Harl. Roll 13. Unknown.  Cheltenham Library MS 4417. St Augustine’s La Cite de Dieu. English, undated.  NA MS DL 42/3, Part 1. Metrical Introduction by Richard Esk. English (Furness), undated.  Windsor MS **. The Codex Hammer, by Leonardo da Vinci. Italian, undated.

149

Appendix Two – Illuminated Manuscripts

150

The Illuminated Ark

Appendix 3: Glossary of Vessel Terms and Components

Bonaventure mast (bonaventure mizzen): Definition: an additional [fourth] mast carrying a lateen (mizzen) sail (after Kemp 1988: 94). Profile Characteristics: an additional [fourth] mast carrying a lateen (mizzen) sail (after Kemp 1988: 94). Archaeological Examples: no archaeological examples survive: known from analyses of early-modern wooden vessels. Iconographic Examples: 2: 128, 210, 561, 598, 894.

This appendix contains the following information: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Definition of vessel term/component. Characteristics of vessel term/component visible in profile. Representative archaeological examples. Manuscript illuminations within appendix 2 depicting vessel term/component.

Bowcastle (forecastle): Definition: a short, raised foredeck, the forward part of the upper deck between the foremast and the stem, or the quarters below the foredeck (Steffy 1994: 271). Profile Characteristics: a short, raised fore-deck and/or the forward part of the upper deck between the foremast and the stem (after Steffy 1994: 271). Archaeological Examples: Bremen cog (1: 347), Mary Rose (1: 508). Iconographic Examples: 2: 22, 41, 93, 98, 122, 128, 132, 133, 134, 136, 144, 191, 201, 214, 222, 225, 226, 229, 231, 237, 265, 267, 268, 304, 422, 455, 469, 506, 511, 514, 519, 527, 531, 544, 597, 601, 635, 663, 665, 720, 725, 726, 729, 731, 736, 737, 752, 757, 762, 783, 789, 792, 796, 804, 805, 806, 825, 863, 913.

Anchor: Definition: a wooden, stone or metal device that, when connected to a vessel with a cable or chain, was used to secure the vessel to the bed of a waterway to prevent it from drifting (Steffy 1994: 266). Profile Characteristics: a device connected to a vessel with a cable or chain, apparently used to secure the vessel to the bed of a waterway to prevent it from drifting (after Steffy 1994: 266). Archaeological Examples: Hedeby (1: 89, 164-65, 205), Gdansk W5 (1: 433), Vejby (1: 394), Oseberg (1: 94), Gokstad (1: 118-20). Iconographic Examples: 2: 21, 22, 98, 116, 122, 132, 134, 141, 146, 162, 199, 210, 214, 229, 231, 235, 267, 334, 336, 392, 422, 514, 519, 550, 599, 625, 702, 713, 769, 882.

Bowsprit: Definition: a large spar projecting over the stem (Smyth 1996: 125). Profile Characteristics: a large spar projecting over the stem (Smyth 1996: 125). Archaeological Examples: no archaeological examples survive: known from analyses of early-modern wooden vessels. Iconographic Examples: 2: 41, 128, 132, 133, 134, 141, 180, 210, 222, 229, 231, 237, 247, 267, 268, 341, 397, 415, 438, 465, 496, 527, 531, 545, 546, 561, 571, 574, 575, 598, 612, 627, 635, 641, 649, 650, 663, 665, 687, 689, 702, 727, 729, 757, 801, 818, 819, 820, 821, 822, 824, 826, 829, 831, 834, 855, 856, 857, 858, 863, 868, 872, 874, 883, 884, 892, 893, 894, 907, 908, 909, 919.

Backstays: Definition: ropes extending from the mast-heads to both sides of the ship, used to help the shrouds in supporting the mast (after Smyth 1996: 67). Profile Characteristics: ropes extending from the mast-heads to both sides of the ship, or to chainwales (after Smyth 1996: 67). Archaeological Examples: no archaeological examples survive: known from analyses of early-modern wooden vessels. Iconographic Examples: 2: 93, 98, 99, 116, 122, 124, 132, 134, 140, 141, 143, 156, 160, 163, 166, 167, 185, 190, 191, 201, 210, 211, 214, 225, 229, 230, 235, 237, 265, 267, 268, 277, 282, 295, 302, 304, 305, 306, 326, 327, 329, 349, 397, 855, 856, 858, 892, 893, 894, 909, 919.

Braces: Definition: ropes belonging to all the yards of a ship, roved through blocks that are attached to the yards or to pendants. These may be used to brace (or swing) yards at different angles to the line of the ship, to make the most of the wind (Kemp 1988: 104). Profile Characteristics: ropes (sometimes rove through blocks) attached to the ends of the yards by which the yard is trimmed (after Kemp 1988: 104). Archaeological Examples: no archaeological examples survive: known from analyses of early-modern wooden vessels. Iconographic Examples: 2: 21, 99, 116, 122, 124, 128, 133, 134, 139, 140, 141, 143, 156, 166, 185, 191, 197, 210, 229, 243, 268, 334, 665.

Bilge: Definition: the part of the floor in a ship - on either side of the keel which approaches nearer to a horizontal than a perpendicular direction, and which begins to round upwards where the bottom meets the sides (Smyth 1996: 99-100). Profile Characteristics: not visible in external longitudinal view Archaeological Examples: Puck Bay P3 (1: 144), Hedeby 3 (1: 165), Kolding (1: 183), Meinerswijk (1: 324), Oskarshamn (1: 336), Henendoern (1: 333). Iconographic Examples: not visible in any manuscript illumination in appendix 2.

Breastworks:

Blocks:

Definition: balustrades along the upper decks (Steffy 1994: 268). Profile Characteristics: balustrades along the upper decks (Steffy 1994: 268). Archaeological Examples: uncertain if archaeological examples survive: known from analyses of early-modern wooden vessels. Iconographic Examples: 2: 41, 93, 122, 128, 129, 133, 210, 214, 229, 265, 268, 229, 326, 364, 374, 390, 397, 398, 404, 438, 414, 465, 467, 492, 496, 499, 525, 543, 544, 545, 546, 550, 551, 557, 561,

Definition: flattish oval pieces of wood, with sheaves in them, for all the running ropes to run in (Smyth 1996: 107-08). Profile Characteristics: flattish, oval pieces of wood with sheaves in them, placed in the rigging with ropes running through them (after Smyth 1996: 107-08). Archaeological Examples: Mary Rose (1: 508). Iconographic Examples: 2: 93, 98, 210, 231, 408, 641, 642, 650. 151

Appendix Three – Vessel Terms and Components

571, 574, 575, 598, 627, 599, 643, 648, 649, 650, 663, 665, 762, 766, 773, 775, 783, 787, 822, 826, 827, 831, 834, 836, 858, 859, 860, 863, 868, 872, 908, 909, 912, 913, 918, 919.

605, 689, 791, 837, 874,

611, 702, 793, 838, 877,

612, 713, 794, 844, 878,

615, 727, 818, 846, 892,

635, 735, 819, 855, 893,

641, 736, 820, 856, 894,

412, 413, 415, 418, 420, 426, 433, 434, 435, 438, 444, 449, 450, 460, 465, 466, 467, 478, 479, 493, 496, 499, 502, 504, 506, 508, 511, 512, 525, 527, 538, 543, 544, 545, 546, 550, 551, 557, 561, 565, 571, 574, 575, 577, 585, 586, 590, 591, 594, 596, 598, 599, 601, 610, 612, 617, 635, 641, 642, 644, 646, 648,659, 680, 689, 693, 702, 707, 717, 721, 725, 727, 736, 737, 741, 748, 750, 752, 754, 757, 762, 763, 766, 774, 775, 783, 787, 788, 791, 793, 794, 801, 804, 805, 815, 818, 819, 820, 871, 822, 824, 825, 826, 827, 828, 836, 837, 838, 842, 844, 845, 846, 848, 849, 853, 855, 856, 857, 858, 859, 860, 863, 864, 868, 869, 872, 874, 879, 880, 881, 885, 886, 887, 888, 891, 892, 893, 894, 897, 898, 905, 907, 908, 909, 910, 913, 917, 918, 919, 923.

642, 757, 821, 857, 907,

Bulkhead: Definition: a vertical partition, either fore-and-aft or athwartships (Steffy 1994: 268). Profile Characteristics: a vertical partition, either fore-and-aft or athwartships (Steffy 1994: 268). Archaeological Examples: Kvalsund 1 (1: 22), Walthamstow (1: 53), Bàgart 1-2 (1: 62-63), Sewardstone (1: 131), Kew (1: 356), Tjautjer (1: 695). Iconographic Examples: not visible in any manuscript illumination in appendix 2.

Caulking: Definition: to insert material between two members, making the junction watertight (McGrail 1998: xv). Profile Characteristics: not visible in external longitudinal view. Archaeological Examples: Alt-Lübeck (1: 199), Boudeuse Cay (1: 486), Padre Island (1: 510), Christianshavn 4 (1: 522), London [Hays Wharf to Bethel Estate] (1: 548). Iconographic Examples: 2: 229, 713.

Cable (chain): Definition: a thick, strong rope or chain to keep a ship at anchor (Smyth 1996: 150). Profile Characteristics: a thick, strong rope or chain, apparently used to moor or anchor a vessel (after Smyth 1996: 150). Archaeological Examples: Vejby (1: 394), Ladby (1: 184), St Peter Port (1: 367-68, 413). Iconographic Examples: 2: 21, 41, 98, 116, 122, 133, 134, 162, 210, 229, 231, 235, 249, 267, 268, 397, 413, 422, 438, 455, 465, 492, 496, 514, 542, 561, 571, 575, 596, 599, 612, 627, 635, 713, 714, 727, 801, 839, 845, 855, 856, 858, 868, 872, 892, 893, 894, 909, 919.

Chainplates: Definition: strips of metal with their lower ends bolted to the ship’s side under the channels. They carry the deadeyes to which standing rigging is secured (Kemp 1988). Profile Characteristics: metal or wooden strips with their lower ends bolted to the ship’s side under the channels, carrying the deadeyes to which standing rigging is secured (after Kemp 1988). Archaeological Examples: Bremen (1: 347), Mary Rose (1: 508). Iconographic Examples: 2: 18, 93, 122, 124, 128, 132, 134, 161, 163, 190, 210, 214, 226, 229, 231, 235, 237, 265, 277, 304, 306, 415, 438, 546, 596, 627, 687, 784, 894.

Capstan (capstern): Definition: a cylindrical barrel set in the vertical position, used for heavy lifting work, particularly when working anchors and cables (Kemp 1996: 160). Profile Characteristics: a cylindrical barrel housed on the main or aftdeck, used for heavy lifting work with ropes (after Kemp 1996: 160). Archaeological Examples: Bremen (1: 347), Bryggen (1: 343-45). Iconographic Examples: 2: 185, 452, 586, 884, 860.

Chainwales (chains, channels): Definition: wooden projections from the sides of ships abreast of each mast, to carry the chain-plates clear of the gunwale, giving the shrouds a wider base and spread from which to support the masts and hold them clear of the gunwales, preventing chaffing (Kemp 1988: 150). Profile Characteristics: wooden projections from the sides of ships abreast of each mast, to carry the chain-plates clear of the gunwale (after Kemp 1988: 150). Archaeological Examples: Bremen (1: 347), Mary Rose (1: 508). Iconographic Examples: 2: 18, 93, 122, 124, 128, 132, 134, 161, 163, 190, 210, 214, 226, 229, 231, 235, 237, 265, 277, 304, 306, 415, 438, 546, 596, 627, 687, 784, 894.

Cargo-port: Definition: a square hole cut in the side of a vessel to allow cargo to be loaded and unloaded (Author). Profile Characteristics: a square hole cut in the side of a vessel to allow cargo to be loaded and unloaded (Author). Archaeological Examples: no archaeological examples survive: known from analyses of early-modern wooden vessels. Iconographic Examples: 2: 571.

Chase port: Definition: a gunport placed in the bows or stern to accommodate foreand-aft mounted guns (Steffy 1994: 269). Profile Characteristics: a port placed in the bows or stern (after Steffy 1994: 269). Archaeological Examples: uncertain if archaeological examples survive: known from analyses of early-modern wooden vessels. Iconographic Examples: 2: 374, 415, 894.

Carvel-planked (flush-planked) (planks & strakes): Definition: taken to be synonymous with skeleton build with flush-laid strakes (McGrail 1998: xv). Profile Characteristics: flush-laid strakes (Author). Archaeological Examples: Mary Rose (1: 508), London (1: 77, 100, 148, 170, 185-86, 206-08, 286-87, 295-96, 318-21, 362, 389-91, 403-07, 431-34, 452, 469-73, 504-05, 546-51, 646-57). Iconographic Examples: 2: 14, 18, 21, 22, 23, 25, 28, 41, 46, 67, 70, 87, 122, 128, 132, 134, 143, 341, 360, 397, 403, 404, 408, 409, 152

The Illuminated Ark

Archaeological Examples: Studland (1: 515), Mukran ( 1: 555). Iconographic Examples: 2: 22, 41, 67, 70, 341, 404, 408, 412, 413, 450, 455, 467, 496, 508, 514, 519, 531, 543, 544, 549, 557, 571, 575, 596, 598, 599, 605, 611, 612, 617, 627, 635, 639, 640, 650, 663, 665, 702, 714, 727, 729, 736, 737, 744, 752, 757, 762, 763, 783, 788, 789, 791, 793, 794, 801, 804, 818, 819, 820, 821, 822, 825, 826, 827, 828, 829, 831, 834, 836, 837, 838, 842, 844, 846, 849, 853, 855, 856, 857, 858, 859, 860, 862, 863, 864, 865, 868, 870, 872, 873, 874, 877, 881, 883, 884, 887, 892, 893, 894, 902, 905, 910, 913, 918.

Clench: Definition: to secure [or deform] a nail or bolt by bending or flattening its projecting end over the surface it last penetrated [usually done over a rove] (Steffy 1994: 269). Profile Characteristics: not visible in external longitudinal view. Archaeological Examples: Sutton Hoo 2 (1: 49), Caister (1: 66), Ingleby (1: 74), Oseberg (1: 94), Balladoole (1: 110), Gokstad 1 (1: 118). Iconographic Examples: not visible in any manuscript illumination in appendix 2.

Crook:

Clinker-planked (lapstraked, lapped) (planks & strakes):

Definition: a curved piece of wood which has grown into a shape useful for shipbuilding (McGrail 1998: xv). Profile Characteristics: a curved piece of wood which has grown into a shape useful for shipbuilding (McGrail 1998: xv). Archaeological Examples: Sierzchów (1: 35), Oseberg (1: 94), Staraya Ladoga 2 (1: 105), Falsterbo (1: 250), Novogorod (1: 210-11, 26263, 297-98, 435). Iconographic Examples: 2: 134, 156, 214, 235, 268, 467, 542, 596, 627, 663, 687, 721, 883.

Definition: strakes placed so that they partially overlap one-another, usually upper strake outboard of lower strake, but occasionally reversed (McGrail 1993a: 172). Profile Characteristics: strakes placed so that they partially overlap [rather than directly abut] one-another, usually upper strake outboard of lower strake, but occasionally reversed (McGrail 1993a: 172). Archaeological Examples: London (1: 77, 100, 148, 170, , 206-08, 286-87, 295-96, 318-21, 362, 389-91, 431-34, 452, 504-05, , 64657), Dublin (1: 143, 246-48), Hedeby (1: 164-65). Iconographic Examples: 2: 7, 19, 24, 88, 93, 99, 116, 121, 124, 133, 134, 135, 136, 139, 140, 141, 156, 197, 222, 225, 232, 235, 243, 249, 265, 268, 278, 291, 293, 303, 326, 327, 334, 335, 336, 364, 368, 372, 375, 380, 387, 389, 390, 392, 394, 398, 403, 405, 406, 409, 412, 418, 420, 422, 424, 430, 431, 433, 435, 436, 449, 450, 451, 455, 458, 469, 473, 474, 476, 478, 481, 487, 492, 494, 501, 508, 510, 514, 515, 519, 521, 526, 530, 531, 534, 542, 553, 554, 559, 561, 564, 566, 573, 582, 590, 592, 593, 595, 597, 599, 605, 611, 614, 615, 625, 627, 631, 639, 640, 641, 643, 644, 647, 649, 650, 651, 656, 657, 661, 663, 665, 674, 682, 683, 687, 695, 700, 701, 703, 708, 713, 714, 720, 725, 726, 729, 731, 736, 737, 739, 742, 744, 746, 747, 749, 767, 779, 780, 785, 789, 790, 792, 793, 803, 804, 806, 807, 823, 829, 831, 834, 839, 843, 849, 851, 852, 854, 860, 861, 862, 865, 870, 873, 877, 878, 883, 884, 889, 890, 901, 902, 914, 920, 921.

Crosstrees: Definition: light timber spreaders fixed athwartships across the trestletrees at the upper ends of lower masts and topmasts, to support the tops and spread the shrouds (Kemp 1988: 214). Profile Characteristics: light timber spreaders fixed athwartships across the trestle-trees, at the upper ends of lower masts and/or topmasts (Kemp 1988: 214). Archaeological Examples: no archaeological examples survive: known from analyses of early-modern wooden vessels. Iconographic Examples: not visible in any manuscript illumination in appendix 2. Crow’s foot: Definition: a method of attaching reef points to a sail (Kemp 1988: 215). Profile Characteristics: three-ended pieces of rope in the shape of a crow’s foot spaced across the outer side of a sail, and used to attach reef points to it (Author). Archaeological Examples: no archaeological examples survive: known from analyses of early-modern wooden vessels. Iconographic Examples: 2: 99, 116, 122, 128, 134, 137, 139, 140, 141, 156, 166, 185, 191, 197, 199, 201, 208, 210, 229, 243, 268, 295, 306, 326, 559, 860, 855.

Counter: Definition: the transverse section between the bottom of the stern and the wing transom; many documents and drawings refer to the counter as the entire transverse area between the top of the sternpost and the rail (Steffy 1994: 269). Profile Characteristics: the transverse section between the bottom of the stern and the wing transom (Steffy 1994: 269). Archaeological Examples: Studland (1: 515), Mukran (1: 555). Iconographic Examples: 2: 22, 41, 67, 70, 341, 404, 408, 412, 413, 450, 455, 467, 496, 508, 514, 519, 531, 543, 544, 549, 557, 571, 575, 596, 598, 599, 605, 611, 612, 617, 627, 635, 639, 640, 650, 663, 665, 702, 714, 727, 729, 736, 737, 744, 752, 757, 762, 763, 783, 788, 789, 791, 793, 794, 801, 804, 818, 819, 820, 821, 822, 825, 826, 827, 828, 829, 831, 834, 836, 837, 838, 842, 844, 846, 849, 853, 855, 856, 857, 858, 859, 860, 862, 863, 864, 865, 868, 870, 872, 873, 874, 877, 881, 883, 884, 887, 892, 893, 894, 902, 905, 910, 913, 918.

Crow’s nest: Definition: a small shelter on the fore- or mainmast for the masthead lookout, originally made from a cask or barrel (Kemp 1988: 215). Profile Characteristics: a small shelter on the fore- or mainmast for the masthead lookout, made from a cask or barrel (after Kemp 1988: 215). Archaeological Examples: Mary Rose (1: 508). Iconographic Examples: 2: 93, 98, 122, 132, 134, 137, 162, 180, 185, 201, 214, 226, 231, 235, 261, 265, 267, 268, 282, 304, 305, 329, 561, 599, 601.

Counter timbers: Definition: vertical timbers framing the counter (Steffy 1994: 269). Profile Characteristics: vertical timbers framing the counter (Steffy 1994: 269). 153

Appendix Three – Vessel Terms and Components

Iconographic Examples: not visible in any manuscript illumination in appendix 2

Crutch (myke): Definition: a timber used as a support for booms at rest (Steffy 1994: 270). Profile Characteristics: a timber used as a support for booms at rest (Steffy 1994: 270). Archaeological Examples: Dublin 7 (1: 248), Newcastle (1: 326). Iconographic Examples: 2: 25, 116, 133, 185, 295, 303, 389, 839, 859, 889, 914.

Foremast: Definition: the forward lower mast in all vessels (Smyth 1996: 316). Profile Characteristics: the forward lower mast in all vessels (Smyth 1996: 316). Archaeological Examples: uncertain if archaeological examples survive: known from analyses of early-modern wooden vessels. Iconographic Examples: 2: 28, 93, 102, 122, 128, 229, 398, 415, 438, 465, 499,527, 531, 545, 546, 561, 574, 575, 598, 612, 646, 689, 801, 818, 819, 820, 821, 822, 826, 837, 838, 844, 855, 856, 857, 858, 892, 893, 894, 907, 908, 909, 919.

Fighting platform: Definition: a timber framework structure at the bow and/or stern of a vessel for crew or troops to fight from, often temporary, and a precursor to fore- and after-castles (Author). Profile Characteristics: a timber framework structure at the bow and/or stern of a vessel for crew and/or troops to fight from (Author). Archaeological Examples: Mary Rose (1: 508). Iconographic Examples: 2: 115, 126, 131, 364, 390, 766.

Foresail: Definition: the principle sail set on the foremast (Smyth 1996: 316). Profile Characteristics: the principle sail set on the foremast (Smyth 1996: 316). Archaeological Examples: no archaeological examples survive: known from analyses of early-modern wooden vessels. Iconographic Examples: 2: 20, 93, 128, 134, 141, 169, 185, 229, 231, 235, 360, 397, 398, 399, 415, 465, 478, 479, 499, 527, 531, 543, 545, 546, 561, 57, 575, 598, 612, 665, 687, 689, 801, 818, 819, 820, 821, 822, 826, 837, 838, 844, 855, 856, 857, 858, 880, 893, 894, 907, 908, 909, 919.

Floor (floor timber): Definition: a transverse member - often a crook - extending from turn of bilge to turn of bilge, and set against the planking. Usually the lowest part of a transverse frame’ (McGrail 1998: xvi). Profile Characteristics: not visible in external longitudinal view. Archaeological Examples: Hedeby 1 (1: 164), Graveney (1: 119), Gdansk P3 (1: 144), Orunia 1-3 (1: 188-90). Iconographic Examples: not visible in any manuscript illumination in appendix 2.

Frame: Definition: a transverse member made up of more than one piece of timber, and set against the planking (McGrail 1998: xvi). Profile Characteristics: not visible in external longitudinal view. Archaeological Examples: Bremen (1: 347), Kingston Horsefair Vessels 1-3 (1: 358-60), London [Baynards Castle] (1: 362), Øresund (1: 363), Pärnu (1: 364). Iconographic Examples: not visible in any manuscript illumination in appendix 2.

Flush-laid (flush-planked) (see carvel): Definition: planking in which adjoining strakes are butted and do not overlap (McGrail 1998: xvi). Profile Characteristics: planking in which adjoining strakes are butted directly against one-another (after McGrail 1998: xvi). Archaeological Examples: Ijsselmeer N5 (1: 354), Camber (1: 417), Cattewater (1: 489), Kravel (1: 502), Woolwich (1: 505), Mary Rose (1: 508). Iconographic Examples: 2: 14, 18, 21, 22, 23, 25, 28, 41, 46, 67, 70, 87, 122, 128, 132, 134, 143, 341, 360, 397, 403, 404, 408, 409, 412, 413, 415, 418, 420, 426, 433, 434, 435, 438, 444, 449, 450, 460, 465, 466, 467, 478, 479, 493, 496, 499, 502, 504, 506, 508, 511, 512, 525, 527, 538, 543, 544, 545, 546, 550, 551, 557, 561, 565, 571, 574, 575, 577, 585, 586, 590, 591, 594, 596, 598, 599, 601, 610, 612, 617, 635, 641, 642, 644, 646, 648,659, 680, 689, 693, 702, 707, 717, 721, 725, 727, 736, 737, 741, 748, 750, 752, 754, 757, 762, 763, 766, 774, 775, 783, 787, 788, 791, 793, 794, 801, 804, 805, 815, 818, 819, 820, 871, 822, 824, 825, 826, 827, 828, 836, 837, 838, 842, 844, 845, 846, 848, 849, 853, 855, 856, 857, 858, 859, 860, 863, 864, 868, 869, 872, 874, 879, 880, 881, 885, 886, 887, 888, 891, 892, 893, 894, 897, 898, 905, 907, 908, 909, 910, 913, 917, 918, 919, 923.

Futtock: Definition: a frame timber other than a floor timber, half frame, or top timber; one of the middle pieces of a frame (Steffy 1994: 272). Profile Characteristics: not visible in external longitudinal view. Archaeological Examples: Vedby Hage (1: 435), Cattewater (1: 489), Mary Rose (1: 508), Western Ledge Reef (1: 514). Iconographic Examples: not visible in any manuscript illumination in appendix 2. Gaff: Definition: a spar to which the head of a four-sided fore-and-aft sail is laced and hoisted on the after side of a mast (Kemp 1988: 333-34). Profile Characteristics: a spar to which the head of a four-sided foreand-aft sail is laced and hoisted on the after side of a mast (Kemp 1988: 333-34). Archaeological Examples: no archaeological examples survive: known from analyses of early-modern wooden vessels. Iconographic Examples: not visible in any manuscript illumination in appendix 2.

Foot-ropes: Definition: ropes hanging below a yard upon which crew stand aloft when working upon the sails (Kemp 1988: 319) Profile Characteristics: ropes hanging bellow a yard, on which crew stand aloft when furling or reefing sail (Kemp 1988: 319). Archaeological Examples: no archaeological examples survive: known from analyses of early-modern wooden vessels. 154

The Illuminated Ark

Profile Characteristics: the hole in the forecastle deck or upper deck, right forward in the bows of a ship, through which the anchor cable can pass (after Kemp 1988: 380). Archaeological Examples: Vedby Hage (1: 438). Iconographic Examples: 2: 21, 41, 89, 93, 98, 116, 121, 122, 134, 162, 210, 229, 231, 235, 249, 267, 268, 303, 397, 413, 422, 438, 455, 465, 492, 496, 542, 561, 571, 575, 596, 599, 612, 627, 635, 713, 727, 801, 839, 845, 855, 856, 857, 858, 892, 893, 894, 909, 919.

Gammoning: Definition: rope lashings passed alternately over the bowsprit and through a large hole in the cut-water, to support the stays of the foremast (Smyth 1996: 333-34). Profile Characteristics: rope lashings passed alternately over the bowsprit and through a large hole in the cut-water, supporting the stays of the foremast and/or binding the hull planks together where there meet at the ends (after Smyth 1996: 333-34). Archaeological Examples: no archaeological examples survive: known from ethnographic analyses elsewhere in the world. Iconographic Examples: 2: 16, 293, 304, 334, 336, 348, 372, 389, 430, 431, 449, 469, 473, 464, 506, 531, 554, 582, 615, 625, 674, 741, 891.

Helm port (rudder hole): Definition: the opening in the stern where the rudder stock enters the hull (Steffy 1994: 271). Profile Characteristics: the opening in the stern where the rudder stock enters the hull (Steffy 1994: 271). Archaeological Examples: uncertain if archaeological examples survive: known from analyses of early-modern and ‘modern’ wooden ships. Iconographic Examples: 2: 14, 22, 41, 137, 211, 557, 571, 647, 504, 557, 571, 569, 607, 647, 720, 757, 762.

Grapnels (grapple): Definition: a small, four-pronged anchor used to hold a ship alongside an enemy for the purpose of boarding her by hooking them into the rigging or over the gunwale (Kemp 1988: 350). Profile Characteristics: a small, four-pronged anchor (Kemp 1988: 350). Archaeological Examples: uncertain if archaeological examples survive: known from analyses of early-modern wooden vessels. Iconographic Examples: 2: 18, 344, 796, 868, 872, 874, 909.

Hogging truss: Definition: a fore-and-aft framework or cable built into a vessel to prevent hogging (the stress on a hull that causes its ends to droop) (Steffy 1994: 273). Profile Characteristics: a framework or cable running fore-and-aft (Author). Archaeological Examples: no archaeological examples survive: known from analyses of early-modern and ‘modern’ wooden ships. Iconographic Examples: implied in 2: 156, 185, 225, 268, 282, 295, 304.

Gudgeon: Definition: the metal plate carrying an eye bolted on to the sternpost of a vessel which takes the pintle of the rudder to allow it free movement in either direction, in those vessels in which the rudder is hung either from the sternpost or transom (Kemp 1988: 359). Profile Characteristics: the metal plate carrying an eye bolted on to the sternpost of a vessel which takes the pintle of the rudder (after Kemp 1988: 359). Archaeological Examples: Sandwich (1: 411), Western Ledge Reef (1: 517), Santa Lucia (1: 573). Iconographic Examples: 2: 133, 134, 156, 229, 304, 426, 514, 515, 519, 575, 687, 804, 901, 902, 910.

Hood ends (hoods, hooding ends): Definition: the ends of planks that fit into the stem and sternpost rabbets, sometimes reduced in thickness to permit a better join with the posts (Steffy 1994: 273). Profile Characteristics: the ends of planks that fit into the stem and sternpost rabbets (Steffy 1994: 273). Archaeological Examples: Oseberg (1: 94), Gokstad (1: 118-20), Graveney (1: 119), Camber (1: 417), Vedby Hage (1: 438), Emanuel Point (1: 530), Wokum (1: 584). Iconographic Examples: not visible in any manuscript illumination in appendix 2.

Gunport: Definition: the square hole cut in the side of a vessel through which a gun may be fired (Author). Profile Characteristics: the square hole in the side of a vessel through which a gun projects (Author). Archaeological Examples: Mary Rose (1: 508). Iconographic Examples: 2: 98, 128, 231, 397, 413, 415, 499, 527, 561, 571, 598, 612, 818, 819, 820, 821, 822, 826, 844, 894, 702, 581. Halyard (halliard):

Keel: Definition: the main longitudinal strength member, scarfed to the stems forward and aft (McGrail 1998: xvi). Profile Characteristics: the main longitudinal strength member, a central hull timber substantially thicker than the bottom planking scarfed to the stems forward and aft (after McGrail 1998: xvi). Archaeological Examples: Oseberg (1: 94), Gokstad (1: 118), Graveney (1: 119), Poole (1: 397), Dublin (1: 140, 198-99, 246-48), Hedeby (1: 89, 164-65, 205). Iconographic Examples: 2: 21, 24, 88, 89, 93, 116, 133, 134, 141, 143, 156, 166, 201, 226, 278, 295, 324, 326, 344, 380, 387, 392, 403, 422, 424, 434, 438, 444, 455, 460, 476, 493, 496, 497, 504, 521, 527, 538, 542, 543, 544, 559, 564, 566, 571, 575, 596, 599, 601, 610, 649, 650, 651, 656, 657, 703, 713, 720, 727, 729, 737, 739, 763, 769, 780, 784, 785, 789, 801, 805, 823, 824, 839, 842, 849, 862, 870, 873, 877, 889, 890, 901, 902, 914, 921, 923.

Definition: a line to hoist and lower yard or sail (McGrail 1993: 173). Profile Characteristics: a line to hoist and lower yard or sail (McGrail 1993: 173). Archaeological Examples: no archaeological examples survive: known from analyses of early-modern wooden vessels. Iconographic Examples: 2: 98, 100, 122, 134, 235, 231, 860. Hawsehole: Definition: the hole in the forecastle deck or upper deck, right forward in the bows of a ship, through which the anchor cable passes (Kemp 1988: 380). 155

Appendix Three – Vessel Terms and Components

Keelson (kelson):

Lutting (luting) (see caulking):

Definition: a longitudinal timber positioned on top of the keel and fitted over the floor timbers, to distribute vertical loads from the mast over a greater length of the boat’ (McGrail 1993: 173). Profile Characteristics: not visible in external longitudinal view. Archaeological Examples: Lapuri (1: 25), Puck Bay P2 (1: 31), Oseberg (1: 94), Hedeby 1-3 (1: 164-65), London [Thames Exchange] (1: 206). Iconographic Examples: not visible in any manuscript illumination in appendix 2.

Definition: a term used to describe the caulking of clinker planked hulls (Steffy 1994: 275). Profile Characteristics: not visible in external longitudinal view. Archaeological Examples: Lad (1: 166), London [Upper Thames Street] (1: 170), Äskekärr (1: 174), Klåstad (1: 182), Ladby (1: 184). Iconographic Examples: not visible in any manuscript illumination in appendix 2. Mast-step:

Keel-plank:

Definition: a mortise cut into the top of a keelson or large floor timber, into which the tenoned heel of a mast is seated (Steffy 1994: 275). Profile Characteristics: not visible in external longitudinal view. Archaeological Examples: Vejby (1: 394), Blackfriars 3 (1: 405), Vedby Hage (1: 438), Ijsselmeer B55 (1: 446). Iconographic Examples: not visible in any manuscript illumination in appendix 2.

Definition: a central hull plank substantially thicker than the rest of the bottom planking, used in lieu of a keel (Steffy 1994: 273-74). Profile Characteristics: not visible in external longitudinal view. Archaeological Examples: Tune 2-7 (1: 51), Fjørtoft 2 (1: 88), Walthamstow (1: 98), Bremen (1: 347), Ijsselmeer NZ43 (1: 355), Vejby (1: 394), Magor Pill 2 (1: 474). Iconographic Examples: not visible in any manuscript illumination in appendix 2.

Median rudder: Definition: a specially shaped timber, or assembly of timbers, that can be rotated about its own (near) vertical axis to control the direction of a vessel, hanging from the sternpost or transom by means of pintles which engage in gudgeons to allow lateral movement (Author) Profile Characteristics: a specially shaped timber, or assembly of timbers, that can be rotated about its own (near) vertical axis to control the direction of a vessel, hanging from the sternpost or transom by means of pintles which engage in gudgeons (Author). Archaeological Examples: Bremen (1: 347), Vigsø (1: 703) Sandwich (1: 411), Rye B (1: 410). Iconographic Examples: 2: 22, 28, 41, 67, 70, 397, 404, 408, 415, 438, 45, 465, 474, 499, 504, 511, 514, 519, 527, 531, 543, 545, 546, 549, 557, 561, 572, 574, 575, 587, 596, 597, 598, 599, 605, 611, 612, 635, 639, 640, 641, 642, 643, 648, 649, 651, 663, 665, 680, 687, 689, 702, 714, 717, 720, 727, 736, 737, 739, 752, 754, 757, 762, 763, 780, 781, 788, 791, 793, 794, 804, 818, 819, 820, 821, 822, 825, 826, 827, 829, 831, 834, 837, 838, 844, 845, 846, 849, 855, 856, 860, 863, 868, 870, 872, 873, 874, 881, 883, 884, 887, 892, 893, 894, 901, 913, 919, 920, 921.

Knee: Definition: a naturally grown crook used as a bracket between two members set at about right-angles to each other (McGrail 1998: xvi). Profile Characteristics: a naturally grown crook used as a bracket between two members set at about right-angles to each other (McGrail 1998: xvi). Archaeological Examples: Puck Bay P3 (1: 144), London [New Fresh Wharf] (1: 148), Hedeby 1 (1: 164), Alt-Lübeck (1: 199). Iconographic Examples: not visible in any manuscript illumination in appendix 2. Lashings (see gammonings): Definition: a rope used to fasten any moveable body in a ship, or about her masts, sails and rigging (Smyth 1996: 433). Profile Characteristics: a rope used to fasten any moveable body in a ship (Smyth 1996: 433). Archaeological Examples: Dublin [Fishamble] (1: 246), Milton Keynes (1: 488), St Peter Port (1: 367-68, 413). Iconographic Examples: 2: 16, 293, 304, 334, 336, 348, 372, 389, 430, 431, 449, 469, 473, 464, 506, 531, 554, 582, 615, 625, 674, 741, 891.

Meginhufr: Definition: a thick plank separating the bottom, or lower ship, of a Nordic vessel from its sides, either rectangular or L-shaped in crosssection (Steffy 1994: 275). Profile Characteristics: not visible in external longitudinal view. Archaeological Examples: Oseberg (1: 94), Gokstad 1 (1: 118), Äskekärr (1: 174). Iconographic Examples: not visible in any manuscript illumination in appendix 2.

Lateen sail/yard: Definition: a long triangular sail set on a long yard which hoists obliquely to the mast (after Smyth 1996: 433). Profile Characteristics: a long triangular sail set on a long yard which hoists obliquely to the mast (after Smyth 1996: 433). Archaeological Examples: uncertain if archaeological examples survive: known from analyses of early-modern and ‘modern’ wooden ships. Iconographic Examples: 2: 98, 128, 129, 166, 167, 184, 208, 211, 296, 397, 415, 418, 449, 465, 479, 499, 512, 527, 545, 546, 561, 574, 575, 598, 612, 667, 689, 773, 787, 801, 819, 820, 821, 822, 826, 880, 894, 897, 907, 908, 919.

Mizzenmast: Definition: the after-most mast of a square-rigged sailing vessel (Kemp 1988: 552). Profile Characteristics: the after-most mast of a square-rigged sailing vessel (Kemp 1988: 552). Archaeological Examples: no archaeological examples survive: known from analyses of early-modern and ‘modern’ wooden ships.

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Iconographic Examples: 2: 128, 210, 229, 397, 415, 438, 465, 499,527, 531, 545, 546, 557, 561, 574, 575, 598, 614, 646, 665, 689, 819, 820, 821, 822, 825, 826, 837, 838, 844, 855, 856, 857, 858, 892, 893, 894, 907, 908, 909, 920 .

Archaeological Examples: Sandwich (1: 411), Western Ledge Reef (1: 517), Santa Lucia (1: 573). Iconographic Examples: 2: 133, 134, 156, 229, 304, 426, 514, 515, 519, 575, 687, 804, 901, 902, 910.

Myke (see crutch):

Quarter rudder (side rudder):

Definition: a Y-shaped crutch for masts and spars (McGrail 1993: 174). Profile Characteristics: a Y-shaped crutch for masts and spars (McGrail 1993: 174). Archaeological Examples: Dublin 7 (1: 248), Newcastle (1: 326). Iconographic Examples: 2: 25, 116, 133, 185, 295, 303, 389, 839, 859, 889, 914.

Definition: a rudder mounted on one or both quarter of a vessel (after Steffy 1994: 278-79). Profile Characteristics: a rudder mounted on one or both quarter of a vessel (after Steffy 1994: 278-79). Archaeological Examples: Bryggen (1: 343-45), Rye (1: 409), Kolding (1: 183), Southwold (1: 111-12). Iconographic Examples: 2: 19, 25, 46, 334, 335, 336, 360, 364, 368, 375, 389, 390, 392, 394, 409, 413, 418, 426, 449, 450, 453, 460, 466, 467, 493, 494, 501, 504, 512, 525, 531, 542, 559, 564, 566, 573, 596, 607, 625, 627, 631, 646, 647, 651, 656, 657, 661, 662, 674, 683, 695, 766, 780, 784, 785, 787, 815, 836, 839, 843, 853, 861, 868, 869, 878, 880, 885, 888, 890, 895, 896, 898, 899, 902, 905, 914, 917, 918.

Oar: Definition: a slender piece of timber used as a lever to propel a boat through the water (Smyth 1996: 502-03). Profile Characteristics: a slender piece of timber used as a lever to propel a boat through the water (Smyth 1996: 502-03). Archaeological Examples: Dublin [Fishamble] (1: 246), Dorestad (1: 86, 607), Fort Malakoff (1: 552), Novogorod (1: 210-11, 262-63, 297-98, 435), Hedeby (1: 89, 164-65, 205). Iconographic Examples: 2: 88, 89, 93, 99, 104, 116, 129, 141, 185, 190, 197, 202, 208, 209, 210, 211, 225, 243, 267, 278, 300, 303, 326, 564, 585, 725, 784, 794, 886, 902.

Radially-split: Definition: planks split along the radial axis of a timber, rather than tangentially (Author) Profile Characteristics: not verifiable in external longitudinal view. Archaeological Examples: Folderøy (1: 343), Kingston Horsefair 1 (1: 358), Grønsund (1: 367), Kentmere (1: 385), Roskilde 1 (1: 387). Iconographic Examples: not visible in any manuscript illumination in appendix 2.

Oar hole (port, lock): Definition: the point of leverage of an oar, in this case an opening in a vessel’s side through which the looms (poles) of oars are passed (Steffy 1994: 276). Profile Characteristics: the point of leverage of an oar, in this case an opening in a vessel’s side through which the looms (poles) of oars are passed (Steffy 1994: 276). Archaeological Examples: Puck Bay Boatbuilding site (1: 79), Helgeandsholmen 3 (1: 376), Kentmere (1: 385). Iconographic Examples: 2: 46, 88, 89, 104, 133, 134, 135, 229, 235, 267, 268, 390, 427, 502, 525, 566, 674, 717, 780.

Ratlines: Definition: rope steps up the shrouds of a mast from the sides of the hull (after Kemp 1988: 693). Profile Characteristics: rope steps up the shrouds of a mast from the sides of the hull (after Kemp 1988: 693). Archaeological Examples: no archaeological examples survive: known from analyses of early-modern and ‘modern’ wooden ships. Iconographic Examples: 2: 41, 93, 122, 124, 128, 132, 134, 141, 161, 163, 190, 201, 210, 214, 226, 228, 229, 231, 235, 237, 265, 277, 304, 306, 329, 374, 397, 399, 404, 414, 438, 465, 467, 492, 496, 499, 543, 544, 545, 546, 550, 551, 557, 561, 571, 574, 575, 598, 599, 605, 611, 612, 617, 635, 641, 642, 643, 648, 649, 650, 663, 665, 689, 702, 713, 727, 735, 736, 757, 762, 773, 775, 783, 791, 793, 794, 818, 819, 820, 821, 822, 826, 827, 831, 834, 837, 838, 844, 846, 855, 856, 857, 858, 859, 860, 863, 868, 872, 874, 877, 887, 892, 893, 894, 907, 908, 909, 912, 913, 918, 919.

Parral (parrel): Definition: a device for holding a yard to a mast; it may be a rope lashing, a wooden crook, or a composite parral of trucks and ribs (McGrail 1993a: 174). Profile Characteristics: a device for holding a yard to a mast, either a rope lashing, wooden crook, or a composite (after McGrail 1993a: 174). Archaeological Examples: Dublin [Fishamble] (1: 246), Mary Rose (1: 508). Iconographic Examples: 2: 99, 116, 139, 156, 191, 197, 222, 268, 295, 304, 327, 389, 435, 754, 839.

Reef: Definition: the amount of sail taken in by securing a set of reef points, the means of shortening sail to the amount appropriate to an increase in the strength of the wind (Kemp 1988: 695-96). Profile Characteristics: sail taken in by securing a set of reef points (after Kemp 1988: 695-96). Archaeological Examples: no archaeological examples survive: known from analyses of early-modern and ‘modern’ wooden ships. Iconographic Examples: 2: 98, 99, 116, 134, 139, 166, 185, 197, 208, 210, 225, 226, 229, 243, 267, 268, 295, 303, 306, 326, 559.

Pintle: Definition: a vertical pin at the forward edge of a median rudder that fit into a gudgeon on the sternpost to form a hinge, usually welded or cast to a bracket with arms fastened to the sides of the rudder (Steffy 1994: 277). Profile Characteristics: a vertical pin at the forward edge of a median rudder that fits into a gudgeon on the sternpost to form a hinge, with arms fastened to the sides of the rudder (after Steffy 1994: 277).

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Appendix Three – Vessel Terms and Components

Profile Characteristics: a piece of timber running the length of a vessel from bow to stern, just below the gunwale (after Kemp 1988: 731). Archaeological Examples: London [Bull Wharf, Upper Thames Street] (1: 170), Vedby Hage (1: 438). Iconographic Examples: 2: 93, 122, 134, 210, 413, 438, 557, 586, 627, 635, 737, 762, 787, 824, 825, 826, 827, 829, 831, 834, 837, 838, 844, 846, 855, 856, 857, 858, 859, 860, 863, 868, 872, 874, 892, 893, 894, 907, 908, 919.

Reverse-clinker planks: Definition: strakes placed so that they partially overlap one-another with the upper strake inboard of lower strake, as opposed to the European ‘normal’ form of clinker building (see also clinker) (Author). Profile Characteristics: strakes in which the visible edge of the overlap (or its shadow) appears to face upwards rather than downwards on the outside of the hull, often in conjunction with nails laid along the upper edge of each strake rather than the lower edge (Author). Archaeological Examples: implied in Utrecht 1 (1: 154), Utrecht 2 (1: 270), Øresund (1: 363), London [Morgan’s Lane] (1: 472). Iconographic Examples: 2: 24?, 133?, 135, 222?, 303?, 368, 380, 387, 394, 405, 418, 422?, 430, 436, 450?, 451, 455, 458, 473, 474, 514, 519, 526, 534, 573, 582, 597, 605, 625, 674, 682, 687, 702, 703?, 720, 725, 729, 732, 736, 737, 739, 742?, 744, 746, 747?, 749, 767, 769, 792, 793, 834, 883, 884, 890.

Scupper: Definition: a hole or channel cut in a vessel’s side or waterway to drain off deck water (Steffy 1994: 279). Profile Characteristics: a small hole or channel cut in a vessel’s side or waterway (Steffy 1994: 279). Archaeological Examples: Bremen (1: 347), Studland (1: 515), Hedeby (1: 89, 164-65, 205), Novogorod (1: 210-11, 262-63, 29798, 435). Iconographic Examples: not visible in any manuscript illumination in appendix 2.

Rib: Definition: a small transverse member, often flexible and composed of one or several pieces, that stiffened the outer skin of a hull. Although often a layman’s term for frame, rib is more properly applied to small craft, certain heavy frames that run from gunwale to gunwale in clinker built vessels, or vessels whose skin is made of material other than wood (Steffy 1994: 278). Profile Characteristics: a small transverse member (Steffy 1994: 278). Archaeological Examples: Buston 1 (1: 10), Mangersnes (1: 26), Glasgow 1 (1: 117), Kamieñ (1: 251). Iconographic Examples: implied in 2: 107, 129, 134, 214, 229, 235, 261, 267, 268, 515, 542, 651, 633.

Sheathing: Definition: a thin covering of metal or wood, to protect hulls from marine life or fouling, or to stabilise and protect material applied for that purpose (Steffy 1994: 279). Profile Characteristics: a thin covering of metal or wood over a hull (Steffy 1994: 279). Archaeological Examples: no archaeological examples survive: known from analyses of early-modern and ‘modern’ wooden ships. Iconographic Examples: not visible in any manuscript illumination in appendix 2.

Ribbands (ribbons, battens):

Shrouds:

Definition: long, flexible strips of wood, most commonly used as temporary keepers by nailing them across the outside of standing frames while the vessel was being built’ (Steffy 1994: 278). Profile Characteristics: long, flexible strips of wood on the outer hull, especially those over seams (after Steffy 1994: 278). Archaeological Examples: Meinerswijk (1: 324), Rotterdam (1: 338), Bremen (1: 347), King Fergus’ Isle (1: 637), Rieda (1: 678). Iconographic Examples: not visible in any manuscript illumination in appendix 2.

Definition: ropes leading from the masthead to the sides of the vessel to support the mast athwart-ships (McGrail 1998: xvi). Profile Characteristics: ropes leading from the masthead to the sides of the vessel (McGrail 1998: xvi). Archaeological Examples: no archaeological examples survive: known from analyses of early-modern and ‘modern’ wooden ships. Iconographic Examples: 2: 93, 124, 128, 134, 141, 229, 231, 229, 374, 397, 399, 404, 414, 438, 465, 467, 492, 496, 499, 543, 544, 545, 546, 550, 551, 557, 561, 574, 575, 598, 599, 605, 611, 612, 617, 635, 641, 642, 643, 648, 649, 650, 663, 665, 689, 702, 713, 727, 735, 736, 757, 762, 773, 775, 783, 791, 793, 794, 818, 819, 820, 821, 822, 826, 827, 831, 834, 837, 838, 844, 846, 855, 857. 858, 859, 860, 863, 868, 872, 874, 877, 887, 892, 893, 894, 907, 908, 909, 912, 913, 918, 919.

Rowlock: Definition: a U-shaped space cut into a boat’s gunwale to take the oars (Kemp 1988: 726). Profile Characteristics: a U-shaped space cut into a boat’s gunwale (after Kemp 1988: 726). Archaeological Examples: known from the Hedeby area (CrumlinPedersen 1997a: 126-30). Iconographic Examples: 2: 19, 116, 133, 249, 263, 426, 575, 585, 674, 864, 886, 910.

Snelle: Definition: a winged, or partition-like, stanchion used to support beams in Nordic vessels (Steffy 1994: 280). Profile Characteristics: not visible in external longitudinal view. Archaeological Examples: Hedeby 1 (1: 164), Skuldelev 1, 3 & 5 (1: 215, 216-17), Skuldelev 2/4 (1: 230), Skuldelev 6 (1: 268). Iconographic Examples: not visible in any manuscript illumination in appendix 2.

Rubbing strakes/frames: Definition: a piece of half-rounded timber running the length of a vessel from bow to stern, just below the gunwale, to act as a permanent fender and protect the side of the vessel (Kemp 1988: 731).

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Iconographic Examples: 2: 22, 25, 28, 41, 67, 70, 133, 134, 141, 166, 208, 265, 316, 324, 397, 404, 405, 406, 408, 415, 438, 450, 465, 469, 474, 476, 481, 487, 497, 499, 504, 510, 511, 512, 514, 515, 519, 527, 531, 538, 543, 544, 545, 546, 549, 557, 561, 565, 572, 573, 574, 575, 586, 587, 593, 596, 597, 598, 599, 605, 611, 612, 614, 615, 625, 635, 639, 640, 641, 642, 643, 646, 648, 649, 651, 650, 663, 665, 669, 680, 682, 687, 689, 701, 702, 714, 717, 720, 725, 727, 736, 737, 739, 741, 752, 754, 757, 762, 763, 780, 781, 788, 790, 791, 793, 794, 801, 804, 818, 819, 820, 821, 822, 825, 826, 827, 829, 831, 834, 837, 838, 839, 844, 845, 846, 849, 855, 856, 860, 863, 868, 869, 870, 872, 873, 874, 881, 883, 884, 886, 887, 892, 893, 894, 901, 913, 919, 920, 921.

Spar crutch (see crutch, myke): Definition: a support fixed on the stern for the masts and yards of a vessel (Author). Profile Characteristics: a support fixed on the stern for the masts and yards of vessel (Author). Archaeological Examples: Dublin 7 (1: 248), Newcastle (1: 326). Iconographic Examples: 2: 25, 116, 133, 185, 295, 303, 389, 839, 859, 889, 914. Stem (stempost): Definition: a vertical or upward curving timber or assembly of timbers, scarfed to the keel or central plank at its lower end, into which the two sides of the bow are joined (Steffy 1994: 280). Profile Characteristics: a vertical or upward curving timber or assembly of timbers into which the two sides of the bow are joined (after Steffy 1994: 280). Archaeological Examples: Hedeby 1 (1: 164), Orunia 2 (1: 189), Bremen (1: 347), Vedby Hage (1: 438), Emanuel Point (1: 530). Iconographic Examples: 2: 24, 70, 88, 89, 93, 99, 116, 124, 129, 133, 134, 135, 140, 141, 143, 156, 167, 185, 191, 197, 201, 202, 209, 210, 213, 225, 229, 231, 243, 249, 254, 261, 267, 278, 293, 303, 305, 316, 324, 326, 327, 334, 335, 336, 342, 375 387, 389, 390, 392, 405, 406, 408, 413, 422, 426, 451, 478, 487, 481, 492, 497, 504, 510, 511, 512, 519, 549, 553, 554, 559, 566, 573, 586, 591, 612, 617, 627, 641, 650, 651, 662, 663, 665, 669, 674, 700, 725, 727, 783, 788, 801, 868, 872, 873, 874, 877, 889.

Throughbeam (crossbeam): Definition: an athwartships timber that extended through and beyond the outer hull planking, supporting the quarter rudders and/or providing athwartships stiffness to the upper part of the hull (Steffy 1994: 281). Profile Characteristics: an athwartships timber that extended through and beyond the outer hull planking (Steffy 1994: 281). Archaeological Examples: Brugge (1: 10), Oseberg (1: 94), Graveney (1: 119). Iconographic Examples: 2: 15, 134, 191, 134, 208, 235, 254, 261, 267, 426, 520, 542, 721, 648, 599, 828, 913. Thwart: Definition: a transverse plank used to seat rowers, support masts, or provide lateral stiffness (Steffy 1994: 281). Profile Characteristics: a transverse plank, sometimes used to seat rowers or support masts (after Steffy 1994: 281). Archaeological Examples: Orunia 1-3 (1: 188-90), Ralswiek 2 (1: 187), Stanley Ferry (1: 195), Alt-Lübeck (1: 199), Viks (1: 220), Novogorod (1: 210-11, 262-63, 297-98, 435). Iconographic Examples: 2: 15, 134, 208, 235, 254, 296, 234, 261, 267, 828.

Sterncastle (aftercastle): Definition: an elevation on the after-part of warships, opposed to the forecastle, for the purpose of fighting (Smyth 1996: 24). Profile Characteristics: an elevation on the after-part of warships, opposed to the forecastle, often for the purpose of fighting (after Smyth 1996: 24). Archaeological Examples: Bremen (1: 347), Mary Rose (1: 508), Red Bay (1: 562-64). Iconographic Examples: 2: 21, 22, 93, 98, 122, 128, 132, 133, 134, 136, 141, 144, 162, 185, 190, 201, 214, 222, 225, 226, 229, 231, 235, 248, 265, 268, 269, 304, 450, 455, 460, 469, 476, 506, 511, 514, 519, 527, 531, 591, 596, 597, 641, 720, 725, 727, 729, 731, 737, 766, 792, 796, 804, 805, 806, 863, 885, 913.

Tiller: Definition: a wooden or metal lever or bar fitted into the rudder-head, by which the rudder can be moved from side to side (Steffy 1994: 281). Profile Characteristics: a wooden or metal lever or bar fitted into the rudder-head (after Steffy 1994: 281). Archaeological Examples: Gokstad 1-4 (1: 118-20), Vorsa (1: 197), Dublin 7 (1: 248). Iconographic Examples: 2: 57, 89, 107, 133, 141, 156, 162, 185, 187, 210, 211, 213, 326, 504, 511, 524, 543, 557, 561, 612, 643, 647, 663, 665, 680, 720, 727, 738, 754, 757, 762, 780, 783, 849, 855, 856, 857, 858, 859, 863, 872, 874, 887, 892, 893, 894.

Stern port (see helm port): Definition: an opening in the stern for guns, cargo loading, light or ventilation (Steffy 1994: 280). Profile Characteristics: an opening in the stern (Steffy 1994: 280). Archaeological Examples: uncertain if archaeological examples survive: known from analyses of early-modern and ‘modern’ wooden ships. Iconographic Examples: 2: 14, 22, 41, 137, 211, 416, 557, 571, 647, 501, 504, 557, 571, 569, 607, 647, 702, 720, 757, 762, 829, 844.

Transom: Definition: the athwartships timbers/bulkhead fastened to the sternpost of a ship to give her a flat stern (Kemp 1988: 885). Profile Characteristics: the athwartships timbers fastened to the sternpost of a ship to the ship to give her a flat stern (after Kemp 1988: 885). Archaeological Examples: Studland (1: 515), Mukran (1: 555). Iconographic Examples: 2: 22, 41, 67, 70, 341, 404, 408, 412, 413, 450, 455, 467, 496, 508, 514, 519, 531, 543, 544, 549, 555, 557, 571, 575, 596, 598, 599, 605, 611, 612, 617, 627, 635, 639, 640, 650, 663, 665, 702, 714, 727, 729, 736, 737, 744, 752, 757, 762,

Sternpost: Definition: the after-most timber in a wooden vessel, forming the stern of a ship and joined to the keel (Kemp 1988: 834-35). Profile Characteristics: the after-most timber in a wooden vessel, forming the stern of a ship (after Kemp 1988: 834-35). Archaeological Examples: Bremen (1: 347), Sandwich (1: 411), Red Bay (1: 562-64).

159

Appendix Three – Vessel Terms and Components

763, 783, 788, 789, 791, 822, 825, 826, 827, 828, 846, 849, 853, 855, 856, 868, 870, 872, 873, 874, 902, 905, 910, 913, 918.

793, 829, 857, 877,

794, 831, 858, 881,

801, 834, 859, 883,

804, 836, 860, 884,

818, 837, 862, 887,

819, 838, 863, 892,

820, 842, 864, 893,

Archaeological Examples: no archaeological examples survive: known from analyses of early-modern and ‘modern’ wooden ships. Iconographic Examples: 2: 21, 22, 24, 35, 28, 41, 47, 67, 93, 98, 99, 107, 108, 116, 122, 124, 128, 129, 132, 133, 134, 136, 137, 139, 140, 141, 143, 156, 160, 161, 164, 165, 166, 167, 169, 171, 180, 181, 185, 187, 191, 197, 199, 201, 202, 206, 208, 210, 211, 214, 222, 225, 229, 230, 231, 235, 237, 243, 252, 257, 265, 268, 269, 272, 277, 278, 282, 295, 296, 298, 300, 303, 304, 306, 312, 322, 325, 326, 327, 329, 334, 335, 336, 389, 341, 347, 350, 360, 364, 375, 387, 389, 392, 397, 404, 405, 408, 412, 415, 418, 422, 427, 435, 449, 450, 458, 460, 465, 467, 473, 474, 478, 479, 492, 493, 496, 498, 499, 502, 504, 510, 512, 514, 515, 519, 520, 527, 531, 543, 545, 546, 547, 549, 553, 554, 557, 559, 561, 566, 571, 573, 574, 575, 562, 582, 586, 590, 591, 595, 597, 598, 599, 601, 611, 612, 615, 617, 625, 627, 631, 633, 635, 639, 641, 642, 643, 647, 648, 649, 650, 651, 656, 657, 661, 663, 665, 674, 680, 683, 687, 689, 695, 702, 713, 714, 720, 721, 725, 727, 729, 736, 737, 739, 742, 744, 746, 752, 754, 757, 762, 763, 766, 769, 773, 776, 779, 780, 782, 783, 787, 790, 791, 792, 793, 794, 801, 804, 805, 806, 807, 815, 818, 819, 820, 821, 822, 823, 824, 825, 826, 827, 829, 831, 834, 836, 837, 838, 839, 843, 844, 845, 846, 849, 853, 855, 856, 857, 858, 859, 860, 861, 863, 864, 865, 868, 872, 873, 874, 877, 879, 880, 881, 883, 885, 887, 888, 889, 890, 891, 892, 893, 894, 897, 899, 902, 905, 907, 908, 909, 910, 913, 914, 917, 919, 920, 921.

821, 844, 865, 894,

Treenail (trunnel): Definition: a wooden peg or through-fastening used to join two members, often secured on either side by the insertion of a wedge (Author). Profile Characteristics: not visible in external longitudinal view. Archaeological Examples: Gokstad 1 (1: 118), Graveney (1: 119), Stettin 2 (1: 135), Wolin (1: 137), Deventer 1-2 (1: 141-42), London [New Fresh Wharf] (1: 148). Iconographic Examples: not visible in any manuscript illumination in appendix 2. Wale: Definition: an extra thickness of wood secured to the sides of a vessel in positions where greater protection is needed (Kemp 1988: 92223). Profile Characteristics: an extra thickness of wood on the sides of a vessel in positions where greater protection is needed (after Kemp 1988: 922-23). Archaeological Examples: London [Bull Wharf, Upper Thames Street] (1: 170), Vedby Hage (1: 438), Llyn Padarn (1: 670). Iconographic Examples: 2: 93, 122, 134, 210, 413, 438, 557, 586, 627, 635, 737, 762, 787, 824, 825, 826, 827, 829, 831, 834, 837, 838, 844, 846, 855, 856, 857, 858, 859, 860, 863, 868, 872, 874, 892, 893, 894, 907, 908, 919. Washstrake (washboard): Definition: a moveable upper strake attached to the gunwales of vessels to keep out the spray (Smyth 1996: 719). Profile Characteristics: an upper strake attached to the gunwale (after Smyth 1996: 719). Archaeological Examples: Stanley Ferry (1: 195), Antwerp 7 (1: 238), Llyn Peris 2 (1: 299), Kentmere (1: 385), Rieda (1: 678). Iconographic Examples: not visible in any manuscript illumination in appendix 2. Windlass: Definition: a small capstan-like cylindrical fitting, but on a horizontal rather than vertical shaft, often in the forepart of a vessel, used for heavy lifting work, particularly when working anchors and cables (Kemp 1988: 942). Profile Characteristics: a small capstan-like fitting on a horizontal rather than vertical shaft (after Kemp 1988: 942). Archaeological Examples: Bremen (1: 347), Kalmar 1 (1: 334), Vedby Hage (1: 438), Tammisaari (1: 580). Iconographic Examples: not visible in any manuscript illumination in appendix 2. Yards: Definition: large spars crossing the masts of a ship horizontally or diagonally, from which sail is set (Kemp 1988: 959-60). Profile Characteristics: large spars crossing the masts of a ship horizontally or diagonally, from which sail is set (Kemp 1988: 95960). 160

The Illuminated Ark

Appendix 4: A Guide to Published and Unpublished Details of Ships and Shipping in Medieval Illuminated Manuscripts

                   

A number of authors discuss specific manuscripts and/or illuminations of vessels while not necessarily including an actual depiction. By manuscript, these are listed below. NB: Not all manuscripts included within appendix 2 are listed here, only those for which published citations exist. The majority of the citations below refer to specific manuscripts, not to specific folio depictions. Group A – Miscellaneous British Holdings                                      

ACL MS 82, ff. 16, 40, 64, 292 (Scott 1996: plate 9). ACL MS 447, ff. 46v, 47, 48-48v (Morgan 1988: plate 115). BCL MS 23, f. 26 (Scott 1996: plate 23). Blackburn MS 091. 21001, f. 69 (Morgan 1988: plate 160). CL MS 4417 (Moll 1929: I14, 78). Dr Williams’s MS Ancillary 6, f. 87 (Sandler 1986: plate 74). DCL MS A. II. 10, f. 155 (Morgan 1982: plate 233; Morgan 1988: plate 147). ECL MS 92 (Moll 1929: N44, 79). ECL MS 96, f. 2v (Morgan 1982: plate 90). ECL MS 177, Part I ff. 4, 6. Part II ff. 4, 83 (Moll 1929: B17, F10, 77, 78, Morgan 1988: plate 137). EUL MS 195 (Moll 1929: R3A, 79). EUL MS 245 (Moll 1929: MII21, 79). EUL MS YN 194 (Moll 1929: N8, 79). GUL Euing MS BD 19 H9, f. 118v (Scott 1996: plate 2). GUL Hunter. MS 41, f. 1 (Thorp 1987: 140). GUL Hunter. MS 208 (Moll 1929: R31, 78). GUL Hunter. MS 220, f. 6 (Moll 1929: U13, 80; Thorp 1987: 171). GUL Hunter. MS 229, f. 13v (Millar 1926: n/a; Moll 1929: D22, 78; Thorp 1987: 64). GUL Hunter. MS 279, f. 45v (Thorp 1987: 61). GUL Hunter. MS 370, f. 253 (Thorp 1987: 42, 139). GUL Hunter. MS 398, f. 1v (Thorp 1987: 118). GUL Hunter. MS Be. 1. 10, f. 168 (Thorp 1987: 199). GUL Hunter. MS Bq 2. 11, f. 1v (Thorp 1987: 128). GUL Hunter. MS Ds. 2. 3, f. 4 (Thorp 1987: 197). GUL MS Nr. 37, f. 220 (Moll 1929: H17, 78). GUL MS Nr. 398, f. 8 (Moll 1929: F8, 77). GUL SMM MS 2, pp. 11 (Thorp 1987: 130). HCL.The World Map (Morgan 1988: plate 188). JRUL MS 8 (Moll 1929: F20, 78). JRUL MS 18 (Moll 1929: G27, F8). JRUL MS 19, f. 19 (Moll 1929: F19, 79). JRUL MS 22 (Moll 1929: D20, 78). JRUL MS 29 (Moll 1929: I15, 78). JRUL English MS 1, f. 23 (Scott 1996: plate12, 93). JRUL French MS 1, f. 226 (Moll 1929: N9, 79; Alexander 1992: plate 194). JRUL French MS 5, f. 13v (Moll 1929: G30, 78; Unger 1991: 66). JRUL Lat. MS 164, f. 254v (De Hamel 1994: 189). JRUL Nr. MS 38 (Moll 1929: K17, 78).

      

JRUL Nr. MS 39 (Moll 1929: K18, 78). JRUL Nr. MS 164 (Moll 1929: K19, 78, K20). Lamb. MS 209, ff. 1v, 17v, 31, 41, 95 (Millar 1924: 14, 25, 28, 30; Morgan 1988: plate 126). Lamb. MS 233, f. 101 (Sandler 1986: plate 30). Lamb. MS 265 (Scott 1996: plate 125). Lamb. MS 368, f. 51 (Morgan 1988: plate 181). Lamb. MS 563, f. 62v (Morgan 1982: plate 48). Lincoln’s Inn MS Hale 123, f. 186 (Morgan 1982: plate 62). LCL MS f. 091 PSA, f. 117 (Morgan 1982: plate 25). Longleat MS 10, f. 140v (Sandler 1986: plate 52). Longleat MS 11, f. 184 (Sandler 1986: plate 73). Merseyside MS Mayer 12017, Roundel 4 (Morgan 1982: plate 79). NA MS DL 42/3, Part 1 (Scott 1996: plate 34). NA MS E. 36 - 284, f. 2 (Morgan 1988: plate 121). NA MS 11 (Moll 1929: U12, 80) PCL MS 10, f. 163 (Morgan 1982: plate 66). St Helen MS 1, f. 152 (Scott 1996: plate 121). RCL MS 1, f. 217 (Morgan 1988: plate 139). Soc. Antiq. MS 59, f. 113v (Morgan 1982: plate 47). Soc. Antiq. MS 501 General Table, Roll, Membrane 3 (Scott 1996: cat. 95, plate 369). V&A MS L 475 1918, f. 64 (Collins & Davis 91: 34). V&A Reid MS 42, f. 77 (Scott 1996: plate 73). Waddesdon MS 11, ff. 9, 97 (Delaisse et al 1977: 11). Waddesdon MS 26, f. 5v (Delaisse et al 1977: 19). WAL MS 22, ff. 43, 43v, 44 (Morgan 1988: plate 112). WCL Winchester Bible, f. 5 (Moll 1929: C1, 77; Kauffmann 1975: cat. 83, plate 239). YML Add. MS 2, f. 128 (Scott 1996: plate 33).

Group B – University Librar ies, Oxford                

161

ASC MS 7, f. 61 (Alexander & Temple 1985: no. 274). Balliol MS 2, f. 358 (Alexander & Temple 1985: no’s. 700, 895). Balliol MS 238 E, ff. 60, 81, 113v, 133v (Alexander & Temple 1985: no’s. 867, 1004). Balliol MS 383, ff. 6v, 12, 34v, 72, 132v (Alexander & Temple 1985: no. 789). Bod. Lib. Add. MS A. 2, f. 10 (Pacht & Alexander 1970: no. 820). Bod. Lib. Add. MS A. 185, f. 47 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 669). Bod. Lib. Ashmole MS 828, ff. 6v, 63v, 66 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 573). Bod. Lib. Ashmole MS 1504, f. 20v (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 1181). Bod. Lib. Ashmole MS 1511, f. 86v (Moll 1929: F10, 80; Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 334; Hassall & Hassall 1976: n/a). Bod. Lib. Ashmole Rolls 50 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 519, plate 49). Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 1. 17, f. 285v (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 543). Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 2. 2, f. 75 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no 595). Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 3. 4, f. 258v (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 425). Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 3. 5, f. 201(b) (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 424). Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 3. 8, f 369(c) (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 1319). Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 4. 4, f. 54v (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 665).

Appendix Four - Published Details of Ships and Shipping in Medieval Illuminated Manuscripts

                         

     



Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 4. 8, f. 506v (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 444). Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 4. 14, f. 42 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 542). Bod. Lib. MS Auct D. 4. 17, ff. 1v, 2v, 3 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 438; Morgan 1988: plate 165; Friel 1995: 92-93; Greenhill 1995a: 114). Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 5. 9, f. 461 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 474). Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 5. 13, f. 461v (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 475). Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 5. 17, f. 401v (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 544). Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. inf. 2. 2, ff. 75 (1), 75 (2) (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 452). Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. inf. 2. 11, ff. 59v, 93v) (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 670; Hassall & Hassall 1976: n/a). Bod. Lib. Auct. MS F. 2. 29, ff. 15v (e), 18v (a), 36v (c), 42 (c), 48 (c), 62 (a), 71v (a) (e), 83v (b) (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 727). Bod. Lib. Auct. MS T. 2. 27, f. 1 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 430, plate 35). Bod. Lib. MS Barlow 6, f. 155v (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 368, plate 32). Bod. Lib. MS Barlow 22, f. 82 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 572). Bod. Lib. MS Barlow 53 (R) (detail), 2nd Miniature (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 883, plate 84). Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 263, f. 7 (4) (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 892, plate 85). Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 264, ff. 1, 89, 209v (Pacht & Alexander 1966: plate 23; Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 792; Scott 1996: plate 61). Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 264, part 1, ff. 20v, 50, 55, 144, 183v (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 792, plate 75). Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 264, part 3, ff. 218, 228, 245v, 246v, 253v, 257, 259v, 265 (Moll 1929: N24, 79; Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 792; Greenhill 1995a: 91-92). Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 270b, ff. 9v B1, 9v C1, 10 A1, 214 C1, C2 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 524; Hassall & Hassall 1976: n/a). Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 401, ff. 20, 55v (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 649; Friel 1995: 138). Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 421, ff. 15, 29, 31, 43v, 55 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 728). Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 602, ff. 4, 22v (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 371, plate 32). Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 614, f. 32 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 156). Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 725, f. 132v (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 232). Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 764, ff. 74v, 107 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 372, plate 33). Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 971, f. 10v (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 615). Bod. Lib. Bod. Rolls 3, Row I, roundels i-iv; Row II, roundels vviii; Row III, roundels ix-xi; Row IV, roundels xiii-xvi; Row V, roundels xvii, xix-xx) (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 483, plate 47; Sandler 1986: cat. 16a, plate 36). Bod. Lib. Bod. Rolls 6, Membrane 2 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 926). Bod. Lib. Bod. Rolls 10, f. 1 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 927). Bod. Lib. Buchanan MS E 13, f. 56 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 752). Bod. Lib. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 11, f. 401v (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 531). Bod. Lib. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 41, f. 348 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 547). Bod. Lib MS Canon. Bibl. Lat. 47, f. 346v (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 562).

                                  162

Bod. Lib. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 52, f. 374 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 548). Bod. Lib. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 62, ff. 1, 3, 7v, 9v, 17v, 31 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 573; Sandler 1974: plates 137, 173). Bod. Lib. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 79, f. 355 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 523). Bod. Lib. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 92, f. 340v (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 564). Bod. Lib. Canon. Class. Lat. MS 81, f. 16v (Pacht & Alexander 1970: plate 75). Bod. Lib. Canon. Liturg. MS 384, f. 196 (Pacht & Alexander 1970: plate 50). Bod. Lib. Canon. Liturg. MS 393 (Unger 1991: 71-72). Bod. Lib. Canon. Misc. MS 378, ff. 75v, 84, 147 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 666, plate 52). Bod. Lib. Canon. Misc. MS 493, f. 266v (Pacht & Alexander 1970: no. 109, plate 10). Bod. Lib. Digby MS 9, ff. 242, 385v (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 468). Bod. Lib. Digby MS 86, f. 47 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 470). Bod. Lib. Digby MS 137, f. 308 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 862). Bod. Lib. Digby MS 223, f. 25v (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 552). Bod. Lib. Digby MS 233 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 815). Bod. Lib. D’Orville MS 212, f. 388 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 553). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 8, ff. 1, 4, 12 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 371, plate 30). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 10, f. 1 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 859). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 12, ff. 6, 15, 72 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 372). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 31, f. 15 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 779). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 88, ff. 138, 139 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 524). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 104, f. 40 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 886). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 112, ff. 1, 1v, 2, 17, 151 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 396, plate 31). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 113, f. 300v (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 525). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 117, ff. 10, 18 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 849). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 118, ff. 36v, 76 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 554). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 131, f. 54 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 590). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 132, f. 65 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 409). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 135, ff. 53v, 59v, 82 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 851). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 167, ff. 1v (b), 7v (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 458, plate 41). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 168, f. 7 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 403). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 180, ff. 1, 24, 75 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 469). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 204, ff. 2v (b), 5v, 19v (a), 27v (b), 32v (a), 54b (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 886). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 208, ff. 120v, 136 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 351). Bod. Lib. Douce 211-12, ff. 11, 12v, 13, 14, 131v (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 581). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 215, f. 35 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 571).

The Illuminated Ark

            

                 

Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 217, ff. 214, 276 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 618). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 245, f. 169 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 593). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 256, ff. 13v, 176 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 397, plate 32). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 261, f. 39v (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 1197). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 267, f. 5 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 721). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 276, ff. 56v, 87v, 91v, 94v, 103, 114v (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 829). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 300, ff. 112, 113v, 114 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 639). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 308, ff. 53, 101v (b), 105v (a) (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 587). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 311, f. 30 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 362). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 313, ff. 33 (b), 98, 110-111, 113, 138v, 140v (b), 197, 205, 210/7, 222, 222v, 230v, 333 (a) (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 603). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 336-37, f. 32 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 715). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 352, f. 48v (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 712). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 353, ff. 15, 16, 26v (a) (top), 31 (a) (top), 31 (b) (bottom), 31v (bottom right), 31v (bottom left), 175 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 730; Crumlin-Pedersen 1972a: plate 35; Bill et al 1997: n/a; Rose 2002: 77). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 356, ff. 10 (b), 11v (a), 28 (b), 29 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 714). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 363, ff. 3, 52v, 115v (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 1200). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 366, f. 89 (Millar 1928: 3; Randall 1966: plate 482; Pacht & Alexander 1973: no’s. 499, 536, 581). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 371, f. 113v (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 632). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 373, ff. 11, 13 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 402). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS 374, ff. 5, 40, 49v (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 322). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS b. 2., 65/85, ff. 52, 55 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 899). Bod. Lib. Douce. MS f. 4, ff. 15v, 22 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 325). Bod. Lib. Eng. Hist. MS E. 198, f. 102v (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 1215). Bod. Lib. Eng. Misc. MS C 13 (R) (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 1191). Bod. Lib. Gough Gen. Top. MS 16 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 655). Bod. Lib. Gough Liturg. MS 2, f. 82 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 290). Bod. Lib. Gough Liturg. MS 7, f. 7 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 390, plate 31). Bod. Lib. Gough Liturg. MS 8, f. 31 (Sandler 1986: plate 64). Bod. Lib. Gough Liturg. MS 15, f. 63v (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 353). Bod. Lib. Greaves MS 52, f. 13 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 1187). Bod. Lib. Hatton MS 1, f. 142 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 713, plate 72). Bod. Lib. Junius MS 11, f. 63, 65, 66, 68, 68v, 70, 74, 76, 77, 78 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 34; Fenwick 1978: 200; Unger

                                  163

1991: 44-45, 173). Bod. Lib. MS L270 (Moll 1929: B1, 77). Bod. Lib. Lat. Class. MS d. 1, f. 13 (Pacht & Alexander 1970: no. 817). Bod. Lib. Lat. Liturg. MS a. 3, ff. 1, 71v (Pacht & Alexander 1970: no. 683, plate 66). Bod. Lib. Lat. Liturg. MS d.42, ff. 1, 23 (Sandler 1986: plate 62). Bod. Lib. Lat. Misc. MS b. 2 (R), No. 4 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 899). Bod. Lib. Lat. Th. MS B. 1 (R), No. 4 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 429). Bod. Lib. Laud. Lat. MS 15, f. 27v (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 1312). Bod. Lib. Laud Lat. MS 95, f. 86v (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 318). Bod. Lib. Laud Misc. MS 165, ff. 32, 41, 116v, 121, 121v (2), 127v, 253; (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 739, plate 73). Bod. Lib. Laud Misc. MS 587, f. 1 (Pacht & Alexander 1970: no. 120; Hallam 1987: 282-83). Bod. Lib. Laud Misc. MS 644, f. 10 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 529). Bod. Lib. Laud Misc. MS 653, f. 13 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 346). Bod. Lib. Laud Misc. MS 720, f. 226v (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 462, plate 41). Bod. Lib. Laud Misc. MS 733, ff. 18, 22v (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 905, plate 87; Scott 1996: plate 374). Bod. Lib. Laud Misc. MS 740, ff. 13, 118v (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 925). Bod. Lib. Liturg. MS 41, f. 66 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 749). Bod. Lib. Liturg. MS 80, f. 154 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 801). Bod. Lib. Liturg. MS 198, f. 60 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 651). Bod. Lib. Liturg. MS 406, ff. 3v, 29, 36, 39 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 540). Bod. Lib. Liturg. MS 407, f. 94v (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 360, plates 31, 37). Bod. Lib. Lyell MS 67, ff. 7v, 37, 53v, 63 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 145). Bod. Lib. Lyell MS 72, f. 84v (Pacht & Alexander 1970: no. 763). Bod. Lib. Lyell MS 95, f. 39v (Pacht & Alexander 1970: no. 726). Bod. Lib. E Mus. MS 160, f. 3 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 1132). Bod. Lib. Rawl B. MS 483, f. 17v (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 321, plate 27). Bod. Lib. Rawl MS C. 117, f. 155 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 517). Bod. Lib. Rawl MS C. 563, f. 2 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 516). Bod. Lib. Rawl MS D. 939, Part 2 (c) (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 749). Bod. Lib. Rawl MS D. 1220, f. 32v (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 1110). Bod. Lib. Rawl MS G. 6, f. 319 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 538). Bod. Lib. Rawl MS G. 14, f. 367 (3) (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 494). Bod. Lib. Rawl MS G. 21, f. 67v (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 298). Bod. Lib. Rawl MS G. 126, f. 358 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 495). Bod. Lib. Rawl MS Q b. 6, ff. 39, 355, 355v (Pacht & Alexander

Appendix Four - Published Details of Ships and Shipping in Medieval Illuminated Manuscripts

                                    

1966: no. 586). Bod. Lib. Rawl. Liturg. MS e. 1, f. 31 (Sandler 1986: plate 64). Bod. Lib. Rawl Liturg. MS e. 14, f. 56 (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 313). Bod. Lib. Rawl Liturg. MS e. 20, f. 13 (b) (Pacht & Alexander 1966: no. 806). Bod. Lib. Rylands MS d. 20, f. 1v (4) (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 1212). Bod. Lib. Selden Supra MS 38, part 2, ff. 19, 92 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 578). Bod. Lib. Tanner MS 184, ff. 1, 14, 18, 49 (Pacht & Alexander 1973: no. 463). Bod. Lib. Tanner MS 190, ff. 17v-18, 20v, 22 (Pacht & Alexander 1970: no. 118, plate 11). Ch. Ch. CO MS 101, f. 36v (Alexander & Temple 1985: no. 827). Ch. Ch. CO MS 107 (Alexander & Temple 1985: no. 184). Ch. Ch. CO MS 178, ff. 55v, 66 (Alexander & Temple 1985: no. 672) CCCO MS 1, f. 355 (Alexander & Temple 1985: no. 216). CCCO MS 157, ff. 77, 383 (Kauffman 1975: plate 142; Alexander & Temple 1985: no. 21; Lewis 1987: figure 14; Hutchinson 1994: 12; Friel 1995: 37; Bill et al 1997: n/a). CCCO MS 161, ff. 18, 75 (part 8), 108 (part 1), 127 (Alexander & Temple 1985: no. 405). CCCO MS 410, ff. 44, 65, 67v, 166v (Alexander & Temple 1985: no. 908). Exeter MS 47, ff. 9v, 10 (1), 10v, 11v, 12, 14, 14v (1), 14v (2) (Alexander & Temple 1985: no. 316). JCO MS 32, f. 17v (Alexander & Temple 1985: no. 805). JCO MS 40, f. 88v (Alexander & Temple 1985: no. 266; Sandler 1986: plate 24). JCO MS 56, f. 292v (Alexander & Temple 1985: no. 674). Keble MS 17, ff. 20v, 87 (Alexander & Temple 1985: no. 803). Keble MS 20, f. 439v (Alexander & Temple 1985: no. 678). Keble MS 35, f. 12 (Alexander & Temple 1985: no. 872). Keble MS 40, f. 3 (Alexander & Temple 1985: no. 775). Keble MS 41, f. 57 (Alexander & Temple 1985: no. 781). Keble MS 49, f. 271 (Alexander & Temple 1985: no. 841). Keble MS 80, f. 71 (Alexander & Temple 1985: no. 206). Merton MS 235, f. 308 (Morgan 1988: 170). New Coll. MS 1, f. 297v (Alexander & Temple 1985: no. 665). New Coll. MS 7, ff. 143v, 222 (Alexander & Temple 1985: no. 173). New Coll. MS 65, ff. 28, 56, 65 (Alexander & Temple 1985: no. 234). New Coll. MS 274, f. 3v (Alexander & Temple 1985: no. 148). New Coll. MS 322, ff. 67, 75) (Alexander & Temple 1985: no. 199). Oriel MS 46, f. 196v (Alexander & Temple 1985: no. 280). Queen’s MS 299, f. 592 (Alexander & Temple 1985: no. 693). Queen’s MS 305, ff. 56v, 148 (Alexander & Temple 1985 no. 788). Queen’s MS 349, ff. 94, 246 (Alexander & Temple 1985: no. 818). University MS 165, f. 143 (Alexander & Temple 1985: no. 17). Wadham MS 1, f. 311 (Alexander & Temple 1985: no. 660).

           

       

               

Group C – University Libraries, Cambridge 



 

CCCC MS 16, ff. 42v, 46v, 52, 55-55v, 75v, 125, 126, 146, 155, 160v, 163v, 164 (Moll 1929: MI10, 79; Morgan 1982: plate 88; Hallam 1987: 69; Lewis 1987: plates 1-2, figures 116, 125, 164, 173, 185; Hutchinson 1994: 147; Greenhill 1995a: 59-60). CCCC MS 22, ff. 166, 169 (Kauffmann 1975: cat. 104, plate 295).



164

CCCC MS 26, ff. 3v, 4, 222 (Morgan 1982: plate 88; Lewis 1987: figures 214-15). CCCC MS 49, f. 204 (Morgan 1988: plate 169). CCCC MS 53, ff. 76v (Sandler 1986: plate 66). CCCC MS 75, f. 122 (Morgan 1982: plate 38). CCCC MS 83, f. 2 (Morgan 1982: plate 43a). CCCC MS 171A & B, f. 35v (Scott 1996: cat. 87, plate 356). Emmanuel MS 70, f. 106v (Wormald & Giles 1982: plates 75, 83; Scott 1996: plate 65). Fitz. MS 259, f. 7v (Sandler 1986: plate 122). Fitz. MS 2 - 1954, f. 65v (Sandler 1986: plate 10). Fitz. MS 2 – 1958, f. 2v (Wormald & Giles 1982: plate 83). Fitz. MS 86 – 1972, f. 3 (Wormald & Giles 1982: plate 75). Fitz. Marlay Add. MS I, f. 86 (Landstrom 1961: 68; CrumlinPedersen 1972a: plate 13; Wormald & Giles 1982: plate 6; Friel 1995: 140; Greenhill 1995a: 114, 120; Hutchinson 1994: 148; Bill et al 1997: n/a). Fitz. McClean MS 15, f. 186v (Sandler 1986: plate 32). Fitz. McClean MS 44, f. 33 (Morgan 1982: cat. 149, plate 242; Morgan 1988: plate 149, 242). Fitz. McClean MS 123, ff. 33, 37v, 49v (Morgan 1988: plate 187). Gonville & Caius MS 350/567, f. 2 (Morgan 1982: plate 70). Gonville & Caius MS 384/604, ff. 189, 189v (Morgan 1988: plates 171, 238). Jesus MS Q. A. 11, f. 143v (Morgan 1988: plate 148). Magd. MS 2820 (Landstrom 1961: 119; McKee 1972: plate 14; Throckmorton 1987: 147; Unger 1991: 216; Friel 1994: 79, 83; Phillips 1994: 102). Magd. MS 2991, pp. 2-3, 6-7, 10-11, 14-15, 18-19, 22-23, 26-27, 30-31, 34-35, 38-39, 42-43, 54-55, 58-59, 62-63, 66-67, 70-71, 7475, 78-79, 82-83, 86-87, 90-91, 94-95, 98-99 (Moll 1929: U11, 80; Throckmorton 1987: 147; Knighton & Loades 2000: 40-61, 82106). Magd. MS 5, ff. 1, 7v, 9v, 31 (Sandler 1974: plates 136, 172-73, 258). Sidney Sussex MS 76 (Sandler 1986: plate 86). Sidney Sussex MS 96, f. 29 (Morgan 1988: plate 168). St John’s MS 2, f. 143v (Morgan 1982: cat. 148, plate 238). St John’s MS 81, f. 8 (Morgan 1982: plate 36). St John’s MS 231, ff. 3, 9, 10, 11, 25v (Moll 1929: D11, 77; Morgan 1988: plate 179; Unger 1991: 78-79, 189; Friel 1995: 5859). Trinity MS B. 10. 2, ff. 2, 3, 4, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 40v, 44 (Scott 1996: cat. 41, plate 35). Trinity MS B. 10. 15, f. 14 (Sandler 1986: plate 123 ). Trinity MS B. 11. 7, f. 33 (Scott 1996: plate 47). Trinity MS B. 11. 11 (Scott 1996: plate 61). Trinity MS B. 11. 22, f. 121 [2] (Randall 1966). Trinity MS R. 14. 5, f. 1 (Scott 1996: plate 103). Trinity MS R. 14. 9, f. 29 (Morgan 1982: cat. 144, plate 144; Morgan 1988: plate 218). Trinity MS R. 16. 2, ff. 1v, 2 (Morgan 1988: plate 110; Saunders 1928: 92). Trinity MS R. 17. 1, ff. 40v, 82v, 100, 117, 124, 133, 135, 156v, 166, 170v, 182, 192 (Millar 1926: n/a; Moll 1929: D5, 77; Fenwick 1978: 209). Trinity MS O. 9. 34, ff. 3, 4v - 5, 15v, 24v, 25, 26v, 27v (De Hamel 1994: 145; Unger 1994). CUL MS Ee. 2 .23, f. 173v (Morgan 1982: plate 65). CUL MS Ee. 3. 59, ff. 8v, 9, 12v, 14, 17v, 18v, 31, 34 (CrumlinPedersen 1972a: plate 12; Morgan 1988: cat. 123, plate 120, 121). CUL MS Gg. 6. 5, ff. 93v, 94v, 95, 95v, 96v, 97v, 98v, 99v (Scott 1996: plate 64).

The Illuminated Ark





CUL MS Ii. 4. 26, f. 54v (Millar 1926: n/a; Moll 1929: F9, 80; Fenwick 1978: 234).



Group D – The British Library, London

 

Birch & Jenner (1879) make reference to many of the manuscripts listed below. However, Birch & Jenner’s thematic catalogue is frequently incorrect and/or incomplete, and contains only brief manuscript citations. Because of this, manuscripts cited within it are not included below.           

                       

  

BL Add. Roll 14819, c. 22 (Sandler 1986: cat. 22, plate 50). BL Add. Roll 22047, membranes 1-6 (Knighton & Loades 2000: 64-79). BL Add. MS 10290, ff. 58, 77v, 91, 118 (Friel 1995: 110-11, 145). BL Add. MS 10294, ff. 44, 47v, 65v, 79, 94v (Alexander 1992: plate 196; Loomis & Loomis 1938: 247). BL Add. MS 15268, ff. 7v, 9v, 81v, 101v, 105v, 122, 136v, 203, 204, 210 (Bochthal 1957: 85, 111, 115; Unger 1991: 95-96, 200). BL Add. MS 15677, f. 8 (Basing 1990: 55). BL Add. MS 16998, f. 87 (Scott 1996: plate 21). BL Add. MS 17333, ff. 10v-11, 21v, 37v (Moll 1929: F17, 78; Backhouse 1997: 104). BL Add. MS 17341, f. 123v (Backhouse 1997: 98). BL Add. MS 17431, f. 153 (Basing 1990: 57). BL Add. MS 18850, ff. 15, 15v, 16v, 17v, 40 (Meiss 1972: figure 56; De Hamel 1986; Backhouse 1990: 156, 166; Unger 1991: 12122, 209; Alexander 1992; Bill 1994: p. 156; De Hamel 1992; Friel 1995: 60-61; Backhouse 1997: 168). BL Add. MS 19720, f. 27 (Collins & Davis 1991: 53). BL Add. MS 21926, f. 97v (Morgan 1982: cat. 165, plate 322; Morgan 1988: plate 322). BL Add. MS 22318, ff. 4 (Mitchell 1961: plates 1-2). BL Add. 24098 (Moll 1929: K21, 78). BL Add. MS 24189, ff. 3v, 4v, 5, 8, 8v, 9 (Moll 1929: U19, 80; De Hamel 1986: 153; Krasa 1983: 2-5, 23-25; Moseley 1990; Alexander 1992; De Hamel 1994; Backhouse 1997: 145). BL Add. MS 24194, f. 81v (Scott 1996: plate 19). BL Add. MS 28681, f. 82v (Morgan 1988: plate 14). BL Add. MS 29433, f. 2 (Basing 1990: 58). BL Add. MS 29704-5, ff. 5, 9, 118v, 162 (Rickert 1953: 12; Scott 1996: plate 2). BL Add. MS 33244, Part 2 (Scott 1996: plate 34). BL Add. MS 34204 (Moll 1929: K22, 78). BL Add. MS 34294, f. 211v (Warner 1894: plate 24). BL Add. MS 35166, f. 2v (Morgan 1988: plate 125). BL Add. MS 35254, f. D (Backhouse 1997: 222). BL Add. MS 35311, f. 348v (Backhouse 1997: 157). BL Add. MS 35313, f. 3v (Collins & Davis 1991: 43). BL Add. MS 37421 (Avril & Reynaud 1993: 133; Backhouse 1997: 187). BL Add. MS 37472v [1] v (Dodwell 1954: plate 66). BL Add. MS 38117, ff. 97v (Loomis & Loomis 1938: 255). BL Add. MS 38126, f. 7 (Collins & Davis 1991: 77; Backhouse 1997: 203) BL Add. MS 39810, ff. 7, 70v (Yapp 1951: 28; Randall 1966: plate 140: Sandler 1986: plate 104; Unger 1991: 79-80, 191). BL Add. MS 39943, ff. 10v, 11, 16, 26, 47, 51, 71v, 73 (Millar 1926; Morgan 1982; Rickert 1966). BL Add. MS 42130, ff. 160, 161v (Randall 1966: plate 468; Hutchinson 1994: 54). BL Add. MS 42555, f. 5 (Morgan 1988: cat. 127, plate 146).

                 

              165

BL Add. MS 44892, ff. 5, 9, 118v (Rickert 1953: 12; Scott 1996: plate 2). BL Add. MS 47680, ff. 7, 7v, 8, 8v, 22, 24, 37, 39v (Unger 1991: 82-83, 194). BL Add. MS 47682, ff. 7v, 8v, 22, 24 (Friel 1995: 89). BL Add. MS 49622, f. 86, 165 (Dyson-Perrins 1907; Moll 1929: D14, 77; Sandler 1986: plate 50). BL Add. MS 50000, ff. 10, 101 (Morgan 1982: cat. 151, plate 249; Morgan 1988: plate 249). BL Add. MS 54215, ff. 10, 101 (Morgan 1988: plate 151). BL Add. MS 54782, ff. 54, 126 (Turner 1983: 54, 126; Hutchinson 1994: 126; Backhouse 1997: 197). BL Add. MS 62925, f. 68v (Morgan 1988: plate 112). BL Add. MS 65100, f. 14 (Scott 1996: plate 72). BL Ar. MS 66, f. 45 (Scott 1996: plate 140). BL Ar. MS 83 I, f. 47 (Sandler 1986: plate 51). BL Ar. MS 157, ff. 7v, 11 (Morgan 1988: plate 24). BL Ar. MS 302 (Scott 1996: plate 92). BL Burn. MS 3, ff. 5v, 10v (Millar 1926: n/a; Moll 1929: G29, 78; Yapp 1951: 9; Morgan 1982: cat. 63, plate 222). BL Burn. MS 257 (Moll 1929: R34, 79). BL Cott. Galba Charter 14. 4, Row I, roundels i-iv; Row II, roundels v-viii; Row III, roundels ix-xi; Row IV, roundels xiii-xvi; Row V, roundels xvii, xix-xx (Sandler 1986: cat. 16a, plate 36). BL Cott. Aug. MS I i, ff. 2, 3, 7, 16, 18, 22-23, 28, 29, 31, 36, 37, 39, 74, 83 (Payne 1987: 12). BL Cott. Aug. MS I ii, ff. 1, 42, 57v, 70 (Payne 1987: 14). BL Cott. Aug. MS A v, f. 345 (Collins & Davis 1991: 102-03). BL Cott. Claud. MS B iv, ff. 10, 13v, 14, 14v, 15, 15v (Unger 1991: 45, 174). BL Cott. Claud. MS D ii, ff. 42v, 45v (Millar 1928: 10, 40; Sandler 1986: plate 68; Backhouse 1997: 108). BL Cott. Claud. MS D vi, ff. 6v, 12v (Hutchinson 1994: 118). BL Cott. Dom. MS A xvii, ff. 121, 123 (Moll 1929: D19, 78; Greenhill 1995a: 119-20; Backhouse 1997: 153). BL Cott. Faust. MS B vii, ff. 45v, 50v (Morgan 1982: plates 43ab). BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art 6, ff. 5, 12, 13v, 18v, 19, 24, 25, 49v, 203v, 208, 211, 216v, 218v, 219, 219v (McKee 1972: plate 4; Barker 1988: 48; Hallam 1988: 129, 145; Guilmartin 1994: 142; Hutchinson 1994: 158; Friel 1995: 142, 154; Greenhill 1995a: 86, 215; Scott 1996: plate 495: Rose 2002: 79). BL Cott. Nero MS A x, art 3, ff. 13, 60. 86 (Scott 1996: plates 12, 33). BL Cott. Nero MS C iv, ff. 1v, 3 (Moll 1929: F16, 78; Wormald 1973: n/a). BL Cott. Nero MS D i (Moll 1929: H19, 78). BL Cott. Nero MS D vi, ff. 76 (Sandler 1986: plate 151). BL Cott. Tib. MS A vii – A viii, ff. 40, 52v, 81v (Friel 1995: 79, 135; Scott 1996: plate 89). BL Cott. Tib. MS B v (Moll 1929: O10, 78). BL Cott. Titus MS A xxvi, f. 48v (Dotson 1994: 160; Friel 1994: 84; Friel 1995: 167) BL Cott. Vesp. MS A vii, f. 6 (Payne 1990: 92). BL MS E iii J (Greenhill 1995a: 196-202). BL Eg. MS 613, ff. 33v, 34v (Payne 1990: 93). BL Eg. MS 1065, ff. 116, 116v, 146, 192 (Keble-Chatterton 1928: n/a; Basing 1990: 54). BL Eg. MS 1066, f. 51v (Morgan 1988: plate 182). BL Eg. MS 1894, ff. 2v, 3, 3v, 4, 4v (Sandler 1986; Unger 1991: 83-84, 195; Backhouse 1997: 126). BL Eg. MS 2709, f. 2 (Greenhill 1995a: 180; Backhouse 1997: 38).

Appendix Four - Published Details of Ships and Shipping in Medieval Illuminated Manuscripts

                               







BL Eg. MS 2781, ff. 8-8v (Sandler 1986: plate 115). BL Harl. MS 326, ff. 7v, 18, 29v, 40 (Scott 1996: cat. 124, plate 468). BL Harl. MS 603, ff. 13v, 14v, 25, 27v, 51v, 54v (Backhouse 1979: 16; Barker 1988: 93). BL Harl. MS 1319, ff. 7v, 14v, 18, 19v, 53v, 70 (Moll 1929: MII 37, 79; Greenhill 1995a: 89, 114; Keble Chatterton 1928: n/a; Runyan 1994: 55). BL Harl. MS 2278, ff. 12, 16v, 17, 20, 26, 27, 27v, 37, 41v, 42, 46, 47, 47v, 79v, 80, 85v, 96v, 97, 98v (Moll 1929: R39, 79; Backhouse 1979: 66; Basing 1990: 55; Scott 1996: plate 78). BL Harl. MS 3244, ff. 27, 71, 60, 60v, 61, 62 (Moll 1929: F13, 80; Morgan 1982: plate 80). BL (MS Harl. 3954, ff. 2, 3, 10, 29, 32v, 55 (Scott 1996: plate 70B). BL Harl. MS 4205, ff. 1, 1v (Scott 1996: cat. 85, plate 334). BL Harl. MS 4374, ff. 88, 105, 165 (Backhouse 1979: 69; Warner 1907: plate 9). BL Harl. MS 4375, ff. 49v, 55, 96, 123, 159, 179, 196v, 214 (Millar 1931-32: lviii). BL Harl. MS 4379, ff. 32v, 40v, 60v, 83v, 104v, 115, 140, 150 (Keble-Chatterton 1928: n/a; Moll 1929: MII 27, 78; Coulton 1930: n/a; Runyan 1994: 53; Greenhill 1995a: 175-76). BL Harl. MS 4380, ff. 60v, 104v, 149v, 181, 189v (Coulton 1930, n/a; Hallam 1988: 89). BL Harl. MS 4389, ff. 6v, 15v, 17, 19v (Loomis & Loomis 1938: 319). BL Harl. MS 4418, f. 80v (Hallam 1987: 201; Throckmorton 1987: 141). BL Harl. MS 4425, ff. 86, 117v (Keble-Chatterton 1928: n/a; Moll 1929: R32, 79). BL Harl. MS 4431, ff. 100v, 110v, 111, 103v, 112, 112v, 120, 125, 127, 128, 323 (Moll 1929: R33, 79; Backhouse 1997: 158). BL Harl. MS 4751, ff. 25, 47v, 69 (Moll 1929: H18, 78; Fenwick 1978: 234; Morgan 1982: cat. 76, plate 266; Payne 1990: 95; Bill et al 1997: n/a). BL Harl. MS 5102, f. 129 (Morgan 1982 I: cat. 40, plate 140). BL Harl. MS 6205, ff. 21v, 23 (Millar 1931-32: lxiv). BL Harl. MS 7026, f. 11 (Scott 1996: plate 10). BL Harl. Roll Y6, Roundels 4, 15 (Hutchinson 1994: 119; Greenhill 1995a: 56). BL Kings MS 5, f. 20 (Backhouse 1979: plate 50). BL Lans. MS 285 (Greenhill 1995a: 226, 228). BL Lans. MS 431, f. 53 (Morgan 1982: plate 39). BL Loan MS 82 (Morgan 1988: plate 115; Scott 1996: plate 9). BL Loan MS 88, f. 4v (Hallam 1986: 111; Hutchinson 1994: 51; Friel 1995: 14; Bill et al 1997: n/a) BL MS M. 751, f. 109 (Diringer 1953: 7). BL Roy. MS 1 B xii, f. 186v (Morgan 1988: plate 102). BL Roy. MS 1 D i, f. 394v (Morgan 1988: plate 159). BL Roy. MS 1 E ix, ff. 232v, 240 (Scott 1996: plate 26). BL Roy. MS 2 A xxii, f. 80v (Morgan 1982: plate 2). BL Roy. MS 2 B vii, ff. 5v, 6, 6 [roll], 6v, 7, 58v, 72, 73, 73v, 77, 89, 95v, 96, 96v, 97, 109v, 110, 110v, 111, 159 [2], 168v, 169v, 170, 205v, 224v, 272, 273, 292-292v, 293-293v, 296v-297, 316v18 (Warner 1912: n/a; Keble Chatterton 1928; Moll 1929: B15, D10, 77; Randall 1966: plate 627; Payne 1990: 94; Unger 1991: 81-82, 193; Hutchinson 1994: 134; Friel 1995: 12, 28, 122; Greenhill 1995a: 81). BL Roy. MS 10 E iv, ff. 2, 3, 18v, 19, 47, 59, 121v, 122, 123v, 192-192v, 196, 202, 207, 226, 227, 231, 246v, 272v, 273, 289v (Landstrom 1961: 72-73; Crumlin-Pedersen 1972a: plate 34; Hutchinson 1994: 155; Runyan 1994: 51; Friel 1995: 143). BL Roy. MS 11 E xi, f. 2 (Backhouse 1997: 228).

                                

BL Roy. MS 12 C xix, ff. 46v, 47, 48, 48v (Morgan 1988: plate 115). BL Roy. MS 14 B ix (Morgan 1988: plate 177). BL Roy. MS 14 C vii, ff. 2, 4v, 5, 116v, 134v (Morgan 1982: plate 92; Hallam 1987: 35; Lewis 1987: figures 217-18; Payne 1987: 6; Baker 1988: 29; Greenhill 1995a; Backhouse 1997: 77). BL Roy. MS 14 E iii, ff. 9, 32, 36, 45, 51, 68, 125, 125v, 133v, 134v, 153, 153v (Loomis & Loomis 1938: 243-46; Alexander 1992: plate 195). BL Roy. MS 14 E iv, ff. 19, 23, 49v, 145, 186, 195, 224, 265v, 272v, 273, 276 (Hallam 1988: 29, 43; Runyan 1994: 52). BL Roy. MS 14 E vi, f. 270 (Collins & Davis 1991: 51). BL Roy. MS 15 D i, f. 12 (Friel 1995: 61). BL Roy. MS 15 D iii (Moll 1929: B16, 77). BL Roy. MS 15 E iv, ff. 15v, 24v, 35, 36, 53v, 57v, 65, 118, 119, 145, 179, 180, 192, 213, 232, 273, 287 (Friel 1995: 61; Backhouse 1997: 195). BL Roy. MS 15 E vi, f. 207 (Porter 2000: 39). BL Roy. MS 16 F ii, f. 73 (Hallam 1987: 211; Payne 1987: 8; Throckmorton 1987: 211; Hallam 1988: 188). BL Roy. MS 16 G i, ff. 1, 9 (Friel 1995: 137). BL Roy. MS 16 G viii, f. 189 (Porter 2000: 35, 41). BL Roy. MS 17 C xxxviii, f. 51 (Scott 1996: plate 70A). BL Roy. MS 18 E i, f. 103v (Hallam 1987: 239). BL Roy. MS 18 D ii, ff. 67v, 75-76, 161v (Scott 1996: plate 102; Backhouse 1997: n/a). BL Roy. MS 20 A v (Moll 1929: N26, 79). BL Roy. MS 20 C vii, f. 214v (Hallam 1988: 49). BL Roy. MS 20 C viii, f. 137 (Rogers 1999: 145). BL Roy. MS 20 D i, ff. 26v, 66v, 151, 176v, 222v, 246, 258, 305 (Backhouse 1979: 55; Alexander 1992: plate 231). BL Roy. MS 20 D ii, ff. 290v, 308 (Folda 1976). BL Slo. MS 278, ff. 42, 51 (Payne 1990: 25, 75, 93). BL Slo. MS 2452, f. 158 (Scott 1996: plate 79). BL Slo. MS 3544, ff. 28v, 41v, 42v, 43 (Payne 1990: 24, 74, 93). BL Slo. MS 3983, ff. 6v, 7, 10, 11, 13, 14v-15, 17v, 30 (Hutchinson 1994: 90; Greenhill 1995a: 126). BL Stowe MS 12, f. 184v (Sandler 1986). BL YT. MS 8, ff. 213v, 249v (Randall 1966: plates 278, 506; Backhouse 1997: 103). BL YT. MS 14, f. 7 (Dyson-Perrins 1907: n/a; Moll 1929: D12, 77; Backhouse 1979: 49; Sandler 1986: plate 104; Camille 1992: 124). BL YT. MS 26, ff. 10v, 11, 26, 71v, 73 (Millar 1926: n/a; Marks & Morgan 1981: n/a). BL YT. MS 31, ff. 43, 223v, 252 (Backhouse 1997: 132). BL YT. MS 36 [3], ff. 6, 14, 30v, 56r, 65, 68, 190 (De Hamel 1994: 133). BL YT. MS 47, ff. 37, 61, 63, 71, 72, 129, 130, 180, 188, 193 (Scott 1996: plate 112). BL YT. MS 81, f. 249 (Backhouse 1997: 103). BL YT. MS 171, f. 83v (Dyson-Perrins 1907; Moll 1929: D13, 77).

The unpublished slide and print books (folios containing photographic reproductions) in the British Library’s manuscript reading room contain much additional material, referenced below:      166

BL Add. MS 3665, f. 47 (31: 6) BL Add. MS 5023, roll [i] 1 (28: 71) BL Add. MS 5023, roll [i] 2 (28: 70) BL Add. MS 5023, roll [i] 3 (28: 70) BL Add. MS 5023, roll [i] 4 (28: 69)

The Illuminated Ark

                                                            

                                               

BL Add. MS 5415 A, ff. 16 (detail), 22 (102: 97) BL Add. MS 8512, f. 23v (49: 73) BL Add. MS 8946, f. 51v-52 (35: 121) BL Add. MS 9345, ff. 7, 8, 16v (29: 75) BL Add. MS 9345, ff. 21, 21v, 22 (29: 76) BL Add. MS 9345, ff. 57 (29: 77) BL Add. MS 10043, f. 11v (detail) (91: 27) BL Add. MS 10290, f. 58 (67: 181) BL Add. MS 10290, f. 77v (67: 182) BL Add. MS 10290, f. 91 (67: 182) BL Add. MS 10290, f. 118 (67: 183) BL Add. MS 10292, f. 56v (54: 150) BL Add. MS 10292, f. 69v (1: 224) BL Add. MS 10292, f. 129 (28: 150) BL Add. MS 10294, f. 44 (33: 102) BL Add. MS 10294, f. 47v (54: 162) BL Add. MS 10294, f. 65v (1: 226; 101: 55) BL Add. MS 10294, f. 79 (54: 166) BL Add. MS 10294, f. 94v (54: 166) BL Add. MS 11575, f. 65v (15: 94) BL Add. MS 11619, ff. 8v-9 (104: 80) BL Add. MS 11695, f. 79v (slide k. 3173; 32: 1) BL Add. MS 11695, ff. 175, 193 (slide k. 3204; slide k. 3212) BL Add. MS 12029, f. 25 (1: 83) BL Add. MS 12029, f. 148v (97: 43) BL Add. MS 12228, f. 12 (1: 14) BL Add. MS 12228, f. 35v (54: 166) BL Add. MS 12228, f. 201v (54: 167) BL Add. MS 12228, f. 202 (1: 16) BL Add. MS 12228, f. 218 (56: 68) BL Add. MS 12228, f. 225 (1: 16) BL Add. MS 12228, f. 238 (1: 17) BL Add. MS 12228, f. 253v (1: 17) BL Add. MS 12531 [7] (35: 122) BL Add. MS 15217, f. 38 (67: 28) BL Add. MS 15217, f. 38v (46: 12) BL Add. MS 15268, f. 7v (21: 137) BL Add. MS 15268, f. 105v (6: 128; 84: 65) BL Add. MS 15276, f. 30 (115: 71) BL Add. MS 15477, f. 2v (29: 83) BL Add. MS 15477, f. 3v (43: 74) BL Add. MS 15477, f. 8 (82: 92) BL Add. MS 15477, f. 17v (15: 64; 56: 69) BL Add. MS 15477, f. 21 (45: 126; 45: 100) BL Add. MS 15477, ff. 21-22v (45: 100; 45: 127) BL Add. MS 15477, ff. 22v, 26v (45: 127) BL Add. MS 15477, f. 49 (45: 130) BL Add. MS 15477, f. 51v (29: 84) BL Add. MS 15677, f. 8 (7b: 298) BL Add. MS 15692, f. 37v (59: 129) BL Add. MS 15707, f. 70 (117: 4) BL Add. MS 16975, f. 25 (45: 119) BL Add. MS 16975, f. 73v (45: 101; 97: 3) BL Add. MS 17275, f. 341 (77: 4) BL Add. MS 17280, f. 242 (97: 3) BL Add. MS 17341, f. 21v (66: 51) BL Add. MS 17921, f. 123 (61: 196) BL Add. MS 17921, f. 127 (63: 121) BL Add. MS 18850 [1], f. 15v (); f. 16v (). BL Add. MS 18850, f. 15v (slide k. 2762; 3: 54; 33: 26) BL Add. MS 18850, f. 16v (slide k. 2763; 3: 132; 27: 25)

            167

BL Add. MS 18850, f. 17v (14: 11) BL Add. MS 18851, f. 3 (14: 104) BL Add. MS 18851, f. 3v (14: 104) BL Add. MS 18851, f. 106v (7a: 24) BL Add. MS 18851, f. 241 (17: 22) BL Add. MS 18851, f. 494 (12: 2) BL Add. MS 18856, f. 14v (49: 73) BL Add. MS 19352 [1], f. 117v (slide k. 3014). BL Add. MS 19352, f. 201 (4: 172) BL Add. MS 19587, f. 61 (55: 145; 85: 90) BL Add. MS 19587, f. 63 [5] (58: 5) BL Add. MS 19669, f. 77 (82: 93) BL Add. MS 19669, f. 96v (97: 44) BL Add. MS 19720, f. 27 (detail) (117: 5) BL Add. MS 19896, f. 1v (61: 130) BL Add. MS 20698, f. 47v (51: 141) BL Add. MS 20698, f. 247 (57: 192) BL Add. MS 21926, f. 97v (50: 73; 97: 6) BL Add. MS 22047 (7b: 270) BL Add. MS 22047 roll (60: 52) BL Add. MS 22047 roll, 1st and 2nd Ships (30: 125) BL Add. MS 22047 roll, 4th and 5th Ships (30: 124) BL Add. MS 22047 roll, 6th and 10th vessels (28: 136) BL Add. MS 22047 roll, 7th and 8th Ships (30: 123) BL Add. MS 22047 roll, 9th and 11th Ships (30: 122) BL Add. MS 22047 roll, 12th and 13th Ships (30: 121) BL Add. MS 22047 roll, 14th Ship (30: 120) BL Add. MS 22811, f. 184 (15: 55) BL Add. MS 24065 (detail) (92: 13) BL Add. MS 24098, f. 22v (7a: 145; 92: 13) BL Add. MS 24189, f. 4v (8: 272) BL Add. MS 24189, ff. 3v, 8v (6: 292) BL Add. MS 24189, f. 5 (6: 294) BL Add. MS 24189, f. 8 (8: 240) BL Add. MS 24189, f. 8v (1: 210) BL Add. MS 24189, f. 9 (21: 29) BL Add. MS 24678, f. 8 (7b: 218) BL Add. MS 24945, f. 243 (32: 128) BL Add. MS 25709, f. 77 (66: 2) BL Add. MS 25884, f. 108v (97: 46) BL Add. MS 25885, f. 143 (1: 282) BL Add. MS 25886, f. 40v (detail) (65: 90) BL Add. MS 27376, f. 4v (20: 124) BL Add. MS 27695, f. 5 (19: 36) BL Add. MS 28162, f. 7v (19: 13) BL Add. MS 28962, f. 67v (1: 260; 1: 268; 5: 4) BL Add. MS 29704, f. 118v (77: 81) BL Add. MS 29704-5, f. 162 (negative 4239 b/w); f. 162 [margin] (negative 2416 b/w) BL Add. MS 34113, f. 31 (60: 119) BL Add. MS 34113, f. 33 (60: 120) BL Add. MS 34113, f. 34 (88: 60) BL Add. MS 34113, f. 46 (88: 62) BL Add. MS 34113, f. 58v (88: 62) BL Add. MS 34113, f. 102v (88: 64) BL Add. MS 34113, f. 103v (60: 121) BL Add. MS 34113, f. 104 (60: 121) BL Add. MS 34113, f. 108 (32: 129) BL Add. MS 34113, f. 126v (32: 130) BL Add. MS 34113, ff. 301-31 (14: 63) BL Add. MS 34294, f. 211v (52: 61)

Appendix Four - Published Details of Ships and Shipping in Medieval Illuminated Manuscripts

                                                            

 BL Cott. Aug. MS I ii. 70 (7b: 236)  BL Cott. Claud. MS B iv, ff. 10, 13v (93: 25)  BL Cott. Claud. MS B iv, f. 14 (4: 92; 14: 98; 48: 146; 99: 41)  BL Cott. Claud. MS B iv, f. 15 (48: 111; 48: 146)  BL Cott. Claud. MS B iv, f. 14v (19: 46; 48: 146)  BL Cott. Claud. MS B iv, f. 17 (14: 100)  BL Cott. Claud. MS D vi, f. 6 (+ detail) (93: 28; 102: 5)  BL Cott. Dom. MS A xvii, f. 123 (49: 153)  BL Cott. Jul. MS A v, f. 4v (49: 153)  BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art VI, f. 5 (3: 300; 11: 270; 13: 59)  BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art VI, f. 13v (24: 101)  BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art VI, f. 18v (7a: 18; 7a: 110; 31: 54)  BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art VI, f. 19 (31: 54)  BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art VI, f. 25 (+ detail) (7a: 18; 28: 72; 93: 36)  BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art VI, f. 25v (112: 82)  BL Cott. Nero MS A x, art 3, f. 60 (15: 77)  BL Cott. Nero MS A x, f. 60 (8: 100)  BL Cott. Nero MS A x, f. 86 (1: 14; 18: 17; 75: 51)  BL Cott. Nero MS C iv, f. 3 (slide k. 8164; 13: 135)  BL Cott. Nero MS D i, ff. 11-11v (4: 30)  BL Cott. Nero MS D i, f. 22v (10: 208)  BL Cott. Tib. MS A vii, f. 81 (4: 55)  BL Cott. Tib. MS B v (part 1), f. 40v (21: 106)  BL Cott. Tib. MS D ix, ff. 11v, 22 (details) (103: 73)  BL Cott. Tib. MS D ix, f. 80v-81 (detail) (66: 14)  BL Cott. Titus MS A xxvi, f. 34v (98: 2)  BL Cott. Titus MS A xxvi, ff. 37, 38, 38v, 41, 45v (98: 3)  BL Cott. Titus MS A xxvi, f. 48v (32: 44; 36: 81)  BL Cott. Titus MS A xxvi, ff. 57, 57v (98: 4)  BL Cott. Vesp. MS A vii, f. 6 (113: 71)  BL Eger. MS 613, ff. 33v, 34v (113: 71)  BL Eger. MS 943, f. 7v (75: 52)  BL Eger. MS 943, f. 65 (detail) (slide k. 4860; 77: 24)  BL Eger. MS 943, ff. 63, 65v, 80v (slide k. 4858; slide k. 4861; slide k. 4889).  BL Eger. MS 1065, f. 116v (1: 20; 3: 138; 6: 102; 41: 110)  BL Eger. MS 1065, f. 146 (41: 111)  BL Eger. MS 1121, f. 11 (59: 169)  BL Eger. MS 1121, f. 48v (63: 186; 68: 85)  BL Eger. MS 1122, f. 5 (68: 86)  BL Eger. MS 1122, f. 32v (68: 89)  BL Eger. MS 1500, f. 51v (80: 21)  BL Eger. MS 1894, f. 2v (12: 98; 14: 101; 32: 133)  BL Eger. MS 1894, f. 3 (21: 141; 47: 83)  BL Eger. MS 1894, f. 3v (21: 140; 26: 109)  BL Eger. MS 1894, f. 4 (21: 140)  BL Eger. MS 1894, f. 4v (27: 63)  BL Eger. MS 1895, ff. 8v-9 (113: 73)  BL Eger. MS 1896, f. 216v (113: 74)  BL Eger. MS 1900, f. 4 (78: 67)  BL Eger. MS 1900, f. 4v-5 (106: 41)  BL Eger. MS 2076, f. 2v (49: 159; 97: 19)  BL Eger. MS 2579 (detail) (29: 100; 53: 84)  BL Eger. MS 2709, f. 2 (14: 75; 28: 21; 31: 105; 81: 19)  BL Eger. MS 3028, f. 11 (107: 53)  BL Facs. MS 100 [i], pl. 96 (94: 59)  BL Facs. MS 177, plates 9, 10, 12 (29: 42)  BL Harl. Roll Y6, Roundel 4 (slide k. 12974; 6: 118; 79: 4; 94: 94)  BL Harl. Roll Y6, roundel 15 (24: 112; 94: 97)  BL Harl. MS 326, f. 7v (11: 188)  BL Harl. MS 326, f. 18 (3: 40)

BL Add. MS 35166, f. 2v (109: 12) BL Add. MS 35311, f. 348v (1: 56; 17: 58) BL Add. MS 35313, f. 3v (48: 133) BL Add. MS 37177 recto (9: 188) BL Add. MS 37421 (4: 20) BL Add. MS 37527, f. 57 (1: 79) BL Add. MS 38121, f. 1v (74: 70) BL Add. MS 38121, f. 2v (68: 69) BL Add. MS 38121, f. 3v (48: 137) BL Add. MS 38121, f. 10v (74: 70) BL Add. MS 38655, f. 27 (31: 68) BL Add. MS 38658, f. 1 (58: 87) BL Add. MS 38658, f. 36 (58: 87) BL Add. MS 39810, f. 70v (slide k. 10430; 22: 143) BL MS Add. 39844, f. 49v (slide k. 10493); f. 56v (slide k. 10447) BL Add. MS 39943, f. 26 (11: 86; 37: 41) BL Add. MS 39943, f. 11 (27: 54) BL Add. MS 39943, f. 47 (60: 198) BL Add. MS 40724, f. 20v (48: 71) BL Add. MS 40724, f. 22 (61: 96) BL Add. MS 40731, f. 147 (1: 82; 77: 59; 108: 70) BL Add. MS 40731, f. 253v (slide k. 2863; 1: 88) BL Add. MS 40731, ff. 147, 223 (slide k. 2854; slide k. 2857) BL Add. MS 41751, f. 150 (slide k. 10550) BL Add. MS 42130, f. 161v (+ detail) (60: 145) BL Add. MS 44874, f. 93 (slide k. 13588) BL Add. MS 44892, f. 162 (negative 4239 b/w); f. 162 [margin] (negative 2416 b/w) BL Add. MS 47682, ff. 7v, 8v (97: 50) BL Add. MS 47682, f. 22 (48: 145) BL Add. MS 50000, f. 10 (46: 40) BL Add. MS 54782, f. 54 (57: 41) BL Add. MS 60628, 2nd membrane (detail) (87: 16) BL Add. MS 62540 (1: 81) BL Add. MS 513544, f. 28v (113: 33) BL Ar. MS 66, f. 45 (16: 14) BL Ar. MS 157, f. 11 (23: 15) BL Burn. MS 3, f. 10v (9: 112) BL Burn. MS 198, f. 4 (77: 80) BL Burn. MS 198, f. 204v (77: 87) BL Burn. MS 257, f. 77v (detail) (81: 13) BL Burn. MS 257, f. 226v (7b: 230) BL Burn. MS 257, f. 245v (7b: 230) BL Cotton Roll 13, f. 44 (114: 42; 115: 64; 115: 65) BL Cott. Aug. MS A vi, f. 245 (75: 46) BL Cott. Aug. I roll, 35th, 36 th, 38th and 39th Ships (30: 103) BL Cott. Aug. MS I i. 8 (31: 84) BL Cott. Aug. MS I i., f. 18 (63: 162) BL Cott. Aug. MS I i. 2, f. 16 (61: 62) BL Cott. Aug. MS I i. 29 (36: 87) BL Cott. Aug. MS I i. 31 (57: 75) BL Cott. Aug. MS I i., f. 36 (+ detail) (16: 15) BL Cott. Aug. MS I i. 37 (91: 18) BL Cott. Aug. MS I i. 38 (86: 66) BL Cott. Aug. MS I i., f. 39 (+ detail) (63: 162) BL Cott. Aug. MS I i. 74 (+ detail) (49: 122; 49: 123; 61: 62) BL Cott. Aug. MS I i. 83 (detail) (86: 66) BL Cott. Aug. MS I ii. I (5: 268; 28: 82; 28: 127; 86: 67) BL Cott. Aug. MS I ii. 3 (50: 65) BL Cott. Aug. MS I ii. 7 (49: 123) BL Cott. Aug. MS I ii. 42 (30: 90) BL Cott. Aug. MS I ii. I, f. 57a (59: 58; 97: 57; 97: 59) 168

The Illuminated Ark

                

                                        

BL Harl. MS 326, f. 29v (1: 20) BL Harl. MS 1251, f. 43 (42: 140) BL Harl. MS 1319, f. 7v (slide k. 6156; 11: 188) BL Harl. MS 1319, f. 14v (slide k. 6159; 68: 95; 117: 32) BL Harl. MS 1319, f. 18 (slide k. 6160. 3: 40; 54: 12; 117: 3) BL Harl. MS 1319, f. 19v (slide k. 6161). BL Harl. MS 1377, f. 18 (116: 85) BL Harl. MS 1413, f. 181v (34: 102) BL Harl. MS 1413, f. 218 (93: 74) BL Harl. MS 1766, f. 31 (10: 58) BL Harl. MS 1766, f. 112v (89: 59) BL Harl. MS 2278, f. 16v (slide k. 13942; 112: 1) BL Harl. MS 2278, f. 17 (slide k. 13943; 65: 151) BL Harl. MS 2278, f. 20 (slide k. 13946; 65: 151) BL Harl. MS 2278, f. 46 (slide k. 13975; 10: 106) BL Harl. MS 2278, f. 98v (slide k. 14032; 7a: 40; 93: 51) BL Harl. MS 2278, ff. 12, 26, 27, 37, 4v, 42, 47, 47v, 79v, 80, 85v, 96v, 97 (slide k. 13939; slide k. 13955; slide k. 13956; slide k. 13967; slide k. 13969; slide k. 13970; slide k. 13976; slide k. 13977; slide k. 14005; slide k. 14006; slide k. 14012; slide k. 14029; slide k. 14030 BL Harl. MS 2677, f. 1 (84: 42) BL Harl. MS 3244, f. 60v (97: 21) BL Harl. MS 3244, f. 61 (10: 28) BL Harl. MS 3448, f. 42 (60: 12) BL Harl. MS 3752, f. 108 (114: 21) BL Harl. MS 4205, f. 1v (111: 56) BL Harl. MS 4374, f. 88 (42: 122) BL Harl. MS 4375, f. 123 (7b: 178) BL Harl. MS 4376, f. 2v (49: 92) BL Harl. MS 4376, f. 150 (1: 32; 74: 36) BL Harl. MS 4379, f. 60v (4: 282; 31: 8) BL Harl. MS 4379, f. 104v (3: 202; 4: 294) BL Harl. MS 4380, f. 43 (3: 186) BL Harl. MS 4380, f. 84 (2: 92; 4: 270) BL Harl. MS 4380, f. 134 (4: 266) BL Harl. MS 4380, f. 149 (3: 192) BL Harl. MS 4380, ff. 181v, 189v (3: 198) BL Harl. MS 4381, f. 12 (21: 50) BL Harl. MS 4389, f. 17 (7b: 184) BL Harl. MS 4411, f. 60v (42: 125) BL Harl. MS 4411, f. 93v (42: 122) BL Harl. MS 4418, f. 80v (104: 58) BL Harl. MS 4425, f. 86 (slide k. 7473; 3: 136) BL Harl. MS 4425, f. 117v (slide k. 7529) BL Harl. MS 4431, f. 110v (17: 77; 116: 21) BL Harl. MS 4431, f. 112 (detail) (85: 16) BL Harl. MS 4431, f. 112v (17: 77) BL Harl. MS 4431, f. 120 (17: 78) BL Harl. MS 4431, f. 125 (31: 104) BL Harl. MS 4431, f. 323 (10: 302) BL Harl. MS 4751, f. 47v (59 121) BL Harl. MS 4751, ff. 68v-69 (100: 76) BL Harl. MS 4751, f. 69 (2: 36) BL Harl. MS 4979, f. 4v (89: 66) BL Harl. MS 4979, f. 24 (89: 66) BL Harl. MS 4979, f. 26 (45: 108) BL Harl. MS 6205, f. 23 (2: 2; 104: 60) BL Harl. MS 7353, 10th picture (31: 29) BL Kings MS 5, f. 20 [c] (17: 33) BL Kings MS 24, f. 59 (10: 198) BL Kings MS 24, ff. 101v, 115 (10: 200)

                                                             169

BL Kings MS 24, ff. 148v, 164 (10: 202) BL Loan MS 88, ff. 4, 46 (105: 72) BL Lands. MS 383, f. 5 (113: 39) BL Lands. MS 792, f. 60v (30: 115) BL Roy. MS 1 E ix, f. 232v (49: 177) BL Roy. MS 2 A xxii, f. 80v (45: 96; 45: 139) BL Roy. MS 2 B vii, f. 5v (33: 19) BL Roy. MS 2 B vii, f. 6 (32: 39) BL Roy. MS 2 B vii, f. 6v (13: 96) BL Roy. MS 2 B vii, f. 7 (32: 40) BL Roy. MS 2 B vii, f. 72 (slide k. 2645; 98: 14) BL Roy. MS 2 B vii, f. 73 (slide k. 2647; 20: 49; 62: 140) BL Roy. MS 2 B vii, f. 77 (slide k. 2655; 51: 65) BL Roy. MS 2 B vii, f. 96v (57: 46) BL Roy. MS 2 B vii, f. 97 (61: 114) BL Roy. MS 2 B vii, f. 111 (14: 127; 97: 24) BL Roy. MS 2 B vii, f. 169v (12: 196) BL Roy. MS 2 B vii, f. 292v (+ detail) (1: 294; 102: 73) BL Roy. MS 2 B vii, f. 293 (29: 1) BL Roy. MS 2 B vii, f. 297 (58: 40) BL Roy. MS 2 B vii, f. 318 (1: 67) BL Roy. MS 6 E vi, ff. 2-2v (21: 6) BL Roy. MS 10 D i, f. 136 (27: 97) BL Roy. MS 10 E iv, f. 19 (1: 112; 23: 149; 28: 20; 110: 70) BL Roy. MS 10 E iv, f. 231 (110: 92) BL Roy. MS 13 B viii, ff. 8v-9 (8: 12) BL Roy. MS 13 B viii, f. 29 (12: 56; 48: 63) BL Roy. MS 14 C vii, f. 4v (21: 2) BL Roy. MS 14 C vii, f. 5 (20: 109; 65: 163) BL Roy. MS 14 C vii, f. 116v (23: 91) BL Roy. MS 14 C vii, f. 134v (29: 120) BL Roy. MS 14 E ii, f. 218 (84: 12) BL Roy. MS 14 E iii, f. 36 (1: 220) BL Roy. MS 14 E iii, f. 51 (1: 228) BL Roy. MS 14 E iii, f. 68 (54: 205) BL Roy. MS 14 E iii, f. 125v (1: 300) BL Roy. MS 14 E iii, f. 134v (54: 191) BL Roy. MS 14 E iii, f. 153 (1: 222) BL Roy. MS 14 E iii, f. 153v (75: 56) BL Roy. MS 14 E iii, f. 23 (2: 84; 33: 34) BL Roy. MS 14 E iv, f. 186 (7a: 88) BL Roy. MS 14 E iv, f. 195 (7a: 90) BL Roy. MS 14 E iv, f. 224 (8: 142) BL Roy. MS 14 E iv, f. 232 (57: 29) BL Roy. MS 14 E iv, f. 265v (7a: 64) BL Roy. MS 14 E iv, f. 276 (51: 171) BL Roy. MS 14 E v, ff. 280v, 318v, 329 (100: 57) BL Roy. MS 15 D iii, f. 12 (24: 32) BL Roy. MS 15 E iv, f. 15v (22: 127) BL Roy. MS 15 E iv, f. 57v (10: 240) BL Roy. MS 15 E iv, f. 93 (10: 242) BL Roy. MS 15 E iv, f. 180 (57: 30) BL Roy. MS 15 E iv, f. 213v (10: 242) BL Roy. MS 15 E vi, f. 9 (29: 45) BL Roy. MS 15 E vi, f. 20v (29: 41) BL Roy. MS 15 E vi, f. 24v (76: 48) BL Roy. MS 15 E vi, f. 36 (100: 62) BL Roy. MS 15 E vi, f. 118 (100: 63) BL Roy. MS 15 E vi, f. 192 (100: 62) BL Roy. MS 15 E vi, f. 207 (7b: 264) BL Roy. MS 15 E vi, f. 217v (56: 103)

Appendix Four - Published Details of Ships and Shipping in Medieval Illuminated Manuscripts

                                                             

                                       

BL Roy. MS 15 E vi, f. 224v (1: 114) BL Roy. MS 15 E vi, f. 272 (1: 116) BL Roy. MS 15 E vi, f. 287 (84: 84) BL Roy. MS 16 F ii, f. 73 (2: 32) BL Roy. MS 16 F ix, f. 3 (45: 109) BL Roy. MS 16 F ix, f. 8v (83: 82) BL Roy. MS 16 G i, f. 9 (19: 129) BL Roy. MS 16 G v, f. 39v (1: 104) BL Roy. MS 16 G vi, f. 147 (110: 43) BL Roy. MS 16 G vi, f. 325 (82: 50) BL Roy. MS 16 G vi, f. 350v (96: 78) BL Roy. MS 16 G vi, f. 409v (59: 91; 96: 77) BL Roy. MS 16 G vi, f. 414 (112: 90) BL Roy. MS 16 G vi, f. 437v (63: 86) BL Roy. MS 16 G vi, f. 440v (9: 94) BL Roy. MS 16 G vii, ff. 70, 82 (97: 54) BL Roy. MS 16 G viii, f. 35 (47: 114) BL Roy. MS 16 G viii, f. 133 (47: 116) BL Roy. MS 16 G viii, f. 164v (47: 116) BL Roy. MS 16 G viii, f. 277 (47: 117) BL Roy. MS 16 G viii, f. 297 (47: 118) BL Roy. MS 16 G viii, f. 304v (47: 118) BL Roy. MS 16 G viii, f. 310v (47: 118) BL Roy. MS 16 G viii, f. 317 (47: 119) BL Roy. MS 17 E ii, f. 96 (44: 31) BL Roy. MS 17 E vii, f. 11v (21: 11) BL Roy. MS 18 D iii, ff. 15v-16 (95: 61) BL Roy. MS 18 D iii, ff. 62v-63 (5: 266) BL Roy. MS 18 D iii, ff. 64v-65 (5: 268) BL Roy. MS 18 E i, f. 87v (95: 2) BL Roy. MS 18 E i, f. 97v (100: 63) BL Roy. MS 18 E i, f. 103 (30: 6) BL Roy. MS 18 E ii, f. 70v (49: 183; 52: 84) BL Roy. MS 18 E ii, f. 249v (100: 70) BL Roy. MS 18 E ii, f. 328v (40: 24) BL Roy. MS 18 E v, f. 62v (89: 89) BL Roy. MS 19 B xv, f. 14v (46: 22) BL Roy. MS 19 C i, f. 33v (51: 172) BL Roy. MS 19 D i, f. 37v (25: 6; 26: 117) BL Roy. MS 19 D i, f. 58 (7a: 98) BL Roy. MS 19 D i, f. 187v (45: 111) BL Roy. MS 19 D ii, f. 12v (21: 8) BL Roy. MS 19 D ii, f. 13v (1: 116; 21: 8) BL Roy. MS 19 D ii, f. 20 [c] (1: 118) BL Roy. MS 19 D iii, ff. 12v, 13v (21: 10) BL Roy. MS 19 D iv, f. 14v (21: 4) BL Roy. MS 19 D vi, f. 12v (20: 109) BL Roy. MS 19 E vi, f. 78 (86: 21) BL Roy. MS 19 E vi, f. 126 (115: 82) BL Roy. MS 19 E vi, f. 388v (55: 181) BL Roy. MS 19 E v, f. 396v (24: 121) BL Roy. MS 20 A v, f. 18 (117: 34) BL Roy. MS 20 B xx, f. 77v (1: 110; 101: 32) BL Roy. MS 20 C v, f. 54 (115: 55) BL Roy. MS 20 C vii, f. 1 (57: 48) BL Roy. MS 20 C vii, f. 25v (79: 39) BL Roy. MS 20 C vii, f. 26v (79: 39) BL Roy. MS 20 C vii, f. 83v (24: 120; 25: 63) BL Roy. MS 20 C vii, f. 184v (24: 53) BL Roy. MS 20 C vii, f. 214v (7b: 162; 22: 139) BL Roy. MS 20 C vii, f. 189v (25: 133) BL Roy. MS 20 D i, f. 26v (15: 2; 60: 113)

            

BL Roy. MS 20 D i, f. 66v (114: 52) BL Roy. MS 20 D i, f. 151 (25: 92) BL Roy. MS 20 D i, f. 176v (81: 34) BL Roy. MS 20 D i, f. 222v (1: 94; 56: 106) BL Roy. MS 20 D i, f. 246 (56: 185) BL Roy. MS 20 D i, f. 258 (4: 100) BL Roy. MS 20 D i, f. 305 (39: 92) BL Roy. MS 20 D ii, f. 290v (51: 172) BL Roy. MS 20 D ii, f. 308 (52: 45) BL Roy. MS 20 D vi, f. 20 (75: 57) BL Roy. MS 20 D vi, f. 97 (12: 2) BL Roy. MS 20 D vi, f. 153v (79: 1) BL Roy. MS 20 E ix, ff. 25-26 (5: 266 BL Roy. MS 20 E ix, f. 30 (detail) (56: 57) BL Slo. MS 61, f. 32 (57: 113) BL Slo. MS 239, f. 6v (42: 55) BL Slo. MS 239, f. 24 (42: 54) BL Slo. MS 239, f. 91 (42: 100) BL Slo. MS 239, f. 106v-107 (42: 99) BL Slo. MS 239, f. 133v-134 (42: 98) BL Slo. MS 278, f. 47 (27: 6) BL Slo. MS 3544, f. 42v (detail) (slide k. 2084; 84: 86) BL Slo. MS 3665, f. 9 (102: 96) BL Slo. MS 3983, ff. 7, 13 (1: 126) BL Slo. MS 3983, ff. 4v, 6v (10: 90) BL Slo. MS 3983, f. 10 (10: 90-91) BL Slo. MS 3983, f. 11 (10: 92) BL Slo. MS 3983, f. 13 (52: 52) BL Slo. MS 3983, f. 14v-15 (10: 94) BL Slo. MS 3983, f. 17v (10: 96) BL Slo. MS 3983, f. 30 (10: 104) BL Slo. MS 5415, f. 613 (64: 177) BL Stowe MS 54, f. 30v (48: 22) BL Stowe MS 54, f. 82 (114: 60) BL Stowe MS 54, f. 82v (19: 43) BL YT. MS 2, f. 58v (110: 75) BL YT. MS 3, f. 278 (46: 73) BL YT. MS 8, f. 213 (29: 89) BL YT. MS 8, f. 249v (29: 89) BL YT. MS 26, ff. 10v, 11, 26, 73 (slide k. 10606; slide k. 10607; slide k. 10615; slide k. 10641). BL YT. MS 13, f. 26v (97: 69) BL YT. MS 31, f. 43 (52: 89) BL YT. MS 31, f. 223v (53: 18) BL YT. MS 31, f. 252 (53: 26) BL YT. MS 32, f. 10v (56: 108) BL YT. MS 33, f. 1 (78: 5) BL YT. MS 33, f. 35v (64: 164; 78: 5) BL YT. MS 33, f. 244v (84: 53) BL YT. MS 36, f. 6 (slide k. 2515; 35: 97) BL YT. MS 36, f. 14 (slide k. 2522; 33: 52; 35: 70) BL YT. MS 36, ff. 30v, 65 (slide k. 2531; slide k. 2549) BL YT. MS 36, f. 68 (12: 196; 35: 84) BL YT. MS 36, f. 190 (35: 120)

Group E – The Bibliothèque de Arsenal and Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris   

170

Bib. Ars. MS 2 (Moll 1929: I17, 78). Bib. Ars. MS 283 (Mol 1929: F11, 80). Bib. Ars. MS 412, f. 1 (Avril & Reynaud 1993: plate 254).

The Illuminated Ark

                                           

Bib. Ars. MS 630, ff. 15v, 61v, 90v (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plates 5-7). Bib. Ars. MS 1186, f. 13v (Moll 1929: D18, 77; Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 8). Bib. Ars. MS 5070, ff. 51v, 60v, 91v, 330v (Le Bon 1959: 12; Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plates 1, 9, 110; Avril & Reynaud 1993: 75). Bib. Ars. MS 5086, f. 30 (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 11). Bib. Ars. MS 5090, f. 86 (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 12). Bib. Ars. 5059, f. 12v (Unger 1991: 80-81). Bib. Ars. MS 5187, ff. 21, 59 (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plates 1314). BNF MS Cod. 2186 (Abel et al 1969). BNF MS Copt. E13 (Moll 1929: E13, 78). BL Fr. MS 9, f. 13 (Unger 1991: 48). BL Fr. MS 19 (Moll 1929: I13, 78). BL Fr. MS 28 (Moll 1929: I6, 78). BL Fr. MS 38, f. 157v (Runyan 1994: 57). BL Fr. MS 53, f. 142 (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 37). BL Fr. MS 54, f. 160 (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 38) BL Fr. MS 59, f. 308 (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 39). BL Fr. MS 77, f. 386v (Villain-Gandossi 1979: 213; 1985a: plate 40). BL Fr. MS 95, ff. 61v, 89 (Loomis & Loomis 1938: 228; Randall 1966: plate 557). BL Fr. MS 100, ff. 71, 109 (Loomis & Loomis 1938: 271; VillainGandossi 1985a: plate 41). BL Fr. MS 101, f. 349 (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 2; Hutnchinson 1994: 55). BL Fr. MS 102, f. 1 (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 42). BL Fr. MS 103, f. 1 (Loomis & Loomis 1938: 304; VillainGandossi 1979: 199; 1985a: plate 43). BL Fr. MS 112, vol. 1, f. 239 (Loomis & Loomis 1938: 298). BL Fr. MS 124, f. 1 (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 144). BL Fr. MS 126 (Moll 1929: A52, 79; Villain-Gandossi 1979). BL Fr. MS 159, f. 13 (Meiss 1968: 459). BL Fr. MS 247, ff. 25, 39v, 49, 135v (Moll 1929: A52, 79; Porcher 1960: n/a; Meiss 1967: 14; Meiss 1974: 170, 683; Avril & Reyanud 1993: plate 141). BL Fr. MS 257, f. 39v (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 45). BL Fr. MS 301, ff. 25, 26v, 58v, 153 (Villain-Gandossi 1979: 198, 201; 1985a: plates 46-47; Alexander 1992: plate 230). BL Fr. MS 365, f. 89 (Villain-Gandossi 1979: 216; 1985a: plate 48). BL Fr. MS 366, f. 114v (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 49). BL Fr. MS 403, f. 1v (Millar 1924: 31; Morgan 1988: plate 103; Greenhill 1995a: 114). BL Fr. MS 598, f. 16v (Meiss 1968: 369). BNF MS. Fr. 645 (Moll 1929: M IV 40, 79). BL Fr. MS 730, f. 6 (Avril & Reynaud 1993: 66). BL Fr. MS 784, f. 70v (Bochthal 1957: 152a). BL Fr. MS 874, ff. 145, 182 (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plates 5051). BL Fr. MS 875, ff. 71v (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 52). BL Fr. MS 990, f. 2v (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 53). BL Fr. MS 1098 (Moll 1929: H21, 78). BL Fr. MS 1436, f. 133 (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 54). BL Fr. MS 1454, f. 1v (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 55; 1994: 171, 173). BL Fr. MS 1533, f. 185 (Folda 1976: plate 201). BL Fr. MS 2090-92, ff. 99, 111, 125, 185 (Moll 1929: H20, 78; Porcher 1960: plate L; Fenwick 1978: 250; Camille 1992: 8, 128;

  

    

       

                        

171

Hallam 1986: 241; Hallam 1987: 193-95, 285; Hutchinson 1994: 92). BL Fr. MS 2628, ff., 22, 89v, 293v, 300v, 313v, 328v (Bochthal 1957: 130c, 132b, 134i, 135c, d, e). BL Fr. MS 2631, f. 111v (Folda 1976: plate 177). BL Fr. MS 2643, ff. 7, 7v, 13v, 42v, 72, 74v, 118, 188, 352, 388v, 393 (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 56; Hallam 1987: 139, 245; Runyan 1994: 54; Friel 1995: 144; Greenhill 1995a: 100, 105-06, 115, 121). BL Fr. MS 2644, ff. 85, 154v (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plates 5758). BL Fr. MS 2645 (Moll 1929: MII 28, 79). BL Fr. MS 2672 (Moll 1929: I8, 78). BL Fr. MS 2685, f. 159 (Avril & Reynaud 1993: 168). BL Fr. MS 2810, ff. 14v, 28, 73v, 86v, 91, 188v, 263 (Keble Chatterton 1928: n/a; Meiss 1968: 89; Villain-Gandossi 1979: 214, 220; 1985a: 59-63; Hallam 1987: 83, 147; Hutchinson 1994: 95; Runyan 1994: 51; Greenhill 1995a: 101-02, 114, 144). BNF MS 2813 (Moll 1929: M II 25, 79). BL Fr. MS 2824, f. 80v (Hallam 1986: 218; 1987: 218). BL Fr. MS 2829, ff. 8, 18, 32v, 47v (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 64; Hallam 1987: 91; Avril & Reynaud 1993: 272; Hutchinson 1994: 161). BL Fr. MS 4274, f. 6 (Moll 1929: U16, 80; Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 65; Hallam 1987: 139). BL Fr. MS 5054, f. 216 (Hallam 1988: 209). BL Fr. MS 5193 (Moll 1929: R6A, 79). BL Fr. MS 5388 (Moll 1929: M II 26, 78). BL Fr. MS 5594, ff. 33, 34, 34v, 35, 109, 112, 157, 205, 211, 217, 232, 248, 251, 267, 267v, 269, 274 (Villain-Gandossi 1979: 207, 215, 221-22; 1985a: plates 66-70; Hutchinson 1994: 43; Runyan 1994: 58; Greenhill 1995a: 114, 139-42). BL Fr. MS 6185, f. 51 (Collins & Davis 1991: 137). BL Fr. MS 6275, f. 4 (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 71). BL Fr. MS 6440, f. 163 (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 72). BL Fr. MS 6465, f. 284v (Villain-Gandossi 1979: 218; 1985a: plate 74). BL Fr. MS 6646, f. 128v (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 73). BL Fr. MS 7806 (Moll 1929: U21, 80). BL Fr. MS 8266, f. 53 (Avril & Reynaud 1993: 179). BL Fr. MS 9081, f. 26 (Bochthal 1957: 154f). BL Fr. MS 9082, f. 334 (Folda 1976: plate 197). BL Fr. MS 9084, f. 125v (Folda 1976: plate 106). BL Fr. MS 9087, f. 207v (Le Bon 1959: 36: Hallam 1987: 211). BL Fr. MS 9141, f. 217v (Meiss 1967: 682). BL Fr. MS 9199, ff. 5, 6, 30, 33, 61 (Le Bon 1959: 39). BL Fr. MS 9682, f. 26 (Bochthal 1957: 152b). BL Fr. MS 10420, f. 1v (Avril & Reynaud 1993: 364). BL Fr. MS 12420, f. 31 (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 3). BL Fr. MS 12566, f. 1 (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 75). BL Fr. MS 14969, f. 42v (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 4; Morgan 1988: plate 129). BL Fr. MS 20125, ff. 9, 123v, 156v (Bochthal 1957: 152d; Folda 1976: plates 54, 74). BL Fr. MS 22495, f. 21 (Hallam 1986: 215). BL Fr. MS 22540, f. 59 (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 76). BL Fr. MS 22547, ff. 65, 242 (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plates 7778; 1985b: 108). BL Fr. MS 25374, f. 28v (Villain-Gandossi 1979: 204; 1994: 174). BL Grec. MS 54, f. 124v (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 15). BL Grec. MS 135, f. 220v (Villain-Gandossi 1979: 211; 1985a: plate 16).

Appendix Four - Published Details of Ships and Shipping in Medieval Illuminated Manuscripts

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BL Grec. MS 510, f. 3v (Moll 1929: A4, 77; Villain-Gandossi 1979: 197; 1985a: plate 17; 1994: 169). BL Grec. MS 2736, ff. 2, 51v (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plates 1819). BNF Lat. MS 1, ff. 3, 3v (Moll 1929: A9, 77; Villain-Gandossi 1979: 206; Calkins 1983: plate 42; Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 20). BNF Lat. MS 15, f. 350 (Morgan 1988: plate 105). BNF Lat. MS 1052, ff. 7, 283 (Calkins 1983: plate 127). BNF Lat. MS 1165 [B], f. 174 (Avril & Reynaud 1993: 29). BNF Lat. MS 1429 (Moll 1929: K24, 78). BNF Lat. MS 1560 (Moll 1929: B1, 77). BNF Lat. MS 1673, ff. 87, 97v (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plates 35-36). BNF Lat. MS 4915, f. 46v (Avril & Reynaud 1993: 111, plate 54). BNF Lat. MS 5565 A, f. 101 (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 21; Friel 1995: 164-65). BNF Lat. MS 6067, f. 82 (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 22). BNF Lat. MS 6142, ff. 1, 2v (Villain-Gandossi 1979: 202; 1985a: plate 23; Greenhill 1995a: 190). BNF Lat. MS 7234, f. 104v (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 24). BNF Lat. MS 7236, f. 170 (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 25). BNF Lat. MS 7239, ff. 24, 61v, 104, 108 (Villain-Gandossi 1979: 208; 1985a: plates 26-29). BNF Lat. MS 8200, f. 49v (Avril & Reynaud 1993: 201). BNF Lat. MS 8846, ff. 1v, 3v (Moll 1929: D9, U30, 77, 80; Morgan 1982: cat. 1, plate 3; Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 30). BNF Lat. MS 8878 (Moll 1929: F3, 78). BNF Lat. MS 9473 (Moll 1929: K5, 78). BNF Lat. MS 9661, f. 123v (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plate 31). BNF Lat. MS 10136, ff. 7, 105v, 108 (Villain-Gandossi 1985a: plates 32-34). BNF Lat. MS 10491, f. 166v (Avril & Reynaud 1993: 374). BNF Lat. MS 18014, ff. 174v, 176v, 181v (Meiss 1967: 157). BNF Mazarine MS 870 (Moll 1929: F26, 78). BNF Supp. Lat. MS 773 (Moll 1929: M II 7, 79).

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Appendix 5: A Guide to Published Illustrations of Ships and Shipping in Medieval Illuminated Manuscripts

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As originally submitted, the PhD thesis that this book is based upon contained copies of 270 manuscript illuminations depicting medieval ships and shipping. Due to copyright and reproduction costs, such a large range is not capable of being reproduced here. However, a number of books contain reproductions of many of the illuminations discussed in this book. These sources are listed below. This list is not comprehensive, merely containing details of some of the largest, bestknown or most accessible sources.

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Perhaps the most comprehensive survey of not only manuscript illuminations but all forms of medieval ship imagery remains Moll (1929): however, copies of this are now extremely rare and fragile, and the book contains no formal catalogue of library acquisition numbers or details. The books listed below include therefore a range of betterknown volumes on maritime archaeology, as well as more specialised but generally available works of art-history.        

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Warner (1912) – (BL Roy. MS 2B vii, ff. 5v, 6, 6v, 7, 89, 96v, 97, 110v, 111, 159, 169v, 205v, 224, 272, 273, 292v, 293, 297, 318, ‘January’, ‘February’, ‘June’). Millar (1924) - 14 (Lambeth MS 209, f. 1v); 25 (Lambeth MS 209, f. 17v); 28 (Lambeth MS 209, f. 31); 30 (Lambeth MS 209, f. 41); 31 (BNF Fr. MS 403, f. 1v). Millar (1926) – (GUL Hunter. MS 229, f. 13v; CUL MS Ii. 4. 26, f. 54v; Trinity MS R. 17.1, f. 100; BL Burn. MS 3, f. 5v; BL MS YT. 26, f. 26). Millar (1928) – 3 (BL Douce MS 366, f. 89); 10 (BL Cott. Claud. MS D ii, f. 45v). Keble-Chatterton (1928) – (BL Harl. MS 4379, f. 60v & MS 4425, f. 86). Coulton (1930) – (BL Harl. MS 4379, ff. 60v, 83v, 104v; Harl. MS 4380, ff. 43, 134, 149, 181v & 189v). Millar (1931-32) – plate LXIV (BL Harl. MS 6205, f. 23); plate LVIII (BL Harl. MS 4375, f. 179). Loomis (1937) – plate 228 (BNF Fr. MS 95, f. 59); plate 242 (BL Roy. MS 14 E iii, f. 125); plate 246 (BL Roy. MS 14 E iii, f. 153v); plate 247 (BL Add. MS 10294, f. 65v); plate 255 (BL Add. MS 38117, f. 97v); plate 271 (BNF Fr. MS 100, f. 71); plate 298 (BNF Fr. MS 112, vol. 1, f. 239); plate 304 (BNF Fr. MS 103, f. 1); plate 318 (BL Harl. MS 4389, f. 17). Yapp (1951) – 9 (BL Burn. MS 3, f. 5v); 28 (BL Add. MS 39810, f. 7). Rickert (1953) – 12 (BL Add. MS 29704-5, f. 118v; BL Add. MS 44892, f. 118v). Dodwell (1954) – plate 66 (BL Add. MS 37472, f. 1v). Buchthal (1957) – plate 85 (BL Add. MS 15268, f. 7v); plate 111 (BL Add. MS 15268, f. 105v); plate 115 (BL Add. MS 15268, f. 136v); plate 130 (BNF Fr. MS 2628, f. 2); plate 132 (BNF Fr. MS 2628, f. 89v); plate 134 (BNF Fr. MS 2628, f. 293v); plate 135 (BNF Fr. MS 2628, ff. 313, 328v); plate 152 (BNF Fr. MS 784, f. 70v; BNF Fr. MS 9682, f. 140v; BNF Fr. MS 20125, f. 156v); plate 154 (BNF Fr. MS 9081, f. 26v). Le Bon (1959) – 12 (Bib. Ars. MS 5070, f. 51v); 39 (BNF Fr. MS 9199, f. 6); 36 (BNF Fr. MS 9087, f. 207v). Porcher (1960) – plate ** (BNF Fr. MS 247, f. 49); plate L (BNF Fr. MS 2091, f. 99).

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Landstrom (1961) – 68 (plate 171 Fitz. Marlay MS Add. I, f. 86); 72-73 (plate 186 BL Roy. MS 10 E iv, f. 19); 119 (plates 299-301, 303 Magd. MS 2820). Mitchell (1961) – plate 1 (BL Add. MS 22318, f. 4); plate 2 (BL Add. MS 22318); plate 1 (BL Add. MS 22318). Pacht & Alexander (1966) – plate 23 (Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 264); plate 30 (Bod. Lib. Douce MS 8, f. 12); plate 31 (Bod. Lib. Douce MS 112, f. 151); plate 31 (Bod. Lib. Gough Liturg. MS 7, f. 7); plate 32 (Bod. Lib. Douce MS 256, f. 176); plate 35 (Bod. Lib. Auct. MS T. 2. 27, f. 1); plate 52 (Bod. Lib. Canon. Misc. MS 378, f. 84). Randall (1966) – plate 140 (BL Add. MS 39810, f. 7); plate 278 (BL YT. MS 8, f. 249v); plate 482 (Bod. Lib. Douce MS 366, f. 89); plate 468 (BL Add. MS 42130, f. 160); plate 506 (BL YT. MS 8, f. 213v); plate 557 (BNF Fr. MS 95, f. 61v); plate 627 (BL Roy. MS 2B vii, f. 273). Meiss (1967) – 151 (BNF Lat. MS 18014, ff. 174v, 176v, 181v); 682 (BNF Fr. MS 9141, f. 217v). Payne (1967) – 6 (BL Roy. MS 14 C vii, f. 2); 8 (BL Roy. MS 16 F ii, f. 73); 12 (BL Cott. Aug. MS I. ii, ff. 22-23); 14 (BL Cott. Aug. MS I. Ii, f. 42). Meiss (1968) – 89 (BNF MS 2810, f. 91); 369 (BNF Fr. MS 598, f. 16v); 459 (BNF Fr. MS 159, f. 13). Pacht & Alexander (1970) – plate 10 (Bod. Lib. Canon. Misc. MS 493, f. 266v); plate 11 (Bod. Lib. Tanner MS 190, f. 6.17-18, 20v); plate 50 (Bod. Lib. Canon. Liturg. MS 384, f. 196); plate 66 (Bod. Lib. Latin Liturg. MS A.3, f. 1); plate 66 (Bod. Lib. Latin Liturg. MS A.3, f. 71); plate 75 (Bod. Lib. Canon. Class. Lat. MS 81, f. 16v). Crumlin-Pedersen (1972a) – 196 (plates 12, 13 CUP MS. Ee.3.59; Fitz. Marlay MS Add. I, f. 86); 204 (plates 34, 35 BL Roy. MS 10 E iv, f. 19; Bod. Lib. Douce MS 353, f. 31). McKee (1972) - 238 (plate 4 BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art VI, f. 25); 244 (plate 14 Magd. MS 2820). Pacht & Alexander (1973) – plate ** (Bod. Lib. Lat. Th. MS b.1 (R), f. 4); plate 27 (Bod. Lib. Rawl. B. MS 483, f. 17v); plate 31 (Bod. Lib. Liturg. MS 407, f. 94v); plate 32 (Bod. Lib. Barlow MS 6, f. 155v); plate 32 (Bod. Lib. Bodley MS 602, f. 22v); plate 33 (Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 764); plate 37 (Bod. Lib. Liturg. MS 407, no. 94v); plate 41 (Bod. Lib. Laud. Misc. MS 720, f. 226v); plate 41 (Bod. Lib. Douce MS 167, f. 7v); plate 47 (Bod. Lib. Bod. Rolls 3, rows 4-5); plate 49 (Bod. Lib. Ashmole Rolls 50); plate 72 (Bod. Lib. Hatton MS 1, f. 142); plate 73 (Bod. Lib. Laud. Misc. MS 165, f. 121); plate 75 (Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 264, part 1, f. 1); plate 84 (Bod. Lib. Barlow MS 53 [R], 2nd miniature); plate 85 (Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 263, f. 7); plate 87 (Bod. Lib. Laud. Misc. MS 733, f. 22v). Wormald (1973) – (BL Cott. Nero MS C iv, f. 3). Meiss (1974) – 683 (BNF Fr. MS 247, ff. 25, 49). Sandler (1974) – plate 136 (Magd. MS 5, f. 1); plate 137 (Bod. Lib. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 62, f. 1); plate 172 (Magd. MS 5, f. 9v); plate 173 (Bod. Lib. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 62, f. 9v); plate 258 (Magd. MS 5, f. 31); plate 259 (Bod. Lib. Canon. Bibl. Lat. MS 62, f. 31). Kauffmann (1975) – plate 142 (CCCO MS 157, f. 383); plate 239 (Winchester Bible, f. 5); plate 295 (CCCC MS 22, f. 166). Folda (1976) – plate 54 (BNF Fr. MS 20125, f. 9); plate 74 (BNF Fr. MS 20125); plate 106 (BNF Fr. MS 9084, f. 125v); plate 177 (BNF Fr. MS 2631); plate 197 (BNF Fr. MS 9082, f. 334); plate 201 (BNF Fr. MS 1533, f. 185). Hassall & Hassall (1976) – (Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 270b, f. 10; Ashmole MS 1511, f. 86v; Auct. MS D. inf. 2. 11, f. 59v). Fenwick (1978) – 200 (plate l Bod. Lib. Junius MS 11, f. 66); 209 (plate 8 Trinity MS R. 17. 1); 234 (plates 2-3 CUL MS Ii. 4. 26, f. 54v; BL Harl. MS 4751, f. 69).

Appendix Five - Published Illustrations of Ships and Shipping in Medieval Illuminated Manuscripts

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Backhouse (1979) - 16 (plate 6 BL Harl. MS 603, f. 51v); 49 (plate 39 BL YT. MS 14, f. 7); 55 (plate 45 BL Roy. MS 20 D i, f. 176v); ** (plate 50 BL Kings MS 5, f. 20); 66 (plate 56 BL Harl. MS 2278, f. 41v); 69 (plate 59 BL Harl. MS 4374, f. 88). Villain-Gandossi (1979) – 197 (plate 12.1 BNF Grec. MS 510, f. 3); 198 (plate 12.2 BNF Fr. MS 301, f. 153v); 199 (plate 12.3 BNF Fr. MS 103, f. 1); 201 (plate 12.4 BNF Fr. MS 301, f. 58v); 202 (plate 12.5 BNF Lat. MS 6142, f. 1v); 204 (plate 12.6 BNF Fr. MS 22547, f. 65); 206 (plate 12.7 BNF Lat. MS 1, f. 3v); 207 (plate 12.8 BNF Fr. MS 5594, f. 267v); 208 (plate 12.9 BNF Lat. MS 7239, f. 61v); 211 (plate 12.10 BNF Grec. MS 135, f. 220v); 213 (plate 12.11 BNF Fr. MS 77, f. 386v); 214 (plate 12.12 BNF Fr. MS 2810, f. 263); 215 (plate 12.13 BNF Fr. MS 5594, f. 112); 216 (plate 12.14 BNF Fr. MS 365, f. 89); 218 (plate 12.15 BNF Fr. MS 6465, f. 284v); 220 (plate 12.16 BNF Fr. MS 2810, f. 188v); 221 (plate 12.17 BNF Fr. MS 5594, f. 34v); 222 (plate 12.18 BNF Fr. MS 5594, f. 269v). Marks & Morgan (1981) – (BL YT. MS 26, ff. 26, 71v). Morgan (1982) – plate 140 (BL Harl. MS 5102, f. 129); plate 222 (BL Burn. MS 3, f. 5v); plate 266 (BL Harl. MS 4751, f. 69). Wormald & Giles (1982) – plate 6 (Fitz. Marlay MS Add. I, f. 86); plate 75 (Fitz. MS 86-1972, f. 3v); plate 83 (Fitz. MS 2-1958, f. 2v). Turner (1983) – 54 (BL Add. MS 54782, f. 54); 126 (BL Add. MS 54782, f. 126). Villain-Gandossi (1985a) – plate 1 (Bib. Ars. MS 5070, f. 91v); plate 2 (BNF Fr. MS 101, f. 349); plate 3 (BNF Fr. MS 12420, f. 31); plate 4 (BNF Fr. MS 14969, f. 42v); plate 5 (Bib. Ars. MS 630, f. 15v); plate 6 (Bib. Ars. MS 630, f. 61v); plate 7 (Bib. Ars. MS 630, f. 90v); plate 8 (Bib. Ars. MS 1186, f. 13v); plate 9 (Bib. Ars. MS 5070, f. 51v); plate 10 (Bib. Ars. MS 5070, f. 60v); plate 11 (Bib. Ars. MS 5086, f. 30); plate 12 (Bib. Ars. MS 5090, f. 86); plate 13 (Bib. Ars. MS 5187, f. 21); plate 14 (Bib. Ars. MS 5187, f. 59); plate 15 (BNF Grec. MS 54, f. 124v); plate 16 (BNF Grec. MS 135, f. 220); plate 17 (BNF Grec. MS 510, f. 3); plate 18 (BNF Grec. MS 2736, f. 2); plate 19 (BNF Grec. MS 2736, f. 51v); plate 20 (BNF Lat. MS 1, f. 3v); plate 21 (BNF Lat. MS 5565A, f. 101); plate 22 (BNF Lat. MS 6067, f. 82); plate 23 (BNF Lat. MS 6142, f. 2v); plate 24 (BNF Lat. MS 7234, f. 104v); plate 25 (BNF Lat. MS 7236, f. 170); plate 26 (BNF Lat. MS 7239, f.24); plate 27 (BNF Lat. MS 7239, f. 1v); plate 28 (BNF Lat. MS 7239, f. 104); plate 29 (BNF Lat. MS 7239, f. 108); plate 30 (BNF Lat. MS 8846, f. 82v); plate 31 (BNF Lat. MS 9661, f. 123v); plate 32 (BNF Lat. MS 10136, f. 7); plate 33 (BNF Lat. MS 10136, f. 105v); plate 34 (BNF Lat. MS 10136, f. 108); plate 35 (BNF Lat. MS 1673, f. 87); plate 36 (BNF Lat. MS 1673, f. 97v); plate 37 (BNF Fr. MS 53, f. 142); plate 38 (BNF Fr. MS 54, f. 160v); plate 39 (BNF Fr. MS 59, f. 308); plate 40 (BNF Fr. MS 77, f. 386v); plate 41 (BNF Fr. MS 100, f. 109); plate 42 (BNF Fr. MS 102, f. 1); plate 43 (BNF Fr. MS 103, f. 1); plate 44 (BNF Fr. MS 124, f. 1); plate 45 (BNF Fr. MS 257, f. 39v); plate 46 (BNF Fr. MS 301, f. 58v); plate 47 (BNF Fr. MS 301, f. 153v); plate 48 (BNF Fr. MS 365, f. 89); plate 49 (BNF Fr. MS 366, f. 114v); plate 50 (BNF Fr. MS 874, f. 145); plate 51 (BNF Fr. MS 874, f. 182); plate 52 (BNF Fr. MS 875, f. 71v); plate 53 (BNF Fr. MS 990, f. 2); plate 54 (BNF Fr. MS 1436, f. 133); plate 55 (BNF Fr. MS 1454, f. 1); plate 56 (BNF Fr. MS 2643, f. 42v); plate 57 (BNF MS Fr. 2644, f. 85); plate 58 (BNF MS Fr. 2644, f. 154v); plate 59 (BNF MS Fr. 2810, f. 14v); plate 60 (BNF Fr. MS 2810, f. 28); plate 61 (BNF Fr. MS 2810, f. 73v); plate 62 (BNF Fr. MS 2810, f. 188v); plate 63 (BNF Fr. MS 2810, f.263); plate 64 (BNF Fr. MS 2829, f. 8); plate 65 (BNF Fr. MS 4274, f. 6); plate 66 (BNF Fr. MS 5594, f. 34v); plate 67 (BNF Fr. MS 5594, f. 112); plate 68 (BNF Fr. MS 5594, f. 232); plate 69 (BNF Fr. MS 5594, f. 267v); plate 70 (BNF Fr. MS 5594, f. 269v); plate 71 (BNF Fr. MS 6275, f. 4); plate 72 (BNF Fr. MS 6440, f.

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163); plate 73 (BNF Fr. MS 6446, f. 128v); plate 74 (BNF Fr. MS 6465, f. 284v); plate 75 (BNF Fr. MS 12566, f. 1); plate 76 (BNF Fr. MS 22540, f. 59); plate 77 (BNF Fr. MS 22547, f. 65); plate 78 (BNF Fr. MS 22547, f. 242). Villain-Gandossi (1985b) – 108 (plate 11.9 BNF Fr. MS 25374, f. 28v). Hallam (1986) – 111 (BL Loan MS 88, f. 4v); 215 (BNF Fr. MS 22495, f. 21); 218 (BNF Fr. MS 2824, f. 80v); 241 (BNF Fr. MS 2090-92). Sandler (1986) – plate 50 (BL Add. Roll 14819). Hallam (1987) – 35 (BL Roy. MS 14 C vii, f. 116v); 69 (CCCC MS 16, f. 55v); 83 (BNF Fr. MS 2810, f. 14v); 91 (BNF Fr. MS 2829, f. 18); 94 (BNF Fr. MS 2829, f. 32v); 139 (BNF Fr. MS 2643, f. 72; BNF Fr. MS 4274, f. 6); 147 (BNF Fr. MS 2810, f. 86v); 193 (BNF Fr. MS 2092, f. 22v); 194 (BNF Fr. MS 2092, f. 111; BNF Fr. MS 2092, f. 37v); 195 (BNF Fr. MS 2092, ff. 1, 42); 201 (BL Roy. MS 10 E iv, f. 19); 211 (BL Roy. MS 16 F ii, f. 73); 218 (BNF Fr. MS 2824, f. 80v); 239 (BL Roy. MS 18 E i, f. 103v); 245 (BNF Fr. MS 2643, f. 72); 282-83 (Bod. Lib. Laud. Misc. MS 587, f. 1); 285 (BNF Fr. MS 2091, f. 99). Lewis (1987) – plate I (CCCC MS 16, f. 52); plate II (CCCC MS 16, f. 42v); figure 14 (CCCO MS 157, f. 383); figure 116 (CCCC MS 16, f. 46v); figure 125 (CCCC MS 16, f. 75v); figure 164 (CCCC MS 16, f. 146); figure 173 (CCCC MS 16, f. 55v); figure 185 (CCCC MS 16, f. 160v); figure 214 (CCCC MS 26, f. 3v); figure 215 (CCCC MS 26, f. 4); figure 217 (BL Roy. MS 14 C vii, f. 4v); figure 218 (BL Roy. MS 14 C vii, f. 5). Thorp (1987) – 32 (GUL Hunter. MS 398, f. 1v); 42 (GUL Hunter. MS 370, f. 253); 61 (GUL Hunter. MS 279, f. 45v); 64 (GUL Hunter. MS 229, f. 13v); 118 (GUL Hunter. MS 398, f. 1v) 128 (GUL Hunter. MS Bq. 2.11, f. 1v); 130 (GUL SMM MS 2, f. 11); 139 (GUL Hunter. MS 370, f. 253); 140 (GUL Hunter. MS 41, f. 1); 171 (GUL Hunter. MS 220, f. 6); 197 (GUL Hunter. MS Ds. 2.3, plate D); 199 (GUL Hunter. MS Be. 1.10, f. 168). Throckmorton (1987) – 141 (BL Roy. MS 10 E iv, f. 19); 142 (Magd. MS 2991, f. 6); 147 (Magd. MS 2820); 211 (BL Roy. MS 16 F ii, f. 73). Baker (1988) – 29 (BL Roy. MS 14 C vii, f. 4v); 48 (BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art 6, f. 18v); 93 (BL Harl. MS 603, f. 54v). Hallam (1988) – 29 (BL Roy. MS 14 E iv, f. 23); 43 (BL Roy. MS 14 E iv, f. 195); 49 (BL Roy. MS 20 C vii, f. 214v); 89 (BL Harl. MS 4380, f. 181v); 129 (BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art 6, f. 18v); 145 (BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art 6, f. 12); 188 (BL Roy. MS 16 F ii, f. 73); 209 (BNF Fr. MS 5054, f. 216); 211 (BNF Fr. MS 9087, f. 207v). Morgan (1988) – plate 3 (BNF Lat. MS 8846, f. 3v); plate 120 (CUL MS Ee. 3.59, f. 9); plate 121 (CUL MS Ee. 3.59, f. 12); plate 146 (BL Add. MS 42555, f. 5); plate 165 (Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 4.17, f. 1v); plate 218 (Trinity MS R. 14. 9, f. 29); plate 233 (DCL MS A. 2. 10, f. 155); plate 242 (Fitz. McClean MS 44, f. 33); plate 238 (JCO MS Q. A. II, f. 143v); plate 249 (BL Add. MS 50000, f. 10); plate 322 (BL Add. MS 21926, f. 97v). Basing (1990) – 54 (27 BL Eg. MS 1065, f. 116v); 55 (28 BL Add. MS 15677, f.8); 55 (29 BL Harl. MS 2278, f. 16v); 57 (30 BL Add. MS 17341, f. 153); 58 (31 BL Add. MS 29433, f. 2). Payne (1990) – 74 (BL Slo. MS 2544, f. 28v); 75 (BL Slo. MS 278, f. 42; BL Roy. MS 2B vii, f. 97); 92 (BL Cott. Vesp. MS A vii, f. 6); 93 (BL Eg. MS 613, f. 33v; BL Slo. MS 278, f. 51; BL Slo. MS 3544, f. 42v); 94 (BL Roy. MS 2B vii, f. 111); 95 (BL Harl. MS 4751, f. 69). Collins & Davis (1991) – 34 (V&A MS L 475 1918, f. 64); 43 (BL Add. MS 35313, f. 3v); 51 (BL Roy. MS 14 E vi, f. 270); 53 (BL Add. MS 19720, f. 27); 77 (BL Add. MS 38126, f. 7); 102-03 (BL Cott. Aug. MS A v, f. 345); 137 (BNF Fr. MS 6185, f. 51).

The Illuminated Ark

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Unger (1991) – 173 (5 Bod. Lib. Junius MS 11, f. 65); 174 (6 BL Cott. Claud. MS B iv, f. 10); 189 (30 St. John’s MS 231, f. 7); 191 (32 BL Add. MS 39810, f. 7); 193 (35-37 BL Roy. MS 2B vii, ff. 6-6v); 194 (38-39 BL Add. MS 47680, ff. 7-7v); 195 (40 BL Eg. MS 1984, f. 2v); 200 (47 BL Add. MS 15268, f. 7v); 209 (62 BL Add. MS 18850, f. 15v); 216 (76 Magd. MS 2820). Alexander (1992) – plate 194 (JRUL French MS 1, f. 226); plate 195 (BL Roy. MS 14 E iii, f. 153v); plate 196 (BL Add. MS 10294, f. 65v); plate 230 (BNF Fr. MS 301, f. 25); plate 231 (BL Roy. MS 20 D i, f. 26v). Camille (1992) – 8 (69 BNF Fr. MS 2091, f .111); 124 (66 BL YT. MS 14, f. 7); 128 (BNF Fr. MS 2091, f. 111). Avril & Reynaud (1993) – 29 (plate 5 BNF Lat. MS 1156 B, f. 174); 66 (plate 27 BNF Fr. MS 730, f. 6); 75 (plate 32 Bib. Ars. MS 5070, f. 51v); 111 (plate 54 BNF Lat. MS 4915,f. 46v); 133 (plate 68A BL Add. MS 37421); 141 (plate 71 BNF Fr. MS 247, f. 135v); 168 (plate 89 BNF Fr. MS 2685, f. 159); 179 (plate 96 BNF Fr. MS 8266, f. 53); 201 (plate 111 BNF Lat. MS 8200, f. 49v); 254 (plate 139 Bib. Ars. MS 412, f. 1); 272 (plate 148 BNF Fr. MS 2829, f. 47v); 364 (plate 205 BNF Fr. MS 10420, f. 1v); 374 (plate 215 BNF Lat. MS 10491, f. 166v). De Hamel (1994) – 133 (BL YT. MS 36, f. 65); 145 (Trinity MS O. 9. 34, f. 5); 153 (BL Add. MS 24189, f. 8v); 189 (JRUL Lat. MS 164, f. 254v). Hutchinson (1994) – 12 (1.5 CCCO MS 157, f. 383); 51 (3.2 BL Loan MS 88, f. 4v); 54 (3.4 BL Add. MS 42130, f. 161v); 55 (3.5 BNF Fr. MS 101, f. 349); 90 (5.1 BL Slo. MS 3983, f. 13); 92 (5.3 BNF Fr. MS 2091-92, f. 125); 95 (5.5 BNF Fr. MS 2810, f. 86v); 119 (7.2 BL Harl Roll Y6, roundel 4); 126 (7.7 BL Add. MS 54782, f. 54); 134 (8.3 BL MS 2B vii, f. 73); 147 (9.1 CCCC MS 16, f. 55v); 148 (9.2 Fitz. Marlay Add. MS I, f. 86); 155 (9.5 BL Roy. MS 10 E iv, f. 19); 158 (9.7 BL Cott. Jul. MS E4 iv, art VI, f. 18); 161 (9.8 BNF Fr. MS 2829, f. 32v). Runyan (1994) – 51 (BNF Fr. MS 2810, f. 263; BL Roy. MS 10 E iv, f. 19); 52 (BL Roy. MS 14 E iv, f. 276v); 53 (BL Harl. MS 4379, f. 60v); 54 (BNF Fr. MS 2643, f. 72); 55 (BL Harl. MS 1319, f. 14v); 57 (BNF Fr. MS 38, f. 157v); 58 (BNF Fr. MS 5594, f. 112). Villain-Gandossi (1994) – 169 (BNF Grec. MS 510, f. 3); 173 (BNF Fr. MS 1454, f. 1); 176 (BNF Fr. MS 25374, f. 28v). Friel (1995) – front jacket (Fitz. Marlay Add. MS I, f. 86); back jacket (BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art VI, f. 25); frontispiece (BL Cott. Titus MS A xxvi); 14 (figure 1.1 BL Loan MS 88, f. 4v); 28 (figure 2.1 BL Roy. MS 2B vii, f. 73); 37 (figure 2.4 CCCO MS 157, f. 383); 58 (figure 3.11 St John’s MS 231, f. 7); 60 (figure 3.12 BL Add. MS 18850, f. 15); 61 (figure 3.13-14 BL Roy. MS 15 D iii, f. 12; BL Roy. 15 MS E iv, f. 57v); 89 (figure 5.3 BL Add. MS 47682, f. 24); 93 (figure 5.4 Bod. Auct. MS D. 4.17, f. 2v); 110 (figure 5.9 BL Add. MS 10290, f. 77v); 122 (figure 6.2 BL Roy. MS 2B vii, f. 6v); 135 (figure 7.2 BL Cott. Tib. MS A viii, f. 81); 137 (figure 7.3 MS Roy. MS 16 I i, f. 9); 138 (figure 7.4 Bod. Bod. MS 401, f. 55v); 140 (figure 8.1 Fitz. Marlay Add. MS I, f. 86); 142 (figure 8.2 BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art VI, f. 18v); 143 (figure 8.3 BL Roy. MS 10 E iv, f. 19); 144 (figure 8.4 BNF Fr. MS 2643, f. 393); 145 (figure 8.5 BL Add. MS 10290, f. 118); 154 (figure 8.7 BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art VI, f. 25); 165 (figure 9.5 BNF Lat. MS 5565A, f. 101); 167 (figure 9.7 BL Cott. Titus MS A xxvi). Greenhill (1995a) – 39-42 (figures 9.1-9.4 BNF Fr. MS 5594); 89 (figures 26.6-26.7 BL Harl. MS 1319, ff. 14, 18); 92 (figure 27.1 Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 264, art 3, f. 218); 100 (figure 28.1 BNF Fr. MS 2643, f. 7); 105 (figures 29.1-29.3 BNF Fr. MS 2643, f. 72); 106 (figure 30 BNF Fr. MS 2643); 117 (figure 32.2 BNF Fr. MS 2810); 119 (figure 32.5 BL Cott. Dom. MS A xvii, f. 123); 120 (figure 32.6 Fitz. Marlay Add. MS I, f. 86); 121 (figure 32.7 BNF

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Fr. MS 2643, f. 72); 126 (figure 33.1-33.5 BL Slo. MS 3983); 144 (figure 37.1 BNF Fr. MS 2810, f. 263); 190 (figures 48.1-48.6 BNF Lat. MS 6142, ff. 1, 2v); 197 (figures 49.1-49.2 BL MS e.III.J); 199 (figures 49.3-49.4 BL MS e.III.J); 201 (figures 49.549.7 BL MS e.III.J); 215 (figures 54.2-54.5 BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art 6, ff. 18v, 25); 226 (figure 57.1 BL Lands. MS 285); 228 (figure 57.2 BL Lands. MS 285). Scott (1996) – plate 12 (JRUL English MS 1, f. 23); plate 33 (BL Cott. Nero MS A x, f. 60); plate 61 (Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 264, f. 1); plate 334 (BL Harl. MS 4205, f. 1); plate 356 (CCCC MS 171, f. 35v); plate 369 (Soc. Antiq. MS General Table 501, membrane 3); plate 374 (Bod. Lib. Laud. Misc. MS 733, f. 18); plate 468 (BL Harl. MS 326, f. 29v); plate 495 (BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art 6, f. 5). Backhouse (1997) – 25 (BL Roy. MS 2 B ix, f. 2); 57 (BL Roy. MS 18 D ii, f. 151v); 77 (BL Roy. MS 14 C vii, f. 116v); 98 (BL Add. MS 17341, f. 123v); 103 (BL YT. MS 8, f. 249v); 104 (BL Add. MS 17333, f. 11); 108 (BL Cott. Claud. MS D ii, f. 45v); 126 (BL Eg. MS 1894, f. 4); 132 (BL YT. MS 31, f. 43); 138 (BL Eg. MS 2709, f. 2); 145 (BL Add. MS 24189, f. 4v); 153 (BL Cott. Dom. MS A xvii, f. 123); 157 (BL Add. MS 35311, f. 348v); 158 (BL Harl. MS 4431, f. 112v); 169 (BL Add. MS 18850, f. 15v); 187 (BL Add. MS 37421); 195 (BL Roy. MS 14 E iv, f. 36); 197 (BL Add. MS 54782, f. 126); 203 (BL Add. MS 38126, f. 79v); 222 (BL Add. MS 35254, f. 4); 228 (BL Roy. MS 11 E xi, f. 2). Bill et al (1997) – (BL Loan MS 88, f. 4v; CCCO MS 157, f. 383; Fitz. Marlay Add. MS I, f. 86; BL Harl. MS 4751, f. 69; Bod. Lib. Douce MS 353, f. 31). Rogers (1999) – 145 (BL Roy. MS 20 C viii, f. 137). Knighton & Loades (2000) – 40-61 (Magd. MS 2991, pp. 2-3, 6-7, 10-11, 14-15, 18-19, 22-23, 26-27, 30-31, 34-35, 38-39, 42-43); 64-79 (BL Add. MS 22047, membranes 1-6); 82-106 (Magd. MS 2991, pp. 54-55, 58-59, 62-63, 66-67, 70-71, 74-75, 78-79, 82-83, 86-87, 90-91, 94-95, 98-99). Porter (2000) – 35 (BL Roy. MS 16 G viii, f. 189); 39 (BL Roy. MS 15 E vi, f. 207); 40 (BL Harl. MS 4418, f. 80v); 41 (BL Roy. MS 16 G viii, f. 317). Rose (2002) – 77 (plate 1 Bod. Douce MS 353, f. 31); 79 (plate 3 BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art VI, f. 18).

A number of authors who are extremely knowledgeable about medieval ships and shipping also discuss specific manuscripts and/or illuminations of vessels while not necessarily including an actual depiction. Some of these are listed below:     

   175

Crumlin-Pedersen (1972a) – 196 (Fitz. Marlay Add. MS I, f. 86); 204 (Bod. Lib. Douce MS 353, f. 31; BL Roy. MS 10 E iv, f. 19). McKee (1972) – 238 (BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art VI, f. 18v); 244 (Magd. MS 2820). Fenwick (1978) – 200 (Bod. Lib. Junius MS 11, f. 66); 209 (Trinity MS R 17. 1); 234-35 (CUL MS Ii. IV. 26; BL Harl. MS 4751, f. 69); 250 (BNF Fr. MS 2092, f. 18v). Throckmorton (1987) – 141 (BL Roy. MS 10 E iv, f. 19); 147 (Magd. MS 2820). Unger (1991) – 44-45 (Bod. Lib. Junius MS 11, f. 66); 45 (BL Cott. Claud. MS B iv); 48 (BNF Fr. MS 9, f. 13); 66 (JRUL Fr. MS 5, f. 13v); 71-72 (Bod. Lib. Canon. Liturg. MS 393); 78-79 (St John’s MS 231, f. 7v); 79-80 (BL Add. MS 39810, f. 7); 80-81 (Bib. Ars. MS 5059, f. 12v); 81-82 (BL Roy. MS 2B vii, ff. 6v, 73); 82-83 (BL Add. MS 47680, f. 7-7v); 83-84 (BL Eg. MS 1894, f. 2v); 95-96 (BL Add. MS 15268, f. 7v); 121-22 (BL Add. MS 18850, ff. 15-15v). Bill (1994) – 156 (BL Add. MS 18850, ff. 15-15v). Dotson (1994) – 160 (BL Cott. Titus MS A xxvi, f. 48v). Friel (1994) – 79 (BL Cott. Tib. MS A vii, f. 81); 79, 83 (Magd. MS 2820); 84 (BL Cott. Titus MS A xxvi, f. 48v).

Appendix Five - Published Illustrations of Ships and Shipping in Medieval Illuminated Manuscripts

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Guilmartin (1994) – 142 (BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art VI, f. 18v). Hutchinson (1994) – 12 (CCCO MS 157, f. 383); 43 (BNF Fr. MS 5594, ff. 34, 109, 112, 211, 217); 51 (BL Loan MS 88, f. 4v); 54 (BL Add. MS 42130, f. 161v); 55 (BNF Fr. MS 101, f. 349); 90 (BL Slo. MS 3983); 92 (BNF Fr. MS 2091-92, f. 125); 95 (BNF Fr. MS 2810, ff. 86v, 263); 118 (BL Cott. Claud. MS D vi, f. 12v); 119 (BL Harl Roll Y6, roundel 4); 126 (BL Add. MS 54782, f. 54); 134 (BL Roy. MS 2B vii, ff. 6v, 73); 147–48 (CCCC MS 16, f. 5555v); 155 (BL Roy. MS 10 E iv, f. 19); 158 (BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art VI, f. 18v); 161 (BNF Fr. MS 2829, f. 32v). Phillips (1994) – 102 (Magd. MS 2820). Runyan (1994) – 51 (BL Roy. MS 10 E iv, f. 19; BNF Fr. MS 2810, ff. 86v, 263); 52 (BL Roy. MS 14 E iv, f. 276); 53 (BL Harl. MS 4379, f. 115); 54 (BNF Fr. MS 2643, ff. 7, 118, 393); 55 (BL Harl. MS 1319, ff. 14, 18); 57 (BNF Fr. MS 38, f. 157v); 58 (BNF Fr. MS 5594, ff. 34, 109, 112, 211, 217). Villain-Gandossi (1994) – 169 (BNF Grec. MS 510, f. 3); 171 (BNF Fr. MS 1454, f. 1); 174 (BNF Fr. MS 25374, f. 28v). Friel (1995) – 14 (BL Loan MS 88, ff. 4-4v); 28 (BL Roy. MS 2B vii, ff. 6v, 73); 37 (CCCO MS 157, f. 383); 59 (St John’s MS 231, f. 7v); 61 (BL Add. MS 18850, ff. 15-15v; BL Roy. MS 15 D iii, f. 12; BL Roy. MS 15 E4 iv, f. 57v); 89 (BL Add. MS 47682, f. 24); 92 (Bod. Lib. Auct. MS D. 4.17, f 2v); 111 (BL Add. MS 10290, ff. 77v, 118); 123 (BL Roy. MS 2B vii, ff. 6v, 73); 135 (BL Cott. Tib. MS A vii, f. 81); 137 (BL Roy. MS 16 G i, f. 9); 138 (Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 401, f. 55v); 140 (Fitz. Marlay Add. MS I, f. 86); 143 (BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art VI, f. 18v; BL Roy. MS 10 E iv, f. 19); 144 (BNF Fr. MS 2643, ff. 7, 118, 393); 145 (BL Add. MS 10290, ff. 77v, 118); 154 (BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art VI, f. 18v); 164 (BNF Lat. MS 5565A, f. 101) Greenhill (1995b) – 39-42 (BNF Fr. MS 5594, ff. 34, 109, 112, 211, 217); 56 (BL Harl Roll Y6, roundel 4); 59-60 (CCCC MS 16, f. 55-55v); 81 (BL Roy. MS 2B vii, ff. 6v, 73); 86 (BL Cott. Jul. MS E iv, art 6, f. 18v); 87-90 (BL Harl. MS 1319, ff. 14, 18); 91 (Bod. Lib. Bod. MS 264, part 3, f. 218); 95 (BL Add. MS 532, ff. 34, 41); 95 (BL MS C47, h.13); 101-02 (BNF Fr. MS 2810, ff. 86v, 263); 106-08 (BNF Fr. MS 2643, ff. 7, 118, 393); 114 (Bod. Lib. Auct. MS 4.17, f 2v; Fitz. Marlay Add. MS I, f. 86; BL Harl. MS 1319, ff. 14, 18; BNF Fr. MS 403; BNF Fr. MS 2810, ff. 86v, 263; BNF Fr. MS 5594, ff. 34, 109, 112, 211, 217); 115 (BNF Fr. MS 2643, ff. 7, 118, 393); 120 (BL Cott. Dom. MS A xvii); 125-27 (BL Slo. MS 3983); 144-46 (BNF Fr. MS 2810, ff. 86v, 263); 17576 (BL Harl. MS 4379, f. 115); 180 (BL Eg. MS 2709); 189-95 (BNF Lat. MS 6142, f .1); 196-210 (BL MS E. III. J); 225-32 (BL Lans. MS 285).

176

The Illuminated Ark

Figure 1: British Library Harley MS 4751, f. 69 (whole folio) – Bestiary and Moralised Natural History, English (Christ Church Canterbury or Salisbury?), 12 th to 14th century (c. 1230-40 or c. 1300); The whale (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

177

Plates

Figure 2: Corpus Christi College, Oxford MS 157, f. 383 (detail) – Chronicle of John of Worcester, English, early 12th century (c. 1118-40); Nightmare of King Henry I of England; Henry returns to England (By permission of the President and Fellows of Corpus Christi College, Oxford)

Figure 3: British Library Additional MS 42130, f. 161v (detail) – The Luttrell Psalter, England (East Anglia), mid 14th century (c. 1325 -35); Psalm 88, lower margin, a ship of war filled with soldiers (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved) 178

The Illuminated Ark

Figure 4: Fitzwilliam Museum Marlay Additional MS I, f. 86 (miniature only) – Vegetius’s De Re Militari, English, later 13th century (c. 1270); Two Nordic ships fighting at sea (By the kind permission of the Syndics of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge)

179

Plates

Figure 5: Bodleian Library Bodley MS 264, part 3, f. 218 (miniature only) – Li Livres du Graunt Caam, with miniatures by Johannes and his school, English, 14 th to 15th century (c. 1400); Birds-eye view of Venice (By kind permission of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford)

180

The Illuminated Ark

Figure 6: British Library Egerton MS 1894, f. 4 (whole folio) – The Egerton Genesis, English or French, late 14th century; Noah’s ark (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

181

Plates

Figure 7: BNF Francais MS 2643, f. 72 (miniature only) – Froissart’s Chronicles, French, 15 th century; The battle of Sluys (24th June 1340) (By permission of the Bibliothèque nationale de France)

Figure 8: Bodleian Library Douce MS 208, f. 120v (miniature only) – Caesar’s Commentaries and de Bello Gallico, translated by Jean Ducheshe, Flemish, later 15 th century (after 1474); A barge being loaded by a water gate (By kind permission of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford) 182

The Illuminated Ark

Figure 9: John Rylands University Library English MS 1, f. 23 (detail of bottom right-hand corner of folio) – The Troy Book, translated by John Lydgate, English (London?), mid 15th century (c. 14 40-50); Jason and Medea sail away from the island of Colchis (Reproduced by courtesy of the University Librarian and Director, the John Rylands University Library, University of Manchester)

Figure 10: British Library Royal MS 15 E iv, f. 36 (detail) – Jean de Wavrin’s Chronicles of England, made for King Edward IV of England, Flemish (Bruges), late 15 th century (c. 1461-83); The ships of Brutus by his camp on the Loire (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved) 183

Plates

Figure 11: British Library Royal MS 15 E iv, f. 57v (detail) – Jean de Wavrin’s Anchiennes et Nouvelles Chroniques d’ Angleterre, Flemish (Bruges), later 15th century (c. 1470-80); Shipwrights building Caesar’s fleet (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

Figure 12: Glasgow University Library Hunterian MS 398, f. 1v (upper half of folio) – Apocalypse, French (Provencal), late 15th century (c. 1480); St John in exile on the island of Patmos (By the kind permission of the Department of Special Collections, Glasgow University Library) 184

The Illuminated Ark

Figure 13: BNF Francais MS 2829, f. 32 (whole folio) – Le Livre des Faiz Monseigneur Saint Loys, French (Vers), later 15 th century (c. 1482); King Louis IX f France (St. Louis) departing for the Crusades (By permission of the Bibliothèque nationale de France) 185

Plates

Figure 14: BNF Francais MS 2829, f. 47v (whole folio) – Le Livre des Faiz Monseigneur Saint Loys, French (Vers), later 15 th century (c. 1482); King Louis IX of France (St. Louis) and his wife Marguerite de Provence board a ship (By permission of the Bibliothèque nationale de France) 186

The Illuminated Ark

Figure 15: BNF Latin MS 10491, f. 166v (whole folio) – Diurnal de Rene II de Lorraine, French (Lorraine), late 15 th century (c. 1492-93); Jonah is thrown from a vessel to the whale (By permission of the Bibliothèque nationale de France) 187

Plates

Figure 16: Bodleian Library Douce MS 353, f. 31 (miniature only) – Romance of the Destruction of Troy, French, later 15th century; [top right] equipping of the Argo; [bottom] Jason recovers the golden fleece (By kind permission of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford)

188

The Illuminated Ark

Figure 17: British Library Royal MS 16 F ii, f. 73 (miniature only) – The Poems of Charles d’Orleans, intended for King Edward IV of England, Flemish or English, 15th to 16 th century (c. 1500); The Tower of London, with London bridge behind; Charles, Duke of Orleans, is seen writing, standing at a window and dispatching a letter in the courtyard (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

189

Plates

Figure 18: Bodleian Library Junius MS 11, f. 66 (detail) – Anglo-Saxon poetry on Old Testament subjects (the ‘Caedmon’ manuscript), English (Christ Church, Canterbury), 10 th to 11 th century (c. 1000); Noah boards the ark (By kind permission of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford) 190

The Illuminated Ark

Figure 19: British Library Harlerian Roll Y6, Roundel 4 (detail) – The Legend and Life of St Guthlac of Croyland, English, late 12th or early 13 th century (c. 1210?); Tatwin conveys Guthlac by boat to Crowland (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

Figure 20: British Library Royal MS 13 B viii, f. 29 (detail of lower margin) – Gerald of Wales’ Topographia Hibernica, English (Lincoln?), early 13th century (c. 1220); Two Arran islanders in a coracle (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved) 191

Plates

Figure 21: British Library Yates Thompson MS 26, f. 26 (whole folio) – Bede’s Life and Miracles of St Cuthbert, English (Durham), 12th to 13th century (c. 1200); St. Cuthbert and two of the brethren sail to the land of the Picts (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved) 192

The Illuminated Ark

Figure 22: Bodleian Library Ashmole MS 1511, f. 86v (miniature only) – The Ashmole Bestiary, English (Peterborough?), early 13th century; The whale (By kind permission of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford)

193

Plates

Figure 23: Bodleian Library Auctarian MS D 4.17, f. 1v (detail of miniature) – Apocalypse, English, mid 13 th century (c. 1250-60); Scenes from the life of St. John – St. John boards a boat on route to his exile the island of Patmos (By kind permission of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford)

Figure 24: Bodleian Library Auctarian MS D 4.17, f. 3 (detail of miniature) – Apocalypse, English, mid 13 th century (c. 1250-60); Scenes from the life of St John- a boatman pushes off from shore (By kind permission of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford). 194

The Illuminated Ark

Figure 25: British Library Additional MS 15268, f. 136v (miniature only) – Universal History, illuminated in the Byzantine style, Italian or Levantine (Acre?), mid 13th century (c. 1225-75-85 or later); A naval battle between the fleets of Crete and Athens (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved).

Figure 26: Bodleian Library Bodley MS 602, f. 22v (detail)– Bestiary, English (St Albans?), mid 13th century; The whale (By kind permission of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford).

195

Plates

Figure 27: Bodleian Library Bodley MS 764, f. 107 (miniature only) – Bestiary, English, mid 13 th century; Sirens attack a ship (By kind permission of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford).

Figure 28: Bodleian Library Douce MS 366, f. 89 (miniature in initial S) – The Ormesby Psalter, English (Norwich?), late 13 th or early 14th century (c. 1300-1330?); The broken-masted boat of Jonah (By kind permission of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford). 196

The Illuminated Ark

Figure 29: Bodleian Library Bodley MS 764, f. 74v (miniature only) – Bestiary, English, mid 13 th century; The whale (By kind permission of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford). 197

Plates

Figure 30: British Library Royal MS 14 C vii, f. 116v (detail of upper left margin) – Matthew Paris’ Historia Anglorum and Chronica Majora, English (St Albans), mid 13 th century (c. 1250-90); King Henry III of England sailing across the English Channel to Brittany (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved).

198

The Illuminated Ark

Figure 31: Cambridge University Library MS Ee. 3. 59, f. 8v (detail of miniature) – Life of Edward the Confessor, English (Westminster?), mid 13 th century (c. 1255 -60); Edward receives a letter announcing Harthacnut's death, and sails back to England (By permission of the Syndics of Cambridge University Library)

Figure 32: Cambridge University Library MS Ee. 3. 59, f. 12v (detail of miniature) – Life of Edward the Confessor, English (Westminster?), mid 13 th century (c. 1255 -60); While at mass, Edward has a vision of the drowning of the Danish king, and reports his vision to his nobles (By permission of the Syndics of Cambridge University Library) 199

Plates

Figure 33: Cambridge University Library MS Ee. 3. 59, f. 14 (detail of miniature) – Life of Edward the Confessor, English (Westminster?), mid 13 th century (c. 1255 -60); Two English bishops travel to Rome by sea (By permission of the Syndics of Cambridge University Library)

Figure 34: Cambridge University Library MS Ee. 3. 59, f. 17v (detail of miniature) – Life of Edward the Confessor, English (Westminster?), mid 13 th century (c. 1255 -60); St Peter appears in a vision to a fisherman on a boat near Westminster (By permission of the Syndics of Cambridge University Library)

200

The Illuminated Ark

Figure 35: Cambridge University Library MS Ee. 3. 59, f. 18v (detail of miniature) – Life of Edward the Confessor, English (Westminster?), mid 13 th century (c. 1255 -60); St Peter, appearing in a vision to a fisherman on a boat near Westminster, helps to draw up a net containing two salmon (By permission of the Syndics of Cambridge University Library)

Figure 36: Cambridge University Library MS Ee. 3. 59, f. 31 (detail of miniature) – Life of Edward the Confessor, English (Westminster?), mid 13 th century (c. 1255 -60); The landing of King Harald Hardrada near York (By permission of the Syndics of Cambridge University Library)

201

Plates

Figure 37: British Library Additional MS 10294, f. 65v (miniature) – La Mort le Roi Arturs, French, early 14 th century (c. 1316); Arthur and his knights find a barge containing the dead body of Elaine, the Maid of Astolat (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

Figure 38: British Library Cotton Claudius MS D ii, f. 45v (detail) – Legal Compilation, English (London), early 14th century (c. 1321); The wreck of the White Ship, in which Henry I’s son William was drowned (By permission of the British Library , All Rights Reserved) 202

The Illuminated Ark

Figure 39: British Library Additional MS 47682, f. 7v (whole folio) – Illustrated Bible (the Holk ham Picture Book), English (Holkham, Norfolk), early 14th century (c.1327-35); Noah builds and then boards the ark with his family (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

203

Plates

Figure 40: British Library Additional MS 47682, f.22 (whole folio) – Illustrated Bible (the Holkham Picture Book), English (Holkham, Norfolk), early 14 th century (c.1327-35); [Top]: two boats, one with Peter and Andrew, the other with James and John, steer towards Christ; [Bottom]: Christ is shown first at the prow of the boat, facing the crowd and bidding them to repent, and again facing the stern telling Peter to fish (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

204

The Illuminated Ark

Figure 41: British Library Additional MS 42130, f. 160 (whole folio) – The Luttrell Psalter, England (East Anglia), mid 14 th century (c. 1325-35); Psalm 88, with marginal decoration including a boat being pulled by two men (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved) 205

Plates

Figure 42: Bodleian Library Bodley MS 401, f. 55v (miniature only) – Apocalypse, English, mid 14th century; Merchants await the arrival of their ships (By kind permission of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford)

Figure 43: BNF Francais MS 4274, f. 6 (lower third of folio) – Statutes de l‘Ordre et Status de Forde du Saint Esprit, French, mid 14 th century (c. 1352); French troops depart by ship for the Crusades (By permission of the Bibliothèque nationale de France) 206

The Illuminated Ark

Figure 44: John Rylands University Library French MS 1, f. 226 (miniature only) – Arthurian Romances, French, 14th century; The Damsel of Escalot asleep on board a ship (Reproduced by courtesy of the University Librarian and Director, the John Rylands University Library, University of Manchester)

Figure 45: British Library Royal MS 2 B vii, f. 73 (miniature only) – Queen Mary’s Psalter and Historia Veteris Testamenti, English, mid 14th century (c. 1325-53); Calendar scene for February representing Pisces (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

207

Plates

Figure 46: British Library Royal MS 2 B vii, f. 7 (whole folio) – Queen Mary’s Psalter and Historia Veteris Testamenti, English, mid 14th century (c. 1325-53); Noah sends the raven and the dove from the ark to find land (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

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Figure 47: British Library Royal MS 2 B vii, f. 111 (miniature only) – Queen Mary’s Psalter and Historia Veteris Testamenti, English, mid 14th century (c. 1325-53); A boat containing four men draws up alongside a partially submerged whale (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

Figure 48: British Library Royal MS 2 B vii, f. 159 (miniature only) – Queen Mary’s Psalter and Historia Veteris Testamenti, English, mid 14th century (c. 1325-53); Two knights tilting at each other whilst standing in rowing boats (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

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Figure 49: British Library Sloane MS 278, f. 47 (detail) – Bestiary and Aviarium of Hugh of Folieto, French, 14th century; A siren, depicted as a woman with the tail of a fish, lures a sailor from a boat to drown in the depths of the sea; another sailor stops his ears to avoid hearing the siren's song. An onocentaur, half man, half ass, carrying a bow is shown alongside the boat (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

Figure 50: British Library Royal MS 20 C vii, f. 189v (miniature only) – Chroniques de France, French, late 14 th century; A sea battle between the French and English fleets off La Rochelle (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved) 210

The Illuminated Ark

Figure 51: British Library Additional MS 38121, f. 3v (whole folio) – Apocalypse, Southern Netherlands; 14th to 15 th century (c. 1400); Two boatmen return from Patmos, having abandoned St. John in exile on the island (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

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Figure 52: British Library Harley MS 1319, f. 18 (miniature only) – Jehan de Creton’s History of Richard II of England, French, 14th to 15th century (c. 1399 or later); King Richard II’s fleet sails from Ireland to Milford in Wales with four ships; the vessel bearing the King is in the lead, distinguished by a heraldic sun-in -splendour in its sail (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

Figure 53: Bodleian Library Bodley MS 264, part 1, f. 144 (miniature only) – Jehan de Grise’s Romance of Alexander, English, 14 th to 15th century (c. 1400); Alexander the great on board a ship (By kind permission of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford)

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Figure 54: Bodleian Library Bodley MS 264, part 1, f. 183v (miniature only) – Jehan de Grise’s Romance of Alexander, English, 14 th to 15th century (c. 1400); Alexander the Great on board a ship with a carved prow (By kind permission of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford)

Figure 55: Bodleian Library Bodley MS 264, part 3, f. 245v (miniature only) – Li Livres du Graunt Caam, with miniatures by Johannes and his school, English, 14 th to 15th century (c. 1400); Shipping on the River Karacoram in the Himalayas (By kind permission of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford) 213

Plates

Figure 56: Bodleian Library Bodley MS 264, part 3, f. 246v (miniature only) – Li Livres du Graunt Caam, with miniatures by Johannes and his school, English, 14 th to 15th century (c. 1400); Sipping at the bridge of Sindufu, Tibet (By kind permission of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford)

Figure 57: Bodleian Library Bodley MS 264, part 3, f. 259v (miniature only) – Li Livres du Graunt Caam, with miniatures by Johannes and his school, English, 14 th to 15th century (c. 1400); Indian ships arriving at Carcan (By kind permission of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford)

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Figure 58: British Library Egerton MS 2709, f. 2 (whole folio) – Gadifer de la Salle and Jehan de Bethencourt’s History of the Conquest of the Canary Islands, France (Paris), early 15 th century (c. 1420 -1430); An army on board a ship; the flags at the masthead and at the prow and stern, as well as on the two shields, bear the arms of Gadifer la Salle (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

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Figure 59: British Library Additional MS 24189, f. 4v (whole folio) – The Travels of Sir John Mandeville, Flemish or Bohemian (Prague?), early 15th century (c. 1400-1410); Sir John Mandeville travelling to Constantinople; the first part of his journey through Germany and Hungary (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

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Figure 60: British Library Additional MS 24189, f.8 (whole folio) – The Travels of Sir John Mandeville, Flemish or Bohemian (Prague?), early 15th century (c. 1400-1410); Sir John and his retinue approach the town dock at Jaffa; one of the town's curiosities, the rib of a giant, hangs from the town walls. Below, the travellers pay duty before entering Tyre (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

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Figure 61: British Library Royal MS 19 E vi, f. 403 (miniature only) – Universal History and Les Croniques de Burgues, owned by the Duc de Berry, French, early 15 th century (1400-1407); William, Duke of Normandy, lands with his army and equipment in England (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved).

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Figure 62: British Library Royal MS 20 B xx, f. 77v (miniature only) – Life of Alexander the Great, French, early 15 th century (c. 1400 -25); Alexander the Great’s descent in a glass diving-bell; Alexander’s queen and her lover in the boat are about to cut the chains that support the diving-bell (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved).

Figure 63: British Library Additional MS 11575, f. 65v (miniature only) – Spiegel van der Menschen Behoudenisse, Northern Netherlands, 15 th century; Jonah is thrown from the ship by his fellow sailors (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved). 219

Plates

Figure 64: British Library Stowe MS 54, f. 82v (miniature only) – Universal History, French or English, 15 th century; The Greek fleet on their way to Troy during the second siege of Troy (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

Figure 65: Bodleian Library Barlow MS 53 R, 2nd miniature (miniature only) – Extracts from Peter of Poiter’s Compendium Historiae in Genealogia Christi, English, mid 15th century (c. 1420-30); Noah building the ark, tools at his feet and an axe in his hand (By kind permission of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford ) 220

The Illuminated Ark

Figure 66: British Library Harley MS 2278, f.98v (miniature only) – John Lydgates’ Lives of Saints Edmund and Fremund, English (Bury St Edmunds), mid 15th century (c. 1434-44); King Sweyn and his Danish forces disembark from their ship on arrival in England (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

Figure 67: Bodleian Library Laud. Misc. MS 733, f. 18 (miniature only) – Johannes de Bado Aureo’s Early English History and Chronicle of England to Henry V, English, mid 15th century (c. 1440-50); Diocletian with courtiers and daughters disembarking from a boat (By kind permission of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford ) 221

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Figure 68: Bodleian Library Laud. Mi sc. MS 733, f. 22v (detail of miniature) – Johannes de Bado Aureo’s Early English History and Chronicle of England to Henry V, English, mid 15th century (c. 1440-50); The arrival of Brutus and his people in Albion (By kind permission of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford).

Figure 69: Glasgow University Library Hunterian MS 370, f. 253 (detail of initial S) – Titus Livius Patavinus’ Decas Tertia, Italian (Milan), 15th century (c. 1450); Scipio crossing by ship in a fleet of four vessels to Africa (By the kind permission of the Department of Special Collections, Glasgow University Library)

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Figure 70: British Library Royal MS 15 E vi, f. 20v (miniature only) – The Romance of Alexander (the Shrewsbury Talbot Book of Romances), French (Rouen), mid 15th century (c. 1445); Alexander the Great is lowered into the sea in a glass diving-bell-barrel (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

Figure 71: Bodleian Library Canon Classical Latin MS 185, f. 181v (miniature only) – Roberto Valturio’s translation of De Re Militari, Italian (Rimini?), mid 15th century (before 1462); Construction diagrams showing details of floating siege-engines (By kind permission of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford) 223

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Figure 72: Bodleian Library Canon Classical Latin MS 185, f. 191 (miniature only) – Roberto Valturio’s translation of De Re Militari, Italian (Rimini?), mid 15th century (before 1462); Construction diagrams showing details of floating siege-engines (By kind permission of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford)

Figure 73: BNF Francais MS 22547, f. 65 (detail of miniature only) – Quinte Curce’s Histoire du Grant Alexandre de Macedoine, French, mid 15 th century (c. 1470); Alexander the Great’s troops attack a city (By pe rmission of the Bibliothèque nationale de France). 224

The Illuminated Ark

Figure 74: BNF Latin MS 8200, f. 49v (whole folio) – Virgil’s Geography of the Aeneid . French (Vers), mid 15th century (c. 1460); An inshore sea-battle (By permission of the Bibliothèque nationale de France) 225

Plates

Figure 75: BNF Francais MS 2643, f. 42v (miniature only) – Froissart’s Chronicles, French, 15 th century; The naval battle of Cadsand (November 1337) (By permission of the Bibliothèque nationale de France)

Figure 76: BNF Francais MS 2643, f. 393 (miniature only) – Froissart’s Chronicles, French, 15th century; The naval battle of La Rochelle (22nd June 1372) (By permission of the Bibliothèque nationale de France) 226

The Illuminated Ark

Figure 77: BNF Francais MS 2644, f. 85 (miniature only) – Froissart’s Chronicles, French, 15 th century; English forces massacre merchants from Ghent during the Hundred Years War (By permission of the Bibliothèque nationale de France)

Figure 78: BNF Francais MS 38, f. 157 (detail of miniature) – Jean Duchesne’s Commentaires de César, French or Netherlands, later 15 th century (c. 1483); A sea-battle during the Hundred Years War; note the bombards in the bottom corners , the emblem of the patron of the manuscript, Louis de Bruges, Lord of Gruythuse (By permission of the Bibliothèque nationale de France) 227

Plates

Figure 79: BNF Francais MS 2829, f. 18 (whole folio) – Le Livre des Faiz Monseigneur Saint Loys, French (Vers), later 15 th century (c. 1482); Scenes from the life of Henry III - middle left, Henry lands in Aquitaine (By permission of the Bibliothèque nationale de France) 228

The Illuminated Ark

Figure 80: British Library Additional MS 24945, f. 231v (detail) – Robertus Valturius’ translation of De re militari, Italian, later 15th century (c. 1467); Drawing of a hypothetical floating siege-engine (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

Figure 81: British Library Harley MS 4379, f. 60v (miniature only) – Froissart’s Chronicles (volume IV, part 1), translated by Simon de Hesdin, French, later 15 th century (c. 1470); The expedition of the French and Genoese to Barbary (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved) 229

Plates

Figure 82: British Library Harley MS 4379, f. 104v (miniature only) – Froissart’s Chronicles (volume IV, part 1), translated by Simon de Hesdin, French, later 15 th century (c. 1470); The raising of the siege of the pirate stronghold in North Africa (Mahedia) (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved).

Figure 83: Bodleian Library Douce MS 374, f. 40 (miniature only) – Jean Miélot’s Les Miracles de Nostre Dame, Flemish, later 15th century (after c. 1456); A ship on pilgrimage to Jerusalem founders, and the souls of the drowned fly to heaven as doves (By kind permission of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford) 230

The Illuminated Ark

Figure 84: British Library Royal MS 14 D vi, f. 84v (miniature only) – Jean Froissart’s Chroniques de France et d’Angleterre, English or French, late 15th century; The Duke of Bourbon, in gilt armour with his shield decorated with the arms of France, disembarking to attack the town of Africia (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

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Figure 85: British Library Royal MS 14 E iv, f. 232 (miniature only) – Jean de Wavrin’s Chronicles of England, made for King Edward IV of England. Flemish (Bruges), late 15 th century (c. 1461 -83); Council of the King of France; on the left, ships at Sluys with the arms of Burgundy and France, and other devices (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

Figure 86: British Library Royal MS 18 E i, f. 103v (miniature only) – Jean Froissart’s Chroniques de France et d’Angleterre, French, later 15 th century (c. 1460-80); English reinforcements for the Duke of Brittany (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

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Figure 87: British Library Royal MS 14 E iv, f. 276 (miniature only) – Jean de Wavrin’s Chronicles of England, made for King Edward IV of England, Flemish (Bruges), late 15 th century (c. 1461-83); The naval battle of Sluys (24th June 1340) (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

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Figure 88: Bodleian Library Kennicott MS 1, f. 305 (detail) – Old Testament, Spanish (Corruna), mid 15 th century (c. 1476); Jonah is saved from the whale (By kind permission of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford )

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Figure 89: British Library Harley MS 326, f. 29v (miniature only) – Edward IV’s Descent from Rollo and The Romance of the Three Kings Sons. English (London), later 15th century (c. 1475-85); A Christian fleet attacks the port of Gaeta in Italy, held by the Turks (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

Figure 90: British Library Royal MS 15 E iv, f. 287 (detail of miniature) – Jean de Wavrin’s Anchiennes et Nouvelles Chroniques d’ Angleterre, Flemish (Bruges), later 15th century (c. 1470-80); King Edward I returns from Gascony (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

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Figure 91: British Library Additional MS 35322, f. 227v (miniature only) – Giovanni Boccaccio’s Decameron, Netherlands, later 15th century (c. 1475); Efigenia and three attendants sleep by a fountain, observed by Cimone who is dressed in fool’s motley; behind them on the river, a man and woman in a boat with soldiers represent the subsequent capture of Efigenia (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

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Figure 92: British Library Harley MS 4425, f. 86 (miniature only) – Roman de la Rose, Southern Netherlands (Bruges), later 15 th century (c. 1490-1500); Jason takes the golden fleece; his ship the Argo is in the foreground (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

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Figure 93: British Library Cotton Vespasian MS B ii, f. 4v (whole folio) – Pierre Gringore’s Pageants for the marriage of Mary Tudor, sister of Henry VIII, to Louis XII of France, France (Paris), early 16 th century (1514); Pageant at the Porte Saint-Denis - the city of Paris is symbolised by a ship, based on Mary’s coat-of-arms, propelled by the four winds; on board are the figures of Ceres with a sheaf of grain and Bacchus with grapes, Paris and Honneur (By permission of the British Library, © The British Library, All Rights Reserved ) 238

The Illuminated Ark

Figure 94: BNF Francais MS 10420, f. 1v (miniature only) – Pierre Sala’s Les Prouesses de Plusieurs Vays, French (Lyon), early 16 th century (c. 1523); Barges in front of a cityscape (By permission of the Bibliothèque nationale de France) 239

Plates

Figure 95: Bodleian Library Ashmole MS 1504, f. 20v (miniature only) – Herbal or Pattern Book, English (?), early 16 th century (c. 1520-30); Large, two masted ship (By kind permission of the Bodleian Library, University of Oxford)

Figure 96: British Library Additional MS 15217, f. 38 (miniature only) – Private Book of the Coder family of Nuremberg, German, late 16 th century (1560 onwards); The galleon La Nostra Sengnora setting out from Sanlucar for Venezuela, from Jerome Coder’s account of his travels in 1533-34 (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved) 240

The Illuminated Ark

Figure 97: British Library Additional MS 24098, f. 22v (whole folio) – Calendar and Book of Hours of the Blessed Virgin (the ‘Golf Book’), Southern Netherlands (Bruges), early 16th century (c. 1520-30); Calendar scene for the month of May: a boating party (By permission of the British Library, All Rights Reserved)

241

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Figure 98: Glasgow University Library MS Bq. 2.11, f. 1v (miniature only) – Caius Valerius’ Flaccus Argonauticon, French (Paris), late 16 th century (c. 1579); The building of the Argo and the Argonauts departure from Iclos (By the kind permission of the Department of Special Collections, Glasgow University Library)

242