The Harvard Brief Dictionary of Music [Reprint 2013 ed.] 9780674729421, 9780674729414

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THE

HARVARD BRIEF DICTIONARY OF MUSIC

THE

HARVARD BRIEF DICTIONARY OF MUSIC By WILLI APEL and R A L P H T. D A N I E L

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HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, Massachusetts I960

© copyright 1960 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College All rights reserved

Typography by Burton J. Jones

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 6 0 - 7 9 8 6 Printed in the United States of America

Preface As early as a few years after its appearance, I came to realize that the Harvard Dictionary of Music, useful though it turned out to be for many readers, overwhelmed some of them. At that time I had the opportunity of teaching evening courses to groups of adult people with a lively interest in music. Not a few of them, anxious to obtain additional information on one subject or another, consulted the Dictionary, but complained to me that they were not sufficiently prepared for the lengthy and sometimes rather too "scholarly" explanations given there. Looking at the matter from their standpoint, I could not help agreeing with them. What they needed was a book of similar character, but more limited in scope and more elementary in approach. When, about ten years later, Harvard University Press invited me to write such a book, I did not hesitate to accept the offer. I was encouraged by some of my friends and colleagues, among whom was Ralph T. Daniel, the subsequent coauthor of this book. I was very fortunate to find a collaborator whose special field of interest and knowledge complemented mine to a most satisfactory degree. He contributed most of the articles dealing with the more recent developments in music, many of which were not included in the original Dictionary. It goes without saying, however, that the present book is a joint enterprise in the strictest sense of the word. Both he and I have worked on and are responsible for all its contents. It is hoped that the Harvard Brief Dictionary of Music will serve the audience for which it was written: adults who have an active interest but no specialized training

vi

PREFACE

in music and young people just beginning their study. We can only wish that this new dictionary will be accepted and judged, not as a rival and by the standards of its elder and bigger brother, but as a reference book in its own right and, I hope, with its own merits. August 1960

Willi Apel

ACKNOWLEDGMENT The sketch of the seating plan of the Boston Symphony Orchestra (Fig. 80) was drawn from information kindly supplied by the Librarian of the BSO, Mr. V. Alpert.

THE

HARVARD BRIEF DICTIONARY OF MUSIC

Note Approximate pronunciations of many foreign words and titles have been informally suggested by respelling for readers of English and using capital letters for accented syllables. Thus: Al fine (ahi FEE-nay) means that the syllables are to be read as English words, with the accent falling on "fee." Some sounds are almost impossible to indicate in English spelling: ui has been used to represent the French u (musique: mui-ZEEK) and the German ü (Rührtrommel: RUIR-trom-mel), and nh to represent the nasal sound in French (enfant: ahnh-FAHNH). It is assumed that the reader will pronounce a syllable consisting of a single o as oh, but to avoid confusion other long vowels have generally been represented as follows: a as in father by ah; a as in fate by ay; e as in feet by ee; i as in like by eye. Ordinarily, unless appearing in these forms, a, e, and i are short. The pronunciation of Latin words has been left to the reader. An asterisk ( * ) following a word indicates that there is an article under that word. The method used for indication of octaves is explained under Pitch names, Fig. 89.

A A. As absolute pitch, see under to death, but, touched by their Pitch. —For a 2, see A due. love and grief, finally pardons them. A battuta (ah bah-TOO-ta: It., at the beat ). Indication to return to strict tempo after a free passage. Abbreviations. The most common abbreviations used in musical notation are indicated in Fig. 1, which gives the sign as written, followed by the indication of how it is to be played. See also Ornaments. Abduction from the Seraglio, The (G., Die Entführung aus dem Serail). Comic opera by Mozart ( libretto by C. F. Bretzner, adapted by G. Stephanie), produced in Vienna, 1782. The action takes place at a Turkish castle (seraglio) where Belmont (tenor) and his servant Pedrillo (tenor) seek Constanze (soprano) and her maid Blondchen (soprano), who are held captive by the Pasha Selim ( speaking part), and guarded by the terrible Moor, Osmin (bass). Pedrillo has obtained a post as a gardener in the castle, and tries to introduce Belmont as an architect. The situation becomes serious when Selim demands the love of Constanze, and Osmin that of Blondchen. Pedrillo contrives to make Osmin drunk so that the two couples can escape, but they are trapped and brought back. Selim condemns the lovers

Fig.

1

Except for Bastien and Bastienne, a small work written when he was only twelve, the Abduction was Mozart's first opera in the German language, and stands as the first really significant German opera. It was

ABEGG VARIATIONS written during Mozart's courtship of Constanze Weber, whom he married one month after its first performance. It reflects the happiness of this period in its long array of ingratiating arias and its scenes of irresistible charm and humor. Abegg Variations. Robert Schumann's Variations for Piano, op. 1, dedicated to his friend, Meta Abegg, whom he playfully designated as "Mademoiselle Pauline Countess Abegg." The first notes of the theme, a-bb-e'-g'-g', spell her name (B-flat is called Β in German ). Absolute music. Music which is free from extramusical implications, in distinction from "program music. The term generally excludes vocal music, especially that type in which the music is clearly influenced by the text (e.g., songs by Schubert). The suites and fugues of Bach or the sonatas and symphonies by Haydn and Mozart are examples of absolute music. Absolute pitch. Usually the term denotes what should more correctly be called "absolute judgment of pitch," i.e., the ability to identify immediately a musical sound by name, or to sing any tone at will. This faculty is a manifestation of tonal memory which is sometimes inborn, but can also be acquired by training. It is found chiefly in persons possessing some degree of musical experience or aptitude, but can by no means be considered a measuring stick or indication of musical talent. Many instrumentalists have absolute pitch ( probably acquired through

2

ACCENT years of training), but among outstanding composers and performers it is probably as often lacking as not. Absolute pitch may be a valuable asset to a musician, but it may also prove a real inconvenience, e.g., when music must be transposed to another key. See Relative pitch. Abstract music. Same as "absolute music. Academic Festival Overture ( G., Akademische Festouvertüre). An orchestral composition by Brahms, op. 80, written for the University of Breslau in appreciation of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy conferred on him in 1879. It is based upon several German student songs, skillfully arranged and connected. A cappella (ah ka-PEL-a: It., in or for the chapel). Designation for choral music without instrumental accompaniment. Originally the phrase referred to unaccompanied church music such as was written in the 16th century by Palestrina. Today it is used for all unaccompanied choral music whether sacred or secular. Accelerando ( ah-chel-er-AHNdo: It.). Becoming faster. Accent. Emphasis or stress on one tone or chord. Normally, a main accent falls on the first note of à measure, with secondary accents occurring, e.g., on the third beat in 4/4 meter, or on the fourth and seventh beats in 9/8 meter. Frequently, however, irregular accents are found

ACCIACCATURA

3

ACIS AND GALATEA

Accompaniment. The musical background provided for a principal part. For instance, in piano music the left hand often plays chords which serve as an accompaniment for the melody played by the right hand. Similarly, a solo singer or instruí mentalist may be accompanied Acciaccatura ( at-chak-ka-TOO- by a pianist or by an orchestra. ra: It., crushing). An ornament used in harpsichord and organ Accordion. A portable musical music (especially c. 1675-1750) instrument consisting of two recwhich consists of one or more tangular headboards connected dissonant notes, for instance, by a folding bellows. Inside the c-e-fï-g or c-e-gï-a ( dissonant headboards are free-beating notes in bold face), struck to- metal tongues which vibrate gether with a chord, but im- when the bellows is compressed mediately released, leaving the or expanded. On the right-hand consonant notes sounding. To- headboard there is a keyboard, day the term is often incorrectly like that of the piano, on which used in the meaning of the short the melody is played. On the left 'appoggiatura. side there are buttons which produce the bass notes and full Accidentals. The signs used in chords. The earliest instruments musical notation to indicate of this type were made about chromatic alterations or to can- 1830. cel them. The five signs are £ A similar instrument, preferred (sharp), which raises by a semi- in England and considered tone; π (flat), which lowers by a superior to the accordion, is the semitone; X or X (double- concertina. This is of hexagonal sharp ), which raises by two shape and has studs on each side, semitones; bb (double-flat), those to the left producing which lowers by two semitones; chords, those to the right soundand ^ (natural), which cancels a ing single tones. The bandoneon previous alteration. Compound is an Argentine variety with signs ( tqif, tlb, are fre- buttons on each side, for single quently used to cancel partly or tones only. completely a previous or bb, but the simple signs t, b, \ are Acis and Galatea ( AY-sis and sufficient for this purpose. These gal-a-TEE-a ). A dramatic canaccidentals apply to the note tata composed by Handel ( about before which they appear, as 1720) for the Duke of Chandos. well as to all the notes of the Originally designated as Masque, same pitch (but not in different Pastorale (pastoral play), or octaves) within the same meas- Serenata ( evening entertainure. Modern composers fre- ment), it was intended to be quently add bracketed acci- sung in costume but without dentals in order to clarify the action. Based on the Greek situation. legend, the work includes some

on weak beats (see Syncopation). An accent is called dynamic if it results from greater volume; tonic, if from higher pitch; agogic, if from longer duration of the stressed notes. The dynamic accent is the most common type.

4

ACOUSTICS

ACOUSTICS

selections for a chorus that plays quency can be indicated more the role of commentator like the specifically than by saying chorus in ancient Greek drama. merely that greater frequency means higher pitch. The relationAcoustics. The science of sound ship is governed by specific laws, which, therefore, forms the sci- some of which were discovered entific basis of music, furnish- by the Greek philosopher Pying the explanation for many of thagoras. If the frequency of its elementary facts. Among a tone be designated as 1, that these are ( 1 ) the nature of musi- of its higher octave will be 2. cal sound; ( 2 ) intervals; ( 3 ) Thus the ratio of the two tones the physical properties of sound- in an octave is 2:1; of the fifth, producing media; and ( 4 ) over- 3:2; and of the major third, 5:4. From these intervals all the tones. ( 1 ) The nature of musical others of so-called "just intonasound. A sound is invariably tion can be derived by the rule: generated by the vibration of an intervals are added by multiplyelastic body, such as a stretched ing the corresponding ratios (or, string, a tuning fork, or an en- of course, intervals are subclosed column of air ( in wind in- tracted by dividing the corstruments ). A simple vibration is responding ratios). For instance, characterized by its frequency the double octave (c") of c is (number of vibrations per sec- 2 χ 2 = 4; the double fifth ( d " ) ond) and by its amplitude (ex- is 3/2 χ 3/2 = 9/4, hence its tent of its vibration, as in the lower octave (d') is 9 / 4 : 2 = back-and-forth movement of a 9/8, etc. Here follow the freplucked string); these charac- quencies for the C-major scale, teristics are directly related to with ratio relationships for c' = 1 two basic properties of the re- and frequency relationships for sulting sound, namely its pitch c' = 24 ( the number 24 has been and its loudness. The greater chosen because it is the smallest the frequency, the higher the number leading to integers for pitch; the greater the amplitude, all the frequencies). c ' = 1: c' = 24:

c' 1 24

d' 9/8 27

e' 5/4 30

the louder the sound. Each pitch is determined by a definite number of vibrations per second. For instance, the tone a' of the present system of tuning ( see under Pitch ) is fixed in the United States at 440 vibrations (cycles) per second. The tones of the piano range from about 30 to about 4000 cycles. ( 2 ) Intervals. The relationship between pitch and fre-

f' 4/3 32

g' 3/2 36

a' 5/3 40

b' 15/8 45

c" 2 48

( 3 ) The physical properties of sound-producing media. For tones produced by pipes (organ pipes, wind instruments ), the following law applies: the frequency of a pitch is in inverse proportion to the length of the pipe producing the sound. If, therefore, a pipe for the tone c' (ratio 1) is one yard in length, the one required for its upper octave (ratio 2 ) would be 1/2

ACOUSTICS

5

ACOUSTICS

yard long, and that for the fifth formed by the two partíais. For (ratio 3 / 2 ) , 2 / 3 yards. This law example, 6 ( g' ) over 4 ( c' ) is the basis for the foot measure- equals 6/4 = 3/2, the ratio of ment of organ pipes (see Foot), the perfect fifth. The series of as well as for the length, posi- tones in Fig. 2 is also known as tion of finger holes, etc., in wind the overtone series or harmonic instruments. The law also ap- series. plies to strings, provided they are all of the same thickness and tension (see Monochord). ( 4 ) Overtones. The acoustic effect produced by a vibration as described above (i.e., one determined by a given frequency) Fig. 2 is called a pure sound. All musical instruments, however, proSince the intervallic relationduce composite sounds resulting ships between overtones are the from the simultaneous sounding same for any fundamental, the of many pure sounds. The lowest question may well be raised as of these is the so-called funda- to how different tone colors can mental (or first partial), and this result from them. They result is the one identified by the ear not from the overtones as such, as the pitch of the musical tone. but from their varying ampliIn addition to the fundamental, tudes, i.e., the varying degrees there are the so-called overtones of their volume. For instance, in or upper partíais, which are not a tone produced by an oboe, the heard distinctly because their in- first three overtones are practensity (amplitude) is much less tically absent, while the fourth than that of the fundamental. and fifth are rather strong. In a Nevertheless, they are extremely flute tone, on the other hand, the important, since they account for the different tone colors proClari "-T τ . . . . τ τ τ . . duced when the same pitch is played on different instruments, Oboe . Τ Τ τ . e.g., a violin and an oboe. The Horn Τ Τ γ τ . frequencies of the upper partíais ( overtones ) are always exact Violin I , Τ . multiples of the fundamental ( or Ε first partial). Thus a tone of 100 Violin . τ τ Τ τ cycles will have upper partíais of G 200, 300, etc., cycles. The sec- Flute I t . . . . ond partial is the upper octave, 1 2 3 4 3 6 7 8 9 10 1112 the third partial the upper Fig. 3 twelfth, the fourth partial is the double octave, etc. Fig. 2 shows the first 16 partíais of the tone first two overtones are prominent, C. It will be seen that if the and the higher ones practically numbers of any two partíais be negligible. Fig. 3 shows diagrams written in ratio form, the ratio of the relative strength of the will be that of the interval overtones in various instrumental sounds.

ACTION Action. Any kind of mechanism used in instruments in order to transmit the motion of the fingers (or the feet) to the soundproducing parts. On keyboard instruments the action consists of the keys and the mechanisms operated by them. Wood-wind instruments also have an action consisting of metal levers (keys) which serve to cover and to open finger holes. The action of the harp is controlled by the feet.

6

A DUE provements, and are therefore generally abandoned. Adelaide. A famous song by Beethoven (op. 4 6 ) composed in 1795 or 1796 to words by F . von Matthisson. Adélaïde Concerto. A violin concerto attributed to Mozart, and edited by Marius Casadesus from a violin part dedicated to the French Princess Adélaïde. The orchestral accompaniment was added by Casadesus. Although it is known that Mozart did write such a piece for the Princess, it has not been proved that this is the work.

Actus tragicus ( L . ). An early cantata (no. 106) by Bach, composed in Weimar ( 1 7 0 8 - 1 7 ) for an occasion of mourning. The German title is Gottes Zeit ist die allerbeste Zeit (God's Time Is Best). Adeste Fideles ( L . ) . A Latin hymn usually sung today in the Adagietto ( I t . ) . ( 1 ) A tempo English translation beginning " O slightly faster than adagio. — come, all ye faithful." The words ( 2 ) A short adagio (composi- and music are attributed to John F. Wade, and it was published tion in slow tempo). in 1750 for use in the English Adagio (It., ad agio, i.e., at Roman Catholic College in Lisease ). ( 1 ) A slow tempo, be- bon; hence, the tune name tween andante and largo ( see "Portuguese Hymn." Tempo marks).— ( 2 ) A composition written in slow tempo, Adieux, Les (layz ah-DYEU: frequently the second movement F . ) . See Farewell Sonata. of sonatas, symphonies, etc. Ad libitum (L., at will). An Adagissimo ( It. ). Extremely indication giving the performer the liberty to vary from strict slow. tempo, to add or omit a part, Added-sixth chord. See under or to include a cadenza in a concerto (cadenza ad libitum). AbChords. breviated ad lib. Additional accompaniment. Designation for enlargements of A due (ah DOO-ay: It., for earlier orchestral scores, es- two ). A direction indicating that pecially those of Handel and two instruments written on one Bach. The most familiar example staff (e.g., Flutes 1 and 2 ) is Mozart's arrangement of Han- should play in unison ( "all' unidel's Messiah. Today such sono). However, the term is also methods are justly considered used in the opposite meaning, falsifications rather than im- more clearly indicated by *divisi.

7

AEOLIAN The same ambiguity exists with the equivalent French term à deux. — A due corde, see Due corde. — A due mani, for two hands. — A due voci, for two voices. Aeolian. modes.

See

under

Church

Aeolian harp (ee-O-lee-an: from Gr. Aeolos, the god of the winds). A sound-producing contrivance (not an instrument, since it is not played by man) consisting of a long narrow box with a number of strings inside which are exposed to the wind, e.g., in an open window. The sound varies considerably with the changing force of the wind and produces a highly romantic, mysterious effect. The instrument was much in vogue about 1800. Its intimate charm is most beautifully described in E. Mörike's poem, Die Aeolsharfe, and in its musical settings by Brahms and Hugo Wolf. Chopin's Etude, op. 25, no. 1, is sometimes called the "Aeolian Harp" Etude because of its shifting sonorities. Aerophones. See under Instruments; also under Harmonium (Aerophone). Affettuoso ( ahf-fet-too-O-zo : It.). Affectionate, with warmth. Afternoon of a Faun, The (F., L'Après-midi d'un faune). Symphonie poem by Debussy, composed in 1894 as a musical interpretation of a poem by Mallarmé. It portrays a faun (a creature of Roman mythology, half man, half goat) dozing in the warm sunshine of the Apen-

AIDA nines, his dreams being interrupted by a vision of fleeing nymphs. The complete title, Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune, has been interpreted to mean that Debussy had planned it as a prelude for additional sections of music. The work, in which the sensuous atmosphere of the poem is captured with consummate skill, is one of the first and most convincing realizations of musical "impressionism. Agitato (a-ji-TAH-to: It.). Agitated, excited. Agnus Del (L., Lamb of God). The last item of the Ordinary of the "Mass. Agogic accent. See under Accent. Agréments (F.). "Ornaments. Alda (ah-EE-dah). Grand opera by Verdi (libretto by A. Ghislanzoni), commissioned by the Khedive of Egypt to celebrate the opening of the Suez Canal, and produced in Cairo in 1871. The scene is laid in ancient Egypt, and the plot centers around the love of the Egyptian warrior Radames (tenor) for the captive Ethiopian princess Aida (soprano), and the jealousy of Amneris (mezzo-soprano), daughter of the king of Egypt (bass). Amonasro (baritone), the king of Ethiopia and also a captive, prevails upon his daughter Aida to learn the Egyptian battle plans. After Radames has innocently revealed the plans, Aida and Amonasro flee, leaving Radames to be condemned to death for treason. In the tomb where he is buried

AIR

8

alive, Radames finds Aida, w h o has returned to die with him. Aida was Verdi's last work written in the traditional style of Italian grand opera. After a long period, it was followed by the two late operas, Otello ( 1 8 8 7 ) and Falstaff ( 1 8 9 3 ) . A striking feature in Aida is the brief atmospheric prelude which replaces t h e conventional overture.

ALCESTE tury ( H a y d n , M o z a r t ) . They are n a m e d after Domenico Alberti (c. 1710-1740) w h o was one of the first to use the patterns extensively.

Fig. 4 Alborada (al-bo-RAH-da: Sp., d a w n ) . "Morning music," especially characteristic of northwestern Spain, where it is played on a rustic bagpipe accompanied by a small drum. Ravel's "Alborada del gracioso" ( see Miroirs) derives certain features from the Spanish model.

Air ( F. ). ( 1 ) Song, aria, sometimes used as a synonym for "tune." — ( 2 ) In t h e Baroque suite ( B a c h ) , a movement of an essentially melodic character, not in the dancelike style of the other movements. Albumblatt ( AHL-boom-blat : G. ). Album leaf, a fanciful name Albert Herring. Comic opera by for short pieces such as might Benjamin Britten ( libretto by be used as a contribution for an Eric Crozier after a story by autograph album. T h e title was Maupassant), produced in Glyn- especially popular among piano debourne, 1947. T h e town of composers of the 19th century. Loxford, being unable to find a sufficiently virtuous girl to serve Alceste (ahl-SEST [F.], ahlas May Queen, appoints a naïve CHES-tay [It.]). Opera in t h r $ e young man, Albert, as May acts by Gluck ( libretto by CalKing. H e is not h a p p y with the zabigi), produced in Vienna, choice, b u t his overbearing 1767. T h e story, based loosely on mother drives him to accept it. the drama by Euripides, tells of Emboldened by some rum the heroic queen Alceste ( soslipped into his lemonade by a prano ) who offers to die in place friend, Albert takes the prize of her husband, the king Admemoney and steals away to a tus ( t e n o r ) . Admetus prepares nearby town to sow his first wild to follow her to Hades, b u t both oats. T h e townspeople of Lox- are saved by t h e intervention ford, believing him dead, are of Hercules ( bass ) and subinterrupted in the midst of their sequently blessed by Apollo mourning by Albert's return. ( b a r i t o n e ) . M a d e more manly by his exWritten in a simple, nonvirtuoperience, h e asserts his inde- sic style, Alceste was one of the pendence of his mother. first of Gluck's "reform" operas, embodying his theories regarding Alberti bass. Stereotyped broken- the proper relation of drama and chord figures used frequently as music. In its French version accompanimental patterns in ( 1776) it touched off the famous piano music of the late 18th cen- quarrel between the "Gluckists"

AL FINE

9

and the "Piccinists" (supporters of Niccolo Piccini) who favored the traditional Italian operatic style. Al fine (ahi FEE-nay: It.). To the end. See under Da capo; Sin' al fine. Alia ( It. ). In the manner of; e.g., alla turca (Turkish), alia zingarese (gypsy). Alia breve ( AH-la BRAY-vay: It. ). A tempo mark, indicated by the sign φ, for quick duple time, i.e., with the half note rather than the quarter note as the beat. In other words, 2/2 instead of 4/4. See under Time signature.

ALPINE SYMPHONY dance movement in the 'suites of Bach and his predecessors. It is in very moderate 4/4 time, with a short upbeat (eighth or sixteenth note), and in a richly ornamented style with sixteenth note figurations passing from one voice to another. — ( 2 ) In the late 18th century the name was used for quick waltzlike dances in 3/4 or 3/8, e.g., Beethoven's "A l'Allemande" ( Bagatellen, op. 119). Allentando ( ahl-len-TAHN-do : It.). Slowing down. All'ottava (ahl-ot-TAH-va: It.). See under Ottava.

All' unisono (ahl-oo-nee-SO-no: Allargando (ahl-lar-GAN-do: It.). In orchestral scores, indicaIt.). Slowing down and increas- tion that two instruments notated on the same staff (e.g., ing volume. Flutes 1 and 2 ) should play in Allegretto ( I t . ) . ( 1 ) A tempo unison, i.e., the same notes. See between allegro and andante remark under A due. (see Tempo marks).— ( 2 ) A Alphorn, alpine horn. A primishort piece in a lively tempo. tive wind instrument, in the Allegro ( It., cheerful ). ( 1 ) In- shape of a long wooden tube dication for fast tempo ( see resting on the ground, which is Tempo marks). -— ( 2 ) Used as still used by the herdsmen in the the title for a movement or a Alps both for calling their cattle composition in fast tempo, often and for rendering simple melovaches). for the first or the last movement dies (see Ranz des of a sonata, symphony, etc. Alpine Symphony, An ( G., Etne Alleluia ( Latinization of Hebrew Alpensinfonie ). A large symhalleluyah, praise ye the Lord). phonic poem in one movement ( 1 ) The third item of the Proper by R. Strauss, op. 64 ( 1 9 1 1 - 1 5 ) , of the " M a s s . — ( 2 ) Nickname describing a day of mountain of Haydn's Symphony no. 30, in climbing in the Alps. It is subC major (composed in 1765), divided into sections such as which uses a portion of a plain- "Night," "Ascent," "Dangerous song Alleluia as part of its the- Moment," "Summit," etc. Particularly noteworthy for its time matic material. is the extreme dissonance and Allemande (ahl-MAHNHD: F., daring use of instruments in the German [dance]). ( 1 ) The first section entitled "Vision."

AL SEGNO

10

AMBROSIAN

CHANT

AI segno (ahi SAY-nyo: It.)· See 16 th centuries), and is still under Segno. utilized by Anglican church choirs. Elsewhere it is replaced Also sprach Zarathustra (AHL- by the female contralto. — ( 3 ) zo shprahkh zar-rah-TOOS-tra: French for viola. G. ). See Thus Spake ZarathuAlto clef. See under Clefs. stra. Alt. ( 1 ) Term for the notes above the treble staff, from g" to {"', which are said to be the notes "in alt" (from It. in alto, high up ), while those of the next octave, from g'" to f"", are said to be "in altissimo." — ( 2 ) German for a contralto singer or part (Altstimme).

Alto Rhapsody. Composition by Brahms, op. 53 (1869), for contralto, men's chorus, and orchestra, based on a fragment from Goethe's Harzreise im Winter ( Winter Journey through the Hartz Mountains).

Alto (It., high). ( 1 ) Same as "contralto, the second highest part in choral music (see under Contratenor). — ( 2 ) A highpitched male voice, produced in falsetto. It was universally used in early vocal music (14th to

Ambitus ( L . ) . See under Church modes.

Alzati (ahl-TZAH-tee: It., lifted). In music for violins, etc., Alteration. The raising or lower- indication to remove the mutes ing of a note by means of a sharp ( sordini alzati ). or a flat (chromatic alteration). See Accidentals. Aniahl and the Night Visitors. Opera in one act by Menotti, Altered chord. A chord having produced in New York on one or more chromatically al- Christmas Eve, 1951, as the first tered tones, as in the diminished opera commissioned specifically seventh chord. See under for television. Amahl, the small, crippled son of a destitute shepChords. herdess living in the Italian Alternativo ( It. ), Alternative- mountains, is gifted with a vivid ment ( F . ) . Indication for a sec- imagination. This makes his tion alternating with another sec- mother distrust him when he tells tion, as in an A Β A structure her that the Three Holy Kings (ternary form). In the suites of have arrived in front of their Bach, Bourrée I, alternativement, house. They have indeed, howBourrée II indicates repetition of ever, and are invited to come in the first bourrée after the second for a rest. To their gifts for section. Schumann occasionally the Christ child Amahl adds his used the term as a designation crutch, and the use of his leg is restored as if by a miracle. He for an internal section. joins the kings on their journey to see the Christ child. Altissimo. See under Alt ( 1 ).

Ambrosian chant. The liturgical chant in use at the cathedral of Milan (Italy), therefore also called Milanese chant. It was

AMBROSIAN HYMNS

11

named after St. Ambrose (c. 340-397), bishop of Milan. Usually believed to represent an older tradition than "Gregorian ( Roman ) chant, recent investigations make this assumption very doubtful. The Ambrosian melodies are often more highly melismatic and ornate than the Gregorian.

AMORE DEI TRE RE

American Quartet. Nickname for Dvorak's String Quartet in F major, op. 96. Composed while Dvorak was living in the United States, the work is based upon melodies of an American Negro character.

Am Frosch (ahm frosh: G., near the frog). Indication to use that portion of the violin bow nearest Ambrosian hymns. The hymns the right hand. written by St. Ambrose, or other hymns of the same type written Am Griffbrett (ahm GRIF-bret: by his successors. They are G., near the finger board). In poems consisting of eight four- violin playing, bowing near the line stanzas, each line with eight finger board ( "sul tasto ). See syllables in iambic meter (e.g., Flautando. Deús creator ómniúm). Sung to simple melodies which are re- Amor brujo, El (el a-MOR peated for each stanza, they are BROO-kho: Love the Sorcerer). probably the earliest examples of A ballet by Manuel de Falla, "strophic song. They are used produced in Madrid, 1915. The in the Gregorian as well as in story deals with the love of the Ambrosian rites. The name Candelas, a gypsy maid who is "Ambrosian Hymn" is sometimes hindered from any further hapused for the "Te Deum which, piness in mortal love by the however, has no connection with phantom of her former lover. A St. Ambrose or with his hymns. gypsy witch flirts with the phantom, lets him kiss her, and thus Ambrosian modes. See under dispels his supernatural powers. The music includes numerous Church modes. dance pieces inspired by folk American in Paris, An. A sym- dances, the best known being the phonic poem by George Gersh- "Ritual Fire Dance." A unique win, commissioned by Walter feature is the inclusion of two Damrosch and first performed in songs for the ballerina. New York in 1928. The music undertakes to describe the reac- Amore dei tre re, L' ( lah-MAWtion of an American tourist •—· ray day-ee TRAY RAY: The Gershwin's own situation at the Love of Three Kings). Tragic time of the writing of the work opera by Montemezzi (libretto — to various scenes in the by Benelli), produced in Milan, French capital. There are 1913. The story deals with the touches of realism such as the disastrous attempt of a medieval inclusion in the score of four king to discover the lover of his French taxicab horns. daughter-in-law. In his rage, he strangles her and places her body American organ. See under on an open bier. The lover steals in to bid her farewell and is Harmonium.

AM STEG

12

ANTAR

killed by poison the king has placed on her lips. Her husband, the king's son, dies in a similar manner and the father is left with nothing. Father, son, and lover are all kings, hence the title.

Milan, 1896. The story takes place in Paris at the time of the French Revolution. The main characters are Chénier (tenor), a poet who has offended the revolutionists; Madeleine (soprano), a member of the nobility; and Gerard (baritone), forAm Steg (ahm shtayg: G., near merly Madeleine's servant but the bridge ). Same as "sul ponti- now an official in the revolutionary party. cello, bowing near the bridge. Anche (ahnsh: F . ) . Reed. Also reed instruments (oboe, clarinet), e.g., trio d!anches, trio for reed instruments.

Anglaise (ahnh-GLAYZ: F., English [dance] ). A dance type of the 17th and 18th centuries, occasionally found in the optional group of the "suite. About Andante (ahn-DAHN-tay: It.). 1800 the term was used for the The term, literally translated "country dance or the "écossaise. "going" or "walking," indicates a moderate speed, between alle- Anglican chant. The music emgretto and adagio (see Tempo ployed in the Anglican Church marks). It is usually understood for the Psalms, canticles, and as being a slow tempo, so that other unmetrical texts. It depiù ( more ) andante, means veloped in the 16th century from slower than andante, while meno the "Psalm tones of the Roman (less) andante means a slightly Catholic service. Like those, it faster tempo. Some composers is essentially a recitation on one (particularly Brahms) consider note with cadential formulas, it as a fast tempo, in which case but it differs ( aside from the più or molto andante would English text) in the use of fourmean faster than normal andante. part harmony and of metrical Andantino (diminutive) is gen- divisions, as illustrated in Fig. 5. erally understood as indicating a tempo faster than andante. Années de pèlerinage ( ahn-NAY de pel-er-in-AHZH: Years of PilAndantino ( I t . ) . See Andante grimage). Collective title for three volumes of piano music by above. Liszt. Each volume contains sevAn die ferae Geliebte (ahn dee eral pieces with descriptive titles. FAYR-ne ge-LEEP-ta: To the See Dante Sonata. Distant Beloved). Song cycle by Beethoven, op. 98 ( 1 8 1 6 ) , con- Answer. The second ( and sisting of six songs to poems by fourth) statement of the theme A. Jeitteles. in a "fugue. Also the imitation part of a "canon. Andrea Cbénier ( ahn-DRAY-a shay-NYAY). Opera in four acts Antar ( AHN-tahr). A symphonic by Umberto Giordano (libretto suite (op. 9 ) composed in 1868 by Luigi Illica), produced in by Rimski-Korsakov. In four

13

ANTECEDENT

movements, it is a descriptive piece based upon the legend of Antar, an Arabian hero of the 6th century. Antecedent. See under

Fugue.

ANTIPHON

The second flowering of the anthem came after the Restoration, under John Blow ( 1 6 4 9 1708), Henry Purcell ( 1 6 5 9 1695), and Handel (16851759), whose grandiose anthems were written mostly for special occasions ( see Chandos Anthems; Coronation Anthems). An outstanding composer of anthems during the 19th century was Samuel Sebastian Wesley ( 1 8 1 0 1876).

Anthem (from "antiphon). A choral composition, usually accompanied by the organ, written to English words from the Scriptures or to some other religious text, and performed in the service of most Protestant churches. In the Anglican Church, it is Anticipation. See under usually sung during the Offertory monic tones (1). immediately after the sermon. If

Nonhar-

Antiphon. In Gregorian chant, short texts from the Scriptures or elsewhere, set to music in a simple syllabic style, and sung before and after a Psalm or a canticle. The term is also used for some other chants, not connected with Psalm singing, of greater extension and elaboration. Among these are the four Antiphons of the Blessed Virgin Mary (B.V.M.), of which the Salve regina is the most famous. In the 15th and 16th centuries they were frequently composed polyphonically, for voices or for the organ.

Fig.

5

it includes sections for solo singers, it is called verse anthem ( see under Verse), otherwise, full anthem. The anthem developed in the latter part of the 16th century, after the Reformation, as a counterpart of the 'motet of the Roman Catholic rites. Particularly outstanding are the anthems of William Byrd ( 1 5 4 3 - 1 6 2 3 ) .

The term antiphon comes from a Greek word, antiphonia (literally, counter sound), denoting the interval of the octave. In early Christian worship it came to mean singing by alternating choruses, probably because the second chorus consisted of women who answered in the higher octave. Hence, the term antiphonal singing for singing in alternating choruses. Antiphonal chants are chants performed by two choruses, as opposed to responsorial chants, in which there is alternation be-

A PIACERE

14

tween a soloist and the whole chorus ( see under Gregorian chant ). In early antiphonal psalmody a short sentence was sung in alternation with the verses of the Psalm. It was this short sentence (later sung only at the beginning and end of the Psalm ) which finally came to adopt and retain the name antiphon. The Antiphonal (noun; also Antiphoner, Antiphonary) is the collection of all the chants for the Office hours, as opposed to the Gradual which contains all the chants for the Mass. A piacere (ah pee-a-CHAY-re: It. ). At pleasure, i.e., freely performed. Apollo Musagetes ( ah-POL-lo mew-SA-je-teez: Apollo, Leader of the Muses). A ballet for string orchestra by Stravinsky, produced in Washington, D. C., 1928. It consists of a prologue depicting the birth of Apollo, a group of allegorical dances in classical ballet style, and a final apotheosis in which Apollo leads Terpsichore and the Muses to their eternal home on Mt. Parnassus. Appalachia. Variations for orchestra and chorus by Frederick Delius, composed in 1902. The title stands for North America in general, and the theme is a Negro slave song. Appalachian Spring. A ballet composed by Aaron Copland in 1943-44 for Martha Graham. The subject is a pioneer celebration around a newly built farmhouse in the Pennsylvania hills. The bride-to-be and the young farmer are the principals

APPASSIONATA

and are joined by groups of neighbors, including a wise old woman and a revivalist. The original score is for a chamber orchestra of thirteen instruments. A suite for full orchestra, completed in 1945, includes much of the music in a continuous movement of eight sections. An interesting feature is the set of variations on a traditional Shaker melody, "The Gift to be Simple." Apparebit Repentina Dies ( Suddenly Shall the Day Appear). Cantata for full chorus and brass instruments by Hindemith, commissioned in 1947 for the Harvard Symposium on Music Criticism. The text is a medieval Latin poem describing the day of judgment. The music is in a series of neoclassic forms and includes a lengthy recitative for the entire bass section of the chorus. Appassionata ( ap-pas-syo-NAHta: It., impassioned). Nickname for Beethoven's Piano Sonata in F minor, op. 57 ( 1806), adopted from an early publication (by Cranz) where it was called Soneta appassionata. This famous work may be said to form the "dark" companion piece to the "Waldstein Sonata composed two years earlier. Strikingly contrasted in character, the sonatas are similar in structure: each consists of three movements, the first and the last very extended, the second forming a lyrical interlude leading directly into the final movement. In both sonatas, as well as in the "Emperor Concerto dating from the same period ( 1809), these transitions are among the most admirable tokens of Beethoven's genius. Forms of

APPOGGIATURA

15

ARCO

the movements of op. 57: sonata ing away from the latter's posiform — variations — sonata tion or value. In the works of form. Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven both types occur, the latter being Appoggiatura (ap-poj-a-TOO-ra: occasionally (though not always It., from appoggiare, to lean ). reliably ) indicated by a little Generally the term denotes the stroke drawn across the stem of temporary replacement of a note the grace note. Fig. 6 shows four by its upper or lower neighbor examples from the works of Monote, an effect aptly described zart and Beethoven, all calling by the phrase "to lean." For the for the long appoggiatura. modern appoggiatura, see under

Ν enharmonic tones (2).

Originally (17th, 18 th centuries) the appoggiatura was an ornament, indicated by a special sign ( little hook or diagonal dash placed before the main note: see under Ornaments) or by a grace note. In music up to 1750 this is always the long appoggiatura, in which the ornamenting (inserted) note falls on the strong beat, taking away from the main note one half or, in triple time, even two thirds of its value. After 1750 there appeared the short appoggiatura (often called "acciaccatura) which is performed as a quick grace note before the main note, without tak-

Appreciation of music. See Mu-

sic appreciation.

Apprenti sorcier, L'. See

ers

Apprentice.

Sorcer-

Après-midi d'un faune, ΙΛ See

Afternoon of a Faun.

Arabesque. An ornamentation in Arabic architecture. The word has been used by Schumann and others as a title for pieces probably meant to be regarded as "beautiful decorations." Aragonaise. Same as "Jota aragonese. Arcato (ar-CAH-to: It.). Bowed, after a passage in "pizzicato. Areata in giù, down stroke; areata in su, up stroke. Archduke Trio. Nickname of Beethoven's Piano Trio in Β-flat, op. 97 ( 1 8 1 1 ) , dedicated to the archduke Rudolph. Its four movements are Allegro ( sonata form ), Scherzo, Andante ( variations ), and Allegro moderato (rondo). Archlute. A large lute, e.g., a "theorbo.

Fig. 6

Arco ( It. ). Bow. Coll' arco, with the bow, after a passage in

"pizzicato.

ARIA

16

Aria ( I t . ) . An elaborate composition for solo voice ( occasionally a duet) with instrumental accompaniment, which figures prominently in operas, oratorios, and cantatas beginning about 1600. Arias, in contrast to songs, are characterized by a vocal part of considerable complexity, often including elements of virtuosity. They may also be called "absolute vocal music, owing to their high degree of formal organization ana their regard for purely musical design rather than for dramatic continuity. For this reason they were banished from the opera by Gluck and Wagner. Nevertheless, they represent a highly important musical development, including such excellent examples as the arias in Bach's cantatas, Handel's oratorios, and Mozart's operas. An aria is usually preceded by a "recitative, which serves to carry on the story, whereas the aria gives the singer an opportunity to convey feelings and emotions.

ARPA

of attack by Gluck ( 1714-1787 ), who replaced the aria with songs in a simple, expressive style. Nevertheless, arias have remained in the favor of operatic composers although they have been made a more integral part of the drama as a result of the reform initiated by Wagner during the last half of the 19th century. Ariadne auf Naxos ( ahr-eeAHD-ne owf NAHX-os). A curious parody-opera by Richard Strauss ( libretto by Hofmannsthal), originally (1912) intended as an entr'acte of Molière's play, Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme, for which Strauss wrote the incidental music. In 1916, it was produced in Vienna as an independent work, with the addition of an introductory scene representing the stage rehearsal of the work.

Arietta (It.). A short aria in simple style, more like a song, The standard type of the Ba- and usually lacking the second roque period is the da capo aria, part which is characteristic of consisting of two sections, the the aria. first of which is repeated after the second, thus producing the Arioso (It.). Properly recitativo ternary form A B A . The nearly arioso, that is, a "recitative of a exclusive use of this type of aria lyrical and expressive quality, started with A. Scarlatti ( 1660- rather than of a declamatory na1725). During the 18th century ture. Bach used the arioso rethere developed certain conven- peatedly at the end of a recitional types of aria, categorized tative to emphasize an important according to their expressive thought or feeling. character, such as the aria cantabile (slow, lyrical), aria di Artésienne, L' (lar-lay-ZYEN: bravura (fast, virtuosic), aria di The Girl from Aries). Incidental carattere ( characteristic affec- music by Bizet for A. Daudet's tion), etc. About 1750 and later play, composed in 1872. It is (Porpora, Hasse), whole operas usually played in the form of two consisted of nothing but recita- orchestral suites. tives and conventionalized arias. This abuse was the main point Arpa ( I t . ) . Harp.

17

ARPEGGIO

Arpeggio (ar-PEJ-o: It., harplike). The playing of a chord with its notes sounded in succession, rather than simultaneously. This term is used either for written-out figurations of various patterns ( see Broken chord ) or for an ornament in which the notes of the chord are played in rapid succession, starting with the lowest note. The ornament is indicated by either grace notes or a wavy line ( occasionally also a vertical bow) placed in front of the chord (see Fig. 7a). There

Fig. 7 are two ways of performing an ornamenting arpeggio, i.e., either with its first or with its last note falling on the beat and, consequently, receiving the accent (see Fig. 7b, c ) . In older music (Bach, probably also Mozart) execution as under 7b is mandatory. In 19th-century music the situation is more flexible. The present-day practice shows a strong, if not exclusive, preference of method 7c (see the general remarks under Ornaments). However, there are many examples, e.g., in Chopin, where method 7b is preferable because

ARRANGEMENT

of its more expressive, less incisive character. In piano music a wavy line extending through both staves usually indicates that both hands perform one continuous arpeggio, with the right hand beginning just after the left finishes. If there are separate lines on each staff, it means that both hands should start simultaneously. Arpeggione ( ar-pe-JO-ne ). A stringed instrument the size of a violoncello, but with a guitarlike body, a fretted neck, and six strings tuned E, A, d, g, b, e'. It was invented in 1823 by G. Staufer, and is remembered today only through Schubert's Arpeggione Sonata, composed in 1824 for that instrument and pianoforte. Arrangement. Also Transcription. The adaptation of a composition for a medium different from that for which it was originally written, in such a manner that the musical substance remains essentially unchanged. One may distinguish between arrangements made chiefly for study purposes and others destined for public performance. To the former class belong the customary piano arrangements (often four-hand) of operas, symphonies, string quartets, etc. To the other class belong Bach's arrangements of Vivaldi's violin concertos for the harpsichord or the organ, Liszt's piano arrangements of Schubert's songs, and the numerous recent arrangements of Bach's organ works either for the piano ( Busoni ) or for the orchestra ( Respighi, Stokowski ), some of which are open to criticism because they bestow

ARS ANTIQUA

18

ART OF FUGUE

upon Bach's organ works a coloristic lushness or Romantic exuberance inconsistent with the intrinsic clarity of his style.

ward motion of the hand (or the weak beat), thesis to the downstroke (or accented part of the measure ).

Ars antiqua (L., the old art). Designation for the music of the late 12th and 13th centuries, in distinction from that of the 14th (see Ars nova). At the beginning of the ars antiqua stands the School of Notre Dame in Paris, represented by Leoninus (c. 1 1 3 0 - 1 1 9 0 ) and Perotinus (c. 1 1 5 0 - 1 2 2 0 ) . Both composed mainly "organa. Perotinus and his colleagues also wrote a great number of "clausulae, which became the point of departure for the "motet, the chief form of the 13th century. Another important form of the period is the "conductus. Although musical activity centered in France, it also spread to England, Spain, and Italy, The main achievements of the

Ars nova (L., the new art). Designation for the music of the 14th century (see Ars antiqua). The outstanding composer in France during the period was Guillaume de Machaut ( 13001377 ) who composed "motets as well as polyphonic secular songs (see Ballade; Rondeau; Virelai), A parallel development of polyphonic music took place in Italy, mainly in Florence, where such men as Giovanni da Florentia and Jacopo da Bologna (c. 1350) wrote two-part "madrigals. The outstanding later composer was Francesco Landini ( 1325-1397 ) who preferred the "ballata. Another form of special interest cultivated in Italy was the "caccia.

ars antiqua are ( 1 ) the establishment of regular meter based upon the strict patterns of the six "rhythmic modes, and ( 2 ) the transition from two-part writing to composition in three and occasionally in four voices. Simultaneously with the development of polyphonic music there was a great flowering of monophonie song; see Troubadours; Trouvères; Minnesingers; Cantigas; Lauda.

Art of Fugue, The ( G., Die Kunst der Fuge ). The last composition of J. S. Bach, written in 1749-50. It contains some twenty fugues and canons, all based on the same theme (Fig. 8 ) , in , (ft^ I Ή J I | Τ 1 I | ,J JJlljT~ì~ (t* Fig. 8

Arsis and thesis. Greek terms for "lifting" and "setting" of the foot in dancing, applied respectively to the unaccented and the accented syllables of a verse. Although the meanings are erroneously reversed in modern English poetic scansion, the original implications are retained in conducting: arsis refers to the up-

which all the devices of imitative counterpoint, such as inversion, stretto, augmentation, diminution, canon, double and triple fugue, etc., are employed in a most ingenious manner. The last, unfinished, fugue was planned as a quadruple fugue, with "B-A-C-H as one of its four themes. The chorale "Wenn wir in höchsten Nöten sein" (When we are in greatest distress), which was given at the end of

ART

SONG

19

the first printed edition, does not belong to the work. While The Art of Fugue was formerly regarded as a theoretical manual of advanced counterpoint, it has become generally recognized as one of the greatest masterpieces of musical art. Bach did not specify any instruments, but it has been transcribed for string quartet, small orchestra, and keyboard.

ATTACCA

abandoned until Arnold Schönberg's Three Piano Pieces (op. 11) of 1908, in which, for all practical purposes, all vestiges of a tonal center are eliminated, each of the twelve tones of the chromatic scale having equal rights and being equally admissible in vertical as well as in horizontal relationships ( see Fig. 9 ).

Art song. A song of serious artistic intent written by a trained composer, as distinct from a •folk song. A. S. Abbreviation for Al segno, or "to the sign." See Segno. As ( G. ). A-flat ( see under Pitch names ). ASCAP. American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers, a society founded in 1914 by Victor Herbert mainly to protect copyrights and performing rights. About 3000 composers and authors and more than 400 publishing firms belong to it. Assai (ahs-SAH-ee: It.). Very, e.g., allegro assai, very fast. A tempo ( I t . ) . Indicates return to normal tempo after some deviation. Atonality, atonal music. Terms used frequently to denote certain practices in 20th-century music in which a definite tonal center or "key" is purposely avoided. Although the traditional principles of tonality had been considerably weakened about the turn of the century by such composers as Debussy, Scriabin, and Reger, they were not completely

Fig. 9 The discarding of tonal centers or other references of a traditional character (triads, scales, etc.) means that some principles recognizable in tonal music are abandoned, and are replaced by others of a much more intangible nature. While the first ventures in atonality were radical negations rather than constructive contributions, Schönberg began to feel, about 1915, that atonality needed a positive principle and a technique of its own. The "twelve-tone technique was his answer to this problem. Although twelve-tone music is not necessarily atonal, atonality prevails in most compositions written according to that system. Attacca, attacca súbito ( atTAHK-ka SOO-bi-to: It., attack suddenly). Indication at the end of a movement that the next

20

AUBADE

AVE MARIA

movement should follow without ment sections of symphonies ( Brahms, Bruckner, and others ). a pause. Aubade (o-BAHD: F., from aube, dawn). Morning music, in distinction from "serenade, evening music. Used to denote music of a quiet, idyllic character.

Augmented chords, intervals. See under Chords; Intervals.

Aulos (OW-los). The most important wind instrument of the ancient Greeks. It is not a flute Aufforderung zum Tanz (G.). (as is often stated), but a shrillSee Invitation to the Dance. sounding oboe. It originated in the Orient, and was associated Augmentation and diminution. with the orgiastic rites of the The presentation of a theme in god Dionysus. doubled or halved note values, e.g., a quarter note becomes a Aus Italien (ows i-TAH-lyen: half note (augmentation) or an From Italy). A symphonic faneighth note (diminution). There tasy by Richard Strauss comare also instances of triple and posed as a result of a visit to quadruple augmentation or diItaly in 1886. It is a descriptive minution. These devices are ocwork in four movements, each casionally used in fugues, usuhaving a programmatic title ally toward the end, to provide which suggests the impression increased breadth or increased Strauss intended the music to density. See, e.g., Bach's Wellconvey. The popular Italian song, tempered Clavier, I, no. 8, and Funiculi, funicula, is used in II, no. 9. Beethoven, in the final the last movement. movement of his piano sonata op. 110, uses the theme simultaneously in augmentation and dimi- Authentic cadence. See under nution (Fig. 10). Both devices Cadence. are also found in the developAuthentic modes. See under Church modes. Autoharp. A trade name for an instrument of the "zither family. Simple chords are produced by strumming the strings. Damper bars, upon being depressed, damp all strings except those required for the chord selected. Auxiliary tone. See under Nonharmonic tones ( 1 ).

Fig.

10

Ave Maria (L., Hail, Mary). A prayer to the Virgin used in the Roman Catholic Church. Also

AYRE

21

title for songs of similar contents, e.g., by Schubert and by Gounod. In the latter, the first prelude from Bach's Well-tempered Clavier is used as a harmonic background for an original melody.

BAGPIPE

Ayre. A 16th- and 17th-century type of English song (later spelled "air) in a simple homophonic style, the melody being supported either by voices or instruments (lute, viols) or by both.

Β Β. In German terminology Β is positions written between 1930 equivalent to the English B-flat. and 1945. Scored for various media such as orchestra (nos. See under Pitch names. 1, 2, 7, 8 ) , piano (no. 4 ) , and Baborak (BA-bo-rak). A Bohe- soprano with cello octet (no. 5 ) , mian national dance, including the works are an attempt to alternating sections in duple and synthesize some aspects of the style of Bach with that of native triple time. Brazilian music. Baby grand. See under PianoBadinage, badinerie ( bah-deeforte. NAZH, bah-deen-REE: F . ) . A B-A-C-H. The letters forming composition of a playful, jocose Bach's name, each of which de- character. notes a tone if the German terminology (see Β; Η) is used. Bagatelle (F., trifle). A 19thThe resulting theme, bb-a-c'-b, century name for a short "charhas been repeatedly used in com- acter piece, used first and mainly positions, first by Bach himself by Beethoven. in his "Art of Fugue, later by Schumann ( Sechs Fugen über Bagpipe. An instrument having Bach, op. 60), Liszt (Fantasy several reed pipes ( single or and Fugue on B.A.C.H. ), Reger, double reeds ) which are attached Piston, Honegger, and others. to a windbag providing the wind Four fugues on B-A-C-H said for the pipes. One or two of to be by Bach are spurious. the pipes, called chanter (chaunter) pipes, have finger Bach trumpet. See under Clarín holes and are used for the melody, while the others, of trumpet. greater length and called drones, Bachianas Brasileiras ( bah-ki- produce only one tone each and AH-nas brah-sil-AYR-as ). Title are used for the accompaniment. used by the Brazilian composer In some bagpipes the wind in Heitor Villa-Lobos for nine com- the bag is supplied from the

BAGUETTE

22

BALLADE

popular song usually combining romantic and narrative, often adventurous, elements. A great number of English and American folk ballads have been collected. The poems are usually in the socalled ballad meter ( the common meter of hymns, 4.3.4.3), the lines alternating from four accents ( — ' — ' — ' — ' ) to three ( — ' — ' — ' ) · For other connotations of the term, see under 4Ballade ( 2 ) and ( 3 ) .

mouth through a blowing pipe, while in others it is provided by bellows placed under the arm. To the former type belong the old Irish bagpipe and the Highland bagpipe (Scotland); to the latter, the modern Irish bagpipe. See illustration. Baguette (bah-GET: F . ) . ( 1 ) Drumstick; baguettes de bois, wooden drumsticks; baguettes d'épongé, sponge-headed drumsticks.— ( 2 ) The stick of the violin bow. Balalaika ( bah-lah-LIKE-ah ). A popular Russian guitar with a triangular body, a long neck with frets, and (usually) three gut strings tuned in fourths. It is made in different sizes, several of which are often combined to form a balalaika band. See illustration. Ballad (from L. ballare, to dance ). Originally a dancing song, the term now denotes a

Ballade (bal-LAHD: F.; balLAH-de: G . ) . ( 1 ) A form of medieval poetry and music which flourished in the 13th and 14th centuries. The poem usually consists of three stanzas, each of seven (or eight) lines, the last ( or the last two ) being a "refrain. The music for each stanza has the form A A B, and is the same for all stanzas. The first section, A, provides the melody for the first two lines of the stanza, and this melody is repeated for the third and fourth

BALLAD OPERA

23

B, serves for the remaining lines of the stanza. Beginning with the late 13th century, ballades were composed polyphonically by Adam de la Halle (c. 12301287), Guillaume de iMachaut (1300-1377), and others.— ( 2 ) In modern German usage, Ballade denotes art poems written in imitation of the old English ballads. They usually deal with medieval subjects or with fantastic stories (e.g., Goethe's Der Erlkönig). These extended narrative poems were set to music, particularly by Carl Loewe ( 1 7 9 6 - 1 8 6 9 ) and Franz Schubert. — ( 3 ) Chopin, Brahms, and others have used the term Ballade for dramatic piano pieces. Chopin's ballades are said to have been inspired by poems of A. Mickiewicz. Ballad opera. A popular type of 18th-century English stage entertainment, consisting of spoken dialogue and simple songs adapted from folk tunes or from operas of the period. The earliest ballad opera was A. Ramsay's The Gentle Shepherd (1725), followed shortly by the most famous of them all, The "Beggar's Opera ( 1728 ) with text by John Gay and music arranged by John Pepusch ( 1 6 6 7 - 1 7 5 2 ) . The style of the ballad opera has been imitated in Vaughan Williams' Hugh the Drover ( 1 9 2 4 ) and in Kurt Weill's The "Threepenny Opera (Die Dreigroschenoper) of 1928, the latter based on the plot of The Beggar's Opera. Ballata (bahl-LAH-ta: It.). A form of Italian 14th-century poetry and fnusic derived not from the French "ballade but from the French *virelai (also called

BALLET

chanson balladée ). The form was used mainly by Francesco Landini ( 1 3 2 5 - 1 3 9 7 ) . Ballet. A theatrical performance of artistic dancing with costumes and scenery, usually accompanied by orchestral music. Ballet originated during the 15th century at the French court where the royal family and other members of the nobility participated in dramatic dancing to celebrate festive occasions such as weddings, birthdays, and victories. The earliest of these court ballets for which music is preserved is Le Ballet comique de la Royne ( 1 5 8 1 ) . The reign of Louis XIV witnessed the first golden age of ballet under the leadership of the ballet master Beauchamp and the composer Lully ( 1 6 3 2 - 1 6 8 7 ) . L'Academie Nationale de la Darne was founded ( 1661 ) and professional dancers appeared, making ballet a spectator art rather than a form of recreation for the nobility. The French tradition was continued during the 18th century under the leadership of the ballet master J. G. Noverre ( 1 7 2 7 1809) with music furnished by such composers as Rameau ( Les Indes galantes, 1735 ) and Gluck ( Don Juan, 1761 ). During this century the positions and movements identified as "classical" were gradually evolved. The Romantic movement of the early 19th century was manifested in ballet as in all other forms of art. While the center of greatest activity shifted from France to Italy, the principal spokesman for the new movement was the Frenchman Théophile Gautier, who proclaimed

BALLET

24

that the new style of dance must be poetic, dramatic, illusional, and, above all, novel. Dancing on the toes, which to most laymen is synonymous with ballet, was a rather sensational novelty introduced at this time and exploited to a degree far out of proportion to its rightful place as just one of many techniques available to the dancer. The Romantic period was also the age of the ballerina when male dancers, who had formerly played a primary role, were relegated to a subordinate position. These characteristics are apparent in *Giselle ( 1841 ) by Adolphe Adam, one of the earliest ballets still in the current repertory. During the later 19th century the center of greatest vitality in ballet moved from Italy to Russia, where Tchaikovsky's three famous ballets, The "Swan Lake (1876), The "Sleeping Beauty ( 1 8 8 9 ) , and The Nutcracker ( 1 8 9 2 ) , represent the culmination of the activities of the Russian Romantic ballet under the leadership of Marius Petipa ( 1 8 1 9 1910).

BAND

and Chloë ( 1912), Falla for The "Three-Cornered Hat (1919), and Milhaud for Le Train bleu (1924). Since about 1920 ballet has become increasingly popular in the United States and has developed a distinctively national flavor and a style which departs markedly from traditional positions, movements, and techniques. The term "modern dance" is sometimes used for ballets in the new style. Among the best known works are Copland's Billy the Kid (1938), Rodeo ( 1 9 4 2 ) , and "Appalachian Spring ( 1944 ) ; Bernstein's Fancy Free ( 1944 ) ; Hindemith's "Nobilissima Visione (1938); and Morton Gould's Interplay ( 1 9 4 5 ) . Ballet has also become an important factor in light musical comedy (e.g., Oklahoma; BHgadoon ).

Balletto (bal-LET-to: It.), ballet. Vocal compositions of about 1600, dancelike in character, written in a simplified madrigal style, and frequently provided with a "fa-la refrain. They were popular in Italy ( Gastaldi, 1591 ) The great flowering period of and England ( Morley, 1598, and modern ballet began during the others ). second decade of the present century when a touring com- Ballo ( I t . ) . Dance. Tempo di pany of Russian dancers under ballo, in a dancelike tempo. the director Sergei Diaghilev and the dancer Michel Fokine Ballo in maschera, Un. See transplanted the great Russian Masked Ball. tradition, particularly to France, England, and America. Their Band. An instrumental group most outstanding musical col- composed principally of woodlaborator was Igor Stravinsky, wind, brass, and percussion inwho wrote the scores for The struments as distinguished from *Firebird (1910), "Petrushka an orchestra whose nucleus is ( 1 9 1 1 ) , The "Rite of Spring the string family. Band music is ( 1 9 1 3 ) , and others. Ravel con- of a somewhat lighter nature tributed the music for *Daphnis (marches, dance music, etc.)

25

BANDONEON

than orchestral music, although since about 1920 many serious composers have considerably enriched the band repertory, and transcriptions of orchestral music have been popular. Bandoneon. See under Accordion. Banjo. A stringed instrument with a body in the form of a shallow drum, a long fretted neck, and usually six strings. It is the characteristic instrument of the American Negroes, and was frequently used in early jazz music. Very likely it is not an aboriginal instrument of the Negroes, but a modification of the Arabian or European guitar which was imported into Africa. See illustration. A ^jw Jo

Js] celi λκΡ jjj \ Mjr I \ S ¡! I

Banjo Bar. Originally, the vertical line drawn through the staff to mark off measures. Such lines are now usually called bar lines, while bar is used in the meaning of "measure.

BARBERSHOP

Barber of Seville, The (It., Il Barbiere di Siviglia). Comic opera by Rossini (libretto by Sterbini, based on Beaumarchais' Le Barbier de Seville), produced in Rome, 1816. The scene is 17th-century Seville, where Count Almaviva (tenor) and Dr. Bartolo (bass) are rivals for the hand of Bartolo's rich young ™ a r d > R o s i n a (soprano). The d o c t o r i s supported by the singmg-master Don Basilio (bass) count by the resourceful barber FlSar0 (baritone). Al™av^a, Sains entrance into ®artol°s£ house > disguising h l , m s c l f > 5 r s t a s a drunken soldier w h o n e e d s 0 1 6 doctor s aid, then f a m " s i c t f ^ f 1 substituting Basilio who, he says is ill. ln the e n d a has n° t a i 7> c o m e , t o m / r r y R o s m a ,to B a r t o ° > is induced to marry her to Almaviva. Bartolo appears too late but is consoled by being permitted to keep Rosina's dowry. The Barber is one of the last examples of the 18th-century type of Italian comic opera and, in particular, the last to use the secco "recitative. Figaro's aria "Largo al factotum" is one of the most outstanding examples of buffo aria in rapid declamation. The plot of Mozart's *Marriage of Figaro is based on Beaumarchais' sequel to Le Barbier de Seville. Barbershop harmony. Colloquial term for a type of banal harmony, usually in close position, used in popular American part singing such as was formerly practiced in barber shops. Diminished seventh chords, dominant seventh chords, augmented sixth chords, and triads with

BARCAROLE

26

added sixths prevail (see under Chords ).

BAROQUE MUSIC a

2 o4

o

o

oi

Barcarole (BAHR-ka-rol: from It. barca, barge ). A boat song of the Venetian gondoliers or a composition written in imitation of that type of song. Barcaroles Fig. 11 are in 6/8 or 12/8 meter with a uniform accompaniment sug- tones. This technique is used for passages ( Fig. gestive of the rocking motion of broken-chord I l a : Bach, Solo Sonata in E ) or a boat. for a "coloristic" tremolo (Fig. Bard. A medieval poet-musician l i b : Brahms, Symphony no. ("minstrel) of the Celtic na- 4 ) . tions, particularly the Irish and the Welsh. In the early Middle Baritone (Gr., low sound). (1) Ages bards exercised great cul- A male voice (see Voices, Range tural and political power, serving o f ) . — (2) In connection with as historians, heralds, and am- instruments ( horn, saxophone ), bassadors in addition to their the term indicates a size smaller activities in poetry and music. and of higher pitch than the bass They continued to exist in Ire- size. — ( 3 ) Short for baritone instruments, land until 1690, in Scotland horn ( see Brass until 1748. The congregations of l i d ) . See also Baryton. the Welsh bards, the eisteddfod (sitting of the learned), were re- Bar line. The vertical line drawn vived in the 19th century and through the staff to mark off are now held annually as a com- "measures. petition in poetry and music ( see Baroque music. The music of Penillion ). The main instrument of the the period about 1600-1750, folancient bards was the "crwth lowing that of the "Renaissance and, later, the harp. Some bardic ( see also History of music ). The music, preserved in manuscripts, term Baroque (from Portuguese has been erroneously claimed to barroco, a pearl of irregular be "not later than the sixth cen- shape ) has long been used to detury, and probably much earlier" note the contemporary period of (Dolmetsch). The pieces in painting and architecture ( Ruquestion probably date from the bens, Rembrandt, Velasquez, 17th century. Many other claims Bernini), and has now been found in books on the subject adopted in music as a purely chronological term, without any are equally unfounded. of the qualitative implications Bariolage (bah-ree-o-LAHZH: ( "grotesque," "in corrupt taste" ) F., variety of colors). A special sometimes attached to the word effect of violin playing, obtained baroque. by shifting rapidly back and The beginning of Baroque forth between two or more music is marked by the rise of strings, the lower strings being the "monodie style, applied to used to produce relatively higher opera, oratorio, and cantata; its

BAROQUE MUSIC

27

end, by the death of Bach ( 1 7 5 0 ) and Handel ( 1 7 5 9 ) . It was an extremely fruitful period, during which Italian, French, German, and English composers contributed to the development, not only of the opera, oratorio, cantata, aria, and recitative, but also of many instrumental forms such as the fugue, concerto, sonata, suite, variations, chorale prelude, passacaglia, chaconne, toccata, and rondeau. From the stylistic point of view, some of the main achievements of this period are the thorough-bass accompaniment, the introduction of contrasting effects (e.g., in the various movements of a sonata), and the rise of an idiomatic style in instrumental music. Following is a list of the most important Baroque composers: Italy: G. Caccini (c. 1550-1618); E . de Cavalieri (c. 1550-1602); J. Peri ( 1561-1633); C. Monteverdi ( 1 5 6 7 - 1 6 4 3 ) ; G. Frescobaldi ( 1 5 8 3 - 1 6 4 3 ) ; F. Cavalli (1602-1676); G. Carissimi ( 1 6 0 5 - 1 6 7 4 ) ; P. A. Cesti ( 1 6 2 3 1669); G. Legrenzi (1626-1690); A. Corellí ( 1 6 5 3 - 1 7 1 3 ) ; A. Steffani ( 1 6 5 4 - 1 7 2 8 ) ; A. Scarlatti (1660-1725); A. Vivaldi (c. 1 6 7 5 - 1 7 4 1 ) ; D. Scarlatti ( 1 6 8 5 1757); F. M. Veracini ( 1690-c. 1750). Germany: H. Schütz (1585-1672); J. H. Schein (15861630); S. Scheidt ( 1 5 8 7 - 1 6 5 4 ) ; F. Tunder ( 1 6 1 4 - 1 6 6 7 ) ; J. J. Froberger (c. 1616-1667); A. Krieger ( 1 6 3 4 - 1 6 6 6 ) ; D. Buxtehude ( 1637-1707); H. von Biber (1644-1704); G. Muffat ( 1 6 5 3 1704); J. Pachelbel (1653-1706); J. Kuhnau ( 1660-1722 ) ;G. P. Telemann ( 1 6 8 1 - 1 7 6 7 ) ; J. S. Bach ( 1 6 8 5 - 1 7 5 0 ) . France: D. Gaultier (c. 1 6 0 0 - 1 6 7 2 ) ; J. C.

BARYTON

de Chambonnières (c. 1602-c. 1672); J.-B. Lully ( 1 6 3 2 - 1 6 8 7 ) ; J.-H. d'Anglebert ( 1 6 5 3 - 1 6 9 1 ) ; F. Couperin ( 1 6 6 8 - 1 7 3 3 ) ; J.-P. Rameau ( 1 6 8 3 - 1 7 6 4 ) ; J. M. Leclair ( 1 6 9 7 - 1 7 6 4 ) . England: M. Locke (c. 1 6 3 0 - 1 6 7 7 ) ; J. Blow (1649-1708); H. Purcell ( 1 6 5 9 1695); G. F. Handel ( 1 6 8 5 1759). Netherlands: J. P. Sweelinck ( 1 5 6 2 - 1 6 2 1 ) . Barrel organ. See under chanical instruments.

Me-

Bartered Bride, The (Czech, Prodana Nevëstà). Comic opera by Bedrich Smetana (libretto by K. Sabina), produced in Prague, 1866. It is often sung in the German translation, Die verkaufte Braut. The opera describes an episode from Bohemian peasant life, centering around the love of Jenik (Hans, tenor) and Marenka (Maria, soprano). The former agrees to give up his right to Marenka's hand for a sum of money, under the condition that she marry "the son of Micha," whom everybody believes to be the stuttering Vasek (Wenzel, tenor). In the last scene, however, Jenik is revealed as Micha's eldest son by a former marriage, so the "sales contract" is fulfilled to the satisfaction of everyone. The Bartered Bride is one of the most successful examples of national opera (see under Nationalism), and in times of political oppression has contributed immensely to stimulate Czech patriotism. Baryton ( BAH-ree-ton ). An 18thcentury variety of the "viola da gamba, characterized by the addition of "sympathetic strings

BASS

28

(as in the *viola d'amore). Haydn wrote nearly 200 works for the baryton because his patron, the prince Nicolas Esterházy, played the instrument. Bass. See under Voices, Range of. Bass-bar. In violins, etc., a strip of wood glued inside the table (sound board). About eleven inches long and diminishing at either end, it serves to support the left foot of the "bridge and to spread over the table the vibrations of the bridge produced by those of the strings. Bass clarinet. See under Clarinet, Bass clef. See under Clefs. Bass dram. See under Drums. Basse danse (bahs dahnhs: F.). A slow dance of the 15th and 16th centuries, possibly so called because it was executed with low (bas) gliding steps (that is, the feet were not lifted ). It was frequently paired with a succeeding faster dance. See also under Dance music.

BATTUTA

Bass viol. Same as "double bass. Bastien and Bastienne (bahsTYANH and bahs-TYEN ). A miniature opera by Mozart written when he was twelve, first performed in 1768 in the garden theater of A. Mesmer, the hypnotist, in Vienna. The love of the "shepherd" couple Bastien (tenor) and Bastienne (soprano) is disturbed by the former's admiration of a "city" lady, but is quickly restored when, on the advice of the magician Colas (bass), Bastienne feigns to desert her lover. The utter simplicity of the story ( based on a parody of Rousseau's Le Devin du village) and the naïve charm of Mozart's immature style combine to make this a truly delightful work, a German counterpart of Pergolesi's La "Serva padrona. See under Singspiel. Baton (ba-TONH: F.). The stick used by a conductor when directing an ensemble. It is now abandoned by many conductors who prefer the more subtle movements of the hand,

Battle of the Huns, The (G., Die Hunnenschlacht). A symphonic poem by Liszt (1857), Basset horn. See under Clarinet, inspired by a painting of Kaulbach. Bass fiddle. Colloquial name for the "double bass. Battle of Victoria. See Wellington's Victory. Basso continuo (BAHS-so conTEE-nwo: It.). "Thoroughbass. Battre (batr: F.). To beat, e.g., battre à deux temps, two beats Basson (F.). Bassoon. to a measure. Bassoon. See under Oboe.

Battuta (bah-TOO-ta: It.). Beat. A battuta indicates a return to Basso ostinato. See Ground; Os- strict tempo after a deviation. In fast tempo, battuta means the tinato.

BAUERNKANTATE

29

strong beat at the beginning of the measure; hence ritmo di tre (quattro ) battute indicates that three (four) measures are to be grouped together in a phrase (for example, the Scherzo of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony).

BEGGAR'S OPERA

Beatitudes, The (F., Les Béatitudes). Oratorio by Franck for solo voices, chorus, and orchestra, set to the well-known text from the Scriptures (Sermon on the Mount, Matt, v: 3-12). It was completed in 1879. The choral texture is largely homoBauernkantate (G.). See Peasant phonic, the polyphonic interest lying almost entirely in the orCantata. chestral parts. Bay Psalm Book. See under Psalter. Beats. Acoustical phenomena resulting from the interference of Bayreuth Festivals. Annual festi- two sound waves of slightly difvals held in the opera house of ferent frequencies ( pitches ). Bayreuth (Bavaria) for the per- They are heard, as minute pulsaformance of Wagner's operas. tions at regular intervals. The They originated in 1876 with number of pulsations per second the first complete performance depends on, and is therefore an of the 'Ring of the Nibelung. indication of, the difference in pitch between two sounds. See BB-flat bass. See Brass instru- under Tuning. ments, He. Beautiful Maid of the Mill, The. B.c. Abbreviation for basso con- See Schöne Müllerin. tinuo ( 'thorough bass ). Bebop. A term coined about 1945 to describe jazz characterBear, The. See Ours, L'. ized by improvised solo performBearbeitung ( Be-AR-beye-toong: ances in dissonant and complex G. ). Arrangement, transcription. patterns, often by accentuation of the second and fourth beats Beat. (1) The temporal unit of in each 4/4 measure and by the a composition, as represented by 12-bar "blues" phrase structure the (real or imagined) up-and- (typical of all jazz music), and down movement of a conduc- sometimes by the singing of nontor's hand. The duration of such sense syllables. The term proba beat varies depending upon the ably originated from the latter tempo indication (e.g., adagio, practice. This style of jazz beallegro), with a metronome in- came generally popular after dication of 80 being a moderate World War II under the leaderspeed ( moderato ). In slow or ship of Dizzy Gillespie and medium tempo, the 4/4 measure Charlie ("Yardbird") Parker. has four beats, the 3/4 has three, the 2/4 has two. In fast tempo Becken (G.). Cymbals. there may be only two beats (in 4/4) or even one beat to Beggar's Opera, The. Ballad opthe measure (see under Battuta). era with music arranged by Pe— (2) See Beats. pusch (libretto by John Gay),

BEGLEITUNG

30

produced in London, 1728. T h e plot is a satirical presentation of life among the lower classes in early 18th-century London, the characters being highwaymen, pickpockets, and harlots. T h e most successful of all "ballad operas, it has been revived several times ( F . Austin, 1920; B. Britten, 1948), with fuller harmonization and orchestration. Another revival, with much t h e same plot b u t with n e w music, is Weill's * T h r e e p e n n y Opera. Begleitung (bay-GLEYE-toong: G. ). Accompaniment. Bel ( from Alexander Graham Bell). A scientific unit for the measurement of loudness. One tenth of a bel, called decibel (db), represents about the smallest degree of difference in loudness that can b e distinguished by t h e normal ear. Musical sounds vary from about 25 d b (softest violin tone) to about 100 d b (fortissimo of the full orchestra ). Bel canto (bei CAHN-to: It., beautiful song). T h e Italian vocal style and technique most notably developed during the 18th century, emphasizing beauty of sound and ease, flexibility, and brilliancy of performance rather than dramatic or emotional expression. In spite of its inherent danger (exaggeration of t h e purely virtuoso element), it is a basic vocal ideal and technique, particularly for Italian opera and for Mozart. Bell. A percussion instrument of metal (alloy of copper and t i n ) , sounded by a clapper placed inside t h e vessel. T h e sound of old

BERGAMASCA

( E u r o p e a n ) bells is characterized by a great number of overtones which are noticeably out of tune. Modern bells, mainly in England and America, have five overtones in accurate tuning. T h e largest bell ever f o u n d e d was the Tsar Kolokol ( Tsar's bell) of the Kremlin in Moscow (1733, damaged in 1737). It weighed about 350,000 pounds. Large modern bells usually weigh from 5,000 to 15,000 pounds. T h e earliest preserved bells are f o u n d in Italy and Germany (11th century). While in continental Europe several bells are often sounded simultaneously, producing a clamorous noise, English and American bells are usually r u n g in succession, producing a melody. See Change ringing; Carillon. Bell lyra. See u n d e r spiel.

Glocken-

Bells, Orchestral. Recent n a m e for either the 'glockenspiel or the 'chimes. Belly. T h e upper surface of violins, etc. Bémol ( b a y - M O L : F . ) , bemolle (bay-MAWL-lay: I t . ) . Flat, e.g., si-bémol, B-flat. Berceuse (bayr-SEUZ: F . ) . Cradle song, lullaby; also instrumental pieces of a like character, e.g., Chopin's Berceuse, op. 57, remarkable for its "monotonous" accompaniment ( "ostinato ). Bergamasca (BEYR-ga-mahs-ka). A famous popular tune from t h e district of Bergamo in northern Italy which was used repeatedly by 17th-century composers as a

BERGERETTE

31

theme for fugues (canzonas) or variations. The 19th-century bergamasca is a fast dance in 6/8 time, much like the tarantella. See also Suite Bergamasque. Bergerette (bayr-zhe-RET: F., from berger, shepherd). An 18thcentury type of French popular song, based on pastoral or amorous texts. See under Chanson.

BINARY FORM

from the moment he appears; and the corporal Squeak, whom Claggart employs for his scheme of tempting Billy to mutiny. In Act III, Claggart, who has accused Billy of mutiny, is told by Captain Vere to confront Billy with the accusation. The young seaman, who is afflicted with a speech impediment when excited, is struck dumb, and in his rage hits Claggart and kills him. Billy is sentenced by a court-martial to be hanged, a symbol of an innocent victim of evil. The music is somewhat somber in character, and provides an effective background for the dramatic events of the tragic story.

Berkshire Festivals. The Berkshire Symphonic Festivals were founded in 1934 at Stockbridge, Mass., by Henry K. Hadley. In 1936 the Boston Symphony Orchestra became the official orchestra of the annual summer festival, and its conductor, Serge Koussevitzky, became the guid- Binary form. A basic musical ing spirit of the whole enter- form, consisting of two sections, prise which, since 1940, has A and B, both of which are usuincluded a music school. The Festivals are now held at the permanent home of the Berkshire Music Center at Tanglewood near Lenox, Mass. The Berkshire Festivals of Chamber Music, inaugurated in 1918 by Mrs. Elizabeth Sprague Coolidge, take place in Pittsfield, Mass. Many chamber music works have been commissioned for and produced at the Festivals. Billy Budd. Opera in four acts by Benjamin Britten (libretto by E . M. Forster and E. Crozier, after the story by Melville ), produced in London, 1951. The plot takes place aboard the British warship Indomitable during the French Wars in 1797. The main characters are Captain Vere; Billy Budd, a young seaman who is impressed into British naval service; the master-atarms Claggart, who hates Billy

Fig.

12

BINARY FORM

32

ally repeated: ||:A:||:B:I|. Frequently encountered in folk song, it is the standard form for the single movements in the " suites of Bach and his predecessors. It occurs also in many of the themes used for sets of variations ( Bach's Goldberg Variations, Beethoven's Diabelli Variations, etc.), and occasionally in slow movements of "sonatas. Both sections are similar in musical design, the first usually modu-

BITONALITY

Sometimes the binary structure is obscured by the fact that the repeats are written out in full so that the second statement may be varied. Two examples in point are the slow movement of Mozart's Piano Sonata in C, K. 309, and Chopin's popular Nocturne in Ε-flat, op. 9, no. 2. Both are in rounded binary form, as appears in the following scheme (the figures indicate number of measures ) :

A A B Α Mozart: 16 ( 8 + 8 ) 16 12 8 Chopin: 4 4 4 4 lating from the tonic to the dominant, the second back to the tonic. Three varieties of binary form can be distinguished (see Fig. 1 2 ) : ( a ) symmetrical, ( b ) asymmetrical, and ( c ) rounded. The symmetrical variety is one in which both sections are of equal length, e.g., eight measures. The asymmetrical is one in which the second section is longer than the first. The dance movements of the Baroque suites are mostly in symmetrical, sometimes in asymmetrical form. The rounded variety is one in which the second section concludes with a restatement (or partial restatement) of the first: ||:A:||:B+A:||. The rounded binary form is of great importance in the music of the Classical period. It is almost mandatory for the minuets (or scherzos) and trios which form the third movements of sonatas, symphonies, string quartets, etc. (see under Minuet). One of the many other examples of rounded binary is the theme of the variations forming the first movement of Beethoven's Piano Sonata op. 26.

Β 12 4

A = ||:A:||:B+A:|| 8 (plus coda) 4 (plus coda)

From the historical point of view, rounded binary form is of great importance as the structural plan from which "sonata form directly evolved. Bind. Same as "tie. Bitonality. The simultaneous use of two different tonalities (keys), e.g., of B-flat minor in the left hand against F-sharp minor in the right (see Fig. 13a, from

r

; ,

j

j ·

J O T

b "

—ι *

.1

Fig.

13

BLACK BOTTOM

33

Prokofiev's Sarcasmes), or of C major against F-sharp major (Fig. 13b, from Stravinsky's Petrushka). This device has been used to quite an extent by 20thcentury composers seeking new tonal effects. It is often referred to as polytonality, although there are rarely more than two keys involved.

B-MINOR MASS

hands alternate rapidly with octaves, the passage (usually a scale, also a trill) being played essentially by the thumbs and doubled by the little fingers, alternately in the higher and in the lower octave. See Fig. 14. Blockflute, Blockflöte (G.). Recorder.

Black bottom. A type of slow Blues. A style of jazz, both vocal fox trot characterized by intricate and instrumental, introduced in steps. the first decade of the 20th century. The principal sources of the Black-Key Etude. Nickname of blues appear to be Negro work Chopin's Etude, op. 10, no. 5, songs and spirituals, but the in G-flat major, in which the earliest traceable example is right hand uses only black keys. probably the "Memphis Blues" (written in 1909; published Blasinstrument (BLAHZ-in-stroo- 1912) by the Negro musician ment: G. ). Wind instrument. W. C. Handy. The most persistent characteristic of the blues is Blech, B l e c h i n s t r u m e n t a 12-measure pattern, instead of (BLEKH-in-stroo-ment: G.). the 8- and 16-measure patterns Brass, brass instrument. Blech- of ragtime. The blues are further bläser, brass players. characterized by a smoother, less percussive rhythm and a slower Blessed Damozel, The (F., La tempo than ragtime. The name Damoiselle élue ). Debussy's can- is obviously related to the "blue tata for women's voices ( solo notes," i.e., the third and sevand chorus) with orchestra, sub- enth scale degrees which are mitted in fulfillment of his obli- used either natural or flatted, gation as a holder of the Grand and which are frequently played Prix de Rome from 1884 to 1887. deliberately out of tune. Based on a poor translation of portions of Rossetti's poem, the work was accepted by the Insti- B-minor Mass. A great Mass by tute with serious misgivings, the Bach, for soloists, chorus, and style being criticized as much orchestra, composed 1733-38 to the (Latin) text of the Roman too unorthodox. Catholic "Mass. The five items of the Mass are subdivided into Blind octaves. A trick device of many sections treated as chopiano virtuosity, in which both ruses, arias, duets, etc. Several of these are rewritten from earlier cantatas, among them the famous Crucifixus (from Cantata no. 12, Weinen, Klagen). The fact that the foremost Protestant composer wrote a Catholic Mass has long

BOEHM

SYSTEM

34

been a matter of special interest and of controversy. Undoubtedly some opportunism was involved when, in 1733, he sent the Kyrie and the Gloria to the Catholic king of Saxony, requesting the title of Court Composer. Whatever the motives, we can only be grateful that denominational considerations are set aside in this magnificent work which stands before us as a testament of one great universal faith. Boehm system (beum). An improved system of keying woodwind instruments, invented about 1830 by Theobald Boehm, which allows the holes to be cut in the proper acoustical position and size, and yet be within the spread of the average hand. It permits the performance of trills and rapid passages that were impossible on the older instruments in which most of the holes were covered directly by the fingers. Instruments provided with this key system, as is generally the case today, are sometimes called Boehm flutes, etc.

BOOGIE-WOOGIE

The opera, one of the bestknown examples of * verismo, approximates, in its light texture, clarity of orchestration, and lyric style, the French opera rather than the typically Italian opera (Verdi). Bolero (bo-LAYR-o). A Spanish dance, for a solo dancer or a couple, which includes many brilliant and intricate steps and characteristic motions, such as the sudden stop with one arm held arched over the head ( bien parado). The music is in moderate triple time with accompaniment of castanets and with rhythms such as shown in Fig. 15. Particularly famous are Cho-

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I

ι r m n h n

ι

Fig. 15

pin's Bolero for pianoforte, op. 19, and Ravel's for orchestra (1928). The latter, often used for ballet performance, consists of a single theme stated over and over in a long crescendo Bohème, La (bo-EM: The Bo- and presented in a fascinating hemian World). Opera by Puc- variety of orchestral colorations. cini (libretto by G. Giacosa and L. Illica, based on H. Murger's Bonne chanson, La (bun shahnhnovel, La Vie de Bohème), pro- SONH). A song cycle composed duced in Turin, 1896. The set- by Fauré in 1892, based on eight ting is Paris in the 1840's, and poems from Verlaine's collection the opera gives a touching of that title. though somewhat sentimental description of the life of young Boogie-woogie. Originally a speartists, centering around the love cial type of piano "blues, first of the poet Rodolfo (tenor) and heard in Chicago in the early of Mimi ( soprano ), who dies of 1920's (Jimmy Yancey, "Pineconsumption in the last act. The top" Smith), and later revived lighter side of Bohemian life is about 1935 on commercial rerepresented by another couple, cordings, both by pianists Marcello (baritone) and Mu- ( Meade "Lux" Lewis, Albert setta (soprano). Ammons, Pete Johnson) and by

35

BOP

ensembles ( Benny Goodman's "Roll 'em"). It is characterized by a repeated bass figure ( "ostinato) against which the right hand improvises freely. Bop. See

Bebop.

Boris Godunov (BO-ris gaw-dooNAWF). Opera by Moussorgsky (to his own libretto, based on Pushkin's drama), composed 1868-69 and produced in St. Petersburg, 1874. The action takes place during the years 1598-1608 in Moscow where Boris Godunov ( bass ), after having murdered Dmitri, the rightful heir to the throne, rules over Russia. Suffering from a sense of guilt (in the Prologue he is in a monastery in order to gain expiation ), and frightened by the appearance of the "false Dmitri" ( the young monk, Gregory, a tenor), he admits his crime and, bequeathing the crown to his young son, Feodor (mezzo-soprano), falls dead. Boris Godunov is the outstanding masterpiece of Russian national opera. Its musical style is remarkably advanced for its time, and many innovations of a more recent date have been traced to this work, e.g., the use of "parallel chords, "modality, and other unconventional devices. Particularly striking is the prominence of the chorus, representing the Russian people, and it has been said that they are the real protagonist of the opera rather than Boris himself.

BOWING

States, the Boston is a slow waltz with a sophisticated rhythm, single beats or whole measures of the accompaniment being suppressed. A good example occurs in Hindemith's Suite 1922. Bouché ( F . ) . See under Cuivré. Bourrée (boo-RAY). A French 17th-century dance, probably from the Auvergne, in quick 4/4 meter and with an upbeat (4/1234/123 . . .). It occurs among the optional dances of the Baroque "suite. Bow. The implement used for playing on a stringed instrument, consisting essentially of a wooden stick with horsehair stretched from its lower end (called nut or frog) to the tip. Its name derives from the fact that it was originally shaped much like the bow used in archery. The bow design in present-day use was developed by François Tourte (1747-1833). It has a long, tapering, and slightly inward-curving stick, made from Fernambuco wood, and a screw mechanism for the adjustment of the tension of the horsehair. Although it is now universally used, a 17th-century German type of bow has been recommended for playing Bach (particularly his pieces for unaccompanied violin such as the famous Chaconne). On this latter bow it is possible to control the tension of the hairs by pressure of the thumb, and thus the numerous full chords in the Chaconne are more easily executed than with the modern bow.

Boston, Valse Boston. A term hardly known in America, but widely used in Europe, particularly in Germany, during the Bowing. The technique of using period after World War I. Called the bow on stringed instruments "hesitation waltz" in the United (violins, etc.). There are numer-

36

BOWING

ous manners of bowing ( some of them rather elusive in terminology and description), the most important of which are the following. ( 1 ) Plain bowing ( legato ) consists of the two basic strokes, down-bow and up-bow (indicated by ( a ) and ( b ) of Fig. 16). The slur ( c ) indicates that abc

a

π ν

Ι7Ώ

JTnh7iJ7i> » » ? » · · · · v^· h

-

Fig. 16 a group of notes is to be taken in a single stroke. ( 2 ) Détaché. A broad vigorous stroke applied to single notes of equal value, not too fast. Sometimes indicated as under (d).

( 3 ) Martelé, martellato. Literally, a "hammered" stroke, that is, played with very short strokes, usually at the tip of the bow. Indicated as in ( e ) . ( 4 ) S piccato. A short stroke played in rapid tempo in the middle of the bow, so that the bow bounces on the strings. Other terms for much the same thing are sautillé, saltato, saltando, piqué. Indicated as in ( f ) . ( 5 ) Ricochet. This is done by throwing the bow, in its upper section, on the string so that it will bounce several times on the down-bow. Notation as under (g)· ( 6 ) Staccato. This is a difficult solo effect, which may be described as a number of martelé or hammered notes taken in

BRASS

INSTRUMENTS

the same stroke. Notation as under ( h ) . See also sul ponticello, sul tasto ( under Sul ) ; col legno ( under Col); Tremolo. Brace. The bracket connecting two or more staves in a score for pianoforte, chamber music, etc. Hence, also the group of staves thus connected. Brandenburg Concertos. Six concertos written by Bach in 1721 and dedicated to Christian Ludwig, Margrave of Brandenburg. They represent the artistic peak of the Baroque concerto ( see Concerto ). Each consists of three movements, fast-slowfast, except for the first, which has a Minuet and a Polacca added at the end. Three of them, nos. 2, 4, and 5, are concerti grossi, employing a group of solo instruments against the string orchestra. Brass band. A band consisting ordinarily of cornets, alto saxhorns, trombones, baritones or euphoniums, BB-flat basses, drums, and occasionally trumpets, bugles, and kettledrums (see Brass instruments I I ) . The brass band movement is particularly popular in England, where such bands are frequently found attached to high schools, colleges, religious groups (Salvation Army), factories, etc. Brass instruments. The group of wind instruments made from brass or some other metal and having a cup-shaped mouthpiece. The large number of brass instruments can be conveniently divided into two groups, one

BRASS INSTRUMENTS

37

comprising those that are standard members of the orchestra, the other those used mainly in bands. I. Orchestral Instruments. The brass section of the modern orchestra consists of the "horn, the "trumpet, the "trombone, and the 'tuba. The tuba and the horn are related, both having a conical pipe, and the trombone and the trumpet are related, both having a pipe which, for its major part, is cylindrical and widens into a relatively small bell. Other instruments occasionally used in the orchestra are the Wagner tubas ( see under Tuba) and the cornet (see under II below). II. Band Instruments (see Brass band). (a) Cornet. An instrument similar in shape to the trumpet, but shorter and with a relatively longer conical part of the pipe. It is pitched in Bb and has a range from e to bb" (with a written range from f í to c'"; see under Transposing instrument). Its tone quality is similar to that of the trumpet, although somewhat less brilliant. Owing to its shorter tube it is capable of considerably greater agility and has, therefore, sometimes been used in the orchestra, especially by French and Italian composers. ( b ) Flügelhorn. Similar in design and size to the cornet, but with a wider bore, resulting in a sound somewhat like that of the horn, though lacking the latter's mellowness. It has the same range as the cornet. ( c ) Mellophone. Designed like the French horn, but differing, among other things, in its having three upright pistons, like the saxhorns (see below). The

BRIDGE

PASSAGE

range is a fifth below that of the cornet. ( d ) Baritone, Euphonium. Larger instruments of the Flügelhorn type, and built in two shapes: like a trumpet, with the bell pointing upwards, or oval, with the bell facing backwards. The range of the baritone is an octave below the cornet. The euphonium has a fourth valve for additional bass notes. ( e ) BB-flat Bass. The largest and lowest pitched of the group, with a range two octaves below that of the cornet. Its normal shape is similar to the baritone, but it also exists in two other shapes: Helicon, which is circular and carried over the shoulder; and Sousaphone (named after J. P. Sousa, who suggested it), which has a widely flaring bell of a conspicuous shape. Most of these instruments are derived from the saxhorns, a family of brass instruments invented by Adolphe Sax and designed on a uniform model, i.e., upright and with three pistons standing on top of the tube. The bass size is known as Sax tuba. Bratsche (BRAH-tshe: G. From It. viola da braccio, arm viol). Viola. Breve, brevis. See under Notes and rests. Bridge. ( 1 ) In stringed instruments ( violin, etc. ), the wooden support atop the table across which the strings are stretched. It serves to raise the strings and transmit vibrations to the instrument proper. See under Violin. — ( 2 ) Short for "bridge passage. Bridge passage. In musical composition, a passage of subordinate

BRINDISI

38

importance serving as a connection between two sections or themes, e.g., between the first and second themes in " sonata form. Brindisi ( BRIN-dee-zee : It. ). Drinking song, particularly in operas, e.g., Verdi's La Traviata ("Libiamo") or Mascagni's Cavalleria rusticana ( "Viva il vino" ).

BURGUNDIAN SCHOOL

Bugle. ( 1 ) A military instrument, somewhat in the shape of a trumpet, but without valves and therefore capable of producing only the natural tones (for example, g-d'-g'-b'-d" ) such as occur in military signals. See illustration. — ( 2 ) The term is also used as a generic name for the instruments of the Flu gelhorn type, described under "Brass instruments, lib.

Brio, Con ( B R E E - o : It.). With vigor and spirit. Broken chord. The notes of a chord (triad, seventh chord, etc.) played successively, as, e.g., in the "Alberti bass. Chopin's works contain many examples of in- Burgundian School. The leading geniously devised broken-chord group of composers of the early 15th century, mostly residents of patterns, also called arpeggios. the duchy of Burgundy and repBuckwheat notes. See under Fa- resented chiefly by Dufay (c. 1400-1474) and Binchois (c. sola. 1400-1467). It was formerly Bühne (BUIH-ne: G.). Stage. called the First "Netherlands Buhnenfestspiel ( stage festival School. The music of this period play ) and Biihneniveihfestspiel is prevailingly secular (as is that (stage-consecrating festival play) of the 14th century), but Dufay are Wagner's designations for his wrote a number of Masses Ring of the Nibelung and Parsi- (among them the earliest known Mass on " L ' h o m m e armé) and fal respectively. other religious works (motets, Bürger als Edelmann, Der hymns), thus foreshadowing the (BUIR-ger ahls AY-del-mahn: trend toward sacred music which G. ). German title of Molière's appears fully established in the comedy, Le Bourgeois Gentil- "Flemish School (Ockeghem, homme, to which R. Strauss set Obrecht). Abandoning the exagincidental music. The play, in a gerations, dissonances, and rhythshortened version by H. von mic complexities of the late 14th Hofmannsthal, was performed in century, Dufay and Binchois deconnection with the première of veloped, under the influence of Strauss's opera °Ariadne auf the English master Dunstable (c. 1370-1435), a musical lanNaxos. guage of great delicacy and refinement, notable for its transparBuffo (BOOF-fo: It.). A comic ent beauty and tenderness. Charcharacter in Italian opera, usuacteristic traits are "fauxbourdon ally a bass (basso buffo).

39

BURLA

CADENCE

passages and the "Burgundian" A composition in a jesting, boiscadence ( see under Cadence ). terous mood. Also a light ( o r even vulgar) comic opera. Burla, burlesca, burletta ( I t . ) , burlesque ( F . ) , Burleske ( G . ) . Butterfly. See Madame Butterfly.

c C. See under Pitch

names.

A cadence is called perfect (final, full) if the last chord is the C. a. Col arco (see under Col). "tonic triad ( I ) with the "root of the chord in both the top Cabaletta (cah-bah-LET-ta: It.). (soprano) and bottom (bass) A short operatic song in popular parts, preceded either by the style, rhythmically simple in melody and accompaniment. T h e y are frequent in the operas of Rossini. Verdi used the term for the final sections of arias and duets, written in faster tempo (stretto) and uniform rhythm. Caccia ( C A H T - c h a : It., chase, h u n t ) . A type of 14th-century Italian music (see Ars nova) in which a lively text, dealing with hunting, fishing, or other naturalistic subjects, is presented as a two-voice "canon, supported by a free tenor in longer note values. Cachucha ( c a - C H O O - c h a : S p . ) . A Spanish dance in triple time from Andalusia, similar to the "bolero but faster and more energetic. Cadence (from L . cadere, to f a l l ) . A progression of two or more "chords used at the end of a composition, section, or phrase to convey a feeling of permanent or temporary repose.

Fig.

17

CADENZA

40

"dominant ( V ) or "subdominant ( I V ) . The term imperfect denotes an otherwise perfect cadence where the root of the chord does not appear in the top part. The formula V-I is called authentic cadence (Fig. 17a); IV-I is called piagai (Fig. 17b). The authentic cadence usually occurs as a part of longer formulas IV-

CADENZA

soloist's final cadence (hence the name), beingg inserted between the chords and V (see Cadence, Fig. 17d), as shown in Fig. 18. The cadenzas of concertos make ample use of highly virtuoso passage work, but also draw from the thematic substance of the movement, presenting its subjects in artfully devised modifications or combinaV-I (Fig. 17c) or IV-I^-V-I tions. They usually close with ( 17d ), sometimes called mixed an extended trill on the domicadences because both IV and V fl » t -π fi. ^ chords are present. Half cadences use the same formulas transposed to the dominant ( Fig. 17e, 1 ^ f ) or subdominant (g, h ) , thendistinctive feature being the ab(cadenza) sence of the tonic ( I ) as the final chord. A cadence is called deceptive (interrupted) if the tonic chord is — deceptively — replaced by some other chord such as VI or III (Fig. 17i, j ) . ν In medieval music (prior to Fig. 18 1450 ) cadences usually show the melodic progression II-I in the nant ( V ) , after which the orlowest part (Fig. 17k, 1). Of chestra closes the cadenza with particular interest are the "Bur- the tonic chord ( I ) , followed by gundian" cadence, which is dis- a short coda. tinguished by two "leading Originally ( 18th century ) catones" (Fig. 171), and the so- denzas were not written by the called Landini cadence ( Fig. composer, but were improvised 17m), frequently found in com- by the player. This was the case positions of Machaut, Landini, in all the concertos of Mozart and the Burgundian masters, and and in most of those by Beethocharacterized by the melodic ven. Present-day performers use progression 7-6-8 in the top part. cadenzas written by such artists as Hummel, Moscheles, ReinCadenza (ca-DEN-za). A pas- ecke, Joachim ( for the violin sage or section in the style of a concertos), and Busoni, or, ocbrilliant improvisation, placed casionally, write their own canear the end of a solo composi- denzas. There exist original cation such as an aria or, espe- denzas ( written later by the cially, a concerto, giving the per- composers themselves) to all the former a chance to exhibit his Beethoven concertos and to a technical mastery. Normally the number of Mozart's, but these cadenza forms a part of the are hardly ever used by modern

CAISSE

41

performers because they do not conform to present-day standards of virtuosity. However, from the point of view of musical style they are superior to most of the cadenzas commonly heard, in which considerations of stylistic unity are often treated very lightly. It is not unusual to hear a concerto by Mozart winding up with a cadenza full of the lush harmonies and heavy texture of the late Romantic period. Beethoven was the first to do away with the optional cadenza, in his last concerto, op. 73 ("Emperor Concerto), by including a written-out cadenza as an integral part of the first movement. His precedent was followed by nearly all the later composers of concertos ( Schumann, Brahms, Tchaikovsky ).

CAMPANE

Calypso. A kind of extemporaneous singing which originated in the Caribbean islands, notably Haiti and Trinidad. Native Calypso singers compete in regular singing contests, where they are given general subjects, usually topical or political in nature, upon which they must extemporize rhymed lyrics, following a highly conventional melodic pattern. The singers employ a peculiar Anglo-French dialect which is sometimes comprehensible only to the natives. Cambia, cambiano ( CAHM-bi-a, cahm-BI-ah-no: It., it changes, they change). Direction in orchestral scores to change instruments or tuning (see under Muta).

Cambiata (cahm-bi-AH-ta: It.). (cays: F . ) . Drum. Caisse See under Nonharmonic tones, 1. snare drum; caisse rouor sourde, tenor drum; Camera (CAH-me-ra: It., chamber). In Baroque music da cacaisse, bass drum. mera indicates domestic music, as opposed to da chiesa, i.e., Calliope (cal-EYE-o-pee). An music for the church. For sonata instrument, invented in America da camera and sonata da chiesa, in the 1880's and named after see under Sonata, II. the Muse of Eloquence, which consists of a number of steam- Camerata (cah-me-RAH-ta: It.). blown whistles played from a Name for a group of distinkeyboard. It can be heard at a guished amateurs, writers, artists, great distance and is still occa- and musicians who, shortly besionally used at fairs, circuses, fore 1600, gathered in the drawetc. ing room ( camera) of Count Caisse claire, lante, grosse

Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage (G., Meeresstille und glückliche Fahrt). Orchestral overture by Mendelssohn (op. 27, 1828 ), based on two short poems by Goethe. The same pair of poems was also set by Beethoven as a cantata for chorus and orchestra (op. 112, 1815).

Bardi at Florence, in order to discuss the possibilities of dramatic music in imitation of the ancient Greek tragedy. These discussions played an important role in the rise of e opera. See also Nuove musiche. Campane (cahm-PAH-nay: It.). Bells; also orchestral chimes.

CAMPANELLA

42

Campanella ( cahm-pa-NEL-la : It. ) · ( 1 ) Title for compositions imitating the sound of bells, especially for Liszt's Transcendental Etude no. 3, based on a theme from the last movement of Paganini's Violin Concerto in Β minor in which a bell is used. — ( 2 ) Glockenspiel (also campanette). Cancan. A French dance of the last half of the 19th century which developed from the quadrille, introducing features of unrestrained gaiety and of vulgarity. Cancel. See under

Accidentals.

Cancrizans ( KANG-kri-zanz : L., from cancer, crab). In crabwise motion, i.e., ^retrograde.

CANON

"caccias of the 14th century. Several of the Masses on *L'homme armé ( 15th century ) include canons of this melody, and these are interesting as the earliest examples showing the application of canonic imitation to a pre-existing melody, rather than to one devised for this purpose. The most ingenious examples of this type are Bach's Five Canonic Variations on the Christmas Song ("Vom Himmel hoch"). The canon has frequently been used in 19th-century symphonies and sonatas, e.g., in Beethoven's Fifth Symphony, which closes with a triumphant canonic presentation of the main theme of the last movement. Similar examples occur in Brahms, Bruckner, Franck, and others. Yet another method of "prescribed" canon is the canonic variation, that is, the writing of a canon

Canon (Gr., law, rule). A contrapuntal device whereby an extended melody, stated in one part, is imitated strictly and for its entire length in one or more other parts. The canon is the strictest species of "imitative counterpoint. While imitation occurs sporadically in a fugue, it is continuously present in a canon. Any motive heard in the leading voice will appear in the imitating voice or voices (see Fig. 19). Various types of canon are distinguished according to the distance of the voice parts (one, two, etc. measures), the interval of imitation (canon of the unison, fifth, etc. ), or special devices, as in the canon by augFig. 19 mentation, in which the imitating voice has the melody in doubled as a variation of a given theme. note values (see under Augmen- The most celebrated examples tation ). are the ten canons contained in The earliest examples of canon Bach's "Goldberg Variations. are the famous "Sumer is icumen The variations by Mozart, Beein (c. 1280) and the Italian thoven, and Brahms often in-

CANTATA

43

elude one or two variations of this kind. A special type of canon, often used for popular entertainment, is the "round. See also Catch. Cantata. A composite form of vocal music, mainly of the Baroque period, consisting of a number of movements (four to six or more) such as arias, recitatives, duets, and choruses. The text may be either religious or secular. Owing to Bach's activity in this field, the church cantata is particularly well known. Originally, however, the cantata was a secular composition for solo voice and continuo ( see Thorough bass) based on love lyrics, and it always retained this character in its native country, Italy, where it developed shortly after 1600 as one of the offspring of the "monodie style ( opera, oratorio ). Outstanding among the Italian masters of the cantata are Luigi Rossi ( 1 5 9 7 1653), Giacomo Carissimi (16051674), and Alessandro Scarlatti (1660-1725), whose more than six hundred cantatas usually consist of two arias in contrasting character, each one preceded by a recitative. Similar cantatas, mostly for one singer (solo cantata), were written in France, e.g., by André Campra ( 1 6 6 0 1744) and Jean-Philippe Rameau (1683-1764).

CANTIGAS

1707). Bach was one of the most prolific writers of cantatas, with about two-hundred sacred and about twenty-five secular works (approximately a hundred are lost). Most of his church cantatas date from the Leipzig period (1723-50) and follow a fairly uniform scheme, beginning with an extended chorus in fugai style, continuing with a number of recitatives and arias for several soloists, and closing with a "chorale (hymn) in four-part harmony. An example is Du Hirte Israel, höre (no. 104). There are also a number of solo cantatas, such as the Kreuzstab cantata (no. 56) for bass and orchestra, as well as "chorale cantatas, e.g., Christ lag in Todesbanden (no. 4 ) . Among his secular cantatas are the "Peasant Cantata, the "Coffee Cantata, and Phoebus and Pan (see under Streit zwischen Phöbus und Pan).

Canticle, canticum. In the Roman and Anglican liturgies, a scriptural text similar to a Psalm but occurring outside of the Psalter of David. The most important ones are the canticle of the Virgin, "Magnificat anima mea Dominum ( My soul doth magnify the Lord; Luke 1:46), and the canticle of Simeon, Nunc dimittis servum tuum ( Lord, now lettest thou thy servant depart The German development of in peace; Luke 2 : 2 9 ) . the cantata shows different traits, such as preference for the church cantata and the employ- Cantigas ( cahn-TEE-gas ). Spanment of more varied resources, ish monophonie songs of the 13th e.g., choruses, orchestra, and sev- century, mostly in honor of the eral soloists. Outstanding among Virgin, collected (and to a large the predecessors of Bach are extent probably written) by the Franz Tunder (1614-1667) and king Alfonso the Wise who ruled Dietrich Buxtehude ( 1637- from 1252-84. They are mostly

CANTILLATION

44

CAPRICCIO

in the form of the French "vire- sons of the early 16th century (see Chanson, 2 ) . These were lai. reprinted, without text, in Italy Cantillation ( can-til-LAY-shun ). under the name of "canzona Chanting in plainsong style, es- francese" and became the point pecially with reference to the of departure for the composition of new instrumental pieces, often Jewish service. called canzone da sonare. They are of a lively character and, in Cantor. In the Roman Catholic their fully developed form, and Jewish service, the solo consist of several sections of singer. In the German Protestant contrasting design, involving Church, the director of the changes of meter, tempo, texture, church music (e.g., Bach was etc. They were written for either often referred to as Thomasa keyboard instrument ( organ kantor, cantor of St. Thomas canzona) or an instrumental enChurch in Leipzig). semble. In the 17th century these two types developed in different Cantus firmus (L., fixed song). directions. In the organ canzona A pre-existing melody which is emphasis was placed on the fugai made the basis of a polyphonic treatment, so that it finally becomposition, contrapuntal voices came a lively fugue in three or being added to it. Prior to 1300 more sections, all usually based practically all polyphonic pieces on rhythmic variants of one and (except for the "conductus ) the same theme (variation canwere cantus-firmus compositions, zona). As late as about 1720 based on melodies taken from Bach wrote such organ canzonas. Gregorian chant (see Organum; In the ensemble canzona emClausula; Motet). In the 15th phasis was placed on the elecentury secular melodies were ment of contrast, the short secoccasionally used as a cantus tions being extended into larger firmus for Masses, e.g., the parts, and finally into separate β L'homme armé tune. Most of "movements." Thus the instruthe liturgical organ compositions mental canzona led directly to (organ hymns, etc.) of the 16th the Baroque sonata of the late century are based on Gregorian 17th century. cantus firmi. In the Baroque period, the most important repertory of cantus-firmus composi- Canzonet (can-zo-NET: from little song ). tions is that of the German It. canzonetta, Short vocal pieces in a light vein, Protestant 'chorale preludes. much in the character of a dance song, written by the English Canzona, canzone (cahn-TSO-na, madrigalists about 1600. cahn-TSO-nay: It.). ( 1 ) Designation for a lyrical song, partic- Cappella. See A cappella. ularly in Italian operas. — ( 2 ) An important type of instru- Capriccio (cap-REET-cho: It., mental music of the 16th and from capra, goat ). ( 1 ) Title for 17th centuries, which developed a composition of a capricious or from the Franco-Flemish chan- humorous character. — ( 2 ) In

CAPRICCIO ESPAGNOL

45

CARMEN

the 17 th century, name for pieces in a lively fugai style and often involving some special trick, as, e.g., in Frescobaldi's Capriccio sopra il cucu in which the call of the woodcock is persistendy used. Bach's Capriccio sopra la lontananza del suo fratello dilettissimo (c. 1705) is a free program piece picturing in a number of short movements "the departure of his beloved brother" Johann Jacob who went into military service.

Cardillac ( CAR-dee-yak ). Opera by Hindemith (libretto by F. Lion, based on E. T. A. Hoffmann's story Das Fräulein von Scuderi), produced in Dresden, 1926; extensively revised and produced in Zurich, 1952. Cardillac is a goldsmith who cannot bear to part with his creations, and commits heinous crimes to repossess them. The course of the opera deals with these crimes and with his final destruction. The music has an intricate rhythmic and contrapuntal texture, and makes notable use of Capriccio Espagnol ( es-pahnchoral passages with dramatic Y O L ) . A symphonic suite, op. effectiveness. 34, by Rimski-Korsakov, composed in 1887. A masterpiece of brilliant orchestration, the work Carillon (CAR-i-yon). ( 1 ) A set is in five sections: Alborada, of bells placed in a tower and Variations, Alborada, Scene and played by means of a keyboard Gypsy Song, Fandango. Native or a mechanism. Carillons origdance rhythms and melodic inated in the Low Countries the Netherlands ) figures evoke a Spanish atmos- ( Belgium, where they were known as early phere. as the 15th century. In the 19th century they became popular in Caprìccio Italien (ee-tal-YEN). England and, more recently, in A symphonic poem by Tchaikov- America. A modern carillon consky, op. 45, written in 1880 sists of 30 to 50 bells, tuned as while the composer was visiting a chromatic scale, whose clapin Italy. Italian folk songs pro- pers are connected by wires to vide most of the thematic mate- long wooden keys which form a rial. manual and a pedal keyboard. The manual keys are struck with Capricorn Concerto. A concerto the fist protected by a glove. for small orchestra, op. 21, com- Among the largest carillons are posed by Samuel Barber in 1944 those at the University of and named for his house, "Capri- Chicago Chapel and at the corn," in Mt. Kisco, N. Y. The Riverside Church in New York. instruments are treated in the — ( 2 ) The orchestral glockenmanner of the Baroque "concerto spiel. grosso with the flute, oboe, and trumpet set off both as a group Carmen. French opera in four and as individual soloists against acts by Bizet (libretto by Meilthe string orchestra. hac and Halévy, based on a Card Game, The. See Jeu cartes.

novel by Mérimée), produced de in Paris, 1875. The central figure is the gypsy girl Carmen

CARMINA BURANA

46

( mezzo-soprano ). A sergeant of the guard, Don José (tenor), deserts his regiment and joins Carmen in a band of smugglers. The fickle Carmen soon abandons him in favor of the bullfighter, Escamillo (bass), to whom she promises herself on condition that he is victorious in a certain bullfight. In a jealous rage, Don José stabs Carmen just as Escamillo emerges triumphant from the arena. The lyric contrast to Carmen is furnished by Don José's former sweetheart Micaela ( soprano ). To this dramatic and realistic plot Bizet has written music which, although in a "popular" vein, rises to greater heights of artistic accomplishment than hundreds of more ambitious and more "serious" operas. Although the music has been termed "pseudo-Spanish," Carmen represents to most people the essence of Spanish life and Spanish music ( see Flamenco ). It is interesting to note that the opera was only moderately successful at its first performance, and that one of its most popular selections, the "Habanera, is not by Bizet but was taken from a collection of Spanish songs by Yradier. (See Seguidilla; Comic opera. )

CARNIVAL

poser into a three-part dramatic presentation called Trionfi in 1953. Carnaval Romain (car-na-VAL ro-MAYNH: F . ) . See Roman Carnival. Carnival (original title, Carnaval). A piano composition by Schumann, op. 9 (1834), consisting of twenty-one short pieces portraying various characters and scenes which might appear at a masked ball. Among them are Pierrot, Arlequin, Eusebius and Florestan ( see Davidsbiindler Tänze ), Chiarina ( Clara Wieck, later Schumann's wife), Chopin, and Paganini. It closes with a grandiose "March of the Davidleaguers against the Philistines." The subtitle, "Scènes mignonnes sur quatre notes" (Little Scenes on Four Notes ), refers to the use of four notes forming the word Asch (a town in Bohemia where a girl, a friend of Schumann's, lived ), a word which, in German "pitch names, becomes A—Eb ( Es, facetiously for S ) — C—B, or Ab (As)—C—-B.

These musical mottos appear as the opening notes of most of the pieces, the former in nos. 2 to 9, the latter in nos. 10 to 19 (in no. 2 in the left hand; in Carmina Burana (Songs of Beu- no. 5 ornamentally disguised; in ren). A group of 13th-century no. 10 in the grace notes). Latin secular songs set for soloists, chorus, and orchestra by Carnival of the Animals, The Carl Orff in 1937. The title re- (F., Le Carnaval des animaux). fers to the Bavarian monastery of A "Grand Zoological Fantasy" Benedictbeuren where the orig- for orchestra and two pianos by inal manuscript was found. Saint-Saëns, composed in 1886. Performed either in concert form In a series of brief "character or as a "scenic cantata" with pieces entitled Introduction and scenery and costumes, the work Lions, Hens and Cocks, Horses, was incorporated by the com- Tortoises, Elephants, Kangaroos,

CARNIVAL OF VENICE

47

CATECHISM CHORALES

Aquarium, Personages with Long Ears (Mules), Cuckoo in the Woods, Birds, Pianists, Fossils, The Swan, and Finale, the composer uses various instruments and sections of the orchestra in descriptive fashion. Best known from this work is the cello solo, "The Swan."

shaped pieces of hard wood, hinged together by a string which passes over the thumb and the first finger of the player's hand. They are used by Spanish dancers, usually in pairs, one in each hand. The castanets of the modern orchestra (e.g., in Bizet's Carmen) have springs and handles which facilitate Carnival of Venice. An Italian playing, but which lack the popular melody of the 19th cen- finesse of true Castanet playing. tury which has been used by a number of composers (Paganini, Castrato (cahs-TRAH-to: It.). A Herz, Benedict) as a theme for male soprano or alto who has been castrated in order to prevariations. serve the youthful range and Carol. An English traditional character of his voice. The song of a joyful character ( Easter operation was frequently praccarol, May carol), particularly ticed in Italy during the 17th one for Christmas ( Christmas and 18th centuries, and procarol). The earliest existing ex- duced such famous castrati as amples date from the 15th cen- F. Senesino (c. 1680-c. 1750), tury. Very likely the carols orig- G. Caffarelli (1703-1783), and inally were dancing songs, a C. Farinelli (1750-1782). Their surmise suggested not only by voices were greatly admired for the word (from F. carole, round their unusually wide range comdance) but also by the fact that bined with great power and a all the old carols have a refrain. peculiar, youthful tone color. Cassa (CAHS-sa: It.). Bass drum, also called gran cassa, or cassa grande. Cassa rullante, tenor drum.

Catalog Aria. Famous aria in Mozart's opera *Don Giovanni in which the servant Leporello gives an inventory of his master's numerous amorous adventures.

Cassation ( cas-SAY-shun ). An instrumental form of the late 18th century, designed for outdoor performance by a small orchestra. It is very similar to the "divertimento. The name may be derived from It. cassare, to say farewell, or from L. gassatim, streetlike.

Catch. English "rounds of the 17th and 18th centuries. They were particularly in vogue during the reign of Charles II, and it was mainly in this period that they acquired their disreputable distinction, i.e., the indecent, often clearly obscene, nature of their texts. In modern editions (e.g., the Complete Works of Casse-Noisette (cahs-nwah-ZET: Purcell) these texts are altered or replaced by others. F . ) . See Nutcracker Suite. Castanets. A percussion instru- Catechism Chorales. See under ment consisting of two shell- Ciavierübung.

48

CATGUT

CELLO

Catgut. The tough chord used for the strings of violins, etc., actually made from the intestines of animals, especially of sheep (not, as its name would imply, of cats).

Cavatina (cah-vah-TEE-na: It.). In 18th- and 19th-century operas or oratorios, a simple and short solo song, lacking the elaborate methods of form and style found in the aria. The term has also been applied to songlike pieces Cat's Fugue. Popular name of a for instruments. fugue by Domenico Scarlatti (1685-1757), so called because Cave of the Heart. See Medea. the theme (Fig. 20) consists of wide and irregular skips in as- C. b. Col basso, with the bass. cending motion, such as might Also, contrabasso. have been (and possibly were) produced by a cat walking on the C clef. See under Clefs. keyboard. C. d. Colla destra, with the right hand.

Fig. 20 Cavalleria rusticana (cahv-ahle-REE-a roos-ti-KAH-na: Rustic Chivalry). Opera in one act by Mascagni (libretto by Menasci and Tozzetti), produced in Rome, 1890. The setting is a Sicilian village on Easter morning. The young soldier Turiddu (tenor), lover of Santuzza (soprano), turns his attentions to his former love, Lola (mezzo-soprano), now married to Alfio (baritone). In a fit of jealousy, Santuzza tells Alfio of his wife's infidelity, and in the resulting duel between Alfio and Turiddu the latter is killed. This opera, which was Mascagni's only success, owes its appeal to the concise and dramatic plot as well as to the realistic music. Widely welcomed as a relief from the numerous imitations of Wagner's heroic opera, it inaugurated the movement known as *verismo and was responsible for a mushroom crop of one-act operas.

Celesta (che-LES-ta: It., heavenly). A percussion instrument, invented by Mustel in the 1880's, resembling in appearance a small upright pianoforte. The hammers act on steel bars and may be considered a "glockenspiel with a keyboard mechanism. The range is from middle C to the highest A of a piano keyboard. It produces delightful, clear, bell-like sounds. The celesta was first used by Tchaikovsky in the "Dance of the Sugar-Plum Fairy" of his Nutcracker Suite (1891). Cello. ( C H E L - o ) . The thirdlargest member of the violin family, with four strings tuned C G d a. The correct name of the instrument is violoncello, which literally means "little bigviolin" ("violone, big violin; -cello, a diminutive suffix of the Italian language ). The earliest preserved specimens are two instruments made by Andrea Amati between 1560 and 1570, the same period that violins and violas came into existence.

CEMBALO

49

Cembalo (CHEM-bah-lo: short for clavicembalo ). Italian and German name for the 'harpsichord. Cent. The unit for the scientific measurement of musical intervals. It is one hundredth of a half tone (semitone); thus the half tone equals 100 cents, and the octave contains 1200 cents. The tones of the chromatic scale (c, cí, d, etc.) are represented by the numbers 0, 100, 200, etc., quarter tones by numbers such as 50, 150. Ceremony of Carols, A. A setting for treble voices and harp of nine medieval English carols, composed by Benjamin Britten in 1942. A Latin plainsong processional and recessional enframe the carols which retain their Middle English texts. C. f. 'Cantas firmas.

CHAMBER MUSIC

'ground bass. Although the Baroque composers used the names chaconne and passacaglia interchangeably, modern writers usually make a distinction, applying the term passacaglia to the more rigid type with an ostinato bass (as, e.g., in Bach's Passacaglia in C minor for organ ), the term chaconne to the other type ( e.g., Bach's Chaconne for violin solo). Fig. 21a shows a ground consisting of four descending notes which was used by numerous composers, frequently in a chromatic modification, as under Fig. 21b. A famous composition based on such a chromatic ostinato is the "Crucifixus" from Bach's Bminor Mass. Fig. 21c is a schematic presentation of a composition based on a recurring harmonic formula, without a fixed bass line (chaconne). a

Chaconne and passacaglia (shaKONH, pahs-sah-KAHL-ya). In Baroque music, chaconne (or passacaglia) denotes a composition consisting of continuous variations based on a short theme (four or eight measures) in rather slow triple meter. The theme is not a tune ( as is usual in variations), but is essentially a succession of harmonies (often somewhat like a full 'cadence, I-IV-I®-V) which is repeated many times with varied figurations, melodies, etc. A special class is formed by those compositions in which the theme consists of a recurrent melodic progression in the bass. These belong to the general category of basso ostinato or

Fig.

21

Chair organ. Same as organ.

'choir

Chamber music. Instrumental ensemble music in which there is one player for each part, as

CHAMBER

MUSIC

50

opposed to orchestral music in which there are many more players than parts. According to the number of players (or parts), chamber music is classified as follows: trio (three players), quartet (four), quintet (five), sextet (six), septet (seven), and octet (eight). If the ensemble consists of strings only, the composition is called a string trio (vl., via., vie.), string quartet ( 2 vl., via., vie.), or string quintet (2 vl., 2 via., vie.). If one of the strings is replaced by another instrument, names such as horn trio (horn, vl., vie.) or piano quartet (pf., vl., via., vie.) are used. These terms apply to the instrumental groups just described as well as to the compositions written for them, e.g., String Quartet, op. 132, by Beethoven. The sonata for a solo instrument (e.g., violin or violoncello ) accompanied by pianoforte is sometimes not considered chamber music because of the markedly soloistic character of the parts. In true chamber music, emphasis lies on the ensemble, not on the single player. The ensembles described above emerged during the 18th century, and the present-day repertory of chamber music begins with the late string quartets of Haydn and Mozart. In these works were established the formal patterns to which practically all later composers of chamber music have adhered — the basic form is the "sonata in four movements. After Haydn and Mozart the most outstanding composers of chamber music are Beethoven, Schubert, Brahms, Bartok, and Hindemith. Chamber music, in the widest sense of the word, has existed

CHANGE RINGING

since the late Middle Ages. Until the Baroque period, however, such music was neither written for nor restricted to specific instruments, but was performed on whatever instruments were available, e.g., viols, recorders, and lutes. The chief type of Baroque chamber music is the "trio sonata in its two varieties, the sonata da chiesa and the sonata da camera. Chamber opera. An opera of small dimensions and of an intimate character, accompanied by a small orchestra, e.g., Strauss's "Ariadne auf Naxos, Mozart's "Bastien and Bastienne, or Menotti's The "Old Maid and the Thief. Chamber orchestra. A small orchestra of about twenty-five players, consisting mainly of a small string section and wood winds. Chamber sonata. Sonata da camera. See under Sonata, II. Chandos Anthems ( CHAN-dos ). Twelve anthems by Handel, composed 1716-18 for the Earl of Carnarvon, later Duke of Chandos, and performed at his palace. There also exists a Chandos Te Deum and a Chandos Jubilate. Change ringing. The ringing of a set of bells by a group of men, one for each bell, and in a methodical order according to certain schemes of arithmetic permutation. For instance, a set of three bells, 1 2 3, may be played six ways without repetition: 1 2 3, 1 3 2, 2 3 1, 2 1 3, 3 1 2, 3 2 1. Standard

CHANGING NOTE

51

combinations, consisting of a great number of "changes," are known under traditional names such as "Grandsire Triple," "Treble Bob," etc. Change ringing is still widely practiced in England.

CHARACTER PIECE

cal music, such as "Ambrosian, "Anglican, Byzantine, or "Gregorian chant. Chanter. See under

Bagpipe.

Chantey, chanty. See Shanty.

Character piece. A convenient Changing note. See under Non- denomination for a large reperharmonic tones, 1. tory of short 19th-century comChanson (shanh-SONH: F., positions, mostly for pianoforte, song ). ( 1 ) Generally, a song in designed to express a definite the French language, e.g., the mood or character. They often monophonie songs of the "trou- carry titles suggesting smallness Bagatelle badours and "trouvères ( 1 2 - or casualness, e.g., ( Beethoven ), Moment musical 13th centuries), the instrumental^ accompanied songs by (Schubert), Impromptu (SchuPiece Machaut, Dufay, Binchois ( 14- bert, Chopin), Fantasy Intermezzo 15th centuries; see Ars nova; ( Schumann ), Burgundian School), and the (Brahms). With composers such vocal chanson (for four or five as Beethoven, Schubert, and voices) of the 16 th century Brahms, they represent a by(Isaac, Josquin, Jannequin, Las- product ( by no means neglisus), with which the early de- gible ) created in moments of velopment came to its conclusion. relaxation from the more exactThroughout the 17th, 18th, and ing task of composing sonatas, the major part of the 19th cen- symphonies, etc. For other comtury, French song continued only posers, however, the character on a popular level, under names piece became their most successsuch as "vaudeville, pastourelle, ful medium of expression, e.g., "bergerette, and brunette. For Schumann with his Intermezzi, Fantasy the modern development, see Scenes from Childhood, under Song. — ( 2 ) Especially, Pieces, Chopin with his NocImthe polyphonic chanson of the turnes, Preludes, Etudes, 16th century, written in the imi- promptus, and Mendelssohn with tative style of the period (see his Songs without Words and under Motet, II ), but often with Children's Pieces. Schumann also a leaning toward homophonic wrote large and demanding texture, sectional treatment, rep- compositions consisting of a etition of sections, etc. A special number of character pieces to type is the program chanson of be played in succession (characJannequin, based on picturesque ter cycle), and representing a texts such as "L'Alouette" (The unified idea, e.g., in his "Papil" Davidsbündler Tänze, Swallow) or "La Guerre" (The lons, and "Carnival. War) which provide opportunity " Kreisleriana, for musical imitation of natural Many of the character pieces, particularly those of Chopin and sounds. Brahms, are in ternary form, A B A , with A and Β representChant. General denomination ing contrasting moods. for the various bodies of liturgi-

CHARLES V

52

Charles V. (G., Karl V). Opera by Krenek (to his own libretto), produced in Prague, 1938. The opera shows the emperor Charles V (1500-1556) on his deathbed, telling his father confessor the events of his life which appear as visions on the stage. The opera was supposed to have political significance, extolling the universalism of the Roman Catholic empire against the destructive forces of nationalism, materialism, and religious indifference. It is the first composition by Krenek which makes consistent use of the 'twelve-tone technique. Charleston. A kind of "fox trot, first popular about 1922-26, and probably named for the city in South Carolina. It was briefly revived about 1950-51. Chasse, La (shas: F., the hunt). Name for pieces imitating the commotion of a hunt. See also Hunt Quartet (Haydn, Mozart); Hunt Symphony (Haydn). Chasseur maudit, Le (shas-seur mo-DEE: The Accursed Huntsman ). Symphonic poem by Franck (composed 1882), based on a ballad by Gottfried Bürger (1747-1794) entitled "Der wilde Jäger." It tells the legend of a huntsman who goes hunting on Sunday instead of going to church, and who is therefore bewitched and pursued by demons.

CHINESE BLOCK

legend concerning a favorite sunning place of the 15th-century King René in the composer's native Aix-en-Provence. Chest of viols. See under Viol. Chest voice. See under Resister (2).

S

Chevalet, au (o she-va-LAY: F., at the bridge). Same as sul ponticello (see under Sul). Chiesa (kee-AY-za: It., church). See under Camera. Childhood of Christ, The. See Enfance du Christ. Children's Corner. A set of piano pieces (with English titles) by Debussy, composed 1906-08, including: 1. Doctor Gradus ad Parnassum ( humorous allusion to Clementi's *Gradus ad Parnassum); 2. Jimbo's Lullaby; 3. Serenade for the Doll; 4. Snow is Dancing; 5. The Little Shepherd; 6. Golliwogg's Cakewalk. They were written for Debussy's daughter, Claude-Emma, referred to as "Chou-chou" in the dedication.

Chimes. An orchestral percussion instrument, consisting of a set of about eighteen metal tubes, suspended from a metal frame and tuned chromatically from c' to about f". They are struck with a hammer, and are employed to produce the effect of bells, hence the alternative Cheminée du Roi René, La ( she- name, tubular bells (or orchesmi-NAY dui rwah re-NAY: The tral bells). See under Bells. Chimney of King René). A suite in seven movements for wood- Chinese block. A percussion inwind quintet by Darius Milhaud strument used in jazz bands, (1942). The title refers to a folk consisting of a hollowed-out

CHINESE CRESCENT

53

CHORALE PRELUDE

wooden block. Played with a drumstick, it produces a dry, hollow sound. Sometimes called temple block.

Chorale (ko-RAHL). A hymn tune of the German Protestant Church. It was introduced into the service by Luther ( 1 4 8 3 1546), who wrote the texts and Chinese crescent, Chinese pavil- probably also the melodies for some of the oldest and most ion. See Crescent. beautiful chorales, e.g., Vorn Choir. A group of singers. Also Himmel hoch ( From Heaven used to denote groups of the high) and Ein feste Burg (A mighty fortress ). orchestra, e.g., brass choir. Choir Organ. Originally a small organ used for the accompaniment of the church choir. Today, the third manual of the "organ, which is designed for this purpose. Chopsticks. A popular waltz tune played by generations of children. There is a collection of Paraphrases by Borodin, Cui, Liadov, Rimski-Korsakov, and Liszt.

Choral. ( 1, pronounced KOrel) for a chorus or a choir. — (2, pronounced ko-RAHL) a church hymn, mainly of the German Protestant Church. In order to distinguish between these two different meanings, the spelling chorale for the second meaning is preferable and is adopted in tiiis book. Hence: choral cantata, a cantata in which a chorus is employed (as opposed to a solo cantata); chorale cantata, a cantata based on a German Protestant hymn. Nearly all of Bach's cantatas are choral cantatas, but only some of these are chorale cantatas (e.g., Christ lag in Todeshanden). The German word Choral (ko-RAHL) always means chorale, i.e., church hymn, the other meaning being indicated by the term Chor (Chorkantate, Choralkantate).

Chorale cantata. A cantata in which the text (and, as a rule, also the melody) of a chorale is used for movements other than the final one, which is nearly always a harmonized chorale. The only chorale cantata by Bach in which the chorale tune appears in every movement is Christ lag in Todesbanden. Others make use of the chorale in some movements only, e.g., Wachet auf and Ein' feste Burg. Chorale prelude. An organ composition based on a "chorale and designed to be played during the service, before the chorale is sung by the congregation. Outstanding among the numerous composers who contributed to this repertory are Samuel Scheidt (1587-1654), Dietrich Buxtehude (1637-1707), Johann Pachelbel (1653-1706) and, above all, J. S. Bach ( 1 6 8 5 1750), who wrote c. 140 chorale preludes. Brahms revived the tradition in one of his latest works ( Eleven Chorale Preludes, op. 122, 1896). There are various traditional methods of treating the chorale melody, such as the cantusfirmus chorale, which has the melody in long notes (usually in the tenor or bass), accompanied by contrapuntal voices in quicker

CHORAL SYMPHONY

54

motion; the chorale motet, in which each line of the chorale is treated in fugai style; the chorale fugue, in which the first line only is treated in imitation, in the manner of a short fugue; the melody chorale, with the chorale in the upper part, accompanied by contrapuntal voice parts; the ornamented chorale, in which the chorale appears in the soprano with expressive ornamentating figures; the chorale canon, involving canonic presentation of the melody; the chorale fantasy, in which the chorale is presented in a free, improvisatory style; and the chorale variations, consisting of a number of variations on the melody. Bach arranged a number of his chorale preludes in collections; see Ciavierübung III; Orgelbüchlein; Schübler Chorales; Eighteen Great Preludes. Choral Symphony. The name commonly used for Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, in D minor, op. 125 ( 1 8 2 3 - 2 4 ) , which in the last movement uses a chorus (and four soloists) in addition to the orchestra. The formal plan of the symphony is: I. Allegro (sonata form); II. Scherzo with Trio; III. Adagio (Α Β A' Β A" Coda — A' and A" are variations of A); IV. Introduction (with quotations of themes from the preceding movements ), Allegro assai (with chorus on Schiller's Ode to Joy). In many respects this work may well be considered the culmination of Beethoven's symphonic writing. Chords. A chord is the simultaneous sounding of three or more tones ( two simultaneous tones are considered an 'interval

CHORDS rather than a chord). The most important chords, as shown in Fig. 22, with numerical identification in the key of C, are: 1. Triad (Fig. 22a) with its first and second inversions, the former (Fig. 22b) also called

Fig.

22

sixth chord, the latter ( Fig. 22c ) six-four chord. See also Triad; Harmonic analysis. 2. Seventh chord (Fig. 22d) with three inversions (e, f, g ) . It occurs mostly on the fifth degree of the scale as the dominant seventh chord. The name "seventh chord" refers to the presence of the seventh added on top of the triad ( 1 - 3 - 5 - 7 ) . 3. Ninth chord, so called because the ninth is sounded above the seventh chord ( 1 - 3 - 5 - 7 - 9 ) . It usually occurs as a dominant ninth chord (h). 4. Diminished seventh chord and its three inversions (i to 1). 5. Augmented sixth chord, in three varieties, sometimes ( although rather pointlessly) distinguished as Italian ( m ) , German ( η ), and French (o) sixth chords. 6. Added-sixth chord, so called because it consists of a triad with the sixth added (1— 3 - 5 - 6 ) ; see ( p ) . 7. Fourth chord, consisting of

55

CHORDAL STYLE

two intervals of a fourth ( 1 - 4 7 ) ; see ( q ) . 8. Tone cluster, consisting of intervals of a second ( r ) . The triad and its inversions are consonant chords, all the others are dissonant. The chords described under ( 4 ) and ( 5 ) above are altered chords, because they have chromatically altered notes. During the 20th century the rinciple of constructing chords y superimposing intervals of a third ( "tertian harmony ) has been abandoned by some composers. As a result, chords may be composed of such intervals as fourths ( see Quartal harmony) or seconds (often called "tone clusters" ).

E

Chordal style. A composition or a passage is said to be in chordal style if its texture consists essentially of a series of chords. In strict chordal style there is a given number of parts, usually four, as in a harmonized hymn tune (Fig. 2 3 ) ; in free chordal style there is no such restriction, and a chord of, e.g., six notes may follow a chord of three notes.

Fig. Chordophones. struments.

23 See

under

In-

CHRIST LAG

Lobos has applied the term to fourteen of his compositions (varying from a guitar solo to a choral symphonic poem ) in which his objective is a synthesis of all elements of Brazilian music. Christmas Concerto. Corelli's Concerto Grosso in G minor, op. 6, no. 8, entitled "Fatto per la Notte di Natale" (Made for Christmas Night). The closing movement is a "pastorale. Christmas Oratorio. ( 1 ) Composition for chorus, orchestra, and solo voices by J. S. Bach ( 1 7 3 4 ) , consisting of six cantatas to be performed on six different days: the three days of Christmas, New Year, Sunday after New Year, and Epiphany. The title Oratorio, although given by Bach, is somewhat misleading because the work is not based on a continuous, narrative text. Today it is usually performed in two parts, each including three cantatas (either complete on two days or, shortened, in a single performance). Particularly famous is the Sinfonia at the beginning of the second part (fourth cantata), written in the style of a "pastorale. — ( 2 ) An oratorio by Schütz, composed 1664 (original title: Historia der freudenund gnaden-reichen Geburt Gottes . . .), for chorus, solo voices, and various instrumental combinations in the different movements.

Choreography. The designing and planning of a ballet, some- Christ on the Mount of Olives See what comparable to the writ- (G., Christus am Ölberg). ing of a libretto for an opera. Mount of Olives. Choros (CHOR-os). A type of Christ lag in Todesbanden Brazilian popular music. Villa- ( K R I S T lahg in TO-des-bahn-

CHRISTUS

56

den: Christ Lay in Death's Bonds). Bach's Cantata no. 4 ( 1724 ), based upon a chorale by Martin Luther (composed 1524). Christus. Oratorio by Liszt to words from the Scriptures and from the Boman Catholic liturgy, composed 1855-66. Also, an unfinished oratorio by Mendelssohn. Chromatic, chromaticism (from Gr. chroma, color). The use of raised or lowered notes, instead of the normal degrees of the scale, e.g., in C major: c-d-dl-e or c-dí-e, instead of the "diatonic progression c-d-e. The chromatic scale is the scale including all of these altered degrees in addition to the normal ones (Fig. 2 4 ) . It consists of twelve tones, each a half tone higher (ascending) or lower ( descending ). Chromatic harmony is characterized by the extensive use of altered chords, such as the diminished seventh chord and the augmented sixth chord (see under Chords), as well as of "appoggiaturas, chromatic passing tones, etc.

CHURCH MODES

advanced example of chromaticism, especially noteworthy for its use of parallel diminished seventh chords. While chromaticism is comparatively rare in the works of Haydn and Mozart, it was fully exploited by the Romantic composers — Chopin, Schumann, Liszt, Wagner, Tchaikovsky, and others. After 1900 chromaticism lost its former meaning as a "colormodification" of the diatonic scale, and became established as a new tonal realm based on the equivalence of the twelve tones of the chromatic scale. This concept is realized in Debussy's "whole-tone scale and, much more completely, in Schönberg's "twelve-tone technique. About 1925, there began a reaction against excessive chromaticism. It found its most conspicuous expression in the "pandiatonicism of Stravinsky.

Chromatic Fantasy and Fugue. A composition for harpsichord by J. S. Bach, which uses extended chromatic harmonies in the fantasy and a chromatic progression in the theme of the fugue. The fantasy is in the character of a free improvisation, alternating between brilliant passage work, quiet arpeggios, and highly expressive recitatives. It is a relatively early work of Fig. 24 Bach, displaying an exuberant and subjective spirit absent in his Chromaticism often serves to later works. heighten the emotional tension of music. In Baroque music Chromatic harp. See under chromatic-scale formations were Harp. used to express lament or grief, as, e.g., the chromatic ostinato Church modes. A medieval sysbass in the "Crucifixus" of Bach's tem of scales, each consisting of B-minor Mass (see under Cha- the tones of the basic diatonic conne). Bach's 'Chromatic scale (white keys of the piano), Fantasy is, for its time, a highly but starting on D, E, F, G, and

CHURCH MODES

57

CHURCH MODES

limited to the range of one octave. On each of these four notes ( called tonic, final, finalis ) there are two modes distinguished by the different position of the octave range ( a m bitus ), and called respectively

limit, particularly in the cadential endings of the authentic modes. Furthermore, each mode has a so-called dominant (indicated by in Fig. 2 5 ) , that is, a secondary center tone which is of importance mainly in the authentic and piagai. In the 'psalm tones. T h e three systems authentic modes the range ex- of designation for the eight tends from the tonic to the upper modes are as follows: Mode Mode Mode Mode Mode Mode Mode Mode

I II III IV V VI VII VIII

First authentic First piagai Second authentic Second piagai Third authentic Third piagai Fourth authentic Fourth piagai

octave ( F i g . 2 5 a ) ; in the piagai modes, from the fourth below the tonic to the fifth above it ( F i g . 2 5 b ) . T h e octave range can be slightly enlarged by the addition of the subtonium, i.e., the tone (indicated in Fig. 2 5 in parentheses ) below its lower

Fig. 25

Dorian Hypodorian Phrygian Hypophrygian Lydian Hypolydian Mixolydian Hypomixolydian

In the 16th century (Glareanus,

Dodecachordon,

1547) the sys-

tem was enlarged to include the modes on A (Aeolian, Hypoaeolian) and C (Ionian, Hypoioni a n ) , thus increasing the number to twelve. Fig. 2 5 c shows the tonic, the dominant, the range, and the subtonium of each mode. Some modern theorists have enlarged this system to fourteen modes by adding two modes on Β ( Locrian, Hypolocrian ). These, however, are entirely fictitious since they would have a diminished fifth above the tonic (b-f')> resulting in an impractical scale of only theoretical interest. Equally irrelevant and without historical foundation is the designation of the four authentic modes as "Ambrosian" and the four piagai ones as "Gregorian." T h e church modes became obsolete during the 17th century, being replaced by the two modern modes, major and minor. For their revival in recent music, see Modality.

CHURCH

SONATA

58

CLARINET

Church sonata. Sonata da chiesa; Clair de lune (clayr de LUIN: Light of the Moon). A very see under Sonata. popular piano piece by Debussy, Cimbalom. See under Dulcimer. properly the third movement of his "Suite Bergamasque. Written Cinelli (chi-NEL-lee: It.). Cym- in 1890, it belongs to his early bals. period before he began to experiment with such characteristic deCinquepace (SIN-ke-pays: from vices of his later style as parallel F. cinque pas, five steps). Name chords, whole-tone scale, etc. used by Shakespeare and other Elizabethan dramatists for the "galliard, which has five steps. It Claquebois ( clak-e-bwah : F. ). also occurs under the names Xylophone. sinkpace or sincopas. Clarinet. A wood-wind instruCircle of fifths. The arrange- ment consisting of an end-blown ment of the twelve keys in as- cylindrical pipe made of wood cending fifths ( C, G, D, A, etc. ) or ebonite ( recently also of and on a circle showing that metal), with a characteristic after twelve such steps the initial mouthpiece, called beak, which key is reached again. It presents has a single reed fixed to its back. the keys in their natural order, See illustration on p. 59. At a disthat is, increasing by one the tance the clarinet is easily connumber of sharps or flats in the fused with the similar-looking signatures. The sharp keys ap- "oboe from which, however, it is pear to the right side, the flat distinguished mainly by the keys to the left side of the mouthpiece and by its larger "neutral" key, C. The transition size. While the oboe produces a from the sharp to the flat keys, "pastoral," slightly quaint and made at one of the bottom points nasal sound of a rather consistent of the circle ( e.g., C-sharp = D- quality, the clarinet is not only flat) is called "enharmonic change. The circle for the minor Major Keys keys starts with A at the origin point, continuing similarly in ascending fifths (A, E, B, Fsharp, etc.). In this arrangement a major and a minor key having the same signature (relative keys) appear at the same place on the diagram. See Fig. 26. Circular canon. Same as "round. Cis (G. ) C-sharp. See under Pitch names. CI. Abbreviation for clarinet or, in chamber music, cello. Also for clavier.

Db

F* Gb

Cb

C i r c l e of F i f t h s

Fig. 26

59

CLARINET

fuller and more "creamy" in timbre, but also shows a distinct variation of tone quality in its various ranges (registers). The most common type is the clarinet in Βb, and next in importance is the clarinet in A. Both are notated as transposing instruments, with the written range shown in Fig. 27a, the sounding range of the Bb clarinet in Fig. 27b, and the sounding range of the A clarinet in Fig. 27c.

CLARIN TRUMPET

Clarín trumpet, clarino ( clahR E E N , clah-REE-no). The natural (i.e., valveless) trumpet of the 17th and 18th centuries, an instrument pitched like the modern trumpet, but played by per-

Fig. 27 The bass instrument of the clarinet family is the bass clarinet, whose range is an octave below that of the clarinet in Bb. Its lower end is curved upward in a metal bell, and the upper end, likewise of metal, is bent horizontally, thus bringing the mouthpiece within reach of the players mouth. See illustration. Among the many other sizes and types of clarinets are the alto clarinet in Eb (sounding a fifth below the Bb clarinet ) and the smaller instruments in D (Strauss, Till Eulenspiegel) and Eb (Berlioz, Fantastic Symphony). A member of the same family of instruments, the basset hom, is of special interest since it was used by Mozart

( Marriage

of

Figaro,

Magic

Flute, etc.) as well as by recent composers, e.g., R. Strauss (Salome, Electra). It is a tenor size with an upturned bell, but without the bent mouthpiece of the bass clarinet. It is usually replaced today by the alto clarinet.

art of producing the highest harmonics, from the third octave on, where they form a continuous scale (see under Acoustics, Fig. 2 ). This manner of playing, called clarino, enabled the trumpeters of Bach's day to perform those rapid passages (e.g., in the Brandenburg Concerto no. 2 ) which have baffled the most capable trumpet virtuosos of modern times. Today these passages are sometimes

CLASSICAL

60

CLAVICHORD

played on a specially constructed orchestra of strings and pairs of Bach trumpet, a short and each wind instrument. The work straight instrument with three is one of the earliest examples valves. of 20th-century 'Neoclassicism. Classical, Classicism. In amateur parlance, "classical" music usually means everything outside the field of "popular" music. In musical terminology the term is used in a much more restricted sense; that is, it refers to the period represented by the Viennese Classics: Haydn, Mozart, the early works of Beethoven and, to some extent, Schubert. As opposed to the 'Romantic style of the 19th century, Classical music is generally characterized by objectivity, emotional restraint, formalism, and simplicity. Since Haydn was born in 1732, and Beethoven and Schubert died in 1827 and 1828 respectively, the period extends from about 1750 to about 1820. It well deserves the name "classical" (properly, of high class or rank ), because masterworks were produced at this time that to the present day have remained unsurpassed. Equally outstanding works have been created by other early masters, such as Bach and Palestrina, and the term "classical" is often applied to these composers as well. However, it is best to use the term not as a laudatory but as a strictly chronological one. See also Neoclassicism. Classical Symphony. Prokofiev's First Symphony, op. 25, composed 1916-17, and so called because it is written in a "modernized" Mozart-Haydn idiom, with harmonic dissonances, unexpected rhythmic turns, etc. It is scored for a typical classical

Clausula ( CLAW-zoo-la ). A form of early 13th-century music (see Ars antiqua), based on a short section of a Gregorian chant, usually a part of a gradual, alleluia, or responsory, to which one or two (rarely three) contrapuntal voices are added. The section is always one of the melismatic (vocalized) passages of the chant; therefore, a clausula has no full text, but carries only a word or a syllable, such as DO (from Benedicamw DOmino ). The clausulae are of particular importance because they are the immediate ancestors of the medieval 'motet. Clavecin (CLAV-e-sanh: F . ) , clavicembalo (clav-i-CHEMbah-lo: It.). Harpsichord. Claves (CLAHV-es). A Cuban percussion instrument consisting of two round sticks of hard wood (one held in each hand) which are beaten together. Clavichord (CLAV-i-kord). The earliest type of stringed keyboard instrument. It originated in the 12th or 13th century, and was used commonly until the time of J. S. Bach and his son, C. P. E. Bach (d. 1788). It consists of an oblong wooden box, about four by two feet, with a keyboard of about three octaves, and with strings running parallel to the keyboard. The strings are made to vibrate by small T-shaped wedges made of brass, called tangents, which are fastened to the rear end of the pro-

61

CLAVICYMBAL

CLEFS

Clavier à lumières ( clav-YAY ah luim-i-AYR: F., keyboard for light). A color organ (see Color music) prescribed in Scriabin's Prometheus.

Fig.

28

Clavieriibung (kla-VEER-uiboong: G., keyboard practice). A collection of keyboard compositions, some for harpsichord, some for organ, by J. S. Bach, published in four parts: I (1731), Six 'Partitas; II ( 1 7 3 5 ) , "Italian Concerto and French Overture; III ( 1 7 3 9 ) , chorale prejudes ( Catechism ) preceded by the great Organ Prelude in E-flat and followed by the Fugue in E-flat ( "St. Anne's Fugue ), also four Duets; IV ( 1 7 4 2 ) , the "Goldberg Variations. The chorale preludes of Part III are partly related to the Lutheran catechism and partly to the Lutheran Mass; hence they are often referred to as Catechism Chorales or as German Organ Mass. Neither title, however, is wholly correct for the entire collection.

longed keys and which strike the strings from below ( see Fig. 28 ). The sound of the clavichord is very soft, ranging from pianissimo to piano, but of great delicacy and expressiveness. Unlike the harpsichord, it resembles the pianoforte in that gradations in volume can be obtained by modifying the touch. Certain compositions by Bach, e.g., the wellknown C-major Prelude from the Well-tempered Clavier I, sound much better on the clavichord than on the harpsichord or the pianoforte. Bach's eldest son, Carl Philipp Emanuel, was particularly fond of the clavichord, and much of his keyboard music Clavilux. See under Color was written expressly for it.

music.

Clavicymbal ( clav-i-SIM-bal ). Clefs. Signs written at the beginOlder English name (from *clav- ning of each staff which designate the pitches of the lines and icembalo) for the harpsichord. spaces. There are three such Clavier ( kla-VEER ). Generic signs, representing the tones g' designation for the stringed key- ( G clef), c' (C clef), and f ( F board instruments : harpsichord, clef). The G clef, also called clavichord, and pianoforte. In violin clef (treble clef), is used German usage of the Bach pe- on the second line of the staff riod the term also included the and indicates that the note on organ, as appears from Bach's that line is g' (Fig. 29a). The " Ciavierübung. Later it denoted F clef, also called bass clef, is mainly the clavichord (C. P. E . placed on the fourth line of the Bach) and finally the pianoforte staff and indicates that the note ( 19th century, usually spelled on that line is f (Fig. 2 9 b ) . The "Klavier). In French the term C clef is used in two positions, on the third line (alto clef, viola means keyboard.

CLEMENZA DI TITO

62

COFFEE CANTATA

clef) or on the fourth line Clock Symphony. Haydn's Sym(tenor clef), and indicates re- phony no. 101 (no. 11 of the "Salomon Symphonies), in D major, composed in London, 1794. The name refers to the ff steady pattern of the accompanyFig. 29 ing figure, which suggests the ticking of a clock, at the beginspectively that the note on the ning of the slow movement. third line (Fig. 29c) or that on the fourth line (Fig. 29d) is c\ Close harmony. See under PosiThe G clef is employed for the tion. upper staff of piano music and for all high instruments (violin, C. o. Abbreviation for coll' otflute, etc.); the bass clef for the tava, i.e., playing the same notes lowef staff of piano music and at the upper octave. C. o. b., for low instruments (cello, doucoll' ottava bassa, i.e., doubling ble bass); the alto clef for the at the lower octave. viola and other instruments of a similar range; the tenor clef for the high range of the cello, Coda (It., tail). A concluding bassoon, etc. In choral composi- passage or section, falling outtions the tenor part is now often side the basic structure of a notated with a variation of the composition, and added in order G clef (Fig. 29e) which indi- to obtain or to heighten the imcates that the pitch is an octave pression of finality. Most compobelow the normal one. In older sitions, even short ones, have a scores (Bach, Handel) the so- coda, a good example being Choprano part is usually notated pin's Nocturne in E-flat ( see unwith the soprano clef, that is, a der Binary form). In the fully C clef placed on the lowest line developed examples of 'sonata form (first movements of soof the staff. natas, symphonies, etc., by Beethoven, Brahms, Bruckner) the Clemenza di Tito, La ( cle- coda often attains considerable MENT-sa dee TEE-to: The proportions and importance, repClemency of Titus). Opera by resenting the final climax. In Mozart ( libretto by Metastasio ), slow movements it often has the produced in Prague in 1791, at character of a pensive epilogue. the coronation of the Emperor Leopold II as King of Bohemia, Codetta (It., little coda). Either for which occasion it was com- a final coda of small dimension, missioned. While it contains or an intermediate coda, e.g., at much music fully worthy of Mo- the end of the exposition in zart's genius, it cannot compare sonata form. with his master operas of the same period, The Marriage of Coffee Cantata. A secular canFigaro, Don Giovanni, and The tata by Bach ("Schweigt stille, Magic Flute. plaudert nicht," i.e., "Be quiet, don't prattle") for solo voices, chorus, and orchestra, composed Cloches (closh: F.). Chimes.

COL

63

c. 1732. It is a little dramatic scene between the father, Schlendrian, and his daughter, Lieschen, who, in spite of threat and persuasion, will not give up her beloved coffee until the father promises to get her a husband. In the end, however, she is going to have the coffee as well, declaring that there will be a clause to that effect in her marriage contract. The music conforms with this innocent jest to a degree hardly expected from the pen of Bach. Col, coll', colla (It., with the). Col arco, with the bow (after pizzicato); col basso, with the bass; col legno, with the wood (indication to strike the violin strings with the stick of the bow); coll'ottava (abbreviated c. o. ), play the same notes at the upper octave; colla destra ( sinistra) with the right (left) hand (in piano playing); colla parte, colla voce, directions for the accompanist to follow the soloist in a passage to be performed in a free style. Collegium musicum. A musical association, amateur in character and usually devoted to the revival of early music, which is usually connected with an institution of higher learning.

COMES

Color music. There have been various attempts to establish an association between the optical colors and music. One of these is the analogy of colors and tones of the scale ( keys ), externally supported by the fact that there are seven basic colors in the spectrum (rainbow) and seven basic tones ( diatonic scale). Such associations are entirely subjective, as appears from a comparison of the schemes established by various interpreters. For instance, the keys of C, D, A, and F have been described by Rimski-Korsakov as white, yellow, rose, and green; by Scriabin as red, yellow, green, and red. In Arthur Bliss's Colour Symphony (1922) each movement represents a color. Color organs are devices, operated from a keyboard, which project colors or optical patterns (circles, squares, spirals) on a screen, to accompany certain music, e.g., Scriabin's Prometheus (1910), Schönberg's Die glückliche Hand (1913). The Clavilux, built by T. Wilfrid in 1922, is designed for optical effects without music, or at least independent of it. It is used for "color recitals" in which colors or patterns are treated somewhat in the manner of a musical composition, with themes, motives, "allegro," "decrescendo," etc.

Color. See Tone color.

Combination tones. See ant tones.

Coloratura (col-or-ah-TOO-rah: It.). In vocal compositions, the use of rapid scales, arpeggios, trills, and similar passage work of a virtuoso character. A coloratura soprano is a light soprano voice trained in the execution of such passages.

Come (CO-may: It.). As, like. Come prima (as at first), come sopra (as above), indication that a passage should be played in the same manner as previously. Comes Comes.

(L. ).

See

Dux

Result-

and

COMIC OPERA

64

Comic opera. An opera on a light or sentimental subject, with a happy ending, in which comedy usually plays a prominent part. The music is more "popular" in style than in serious opera, and the plot is apt to be taken from everyday life. Wellknown examples are Mozart's Cost fan tutte and Abduction from the Seraglio, Smetana's Bartered Bride, and the operettas of Gilbert and Sullivan. As early as 1620, comic scenes were introduced into serious opera, one of the first instances being the light-hearted "Page duet" in Landi's II San Alessio of 1632. An early example of a complete comic opera is Chi soffre speri by Mazzocchi and Marazzoli, produced in Rome in 1639. However, it was not until one hundred years later that comic opera became firmly established in Italy, under the name of opera buffa, owing to the tremendous success of Pergolesi's La *Serva padrona ( 1733 ) which, like some of its predecessors, was originally designed as an 'intermezzo (see also under War of the Buffoons). Among Pergolesi's successors were Galuppi, Piccinni, Cimarosa, and finally Mozart. A characteristic peculiarity of the opera buffa is the use of spoken dialogue instead of the recitative of opera seria. Parallel developments led to the French opéra comique (J. J. Rousseau, Le Devin du village, 1752; Grétry, Richard Coeur-aeLion, 1784), the German Stngspiel ( Hiller, Lisuart und Dariolette, 1766; Dittersdorf, Doktor und Apotheker, 1786), and the English "ballad opera. The use of a spoken dialogue became so firmly established as an earmark

CONCERT

of comic opera that even Bizet's serious and tragic "Carmen was designated as opéra comique, because it has spoken dialogue (the recitative used in modern performances is by E. Guiraut). Common chord. The major (or minor) triad. Common time. Designation sometimes used for 4/4 meter. Communion. See under Mass; also Service. Compass. The range of an instrument or voice, indicated by its lowest and highest notes. Complement. See under Interval. Compline. See under Office. Compound interval. See under Interval. Compound meter, time. See under Meter. Compter (con-TAY: F.). Same as *contano. Con (It.). With. Con alcuna licenza, with a little license or freedom, particularly in regard to tempo; con brio, with vigor; con moto, with motion, with animation; con ottava, con 8va, with the (higher) octave. Concert. A performance of music, open to the public, usually by paid admission. Concerts in this sense are a fairly recent institution. In the earlier periods of music history, through the major part of the 18th century, musical performances took place mostly in the homes of noblemen, high dignitaries of the church, and wealthy people, or in closed circles such as Acade-

CONCERTANT

65

mies or Collegia Musica. The church was practically the only place where the majority of the people could hear well-prepared performances of good music. The first step toward public performance was made in opera, by the foundation of the Teatro S an Cassiano in Venice, 1637. The first nonoperatic concerts were organized in London by the violinist John Banister ( 167278) and Thomas Britton (16781714). Later followed the Concerts of Ancient Music ( 17761848 ) and the Salomon Concerts (1791-95), for which Haydn wrote the "Salomon Symphonies. The earliest concerts in France were the Concerts spirituels, founded by Philidor in 1725; in Germany, the Gewandhaus Conzerte in Leipzig, founded by J. A. Hiller in 1781, which became internationally famous under Mendelssohn, Nikisch, Furtwängler, and Bruno Walter. In America the first concerts on record were held in Boston (1731), Charleston (1732), New York (1736), and Philadelphia (1757). Concertant (conh-sayr-TAHNH: F.). The 18th-century name for symphonies ( Symphonie concertante) with parts for several solo instruments, as, e.g., in Mozart's Symphonie concertante for violin, viola, and orchestra.

CONCERTO

Concert grand. See under Pianoforte. Concertina. See under dion.

Accor-

Concertino (con-chayr-TEE-no: It., small concerto), ( l ) A short concerto, often in one movement. — ( 2 ) In Baroque music, the soloist group of the concerto grosso ( see under Concerto ). Concertmaster. The first violinist of an orchestra; he sits closest to the conductor and occasionally substitutes for him. Concerto ( con-CHAYR-to ). A composition for orchestra and a solo instrument, usually a pianoforte or violin. The form of a concerto is essentially that of the Classical sonata (see under Sonata, I) except for the following differences: (a) there are only three movements, the minuet or scherzo being omitted (Brahm's Piano Concerto, op. 83, is one of the few having a scherzo ) ; ( b ) the first movement is in "sonata form, but with two expositions (instead of one exposition repeated ) — the first for orchestra alone and in the tonic throughout, while the second is for orchestra-plus-soloist and modulates into the dominant; (c) the last movement is nearly always in "rondo form, while in sonatas, symphonies, string quartets, etc., it is often in sonata form; (d) the first movement includes an extended cadenza. The solo part of a concerto is usually written in a highly virtuosic style.

Concertgebouw ( con-SAYRTghe-bow). Literally "concert hall" in Dutch, the word is most commonly known as the name of Holland's oldest and foremost orchestra. Subsidized by the state, the permanent home of the orchestra is the ConcertgeThe history of the Classical bouw in Amsterdam. and Romantic concerto starts

CONCERTO

66

CONCERTO

with Mozart, whose piano concertos include such masterworks as the D minor Concerto (K. 466; 1785), the A major Concerto (K. 488, 1786), and the "Coronation Concerto in D major (K. 537; 1788). Beethoven brought the Classical concerto to its culmination in his five piano concertos ( see Emperor Concerto) and the Violin Concerto in D major, op. 61 (1806). Outstanding piano concertos of the Romantic period are those by Mendelssohn (G minor, op. 25, 1831; D minor, op. 40, 1837), Schumann ( A minor, op. 54, 1841), and Brahms ( D minor, op. 15, 1854; B-flat major, op. 83, 1881). Chopin's concertos (E minor, op. 11, 1830; F minor, op. 21, 1829) suffer from a scanty treatment of the orchestra. Other works often performed are Grieg's Concerto in A minor ( op. 16, 1868), Tchaikovsky's in Bflat minor (op. 23, 1875), and Rachmaninoff s Second Concerto in C minor (op. 18, 1901).

nations, accompanied by the harpsichord and/or a small portion of the orchestra (see under Ripieno ). Among the earliest concerti grossi are those by Corelli (probably composed c. 1680) and Torelli (c. 1690). Torelli created the standard form of the Baroque concerto in three movements, fast-slow-fast ( the earlier concertos usually have four or five ), and also wrote some of the first solo concertos, for one soloist only. Antonio Vivaldi introduced a novel style of rhythmic drive and brilliant precision, which was adopted by Bach in his "Brandenburg Concertos and by Handel in his eighteen organ concertos. The fast movements of the Baroque concerto are usually written in a free "ritornello form, in which an orchestral ritornello alternates with soloist episodes. The slow movement is usually in a continuous style (often in "binary form) with a soloist melody and an orchestral accompaniment.

The repertory of the violin concerto is smaller. The standard works are Beethoven's Concerto in D major, Mendelssohn's in E minor, several by Paganini, Brahms's in D major, Tchaikovsky's in D major, and Sibelius' in D minor. Preceding the Classical concerto of Mozart is the Baroque concerto which flourished from about 1670 to 1750. Of particular importance in this period is the concerto grosso, a concerto employing a small group of soloists (the so-called concertino) against the full orchestra (concerto, tutti, ripieno). The concertino may consist of two violins, of violin and oboe, of violin and two flutes, or similar combi-

Like so many other old forms and styles, the concerto grosso has attracted the interest of modern composers, in reaction against the excessive virtuosity and showiness of the late Romantic concerto (see Neoclassical ). Compositions such as Bloch's Concerto Grosso for Strings and Pianoforte (1925), Hindemith's Konzert für Orchester (1925), Piston's Concerto for Orchestra (1933), Stravinsky's Dumbarton Oaks Concerto (1938), and Bartok's Concerto for Orchestra ( 1944 ) are generally modeled along the lines of the Baroque concerto, the emphasis being on inner musical vitality rather than on virtuoso display.

CONCERTO GROSSO

67

CONDUCTUS

Concerto grosso. See under Con- Conducting. The direction of an certo. orchestra, chorus, opera, etc., by a leader (conductor) who emConcertstiick (con-TSERT- ploys motions of the hand and shtuik: G., concert piece). Title the body in order to bring about for short pieces in the style of the coordination of all the playa concerto (orchestra with solo- ers and singers. Its basic aspect ist), often in one movement or is time beating, i.e., the clear indication of the metric pulse by in short connected sections. motions of the right hand (usuConcord. Practically the same as ally with a baton), the main consonant chord ( triad ), empha- beats being marked by downsizing the aesthetic impression of ward motions. Fig. 30 shows the "pleasantness" rather than the basic diagrams of time beating. In addition, the conductor inditechnical aspect. cates the entrances of instruConcord Sonata. The second of ments or voices, as well as the two piano sonatas by Charles shadings of dynamics, changes Ives, composed 1909-15. Its of mood, and numerous other complete tide is "Concord, Mass., details of performance. Modern 1840-1860." Ives wrote that the conductors freely employ for sonata is "an attempt to present these purposes suggestive moone person's impression of the tions of the hand, particularly spirit of transcendentalism that the left, and of the whole body, is associated in the minds of as well as facial expressions. many with Concord, Mass., of over a half century ago," and he Conductus (con-DOOK-tus). also provided a guide to the Latin songs of the 12th and 13th programmatic content of the four centuries, of varied forms and movements: Emerson, Haw- contents ( religious, contemplathorne, The Alcotts, and Tho- tive, lyrical, political, satirical), reau. Stylistically the sonata is set to music monophonically or representative of Ives's progres- in two to four voice parts (see sive techniques (extreme disso- under Ars antiqua). They probnance, complex rhythms, etc. ) ably developed from songs acwhich mark him as a leading companying the entrance of the pioneer in 20th-century musical priest ( L . conducere means "to developments. escort"), and were used for festive occasions of various kinds or Concrete music. See under for domestic performance. The polyphonic conductus are of speTwentieth-century music.

CONGA

68

cial interest because they are the earliest type of free composition, independent of Gregorian chant (see under Cantus firmus). Conga. A Latin-American dancing song characterized by fast tempo in 4/4 time with a syncopated and accentuated fourth beat in each measure. The conga originated in Cuba and was introduced in the United States about 1940. It is usually accompanied by Latin-American rhythm instruments, e.g., maracas and claves, and by large tomtoms called conga drums. Conjunct, disjunct. See under Motion. Consecration of the House (G., Weihe des Hauses). Overture by Beethoven, op. 124 ( 1822), composed for the opening of the Josefstadt Theatre in Vienna. Consecutive fifths, consecutive octaves. See Parallel fifths, parallel octaves. Consequent. Antecedent and consequent (subject and answer). See under Fugue. Conservatory. A school for music education. Originally, in Italy, a conservatorio was an orphanage where children were given general education and, particularly, musical instruction. The earliest institutions of this kind were founded in Naples (1537) and Venice.

CONSONANCE

Consonance and dissonance. Tones sounding simultaneously are said to be consonant or dissonant depending on whether they produce a pleasant or an unpleasant effect. Among intervals (the relation of two tones in regard to pitch), thirds, sixths, and octaves are generally felt to be consonant, while seconds and sevenths are dissonant. This explanation is rather unsatisfactory since it depends on the subjective impression of "pleasant' or "unpleasant." It is very difficult, however, to give an objective definition. Perhaps the most serviceable is the following: all the intervals existing between the tones of a triad in all of its inversions (c-e-g, e-g-c, g-c-e) are consonant, the others dissonant. This definition places not only the major and minor third (c-e, e-g) and the major and minor sixth (g-e', e-c') into the consonant category, but also the fifth ( c-g ) and the fourth ( g-c' ) which technically must be considered as consonant intervals, although they are not necessarily "pleasant" to the ear, particularly of untrained listeners. It may also be noted that the ideas as to which intervals are consonant or dissonant have changed considerably during the history of music. Thus, in music of the 12th and 13th centuries the third and, especially, the sixth were considered dissonant, while in the so-called "Palestrina style" (late 16th century) the fourth is a dissonance. Among the combinations of three or more tones (chords), the major and minor triads are the only consonant ones.

Console. The desklike case that contains the playing mechanism (manuals, pedals, stops) of an Consonances provide stability organ. and repose, while dissonances

CONSUL

69

produce tension and motion by 'pulling" toward a resolution in a consonance. Prior to 1900, music was essentially consonant, with "disturbing" dissonances admixed to a smaller or larger degree. Developments in the 20th century, however, have led to the universal acceptance of dissonance for its own sake, with no functional relationship to consonance. In some contemporary music consonances are avoided completely. For those who are disturbed by this development, it may be reassuring to remember that enraged outcries of "unbearable dissonance" were raised, about 1850, against the music of Wagner and, about 1900, against that of Richard Strauss. Today many listeners have become completely adjusted to music which, twenty years ago, was generally felt to be ugly and incomprehensible.

CONTRATENOR

accompanied recitative with occasional arias and numerous ensembles and ballet scenes of considerable dramatic strength. Contano (CON-tah-no: It., they count). Indication for players to count measures during a prolonged rest. Contes d'Hoffmann, Les. See Tales of Hoffman. Contìnuo (con-TEE-nwo: It.). Short for basso continuo ( see Thorough bass). Contrabass (CON-tra-bahs: G.), contrabasso ( con-tra-B AHS-o : It. ). Double bass ( bass viol ). Contrabassoon. Same as double bassoon ( see under Oboe ).

Contrafagott (CON-tra-fag-OT: G.), contrafagotto (fag-OT-to: Consul, The. Opera by Gian- It. ). Double bassoon. Carlo Menotti (to his own libretto), produced in New York, Contralto. See under Voices, 1950. The story details the tragic Range of. attempts of Magda Sorel (soprano) to obtain permission to Contrapuntal. In the style of join her husband, John (bari- "counterpoint. tone), who has been forced to flee for political reasons. She Contrary motion. See under and many others — a magician, Motion. an Italian woman, etc. — are hopelessly entangled in consular Contratenor ( CON-tra-TEN-er ). red tape, none of them ever In the 14th and 15th centuries, succeeding in seeing the consul name for a third voice part, himself. In the course of her added to the basic two-voice texlong wait, her baby son and her ture of superius (descant) and mother-in-law die. John, made tenor. It usually crosses the imprudent by anxiety, returns tenor, making frequent use of and is caught by the police. wide intervals ( sevenths, ocMagda commits suicide. For the taves). During the last half of most part, dramatic considera- the 15th century, it was split tions take precedence over musi- into two separate parts, the concal ones, and the music is largely tratenor altus and the contratenor

CONTREBASSE

70

CORNET-À-PISTONS

bossus, the present-day alto and been destroyed by the Queen of Shemakha, who, in a brilliant bass. ballet, wins the king's heart. Contrebasse ( conh-tre-BAHS : He wants to make her his bride, but the astrologer appears and, F.). Double bass (bass viol). as a promised reward for the Contrebasson ( conh-tre-bas- cockerel, demands the queen for himself. Dodon kills him and is SONH: F.). Double bassoon. in turn killed by the cockerel, Contredanse ( conh-tre-DAHNS : who disappears with the inF.). A French dance of the late tended bride in a moment of 18th century, performed by two darkness. The people are left (or more) couples facing each to bewail the death of their other and executing a great king. variety of steps and motions. The music is in the colorful Probably it developed and took style of most of the composer's its name from the English "coun- works. A typical and well-known try dance. Beethoven wrote selection is the "Hymn to the twelve Contredanses for orches- Sun." tra ( 1802 ), one of which ( no. 7) he used also in his ballet Cor (F.). Horn. Cor à pistons, Prometheus (1801), in the so- valve horn, i.e., the modern called "Eroica Variations, op. 35 (French) horn. Cor anglais, (1802), and in the last move- English horn. ment of the "Eroica Symphony (1804). Corda (It.), corde (F.). String. Corda vuota, corde à jour or Convertible counterpoint. Same corde à vide, open string. as "invertible counterpoint. Coperto (co-PAYR-to: It.). Covered; used in timpani coperti, i.e., kettledrums muted by being covered with a cloth. Coq d'or, Le (cok DAWR: The Golden Cockerel; original Russian, Zolotoy Petushok). Operaballet by Rimski-Korsakov ( libretto by Bielsky, based on a fairy tale by Pushkin), produced in Moscow, 1909, one year after the composer's death. The story deals with the doddering King Dodon who depends on a golden cockerel, given him by his astrologer, for warning of imminent danger. When the cock signals alarm, the king discovers that his sons and their armies have

Coriolan Overture (cor-i-oLAHN). An orchestral composition by Beethoven (op. 62, 1807), written as an overture to a play by H. J. Collin, dealing with the same subject as Shakespeare's Coriolanus. It is one of the most concisely dramatic and masterful compositions of Beethoven, similar in spirit to the Fifth Symphony written two years earlier. See also under Overture. Cornet. See Brass instruments, Ha. Cornet-à-pistons ( cor-NAYT-ahpees-TONH: F.). Valve cornet, i.e., the modern orchestral cornet

CORNETTO

71

COSÌ FAN TUTTE

as opposed to valveless forms Corrente (It.). See under Cousuch as the bugle. rante. Cornetto (cor-NET-to: It., also Cortège (cor-TEZH: F.). A composition in the character of cornetta). Cornet. a solemn or triumphant procesCorno (It.). Horn. Corno a sion. macchina (o pistoni, cromatico, ventile), valve horn, i.e., the modem orchestral (French) horn. Corno inglese, English horn. Corno di bassetto, basset horn.

Coronach (COR-o-nakh: Gaelic, crying together). A funeral dirge of Scotland, sung by the bard on the death of a chief. Schubert wrote a Coronach for female chorus ( op. 52, no. 4 ) based on a poem from Scott's Lady of the Lake. Coronation Anthems. Four anthems by Handel, composed for the coronation of George II, in 1727: 1. "Zadok the Priest"; 2. "The King shall rejoice"; 3. "My heart is inditing"; 4. "Let thy hand be strengthened." Purcell also wrote a coronation anthem, "My heart is inditing," for the coronation of James II, in 1685. Coronation Concerto. Mozart's Piano Concerto in D major (K. 537, 1788), so called because he played it (together with another concerto, K. 459) at the coronation of the Emperor Leopold at Frankfort in 1790. Coronation Mass. Mozart's Mass in C major (K. 317, 1779), composed for the annual coronation of the statue of the Virgin at the shrine of Maria Plain, near Salzburg, Austria.

Così fan tutte (co-ΖΕΕ fahn TOO-tay: Thus Do All [Women], or La Scuola degli amanti [The School of Lovers]). Comic opera in two acts by Mozart (libretto by da Ponte), produced in Vienna, 1790. The plot, set in 18th-century Naples, starts with a wager between the bachelor Don Alfonso ( baritone ) and two young officers, Ferrando (tenor) and Guglielmo (bass), to test the fidelity of their fiancées, Fiordiligi and Dorabella ( sopranos). The officers, pretending to go on a trip, disguise themselves as rich Albanians and attempt to woo each other's sweetheart. The girls at first refuse them, but in the second act they give in and sign marriage contracts. At this moment the return of the officers is announced, whereupon the "Albanians" escape and reappear, undisguised, with the marriage contracts as evidence of the women's faithlessness. Finally, Alfonso, having won the bet, explains it all as a joke and reconciles the lovers. The maid, Despina (soprano), also plays the part of a doctor (when the "Albanians" take poison in order to convince the girls of their love) and of a notary (for the signing of the contracts ). Long neglected as an "inferior opera," Così fan tutte has recently been revived, and has proved itself highly attractive and amusing, no less a credit to

COTILLION

72

COUNTRY DANCE

Mozart's genius than his great in connection with early music (medieval polyphony), the term master operas. counterpoint in connection with Cotillion, cotillon. Λ 19th-cen- the 16th- to 18th-century period tury ballroom dance, consisting ( Palestrina, Bach ). The latter of a great number of figures and term is also used in the field of movements executed by a lead- instruction as opposed to "haring couple and imitated by all mony (see Texture). The simthe others. Any suitable music plest type of counterpoint is (waltzes, mazurkas, polkas, etc.) shown in Fig. 31a, with one note was used. It usually formed the against each note of the given climax and close of an evening melody. Fig. 31b shows a more elaborate type of counterpoint. of dancing. Council of Trent. A council of the Roman Catholic Church, held at Trent (Trento, in South Tyrol) in 1545-63, at which important decisions regarding church music were made, e.g., the abolishing of * tropes and of all but four "sequences. For a time, the abolishing of all polyphonic music was also considered, but this plan was not carried out. There is no truth in the story that Palestrina "saved church music" by performing his "Marcellus Mass at the Council.

S Fig. 31

Countersubject. In some fugues, a melody which is sounded as a counterpoint to the main subject each time that it appears after the initial statement. ExCounter fugue. A fugue in which amples are found in the fugues the answer is the inverted form nos. 12, 14, and 17 of the Wellof the theme, e.g., the fugues tempered Clavier I. nos. 5, 6, and 7 of Bach's "Art Country dance. A 17th- and of Fugue. 18th-century English dance in Counterpoint. Music consisting the character of a group dance, of two or more melodic lines performed by men and women sounding simultaneously. The facing each other and moving in term comes from the Latin a great variety of intricate steps contrapunctus, properly functus and gestures. The music consists contra punctum, meaning "note of a number of gay tunes in against note" or, by extension, phrases of eight measures, and "melody against melody." Coun- the movements of the dancers terpoint (contrapuntal) is prac- change with every new phrase. tically synonymous with "po- The main source for the old lyphony ( polyphonic ), except country dances is Playford's The for a difference of emphasis, the English Dancing Master (1651, term polyphony being preferred reprinted 1933). Modern collec-

COUPLER

73

tions have been published by Cecil F. Sharp ( T h e Country Dance; Country Dance Tunes). See Contredanse. Coupler. See under Organ. Courante (coo-RAHNHT: F., running ). A French dance of the late 16th century which, in the 17th century, became one of the four standard movements of the "suite. Originally a very lively dance executed with running movements, it appears in the 17th century in two stylized varieties, the French courante and the Italian corrente. The courante is in moderate 6/4 or 3/2 meter, with frequent shifts from one to the other, that is, from the accents 1 2 3 4 5 6 to 1 2 3 4 5 6. The resulting instability of rhythm is a typical feature of the courante, as is also a subtle contrapuntal texture showing the two metric patterns in cross rhythm and with the melodic interest changing from the upper to the lower parts. The corrente is much faster, with continuous running figures and a chordal accompaniment. Most of the courantes in Bach's suites are of the French type. Especially remarkable for its rhythmic instability is that of the English Suite no. 2. The Italian type is found in the French Suites nos. 2, 4, 5, 6 and in the Partitas nos. 1, 3, 5, 6.

CRESCENT

Lidley from Milton's Paradise Lost, which was suggested to Haydn by the concert-manager Salomon during his second stay in London (1794-95). Upon Haydn's return to Vienna the text was translated into German by his friend, the Baron von Swieten, and this translation (Die Schöpfung) became the basis of the oratorio, which was first performed in Vienna in 1798. Its fame soon spread everywhere, rivaling that of Handel's Messiah. Creation Mass. Nickname of Haydn's Mass in B-flat (1801), so called because a theme from his oratorio, The Creation, is used in the "Qui tollis." Creatures of Prometheus, The (G., Die Geschöpfe des Prometheus). Ballet by Beethoven (choreography by S. Vigano), produced in Vienna, 1801. It is remembered chiefly for its overture and for a theme in the finale which Beethoven used in three other compositions ( see under Eroica). Credo (L., I believe). The third item of the Ordinary of the •Mass.

Crescendo, decrescendo ( creSHEN-do, day-cre-SHEN-do: It., growing, diminishing). The standard terms for increasing or decreasing loudness, abbreviated cresc. and decresc. (or deer.), Crab canon (motion). See Retroor indicated by the signs and grade. . Another term for decrescendo is diminuendo. Cracovienne. See Krakowiak. Creation, The. An oratorio by Crescent, Turkish ( also called Haydn, composed in 1797. It Chinese crescent, Chinese pavilis based on a poem compiled by ion, Jingling Johnny). A fanciful

74

CROISEZ

percussion instrument of Turkish origin ( see Janizary music ), consisting of a long pole with several crossbars, and frequently topped by a decoration in the shape of a crescent or a pavilion, all hung with numerous small bells and brass plates. It is shaken or pushed up and down while marching.

CSÁRDÁS

be normal (Fig. 32a). In elementary counterpoint and harmony such progressions are considered inadmissible (as is implied in the alternative term, false relation), but examples are not infrequent in the works of great composers (Bach, Mozart, and others).

Cross rhythm. The simultaneous use of conflicting rhythmic patterns, e.g., two notes against three (triplets), or of conflicting accents, for example, 3/4 meter against 6/8 meter. See PolyCrook. A short piece of metal rhythm. tube used formerly (rarely today) to change the tuning of a Crotales (cro-TAL: F.). See trumpet or a horn. It is inserted under Cymbals. between the instrument and the mouthpiece. Before the invention Crotchet. See under Notes. of valves, it was generally used in order to obtain additional Crucifixus. A section of the notes on the natural trumpet and "Credo" of the "Mass, often composed as a separate movehorn. ment of sorrowful expression, as Crooning. A style of singing in Bach's B-minor Mass ( see popular ballads (soft and senti- under Chaconne and passacagmental, with sliding and moan- lia ). ing effects ) which was introduced about 1930 by American Crwth ( crooth ). A bowed string popular radio singers (e.g., Bing instrument of the ancient Celtic nations (see Bard), characCrosby, Rudy Vallee ). terized by a rectangular body reminiscent of the ancient Greek Cross relation. A somewhat ex"kithara. It was used in Wales as ceptional type of harmonic effect late as about 1820. See illustrain which a tone and its chromatic tion. alteration, for example, E and Eflat, appear successively in different voice parts (Fig. 32b, c), C. s. Abbreviation for colla sinirather than in the same, as would stra (with the left hand). See under Col. Croisez, croisement (crwah-zay, crwahz-mahnh: F.). Indication to cross the hands in piano playing.

Fig. 32

Csárdás ( CHAHR-dash ). A Hungarian dance, usually consisting of a slow, rhapsodic introduction (lassan or lassù) followed by a rapid, wild dance (friss or friska). Liszt's Hun-

CUE

75

garian Rhapsodies are written in this form. Cue. In instrumental or vocal parts having a long rest, a short passage taken from another leading instrument or voice and printed in small notes, in order to warn the player of the entry of his part. Cuivré (kwee-VRAY: F., brassy). In horn playing, indication for a loud, forced sound, as opposed to bouché, a soft, muted sound. Unfortunately, the two terms are often confused. Cuivres (kweevr: F., copper). Brass instruments. Cycle. In acoustics, term for the number of vibrations per second, for example, 440 cycles for a' ( see Acoustics, 1 ). Cycle of songs. See Song

CYMBALS

if some or all of the movements are internally related by the use of common thematic material. Cyclic treatment is most clearly indicated when the same initial theme recurs in every movement, with the necessary adjustments of rhythm and speed. The earliest example of this kind is Schubert's "Wanderer Fantasie, op. 15 (1822). Essentially the same method is used in Berlioz' •Fantastic Symphony (1830). In Schumann's Symphony no. 4, op. 120 (1841), all the movements are developed from ideas stated in the Introduction. Cyclic treatment was established as a principle of composition by César Franck and other French composers — d'Indy, Saint-Saëns, Fauré, Dukas. Statements to the effect that most of Beethoven's sonatas, etc., are cyclic should be accepted with great caution. A "germ motive" such as g-c'd'-eb' is of such a general nature and is so frequent in many of his works that its presence in two movements of the Pathétique Sonata constitutes unconvincing evidence of this sonata's being conceived as a cyclic one. The cyclic principle as a deliberate means of unification was foreign to Beethoven except in those obvious cases where a movement shows the insertion (usually in the form of a reminiscence) of a short section from another movement as, e.g., in the Fifth Symphony (third movement quoted in the last movement), the Piano Sonata op. 101, and the Ninth Symphony.

cycle. Cymbals. A percussion instrument consisting of two large Cyclic, cyclical. Symphonies, circular brass plates of equal sonatas, etc., are said to be cyclic size, with a strap attached at the

CZARDAS

76

middle of each plate, enabling the player to hold one in each hand. They are either clashed together, or a single cymbal is struck with a drum stick; occasionally it is struck with two sticks, in which case the cymbal is suspended. The cymbals have no definite pitch. There are, however, smaller cymbals of thicker metal which produce a

DAMNATION DE FAUST

fairly definite pitch, and these have been prescribed in French scores under the names cymbales antiques (Debussy) or crotales (Ravel, Stravinsky). Czárdás. Incorrect spelling for "csárdás. Czimbalom. Same as cimbalom (see under Dulcimer).

D D. See under Pitch names. Da capo (dah-KAH-po: It., capo, head). Indication (abbreviated D.C. ) to repeat a composition from the beginning. Do capo al fine, to repeat from the beginning to the word fine. Da capo al segno, to repeat from the beginning to the sign :S:. Da capo aria. See under Aria. Dal segno. See under Segno. Dame blanche, La (lah dahm blahnhsh: The White Lady). Opera by Boi'eldieu (libretto by Scribe, after Scott's Guy Mannering and The Monastery), produced in Paris, 1825. The plot, laid in Scotland in 1759, deals with the imminent sale of a castle belonging to the unknown heir of the Count of Avenell, and guarded by the covetous Gaveston ( bass ). A young officer, George Brown ( tenor ), enters and meets a specter, the White

Lady (soprano), who asks him to outbid all other bidders at the sale of the castle on the following morning. This he accomplishes after Gaveston has almost won the bidding. The White Lady is then revealed as being a young girl, Anna, who has safeguarded the old count's money, and George Brown as the young count and rightful heir who, of course, marries Anna. Damnation de Faust, La ( dahmnah-SYONH de fost: The Damnation of Faust). Dramatic legend (cantata) for solo voices, chorus, and orchestra by Berlioz, op. 24 (1846), produced as an opera at Monte Carlo in 1893. Divided into four parts, it deals with the most important scenes from Goethe's Faust Z. 1. Faust (tenor) wanders in the fields at sunrise, observing a crowd of dancing peasants and Hungarian troops approaching. 2. Faust in his study, ready to poison himself; appearance of Mephistophe-

DAMOISELLE ÉLUE

77

les ( baritone ) ; scene in the wine cellar; Faust falling asleep in a garden and dreaming of Marguerite. 3. Faust and Mephistopheles concealed in Marguerite's room; Marguerite (soprano) enters; love scene between Faust and Marguerite interrupted by Mephistopheles who warns Faust of imminent danger and takes him away. 4. Marguerite, deserted, bewails her fate; Faust, back in his study, signs over his soul to Mephistopheles, who takes him on a wild ride through darkness and horror to his eternal damnation. Some of the better-known numbers are "Rákóczi March, "Song of the Flea," "Dance of the Sylphes," "King of Thüle," "Mock Serenade," and "Minuet of the Will-o'-the-wisps." The music is in the advanced harmonic and orchestral language that was already developed in Berlioz' early works. The cantata includes a number of ballet scenes, almost the only portions still performed frequently. Demoiselle élue, La (F.). See Blessed Damozel. Damper (F., étouffoir; G., Dämpfer; It., sordino ). In pianofortes and harpsichords that part of the mechanism which terminates the vibration of the string — hence, the sound — at the moment when the key is released. The dampers of the pianoforte are small pieces of wood covered with felt which rest against the strings until removed by action of the keys or damper pedal mechanism (see Pianoforte; also Mute). Damper pedal. See also Sordino.

Pianoforte;

DANCE MUSIC

Dance music. It is very likely that music originated as a stimulus and accompaniment to dance movements. The dances of prehistoric men were ritual, serving to exert magic, to propitiate the gods, to heal illness, etc. The ancient Egyptians and Chinese (c. 1000 B.C.) had ceremonial dances of a highly stylized character, with strictly regulated movements of symbolic significance. In Greece, for the first time, the purpose of dancing became the expression of beauty and human feelings. In the early Christian era the Church strongly opposed dancing, although it was not able to suppress it. The earliest extant examples of dance music date from the 13th and 14th centuries ( see Estampie). The main dance of the 15th century was the "basse danse of the Burgundian court. In the 16th century there appeared numerous dances, often in pairs, a slow walking dance being followed by a lively jumping dance in triple meter. The most important examples are the Spanish "pavane and "galliard and the Italian "passamezzo and "saltarello. They were superseded in the late 16th century by the "allemande, "courante, "sarabande, and "gigue, which became the standard movements of the 17th-century "suite. In the mid-17th century a great number of new dances, more refined and graceful in character, grew up at the court of Versailles in connection with the rise of the "ballet, e.g., the "anglaise, "bourrée, "gavotte, "minuet, "polonaise, "rigaudon. These were later incorporated into the suite as optional movements. The

DANSE MACABRE

78

minuet is of special importance because it was the only dance that survived the decline of the suite (c. 1750) and was adopted into the sonata, symphony, string quartet, etc. A popular dance type of English origin was the "country dance. This is practically the only one of the early dances for which we have dance music in the literal sense of the word, as opposed to the more or less stylized and idealized music reserved in the dances of the allets and suites. Toward the end of the 18th century there appeared the "écossaise and ' the Austrian *Ländler which soon changed into the "waltz. The 19th century contributed, among others, the "polka, the "quadrille, and the "galop. Chopin brought the Polish *mazurka and "polonaise into prominence, and the rise of the national schools led to the cultivation of numerous other national dances, among them the Spanish "bolero and "fandango, the Cuban "habanera, the Argentine "tango, the Czech "dumka. In the early part of the 20th century America made its important contribution, "jazz, to dance music.

P

Danse macabre (dahns maCAHBR: F.). A symphonic poem by Saint-Saëns (op. 40, 1874) which depicts Death playing the violin and dancing in a graveyard at midnight. The gruesome effect is heightened by use of the plainsong "Dies Irae from the Requiem Mass. Dante Sonata. A one-movement sonata (Fantasia quasi sonata) by Liszt, entitled "Après une lecture de Dante" and contained

DAUGHTER

in vol. II of his Années pèlerinage ( 1849 ).

de

Dante Symphony. A program symphony with choral ending by Liszt (1856) based on Dante's Divina commedia. It is in two movements, entitled "Inferno" (see also under Dies Irae) and "Purgatorio." Daphnis and Chloë ( DAF-nis and CLO-ay). Ballet by Ravel (choreography by M. Fokine), produced in Paris, 1912. It is based on a pastoral love story of Greek antiquity. Two suites from the ballet music, arranged by the composer, are played frequently in orchestral concerts. Das. German for "the" (neuter singular ). For tides beginning with Das, see entry under the following word in the title. Daughter of the Regiment, The ( F., La Fille du Régiment; original It., La Figlia del Reggimento). Opera in two acts by Donizetti (libretto by F. Bayard and J. H. Vernoy de SaintGeorges), produced in Paris, 1840. The central figure is Marie (soprano) who was found as a baby and "adopted" by Napoleon's 21st Regiment, with the old sergeant Sulpice (bass) as her special guardian. When the action begins in the Tyrol in 1815, Marie is a young woman and has fallen in love with a Tyrolean peasant, Tonio (tenor), who joins the regiment in order to be eligible to marry Marie. In the meanwhile, the Countess of Berkenfield ( mezzo-soprano ) claims Marie as her long-lost niece, takes her home to the castle, and arranges for her mar-

DAVIDSBÜNDLER TÄNZE

79

riage to a nobleman. Lonely and despondent, Marie is ready to sign the marriage contract when the regiment arrives led by Tonio, now an officer. Marie declares that she will marry only Tonio, and the Countess, after revealing that she is actually Marie's mother, relents and gives her blessing. Davidsbiindler Tänze (dah-veetsBUIN-dler TENT-sa: Dances of the David-leaguers. Robert Schumann's cycle of eighteen "character pieces for piano, op. 6, composed in 1837. The title refers to an imaginary "League of David" frequently mentioned in Schumann's writings on music, to which he entrusted the task of fighting against the musical "Philistines ' of his day, that is, against the mediocre drawingroom music which was then very much in vogue. Each piece is signed E. or F., letters which stand for the names Eusebius and Florestan. These are imaginary characters representing the pensive introvert and the impulsive extrovert side of Schumann's own personality. They also appear in his "Carnival together with a "March of the David-leaguers against the Philistines." Db. Abbreviation (see Bel).

for

DESCANT

Death and Transfiguration (G., Tod und Verklärung). The second of R. Strauss's six famous tone poems, completed in 1889. The music depicts the fevered fantasies of an individual at the crisis of a fatal disease. The four sections are marked: I. Largo ( Sleep, Illness, and Reverie ) ; II. Allegro molto agitato ( Fever and Struggle with Death); III. Meno mosso, ma sempre alla breve ( Dreams, Childhood Memories, and Death ) ; IV. Moderato (Transfiguration). The last portion of the work, by a gradual modification of one of the very agitated themes found in the earlier parts, suggests transfiguration. Deceptive cadence. See under Cadence. Decibel. See under Bel. Decrescendo ( It., decreasing ). Abbreviated deer, or decresc. See under Crescendo. Demisemiquaver. A thirty-second note. See under Notes and rests.

Der. German for "the" (masculine singular ). For titles beginning with Der, see entry under the following word in the decibel title.

Des (G.). D-flat. Also French D. C. Abbreviation for *da capo. and German genitive ( "of the" ). Death and the Maiden Quartet. Schubert's String Quartet no. 14 in D minor, composed 1826. The second movement consists of variations on his early song, "Death and the Maiden" (Der Tod und das Mädchen, 1817).

Descant. An old name for the highest voice in part music (soprano); hence, for high-pitched instruments (descant viol, descant recorder). In hymn singing, descant is a somewhat florid melody sung by a few sopranos

DESCRIPTIVE MUSIC

80

DICHTERLIEBE

as a decorative addition to the Diabelli ( 1 7 8 1 - 1 8 5 8 ) , a Vienhymn ( often wrongly called nese publisher and amateur composer. Diabelli submitted his "fauxbourdon). See Discant. waltz to fifty-one composers Descriptive music. See Program (among them, Beethoven, Schubert, and Liszt, the latter then music; Word painting. only eleven years old ), asking Des Knaben Wunderhorn (G.). each to contribute one variation See Youth's Magic Horn. to a collective work, which was published under the title VaterDestro, destra (It.). Right ländischer Künstlerverein. In a (hand). characteristic mood, Beethoven Détaché (F.). See Bowing appropriated the theme for himself and wrote one of the (b). greatest works in the field of Dettingen Te Deum. See under variation. Te Deum. Diabolus in musica (L., the Deutsche Tänze ( DOY-che devil in music). Old name for TENT-sa: G., German dances). the "tritone which, in early See under Ländler. music, was considered the most awkward melodic interval and Deutsches Requiem, Ein. See therefore prohibited by theorists. German Requiem. Development. An important technique of composition consisting in the elaboration or working out of a theme or themes. This "unfolding" of thematic material is not in the nature of amplification and addition, but of fragmentation, modification, and combination of themes and motives. The technique occurs particularly in the development section of "sonata form. See also under Motive.

Diapente (deye-a-PEN-te: Gr., through five [steps] ). Old name for the interval of the fifth. Hence, canon in diapente, canon at the upper fifth. The terms diatessaron ( fourth ), epidiapente ( lower fifth ), epidiatessaron ( lower fourth ) are used in a similar manner. Diatessaron (deye-a-TESS-aron: Gr.). See under Diapente.

Diatonic (Gr., through the tones). Designation for the "major (also minor) scale as opposed to the chromatic "scale. Also applied to melodies and harmonies confined to the notes of these scales, to the exclusion of chromatic tones. For instance, in C major, c-d-e is diatonic; Diabelli Variations ( dee-a-BEL- e-d-dï-e is chromatic. lee). Beethoven's op. 120 ( DIKH-ter-LEE( 1823 ) consisting of thirty-three Dichterliebe variations on a waltz by Antonio ba: Poet's Love). A song cycle

Devil's Trill Sonata. A violin sonata by Tartini, said to have been inspired by a dream in which the devil appeared to him. The long trill, from which its name derives, occurs in the last movement.

DIDO AND AENEAS

81

by Schumann, op. 48 (1840), has been used by several comconsisting of sixteen songs to posers as a symbol of the horror attending death after a sinful poems by Heine. Dido and Aeneas. Opera by Furcell (libretto by Nahum Tate, after Virgil's poetic story), produced about 1689 at Josias Priest's boarding school for girls at Chelsea (London). It deals with the love of Dido (soprano), Queen of Carthage, and the Trojan prince Aeneas (baritone), who has come to her court after being shipwrecked. Their happiness is destroyed by a Witch ( mezzo-soprano ) who appears to Aeneas in the likeness of Jupiter's messenger Mercury (soprano or tenor), and commands him to return to Troy in order to restore the city from its ruins. Aeneas obeys and Dido, brokenhearted at his faithlessness, stabs herself. The moving simplicity of the plot, together with Purcell's expressive music, make Dido and Aeneas a significant work of early opera, standing midway between Monteverdi and Gluck. Particularly famous is Dido's "Lament" before her death, a "chaconne based on a chromatic modification of the descending tetrachord, similar to the ground shown in Fig. 21b. Die. German for "the" (plural or feminine singular). For titles beginning with Die, see entry under the following word in the title. Dies Irae (L., day of wrath). A celebrated poem by Thomas Celano (died c. 1250) which is sung in the Roman Catholic Church at the Mass for the Dead (see Requiem Mass; Sequence). Its austere melody (Fig. 33a)

a

Fig. 33 life, e.g., in Berlioz' "Fantastic Symphony (Fig. 33b), in the "Inferno" movement of Liszt's "Dante Symphony, in SaintSaëns' "Danse macabre, and in Rachmaninoff's *Isle of the Dead. Dièse (dee-EZ: F . ) , diesis (deeAY-sis: It.). Sharp; for example, fa-dièse is F-sharp. Differential tones. See Resultant tones. Diferencias (dif-er-EN-thi-as). Spanish 16th-century term for variations. Diminished chords, diminished intervals. See under Chords; Intervals. Diminuendo (dim-in-ew-EN-do: It., diminishing). Abbr. dim. or dimin. See under Crescendo. Diminution. See and diminution.

Augmentation

Di nuovo (dee NWO-vo: It.). Anew, once more. Dis (G.). D-sharp (see under Pitch names). In older music (17th century) also Ε-flat. As late as 1805, Beethoven's

DISCANT

82

DIXIE

( dee-vayr-teeEroica Symphony (in E-flat) Divertimento was announced at the first per- MEN-to: It.). An instrumental form of the period of Haydn and formance as "in Dis." Mozart, which combines features Discant (from L. discantus, of the sonata (symphony) with divergent song). (1) Originally, those of the suite. It consists of discantus meant music consisting from four to ten short moveof a "song" and a "divergent ments, some in the form and song," that is, polyphonic music style of abstract sonata movein two (also three) parts, with ments, interspersed with minuall the parts proceeding accord- ets or variations. Famous exing to the 13th-century prin- amples of this type are Mozart's ciples of consonance and meter. Eine *Kleine Nachtmusik and The clausulae, motets, and con- Ein Musikalischer Spass ( see ductus of the 13th century are under Musical Joke), Beethojn "discant style," as opposed to ven's Septet, op. 20, and Schuthe "organai style," which is bert's Divertissement à l'Honcharacterized by a metrically free groise (for piano, four hands). upper part over a lower part in sustained notes (see Organum). Divertissement ( dee-vayr-tees— ( 2 ) See the various meanings MAHNH: F.). Same as "divertiof descant. mento, also an operatic 'potpourri. Discord. The opposite of 'conDivisi (dee-VEE-zee: It.). In cord. orchestral scores, divisi ( abbr. Disjoint, disjunct. See under dio.) indicates that the players Motion. of a part (e.g., first violin) should be divided into two or Disque (deesk: F.). Disc, recmore groups, each group playing ord. a different part. See remark Dissonance. See Consonance and under A due. dissonance. Divisions. In English music of Dissonant (Dissonance) Quartet. the 17th century, term for Mozart's String Quartet no. 19 figuration or ornamentation such (K. 465) in C major, so called as results from the division of a because of the unusual dis- note into smaller values. The sonances in the introduction to term was also applied to improvised variations based on such the first movement. figurations and played on a viol Distratto, Ii (dees-TRAH-to: It., (division viol) or flute, to the The Absent-Minded One). Nick- accompaniment of a harpsichord. name for Haydn's Symphony in C, no. 60. Hardly a symphony in Dixie. A song by Daniel D. the proper sense of the term, the Emmet (1815-1904), who wrote six short movements were de- it in 1859 for his Negro minstrel rived by Haydn from incidental shows. It was adopted, much music which he had composed against his intentions, by the in 1774 to a French comedy by Southern troops during the Civil Regnard (Le Distrait). War.

DJINNS

83

Djinns, Les (lay JIN: The Genii ). Symphonic poem for piano and orchestra by Franck (1884), based on verses from Victor Hugo's poem, Les Orientales. Do. See under Pitch Solmization.

DON GIOVANNI

triad built on the fifth degree of the scale (g-b-d')· The dominant seventh chord adds a seventh degree to this triad (g-b-d'-f'). See Chords; Cadence.

names; Don Carlos. Opera by Verdi (libretto, in French, by F. J. Dodecaphonic ( do-dek-a-FON- Méry and C. DuLocle, after ik: from Gr. dödeka, twelve). A Schiller's drama), produced in term applied to "twelve-tone Paris, 1867. The main characters are the 16th-century Spanish technique or compositions. king, Philip II (bass), his son Dodecuple scale (from Gr. Don Carlos (tenor), the French dödeka, twelve). The chromatic princess Elizabeth of Valois ( soscale in its modern interpreta- prano ), Carlos' friend Rodriguez, tion, as used in the "twelve-tone Marquis of Posa (baritone), and the Spanish Princess Eboli technique. ( mezzo-soprano ). Don Carlos Dolce (DOL-chay: It.). Sweet, loves Elizabeth, but she is to soft; dolcissimo, very soft. marry his father for reasons of state. The marriage takes place Domestic Symphony ( Sym- and Carlos, still in love, goes to phonia Domestica). A program- Flanders. Later he returns as matic symphony ( see Program the champion of the cause of music) by R. Strauss, op. 53, Flemish freedom, and thus becompleted in 1904 and first heard comes also the political opponent in New York in the same year. of his father. Philip puts Carlos It is an autobiographical work into prison and finally, on heardescribing a husband, wife, and ing ( through the jealous Princess child. Structurally indistinguish- Eboli ) of his secret meetings able from a symphonic poem with Elizabeth, delivers him (tone poem), it is in one con- over to the Inquisition to be tinuous movement divided into executed. three sections: (a) Introduction and Scherzo: "Parents' Happiness — The Child at Play"; ( b ) Don Giovanni (don jo-VAHNAdagio: "Doing and Thinking — ee). Opera in two acts by MoLove Scene — Dreams and zart (libretto by da Ponte), proCares"; (c) Double Fugue and duced in Prague, 1787. The acFinale: "Merry Argument — tion takes place in Seville during the 17th century and centers Happy Conclusion." around the libertine of legendary Dominant. The fifth degree of fame, Don Giovanni (baritone), the scale (see Scale degrees), so who is assisted in his amorous called because of its "dominat- adventures by his servant ing" position in melody as well Leporello (bass). Three women as in harmony. In the key of are involved in the plot: Donna C, for example, the dominant is Anna ( soprano ) — her father g and the dominant triad is the the Commandant ( bass ) is killed

©ON JUAN

84

by Don Giovanni in the first scene — who, together with her betrothed, Don Ottavio (tenor), swears vengeance; Donna Elvira (soprano), the hero's deserted sweetheart who seeks to regain his love; and Zerlina (soprano), a pretty peasant girl about to be married to Masetto (bass). An especially dramatic touch is added to the action by the statue of the dead Commandant •yvhom Giovanni mockingly invites to dinner and who, in the Çnal scene, comes to deliver the unrepentant sinner to the demons of hell. Don Giovanni is one of the greatest operas of all times. Particularly noteworthy are the overture, whose slow beginning anticipates the music accompanying the appearance of the statue in the final scene, the "Catalog Aria" by Leporello in ivbich he relates to Donna Elvira the account of Don Giovanni's thousands of amorous adventures, Don Giovanni's "Deh vieni alla fenestra" ( Come to the window), a serenade with mandolin accompaniment addressed to, Zerlina, the "Ballroom Music" (end of Act I) which contains the famous minuet, and the "Dinner Music" near the end of the opera, with its quotations from Martin y Soler's "Una cosa rara and from Mozart's own Figaro. Don Juan ( Khwahn ). ( 1 ) Symphonic poem by R. Strauss, op. 20 (1888), based on a dramatic poem by Lenau. — ( 2 ) For Mozart's opera, see Don Giovanni. Don Pasquale ( pas-KWAH-lay ). Comic opera in three acts by

DON QUIXOTE

Donizetti (libretto by the composer), produced in Paris, 1843. Don Pasquale (bass), an old bachelor, refuses to give permission for the marriage of his nephew, Ernesto (tenor), and the charming widow, Norina (soprano). His physician, Dr. Malatesta (baritone), proposes that Don Pasquale himself marry, and offers his "very beautiful sister" as the bride. Actually, the doctor is a friend of Ernesto, and has devised a scheme whereby the two young lovers may be married. Norina disguises herself as the "sister" and the marriage contract is signed. In order to force him into submission, she makes life so miserable for him that he is delighted upon discovering that he has been duped, and gladly gives permission for her marriage to Ernesto. Don Quixote (kee-HO-tay). Symphonic poem by R. Strauss, op. 35 (1897), based on the famous novel of Cervantes, and composed in the form of an Introduction, Theme with Variations, and Finale. After the introduction, the variations proceed as follows: I. The Knight and his Squire (Sancho Panza) Start on Their Journey; II. The Victorious Battle against the Host of the Great Emperor Alifanfaron (actually a battle with a flock of sheep depicted by muted brass playing very dissonant harmonies); III. Colloquies of Knight and Squire; IV. The Adventure with the Penitents; V. The Knight's Vigil; VI. The Meeting with Dulcinea; VII. The Ride through the Air (during which a wind machine is used); VIII. The Journey in the

DOPPIO MOVIMENTO

85

Enchanted Boat; IX. The Combat with Two Magicians; and X. The Defeat of Don Quixote. The finale depicts Don Quixote's death. In addition to the main "theme of a knightly character," there is a lyrical one portraying Don Quixote in love and a comic one for Sancho Panza. A notable feature is the employment throughout of a significant solo cello part. Doppio movimento ( DAWP-pyo mo-vee-MEN-to: It.). A direction indicating a speed exactly twice as fast as the preceding one. Dorian. See under modes; Greek music.

Church

Donan Toccata and Fugue. A Toccata and Fugue in D minor by Bach for organ, written without the customary B-flat in the key signature, and thereby having the appearance of a composition in the Dorian mode. Actually, however, the accidentals for D minor are supplied throughout. The use of key signatures with one flat less than is used today (e.g., one flat for G minor, two flats for C minor ) was a common practice in Bach's time.

DOUBLE BASS

note % plus & of its value, resulting in a total of 1%. Fig. 34a illustrates the use of dotted notes in duple meter. The rhythmic effect shown in (b) is called inverted dotting. It is also known as Lombard rhythm or Scotch snap, the latter name referring to its use in Scottish folksongs. In earlier music, for example, in Bach's time, dotted notes occasionally have to be played in a flexible manner, sometimes almost as doubledotted values (Fig. 34c), or as triplets (when they occur in conjunction with triplet figures, as in Fig. 34d). a

fol Ef"r

J

J 1 r Γ λ > Τ :f=fl

B a c h , Goldber ζ Variations, No. 16 All C

B a c h , F r e n c h S u l t e No. 4, (Courante d ^^ m

Fig. 34

Double (DOO-ble: F.). In the suites of Bach and other Baroque composers, name for an ornamented version of a dance movement, usually played imDot. A dot played above or bemediately after the original low a note indicates "staccato. version. Placed after a note, it prolongs the note by one half of its value; Double appoggiatura. See under see Dotted note. Nonharmonic tones.

Dotted note. A note having a dot at its right side, which adds to the note one half of its value. Thus, a dotted quarter note has the value of IX quarter notes or of 3 eighth notes. A double dot adds to the

Double bass. The largest of the "stringed instruments, also known as bass viol. Both names are abbreviations of the original name, double-bass viol. This instrument has retained certain characteristics of the old "viols,

DOUBLE BASSOON

86

DOWN BEAT

especially the sloping shoulders Double dot. See under Dotted at the top of the body (see il- note. lustration ). Formerly equipped Double flat. See under Accidentals. Double fugue. A fugue based on two themes (I, II) which appear successively or simultaneously, one forming a counterpoint to the other. Bach's double fugues, such as the organ fugue in E-flat ( "St. Anne's Fugue), usually consist of three sections : a fugue on I, a fugue on II, and a final fugue on I + II. A somewhat simpler scheme, including the sections I and I + II only, ' is found in the C-sharp minor fugue of the Well-tempered Clavier I. Fugues employing three or four themes in a similar manner are called triple or quadruple fugues (see Art of Fugue). Double pedal. In organ playing, the simultaneous use of both feet for the rendering of two or more notes or parts.

has four strings tuned in fourths (Ei, Ai, D, G) to which occasionally a fifth string is added below, tuned to Ci. The music is notated an octave higher than it sounds.

Double pedal harp. See under Harp. Double sharp. See under Accidentals.

Double stop. On violins, etc., the performance of two (also three Double bassoon. See under or four ) simultaneous notes, produced by stopping (and bowOboe. ing) several strings at the same Double concerto. A concerto for time. two solo instruments, e.g., Bach's Concerto in D minor for two Down-bow. See under Bowing. violins, or Mozart's for violin and Down beat. The downward moviola (K. 364). tion of the conductor's baton, Double counterpoint. See under marking the first beat of the measure. Invertible counterpoint.

87

DRAMMA

Dramma per musica (DRAHMmah per MOO-zee-cah ). Name for the earliest Italian operas, meaning musical drama. Bach used the term for some of his secular cantatas because they were designed for a modest stage performance. Dream of Gerontius, The. An oratorio by Elgar, finished and first performed in 1900. The text is a poem by Cardinal Newman. Dreigroschenoper, Threepenny Opera.

Die.

See

Drone. ( 1 ) The low-toned pipes of the "bagpipe used as accompaniment. — ( 2 ) In musical composition, a long sustained note, usually in the bass (drone bass ) ; see Pedal point. Drums. Percussion instruments having a skin stretched tightly over a frame or hollow vessel. They are among the oldest and most widespread of all instruments, existing in a great variety of shapes in all parts of the world. In the 12th century returning crusaders brought them from the Orient into Europe. The following types are used in the modern orchestra: 1. Kettledrums (timpani). These have a skin stretched over a hollow metal shell in the form of a half sphere. They are played by sticks consisting of a wooden handle and a globular head of felt or, for special purposes, of other material (leather, wood, sponge). They produce a sound of definite pitch which can be varied by means of screws placed around the rim or by a pedal attachment. At least two kettledrums are used in the orchestra,

DRUM MASS

normally tuned to the tonic and dominant of the key of the composition. In modern compositions, change of tuning during a performance is frequently required. Twentieth-century composers often demand three or more kettledrums tuned according to specification. The kettledrums are important not only for rhythmic accentuation but also for special effects, such as extended drum rolls in increasing and decreasing loudness (thunderstorm scenes), etc. 2. Snare drum, also called side drum or military drum. This has a hollow cylindrical shell, with a skin stretched over either end. Catgut or metal strings, called snares, are stretched tightly over the lower skin and produce a rattling sound when the upper skin is struck by a pair of wooden drumsticks. This drum, as well as the ones subsequently listed, produces a sound of indefinite pitch. 3. Tenor drum. Similar in shape to the snare drum, but larger and deeper, and without snares. 4. Bass drum. Also of a similar shape and without snares, but very large and placed upright so that both skins can be played, one with each hand. 5. Tambourine. A shallow cylindrical frame covered with skin on one side, and with loose jingles ( circular metal plates ) affixed to the rim. It is struck by the hand or shaken. Not to be confused with the old tambourin (see Tabor). Drum Mass. Nickname of Haydn's Mass in C major (1790), in which there is extended use of kettledrums.

DRUM-ROLL SYMPHONY

88

Drum-Roll Symphony. Haydn's Symphony no. 103 in E-flat ("Salomon Symphonies no. 8 ) , composed in 1795, so called because of the drum roll in the opening measure of the Introduction. Drum-Stroke Symphony. Surprise Symphony.

See

D. s. Abbreviation "segno.

Dal

for

DYNAMIC

MARKS

a modern concerto grosso. The name refers to the residence of R. W. Bliss near Washington, D. C. Dumka (DOOM-ka: pi. dumky). A type of Slavic folk song, of a narrative character and with sudden changes from melancholy to exuberance. Dvorak's Dumky Trio, op. 90 (1891), consists of six movements each in the character of a dumka. He also wrote a Dumka, op. 35, and a Furiant and Dumka, op. 12, both for pianoforte.

Due corde (DOO-ay CAWRday: It., two strings). In violin music, indication that for greater sonority the same tone should be Dump. An early type of English sounded on two strings. In piano or Irish song, lamenting in charmusic, see under Una corda. acter, although Shakespeare ( Romeo and Juliet, IV, iv ) menDuet. A composition, vocal or in- tions "merry dumps" as well as strumental, in two parts or for "doleful dumps." two performers. Also called duo, duetto. Duo, duetto. Same as "duet. Dulcimer ( DUL-si-mer ). ( 1 ) A medieval stringed instrument having a flat soundboard, often triangular, with ten or more parallel strings which are struck by small hammers. It originated in the Middle Orient (Assyria, Persia), and appeared in Western Europe in the 12th century. Enlarged varieties are the Pantaleon, constructed by Pantaleon Hebenstreit in the 18th century, and the Hungarian cimbalom. — ( 2 ) In early American usage, dulcimer designated homemade zithers plucked with the fingers.

Duodecuple. Same as dodecuple (see Dodecuple scale). Duple meter (time). See under Meter. Duplet. A group of two notes played in the place of three, hence the reverse of "triplet. Dur (door: G.). Major key, for example, Es dur, Ε-flat major. Dusk of the Gods, The. See under Ring of the Nibelung.

Dulcitone (DUL-si-tone). A va- Dux and comes (L., leader and riety of the "celesta, with tuning companion). Older terms for the leading and the imitating voice forks instead of the steel bars. parts in fugues and canons. Dumbarton Oaks. Concerto for fifteen instruments by Stravinsky Dynamic marks. Words or signs (1938), written in the style of indicating degrees or changes of

89

DYNAMISM

EIGHTH NOTE.

loudness, e.g., "piano, 'forte, acterized by a large, brilliantly colorful orchestra, by strongly "crescendo, diminuendo. percussive rhythms in irregular Dynamism. A term sometimes metric patterns, and by harshly used in reference to the style of dissonant harmonies. Stravinsky about 1910. It is char-

E. See under Pitch

names.

which, in spite of its name, is not of Scottish origin, but belongs to the English country dances. It appeared about 1780 in England and France, and had a great vogue in the early 19th century.

Ear training. Elementary instruction designed to develop the sense of hearing as applied to music, e.g., recognition of pitch (absolute or relative), of intervals, chords, meter, rhythmic Églogue ( F . ) . See *Eclogue. patterns, etc. See also under Egmont. Incidental music, op. Solfeggio. 84, composed by Beethoven in Ecclesiastical modes. Same as 1810 for Goethe's play. The overture is often played in con*Church modes. certs. Échappée ( F . ) . See under Non- Eighteen Great Preludes. A. harmonic tones. group of eighteen chorale preludes by Bach, composed in the Eclogue. Properly, a type of 1710's (Weimar period), but asidyllic poetry by Vergil. Used as sembled and probably revised a title for compositions of an near the end of his life (autoidyllic, pastoral character. graph of c. 1748). It contains, organ chorales of large dimenÉcole d'Arcueil (ay-COL d'ahr- sions and of varied treatment. KEU-ee: School of Arcueil). A group of 20th-century French Eighteen-Twelve Overture. A composers, organized in 1923 festival overture by Tchaikovsky, which included Henri Sauguet, op. 49, composed in 1882, in Roger Désormière, Maxime Ja- commemoration of the 70th ancob, and Henri Cliquet-Pleyel. niversary of Napoleon's retreat The name refers to the place of from Moscow (1812). residence of Erik Satie, whom they considered their leader. Eight-foot. See under Foot. Écossaise (ay-co-SAYZ: F., Eighth note. See under Notes,· Scottish [dance] ). A dance and rests.

EIN

EMPEROR QUARTET

Ein, eine. German for "a" or "an" (masculine, feminine). For titles beginning with Ein or Eine, see entry under the following word in the title.

instruments was the Telharmonium, invented early in the 20th century by Thaddeus Cahill. Among the instruments in current use are electronic organs (e.g. "Hammond organ), "NoEinleitung ( EYEN-leye-toong : vachord, "Solovox, "Theremin, G. ). Introduction. "Ondes musicales, "steel guitar. Eisteddfod. See under Bard. EI Amor Brujo. See Amor

Brujo.

Electra. Opera in one act by R. Strauss (libretto by Hofmannsthal, after Sophocles), produced in Dresden, 1909. The story takes place at the palace of Mycenae after the Trojan War. King Agamemnon has been murdered by his wife Clytemnestra (mezzo-soprano) and her lover Aegisthus (tenor). Electra (soprano), daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, desires revenge. She tries in vain to get help from her gentle sister Chrysothemis (soprano). Finally her brother Orestes (baritone), long believed dead, appears and kills the guilty pair with an axe, while Electra, rejoicing in the deed, dances herself to death. To this story of hate and murder, Strauss has provided what is perhaps the most brutal and violent music ever written, an unrelenting piling up of intense orchestral effects from which there is only occasional relief, such as in the scene of recognition between Electra and Orestes. Electrophonic (electronic) instruments. Instruments in which sounds are produced by electrical appliances such as vacuum tube oscillators, photoelectric cells, electromagnetic systems, etc. Perhaps the earliest of such

Elegy. A plaintive poem; hence, a musical composition of a mournful character. Elijah (Elias). Oratorio by Mendelssohn to words from the Old Testament, produced in the English version at the Birmingham Festival, 1846; in the German version at Hamburg, 1847. Embellishment. Same as "ornament or ornamenting figure. Embouchure ahm-boo-SHUIR: from F. emboucher, to put to the mouth; often misspelled embrochure). The position of the lips in the playing of wind instruments. Emperor Concerto. Beethoven's Piano Concerto in Ε-flat, op. 73 (1809), the name suggested by the grandeur of the work. The first movement opens with an unusual improvisatory introduction played by the pianist and has a written-out "cadenza. Particularly noteworthy as a departure from traditional practice is a transitional passage linking the slow and the final movements. Emperor Quartet. Haydn's String Quartet in C, op. 76, no. 3, so called because the slow movement consists of variations on the Emperor's Hymn, formerly the "national anthem of Austria, which was composed by Hadyn (as a four-part chorus) in 1797.

ENCORE

91

Encore (ahnh-CAWR: F., again). In public performance, the repetition of a piece, or an extra piece played in response to the applause of the audience, Another French term for this is bis (twice). Enfance du Christ, L' (l'ahnhfahnhs dui Kreest: The Childhood of Christ). Oratorio by Berlioz, op. 25 ( 1 8 5 4 ) , for solo voices, chorus, and orchestra. Enfant et les sortilèges, L' (l'ahnh-fahnh ay lay sawr-teeLEZH: The Child and the Sorceries; sometimes translated "The Bewitched Child"). Opera by Ravel (libretto by Colette) produced in Monte Carlo, 1925. The story is a fantasy which deals with a naughty boy who defaces the furnishings of his room and torments animals. The inanimate objects (chairs, clock, wallpaper, etc.) and the animals (squirrel, cats, etc.) turn on the child and repay his treatment in kind Finally, as a result of the child s kindness to an injured squirrel, he is forgiven and peace is restored.

ENHARMONIC

English Suites. Six suites for the harpsichord by Bach composed in Kothen ( 1 7 2 0 ? ) . Each opens with an extended prelude, often in the general style of the first movement of a concerto grosso, Possibly the name "English" (not applied by Bach) is explained by the fact that a manuscript in the possession of his son, Johann Christian Bach, had the rather mystifying inscription "fait pour les Anglais" (made for the English ). Enharmonic. ( 1 ) In ancient Greek music, a scale including quarter tones (see Greek music). _ ( 2 ) i n modern usage, the t e r m r e f e r s t 0 t h e t w o different " s p e llings" (enharmonic pairs) o f o n e t o n e > f o r example, gît and ab> c # a n d

db> eff a n d

also

appiied

Enfant prodigue, L' (l'ahnhfahnh prod-EEG: The Prodigal Son). ( 1 ) Cantata (lyric scene) by Debussy (libretto by E. Guinand), composed in 1884 for the Prix de Rome; produced as an opera in London, 1910. — ( 2 ) Ballet by Prokofiev, produced in Paris, 1929. English flute. Old name for the "recorder, in distinction from the flute proper, then often called German flute. English horn. See under Oboe.

f> e t c

It

to intervals and but chords identicai in sound; w r i t t e n differently according to t h e c o n t e x t in which they ap(see Fig 35a) S u c h am_ bivalent c h o r d s a r e frequently u s e d for moduiation; said to b e change e f f e c t e d by enharmonic f r o m Handel's (see Fig 35b) Samson ). is

Fig.

33

ENIGMATIC CANON

92

EQUALE

While enharmonic tones are absolutely identical in pitch on pianofortes and organs, players of stringed instruments are aware that there is a minute difference between, for example, git and ab, the former being higher than the latter. In this respect it is interesting to note that in "just intonation the sharp variety is lower than the flat one. See also Circle of fifths.

performed between the acts of a play or an opera. See Interlude; Intermezzo.

En Saga. See Saga, En.

Epistle sonata. A term associated chiefly with Mozart's seventeen brief sonatas for organ and strings (a few include wind instruments), to be used during the service following the reading from the Epistles during the Mass. They were all composed in Salzburg.

Entry. The entering of the theme (first, second entry) in the different voice parts of a fugue.

Éolides, Les (lays ay-o-LEED: F., from Aeolus, god of the winds ). Symphonic poem by Franck, composed in 1876. It is based on a poem by Leconte de Enigmatic canon. A "canon Ro- Lisle, an evocation of the winds tated in a deliberately enigmatic in Southern lands. manner, for instance, without indication as to where ( or at what Epidiapente, epidiatessaron. See interval ) the imitating voice under Diapente. should start. Epilogue. Same as "coda (a conEnigmatic scale. A curious scale, cluding section or movement). c-db-e-ff-gf-aí-b-c', used by Verdi in his Ave Maria (1898). Episode. A secondary passage or section of a composition, formEnigma ( Variations ). Theme ing a digression from the main with variations for orchestra by theme. The term is used mainly Elgar, op. 36 (1899), so called in connection with the "fugue because each variation depicts and with the "rondo, the latter one of his friends, who are enig- sometimes being called episodic matically indicated by their ini- form. However, the latter term is tials or by a nickname. Accord- also used for loosely constructed ing to another explanation, the pieces consisting "only of epiname refers to the presence of a sodes," such as the third movement of Franck's Violin Sonata. "mysterious, unheard theme."

Ensemble (F., together). ( 1 ) A group of performers. — (2) General name for concerted music, particularly in terms such as "good ensemble" or "bad ensemble," referring to the degree of unification and balance achieved in performance.

Equale (ay-KWAH-lay: It.). A Entführung aus dem Serail, Die. composition for equal voices, i.e., See Abduction from the Seraglio. all male or all female; also for equal instruments, e.g., BeethoEntr'acte (ahn-TRAHCT: F . ) . ven's three Equale for four tromAn instrumental piece or a dance bones (1812) which, arranged

EQUAL TEMPERAMENT

93

EROTICON

for male chorus, were performed written in homage to Napoleon, but Beethoven withdrew the at his funeral. planned dedication when NapoEqual temperament. Name for leon assumed the title of Emthe present-day system of tuning peror, changing the title from ( especially pianofortes and or- "Sinfonia grande: Buonaparte" gans), based on the division of to "Sinfonia eroica composta per the octave into twelve equal festeggiar il sovvenire d'un gran parts, each part representing a uomo' (Heroic Symphony Comhalf tone. The great advantage posed to Celebrate the Memory of this system over earlier meth- of a Great Man ). ods of tuning (see under TemThe programmatic idea sugperament) is that it makes play- gested by the title and the origiing in all keys possible. In the nal dedication is realized only in older systems it was possible to the most general way, except for tune the simple keys (C, G, F, the slow movement, called Maretc. ) more correctly, but the keys cia funebre ( Funeral March ), in with five or more sharps or flats which the dead of the Napolecould hardly be used. onic wars ( and, symbolically, the Equal temperament is usually dead of all wars ) are commemosaid to have been invented about rated. The last movement is a 1690 by Andreas Werkmeister series of free variations, also in( 1 6 4 5 - 1 7 0 6 ) , and brought into cluding fugai sections, all based practical use by Bach's "Well- on a dancelike ( entirely untempered Clavier. Actually, the heroic) theme which Beethoven theory behind it was known as had used in three other composiearly as the 16th century; on tions: in the ballet, The "Creathe other hand, it was not gen- tures of Prometheus ( 1 8 0 1 ) ; in erally accepted until about 1800. the "Contredanses ( 1 8 0 2 ) ; and in the "Eroica Variations Equal voices. The term is used ( 1 8 0 2 ) . Extensive use is also to designate compositions for made of the bass of this theme voices of the same pitch level in the initial variations as well (e.g., alto voices only). See as in the fugai sections. Equale. Eroica Variations. Variations for pianoforte by Beethoven, in E flat major, op. 35 ( 1 8 0 2 ) , so called because the theme is the same as the one he employed later in the last movement of the "Eroica Symphony. Another name is Prometheus Variations, after the ballet, The "Creatures in which the ernste of Prometheus, theme occurred for the first time.

Erl King, The. A celebrated song from Schubert's earliest period, composed in 1815 (at the age of 18) and published in 1821 as op. 1. It is set to Goethe's ballad, Der Erlkönig. Karl Loewe ( 1 7 9 6 - 1 8 6 9 ) also composed a musical setting of the poem. Ernste Gesänge. See Vier Gesänge.

Eroica (It., heroic). Beethoven's Eroticon. A love song, or an inThird Symphony in Ε-flat, op. strumental piece portraying pas55, composed in 1804. It was sionate love.

94

ERWARTUNG

Erwartung ( ayr-VAHR-toong : Expectation). A monodrama by Schönberg (text by Marie Pappenheim), completed in 1909. Lasting about half an hour, the opera has only one character, a woman (soprano) seeking, in a dimly moonlit forest, her lover who has been taken from her by another woman. She comes upon his corpse, but refuses to believe that he is dead, even in the broad daylight that finally floods the scene. This intense psychopathological drama is played out to an orchestral accompaniment in the near-atonal style which the composer had developed in that period. Es (G.). names).

Ε-flat

(see

Pitch

Esercizio (ez-ayr-CHEE-tsyo: It.). Exercise, etude. Also the original designation of D. Scarlatti's sonatas. España. A rhapsody for orchestra by Emmanuel Chabrier, composed in 1883. The work is a rhapsodic treatment of several Spanish dance tunes, and is a sparkling portrayal of the festive native spirit. Estampes (es-TAHNHP: F., engravings). A set of three piano pieces by Debussy ( 1 9 0 3 ) : "Pagodes* (Pagodas); "La Soirée dans Granade" (Evening in Granada ) ; "Jardins sous la pluie" ( Gardens in the Rain ). Estampie ( es-tahnh-PEE ). A dance type or form of the 12th to 14th centuries, known to us through one troubadour song, Kalenda maya (In the month of May), by Raimbaut de Vaquei-

EUGEN ONEGIN

ras (fl. 1180-1207), and through a considerable number of instrumental pieces, monophonie or in two parts. Common to all of them is a musical form consisting of a number (up to seven) of sections, each of which is repeated: a a, b b, c c, etc. Estey organ. See under Harmonium. Étouffé ( ay-too-FAY : F. ). Damped, muted; a direction to deaden the sound of instruments such as the harp and the kettledrums. Etude (AY-tood: from F. étude, study). A composition designed to aid the student of an instrument in the development of his technical ability. An etude is usually devoted entirely to one of the special problems of instrumental technique, such as scales, arpeggios, octaves, double stops (for violin), trills, etc. Important collections of etudes for the piano were written by Clementi, Czerny, Cramer, Moscheles, Heller, Bertini; for the violin by Kreutzer, Rode, Paganini, d'Alard, and Bériot. Apart from these stand the etudes by Chopin, designed not only for study but also for public performance, and combining technical difficulty with high artistic quality. Other etudes of the same type are those by Liszt, Scriabin, and Debussy. Études symphoniques ( F . ) . See Symphonic Studies. Eugen Onegin ( OY-gayn onYAY-gin). Opera in three acts by Tchaikovsky ( libretto by Shilovsky and Tchaikovsky after a

95

EUNUCH SINGER

poem by Pushkin), produced in Moscow, 1879. The main plot is the love of the young Tatiana ( soprano ) and Onegin ( baritone). Tatiana declares her love by writing a letter, but Onegin politely refuses her. Six years later (Act III) she is married to the Prince Gremin (bass) and, although still in love with Onegin, firmly rejects the latter's ardent vows, asking him never to return. Another pair of lovers is Tatiana's lively sister, Olga (contralto), and Onegin's friend, Lensky ( tenor ), who is killed by Onegin in a duel. Eunuch singer. See Castrato. Euphonium. See Brass ments, lid.

instru-

Eurhythmies. The coordination of simple, improvised bodily movements with musical rhythms as a means of self-expression. Most notable in the development of the theory and practice of eurhythmies in music education was Émile Jacques-Dalcroze ( 1865-1950). Schools which perpetuate his system are functioning in most metropolitan centers of Europe and America. Euridice, L' (le-oo-ri-DEE-che: It.). Title of the two earliest (produced 1600) extant operas, one by Peri, the other by Caccini, both produced at Florence and based on the same libretto ( by Rinuccini ) which relates the story of Orpheus and Euridice (see Orfeo). The music consists almost entirely of recitative which, although not free from monotony, is remarkable for its austere expressiveness, particularly in the opera by Peri.

EXPRESSION

Evensong. Same as eVespers. Exposition. The initial presentation of thematic material, particularly in the "sonata form and in the "fugue. Expression. Expression in musical performance may be said to be that part of music which cannot be indicated by notes, or, in its highest manifestation, by any sign or symbol whatever. It includes all the nuances of tempo, dynamics, phrasing, accent, touch, bowing, etc., by which the combination and succession of sounds is transformed into a vital communication. Compositions of the 19th century are generously provided with signs indicating such nuances, as well as with expression marks such as dolce, cantabile, passionato, etc., all indicating the general feeling and mood of the music. However detailed and subtle these indications are, they still leave ample room for individual interpretation. The ideal performer is the one who succeeds in bestowing upon the composition a personal and original expression within the stylistic idiom of the work and in full compliance with the composer's intentions. Interpreters of this stature are rare, since there is a general tendency to overemphasize the "personal" factor and to disregard the composer's intentions. Particularly the works of Bach ( also Mozart ) are often distorted by performing them with a multitude of nuances and subtle shadings, as if they were by Schumann or Chopin, for example. Early music requires selfsubordination and reserve on the part of the performer rather than

EXPRESSIONISM

96

subjective interpretation. Expression marks in Bach's music are practically limited to a few instances of f , p, and pp. In view of the excessive amount of expression marks found in the modern editions of his works, it should be recognized that Bach's entire manuscript of the Welltempered Clavier contains nothing but the notes and signs of ornamentation. Expressionism. A term denoting a certain trend in music beginning during the second decade of the 20th century, particularly in Austria and Germany. Like the term "Impressionism, it was taken over from the graphic arts in which it designated a group of German painters ( Nolde, Kirchner, Schmidt-Rotluff ) who cultivated a style of vehement

F . ( 1 ) See Pitch names. — ( 2 ) Abbreviation for "forte (ff for fortissimo). Also F clef, see under Clefs. F holes, see Sound holes. Fa. See under Pitch names; Solmization; Tonic Sol-fa.

FADO

emotionalism and deeply probing self-expression, in reaction against the highly refined suggestiveness of the impressionistic school. Transforming "impressions gained from the outer world" to "expression of the inner self" found a reflection in music, leading (about 1910) from the sensuous and highly coloristic program music of Debussy to a deeply introspective and entirely nonprogrammatic type of music in which distorted melodies, discordant harmonies, "atonality, and disintegrated lines are used to convey a typically "expressionistic" expression of tortuous emotions and psychoanalytical complexes. The main representatives of the expressionistic school are Schönberg and his followers, Anton von Webern, Alban Berg, and Ernst Krenek.

consists of twenty-one poems by Dame Edith Sitwell which are recited in strict meter to instrumental accompaniment. A popular ballet of the same title has been produced using several selections without the reciter.

Fado, fadinho (FAH-do, fahD E E N - o ) . The popular music of the cities of Portugal, frequently heard in the cafes and Façade. An "entertainment" for on the streets. It consists of reciter and chamber ensemble song and dance to the accomcomposed in 1922 by Walton. It paniment of a guitar. Faburden. See under Fauxbourdon.

FAGOTT

97

FAMILIAR STYLE

Fagott (fa-GOT: G.), fagotto Falstaff. Opera in three acts by (fa-GOT-to: It.). Bassoon. Verdi (libretto by Boito, after Shakespeare's The Merry Wives Fair at Sorochinsk. Unfinished of Windsor) composed in 1893. opera by Moussorgsky, to his The libretto relates, with slight own libretto, based on a short alterations, the well-known epistory by Gogol. Revised and sodes from Shakespeare's play. completed by several composers, The "merry wives," Mistress it is occasionally performed in Ford (Ford's wife, called Alice the version of Nicolas Tcherep- in the opera; soprano), Mistress Page (soprano), and Mistress nin. Quickly (contralto) plot against Fair Maid of the Mill. See Sir John Falstaff (baritone) and at the same time succeed in Schöne Müllerin. marrying Ford's daughter Anne (called Nanetta; soprano) to the Fa-la, fa-la-la. A special type young Fenton (tenor), instead of late 16th-century song (light of to Ford's protégé, Dr. Caius madrigals) in which the sylla- (tenor). bles "fa la la" or similar ones In every measure Falstaff disare sung as a refrain. Numerous examples exist by Italian, Eng- plays a consummate craftsmanlish, and German composers ship (e.g., the final fugue, (Gastoldi, Lasso, Morley, Weel- "Tutto nel mondo") and a lucid plasticity, such as only lifelong kes, Hassler). experience can produce. Together with the earlier Otello False. False cadence, same as (1886), it represents the climax deceptive "cadence. False fifth of Verdi's operatic work. In(triad), old term for the dimin- fluenced by Wagner's music ished fifth ( triad ). False rela- drama, Verdi largely abandoned tion, see Cross relation. in these two the "number style" of his earlier operas (see NumFalsetto (fahl-SET-to: It.). An ber opera) and adopted a artificial method of singing used greater continuity of music and by male singers, particularly action. However, Wagner's symtenors, to obtain notes above the bolization and chromatic harmonormal range of their voices. nies are conspicuously absent in These tones, being nasal and Falstaff. somewhat weak, are little used today other than for comical effects. In early music prior to Familiar style. A style of vocal 1600, singers especially trained music in which all the voices in falsetto were normally re- move along simultaneously, in quired for the high parts of note values as well as in the Masses and motets. Today this underlaying of the text, normally use of falsetto survives only in with one note to each syllable. some English glee clubs and This style is regularly used in church choirs ( see Alto ). church hymns, but the term is applied chiefly to the purely Falsobordone. See Fauxbourdon. chordal sections in the poly-

FANCIULLA DEL WEST

98

FANTASTIC SYMPHONY

phonic Masses and motets of the varieties of the fandango are the Malagueña (from Malaga), 16th century. the Granadina (Granada), the Fanciulla del West, La. See Girl Murciana (Murcia), and the of the Golden West. Rondeña (Ronda). Fancy. An important type of English 17th-century instrumental music, chiefly for three, four, or five viols. The fancy derived from the Italian fantasia of the 16th century and, like this, was written in a contrapuntal and imitative style, with frequent change of themes, meter, or tempo, occasionally also with dancelike sections inserted. The free, improvisatory element of the modern 'fantasy is completely absent. Purcell ( 165995 ) was the last composer of fancies.

Fanfare. A short tune or motive for trumpets, used as a signal for ceremonial, military, or similar purposes. Since they were originally played on natural instruments (see Natural horn), they consist normally of the tones of the triad. Fanfare motives have often been used effectively in art music, particularly in operas, e.g., in Beethovens Fidelio (Act II, arrival of the Governor; also in the Leonore Overture ) and in Wagner's Tristan ( introduction to Act II, portraying the departure of King Mark with the hunting Fandango (fan-DANG-go). A party). Spanish dance in fast triple time, danced by a couple to instru- Fantaisie ( F . ) , Fantasia (It.), mental accompaniment including Fantasie ( G . ) . See Fantasy. guitar and castanets, in alterna( fahn-tah-ZEEtion with sung couplets. The in- Fantasiestücke struments play characteristic shtuik-a: G., fantasy pieces). An rhythmic patterns such as shown ambiguous title used by Schuin Fig. 36a. An older type, mann for several short composicurrent in the 18th century, was tions: op. 12 and op. I l l for in slower tempo and lacked the piano, op. 73 for violin (or exciting rhythms of the modern clarinet or cello) and piano, op. fandango. An example of this 88 for violin, cello, and piano. exists in a popular melody used All belong to the general cateby Gluck in his ballet Don gory of "character piece. Juan ( 1761 ) as well as by Mozart in his Figaro ( 1786; see Fig. Fantastic Symphony (F., SymA program 36b, the finale of Act I I I ) . Local phonie fantastique). symphony, subtitled "Episode de la vie d'un artiste," by Berlioz, op. 14, composed in 1830. Temporarily disappointed in his suit for the Irish actress Henrietta Smithson, the 27-year-old Berlioz expressed his agonized feelings as the narcotic dreams of a young musician ending in the horrors of hell. The symFig. 36

I J>JWÎ]|J55Î] 11

FANTASY

99

phony has five movements: "Dreams and Passions," "A Ball," "Scenes in the Country," "March to the Scaffold," and "Dream of a Witches' Sabbath." The movements are unified by a recurring theme, called idée fixe, which, ingeniously modified, represents the beloved one in the various episodes of the dream (see under Cyclic; Transformation of themes ). In the "Witches' Sabbath" the melody of *Dies Irae is heard repeatedly as a grim foreboding of impending death. The Fantastic Symphony holds an outstanding place in symphonic literature, not only because it established a new ideal of descriptive orchestral music, but also because of the vivid musical imagination pervading every page of the score, manifesting itself in a fascinating variety of ideas which, although often distinctly unpleasant and against the rules, are always inspired and colorful. In many of its aspects, particularly orchestration and harmonic language, it is decades ahead of the time it was written, which was only three years after Beethoven s death. Fantasy. An instrumental composition in which "free flight of fancy" manifests itself in ¡ one way or another. The term covers a great variety of types: ( 1 ) Compositions suggesting free improvisation ( Bach's Chromatic Fantasy; Mozart's Fantasy in D minor; Beethoven's Fantasy, op. 77 ) ; — ( 2 ) Romantic character pieces in rather strict form and style, but expressing a fanciful or dreamlike mood ( Brahms' Fantasien, op. 116; Schumann's

FAREWELL

SONATA

*Fantasiestücke; — ( 3 ) Sonatas in a freer form, or of a special character (Beethoven's "Moonlight Sonata; Schumann's Fantasie, op. 17, a free, romantic sonata in three movements; — ( 4 ) Operatic potpourris of a free and somewhat improvisatory character ( Liszt's Don Juan Fantasy). For the fantasias of the 16th to 17th centuries, see under Fancy. Farandole (far-an-DOL: F . ) . A dance of Provence ( southern France), performed by a long chain of men and women holding hands and following the leader through a variety of complicated motions, as in the "cotillion. The music is usually in 6/8 meter, played on the "pipe and tabor. Farce (from L. farcire, to stuff). ( 1 ) Originally, a term for certain methods of interpolation ("stuffing"), particularly for inserting new texts between two words of a liturgical text. Today this is commonly referred to as "troping. Hence, a farced Kyrie is the same as a troped Kyrie. — ( 2 ) In plays and operas, chiefly of the 18th century, farcing means the introduction of alien elements (e.g., popular songs, themes from other operas), usually of a humorous, comical, or even lascivious nature. This led to the presentday meaning of the word farce, i.e., a light and sometimes vulgar comedy. Farewell Sonata. Beethoven's Sonata for pianoforte, op. 81a, in E-flat (1809), entitled Les Adieux, l'absence, et le retour ( Farewell, Absence, and Re-

FAREWELL SYMPHONY

100

FAUST

turn ). It was inspired by the de- instead of notes. In 1802, Wilparture of the Archduke Rudolf liam Little ( The Easy Instrucfrom Vienna. tor) further clarified the meaning of the four syllables by using Farewell Symphony. Haydn's four different shapes of notes. buckwheat Symphony no. 45, in F-sharp These are known as four-shape notes, or minor, composed in 1772. The notes, name refers to the last move- simply shape notes (see Fig. ment, the closing section of 3 7 ) . which is so designed that the players can leave one by one, the Fate Symphony. Nickname last measures being played by sometimes applied to Beeonly two violins. This charming thoven's Symphony no. 5 in C jest was meant to convey to the minor, op. Θ7 ( 1807). It owes its Prince of Esterhazy, whom origin to the story that BeethoHaydn served as a conductor, ven characterized the four openthe desire of the orchestra to ing notes by saying, "Thus leave the summer palace in the knocks fate at the door." Expandcountry and return to Vienna. ing this idea, program annotatore have seen the symphony as Faschingsschwank aus Wien a musical representation of the (FAHSH-ings-shvank ows veen: struggle and final victory of Carnival Prank from Vienna ). Beethoven ( or of mankind ) over A composition for piano by Schu- the adverse forces of fate. mann, op. 26 ( 1 8 3 9 ) , written as Among Beethoven's symphonies a result of a visit to Vienna dur- it is the finest realization of his ing carnival time. It is in the incomparable powers of unfoldgeneral form of a suite in five ing an idealistic drama in the movements: Allegro, Romanze, most concise and convincing Scherzino, Intermezzo, and language. A remarkable aspect of the symphony is the unification Finale. of the scherzo and the last movement. The scherzo, after an Fasola ( fah-so-lah ). A 17th- ominous passage of slow kettleand 18th-century American (and drum beats played pp, leads in a English) system of indicating sudden crescendo directly into the tones of the scale chiefly by the triumphant finale; the same the syllables fa, sol, and la (de- scherzo passage occurs once rived from the ancient system of more within this finale, preparing "Solmization), as follows: in a similar manner the recapitulation of the triumphant theme. c d e f g a b c ' Also called Victory Symphony. fa sol la fa sol la mi fa In early American song books Faust. Opera by Gounod ( lithis system was used by placing bretto by Jules Barbier and the letters F, S, L, M on a staff, Michel Carré, based on Goethe's poem), produced in Paris, 1859. The story deals with the love of the aged philosopher Faust (tenor) and the young MargueFig. 37

FAUST OVERTURE

101

rite (soprano). Through a pact with the devil, Mephistopheles (bass), Faust regains his youth and succeeds in seducing Marguerite despite the efforts of her devoted admirer, Siebel (mezzosoprano; sometimes sung by a tenor), to protect her from the dark powers of evil. Her brother Valentine ( baritone ) engages Faust in a duel to avenge her honor, but is killed by Faust who then deserts Marguerite to enjoy the revelries of the Walpurgis Night. In the final scene he comes to rescue her from the prison to which she has been committed after killing their child. Insane and uncomprehending, Marguerite repulses Faust and dies, being transported by angels into heavenly rest.

FESTIVALS a

-γ rt rrr*

7.

Λ

b

1tr

.

__ F f f l

Fig.

,

et)gte|

38

sixth chords interspersed with open triads (Fig. 38a: Dufay). Today the term is used as a general denomination for progressions in parallel sixth chords, such as shown in Fig. 38b ( Bach, Cantata Ach wie flüchtig). In the 16th century the terms falso bordone (It.) and fabordone (Sp.) were used for four-voice harmonizations of psalm tones, obviously because such harmonies were considered as a kind of three-voice fauxbourdon with a bass added.

Faust Overture. An orchestral In present-day English usage composition by Wagner ( 1840, fauxbourdon (faburden) denotes revised 1855) suggested by what is correctly termed "desGoethe's Faust. cant," i.e., a somewhat florid high soprano part sung as an emFaust Symphony. A "program bellishment of a congregational symphony by Liszt (1857, re- hymn. vised 1880), in three movements ( "character pictures" ) represent- F clef. See under Clefs. ing ( 1 ) Faust, ( 2 ) Marguerite, and ( 3 ) Mephistopheles. It ends Feldmusik, Feldpartita ( G., feld, with a chorus in the nature of field). A term used by Haydn an apotheosis, set to the closing and others for compositions words of Goethe's drama, "Alles similar to a divertimento, to be Vergängliche ist nur ein Gleich- played in the open air by wind nis" (Everything transitory is instruments or a military band. only a simile).

Fauxbourdon (fo-boor-DAWNH: F . ) . Properly, an early 15thcentury term (Dufay, Binchois) for music composed in two voice parts with a third voice part (not notated ) following the melody of the upper part strictly at the interval of a fourth below. This results in a successsion of parallel

Feminine cadence. See Masculine and feminine cadence. Fermata Pause.

( f ayr-M AH-ta :

Feste Romane (It.). See Festivals.

It. ). Roman

Festivals (F., Fêtes). One of Debussy's three "Nocturnes for

102

FÊTES

orchestra, this impressionistic tone poem was completed in 1898 and first performed in Paris in 1900. According to the composer, the music is designed to convey the vibrating, dancing rhythm of a festival with sudden flashes of light while a procession passes through and merges with the festive scene. Fêtes. See

Festivals.

Feuille d'album ( feu-ye BUIM: F . ) . Album leaf.

dal-

Ff. Fortissimo, very loud. Sometimes f f f or f f f f is used to indicate extreme loudness. Fg. Abbreviation for Fagott ( G. ) or fagotto (It.) meaning bassoon. F holes. See Sound

holes.

FIGURED BASS

jailer Rocco (bass) and, in the second act, helps him to dig a grave for Florestan whom Pizarro is determined to kill. He is delayed by Fidelio until trumpet calls are heard heralding the arrival of the minister of state Don Fernando (baritone), who frees Florestan and arrests Pizarro. In spite of moments of great emotional tension ( grave-digging scene, trumpet calls) the opera lacks, on the whole, that dramatic impact which Beethoven commanded in his symphonies and his other instrumental works. His note to Treitschke — "The whole business of opera is the most distressing thing in the world" — reveals his reactions to opera writing as well as the adverse circumstances that accompanied the production of Fidelio. See also Leonora Overtures and reference under Melodrama.

Fiato (fee-AHT-o: It.). Breath. Fiati or stromenti da fiato, wind instruments. Fife. A small transverse flute with from six to eight finger holes Fiddle. Colloquial for violin and and several keys, used in military the like, particularly the Ameri- bands. can homemade varieties. Also used to designate the primitive Fifth. See under Intervals. ancestors, oriental or medieval, of the violin. Fifth Symphony. For Beethoven's, see Fate Symphony. Fidelio (or Die eheliche Liebe, Conjugal Love). Opera by Bee- Fifths Quartet. See Quinten thoven (libretto by Sonnleithner Quartet. and Treitschke), produced in Vienna, 1805 (revised 1806, Figaro, Figaro's Marriage. See 1814). The scene is 18th-cen- Marriage of Figaro. tury Spain in a prison near Seville where the nobleman Figlia del Regimentó, La. See Florestan (tenor) is held captive Daughter of the Regiment. by the tyrannic warden Pizarro (baritone). Florestan's wife Le- Figured bass. A bass part proonore ( soprano ), disguised as a vided with figures (numerals) boy and using the name "Fi- which indicate harmonies. See delio," enters the service of the Thorough bass.

FILLE DU RÉGIMENT Fille du Régiment, La. Daughter of the Regiment.

103

FIPPLE FLUTE

See e c g ( 2 ) contracted or expanded

Final, finalis (L. ). See under fingering, leading to shifted posiChurch modes. tions of the hand, e.g., 5 1 3 . Finale (fee-NAH-lay: It.). The b c' a f g c 3 last movement of a sonata, sym- 4 5 4 2 3 1 ; ™ ( ) passing fingering, when the thumb passes phony, string quartet, concerto, etc. Also the last scene of an under the second, third, or operatic act, if it is on an ex- fourth finger or any of these tended scale, including several fingers passes over the thumb. numbers and involving some This fingering is used particuquick dramatic action. larly for scales, e.g., 1 2 3 1 2 Fin' al segno (It.). See under Segno.

fingering for all scales is a group Fine (FEE-nay: It.). End, close. of three fingers ( 1 2 3) alternating with one of four (1 2 3 4 ) . Fingal's Cave. See Hebrides. However, in some scales extra Finger board. On stringed instru- fingers must be used at the bements, a long strip of black wood ginning in order to avoid the fixed to the neck, over which the thumb's falling on a black key. strings are stretched and against Thus the fingering for the B-flat which the strings are pressed by major scale is 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 | the fingers according to the 4 1 2 3 . . . , and that for Csharp major is 2 3 1 2 3 4 1| sound desired. 2 3 1 2 . . . (the vertical line Finger holes. On wood-wind in- indicates the beginning of a new struments, the holes bored at octave). For the principle of different places in the side of fingering on stringed instruments, the tube which, if covered or un- see Position. covered by means of the keys (formerly by the fingers), pro- Finlandia. A symphonic poem duce different tones. by Sibelius, op. 26, which has become for most people the Fingering. The methodical use epitome of the Finnish characof the fingers in the playing of ter expressed in music. Cominstruments, and their indication posed in 1899, its melodies are by numbers 1 to 5. More than in the character of Finnish folk any other instrument, the piano- songs, but were invented by the forte has a "natural system of composer. fingering" owing to the conformity between the fingers and the keys. Three chief types of Fipple flute. Generic designation fingering may be distinguished: for instruments of the "recorder ( 1 ) normal fingering, where the or "flageolet type. Fipple is an hand and each finger stay in the old name for the plug inserted c e g d f at the mouth of these instrusame position, e.g., 1 3 5 2 4 ments.

FIREBIRD

104

Firebird, The (F., L'Oiseau de feu). Ballet by Stravinsky, produced by the Russian Ballet (Diaghilev and Folcine) in Paris in 1910. The story, taken from Russian legend, deals with Prince Ivan who captures the fabulous Firebird, from whom he receives a magic feather. Forest maidens (a Princess and her companions ) warn the Prince that the wicked wizard Kastchey turns people to stone. Kastchey appears and is dazed in a frenzied dance led by the Firebird. The Prince finds the huge egg which contains the secret of the power of Kastchey and smashes it, whereupon Kastchey and his hordes disappear in a flash. The Prince marries the Princess.

FLAGEOLET

of his apprenticeship under the Russian master. — ( 2 ) One of Debussy's twenty-four preludes (F., Feux d'artifice). First-movement form. Same as "sonata form. Fis ( G . ) . F-sharp Pitch names).

(see under

Five, The. Designation for a group of five Russian composers, Balakirev, Borodin, Cui, Moussorgsky, and Rimski-Korsakov, who were united (from the 1860's on) in the objective of establishing a truly national school of Russian music as distinguished from the more cosmopolitan style of Anton and Nicolas Rubinstein and Tchaikovsky. They are also known as The Firebird is an outstand"The Mighty Five (mogutchaya ing product of Stravinsky's early kutchka, literally, "the mighty period when the composer was handful" ). following the nationalistic tradition of his teacher, Rimski-Korsakov. Three versions of a suite Five-part form. Term for formal taken from the ballet have been schemes such as Α Β A Β A or made by the composer. The first A B A C A . They are enlarge( 1919 ) consisted of seven selec- ments of the "ternary form, tions: Introduction and Dance A B A .

of the Firebird, Adagio, Scherzo, Round Dance of the Princesses, Infernal Dance of King Kastchey, Berceuse, and Finale. The second version reduced the size of the orchestra and omitted the Adagio and Scherzo. In 1945, Stravinsky restored the two movements, retaining the smaller orchestra of the second version. Fireworks. ( 1 ) A symphonic poem by Stravinsky, his first attempt at a large orchestral score, composed ( 1908 ) as a wedding gift for the daughter of his teacher, Rimski-Korsakov. The work shows clearly the mark

Five-three chord. The triad, so called because, in figured bass, it is indicated by the figure g (third and fifth to be sounded above the written root). Fixed-do(h). See under tion.

Solmiza-

Fl. Short for flute, flauto, Flöte. Flageolet (flaj-o-LET). A small wind instrument similar to the "recorder (see also under Fipple flute), with fouT finger holes in front and two thumb holes on the under side.

FLAGEOLET TONES

105

Flageolet tones. A term (from French and German terminology, rarely used in English) for the "harmonics of the violin and other instruments. Flam. A single stroke on the snare drum, as distinct from a roll. Flamenco. The dance and dance music of the Spanish gypsies, characterized by fanciful and colorful costumes, alluring erotic movements, stamping of the feet ( z a p a t e a d o ) , clapping of the hands (palmada), the skillful use of the castanets, etc. The flamenco style is well represented in Bizet's Carmen. It is not, however, a typical example of genuine Spanish dancing, which is much less showy and provocative. The original meaning of the term flamenco is obscure. Flat. See under

Accidentals.

Flatterzunge (FLAHT-tertzoong-a: G. ). Flutter "tonguing. Flautando, flautato. In violin playing, the use of the bow near the finger board, producing tones of a flutelike character. The term is also used as an indication for the "harmonics. Flauto ( I t . ) . Flute. Flauto piccolo, piccolo. In older scores (Bach, Handel) -flauto always means the recorder, the flute being indicated as flauto traverso ( transverse flute ). Similarly, flauto piccolo is a small recorder, not the piccolo of the modern orchestra. Fledermaus, Die ( dee FLAYder-mows: The Bat). Operetta

FLEMISH SCHOOL

by Johann Strauss, Jr. (libretto by Haffner and Genée, derived from a French farce, Le Reveillon, by Meilhac and Halévy), produced in Vienna, 1874. The action takes place in "gay Vienna" of the 1870's. The notary Falke (baritone) decides to play a joke on his friend, the Baron von Eisenstein ( tenor ) who, at a masked ball the previous year, had compelled him to wear his bat costume in broad daylight. Eisenstein is supposed to start a term in jail for a minor offense, but Falke persuades him to go instead to a splendid ball, which Eisenstein agrees to do without telling his wife Rosalinda (soprano). Falke also invites to the ball the warden of the jail, Frank (bass), the maid Adèle ( mezzo-soprano ), and Rosalinda who, disguised as a Hungarian countess, flirts with her husband. After a night of reveling, they all find themselves the next morning at the prison, along with the drunken jailer Frosch. Finally Falke arrives with the guests from the ball and explains the whole affair. Flemish School. The leading school of the Renaissance following after the "Burgundian School ( see also History of music), represented by a great number of composers bom in Flanders ( part of present-day Belgium) and northern France. The name "Netherlands Schools is sometimes used for both the Burgundian and the Flemish masters. Some of the most important Flemish composers are: Johannes Ockeghem ( c. 1 4 3 0 9 5 ) ; Jacob Obrecht (c. 1 4 5 3 1505); Hendrik Isaac (c. 14501517); Josquin des Prez (c.

FLICORNO

106

1450-1521); Adrian Willaert (c. 1480-1562); Nicolaus Gombert ( c. 1490-c. 1560); Jacob Arcadelt (c. 1505-after 1557); Clemens non Papa (c. 1510-after 1557); Cypriano de Rore (15211603); Orlando di Lasso (15321594); Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck (1562-1621). Most of them emigrated to other countries ( Italy, Spain, Germany, France, England) where they held high positions in church choirs and princely chapels, and where, in the first half of the 16 th century, they brought about the rise of various national schools. The second half of the 16th century presents an interesting picture of artistic rivalry between the Flemish teachers and their native pupils, e.g., Palestrina (Italy), Vittoria (Spain), Hassler (Germany), Byrd (England). The great contribution of the Flemish masters was the establishment of a highly developed polyphonic style characterized by the (ideal) equivalence of all the voice parts and, beginning with Josquin, the consistent use of imitation. Their compositions are chiefly motets and Masses. To these were gradually added the various "national" types of secular music, the French chanson, the Italian madrigal, the German Lied, etc. Flicorno (flee-COR-no: It.). An Italian instrument similar to the Flügelhorn ( see Brass instruments, l i b ) .

FLUTE

tinction from Kleine the piccolo. Flötenuhr Mechanical

Flöte,

( G . ) . See instruments.

i.e., under

Flourish. In old English ( Shakespeare), a trumpet call or fanfare. Nowadays, a decorative passage of a somewhat showy character. Flue pipes (stops, work). See under Organ. Flügel (G., wing). The grand pianoforte, so called because of its wing-shaped form. Fliigelhom (G. ). See Brass instruments, lib. Flute. A wood-wind instrument in the form of a straight pipe, held horizontally and played through a mouth hole located near one end of the pipe. Toward the other end there are a number of finger holes covered by keys according to the °Boehm system. The flute has a compass of three octaves, from c' ( middle C) up. The lowest tones are thick and mellow, the higher ones becoming increasingly thin and bright. Because the instrument is capable of great agility, parts written for it often include rapid scales and numerous trills. Flutes were formerly made of wood, and are therefore still classified as wood winds, although they are now generally made of silver.

Fliegende Holländer, Der (G.). The piccolo (from It. flauto See Flying Dutchman. piccolo, i.e., small flute) is a small flute pitched an octave Flöte (FLEU-ta: G.). Flute, higher. In spite of its smallness, also called Grosse Flöte in dis- it is one of the brightest and

107

FLÛTE

FOLIA

most penetrating instruments of of a woman. Senta (soprano), the orchestra. See illustrations. daughter of the Norwegian seacaptain Daland (bass), deserts the young huntsman Erik ( tenor ) and follows the Flying Dutchman to death — and final salvation. The Flying Dutchman, one of Wagner's early works, with its supernatural element approximates the Romantic opera established by Weber ( *Freischütz) and Marschner. The musical style also is descended from these precursors, both in the long, flowing melodic line and in the rich and colorful orchestration. Such typically Wagnerian features as the use of leitmotivs, continuous recitative melody, and symphonic treatment of the orchestra had not yet been developed.

Flute

Piccolo

Flûte (fluit: F . ) . Flute. Prior to about 1750, flûte (also flûte douce, flûte à bec, i.e., beak flute) meant the recorder, the flute being called flûte traversière (transverse flute). Flutter tonguing. Tonguing.

See

under

Flying Dutchman, The ( G., Der Fliegende Holländer). Opera by Wagner, to his own libretto (based on Heine's Memoiren des Herrn von Schnabelewopski), produced in Dresden, 1843. The opera centers around the legendary Flying Dutchman ( baritone ) who is condemned to range the seas forever unless he can be redeemed by the love

Folia, follia (fo-LEE-a: It.), Folies d'Espagne ( faw-lee des PAHN-ye: F . ) . A famous melody of the 17th century which has been used by a great number of composers as a theme for continuous variations, similar in form and treatment to the "chaeonne and passacaglia. Particularly well known are those by Corelli, published in 1700. Others are by M. Farinelli (for violin, 1649), d'Anglebert ( for harpsichord, 1689), A. Scarlatti (for harpsichord, c. 1700), Liszt ( R h a p s o die Espagnole, 1863), and Rachmaninoff ( Variations on a Theme by Corelli, op. 42, 1932). The tune itself, without variations, appears in Bach's "Peasant Cantata, in Cherubini's opera L'Hôtellerie Portugaise, and in several other operas. The name folia (i.e., folly) suggests a connection with the ancient tradition of the Fool's Dance.

108

FOLK SONG

FOLK SONG

Folk song. A folk song may be tiquity and of unknown authordefined as a song of some an- ship, which has been handed down orally for many generations and has become widely known throughout a nation or a smaller community. Folk song develops among the less sophisticated peoples, together with artless poems dealing with the various phases of everyday life: work, dancing, love, drinking, children, festivities, death, etc. Folk songs of the different nations have certain national traits which, although difficult to describe, are clearly felt to represent the general character of the people. Fig. 39, showing five examples, will demonstrate this point (a. American; b. Italian; c. German; d. Swedish; e. Hungarian). Many listeners would probably be able to identify their nationalities or at least to match them correctly with the five countries.

Fig.

39

Although folk songs are obviously old, their age is usually exaggerated. In few fields of musical study have pure fancy and wishful thinking been given rein to such a degree as in the field of folk music, where melodies showing unmistakable traits of having originated in the 17th and 18th centuries are said to date back to pre-Christian eras. For instance, practically all the folk songs currently used in Germany date from the period about 1800. Those of Italy are even more recent, while the English ones frequently show evidence of an earlier origin (16th century). Equally unfounded is the claim, often made on behalf of folk song, of its being the root and foundation of art music. Such a statement is valid only in the sense that folk song, as a general

109

FOLLIA

phenomenon, existed long before the earliest development of art music. It is not, however, correct with regard to the historical evolution of Western music, which sprang from entirely different sources and has received only sporadic impulses from folk music. In fact, art music has probably exercised a greater influence on folk music than the other way around. The folk songs of America, England, France, etc., are all "civilized" folk songs, which show the influence of art music in such features as strict meter, clear and regular phrases (usually of four measures), well-defined tonality with emphasis on tonic and dominant. This becomes immediately clear if they are compared with a truly "aboriginal" folk song, such as are found in primitive cultures, e.g., among the American Indians (see Fig. 40, Hopi Indians). Thus, in the

Fig.

40

case of American folk song, a clear line of demarcation must be drawn between the aboriginal melodies of the Indians and the civilized folk songs of the white settlers and the Negroes. For American folk song, see also under Ballads. Follia. See F olia. Fontane di Roma. See Fountains of Rome. Foot. In organ building, foot is the unit for the measurement of

FORM

pipes. An open pipe sounding C is (approximately) 8 ft. in length, that for the higher octave ( c ) is 4 ft., for the lower octave ( C i ) is 16 ft., etc. Hence the terms 8 ft. ( 8 ' ) , 4 ft. ( 4 ' ) , etc., are used to indicate the pitch level of entire ranks of pipes (stops), 8 ft. being the normal range ( in which the pitch sounded corresponds to the key pressed ), 4 ft. the higher octave, 16 ft. the lower octave, etc. This terminology is also sometimes used for high- and low-sounding instruments. For example, the piccolo is called a 4-ft. instrument, the bassoon a 16-ft. instrument. Forlana (for-LAH-na: It.). A dance from Friuli, a district of northern Italy. It is usually in fast triple meter with dotted rhythms, similar to the gigue. Two well-known examples are by Bach ( Orchestral Suite in C ) and Ravel (Tombeau de Couperin). Form. ( 1 ) In the most general sense, form includes all the elements and relationships that distinguish music from a haphazard combination of sounds such as street noises. Even the simplest melody shows relationships of pitch ( intervals ) and time values (rhythm); thus, it has "form." All of the basic elements of music, e.g., meter, rhythm, melody, harmony, tonality, texture, etc., contribute to musical coherence, and may be designated as components of form in (within) music. — ( 2 ) More specifically and properly, form is the scheme of organization that determines the basic structure of a composition, comparable to an architect's ground

FORM

110

plan. There exist a considerable number of such schemes or "plans" which may collectively be designated as forms of music or musical forms. The most important of these musical forms are the following: I. Single forms (individual pieces or movements ) A. Sectional forms 1. "Strophic form: a a a a . . . 2. 'Variation form: a a' a" a ' " . . . 3. "Binary form: 11 :a: 11 :b: 11 4. Rounded binary form: ||:a:||:b a:|| 5. "Ternary form: a b a 6. "Sonata (or sonataallegro) form: Exposition — Development — Recapitulation 7. Four-part form: a b a b 8. Five-part form: a b a b a 9. " R o n d o form ( short ) a b a c a ; (long) a b a c a b a B. Continuation forms 1. Through - composed forms ( no repetition of materials ), e.g., organum, medieval motet, recitative. 2. I m i t a t i v e forms (continuous treatment of material involving "imitation in "polyphonic texture), e.g., fugue, ricercar, Renaissance motet.

FORTE II. Composite forms (two or more movements) A. Instrumental: "sonata, "symphony, "string quartet, "concerto, "suite, etc. B. Vocal: "cantata, "Mass, "oratorio, " o p e r a , "Passion, etc.

The foregoing list is not exhaustive, and should be considered only as a general indication of the variety and the structural principles of musical forms. The schemes indicated are by no means inflexible; composers can and do deviate considerably from the patterns while still maintaining the identity of the form. History shows that in almost every period certain forms become traditionally established and are used by composers as basic molds. For example, during the last half of the 18th century, the sonata (in its various manifestations as symphony, concerto, string quartet, etc. ) was the prevailing form of instrumental music. During the late 19th century and early 20th century there was a tendency to minimize the importance of musical form, and in numerous examples of program music (Strauss) and many symphonies (Mahler, Sibelius) of the period the traditional schemes are greatly modified if not entirely abandoned. Since about 1920, however, composers have generally returned to traditional formal principles. Forte ( I t . ) . Loud, abbreviated f ; fortissimo ( f f ) , very loud; fortississimo ( f f f ) , extremely loud; forte-piano ( fp), loud followed by soft.

FORTEPIANO

111

FOUR-SHAPE NOTES

Fortepiano (It.)· Older name 1924. The work, in the Italian impressionistic style, is in four for the pianoforte. parts, each portraying a fountain Forty-eight, The. Popular name of the city: "Valle Giulia at for Bach's "Well-tempered Cla- Dawn," "Triton in the Mornvier, consisting of forty-eight ing," "Trevi at Midday," "Villa preludes and fugues. Medici at Sunset." Forza del Destino, La (FOR-tsa del des-TEE-no: The Force of Destiny). Opera by Verdi (libretto by F. M. Piave), produced in St. Petersburg, 1862. The plot, taking place in 18thcentury Spain, involves the Marquis of Calatrava (bass), his son Don Carlo (baritone), his daughter Leonora ( soprano ), and a young nobleman, Don Alvaro, who is in love with Leonora. Alvaro accidentally kills the Marquis, and thus becomes the object of revenge on the part of Don Carlo. While Alvaro and Carlo are serving side by side in the Spanish army under assumed names, Alvaro is severely wounded in battle, and before leaving confides to Carlo a bundle of letters in which Carlo finds a picture of his sister, thereby recognizing Alvaro. Carlo discovers Alvaro in a monastery (near a cave where Leonora has determined to spend the rest of her life) and they duel. Carlo is mortally wounded, stabs Leonora who has rushed out in order to help him, and Don Alvaro, to complete the tragedy, flings himself off a cliff.

Four-part form. A form consisting of the alternation of two contrasting sections, A Β A B, occasionally found in slow movements of sonatas. Four Saints in Three Acts. Opera by Virgil Thomson, based on a play by Gertrude Stein, produced in Hartford, Conn., 1934. There being more than a dozen saints and four acts, the title is a bit of whimsy. The principal figures are the historical characters of St. Teresa of Avila and St. Ignatius Loyola. Act I is a pageant in which St. Teresa enacts some of her own life to instruct other saints and visitors. In Act II two lesser figures, with the blessing of the saints, fall in love and are married. In Act III St. Ignatius describes his vision of the Holy Ghost. Act IV is a closing tableau revealing the saints in heaven.

The text, in the stream-ofconsciousness style of Miss Stein, is often meaningless, the juxtaposition of interesting word sounds being the primary objective. The music, which includes a number of ballet scenes, is in a clear, crisp, rhythmic style somewhat reminiscent of 1920 Foundation stops. See under jazz, with the simplest harmonies Organ. and a great deal of monotone Fountains of Rome (It., Fon- recitation of the text. tane di Roma ). The first of three Four Serious Songs. See Vier large symphonic poems by Re- ernste Gesänge. spighi depicting scenes from Rome (see Pines of Rome; Ro- Four-shape notes. See under man Festivals), composed in Fasola.

112

FOURTH Fourth. See under Intervals.

Fourth chord. Any of various chords consisting of superimposed fourths, for example, c-f-bb, c-fí-b-e, or of fourths in dissonant combinations with other intervals. These chords are important in the harmonic idiom of modern composers (Scriabin, Bartok, Hindemith ), sometimes replacing the traditional harmonies resulting from the superposition of thirds (triad, seventh chord, ninth chord). Several of Scriabin's compositions are based on a single fourth-chord formation, the so-called mystic chord c-fi-bb-e'-a'-d" (used in "Prometheus and in the Seventh Piano Sonata, op. 64). See Quartal harmony; Chords. Fox trot. An American ballroom dance dating from about 1910 which became the basis for most subsequent dance steps in duple meter with the exception of such foreign importations as the rhumba, tango, etc. The term dropped out of usage about 1930. Fp. Forte-piano, lowed by soft.

i.e., loud fol-

FREISCHÜTZ

Frauenliebe und Leben ( FRO Wen-leeb-a oont LAY-ben: Woman's Love and Life ). A cycle of eight songs by Schumann, op. 42 (1840), based on a group of poems by Adalbert von Chamisso ( published under the same title ). It was composed in his "song year," shortly after he had married Clara Wieck. Freischütz, Der (FREYE-shuits: The Freeshooter, The Marksman). Opera in three acts by Weber (libretto by F. Kind), produced in Berlin, 1821. The plot is based on the legend of "magic bullets" which never miss their mark and which can be obtained through a pact with the spirits of hell. The hunter Max (tenor), on the advice of his sinister companion Caspar (bass), resorts to this scheme in order to win Agathe (soprano), who is to be given as a prize to the winner in the marksmen's competition. Six of the seven bullets reach their goal, but the seventh, under the control of the hellish spirit Samiel (speaking part), is directed against Agathe. She is protected by the Hermit (bass) and by her bridal wreath, however, and Samiel, failing in his scheme, seizes his agent Caspar, who dies.

Française ( frahnh-SEZ ). A type of "contredanse in 6/8 meter, Der Freischütz marks the bepopular in the 18th and early ginning as well as the artistic 19th centuries. peak of the German Romantic Francesca da Rimini (frahn- opera. Folklore, awe of nature, CHES-ka dah REE-mee-nee ). and superstition are the roots out Symphonic poem (fantasy) by of which this opera grows, adTchaikovsky, op. 32 (187Θ), mirable for the charm of its folkbased on Dante's poem relating like melodies and dance tunes as the story of the Italian noble- well as for its touches of drawoman who, married to the ugly matic tension and Romantic exCount Malatesta, betrayed him citement. Particularly remarkwith his stepbrother Paolo and able is the bold use of wind instruments: the horns which capwas put to death in 1284.

FRENCH HORN

113

ture the atmosphere of the "German forest"; the trombones which accompany the hermit; the clarinet which characterizes Agathe; and the low registers of the flute which portray Samiel. See reference under Melodrama. French horn. The orchestral "horn, so called in order to distinguish it from the English horn. French overture. See under Overture. Bach's French Overture, published in the 'Ciavierübung II, is a suite with an introductory movement in the style of the French overture.

FUGATO

From Bohemia's Meadows and Forests. The fourth of the six symphonic poems by Smetana forming the cycle "Ma Vlast. From My Life. Smetana's name for each of his two String Quartets, in E minor ( 1876 ) and in C minor (1882), both of them autobiographical. Today the name attaches particularly to the Ε-minor Quartet which describes the happy experiences of his youthful life, but contains in the finale a long-drawn high note which he heard for many years before he became deaf.

French sixth. See under Chords From the New World. Dvorák's Ninth Symphony (usually called (5). no. 5), in E minor, op. 95 French Suites. Six suites for (1893). It was written during harpsichord by Bach, composed Dvorák's residence in the United around 1720 (in Koethen). The States, and incorporates themes name French (not by Bach) has modeled after the songs of the little significance since French American Negroes and Indians. elements are present here to the Some of this material, however, same extent as in all the suites sounds Bohemian rather than of Bach and his German prede- American. cessors ( Pachelbel, Froberger ). See under Suite. Frottola (FRAW-to-Ia: It.). A

type of north-Italian poetry and music that flourished about 1500, preceding the madrigal. The music is in three or four voices, mostly homophonic, and with frequent chord progressions from the dominant ( V ) to the tonic ( I ) , which are relatively rare in the main repertory of this period (Masses, motets). The frottola was cultivated in courtly circles, Frog. The part of the violin bow particularly at Mantua where the held in the player's hand. two most important composers Frog Quartet. Nickname of Hay- of frottolas, Marco Cara and dn's String Quartet in D ( no. 49, Bartolomeo Tromboncino, lived. or op. 50, no. 6 ) , so called because the main theme of the last Fugato (foo-GAH-to: It.). A movement is vaguely suggestive passage in the general style of a fugue, forming a part of a nonof "croaking." Frets. Narrow strips of metal or wood fixed across the finger board of certain stringed instruments (lute, guitar, viol, balalaika, banjo) to mark the correct place for stopping, thus facilitating playing in correct pitch and making the stopped notes sound like the open ones.

FUGHETTA Exposition

114

FUGUE

»-Ep. I-«-Statement-»-Ep. I I - ·

Stretto

»-Coda

Fig. 41 fugai composition, e.g., of a movement from a sonata, symphony, or string quartet. A fugato is nearly always designed in such a way as to build up a strong dynamic climax, beginning with one instrument and gradually bringing in the others until a full fortissimo is reached. Fughetta (foo-GET-ta: It.). A short fugue. Fugue (from L. fuga, flight). A polyphonic composition based on a theme ( subject ) which is stated at the beginning in one voice part alone, being taken up (imitated) by the other voice or voices in close succession, and reappearing throughout the piece at various places in one voice part or another (see under Imitation). The initial section, up to the point where the theme has been stated in each voice, is called the exposition. The subsequent statements of the theme are often also grouped together in a similar manner, such groups being sometimes called second (third) exposition. Each fugue also contains episodes, that is, relatively short sections where the subject is not being stated in any voice part. Fig. 41 is an abridged schematic representation of a fugue, the theme being represented by a straight line, other melodic materials by wavy lines. Short empty spaces are meant to illustrate the fact that often one of the voice parts has

a rest, particularly before a new entrance of the theme. In the exposition (often also in the later course of the fugue) the statements of the theme alternate between tonic and dominant, the first being in the tonic (e.g., beginning on C), the second in the dominant (e.g., beginning on G), the third reverting to the tonic, and the fourth again in the dominant. Hence they are called subject and answer, or antecedent and consequent, or dux and comes (L., leader and follower), the first in each pair of names referring to the tonic statements, the second to those in the dominant. If the

A

Φ

Γ

ι

,H1

ώ . ' ^

]] 1

λ * it ι ®

I

ι

ι

Γ Γ Γ Γ Lf Γ Γ

Fig. 42

FUGUING

TUNE

115

answer is in exact imitation of the subject, it is called a real answer, but when the answer is slightly altered because of tonal restrictions, it is called a tonal answer ( see Tonal and real ). Fig. 42 shows a full fugai exposition ( Bach, Well-tempered Clavier II, Fugue 9 ) . In the middle of a fugue, modulation into other keys usually takes place, with a return to the main key near the end. As a result, the fugue is often said to be a three-part form. This statement is somewhat misleading, however, since the fugues of Bach and others show great variety in this matter as well as in other details. It is interesting to observe that structurally the fugue is much more flexible than, e.g., the sonata of the Classical period, and thus may be more properly considered a "procedure" than a "form." In fugues of a more elaborate character the theme is often presented in "inversion "augmentation or diminution, "stretto, or in combination with other themes ( double, triple, quadruple fugue). See "Art of Fugue.

GALANTERIEN

land and America during the 18th and early 19th centuries, which makes some use of successive entry of voices in the manner of a "fugue). A number of such tunes were written by William Billings (1746-1800), who declared them to be "more than twenty times as powerful as the old slow tunes." Henry Cowell has used the term in the titles of several short works for various media. Furiant. A lively Bohemian (Czech) dance in 3/4 meter with frequently shifting accents. It has been repeatedly used by Dvorák, Smetana, and others. See under Dumka. Furlana. See

Forlana.

Futurism. A movement of the 1910's, instigated by Marinetti, aiming at extreme radicalism in literature and in all the arts. In music it remained largely theoretical (orchestras consisting of machine guns, sirens, steam whistles, etc.).

Fz. Abbreviation of forzando, Fuguing tune, fugue-tune. A type forzato, same as "sforzando (sf, of hymn tune, current in Eng- sfz).

G G. See Pitch names. Gagliarda (It.). See Gattiard.

Galanterien ( gah-lahn-ter-EEen: G. ). An 18th-century name for short, entertaining pieces,

GALLANT

STYLE

116

GEBRAUCHSMUSIK

particularly dances such as minuets, gavottes, etc. Also applied to ornaments used in the harpsichord music of that period.

under Hexachord). The term later acquired the meaning of "all the tones above gamma ut," i.e., the whole scale. Hence the French term gamme for scale, Gallant style (from F. style ga- and the English "gamut" for lant). The elegant and delicate compass or range. style of the "Rococo. Gapped scale. A scale resulting Galliard (gal-yard: from F. gail- from the omission of certain larde, gay, rollicking). A 16th- tones, e.g., the pentatonic scale century dance in moderately (as compared to the diatonic), quick triple time. It was exe- or the whole-tone scale ( as comcuted with exaggerated leaps pared to the chromatic). which often took on features of wantonness. In art music the Gaspard de la nuit ( gas-pahr de galliard was often combined la NWEE: F.). A set of three with the "pavane, particularly in piano pieces by Ravel ( 1908 ) England. See also Cinque-pace. inspired by the collected poems of Bertrand, which were pubGalop. A dance of the mid-19th lished under the same title (litcentury in lively duple time, erally: Caspar of the Night, a with a characteristic rhythmic nickname for Satan ) : (1) Onpattern (see Fig. 43) executed dine, a water nymph attempting with hopping movements and in vain to win a mortal for a spouse; (2) Le Gibet, a grisly frequently changing steps. monotone composition describing the swinging of a corpse from a î j ) | / n gibet — a gallows; (3) Scarbo, Fig. 43 a character sketch of the tradiGamba (It.), Gambe (G.). tional clown in the Punch and Judy show. Abbr. for "viola da gamba. Gamelan (GUM-e-lan). A native orchestra of the Siamese and Javanese, consisting mainly of a variety of percussion instruments, somewhat like xylophones, glockenspiels, chimes, gongs, and drums. All instruments play essentially the same melody though individual parts may vary slightly.

Gavotte. A French dance of the 17th and 18th centuries, in moderate 4/4 time, usually starting on the third beat of the measure: 3 4 | 1 2 3 4 | 1 2 . . . .It often occurs in the optional group of the "suite. G clef. See under Clefs.

Gebrauchsmusik ( ge Game of Cards (Stravinsky). BROWKHS-moo-ZEEK: G.). A term originating in the 1920's, See jeu de cartes. roughly translated as "utility Gamut. Originally gamma ut, the music' or "workaday music," i.e., medieval name for G, then the music designed for informal use lowest tone of the scale (see by amateurs, as distinguished

GEIGE

117

from music intended for concert performance by professionals. Because of its purpose, Gebrauchsmusik avoids technical difficulties so that it may be performed by amateurs and is simple and attractive in form and content so that it may be readily understood and appreciated by unsophisticated listeners. In another connotation, the term is applied to pieces composed for one specific occasion, e.g., the dedication of a school or a birthday celebration. Hindemith, who has been closely identified with this type of music, has furnished some informative remarks on Gebrauchsmusik in the introductory notes to his Plöner Musiktag (1932) and Wir bauen eine Stadt (1931). Geige (GEYE-ga: G.). Violin. Geistertrio ( G. ). See Ghost

Trio.

Generalbass (gen-e-RAHL-bahs: G. ). "Thorough bass.

GIANT FUGUE

Brahms' own selections from German Scriptures. It is one of the most outstanding examples of religious music after Beethoven's Missa solemnis. German sixth. See under (5).

Chords

German Suites. A name sometimes applied, without justification, to Bach's "Partitas. Ges ( G . ) . G-flat. Pitch names.

See

under

Geschöpfe des Prometheus, Die (Beethoven). See Creatures of Prometheus. Gestopft (ge-SHTOPFT: Stopped, in horn playing.

G.).

Gewandhaus Concerts ( geVAHNT-hows ). Concerts named after an ancient guild hall ( Cloth Hall) in Leipzig in which they were given, starting in 1781. On the roster of celebrated conductors of the Gewandhaus orchestra are Mendelssohn ( 18351843 ) and Wilhelm Furtwängler (1922-1928).

German flute. An 18th-century name for the transverse flute, as distinguished from the recorder, Ghost Trio. Nickname of Beethen called the English flute. thoven's Pianoforte Trio in D, German Organ Mass. See under op. 70, no. 1, so called because of the ghostlike character of the Clavieriibun g. slow movement. German Requiem, A (G., Ein deutsches Requiem). An ex- Gianni Schicchi (JAHN-ee tended work for solo voices, SKEE-kee: It.). See under chorus, and orchestra by Brahms, Trittico. op. 45, composed 1857-1869, partly motivated by the death of Giant Fugue. A nickname occahis mother in 1865. Like the sionally applied to Bach's cho"requiem of the Roman Catholic rale prelude "Wir glauben all' an Church, it is in commemoration einen Gott" ( W e all believe in of the dead, but with the tradi- one God) from the Ciavierübung tional Latin texts replaced by III (ed. Peters, vol. VII, no. 6 0 ) ,

GIGUE

GLASS HARMONICA

because of t h e striding figure in the pedal part. T h e name is rather inappropriate since the figure is only vaguely suggestive of "giant steps" and, furthermore, is used as an ostinato, not as a theme for a fugue. The term is also sometimes used for the Dorian F u g u e (see Dorian Toccata and Fugue) and for the f u g u e of t h e D-minor Toccata and F u g u e ( e d . Peters, vol. IV, no. 4 ) , both of which have themes that might b e called "giantlike." Gigue (zheeg: F.; It., giga). A dance in lively triple meter ( usually 6 / 8 ) which forms the last movement of Baroque "suites. It is in binary form, usually with a fugai opening for each section, the second section often using the inversion of the initial theme, as in the accompanying example ( Fig. 44 ) from Bach s French Suite, no. 4. T h e gigue developed from the "jig, an Irish, English, or Scottish dance of t h e late 16th century.

Girl of the Golden West, The (It., La Fanciulla del West). Opera in three acts by Puccini (libretto after a drama by D . Belasco), produced in New York, 1910. T h e plot is laid in a California goldmining town about 1850, and the central figures are Minnie (soprano), Dick Johnson ( t e n o r ) , an outlaw in disguise, and the sheriff, Jack Ranee (baritone). Dick plans to rob Minnie's saloon, b u t changes his mind when h e and Minnie fall in love. H e is wounded by the sheriif ( a disappointed suitor of Minnie's). After nursing Dick, Minnie wins his freedom in a poker game with Ranee, whereupon t h e lovers leave the W e s t to start life together elsewhere. Giselle ( j i - Z E L ) . Ballet by Adolphe Adam ( choreography by Jean Corali, based on a story by H e i n e ) , produced in Paris, 1841. Gitana, Alla (gee-TAH-na: I t . ) . In the gypsy style. Giusto (JOOS-to: I t . ) . Just, proper; used in connection with tempo marks, e.g., allegro giusto, tempo giusto, to indicate a tempo "just right" and strict.

J J "

kJJIJ&.PZ 1

Fig.

" 44

11

P1

P'

Gigue Fugue. Nickname of an organ f u g u e in G major by Bach (ed. Peters, vol. IX, no. 4 ) which, in its meter ( 1 2 / 8 ) and character, is similar to a gigue. Gimel. See

Gymel.

Glass harmonica. An instrument invented (or perhaps only improved) by Benjamin Franklin in 1763, in which a series of graded glass disks, shaped like saucers, are fixed on a horizontal spindle which is made to revolve by foot action. T h e sound is produced by a delicate friction of the fingers against the glass rims, which are kept wet. T h e instrument had a great vogue, particularly in Germany and Austria.

119

GLEE

Mozart wrote for it (Adagio in C, K. 356, new ed. Κ. 617a; Quintet in C, K. 617, both composed in 1791), and Beethoven used it in his melodrama, Leonora Prohaska (1814). Beethoven's instrument probably had a keyboard mechanism replacing the direct finger action of the earlier instruments. Glee ( probably from AngloSaxon gléo or gliw, meaning music or entertainment). An 18th-century type of unaccompanied choral composition for three or more men's voices. It replaced the "madrigal as the most popular form for recreational singing. Glees are rather short, sectional pieces, basically chordal, but not without polyphonic interest. They were extensively cultivated in England until their vogue was replaced by the "part song during the 19th century. However, there are glee clubs in both England and America which perpetuate the tradition, although their repertories are not limited to glees. Among the most celebrated glee writers were Benjamin Cooke (1734-1793), Stephen Paxton (1735-1787), Samuel Webbe (1740-1816), and John Calcott (1766-1821). Webbe's famous glee, "Glorious Apollo," has long been the traditional opening number on programs of glee clubs. Novello's Standard Glee Book contains the most popular pieces. Gli Scherzi Scherzi, Gli.

(Haydn).

GLÜCKLICHE HAND

ment. Particularly suited to the harp, it is produced by drawing a finger swiftly across the strings; on the piano it is executed by drawing the nail of the thumb ( or another finger ) over the keys. On the violin a true glissando scale is a very difficult virtuoso effect. A simple sliding of the hand produces, not a rapid scale, but a continuous change of pitch, properly called "portamento. This portamento effect is also frequently produced by singers and trombone players. Glocken (G.). ( 1 ) Bells. — (2) Orchestral chimes. Glockenspiel (GLOK-en-shpeel: G., set of bells). A percussion instrument which has a series of steel bars of varying length fixed to a horizontal frame, and arranged somewhat in the manner of a keyboard, i.e., with the plates for the "black keys" being set further back than the others. It is played with two hammers. In the 18th century the name glockenspiel was used for small instruments of the "celesta type, having a real keyboard with hammers which sounded steel bars inside a box (this is probably the instrument called for in Mozart's Magic Flute under the name strumento d'acciaio [steel instrument]). The portable glockenspiel employed in bands is known as the bell-lyra from its U-shaped frame reminiscent of the ancient Greek lyre.

See Gloria. The second item of the Ordinary of the "Mass.

Glissando (glis-SAHN-do: from F. glisser, to glide ). A rapid Glückliche Hand, Die ( GLUIKscale executed by a sliding move- likh-a hahnt: The Lucky Hand).

G. O.

120

Monodrama by Schönberg (to his own libretto), composed in 1913, first performed in Vienna, 1924. The only singing character (baritone) is a disillusioned man whose somewhat surrealistic stream of consciousness centers around two pantomimic characters, allegorical male and female, who represent various kinds of love. In addition, there is a chorus of six men and women whose heads appear through holes in a backdrop, and who comment on the action in a "speech-song style.

GOYESCAS

Golden sequence. See under Sequence ( 2 ) . Golden Sonata. Popular name for Purcell's Sonata in G minor (no. 9 of the Ten Sonatas in Four Parts ) for two violins, cello, and continuo. Gondoliera (It.). Gondola song, "barcarole. Gondoliers, The, or The King of Barataría. Operetta by Sullivan (libretto by Gilbert), produced in London, 1889.

Gong. An orchestral percussion G. O. In French organ music, instrument, of Chinese origin, grande orgue, i.e., great organ. consisting of a large circular bronze disk with the edge God's Time is Best (Bach). See turned, thus resembling a shalActus Tragicus. low plate. It is suspended in a frame so as to hang freely, and Goldberg Variations. Thirty var- is struck with a heavy bass-drum iations by J. S. Bach on a theme beater. It is also called a tamof his own, published in 1742 tam. as Part IV of the "Clavieriibung. The work, commissioned by the Gopak. See Hopak. Russian Count Kayserling, was named after Bach's pupil, Johann Gorgheggio (gorg-EJ-yo: It., Gottlieb Goldberg (1727-1756), from gorgia, throat). Vocal pasa harpsichordist in the employ of sages of a virtuoso character, the count. It is written for a such as trills, rapid ornamentatwo-manual harpsichord accord- tions, or "coloraturas. ing to a special plan: two variations in a free, often highly vir- Gothic music. A term used by tuoso style are followed by a some music historians to denote single variation in the form of a the music of the period c. 1200 canon ( nos. 3, β, 9, . . . ) and so (Perotinus) to c. 1450 (Dufay), on. The final variation is a coeval with the Gothic era in architecture and painting. See "quodlibet. History of music. Golden Age, The. Ballet by Shostakovich, produced in Moscow, 1931. The best known excerpt is the "Polka" from Act III.

Götterdämmerung, Die (GEUTter-DEM-er-oong: The Twilight of the Gods). See Ring of the Nibelung.

Golden Cockerel, The. See Coq Goyescas. Two sets of piano d'or. pieces by Enrique Granados

G.

121

P.

(1914), inspired by etchings of the Spanish painter Francisco Goya (1746-1828). Translated, the titles of the individual pieces are: I. The Compliments; Colloquy at the Grilled Window; The Fandango of the Lantern; Plaints, or The Maja and the Nightingale; II. Love and Death; Epilogue; Serenade of the Specter. Granados also wrote an opera Goyescas (1916) which includes material from the piano pieces. G. P. ( 1 ) In orchestral scores, general pause, i.e., a rest for the whole orchestra. — ( 2 ) In French organ music, grand positif, i.e., great and choir organs coupled.

Ornaments. grace notes, Chopin and rhythm, not beat.

GRAND PIANO

Large groups of such as found in Liszt, are in free subject to regular

Gradual. ( 1 ) The second item of the Proper of the 'Mass. — ( 2 ) The liturgical book of the Roman Catholic Church containing the chants for the Mass (see Gregorian chant). Gracilis ad Parnassum (L., Steps to Parnassus, the abode of the Muses; hence, steps to highest perfection ). ( 1 ) A treatise on counterpoint by J. J. Fux ( 1 7 2 5 ) . — ( 2 ) A collection of piano etudes by Clementi (1817).

G. R. In French organ music, grand récit, i.e., great and swell Granadina. See under Fandango. organs coupled. Gran cassa, gran tamburo ( I t . ) . Grace. A 17th-century English Bass drum. term for ornament. Grand (grahnh: F., great). Grace note. A note printed in Grand jeu, grand orgue, full small type to indicate that its organ; grand opéra, opera (usutime value is not counted in the ally serious ) with fully comgeneral rhythm and must be sub- posed text, as distinct from opéra tracted from that of the preced- comique, which has some spoken opera). ing or following normal note. dialog (see Comic Fig. 45 illustrates the two possibilities, (a) representing the Grand Fugue. See Grosse Fuge. earlier practice (Bach, Mozart, Beethoven ), ( b ) representing Gran Mass (G., Graner Messe). the later practice (Chopin). See A Mass by Liszt, composed in 1855 for the consecration of the cathedral in Gran (Hungary). IP V ρ r ρ r^-Q* I Ρ

nn

Grand piano. A wing-shaped β pianoforte in which the strings and soundboard are placed horizontally, as distinguished from an upright piano in which the strings and soundboard are in a. vertical position.

122

GRAVE

GREGORIAN

CHANT

Grave (GRAH-vay». It.). Slow, Perfect or Lesser Perfect Syssolemn. terns, for example, a'-gb'-f'-e'db'-c'-b-a . . . . Great Fugue. See Grosse Fuge. This basic tonal material was divided into octave species, that Great organ. See under Organ, is, segments of eight (descending) tones starting at different Greek music. The music of the points of the complete system ancient Greeks is of interest pri- and named as shown below: a'-a: Hypodorian e'-e: Dorian g'-g: Hypophrygian d'-d: Phrygian f'-f: Hypolydian c'-c: Lydian b-B: Mixolydian marily for its theory, which influenced in several ways the theory of early Western music, The basis of this music is the tetrachord (four strings), i.e., a succession of four descending notes forming successively a whole tone, whole tone, and half tone: a-g-f-e, or e-d-c-B. By repeating the same process at the higher octave, a two-octave descending scale (all Greek scales are descending) from a' to Β was formed, which was completed by the addition of the low A. Its middle note, a, was called mese, and the entire scale is referred to as the Greater Perfect System. There also existed a Lesser Perfect System, ranging from d' down to A: Greater Perfect System

The octave species are often called "Greek modes," since they show a certain similarity to the "church modes. It should be noted that the same names are used differently in the two systems. For instance, the Greek Dorian starts from e, the medieval Dorian from d. Only a few — and relatively late — documents of Greek music survive, among them two Delphic Hymns (c. 130 B . C . ) , the Hymn to the Sun by Mesomedes (c. 130 A.D.), and the Seikilos Song (c. 1st century A.D.).

Gregorian chant. The liturgical music of the Roman Catholic Church, named after Pope

a' g' f' e' d' c' b

Lesser Perfect System In addition to the normal or diatonic tetrachord, there existed two varieties, called chromatic and enharmonic. The chromatic tetrachord is a-gb-f-e, while the enharmonic is a-f-x-e (x stands for the quarter tone between f and e ) . Either of these tetrachords might replace the diatonic tetrachords in the Greater

a g f e d c Β A

d' c' bb a g f e d c Β A Gregory I (590-604) although it is very likely of post-Gregorian origin. The music is entirely "monophonie and in free rhythm, lacking regular meter and measure. It is sung partly by the choir, partly by soloists, Chants sung in alternation by a soloist and the choir are called responsorial, while those sung

GREGORIAN CHANT

GROSS

123

by alternating half choruses are called antiphonal. From the liturgical point of view the chants fall into two main categories, those for the "Mass and those for the "Office (all the services other than the Mass, held at the various Office Hours ). The music for the latter consists mostly of psalms, sung to one of the 'psalm tones, and of "hymns. One of the Offices, the service of Vespers, also includes the Magnificat ( see under Canticles), and that of Compline includes the four Antiphons of the Blessed Virgin Mary (see under Antiphon ). The chants for the Mass are collected in a book called the Gradual, those of the Office in the Antiphonal. Both are conveniently combined in the modern Liber usualis.

twenty or more notes for a single syllable. The chants of the Mass are, on the whole, more elaborate than those of the Office, and those of the Proper of the Mass more elaborate than those of the Ordinary. The tonal basis of Gregorian chant is the eight "church modes. The rhythmic interpretation is still problematic. In the past forty years the "Solesmes method of performance has gained universal acceptance wherever Gregorian chant is sung. The basic principle of this method is that all the notes of a chant are equally long (e.g., eighth notes), except for longer values at the end of a phrase. The melodic line is divided into elementary groups of two or three notes, often marked by an Stylistically, a distinction can ictus (')> which calls for a subbe made on the basis of text tle stress (see Fig. 4 7 ) . Presentsetting between three types of chants (see Fig. 4 6 ) . The syla

Ky-ri - e

'

'

_

Cre - do

• '· ' · P a - trem

,

—

»

in

U -' num

—

^

—

De - um,

· , om - ni -

| -.f Γ 0 po - ten - tem

na - tus est

no - bis

b

c

Pu - er

Al

-

le -

lu

-

Fig.

ia

46

tabic chant has only one note to each syllable; the neumatic includes occasional groups (neumes) of from two to four notes for a single syllable; the melismatic shows extended groupings (melismas), often of

e -

Fig.

lé - i - son

47

day musicologists, however, are almost universally agreed that this method of performance is not historically correct, and that in Gregorian chant there existed two, possibly three, time values, such as the eighth, the quarter, and the dotted quarter note. Gregorian modes. Church modes.

See

under

Gr. FI. In German orchestral scores, Grosse Flöte, i.e., the flute, in distinction from Kl. Fl. (Kleine Flöte), i.e., piccolo. Gross (G., great, large). Grosse Flöte, flute (see under Gr. Fl.). — Grosses Orchester, full orches-

GROSSE CAISSE

124

GUITAR

tra. — Grosse Trommel, bass "continuous variations" (see undrum. der Variations). It is a charac_ _ . . „ , teristic form of Baroque music. Grosse Caisse ( F . ) . Bass drum. Grosse Fuge (GRO-sa FOO-ga: G., great fugue). Beethoven's very extended and complex fugue for string quartet, op. 133. It was composed in 1825 as the last movement of his String Quartet op. 130, but later published as a separate composition. It is highly remarkable for the boldness of the theme as well as the boldness of its treatment, which is "tantôt libre, tantôt recherchée" (partly free, partly studied ). Ground, ground bass. A melodic phrase (normally from four to eight measures in length) which is repeated over and over again as a bass line, while the upper parts are varied. The resulting composition is also called a "ground." The contrast between the fixed framework of the bass and the free display of imagination in the upper part or parts constitutes the peculiar charm of this form. The ground bass, also called basso ostinato ( I t . ) , may range from such simple formations as the descending tetrachord, a-g-f-e (one note to the measure; see under Chaconne), to full-length melodies, as in Fig. 48 (Purcell). The ground belongs to the general category of

Gr. Tr. In German orchestral scores, Grosse Trommel, i.e., bass drum. Gsp. Short for "glockenspiel. Guerre des bouffons ( F . ) . See War of the Buffoons. Guidonian hand ( gwee-DO-neean ). A device of medieval music instruction (named after Guido of Arezzo, c.995-c.l050, but invented later), making use of the human hand as an aid in memorizing the scale, each part of the hand being identified with one of the tones from G to e" (the e" is placed above the hand ).

Fig. Guillaume Tell William Tell. Fig. 48

49 (Rossini). See

Guitar. A plucked stringed instrument somewhat in the shape

GURRE LIEDER

125

of a violin, b u t with entirely flat upper and lower surfaces and with a rounded waist instead of corners. It has six strings, now normally tuned E A d e b e', and a fretted fingerboard. T h e instrument was much in vogue during t h e 17th century, superseding the earlier lute. During t h e 20th century it has been used chiefly to furnish accompaniment to folk, Western, and hillbilly music. It is also used in t h e rhythm sections of dance bands, sometimes replaced by the Hawaiian guitar.

HABANERA

ous queen plans and accomplishes Tove's death, which is announced in a song of the Forest Dove ( P a r t I ) . Part II contains Waldemar's plaint and rebellion against God. For this h e is sentenced to h u n t nightly with ghostly companions (Part I I I : T h e Wild C h a s e ) . T h e musical style represents the climax of late Romanticism. An arrangement for smaller orchestra has been m a d e b y E . Stein.

Gymel (GIM-el: from L. cantus gemellus, twin song). Medieval term for music in two parts conGurre Lieder ( G U R - r a L E E - nected by the interval of the der: Songs of G u r r a ) . A song third, either in parallel thirds, or cycle ( ' Great Cantata" ) b y with the parts crossing. See Fig. Schönberg, to poems (originally in Danish) b y J. P. Jacobsen, for 5 solo voices, 3 four-part male choruses, 1 eight-part mixed Fig. 50 chorus, narrator, and large orchestra, started by the composer Gypsy scale. A scale characterin 1901-1902 b u t not finished ized by the inclusion of two until 1911. T h e poems are based augmented seconds: c db e f on the Danish legend of King g ab b c'. It is often employed W a l d e m a r IV and his love for in the music of the Hungarian t h e Princess Tove, who dwells gypsies, w h o probably adopted in t h e castle of Gurra. T h e jeal- it from H i n d u or Turkish music.

H H . T h e German name (pro- with dotted or syncopated patnounced h a h ) for Β natural, e.g., terns as shown in Fig. 51. It Η moll, Β minor. See under _ _ B A C H ; Carnival;

Pitch names.

* J J J J J | Fis..

51

6 Habanera (ah-bah-NAY-ra). A dance from Havana, Cuba, in appeared in Spain about 1850 slow to moderate duple time, and soon became associated with

H A F F N E R SERENADE

126

HARMONICA

the 'flamenco style of dancing. Sebastian Yradier (1809-1869), who lived in Cuba for some time, wrote the most famous habaneras, La Paloma and El Arreglito. The latter became known universally through a composition of Bizet, who used it in the first act of Carmen.

ven used the designation "für das Hammerklavier" in his sonatas op. 101 and 106, because at that time he generally preferred German instead of Italian terms (also in the expression marks). The name Hammerklavier Sonata has been associated only with his Sonata in B-flat, op. 106, composed in 1818, which is by far Haffner Serenade and Haffner the most extended and most Symphony. Two orchestral works complex of all the Beethoven by Mozart (K. 250, K. 385), sonatas. composed in 1776 and 1782, for celebrations in the family of Sig- Hammond organ. An "electromund Haffner, burgomaster of phonic instrument invented by Salzburg. L. Hammond in Chicago. Designed to replace the organ in Half cadence, half close. See un- smaller churches, it frequently der Cadence. has been found to be an acceptable substitute. In addition, it Half note. See under Notes and has been used to provide dance rests. music, dinner music, background Half tone, half step. The smallest music, etc.

interval commonly used in music, e.g., from C to C-sharp. See un- Handel Variations. Twenty variations (and a fugue) for pider Intervals. anoforte by Brahms, op. 24 (1861), based on a theme by Hallelujah, Halleluiah (Hebrew, Handel (the "Air" from his Halleluyah, Praise ye the Lord). harpsichord suite in B-flat). The An exclamation of praise to God, fugue is based on a theme freely often used as the text for conderived from the initial notes of cluding choruses in cantatas and the tune. oratorios, e.g., at the end of the first movement of Bach's cantata Hansel und Gretel. Opera by Christ lag in Todesbanden, or of Humperdinck, produced in WeiPart II of Handel's Messiah. In mar, 1893. The libretto, written Gregorian chant the Latinized by his sister, Adelheid Wette, is spelling alleluia is used. based on the well-known story from Grimm's Fairy Tales. AlHailing. A Norwegian dance though lacking in originality, the from the Hallingdal, executed music provides a suitable backwith a great variety of motions ground for the plot through its ranging from the intentionally folklike simplicity and its warmth awkward to the violent. It is usu- of feeling. ally in moderate 2/4 time. Harfe (G.). Harp. Hammerklavier ( HAHM-erklah-VEER: G.). Early German Harmonica. ( 1 ) Mouth harname for the pianoforte. Beetho- monica or mouth organ, a small

HARMONICS

HARMONIC ANALYSIS wind instrument in the form of a rectangular box with a number of openings on one oblong side, each of which is a channel leading to a metal reed inside the box. Different tones are obtained by moving the instrument across the lips according to the notes desired, and by alternating between exhaling and inhaling in producing the sound. A number of harmonica bands exist in the United States and elsewhere, and a remarkable degree of virtuosity has been achieved by performers, some of them playing on diminutive as well as on giant sizes of the instrument. The invention of the instrument is variously credited to F. Buschmann (Vienna, 1821) or to Sir Charles Wheatstone (London, 1 8 2 9 ) . — ( 2 ) See Glass harmonica.

Harmonic analysis. The analysis of a composition from the point of view of its harmonies and their tonal functions. The basic method is to identify each chord as to its structure, whether triad, seventh chord, sixth chord, etc. (see under Chords), and also as to its "scale degree. According to the most widely accepted practice, triads are indicated by Roman numerals (I, II, . . . V, . . .); additional tones and inversions are indicated by Arabic numerals: e.g., sixth chords by I 6 , . . . , seventh chords by I 7 . . . , six-four chords by I J . . . , etc. (see Thoroughbass). The Roman numerals invariably indicate the scale degree of the e root (not necessarily the bass tone ) of the chord. Fig. 52 serves to illustrate this method.

Fig.

52

20th-century music to which the foregoing system is not applicable. Some of the best-known books on harmonic analysis are: W. Piston, Harmony ( 1 9 4 1 ) ; A. McHose, The Contrapuntal Harmonic Technique of the 18th Century ( 1 9 4 7 ) ; R. Sessions, Harmonic Practice ( 1951 ) ; Murphy and Stringham, Creative Harmony ( 1951 ). Harmonic inversion. See under Inversion. Harmonic minor under Scale.

(scale).

See

Harmonics. ( 1 ) Secondary tones which form a component of every musical sound, though they are not heard distinctly. See Acoustics ( 4 ). — ( 2 ) Highpitched tones of a flutelike quality which are produced on stringed instruments by lightly touching the string at a certain point instead of pressing it down firmly against the fingerboard (stopping). In Fig. 53 the diamond shapes indicate the point of touch (on the G string), while the black notes indicate the resultant pitches. In musical notation the harmonics are indicated by small circles. In addition to the "natural harmonics" just described, which are obtained from an open string, there are also "artificial harmonics" obtained from a stopped string. Fig. Various systems have been de53b illustrates their notation vised for the analysis of some

HARMONIC SCALE

128

HARMONIUM

time?) in an edition published about 1780 by J. and W. Lintern, one of whom had been a blacksmith in his youth.

Fig.

S3

(lower staff) and actual sound (upper staff). The introduction of the harmonics into concert music is variously ascribed to Tartini's pupil, Domenico Ferrari ( 1 7 2 2 - 1 7 8 0 ) , and to Jean de Mondonville ( 1 7 1 1 - 1 7 7 2 ) . Harmonics are also used on the harp. See also Tromba marina. Harmonic scale. Harmonic minor scale. See under Scale. Harmonic series. The series of the acoustical harmonics (overtones, partíais). See Acoustics (4). Harmonie der Welt (har-moN E E dayr V E L T : Harmony of the World ). A symphony by Hindemith, composed in 1951. As in the case of *Mathis der Maler, the three movements were derived from the composer's opera of the same title before the opera was finished and performed. The titles of the movements are "Musica Instrumentalis," "Musica Humana," and "Musica Mundana." Harmonious Blacksmith, The. Popular name for the "Air" with variations from Handel's harpsichord suite no. 5, in E ( 1 7 2 0 ) . The name appears (for the first

Harmonium. A keyboard instrument, also called "reed organ," whose tones are produced by thin metal tongues or reeds, which are set in vibration by wind from bellows operated by the feet of the player. The instrument is used as a substitute for the organ, which it resembles particularly in having a number of stops which produce a variety of tone colors. An "expression stop" enables the player to produce gradations of intensity of sound, not by finger touch (as in the pianoforte) but by foot control (regulation of the pressure in the bellows). The harmonium developed in the 19th century from Grenié's Orgue expressif (1810; suggested by the Chinese mouth organ, sheng). Experimental forms such as the Aeoline ( 1 8 1 6 ) , Physharmonica (1818), Aerophone (1829), Séraphine ( 1 8 3 3 ) , and Mélophone ( 1 8 3 7 ) led to the first real harmonium, constructed in 1840 by A. Débain. The expression stop was invented by Mustel in 1854 (Mustel Organ). The American Organ is a variety in which the wind is not forced outward, but is drawn inward by evacuation of the air in the bellows. It has a softer and more organlike tone, but lacks the expressive device of the harmonium. The principle of the American instrument was invented about 1835 in Paris, and developed by Estey in Brattleboro, Mass. ( Este y Organ, 1856), and by Mason and Hamlin, Boston ( 1 8 6 1 ) .

HARMONY

129

Harmony. The simultaneous occurrence of musical tones, as opposed to "melody (i.e., succession of tones). Although the term suggests "pleasantness" of sound, it is properly applied to any combination of tones, whether consonant or dissonant. Such combinations, considered singly, are usually termed 'chords, while harmony denotes the "chordal aspect" of music, i.e., the succession and relationship of chords as they occur in a composition. Thus, harmony refers to the vertical structure of music, while melody (and counterpoint ) pertain to its horizontal element (see under Texture). See also Harmonic analysis. Harold in Italy. A program symphony by Berlioz, op. 16, written in 1834 at the request of Paganini, who wanted a work in which he could feature an exceptional viola he had just acquired. The symphony, which has a prominent viola part, is in four movements after portions from Byron's Childe Harold: ( 1 ) Harold in the Mountains, ( 2 ) Pilgrim's March and Prayer, ( 3 ) Serenade of an Abruzzi Mountaineer, and ( 4 ) Orgy of the Brigands. Harp. A stringed instrument of the modern orchestra, having a large triangular frame in which are stretched about forty-five parallel strings, decreasing in length, and tuned diatonically (seven strings to the octave) in the key of C-flat, through six octaves and a fifth, i.e., from Cbi to gb"". At the foot of the instrument (front pillar) are seven pedals, one controlling all the C-strings, one all the D-

HARPSICHORD

strings, etc. Each pedal can be depressed to two notches (hence the name Double Pedal Harp or Double Action Harp), and by each action the corresponding strings are shortened to sound a half tone higher. Thus, the C-pedal in high position gives the tone Cb, in the first notch, C, and in the second, CS. Operation of the various pedals makes all the major and minor keys available. The double-pedal harp was invented about 1810 by Sébastien Érard in Paris. In 1897 the Parisian firm of Pleyel introduced the chromatic harp, in which the pedal mechanism is abandoned, separate strings being provided for all the chromatic tones. These strings are stretched in two intersecting planes, one for all the "white keys," the other for all the "black keys." It has been used mainly by French composers. Harps are among the oldest of all instruments, second only to drums. In Mesopotamia they are documented as far back as 3000 B.C., and they were widely used in ancient Egypt. The biblical "harp of King David," however, was probably a "lyre, similar to the Greek "kithara. In Europe, harps appeared first in Ireland (8th or 9th century). Harp Quartet. Popular name for Beethoven's String Quartet, op. 74, in E-flat (1809), so called because of some pizzicato arpeggios which occur in the first movement. Harpsichord. The most common stringed keyboard instrument of the 16th to 18th centuries, similar in shape to the grand piano but differing from it chiefly in

HAUPTWERK

130

the means used to produce sound. Harpsichord strings are plucked by short tongues ( plectra ) made from crow quills or from leather, rather than being struck, as they are in the piano. The tongues in the harpsichord are attached to the upper part of long, rectangular pieces of wood called jacks, which rise when the key is depressed, thus bringing the tongue in contact with the string. Larger instruments usually have two or three sets of jacks with harder or softer quills, and also different sets of strings producing higher and lower octaves (4 ft., 8 ft., 16 ft.). Thus, the instrument can produce a variety of tone colors by means of two manuals and a number of stops. The old instrument had hand stops, while on modern harpsichords the stops are usually operated by pedals. This tonal variety, similar to that of the organ, compensates for the main deficiency of the instrument, i.e., the impossibility of varying the sound by means of finger touch (as on the pianoforte and clavichord ).

HELDENLEBEN

Haydn Quartets. Familiar name of six string quartets by Mozart (K. 387, 421, 428, 458, 464, 465), composed between 1782 and 1785, and all dedicated to Haydn. They are listed as nos. 14 to 19 in the total series of Mozart's string quartets. Haydn Variations. A set of variations by Brahms, based on a theme called "St. Anthony's Chorale" which was used by Haydn in one of his divertimentos (as yet unpublished) for wind instruments ( Feldmusik in B-flat). Very likely the theme was a hymn popular in Haydn's time. Brahms' work, published simultaneously ( 1873 ) for orchestra (op. 56a) and for two pianos (op. 56b), consists of eight variations and a finale in the form of a passacaglia. Hb. Short for F. hautbois, oboe. Head voice. See under Register (2).

Hebrides, The or Fingal's Cave. Concert Overture by Mendelssohn, op. 26 (1830), inspired The harpsichord produces a by his visit in 1829 to the Hesharp, silvery sound of great brides west of Scotland. charm. Although lacking the dramatic and expressive qualities Heckelciarina ( HEK-el-clar-EEof the pianoforte, it is an ex- nah: erroneously spelled Heckelcellent medium for contrapuntal clarind). A special instrument music, since it enables the inner with a single reed and a and lower parts of a composition markedly conical metal pipe, to stand out clearly. It also com- constructed by Heckel for the bines very well — better than "shepherd's pipe" in Act III of the pianoforte in some music — Wagner's Tristan. The part is with the violin or flute. now generally played on the English horn. Hauptwerk ( HO WPT-vayrk : G. ). Great organ. Heckelphone. See under Oboe. Hautbois, hautboy (o-BWAH: Heldenleben, Hero's Life. F.; HO-boy: Eng.). Oboe.

Ein

(G.).

See

HELDENTENOR

131

HEURE ESPAGNOLE

Hero's Life, A ( G., Ein Heldenleben). Symphonic poem by R. Strauss, op. 40, completed in 1898. The work describes the composer's own struggles to achieve recognition, depicting the jibes of the critics (by a Helicon. See Brass instruments, dissonant "adversaries section" and a noisy "battle scene"), He. and the unceasing devotion of Hemidemisemiquaver. See under his wife (by an extended violin cadenza). Of special interest are Notes and rests. the easily recognizable quotaHemiola, hemiolia, hemiole tions from his earlier tone poems. ( hem-ee-O-la, hem-ee-O-lee-a, HEM-ee-ole: Gr., one and one Heterophony (Gr., other sound). half). In 15th- and 16th-century A term used by Plato and theory, term for note values adopted by modern musicologists standing in the relationship of to describe a primitive type of 3 to 2, as in the modern triplets polyphony in which two ( or or, especially, in rhythmic pat- more) performers produce esterns such as shown in Fig. 54a, sentially the same melody with where two dotted notes are re- slight modifications in one part, placed by three simple ones, re- mainly that of omission or addisulting in a change from 6 / 4 to tion of some notes. This style is 3 / 2 or vice versa. This device is frequently found in Chinese, Japanese, Javanese, African, etc., music.

Heldentenor ( HEL-den-tenAWR: G., heroic tenor). A tenor voice of great brilliancy and volume, suited for parts such as Siegfried in Wagner's Ring of the Nibelung.

frequently used in the courantes and sarabandes of Baroque suites. Among 19th-century composers, Brahms is known for his frequent use of hemiola rhythms (see Fig. 54b, from his Second Symphony ). Hen, The Poule, La.

(Symphony).

See

Heure espagnole, L' (leur espah-NYOL: The Spanish Hour). One-act musical comedy by Ravel (libretto by Franc-Nohain), produced in Paris, 1911. The story centers around Torquemada (tenor), a clockmaker in 18th-century Toledo, who leaves a waiting customer, Ramiro (baritone), in his shop while he attends to business in the town. Torquemada's wife, Concepción ( soprano ), has secret lovers ( Gonzalve and Inigo ) whom she has hidden in grandfather clocks which the brawny Ramiro carries upstairs. Attracted by the strength of the guileless Ramiro, Concepción starts flirting with him, forgetting that her lovers are close at hand. The husband

HEXACHORD

132

returns and discovers the lovers, but accepts the situation and joins in a merry closing ensemble. The music is in a delicate impressionistic style. Hexachord (Gr., six strings). In medieval theory, a group of six consecutive tones of the scale, with a half tone in the middle, for example, c d e f g a (a segment such as d e f g a b is not properly a hexachord, although the term is often loosely used in modern writings to denote any group of six tones; see Tetrachord). The hexachord is the basis of a theoretical system initiated by Guido of Arezzo (c. 995-c. 1050) and based on the fact that in the diatonic scale, adding the tone bb, there are three hexachords, one starting on c (hexachordum naturale), one on g (h. durum: g a b c ' d ' e') and one on f ( h. molle: f g a bb c' d'). In each group the tones were named ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la (see Solmization), so that mi-fa always denoted the half tone. By repeating these three hexachords in various octaves, the entire medieval scale from G to e " (see Guidonian hand) was constructed out of seven overlapping hexachords, as shown in Fig. 55. The transition from one hexachord to another, necessary for melodies of greater range, was known as mutation. When applied to 20th-century music, the term hexachord is molle:

sometimes used for groups of six tones resulting from the halving of a twelve-tone row. Hexentanz (HEX-en-tahns: G . ) . Witches' dance. Hidden fifths, octaves. See under Parallel fifths, octaves. High fidelity. Often abbreviated as hi-fi, high fidelity pertains to a standard of excellence in the reproduction of sound on discs, tape, wire, and film. The more closely a recording reproduces the original sound (under ideal acoustical conditions ), the higher the fidelity. Recording companies and manufacturers of reproducing equipment have made tremendous progress since about 1945 in achieving clarity, sonority, and brilliance in recorded

Histoire du soldat, L' ( leesTWAHR dui sol-DAH: The Soldier's Tale). A stage work by Stravinsky (libretto by Ramuz), produced in Lausanne, 1918. It is somewhat in the character of a ballet d'action, combining ballet performance with a story told in dialogue by the characters and by a narrator. The Soldier, homeward bound, trades his fiddle for a magic book which the Devil, disguised as an old man, offers him. After a series of disillusioning experiences, he wanders to a city where the Princess is ill,

y b i

G A Β c d β f g afi durum: < naturale:

Fig.

HISTOIRE DU SOLDAT

y

r' o' aa 1 ' c ' ri' d' o' e ' f' f' g' V 55

b't>

c " d" e"

HISTORY OF MUSIC

133

regains his fiddle from the Devil by a ruse, cures the Princess with his playing, and marries her. The Devil vows to have the Soldier if he ever leaves his new kingdom and finally seizes him when, overcome with homesickness, he departs. The music, in acrid dissonances and pungent rhythms, consists of a number of "character pieces such as March, Tango, Waltz, Ragtime, and Chorale, composed for a chamber orchestra of six instruments and percussion. History of music. The development of Western music ( disregarding the music of the Orient, the Near East, etc. ) may be divided into three epochs: "monophonie (from the beginnings until c. 1300), "polyphonic (from c. 800 until c. 1750), and "homophonic (from c. 1600 to the present). A. The Monophonie Period. The pre-Christian development was carried mainly by the Greeks, who developed an important theoretical system ( see Greek music), and by the Jews, about whose singing and playing of instruments there is meager information in the Scriptures. The rise and spread of Christianity brought with it a magnificent development of liturgical music known as "Gregorian chant. A parallel development, confined mostly to the city of Milan, is the "Ambrosian chant. Later additions to Gregorian chant are the "sequences and "tropes (9th to 12th centuries). There followed a splendid flowering of secular song under the "troubadours, "trouvères, and "minnesingers (12th to 14th centuries). The minnesinger tradition was taken

HISTORY OF MUSIC

up by the "mastersingers in the early 15th century. An impressive repertory of devotional songs is formed by the Italian "laude and the Spanish "cantigas, both from the late 13th century. B. The Polyphonic Period. For the purpose of a survey, it is interesting and helpful to note that three times, at an interval of 300 years, the evolution of music has led to innovations so striking that contemporary writers described them as something "new": the "Ars nova of 1300, the " N u o v e musiche of 1600, and the " N e w Music of 1900. These landmarks, together with others occurring almost exactly at the middle of the 300-year periods ( e.g., 1750, death of Bach and Handel), serve as the basis of the following survey: I. 800-1300. The earliest polyphonic music was called "organum. It developed out of primitive beginnings ( parallel organum ) into highly remarkable art forms (organa dupla of the School of "St. Martial), culminating in the organa tripla and quadrupla of Perotinus ( c. 1160-1220). The 13th-century development, known as "Ars antiqua, brought with it the rise of the polyphonic "conductus, the "clausula, and the "motet. II. 1300-1450. Novel concepts of rhythm and meter are the main characteristic of the Ars nova (Philippe de Vitry). The motet adopted large dimensions and complex structural features, mainly under Guillaume de Machaut (c. 1300-1377), who also cultivated secular polyphony ( "ballade, "rondeau, "virelai ). Italy entered the scene with

HISTORY OF MUSIC

134

Francesco Landini (c. 1 3 2 5 1397), composer of "madrigals and "ballatas (see also Caccia). In the early 15th century the English master, John Dunstable (c. 1375-1453), instigated a new trend toward euphony and fullness of sound, a trend which was continued by the "Burgundian composers Dufay (c. 14001474) and Binchois (c. 1 4 0 0 1460). An important new form was the polyphonic 'Mass. III. 1450-1600. This period brought about a renewed emphasis on sacred music (Mass, motet) under the numerous masters of the "Flemish School ( Ockeghem, Obrecht, Isaac, Josquin, Gombert, Lassus, and many others), and their followers in Italy (Palestrina, Gabrieli), England (Tallis, Byrd), Spain (Morales, Victoria), and Germany ( Stoltzer, Hassler ). The 16th century witnessed the rise of secular vocal forms ( "frottola, "madrigal, "chanson, "lied) and of instrumental music ( "ricercar, "toccata, "canzona, "variations ). The Renaissance came to an impressive close in the "polychoral works of the "Venetian School (G. Gabrieli). IV. 1600-1750. The years around 1600 constitute one of the most fundamental landmarks in the history of music (see Nuove musiche), leading to the waning (at least temporarily) of the polyphonic ideal of the 16th century, and to the cultivation of the monodie style ( see Monody) in connection with such novel forms as "opera, "oratorio, and "cantata. Of equal importance is the development of larger instrumental forms, the "suite, the "sonata, and the "concerto. For more details see

HISTORY OF MUSIC

under Baroque music. For a continuation of the 16th-century tradition, see under Roman School. C. The Homophonie Period. I. 1750-1900. Even while Bach and Handel wrote their great masterworks, new trends appeared leading away from the dignified grandeur of late-Baroque music to the light-minded elegance of the "Rococo (Couperin, Pergolesi). In France the contest between the old and the new art found an interesting expression in the "War of the Buffoons. About 1740, the members of the "Mannheim School ( Stamitz, Richter ) laid the foundation for the development of the "symphony, with parallel movements leading to the classical sonata and the "string quartet. Vienna became the center of the musical world under Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and Schubert (see Classicism). The "Romanticists, Schumann, Mendelssohn, and Chopin (all born about 1810), cultivated particularly the "character piece for pianoforte in which they achieved more perfect results than in the large forms of the classical period. It was not until the 1870's that the symphonic tradition was significantly revived, under Bruckner, Brahms, Franck, and finally Mahler. About 1850 the "symphonic poem developed as a new type of orchestral music, and operatic productivity attained renewed importance under Verdi and his German rival, Wagner. Against the dominant position of German music there arose, about 1860, the movement known as "Nationalism, which brought the musically dominated nations

HOBOE

135

( Bohemia, Norway, Russia, Spain, etc. ) into the limelight under composers such as Dvorak, Smetana, Grieg, Moussorgsky, Rimski-Korsakov, and Albeniz. T h e 1890's saw the rise of "impressionistic music under Debussy. I I . Since 1900. Impressionism was the first indication of a quickly growing reaction against the Romanticism of the 19th century. There followed, in the first two decades of the 20th century, a period of revolutionary experiments, well deserving of the name New Music by which it is often referred to. Its most influential leaders were Schönberg ("twelve-tone technique) and Stravinsky ( " d y n a m i s m ) . Since the 1920's the major trend has been "neoclassicism. For more details see under Twentieth-century music.

HOMOPHONIC

voice parts with single notes or short group of notes, one part having a rest where the other has notes. See Fig. 56. Numerous motets of the period (Petrus de Cruce, Philippe de Vitry, Machaut) include passages in hocket style. Helberg Suite. A suite by Grieg, op. 4 0 (for piano solo or for string orchestra), consisting of a Prelude, Sarabande, Gavotte, Air, and Rigaudon. Entitled " F r o m Holberg's time," it was written in commemoration of the Danish playwright Ludwig Holberg ( 1 6 8 4 - 1 7 5 4 ) , a contemporary of Bach. Holzharmonika phone.

( G. ).

Homme armé, L'. See armé.

Xylo-

L'homme

Hoboe. Older spelling for oboe, derived from F . hautbois. Homophonic, polyphonic ( Gr., joint sounds, many sounds). Hochzeitsmarsch( HOKH-zeyetsMusic is said to b e homophonic marsh: G. ). Wedding march. if it consists of a single melodic Hocket, hoketus ( L . ) . In medie- line supported by chords or other subordinate material; polyval music ( c . 1 2 7 5 - 1 3 5 0 ) , a pephonic (or "contrapuntal) if it culiar technique of composition consists of several ( two or more ) characterized by the quick almelodic lines, each having internation of two (rarely three) dividual significance and independence. Fig. 57 shows a melody treated ( a ) in homophonic and ( b ) in polyphonic texture. If sounded alone, the melody would fall under the category of "monophonie texture. T h e homophonic style is the one most familiar to present-day listeners. Practically all music from Haydn to Debussy is essentially homophonic, although it occasionally employs some polyphonic elaboration ( as in late Beethoven, Fig. 56

136

HOPAK

HORNPIPE

Horizontal writing. See under Texture.

Fig. 57 Brahms) or includes some truly polyphonic sections, e.g., *fugatos or "canons. Since about 1920 there has been a notable renewal of interest in polyphonic style by most major composers. Polyphonic music makes greater demands on the hearing faculty of the listener, but offers rewarding satisfaction through its inner fullness and animation. See under History of music; Texture. Hopak ( also gopak ). A lively Russian dance in duple meter.

Horn. An orchestral "brass instrument (often called French horn in order to distinguish it from the English horn — see illustration below and on p. 197) consisting of a narrow conical tube about 12 ft. long and wound twice in a circle, with a large flaring bell and a funnel-shaped mouthpiece. Inside the circle there are three valves, and the additional length of tubing required for them. It is normally pitched in F, and has a range from Bi to f". Of all the orchestral instruments, the horn, probably the most difficult to play, is one of the most useful. Played softly, it blends beautifully with the strings and wood winds, and its loud tones are clearly audible without ever being harsh. Special effects are stopping ( blocking the bell with the hand), mute ( insertion into the bell of a pearshaped piece of metal or wood), and cuivré (a "brassy" tone obtained by an increased tension of the lips). Early symphonies (Haydn, Mozart) require two horns; modern scores normally call for four. See also Natural horn. Horn fifths. See under fifths.

Parallel

Hornpipe. A dance popular in England during the 16th to 19th centuries which, in its later development, was performed as a solo dance by sailors. It took its name from an obsolete wind instrument ( also called pibgorn ) which was used to accompany the dance. Various English composers have written hornpipes,

HORN SIGNAL e.g., Purcell and Handel certo Grosso no. 7 ) . A inent feature is the use of and inverted (Scotch rhythms.

137

HURDY-GURDY

(Conpromdotted snap)

tions by Liszt, in the character of free fantasies based on Hungarian themes. Each of them opens with a slow introduction and continues with a fast, dancelike movement in imitation of Horn Signal, Symphony with the. the Hungarian "csárdás. Haydn's Symphony no. 31 in D ( 1 7 6 5 ) , so called because of the Hunt Quartet. ( 1 ) Nickname of frequent use of horn fanfares in Mozart's String Quartet in fithe first movement. It is one of fiat, Κ. 458 (no. 4 of the »Haydn the most notable among the Quartets), also called La Chasse, with reference to the huntingearlier Haydn symphonies. horn motif in the opening theme. Horn Trio. A celebrated trio by — ( 2 ) Nickname of Haydn's Brahms, op. 40 ( 1 8 6 5 ) , for horn, String Quartet in B-flat, op. 1, no. 1, composed in 1755. violin, and piano. Horseman Quartet. Haydn's String Quartet no. 74 (op. 74, no. 3 ) , in G major, so called because of the rhythmic patterns in the first movement which suggest the galloping of horses.

Hunt Symphony. Haydn's Symphony in D, no. 73 ( 1 7 8 1 ) , also called La Chasse, with reference to the last movement which was originally composed to depict a hunting scene in his opera La Fedeltà premiata ( 1 7 8 0 ) .

Hptw. In German organ scores, abbreviation for Hauptwerk, Hurdy-Gurdy. ( 1 ) The name for great organ (see under Organ). a medieval fiddle in which the strings are made to vibrate, not Humoresque ( F . ) , Humoreske by a bow, but by a rotating ( G . ) . A 19th-century name for rosined wheel inserted into an instrumental compositions of a opening in the table ( at the humorous or, more often, capri- place occupied by the bridge on cious character. In Schumann's a violin ) and operated by a Humoreske, op. 20, an extended handle at the lower end of the composition in a number of sec- body. This curious instrument tions, the name seems to refer to was quite popular in the 10th to the frequent "change of humor." 14th centuries. In the 18th century it became fashionable, toHungarian Dances (G., Un- gether with the "musette, in garische Tänze ). A collection French aristocratic circles as instrument. of twenty-one dances by Brahms, a mock-shepherd for piano, four-hands, published Haydn wrote five concertos and in four volumes ( 1 8 5 2 - 6 9 ) . seven "notturnos for two hurdySome of them employ genuine gurdies called, rather misleadHungarian melodies, while others ingly, lyra or lira organizzata. — are freely invented in the Hun- ( 2 ) Popular name for the street organ (barrel organ) whose only garian gypsy style. resemblance to the hurdy-gurdy Hungarian Rhapsodies. A group would seem to be the cranking of about twenty piano composi- handle.

H. W.

138

IBERIA

H. W. In German organ music, development started in the 16th the abbreviation of Hauptwerk, century, when Luther introduced great organ (see under Organ). hymns in the German tongue into the service of the German ProtChorale). Hydraulis (Gr., water pipe). estant Church (see The organ of the ancient Greeks, These are also strophic songs, invented by Ktesibius of Alex- usually sung in four-part harThe other reformed andria (c. 300-250 B.C.). In- mony. stead of bellows it had a metal churches ( Anglican, Calvinist, container filled with water which etc. ) did not originally admit served as a means of com- hymns, because their texts were municating and regulating air "man-made," that is, not taken pressure provided by hand from the Scriptures. Here the pumps and carried into a diving "psalter was the only source for bell surrounded by the water. congregational singing. It was The hydraulis was in use until not until after 1700 that hymns the 4th century after Christ and were gradually admitted in the English-speaking countries. The later. American Methodists, under the leadership of John Wesley Hymn. A song of praise or (whose first hymnal was printed adoration of God (originally in in 1737 in Georgia), played a honor of Apollo, the Greek god leading role in this development. of the Muses). In the Christian The most important collections churches (Roman, Anglican, Luof English hymns are The Engtheran, etc. ) it denotes nonlish Hymnal, The Oxford Hymn Scriptural songs of praise, as Book, and Hymns Ancient and distinguished from Psalms and Modern. canticles taken from the Bible. The hymns of the Roman Catholic Church are Latin poems consisting of various stanzas sung Hyper-, hypo- (Gr., above, beto the same melody, in the low ). Prefixes denoting higher manner of strophic songs. Among and lower pitches. Hyperdiatesthe oldest Christian hymns pre- saron is the upper fourth, hyserved with music are those by podiatessaron, the lower fourth; St. Ambrose (d. 3 9 7 ) , known as hyperdiapente, hypodiapente are "Ambrosian hymns. Most of the the upper or lower fifths. For hymns were written in the hypodorian, etc., see under 5th to 10th centuries. A new Church modes and Greek music.

I Iberia (Latin name of the c. 1906-09. Each is based on a Spanish peninsula ). Twelve pi- Spanish theme or locale. For Deano pieces, in four sets of three bussy's Ibéria see under Images. each, by Albeniz, composed

ICTUS

139

IMPRESARIO

Ibéria Gregorian (Dances of Spring), (Spain), Gigues. The second, Ibéria, consists of three moveIdée fixe (ee-DAY feeks: F . ) . ments: Par les rues et par les See under Fantastic Symphony. chemins ( On Streets and Alleys), Les parfums de la nuit Idiophones. See under Instru- (Perfumes of the Night), and Le Matin d'un jour de fête ( The ments. Morning of a Feast Day). Idomeneo Re di Creta (ee-dome-NAY-o ray dee CRAY-ta: Imbroglio (It., confusion). An Idomeneus, King of Crete). Op- operatic scene in which the idea era by Mozart (libretto by G. Β. of intricate complication is artVaresco), produced in Munich, fully carried out by the simulta1781. The story takes place after neous use of seemingly inconthe Trojan War and tells of gruous melodies, conflicting King Idomeneo (tenor) who, to rhythms, etc. Famous examples placate the god Neptune, prom- are the ballroom scene in Moises to sacrifice the first person zart's Don Giovanni (end of Act he meets upon his return to I I ) and the street scene in Crete. This turns out to be Wagner's Meistersinger (end of his son Idamante ( male soprano; Act I I ) . sung by a tenor in modern performances). Unwilling to sacri- Imitation. The restatement in fice him, Idomeneo brings down close succession of a musical idea even greater wrath on his people (theme, subject, motive, or figuntil the god agrees to a milder ure) in different voice parts of a judgment — Idomeneo must ab- contrapuntal texture. Composidicate in favor of his son. There tions based on this device, such is a subplot involving the lovers as the "canon and the "fugue, Idamante and Ilia ( soprano ) and are said to be in imitative counElectra (soprano). terpoint. Among other compositions using imitation are Bach's Images (ee-MAHZH: F., pic- 'Inventions and 16th-century imitation). tures ). Title used by Debussy for motets (see Point of two cycles of compositions. ( 1 ) Imitation may involve certain Six piano pieces in two sets of modifications of the musical idea, three each: I ( 1 9 0 5 ) , Reflets e.g., "inversion, "augmentation, dans l'eau (Reflections in the diminution, etc. Water ), Hommage à Rameau, and Mouvement; II ( 1 9 0 7 ) , Impériale, L' ( lamh-pay-reeCloches à travers les feuilles AHL ). Nickname ( for no known ( Bells Sounding through the reason) of Haydn's Symphony Leaves), Et la lune descend sur no. 53, in D major (c. 1775). le temple qui fut ( And the Moon Descends on the Temple of Imperfect. See under Cadence. Yore), Poissons d'or (Goldfish). — ( 2 ) Three symphonic poems Impresario, The ( G., Der Schau(Images pour orchestre, 1909- spieldirektor). A comedy with 11): Rondes de printemps incidental music by Mozart (liIctus ( L . ) . See under chant.

IMPRESSIONISM

140

bretto by G. Stephanie), produced in Vienna, 1786. The story revolves around two rivaling sopranos, Madame Herz and Mademoiselle Silberklang, and a tenor, Monsieur Vogelsang. Impressionism. An artistic movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries represented in music chiefly by Claude Debussy (1862-1918). The term is borrowed from painting, and properly indicates the close relationship of contemporary trends in the various fields of art. The paintings of the French impressionists (e.g., Monet, Manet, and Renoir) and the refined poetry of Verlaine, Baudelaire, and Mallarmé suggested to Debussy a new type of music. Eminently French in character, it is a music which seems to hint rather than to state; in which suggestions of tonal colors take the place of logical development; a music which is as vague and intangible as the changing lights of the day and the subtle noises of the rain and the wind. Foreshadowed in the works of Edouard Lalo and Alexis Chabrier (also in the late compositions of Liszt), impressionism was first fully realized in Debussy's "Afternoon of a Faun (1892) and later in his "Nocturnes for Orchestra ( 1893-99 ), the orchestral suite La "Mer ( 1903-05), the opera "Pelléas et Mélisande ( 1902 ), and the collections for pianoforte, 'Images (1905, 1907), Préludes (191013), and Études (1915). Although Debussy was the originator and only full-fledged representative of impressionism, many other composers were strongly influenced by his innovations,

IMPROVISATION

e.g., Ravel, Dukas, Roussel, de Séverac in France; Gräner, Schreker, Niemann in Germany; Loeffler, Carpenter, Griffes in America; Delius, Bax, Scott in England; Respighi in Italy; Falla in Spain; Scriabin in Russia; and Schönberg and Stravinsky in their early works. Important technical devices of impressionistic style are ^parallel chords and the "whole-tone scale. Impromptu ( F. ). Properly, an improvisation, or a composition suggestive of improvisation. This element, however, is hardly present in the impromptus of Schubert, Chopin, and other Romantic composers who obviously used the title in order to indicate the somewhat casual origin of the composition (see under Character piece ). Improperia (L., reproaches). In the Roman Catholic service, chants assigned to Good Friday morning. They are based on admonishing texts from the Prophets. Palestina, Vittoria, and others set these texts to simple four-part harmonizations, which are annually sung on Good Friday in the Sistine Chapel. Improvisation. The art of spontaneously creating music (extempore) while playing, rather than performing a composition already written. Many of the older masters such as Bach, Handel, and Beethoven were as famous for their skill in improvising as for their written compositions. After Beethoven, the art of improvisation declined. Today it is practiced only by a

INCIDENTAL MUSIC

141

few organists and pianists who improvise on themes given them by members of the audience. More common is the art of introducing improvised details into a written composition. The three outstanding examples of this are the "thorough-bass accompaniment, the improvised ornamentations of the Baroque period, and the "cadenzas of the Classical concerto. There has been an interesting revival of improvisation technique in the development of jazz (see Jam,). Incidental music. Music used in connection with stage plays. It may consist of occasional songs, marches, dances, and fanfares; background music to monologues and dialogues; or instrumental music before and after the acts. Nearly all of Purcell's dramatic music is incidental music. More recent examples are Beethoven's Egmont (play by Goethe), Mendelssohn's Midsummer Night's Dream (Shakespeare), Bizet's L'Arlésienne ( Daudet ), and Grieg's Peer Gynt (Ibsen). Incoronazione di Poppea, L' ( leen-cor-o-na-tsi-O-nay dee pop-PAY-a: The Coronation of Poppaea). Opera by Monteverdi (libretto by G. F. Busenello), produced in Venice, 1642. Monteverdi's last opera, and the first opera to deal with a historical (rather than Biblical or mythological) subject, L'Incoronazione tells of the love of the Emperor Nero and the Roman matron Poppaea, and of the intrigues into which they enter to rid themselves of their respective mates. With the help of the gods they are successful, and Poppaea is crowned empress.

INTERMEZZO

Incredible Flutist, The. Ballet by Walter Piston, composed in 1938. A suite derived from the score is played in orchestral concerts. Instrumentation. See Orchestration. Instruments. The generic name for all contrivances producing musical sounds, with the exception of the human voice. Instruments are usually classified into four categories: stringed, wood wind, brass, and percussion. Interlude. Music designed to be played between the sections or movements of a composition or, more frequently, between the acts of an opera or play (see Entr'acte; Intermezzo). It may also be played between two parts of a liturgical service. Intermezzo ( in-ter-MED-zo: It. ). ( 1 ) A 19th-century "character piece (Schumann, Brahms). The term suggests the casual origin of the composition, as if it were written between works of greater importance.— (2) Same as "interlude, "entr'acte. — (3) An 18th-century short comic opera in two scenes for two or three characters, so called because the scenes were performed during the two intermissions of a serious opera. The most famous example is Pergolesi's La "Serva padrona, originally performed in connection with his II prigioniero superbo (1733), and usually considered the beginning of "comic opera. Throughout the 17th century, intermezzos ( intermedio, intermède) consisting of madrigals, ballets, or little operatic scenes were performed between

INTERNATIONALE

142

INTONATION

the acts of a masque, a grand Intervals leading downward are called "lower," e.g., the lower ballet, or an opera. fifth of c is F. If two intervals Internationale, L' ( F ) . See un- sum up to an octave (c-g and g-c'), each of them is said der National anthems ( 7 ) . to be the complement or the inIntervals. An interval is the dis- version of the other. Thus the tance in pitch between two fourth is the complement (or innotes. If the notes are sounded version) of the fifth, the third successively, it is a melodic in- that of the sixth, and the second terval; if sounded simultane- that of the seventh. The same names are applied ously, a harmonic interval. The smallest interval of our musical to intervals starting on notes system is the half tone or semi- other than c. Thus, the intervals tone (ab-a, c-cf or e-f), of which d-f, e-g, f-a, g-b are all thirds. there are twelve to the octave. Since, however, they are not all The distance of two half tones alike (d-f and e-g are w h, the is called a whole tone or simply others, w w), it is necessary to tone (ab-bb, c-d or e-fï), of which distinguish between various types there are six to the octave, for of thirds, fourths, etc., accordexample, c-d, d-e, e-flt, ff-gï, ing to the number of half tones g#-a#, aí-c. The major scale con- found between the outer notes. sists of five whole tones (w) and The fourth, fifth, and octave exist diminished, two half tones (h) in the ar- in three varieties, while rangement o f w w h w w w h perfect, and augmented, (see under Scale). For example, each of the other intervals has four varieties, diminished, minor, in the scale of C, major, and augmented. In the table on p. 143, the figures in w w hww w h parentheses indicate the number c d e f g a b c ' of half tones contained in each The names for intervals refer interval. to the number of scale steps from the lower to the higher note, as In the Steppes of Central Asia. A symphonic poem by Alexander follows: c-d c-c unison (prime) second c "g c-a sixth fifth c-d' ninth

c-e' tenth

The intervals larger than an octave are called compound intervals, in contradistinction to simple intervals which do not exceed an octave in range, e.g., a ninth (compound) is made up of an octave and a second (simple).

c-e third

c-f fourth

c-b seventh

c-c' octave

c "g' c-f' eleventh twelfth

Borodin (1880) which depicts the passage of an Oriental caravan across the Russian desert. Intonation. ( 1 ) Degree of adherence to correct pitch. Good intonation implies close approxi-

143

INTRADA

Second Third Sixth Seventh

Diminished ctf-db ( 0 ) c#-eb ( 2 ) c#-ab ( 7 ) cï-bb ( 9 )

Fourth Fifth Octave

cï-f ( 4 ) cí-g ( 6 ) cj-c' (11)

INVERSION

Major

Minor c-db c-eb c-ab c-bb

(1) (3) (8) (10)

c-d c-e c-a c-b

Augmented

(2) (4) (9) (11)

c-dí c-e# c-aS c-bï

(3) (5) (10) (12)

Perfect

Table of mation of the pitch; poor intonation implies deviation from pitch. — ( 2 ) In Gregorian chant, the opening notes of a "psalm tone. Intrada ( in-TRAH-da ). An introductory piece of a festive or marchlike character, current around 1600, often found at the beginning of a suite. Mozart and Beethoven used the name occasionally for short overtures. Introduction. An opening section frequently found at the beginning of musical compositions. Introductions of symphonies, string quartets, sonatas, etc., are usually in a slow tempo. See Sonata. Introit (IN-troyt). The first item of the Proper of the "Mass. Inventions. Collective name for two sets of keyboard pieces composed about 1723 by Bach, 15 in two parts and 15 in three, distinguished as Two-Part and Three-Part Inventions. Bach's original title for the first set was Inventiones ( L. ) and for the second, Sinfoniae. They are masterful studies in a special type of imitative counterpoint. Inversion. A term applied to various procedures involving the substitution of higher for lower

c-flf ( 6 ) c-g» ( 8 ) c-c#' ( 1 3 )

c-f ( 5 ) c-g ( 7 ) c-c' (12)

Intervals tones and vice versa. In connection with intervals, chords, and contrapuntal voice parts, inversion is effected by transposing one or more of the constituents into a higher (or lower) octave. An interval is inverted by transferring its lower tone into the higher octave, e.g., changing c to c', thus changing the interval from c-g to g-c' (Fig. 58a; see also under Intervals). A chord is inverted in the same way, for example, c-e-g becomes e-g-c' or g-c'-e' (Fig. 58b; see also under Chords). Counterpoint is inverted by transferring the upper part down an octave so that it becomes the lower part, or the lower part into a higher octave (see Invertible counterpoint). Basically the same thing occurs in an inverted pedal, a 'pedal point occurring, not in the bass, but in a higher part. All of the foregoing types of inversion are collectively called harmonic inversion. Essentially different is the inversion of a single melody (e.g., a fugai sub-

inversion

orlgioal

Fig.

58

INVERTED MORDENT

144

ISORHYTHM

ject or a theme of a sonata movement), known as melodic inversion. This means that each ascending interval of an entire melody is changed into its opposite descending interval and vice versa. Thus, the progression c'-f' becomes c'-g, and c'-d'-a becomes c'-b-e'. The result is a mirrorlike exchange of upward and downward motions, comparable to the contours of a forest and its reflection in a lake (Fig. 58c). Melodic inversion plays an important role in fugues and in the development section of sonatas. It also forms an essential ingredient of the "twelve-tone technique.

two parts, is called double counterpoint; if applied to three (or four) parts, triple (or quadruple) counterpoint. In double counterpoint of the fifth (tenth, twelfth), one part is transposed up a fifth (tenth, twelfth), instead of an octave, while the other appears unchanged or in octave transposition. Fig. 59b shows an example from Bach's Five Canonic Variations.

Invertible counterpoint. A passage in contrapuntal texture is said to be invertible (convertible) if it is so designed that, by some means of transposition — usually of an octave — the lower part may become the higher one and the higher, the lower (Fig. 59a). The device, if applied to

Ionian. See under Church modes.

Invitation to the Dance (G., Aufforderung zum Tanz ). A piano composition by Weber, op. 65 (1819), in the character of a waltz, preceded by an introduction (the "invitation") and concluded by an epilogue. It is the Inverted mordent, turn. See un- first example of a real waltz in art music. der Mordent; Turn.

Iphigenia ( if-i-je-NEE-a ). Two operas by Gluck, Iphigenia in Aulis ( Iphigenie en Aulide ), produced in Paris, 1774, and Iphigenia in Tauris (Iphigénie en Tauride), produced in Paris, 1779. Both are based on dramas by Euripides. Isle of the Dead, The. A symphonic poem by Rachmaninoff (op. 29, 1907), inspired by A. Boecklin's painting of the legendary destination of departed souls. The plainsong *Dies Irae is used effectively.

Fig. 59

Isorhythm (EYE-so-rithm: Gr., equal rhythm ). An important device of 14th-century composition, found in the motets of Vitry, Machaut, and their successors, Dunstable and Dufay. It denotes employment of a fixed pattern of time values for the liturgical melody (*cantus firmus) of the

ISRAEL IN EGYPT

tenor, this rhythmic pattern being restated several times during the course of the melody. The rhythmic pattern is called talea, the melody, color. Fig. 60 shows ι

ITALIAN SYMPHONY

ter changes (e.g., from 3/4 to 4/4 ), the beat remains the same (i.e., the duration of the quarter notes does not change).

Italian Concerto. A composition for harpsichord by Bach, published in 1735 (see under Clavieriibung). It is written in the form and style of the orchestral concertos of Italian composers such as Vivaldi. The contrast between solo and tutti is imitated by the use of dynamic contrasts, forte and piano, on the two manuals of the harpsichord. It consists of three movements (fast-slow-fast) the first and third in "ritornello form, the second a continuous melody over an accompaniment based on a Fig. 60 one-measure rhythmic and texan example of color divided into tural pattern. three laleae (a, b, and c). Usually the entire tenor consists of two colores (I, II), the second Italian overture. See under Overbeing a diminution (halved note ture. values) of the first. Italian Serenade. (G., Italienische Serenade). A short piece Israel in Egypt. Oratorio by for string quartet (1887) by Handel (to a Scriptural text), Hugo Wolf. It was transcribed composed in 1738. (1892) for small orchestra by the composer and is most freIstar Variations (IS-tahr). Seven quently heard in this later arorchestral variations by d'Indy, rangement. op. 42 (1896), which are a unique example of "variation in Italian sixth. See under Chords the reverse,' starting with the (5). most complex variation and ending with the theme in octaves. Italian Symphony. MendelsThis process of "disrobing" is sohn's Symphony no. 4 in A implied in the title, Istar being major, op. 90 (1831-33), begun the Babylonian goddess of pas- in Italy and containing allusions sion. to Italian folic music, particularly in the last movement, entitled Istesso tempo, L' (lis-TES-so "Saltarello." The slow movement TEM-po: It., stesso y the same ). is sometimes called the "Pilgrim's Indication that, though the me- March."

146

JACK

J E A N N E D'ARC

J Jack. See under

Harpsichord.

Jahreszeiten, Die. See Seasons. Jalousieschweiler ( zha-loo-ZEEshvel-ler: G. ). The "swell pedal of the organ. Jam. Jazz musicians' term for improvisation. At a jam session, a group of musicians choose a familiar popular tune (e.g., "Tea for Two, ' "The Sheik" ) and improvise both in ensemble and as soloists. Jamming is thus distinguished from the "hot chorus" or "take off," in which an improvised solo is played against a written or memorized accompaniment performed by the ensemble players. Janizary music. Music of the military bodyguard of the Turkish sultans (from about 1400 to 1826, when they were dethroned ) which employed big drums, cymbals, triangles, and the Turkish "crescent. This noisy and strongly rhythmic type of music became very popular in Europe toward the end of the 18th century. Haydn imitated it in his "Military Symphony, Mozart in both the Abduction from the Seraglio and the last movement of his Piano Sonata in A (K. 331: Alla turca), and Beethoven in the "Ruins of Athens.

of "ragtime (most features of which were taken over into jazz), jazz embraces the "blues, "swing, "jive, and "bebop. It is primarily dance music in duple meter, characterized by the frequent use of syncopation and other rhythmic complexities. The instruments normally used in jazz are trumpets, trombones, clarinets, saxophones, and the rhythm instruments — piano, guitar, bass, and drums ( "traps). Most of the various types of jazz developed in the Negro districts of the large cities of the South (New Orleans, St. Louis) and spread to Chicago and New York, where they were commercialized ("Tin Pan Alley). The word jazz, of uncertain origin, first appeared in print in 1916. The attribute "hot" was introduced in the 1920's to express approval of jazz improvisation (Dixieland). "Hot" playing by a soloist is marked by ingenuity, technical brilliance, and speed, in contrast to "sweet" music, which is played or sung without strict regard for time (rubato), at medium or slow tempo, and with less improvisation. Illustrative of the transitory nature of jazz terminology is the fact that excellence is now referred to as "cool," not "hot," although the meaning of the newer term is close to that of the older one.

Jazz. General term for the 20thcentury development of Ameri- Jeanne d'Arc au Bûcher (zhan can popular music. Growing out DARK o bui-SHAY: Joan of

JENA SYMPHONY

147

Arc at the Stake). An oratorio by Honegger (libretto by Paul Claudel) produced in Basel, 1938. Although it is usually performed in concert form, i.e., without staging and costuming, it may be performed as an opera. Jena Symphony ( YAY-na ). A symphony which was discovered at Jena, Germany, in 1910. Although it was acclaimed as an early work of Beethoven, it has not been generally accepted as such. Jephtha. ( 1 ) Handel's last oratorio (English text by Thomas Morell), produced in London, 1752. — ( 2 ) Oratorio by Carissimi (Latin text from the Scriptures) composed about 1650. Jeu (zheu: F., plur. jeux, play). Jeu de timbre and jeu de clochettes mean glockenspiel. In organ music, jeux means stops, e.g., jeux de fonds, foundation stops; jeux à bouche, flue stops; jeux d'anche, reed stops. Jeu de Cartes, Le ( zheu de CART: The Card Game). Ballet "in Three Deals" by Stravinsky, produced in New York, 1937. The dancers represent the chief cards in a poker game which proceeds through three deals, each deal being successively more complex. Jeune France, La ( zheun frahnhs). A group of French composers, formed in 1936, consisting of Yves Baudrier (b. 1906), André Jolivet (b. 1905), Daniel-Lesur (b. 1908), and Olivier Messiaen (b. 1908). These men presented concerts of their (and other French) music,

JONGLEURS

and were unified in the common objective of "sincerity, generosity and artistic good faith." Jew's harp ( or trump ). A primitive instrument consisting of an elastic strip of metal fixed in a small horseshoe-shaped iron frame. The frame is held between the teeth (possibly "Jew" is a perversion of "jaw"), and the protruding strip is made to vibrate by a stroke of the finger. Different tones can be obtained by varying the cavity of the mouth. Jig. In the 16th century, an English popular dancing song of a lively and comic character. In the 17th century it was used by and associated with famous clowns in English comedies (Kemp's Jig, Slaggin's Jig). Another 17th-century development was the "gigue, one of the standard dances of the Baroque suite. According to a recent theory, the jig is also the ancestor of the grotesque dances of the early American minstrel shows, and thus eventually of jazz. Jig Fugue. See Gigue

Fugue.

Jive. A general term — no longer current in jazz terminology — used both as a noun and as a verb to describe improvised jazz which is usually played at a fast tempo. Jodel. See Yodel. Jongleurs (zhonh-GLEUR: F . ) . French 'minstrels ( professional musicians, entertainers ) of the 12th and 13th centuries, often in the service of the "troubadours and "trouvères whose

JOSHUA

148

JUST INTONATION

songs they sang and may have Just intonation. A theoretical system of tuning in which the accompanied on instruments. third as well as the fifth are Joshua. Oratorio by Handel (li- "pure," i.e., acoustically correct bretto by T. Morell), produced ( see Acoustics, 2 ), and in which all the other intervals are dein London, 1748. rived from these two, e.g., the Jota (KHO-ta: Sp.). A dance of second as a double fifth ( c-g, Aragon ( a province in north- g-d')> the sixth as a lower third, eastern Spain ) in rapid triple etc. The system has great thetime, performed by one or more oretical interest, but cannot be couples to music played on gui- used as a basis for practical mutars and castanets. One of the sic because of several serious most popular melodies has been disadvantages: ( a ) The tones of used by Liszt in his Spanish the C-major scale include one Rhapsody ( Folies d'Espagne et dissonant fifth, namely d-a. ( b ) Jota Aragonese) and by Glinka The C-major scale has two difin his orchestral overture, Jota ferent sizes of whole tones, c-d being slightly larger and d-e Aragonese. considerably smaller than the Jubel-Ouvertiire, Jubilee Over- whole tone in "equal temperature. An orchestral overture by ment. ( c ) Modulation is imposWeber, op. 59 ( 1 8 1 8 ) , com- sible; the first three tones of the posed (together with a Jubel- G-major scale (g-a-b) have difCantate) for the fiftieth anni- ferent intervals from those of the versary of the accession of Fred- C-major scale (c-d-e). Hence, erick August, King of Saxony. It two different tones a would be closes with the melody of ' God necessary, one for the' sixth of c, the other for the second of g. Save the King." Modern singers and violinists Jubilus. In Gregorian chant, the often refer to just intonation in long "melisma sung to the final order to justify their practice of using certain pitches slightly difvowel of the "Alleluia. ferent from those of equal temJudas Maccabaeus. Oratorio by perament, e.g., sharp thirds and Handel (libretto by T. Morell), leading tones, or, in "enharmonic pairs, a higher pitch for the produced in London, 1747. sharps (e.g., g#) than for the Jupiter Symphony. Nickname of flats ( e.g., ab ). Actually, none of Mozart's last symphony, in C these deviations has anything to major, no. 41 (K. 5 5 1 ) , com- do with just intonation, in which posed in 1788. The name would all the above-mentioned pitches seem to refer mainly to the "ma- differ from equal temperament in jestic" opening of the first move- exacdy the opposite direction ment. The last movement is in (e.g., g ì is lower than ab, and sonata form, but makes extended the third is lower than that of equal temperament). use of fugai writing.

149

KEY

Κ Κ. In connection with works of Mozart, abbreviation for Ludwig von Kochel who, in 1862, published a chronological list of all the compositions by Mozart, known as Kochel Catalogue (G., Kochel-Verzeichnis, Κ. V. ). Mozart's works are identified by the numbers of this Catalogue (recently revised by A. Einstein), e.g., K. 357 or Κ. V. 357.

hums, a membrane changing the timbre of the voice. Today it is usually made in the approximate shape and size of a cigar. Older specimens, known as onion flute or mirliton, were in the shape of a flute. Kb. Abbreviation for G. Kontrabass, i.e., double bass. Kesselpauke (G.). Kettledrum.

Kaffeekantate (G.). See Cantata.

Coffee

Kalevala (kahl-ay-VAHL-a). The national epic of the Finns, dating from the 13th and 14th centuries. Several symphonic poems by Sibelius (and other Finnish composers ) are based on legends from this epic, e.g., "Lemminkainen's Homecoming, *Pohjola's Daughter, *Swan of Tuonela, *Tapióla. Kammer (G.). Chamber, e.g., Kammermusik, chamber music. Karelia (kah-RAY-li-a). Orchestral Overture (op. 10) and Suite (op. 11) by Sibelius, composed in 1893. Karelia is the southern province of Finland where the composer lived at that time. Kastagnetten ( G. ). Castanets. Kazoo (ka-ZOO). A toy instrument into which the performer

Kettledrum. See under Drums (1). Key. ( 1 ) On pianos, organs, etc., the levers which are depressed by the fingers; collectively called keyboard. — ( 2 ) On wood-wind instruments, metal levers covering the finger holes which cannot conveniently be covered directly by the fingers. They greatly facilitate the playing of the instruments (see Boehm system ). — ( 3 ) In connection with tonality, key means something like "tonal center" or "main note" of a composition and, by extension, all of the notes related to this central note and forming the tonal material for the composition. To a certain extent, key is identical with scale. To each scale there is a corresponding key, e.g., C major, C minor, C-sharp major, C-sharp minor, etc., resulting in a complete system of 24 keys (or more, if enharmonic equivalents are added,

150

KEYBOARD

e.g., D-flat in addition to Cs h a r p ) . Actually, however, key has a considerably wider meaning than scale, admitting not only chromatic variants of t h e notes of the basic scale b u t also "modulation into other keys. In the case of compositions consisting of several movements, t h e key designation (e.g., Concerto in Ε-flat, Symphony in Β minor) means only that the first and last movements are in this key, some of the middle movements usually being in different keys. In the Baroque suite ( B a c h ) , however, all the movements are in the same key. See also Tonality; Key signature. Keyboard. T h e whole set of keys ( see Key, 1 ) as f o u n d in pianofortes, organs, and other keyboard instruments. Modern pianos have a keyboard of seven octaves, from Ci to c"", plus three keys below. In each octave there are seven white and five black keys, arranged as shown in Fig. 61.

Fig. 61 Keyboard instruments. Generic n a m e for instruments having a keyboard, e.g., the pianoforte, organ, harmonium, harpsichord, clavichord, etc. T h e term is used mainly with reference to early music ( 16th, 17th centuries ) in which there is often no clear distinction between music for the organ, the harpsichord, and t h e clavichord. Other instruments having a (small) keyboard are the "accordion and t h e "hurdygurdy.

KEY SIGNATURE

Keynote. Same as "tonic. Key relationship. Generic term to indicate the various degrees of relationship between two keys (see Key, 3 ) , particularly between t h e main key of a composition and others appearing b y w a y of modulation, or of change of key from one movement to the next. All keys are related, b u t in different degrees. Closest to a given key (e.g., C m a j o r ) are the keys of the dominant ( a fifth higher, G major ) and of t h e subdominant ( a fourth higher, F m a j o r ) . Other important relationships are: ( a ) parallel key, i.e., major and minor with t h e same tonic b u t with different signatures ( C major and C min o r ) ; ( b ) relative key, i.e., major and minor with the same key signature ( C major and A minor; C minor and Ε-flat m a j o r ) ; ( c ) closely related keys, i.e., those whose signatures differ by no more than one sharp or flat from that of the main key (for C m a jor: A minor, G major, E minor, F major, D m i n o r ) . Key signature. T h e sharps or flats appearing at the beginning of each staff, indicating the scale and the key of the composition. This indication, however, is not unequivocal, since there are always two keys, one major and one minor, having the same key signature (relative keys). For instance, a signature of three flats shows that the key is either E-flat major or C minor. The decision between these two possibilities has to be m a d e from the music itself, either its beginning or, most clearly, the bass note of t h e final chord. Following is a table showing all t h e key signatures.

151

KFG Sharps ! 2 3 4 5 6 7

Major Key C G D A E Β F-shaip C-sharp

Minor Key A E Β F-sharp C-sharp G-sharp [D-sharp] [A-sharp]

= = =

KING Flats

Major Key

Minor K;rns or trumpets). song involving extremely rapid declamation of syllables. Many Peasant Cantata. A secular canfamiliar examples, representing tata by Bach, written to a text the English counterpart of the by Picander in Saxonian dialect Italian "parlando, occur in the ( "Mer hahn en neue Oberkeet," operettas of Sullivan. We Have a New Magistrate) and performed in 1742 to celePauke (POW-ke: G.). Kettle- brate the installment of a new drum. For Haydn's Pauken- magistrate in a rural district of Saxony. The music includes sevmesse, see Drum Mass. eral popular tunes of that day. Pause. The sign also called "hold" or "fermata," which indi- Pedal. ( 1 ) In musical instrucates that the note ( or rest ) over ments, an action operated by the which it appears should be pro- feet. The pedal of the organ is longed. As a rule, a duration of a full keyboard on which the approximately (but not exactly) feet produce sounds; the pianodouble the normal value is ap- forte pedals serve to prolong or propriate. It should be noted to mute the sound; the harp

220

PEDALFLÜGEL

PELLÉAS

ments and have been used as such particularly by Bruckner and Tchaikovsky. Terms such as tonic pedal or dominant pedal refer to the scale degree of the sustained note. Inverted pedal and internal pedal denote sustained tones in the upper or in as a middle part.

pedals enable the player to alter the pitch of the strings; and those of the harpsichord are "stops (registers) operated by the feet. See under the various instruments.— ( 2 ) In composition, see Pedal point. Pedalflügel (G.). "pedal piano.

Same

Pedal tone. On wind instruments, the lowest tone, being the pitch produced by the entire length of the pipe. On many brass instruments this tone is difficult or impossible to obtain, Pedal note. Same as "pedal tone. so that the practical range starts with the first overtone, an octave Pedal piano. A pianoforte above the pedal tone. equipped with a full pedal keyboard, similar to that of the or- Peer Gynt Suite (payr gint). gan, so that bass notes can be Two orchestral suites by Grieg, played with the feet. The in- op. 46 and 55, arranged from strument, which had a passing his incidental music to Ibsen's success during the 19th century, play Peer Gynt. The first suite is known chiefly through Schu- consists of Morning Mood; The mann's Studien and Skizzen für Death of Aase; Anitra's Dance; den Pedalflügel. In the Hall of the Mountain King; the second, The AbducPedal point. A long-held note, tion of the Bride and Ingrid's normally in the bass, sounding Lament; Arabian Dance; Peer against changing harmonies, etc., Gynt's Homecoming; Solvejg's in the upper parts. Such notes Lament. create tension by sounding with chords that normally could not Peg. In violins, etc., the wooden be combined with it, for exam- pins set in the neck, which serve ple, a low C with a D-flat or to tighten or loosen the strings. B-flat triad (see Fig. 87). In orchestral music, pedal points Pelléas et Mélisande (pe-lay(often performed as a long roll AHS ay may-lee-ZAHND ). Opon the kettledrum) are an effec- era in five acts by Debussy, tive device for climactic mo- based on Maeterlinck's play of the same name, produced in Paris, 1902. The story, in a medieval setting, begins when Golaud (baritone) finds the beautiful Mélisande (soprano) in a forest, marries her, and brings her to the gloomy castle of his grandfather Arkel (bass). Fig. 87

Pedal harp. The modern 'harp, so called because it has pedals, in contrast to the chromatic harp or early types of harps.

PELLEAS

221

There she and Golaud's younger half brother, Pelléas ( tenor ), fall in love with each other. Golaud ignores what he believes to be a childlike sympathy but, upon discovering the truth, is enraged with jealousy and kills Pelléas. After bearing Golaud's child, the innocent Mélisande dies. Pelléas et Mélisande, being the most significant opera that impressionism produced, stands in a class by itself. The story is told not as a continuous plot with a closely knit action, but in a succession of scenes filled with mystic and symbolic significance. In opposition to the Wagnerian opera, Debussy wrote a score which deliberately avoids emotional stress, providing only a "tonal envelope" of pale colors. In this respect it comes closer than any other modern opera to realizing the ideal of the earliest Florentine operas, i.e., of music as an unobtrusive support and setting for the poetry. There also exists incidental music to Pelléas and Mélisande by Fauré ( 1 8 9 8 ) and Sibelius (1905). Pelleas und Melisande ( G . ) . A symphonic poem by Schönberg (completed in 1905), based on Maeterlinck's play. It is written in numerous sections in which the tragic love story is detailed. The music combines the Wagnerian principle of the leitmotiv with the orchestral technique and harmonic language of French impressionism, as represented in Debussy's opera on the same story. Penitential Psalms. Psalms 6, 32, 38, 51, 102, 130, and 143, so called because of the character

PERCUSSION

of their texts. Particularly famous is Lasso's musical setting of the whole group ( 1 5 6 5 ) . Pentatonic scale. A scale consisting of five different tones (Gr., penta, five) as distinguished from the familiar diatonic ( seven tones ) and chromatic ( twelve tones) scales. The most common one has an intervallic structure represented by the notes c d f g a ( c' ). The same scale ( in transposition) is formed by the black keys of the piano: c í d í f ï g ï a í ( c ï ' ) · Pentatonic scales occur in many early music cultures, in China, Africa, and Polynesia, as well as among the American Indians, the Celts, and the Scots. Percussion instruments. In the modern orchestra, all instruments whose sounding agent is a stretched membrane or some solid material, such as steel and wood (see under Instruments). They are usually defined as instruments played by being struck or shaken, but this definition is misleading, and has indeed led to the erroneous notion that the pianoforte is a percussion instrument because its strings are struck by hammers. On this basis it could also be argued that the violin, if played * c o l legno or "pizzicato, is a percussion instrument. Percussion instruments can be divided into two groups, according to whether or not the sound produced has a definite pitch. The instruments of definite pitch are the kettledrum, glockenspiel, xylophone, celesta, and chimes; those of indefinite pitch are the snare drum, tenor drum, bass drum, tambourine, triangle, cymbals, castanets, and gong (also

PERFECT

222

PETRUSHKA

the various types of 'rattles used tility reaches a climax when an occasionally in modern scores). orphan boy who assists Grimes dies, presumably from maltreatPerfect, imperfect. See under ment. The opera ends with Grimes setting out to sea alone Cadence; Intervals. in an open boat. Period. See under Phrase. Peter Ibbetson. Opera in three Perpetuum mobile (per-PET- acts by Deems Taylor (libretto yoo-um MO-bi-lee: L., continu- by the composer and C. Collier, ous motion ). Title for pieces after a novel of the same name proceeding from the beginning by George du Maurier), proto the end in the same rapid duced in New York, 1931. rhythmic motion, with few rests or slower notes. Petite flute ( F . ) . Piccolo. Persephone ( per-SEF-o-nee ). A melodrama in a series of tableaux by Stravinsky, commissioned by Mme. Ida Rubenstein for her ballet, based on a poem by André Gide, and composed in 1933 (in Paris) for orchestra, chorus, children's chorus, solo tenor, dancers, and narrator. Peter and the Wolf. An orchestral fairy tale for children, by Prokofiev (op. 67, completed in 1936), for a small orchestra and a narrator. The narrator tells the story of a boy's capturing a large and ferocious wolf with the aid of friendly animals. Each figure (cat, duck, Peter, etc.) is characterized by a specific instrument and melodic phrase, making the work an excellent introduction to the orchestra for young children.

Petrouchka. See

Petrushka.

Petrushka. Ballet by Stravinsky (choreography by M. Fokine), produced in Paris, 1911, by Diaghilev's Russian Ballet. The action takes place at a Russian fair (Popular Festivities at Mardi Gras; Dance of the Drunken Crowd; The OrganGrinder and a Ballerina), with a Magician showing three dolls — Petrushka, the Moor, and the Ballerina — who, brought to life by the showman, begin to dance. Petrushka, a lovable but clumsy peasant boy, falls in love with the Ballerina ( Scene II ), but the resplendent and fascinating Moor wins her (Scene I I I ) . Scene IV shows the evening of the fair, with a Nurses' Dance, a Bear Dance, a Merchant's Dance, a Coachmen's Dance, and a General Dance. This stops with the sudden appearance of Petrushka, pursued by the Moor, who kills him with a blow of his sword, whereupon they all become lifeless dolls again.

Peter Grimes. Opera by Britten (libretto by M. Slater, based on part of Crabbe's poem The Borough), produced in London, 1945. The hero of the opera is Peter Grimes, a morose and ecThe work, often heard in the centric fisherman, who is disliked form of an orchestral suite at and distrusted by all but a few concerts, is one of the landmarks of his fellow villagers. The hos- in the evolution of 20th-century

PEZZO

223

music. Among the many notable features are the percussive parallel chords in the opening scene, the clever caricature of a sentimental valse, and the bold use of bitonality, particularly in the "Petrushka chord" ( see under Bitonality). Pezzo (PED-zo: It.). Piece. Pf. Short for pianoforte. Phantasie (G.). Fantasy. Phantasiestück, fantasy piece; Phantasiebilder, fantasy pictures. Philharmonic pitch. See under Pitch.

PHONOGRAPHS

the disc make possible a period of about 20 minutes of uninterrupted performance as compared to a previous maximum of about 5 minutes. This advantage of the long-playing ( L P ) records, in addition to the greater convenience of storage and transportation, has made the older 78 RPM discs almost obsolete. Fortunately, many records made at 78 RPM have been transferred onto LP discs. Recent advances in recording technique (particularly with stereophonic sound and magnetic tape) and phonograph production have made possible a "high fidelity of sound which often equals and in some cases surpasses that of most "live" performances.

Philosopher, The. Nickname (unexplained) for Haydn's SymThe continually increasing phony no. 22, in Ε-flat, com- availability of recorded music is posed in 1764. one of the most significant aspects of musical life in the 20th Phoebus and Pan. See Streit century. The more familiar selections of the standard repertory zwischen Phöbus und Pan. are obtainable in a variety of Phonographs and records. The performances, but especially nophonograph (Gr., sound and table as a unique advantage of writer) traces its origin to recorded music is the accessiThomas A. Edison who, in 1877, bility of new works by contemproduced a recording made of porary composers and of works tin foil from which his own voice which for practical reasons are could be heard reciting "Mary seldom performed (e.g., operas had a little lamb." Numerous and compositions for large orimprovements have led to the chestras and choruses). Furtherphonograph of the present day, more, records have brought to by far the most nearly perfect life many less-familiar works of of all the "mechanical instru- the great composers, as well as ments. The most recent major a considerable amount of early innovation, comparable in its music formerly thought to be of revolutionary character to the "historic" interest only. Notable replacement of the old cylinder examples of the latter category by discs, is the changing of the are the series entitled Master1750 normal speed of the turntable pieces of Music before from 78 revolutions per minute (Haydn Society), Archive Pro( Deutsche Grammo(RPM), to 333i or 45 RPM. The duction slower speed combined with phon Gesellschaft ), and the Sonore. more grooves on the surface of Anthologie

PHONOLA

224

The most useful reference books in the field are: Clough and Cuming, The World's Encyclopedia of Recorded Music (London, 1952); Hall, The Record Book (New York, 1950), and The Gramophone Shop Encyclopaedia of Recorded Music (New York, 1948, with Supplements). Current releases of LP records are listed in the monthly Schwann Long Playing Record Catalog. In addition to periodicals devoted primarily to recorded music ( American Record Guide, The New Records, High Fidelity) and professional musical journals (e.g., Notes, published by the Music Library Association, Washington, D.C. ), several general periodical publications (e.g., Saturday Review) give evidence of the widespread popularity of recorded music by devoting space regularly to critical evaluation of new releases. Phonola. See under instruments.

Mechanical

Phrase. A division or section of a musical line, somewhat comparable to a clause or a sentence in language. Other terms used for such divisions are period, half phrase, double phrase, etc. There is no consistency in applying these terms, nor can there be, in view of the infinite variety of situations and conditions found in compositions. Only with melodies of a very simple type, especially those of some dances, can the terms be used with a certain degree of consistency, e.g., half phrase for a unit of two measures, phrase for one of four, double phrase or period for a unit of eight measures, double period for one of sixteen.

PIANO

Phrasing. In musical performance, the proper separation of the various divisions of the musical line, not only of its •phrases, etc., but often of its smaller units such as motives or other groups of notes that "belong together." Phrasing is achieved by slightly shortening and softening the last note of the group, and is usually indicated by a slur extending over the group. In a larger sense, phrasing is also understood to include other details of the performance, such as observance of staccato or nonlegato, the various types of bowing on stringed instruments, and the control of breath in singing and in the playing of wind instruments. Phrygian. See under modes; Greek music.

Church

Phrygian cadence ( FRIJ-i-an ). Name for cadences proper to the Phrygian mode (mode on E ) , characterized by the progression f-e (rather than f}-e, as in E minor). They give the impression of half cadences, and in this meaning they occur frequently in Baroque sonatas ( Corelli, Handel), as a transition from one movement to the next. See Fig. 88.

Fig. 88 Pianino. A small upright piano. Piano (It.). Soft; pianissimo, very soft. Also, word commonly used for "pianoforte.

PIANO CONCERTO

225

PIANOLA

Piano concerto. A concerto fea- lie above the strings and, by turing a pianoforte as the solo means of stiff wires, move toinstrument (see under Con- gether with the key, making the string free for vibration when certo ). the hammer strikes, and checkPiano duet. A composition for ing (damping) the vibration the two pianoforte players, playing moment the key is released. either on one or two instruments. Without the dampers the strings The repertory for duets on one would continue to sound for a instrument, which includes outconsiderable time, thus leading standing masterworks by Mozart to a blurred noise. For special and Schubert, has been overpurposes, however, this conshadowed by the recent interest tinued sounding is desirable and in playing on two pianos. can be effected by the so-called pedal (right pedal) Pianoforte (It., soft-loud). The damper pianoforte (most often called which raises all the dampers, alsimply "piano") may be briefly lowing the strings to vibrate at described as a stringed instru- will. It is therefore, properly ment with a separate string (or speaking, a "nondamper pedal." (left pedal) sets of two or three strings tuned The soft pedal in unison ) for each tone, the causes the entire keyboard and strings being struck by hammers action to shift a little to the which are put in motion from right, so that the hammers strike keys (keyboard) by means of a only two (or one) of the three complicated lever mechanism (or two) strings tuned in unison called action. Its name refers to for a given tone (see Mute; Una Large modern instruthe fact that it is possible to play corda). louder or softer by striking the ments usually have a third pedal, ( or sustaining ) keys more or less vigorously, an the sostenuto effect impossible on the harpsi- pedal (middle pedal), which is chord which it superseded dur- a modification of the damper ing the latter part of the 18th pedal. It raises the dampers only century. The earliest pianofortes for the key or keys which are were built about 1709 by Bar- depressed when the pedal is put tolommeo Cristofori (1655-1731) into action. It can be used to of Florence, but it was not un- sustain a low bass note ( "pedal til about 1770 that they came point), leaving both hands free into general use. J. S. Bach for playing in the higher regisprobably saw his first such in- ters. strument late in life ( 1747 ) Pianofortes are built in two when he visited the Prussian basic shapes, the wing-shaped king, Frederick the Great. Mo"grand piano and the box-shaped zart, on the other hand, comupright piano. Grand pianos exist posed all of his mature clavier in various sizes from the Concert works for the pianoforte. Grand (about nine feet long) to In addition to the above-de- the Baby Grand ( about five scribed parts, the pianoforte has feet). See also Spinet. dampers, i.e., small rectangular pieces of wood whose underside Pianola. See under Mechanical is covered with felt. The dampers instruments.

PIATTI

226

Piatti (It., plates). 'Cymbals. Picardy third. A major third, if used in the final chord of a composition that has been in a minor key; for example, an Ε-major triad at the end of a composition written completely in E minor. Many examples of this device, suggestive of "light after darkness," occur in the compositions of Bach, e.g., in nearly all the minor-key fugues in the Well-tempered Clavier. The origin of the name is unknown. Piccolo. See under Flute. Pictures at an Exhibition. A collection of descriptive piano pieces by Moussorgsky composed in 1874, each piece illustrating a picture by the Russian painter Victor A. Hartmann (d. 1873) shown at a memorial exhibition of his paintings in 1874. The highly "picturesque" pieces are preceded and connected by a recurring "promenade" theme suggesting the walk from one picture to the next. The work is often heard in an orchestral version by Ravel. Pieno (PEEAY-no: It.). Full. Organo pieno, full organ; a voce piena, with full voice. Pierrot lunaire (peeay-RO luiNAYR: Pierrot in the Moonlight ). A cycle of twenty-one short pieces, for a "singing narrator" ("speech song) and chamber orchestra (flute, violin, clarinet, cello, piano, etc. ) by Schönberg, op. 21 ( 1912), based on poems by A. Giraud in the German translation of O. E. Hartleben. The poems, highly

PISTON

decadent and macabre (one of them describes Pierrot contentedly smoking his tobacco out of a human skull), are composed in a novel melodramatic style, accompanied sometimes by the full group of instruments, sometimes by only one or two. Pinafore (full title: H. M. S. Pinafore). Operetta by Sullivan (libretto by W. S. Gilbert), produced in London, 1878. It was the first in the series of highly successful works by Gilbert and Sullivan. Pines of Rome (It., Pini di Roma ). Symphonie poem by Respighi (1924), showing four musical "landscapes" near Rome, the Villa Borghese, a Catacomb, the Janiculum ( a hill named after the god Janus), and the Appian Way (famous road built by the ancient Romans). In the third picture a phonograph recording of the song of an actual nightingale is introduced. Pipe and tabor. A combination of two instruments played by one man, used as a dance accompaniment as early as the 13th century and to the present day in Spain (see Sardana; Farandole; Moresca). The pipe, a small recorder, is held in the right hand, while the left hand beats the tabor, a small drum suspended from the player's shoulder or waist. Pirates of Penzance, The. Operetta by Sullivan (libretto by W. S. Gilbert), produced in London and New York, 1879. Piston. ( 1 ) On brass instruments, same as "valve. Cor à

227

PITCH

pistons and cornet à pistons ( F. ) are the modern French horn and cornet, both of which have valves. The French term piston is sometimes used as a colloquial name for the cornet. — ( 2 ) On organs, a small button or toe stud by which the "registration may be changed by a slight motion of a finger or toe. Pitch. A term referring to the high-low quality of a musical sound (see under Tone). The pitch is determined by the frequency of the tone, i.e., the number of vibrations per second (see under Acoustics, 1). In a special sense, pitch means standard pitch or the pitch nationally accepted as standard in order to assume identical tuning for instruments everywhere. Great Britain and most European nations have recently adopted the United States standard which assigns 440 vibrations per second to a' (the A above middle C ). Formerly, the standard pitch varied greatly at different times and localities. Generally speaking, it has constantly been rising since the time of Bach, so that some compositions originally sounded at least a half tone lower than they do today. For instance, Beethoven's Fifth Symphony, in C minor, originally was heard at the present-day Bminor pitch level. See also Absolute pitch.

PK

(pitches). The tones within an octave are called c, d, e, f, g, a, b, with c-sharp, d-flat, etc., for the chromatic alterations. The various octaves, each beginning on a c, are usually (always in the present book) indicated as shown in Fig. 89. The French (Italians) use the Guidonian syllables: ut (do), ré (re), mi, fa, sol, la, si, with dièse (diesis) for sharp, and bémol (bemolle) for flat. Hence, c-sharp is ut dièse in French, do diesis in Italian. The German names for the white keys are the same as the English, except for the tone b, which is called h ( pronounced hah). The sharp tones are called: cis, dis, eis, fis, gis, ais, his (bsharp); the flat ones: ces, des, es (e-flat), fes, ges, as (a-flat), b (b-flat). Più (peeoo: It.). More, e.g., più allegro, faster. Piuttosto ( peeoo-TOS-to : It. ). Rather, somewhat. Pizzicato (pit-see-KAH-to: It.). An indication (often abbr. pizz.) that the strings of a violin, etc., are to be plucked with the fingers instead of being bowed. Usually the plucking is done with the right hand, but occasionally, in virtuoso performance, the left hand is used, in quick alternation with bowed notes.

Pitch names. The designations Pk. In German orchestral scores, used to indicate the various tones short for Pauke (kettledrum).

s 1

Contra

C,.

Great

C

Small

One-line

Fig. 89

Two-line Three-line

Four-line

PLAGAL

228

POLKA

Plaga! (from Gr. plagios, slanting, i.e., collateral, subsidiary). See under Cadence; Church modes.

Poème (po-EM: F., poem). Title used by several composers for compositions of a lyric, poetic nature. The best known is a piece for violin and orchestra, op. Plainsong (also plainchant). 25, by Chausson, composed in Common designation for "Gre- 1896. gorian chant. Derived from L. cantus planus, the term carries Poem of Ecstasy. Symphonic the connotation of liturgical music without accompaniment poem, op. 54, by Scriabin, com( monophonie ) and without posed in 1907-08. The understrict meter. It can also be ap- lying programmatic idea is the plied, in a descriptive sense, to ecstasy of freedom and action. similar repertories such as Ambrosian chant, Hindu chant, all Pohjola's Daughter (PAW-hewlah). Symphonic poem by Sibeof which are "in plainsong." lius, op. 49 (1906), based on a Planets, The. A programmatic story from the "Kalevala, in suite for orchestra, organ, and which the old magician Vainafemale chorus, by Hoist (1916), moinen, traveling homeward, endescribing in successive move- counters the daughter of Pohjola ments the astrological characters (i.e., the North Country) seated on a rainbow. H e tries to win her of the seven planets. by performing magic feats, but Player-Piano. See under Me- he does not succeed and resumes his journey. chanical instruments. Plectrum. A small piece of hard, elastic material ( horn, quill, metal, plastic, etc. ) used to pluck the strings of certain instruments, e.g., the mandolin and the zither. Today it is often attached to a ring placed on the thumb. See also under Harpsichord.

Poi (PAW-ee: It.). Then, afterwards; e.g., Scherzo D. C. e poi la coda: repeat the scherzo and then [play the] coda.

Point of imitation. In imitative counterpoint, a section including at least one statement of the Plein jeu (planh zheu: F . ) . Full theme in each voice part. The term is useful mainly in connecorgan. tion with 16th-century "motets, which usually include and somePleno ( It. ). Same as "pieno. times consist entirely of points Pochette (po-SHET: from F. of imitation each based on a poche, pocket). A pocket violin different subject. (see Kit). Polacca (po-LAHK-ka: It.). Poco (It.). LitÜe, e.g., un poco "Polonaise. Alla polacca, in the adagio, somewhat slow. Poco a style and rhythm of a polonaise. poco, little by little, or gradually. Diminutive forms are pochette, Polka. A Bohemian (not Polish) pochettino, pochissimo ( very dance in quick duple meter, with rhythmic patterns such as little).

229

POLO

ι jnπΐ\η Fig.

90

Fig.

91

POLYPHONIC

and chivalry. Particularly famous is his "Military Polonaise.

shown in Fig. 90. It originated Polovtzian Dances. See under about 1830, and was extremely Prince Igor. popular until the end of the Polychoral (from Gr. polys, century. many). Descriptive term for compositions employing several Polo. A 19th-century Spanish (usually two or three) distinct (Andalusian) dance in moderate groups of singers and/or instru3 / 8 meter, often in syncopated mentalists producing effects of rhythms, and with rapid "coloraalternation, answering, or echoturas sung to exclamations such ing. This technique, also termed as "Ay" or "Olé." The music as antiphonal, was developed in well as the dance movements, the "Venetian School of the being movements of the body late 16th century under Andrea rather than of the feet, show Gabrieli and, especially, his Oriental influence. nephew Giovanni Gabrieli ( 1 5 5 7 - 1 6 1 2 ) . In the performPolonaise (pol-o-NAYZ). A ance of these magnificent works Polish dance of a stately char- at St. Mark's Cathedral in acter in moderate 3 / 4 meter, Venice, the effect was heightened with rhythmic patterns such as by placing the various groups in shown in Fig. 91, and with different parts of the church, a practice which is sometimes preserved in modern performances. ι m r m \ ~ \ m ) i · , · 'feminine cadences, the last note of a phrase being delayed to fall on the second or the third beat of the measure. It is not a folk dance, but originated in the 17th century at the Polish court as an accompaniment for festive processions. The earliest known examples occur in works by Bach (Brandenburg Concerto no. 1, French Suite no. 6 ) and Handel ( Concerto Grosso no. 3 ). Later, polonaises were written by W. F. Bach, Mozart (Piano Sonata in D, K. 2 8 4 ) , Beethoven (op. 8 9 ) , Schubert (for four hands), and Weber, but it remained for Chopin to imbue this dance with the full life and spirit of its native country and to make it a symbol of national heroism

Polymeter. The simultaneous sounding of two or more different meters, e.g., 2 / 4 in one part, 3 / 4 in another. See Polyrhythm. Polyphonic, polyphony (pol-iFON-ik, po-LIF-o-nee: Gr., many-voiced ). One of the three basic musical textures (see Monophonie; Homophonie). Music is said to be polyphonic if it is composed of two or more voice parts, each having individual melodic significance. Hence, polyphony is practically synonymous with "counterpoint. In current usage, counterpoint carries the connotation of musical instruction ( counterpoint versus harmony), especially in its application to the styles of Pale-

POLYRHYTHM

230

strina, Bach, etc., while polyphony is used in a more general sense in reference to musical texture and its historical evolution. The earliest extant polyphonic music dates from the 9th century; polyphony was the prevailing texture from that time until the end of the 16th century. See History of music.

PORTATIVE

applied (incorrectly) to "bitonal music. While bitonality occurs frequently in 20th-century music, real polytonality is rare.

Pomp and Circumstance. Five concert marches for orchestra by Elgar, op. 39 (nos. 1 to 4 composed in 1901-07, no. 5 in 1930). The title is taken from Shakespeare's Othello, Ill.iii. Polyrhythm. The simultaneous 354: "Pride, pomp and circumuse of conflicting rhythms and stance of glorious war." accents, often as a result of combining different meters (see Ponticello (pon-ti-CHEL-lo: It., Polymeter). Simpler types, such little bridge). The bridge of the as the use of 6/8 against 3/4, violin, viola, etc. See Sul are usually called "cross rhythm, ponticello. while the term polyrhythm is used for the bold rhythmic Porgy and Bess. A three-act folk opera by George Gershwin (libretto by his brother, Ira, adapted from DuBose Heyward's play, Porgy), produced in New York, 1935. The music features the styles of the blues, jazz, and Negro spirituals.

Fig. 92

Portamento ( por-ta-MEN-to : It., carrying). A special manner of singing, with the voice gliding gradually from one tone to the next. The same effect is possible on the violin and trombone, where it is somewhat incorrectly called "glissando. The term is also used for an "appoggiatura performed in the same manner, i.e., gliding toward a note from its upper or lower neighbor note. See also under Portato.

clashes often encountered in 20th-century music ( see Fig. 92, from Hindemith's Klaviermusik, op. 37). Strongly syncopated passages, such as occur in jazz, also produce a polyrhythmic Portative ( POR-ta-tiv ). A small effect. portable organ of the Middle Polythematic. See under Mono- Ages, held in the left arm of the player, and played with the thematic. right hand only, while the left Polytonality. The simultaneous hand supplied the wind by sounding of several tonalities or means of a small bellows. This "keys. The term is frequently was a melody instrument, used

231

PORTATO

to play one of the parts of a polyphonic composition. It was particularly popular during the 14th century in Italy where it was called organetto. Portato (por-TAH-to: It., carried). A manner of performance halfway between legato and staccato (see under Legato). The use of the term *portamento for this is misleading and should be avoided. Port de voix, portez la voix ( por de VWAH, por-tay la VWAH: F. ). *Portamento. Portuguese Hymn. See fideîis.

Adeste

Pos. Abbreviation for ( 1 ) Position (in violin playing); ( 2 ) positif ( in French organ music ) ; and ( 3 ) Posaune ( in German orchestral scores ). Posaune ( po-ZO W-ne : Trombone.

G. ).

Position. ( 1 ) In connection with chords, the term refers to the various possibilities of placing the notes of a chord in different octaves, thus changing the spaces between them. When the three upper notes of a chord are as close together as possible, the position is said to be close (close harmony, close spacing; see Fig. 93a, b ) . Sometimes this term is reserved for positions not exceeding a twelfth between

Fig.

93

POTPOURRI

the bass and the soprano ( 93c, d ). The other arrangements frequent in vocal music, are called open position (93e, f). For another meaning in reference to chords, see Inversion. — ( 2 ) On the violin, etc., the various places to which the left hand is shifted in order to obtain higher or lower tones. The first position is the normal one, giving, on the G-string, the tones a, b, c', d' (in addition to the open string, g ) . The second position gives b, c', d', e', etc. The term is also used for the sliding mechanism of the trombone, the home position being called the first. Positive ( F . , positif; G. Positiv). In the Middle Ages, name for a small organ which several men could move from one place to another, in contrast to the large organs which were built into churches. A famous illustration, showing an angel playing on a positive, is found on van Eyck's Altar of Ghent (c. 1420). Later the term was used for the "Choir Organ division of large organs. Post horn. A valveless brass instrument similar to the military bugle or a small horn, formerly used by postilions to announce the arrival and departure of their coaches. Like the bugle, it could produce only the natural tones. Postlude. An organ piece played at the conclusion of a church service while the congregation is leaving. Sometimes the term is used in the meaning of coda. Potpourri (po-poo-REE: F., literally, rotten pot). A medley of popular tunes, operatic airs,

POULE

232

patriotic songs, etc., loosely strung together with brief connecting phrases and presented as a popular entertainment. Poule, La (la pool: The Hen). Nickname of Haydn's Symphony no. 83, in G minor ( 1 7 8 6 ) , no. 2 of the 'Paris Symphonies. The name seems to refer to the second theme of the first movement, which vaguely suggests the cackling of a hen. Pp. Pianissimo, very soft. Sometimes ppp or pppp is used to indicate extreme softness.

PRESTO

Chopin's example was followed by Scriabin (op. 11), Debussy, and Shostakovitch. In Debussy's collection ( two sets of twelve each, composed 1 9 1 0 - 1 3 ) each piece has a programmatic title given at the end. The term prelude is also used for operatic overtures, especially those that do not follow a strict form, which derive their material from the opera to follow and which lead directly into the first scene, as in Verdi's Traviata and Aida or in Wagner's Lohengrin and Tristan.

Prélude à l'après-midi d'un P. R. In French organ music, faune. See Afternoon of a Faun. abbreviation for Positif-Récit, i.e., Choir Organ and Swell Préludes, Les (lay pray-LUID). Symphonic poem by Liszt ( comOrgan coupled. posed in 1 8 4 8 - 5 0 ) , based on a poem of the same title by Praeludium (pray-LOO-deeLamartine. oom). See Prelude. Preparation. A term used in harmonic analysis to indicate that a dissonant note is properly introduced ("prepared") according to certain rules. A dissonance is fully prepared if the dissonant note, or its lower or upper neighbor note, appeared in the preceding chord as a conPréambule (pray-anh-BUIL: sonance. F . ) . See Prelude. Prepared piano. A pianoforte the Prelude. A piece of music de- sound of which is artificially signed to be played as an intro- altered by various devices, e.g., duction, e.g., before the singing metal clips or metal bolts atof a church hymn ( 'chorale tached to the strings; strips of prelude) or before another com- paper, rubber, felt, etc., inserted position, particularly a "fugue across the strings; altered tun(prelude and fugue; see Well- ing of the two or three unison tempered Clavier) or a 'suite. strings that are struck by a This connotation was lost in the hammer, etc. 19th century when Chopin used the word as a fanciful title for Presto ( I t . ) . Very fast; prestisa collection of twenty-four short simo, as fast as possible. See Romantic 'character pieces. under Tempo marks.

Prague Symphony. Mozart's Symphony in D (K. 504), composed in 1786 in Vienna and first performed ( 1787) in Prague where it was enthusiastically received. It has no minuet. See under Symphony.

PRICK SONG

233

Prick song (Old English, to prick, to write in by means of notes). Old term (16th century) for written or printed music, i.e., composed music as distinct from music handed down orally (folk song) or improvised. Prima donna (PREE-ma DONna: It., first lady). The singer of the principal female role in 18th-century opera. In the 19th century the term also gained the meaning of a conceited and capricious operatic star.

PROGRAM MUSIC

12th century when the ruler Prince Igor (baritone) finds it necessary to go to war against the barbaric Polovtzy tribes. While away, he leaves his wife Yaroslavna (soprano) under the protection of her brother, the crafty Prince Galitsky (bass), who plots to usurp Igor's authority. After a period of captivity during which his son Vladimir (tenor) falls in love with the Polovtzian princess Kontchakovna (mezzo-soprano), Igor escapes and returns to Poutivl amid general rejoicing.

Prima vista (PREE-ma V E E S Best known are the Polovtzian ta: It.). First sight, performance Dances, which are often heard in "sight reading, without prep- in concerts, and the selections adapted for the Broadway musiaration. cal, Kismet. Prima volta, seconda volta (PREE-ma VOL-ta, se-CON-da Prix de Rome ( P R E E de rom: VOL-ta: It., first time, second F., Prize of Rome). A famous time). The two different endings prize awarded annually by the des Beaux-Arts of frequently found at the close of Académie a repeated section (e.g., the Paris to composers (as well as exposition in "sonata form), in- to other artists) on the basis of dicated 1. and 2. . The first a competition. It entitles the ending leads back to the be- winner to a four-year stay at the ginning, the second leads on to Villa Medici in Rome. Among another section or to the con- the successful competitors were Halévy ( 1 8 1 9 ) , Berlioz ( 1 8 3 0 ) , clusion. Bizet ( 1 8 5 7 ) , Debussy ( 1 8 8 4 ) , Primo, secondo (PREE-mo, se- Charpentier ( 1 8 8 7 ) , and Florent CON-do: It., first, second). Schmitt ( 1 9 0 0 ) .

Terms used to indicate the upper and lower parts of a piano Prodaná Nevëstâ. See Bartered duet, or the first and second Bride. violin, flute, etc., in orchestral Prodigal Son, The. See Enfant scores (Violino primo, etc.) prodigue. Prince Igor. Opera by Borodin (to his own libretto), composed between 1871 and the year of his death, 1887, completed by Rimski-Korsakov and Glazunov, produced in St. Petersburg, 1890. The setting is in the Russian town of Poutivl during the

Program chanson. Chanson ( 2 ) .

See

under

Program music. Music inspired by and suggestive of an extramusical idea which is usually indicated in the title and sometimes further explained in a

PROGRAM

MUSIC

234

preface or additional remarks. The program idea may be taken from literature ( Liszt, Faust Symphony), from history (Tchaikovsky, 1812 Overture), from geography ( Smetana, The Moldau, Sibelius, Finlandia), from the composer's own imagination (Berlioz, Fantastic Symphony), from visual impressions ( Debussy, Reflections in the Water), etc. Although compositions of a descriptive character can be found as early as the 14th century, it was not until the 19th century that program music appeared as a serious rival of absolute music, particularly in its orchestral form, the "symphonic poem ( tone poem ). Early in the 20th century, however, composers generally turned away from program music and from the symphonic poem in particular. This was one of the manifestations of the "neoclassical aesthetic. There is a certain weakness inherent in the underlying principle of program music. Music is basically an art in its own right, and too great a reliance on extraneous associations is likely to weaken rather than to enhance the artistic value of a composition. The great vogue which program music enjoyed during the 19th century led to a deplorable misunderstanding of the fundamental nature and purpose of music, resulting in the tendency to interpret all the great compositions in terms of a "story." Hundreds of such stories and "interpretations" have been contrived in the mistaken belief that they would help to facilitate an understanding of such works. In the final analysis, there are

PROMETHEUS

two kinds of program music: that which is good music regardless of the program, and that which is poor music although it may have an interesting program. Unfortunately, the majority of program pieces belong to the latter category. Program notes. Short historical and/or descriptive notes found in concert programs or record folders, written to enhance the listener's understanding and enjoyment of the music to be performed. Program symphony. A composition written in the general form of a symphony ( in several movements), and based on a programmatic idea ( see Program music ). Examples are Beethoven's °Pastoral Symphony, Berlioz' *Fantastic Symphony, Liszt's "Faust Symphony, and Strauss's °Alpine Symphony. Each movement of these has a separate title, representing one aspect of the general program. See under Symphonic poem. Prologue. In early operas, an introductory scene containing a brief statement about the work, or an address to a noble patron present at the first performance. This practice, largely abandoned after 1700, was revived in Leoncavallo's "Pagliacci (1892). Prometheus. A legendary Greek hero who created man and brought fire from the sun to the earth in defiance of the gods. The legend is the basis of: ( 1 ) A ballet by Beethoven; see Creatures of Prometheus. — ( 2 ) A symphonic poem by Scriabin, Prometheus, Poem of Fire (op.

PROPER

235

60, 1910), written for large orchestra, piano, organ, choruses, and color organ (see Color music). The first (and only?) performance with the color organ took place in New York, in 1915. The music is based on the socalled mystic (or Promethean) chord (see under Fourth chord). Proper. See under Mass. Prosa ( L . ) , prose ( F . ) . Medieval name, preferred in France, for the liturgical sequence (see Sequence, 2). Prussian Quartets. ( 1 ) A set of three string quartets (also called "King of Prussia Quartets") by Mozart, in D, B-flat, and F (Κ. 575, 589, 5 9 0 ) , composed in 1789-90 and dedicated to Frederick William III, king of Prussia, who in 1789 had invited him to Berlin. The cello parts are unusually elaborate, obviously intended to please the king, who played this instrument. — ( 2 ) The name is also applied, for uncertain reasons, to Haydn's string quartets op. 50, nos. 1 - 6 (1786-87). Ps. Abbreviation for Psalm, or for G. Posaune. Psalms. The Book of Psalms ( 1 5 0 in number) has been the most productive single source of texts for musical compositions. More than three fourths of the chants of the Roman Catholic Church ("Gregorian chant) are Psalms or contain single verses of Psalms (see Verse). The Psalms are equally important in the services of most of the various Protestant churches (the music of the Lutheran Church is

PULCINELLA

based on the "chorale or hymn). There also exist numerous elaborate compositions of Psalms, by Binchois, Josquin, Gombert, Palestrina, Lassus ( see Penitential psalms), Marcello, Schubert, Mendelssohn, Liszt, Stravinsky, and many others. Psalm tones. In the Roman Catholic Church, recitation melodies used for the singing of complete Psalms at the various Office Hours, especially Vespers. There are eight such tones, one for each of the eight church modes. Each psalm tone consists of Intonation—Tenor-Mediation-Tenor-Termination, the tenor being the reciting note, while the other members are connecting formulas of three or more notes. Psalter. The Book of Psalms translated into the vernacular (English, French, Dutch Psalter), frequently in rhymed versions (metrical psalter), and provided with music for congregational singing. Particularly important are the French Psalter by Marot and Bèze of 1562 (music, in four parts, by Bourgeois, Goudimel, Jannequin, and Sweelinck), and the English Psalter of Sternhold and Hopkins ( 1 5 6 2 ) . The early American settlers used the Ainsworih Psalter ( 1 6 1 2 ) , which was replaced by the Bay Psalm Book, published in 1640 in Cambridge, Mass. Psaltery. A medieval stringed instrument similar to the "dulcimer, but with the strings plucked instead of struck by hammers. Pulcinella (pul-chee-NEL-lah). Ballet by Stravinsky, produced

PUNTA D'ARCO

236

in Paris, 1920. T h e music is a modern setting of numerous passages from anonymous works formerly thought to b e by the 18thcentury composer, Pergolesi. Many of the melodies are maintained intact, while the accompaniment is cleverly altered into a sophisticated 20th-century idiom that is often "pandiatonic. See Neoclassical. Punta d'arco ( P O O N - t a h DARco: I t . ) . Point of the bow (of the violin, etc.). Purfling. T h e inlaid border of violins, etc., consisting of three small slips of wood. Aside from

QUARTER TONE

its ornamental value it serves to prevent chipping of the edges. Pythagorean scale. A scale, possibly devised by Pythagoras (c. 550 B.C.), in which all the tones are derived from t h e interval of the fifth, 3 / 2 (see Acoustics, 2 ) . Thus, t h e third (e, if being derived from c) is obtained as t h e fourth successive fifth (c-g-d'a'-e"), 3/2 χ 3 / 2 X 3/2 χ 3 / 2 = 8 1 / 1 6 (reduced two octaves downward, from e" to e, 8 1 / 6 4 ) . This third is slightly higher ( 8 ' c e n t s ) than that of equal temperament, and considerably higher ( 2 2 cents, almost a quarter tone) than that of just intonation.

Q Quadrille. A French dance of the early 19 th century, performed by two or four couples moving in a square. It consisted of five figures for which t h e music, alternately in 6 / 8 and 2 / 4 meter, was chosen from popular tunes or operatic airs.

Quartal harmony. Designation for a harmonic idiom based upon the interval of the fourth, as opposed to the traditional system based on the third (see Tertian harmony). Thus in quartal harmony, the "fourth chord (for example, c-f-bb) takes the place of the triad (for example, c-e-g) Quadruple counterpoint. See un- as the basic sonority. der Invertible counterpoint. Quarter note. See under Notes Quadruple fugue. See under and rests. Double fugue. Quarter tone. An interval equal Quadruplets. A group of four to one half of a half tone (one notes to be played in t h e time quarter of a whole tone; see Such intervals were of three, e.g., 4 eighth notes re- Microtone). placing 3 eighth notes in 6 / 8 used in ancient Greek music (enharmonic tetrachord, see unmeter.

237

QUARTET

der Greek music), and are also found in Arabian and Hindu music, but only at certain points of the scale, e.g., between b and c'. During the 20th century, several composers (e.g., Hába, Barth, Carrillo) have written quarter-tone music based on a complete scale of 24 notes to the octave. Fig. 94 shows the usual

ν

Quaver. See under Notes rests. Queen, The. See

and

Reine.

Quick step. In military parlance, a march in quick steps, about 108 per minute. Also the music for such a march. Quinten Quartet (G., Quinten, fifths ). Nickname of Haydn's String Quartet op. 76, no. 2, in D minor, so called because of the prominent use of the descending fifth throughout the first movement.

-^«U Fig.

QUODLIBET

94

notation and the beginning of Hába's String Quartet, op. 9. Only a few instruments, mainly strings and the trombone (also the singing voice), can be used for quarter-tone music. Special quarter-tone pianos have been built, usually with two keyboards, the second keyboard tuned a quarter tone higher than the first.

Quintet. A composition for five instruments or voices. See under Chamber music. Quintole. Same as 'Quintuplet.

Quintuple meter. Music with five beats to the measure, usually 5/4. Well-known examples occur in Chopin's Piano Sonata op. 4 ( slow movement ), Tchaikovsky's Quartet. A composition for four "Pathétique Symphony (second instruments or voices; also the movement, see Fig. 9 5 ) , Wagfour performers assembled to play or sing such compositions (Budapest Quartet; barbershop quartet). By far the most important type is the "string quartet. See also under Chamber music. Fig. 95 Quasi ( I t . ) . As if, almost; e.g., ner's Tristan ( Act III, scene allegro quasi presto, allegro, al- ii), and in numerous 20th-cenmost presto. Quasi niente, as if tury compositions. nothing, i.e., ppp. Quattro ( I t . ) . Four. Quattro Quintuplet. A group of five notes mani, four hands; quattro voci, played in the place of four or (occasionally) three notes. four voices. Quatuor Quartet.

(KAH-tui-or:

F . ) . Quodlibet (L., as it pleases). A composition in which well-

238

R

known tunes or folk melodies are presented in a polyphonic setting so that different melodies sound simultaneously or in close succession. Quodlibets containing a great number of fragments of folk tunes were quite frequent about 1500 and later. The best known example is the final number of Bach's "Goldberg Variations, in which two folk songs, "Ich bin so lang nicht bei dir g'west" (Long have I been away from thee ) and "Kraut und Rüben haben mich vertrieben" (Cabbage and tur-

RADIO BROADCASTING

nips have driven me away), are artfully combined (see Fig. 9 6 ) . More recent examples are found ( a ) Ich bin

so lang nichtbei dir g ' w e s t

Fig. 96 in Brahms' "Academic Festival Overture and in Hindemith's Der *Schwanendreher.

R music, ranged especially for broadcasting, and ( 3 ) broadcasts of recorded music. Of the programs broadcast incidental to regular Radical bass. See Root bass. performances, the two annual Radio broadcasting (of serious series that have endured longest music). Although radio broad- and are the most popular are the casting as a regular public service Sunday afternoon subscription in the United States was in- concerts (changed in the 1958augurated in November 1920, it 59 season to Saturday evening) was not until the establishment of the Philharmonic Society of of large networks (e.g., National New York (since 1930) and the Broadcasting Company, 192Θ; Saturday afternoon performances Columbia Broadcasting System, of the Metropolitan Opera ( since 1927) that broadcasts of serious 1931). About eighty different music became available to the operas have been heard during general public. Since that time, the past thirty years. radio broadcasting of serious In the category of music permusic has flourished in three formed especially for radio general categories : ( 1 ) per- listeners, all of the networks formances by existing musical have made significant contribuorganizations, which are in- tions. This was particularly true cidentally relayed to radio in the 1930s and 1940s. For exlisteners, ( 2 ) performances ar- ample, CBS offered a wide R . In "récit.

French

organ

RAGTIME

239

variety of unusual musical experiences in such series as "Exploring Music," "Essays in Music," and "The Story of Song." NBC broadcast a series of 110 programs of "Music of the Americas." The most ambitious effort along this line was NBC's assembling in 1938 a virtuoso orchestra under the direction of Arturo Toscanini. The orchestra, generally conceded to be peerless, was disbanded upon the retirement of the maestro in 1954. Occasionally such leading composers as Piston, Copland, Harris, etc., have been commissioned to write works especially for broadcasting, and several operas have been conceived primarily for radio performance. Of these, Menotti's The Old Maid and the Thief (NBC, 1939) has proved the most durable.

RAKE'S PROGRESS

one of the earliest known examples being the "Harlem Rag" of 1895. It probably derived from the early minstrel show tunes of the 1840's and from marches, especially those improvised for street parades in New Orleans. Its main feature

V r r r ' r r

r

Fig.

97

r1

was a slight rhythmic complexity which produced simple effects of syncopation (Fig. 9 7 ) . Ragtime was made popular by the pianist Ben Harvey, who published his Ragtime Instructor in 1897. It reached its peak The third category — broad- about 1910-15, afterwards mergcasts of recorded music — is a ing into jazz. comparatively new development that has resulted mainly from the Raindrop Prelude. Popular name growing number of independent for Chopin's Prelude in D-flat, radio stations, especially FM op. 28, no. 15, so called because stations. Station WQXR in New the continuously repeated note York pioneered in this develop- Ab (GS in the middle section) ment, devoting about 80 per cent suggests the dripping of rainof its broadcasting time to re- drops. cordings of serious music. Many newer independent stations, par- Rake's Progress, The. Opera in ticularly those sponsored by col- three acts by Stravinsky (libretto leges and universities, have fol- by W. H. Auden, inspired by lowed this pattern. The combina- the set of prints by Hogarth), tion of this sort of small station produced in Venice, 1951. The with the tremendous repertory libretto, generally admired for now available on long-playing its excellence, combines elements records provides the listening of Don Giovanni and of Faust. public widi a magnitude of musi- Tom Rakewell (tenor) is becal experience equaled at no trothed to a gentle country girl, other time in history. Anne (soprano), but Nick Shadow (baritone), a personiRagtime. A style of American fication of the devil, convinces popular music which originated him to leave her. They go to at the end of the 19th century, London where Tom enters into

RÁKÓCZI MARCH

240

a fantastic marriage with a bearded lady, Baba (mezzo-soprano). Nick brings him to moral and financial ruin, and finally, when the agreed-upon time (a year and a day) has passed, demands his soul. Tom, however, wins a wager and a reprieve which puts him in Bedlam thinking he is Adonis awaiting the arrival of Venus. It is Anne who appears and lulls him into his final slumber. The work is a modern revitalization of late 18th- and early 19th-century opera ( Mozart — Bellini ), with recitative and frequent reminiscences from scores of that period.

RASUMOVSKY

them is used in the overture of Rossini's William Tell, another in Liszt's piano piece, Vallée d'Obermann (from the Années de Pèlerinage, I). Rape of Lucretia, The. Opera in two acts by Britten ( libretto, after Livy, by R. Duncan), produced in Glyndebourne, 1946. It presents the tragic tale of Lucretia (contralto), the faithful wife of the Roman general Collatinus (bass), who had been ravished by the Etruscan general Tarquinius (baritone), and who commits suicide before her husband when he returns. The work is organized in the manner of a Greek tragedy, with two characters representing the male and female choruses who comment on the action from the viewpoint of each sex. The score is of chamber music dimensions, calling for only twelve instruments.

Rákóczi March (RAH-kot-see). A Hungarian national air, composed by Janos Bihari in 1809, in homage to Prince Ferencz Rákóczi (1676-1735) who led the Hungarians in a revolt against Austria. The melody was used by Berlioz in his Damnation of Faust and Marche Hon- Rapsodie Espagnole. See Spangroise, as well as by Liszt in ish Rhapsody. his Hungarian Rhapsody, no. 15. Rappresentazione di anima e di Rallentando (rahl-en-TAHN-do: corpo, La ( rahp-re-zen-taht-seeIt., slowing down). Abbr. rail.; O-nay dee AHN-ee-ma ay dee COR-po: The Representation of same as "ritardando. Soul and Body). Stage work by Emilio de'Cavalieri, produced in Range. See Voices, Range of. Rome, 1600. It is usually reRank. In organs, a complete set garded as the first 'oratorio. The of pipes of the same type, e.g., music consists almost exclusively Diapason, Gamba, etc. See under of recitative and short choruses. Organ; Register. Rasgado (rahs-GAH-ttho: Sp., Ranz des vaches (RAHNH day scraped ). In guitar playing, VAHSH: F., cow's procession). sweeping of the strings with the A type of Swiss mountain mel- thumb to produce a rapid arody sung or played on the "alp- peggio. horn by herdsmen to call the scattered cows. There exist about Rasumovsky Quartets (rahz-oofifty such melodies in the various MOV-skee). See Russian Quardistricts of the Alps. One of tets.

RATSCHE

241

RECITATIVE

Ratsche (G.)· See Rattie.

Rechte Hand ( G . ) . Right hand.

Ratswahlkantate (RAHTS-vahlkahn-TAH-te: Council Election Cantata). A cantata (no. 71) by J. S. Bach, Gott ist mein König, written in 1708 for the election of the town council of Mühlhausen (Thuringia), where he was organist in 1707-08.

Recit (ray-SEE: F . ) . In French organ music, the entire "Swell Organ or a solo stop used for the playing of melodies.

Rattle. A percussion instrument which consists of a cogwheel revolving against a flexible spring of wood or metal (similar to a familiar children's toy). It is used, under the German name Ratsche, in Strauss's Till Eulenspiegel. Rattle is also a generic term for various noise-producing instruments found in primitive cultures, e.g., gourds filled with pebbles, etc.

Recital. A public performance given by a soloist. A performance given by an orchestra or an ensemble is called a concert.

Recitative (re-see-tah-TEEV). A vocal style designed for the speechlike declamation of narrative episodes in operas, oratorios, or cantatas. Its main characteristic is a strictly syllabic treatment of the text with careful attention to word accent. The early recitative (about 1600-1700) combined this with a musical line of a fairly expressive and lyrical character (see Fig. 9 8 a ) ; Razor Quartet. Popular name for but there developed in the 18th Haydn's String Quartet no. 61 century a "parlando" style of (op. 55, no. 2 ) , in F minor, com- recitative, in rapid tempo with posed in 1787. Haydn gave it to his publisher Bland in a humorous exchange for a new razor which he needed. Nln-fa, deh sit c o n · ten - ta ri Re. See under Pitch names; Solmization; Tonic Sol-fa. men in.

-dir pei'chi· t'af-faii-ni.che ta-ciu- lo mar-

- ti

Real answer (fugue, sequence). See under Tonal and real. Rebab (re-BAHB). Name for various primitive bowed stringed instruments, often of unusual shapes, found in Moslem countries (Arabia, Persia, Egypt, North Africa). Recapitulation. nata form.

See under So-

trop- po t o r - m e n - t i .

G: A-mi-co, Che ti par?

L: Mi par ch'ab

-bia-te lä,

un a - n i - m a dibron-zo. che seilgrangonzo

.J

j y Fig.

98

RECORDER

242

REED

frequent reiteration of the same pitch, in irregular rhythmic patterns dictated by the length of the words and phrases, and of a deliberately inexpressive character, hence called secco ( It., dry) recitative (Fig. 9 8 b ) . During the 17th and 18th centuries, recitative was usually sung to a "thorough-bass accompaniment consisting mainly of sustained chords. For narratives of special importance, however, a more elaborate orchestral accompaniment was used, together with a vocal line of a more expressive and more strictly measured type. This is known as accompanied recitative (recitativo accompagnato or stromentato). Bach, in his St. Matthew Passion, uses secco recitative for the Evangelist and accompanied recitative for Christ and for the recitatives preceding arias. Recorder. An old instrument ( 15th through 18th centuries ) of the flute family, differing from the modern flute in being held vertically and blown through a mouthpiece containing an obstructive block ( 'Apple ) which leaves only a narrow slit for the passage of the breath. Recorders (also called blockflutes, G. Blockflöte) were usually made in four sizes: bass, tenor, treble (alto), and descant (soprano). The soprano size was still in common use at the time of Bach under the name of flauto, while the modern flute was called flauto traverso (transverse flute). Beginning about 1920, through the efforts of the Dolmetsch family in England, playing of recorders has been revived and they have been manufactured for the performance of old as well as of

new music. They have a delightfully mild sound and are relatively easy to play. See illustrations. Records. See Phonograph records.

and

Reed. A vibrating tongue, made from a small piece of reed (cane) or metal, and used in the tone production of certain instruments, e.g., oboes and clarinets, hence the collective term "reeds" for all such instruments. The

REEL

243

members of the 'oboe family have a double reed, i.e., two reeds vibrating against each other, while those of the "clarinet type have a single reed vibrating against a slot at the upper end of the pipe. See also under Wind instruments; Organ stops.

REGISTRATION

peated after each verse. In the later Middle Ages ( 13th and 14th centuries) there developed three types of French refrain song, the "ballade, the "virelai, and the "rondeau. The term refrain is also used for a short instrumental piece repeated after each stanza of a song (see Ritornello), or for Reel. A dance performed by two recurrent sections in purely inor more couples, who stand face strumental compositions, particto face and execute a variety of ularly in the "rondo. figures, each of which lasts for eight measures. The music con- Regal (REE-gul). A small portsists of simple tunes in fairly able organ of the 15th and 16th fast tempo, which are repeated centuries which had reed pipes over and over again. The dance only, hence producing a very is common in Scotland, Ireland, peculiar sound, nasal and metaland America, the American va- lic. In his Orfeo (1607), Monteriety being known as the Vir- verdi prescribed its use for the accompaniment of the song of ginia Reel. Charon, the mythical ferryman of the Underworld. Reformation Symphony. Mendelssohn's Symphony no. 5, op. Register. ( 1 ) On the organ, 107, in D minor, composed in a full set of pipes controlled by 1830 for the tercentenary of the one stop. It may include one or Augsburg Conference (at which (in mixture stops) several "ranks. Luther openly declared the es- — ( 2 ) In singing, term for the tablishment of the German lower or higher parts of the Reformed — the Protestant — range of the human voice, differChurch). ing as to method of sound production and as to tone quality, Refrain. A recurring section of e.g., "head register" (head voice, music (and text). The basic with resonance chiefly in the structure of a refrain song is head) or "chest register" (chest therefore: a r b r c r . . . , voice, with resonance concenwhere a, b, c . . . stand for the trated in the chest). sections with varying texts, although these are often (in stro- Registration. In organ playing, phic songs ) also sung to identical the use of the "registers to obmusic. Among the earliest exam- tain variety in loudness and in ples of refrain structure in litera- color, according either to the ture is Psalm 136, in which each composer's indication or, in the verse ends with the refrain "For case of older music (Bach), to his mercy endureth forever." In the player's own interpretation. early Christian chant the Psalms Such interpretation, of course, were regularly sung with a re- should be governed by a knowlfrain (the antiphon or response) edge of the relatively limited restated at the beginning and re- sources of old organs. A certain

REINE

244

REPEAT

amount of registration is also (c. 1 4 0 0 - 1 4 7 4 ) , Ockeghem (c. possible and required on the 1 4 3 0 - 1 4 9 5 ) , Obrecht (c. 1 4 5 3 harpsichord. 1505), Josquin (c. 1 4 5 0 - 1 5 2 1 ) , Willaert (c. 1 4 8 5 - 1 5 6 2 ) , Pale(1525-1594), Lassus Reine, La ( r e n : T h e Q u e e n ) . s t i n a Byrd (1542Nickname of Haydn's Symphony ( 1 5 3 2 - 1 5 9 4 ) , no. 85, in B-flat (no. 4 of the 1623), and Giovanni Gabrieli "Paris Symphonies ), composed ( 1 5 5 7 - 1 6 1 2 ) . Throughout t h e about 1786. T h e name refers to Renaissance the numerous m e m Queen Marie Antoinette, w h o is bers of the "Flemish School said to have been particularly played a leading role in the development of a musical style f o n d of this work. which can be characterized as a Réjouissance (ray-zhui- vocal polyphony (see A capS A H N H S : F., enjoyment). A pella) in from four to six parts, light and playful movement related to each other by extended sometimes f o u n d in Baroque use of imitation (see Motet, I I ) suites (e.g., Bach's Orchestral and by increasingly refined methods of counterpoint (see Suite no. 4 ) . Palestrina style). Related key, relative key. See T h e chief musical forms of universal cultivation were t h e under Key relationship. Mass and the motet. To these Relative pitch. ( 1 ) T h e pitch of were a d d e d the various national one tone (for example, E ) in types of secular music, e.g., t h e relation to another tone (for ex- Italian and English "madrigal ample, C ) , usually indicated as (see also Frottola), t h e French an interval (e.g., major t h i r d ) . polyphonic "chanson, and t h e — ( 2 ) T h e ability to recognize German polyphonic "lied. Instrua relative interval in sense ( 1 ) mental music acquired considerabove, e.g., to recognize and able importance in numerous identify the tone E ( when compositions ( "prelude, "tocplayed after t h e tone C ) as a cata, "variations, "ricercar, "canmajor third, or, if t h e major zona), for t h e organ, clavier, third above C is demanded, to and lute, and also for small inDance sing the tone E . This faculty is strumental ensembles. one of the most important re- music was extensively cultivated quirements of a musician, f u n c - in the "basse danse, "pavane, "passamezzo, and tionally more valuable than " a b - "galliard, m a n y other types of lesser imsolute ( p e r f e c t ) pitch. portance. Renaissance. Designation for a period of music history roughly Repeat. T h e signs 11 : and : 11 coinciding with the Renaissance calling for the repetition of t h e in t h e other Fine Arts, that is, section enclosed by them. If the from about 1400 or 1450 to latter sign appears alone, the 1600, between the Middle Ages repetition starts from the beginand the Baroque period ( see ning of the movement (e.g., the History of music). Among t h e exposition of sonata f o r m ) . Unoutstanding masters are D u f a y fortunately, repeat signs are fre-

REPETITION

245

quently disregarded in performance, a liberty that often leads to a distortion of the musical structure. See under Sonata form. Repetition. As a device of composition, repetition is one of the fundamental principles of musical structure, providing unity ( as opposed to the variety of contrasting material). It occurs, not only as recurrence of entire sections in musical forms such as Α Β A, A A Β A, etc. (see under Form), but also in more subtle manifestations, such as imitation, sequence, ostinato, motivai technique, and as "varied repetition" in the numerous types of variation and in the "twelvetone technique. Replica ( I t . ) . Repeat. Da capo senza replica, often found at the end of minuets or scherzos, indicates that the minuet should be repeated after the trio, but without the internal repeats for its first and second sections. This practice is generally observed in performance, even when there is no such indication. See under Minuet.

RESONANCE

Agnus Dei, and a Communion. Elaborate musical settings (e.g., by Ockeghem, Palestrina, Victoria, Mozart, Verdi ) usually omit some of the Gregorian items. For instance, Mozart's Requiem opens with a movement including both the Introit and the Kyrie, then proceeds to an extended treatment of the Dies Irae (nos. 2 - 7 ) , after which follows the Offertory (Domine Jesu Christe, nos. 8, 9 ) , the Sanctus (nos. 10, 1 1 ) , and the Agnus Dei (no. 1 2 ) . Verdi's Requiem, often called "Manzoni Requiem, uses the same items, with the addition of the Communion Lux aeterna and of the Responsory Libera me, which properly belongs to the Burial Service. See also German Requiem (Brahms). Rescue opera. A term sometimes used to refer to a type of early 19th-century opera, of French origin, based on a fairly realistic plot involving trials, dangers, and eventual rescue of the hero and/or heroine. Among the bestknown examples are Cherubini's Deux Journées ( 1800 ) and Beethoven's Fidelio ( 1 8 0 5 ) .

Reprise (re-PREEZ). Same as Resolution. In harmony or counrecapitulation in "sonata form. terpoint, the process of passing from a dissonant chord or tone Requiem, Requiem Mass (from into a consonance. For instance, L., requies, rest). The Mass of a seventh chord is "resolved" the Dead in the Roman Catholic into a triad, or an appoggiatura rites, so called because it begins into its lower or upper neighbor with the Introit "Requiem aeter- note. nam dona eis, Domine" (Give them eternal rest, O Lord). The Resonance. The reinforcement complete Mass in plainsong of a musical tone by a vibrating ( Gregorian chant ) consists of body (resonator) attached to or the above-mentioned Introit, fol- in close proximity to the source lowed by the Kyrie, a Gradual, of the sound. In the xylophone, a Tract, the Sequence "Dies for example, each key has its Irae, an Offertory, the Sanctus, own resonator, in the form of a

RESPOND

246

metal cylinder suspended below the key. The sounding board of the piano and the belly of the violin are general resonators, reinforcing all the sounds produced on the instrument. Another type of resonator is the set of "sympathetic strings of the viola d'amore. Respond. Either the Roman Catholic responsory or, less frequently, the Anglican (Episcopal) "response. Response. In Anglican (Episcopal) churches, the choral or congregational replies ( e.g., "Amen" or "And grant us Thy salvation") to the versicles, petitions, etc., of the priest. Responsorial. A method of performance consisting of the alternation between a soloist and a group, as opposed to antiphonal performance ( see Antiphon ), i.e., alternation of two groups. The prototypes of these effects occur in Gregorian chant where, according to the original method of performance, chants are classified as either responsorial ( e.g., Graduais, Alleluias, Responsories) or antiphonal (e.g., Introits, Communions). The responsorial chants are more elaborate (melismatic) than the others.

RETABLO

loud tones are sounded simultaneously. They are also called combination tones or differential tones. The most important of these is the so-called Tartini's tone, a low tone whose pitch is given by the difference of the frequencies of the two original tones. Fig. 99 shows this tone

^

3ÖÖ 200 Î8Ô Ï5Ô Fig.

99

(black note) for various intervals (c' arbitrarily = 300 cycles). Tartini's tone can easily be heard on the harmonium, organ, and violin. Tartini and Leopold Mozart recommended it as a means of controlling the intonation of double stops, since a slight inaccuracy results in a more clearly noticeable change of the lowpitched tone.

Resurrection Symphony. Mahler's Symphony no. 2, in C minor, completed in 1894. The fourth movement is a setting for alto solo and orchestra of "Urlicht" (Primordial Light, a song from Des Knaben Wunderhorn)·, the fifth and last movement is a setting of Klopstock's poem, "Auferstehung" ( Resurrection ), for Rest. A sign indicating that, for a soprano solo, chorus, and orchesspecified time, the music ceases, tra. at least in one of the parts. See Retablo de Maese Pedro, El under Notes and rests. (ray-TAH-blo day mah-ES-ay Restatement. Same as recapitu- PAY-tthro: Master Peter's Puppet Show). A one-act opera for lation in 'sonata form. marionettes by Manuel de Falla Resultant tone. In musical acous- to his own libretto, produced in tics, term for a third tone which Seville, 1923. It is based on a is heard when two relatively chapter from Cervantes' Don

RETARDATION

247

Quixote, in which Don Quixote attends a puppet show depicting a fight between the Christians and the Saracens, and, believing the puppets to be real, draws his sword to assist the Christians.

RHENISH SYMPHONY

tion and inversion, as shown in Fig. 100c. In Hindemith's 4 L u cius Tonalis the Postlude is the retrograde inversion of the Prelude which can be played by turning the pages upside down, the Prelude becoming the Postlude and vice versa when allowRetardation. A rarely used term ance is made for accidentals. for suspension (see under Nonharmonic tones) or, particularly, Revolutionary Etude. Nickname a suspension which resolves up- of Chopin's Etude in C minor, op. 10, no. 12, written in 1831 ward. after he heard that Warsaw had Retrograde. A term indicating re- been taken by the Russians. verse or backward motion, e.g., beginning with the last note of Rf., rfz. Short for 'rinforzando. a melody and ending with the first. Synonymous terms are crab Rhapsody. A term of Greek orimotion, cancrizans (from L. can- gin, properly meaning something cer, crab), and al rovescio ( I t . ) . like "fragmentary song," used in See Fig. 100a and b. Although, music chiefly as a designation for free fantasies of a somewhat epic, heroic, or national character (e.g., Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsodies; also works by Raff, Lalo, Dvorák, Bartok), or for compositions which, although in strict form, have a certain epic or archaic flavor ( Brahms' Rhapsodies for piano ). Gershwin's Fig. 100 Rhapsody in Blue ( 1 9 2 4 ) is a from the listener's point of view, free fantasy in jazz idiom, modthis procedure completely ob- eled somewhat after Liszt's scures the original melody, it has Rhapsodies. In Brahms' Rhapsobeen quite frequently used by die in C, op. 53, for contralto composers as a constructive de- solo, male chorus, and orchestra Rhapsody), vice. Some examples are the (often called Alto canons in Bach's Musical Offer- the title seems to refer to the ing, the Menuetto al rovescio of fact that it is based on a fragHarzreise Haydn's Sonata no. 4 for piano ment from Goethe's and violin, and the final fugue im Winter. of Beethoven's Hammerclavier Sonata, op. 106, in which the Rheingold, Das. See under Ring fugai theme occurs in retrograde of the Nibelung. motion. Retrograde motion is one basic element of the "twelve- Rhenish Symphony. Schumann's tone technique. Retrograde in- Symphony no. 3, in Ε-flat, op. version ("inverted crab") is the 97, composed in 1850-51 after combination of retrograde mo- a trip along the Rhine. The

248

RHUMBA

RICERCAR

fourth movement was inspired rangements of smaller or larger by the Cathedral of Cologne. note values, as illustrated in Fig. 101. For related topics, see Beat; Rhumba. See Rumba. Measure; Meter; Polyrhythm; Rubato; Tempo; Syncopation. Rhythm. Rhythm may be broadly defined as everything Rhythmic modes. A 13th-century pertaining to the duration qual- system of rhythm, based on a ity (long-short) of musical few simple rhythmic patterns, all sounds. Thus it forms the coun- in triple meter. Usually six modes terpart of "motion, i.e., every- are distinguished, as shown in thing pertaining to the pitch Fig. 102. In a given composition quality (high-low) of the muJ J J ] J ... sical sound (see also under Mel- First (trochaic): ody). Rhythm may be entirely Second (iambic): j J J | J . . . free, i.e., employing temporal Third (dactylic): |J_ I J J | J . values not derived from a basic Fourth (anapaestic) :| J J | J # ¡ J J ¡ . . . unit. Such rhythms occur in some | J, primitive and Oriental music, Fifth (spondaic): |J. and are also present when pas- Sixth ( tribrachio ) : | J J J | J . . . sages are played in "ritardando, Fig. 102 "accelerando, "rubato, etc. Normally, however, rhythm is metri- such as a 13th-century motet, cal, i.e., its values are multiples each part adheres throughout to or divisions of a temporal unit, one mode, e.g., the 6th mode in the beat, which is normally rep- the upper voice, the 1st mode in resented by the quarter note or the middle voice, and the 5th the eighth note, occasionally by mode in the lowest ( tenor ) part. the half note (see Alia breve). There may be certain modificaThe beats are arranged in groups tions of the basic pattern (ocof two, three, four, six, etc., casional rests, groups of two or according to the meter ( 4 / 4 , three eighth notes instead of a 6/8, etc.), each group constitut- quarter note, etc.). ing a measure. Rhythm, in the more specific sense of the word, Ricercar (ree-chayr-KAHR: It., denotes the innumerable patterns ricercare, to search out). A formed, within the basic metric 16th- and 17th-century type of framework, by the various ar- instrumental music, particularly

Fig.

101

for the organ, written in imitative counterpoint and of a solemn, restrained character. Ricercare are usually polythematic, that is, they employ several themes each of which is treated in a separate section, often with the aid of special devices of "learned counterpoint," such as augmentation, diminution, inversion, invertible counterpoint, stretto, combination of themes,

249

RICOCHET

etc. T h e ricercar is derived from t h e 16th-century motet, b u t differs from it in various aspects, particularly the much more extended treatment of each subject ( f u g a i section versus "point of imitation). T h e most important composers were Willaert, Girolamo Cavazzoni, Andrea Gabrieli, Frescobaldi, and Froberger. Bach closed and climaxed t h e development of t h e ricercar in his "Musical Offering, inscribed: Regis Iussu Cantío Ét Reliqua Canonica Arte Resoluta ( U p o n the King's Demand, the T h e m e and Additions Resolved in Canonic Style), a sentence whose initial letters spell RIC E R C A R . T h e ricercar style is also evident in several fugues from the Well-tempered Clavier, particularly the CJt minor of vol. I and t h e E major of vol. II. As with so many forms of old m u sic, the ricercar has been revived by 20th-century composers, e.g., Martinu, Casella, and Malipiero. T h e term was also occasionally applied to nonimitative compositions, especially for the lute. T h e general meaning of the term was probably something like "study." Ricochet ( F . ) . See Bowing ( e ) . Riddle canon.

canon.

See

Enigmatic

Ridotto (ri-DAWT-to: It.). Reduced, i.e., arranged (for pianoforte, etc.). Riduzione (ree-doo-tsee-O-nay: It. ). Arrangement ( for pianoforte, etc.). Rienzi ( r e e - E N - z e e ) . Opera b y W a g n e r (libretto by t h e com-

RIGOLETTO

poser, based on Bulwer-Lytton's novel), produced in Dresden, 1842. It is an early work reflecting the styles of Italian and French opera. Rigaudon (ree-go-donh: F . ) . A Provençal dance of the 17th century, used in French operatic ballets and also in the optional group in t h e "suite. It is in lively 4 / 4 meter, without upbeat. In England it was called rigadoon. Rigoletto (rig-o-LET-to). Opera in three acts by Verdi (libretto by F. M. Piave, after Victor Hugo's drama, Le Roi s'amuse), produced in Venice, 1851. T h e scene is in 16th-century Italy where the handsome and profligate D u k e of Mantua ( t e n o r ) , aided by his deformed jester Rigoletto ( baritone ), pursues t h e wives and daughters of his courtiers. One of the latter, Count Monterone ( baritone ), arrives during a party to berate the D u k e for having betrayed his daughter. W h e n Rigoletto ridicules him, Monterone pronounces a father's curse upon t h e jester ( Act I ). In revenge for his barbed mockery, some of t h e courtiers conspire to kidnap Rigoletto's daughter Gilda ( sop r a n o ) , believing her to b e his mistress. She is taken to t h e palace, and seduced by the D u k e (Act I I ) . In reprisal, Rigoletto hires t h e bandit Sparafucile (bass) to murder the Duke, w h o (Act I I I ) comes to Sparafucile's inn to amuse himself with t h e latter's sister Maddalena (mezzosoprano). Implored by his sister, Sparafucile agrees to murder, instead of t h e Duke, t h e first person to enter the inn, and Gilda,

RINFORZANDO

250

overhearing this, sacrifices herself. Rigoletto receives from Sparafucile a sack which he believes to contain the corpse of the Duke; opening it, he discovers that of his own daughter — Monterone's curse has been fulfilled. Its gruesome plot places Rigoletto in the category of the "horror opera" which had a great vogue about 1850. The action is full of moments of genuinely dramatic tension effectively underlined by the music, which also includes arias of touching tenderness. Together with II Trovatore (1853) and La Traviata (1853), Rigoletto represents the crowning point of the Italian opera with melodramatic plots, popular type of melodies, and concentration on effective vocal "numbers." See Number opera.

RING

Prologue, the other three operas as a Trilogy. The basic idea of the cycle is the ancient Germanic conception of the world consisting of three realms struggling against each other: I, the realm of the gods (Valhalla, with Wotan; his wife, Fricka; the goddess of youth, Freia; and the god of fire, Loge). II, the realm of men (Earth, represented by Wotan's son, Siegmund; his sister, Sieglinde; their son, Siegfried; Sieglinde's husband, Hunding; and, in the Twilight of the Gods, Hagen, Gunther, and Gutrune). III, the dark realm of the Nibelungs, a race of dwarfs living beneath the earth ( Alberich, Mime). In addition, there are the Valkyries, Wotan's daughters ( Brünnhilde and her sisters ), the Giants ( Fasolt and Fafner), and the Norns, representing the eternal destiny to Rinforzando ( reen-for-TSAHN- which even the gods are subdo: It., reinforcing). Abbrevi- ject. Two basic plots are merged in the action. The first is a ated rf., rfz., rinf. A sudden legendary plot centering around stress on a single note or chord the magic ring which, forged by ( * sforzando ), or a sudden and Alberich out of the gold hidden short crescendo. in the Rhine, makes its possessor master of the world and which Ring of the Nibehing, The falls successively into the hands ( NEE-be-loong: G., Der Ring of Wotan, of Fafner (who obdes Nibelungen). A cycle of four tains it in return for the goddess operas by Wagner: The RhineFreia and guards it in the form gold (Das Rheingold), 1853-54; of a dragon), and of Siegfried, The Valkyrie ( Die Walküre ), who kills the dragon and gives 1854-56; Siegfried, 1856-71; the ring to Brünnhilde as a sign and The Twilight of the Gods of his love (in Siegfried) but (Götterdämmerung), 1869-74. who, in the Twilight of the The libretto is by the composer, Gods, takes it away from her. based on the Scandinavian Edda The second is a human plot and the German Nibelung Saga centering, in the Valkyrie, (12th to 13th century). First around the incestuous love of full performance in Bayreuth, Siegmund and Sieglinde and in 1876, for the dedication of the Siegfried around the love of Wagner Festival Theatre. Wagtheir son Siegfried and Brünnner designated Rhinegold as a

RIPIENO

251

hilde. In the Twilight of the Gods, Siegfried, blinded by a love potion, falls in love with Gutrune, but, immediately before his death, once more remembers Brünnhilde and calls her name with his last breath. In order to forge together this gigantic plot, Wagner relies here more than in any other of his operas upon the 'leitmotiv as a means of unification. Not only has each of the acting persons his own characteristic motive, but also basic ideas, such as "the curse," "the ring," "the sword," are thus represented. Moreover, in contrast to the earlier operas such as Tannhäuser and Lohengrin, Wagner completely discards here the aria, the song, or the chorus of the "number opera, adopting instead the "unending melody," a highly expressive declamation which, purposely avoiding cadences and sectional construction, continues almost from the beginning to the end of each act in an uninterrupted flow. Ripieno, pl. ripieni ( ree-pee-AYno, ree-pee-AY-nee: It., replenished, supplementary ). In the Baroque concerto grosso (Bach, Handel), an indication for sections to be played by the full orchestra, as distinguished from those to be played by the soloists ( marked concertino ). The term properly denotes the "reinforcing section" or "rear section" of the orchestra. Therefore, senza ripieni does not mean "without orchestra" but calls for a small number of "front players" to accompany the soloists.

RITORNELLO

Ritardando ( ree-tar-D AH N-do : It.). Abbreviated rit., ritard. Gradually slackening in speed. Ritenuto (ree-te-NOO-to: It.). Same as 'ritardando, but often suggesting a marked reduction of speed. Rite of Spring, The (F., Le Sacre du printemps). Ballet by Stravinsky ( choreography by Nijinsky ), produced in Paris, 1913. It represents an ancient pagan rite which is climaxed with the sacrifice of a virgin to the gods of fertility. The two parts (I, The Adoration of the Earth; II, The Sacrifice), now often performed as a concert piece, are divided into several scenes. The work is one of the major landmarks in the evolution of 20th-century music, establishing Stravinsky's revolutionary "dynamism. Its harsh sounds and barbaric rhythms, willingly accepted and admired today, caused a riot of indignation among the audience at the first performance. Ritmo (REET-mo: It.). Rhythm. For Beethoven's ritmo di tre ( quattro ) battute, see under Battuta.

Ritornello (ree-tor-NEL-lo: It.). In the early 17th century, term for short instrumental sections designed as introductions, interludes, or postludes for a vocal composition. In spite of the implication of the term ("little return"), they are not necessarily a refrain (i.e., the same music). They did adopt this character, particularly in 17th-century GerRipresa (ree-PRAY-za: It.). Re- man songs (Adam Krieger) in which they were played at the peat, repetition.

ROCOCO

252

end of every stanza. Modern writers have adopted the term for the recurring tutti sections of the concerto grosso. Hence, the name ritornello form applies to movements ( usually the first, often also the last) written in this manner.

ROMAN

SCHOOL

four numbers has become a popular selection for orchestral concerts. Roi David, Le. See King

David.

Roll. A drum effect produced by the rapid alternation of strokes by the sticks, essentially a "tremolo. See Drum Roll SymRococo (ro-CO-co: from F. phony. rocaille, shell). A period of music history, extending roughly Rollschweiler (ROLL-shvel-ler: from 1710 to 1775, which forms G. ). The crescendo pedal of the the transition from the Baroque organ. to the Classical period (see under History of music ). The Roman Carnival, The (F., Le name is borrowed from a nearly Carnaval romain). Concert overcontemporary movement in the ture by Berlioz, op. 9, composed Fine Arts characterized by an in 1843. The themes were taken abundance of merely decorative from his unsuccessful opera, scroll and shell work (e.g., on Benvenuto Cellini after its failfurniture ) and by a general ure in the Paris production, tendency toward superficial ele- 1838. gance, luxury, and frivolity. Similar traits are noticeable in Romance. Properly a lyrical and the music of the period, which sentimental song. Also instruemphasizes pleasantness and mental pieces of a similar charprettiness, in contrast to the acter. seriousness and dignity of BaRoman chant. Same as "Greroque music. The general chargorian chant. acter of Rococo music is well described by the term gallant Roman Festivals ( It., Feste style. Among the earliest exam- Romane). Symphonic poem by ples are the harpsichord pieces Respighi, composed in 1928, in of F. Couperin, composed be- four movements: "Circus Maxitween 1710 and 1725. Later mus," "Jubilee," "October Fesrepresentatives are Daquin, tival," and "Epiphany." Telemann, Grazioli, Rutini, and many others. Rococo elements Roman School. A group of Roare still present in the works of man composers who continued C. P. E. Bach, Haydn, and the style of sacred a cappella Mozart. music established by Palestina Rodeo. Ballet by Copland (choreography by Agnes de Mille), produced in New York, 1942. The scene is set in the American Southwest, and several traditional cowboy tunes are incorporated into the score. A suite of

(1525-1594). Among the leading figures were Giovanni Maria Nanino (c. 1543-1607), Gregorio Allegri (1582-1652), Orazio Benevoli (1605-1672), Antonio Lotti (1667-1740), and Antonio Caldara (1670-1736). These composers generally re-

ROMANTIC

253

jected the current forms of Baroque music (opera, oratorio, cantata, sonata, etc.) and devoted themselves to liturgical music ( Masses, motets, Psalms, etc. ) composed in the traditional style of Palestrina ( see Palestrina style), with the inclusion of certain later idioms such as ° polychoral treatment and Baroque harmony. Romantic, Romanticism. Designation for the major musical movement of the 19th century, succeeding the "Classical school of the late 18th century. It may be divided into three periods: early Romanticism, c. 1820-50, represented by Weber, Berlioz, Mendelssohn, Schumann, and Chopin; middle Romanticism, c. 1850-90, by Liszt, Wagner, Franck, Bruckner, Smetana, Brahms, Tchaikovsky, and Dvorák; late Romanticism, c. 1890-1920, by Elgar, Mahler, MacDowell, R. Strauss, Sibelius, Reger, Holst, and many other composers born between 1860 and 1880. Beethoven and Schubert are transitional composers, their early works adhering to the Classical tradition and their later ones exhibiting more Romantic tendencies.

ROMANTIC SYMPHONY

musicians took over the same general "longing for something nonexistent," a propensity for dream and vision, for the fantastic and the picturesque, for strong emotion and vivid imagery. Musical Romanticism, therefore, may be characterized as an art which emphasizes subjective and emotional elements, translating into music the feelings of the human soul — joy and sorrow, passion and tenderness, exuberance and despair. In the music of the Classical masters, such feelings, if presented at all, may be said to form an unconscious stratum underlying the musical realities. In Romantic music, on the other hand, they themselves become the realities, of which the music is but the reflection. Modifying a famous sentence written by Monteverdi in 1607 (see under Nuove musiche), the gate leading to Romanticism may be said to carry the inscription: "Let Emotion be the master, not the servant, of music." From the technical point of view, the most important achievements of Romanticism are the full exploitation of chromatic harmony (carried to its ultimate degree and leading to the disintegration of tonality), development of a rich and varied palette of tonal colors, particularly in orchestral music, and the cultivation of expressive devices such as tempo "rubato, dynamic fluctuation, etc. Of musical forms, the "character piece (for piano) and the "symphonic poem are particularly distinctive and typical.

The Romantic movement (as well as the term "Romantic") originated in an English-German literary school of the late 18th century formed by writers such as Walter Scott, Wackenroder, Tieck, and Novalis, who, in search of new themes, turned for subject matter to the Romanesque period of the Middle Ages (11th and 12th centuries), the period of valiant knights, gracious ladies, and pious Romantic Symphony. ( 1 ) Nickmonks. From this movement, name for Bruckner's Symphony

ROMANZE

254

no. 4, in Ε-flat major, composed in 1874 (rev. 1878, 1880).— (2) Name for Hanson's Symphony no. 2, composed in 1930.

RONDO

string quartets, symphonies, and concertos, as well as for independent pieces. It was developed from the "rondeau of the French clavecinists by limiting Romanze (ro-MAHN-tze: G.). the number of couplets to three, Romance. and by using the same material for the first and third couplet Romeo and Juliet. Among the (usually called episode), thus many compositions based on leading to the standard strucShakespeares play are: (1) ture A Β A C A Β' A. The secSymphony by Berlioz, op. 17 tional structure of the rondeau (1839), for solo voices, chorus, is changed into a more continuand orchestra. — (2) Opera by ous one by the addition of Gounod ( 1864 ). — ( 3 ) Sym- bridge passages, and the first phonic poem (Fantasy Over- and third episodes are respecture ) by Tchaikovsky ( 1869- tively in the dominant and tonic 70). — (4) Ballet, op. 64, by keys. In this latter stage it apProkofiev (1935). pears that the structure of the rondeau merges with elements Rondeau (ronh-DO: F.). (1) of sonata form, inasmuch as Β An instrumental form of the and B' correspond to exposition 17th century, consisting of a re- and recapitulation, C occupying curring section, the "refrain, the position of the development played in alternation with three section. (See Rondo-sonata or more varying sections called form,). A clear example is the couplets: A Β A C A D . . . A. last movement of Beethoven's This is a favored form of French Pathétique Sonata, op. 13. harpsichord music (ChambónThe term rondo form is also nières, Louis Couperin, d'Angle- used for shorter and more elebert, F. Couperin, Rameau), mentary forms involving alternaand is also frequent in contem- tion, for example, A B A ("first porary orchestral and operatic ' rondo form" ) and A B A B A music (Lully). In the late 18th or A Β A C A ("second rondo century the rondeau developed form"). These forms usually into the "rondo form of the lack the continuous character as sonata. — (2) The medieval well as other features of the rondeau (13th-15th centuries) true rondo, and are more apis a vocal composition (mono- propriately termed "ternary phonic or polyphonic) with the form and extended ternary form form A B a A a b A B (capital (or five-part form). See under letters indicate a literary as well Form. as a musical refrain, e.g., repetition of text as well as music). Rondo-sonata form. A hybrid — (3) In sonatas (Beethoven), structure combining elements of see Rondo. "rondo form and "sonata form. It differs from rondo form in Rondo, rondo form (RON-do). that the second episode is reA form often used for the final placed by a development secmovement of classical sonatas, tion, resulting in the form A B A

ROOT

255

Development A B A . Except for the second and fourth recurrences of the refrain ( A ) , it is similar to the sonata form. Root. The fundamental note upon which a chord is constructed by superimposing intervals of a third, for example, C in the case of a C-major or C-minor triad. If this fundamental is the lowest note, the chord is said to b e in root position (see Fig. 103, chords a and b ) ; if one of the other chord members is below the root, the chord is said to be inverted, or in inversion (chords c - f ) . See also under Chords; Inversion.

Fig.

103

Root bass. A bass formed harmonies all of which are root position, e.g., I III IV V I, as opposed to, e.g., I IVe I I e Ve I. S e e

Root.

by in II III

Rosalia (ro-ZAHL-ya). A disparaging term for a type of sequence found in the works of mediocre composers of the early 19th century, involving exact repetition of the intervals (real sequence; see under Sequence)

^ ψ τ

r

r

Fig.

f

r

104

'f«r

f

1

ROSENKAVALIER

and, therefore, modulation (see Fig. 104). The term is derived from a popular Italian song, "Rosalia, mia cara/' in which this device occurs. Rosamunde ( RO-zah-MOONd a ) . Incidental music by Schubert for a play by Helmina von Chézy, produced in Vienna, 1823. It contains, in addition to some choral numbers, an overture ( originally written for a melodrama, Die Zauberharfe), three entr'actes, and two ballets which are often played in concerts. Rose. Ornamental escutcheon of carved wood inserted in the circular soundhole of lutes, guitars, harpsichords, etc., frequently as the maker's trademark. Rosenkavalier, Der ( RO-zenkah-vah-Ieer: The Knight of the Rose). Opera by R. Strauss (libretto by H. von Hofmannsthal ), produced in Dresden, 1911. The plot, taking place in an 18thcentury Viennese setting, presents characters and love intrigues not dissimilar to those of Mozart's Figaro: the aging but still beautiful Princess of Werdenberg ( soprano ) ; the young cavalier Octavian ( mezzosoprano) who, disguised as the princess' maid, attracts the unwelcome attentions of the coarse and profligate Baron Ochs of Lerchenau ( b a s s ) ; and the fair Sophie (soprano), who is betrothed to the Baron but is secretly in love with Octavian. The title refers to a silver rose, the Baron's betrothal token, which, in Act II, is delivered to Sophie by Octavian. In Act III, the Baron is lured into a hotel-room

256

ROSIN

RUBATO

tryst with the "maid" ( Octa- treme popularity in 17th-century vian) where he is tormented England, where they were usuand punished by the appear- ally called "catches. ance of a "deserted wife" with four children who call him "Papa," ghostly faces at the window, etc. The music, full of lush and delightful tunes, is well known through numerous orchestral excerpts, particularly the waltzes. Rosin, resin (RAH-zin, RE-zin). A preparation made from gum of turpentine, and applied to the hair of the violin bow in order to give it the necessary grip on the strings.

Roundelay ( rown-de-LAY ). A 14th-century term, found in literary sources (Chaucer), for round dances and dancing songs, possibly in the form of Rota (RO-ta). Medieval term the medieval French "rondeau. for a round, particularly for the Rovescio, al (ahi ro-VESH-o: canon, S timer is icumen in. It., in reverse). Designation for Roulade (roo-LAHD: from F. either "retrograde motion (e.g., rouler, to roll). A term applied in the "Menuetto al rovescio" of to highly ornamental "coloratura Haydn's Sonata no. 4 for violin passages present in some oper- and pianoforte), or "inversion atic arias of the 18th and 19th (melodic), as in Mozart's Serenade K. 388. centuries. Round. Common name for a canon so devised that it can be repeated indefinitely ( circle canon, perpetual canon, infinite canon), as shown below: I abc a b II a III

abc cab: bea

c b c

Most examples of this type (e.g., Three Blind Mice) are designed for popular entertainment and therefore employ a simple melody falling into distinct phrases (a, b, c, of the above scheme) and imitated at the unison. Fig. 105 shows an example by M. Praetorius ( 15711621). Rounds enjoyed an ex-

Row. Same as tone row. See Twelve-tone technique. Roxelane, La. Nickname for Haydn's Symphony no. 63, in C, composed in 1777. The second movement is a set of variations on the French tune, "La Roxelane." Rubato (roo-BAH-to: It., robbed). Term denoting a certain elasticity and freedom of tempo, i.e., slight accelerandos and ritardandos alternating according to the musical expression, thus "robbing" the duration of some beats and adding to others. The practice of rubato originated in the late 18th cen-

RÜCKPOSITIV

257

tury, and was first applied to the melody only, in such a way that the accompaniment was played in strict tempo while the notes of the melody were allowed to sound slightly before or after the notes of the accompaniment. Modern jazz also makes use of this device, in which the plus-and-minus deviations compensate each other so that, after two or three measures, both melody and accompaniment coincide again. Romantic music of the 19th century ( Schumann, Liszt, etc. ) often calls for a "full rubato," a freedom of tempo which affects the accompaniment as well as the melody. About 1800, the term rubato was also used to indicate free modification not of tempo, but of dynamic values such as accents on weak beats. This usage possibly explains the rather mystifying indication of rubato found in several mazurkas by Chopin (also in the final movement, written in mazurka style, of his F-minor Concerto). The dancelike rhythm of these pieces seems to exclude the possibility of tempo modification, but readily admits accents on the normally unaccented second or third beats.

RUSSIAN HORNS

suggested by the English game of the same name. Riihrtrommel ( RUIR-trom-mel : G.). Tenor drum. Ruins of Athens, The (G., Die Ruinen von Athen). Incidental music by Beethoven, op. 113, for a play by Kotzebue, produced in Budapest, 1812. It contains, among other movements, an overture and a Turkish march (the latter adapted from a Theme with Variations for piano, op. 76, composed 1809). Rumba. A Cuban dance which, about 1930, became a popular ballroom dance in the U. S. and Europe. It is of African Negro origin and character, with strong emphasis on rhythm, complicated syncopations, and indefinite repetitions of an eightmeasure theme, while melody and text are of subordinate importance. The dancing emphasizes movements of the body rather than of the feet.

Russian Easter Overture. A programmatic orchestral work by Rimski-Korsakov, op. 36, 1888. Using themes from the obikhod, a collection of Russian church music, it depicts the Easter celebration in vivid orchestral Riickpositiy (RUIK-po-zi-teef: colors. G., Rücken, back). In older German organs, a small group of the Russian horns. Brass instrupipes located at the back of the ments, in a straight or a slightly organist, screening him from the bent shape, which were used in nave. Also (in several of Bach's Russia from about 1750 to 1825 organ pieces), the upper manual in large groups, each player from which that section of pipes sounding only one tone at the was played. required moments. Such bands were trained at the courts of Rugby. A "symphonic move- wealthy noblemen, and gave ment" by Honegger (1928), most remarkable performances

RUSSIAN QUARTETS

258

of harmonized music. The principle of performance is the same as that used today, for a melody only, by a group of handbell ringers (or bottle whistlers).

ST.

MARTIAL

no. 2 . — ( 2 ) For Haydn's Russian Quartets, see Scherzi.

Russian and Ludmilla (ROOSlahn and lood-MEE-la). Opera by Glinka (libretto by Shirkov Russian Quartets. ( 1 ) Beetho- and Bakhturin, based on a poem ven's String Quartets, op. 59, by Pushkin), produced in St. nos. 1-3, composed in 1807, also Petersburg, 1842. known as the Rasumovsky Quar- Rustic Chivalry. See Cavalleria tets because they were commis- rusticana. sioned by the Russian Count Rasumovsky, then ambassador Ruy Blas (RUI-ee BLAHS). to the Austrian court. A "Thème Overture and chorus for Victor Russe" is used in the fourth Hugo's drama Ruy Blas, commovement of no. 1 and another posed by Mendelssohn for a one in the third movement of production at Leipzig, 1839.

S. Abbreviation for 4 segno, sin- St. Anne's Fugue. Nickname of Bach's great organ fugue in istra ( s e e M.S.), or "subito. Ε-flat, from the *Ciavierübung Sacbut, sackbut (SAK-but: from III ( 1739 ), so called because its old F. saquebute, pull-push). theme is similar to the beginning Old English name for the me- of an English hymn tune called St. Anne (usually sung to the dieval trombone. poem beginning "O God, our Sacre du printemps, Le ( F. ). help in ages past") with which Bach was not familiar, of course. See Rite of Spring. Saga, En (en SAH-ga: A Saga). A symphonic poem by Sibelius, op. 9 (1892, rev. 1901), of a narrative, balladlike character, although without a definite descriptive program. Saínete ( sah-een-AY-tay : Sp. ). A Spanish type of comic opera of the late 18th century, portraying scenes from everyday life and approaching the character of low comedy.

St. Anthony Variations. Same as * Haydn Variations (Brahms). St. Elizabeth. See Legend Elizabeth.

of St.

St. John Passion (Bach, Schütz). See under Passion music. St. Martial, School of (sanh mar-SHAHL). A group of composers who were active at the abbey of St. Martial at Limoges

ST. MATTHEW

259

(southern France), an important music center in the 9th to 12th centuries. They played a leading role in the development of "sequences and "tropes (9th11th centuries) as well as in polyphonic music ( 12th century), preceding the School of Notre Dame (see Ars antiqua; History of music; also Organum.).

SALÓN MÉXICO

car Wilde's play), produced in Dresden, 1905. The story outlines the unholy love of Salome (soprano), stepdaughter of Herod (tenor), for Herod's prisoner Jochanaan (John the Baptist, baritone), who repulses her. Herod, desiring Salome, gives her an unconditional promise of reward if she will dance for him. She performs the famous "Dance of the Seven Veils" and then demands the head of the prophet. Herod grants her wish, but is so repelled by her passionate fondling of the severed head that he orders her killed. Except for the passages associated with Jochanaan, the music is some of the most intensely emotional ever written.

St. Matthew Passion. Bach's last and greatest Passion, based on the story as related by St. Matthew, with free poetic insertions by Picander, first performed at St. Thomas' Church in Leipzig on Good Friday, 1729. The first performance after Bach's death, produced in Berlin by Mendelssohn in 1829, was the decisive step toward the "redis- Salomon Symphonies. Haydn's covery" of Bach. See Passion last twelve symphonies, nos. 93 music. to 104, written 1791-95 in London for the concerts managed St. Paul. Oratorio by Mendels- by Johann Peter Salomon. They sohn, op. 36, produced in Dus- are also known as London Symphonies, but the name "London seldorf, 1836. Symphony specifically applies to St. Paul's Suite. A suite in four no. 104 (which, however, is also movements for string orchestra sometimes called the Salomon Others in this by Gustav Holst. It was com- Symphony ). posed in 1913 for the orchestra group are the "Surprise (no. of St. Paul's Girls' School, where 9 4 ) , the "Military (no. 100), he taught. The folk songs "Dar- the "Clock (no. 101), and the gason" and "Greensleeves" ap- "Drum Roll (no. 103). It should be noticed that the numpear in the last movement. bering of the complete series of Saite (ZEYE-te: G . ) . String. Haydn's symphonies is not in Leere Saite, open string. Saiten- agreement with the numbering instrumente, stringed instru- within this group. Thus, the nos. 94 and 104 of the complete ments. series are nos. 3 and 7 (rather Salmo (It., pl. salmi). Psalm, than 2 and 12) of the Salomon Symphonies. psalm composition. Salome ( SAHL-o-may ). Opera Salón México, El (sah-LON by R. Strauss (libretto by H. MAY-hee-co). A descriptive Lachmann, translated from Os- piece for orchestra by Copland,

260

SALTARELLO

SARRUSOPHONE

composed in 1933-36, inspired by the composer's visit to Mexico in 1932. It uses several popular Mexican melodies that might be heard in the dance hall called El Salón México.

Samson and Delilah (F., Samson et Dalila). Opera by SaintSaëns (libretto by F. Lemaire), produced in Weimar, 1877. It is based on the story from the Scriptures, to which the music provides a background of lush Saltarello (sahl-ta-REL-lo: from oriental colors. It., saltare, to jump). An Italian 16th-century dance in fast triple Sanctus ( SAHNK-toos ). The meter, often paired with (and fourth item of the Ordinary of following) the "passamezzo. In the "Mass. the 19th century the name was applied to dance music in very Saraband (SAR-a-band: F., G., rapid tempo and of a violent Sarabande). A 17th- and 18thcharacter, somewhat similar to century dance in slow triple methe "tarantella. An example oc- ter and of a dignified character, curs in the last movement of usually without upbeat and freMendelssohn's "Italian Sym- quently with an accent on the phony. second beat of the measure. It occurs as the third movement of See the Baroque "suite. The saraband appeared in Spain during Salve regina (sahl-vay ree-JEYE- the 16th century, probably comna: L., Hail, O Queen). A ing from the Orient. At that celebrated chant in praise of the time it was described and atVirgin Mary ( see under Anti- tacked by several writers (e.g., phon). The text has often been Cervantes ) as being wild and used for elaborate compositions, lascivious. However, no trace of first by Dunstable and Ocke- this character is suggested by ghem (15th century), more re- the surviving examples, dating cently by Pergolesi (five com- from 1600 on. Saltato, saltando Bowing ( d ) .

(It.).

positions), Schubert, and Fauré.

Salzburg Festivals. Summer musical festivals founded at Salzburg, Austria ( Mozart's birthplace), in 1920 by Max Reinhardt, R. Strauss, and others. Dramatic music, church music, chamber music, etc., of old and new composers is performed, with prominence given to the works of Mozart. Samba. A Brazilian dance in duple meter, derived from the maxixe (the predecessor of the "tango). It became popular in the United States in 1939.

Sardana (sar-DAH-na: Sp.). The national dance of Catalonia (northeastern Spain), usually in quick 6/8 meter and danced in a circle to the music of the "pipe and tabor. Sarrusophone (sa-ROOZ-o-fon). A type of instrument with a double-reed mouthpiece and a metal pipe, instead of the wooden pipe of the oboe family, invented in 1856 by the French bandmaster Sarrus. Various sizes, closely corresponding to those of the saxophone group, have been used in military

261

SASSOFONO

bands, but only one of these (the contrabass size in C ) has occasionally been used in French orchestral scores, to replace the contrabassoon. Sassofono (sah-SO-fo-no: Saxophone.

It.).

S. A. T. B. On title pages of vocal scores, abbreviations for soprano, alto (i.e., contralto), tenor, bass. Satz (zahts: Movement of phony, etc.

SCALA

starting from Bb) are the most common. They are regularly used in dance bands and often in military or marching bands. The alto saxophone has occasionally been used in symphonic orchestras, particularly by French composers ( Bizet, Delibes, Saint-Saëns, d'Indy, Ravel). R. Strauss scored for a quartet of saxophones in his "Domestic Symphony. See illustration.

G., sentence). a sonata, sym-

Saudade (sow-DAH-da: Portuguese, longing, nostalgia). A type of Brazilian dancing song of a nostalgic, melancholy character. It has been introduced into art music by Villa-Lobos and Milhaud ( Saudades do Brazil). Saul. Oratorio by Handel, produced in London, 1739. Sautillé (F., Bowing ( d ) .

springing).

Saxhorn. See under Brass struments, II.

See in-

Saxophone. A type of instrument, invented about 1840 by Adolphe Sax of Paris, which combines features of various other instruments: made of metal (as in brass instruments), having a single reed ( as in clarinets), having a conical bore (as in oboes). The complete family of saxophones numbers six sizes, alternately pitched in Ε-flat and B-flat, of which the alto ( E-flat, range starting from eb) and the tenor (B-flat, range

Saxophone The sound of the saxophone is extremely fluid. Being intermediate between the timbres of wood and brass, it may pass from the softness of the flute to the broad, mellow tone of the cello to the metallic strength of the cornet. It blends well with either the wood winds or the brass instruments. Sax tuba. See under Brass struments, II.

in-

Scala, La (SKAH-lah: It.). Short for Teatro alla Scala, the great opera house of Milan

SCALA ENIGMATICA

262

(Italy), so called because it was erected, in 1778, at the site of the church Santa Maria alia Scala (St. Mary's by the Stairs). Scala enigmatica Enigmatic scale.

(It.).

See

Scale (from L. scala, ladder). A succession of notes, normally either a whole tone or a half tone apart, arranged in ascending or descending order. The basic scales of most music heard today are the major and the minor scales, both consisting of seven different notes forming five whole tones ( w ) and two half tones ( h ) , the former in the arrangement w w h w w w h, the latter, w h w w h w w. Starting from c, the tones of the major scale ( C major) are: c d el g a iTc', those of the minor ( C minor ), c and /). The inat the right side and a horizontal tervals of the third, fifth, and loop antenna on the left. The octave are frequently not inplayer holds both hands in space, dicated by figures (3, 5, 8 ) , the and by moving his hands back understanding being that these and forth, changes the pitch with are to be added wherever suitthe right hand, the loudness with able. Chromatic alterations are the left. Its main drawback is indicated by a sharp, flat, or the impossibility of obtaining natural placed after the figure. distinct pitches without an in- If these signs occur without a tervening glissando. This disad- figure, they refer to the third

THREE-CORNERED HAT

301

degree, making this a major or a minor third. Sharpened degrees are also frequently indicated by a diagonal stroke through the figure or by an apostrophe. The accompanying examples ( Fig. 110) illustrate these principles;

Fig. 110 needless to say, this constitutes only the rudiments of the art of thorough-bass accompaniments, numerous details and additions being left to the player's skill and ingenuity. Basso continuo or simply continuo is the name for bass parts to be played in this manner. However, these terms were also used for "continuous" bass parts to be played without additional chords. Three-Cornered Hat, The (Sp., El Sombrero de tres picos). A comedy ballet by Falla, produced in London, 1919. Based on a novel by Alarcón, the story relates the marital mix-ups of a village official, a miller, and their wives. The music, largely taken from Andalusian sources, has a strong Spanish flavor, and some of the dances (particularly the Miller's Dance) have become popular concert pieces. Threepenny Opera, The ( G., Die Dreigroscherwper). Operetta by Kurt Weill (libretto by Brecht), produced in Berlin, 1928. It is a modern "ballad opera, based on the plot of Gay's The Beggar's Opera (1728), with attractive music in a sophisticaed jazz style.

TILL

EULENSPIEGEL

Through-composed. Strophic.

See

under

Thunder machine. A device introduced by R. Strauss in his "Alpine Symphony to imitate thunder. It consists of a big rotating drum with hard balls inside which strike against the drumhead. Thus Spake Zarathustra ( G., Also sprach Zarathustra). Tone poem by R. Strauss, op. 30, completed in 1896. It is based on the well-known literary work of the German philosopher Nietzsche, in which the concept of the superman is propounded in speeches of Zarathustra (Zoroaster, founder of the ancient Persian religion, c. 1000 b.c.). The work is divided into several sections: Of the People of the Hinterlands, Of the Great Longing, Of Happiness and Misfortune, Song of the Grave, Concerning Science ( an extremely dissonant and pedantic fugue ), The Convalescent, Dance Song, Song of the Night, and Song of the Night Wanderer. Tie. An arching line connecting two successive notes of the same pitch, indicating that the second note should not be played, but should be added to the value of the first. Tierce de Picardie Îicardy third.

(F.).

See

Till Eulenspiegel's Merry Pranks (til OY-len-shpee-gel: G„ Till Eulenspiegels lustige Streiche ). Tone poem by R. Strauss, op. 28 (1895), based on the 16thcentury German folk tale of Till

TIMBALE

302

TIRASSE

cle for "imperfect time" ( tempus imperfectum), i.e., duple division. While in both of these mensurations the semibrevis was the unit, the sign 4 indicated that the brevis was to be considered as the unit. Hence, the circle and the half circle were called alla semibreve, and the 4 was called alia breve, a term which still survives today. About 1700 the symbol c o was used to indicate measures of double length, i.e., 8 / 4 instead of 4 / 4 (Bach, Partita no. 6, Gigue), a method of designation also enTimbale (tanh-BAHL: F . ) . Ket- countered in the original sign tledrum. 4Φ , i.e., 4 / 2 instead of 2/2, of Schubert's Impromptu op. 90, Timbre (tamhbr: F.; also Eng- no. 3. lish). Same as 'tone color.

Eulenspiegel (Tyl Owlglass), perpetrator of numerous pranks. The music develops, in a free rondo form, around two themes, one representing Till as a popular hero, the other as a vagabond and prankster. There are no specific programmatic connotations except for the close, which clearly suggests the sentencing and hanging of Till. The introductory material, which also serves as a coda, establishes the fairy-tale touch, "once upon a time."

Timbrel. Older English term for Timpan. Old English for tympanon, a medieval instrument the tambourine. similar to the 'dulcimer. See Time. Same as 'meter, e.g., 4 / 4 also under Tympani. time equals 4 / 4 meter. Timpani (TIM-pah-nee: It.). Time signature. A sign given at Kettledrums. Timpani coperti or the beginning of a composition sordi, muffled ketdedrums. to indicate its 'meter (time). It consists of two figures written Tin-Pan Alley. Designation for like a fraction, the lower figure the industry, centered in New indicating the chosen unit of York City, which publishes measurement, whether half note, popular music. The name is ofquarter note, etc. (half note = ten used with derogatory con2; quarter note = 4; eighth note = 8, etc.), the upper figure in- notations. dicating the number of such units in a measure. Thus, 3/2 Tipping. See under Tonguing. means that there are three half notes to the measure; 4/4, four Tirarsi (It., to be drawn). See quarter notes; 6/8, six eighth under Tromba. notes, etc. In addition there are two special signs, c for 4/4, Tira tutti (TEE-rah TOO-tee: and φ for 2/2. Both survive It., draw all). In organ music, from the old system of ' m e n - direction to use the full organ, sural notation, in which the full i.e., "pull out all the stops." circle was used to indicate "perfect time" (tempus perfectum), Tirasse (tee-RAHS: F . ) . Organ i.e., triple division; the half cir- coupler.

TIRER

303

Tirer, tirez (tee-ray: F., draw). ( 1 ) Retard.— ( 2 ) In organ music, indication to draw a specified stop. Toccata (to-KAH-ta: It., from toccare, to touch [the keys]). An important type of early keyboard music, originating in the 16th century but cultivated mainly during the Baroque period. Its chief characteristic is the combination of various styles, improvisatory, virtuoso, fugai, etc., the whole being designed to exhibit the resources of the instrument ( particularly the organ ) as well as the ingenuity of the composer and the virtuosity of the performer. The earliest toccatas, by Andrea Gabrieli (1510-1586), consist of full chords and intervening scale passages only. Claudio Merulo (1533-1604) introduced one or two fugai (F) sections (in •ricercar style) alternating with sections in free toccata (T) style ( T F Τ or Τ F Τ F Τ ) . While Frescobaldi created a highly personal type of toccata characterized mainly by frequent change of musical ideas, the Merulo type was developed during the 17th century under the North German composers ( Weckmann, 1621-1675; Buxtehude, 1637-1707; Bruhns, c. 1665-1697), reaching its culmination in the works of J. S. Bach. These compositions combine sections in toccata style with fugues, in various arrangements (such as T F Τ, T F Τ F Τ, Τ F, etc.). Bach used the toccata style also for some of his preludes, e.g., in the great Α-minor Prelude and Fugue for organ. Italian composers of the late 17th century ( Pasquini,

TONADA

1637-1710; A. Scarlatti, 16601725) developed the toccata (without fugue) in the direction of superficial keyboard virtuosity, gradually leading to the etudes of Clementi and Czerny. Both the free, rhapsodic type of the North Germans and the etude type of the Italians have been revived by later composers. Examples of the etude type (perpetuum mobile) are the toccatas by Schumann, Debussy (in Pour le piano), Honegger, Prokofiev, and Casella, while the Toccata by Busoni is a fascinating re-creation of the Bach toccata. Tod und Verklärung. See Death and Transfiguration. Tombeau (tonh-BO: F., tombstone ). A composition written in memory of a deceased person. French composers of the Baroque period wrote such pieces in commemoration of friends or famous composers, e.g., d'Anglebert for his teacher Chambonnières, F. Couperin for Lully and for Corelli. Ravel revived this custom in his Le Tombeau de Couperin, a suite in six movements ( Prelude, Fugue, Forlane, Rigaudon, Menuet, Toccata) written originally for piano (1917), and orchestrated (without the fugue and toccata) in 1919. Tom-tom. American Indian or Oriental drum of indefinite pitch, imitations of which are occasionally used in dance bands. Tonada ( to-N AH-ttha : Sp. ). General Spanish term for song;

TONADILLA

304

TONE CLUSTER

also used in the Latin American in which tonality denotes the entire system of all the major countries. and minor keys, modality deTonadilla (to-nah-TTHEE-ya: noting the system of the church Sp. ). A short Spanish comic modes. Yet another meaning, of opera of popular type, some- a more recent date, is indicated what in the character of the in the use of the term "tonality" Italian opera buffa (see under as the opposite of "atonality." Comic opera). It flourished from Here tonality means "loyalty to about the middle of the 18th a tonic" (i.e., to a tonal center to the early 19th century. Chief which, of course, may change composers were Luis Misón (d. frequently during a composi1766), Pablo Esteve, and Bias tion) and therefore includes not only the music of the 17th to de Laserna (1751-1816). 19 th centuries but also the Tonal and real. In a fugue, an works of some modern composers answer is called real if it is an such as Stravinsky and Hindeexact transposition of the sub- mith, in contradistinction from ject; tonal, if certain intervals those of Schönberg, who rejected are changed. Such changes fre- the traditional concept of tonalquently take place if the subject ity. contains the interval of a fifth (for example, d-a), this being Tondichtung ( TON-dikh-toong : answered, not by the transposed G. ). Tone poem, 'symphonic fifth (a-e'), but by the fourth poem. (a-d') as in Fig. I l l (from Tone. A sound of well-defined pitch and quality, as distinct from a noise or a diffused sound such as that of a bass drum or a gong. Tone, therefore, is the basic building material of muFig. Ill sic. It has four distinct properBach's Art of Fugue). Fugues ties: pitch (for example, c'), having a tonal answer, at least duration (e.g., a half note), inin the beginning, are sometimes tensity (e.g., forte), and timbre called tonal fugues; those hav- or "tone color (e.g., flute sound, ing a real answer being called trumpet sound). The term is also real fugues. For a somewhat dif- used (especially in England) in ferent application of the terms the meaning of whole tone (i.e., tonal and real, see under Se- major second) as opposed to half tone or semi-tone. In quence ( 1 ). American usage, a distinction is Tonality. A term essentially usually made to the effect synonymous with "key (C ma- that one "hears a tone" and jor tonality equals key of C "sees a note," a note being the major), but also often used in written symbol for a tone. more general and vague connotations, e.g., in the distinction Tone cluster. In modern music, between tonality and modality, a strongly dissonant group of

TONE COLOR

305

tones lying close together (d-dí-e-f-f# or e-f-g-a-b, etc.). The term was invented by Henry Cowell who, along with Charles Ives, has used the device extensively, sometimes prescribing that an entire section of the keyboard be depressed by the forearm or by a board of specified length. For an example see under Chords, Fig. 22r. Tone color. The peculiar quality of a tone as sounded by a given instrument or voice. The term, therefore, indicates the difference between two tones of the same pitch, duration, and intensity (see under Tone) if performed on, e.g., a violin and a flute. The tone color ( also called quality or timbre) is determined by the harmonics ( see Acoustics, 4). Tone poem. Same as phonic poem.

"Sym-

Tone row. See under tone technique.

Twelve-

TOSCA

Tonic accent. An accent resulting from higher pitch. It plays an especially important role in Gregorian chant, where accented syllables often have a note of higher pitch, for example, a-g-g on Dòmino. Tonic Sol-fa. A method of notating music by means of syllables (see Solmization), developed about 1840 by John Curwen and now widely used in England, particularly for instruction and choral singing. The syllables (borrowed from the old system of solmization) are: doh, ray, me, fah, soh, lah, te, and are indicated in the notation by the letters d, r, m, f, s, 1, t. They are used as "movable" syllables ("movable do"), that is, they indicate not fixed notes but the seven degrees of the key in which the composition is written ( e f i gï a . . . , if the key is E major). Higher and lower octaves are indicated by horizontal dashes above or below the letters, and time values are indicated by the placement of the letters within each bar.

Tonguing. In playing wind instruments, the use of the tongue for greater precision of attack, the tongue moved as in pronouncing the letters t or k: t-t- . . . ( single tonguing ), t-k, t-k . . . ( double tonguing or tipping). Flutter tonguing is produced by rolling an r with the tip of the tongue (as in Italian pronunciation ).

Tonic Sol-fa is useful for the specific purposes for which it was devised, i.e., sight singing and ear training, but is practically useless for more complex types of music such as for piano, orchestra, etc.

Tonic. The first and main note of a key, c in C major (minor), d in D major (minor), etc. See Scale degrees; Key; Tonality; Chords.

Tosca (TAWS-ka). Opera by Puccini (libretto by G. Giacosca and L. Illica, based on Sardou's drama of the same title), produced in Rome, 1900. The plot

Tonsatz, Tonstück (TON-zahts, TON-shtuik: G.). Piece of music, composition.

TOUCH

306

takes place in Rome in 1800, and the main characters are Angelotti (bass), a political offender who has escaped from prison; his friend Cavaradossi (tenor), a painter; Tosca (soprano), a singer in love with Cavaradossi; and Baron Scarpia (baritone), the chief of police who is in amorous pursuit of Tosca. In Act II, Scarpia questions Cavaradossi about Angelotti's hiding place, sending him to the torture chamber when he refuses to answer. Tosca agrees to come to supper with Scarpia, where she hears Cavaradossi's cries of pain under torture and, in despair, divulges Angelotti's hiding place. Scarpia sends Cavaradossi to prison to be shot, but assures Tosca that blank shells will be used. When Scarpia advances to embrace her, she stabs him to death. In Act III Tosca sees Cavaradossi in his cell, and tells him about the mock execution. The bullets are real, however, and she discovers that her lover's "marvelous acting" is bitter reality. When the police come to arrest her for Scarpia's murder, she throws herself over the battlements of the prison. Touch. In pianoforte playing, the way of approaching and depressing the keys in order to obtain a satisfactory sound, as well as a variety of tone qualities, ranging from the soft and lyrical to the harsh and percussive. The basic idea of touch is that piano playing permits not only dynamic gradations ( p p , p, mf, etc.), obtained by differing the force applied to the keys, but also of additional variations of tone color, so that a mf may be

TRACT

either "lyrical," "vigorous," "percussive,' etc. Scientifically, this idea is unsupportable since the sound of the pianoforte is produced by hammers whose movement can be varied only as regards the speed with which they hit the strings. However, piano playing is not a scientific and mechanical process, but is largely conditioned by mental attitudes, and, to project them, the idea of "touch" with its numerous subtleties is useful and often indispensable. Touche (toosh: F . ) . Key (of the pianoforte) or finger board (of the violin). Sur la touche, same as "flautando. Tourte bow (toort). Designation for the type of violin bow made by F. Tourte (1747-1835). See under Bow. Toye. Title of short and playful pieces of the Elizabethan period. Toy Symphony. A playful composition usually ascribed to Haydn and scored, aside from the 1st and 2nd violins and double bass, for toy instruments such as cuckoo, quail, nightingale, trumpet, drum, rattle, and triangle. It is a delightful little symphony to be played and enjoyed by children and adults alike. Recent investigations indicate that it is not by Haydn but by Mozart's father, Leopold (1719-1787). Tp. Abbreviation of timpani. Tr. Abbreviation of trumpet or trill (tr). Tract. In Gregorian chant, an item of the Proper of the Mass,

TRADUCTION

307

TRANSITION

used occasionally instead of the Alleluia. Historically, the tract is the older of the two chants. From about 600 on, the Alleluia took the place of the tract, which was retained only for feasts of a somber character.

spired by a poem of R. Dehmel describing how the happiness of two lovers, despite their personal tragedy, can transfigure a bleak winter's night into a thing of great beauty. The style of this early work derives from the "love music" of Wagner and Traduction (trah-duiks-YONH: R. Strauss, with occasional imF. ), traduzione ( trah-doot-see- pressionistic effects. It was later arranged for full string orchesO-nay: It.). "Arrangement. tra, and finally became the music for the ballet, Pillar of Fire. Tragic Overture (G., Tragische Ouvertüre). An orchestral composition by Brahms, composed Transformation of themes. The in 1880 as a companion piece modification of a theme made in to the "Academic Festival Over- such a way as to "change its perture. sonality." This is a 19th-century device ( also called metaTragic Symphony. Subtitle, pro- morphosis ) which differs from vided by Schubert, of his Sym- earlier, more technical, methods phony no. 4, in C minor, com- of modification, such as augmenposed in 1816. The work is tation and diminution, inversion, clearly more serious and somber or ornamentation. A characterthan his first three symphonies. istic example exists in the various appearances of the idée fixe of Berlioz' "Fantastic Symphony. Transcendental Etudes. Twelve The method was more fully exconcert etudes by Liszt, pub- ploited in Liszt's symphonic lished in 1851 under the title of poems, in Wagner's operas, Études d'exécution transcen- where it is applied to the "leitdantes, referring to their great motivs (see Fig. 112, from Siegtechnical difficulty. fried), and in Sibelius' symphonies. Transcription. Essentially the same as "arrangement, but admitting considerable freedom in the handling of the original material, as, e.g., in the numerous transcriptions by Liszt in which themes from Wagnerian operas Fig. 112 or other sources are freely presented in the glittering light of Transition. A passage designed a highly virtuoso pianism. to connect two sections of a comTransfigured Night (G., Verklärte Nacht). Sextet in one movement, for two violins, two violas, and two cellos, by Schönberg (op. 4, 1899). It was in-

position, e.g., two movements of a sonata (frequently in Handel), or two sections of ternary form, or two successive themes in sonata form ( here also called "bridge passage).

TRANSPOSING

308

Transposing instruments. Instruments for which the music is written not in its actual pitch, but in a different key. An example is the clarinet in A, that is, a clarinet whose fundamental tone (with all keys depressed) is A. Since for a player of such an instrument A major is the simplest key, it has become customary to present this key to him in the simplest notation, C major. Music for the clarinet in A, therefore, is always notated a minor third higher than it sounds and, as a result, sounds a minor third lower than written (see Fig. 113). The use of trans-

4'r-rfrtorrrfrfife

( a ) . Α-clarinet as written. ( b ) . A s it sounds.

Fig. 113 posing instruments (more accurately, of transposing notation) dates back to the period (18th century) when wind instruments such as horns and trumpets were valveless ( see Natural horn, trumpet) and therefore could be played only in their "natural" key. Modern instruments, however, can be played with almost equal facility in all the keys, so that there is no reason why their music should not be notated according to actual pitch. It is very unfortunate that a mere archaism has been preserved which greatly, and quite unnecessarily, adds to the difficulty of reading orchestral scores. The most important among the transposing instruments are the

TRAUERMARSCH

clarinet (in Bb or A), the English horn (in F ) , the French horn (in F ) , the trumpet (in Bb and A), and the cornet (in Bb and A). The term "transposing" is also applied to instruments such as the piccolo which, quite sensibly, is notated an octave lower than it sounds in order to avoid the extensive use of ledger lines. Transposition. The playing or rewriting of a composition in a key different from the original, for example, Ε-flat instead of D. The music remains the same, except for a change of pitch. Accompanists particularly are often required to transpose in order to accommodate the vocal range of a singer. The easiest transposition is that of a chromatic semitone, for example, from F to F-sharp or from E to Ε-flat, since here most of the written notes remain unaltered, and it is only necessary to imagine a different key signature. Other transpositions (a second, third, etc., down or up) are considerably more difficult, particularly in the case of modern music involving modulations, chromatic alterations, etc. Transverse flute. An older name for the flute, used in the 18th century to distinguish this instrument, held horizontally, from the "recorder, held vertically. Traps. In jazz parlance, the various noise-producing devices attached to the drum ( trap drum ) and played by the trap drummer. Trauermarsch (TROW-er-marsh: G. ). Funeral march.

TRAUER-ODE

309

Trauer-Ode ( TROW-er-O-de : Funeral Ode ). A choral work by Bach, written in 1727 on the death of the Electress Christiane of Saxony. It is based on an ode by Gottsched, and is in the form of a cantata, with choruses, arias, and recitatives. Trauer-Symphonie (TROW-erzim-fo-NEE : Mourning Symphony). Nickname (because of its somber character) for Haydn's Symphony no. 44 (c. 1771), in E minor.

centration numbers.

TREMOLO on

effective

vocal

Tre (tray: It.). Three. Sonata a tre, trio sonata. Tre corde, see Una corda. Treble. An older term for the highest part of a choral composition, i.e., soprano. It is derived from L. triplum, a 13thcentury designation for the "third," i.e., the highest part of a three-voice composition. For treble recorder, treble viol, see under Recorder; Viol.

Traversière ( trah-vayr-see-AYR : F . ) , traverso (trah-VAYR-so: Treble clef. Same as G clef It.), Traversflöte (TRAH-vers- (violin clef). FLEU-te: G.). 'Transverseflute. Tremolo (TREM-o-lo: It., tremTraviata, La (trah-VEEAH-ta: ble). On stringed instruments The Erring Woman). Opera in the quick reiteration of the same three acts by Verdi (libretto by note, produced by a rapid upF. Piave, after Dumas' La Dame and-down movement of the bow. aux camélias), produced in It is indicated as shown in Fig. Venice, 1853. The scene is Paris 114a. The string tremolo is an of the 1850's, with the courtesan important orchestral effect freVioletta ( soprano ) as the central quently used for moments of figure. Falling in love with Al- dramatic impact or as a vibratfred Germont (tenor), she gives ing background for melodies up her life of pleasure and lives played by other instruments. with him (Act II) but, implored by Alfred's father (baritone), leaves his home and resumes her former life. Alfred, not knowing that her change of mind is only a pretext, insults her, but in Act Fig. 114 III he and the dying Violetta are again united in love. The term tremolo is also used Traviata is one of the earliest for the rapid alternation of two instances of the use of a contem- notes (Fig. 114b), this being porary plot in opera, a practice called fingered tremolo, because which became established, about it is produced by a rapid mo1890, by the 'verismo move- tion, not of the bow, but of a ment. Musically it follows the finger. tradition of the Italian opera In pianoforte music, the term with its mixture of lyrical and tremolo is used, not for a rapid pathetic elements, its melodies repetition of the same note, but of a popular type, and its con- for its rapid alternation with the

310

TREMULANT

higher octave. This effect is used mainly in piano arrangements of orchestral works to imitate the string tremolo or sustained chords. In singing, tremolo denotes a fluctuation of pitch resulting from a lack of control on the singer's part. See under Vibrato. Tremulant (TREM-ew-lant). An organ stop producing alternating increases and decreases of wind pressure, thus causing mechanical pulsations which have an expressive effect similar to a violinist's vibrato. Trenodia (tre-no-DEE-a: Threnody, dirge.

It.).

Trepak (tray-PAHK). A Russian dance in quick duple time. Triad ( T R E Y E - a d ) . A chord consisting of three tones: a fundamental note, its upper third, and its upper fifth. It may also be described as consisting of two superimposed intervals of a third. Depending on whether the intervals are major or minor (see under Intervals), there are four species of triad (Fig. 1 1 5 ) : ( a ) major, consisting of a major third plus a minor third ( c-e-g ) ; ( b ) minor, consisting of a minor third plus a major third (c-eb-g); ( c ) diminished, consisting of two minor thirds ( c f - e - g ) ; ( d ) augmented, consisting of two major thirds ( c - e - g í ) . The major and minor triads are consonant (see Consonance and dissonance), and form the basis of the entire system of "chords.

Fig.

115

TRILL

Triangle. A percussion instrument consisting of a steel bar bent in the shape of a triangle and suspended from a hook or chord. It is struck with a steel rod and produces a high, tinkling sound of indefinite pitch. Trill. A musical ornament consisting of the rapid alternation of a given tone with its upper neighbor. It is indicated by the sign tr or t, to which, in the case of extended trills, a long wavy line is added. Regarding details of performance, a distinction must be made between the "modern trill," which came into use early in the 19th century, and the "old trill," which is the only proper one for the works of Bach and Handel (very likely also for Haydn, Mozart, and early Beethoven). The modern trill starts on the written note, is played as rapidly as possible, and usually closes with a fivenote turn introducing the lower neighbor note. This closing turn is required when the next principal note is higher than the main note of the trill, especially

TRILLO DEL DIAVOLO

311

when it is a second above; the turn may often be omitted when the trill leads to a lower note (see Fig. 116a,b). The old trill differs from the modern one in two main details: it invariably starts on the upper neighbor note (regardless of the pitch of the preceding note), and it is performed in small rhythmic values, but not "as fast as possible." It is often indicated by a zigzag line ( wrongly called inverted mordent). See Fig. 116c. See also under Ornaments. Trillo del diavolo (It.). Devil's Trill Sonata.

See

Trilogy (Gr., three ideas). Wagner's subtitle for the "Ring of the Nibelung. See also Tetralogy. Trinklied (TRINGK-leet: Drinking song.

G.).

Trio (It., group of three). ( 1 ) Designation for a group of three performers; also for the music that they perform. The most important type is the piano trio for piano, violin, and cello. Particularly famous are Beethoven's Trios, op. 70 ("Ghost Trio) and 97, and Schubert's, op. 99 and 100. The string trio for violin, viola, and cello was rarely used in the 19th century, but has received some attention by modern composers ( Hindemith, Schönberg). An unusual combination is Brahms' "Horn T r i o . — ( 2 ) In older music, trio means a composition in three contrapuntal parts, irrespective of the number of instruments, which may vary from one (harpsichord, organ, e.g., in Bach's six organ sonatas ) to four (see under Trio sonata). Modern examples of a "Trio for

TRIPLE

COUNTERPOINT

pianoforte" (not to be confused with a "Pianoforte trio") have been written by Hindemith. — ( 3 ) Name for the middle section of the scherzo or minuet movement of sonatas, symphonies, etc.; see under Minuet. Also for the middle section of other compositions in "ternary form, e.g., military marches and some of the Impromptus by Schubert. Trio sonata. The most important type of Baroque chamber music, so called because it is composed in three parts, two upper parts of similar range and design, and a supporting thorough-bass part. The trio sonata is usually performed on four instruments; two violins (or violin and flute) for the upper parts, a cello (or viola da gamba) for the bass part, and a harpsichord ( or organ ) for the bass part and the improvised harmonies ( see Thorough bass). For the form, see under Sonata, II. Trio sonatas were written by Corelli, Purcell, Handel, d'Abaco, and many other composers from about 1680 to 1750. Bach preferred the trio sonata without thorough-bass accompaniment, e.g., in his sonatas for violin and harpsichord (calling for two instruments) or in his organ sonatas (for only one). There are practically no examples of trio sonatas performed on three instruments. Triple concerto. A concerto for three solo instruments (and orchestra), e.g., Beethoven's Concerto, op. 56, for piano, violin, cello, and orchestra. Triple counterpoint. See under Invertible counterpoint.

TRIPLE FUGUE

312

TRITONE

Double by his servant Kurvenal (baritone), dies (Act I I I ) in the arms of Isolde, who has come Triplet. A group of three notes to nurse him. Heartbroken, she to be performed in the place of joins him in death. Tristan is without doubt the two of the same value, indicated by a 3 and usually by a slur ( see fullest musical incarnation of Fig. 117). Occasionally the pat- love and passion ever presented on the stage. Acts II and III are practically an "unending love duet" in which feeling and sensation, ranging from the tenderFig. 117 est to the most passionate, are tern shown at the end of the portrayed. Owing to the relameasure is notated as a dotted tive simplicity and unimportance rhythm; see Dotted notes, Fig. of the story, the "leitmotiv plays 34d. a secondary role in this opera, if compared with the Ring. The Triple meter (time). See under most conspicuous features of the music are the "unending Meter. melody" and a harmonic vocabuTristan and Isolde (TRIS-tahn lary full of daring chromatics and ee-SOL-de: G., Tristan und and appoggiaturas. Isolde). Opera in three acts by Wagner to his own libretto Tritone ( TREYE-tone ). The in( based on a medieval legend terval of the augmented fourth of Celtic origin), produced in ( c - f ï ) or diminished fifth ( cMunich, 1865. The main char- gb), so called because it spans acters are Isolde (soprano), an three whole tones. It has always Irish princess, and Tristan been considered a "dangerous" (tenor), a knight who is escort- interval ( see Diabolus in muing her from Ireland to Corn- sica) which was to be avoided wall, to be married to the Eng- or treated with special precaulish king Marke (bass). Isolde, tion. As a melodic progression, learning from Tristan that he it was rarely used before 1900, has killed her former betrothed except in combinations such as in combat, is torn between c-fff-g, in which f ï becomes the hatred and love, and orders her leading tone before g. In modcompanion Brangäne ( mezzo- ern music, however, it has been soprano) to prepare a poisoned established as a legitimate indrink for Tristan and herself. terval, e.g., in the "whole-tone Brangäne, however, mixes a love scale in which it replaces the potion, and the potion takes ef- perfect fourth; in bitonal forfect just as the ship arrives at mations ( Petrushka chord; see the Cornish coast (Act I ) . The under Bitonality) ; and in varilovers, meeting while the king ous experimental devices based goes hunting (Act I I ) , are spied on the fact that the tritone is upon by Melot (baritone), who exactly one half of the octave, wounds Tristan in a duel. Tris- the interval c-ft being the intan, brought to his own castle version of f#-c\ Triple fugue. See under fugue.

TRITTICO

313

Trittico (TREET-ti-co: It., Triptych, i.e., a painting on three panels as often found over altars). Name for a cycle of three independent one-act operas by Puccini, composed in 1918: ( 1 ) Suor Angelica (Sister Angelica) has a sentimental plot centering around a Florentine girl with an unfortunate past who has retired to a convent. When she hears that her child, born in sin, is dead, she kills herself, but her soul is borne to heaven by the Virgin. ( 2 ) Gianni Schicchi has a comical plot (laid in the 13th century) involving a rich merchant, Donati, who has died and left his entire estate to charity. His friend Gianni, by a clever ruse ( he climbs into the deathbed and impersonates the dying Donati), succeeds in making a new will in his own favor. ( 3 ) Il Tabarro (The Cloak) is a tragic story in which Michele, a boatsman, kills Luigi, a longshoreman, who is the lover of Michele's wife Giorgetta. He covers the corpse with his cloak and, when the woman returns, flings back the cloak and reveals the dead body of her lover.

TROMBONE

name of tromba spezzata ("pieced," with reference to its consisting of several pieces). Tromba marina (TROM-ba mahREE-na: It.). A stringed instrument of the later Middle Ages, consisting of a long tapering body (5 to 6 feet in length), narrower at the top, over which a single string was stretched. The string was not stopped, but slightly touched to produce harmonics. No satisfactory explanation of the strange name has been given. Tromba Tromba.

spezzata.

under

Trombone. A brass instrument with a cup-shaped mouthpiece and a cylindrical tube bent into an oblong shape with two long parallel sides, and expanding into a bell. A sliding mechanism

Trojans, The. See Troyens. Tromba (TROM-ba: It.). Trumpet, also called tromba cromática, tromba a macchina, tromba ventile, i.e., valve trumpet. Tromba da tirarsi is the slide trumpet, an 18th-century type having a short slide underneath the mouthpiece and therefore capable of producing more notes than the natural trumpet. The same instrument (possibly also the trombone ) is occasionally prescribed by Bach under the

See

Trombone

314

TROMMEL

takes the place of the valves used on the other brass instruments and, like these, serves to fill in the gaps between the natural tones (see Wind instruments). See illustration. The trombone can be regarded as the tenor member of the trumpet family, although its tone is more mellow, less brilliant, than that of the trumpet. This difference in tone color is due mainly to the larger mouthpiece of the trombone. In addition to the normal trombone pitched in B-flat ( tenor trombone), with a range from E to bb', the bass trombone, with a range a fourth below the tenor, is used. Historically, the trombone is interesting because it was the first of all the orchestral instruments (except for drums) to appear in its present shape. The earliest extant representations, in paintings of the late 15th century, show all the essential features of the modern trombone. Trommel (TROM-el: Drum. Grosse Trommel, drum; Kleine Trommel, drum.

TROUBADOURS

serted between the two original words ( Kyrie, fons bonitatis, eleison) and set syllabically to the melisma of the original melody. Frequently, however, long sentences and even entire poems were placed between two words of the authentic text. A special type of particular importance are the "sequences. All the tropes, numbering many thousands, were abolished by the "Council of Trent, except for a few sequences. — ( 2 ) In 20th-century music, the term trope has been used by Josef Hauer (b. 1883) in connection with his special system of twelve-tone music, differing from that developed by Schönberg. Hauer distinguishes 44 tropes ( each including about 100,000 different tone rows), and considers each trope as a sort of "key." Any change from one trope into another is modulation. His system has not been widely accepted.

Troppo (TROP-po: It.). Too G.). much, usually in combinations bass such as Allegro ma non troppo snare ( fast, but not too fast ).

Troubadour, The (Verdi). See G. ), * Trovatore. F.). Troubadours. A medieval class of poet-musicians active in France (Provence) Trope. ( 1 ) In the Roman southern Catholic liturgy of the 9th cen- from about 1100 to 1300. Most tury and later, an addition, of them were members of the textual and/or musical, to the nobility, devoting themselves not chants that had become stand- only to fighting and hunting, but ardized under Pope Gregory (c. also to cultivating poetry and 600) or later. Among the sim- music in romantic service to plest and shortest examples are chivalrous love. About 2500 the Kyrie tropes, in which a few poems are preserved and about words, such as fons honitatis 250 of their melodies. They are (fountain of goodness), are in- all monophonie songs, a considTrompete trompette Trumpet.

( trom-PAY-te : (tronh-PET:

TROUT

QUINTET

315

erable number showing the form of the ballade (see Ballade, 1), while the majority are throughcomposed. Possibly there was, at least on occasion, some instrumental participation, e.g., by a fiddler ("jongleur) playing in unison with the singer, or extemporizing a short prelude. Outstanding members of the group were Guillaume de Poitiers (c. 1070-1127), Marcabru (a commoner, died c. 1150), Bernart de Ventadorn ( died 1195), Raimon de Miraval (died c. 1220), and Guiraut Riquier (died 1294), known as the "last of the troubadours." Trout Quintet. Schubert's Quintet in A, op. 114 (1819), for violin, viola, cello, double bass, and piano, in five movements, the fourth being a set of variations on his song The Trout (G., Die Forelle). Trouvères (troo-VAYR). A medieval class of poet-musicians active in central and northern France from about 1150 to 1300. The movement developed from the "troubadours, and showed the same general traits. About 4000 poems are preserved, 1400 of them with melodies. Most of these show the form of the ballade (see Ballade, 1), a relatively small number being through-composed. Other forms associated with the trouvère movement are the "lai, the "rondeau, and the "virelai. Outstanding members of the group were Blondel de Nesles (c. 1150-c. 1200), Thibaut IV (1201-1253; king of Navarre ), Perrin d'Angecourt (fl. c. 1250), and Adam de la Halle ( a commoner, c. 1230-1288).

TROYENS

Trovatore, Π (eel tro-va-TAWray: The Troubadour or The Minstrel). Opera by Verdi (libretto by S. Cammarone, based on a Spanish play), produced in Rome, 1853. The plot ( Spain, 15th century) centers around the beautiful Countess Leonora (soprano), the young troubadour Manrico (tenor), with whom she is in love, and the Count di Luna (baritone), who loves her. In the opening scene we are told by Ferrando (bass), Luna's Captain of the Guard, that the Count's younger brother, when a baby, had been stolen by a gypsy woman, Azucena ( contralto ). Unknown to the Count, this child is Manrico, who has grown up as Azucena's son. In Act III, Azucena has been captured by Luna and cast into prison. Manrico, about to be united with Leonora, hears that his "mother" is to be burned and rushes out to her rescue. He is also captured (Act IV), and Leonora now implores the Count for mercy, offering herself to him in marriage. In the last scene, Azucena and Manrico are both in the dungeon. Leonora comes to tell him that he is free, but dies of poison she has taken in order to escape the dreaded marriage with the Count. The Count orders Manrico's execution, and is finally told by the dying Azucena that he has killed his own brother. Troyens, Les (lay trwah-YENH: The Trojans). Opera by Berlioz, to his own libretto (after Virgil), in two parts: Le Prise de Troie (The Taking of Troy) and Les Troyens à Carthage (The Trojans at Carthage), composed

316

TRUMPET

TUBA

scores of Sibelius, Stravinsky, Shostakovich, and others contain many interesting trumpet passages, frequently of a caricaturing character. Within the past thirty years the trumpet has also found a prominent place in jazz bands, replacing the cornet. See illustration. Trumpet marine. See marina.

Tromba

T. s. Abbreviation for tasto Tsigane ( F . ) . See Trumpet 1856-59. Only the first part was produced during Berlioz' lifetime (Paris, 1863), the whole work being first performed in 1898. Trumpet. A brass instrument with a cup-shaped mouthpiece and a narrow tube which is cylindrical for about three quarters of its length, then widening out into a moderate-sized bell. The tube is bent into an oblong shape, with two short parallel sides. The trumpet has three valves (rotary or piston), hence the name valve trumpet in distinction to the earlier natural trumpet. The trumpet is pitched in B-flat (the pitch can be lowered to A by means of a short slide or a special valve) and has a chromatic compass of two octaves and a half, from fS to c"\ It has a brilliant and penetrating tone color, and is capable of great agility. The development of a virtuoso trumpet technique has enabled composers to use the trumpet as a melody instrument equal in agility to the wood winds. The

solo.

Tzigane.

Tuba. A term somewhat loosely applied to any sort of brass instrument with the range of a bass, except the trombone. Orchestral tubas combine the conical bore of the horn with the oblong shape and the cupped mouthpiece of the trumpet. They have four or five valves and exist in three sizes: tenor tuba in B-flat, a fifth below the horn; bass tuba in E-flat ( EEflat bass tuba), an octave below the horn (also in F, one tone

317

TUBULAR BELLS

tuba (BB-flat bass tuba), an octave below the tenor tuba. Wagner tuba is the name given to instruments designed for Wagner's Ring. They have a somewhat narrower bore and a funnel-shaped mouthpiece like that of the horns. They combine the agility of the cornet with the mellow timbre of the true tubas. See illustration. Generically, the term tuba also includes the various bass instruments used in brass bands. The most important of these, such as the euphonium, helicon, sousaphone, and baritone, are described under "Brass instruments, II. Tubular bells. See

Chimes.

Tucket. In plays of the Elizabethan period, a stage direction indicating a fanfare to be played on trumpets and drums. See also Sennet, which meant much the same thing. Tune. ( 1 ) Popular term for a simple and easily remembered melody, e.g., a folk song or an attractive theme from a symphony. — ( 2 ) "In tune" means singing or playing in proper pitch, "out of tune," the opposite. See Tuning. Tuning. In stringed instruments (violins, etc., pianoforte, harp), the adjustment of the tension of the strings in such a way that they sound at their proper pitches. Also similar adjustments for the pipes of an organ and for the other instruments. The term is used particularly with reference to the piano which, because of the great number of strings, presents a special prob-

TURN

lem of tuning. The modern method of piano tuning is based on the pure ocatve and the tempered fifth (see under Equal temperament). The octaves are tuned so as to give no "beats, while the fifths are obtained empirically by lowering the pure fifth (no beats) to the point where it gives one beat per second. Tuning fork. A two-pronged fork made from steel and used to indicate the correct absolute pitch, usually for the tone o' (440 vibrations per second; see under Pitch). Turba (L., crowd). In oratorios, passions, etc., name for the choral movements representing a shouting crowd, e.g., the high priests or the heathens. They are usually fast movements in fugai style using short motives in close imitation. Numerous examples exist, e.g., in Bach's St. Matthew Passion. Turca, Alla (AHL-lah TOOR-ca: It., in the Turkish style). Title used for pieces written in imitation of the Turkish military music (see Janizary music), which was popular in Europe in the late 18th century. Turkish crescent. See Turkish.

Crescent,

Turn. An ornament consisting essentially of four notes, that is, upper neighbor, principal, lower neighbor, and principal note, e.g., if d is the written note, e-d-c-d. It is indicated by a curved line, placed above the note or, in compositions of the Classical period ( Haydn, Mo-

TUTTE LE CORDE

318

zart), by writing the first three notes as grace notes (Fig. 118a). If, as is often the case, the sign appears between two notes, this means that the four-note ornament, instead of replacing the first note, should be played after it, as shown under ( b ). Very often the turn appears after a dotted note, as under ( c ) . As regards the rhythmic execution, a great deal of freedom is left to the discretion and taste of the player, who should always take the tempo into consideration. The inverted turn, starting with the lower neighbor note, is indicated by the ordinary sign upside down ( ~ ) or in a vertical position ( 2 ) or, more frequently, by grace notes (Fig. 118d).

TWELVE-TONE

Tutti (TOO-tee: It., all). In orchestral works, particularly concertos, the passages or sections for the whole orchestra, as distinct from those of the soloist.

Twelve-tone technique. A 20thcentury method of musical composition devised by Schönberg (c. 1920) as a means of motivic construction and unification within the general framework of * atonal music, replacing traditional principles of melody, harmony, and tonality. The main principles of the twelve-tone technique are as follows: 1. Every composition is based on a so-called series or tone row, containing all the twelve chromatic tones in a succession chosen by the composer. The chosen order of tones remains unchanged throughout the composition, except for the modifications explained below. The entire composition, therefore, consists of nothing but restatements of the series in any of its numerous formations (horizontal and vertical). 2. The octave position of any tone can be changed at will. 3. In addition to its original form ( S ) , the series can be used in its inversion ( S ' ), in its retrograde form ( S r ) , and in its retrograde inversion ( S r l ) . 4. The above four forms of the series can be used in transposition to any step of the chromatic scale. Thus the series becomes available in 48 ( 12 χ 4 ) modifications. 5. From this basic material innumerable formations can be derived, differing as to rhythm, Fig. 118 chordal grouping, polyphonic Tutte le corde. See under Una juxtaposition, etc., and it is with these that the actual process of

TWELVE-TONE

TWENTIETH-CENTURY

composition begins. The technical premises explained above are no more restricting ( actually, less so) than those of any other method (e.g., the triads and harmonic progressions as employed by Classical composers), especially since so many liberties are taken with the fundamental "rules." See Fig. 119. Schönberg's method has been adopted by Alban Berg, Anton Schönberg, Suite op. 25

von Webern, Ernst Krenek, and numerous other composers. Although twelve-tone music is usually atonal, and although any reference to traditional harmonic practices was originally avoided, there is nothing in this technique that precludes the inclusion of tonal elements such as triads. Some of the more recent twelvetone compositions show tendencies in this direction. See also Trope ( 2 ). Twentieth-century music. The music of the 20th century has developed along two general lines: ( 1 ) the expansion and final working out of trends established in the 19th century ("Romanticism, "Impressionism), and ( 2 ) the more or less novel practices distinctive of the 20th century, which are essentially anti-Romantic. Some of the more radical of these practices are often distinguished from the others by the designation of "New Music. By and large, the musical development during the first half of the century can be divided into three periods: Impressionism and post-Romanticism (c. 1900—15); experimentation along the lines of "Expressionism, "Dynamism, etc. (c. 1 9 1 0 - 2 5 ) ; and "Neoclassicism (c. 1920-present).

Fig.

119

The second decade of the century, dominated by World War I, encompassed the most widespread and daring experimentation. Of basic importance was the activity of Schönberg who, casting away the harmonic system and the formal methods of the past, arrived, about 1910, at a radically novel style, the most distinctive feature of which was "atonality. (To this he

TWENTIETH-CENTURY

320

added, in 1923, his equally revolutionary method of composition, t h e "twelve-tone technique. ) Simultaneously, new possibilities in the field of rhythm were exploited, e.g., by Bartok in his Allegro barbaro ( 1 9 1 0 ) , inspired by the fanatical d r u m beating of primitive African tribes, and by Stravinsky in t h e folkloristic ballet *Petrushka ( 1 9 1 1 ) and the primordial " R i t e of Spring ( 1 9 1 3 ) . T h e French writer, Cocteau, aptly expressed t h e spirit of this period in the words, "After the music with the silk brush, t h e music with the axe." Provocative slogans such as bruitisme (noise music), " f u t u r ism, motorism, and machine music appeared without leaving a lasting imprint on the f u t u r e evolution. Experimentation in t h e field of tonal material led to "quarter-tone music. Aside from the above-mentioned leaders, composers such as Kodaly, Malipiero, Casella, Honegger, Milhaud, and Berg contributed to the developments of this experimental period. T h e neoclassical movement, which started in the early 1920's, brought with it a certain degree of unification and consolidation by a return to the formal and aesthetic ideals of t h e 18th century ( a n d earlier), now revitalized in a modern musical language. Once more, Stravinsky took the lead with such compositions as the Octet for W i n d Instruments ( 1923 ). Bartok and Hindemith, who were destined to become the major composers of the half century (along with Schönberg and Stravinsky), began to receive international recognition. Hindemith was active in the development of

TWENTIETH-CENTURY

"Gebrauchmusik and also devised a useful theoretical explanation of t h e n e w harmonic and tonal concepts. Bartok represents another main development of t h e period since 1920: t h e assimilation and synthesis into a colorful and expressive musical language of most of t h e experimental techniques of the second decade. One other noteworthy feature of the period around 1920 is the impact of American jazz on serious music, resulting in such works as Stravinsky's Ragtime ( 1 9 1 8 ) , Hindemith's Suite 1922, and Krenek's jazz opera Jonny Spielt Auf (1926). T h e materialistic trend of our century is reflected particularly in the numerous attempts to expand t h e materials of music, often at the expense of ( or without concern for) its spiritual and expressive values. Many n e w instruments (chiefly "electrophonic instruments) have been invented, and even typewriters and motorcycle engines have been given musical status. Unusual coloristic effects on string and wind instruments have become common practice in modern scores, and t h e piano has been " p r e p a r e d " to produce new tonal effects ( see Prepared piano ). Recently, a school of French composers led by Pierre Boulez has been experimenting in what they call musique concrète (concrete music), i.e., music which uses recordings of assorted sounds and noises rather than musical tones as its basic material. Other composers, notably Karlheinz Stockhausen, have used electric resonators to produce compositions recorded on tape. Such experimentation

321

TWILIGHT

does not belong to the main stream of musical development at present, however. Since about 1935 there has been a general tendency to lessen the gulf between modern music and the listening public, and most composers are showing a renewed concern for euphony and expressiveness, discarding some of the more esoteric techniques and materials.

UKULELE

i.e., kettledrums. Tympanon is the ancient Greek term ( tympanum in Latin) for a big drum. Medieval writers, confusing it with cymbalon, used it as a term for the dulcimer, a meaning which still persists here and there.

Tyrolienne (tee-ro-LYEN: F . ) . A popular dance of the early 19th century, imitating Tyrolian folk music. It combines the Twilight of the Gods, The. Wag- rhythm of the Ländler ( slow ner's Götterdämmerung. See waltz) with the melodic figuraunder Ring of the Nibelung. tions suggestive of the 'yodel. Two-step. See under

One-step.

Tzigane (tsee-GAHN: F.). Tympani ( TIM-pa-nee ). Less Gypsy; gypsy music (à la tzicorrect spelling for It. timpani, gane).

u U. c. Short for *una Ukeleie. See

corda.

Ukulele.

Ukrainian Symphony. Tchaikovsky's Symphony no. 2, in C minor, op. 17 (1872), also called Little-Russian Symphony, "Little Russia" being the common name for the Ukraine in the 19th century. Ukulele ( yoo-ku-LAY-lee ). A small Hawaiian guitar, with four strings, tuned g'-c'-e'-a'. It developed from a Portuguese guitar, and became popular in America about 1920. The music is notated in a manner similar to (though not derived from) the

Ukulele

UMFANG

322

UNGHERESE

by Vicente Martín y Soler, a Spanish composer ( 1 7 5 4 - 1 8 0 6 ) . It was produced in Vienna, 1786, and is remembered today only because Mozart included an extended section from it in the finale of Act II of Don Giovanni, as part of the music played durUmfang ( UM-fahng : G. ). ing Don Giovanni's supper. Compass, or the vocal or instrumental range. Undertow. Ballet by William Schuman (choreography by A. Umstimmen ( UM-shtim-en : Tudor), produced in New York, G. ). To change the tuning, e.g., 1945. Symphonic excerpts of the of kettledrums. intensely dramatic music have been arranged by the composer Un Ballo in maschera ( I t . ) . for concert performance. See Masked Ball.

lute "tablatures of the 16th century. Each chord is indicated by a symbol of four vertical lines representing the four strings, and of small dots indicating the position of the fingers on the frets. See illustration.

Una corda (OO-na KAWR-da: It., one string). In piano music, a direction ( abbr. u. c. ) to use the left pedal (soft pedal) which, if depressed, moves the entire action (keyboard and hammers) a little to the right, thus causing the hammers to strike a single string (in modern instruments usually two strings ) instead of all three. The indication is canceled by tre corde or tutte le corde (t. c.). Beethoven, who was the first to indicate the use of the soft pedal, not only calls for a gradation in three steps: una corda, due, e poi tre corde (Gmajor Concerto, op. 58, slow movement), but even for a gradual execution of the shift: poco a poco due corde (Piano Sonata, op. 101, slow movement). The latter request obviously represents an unattainable ideal. For an erroneous una corda indication in the Moonlight Sonata, see under Sordino.

Unequal temperament. See under Temperament. Unequal voices. Designation for vocal compositions using male as well as female voices. Unfinished Symphony. Schubert's Symphony no. 8, in Β minor, so called because only the first two movements exist. These were written in 1822, six years before the composer's death. That Schubert intended to complete the work appears from the fact that he had sketched out the beginning of the scherzo. Preoccupation with other compositions is the probable reason why the symphony remained unfinished. Schubert sent the two movements to his friend Hüttenbrenner, and it was not until the latter's death in 1868 that the work was published, having had its first performance in 1865.

Una Cosa rara (OO-na CO-sa Ungherese, All' ( ahl-oon-gayRAH-ra: A Rare Thing). Opera RAY-se: It.). In the Hungarian

UNISON

323

VALSE

(gypsy) style; also, incorrectly, Un poco (oon PAW-co: It.). A little, e.g., un poco più lento, a all' ungarese. little more slowly. Unison. ( 1 ) Different instruments or voices are said to be Unterwerk (UN-ter-vayrk: G.). "in unison" if they jointly per- Choir Organ. form the same melody, either at Upbeat. A note or a group of identical pitches or in octave notes occurring on the weak beat duplication, the latter method at the beginning of a musical being properly called octave uniphrase, immediately before the son ( see All' unisono ). — ( 2 ) bar line. Name for the "zero" interval, for example, c-c (see under In- Up-bow. See under Bowing. tervals). Upright piano. See under PianoUnit organ. A modern type of forte; Grand piano. organ in which one rank of pipes is made to serve for several Urlinie, Ursatz (G.). See under stops. Thus, a rank of 8' Prin- Schenker System. cipal pipes can be employed to Ut. See Pitch names (French); provide 16' Principal, 8' Prin- S olmization. cipal, and 4' Octave, which normally would require 183 Utility music. See Gebrauchsmupipes. This method, called unisik. fication (also extension), is widely used for theater organs Utrecht Te Deum (Handel). and in small church organs. See under Te Deum.

V V. Abbreviation: ( 1 ) For violin. — ( 2 ) In older Italian music, for voci (voices).— ( 3 ) In liturgical books, with a slash line through it, for verse ( f ) . Va. Abbreviation for viola.

a special type in which the melody proceeds in notes having a value of two beats, hence in syncopation and in cross-rhythm to the triple meter of the accompaniment. A familiar example occurs in Gounod's Faust.

Valkyrie, The ( VAL-kui-ree ). Wagner's Die Walküre. See un- Valse, La. "Poème choréographique" (dance poem) for order Ring of the Nibelung. chestra by Ravel (composed in Valse ( F . ) . "Waltz. Valse à 1920), imitating and cleverly deux temps (in two beats) is parodying the Viennese waltz

VALSE TRISTE

324

VARIATIONS

of Johann Strauss. It is often be lowered further, down to six used for ballet performance. half tones. See also under Wind instruments. Valse Triste (vahls treest). A popular waltz for orchestra by Valve horn, trumpet, etc. The Sibelius, originally composed modern horn, trumpet, etc., ( 1903 ) as part of the incidental built with 'valves, as distinmusic to the play Kuolema. guished from the earlier types which had none, e.g., the natural Valses nobles et sentimentales horn or the slide trumpet. Valve ( vahls nobl ay sanh-ti-manh- trombones (which have not been TAHL). A set of waltzes for popular) are trombones having piano by Ravel, composed in valves instead of the sliding 1911 and orchestrated by the mechanism. composer to serve as the music for the ballet Adélaïde, ou le Vamp. An extemporized accomLangage des Fleurs. The adjec- paniment or introduction for tives "noble" and "sentimental" popular songs, consisting of (already used by Schubert) are simple chords in familiar rhythused to distinguish between the mic patterns. Hence, vamping "elegant" and the "lyrical" types tutor, a book of instruction in of waltz. this type of playing. Valve. A mechanism, invented by Bliihmel in 1813, by which all the tones of the chromatic scale become available on the brass instruments ( trumpets, horns, tubas, etc.), the only exception being the trombone, on which they are produced by the slide. The essential part of the mechanism is not the valve as such, but the short pieces of tubing inserted between two points of the main tube which form a detour, thereby increasing the actual length of the pipe. Thus an instrument normally sounding B-flat (and its harmonics) can quickly be changed into a longer one sounding A (and its harmonics). Horns and trumpets usually have three valves (three detour tubings of varying lengths ) which lower the pitch a half tone, a whole tone, and a minor third, respectively. By combining two or all three valves, the pitch can

Variation canzona. See under Canzona (2). Variations. More fully, theme with variations. An important musical form, the principle of which is to present a given melody, called the theme, in a number of modifications, each of which is a variation. Variations occur as independent compositions (Bach's "Goldberg Variations, Beethoven's "Diabelli Variations) or as a movement, usually the slow one, of sonatas, symphonies, etc. (e.g., in Beethoven's "Appassionata Sonata and Ninth Symphony). The theme is usually a simple tune in binary ( often rounded binary ) form, either invented by the composer (Goldberg Variations) or borrowed (Diabelli Variations; also Brahms' "Handel Variations ). Variations often close with an extended and elaborate final section, in the char-

325

VARIATIONS

ing on which features of the theme are retained: Type A: Melody, harmonies, and structure retained. Type B: Harmonies and structure retained. Type C: Structure retained. Type D: Motives retained. (Structure means here the general outline of the theme, indicated by the number of measures, number and length of phrases, basic scheme of harmonies, cadential points, etc. ) Type A prevails in the variations of Haydn and Mozart; type Β in Beethoven and Schubert, also in Bach's Goldberg Variations; type C in Brahms; type

acter of an improvisation, or with a fugue whose subject is derived from the theme. For an understanding of variation technique it is important to realize that a variation always has something in common with the theme (otherwise it would not be a variation of the theme), and that it also deviates from it in some way (otherwise it would not be a variation of the theme). These two aspects can be conveniently distinguished as the "fixed" and the "variable" elements. Regarding the fixed aspect, the whole field can be roughly divided into four types of variation, depend-

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VARIATIONS

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Fig. 120

/

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326

VARIATIONS

D, often called "free variations," in modern works ( d'Indy's ° Is tar Variations; R. Strauss's 'Don Quixote; Reger's Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Mozart; also in Schumann's "Symphonic Studies ). Regarding the variable element, some of the standard procedures are illustrated in Fig. 120, a-g: ( a ) ornamenting variation; ( b ) contrapuntal; ( c ) melodic (new melody); ( d ) figurai (use of a characteristic figure); ( e ) canonic (two or more voices in canon); ( f ) harmonic ( modified harmonies ) ; ( g ) is an example of the character variation, in which a welldefined musical type, e.g., a waltz or a funeral march, is used as a model. It also illustrates three other methods of variation technique, i.e., change of meter, change of tempo (usually from fast or moderate to slow), and change of mode, from major to minor or vice versa. A special kind of variation, frequently used in the Baroque period and revived in modem music, is the "chaconne or passacaglia. Variations on a Theme by Diabelli (Handel, etc.)· See under Diabelli Variations.

VENT

Vaudeville (vode-VEEL: F . ) . Originally (17th, 18th centuries) a short satirical poem sung to a simple, tuneful (often pre-existing) melody. The name is probably derived from vaux de Vire (valley of Vire), birthplace of a 15th-century poet who is said to have invented this type. The vaudeville was the principal type of song in French comic operas of the 18th century. In the 19th century the name was applied to short comedies interspersed with popular songs, and today it is used for various kinds of light entertainment presented on the stage. Vc., Vcl. violoncello.

Abbreviations

for

Venetian School. A 16th-century school of Flemish and Italian composers active in Venice. It was inaugurated by Adrian Willaert (c. 1485-1562) and included, among others, Andrea Gabrieli (c. 1510-1586), Cypriano de Rore (1516-1565), Claudio Merulo (1533-1604), and Giovanni Gabrieli ( 1 5 5 7 1612). Its most outstanding achievement is the "Venetian style" of G. Gabrieli with its broad masses of sound, 'polychoral treatment, echo effects, and extensive use of instruments, alone and in combination with voices. The group also included two of the most progressive theorists of the century, Niccola Vicentino (1511-1572) and Gioseffo Zarlino (1517-1590).

Varsovienne (vahr-so-VYEN: F. ). A Polish dance, named after the city of Warsaw (F., Varsovie), in slow mazurka rhythm, usually with an accented dotted note on the first beat of each second measure. It was popular in ballrooms from about 1850 Venetian swell. See Swell. to 1870. Vatican Solesmes

Edition. method.

See

under Vent (vanh: F . ) . Wind. Instruments à vent, wind instruments.

VENTIL

327

VIBRAPHONE

Ventil (ven-TEEL: G.). Valve. tural texts. Such verses occur in the Graduais, Alleluias, Introits Ventilhorn, valve horn. (where they are indicated by Ventile ( ven-TEE-lay : It. ). Ps., i.e., Psalm), Responsories, Valve. Corno a ventile, valve etc., in combination with antiphons or responses. They are alborn. ways sung by the soloists ( except Verbunko ( VAYR-boon-ko: for a short choral ending), and Hungarian, from G. Werbung, this connotation was taken over and draft). An 18th-century Hun- into the Verse Anthem garian dance performed by Verse Service of the Anglican soldiers in full uniform with Church. These latter terms desword and spurs. The "csórdas is note settings including sections said to be a 19th-century re- for solo voices, as distinguished from the purely choral Full vival of the verbunko. Anthem and Full Service. — Verismo (vay-REEZ-mo: It., For organ verse, see Verset. realism ). An Italian operatic (VER-set: from It. movement of the late 19th cen- Verset little verse ). Organ tury which represents the musi- versetto, cal counterpart of the literary verse, i.e., a short organ piece, "realism" of Zola, Flaubert, and usually in fugai style, so called Ibsen. Instead of the heroic, because it was used in the Romythological, or historical li- man Catholic service of the 16th bretti of Rossini, Verdi and to 18th centuries to replace the Wagner, realistic subjects from even-numbered verses of the everyday life were chosen. Psalms or canticles. The oddColoratura arias and the tune- numbered verses were performed ful melodies of the earlier Italian in plainsong. opera were abandoned in favor of a melodramatic and natural- Versicle. Same as 'verse, paristic recitative. Outstanding ex- ticularly in the Anglican service. amples are Mascagni's *Cavalleria rusticana (1890), Leon- Vespers. The evening service of cavallo's "Pagliacci (1892), and the Roman Catholic and of the Puccini's La *Bohème (1896), Anglican Church ( see under the latter showing a somewhat Office ). The Roman Catholic modified verismo of a more vespers consist mainly of singing the five vesper Psalms, nos. lyrical character. 109-113 (110-114 of the King James Bible) and the "MagVerkaufte Braut, Die (G.). See nificat. Mozart wrote two VesBartered Bride. pers (K. 321, 339) for voices, orchestra, and organ, each conVerklärte Nacht (G.). See sisting of the above-named items. Transfigured Night. Via (VEE-a: It.). Away, e.g., Verse. In Gregorian chant, a via sordini, remove the mutes. verse ( abbreviated Y ) of a Psalm or a canticle, occasionally Vibraphone. An instrument of also a sentence from other Scrip- the marimba type, in which the

VIBRATO

328

VIELLE

resonators are kept vibrating by means of electric impulses. This imparts a pulsating quality to the sound produced on the metal bars, a sort of artificial tremolo (see under Vibrato).

first movement became associated with the Morse code signal for V (· - · — ) . The nickname was only briefly popular, and is rarely if ever used today. See Fate Symphony.

Vibrato (vee-BRAH-to: It.). On violins, cellos, etc., a minute fluctuation of pitch produced by a shaking motion of the left hand. Modern players use it as a basic technique in order to increase the emotional quality of the tone, although some great violinists have insisted that it be reserved for moments of heightened expression, as it was in the earlier days of violin playing. In singing, the term usually denotes a slight wavering of pitch, añ effect which corresponds to the violin vibrato since it increases the emotional quality of the tones without resulting in a noticeable fluctuation of pitch. Cultivated by many singers, it is avoided by others as likely to degenerate into a real wobble, which is then called "tremolo. In singing, therefore, vibrato and tremolo are essentially the same effect, varying only in degree, while in violin playing they denote two entirely different effects, vibrato denoting a fluctuation of pitch, whereas tremolo denotes a rapid reiteration (or pulsation) of an unchanged pitch or rapid alternation between two pitches. The Bebung of the 'clavichord is a vibrato. The Tremulant stop on organs produces a tremolo, the Voix Céleste stop a vibrato.

Vida breve, La (lah VEE-ttha BRAY-vay: The Short Life). Opera by Falla (libretto by C. F. Shaw), composed in 1905 and produced (in French translation) in Nice, 1913. The story relates the love of Salud, a gypsy girl, for a young man above her caste who loves her, although he is engaged to marry a girl of his own class. At the wedding party for her lover and his fiancée, Salud sings of her love and betrayal, but her lover denies everything, and she falls dead. The music includes many "Flamenco melodies and other authentic Spanish dances and chorus songs.

Victory Symphony. A nickname for Beethoven's Symphony no. 5, coined during World War II when the opening theme of the

Vide (veed: F . ) . Empty. à vide, open string.

Corde

Vide (L.). See. The term is used, with its two syllables ( v i - d e ) placed at separate points of the score, to indicate an optional shortening, the player being permitted to skip from the point marked vi- to the point marked -de. Vielle (vyel: F . ) . The medieval type of violin (12th to 15th centuries), later superseded by the "viol (16th century). It had four fingered strings and a drone string. The instrument has been revived for the performance of medieval music. After it had become obsolete, the name was applied to the wheel viol (see Hurdy-gurdy, 1 ) , properly called vielle à roue.

VIENNESE CLASSICS

VIOL

under Villanella, villanesca ( veel-ahNEL-a, veel-ah-NESS-ka : It., rural song). A 16th-century type Vier ernste Gesänge ( feer ERN- of vocal music which originated ste ge-ZENG-e: Four Serious in Naples and which forms a Songs). Four songs by Brahms, sharp contrast to — probably a op. 121 (1896), for baritone and parodistic reaction against — piano, to words from the Bible: the refinements of the con1. It befalleth the Man as the temporary madrigal. Although Beast ( Eccl. iii: 19-22); 2. I probably suggested by folk mureturned and considered (Eccl. sic, the villanella had as little in iv: 1 - 3 ) ; 3. O death, how bitter common with the Italian peas(Ecclus. xli: 1, 2 ) ; 4. Though I ants as had the gallant style ( see speak with the tongues of men under Rococo) of the 18th cenand angels ( I Cor. xiii: 1-3, 12- tury with the shepherds of France. The sophisticated and 13). parodistic character of the villanella appears particularly in Vihuela (vee-WAY-lah: Sp., the frequent use of parallel from vielle). The Spanish guitar triads, strictly prohibited in 16thof the 16th century. The num- century style. Thomas Morley, ber and tuning of the strings, in his Plaine and Easie Introto Practicall Mustek as well as the notation and duction manner of playing, were the (1597), aptly describes it as same as on the "lute. An im- "clownish music to a clownish pressive repertory of music for matter." the vihuela has come down to More recent composers, such us in the books of Luis Milan as Berlioz, Chabrier, Dukas, (1536), Luis de Narvaez Granados, and Loeffler, have (1538), Miguel de Fuenllana used the term villanelle ( F . ) or (1554), and others. villanesca for instrumental pieces in the style of a rustic dance, Villancico (veel-yan-THEE-ko: usually in quick 6/8 meter. Sp.). A type of 15th- and 16thcentury Spanish poetry, idyllic Viol ( VEYE-ul ). Name for a or devotional as to subject family of stringed instruments matter, and consisting of several used mainly during the 15th to stanzas linked by a reiterated re- 17th centuries, following the frain. The poems were set to various types of medieval fiddles music for three or four voices (rebec, "vielle) and being supereither in a simple note-against- seded in turn by the violin note style, or as solo songs with family. The viols differ from the lute accompaniment. After 1600 violins mainly in that: (a) the the villancico adopted an en- shoulders slope down from the tirely different meaning, i.e., of neck instead of being at right a composition resembling a angles; ( b ) the normal number cantata or an anthem, based on of strings is six instead of four, a religious text and written in tuned in fourths with a third in several movements for chorus, the middle, for example, D G soloists, and orchestra. c e a d' for the bass viol (viola Viennese Classics. Classicism.

See

329

330

VIOL

da gamba ); ( c ) the sound holes have the shape of a c instead of an f ( see Sound holes ) ; ( d ) the viols were not pressed against the shoulder but were held downward, resting on or between the legs of the player. See illustration.

VIOLA D'AMORE

tivated mainly in England for chamber music (see Fancy) until about 1660, when the violin made its appearance there. Only the bass viol or viola da gamba was largely used as a solo instrument in England as well as in Italy, France, and Germany. Bach used it in three sonatas and in the aria "Komm süsses Kreuz" of the St. Matthew Passion. There also existed a doublebass viol, which is the ancestor of the modern "double bass. See also Baryton; Viola d'amore; Violone. Viola (vee-O-la). The second member of the "violin family, tuned a fifth lower than the violin, c g d' a'. Its size, however, is only one seventh larger than that of the violin, a disproportion which results in a more veiled and slightly nasal tone color, different from that of the violin and the cello.

Viol The viols have a delicate and soft tone color, lacking the brilliance and intensity of the violins. During the 17th century they existed in three sizes, treble viol (tuned d g c' e' a' d"), tenor viol (A d g b e' a'), and bass viol (D G c e a d'). According to T. Mace's Mustek's Monument (1676), a good "chest of viols" consisted of "two basses, two tenors, and two trebles." Viol music was cul-

Viola da braccio (vee-O-la dah BRAHT-cho: It., braccio, arm). Originally ( 17th century ) the Italian name for all the stringed instruments held "in the arm," i.e., against the shoulder. Later identified with the "viola ( hence the German name Bratsche). Viola da gamba (vee-O-la dah GAHM-ba: It., gamba, leg). Originally ( 17th century ) the Italian name for all stringed instruments held "on the leg," i.e., all the viols. Later it was identified with the bass viol ( see under Viol). Viola d'amore (vee-O-la dahMAW-ray: It.). An instrument similar in size and shape to the treble "viol, from which it was

VIOLA POMPOSA

331

distinguished by the addition of "sympathetic strings made of thin wire and stretched behind the bowed strings, thus producing a silvery resonance. The name probably refers to the scroll which was usually fashioned as a blindfolded face of the god Amor. The instrument was used chiefly in the 18th century ( Bach, St. John Passion and Cantata no. 132; Haydn, Divertimento in Ε-flat), but survived in the 19th- and 20th-century works of such composers as Meyerbeer ( Les Huguenots ), Charpentier ( Louise ), Puccini (Madame Butterfly) R. Strauss (Sinfonia Domestica), Loeffler (The Death of Tintagles), and Hindemith (Sonata, op. 25, no. 2; Concerto, op. 46, no. 1). See Baryton. Viola pomposa (vee-O-la pomPO-sa: It.). An 18th-century instrument of the violin (not viol) family, probably a larger viola with five strings. Its invention has been erroneously ascribed to J. S. Bach. Violin ( veye-o-LIN ). The most important of the stringed instruments, in the orchestra as well as in chamber and solo music. Its main parts are: ( a ) the body, consisting of the table (soundboard), the back, and the ribs ( side walls ) ; ( b ) the finger board, ending in the pegbox and the scroll; ( c ) the string holder (tail piece); ( d ) the bridge. Other details are shown in the illustration below. Inside the body there is the "bass-bar, the "sound post, and reinforcing blocks glued to the corners and to the back. The violin has four

VIOLIN

strings tuned in fifths: g d' a' e". The prominent position held by the violin results from its appealing tone color, an expressiveness ranging from the softest

lyricism to the highest dramatic excitement, a dynamic flexibility and subtlety unsurpassed by any other instrument, its ability to blend well in an ensemble, and a great variety of special coloristic effects, including many types of "bowing as well as the "pizzicato and the use of "harmonics. The violin emerged about 1600, gradually superseding the "viols during the 17th century. A singular glory surrounds the "old violins." While all other modern instruments have reached their highest degree of perfection within the past fifty years, the great period of violin making extends from about 1600 to 1750. During this time the center of the craft was in Cremona in northern Italy where the three greatest masters of all, Nicolo Amati ( 1 5 9 6 - 1 6 8 4 ) , An-

VIOLIN

FAMILY

332

tonio Stradivari (1643-1737), and Giuseppe Guarnieri ( 16861744; also known as Giuseppe del Gesù) were producing their unsurpassed instruments. The most renowned of all is Amati's pupil, Stradivari, who created (c. 1700) the model for his most celebrated instruments, e.g., the "Betts" (1704), the "Viotti" (1709), the "Rode" (1722), the "Sarasate" (1724), the "Wilhelm]'" (1725), and the "Swan" (1735). Stradivari is believed to have made 1116 instruments in all between 1666 and 1737; of these, 540 violins, 12 violas, and 50 cellos are known to exist, all priceless instruments for which fabulous sums have been paid. Although the craftsmanship and beauty of these old violins have never been equaled, modern makers have produced instruments whose sound can hardly be distinguished from that of a genuine Stradivari. The widespread belief that the varnish has a decisive influence on the sound of a violin has been shown to be untrue. The incomparable luster of the old instruments adds greatly to their beauty, but nothing tangible to their tonal quality. In the "orchestra, the violin is regularly used in two groups, distinguished as Violin I and Violin II (see Fig. 80 for a seating plan of a symphony orchestra). Both employ the same kind of instrument, but for different parts. The same remark applies to the Violins I and II in chamber music, e.g., the 'string quartet. See also Violin family.

VIRGINAL

olin, the "viola, and the "cello. They form the nucleus of most chamber music ensembles, and, along with the "double bass, comprise the string section of the orchestra. Numerous other sizes, ranging from the violino piccolo (Bach, Cantata no. 140 and Brandenburg Concerto no. 1 ) to the giant Octobass ( 13 feet in height ), have been made, but none of these has achieved a permanent place in instrumental music. Violoncello (It.). See Cello. Violone (vee-o-LO-ne: It., big viol). A low-pitched member of the "viol family, approximately the size and range of a double bass and used in that function in the scores of Bach and his contemporaries. The modem double Dass is directly descended from the violone or, possibly, from a larger variety known as violone grosso. Virelai (VEER-e-lay: F . ) . A form of medieval French poetry and music, consisting of three stanzas with a refrain before and after each stanza. The form is as follows (considering only the first stanza ) : A b b a A ( A is the refrain, b b a the stanza). The virelai was cultivated mainly during the 14th and 15th centuries by Machaut and his successors. There also exist a few monophonie virelais of the 13th century. The virelai structure occurs also in many of the 13th-century "cantigas and "laude, as well as in the Italian "ballata of the 14th century.

Violin family. The chief mem- Virginal ( VUR-ji-nal ). A 16thbers of this family are the 'vi- century type of harpsichord used

VIRTUOSO

333

mainly in England, but described first in a German book of 1511. It is uncertain whether it is so called because it was played by young ladies or with reference to the Latín word virgo, (rod or twig, i.e., jack — part of the playing mechanism). The instruments were of various shapes: rectangular, wingshaped, or in the form of a trapezoid. A common designation, of obscure origin and meaning, was "pair of virginals." Among the English composers of the late 16th and early 17th centuries who wrote music for the instrument, the three outstanding masters were William Byrd (1543-1623), John Bull (c. 1563-1628), and Orlando Gibbons (1583-1625). Themost important source is the Fitzwilliam Virginal Book, a manuscript of c. 1620 containing 297 compositions, among which the numerous pavanes and variations on secular tunes are of particular interest. The virginalists were the first to develop an idiomatic harpsichord style, including many elements of the later piano style, e.g., rapid scales, broken-chord figurations, broken octaves, quick passages in parallel thirds and sixths for one hand, full chords, etc. Virtuoso. A performer who excels in technical ability. The term is sometimes used as a derogatory reference to one who excels in technique only, lacking comparable understanding and musical taste.

VOICE

VI. Abbreviation for violin; via., viola; vie, violoncello, vll., violins. Vocalise (F.), vocalizzo (It.). "Vocalization, 'solfeggio. Vocalization. An extended melody or an entire composition for voice(s) sung on a vowel (usually a), hence, without text. This method, which played an important role in the early history of music, is used today mainly for instructive purposes, as a vocal exercise (see Solfeggio). Occasionally, however, modern composers have used vocalization as an artistic medium, treating the human voice as a pure "instrument," unencumbered by words. Examples are the "Chorus of Heavenly Spirits" in Spontini's opera Nurmahal (1821), Debussy's Sirènes ( 1899 ), Ravel's Vocalise en forme d'Habanera (1907), Medtner's Sonata-VocaZ¿se( 1921), and Villa-Lobos' Bachianas Brasileñas no. 5 (1945). Vocal music. Music written for voices, either solo or chorus, with or without instrumental accompaniment. Voce (VAW-chay: It., pl. voci). Voice. A due voci, for two voices or instrumental voice parts; a tre voci, for three such parts. Colla voce, see under Col. Voci pari or eguali, equal voices. Voce di gola, throat voice, guttural voice; di petto, chest voice; di testa, head voice, "falsetto.

Voice. The human voice is essentially a wind instrument, with Vivace (vee-VAH-chay: It.). the lungs supplying the wind, Lively, quick. Vivacissimo, very the vocal cords setting up the vibrations, and the cavities of lively.

VOICE PARTS

334

the upper throat, mouth, and nose forming the resonator. Different pitches are obtained by varying ( subconsciously ) the tension of and the opening between the vocal cords. A unique feature of the human voice is that the resonator may be varied in shape, thereby producing different tone colors — the vowel sounds. The same pitch can be sung to different vowels and, on the other hand, complete melodies can be sung to one and the same vowel sound (see Vocalization). Usually, however, the human voice is employed with the vowel sounds varying according to the words of the text, which also introduce consonants between the vowels. Vocal timbre and style of singing are strongly influenced by tradition and taste. Until about 1500 much use was made of the 'falsetto, which later fell into disrepute. The celebrated "castrati of the 17th and 18th centuries possessed a type of voice which today few people would consider ideal. Even in the 19th century a decisive change in vocal color and style of singing took place, leading from the clarity and brilliance of the 18th-century "bel canto (Mozart) to the powerful and highly dramatic voice demanded by the Wagnerian operas. In modern popular music we are witnessing the cultivation of special manners of singing (see Crooning) which, although not recognized as artistic, help to illustrate the variability of the human voice. See also Voices, Range of; Register (2).

VOKALISE

position called, from top to bottom, soprano, alto, tenor, and bass. Voices, range of. The human voices are usually classified in six types: three female voices: soprano, mezzo-soprano, contralto; and three male voices: tenor, baritone, bass. The normal ranges of these voices are approximately an octave (more safely, a seventh ) below and above the notes b', g', e' and a, f, d, as shown in Fig. 121. Trained soloists frequently exceed these ranges, however. Particularly the singers of the 18th century possessed ranges which seem miraculous. The soprano Lucrezia Agujari ( 1743-83 ) could reach c " " , and a bass part in Handel's Acis and Galatea ( 1708 ), written for Giuseppe Boschi, shifts, within one measure, from a' to C(, more than 2% octaves. Russian basses are found who can sing down to Fi, a fifth below C.

Contralto

Mezzo

Fig.

Soprano

121

Voicing. In organ building, the mechanical adjustments necessary in order to obtain and maintain the proper tone color throughout a rank of pipes. In pianos, voicing is the rehabilitation of the hammer felts, necessary in order to obtain an even quality of sound.

Voice parts, voices. The indi- Vokalise ( vo-ka-LEE-ze : vidual parts of a choral com- 'Vocalization, "solfeggio.

G. ).

VOLKSLIED

335

Volkslied (FOLKS-leet: G.). Folk song, also popular songs of a similar character which may be of fairly recent origin and of known authorship, such as the Loreley (by Silcher, 1789-1860).

[the page]; volti subito v. s.), turn quickly.

WALTZ (abbr.

Voluntary. English organ pieces to be played in connection with the church service, as preludes, postludes, etc. They are often improvised.

Volles Werk (FOL-les G . ) . Full organ.

vayrk: Vorspiel (FOR-shpeel: G.). Prelude, operatic overture (Wagner). Volta ( I t . ) . See Prima volta. V. s. *Volti subito. Volteggiando ( vol-tej-JAHNdo: It.). Crossing the hands (in Vuota ( VWO-ta: It.). Open piano playing). string, on violins, etc. Volti (VOL-tee: It.). Turn over Vv. Abbreviation for violins.

w Wachet Auf (VAHKH-et owf: G. ). Bach's Cantata no. 140 ("Sleepers, Awake"), for the twenty-seventh Sunday after Trinity. The three choral movements ( the first, fourth, and seventh) are based on a chorale of the same title by Philip Nicolai ( 1 5 9 9 ) .

tively short Adagio in a somewhat improvisatory style, serving as an introduction to the Finale, an extended movement in rondo form,

Wagner tuba. See under Tuba.

Waltz. A dance in moderate triple time characterized chiefly by an accompaniment pattern consisting of a low bass note on the first beat and two chords in the middle register on the second and third beats. It developed, about 1800, from an Austrian peasant dance, the 'Ländler. The waltzes by Beethoven still resemble the Ländler, as also to some extent

Waldhorn (VAHLD-horn: G., forest horn). The French horn, either natural or with valves. Waldstein Sonata (VAHLDshteyen). Beethoven's Piano Sonata in C, op. 53 ( 1 8 0 4 ) , dedicated to Count Ferdinand Waldstein. It consists of three movements, the second being a rela-

Walküre, Die (vahl-KUI-re: G. ). Wagner's The Valkyrie. See under Ring of the Nibelung.

WALZE

336

WELLINGTON'S

do those by Schubert. Weber's "Invitation to the Dance (1819) is the first example showing the irresistible sway and characteristic accompaniment of the true waltz. For its later history the important names are those of Chopin, Johann Strauss, father and son, Brahms ( " Liebeslieder Walzer), R. Strauss (in Rosenkavalier), and Ravel (*Valses nobles et sentimentales; La "Vahe).

the War of the Buffoons was a conflict of the rising "Rococo against the dying "Baroque — of simple, natural expression against the pompous heroics of French Baroque opera.

War of the Buffoons (F., Guerre des bouffons). A famous quarrel which developed in 1752 between two parties of Parisian musicians and opera enthusiasts, those favoring the French serious opera (exemplified by works of Lully and Rameau) and those extolling the Italian comic opera (such as composed by Pergolesi). The immediate cause of the quarrel, which found its expression in dozens of pamphlets, books, and speeches, was a performance of Pergolesi's La Serva padrona by a troupe of Italian comedians ( buffi ). Essentially,

Weihe des Hauses (G.). See Consecration of the House.

Warsaw Concerto. A popular selection for piano and orchestra ( not a concerto in the proper sense of the term) composed by Richard Addinsell for the English motion picture Dangerous Moonlight (released in the U. S. Walze (VAHL-tse: G.). The as Suicide Squadron, 1942). crescendo pedal of the organ. Water Music. An orchestral suite Walzer (VAHL-tser: G.). Waltz. by Handel, probably composed about 1715 for a festivity taking Wanderer Fantasy. Nickname of place in boats on the Thames Schubert's Fantasy ( actually a River. It consists of about twenty sonata) in C for piano, op. 15 movements, somewhat like a (1822), so called because the Baroque sonata (see under Sosecond movement is a series of nata) followed by a suite. variations on a theme derived from his song Oer Wanderer Water organ. See Hydraulis. (1816). The initial pattern of this theme is used also at the Wedge Fugue. Nickname of beginning of the other three Bach's great organ fugue in E movements, making this work minor, so called because of the the earliest example of a com- increasingly widening intervals pletely "cyclic sonata. of its subject.

Weihnachts Oratorium. Christmas Oratorio (1).

See

Wellington's Victory (G., Wellingtons Sieg oder Die Schlacht bei Vittoria ). A "battle symphony" by Beethoven (op. 91, 1813), written in celebration of Wellington's victory over Napoleon. It consists of English and French fanfares, settings of Rule Britannia and Marlborough s'en va-t-en guerre, the Battle (punctuated by the English and

WELL-TEMPERED

337

French guns), a Charge, and, in the second part, a Victory Symphony containing a quotation of God Save the King. It was originally written for a mechanical instrument invented by Mälzel, but was orchestrated by the composer. Well-tempered Clavier, The (G., Das Wohltemperierte Clavier). A famous work by Bach, consisting of forty-eight compositions, each a prelude followed by a fugue. It is divided into two parts (WTC, I, 1722; WTC, II, 1744), each containing twenty-four preludes and fugues, one for each major and minor key ( in chromatic order ) : C major, C minor, C# major, CJt minor, D major, etc. "Welltempered" refers to a system of tuning, "equal temperament (G., wohltemperierte Stimmung ), which made it possible to use all tonalities. The system was a novelty in the early 18th century, and Bach's collection was the first complete realization of its possibilities. The work is often called "The Well-tempered Clavichord," but no restriction to this instrument is implied in the German name Clavier, nor in the compositions themselves. Whistle. A small and simple endblown flute with six finger holes, made of wood, metal, or plastic. Whole note. See under and rests.

Notes

Whole tone. See under Intervals. Whole-tone scale. A scale consisting of whole tones only, hence having six notes to the octave, for example, c-d-e-fï-gïaf-c'. It lacks three of the most

WIND INSTRUMENTS

fundamental intervals of traditional music, the perfect fifth, the perfect fourth, and the minor second. Lacking the minor second (for example, b-c'), the leading tone is necessarily absent. All of its triads are augmented (c-e-gS, d-fS-ai, etc.), and it is characterized by an "indecisive" quality since all scale steps are equal. Although used by some of his 19th-century predecessors (e.g., Glinka and Liszt ), it was cultivated mainly by Debussy, often as the basis of parallel-chord progressions. See Fig. 122.

Fig. 122 William Tell (F., Guillaume Tell). Opera by Rossini, produced in Paris, 1829. The overture was a popular orchestral concert selection until made banal by association with certain radio programs and motion pictures. Wind instruments. Generic term for all instruments in which the sound-generating medium is a column of air enclosed in a pipe. The wind instruments of the present-day 'orchestra are divided into two groups: brass (trumpets, horn, trombone, tuba, cornet) and wood wind (flute, clarinet, oboe, saxophone, and their relatives). While the brass instruments actually form a unified group ( and are all made from brass), the wood winds differ widely in character (and some of them are made

WIND INSTRUMENTS

338

from metal, e.g., flute, saxophone). For a proper understanding of the various wind instruments it is necessary to classify them according to different types of mouthpiece. The "brass instruments" form a group, not because they are all made from brass, but because they all have a cupped mouthpiece. In the "wood winds," on the other hand, we have three kinds of mouthpiece; the single reed (see Reed), used in the clarinets and saxophones; the double reed, used in the instruments of the oboe family; and the mouth hole, used in the flutes. In instruments with a cupped mouthpiece ( a mouthpiece in the shape of a cup or a funnel) the vibrations are set up directly by the lips of the player ( hence the scientific name, lip-vibrated aerophones). In the instruments with a reed they are produced by the vibrations of the elastic reed, which is loosely enclosed by the lips. In instruments with a mouth hole the lips are held so as to form a thin stream of air which is directed against the sharp lower edge of the hole. The sound of a wind instrument depends on the shape of the pipe, whether straight ( as in the flute, oboe, clarinet), circular (as in the horn), or wound or bent in any other way. The tone color depends mainly on the mouthpiece and on the inner dimensions of the pipe, whether narrow or wide, cylindrical (in the clarinet, trumpet, trombone), or conical (in the oboe, horn, tuba). The pitch of the sound depends only on the length of the pipe. Properly a pipe of a given length produces only one tone, e.g., a pipe of 8 ft. pro-

WOHLTEMPERIERTE

ducing approximately the tone C, one of 4 ft. producing c, etc. (see Foot). However, by proper control of the breath and the lips, called overblowing, a pipe can also be made to sound a number of higher tones, the "harmonics, which, together with the fundamental tone, form the natural tones of a wind instrument, for example, C c g c' e' g' W c" d" e", etc. (the fundamental tone is often difficult to obtain; see Pedal tone). They are the only ones available on a "natural" instrument (natural horn, trumpet), i.e., one consisting only of a pipe. In order to obtain the numerous tones between them, means must be provided temporarily to shorten or lengthen the pipe. These are three in kind: a slide (used on the "trombone), "valves (on all other brass instruments), and "finger holes (on all the wood winds). Wind machine. A device used to imitate the sound of wind, occasionally used for descriptive purposes (e.g., in R. Strauss's Don Quixote). It consists of a barrel framework covered with cloth and revolved so that the cloth is in friction against the cardboard or wood of the framework. Winterreise ( VINT-er-REYEze: Winter Journey). A cycle of twenty-four songs by Schubert, in two parts, composed in 1827 to poems by Wilhelm Müller. They are romantic pictures of a rejected lover's lonely journey in winter time. Wohltemperierte Clavier, (G.). See Well-tempered vier.

Das Cla-

WOLF

339

Wolf. Generally, any disagreeable effect produced by the imperfect tuning of instruments, e.g., by organ pipes not quite in tune. Also, imperfections inherent in certain older systems of tuning, e.g., the difference between GS and Ab in the meantone system. In violins and cellos the term wolf note is given to certain tones having a somewhat weak and wobbling sound, caused by the design of the instruments. They occur particularly near the Fit on the D-string of the cello and near the CS on the Α-string of the violin. Wood winds. See under tra; Wind instruments.

Orches-

WTC

scending, two voices, then three, six, and one are used successively for the words, "First two by two, then three by three together, Leaving their Goddess all alone."

wiesichdie Tropfenplötzlichtel-len Fig.

123

Wozzeck (VOT-sek). Opera in three acts by Alban Berg (to his own libretto, based on G. Büchner's drama of 1836), produced in Berlin, 1925. The story relates the attempts of the desperately poor soldier, Wozzeck (tenor), to provide for his mistress, Marie ( soprano ), and their young son. Marie, however, yields to the advances of the handsome drum major (baritone) and is murdered by Wozzeck. Unable to forget his crime, Wozzeck returns to the scene of the murder and drowns himself in the nearby lake. The entire score, atonal without adhering to the twelve-tone technique, is organized in abstract musical forms. The first act is a suite in five movements; the second, a symphony in five movements with the usual classical forms; the third, a series of inventions in the form of variations. The opera, recently revived after years of neglect, is widely admired for its musical craftsmanship and emotional appeal.

Word painting. The reflection in musical materials of the ideas resident in or suggested by certain words of a song or other vocal piece. There are two main categories of words lending themselves to such treatment, namely, words implying a natural sound (laughter, wind, birds) or a bodily movement (running, falling, ascending). Both often occur through association of ideas, e.g., "heaven" (ascending) or "death" (falling). Modern composers usually reject the somewhat naive device of word painting which, however, played a prominent role in earlier music, particularly of the 16th century and the "Baroque period. Fig. 123 shows two examples from Bach's Cantatas, nos. 8 (Ruhstatt, resting place) and 26 ( Tropfen, drops ). There are, of course, many other ideas which can be "translated" into music. WTC. Abbreviation frequently For instance, in Weelkes' mad- used for Bach's °Well-temper ed rigal A« Vesta was . . . de- Clavier.

XYLOPHONE

340

ZARZUELA

If, ζ Xylophone (from Gr. xylos, wood, and phonos, sound ). A percussion instrument consisting of graded bars of hardwood which are struck with hammers. The bars, tuned in a chromatic scale from c' to about c " " and arranged in a manner similar to the keyboard of the piano, are mounted on taut cords set in a horizontal frame. Underneath each bar there is a cylindrical resonator made from metal. Belonging to the same family of instruments are the "marimba and the "vibraphone.

chest voice to a high falsetto. It is usually a vocalization, with the low tones sung to the vowels a and o, the high ones to e and i.

Youth's Magic Horn, The (G., Des Knaben Wunderhorn ). A group of songs by Mahler, based on texts of German folk songs collected and published under the title Des Knaben Wunderhorn by Achim von Arnim and Clemens Brentano (c. 1820). The group includes nine songs with pianoforte, and thirteen with orchestra. One of them, Vrlicht, was incorporated into Yankee Doodle. A popular the "Resurrection Symphony. American tune which, in the course of 150 years, has been Zampogna (tzahm-PO-nyah: It.). used for a great number of texts A rustic bagpipe or shawm. of a humorous character. The origin of the tune is just as Zapateado (tha-pah-tay-AH-ttho: mysterious as that of the words Sp. ). A Spanish solo dance in "Yankee" and "Doodle." Its first triple time, the rhythm of which appearance is in James Aird's is marked by stamping of the Selection of Scotch, English, heels, frequently in syncopation Irish and Foreign Airs (c. 1775), or in cross-rhythms to the acwhere it is given with its title, companiment. but without words. It possibly originated as a tune ( a Zarzuela (thar-THWAY-lah: "doodle"?) for the flute. Dvorák Sp.). A national type of Spanish used it, somewhat modified, in opera, usually in the character of the last movement of his Sym- a light one-act comedy (zarzuephony * F r o m the New World. lita), but occasionally dealing Yodel. A special type of singing indigenous to the mountain people of Switzerland and the Tyrol, characterized by the frequent and quick passing from a low

with serious and dramatic subjects in two or three acts (zarzuela grande). The librettos have spoken dialogue and often allow improvised interpolations, e.g., satirical allusions. The

ZAUBERFLÖTE

341

ZYMBEL

which are stretched from about 30 to 45 strings. Four or five melody strings, nearest to the player, can be stopped on a fretted finger board and are played with a plectrum held in the right hand. The other strings Zauberflöte, Die (G.)· See are plucked with the fingers of the left hand and are used for Magic Flute. the accompaniment. Zigeunerlied ( tsee-GOY-nerLEET: G.). Gypsy song. Zoppa, Alla (AH-lah TZOP-pa: It., in a limping manner). Italian Zilafone (It.). Xylophone. term for the inverted dotted rhythm, usually known as Scotch Zimbalon. Same as cimbalom snap (see under Dotted note). (see under Dulcimer). Zukunftsmusik ( TZOO-kunftsZingarese, Alia (AH-lah tseen- moo-ZEEK: G.). Music of the gah-RAY-zay: It.). In the style future. of gypsy music. Zwischenspiel ( TSVISH-enZither. A stringed instrument of shpeel: G. ). Interlude. ancient origin, consisting of a flat wooden sound box over Zymbel (G.). Cymbal.

name is taken from the royal country palace near Madrid, La Zarzuela, where festive representations, called "Fiestas de Zarzuela," were given as early as the 17th century.