The Greenhaven Encyclopedia of Witchcraft 0737704373

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THE GREENHAVEN ENCYCLOPEDIA GF

Patricia D. Netzley

THE GREENHAVEN ENCYCLOPEDIA GF

□ ther Titles in the Greenhaven Encyclopedia Of Series:

Ancient Rome Greek and Roman Mythology

THE GREENHAVEN ENCYCLOPEDIA GF

Patricia D. Netzley

Daniel Leone, President

Bonnie Szumski, Publisher Scott Barbour, Managing Editor

Greenhaven Press, Inc., San Diego, California

No part of this book may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means, electrical, mechanical, or otherwise, including, but not limited to, photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, with­ out prior written permission from the publisher.

For Sarah, with thanks for all her help

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Witchcraft / by Patricia D. Netzley p. cm.—(Greenhaven encyclopedias) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-7377-0437-3 (lib. bdg. : alk. paper) 1. Witchcraft—Encyclopedias. I. Netzley, Patricia D. II. Series. BF1566 .W7377 2002 133.4'3'03—dc21 2001054533

Cover photo credit: © Tate Gallery, London/Art Resource, NY

Copyright © 2002 by Greenhaven Press, Inc. 10911 Technology Place, San Diego, CA 92127 Printed in the USA

CONTENTS

Preface, 9

A Aberdeen, witch trials of, 10 abracadabra, 10 Abramelin magic, 11 adept, 11 Adler, Margot, 11 Ady, Thomas, 12 adytum, 12 Agrippa von Nettesheim, Hein­ rich Cornelius, 12 air, 13 airts, four, 13 Aix-en-Provence, witch trial of, 14 Akashic Records, 14 Albertus Magnus, 15 alchemy, 15 alder, 16 aleuromancy, 16 Alexandrian Tradition, 17 Algard, 17 All Hallow’s Eve, 17 Allier, Elizabeth, 17 alphabets, magical, 18 Alphonsus de Spina, 18 altar, 18 America, witch-hunts of, 18 amulet, 19 animals, 20 apple, 21 Aquinas, Thomas, 21 Aradia, 21 arcana, 22 Arician Tradition, 22 Aridian Tradition, 22 Armstrong, Anne, 23 Arras, witch-hunts of, 23 Artemis, 24 ash, 24 aspect, 24

astral plane, 24 astrology, 25 athame, 25 autumnal equinox, 26 Auxonne, demonic possessions of, 26

~eT Bacchus, 27 Bamberg, witch-hunts of, 27 banishing rituals, 28 Baphomet, 29 Barclay, Margaret, 29 Bargarren Imposter, 30 Barrett, Francis, 31 Barton, Elizabeth, 31 Basque region, witch-hunts of the, 31 Bast, 32 bats, 32 bay, 32 Beelzebub, 33 bees, 33 Befana, 33 Bekker, Balthasar, 34 bell, book, and candle, 34 bells, 34 Beltane, 35 Benandanti, 36 Bergson, Mona, 36 Bible, 36 bier right, 38 Bilson, Boy of, 38 binding spell, 39 Binsfeld, Peter, 39 birch, 39 Black Fast, 40 black magic, 40 Black Mass, 40 Blanckenstein, Chatrina, 40 blasting, 41

Blessed be, 41 blood, 41 Blue Star Wicca, 42 Blymire, John, 42 Bodin, Jean, 43 bogey-man, 44 Boguet, Henri, 44 Boleyn, Anne, 44 bolline, 45 bonfire, 45 Book of Shadows, 46 Bridgit, 47 British Traditional, 48 Brocken, 48 broom, 48 Brossier, Marthe, 49 bruja, 49 Buckland, Raymond, 50 Buirmann, Franz, 50 burning of witches, 50 Burton Boy, 51 Bury St. Edmonds, witch trials of, 52 butter, 53 Butters, Mary, 53

~C~ Cabot, Laurie, 54 Cadiere, Marie-Catherine, 55 Cagliostro, Count Alessandro, 55 cakes and wine, 55 Cambrai nuns, 56 candles, 56 Canon Episcopi, 57 Carolina Code, 58 Carpenter, Dennis, 59 Carpzov, Benedict, 59 Catholicism, 59 cats, 60 cauldron, 61

Celtic Traditional, 62 Celts, 62 censer, 63 Cerridwen, 63 chalice, 64 Chambre Ardente, 64 Chanctonbury ring, 65 chanting, 65 Charge of the Goddess, 65 charm, 66 Chelmsford, witch trials of, 66 Church of All Worlds, 67 Church of Wicca, 68 cingulum, 69 Circe, 69 circle, magic, 69 Circle Sanctuary, 71 Clutterbuck, Old Dorothy, 71 Cobham, Eleanor, 72 colors, 72 cone of power, 72 consecration, 73 Cotswold Hills, 73 Council of American Witches, 73 coven, 75 Covenant of the Goddess, 78 Craft, 78 cross, 78 Crowley, Aleister, 78 Crowther, Patricia, 81 Crystal Moon Wicca, 81 cunning man, 82 Cunningham, Scott, 83 curses, 83 Cyber Wicca, 84

dancing, 85 Darrell, John, 86 Dee, John, 86 de Guaita, Stanislas, 88 de Lancre, Pierre, 88 Del Rio, Martin, 89 demonic possession, 89 demons, 90 devil, 90 Diana, 91 Dianic Wicca, 92 divination, 92 dogs, 93 drawing down the moon, 94 Duncan, Helen, 94

I E| Early, Biddy, 95 earth, 95 Earthwise, 96 Ecklund, Anna, 96 Eclectic Tradition, 96 Eichstätt, witch trials of, 97 eightfold path, 97 elder, 97 elements, four, 98 elm, 99 England, witch-hunts of, 100 esbat, 101 evil eye, 101 evocation, 102 Exeter, witch trial of, 102 exorcism, 103

~F~ Faery Tradition, 104 fairies, 105 familiar, 106 Farrar, Janet and Stewart, 107 Faust, 108 fetish, 108 Fian, John, 108 fire, 109 Fitch, Ed, 109 Flade, Dietrich, 109 flight, 109 Fortune, Dion, 111 Fox, Selena, 111 France, witch-hunts of, 112 Frazier, Sir James, 113 Freya, 113 frogs and toads, 113 Frost, Gavin and Yvonne, 114

G Gaia, 115 Gardner, Gerald, 115 Gardnerian Tradition, 116 garter, 117 Georgian Tradition, 117 Germany, witch-hunts of, 118 Gifford, George, 120 Glanvill, Joseph, 120 goddesses and gods, 120 Golden Dawn, Hermetic Order of the, 122 golem, 123

Gowdie, Isobel, 124 grave robbing, 124 Great Rite, 125 Green Man, 125 Green Wicca, 125 Grillandus, Paulus, 126 Grimassi, Raven, 126 gri moire, 127 Guazzo, Francesco-Maria, 128 Gypsies, 128

|h~ hag, 129 hand of glory, 129 handfasting, 130 hare, 130 hats, 130 hawthorn, 131 hazel, 131 Hecate, 131 hedge witch, 132 Henri III, 132 herbs and other plants, 132 Hereditary Tradition, 135 Hermetica, 135 hex signs, 136 high priestess and high priest, 136 hocus pocus, 137 Holt, Sir John, 137 Hopkins, Matthew, 137 Horned God, 139

I image magic, 140 Imbolc, 140 incantation, 141 incense. 141 initiations, 141 Innocent VIII, 143 Inquisition, 144 invocation, 145 Ireland, witch trials of, 146 Irish Faery-Faith Tradition, 146 iron, 146 Isis, 147 Italy, witch-hunts of, 147

J I James I, 148 Joan of Arc, 149 John XII, 150 Jones. Margaret. 151

K Kabbalah, 152 Key of Solomon, 153 Kitchen Witch Tradition, 153 Knights Templar, 153 knots, 154 Kyteler, Lady Alice, 155

nr Lady wood Tradition, 157 Lamb, John, 157 Leek, Sybil, 158 Leland, Charles Godfrey, 158 Loudun nuns, demonic possession of, 159 Lughnasadh, 160 lycanthropy, 160

M

Mabon, 162 Magee Island, witch trial of, 162 magic, 163 magicians, 165 maleficia, 166 Malleus Maleficarum, 167 mandrake, 167 marks, witches’ or devil’s, 168 Martello, Leo, 169 Mather, Cotton, 169 Mather, Increase, 171 Merlin, 171 Midsummer, 171 Miracle of Leon, 172 moon, 172 Morgan le Fay, 173 Mother Redcap, 174 MotherShipton, 174 Murray, Margaret Alice, 175 Museum of Witchcraft, 176 myrtle, 177 Mystery Tradition, 177

~N~ names, significance of, 179 nature, 179 necromancy, 179 Neopagans, 180 New Reformed Orthodox Order of the Golden Dawn, 181 New Wiccan Church, 182 Nordic Tradition, 182

North Berwick witches, 182 numerology, 184

Zf oak, 185 oils and ointments, 185 Old Religion, 186 olive, 188 Osborne, John and Ruth, 188 Ostara, 188 owls, 189

Pp~ Pagan Federation, 190 paganism, 190 Pagan Way, 191 Paracelsus, 191 Paris Witch Trial, 192 Pendderwen, Gwydion, 193 Pendle Forest, witch trial of, 193 pentacle and pentagram, 194 Pentreath, Dolly (Dorothy), 195 Perkins, William, 195 persecution, witch, 195 Pickingill, Old George, 199 Pictish Wicca, 200 pins, 200 poisons, 200 poppet, 201 potion, 201

jÂf Ravenwolf, Silver, 202 Reclaiming Tradition, 202 Reformation, 203 reincarnation, 203 Rémy, Nicholas, 203 Renaissance, 204 rites and rituals, 204 Rituale Romanum, 206 Robinson, Edmund, 206 Rosicrucians, 206 rowan, 207 rue, 207 runes, 207

Sabbat, 209 sage, 210 Salem, witch trials of, 210 salt, 217

Samhain, 217 Sanders, Alex, 217 Santeria, 218 Satanism, 218 Sawyer, Elisabeth, 219 Saxon-Wicca Tradition, 219 Scandinavia, witch-hunts of, 220 Score, John, 220 Scot, Michael, 221 Scot, Reginald, 221 Scotland, witch trials of, 221 scrying, 222 Selene, 223 1734 Tradition, 223 sexuality, 224 shamanism, 224 Sheba, Lady, 226 Sherwood, Grace, 226 sigils, 226 silver, 227 Silver Circle, 227 skull, 227 skyclad, 227 solitaries, 227 Somerset, witch trial of, 228 Sommers, Montague, 228 so mote it be, 229 sorcery, 229 Spain, witch trials of, 230 spells, 230 spring equinox, 232 Starhawk, 232 StarKindler Tradition, 232 stones, 233 St. Osyth, witch trial of, 233 Stregheria, 234 Summerland, 236 summer solstice, 236 sword, 237 Sylvan Tradition, 237

talisman, 238 Tarot cards, 238 Telesco, Trish, 240 threefold law, 240 tools, ritual, 240 torture, 242 traditions, Witchcraft, 244 trees, 248 Trêves, witch trials of, 250 trials, witch, 250

Valiente, Doreen, 253 Venus, 253 vodun, 253 Von Schultheis, Henrich, 254 Von Spee, Frederich, 254

w walnut, 256 Walton, Charles, 256 wand, 256 Warboys Witches, trial of the, 257 warlock, 258 warts, 258 Watchers, 258 water, 258 Webster, John, 259 Weinstein, Marion, 259

Weir, Thomas, 260 well-worn path, 260 Welsh Traditional, 260 Weschcke, Carl, 260 Weyer, Johann, 261 Wheel of the Year, 262 Wicca, 263 Wiccan Rede, 265 Wiccan Shamanism, 266 willow, 266 winter solstice, 266 WITCH, 266 witchcraft, 266 witch doctor, 268 witches, 268 witch-hunter, 268 witching hour, 270 Witta, 270 wizard, 270

| Y| Yule, 272

[z~ Zell-Ravenheart, Morning Glory, 273 Zell-Ravenheart, Oberon, 273 zombies, 274

For Further Research, 275

Works Consulted, 276 Index, 279

Picture Credits, 288 About the Author, 288

PREFACE

achieve the same legal rights and protec­ tions in the United States as the members of other religions, and to gain tolerance from—if not acceptance by—mainstream Americans. For modern American witches, then, witchcraft has been a social and religious movement, not just an aspect of world his­ tory. It is for this reason that some schol­ ars believe that the practice of witchcraft does indeed deserve serious study. Fur­ thermore, these scholars suggest that in or­ der to fully understand modern witches one must examine not only their political activism and religious beliefs but also their magical practices, since magic is an im­ portant part of who witches are. To this end, The Greenhaven Encyclo­ pedia Of Witchcraft explores all aspects of witchcraft: magical tools, rituals, concepts, and traditions as well as witchcraft-related deities and historical events. It also offers information about important figures in the field of witchcraft, from witch-trial judges and other persecutors to people at the fore­ front of the modern witchcraft movement. Excluded from the work is information re­ lated to Eastern mysticism (i.e., the occult) except when necessary to clarify some as­ pect of witchcraft. The same is true for sorcery and sorcerers, which are only dis­ cussed in terms of their relationship to witchcraft and witches. Essentially, this encyclopedia’s goal is to help readers unfamiliar with Western witchcraft understand its history, tradi­ tions, and practices. In addition, an exten­ sive bibliography provides both scholarly and popular resources for those interested in learning more about witchcraft. Lastly, a complete index will aid readers in locat­ ing their chosen subject.

Many scholars believe that while the his­ tory of witch persecution is deserving of study, the practice of witchcraft is not. Their view is that the aspect of witchcraft that involves attempts to manipulate su­ pernatural forces (i.e., magic) is the prod­ uct of superstition and therefore falls in the same category as unicorns and other mythological subjects. In other words, such scholars argue that the magical ele­ ments of witchcraft are a suitable focus for popular literature, but not academic works. Moreover, some scholars believe that few people even practiced witchcraft prior to modem times. As evidence they cite the fact that most medieval and Renaissance victims of witch persecution were targeted for attack not because they professed to be witches but because they were different from their peers. Some were pagans who refused to abandon their deities for a Christian god. Others were uneducated women whose superior knowledge of ill­ nesses and healing herbs angered the physicians of their time. Still others were physically disfigured or antisocial, or they had enemies who could profit from their execution as witches. In each case, these people were falsely accused and wrong­ fully convicted. However, there is also evidence that some accused witches did indeed practice magic, believing their skills to be real. Most modern witches also believe that they have such skills, although they view witchcraft as being about far more than magic. Beginning in the 1960s, these witches began infusing religious elements into the practice of witchcraft, ultimately creating a witchcraft-centered religion called Wicca, and during the ensuing decades they successfully fought to 9

Aberdeen, witch trials of The witch trials of Aberdeen, Scotland, were among the largest such events in the country’s history, involving dozens of de­ fendants. These trials were inspired by James VI, king of Scotland (as of 1603, known as James I, king of Scotland and England), who promoted the idea that witchcraft was aggressively practiced throughout Scotland, England, and Europe. Many Scots accepted this view and in 1596 began to seek out witches in their own communities. In Aberdeen most of those accused of witchcraft were elderly women. Some drew the attention of authorities as eccentrics and town outcasts, but the ma­ jority were brought to trial on the word of a condemned witch seeking leniency; she claimed to have attended a gathering of more than two thousand witches, several of them her neighbors. Once accused, many were thrown into water with their hands tied. Those who floated were considered witches and urged to confess their crimes. Under coercion, several women admitted to activities that included making love charms and herbal cures, creating storms, spreading night­ mares, bewitching livestock, dancing with demons, and attending meetings with the devil in groups of thirteen. One woman, Janet Wishart, was accused of killing one man and sickening another via magic spells.

In April 1597 Wishart was found guilty, as were twenty-two other women and one man. All of them were tied to stakes, strangled, and set on fire as a way to dispel their evil. A few of the accused escaped a similar fate by taking their own lives prior to trial or execution. Others were set free because the court lacked enough evidence of their guilt; however, suspicion that they were witches never­ theless remained so strong that they were branded on the face with a hot iron and told to leave Aberdeen forever. After the trials and executions, the families of the dead were forced to pay expenses. For example, the bill for the deaths of Janet Wishart and Isabel Crocker, dated Febru­ ary 1596, charged the women’s families for the cost of peat, coal, and tar used to set the fire, stakes, ropes, an executioner, and the labor involved in carrying sup­ plies to the hill where the women were burned. See also James I; Scotland, witch trials of.

abracadabra Perhaps the most famous “magic word” in history, “abracadabra” is not used by mod­ em witches or magicians; however, it was often employed in ancient times, when its primary purpose was to protect a person from illness. The word first appeared in print in a poem entitled “Precepta de Med­ icina” by Q. Serenus Scammonicus, a

ABERDEEN TD AUXDNNE

second-century physician who advised people to say or chant the word to cure fevers. Abracadabra was also commonly engraved on medallions worn around the neck to shield the wearer from harm. If no medallion was available, the word was written on parchment or some natural ob­ ject, such as a stone or shell, to create a protective charm. Alternatively, it could be used to cure someone already sick. In such cases the written word was typically worn by the sufferer for several days, then cast into a stream so that the waters could carry the sickness away. At first the word was simply written in a straightforward manner, but over time various rituals developed regarding how it should be written. For example, the eleven­ letter word might be written on eleven lines, with each line containing one less let­ ter so that the lines formed a triangle. The paper on which it was written might also be folded into a cross to add extra power to the word. Although scholars are uncertain of the meaning of the word, they suspect that it originated in the beliefs of the Kabbalah, a system of Jewish mystical belief. Some therefore suggest that it might be derived from Abraxas, the Greek word for the He­ brew god, who could be called upon to protect people from physical injury. Others believe that the word is a Syrian Christian derivative of the Hebrew words ab, ben, mach, and acadosch, which mean “father,” “son,” “holy,” and “ghost.” To Christians, the phrase “the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost” refers to God, Jesus Christ, who was capable of healing the sick. See also amulet; charm; Kabbalah.

Abramelin magic Abramelin magic is a set of rituals and be­ liefs based on the writings of Abramelin the Mage, a Jewish magician from Würzburg, Germany, who lived between 1362 and 1460. Abramelin argued that the world was created by demons under the

_____________ o command of angels and claimed that these angels had told him how to control demons himself using names and number combi­ nations with magical powers. He further claimed that his ideas were supported in part by ancient writings that formed the ba­ sis of Kabbalah, or Cabbala, a type of Jew­ ish mysticism. To share his knowledge Abramelin wrote three books, collectively known as The Book of Sacred Magic of Abramelin the Mage, in Hebrew in 1458. His original works have not survived, but evidence suggests that magicians began using Abramelin’s complicated rituals during the Middle Ages to communicate with spirits and practice both white and black (good and evil) magic. A French version of Abramelin’s writings appeared in the eigh­ teenth century and an English version in the twentieth century. The latter influenced the beliefs of Aleister Crowley and Gerald Gardner, important witchcraft practitioners of the late twentieth century. See also Crowley, Aleister; Gardner, Gerald; Kab­ balah.

adept Among Wiccans, an adept is a witchcraft practitioner who through study and prac­ tice has achieved competency over various aspects of a particular Craft tradition. The degree of competency qualifying one as an adept varies, depending on the Craft tradi­ tion. In some traditions, an adept is an ini­ tiate who has completed at least a year and a day of training. In others, an adept is an initiate undergoing such training. In still other traditions, an adept is an occult mas­ ter and/or someone who passes on the teachings of the Craft. See also traditions, Witchcraft.

Adler, Margot (1946-) Margot Adler is the author of Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, GoddessWorshippers, and Other Pagans in Amer­ ica Today, one of the most important

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books on the history of Neopaganism and Wiccan traditions in the United States. First published in 1979 and revised in 1986 and again in 1997, the book reports Adler’s per­ sonal observations of religions and ritual gatherings throughout America. It also in­ cludes lists of rituals, festivals, publica­ tions, and organizations related to pagan­ ism and witchcraft. Adler herself is a practitioner of witchcraft, having become a Wiccan priestess in 1973. She has also been a journalist and radio producer since 1968. Currently she works for National Public Radio, both as a producer and as an on-air correspondent. In addition, Adler lectures on and leads workshops in pagan­ ism throughout the country. See also draw­ ing down the moon; Wicca.

Ady, Thomas (dates unknown) Seventeenth-century Englishman Thomas Ady authored one of the most influential books related to witchcraft trials. Entitled A Candle in the Dark, or a Treatise con­ cerning the nature of witches and witch­ craft: being advice to the judges, sheriffs, justices of the peace and grandjurymen what to do before they pass sentence on such as are arraigned for their lives as witches, this 1656 book argued that the Bible does not support the validity of witchcraft. Ady began by showing that the Bible defines a witch as someone who makes charms or tells the future in order to deceive others, rather than someone who bewitches people or consorts with demons. In fact, he pointed out that the Bible tells no stories of witches performing such evils. Ady then criticized all tests used by his contemporaries to determine whether or not someone was a witch. Ady’s work con­ vinced many judges and juries to recon­ sider their preconceptions about witches and witchcraft; Protestants found his argu­ ments particularly persuasive because they generally believed that the Bible was the ultimate authority on such matters. See also Bible.

adytum In some modern Craft traditions, the ady­ tum is the most sacred spot within an area where a ritual is performed, usually at the center of a magic circle. Many witches consider the adytum to be the equivalent of an altar; thus they might place a candle on the spot or mark it with a pentacle. Some witches also place an actual altar there, an object that elevates ritual tools from the ground. This altar is usually oriented so that someone facing it is facing either north or east, both considered sacred directions. Ritual tools are selected and arranged on the altar in different ways depending on the Craft tradition being practiced. See also circle, magic; tools, ritual.

Agrippa von Nettesheim, Heinrich Cornelius (1486-1535) German magician Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa von Nettesheim lectured and wrote extensively on the occult. He was educated as a physician at the University of Cologne in Germany, but had long been interested in the occult, and at age twenty-four he wrote De occulta philosophic (On Occult Philos­ ophy), in which he argued that magic was produced by the human mind rather than via spirits or demons. Agrippa also insisted that various forms of predicting the future, such as astrology, were accurate and that certain gemstones had magic powers. For many years his writings remained unpub­ lished, but he shared his beliefs by lecturing at universities and by establishing occult groups. According to some reports from the period, Agrippa also spent his time con­ sorting with spirits, casting spells, and per­ forming black magic. Nonetheless, in ap­ proximately 1530 he began speaking out against sorcery and the occult, arguing in a book entitled Of the Vanitie and uncertain ­ tie ofartes and sciences (translated into English in 1569) that magic did not work. People who disagreed with this position arranged the publication of Agrippa’s ear-

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knife’s blade slices through the air. In either case, air is generally eundum certum numerum in feinuicen peculiari quadam j thought to embody the male life etate conieftis,quf quidem cceleftia,ficut in diuerfis radioru force and is associated with thought, rum i itibus inter fe aliter atq,- aliter incidentibus, diucrias conipirant i tes:fic etia charafteres, iuxta diuerfas eiufmodi radioy concurius reason, alite creativity, illumination, and aliter protradi,diucrfas fubito nancifcutur operationes.ffpe etia mu. other aspects of mental energy. It is ficaciore$,c[phyficalium commixtionum proprictates.Veri autem ch; also connected with the color blue, res calorum,ipfa eit feriptura angelorum,quz apud Hebra?os uocatu Jxura Malachim,perquamin calo funtdcfcripta8