The Golan: A profile of a region during the Roman and Byzantine periods 9780860543428, 9781407343129

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The Golan A profile of a region during the Roman and Byzantine periods

Dan. Urman

BAR International Series 26 9

1985

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR-s269,1985 :'The Golan'. ©

Dan Urman, 1985

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860543428 paperback ISBN 9781407343129 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860543428 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

For Mety and Lia

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

List of Maps, Tables, Photographs and Illustrations List of Abbreviations

........................................

Acknowledgenents Introduction Chapter I:

Chapter II:

.................................................

1

The Na� ''Golan" .••••••••••••••••••••••.•..••

9

Notes to Chapter One ·••••••••••••••••••••••••

25

The Golan: A Physical-Geographical Review ••••

31

A.

The Golan as an Independent PhysicalGeographical Unit ••••··••••••••••••••••••

31

B.

Natural Boundaries •••·•·•••••••••••••••••

31

C.

Geology and Geomorphology ••••••••••••••••

. .................................

34

E. Hydrography ••••••••••••••••·••••••·••·•••

42

F.

Flora . .•............. ..•... .. ... .........

49

G. Soil .••••.•.•••.•-........................

54

D. Climate

H.

Chapter III:

Chapter IV:

Physical-Geographical Subdivision of

37

the Golan •• .•.•....... .•• ••••••••••••••••

57

Notes to Chapter Two •••••••••••••••••••••••••

66

Settlenent Pattern.and Road System in the Golan During the Roman and Byzantine Periods •

79

A.

Introduction •••••••····•·••••••••••••••••

79

B.

Archaeological Data ••••••••••••••••••••••

80

C.

Historical Sources •••••••••••••••••••••••

117

Notes to Chapter Three ••·••••··•·••·•••••••••

129

The Economy of the Golan During the Roman and Byzantine Periods ••••••••••••••••••

141

A.

141

Introduction •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

B .

A gricultural C rops

1 41

C .

A ni mal H usbandry

1 41

D .

F ishing

1 55

E .

I ndustries a nd C rafts

1 58

F .

T rade

1 68

N otes t o C hapter F our C onclusion A ppendix A :

1 70 1 79

L ist o f R oman a nd B yzantine S ites i n t he G olan

1 85

N otes t o A ppendix A

2 10

B ibliography

2 17

I ndex o f C itations

2 48

L IST O F M APS, T ABLES A ND I LLUSTRATIONS P age F ig. 1 :

T opographical S ections A cross t he W idth o f t he G olan . ( A n orthern s ection ; B s outhern -

-

s ection)

3 8

F ig. 2 :

A nnual A verage T emperatures i n t he G olan ( 19721973)

3 9

F ig. 3 :

A nnual A verage R ainfall i n t he G olan

4 1

F ig. 4 :

H ydrography o f t he G olan

4 3

F ig. 5 :

S ketch o f aC haracteristic R iver C ourse i n t he G olan

4 5

S chematic D rawing o f t he O rigin o f " Lava F low F ront S prings"

4 5

AW aterfall N ear t he V illage o f D aI &a ( 'Dab t ira F all")

4 8

F ig. 8 :

A b irkeh , S outh-West Z a'artah

4 8

F ig. 9 :

F loral D istribution i n t he G olan .

F ig. 6 :

F ig. 7 :

F ig. 1 0 :

F ig. 1:

( For

i dentification o f s pecific f loral a reas , s ee t he d iscussion o n pp. 5 1-54)

5 2

S oil D istribution i n t he G olan . ( For i dentification o f s pecific s oil a reas , s ee t he d iscussion o n pp. 5 5-57)

5 6

S uggested P hysiographical S ubdivision o f t he G olan

6 3

F ig. 1 2:

T he S ite o f G amala ( View f rom E ast t o W est)

8 2

F ig. 1 3:

e lK irs

8 3

F ig. 1 4 :

e l- Mrs!

-

-

T he C hurch C ourtyard T he R eservoir u nder t he C hurch

C ourtyard F ig. i Sa :

M ap o f S ettlements i n t he G olan D uring t he R oman a nd

F ig. 1 5b :

8 3

B yzantine P eriods

-

N orthern S heet

M ap o f S ettlements i n t he G olan D uring t he R oman a nd B yzantine P eriods S outhern S heet -

F ig. 1 6 :

F ig. 1 7:

8 5

8 6

S ettlement D istribution i n t he G olan b y E stimated A rea o f S ettlements

8 7

T he V illage o f D ab ra

8 9

F ig. 1 8 :

D ab i ira

AF ragment o f aL intel f rom a J ewish

-

M onumental P ublic B uilding w ith a F ragment o f a D edicatory I nscription i n A ramaic

("

.. .

d id

8 9

t he g ate"). F ig. 1 9 :

D ab lra T he L intel o f t he S chool ( beth midrash) o f R abbi E li'ezer h a-Qappar. ( The i nscription i s i n -

H ebrew, a nd s ays :

" This i s t he b eth-midrash o f

9 0

R abbi E li'ezer h a-Qappar.") F ig. 2 0 :

Q lsrtn

T he N orthwestern C orner o f t he S ynagogue

-

C omplex

9 0

F ig. 2 1:

Q tsrin

F ig. 2 2 :

Q 1sr n

F ig. 2 3 :

Q 1sr n T he T ombstone o f R abbi Ah in . ( The i nscription i s i n H ebrew a nd s ays: " Rabbi A bun

-

T he M ain G ate o f t he S ynagogue C omplex

9 2

T he M ain G ate o f t he S ynagogue C omplex

9 2

-

-

r ests i n d ignity".)

9 1

F ig. 2 4:

S tone F ences A round t he V illage o f S trm n

9 4

F ig. 2 5 :

D ab 2ra

9 4

F ig. 2 6 :

D eir ' Azlz

F ig. 2 7:

D eir ' Az z

F ig. 2 8 :

K afr 1rib

F ig. 2 9 :

K afr Hrib

F ig. 3 0 :

' Ar liyye

F ig. 3 1:

Um e l-Qan ir

-

R emains o f O live-Oil-press N o. 2 -

-

-

-

R emains o f O live-Oil --p ress N o. 1 .

9 4

R emains o f O live-Oil-press N o. 3 .

9 5

U pper P art o f a n H ourglass M illstone

9 5

L ower P art o f a n H ourglass M illstone

9 5

A rchitectural F ragments o f aS ynagogue

-

-

.. . .

S ome A rchitectural F ragments f rom

t he L ocal Sy nagogue F ig. 3 2 :

F ig. 3 3 :

9 6

Um e l-Qan çir AF ragment o f t he o f t he l ocal S ynagogue -

G hâdriyye

-

A rk 9 6

R emains o f t he S outhern W all o f t he

l ocal S ynagogue F ig. 3 4 :

G h driyye

-

9 7

A rchitectural F ragments f rom t he

l ocal S ynagogue F ig. 3 5:

CMdriyye

-

9 7

A F ragment o f aD edicatory I nscription

w ritten i n A ramaic :

.. .

[ Hallfo s on o f

( probably

.. . ".

f rom t he l ocal S ynagogue) F ig. 3 6 :

9 8

D ecorated C apital f rom t he S ynagogue o f "

F ig. 3 7 :

9 6

' Ein N ashôt"

A rchitectural F ragment f rom t he S ynagogue o f N ash&t".

9 "

' Ein 9

F ig. 3 8 : F ig. 3 9 :

Dbiyye FkhIra

T he E astern G ate o f t he S ynagogue

-

AD ecorated P edestal f rom a J ewish

-

M onumental B uilding ( probably a S ynagogue) F ig . 4 0

K b. Z um imira

-

F ig. 4 2:

F ig. 4 3:

" Kb . B açrah"

1 00

D ecorated A rchitectural F ragment f rom

-

t he l ocal S ynagogue

1 01

" Kh . Dliyye" D ecorated A rchitectural F ragments f rom t he l ocal S ynagogue

1 01

-

S ettlem ent D istribution i n t he G olan b y P eriods o f H abitation

F ig. 4 4 :

1 00

AF ragment o f t he H oly A rk o f

t he l ocal S ynagogue F ig. 4 1:

9 9

1 04

R oman R oads i n t he G olan A ccording t o G . S chumacher a nd M . A vi-Yonah

1 07

F ig. 4 5 :

R oman R oads i n t he G olan A ccording t o Y . R oll

11

F ig. 4 6 :

AV iew o n aS ection o f R oad F , N orth o f Ss1ta. ( In t he c enter o f t he p icture r emains o f f ew a nepigraphic m ilestones c an b e s een).

14

F ig. . 47:

A nepigraphic M ilestone o f R oad F , N orth o f Ssfta

14

F ig. 4 8 :

R oad B n ear T ell e l-J ikhad r

15

F ig. 4 9 :

R oad C n ear J urniyye

15

F ig. 5 0 :

AL ocal R oad n ear D eir Q r ikh

15

F ig. 5l a-b :

B ani s R emains o f a n o pus r eticulum w all f rom t he H erodian P eriod

18

B ani s

18

F ig. 5 2:

-

F ig. 5 3a-b-c :

AR oman A ltar

-

D edicatory I nscriptions a nd N iches n ear t he C ave

o f P an F ig. 5 4 :

19

S ites o f A gro-Industrial I nstallations a nd A nchorages i n t he G olan D uring t he R oman a nd B yzantine P eriods

F ig. 5 5:

M ar'ada

1 46

AM odern W ine-Press ( for t he p roduction

-

o f g rape s yrup)

1 47

F ig. 5 6 :

N a'r n

1 47

F ig. 5 7 :

e l -Mrs!

F ig. 5 8 :

-

A n H ourglass M illstone

-

R emains o f a n O live-Oil-press ( uncovered i nside

t he c hurch o f t he m onastery)

1 51

R aftd R emains o f aB uilding f rom t he B yzantine P eriod ( "Hauran-style")

1 51

-

F ig. 5 9 :

R aftd

A B uilding f rom t he L ate R oman P eriod

-

( "Hauran-style")

1 52

F ig. 6 0 :

R aftd

M angers f rom t he L ate R oman P eriod

1 52

F ig. 6 1:

R af I d

M angers f rom t he R oman P eriod

1 53

F ig. 6 2:

R af I d

-

-

R emains o f aB uilding f rom t he R oman P eriod

-

( "Hauran-style")

1 53

F ig. 6 3:

R afld

M angers f rom t he R oman P eriod

1 54

F ig. 6 4 :

R af I d

A S table f rom t he R oman P eriod

1 54

F ig. 6 5 :

R af I d

M angers f rom t he R oman P eriod

1 54

F ig. 6 6 :

e l-K irst

F ig. 6 7:

e l1 ( i irsl

F ig. 6 8 :

D ab ra

F ig. 6 9 :

D ah ra

F ig . 7 0 :

D ab tsiyy

F ig. . 7 1:

M azra 'at Q uneiçra

F ig. 7 2 :

K h . Z âmal

-

-

-

- .

-

-

-

R emains o f t he A ncient A nchorage

1 57

R emains o f a n A ncient S toring P ool

1 57

R emains o f O live-Oil-press N o. 1

1 59

R emains o f O live-Oil-press N o . 2

1 59

O live-Oil-press N o. 1

-

-

O live-Oil -p ress N o. 2

1 60 1 60

" Golan W are" S hard w ith a F ragmentary

-

G reek I nscription

1 65

F ig . 7 3 :

T he " Acropolis" o f T ell e l-J khad r

1 66

F ig. 7 4 :

T ell e l-J khad r R emains o f aR oof M ade o f C eramic T iles f rom t he F irst H alf o f t he F ourth C entury A .D. ( Strata I V)

1 66

F ig. 7 5:

-

T ell e l-J khad r

-

F ourth C entury A .D. F ig . 7 6 :

T ell e l-J1khad r

-

B uilding A

-

F irst H alf o f t he

( Strata I V)

1 67

B uilding B ; AH ourglass M illstone

f rom t he F irst H alf o f t he F ourth C entury A .D. ( Strata I V) F ig. 7 7:

F Iq

-

1 67

AL intel o f aJ ewish M onumental B uilding

( probably a S ynagogue) F ig. 7 8 :

K hushniyye

-

S ome D ecorated A rchitectural F ragments f rom

t he R oman P eriod F ig. 7 9 :

Y ah idiyye S ynagogue

-

1 78

18

A rchitectural F ragments f rom t he L ocal 1 78

L IST O F A BBREVIATIONS ( *)

A AS

L es A nnales A rchéologiques d e S yrie;

c ontinued a s : A nnales

A rchéologiques A rabes S yriennes. A ASOR

A nnual o f t he A mer ican S chools o f O riental R esearch.

A JA

A mer ican J ournal o f A rchaeology.

' Alon

B ulletin o f t he I srael D epartment o f A ntiquities.

( Hebrew).

A PEF

A nnual o f t he P alestine E xploration F und.

' Atiqot

J ournal o f t he I srael D epartment o f A ntiquities a nd M useums. ( Hebrew a nd E nglish).

B ASOR

B ulletin o f t he A mer ican S chools o f O riental R esearch .

B eth-Mikra B ulletin o f t he I srael S ociety f or B iblical R esearch. B GDHUJ

( Hebrew).

B ulletin o f t he G eology D epartment, H ebrew U niversity o f J erusalem .

B IES

B ulletin o f t he I srael E xploration S ociety; c ontinuation o f B JPES ( 19511962). ( Hebrew).

B JPES

B ulletin o f t he J ewish P alestine E xploration S ociety.

C NFI

C hristian N ews F rom I srael.

E I

E retz-Israel , A rchaeological , H istorical a nd G eographical S tudies.

( Hebrew a nd E nglish).

H adashot

A rchaeological N ews

A rcheologiot

a nd M useums.

-

I srael D epartment o f A ntiquities

( Hebrew).

H UCA

H ebrew U nion C ollege A nnual.

I EJ

I srael E xploration J ournal.

I JES

I srael J ournal o f E arth-Sciences.

J NES

J ournal o f N ear E astern S tudies.

J POS

J ournal o f P alestine O riental S ociety.

J QR

J ewish Q uarterly R eview.

J RS

J ournal o f R oman S tudies.

L iber A nnuus

( *)

( Hebrew).

T his

S tudii B iblici f ranciscani, J erusalem .

l ist

i ncludes

o nly

a bbreviations

a bbbreviations a ppear i n t he B ibliography .

o f

p eriodicals.

O ther

M GWJ

M onatschrift f Ur G eschichte u nd W issenschaft d es J udentums.

P EFQSt.

P alestine E xploration F und, Q uarterly S tatement.

P EQ

P alestine E xploration Q uarterly;

P IASH

I srael A cademy o f S ciences a nd H umanities

P JB

c ontinuation o f P EFQSt.

-

P roceedings.

Plastinajahr 1x ich d es d eutschen e vangelischen I nstituts f ür A ltertumswissenschaft d es H eiligen l andes z u J erusalem .

Q admoniot

Q uarterly f or t he A ntiquities o f E retz-Israel a nd B ible L ands. ( Hebrew).

R B

R evue B iblique.

R EJ

R evue d es e tudes j uives.

R N

R evue N umismatique.

S al'it

B ulletin o f t he S ociety f or t he P rotection o f N ature a nd T he N ature R eserve A uthority i n I srael. ( Hebrew).

S yria

R evue d 'art o riental e t d 'archéologie.

T APA

T ransactions o f t he A merican P hilological A ssociation .

T arbiz

A Q uarterly f or J ewish S tudies , T he H ebrew U niversity o f J erusalem .

T eva v a-Aretz

( Hebrew).

B ulletin o f t he S ociety f or t he P rotection o f N ature i n I srael.

Y ediot

( Hebrew).

B ulletin o f t he I srael E xploration S ociety ; c ontinuation o f B IBS ( 19621968).

( Hebrew).

Z DPV

Z eitschrift d es d eutschen P alästina

Z ion

Q uarterly f or R esearch i n J ewish H istory.

-

V ereins. ( Hebrew).

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS T he a id a nd e ncouragement o f c ountless p eople was i nstrumental i n b ringing t his s tudy t o c ompletion .

Iw ould l ike t o b egin b y e xpressing m y

g reat a ppreciation f or t he w ork o f m y f riends S ami B ar-Lev a nd M oshe B arT al . D uring t he y ears 1 968-1972 , t hese t wo m en f irst a ssisted m e i n c onducting a s urvey o f A rab v illages i n t he G olan , a nd l ater h elped i n s urveys a nd e xcavations w hich I c onducted a s S taff O fficer i n C harge o f A rchaeological A ffairs i n t he G olan . T he f indings o f t hese s urveys a nd e xcavations l aid t he f oundations f or m any o f t he c onclusions r eached i n t he p resent w ork . H ence , w ithout t he d iligence a nd d evotion o f S ami a nd M oshe , t his s tudy w ould n ot h ave b een p ossible. D uring m y y ears i n t he G olan , Iw as e mployed b y t he A ssociation f or t he A rchaeological S urvey o f I srael , t he I srael D epartment o f A ntiquities a nd M useums , a nd t he M ilitary G overnment o f t he G olan H eights . W hile t hus e mployed , Ir eceived m uch a ssistance f rom d ozens o f p eople f rom t he a bovem entioned i nstitutions . S pecial t hanks a re d ue t o P rofessor A braham B iran , w ho w as t hen C hairman o f t he B oard o f t he A ssociation f or t he A rchaeological S urvey o f I srael a nd D irector o f t he I srael D epartment o f A ntiquities a nd M useums ; a nd t o C olonel S hmuel D othan , G olan H eights .

t hen t he M ilitary G overnor o f

t he

A n e arlier v ersion o f t his s tudy w as s ubmitted i n O ctober 1 979 t o t he f aculty o f t he G raduate S chool o f A rts a nd S cience o f N ew Y ork U niversity f or t he d egree o f P h .D . W hen w riting i t , Ih ad t he b enefit o f t he c onstant g uidance a nd a dvice , c riticism a nd e ncouragement o f P rofessors B aruch A . L evine , F rancis E . P eters , a nd L awrence H . S chiffman . M y t hanks a re a lso e xtended t o P rofessor D ennis E . G rob o f G arrett-Evangelical T heological S eminary , a nd D r . D aniel R . S chwartz o f t he H ebrew U niversity o f J erusalem , w ho r ead p arts o f t his m anuscript . T heir c omments a nd s uggestions h ave b een i nvaluable . F or t he v iews e xpressed i n t his b ook , h owever , Ia lone a m r esponsible. G rants which I r eceived f rom N ew Y ork U niversity , t he M emorial F oundation f or J ewish C ulture , a nd t he L eopold S chepp F oundation , e nabled m e t o c omplete m y d octoral d issertation a nd t he w riting o f t his b ook a s w ell . Io we a s pecial t hank y ou t o M rs . E dythe B obrow , t he E xecutive S ecretary o f t he C eopold S chepp F oundation , whose e ncouragement a nd s upport w ere i nvaluable.

D an U rman

B eer-Sheva , I srael. A pril ,

1 985.

I NTRODUCTION D uring t he e ighteen y ears which p receded t he writing o f t his s tudy ( 1967-1985) , t he r egion w hich i s k nown t oday i n t he p olitical-geographical s phere a s t he G olan H eights , a nd w hich i ncludes t he h istorical G olan p lus s ections o f t he H ermon m assif ,

b ecame t he o bject o f r enewed s cholarly

a ttention . F rom 1 967 o n , g eographers , g eologists, c limatologists , b otanists , a rchaeologists a nd s cholars f rom a v ariety o f o ther d isciplines c onducted g eneral s urveys o f t he r egion , a s w ell a s m ore s pecific a nd d etailed s tudies o f s ome o f i ts s ections a nd s ites . T his r enewal o f i nterest i n t he r egion c ame a fter m any d ecades d uring w hich ( as a r esult o f a c hain o f p olitical a nd m ilitary e vents w hich h ad t heir g enesis i n t he F irst W orld W ar) s cholars h ad a voided t he r egion e ither o ut o f n ecessity o r b y c hoice . I t s hould b e e mphasized t hat I n s ome d isciplines , s uch a s h istorical g eography a nd a rchaeology , t here w as a n a dditional r eason f or t he n eglect o f t he r egion . T his w as t he m istaken a ssumption b y t he s cholars o f t he f irst h alf o f t he t wentieth c entury t hat t heir p redecessors I n t he n ineteenth c entury h ad e xhausted t he m ajor a reas o f i nterest w hich m ight b e f ound i n t he r egion . B efore d iscussing t he r ecent r evival i n G olan r esearch , h owever , I t I s w orthwhile t o s top f irst a nd s urvey , a t l east I n o utline , t he c ontributions o f t he most i mportant p ioneers i n G olan r esearch d uring t he n ineteenth c entury , a nd t o d iscuss a s w ell t he l imitations o f t heir s tudies . A s i s w ell k nown ,

t he f oundations f or m odern r esearch o n t he a reas o f

S yria a nd P alestine were l aid i n t he n ineteenth c entury . D uring t his c entury, i tineraries a nd b ooks written b y s cholars who h ad t oured t he c ountry b egan t o b ear s cholarly f ruit . T hese w orks p resented a c ontrast t o p revious b ooks w ritten b y t ravellers a nd p ilgrims , w hich h ad c onsisted e ntirely o f a ccounts o f p ersonal a nd r eligious e xperiences. T he f irst o f t he n ew b reed o f t raveller-scholars t o p ass t hrough t he G olan w as U .J . S eetzen . I n 1 806 , t his G erman s cholar v isited t he r egion o f B ani s a nd t ravelled a long t he w estern a nd s outhern m argins o f t he G olan . H owever ,

i t s eems t hat o nly p art o f t he d ata w hich h e

p reserved .

S eetzen

m et

h is

u ntimely

d eath

i n

c ollected h as t he

Y emen ,

b een u nder

c ircumstances w hich a re s till o bscure , a nd o nly t hat p art o f h is w ork w hich h e h ad p reviously p ublished i n G erman a nd E nglish s cholarly p reserved , l ater t o b e c ollected i n b ook f ormat .' S everal y ears a fter S eetzen 's v isit t o t he G olan ,

j ournals w as

t he S wiss s cholar J .L .

B urckhardt a rrived i n t he r egion . I n t he a utumn o f 1 810 , d uring a j ourney f rom D amascus t o L ebanon , B urckhardt v isited B anigs a nd w rote a d escription o f t he a rea a nd I ts a ntiquities . T he f ollowing s pring , h e r eturned t o t he G olan a nd v isisted t he h ot s prings o f H ammat G ader . I n J une o f 1 812 , h e p assed t hrough t he r egion f or t he t hird t ime . B urckhardt , l ike S eetzen , d id n ot l ive t o s ee h is c ollected w orks p ublished . H e d ied i n C airo i n 1 817 , a nd h is w ritings a ppeared i n b ook f ormat f or t he f irst t ime f ive y ears l ater .

2

A m odest c ontribution t o r esearch o n t he G olan H eights c an a lso b e s een i n t he w ritings o f t hat n ot-so -modest t raveller J .S .

1

B uckingham .3

B uckingham

v isited t he a rea a t t he b eginning o f 1 816 a nd wrote a ccounts o f s ome s ections o f t he G olan . H owever , h e a lso s uggested s everal i dentifications o f a ncient s ites ( such a s t hat o f G amala w ith t he v illage Umm Q eis i n t he G ilead) ,

i dentifications

w hich

d isplay

h is

l ack

o f

h istorical

e xpertise ,

e ven i n t erms o f t he s cholarship o f h is d ay .4 A m uch m ore i mportant c ontribution t o h istorical-geographical r esearch o n t he n orthern , w estern a nd s outhern m argins o f t he r egion c an b e f ound i n t he w orks o f t he American s cholar E . R obinson . R obinson v isited P alestine a nd S yria o nly t wice , a nd f or r elatively s hort p eriods , i n 1 838 a nd 1 852 . A lthough i n t he c ourse o f h is t wo t rips h e d id n ot I n f act e ver v isit t he G olan ( except f or a n e xcursion t o B ani s) , h is s cholarly a cumen , c ombined w ith t he a ssistance p rovided b y h is s tudent a nd f riend E li S mith , m ake h is writings a n i mportant s ource ‚ f d ata a bout t he h istorical s ites i n t he r egion a nd t heir i dentification . I n t he s ame y ear a s R obinson 's s econd v isit t o P alestine a nd S yria ( 1852) , a nother s cholar v isited t he m argins o f t he G olan . J .L . P orter w ho , i n c ontrast t o R obinson , s pent m any y ears i n t he O rient , l eft b ehind i n h is w ritings a r elatively s mall a mount o f m aterial c oncerning t he G olan , s ince t he g reatest p art o f h is r esearch h ad t o d o w ith o ther r egions o f s outhern S yria. 6 I n

1 864 ,

H .B . T ristram ,

r esearch i n P alestine" ,

who i s k nown a s " the f ather o f z oological

p assed

t hrough t he w estern

m argins

o f

t he G olan .

I n h is w ritings a re p reserved s ome i mportant a ccounts o f t he f lora a nd f auna o f t he r egion .7 A d ozen y ears l ater ( 18751877) , a n e xpedition l ed b y t he a rchaeologist S elah Merrill c onducted r esearch i n t he T ransjordan o n b ehalf o f t he A merican P alestine E xploration S ociety . A lthough t his e xpedition c onducted o nly s hort-term i nvestigations i n t he G olan , i t made more t han a f ew a rchaeological d iscoveries-8 D uring

t he

1 870 's a nd e specially

I n t he

r eached i ts s ummit f or t hat c entury .

1 880 's ,

r esearch o n t he G olan

F amous t ravellers a nd s cholars s uch

a s C . C lermont Ganneau , L . O liphant , G .A . S mith a nd o thers p assed t hrough d ifferent p arts o f t he G olan a nd p ublished a ccounts o f 0t he1r t ravels a nd d iscoveries , t ogether w ith r eports o n t heir c onclusions . H owever , a long w ith a ll o f t hese f amous t ravellers a nd s cholars , t here w as o ne w ho w as l esser -k nown , a nd p erhaps l ess q ualified t o d o h istorical-geographical r esearch : G . S chumacher . S chumacher , w ho w as b y p rofession a s urvey-engineer , l ived i n H aifa , a nd worked f or m any y ears i n t he T ransjordan a s a n e mployee o f t he T urkish r ailroad a uthorities .

A s a r esult o f h is s trong d esire t o s tudy t he H oly

L and a nd i ts h istory ,

h e i ntegrated w ith h is w ork f or t he T urkish r ailroad

a uthorities t he p roject o f s urveying a nd m apping t he T ransjordan t erritories o n b ehalf o f t he P alestine E xploration F und a nd t he G erman S ociety f or t he E xploration

o f

t he H oly L and

I n t he c ourse o f

( Deutscher V erein z ur E rforschung P alästinas) .

t his p roject ,

h e p ublished

s everal

a rticles

i n

t he

b ulletins o f t he a bove m entioned s ocieties. H owever ,

t he p innacle o f h is w ork w as r eached i n h is b ooks A cross t he

J ordan : An Exploration a nd S urvey o f P art o f H auran a nd J aulan ( London , 1 886) a nd T he J aulen ( London , c omprehensive

s urvey

o f

t he

1 888) ,

which t ogether p resent t he f irst

r egion a nd

i ts

s ites .

I n t hese b ooks,

S chumacher a ttempted t o c onform t he s cale o f h is m easurements a nd t he s tyle o f h is a ccounts t o t hose o f t he P EF s urveyors w ho w ere w orking a t t he s ame t ime o n t he S urvey o f W estern P alestine ( SWP) . D espite t he f act t hat h is k nowledge i n t he f ields o f a rchaeology a nd h istory w as e xtremely l imited c ompared t o t hat o f s ome o f t he o ther s urveyors , S chumacher a chieved m uch , c onsidering t he f act t hat h e w orked a lone . I t s hould , e xhibits

s ome

n evertheless, o f

t he

b e m entioned t hat S chumacher 's work s till

c haracteristic

d efects

o f

s urveys

i n

P alestine

a nd

S yria d uring t he n ineteenth c entury . W ithout e ntering i nto m any d etails , w e w ill m ention o nly t hree o f t hese d efects : 1 . S chumacher , l ike t he r est o f h is g eneration o f s urveyors , s ometimes c hose t o t ravel o n c omfortable a nd s ecure r oads r ather t han u ncomfortable a nd d angerous o nes , t hereby p assing o ver m any s ites a nd o bserving o thers o nly f rom a d istance. 2 .

H e u sed

t oo i ndiscriminately

i nhabitants , a nd a s ar esult , l ocal t raditions a nd l egends.

i nformation p rovided h im b y l ocal

s ome o f h is a ccounts c ontain f act m ixed w ith

3 . L ike m ost o f t he c ontemporary s urveyors , S chumacher f ailed t o r ecognize t he i mportance o f s hards a s ad ating t ool . A s ar esult , t he d ates w hich h e a ssigns t o m any a ntiquities a re e ither t oo g eneral , o r w rong . F ollowing t he a ppearance o f t he w orks o f t he s cholars w ho h ad c onducted r esearch o n t he G olan i n t he 1 870 's a nd 1 880 's , and e specially t he a ppearance o f S chumacher 's b ooks , t he m isconception b ecame e stablished i n t he m inds o f s cholars t hat t he G olan h ad b een " covered" f rom t he p oint o f v iew o f r esearch . F rom t his p oint o n , e ven F rench s cholars w ho h ad a ccess t o t he r egion w hich f ollowing t he S ykes-Picot A greement o f 1 916 a nd t he e vents o f t he F irst W orld W ar , h ad b ecome a b oundary r egion b etween t he t erritories o f t he B ritish M andate i n P alestine a nd t hose o f t he F rench M andate i n S yria a nd L ebanon n eglected i t . T his was b ecause , a s -

-

-

-

m entioned a bove , t hey m istakenly a ssumed t hat t heir p redecessors , a nd e specially S chumacher , h ad e xhausted t he s cholarly p otential o f t he r egion . B eginning w ith t he w orks o f G eorge A dam S mith , a nd r unning t hrough t hose o f F .M. A bel , R . D ussaud , S . K lein , M . Avi-Yonah a nd o thers, works which d eal w ith s ubjects r elated t o t hat o f t he p resent s tudy , t hat I s t o s ay , w ith r esearch i n h istorical g eography t here i s a t endency t o r ely -

-

-

u nreservedly o n S chumachgr 's s urveys . A s ar esult , m ost o f t he s cholars o f t he f irst h alf o f t he t wentieth c entury a rrived a t c onclusions a bout t he G olan which a re t oday o utmoded . H owever , a t t his p oint, I t m ust b e e mphasized t hat f ull b lame c annot b e a ssinged t o t hese d istinguished s cholars o f P alestine a nd S yria b ecause , a s p reviously m entioned , p olitical a nd s ecurity c onditions i n t he r egion d id n ot a lways a llow f irsthand o bservation o f t he G olan s ites . D ue t o c hanged p olitical c onditions , w as i ncreased . c oncluded t hat ,

a ccessibility t o t he G olan H eights

I n 1 967 , t he f irst f ew s cholars t o v isit t he r egion q uickly I n f act , a ccording t o t he c riteria c ommon t o t oday 's f ield

s ciences , i .e . , g eology , a rchaeology , e tc . , t he s urveys o f S chumacher a nd h is g eneration w ere n ot o nly l acking i n d ata b ut w ere a lso i nadequate i n t erms o f s urvey m ethods a nd d ating s ystems . A s a r esult, d ifferent r esearch i nstitutions i nitiated s urvey p rojects f or t he e ntire r egion . C oncurrently , v arious I sraeli g overnmental d epartments a nd c ompanies ,

3

a lso ,

a ssigned s cholars a nd s urveyors t o t he G olan f or t he p urpose o f c ollecting d ata a nd p reparing p roposals f or t he d evelopment o f t he r egion . W e w ill n ot e nter h ere i nto a d escription o f t he p rojects a nd s urveys c onducted i n t he G olan s ince 1 967 ; m ost o f t hem w ill b e r eferred t o i n t he b ody o f t his s tudy . N evertheless, i t i s i ncumbent u pon u s t o o utline t he m ajor a rchaeological w ork t hat w as d one , e specially s ince w e b ase a g reat p art o f t he p resent s tudy o n i t. O n b ehalf o f t he I srael D epartment o f A ntiquities a nd M useums ,

a nd t he

A ssociation f or t he A rchaeological S urvey o f I sreael , D r . C laire E pstein a nd M r . S h i naria G utman b egan i n 1 967 t o l ead t eams o f s urveyors i n a g eneral s urvey o f t he G olan s ites . T his s urvey , w hich t ook f our m onths , r ecorded a pproximately t wo h undred s ites , c ontaining d ozens o f a rchaeological f inds w hich S chumacher e ither h ad n ot s een o r h ad n ot r ecorded. 10 A t t he s ame t ime a s t he s urvey b y E pstein a nd G utman w as b eing c arried o ut , t he a uthor o f t he p resent w ork w as a ppointed b y t he A ssociation f or t he A rchaeological S urvey o f I srael t o l ead a s urvey o f t he A rab v illages o f t he G olan . T his s urvey , w hich a lso t ook i n s ome o f t he s ites a lready s urveyed b y E pstein a nd G utman , b rought t o l ight a nother t wenty s ites , i n a ddition t o d ozens o f i nscriptions a nd h undreds o f a rchitectural f ragments n ever b efore r ecorded .

A lthough t his s urvey h as n ot y et b een p ublished i n i ts e ntirety ,

i ts f indings w ere i ncluded i n 1 971 , i n t he L ist o f H istorical S ites i n t he G olan H eights , p ublished b y t he H eadquarters o f t he M ilitary G overnment i n t he

G olan H eights ,

i n a ccordance

w ith

A ntiquities ( Golan H eights , N o. 8 1),

t he

"De claration

o f

P rotection

o f

1 967" .

I n O ctober 1 968 , d uring t he s urvey o f t he A rab v illages , Iw as a ppointed t o s erve a s S taff O fficer i n C harge o f A rchaeological A ffairs i n t he G olan H eights . T his p osition e nabled m e t o c ontinue t he s urveys , a nd t o i n itiate e xcavations a t d ifferent s ites b elonging t o t he r egion . T hese s urveys a nd e xcavations w ere r eported o n i n F I adashot A rcheologiot , a j ournal p ublished b y

t he

I srael

D epartment

o f

A ntiquities

a nd

Museums,

a nd

i n

o ther

p ublications w hich a re r eferred t o i n t he b ody o f t his w ork . M eanwhile ,

E pstein a nd G utman c ontinued t heir w ork i ntermittently ,

a nd

i n f act a re s till c ontinuing t oday t o c onduct v arious a rchaeological s urvey p rojects i n t he G olan o n b ehalf o f t he I srael D epartment o f A ntiquities , t he A ssociation f or t he A rchaeological S urvey o f I srael ,

t he I srael E xploration

S ociety , a nd o ther i nstitutions . I n 1 969 , t hey r eturned t o t he r egion t o c arry o ut s urveys t o s upplement t he 1 967-68 s urvey . U nfortunately , t hese s upplementary s urveys , w hich b rought t o l ight a dditional p reviously u nknown s ites a nd f indings , h ave n ot y et b een p ublished . H owever , t he r eports o f t he s urveys , c omplete w ith p hotographs , a re a vailable t o i nterested s cholars a t t he a rchives o f t he A ssociation f or t he A rchaeological S urvey o f I srael ( Jerusalem , I srael) u nder t he t itle o f G olan S urvey

-

P hase B .

F ollowing t he s urveys o f 1 969 , C laire E pstein b egan t o d evote h er t ime t o r esearch o n t he D olmen f ields a nd s ites d ated t o t he C halcolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ge p eriods . S ince t hese e xcavations l ie o utside t he p eriods a bout w hich t he p resent w ork i s c oncerned , t o E pstein 's p reliminary r eports , I n

1 972,

I was

a ppointed

w e w ill m erely r efer t he r eader

w hich a ppeared i n H adashot A rcheologiot .'' S ecretary

o f

t he

A ssociation

f or

t he

A rchaeological S urvey o f I srael . F ortunately , t his n ew p osition e nabled m e t o c ontinue a rchaeological s urveys i n t he r egion . T hus , f or e xample , f rom t he e nd o f O ctober u ntil t he m iddle o f N ovember o f 1 973 , C . B arkay ,

Z . I lan ,

A . K loner , A . M azar a nd I c onducted a s urvey o f f orty s ites j ust o utside t he n ortheastern m argins o f t he G olan . T he r esults o f t his s urvey w ere p ublished c oncurrently i n e 2v eral p laces , I srael E xploration J ournal. I n

J une

o f

1 976 ,

S .

G utman

I ncluding T eva v a-Aretz ,

b egan

t o

e xcavate

t he

a nd t he

s ite

whose

i dentification w as , s everal y ears b efore , s uggested t o b e t he r emains o f t he c ity o f G amala . H is e xcavation , w hich i s b eing c ontinued a t t he p resent t ime , h as a lready b rought t o l ight e nough e vidence t o c onfirm t his s uggested i dentification .1 3 W e

s hall

c onclude

t he

r eview

o f a rchaeological r esearch I n t he G olan

f rom 1 967 u ntil t he writing o f t he p resent s tudy b y m entioning s everal r escue e xcavations a nd s urveys w hich h ave b een c onducted , a nd a re c ontinuing t o b e c onducted , a t v arious s ites i n t he a rea b y Z . M a 'oz , o n b ehalf o f t he I srael D epartment o f A ntiquities a nd Museums . T he r esults o f t hese e xcavations a nd s urveys a re b eing r eleased , A rcheologiot. 1 4

f rom t ime t o t ime ,

T his r enaissance o f r esearch i n t he G olan I s w hat s tudy . I n p hysical-geographical t erms , t he p resent t he a rea o f t he g eographical-historical G olan , a nd ' nolan H eights" . I n o ther w ords , t his s tudy d oes n ot

I n U adashot

h as l ed t o t he p resent w ork c oncentrates o n n ot o n t he s o-called d eal w ith t hose p arts

o f t he H ermon which t oday, i n t he p olitical-geographical s phere , i ncluded i n t he r egion k nown a s t he G olan H eights.

a re

T he p eriods t o w hich t his s tudy i s d evoted a re t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods ( commencing w ith t he a ppearance o f P ompey i n P alestine i n t he y ear 6 3 B .C . a nd c oncluding w ith t he A rab c onquest o f t he a rea I n t he y ear A .D . 6 36) . D uring t hese p eriods , i ts p eak. A s

t he a rea b ecame

t he n umber o f s ettlements i n t he G olan r eached

s ettled

t o c apacity ,

i t was o nly n atural t hat

i mportant p olitical a nd m ilitary e vents o ccurred t here , a nd t hat a n umber o f i mportant c ultural a nd r eligious c enters f lourished i n t he a rea .

W ithout

e ntering i nto a n I temization o f t he e vents a nd c enters t o w hich r eference h as b een m ade , w e w ill m ention m erely t hat t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods w ere ,

I ndisputably ,

t he R oman p eriod ,

t he h igh-point i n t he h istory o f t he G olan . t he a rea w as

o nly p artially s ettled a nd ,

P rior t o

f ollowing t he

B yzantine p eriod , a s ar esult o f t he A rab C onquest w hich b rought a bout t he v irtual r uin o f s ettlement i n t he G olan t he a rea b ecame a t arget f or t he B edouin h erds , e nemies o f c ultivators o f t he l and t hroughout t he N ear E ast . I ndeed , o ne w ho e xamines h istorical s tudies w ritten a bout t he G olan w ill f ind t hat t he m aterial t ends t o d eal , a nd n aturally a nd j ustifiably s o , w ith t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods. -

-

T he f irst c hapter o f t his b ook I s d evoted t o a d iscussion o f t he n ame " Golan" . W hile i t m ay b e a rgued t oday , a fter a ll t hat h as b een w ritten a bout t he G olan , t hat t here i s n o n eed t o d eal w ith t his s ubject , o ne w ho d elves I n d epth i nto t he

s ources

o f

t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods w ill

f ind a v ery i nteresting p henomenon , n amely t hat t he c ontemporary J ewish s ources r arely r efer t o t his a rea b y t he n ame " Golan" . H ence t he q uestion a rises a s t o w hen t he c ontemporary s ources w hich u se t he n ame 'olan' r efer t o t he a rea i n g eographic t erms, when t hey r efer t o t he r egion a s a n a dministrative u nit , a nd when r eference i s b eing m ade t o as ettlement b earing t his n ame.

5

K nowing

t hat

s ome

o f

t he r eferences

t o

t he G olan w hich o ccur i n t he

s ources o f t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods r efer t o ag eographic a rea r aises t he q uestion o f w hether t he G olan i s a g eographic u nit u nto i tself , a nd i f s o , what a re i ts e xact p hysical-geographical b orders . T he r esults o f i nvestigating t he l iterature o n t his s ubject v erge o n t he c haotic , p articularly i n t he c ase o f m aterial d ealing w ith t he a rea 's e astern b order . A nother a spect o f t his i ssue i s c entral w hen a ttempting t o d etermine e xactly w hich a rea J osephus h ad i n m ind w hen r eferring t o ' Upper G olan' a nd ' ! Lower G olan" i n h is w ritings . T he s econd c hapter o f t his s tudy , t herefore , i s d evoted t o t hese a nd o ther i ssues r elating t o t he p hysical-geographical c haracteristics o f t he r egion .

T his

i nvestigation i s

h ydrological , c limatological a nd o ver t he l ast e ighteen y ears .

b ased o n t he f indings o ther

s urveys

w hich h ave

o f g eological , b een c onducted

I n t his p hysical- g eographical r eview , t he d iscussion i s e xpanded s ince , u ntil t he p resent t ime , s uch a c omprehensive r eview o f t he a rea h as b een l acking . T his i s d ue m ainly t o t he f act t hat t he v arious s urveys w ere c onducted i ndependently o f e ach o ther , a nd w ere n ever f used i nto a s ingle c omprehensive w ork . A c omprehensive r eview o f t his s ort i s n ecessary i n o rder t o d iscern c rucial f actors s uch a s p hysical-geographical b orders -

w hich u sually i nfluenced t he l ocation o f a dministrative b orders

-

o r s oil

v ariances , a f actor w hich i nfluenced t he r egion 's e conomic d evelopment . A s a r esult o f t he r eview o f t he v arious p hysical- g eographical a spects o f t he G olan , an ew d ivision o f t he r egion i nto s ub-units t aking i nto c onsideration t he s pecific c haracteristics o f T his d ivision , a nd k nowledge o f t he c haracteristics o f e ach u nit, m ake p ossible a more t horough u nderstanding o f

i s s uggested , e ach s ub-unit . a nd e very s ubt he e conomic

d evelopment o f t he s ettlements i n t he r egion . H owever , b efore d iscussing t he r egion 's e conomy d uring t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods, t he t hird c hapter d eals w ith s ettlement p attern a nd r oad s ystem w hich p revailed i n t he G olan d uring t he p eriods u nder d iscussion . T he f orth

c hapter d eals w ith t he e conomy o f t he r egion , a s ubject

w hich , t o t he b est o f o ur k nowledge , h as n ever b een d ealt w ith i n t he p ast . T his c hapter p rovides a n a nalysis b ased o n b oth d irect a nd i ndirect r eferences i n t he c ontemporary s ources , a s w ell a s o n t he a rchaeological f indings , o f c omponents o f t he G olan 's e conomy d uring t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods. A ppendix A , f ound a t t he e nd o f t his b ook , c onsists o f al ist o f t he s ites w hich h ave b een d iscovered i n t he G olan d ating B yzantine p eriods .

T his

l ist

o f

s ites

i s a b asic

f rom

t he R oman a nd

r equisite

f or a ny

d iscussion o f t he h istory o f t he a rea d uring t he a bove-mentioned p eriods , s ince i t p rovides t he s pecifics n ecessary t o d raw a m ap o f t he s ettlements w hich e xisted d uring t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods . n ames

o f

p ertinent

t he

s ites ,

t heir

c oordinates ,

d ata p rovided i n t he

t able ,

I n a ddition t o t he

t heir e stimated a reas , r eferences a re

m ade

a nd

o ther

t o t he v arious

s urveys f rom which w e d erived t he i nformation c ontained i n t his t able . F ollowing t he t able , a dditional o bservations a re v oiced i n r egard t o s pecific s ites . T he p urpose o f t hese o bservations i s t o p rovide i nformation a bout

o ne

a rchaeological

f inding

o r a nother a t

a g iven

s ite .

T his l ist i n A ppendix A , a nd t he n otes which f ollow, a re a ccurate a s o f A pril 1 985 , i nclusive .

6

W hile t he p resent s tudy d eals w ith t he b asic s ubjects i temized a bove , w e h ope , i n t he f uture , a fter t he d ozens o f i nscriptions a nd h undreds o f o ther a rchaeological f indings w hich h ave b een d iscovered d uring t he v arious r ecent s urveys a re p ublished , t o d evote a nother s tudy t o ad iscussion o f t he s ocial a nd p olitical h istory o f t he G olan d uring t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods . O nly a c omprehensive s tudy w hich c ombines t he s ubjects i ncluded i n t he p resent w ork with t he i nformation c ontained i n t he m any u npublished i nscriptions a nd a rchaeological f inds , t ogether w ith h istorical r eferences c ulled f rom t he c ontemporary s ources , c an b ring a bout a n a ccurate a nd a cceptable s ocial a nd p olitical h istory o f t he G olan .

N OTES T O T HE I NTRODUCTION

1 .

U .J.

S eetzen ,

R eisen

d urch S yrien, P alästina , P h6nizien ,

T rans j ordan-Lander , A rabia P etraea u nd U nter l gypten , 2 .

J .L .

B urckhardt ,

B erlin ,

T ravels i n S yria a nd t he H oly L and ,

d ie

1 854 .

L ondon ,

1 822 .

S ee

a lso a G erman e dition , R eisen i n S yrien , P alästina u nd d er G egend d es B erges S inai , W eimer , 1 823 . 3 .

S ee

t he

c riticism

o n

B uckingham

i n Y .

B en-Arieh 's

b ook,

R ediscovery o f t he H oly L and i n t he N ineteenth C entury , J erusalem , 3 9-41 , 4 .

The

1 970 ,

p p .

c ountries

o f

( Hebrew) .

J .S.

B uckingham ,

T ravels i n P alestine,

t hrough t he

B ashan a nd G ilead , e ast o f t he R iver J ordan ; i ncluding a ‚ v isit t o t he c ities o f G eraza a nd G amala i n t he D ecapolis , L ondon ,

1 821 .

5 . E . R obinson , B iblical R esearches i n P alestine : A J ournal o f T ravels i n t he Y ear 1 838 ,

L ondon ,

1 841 .

6 . J .L . P orter , F ive Y ears i n D amascus, 2 v ols . , L ondon , 1 855; T he G iant C ities o f B ashan a nd S yria 's H oly P laces , L ondon , 1 968 . 7 . H .B . T ristram , L ondon , 8 .

i dem .,

T he L and o f I srael : A J ournal o f T ravels i n P alestine ,

1 866.

S . M errill ,

E ast o f t he J ordan : AR ecord o f T ravels a nd O bservations i n

t he C ountries o f M oab , G ilead a nd B ashan D uring t he Y ears 1 875-1877, Y ork, 9 .

N ew

1 883.

T he w orks o f s ome o f t he s cholars a lluded t o a bove a re f ootnoted i n t he

b ody o f t his s tudy ; t he r est a ppear i n o ur b ibliography. 1 0 .

T he r esults o f t he s urvey b y E pstein a nd G utman w ere p ublished i n M .

K ochavi ( ed .) , J udea , S amaria a nd t he G olan : A rchaeological S urvey 1 9671 968, J erusalem , 1 972 , p p. 2 43-298 , ( Hebrew). 1 1 . S ee : k i adashot A rcheologiot 3 9 , p p . 1 013 ; 4 4 , pp. 1 -3 ; 4 8-49 , p p . 2 22 3; 5 3 , p p . 1 -2; 5 6 , p p . 1 -2; 5 7-58 , p p . 1 -2; 5 9-60 , pp. 8 -9 ; 6 1-62 , p p . 1 3 ; 6 5-66 , p p . 1 -3 ; 6 9-71 , p p . 2 5-27 ; 7 4-75 , p p . 1 -2 ; 7 6 , pp. 1 -3 , 8 0-81 , p p . 2 -3; 8 3 , p p. 3 -4. 1 2 .

S ee :

D . U rman e t a l . , " Relics o f t he P ast i n t he N orthern B ashan" ,

T eva v a-Aretz

1 6

( 1974) ,

p p .

1 62-167,

( Hebrew) ;

C .

B arkay

e t

a l . ,

" Archaeological S urvey i n t he N orthern B ashan" ,

I EJ 2 4 ( 1974) ,

p p .

1 73184 .

I t s hould b e m entioned t hat m ost o f t he I nscriptions d iscovered d uring t his s urvey w ere p ublished ; s ee : A . O vadiah , " Greek I nscriptions f rom t he N orthern B ashan" , L iber A nnuus 2 6 ( 1976), pp. 1 70-212, p lates 1 7-24. 1 3 . S ee : S . G utman , G amala : T he H istorical B ackground a nd t he F irst S eason o f Excavations , T el Aviv , 1 977, ( Hebrew) ; I dem . , G amala : T he E xcavation i n t he F irst T hree S easons , T el A viv , 1 981 , ( Hebrew) . 1 4 .

S ee :

F j adashot A rcheologiot

p p. 6 10 ; 7 7 ,

p p.

6 7-68 ,

2 -3, 5 0-53; 7 8-79 , p .

p p .

1 ; 8 2 ,

1 0 -1 2 ; p p.

6 9 -7 1 ,

1 -2; 8 3 ,

p p . p .

2 .

2 7 -2 9 ;

7 3 ,

C HAPTER O NE T HE N AME ' tOIAN"

P rior t o i ts a ppearance i n t he s ources f rom t he R oman p eriod , " Golan" a ppears i n ac lear f orm o nly i n t he B ible .1 r eferences , D euteronomy 4 :43 a nd I C hronicles 6 :56 ,

t he n ame

I n t wo o f t he b iblical t he n ame " Golan" a ppears

i n t he f orm which i s u sed t oday , t hat i s t o s ay, i n t he " Plene" H ebrew s pelling 7 ia(G61an) . I n t he t wo a dditional B iblical r eferences t o t he G olan , J oshua 2 0 :8 a nd J oshua 2 1:27 , t he n ame a ppears i n t he c orrupted f orm I I YI. . 2 I n a ll f our r eferences , t he B ible r efers e xplicitly t o a c ity n amed G olan w hich w as a ppointed a c ity o f r efuge ( Deuteronomy 4 :43 ; J oshua 2 0 :8) a nd which was g iven t o t he G ershonites , o ne o f t he L evite f amilies ( Joshua 2 1:27 ; I C hronicles 6 :56) . I n a ll f our c ases , t he B ible a lso m entions t hat t he c ity w as i n t he B ashan , i n t he t erritory o f t he h alft ribe M anasseh . H ere i t m ust b e m entioned t hat t he e xact b oundaries o f t he B ashan a s p resented i n t he a n e xamination e specially f rom t hat l eaps f orth

B ible a re t he s ubject o f m uch s cholarly d ebate .3 B ut f rom o f t he v arious r eferences t o t he B ashan i n t he B ible , t he v erse i n D euteronomy 3 3 :22 ' ran i s a l ion 's w help , f rom B ashan i t i s c lear t hat t he r egion k nown t oday a s -

-

‚

t he G olan H eights w as a lso a p art o f t he B iblical B ashan . A s f or t he I dentification o f t he c ity o f G olan m entioned i n t he B ible , t here a re a lso d ifferent s uggestions o ffered b y m odern r esearch . Most s cholars f ollow S chumacher a nd h ave b een i dentifying t he l ocation o f t he B iblical c ity w ith t he v illage S a 1 iem e j-Jaul n ( coordinates 2 380 2 433) b ecause o f i ts n ame .4 W .F . A lbright , o n t he o ther h and , c ity m ust b e w ithin t he r egion o f t he p resent-day G olan .S

s ubmits t hat t his

I t m ust b e e mphasized t hat t he d ebate o ver t he l ocation o f t he L evitic a nd r efuge c ity o f " Golan i n B ashan" I s n ot o nly t he p rovince o f m odern s cholarship . E choes o f t his d ebate a re f ound i n l ate a ntiquity i n t he A ramaic t ranslations o f t he B ible a nd i n t he M idrashic l iterature , a s w ill b e s een b elow . S ince t he s ubject h ere i s t he n ame " Golan" , e specially d uring t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods , w e w ill n ot e nter i nto t he d etails o f t he d ebate o ver t he l ocation o f t he B iblical c ity o f G olan . W e w ill p oint o ut , h owever , t hat i n o ur o pinion , a s l ong a s r emains f rom t he L ate B ronze A ge a nd/or I ron A ge a re n ot f ound i n Sat iem e j-Jaul n , i t i s d ifficult t o i dentify t his v illage w ith t he B iblical c ity s olely o n t he b asis o f t he n ame . I n t he s ame w ay o ne m ight i dentify t his c ity w ith t he v illage o f J ill T h o r J allin ( coordinates 2 432 2 400) , w ith K h . e l-Jelabing ( coordinates 2 110 2 719) o r w ith t he R oman-period s ettlement c alled G alania , a bout w hose e xistence w e k now o nly f rom i nscriptions .6 A n e xamination o f m aps o f t he G olan a nd n earby r egions l ike t he B ashan a nd G ilead f rom t he l ast c entury s hows m ultiples o f t he s ame n ame a s w ell a s • t he m ovement o f s ettlement n ames f rom p lace t o p lace i n t hese r egions . W e w ill p resent h ere o nly t hree p rominent e xamples o f m ultiple n ames o f s ettlements . T he n ame ' Aqrab , f or e xample , a ppears i n t he B ashan ( coordinates

2 445

2 797)

a nd

a lso

i n

9

G ilead

( coordinates

2 245

2 371) .

L ikewise ,

t he

n ame

er -Rafid

a ppears

b oth

i n

t he G olan

( coordinates

2 345

2 625) a nd i n G ilead ( coordinates 2 272 2 350) . F inally , t he n ame K i Irst o r K h . e l-l « lrsI , w hich i s t he n ame o f as ite o n t he e astern s hore o f t he S ea o f G alilee 2 322) .

( coordinates 2 107 T hese e xamples -

-

2 482) , a lso a ppears i n G ilead ( coordinates 2 167 a nd t here a re m any m ore o f t hem o blige u s t o -

-

p roceed w ith e xtreme c aution w hen w e s eek t o i dentify n ames o f s ettlements w hich a re m entioned i n t he s ources a s e xisting i n t hese a reas w ith e xtant s ettlements o r s ites w hich , w hile p reserving t he a ncient n ames , b een p laced u nder p roper a rchaeological s crutiny .

h ave n ot

B etween t he r eferences i n t he B ible t o t he c ity o f G olan a nd t he d ays o f J osephus , t he n ame 'olan' d oes n ot a ppear i n t he s ources . J osephus ' w ritings a re t he f irst s ources k nown t o u s t oday i n w hich t he n ame ' nolan" a ppears n ot o nly a s t he n ame o f ac ity o r a s ettlement but a lso a s t he n ame o f a r egion : T his f act i s s ometimes i gnored b y d ifferent s cholars , a nd t herefore

w e w ill e xamine w ith e xtra c are h ere e ach o f

w hich J osephus u ses t he n ame .

t he

i nstances

i n

O nly i n f our o f t he t wenty - o ne r eferences

w here t he n ame G olan a ppears i n J osephus ' w ritings i s i t v irtually c ertain t hat t he a uthor w as r eferring t o as ettlement k nown a s ' tolan" . T he f irst o f t hese f our r eferences i s a lso t he m ost d efinite o ne . T here, i n A nt . I V , 1 73 , J osephus p resents , i n t he t ext o f t he v ersion a ccording t o which Moses h imself b uilt t he t en c ities t hat w ere t o b e r eckoned a mong t he n umber o f t he f orty -e ight c ities a ssigned t o t he p riests a nd L evites , t he l ist o f t he t hree r efuge c ities o f t he T ransjordan i ncluding l auXavàV 5 ' iV T i B c ITaVIÖL i .e ., " Gaulana i n B atanaea" . I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat J osephus u ses t he f orm l auAav c i a nd n ot o ne o f t he t ransliterations f ound i n t he G reek t ranslations o f t he B ible , o r 1 cjAáv, w hich w ere u sed d uring t he f ourth c entury b y E usebius a nd w hich w ill b e d iscussed b elow . I n A nt . X III , 3 93 J osephus a lso u ses t he f orm l auAavc i ' . F rom t he c ontext h ere , a ccording t o which A lexander J annaeus s et o ut a gainst G aulana a nd S eleucia , a nd f rom t he s entence i mmediately

f ollowing

-

-

" After

t aking

t hese

c ities

a s

w ell . . ."

-

-

i t

i s

c lear b eyond a d oubt t hat t he a uthor i s r eferring h ere t o t he c ity n amed G aulana . I n t he o ther t wo i nstances , B .J . I , 9 0 a nd B .J . I , 1 05 , J osephus u ses t he f orm I n B .J . I ,

l c iuA6v1 = G aulane . 1 05 ,

t he c onquest o f G aulane ( Gaulana) a nd S eleucia b y

A lexander J annaeus i s a lso m entioned . H ere , i t i s d ifficult t o d etermine whether t he a uthor i s r eferring t o a r egion o r a c ity n amed G aulane . H owever , b ased o n t he f act t hat J osephus w rites IauAáv v K a i C AEI IK 1aV , i .e . ' taulane a nd S eleucia" a nd t he n ame S eleucia a lways a ppears i n J osephus a s t he n ame o f ac ity o r s ettlement a nd b ased o n t he t ext o f A nt . , X III , 3 93 , i t i s p ossible t o c ome t o t he c onclusion t hat h ere -

-

-

-

a lso r eference m ade i s t o a c ity o r s ettlement w ith t he n ame G aulane

( or

G aulana). T he t ext

i n B .J . I ,

9 0 ,

a lso d eals w ith a n e vent f rom t he t ime o f

A lexander J annaeus .

H ere i s r elated t he w ar b etween J annaeus a nd O bedas ,

t he k ing o f A rabia ,

w hich e nded i n f ailure f or J annaeus w hen h is a rmy w as

d efeated i n a n a mbush l aid f or i t b y O bedas ' f orces n ear G aulane . F rom t he t ext , i t i s d ifficult t o d etermine w hether a r egion o r a s ettlement w ith t his n ame i s b eing d iscussed ,

b ut f rom t he w ording o f t he t ext a ccording t o

w hich a n a mbush ( upoXoX I avT L )w as l aid n ear ( K QT 1 )G aulane , o ne c an c onclude t hat r eference i s a lso b eing m ade t o a c ity, s ince l ogic d ictates t hat o ne l ays a n a mbush n ear a d efinite s ite a nd n ot n ear a r egion . W e m ust m ention t hat t his a mbush a lso a ppears i n A nt . X III , 3 75 , b ut t here

1 0

t he v ersion i s n ear

(

d ifferent

a nd

a v illage n amed G arada ,

a ccording

t o

i t

C haradra o r G adara ,

t he

a mbush

" a v illage

o f

w as

l aid

G aulanis"

Tf 5 r auAavIöoç ) ‚ i .e . a v illage i n t he r egion o f t he S ince t he n ames o f t he v illage a nd t he r ei c t hat a ppear i n A nt .

K J. iqV

G olan .

X III , 3 75 d iffer f rom o ne m anuscript t o a nother , o ne c annot , i n Wi r o pinion , r ely o n t his v ersion , n or c an o ne d erive f rom i t a ny c onclusion . T hus

f ar w e

h ave

r eviewed

t he

r eferences

m ade

b y J osephus

t o a

s ettlement n amed G aulana o r G aulane . B efore t urning t o ad iscussion o f t he r eferences i n w hich J osephus m entions t he r egion o r d istrict 'olan' , w e s hould e nlarge u pon t he q uestion o f w here t o l ocate t he s ettlement o r t he c ity o f G aulana o r G aulane . F rom J ospehus ' w ritings i t i s n ot c lear w hether o r n ot t he c ity o f r efuge G olan i s i dentical t o t he c ity G aulana o r G aulane w hich i s m entioned i n c onnection w ith e vents w hich o ccurred i n t he t ime o f A lexander J annaeus .

A lthough t he

f orm o f t he n ame

i n A nt .

X III ,

3 93

i s

i dentical t o t he o ne a ppearing i n t he l ist o f c ities o f r efuge i n A nt . I V , 1 73 , o ne c annot k now w ith c ertainty t hat b oth r eferences a re t o t he s ame c ity i n t he s ame l ocation . H owever , w hether t he G aulana o r G aulane o f J annaeus ' t ime i s i dentical t o t he B iblical G olan o r n ot , t oday , a s m entioned a bove , i t i s d ifficult t o m ake a s olid i dentification o f t he s ite . F rom t he f act t hat J osephus d oes n ot m ention t he c ity G aulana o r G aulane i n h is w ritings a fter h is a ccount o f t he e vents d uring t he t ime o f A lexander J annaeus , i t m ay b e t hat t his c ity w as d estroyed d uring t he c onquest o f J annaeus . S upport f or t his c onclusion c an p erhaps b e s een i n t he f act t hat G aulana a nd S eleucia d id n ot s urrender t o h im w ithout a f ight a s d id t he c ity o f G erasa , w hich i s m entioned i n t he t ext b efore t he f ormer t wo c ities ,9 a nd t herefore J annaeus h ad t o c onquer

(

K aT a a -r p 4 c T aI

)t hem .

I n t he r emainder o f t he r eferences i n J osephus w here a f orm o f t he n ame ' nolan" a ppears , t he i ntended r eference , a s m entioned a bove , i s t o a r egion w ith t his n ame w hich a ppears i n t he f orm l c tuXav iT lç = G aulanitis . A .H .M . J ones , i n h is b ook T he C ities o f t he E astern R oman P rovinces , m akes t he a ssumption t hat a ll t he p lace n ames i n S yria a nd P alestine w hich e nd w ith " itis" o r " ites" t he e nding w hich w as o ne o f t he r egular G reek w ays o f f orming a n a djective f rom a p lace n ame a re r emnants o f a n a dministrative -

-

-

-

s ystem w hich e xisted i n t hese c ountries w hen t hey w ere u nder t he r ule o f t he P tolemies .

I ndeed ,

i n J osephus '

writings ,

i n

t he

m ajority o f

çses

i n

w hich t he n ame 'aulanitis" i n i ts v arious d eclined f orms a ppears ," i t i s c lear f rom t he c ontext t hat t he a uthor i s r eferring t o a n a dministrative u nit w hich w as c alled b y t his n ame a nd w hich w as u ndoubtedly s omewhere i n t he a rea k nown t oday a s t he G olan H eights . T hus , f or e xample , i n B . J . I I , 2 47 , when t he c hanges which C laudius i nstituted i n t he f orms o f a dministration i n t he r egion a re d iscussed , a nd w hen t he t erritory w hich A grippa I r eceived f rom h im i s d escribed , " taulanitis" r efers t o a n a dministrative u nit .

B .J .

i t

i s

c lear t hat

t he

t erm

S upporting t his f act a re t wo f urther r eferences f ound i n J osephus , i n I II, 3 7 a nd I II, 5 6 , where t he h istorian r efers t o A grippa I I's

t erritories . I n t he l atter i nstance , h e a lso u ses t he w ord . 1Oip at ‚ i . e . d ivisions , when r eferring t o B atanaea , T rachonitis a nd G aulanitis a s s ections o f A grippa 's k ingdom . F rom t he a ccount o f H erod 's w ill i n A nt . X VII ,

1 89 a nd f rom t he d iscussion o f t he c haracter o f P hillip t he T etrarch

i n A nt . X VIII , 1 06 , i t i s p ossible t o c onclude t hat J osephus , w hen u sing t he n ame " Gaulanitis" , i s r eferring h ere a lso t o a n a dministrative u nit .

1

Q uestions a bout w hen t his u nit w as c reated ,

w hat i ts b oundaries w ere ,

w hether o r n ot t hese b oundaries c hanged d uring t he v arious p hases o f t he R oman P eriod , a nd o ther r elated q uestions a re o utside t he r ange o f t he p resent s tudy . H owever , h ere , i n t he c hapter d evoted t o a n e xamination o f t he n ame 'olan' , i t i s n ecessary t o e nlarge u pon t he q uestion o f w hether , when u sing t he n ame G aulanitis , J osephus i s a lways r eferring t o a n a dmin istrative u nit o r i s s ometimes r eferring t o t he a rea i n ag eographical s ense . I t i s d ifficult t o g ive a n u nequivocal a nswer t o t his q uestion s ince t he r eferences m ade i n B .J. I II , 5 42, t o " people f rom G aulanitis"

( lauAavi ia i ) and i n n t. XVIII, 4 t o " Judas, a C aulanite" ( 'I o ô aç ö l c iuAav i Tf lç ) c an a lso b e i nterpreted a s i ndicating a n a dministrative d ivision a nd n ot n ecessarily a g eographical o ne . T he s ame t hing c an a lso b e s aid r egarding t he f act t hat J osephus m entions , i n B . J . I I, 1 68 , t he " Lower G olan" a nd , i n B .J . I V , 2 , t he " Upper G olan" . T he p aragraph i n BJ . I V d eals w ith g eographical a ccounts a s a n i ntroduction t o t he d escription o f t he s iege o f t he c ity o f G amala , t o w hich t he e ntire c hapter t here i s d evoted . B ut i n B .J. I I, 1 68 , t he " Lower G olan" i s m entioned i n c onnection w ith a l ist o f c ities w hich H erod a nd P hillip b uilt i n t heir t erritories . T his l ist , w hich e numerates t he d istrict t owns o r t he c apitals o f e ach o f t he d istricts w hich t hey g overned , s eems t o h ave m ore o f a n a dministrative c haracter t han a g eographical o ne . A lthough i t i s p ossible t o a ssume

t hat

t he

t erminology

' Upper G olan"

a nd ' tower G olan' i mply a n a dministrative s ubdivision o f t he a dministrative u nit G aulanitis , i t s eems m ore r easonable t o a ssume t hat J osephus u ses t his t erminology i n r eference t o a p hysical - g eographical s ubdivision o f t he r egion . T his a ssumption i s s trengthened when o ne e xamines t he p hysical-geographical c onditions o f t he G olan , a s will b e s een i n t he f ollowing c hapter . B esides t he r eferences i n J osephus , a nd e xcept f or t hose v ery f ew i n t he M ishnah a nd t he T osefta , t he d ating o f w hich , a s w ill b e s een b elow , i s q uestionable , t he n ame ' tolan' d oes n ot i n f act a ppear i n a ny f orm i n a ny o f t he v arious s ources f or P alestine a nd S yria i n t he R oman p eriod f rom i ts b eginning a nd a lmost t o i ts e nd . O nly i n t he f irst h alf o f t he f ourth c entury A .D . d oes t he n ame " Golan" s urface i n o ne p aragraph o f t he O nomasticon o f E usebius . T he e ntire p aragraph a s i t a ppears i n K lostermann 's e dition , t ogether w ith t he L atin translation o f J erome a ppearing i n t he s ame e dition ,

rau

r wAa v .

jv

Mavaaaf j , T ()V

r óM ç

a re p resented b elow .'

G aulon s ive G olan i n t ribu M anasse , c ivitas s acerdotalis e t f ugitivorum i n r egione

4 wM ic

k pQT tKf

4uya &ui7 1p k . iv LV Tj

Bc ioav li töi .

Kai vüv

B asanitide. s ed e t n unc Gaulon vocatur v illa p ergrandis i n B atar iaea , e x c uius n omine e t r egio s ortita

rau M v

KaAc iTa L K ( Z )n 1 [ L CYLC YT Y I E V T f l Baiava t c. Ô . )VU 1 LCT E T t j

K ( 4 Lf l

xa l t T CP IX WPOS .

v ocabulum e st .

( Gaulon o r G olan i n t he t ribe o f M anasseh , ap riestly c ity a mong t he c ities o f r efuge i n t he B ashan . A nd t oday G aulon i s c alled a v ery l arge v illage i n t he B ashan ; a nd a lso t he d istrict i s c alled b y t he s ame n ame a s t he v illage).

1 2

r A a »

T he n ame f orms a nd r au bv i n E usebius a re i dentical t o t he f orms a ppearing i n t he G reek t ranslations o f t he B ible . I ndeed i t i s c lear t hat , i n g eneral , t he a y hor o f t he O nomasticon h as q uoted t hese G reek t ranslations i n h is w ork . T he i nteresting f act i s t hat E usebius , w hether h e h imself was f amiliar w ith t he G olan r egion o r o nly d erived h is i nformat n a bout t his a rea f rom h earsay t estimony o r o ther c ontemporary s ources ,

e mphasizes t hat i n h is d ays a v ery l arge v illage c arried t he n ame ‚ a s d id a r egion ( i .e . a d istrict) .

1 auA cjv

B oth i n S ahem

a nd i n K h .

e t -Jaul n

e l—Jelabinâ ,

r emains w hich 1 9 a n h e

d ated t o t he d ays o f t he a uthor o f t he O nomasticon h ave b een f ound . To t hese s ites i t i s p ossible t o a dd t he s ettlement o f G alania ( l aAc ivLc t ) . D ue t o i ts m ention o n b oundary — s tones , w e k now t hat i t e xisted a t l east a t t he e nd o f t he t hird o r t he b eginning o f t he f ourth c enturies A .D ., i .e . d uring E usebius' t ime , i n t he7 a rea d escending t o t he I j uleh V alley .1

o f

t he

n orthwestern G olan

s lopes

I f w e a ccept a s r eliable t he w ords o f E usebius t hat 'aulon" w as a v ery l arge v illage , t hen t he p ossibility o f i dentifying i t w ith K h . e l-Jelabin i s r emote , s ince t he s ize o f t his s ite , which i s a pproximately t welve d unams , i s t oo s mall f or a " very l arge v illage" d uring t his p eriod . T he s ame c an b e s aid r egardir tg,e ach o ne o f t he s ites f or w hich a n i dentification w ith G alania i s p ossible . A s f or t he p ossibility o f i dentifying t he s ite w ith S ahem e j Jaul n o r J illin , b oth E usebius a nd J erome w rite t hat t he " very l arge v illage" w as i n t he B atanaea , w here t he t wo a bove m entioned v illages a re s ituated . F rom

t he

f orm a nd

t he

s tyle

o f

t he

t ext,

h owever ,

o ne

h as

t he

i mpression t hat t he p assage r eferring t o 1 auA v w as w ritten u nder t he i nspiration o f t he B iblical v erses . T herefore w e m ust n ot n ecessarily r estrict o ur s earch f or t he s ite o f E usebius ' " very l arge v illage" t o t he B atanaea . T his b eing t he c ase , w e w ould s uggest t he i dentification o f E usebius ' " very l arge v illage" w ith T ell e l—J i . Ikhad r ( coordinates 2 302 2 594) . T he l atter h as r evealed d ecisive a rchaeological e vidence i ndicating t hat i J erome .

9f lourished

d uring t he t ime o f E usebius a s w ell a s i n t hat o f F urthermore , i t i s o ne o f t he l argest s ites i n t he a rea o f t he

G olan ( ca . 2 00 d unams) .

O f c ourse t his i dentification d epends o n t he

r eliability o f t he t ext i n t he O nomasticon i n r egard t o t he c ontemporary r eality . B ut , e xcept f or t he f act t hat t he O nomasticon i dentifies t v illage o f i ts t ime k nown a s G aulon

(r auA cv

)w ith t he B iblical c ity ,2 8

t here i s n o p lausible r eason f or d oubting i ts v eracity . T o c omplete o ur d iscussion o f t he p aragraph i n t he O nomasticon i n w hich t he G olan i s m entioned , w e m ust e xamine o ne f inal i ssue , w hy E usebius , w hile m entioning t hat t he r egion h as t he s ame n ame a s t he " very l arge v illage" , d oes n ot p resent ( nor d oes J erome i n h is t ranslation) t he n ame f orm G aulanitis , w hich a ppears f requently i n J osephus ' w ritings a s t he n ame o f t he r egion . I nstead E usebius e dits t he t ext i n s uch a w ay s o a s t o m ake i t c lear t o t he r eader t hat t he n ame o f t he d istrict i s t he s ame a s t hat o f t he v illage ,

i .e .

G aulon .

M elamed , i n t he n otes t o h is H ebrew t ranslation o f t he O nomasticon , s uggests t hat p erhaps t he s ource o f t he n ame G aulon l ies i n t he w ritten v ersion o f G aulon w hich a ppears t wice i n t he b ook o f J oshua .2 ' H owever , f rom t he f act t hat t he a uthor o f t he O nomasticon h ad J osephus ' w ritings i n f ront o f h im 22 w e b elieve t hat t he s olution i s m ore c omplicated . T he f irst e xplanation w hich c omes t o m ind i s t hat i n t he d ays o f E usebius t he

1 3

r egion w as i ndeed n amed a fter t he " very l arge v illage" , t hat t he a uthor o f t he O nomasticon k new t his a nd t hat h e t herefore d id n ot a dopt J osephus ' f orm o f t he n ame G aulanitis , w hich a pparently f ell o ut o f u se a s a r esult o f a dministrative c hanges w hich w ere c arried o ut a fter t he s uppression o f t he J ewish R ebellion o f A .D . 6 6-70/73 . A s econd , b ut n ot n ecessarily c ontradictory e xplanation i s t hat E usebius ' J ewish a ssistants h ad a h and i n t he m atter . M elamed h imself p roves t hat i n t he p rocess o f e diting t he s ections a nd i n c ollecting m aterial f or t he c ommenta es o f t he O nomasticon , E suebjus r eceived a ssistance m ainly f rom J ews , zj a nd i t i s t herefore p ossible t hat t hey u sed a f orm o f t he n ame w hich w as a t ransliteration o f t he H ebrew f orm o r a ppearing i n s ome o f t he R abbinic s ources . T his l eads u s t o t urn , a t t his p oint i n o ur r eseacrh , t o t he r eferences t o t his n ame i n t he r abbinic s ources . I n t he M ishnah t he

r egion i s

m entioned d irectly o nly o nce .

I n

t ractate S otah 9 , 1 5 i s w ritten : R .

E liezer

t he

G reat*

s ays : ... W ith t he f ootprints o f t he Messiah ... t he h ouse

:' i

o f a ssembly will b e f or h arlotry, G alilee w ill b e

' " ini

t ake

21

U n IV r a 'WIKI

d estroyed , G avlan d esolated , and the people o f t he f rontier ** will w ander a bout f rom c ity t o c ity w ithout a nyone t o o n t hem

'V T

n13p'3

‚f l,IT' 2 VD I

7'31 0 -1 1 1

V O

2 3

1, 23 10 1 .. .

0 00

a' n'

ri 9, 21f l

'1221

133l U'

K ' 21

p ity

T he i dentification o f t he G avlan t he r egion o f t he G olan i s ,

( ' i) ,

which i s m entioned h ere , w ith

t o t he b est o f o ur k nowledge ,

a ccepted b y a ll

s cholars t oday .2 4 B ut, a s t o t he d ating o f t his m ishnah t here a re d ifferent o pinions , a nd i ndeed i t i s d ifficult t o d ate i t p recisely . A lbeck , i n t he " Additional N otes" i n h is e dition o f t he M ishnah , p resents s everal p ieces o f e vidence w hich s eem t o s upport h is c onclusion t hat t his e ntire m ishnah , l ike t he p revious o ne ( mishnah 1 4) , i s a pparently a l ater a ddition . 25 A lbeck 's v iew c an a lso b e s upported b y t he f act t hat t he m ishnah i s a scribed t o R abbi E liezer t he G reat , 26 , a nd o n t he o ther h and b y t he f act t hat s ections o f t his m ishnah a ppear i n m any o ther p laces i n t he r abbinic l iterature w here t hey a re a ttributed t o o ther s ages . W e w ill n ot p resent a ll t hese r eferences t o t he s ections o f t his m ishnah b ut r ather , o nly t hose i ncluding t he n ame G avlan : Y erushalmi S otah , 9 , 2 3b R .

E liezer

t he

' v r

G reat

s ays : ... W ith t he f ootprints o f t he M essiah ... G alilee w ill

b e

d estroyed ,

.. .

D1 J'

' p1 3

G avlan

*

I n t he C ambridge M S .

**

E liezer". I n M unich a nd K aufmann M SS . ,

n, w 1

1TP'7K n 11

123 10 ' P

31

1 2 2-r n' ' 211

'W]K

t he r eading i s " Ra bbi J oshua" i nstead o f " Ra bbi i nstead o f " the p eople o f t he f rontier"

t he r eading i s " the p eople o f t he G alilee '

1 4

d esolated , t he

a nd t he p eople o f

f rontiers

about

f rom

w ill

c ity

w ithout a nyone o n t hem

t o

1331f 1'

wander

t o

$ t17 1

c ity

t ake p ity

B avli S otah , 9 , 4 9 a -b R .

E liezer

t he

G reat

s ays : ... W ith t he f ootprints o f t he M essiah ... G alilee w ill b e d estroyed , G avlan d esolated , a nd t he p eople o f

:inix

t he f rontier w ill wander about f rom c ity t o c ity

0 .I V ?,

7 1 1n

31 W '

1 9

1331D

1 7 ' I: 3

w ithout

a nyone

t o

t ake

111 I 1 7b

000

p ity

1TP " ?K I i 1 3

.. .

1331 W '

31

P

'

3

5. 0 7 1; ;, n

' V 7I 1K1

X1? ,

1' 0

o n t hem B avli S anhedrin , I t

h as

1 1, 9 7a

b een

t aught ,

R .

Judah said: In the g eneration when t he s on o f

:1b1K .. .

D avid c omes , ... G alilee w ill be destroyed, Gavian

I T1f l'

13

61

C 3

DW '

?: 3111

YVYD

1: 33 0'

d esolated , a nd t he p eople o f t he f rontier w ill wander

.. .

i1 93 f l

17

111

-

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1

2 33

1331 W '

11

21I 1

'w3a f l

K'1

I 'Y '

about f rom c ity t o c ity w ithout a nyone t o t ake p ity o n t hem S hir H a-Shirim R abba , 2 , 1 3 At

t he

end

o f

t he

S abbatical y ear t he s on o f D avid i s c oming A s A baye s aid ... i t was s aid b y R esh L akish : I n t he g eneration when t he s on o f D avid c omes, ... d estroyed ,

-r nr

C 3

c ity

w ithout

a nyone

f l

3V ?

I i

.. .

111

13W

1 1 ,1

7152211

G alilee w ill b e G avia r i d esolated ,

1330' .. .

a nd t he p eople o f t he G alilee w ill w ander a bout f rom c ity t o

1 3

111

W r

.R: 3

:W , p t ,

W, 1

5, 9 1 224 11 ‚ 21 3 221 133 W '

' 1 73K1 K ' 21

01W

1 '7' 2

-i 'p

t o

t ake p ity o n t hem P esikta d e R . K ahana , 5 1, 2 R .

Abun

s aid:

I n

t he

‚•I-v 12W 111

g eneration when t he s on o f D avid c omes ,

. ..

31 3 3'

G alilee w ill

‚ 2" 731

b e destroyed, Gavian d esolated , a nd t he p eople o f

K ' 2 1

t he G alilee will w ander a bout f rom c ity t o c ity w ithout

a nyone

t o

t ake

p ity

o n t hem

1 5

‚ 2"22 01 W3K1 I'P' 2

27 12X

‚ "

.. .

12

01 W'

I1 7 11

-1 97

0.

K2

1: 3 : 110' 311 W '

P esikta R abbati, R .

Abin

1 5 , 7 5b s aid:

I n

t he

g eneration when t he s on o f D avid c omes , ... G alilee w ill b e destroyed, Gavian

TV T

p w ii

i"i

j,f l,

d esolated , a nd t he p eople o f t he G alilee w ill wander

11 7]K • I

K ' 2

a bout f rom c ity t o c ity w ithout a nyone t o t ake p ity

in

.. .

i P

Du ', ‚ p

t f l

3

7173 11 1 3,O'

0 *1

‚lllnn'

o n t hem D erech E retz Z uta , 1 0 , 5 9a R abban G amaliel s aid : t he

g eneration w hen

I n

t he

s on

o f D avid c omes , ... G alilee w ill b e d estroyed a nd t he

i11

p eople o f t he G alilee w ill

i pZ

31 n

1

17

K' 'b1

.. .

1 310 . 00

wander a bout f rom c ity t o c ity w ithout a nyone t o t ake p ity o n t hem S eder E liahu Z uta ,

elblb t '

10 1 29 1

T1

T

1V !

211

‚331u'

3 I

1 i'Y

1 6

R . J udah s ays : I n t he g eneration when t he s on o f D avid c omes , ... t he G olan

i ‚ • i, :raix r ri b w' i 'iiia i i . i 'p

w ill b e d esolated a nd t he p eople o f t he G olan w ill

1 1)O

'

'i

K

', 1

111 'WIKI

a irr r' 1 61

.. .

i 75

wander a bout f rom c ity t o c ity w ithout a nyone t o t ake p ity o n t hem I n c ontrast t o A lbecks o pinion ,

E pstein m aintains t hat t he m ishnayoth

i n C hapters E ight a nd N ine o f T ractate S otah o f t he M ishnah a re m ainly t he M ishnah o f R abbi J oianan B en Z akkai . 27 E pstein a lso m aintains t hat a lthough s everal m idrashim w ere a dded t o t hese m ishnayoth a nd s ome o f t hese m idrashim a re l ate ,

" the s pirit o f t he p eriod o f t he l ast d ays o f t he T emple s peaks

t hrough t hem ."28 U nfortunately , E pstein d oes n ot d eal s pecifically w ith t he m idrash w ith w hich w e a re c oncerned , a nd t herefore i t i s d ifficult t o k now w hether h e w ould h ave d ated i t t o a l ater p eriod , l ater h e w ould h ave d ated i t . A c omparison o f

t he

t exts

o f

a nd i f s o ,

t he d ifferent v ersions o f

h ow m uch

t his m idrash

r aises t he p ossibility o f d ividing t hem I nto f our g roups : G roup A

i ncludes t he v ersions i n t he M ishnah S otah ,

-

9 :15

-

P rinted E dition

a nd C ambridge M S . , Y erushalmi S otah , 9 , 2 3b , B avli S otah , 9 , 4 9 a -b , a nd B avli S anhedrin , 1, 97a P rinted E dition . T wo t hings c haracterize t his g roup : 1 ) T he m idrash is a scribed t o R abbi E liezer , R abbi J oshua or R abbi J udah , t hat i s t o s ay , a scribed t o T annaim o f t he s econd ( R . E liezer a nd R . -

J oshua) a nd t he

f ourth ( R .

o f t he m idrash i s w ritten G roup B S anhedrin

-

M ishnah S otah ( 11 ,

9 7a)

M unich

J udah ) g enerations . "

. ..

( 9 ,

2 )

I n a ll t hese v ersions

a nd t he p eople o f t he f rontier 1 5)

M S . 29

Munich

a nd K aufmann M SS . ,

A lthough

1 6

i n t his

g roup

. .. ".

a nd

B avli

t he m idrash i s

a lso a scribed t o R abbi E liezer o r R abbi J udah , a nd t he p eople o f t he f rontier G alilee .. . ". G roup C

-

S hir H a-Shirim R abba , 2 ,

P esikta R abbati ,

1 5 ,

7 5b .

i nstead o f t he p hrase

t he r eading i s

. .. ",

"

. ..

"

t he p eople o f t he

1 3, P esikta d e R . K ahana , 5 1, 2 , a nd

I n S hir H a-Shirin i R abba t he m idrash i s a scribed

t o R esh L aklsh a nd i n P esikta d e R . K ahana a nd P esikta R abbati i s a scribed t o R abbi A bun , t hat i s t o s ay , h ere , t he m idrash i s a scribed t o Amoraim o f t he s econd a nd f ourth g enerations . I n t his g roup, a s i n g roup B , t he r eading i s " ... t he p eople o f t he G alilee ... " i nstead o f " ... t he p eople o f t he f rontier .. . ". G roup D

-

D erech E retz Z uta ,

1 0 ,

5 9a

a nd S eder E liahu Z uta

1 6 .

I n

t his

g roup t he m idrash i s a scribed t o R abban G amaliel o r R abbi J udah , t hat i s t o s ay, T annaim o f t he s econd ( Rabban G amaliel) a nd f ourth ( Rabbi J udah) g enerations , a s i n G roup A , b ut t he t ext o f t he m idrash i s q uite d ifferent . I nstead o f t he n ames o f b oth r egions G alilee a nd G olan ( ' avlan" ) , t he n ame o f o nly o ne a ppears , w ill w ander .

a nd o f t he p eople o f t hat r egion i t i s s aid t hat t hey

I t s eems t hat t his o rdering o f t he g roups m ay a lso r eflect t he s equence o f c hanges w hich t ook p lace i n t he t ext o f t his m idrash o ver s everal g enerations . T he b eginnings o f t his m idrash a pparently l ie i n t he s econd g eneration o f T annaim , but i t i s d ifficult t o d ecide w ho w as t he f irst t o e xpound i t , w hether i t w as R abbi E liezer , R abbi J oshua o r p erhaps R abban G amaliel

( according t o D erech E retz Z uta) .

I f o ur a ssumption i s

t hat o ne o f t hese s ages w as t he f irst t o e xpound t his m idrash ,

c orrect

t hen p erhaps

i t i s a lso p ossible t o v iew t he f orm o f t he n ame G avlan a s a f orm w hich w as t aken f rom G reek , 30 s ince w e h ave e vidence f rom t he Y erushalmi M egillah , 1 , 1, 7 1c f or t he e xpertise o f R abbi E liezer a nd R abbi J oshua i n t he G reek l anguage a nd a lso f or t heir i nvolvement i n t he t ranslation o f t he B ible b y A quila .3 1 O n t he c onnection o f R abban G amaliel t o t he G reek l anguage , t he T osefta c learly s tates : ' The h ouse o f R abban G amaliel w ere p ermitted t o t each t heir s ons G reek b ecause t hey w ere c onnected t o t he g overnment ." 32 F inally, w e m ention h ere t he w ords a scribed t o R abbi S imeon t he s on o f R abban G amaliel w ho s aid ,

" A t housand c hildren w ere i n m y

f ather 's H ouse .

F ive h undred ( of t hem) s tudied T orah a nd f ive h undred s tudied G reek w isdom ."33 D espite t he s ense o f l egend , t hese l ast w ords r eflect , i n m y o pinion , ac ertain r eliability . T he r eality was t hat , i n t he C ourt o f R abban G amaliel , t o w hich b oth R abbi E liezer ( who w as t he b rother-in-law o f R abban G amaliel) a nd R abbi J oshua w ere c onnected , t here w ere G reek w ritings , a nd e specially t ranslations o f t he B ible i nto G reek , a nd t herefore i t i s p ossible t hat i t w as u nder t he i nfluence o f t hose t ranslations t hat t he f orm ' tavlan' a ppeared i n o ur m idrash . R abbi J udah ,

t o w hom t he m idrash i s a scribed i n t he B avli S anhedrin ,

1, 9 7a ( Printed E dition ) , w as o ne o f t he m ost i mportant T annaim o f t he f ourth g eneration ( ca . 1 35 1 70 A .D .) . H is f ather , t he T anna R . hai , w as a s tudent o f R abbi E liezer , a nd f rom h is f ather R abbi J udah r eceived t he -

M ishnah o f R abbi E liezer , a s c an b e l earned f rom t he B avli M enahot , 3 , 1 8a . I t s eems t hat R abbi J udah a lso r eceived f rom h is f ather t he t eachings o f t he r est o f t he Y avneh s ages , i ncluding R abbi J oshua a nd e xample , i n t he T osefta O haloth , 6 , 1 ( 603 ,10) , a nd 1 6 , ( 605, 1 5-16) , w e f ind t hat R abbi J udah s peaks J oshua ; i n t he s ame c hapter ( 7 , 3 ( 604, 6 -7)) , w e

R abban G amaliel . F or a lso a t t he e nd o f 7 , i n t he n ame o f R abbi a lso f ind o ne o f t he

n umerous e xamples w here h e s peaks i n t he n ame o f R abbi E liezer ; a nd i n t he T osefta B erakhot, 4 , 1 3

( 11, 4 ) a nd P 'sahim ,

1 7

1 , 4 ( 155 , 8 ) , h e l ikewise

s peaks i n t he n ame o f R abban G amaliel . T herefore , i t i s p ossible t hat t he m idrash , which was o riginally e xpounded b y o ne ( or m ore?) o f t he t hree s econd-generation T annaim m entioned a bove ,

w as h anded d own t o R abbi J udah ,

w ho e xpounded i t I n t he n ame o f o ne o f t hem . H owever , o ver t he y ears , t he n ame o f t he s econd-generation T anna d ropped out o f t he t ext o f t he B avil S anhedrin a nd f rom t hen o n , t he m idrash w as h anded d own i n t he n ame o f R abbi J udah . I n our o pinion , f urthermore , t he t exts o f t he f irst g roup f it m ore e asily t he T annaim o f t he s econd g eneration , s ince t he l atter w ere c oncentrated i n Y avneh a nd t he v icinity , a nd h ence t heir b rothers w ho l ived I n t he G olan a nd I n G alilee w ere s een b y t hem a s " ... p eople o f t he f rontier ... ". I t w ould b e I mplausible t o a ssume t hat R abbi J udah , who w as b orn i n G alilee , a nd d uring w hose l ifetime t here o ccurred t he g reat t ransplantation o f t he J ewish c ommunity f rom J udea a nd t he S hefelah t o G alilee a nd t he G olan , 34 s hould e xpound "... t he p eople o f t he f rontier ... " a s r eferring t o t he p eople o f t he G alilee a nd t he G olan , s ince a t t hat t ime t he l atter a reas w ere b ecoming t he v ery h eart o f t he J ewish c ommunity i n P alestine . T herefore , i t s eems m ore p robable t hat , a s w e s tated b efore , h e h anded d own t he m idrash i n t he n ame o f t he o riginal e xponent , w ithout a ny c orrections. F rom t his p oint o n , t he m idrash c irculated , w hile m ost o f t he J ews I n P alestine l ived i n G alilee a nd t he G olan . " Group B " r epresents t he f irst p hase o f t his c irculation . t ext"

. ..

I n

I t

t here a ppears f or t he

t he p eople o f t he G alilee

. .. "

I nstead o f

"

f irst t ime t he t he p eople o f

. ..

t he f rontier ... ". H owever , t he m idrash c ontinued t o a ppear i n t he name o f R abbi E lie er o r R abbi J udah . I n t he p hase r epresented b y " Gr oup C " , t he n ames o f t he T annaim w ere r eplaced b y n ames o f A moraim , s uch a s R esh L akish a nd R abbi A bun i n w hose t ime m ost o f t he J ewish c ommunities i n P alestine c ontinued t o d well i n t he Golan a nd t he G alilee a nd t herefore , " ... t he p eople o f G alilee ..." r emained i n t he t ext . T he c hange f rom t he n ames o f t he T annaim t o t hose o f t he Amoraim a pparently t estifies t o ah iatus b etween t hese t wo p hases , b ot i t i s d ifficult f or u s t o d etermine t he l ength o f t his

g ap .

N evertheless ,

i t i s c lear t hat t his h iatus t ook p lace

a t t he

e nd o f t he t hird a nd t he f irst h alf o f t he f ourth c enturies A .D . T he p lace o f " Group D " i n t he o rder o f t hese p hases i s d ifficult t o d etermine s ince , o n t he o ne h and , t he m idrash i n t his g roup i s a scribed t o R abban G amaliel o r R abbi J udah , a nd o n t he o ther h and , i nstead o f " ... t he p eople o f t he f rontier ... " e ither t he p hrase G alilee ... " ( the v ersion o f D erech E retz Z uta , p hrase " a ppears .

. .. t he p eople o f t he 1 0 , 5 9a) a ppears, o r t he

"

t he p eople o f G olan ... " ( version o f S eder E llahu Z uta , 1 6) I n a ddition t o t hat , i n t his g roup , a s m entioned a bove , o ne o f

. ..

t he r egions h as b een d ropped f rom t he t ext . I t s eems , t herefore , t hat w hat w e h ave h ere a re v ery l ate t exts w hose e ditor h ad t he T almud b efore h im . 35 I n t he T osefta t he n ame ' tolan" a ppears i n ac lear f orm o nly o nce . t ractate M akkot 3 (2), 2 ( 440 , 2 4-26) w e r ead : J oshua h ad s et a part

pw T '

t hree

w "91

and t hey were made t o c orrespond t o t hree o pposite i n t he T ransjordan l ike t wo r ows i n av ineyard ; H ebron i n J udaea c orresponding i n t he w ilderness ,

'ip

1 'T f l

c ities i n t he L and o f C anaan :01 ‚131233 f l W1

V 7

1 P f l 11V 7

'f lW

‚

113 3

DVIDK

Ian D VV

V 2.T V

t o B ezer

1 w33

S hechem i n

1 8

1

' 7

I n

Mount E phraim c orresponding t o R amoth i n G ilead , K edesh i n G alilee c orresponding t o G olan i n B ashan P arallel t exts

c an b e f ound i n t he Y erushalmi M akkot ,

M akkot , 2 , 9 b . t he B iblical

2 ,

7 , 3 1d a nd B avli

I n a ll t hree v ersions , t he n ame 'olan' ( 'ii) r efers t o r efuge c ity a nd a ppears i n e xactly t he s ame f orm o f

D euteronomy 4 :43 a nd I C hronicles 6 :56 . I t s eems , t herefore, t hat t he a uthors o f a ll t hree t exts f ollow t he H ebrew f orm o f t he n ame w hich i s i n t he B ible .36 S .

K lein p ointed o ut t hat i n t he T osefta ,

a c oin o f

t he c ity G olan

( ' olanith"

c oins o f S epphoris a nd T iberias .

M a 'aser S heni ,

n1 3 5ii ) i s

4 ,

1 3(94 ,16) ,

m entioned t ogether w ith

F rom t his h e d erived t he c onclusion t hat

" the c ity h ad a s pecial i mportance s ince i t m inted s pecial c oins l ike t wo c ities m entioned i n t he G alilee" . 37

S . Lieberman,

t he

i n h is T osefta

e dition , c orrected t he t ext h ere , a ccording t o t he P rinted E dition v ersion , a s ' tolanith" (f l'3 2) i nstead o f ' Nolagith" (n' i ) w hich a ppears i n t he E rfurt a nd V ienna M SS . 38 I n h is c ommentary o n t his t ext , L ieberman w rites : ' tolanith . T he c orrect f orm i s i n t he P rinted E dition : G olanith , t hat i s t o s ay , ac oin f rom t he L and G olan 1. 39 A rchaeological a nd n umismatic r esearch h as n ot y et r evealed a ny f indings w hich w ould t estify t o t he e xistence o f c oins f rom t he c ity G olan o r c oins t hat c an b e r eferred t o a s c oins f rom t he ' Land G olan' . T herefore , a t t his s tage o f r esearch , K lein 's c onclusion a s w ell a s L ieberman 's i nterpretation h ave n o f irm b asis i n f act . I n o ur o pinion , i nstead o f ' tolanith" o r N olagith" , o ne s hould r ead h ere 'ovrlth" ( J i' l 13), w hich a ppears i n t he s ame T osefta " ... a nd t akes f rom h im a G ovrith ..' ° I t i s L ieberman 's i nterpretation t hat ' tovrith" ( n' i ) s hould b e " Tibrith" ( n' i ) s ince , i n h is o pinion , t he 'b" w as s eparated i nto ' i f . H e a lso b ases t his v iew o n t he f act t hat i n t he E rfurt M S . " Tibrith" a ppears i nstead o f 'ovrith ".41 N evertheless , i t i s o ur o pinion t hat t he r eading ' tovrith" i s t he c orrect o ne , a nd t hat t he T osefta i s r eferring h ere t o t he c oins o f t he c ity E leutheropolis = B eit G ovrin , w hose c oins h ave b een d iscovered .4 2 B esides t he f act t hat c oins f rom B elt G ovrin h ave b een f ound , t here a re a dditional a rguments f or t his r eading . H owever , s ince a d iscussion o f t his i ssue would b e a d igression f rom t he s ubject I n h and , w e w ill t urn n ow t o a d iscussion o f o ther r eferences t o t he n ame ' tolan" i n t he R abbinic s ources . T wice i t i s r elated i n t he P alestinian T almud t hat R abbi J eremiah , Amora o f t he t hird a nd f ourth g enerations ( end o f t hird f ourth c enturies A .D .) , w ent t o 'aulana" o r ' tovlana" ( a )

Y erushalmi M egillah , 3 , 1 , 7 3d . R . J eremiah w ent t o G aulana

;I3' 7,, 1'

( Gavlana) ; s aw t hem p utting a b ell i n t he A rk . ( He) c ame

l

KV 71 D

' 7Ta C

f l'z -l ' y'.T I'

' K W xn x

1

1n n . 1 V9

a nd a sked R . Ami Y erushalmi ' Avodah Z arah , 2 , 5 , 4 1c. R abbi

J eremiah

w ent

t o

T I3 173 2 12 ' 71 K

1 9

a n

f irst h alf o f '-f la o r,- 'a& :

-

nl Dll

"31

G aulana ( Goviana) a nd t aught t here a bout

7" '17,a2

' 1f l'E 3

I n h is v arious a rticles ,

'i i

...

b ig b arrels

S . K lein , w ithout s ubstantiating h is a rguments ,

s ees t hese s tatements a s r eferences t o t he c ity G aulon .43 O n t he o ne h and , i t i s d ifficult t o d ispute K lein 's v iewpoint , s ince w e a re d ealing h ere w ith t he p eriod o f E usebius i n w hich , a s m entioned a bove , a s ettlement w ith t he s ame n ame m ay h ave e xisted i n t he G olan . O n t he o ther h and , t ogether w ith r eferences s uch a s " Rabbi X ' w ent t o c ity Y ' " we a lso f ind i n t he P alestinian T almud

t he

v ersion

" Rabbi X ' w ent

t o

( region) Y" .

F or

e xample , i n N iddah , 3 , 2 , 5 0c w e f ind : " Rabbi A bba s aid : R abbi H iyya t he G reat w ent t o D aromah ...". T his i s t o s ay t hat R abbi H iyya w ent t o t he r egion k nown i n t he T almudic p eriod a s D arom .

T herefore i t m ay b e t hat i n

t he a bove t exts o ne s hould r ead " Rabbi J eremiah w ent t o t he G aulan ( or G avlan o r G ovian)' . S upport f or t his i nterpretation c an b e f ound i n t he f act t hat t hese t exts a re w ritten i n A ramaic a nd t herefore t he f l a t t he e nd o f 1 3' 112 o r , 1 3 12 312 c an b e i nterpreted a s t he 1 o f t he A ramaic d efinite a rticle . A s f or t he d ates o f t he v isits o f R abbi J eremiah t o t he G olan , w e w ill m ention o nly t hat t he v isit m entioned i n M egillah 3 , 1 , 7 3d t ook p lace d uring R abbi J eremiah 's y outh , w hile R abbi Ami w as s till a live , t hat i s , a t t he e nd o f t he t hird c entury o r t he b eginning o f t he f ourth c entury A .D . A s w ill b e s een b elow, o ne c an r elate t o a l ater g eneration t he a dditional t ext o f t he G emara i n t he Y erushalmi i n w hich t he r egion o f t he G olan i s a lso m entioned .

I n t he Y erushalmi S hevi 'ith ,

6 , 1 , 3 6d w e f ind :

R abbi H una w anted t o f ree ( from t he r eligious d uties t hat t hat d epend o n t he l and) Y avlona . H e a pproached R abbi M ana s aying t o h im : " Here i t i s s ign i t ' . A nd h e d id n ot a gree t o s ign i t . T he f ollowing d ay Rabbi I iyya B ar -

-

M adayya s tood w ith h im ( i .e . R abbi M ana) s aying t o h im : " You d id r ight t hat y ou d id n ot s ign ( because) R abbi J onah , y our f ather , u sed t o s ay : A ntoninus l eased t o R abbi ( i .e . R abbi J udah H a-Nasi) t wo t housand d oshnin

( units

o f

l and)

( there) .

T i

1 0

ua

1W'Z ' i

; ' D1nr I . Dlf lf l

IY3

- '

'

R

1 1K

n31

' 1

Tb

1 1VJ1

K(

mniv

T herefore w e w ill e at but w e w ill n ot w ork i n S yria a nd i t i s e xempt f rom

t ithes

s ince

i t i s l ike

l nD5 xv w )

:16M

1

c

n ann

-r r

3

T r T T 'D ' ,K 1 73m 3 .pe t j nUW

OP

' -i .

K121

" ? ' Ij'

:n , 1 2 im

1

0 1

' 1

' :i" t,

1 'b "

'

n-r ip n ix " 13 01'

n

I I5" 7

11

3 N "f l

K211

a c nK . nr i

' f l . ' ,

i 1i

T" ' t2 ; (n) o'-

)11 03 '

b

7 3P1

K'

nh 1Z 7Y T T 1 D'1

t he

g entile f ields ' .

A bout s even d ecades a go ,

S . K lein p roved t hat i nstead o f " Yavlona" ,

o ne

s hould r ead i n t his t ext " Gavlona" . 44 W e w ill n ot l ist h ere a ll t he e xplanations w hich K lein p resents f or s ubstantiating h is c onclusion , w hich w e a ccept , s ince w e w ill d eal w ith m ost o f t hem i n t he c oncluding c hapter o f o ur w ork . 45 H owever , f or t he p urpose o f o ur d iscussion o f t he n ame ' nolan" , w e q uote h ere t he l ast s entences w hich K lein w rites r egarding t his i ssue :4 6 T he

f orm o f

t he n ame

c orresponds e xactly

2 0

t o t he 1 auA v

o f E usebius emphaticus) .

St.

( the a a t t he e nd = T he m iswriting o f ' t o

I t i

o f t he i n t he

b eginning o f a w ord i s q uite p ossible a nd i s m et a lso i n a nother l ocal n ame ( Y . M o 'ed k . 3 , 8 2a ( middle) : r .

VT'

1 . i

) .

W e s ee t hen t hat K lein h ad f ound t he l ink b etween t he n ame 'avlona" i n t he Y erushalmi a nd

r a u ) « .v

o f E usebius .

H owever , h is u nsubstantiated

c onclusion t hat t he n ame 1av1ona" r efers h ere t o t he c ity G aulon , a nd n ot t o t he r egion a s s uggested b y H ildesheimer b efore h im ,4 7 c annot b e a ccepted . H ildesheimer 's i nterpretation s eems m uch m ore r easonable b ecause , e ven i f w e v iew t he n umber o f " two t housand d oshnin" a s e xaggerated ( which i t m ay n ot n ecessarily b e) ,

l t i s c lear t hat t he t ext h ere i s s peaking a bout a l arge

n umber o f l and u nits o r f arms , t han t o ac ity.

a nd t his n umber i s m ore s uited t o a r egion

A s f or t he d ate o f t he t ext b efore u s , i t w ould s eem t hat i t r eflects H alachic p roblems w hich o ccurred a s ar esult o f t he c hanges w hich t ook p lace i n t he J ewish s ettlement

s ystem a nd s tatus

i n P alestine d uring t he p ost-

C allus R evolt p eriod . 48 A ll t he s ages m entioned i n t his t ext a re f rom t he f ifth g eneration o f Amoraim , t he g eneration w hich w as a ctive p rimarily d uring t he t hird q uarter o f t he f ourth c entury , t hat i s t o s ay , d uring t he y ears i mmediately f ollowing t he C allus R evolt . A s w ill b e s een b elow , t here i s t oday c lear a rchaeological e vidence t hat s ettlements i n t he G olan w ere d estroyed a nd/or a bandoned i n t he m iddle o f t he f ourth c entury . 49 P erhaps , a s a r esult o f t his d eterioration o f t he c ondition o f t he J ewish s ettlements i n t he G olan a nd/or f rom a d esire t o s top t heir d ecline a nd e ncourage t heir r econstruction , R abbi H una r equested t he e xemption o f t he i nhabitants f rom t he r eligious d uties c onnected w ith t he l and . D espite

t he

d ecline

i n

t he

c ondition

o f

t he

s ettlements ,

a nd

p articularly t he J ewish o nes , w hich t ook p lace i n t he G olan i n t he m iddle o f t he f ourth c entury , w e n ow k now f rom a rchaeological f indings t hat t owards t he e nd o f t he f ourth c entury a nd t he b eginning o f t he f ifth c entury , s ettlement i n t he r egion was r evived . 50 H owever , i n s pite o f t his r evitalization , s ettlement i n t he G olan c ontinued t o b e p rimarily r ural t ill t he e nd o f t he B yzantine p eriod . E vidence t o t his e ffect w e a lso f ind i n t he l ast r eference t o t he n ame 'olan' f rom t he B yzantine p eriod . T his i s i n t he D escriptio o rbis R omani o f G eorgios C yprios . I n C yprios' D escriptio ,

w hich i s

r elated b y G elzer t o t he c losing y ears o f t he s ixth

c entury5l a nd b y J ones t o t he f irst q uarter o f t he s ixth c entury ,5 2 w e f ind i n t he l ist o f t he b ishoprics o f P alaestina S ecunda t hat o f K lima G aulames ( KX I , . La r auXa 1 . L T ç ) ‚i .e . " the r ural d istrict o f t he G olan" .53 A s n oted , t his i s t he l ast c ontemporary s ource i n w hich t he n ame ' tolan" i s m entioned d uring t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods . I n t he p eriod f ollowing t he A rab c onquest , t he n ame ' tolan" a s t he n ame o f ad istrict i s m entione4 b y s everal A rab t ravelers a nd w riters , b ut i ts t ransfigurations f ollo wi ng p eriods a re o utside t he b ounds o f t his b ook. T o c onclude

o ur d iscussion o f

t he n ame

' tolan

"

d uring

d uring

t his

a nd

t he

t he R oman a nd

B yzantine p eriods , i t i s p ossible t o s ay t hat t he n ame u sually a ppears i n t he c ontemporary s ources i n d ifferent f orms f or d ifferent m eanings . W e f ind t hat i n s ome o f t he s ources t he n ame a ppears i n G reek i n t he f orms

i auA v , 1 Atv a nd I au ava ‚ a nd i n H ebrew i n t he f orm 7 ' 711 r eferring t o t he B iblical c ity G olan w hose l ocation i s u nknown .5 4

2 1

w hen

I n J osephus w e f ind t he f orm o f t he n ame G aulana (lauX civa) a lso a s a d esignation f or a s ettlement w hich e xisted i n t he r egion o n t he e ve o f t he R oman p eriod a nd w hich w as a pparently d estroyed d uring I ts c onquest b y A lexander J annaeus .

B ut

t here

i s n o p roof

t hat

t he G aulana o f J annaeus '

t ime e xisted i n t he s ame p lace a s t he B iblical c ity G olan .

T he s ame c an b e

s aid r egarding t he r eference t hat E usebius m akes t o h is c ontemporary " very l arge v illage" b y t he n ame o f G aulon ( 1c iuA ( .jv )w hich h e i dentifies w ith t he B iblical c ity. T he

r emaining

r eferences

t o

t he

n ame

" Golan" w hich a re

f ound

i n t he

s ources f or t he p eriod u nder d iscussion p ertain e ither t o t he e ntire r egion f rom a g eographical a spect o r t o a p art o f i t a s a n a dministrative u nit . F rom J osephus w e k now t hat a t l east u ntil t he e nd o f t he f irst R oman p eriod i n P alestine , t hat i s u ntil t he d estruction o f t he S econd T emple , a n a dministrative u nit w ith t he n ame G aulanitis (1 au civTTic) e xisted i n t he r egion . A d etailed d iscussion o f t he c hanges w hich o ccurred w ithin t he b oundaries o f t his u nit d uring t his p eriod i s b eyond t he s cope o f t he p resent s tudy . H owever , i t s hould b e m entioned t hat t here I s n o e vidence t hat t his a dministrative u nit e xisted i n t he p eriod b etween t he d estruction o f t he T emple a nd t he t ime o f E usebius . I f w e a ccept a s r eliable t he s ection o f t he O nomasticon w here t he n ame G olan i s m entioned , t hen w e h ave e vidence t hat , d uring t he t ime o f E usebius , i n a ddition t o t he s ettlement o f G alania ( about w hose e xistence w e k now , a s m entioned a bove , f rom b oundarys tones) , a l arge s ettlement k nown a s G aulon ( and w hich w e s uggest t o b e i dentified w ith T ell e l - J khadár) e xisted i n t he r egion a nd t hat i ts s urrounding a rea w as n amed a fter i t . A dditional e vidence f or t he u se o f t he n ame " Go lan! 'a s a d esignation f or a n a dministrative u nit i n p art o f t he a rea o f t he G olan H eights i s f ound i n t he D escriptio o f G eorgios C yprios f rom t he s ixth c entury. F rom t he R abbi tdc s ources w e k now a bout t he u sage o f t he n ame ' tolan" a s at erm f or t he e ntire r egion f rom a g eographical a spect . E vidence f or t his w e f ind i n t he m idrash : " ... G alilee w ill b e d estroyed , G avlan ( i .e . G olan ) d esolated ... ". H ere t here i s n o d oubt t hat t he r eference i s t o a g eographical a nd n ot t o a n a dministrative u nit . T he

i nfluence

o f

t he

G reek

l anguage

i s

a pparent

i n

t he

v arious

t ransformations t hrough w hich t he n ame %olan" w hose o rigin a s f ar a s w e k now i s H ebrew p assed d uring t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods . O nly i f w e r ecognize t his i nfluence a re w e a ble t o e xplain h ow t he n ame G olan b ecame G aulan o r G avian o r G ovlan i n t he R abbinic s ources . T he s ame m ight a lso b e s aid r egarding t he a ppearance o f t he i a t t he e nd o f G aulana -

-

-

-

o r G aviana o r G oviana ( which a ppear i n t he P alestinian T almud) , a s K lein h as s uggested . F inally ,

i t s hould b e m entioned t hat d espite t he d iverse f orms i n w hich

t he n ame ' tolan' a ppears i n t he s ources o f t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods , t heir a ppearance i s r are r elative t o t he n umber o f s ettlements w hich e xisted i n t he r egion d uring t hese p eriods . T his p henomenon i s e specially c onspicuous i n t he R abbinic s ources w here w e m ight e xpect t o f ind t he n ame m ore f requently , e specially s ince , a fter t he B ar K okhba R evolt , t he r egion k nown t oday a s t he G olan H eights ,

t ogether w ith i ts n eighbor t he G alilee ,

b ecame t he h eart o f t he J ewish s ettlement i n P alestine a t l east u ntil t he A rab c onquest a nd p erhaps a lso a fter t hat . T he r elative r arity o f t he n ame " Golan" i n t he s ources o f t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods

i n g eneral a nd i n t he R abbinic l iterature i n p articular

2 2

c an b e e xplained i n t wo w ays : a ) T he J ewish s ettlement i n t he G olan , w hose e stablishment w as b egun i n t he H asmonean p eriod a nd w hich e xpanded u nder t he H erodian d ynasty, w as c onsidered i n t he p opular v iew t o b e p art o f t he G alilee . T his v iew d iffered f rom t he a dministrative o utlook o f t he f oreign r ulers a nd f rom t he H alachaic o utlook o f s ome o f t he s ages d uring d ifferent p hases o f t he p eriods u nder d iscussion . B oth o f t hese l atter o utlooks u nderwent s everal c hanges w hile t he p opular v iew w as a pparently r einforced b y t he f act t hat s ome o f t he r ulers o f t he H erodian d ynasty A grippa I I , -

f or e xample

-

- -

g overned b oth t he G olan a nd t he G alilee a t

-

t he s ame t ime .

I n o ur o pinion , t he p opular o utlook h ad p rojections a nd i nfluences a lso o n t he w riters a nd e ditors o f t hose c ontemporary s ources w hich h ave c ome d own t o u s . T hus , f or e xample , J osephus r elates t hat h e w as a ppointed a s t he c ommander o f t he G alilee ,55 b ut i n t his c apacity , w e f ind h im c ampaigning a nd f ortifying s ettlements i n t he G olan . 56 o nly s ource u sing t he n ame G aulanitis a dministrative u nit ,

h e ,

T hus , w hile J osephus i s t he t o d efine a g eographical-

a s c ommander o f t he G alilee ,

c onsidered t he G olan

t o b e ap art o f t he a rea f or w hich h e w as r esponsible . A dditional e vidence f or t he d egree o f t hat i nfluence w hich w e c all t he p opular v iew o n J osephus w e f ind i n t he f act t hat i n A nt . X VIII , 4J osephus d escribes J udas , -

-

-

af ounder o f a g roup o f r ebels , a s " Judas" , aG aulanite" a nd i n B .J . II, 18 , t his s ame J udas i s r eferred t o a s a a lilaean" . A s a lready m entioned a bove , t he N ew T estament r efers t o t his s ame J udas a s aG alilaean , t oo , a nd t his w hen w e l earn f rom J osephus ( Ant . X VIII , 4 ) t hat h e w as f rom t he c ity o f G amala w hich i s i n t he G olan . I n t he N ew T estament w e a lso f ind t he n ame " Sea o f G alilee" a s a r eference t o L ake K inneret .5 7 M . N un , w ho i n h is n ew b ook , S ea o f K inneret d evotes a w hole c hapter t o r esearch o n t he n ames o f t his l ake , w rites t he f ollowing a bout t he a ppearance o f t he n ame " Sea o f G alilee" : I n t he N ew T estament t he l ake i s r eferred t o b y t he n ame S ea o f G enosar a nd a lso b y t he G ennessaret r hyming w ith N azareth .

l ong f orm S ea o f T his f orm , w hich i s

i ndisputably c orrupted , i s c ommon e ven t oday i n f oreign l anguages ; b ut t he n ame w hich i s m ore f requently u sed i n t he N ew T estament i s S ea o f G alilee . I t i s a lso a c ommon c ustom t o n ame a l ake a fter t he r egion i n t he c enter o f which t he l ake i s s ituated ( emphasis a dded D .U .) . -

T his n ame t estifies t o t he f act t hat o ur f orbears i ncluded t he e astern p art o f t he K inneret w ithin t he b oundaries o f t he G alilee a nd t his i n s pite o f t he f act t hat t he p olitical d ivision a t t he e nd o f t he S econd T emple p eriod i ncluded t he e astern b ank o f t he K inneret i n t he d istricts o f S *sita a nd t he G olan .58 A lthough t here i s m ore e vidence t o s upport t he f act t hat i n t he p opular v iew , d uring t he p eriods u nder d iscussion , t he G olan w as c onsidered p art o f t he G alilee , o ur c oncern h ere i s r ather w ith t he n ame o lan" a nd n ot i ts a ffiliation w ith t he G alilee .

I t w ill s uffice h ere t o e mphasize t hat i f

t he e xistence o f t his p opular v iew i s r ecognized b y m odern s cholarship , t hen m any p roblems which h ave c oncerned t hose s cholars d ealing w ith t he i dentification

o f

i mportant

s ettlements

s uch

a s

G amala

a nd B ethsaida

-

-

w hich o n t he o ne h and w e k now t o b e i n t he r egion k nown t oday a s t he G olan H eights a nd w hich o n t he o ther h and a re m entioned i n t he s ources a s b eing s ituated i n t he G alilee b )

-

-

w ill b e s olved .

A s a r esult o f a rchaeological d iscoveries i n t he G olan i n t he l ast

2 3

e ighteen y ears , w e k now t oday t hat i t i s p ossible t hat s ome o f t he i mportant s ages o f P alestine w ho w ere i nvolved i n c reating ,

e diting a nd p erhaps a lso

w riting p arts o f t he P alestinian H alachah w ere b orn , t he r egion .59

s tudied a nd w orked i n

T herefore i t i s p ossible t o a ssume t hat a s izeable p art o f

t he P alestinian R abbinic s ources w ere e dited a nd w ritten i n t he r egion a nd t hat t his i s t he r eason w e f ind i n t hem r eferences t o t he p eople o f T iberias , S epphoris , e tc . , b ut n ot t o t he p eople i n t he J ewish s ettlements o f t he G olan . T hese s ettlements w ere c enters f or t he J ewish c ommunity i n P alestine f rom t he B ar K okhba R evolt o n , a nd w ere u ndoubtedly n o l ess i mportant t han t hose J ewish s ettlements i n w hat i s k nown t oday a s t he G alilee a nd t he C oastal P lain . I f t he a bove e xplanations a re a ccepted ,

t hen n ot o nly i s t he r iddle o f

t he d isappearance o f t he n ames o f d ozens o f J ewish G olan s ettlements f rom t he R abbinic l iterature s olved , b ut f urther p ossibilities f or u nderstanding t he h istory o f t he G olan i n t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods a re a lso o pened f or u s.

2 4

N OTES T O C HAPTER O NE 1 .

I n t he T ell e l-Amarna t ablets, a c ity b y t he n ame o f G i-lu-ni i s m entioned ;

s ee :

S .A .B .

M ercer ,

T he T ell e l-Amarna T ablets ,

v ol .

I I ,

T oronto , 1 939 , s ite 1 85 ( 22 , 2 5) . S ome s cholars b elieve t hat t his w as a c ity l ocated i n t he s outhern L ebanon V alley w hile o thers b elieve t hat i t i s t he n ame o f t he B iblical c ity o f G olan . S ince t he n ame G iluni d iffers i n f orm f rom t he n ame 'olan' a nd s ince t he s ource i n w hich t his r eference i s f ound h as n o c onnection w ith s ources f rom t he R oman o r t he B yzantine p eriods ,

w e p refer n ot t o d iscuss t he p ossible

c onnection b etween t he t wo n ames a t p resent , t hem a m ore d etailed s tudy e lsewhere . e r'e r eads h ere 7' 7

b ut r ather t o d evote t o

2 .

B ut, t he

3 .

A g ood s ummary o f t hese d ebates a nd b ibliography a re t o b e f ound i n : S .E . L oewenstamm , J erusalem , 1 973 , p p .

4 .

O n S chumacher 's

i1 .

" Bashan" , E ncyclopaedia B iblica 3 , v ol . 3 66-370 , ( Hebrew) .

i dentification ,

s ee :

S chumacher ,

A J ,

9 1

p p .

f f .

I I,

O f

t he n umerous s cholars a greeing w ith t his s uggested i dentification w e o nly m ention h ere B . M azar , w ho m aintains t his i dentification i n t he l atest e dition o f h is a rticle , 'shur o uM'achah" , i n C ities a nd D istricts i n E retz-Israel , J erusalem , 1 975 , p . 1 99 , ( Hebrew) . 5 .

S ee : W .F . A lbright , " The L ist o f L evitic C ities" , J ubilee V olume , N ew Y ork , 1 945, p . 5 7.

6 .

S ee:

7 .

A bout t hese d ifferences e dition .

8 .

O n t his o ccasion , w e s hould m ention t hat , b ased o n t he v ersion i n A nt . X III , 3 75 , A bel h as s uggested t he s ite o f t he a mbush b e l ocated n ear

A haroni , T NBS, p p. 9 4 f f; i dem ., T ABS, s ee

t he

p .

i n L . G inzberg

1 36.

t ranslator 's

n otes

i n

t he L oeb

t he m odern v illage o f S k i i ifiyy; s ee : A bel , G P, , v ol . I I , p . 1 49 , n 3 . H owever , b ecause t he v ersion h ere i s c orrupted a nd b ecause t he G olan h as m any d eep r avines ( a8 c ia +dpa ) ‚ i t i s i mpossible , i n o ur o pinion ,

t o i dentify t he

s i te

o f t he a mbush .

9 .

S ee:

1 0.

S ee : J ones, T CERP , P P. 2 39-240.

1.

A nt. X III , 3 93 a nd B .J. I ,

I n t he n ominative

f orm

1 04.

l auXaviTLç

i t a ppears i n B .J . 1 1 ,

5 6 a nd V ita 1 87 . I n t he g enitive f orm rauxav IT l&oç X III , 3 75 ; X III , 3 96 ; X VIII , 1 06 a nd B .J . I V , 2 . f orm f orm

I II ,

lauXaviT löl ‚ i n B .J . I I , 4 59 a nd 1 1, 3 7 . I n t he a ccusative rauAavTTLv ‚ i n A nt . V III , 3 6 a nd X VII , 1 89 . I n t he

a djectival f orms a nd I I , 5 74 . 1 2.

2 47 ;

i n A nt I V , 9 6 ; I n t he d ative

rQUAaV LT 1K

o r

rau AavLTtK V

‚i n B .J . I I ,

1 68

W e s hould m ention h ere t hat i n B .J . I I , 18 a nd i n t he N ew T estament , A cts 5 :37 , t his s ame J udas i s r eferred t o a s aG alilaean . F or a p ossible e xplanation o f t hese d ifferences s ee t he d iscussion a bove , p p . 2 2-24 .

2 5

1 3.

K lostermann , O n . 6 4 ( 6-8) & 6 5 ( 6-8).

1 4.

O n t he u se o f t he G reek t ranslations o f t he B ible i n t he O nomasticon , s ee :

T homsen ,

P OE ,

p assim ;

K lostermann ,

O n . ,

I ntroduction ,

p assim ;

M elamed , T arbiz , p assim . 1 5.

O n t he v arious s ources f rom w hich E usebius d erived h is I nformation f or t he O nomasticon , s ee a lso t he w orks m entioned i n t he p revious n ote .

1 6.

O n

t he

r emains

I n K h .

e l-Jelablnâ s ee :

S chumacher ,

T J,

p p .

1 62163

a nd t he S urvey R eports o f t his s ite c onducted b y D r . C laire E pstein a nd t he a uthor , a nd which a re l ocated i n t he a rchives o f t he A ssociation f or t he A rchaeological S urvey o f I srael , J erusalem , I srael . F or t he r emains a t S ahem e j-Jaul n s ee : S chumacher , ‚ p p . 9 1-99 . H ere I t m ust b e e mphasized t hat , a lthough S chumacher s tates t hat i n J ill n t here a re n o a ncient r emains ( Schumacher , o p . c it . , p p . 1 54155) , o ne c annot c onclude t hat t here a re n o r emains o f a n a ncient s ettlement i n t his p lace . I t i s w ell k nown t hat d uring t he t ime o f t his p ioneer s cholar , k nowledge a bout t he u se o f p ottery f or d etermining a n a ncient s ite w as n ot a s a dvanced a s I t i s t oday . I n o ur s urveys i n t he G olan w e s aw h ow t he s tate o f t he

f ield

l imited

S chumacher i n h is s urvey. 1 7.

S ee : A haronl, T NBS , p p. 9 4-98 ;

1 8.

O n t he p ossible I dentifications o f t he s ite o f G alania , s ee : A haroni , T NBS, p . 9 5 . A n e xamination o f a dditional p ossibilities i n t he r egion , F ureylsh

I dem .,

T ABS , p . 1 36.

s uch a s K h . e l-Beida ' ( coordinates 2 144 2 857) a nd K h . e i( coordinates

2 132

2 851) ,

a lso

r eveals

s ites

o f

s mall a rea

( 15-18 d unams) . 1 9.

O n t he r esults o f t he a rchaeological e xcavations a t T ell e l-J ikhad r , s ee :

2 0 .

U rman , G olan , p p. 4 57-458.

T hus f ar r emains f rom t he L ate B ronze o r I ron A ge h ave n ot b een u ncovered a t T ell e l-J khad r .

H owever ,

c onsidering t he f act

t hat

t he e xcavations a t t his s ite w ere c onducted a long i ts e dges a nd n ot o n I ts a cropolis , w e a re u nable , a t t his s tage o f r esearch , t o g ive e ither a p ositive o r a n egative a nswer f or t he I dentification o f T ell e l-J khad r w ith t he B iblical s ite o f G olan . 2 1.

S ee :

M elamed , O n ., n otes f or N o. 3 06 i n p age 3 0.

2 2.

T he p laces w here J osephus i s m entioned b y E usebius w ere c ollected b y K lostermann i n h is R egister ( Klostermann ,

o p . c it . ,

p . 1 87) .

B esides

t hese , t here a re a dditional p laces w here i t I s c lear t hat E usebius u ses J osephus ' w ritings w ithout a cknowledging t he f act . T hese a dditional r eferences w ere c ollected b y T homsen a nd a re p resented i n K lostermann 's i ntroduction ( Ibid . , p . X VII) . A s M elamed h as p ointed o ut ( Melamed , T arbiz, p . 4 0 , n . 5 ) , E usebius v ery much r espected J osephus a nd d escribed h im a s : 6T V f l ap ' Epa io iS LITL QTT W 6TÜ T OS I a i op IK C . v i .e . " the m ost f amous o f t he h istorians a mong t he H ebrew ."

( Eusebius ,

l ist . E ccl . ,

I ,

5 ,

3 ) .

2 3.

S ee :

M elamed , o p. c it., p . 8 .

2 4.

T his i dentification c an b e b ased , a mong o ther t hings, o n t he f act

2 6

t hat ,

i n S eder E liahu Z uta 1 6 ,

i nstead o f G avian ,

t he r eading i s

G olan . A s w e w ill s ee b elow, i t i s a lso p ossible t o e xplain t he a ppearance o f t he f orm G avian l inguistically . 2 5.

A lbeck , M ishnah

2 6.

R . E liezer t he G reat o r R . E liezer B en H yrcanos w as a s econdg eneration T anna ( end o f f irst b eginning o f s econd c enturies AD .)

-

N ashim ,

3 94.

p .

-

t o w hom m any m idrashim w ere a scribed b y l ater g enerations . O n t his s ee : F rankel , D M , pp. 7 8 f f ; H yman , I ' f l lA , pp. 1 61 f f ; M argalioth , E TGL , pp. 9 2 f f ; Y .D . G ilat , T he T eachings o f R . E liezer B en H yrcanos a nd T heir P osition i n t he H istory o f t he H alakha , T el A viv , 1 968 , p . 2 f f ., ( Hebrew) ; J . N eusner , E liezer B en H yrcanus T he T radition a nd -

t he M an ,

2v ols . ,

L eiden ,

1 973 ,

p assim .

2 7.

S ee : J .N . E pstein , I ntroduction t o T annaitic L iterature , J erusa lem , 1 957 , p p. 3 99 f f., ( Hebrew).

2 8.

I bid.,

2 9.

R abinovicz, E L, v ol. I I ,

3 0.

A s i s w ell k nown ,

p .

4 03. p .

2 85.

t he r abbinic l iterature i s f illed w ith G reek n ames

a nd w ords . As tudy o f t hese n ames a nd w ords s hows u s t hat u sually t he G reek l etter k eeps i ts p lace b etween v owels a nd c onsonants s o t hat i t m ay b e t ranscribed a s ' ‚ o r '

3 1.

t his

i n S .

P alestine , J erusalem ,

S ee

m ore

a bout

1 962 ,

1 3 f f.,

3 2.

T osefta S otah ,

3 3.

B avli S otah 4 9b a nd p arallels.

3 4.

1 5 , 8 ( 322 ,

L ieberman , p .

6 -7).

I n t his p rocess R abbi J udah p layed a v ery i mportant l earned f rom S hir H a-Shirim R abba , o ther r eferences.

3 5.

G reek a nd H ellenism i n J ewish ( Hebrew t ranslation).

A bout t he p ossibility t hat

2 ,

r ole ,

a s c an b e

5 , a nd B avli S habbat

3 3b ,

a nd

t he T almud w as i n f ront o f t he e ditor o f

D erech E retz Z uta a nd S eder E liahu Z uta , s ee w hat M . G insberg w rites i n t he i ntroduction t o t he E nglish t ranslation o f D erech E retz Z uta , p . V , i n A . C ohen ( ed .) , T he M inor T ractates o f t he T almud ( Massek t oth K etannoth) , L ondon , 1 971, a nd a lso w hat M . I sh-Shalom ( Friedmann ) w rites i n t he i ntroduction t o t he A ppendices t o S eder E liahu Z uta i n h is e dition o f S eder E liahu R abba a nd S eder E liahu Z uta , I ntroduction A , 3 6.

p .

e specially i n

1 9.

O n a ttempts t o i dentify t he B iblical c ity G olan i n t he M idrashic a nd T argum l iterature ,

s ee b elow , n ote 5 4 .

3 7.

K lein , T JT,

3 8 .

S ee: S . L ieberman , T he T osefta , v ol. I , N ew Y ork ,

3 9.

I bid . ; 1 955 ,

p .

4 0.

s ee a lso i dem . , T osefta K ifshutah , Z era 'im , p .

7 74.

2 7

1 955,

p .

2 67.

P art I I ,

N ew Y ork ,

4 0.

T osefta , M a'aser S heni, 4 ,

4 1.

L ieberman , o p. c it., p . 7 74.

4 2.

O n

t he

1 3 ( 94 ) 1 5).

c oins o f E leutheropolis

s ee :

G .F . H ill ,

C atalogue o f t he

G reek C oins o f P alestine i n t he B ritish M useum , L ondon , 1 914 , p assim ; A S pijker i nan , 'T he C oins o f E leutheropolis I udaeae" , L iber Amnuus 2 2 ( 1972), 4 3.

P P.

3 69-384.

K lein , E RJHN ,

5 49-550;

p p .

i dem . , T JT ,

p .

5 1; i dem . , S HY I ,

p p .

2 6-

2 7 . I t s hould b e m entioned h ere t hat , w ithout a ny b asis , K lein i dentifies G aulon w ith t he B iblical c ity G olan a nd , f ollowing S chumacher , i dentifies t his c ity w ith S a em e j-Jaul n . e xample , i dem ., E RJHN , pp. 5 49-550. 4 4. 4 5.

S ee , f or

S ee : K lein , o p. c it., p p. 5 45-550. I t m ust b e m entioned t hat t here w ere s everal s cholars who c ame t o t his c onclusion p rior t o K lein , a s h e h imself s tates i n h is a rticle a nd l ater o n a lso i n T JT. ,p . 4 0 , n . 5 . H owever , s ince K lein i s t he o nly o ne o f t he s cholars w ho h as p resented a rguments a nd r easons f or h is c onclusion a nd w ho h as e xpanded h is d iscussion o n t his t opic , w e w ill r efer h ere o nly t o h is w orks .

4 6.

K lein , E RJHN ,

4 7.

H ildesheimer , B GP ,

4 8.

L ike t his t ext , s ome o ther p arts o f t he G emara h ere a lso r eflect t hese c hanges . H owever , w e w ill n ot d iscuss t hem h ere s ince t hey a re n ot

p .

5 50. p .

5 5, n . 3 95.

r elevant t o t he s tudy o f t he n ame " Golan". 4 9.

S ee : U rman , G olan , p p. 4 56-467.

5 0.

I bid.

5 1.

S ee : G eizer , C cDOR , i ntroduction , p p. X III f f.

5 2.

J ones, T CERP , p . 5 16.

5 3.

S ee a lso J ones , o p. c it., P . 2 82 a nd p assim .

5 4.

H ere w e m ust a dd t hat t he p roblem o f

t he

i dentification o f t he

B iblical c ity G olan , w hich w e d iscussed b riefly a t t he b eginning o f t he c hapter , i s n ot n ew . A lthough t he O nomasticon o f E usebius p rofessed t o i dentify i t ,

w e k now f rom t he M idrashic l iterature a nd

t he A ramaic t ranslations o f t he B ible t hat t he s ages w ere p erplexed a bout t his s ubject a lready i n t he l ate R oman p eriod o r t he b eginning o f t he B yzantine p eriod . T hus , f or e xample , i n a f ragment o f a n a ncient e dition o f M idrash T anhuma w hich w as f ound i n t he G enizah w e

2 8

f ind written

"

. ..

( and) G olan i n B ashan i s S eleucia

. ..

( a)

"

O n

t he o ther h and i n M idrash D euteronomy R abba w e f ind : " .. a nd K edesh i n G alilee o pposite G olan i n B ashan . A nd w hich o ne i s G olan? R . B enjamin t he s on o f R . L evi s aid G odli ( - ii ) ‚R . E l 'azar s aid B ozra

( or B azra

=

ru

Y.

( b)

T hat i s t o s ay ,

w e h ave d iffering

o pinions f rom P alestinian Amoraim o f t he f ourth a nd f ifth g enerations ( fourth c entury A .D .) r egarding t he i dentification o f t he B iblical c ity o f G olan . A n a dditional s uggested i dentification i s f ound i n t he P alestinian A ramaic t ranslation o f D euteronomy 4 :43 " . . a nd D abrah i n B atanaea t o t he t ribe o f t he s ons o f M anasseh ...„ i .e . G olan i n B ashan = D abrah (t 31 )i n B ashan . T he s ame w ords a re a lso f ound i n t he t ranslation o f t his v erse b y J onathan b en U ziel . A s f or t he p ossibility o f i dentifying t he D abrah m entioned h ere s ee : D . U r i nan , " Jewish I nscriptions f rom D abb tra i n t he G olan" , I EJ 2 2 ( 1972) , p . 2 3 .

( a) S ee : L . G inzberg , G inzei S chechter , v ol . I , N ew Y ork , 1 928 , p . 1 12, ( Hebrew) . G inzberg n otes t here t hat " Seleucia i s n ot t he S eleucia o f B abylon

but

r ather G adara i n E retz-Israel w hich w as a lso

c alled S eleucia" ( Ibid . , P . 12 , n . 7 ) r epresents a c onclusion w hich i s u nacceptable . A s f or the o ther i dentifications s uggested f or t his S eleucia s ee

b elow ,

p . 1 24 .

( b) S ee : M idrash D ebarim R abbah , e d . S . L leberman2 , J erusalem , 1 964 , p . 6 2 . W e s hould m ention t hat i n an ote t o t his r eference L ieberman f avors t he v ersion o f R abbi E l'azar ( Ibid., p . 6 2 , n . 1 7). 5 5.

S ee :

B .J. I I, 5 68.

5 6.

S ee f or e xample , B .J. I I , 5 72 574.

5 7.

S ee f or e xample , M atthew 4 :18.

5 8.

N . N un , S ea o f K inneret , T el A viv ,

5 9 .

F or t he r elevant a rchaeological d ata s ee :

1 977, p . 6 6 ,

( Hebrew).

U r i nan ,

o p . c it .

p p .

1 6-23 ;

i dem . I QG , p . 3 5 . S ee a lso : i dem ., " Regarding t he L ocation o f t he B atel-Midrash o f B ar K appara a nd R . H oshaya R abbah" , i n : M . S tern ( ed .) ,

N ation a nd H istory ,

v ol .

I ,

2 9

J erusalem ,

1 983 ,

p p .

1 63172 .

C HAPTER T WO T HE G OLAN :

A .

AP HYSICAL-GEOGRAPHICAL R EVIEW

T he G olan a s a n I ndependent P hysical-Geographical U nit F rom a g eomorphological a spect , t he G olan i s a n i ntegral p art o f a

l arger r egion which t he B ible r efers t o b y t he g eneral t erm ' t Bashan" . 1 T his f act r aises t he q uestion o f whether t he G olan i s a n i ndependent p hysical-geographical u nit i tself o r o nly a p art o f al arger p hysicalg eographical u nit w hich i s c haracterized b y a b asalt c overing a nd w hich e xtends f rom t he J ordan R ift V alley i n t he w est t o t he D ruze m ountain i n t he e ast a nd f rom t he Y armuk R iver i n t he s outh t o t he s lopes o f M ount H ermon i n t he n orth . T he a nswer t o t his q uestion i s n ot c lear . F rom t he g eological a nd g eomorphological a spects i t i s h ard t o s ee i n t he G olan a n i ndependent p hysical-geographical u nit ; i n f act i t i s m ore c orrect f rom t hese a spects t o c all i t 'T he W estern S lopes o f t he B ashan" . O n t he

o ther h and ,

n etwork a nd i ts

w hen t he c limatic d ata o f t he G olan ,

f lora a re e xamined ,

i ts h ydrographic

t hen i t i s p ossible t o v iew i t a s a n

i ndependent p hysical-geographical u nit w ith c lear n atural b oundaries w hich c an b e f urther s ubdivided p hysiographically .2 I ndeed , b ased o n t he c limatic d ata , t he h ydrography a nd t he f lora o f t he G olan , w e t end t o v iew i t a s a n i ndependent p hysical-geographical u nit , t he m ore s o b ecause f or t hree o f i ts n atural b oundaries t he n orthern , t he w estern a nd t he -

s outhern l imits.

-

-

i t

i s

p ossible

t o

f ind

-

c lear

g eological

a nd

g eomorphological

B . N atural B oundaries T he G olan h as t hree c lear a nd g enerally a ccepted n atural b oundaries :3 i n t he N orth , t he d epth o f W df S a 'ar which d ivides t he G olan f rom Mount H ermon 's m assif ; i n t he W est t he p recipitous e scarpment o f t he G olan r im w hich d escends t o t he U uleh V alley , t he u pper J ordan g orge a nd t he S ea o f G alilee ; a nd i n t he S outh , t he d epth o f t he Y armuk R iver w hich d ivides t he G olan f rom t he G ilead .

A s f or t he b order o f t he G olan i n t he E ast ,

i s a mbiguity a mong t he s cholars .

t here

S ome o f t hem f ind i t i n t he g orge o f W dI

e r-Ruqq d ,4 o thers f urther t o t he E ast i n t he g orge o f N ahr e l'All n .5 I n o ur o pinion ,

b ased m ainly o n t he h ydrographic n etwork o f t he r egion ,

W di e r-Ruqq d i s ac learer n atural b order f or t he G olan t han N ahr e l' Allan .

B ut ,

b efore p resenting t he r easons f or t his o pinion ,

i t i s p roper

t o d iscuss f irst t he d etails o f t he n atural b oundaries o f t he G olan i n t he N orth , W est a nd S outh . T he N orthern B order . T he d epth o f Wgd l S a 'ar s erves , a long i ts m iddle a nd l ower s ections , a s a v ery p erceptible b order b etween t he G olan o n t he o ne h and a nd t he m assif o f M ount H ermon o n t he o ther . F rom t he u pper f lour m ill o f t he D ruze v illage Mas 'ada ( located n ear t he b ridge o n t he r oad Mas 'ada-Mäjdal S hams , c oordinates 2 212 2 937) W df S a 'ar f ollows i n i ts d ownstream c ourse t he l ine o f c ontact b etween t he b asalt s trata o f t he G olan

3 1

a nd t he l imestone s trata o f t he H ermon m assif .

T he d ifferent c ompositions

o f t he t wo k inds o f r ock o n e ither s ide a nd t he c ontrast b etween t he h orizontal b asalt s trata o f t he G olan a nd t he d iagonal l imestone s trata o f t he H ermon s loping t o t he s outheast c reate a g eological s eam . A s i n t he c ase w ith s uch w eak l ines ,

e rosion o ccurs a nd i s a ccelerated

i n t his c ase b y t he r apid d escent o f W df S a 'ar i n t his s ection

-

-

f rom 9 50

m . t o 3 40 m . w here i t j oins N ahr B ani s ad escent o f m ore t han 6 00 m . i n ad istance o f o nly s even k ilometers ( a s lope o f 8 6% !) . T he g reat e rosion o f -

Wd

S a 'ar ,

-

e specially d uring t he w inter m onths a lso c auses t he p henomenon

o f r ock a nd l andslides i n t his s ection w hich a re o f u nusual m agnitude f or t he a rea .6

B ut ,

d espite t he s lides ,

t he wd1 i s d eep a nd i ts b anks s teep .

T he a ppearance o f W df S a 'ar i s

d ifferent

i n i ts

u pper

s ection w hich

b egins n orth o f M jdal S hams a nd e nds n ear t he a bove-mentioned f lour m ill . A long most o f t he l ength o f t his s ection , t he r iver p asses t hrough t he Y a 'af ri V alley which i s a lso a g eomorphological p roduct o f t he s ame g eological s eam w hich d ivides t he G olan a nd t he H ermon m assif .

T hrough i ts

c ourse i n t he u pper s ection t he g orge o f t he r iver i s n ot d eep ; n evertheless , t ogether w ith t he Y a 'af i lri V alley t he r iver c reates a c lear n atural

b oundary .

I t s hould b e m entioned t hat t he A rab i nhabitants o f t he G olan d o n ot r efer t o t he e ntire l ength o f t he r iver b y o ne n ame . S ometimes i ts u pper s ection a s f ar a s i ts d escent t o t he Y a 'afiri V alley i s c alled b y t hem W adi Y a 'af iri a nd i ts c ourse t hrough t he Y a 'af iri , N ahr e s-Sa 'ar o r , W adi S a 'ar . A lso , i ts m iddle s ection i s s ometimes d esignated W adi e lI , Iôshebe o r W adi M as 'ada .

I ts l ower p art o ccasion al ly r eceives t he n ame W adi Qniya a fter

t he n ame o f t he v illage l ocated o n t he n orthern b ank o f t he r iver .

T he W estern B order .

T he J ordan R ift V alley i s u nequivocally a n atural

b order b etween t he G alilee M ountains a nd

t he G olan .

H owever ,

s ince

t he

R ift V alley , e specially t he s ection w ith w hich w e a re d ealing , t hat i s t o s ay t he s ection o f t he l uleh V alley a nd t he S ea o f G alilee , i s i tself a l arge p hysical-geographical u nit , w e h ave t herefore t o l ook f or t he n atural w estern b order o f t he G olan a t t he m eeting p oint o f t he G olan w ith t he e astern b order G olan w hich i s b orderline.

o f

t he

R ift

V alley .

l ocated a bove

I ndeed

t he

s teep

e scarpment

o f

t he

t he R ift V alley p rovides a s uitable n atural

I n t he s ection b etween B aniâs a nd K ibbutz S hamir t he r im o f t he G olan e scarpment d escends t o t he } l uleh V alley o n a s lope o f a pproximately 1 00% ; b etween K ibbutz S hamir a nd B not Y a 'akov B ridge t he e scarpment d escends t o t he s outhern p art o f t he H uleh V alley o n as lope o f a pproximately 4 00% . T he s lope b ecomes m ore g radual i n t he s ection b etween t he B not Y a 'akov B ridge a nd t he J ordan R iver o utlet o n t he S ea o f G alilee a s a r esult o f t he h eaving o f t he K horazim H eights o pposite t he G olan . B ut h ere t he G olan i s b ounded i n t he W est b y t he u pper g orge o f t he J ordan w hich i s d eep a nd i ts b anks h ave a s lope o f a pproximately 7 0-807 . G olan e scarpment

r im

d escends

t o

t he

S ea

o f

n arrow a nd

F urther S outh t he

G alilee

o n

a s lope

o f

a pproximately 2 50% .

T he S outhern B order . T he s outhern b order o f t he G olan , l ike i ts n orthern , p asses t hrough a g eological s eam b etween b asalt s trata a nd l imestone s trata ,

b ut o n t his s eam ,

w hich d ivides t he G ilead a nd t he G olan ,

3 2

t he b asalt s trata o f t he G olan a re t hinner a nd u nder t hem t he s trata o f t he E ocene l imestone a nd c rumbly c halk a re e xposed .7

T he Y armuk R iver ,

f lows a long t his s eam u ntil i ts f all i nto t he J ordan R iver ,

w hich

h as e xcavated

h ere a d eeper g orge t han t he a bove m entioned g orge o f W adi S a 'ar , a nd i ndeed t he s outhern r im o f t he G olan w hich f aces t he G ilead i s v ery s teep . T he G olan r ises h ere t o b etween 3 75 m . a nd 3 00 m . a bove s ea l evel , w hile t he Y armuk f lows b eneath i t b etween 6 0 t o 2 00 m . b elow s ea l evel . T he d ifference i n h eight a bove t he m eeting p oint o f Wd e r-Ruqq d w ith t he Y armuk

( coordinates 2 210 2 387) i s t herefore 4 35 m .

o ver a d istance o f t wo

k ilometers , t hat i s t o s ay , o n a s lope o f 2 187 . A s Y . Z iv e mphasizes ,8 a t t he M ukheiba o bservation p oint ( coordinates 2 129 2 351) w hich i s s outh o f t he v illage o f e l'Uy & i , c ourse o f w here

t he d ifference i n t he h eight a pproaches 4 20 m . o ver a

o nly 8 00 m . ,

t he Y armuk

i n o ther w ords ,

g orge

o pens

t oward

a s lope o f 5 25% ! t he

A bove t he p oint

J ordan V alley

( coordinates

2 099

2 325) t he G olan r ises f or a bout 5 00 m . o ver a d istance o f 2 .25 km . , i . e . a s lope o f 2 20% . T hese d ata e stablish , t herefore , i n t he g orge o f t he Y armuk ,

ap erceptible n atural b order f or t he G olan i n t he S outh .

T he E astern B order .

A s m entioned a bove ,

t here

i s ,

a mong s cholars,

ambiguity r egarding t he n atural b order o f t he G olan t o t he E ast .

An

e xample o f t his a mbiguity i s f ound i n M . N eishtat 's b ook w here h e w rites t he f oll ing : T he n atural b order i n t he E ast i s N ahal R uqqâd . T his r iver s urrounds t he G olan w ith a l ong b ow w hose a rc i s t oward t he e ast . F rom i ts s ource a t ' Ein B eda i n t he n orth ( near t he v illage J Ib t e l-Hashab) u ntil i ts j unction w ith t he Y armuk i n t he s outh , t he r iver-bow i s t herefore t he n atural b order f rom t he n ortheast , t o t he e ast a nd t he s outheast . B ut I ahal R uqqäd d id n ot s erve a s a b order i n t he s outheast . I n d ifferent p eriods t his b order c hanged a ccording

t o

t he p olitical d ivisions a nd

t he i nner a dministrative d ivisions w hich t he r ulers o f t he n orthern T ransjordan e stablished . A ccording t o t he g eographical c onditions , t he G olan r egion m ust i nclude a lso t he t riangle w hich l ies b etween N ahal R uqqâd o n t he w est , t he Y armuk o n t he s outh a nd N ahal ' Allan o n t he e ast .

N ahal

' Allan

i s

t herefore

t he

n atural

a nd

h istorical b order b etween t he G olan a nd t he B ashan ( today c alled t he k l auran b y t he A rabs) . T his w as t he b order a t t he e nd o f t he R oman p eriod , a t t he b eginning o f t he A rab C onquest , P eriod .

i n

t he O ttoman p eriod a nd

i n t he M andate

T he b order s hould n ot b e e xtended a cross N ahal

' Allan t o t he E ast a lthough i t i s d emanded ,

s ince o ne o f

t he v illages E ast o f t he r iver i s c alled S aiem-e-Joulan . T herefore w e w ill d elimit t he e astern b order o f t he G olan t hus : a long h alf o f t he u pper b ow o f N atal R uqqad a s f ar a s i ts e asternmost p oint n ear G hadir l -Bustan a nd f rom t here i n a s traight l ine e ast t o t he b eginning o f N aial ' A llan a nd c onti uing a long i ts s tream u ntil i ts j unction w ith t he Y armuk . N ot a lso

o nly a re s how

t hese w ords

h ow

t his

o f M . N eishtat

a uthor

i s

l ooking

f illed w ith c ontradictions ; t o

o btain

-

-

a s

c onsiderations d ictated b y h istorical a dministrative b orders

3 3

a r esult -

-

t hey o f

ap hysical-

g eographical b order which w ill

f it a h istorical-geographical b order .

F inally , h e d raws , s o t o s peak a p hysical-geographical b orderline w hich i s a c ompromise t hat o ne c annot a ccept a s ac lear n atural b order . W hen o ne e xamines t he h ydrographic n etwork o f t he r egion ,' ° i t c an b e s een t hat Wdf e r-Ruqq d d rains , a lmost e xclusively , i n i ts u pper a nd m iddle s ections , t he e astern s lopes o f t he e astern l ine o f v olcanic m ounds " w hich s tretches f rom Y a 'af iri V alley i n t he n orth t o t he v illage o f B utmiyye i n t he s outh . T hese s lopes a re c learly t urning t oward t he B ashan p lains a nd a re h igher t han t he l atter b y t ens o f m eters . I n t he c ontinuation o f i ts c ourse , Wädf e r-Ruqq d d rains t he s outhern e nd o f t he w estern l ine o f v olcanic m ounds o f t he G olan i n t he a rea o f T ell-el-J i 3khad r a nd T ell e s Sqi u ntil t he r iver e nters i ts d eep c anyon ( its l ower s ection) w hich b egins n ot f ar f rom T ell e s-Säqi n ear t he v illage ' E in D akar . T he N ahr e l'All n ,

o n t he c ontrary ,

d rains ,

m ainly ,

l arge p arts o f t he

B ashan p lains l ike t he a rea a round t he v illages o f M ashara a nd N amir n ear T ell M ashara a nd T ell e l-H rra w hich u ndoubtedly b elong , i n t heir p hysicalg eographical r espect , t o t he p lains o f t he B ashan . T hese f acts h ave b rought u s , a s m entioned a bove , t o s ee i n W df e r-Ruqq d a ll a long i ts c ourse t he c lear , n atural e astern b order o f t he G olan . A s f or t he t riangular a rea w hich i s b etween W d e r-Ruqq d i n t he w est , t he Y armuk R iver i n t he s outh a nd N ahr e l-Allan i n t he e ast , a nd w hich i s k nown b y i ts A rabic n ame e z-Z wiyeh e sh-Sharqiyeh 1 2 i t i s p hysically-geographically s eparated f rom t he G olan i n a v ery p erceptible w ay . T he l ower s ection o f W dt e r-Ruqq d , f rom ‚ E in D akar t o t he p oint w here t his r iver m eets t he Y armuk , h as e xcavated u nder t he b asalt s trata i nto t he s oft c halk u nderneath a nd c reated h ere a v ery d eep c anyon w hose d epth a t s ome p oints i s m ore t han 4 00 m .

C .

f rom t he b asalt c overing l ine .

G eology a nd G eomorphology I n t he l ast e ighteen y ears s everal r esearch p rojects h ave b een d evoted

t o t he g eology a nd t he g eomorphology o f t he G olan . T hese r esearch p rojects a re n oteworthy n ot o nly f or t heir p ioneering n ature , t heir f undamental a pproach a nd t heir s ystematic e xecution b ut a lso f or t he m odern s ophisticated m eans e mployed i n t he r esearch . I t i s n ot o ur i ntention , i n t his b ook , t o d iscuss i n d etail t he r esults o f t hese r esearch p rojects a nd t heir p redecessors .1 3 O nly t he e ssential p oints n eed b e m entioned a s a b asis f or u nderstanding t he g eological a nd g eomorphological a spects o f t he G olan w hich i nfluenced t he d evelopment o f i ts s ettlements a nd t heir e conomy t hroughout a ll h istorical p eriods ,

i ncluding t he p eriod t o w hich t his w ork

i s d evoted. T he G olan , f rom g eological a nd g eomorphological a spects i s , a s m entioned p reviously, p art o f t he B ibilical " Bashan" w hich i s c haracterized b y a c ontinuous b asalt c overing m aking i t o ne o f t he l argest b asalt c overed a reas i n t he w orld .1 4 T he b asalt c overing o f t he " Bashan" w hich c an b e s een t oday c onsists m ainly o f y oung l ava f lows c reated b y l ate v olcanic a ctivity ( the

d ating o f

t he

l ava

f lows

w ill b e d iscussed b elow) a nd c overs

a

p reviously e xisting l andscape . U ntil M ichelson 's s tudy , T he H ydrogeology o f t he S outhern G olan H eights w as p ublished , i t w as g enerally a greed t hat t he G olan o f t he p re-volcanic a ges w as p art o f o ne g reat s yncline w hich e xtended f rom t he s lopes o f t he H ermon m assif i n t he N orth t o I rbid i n t he S outh ,

3 4

t hat i s t o s ay ,

b etween

t he a nticline o f t he H ermon m assif a nd t he a nticline o f ' A jl n .

B ut ,

i nvestigations ,

g eoelectric

M ichelson a ssembled

d ata ,

b y

m eans

o f

a f ew

i n h is

m easurements c onducted i n t he C entral a nd S outhern G olan , w hich i ndicate t he p ossibility o f t he e xistence o f a r aised s tructure ( "high" ) i n t he c enter o f t he G olan i n t he a rea o f t he s treams o f W ädf e d-D liyyeh a nd i t i s p ossible . t herefore , t hat t he G olan b e v iewed a s o ther t han o ne c ontinuous s yncline . 15 B ut ,

a s M ichelson h imself e mphasized a t t hat s tage o f h is r esearch ,

i t i s

d ifficult t o d ecide t he q uestion o f whether t he G olan i s i n o ne l arge s yncline o r w hether i t h ad i tself r aised s tructures i n t he c enter . 16 H owever , =

i t i s c lear t hat a lready d uring t he N eogene A ge ( Upper T ertiary

M iocene a nd P liocene) m ost o f t he a rea o f t he G olan w as p art o f a l arge

b asin which e xtended o ver a bout t riangular s hape w ith i ts a pex i n b ase i n t he S yrian D esert i n t he c omposed o f c halk , l imestone a nd d uring t he f loodings o f t he L ower

4 0 ,000 s quare k ilometers a nd which h ad t he V alley o f J ezreel i n t he W est a nd i ts E ast . T he f oundation o f t his b asin i s f lint s trata w hich w ere d eposited i n i t T ertiary ( especially t hose o f t he E ocene

p eriod) . T hese s trata c an b e m ost c learly s een i n t he s teep b anks o f t he Y armuk R iver a nd Wd e r-Ruqq d w here t hey h ave b een e xposed b y t he a ction o f t he r iver 's water . U pon t his f oundation , d uring t he l ater p eriods ( Upper E ocene , O ligocene a nd M iocene) , m uch s ediment a ccumulated . T his s ediment w as c arried m ainly f rom t he m ountain m assifs s urrounding t he b asin ; i n t he a rea o f t he G olan t he s ources w ere t he m assifs o f H ermon a nd ' A jit h i . B ut t he h istory o f t his b asin w as n ot q uiet a nd u pheavals a nd s aggings o ccasionally o ccurred ; r uptures c ut i t i n v arious d egrees a nd i n d ifferent d irections . A s a r esult o f t his , t he s edimentary r ocks w hich a ccumulated i n t he b asin v ary i n t heir c omposition a nd t hickness . I t i s a cceptable t oday t o d ivide t hese r ocks i nto g roups = f ormations t hat h ave t he f ollowing n ames: " Ffq F ormation" , " S iIsfta F ormation" , " Ein G ev F ormation" , " Herod F ormation" , e tc . T he d ifferences b etween t he f ormations a re e xpressed n ot o nly i n d ating b ut a lso i n c omposition a nd w e w ill n ot

d iscuss

d etails

c oncerning

t hem

h ere . 17 W e w ill o nly e mphasize t hat t hese r ock f ormations a re u sually c omposed o f l imestone , c lay a nd s and , a nd t hat t he ' ! Fq F ormation" i s d ated t o t he U pper E ocene -O ligocene , t he ' s ta F ormation" t o t he O ligocene L ower M iocene , t he ' tin G ev F ormation" t o t he M iddle M iocene , t he " Herod -

F ormation" t o t he M iddle-Upper M iocene , P liocene p eriod .

a nd t he ' tesher F ormation' t o t he

T ogether w ith t he m ovements which t ook p lace i n t he N eogene B asin , l arge-scale v olcanic a ctivity b egan . T his v olcanic a ctivity, which a pparently c ommenced i n t he P liocene p eriod 1 8

a nd c ontinued u ntil t he L ower

P leistocene p eriod 1 9 l eft i ts m ark i n t he G olan i n t he f orm o f t hick b asalt s trata w hich c over t he s edimentary f ormations a nd t herefore , t oday , t hese b asalt s trata a re n amed t he ' tover B asalts" . 20 I n t he c liffs a bove K ibbutz E in G ev a nd t he Y armuk R iver , t he ' tover B asalts" s trata a re n ot m ore t han a f ew m eters t hick , w hile f urther N orth , f rom t he B uteiha V alley ( named t oday o n t he maps B ethsaida V alley) t o t he f oot o f t he H ermon m assif , t hickness i ncreases t o a t l east 2 00 m . A fter

t he e nd

t heir

o f t his g reat v olcanic a ctivity o f t he P liocene a nd t he

L ower P leistocene , a nd p ossibly a s a r esult o f i t ,2 1 t here o ccurred s everal v ery

s trong

T his c aused ,

t ectonic m ovements w ithin t he a mong o ther t hings ,

e ntire R ift V alley .

r egion ,

a s w ell a s

o utside i t .

t he c reation o f t he J ordan V alley a nd t he

I n t he p rocess l ong r upture l ines w ere f ormed w hich c an

3 5

s till b e s een i n t he G olan r im f acing t he H uleh V alley a nd t he S ea o f G alilee. T he c reation o f t he d eep d epression o f t he J ordan V alley b rought a bout t he d evelopment o f a n ew d rainage n etwork

i n t he e ntire

r egion .

I n t he

G olan t he p rocess o f t he c reation o f t he d eep c anyons o f t he Y armuk R iver , Wdt e r-Ruqq d , Wd1 e s-Samak , W dt e d-D liyyeh , Wdf Y ah i idiyyeh , Wd e iH awâ , a nd o ther r ivers b egan . D uring t he P leistocene p eriod , t he J ordan V alley w as d epressed f urther a nd d eeper e xcavation b y t he G olan r ivers i nto t heir c anyons f ollowed .

I t i s w orth n oting t hat t he B utef 1 2a-Bethsaida

V alley w as c reated i n t his p eriod a s ar esult o f a r upture . 22 A fter t he g reat t ectonic p hases i n w hich t he J ordan V alley w as f ormed , t he v olcanic a ctivity r ecommenced i n t he M iddle o r U pper P leistocene . T his w as t he s tage a t w hich m ost o f t he G olan v olcanic m ounds a ppeared .23

M ost

o f t hese m ounds a re a rranged i n t wo n early p arallel l ines w hose o rientation l ies o n a l ine f rom n orth-north-west t o s outh-south - e ast a nd a re c onsequently r eferred t o a s t he w estern v olcanic m ounds l ine a nd t he e astern v olcanic m ounds l ine . 24 I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat t hese t wo l ines o f v olcanic m ounds i n t he G olan h ave a t l east f ive p arallel " brothers" f urther e ast i n t he ' ! Bashan 1. 2 5 I n S chulman 's o pinion , t his o rder o f t he v olcanic m ounds i n t he G olan a nd t he ' Bashan" t estifies t o a c onnection b etween t he v olcanic a ctivity f rom t his p hase i n t he g eological h istory o f t he r egion a nd t he w eakened l ines w hich p enetrate

t hrough t he

c rust

o f

e arth t o t he

b asalt m antle . 26 H owever ,

t he v olcanic m ounds w hich t oday d ominate t he l andscape o f t he

G olan a nd t he ' Bashan" w ere n ot t he o nly r esult o f t he v olcanic a ctivity o f t he P leistocene p eriods . M or , w ho d ealt f undamentally w ith r esearch o n t he v olcanic f ormations i n t he c entral a nd n orthern G olan , a mong o ther t hings , r econstructs t he o rder o f t he v olcanic a ctivities o f t he P leistocene p eriods t he b asalt s trata w hich h e c alls t he " Golan F ormation" ( to d ifferentiate i t f rom t he " Cover B asalts" which a re e arlier) . I n h is o pinion , 27 t he v olcanic a ctivity o f t he " Golan F ormation" s tarted w ith a l arge-scale f low f rom f issures 28 w hose o rientation i s f rom n orth-north -w est t o s out h-s outh— e ast a nd which were a djacent t o t he e astern a nd w estern l ines o f t he v olcanic m ounds. T he l ava f lows w hich i ssued f orth f rom t he f issures s pread o ut t o t he e ast a nd t o t he w est , f illing d epressions , p assing t hrough s addles b etween t he a ncient m ountain r anges a nd d escending , b y w ay o f t he r iver s treams , t oward t he H uleh V alley , t he J ordan R iver a nd t he S ea o f G alilee . W hen t he l ava

f lows

f rom

t he

f issures

b egan t o d iminish ,

e ruptions

o f p yroclastic

m aterial b egan a long t hese s ame v olcanic l ines a nd t his b uilt m ost o f t he v olcanic m ounds w hich a re s een i n t he a rea t oday . F rom t hese m ounds , l ater o n , f lows o f l ava b roke f orth w hich f lowed m ainly s outh a nd w est . T hese f lows c an b e c learly s een t oday i n t he Q unei;ra r egion , a t T ell e l -Char m ( here t he f lows s wept a way t he e ntire w estern r im o f t he m ound) , a nd a t T ell e l-Ahm r ( known t oday a s H ar O dem) .

O ne o f t he f lows i ssuing f rom

T ell

e l-Ahm r ( l iar O dem) b lockaded t he g orge o f a n a ncient r iver n ear Bb e l-Haw a nd t hereby c reated a l ake a nd/or s wamps . 29

o f

T he l ast e ruptions w hich t ook p lace i n t he ' kolan F ormatiom" p hase w ere t uff-lapilli a nd b asalt b ombs .30 T hus , f or e xample , w as c reated t he

t uff w hich c overs t he s lopes o f T ell A bu-Nida a nd t he s outhern p arts o f T ell e l-Char m . T his t uff a lso f ell o n t he Q uneiçra Bb e l -H awi s wamps a nd -

f illed t hem .3 '

A fter t hat, i n t he c enter o f T ell A bu-Nida , a c omplete

3 6

c ollapse t ook p lace w hich c reated t he c aldera w hich c an b e s een a t p resent . F urther t ectonic a ctivity

i n t he R ift V alley

d uring a l ater s tage

o f

t he

P leistocene b roke s ome o f t he ' tolan F ormation! 's trata o n t he w estern r im o f t he G olan . F inally, s tarted

-

f ar i n t he e ast a nd t he n ortheast a t hird v olcanic p hase

t he v olcanic e ruptions which c reated t he

t wo L eja ' r egions

s tretching f rom t he D ruze M ountain t o t he o utskirts o f D amascus a nd t he H ermon m assif 's r ims . B ut, a t t he t ime t hat t his l ast v olcanic p hase o ccurred , 33 t here w ere n o m ore c hanges i n t he G olan e xcept f or t he e rosion p rocess w hich c ontinues t o f orm t he p resent r elief . T he p resent r elief i s m ainly t hat o f ap lateau w hich i s ar esult o f t he c omposition o f t he l ava w hich f lowed t here d uring t he p hases o f t he 'olan F ormation" . T his l ava w as t hin , l iquid a nd v ery f luid a nd s ince i ts f low w as a ccompanied b y r elatively f ew e ruptions , t he p yroclastic r ock c an b e f ound o nly n ear t he v olcanic m ounds a nd i n t heir i mmediate v icinity . E vidence f or t he v ery f luid n ature o f t he " Golan F ormation" l ava c an b e f ound i n t he u niform t hickness o f i ts f lows o ver l arge a reas . F urther , w e m ust e mphasize t hat t he b asalt r ocks o f t he ' Golan F ormation" a re h arder a nd h eavier ( their s pecific w eight i s 2 .8 3 .3 g /cm 3 ) t han t he s tones o f t he " Cover B asalts" . T his f act c an b e e xplained a s a r esult o f t he s lower c ooling o f t he ' tolan F ormation" b asalt a s o pposed t o t he f aster c ooling o f t he " Cover B asalt" . -

T he h ardness o f t he " Golan F ormation" b asalt m akes i t s uitable b uilding a nd i ndeed , d uring o ur s urveys i n t he G olan , w e c ame t o c onclusion t hat a t l east f rom t he R oman P eriod o n a nd , i n f act , u ntil p resent t ime , t he i nhabitants o f t he G olan a nd t he ' Bashan" u sed a nd

f or t he t he a re

s till u sing a s t he m aterial f or t heir h ouses o nly "Go lan F ormation" b asalt s tones a nd i f " Cover B asalts" s tones w ere u sed , t hey w ere o nly u sed f or f ences a round h ouses a nd f ields .

D .

C limate 3 4

T he G olan , a s o pposed t o o ther r egions e ast o f t he J ordan R iver , i s s till i n t he z one i nfluenced b y t he M editerranean c limate . T he r elatively s hort d istance b etween t he G olan a nd t he e astern c oastline o f t he M editerranean S ea f rom a pproximately 5 0 k m . i n t he n orthern G olan t o -

a pproximately 6 5 k m . i n t he s outhern s ection ( while ' A jl tT h i n t he G ilead i s a t a d istance o f a pproximately 8 0 k m .

f rom t he c oastline a nd K erak i n t he

M oab i s a bout 1 20 km . f rom i t) a nd t he f act t hat m ost o f t he G olan a rea f aces t his s ea ( see t opographical c ross-sections o f t he w idth o f t he G olan , -

-

f ig . 1 , p . 38) a ccount f or t he M editerranean i nfluence o n t he c limate . I n s pite o f t he f act t hat t he G olan i s a t t he e dge o f t he z one I nfluenced b y t he M editerranean c limate , o ne c an s till p erceive t he m oderate n ature o f t he c limate ,

w hich i s t emperate ,

t he r ange o f i ts t emperatures b etween d ay a nd

n ight a nd b etween s ummer a nd w inter b eing r elatively s mall . T hus , f or e xample , t he a verage d aily t emperature i n t he n orthern p art o f t he G olan ( e .g . ,

Q uneitra) i n A ugust

( summer )

i s

2 2 .7 °C a nd

i n J anuary

( winter) 6 . 1 °C

( annual a verage o f 1 4 .9 °C ) , w hile i n t he s outhern p art o f t he G olan w hich i s m ore o f ap lain a nd t herefore l ess o riented t oward t he M editerranean S ea ( as c an b e s een i n f ig . 1 ) t he a verage d aily t emperature ( e .g . , Fq) i s 2 6 .7 °C i n A ugust a nd 1 0 .9 °C i n J anuary ( annua3 5 a verage o f 1 9 .2 °C s ee a nnual -

a verage t emperatures m ap ,

f ig .

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3 9

T he e xtent t o w hich t he G olan i s o riented t oward t he M editerranean S ea h as a n i mportant i nfluence o n i ts r elative h umidity . I n t he n orthern p arts o f t he G olan t he r elative h umidity i s m uch h igher t han t hat i n t he s outh . T his f act c an b e e xplained a lso a gainst t he b ackground o f t he w ind s ystem which

d ominates

t he

G olan

a nd

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i s

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m ainly

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t he

M editerranean b reezes . T he b reeze w hich b lows d uring d aylight h ours f rom t he s ea t o t he l and p asses t he s ummits o f t he G alilee l ate i n t he m orning a nd t hen m akes a s teep d escent o f b etween 8 00 a nd 1 000 m eters i nto t he R ift V alley . T herefore , t he w ind b ecomes w armer a s i t d escends , s lackens a nd i ts r elative h umidity d ecreases . T hen , s ince t he a ir c an a bsorb m ore m oisture , i ts a bsolute h umidity i ncreases . B ut , w hen t he w ind a scends t he s lopes o f t he G olan , t he a ir b ecomes c ooler a nd i ts r elative h umidity i ncreases r apidly . W hen t he w ind r eaches t he s ummit o f t he G olan i n t he a fternoon h ours , i t b rings w ith i t ap leasant c oolness a nd h igh h umidity , e specially , a s m entioned , s outhern .

i n t he n orthern p arts o f t he G olan w hich a re h igher t han t he

T he w inds a re a lso r elatively s trong i n t he G olan . T his i s c aused b y t he l evel G olan p lateau , p articularly i n i ts s outhern p arts w here t here a re l arge p lains w ithout t rees o r l ushes w hich m ight s erve a s w indbreaks .

A s

a dditional f actor w hich i ncreases t he s trength o f w inds i n t he G olan i s t he B ashan P lain w hich i s l ike a n e nclosed b asin . T his b asin w arms e arly i n t he m orning , t he a ir a bove i t b egins t o r ise a nd t he r esultant l ow p ressure d raws t he a ir f rom t he e ntire a rea , e specially f rom t he H ermon a nd t he G olan where t he a ir i s c ooler a nd m ore d ense t han t hat o f t he o ther r egions s urrounding t he B ashan P lain . T his p rocess c onsequently i ncreases t he m ovement o f t he w inds e specially i n t he n orthern p arts o f t he G olan w hich a re m uch h igher a bove t he B ashan P lain t han t he s outhern p arts . T he d raining o f t he a ir f rom h ere t o t he B ashan P lain i s m uch ' f aster d ue t o t he t opographical s lope a nd t he m uch g reater d ifference i n a ir p ressure. T he s trength o f t he w inds i n t he G olan u sually c auses t he t runks o f i ts t rees t o l ean a nd t heir c rowns t o b end t o t he e ast i n t he s ame d irection a s t he w inds . A nother p henomenon c aused b y t he s trength o f t he w inds i n t he G olan i s d ust c louds r aised b y g usts o f w ind , p articularly i n t he s ummer s eason w hen t he v egetation a nd s oil a re d ry a nd t here i s n othing t o h old t he s mall d ry g rains

o f b asalt

a nd

t uff

i n t he G olan .

T here i s

t estimony t o

t hese d ust c louds i n t he h istorical s ources ; t he B yzantine h istorians r elate t hat d ust c louds s uch a s t hese c aused t he d efeat o f t heir a rmy i n t he b attle a gainst t he M uslim f orces w hich t ook p lace i n t he y ear 6 36 n ear t he v illage o f e l-Y q isa i n t he s outhern G olan . 36 A s m entioned a bove , t he b reezes a rrive i n t he G olan c arrying h igh h umidity . T his h igh h umidity i s a ccompanied b y c louds which a re a p ermanent p henomenon i n t he s kies o ver t he G olan , s ummer . i s

A s a r esult ,

a lso g reat .

e ven o n t he c lear d ays o f

t he a mount o f p recipitation w hich f alls i n t he G olan

T he p erennial a verage i n t he n orthern p arts

o f

a pproaches 1 200 mm . w hile i n t he s outh i t r eaches a bout 5 00 mm .

t he G olan ( see a nnual

a verage r ainfall m ap , f ig . 3 , p . 4 1) . T he g reat d ifference b etween t he a mount o f r ainfall i n t he n orth a nd t hat i n t he s outh i s t he r esult o f f our f actors : a ) I n t he c limate o f P alestine , a s a r ule , t he f urther n orth a p lace i s l ocated , t he g reater t he a mount o f p recipitation i t r eceives . T his r ule a pplies t o t he G olan a lso . b ) T he f actor o f o rientation t oward t he M editerranean S ea w hich w as d escribed a bove . c ) T he t opographical h eight , w hich i n t he G olan i ncreases t oward t he n orth f rom 3 00 i n . t o 1 200 m . a bove s ea l evel . p arts o f

d )

M ount H ermon , w hich r ises s harply a bove t he n orthern

t he G olan a nd t herefore c auses

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h umidity t o c limb f aster t oward t he n orthern G olan r esulting i n a dditional r ainfall o n i t . T he t opographical h eight o f t he n orthern G olan a nd i ts p roximity t o t he H ermon m assif a lso r esult i n t he n orthern , a nd a lso o ccasionally t he c entral p arts o f t he G olan , b eing c overed w ith s now . D uring t he s ummer t he d ew i s h eavy . T his i s c aused b y t he d ark b asalt r ocks w hich a re w armed d uring t he d ay m ore t han t he l ight l imestone a nd which , b y t he s ame t oken , b ecome c ooler d uring t he n ight h ours .

W hen t he b asalt

r ocks

c ome

i nto c ontact

w ith a ir w hose r elative h umidity d uring t he s ummer r eaches n inety p ercent , a h eavy d ew r esults w hich c overs t he s oil o f t he G olan . T his i s e specially t rue i n i ts n orthern p arts w here e very y ear m ore t han o ne h undred s eventy d ew n ights c an b e c ounted a s c ompared t o ap erennial a verage o f e ight n ights i n t he s outhern s ections ( as a r esult o f t he m uch h igher r elative h umidity i n t he n orth s ee a bove) . I t i s n atural , t herefore , t hat t he l ocation o f -

t he t omb o f S heikh A bu N ida t o w hom t he l ocal A rabic t radition a scribes t he p aternity o f t he d ew ( Abu N ida = ' Father o f t he D ew ') , i s f ound i n t he n orthen G olan ( on t he s ummit o f T ell A bu N ida) a nd n ot i n t he s outh .

E .

H ydrography

T he h ydrography , l ike t he g eology a nd g eomorphology ( which , t ogether w ith t he p recipitation , a re t he m ain f actors d etermining t he c onfiguration o f t he h ydrography i n a ll a reas) , h as h ad a g reat i nfluence o n t he G olan s ettlements a nd t heir e conomy t hroughout i ts v arious h istorical p eriods . I t i s t herefore w orth r eviewing , i f o nly b riefly , t he p rinciples a nd t he d iffereht c omponents o f t he h ydrography o f t he G olan . D espite t he r elatively g reat a mount o f r ainfall w hich b lesses t he G olan e very y ear , i t s eems , a ccording t o t he h ydrological a nd h ydrographic s urveys c onducted i n t he G olan i n t he l ast e ighteen y ears , 38 t hat t he r egion h as a g reat w ater p otential but, i n r eality , h as a p aucity o f t his r esource .39 T his c onclusion i s q uite s urprising a nd t herefore s ome e xplanation i s r equired . T he b asalt s oil w hich c overs m ost o f t he a rea o f t he G olan i s n ot a g ood a quifer . 40 W ith t he f all o f t he f irst r ains , t he u pper b asalt s trata ( which f rom t he o utset a re l imited i n t heir a bility t o a bsorb w ater d ue t o t heir c omposition ) b ecome s aturated a nd a re u nable t o s oad u p t he r ains w hich f ollow .

T herefore m ost o f t he r ainwater i n t he G olan b ecomes

r unoff s urface w ater w hich f inds i ts w ay t o t he r iver g orges. W hen i t r eaches t he g orges t he w ater ,

d ue t o t he g eomorphological

s tructure o f t he r egion , q uickly f lows o ut o f t he G olan a rea t o t he d rainage b ases o f W df e r-Ruqq d , t he Y armuk R iver , t he S ea o f G alilee , t he U pper J ordan g orge a nd t he I uleh V alley . T hus t he G olan c onsequently l oses m ost o f t he p otential which i s g enerated b y t he p recipitation i n t he r egion . 4' T his p henomenon o f l arge q uantities o f r unoff w ater w ashing t he e xpanses o f t he G olan i n t he w inter s eason h as s everal r esults . I n p laces w here t here a re d epressions w ithout o utlets , t he b ottom o f w hich a re c omposed o f b asalt s oils m ixed w ith c lay = f ossilized 80 1 1 ,4 2 a c istern (Birkeh)43 w hich c an h old w ater t hroughout t he y ear i s c reated . A nother c onsequence i s t he e xtensive e rosion o f t he s oil i n t he n orthern p arts o f t he G olan ( as a r esult o f t heir s tructure a nd t heir h eight w hich i s m uch g reater t han t he R ift V alley) ; t herefore t he g round i s m uch m ore r ocky t han i n t he s outh . A n a dditional r esult i s t he u nusual c oncentration o f t he n etwork o f r ivers i n

4 2

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t he G olan r elative t o t he l imestone r egions i n n orthern P alestine a nd s outhern S yria a s c an b e s een i n t he h ydrographic m ap f ollowing ( fig . 4 , p . 4 3). F rom t he h ydrographic m ap , w e c an a lso s ee t hat t he m ain w ater-shed l ine o f t he G olan p asses t hrough t he s ummits o f t he h ighest v olcanic m ounds , t hese b eing t he h ighest p oints i n t he a rea . T he l ine r uns f rom n orthn orth-west t o s outh-south-east a nd a t T ell e l-Faras t urns s outhwest, p arallel t o t he t urning o f W df e r-Ruqq d , t oward t he p oint where t he l atter e mpties i nto t he Y armuk R iver . S ince t he l ines o f t he v olcanic m ounds a re c lose t o e ach o ther , t he w atershed l ine o ccasionally p asses f rom t he w estern l ine t o t he e astern a nd t he r everse a ccording t o t he h eight o f t he m ounds . T he l ocation o f b oth l ines o f v olcanic m ounds c loser t o t he e astern b oundary o f t he G olan t han t o t he w estern c auses m ost o f t he G olan a rea t o d rain t o t he k l uleh V alley, t he U pper J ordan g orge , a nd t he S ea o f G alilee . T he d istance b etween t he w atershed l ine a nd t he d rainage b ases d ictates t he l ength o f t he r ivers i n t he G olan . T he c onfiguration o f t he G olan r ivers i s u sually e longated a nd i s d ictated b oth b y t he g eomorphological s tructure a nd t he n ature o f t he r ock t hrough w hich t he r ivers b ore . T hus , f or e xample , o ne c an s ee t he w inding c ourse o f t he Y armuk w hich b ored i nto t he c halky l imestone o f t he E ocene p eriod a s c ompared t o t he r elatively s traight p aths o f t he G olan r ivers which b ored i nto t he " Cover B asalts" a nd t he b asalt f lows o f t he " Golan F ormation". T he i nfluence o f t he g eomorphological s tructure o f t he G olan o n i ts r ivers c an b e s tudied a lso f rom t he f ollowing s ketch o f , t he c haracteristic r iver c ourse o f t he G olan ( fig . 5 , p . 4 5) . I n t he u pper s ection o f t he t ypical r iver n ear t he w atershed i s t he c ollection b asin o f t he s urface r unoff . H ere t he f low o f t he w ater i s l imited t o r ainy d ays a nd t he f ew d ays f ollowing . T he r unoff d rains i nto s hallow s treams w hich a re u sually s hort a nd c an l ead t o s treams w hich c an b e af ew k ilometers i n l ength ( In t he s ketch , t he l atter s treams a ppear i n t he " mas yel ( = s treams) r egion" ) . I n i nstances w here s pring w ater f lows i nto a r iver , t he s treams w hich c arry s pring water t o t he r iver a re u sually r efered t o b y t he A rab G olan i nhabitants a s m as yel ( J . . .L ) , in s ingular m as f l ) . c ontinuation o f t he u pper s e ction o f t he r iver t he s hallow s treams t o f orm a s hallow r iver ( "upper g orge r egion" ) w hich d eepers i ts u ntil i t r esembles a w ide V . W hen t he r iver r eaches t he e dge o f

I n t he c ombine c hannel a l ava

f low o r a g eological f racture w hich h as c reated a s tep i n t he l andscape ( steps w hich a re c haracteristic o f t he w hole w estern s ection o f t he G olan a s ar esult o f t he f ractures w hich a ccompanied t he c reation o f t he R ift V alley , s ee a bove , b ase

-

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p . 3 6 ,

a w aterfall r esults w hich u sually h as a p ool a t i ts 4 4 s ee f ig. 7 , p . 4 8).

A t t his p oint b egins t he " lower g orge" o f t he r iver w hich i s i n t he f orm o f a s teep-banked , l ess

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W hen t he r iver f lows i nto t he d rainage b ase i ts s tream widens g reatly . U ntil n ow t he d escription g iven h as b een t hat o f t he c haracteristic r iver o f t he G olan a nd , t o b e m ore p recise , t he c haracteristic r iver o f t he G olan f lowing t o t he H uleh V alley , t he U pper J ordan g orge a nd t he S ea o f G alilee . T he r ivers w hich d escend t o t he d rainage b ases o f W df e r-Ruqq d a nd t he Y armuk R iver a re m uch s horter a nd t herefore o ccasionally l ack e lements f ound i n t he c haracteristic r iver d escribed a bove .

4 4

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F ig. 5 :

S ketch o f aC haracteristic R iver C ourse i n t he G olan .

F ig. 6 :

S chematic D rawing o f t he o rigin o f F ront S prings.

4 5

L ava F low

O n t he h ydrographic m ap ,

w e a lso d rew t he b oundaries o f t he u pper

c ollection b asins o f t he G olan , w hich a re n amed a fter t heir d rainage b ases . F rom t hese b oundaries w e c an c onclude t hat t he G olan r ivers h ave t hree p rimary d rainage b ases : t he H uleh V alley , t he S ea o f G alilee a nd Wdt e rR uqq d ; a nd t wo s econdary d rainage b ases : t he U pper J ordan g orge a nd a p art o f t he L ower Y armuk g orge . T he s econdary n ature o f t he J ordan a nd Y armuk d rainage b ases i s b ased o n t he f act t hat t he n umber o f r ivers d escending t o t hem f rom t he G olan a nd t heir l ength i s c omparatively l ess t han t hose d escending t o t he p rimary d rainage b ases . A s f or t he s ubterranean c ollection o r d rainage n etworks o ur

i gnorance o f

o f

t he G olan ,

t hem I s g reater t han o ur k nowledge b ecause o f t he s mall

n umber o f d rillings w hich h ave b een u ndertaken I n t he a rea .4 5 I n s pite o f t his , r esearch i n t he l ast e ighteen y ears h as p roduced m uch m ore d ata o n s prings i n t he G olan . T he m ost I mportant s prings a re d esignated b y as mall c ircle o n t he h ydrographic a nd s trata s prings which c overed b y b asalt b ut a lso o ver P alestine a nd S yria .

m ap .46 I n t he G olan t here a re f racture s prings a re c ommon p henomena n ot o nly i n t hose a reas w here t here i s e xposed l imestone a s i s c ommon a ll H owever , i n t he G olan t here i s a nother t ype o f

s pring w hich I s n ot f ound e lsewhere I n P alestine . 47 D . M or , w ho d evotes a d etailed d iscussion t o t his k ind o f s pring , g ave t hem t he H ebrew n ame M a 'ayanot M atlool K iluach ( 'Lava F low F ront S prings" ) 48 T hese s prings a re t he p roduct o f as eries o f l ava f lows b etween w hich a re s trata o f f ossilized s oil a s c an b e s een a bove I n f ig . 6 , p . 4 5 •49 W hen a s eries o f l ava f lows I s a rranged l ike s teps , o ne a bove t he o ther , a s I n t he a bove-given s ketch , t he f ossilized s oil w hich .is b etween f low n o . 2a nd f low n o . 3 , f or e xample , w ill b e e xposed a t t he e dge o f f low n o . 3 . S ince t his f ossilized s oil i s a n a quiclude , t he w ater w ill f low o n t op o f i t a nd s eep f rom b eneath t he l ower e dge o f l ava f low n o . 3 . T his k ind o f s pring d oes n ot a ppear a t t he f ront o f e very l ava f low I n t he G olan , b ut o nly i n p laces t oward which t he s lope o f t he f ossilized s oil l eads . F requently s prings i ssue f rom a long t he e ntire f ront o f a l ava f low a nd t here w ill b e as eries o f s prings ( sometimes o ver a d istance o f h undreds o f m eters) which I n f act , d erive f rom t he s ame s ource . ' Lava F low F ront S prings ' a lso a ppear i n t he G olan i n t he b anks o f t he r ivers w here e rosion h as c ut t he n ormal c ourse o f a f ossilized s oil s tratum . T he q uantity o f water i n t he ' Lava F low F ront S prings' I s u sually m eager b ecause o f t he s mall

s ource

a nd

t he

r elatively

l ower 5 e rmeability

o f

t he

b asalt

s tone ,

w hich h as b een a lready e mphasized a bove . T he m onths

m aximum s upply I n t hese s prings i s l imited m ainly t o t he S pring t he p eriod when t he b asalt s trata e mpty o f t he r ainwater

-

-

a ccumulated d uring t he w inter b ut i n s ome p laces , w here t he f ossilized s oil i s a pparently l aid o n a r elatively d epressed a ncient r elief , t he -

-

s prings c ontinue t o f low t hroughout t he e ntire y ear a lthough i n l esser q uantities . M or e mphasizes t he p ossibility t hat a t l east p art o f t he w ater w hich s eeps b eneath t he e dge o f l ave f low n o . 4r eturns a nd i s a bso ed i n t he b asalt o f f low n o . 3 , f rom t here t o l ave f low n o . 2a nd s o f orth . T he q uality o f s pring w ater e xamined i n t he G olan w as f ound t o b e v ery g ood f or d rinklng ,52 e xcept f or t he h ot s prings w hich g ush f orth o n t he s outhern a nd s outhwestern b oundaries o f t he G olan . O ne g roup o f t hese h ot s prings e xists n ear t he e astern s hore o f t he S ea o f G alilee . I t I ncludes t wo s prings : ' E in G ofra w hich I s l ocated a t c oordinates 2 105 2 457 a nd h as a t emperature o f 3 3 °C5 3 : a nd ' E in N uqeib , c oordinates 2 106 2 462 3 0 °C . A s econd g roup , b etter k nown , a ppears i n t he g orge o f t he Y armuk R iver a t e i-

4 6

H am i neh ( Jammat G ader) a nd i ncludes f our s prings : 1 ) ' E in M aqleh ( coordinates 2 126 2 320) , which i s t he h ottest s pring 5 1 °C : 2 ) ' Ein e l-Balsam ( coordinates 2 124 2 322) 4 1 °C ; 3 ) l ammet e r-Rih ( coordinates 2 128 2 321) -

-

-

-

3 7 °c ;

4 ) ' E in S akhlna ( coordinates 2 130 2 327) t hat t he l atter , a lthough a h ot s pring , -

e mphas ed

2 9 °C . I t s hould b e h as r elatively s weet

w ater . I t s eems t hat t he s ources o f a ll t he h ot s prings h ere c ome f rom h ydrothermic f lows w hich r ise f rom a g reat d epth a long t he m ain f ractures o f t he R ift V alley .55 N o d iscussion o f t he h ydrography o f t he G olan w ould b e c omplete w ithout e mphasizing t he a bundance o f b irkehs t hought t o b e m an-made r eservoirs a ppearing i n A rab v illages a nd s upplied b y r ainwater a nd o ccasionally b y -

s prings

-

-

e specially i n t he n orthern a nd c entral s ections o f t he

r egion .

T hese b irkehs h old w ater m ost o f t he y ear ( see f ig . 8 , p . 4 8) a nd t hey w ere t herefore a v ery i mportant s ource o f water f or t he i nhabitants o f t he a ncient s ettlements i n t he G olan , a s t hey a re f or t he A rab i nhabitants t oday . T heir m easurements v ary g reatly f rom o ne t o t he o ther , b ut t heir u sual d iameter i s b etween 5 0 i n . a nd 7 5 m . a nd 5 h eir u sual d epth b etw een 4 m . a nd 6 m . o r m ore . M or i s o f t he o pini on t hat m ost o f t he b irkehs i n t he G olan a re s toring w ater .

j ubas w hich t he i nhabitants I mproved f or t he p urpose o f M or b ases h is o pinion o n t he f ollowing d ata : a ) T he a mount

o f r ock w hich h ad t o b e e xcavated i n o rder t o o btain a r elatively s mall b irkeh r adius 5 0 i n . d epth 5 m . w as a pproximately 5 ,300 t ons o f b asalt w hich i s a n e normous a mount f or t he i nhabitants o f o ne v illage ; b ) I n t he -

-

-

t erritory o f t he G olan , t here a re b irkehs w hich a re n ot n ear s ettlements ; c ) S ometimes t he b irkehs a re n ot I n t he b est l ocation f or c ollecting w ater ; d ) T hey d o n ot h ave c ollecting n etworks f or c arrying w ater f rom t he w d s -

a n etwork w hich w ould u ndoubtedly h ave b een b uilt I f , t he b irkehs h ad b een p lanned a nd b uilt b y h uman b eings . M or 's o pinion i s c ould l ead t o t he c onclusion , a s M or h imself e mphasizes

r y a ttractive a nd t hat m ost o f t he

G olan b irkehs a re n ot a p roduct o f t he l ocation o f s ettlements , b ut r ather t he o pposite , t hat t hey w ere t he r eason f or t he l ocation o f t he s ettlements . Among t he G olan b irkehs B irket R am i s u ndoubtedly a n e xceptional o ne ; h owever f or t he p urpose o f t he p resent d iscussion w e w ill c ontinue t o r efer t o B irket R am b y t he A rabic t erm b irkeh . T his b irkeh i s f ound a bout 3 00 m . e ast o f t he h ouses o f t he D ruze v illage M as 'ada ( central c oordinate p oints 2 216 2 930) a nd h as a n e liptic s hape o f a pproximately 9 00 x 6 00 m . I d epth , which w as t aken b y e cho s oundings, i s b etween 8 m . a nd 9 M . C onsequently , t he b irkeh c ontains a bout t hree m illion c ubic m eters o f w ater . A bout t he n ature o f B irket R am , h ow i t w as c reated a nd t he s ource o f I ts w ater , t here i s , t oday , a c ontroversy a mong s cholars . W e w ill n ot e nter i nto a d iscussion o f t he d etails o f t he c ontroversy h ere o r i nto a n e valuation o f t he d ata o n w hich v arious s cholars b ase t heir a rguments b ut w ill c onsider i t s ufficient , o pinions.

r ather ,

t o p resent a s ynopsis

o f t he d ifferent

A . F lexer m aintains t hat B irket R am i s t he r emnant o f am uch l arger l ake w hich e xtended t o t he n orth t oward t he Y a 'af f1 V alley a nd t hat t he c rater i n w hich t he b irkeh i s t oday l ocated i s ap roduct o f k arst a ctivity i n t he C enomanjan jmestone w hich c an b e s een i n t he a rea e specially s outheast o f t he b irkeh . C ontrary t o t his v iew , E . M azor a rgues t hat t he m ain s ource o f w ater i n B irket R am i s r ainfall w hile t he d epression w here t he b irkeh i s s ituated i s m erely t he c rater o f 9 1v olcano, a nd t herefore i t i s p ossible t o s ee B irket R am a s a c rater l ake . I t i s d ifficult t o d etermine w hich o pinion i s c orrect d espite t he f act t hat , I n t he l ast d ecade , s ystematic i nvestigations o f B irket R ai n i n d ifferent f ields o f r esearch h ave b een

4 7

F ig. 7 :

F ig. 8 :

AW aterfall N ear t he V illage o f D abIra ( "Dabira F all").

A b irkeh , S outh-West o f Z a'artah .

4 8

c onducted .6 2 I t must b e e mphasized t hat i n t he d istant p ast , t hings l ooked m uch s impler i f l ess s cholarly ; J oseph w hile d iscussing t he s ources o f t he J ordan R iver , w rites t he f ollowing : T his r iver h as i ts a pparent s ource a t P anion ;

i n r eality

i t r ises i n t he p ool c alled P hiale f rom w hich i t p asses b y a n u nseen s ubterranean c hannel t o P anion . P hiale w ill b e f ound a t a d istance o f a h undred a nd t wenty f urlongs f rom C aesarea ( Philippi) , o n t he r ight o f a nd n ot f ar f rom t he r oad a scending t o T rachonitis ; t he p ool d erives i ts n ame P hiale f rom i ts c ircular f orm ; t he w ater a lways f ills t he b asin t o t he b rim w ithout e ver s ubsiding o r o verflowing . I t w as f or l ong u nknown t hat t his w as t he t rue s ource o f t he J ordan , but t he f act w as p roved b y P hilip , t etrarch o f T rachonitis : h e h ad c haff t hrown i nto t he p ool o f P hiale a nd f ound i t c ast u p a t P anion , w here t he a ncients b elieved t hat t he s tream h ad i ts o rigin .

F rom J osephus ' w ords w e k now t hat t he p henomenon o f B irket Rim w as r aising c uriosity a lready i n t he R oman p eriod . B ut , a s f or t he c redibility o f h is w ords , a gain t here i s ac ontroversy a mong t he m odern s cholars w hich i s h ard t o r econcile .

F lexer ,

a fter w innowing J osephus ' s tory o f t he c haff ,

m aintains t hat " In a k arst f low s ystem w here t he w ater f lows i n c averns , c lefts a nd u nderground c hannels , e verything i s p ossible . 4 a nd i t i s v ery p robable t hat P hi ll ip t he p erceptive ' s cholar ' w as r i gh t" . C ontrary t o t his , Mazor a rgues t hat t he s tory o f J osephus i s o nly a s tory b ecause t he c apacity o f B irket R m i s a bout t hree m illion c ubic m eters w hile t he f low o f t he B ani s

r eaches a bout o ne h undred e ighty m illion c ubic m eters a nnually

a nd t herefore , i f B irket n' w ould b e e mpty a fter a w eek .

F .

5w ere

really t he s ource o f t he B ani s R iver ,

i t

F lora

I n t he a rea o f f lora a s w ell , s everal s ystematic s urveys a nd i nvestigations h ave b een c onducted i n t he G olan d uring t he l ast e ighteen y ears66 t hese h ave e nriched t he b ody o f k nowledge w hich e xisted b efore t his t ime . B ut , b efore w e d escribe t he p resent f lora o f t he G olan w hich a ids o ne i n s tudying t he f lora o f t he p ast , i t i s i nstructive t o f irst s urvey t he s mall a mount o f d ata e xisting i n t he h istorical s ources r egarding t he f lora o f t he G olan i n t he p ast. I t h as a lready b een e mphasized a bove t hat i n m ost o f t he p laces w here t he ' Bashan" i s m entioned i n t he B ible , r eferences a re m ade t o am uch l arger r egion , t hat i s t o s ay , t o t he B ashan P lain , t he H auran , t he T rachon a nd t he G olan a reas . T herefore , t here i s n o d oubt t hat o n t he o ccasions w hen , i n t he

B ible ,

t he

" oaks

o f

B ashan"

a re

m entioned ,

i t

r efers

a lso ,

o r

p articularly , t o t he o aks w ith w hich t he G olan w as m ore b lessed t han a ny o ther s ection o f t he l and o f t he ' Bashan" . F rom t hat t he B iblical t he m ost

r eferences t o t he " oaks o f B ashan" i n t he B ible , w e l earn n ot o nly o ak t ree d ominated t his r egion ( as t hey d o t oday) d uring t he p eriods , b ut a lso t hat t he o ak f orests i n t he G olan w ere a mong i mpressive f orests i n t he e ntire a rea . T estimony t o t his l ast

4 9

f act c an b e f ound i n t he B ooks o f t he P rophets w here t he " oaks o f B ashan" a re m entioned t ogether i n o ne b reath w ith t he f amous c edars o f L ebanon . T hus , f or e xample , t he p rophet I saiah p redicts : ' For t he L ord o f h osts h as a d ay a gainst a ll t hat i s p roud a nd l ofty , a gainst a ll t hat i s l ifted u p a nd h igh ; a gainst a ll t he c e rs o f L ebanon , l ofty a nd l ifted u p ; a nd a gainst a ll t he o aks o f B ashan" ; a nd i n a nother p lace t he p rophet s ays : ' The l and m ourns a nd l anguishes ; L ebanon i s c onfounded a nd w ithers a way ; S haron i s l ike a d esert ; a nd B ashan a nd C armel s hake o ff t heir l eaves" ;68 a nd i n t he s ame w ay J eremiah6 m plores : ' to u p t o L eb an on , a nd c ry o ut , a nd l ift u p y our v oice i n B ashan" ; a nd h um l aments t hat : " Bashan a nd C armel w ither , t he b loom o f L ebanon f ades" ; a nd f inally Z echariah p rophesies : ' open y our d oors , 0L ebanon , t hat t he f ire m ay d evour y our c edars! W ail , 0 c ypress , f or t he c edar h as f allen , f or t he g lorious t rees a re r uined ! Wail , o aks o f B ashan ,

f or t he t hick f orest h as b een f elled !" .7'

T he p rophet E zekiel a lso m entions t he " oaks o f B ashan' t ogether w ith t he c edars o f L ebanon , a nd f rom h is w ords w e a lso l earn t hat t he s hipyards o f t he c ity o f T yre , i n h is t ime , u sed t he o aks o f t he G olan t o p roduce p arts f or t heir v essels , s uch a s o ars: " And s ay t o T yre . T hey made a ll y our p lanks o f f ir t rees f rom S enir ( =H ermon M ountain ) ; t hey t ook a c edar f rom L ebanon t o m ake a m ast f or y ou.

O f o aks o f B ashan t hey m ade y our o ars" .72

F rom t he B ible w e a lso l earn t hat , a side f rom t he o ak f orests , t here w ere i n t he G olan d uring t he B iblical p eriods , e xcellent p astures ; o therwise h ow c ould a ll t hose e xcellent a nimals o f t he " Bashan' m entioned i n t he B ible e xist? 73 I t s eems t hat t his p icture o f o ak f orests i n a ddition t o r ich p astures a lso e xisted i n t he G olan i n p ost-Biblical p eriods . H owever , i t m ust b e a ssumed t hat t he p roportion o f p asture t o f ores ,t a reas i n t he G olan c hanged f rom p eriod t o p eriod a ccording t o t he c hanges w hich t ook p lace i n t he s ize o f p opulation a nd t he n umber o f s ettlements i n t he r egion . C hanges s uch a s t hese c an b e c learly t raced i n t he l ast o ne h undred y ears . G . S chumacher , w ho t ravelled i n t he G olan d uring t he 8 0 's o f t he l ast c entury , a f ew y ears a fter t he C ircassians s ettled i n t he r egion , d escribes h ow t hese s ettlers d ecreased t he s pace o f t he f orests i n t he G olan b y u sing t he o ak t rees f or t rade , e xporting t he l ogs t o t he v illages o f t he H auran . 74

R . K arschon a nd Y . Z ohar , who p re

nt a t able c omparing t he

f orest a rea a ppearing i n S chumacher 's G olan m ap a nd t he c ondition o f t hose f orest a reas i n t he y ear 1 967 , c ome t o t he c onclusion t hat t he f orest a reas i n t he G olan , w hich d uring S chumacher 's t ime e xtended o ver 2 25 ,000 d unams , d ecreased o ver e ighty y ears t o 3 7 ,000 d unams ; t hat i s t o s ay , f rom 1 8% o f t he g eneral a rea o f t he G olan t o a pproximately 3 % •76 And when t he p opulation i n t he G olan i n S chumacher 's t ime , w hich w as a bout 2 0 ,000 -77 i s c ompared t o t he p opulation c ensus which w as c onducted b y t he S yrian g overnment i n 1 960 t o s ay ,

-

11,340 , 78

w e a rrive a t t he s ame p roportion ,

t hat i s

a n i ncrease i n t he p opulation o f a pproximately 6 00% a s o pposed t o a

d ecline i n f orest a rea o f a bout 6 007 . T he p icture o f t he f lora i n t he G olan i n t he p ast p resented f irst i n B iblical s ources a nd , i n t he p ast 9e h undred a nd f ifty y ears , i n t he w orks -

o f v arious t ravellers a nd s cholars i s c haracterized b y t he e xistence o f o ak f orests t ogether w ith r ich p astures a nd m atches t he p icture o f t he f lora -

a t t he p resent t ime .

-

B ut t oday , f ollowing s ystematic r esearches c onducted

i n t he G olan i n t he l ast e ighteen y ears , 80

w e c an r each t he c onclusion t hat

t he G olan f lora i s c haracterized , f irst o f a ll , b y m aquis a nd f orests o f d ifferent k inds o f o ak t rees . S econdly , t he f loral a reas w hich h ave b een r eferred t o t hus f ar i n o ur d iscussion a s " rich p astures" a re n o m ore t han

5 0

d eforested a reas

o n w hich a d ifferent

f lora h as d eveloped ,

r eplacing t he

c haracteristic f lora o f t he o ak f orest . I n o ther w ords , t he f undamental c limatic f loral u nits o f t he G olan a re n atural m aquis a nd f orests o f o aks while t he r est o f t he u nits ( the " rich p astures") a re d erived f rom t he c limactic u nits , t heir c reation b eing b rought a bout b y m an . 8 1

9 )

W ith t he a id o f t h e Go lan

f l ora l d is tri

bution

m ap

w hich

f ollows

( fig .

w e c an s tudy a bout t he e xact b oundaries o f t he o ak m aquis a nd f orest

a reas w hich , l ike i slands w ithin t he d eforested a reas , h ave b een p reserved i n t he G olan u ntil t he p resent . W e c an a lso s ee t hat i n t he G olan t here a re t wo s eparate a nd d ifferent r egions o f o ak m aquis a nd f orests : f irst ( A o n t he m ap) , t he r egion o f m ixed ( common o ak a nd k ermes o ak) o ak m aquis a nd f orests a nd s econd ( B o n t he m ap) , t he r egion o f T abor o ak m aquis a nd f orests .

I ndeed ,

k ermes o aks

a reas o f o ak m aquis a nd f orests d ominated b y c ommon a nd

( Quercus c alliprinos

& Q uercus i nfectoria) h ave

b een p reserved

e specially i n t he n orthern a nd e astern s ections o f t he G olan ( the a reas m arked A1 o n t he m ap) while a reas d ominated b y t he T abor O aks ( Quercus i thaburensis) a ppear m ainly i n t he w estern a nd s outhern s ections o f t he r egion ( B1 o n t he m ap) . B efore w e t urn t o ad iscussion o f t he f lora o f t he d eforested a reas w hich o ccupies m ost o f t he l and a rea o f t he r egion t oday , i t i s f irst w orth d iscussing t he d etails o f t he t wo t ypes o f n atural m aquis a nd f orests m entioned a bove . T o o ne w ho t ravels i n t he G olan t oday , t he a reas o f m ixed ( common a nd k ermes) o ak m aquis a nd f orests ( A1

o n t he m ap) ,

f rom a g round l evel v iew ,

a ppear a s o pen m aquis w ith c learings a mong t he t rees i n w hich a nnual w eeds g rog . B ut f rom t he a ir o r f rom t he s ummit o f o ne o f t he v olcanic m ounds o ne c an s ee t hat m ost o f t he t rees i n t hese m aquis a re a rranged i n r ows which i ntersect e ach o ther a t v arious a ngles, c reating t he i mage o f a n i rregu f ields

r g rid . T he a reas b etween t hese r ows o f t rees a re n one o ther t han w hich w ere c leared a nd w orked b y i nhabitants o f t he G olan i n t he

n ear a nd d istant p ast .

T he i ntersecting r ows o f t rees a re r emnants o f t he

n atural m aquis o r f orest which w ere p reserved o n t he b oundaries o f t he f ields w here f armers w ere n ot i nterested i n c learing t hem . T he r emnants o f t he m ixed o ak m aquis a nd f orests i n t he G olan e ssentially a ppear a t e levations a bove s even h undred m eters a bove s ea l evel . A side f rom t he c ommon a nd k ermes o aks w hich c haracterize t he r emnants o f t hese m aquis a nd f orests , t here a lso a ppear t he P alestinian a nd A tlantic t erebinths ( Pistacia p alaestina & P istacia a tlantica) , S panish b room ( Spartium j unceum), S yrian p ear ( Pyrus s yriaca) , s torax ( Styrax o ff icinalis) , s umach ( Rhus c oriaria) , h owthorns ( Crataegus a ronia & C rataegus a zarolus) , a nd t he P runus u rsina . Among t he h erbaceous p lants w hich g row h ere t he D ianthus p olycladus i s p redominant a nd a mong t he a nnual p lants t he L epidium s pinosum . T he r emnants o f t he T abor o ak m aquis a nd f orests ( B1 o n t he m ap) i n t he G olan , f ound m ainly i n t hose s ections w hose a ltitude i s b elow t hree h undred m eters a bove s ea l evel , a re s ometimes a lso ' arranged" i n i ntersecting r ows . I n o ther s ections, h owever , l ike t he r egions o f Y ah tIdiyye a nd W d1 e lM as'a i i id , a n o bserver o f t he f orest r emnants r eceives t he i mpression o f v iewing a p ark-forest . I n t he h igher p arts o f t hese m aquis a nd f orests t he T abor o ak i s a ccompanied b y t he s torax t ree a nd i n t he l ower p art b y t he A tlantic t erebinth . B esides d ominated

t he s torax a nd t he A tlantic

a lso

b y

t he

w ild

j ujube

t erebinth t rees ,

t hese a reas a re

( Zizyphus s pina-Christi) a nd

5 1

t he

l otus

230

2 10 300

I

I

-

e Im 290

2 80

-

270

S not Y a '.h I r idg•

l utm lyy. 260

220

2 40

220

200

F ig. 9 :

F loral D istribution i n t he G olan . ( For i dentification o f s pecific f loral a reas , s ee t he d iscussion o n p p. 5 1-52).

5 2

230 2 40

j ujube ( Zizyphus l otus) w hich , a ccording t o D anin , K arschon a nd Z ohar , i nvaded t hese m aquis a nd f orests i n as econdary m anner w here t he f orest h ad -

b een p artially d estroyed a nd i n a n a bsolute m anner w hen t he T abor o aks w ere c ompletely c leared ( for m ore d etails r egarding t his k ind o f i nflux o f t he j ujubes s ee b elow) . 83 T ogether w ith t he T abor o ak t rees t he S colymus maculatus , t he C arlina c orymbosa, t he E chinops G aillardoti, t he G undealia T ournefortii , a nd t he H ordeum I x ilbosum a lso a ppear h ere . A s m entioned a bove ,

t he d eforested a reas t oday c onstitute m ost o f t he

a rea o f t he G olan . O n t he G olan f loral d istribution m ap ( fig . 9 , p . 5 2) , o ne c an s ee t hat t hey c an b e a lso d ivided a ccording t o t he d ivision i nto t wo r egions m entioned p reviously ( A =t he r egion o f m ixed o ak m aquis a nd f orests a nd B

=

t he r egion o f T abor o ak m aquis a nd f orests) ;

p ossible ,

i n t he G olan ,

t hat i s t o s ay ,

i t i s

t o d istinguish a d ivision b etween d eforested m ixed

o ak a reas ( designated A2 o n t he m ap) a nd d eforested T abor o ak a reas ( B2 ) . I n t he d eforested m ixed o ak a reas , a fter t he c utting o f t he c ommon k er t nes o aks , b ushes o f h awthorns ( Crataegus a ronia & C rataegus a zarolus) o f t he P runus u rsina s urvived. T he h awthorn b ushes , which c haracteristic t o t hese a reas , s ucceeded i n s urviving h ere b ecause h awthorn ,

a s i s w ell k nown ,

a nd a nd a re t he

i s d ifficult t o u proot a nd a lso b ecause i t c an

r egenerate i tself i f i ts b ranches c ome i n c ontact w ith t he g round . I n a ddition t o t he b ushes o f h awthorn a nd P runus u rsina , t he f ollowing h erbaceous p lants a lso g row h ere : t he H ypericum c rispum , t he E ryngium c reticun i , t he I talian e chium ( Echium I talicum) , a nd t he G olden t histle o r S panish o yster p lant ( Scolymus h ispanicus) . T he l atter c an b e c onsidered c haracteristic o f t he d eforested m ixed o ak a reas s ince i t i s n ot f ound a t e levations b elow f ive h undred m eters a bove s ea l evel a nd s ince i n d eforested T abor o ak a reas t he S colymus m aculatus g rows i n i ts s tead . T he b ushes w hich d ominate t he d eforested T abor o ak a reas a re t he w ild j ujube ( Zizyphus s pina-Christi) a nd/or t he l otus j ujube ( Zizyphus l otus) . A s m entioned a bove , i t i s g enerally a ssumed t oday t hat t hese t wo k inds o f j ujubes i nvaded t hese a reas a fter t he d estruction o f t he o aks , s ince t he T abor o ak t ree u sually s upresses t he d evelopment o f j ujube b ushes . O n t he w estern r im o f t he G olan , e specially i n t hose l ower s ections o f t he r egion which c ould b e c onsidered p art o f t he R ift V alley, i t i s p ossible t o d istinguish a d ivision b etween d eforested T abor o ak a reas which a re s upplanted m ainly b y l otus j ujubes ( areas m arked B3 o n t he m ap) a nd a reas s upplanted m ainly b y w ild j ujubes ( B4) . I n a ddition t o j ujube t rees a nd b ushes o ne c an f ind , i n t he d eforested T abor o ak a reas, S yrian c ynara ( Cynara s yriaca) , s piny g ermander ( Teucrium s pinosum) a nd t horny e xoacantha ( Exoacantha h eterophylla) which a re a lso , l ike t he S colymus maculatus , c haracteristic o f t hose G olan f ields b elow e levations o f f ive h undred m eters. U ntil n ow , t his d iscussion h as d ealt w ith t he p rinciple a nd f undamental f loral u nits o f t he G olan t oday f rom w hich o ne c an s tudy , a s p reviously s tated , a bout t he f lora o f t he r egion d uring t he p ast . H owever , o ur r eview w ould n ot b e c omplete i f w e d id n ot d evote a f ew w ords t o t wo a dditional , a lthough s mall , f loral r egions i n t he G olan . T hese t wo s ections a lso a ppear o n t he m ap ; t he f irst ( designated B 5) e xtends a long t he s and a nd l imestone e xposures i n t he c liffs a bove t he S ea o f G alilee a nd t he Y armuk R iver a nd i s c haracterized b y b ushes o f b room ( Retama R oetam) a nd s alsola ( Salsola v ermiculata) . T hese t wo k inds o f b ushes a re k nown a s d esert-like a nd t heir e xistence

5 3

i n t his r egion i s , a t f irst g lance , s urprising . U pon c loser e xamination , h owever , i t s eems t hat t he p oor s oil , t he s teep s lopes a nd t he r elatively h igh t emperatures i n t he a rea o f t his s trip c reate , h ere , s omewhat d esertl ike c onditions w hich m ake p ossible t he g rowth o f t hese b ushes . A side f rom b room a nd s alsola i t I s a lso p ossible t o f ind b ushes o f s alvia ( Salvia g raveolens) h ere which a re c haracteristic o f t he d warf b rush o f t he P alestinian a nd S yrian s teppes . I n t he s andy s oils h ere , t he P alestinian a ndrocy r nbiu i n ( Androcymbium p alaestlnum) , w hich i s c ommon i n t he N egev a nd J udean d eserts , a ppears . F inally , t he e xistence h ere o f t he p oterium t horn ( Poterium s pinosum) m ust b e emphasized. T he p oterium t horn i s c haracteristic o f t he l imestone s ections o f P alestine a nd S yria a nd a lmost n on-existent i n b asalt s oils ; t his l ast f act s eems t o b e t he r eason f or i ts r estriction t o t his s ection o f t he G olan . T he s econd a rea ( designated B6 o n t he m ap) i s t he a rea o f t he B utet 1a ( Bethsaida) V alley . T he f act t hat a g reat n umber o f r ivers c arrying l arge q uantities o f s oil a nd s tones d rain i nto t his s mall v alley h as l ed t o t he c reation o f s wamps a nd l agoons , w hich , i n t urn , p rovide a n i deal h abitat f or h ydrophilic f lora . A viva R abinovi d k h as d evoted a s pecial a rticle t o t he B ethsaida V alley h ydrophilic f lora . 04 T herefore w e w ill n ot e laborate o n I t h ere a nd w ill c ontent o urselves w ith e mphasizing t hat i n t he r iver g orges t he d ominant f orms o f v egetation a re t he o leander ( Nerium o leander) , t he s harpened w illow ( Salix a cmophylla) a nd A braham 's b alm ( also k nown a s c haste t ree V itex a gnus-castus) , w hile t he J ussiaea r epens a nd d ifferent k inds o f r eeds a nd p apyrus ( like P hragmites c ommunis , C yperus p apyrus , C yperus -

a lopecuroldes , C yperus p ygmaeus e t a l .) d ominate t he s wamps a nd t he l agoons . I n c onclusion , i t m ust b e e mphasized t hat , r egarding t he f lora o f t he G olan , t here i s ac lear d ivision i nto t wo r egions , d etermined p rimarily b y t he f actor o f t opographical h eight , w hich , a s m entioned i n t he d iscussion o n c limate i n t he G olan i s a lso a n I mportant e lement i n t he s haping o f t he l atter . A s i s w ell k nown , c limate a nd s oil a re t he p rincipal n atural f actors i nfluencing t he f lora i n e very r egion . B ut , w hile i n t he G olan i t i s p ossible t o s ay t hat t he c limatic c onditions w hich v ary f rom n orth a nd e ast t o s outh a nd w est a s a r esult o f d ifferent e levations , e tc . h ave a g reat I nfluence o n t he f lora o f t he r egion , t he d ifferent k inds o f s oil h ave -

-

o nly a m inimal i nfluence o n i t s ince , e xcept f or t he small s trip o f l imestone a nd s and o utcroppings which a ppear o n t he c liffs a bove t he s outhern s hore o f t he S ea o f G alilee a nd t he Y armuk R iver g orge , i t i s h ard t o p inpoint o ther a reas i n t he r egion w here t he f lora I s i nfluenced b y t he q uality o f t he s oil . O n t he c ontrary , u ntil o ur t ime ( when , f or t he f irst t ime s ince t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods , r egulations t o p rotect t he f lora o f t he r egion h ave b een e stablished) , t he h uman f actor h as h ad a m uch g reater i nfluence o n t he f lora a nd i ts d evelopment i n t he G olan t han n atural f actors.

C .

S oil A t t he e nd o f t he s ection o n t he f lora o f t he G olan l t w as s tated t hat

t he v arious t ypes o f s oil i n t he r egion h ave h ad o nly a m inimal e ffect o n t he

d evelopment

o f

i ts

f lora .

T his

f act

s eems

s urprising a t

f irst b ut ,

a fter a c areful e xamination o f t he d ifferences a mong t he v arious t ypes o f G olan s oil t he s urprise i s l essened . A lthough I t i s p ossible t o d istinguish b etween v arious t ypes o f s oil i n t he r egion , t here i s e ssentially o ne s ource f or a ll o f t hem : t he b asalt s tone w hich s erves a s t he b ed f or m ost o f t he s oil-covered a reas o f t he G olan . A s a r esult t he

5 4

d ifferences b etween t he v arious s oil t ypes f ound h ere a re n ot a s d rastic a s t hose e xisting , e .g . , a mong t he s oils o f t he L ower G alilee w here t he s oil b ed o f s ome s ections i s o f b asalt while t hat o f o ther s ections i s o f d ifferent k inds o f l imestone . U sually t he d ifferences a mong t he v arious s oil t ypes i n t he G olan a re e xpressed q uanttatively t hrough t heir c omposition e .g . , t he a bundance o f c lays i n t he s oil o f t he s outhern s ections o f t he G olan a s o pposed t o t he s carcity o f c lays i n t he s oil o f i ts n orthern r egions a nd b y t he -

-

d ifferences i n t he s ize o f t he g rains o f s oil . T hese d ifferences a re t he r esult o f d ifferences i n a ge a nd c omposition b etwen t he " Cover B asalts" s tone a nd t he y ounger b asalts

o f

t he " Golan F ormation" a nd o f r elief

d ifferences e xisting i n t he r egion . H owever , m ore t han a nything e lse , t he d ifferences a mong t he v arious s oil t ypes i n t he G olan a re b rought a bout b y t he d ifferent c limatic c onditions e xisting i n t he v arious r egion .

s ections o f

t he

T his l ast c onclusion h as a lso b een r eached b y Y . D an a nd h is c olleagues o n t he t eam w hich , i n t he l ast e ighteen y ears , s urveyed t he s oils o f G olan a nd w hich w as t he f irst t o p ublish d etailed s oil m aps o f t he r egion . Y . D an , i n a n a rticle which h e p ublished f ollowing t he a bove-mentioned s urvey 86

d eals i n d etail w ith t he s ubject o f s oil c reation p rocesses i n t he

G olan , p rocesses w hich a re a lso i nfluenced m ainly b y c limatic c onditions . W e w ill n ot d eal h ere w ith a n e xamination o f t hese p rocesses a nd t heir s ignificance r egarding t he v arious s oil t ypes b ut w ill p resent , i nstead , a d escription o f t he v arious s oil t ypes e xisting i n t he G olan a nd o utline t heFr a reas o f d istribution . W ith t he a id o f t he s oil d istribution m ap w hich f ollows ( fig . 1 O) ,87 o ne c an s ee t hat t here i s a f undamental d ivision i n t he r egion b etweeh t he s oil t ypes f ound i n t he n orthern a nd e astern s ections o f t he G olan ( types A o n t he m ap) a nd t hose which d ominate i ts w estern a nd s outhern s ections ( types B ) . I n t he n orthern a nd e astern s ections o f t he G olan w here t he t wo a bove-mentioned v olcanic m ound l ines a ppear ( see a bove , p p . 3 6 f f) , w here -

-

t he e levation i s c onsequently t he h ighest i n t he r egion a nd w here t he s lopes a re o riented m ore t oward t he M editerranean ( about t he i mpact t his o rientation h as o n t he c limate o f t he r egion s ee a bove , p p . 3 7 f f) b rown M editerranean s oils d ominate t he u neroded a reas a nd l ithosolic b asaltic s oils t he e roded a reas ( A1 o n t he m ap) . T he s ource o f t hese t wo s oil t ypes i s t he b ed o f t he " Golan F ormation" b asalt f lows w hich h ave g iven t o t hese s ections t heir h illy c onfiguration . I n a reas c loser t o t he v olcanic m ounds t here i s ar ed M editerranean s oil w hich i s ap roduct o f t he m uch f aster a nd m ore f acile l eaching c onditions r esulting f rom t he s teep s lopes o f t he m ounds , w hile t he e roded a reas a nd t he e lopes o f t he m ounds t hemselves a re c overed b y a r egusolic-tuffic s oil w hich i s s imilar i n c haracter t o t he p arent m aterial , t he b rittle t uff ( A2) . A s pecial s oil p henomenon i n t his -

s ection o f t he G olan i s o bserved i n t he Q uneitra V alley w here t here a re b rown M editerranean a lluvial s oils t ogether w ith s oils g enerated b y t he t uff ( A3)

which

c overed

t his

v alley

d uring

' tolan F ormation" p hase ( see a bove , T he

t ypes

o f

s oil

t he

l ast

v olcanic

e ruption

i n

t he

p . 3 6) .

f ound i n t he w estern a nd s outhern s ections o f t he

G olan ( types B o n t he m ap) a re m uch m ore d iversified a s a r esult o f r elief d ifferences ( e.g . , t he e xistence o f d eep r iver g orges a nd c anyons) , d ifferences i n t he a ge o f t he b asalts a nd t he e xistence o f a n on-basaltic

5 5

230

2 10

T

300

I ir 4 c.t * 10

2 10

0

-

260 -

H 250

240

-

r

, v

220

200

F ig. 1 0 :

k

li v s

2 30 2 40

S oil D istribution i n t he G olan . ( For i dentification o f s pecific s oil a reas , s ee t he d iscussion o n p p. 5 5-57).

5 6

b ed i n c ertain s ections w hich w ill b e d iscussed l ater . D espite t he g reat v ariety o f s oils e xisting h ere , o ne c an s ee f rom t he m ap t hat t he m ost c ommon t ypes o f s oil i n t he b asaltic p rotogrumusols a reas ( B 1) .

G olan w estern a nd s outhern s ections a re

i n e roded

a reas

a nd

b rown

g rumusols

i n u neroded

T he " Cover B asalts" a nd t he b asalts o f t he " Golan F ormation" , i nterspersed t hroughout t he a rea , s erve a s b eds f or t hese t ypes o f s oils . H owever t he g reater a bundance o f t he " Cover B asalts" h ere g ives t hese s oils t heir l arger p ercentage o f c lay , r elative t o t he s oil t ypes o f t he n orthern a nd e astern s ections o f t he G olan w here t he s oil b ed c onsists p rimarily o f " Golan F ormation" b asalt f lows . A t ype o f s oil v ery s imilar t o t he f ormer i s t hat w hich a ppears o n t he h eights a nd t he l ower b asaltic s teppes w hich s urround t he B utefha ( Bethsaida) V alley ( B2) . T his s oil i s a b asaltic p rotogrumusol i n e roded a reas b ut h as b rown-red b asaltic g rumusols i n n one roded a reas a s a r esult o f t he l eaching c onditions b eing m ore h ere t han i n t hose a reas w here t he f ormer t ype ( B1) a ppears . O n t he s teep b asaltic

s lopes

i n t he n orth a nd c enter o f

f avorable

t he w estern

s ections o f t he G olan o ne c an f ind b asaltic p rotogrumusols a nd l ithosols ( B 3 ) while o n t he s lopes i n t he s outhern p art o f t he w estern r im o f t he G olan a nd o n i ts s outhern r im a bove t he Y armuk R iver g orge l ight r endzinas ( B 4 )a ppear . T he d ifferences b etween t hese t wo s oil t ypes , which a re c haracteristic o f t he w estern a nd s outhern r ims a nd s lopes o f t he G olan , h ave t o d o w ith t he f act t hat t he s ource o f t he s oil t ype B3 i s b asaltic w hereas t ype B4 i s c reated o n t he s and , c halk a nd l imestone o utcroppings o f t he E ocene-Miocene p eriods w hich a re k nown t oday a s t he o utcroppings o f t he " ! Ffq F ormation" , " S stta F ormation" , ' tin G ev F ormation ' . ' , " Herod F ormation" a nd " Cesher F ormation" ( see a bove , p . 3 5) . I t m ust b e e mphasized t hat i n t he a reas o f s oil t ype B4 , w here t here a re b asalt o utcroppings ( most o f t hem f rom t he " Cover B asalts" p hase) , t he l ight r endzinas a re a ccompanied b y b asaltic p rotogrumusols . C oncluding t his v ariety o f s oil t ypes i n t he s outhern a nd s outhwestern r ims o f t he G olan , a m ixture o f a lluvialc olluvial s oil t ogether w ith b rown s oil a nd g rumusols a ppears i n t he u neroded a reas a nd t he s ame m ixture , t ogether w ith t he l ight r endzinas i n t he e roded a reas ( B5). Y .

D an e xplains

t he e xistence o f

t his

m ixture

i n t hese a reas b y

r elating i t t o t he e xisting r emains o f t erraces h ere " whose s ource c an b e t raced , a pparently , t o t he h igher l evels 8% f t he J ordan V alley a t t he b eginning o f t he P leistocene p eriod" . T his e xplanation c an b e c onfirmed c um g rano s alis f rom t he g eneral d ate w hich D an g ives t o t hose t errace r emains b y s tudying t he m ost r ecent g eological m ap o f t he s outhern Golan published b y H . chelson i n h is work -

-

-

-

T he H ydrogeology o f t he S outhern G olan H eights a fter t he a rticle b y Y . D an .

H .

w hich a ppeared

t wo y ears

P hysical-Geographical S ubdivision o f t he G olan W e

o pened

t he

p hysical-geographical

r eview

o f

t his

r egion w ith

t he

q uestion : I s t he G olan i tself a p hysical-geographical u nit? I n a nswer t o t his q uestion i t h as b een e mphasized t hat, b ased o n c limatic d ata , t he h ydrography a nd t he f lora o f t he G olan , w e t ended t o v iew i t a s a n i ndependent p hysical-geographical u nit a nd i n t he s ame c ontext w e a lso e mphasized t hat a p hysical-geographical s ubdivision w as p ossible ( see a bove , p . 3 1) . N ow, a fter r eviewing t he n atural b oundaries o f t he G olan , i ts

5 7

g eology , g eomorphology , c limate , h ydrography , f lora a nd s oil , as ubdivision o f t he r egion i nto p hysical-geographical s ub-units i s r equired . S uch a s ubdivision

s hould t ake i nto c onsideration t he d ifferences e xisting a mong

t he v arious p hysical-geographical c omponents o f t he r egion . A f ew s cholars h ave a lready t ried t o s truggle w ith t he p roblem o f s uch a s ub4 iision , a mong E nbar , A .J . B rawer ,

i ese i t i Y . Z iv ,

2w orth

d iscussi»

a nd Z .

G olan i nto n ine d ifferent r egions :

1 )

I lan . '3

t he s ubdivisions o f M . M . E nbar d ivides t he

T he F oothills o f t he H ermon

-

a

r egion w hich i ncludes i n i ts u pper s ection t he b asin o f W df S a 'ar a nd t he l ower p arts o f t he J ubata a nd S iôn R ivers ( all t hree a re t ributaries o f N ahr B ani s) a nd i n i ts l ower s ection t he s prings o f B ani s a nd D an . A ccording t o E nbar , " the p henomena c haracterize t his r egion a re : a ) B irket Ri n , b ) t he l arge s prings i n i ts l ow f looding a ction o f Wd1 S a 'ar" ;

s ection a nd c ) t he w aterfalls a nd t he 2 ) T he B asins o f t he H uleh R ivers t he -

h igh r egion w hich s lopes t oward t he H uleh V alley c haracterized , a ccording t o E nbar , 3r: " the c anyons a nd waterfalls o f t he r ivers f lowing i nto t he H uleh" ; 3 ) T he V olcanic C inder C ones ar egion which i ncludes t he h igher s ection o f t he b asaltic h eight w here t here a re a b? t s ixty v olcanic 4 ) T he B asins m ounds w hich a re " the e lement c haracterizing t his u nit" ;7 -

0

o f t he B utefia R ivers W df Y ahüdiyye ,

-

ar egion w hich i ncludes t he b asins o f Wd

W df e d-D liyye a nd W df S heikh ' Ah.

e l-Haw,

A ccording t o E nbar ,

" the e lements c haracterizing t his u t a re t he m aquis o f t he Y ah i Idiyye r egion a nd t he p ools i n t he r ivers" ; 5 ) T he S outhern G olan t he h igh b asaltic p lain r egion w hich s tretches o n e ither s ide o f t he R aftd F tq -

-

r oad . " The p lain-like c har gter a nd t he d eep s oil c over a re t he e lements c haracterizing t his r egion" ; 6 ) T he R uqqäd a nd t he Y armuk t he c anyons -

o f t hese r ivers w hich a re c haracterized b y " the s teep c liffs a nd c arpments d escending f rom t he s outhern h eight i nto t he r iver g orge" ; 7 ) The K inneret C liffs t he r egion o f t he e scarpment o n t he e astern s hore o f t he S ea o f G alilee a nd t he e scarpments o f t he S emakh a nd E in G ev R iver g orges ; -

8 )

T he B utetba V alley

c haracterized b y l agoons a nd s wamps;

-

9 )

The

C anyon G orge o f t he J ordan t he r egion o f t he J ordan g orge b etween J acob 's F ord ( Bnot Y a 'akov B ridge) a nd t he m outh o f t he J ordan a t t he n orthern e nd -

o f t he S ea o f G alilee . A ccording t o E nbar , " The e lements c haracterizing t his r egion a re t he r iver b anks which o verflow a nnually a nd w hich a re u sually c overed w ith t hroughout t he c ountry ." E nbar 's

d ivision ,

e r

f lora

f or t he

c haracteristic

most p art ,

o f

d oes n ot

r iver

l andscapes

s tand u p

t o c lose

s crutiny f or t he f ollowing r easons: 1 ) I n t he r egion o f T he F oothills o f t he H ermon , h e i ncludes t he D an s prings a nd t heir a rea w hich a re i n t he m iddle o f t he R ift V alley .

W ithout a d oubt ,

t he s prings

a re n ot l ocated i n t he G olan a nd c onsequently h ave n o c onnection w ith a d ivision o f t hat r egion . 2 ) I n t he s ame r egion E nbar a lso i ncludes ' ‚ the l ower p arts o f t he J ubata a nd S iôn R ivers" ; b y r eferring t o a m ap o f t he r egion , o ne I mmediately s ees t hat t his a rea i s ap art o f t he H ermon m assif . T his a rea i s n orth o f W ddf S a 'ar which , a s m entioned a bove ( p . 3 1) , i s a c lear n atural b order b etween t he H ermon m assif n orth o f t he r iver a nd t he G olan s outh o f i t . 3 ) F rom w hat h as b een s aid t h j . i 1f ar a nd f rom e xamining E nbar 's p hysiographic d ivision m ap o f t he G olan i t i s c lear t hat, i n f act , m ost o f t he a rea o f t he r egion w hich h e n amed T he F oothills o f t he H ermon b elongs t o t he H ermon m assif a nd s hould n ot b e i ncluded i n t he G olan . 4 ) T he b oundary l ine d rawn b y E nbar b etween t he r egion w hich h e n ames T he V olcanic C inder C ones a nd t he r egions t o t he w est o f i t i s ,

i n o ur o pinion ,

a n a rbitrary l ine b ecause i t i s b ased n either o n f loral r egion b oundaries n or o n b oundaries o f s oil d istribution r egions n or o n a u niform l ine o f

5 8

e levation n or o n b oundary l ines o f p recipitation . a rbitrary , a reas c ontaining v olcanic mounds a re b oundaries o f t he r egion w hose c harac a re , ' ! of c ourse , t he v olcanic m ounds ."

S ince t his l ine i s p laced o utside t he

istic e lements , a ccording t o E nbar , 5 ) D esignating t he c anyon-gorge

o f t he J ordan a s a n i ndependent p hysical - g eographical u nit w ithin t he G olan b orders o n t he a bsurd b ecause , b y t he s ame t oken , t he J ordan g orge c ould b e c onsidered a n i ndependent p hysical-geographical u nit w ithin t he G alilee . S ince i t i s c ustomary t o v iew t he J ordan g orge a s an atural b oundary b etween t he G alilee a nd t he G olan ,

i t c annot b e v iewed a s a n i ndependent p hysical-

g eographical u nit o f e ither r egion . 6 ) r egarding t he Y armuk a nd e r-Ruqq d g orges .

T he s ame t hing c an b e s aid T hese t wo g orges r epresent t he

b order b etween t he G olan a nd t he G ilead a nd t he B ashan P lain r espectively . T herefore , i n c onstructing a d ivision o f t he G olan , t heir d eep, n arrow g orges c annot b e v iewed a s i ndependent p hysical-geographical u nits w ithin t he G olan .

7 ) E nbar 's o utlook ,

a ccording t o w hich " the r iver b anks w hich

o verflow a nnually a nd which a re u sually c overed w ith r iver f lora c haracteristic o f r iver l andscapes t hroughout t he c ountry" a re " elements c haracterizing a r egion" ( In t his c ase t he r egion w hich h e n ames T he C anyon G orge o f t he J ordan) , i s n ot o nly u nacceptable t o u s b ut a lso a ppears t o l ead t o a bsurd s ubdivisions . B y t his m ethod , t he a rea o f t he G olan , w hich i s s liced b y m any d eep c anyon r ivers , c ould b e d ivided i nto d ozens o f i ndependent p hysical-geographical u nits . T o c onclude t he d iscussion o f E nbar 's d ivision o f t he G olan , h is o utlook , a ccording t o which t he W d S a 'ar b asin a nd t he g orges o f t he J ordan , t he Y armuk a nd t he er-R uqqId R ivers a re v iewed a s i ndependent p hysical-geographical u nits

w ithin t he G olan ,

i s u nacceptable t o u s .

W e

a lso d isagree w ith t he b orders E nbar d raws b etween t he V olcanic C inder C ones r egion a nd t he r egions w est o f i t . A s f or E nbar 's d istinction a mong t he r egions which h e n ames T he S outhern G olan , T he K inneret C liffs, T he B asins o f t he H uleh R ivers a nd T he B asins o f t he B utefha R ivers a nd h is d etermination o f t he B utefha V alley a s a n i ndependent p hysical-geographical u nit ,

w e f ind t hese d ivisions m ore o r l ess a cceptable a nd w ill d iscuss t hem

f urther i n t he s ection s ubdivision o f t he G olan .

o f

t his

c hapter

d ealing

with

t he

s uggested

D ifferent f rom t he o utlook a nd c ontent o f E nbar 's d ivision a re t he d ivisions o f B rawer , Z iv a nd Ila n , who a ll d ivide t he G olan i nto t wo s ections .

A ccording t o B rawer ,

" In t he G olan o ne h as t o d istinguish b etween

t wo s ections w hich a re d ifferent f rom e ach o ther , u pper a nd l ower . T he b order b etween t he i 0 s a c ontinuation o f t he b orderline b etween t he U pper a nd L ower G alilee" . F urther o n h e w rites , " The N orthern G olan i s h igh a nd r ocky a reas a re n umerous, t he S outhern i s l ow a nd i ts s oil i s s oft, f ertile a nd a rable l ike o n a p lain ... T he S outhern G olan , o nly a bout 1 m . i n h eight , i s ac ontinuation o n t he f amous g rain s oil o f t he B ashan ." Z iv 10 a rticle

O

i ho c learly h ad B rawer 's b ook i n f ront o f h im w hen h e w rote h is i s " improving" u pon B rawer's d ivision a nd w rites : T he G olan H eight 's s lope ,

a s n oted p reviously ,

i n g entle

s teps f rom N orth t o S outh ... b ut , t o o ne w ho o bserves i t f rom t he o ther s ide o f t he R ift V alley , t he m ounds l ine s eems, f rom a d istance , l ike a m uch h igher s tep T herefore ,

a d ivision

i nto

t wo

l andscape

u nits

i s

r equired h ere , U pper G olan i n t he N orth a nd L ower G olan I n t he S outh , t erminology w hich F lavius a lready e mployed T he b order b etween t he t wo s ections i s t he l ine w hich

5 9

s tretches f rom t he R afid i ntersection i n t he E ast t o B not Y a 'akov B ridge i n t he W est . I t i s i nteresting t hat t his b order a ppears , m ore o r l ess , a t t he s ame l atitude a s t he l ine w hich d ivides t he U pper f rom t he L ower G alilee ( Lat . 2 60) w est o f t he R ift V alley b ut i n t he G olan t he -

-

t ransition i s n ot s o a pparent o r a cute a s i t i s b etween t he t wo p arts o f t he G alilee . T his l ine c an b e s een I n t he o utstanding t ransition b etween t he t wo f loral r egions c ommon o ak I n t he U pper G olan a nd T abor o ak i n t he L ower . O n t his l ine , n umerous s prings , a lso i ssue f orth -

O n t he u pper r eaches o f t he H eight , b etween t he U pper a nd t he L ower G olan , t here i s a s trip a f ew k ilometers i n w idth w hich s tretches f rom S an ber ... t o N ahr e r-Ruqq d i n w hich t here a re i nnumerable s p ggs w hose w aters f low i nto t he r iver b eds a ll y ear l ong . Ila n , who a ttempts t o I mprove u pon t he d ivisions o f b oth B rawer a nd Z iv , a pproaches t he i ssue o f t he G olan d ivision w ith t he i ntention o f d etermining " the m eaning o f t he i nternal d ivision" o f t i6 7 r egion i nto U pper a nd L ower G olan f ound i n t he writings o f J osephus . A t t he b eginning o f h is a rticle I lan t ries t o e stablish t he c onclusion t hat , r egarding t he G alilee a nd H ebron M ountains , t he r egion w hich i s r eferred t o i n t he s ources a s t he U pper i s t he n orthern f t a nd t hat r eferred t o a s t he l ower i s t he s outhern p art o f t hat r egion . e xact

b oundaries

o f

A lthough I t I s n ot o ur c oncern t o e xamine t he t hose

r egions

which

t he

s ources

r efer

t o

a s

U pper G alilee , L ower G alilee , U pper D arom , L ower D arom a nd U pper E domea , i t i s n ecessary t o d iscuss t he w ay i n w hich I lan a ttempts t o l ay t he g round f or h is c onclusion w hich h e l ater u ses t o d raw t he a nalogy t hat w hen J osephus w rote U pper G olan h e m eant t he N orthern G olan a nd w hen h e w rote L ower G olan h e w as r eferring t o t he S outhern G olan . A t t he b eginning o f h is d iscussion Ila n r efers t o qf d ivision o f t he G alilee w hich a ppears i n t he M ishnah S hevl 'Ith , 9 :12 . R egarding t he d ivision o f t he G alilee i n t he s ources , t here c an b e I ndeed n o d oubt t hat t he t erm U pper G alilee r efers t o t he N orthern G alilee w hile t he t erm L ower G alilee r efers t o t he S outhern G alilee . B oth t he a bove-mentioned M ishnah r eference a nd t he r eferences t o U pper a nd L ower G alilee I n J osephus ( especially t he a ccount o f t he G alilee i n B .J . I II , 3 5-39 , w hich I lan d oes n ot m ention a t a ll) c onfirm t his c onclusI? 1 o n t he G alilee , I lan w rites t he f ollowing : F rom t he T almudic

H owever , a fter h is d iscussion

l iterature w e k now

t hat

t here w as a

' Lower D arom ' a nd a n ' U pper D arom ' , w hich w ere a pparently ( emphasis m ine) s ections o f Mount Hebron ( I an 's emphasis) whose a rea I s k nown i n t he a ncient J ewish l iterature a nd I n E useblus ... a s ' Daroma ' , ' the s outh ' . I n J osephus t here a re n ot U pper a nd L ower D arom ( emphasis m ine) ,

b ut h e m entions t he ' Upper E dom ' .

I ndeed t he

n ame E dom ( Edomea) f or M ount H ebron i s k nown a lso f rom t he B ooks o f M accabees a nd t he r egion was c alled s o b ecause o f t he E domean s ettlers w ho o ccupied I t a fter i ts J ewish i nhabitants

w ere e xiled

t o B abylon .

T he

‚ U pper

D arom ' was a pparently ( emphasis m ine) t he a rea o f t he h eight o f M ount H ebron w hile t he ‚ L ower D arom ' w as t he s lopes o f t his m ountain t o t he S outh a nd W est ( emphasis m ine) . I n b oth r egions , G alilee a nd M ount H ebron , t he U pper p art i s t he N orthern w hile t he Lo we r i s t he S outhern

6 0

( emphasis m ine).

T he c onclusion g iven i n t he l ast s entence a bove i s c orrect o nly r egarding t he G alilee . I lan h imself n ot o nly f ails t o p rove h is c onclusion r egarding Mount H ebron , b ut a lso i ndicates r eservations a bout t his c onclusion b y w riting ' apparently" t wice a nd b y m entioning t hat t he L ower D arom " was t he s lopes o f t his m ountain t o t he S outh a nd W est" ( emphasis m ine) . S . K lein , who u ntil n ow h as b een t he o nly s cholar who h as s eriously d ealt w ith a ll o f t he d etails c onnected w ith t he i ssue o f i dentifying U pper D arom , L ower D raom a nd U pper E dom , c omes t o t he f ollowing c onclusions : ( a) E dom = D arom = m ost o f t he a rea o f t he L and o f J udea ; ( b) U pper D arom = U pper E dom = t he m ountain r egion o f t he D arom , i .e . J udean M ou f 1F ins ; ( c) L ower D arom = t he S hefelah k nown t oday a s S hefelat Y ehuda . T hese c onclusions b y K lein a re a cceptable t o u s . T he l atter t wo f it i n t he c ommon g eomorphological s ubdivision o f t he L and o f J udea i nto l ongitudinal s trips e xtending f rom N orth t o S outh : t he S hefelah i n t he est , t he J udean M ountains i n t he c enter a nd t he J udean D esert i n t he E ast . A fter " laying t he g roundwork" f or t he c onclusion i n t he i ntroduction o f h is a rticle , I lan , u nder t he h eading ' sections o f t he G olan' d eals w ith t he p roblem o f i dentifying t he t hree s lements w hich J osephus m entions e xisting if t çt h a nd J ulias J )

1

p per G olan ( Sogane

)and

i n t he L ower G olan ( Gamala

•

W e d o n ot i ntend t o e nter i nto a d iscussion o f a ll t he d etails r egarding t he i ssue o f i dentifying t hese s ettlements h ere , s ince t his m atter i s t aken u p e lsewhere i n t his w ork ( see b elow , p p . 1 20 f f) . H owever , w e w ill o nly e mphasize t hat t he c onclusions o f I lan o n t his i ssue a re a lso u nacceptable t o u s . I n t he c ontinuation o f C onditions" ,

t he a rticle ,

u nder

t he h eading " Di fferences

o f

Ila n r elies o n B rawer 's d ivision q uoted a bove ( p . 5 8) a nd a dds :

R egarding t he d ifferences o f t he c onditions , p erhaps i t i s p ermitted t o c onstruct a p araphrase o f t he w ords o f t he M ishnah , t he

f orest

b ased i n p rinciple o n w hat i s k nown a bout

f lora o f

t he G olan :

'

W heresoever T abor

o ak

g rows L ower G olan , a nd w heresoever T abor o ak d oes n ot g row U pper G olan ' . What i s d iscussed h ere a re t he f orests o f T abor o ak e xisting i n t he s outhern G olan a nd -

-

t he i ntention

i ñ jlot

t o e xceptional t rees which a re ,

p erhaps u nusual.

A lthough Ian 's p araphrase c ould b e i nterpreted a s f itting i nto o ur s uggested d ivision o f t he G olan ( see e specially t he d iscussion i n p age 6 4) , w e

m ust e mphasize t hat Ila n ,

t he works o f D anin , m entioned a bove ,

b ased o n t he w orks

T abor o aks ( and n ot 1 s ection o f t he G olan . F urther

f ollowing t he p araphrase ,

i n curately c ites

K arschon a nd Z ohar a s r eferences . o f t hese s cholars ,

A s we h ave

a l arge f orest o f

x ceptional t rees") e xists a lso i n t he n orthwest

a long i n t he a rticle Ila n w rites ,

a rticle b y E nbar :

6 1

b ased o n t he a bove-menioned

A lthough t he d ifferences b etween t he s outhern a nd n orthern G olan w ere s urveyed , i t m ust b e s tated t hat i n g eneral t he s outhern Golan i s, a t l east i n t he t ransitional r egion , a c ontinuation o f t he n orthern G olan . T he s outhward s lope I s g radual a nd n ot s teep ( as i t i s b etween t he U pper a nd L ower G alilee) . T he d ifference b etween t he t wo r egions i s m ost o bvious a t t he s outhern e dge o f t he s outhern G olan o n t he p lains o f t he e astern a nd w ester awiyeh ' w hich a re m uch l ess r ocky a nd l ack v olcanoes .

I n h is c onclusion h e w rites : F rom w hat w e h ave c onsidered s o f ar , i t s eems t hat t he L ower G olan w as t he r egion f rom N a al D ab * ira s outhward , i ncluding t he e astern K inneret , t he r egion o f t he r iver b asins o f t he B ethsaida ( Butef a) V alley a nd t he K inneret , a nd t he p lains o f t he S outh . T he U pper G olan i ncluded e H uleh r iver b asins f rom N ahal D ab j Ira n orthward.

We h ave n o d oubt t hat t he w ell-known m Ishnah " . . .from K efar H anania u pwards , w heresoever s ycamores d o n ot g row , i s U pper G alilee ; f rom 1 f ar I anania d ownwards , wheresoever s ycamores g row , i s L ower G alilee ... a s w ell a s t he r eferences o f J osephus t o U pper G alilee , L ower G alilee , U pper G olan a nd L ower G olan l ed Ila n , z iv , a nd p ossibly B rawer a lso , t o d ivide t he G olan i n aw ay w hich s eems t o u s n ot o nly w ithout f oundation b ut a lso f orced ; t hat i s , a pplying t he f ormula t hat e quates t he U pper G olan w ith t he N orthern G olan a nd t he L ower G olan w ith t he S outhern G olan . F rom J osephus o ne c annot d etermine w hat p art o f t he G olan i s b eing r eferred t o w hen h e w rites U pper G olan o r L ower G olan . H is s tatement t hat S ogane w as i n t he U pper G olan a nd t hat G amala a nd J ulias w ere i n t he L ower G olan123 d oes n ot a ssist u s i n d etermining t he e xact b oundaries o f t he t wo G olan r egions , s ince o nly t he s uggested i dentifications o f G amala a nd J ulias a re a ccepted w hile a ll t he s uggested i dentifications o f S ogane a re d oubtfuL 1 24 F rom c lear ,

t he M ishnah S hevi 'ith 9 :2 a nd1

a s

S .

K lein h as p ointed

o ut,

e T osefta S hevi 'ith 7 , t hat

l Of i t i s

w henever a ncient

J ewish

P alestinian s ources d ivided r egions i n P alestine i nto U pper a nd L ower , t hey w ere r eferring , u sually , t o t he h igher a nd l ower p arts o f t hat r egion a nd n ot n ecessarily t o t he n orthern a nd s outhern p arts . K lein , i n h is b ook T he L and o f t he G alilee , e xamined d ifferent a ccounts o f t he G alilee a ppearing i n J osephus a nd p roved t hat d ifferent J ewish P alestinian w ritings w ere t he s ources f rom w hich J osephus d erived h is a ccounts o f t he G alilee .1 26 T herefore , i t i s v ery p ossible t hat when J osephus w rote U pper G olan h e w as r eferring t o t he h igher e levations o f t he G olan a nd n ot n ecessarily t o i ts n orthern p art a nd w hen h e w rote L ower G olan h e w as r eferring t o i ts l ower e levations a nd n ot n ecessarily t o i ts s outhern p art . T his p ossibility d oes n ot c ontradict t he s uggested i dentifications o f G amala a nd J ulias w hich a re g enerally a ccepted t oday .127 h aving r eviewed t he G olan d ivisions o f E nbar , B rawer , Z iv a nd Ila n ,

2 8

c onducting a c ritical

e xamination

o f

t heir

w orks

a nd

a lso

d iscussing b riefly t he f act t hat J osephus m entions i n h is writings t he e xistence o f a n U pper a nd L ower G olan ,

6 2

w e m ust n ow l ay b efore t he r eader a

2 00

2 20 H

BAN AS

2 40

‚ '-

I

S I

M O N

N K T RA M

2 90 H V

2 80

—

L J

.

KAFI

t. 5 01 . *

A

NAFAKN

2 70 A

A

O IS r nN •

. .. '

0

2 80

A

RA ND S

T ILL I LJOKHAD I

:

GA

ALA

: z . . . . . .

A

K H ISF IN

.

2 50

.

S AN N

S StTA

J AULAN

2 40 RM UK

IA M MA OADI f t

GI L

2 10

F ig.

1:

V

I

CA D 2 30

D .U .

S uggested P hysiographical S ubdivision o f t he G olan .

6 3

s uggested p hysiographical s ubdivision , b ased o n t he d ata p resented i n t his c hapter . I n o rder t o s implify t he d iscussion , w e p resent a m ap o f t he r egion o n w hich t he b oundaries o f t he s uggested p hysiographical s ubdivision h ave b een d rawn ( fig .

1,

p .

6 3) .

R eferences t o t his m ap w ill s how t hat , f irst o f a ll , w e t end t o d ivide t he G olan i nto t wo r egions : U pper G olan a nd L ower G olan . W e c onsider t he b oundary b etween t he t wo r egions t o l ie a t a n e levation o f 5 00 i n . O ur a rguments f or d rawing t he b oundary l ine a t t his e levation a re t he f ollowing : ( a) T he 5 00 i n . e levation i s a c lear d ivision b etween t he t wo m ain f loral r egions i n t he G olan . I t s eparates t he r egion o f m ixed ( common a nd k ermes) o ak m aquis a nd f orests f rom t he r egion o f T abor o ak m aquis a nd f orests ( see f loral d istribution m ap , f ig . 9 , p . 5 2) . I t m ust b e s tressed , a s m entioned a bove, t hat o n t his l ine t he G olden t histle ( or S panish o yster p lant = S colymus h ispanicus) , w hich i s c haracteristic t o t he d eforested a reas o f m ixed o ak , i s r eplaced b y t he S colymus M aculatus w hich i s c haracteristic t o t he d eforested a reas o f t he T abor o ak ; 5 00

i n.

( b)

A long m ost o f i ts

l ength t he

e levation i s a lso t he b asic b order b etween t he d ifferent t ypes o f

s oil i n t he G olan ( see s oil d istribution m ap , f ig . 1 0 , p . 5 6) ; ( c) T he d ifferences i n f lora a nd s oil t ypes t hat w e f ind o n t he t wo s ides o f t he 5 00 i n . e levation o riginate n ot o nly f rom a d ifference i n e levation b ot a lso f rom c limatic d ifferences w hich e xist o n e ither s ide o f t his l ine ( the s ource o f t he l atter , o f c ourse , l ays i n d ifferences o f e levation) . I ndeed , r eference t o t he m aps o f a nnual a verage r ainfall ( fig . 3 , p . 4 1) a nd a nnual a verage t emperatures i n t he G olan ( fig .

2 ,

p .

3 9) w ill s how

t hat t he

b oundary l ines o f t emperature a nd a mount o f r ainfall w hich a ppear o n t hose m aps l ie m ore o r l ess p arallel t o t hat l ine o f e levation ; ( d) F rom t he g eological a nd g eomorphological a spects , t his l ine c an b e s een a s ab oundary b etween t he a rea i n w hich t he v olcanic m ounds a ppear ( Upper G olan ) a nd t he a rea w here t he r upture l ines t hat r esulted f rom t he s inking p rocess o f t he R ift V alley a ppear ( Lower G olan ) .

1 29

I n t he U pper G olan , w hich c an a lso b e r eferred t o a s t he E astern G olan , w e s ee o ne e ntire p hysiographical u nit a nd w e c an f ind n o j ustification f or d ividing t hat a rea i nto s maller u nits . O n t he o ther h and , i n o ur o pinion , t he L ower G olan c an b e d ivided i nto t he f ive f ollowing s ub-units ( the n umbers c orrespond t o t hose o n t he m ap i n f ig . 1, p . 6 3) : 1 ) T he S lopes o f t he L ower G olan D escending t o t he H uleh V alley ; 2 ) T he C enter o f t he L ower G olan ; 3 ) T he S outhern L ower G olan ; E astern S hore o f t he S ea o f G alilee .

4 ) T he B ethsaida V alley; 5 ) T he F ollowing a re o ur r easons f or t his

d ivision , p resented t hrough a d iscussion o f t he c haracteristics o f e ach s ubu nit. 1 )

T he S lopes o f t he L ower G olan D escending t o t he H uleh V alley :

T his

r egion d iffers f rom t he o ther s ub-units o f t he L ower G olan i n i ts m orphology . T his r egion i s c omposed e ntirely o f s lopes c left b y t he g orges a nd c anyons o f t he r ivers d escending t o t he H uleh V alley . W e c onsider i ts s outhern b oundary t o b e t he g orge o f W adi D ab ra w hose m outh o pens o nto t he s outhern e dge o f t he k l uleh V alley . t his r egion i s h omogeneous , d istribution m ap ,

f ig . 9 ,

p .

I t m ust b e e mphasized t hat t he f lora o f

c haracterized b y t he L otus j ujubes ( see f loral 5 2) .

•2 ) T he C enter o f t he L ower G olan : T he b oundaries o f t his s ub-unit r esult f rom t he d etermination o f b oundaries f or t he r est o f t he L ower G olan s ub-units f or w hich t here a re c lear d ivisions . I n f act t his i s t he c entral a rea o f t he L ower G olan w here t here i s a v ariety o f s oil a nd f loral t ypes c haracteristic t o t he L ower G olan . M ost o f t he a rea i s c left b y n umerous

6 4

r iver g orges d escending t o t he B ethsaida V alley .

T he c left n ature o f t his

r egion h as c aused a nd c ontinues t o c ause s oil e rosion a nd , i ndeed , t his r egion h as p oor s oil r elative t o i ts n eighboring u nit t o t he s outh , w hich w e h ave d esignated t he S outhern L ower G olan . 3 ) T he S outhern L ower G olan : M ost o f t he a rea o f t his r egion ( except f or t he s lopes d escending t o Wad i e r-Ruqq d , W dt M as 'a i id a nd t he Y armuk R iver t o t he S outh ,

t he S ea o f G alilee i n t he W est a nd W d

e s-Sam .k I n t he

N orth w hich , t ogether w ith t he 5 00 i n . e levation i n t he N orth a nd E ast , f orm t he b oundaries o f t he S outhern L ower G olan , i n o ur v iew) , i s p lain-like a nd h as a c ontinuous d eep s oil c over . I ts r elatively l evel t errain a nd i ts -

-

d eep s oil c over d istinguish t his u nit f rom t he o ther s ub-units o f t he L ower G olan . I t m ust a lso b e e mphasized t hat , d espite t he l ighter r ainfall i n t his u nit ( annual a verage o f a pproximately 4 50-550 mm .) , t his r egion w s a lways s ettle a nd c ultivated i ntensively . T he e vidence c an b e s een i n t he f act t hat s ome o f t he l argest v illages i n t he G olan , l ike K hisftn , e l'Al a nd F 1q , h ave l ong b een e stablished h ere . 4 )

B ethsaida V alley :

T his v alley d iffers f rom o ther a reas o f t he L ower

G olan i n t hat i ts f lora a nd m orphology a re u nique t o t he G olan . W e h ave a lready emphasized a bove ( p . 5 4) t hat t he p resence o f ag reat n umber o f r ivers ,

c arrying l arge q uantities o f s oil a nd s tones ,

a nd d raining i nto t his

s mall v alley , h as l ed t o t he c reation o f s wamps a nd l agoons h ere w hich , I n t urn , p rovide a n i deal h abitat f or h ydrophilic f lora . F rom a g eographical a spect , p erhaps t he B ethsaida V alley s hould b e r emoved f rom w ithin t he b oundaries o f t he G olan a nd b e i ncluded ,

r ather ,

i n t he c omplex o f t he R ift

V alley . B ut t he f act t hat t his v alley i s s urrounded o n t he N orth , E ast a nd , t o ag reat e xtent , o n t he S outh b y t he L ower G olan s lopes w as o ur r eason f or I ncluding i t i n t he g eographical f ramework o f t he G olan . 5 ) T he E astern S hore o f t he S ea o f G alilee : T his a rea a lso d iffers f rom t he r est o f t he L ower G olan u nits i n t erms o f m orphology a nd f lora . I ts b oundaries a re ,

i n t he N orth ,

W df K anaf ,

i n t he E ast ,

e levation

-

1 50

m . , a nd I n t he W est , t he w aterline o f t he S ea o f G alilee . I n t he S outh i t i s d ifficult t o d etermine a b oundary f or t his u nit s ince , a s w ith t he B ethsaida V alley , t he p ossibility o f I ncluding i ts e ntire a rea w ithin t he b oundaries o f t he G olan i s d oubtful . H owever , w e t end t o i nclude i t g eographically i n t he G olan b ecause m ost o f b oundaries o f t he s lopes o f t he L ower G olan .

i ts a rea i s s till w ithin t he I ndeed , e xcept f or t he s hore

o f t he S ea o f G alilee , t he s lopes o f t he L ower G olan h ills c haracterize t his a rea f rom a m orphological a spect . I n t erms o f f lora , w e f ind , i n t his s ub-unit , t wo g roups o f f lora w hich , w hile d ifferent f rom e ach o ther a ppear a lmost e xcly T he f irst f lora g roup i s t he K inneret s hore f lora

vely i n t his a rea . a nd t he s econd i s

c haracterized b y p lants w hich g row i n d esert-like c onditions , l ike R etama R oetam , S alsola v ermiculata , S alvia G raveolens a nd t he P alestinian a ndrocymbium ( see a bove , pp. 5 3-54) . F inally , w e a gain e mphasize t hat w e s uggest a t wofold d ivision f or t he G olan i nto t wo r egions: U pper G olan a nd L ower G olan . T he U pper G olan ( meaning t he h igher G olan ) c an a lso b e c alled t he E astern G olan , L ower i ncludes t he w estern a nd s outhern p arts o f t he G olan .

6 5

w hile t he

F OOTNOTES T O C HAPTER T WO 1 .

F or a d iscussion o f t he B iblical n ame 'ashan" , 3 .

2 .

F or

a d iscussion

G olan , s ee a bove ,

o f

a p roposed

p hysiographical

2 5 n ote

p .

s ubdivision

o f

t he

6 2-65.

p p.

3 .

D anin , T VG , p . 1 62; E nbar , P UG . p . 1 58 ; S chulman , A GSG , p . 1 79 ; S chumacher , T J , pp. 1 245; Z iv , G L , p . 4 f f .

4 .

B rawer , E I , p . 1 99 ; • Dussaud , f l, E frat, G I, p . 4 20 ; V llnay , A riel ,

5 .

s ee a bove ,

N eishtat , T G2, p . 2 0; 9 10 ; V ilnay , A riel , p .

p . 3 81; N eishtat , T G2 p . 2 0 ; O ra l1 245 ; Z iv , C L , p7 7.

p .

S chumacher , f , pp. 8-9; Brawer, Danin, Enbar, Schulman and, i n f act , a lso N eishtat , h ave d ifficulty i n d eciding b etween t he t wo wdts a nd " solve" t he p roblem b y d esignating b oth w adis a s t he e astern b order o f t he G olan ; S ee : B rawer , i bid . ; S chulman , I bid . .

6 .

i bid . ;

D anin ,

O n t his p henomenon I n W adf S a 'ar , B ig L andslide i n 1 6-21, ( Hebrew).

t he

i bid . ;

E nbar ,

i bid . ;

s ee t he a rticle o f D .

S aar V alley" ,

T eva v a-Aretz

1 6

S afra ,

( 1973/74) ,

7 .

T he d ating i s a ccording t o S chulman , A GSG ,

8 .

Z iv , G L ,

9 .

N eishtat, T G,

1 0 .

S ee t he H ydrological M ap o f t he G olan , a bove, f ig. 4 , p . 4 3.

1.

F or a d iscussion o f a bove ,

p .

p .

p .

N eishtat ,

' The p p .

1 79 .

6 . 2 0-21.

p p.

t he

l ines

o f v olcanic m ounds

i n t he G olan ,

s ee

3 6.

1 2.

S chumacher , T J ,

1 3.

T he b eginnings

p .

8 .

o f g eological a nd g eomorphological r esearch i n t he

G olan c an a lready b e s een i n t he e arly n ineteenth c entury i n t he w orks o f t ravellers l ike U .J . S eetzen a nd J .L . B urckhardt, b ut t he f irst t rained g eologist w ho w orked I n t he G olan r egion w as F . N oetling w ho i n t he y ears 1 8851887 p ublished a f ew g eological s tudies c oncerning t he J ura o f M ount H ermon , t he h ot s prings o f E l Hamma , t he Y armuk R iver r egion a nd m ore ( see b elow , p . 2 38 ) . G eneral d ata r egarding t he g eology o f t he G olan w as g iven a t t he b eginning o f t he t wentieth c entury i n t he w orks o f M . B lanckenhorn a nd P . O ppenheim ( see b elow , p . 2 24) . A t t he e nd o f t he t wenties o f t he p resent c entury t he B ritish s cholar G .S . B lake m apped t he P leocene o f t he J ordan V alley w hich i s i n t he R ift V alley n ear K ibbutz E in G ev , a nd a lso d iscussed t he c halky l imestone o f t he E ocene p hase w hich i s e xposed a long w ith f lint s trata i n t he c anyon o f t he Y armuk R iver ( see b elow , p . 2 24) . A t a pproximately t he s ame t ime ,

t he I sraeli g eologist L . P icard b egan

6 6

h is s cholarly w ork i n P alestine . P icard i n h is v arious p rojects , d evoted s ome i mportant b ut g eneral c hapters t o t he g eology o f t he R ift V alley a nd t he " 1armuk B asalts" ( see b elow , p . 2 39) . A m ore i mportant c ontribution t o t he g eology a nd g eomorphology o f t he G olan w as t he w ork o f t he F rench g eologist M .L . D ubertret w ho , i n t he y ear 1 954 , p ublished a g eological m ap o n 1 :200 ,000 s cale o f S yria a nd L ebanon w hich i ncluded d etails n ot p reviously k nown a bout t he G olan . I n 1 963 , t he s ame s cholar a lso p ublished s ome i mportant c ross-sections a nd d etails a bout t he N eogene o f D amascus a nd A zraq r egions w hich a ssist i n u nderstanding t he g eology o f t he G olan a rea ( see b elow , p . 2 27). H owever , d espite t he g reat s cientific i mportance o f a ll t he w orks m entioned a bove , i t m ust b e e mphasized t hat t hey d eal w ith t he G olan i n a v ery g eneral m anner a nd d etails a re g iven f or o nly a f ew s mall a reas , e specially a t I ts s outhern a nd w estern r ims , b ut i n t he l ast e ighteen y ears s everal r esearch p rojects w ere c onducted w hich f ocused o n t he G olan i tself o r o n s pecific d etails w hich a re c onnected w ith i ts g eology a nd g eomorphology . F rom t hese w orks w e m ust e mphasize t hose o f H . M ichelson a nd D .

M or .

T he H ydrogeology o f t he S outhern

G olan H eights ( T .H .L . L td . , R eport B R/72/037 , T el A viv , 1 972 , ( Hebrew) = M ichelson , T hSGH) ; t he s econd p ublished a y ear l ater , t he r esults o f h is r esearch o n t he s ubject o f T he V olcanism i n t he C entral G olan H eights ( T .H .L . L td . , R eport 0 1/73/27 , T el A viv , 1 973 , ( in H ebrew) Mor ,

T VCGH) .

T hese

t wo

r eports

t ogether a re ,

a mong

o ther

t hings ,

f irst c lass g eological a nd g eomorphological s urveys o f a pproximately 8 0% o f t he g eneral a rea o f t he G olan . I f w e a dd t o t hese r eports t hat o f E . S altzman , A S urvey o f t he S outheastern S lopes o f t he H ermon ( T .H .L . L td . , I nternal R eport , T el A viv , 1 968 , ( in H ebrew)) , t hen we h ave a n u p-to-date s urvey c overing m ore t han 9 0% o f t he G olan a rea . 1 4.

I t m ust b e e mphasized t hat t he B iblical ' ! Bashan" i s o nly a s ection o f a h uge v olcanic r egion w hich e xtends f rom n ortheast o f t he H ermon m assif a nd D amascus B asin t o t he h eart o f S audi A rabia ( including t he e astern p art o f t he H ashamite K ingdom a nd p arts o f t he S yrian D esert) t he a rea o f w hich i s a pproximately 3 0 ,000 s quare k ilometers w hile t he a rea o f t he B iblical ' Bashan" c overs a n a rea o f a pproximately 1 1 ,200 s quare k ilometers.

1 5.

M ichelson , T HSGR , P . 4 9.

1 6.

I bid.,

1 7.

A d etailed d iscussion o f t hese f ormations c an b e f ound I n t he w orks o f M ichelson a nd S chulman ; s ee : M ichelson , T HSGH , pp. 8 -47 ; i dem , " The G eology 1 22,

p .

4 8 .

o f S outhern G olan H eights" ,

( Hebrew); S chulman , A GSG ,

p p.

T eva v a-Aretz

1 6 ( 1974) ,

p p .

15-

1 79-181; i dem ., T GCJV , p assim .

1 8.

M ichelson , T HSGH ,

1 9.

A ccording t o M or i t m ay h ave c ontinued i nto t he M iddle P leistocene p eriod , s ee : M or , T VCGH , p . 2 3.

2 0.

S chulman , T CCJV , p assim .

2 1.

S chulman , A GSG ,

p .

p .

6 1; i dem ., Y BRB,

1 80.

6 7

p .

2 2; S chulman , A GSG ,

p .

1 80.

2 2.

I bid.

2 3.

A ccording t o M or t he f ollowing v olcanic m ounds a ppeared b efore , d uring t he e arlier p eriod o f v olcanic a ctivity a t

t he

s tage

o f

t he " Cover

B asalts" : T ell S hfb n ( coordinates 2 178 2 810) , T ell e i Mughaiyyir ( coordinates 2 187 2 795) , T ell J mis ( coordinates 2 203 2 786) , t he a ncient T ell A bu-(hannzir ( coordinates 2 227 2 756) , T ell Q ai 'at- e iT awil ( coordinates 2 25 2 740) , T ell Q al 'at-el -Hak m ( coordinates 2 255 2 730) , a nd t he u nnamed m ounds i n c oordinates 2 207 2 782 , 2 209 2 770 , 2 207 2 777 , 2 211 2 759 , 2 249 2 759 , 2 251 2 755 , 2 253 2 745 , 2 257 2 736 , & 2 258 2 732; s ee : Mor , T VCGH , pp. 3 5-44 . We must p oint o ut t hat i n e mploying t he t erm " volancin m ounds" , w e a re f çllowlng D . M or w ho i ncludes u nder t his t erm h ills a nd m ountains i n t he G olan a nd t he " Bashan" w hich a re p roducts o f t he e ruption o f p yroclastic m aterials . I ndeed , among g eologists who r esearch v olcanic p henomena , i t i s c ustomary t o d esignate s uch h ills o r m ountains a ccording t o t heir f orms, t he c omposition o f t heir c onstituent m aterials, e tc . ( See: G reen & S hort , V LSF , pp. 4 57-513) . H owever , s ince w e d o n ot i ntend t o d iscuss h ere t he p articulars o f t he c lassification o f v olcan ic h ills a nd m ountains i n t he G olan as ubject w ith w hich M or d eals i n d etail we f ind i t s ufficient t o r efer t o t hem b y t he t erm " volcanic m ounds". -

-

-

2 4.

T he w estern v olcanic m ounds l ine i ncludes : T ell e l-Ahmär ( coordinates 2 208 2 894) , T ell S ukeik ( coordinates 2 222 2 874) , T ell e i-Tawfi ( coordinates 2 214 2 852) , T ell e li {ajif ( coordinates 2 219 2 843) , T ell B araum ( coordinates 2 230 2 850) , a n u nnamed m ound a t c oordinates 2 230 2 826 , T ell e l-Ghar m ( coordinates 2 245 2 793) ,

( coordinates 2 237 2 816) , T ell A bu-Nida T ell a hr-el-Ahm r ( coordinates 2 245 2 773) ,

T ell Y i Isef ( coordinates 2 247 2 737) , T ell e r-Ramthâniyye ( northern ) ( coordinates 2 257 2 696) , T ell e r-Ramth nIyye ( southern c oordinates 2 255 2 688) , T ell e r-Ramthâniyye ( central) ( coordinates 2 256 2 691) , T ell K hushniyye ( coordinates 2 261 2 668) , a n u nnamed m ound a t c oordinates 2 260 2 660 , T ell e i B utm ( coordinates 2 261 2 657) , T eil e lT al 'a ( coordinates 2 262 2 651) , T ell e l-Tah in ( coordinates 2 271 2 634) , T ell F arj ( coordinates 2 283 2 627) , T ell e l-J3khadâr ( coordinates 2 302 2 595) . T he e astern l ine i ncludes : T eil S idr e l'Ar is ( coordinates 2 229 2 917) , T ell e l'Am * riyye ( coordinates 2 235 2 913) , T eil W ard ( coordinates

2 239

2 908) ,

T ell

S h ieifri

( coordinates

2 237

2 894) ,

t he

v olcanic c luster o f T ell e sh-Sheikha ( coordinates 2 245 2 875) , T ell K hirjiy t ( coordinates 2 260 2 855) , T ell D ahrat I brahim ( coordinates 2 263 2 848) , T ell e l-Makhft ( eastern) ( coordinates 2 266 2 841) , T ell e iM akhfl ( western ) ( coordinates 2 259 2 838) , T ell Q uneitra ( coordinates 2 270 2 826) , T ell e i-Muderiyye ( coordinates 2 291 2 796) , T ell e iQ ait niyye ( coordinates 2 285 2 793) , T ell e l'Adn niyye ( northern) ( coordinates 2 286 2 789) , T eil e i'Adn niyye ( central) o r T ell e sS urm n ( coordinates 2 287 2 784) , T ell e l'Adn niyye ( southern) ( coordinates 2 286 2 777) , T ell e r-Riianiyye ( coordinates 2 273 2 786) , T ell ' Ein Z iw n ( coordinates 2 278 2 778) , T ell e l-Ghass niyye ( coordinates

2 283

2 764) ,

T ell e i-Kharrl 'a ( coordinates 2 291

2 750) ,

a n

u nnamed m ound a t c oordinates 2 290 2 734) , T eil l i aziqa ( coordinates 2 298 2 734) , T ell B fr ' Ajam ( coordinates 2 305 2 735) , T ell e sh-Sha 'af e lK abir ( coordinates 2 300 2 727) , T eil e s-Summ qa ( coordinates 2 301 2 717) , T ell ' A k sha ( coordinates 2 310 2 708) , T ell ' Abbgs ( coordinates 2 307 2 702) ,

T ell S hu 'af e s-Sindi n ( coordinates 2 303 2 684) , a n u nnamed

m ound a t c oordinates 2 306 2 675 , T ell e l-A 1 )m r e i-Charbt ( coordinates 2 330 2 671) , T ell e i-Ahmâr e i-Sharq1 ( coordinates 2 345 2 665) , a n

6 8

u nnamed m ound a t c oordinates 2 308 2 658 , T ] if l e sh-Shu 'af ( coordinates 2 312 2 652; 2 310 2 649) , T ell e l-Asbah ( western) ( coordinates 2 327 2 654) , T ell e l-Asbah ( eastern ) ( coordinates 2 332 2 653) , T ell e lMehr ( coordinates 2 346 2 640) , T ell e l-Faras ( coordinates 2 313 2 630) , T ell Q ll'a ( coordinates 2 326 2 603) , T ell e d-Der 'aiyye ( coordinates 2 333 2 592) . T he r est o f t he v olcanic m ounds i n t he G olan , l ike T ell A bu K hannzfr ( coordinates 2 222 2 750) , T ell A bu Q teif ( coordinates 2 282 2 720) , t he m ounds o f S inndi ne ( coordinates 2 218 2 726) , T ell F azara ( coordinates 2 280 2 694) , a re j ustly c lassified b y M or a s " isolated s tructures" b ecause t he c onnection b etween t hem a nd t he a bove mentioned l ines i s n ot c lear ( Mor , T VCGH , p p . 6 3-66) . B ut , a s Mor h imself e mphasizes , i t i s p ossible t hat t hese s tructures b elong t o t wo a dditional p arallel l ines o f v olcanic m ounds , t he o rientation o f w hich i s f rom w est-northwest t o e ast - s outheast . O ne l ine i ncludes : T ell Abu K hannzfr ( coordinates 2 222 2 750) , T ell Ysef ( coordinates 2 247 2 737) ,

T ell

A bu

Q teif

( coordinates

2 282

2 720) ,

T ell

' AkIsha

( coordinates 2 310 2 708) ; a nd t he s econd i ncludes : t he mounds o f S indi ne ( coordinates 2 218 2 726) , T ell F azara ( coordinates 2 280 2 694) , T ell S hu 'af e s-Sindi n ( coordinates 2 303 2 684) , a n u nnamed m ound a t c oordinates 2 306 2 675, T ell e l-Ahm r e l-Gharbr ( coordinates 2 330 2 671) ,

a nd T ell e l-Ahm r e i-Sharqf ( coordinates 2 345 2 665) ( Mor ,

i bid . , p . 6 3) . T his p ossibility h as n ot y et b een e xamined f undamentally b ecause o f t he f act t hat s ome o f t hese mounds a re l ocated i n t he d emilitarized z one b etween I srael a nd S yria . 2 5.

T he f ive l ines o f v olcanic m ounds i n t he ' Bashan" , f rom w est t o e ast a re ( we m ention o nly t he h ighest a nd m ost p rominent m ounds o f e ach l ine) :

l ine A

-

T ell e sh-Sha 'ar ( coordinates 2 385 2 867) ,

T ell M ashara

( coordinates 2 397 2 822) , T ell e lI rra ( coordinates 2 430 2 745) , T ell e i- M ahaz ( coordinates 2 450 2 682) , T ell e l-J biyye ( coordinates 2 440 2 588) ;

l ine B

-

T eil A y beh ( coordinates 2 397 2 881) ,

a nd T ell e iMai

( coordinates 2 427 2 818) ; l ine C T eil e sh-Shams ( coordinates 2 432 2 955) , T ell F atmeh ( coordinates 2 469 2 889) , T ell Q orein ( coordinates 2 493 2 855) , T ell ' A laqiyye ( coordinates 2 512 2 837) , a nd T ell ' Antar -

( coordinates 2 519 2 828) ; l ine D T eil e sh- S heikh ( coordinates 2 566 2 964) , T ell t l rqeis ( coordinates 2 603 2 932) , T ell Q awaz ( coordinates 2 616 2 904) , a nd T ell J a 'far ( coordinates 2 639 2 882) ; l ine E T ell Bz i ( coordinates 2 632 2 936) , T ell e s-S i 3beh ( coordinates 2 640 2 927) , a nd T ell e s-S weidiyye ( coordinates 2 646 2 920) . -

-

2 6.

S chulman , A GSG ,

p .

2 7.

M or , T VCGH ,

1 63164.

2 8.

H ere i t m ust b e e xplained t o t he r eader u nfamiliar w ith v olcanic p henomena t hat t he b asaltic l ava ( which i n t he c ase o f t he G olan a nd t he " Bashan" i s t he v olcanic p roduct c overing m ost o f t he a rea a t p resent) d oes n ot e rupt f rom t he c rater o f av olcano w hich s pews f orth o nly p yroclastic m aterial , b ut r ather f lows f rom l ong f issures o n t he

p p.

1 81.

s ide o f t he v olcano. 2 9.

M or , T VCGH , p . 1 64.

3 0.

F or a d etailed e xplanation o f t hese t erms ,

s ee G reen & S hort , V LSF , p .

4 63 & p . 4 81. 3 1.

A ccording

t o

M or ,

t his

t uff

p hase

69

c an

b e

d ated

t o

t he

U pper

P leistocene

M iddle P alaeolithic p eriod.

-

S ee : M or ,

I VCGH ,

p .

9 2 .

3 2.

F or a n e xplanation o f " caldera" s ee: G reen & S hort, V LSF, P . 4 63.

3 3.

I t i s i mportant t o n ote t hat t he l atest e ruption f or w hich a p recise d ate c an b e d etermined i s t hat o f t he e s-Saffa F low n ortheast o f t he D ruze Mountain .

T here ,

n ear K hirbet e l-Umbachi ,

a re f ound l ava

c overed p iles o f s heep, g oat a nd o x b ones which were p ossibly c ollected b y m an f or i ndustrial p urposes . C arbon-14 t esting o f t hese b ones h as d etermined t he d ata o f t he e ruption t o h ave b een b etween 4 ,160

a nd

4 ,075 y ears a go .

S ee :

A nnales A rcheologiques d e S yrie 4 -5 3 4.

L .

D ubertret

( 1954-55) ,

& M . D unand , L es

p p . 5 9-76 .

T he d ata p resented h ere a re b ased o n t he p ersonal o bservations o f t he a uthor d uring a s tay o f f ive y ears ( 1967-1972) i n t he r egion o f Q uneiçra a nd a lso o n d ata p rovided b y t he I srael Meteorological S ervice . I would l ike t o t ake t his o pportunity t o t hank M r . Y . K esler o f t he I srael M eteorological S ervice f or h is k indness i n m aking t his m aterial a vailable t o m e . I t s hould b e n oted t hat , u ntil 1 967 , r esearch o n t he c limactic c onditions i n t he G olan w ere n eglected . S ince 1 967 t he s cholars o f t he I srael M eteorological S ervice h ave c oncerned t hemselves w ith o bservations a nd d ifferent r esearch p rojects i n t he G olan . S ome o f t hese s urveys h ave a lready b een p ublished . F urther d etails r egarding t he d ata p resented h ere c an b e o btained b y r efering t o t he f ollowing p ublications : 1 ) Z . G at & Y . L omes , A n A groclimatological E xamination o f t he G olan H eights I srael M eteorological S ervice , R eport 4 /69 , B eth D agan , 1 969 , ( Hebrew). 2 )

I dem . ,

A n A grotopoclimatological S urvey i n t he G olan H eights ,

( Report f or t he y ear 1 969), I .M.S., B eth D agan , 3 )

I dem . e t. a l . ,

H eights

1 970 ,

( Hebrew).

An A grotopoclimatological S urvey i n t he G olan

( Report f or t he y ear 1 970) ,

I .M .S . ,

B eth

D agan ,

1 971,

( Hebrew). 4 ) I dem . , A n A grotopoclimatological S urvey i n t he G olan H eights ( Report f or t he y ear 1 971), I .M .S ., B eth D egan , 1 972, ( Hebrew). 5 )

Z .

G at

& Z .

P aster ,

T he A groclimate i n t he G olan H eights

E xamination o f t he R ainfall , ( Hebrew) ,

( =

G at

&P aster ,

I .M.S . ,

R eport

2 /74 ,

B eth D agan ,

1 974 ,

A GHER) .

6 ) I dem . , T he Agroclimate i n t he G olan H eights Examination o f t he T emperature a nd t he R elative H umidity , I .M.S . , R eport 4 /75 , B eth -

D agan , 3 5.

1 975 ,

( Hebrew) ,

( =

G at & P aster , A GHETRH) .

T he m ap i n f ig . 2w as d rawn b y t he a uthor b ased o n d ata a ppearing i n t he w ork o f G at & P aster , A GHETRH , p . 2 0 .

3 6.

S ee f or e xample : T heophanes I , 5 18 ( deBoor 3 38).

3 7.

T he m ap i n f ig . 3w as d rawn b y t he a uthor b ased o n d ata a ppearing i n t he w ork o f G at & P aster , A GHER , p . 7 .

7 0

3 8 .

Among t hese , t he f ollowing s urvey w orks a re w orth n oting : Y . K idron , Q unei ra V alley T he H ydrological C ondition o f t he T uff A quifer i n t he Y ear 1 968 , T .H .L . L td . , I nternal R eport , T el A viv , 1 969 , ( Hebrew) ; -

M . Y iftah , T he G olan H eights S prings T aypin , A G eoelectrical S urvey , T .H .L . L td. , I nternal R eport , T el Aviv , 1 970 , ( Hebrew) ; M . -

E nbar , T he

F luviomorphology o f N ahal M eshoshim i n t he G olan H eights

( M .A . T hesis I n t he H ebrew U niversity o f J erusalem) , J erusalem , 1 970 , ( Hebrew); H . Michelson & Y . Michaeli, Utilization P ossibilities o f F akhem S prings b y D rilling , T .H .L . L td . , I nternal R eport, T el Aviv , 1 971, ( Hebrew); F . Mero, A Preliminary H ydro ineteorological B alance o f t he D irect C ollection B asin o f t he K inneret , T .H .L . L td . , I nternal R eport , T el A viv , 1 971, ( Hebrew) ; M . A v-Ron , T he S urface R un-off i n t he G olan R eport C entral

HR/72/048 , T el G olan H eights

H eights, T .H .L . L td . ,

Aviv , 1 972, ( Hebrew); Y . K idron , R esearch D rillings f or E xamination o f

-

U tilization P ossibilities o f I nternal A quifers, T .H .L . L td . , I nternal Report, Tel Aviv, 1 972, ( Hebrew); H . Michelson, The H ydrogeology o f t he S outhern G olan H eights , T .H .L . L td . , R eport H R/72/037 , T el A viv , 1 972 , ( Hebrew) , ( = Michelson, THSGH.); and D . M or , T he V olcanism i n t he C entral G olan H eights , T .H .L . L td . , R eport 0 1/73/27 , T el A viv , 1 973 , ( Hebrew) , ( = Mor , T VCGH .) . 3 9 .

M inzker , W PGH ,

1 23127.

4 0.

M ichelson , T HSGH , p . 7 0.

4 1.

A t t he p resent t ime , t here a re a ttempts t o p revent t his b y b uilding d ams w hich w ill s top t he r unoff a nd h old i t i n l akes i n t he G olan a rea ( See : M inzker , W PGH , . p p . 1 26127 .) , b ut , u ntil n ow , n o e vidence h as

p p.

b een f ound i n t he a rea t hat w ould i ndicate t hat t he i nhabitants o f t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods e mployed s imilar mea ns. 4 2.

F or a d iscussion o f t his t ype o f s oil a nd i ts f eatures , c haracteristic o f t he b asalt f lows i n t he G olan , 1 47148 .

4 3. 4 4.

F or a d iscussion o f B irkehs ,

s ee a bove ,

which i s

M or , T VCGH , p p .

4 7.

p .

S ome o f t hese i mpressive w aterfalls a re :

s ee :

' T he W hite F all ' ( coordinates

2 203 2 476) ; H az n F all ( coordinates 2 203 2 579) ; W df e d-D liyye F alls ( coordinates 2 221 2 563) ; ' The S teps F all ' ( coordinates 2 222 2 560) ; ' The

C opper

F all '

( coordinates

2 149

2 632) ;

' The

H idden

F all '

( coordinates 2 147 2 624) ; Y ah iidiyye F all ( coordinates 2 169 2 614) ; D ab ra F alls ( coordinates 2 127 2 721 & 2 121 2 717) ; N ahal O rvim F alls ( coordinates 2 138 2 830) ; 2 940). 4 5.

M or ,

d uring h is

a nd G h dir e l-Hammam F alls ( coordinates 2 160

r esearch ,

d iscovered

t races

o f a b uried r iver ,

s ee :

Mor , T VCGH , p . 1 50 f f . H owever , h e a nd M ichelson c ontinue t o e mphasize t he l imited k nowledge w e p ossess a bout t he s ubterranean d rainage s ystem i n t he G olan , 7 9 &p . 8 9. 4 6.

s ee :

I bid . ,

p .

1 44 ; M ichelson ,

T HSGH ,

p .

A d etailed l ist o f t he s prings i n t he s outhern s ections o f t he G olan c an b e f ound i n M ichelson , T HSGH , pp. 7 1-75 ; d etails o f t he g roup o f s prings i n F akhem a re d iscussed i n H . M ichelson & Y . M ichaeli , U tilization P ossibilities o f F akhem S prings b y D rillings,

7 1

T .H .L . L td . ,

I nternal R eport , 1 48150 . t o

T el A viv ,

1 971,

( Hebrew) .

A s f or t he s prings o f B ani s ,

t he G eography

S ee a lso M or ,

s ee :

D . P erry ,

a nd N atural H istory o f A rea" i n D .

T VCGH ,

p p -

" Introduction

Amir ,

B ani s

-

F rom Ancient T ill Modern T imes, K ibbutz D an , 1 968 , pp. 1 6-18 , ( Hebrew) ; M . L ivneh , ' toes t he B ani s R eally S pring f rom t he C ave?" , T eva v a-Aretz 1 1 ( 1969), P p. 2 34-235, ( Hebrew). 4 7.

We h ave n o i nformation a s t o whether o r n ot t his t ype o f s pring a ppears i n t he b asalt a reas o f t he H auran a nd t he t wo r egions o f t he L eja. H owever i t w ould n ot b e s urprising t o f ind t hem t here a lso.

4 8 .

M or , T VCGH , P P. 1 48 149.

4 9.

F ig. n o. 2 8 i n M or , T VCGH.

5 0.

M or , T VCGH , p . 1 49.

5 1.

I bid.

5 2.

M ichelson , T HSGH , p . 8 2.

5 3.

T he

t emperature d ata a re t aken f rom E . M azor & M . M olkho ,

S prings N ear t he K inneret" , T eva v a-Aretz 1 1

( 1969) ,

" Mineral

p p . 2 60-263,

( Hebrew). 5 4.

O n t he c hemical c omposition o f a ll t he a bove m entioned h ot s prings , s ee : E . M azor &M. M olkho , o p. c it., p . 2 63.

5 5.

A .

N issenbaum ,

' topper M ineralization i n t he E ocene o f W d1 A rava" ,

I JES 1 9 ( 1970) , p p . 2 09-211; H . M ichelson , ' topper M ineralization i n t he H erod F ormation o f t he S outhern G olan H eights" , l iES 2 0 ( 1971) , p p .

1 35 -437 .

5 6.

M or , T VCGH , p p. 16117.

5 7.

j uba al ocal A rabic n ame ( perhaps f rom t he H ebrew g ov w hose m eaning i s ' pit" , " hole" o r " cave" ) f or a n atural c ircular d epression f ound i n -

t he l ava a reas o f t he G olan .

T he d imensions o f t he j ubas v ary

g reatly ; t heir d iameter r anges f rom 2 0 t o 2 00 m eters a nd t heir d epth f rom a f ew m eters t o 5 0 7 0 m eters . T he p rocess o f t heir f ormation -

i s t he s ubject o f d ebate a mong s cholars . W e w ill n ot d iscuss h ere t he v arious t heories c oncerning t he p rocess o f t heir c reation a nd w ill o nly p oint o ut t hat a d iscussion o f t hese t heories i s t o b e f ound i n M or 's w ork . H e e xamines e ach o f t hese t heories a nd p resents h is o wn i deas a bout t hese f ormations . 5 8. 5 9.

M or , T VCGH , p .

S ee ,

M or ,

p .

17121 .

17.

S ee : F . Mero & A . K ahanovich ,

B irket Rn i

T .H.L . L td ., I nternal R eport, T el A viv , 6 0.

o p . c it . ,

1 969 ,

-

AH ydrological O pinion , ( Hebrew)

-

-

M ap.

A . F lexer , " Birket R em" , N ofim v a-Atârim ( A s eries o f p amphlets p ublished b y t he I srael D efence F orces) , T el A viv , 1 968 , ( Hebrew) ; i dem . , " Remarks o n t he G eology o f B irket R m a nd i ts G enesis" , M eeting o f t he I srael G eological S ociety d evoted t o t he G olan H eights ( abstracts o f l ectures), K efar G il'adi,

7 2

1 969 , p p. 2 8-29.

6 1.

E . M azor , ' Birket R am AR ainfall P ool i n aV olcano C rater" , T eva v aA retz 1 ( 1969) , p p. 1 318 , ( Hebrew).

6 2.

S ee a bove, n otes 5 7-59 , a nd a lso : I . C armi & F . M ero , " Birket R 5 x n :

-

Water

B alance

f rom

Water

Levels

and

N atural

T racers" ,

M eeting o f t he I srael G eological S ociety d evoted t o t he G olan H eights , ( abstracts o f l ectures) , K efar G il 'adi , 1 969 , P P . 3 0-32 . 6 3.

B .J. I II ,

6 4.

A . F lexer ,

6 5.

E . M azor , o p. c it.,

6 6.

B efore 1 967 , t he

5 09-513. " Birket R a i n" , N ofim v a-A tarim , T el A viv , p p.

1 968 ,

( Hebrew).

1 6-17.

o ne w ho w as i nterested i n t his f ield c ould f ind d ata o n

f lora o f t he G olan i n v arious

s ources .

I n

t he

b eginning ,

t he

w orks o f t ravelers a nd s cholars u sually d ealt w ith t he d escription o f t he f lora o nly i ncidentally , w hile t heir m ain i nterest w as f ocused o n o ther a reas o f r esearch . Among t hese w orks w e w ill m ention t hose o f G . S chumacher ( AJ & T J) , J .L . B urckhard ( TSHL) , a nd U .J . S eetzen ( RSPPTL). F rom t he t hirties o f t he p resent c entury , d ata r egarding t he f lora o f t he G olan b egan t o a ppear i n w orks o f p rofessional b otanists . T he f irst among t hese i s t he work o f H .R . O ppenheimer , " Reliquiae A aronsohnianae , I , F lorula t ransjordanica" , B SB 2 2 ( 1931) , P P . 1 -301 . After t his ,

i n t he y ear 1 947 ,

a ppeared t he w ork o f P . M outerde ,

" La

V ég&tation a rborescente d es p ays d u L evant" , P ubl . t ech . s ei. E c . f ranc . I ng . , N o . 1 3 , B eyrouth . I t s hould b e p ointed o ut t hat t his s cholar p ublished , s ix y ears l ater , a n i mportant w ork o n t he f lora o f t he D ruze Mountain f rom w hich w e l earn t hat i n c ertain r espects t here a re s imilarities b etween t he D ruze M ountain f lora a nd t hat o f t he G olan . I n t he

1 950 's

t here a ppeared ,

a s

r eports

f or t he S yrian g overnment ,

t he i mportant w orks o f M . v an B ot t enburg ( Report t o t he G overnment o f S yria o n F orestry D evelopment , E TAP-Report n o . 3 68 F AO , R ome , 1 955) , a nd H . P abot ( Rapport a u g ouvernement d e S yrie s ur l '€cologle v égétale e t s es a pplications , E TAP-Repport N o . 6 63 F AO , R ome , 1 956) , c ontaining m any d etails o f t he f lora o f t he G olan . C oncluding t he l ist o f w orks which a ppeared b efore 1 967 i s t he work o f A .S . B agh ( La R egion d e D jolan . E tude d e g eographie r egionale , I mprimerie d e l 'Universite d e D amas , D amascus ,

1 961) which i s n ot , i n f act , d evoted o nly t o t he

f lora o f t he G olan but i s n evertheless i mportant f or r esearching i ts f lora s ince t he w ork i ncludes p reviously u nknown d etails a nd d ata a bout t he f ield . B ut t he w orks w ritten i n t he l ast e ighteen y ears a bout t he f lora o f t he G olan a re u ndoubtedly m ore s ystematic a nd m ore c orrect s ince i n t heir e xecution , a ll m odern m eans a vailable t o o ne r esearching t he f lora o f a r egion w ere e mployed. T hese w orks i nclude t he f ollowing : 1 )

R .

K arschon

& Y .

Z ohar ,

T he F orestry F lora o f t he G olan ,

P ublications o f V olcani I nstitute o f A gricultural R esearch N o . 7 11 , B et D agan , I srael , 1 968 , ( Hebrew) , ( This w ork w as r eprinted i n t he v olume T he G olan C ollection o f A rticles , T el A viv , 1 970 , ( Hebrew) , w hich was p ublished a s a n i nternal p ublication i n -

7 3

p reparation f or t he 2 8th C onvention o f t he I srael E xploration S ociety w hich t ook p lace i n O ctober 1 970 . S ince t he o riginal w ork w as u navailable w e h ave u sed t he r eprint r efering t o i t b y t he a bbreviation : K arschon & Z ohar , T FFG.). 2 )

A . D anin , " The V egetation i n t he G olan ( First S urvey)" , A retz 1 0 ( 1968) , pp. 1 62167 , ( Hebrew) , ( =D anin , T VG) .

3 )

J .

F eliks,

" Tree a nd F orest

( 1968) , p p. 1 68178 , 4 )

A viva R abinovich , ( 1972) ,

5 )

p p.

i n t he G olan" ,

T eva v a-

T eva v a A retz

' Vegetation i n t he B eth-Saida V alley" ,

1 28132,

1 0

( Hebrew).

( Hebrew),

( =

S al 'it 1

R abinovich , V BSV).

N .G. S eligman , A Q uantitative-Geobotanical Analysis o f t he V egetation o f t he G olan ( Ph.D. d issertation), The H ebrew U niversity , J erusalem , 1 973 , ( Hebrew).

6 7.

I saiah 2 :12-13.

6 8.

I bid., 3 3 :9.

6 9.

J eremiah 2 2 :20.

7 0.

N ahum 1 :4.

7 1.

Zechariah 1:2.

7 2.

E zekiel 2 7 :3-6.

7 3.

S ee : D euteronomy 3 2:15; E zekiel 3 9 :18 ; A mos 4 :1; P salms 2 2:12.

7 4.

S chumacher , T J , p . 1 7.

7 5.

S ee : Z DPV 2 2 ( 1885), T . 4 .

7 6.

K arschon & Z ohar , 1 'FG , p . 9 0.

7 7.

S chumacher , T J, p . 6 1.

7 8.

V ilnay, G i l , p . 5 .

7 9.

I t s hould b e m entioned t hat f rom t he t ime o f t he B iblical s ources u ntil t he f irst h alf o f t he n ineteenth c entury , w ritings o n t he G olan c ontain n o d irect r eferences f rom w hich w e c an s tudy a bout t he f lora o f t he r egion .

8 0.

S ee a bove , n ote 6 6.

8 1.

T his m ap w as r e-edited b y t he a uthor a nd i s b ased o n t he m ap p ublished i n H ebrew b y A . D anin ; S ee : D anin , T VG , p . 1 66.

8 2.

T his e xplanation h as a lready b een o ffered b y A . D anin ; 1 62-163.

8 3.

S ee : D anin , T VG, p . 1 63; K arschon & Z ohar , T FFG , p . 8 6.

7 4

S ee :

I bid . , p p .

8 4.

S ee: R abinovich , V BSV ,

1 28-132.

p p .

A dditional d etails a bout t his

f lora c an b e f ound i n Y . W aissel , 'T hanaerogan ious V egetation o f L ake K inneret" , T eva v a-Aretz 1 1 ( 1969), pp. 2 72-274 , ( Hebrew). 8 5.

S ee : Y . D an e t a l . , G olan S oils ,

P reliminary P ublication N o . 6 79 ,

V olcani I nstitute o f A gricultural R esearch , B et D agan , I srael , 1 970 ) ( Hebrew) , p assim . T his i s t he p lace t o emphasize t hat u ntil t he s urvey o f Y . D an a nd h is t eam , e xcept f or t he l ate A . R eifenberg , n o o ne h ad d ealt f undamentally w ith r esearch o n t he s oils o f t he G olan . R eifenberg , i n h is v arious w orks , l ike T he S oils o f P alestine ( London , 1 938) , d ealt w ith t he G olan o nly i ncidentally d uring a g eneral a lthough f undamental d iscussion o f t he b asalt s oils o f P alestine , S yria , a nd o ther r egions o f t he M iddle E ast . -

-

8 6.

Y .

8 7.

T his m ap was d rawn b y t he a uthor a nd i s b ased o n d ata t aken f rom a erial p hotographs o f t he r egion a nd a lso o n d ata a ppearing I n Y . D an 's a rticle.

8 8 .

D an , G S,

8 9.

M ichelson , T HSGH , A ppendix B .

9 0.

E nbar , P UG ,

p p.

1 58-161.

9 1.

B rawer , E I,

p p.

1 99-200.

9 2.

Z iv , G L ,

9 3.

Ila n , T LGTUG ,

9 4.

E nbar , P UG ,

9 5.

I bid.,

9 6.

I bid.

9 7.

I bid.

9 8.

I bid.

9 9.

I bid., p .

1 00.

I bid.

1 01.

I dem ., p .

1 02.

I dem ., p . 1 60.

1 03.

B rawer , E I.,

1 04.

I bid.

1 05.

S ee ,

( =

D an , D an ,

-

-

p .

%olan S oils" ,

p .

T eva v a-Aretz

1 8.

5 5-59.

p p.

p p.

p .

8 8-89.

1 59.

1 60.

1 61.

1 59.

p .

2 00.

f or e xample , Z Iv , G L,

p .

2 .

7 5

1 5

( 1972) ,

p p .

1 218 ,

( Hebrew) ,

1 06.

Z iv , o p. c it., p . 5 5.

1 07.

S ee : Ila n , T LCTUG , P . 8 8.

1 08.

I bid.

1 09

I bid.

10.

I bid.

1 11.

K lein , TU, p p. 2 49-254 a nd p assim .

12.

S ee : D . 1 76 f f.

1 13.

J osephus , B .J. I V , 2 .

14.

I bid.

15.

B .J. I I,

16.

Ila n , i bid.

17.

Ila n , o p. c it., p . 8 9.

18.

I bid.

19.

S ee a bove , p . 5 1 a nd t he f loral d istribution m ap i n p . 5 2.

1 20.

I bid.

1 21.

I bid.

1 22.

S hevi'ith 9 :2.

1 23.

J osephus , B .J. I I,

1 24.

S ee b el o w,p p. 1 20 f f.

1 25.

K lein ,

N ir ,

G eomorphology o f

J erusalem ,

I srael ?

1 970 ,

( Hebrew) ,

p p .

1 68.

TU,

1 68 , I V , 2 .

p p . 2 10-212 ,

2 49154 ;

a nd s ee t here a dditional r eferences

f rom t he s ources. 1 26.

K lein , MG , p p. 1 33140.

1 27.

S ee a d iscussion o f t hese s uggestions i n p p. 1 21122.

1 28 .

I t m ust b e e mphasized t hat a ny o ther d ivision o f t he G olan t hat w e f ound i n v arious r ecent p ublications n ot o nly l acked d etails b ut a lso , i t s eems ,

w ere c opied f rom o ne o f t he d ivisions o f E nbar , B rawer , Z iv

o r Ila n . 1 29.

F or t he e xact l ocations o f t hese r upture l ines s ee t he g eological m aps w hich M or a nd M ichelson p rovide i n t heir w orks : M or , T VCGH , C entral G olan H eights G eological M ap ; M ichelson , T HSGH ? T he G eological M ap o f t he S outhern G olan H eights

( 1 :50 ,000) .

R eference t o t hese m aps w ill

s how t hat e ast o f t he 5 00 m . e levation ( Upper G olan) , r epture l ines a re v irtually n on-existent while t o t he w est o f t his l ine ( Lower

7 6

G olan ) t hey a re f ound i n g reat n umbers a ll o ver t he a rea . 1 30 . I n o ur r eview o f t he G olan f lora , w e d id n ot d eal w ith t his f loral g roup b ut d etails a bout i t a re t o b e f ound i n t he a rticle o f Y . W aissel , ' Phanaerogamous V egetation o f L ake K innereth" , T eva v a—Aretz 1 1 ( 1969) , p p . 2 72-274 .

7 7

C HAPTER T HREE

S ETTLEMENT P ATTERN A ND R OAD S YSTEM I N T HE G OLAN D URING T HE R C WN A ND B YZANTINE P ERIODS

A .

I ntroduction

H aving e xamined t he p hysical-geographical d ata o n t he G olan a nd i ts v arious s ub-units , a nd b efore t urning t o a d iscussion o f t he e conomy o f t he r egion d uring t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods , o ne s hould d iscuss t he G olan s ettlement p attern a nd i ts r oad s ystem . S uch a d iscussion w ill e nable u s t o e stablish a f oundation o f d ata , w ithout w hich i t w ould b e d ifficult t o o btain a n u nderstanding o f t he e conomic a nd s ocio-political w hich t ook p lace i n t he r egion d uring t hese p eriods.

d evelopments

W hen o ne w ho a pproaches t he s ubjects o f t he s ettlement p attern a nd t he r oad s ystem o f t he G olan d uring t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods , t hen t urns t o t he c ontemporary h istorical s ources f or d irect a nd d etailed i nformation a bout t hese t opics , h e s tands , a s i t w ere , b efore a s hattered v essel i n w hich b ut a f ew d rops r emain . T his f act d oes n ot n ecessarily p oint t o a p aucity o f s ettlements a nd r oads i n t he G olan d uring t hese p eriods . I t i s w ell k nown t hat t he c ontemporary h istorical s ources which h ave b een p reserved , a nd f rom w hich w e c an o btain i nformation r egarding t he s ettlement p attern a nd r oad s ystem i n P alestine a nd S outhern S yria , a re f ew c ompared t o t hose w hich a re a vailable t o t he s cholar d ealing w ith t he s ame a spects o f E gyptian o r I talian h istory d uring t he s ame p eriods . A c areful i nvestigation o f t he f ew h istorical s ources w hich a re a vailable l eads t o t he c onclusion t hat t he G olan w as n ot d iscriminated a gainst b y t he h istorical s ources i n r elation t o t he o ther r egions o f P alestine a nd S outhern S yria . A t p resent , t he s cholar h as m any m ore o pportunities f or e stablishing t he f acts a bout t hese a spects o f G olan h istory o n t he b asis o f i ndirect i nformation c ulled f rom t he s ources . T oday w e k now , a s a r esult o f t he a rchaeological e xcavations a nd s urveys c onducted i n t he G olan d uring t he l ast e ighteen y ears, t hat i n s pecific s ections o f t his a rea , d ozens o f J ewish c ommunities e xisted d uring d ifferent p hases

o f

t he R oman a nd

B yzantine p eriods . T his f act e nables u s t o u tilize t he t reasure-trove o f t he R abbinical s ources , which , d espite h aving b een written m ainly a s j uridical w orks , a lso p ossess g reat i mportance a s h istorical s ources . I n t hese s ources , m any p ieces o f i ndirect i nformation a bout t he J ewish c ommunities i n P alestine a nd t he n eighboring c ountries ( and a lso a bout t he v arious G entile c om ni inities) d uring t hese p eriods h ave b een p reserved. O ne w ho c ollects t hese p ieces a nd f its t hem t ogether o btains a p icture which i s n o l ess r eliable t han t hat o btained f rom a d irect d escriptive h istorical s ource l ike t he O nomasticon o f E usebius . I n o ur d iscussion w e w ill a dd t hese p ieces o f i nformation t o t he f ew d irect r eferences w hich w ere f ound i n t he R abbinical s ources a nd i n t he G reco-Roman s ources o f P alestine a nd S outhern S yria ,

s uch a s J osephus ,

E usebius ,

e tc .

W e

s hould m ention

t hat w e h ave a lso f ound s ome p ieces o f d irect a nd i ndirect i nformation i n

7 9

t he N ew T estament , b ot t hese a re f ew , a nd a re r elated m ainly t o s ettlements w hich l ie o n t he e dges o f t he G olan . T o

t he g eneral

-

a nd s ometimes

f ragmented

-

p icture w hich i s d erived

f rom t he v arious a bove-mentioned s ources , i t i s p ossible t oday t o a dd t he f indings o f t he a rchaeological s urveys a nd e xcavations which h ave b een c onducted i n t he G olan . t he p icture , a nd g ives

A s ynthesis o f t his s ort f ills s ome o f t he g aps i n i t a m uch c learer p erspective a nd a f irmer b asis .

F or r easons o f f acility o f p resentation w e h ave d ecided t o p resent f irst t he d ata d erived f rom a rchaeological s urveys a nd e xcavations a bout t he s ettlement p attern a nd t he r oad s ystem i n t he G olan , a nd t hen r eturn t o t he i nvestigation o f t he w ritten s ources.

B .

A rchaeological D ata I t

i s p ossible t o s ay t hat

t he G olan I s ,

a t

t he p resent s tate o f

a rchaeological r esearch i n P alestine a nd S outhern S yria , o ne o f t he m ost s urveyed r egions i n t hose c ountries . A s a r esult o f G . S chumacher 's s urvey , a nd e specially a s a r esult o f t he r ecent s urveys o f t he A ssociation f or t he A rchaeological S urvey o f I srael ,' i t i s p ossible t oday t o d raw m aps o f t he s ettlements i n t he G olan d uring t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods . W ith a ll t heir l imitations ( which w ill b e d iscussed i n d etail b elow) , i t i s d oubtful w hether f uture s urveys a nd e xcavations w ill s ubstantially a lter t hese m aps . T here i s l ittle d oubt t hat a dditional s urveys i n t he G olan , a nd i n p articular s ystematic e xcavations , w ill a dd i nformation t o , a nd s hed l ight o n , s hadowy a spects o f t hese m aps . H owever , q uestions r elating t o t he d ensity o f s ettlement i n t he d ifferent s ub-units o f t he G olan d uring t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods , o r t he v ariance i n t he n umber o f s ettlements f rom o ne p eriod t o a nother , f or e xample , a nd o ther s uch s imilar q uestions , m ay t oday , a s s tated p reviously , b e g iven f ull a nd w ell-founded a nswers . F or t he p urpose o f d iscussing

t he

s ubjects i n t his

c hapter ,

a nd a s a

p relude t o d rawing a m ap o f t he s ettlements i n t he G olan d uring t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods , w e h ave c ondensed t he r esults o f a ll t he a rchaeological s urveys a nd e xcavations c onducted i n t he r egion t hus f ar i nto t he f ramework o f at able , which I s t o b e f ound i n A ppendix A . I n t his t able ,2 a side f rom a n umbered l ist o f a ll t he G olan s ites ( and q uestionable s ites) f rom t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods w hich a re k nown t oday , t he f ollowing d ata w ill a lso b e f ound : w ater s ources w hich w ere u sed o r w ere a vailable t o t he i nhabitants; t he l ocation o f t he s ite , t hat i s t o s ay , e .g . , o n a h illtop , a bove a wd1 , o n a s lope , e tc . ; t he e stimated a rea o f t he s ite a nd p eriods o f h abitation . B esides t his d ata , w e h ave a dded t o t he t able a s ummary o f s ignificant f indings ( whenever t here w ere s uch f indings a t t he s ite) , f rom w hich i t i s s ometimes p ossible t o l earn a g reat d eal a bout t he n ature o f t he s ite , t he e thnic n ature o f i ts i nhabitants , e tc . A dditional d ata i s g iven i n t he n otes t o A ppendix A .3 f or t his b ody o f d ata a re a lso l isted i n t he t able .4 A c areful e xamination o f t he t able s hows u s ,

f irst ,

t hat

O ur s ources

m ost o f t he

s ettlements i n t he G olan f rom t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods a re l ocated n ear o ne o r m ore o f t he m any l ocal s prings ( 141 o f 1 84 s ites w here t he w ater s ource i s k nown) m ost o f t hem o f t he ' Lava F low F ront S prings ' t ype ,5 a nd a lso n ear j ubas a nd b irkehs ( 33) .6 T he r est o f t he s ettlements ( 28 i n n umber) ,

i ncluding

l ocated n ear r ivers ,

t hose

w here

t he

s ource

o f w ater i s n ot

a pparent ,

a re

a nd t he i nhabitants o f t hese s ettlements c ould e asily

8 0

h ave u sed t hese r ivers f or t heir n eeds . Only a t av ery f ew s ites ( 18 i n n umber)

-

a nd t hese m ay b e t ermed

-

e xceptional i s i t p ossible t o f ind w ells ,7 c isterns a nd r eservoirs . A n e xamination o f t he n ature o f t hese s ites u sually b rings t o l ight t he r eason -

f or t he I nhabitants ' o r t he a uthorities ' d ecision t o i nvest i n w ater p umping o r c ollecting f acilities l ike w ells , c isterns a nd r eservoirs . T hus ,

f or e xample ,

t he c ity o f Ssfta ( site

1 86) w as a f ortified c ity ,

l ocated o n t op o f a h ill , a c ity w hich l acked a s ource o f w ater b ut w hich d ominated t he s urrounding a rea . H ence , when t he walled c ity w as e stablished ,8 t he f irst p riority o f i ts p lanners was s ecurity a nd n ot n ecessarily t he w ater s upply . T he p roblem o f t he w ater s upply w as s olved b y t he c onstruction o f a n a queduct w hich c arried t he w aters o f t he s pring o f F rq i nto t he c ity .9 I nside t he c ity , e xcavated a nd b uilt t o h old t his w ater .

r eservoirs

o f

I n a ddition t o t he a queduct a nd t he r eservoirs ,

l arge

w ere

v isitors t o t he s ite

c an s ee , n ear a lmost e very p rivate h ouse , o ne o r m ore e xistence o f s o m any c isterns i n t he a rea o f t he c ity q uantity o f w ater s upplied b y t he a queduct w as n ot g reat n eeds o f t he i nhabitants ( or a t l east t hat t he q uantity d uring t he l ate s ummer m onths ,

c apacity

c isterns . 10 T he i ndicates t hat t he e nough f or a ll t he w as n ot s ufficient

when t he f low o f s prings I n t he r egion

d eclines) . T herefore , t he p opulation h ad t o a ugment i ts w ater s upply b y b uilding c isterns i n w hich r ainwater ( from t he r oofs o f t he h ouses?) w as c ollected. G amala

( site

15) i s a nother e xample o f a s ettlement

w here s ecurity

c onsiderations w ere p reeminent . T his s ettlement w as a lso b uilt o n t op o f a l ofty s pur ( see f ig . 1 2 , p . 8 2) c ommanding a v iew o f t he s urrounding a rea , a nd a lso h ad n o i nternal s ource o f w ater . H ere a gain , l arge r eservoirs w ere e xcavated a nd b uilt . H owever , s ince t he a rchaeological e xcavations i n G amala h ave o nly j ust b egun , t hese r eservoirs h ave n ot y et b een s ystematically

i nvestigated .

I t

i s

t herefore d ifficult a t

t his

s tate

t o

d etermine h ow t hese r eservoirs w ere s upplied . H owever , i t w ould c ome a s n o s urprise i f f uture e xcavations w ere t o r eveal t he r emains o f a n a queduct o r a queducts w hich c arried t he w aters o f t he n earby s prings o r r ivers t o t he s ettlement. T he e xistence o f a rtificial r eservoirs a t s ites s uch a s t he m onastery o f Mrs! ( site 1 55) a nd t he o ne a t D ur e l-L6z ( site 1 83) c an b e e xplained b y t he f act t hat a t t hese s ites t he r eservoirs a re i n t he c ourtyards o f c hurches ( see f igs . 1 3-14 , p . 8 3) . A s i s w ell k nown , a lmost a ll c hurches i n P alestine d uring t he B yzantine p eriod h ad r eservoirs i n t heir c ourtyards f rom w hich c ame t he w ater u sed f or p urification p urposes b y t hose e ntering t he s anctuary o f t he c hurch . 1' T hese f ew e xamples a part , m ost o f t he s ettlements i n t he G olan f rom t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods a re l ocated n ear s prings , j ubas a nd b irkehs , a s p reviously m entioned . F rom t his f act , i t i s a pparent t hat , i n m ost c ases , w hen i t

c ame

t o c hoosing t he

l ocation

o f

a s ettlement ,

c onsideration o f

w ater s ources p revailed o ver c onsiderations o f s ecurity a s w ell a s o ver o ther c onsiderations s uch a s p roximity t o t rade r outes e tc . A p olicy o f f avoring p roximity t o w ater s ources o ver s ecurity a nd t rade c onsiderations u ndoubtedly s uits a n a gricultural s ociety ; a nd i ndeed , t he g eneral p icture o btained f rom a rchaeological s urveys a nd e xcavations c onducted i n t he r egion p oints c learly t o t he a gricultural c haracter o f m ost o f t he s ettlements i n

8 1

F ig. 1 3 :

e 1-

rs1

-

T he C hurch C ourtyard .

F ig. 1 4:

e 1i (6rs

-

T he R eservoir u nder t he

C hurch C ourtyard.

t he G olan d uring t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods . I f w e u se t he t able i n A ppendix A t o d etermine w here ,

i n t opographical

t erms , t he s ettlements w ere l ocated ( Location c olumn i n t he t able) , i t t urns o ut t hat most o f t hem w ere b uilt o n h ills o r s purs ( 123 o f 2 11) , o r o n s lopes ( 49) , a nd o nly a m inority o n l evel g round o r p lains ( 47) . I n s pite o f

t he f act

t hat

c haracteristic u rban s ettlements

l ike

B ani s

a nd Ss!ta

w ere bu ilt o n h ills a nd s lopes ( and , I n f act , a re i ncluded i n t he n umber g iven a bove) , i t i s p ossible t o s ay t hat i n m ost c ases , t he p reference f or s purs ,

h ills a nd s lopes o ver l evel g round a nd p lains a lso t estifies t o t he

a gricultural c haracter o f t he s ettlements i n t he G olan d uring t he p eriods u nder d iscussion . T he o bjective was a pparently t o s ave t hose a reas s uitable f or a gricultural e ndeavors b y c onstructing t he s ettlements o n l and l ess s uitable f or a gricultural p urposes. T he n ext s et o f d ata a ppearing i n A ppendix A c oncerns t he e stimated a rea o f t he s ettlements . T his d ata i s a lso i ndicated o n t he m ap o f s ettlements i n t he G olan d uring t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods ( fig . 1 5 a -b , p p . 8 58 6) . T herefore w e w ill a lso r efer t o t his m ap , w hich i s b ased o n t he t able i n A ppendix A , i n t he c ontinuation o f o ur d iscussion o f t he a rchaeological e vidence c oncerning t he s ettlement p attern o f t he r egion d uring t hese p eriods. H owever , b efore c ontinuing , I t m ust b e e mphasized t hat t he b oundaries o f t he v arious G olan s ub-units w hich a ppear o n t he m ap a re b oundaries w hich w e h ave w orked o ut i n a ccordance w ith t he p hysiographical s ubdivision d iscussed i n t he p revious c hapter .1 2

T he i nclusion o f t hese b oundaries o n t he m ap w as

c onsidered n ecessary s ince , w ith t heir a ssistance , i t i s p ossible t o d iscuss t he s ettlement p attern o f e ach o f t he s ub-units o f t he G olan , i n a ddition t o t hat o f t he e ntire r egion . F or t he s ake o f c larity , w e h ave a lso c ondensed t he d ata f rom A ppendix A r egarding t he e stimated a reas o f s ettlements i nto t he f ollowing t able ( fig . 1 6 , p . 8 7) , which a lso s hows t he n umber o f s ettlements a nd q uestionable s ettlements i n e ach o f t he s ub-units o f t he G olan , a nd t he d istribution o f t he s ettlements a ccording t o e stimated s ize . A t t he b eginning o f o ur d iscussion , w e d ealt w ith water s ources a vailable t o t he s ettlements , a nd w ith t he t opographical l ocation o f t he s ettlements , t hat I s t o s ay , w ith d ata w hich c an b e d etermined w ith g reat e xactitude . O n t he o ther h and , a d iscussion o f d ata r egarding t he a rea o f s ettlements m ust b e e ntered u pon w ith r eservations , s ince s uch a d iscussion d eals w ith e stimates . O nly s ystematic a rchaeological e xcavations a t e ach o f t he s ites c ould t ransform t hese e stimates i nto s olidly g rounded f acts. H owever , s uch e xcavations h ave n ot y et b een c onducted i n t he G olan , n or h ave t hey b een c onducted i n a ny o ther r egion o f P alestine o r S outhern S yria . I t i s d oubtful, f urthermore , whether a rchaeological r esearch w ill e ver a chieve t he i deal o f o btaining p erfect m easurements o f t he s izes o f a ll s ettlements I n a ny r egion . H owever , d espite t he n ecessity o f r elying o n e stimates , a nd r ealizing t he l imitations o f s uch e stimates , w e b elieve t hat a n i nquiry i nto a reas o f s ettlements , b ased o n t he p resently a vailable d ata , i s v aluable f or a n i nvestigation o f s ettlement p atterns i n t he G olan d uring t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods . A n e xamination o f t he m ap i n f igs .

1 5a-b ,

p p .

8 5-86 ,

a nd t he t able i n

f ig . 1 6 , p . 8 7 s hows t hat i n t he e ntire a rea o f t he G olan , i ncluding i ts e dges , o ut o f at otal o f 1 34 s ettlements f or w hich d ata o n e stimated a rea i s a vailable , o nly f ive s ettlements e xtend f or m ore t han 1 20 d unams . W hen w e

8 4

2 15

225

235

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285

275

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230

220

2 10

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1 5a :

M ap o f S ettlements I n t he G olan D uring t he R oman a nd B yzantine P eriods

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0

N OTES T O A PPENDIX A

s ite

1

I t s eems t hat

-

t he s ite

s erved a s a n ecropolis

P aneas a nd i ts s uburbs ( E

p .

2 58) .

d uring t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods , s ettled ( Us .) . s ite

2

s ite

3

f or t he c ity o f

H owever , i t i s p ossible t hat p arts o f t he h ill w ere

A t c oordinates 2 250 2 958 t here a re b urial c aves . t hat t hese a re t he c emeteries o f S heit ( Us .) .

-

I t i s p ossible

O lami d oes n ot m ention r emains o r p ottery f rom t he H ellenistic

-

P eriod . I n h is p ottery r eport , h e w rites t hat t he p ottery o f t he R oman p eriod i s m ainly f rom t he L ate R oman P eriod , w hich p ossibly w as a t t he p eak o f i ts d evelopment ( third a nd f ourth c enturies A .D .) . s ite

7

S ince o nly p ottery a nd s ome r e -used a rchitectural f ragments w ere f ound ,

s ite

8

s ite

1 2

s ite

1 3

s ite

1 8

s ite

1 9

s ite

2 0

t he s ite 's e xistence

i s

u ncertain

( Us .) .

R emains o f a f ortress ( Gb.).

-

W ell-preserved r emains o f b uildings ( Gb .).

-

P erhaps a f arm (E p . 2 59) R emains o f a n a gricultural v illage ( Us.).

-

-

-

-

A s mall f ort ( Gb .). B uildings o f t he c ontemporary D ruze v illage c over t he r emains o f as ettlement f rom t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods .

s ite

2 1

-

S ignificant F indings : s hards b ore f ragmentary G reek i nscriptions w hich w ere d ifficult t o r ead ; c oins o f S eleucid D ynasty . N otes :

T he

s ite w as p artially e xcavated ,

a nd i n l ight o f t he

f indings , t he e xcavator p roposed t hat t he ' G olan W are ' , a t l east a t t his s ite , t he

( Urman , s ite

2 7

s hould b e a ttributed t o t he H ellenistic P eriod a nd

b eginning o f G olan ,

p .

t he R oman

P eriod

( third-first

c enturies B .C .)

4 64) .

T he r emains o f t he B yzantine s ettlement a re o n am ound f rom t he

-

M iddle a nd L ate B ronze A ges ( R p . 1 364) . s ite

2 8

-

T he r emains o f t he R oman a nd B yzantine s ettlement a re o n t op o f r emains o f a s ettlement f rom t he C halcolithic a nd E arly B ronze A ges ( R

s ite

3 4

-

p .

1 364) .

I t i s p ossible t hat o ne o f t he b oundary s tones p ublished c ame f rom t his s ite .

s ite

3 5

-

t hat Y . A haroni

S ee : A haroni , T NBS & T ABS .

D ata o n t he s ize o f t his s ite w as g iven b y G . S chumacher ( see : S chumacher , T J ,

p .

2 41) .

H owever , d ue t o t he f act t hat a n A rab

2 10

v illage

i s

o ccupying

t his

s ite a t t he p resent t ime,

i t i s

i mpossible t o d etermine t he s ite 's e xact s ize . s ite

4 0

I t i s p ossible t hat o ne o f t he b oundary s tones t hat Y . A haroni

-

p ublished c ame f rom t his s ite . s ite

4 4

S ee : A haroni , T NBS & T ABS .

S ignificant F indings ( cont.): m illstones.

-

N otes :

I t

i s p ossible

t hat

t he a rchitectural

f ragments w ith

C reek i nscriptions i n t he v illage w ere t aken f rom s ite 4 3 ( C p . 2 61) . I n t he v illage t here a re n o r emains o f a n a ncient s ettlement e xcept f or a rchitectural f ragments w ith G reek i nscriptions w hich , i t s eems , w ere t aken f rom s ite 4 3 ( Us .) . s ite

4 7

T he

b oundaries o f t he a ncient s ettlement c annot b e d etermined

b ecause o f s ite

4 8

t he p resent

S ince c lear

-

r emnants

b uildings .

( Us .) .

o f a n a ncient s ettlement w ere n ot f ound

d uring t he s urvey, i t i s p ossible t hat t he t ombstones w ere t aken f rom s ite s ite

5 1

5 1

( Us .) .

R escue e xcavations w ere c onducted a t t he s ite i n 1 968 .

-

G olan p .

( Urman ,

4 62-463) .

s ite

5 7

T he b uildings o f t he C ircassian v illage m ake i t i mpossible t o d etermine t he b oundaries o f t he a ncient s ite ( Us .) .

s ite

6 0

R emains o f af arm ( ? ) ( Us .).

s ite

6 1

B ecause

-

o f

t he

c ontemporary

v illage 's

s tructures ,

i t

i s

d ifficult t o d etermine , w ithout e xcavating , t he e xact s ize o t he s ite . H owever , w e a ssume t hat t he a ncient s ite c overed a bout 1 00 d unams a nd t here i s n o d oubt t hat i t w as a s ettlement o f c entral

i mportance

d uring t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods

( Us.). s ite

6 3

T he b uildings o f

t he C ircassian v illage m ake i t i mpossible t o

d etermine t he e xact b oundaries o f t he a ncient s ite ( Us .) . s ite

6 5

-

S ignificant F indings ( cont.): m illstones. N otes : T he b uildings o f t he C ircassian v illage m ake i t i mpossible t o d etermine t he e xact b oundaries o f t he a ncient s ite

s ite

6 7

s ite

6 8

-

-

( Us .) .

S ignificant F indings ( cont.): a m illstone. C ontemporary s tructures m ake i t

d ifficult

t o d etermine t he

e xact b oundaries o f t he a ncient s ite ( Us .) . s ite

6 9

-

I n 1 971 , m ore

p arts o f a m onumental b uild ing w ere e xcavated .

d etails

a bout

t his

b uilding

a nd t his

s ite ,

s ee :

F or U rman ,

G olan , p . 4 66 . s ite

7 0

-

A t

t he s ite ,

t he r emains o f o nly o ne H auranic s tyle B yzantine

b uilding w ere f ound . H owever , i t i s p ossible t hat s tructures o f t he c ontemporary v illage h ide m ore r emains .

2 11

t he

s ite

7 1

-

B elow t he B yzantine b uildings , s een

s ite

7 2

-

-

r emains o f e arlier h ouses c an b e

p erhaps f rom t he R oman p eriod ( ? ) ( Us .) .

B ecause o f t he c ontemporary s tructures o f t he v illage ,

i t w as

i mpossible t o d etermine w hether o r n ot t here a re r emains o f a B yzantine s ettlement h ere , o r w hether t he a rchitectural f ragments a nd t ombstones w ere t aken b y t he p resent i nhabitants f rom a nother s ite ( Us .) . s ite

7 6

-

D espite t he g aps i n S chumacher 's r eport , i t s eems t hat

w e h ave

h ere a l arge s ite w ith w ell-preserved b uildings f rom t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods ( D .U .) . s ite

7 7

-

S hards f rom t he R oman p eriod w ere f ound .

H owever ,

o ther

e vidence f or a s ettlement o f t he R oman p eriod w as n ot f ound . B ecause o f t he r emains o f t he C rusader f ortress , i t w ould b e i mpossible t o d etermine , w ithout a n e xcavation , w hether t he q a r w as b uilt o n r emains o f a s ettlement f rom t he R oman p eriod , a nd i f s o , w hat i ts s ize w as ( Us .) . s ite

7 8

-

B ecause o f

t he c ontemporary v illage

b uildings ,

t he e xact

b oundaries o f t he R oman a nd B yzantine s ettlements c ould n ot b e d etermined ( Us .) . s ite

7 9

-

P arts o f t his s ite w ere e xcavated b y S . B ar-Lev a nd M . B en-An. D etails o f A rcheologiot

s ite

8 0

-

t his e xcavation c an 4 5 , J an . 1 973 , p . 1 .

b e

f ound

i n :

l i adashot

T he f act t hat S chumacher s aw a n a rchitectural f ragment w ith a r epresentation o f a m enorah t ogether w ith t he f indings o f G utman 's a nd o ur s urveys l eads u s t o b elieve t hat a s ystematic e xcavation h ere w ould u ncover m ore r emains o f J ewish m onumental s tructures s uch a s s ynagogues o r s chools ( Us .) .

s ite

8 1

-

R emains o f a l arge s tructure w ere f ound o n t op o f t he h ill ( Us.).

s ite

8 2

R emains o f am oat c arved i n t he r ock a nd r emains o f aw all m ay i ndicate t hat t he s ite w as f ortified . H owever , w ithout a n a rchaeological e xcavation , i t i s i mpossible t o d etermine t o w hich p eriod t hese f ortifications b elong .

s ite

8 3

-

S ignificant

F indings :

r emains

w ith d ecorated a rchitectural

o f

a s ynagogue

f ragments ;

a nd/or

f ragments

s chool

o f A ramaic

i nscriptions ; t ombstone o f R abbi A ix in . N otes :

T he s ynagogue a nd/or s chool w as e xcavated a nd p artially

r econstructed . s ite

8 5

-

S ee :

U rman ,

G olan ,

p p . 4 60-462 .

A ccording t o t he o riginal r eport o f G utman 's

s urvey

( parts

o f

w hich w ere n ot i ncluded i n t he p ublished r eport) , n ear t he r emains o f t he m onumental b uilding , s hards f rom t he R oman a nd E arly B yzantine p eriods w ere

f ound while i n t he s outhern

s ection o f t he h ill , s hards f rom t he E arly B ronze A ge w ere f ound .

W ithout a s ystematic a rchaeological e xcavation ,

2 12

i t i s

i mpossible t o d ate t he r emains o f t he w all s urrounding t he h ill ( Us.). s ite

8 6

I n

-

t he n ortheast

s ection o f

f ort w ere f ound ( G s ite

8 7

I t

-

i s

p ossible

t he v illage ,

r emains

o f a s mall

2 72).

p .

t hat

a n a rchaeological

e xcavation h ere

w ould

u ncover t he r emains o f as ynagogue ( Us.). s ite

8 8

T he c ontemporary b uildings o f t he v illage m ake i t i mpossible t o

-

d etermine t he e xact b oundaries o f R oman a nd B yzantine s ites. s ite

8 9

- -

T his r uin i s f ortified ( perhaps t he r emains o f a f ort??) C

s ite

9 0

p .

( E &

2 72).

D ifferent f indings a t t his s ite i ndicate t hat a s ynagogue e xisted h ere i n t he L ate R oman O r E arly B yzantine p eriods

-

( Us.). s ite

9 1

-

I n

t he

b uildings

o f

t he

C ircassian

v illage

a re

s everal

t ombstones w ith G reek i nscriptions , a s w ell a s s ome a rchitectural f ragments . I t i s p ossible t hat t hese w ere t aken f rom s ite s ite

9 2

-

9 6 ( Us.).

A ccording t o E pstein a nd G utman 's r eports , w ere n ot

f ound

d uring t he

H ellenistic , R oman , d iscovered. S ee E & G s ite

9 3

s ite

1 08

-

1 09

13

a nd

s hards

o ther

f rom

p eriods

t he

w ere

P arts o f t his s ite w ere e xcavated b etween 1 968 1969 .

F or

U r i nan , G olan , p p. 4 57-458.

T his s ynagogue w as i nvestigated b y H . K ohl a nd C . W atzinger . S ee : H . K ohl & C . Watzinger , A ntike S ynagogen i n G alilaea , L eipzig ,

s ite

B yzantine p . 2 72.

r emains o f b uildings

H owever ,

R emains o f as ynagogue b uilding ( Us.).

d etails s ee : s i te

s urvey .

-

1 916 , p p.

T he w alls o f

1 23137.

t he m onumental b uilding w ere c onstructed " head-

b eam , h ead - b eam" ( Us.). s ite

15

T he

I dentification

o f

t his

s ite

w ith s ite o f

t he G amala

d escribed b y J osephus s eems c ertain ( Us .) . P resently t his s ite i s b eing e xcavated b y S . G utman ; s ee : S . G utman , G amala : T he H istorical B ackground a nd t he F irst S eason o f E xcavations , T el A viv , 1 977, ( Hebrew) ; I de i n . , G amala : T he E xcavation i n t he F irst T hree S easons, T el A viv , 1 981, ( Hebrew). s ite

16

-

I t i s p ossible t hat t his i s a s uburb o f G amala w hich w as r es ettled d uring t he L ate B yzantine p eriod ( Us.).

s ite

18

-

I t

i s d ifficult

t o d etermine t he s ize o f t he s ite s ince s ome

p arts a re c overed b y l agoons a nd s wamps ,

a nd o ther p arts

a re

c overed b y l ake w ater ( Us.). s ite

19

-

R emains o f b uilding w alls a nd p ottery f rom R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods

c an b e

s een i n a n A rab c emetery .

2 13

I n t he w estern

s ection o f

t he v illage ,

a dditional r emains o f

b uildings w ere

f ound ( Us.). s ite

1 21

T he d ecorated a rchitectural f ragments i ndicate t he p resence o f

-

t he r emains o f a s ynagogue b uilding ( Us .) . s ite

1 22

s ite

1 24

T he p ottery o f t he R oman p eriod i s f rom R oman I II ( Us.).

-

I t s eems t hat t he a rchitectural f ragments a nd

-

t ombstone w ere

t aken b y t he A rab i nhabitants f rom o ne o f t he a ncient s ites i n t he v icinity p erhaps f rom M azra 'at Q uneitra ( Us.). -

s ite

1 26

I t s eems t hat t he a rchitectural f ragments a nd s tones w ere

-

t ransfered b y

t he A rab i nhabitants

f rom t he

s ite o f M azra 'at

Q uneitra ( Us .) . s ite

1 27

s ite

1 28

T he s ite i s l ocated a longside a n a ncient p aved r oad ( Us.).

-

O n t he b each , f oundations o f b uildings a nd m any s hards f rom t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods c an b e s een . I t i s p ossible t hat

-

t his i s ac ontinuation o f s ite s ite

1 32

18 ( Us.).

T he r emains o f t he m onumental b uilding , d ecorated a rchitectural

-

f ragments

a nd

t he A ramaic

i nscription b elong

t o

a s ynagogue

( Us.). s ite

1 35

B ecause o f t he m odern v illage s tructures ,

-

i t i s i mpossible t o

d etermine t he a rea o f t he a ncient s ite ( Us.). s ite

1 36

s ite

1 38

Among t he r emains o f t he b uildings , o ne w ith h ewn s tones s tands o ut. I t i s p ossible t hat i t s erved a s as ynagogue ( Us.). B ecause o f e xisting v illage s tructures ,

-

s ite c annot b e d etermined s ite

1 40

t he a rea o f t he a ncient

( Us.).

T he g iven e stimated a rea i s o f t he a ncient m ounds i n t he M B I I ,

-

L B a nd I ron p eriods .

T he s ize o f t he s ettlement d uring t he

R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods i s n ot c lear ( Us .) . s ite

1 41

-

O n t op o f t he h ill i s a l arge p ile o f s tones w hich m ay b e t he r emains o f a t ower ( G p . 2 82;

s ite

1 42

-

s ee a lso : S ch .

T he R oman s hards a re R oman I II ( E p . 2 82) . a nd

a rchitectural

f ragments ,

d uring

p .

2 56).

O ther t han s hards

t he s urvey ,

r emains o f

a

s ettlemen t w ere n ot s een ( Us.). s ite

1 45

-

" A l arge mound

. ..

A c ombination o f a n a ncient s ite w ith a

B yzantine s ite . I t i s p ossible t hat t he f orts i n t he a rea w ere a d efense s ystem a lso t o p rotect t his m ound" ( Eb . ) . s ite

1 47

-

T he a rchitectural f ragments s eem t o b e f rom a m onumental b uilding ,

s ite

1 48

-

p erhaps a s ynagogue

R emains o f t wo d ifferent r ecent y ears . F or d etails ,

2 14

( Us .) .

c hurches w ere p artly e xcavated s ee : U rman , G olan , p p . 4 58-459 .

i n

s ite

1 51

-

F indings f rom t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods c an b e s een o nly o n p art o f t he m ound a rea w hich i ncludes m ainly f indings f rom t he M B I I a nd I ron p eriods ( Us .) .

s ite

1 52

-

I n E pstein 's o pinion ,

t he s ite i s a f ort f rom M B I I .

H owever ,

s hards f rom t he B yzantine p eriod w ere a lso f ound h ere ( Us.). s ite

1 53

-

I n t he c ontemporary h ouses o f t he n earby v illage o f A bu K heit , af ew a rchitectural f ragments c an b e s een . t hey w ere t aken f rom t his s ite ( Us .) .

s ite

1 54

-

I t i s p ossible t hat

A n e xcavation o f a n e xperimental t rench r evealed p ottery o f t he L ate R oman , B yzantine a nd E arly M edieval a nd L ate A rab p eriods ( Us .) . T he s ize o f t he mound i s o nly 1 0 d unams . H owever , s ince f oundations c an b e s een i n t he a rea b etween t he m ound a nd t he

a nchorage

( coordinates

2 105

2 484) ,

w e

b elieve

t hat

i t

i s

p ossible t o i ncrease t he s ize o f t he s ite b y 3 0 d unams ( Us .) . s ite

1 55

s ite

1 56

-

-

S ite w as p artly e xcavated . 4 59-460 . O n t op o f t he h ill ,

F or d etails , s ee : U rman , G olan , p p .

p art o f w hich i s a n a rtificial m ound f rom

t he I ron I a nd I ron I I p eriods , p eriod w ere f ound ( Us .) . s ite

1 59

s ite

1 69

T his s ite s eems t o b e p art o f s ite -

s hards f rom t he B yzantine

1 51

( Us.).

" Golan W are" . a nd c haracteristic B yzantine s hards w ere f ound h ere . H owever , w ithout a s ystematic e xcavation , i t i s i mpossible t o d etermine t he f unction o f t his s ite d uring t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods ( Us.).

s ite

1 72

s ite

1 83

-

-

T he s ite i s s ituated n ext t o a n a ncient p aved r oad ( Us.). B ased o n t he n ature o f t he s ite a nd i ts n ame ,

i t i s p ossible

t hat t he s ite i s t he r emains o f a monastery w ith a uxiliary b uildings ( E p . 2 88). s ite

1 84

.

T he

s ite was

( 1964) , s ite

1 85

-

I t

p p .

s eems

p artially

e xcavated .

S ee :

B .

M azar ,

I EJ

1 4

1 -49 . t hat

t hese a re

t he

r emains o f

t he a nchorage o f t he

c ity o f S t Isfta . T he r emains o f t he b uildings f ound o n t he s hore a re a pparently p art o f a h arbor q uarter o r s ervice b uildings s ite

s ite

1 89

1 90

-

-

( Us .) .

I b elieve t hat S chumacher r eferred t o t his s ite w hen h e w rote a bout K hirbet a l— 'Ar is

( Us .) .

R emains o f a f ort

t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods w ere

f rom

f ound a t t his s ite ( M . N un). s ite

1 91

-

T he a rea o f t he c ontemporary A rab v illage i s a pproximately 3 00 d unams . B ecause o f t he c ontemporary b uildings , i t i s d ifficult t o d etermine

t he s ize

o f

t he R oman a nd B yzantine s ettlement .

H owever , ac autious e stimation w ould b e 1 00 d unams ( Us.).

2 15

s ite

1 93

-

I t i s p ossible t hat t he s pring i s t he o ne n amed ' A m b y S chumacher.

s ite

1 96

-

S ee : S ch.

p .

1 87.

R emains o f a f ort w ere f ound . M B I I p eriod ,

e s-Fejjeh

M ost o f t he s hards a re f rom t he

w hile o nly a f ew a re f rom t he B yzantine p eriod .

S ee: E pstein , p . 2 90. s ite

2 05

s ite

2 08

s ite

2 09

-

-

-

" Apparently t he c emet ery o f K h. R emains o f af ort w ere f ound ( E

s urrounded b y w alls

B yzantine p eriods) c an b e

s ite

2 10

2 11

-

-

p .

( E p . 2 91).

2 92).

W alls o f a f ortress w ere f ound ( R a cropolis

s ite

' Ayymn ."

p .

1 398) .

O n t he t el , a n

( apparently f rom R oman a nd

s een ( Us .) .

N ear t he w ine p ress , o nly s hards f rom t he B yzantine p eriod w ere f ound

( Us.) .

S ince

t he

r emains a re

H amma V alley ,

s cattered o ver w hat

c an b e c alled E 1

l t I s d ifficult t o d etermine t he t otal s ize o f

t he s ite ( Us.).

2 16

B IBLIOGRAPHY P RIMARY S OURCES H ebrew a nd A rabic A vot d e R abbi N athan , e d . S . S chechter , N ew Y ork , 1 945 .

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( =

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2 18

I sh Shalom) ,

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( =

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S efer Y u 1assim h a -S halem , e d. F ilipowski, L ondon ,

(

N ew

1 962.

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p hotographic

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T ractate ' Avodah Z arah ( of t he B avli), e d. S . A bramson , N ew Y ork, 1 957. Y erushalmi , s ee P alestinian T almud.

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F our G ospels I n S yriac , t ranscribed f rom t he S inai P alimpsest , R .C . B ensly , J . R endel H arris , E .D . B urkitt & A . S mith L ewis , C ambridge , 1 894 . H istoire E cciessiatique d e E usébe d e C ésarée, L eipzig , 1 897 . P eshitta , e d. L ee , L ondon ,

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2 19

C yrillus

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2 21

4 9 73 .

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T arbiz

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1 31-134 ,

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1 6(1974) ,

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" Zur G eologie u nd H ydrogeologie v on S yrien u nter b esonderer B erücksichtigung d er s ' id u nd n ordwestlichen L andesteile" , G eolog . J ahrb . 6 8 , H annover , 1 966 , pp. 1 29 f f . W right ,

A .G . ,

Wright,

W .,

" Syria a nd A rabia" , & Mclean ,

H istory i n S yriac , Wruk,

W .,

Z . , 6 3 ,

1 895 ,

Eusebius

C ambridge ,

p p .

6 7-82 .

Ecclesiastical

1 889 .

D ie S yrische P rovinzialpr gung v on A ugustus b is

T ralan , Y eivin ,

N .,

P EFQSt .

S tuttgart ,

1 931 .

" Two A ncient O il P resses" , ( Hebrew) .

2 46

' A tiqot 3 ( 1966) , p p .

5 2-

Y elvin ,

S SGG

‚

-

S urvey

o f

S ettlements

i n Galilee

a nd

t he

G olan f rom t he P eriod o f t he M ishnah i n L ight o f t he S ources ( Ph .D . t hesis s ubmitted t o t he H ebrew U niversity o f J erusalem) J erusalem , 1 971, ( Hebrew) . Y ifta t l ,

M . , T he G olan H eights S prings T apping , AG eoelectrical S urvey, T .H .L . L td . , I nternal R eport , T el Aviv , 1 970 , ( Hebrew). -

Z aharoni ,

M . ,

( 1967) ,

' The L andscapes o f N a 1al H ermon" , T eva v a -A retz 9 p p .

3 38-342 ,

( Hebrew) .

Z eitlin , S . , " The T itle R abbi i n t he G ospels i s A nachronistic" , J QR 5 9 ( 1968) , pp. 1 58160 . N ew L ight o n J osephus ' ‚ "Who W ere t he G alileans? A ctivities i n G alilee" , J QR 6 4 ( 1974) , p p . 1 89-203 . -

Z iv ,

Y . ,

" Miniatures

1 969) ,

_

Z iv,

C L

-

_

_

_

_

p p .

f rom

3 0 33 ,

" Nahal G ilbon T eva v a -A retz 1 3

-

t he G olan" ,

T eva v a-Aretz

1

( 1968-

( Hebrew) . a N ew N ature R eserve i n t he G olan" , ( 1971) , pp. 1 62163 , ( Hebrew) .

" Golan L andscapes" i n T he G olan C ollection o f A rticles , T el A viv , 1 970 , pp. 259 , ( Hebrew) . -

2 47

I NDEX O F C ITATIONS TH E

BI B L E

O LD T ESTAMENT

N EW T ESTAMENT

A mos

A cts

4 :1

5 :37

7 4

2 5

J ohn

IC hronicles

1 :44 2 1:114

9

6 :56

1 25 1 55

D euteronomy L uke 4 :43 3 2 :15

9 7 4

3 3 :22

9

E zekiel 2 7 :3-6 3 9 :18

5 0 ,

7 4

5 0 , . 7 4

3 3:9

5 0 , 7 4

5 0 ,

7 4

2 0 :8

9

2 1:27

9

N ahum 5 0 ,

7 4

P salms 7 4

S ong o f S ongs 1 43

Z echaria 1:2

5 0 ,

1 73 1 72

5 :20

1 76

8 :27

1 25

4 :18

J oshua

6 :11

1 25

M atthew

J eremiah

2 2 :12

9 :11

1 :16-20 5 :1-20

2 :1 2-13

1 :4

1 73 1 73 1 72

M ark

7 4

I saiah

2 2 :20

5 :111 5 :10 8 :26-39

7 4

2 48

2 9,

1 55

4 :25 8 :28-34

1 76 1 72

1:20-21

1 38

1 3 :47-48 1 6 :13

1 55 1 25

M ISHNAH

O haloth

B ava K ama

6 , 1 ( 603 , 1 0) 7 , 1 6 ( 605 , 1 516)

7 :7

1 49

1 8 , 4 ( 616 , 2 3)

S habbath

1 7 1 7 1 27

P 'sahim

9 :5

1 44 ,

1 71

1 , 4 ( 155, 8 )

P eah

1 7

S habbath 8 :5

1 61

S hevi'ith 9 :2

6 2

2 , 4 ( 112 , 6 )

1 71

8 ( 9) , 1 ( 119 , 1 9) 1, 8 ( 125 , 2 0)

1 72 1 71

S hevj'jth

S otah

4 ,

9 :15

1 4 ,

1 6

1 0 ( 66 , 4 -6)

7 , 1 0ff ( 71,

1 4ff)

1 26 6 2

S otah T OSEFTA ( ed. Z uckerm .)

1 5 , 8 ( 322, 6 -7)

' Avoda Z ara 1 , 2 1

Y om T oy

( 462 ,1)

1 49

4 (5), 2 (465 , 3 1-32)

1 75

3 ,

B ava K ama 8 ,

1 011

1

( 206 ,

112)

1 71

Y ERUSHALMI ( 361, 2 9-30 1 49150 ,

8 , 1 5 ( 362, 2 2)

1 49 ,

1 72

' Avoda Z ara

1 72

2 , 5 , dc 5 , 5 , 4 4d

B erakhot 4 ,

1 7 , 2 7

B erakhot

1 3 ( 11, 4 )

1 7

3 , 6 d

D 'mai

D '

1 , 9 (45 , 2 4-26) 1 , 9 ( 45 , 2 6)

1 43 1 68

2 , 1 , 2 2b

1 9,27

1,

1 71 1 26,

1 42, 1 44

1 48 ,

K etuboth

1 5) 1 6)

1 72

j

2 , 1 , 2 2d

1 72

M a 'aser S heni 4 , 1 3 ( 94 , 4 , 1 3 ( 94,

1 9 1 27 , 1 68

7 , 3 4c

1 73

1 9

M akkot M akkot 3 ( 2), 2 ( 440 , 2 4-26)

2 , 7 , 3 1d 1 8

2 49

1 8

1 68

M egillah

S anhedrin

1 , 1,

7 1c

3 , 1 , 7 3d

1 7

1, 9 7a

1 5 ,

1 6 , 1 7

1 9 , 2 0 S habbath

N iddah 3 3b 3 , 2 , 5 0c

2 7

2 0 S hekalim

S habbath

6 , 2 , 1 7a

1 4 ,

1 , 1 4b

1 49

1 9 ,

1 , 1 6d

1 73

S otah

S hekalim 6 , 2 , S Oa

9 , 4 9a b 1 55

1 6

D erech E retz Z uta 2 0 , 1 31 1 41, 1 6 8, 1 69

1 0 , 5 9a

1 5 ,

1 7 ,

1 8

D euteronomy R abbah ( ed. S . L ieberman)

S otah 9 , 2 3b

1 4 ,

1 5 ,

1 6

6 2

T a' anit

2 8

E cclesiastes R abba

4 , 8 , 6 9

1 44

R A . rLI

1 , 8 , 1

1 44

2 ,

1 50

1

L amentations R abba ( ed. S . B uber)

b ava K ama

2 , 4 ( 107)

1 50

7 9b

1 45 ,

9 , l O7a

1 72

1 72

1 6 1 72

1 5 , 1 6

1 5 ,

1 7, 1 8 ,

2 6

S hir H a -S hirim R abba 2 , 5 2 , 1 3

1 8

2 7 1 5 , 1 6

M idrash T anna'im

M enahot 1 8a

1 6

S eder E liahu Z uta

M akkot 2 , 9 b

1 5 ,

1 5 , 7 5b

1 72

H ull i n 6 , 8 4a -b

5 1, 2 P esikta R abbati

B ekhorot l Oa 2 4b-2 5a

1 71

P esjkta d e R . K ahana

B ava M ezia

3 ,

1 5 ,

M IDRASHIN

S hevi ' ith 6 , 1 , 3 6d 8 , 3 , 3 8a

1 73

( ed. H offman) 1 7

2 62/14 2 50

1 28 ,

1 39

I I, 4 59

E usebius, H ist. E ccl. I , 5 , 3

I I, I I, I I, I I,

2 6

E usebius, 2 a • ( ed. K iost.)

I II, 3 7

2 2 ( 20-21)

1 25,

2 2 ( 25-26)

1 26, 1 38

6 4 ( 6-8) 6 5 ( 6-8)

I II , I II, I II , I II, I II ,

1 38

1 2, 2 5 1 2, 2 5

X III, 3 93 X III, 3 96 X IV , 7 5 X V , 3 45-348 X V , 3 59-360 X V , 3 60 X V , 3 63-364 X VI,

2 83 , 2 92

X VII, 2 3ff X VII, 2 4-27 X VII, 1 88189 X VII, 1 89 X VII, 3 20 X VIII, 4 X VIII , 2 8 X VIII, 1 06 X VIII , 1 07 X VIII, 1 08 X X , 2 11

17 ,

1, 2 5 1 37 1 35 1 34

1 34

4 2 ,

2 5

1 04 1 05 1 56 3 98-400

I I, 9 5 I I , 9 7 I I, 18 I I , 1 68 I I , 2 47 I I , 4 54

1 20

1 53

1 22,

5 8 6 6

1 35

1 37

1 73 1 74 2 5 ,

3 98

1 74 1 24,

1 31 1 35 1 35 1, 2 5 1 22

V , 7 1 X V, 3

1 25 , 1 38 1 69 , 1 76

X V , 2 4

1 43,

1 44 ,

X V, 7 1

1 2, 2 3 1 20 , 1 21, 1 36 1, 2 5, 1 36

1 70 ,

1 36

C . P tolemaeus , G eog . V ,

1 20 , 1 21, 1 36 1 21 1 20 , 1 36

1 6 ,

1 25 ,

5

S trabo , G eography 1 , 1 8

1 44,

1 71

T heophanes, C hrong. ( ed. d e B oor)

1 0 2 5 1 0 1 37 1 34

I , 5 08 ( 338)

1 35 1 22 2 3, 2 5 1 2 , 2 5 , 7 6, 1 35 , 1, 2 5

1 38

1 27

P linius , H ist. n at.

1 35

J osephus, B .J.

I , I , I , I ,

1 2 1 22 , 1 23 , 1 24, 1 37 1 2, 2 5 , 7 6 , 1 24 1 38

7 4f 1 87

1 34 1 34 ,

1 37

1, 2 5 1 20 4 9 , 7 3 1 21 1 43 , 1 70

J osephus , V ita

X V ,

I , 9 0

1, 2 5 ,

V II, 2 3-24

2 5 1 0 , 1 1 2 5 1 0 , 1 1, 2 5 , 1 0 ,

2 9 2 9 2 5, 1 24 1 58 , 1 74

5 6 4 43-449 5 09-513 5 15 5 16-517

I II, 5 42 I V, 1 -83 I V , 2 I V , 4

J osephus , A nt . I V , 9 6 I V , 1 73 V III, 3 6 X III, 3 75

2 5

5 68 5 72-574 5 74 5 91 f

1 36

1 37

2 51

4 0 , 7 0

1 38

1 71