The experimental Didactics of Ernst Otto 9783111546322, 9783111177670

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COCHRAN, E X P E R I M E N T A L DIDACTICS

DR. EMORY E. COCHRAN

THE EXPERIMENTAL DIDACTICS OF ERNST OTTO

W A L T E R DE G R U Y T E R & CO. / B E R L I N vormals G . J. Gösdicn'sche Verlagshandlung / J . Guttentag, Verlagsbuchhandlung Georg Reimer / Karl J . Trübner / Veit & Comp. 1950

Printed in Germany; Satz und Druck: München 13, Schellingstraße 39

INTRODUCTION This book is based on a thesis, "The Experimental Didactics of Ernst Otto," written by the author and submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Education of New York University (IÇ41 ). The first part of this thesis was written at a time when the author was in communication with Dr. Otto, noted educator and former Rector Magnificus of the Deutsche Universität in Prague. With the advent of the second World War, it was no longer possible to secure all of his publications during that period. The original thesis, therefore, was completed at a time when consultation with the man whose work was being evaluated was no longer possible. Since the termination of hostilities, however, the author has received Dr. Otto's more recent books and articles dealing with language and education. Consequently this volume was written to further clarify and interpret the original thesis, and to supplement it with material that has appeared since 1941. Many news sections have been added, some old paragraphs have been omitted, and numerous old sections have been revised. The author wishes to express his heartfelt appreciation to Dr. Otto for his friendly advice and helpful suggestions. New York City, September 1Ç48

EMORY

E.

COCHRAN

CHAPTER I O T T O IN T H E S T R E A M O F M O D E R N

EDUCATION

The Swedish educator, Ellen Key, published in 1900 her epochmaking book, The Century of the Child, in which she foresaw the twentieth century as the era of the child. T w o years later a German translation of the work appeared; in 1909 an English version was published, and by 1915 it had been translated into ten languages. By 1941 her prophecy had become a reality in the broadest sense, for the twentieth century is the century of education from childhood through adulthood. T h e child study movement of the nineties and the further studies of individual differences in the first decades of this century in almost every civilized nation 1 changed the general conception of the child and of his education. This movement cannot be restricted to any one nation or culture. In Germany, however, it had its earliest beginnings and greatest interest, as well as profoundest effect, upon educational practice. 2 Coupled with the fact that experimental education is of German origin, 3 the system of education and experimental didactics developed by the social educator, Ernst Otto, since 1903 will be best understood against a background of German education. It is in this milieu that he has worked and evolved a system of education ; all of his works are written in German. Concurrent educational developments in other countries will be indicated. The twentieth century inherited problems and conflicts, not limited to Germany alone, which had their beginnings in sweeping advances in all fields during the nineteenth century. Philosophers, scientists and statesmen became more concerned with matters of national importance. Literature which is determined by social forces indicates the trends. Writers appeared who felt they had a mission to fulfill, whose desire it was to be interpreters • W. A. Lay, Experimental Pedagogy, New Y o r k : Prentice Hall, 1936, p. 2 f f . Peter Petersen, Die neue europäische Ersiebungsbewegung, Weimar: H. Böhlaus Nachf., 1926. P. ι ff. 3 Lay, op. cit., p. ix. 2

7

of the longings and aspirations of the people. 1 They presented the momentous problems of the day. Twentieth century literature described the clash between the old and the new, capital and labor, classes and masses, autocracy and freedom, church and state, and between tradition and personal conviction. The spirit and tone of the revolt are exemplified in such diverse writers as Gerhart Hauptmann (1862—1946) in Germany, 2 Anatole France (1844—1924) in France, and James Joyce in Ireland. 3 Three main ideas are found in the literature and most clearly expressed by German writers. The first, that man is fashioned by what he experiences, may be traced to Dilthey. 4 He emphasizes that man lives in no artificial atmosphere but in a natural and intimate community with his fellowmen. 5 The second factor is a new conception of freedom based upon greater regard for and evaluation of the individual. It appears in the theory that individuality and personality develop through the free activity of the individual. The third follows then that if individuals are to act upon other individuals there must be a community of feeling and experiencing. Concomitant with this awakening in the intellectual life of the German people was a corresponding phenomenon in the field of education. The century of the child had indeed begun before the beginning of the twentieth century. This great movement, usually called the "Reformbewegung" in education, sought to release the child from the imposition upon him of some outer system in which there was no regard for his natural capabilities, aptitudes and inclinations. Historical

Beginnings

Preceding the turn of the century the function of education in Germany as in other European monarchies was determined and directed by the class or caste system of the old regime. It was so not merely by reason of historical coincidence. It was a well planned policy willed and executed with set and definite purpose. The new youth challenged this system of imposing an external and superior will forcibly and indiscriminately. The most productive elements of these tendencies of revolt fused individual views and aims into a common social ideal. T h e German Youth Movement and the rise of experimental educators and experimental schools at the turn of the century typify the trend. K u n o Francke, A History of German Literature as determined by Social Forces. New Y o r k : H e n r y Holt, 1901. - Gerhart Hauptmann, Die Weber. B e r l i n : S. Fischer, 1892. 3 James Joyce, The Dubliners. L o n d o n : Richards, 1914. * Wilhelm Dilthey ( 1 8 3 3 — 1 9 1 1 ) , Einleitung in die Geisteswissenschaften, Gesammelte Schriften I. Leipzig u. B e r l i n : B. G. Teubner, 1922. 5 Loc. cit., p. 75, 201 f f . , 386 f f . 1

8

Youth

Movement

The German Youth Movement 1 began in 1896 as a spontaneous development among young men and women who desired to escape the busy metropolis, the rigor of the old type school and their conservative homes, and to wander out into the open where they might be themselves. In short they opposed the traditional heritage of home and church and the militaristic state. A s the movement developed, the primary concern shifted from escape and release to a real participation in the solution of the social problems of youth. In voicing their dissatisfaction with the existing order of things they sensed their responsibility for the future and aimed at a full and rounded life emphasizing humanity as opposed to traditional dogma. Educators could not and did not remain unaffected by these new ideas and social forces, or the strivings of the new youth. A s contemporary civilization develops man becomes increasingly active in his attempt to understand the world in which he lives. He is critical of his ideals and has improved material and social conditions affecting him. Means are constantly being developed for controlling economic and social forces for the preservation of the individual and of the larger community. It was natural, therefore, that reaction set in against the ancient misconception of authority, not only of the state but also of the schoolmaster and the family. The concept of freedom implied here resulted in bold experiments in education. Experimental

Schools and Experimental

Educators

Social inertia and the conservatism of mankind tend toward reactionism rather than progressive change. So it is with education. It is considerably more difficult to change existing schools than to found new ones. There has been a sudden and unparalleled appearance in the last fifty years of many and varying attempts to build schools where the new education was to be tried. Hermann Lietz 2 and Gustav Wyneken 3 are prominent in the inception of this movement in Germany. Lietz established at Ilsenburg in 1898 the first of a number of schools which he called Deutsche Landerziehungsheime or homes for education in the country. Gustav Wyneken together with some of his colleagues established in Wickersdorf, in 1906.a free school community. It was hoped that these institutions would further the cause of youth and formulate more clearly the ideas already in their minds. 1

2

3

This movement known in German as the Jugendbewegung originated in 1896 in a pupils' club founded by K a r l Fischer in Steglitz. In 1901 it became known as the W a n d e r v o g e l . Hermann Lietz ( 1 8 6 8 — 1 9 1 9 ) , Emlobstobba, 1897; Dos deutsche Volksschulheim. Warum und wie es werden muß. Langensalza: H. B e y e r und Söhne, 1919. Gustav W y n e k e n (b. 1875), Schule und Jugendkultur. J e n a : E. Diederich, 1912; Der Kampf für die Jugend, J e n a : E. Diederich, 1920.

9

Other "Versuchsschulen", experimental schools, were being established throughout Germany as well as in other countries in which special aspects or a particular system of the new education were being tried. In 1906 Berthold Otto founded his Holbeinschule in Groß-Lichterfelde, a suburb of Berlin. Here freedom became the ideal, the method and the measure of all education. 1 In 1910 Paul Geheeb established another free school community at Odenwald where the social character of education was stressed through the organization of the student body into so-called family groups, in this way continuing the natural education of the home. 2 Both Berthold Otto and Paul Geheeb sensed in the highly individualistic education provided in their experimental schools the social implications upon which Ernst Otto based his system of social education two decades later. About the same time, 1911, H u g o Gaudig developed his "Persönlichkeitsschule"3 in which he stressed the development of the personality, and Ludwig Gurlitt 4 pointed out that the way to overcome prevailing harsh external training was to sponsor the feeling of respect and responsibility which were to be developed in the pupil in the school city which he founded later, 1914. In other countries there was a parallel growth of experimental schools, e. g. Reddie's Abbotsholme, 1889, and Badley's Bedales, 1893, >n England; Dewey's experimental school at Chicago, 1896; Tolstoi's Yasnaia Poliana. 1862, and Shatsky's Experimental Station for Children, 1912, in Russia. While these experimental schools were being set up in Germany and elsewhere, individual experimental educators were concerning themselves with particular aspects of education. In Italy after 1898 Maria Montessori 5 was developing a new method for teaching the kindergarten child on the basis of complete freedom and a training of the senses and muscles. In France Ovide Decroly® was, in 1907, v e r i f y i n g in practice his new method based upon the interests of the child in the lower primary grades. About the same time in Holland Jan Ligthart 7 was experimenting in the public elementary schools with an activity program. In Spain Francisco Ferrer 8 was organizing secondary Berthold Otto ( 1 8 5 9 — 1 9 3 1 ) , Hauslehrerbestrehungen, 1905; Die Reformation der Schule, GroB-Lichterfelde : V e r l a g des Hauslehrers, 1912. A d o ' p h Meyer, The Development of Education in the Twentieth Century, p. 115 f f . 5 Hugo Gaudig ( i 8 6 0 — 1 9 2 3 ) , Didaktische Präludien. L e i p z i g : B. G. Teubner, 1909, and Freie geistige Schularbeit in Theorie und Praxis, Breslau, 1928. 4 L u d w i g Gurlitt ( 1 8 5 5 — 1 9 3 1 ) , Ersiehung sur Mannhaftigkeit. 2. A u f l . B e r l i n : Concordia deutsche Verlagsanstalt, 1906. 5 Maria Montessori (b. 1870), The Montessori Method; scientific pedagogy as applied to child education. New Y o r k : Frederik A . Stokes Co., 1912. • Ovide Decroly ( 1 8 7 1 — 1 9 3 2 ) , L'invitation à l'activité intellectuelle et motrice par les feux éducatifs; contribution à la pédagogie des jeunes enfants et des irréguliers. Neuchâtel: Delachaux et Niestle s. a. 1914. ' Jan Ligthart ( 1 8 5 9 — 1 9 x 6 ) , Over opvoeding; paedagogische opstellen. Groningen: J. B . Wolters, 1914. • Francisco F e r r e r , The Origin and Ideals of the Modem School. Translated by Joseph McCabe. New Y o r k : G. P . Putnam's Sons, 1913. 1

2

10

education as a preparation for life. In a measure "these educators were influenced by the thoughts and principles of Pestalozzi, 1 Fellenberg 2 and Fichte 3 which they applied in modern form 4 or developed in new channels." The experimental schools were characterized by rural surroundings distant from the harmful influences of the city, communion with nature, the natural development of the child, a more natural and, therefore, a more ethical relationship among teachers and among pupils, and between teacher and pupil, a greater degree of freedom and play of activity, particularly outside the classroom, more time spent not only in play and sports but in technical activities and work out of doors. T h e experimental educators and the experimental schools uprooted the concepts of passive learning, imposed discipline and prescribed knowledge, and advocated the "Arbeitsschule", i.e., the activity school, the unity of experience, pupil initiative, creativity and spontaneity. T h e time had come for the new education based upon new educational philosophies and systems. Paul R. Radosavljevich synthesizes the reform movement into twenty characteristics. 5 Adolph E. Meyer resolves these into twelve,® and J. J. Findlay sees only six. 7 The New

Education

Essentially the new education is characterized by three trends giving rise to innumerable variations and specific applications and interpretations, viz. the influence of science, the new conception of the child, and the development of social philosophy in education. There is a progressive succession of ideas, if not of time, in these three trends, each leading naturally to the next and stimulating its development. Ernst Otto developed and worked through the period of these movements toward the new education which he has fostered and furthered. It will become apparent later that his own educational system embraces these three trends in an organic unity in which they are parts without artificial synthesis. Science Science developed during the nineteenth century with unprecedented rapidity. Objective technique and interpretation provided reliable and valid ' Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi ( 1 7 4 6 — 1 8 2 7 ) , Die Abendstunde eines Einsiedlers. Sämtliche Werke 1, p. 263 f f . Berlin u. Leipzig 1927: W a l t e r de Gruyter. Philipp Em. Fellenberg ( 1 7 7 1 — 1 8 4 4 ) , head of charity school at H o f w y l in Switzerland. H e worked with Pestalozzi and also helped develop industrial schools. J Johann Gottlieb Fichte ( 1 7 6 2 — 1 8 1 4 ) , Das System der Sittenlehre. J e n a : C. E. Gabler, 1798. 4 Rudolf Lehmann, Die pädagogische Bewegung der Gegenwart. B e r l i n : Gebrüder Paetel, 1922—1923. ; Paul R. Radosavljevich, Introduction to W . A . L a y : Experimental Pedagogy, p. 106 f f . * M e y e r , op. cit.t p. 61 f f . 1 J. J. Findlay, The Foundations of Education. N e w Y o r k : H e n r y Holt, 1927. 3

II

data concerning man and the world in which he lives. T h e metaphysical character of earlier research in biology and psychology was doomed. Laboratory techniques and controlled observation and experimentation.gave rise to a new conception of man. T h e biological investigations from Lewes, 1 in 1875, to Sherrington, Uexküll, Huxley, Coghill, Hogben, 2 in 1932, and others resulted in the determination of biogenetic principles basic to growth and development. A n organismic point of view rapidly developed. The human being was conceived as a whole dominated by dynamic laws peculiar to the individual. When applied to psychology and education, it required that the individual be regarded as a whole individual with individual tendencies determined by the interplay of inner and outer forces and developing in a direction and at a rate in harmony with his natural maturation. 3 Science also contributed its method to psychology and education. E x perimental psychology may be said to have had its beginning with Wundt's founding of the psychological laboratory in Leipzig in 1879, although Fechner's psycho-physics prepared the way. 4 Experimental pedagogy began about twenty years later with the application of objective scientific methods to education by L a y 5 in 1903 and Meumann· in 1907. Century of the

Child

T h e facts of biological growth and development discovered by scientific investigation in the fields of biology and psychology led into the century of the child. 7 The child was no longer to be looked upon as a miniature adult but as a whole personality of individual integrity. 8 T h e child had his own laws of development and modes of expression.® These had to be respected and considered in any educational situation. Furthermore, the child was a whole organism, and a many-sided education was to be provided for the education of the whole personality. 10 Each child was different George H e n r y Lewes, Problems of Life and Mind. Boston: James R. Osgood and Company, 4 vols., 1S74—1880. - Charles Scott Sherrington, The Integrative Action of the Nervous System. London, 1 9 1 1 ; Jakob Johann Baron von U e x k ü l l , Theoretische Biologie, 2. A u f l . B e r l i n : Gebrüder Paetel, 1920; Julian S. H u x l e y , Problems of Relative Growth. New Y o r k : Lincoln M a c V e a g h , 1932; George Eilet Coghill, Anatomy and the Problem of Behavior. Cambridge: T h e University Press, 1929; Lancelot Hogben, Genetic Principles in Medicine and Social Science. New Y o r k : A l f r e d A . K n o p f , 1932. 1 Raymond Holder Wheeler, Science of Psychology. N e w Y o r k : Thomas Y . Crowell, 1929. 4 Gustav Theodor Fechner ( 1 8 0 1 — 1 8 8 7 ) , Elemente der Psychophysik, i860. 5 W . A . L a y , Experimentelle Didaktik; ihre Grundlegung mit besonderer Rücksicht auf Muskelsinn, Wille und Tat. Wiesbaden, 1903. n Ernst Meumann, Vorlesungen sur Einführung in die experimentelle Pädagogik. Vols. 1 — 3 . Leipzig, 1907—1908. 7 Lehmann, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 23 f f . 8 Wilhelm Dilthey, Ideen zu einer beschreibenden und zergliedernden Psychologie. Gesammelte Schriften, Bd. V , 1924: Ernst Otto, Allgemeine Unterrichtslehre, p. 8. • William Stern, Die différentielle Psychologie, 3rd ed. L e i p z i g : J. A . Barth, 1921; Ernst Otto, Allgemeine Erziehungslehre, p. 242. *· H u g o Gaudig, Die Schule im Dienste der werdenden Persönlichkeit. T w o vols. Leipzig: Quelle und Meyer, 1 9 1 7 ; Ernst Otto, Allgemeine Erziehungslehre, p. 189. 1

12

from other children and individual differences had to be respected. 1 Since the organism was dynamic the child had to be free and unrestricted; education no longer implied passivity but activity, which arises "vom Kinde aus." 2 Social

Philosophy

The absolute freedom of the child in the expression of his personality exists in fact as little as the isolated child. The human being is a social animal that lives and grows in a social community. The development of sociology from the time of Auguste Comte 3 and of the social sciences by Wilhelm Dilthey 4 "stimulated educators to think along lines in which social control is self-imposed" 5 resulting from natural intercourse and reciprocal relationship between individuals. Awareness of the limitations upon the individual results from both natural and artificial education. Special aspects such as character, ethical-moral, vocational and civic education are not ends in themselves. The individual who acts and thinks spontaneously in terms of responsible service to fellowmen is a good citizen, a good worker and a good neighbor. The application of social philosophy and social sciences to education was called social pedagogy by Natorp® who formulated in Germany, in 1899, such a system of education for the first time. 7 The advocates of social pedagogy were convinced that this was the only possible form of education and decried individual pedagogy, "Individualpädagogik".8 Sociologists such as Vierkandt, 9 Tönnies 1 0 and Linde 1 1 in Germany stressed the importance of the community rather than society and influenced pedagogy. The result was a better conception of the essential character of social education which took the form of sociological pedagogy 1 2 and community education, Gemeinschaftserziehung.13 K a r l Bühler, Die geistige Entwicklung des Kindes. 1918, p. 437 f f . ; Ernst Otto, Allgemeine Erziehungslehre, p. 160 f f . 2 Berthold Otto, Vortrag über den Gesamtunterricht, Oct., 21, 1913 ; Ernst Otto, Allgemeine Unterrichtslebre, p. 252. 3 Auguste Comte, Cours de philosophie positive, 6 vols., 1830—1842. I Dilthey, op. cit., p. 139 f f . 5 Wilhelm Hehlmann, Pädagogisches Wörterbuch, Leipzig: A l f r e d Kroner V e r l a g , 1942. P. 32. * Paul Natorp, Sosialpädagogik, 1899, 5th edition. Stuttgart 1922. 7 Paul R. Radosavljewich, unpublished lecture, Dr. Paul Natorp's Deductive Social Pedagogy. 8 Berthold Otto, Kindesmundart. 1908. 9 A l f r e d Vierkandt, Gesellschaftslehre, Hauptprobleme der philosophischen Soziologie. Stuttgart: F. Enke, 1923. 10 Ferdinand Tönnies, Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft, Grundbegriffe der reinen Soziologie. Berlin 1922. II Ernst Linde, Persönlichkeitspädagogik; ein Mahnwort wider die Methodengläubigkeit unserer Tage. Vierte A u f l a g e . L e i p z i g : F . Brandstetter, 1916. 12 Otto Willmann, Über die Erhebung der Pädagogik sur Wissenschaft, 1898; P a u l Barth, Die Geschichte der Erziehung in soziologischer und geisteswissenschaftlicher Beleuchtung. Leipzig: R. O. Reisland, 1911. 19 Georg Kerschensteiner, Begriff der staatsbürgerlichen Erziehting, 1901. 1

13

Ernst

Otto

When the reform movement in education was beginning in Germany Otto was in the midst of his own educational development. T h e year in which the German Youth Movement started, he entered the university (1896). He has thus participated in and been affected directly by the trends of this movement. Otto was aware of each trend, as the three tendencies in the new education led progressively from one to the other, i.e., from science to the century of the child to social philosophy. He had no need for synthesizing what in effect had become three parallel types of education in the hands of their protagonists. Education became for him an organic unity based upon scientifically induced facts and composite historical experience scientifically evaluated. It involves reactions and spontaneous activities determined by the peculiar nature of the child. T h e child is guided and his activities are directed toward and measured by their value to the community. Science Unlike Wundt and Dilthey Otto approaches the field of science as a whole. He disagrees with Wundt's strict separation of sciences into the natural and the humanistic sciences ("Geisteswissenschaften"). Otto objects to such a rigorous division and insists that "it is questionable whether through such differentiation the real unity of things is perceived." 1 Like Windelband 2 Otto seeks a larger unity. Scientific investigation has been concerned chiefly with causality. Otto, on the other hand, accepts the teleological point of view of Rickert 3 and that of Baer 4 who emphasizes the fact that the activity of all organisms is purposeful. "Wherever there is development there is another heuristic principle, viz. the teleological point of view, as suggested by Rickert." 5 " B a e r has already stated emphatically and rightly that organic bodies are themselves p u r p o s e f u l . . . and subject to their own developmental laws." Teleology implies the concept of wholeness and the reciprocal relationship between the organism and its environment. F o r corroboration of this concept Otto refers to Driesch® who like Eduard von Hartmann sees teleology as the outcome of individuality. 7 It is with Uexküll's clear and concise conception of the organism as a whole and the interplay 1 2

3

4 5 c 7

M

Ernst Otto, Die wissenschaftliche Forschung, p. 8. Wilhelm Windelband, Geschichte und Naturzmssenscbaft (orig. ed. 1894). Dritte A u f l . Straßb u r g : Heitz, 1904. Heinrich Rickert, Die Grenzen der naturwissenschaftlichen Begriffsbildung (orig. ed. 1896). Leipzig J. C. B. Mohr, (P. Siebeck), 1902. K . E. von Baer, Über die Zielstrebigkeit in den organischen Körpern, 1876, p. 227. Ernst Otto, op. cit., p. 20, 33. Hans Driesch, Philosophie des Organischen, p. 316 f f . Ernst Otto, op. cit., p. 23.

of inner and outer factors 1 that Otto is most in accord and he is "in agreement with Uexkiill's pointed formulation of functional spheres and the relationship of the organism and the environment." 2 The development of the organism as a whole is itself a purposeful activity. This developmental process is a maturing on levels and at rates determined by the organism. Otto utilizes the results of the experimentation in two fields, animal psychology and child psychology, and draws from works of William Stern 3 and K a r l Bühler 4 and Kurt Kofifka 5 in child psychology and W o l f g a n g Köhler® in animal psychology. 7 Otto refutes Wundt's concept of teleology according to which the concept of purpose is only a retrospective view of causality. 8 Others including Meumann have raised objections to this point of view. Dittrich, Wundt's pupil, for example, "agrees with him—but in practice does quite the opposite." 9 Both Wundt's Völkerpsychologie, published in 1900, and Dittrich's Sprachpsychologie, published in 1890, are too onesided since they "do not recognize the reciprocal relationship between i n d i v i d u a l s . . . and the fact that individual psychology presupposes the living together of individuals in a community." 10 The psychology of language of both Dittrich and Wundt, however, and especially Wundt's experimentalism "are important contributions to the spheres of research." 1 1 It is from Meumann that Otto derives "the experimental and scientific bases for education". From the experiments and writings of Meumann, Otto is able to arrive at his own principles of experimental didactics and education. Otto starts from a conception of education formulated by Meumann 12 whom he quotes to set the tone for his own volume on methodology and didactics. " I f education is not to become again a degenerate science it must receive a new scientific foundation in accordance with the present state of our philosophical, medical and natural scientific disciplines. In its relationship to human society education will have to be founded upon the social sciences, too. A s individual education it must strive to utilize scienJakob Johann Baron von UexküU, Theoretische Biologie, p. 197 f f . ; Umweit und Innenwelt der Tiere, 2. A u f l . B e r l i n : V e r l a g v o n Julius Springer, 1921, p. 44 f f . Ernst Otto, Allgemeine Unterrichtslehre, p. 4. 3 William Stern, Tatsachen und Ursachen der seelischen Entwicklung, 1908. 4 K a r l Bühler, Die geistige Entwicklung des Kindes. 5 K u r t K o f f k a , Die Grundlagen der psychischen Entwicklung. Eine Einführung in die Kinderpsychologie, 1921. 6 Wolfgang Köhler, Intelligensprüfungen an Menschenaffen, 1917; English translation. T h e Mentality of Apes, by Ella W i n t e r . N e w Y o r k : Harcourt Brace and Co., 1927. 7 Ernst Otto, op. cit., p. 11 f f . 8 Ernst Otto, Die wissenschaftliche Forschung, p. 23 f f . 8 Ibid., p. 24. '· Loc. cit. » Ibid., p. 17 f f . 12 Ernat Meumann, Vorlesungen sur Einführung in die experimentelle Pädagogik, 1911—1914. 1

2

15

tifie methods, devices and results of experimental psychology, as well as oí child study (psychology, anatomy and physiology, anthropometry, pathology and psycho-pathology of children) together with all other disciplines which have any bearing upon education such as logic and the scientific method, ethics, esthetics, and the psychology of religion." 1 Otto accepts as his own the norm of experimental didactics established by Meumann, viz. the economy and hygiene of learning. 2 He develops Meumann's multiple sense appeal in instruction into his own principle of maximum intensity in learning. Otto also applies the results of Meumann's experiments in whole and part learning and the relationship between language and thinking to his didactics of language learning.* New Conception

of the

Child

Since Otto is the product of the century of the child and its various tendencies and directions overlap, it is difficult to determine the particular source of one or another idea. Otto's writings are replete with reference to all of the experimental educators discussed above. The attempt must be made, therefore, to select those influences which Otto emphasizes. The reform movement started with the slogans "alles vom Kinde aus" and "lasset die Kindlein zu sich kommen." These are the words over the door of one of the "Gemeinschaftsschulen" in Berlin. It looks upon the child as the center of the school, and the children determine what is to be studied in school. In extreme cases, reformers feel that any restriction or limitation, e.g., a curriculum, is superfluous; marks and promotion are cruelties ; all study in school or at home is voluntary. To this end they seek to develop even in the youngest child his creative tendencies. Instruction is played down to a minimum. These are some of the characteristics of "Gesamtunterricht" ,4 These tendencies, although extreme, had beneficial effect upon education. Educators were made aware, in this way, of the psychological and physiological facts of individual differences in interests, aptitudes and inclinations. Eduard Spranger whose point of view resembles Otto's conceives the child as a whole belonging to a type. Spranger bases his typology upon the general direction of individual differences and inclinations of children. For both Otto and Spranger love plays a large role in education. The educator, according to Spranger, is a social type of human being who, in his love for 1 Ernst Otto, Methodik und Didaktik, - Ibid., p. 6 ff. 3 Ibid., p. 7o ff. * Berthold Otto, op. cit.

ι6

p. s·

the child but without neglecting the intellectual, wishes to assist in the whole development of the child toward worth-while living. 1 The slogan "vom Kinde aus" was applied most extensively by Berthold Otto. B y studying the characteristics and nature of the child he adopted educational procedures suited to the child's development. Instruction was guided by the special interests and needs of the individual child who was always free, and instruction was replaced by the spontaneous development of the whole child. These ideas of Berthold Otto as well as his more specialized concept of Gesamtunterricht, instruction of the whole, and Kindesmundart, child speech, which were developed as early as 1900 are partially recognized by Ernst Otto. 2 There is nothing especially new about these ideas except perhaps the emphasis and corroboration by science. Rousseau had recommended earlier that books be banned from instruction as long as possible ; nature was the best teacher. Pestalozzi strove for a harmonious development of the whole child, the head, the heart and the hand, and based it upon education by work, i.e. doing. 8 The child was to be educated to self-dependence and self-discovery. All help of others is only help to self-help. The best one can do for the human being is to teach him to take care of himself. 4 Natorp and Otto began from the same premise that the human being develops through experience. 5 This experience is the human experience of individual in contact with other individuals. Natorp was the first to revive interest in Pestalozzi and rightfully called his pedagogy social pedagogy. Pestalozzi emphasized the fact that the individual does not exist for his own sake but to fulfill himself in his fellowmen. Only in a community is the individual a human being, only through community education does the human being become a rational being from an instinctive being, and the ethical-moral education of the individual human being in the community leads to the humanization of the state.® Otto, however, differs with Natorp who bases his conception of values upon Plato. Otto denies that Natorp is correct in assuming that the entire experiential world of the individual is identical with that of the community. 7 Otto's main criticism in a ten page evaluation of Natorp is that Natorp is too philosophical and not sufficiently psychological in his system of education. "Natorp uses Plato to protect himself against psychology." 8 Ernst Otto, Wert und Wirklichkeit, p. 68 f f . Ernst Otto, Allgemeine Unterrichtslehre, p. 25: f f . a Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, Die Abendstunde eines Einsiedlers, vol. I. p. 287 f. * Pestalozzi, Wie Gertrud ihre Kinder lehrt, vol. X I I I , p. 235; Ernst Otto, Strafe als Sicherung und Erziehungsmitlei, Monatsschrift f ü r höhere Schulen, Juli-August, 1927, p. 295. 5 Ernst Otto, Allgemeine Ersiehungslehre, ρ. 1 f f . 9 Paul Natorp, Sosialpädagogik, 1922. 7 Ernst Otto, Allgemeine Ersiehungslehre, p. 17 f f . 8 Ibid., p. 20. 1

2

2

T h e Experimental Didactics

17

Georg Kerschensteiner by his simple and direct style of writing has exerted even a greater influence than Natorp. 1 He and his Arbeitsschule providing staatsbürgerliche Ersiehung, education for citizenship, are also grounded in Pestalozzi. 2 Kerschensteiner and Otto are in closer accord because of the practical nature of Kerschensteiner's system of education. In fact the spontaneous character of the educational and developmental activities of the individual is the fundamental point of agreement between Kerschensteiner and Otto. 3

Social

Philosophy

Emphasis upon individual differences and the complete initiative of the child in education had to be balanced by a realization that the child does not exist by and for himself. Only in a community with other human beings can the child develop. The reform movement took on a new aspect when educators recognized this deficiency and met it with a new type of education, viz. social education. A t first the tendency was toward sociological pedagogy that began about 1900, the main representatives of which were Paul Bergemann 4 and Paul Barth. 5 The emphasis of Bergemann and Barth upon positivistic sociology was not shared by Otto. Otto never agreed with their conception of education as subordinate to sociology and as merely a sociological discipline. In his earlier works Otto freqently refers to Barth's stress upon the great truth "that in all fields of human society the self-consciousness of the individual and also of the community is constantly growing . . . . With increasing knowledge of the environment each individual becomes more capable of determining himself and his conditions instead of being determinded by them."® Otto draws the inference from this principle of Barth that as the individual develops he frees himself more and more of outer factors and acquires the ability to act independently. This is essentially the sociological basis for Otto's conception of spontaneity. With the publication of Natorp's Sozialpädagogik, 1899, education took on a social aspect in its own right. Education was not to be subservient to the principles of sociology. It was a recognition of the fact that man becomes man only through human society. Education through society included character and personality education. Natorp's social philosophy, however, Willibald Klatt, Unser Kind und die Schule, Dessau: C. Dünnhaupt V e r l a g , 1926, p. 80 f. Georg Kerschensteiner, Begriff der staatsbürgerlichen Erziehung, Berlin-Leipzig, 1901. Ernst Otto, op. cit., p. 270 f f . 4 P a u l Bergemann, Soziale Pädagogik. G e r a : T . H o f m a n n , 1900. ' Paul Barth, Die Geschichte der Erziehung in soziologischer und geisteswissenschaftlicher Beleuchtung, L e i p z i g : 0 . R. Reisland, 1911. • Ernst Otto, Die wissenschaftliche Forschung, p. 22. 1

2

3

l8

had to be translated into educational practice before it had value for Otto. Otto criticizes Natorp's "method as not being sociological," 1 although his thinking is. Natorp's inability to grasp the real relationship between the individual and society compelled Otto to look elsewhere. Through a careful study and analysis of the works of A l f r e d Vierkandt and Ferdinand Tönnies, Otto develops logically, in the Allgemeine Erziehungslehre, the bases for his own social education. 2 Vierkandt's four fundamental social relationships, which he sets forth in his Gesellschaftslehre, a study of the major problems of philosophical sociology, Otto found interesting, but not satisfactory. 3 Otto reduced these to two, viz. love and achievement (power), "Liebe" and "Leistung" ( " M a c h t " ) , which become the original and basic relationships of social life and education. 4 Tönnies developed in his Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft a theory of community and society which is "the basic sociological work." 8 For Tönnies the community is real and organic l i f e ; society is an ideal and mechanistic structure. The family is an example of the community, and the corporation is a typical form of society. Otto, on the other hand, raises the question: "But does the real spirit of community and intimate union prevail in every family, in every nation? This question can hardly be answered in the affirmative ! One need merely look at families as they really exist, or as Zola, Hauptmann and Strindberg depict them. And our state, our nations of today ! Where does the spirit of community reign? The dividing line between society and community must be determined otherwise." 6 The community is for Otto an idea and an ideal, something that ought to be. On the other hand by the term society he understands all unions empirically founded, such as family, state, school, parents' associations and the like. " T h e community is their ideal, and endless task." 7 T h e community is the goal toward which all human relationships are directed. It supplies the goal and measure of education. T h e problem of education is to convert empirical unions into ideal communities. T h e individual must be guided to a sense of power and love as the structure for the community. The task of education is to form personalities directed by the feelings of responsibility and love. Power is the ability to achieve, i.e., the power for responsible service in and to the community. 8 Ernst Otto, Allgemeine Erziehunyslehre, p. 23. Ibid., p. 24 f f . 3 Ibid., p. 26. 4 Ibid., p. 31 f. 3 Ibid., p. 32. 8 Ernst Otto, op. cit., p. 36. 7 Loc. cit. ' Ernst Otto, Wert und Wirklichkeit, p. 77. 1

2

2*

19

Otto, Meumann, Spranger and

Kerschensteiner

T h e three tendencies of the new education, science, the new conception of the child and social philosophy, are typified in Meumann, Spranger and Kerschensteiner. More than any others these three educators warrant study, for they bear closest resemblance to Otto. A comparison between Otto and Meumann, Spranger and Kerschensteiner respectively brings into focus the points of difference and similarity. Otto and Meumann Meumann attempts to give scientific basis to education by means of experiment. His work 1 is the result of pedagogical and pedological investigation and experimentation performed under controlled conditions in the laboratory. Otto, however, strives to provide systematic education with a scientific foundation in practice. Otto is philosophical and experimental in a didactic sense. Meumann investigated experimentally the mental abilities of the child and adolescent from a pedagogical viewpoint including attention, perception, memory, speech, feeling, will and intelligence. H e studied, further, the psycho-physical activities of the school child involving the economy and hygiene, technique, and fatiguing and conditioning factors of work. He experimented with special applications of his theories to concrete object instruction, reading, writing, speaking, arithmetic and language learning. 2 Otto, on the other hand, devoted his experimental pedagogical investigations to the method of scientific investigation and the methodology of instruction based on the maturation, active adaptability and receptivity of the pupil. He attempted to discover how knowledge and ability may be most appropriately acquired with a view to later life. Furthermore,he investigated the means whereby the educational content of cultural heritage may be applied most successfully in instruction and in the organization of various educational systems. His experimental didactics are the result of his study of the didactics of instructional guidance, i.e., reactive guidance, which develops later into spontaneous self-guidance. 3 Finally Otto attempted to give scientific basis to education and self-education through activity. Otto as well as other experimental educators, e.g., L a y (1862—1926), agree with Meumann in his insistence upon providing education with a scientific basis but differ from him essentially. Meumann was too close to the initial phases of laboratory science and laboratory psychology not to 1

2

3

20

Ernst Meumann ( 1 8 6 2 — 1 9 1 5 ) , Vorlesungen zur Einführung in die experimenteile Pädagogik. Leipzig: W . Engelmann, 1907. Ibid.; Ökonomie und Technik des Gedächtnisses, 1912; Abriß der experimentellen Pädagogik. Leipzig: W . Engelmann, 1914. Ernst Otto, Allgemeine Unterrichtslehre, p. 241 f f .

have been influenced by them. H e performed his educational experiments in the laboratory neither testing nor applying them in real life situations. Meumann seemed "to v i e w experimental education as experimental psychology or factual research." 1 Otto, like L a y , looks upon laboratory experiments in education as artificial abstractions. Otto recommends that the educator become familiar with and benefit f r o m laboratory experimentation ; but the laboratory experiment is incomplete and must be verified in the actual instructional situation. In this sense Otto's experiments are practical and within the reality of life. F o r Otto the education and the instruction which are best are the ones which w o r k best and get the best results with the least expenditure of time and energy and by simplest means. 2

Otto and

Spranger

Spranger, 3 like Otto, applies Dilthey's social-scientific principle of understanding to education as well as to psychology. T h i s concept involves an understanding of the human being as a purposeful whole structure ( " Z w e c k z u s a m m e n h a n g " ) . T h e direction, teleology, of the development of the human being is determined by the life plan inherent in the organism. Spranger synthesizes the directional tendencies which are the bases o f individual differences into life types. T h i s typology becomes the point of departure for a developmental psychology of childhood and adolescence to be applied in education. Spranger differentiates six formal and material types which become apparent in the l i f e plan of the maturing human being, viz. the theoretic, economic, esthetic, social, power and religious type. Otto in agreement with Spranger recognizes that individuals may be classified in accordance with the value relationships or objective life spheres in which they function. 4 E a c h life sphere is regulated by a special normative law. T h e six laws, according to Spranger, are the normative law of economy, i.e., the principle of least expenditure of e n e r g y ; the normative law of esthetics, i.e., the principle of f o r m ; the normative law of science, i. e., the principle of cause ( " G r u n d " ) ; the normative law of power, i. e., the inexorability of rule and order; the normative law of community, inherent in l o y a l t y ; the normative regulation of religious behavior, i.e., the total form of life, morality. 5 1 L a y , op. cit., p. V . * Ernst Otto, Methodik und Didaktik, p. 6. ' Eduard Spranger (born 1882), Lebensformen, Halle ( S a a l e ) , 1930; Psychologie des Jugendalters, Leipzig, 1924. 4 Ibid, p. 279; Ernst Otto, Wert und Wirklichkeit, p. 77 f f . ; infra, Chapter I I . 5 E. Spranger, op. cit., p. 70 f f . , p. 357 f f ; Ernst Otto, Wert und Wirklichkeit, p. 77.

21

Otto, on the other hand, postulates only five directions which he classifies differently than Spranger. Otto looks upon esthetics as the sister of science, for both esthetics and science have the same purpose, viz. to interpret the world. T h e difference between science and art lies only in the fact that science analyzes the wholeness of life in abstract concepts and ideas, while art preserves the wholeness of life in objective symbols. 1 Otto agrees with Spranger concerning economics. Theory has for him a much broader, spiritual and intellectual sense. 2 The nature of power is not to be sought in the formal will of rule and order. T h e sense of power, i.e. achievement, is responsible service in and to the community. 3 Spranger's social type Otto insists is, in reality, a love type. But society must embrace achievement as well as love, for love alone is an insufficient basis for the community. Loyalty is an essential characteristic of the power relationship rather than of love, for the relationship of leader and follower rests on loyalty. Otto defines more sharply the relationship of individual values and individuality to religion and morals. 4 Spranger's social type Otto insists is, in reality, a love type. But society of education is the love of one individual devoted to the mind of another through which the mind of the child is developed toward full, worthwhile living. 5 Otto decries this onesided conception of education which is for him the process of reciprocal reaction between two or more individuals in the direction of all the value realization. Instruction, on the other hand, is the explanation of cultural heritage; education is always the guidance of personalities capable of love and achievement toward responsible service in the community.® T o education and instruction Otto adds religion in its specific, not merely formal sense. 7 Otto regrets keenly the formal rationality of our occidental thought which stifles warmheartedness. He also regrets that the desired peace of soul is choked by the restless activity of the people of western Europe. According to Spranger directions—which he does not sharply distinguish from psycho-physical functions—are arranged in a vertical scale, forming a system of higher and lower values. Otto's system, however, is a structure o f definite directions within a framework characterized by tension, which corresponds to life tensions. • Ernst Otto, Wert und Wirklichkeit, s Infra, Chapter I I . ' E m s t Otto, Ibid., p. 93 f f . ' Ibid., p. 32 f f . 5 Spranger, op. cit., p. 378 f f . 1 Supra, p. 19. 1 Ibid., p. 193 f f .

22

p. 28 f f .

Otto and

Kerschensteiner

Kerschensteiner perhaps more than any other contemporary experimental educator has developed a system of education akin to that of Otto. Although they begin from divergent fields of subject matter, Kerschensteiner and Otto are in accord in emphasizing Arbeitsunterricht as the method, and responsible service in the community as the goal of education. Kerschensteiner's theory of education is the result of his experience in the field of natural science. 1 Otto's activity in the field of modern languages is the basis for his educational concepts and most of his works deal with teaching and learning languages. Kerschensteiner, as superintendent of the Munich school system, has concentrated his efforts on the continuation, vocational and adult evening schools. Otto, on the other hand, has concerned himself chiefly with academic secondary and higher education and, particularly, with the improvement of modern language instruction. Kerschensteiner looks upon the aim of education as the development of better citizens.2 Citizenship includes not only a detailed and comprehensive study of civics, but also vocational training, character and personality education, and the spiritual improvement of society. He seeks to attain this goal by means of an activity program, within a unified school system, directed toward the development of character. Character training involves strength of will, clarity of judgment, refinement of feeling and intellectual awakening. Kerschensteiner recommends self-education through self-mastery and advocates self-government in education.3 He is influenced in his pragmatic philosophy by American educators, especially John Dewey, many of whose pragmatic views he shares, according to Meyer. 4 On the basis of his theory ofvalues and conception of interests Kerschensteiner recommends "Arbeitsunterricht as the organization of the school in which character education supercedes everything. The sense of Arbeitsunterricht is with a minimum of subject matter to free a maximum of abilities and skills and joy in work in civic service." 5 Otto looks upon education from the point of view of wholeness and attempts to formulate a pattern of education and instruction within which specific concepts are differentiated. He begins with an overall pattern of values and reality and seeks to determine individual values and individual tendencies within this larger concept without immediate reference to prag1 8 5 4 5

Georg Kerschensteiner (1854—1932), Wesen und Wert des naturwissenschaftlichen Unterrichts, Leipzig und Berlin, 1928. Georg Kerschensteiner, Der Begriff der staatsbürgerlichen Ersiehung, Leipzig und Berlin, 1901. Georg Kerschensteiner, Theorie der Bildung, Leipzig und Berlin, 1926. Adolph Meyer, op. cit., p. 89. Georg Kerschensteiner, Der Begriff der staatsbürgerlichen Ersiehung, p. 17.

23

matic results. Otto bases his method on the universal which he differentiates in practical application. 1 Kerschensteiner, on the other hand, begins with the practical which he tests by trial and error. This essential difference distinguishes Otto's educational system from that of Kerschensteiner. Otto replaces activity by achievement which is neither technical nor practical objective experience 8 but rather responsible activity in the service of the community and the nation as a whole. The goal of responsible activity in the community is fundamental to Otto's contribution to social education and the community. Kerschensteiner speaks of activity and activity instruction. 8 Otto is more concerned with responsible spontaneity which is "achievement that may not be refused out of a sense of responsibility to fellowmen and posterity." 4 For Otto education is involved in two polar tensions, viz. achievement (power) and love. Power is not force, but the power to achieve. 5 In terms of the teacher it is the ability to guide, and often implies leadership. It is essentially the power to guide responsible spontaneity toward socially valuable goals. O f Kerschensteiner's overemphasis on kindness and love Otto says "Mere humanity is not sufficient to keep people or house in order. W e must not overlook this especially since modern educators, e.g., Georg Kerschensteiner, who in his works 6 follows Spranger, overemphasize the love aspect of the human being but overlook the importance of power and guidance." 7 Achievement and love, guidance and kindness, are to be brought into harmonious relationship before they function properly. Although there is apparent disagreement in the development of the educational systems of Kerschensteiner and Otto, there is in reality a larger basic accord. Both Kerschensteiner and Otto have arrived at a realization that in whatever activity the human being participates there can be only one purpose, viz. the social weal. No activity, no education and no occupation can be judged by any set of values except that of social good. Stratification into planes of economic occupation and degree and type of education become meaningless when the social value is kept in mind and the measuring rod of significance in and to the community is applied. T h e concept of wholeness implies relativism. The community as a whole is the result of influence of the individual upon other individuals and they, in turn, upon him. There is reciprocity also in the development of history 1 ! 3 4 5 0 7

24

Ernst Otto, Wert und Wirklichkeit, p. 65 f f . Georg Kerschensteiner, Theorie der Bildung, p. 471. G e o r g Kerschensteiner, Der Begriff der Arbeitsschule, Ernst Otto, Allgemeine Unterrichtslehre, p. 217. Ernst Otto, Allgemeine Ersiehungslehre, p. 274. G e o r g Kerschensteiner, Die Seele des Ersiehers, 1921. Ernst Otto, op. cit., p. 206.

1912.

between the movement and the individuals constituting it. Otto has been influenced by the three major tendencies of the reform movement in education, viz. science, the century of the child and social philosophy. On the other hand, he has developed his system of education from a universal pattern which, in turn, may contribute to the continuing progress of education. T h e influence of science upon education resulted in a new conception of the child who had to be interpolated into a community by means of social education. E a c h of these specialized types of onesided education arose as a means f o r satisfying the requirements of increased knowledge. Otto in his achievement program realizes the unity and wholeness of education in which the needs of the individual and of the community are met in scientifically sound fashion resulting in the betterment of the individual and the community reciprocally.

25

C H A P T E R II ERNST OTTO'S

"BILDUNGSSYSTEM"

(EDUCATION AND Cultural

INSTRUCTION)

Philosophy

"Bildung" is a much disputed term. The goals it sets up vary both according to space and time, and according to the particular characteristics of nations. It, therefore, becomes the task of pedagogical science to set up — within a frame-work transcending time — a general ideal of "Bildung", and then to fill up this general frame-work, as far as possible, in accordance with the special demands of specific nations, and with due regard to the needs of any definite period (time). The General Ideal of

"Bildung"

It is an extremely difficult task to fathom the depths of this projected concept. It may be noted at the outset that Otto is emphatic in stating that all educational activities are to be tested in terms of value to the community. He, therefore, sets up specific objectives or goals directed to and in turn determined by the general social aim of education. Moreover, no subject of instruction may possess specific goals that supercede or are at variance with the general aim of all education. Only a gradual approach may be made to the essential determining characteristics of this ideal by starting, first of all, from "reality." A f t e r "reality" has been thoroughly analyzed, the validity of tendencies bearing on the future is to be tested critically. This, however, is the very problem. W h a t is never gives us definite information in regard to what ought to be. There is wide divergence between empirical experience and what is to be realized as established by norms in the future. There is, however, no other way than this. 26

Reality comprises not only mere facts, for all that has come into existence is the expression of productive ideas concerning what ought to be; not all of these ideas, however, may be characterized as ideals ("Ideen") of genuine volition. Nevertheless, in so far as w e seek to grasp general ideas, we do not inquire about single motives of individual action in this or that concrete situation. W e concern ourselves, rather, in a very general way with the prevailing motives that influence human striving and human behavior. There is, however, no disorderly confusion of categories as a basis for the total reality of our spiritual world ; on the contrary, in our reality there are revealed certain directions ("Geistesrichtungen") : from time immemorial men have spoken of the good, the true, and the beautiful, and, more recently, of the holy (the absolute). It, therefore, becomes a problem of "discovering" in their totality the basic categories that lie concealed in reality — in the sense of the Greek aletheia — and of gaining an insight into the relationship such basic categories bear to each other. This geeneral basis, i.e. the graded totality of "working" directions (ideas), is an understandable graded structure of orderly categories with overlapping connotation. 1 Let us, therefore, search for this general and comprehensive structure of our cultural existence, so that we may then fathom the universal educational ideal. A t the beginning we are concerned with the immanent sense of these "overlapping" tendencies. In considering living creatures, especially man, we may proceed from the tendencies of natural evolution. Moreover, insight into the process of "Bildung" affords a means of penetrating more deeply into the meaning of sense directions. But only a humanistic ("geisteswissenschaftlich") interpretation of human life can reveal approximately the essential meaning of this process, and only by relying on historical consciousness can we hope to grasp the meaning of our existence and, at the same time, to understand the prevailing motives of a general ideal of "Bildung." Natural

Development

From these viewpoints Otto first considers (in the opening pages of his Allgemeine Unterrichtslehre) the natural development of plants, animals, and human beings. H e sees in development a normative process embracing integration and disintegration. 2 There is on the one hand qualitative and quantitative differentiation and, on the other, integration of the total mind and body. The tensions caused by these two processes, the breakdown of 1 In regard to " o v e r l a p p i n g " , see p. 33 f. below. ' Allgemeine Unterrichtslehre, p. 6 f f . ; Wert und Wirklichkeit,

p. 62.

27

unity and the striving for its reestablishment is in its widest descriptive of life and more specifically of maturation.

sense

Differentiation and integration are not to be considered as unrelated and opposite terms but rather as different aspects of a single, whole, dynamic process. T h e organism as a whole becomes differentiated in its development, but the differentiated parts are integrated and orienated through the whole ; "the differentiated individual acquires wholeness again in the process of i n t e g r a t i o n ; . . . the intellectual character of society is not composed of separate parts but is a whole that develops into concrete individual manifestations in man." Otto agrees with other psychologists, especially Krüger, 1 that growth is essentially a structural wholeness in character. T h e outer factors, the conditions that are involved in differentiation become integrated within the individual ; if no inner process of integration or determining pattern existed "the learning individual would be diffused by the variety of impinging forces from the outer world." Since life and consciousness may be considered as "intention," the development of organisms includes both "conditions" ("Bedingungen") and "directions" ("Richtkräfte"). The conditions include influences of the geophysical "outer world," the geopsychic experience of the "milieu" and the experienced factors of the "environment". In biology directions are also called drives, "dynamic agents," "powers," or "dominants." These tendencies are not to be confused with mechanical movements; they are, rather, autonomous forces (partly reactive, partly spontaneous) of "self-adjustment." Moreover man learns how to transform the conditions of his environment. The Process

of

"Bildung"

In contrast to unsystematic development, "Bildung" denotes an integral, purposeful, planned process of care, education and instruction. "Bildung" of the child is, at first, essentially heteronomous help to self-help, until the mature rational being himself takes charge of the formation of his personality in the community (in society). The process of "Bildung" includes the following possibilities : ι. Changing outside essential conditions for life, i.e., of the outer world, of the milieu, and of the environment. That is the core idea of "milieu pedagogy." 2. The "acquisition by practice" ("Einübung") of knowledge and skills, i.e. of understanding and ability. This can result through training, i.e., by 1

28

F . K r ü g e r , Über psychische

Ganzheit,

1 9 2 6 ; Strukturpsychologie,

1924.

"getting used to what is strange" by another person, or "by getting used to one's self," in which case the process is autonomous. 3. "Exercise" ("Übung") of the sensory functions of perception, retention, and especially of thought. The motor functions can also be exercised, i.e., perfected by activity. "Einübung" means association, whereas exercise is the refining of complex structures and the increasing of functional exactness. Both processes are promoted by voluntary attention. What has been called "material schooling" is essentially "Einübung." Associative "Einübung" saves mental energy, while the psychophysical act subsides with only slight expenditure of consciousness. 4. "Übung" and "Einübung" are to be distinguished from "Mitübung," i.e., the concomitant effect ("Überstrahlen") of exercise on related functional activities that are not directly exercised. Thus deep study of mathematical problems serves (by concomitant exercise) to facilitate the theoretical mastery of problems in other scientific fields. If we scrutinize the discussions between Babbit, Dearborn, Dewey, James, Judd, Meumann, Morgan, Morris, Payne, Pillsbury, Reed, Roark, Sleight, Stern, Thomas, Thorndike, Wang, Winch and others, it may seem that " M i t ü b u n g ' is, intrinsically, to be traced back to a greater mastery of voluntary attention, thus coming under the concept of discipline, i.e., of "formal schooling." 5. Adjustment ("Ausrichtung") of our directive forces ("geistige Richtkräfte"), i.e., of our feeling-charged will. Feelings and will are inseparable. In contrast to the above mentioned "functions", we are here considering "spiritual acts," the "longing" and "interest" of rational human beings. Since the degree of intensity of the will can be enlivened only by loosening feeling, the spiritual is not susceptible to "exercise." Pestalozzi, there fore, speaks again and again of the "stimulation" of "forces ' and of the "frame of mind." Moreover, in so far as "directions" denote primarily directive forces, hence also selfimposed purposiveness, the course of these directions may be "directed" to moral-religious actions. Therein is the essence of "Bildung." Drives and instincts, too, are to be subordinated to our executed ("ausgerichtet") will based on reason. Instruction and education can, to be sure, further the adjustment of our spirituality by "clarifying ' intellectually our moral-religious views, and by directing the motives of our activity into fixed channels. In harmony with this view W . James recommends : " A c cumulate all the possible circumstances which shall reinforce the right motives, put yourself assiduously in conditions that encourage the new way ; make engagements incompatible with the old; take a public pledge, if the case allows ; in short, envelope your resolution with every aid you know." 1 1

W. James, Talks on Psychology, New York 1925, p. 68.

29

The Fundamental

Directions

of our Striving for

and their Immanent

Value

Sense

W i t h this idea we revert to the questions posed at the outset : W h a t are the fundamental directions of our volition? W h a t "sense" ("Sinn") do they have for us? There is thus opened up the possibility of a general educational ideal, i.e., of a comprehensive framework into which may be fitted the special "Bildung"-ideal of various peoples. 1 It is a fact that human consciousness is always connected with something, with an object. This splitting up of consciousness into subject and object may be expressed by the formula S - ^ O , which means that there is inherent in the subject an intended relationship with an object. This purposivness varies greatly, viz. whether a subject is referred to an inanimate thing (S—>-Th), or to another subject in which responsive reaction can take place (S •*—> S). In the third place there is a possible relationship between the subject and the absolute. Since in this case the human being is, essentially, "seized" by God, we designate this relationship as A S. These three different relationships thus permeate our universe : ι. The simple relationship of a subject to an (inanimate) thing: S 2. The responsive reaction between two or more subjects:

Th.

Sn •*—*• Sn.

3. The interrelationship between the absolute and mortal subjects:

A-*-Sn.

A proper understanding of these relationships is necessary to appreciate Otto's contention that the individual human being can exist only as a part of society. The effect of the individual upon other individuals and social forces, and the effect of other individuals and social forces upon the individual make up the pattern which determines and which is determined by all acts of men. Otto is described, therefore, as a social educator and his educational philosophy as social education. There is no doubt that human beings stand in quite a different relationship to the objectivations of this world, and to each other, than they do to God. The three alternatives of H. Rickert (which overlap in various ways), viz. things—persons, unsocial—social, contemplation—activity amount practically to the three relationships which have been listed above. 2 Each of these relationships is bipolar. The relationship of man to an inanimate thing may be either of a theoretical-investigating or of apractical1

8

30

Ernst Otto, Allgemeine Unterrichtslehre, p. 119 f f . ; Wert und Wirklichkeit, ρ. 27 f f . , 61 f f . ; Die Struktur der geistigen Welt, Kantstudien, Bd. X X X I V (192g), H e f t 1/2. H . Rickert, System der Philosophie I, Tübingen 1921, p. 353 f f . ; Logos I V ( 1 9 1 3 ) , p. 304 f f . C f . this classification with Κ . Jaspers' three kinds of attitudes ( " E i n s t e l l u n g e n 1 ' ) , Psychologie der Weltanschauungen, Berlin 1925, p. 52 f f .

operative nature. The moral responsive reactions of human beings, in their association with each other, are power and love, as E. Spranger has already envisaged; 1 however, the power of leaders, conscious of their responsibility, is not to be confused with the crude violence of dictators; Otto therefore prefers the expression "achievement" ("Leistung"). The interrelationship existing between man and the absolute is the bridge between this world and the other world. A l l life is a dialectic process of differentiation and integration entailing a struggle for an appropriate adaptation and balance, as we have already seen above. It is thus evident that a simple arrangement of value directions in a linear scale of importance is untenable, as N. Hartmann has noticed. 2 B e f o r e we can inquire about the gradation of this scaled arrangement of relative importance, it is imperative that we investigate "the sense" of the listed categories of value directions. B y "sense" we do not understand the simple signification of a word, a sentence, a report, or a book. W e interpret "sense," rather, as implying a particular touch of volition by our feeling. W e have already employed the word "longing" ("Sehnsucht") to express this idea. It corresponds to the Chinese and Japanese word "tao," which Rich. Wilhelm has interpreted as being the equivalent of way or direction. There is, consequently, real need to detect the ideally-typical, normmeasured, essential sense of the five categories to which reference has been made. T o this end let us ascertain the "principles" ("Gesetzlichkeiten") characterising each of the five categories. ι. Theory seeks truth and comes under the norm of knowledge-volition, viz. of science. 2. Practical operative spontaneity ("Schaffen") obeys the mandates of economy. The fundamental law of technical science is : most complete work with the least effort, or maximum success with least expenditure of work. Each daily manipulation must be made with a view to economizing energy, time and material. Knowledge and ability, i.e., theoretical and practical spontaneity supplement each other in the relationship which we have designated as S Th. 3. B y achievement ("Leistung") Otto understands work which is completed with the greatest sense of responsibility. Achievement and guidance, therefore, denote mutual advancement, resting on respect, trust and fidelity experienced reciprocally. Guidance is the personal "charisma" to stimulate 1 3

E. Spranger, Lebensformen, 1930, p. 63. Ν. Hartmann, Ethik, Berlin and Leipzig 1926, p. 260, 305.

31

one's fellowmen to the highest spontaneous achievement. Achievement thus comes to mean responsible service to fellowmen and society. Moreover, the •primary aim of education is realized in its influence and importance to the social community. 1 When the emphasis is upon responsibility it is a question of achievement, when kindly feeling toward members of the community is stressed, it is called love. If löve is crossed with achievement we may also speak of friendship. 4. By love or kindheartedness we mean all spontaneity which, over and above all sense of responsibility, and proceeding from an attitude of resignation (i.e., voluntary self-limitation), is completed in a process of continual pardoning and giving, and without selfishness. Genuine love is not characterized by weakness or sentimentality, but rather by a strong-hearted spirit of sacrifice springing from an overflowing heart. It is a long way, however, from biological-sexual "love" to motherly kindness. Since achievement and love comprise the totality of moral actions, Otto deals with these two basic relationships of human society in a thorough manner in his Allgemeine Erziehungslehre. 5. W e do not know the meaning of the absolute or the holy, nor even the principles characterizing the divine, since the divine is not "given" to us as an "inanimate thing" ( T h ) , nor as a human being ( S ) . The subjective experience of religious human beings has been interpreted as a "feeling of absolute dependence" (Schleiermacher), and also as a mysterium tremendum et fascinosum, i.e., as an awe-inspiring, enrapturing and attractive secret (Rud. Otto). T o be sure, it is better to call this experience simply submissiveness ("Demut"). In any case, and without question, the holy forms a sphere of its own, i.e., it is a special category in itself. Law and

Conventionalisms

A l l categories of the mind are irrational; therefore they are not to be grasped by analytical, comparative intelligence. Intellect is a mere "function," whereas spiritual acts of definite purposeful direction belong rather in the sphere of reason ( " V e r n u n f t " ) . Consequently in the field of theory a clear distinction must be made between "thinking" characterized by irrational, feeling-laden longing of knowledge-volition, and "thinking" of abstract judgment. Both types of thought are merely of a delimiting nature, and in real life they are interrelated. Functional thinking is a means of taking a theoretical stand; it is, therefore, in a subordinate relationship to spiritual acts, but not vice versa. Hence the sense of the categories, e.g., of love, cannot be defined on a systematic basis, such as we have for mathematical or mathematical-physical concepts. 1

32

Infra, p. 37 f.

Accordingly, law too is not included in the survey of the fundamental categories: it is essentially intellectual regulation oí social life and especially of achievement. Conditions under which work is done are always regulated by law. Its meaning is, therefore, the same as that of achievement: consciously responsible service to the community, but in a judicious way. This idea is developed in detail in the Allgemeine Erziehungslehre (p. 73 ff.), and in Wert und Wirklichkeit (p. 43 ff.). Conventions, i.e., fixed customs, thus regulate social life in a rational manner. Consequently, conventions, too, are not any (irrational) category. In so far as conventions are based essentially on kind consideration, they belong in the sphere of kindness and of love. Just as the meaning and purpose of life and common sense is to loosen, overcome, and—with the moral duty of consciously responsible achievement—to penetrate the rational forms of law, which really is always force, so should we, likewise, always endeavor to impregnate the impersonal commands of bare conventionality with the cordiality of personal kindness, and thus to penetrate spiritually—with the irrationality of reason—the rationality of subtilizing intellect or of fixed habits. Art and

Science

T h e question might be raised, whether art does not have its own cultural sphere and, therefore, should be included among the categories. Let us, however, clearly realize that the real artist is filled with a genuine longing for the supreme wisdom of life. A l l struggling artists have borne witness to the fact that their creative activity is fired by the desire to announce to mankind what the world really is or what it should be. A genuine artist is, therefore, a prophet of truth. Thus art finds a place in the sphere of theory; it is a twin sister of science. Consequently, art and science are closely related teleologically, but not in choice of means. The difference is that science, resorting to sharp and clear conceptions, analyzes our existence and thereby destroys the totality of life. A r t , however, speaks to us in symbols of totality and clarity. Science and art, therefore, taken together, comprise the sphere of theory, just as achievement and kindness represent the two aspects of the moral, i.e., of the "good." Overlapping

Categories

From an objective viewpoint all real categories "transcend," ("übergreifen"), i.e., "overlap," subjects and objects. Hence they penetrate and dominate all natural and cultural life, especially all objectivations of civilization that spring from the heart or the hand of spiritually endowed man. These lawful constants of the world, which from the very beginning have 3

T h e Experimental Didactics

33·

been present 1 embryonically in our existing universe, constitute the real a priori of our world. A s "categories of being" ("Seinskategorien") they are the essential "reality" in an ontological sense, 2 i.e., they alone operate. Their characteristic principles, therefore, have nothing to do with Kant's categories, the arranging and shaping of the "fundamental concepts" ("Stammbegriffe") of the intellect. Hence they are also not to be compared with the derived intellectual concepts (praedicabilia) or the old categories (praedicamenta) of former times. ( A s per H. Schmidt, Phil. Woerterbuch.)

Values A s in many fields of human endeavor confusion results from a lack of clarification of terms. That is why Otto distinguishes between value categories, subjective value experiences, objective value realizations, objects of value, and objective value spheres.3 Value categories or value classes are the fundamental value relationships, such as the theory and practice. They provide the norms of spiritual tendencies by which men and objects of reality are measured as to degree of genuineness. In addition they are patterns of virtues such as courage, sacrifice, fidelity, trust, honesty, diligence and persistence included in the general category "achievement." 4 Subjective value experiences are spiritual acts, inner tendencies or experienced ideas. These spiritual experiences may be either reactive, in that they imply some stimulus, or spontaneous; although this distinction may not be drawn too sharply. Value realizations or personalizations of the spirit are the self-realizations of the human being, the embodiments of value. Objects of value or objectifications of the spirit, e.g., works of science, art, technology and politics, are the result of human spontaneity. Objective value spheres, e.g., economic life, may be considered as the pattern that embraces both the objectification and subjectification of values. 1

2

3 1

34

Further explanation of the concept of " g i v e n " (present embryonically) categories may be f o u n d in Allgemeine Ersiehungslehre, Note p. 21 f. C f . Ν. Hartmann, Der Aufbau der realen Welt, Berlin 1940, p. 171 f f . ; Systematische Philosophie, Stuttgart and Berlin 1942, p. 207 f f . Nicolai Hartmann discusses chiefly that division ( " S c h i c h t " ) which Otto calls the "division of processes" ( " G e s c h e h e n " ) and which comprises the categories of mechanical necessity, biological purposiveness and cultural freedom. T h u s the subjective-psychological category of psychic processes—which fall partly into the biological and partly into the cultural c a t e g o r y — i s refuted as a special category. In addition to the divisions of " p r o c e s s e s " and of the " s p i r i t u a l " ( " d a s G e i s t i g e " ) Otto also recognizes the division comprising ofc;>cfi ( " G e g e n s t ä n d e " ) , to which references are made in the third chapter (general grammar). C f . E. Otto, Sprachwissenschaft und Philosophie (Schlußbetrachtung). Wert und Wirklichkeit, p. 20 f. Ibid., p. 21.

A l l these distinctions are illustrated by the following table : Value categories Absolute Kindness Achievement Theory Practice

Value experiences Humility

Value realizations Believers

Objects of value Bible

Devotion

Humanitarian

Responsibility Truth

Leader and followers Scholars, artists

Economy

W o r k m e n , farmers

K i n d ideas and deeds Political ideas and deeds Books and pictures Tools

Value spheres Religious worship Charitableness Politics (in public life) Science, art Technology

The Structure of Directions W e are now in a position to consider the question : W h a t is the orderly structure of our world ? W h a t is the "categorial" ("kategorial", i.e., referring to categories) structure of our spiritual world? If we consider the real proportion of the three relationships, S -*· Th, S < — A - j - S , it becomes clear that the relationship S - > T h (theory and practice) is nothing but an imagined abstraction remote from the actualities of life. It might be called "presocial." Nowhere in life has a single individual, absolutely independent of human society, ever discovered or created anything. The situation, however, is quite different in the social sphere which, however, may be characterized as a totality only in conjunction with the third relationship, viz. with the allembracing relationship of the divine, — f o r "totality is truth," as Hegel said. In reply to Gretchen's question about God, Faust accordingly describes him as the "All-embracing One." Religion implies the harmonious development of values in the individual; religion is, as its etymology implies, a relating, literally a retying, to the absolute which embodies all values. The order of precedence applying to the three relationships shows, moreover, in detail that all social achievement is básed on theory and practice, i.e., on knowledge and ability and, furthermore, that each act of achievement also needs kindness as polar complement—within the allembracing framework of the absolute, as is shown by the following scheme: 1 Absolute—Religious acts Love—Achievement Theory—Practice

(

Perception

1

E m s t Otto, Wert und Wirklichkeit,

p. 69.

Representation Thinking

Kinematics

35

T h e principle of the exhibited scheme is, therefore, one of "comprehensiveness." Hence we should not speak of the "higher" and "highest" value, but rather of the more inclusive and most comprehensive value, as Otto has explained in the pamphlet published in honor of Ed. Spranger (Leipzig 1942). A l l members of this total structure preserve their complete independence, to be sure, however in the more embracing category they are "taken up" ("aufgehoben") and creatively "transformed" ("umformt"), so that the following principles may be established: ι. The contents of the presocial category S -*• Th, i.e., theoretical knowledge and practical ability, persist in the comprehensive categories S - < — S and A -»• S. They preserve their original independence. 2. The more inclusive category in each case directs the less comprehensive category to a new sense. Therefore the elementary technique of mere production of goods ( S -*• T h ) is "taken up" in the economic process of distribution of goods ( S •*—>S>), with the result that something new is added to mere production. But only in the moral-religious act of social spontaneity does the full sense of economy ( A -*• S ) come to light. Similary, the thesis of art for art's sake ( S -»• T h ) is also an elementary abstraction, which first morally and later on through religion reaches totality. A r t belongs to the whole people, to humanity, and is characterized by its direction to the divine. Within the social category of the moral ( S —>• S ) there is another gradation of social groups, and also of the "natural groups" ("Urgebilde"), individual—family—nation—mankind, according to the degree of comprehensiveness. Thus the narrower circle is "taken up ' in the more inclusive one. Only that individual who has arrived at an understanding of self-realization can enrich his family, his nation and finally all humanity, which is the last goal of all striving, from the fullness of his being. While all these original groups are the result of natural growth, and consequently irrational, the state is a rational institution, a purposeful organization created for a definite purpose. 1 Deductions

from the Architectonic of the Spiritual

Structure

World

Let us now make deductions from the structural system which has been set up: ι . Instruction and Education. The relationship between instruction and education, according to Otto, has often been confounded. H e defines instruction by means of the formula S -*· Th, i.e., an individual directed toward an object, the human being concerned with nature or cultural heritage. > Ernst Otto, Allgemeine

36

Ersiehungslehre,

p. 85 f f . ; Wert und Wirklichkeit,

p. 97 f f . , 102 f f .

The individual or personality to be "instructed" is concerned with the means, the material content, fact, or skill to be learned. In this sense all instruction is self instruction and the teacher's role is frequently to replace the object so that the relationship between the individual and object is not direct but through the intermediary of the teacher. Education, on the other hand, may be expressed by the formula S *—*• S, i.e., the reciprocal reaction between two or more individuals. Wherever there are people they educate each other provided the intention to get along with each other exists consciously or unconsciously. Only the entire process (A S ) , however, may be called "Bildung", since real and thorough "Bildung" of personality without religiosity would mean only incompleteness. In a similar manner Fichte also emphasized repeatedly in his "Grundzüge des gegenwärtigen Zeitalters" (Characteristics of the present Age) the fact that religion "completes" man inwardly, i.e., religion only "makes him complete." T h e development of character as an educational aim follows naturally the social and moral aims. " T h e process of purposeful human education will seek to include the whole man. In a general theory of education, character education, the developing, enriching and ennobling of social values, the guidance of the natural tendencies as well as of the physical being stand in the foreground." (E. Otto, Allgemeine Erziehungslehre, p. 13.) 2. From the scheme already set up we can now see what the desired general "Bildung" ideal is. Since only the scientific-artistic or practical human being is able to "achieve" anything, and since all life includes not only consciously responsible achievement but also kindness and religious humility, the general goal of "Bildung" can be only : the kind, efficient, and devout man. Within this general framework there is the concrete educational goal of each individual nation, which must be investigated with due regard to definite periods of time and to prevailing trends characterizing historically evolving life. ( C f . supra p. 7.) Education that aims to help children help themselves increases the responsibility that rests on the individual child and guides him to greater independence and spontaneity. Hand in hand with self-guidance comes the increasing ability to work with others. T h e sense of the power relationship is not the development of power to be centered in the individual but rather the development of the ability to achieve in cooperation with others. Together with love this power makes up the moral goal of education ; when completed with religion it is a meaningful whole: culture of mind ("Bildung"). On the· other hand, one-sided or distorted views of the comprehensive goal of "Bildung" do not represent any ideal worth striving for : both the socalled intellectualist who rationalizes all existence, and also the robot-

37

man of our age who uses technology to serve his selfishness and g r e e d — but who is choked by his own technology—are superficial creatures and falsifiers. Both the general and the special ideal of "Bildung" are not formal, but material, meaningful. Therefore, such formal goals as "Become what you are" (Pindar), or perfice te, are resorted to as ethical directives, but they are unsatisfactory ideals of "Bildung." Wilhelm Dilthey has also spoken out sharply against the "water of empty concepts," the "wooden categorical imperative" of Kant, and the abstract formulas of Herbart and Schleiermacher. 1 3. Since the term "politics" can not be understood as denoting mere theory, but rather as meaning an activity in the community, it falls into the relationship of S •*—> S. Moreover, since it is not concerned with the family and has nothing to do with kindness, but deals exclusively with consciously responsible achievement, politics is to be defined as advancement of public life by responsible achievement. This does not imply a hostile struggle of classes or of individuals, but rather a friendly striving of men working together to secure the best things humanity may attain. Finally, a feeling of real joy and a spirit of resolute action can rise only from the springs of religion. 4. All ideas are so complex that we must follow their meaning through all categories, in order to grasp the significance of their hidden meanings. Socialism is, e.g., first of all, a theory, whose "correctness" must be examined from the standpoint of consistency. Somewhat different, however, is the usage that prevails when the principle of economy is carried out in the actual operation of a factory. The situation is still different in the case of "social" activity of employers in dealing with employees, and also in the case of working men facing the demands of the factory and of the community. Finally the idea of "christian socialism" has been interpreted differently, again and again in the last hundred years. Likewise, such multilayered ideas as freedom, truth, etc. can be explained only by keeping in mind that they, according to Franz Brentano, are not terms "with meanings of their own" (autosemantika), but merely "words with implied meaning" (connotative terms, synsemantika). Thus their meaning must be followed through all divisions (see p. 34, note 2) and categories. Education It has been established that all education is completed through reciprocal action between two or more subjects (Sn-*—*-Sn), but only in the compre1

W . Dilthey, Gesammelte Schriften I X , Leipzig and Berlin 1934, p. 176 f f .

38

hensive category of the absolute does education acquire full meaning. Consequently the general theory of education must be traced back to the a priori basic structure of human society, it must also view the individual, special educational act in this general framework with due regard to both the general and the special (national) ideal of "Bildung," which may then be approached by proceeding from the general basis. So we get deeper insight into the "overlapping" phenomena of social life, the relationship of achievement, and also the love relationship, as well as rational regulations, law and convention here involved. Otto distinguishes between society and community. Society is an objective, transitory, and reasonable organization—of a business or ceremonious nature—organized for a definite purpose, and regulated by statutes or conventions. T h e community, characterized by friendship or a following based on cordial union and trust, has developed naturally. Society for Otto denotes an organization regulated by rules and conventions and may have temporary character. Community, however, has an entirely different connotation for Otto. Community involves a more personal element, a more cordial union ând confidence based upon genuine friendship. It is the result of natural growth over a period of time. Proximity does not become over night. (Wert und Wirklichkeit, p. ι ο ί . ) Community, therefore, is not something that is ; it has, rather, the moral character of what ought to be : it is the idea to be realized rather than reality. In this conception of society and community Tönnies influenced Otto. ( C f . Allgemeine Erziehungslehre, p. 46.) Education according to Otto must strive continually to get away from the artificiality, viz. society, which is the end result of so many efforts of some social educators, e.g., Dewey. Education must strive toward the more intimate relationships of living organisms, viz. kindness, friendly cooperation and working together. Just as the ideal goal may never be reached and complete spontaneity never attained, so the community may ever remain an ideal. T h e value of life according to Otto is not in arriving at the end but in striving to get there. Society with its tendency to regulate carries the danger of standardization and coercion. The community spirit, on the other hand, is not satisfied with what has been acquired from the past, but looks and directs itself to possibilities for development and service in an ever larger group. T h e isolated individual is a mere abstraction (Wert und Wirklichkeit, p. 98). Freedom and will are not individual matters and must be conceived

39

from the point of view of responsibility, i.e., responsibility to serve in the community. Genuine family tradition which is the precept and model of public life and public opinion guides and directs the individual so that he wills, so that he acts from a sense of moral obligation. Only the individual who assumes his responsibility is free, who experiences out of natural communal relations the ethical, moral responsibility as obvious and natural and acts accordingly. Instead of the artificial doctrine of the freedom of the will, we must speak of responsible service in and to the community. (Ibid., p. 142.) Individual development is important and must not be overlooked. Educational opportunity is to be afforded in accordance with individual needs only in so far as individuals educated and developed in this manner will better serve the community. The criterion employed by Otto to determine the worth of the educational process is whether it contributes to "education for responsible service in and to the community." (Ibid., p. 142.) Logically this conception of community grows in healthy harmony with genuine cooperative internationalism, for the community of the individual in its broadest sense is the world. The sense of individual responsibility for the individuals of all other nations and their responsibility, in turn, for the individual is an ideal which in practice can eliminate international strife and misunderstanding. Otto compares such a concerted community of nations to a group of musicians. A r e the musicians to play the same notes in unison destroying the tonal quality of the individual instruments, or are they to bring to fullest realization the latent possibilities of each and all of the instruments ? T o be sure, instruments and men must be in tune and each musician without exception must have a sense of rhythm and time. In similar fashion, in all nations and all times the tendency toward a common goal will be visible for the first time, a goal which is fixed by destiny never to be fully attained by humanity in all of its worldly preoccupations. (Ibid., p. 86.) On this theoretical basis the practice of education in family, school, vocation and public life ("adult education") can be treated fully. This education includes, first of all, physical education, the care of the human body in the various phases of development as well as the treatment of abnormal variations; next physical exercises, gymnastics, games and sport. Education dealing with drives, use of tobacco and alcohol, and the sexual problem 40

stand in close relationship to physical education. The education of the mind, however, is of the widest scope. Health Passing over Otto's detailed discussion of education and the care of the body, we shall direct our attention to the health of the individual as it concerns the welfare of the larger group of which he is a member. (See "School Subjects.") The individual as a responsible member of a community, whether that responsibility be intellectual, moral, cultural, or vocational, must have good mental and physical health. Conversely, the member of the community who is so unfortunate as to be deprived of good health or to be handicapped mentally or physically becomes a burden upon the community and cannot fulfill his responsibility in terms of service to that community. All educators from earliest times have believed in the harmonious development of a sound mind in a sound body. "The goal (of health education) is the personality infused with power and love. It presupposes the possession and full mastery of a healthy and strong body." 1 Neither mind nor body is to be glorified at the expense of the other. As late as 1928 Otto regretted that physical education in its truest sense was being neglected in the German schools. Otto indicates that rhythmic gymnastics have a value not yet fully realized by educators. They should have an integral part in health education. "The representatives of rhythmic gymnastics have perceived that the organic unity of body and mind is the basis for all cultural activity." 2 Rudolf Steiner, the educator, who has valued eurhythmies most highly, and Otto both agree in the importance of this type of physical education.3 Neither the mind nor the body is to predominate but the body must be so organized that it is in harmony with the instinctive activity of the mind as it expresses itself unrestrainedly; this expression is a peculiar experience of form in the movement and carriage of the body.4 The interplay of inner and outer factors is important in health education. Proper psycho-physical efficiency is impossible in an unhealthy body. Unhealthy individuals are less likely to respond to guidance and benefit from educational opportunity; they are incapable of responsible achievement which means essentially inability to meet the moral obligation of responsible service in and to the community. Ernst Otto, Allgemeine Erziehungslehre, p. 130. ! Ibid., p. 158. ' Paul R. Radosavljevich, unpublished article, Dr. Rudolf ' Ernst Otto, op. cit., p. 158. 1

Steiner'*

Experimental

Schools.

41

Impulses, Drives and

Directions

characterizes Otto's thinking. He The term "direction" ("Richtung") defines direction as the "peculiar characteristic of all organic life." 1 "Life as direction cannot be known and tested mathematically or physically but is learned through insight." 2 The German word for instruction ("Unterricht") contains the stem that implies direction. The idea of conation and direction is basic to Otto's entire educational philosophy and practice. The interplay of outer conditions and inner factors ("Richtkr'àîte") further illustrates impulse and the fact that there exists a goal toward which effort is to be directed. Self-direction ("Selbstgenc/i/etsein"), i.e., self-education, is the highest purposeful spontaneity. 3 Otto distinguishes between spiritual acts ("Richtkräfte", i.e., directions), drives ("Triebe") and needs ("Bedürfnisse"). Spiritual acts are whole experiences, the equipment of civilized man directed toward that which has value. Drives are directed toward the biological objects of life and are essentially unconscious actions and reactions such as sex, thirst and hunger. 4 Otto regrets the fact that most attempts to classify the great variety of drives have been careless. In most cases, study of the many theories is complicated further by the fact that in the literature no clear distinction is drawn between drives and directions and the intermediary which Otto calls needs ("Bedürfnisse"). He takes exception to the use of the Anglo-American word instinct, as for example by Vierkandt. The word instinct is confusing and by it he should like particularly to understand the innate and essentially intentional acts of both man and animal. He refers to McDougall's more recent recognition of this confusion when McDougall replaced the word instinct by propensity in the sense of intention or drive. 5 Drives and directions have "a primary dynamic intentional character." 6 Otto again finds integrating unity in his treatment of drives and directions. "When McDougall teaches that character is acquired, and Shand in The Foundation of Character maintains that it is hereditary, both are right since the modification and direction of the original impulses increases with added experience." 7 By impulse Otto means the general predisposition of life-promoting conduct. Otto believes as does Üxkiill that nature is essentially "reasonable" and that there exists a non-material order which gives structure and wholeness to the material universe. 8 1

Ernst Otto, Allgemeine Ibid., p. 17. Loc. cit. * Ernst Otto, Wert und s Ibid., p. 57. • Ibid., p. 54. 7 Ibid., p. 55. * Supra, p. 35 f. 3

Unterrichtslehre,

p. 319.

3

42

Wirklichkeit,

p. 55.

Drives, particularly the food and sexual urges, are localized physiologically (stomach or sexual organs). They are hereditary, of distinguishing character, and can operate reflexively, but they can also be controlled consciously (by man), and may be modified as a result of experience. Directions, however, have values, human beings or objects as end-goals; they are spiritual experiences of totality. Otto classifies needs according to the sense of their direction. In this classification he is indebted to such psychologists as James, Thorndike, McDougall and Vierkandt.1 Otto states that there are four great needs. Curiosity implies the impulse for logical order ; comfort implies the impulse of economy and construction; care, the maternal, paternal, family affection impulse ; and power or leadership implies obedience, struggle, protection, greed, etc.2 There are no fast dividing lines between the following classifications. Otto attempts to avoid the confusion created by referring to the social and the gregarious instinct, for example. These are highly complex ideas and may involve among other things love and power. He also opposes such terms as imitation drive and play drive, for "imitation or play designates merely the degree of direction of activity; they are not definite categories. Imitation concerns reactions; play, on the other hand, spontaneous behavior as all experimentation in the struggle for existence (trial and error)." 3 Turning from the phase of education dealing with impulses, we shall now direct our attention to the education of intellectual and spiritual man in human society and in the human community. Personal,

School and Superpersonal

Education

Ernst Otto makes a distinction between personal, school and superpersonal education. The division of education into personal, school and superpersonal education is no real separation, for Otto conceives of education at all times as a whole and continuous process beginning with birth and ending with death and even continuing in the effect of the individual upon the community. This is a basic assumption if Otto's definition of education as a reciprocal process between individual and community is conceded. The terms are merely applied as a ready method to assist in the clarification of thinking in education. It is not a new conception for this tripartite differentiation already exists in W. A. Lay's natural, individual and social education sometimes called natural, artificial and self-education.4 1

Ernst Otto, Wert und Wirklichkeit, p. 58. Ibid., p. 58 f f . " Ibid., p. 60. 4 W. A . Lay, Experimentelle Pädagogik, Leipzig: Teubner, 1912, p. 137. !

43

Personal Education "Personal education is primarily a matter of the family."1 The family was originally the place where individuals were trained without system in the qualities of achievement and love. In modern times the family has lost many of its educational possibilities ; "the community of father and son and mother and daughter has become more and more restricted, and the direct effect of parent upon children and grandparent upon descendants as well as children upon children has diminished due to the specialization and differentiation of life." 2 T o a great extent systematic professional education has supplanted personal family education. T h e modern school strives to make up for what the family has lost by bridging the gap between home and school, cooperating with parents, emphasizing knowledge and ability, and the community aim of all education. It is often difficult to differentiate home influences from school influences. On the other hand certain kinds of child activity in the home must yield to the higher forms of achievement in the school. "Berthold Otto, the tireless and recognized champion of the rights of the child, fails to see that there is a vast difference between natural living and cultural living, and that the play of the pre-school child cannot become a permanent basis for school education but must yield gradually to the seriousness of real life." 3 Otto does not mean, however, that the educator is not to take advantage of the "play drive." In doing so he must see to it that the child even in pre-school days concentrates intensively on self-chosen games and that the child develops maximum activity and spontaneity. "Play can gradually lead to social reality, as in the case of keeping house, sewing, repairing a broken object, care of house plants and pets. If it is at all possible, the child should be given his own room early in life and he must assume responsibility for keeping this room in order." 4 Imagination, so often neglected in education, must be encouraged and utilized. Imagination manifested in pre-school play can result later in insight which, in turn, may produce ideas and spontaneity. The personal education of the child involves not only the training of the imagination but also education for achievement in terms of life in the social environment in which he finds himself. T h e level of maturation of the child must not be overlooked. In the home the child is guided to get along with the members of his immediate family, relatives, friends and playmates. In school his social horizon widens, social contacts increase, and guidance varies accordingly. His responsibilities also increase with growth and maturation. Ernst Otto, Allgemeine Erziehungslehre, Loc. cit. ' Ibid., p. 188. 4 Ibid., p. 192. 1

s

44

p. 184.

Unless the child is guided to a development of the sense of responsibility in the home, subsequent guidance in school will be much more difficult. In a family where mutual respect reigns, where children obey voluntarily, where older children help in bringing up the younger in a spirit of kindness and understanding, where children stand in free relationship to each other and to family tradition, in such surroundings real leaders are educated. Children learn not only to respect parents, grandparents and other relatives, but they also approach servants and all their fellowmen with real respect. 1 Personal education within the family and the community is natural education, as contrasted with what is generally artificial education in school. Questions of health, morality, culture, knowledge, vocation, character interests are all as significant in personal education as in school education. If education is properly conceived, there is no real distinction between these two types of education, for education as a whole embraces both in its continuous process. School Education The ordinary conception of school has implied the appellation artificial education, for by contrast and in fact it has been artificial. Otto's conception of education as a whole would remove this stigma. This is especially true in view of the fact that there is great overlapping in the influences of home and school. T h e same basic educational principles are equally applicable and valuable in home and school. With the increasing emphasis upon education for service in and to the community the school strengthens the bonds connecting home and school through parent, teacher and pupil councils, school papers dealing not only with school affairs but also with questions affecting the home, and the introduction of school courses, e.g., those in home-making directly influencing parents and resulting in betterment of home life. Parents in turn can influence the schools in a practical fashion. "Parents' organizations may and should exert an educational influence upon the public school system." 8 This influence should be exerted by parents not only when the interests of their own children are involved, but when the larger interests of the school and community are concerned. The exchange of opinion and points of view can be instrumented by discussion groups that Otto calls discussion communities, "Aussprachegemeinschaften." Such groups are in keeping with the character of the 1

Jbid., p. 199.

» Ernst Otto, Wert und Wirklichkeit,

p. 118.

45

modern school in which a basic method is discussion, in the United States the socialized recitation. In fact "the discussion community is identical with a real life community." Here the importance of socialization and language become apparent. In addition to "Aussprachegemeinschaften" Otto recognizes "Erlebnisgemeinschaften" (experience communities) and "Arbeitsgemeinschaften" (working communities). An "Erlebnisgemeinschaft" includes joint experiences in nature, cultural heritages, religious service, and now and then celebrations, hikes and amateur theatricals. The "Arbeitsgemeinschaften," based on the moral idea of working for our fellowmen, merge into citizenship education, which has been neglected in Germany far more than it should have been. From the very beginning pupils are taught to work together, exchange opinion, and profit from each other's experience and points of view. From classroom opinions truth emerges, and truth is the result of the conception of the whole. "Truth is totality." 1 The classroom itself is a community in which pupils become socially-minded instead of self-centered, if the educational process is motivated by achievement. This dynamic conception of education is suggestive of that of John Dewey who sees education as life, growth, a continuous reconstruction of accumulated experience, and as a social process. 2 Otto, however, goes beyond Dewey in that he does not conceive the classroom as a miniature society, but rather as a community. Otto not only sets the locale of the educational experience in the community but makes the measure of education effective, efficient and responsible achievement in the community. In order better to realize the civic-social-community aim in education, i.e., the preparation of individuals for responsible and worthwhile service in and to the community, courses and course content must be selected leading to the attainment of this aim. All subjects must deal with the immediate environment of the learner and this is especially true of the social sciences. Study of the conditions surrounding life in the community, city and state develops naturally to include the larger communities of the nation and world. Implicit in Otto's definition of education is the reciprocal influence between the individual and society. The civic-society-community aim of education seeks to increase the individual's opportunity for increased social contacts, e.g., field trips, projects for the improvement of local conditions involving the meeting of people, parent-teacher-pupil meetings and the like. As a result of these experiences and activities the pupils become more 1 2

46

Ibid., p. 83. Meyer, op. cit., p. 6 il.

valuable members of the society of which they are part. Growth in terms of education is a process of being influenced by and in turn influencing other individuals. A s the ability to influence other individuals increases, the individual becomes more independent, more responsible, more self-directed and more spontaneous. Independence, however, or even self-guidance does not imply a cold aloofness toward others but an ever-developing ability to serve the community sympathetically and in original ways. Power is coupled with kindness. Education that aims to help children help themselves increases the responsibility that rests on the individual child and guides him to greater independence and spontaneity. That is the idea of education for citizenship by self-government. Kerschensteiner to whom Otto is so greatly indebted says in this connection : Education for citizenship stands or falls with the introduction of self-government in the conduct of the schools. It alone is able to convert the school from a place of individual ambition into a place of social cooperation, from a place of theoretical, intellectual onesidedness into a place of practical and human manysidedness, from a place of real acquisition of knowledge into a place of real application of k n o w l e d g e . . . W e have schools for intellectual education and for technical education ; but we have no schools for social education. 1 The sense of the power relationship is not the development of power to be centered in the individual but rather the development of the ability to achieve in cooperation with others. Cooperation with and consideration for others inherent in the love-kindness-friendship relationship can never be divorced from power. Superpersonal Education Personal education in and outside the family, and school education are of little value unless they result in self-education ; this is true by Otto's very own definition that "education is help to self-help." 2 Moreover, superpersonal education is part of the continuous process of education following personal and school education. It includes, therefore, all education beyond school years, particularly adult education which is by its very conception self-education. 3 Superpersonal education is most easily recognizable as social education in that the adult participates in the larger social community. Otto's conception 1 2 5

G. Kerschensteiner quoted by M e y e r , op. cit., p. 92. Ernst Otto, Bin Wort zur Verständigung, p. 295. Ernst Otto, Allgemeine Erziehungslehre, p. 291.

47

of superpersonal education resulted from the study of the social pedagogy of Paul Natorp, the theory of society of Alfred Vierkandt, and the theory of the community as society of Ferdinand Tönnies. Otto believes with Natorp that "human education is a task of human society," 1 but Otto emphasizes the reciprocal relationship between the individual and society in which the individual also has a responsibility for his own development in the community. Otto reduced Vierkandt's four fundamental relationships of social life, viz. community, authority, struggle and power to the two concepts of achievement (power) and love. With Tönnies Otto believes that the community is the ideal toward which society is striving; society is "a mechanical aggregation," 2 on the other hand "the community is an idea, an ideal, something that is to be." 3 All education is in a sense guidance of and assistance to man in his struggle with environment. Otto perceives three points of departure from which this struggle between the individual and the environment may be approached. This is especially true of adults for whom the struggle is most intense. These three relationships have been expressed by Otto in the formulae S -»• Th, S •*—> S, A -»• S. 4 Symbolically they express the reciprocal relationship between individual and non reacting things, the relationship of the individual to other reacting individuals, and relationship of the individual to the metaphysical, the absolute. In practice education must provide the opportunity and the means for the resolution of the tensions that exist in the presocietal, societal and super-societal described above (p. 35 f.). The aims and objectives of all education, culture, moral, character, knowledge, vocational and health must be directed to this end. In adult education continuing beyond the school years, the social objective implies and embraces all of the others. The adult will require knowledges and skills which will permit him to achieve, i. e. to work responsibly in the religious, social, cultural, economic and political and health communities of which he is a member. Otto is consistent in approaching education as a whole and, in determining values, aims and objectives for education as a whole, he has determined them for any and all of the parts of education. Otto shows by four practical examples, viz. the youth movement, the feminist movement, the idea of real (genuine) socialism, and the crisis of modern Christianity, how the idea of Christian humanism may be realized more and more. 1

Ernst Otto, Allgemeine Erziehungslehre, p. 23. * Ibid., p. 32. 5 Ibid., p. 36. Also supra, p. 19. 1 Ernst Otto, Wert und Wirklichkeit, p. 70; Allgemeine Erziehungslehre, p. 30.

48

p. 300. Cf. supra,

Instruction;

Methodology and Didactics

While education is continually referring to the reciprocal effect two or more subjects have on each other (Sn •*—»• Sn), instruction is, by its very nature, a relationship existing between subjects and a thing, e.g., a cultural heritage (Sn->-Th). The attitude a person develops toward such an object may depend either on the emphasis on the matter in question or on the learning individual. In the first case we speak of methodology, in the last mentioned instance of didactics. These technical expressions, of course, have again and again been employed in quite different senses. However, if the process of objective scientific investigation of a matter has, from time immemorial, been called "method," it is obviously fitting that, from a pedagogical standpoint, we call this procedure "methodology." On the other hand, didactics is essentially personal leadership, not in the sense of education from man to man, but rather with and by means of a cultural heritage, which consequently is called "Bildungsgut." Hence methodology deals for instance with questions of direct or indirect methods of language instruction, the manner of demonstrating a mathematical theorem, or the set-up of a chemical experiment. Didactics, however, is concerned, for example, with the various psychological questions of the learning process, reviews, written and oral exercises. This distinction is extremely important. It means that methodology and didactics in the last analysis concern the learning individual, but that they also view the objective element, the "Bildungsgut," from various angles. Methodology thus embraces, first of all, the appropriate choice of subjects to be taught in a unified school system. This is the problem of organisation. Methodology then concerns itself with more or less scientific course of instruction (the curriculum).

Organisation The wholeness of his educational philosophy Otto applies to the school, to the classroom and to individual school subjects. The values which he has determined in his educational thinking and the aims and objectives which he has established for all education result in an acceptance of the fact that the core of the curriculum and the subject matter content must contribute to and possess a direct bearing upon society and life in a social community. Schools and school organizations unfortunately all too frequently form a closed system resembling a wonderfully constructed building in which no attention has been paid to the necessary living conditions of the inhabitants. 4 The Experimental Didactics

49

Concentration,

Coordination,

Correlation1

T h e organizational aspects of this tendency toward concentration or coordination are called utraquistic, in that they attempt to combine classical education in the arts with modern education in the sciences. Such organization often takes the form of the "gegliederte Einheitsschule," i.e., the unified school with differentiated courses of study, which often degenerates according to Otto into a "Gleichheitsschule," i.e., a uniform school. In this type of school pupil programming and the arrangement of instruction are according to schedule presupposing a plan of organization. They are, however, merely outward manifestations of correlation and indicate no essential concentration or coordination. Methodological correlation or the coordination of instruction frequently about a core subject or aim attempts artificially to reestablish the unity of the educational process which has been sacrificed in the systematization of pupil programming and school administration. If genuine unity is to be reestablished in instruction, that unity must exist in an all embracing philosophy of education that will determine, give value and true interrelationship to the various school subjects. 2 Philosophical concentration or correlation is the return to the individual unity of the personality that arises out of individual experience. This is education at its best; all else is the accumulation of isolated data and skills. This does not imply, however, that basic knowledges and skills are not fundamental and essential. T h e problem is, rather, what knowledge is basic, needed by the growing personality and in harmony with the goals set up for education. T h e importance of the community and responsible service will determine the answer to the question, for knowledges and skills are most fundamental which contribute to better understanding of the community and the personalities constituting that community and facilitating maximum potential achievement. Unity in education, the interrelationship of school subjects and the coordination of instruction can be effected only through the unity of and interconnections within the developing personality. Overemphasis upon mere scraps of knowledge has destroyed the wholeness of the individual and the group spirit of school and society. 8 N o real binding force within the community can ever be evolved through the type of education that unifies by artificial device.

1 : 1

50

C f . infra, p. 63 f. Ernst Otto, Methodik und Didaktik, p. 5. C f . supra, p. 33 f. and infra, Ernst Otto, Wert und Wirklichkeit, p. 207 f.

p. 62 f.

Differentiation and Integration T h e structure of the educational system must correspond to the natural process of the development of the individual as a whole through differentiation and integration and results, therefore, in the real "gegliederte Einheitsschule" in its literal sense. Considering individual differences in the pupil population, different environmental backgrounds, and administrative limitations, schools may be divided into two essential types, the practical and the theoretical. 1 This does not mean according to Otto that either one or the other type of school is so inflexible and its organization so rigid that transfer of pupils is impossible. Otto does not overlook the special problem of rural areas where only one school is possible and he recommends here differentiation within the same school building. 2 In both types of schools there must be a unified and definite core of national culture including language, history, geography, music, art und religion, and physical education. The theoretical schools may be compared with the academic, and the practical, with the vocational and trade schools. School Subjects T o illustrate this conception of interrelationship or correlation of school subjects and the larger aim of education, Otto's discussion of geography among other school subjects is enlightening. Only through an understanding of the facts and an experiencing of the universal through the particular, the abstract through the concrete, the unknown through the known, can youth be brought to an understanding of responsible duty to society. T h e study of the land and the people, the interaction of man and geography must tend according to Otto toward an increased emphasis on man in relation to geography rather than on isolated geographical data. 8 T h e geology, topography, colonization, daily life, folkways and mores, commerce and trade, art, science and language are all part of the study of geography. The mechanistic relationships of climate, landscape and geology are supplemented by the historical method of anthropogeography in order to determine the intellectual and spiritual tendencies of man and their effect upon geography. The educational value of geography lies not only in the formalistic, functional aspect of exact observation of reality, e.g., map reading and surveying, but in the geographical understanding of the interdependence of man and soil, and more especially the geo-political, geo-industrial, geo-economic, geo-social and geo-health problems of the nation. The result of this understanding on the part of the individual must 1 2 3

4'

Ernst Otto, Zur Grundlegung Ibid., p. 61. Ibid., p. 64 f f .

neuerer

Pädagogik,

p. 60 f f .

SI

be a cultural and political willing, doing and assuming of responsibility in terms of service in and to the community. Health education is another school subject that has been misunderstood according to Otto. 1 He insists that the broad, all inclusive philosophical meaning of gymnastics or health education must supply the frame of reference for determining the organization of instruction. Otto conceives physical training as functional exercising, personality development and community betterment. Functional exercises are those biological and hygienic exercises of the vital organs of the body, e.g., breathing exercises for the lungs. They also include remedial exercises for the handicapped. The development of personality, the body and the mind, through the art of eurhythmies includes the dance, mass gymnastic performances, rhythmics and skating. Consideration of individual rhythms is important for successful individual performance. Community betterment results from social achievement through the education of self-control, alertness, leadership, teamwork. Games, contests, hikes, sports and athletics have a natural application, in terms of defence, to responsible service to the community. In group exercises group rhythms are important. Activities coupled with folksongs further the group spirit. 2 In preparation for the three types of physical training described above, special pre-training must precede in the fundamental natural activities such as walking, running, jumping, throwing, lifting, pushing, climbing, swimming and the more complicated apparatus work. This organization of health education is in harmony with the general tendencies of modern education, according to Otto. It includes "methodologically the demand for the greatest possible proximity to reality, and to a complete and unified character; natural and popular types of activities; overcoming difficulties; development of the entire body and, with it, mental prowess; consideration of the communal nature of the group." 3 It includes also "didactically the tendency to ordered freedom through enthusiasm without drill ; harmony with youth's need for activity ; increased intensity and the greatest spontaneity of initiative and activity. In treating any and all of the school subjects Otto is guided by two basic principles which he believes are "pedagogical instincts of the last few decades." 4 The first manifests itself in the striving in modern methodology for closer contact with life. The tenets of earlier educators such as Pestalozzis "das Nähere vor dem Ferneren zu betreiben," 5 i.e., to go from the * Cf. supra, p. 41. 8 Ibid., p. 74. ' Loc. cit. « Ibid., p. S3 f f * Pestalozzi, Entwurf

52

zur

Abendstunde.

known to the unknown, and especially the more recent tendencies in civic instruction have contributed more and more in transforming the school into a part of real life. T h e second basic principle is the trend toward totality or wholeness in philosophy, psychology, and education. 1 The tendency must be from the whole to the parts, from the general to the particular, from the regular to the irregular in accordance with the structure and dynamics of the mind and the process of learning. These two principles are complementary. "From all this there results the fundamental methodological principle of all instruction in all schools: always proceed from the concrete experience in its relationship to the whole." 2 T h e application of Otto's system of education described in this chapter can be seen most clearly in its application to the learning and teaching of modern foreign languages. Otto's educational philosophy revolves about a concept of the community as the measure of all activity. T o this end he develops the achievement program in which the teacher's role is to guide the learner through love to a point where the learner is able to achieve, i.e., perform responsible work in the service of the community. T h e educational aims and practices already described are determined by the social educational philosophy developed by Otto and a scientific conception of educational psychology. Individual differences and specialization in fields of human endeavor make it impossible that all individuals be given the same education. " E a c h social achievement, i.e., responsible work, demands a vast sum of insight and knowledge to be found in books, individual minds and daily experience which no single individual can longer survey and master in toto." The application of this principle to vocational education is apparent. Each specialist, i.e., each individual, must find what is most valuable for him in his particular field in order that he may best benefit society. This is true even though he may be a minor member of the community, perhaps only a small part of a part in a world characterized by minute division of labor. Vocational Guidance A vocational aim is implicit in any education described in terms of achievement. Responsible work will require guidance, knowledges and skills, character development and specific vocational training. Individual differences in the ability to achieve and specific abilities in special fields make it necessary that the individuals be guided into those fields where the probability of success is greatest. The element of interest 1 2

Ernst Otto, op. cit., p. 53. Ibid., p. 67. C f . supra, p. 51.

53

in special'fields is not always assurance of success, although the lack of interest, on the contrary, may result in failure, e.g., the interest that many girls have in the theatre and the desire to become actresses are no guarantee of success in the field. Such individuals are in need of expert guidance which will consider not only interests but also talents, abilities, the needs òf the community and the extra-personal factors upon which success depends. Vocational guidance involves the genetic and psychological study of those to be guided and must include an investigation of the hereditary and environmental factors. The vocational education following proper vocational guidance examines the knowledge that the individual already possesses as well as the knowledge he will need in the particular occupational field.. All education including vocational training must be provided in accordance with the maturation of the pupil and the personality of the child must be considered in guiding him into a specialized field, for it is in this field that the personality must be further developed. 1 Vocational education is concerned not only with the actual and potential achievement, the guidance, knowledge and character of the individual, but also with his "responsibility to the community and the ethics of work and the working man." 8 A s vocational education is conceived with a view to the ultimate goal of all education, viz. the training of the individual for responsible service in and to the community, this sense of responsibility must be felt as a moral obligation. The school cannot confine itself to the distribution of informational pamphlets and literature dealing with different occupations. "The school itself must become the most important and expert source of vocational advisement." 3 Many school subjects lend themselves directly to vocational guidance but the information they supply must be supplemented by a variety of objective measurements before guidance is effected. In line with the trends in vocational education in the United States, Otto as early as 1928 recommended field trips to industrial plants, work shops and exhibits, trial periods in occupational laboratories and the apprentice system.4 All education including vocational education must result ultimately in self-education. The individual must be given ample opportunity to "find himself, know himself and see his own talents and weaknesses." 5 Otto foresees the rapid displacement of the qualifying test in vocational placement by the probationary period where responsible achievement rather than testing will become the determining factor. What literature, general 1 Ernst Otto, * Ernst Otto, 3 Loc. cit. 4 Ernst Otto, 5 Ernst Otto,

54

Allgemeine Allgemeine

Ersiehungslehre, Unterrichtslehre,

p. 68 f f . p. 69.

Allgemeine Allgemeine

Ersiehungslehre, Unterrichtslehrc,

p. 305. p. 6g f.

information, visits to factories and shops, and psychological testing fail to accomplish may be brought out in the probationary period. It will become clear, for instance, whether the worker really finds j o y and satisfaction in the work. Such work may even be done while the pupil is still in school under the guidance of an expert with wide experience in the particular field, who understands young people, observes them keenly and evaluates them wisely. It is necessary that vocational schools be set up for special occupations, but all schools and all education must be aware of this important aim. The Methodical

Course of

Instruction

In the preceding paragraphs we have dealt with the fundamental questions of organization. W e shall now approach the other side of methodology, viz. the problem of direction of instruction in the scientific, artistic and manual subjects of the curriculum. 1 Since this publication is concerned primarily with modern language instruction, we must limit ourselves to that field, and touch briefly the basic questions of these three branches. In the first place, scientific instruction has as its prerequisites folklore and "Kulturkunde." B y "Kunde" (as in "Volkskunde" and "Kulturkunde") Otto means object lesson instruction ("Anschauungsunterricht") dealing with Current times and one's native country. Such instruction preserves as far as possible the irrational wholeness of objects and people. Friedrich Fröbel, in contrast to the rationalism of the Montessori School, grasped this idea with prophetic insight. 2 Concrete "object instruction," therefore, also systematically precedes analysis in arithmetic, reading, painting, writing and singing. A l l instruction is based on observation of objects in class, in the workroom, in the laboratory, in the school garden, on hikes, etc. Copies, imitations, films and radio may used as substitutes. Such auxiliary stimulation may be used to advantage in modern language instruction. Just as scientific investigation begins with exact observation and experience, methodology in scientific subjects also proceeds from observation. This thought has been given special emphasis by Pestalozzi. 3 Since according to Schelling all knowledge refers to "original knowledge" ("Urwissen") characterized by totality, and according to Fichte and Schleiermacher all science forms a unit complete in itself, methodology in the case of all 1Allgemeine

Unterrichtslehre, p. 122 f f . , 243 f., 283 f . ; Wert und Wirklichkeit, p. 157 f f . , 163 ff-, 176 ffEd. Spranger, Aus Fr. Fröbels Gedankenwelt, Abhandlungen der Preußischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin ¡93g. Phil.-hist. Klasse Nr. 7. ' E. Otto, Pestalozzi, Werk und Wollen, Berlin 1948. T h i s book develops especially the hitherto completely overlooked real-ontological basis of his system.

1

55

branches will proceed from analysis of an objective whole, but will preserve — o r reestablish in synthetic relationship—the connection of all members of this unity. A l l instruction is consequently fundamentally of an analyticsynthetic nature. Methodology in scientific instruction begins with perceptive "recognition" ("Erkennen") and with "conception" ("Begreifen"), i.e., with description of conceivable relationships and connections with the aid of functional thinking, e.g., mathematics and physics. Further it is accomplished with the humanistic "understanding" ("Verstehen") of outer conditions and inner impulses already referred to (above pp. 42 f . ; also below pp. 62 f.). Since art appeals to us in objective "symbols," as has been pointed out above (p. 33), w e have to exhaust the "meaning" of such images by intuitive interpretation.1 Otto investigates thorougly the various types of artistic interpretation with due regard to the characteristic "thought types," e.g., of the individual who thinks in circles (Laotse, Herakleitos, St. Paul, etc.). H e makes a distinction between intuitive-subjective interpretation and mere description of a work. Over and above that, genetic interpretation of a work of art reverts to its creator. Cultural-historical interpretation investigates the origin of artistic and scientific creations arising from change in cultural trends. Productive instruction in manual work comes first of all under the principles of technology—as well as under those of artistic creative activity—and then under the demands of community life, with proper consideration of the individual's future vocation. 8 W e have already touched on this question in the section on Vocational Guidance (p. 53 ff.). Otto considers the essence of esthetic education to be in the freeing and loosening effect of shaped symbols and in purposeful guidance to the enjoyment of leisure time in a worthy manner—after the completion of serious, obligatory tasks. The value of practical creative activity in "Bildung" is to be found not merely in the exercise of skill and of observation and in an economical attitude, but primarily in a sense of moral responsibility characterizing the operative individual. Didactics U p to this point we have dealt with methodology, i.e., with the choice of cultural heritages ("Bildungsgüter") in the entire school system, as well as with the course of scientific esthetic, and manual instruction. That is the material-objective phase of instruction. W e shall now approach the sub· 1

2

Cf. in this connection Allgemeine Unterricktslehre, p. 155 ff., 198 ff. t 289 f f . ; Wert und Wirklichkeit, p. 188 ff., and also Methodik und Didaktik des neusprachlichcn Unterrichts, p. 307 f f . Cf. Allgemeine Unterrichtslehre, p. 214 ff., 281 f f .

56

jective-personal aspect of instruction, i.e., treatment of the learning pupil. This sphere of inquiry is called didactics, which accordingly deals with the psychological problems of the learning process. Wilhelm Wundt, father of experimental psychology, was the first to establish a psychological laboratory, 1879, in Leipzig. Otto refers to Wundt in many passages of his writings, but differs from him in the basic assumption that there is a wholeness quality which Wundt overlooked in his neglect of interrelationships. 1 Furthermore, Otto decries Wundt's inability to perceive "teleological views in cultural influences." 2 Otto freely admits the experimental psychological basis of Wundt's work but points out at the same time that scientific investigation in recent years has moved away from experimental functional psychology dealing with the senses, perception and thought to social scientific psychology and ontology, H e has also been attracted to consider the results of the experimental in other fields of psychology such as "Gestalt" psychology in order to allow his didactics to benefit from the best results of scientific research. In agreement with Meumann, Otto is convinced "that individual pedagogy must try above all to make use of the scientific methods and means of experimental psychology, and the results of this science as well as pedology." 8 Otto identifies himself in this way with the field of experimental education rather than abstract psychology. A l l his efforts are directed to the improvement of educational concepts, procedures and techniques; he evaluates them objectively by a comparative study of the ancillary sciences of education including psychology, and verifies them in practice. Learning is for Otto the core problem of educational psychology. Theory of Learning Otto points out how educators have concerned themselves with the nature of learning. Menon asked Socrates (ca. 420 B. C.) whether virtue was something to be taught ; whether it was something given the individual by nature or some other way. Socrates answered that man can learn only what is within himself, but that recognition of what is within is revealed only to him who seeks it.4 The spirit of seeking and striving and personal responsibility distinguishes Socrates from the Sophists for whom drill and schooling in the sense of knowledge and training were all-important. 5 Otto recognizes the complex nature of learning as revealed by Menon's questions which have continued to be fundamental problems of human 1 3 1 4 3

Ernst Ernst Ernst Plato, Ernst

Otto, Methodik und Didaktik, p. 230. C f . supra, p. 15. Otto, Die neuere Sprachwissenschaft und die Schule, p. 268. Otto, Methodik und Didaktik, p. 5. Menon, L e i p z i g : Meiner, p. 5. Otto, Allgemeine Unterrichtslehre, p. 45.

57

nature. Menon and many after him sought a simple definition of learning; Otto conceives learning by its very nature as complex. This complexity becomes clear and can be understood when the learning process is viewed as a continuous process of a dynamic whole. In this respect Otto's point of view is in harmony with that of the "Gestalt" psychologists, Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Köhler, who view learning and maturation as a change in the whole organism of the ability to achieve, 1 and learning ability as not absolutely fixed by heredity. There must always be "purposeful clarification of intellectual tendencies" 2 in determining the learning ability of the whole organism. Otto distinguishes between two general types of learning, the natural type exemplified in the animal kingdom, and the cultural type characterizing the individuals who achieve and whose purpose is to serve society. The natural type of learning is essentially the reaction to stimuli, i.e., sensory stimulus and motor reaction such as are revealed in the phrase, a burned child fears the fire. This type of learning, however, is not purely mechanical for "experience always inserts itself into the course of organic behavior; arid activity in a teleological sense always serves the preservation and development of life." 3 Experience takes the psychophysical act out of the sphere of the mechanical and makes a sharp differentiation between spontaneous experiencing and reactivity difficult. Reflex action based on association, reproduction and expression characterizes the natural type of learning ; and action originally automatic tends to be repeated if pleasurable. The initial stages of the cultural type of learning arise when the individual can be made to see clearly "why this is done and that is not done." 4 It occurs only when the child has reached a certain developmental level. This type of learning is meaningful and may be partly reactive and partly spontaneous under guidance, but usually insight plays a significant role. Otto's emphasis in the learning process upon pattern, wholeness, interrelationships, purpose and insight in a "Gestalt" psychological sense, and his innumerable references to the works of leading "Gestalt" psychologists compel one to infer an influence of this school of psychology upon Otto's thinking although he disclaims any. The natural type tends to preserve in the memory pleasurable experiences. In the meaningful learning process, however, purposeful activity follows from the ability to see the total pattern. Otto agrees with McDougall that "insight into the complex of connections includes at the same time a possible goal which directs our activity in an appropriate manner." It is highly W o l f g a n g Köhler, Gestalt Psychology, p. 46 f. Ibid., p. 37. • Ernst Otto, Wert und Wirklichkeit, p. 127 f. 4 Ibid., p. 132. 1

2

58

important, therefore, in the intelligent solution of problems, e.g., in mathematical demonstrations that the goal always be set up clearly so that the process directed to that goal will be shortest and quickest. This is a restatement of a basic principle of experimental didactics, viz. the principle of the economy and hygiene of learning. C f . below, p. 60 ff. W h a t has been said about the advantages of trial and error learning are advantages also of the more meaningful process of cultural learning through insight. T h e disadvantages of trial and error method of learning, however, do not exist in learning through insight. If in the trial and error method of learning there were only trying and no erring, it would be the ideal method. B y very definition this is not the case and in fact errors seem to outnumber successful trials. ' In view of the criterion applied in all experimental didactics, viz. the law of economy and hygiene of learning, trial and error learning is wasteful of time and energy. Otto is correct, however, in indicating that it has many uses and may be applied under proper guidance and in properly selected and controlled situations, for it does allow spontaneous activity on the part of the child. Otto's conception of learning becomes clear only in relation to his idea of wholeness, for all reproduction and production is a "supplementary complex" ("Komplexergänzung") within the framework of an "anticipatory •pattern" ("antizipierendes Schema"). 1 Learning in the narrower sense is usually functional differentiation, sensory-motor coordination, practice and drill. In the wider sense learning is the intellectual and spiritual development of the whole personality. Otto always attempts, by philosophical insight, to construct a pattern in which the various steps are differentiated, though interconnected, and together make up the whole. "Leistungsunterricht," or the achievement program, as applied to the learning process may be differentiated into the following stages. Before the pupil is trained he is selfsatisfied, prejudiced and unconcerned about his state of ignorance. This blind prejudice and self-satisfaction yields to the element of surprise. Surprise in turn brings with it doubt and the awakening feeling of responsibility and the beginning of tension. A realization of ignorance, vaguely felt at first, arises as soon as the pupil begins to sense the possible existence of other opinions. T h e result of such feeling is often a sense of confusion or helplessness. A disturbed sense of longing for solution and seeking a way of self-expression results. There is a subsequent search for new orientation, the collection and comparison of material. A n intuitive dawning of connections and insight into interrelationships occur. Systematic testing of hypotheses, verification 1

Allgemeine

Unterrichtslehre,

p. 129 f.

59

of evidence and the resolution of tensions set in at this point. The new concept needs definite formulation in abstract or concrete form. T h e will to learn now compels old concepts to yield to new ones. T h e essentials of new ideas are grasped. This theoretical learning is then to be translated into terms of life experience and what has been learned is used in ways that may benefit society. In such activities the extremes of making them too easy and of discouraging the pupil by too much difficulty are to be avoided. "Youth should be presented with difficulties but only with such difficulties as it can master." 1 Excessive sympathy tends to make weaklings. Only the courageous individual, the independent individual with a sense of responsibility and confidence in himself reaches his goal. T h e teacher as guide helps the pupil set up worthwhile goals for himself. T h e pupil must feel these goals to be worthwhile and the only reward comes in the achievement of the goal. Economy and Hygiene of Learning T h e criteria which Otto calls technical norms for testing and evaluating the teaching and learning process are of a practical nature. They arc expressed in terms of how the pupil may secure greatest success " ( a ) with the least expenditure of energy, (b) in the shortest time and (c) with the simplest means." 2 In this way Otto has applied the principles formulated by Lay® and Meumann to whom Otto is greatly indebted. The economy and hygiene of learning involve such matters as the distribution of work during the schoolday, homework and method of preparation, fatigue, programming, organization of material to be learned, course planning and curriculum construction. In agreement with Meumann Otto believes, for example, that "as a rule homework is poorer than school work." Due attention must be given to the intellectual and physical development of the learner, his rate of maturation, his ideational type and to the tempo of presentation so that it is in harmony with the rate of maturation. Only if the learning process takes these aspects into consideration will pupils tend to learn a maximum amount with a minimum expenditure of time and energy, and goals be reached more quickly and more directly. " A l l that the educator can do consists in shortening the circuitous routes on which the learner is all too apt to wander away from his goal." 4 It is for this reason that Otto distinguishes natural, trial and error, learning from cultural, meaningful, learning. ' Ernst Otto, Allgemeine Ersiehungslehre, p. 198. * Ernst Otto, Methodik und Didaktik, p. 6. 3 Lay, op. cit., p. 315 f£. ; Ernst Meumann, The Psychology of Learning, p. 22 li. 4 Ernst Otto, Goethe und die Pädagogik der Gegenwart, p. 174.

60

The application of these criteria to the learning process frees energy for new uses. Grading and pacing of material to be learned is especially effective. Otto sees that "all learning demands or presupposes the development of structures and that structures mean the interconnection of phenomena, so that each member carries the other." 1 T h e wholeness of the learning process requires a wholeness of the subject matter to be learned. Within the pattern the parts are interrelated, each falling into its natural relationship with the whole and with all other parts. In language learning, rhythm, rhyme, alliteration and assonance are means for speeding up the learning process and save time and energy, for they are essentially the means by which relationships are most easily perceived. Economy in learning is also achieved by the frequency and distribution of reviews of the work already learned. Like Meumann, Otto discovered that pupils remember better from numerous reviews than from first impression, no matter how forceful it is. He goes so far as to state that "only numerous reviews result in lasting impression," and that by distributing reviews over a period of fixed length, the greater the distribution the better the learning. 2 The principle of greatest intensity is a corollary of the principle of cconomy and hygiene of learning. In its simplest form the principle of greatest intensity recommends the method which provides greatest opportunity for maximum activity on the part of the learner. In language instruction, for example, choral work gives each member of the group a maximum opportunity to recite. Such work holds the pupil's interest, and boredom, which is energy consuming and results in no learning, is avoided. 8 Recognizing the biological fact of individual differences Otto recommends the use of multiple sense appeal in teaching and learning in order to increase the intensity of impression and as a means for saving time and energy. Comenius, Pestalozzi and almost all educators after them recognized the wisdom of this approach. Otto discovered that impressions can be strengthened by speaking and hearing words, seeing and drawing objects, dramatizing reading selections and by other forms of concrete object instruction. Pupils of different ideational types are reached by varying instructional procedures for the visual minded, the motor minded, the ear minded or any other type. Multiple sense appeal tends to hold the attention of those who would otherwise be inattentive. More pupils are apt to find real pleasure and j o y in learning if one of the approaches is appropriate to their specific ideational type. If it is true that most pupils are of a mixed 1 Ernst Otto, Allgemeine Unterrichtslehre, p. 24s. * Ernst Otto, Methodik und Didaktik, p. 49. ' Ernst Otto, Wert und Wirklichkeit, p. 132.

6r

type greatest intensity results from a multiple sense approach and gives this technique additional value. Where voluntary attention and interest have been aroused the learning is probably most economical and hygienic. Otto suggests variation of the types of instructional materials and the use of visual and mechanical devices such as the phonograph, film, radio and newspapers. He recommends also that pupils question each other as in the "Gesamtunterricht" of Berthold Otto. 1 The use of the element of surprise by the teacher is a good means for securing and holding attention. These techniques are merely suggestive of the lines along which instruction may most satisfactorily be effected and Otto goes into greatest detail in the teaching and learning of foreign languages. Otto believes that observation and memory are not to be separated from intelligence.2 The problem of inattention, faulty observation and poor memory which are often confused with lack of intelligence are less likely to occur when there is increased activity, reactivity and spontaneity.3 Outer Conditions and Inner Impulses "No acquired characteristic content of functions can be inherited, but rather only the general categories in their differentiated and individual form. The body constitution, sensorimotor functions and drives owe theii" teleological nature to spiritual predispositions. The only thing that is hereditary is the (inner) disposition."4 This natural tendency of the organism is of greatest significance for Otto; it is guided and fulfilled through education. For Otto there is a continual interplay between inner impulses and environment. He takes his cue from Uxkiill when he writes the argument as to whether inner forces or outer influences of environment are the determining factor in development is settled in the knowledge that both types of factors, inner and outer factors, work together. This point of view is based upon a conception of interrelationship between heredity and environment, the inner and the outer world of the organism, the component factors of its whole existence. In his later works Otto places less and lessj emphasis on the biological as is evidenced by the fact that he has replaced the earlier biological term "Triebkräfte" (drives) by the more spiritual term "Richtkräfte" (directions). In agreement with Hellpach 5 Otto recognizes three types of outer factors together constituting environment. The outer world ("Außenwelt") includes Ernst Ibid., Ernst * Ernst s Willy 1 ¡

3

62

Otto, Allgemeine Unterrichtslehre, p. 251. p. 56. Otto, Methodik und Didaktik, p. 202. Otto, Wert und Wirklichkeit, p. 103. Hellpach, Die geopsychischen Erscheinungen,

1911.

geographic and atmospheric conditions generally known as geophysics. The outer world acts physiochemically upon man as a physical object just as it acts upon every other object. 1 T h e human being is passive in his relationship to the outer world. T h e milieu on the other hand includes weather, climate, topography, i.e., geopsychophysics toward which factors the human being is not passive but reactive. They may be regulated through proper clothing, housing, sanitation, travel, food, resorts, proper school buildings, country schools. In this connection Otto refers to the Landerziehungsheime and similar country schools. 2 T h e environment which is usually considered synonymous with milieu is a distinct category for Otto. T h e environment which he calls "Umwelt" as contrasted with "Außenwelt" and milieu involves "no longer meremechanical relationships, nor the biological experience of geophysical conditions of life but the relationship of man to the universe, to the world of natural and cultural phenomena which the intelligent man learns to understand in order to conquer them intellectually and to shape them in practical fashion." The significance of the conditions of life for the education of man lies in the fact that an appropriate environment makes possible the highest development of personality and on the other hand an inappropriate environment can result in prematurity, delayed and distorted development : "Favorable outer factors hasten the development of hereditary tendencies and within certain limits even increase them; unfavorable outer factors on the other hand can check development or even suppress it." 8 The determining factors, however, are the inner impulses of self-activity or selfeducation. Development and Maturation Otto recognizes that learning, the process by which the level of achievement is raised, is dependent upon individual processes of development. It is also clear from his writings that the grading and pacing of the learning process must be in harmony with the maturation of the human mind. This concept of learning as described by Otto also makes it imperative that proper consideration be given to the variety of individual levels of all the pupils in the classroom. This educational conclusion is drawn from the awareness of a concrete and scientific knowledge of individual differences. Individuals vary greatly in the way and rate in which they develop and mature. This process manifests itself in mental and spiritual as well as physical growth; it is for this reason that Otto does not overlook the importance of health education. The importance of development and ' Ernst Otto, Allaemeine 8 Supra, p. 9 f f . 3 Ibid., p. 13.

Unterrichtslehre,

p. 27 f f . ; cf. above, p. 28.

63

maturation which he distinguishes as phylogenetic and ontogenetic was corroborated by his contemporaries, Driesch, Klebs and Üxküll, in other fields. T h e autonomic rhythm in morphological development, proposed by Driesch 1 in the field of biology, is also of pedagogical value, for maturation and physical development of the individual are characterized by autonomic rhythm. Otto, as well as the "Gestalt" psychologists, recognizes such rhythm in maturation. 2 Maturation and learning result in the attempt to reestablish equilibrium in the unity of the organism. T h e striving for unity as evidenced in the dual concept of development and maturation is comparable to the theory of learning in which mechanization ultimately results in spontaneity with improved coordination. T h e increasingly meaningful nature of education is also suggestive of integration; as the individual matures, his experiences and contacts contribute to a well rounded personality and this personality in turn determines the character and effectiveness of experiences and contacts. Principles of Didactics T h e principles of didactics are closely connected with two types of learni n g : the natural way of learning by experimenting and the cultural method of learning by insight (cf. above, p. 58 f.). I. Natural learning takes place by trial and error : Lack of success brings displeasure and success brings pleasure in experimenting. Learning by trial and error occurs when occasional happy accidents show the way. So throughout life for the most part unconsciously the various possibilities of human existence day by day and hour by hour are attempted. A t home and in school experimenting turns out to be a life-benefiting behavior. 3 The psychological and pedagogical significance in trial and error as well as in all other forms of natural learning is that they lead to new attempts. Since the trial and error method carries with it a certain amount of spontaneity and pleasure, those who learn by it should be helped only when help is actually needed. The trial and error method leads logically to Otto's principle of maximum intensity. When pleasure is experienced by success the learner is eager for future experiences of the same kind. T h e trial and error method is also revelatory of individual differences. W e may,therefore, summarize as follows : Hans Driesch, Logische Studien über Entwicklung, Sitzungsberichte der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaft. Phil. Hist. Kl., Jahrgang 1918, p. 461. Methodik und Didaktik, pp. 277 and 349; Allgemeine Ereiehungslehre, pp. 64, 173 ff., igt, 274; Allgemeine Unterrichtslehre, pp. 46 ff., 56 ff., 318, 330; supra, p. 58. " Ernst Otto, Allgemeine Unterrichtslehre, p. 229. 1

c

64

ι. Life-benefiting

behavior

is experienced with pleasure

(cf. above,

p. 58 f.). 2. The stronger the successful effort, the greater is the degree of pleasure experienced. 3. Pleasure-laden success serves as a stimulus to renewed attempts.1 The art of instruction and education can fructify this natural type of spontaneous learning. In this way unconscious inclination to try and experiment comes into its own. Accordingly the following principles result: ι. The principle of the least possible help follows from joy experienced in one's own seeking and finding, as the individual works competitively with his associates. This means, therefore, neither must all difficulties be removed from the path of youth, nor must youth be confronted with discouraging performances not admitting of solution. Between these two poles lies the high art of all guided instruction. ( C f . supra, 60.). 2. The principle of the greatest exertion results from intensifying the joy experienced in one's own work. T h e problem here is to find the proper balance between the two poles of overexcitement and inactivity. 3. The principle of individualised, graded performance is the natural consequence of gradation of demands in accordance with the individual's capacity for work. Therefore, whether in the family, school or public life, the right man must always be placed in a position for which he is suited both for his own welfare and that of the community. II. The fact that conscious learning through insight depends to a certain degree on intelligence. Intelligence is based on the following essentials : 4. Free use of an adequate amount of

knowledge.

5. The ability to direct one's voluntary

attention.

6. Purposeful direction of the will to a moral-religious goal; for an individual without a feeling of responsibility and religion does not fit into the cultural framework which has been outlined. Accordingly from the standpoint of didactics we are in a position to set up three additional principles : 4. T h e principle of "Einübung" material to be memorized.

(cf. above, 4) of a certain stock of

5. The principle of self-control. A l l moral order presupposes definite mastery of the sexual life, of abstract thought and of goal-directed volition. Self-control begins with the ability to be silent, if need be, and with the stern desire to understand the divergent opinions of our fellowmen. 6. The principle of humane activity for nation and humanity springs from the feeling of moral-religious responsibility. • Ernst Otto, Probleme der Didaktik, Schola, 2. Jahrgang (1947), Heft 7/8. S

The Experimental Didactics

6S

C H A P T E R III O T T O ' S E X P E R I M E N T A L D I D A C T I C S IN M O D E R N L A N G U A G E S Language

Teaching

in Europe Before

Otto

T h e history of modern languages and their instruction in the schools are to a great degree linked with the development of church history. T h e Reformation (circa 1520) brought with it the first widespread interest in the vernacular languages, but the methods of teaching and learning modern languages had to be derived from Latin instruction. T h e Jesuits, for example, delayed the teaching of modern languages in their schools. When these languages were finally introduced, in restricted fashion, they were taught, as was Latin, by the grammar method. For almost three hundred years after the Reformation there were only individual protests against the superimposition upon the vernacular or colloquial languages of the classical method of language learning stressing grammar. A concerted effort on the part of educators to evolve a modern method of teaching modern languages did not occur until the nineteenth century. This movement known as the Reformbewegung reaches its greatest force in Europe almost simultaneously with the Kulturkampf (circa 1872—1880) in Germany. 1 T h e emphasis upon language as a living organism to be spoken and to be read is characteristic of the reform movement. The Teaching of Latin For the first fifteen hundred years of the Christian era the vernacular languages were neglected. There was no need for teaching these languages ; they were learned in the natural course of events. The only language that had to be learned, and then only by the scholars and leaders of philosophical and religious thinking, was Latin. Latin was favored as the language of 1

66

H e r m a n n B r e y m a n n , Die neusprachliche

Reformliteratur

von

1876—1893.

the Church and became, to all intents, the universal language of the civilized world. It was first a living language, although its forms fast became static because of its limited use in restricted classes of society and the complete adherence to traditional classical models such as Cicero. In the Middle A g e s Latin was the only language in the schools of Europe. A f t e r the fall of Constantinople in 1453 the Greeks fled toward the West and brought their literature with them. Greek became a second classical language to be studied first in the princes' schools in Italy. In the beginning, the acquisition of a speaking knowledge of these languages and of a literary appreciation of Cicero's or Plato's works in the original was the goal. Later the formal side of grammar developed to such extent as to make Cicero or Plato a loathsome subject. In fact, formal grammar and composition, i.e., the imitation of classical models, became the sole purposes of Latin instruction. From time to time objection was voiced against the strictly grammatical method of learning Latin. Erasmus of Rotterdam (1467—1536) saw in the study of Latin as well as other languages, the means for knowledge, power and philosophical insight, if based upon concrete factual ideas rather than upon verbalism. Philipp Melanchthon (1497—1560) declared that grammar was not to be considered as an object in itself. Montaigne (1533—1592) described how he acquired a fluent command of Latin before he was six years old. 1 The members of his family were required to speak Latin in his presence. When he went to college, however, he lost the facility to converse in Latin, since Latin was not spoken in school. Latin, and to a lesser extent Greek, its sister classical language, were the only languages taught until early modern times. This is easily understandable, for Latin w a s the only language of church and religion until Martin Luther (1483—1546). B e f o r e the Protestant Reformation, Latin was officially recognized as the language of the Church, and the clergy as well as the orders sought to preserve its preeminence. In making the Scriptures and through them salvation directly available to the common people, Luther threatened the position of Latin and created the need for the inclusion of the vernacular in the curricula of the schools, or the founding of new schools to teach the vernacular. T h e clergy and particularly the orders concerned with education, such as the Jesuits, extended every effort to combat the introduction of the vernacular in order to forestall the spread of the Reformation. "Not only did the Ratio Studiorum fail to give the vernacular languages a formal status in its curriculum but, in practice, the Society's schools refused them recogni1

S*

Michel de Montaigne, De l'institution des enfants (Essais, Ην. ι , Chap. X X V ) . Hachette et Cie., 1888. (First complete F r e n c h edition appeared in 1595.)

Paris:

67

tion even after the middle of the seventeenth century when, admittedly, they had evolved into precise literary tongues." 1 " T h e vernacular tongue was raised to a major subject in the curriculum" only in the revised Ratio Studiorum of 1832.a Y e t the vernacular language could not be kept out of the lay schools. The impossibility of excluding the vernacular languages entirely was soon recognized and by the close of the seventeenth century "Latin was demoted to the vice-presidency in extracurricular exercises of the schools but maintained its primacy in the classroom." 8 Some of the members of the orders even contributed to the improvement of modern language instruction. A s early as 1560 Father Jerome Nadal exhorted the Jesuits at Cologne diligently to cultivate the German language and to discover the methods of teaching it. 4 About the same time another Jesuit, Father Bateres, wrote a work on the study of languages similar to the Janua Linguarum of Comenius. Toward the end of the sixteenth century the Benedictine Collège at Sorrèze introduced the study of modern languages so that education might be "in harmony with the spirit of the age and embrace all that the age deemed of importance." 5 The Teaching

of Modern

Languages

Not until the sixteenth century were modern languages included in the curricula of the schools. The obstacles of tradition and religious association did much to postpone their introduction and the development and improvement of methods of teaching them. In Germany a French grammar was published in Cologne about 1560 by Duvier, and by the end of the century modern languages had made their way into a great many of the higher schools. In France the vernacular languages found a place in the programs of the collèges more slowly than in Germany despite the fact that they were advocated by many outstanding reformers. Montaigne (1533—1592) said: " I should wish to know first of all my own language well, and also that of my neighbors with whom I have most frequent dealings."® Some of the teachers of Latin also took cognizance of the importance of learning modern languages. Erasmus of Rotterdam, Philipp Melanchthon and Martin Luther saw value in teaching modern languages not in the classical sense but as living tongues. W o l f g a n g Ratke (1571—1635), usually known by his Latinized name Ratichius, was an able forerunner of Comenius Allan P. Farcii, The Jesuit Code of .Liberal Education, Milwaukee: The Bruce Publishing Company, 1938. P. 274. Ibid., p. 391. » Ibid., p. 375' Robert Schwickerath, S. J., Jesuit Education. St. Louis: Herder, 1904. P. 129. 5 D. T. Holmes, The Teaching of Modem Languages in Schools and Colleges. Paisley: Alexander Creen, 1903. P. 16. • Ibid., p. 15. 1

2

68

and he pointed out that the preferred method of learning a language was by reading eagerly and wisely. Johann Amos Komensky (1592—1670), better known by his Latinized name Comenius, was the first to recognize the value of visual aids in language teaching. He developed an Anschauungsunterricht whereby instruction was based upon concrete objects and the technique of multiple sense appeal. Whatever grammar was to be learned could be acquired inductively. O f all the earlier modern language reformers Comenius is "the most important" for Ernst Otto. 1 In his Orbis Pictus (1658) Comenius presented a complete system of language learning based upon these principles. 8 W i t h the seventeenth century came a more widespread adoption of modern languages in the schools. In France the course of study drawn up by Cardinal Armand Richelieu (died 1642) for the collège in Paris included French, Italian and Spanish in addition to Latin and Greek (1640). In England the Latin school was the traditional church school and corresponded to the court school of Italy, the collège of France and the higher school of Germany. The English Latin schools continued the linguistic tradition of Greece, the Renaissance and the religious orders ; Latin and Greek were the only languages taught. Although Latin was at this time the sole language of the European universities, Christian Thomasius (1655—1728), teacher of law at Halle, was the first professor in Germany to deliver his lectures in the vernacular rather than in Latin (1687). W i t h the introduction of foreign languages into the schools it was natural that they should be taught in the same manner as the classical languages. T h e teaching of classical languages was the only available experience. Where hostility toward the study of the vernacular languages as expressed by the clergy and orders was ineffective, the attempt was made to adhere as closely as possible to traditional lines. When modern languages were taught in the Jesuit schools, for example, Latin was used as the source of style and forms. 3 T h e French military schools during the eighteenth century, on the other hand, began to attach great practical importance to the study of modern languages and lent impetus to it. Briefly, language learning for a period of nearly three hundred years, the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, was under the spell of Latin. Traditional methods of teaching modern languages were solely Latin methods. The emphasis was entirely upon grammar, rules and sentences illustrating the rules, and exceptions and paradigms. Sentences had no coherence and were uninteresting. Memorization was the only technique and ' Ernst Otto, Allgemeine Unterrichtslehre, p. 243 f f . Leopold Bahlsen, The Teaching of Modern Languages, p. 4. « Paul Monroe, Cyclopedia of Education. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1912. Article on Jesuits, p. 533 f f .

1

69

translation the only form of practice. The mnemonic methods were systematized early in this period (1656) in the long series of nine-syllable verses of Lancelot of Port-Royal and the formulae of Abbé Moigno. These centuries were not without language reformers most of whom have already been mentioned. They recognized the weaknesses and defects of the Latin method with its overemphasis on grammar. In almost every case they were pioneers of progressively increasing recognition of the fact that modern languages are living languages and must be taught by means of a method that approaches more closely the natural method of learning the native tongue. Almost uniformly they recommended a closer linking of language learning with concrete reality although each of the reformers stressed some particular aspect of the techniques leading to this goal. 1 Johann Basedow (1724—1790) varied the method of Comenius, as did Ernst Otto nearly two hundred years later. Basedow did not feel that a picture of the concrete object was sufficient; the object itself had to be placed before the learner. Otto, on the other hand, recommends that the learner be brought to the object in its natural environment. 2 Basedow placed little emphasis upon grammar and pointed out that it is infinitely easier to learn a language by practice without grammar, than by grammar without practice. This is Otto's point of view who recommends a wealth of linguistic experience in place of the formalistic study of grammar. 3 The eighteenth century language teachers taught by means of disconnected sentences to illustrate isolated forms. The nineteenth century reformers, on the other hand, realized the defect of this method; the continuity of living language was stressed, although other deficiencies in language methodology and psychology were not improved. The Englishman, James Hamilton (1769—1829) based his principles of language learning on Comenius and recommended that students learn the laws of language inductively. From the very beginning they were to be introduced to the living language, i.e., to the written and spoken word rather than to isolated grammatical forms and dissociated sentences used to illustrate rules.4 Although he was the first to introduce interlinear texts his selection was poor, for he used the gospel of St. John which was too difficult. Like Hamilton the Frenchman Jean Jacques Jacotot (1770—1840) advocated the inductive method of learning a language rather than the study of the grammar of that language. He did not believe that language could be acquired through grammar and his main emphasis was upon reading with special 1 8 3 4

70

Bahlsen, op. cit., p. 5. Ernst Otto, Allgemeine Unterrichtslehre, p. 243 f f . Ernst Otto, Methodik und Didaktik, p. 18 f f . Bahlsen, op. cit., p. 8.

memory drills. 1 In his Émancipation intellectuelle Jacotot stressed procedures which are in agreement with present day psychology and methodology. Many of them have been borrowed by later reformers. He was conscious of the fact that all learning must begin with and develop in coherent wholes ; this he expressed in his motto tout est dans tout. He emphasized the importance of linking the old with the new in all learning and provided opportunity for much drill. 2 Jacotot's recognition of the fact that language learning comes through practice is stressed by Otto. 3 Jacotot's influence, as well as that of Hamilton, was widespread affecting especially the compilers of the Toussaint-Langenscheidt self-instruction correspondence lessons which are still popular with mature students. Jacotot's unfortunate selection of Fénelon's Télêmaque and his neglect to grade and pace the instruction were the main defects of his reforms. In Germany a practice method was being developed by Heinrich Gottfried Ollendorf (d. 1865) and Johann Franz A h n (1796—1865) which attempted to do away with strict adherence to Latin grammar sequence. T h e learner was presented with a great number of questions and answers to be translated into the foreign language and practiced until they became automatic. This was merely a modification of the earlier translation method; the emphasis was still on grammatical knowledge, technical facility in translating and the complete absence of attention to interest and enjoyment in the learning process. Furthermore, there was no regard for continuity, and the sentences were disconnected. It is true that the sentences did not imitate the pompous literary elegance of earlier texts but were chosen from life experience. The Ahn-Ollendorff texts may, however, be considered as an early, although not very successful, attempt toward systematization. They were a slight improvement over earlier grammars such as the Praktische Französische Grammatik of Johann Valentin Meidinger (1756—1820) which appeared in Germany in 1783. Meidinger believed that the surest way to learn a language was to master the rules of the language and translate into the foreign tongue. T h e Otto-Gaspey-Sauer conversational grammars mark a further step in the development of standard modern language texts. B y the middle of the nineteenth century they had appeared in numerous languages and had attained great popularity. These texts employed methods which were distinctly superior to those of Ollendorff and A h n and the earlier language teachers. The Otto-Gaspey-Sauer texts stressed the oral and conversational aspects of language, and translation became secondary. This shift in emphasis was necessary, if they were to be autodidactic, which was their Ibid., p. 7. Holmes, op. cit., p. 75. • Ernst Otto, Methodik und Didaktik, p. 274 f f . 1

2

71

main purpose. They mark the first important example of reading continuity in a language text. In the Ollendorff French grammar, for example, there was no connected passage for reading purposes in all of its five hundred pages. Despite the superiority of the Otto-Gaspey-Sauer series the method had serious defects. The model conversations were artificial, and oral work was stressed for too long a time. Like the later Gouin and Berlitz methods the limitation of vocabulary to classroom situations and the formality of the language to be learned resulted in no real grasp of the foreign language. T h e overemphasis upon oral work, the neglect of understanding and appreciation of the language organism, and the too long delay in reading handicapped the learner so that he was unable to transpose and apply the formal language patterns to real life situations. T h e new conception of the child that characterizes modern education is reflected in the socalled psychological method of language learning which was originated by François Gouin in France. In his first work published in 18801 he relates how his little son inspired him to formulate this system of learning foreign languages. He observed how the boy imitated a miller in his daily work in à series of continuous steps. "1. T h e miller fills his bags with corn (the boy used sand, of course). 2. He puts a bag bn his shoulders. 3. He carries it to the mill. 4. He throws it down. 5. H e puts it into the mill. 6. T h e mill begins to grind." 2 Gouin conceived the idea of developing psychologically for school use this logical sequence of simple events. T h e class procedure based upon the Gouin method attempts to link oral work, reading and grammar by dramatics and activities. T h e teacher explains simply in the foreign language the general content of the reading selection. He then enacts the events, describing at the same time what he is doing. Simple acts are individuated and the whole is again enacted. This is done first orally, then in writing by the individual members of the class, as well as the class as a whole. A t home the pupil practices the series, changing to different persons, numbers and tenses. The series is repeated until it is memorized. The Gouin method was popular in France* and England but was not generally used in Germany. The original Gouin series method was not of the type to promote reading ability because it delayed reading too long. Like the natural method that developed somewhat earlier in the United States 4 the stress was upon oral • François Gouin, L'art d'enseigner et d'étudier les langues. Paris: Fischbacher, 1880. • Peter Hagboldt, The Teaching of German, pp. 12—13. ' François Gouin, Les séries domestiques et champêtres. Paris: Fischbacher, 1895; François Gouin, The Art of Teaching and Studying Languages. Translated by V. Bétis and H. Swan. London: 1891; R. Krön, Die Methode Gouin oder das Seriensystem in Theorie und Praxis. Marburg: Elwert, 1900. • Infra, p. 107 f.

72

work and conversation. More modern methods have coupled the Gouin series with practical phonetics in order to avoid the acquisition of poor speech habits in the foreign language, which is a defect also of the Berlitz method. There is no doubt, however, that the series with its emphasis on the activities of the child and the ease with which it may be dramatized and made part of the active language of the learner is a distinct contribution of which later Otto also makes use. 1 A t about the same time that the Gouin method was developing in France, the Reformbewegung was beginning in Germany. T h e first champion of this movement w a s Hermann Perthes who published in 1875 his Zur Reform des lateinischen Unterrichts auf Gymnasien und Realschulen. In this important work he condemned language teachers for not taking into consideration the nature of the child, for not teaching psychologically, and for failing to arouse interest through the selection of suitable reading material. His insistence that language be learned first and then the rules, and his emphasis upon imitation were two principles of language learning and teaching that had profound effect in the modern language field. In 1878 Moritz Trautmann was the first to advocate "the phonetic side of the reform for actual school instruction." 2 A s a result of his plea published in Anglia of that year modern language teachers became aware of the importance of phonetics in teaching. Trautmann's work was carried on by Wilhelm Viëtor whose name was destined to become synonymous with the German reform movement. In 1880 Viëtor published in the second volume of the Zeitschrift für französische Sprache an article in which he asked rhetorically whether the school was to teach written language or language. In 1882 he wrote an epoch making pamphlet® which stimulated widespread discussion, experimentation and modification of techniques, and a literature on the subject resulted. He emphasized the necessity of starting from sounds and attached great importance to understanding the formation of the sounds of speech. Moreover, he championed a simplification of the existing orthography by substituting one more adapted to actual pronunciation. 4 Viëtor was the first to apply to language the scientific approach that characterized the new era of education. The phonetic method was a normal consequence of the methods that had preceded it. The spoken language became the basis of instruction and oral work involving so far as possible the exclusive use of the foreign language Emst Otto, Methodik und Didaktik, p. 94 f f . - Bahlsen, op. cit., p. 17. » Wilhelm Viëtor, Der Sprachunterricht muß umkehren! Ein Beitrag tur von Quousque Tandem. Heilbronn: Gebrüder Henninger, 1882. ' Bahlsen, op. cit., p. 17. 1

Überbärdungsfrage

73

was stressed. Like the other oral methods, however, it postponed reading too long and thereby hindered the acquisition of reading skill. The phonetic method permitted use of the native tongue only in difficult phases of grammar. Realia and "Kulturkunde" were also stressed. In 1900 the reform method was adopted as the official method of Prussia. Increasing awareness of the fact that language must be learned for use and the beginning of a more realistic approach in education at the turn of the century were in large measure responsible for the development of a direct method of teaching and learning foreign languages. This method succeeded the phonetic method in Germany but was first manifested in France under such exponents as Schweitzer and Simonnot 1 and developed most intensively as the modified direct method in the United States. 2 It emphasized the use of the foreign language in classroom instruction. T h e disciplinary and training values imputed to the study of grammar and the practice of translation were cast into doubt. T h e translation and grammar methods had to be abandoned and new principles formulated. The direct method, moreover, was a serious attempt to apply to the language field the principle of activity that began to color educational trends. The reform movement embraced the phonetic and the direct methods both of which stressed the use of the foreign language in classroom instruction. The direct method had a fourfold aim, viz. the acquisition of the ability to speak, understand, read and write the language. Many devices of the phonetic method were taken over, especially in the lower classes, to help in the attainment of these objectives. Language texts with notes in the foreign language soon appeared so that the native tongue was pushed still further into the background. Since the grammar-translation techniques of many of the earlier methods had failed to develop in the pupil a feeling for the foreign language, the direct method strove for "Sprachgefühl" by immersing the learner completely "in foreign sounds, constructions, words, intonation" 3 until new foreign language habits were formed. The slogan was that pupils had to think in the foreign language. Conditions in France and Germany favored such a method; there is opportunity for meeting people who speak the foreign tongue as their native language, and distances between countries are comparatively short. The dissimilar conditions affecting students of foreign languages in the United States gave impetus to modification of the direct method. One of the most outstanding leaders of the direct method in Germany was M a x Walter, Director of the Musterschule in Frankfurt. Through 1

1 3

Charles Schweitzer et Émile Simonnot, Méthodologie des Colin, 1917. Injra, p. n o f f . Charles H . Handscliin, Modem Language Teaching, p. 67.

74

langages

vivantes.

Paris:

A.

his teaching and many books edited for direct method schools his influence extended far beyond his native land. Pupil activity, inherent in the direct method, brought into the language classroom a type of instruction known as "Arbeitsunterricht" which characterized progressive education in other fields as well. 1 The history of language instruction in Europe extends over a period of several hundred years. The heritage of the classical languages in the Dark A g e s was preserved and spread throughout Europe by the Catholic Church. Latin became in fact a catholic language. The rise and development of the vernacular languages in the millenium between the year 500 and the period of the Reformation (circa 1520) was entirely spontaneous. They were vulgar and colloquial languages not to be studied or taught. The need for learning to read a vernacular language came about only with the Reformation. Experience and tradition as well as the antipathy and the clergy and orders were obstacles that prevented the widespread study of modern languages. Only one of the individual protestors against the traditional, classical, formalistic method of learning a foreign language developed an effective and systematic approach to language learning. Comenius inspired a host of language reformers and the principles of inductive language learning based upon perception are still accepted as basic. Not until the century of science and the growth of the sciences of linguistics and psychology did a true reform movement in modern language teaching and learning begin. Philology, linguistics and physiology provided a new basis for understanding the organism of language and the organs that produced it. A knowledge of the structure of language and the speech mechanism coupled with the beginnings of a science of human behavior gave direction to educational tendencies and the reform movement in modern language study. Modern language didactics reflect general trends in education. T h e psychological method of Gouin was an initial attempt to make use of the activities of the learner and reveal the new conception of the child. The phonetic method of Viëtor was an application to the language field of a more scientific approach. The direct method made more intelligent use of child activity and scientific knowledge. A n additional trend in modern education was still to be accounted for in the field of modern language instruction. Otto continued the heritage of modern language teachers from the time of Comenius and developed a system of modern language teaching and learning which provided also for the social trend in education. 1

Supra,

p. 23 f., Kerschensteiner and

Arbeiisvnterricht.

75

Otto's

System

Otto sees great significance in the role of language. T h e emotional content of language reveals the human spirit; the conceptual content transmits thought. Language is the medium of scientific and artistic striving and creating. It makes possible the community of men. It is the involuntary expression and the voluntary revelation of thinking. B y means of language or in the act of speaking endless stretches of time and space are bridged, peoples are brought closer together and understanding is made possible. Language has grown from the human community and conversely by establishing new communities has acted upon man. The linguistic community alone becomes a community of personalities understanding each other. This understanding is not merely the subjective sense of experience, the theoretical objective sense of comprehending what the other person means or wants, but the Socratian sense of clarification of opinion for the inner union of feeling which constitutes the essence of community. 1 Otto's special interest is language and most of his work has dealt with language learning and teaching. T h e experience and insight gained in this field have in a large measure been applied to other fields and have colored his educational philosophy. The emphasis upon relationships, guidance of the pupil to see relationships and connections in thought and the measure of success by achievement are most characteristic of Otto's educational philosophy and are analyzed and applied ih greatest detail in language didactics. 8 T h e social emphasis directed toward society, community and world inherent in Otto's educational philosophy implies a significant attitude toward language. Understanding one's fellowmen, some of whom speak foreign languages, is not possible without language. Otto stresses the importance of mastery of native tongue and foreign language. National and inters national understanding especially in countries and between countries of diverse cultural and linguistic patterns may result from an understanding of language and bring peace in place of strife. Otto has applied a social philosophy to the modern language field which now reflects the three major trends of the new education. 8 The teaching and learning of any school subject is based upon a general conception of Ernst Otto, Allgemeine Breiehungslehre, p. 284. » E m s t Otto, Methodik und Didaktik, p. 132 f f . 3 Supra, p. I i f. 1

76

education. In Otto the philosophy and psychology of education are closely allied to the didactics of language teaching and learning for this is Otto's chosen field. In a sense his more abstract thinking in education is the result of experiment and experience in modern language didactics, and his experimental didactics of modern languages have been determined by his educational philosophy. 1 There is wholeness and direction in Otto's system of education that begins with and includes language. The measure of success in language learning, as in all education, is in terms of achievement or responsible service in and to the community. 2 Otto's system of language learning and teaching avoids the one-sided emphasis that characterizes other systems of the past and present but, at the same time, embodies worthwhile features of other systems. Comenius and Basedow stress the visual aspect of language instruction; Comenius presents the pupil with pictures of objects, Basedow places the object itself before the learner; wherever possible Otto brings the learner to the object in its natural environment. T h e inductive type of language learning that is found in the systems of Hamilton and Jacotot is also found in Otto's didactics, but Otto considers induction and deduction as supplementary processes. Like Jacotot Otto links the old with the new in order to strengthen the wholeness pattern of language learning. W h a t was of value in the practice method of Ahn-Ollendorff and in the conversational texts of OttoGaspey-Sauer is given scientific foundation and strengthened by other valuable techniques in Otto's system. 3 Otto recognizes the value of activity in the psychological method of Gouin and the direct method of Walter, but he is not satisfied with mere activity unless it leads ultimately to spontaneity. Otto also builds on the scientific language approach of Viëtor but goes further by examining and appraising critically not only the phonetic aspects of language learning, but also the interplay of inner and outer factors, heredity and environment, maturation and individual differences. The emphasis on speaking, inherent in the direct method, is also an integral part of Otto's system, but he does not let this emphasis obscure other important techniques and objectives in learning languages, such as the reading skill. Unlike many educators who discard the contributions of the past, Otto builds on the work of his predecessors, accepts what is of value and improves wherever possible. 4 The resulting system is tested by its social value which is always present. Supra, p. 27 I. * Supra, p. 19, 37 f. • Supra, p. 71 ff. ' M. Walter, Zur Methodik des neusprachlichen Unterrichts, Marburg 1917; Fr. Glauning, Didaktik u. Methodik des englischen Unterrichts, München 1919; W. Mönch, Didaktik u. Methodik des französischen Unterrichts, München 1919. 1

77

Furthermore, the rather vague and often aimless "Arbeitsunterricht," activity program, yields to the more meaningful and purposeful "Leistungsunterricht,"x achievement program, in Otto's system. Achievement in language learning, as in Otto's general educational theory and practice, is the core and culminates in spontaneity or self-directed, purposeful activity, rather than in mere activity. Otto applies in practice the criteria of experimental didactics and he includes the practice of maximum intensity, as a corollary of the economy and hygiene of learning. Otto is essentially a social educator. N o activity of man, in or out of school, has value except in terms of the community, for the individual exists only as part of a community. Purposeful growing and living, guided and directed learning, are achievements. "Language learning is no individualistic matter, but serves society, the community. The community in contrast to the individual is the all-embracing value." Principles

Underlying

the New View of

Language

T h e old positivistic conception of language still permeates comparative linguistics and even language instruction in the elementary schools and in educational institutions preparing students for college and university. 8 Proceeding synthetically from the rudiments, it accordingly constructs grammar, step by step, from phonetics to the theory of words and to the principles of sentence structure. T h e result was that many scientific grammars never got beyond phonetics. When it comes to sentence structure, the difference of the various parts of speech — the task of which is misunderstood up to this very day — still prevails as the customary order of grammar. Such a procedure accounts for the prevalent unsystematic arrangement of scientific grammars as well as ordinary school-grammars. On the contrary, a humanistic ("geisteswissenschaftlich") view of language proceeds from the whole, i.e., in an analytical manner. Systematic distinction is made between the act of speech and between what has become historic language, and likewise between the science of speech and the science of language. 3 Grammar is, therefore, divided into : 1 8

3

W e r t u. Wirklichkeit, pp. 142, 146, 159, 169 {{., 173 f. and 214 f. E. Otto, Zur Grundlegung der Sprachwissenschaft, Bielefeld u. Leipzig 1919; Die neuere Sprachwissenschaft u. die Schule, Ztschr. f. Deutschkunde 1925, H e f t 4 ; Grundfragen der Linguistik, Indogermanische Forschungen, 52. Bd. (1934), H e f t 3; Allgemeine Unterrichtslehre, Berlin u. Leipzig 1933, p. 163 f f . ; Sprache u. Sprachbetrachtung, Abhandlungen der Deutschen A k a d e m i e d. Wissenschaften in P r a g , Philos.-hist. Klasse, 7. H e f t 1944 (2. A u f l . ) ; Grundlinien d. deutschen Satzlehre, Brünn-München-Wien 1943 (2. A u f l . ) . E . Otto, Die wissenschaftliche Forschung «. die Ausgestaltung des gelehrten Unterrichts, Bielefeld u. Leipzig 1919, p. 7 f f .

78

/. Science

of

speech

ι. Theory of sentence analysis and synthesis : the act of speaking and hearing

II. Science

of language

1. Theory of sentence structure : means of relationships ("Beziehungsmittel") and meaning-relationship ("Beziehungsbedeutung")

2. Theory of word concepts: word creation and meaningful experience ("Bedeutungserlebnis")

2. Theory of words :

3. Theory of sound pronunciation : phonetics, the theory of the articulation of sounds

3. Theory of sounds : phonology, the theory of the quantity and quality of vowels and consonants

word formation, meaning of concepts ("Begriffsbedeutung") and their mood content ("Stimmungsgehalt")

A distinction must be made between the theory of style and the science of speech and language. T h e theory of style is not an empirical science of fact but, rather, a science that deals in norms. Therefore, it does not investigate what is, but what ought to be. Otto speaks of "style" where, as a consequence of the particular choice among all other possible means of language communication, 1 there is a coherent, personal note in the act of speaking and writing. T h e aims of this thesis make it imperative that the preceding summary be elaborated: ι. The science of speech. Phonetics describes the processes involved in the articulation of sounds. 2 The psycho-physical phenomenon of the κlord involves acoustic, motor, graphic and optical elements. The psychic phenomenon of meaning includes conceptual meaning ("Begriffsbedeutung"), possible visualization, mood content (cf. horse, steed, stallion, mare) and the syntactic meaning-relationship ("syntaktische Beziehungsbedeutung"), e.g., of the genitive, the future, the comparative. The part of speech is also a syntactic means of relationship ("Beziehungsmittel"), in so far as it characterizes the relation of the words in a sentence as noun, adjective, verb, etc., e.g., I like good books. The relationship that exists between the individual words in this sentence is revealed by the part of speech, to the extent that the subject is recognized by a noun, the predicate by a verb, and the attribute by an adjective. For every philologist it is important psychologically to distinguish between the 1 1

E. Otto, Was versteht man unter Stil? Was ist Stilistik f Leipzig 1914. Phonologie u. Phonetik, Indogerm. Forschungen 55 ( 1 9 3 7 ) , H e f t ι.

79

"inductions" ("Analogiebildungen") of word creation and the "supplementary complexes" ("Komplexergänzungen") of the parts of a sentence. Semantic word formations such as forgetful (cf. fearful, dreadful, etc.) as well as syntactic forms, e.g., he comes (cf. he takes, he sees, etc.) are formed by induction. Here belong also not only inflectional formations, but also variations of word order, voice modulation—and the parts of speech. Quite different, however, is the sentence analysis and synthesis within the framework of a "supplementary complex" ("Komplexergänzung") by means of an "anticipatory pattern" ("antizipierendes Schema"). So, for instance, the question Has your father returned? is constructed on the model of the sentence Has the party started? Both word formation by induction and sentence division by a supplementary complex take place under the influence of "determining tendencies," not on an associative basis, as is erroneously assumed. 1 2. The science of language. T h e theory of words and especially the theory of sentence structure, in so far as they are of importance for the process of language learning, are now to be treated concisely from the standpoint of general grammar which brings out the common, characteristic features of all languages. 2 In sentence structure Otto makes a distinction between a "conceptual meaning" ("Begriffsbedeutung"), e.g., mensa = the table, and a "syntactic meaning-relationship" ("syntaktische Beziehungsbedeutung"), e.g., boy's as possessive case, whom as objective case of words. Instead of meaning-relationship the indefinite terms "meaning" or "conception" have been employed, with the result that the terminology is very confusing. In English, French and German the word function (fonction, Funktion) has been used. G. Gröber has spoken of the "psychological radix." W h a t is determined in a "rule," e.g., the use of the tenses, is nothing else than syntactic meaning-relationship. In English meaning-relationship in a sentence is expressed less by inflection than by word order and intonation (pitch), e.g., I give you a book. However, the part of speech also carries with it a syntactic meaningrelationship, as we have already established above (the saver, a saving house-keeper, to save, save, as noun, adjective, verb, and preposition or conjunction). Conceptual and syntactic meaning-relationships are not to be confused. In the sentence I shall come tomorrow, the time is not only expressed 1

8

80

V g l . Zur Grundlegung der Sprachwissenschaft, p. 48 (f., 52 f f . , 54 f f - , 59 f f . ; Allgemeine Unterrichtslehre, p. 172 f., 129 f. Zur Grundlegung der Sprachwissenschaft, p. 76 f f . , 80 f f . ; Allgemeine Unterrichtslehre, p. 164 f f . ; A n t o n M a r t y s , Sprachphilosophie, p. 96 f f . ; £ . Otto, Sprache u. Sprachbetrachtung, p. 5 f f . , Ii f f . ; Grundlinien d. deutschen Satzlehre, p. 13 f f . , 15 f f . ; Wirklichkeit, Sprechen u. Sprachsymbolik, p. 10 f f .

exactly by the meaningful concept tomorrow, but it is also reinforced by the meaning-relationship of the future (I shall

come).

N o w in what way are meaning-relationships expressed, i.e., what means of expression are there ? ι. Inflection, e.g., house — houses, great—greater—greatest.

he — him, I give — I shall

give,

2. Word order, e.g., the kind mother (the attribute usually stands before the noun), the mother loves her child—the child loves its mother: subject and object are distinguished by the word order. 3. Emphasis, intonation, and pause, e.g., despair not! Charles, you will come? The comma expresses the pause with almost visual clarity. 4. The parts of speech, e.g., the regard, to regard, regarding, or in German : Trots, trotzig, trotzen, trotz. In the sentence The boys watch the grazing cows, the syntactic relationship (subject, object, attribute) is determined not only by inflection, word order or emphasis as well as intonation, but also by the part of speech. There are essentially four parts of speech: substantives (including pronouns), adjectives (comprising also adjectives of quantity, e.g., ten, the tenth), verbs, and words denoting relationship ("Relationswörter" : prepositions and conjunctions, e.g., after). The article serves only to characterize the substantive as such. Interjections are, of course, not to be considered as parts of speech but only as undivided equivalents of sentences. 1 The question arises as to just what kinds of syntactic relationships are expressed by these various means of denoting relationship. Such syntactic relationships can, of course, be expressed in quite different ways in all languages. ι. Relationships within the sentence, e.g., by forms such as he teaches the English language: relationships within the sentence are brought out by inflection, word order, etc. 2. Relationships to the outer world. T h e plural points to persons or things of the outer world, but not to coordinate or subordinate elements within the sentence; likewise the comparative and superlative which do not have any "inner syntactic" relevancy, but characterize only "outer syntactic" relationships. 3- The core of the communication ("eigentliche Mitteilung"), i.e., the most important word in the sentence, e.g., I gave the letter to him (not: to her). In this connection W . Wundt speaks of "dominierende Vorstellung." ' E. Otte, Die Wertarten, Germanisch-romanische Monatsschrift X V I (1928), p. 417 ti. 6

The Experimental Didactics

8l

4· The attitude of the speaker to the particular state of affairs ("Sachverhalt") is frequently expressed by modulation of the voice, e.g., by an exclamation, or by a question. So much for the descriptive view of language. E. Otto has investigated the historic genesis of linguistic change: both the conditions ("Bedingungen") and the directions and drives ("geistige Richtkräfte und Triebe") of historic evolution, which must be recognized and understood in their mutual dependencies. Positivism has always seen nothing but the conditions, while idealism (spiritualism) has always dealt solely with the moving forces. These one-sided views are overcome by healthy, realistic examination. Among the conditions belong the facts that human language is a sound language and is closely connected with the physiological, articular possibilities of pronunciation. Moreover, in each language the psychic conditions of each particular civilization are reflected, e.g., in word meanings. A study of directions reveals a mental striving for a theoretically clear and beautiful, economically comfortable, morally considerate, and responsible manner of expression—and also for a reverential w a y of thinking. 1 There are also emotional charges of emphatic types of expression, which take us into the field of drives and needs.1 T h e theory of style also establishes the fact that the style of the speaking individual is sometimes directed more to clarity and beauty, at other times more to a kind and consciously responsible, and even to a humble mode of speech. These are the very same directions which have been established in Chapter T w o . How could it be otherwise? Human life, activity, and speech really form a complete unit. The genetic view of language, and also stylistic observations made in connection with writing and speaking, afford pupils in both schools and universities an aspect of the categorial structure ("kategoriales Strukturgefiige") of the spiritual world: theory, practice, achievement, kindness, and the absolute. Moreover, an understanding of the parts of speech opens up at the same time a clear perspective of the categories of the objective world: substance, attribute (characteristic quality), relation ("Relation") and action ( " V o r g a n g " ) , to which the four parts of speech correspond: substantives, adjectives (and adverbs determining the quality of actions), words denoting relations (prepositions and conjunctions) and verbs. These are objective characteristics of reality and not at all subjective (abstract) concepts of the intellect ("Stammbegriffe"). 3 If philosophy is essentially ontology, and ontology in the modern sense means the theory of categories, 1 2 s

82

E. Otto, Grundlinien der deutschen Satslehre, p. 30 f f . E. Otto, Die menschliche Sprache in biologisch-anthropologischer Supra, p. 15.

Sicht, p. 74 f.

then, beginning in this way from language, there is created a philosophical propaedeutic which affords objective insight into the unity of science Finally, in his pamphlet: Die wissenschaftliche Forschung (p.62ff.), Otto had already made a clear distinction between the three categories of actions ( " V o r g ä n g e " ) : the mechanical, the biological, and the spiritual. Thus, the long sought for unity of the universe and of all instruction is established. Aim of Modern Language

Study

Otto considers the study of modern languages as a part of general education in which the learner is guided toward the achievement of goals of value in his community. The interplay of the cultural heritages of foreign nations and one's own nation provides the basis for this study of modern languages. A n appreciation of the contributions to civilization by foreign peoples and through this appreciation the increased ability and desire on the part of the learner of foreign languages to make his contribution constitute the aim of the study of modern languages. Mere familiarity with the language, literature and culture of a foreign nation has little educational significance unless translated into responsible service in and to the community. 2 Approach to Modern Language Study T h e understanding of the national culture and mental life of a foreign nation must result in a deeper and richer participation in the works of the foreign nation; but the education of the individual for responsible service in and to his community through purposeful activity and achievement will bring about, through the study of foreign languages, international goodwill and the cultural and economic cooperation of nations. Achievement requires that the learner be active, whether reactive or spontaneous, from the very beginning of the learning process; at no time is the pupil to be passive.® A s the learner matures the imitative-mechanical method will eventually give way to the more meaningful method based upon insight and spontaneity. Many of the direct method reformers, e.g., limited by a reading objective, allow for undue passivity on the part of the pupils who need merely to understand. T h e direct method compels pupils to repeat or dramatize sentences, but even in repeating sentences the activity is not measured in terms of achievement in the foreign language. Pupils may answer in the native language. Otto, in agreement with Wundt and Meumann, is convinced by his own experiments and those of others that "we consciously understand only such Ernst Otto, Sprachwissenschaft und Philosophie, pp. 68 f f . * Ernst Otto, Methodik und Didaktik, p. 3 f f . 3 Ibid., p. 97. 1

6*

Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co., 1949,

sounds, words, and phrases as we ourselves can pronounce." He decries the method that emphasizes one type of activity, such as the auditory or the speech-motor. His principle of maximum intensity requires a multiple sense appeal and multiple avenues of response. Otto approaches the teaching and learning of foreign languages as a whole and calls it "Ganzheitsunterricht." Within this whole he differentiates two types of language instruction, reactive instruction or mechanical-imitative method of language learning, and spontaneous instruction or meaningful learning through the seeing of syntactical relationship, the meaning of words in sentences, in context, and the interpretation of intellectual and emotional content under the guidance of the teacher. Natural and Artificial

Language

Learning

Otto distinguishes between the way in which a child learns his native tongue, natural language learning, and the way in which language is learned in school, artificial language learning. This separation resembles the natural and artificial types of education which Otto calls personal and school education. 1 These two types of language learning are interrelated, and an understanding of the process by which the child learns his native tongue is essential for the teaching and learning of foreign languages in school. Natural Language Learning The sound-complex is a psychophysical phenomenon that may be heard, spoken, seen or written. It may be, therefore, auditory, speech-motor, visual or hand-motor, or any combination of these. The meaning comprises the conceptual element, the concrete idea and the emotional content of mood. Syntactical meaning-relationship is the matrix in which isolated words and sounds become meaningful through inflection, word order, part of speech, sentence melody, intonation and rhythm. 8 T h e process of linguistic expression involving all these elements is the natural process by which the child's linguistic ability grows. Otto reports, in agreement with William and Clara Stern 3 , that at first the infant is aware of but does not understand sounds, auditory elements. B y the end of the second month articulation develops, and the infant makes inarticulate cries, differentiates sounds, and goes through a period of spontaneous babbling, speech-motor elements. In the eighth or ninth month of life an association is set up between the auditory image and speech movement, gradually 1 2 3

84

Supra, p. 46 f f . Ernst Otto, Methodik und Didaktik, p. 17 ; sufra p. 80 f. Clara Stern and William Stern, Die Ktndrrsprachr, Leipzig, 1907.

brought about by hearing its own speech; at the same time the infant imitates sounds not yet spontaneously used, speech-motor elements. From this time until the child enters school the natural means of expression acquired in his natural environment become meaningful. Words that were first used to express feelings and strivings, emotional content, later become more conceptual and objective, although the emotional or intuitive meaning is never lost. The child is wont to associate words with certain aspects of the perceptual world, i.e., objects, rather than to abstract the concept and associate it with the symbol. This is true even though language understanding has begun already in the sixth month and grows rapidly. 1 Syntactical meaning—relationships in the language of the infant are implied, even though it does not speak in sentences but in interjections or single words. Real speaking begins only after the first year when the dynamics of linguistic relationships begin to become more evident. B y the middle of the second year there is a natural arrangement of words, and only later the traditional use of syntactical relationships. Visual and handmotor elements are acquired only artificially, usually in school, through reading and writing. Artificial Language Learning T h e natural process of language learning reveals that the child learns to speak under the influence of his environment. T h e child does not invent its words as was formerly believed. Otto, like Stern, Meumann, and C. Stumpf, is convinced that there is no free invention of words in the early years of a child's normal language growth. Experiments tend to show that such inventions are invariably to be traced back to the influences of adults in the child's environment. T h e artificial process of language learning in school must take these two basic facts into consideration, viz. the child's language is the result of the linguistic environment in which the imitation of speech patterns is predominant; secondly, an abundance of language material and opportunity must be offered the pupil in school in keeping with his maturation level. Increased use of language material must be paced with increasing maturity. In all grades of instruction the teacher ought to converse with the pupil as much as possible ; the degree of success frequently depends upon the enthusiasm with which the teacher speaks in the foreign language to and with the pupils. T h e teacher alone is responsible for guiding artificial language learning. His problem is greater, for he must provide sufficient opportunity ' Ernst Otto, op. cit., p. 97.

85

for hearing and using the foreign language, which opportunity is usually provided outside of school in the natural method of language learning. T h e complete elimination of the native tongue as recommended by many foreign language reformers is not necessary or wise. Otto is always guided by a consideration for the economy of time and energy according to the principle of the economy and hygiene of learning determined by L a y and Meumann, pioneers in experimental education. He is convinced that "the native tongue is the easiest and most exact w a y for getting at the meaning. It is the direct route to the goal and, therefore, not an indirect method." 1 The use of the native tongue saves time and energy and, on occasion, minimizes artificiality when the teacher is unable to reduce the thought in the foreign language simply enough to be understood in the lowest grades of language study, or when he is unable to convey the meaning by other techniques such as visual aids and dramatization. Attempts at the sole use of the foreign language are often inexact, ineffective, and for beginning pupils psychophysical^ impossible, for "the close connection between thought and the native tongue forces the pupil to reproduce the word in his own language." 2 Otto's method of language learning proposes the gradual elimination of the native tongue so that pupils become more proficient in the foreign language. In this w a y language learning, as all learning, becomes essentially a process of maturation and accomodation. It must not be overlooked, however, that even in beginners' classes much use must be made of the foreign language with proper consideration for the pupils' ability to grasp and understand. The imitative method of language learning, referred to by Otto as the mechanical-imitative method, is the first stage in language didactics. T h e innate tendency to imitate has convinced educators that "language learning is predominantly imitative." 8 Otto recognizes this fact since it involves the psychophysical tendencies of the learner as well as the conditioning factors of the environment. He, therefore, provides ample linguistic opportunities. Imitation, however, must give way to the more meaningful method of spontaneous instruction as the child matures, if the child is to be guided in his maturation. Hearing, speaking and understanding a foreign language may result mechanically by stimulating pupils to react in a foreign language situation, but mastery over the foreign language so that it becomes the source of desire and ability to serve in and to the community is spontaneous and requires a different method: T h e employment of rules. This is the second step in language didactics. Otto, therefore, considers the deduction of rules by pupils and their precise formalation with the Ernst Otto, Methodik ' Ibid., p. 248. s Ibid., p. 300.

1

86

und Didaktik,

p. 7 and 265.

teacher's assistance to be a consideration of the highest importance. Description of language by means of rules and the historical explanation of these rules occupy considerable space in Otto's "Methodik und Didaktik."1 On the other hand, no great importance is attached to the so-called 'exceptions' to the well defined rules. Interrelationship of Hearing, Speaking and Understanding the Foreign

Language

Otto differs with the extreme modern language reformers who, in imitating the natural method, would at first train only the ear and not, at the same time, the closely associated speech movements. A purely auditory approach is untenable. Any other one-sided method stressing the eye, the ear, the voice or the hand, to the exclusion of the others, is equally incorrect. Educators like Pestalozzi knew intuitively what has been corroborated by scientific experimentation and a knowledge of individual differences, that a multiple sense appeal is psychologically and didactically sound. Not only do impressions become more lasting when more then one sense is involved, but pupils of varying ideational types and, therefore, of different interest types will be given a more equitable opportunity for learning.2 The pupil who begins the study of a foreign language in school, in Europe often at the age of nine or ten, already has fixed habits of pronunciation and speech. He needs what Jespersen8 calls articulation gymnastics in order to accustom himself to the new sounds and sound combinations of the foreign language. In respect to maturity this pupil is different from the child learning his native tongue. The pupil in school has reached a certain level of development and has undergone a process of psychophysical coordination. He can, therefore, be told how to execute the articulation gymnastics for he understands what is being told him in his own language. Otto advises practical phonetics early in language instruction. Phonetics are not to be emphasized as an end in themselves, as suggested by Viëtor, but as a means to an end, viz. pronunciation. Pronunciation, on the other hand, is itself not an end but a means for facilitating writing, spelling, reading and understanding. In teaching pronunciation simple charts showing how sounds are produced, or blackboard sketches of the position of organs of speech may be used. Here again Otto warns against the mistaken overemphasis upon phonetics as a method. On the other hand he takes what 1 1 J

Ibid., p. 145 ff., 181 ff., 194 H; 214 it. W. A. Lay, Experimental Pedagogy, pp. 274—283. Otto Jespersen, Language, Its Nature Development Unwin, 1922.

and Origin. London: A. Allen and

87

is best from phonetic method reformers and applies it through drill with words containing individual sounds peculiar to the foreign language, e.g., th, r and 1 sounds in English, the ö, ii and ch sounds in German. These drills are to be followed by simple reading selections in which the pupil is given ample opportunity to use these sounds in words, phrases and sentences. Since the pronunciation of the pupil is dependent largely on the pronunciation of the teacher, the teacher must pronounce clearly. In imitating the teacher's pronunciation the pupil must also be given the opportunity to watch the mouth movements of the teacher. Otto seeks to attain "maximum intensity in elementary language learning by replacing extemporaneous speaking by continual loud reading. The teacher reads aloud with proper intonation and phrasing, and the pupils read in unison until they acquire great proficiency." Otto stresses the importance of pronunciation because of its significance ultimately in understanding. This is one of the reasons why his mechanicalimitative method makes much use of choral work. Individuals in the classroom are given more opportunity to practice new sounds through choral work, and the more timid pupils are encouraged to speak with the group. Individual oral recitation, nevertheless, is not to be neglected. In classes of beginners an individual pupil or several pupils in succession repeat what the teacher has said or the correct answer a pupil has given to a question of the teacher. This type of conversational drill is the finest example of the mechanical-imitative method in which the pupils are reactive to the stimuli of the teacher. After several pupils have repeated a sentence the class may repeat it in chorus. By providing ample opportunity for practice individually and chorally the initial difficulties of pronunciation are overcome and the class may repeat the teacher's words immediately without individual recitation which may follow choral work. Too many teachers are too easily satisfied with one or two repetitions in the lower gradés of language study. Otto advises many repetitions. Various features of this method are current in language teaching in the United States where the modified direct method is employed. The characteristics of this method are described and discussed later. 1 Otto recognizes the value of the sentence series first formulated by Gouin and adopted by many foreign language teachers. As already indicated 2 the series consists of a number of sentences in which one activity follows another in logical sequence making a complete and easily dramatized behavior pattern. By this method "vocabulary of a foreign language is 1 Infra, Chapter I V . * Supra, p. 73.

88

reproduced more easily if in review the vocabulary is intimately and directly associated with the conscious processes in our own experience." 1 Pupils enjoy the activities of the series, and dramatization leads to clear understanding of the sentence meaning. It encourages pupils to speak in complete sentences. Gouin attempted to guard against synthesizing sentences and series from individual words but he was not successful. Otto recommends that the series be used in conjunction with reading. A passage is mastered; when the content of the passage is clearly understood and is suited to the series method, such series may be practiced in unison as well as by individual pupils, although Gouin attached little importance to this method or to choral work. Confidence in the ability to speak the foreign language is gained by the pupils in this way. Characteristics

of the Mechanical-Imitative

Method

Learning as a process of growth in knowledges, skills, or attitudes implies continuity. Where, as in foreign language learning, a skill is the basis upon which other values and other objectives are attained, complete mastery of the skill is the necessary first stage in the learning process. It is only after these skills become thoroughly learned and, in a sense, automatic, that the attention, interest, activity, time and energy of the learner may be guided into other channels allowing for more meaningful and more spontaneous activities. Otto emphasizes the necessity, therefore, of keeping in mind the importance of rapid and complete acquisition of language skills in elementary instruction, so that the pupil may mature under the guidance of the teacher to higher stages of language learning involving insight into the relationships that constitute language, literature and culture. T h e mechanical-imitative method involves the type of learning described* as reactivity. In the early stages the native tongue is not eliminated but used in order to facilitate better understanding of the new language. It is a reasonable method in that it is based upon the generally accepted principles of the psychology and physiology of human development.® Learning by the mechanical-imitative method is gradually progressive for it is paced with the rate and level of maturation of the learner. It makes use of the· abilities the learner already possesses as a result of natural language learning and has a multiple sense approach. From the very beginning of language learning the pupils are active, reactive, under the teacher's guidance. N o one approach is emphasized to the exclusion of others, and in this way the needs of all the pupils in the class are satisfied. 1 ! 3

Ernst Otto, Methodik und Didaktik, p. 94. Supra, p. 83. C f . method of presentation and opportunity f o r mechanical-imitative procedures in: Emory E. Cochran, A Practical German Review Grammar. N e w Y o r k : Prentice-Hall, 1934. Pp. viii + 462.

89

E x a c t and correct pronunciation is constantly fostered. When the pupils begin to learn the foreign language the tempo of reading may be neglected for accuracy in pronunciation.Through choral speaking and reading coupled with individual oral reciting the natural rhythm of the language, articulation, intonation and accent, will be developed. T h e mechanical-imitative method is a result of the recognition of the interplay of inner and outer factors, the facts and forces involving the organism and the reciprocal effect between those and the conditions of the environment. The stress upon choral work has a social value in that it gives opportunity for the individual members of the class to work together and cooperate in the community of the class. T h e general characteristics of this method are present in all forms of language learning such as reading, speaking, writing, vocabulary building and "Kulturkunde."

Reading T h e means for insight into the mental and emotional life of a foreign nation are provided in "the immediate understanding of foreign literature." 1 B y immediate understanding Otto means the direct comprehension of the foreign language without the need for translating or the intermediary of the native tongue. This is an ability acquired only gradually. Whether in reading or speaking the foreign language, there must be a progressive elimination of the native language symbol. The pupil must be given abundant opportunity to perfect his skill in reading the foreign language. Like Kerschensteiner, champion of the "Arbeitsschule," Otto is opposed to reading "by spoonfuls." 8 Pupils are to be provided with an ample supply of well graded reading material suited to their age, background and maturation. Provision is also to be made for selections to be read rapidly for content, i.e., extensive reading, and others to be read for detail, i.e., intensive reading. Additional reading material can be recommended according to the interests of individual pupils. T h e books to be read v a r y in type, e.g., anecdotes, short stories and descriptive narratives in the lower grades, with increasing emphasis on cultural material in the upper grades so that the pupil is led on a well graduated path to a point where he can appreciate without aid of translation the recorded cultural contributions of the foreign nation. T w o additional principles are to be kept in mind. The interest and attention of the pupil must be held; and it can be done by making the reading enjoyable. » Ernst Otto, Methodik ' Ibid., p. 327.

90

und Didaktik,

p. 4.

This, in turn, would suggest that wherever possible material to be read must contain content drawn from or related to the experiential background of the pupil. E y e Movements Otto has shown that the eye in reading does not move at an even rate but by fixations. While the eye moves, no comprehension takes place. There is only a cursory recognition of the most prominent letters, syllables, arrangement, or of the "Gestalt"-quality of the word units. W h a t has been read is grasped at the pauses. 1 The teacher must be aware of these facts and guide the pupil properly to the acquisition of a correct technique in reading. It cannot be expected that a beginner will know where to pause or be able to recognize thought units. Successful comprehension and economy in speaking or reading are dependent upon proper phrasing or stops. These pauses are important, too, for recognizing syntactical relationships. Otto recommends as a means for aiding the pupil that he make vertical lines in the text where pauses are due and where, accordingly, the voice rises or falls. Good punctuation is also an aid in determining pauses. Where there is linking, as so frequently happens in French liaison, an arc to connect words that are pronounced together may be used. Such marks may be inserted in the text under the guidance of the teacher before reading so that the reading may proceed without interruption. In more advanced classes pupils can be made aware of such indications during the teacher's first reading. This procedure is a good example of what Otto calls mechanical-imitative learning for "mechanization of psychological acts frees energy for higher intellectual activities." 2

Inner Speaking and Hearing T h e reading process includes both visual and speech-motor activity. T h e act of reading is accompanied by an inner speaking and sometimes an inner hearing.® Subvocalization serves as a necessary bridge between the visual word symbol and the word meaning. T h e visual symbol is perceived, however, before subvocalization occurs. Experiments have shown that inner speaking lags behind visual perception. Such lagging can be easily verified when turning the page. The speed with which inner speaking takes place is in direct relation to the fluency with which the reader can pronounce individual words. T h e importance of fluent pronunciation is, therefore, ob1 Ibid., p. 68. « Ibid., p. 278. • Ernst Otto, Methodik

und Didaktik,

p. 69.

91

vious, for good pronunciation is a prerequisite for fluent reading. Otto agrees with Meumann that the act of reading is a visual, auditory, motor complex. Teaching Technique Since the nature of reading is not simple the teacher must guide the pupil all the more. Otto analyzes the instructional procedure in reading on the elementary level. The teacher first reads the passage aloud to the class. If the selection contains words that are not known they should be explained, i.e., pronounced and written on the blackboard, before reading, especially if these words are needed in comprehension of the passage. During the reading, however, there should be no disturbing interruption, since such interruptions lessen the likelihood that the class will understand the selection as a whole. Small units and short sentences are read by individual pupils and by the class in unison. Special attention is given not only to correct pronunciation but also to correct pause, intonation and stress. Reading selections assigned for homework are to be treated orally in this manner before assignment. A f t e r difficulties have been cleared up the teacher reads the passage a second time with expression, now not only for the purpose of pronouncing but rather that the pupils may be led to grasp the content better as a whole. Each succeeding sentence is understood when the preceding is clear; if the content of the larger unit is to be understood, each sentence must be grasped. Reading selections need frequent review so that the units of expression are thoroughly mastered and may serve as valuable bases for speaking and writing. Foreign languages are learned by mastering linguistic relationships through practice. "Grammar" in the usual sense has no place in Otto's methodology, for he is convinced, as are all educators, that there is little value in learning isolated forms in declension or conjugation. Chiefly through reading and exercises based on reading selections, grammer is replaced by the study of style and idiom, as Otto calls it, and practice in using the relationships peculiar to the foreign language. The mechanical-imitative method of learning to read a foreign language is progressive and based upon abilities already acquired. If the selection is too difficult, the native language may be used in discussion. The study of cognates common to the two languages often helps. Through understanding, the mechanical-imitative method soon becomes more than mechani92

cal imitation on the part of the pupils. T h e mechanical-imitative method becomes in more advanced language study less and less mechanically imitative. Direct understanding is a spontaneous activity and results in mastery and deeper appreciation. Pronunciation Otto attaches great importance to good pronunciation in reading and speaking for reading involves inner speaking and hearing. H e believes that training the ear and learning to pronounce can be simplified and time saved by describing the process of sound formation. A n y description, explanation or illustration of how sounds are produced requires comparison with the native language of the learner. Constant practice, however, gradually eliminates native language connections. In order that the pupil may overcome old language habits daily drill on special sounds is necessary. In beginners' classes these sounds are to be practiced by the pupils individually and by the class in unison. Correct pronunciation is to be stressed at all times but great care must be taken that the material used is not too difficult. Simple passages are read in breath groups of a f e w words each and the span is increased in the higher grades. Examinations are to include pronunciation tests. Otto attaches importance to certain aspects of speech, viz. intonation, pause and stress, frequently neglected by foreign language teachers. The intonation curve charts of Klinghardt-Fourmestraux which show clearly the rise and fall of the voice are helpful in this connection. T h e pupil is constantly reminded of the importance of voice modulation and pause. He gradually learns to attach the same importance to purely speech-motor means of expression as to various types of inflection and word order. T h e same conscientious preparation in class and at home is to be given to voice modulation as to other language and syntactical relationships. 1 When pupils study or review vocabulary from word lists or notebooks in which the native language equivalent is given next to the foreign word, Otto advises that the pupils look at both words but pronounce aloud only the foreign word. In this way the less familiar element gets more attention, tends to become fixed more firmly in the pupil's memory and less attention is devoted to the native language symbol. 2 In teaching sounds the international phonetic alphabet is to be avoided, according to Otto. Transcription may be used by employing letters and characters with which the pupil is already familiar in his native language. • Ibid., p. 195.

' Ernst Otto, Methodik

und Didaktik,

p. 260.

93

When the foreign pronunciation has been learned and drilled this phonetic transcription is replaced with standard orthography. 1 This is one of the f e w instances in which Otto seems to deviate from the criterion of experimental didactics, viz. the economy and hygiene of learning. It would seem a time wasting process to present the incorrect spelling of a word in order to further pronunciation. This incorrect spelling must be unlearned before the correct spelling of the word is learned. It is debatable, too, whether in any method of language teaching and learning, including the mechanical-imitative method prescribed by Otto, pronunciation is taught better through visual association than through the auditory and speechmotor associations based upon imitation. Otto recommends a ten minute daily drill for the first few months of language learning to be devoted to practicing difficult sounds. In this connection the blackboard is to be used extensively. Individual and choral work is to be continued not only with words and syntactical forms but more especially with difficult word combinations or units. A similar procedure is followed in reading and writing. Drill is of a mechanical-imitative nature and with frequent and intense practice the intermediate processes can be eliminated. 2 Writing

Writing of a mechanical-imitative nature is either dictation or copying of a model text ; the former involves chiefly auditory, the latter visual elements. A s in reading, inner speaking is also involved. In many individuals inner hearing may accompany writing as well as reading. It follows, then, according to Otto, that each writing exercise is to be treated orally before it is written, whether the exercise be dictation or copying. Otto reports, in agreement with Störring 3 and Meumann that dictation is usually auditory-speech-motor and possibly visual-speech-motor. The visually minded pupils, for example, may be more inclined to see what they hear and write in dictation. Ideas and the meaning of words also play a role in dictation. This analysis of the writing act is true equally for dictation or any other form of reproduction in writing. There is close connection between speechmotor elements and the learning of visual components, i.e., the written word. In dictation the pupil learns to write the word and at the same time to visualize it. 1 Ibid., p. 112. ' Ibid., p. 279 ff. • Gustav Störring, Vorlesung über Psychopathologie. Leipzig: W. Engelmann, 1900.

94

There is direct relationship between writing and reading and in the teaching process they are to be employed together. In the reading lesson two or three pupils may stand at the blackboard to write new words, synonyms, antonyms and homonyms. T h e blackboard may also be used in beginners' classes for a variety of drills as well as for a summary of the reading selection. I f the passage is short enough, e.g., an anecdote, it may be written on the blackboard either as a copying exercise or as a series of responses to questions containing within them the words needed in the answers, e.g., Fand, der Hund ein Stück Fleisch? Der Hund fand ein Stück Fleisch. Otto recommends that each word presenting a difficulty in spelling be written on the blackboard before reading. Only prominent letters are perceived in reading; spelling affords means for intensifying the impression of new words. Additional mechanical exercises are to supplement reading, especially in elementary classes, so that none of the details are overlooked. Adults write several syllables or whole words as a single impulse. T h e objective in teaching writing from the standpoint of orthography is to foster the skill to the extent that the correctly spelled words result automatically and follow directly from such an impulse. In agreement with L a y 1 Otto is of the opinion that "as in learning how to read, the individual movements, in this case of the hand, must be coordinated as continuously as possible in a single stroke, into a total movement." It is advisable to encourage pupils to accompany writing with low, almost silent speaking. The objective of good spelling in the foreign language can be obtained only if there is sufficiant daily practice in school and at home. In this connection much use may be made of notebooks. In the beginning dictation rather than copying a model is preferable, for dictation appeals to the ear as well as to the eye, and the hand-motor response is reactive learning. In the more advanced classes copying is good exercise not only for improved spelling but also as preparatory for composition work which is a more spontaneous activity. In addition to dictation and copying Otto recommends air writing. The teacher or a pupil writes the word on the blackboard while the pupils at their seats write it in the air with the index finger making the contour of the word by these movements. They may then imagine the word with eyes closed and write it in the air again. "In all teaching too little attention is given to imagining which is the starting point for representation." 2 A i r writing is the link between the oral-visual and the written exercise. Otto finds it of particular value in teaching French words with accents. More1 1

Lay, op. cit., p. 339. Lay, op. cit., p. 339.

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over, it provides pupils with the opportunity for using the larger muscles. T h e kinesthetic senses added to the auditory, visual and speech-motor responses lead to an intensification of the learning process. The pupils progress under the mechanical-imitative method in which activity is chiefly reactivity. Meaningful learning begins to play an increasingly larger role. B y well graded and guided instruction pupils are led to become intellectually curious, to make comparisons, and to see connections, e.g., to compare the foreign language with their native language or other foreign languages through simple cognates, similarity or differences in idiom and sentence structure. T h e imitative phase of language learning may be shortened by rules elicited whenever possible from the class on the basis of a few specific examples found in the reading material. 1 Meaningful instruction arises frequently from the pupils themselves. A l l instruction including reading, speaking and writing foreign languages is directed toward increasing the capacity of the pupil to observe. Observation and memorization play a significant role in language learning. Rules and generalizations resulting from ability to see connections can be elicited only when the pupil has observed and compared what he already knows with new material. 2 The intermediate step between mechanical-imitative writing and spontaneous writing Otto calls "protocol writing." The mechanical-imitative activities of dictation, copying or air writing cannot lead directly to spontaneous or free writing. Protocol writing is a special technique developed by Otto in which a reading selection is read aloud or told to the pupils. If the text is somewhat difficult it may be discussed orally. Then the teacher repeats slowly the selection in its continuity and the pupils are permitted to make factual and language notes. On the basis of these notes the pupils are to retell coherently the selection. In this way the transition is effected for free creative work. Later the teacher may present a text in the foreign language in the same way without permitting pupils to make notes.® In the upper grades the transition to spontaneity, i.e., self-activity in writing, can be made more complete by telling the story in the native language. Spontaneous instruction may be achieved in advanced classes through the oral and written interpretation of reading selections. Pupils, under the guidance of the teacher if necessary, can explain syntactical meaningrelationships, word meanings, and sentence content. In all instruction and all phases of language learning pupils work together as a unit. B y the time pupils are ready for the real interpretation of texts, the foreign language has, to a large extent, replaced the native tongue. 1 i 5

96

Ernst Otto, Sprache und Spracherlernung, p. 137; supra, Ernst Otto, Allgemeine Unterrichtslehre, p. 56. E m s t Otto, Methodik und Didaktik, p. 81.

p. 8s.

Writing the foreign language presupposes facility in understanding the spoken and written language as well as a basic ability to speak it. Writing, like reading, is accompanied by subvocalization and occasionally by inner hearing. The progressive gradation of instruction from mechanicalimitative writing to spontaneous writing can come only through a variety of exercises, activities, observations and skills directed toward spontaneity. By employing such techniques as air writing and protocol writing and the correlation of hearing, speaking and reading with writing the whole organism is involved in total movements resulting in spontaneous instruction. Vocabulary The acquisition of vocabulary in a foreign language results from a variety of activities including speaking, reading and writing and learning of a maximum intensity involving a variety of the senses. The visual, auditory, speech-motor and hand-motor processes can be called into play, and experience has shown that the more elements involved simultaneously the more lasting the impression will be. Word concepts include abstract ideas, concrete object ideas, emotional content and syntactical meaning relationship. According to Otto recent psychological investigation has shown that the meaning of words and sentences may be understood without accompanying phenomenological elements such as auditory and visual sensations. The sense of a word may be grasped without the presence of concrete object ideas. Similarly thought without speech is possible. The emotional content that clings to most words is not absolutely essential for understanding. Only meanings, i.e., meaningful acts or meaningful intentions ("bedeutungsverleihende Akte") are essential to sense-laden words. 1 In agreement with Husserl 2 Otto is convinced that only as the listener attaches meanings to the words of the speaker is there any real understanding. The total vocabulary of a language is to be found in either the spoken or the written language. Only in the context of their use in speaking and writing do words have full emotional content. Vocabulary is the unit of all language learning and may be acquired meaningfully. There are several techniques that may be employed. Vocabulary may be taught by concrete illustration or object teaching, "Anschauungsunterricht." Ample use is made of objects and drawings. Occasionally the teacher can indicate what is meant by gesture or dra1

Ernst Otto, Methodik und Didaktik, p. 231. ' Edmund Husserl, Vorlesungen sur Phänomenologie M. Niemeyer, 1928. 7

The Experimental Didactics

des inneren

Zeitbewußtseins.

Halle:

97

matization. The number of words that can be taught in this way without artificiality is limited. The general use of this method frequently involves waste of time, e.g., drawing pictures on the blackboard to illustrate meaning. Exclusive use of this method has led to great artificiality. Paraphrasing is another device for getting meaning across to the pupils. It is also a limited technique especially in elementary classes since the familiar vocabulary to be employed in paraphrasing the unfamiliar material is exceedingly small. Teachers employing this technique may go to such extremes that instruction is wasteful of time and results in little learning. Both paraphrasing and concrete object teaching, however, fail in large measure to convey the exact meaning and emotional content of words. From this Otto draws the conclusion that the native tongue is the most convenient and most exact way of learning the conceptual meanings of words as well as the meaning-relationships. Otto calls this procedure '"'sprachliche Anknüpfung." 1 The connection between thinking and the native language is so close that the inexorable elimination of the native tongue in the lower classes is psychologically and pedagogically impossible. Etymology and word study are additional avenues for determining word meanings. Pupils with a knowledge of other languages can be encouraged to see etymological relationships through a study of borrowed words and cognates. Under proper guidance of the teacher pupils may be lead to discover for themselves the meaning of words and phrases through context. This is a good example of self-instruction. Notebooks are important aids in learning vocabulary. Otto has developed a special technique for foreign language notebooks. On the left page the pupil enters the foreign word and next to it the equivalent in the native language. The opposite page is reserved for synonyms, antonyms, cognates, idiomatic expressions using the word, and other pertinent and original notes. Pupils can be encouraged to make many entries on the right page. These notations tend to encourage self-activity and observation, comparison and correlation with other languages. The pupil's intellectual curiosity is aroused and at the same time the word becomes more firmly fixed in the pupil's mind. It may also serve as a basis for language projects involving other school subjects such as drawing, history and native language. N e w words must be used, i.e., spoken, written and read, if they are to be retained. Similarly, old words tend to be forgotten unless reviewed and used again. The acquisition of foreign language vocabulary, like all growth, is continuous and gradual. It involves skills and abilities as well as knowledges acquired. The use of the native language tends to shorten the pro1

98

E r n s t O t t o , Methodik

und Didaktik,

p. 27 f f . , ι ι 8 , 190 f f . , 227 f . , 256 f f . , 262.

cess, and maximum intensity in learning can be assured through visual, auditory, speech-motor and hand-motor impression and expression. Practice

and

Drill

A n abundance of linguistic opportunity and situation will allow the child sufficient linguistic experience necessary for mastery. T h e need for frequent contact with the language is the basis for drill and practice. T h e principle of maximum intensity requires, furthermore, variety in the types of and approaches to linguistic situations. The implication is then that there must be much practice of a varied nature. Language learning begins and proceeds in wholes. A l l drill must utilize linguistic wholes. Otto's premises that the mechanical-imitative method is the best for beginners' classes and that hearing, speaking and reading must be practised imitatively, yet in meaningful wholes, have been corroborated. T h e investigation of H . A . Pedersen (1907), A . Nechayev (1901) and W . Schönherr (1915) attempted to determine whether the direct or the indirect method, as well as imitative or meaningful didactics, were preferable. 1 T h e experiments of Scholtkofska especially indicated the possibilities of the imitative method employed by Otto. 2 Otto allows every type of drill and exercise provided they are practiced orally and later also in writing. They must always be in harmony with the principles of wholeness and mechanical-imitative reactivity. Alteration of sentences from the singular to the plural, declension of nouns and conjugation of verbs in very short sentences — occasionally mere conjugation of forms — substitutions of words, questions and answers, recounting the context, and the analytic-synthetic study of read and orally presented texts, dictation and transcription are all useful drill techniques. These imitative types of drill, called "Umformungen," without the medium of the native language are not to be employed for the purpose of teaching grammatical correctness, nor is grammatical correctness the main objective of these drills. From the beginning of language instruction the purpose of drill and exercise is the cultivation of "Sprachgefühl," feeling for language, and of the creative linguistic forces, idiom and style. T h e blackboard must be used in all drill, not only because it appeals to another sense but also because of the visually minded pupils and eidetic types in the language class. Furthermore, choral work 3 in both speaking and reading, as well as in air writing, should be abundant, for it affords 1 Ernst Otto, Allgemeine Unterrichtslehre, p. 268. * Gita Scholtkofska, Experimentelle Beiträge, Zeitschrift V o l . X X V , 1926, p. 6s f f . ' Ernst Otto, Methodik und Didaktik, p. 278 f f .

7*

für

angewandte

Psychologie,

99

the greatest number opportunity to participate in instruction and at the same time fosters the community feeling of the class. 1 Vocabulary learning is a special phase of language instruction in which drill plays a large part. In addition to the types of practice applicable to vocabulary described above, as well as in the preceding section on vocabulary, wall charts, pictures, concrete objects and Gouin series may be used. These as well as dramatization have the added advantage of being part of a conceptual and emotional whole. Protocol writing carries the learner from the level of imitative writing in dictation and transcription to spontaneous writing in composition work.® Such readiness may be acquired only if the old rule "nulla dies sine linea" is strictly observed, i.e., if the pupils get accustomed to jotting down an abstract of four or five lines from the reading selections. These short "essays," done at home or in class every day, are corrected at school with the assistance of the teacher, after several pupils have written their paraphrases on the blackboards covering the walls. 3 Gradual Elimination of the Native Tongue Since the learning of foreign languages is closely connected with the mother tongue, and since the learning of syntactical rules shortens this process, these linguistic and logical elements are to be eliminated later. Otto calls this procedure "Ausübung." The best means of this procedure are "Umformungen" and the so-called "Umwandlungen." The mechanical-imitative process is involved in such exercises as the substitution of the definite article or personal pronoun for a noun and the reverse, e.g., la porte — une porte ; la craie est blanche — elle est blanche. This technique Otto calls Umformung and is of value later in speaking and reading. It uses mainly the alteration of grammatical forms in relationship frequently induced on the basis of forms already learned. In the very beginning pupils do not possess the knowledge or ability to create new forms of idiomatic sentence units in the foreign language. The transition to complete use of the foreign language can follow somewhat later. Translation into the foreign language has a justifiable place as a methodological device although it can never become an objective in modern language instruction. If translation is to have any value, according to Otto, the sentences must be carefully selected for this purpose. In elementary language classes sentences are short and they should at first approximate ,the native tongue so far as possible in arrangement and word order, 1 8 s

E r n s t O t t o , Allgemeine Unterrichtslehre, p. 268. Supra, p. 96 f. E r n s t Otto, Methodik und Didaktik, p. 76 f f .

J 00

e.g., the room has three windows, la chambre a trois fenêtres. The sentences that have been translated are not to be written until there has been ample oral practice. In a sense it is not real translation which involves not only an understanding of the sentence as a whole but also the rearrangement of the elements of the sentence, and choice of vocabulary and syntactical structure. " T h e purpose and goal of translation into the foreign language is to suppress the intermediate native language stages and to transform the indirect type of translation into direct speaking." 1 Otto is convinced that "with the native tongue one penetrates more easily and more quickly into the foreign language, but one penetrates more deeply when the native tongue is gradually forgotten." 2 T h e transition from the mechanical-imitative method of mastering syntactical relationships by substitution ("Umformung") is completed by a technique which Otto calls "Umwandlung." It is a more advanced type of exercise based upon knowledges and skills already possessed by the pupils. Instead of the mere substitution of the definite article for the indefinite article, for example, the more difficult processes of changing persons and tenses is employed. The technique also is involved in changing sentences from the positive to the negative, e.g., Je lui ai passé, Ne le lui ai-je pas passé? This type of alteration of syntactical relationship cannot proceed mechanically and without some thought. Here reference to rules is in order—but these intermediate elements must be eliminated step by step. Both translation into the foreign language and "Umwandlung" eliminate certain rational elements of expression and strive for the avoidance of the native tongue. "Umwandlung" involves only the foreign language, whereas translation requires two languages. "Umwandlung" has particular value for review and may proceed rapidly utilizing choral and blackboard work. 3 Syntax is the theory of meaning-relationships according to Otto. The spontaneous recognition of syntactical meaning-relationships will arise only in the advanced stages of language learning, for it requires facility in the use of the language and understanding of the language based upon "Sprachgefühl." The basic principles of general grammar and the avoidance of formal grammar in the traditional sense are important characteristics of Otto's method of language teaching and learning. Language learning proceeds from oral work, hearing and speaking. On the basis of the spoken language, whether by the learner or others, insight is acquired into syntactical meaning-relationships. The kinds of words, their inflection, the arrangement of words, and voice modulation as well as stress in the idiomatic language units must ultimately be derived from Loc. cit. ' Loc. cit. Ibid., p. 290.

1

3

ΙΟΙ

a highly developed sense of the style and spirit peculiar to the language as well as a feeling for it. Dynamic accent and intonation are aspects of sentence melody which in reality makes the foreign language foreign. But all these syntactical insights are to be suppressed by degrees. W h e n the learner acquires this he has advanced to the stage when all further language instruction becomes self-instruction. "Kulturkunde" "Kulturkunde" means literally the knowledge of culture. Otto defines culture as "the typical manifestations of the historical civilization of a definite people." 1 These manifestations embrace not merely grammar but language in general ; not merely belles-lettres but art in general including music, painting and architecture; not merely the art of the people but the special nature of scientific investigation, social, political and economic relationships and religious life. " A l l this belongs to 'Kulturkunde' but I do not maintain that all this should be studied in school. There is not sufficient time for it in school. Such study if pursued will be superficial. Moreover, teachers are not educated for this purpose." 3 Otto limits the study of "Kulturkunde" to language and literature. If the teacher is thoroughly informed in some other fields he may share his knowledge with the pupils both in instruction but more especially in extracurricular activities. It may be that Otto takes this point of view in the matter of "Kulturkunde" because he is essentially a social, educator. In another connection Otto writes of language, a social instrument, that it is itself a part of civilization and an objective cultural phenomenon. 3 From this standpoint there is no need for an artificially contrived justification of language study by the introduction of supplementary cultural information. In common with most modern language educators Otto is convinced that there is value in selecting reading materials dealing with the cultural contributions of the people whose language is being studied. T h e study of "Kulturkunde," however, in the inclusive sense common in the American schools is unnecessary. A s already mentioned, the study of "Kulturkunde" is essentially the study of the language and literature of the foreign people. If modern language are correlated with other subjects in the school curriculum, such as history and geography, Otto is certain better language learning and better education will result. 4 "Kulturkunde" in the foreign language class is secondary. "Instruction is primarily language instruction, after that cultural instruction." 5 1 1 3 4

5

Emst Ibid., Ernst Ernst

Otto, Der neusprachliche Unterricht im Reformsystem, p. 141. p. 142. Otto, Sprache ais Kulturerscheinung, p. 297 f f . Otto, Methodik und Didaktik, p. 101.

Ernst Otto, Der neusprachliche Unterricht im Reformsystem, p. 145.

102

In order to arrive at a deeper understanding and appreciation of "Kulturkunde," Otto discusses a number of important works dealing with philosophy, ethics, esthetics and political economy. These books are a great help to the teacher in explaining and interpreting reading material of an artistic or scientific nature. Summation For over three hundred years, viz. until after the middle of the nineteenth century, modern language didactics were patterned after grammar-translation methods by which Latin was studied, although occasional dissenting voices were heard during this period. The practice method developed by A h n and Ollendorff around the middle of the nineteenth century sought to do away with strict adherence to Latin grammar methods but the disconnected and pompous sentences that characterized this method left much to be desired. The Otto-Gaspey-Sauer conversational grammars that followed somewhat later marked a further step toward the development of standard modern language texts, but the model conversations were almost as artificial as the sentences in the A h n and Ollendorff books. Real reform in modern language didactics began around 1880. In France François Gouin championed the psychological method, in which the chief characteristic was the series, viz. connected sentences, one easily leading to the next, to be dramatized and memorized by the pupils. A t the same time Viëtor in Germany was vigorously advocating the phonetic method which stressed the scientific approach to the teaching of sounds. These two methods were soon followed by the direct method in both France and Germany under such exponents as Schweitzer, Simonnot and Walter. The direct method with its fourfold aim, viz. to speak, understand, read and write the language, sought to develop "Sprachgefühl" by elimination of the native tongue and complete immersion of the learner in the foreign sounds, constructions, words, intonation, realia and "Kulturkunde." T w o trends of the new education were exemplified in these language methods : the new conception of the child stressing activity (in the psychological and direct methods) and the scientific approach (in the phonetic method). Otto's system with its social aspect brought language didactics up to the level of general education. Otto's experimental didactics used the good features of the methods referred to, but he went far beyond any of them, especially in his comprehensive and well rounded program of "Leistungsunterricht," the program of achievement rather than mere activity. Otto's well balanced system thus contains all the valuable features that characterize general education and, in addition, special techniques in his special field, viz. that of modern languages. 103

Among the modern language techniques that Otto employs is the theory and application of Meumann's economy and hygiene of learning on which Otto builds his own principle of maximum intensity, illustrated by choral work in language learning. A i r writing and protocol writing are also unique contributions of Otto in the language field. His greatest distinction, however, is to combine by means of his achievement program the various techniques and objectives into a wholeness pattern which has sound scientific and pedagogical basis. The trends in modern language didactics outlined above spread to other countries, where they appeared with certain variations. The following chapter will deal with such methods in the United States. Evidence of the spread of Otto's own system is the fact that he was called to the German university in Prague in 1925. Mention may also be made of the fact that Otto's work on the methodology and didactics of modern language instruction, Die Methodik und Didaktik des tteusprachlichen Unterrichts, is referred to as a classic by Oliver, professor of Romance languages at the University of Illinois. 1 In Germany Otto is held in great esteem. Dr. Walter Hübner, formerly Senior Inspector of Schools and Professor at the University of Berlin, in his Didaktik der neueren Sprachen2 quotes Otto more frequently than any of the 447 individuals referred to in this work. Dr. Hübner has also reviewed Otto's Methodik und Didaktik des neusprachlichen Unterrichts in superlative terms. 3 1 Thomas Edward Oliver, The Modern Language Teacher's Handbook, p. 410. * Walter Hübner, Didaktik der neueren Sprachen. Frankfurt am Main : Verlag Moritz Diesterweg, 1933. * Archiv für das Studium der neueren Sprachen, 80. Jahrgang, 1925, pp. 132—134. The school grammars of Engwer-Lerch, Gall-Stehling-Vogel, Regula, Riemann-Eckermann and Pubam as well as W. Havers' Handbuch der erklärenden Syntax make direct reference to Otto's Grundlegung der Sprachwissenschaft.

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CHAPTER

IV

M O D E R N L A N G U A G E T E N D E N C I E S IN T H E U N I T E D

STATES

A N D OTTO'S S Y S T E M OF TEACHING A N D LEARNING FOREIGN LANGUAGES Early American

Texts Based on European

Models

From the early years of the nineteenth century until the very end of that century European methods and institutions colored American practices in the foreign language field. Most of the foreign language grammars used in this country until comparatively recent years were reprinted from European editions or, if by American authors, were closely modeled after books that had been used successfully abroad. T h e Chardenal grammar for the study of French appeared first in Scotland; the Joynes Meissner German grammar came from Ireland. 1 This was most unfortunate, for the educational needs and geographical linguistic location of the United States were different from those of Europe. It is this adherence to European methods which has long delayed the development of modern language teaching methods in the United States and which has intensified the need for extensive surveys described later. T h e French grammars of Wanostrocht 2 and Lévizac 3 first published in England appeared in American editions in the early decades of the nineteenth century. They were modeled on the Praktische Französische Grammatik of Meidinger and layed great stress upon rules and translation into the foreign language. Up to this time such emphasis characterized foreign language texts in the United States. In other words for the first fifty years of the nineteenth century the translation method with various modifications was typical. 1 2 3

E . W . Bagster-Collins, History of Modern Language Teaching in the United States, p. 80. N . Wanostrocht, A Grammar of the French Language with Practical Exercises, Boston, 180s. M. de Lévizac, A Theoretical and Practical Grammar of the French Tongue, N e w Y o r k , 1837.

IOS

In the United States the first serious study of German at Harvard University was begun by Charles Folien in 1825. H e wrote a Practical Grammar of the German Language which enjoyed considerable popularity but like the works of most of his contemporaries employed the translation method. In the same year, 1825, Longfellow became professor of modern languages at Bowdoin College. By his masterful translations Longfellow aroused interest in the study of languages. In 1826 Pietro Bachi, instructor at Harvard, wrote A Grammar of the Italian Language constructed along traditional lines. The following passage to be translated illustrates the use of the definite article and shows the grammatical topheaviness of the text. The sacred Tiber, the Egyptian obelisks, the temples still dark with the vapor of the sacrifices, the Flavian amphitheatre which lies like a mangled giant, the columns which describe the customs of the soldiers, the triumphal arches, the space of the Forum, the mausoleums, the majestic ruins of the circuses and the baths, and all the remains of the Roman splendor, fill the mind with delightful wonder. Josse's Spanish grammar 1 is mentioned in 1872 in the Regents reports of the State of N e w Y o r k fifty years after its publication. It followed Latin models to such an extent that Spanish nouns, though uninflected, were declined in six cases. Until the middle of the nineteenth century language texts stressing grammar and translation of disconnected sentences with no relation to reality were used almost exclusively. A n occasional voice continued to be heard in protest. George Ticknor of Harvard who like Longfellow was one of the inspiring teachers of this period delivered an address in 1833 in which he said : Grammar should not, at the outset, be made so prominent as it has generally been made, nor its embarrassing and difficult portions be so regularly gone through and pressed upon young minds of this class of pupils. On the contrary, let an easy reading book, which will be amusing to their age, like one of Madame Guizot's stories in French; or Soave's Novelle in Italian, or the Brothers Grimm's Popular Tales in German be given them at once. 2 Around the middle of the nineteenth century a new type of language text became popular in the United States, viz. the practice method books of A h n and Ollendorff. The first American edition of Ollendorff's New 1

1

A Grammar of the Spanish Language with Practical Exercises. T w o volumes, first A m e r i c a n edition, Boston, 1822. George T i c k n o r , Introductory Discourses and the Lectures Delivered Before the American Institute of Instruction.

I06

Method of Learning to Read, Write and Speak the French Language appeared in 1846.1 Similar grammars in other languages soon appeared. Despite the novelty of the practice exercise involving questions and answers, the constant repetition of the same type of questions and answers soon became as deadening as the bombastic style of earlier grammars. There was still no attention paid to language continuity and there was no connection in meaning within the group of questions and answers. T h e following is a sample exercise from the Ollendorff grammar illustrating these characteristics and the emphasis upon translation and grammatical knowledge. Have you many knives ? I have a few. Have you many pencils ? I have only a few. Has the painter's friend many looking glasses ? He has only a few. Has the boy a few sous? He has a few. Have you a few francs ? W e have a few. How many francs have you? I have ten. H o w many francs has the Spaniard? He has not many. He has only five. Ahn's New Practical and Easy Method of Learning the German Language appeared in this country in 1852, eigthteen years after its appearance in Europe. B y 1855 it was the second most popular German grammar in the State of N e w York. 2 Ahn's method was similiar to that of Ollendorff. Sentences employed the language of everyday life but were humdrum in character. The emphasis was typical of all the methods during the first half of the nineteenth century in that the sentences were disconnected , there was no continuity of language and the methodological objective was the ability to translate with grammatical perfection. This practice method of A h n and Ollendorff, however, may be considered the first definite, though unsuccessful attempt to break away from servile adherence to methods employed in the teaching and learning of Latin. A further and more definite step in the development of more standard and modern texts in modern languages in the United States came with the American editions of the Otto-Gaspey-Sauer series of language texts. The first edition was published in this country in 1864 and by 1868 it had reached its twentysixth edition. 3 The model conversations, which constituted the outstanding feature of these books, were more intelligently constructed than the question-answer drills of earlier texts. The lessons included not only foreign language sentences and English sentences to be translated but also short dialogues. Connected prose selections appeared 1 N e w Y o r k : A . Appleton and Company. * Bagster-Collins, op. cit., p. 85. * Bagster-Collins, op. cit., p. 86.

IO7

after the twentieth lesson. In the United States as in Europe these books were the first conspicuous example of reading continuity in a language text. Most of the grammar texts up to this time, however, were intended for use together with some sort of reader. The Lévizac grammar was studied with Fénelon's Télémaque and Voltaire's Charles XII. Follen's Practical Grammar of the German Language1 was coupled with his German Reader for Beginners published in 1826. Fasquelle's Colloquial French Reader, 1853, w a s t 0 accompany his grammar, and Woodbury's Eclectic German Reader, 1852, was taught together with his grammar. The material in most of these readers was not graded. Selections became difficult too rapidly and the span of difficulty ranged from simple fables to highly literary compositions within a range of twenty pages, as in Follen's reader. Resulting American

Variations

The second half of the nineteenth century was characterized by a shift in emphasis in modern language methodology from European methods to American methods more carefully adjusted to local conditions. It was no simple task to dispel the influence of the European language teachers already described. A s American educators became more fully aware of the impossibility of adhering strictly to European methods in teaching foreign languages in the United States, search was made for American methods of teaching modern foreign languages. W . H. Woodbury, for example, published a series of textbooks for the study of German in 18562 in which he attempted to adapt the Ollendorff-Ahn method. T h e presentation of questions and answers was more orderly and a sense of meaning was introduced. This was true also of Louis Fasquelle who in 1852 published in New Y o r k A New Method of Learning the French Language. The lesson presentation plan first used by these authors has survived until the present in modern language texts. It has become the traditional form of the deductive method of foreign language learning in which the rule is stated clearly followed by a series of sentences in the foreign language and another series of English sentences to be translated into the foreign language. The Natural

Method

A series of methods developed, simultaneously and many overlapping, to meet the needs of the situation. One of the earliest was the natural method which came as a reaction against the grammar method. Translation was banned entirely : "Grammar seemed useless since the child learned his 1 a

Supra, p. 106. W. H. Woodbury, A New

I08

Method

for

Learning

the German

Language,

New York, 1856.

own language without it. The vocabulary of everyday life took the place of the abstractions of books." 1 In 1866 Theophilus Heness founded a private school for learning modern languages at N e w Haven, Connecticut. In 1869 he was joined in this work by L. Sauveur. The method they developed for teaching foreign languages became known as the natural method and was current until the end of the nineteenth century. Their method was essentially a point of view, a revolt against the grammartranslation method associated with the names of Ollendorff, Ahn, OttoGaspey-Sauer and their imitators. T h e Committee of Twelve of the Modern Language Association of America describes the natural method as follows : It is a principle . . . rather than a plan ; and its products depend, to a greater extent than those of any other school, on the personality of the instructor . . . In its extreme form it consists of a series of monologues by the teacher, interspersed with exchanges of question and answer between instructor and pupil—all in the foreign language; almost the only evidence of system is the arrangement in a general way of the easier discourses and dialogues at the beginning and the more difficult at the end.2 The natural method brought about a new kind of beginners' books. 8 Writers of such texts began to insist upon conversational practice as the basis for an acquisition of a foreign language but neglected unfortunately to see the importance of reading. The Psychological

Method

The psychological method of language learning developed in France about 1880 under the championship of François Gouin. 4 In its overemphasis on time consuming oral series it neglected reading. In the United States, therefore, the Gouin series as well as the general presentation technique of the psychological method was incorporated into and adapted to the modified direct method 5 which considers reading as an important objective. Reading selections that lend themselves to this psychological method may be summarized by the pupil in several sentences that constitute a natural sequence. 1 ! 3 1

Robert D. Cole, Modern Foreign Languages and Their Teaching. P. 58. Report of the Committee of Twelve. New York: D. C. Heath and Company, 1900. E. g. Hermann S. and S. Adolph Schmitz, The Elements of the German Language, New York, 1888; J. H. Worman and A. de Rougemont, Grammaire Française, New York, 1883. Supra, p. 72. Infra, p. h i ff.

IO9

In the first decade of the current century American publishers put out Gouin series in various languages 1 but this practice soon yielded to the embodiment of this psychological principle in well constructed texts. It continues to be used today in such modern texts as those of Betz and Price 2 and Lipsky and Reifler 3 and in the teaching of English as a foreign language to foreign born adults. 4 The ease with which one sentence of a series leads to the next greatly facilitates memorization.

The Phonetic

Method

The phonetic method developed in Germany around 1880 by Trautmann and Viëtor 5 also stressed the oral approach to language learning and, in particular, the organs of speech and the actual formation of sounds through a scientific application of phonetics. The scientific approach and the emphasis on pupil activity were in harmony with modern trends in general education, but the phonetic method, like that of Gouin, postponed reading too long. The emphasis upon correct speaking and the interest aroused through oral work are unquestionably valuable but " w e may question whether these benefits make up for the sacrifice of all the esthetic culture and the intellectual broadening that come only from the reading of good books." 6 This quotation represents the measured judgment of the committee representing the modern language teachers of the United States (1898) at the time when the phonetic method was striving for a foothold. In the United States, as in Europe, the use of practical phonetics stressed by the German phonetic method was generally incorporated in the direct method.

The Direct

Method

T h e direct method of language learning developed in France by Schweitzer and Simonnot around 1900 and championed in Germany by Walter 7 some years later sought through a development of "Sprachgefühl" to attain a fourfold objective, viz. to learn to understand, speak, read and write the language. This method was destined to have a much greater Series Lessons (Spanish, French, German) for Beginners, Oxford, Ohio, Series Pub. Co., 1903; Series Lessons for Beginners (French, Spanish), Milwaukee, Wisconsin, Bruce Pub. Co., 1904. 1 Frederick Betz and William R. Price, Learning German. New York: American Book Company, 1935. 3 Abram Lipsky and Elisabeth B. Reifler, Easy German, Book I. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1938. 4 A Manual for Teaching Elementary English to Adults, W. P. A. Technical Series, A 2425, Washington, D. C., May 5, 1941. 5 Supra, p. 73 ff. • The Report of the Committee of Twelve, p. 27. ' Supra, p. 74 f. 1

110

vogue in America than any of its predecessors. Its popularity was due in great measure to the more comprehensive learning aim, and to the fact that it made use of the activity principle that w a s characterizing the new education. One of the most distinguished teachers and exponents of the direct method in the United States was Carl A . Krause. He was among the first1 to apply Walter's direct method ideas in this country and to emphasize the importance of cultural material. Krause and other direct method enthusiasts began to edit foreign language texts with notes in the foreign language. T h e popular Premier Livre and other French texts of Albert Méras gave evidence of how the direct method was spreading. In the first two decades of the twentieth century the direct method was commonly confused with the natural method, for the two methods are alike in that they emphasize the use of the spoken word as a means for acquiring a foreign language. T h e natural method, however, was planless and entirely dependent on the ingenuity of the teacher. Although the direct method has been accused of the same defect, "at its best it is a systematic procedure and well adapted to school conditions in the land of its origin," viz. Germany. The direct method is an eclectic method. "Instead of teaching pupils simply to translate from and into the foreign language a number of trite sentences based on a unit or units of grammar, the technique of teaching is broadened immensely." 2 In the United States, however, the direct method could not be applied directly; it had to be adapted and the result was the modified direct method. The Modified Direct

Method

A more realistic approach in terms of educational requirements in the United States in the twentieth century gave rise to the modified direct method in modern language instruction. In Europe, for example, there is a sense of necessity for acquiring a speaking knowledge of a foreign language on account of the proximity of a number of countries where different languages are spoken. Conversely, the opportunity for oral practice in the foreign language is afforded by the geographical and political structure of Europe. There is no simple multiplicity of foreign languages surrounding the United States. It was soon realized that the emphasis had to be placed on reading with understanding and enjoyment rather than on speaking. T h e advocates of 1

¡

Carl A . Krause, The Direct Method in Modern Languages. N e w Y o r k : Scribner's, 1916; Deutschkunde, A n Introduction to the S t u d y of Germany and the Germans, New Y o r k : Scribner's, 192g. Bagster-Collins, op. cit., ρ .90. III

this new point of view, Bagster-Collins, Handschin, O'Shea, Cole, Hagboldt and Coleman 1 prepared the way for the modified direct method, but its full force was not felt until the Modern Foreign Language Study had surveyed actual conditions affecting language teaching in the United States and had integrated the best thinking and research in the field. Language textbooks in the United States began to change notably. 2 Instead of detached sentences illustrating points in grammar there is a coherent and often interesting reading selection embodying the subject of the lesson. Questions follow more logically since they are based upon a connected text. Functional language exercises have replaced in large measure formal grammar teaching. More recent texts 3 begin each lesson with a reading selection. Vocabulary and grammar study are incorporated in and woven around the reading matter. T h e modified direct method is an inductive method permitting a reasonable use of the mother tongue in the classroom. Weight continues to be placed on oral use of the foreign language although in more limited fashion and only to the extent that it affords a multiple sense appeal and prepares for reading. Grammar is taught inductively in connection with oral w o r k ; practical phonetics receive attention ; realia and "Kulturkunde" are emphasized; and texts are treated orally before reading, particularly in the elementary classes. Free composition is given an important place in the curriculum. These innovations incorporated in the modified direct method are essentially the recommendations of the Modern Foreign Language Study which is considered definitive for modern language teaching and learning in the United States. T h e aims, objectives and techniques of the method and of the Study will be compared with Otto's system after a closer analysis of the latter. With the shift of emphasis from oral use of language to reading and the preparation of frequency word lists there has been a vast improvement in the type of modern language readers. Many are so well graded that they can be used from the first day of instruction. Progress from the very simple to the more difficult is gradual. In some 4 there is an attempt to E. W . Bagster-Collins, The Teaching of German in Secondary Schools. New Y o r k : The Macmillan Company, 1904. The History of Modern Language Teaching in the United States, 1930; Charles H . Handschin, Methods of Teaching Modern Languages. Yonkers-on-Hudson: W o r l d Book Company, 1923. Modern Language Teaching, 1940; M . V . O ' S h e a , The Reading of Modern Foreign Languages, 1927; Robert D. Cole, Modern Foreign Languages and Their Teaching, 1931; Peter Hagboldt, The Teaching of German, 1940; Algernon Coleman, The Teaching of Modern Foreign Languages in the United States, 1931. * Beginning with Eduard Prokosch, Introduction to German. N e w Y o r k : H e n r y Holt and Company, 1909. ' C f . Betz and Price, op. cit., supra, p. n o ; Lipsky and Reifler, op. cit., supra, p. 110. * E. g. the German Series edited by P e t e r Hagboldt. N e w Y o r k : D . C. Heath and Company. 1

112

correlate with simple grammar. The modified direct method in the United States may be considered the result of a shift of emphasis from translation and grammar to reading and speaking. Modern Language Surveys in the United

States

Throughout the nineteenth century methods of teaching foreign languages in the United States were determined by and modeled after European systems. The natural method emphasized oral work and conversation but was formless. The psychological method of Gouin introduced for the first time the use of whole sentences.The phonetic method sought to improve oral work by emphasis upon correct pronunciation. All of these methods were attempts to break away from the formalistic traditions of language teaching inherited from the study of Latin which stressed grammar and translation. The direct method continued the oral use of the foreign language which was to be used exclusively in instruction and denied the value of grammar and rules. With the modified direct method comes the first shift of emphasis from the oral use of language to reading and it includes the best features of all of the methods adapted realistically to the needs of foreign language students in the United States. During the last three decades of the nineteenth century the teaching of modern foreign languages in American schools was faced with a series of crises. 1 There was an increased effort to secure American teachers and to develop American methods of instruction. This tendency unfortunately had little effect because the Otto-Gaspey-Sauer grammars were used in almost every school in the country throughout this period. The most significant contributions to modern language methodology were the courses of study worked out in Cincinnati in 1873, Cleveland in 1876 and Milwaukee and Dayton in 1877. The underlying purpose of these courses of study was to overcome, by grading the language material, the defects of instruction. Such defects manifested themselves in most large cities in the high mortality of pupils with each succeeding year. A series of text books mainly in the form of readers, spellers and copy books was published. It was an attempt to transpose the teaching of German, for example, from the field of foreign language instruction to one more closely akin to native language instruction. These courses of study were copied in other large cities and in 1892 Milwaukee further championed reform by homogeneous grouping ; separate courses of study were provided for children whose parents spoke German and for those of non-German speaking parents. Unfortunately there was no significant difference in the two courses of study except in the amount 1

8

Bagster-Collins, op. cit., p. 5 if. T h e Experimental Didactics

II3

of material covered. A primer and four graded readers comprised the core of instruction and the question and answer method was used almost exclusively but the first indications of a growing emphasis upon reading rather than grammar were evident. T h e lack of uniformity in foreign language instruction in the United States, the confusion of methods and the growing realization of the need for reform found expression in the surveys that were made between 1890 and 1930. The Report of the Committee

of Ten, 18Ç3

T h e committee appointed by the National Educational Association in 1892 was the first nation-wide attempt to determine the position of modern language in the course of study below the college level. 1 E v e n at this early date great importance was attached to the ability to read the foreign language rapidly. Formal presentation of grammar through translation exercises was to be given only after three months of reading. A two year elementary course and a three year advanced course were planned. T w o hundred duodecimo pages of reading matter were to be covered in the elementary German, and twice as many pages in the corresponding French course. In the last two years of the advanced curriculum a minimum of seven hundred pages of German, or one thousand pages of French was to be read. The report was inadequate because of its brevity; it was only seven pages. There was no provision for pupils in the public schools who wished ^o continue language study in the secondary schools. The committee did outline very sketchily the work to be covered in the elementary school. The chief value of the report lay in the fact that it concentrated opinion and stimulated interest in reading as a possible objective. The Report of the Committee

of Twelve,

i8ç8

T h e Modern Language Association appointed in 1896 the Committee of Twelve to analyze conditions affecting modern languages in secondary Schools and to make recommendations for the improvement of teaching. A f t e r two years' study the committee submitted a report at a meeting of the association held in Charlottesville, Virginia. This report 2 was far irjore comprehensive than the one of the Committee of T e n and it was to have controlling effect on the methods and standards of modern language instruction for a number of years. 1

8

Report of the Committee on Secondary School Studies, D . C , 1893, PP· 96—103. Report of the Committee of Twelve of the Modern N e w Y o r k : D . C. Heath and Company, 1900.

II4

B u r e a u of Education. Washington, Language

Association

of

America.

Translation from and into the foreign language was considered the best means of acquiring a reading knowledge of the foreign language. A t least half of the first year's study was to be devoted to grammar. Although the method w a s called a reading method, it differed notably from what is designated currently by that name. Classical ideals in education were still in evidence, and translation, the characteristic of Latin instruction for centuries, was still in the foreground. Learning paradigms and conjugations was paramount. One of the outstanding features of this report was the three levels of secondary instruction in modern languages. The proposed three grades are designated to correspond normally to courses of two, three, and four years, respectively, the work being supposed to begin in the first year of a four-year high-school course, and to proceed at the uniform rate of four recitations a week. The elementary course is designed to furnish the minimum of preparation required by a number of colleges in addition to the Latin or Greek of the classical preparatory course. The intermediate course is designed to furnish the preparation reqùired by many colleges which permit the substitution of a modern language for Greek. T h e advanced course is designed to furnish the highest grade of preparation of which the secondary school will ordinarily be capable in a four-year course. 1 It is obvious from this quotation that the committee recognized the importance of reading for American students of foreign languages and the leveling of instruction. It was unfortunately too tradition-bound to break away from an adherence to classical language learning, even in its recommendations. Furthermore, the committee lacked a realistic approach to the problems of secondary education, for facts like those later gathered concerning the length of study for the majority of secondary school students were lacking. Nevertheless the report of the committee had great value, for it was the first expression of scientific interest in the state of modern language instruction on the secondary level. The recommendations of the Committee of T w e l v e met with general approval and the College Entrance Examination Board organized in 1901 was guided by the suggestions embodied in the report. T h e report was also the first usable handbook of information for American teachers of modern languages. It analyzed briefly but intelligently the various methods, suggested texts for different courses, and provided sample 1

8*

Ibid., p. 43.

115

examinations in modern languages. The report also recommended that foreign languages in elementary schools be offered only as elective subjects. The Modern Foreign Language Study,

IÇ24—1930

The Modern Foreign Language Study was organized in 1924 as a result of increasing dissatisfaction in the United States since the report of the Committee of Twelve. There were many contributory causes of this dissatisfaction. Many teachers of foreign languages were not properly equipped to teach them. This condition was due not only to the low scholastic requirements for teachers but also to the introduction into the secondary school curriculum of many new subjects. It gave rise to straddle teachers who were not specialists in the language they were teaching. There were increasing complaints from colleges that students were not well prepared. In time, college standards were lowered to meet the level of students from the secondary schools. A study of college board examinations and New Y o r k State Regents' examinations over a period of two decades prior to the study corroborates this fact. On the other hand there was increasing language mortality among students who did not enter the colleges. Finally a more realistic attitude on the part of modern language teachers was demanded for the students who benefited little from the two-year course which was typical for the majority of them. The earlier report of the Committee of Twelve showed unmistakable evidence of the influence of Latin instruction methods, particularly in the great emphasis on translation. In the second decade of the twentieth century teachers of the classical languages began to question current practices. The very year in which the Modern Foreign Language Study was organized, 1924, the Classical Investigation concluded a three-year program, viz. "a scientific survey made with the aid of educational psychologists." 1 One of the results of the Classical Investigation was the new type test devised to measure the pupil's understanding of a Latin passage without recourse to exact translation. In January 1927 the New Y o r k State Board of Regents adopted this type of comprehension question for the first time in a modern language examination. The results of the Study are contained in seventeen volumes 2 followed by a summary volume. 8 The objectives of foreign language study were formulated in terms of the general educational aims of the secondary school and of foreign language teaching. It was generally conceded that the aim 1 Classical Investigation. Princeton University Press, Part I, 1924, p. iii. * Publications of the American and Canadian Committees on Modem Languages. New Y o r k : The Macmillan Co., 193:. • A Summary of Reports on the Modern Foreign Languages with an Index to the Reports, compiled by Robert Herndon Fife. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1931.

I16

of foreign language instruction in the secondary school was to afford insight into the intellectual and emotional life (Geistes- und. Gefühlsleben) of a foreign nation. T o this end the four immediate objectives of classroom teaching were set up in order of importance as the progressive development of the use of the foreign language for reading, comprehension, speaking and writing. The Study openly advocated the reading method but advised the use of certain direct method procedures. T h e Study 1 revealed that 83% of the students in public and private secondary schools in the United States do not continue their study of foreign languages beyond a two-year period. This was the major reason in terms of pragmatic realism for making reading the first goal and the core of the modern language curriculum. In addition to the four main objectives of foreign language instruction the Study outlined a number of subsidiary and complementary goals, such as the ability to read the foreign language with ease and enjoyment, and the ability to communicate orally and in writing with natives of the country whose language was being studied. It was also indicated that knowledge of foreign languages results in an increased command over English, a clearer understanding of the nature of language, and an improved ability to acquire other languages. Cultivation of literary and artistic appreciation and a development of valuable intellectual and social habits may result from the more direct processes of foreign language study. The total effect of the many values accruing from the study of foreign languages is the social and international attitude of goodwill and better understanding of foreign nations and foreign national groups in the United States. Not only were the traditional emphases upon grammar and translation set aside by the Study, but it attempted to evaluate the application and use of conversation and oral work in the classroom. Since the Study recognized facilitiy and fluency in reading as the primary objective of foreign language learning and teaching, it misinterpreted the real value of oral-aural activities. This w a s due to an inability on the part of the formulators of the Study to conceive language learning as an integrated process involving speaking, hearing and reading. 2 A s concerns oral work, it is quite certain that the increasing tendency to stress the spoken language has raised the professional standards of the teacher and has also made modern language instruction more realistic and effective for interpreting the foreign peoples. It cannot be said, however, that 1

1

" S t u d y " f r o m this point on r e f e r s to the Modern Foreign Language Study conducted f r o m 1924—1930. Infra, p. 137 f.

II7

other useful abilities, such as reading, will come to the student as a result of oral work, but rather that their acquisition may be hindered through an exaggeration of classroom use of the spoken language. 1 The Study was much more than a comprehensive national survey of the status of modern languages in the United States. S i x of the seventeen volumes were devoted to word and idiom frequency lists in French, Spanish and German compiled with great care and much study. T h e value of these six volumes 2 lies chiefly in the opportunity they afford writers of modern language textbooks which as a result of such compilations will tend to be more uniform in vocabulary and better graded. Additional volumes in the series report on experimentation with modern language texts and laboratory studies of the reading process. The analysis of new type tests by Ben Wood in the first volume of the Study 3 is typical of the critical attitude of the investigators. A s a result of this analysis it became evident that there is wide variation in school standards and that overlapping and heterogeneous grouping is quite common in modern foreign language classes. A s director of The Cooperative Test Service of the American Council on Education, Wood has designed and published placement tests for modern foreign language study in secondary schools and colleges. In the second volume of the Study 4 Buswell gives the results of his laboratory study of eye movements at different'stages of progress in silent reading. He also sets forth the superiority of the modified direct method of instruction in promoting reading habits. Buswell recommends the reading method as best for learning foreign languages. Effects

of the Modern Foreign

Language

Study

Since the publication of the recommendations of the Study foreign language teachers in the United States generally, although not without dissent, 1 Fife, Summary of Reports, p. 50. ' V o l . I I I . M. A . Buchanan, A Graded Spanish Word Book. T o r o n t o : T h e University of Word Book, Based on Toronto Press, 1927. Vol. I X . B. Q. Morgan, A German Frequency Kaesing's Häufigkeitswörterbuch der deutschen Sprache. N e w Y o r k : T h e Macmillan Company, 1928. V o l . X . Edward F. Hauch, A German Word List, Selected on the Basis of Frequency and Range of Occurrence. New Y o r k : T h e Macmillan Company, 1929. V o l . X I . H a y w a r d Keniston, A Spanish Idiom I.ist, Selected on the Basis of Range and Frequency of Occurrence. New Y o r k : T h e Macmillan Company, 1929. V o l . X V . Frederic I). Cheydleur, French Idiom List, Based on a Running Count of 1,183,000 Words. New Y o r k : T h e Macmillan Company, 1929. V o l . X V I . George E. V a n der Beke, French Word Book. New Y o r k : T h e Macmillan Company, 1929. • New York Experiments with Modern Language Tests. New Y o r k : T h e Macmillan Company, 1927. 4 A Laboratory Study of Reading Modern Foreign Languages. New Y o r k : T h e Macmillan Company, 1927.

I18

have placed greater emphasis on reading. E v e n its phraseology has been carried over into certain syllabi, e.g., the first sentence of the N e w Y o r k City syllabus reads, "the chief aim shall be to develop to the point of enjoyment the ability to read the foreign language." 1 T h e Study has focused the attention of foreign language teachers upon the cultural aspects of language study, and many cultural readers and courses in "Kulturkunde" have appeared. T h e widespread effect of the Study is due in no small measure to the insight of the foremost modern language teachers in the United States. They have recognized the inadvisability of setting forth criteria and methods for modern language instruction to be applied wholesale to every educational situation. They have cautioned against accepting their recommendations as anything more than guiding principles in the solution of localized and individualized problems. Cole comments on the objectives as set forth in the Modern Foreign Language Study : It is not expected that these objectives can be attained by the course in modern languages as at present organized and conducted. Radical changes are e s s e n t i a l . . . Not all the objectives may be possible of attainment in the time available, especially in the case of poorer students. It is absolutely essential that the teacher or supervisor select the objectives or system in the light of his study of the situation. 2 The question of method depends on the aim of the course. Satisfactory results cannot be expected unless aim and method are in harmony. Objectives are intimately bound up with the question whether all students are to be allowed to study foreign languages or whether a selective process is to be employed. With the present emphasis on social sciences in modern secondary school curricula many language teachers have advertised their wares under this rubric. Others are advocating general language courses in order to check falling pupil registration. 3 Such courses as they are now planned seem to afford a general smattering of language without real knowledge of any foreign language. It might be appropriate, therefore, to repeat the query of Viëtor 4 whether language or something about language is to be taught. Huse, like Palmer 5 fourteen years earlier, feels the need for clarification of terms and for more definite determination of objectives. Syllabus of Minima in Modern Foreign Languages. New Y o r k : Board of Education of the City of New Y o r k , 1931. Cole, op. cit., pp. 40—41. 3 New York Sunday Times, Dec. 15, 1940, Section 2, p. 5. 4 Ibid., p. 1 13 * Harold E. Palmer, The Scientific Study and Teaching of Languages, 1917. 1

1

II9

Even the relatively specific aims, such as reading knowledge are in urgent need of objective definition. Reading knowledge in an absolute sense does not exist. Likewise no one can speak or pronounce absolutely ; the phoneticians themselves are in continual disagreement. T h e change in favor of reading knowledge marks a notable gain, but the question of means remains to be decided, and, until there is a precise definition of the term, teachers may embark on the sea of reading knowledge as they have on the seas of grammar, pronunciation, and speaking knowledge. 1 Despite the fact that the Modern Foreign Language Study provides, for the first time, scientifically constructed idiom and word frequency lists, there is no uniformity prevailing among the majority of foreign language teachers as to what constitutes a reasonable vocabulary for a student in a two, three or four-year language course. There is also some lack of agreement as to what to teach in other aspects of the work. Huse pleads for more general agreement. T h e Canadian Committee working with the Modern Foreign Language Study groups from the United States wrote two of the seventeen volumes. 2 It also recognized the urgent need for clarification of aims and for agreement as to the basis for scientific investigation of language teaching. It stressed the great lack of laboratory as well as classroom experiments in the didactics of foreign languages, and in the materials best suited for language teaching and learning. T h e Canadian Committee attempted, therefore, to outline a science of language teaching. A s the first point in their proposed program it defined in objective terms the subject matter to be taught. " T h e beginning language text or method should present units of expression (not words or sentences, necessarily) in the approximate order of their importance as measured by frequency of occurrence." 3 Their second proposal was that the value of a particular method of presentation depends upon the relative economy of effort it involves which can be determined experimentally in the case of each kind of material. " A corollary is that recognition (reading) knowledge should precede reproduction (speaking) knowledge, the latter to be attained as the more important material comes up for renewed attention in its natural recurrence." 4 H. R. Huse, The Psychology of Foreign Language Study, p. 157 f. Vol. V I . Modern Language Instruction in Canada; Vol. V I I . Modern Language stration in Canada. Toronto: The University of Toronto Press, 1928. 3 Report of the Can. Committee, quoted by Huse, op. cit., p. 161. ' Ibid., p. 162 f.

1 8

120

Admini-

In the summary volume F i f e attempts to resolve the conflict concerning the influence of method in language learning. H e denies the results of experimentation by stating "there is little difference whether language material is presented to the eye or ear of the learner, or whether the method of presentation requires articulation by him." 1 F i f e also denies the importance of sense appeal. He believes that pupils do not have to be grouped according to the particular learning type, since the organ or sense to which a subject is presented is not necessarily the one in which it is recalled. He localizes language learning in certain brain processes. 8 It would seem that F i f e has chosen to ignore the contributions of experimental education from Meumann, L a y and Otto concerning the importance of ideational types and multiple sense appeal. His identification of language learning with specific brain processes is suggestive of antiquated faculty psychology and the psychology of cerebral localization of functions. A s a result of tests in modern foreign languages Todd 3 came to the conclusion that in learning a foreign language there exists a functional relationship between memory for connected material and two elements in the memory tests, viz. information and vocabulary. Other investigators attach even more importance to memory. For them language learning is essentially a memory problem, learning for recognition or recall of a fixed list of units of expression. Pyle, for example, states "learning and memory are merely different aspects of the same thing." 4 Palmer points out that "learning by heart is the basis of all linguistic study, for every sentence ever heard or written by anybody has either been learned by heart in its entirety or else composed, consciously or unconsciously, from smaller units, each of which must have at one time been learned by heart." 5 This emphasis upon memory as well as the previously described neglect of certain basic modern psychological principles in the Modern Foreign Language Study would seem to vitiate the value of the educational practices recommended by the Study. T h e Study's willful or unconscious avoidance of consideration for meaningful learning based upon insight and understanding must be explained. I f modern educational psychology is correct in assuming that mechanical learning through memorization is not significant unless it leads ultimately to learning through the seeing of connections, i.e., insight, then the methods of teaching foreign languages as described by the Study are inconsistent with the otherwise acceptable aims 1 1 3

4 5

F i f e , op. cit., p. 152 f f . Ibid., p. 153. John W . T o d d , Prognosis Tests in the Modern Foreign Languages, Publications of the M o d e r n Foreign Language Study, V o l . X I V . New Y o r k : T h e Macmillan Company, 1929. W . H . P y l e , The Psychology of Learning, 1928, p. 144. H. E. Palmer, op. cit., p. 13.

121

and objectives. T h e Canadian Committee in its report, as well as the minority report, recognized the deficiencies of the Modern Foreign Language Study, especially in those psychological bases fundamental to modern language learning and teaching. Not only does the Modern Foreign Language Study fail to distinguish between various types of memory and forms of learning, but in its emphasis upon reading it neglects oral work. The Canadian Committee goes' so far as to state that reading, i. e. the visual impression, must precede speaking, i. e. the oral-aural impression. T h e Modern Foreign Language Study, therefore, met with almost as much dissent and opposition as enthusiasm. Critical and Dissenting

Opinions

T h e most formidable criticism of the Modern Foreign Language Study revolves about the fact that there is no concept of integration despite the avowal of a reading objective. 1 The Study was never planned as a whole; the results have had to be synthetically brought together to justify the general acceptance of the reading aim. Nowhere is there evidence of an acquaintance with current theories of secondary education and educational psychology. 2 Mere extension of the amount of reading cannot be accepted as the means for realizing a true reading objective. T h e Minority Report of the Modern Foreign Language Study emphasizes this point. T h e statement, prepared by Hohlfeld, Roux and de Sauzé expresses grave doubts as to the validity of the conclusions of the Study. W e cannot but believe that the unsatisfactory results which obtain are generally due to causes but little, if at all, remediable by increasing the ground that is to be covered. In cases where even a limited amount of work is inadequately done—and they are the ones that bring down the general average—a considerable increase in reading requirements, even though this be offset by lessening the time spent on other exercises and by devoting more time to actual practice in reading, is likely to do more harm than good, and may even prove a step backward in the direction of reading by translation. 3 Olinger criticizes the report further in that it continues to utilize, in practice, drill on minimum essentials and extensive reading although in theory it advocates the reading aim. He recommends that the ability to Huse, op. cit., p. 160. Robert D. Cole, The Old and the New in Modern January 1932, p. 289. ' Coleman, op. cit., p. 170.

1 1

Τ 22

Language

Teaching,

High School, I X , 5,

speak and understand be included in any total concept of foreign language instruction. 1 Like Olinger other American investigators have felt the existence of a close connection between oral work and reading. Huey conducted a series of experiments demonstrating that "inner speech was a combination of auditory and motor elements, with one or the other predominating, according to the reader's habitual mode of imaging." 2 For Huey hearing is active and may even include an inner saying or imitation of what is heard. T h e disappearance of lip movements, for example, is no indication of absence of inner speech in reading. 3 Spendiaroff is also convinced that reading must be developed on the basis of a solid oral-aural ability. 4 Experiments conducted at the University of Chicago indicated conclusively that the results obtained in classes taught exclusively by the reading method were inferior to those achieved in classes in which oral work is an integral part of classroom procedure. 5 T h e neglect on the part of the Modern Foreign Language Study to consider the results of experiments in educational psychology led to complication in that it took no cognizance of the complex nature and types of reading. Gray's keen analysis of the problem leads him to the conclusion that "reading includes much that the psychologists and educators have commonly called thinking. A n y concept of reading that fails to include an inquiring attitude, a clear recognition of purpose, orderly reflection, and critical evaluation is inadequate today."® T w o other major criticisms have been leveled against the Study. Olinger, Morgan and Mercier, 7 as well as others, insist that reading a foreign language cannot be taught in the same way as the vernacular, as recommended by the Study. It is necessary, therefore, to come to a clear understanding of the differences involved in the acquisition of the native and the foreign language. These differences were already perceived by Otto in his separation of natural from artificial language learning. 8 Most of the critics of the Study- are in agreement that it erred in accepting and sponsoring the two-year course of study of foreign languages in secondary schools. A threeyear minimum is recommended as the shortest period in which a real Henri C. Olinger, Reading Aim and Reading Method, Modern Language Journal, X V , 7, April I93X, p. 507 f f . ' Edmund Burke H u e y , The Psychology and P.edagogy of Reading, p. 120. * Ibid., p. ] 22. 4 Eugene S p e n d i a r o f f , On the Visitai versus the Auditory Element in Learning, Modern L a n g u a g e Journal, X X , 7, April 1936, p. 403 f f . 5 A r t h u r Gibbon Iiovée, An Indicated Effect of Oral Practice, Modern Language Journal, X I I I , 3, Dec., 1928, p. 178 f f . • William S. G r a y , Recent Trends in Reading, p. 8. 7 Olinger, op. cit.; Bayard Q. Morgan, The Coleman Report, Modern Language Journal, X I V , 8, M a y 1930, p. 618 f f . ; Louis J. A . Mercier, Is the Coleman Report justified in its Restatement of Objectives for Modern Language StudyΤ French Review, I I I , 6, M a y 1930, p. 397 f f . 8 Supra, p. 84 f f . 1

I23

acquisition of ability in the foreign language is possible. College entrance requirements are tending more to this point of view. As a result of the emphasis on reading in learning a foreign language the system advocated by the Modern Foreign Language Study has become known as the new reading method. At all times modern language teachers have acknowledged the importance of reading in learning a foreign language, but even as late as 1898 the Committee of Twelve championed a reading objective that implied a grammar-translation method. The Modern Foreign Language Study was not able to divorce itself completely from tradition. The language surveys from that of the Committee of Ten in 1892—1893 to the reports of the Modern Foreign Language Study have been conducted in the United States and Canada over a period of two score years. They attempted in the main to describe and to analyze current practices and to solve the problems of modern language teaching and learning in the United States. They sought critically to evaluate the results of various tendencies and movements already described. Only occasionally are there indications of objective and scientific approach in the attempt to prove or disprove, to corroborate or condemn, or to lend scientific basis to modern language aims, objectives, methods, techniques and procedures. The growth of the science of education and the demand for objectivity in determining educational values are becoming more intensified. The investigations and conclusions of scientific and experimental educators everywhere are contributions necessarily of significance to American education. In the field of modern language instruction, the studies have indicated avenues for further investigation and research, and problems in need of scientific solution. The most potent criticism of the most extensive survey in the field of foreign language instruction, viz. the Modern Foreign Language Study, is the absence of scientific experimentation and the neglect of experiments already performed. Otto, one of the foremost experimental educators, whose works and writings extend over nearly half a century merits consideration by modern language methodologists and teachers in America, for the contributions he has made that are applicable to the American problem. Otto's experimental didactics in modern languages described in detail in the preceding chapter serve as a unified method of foreign language instruction satisfying the theory of the Modern Foreign Language Study and the practices advocated by its critics. Otto's Experimental United States

Didactics in Light of Modern Language Trends in the

The new reading method of the Modern Foreign Language Study is deficient in that it lacks scientific basis and is misapplied by the artificial 124

separation of reading from the oral-aural process. Otto's system of modern language teaching and learning described in chapter three, on the other hand, is the result of experimentation. His classroom experiments involving chiefly the learning and teaching of modern languages were conducted at the Herderschule in Berlin-Charlottenburg after 1903, at the Reformrealgymnasium in Berlin-Reinickendorf after 1913, at the University of Marburg after 1922 and at the German University in Prague from 1925 to 1945. His conclusions differ notably from those of the Study and especially the Canadian Committee in that Otto attaches great importance to the oral approach and recognizes the interrelatedness of speaking, reading, writing and understanding. He is in agreement with the Study, however, that reading is the primary immediate objective in modern language instructions. 1 In the acquisition of reading ability Otto not only recognizes the importance of the oral-aural approach but places much more weight than does the Study on reading in unison by the class, or choral reading. 4 In loud reading as in all oral activity Otto emphasizes far more than the Study the importance of pitch, intonation, pause and stress. This is especially significant, for the rhythm of language and of language patterns constitutes the basis of "Sprachgefühl." "Sprachgefühl" is the only absolute foundation of feeling for the language, literature and culture of a foreign nation. In any type of socially guided education, such as advocated by Otto, 3 where love and ethical moral principles play so large a role, "Sprachgefühl" and the concomitant attitudes and feelings are fundamental to all language learning. In agreement with the Study, Otto believes that pupils should be given much reading material, carefully chosen with due regard for the maturation of the individual as well as for the cultural and ethical content. Perhaps the greatest value of the Study lies in its recommendation for further investigations and scientific validation of aims and materials, techniques and methods of approach in language learning and teaching. It will be recalled that in his summary of the Study, F i f e overemphasized the importance of specific brain activities that condition the speed and accuracy with which language capacities function. The Study identifies language learning with memorization. Otto stresses the ability to see syntactical relationships and the importance of providing language situations that allow the learner to see connections. This is inherently a modification of current practices in psychology and comes closest to "Gestalt" psychology in that no isolated form, no datum or fact can be learned except by rote. Understanding and insight are afforded only when data are seen in Ernst Otto, Methodik vnd Didaktik, s Ibid., p. 51 f f . ' Supra, p. 28 f., 76 f.

1

p. 323.

125

relationship and when facts are presented in their natural and normal function within a larger whole. Otto's conception that learning is at all times a total process based upon the ability to see connections and the relationship of parts to the whole appears throughout his works. 1 This is most clearly applied in language learning where meaningful maturation on the part of the student is assured not through the memorization of words which are without meaning in and of themselves but in language wholes learned as units and grasped through a trained ability to perceive syntactical relationships. One of the fundamental principles of experimental didactics is the economy and hygiene of learning first formulated by Meumann, L a y and others. 8 B r i e f l y stated, it is the acceptance of the fact that the best method is the one that achieves the greatest amount of learning with the least expenditure of psycho-physical energy on the part of pupil and teacher. 3 In view of this principle of economy and hygiene of learning Otto recommends from his own experimentation that a multiple sense approach be incorporated in all types of teaching including that of modern foreign languages. 4 Recognizing a variety of learning types, e.g., visiles, audiles, motiles, in any class group Otto suggests a multiplicity of presentation so that each type of learner may function at a maximum efficiency utilizing á maximum capacity. T h e Study, however, suggests a homogeneous grouping which the critics of the Study recognize as something impossible to effect under present conditions surrounding secondary education in the United States. 5 Otto's principle of maximum intensity might be substituted, therefore, for the ideal of homogeneous grouping recommended by the Study. For Otto the learning process is dynamic. The learner is no passive receptacle for the accumulation of facts but an active participant in a meaningful process resulting in growth and increased power. This is in line with current educational tendencies in the United States. In order to insure equal opportunity on the part of all pupils, slow, average, or superior, and of all learning types, Otto recommends the pacing of subject matter to be learned. The Study in its recognition of the importance of frequency lists and its emphasis on the proper utilization of teaching materials provides the stimulus Ernst Otto, op. cit., pp. 48, 153, 212; Die Wortarten, Germanisch-Romanische Monatsschrift, X V I . Jahrgang, H e f t 11/12, p. 418 f f . W . A . L a y , Experimental Pedagogy, p. 315 f f . 8 Ernst Otto, Methodik und Didaktik, pp. 247, 277. * Ibid., p. 113. 5 Robert D . Cole, op. cit., p. 290 f f . ; L. J. A . Mercier and others, A Statement of Principles for the Integration of the Development of Modern Foreign Language Abilities vs. the Basis Recommendations of the Coleman Report, F r e n c h Review, I V , 5, March 1931, p. 386 f f . 1

1

126

and the modus operandi for pacing subject matter in the classroom and for grading the materials in textbooks. 1 Otto's modern language didactics take full cognizance of the psychophysical nature of the child. With clear logic he shows that certain reform methods are psycho-physically impossible, e.g., the direct method is, in reality, an indirect method. 2 The pupil who begins the study of a foreign language already has certain fixed speech habits rooted in his native tongue. Unlike the Study in its recommendation that foreign language instruction be patterned after the manner of acquiring the native language, Otto is convinced that the native language affords the easiest and most exact means of getting at the meaning. "It is the direct way to reach the goal and is, therefore, not an indirect method." 3 Otto sees a place for the native language in a foreign language class but recommends that there be progressively increasing use of the foreign language in the classroom. Only in this way is there a proper bridge between the old and the new, between abilities already acquired and new abilities to be attained. T h e various language methods developed in Europe during the last fifty years affected methods of teaching foreign languages in the United States. These same methods were in vogue during the time that Otto studied and later when he began his experiments in modern language didactics, since 1903. It will be of value, therefore, to record here Otto's reactions to them. Otto began his teaching career in 1901 when Viëtor's phonetic method of language instruction was popular in Germany. The psychological method of Gouin was spreading almost at the same time. In fact Gouin's L'art d'enseigner et d'étudier les langues and Viëtor's famous Der Sprachunterr rieht muß umkehren appeared just two years apart, the former in 1880, the latter in 1882. In his Methodik und Didaktik des neusprachlichen Unterrichts which appeared in 1921 Otto gives due credit to Gouin and sees value in the language wholes known as the Gouin series, since it is so easily adapted to dramatization, memorization, and oral-choral work. Otto's conception of the inseparability, in practice, of reading and speaking impelís him to recommend that the Gouin series be used always in connection with a reading selection. A f t e r a passage has been read, explained and understood, a series of such sentences .may well be used, e.g., as a summary, if the nature of the text permits such treatment. 4 In regard to the phonetic method Otto writes in the same year, 1921, "phonetic instruction can serve only as a means to an end and as an end 1 F i f e , Summary Volume, p. 188 i f . ' Ernst Otto, Methodik und Didaktik, p. 265. 8 Loe, cit. ' Ernst Otto, Methodik und Didaktik, p. 95 f f . .

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in itself." 1 Here again Otto takes what is of practical value in a particular method but is tempered in his selection by a knowledge of the psychophysical nature of the learner and of the learning process. Occasional use may be made of Viëtor's models of the organs of speech, but a laborious and minute discussion of their parts is not in keeping with the norm of experimental didactics, viz. the economy and hygiene of learning. " T h e reform method deserves great credit for having pointed to an adequate training of the ear. That in doing so it overshot the mark seems to be the fate of all reforms." 2 Otto makes frequent reference to Walter, German champion of the direct method, whose works appeared from 1895 to 1914 with new editions appearing as late as 1931, seven years after the beginning of the Modern Foreign Language Study in the United States. 3 Otto's first published work appeared in 1914 4 and his first work dealing specifically with linguistic science in 1919. 5 Although he objects to the direct method as being psychologically indirect, as already indicated, he lauds the emphasis of Walter and his method upon activities and the association of such activities with real experience. T h e need for active participation on the part of the pupil is natural and psychologically inexorable. This is the most important contribution of Walter and the direct method.® On the basis of his experience, experiments and study of the success of other methods already described, Otto in contradistinction to the Modern Foreign Language Study, emphasizes repeatedly the importance of speaking. Speaking was not looked upon favorably as an aid to reading by the Study, but other American educators before and after have recognized its value. 7 In 1933 Otto pointed out that memory and observation cannot be separated from intelligence 8 but that memorization is never an end in itself. In acquiring an ability to speak the foreign language memorization plays a role for Otto, but memorization as previously indicated, is not the role 1 Ibid., p. 107. ' Ibid., p. 63. • Max Walter, Der französische Klassenunterricht auf der Unterstufe, 189s, I. Unterstufe: Entwurf eines Lehrplans, Marburg; Die Reform des neusprachlichen Unterrichts auf Schule und Universität, Marburg, 1912; Der Gebrauch der Fremdsprache bei der Lektüre in den Oberklassen, Marburg, 1914; Aneignung und Verarbeitung des Wortschatzes im neusprachlichen Unterricht, Marburg, 1914; Zur Methodik des neusprachlichen Unterrichts, 4. Aufl., bearbeitet von Paul Olbrich, 1931. All books published by the Elwert'sche Buchhandlung in Marburg, Hessen. 4 Was versteht man unter Stilt Was ist Stilistik? 5 Zur Grundlegung der Sprachwissenschaft. » Ernst Otto, Methodik und Didaktik, p. 100. ' Henri C. Olinger, Reading Aim and Reading Method, Modern Language Journal, X V , 7, April 1931, p. 507 f f . ; H. R. Huse, The Psychology of Foreign Language Study, 1931; William Henry Pyle, The Psychology of Learning, Baltimore: Warwick and York, 1928; Harold E. Palmer, Scientific Study and Teaching of Languages, 1917. • Ernst Otto, Allgemeine Unterrichtslehre, p. 56.

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recommended by the Study. 1 The words, phrases, and units of expression that have been memorized for speaking can be used later in other connections. Such learning fits in with Otto's theory of wholeness pattern in education. Choral work, already discussed, 2 gives the individual pupil more opportunity for practice in oral work. The Study recognizes the value of concert drill but makes little mention of subvocalization or inner speaking to which Otto gives considerable space in his works. Otto arrives at his conclusion that reading is improved by speaking since "the visual reading act is accompanied by inner speaking or hearing." He does not neglect the tempo and the reading type of the individual learner. The intimate relationship between the reading process and the motor processes of oral-aural activity leads Otto to believe that reading ability, his goal as well as that of the Study, can be furthered by developing speaking ability. For the Study as well as for Otto reading is an immediate objective, subordinate in a sense to a larger educational aim. The Study seems to imply that this aim, i.e., better understanding of the contributions of a foreign nation, can be brought about more effectively through "Kulturkunde." 3 Otto, on the other hand, does not advocate the teaching of "Kulturkunde" as a substitute for teaching the language. He insists that the chief interest be the foreign language and not something that has remote connection with the language being studied. T h e civilization of other nations has a rightful place in courses in the social sciences. In the language class, however, insight into the mental and emotional life of a foreign people is gained through mastery of the language and literature of that people. A n y other cultural facts, i.e., science, art, music, economics and politics, must enter the instruction incidentally and naturally. 4 Otto's experimental didactics of foreign languages are part of his general educational theory of the achievement program. 5 A cognate, for example, or an idiom that may show a pupil for the first time that people of other nations express thoughts in different ways may guide self-satisfied individuals with blind prejudices to understand other viewpoints. The cooperative enterprises involved in language learning, such as choral work, projects and the exchange of opinion in the interpretation of texts illustrate how foreign language teaching and learning techniques are brought by Otto into harmony with broader educational concepts. By working together from the very beginning pupils develop a social sense. "Responsible achievement, or responsible and happy mutual participation in 1 3 3 4 5

9

Supra, p. 121 f. Supra, p. 92 i". A l g e r n o n Coleman, V o l . X I I of the Study, p. ioo f i . Ernst Otto, Allgemeine Untcrrichtslchrc, p. 150 f f . Supra, p. 77 f. T h e Experimental Didactics

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service," the essence of the achievement program, brings about cooperation in a language class which results in "longing for solutions, search for new orientation, collection and comparison of material and the dawning of connections." The recurrent emphasis in Otto's works on relationships, syntactical and otherwise, the ability to see such relationships independently, and thereby to gain an insight into the spiritual and emotional life of a foreign nation brings the aim of modern language instruction and of education into closer identity. An understanding of foreign "Lebcnsanschauungen" is more necessary in America today than ever before, for the United States is a nation built upon alien population. Growing anti-alien sentiment has no place in the American democracy. One of the ways in which a democratic sense of tolerance may be developed is through language study and the increasing awareness of the cultural contributions of foreign peoples. Inter-cultural Pan-American relations and internal and external defense can be fostered through a study of the language and literature of other nations. In the language learning process as conceived by Otto, the pupil is not only active but reactive. Such reactivity does not follow a situation mechanically but depends on the experiencing of the total situation. 1 Since experience in language classes as well as in other subjects varies with the individual and is largely determined by him, Otto prefers the term spontaneity to activity. By spontaneity, moreover, Otto means dynamic spirituality. He even speaks of spontaneous instruction which includes the discovery of relationships and, under the teacher's guidance, cooperative interpretation of foreign language texts, for example. Just as all education leads eventually to self-education, so in Otto's system guidance leads to spontaneous self-guidance. 2 Similarly in foreign language classes pupils who are guided to understand the cultural contributions of a foreign nation, admittedly the aim of foreign language instruction, should be enabled as a result of such study to evaluate independently the contributions of their own nation, to make intelligent criticism or recommendation for improvement and to make their own personal contribution. This is the essence of the achievement program. Otto has definite contributions to make to education in the United States, and specifically to the field of the teaching and learning of foreign languages. He has lived and developed his own educational system through a period, since the last decades of the nineteenth century, of changing methodologies, most of which arose in Europe and then spread to America. By giving credit 1

Ernst Otto, Allgemeine - Supra, p. 28.

I30

Unterrichtslehre,

p. 1 1 2 .

to certain reformers, e.g., Gouin and Viëtor, criticizing where he deems it necessary, e.g., Walter, and by adding many practical suggestions from his own experience gathered since 1903, Otto's resulting achievement program is both comprehensive and scientific. Specifically, Otto's clear definition of procedures and techniques to be used in the reading of foreign languages is most opportune. The new reading method advocated by the Modern Foreign Language Study needs clarification. Otto corroborates the findings of the Study that reading is the immediate objective in foreign language teaching and learning. Moreover, he shows clearly how reading, speaking, writing and hearing are integrated, and how the objectives may be more quickly reached through a multiple sense approach involving, for example, choral reading with due attention to such matters as pitch, intonation, pause, stress, inflection, and word order, all of which develop a genuine "Sprachgefühl." The wholeness concept, or "Gansheitsidee," that characterizes Otto's system of education and foreign language methodology is a valuable contribution to language didactics in this country where lip service is given to reading for enjoyment, but the approach to the new language, the progress toward this goal, and the means used to attain objectives are often not clearly understood or well planned. The following chart brings into focus the points of similarity and of differences between the Modern Foreign Language Study and Otto's modern language didactics, allowing his contributions to become apparent. The Modern Foreign Language Study

Ernst Otto

Aim

Aim

The chief aim is to develop understanding of the written and the spoken word without the interposition of English. (Algernon Coleman, Study, X I I , p. 273).

The goal of modern language instruction is the direct understanding of reading without translation. (Supra, p. 90; Methodik und Didaktik, p. 323).

The learner thereby acquires a This will bring about the apknowledge of the foreign country preciation of cultural values and and its people. (Supra, p. 116 f.). the ability to collaborate in their production. (Supra, p. 89 ; Methodik und Didaktik, p. 3). Otto's social educational concept of achievement requiring that all learning activity be translated ultimately into a contribution to the community is the essential difference in aim. 9*

Psychological and philosophical foundation Language is, essentially, considered as reproduction on an associative basis.

Language is conceived of on an antiquated grammatical basis. There is no clear distinction between speech and the act of speech, between conceptual meaning and syntactic meaning-relationship, between conceptual words and means of relationship (such as inflection, word order, intonation and parts of speech). Supra, p. 80 f. The system lacks unity.

Objectives

Reading The ability to read the foreign language with ease and enjoyment is the first objective. Reading is for the purpose of comprehension. (Supra, p. 1 1 6 f.). Oral-aural work is secondary to reading. (Cole, Op. cit., p. 337). In the case of the Canadian Committee report, as well as in the Study itself, oral work receives little emphasis. (Supra, p. 121 f.). There is to be intensive, extensive and supplementary reading.

Psychological and philosophical foundation According to Otto speech is an act of creative production, i.e., of a supplementary complex based on induction and determining tendencies. (Supra, p. 79 f. ; Grundlegung, p. 48 ff.). Otto's conception of language is based on a comprehensive system of general grammar. (Supra, p. 80 f. ; Grundlegung, p. 80 ff. ; Sprache und Sprachbetrachtung, p. 5 ff. ; Grundlinien, p. 9 ff. ; Wirklichkeit, Sprechen und Sprachsymbolik, p. 15 ff.).

The return to a philosophical consideration of language and thus also to general grammar opens up for students in schools and universities the possibility of the long sought for philosophical propaedeutic.Thus, starting from a consideration of language, youth may be afforded an objective, unified view of the universe. (Supra, p. 82 f., Methodik und Didaktik, p. 350). Objectives

Reading Direct reading leading to insight and understanding is the primary goal. (Supra, p. 90 f.). Reading, speaking and writing are integrated. Oral work precedes reading and leads to a better acquisition of the ability to read the foreign language. (Supra, p. 86).

Otto advocates intensive and extensive reading. (Supra, p. 90; Methodik und Didaktik, p. 99). In intensive as well as extensive Intensive reading, i.e., the mastery of all details is to be supplemented reading, not the amount but the type by extensive reading. (Coleman, op. or purpose of the reading is most significant. (Otto, op. cit., p. 327). cit., p. 277). 132

Extensive reading, i.e., reading for comprehension, is to be in larger amounts than intensive reading. (Ibid., pp. 157—162). Supplementary reading, i.e., in the native tongue, leads to a knowledge of cultural heritages. (Board of Education of the City of N e w Y o r k j S y i labus of Minima in Modern Foreign Languages, p. 16 ff.).

There is no need for supplementary reading in the sense of the Study, since the language and literature of the foreign nation are the best means for familiarizing the learner with its culture. (Supra, p. 102 f.).

Rapid silent reading in class is Silent reading is not recognized recommended as a test of reading by Otto. Subvocalization, i.e., inner ability. (Coleman, op. cit., p. 159 ff. ; speaking and inner hearing, exists in Cole, op. cit., p. 131). all types of reading. This is the psychological basis for the integration of speaking, reading and hearing. (Supra, p. 91 f.). Reading texts are to be prepared Reading texts are to be selected on the basis of frequency counts of with due regard to the pupil's matuwords and idioms. (Cole, op. cit., ration level and ideational type (supra, p. 85 f.), and the linguistic Ρ· 154). constitution of the material to be read (Otto, op. cit., p. 334), e.g., early reading materials should contain passages utilizing special sounds. (Ibid., p. 109; supra, p. 92 f.). T h e minority report and dissenting opinions charge that the new reading method is the old reading - translation method. (Supra, p. 122).

Oral reading is very significant. It may be extemporaneous or prepared. (Supra, p. 90 f.). "Sprachg e f ü h l " is the result of an integrated approach to language learning, including reading, speaking and hearing, and resulting in insight into linguistic patterns. (Supra, p. 101).

Speaking

Speaking

While recognizing the value of speaking, the Study would, nevertheless, reduce considerably the amount of time devoted to oral work. (Coleman, op. cit., p. 166).

Oral work is the basis of all language learning. Reading, writing and understanding the foreign language are all closely related to oral activities. (Supra, p. 86).

There is to be a gradual elimiThere is to be a progressive development of the use of the foreign nation of the native tongue in the language. (Coleman, op. cit., p. 16). foreign language classroom. (Supra, p. 100 ff.). Otto emphasizes the significance The, limited place ascribed to speaking results in a neglect of oral of pitch, pause, and stress as vital work, phonetics, except incidentally, aspects of the rhythm of language. I3S

and speech patterns. (Coleman, op. (Supra, p. 93). Syntactical relacit., p. 166). tionships and idiomatic constructions are linguistic patterns to be approached orally. (Supra, p. 92). Writing

Writing

Writing is the least important objective and relegated to the third and fourth year of study. W h a t is meant by writing is usually composition writing of the Latin-modeltranslation type. (Cole, op. cit., pp. 39—40).

Otto distinguishes between written work that is a review of material already learned and written work that is new or spontaneous. (Supra, p. 94 ff.). All written work done at home must be in the nature of a review. A l l new written work is to be done in the classroom under the teacher's guidance. (Otto, op. cit., p. 298; supra, p. 94 ff.).

Dictation, to be given even in beginners' classes, is the exact reproduction of what is heard. T h e emphasis, therefore, is upon spelling and to a lesser degree upon understanding. (Study, V I , p. x x v i i i ) .

In addition to dictation Otto recommends protocol writing. Since it requires that the learner reproduce in his own words what has been dictated to him, the emphasis being upon comprehension and language. It becomes, therefore, a necessary preliminary step leading to spontaneous composition writing. (Supra, p. 96 f.).

Grammar

Grammar

The formal study of grammar should be reduced to a minimum. (Coleman, op. cit., p. 162). A functional mastery of such grammatical forms as are necessary in reading is recommended. (Cole, op. cit., p.262).

Otto never employs the term formal grammar. Syntactical relationships are the bases of language usage. The spontaneous recognition of syntactical relationships, a primary objective for Otto, is not taught as a thing apart but results from reading, speaking, hearing and writing the language. (Supra, p. 101 f.).

Despite its avowal of a reading objective, the Study still emphasizes functional grammar. Herein lies a fundamental difference between the Study and Otto, for Otto recognizes as significant the basic principles of language rather than formal grammar. "Kulturkunde"

" Κ u 11 u r k u η d e"

Recognizing that the aim, viz. an Otto is convinced that the aim, understanding of foreign peoples viz. an appreciation of foreign peo134

and their culture, could not be attained through the new reading method that lacked psychological foundation and employed frequency counts to determine the language to be read, the Study lays great emphasis upon the teaching of cultural material. (Coleman, op. cit., pp. 117 to 121.)

pies and their culture and thereby greater participation in and contribution to one's own, is achieved through the foreign language and literature. The study of cognates and idioms, for example, leads more directly to tolerance and to goodwill than a discussion of enviable achievements in the arts and sciences. (Supra, p. 102 f.).

The Study recommends the inclusion of a knowledge of the geography and history of a foreign nation in the foreign language class. (Loc. cit.).

For a variety of reasons Otto excludes the direct study of geography and history from the foreign language classroom and relegates it to its proper place in the social sciences. (Supra, p. 102 f.).

Activities and Techniques

Activities and Techniques

Sounds are to be learned by oral practice in syllables, sound groups and sentences. The imitation of the teacher and loud speaking by the pupil also aid pronunciation. (Coleman, op. cit., p. 271).

Special types of drill are emphasized for learning pronunciation and speaking. (Supra, p. 85 f. and 93 f.). Reading texts prepared to develop mastery of certain speech patterns are recommended. Choral reading is stressed in this connection. {Supra, p. 90). Special attention is given to the natural rhythm of sentence melody and the language (Supra, p. 102).

Oral and written exercises are Speaking, reading, hearing into be based on the reading text, volved, for example, in choral work (Coleman, op. cit., p. 272). are part of a multiple sense approach, psychologically required by a recognition of different ideational types. (Allgemeine Unterrichtslehre,p.268 ; supra, p. 87). The Study makes no provision for different learning types. It goes so far as to state that a variety of approaches is not necessary. (Supra, p. 121 ff.).

Otto is positive in his belief that a multiple sense approach is the best from the point of view of individual differences, the economy and hygiene of learning and his own law of maximum intensity. (Methodik und Didaktik, p. 113).

Vocabulary can be studied on the Otto lays great stress on word basis of comparison with the native study, not alone for its linguistic but language and other languages, cog- also for its emotional value. He re135

nates, etymology, etc. (Cole, op. cit., commends a special type of notep. 160 ff.)· book to be kept by the student wherein the left page will contain the foreign word and the native language equivalent, and the right page will be reserved for idioms, phrases, sample sentences, cognates and etymologies of words given on the left page. (Supra, p. 98). Air writing is recommended since it affords the use of the larger muscles. (Supra, p. 95 f.). Otto's emphasis upon the motor sense as part of a multiple sense approach in modern language learning is manifested also in his recognition of inner speaking and hearing in reading. (Supra, p. 91 f.). Otto recommends differentiating homework assignments for the individual members or groups of pupils in the class. (Otto, op. cit., p. 271.). Whatever psychology is involved in the Study, its overemphasis upon mechanical memorization as the almost exclusive method for acquiring a foreign language, indicates a lack of familiarity with current psychological and educational psychological theories and practices. (Supra, p. 121).

Mechanical memorization, particularly of isolated forms, or of grammatical structures is harmful. (Ibid., p. 72). What is learned mechanically in the beginning must become part of the living language, for the memorization of linguistic patterns must give way ultimately to a consciousness and spontaneous awarenessof meaning-relationships formulated in distinct, scientific rules. (Supra, p. 86 f.). Starting with a true sense of the structure of language and the unity of the processes involved in reading, writing and speaking (supra, p. 86), and linking this knowledge with a thorough understanding of psychology (supra, p. 79 f.), and experimental education (supra, p. 21 f.), Otto has been able to evolve a system of language learning that merits consideration and verification in typical educational situations in the United States.

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Summation The schematic arrangement shows that Otto and the Study share certain views, and also that Otto differs from the Study in other regards. The general aim of both is to acquire an understanding of the foreign language directly and without the need of translation. Otto's contribution is distinctive in that he believes that all objectives, particularly speaking and understanding as well as reading should lead to the attainment of this general aim. Otto's social concept of achievement in education strengthens the probability of realization of this aim. The close integration of reading, speaking and writing in Otto's system differs notably from the Study's treatment of these objectives. Otto shows that an inner speaking and sometimes hearing, viz. in subvocalization, tends to accompany reading. It follows, therefore, that speaking aids reading, a conclusion not shared by the Study. Both Otto and the Study emphasize the importance of intensive and extensive reading, but Otto's stress on oral choral reading, an example of his social approach even in beginning classes, is much more significant than the Study's approach to this type of pupil activity. Frequent counts of words and idioms are not especially referred to by Otto but are stressed by the Study. The Study believes that such counts are of value in preparation of reading texts. Otto and the Study are in agreement that there should be a progressive development of the use of the foreign language, or conversely, a gradual elimination of the native tongue. There is, however, wide divergence of opinion as to how such language facility is acquired. The Study by its great emphasis on reading unquestionably reduces time that might be devoted to oral work, whereas Otto has shown by experiment and in the classroom that oral work is the basis of all language learning and that even reading and writing are closely related to oral activities. Otto's use of oral work, both choral and individual from the very start, makes more likely of realization the gradual acquisition of the foreign tongue. Otto's distinctive contribution which further strengthens his techniques for acquiring speaking ability is the consideration he gives to pitch, stress, pause and inflection. The theory of syntactical relationships which permeates his system also applies here; idiomatic constructions are acquired actively as a whole linguistic pattern. Writing as conceived by the Study still tends to be of the traditional Latin model style of composition; dictation is an exact reproduction of what is heard. Otto has a unique type of dictation which he calls protocol writing by which the pupil may write down in his own words what is dictated. All writing at home should be in the nature of a review, especially in elementary and intermediate classes; new writing exercises should be 137

done in class under the teacher's guidance. Otto's type of dictation is much more in harmony with the aim of 'reading for understanding' which is incorporated in most syllabi in American schools. If we read for understanding, why not also hear and write for understanding, instead of being held to account for each word in dictation, as at present in the Regents Examinations of the State of New Y o r k ? The Study conceives of grammar as a thing apart, and as something that should be reduced to a minimum. For Otto grammar is the ability to understand syntactical meaning-relationships, an ability that comes as a result of a well balanced program of speaking, reading and writing." This ability becomes more and more spontaneous as the pupil advances. He sees and feels connections and relationships and, therefore, understands the language. Abstract grammar does not exist for Otto. The Study attaches great importance to the study of "Kulturkunde" but is very vague as to how it is to be taught. New York City has an 'auxiliary syllabus' in modern foreign languages, in effect a 'cultural' syllabus of 268 pages which includes history, art, acience and practically all fields of human endeavor. This syllabus is merely an outline for teachers of foreign language and was written with the hope of furthering the Study's advocacy of "Kulturkunde." Otto believes that "Kulturkunde" is to be learned directly and actively and not passively as in most of the schools in the United States. Both the Study and Otto advocate vocabulary learning by comparison with the native language but they vary widely in method. Again the Study is vague and Otto is specific and practical : as one technique in this connection Otto recommends the use of foreign language notebooks in which the left page is for the foreign word and native language equivalent, the right page for idioms using the word, cognates, etymology and sample sentences. This procedure allows for originality and individual interests. Furthermore, in order to learn the foreign word Otto advises that it and not the English equivalent be pronounced orally, since the less familiar element needs stress and practice, particularly in phrases and short sentences rather than singly. Otto thus combines a truly scientific and psychological approach with genuine practicality. In accordance with the sound principle of economy and hygiene of léarning laid down by such experimental educators as Lay and Meumann, Otto uses continually a multiple sense appeal in language learning. Provision is thus made for different learning types; the Study shows lack of psychological insight by even stating that a variety of approaches is not necessary. Otto elaborates the theory of economy and hygiene of learning into his own characteristic theory of maximum intensity which was already illustrated by his use of choral work. 138

Otto's air writing is also a unique feature of his system. It, too, illustrates the multiple sense appeal and the principle of individual differences. Such writing will have a special appeal to motor-minded learners. Otto's system has a wholeness pattern which strengthens all the parts. The Study in its one-sided emphasis, vagueness and lack of scientific approach is in direct contrast to Otto's system of experimental didactics. The interrelationship of speaking, reading, writing and understanding in Otto's system does away with the question of this or that objective since these aims supplement each other. The Study seems to be committing the error common to most 'methods' in that it concentrates on one aspect of teaching to the neglect of others. Just as in his general theory of education Otto recognizes the sum total of values, so in his experimental didactics he is not concerned with the relative superiority of reading, speaking and writing, but solely with an understanding of the language. Otto's achievement program for foreign language learning and teaching may serve to correct the errors and one-sidedness that characterize the Modern Foreign Language Study. His experimental didactics with their scientific foundation and practical application should be a most welcome and valuable contribution to schools in the United States.

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C H A P T E R

V

CONCLUSION A survey of modern education discloses the shifting of emphasis and a revaluation of the center of the educational process. 1 T h e trend begins with the stress upon the subject matter to be learned which characterizes the intellectualism of the age of enlightenment. 2 In the second half of the nineteenth century education began to be influenced by the science of the period, notably by the psychological contributions of Wundt who established his laboratory in 1879. W i t h the advent of the twentieth century, the century of the child, the emphasis shifted from the subject matter to the child and its personality as the core of instruction. Berthold Otto, Gaudig, Gurlitt and other educators now viewed the educational process as arising out of the child, "vom Kinde aus." Interests, abilities and needs of individual learners became paramount. T h e first decades of the twentieth century also witnessed the increasing significance of the activity, the doing, of the child in learning. Dewey's 'learn by doing' became a familiar slogan with educators and 'activity' schools and 'activity programs' were the order of the day. Almost concomitantly with this last trend came an understanding of the importance of goals, especially social objectives. A s a result of Natorp's Sosialpädagogik which appeared in 1899 educators took a renewed interest in Pestalozzi who had taught that man does not exist for himself but to be fulfilled in his fellowmen. T h e child was now considered in relation to the community in which he develops. Social pedagogy was in the foreground but was still in need of clarification. Kerschensteiner through his Begriff der staatsbürgerlichen Erziehung, 1901, applied the new social pedagogy more specifically by urging education for citizenship. In order to realize this goal Kerschensteiner established continuation, vocational and adult 1 Supra, p. 7 it. * Friedrich August Wolf, Consilia scholastica, 1835.

I40

evening schools. His Arbeitsschule, activity school, became the model for others that soon sprang up. These three trends, viz. those involving science, the new conception of the child and social pedagogy, were in force when Otto began his teaching career in 1903 and are still spreading. In the field of modern languages, too, the chief movements that had their origin in the period from 1880 to 1900, viz. the psychological, phonetic and direct methods, were in actual use at the beginning of Otto's teaching activity. In the second decade of the twentieth century the direct method gradually gained in popularity and displaced, to considerable extent, the psychological and phonetic methods. Many features of the psychological and phonetic methods, especially the Gouin series and practical phonetics, were incorporated in the direct and the modified direct methods. Otto and his System

of

Education

In this developmental continuity Otto evolved his conception of education. His achievement program is in the most advanced stage of these tendencies. He did not discard the results of his predecessors and contemporaries but profited from such experience, both as regards the scientific approach, the new conception of the child and the beginnings of social pedagogy. His achievement program, which Otto considers a synonym for didactics, is the natural outgrowth of his basic conception of education which, in turn, is intimately connected with and indebted to the movements and trends already described. "Leistungsunterricht," the achievement program, combines duty and accomplishment with a desire to cooperate. T h e double aspect of the achievement program is illustrated further by the two poles between which it moves, viz. power, with Otto always the power to achieve, and love. Love and desire to cooperate imply a social goal which, in turn, becomes the measure of achievement. In this respect the achievement program is different from the activity program, for it evaluates activity by the end result in terms of value to society. T h e criterion of success in learning is achievement. 1 Achievement (besides kindness and love) includes the concept of guidance toward a goal, i.e., toward service in and to the community. A s education tends to self-education, guidance tends to self-guidance. Activity becomes more and more spontaneous and Otto replaces the word activity, which he avoids generally, by spontaneity. Formal education is help to self-help. T h e concept of guidance involves the problems of the philosophy of education, such as will and the influence of heredity and environment. The educator guides and directs the activities of the learner toward achievement ' Supra, p. 31 f.

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rather than attempts to remake or change the nature of the learner. Many of the problems of education are resolved in the concept of guidance to a goal, e.g., the German word for direction toward a goal is "Richtung;" instruction is "Unterricht ;" directional goals are "Richtziele ;" and life itself is directed or purposeful existence, "Gerichtetsein."1 The achievement program (including love) as defined by Otto is in accord with the basic principles of experimental didactics and is essentially a point of view for creative education. T h e norm of all activity in terms of achievement is the striving for economy and energy saving. 8 It requires, therefore, that all activity consider the individual as a whole, for the education of the individual again is measured by its value to the larger whole, society. Instruction in the achievement program emphasizes the importance of relationships and connections. These relationships in the broadest sense have social implication of individual to individuals ; in a psychological sense, the interplay of inner and outer factors ; and in the more limited field of language learning interrelationships result in understanding. Understanding is impossible unless the interrelationship of parts within the whole is perceived. Wholeness pervades Otto's whole system of education. Living, thinking and learning are effected through patterned wholes which Otto characterizes as integration. The differentiation of parts within the whole, disintegration, makes possible greater integration. In language learning, for example, drill has its natural function and is not to be discarded. This drill may be concerned with certain individual aspects of language learning, e.g., word order. A skill acquired through drill, in this instance facility in placing words properly in a sentence, rapidly becomes automatic and makes possible greater integration. W h e n a number of skills, at first differentiated, are mastered and become automatic through drill, they tend to merge and form a patterned whole. The resulting whole, moreover, whether in language or any other field, is greater than the sum of its parts. In this concept of differentiation and integration lie the dynamics of Otto's achievement program. 3 The coordination or integration of school subjects within the curriculum forms the basis for the educational process. 4 Individuals educated in this way result in well balanced personalities capable of responsible service to the community. Language is the common denominator of all school subjects and language is the fundamental social vehicle. Otto attaches great importance Supra, p. 42 f. Supra, p. 60 f. F o r an example of Otto's treatment of geography, see supra p. 51 f. ' Supra, p. s i . 1

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to the acquisition and mastery of both the native tongue and that of foreign nations. Ignorance of language and linguistic relationship cause misunderstanding and the lack of understanding. T h e school of the future will place increasing emphasis on understanding, according to Otto. Mastery of language results not only in the mastery of subject matter and assistance in learning other school subjects,but also makes possible general understanding of fellowmen and of peoples in foreign countries. International goodwill is assured from insight into the mental and emotional life of the foreign nation gained through language learning. 1 T h e aim of education, i.e., responsible service in and to the community, can be achieved only on the basis of values which are the theme of Otto's works. Values need clarification. 2 Otto rejects the idea of higher and lower values, for such a conception violates the wholeness character of his thinking. The aim of education is more likely to be reached when individuals concern themselves less with abstract values and more with value categories, for example, achievement and kindness; value experiences, for example, responsibility; objects of value, for example, social actions; and value spheres, for example, philanthrophy or religion. T h e abstract designation courage has little real significance until it is translated into action and becomes courageous. Otto combats formalism and artificial abstraction in the realm of values. 3 T h e religious aspect is inherent in the love element of Otto's power-love ("Macht"-"Liebe") theory. 4 This apparently abstract system must not mislead the reader. Otto's philosophical-social background gives him an overall view of the educational field and enables him to set up worthwhile goals. 5 In the attainment of these goals, however, he is definitely influenced in a practical way by the scientific approach, the new conception of the child, and above all by the social aspect of modern education. T h e comparison of Otto's classroom techniques with those of the Modern Foreign Language Study shows how very practical Otto's experimental didactics are. T h e social aim of education is paramount and is an overall aim for the educative process. T h e isolated individual is an abstraction. He must be educated in relationship to his family, fellowmen, community, city, state, nation and world. The interplay of relationships within a pattern is indicated in the influence of the individual upon society and the reciprocal influence of society upon the individual. This is the process of social growth, characterized by the formula Sn-