The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan [1 ed.] 1635500435, 9781635500431

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The Evolving Singing Voice Changes Across the Lifespan KAREN BRUNSSEN

The Evolving Singing Voice Changes Across the Lifespan

The Evolving Singing Voice Changes Across the Lifespan

KAREN BRUNSSEN

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5521 Ruffin Road San Diego, CA 92123 e-mail: [email protected] website: http://www.pluralpublishing.com Copyright © 2018 by Plural Publishing, Inc. Typeset in 11/13 Garamond Book by Flanagan's Publishing Services, Inc. Printed in the United States of America by McNaughton & Gunn All rights, including that of translation, reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, recording, or otherwise, including photocopying, recording, taping, Web distribution, or information storage and retrieval systems without the prior written consent of the publisher. For permission to use material from this text, contact us by Telephone: (866) 758-7251 Fax: (888) 758-7255 e-mail: [email protected]

Every attempt bas been made to contact the copyright holders for material originally printed in another source. lf any have been inadvertently overlooked, the publishers will gladly make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity. Disclaimer: Please note that ancillary content (such as documents, audio, and video, etc.) may not be included as published in the original print version of this book. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Brunssen, Karen, author. Title: The evolving singing voice : changes across the lifespan / Karen Brunssen. Description: San Diego, CA : Plural Publishing, (2018] I Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2018005875 I ISBN 9781635500431 (alk. paper) I ISBN 1635500435 (alk. paper) Subjects: I MESH: Voice-physiology I Singing-physiology I Voice Disorders-diagnosis I Age Factors I Aging Classification: LCC QP306 I NLM WV 501 I DOC 612.7/8-dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018005875

CONTENTS

Acknowledgments Contributors Reviewers

1

Introduction

2

Newborn, Infant, and Child Respiration Vibration Resonance Expectations

Baby and Toddler Sounds Time for School Voice Lessons for Children From the Teachers Robert Edwin Sara Westermark Nikki Loney Summary References

3

The Adolescent Years Chadley Ballantyne and Karen Brunssen Hormones Respiration Vibration History Resonance

Timbre Level 2 Source-Filter Interactions Orthodontics Expectations First Lesson Getting Started From the Teachers Voice Teacher 1. Marianne Wilumsen Lewis Voice Teacher 2. Ken Donovan

ix xi xiii 1 13

13 19 24 34 34 40 45 49 49 50 51 51 52 61

61 64 69 72

83 85 100 104 107 108 117 118 118 120 V

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The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

Voice Teacher 3. Catherine DeLanoy Voice Teacher 4. Kyle Sackett Voice Teacher 5. Chadley Ballantyne: Four Student Examples References

128

Young Adult

139

Introduction Education Respiration Vibration Resonance Expectations Voice Lessons Vocal Health Classical Repertoire Choir Music Theater and CCM Tying It All Together With Language and Speech Motor Control (by Chadley Ballantyne) Evaluation and Adjudication First Gigs Many Styles-Many Techniques From the Students References

139 140 141 145 145 146 146 150 157 160 161 164

5

Adult Avocation or Career Respiration Vibration Resonance Expectations References

181 181 185 186 194 195 204

6

The Senescent Singer Aaron M. Johnson and Karen Brunssen Introduction

209

4

Hormonal Senescence The Sound of the Voice Respiration Vibration Laryngeal Framework The Vocal Folds Vocal Fold Oscillation

121 122 124

167 169 171 172 174

210 210 212 214 215 215 216 218

Contents

7

8

Resonance Presbyphonia Expectations From the Teacher Example 1 Example 2 Example 3 Example 4 Example 5 Example 6 References

219 221 221 229 229 230 231 232 233 234 235

Medical Assessment Across the Lifespan: Laryngeal Imaging, Perceptual, and Acoustic/Aerodynamic Assessment Michie/ Bove, Nathan Waller, and Peter Wagreich

243

A Review of Anatomy and Physiology Across the Lifespan Presbyphonia Clinical Assessment and Laryngeal Imaging of the Aging Voice Adult Voice Disorders Assessment: The Role of the Speech-Language Pathologist Team Approach Evaluation of Voice Disorders in Adult PopulationsAssessment by a Speech-Language Pathologist Pediatric Voice Disorders Assessment: The Role of the Speech-Language Pathologist Evaluation of Voice Disorders in Pediatric PopulationsAssessment by a Speech-Language Pathologist Common Voice Complaints in Pediatrics The Pediatric Voice Evaluation Case History Perceptual Assessment Acoustic Measures Aerodynamic Measures Quality of Life Measures Laryngeal Imaging Pediatric Voice Therapy References

243 245 245 248 248 249 252 252 253 255 255 257 258 259 260 261 262 264

Training Tools Across the Lifespan

267

The 5-Day Mini-Challenge 5-Day and 6-Week Rule Onset Exercises Pharyngeal Stretches

267 268 269 269

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The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

Support Feedback From a Chair Falsetto/Giggedy-Gaggedy-Goo Sequence Creaking Learning and Teaching Styles Tactile/Kinesthetic Analytic/Spatial Visual Auditory The Five Textures of Singing Semi-Occluded Vocal Tract Exercises (by Chadley Ballantyne and Karen Brunssen) Straw Phonation Buzzing Cards (From Mary Ann Hart) Finger Kazoo Humming Cow and Calf Tongue-Out Phonation Chadley's "Weird" Exercise Fifty Quick Comments to Share With Singers Vocal Evaluation Exercises 1. For Children 2. Articulation 3. Semi-Occluded Vocal Tract Exercises 4. Onset Exercises 5. Staccato 6. Support 7. Textures 8. Legato 9. Coloratura 10. Arpeggios Vocal Bundling Infant Vocal Bundle Toddler Vocal Bundles Children Vocal Bundle (Younger) Children Vocal Bundle (Older) Adolescent Vocal Bundles (by Chadley Ballantyne) Young Adult Vocal Bundle Adult Vocal Bundle Senescent Singer Vocal Bundles References

Index

270 271 271 272 272 274 274 275 275 276 279 281 282 282 283 283 284 287 289 289 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 301 302 303 303 304 306 306 307 308 309 310

312

315

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to thank five contributors to this book who shared their expertise and perspectives about the lifespan of the singing voice: Dr. Michie! Bove, PeterWagreich, Nathan Waller, Dr. Chadley Ballantyne, and Dr. Aaron M. Johnson. Students, past and present, are a constant source of inspiration. My heartfelt thanks to those who helped in the process of writing this book in creative and thoughtful ways: Angela Young Smucker, Lisa Griffith, Kyle Sackett, Conor Broaders, Gabrielle Barkidjija, Aaron Johnson, Victoria Holland, Nathan Ward, Madison Leonard, Kevin Krasinski, Laura Roth,Jane Recker, Mary Katherine Henry, Melissa Foster, Ken Donovan, and Kateri Gormley. I am extremely appreciative for expert advice, input, and materials from colleagues, including Theresa Brancaccio, Lynne Gackle, Tanya Kruse, Stephen M. Demorest, Jonathan Miller, Brenda Smith, Julie Friend, Paul Bouman, Catherine Delanoy, Sara Westermark, Julia Davids, Gwen Gotsch, Janel Dennen, Carl Alexander, Michael Nowakowski, Nikki Loney, Robert Edwin, Matt Blanks, Marianne Wilumsen Lewis, and Aksel Rykkvin. I owe a debt of gratitude to those who have had an overarching influence on my singing and teaching, particularly Thomas Wikman, Weston Noble, and David Greedy. Two national organizations merit acknowledgment for the important roles they play in their members' musical lives by inspiring excellence and promoting research and education that edifies those who sing and those who work with singers: the National Association of Teachers of Singing, Allen Henderson, Executive Director, and the American Choral Directors Association, Tim Sharp, Executive Director. I greatly appreciate many at Plural Publishing who provided immediate feedback, support, expertise, encouragement, and resources to make this book possible including: Valerie Johns, Executive Editor; Nicole Hodges, Assistant Editor; Jessica Bristow, Production; Linda Shapiro, Production; Kristin Banach, Marketing. Thank you also to copy editor Gillian Dickens. ix

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The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

My parents, Dean and Ann Gesme, are lifelong models of purposeful living and following through on initiatives toward those purposes. My son, Karl, and husband, Kim, have walked with me through all my musical pursuits with constant support. On a daily basis, Kim made sure I stayed focused and encouraged me every step of the way! I am eternally grateful for their unwavering, lifelong support across my own lifespan.

CONTRIBUTORS

Chadley Ballantyne, BM, MM, OMA School of Music College of Performing and Visual Arts University of Northern Colorado Greeley, Colorado Chapter 3

Michiel J. Bove, MD Assistant Professor of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery Feinberg School of Medicine Northwestern University Chicago, Illinois Chapter 7 Karen Brunssen, BA Associate Professor of Music Co-Chair of Music Performance Beinen School of Music Northwestern University Evanston, Illinois Aaron M. Johnson, MM, PhD, CCC-SLP Singing Voice Specialist New York University Voice Center Assistant Professor Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery New York University Langone Health New York, New York

Chapter6 Peter Wagreich, MA, CCC-SLP Senior Speech-Language Pathologist Ann and Robert H. Lurie Children's Hospital of Chicago Chicago, Illinois Chapter 7 xi

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The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

Nathan Waller, MM, MA, CCC-SLP

Clinical Supervisor Northwestern University Center for Audiology, Speech, Language, and Learning Lecturer Roxelyn and Richard Pepper Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders Evanston, Illinois Chapter 7

REVIEWERS

Plural Publishing, Inc. and the authors would like to thank the following reviewers for taking the time to provide their valuable feedback during the development process: Victoria Adams Vocal Instruction and Professional Singer A Musical Sensation Evanston, Illinois Kenneth Bozeman, MM Frank C. Shattuck Professor of Music Lawrence University Appleton, Wisconsin Julia Davids, MM, OMA Associate Professor, North Park University Artistic Director, Canadian Chamber Choir Music Director, North Shore Choral Society Director of Music Ministries, Trinity UMC Wilmette Chicago, Illinois Marina Gilman MM, MA, CCC-SLP

Emory Voice Center, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery Emory University Atlanta, Georgia Tara Nixon, MM, MS, CCC-SLP

Clinical Singing Voice Specialist and Speech-Language Pathologist Duke Voice Care Center Raleigh-Durham, North Carolina

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The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

Rebekah Smeltzer Staley, OMA NCVS-Trained Vocologist Voice Instructor Austin, Texas

1 Introduction

"The human voice is magnificent at every age. The chronological life of our singing voices begins with the first cry as a newborn baby, and continues throughout our entire lives, as an infant, a child, an adolescent, a college student, a young adult, a middleaged adult, a senior citizen, and as a geriatric blessed with long life. At every age, function is dependent on where the body is within progressive and constant changes" (Brunssen, 2010, p. 45). We come into this world with vocal folds whose primary purpose is to allow air in and out of our lungs, keep foreign substances out of our lungs, and aid in lifting heavy objects. For those of us who sing, we are the power source, the vibrator, and the resonator of our musical instrument, playable only by its owner without ever seeing it. It requires no limbs to play. It not only has tone but can form words and express emotions, ideas, stories, and poetry. It is a living, growing, changing instrument. The roots for The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan began as an entertaining, autobiographical skit, during 1

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The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

a college choir tour, reenacting my own singing life through the various ages of the voice. It started as a 3-year-old with a big bow in her hair sucking her thumb as she sang and waved at her parents; continued on to a bold, toothless 7-year-old, using Black Jack gum to cover the front teeth; to a breathy, unconfident junior high student who barely moved her lips to sing while looking with disdain at her parents in the audience; to an overzealous chest voice-dominated high school singer in her first musical; and, finally, to a college student who developed a vibrato and head voice and is auditioning with her first aria. Performances included a clever narration about the qualities of the voice within the various ages. The last performance of "The Changing Voice" was for the choral legend Weston Noble at his 90th birthday celebration. He requested it because it was one of his favorite choir tour skits over the span of his long career at Luther College as the director of Nordic Choir. The first serious presentation about the evolving singing voice was for Chorus America. With the aid of a CD player and cassette tape recorder, I pulled together recordings of singers at various ages and presented them alongside pertinent information. The search for recordings from family, friends, and students, at their various ages of development, has continued since then. Recordings have come from reel-to-reel, cassette tape recorders, records, CDs, DVDs, VHS, 8-tracks, digital videos, MP3s, and audio digital recordings. The earliest recording dates back to a reel-to-reel tape made in a sound booth at the 1940 World's Fair. Subsequent PowerPoint presentations have featured amateur and professional singing voices from the ages of 3 months to 103 years, along with pictures of each person at the approximate age of their singing. A few individuals are featured singing across a span of numerous decades, with the widest age range from 13 to 88 years. Currently there are not recordings, that I know of, of any one person's singing from their birth cry through old age. With digital recording capabilities on cell phones, there will be recorded histories of entire singing lives that are preserved. I hope it will stimulate future research about vocal change across the lifespan. The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan features a blend of resources from those who sing, those who research the voice, those who treat the voice, those who train

1. Introduction

singers, and those who educate singers via voice science, laryngology, vocal pedagogy, choral pedagogy, speech-language pathology, linguistics, and music education. Many sources within this book are about research for purposes other than singing. For instance, the purpose of research about the radiographic images that identify ossification and mineralization of the laryngeal cartilages was to "reduce delays in diagnosis of aspirated foreign bodies located in the larynx that may arise as a result of radiographic confusion" (Tiirkman et al., 2012, p. e26). Other studies were for the purpose of emergency care of the pediatric airway, plastic surgery, phonetics, dentistry, pulmonology, acoustics, orthodontics, pediatrics, neurology, anesthesiology, gynecology, music education, and seatbelt safety for infants and children. Yet others are based on speech. Although there are differences between speech and singing, there are many commonalities and logical cross-purposes about vocal function, vocal growth, and development relative to singing. Research about the voice has come a long way since 1850 when F. Romer wrote that "all proper musical sounds are formed in the lower tube (the trachea)" (Romer, 1850). Although that might raise a few eyebrows now, it draws from what was known then. The history of research about singing reflects the journey to understand the unique human instrument, where we have come from, where we are, and what we will consider in the future. Romer also said, "The fundamental notes of the voice are double vibrated tones, produced from the first point by the action of the diaphragm, the upper portion of the tube being at the same time kept free and open, by which means a node of vibration is formed. It is easy to be ascertained by the following test whether the node is produced. If produced, the whole tube will be felt to be in a state of sonorous vibration, which vibrations will have the feeling of returning, and the voice be capable of being forced into its full power by the lungs, without straining any of the membranes of the throat, but, on the contrary, keeping all parts of the tube free and relaxed: there will also be an open, sonorous quality in the sound that cannot be mistaken." (Romer, 1850) How we talk about the voice has changed over time and continues to change. There are elements of truth in the previous paragraph. Currently, voice experts suggest a nonlinear

3

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The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

source-filter model to explain Western classical singing with acoustic circumstances whereby "energy passing through the filter can be productively reflected back onto the source, assisting the efficiency and power of the voice source/vibrator" (Bozeman, 2013, p. 10). What was Romer suggesting when he said, "which vibrations will have the feeling of returning?" Scientific methods, instrumentation, and technology have developed significantly over the past decades and into the 21st century. During World War II, there was a rapid rise in technology that marked an improvement in the quality of research overall. Publications began to shift from subjective, anecdotal, and empirical toward more objective and databased (Hollien, 2012). Imaging of the voice through videostroboscopy transformed the ability to see the surface of the vocal folds and record their function and movement. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) was first demonstrated in 1991 (Fujimoto et al., 2000). It can examine the surface and subsurface of the vocal folds in vivo and is an imaging option for researchers beyond cadaveric tissues. Previous research reported that the angle and shape of the airway of newborns was narrowest at the cricoid and cone shaped above it, changing to a cylindrical shape, as it is known to be in adults. Older research about the shape of the airway was based on measurements of cadaveric tissues. More recent in vivo bronchoscopic images and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) suggest a different point of view, with the narrowest point between the vocal folds, and a cylindrical shape in infants just as in adults (Harless, Ramaiah, & Bhananker, 2014). Complex growth and development of the pediatric vocal folds has been the subject of research that, for the most part, confirms that the newborn lamina propria is made up of a hypocellular monolayer of cells. One histologic study of fetal vocal folds contradicted this when it found there was a vocal ligament and thyroarytenoid fibers in newborns (Kuhn, 2014). Audio recordings, head and neck X-rays, MRI, and computed tomography (CT) offer noninvasive means to record human vocal sounds and images of the head and neck in people of all ages. With these sounds and images, numerous studies have measured the length of the vocal tract, the specifics of the oral and pharyngeal spaces, and changes of hard and soft tissues at every age. Acousticians have developed equations that estimate vocal tract length from formant frequencies.

1. Introduction

New equipment and research methods reveal new information, ask new questions, and discover new answers continuously. Gene therapy, stem cell drug therapies, surgical treatments, technological apparatus advances, OCT, CT, and MRI, plain radiographs, and endoscopy have all furthered exploration of the voice. The research renaissance in voice science incorporates chemistry, cellular and molecular biology, mathematics, engineering, neuroscience, and physics (Branski & Sivasankar, 2006). A driving force for research about the voice is the quest for the best methods to remediate vocal health issues, including whether to use adult means of therapy or surgery on pediatric patients with vocal fold issues and how to prevent and treat voice disorders in older adults. Dr. Aaron M. Johnson focuses on such research about the senescent voice. His article in the Journal of Gerontology, "Vocal Training Mitigates Age-Related Changes Within the Vocal Mechanism in Old Rats," suggests that behavioral vocal training affects neuromuscular plasticity in a senescent muscle of vocalization within a rat model (Johnson, Ciucci, & Connor, 2013). This may pave the way to methods of treatment and vocal training for older singers. Dr. Johnson's website, Bridging the Art & Science ofthe Voice, highlights the importance of bridges between all disciplines that treat, train, educate, work with, or are themselves, singers. Singers, voice teachers, music educators, and choral directors gain vital insight thanks to science and medical experts who research and find methods to remediate the vocal issues they deal with in clinical situations. This can work the other way around as well. An article in the Journal of Voice, "The Effect of Voice Lessons on the Clinical and Perceptual Skills of Graduate Students in Speech-Language Pathology," supported the integration of curricula in vocal performance and speech-language pathology. Ten speech-language pathology graduate students were given the opportunity to take seven voice lessons. Results showed that their pitch, support, and legato with easy onset improved, as did their clinical and perceptual skills of speech-language pathology (DeBoer & Shealy, 1995). Katherine Verdolini stated, Advances in the lab are having a direct influence on how speechlanguage pathologists take care of patients with voice disorders. Now more than ever, clinicians need to read journals and attend

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The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

scientific meetings to stay up to date on the current state of patient care. (Branski & Sivasankar, 2006, p. 10)

The medical, scientific, and education research communities are a vital force within current and ongoing research about the human instrument. When voice teachers, music educators and choral directors apply beneficial 21st-century understandings and perspectives based on research, the opportunities for best practices in the studio, ensemble, classroom, and the clinic all improve. At every age, exercising the singing voice regularly increases the elasticity of the muscles of breathing and the larynx. However, anatomical changes require consideration for vocal expectations and physical realities that are very different as proportions of the body, inside and out, change unsymmetrically throughout life. With knowledge about changes that affect singing, voice experts can be logical and realistic about expectations with an arc of development and maintenance commensurate to the age of the singer. The vocal apparatus, along with the entire body, undergoes age-related change throughout the lifespan that fall within three phases 1. First phase: birth to puberty, growth and development, not very salient differences between sexes 2. Second phase: puberty to maturity, major growth spurt, male and female growth curves that are different within their respective vocal apparatuses 3. Third phase: maturity to senescence, maintenance and repair, decreasing efficiency and degenerative change (Beck, 2010) The 21st-century speaking and singing circumstances in the Western world are very different from previous generations. Lives are noisier. Talking over noise and music in elevators, bars, restaurants, businesses, and radios in cars is the norm. There is instant access to information. With the emergence of "posting" on the various social media sites, we can all be in the news. With the emergence of American Idol and The Voice, anyone might rise to the top quickly, particularly in the nonclassical singing styles. We now have the advantage of instant access

1. Introduction

to recordings of past and present singers, information about the voice; singing opportunities; translations; historical information about composers and repertoire; apps that can analyze the voice; three-dimensional apps that can layer the skeletal, respiratory, pulmonary, circulatory, lymphatic, and muscular systems in the human body; pitches from piano apps; instant digital video and recording abilities; and singing with an accompaniment app that can slow down, speed up, and change keys. The most amazing revelation about the evolving singing voice is how extremely different a baby's vocal instrument is from an adult's. Chapter 2 sets the stage for The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan. You may select to read this book from cover to cover, or read sections as they apply to your own vocal age or those you work with. You may find it helpful to read about the lifespan changes in respiration, starting with infancy and childhood in Chapter 2, and then skip to respiration during adolescence in Chapter 3 and so forth. You can do the same with vibration and resonance. Concepts, methods, and exercises useful in training singers can be found in Chapter 8. "Vocal Bundles," at the end of Chapter 8, introduces the idea of bundling a voice issue with the reason for it, an exercise, concepts behind the strategy, and a "5-Day Mini-Challenge." Examples are provided. The "Resonance" section of Chapter 3 includes an acoustic approach to adolescent vocal training. It is presented with the adolescent voice in mind but, as with numerous topics throughout the book, is valuable information useful to singing across the lifespan. The "Expectations" portion of Chapters 2-6 provides information pertinent to and/or typically addressed at specific ages. Here are some questions to consider from your own vocal perspective as you read:

■

What would we have to take into consideration to determine "best practices" throughout a lifetime?

■

What fundamentals and techniques apply through the span of an entire life?

■

What are the best vocal expectations that would indicate normal vocal growth and progress?

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The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

■

Do those expectations change?

■

When is it age?

■

When is it technique?

■

When is it too soon?

■

When is it too late?

■

Can expectations better match reality every step of the way?

Age-related changes have an impact on all musical aspects of vocal function:

■

Timbre

■

Diction

■

Range

■

Coloratura

■

Volume

■

Vibrato

■

Legato

■

Vowels

■

Staccato

■

Pitch

■

Messa di voce

■

Clarity

■

Rhythm

■

Endurance

■

Consonants

Changes to the various parts of our body contribute to changes in singing: ■

Size and shape of the larynx

■

Size and shape of the airway

■

Vocal fold tissue changes

■

Cartilage firmness of the larynx

1. Introduction

■

Size and shape of the lungs

■

Size, shape, and compliance of the thoracic cage

■

Tissue changes in the lungs

■

Length and circumference of the neck

■

Size, volume, and shape of the resonators of the voice

■

Hormones

■

Amount of oxygen

■

Breathing

■

Brain development

■

Skeletal system

■

Innervation

■

Musculature

■

Hydration

All the systems of the human body change across the lifespan: ■

Skeletal system

■

Digestive system

■

Nervous system

■

Renal system

■

Respiratory system

■

Circulatory system

■

Lymphatic system

■

Reproductive system

■

Urinary system

■

Muscular system

■

Endocrine system

We age. How quickly that happens is partially dependent on genetic inheritance that we have no control over and circumstances that we have at least some control over. The most significant changes for the human instrument occur from birth to puberty and then again in old age.

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The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

Synthesizing knowledge with art, science, and the act of singing is an ongoing challenge for 21st-century vocal pedagogues and experts. The best vocal production for singing throughout our lives, and for each person in clinics, studios, classrooms, and ensembles, should be approached from a fact-based, lifespan perspective.

REFERENCES Beck, J. M. (2010). Organic variation of the vocal apparatus. In W. J. Hardcastle, J. Laver, & F. E. Gibbon (Eds.), The handbook ofphonetic sciences (pp. 153-201). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. Bozeman, K. W. (2013). Practical vocal acoustics: Pedagogic applications for teachers and singers. Hillsdale, NY: Pendragon Press. Branski, R., & Sivasankar, M. (2006). An update on voice research in the United States. The ASHA Leader, 11, 10-11. Brunssen, K. (2010). The evolving voice: Profound at every age. Choral Journal, 51, 45-51. DeBoer, K. L., & Shealy, R. T. (1995). The effect of voice lessons on the clinical and perceptual skills of graduate students in speechlanguage pathology. Journal of Voice, .9(2), 118-126. Fujimoto,]. G., Pitris, C., Boppart, S. A., & Brezinski, M. E. (2000). Optical coherence tomography: An emerging technology for biomedical imaging and optical biopsy. Neoplasia, 2(1-2), 9-25. Harless, J., Ramaiah, R., & Bhananker, S. M . (2014). Pediatric airway management. International Journal of Critical Illness & Injury Science, 4(1), 65-70. Hollien, H. (2012). On pubescent voice change in males. Journal of Voice, 26(2), e29-e40.

1. Introduction

Johnson, A. M., Ciucci, M. R., & Connor, N. P. (2013). Vocal training mitigates age-related changes within the vocal mechanism in old rats.Journals o/Gerentology: Biological Sciences, 68(12), 1458-1468. Kuhn, M. (2014). Histological changes in vocal fold growth and aging. Current Opinion in Otolaryngology & Head and Neck Surgery, 22{6), 460-465. Romer, F. (1850). The physiology of the human voice (2nd ed.). London, UK: Leader & Cock. Titze, I. R. (2017). Voice science and vocal pedagogy vocabularies: Can they merge? Journal of Voice, 73(3), 291-292. Ti.irkman, S., Cansu, A., Turedi, S., Erygit, U., Sahin, A., Gunduz, A., & Shavit, I. (2012). Age-dependent structural and radiological changes in the larynx. Clinical Radiology, 67, e22-e26.

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2 Newborn, Infant, and Child

RESPIRATION

During the first two decades of life, humans are born, grow, and develop to their adult size and proportions. At no other time in one's life is there more change in the vocal instrument than during infancy, childhood, and adolescence. This chapter will begin at birth and go through prepubertal growth and development of respiration, vibration, and resonance, along with expectations for vocal qualities, language development, and age-appropriate learning.

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The first utterance of a newborn child is called the "birth cry." The birthing process that leads up to the first vocal sound jumpstarts many bodily functions as the newborn transitions from living in the safety of the mother's uterus, intrauterine life, to outside the mother's uterus, extrauterine life. These two environments are vastly different. As the flow of oxygen from the umbilical cord is cut off, the newborn is deprived of oxygen and a buildup of carbon dioxide needs to be released. Complex and immediate adaptations during birth quickly involve all the systems of the body. Transitioning from receiving oxygen and nutrition from the placenta, via the umbilical cord and ductus venosus, to establishing air breathing, blood circulation, and digestion, requires rapid acclimation. Quickly newborns assimilate to their new environment. The most important function of the new airway is to allow air in and out of the body. The second most important is to protect the airway from foreign matters going into the lungs. The third purpose is to increase subglottal pressure when lifting heavy objects and to make sounds (Kelchner, Brehm, & Weinrich, 2014). The airspaces of the fetal lungs are filled with fluid secreted by the airway epithelium. This makes the lung hard and stiff. During the second intrauterine trimester, fetal laryngeal function assists in the exchange of amniotic fluid in the trachea and larynx in such a way that the activities are a precursor to those observed during swallowing and air exchange after birth. Survival of premature birth during the third trimester is more likely because of this preparation for extrauterine breathing and swallowing (Isaacson, 2003). Just before birth, during the hours before delivery, much of the amniotic fluid is cleared into the vasculature or lymphatic circulation (Hillman, Kallapur, & Jobe, 2012). The compression of the chest during vaginal birth forces an additional one third of the fluid out of the lungs (Champlain Maternal Newborn Regional Program, 2013). At birth, the larynx immediately moves from a neonatal function to three extrauterine functions: control respiration, protect the lungs from foreign substances, and produce the "birth cry" (Isaacson, 2003). The first breath may be triggered by a

2. Newborn, Infant, and Child

"cold-reflex" as the child's warm wet body enters the chillier outside world and/or a sudden lack of oxygen when there is no supply from the umbilical cord. Air rushes into the lungs and fills the 20 to 50 million alveoli sacs at the end of each respiratory tree, where oxygen and carbon dioxide will be exchanged throughout the lifespan. The air-filled lungs are spongy, with little elastic recoil. After a few breaths, the lungs are aerated and much of the liquid is cleared away (Blank et al., 2017). The "birth cry" is the very beginning of human potential to attract attention through verbal communication. It marks the onset of The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan. With the first breath, there are complex changes from fetal circulation to adult-type circulation. The moist body reacts to a suddenly colder environment and reflexively increases the blood pressure using both sides of the heart. The right side of the heart did more of the work during intrauterine life. Now both sides of the heart work with different purposes but equal effort. The right side of the heart pumps blood depleted of oxygen to the lungs via pulmonary arteries, where it is filled with oxygen. That blood goes to the left side of the heart and is pumped into the body. There is a significant increase in blood flow to the kidney, heart, lungs, and gastrointestinal tract. The cardiac output almost doubles (Hillman, Kallapur, & Jobe, 2012). The ribs of newborns flare outward with a softer, compliant composition than the bones they will eventually become. Their flexibility, along with the pliable sternum, allows the baby to maneuver through the birth canal. The baby's cranium is pliable as well, as can be observed in the slightly cone-shaped heads that some babies have immediately after birth. The angle of the ribs has implications for efficiency of respiration. In adults, the chest diameter is increased by pulling the ribs out, to a more horizontal position. From birth to approximately 2 years of age, the infant's ribs are already positioned horizontally. Expanding the thorax has little effect on chest volume (Beck, 2010). The diaphragm has a different shape in infants so that, contrary to its adult function, contraction causes expiration rather than inspiration (Reilly & Moore, 2009). The newborn child must rely on "diaphragmatic breathing" with some help from relatively weak and undeveloped intercostal muscles and the diaphragm

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that lack the slow contraction and fatigue-resistant Type 1 fibers (Wilton, Lee, & Doyle, 2015). This is also referred to as "belly breathing" due to the movement around the baby's belly rather than the rib cage. Abdominal muscles contribute much less to the overall breathing in infants compared to older children and adults (Kache, n.d.). It is normal for babies to work much harder to breathe than adults and at a greater frequency. In stressed situations, the effort can account for 40% of their cardiac output. Babies may be prone to serious diaphragmatic fatigue if crying is continuous for more than 2 hours. Babies are obligatory nasal breathers, so they can breathe while nursing. Most babies are oral and nasal breathers by 6 months old (Bergeson & Shaw, 2001). Adult air volume is approximately 6,000 ml. Newborn air volume is around 200 ml. They take many more breaths per minute than an adult to accommodate the smaller volume of the infant lungs and the lack of resistance offered by the compliant rib cage skeleton and muscles. Throughout the first 2 to 3 years of life, the bones of the infant skeleton change a great deal. The small pelvis develops as the thoracic skeleton grows. Functional changes from diaphragmatic breathing, as infants, to intercostal muscle breathing as children may be partially caused by changes in rib torsion or twisting. The upper unit true ribs 1 to 7 have an anatomical constraint due to their direct link to the sternum. They are influenced by pulmonary kinematics and the shoulder girdle. Ribs 8 to 10, in the lower unit, do not have this constraint. The lower thorax includes ribs 7 to 12 and relates to diaphragmatic respiration, the spine posture, and organs in the abdominal cavity such as the liver and intestines (Bastir et al., 2013; Garcia-Marftinez, Recheis, & Bastir, 2016). The lower thorax is relatively wider in newborns than in adults (Figure 2-1). Movement of the thoracic wall increases up to the age of 7 as the thoracic shape begins to change to more like an adult's (Beck, 2010). The ribs, which were very flexible and cartilaginous at birth, gradually ossify. The process of cartilage being replaced by bone is called endochondral ossification. As cartilage cells die out, they are replaced by osteoblasts that are clustered together in ossification centers. Bone formation proceeds outward from each of these centers. Bones do not grow through cell division like other tissues in the body but rather a continuing process of

2. Newborn, Infant, and Child

FIGURE 2-1. Ribs, thorax, and diaphragm of newborn and adult.

synthesis and destruction, called bone remodeling. It is ongoing throughout life. Bone formation outpaces destruction while children are growing (Curly, 2007). The laryngeal cartilages ossify in the same way but not until the 20th or 30th decade. During childhood, lung function increases linearly with height and age (Neve, Girard, & Flahault, 2002) There is controversy about what represents normal respiratory rates in infants and children from birth to 18 years of age and at what rates abnormality becomes clinically significant (O'Leary, Hayen, Lockie, & Peat, 2015). According to Pediatric Advanced Life Support (PALS) 2015 Guidelines, awake newborns take 30 to 53 breaths per minute (bpm). One-to 2-year-olds take 22 to 37 bpm. Three- to 5-year-olds take 20 to 28 bpm. Six- to 11-year-olds take 18 to 25 bpm. Thereafter, it decreases to 12 to 20 bpm and remains that rate through old age (Novak, 2016). The newborn neck is very short. The trachea is only 5 cm in length (Wilton, Lee, & Doyle, 2015) and configured like an adult with 16 to 20 cartilaginous horseshoe-shaped rings with membranous fibroelastic and muscular tissue layers in the back. The cartilaginous rings are spongy with a greater risk of collapsing (Prakash &Johnny, 2015). It is three times as compliant as that of a 1-year-old and six times that of an adult. As the neck lengthens, the trachea will grow to 12 cm by adulthood (Isaacson, 2003).

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The shape of the airway has been reported, and is generally accepted, to be cone shaped at birth with the smallest diameter at the cricoid below the vocal folds. The airway is said to change from a cone shape to a cylindrical shape as babies age (Hudgins, Siegel, & Abramowsky, 1997). Recent research calls this into question (Harless, Ramaiah, & Bhananker, 2014). Previous research referenced data dating back as far as 1897 measurements obtained from cadaveric tissues. More recent in vivo (subjects are alive) measurements showed that the airway, including the pediatric cricoid and larynx, is more cylindrical rather than cone or funnel shaped and does not change in shape as previously thought. Furthermore, the cricoid in infants is elliptical in shape, rather than round as reported earlier (Dala et al., 2009). At birth, the lungs are very small. During the first year, they triple in weight and increase sixfold in volume. By the 16th intrauterine week, the bronchial trees in the lungs are basically developed. Five weeks after birth, the 20 to 50 million alveoli are more mature. They multiply to 300 million alveoli by the age of 8, with the fastest multiplication of cells before the age of 4. Boys have larger lungs and more alveoli than girls even as early as at 2 years of age. Babies must actively maintain forced residual capacity of air in the lungs, which is residual volume plus expiratory reserve volume, so the alveoli don't collapse (Reilly & Moore, 2009). Children produce sounds as loud as adults, even though their vocal folds and lungs are much smaller (Hirano, Kurita, & Nakashima, 1983). They work harder, with 50% to 60% greater lung pressure, higher tracheal resistance due to the smaller diameter of the trachea, in shorter bursts, and more breaths to match adult loudness (Titze, 2000). Their lungs have less elastic recoil, so greater activity in the muscles of expiration is required to generate this pressure (Stathopoulos & Sapienza, 1993). After the age of 8, as the thoracic cage grows, alveolar size increases. After 6 years of age, the lung develops more elastin fibers, resulting in more efficient recoil (Zahraa, n.d.). Anatomically, boys' lungs and thoraces are a little bigger than girls'. The vital capacity of 4- to 8-year-old boys is .28 liters greater than girls. For 10- to 14-yearolds, it is .57 liters greater. Despite this difference, both sexes generate the same tracheal pressure to produce speech, indicating that boys and girls use different levels of muscular effort.

2. Newborn, Infant, and Child

Some of the 270+ bones that babies are born with begin as cartilage. Bones develop in two ways. Appositional growth is when layers are added on the outside, increasing the diameter of the bone. Interstitial growth takes place from inside the bone to increase the length. As bones ossify, some will fuse. An example of this is the coccyx, or tailbone. At birth, it is four bones that fuse together during development to make one bone. Adults have approximately 206 bones. As the ribs and sternum grow and ossify, and the intercostal muscles develop, they become less compliant and can offer greater resistance to the air. This contributes to more movement in the chest during inhalation. As the chest wall and neuromuscular development progresses, variables in breath pressure become possible for a wider variety of vocal sounds, in speech and singing (Reilly & Moore, 2009).

VIBRATION Learning the names of the adult laryngeal cartilages and muscles is an important requirement in vocal pedagogy courses. Thereafter, visualization of the larynx for most singers and voice teachers is based on adult images. Leonardo da Vinci drew pictures of the adult cartilages of the larynx. The model of the larynx in many studios is an adult. The model of the app available for smartphones is of an adult larynx. Pictures of the larynx in vocal pedagogy textbooks are of the adult larynx. Pediatric cartilages and vocal folds within the laryngeal structure are significantly different from those of adults. Differences between the infant and adult laryngeal cartilages include proportions, shape, consistency, size, and position along the seven cervical vertebrae of the spine. The hyoid bone is the only bone in the laryngeal structure and starts to ossify by the age of 2. The laryngeal cartilages are spongy at birth. Overall, the larynx is one third the size of the adult larynx. Within the very short neck of a newborn, it is positioned at C2, the second vertebrae from the top portion of the spine (Hudgins, Siegel, & Abramowsky, 1997). The space between the front of the thyroid and cricoid cartilages is smaller in infants than in adults. This will change as the cricothyroid membrane develops to increase the separation

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between the cartilages, as seen in Figure 2-2 (Prakash & Johnny, 2015).

The arytenoids are proportionately larger, taking up more of the space at the back part of the glottis until the age of 3. After that, proportions change steadily until the arytenoids are a much smaller percentage of the posterior space as an adult. The cuneiform cartilages, located near the arytenoids, are larger proportionately in babies than adults (Kelchner, Brehm, & Weinrich, 2014). Refer to Figure 2-3. The cricoid cartilage is the only complete circumferential structure in the airway. In infants, it has a short diameter. The opening at the subglottic point within the cricoid is only 4.5 to 5 mm from front to back. Such a small opening is vulnerable if there is any swelling or congestion (Hudgins, Siegel, & Abramowsky, 1997). The infant thyroid cartilage is rounded at the front, rather than the slightly, or significantly, protruding notched V-shape it will be as an adult. The angle of the thyroid is about 110°. The infant hyoid bone and thyroid cartilage overlap

Adult

Pediatric

FIGURE 2-2. Adult and pediatric larynx with cricothyroid membrane.

2. Newborn, Infant, and Child

FIGURE 2-3. Posterior adult and child larynx.

each other. They will separate as the larynx descends (Isaacson, 2003; Prakash & Johnny, 2015; Sataloff & Linville, 2006). At birth, the floppy epiglottis is attached to the arytenoid cartilages by prominent aryepiglottic folds (Wilton, Lee, & Doyle, 2015). This can give the epiglottis an omega þÿ(©)shape. The stroboscopic view of the infant larynx is much different than what is seen when looking at adult vocal folds. It is often difficult to see the glottis due to the omega shaped epiglottis, as in Figure 2-4 (Bartnick & Prasad, 2005). The curvature of the epiglottis increases until 3 years of age and then begins to flatten. Babies are not miniature adults. This is obvious in the proportions of their bodies on the outside. They are different on the inside as well. Vocal folds of newborns are unlike those of adults. They have a thin layer of skin that covers a gel-like mucosal material that can withstand deformation and contains what is needed to repair itself quickly if injured, such as hyaluronic acid (HA) (Titze, 2012). They are approximately half ligamental and half cartilaginous at birth. These proportions change with age (Beck, 2010). The membranous portion is the part that vibrates. It is two and a half times smaller than in adults, which limits capabilities to control phonation (Stathopoulos & Sapienza, 1997). Hirano found that the length of the newborn vocal fold is 2.5 to 3.0 mm. (Bartnick & Prasad, 2005) Total vocal fold length

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FIGURE 2-4. Omega-shaped infant epiglottis.

during infancy is 6 to 8 mm (Sataloff & Linville, 2006). By 5 years of age, it is 7.5 mm long. In adult males, it is 16 mm long, and in adult females, it is 10 mm long. The membranous portion of the vocal folds increases in length approximately 0.7 mm a year in males and 0.4 mm in females (Vorperian & Kent, 2007). At birth, the vocal fold lamina propria does not have defined layers of fibers as described for the adult vocal fold. Instead there is a hypercellular monolayer of cells throughout the lamina propria. At 2 months of age, there are two layers of different kinds of cells. Gradually, the intermediate layer of the lamina propria (MLP) and the deep layer of the lamina propria (DLP) begin to differentiate. Between the ages of 1 and 4 years, there is an immature vocal ligament. By 7 years of age, there are three different cellular layers with distinct regions of differential cell populations and cell density (Bartnick & Prasad, 2005). Proportions of the layers change as the vocal folds thicken during childhood. The total depth of the overall lamina propria is comparable to an adult by the age of 10, and yet, proportions continue to change,

2. Newborn, Infant, and Child

as do the tissues within each layer. By the age of 11 and 12, the pattern of a hypocellular superficial layer, an elastin fiber middle layer, and a deeper layer of collagen fibers is apparent (Boseley & Hartick, 2006). Full maturation of the layers may take until 20 years of age. Maturity of the layers contributes to the complexity of phonatory function (Ishii, Akita, Yamashita, & Hirose, 2000). A baby's only means of communicating is through their piercing, persistent cry. They come into the world vocally equipped to do just that. During the first 3 days of life, babies cry on and off for 6. 7 hours a day. Over the first 3 months of life, they cry approximately 2 hours a day at a high pitch and volume. Any adult imitating this for just 20 minutes would develop debilitating vocal problems. Throughout infancy, there is a high amount of HA in the superior lamina propria (SLP). HA's affinity to water provides the vocal fold with a lubricated, shock-absorbing cushion that maintains optimal tissue viscosity for natural protection from injury (Schwinfurth & Thiebeault, 2008). Mechanical stress of phonation in newborns, through crying, cooing, and ooing, signals cells to differentiate. Without such tissue stress, the vocal folds do not change to the trilayered lamina propria with a vocal ligament as in the adult vocal folds. Additionally, without phonation from birth, there is little HA for tissue viscosity and optimal tissue stiffness important to vocal fundamental frequency control. In vocal folds that have never phonated, the trilayered system does not develop. The stress of phonation is necessary to stimulate stellate cells in the anterior and posterior maculae flavae of the vocal folds where extracellular matrices, critical to further development of the vocal ligament, are produced (Sato, Nakashima, Nonak, & Harbuchi, 2008). One study suggested that there is not a monolayered lamina propria at birth, but rather, already differentiated cells in the lamina propria of fetuses as early as the third trimester intrauterine. If this is found to be true, there may also be genetic factors along with mechanical stress in cell signaling (Nita et al., 2009). In both scenarios, the development of the vocal folds after birth is dependent on the vocal tasks that are required with increased complexity over time (Hartnick & Prasad, 2005). In children, the shorter length of the membranous portion of the vocal folds, which is the portion that vibrates, responds well to high subglottic pressure. Increased subglottic pressure

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has a greater impact on the level of both the fo (fundamental frequency) and sound pressure levels (Titze, 2000). Shorter vocal lengths respond well to this linear, high-pressure breath support (Stathopoulos & Sapienza, 1993). However, the vocal folds have less capacity for adjustments, especially in regulating dynamics (Stathopoulos & Sapienza, 1997). Young children use higher exhalation engagement because that's what works best in their voice. Their voices do not conform to models based on adult voices (Sapienza & Stathopoulos, 1994).

RESONANCE

The vocal tract is the resonator of the human voice. It is a softwalled, nonuniform tube. Both ends of the tube can close and open. At one end of the tube it is the mouth, which can be closed by the lips. At the other end the glottis can close, vibrate, and open by action of the vocal folds (Bozeman, 2013). Unlike the resonators of woodwinds and brass, the vocal tract: 1. grows, develops, and changes throughout life; 2. can change shape in countless ways; and 3. interacts dynamically with the vocal source. This is very important to consider as newborns become infants, children, adolescents, adults, and mature adults. The possibilities for sound, speech, and song acquisition are dependent on growth and development of the pliable features of the human resonator. Nonlinear growth and development within the resonator from infancy through childhood are profound. The anatomical change in hard and soft tissues, length and width of the vocal tract, and speech motor control refinement due to neuromuscular development affect the varying acoustics of the voice, emergence of vowels and consonants, and ultimate perceived intelligibility of words for language and singing. As with respiration and vibration, the infant and child resonators are very different from those of adults. The adult larynx is located lower in the neck at the fifth or sixth vertebrae. It has relatively harder cartilages than infants

2. Newborn, Infant, and Child

and children. This includes the adult leaf shape and movement of the epiglottis, as compared to the soft, floppy infant epiglottis. The action of swallowing becomes stronger with aging. The hard palate and alveolar ridge widen as teeth come in. The newborn baby's tiny vocal tract is reshaped throughout the first two decades of life. The effects of such an evolution of the vocal tract are fascinating. Thanks to a unique setup at birth, babies breathe through their nose while feeding, in a variety of suck-swallow-breathe patterns. The hyoid and larynx are located very high in their tiny neck. The epiglottis can slide up to touch the velum within the very small nasopharyngeal area. The neck is so short that the entire tongue literally fills the oral cavity with little excess room for modification of the resonating cavity during vocalization. The cavity is wider than it is long (Beck, 2010). As nursing begins, the tongue lowers, milk fills the oral space between the nipple and the soft palate, the tongue moves up, and milk moves to the pharynx. This can be repeated immediately. To swallow, the hyoid elevates, and the pharyngeal walls contract, closing off the velopharyngeal isthmus. The airway is protected as the vocal folds close and the floppy epiglottis moves. The milk goes into the esophagus. Respiration ceases during swallowing. The optimal pattern for feeding and breathing is to inhale, then swallow, then exhale. The efficiency of this cycle increases quickly as babies figure out what works best. The effort benefits the development of the oral pharynx (da Costa, van den Engel-Hoek, & Bos, 2008). Dentists and orthodontists recommend breastfeeding over bottle feeding for optimal development of the pharyngeal and oral cavities. Jaw and tongue movement is more significant, and even tiring for very young babies, but leads to better jaw development. They recommend that infants not use pacifiers or suck their thumbs as it may contribute to malocclusion with a higher palate. This, in turn, may cause sleep apnea earlier or later in life (Johnson, 2014). The pharynx is proportionately smaller, the mouth larger, and the tongue larger in comparison to adults. Growth is nonuniform with slow oral region growth first and faster pharyngeal growth later. Anatomic interactions require multidimensional understanding, which have yet to be thoroughly analyzed for changes in growth in all three dimensions.

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Research has shown that babies are obligatory nasal breathers but can breathe orally if necessary. It is difficult for them to do for very long as the undeveloped weak soft palate muscles, which shut off the nasal port, tire quickly (Bergeson & Shaw, 2001). Babies transition from obligatory nasal breathing to oral breathing as the velopharynx is able to close off the nasal port. By the age of 3, the velum closes off the nasal port completely for oral sounds. The growth of the hard palate is finished by the age of 15 years. The soft palate continues to grow (Vorperian & Kent, 2007). The overall length of the vocal tract in a newborn measures 6 to 8 cm. At 7 to 10 months, the velum and the epiglottis separate as the larynx begins to descend. The descent continues until the age of 7, with the fastest descent during the first 2 years of life. Female vocal tracts will grow to 15 cm and males to 18 cm. During the first 2 years of life, structures in the back of the vocal tract grow more than those in the front, including pharyngeal length, descent of the larynx and hyoid bone, and tongue length. At the age of 5, the angle of the vocal tract is approximately 110°. By puberty, it will be at 90°. This is a prerequisite for producing the /i/ and /u/ vowels. From the age of 2 until 9, growth is slower and similar in both the back and front areas (Vorperian, 2000). The mean frequency of the birth cry is approximately 500 Hz, or C5. As the larynx descends and the vocal tract increases in length, the mean frequency lowers. By the age of 8, it is approximately 275 Hz, which is closer to C4 (Sataloff & Linville, 2006). Different parts of the head and neck grow at different times and rates. This is referred to as nonlinear growth. In 1930, Richard Scammon delineated four growth curves of postnatal head and neck growth:

1. Somatic-steady growth until maturity (in a vertical plane) a. b. c. d. e.

Jaw Teeth Hyoid bone Face Laryngeal descent

2. Newborn, Infant, and Child

2. Neural-fast early growth (in a horizontal plane) a . Cranium b . Hard palate 3. Lymphoid-grows early and fast in life and then atrophies by 18 years of age a. Adenoids b . Tonsils 4. Reproductive-hormonal influence a. Larynx 5. Combined-neural and somatic (in vertical and horizontal plane) a. Vocal tract b . Tongue

Doctors use male and female growth charts that assess overall growth trends by measuring head circumference, height, and weight. Structures with a neural growth curve achieve about 80% of adult size following rapid growth from birth to early childhood. Structures with a somatic growth curve achieve 25% to 40% of adult size by early childhood. The structures of the vocal tract in the oral area reach maturity sooner than the structures in the pharyngeal area. This suggests that the oral, horizontal portion of the vocal tract is neural growth, and the pharyngeal, vertical portion is somatic growth. Some areas involve percentages of both somatic and neural growth (Vorperian et al. , 2009). The circumference of the cranium is closer to adult size at birth than anything else in the body and reflects the growth of the brain. It has a neural growth curve. The jaw, teeth, hyoid bone, and face grow rapidly during infancy. This is followed by a period of slower growth, then rapid growth during puberty, and finally, steady growth until early maturity. They have a somatic growth curve. Figure 2-5 shows the differences in proportions between the infant cranium and face compared to adult proportions (Vorperian, 2000). Facial skeleton growth is related to development of the muscles of mastication, the tongue, and the teeth. In females,

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---i- ------A

--+B

__ j_ ____ _ FIGURE 2-5. Craniofacial proportions of infant and adult.

facial growth is completed by the late teens. In males, it can continue into the third decade of life (Beck, 2010). The tonsils and adenoids are very small at birth. Between the ages of 1 and 4, they enlarge due to increased immunologic activity. They grow rapidly during childhood until 4 years of age and then usually atrophy into adulthood (Vorperian & Kent, 2007). Tucked under the upper lip, the chin of a newborn is at this angle / /. At birth, the mandible is two bones with a right half and a left half. During the first year of life, the bones fuse so the mandible is one bone (Hill, 2017). By the first birthday, as teeth come in and the jaw changes shape slightly, the chin will be more pronounced at an angle with the upper lip that is \ \ (Abitbol, 2006). The movement of the jaw works similarly to that of an adult as early as 1 or 2 years of age. It grows a great deal during the first 5 years of life, particularly in width. Then it slows down, reaching maturity after puberty (Vorperian, 2000). From the ages of 4 to 14, before puberty, there is no difference in growth of the mandible between male and female ( Coquerelle et al., 2011). Figure 2-6 shows the changes in size, proportions, dentition, and chin angle of the jaw from the newborn to older adult. Three areas of the maxilla and palate all grow steadily during the first year of life. After that, different areas grow in different ways and at different times. The bizygomatic width (from

2. Newborn, Infant, and Child

FIGURE 2-6. Age-related evolution of the jaw.

cheekbone to cheekbone) grows steadily, slowing down as it reaches its adult width in adulthood. The front portion of the palate and maxilla is fixed early in life by 4 to 5 years of age. Apposition (layered bone growth) causes an increase in the alveolar width after that. The width of the maxilla follows the palatal and bizygomatic in width. In height and length, it grows forward and downward (Beck, 2010). At birth, a baby's teeth are forming under the gums. Teeth begin to break through around the sixth month. It can be painful, with increased drooling that helps alleviate some discomfort. Babies will get to know new objects by putting them in their mouth. The lips have more nerve endings than anywhere else on the body. Having teeth contributes to a more stable jaw. The

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first two teeth are usually the bottom front, followed by four on the top, and then in pairs on either side until all 20 "baby teeth" have emerged by the age of 3. At 12 to 16 months of age, the baby molars on the top and bottom can touch. This defines the position of jaw closure (Vorperian, 2000). As the jaw grows, the adult teeth develop and wait, unseen, above the baby teeth in the maxilla and below in the mandible. Starting close to the age of 6, baby teeth begin to come loose and fall out as the larger adult teeth take their place. By the age of 12, there is a set of 28 permanent teeth (WebMD Medical Reference, 2017). The teeth contribute to the vertical space of the oropharynx, chewing, tongue movement, position of jaw closure, and lip movement. The soft palate is a muscular fold behind the hard palate. It closes off the nasal port during swallowing and drops to open the nasal port for nasal air flow. During the first 5 years of life, the soft palate grows faster in length and thickness than the hard palate. It may vary in shape with age and continues to grow throughout life (Chalkoo, Naikoo, Ahmad, & Oberoi, 2015). The hard palate is done growing at 15 (Agiiner, 1999). Figure 2-7 shows the age-related changes of the vocal tract, descent of the larynx, position of the velum, dentition, proportion of the tongue, change in the angle of the vocal tract, and changes in the angle of the chin from 6 months old to adult (male in this figure). Acoustic differences between prepubescent males and females are related to differences in measurements of length, width, and volume of the three-dimensional oral and pharyngeal portions of the vocal tract. Measurements in the vertical plane display differences between the sexes after age 8 through maturity. Measurements in the horizontal plane show sexual differences between ages 3 and 7 and reemerge after 12 years of age (Vorperian et al., 2011). Earlier research measured the fundamental frequency of a sustained /a/ from 180 children, ages 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10. There were significant differences according to sex by age 7 or 8 (Hasek, Singh, & Murry, 1980). Accurate gender identification perceived by listeners varies and is often based on data obtained from children's speech. One study audited 320 singing samples of untrained children from 4 to 11 years and judged the gender of each child. They were 71.57% accurate, which is similar to other reports based on speech (Sergeant, Sjolander, & Welch, 2005).

2. Newborn, Infant, and Child

(a) Age 6 months

(d) Age 13.5 years

(b) Age 2 years

(c) Age 7 years

(e) Adult male

FIGURE 2-7. Age-related changes of the vocal tract.

Some children have hoarse-sounding speaking voices. This can be due to normal development factors. HNR is the harmonics to noise ratio. Numerous aspects of physiologic changes may cause children to have additive noise because of reduced vocal fold closure due to variations of the spongier cartilages of the larynx and the immature vocal ligament (Stathopoulos, Huber, & Sussman, 2011). Researchers vary in their methods of categorizing emerging sounds and speech facility, but they agree that the vocal tract lengthens as the larynx descends, the lips gain strength, teeth emerge, the tongue becomes nimble, and the muscles in the velum gain strength. The acquisition of making noise is seen in all primates. The development of speech, song, and language is specific to

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humans. It takes many years for full language facility to emerge. It is dependent on ongoing development factors that affect the interplay of respiration, vibration, and resonance during the years of infancy, toddlerhood, and childhood. Though all sounds involve the interaction of respiration, vibration, and resonance, not all lead to language. Non-speechlike vocalizations, such as coughing, sneezing, burping, hiccupping, screaming, gurgling, moaning, crying, and laughter, are not considered precursors to language. In singing, however, many vocal textures required in music written throughout the centuries, including the current century, imitate, or even include, these non-speech-like vocalizations and textures. Initial sounds that are more smooth and comfortable, like gooing and cooing, are considered more speech-like with normal phonation. Infants coo and goo with their caregivers and engage in vocal play daily. These babblings are called protophones and are said to lead to language. "Oller's Stages of Babbling" define a prelinguistic timeline for early phonological development in babies (Oller, 2000). Vorperian also defines this development with slightly different, but easily comparable, timelines and information (Vorperian, 2000). Listed below are the stages of "Oller's Stages of Babbling" with information from Oller under "a" and information applied from Vorperian under "b" for each stage.

1. Phonation stage: 0 to 1 months

a. Sounds are called quasivowels because the vocal tract is at rest with no posturing of the tongue, jaw, or lips. b . Vocalization is nasal. The tongue fills the oral cavity and the epiglottis is in contact with the velum. 2. Primitive articulation stage: 2 to 3 months a . Sounds are called gooing and cooing with movement in the supraglottal vocal tract, with some consonant-like sounds as the velum and tongue are in close proximity to each other. b . Vocalization is nasal. The tongue can move back and forth. The epiglottis and velum are still in contact.

2. Newborn, Infant, and Child

3. Expansion stage: 4 to 6 months a. Sounds include alterations of vowel sounds and a limited variety of consonants, including /k/, / g/, /pl, /bl, and raspberries. Babies start laughing by 4 months of age. b. The pharynx lengthens, and the velum and epiglottis disengage. There is increased mobility of the tongue. There is better motor control of velopharyngeal valving for high-pressure consonants. 4. Canonical stage: 7 to 10 months a. Sounds transition quickly and are well-formed syllables with consonant to vowel elements. b. Articulation is through the action of the mandible alone. More front vowels may be produced by varying the jaw position. 5. Variegated/integrative babbling: 11 to 14 months a. There are adult-like sentences with inflections like when asking a question or exclamation, but without any real words. This is called variegated babbling. Gradually, phonemes and words, pace, and rhythm in the native language emerge. b . Near absence of /i/ and /u/ may be due to anatomical constraints or physical maturation. There is an emergence of their first words. (Oller, Neal, & Schwartz, 1999; Vorperian, 2000)

Vorperian (2000) continues:

■

12 to 16 months: Tongue control is enhanced by contour and movement of the growing vocal tract. The first molars emerge, and the jaw closes to the occlusal contact position. The jaw is more stable. Consonants are bilabial, alveolar, glottal, and some velar / b d gt m n w/. Final consonants are voiceless.

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■

17 to 25 months: More variety in voiced and voiceless consonants, /p s f/.

■

2 years: /i u a þÿŒþÿY/emerge. From 2 to 4 years of age, fricatives are established /f s z f/.

■

3 years: The tongue can glide to produce diphthongs /a1/ and / au/ and liquids þÿ1// y established. l

■

4 years: The tongue and jaw work well together and interdental fricatives are established.

■

5 to 7 years: Liquids, þÿ/y, 1/, are mastered as the bend of the tongue is achieved. Between the ages of 3 and 8, all the fricatives are mastered, including /tf/ and þÿ/d’/.

The articulatory strategies for vowels and consonants for the tongue, pharynx, and jaw change throughout development. What works to be perceived as a certain vowel as an infant or child may be quite different as an adult due to the anatomical changes in the vocal tract. For instance, a study confirmed that French speakers at 4 years of age used different articulatory strategies, as compared to adults, for the French vowel /y/. The articulation will change as the angle of the vocal tract reaches the adult 90° with a high back space (Menard, Schwartz, & Boe, 2004). The evolving nature of the child vocal tract needs to be considered by those who work with young singers. Strategies for perceived vowels in speech and singing may need to be remapped throughout life due to constant change.

EXPECTATIONS Baby and Toddler Sounds It is a marvel to witness the development of sounds children produce starting from birth. During childhood, nonlinear growth and development synthesize with complex interaction and experimentation for respiration, vibration, and resonance. Initial nasal vocalism, coos, gurgles, first vowels, bilabial consonants,

2. Newborn, Infant, and Child

velar consonants, alveolar consonants, oral vowels, first words, labiodentals, sentences, sighs, cries, interdentals, and traces of pitch matching seem to evolve into melodies, rhythms, texts, and vocal textures, with increasing accuracy, sustainability, and beauty. Newborns can see 8 to 10 inches away, about the distance needed to see into their parents' eyes when they are held ("Infant Vison," n.d .). Before birth and during the first months of life, the human brain grows at an astonishing rate, producing millions of brain cells, more than will ever be needed. The brain is at its busiest as millions of neurons connect when babies see their new world and experience the action of the breathing muscles, gravity, cooler temperatures, touch, smell, sounds, and the vibration of their newborn vocal folds energized by the air they now breathe. The brain achieves 80% of its adult weight in the first 2 years of life. Synaptic density, the amount and means by which neurons pass signals to other brain cells, peaks in the visual cortex at 4 months. It peaks in most other areas by 2 years of age, at a pace that is 50% greater than in adults. It does not peak in the prefrontal cortex until 4 years of age (Lenroot & Giedd, 2006). As mentioned previously, babies and children are not miniature adults (Kelchner, Brehm, & Weinrich, 2014). How many of us have been told to just breathe low like we did when we were babies? That idea incorrectly presumes that, other than size, we are the same. What people can and cannot do vocally and musically is based on where they are within their nonlinear growth and/or development along with musical and vocal technique elements. Each child's voice is unique with its own acoustic "voiceprint" characterized by a less complex acoustic makeup than that of an adult. They achieve similar loudness as adults with higher subglottal pressure and a higher percentage of lung and rib cage capacity up until the age of 12, when more adult-like breathing is observed (Welch & Howard, 2002).

As many other mothers, I can remember the sound of my child's birth cry. Some people have recorded that special moment. From that point on, I recognized his unique cry each time the nurse brought him to my room at the hospital, and from that time forward, could always tell when it was

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my child's voice. Even as a tiny baby his sounds included precursory hints of "The Five Textures of Singing." 1. Legato

2. Staccato

3. Coloratura 4. Messa di voce

5. Articulation

The needy cries and playful sounds babies make can be long and loud, or crescendos and diminuendos. There can be longer sigh-like sounds, short punctuated cries, or accentuated bursts of sound. As babbling develops, babies begin to play with consonants, vowels, and inflections. There earliest consonants seem very close to /k/ and / g/ because the tongue and undeveloped velum are in close proximity. When they start to laugh, often in the fourth month, there is an increase in staccato activity. The cry develops as babies get older. The fundamental frequency increases as the baby learns to make the best cry for the best acoustic signal to get the most immediate attention of responsible persons. This is their early communication system. There are different cries for different purposes: the hunger cry, the discomfort cry, the pain cry, and the fear cry. During the first year of life, the mean foincreases from 441.8 to 502.9 Hz. During the same period, the cooing and babbling fo goes down from 389.3 to 336.9 Hz, evidence of the laryngeal position lowering. The babblings of children are similar across cultures in their melodies during the first year of life. Crying and laughing never develop toward language but are an emotional means of communication from infancy through old age in all humans. Cooing and babbling are precursors for words (Rothganger, 2003). Parents and primary guardians are the first people to interact with their children. Maternal singing and speech is normally adjusted for the infant's age, purpose, and activity. Are they going to sleep, feeding, playing, getting dressed? This enhances the emotional bond between parent and child. Preterm babies pre-

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fer the maternal singing voice more than speaking. The amount of visual fixation and initial fixation of the mother's image are longer for maternal singing than for speech. The emotive quality of speech can have a positive stabilizing effect on preterm babies. Angry speech may act as a stress-inducing stimulus and can result in a surge of cortisol concentration measurable in saliva. Relaxation results in reduced cortisol levels. Singing attracts infants' attention and comforts them more than speech (Nakata & Trehub, 2004). After 6 months of age, babies begin to use interchangeable vocalizations, blurring between babble speech, and babble singing, with distinct acoustic patterns meant to communicate emotions in a way that gets their caregiver's attention (Papaeliou, Minadakis, & Cavouras, 2002). Before the age of 1, babies do not intentionally match pitch, and there is no discernable rhythm. Modeling musical babble while cuing off the infant's babbling and leaving a space for the baby to babble back creates a unique dialogue. It intimately engages the parent/caregiver and child in musical communication (Olson, 2013). Within the daily routines of changing diapers, bathing, feeding, riding in the car, playing, or preparing for bedtime, parents have opportunities to spontaneously encourage the creativity of their babbling songs. Interaction should be appropriately informal, positive, and playful. Unstructured vocal playtime is an important part in guiding infants toward singing and musical structure. The babbling of children is similar to language in its melodies during the first year of life (Rothganger, 2003). During toddlerhood (18-36 months), children imitate or rework songs they have heard. They delight in playful changing, inventing, or re-creating their own versions of songs. At 18 months, they may "compose" their own songs or rework recognizable rhythms and pitches. Their vocalism may reflect an object they throw in the air, reinforcing movement of the object, or their own action as they twirl around. They might take on different vocalisms for different characters in their own make-believe drama. This converts action and imagination into another medium (Young, 2004). The pitches are often approximate, nonsustained, repetitious, or siren-like. Gradually, intervals, pitches, and rhythm are clearly discernable and sustained as they join with an ever-increasing vocabulary. Young (2004) points out that "learning to make words 'sing' is to imbue language with meaning and expression, to animate

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and emote the words. When plain talk starts to sing, when words resonate, it makes ordinary language more intense and vital, more meaningful and communicative." (p. 65) What an incredible statement about babbling! The playful, meaningful essence we seek to express in singing starts very early in our lives. Infant singing voices are usually clear with a penetrating timbre as they experiment with resonance, vowels, consonants, pitches, vocal range, slides, and rhythms. They progress toward a more organized musical execution. Infants seem to take advantage of good acoustic spaces, waiting for quiet, and sometimes awkward moments, to try out their newfound vocal sounds. MUSIC TOGETHER® is an internationally recognized music program for children from birth through second grade founded by Kenneth K. Guilmartin and Dr. Lili M. Levinowitz. They offer programs for families, schools, at-risk populations, and special needs children in more than 40 countries. The curriculum recognizes that children develop at different rates through musical exposure and experimentation. From birth to 24 months of age, infants respond to music with two to five short movements with arms and on syllables like "ba." From 12 months to 26 months of age, children can represent the correct melodic contour and keep a consistent tempo for a longer duration and follow music stimulus. From 24 to 48 months, they can sing spontaneously, but not always accurately, and limited up to about a Bb4 until their head voice is accessed. They can sing and move at the same time. From 36 months to 6 years of age, children can extend beyond the Bb, sing an entire song, and coordinate the upper and lower body to the beat (Guilmartin & Levinowitz, 2008).

My own memories of my son's contented, sweet singing, just before he would fall asleep, are echoed in many studies about toddlers singing. My husband was a high school choral director. When our son was 3 years old, he attended many rehearsals of the spring musical production ofJoseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat. At bedtime, as he "read" books, or listened to music, we delighted in hearing his clever reworking of the music he had learned at those rehearsals.

2. Newborn, Infant, and Child

"All children are musical" (Demorest, 2017). They sing, dance, and hear music from infancy and, if encouraged, reap cognitive and social benefits from music throughout life . Demorest says the "talent mindset" is counter to "the growth mindset." The word "talent" implies an inborn ability to excel at a specific activity. "Growth" is stymied when someone is told they do not have "talent." Adults who were told they are untalented musically as children are less likely to participate in music. The singing voice needs to be used to develop. Musical skills only develop if given the opportunity. All children are musical! Children can learn words in songs and can usually match pitches independent of words. When words and rhythm are joined together with pitch, they will favor words over note accuracy, rhythm over note accuracy, with pitch as the lowest priority (Welch, 1998). Levels of musicianship and vocal comfort are extremely variable. Some can make up their own songs with excellent pitch and rhythm, and even use their own vocal themes with structural organization. These young singers often learn songs accurately. Others will waiver in their pitch, shifting tonalities from section to section, being more approximate.

Students have given me recordings of themselves from the time they were infants. In one very cute recording, a female toddler stops suddenly in the middle of her song, midphrase, to tell her parents, with a little attitude, that she doesn't need their help, and then flashes right back from the distraction to continue the song.

In our society, children are surrounded by music on television, radio, elevator music, video games, computer programs, ring options on telephones, background music at stores, and music in movies. Music is used to elicit feelings, to instill ideas and information, to encourage good behavior, to enjoy fictional stories. Music is also used to teach children the letters of the alphabet. A B C D E F G ... H I J K L M N O P . . . Q R S .. . T U V .. . X Y and Z. Or, as in a song on a cassette my son would sing along with, by "Raffi," PT ER ANO D ON spells Pteranodon!

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Who misses the clever alliteration of John Jacob Jingleheimer Schmidt? How fun to sing about what happens on a bus in "The Wheels on the Bus Go Round and Round." Children are encouraged to do daily chores in songs like "This is the way we wash our clothes, wash our clothes, wash our clothes . . . so early in the morning." Songs from television shows such as Sesame Street, Barney and Friends, and the opening theme for Arthur sung by Ziggy Marley and the Melody Makers are both entertainment and lessons for children. Stories abound, such as "Jack and Jill went up the hill to fetch a pail of water." Parents sing the lilting melody of Brahms Lullaby (Op 49, #4) to children at bedtime. Disney tunes old and new are passed on from generation to generation, such as "Heigh-ho, Heigh-ho, it's off to work I go" from Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. Children learn solfege, which has been handed down to us from an 11thcentury Benedictine monk, Guido D'Arezzo, in the Rogers and Hammerstein song, "(DO) doe, a deer, a female deer, (RE), ray, a drop of golden sun...." Developing vocabulary is lexical acquisition. Knowing how to use vocabulary is semantic knowledge. Both are imbedded in the songs children learn to sing. The combination of words and music engages the body for the activity of singing, and the mind to know what the words and song are about (Winters & Griffin, 2014). It is not reserved just for children who are learning to talk, sing, and think but continues throughout life. Advertisements on television and radio rely on clever songs and repetitious texts to catch one's attention with a product, phone number, or website.

Time for School By the time children enter school, their brain is approximately 90% of its maximum size (Lenroot & Giedd, 2006). They are ready for the more formal educational setting of classroom instruction. This includes music. In the years ahead, they can gain a musical foundation in school and outside of school. In schools, trained music educators devote their careers to teaching music as an integral part of every child's life and as part of their required formal education. Elementary music educators teach and train students within a classroom and/or ensemble

2. Newborn, Infant, and Child

setting. In 2007, the Centennial Declaration of the Music Education National Conference (MENC) (renamed National Association for Music Education or NAfME, with more than 130,000 members) stated, "It is the right of every child to receive a balanced, comprehensive, sequential music education taught by qualified music teachers" ("A Centennial Declaration of MENC," 2007). Second to the influence of parents, the inspiring music teacher/educator/choral and band conductor can make a positive difference in the musical life of a child. Some of these people contribute to the wider audience of educators by actively sharing their expertise, insight, and research in scholarly writing and presentations. General music curriculum in elementary schools includes singing, solfege, musical notation, music history, music appreciation, rhythm activities, and introduction to song. This education is often augmented with band, orchestra, choir, and music theater projects within the schools. Music educator Kenneth Phillips recognized that "vocal instruction should be for all children, and not reserved for those in choral programs." He devised a vocal-technique curriculum for the music classroom for young singers in Grades 1 to 12 consisting of 90 sequential exercises in respiration, phonation, resonance, diction, and expression. He explains creative ways and pacing to use the exercises starting in lower grades and in later grades. Each exercise has detailed instructions and requires only 5 or 6 minutes per class (Phillips, 1996). Parents play a key role in whether children are involved in music beyond what they learn in school. The home can always encourage music and singing. Our experience with our son mirrored what music education research has shown. Musical notation and relating visual symbols with sound first starts with notational scribble (Welch, 1998).

Our young son enjoyed making musical pictures of songs or rhythms he thought of. Gradually, we introduced treble and bass clef on the staves with a time signature, and different note values. It intrigued him when we played his scribbled songs on the piano. This was as fun for him as it is to draw houses, the sun, the clouds, animals, and people.

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Children can begin piano and/or violin lessons as early as 3 to 5 years of age, often with the Suzuki method. Some experts recommend that children wait until they can read a short paragraph, around the age 6 or 7, before taking lessons. In many schools, instrumental study is offered in fifth grade. Children may experience singing through choral ensembles at school or with community or worship ensembles. It used to be less typical for children to take private voice lessons during their elementary years. That is changing at a swift pace as more children want to take voice lessons and more voice teachers specialize in working with young voices. There are examples at the end of this chapter ("From the Teachers") from a few of those who regularly work with children's voices. Children's choirs, boys' choirs, and girls' choirs range from small to very large organizations with many choirs. The benefits of children singing in choirs include better academic success, valuable life skills, more self-discipline, better memory skills, and better grades. More people participate in choirs than in any other performing art (The Chorus Impact Study, 2012-2017). So many aspects of singing in choirs are just what children need: the organized social aspects, sharing in music with one another, the discipline of singing together, the excitement of concerts, and pride in a group effort. Music theater is a fun way for elementary age singers to experience singing as part of an ensemble or as a character. When Donny Osmond toured with Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat in the 1990s, elementary and middle school choirs were invited to be part of the production in each location of the tour (Williams, 1993). There are roles for children in music theater productions and opera.Annie opened in 1977. It is based on the comic strip Little Orphan Annie that first appeared in newspapers in the 1920s. There are seven named children in the cast, including Annie. Other roles include Winthrop in Music Man; Oliver; all the children in The King and I; sometimes three children sing the three spirits in Mozart's Die Zauberflote; Gretl, Marta, Brigitta, Kurt, and Louisa in The Sound of Music; and Ngana and Jerome in South Pacific. Junior versions of many well-known musicals, as well as musicals written specifically with young singers in mind, are popular for performance settings in worship, community, and

2. Newborn, Infant, and Child

schools. Subject matter is geared for children. They are generally a half-hour to an hour in length with tessituras that fit young developing voices.

When our son was 10, he played Jerome in South Pacific. The day of one of the performances, he was the pitcher for his team's little league baseball game that started at 5:00. He was pitching a no-hitter, and the game was going on and on and on. Finally, I had to ask the coach to let him go so he could get into costume and makeup before the 7:30 show. His team still won the game, and our son had a very good day of sports and music.

The American Academy of Teachers of Singing suggests that there are three categories of childhood singing: 1. Singing for fun at home, school, and places of worship

2. Recreational singing, which they wish to pursue more intensely 3. Professional or preprofessional singing that is critically evaluated and scrutinized ("Teaching Children to Sing," 2002) Helen Kemp was renowned as a specialist in training young voices. She espoused the concept of "Body, Mind, Spirit, Voice: It takes the WHOLE PERSON to Sing and Rejoice! " She said that singing is a learned behavior and suggests guidelines for vocal ranges, tessituras, and goals for children from kindergarten through sixth grade. ■

Five to 6 years old: Get the feeling of singing, and use of the head voice from D4 to B4.

■

Seven to 8 years old: Keep the concept of one register, not going into chest voice. Bb3 to F5.

■

Nine to 10 years old: Sing within the overall tessitura of Bb3 to GS, not constantly in either extreme. Work for pure vowels and vitality, allowing top notes to bloom

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without force or strain. She notes here that the voice box is still "flexible cartilage, not hardened." ■

Eleven and 12 years old: Same as above plus the volume spectrum increases through pure vowels. Diction improves. Range increases; part singing should be used to allow comfort in those who are second sopranos or altos. Tessitura is Ab3 to C6 (Kemp, 1985).

One of Helen Kemp's good friends was Paul Bouman. It has been a pleasure over the past few years to sit with him in his home and talk about Miss Kemp's and his own work with children over seven decades of music ministry. Paul says that the number one quality required of a children's choir director is that "the director should genuinely love children!" One of the methods he used to favor and develop the head voice was regularly adjusting vowels to achieve a more pleasing and sustainable sound. For instance, for the word "praise," he would instruct students to sing "pr/Vz." In the word "let," he would suggest they sing "löt." In the word "world," he would have them sing "wuhld" (Bouman, 1985). Paul's suggestions modify the vocal tract for better acoustic and vocal efficiency. Paul never experienced resistance from the children he worked with, despite his constant insistence that they persevere. He never resorted to ridiculing and didn't allow it among the students either. He demonstrated how he taught large intervals within difficult melodies and what a delight it was to witness each student eventually "get it." To encourage legato, he suggested students add a little crescendo into held notes. Paul is now 99 years old. It is a joy to hear the many stories about children he taught, who now, as senior citizens themselves, sing in their church choirs (Bouman, 2017). During childhood, the range of a child is constant, at approximately 2½ octaves. The improvements in tone for a greater portion of their range can be credited to natural development along with age-optimal control, efficiency, and quality through training (Sataloff & Linville, 2006). The registration of the child singing voice includes both head voice and chest voice. The engagement of the cricothyroid muscle stretches the vocal folds and encourages "head voice." The thyroarytenoid is the chest voice

2. Newborn, Infant, and Child

muscle. It is not fully formed until after puberty but, throughout its development, plays a role in the childlike chest voice sounds. Graham Welch describes a continuum of five singing stages in ability from out-of-tune to in-tune singing. Intonation often improves with age, showing that sounds and pitch accuracy are acquirable. Joanne Rutkowski describes five levels of vocal quality in the "Singing Voice Development Measure": 1. Presingers

2. Speaking-range singers

3. Uncertain singers 4. Initial-range singers

5. Singers (Phillips, 1996)

Voice Lessons for Children The number of children taking voice lessons in small groups or individually is growing. Some voice teachers who specialize in working with children's voices develop their own curriculum and materials for students to use. Others find songbooks, workbooks, and curriculum online. If pursuing private voice lessons, parents should make sure the teacher works within the physical and emotional limits of their child. Lessons should be fun. Children should begin learning the basics of the musical notation system at about the time they start learning to read. If it is not included in voice lessons, piano or violin lessons offer a tactile opportunity to apply reading music to placing their fingers on the strings or on the piano. There are many music theory books designed for children. Music teachers in the schools and in private music lessons are important as students first learn notation for the musical language. With all private instruction, students are expected to practice outside of lessons, even at a young age. This serves to instill in children the need and value of their personal initiative. Practice

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sessions for singing at this age should be around 15 minutes and include working on vocal exercises, concepts, and preparing assigned songs and other assignments. If a parent is musical, it can be enjoyable and helpful to play piano as the child sings. Some teachers record the exercises and music for their students to take home and sing along with. Repertoire choices must be age appropriate and can vary from Bach to Disney, depending on the child. Skelton (2007) states that "the vocal and musical skills children are capable of achieving and employing is often vastly underestimated." Vocal training from the age of 6 to puberty is not only safe but is a stable 5- to 7-year period for the vocal instrument when children can gain vocal technique and learn to sing musically and expressively. They can do all the same textures as an adult but at the intensity and more limited range of a child (Skelton, 2007). In a documentary video about the Thomanerchor, at the Thomaskirche in Leipzig, Germany, Herr Georg Biller, the former Kantor, auditions two prospective young singers. They are both 7 years old. Herr Biller takes the first child up to a stratospherically high A6. The second boy goes to C7. Boys are scouted for the Thomanerchor from all over Germany. One plus is if they have a high C ( C6) or better. Boys in the Thomanerchor receive regular lessons and coachings, have regular rehearsals daily, and sing many services each week. The older unchanged voices and postpubertal voices often double as the soloists in the Bach cantatas sung each Sunday (Smaczny, 2012). Bach's music is complex, yet these prepubertal singers not only regularly sing the difficult choral parts, but do the solos as well. Their voice doctor for the choir is Dr. Michael Fuchs, who sang with the Thomanerchor as a boy. He is well known for significant research, including the timing of the voice break (Weil, 2013). According to Fuchs et al. (2009), regular one-on-one or small group voice training for children, ages 6 to 19, increases vocal range as much as an octave in the upper limit. (There is a temporary voice limitation during puberty.) This does not appear to occur without voice lessons. Due to anatomical and physiological factors, the lower limit is not increased. Those taking lessons, and singing regularly in rehearsals and performances,

2. Newborn, Infant, and Child

have better self-awareness about the voice, improved messa di voce, conscious control, and pride in their vocal tone. This makes the case for regular organized vocal instruction for children and adolescents, and the benefits that move forward into singing for their future as amateurs or professionals (Fuchs et al., 2009). Professional qualities in adult singers include the vibrato. Vibrato is evidence of a free functioning total instrument, with five to seven oscillations per second, and pitch fluctuation of no more than a semitone (Doscher, 1994). Many children do not use vibrato when singing. If there is one, it adds a beauty to the sound. Some children mimic a vibrato by pulsing the air with their support. This is not necessarily detrimental to the voice and can be helpful to developing support, if it is not overdone. When it is overdone, it can include compensatory muscle tension around the laryngeal structure and impede optimal aerodynamic function. Healthy vibrato is evidence of good support, with minute alterations of air pressure and minute undulation throughout the phonatory tube, and is perceived as a complementary and integral component to the vocal quality, both in its positive sensations to the singer and to listeners (Appleman, 1967). The ring of the voice, also referred to as the singer's formant, is an acoustic cluster of formants that gives extra amplification to harmonics in the frequency range of 2400 to 3200 Hz in classically trained adult singers. Most agree that it is created in the narrow tube region immediately above the glottis, called the epilarynx. In children, this area is smaller and not as developed. Therefore, it would be logical for there to be a higher frequency range. Research has found that classically trained children, who are perceived as having a clear, ringing sound, have a singer's format cluster region around 4 kHz, and another strong peak from 7 .5-11 kHz. The child's vocal ring adds a healthy enhancement to the vocal sound. It is rarely found in untrained voices (Howard, Williams, & Herbst, 2014). Generally, children have healthy voices. However, the epithelium cover of the child vocal fold can be damaged due to speaking or if singing too high, too loud, or too long. The youthful exuberance and spirit of competition, and the accompanying "give it all you've got" enthusiasm, merits modification when it comes to the young voice and singing (Fuchs et al., 2008).

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Undiagnosed injuries can follow children into their postpubertal lives with compensatory habits that are hard to break and even vocal injuries that need medical intervention and/or rehabilitation. It is not totally clear whether pressed phonation in speaking or singing causes nodules or whether nodules cause pressed phonation. There is controversy regarding when, exactly, the layers of the lamina propria are fully mature. Many wonder if adult therapies and procedures used for the prepubescent voice are helpful or not. Or, would it be better for time and development to aid in healing (McMurray, 2015)? Nonetheless, the keen ear and eye of the singing expert is key in guiding younger singers toward healthy, optimal sounds. It is imperative that those working with children understand the child's vocal instrument within constant growth and development. Some voice teachers and their students take advantage of such programs as the Royal Conservatory of Music Development Program. The Royal Conservatory Music Development Program's Voice Curriculum provides a comprehensive course of study for singers of all ages, from beginner through master's level. Singers may enter the curriculum at any elementary or intermediate level, progressing at a pace that suits their needs. This curriculum is ideal for the developing voice. Starting with the preparatory voice level, children as young as 6 years old can prepare a variety of age-appropriate repertoire. Assessment criteria for a preparatory-level assessment include vocal production (pitch and rhythm accuracy, posture, vowel formation, and projection of consonants) and presentation (facial expression, stage presence, breathing, phrasing, memory). A progressive and level-appropriate approach to repertoire continues through the Elementary Levels 1 to 4, the Intermediate Levels 5 to 7, and Advanced Levels 8 to 10, culminating in the Associate Diploma in Voice Performance. Elementary-level repertoire is assessed for vocal production (pitch and rhythm accuracy, phrasing), diction (vowel formation, projection of consonants, accurate pronunciation), and presentation (deportment, facial and musical expression, memory). Musicianship and aural skills are introduced beginning in Level 1. These include technical exercises, which are assessed for pitch and rhythm accuracy, vowel formation, and phrasing; singing of intervals; and sight singing. The difficulty of

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these skills progresses in each level. A clapback component is included in Elementary Levels 1 to 4, evolving into a singback in the intermediate levels. Additional components are added as the levels increase in difficulty and complexity. Singers are assessed on a national standard and held to the highest level of ability. A high percentage of singers who prepare elementary-level assessments are children and adolescents. Assessors are trained in and knowledgeable about the abilities of young voices and the unique challenges of the changing adolescent voice. All criteria and syllabi are available online: https://musicdevelopmentprogram.org/program/syllabi (Victoria Holland, D. Mus.).

FROM THE TEACHERS Robert Edwin

Over half of the students in Robert Edwin's independent studio in Cinnaminson, New Jersey, are under the age of 18. He spends much of his pedagogic time helping Annie belters discover their Mode 2 ("head voice") muscles while encouraging choir sopranos to get in touch with their Mode 1 ("chest voice") muscles so they all have whole and healthy voices. Muscle strength, coordination, endurance, and balance are goals in most physical activities, including singing. He tells his students that they wouldn't go to dance class and work on only the left side of their bodies while ignoring the right side. Singing with only half your voice doesn't make any sense. Using all your sound-making muscles does (Edwin, 2014). Mr. Edwin is a leading authority on Contemporary Commercial Music (CCM) and child voice pedagogy. He considers himself a "vocal parent" who continually reminds his younger students that copying adult singers can be dangerous and that they need to find their own voices and styles. He teaches factbased, gender-neutral, and style-specific voice technique through role-playing and storytelling exercises (Edwin, 2014) and encourages singing teachers to continually adjust to the ever-changing dynamics of their pediatric students while addressing them in a patient, creative, and playful manner (Edwin, 2015).

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Sara Westermark

Sara Westermark teaches private voice lessons for ages 6 to 18. She uses clever gimmicks, some yoga, and props in her teaching to augment the fun, engaging vocal experience. She begins by putting the students in crocodile pose on a yoga mat. Students lie on their tummy, with their feet turned out toward the walls with their heads resting on folded arms. This pose allows the breath to go in the lowest part of the torso. They take in the slowest and lowest breath, then exhale slowly on /s/ while Sara counts how long they can exhale. Sara uses a 5-minute yoga sequence to open the chest cavity and the sides of the body. Thereafter, she uses Montessori methods that take cues from and "follow the child." She may use exercise balls, antigravity reclining chairs, exercise bands, or have them make up their own songs, and she encourages the students to feel their body power as they sing. If a student has a tight jaw and cannot release for the top, the student bounces on the exercise ball while singing arpeggios 1-3-5-8-5-3-1 on blah (to loosen lips) or bak (like a chicken), bouncing down for the top note. Sometimes jumping on a small exercise trampoline will distract and unhinge a tight jaw as the students coordinate going to higher passages as they go down to land on the trampoline. When students need to work on connection for ascending intervals, Sara uses an exercise band. The band is knotted in the middle with a loop, and then put on a hook or a door knob. As the students sing up on /su / 1-3-1, or 1-5-1, they pull the elastic bands down and back. This activates the low back muscles, encourages the action of the support muscles, and helps the students develop instincts of going down to go up. Another way to use the exercise band is to have the students hold the band in their upward facing palms with the elbows anchored to their sides. The students move the band out while singing an ascending passage, either a slide up 1-3-1 or 123454321. Industrial noise reduction earmuffs help the students who constantly listen to their own singing. By muffling the sound, they experience the credibility of the learned actions in singing, and free, efficient function of the throat, tongue, and jaw, while coordinating proper breath support. When the students sing, Sara invites them to make silly noises like lip trills, owl hoots, and whiney crying sounds. To

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teach songs to the younger students, she uses an echo method that is recorded for them to take home and use. Students are encouraged to practice 15 minutes daily, including exercises and songs. If their weekly practice chart shows that they practiced six times a week, they get a small prize.

Nikki Loney Nikki Loney is the founder of "The FULL VOICE" voice studio, website, Full Voice Workbook series, Full Voice Teachers eGuide, Vocal Warm-Ups & Technical Exercises, Sight Singing Superhero, flash cards, and links to podcasts. She says, "I appreciate that working with the young singer is not for everyone .... However, the language of 'not ready' is a personal bias not based in fact. What are they not ready for exactly? Not ready to discover and explore their voices? Kids love to sing. They sing at school; singing helps them learn; they sing when playing; and most important they are curious about singing .... Not ready to learn the language of music? Music is a collaborative art form, and I believe every music teacher should be teaching music literacy. That is not exclusively the piano teacher or classroom teacher's responsibility." (NATS Inter Nos, 2017, p. 23)

SUMMARY Children's voices are very different from adults. Respiration, phonation, and aerodynamic, acoustic, resonance, anatomical, and physiological function are directly related to ever-changing bodily proportions, ossification, elastin, collagen, muscle, and development of the vocal folds. Young voices range from those who sing very little, like to sing in groups, or sing casually with the radio. Others show interest in taking group or private voice lessons. Many benefit from the social and musical experience of singing in choirs. A few delight in solo singing in both classical and CCM styles through competitions, auditions, and amateur and professional productions. A very few become professional child singers. The nurtured child singer is capable of developing greater range, flexibility, endurance, and interpretive excellence.

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Anyone who works with young singers in a class, a choir, a musical, or voice lessons should have teaching ability and expertise that relates to children. They should not only instill great music and singing in their hearts and minds with an ear for excellent age-optimal qualities but also teach them musical notation so they can read the language of music. Teaching vocal music requires an ability to engage with a wide variety of young musical personalities from timid to overzealous. Childhood is the very beginning of what will hopefully be a life filled with song. Singing voices are long-term musical instruments that require encouragement and constant training (Kemp, 1985). In 1895, Francis E. Howard wrote The Child-Voice in Singing, His words capture ageless wisdom for those who work with children's voices:

"We ought, in dealing with children's voices, to adopt those methods which will protect weak and growing organs. The aim is not more power, but beauty and purity.. . . If the tone is clear, beautiful, well poised, and under the singer's control, then the training is along safe lines . . . . When the parts act harmoniously together, and there is proper and normal adjustment of all the organs concerned in the production of tone, the result is good. The teacher must judge the proper or improper action of the parts concerned in tone production by the sense of hearing. No accumulation of scientific knowledge can take the place of a careful and alert critical faculty in training voices .... We can encourage the growth of high ideas of tone-beauty." (Howard, 1895, pp. 70- 71)

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3 The Adolescent Years Chadley Ballantyne and Karen Brunssen

HORMONES Adolescence is a time of incredible growth and development when children transition from childhood to adulthood. Throughout history, pedagogues have struggled with what is best for adolescent singers. Should they sing at all? Should they only sing 61

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in the upper register? Should they sing in both the upper and lower registers? The goal has always been to understand how to be more helpful with adolescent voices as they go through this vulnerable period in their singing lives. The onset and pacing of puberty varies from one person to another. It can begin in late grade school, or middle school, and continue into middle school or high school, and even the early years of college for males. The body goes though pubertal development and change in a predictable sequence, but at each individual's time and rate. Nonuniform growth spurts outpace adaption of motor skills. New anatomic situations signal afferent neurons going to the brain (sensory input) to tell efferent neurons (sensory output to limbs and organs) there are anatomical changes that need motor skill adaptations. The word "hormone" comes from the Greek word "hormone," which means "to set in motion." During adolescence growth and development of the entire body, including the vocal folds, laryngeal cartilages, lungs, muscles of support, ribs, and vocal tract, are stimulated by the release of female and male sex hormones. In females, those hormones are primarily estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone. In males, they are androgens, including testosterone. In females, there is a small amount of testosterone. In males, there are small amounts of estrogen and progesterone. Under the influence of sex hormones, the body experiences psychological, biological, and physical growth spurts; secondary sexual features; and primary sexual features of reproductive capability. The primary sex organs are responsible for the production of semen among males and ovulation and menstruation among girls. Boys and girls may develop acne and body odor. Girls experience breast development, pubic and underarm hair, menstruation, changes in the shape of their body as the hips become rounder, and changes in their voices. Boys experience facial, pubic, and underarm hair; wider shoulders; a protruding larynx; a longer neck; and significant voice change. Typically, the head, hands, and feet grow first, followed by arms and legs, and finally the thorax and shoulders (Sweet, 2016). What led us to this point of change when differentiation between male and female takes a giant step forward? Men produce sperm from puberty through old age. Spermatozoa can be X or Y chromosomes. The ovum from women have 23 chromo-

3. The Adolescent Years

somes that are all X chromosomes. The ovaries of a 5-month-old female fetus contain 7 million immature small pockets, called follicles, where the egg cells are located. This number decreases to 2 million by birth and continues to decrease after birth. At puberty, one of the remaining 300,000 mature follicles is triggered by hormones to release an egg. This is the beginning of the monthly menstrual cycle. By the age of 55, there are no follicles containing eggs left (Abitbol, 2006). The sex of a person is determined very early in intrauterine life. During the third week of gestation, genes lead to differentiation of the hormones produced by the gonads that induce anatomical and psychological differences. During the sixth or seventh week of gestation, the XX chromosome is antitestis and pro-ovary so that the female reproductive structures, the uterus, tubae, vagina, and vulva, develop. The XY chromosome leads to the male pathway and will differentiate into formation of the testis and development of the male reproductive structures of the prostate, ductus deferentes, epididymis, penis, and scrotum. Once fetal male differentiation is established, varying levels of testosterone are always present (Biason-Lauber, 2016). It is dormant during childhood. Testosterone is produced in the adrenal glands and in the testis. Levels begin to increase as early as 9 .5 years of age with the onset of puberty and continue to increase until the age of 20. During puberty, testosterone facilitates sexual potency, libido, and aggressive behavior. Almost every organ in the body is a receptor of androgens, including muscles, kidneys, the skin, and the brain (Abitbol, 2006). Male brains are 8% to 10% larger than female brains. The cerebral volume of the brain peaks at 11.5 years of age in females and at 14.5 years in males. The staggeringly complex brain function, rather than the size, accounts for intelligence in both sexes. However, there are a few areas where structure size and function correlate with differences between male and female paths of development, as the brain matures in different parts at different times (Lenroot et al., 2007). Men's brains tend to develop more on the left than on the right. Women tend to have more equilibrium between the emotional and rational sides of the brain (Abitbol, 2006). Just before puberty, the gray matter, or thinking part of the brain, thickens in the prefrontal cortex, peaking in girls at age

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11 and in boys at age 12. After the peak, excess connections that are not used are pruned. From puberty into the adult years, there is important "brain sculpting" that continues into the third decade of life as each person gravitates away from some interests and toward particular areas of focus in their lives (Spinks, 2002).

RESPIRATION

During adolescence, there are significant changes in the structures of the respiratory system (Tanner, 1971). As the skeleton, lungs, trachea, larynx, and vocal tract grow, there is a point when the capabilities and coordination for breath control shift. Breath support methods employed by a 10-year-old singer will no longer produce the same results at age 14. The ages of 12 to 14 are a critical period when young singers need guidance, which is paced alongside anatomical changes, to incrementally establish breath control that will evolve through their teen years and into adulthood. As the lungs and airway grow, respiratory function will begin to reach adult levels (Bhatti, Rani, & Memon, 2014; Hoit & Hixon, 1986; Stathopoulos & Sapienza, 1997). Growth and function continue to develop as adolescents increase in height, through the age of 20 (Lanteri & Sly, 1993). Vital capacity increases continually until adulthood in both males and females (Narayanan, et al., 2012). Up until the age of 15, elastin fibers in lung tissue increase more than connective tissue, so that the lungs develop a higher potential for elastic recoil (Loosli & Potter, 1959; Mansell, Bryan, & Levison, 1977; von der Hardt, Logvinoff, Dickreiter, & Geubelle, 1975). Airway resistance is reduced as the trachea grows in diameter (Stathopoulos, 2000). The increase in relative mediolateral dimension of the upper thorax, compared to a relative narrowing of the lower thorax throughout ontogeny, begins the transformation from the pyramidal infant thorax to the eventual barrel-shaped thorax of an adult (Garda-Martfnez, Recheis, & Bastir, 2016). Nonlinear growth and development is evident in lung function changes during adolescence. The timing is different between male and female. Sudden growth spurts coincide with the Tanner male and female pubertal stages (see Tables 3-1 and 3-2).

3. The Adolescent Years

Female lung development occurs over a shorter period of time and earlier in the pubertal process than in males. Once menarche begins, lung development is complete. The transition from childhood to adolescence, in all lung volumes, is a function of height. In women, tracheal growth stops at around age 14 (Griscom & Wohl, 1986; Smith, Emerson, Kurti, Gandhi, & Harms, 2015). Muscle strength increases linearly up until 15 years of age, and then levels off. Male lung volumes and thoracic development continue throughout all the Tanner development stages of puberty. Males have significantly more vital capacity than females. Muscle strength increases linearly during childhood and then accelerates until 20 years of age. The lungs grow longer and then increase in diameter. Lung volumes increase due to increased muscle strength up to and after adult height is reached (Neve, Girard, & Flahault, 2002). The continued growth of the airway for men contributes to subtle differences in breath control between male and female singers, as males have less tracheal resistance to airflow. For males, the trachea continues to grow in diameter through the teen years (Griscom & Wohl, 1986; Smith, Emerson, Kurti, Gandhi, & Harms, 2015). There are age and sex differences in measurements of lung volume, ribcage volume, and abdominal volume relative to what it takes for utterance in speech initiation, termination, and excursion (Stathopoulos, 2000). As the membranous length of the vocal fold increases, the vocal folds are no longer as responsive to the high levels of airflow used by young children (Stathopoulos & Sapienza, 1997). As noted by Janice Killian, a common memory from the time of voice mutation is that the ability to yell in the same manner as a child is lost during adolescence (Killian, 1997). What the vocal folds lose in capacity to respond to overloaded airflow, they gain in the ability to make adjustments for register, pitch, and dynamics (Titze, 2017). Adolescents have a greater capacity for the coordination of the messa di voce as their bodies grow (Fuchs et al., 2009). The linear, high-pressure coordination of childhood is no longer effective as the voice is changing. This is a critical time for a voice instructor to guide young singers into the breath coordination that will best fit their growing voice. As young singers

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approach age 14, their vocal instrument will be capable of, and begin, responding to breath support based on airflow conservation and nonlinear source-filter interactions (Titze, 2015). The classic term for this method of breath control is appoggio (Stark, 2008). It is effective across multiple styles of singing, including classical and CCM. It will also be helpful for those young singers who are best served by a style-neutral approach. It is difficult to learn breath control separate from sound production. As noted by Richard Miller (1996), "The Italian School did not separate the motor and resonance facets of phonation." Ingo Titze (2015) cautions that "having an eye single to the management of glottal airflow leaves out half of the picture." Appoggio is a state nearing equilibrium created by an interaction between the elastic recoil of the lungs, phonation, and the acoustic and aerodynamic characteristics of the vocal tract (Miller, 1996; Rothenberg, 1983; Titze, 2008). At high lung volumes, it is possible to use the elastic recoil of the lungs to create strong tones (Hixon, Goldman, & Mead, 1973; Stathopoulos & Sapienza, 1993). The coordination in the body for allowing this recoil to happen was described by Francesco Lamperti as the lutte vocale, or the "vocal struggle" (Lamperti, 1916). This describes the balance between the muscles of inhalation and expiration. Engagement of the external oblique muscles helps to stabilize the torso and regulate this balance (Miller, 1993). It allows the vocal folds to make a greater range of adjustments. The positioning of the vocal tract and its acoustic characteristics must also be conditioned with engagement in the torso to optimize the airflow. Narrowing of the epilarynx creates an impedance in the air flow just above the vocal folds (Titze, 2006). Semi-occluded vocal tract exercises have been shown to help establish this positioning in the epilarynx. During exercises utilizing straw phonation, the back pressure both in airflow and acoustic energy causes the ratio of the lower pharynx over the epilarynx to increase as much as 27%. As much as 20% of this gain has been observed to remain following the SOVT exercises (Laukkanen, Horacek, Krupa, & Svec, 2012). With the vocal tract in this configuration, the third, fourth, and possibly fifth formants draw closer together in frequency to form the singer's formant cluster (SFC) (Sundberg, 1974).

3. The Adolescent Years

While a 14-year-old baritone or 15-year-old soprano will most likely not take on an adult-like chiaroscuro timbre, the amplification of harmonics by the SFC adds a great deal of clarity to their voice (Howard, Williams, & Herbst, 2014). Visual feedback through a spectrum analysis program like VoceVista or Overtone Analyzer can be particularly helpful during this process for both the teacher and student (Sygyt Software, 2017). For the student, it helps identify moments when the harmonics in the area of 4 kHz and above are strong and associated with the sensations and sounds they experience. For the teacher, it is helpful because the results in an adolescent will usually not take on the characteristic tones of an adult singer. It is surprising and informative to recognize what this acoustic power and clarity sounds like in adolescent voices. For some, it will be an obviously strong, rich tone. In other voices, it will simply sound clear and efficient, though still an adolescent sound. In some child and early adolescent singers, a second band of high-frequency energy has been observed in the 8- to 10-kHz range, which adds a perceived purity to the tone (Howard, Williams, & Herbst, 2014). Vocal sounds with distinct harmonics above the range of the SFC, whether it is in the adult voice or adolescent voice, will sometimes have a "cutting and rough" sound (Helmholtz, 1954). Utilizing a technique that enhances these upper harmonics with coordination of glottal adduction and vocal tract configuration can be useful for a healthy approach to CCM, which needs a speech-like quality at sung pitches in the upper range. A step-by-step process works to introduce "semi-occluded vocal tract exercises" to adolescent students. 1. Start with straw phonation (Titze, 2010). It allows the ado-

lescent to experience the sensation of backpressure due to the airflow and acoustic impedance that it creates (Story, Laukkanen, & Titze, 2000). It improves velar closure and encourages the use of convergent vocal tract shapes (Laukkanen, Horacek, Krupa, & Svec, 2012). 2. Once adolescents experience this through straw phonation, add other semi-occluded postures. The semi-occluded vowels /i/ and /u/ are a good place to start due to the proximity

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of the dorsum of the tongue to the roof of the mouth (Titze, 2006). 3. Once the balanced interaction of the airflow, glottis, and vocal tract is established on /i/ and /u/, it is possible to carry this into other vowels. 4. Then create semi-occlusions at different points in the vocal tract using convergent articulations by adding /bl, /di, /vi, or / g/ consonants before the vowel. 5. The ultimate semi-occlusion is the narrowed opening of the epilarynx just above the vocal folds. It has positive effects on airflow, phonation, and resonance (Titze & Story, 1997). Achieving this through posturing of the epilarynx stabilizes the voice during otherwise problematic acoustic events (Titze, 2004). It also allows more freedom in the movements of articulation, as it is occurring upstream of the tongue, jaw, and lips. Once the adolescent has reached adult levels of respiratory function, it is possible to obtain a uniform, efficient breath coordination free of superfluous effort (Feldenkrais, 1972). Parasitic movements are unnecessary actions that make the task more difficult. Diversionary movements replace the needed action with one that does not accomplish the intended outcome (Feldenkrais, 1949; Gilman, 2014). For adolescent singers, examples of parasitic and diversionary movements are: ■

Tracking the vertical position of the larynx to changes in pitch

■

Superfluous constriction in the muscles of the throat and neck at the onset of phonation

■

Depression of the dorsum of the tongue

■

Restriction of the airway during inhalation (noisy inhale)

■

Clavicular breathing

Adolescent singers are capable of a silent inhalation, free of extraneous noise or movement, that reaches lung volumes that can utilize elastic recoil. The sense of balance between the breath

3. The Adolescent Years

pressure in the torso and the onset of phonation experienced by the student makes it possible to sustain musical phrases as written, without overexerting to reach the end of a phrase. The poise of the lutte vocale facilitates phrasing that follows a natural inflection without the need for a large, gasping breath. It is important that students learn breath control in conjunction with resonant sounds. Breath flow needs to be matched with sound to be complete. Air conservation from nonlinear sourcefilter interactions allows for sustained phrases. The impedance created at the level of the epilarynx leaves the articulators free to express nuances of language while finding optimal combinations between pitches and resonance. Guidance while discovering such resonant sounds is important for the adolescent. Reassurance, at the moments of success, are vital to help them sort out new sounds and sensations. It is not uncommon for students to reject the first successful attempts because the result sounds "funny" to their own ear. Adolescent singers have the potential to be artistic even in the midst of fast growth that does not immediately coordinate with motor skills. Through an approach using appoggio and an interactive understanding of breath and phonation, they may experience the increase in efficiency and enough freedom to be creative. The face and body can convey the full range of emotions and subtext of the music and poetry. The breath flow of their singing strategically uses diction and acting as a part of vocal technique. The degree to which this is realized is often determined by how well they are able to learn to utilize the specialized breath coordination that optimizes the function of their vocal instrument (Miller, 1996).

VIBRATION Sex hormones, estrogen and progesterone in females and androgens, such as testosterone, in males, trigger the development of a third layer of epithelium cells on the vocal folds. Animals and children have two layers. It is only human adults who have a third layer (Abitbol, 2006). During adolescence, until the age of 16, further differentiation of the lamina propria layers results in an increase in density and orientation of collagen and elastic

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fibers parallel to the long axis of the newly lengthened vocal fold, contributing to stabilization. Measurements of the postpubertal cartilages of the larynx in both male and female are larger than prepubertal cartilages and greater in male than in female. They continue to grow into adulthood. In males, the thyroid grows 52% from the front to the back, and an incredible 57% in height at the front from prepuberty to puberty. From puberty to adulthood, they grow an additional 48% and 43%, respectively. This accounts for the prominent appearance of the thyroid notch, referred to as the Adam's apple, in the neck. The weights of all laryngeal cartilages increase from prepuberty to puberty and then puberty to adult. The weights and dimensions of the pubertal female larynx are significantly closer to their adult size and weight, with less growth time needed to reach maturity. The front to back measurements of the total (cartilaginous and membranous portions) male vocal folds increase by 10.87 mm as compared to 4.16 mm in females. This explains, in part, why the fo drops dramatically in the male voice (Kahane, 1978). Instability of pitch and loudness is typical in the adolescent voice. A marked increase in jitter (instability of pitch) and shimmer (instability of intensity) has been observed to occur 6 months before voice mutation in adolescent males (Fuchs et al., 2007). Studies show that it is difficult for listeners to distinguish between normal variations of voice development and pathologic disorders. Both present instabilities, whether it is normal voice mutation, functional dysphonia, or actual lesions on the vocal folds (Boltezar, Burger, & Zargi, 1997). By the end of puberty, the vocal folds include five differentiated layers: epithelium, superior lamina propria (SLP), intermediate lamina propria (MLP), deep lamina propria (DLP), and thyroarytenoid/vocalis muscle. The epithelium and SLP of the vocal folds comprise the cover. It is also referred to as the mucosa and remains lax for ease of vibration. The SLP has elastin fibers surrounded by fluids. The vocal ligament comprises the MLP, primarily elastin fibers, and the DLP, primarily collagen fibers. Their fibers run parallel from the front to the back of the vocal fold (Titze, 2000). Other mammals do not have a vocal ligament. In humans, only adults have a vocal ligament (Awd, Dkhil, & Farhoud, 2009). The thyroarytenoid muscle (TA), in the deepest

3. The Adolescent Years

tissues of the vocal folds, matures during adolescence. In males the bulking up of the thyroarytenoid muscle increases the overall mass of the vocal folds so they become more rectangular rather than wedge-shaped. This allows for greater amplitude and greater glottal closure with more of the vocal fold set into vibration. The result is a richer timbre (Titze, 2000). Without the trilayered system of the lamina propria, the voice would have a limited vocal range. The vocal ligament, comprising the MLP and DLP, is critical to the ability of singing higher notes. As the CT (cricothyroid muscle) engages for higher notes, the stiffness of the TA muscle engagement shifts to the vocal ligament tissues of the MLP and DLP. These layers are still maturing during adolescence. In infants, phonation signals stellate cells in the maculae flavae to accelerate production of extracellular matrices to form the vocal ligament. Thereafter, phonation, which covers the full range of the human voice, continues cell signaling and may be a requirement in order to maintain the vocal ligament within the trilayered structure of the lamina propria. Singing through puberty, despite normal developmental instabilities, may be important for development toward the full functioning mature larynx. Measurements of the layers of the lamina propria change from childhood into adolescence. Boseley and Harnick (2006) measured the different layers of the lamina propria at different ages. They found the measurements agreed with Hirano's early research about how the vocal folds change during infancy and childhood. At 2 days of life, as you may recall from Chapter 2, the vocal folds are one kind of cell, so 100% of the vocal folds are the SLP. By 2 months, there are two kinds of cells, with the SLP 33% and the MLP 67%. By 11 months, there are three kinds of cells. with the SLP 22%, MLP 66%, and DLP 12%. By 7 years of age, the pediatric SLP starts to approximate that of an adult. Over time, cells differentiate to types of fibers such as elastin and collagen. Proportions of the layers of the vocal folds change throughout the lifespan. For a 13-year-old, the proportions are SLP 19%, MLP 54%, and DLP 27%. Comparatively, proportions for middle-aged adults are SLP 25%, MLP 55%, and DLP 20% (Boseley & Hartick, 2006). Ishii et al. found that the SLP is not fully formed until 12 years of age. The maturation of the fibers within each layer of the

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lamina propria reflects the complexity of their function in phonation. In males, once the collagen fibers in the MLP are oriented more linearly, along with a rapid increase in the diameter of fiber bundles, development of the lamina propria is considered complete. The front to back dimension of the thyroid cartilage increases threefold in men. Elongation causes a decrease in voice frequency. Maturity of the fibers in the vocal folds, with continuing thickening and composition differentiations, contributes to changes in sound (Ishii, Akita, Yamashita, & Hirose, 2000). The male thyroid tips to a 90° to 100° angle, while the female remains at 110° to 130° (Kahane, 1978). A seemingly less dramatic vocal change in females should not be equated with less overall change in the female body and the lifelong significance of those changes. Female pubertal voice change is less noticeable than in males. The voice lowers in pitch by approximately one third. Nonuniform growth and development within the larynx results in what Yennard (1967) referred to as the "mutational chink." Until the interarytenoid muscles strengthen and catch up with the growth of the laryngeal cartilages, there is a triangular gap in the posterior portion of the vocal folds. The result is a breathy, thin vocal sound. Over time, normal exercise and maturation result in a clearer voice (Yennard, 1967).

HISTORY

For over 1,500 years, there has been disagreement as to whether boys going through puberty should sing or not and whether the impending pubertal voice change should be explained to boys. The tradition of young boys singing at prestigious cathedrals continues to this day in numerous reputable cathedrals and churches. The Thomanerchor, founded in 1212, includes prepubertal and postpubertal boys from the ages of 9 to 18 (St. Thomas Boys Choir, n.d.). The Cambridge University Kings College Choir dates back to 1441. It is made up of 16 prepubertal boys and 14 male college students (The Choir of King's College: The Choir today, n.d.). The Dresdner Kreuzchor dates back to the 1300s and includes ages 9 to 19 (A Moving Experience, 2015). The Vienna Boys Choir (Wiener Sangerknaben), founded in 1498, is a choir

3. The Adolescent Years

of unchanged soprano and alto boys. In 2004, Vienna added a girls' choir (Wiener Sangerknaben, 2017). After over a thousand years of training boys to sing at Ely Cathedral in Great Britain, the highly acclaimed Ely Cathedral Girls' Choir was added in 2006 (Ely Cathedral Girls' Choir, 2017). After 900 years of training boys to sing at Canterbury Cathedral, they added a girls' choir in 2014 (Hewett, 2014). Manuel Garcia, the inventor of the laryngoscope in 1854, wrote about the changing voice in Hints on Singing, originally published in 1894. "In girls the voice acquires volume and strength; in boys it acquires virile power and drops an octave." When asked when serious study should begin, he said, "From sixteen for girls, and from eighteen for boys, according to strength and climate, but not until the change is complete, as any tampering at the delicate period may ruin the voice forever" (Garcia, 1894, p. 8). In 1895, in England, Emil Behnke, lecturer on vocal physiology and teacher of voice production, and Lennox Browne, senior surgeon to the Central Throat and Ear Hospital and surgeon and aural surgeon to the Royal Society of Musicians, "heard it stated, in a lecture given at the beginning of last year by a leading throat specialist, that there is no necessity for boys to abstain from singing during the period of the 'breaking' of their voices. That opinion, to which we are entirely opposed." Seeking to see what other experts thought, they joined forces to send out "circulars" with questions about the changing voice to "those best qualified to judge." They received 4,200 answers and published them in The Child's Voice: Its Treatment With Regard to After Development (Behnke & Browne, 1895, pp. 7, 8). Here is a sample of questions and replies: A question asked, "Is it, or is it not, a fact that chorister boys who have exceptionally fine voices seldom turn out singers of any note in after life?" 5 disagreed, 18 were uncertain, and 118 said it was a fact. Mr. Humphry J. Stark: "I do not think any safe conclusion can be drawn. Many chorister boys have turned out fine vocalists in after life. Mssrs. W. H. Cumming, Joseph Maas, and Edward Lloyd are cases in point; but I do not know whether their boys' voices were exceptionally fine" (Behnke & Browne, 1895, pp. 48, 49). A question asked "whether girls should discontinue singing during the change to womanhood." Mrs. Higgs: "This must

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depend on the constitution; many girls being for a length of time too delicate and too weak to endure fatigue of vocal practice" (Behnke & Browne, 1895, pp. 104-105). A question was posed to "a number of leading anatomists and physiologists" as to "causes underlying the change of voice in both sexes." Michael Foster, FRS, Professor of Physiology in the University of Cambridge: In the course of the evolution of the sexual characteristics of the adult there has been nothing which had led to any marked change in the voice of woman, but rather the influences have acted to keep it as it was. In man, on the other hand, influences have tended to a marked change in the voice leading to a great jump in puberty.... Both large changes leading to a beard and manly voice are sexual characters, called forth as Darwin has shown us. (Behnke & Browne, 1895, p. 66)

Browne and Behnke's publication was a big step forward in research over 120 years ago as a "teacher of voice" and a "senior surgeon" worked together for answers. Over the years, there have been numerous ideas about classifying boys' voices throughout the voice mutation. In 1955, English choirmaster Duncan McKenzie wrote Training the Boy's Changing Voice. He introduced stages of change, individual voice testing, and how to guide singing through the change. In the 1960s, Canadian Irvin Cooper referred to boys' voices as cambiata I, cambiata II, baritone I, and baritone II (CCBB) and published choral arrangements that accommodated this new way of classifying boys' voices (Friar, 1999). Frederick Swanson began teaching in 1932 and started the Moline Boys Choir. He felt the reason for losing boys during the voice change is because they must learn to sing in a new idiom. Tenor and bass lines are in a different clef. Their function within the harmony is completely new to them. Vocally, he found it best that boys start in their high voice and bring that down into the bass voice as they are able. He suggested segregating boys from girls so that boys could learn about their transition and how to read and hear new types of vocal lines. This also allows girls to maintain their musical momentum (Swanson, 1984). John Cooksey wrote a series of four articles in the Choral Journal in 1977 and 1978 detailing his "Eclectic Theory for Cul-

3. The Adolescent Years

tivation of the Junior High School Male Changing Voice." In the second article, he introduced the "Five Stages of Voice Development in the Adolescent Male." That was later modified to six stages with an added premutation stage. He proposed that a sequential pattern of the stages is predictable, although the ages for those have variation (Friddle, 2005). Cooksey went beyond empirical observation to include medical and scientific resources, sonographic analysis, and acoustic information about formants. He encouraged all to look beyond just the empirical and consider scientific facts. Cooksey compared the process of voice change to the "Tanner Stages" (1955). In 1948, Dr. James M. Tanner (1920-2010) undertook the 24-year-long Harpenden Growth Study of 55 boys and 35 girls to see if growth patterns in children may be indicators of how societies care for their young (Weber, 2010). Every 3 months, he and his colleagues went to the Harpenden Orphanage to record measurements and take photos of children during puberty until growth ceased. They took many measurements, including standing and sitting height, and compared those to sexual development (Tanner, Whitehouse, Marubini, & Resele, 1976). Tanner noted that the sequence of pubertal development is less variable than the ages development takes place. Rather than strictly using chronological age, the pattern of physiological maturity is a better indicator of where each person is on his or her individual path to maturity (Tanner, 1981). The five Tanner stages for girls and five Tanner stages for boys are, even now, used to measure sexual maturation and development during puberty. Cooksey noted that there are significant correlations between voice change and the Tanner stages of height, weight, and genitalia growth. The Cooksey stages show when pubertal stages of sexual development coincide with stages of voice mutation. He observed that the major point of change in the singing voice coincides with the completion of secondary sex characteristics and when reproductive capability begins. The Cooksey stages have been examined in numerous studies over the past 40 years. A study published in 2008 used descending glides through the voice range to acoustically analyze phonational gaps, referred to by Cooksey as "blank spots," and compared those to descending fo and weight gain. All boys heavier than 120.8 pounds had gaps ranging from D4

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to G4. The 2008 study found "blank spots" that were considerably larger than those described by Cooksey. It also challenged Swanson's assertion that falsetto range is always accessible to boys, as "blank spots" extended over most of the falsetto range during some stages. Furthermore, "blank spots" are normal and no music education can overcome them (Willis & Kenny, 2008). According to Cooksey, the beauty of having an index of voice change in mind is to follow the core of the voice where it is developing, and avoid useless vocal habits that may occur outside of that core. Don't cultivate stereotypical, predetermined kinds of sound. The core of the voice is the tessitura where they are most comfortable and where medial compression is most efficient (Hook, 1998). Table 3-1 compares some aspects of the Tanner stages to Cooksey's voice stages for the adolescent male (Child Growth Foundation, 2012-2016; Cooksey, 1977; Feingold, 1992). Sir David Wilcocks, in an interview with Doreen Rao, said, "I subscribe to the view that a person ought to continue singing, provided that the voice is not strained, and the limitations of tessitura are appreciated. I think that there is a risk that if people give up singing between the period of fourteen and sixteen, they may never come back." (Rao & Wilcocks, 1985) Henry Leck, founder and conductor laureate of the Indianapolis Children's Choir, wrote that it would be more appropriate to refer to the changing voice as the "expanding" voice. Boys should continue in their high voice, across the break to the lower range, and end up with a voice that doesn't have a break (Leck, 2009). Henry Leck, along with Randy Stenson, endorsed using boys' natural instincts to move around and not stand still. They are adept at learning physically. Putting movement into their own musical gestures for 20 minutes a day, rehearsing in a circle, and using the Curwen hand signs for solfege, along with upward movement to prevent flatting or linear movement to encourage line while changing notes, makes positive use of normal adolescent male energy. (Leck & Stenson, 2012) Patrick Freer points out how past contributions in research have had a positive impact on dealing with the changing boy's voice. Commonalities among experts include using multipart repertoire, the importance of teachers who know how to work

TABLE 3-1. Tanner and Cooksey Male Stages of Puberty

Male Tanner Stage

Pubic Hair

Height Increase

Earliest to Latest Age (Cooksey)

Vellus

5-6cm

10-12

Other Prepubertal Baby fat

Voice Quality Rich boy soprano sound

Cooksey Voice Stage Unchanged

Speaks at C4

II

Sparse

5-6cm

12-13

Body odor

Fewer high notes

Leaner body

Breathiness Speaks lower Midvoice

Ill

Courser, darker, curled

7-8cm

13-14

Voice breaks

Speaking voice lowers

II and Ill

Huskiness Falsetto emerges Speaks at A3 Midvoice

IV

Adultlike

10cm

14-17

Acne Underarm hair Voice deepens

V

Adult

Final height

17-adult

Beard Muscles Slower growth

Register shift at D4

IV

Awkward vocally New baritone More agile, resonant, powerful

V

Settling baritone

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with boys through predictable but nonuniform stages of change, and bringing the higher voice down through the break. The goal is to begin where they are with differentiated experience and approaches and to help boys understand their voice while expanding musicianship (Freer, 2010). Females experience a less obvious vocal change. However, the pubertal surge of estrogen and progesterone hormones triggers significant changes in the body shape, height, vocal tract growth, and the onset of the menstrual cycle. Thecycle marks the beginning of fertility and approximately 35 years of a monthly variation in levels of estrogen and progesterone hormones. The estrogen portion of the cycle makes the voice more supple, fine, and agile. The progesterone-dominant time of the cycle may be prone to thicker, drier, more vulnerable vocal folds.Just prior to menstruation, there is sometimes water retention and edema throughout the body. At the start of menstruation, girls may have slight or significant cramping that affects use of lower support muscles. Lynne Gackle classified the female voice mutation based on her experience and on John Cooksey's stages. She suggests that, rather than stages, females go through "phases" with more subtle and gradual change over time that may require expert ears to perceive. She recommends that all girls be called sopranos or mezzo-sopranos, rather than "branding" them a particular voice type so early in their singing lives. Theymay have to sing alto for a short period of time, but vocalization should always include the unstrained head voice as much as possible. Due to their age and development, loud and full sounds will not be the norm, but rather, soft and pure. Along with exercises and vocal concepts, she defines three main stages of normal development for girls during the adolescent voice change (Gackle, 1985). Table 3-2 compares aspects of the Tanner stages to Gackle's voice stages (phases) for the adolescent female (Child Growth Foundation, 2012-2016; Feingold, 1992; Gackle, 1991). Rollo Dilworth summarizes general principles about working with adolescent male singers: ■

Good posture and breathing

■

Descend from above emerging into the chest voice

TABLE 3-2. Female Tanner and Gackle Stages of Puberty Height Increase Annually

Earliest to Latest Age (Gackle)

Elevation of papilla

5-6cm

8-11

Prepubertal

Bb3-A5 Light, flutelike No breaks

II

Breast buds

7-8cm

11 -13

Body odor Premenarcheal

A3-A5 Mutational chink Register break

IIA

Ill

Breast enlargement

8cm

13-15

Acne Underarm hair Menstruation possible

A3-A5 Limited range Huskiness Register breaks

IIB

IV

Close to adult

7cm

14-16

Menstruation

G3-B5 Young adult Clear sound, vibrato

Ill

V

Adult

Fully mature Regular ovulation

Timbre becomes richer Agility increases

Female Tanner Stage

Breasts

Final height

Other

Voice Range and Quality

Gackle Voice Stage

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■

No straining

■

Review and reteach their new bodies and new voices

■

Provide good vocal models

■

Let them sing where they are comfortable

■

Avoid vocal fatigue (Dilworth, 2012)

There are clever ways to acknowledge and celebrate singers as they go through the pubertal changes of their voices. A middle school teacher used Cooksey's voice classification guidelines and made a row of six placards across the top with each of the six Cooksey stages, including the prepubertal stage. Boys were each given a placard that they put under the stage they were at, and as they felt their voices changing, they would move the placard (Thurman, 2012). Martin Ashley, from Great Britain, has researched and written articles, book chapters, and books about the boy's changing voice. His website page, Monitoring Your Voice, connects to boys in a contemporary way and asks, "How often do you measure your height? Have you been doing it for a long time, maybe with marks against the kitchen wall? If you did the same thing with your voice you would be amazed. During adolescence, your height goes up in growth spurts. At the same time, your voice will go down in growth spurts." There are recordings of an adolescent boy speaking the same sentence at five different stages of voice change. He suggests boys record themselves every 3 months, so they have a sound file to match the marks on the kitchen wall. He has an iTunes SpeechTest app (created by davidmhoward.com) for measuring vocal maturation of pubertal change in boys. Using the app boys are to count backward from 20 to 1. A color appears to show what stage of puberty they are in (Ashley, n.d.). Teachers who work with this age need a discerning, experienced ear to determine if noise in, before, or between tones is due to normal aging, unhealthy vocal folds, or the need for a better coordination of breath flow and vocal-fold approximation (Miller, 1995). Time is a key element in puberty as nature takes its course. Many adolescent vocal "imperfections" are normal!

3. The Adolescent Years

Expectations by age: ■

Ages 10 through 12. Voice mutation has likely begun, even if the voice has not dropped yet (Killian, 1999). Speech motor control has not yet reached adult levels, so establishing and maintaining vocal technique will be more limited than at age 14 (Smith & Zelaznik, 2004). Thetrilayer structure of the lamina propria is evident, but the vocal ligament is still developing (Hartnick, Rehbar, & Prasad, 2005; Hirano, Kurita, & Nakashima, 1983). This varies between students but can lead to some students being able to differentiate upper and lower registers while some cannot. Thelevel of development of the vocal ligament also impacts overall range in the upper register (Titze, 2017). Thestructures of the respiratory system have not reached adult levels (Stathopoulos & Sapienza, 1997; Tanner, 1971). Students in this age range will need help transitioning out of the high-load engagement used by children to attain adult sound-pressure levels instead of utilizing elastic recoil (Titze, 2000; Titze & Verdolini Abbott, 2012).

■

Age 13 through 14. High point of voice mutation and growth spurt (Cooksey, 1977; Herman-Giddens, 2006; Tanner, 1971). Adult-level speech motor control is reached (Smith & Zelaznik, 2004). Adult-like vocal ligament is present (Hirano, Kurita, & Nakashima, 1983). Brain structure begins to respond to vocal training beginning at age 14 with increased gray matter in the auditory and somatosensory regions (Kleber et al., 2016). Vocal range and ability will vary wildly based on progression of the voice mutation and prior experience. Thisis a critical time to establish new articulation configurations and vocal function goals as the voice changes (Kleber et al., 2016).

■

Age 15 through 18. Voice mutation is usually complete and the voice is settling (Cooksey, 1977). Themembranous length of the vocal fold continues to grow through this range (Hirano, Kurita, & Nakashima, 1983). Thevocal ligament completes its development (Hartnick, Rehbar,

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& Prasad, 2005; Hirano, Kurita, & Nakashima, 1983). The

growth spurt might be continuing, and the overall vocal tract length will not reach adult dimensions until around age 20 (Fitch & Giedd, 1999; Xue, Cheng, & Ng, 2010). As a result, vocal tract resonances are still higher than adult levels, creating a temporary mismatch between lowered fo and higher location and larger dispersion of formant frequencies (Cooksey, 1977; Fitch & Giedd, 1999; Markova et al., 2016). Females reach adult formant locations earlier than males (Huber, Stathopoulos, Curione, Ash, & Johnson, 1999). This is the age to establish vocal technique, but over-darkening of the tone to compensate for delayed drop of formant frequencies should be avoided. Speech motor control is continuing to grow with the maturation of cortical networks ( Grossi, Coch, CoffeyCorina, Holcomb, & Neville, 2001). Speech rates and variability of articulation accuracy will be impacted with increased processing demands, such as when learning a new song (Sadagopan & Smith, 2008). Cartilages of the larynx have not yet begun to ossify (Tiirkmen et al., 2012). This means that they are still flexible and more prone to flex under high stress loads (McCoy, 2012). The increased amounts of testosterone that cause the male growth spurt and voice mutation during puberty put stress on the immune system and energy stores of the human body (Folstad & Karter, 1992). The larger larynx, lower fo, and vocal tract of adult males are secondary sex characteristics. This mutation of the voice extracts a cost on the capacity of the immune system (Muehlenbein & Bribiescas, 2005). This "costly signal" theory helps to explain how improved overall health and nutrition are causing voice mutations to occur at increasingly younger ages and resulting in lower overall fo in males in our current time (HodgesSimeon, Gurven, Cardenas, & Gaulin, 2013). During the 1700s, the average age of puberty for the boys in Bach's choirs in Leipzig was 18. From 1994-2003, the average age of puberty had reached 14 (LeBorgne, 2016). Voice mutation now begins as early as age 10 and an unchanged voice at age 12 is rare. In the United States studies have found that the mean age of "settling baritones," the

3. The Adolescent Years

fifth stage of voice mutation identified by Cooksey, is 12.84 years (Killian, 1999). The average age of voice mutation for females is expected between ages 12 and 14, and settling into a young-adult quality at ages 14 through 17 (Gackle, 2011). The female vocal tract grows steadily throughout this phase, reaching its adult length by age 20. It is during this convergence of development, growth, and ability when vocal training can have an important impact.

RESONANCE

More voice teachers now apply acoustic concepts, processes, and exercises within the voice studio, particularly in the college and university setting, and with adult voices. In this section Dr. Chadley Ballantyne will explain how he uses such 21st-century approaches when working with adolescent changing voices. During adolescence, the vocal tract grows in the back portion more than in the front. This is a phenomenal change if one remembers, from Chapter 2, that there is scarcely any space in the pharyngeal area when a baby is born. The entire tongue is in the mouth. The larynx gradually descends from its C2 position of infancy, through childhood, and puberty to C5 or C6. By the end of puberty, the vocal tract is significantly longer. Vertical growth of the vocal tract changes the angle of the posterior pharyngeal wall from an obtuse angle to a right angle. The pharynx widens as adenoids and tonsils atrophy and as velopharyngeal tissues and the hard palate continue to grow (Vorperian, 2000). In general, the pharyngeal region follows a somatic growth type, and the oral region follows a combined somatic/neural growth type with sex differences. In females, it is 60% somatic and 40% neural. In males, it is 76% somatic and 24% neural. Between the ages of 8 and 14, neuromuscular control does not always keep pace with rapid anatomic growth. This may relate to the higher rate of childhood asphyxiation by food in males between the ages of 10 and 14 (Vorperian et al., 2009). Cranial, velopharyngeal, and levator muscle measurements do not show much sexual dimorphism before puberty. Growth variations are notable during postpuberty from 13 to 19 years

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of age. The pharyngeal depth is 8.27 mm from 7 to 9 years of age, 10.07 mm from 10 to 15 years, and 11.02 mm from 15 to 17 years. The velar length during those same ages is 27.30 mm, 28.21 mm, and 32.17 mm (Mason, Perry, Riski, & Fang, 2016). Through these changes, adolescents constantly readjust factors of vibration, respiration, and resonance, including patterns of velopharyngeal valving. Resonance has multiple implications for the singing voice. It comes in two forms: free and forced resonance. Free resonance is the source-filter interactions taking place in the vocal tract that shape the radiated sound. Forced resonance creates vibrations in the body during phonation that can both contribute as helpful feedback sensations or lead to incorrect proprioception (McCoy, 2012). In building awareness and use of the resonances of the vocal instrument in adolescent singers, there are three areas that must be addressed. 1. Timbre Timbre for singers is the vocal color. It results from resonances of the vocal tract interacting with harmonics created by phonation. Resonances are largely controlled by articulation (Fant, 2005). Timbre in singing involves vowel articulation across the singing range and has implications for vocal tract alignment and stability (Bozeman, 2013). For singers, changes in timbre affect auditory and somatosensory feedback during singing (Kleber, Veit, Birbaumer, Gruzelier, & Lotze, 2010). 2. Somatosensory feedback Sounds created by the voice are not only audible but create vibrotactile stimulation in the chest, neck, and head of the singer through forced resonance (Chen, Ma, & Yiu, 2014; Sundberg, 1987). Vibrotactile sensations contribute to somatosensory feedback during singing, which impacts the proprioception and kinesthesia of the vocal instrument (Larson, Altman, Liu, & Hain, 2008). Initially, this proprioception can be misleading, or even false (Bozeman, 2017). Adolescent singers need guidance to become aware of, interpret, and utilize somatosensory feedback created by skillful use of vocal tract resonances.

3. The Adolescent Years

3. Level 2 source-filter interactions Source-filter interactions between resonance and the voice source, and the nonlinear effect on the vocal instrument, are called Level 2 source-filter interactions (Herzel, Berry, Titze, & Steinecke, 1995). Once the skillful use of timbres and the awareness of somatosensory feedback are established, adolescent singers will be ready to learn how to apply resonance for increased efficiency and power in their voices. Level 2 source-filter interactions affect and strengthen phonation and improve breath control. At first, these interactions will cause instability in registration and phonation (Titze, 2008). When fully utilized, Level 2 interactions are a necessary element of skillful and elite vocalism in both classical and CCM styles of singing. Timbre As defined by the American National Standards Institute, timbre

is the auditory attribute that allows a listener to discern the differences between two sounds that have the same loudness and pitch (ANSI, 1994). Differences in timbre are created by changes in the frequency spectrum (Titze, Maxfield, & Walker, 2017). In the singing voice, timbre is used to identify individual voices and voice categories, differentiate style, delineate vowel sounds, and identify acoustic registers within individual vowels (Erickson, 2016). Acoustic registration is the result of source-filter interactions (Bozeman, 2013). The source is the vocal folds and the sounds that they create. The filter is the vocal tract. The vocal tract is a resonator with multiple resonances. These resonances amplify sounds that are located within their frequency band. The resonances of the vocal tract create peaks in the spectrum of source harmonics. The peaks are called formants. In regular lower and upper register phonation, the sounds created by the vocal folds are harmonics. The frequency at which the vocal folds are vibrating is the fundamental, represented by the symbol fo, and is perceived as the pitch. For this discussion, we will talk of harmonics interacting (crossing, or coupling) with formants. An acoustic registration event occurs when a harmonic crosses or is coupled with the first formant and can create distinct

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timbres within a given vowel. When these events happen, there is usually a corresponding, abrupt change in the vibrotactile stimulation caused by forced resonance. Timbres occur depending on the proximity of a sung pitch to the first formant of the vowel. Kenneth Bozeman has identified three distinct timbres intrinsic to each vowel. These timbres are created by interactions of the first formant and the first and second harmonics. Bozeman has labeled these timbres as "open, "close," and "whoop." Acoustically, the following relationships of harmonics to the first formant define these timbres: ■

Open timbre: "a vocal sound in which two or more harmonics are at or below the first formant of the vowel being sung" (Bozeman, 2013, p. 21), if a vowel is sung an octave or more below the frequency of its first formant. For example: When /a/ is sung at the musical note D3, it is roughly an octave and a half below its first formant. These timbres are described as clear, fresh, or even buzzy if low enough.

■

Close timbre: vocal sound in which the second harmonic has risen above the first formant, causing the voice to "tum over." This timbre is expected to occur when a vowel is sung within the octave below the location of its first formant. For example, when /i/ is sung at G3 by a male or D4 by a female, the note is less than an octave below the first formant. The second harmonic is above the first formant, and the vowel should be in close timbre. Words used to describe this timbre include covered, tipped, domed, and higher in the head (Bozeman, 2013, p. 23).

■

Whoop: "occurs when singing the pitch of the first formant, or when the first formant is tracking the pitch one is singing" (Bozeman, 2017, pp. 23-34). This hootier, fuller timbre is expected when singing at or above the first formant of the given vowel. In classical singing, it is expected to actively track this timbre when singing above the first formant of the vowel to maintain intensity and perceived depth and roundness in the tone (Bozeman, 2013). For example, an adolescent female singing /i/ at the note CS, or /a/ at GS, should be able to utilize

3. The Adolescent Years

whoop timbre, as these combinations put the sung pitch in the vicinity of the first formant locations of those vowels. An adolescent male can use whoop timbre to help strengthen his falsetto by singing /u/ at the note F4. In CCM styles of singing, it is often preferable to switch to a different resonance strategy when singing above the first formant to maintain clarity of text and the perception of a more speech-like tone. Open timbre and whoop timbre are the two instinctual timbres and the easiest to learn. When they are fully utilized, they create nonlinear interactions between the resonance of the vocal tract and the phonation of the vocal folds. Open timbre reinforces phonation in the mode of the lower register. When the pitch is sung at the level of the first formant, the vowel should whoop (Bozeman, 2013). Whoop timbre reinforces a phonation function of the upper register (Rothenberg, 1983). Every vowel has these three timbres: close, open, and whoop. Themusical note locations of the timbres are predicted by the first formant of a given vowel and its musical note equivalent. Thefirst formant location for each vowel will vary by a couple of semitones, mostly based on developmental stage, vocal tract length, and articulation habits (McCoy, 2013). For some female students, the first formants will be a semitone higher for each vowel because of an elevated laryngeal position during singing. For male singers who have not gone through their voice change, this needs to be adjusted up roughly three semitones. After voice mutation, the difference between first formant locations between male and female is not as large as the difference in fo. While adolescent males eventually speak one octave lower than adolescent females, the difference in formant locations is much smaller. Start by learning the approximate first formant locations of these five vowels for most adolescent students (Lee, Potamianos, & Narayanan, 1999). Thisis simpler than it might seem at first. Theseare five out of seven of the cardinal vowels, and two pairs of them share first formant locations. It only requires associating five vowels with three musical notes. Thismap is slightly different for adolescent females and males due to the difference in vocal tract length.

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To find the first formant locations for an adolescent female student, have her sing an ascending five-note scale on /i/ that crosses B4. B4 is the expected moment that the vowel will cross into whoop timbre for women. The average first formant locations for these five vowels in adolescent female students are: ■

B4: Ii/ /u/

■ ES:

/o/ /e/

■ GS:

/a/

Next learn three notes and five vowels for adolescent male students. To find the first formant locations for a male student, have him sing an ascending five-note scale on /i/ that crosses E3. E3 is an octave below the first formant for men and is the moment when the timbre should change from open to close. ■ E4:

/i/ /u/

■ C4:

/o/ /el

■ ES:

/a/

For beginning students, these crossings are unlikely to happen. Instead, as the crossing approaches, the vocal instrument will start to adjust the vowel articulation, laryngeal height, and subglottic pressure. If the acoustic crossing does not occur, listen for the moment in the scale when the vocal production and vowel articulation change, interrupting the clarity and smoothness of the scale. That moment was very likely the pitch at which an acoustic registration should have occurred but was avoided by the singer. Ironically, they may have mistakenly avoided the acoustic event in the hopes of preserving the evenness of the scale to their own ear. This overcorrection has the opposite effect on the external sound and actually disrupts the evenness of the vowel and tone across the scale. Allowing acoustic registration events to occur can make the scale seem more disjunct to the singer but more cohesive to the listener. Vowel timbres are predictable, as they are based on vowel/ pitch combinations. The vowel timbres are already laid out in the music, with only slight variations depending on voice type, trans-

3. The Adolescent Years

position, and vocal style. The composer and lyricist or poet create the word and pitch combinations that are the "roadmap" for vowel timbres and acoustic registrational events in every song: ■

Musical notes determine location and spacing of the harmonic spectrum of the voice.

■

Musical notes are chosen by the composer.

■

Vowels are controlled by the words.

■

The lyricist or poet chooses the words.

■

Words determine the location and disbursement of the formants (especially the first two formants).

Teaching adolescent students how to sing vowels in close timbre can have positive effects on vocal technique. Close timbre is necessary but difficult to master because it leaves the first formant hanging between the first two harmonics (Bozeman, 2013). This mostly falls in the top half of the range of adolescent males and the middle range of adolescent females. When an adolescent male sings an ascending scale on /i/ from C3 to C4, the /i/ vowel should cross from open timbre to close timbre at approximately the musical note F3. In the first attempts, this will likely not happen. Instead, as he approaches F3, the tone will suffer, and the vowel will distort due to a rising larynx or pinched tone. He will only make it to C4 with great difficulty. If it is successful, the /i/ will go through a smooth progression of the scale. It might sound rather unremarkable in the adolescent voice, but it will be clearly enunciated with a smooth scale and a moderate increase in clarity and ring between F3 and C4. There will be ease to the top of the scale with less vertical tracking of the larynx (Bozeman, 2013). For adolescent females, the challenge is allowing the /i/ to cross into whoop timbre as they approach B4. For example, an ascending five-note scale on /i/ beginning on F4 should cross to whoop at B4. If not, the tone at C5 will be shrill or shallow and breathy. It is also common for the inexperienced adolescent female singer to attempt to carry lower register phonation up to CS. This will result in a pressed, strained phonation. Many female singers are able to make the mistake of carrying the lower register

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up to C5 until around age 14. As their voices continue to grow, the maximum musical note for the lower register will descend from C5 to around A4. After voice mutation, the natural break between these registers will be at E4. Pushing the lower register above that break should be avoided and corrected. If they sing a descending five-note scale on /i/ from C5 to F4, the /i/ should pass from whoop to close by the time they reach the note F4. If they try to stay in whoop timbre all the way to the lowest note, the tone will likely become breathy. Thelarynx will descend in an attempt to track the first formant to the descending pitch. The tone will weaken, and the intonation will suffer. Lowering the larynx is a subconscious and/or conscious attempt to maintain continuity and stability as perceived by the singer. Themind will attempt to track and maintain a single timbre by raising and lowering the larynx with the changing pitch to maintain a constant alignment of the first formant and the first two harmonics. Changing laryngeal depth moves the location of the formants. Regardless of whether adolescent singers understand or are aware of the tracking movements, it is often the cause of vertical laryngeal instability (Bozeman, 2013). For the "new baritone," close timbre is a mystery. Thelowest pitch of close timbre is for the vowels /i/ and /u/, which are in close timbre roughly between the pitches F3 and E4. Once the speaking fo falls below the musical note C3, it is unlikely that they will experience close timbre and will speak exclusively in open timbre during conversational speech (Titze, 2015). A given vowel in open timbre has very different auditory and somatosensory feedback than the same vowel in close timbre. When speaking near the musical note A2, as many "new baritones" do, the first formant of /a/ is likely coupled with the seventh harmonic. This is a very open timbre. Gliding up an octave from A2 to A3 while changing from /a/ to /i/ causes harmonics seven through two to pass through the first formant! Thisis a dramatic change from open timbre to close timbre that, while normal for listeners, is startling for most young singers. When a single vowel is allowed to pass freely between open and close timbre due to a changing pitch, the sensation is similar to a voice crack between upper and lower registers. Thisis even true for /i/ and /u/, which have crossings between open and close timbre an octave below the laryngeal register break.

3. The Adolescent Years

The first time I experienced the flip from open to close timbre is one of the only memories I have of my own voice change. Like many adult men, I have a couple vivid memories from the time of my voice mutation, but very little memory of my voice prebreak (Killian, 1997). One day in choir during seventh grade, I experienced the crossing between open and close timbre . We were singing as a group, and I ascended in pitch from D3 to A3 while changing from an / a/ to an / u/. The rising pitch and falling vowel formant combined to vault me from the secure and familiar into a strong close timbre . The vibrations in my vocal tract suddenly flipped, making it seem like my throat had involuntarily changed shape. The change in breath sensations engaged my abdominal muscles from the bottom of my rib cage to my pelvis. The / u/ sounded distorted to me. Instead of radiating out of my mouth, it felt like it was rebounding and ringing in my pharynx, trapped behind the back of my tongue and deflecting into my skull. I jumped, and I had a sudden, vivid image of the inside of my body. Rather than an assortment of organs and tissue, my chest cavity was empty. The floor was a grassy meadow of short, dry turf. The dome of the rib cage was a dark, evening sky. In the middle of the meadow was a simple well made of gray stones and my voice had fallen into the depths of that well. While this sensation was not painful, it seemed like a terrible mistake. This was the first time I experienced how I should negotiate this shift. Yet, I thought it was wrong. I immediately decided that I should figure out how to avoid ever letting that happen again. I overcorrected to fix this "problem." As a result, I was left with a range of G2 to B3, an out of control larynx, and unclear, droning, nasalized vowels. Sound familiar?

I relate this story to all my "new baritones." None seem to have the vivid imagery that I experienced. However, they are all consciously and subconsciously avoiding these timbre changes to some degree. The first times they experience the change from open to close timbre, they must be reassured that it doesn't

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sound funny and that the sudden change in auditory and somatosensory feedback was acoustic and not necessarily physical. It will take several attempts and multiple demonstrations of both using and avoiding the "flip" to show them the way forward. The limitation on range caused by avoidance of timbre changes can be quite extreme. While the average new baritone can comfortably sing B3, in others the physical and acoustic restriction prevents them from singing pitches above C3. Exercises for exploring and addressing this are quite simple. A combination of an open vowel on a low pitch ascending to a closed vowel on a pitch around G3 will encourage the shift from open to close timbre. ■

The "Winky March" from the Wizard of Oz. "Yo Hee Yo, Yo_ O!" on C3 and G3.

■

A Model T car horn. "Ah-oo-gah!"

■

Wolf sounds. "Ah-oo!"

Beginning with a note near the male students' speaking fo, it is more likely that they will produce the beginning tone in a relaxed laryngeal position. Once they can successfully access close timbre on /i/ or /u/, the larynx will remain mostly stable across the exercise. This will allow them to experience producing vowels above the range of conversational speech without raising the larynx. This process can make it much easier for the new baritone to climb out of the basement. Laryngeal stability and the acceptance of new auditory feedback will also facilitate discovering different levels of laryngeal registration. Not only does habitual speech at a low fo allow for timbre crossings to be avoided, but it avoids utilizing the vocal ligament for pitch regulation. A new baritone is learning to use vocal folds with a now larger thyroarytenoid muscle and a thicker, rectangular shape that facilitates low fo in the lower register. While their vocal ligament is present, it is still developing. The pitch range where vowels should begin to cross from open to close timbre also corresponds to the range in which the tension for sustaining a sung pitch must be transferred from the thyroarytenoid muscle to the vocal ligament (Titze, 2000, 2017). The auditory and somatosensory feedback from this low speech

3. The Adolescent Years

pitch and open timbre is very difficult to break out of. Explorations in acoustic registration to address articulation combined with SOVT exercises to build the voice at the source are very effective in expanding the range upward for new baritones. Vowel timbre work is effective for adolescent female voices as well. There are smaller adjustments made due to the higher speaking fo. The degree of openness in vowel timbre is not as extreme, but the progression from open to close timbre still applies. While the mutated male and female voices are separated by an octave, the formant locations only differ by a third to a fifth. This is because the difference in vocal tract length is not as large as the difference between vocal fold dimensions between the sexes (Fitch & Giedd, 1999; Titze, 2000). For adolescent females, the open to close timbre exercises should first concentrate on helping to bridge the transition from lower register to upper register. In the female voice, this occurs in the bottom half of the range. The edge of the vocal fold is more wedge-shaped, rather than rectangular, which facilitates upper register phonation (Titze, 2000). Although the transition from the lower to upper register is often easier for female students, they are just as likely as male students to have difficulty utilizing more than one register. Close timbre does not seem to be particularly instinctual in either male or female students. However, in the female voice, vowels overlap to form a zone where close timbre is needed from roughly C4 to E5. Typical overcorrections are frustrating when the larynx goes up to unsatisfactorily stabilize timbre and source. Female students benefit from exercises exploring the transition from open to close to whoop timbres. It is important to help them discover and learn how to track whoop timbre in their upper register (Bozeman, 2013). Inflective speech glides that are not tuned to specific pitches and cross from lower to upper registers are beneficial for helping female students explore their vocal instrument. Direct exploration of open to close timbre can be alternated with SOVT exercises to build the source function. If the students can easily produce an open timbre /o/ near B3, have them try the following exercise: 1. First, use inflective speech glides ascending from their spoken fo on the syllables /no i no i/ with /no/ in the lower

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range and /i/ in the upper range. It is often easier for students to discover for themselves the balance between breath pressure, registration, and timbre when pitch is not specified. The inflection should glide through the lower passaggio. Have them start with /no/ in the lower register and inflect up in pitch on /i/. The strongest feedback they will experience will be from the jump between lower and upper registers. Encourage them to use the lower and middle parts of their range, even if it feels silly, and to enjoy the transition between registers. 2. Next, have them repeat the loop with the range of B3 to F4, with /no/ on the lower note and gliding to /i/ on the upper note. Then have them restrict it to approximately B3 to D4, so that the change from open timbre /no/ to close timbre /i/ is taking place within a single laryngeal register. In the lower register, there is a higher likelihood that the upper harmonics will be strong enough for the students to clearly perceive the change in feedback when the timbre switches from open to close. 3. Finally, have the students sing /no-i no-i no-i/ on alternating scale degrees of 1 2 1 3 5_ 4 3 2 1 with /no/ on scale degree 1 and /i/ on the ascending intervals. It will take several repetitions of the sung pattern for the students to get the same efficiency they had on the speech loop. The following exercise can be used to establish and maintain whoop timbre while building the function of the female voice in the upper register: 1. First, have the students produce a speech glide, (sigh) on /u/ in the range of CS or B4. For most adolescent females, the first formant of /u/ will be located near these pitches. Give the students a few tries to establish the whoop timbre on /u/ in this range. 2. Next, have the students alternate /u/ and /i/ in a very connected, fluid way on a speech glide from roughly CS down to their speaking range. Because /u/ and /i/ have similar first formants but very different second formants, they should experience a sense of connection throughout the vowels,

3. The Adolescent Years

even as the articulation and higher resonances change quickly and dramatically. 3. After they have mastered this on a speech loop, have them sing the pattern on a descending five-note scale, beginning at either B4 or CS (depending on the student). /u-i, u-i, u-i, u-i, u/ on scale degrees 5 4 3 2 1. 4. Repeat this pattern by transposing it up and down but staying close to the starting key. If taken too high without modification, fo will cross above the first formant and the tone will suddenly weaken. 5. As they practice this pattern, they will begin to learn how to track whoop timbre. The descending pattern will tend to help them release a high larynx as they instinctually track the whoop down through the scale. By the end of their adolescent development, most females should be able to find whoop timbre on an /i/ or /u/ near A4. 6. Listen to whether or not they accidentally track whoop timbre and their upper register too low. If they do, the tone will suffer as they descend below F4. If not, there should be an easy transition into the close timbres of /u/ and /i/ and into the lower register at the ends of these scales. When male and female students are able to utilize acoustic registration properly across their range, a diatonic scale will be even and sound well supported. As the vowel switches between timbres, it may seem to take on an extra amount of clarity and speech-like focus, without sounding belted or strained. The support will be perceived to be more even, and the result will often seem like a natural voice, singing a scale without much effort or concern. If the result sounds natural and even, why is it so difficult for adolescent singers to find this on their own? One reason is because the proprioception of our voice is reliant on somatosensory feedback (Verrillo, 1992). Forced resonance causes vibrations in the tissues of the chest, neck, and head. It acts like an active sonar in our vocal tract. When the patterns of vibrations suddenly change, as they do when crossing laryngeal and acoustic registrational events, it is often misinterpreted by the brain

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as drastic physical movements in the position and dimensions of the vocal tract and even throughout the entire upper body (Bozeman, 2017). As sound energy radiates from the vocal folds through the tissues of the upper body, vibrations are picked up by mechanoreceptors (Bolanowski, Gescheider, Verrillo, & Checkosky, 1988). Of these, the Pacinian corpuscles are particularly important for somatosensory feedback in singing. They are afferent nerve fibers that are found near the surface of the glabrous (nonhairy) skin and deep in the hairy skin, near the bones and joints (Caine & Pallis, 1966). Pacinian corpuscles detect vibrations in the range of 80 to 1000 Hz, and they are most sensitive to vibrations in the range of 250 to 300 Hz (around middle C) (Mahns, Perkins, Sahai, Robinson, & Rowe, 2006). The Pacinian corpuscles, along with several other mechanoreceptors in the skin, provide our sense of touch and contribute to our proprioception (Bolanowski, Gescheider, Verrillo, & Checkosky, 1988). While the other mechanoreceptors are sensitive to vibrations at frequencies below our singing range, the Pacinian receptors are sensitive throughout the normal ranges of lower and upper registers (Hopkins, Mate-Cid, Fulford, Seiffert, & Ginsborg, 2016). Their range also covers the range of the first formant locations of all vowels-approximately E4 to G5. The sounds of the voice are vibrations, and the Pacinian corpuscles are very similar in structure to the nerve fibers of the ear in the cochlea ( Good, Reed, & Russo, 2014). The awareness of these soundwaves through touch is vibrotactile feedback (Verrillo, 2009). We feel our voice, and we hear it. Vibrotactile feedback is closely tied to auditory feedback (Champoux, Shiller, & Zatorre, 2011). Vibrotactile stimulus without sound has been observed to activate the second auditory cortex in the brain (Caetano &Jousmaki, 2006; Schiirmann, Caetano, Hlushchuk, Jousmaki, & Harl, 2006). Though the nerve fibers are similar, our vibrotactile sense is limited in frequency range compared to our sense of hearing. Vibrotactile sensitivity for humans is from 5 to 1,000 Hz. Hearing range for an adolescent with normal hearing is 20 to 20,000 Hz (Russo, Ammirante, & Fels, 2012). While we can easily discern differences in pitch by hearing, our vibrotactile sense of sound is much more sensitive to differences in timbre. Russo et al. found that both deaf and hearing subjects could accurately discriminate between the different timbres of a piano, cello, and trombone

3. The Adolescent Years

when presented solely through vibrotactile stimulation (Russo, Ammirante, & Fels, 2012). Another study found that subjects could also accurately discern different voices through vibrotactile stimulation. Even when pitch, intensity, and duration were equalized, the subjects could still discern the different timbres through vibrotactile stimulation alone (Ammirante, Russo, Good, & Fels, 2013). When the voice crosses between the three vowel timbres (whoop, close, and open) and the lower and upper laryngeal registers, there is a sudden shift in the vibrotactile sensations throughout the body that affects proprioception (Bozeman, 2017). Even when it is only an acoustic event caused by vowel and pitch combinations, the mind can interpret the resulting jump in vibrotactile feedback as a sudden change in the shape of the vocal tract. The speech motor center of the brain interprets this as an error of articulation and sends feedforward commands to the vocal instrument to correct this "error" (Tourville & Guenther, 2011). These corrections, which turn out to be overcorrections, usually involve one or more of the following: ■

Shift in laryngeal position

■

Increased subglottic pressure

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Pressing of the voice

■

Opening the velopharyngeal port to the nasal cavity (dropping the soft palate and introducing nasality)

■

Opening or collapsing the articulation of the vowel

For example, we return to our adolescent baritone attempting to sing an ascending diatonic C major scale on /i/. As he approaches F3, he both consciously and subconsciously senses that an instability is approaching that will cause his voice to suddenly, uncontrollably jump if he continues to ascend in pitch. To prevent this error, his vocal instrument begins to add pressure and constriction to track the open timbre up through the scale. By the time he reaches C4, the amount of laryngeal rising, subglottic pressure, and muscle tension needed to take an /i/ in open timbre to that pitch causes him a great deal of discomfort. However, the error has been avoided, and he has managed to

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maintain a "consistent" /i/ through the scale based on his auditory and somatosensory perception of timbre. The listener hears an increasingly strained tone, with poor intonation and inconsistent vowel clarity, which causes sympathetic concern about the well-being of the young singer. A common example of this for an adolescent female is an ascending diatonic scale on / o/ in F major. The first tones will likely have a breathy, upper register result or a lower register, belted intensity. As she approaches the top of the scale, the throat will close, and the tone will become shrill and strained as she subconsciously follows the beginning timbre to the top of the scale. Despite the discomfort, it fulfills the subconscious instinct to keep the voice stable. Consciously, she is likely trying to produce the instructed goal of a "consistent" and "supported" tone throughout the scale. As the tone falters due to this violation of acoustic and laryngeal registration, the voice will sound unsupported. Both the speech motor center and the instructor will often diagnose the problem as insufficient effort, and the student will add more subglottic pressure to the misaligned vocal instrument. The result may improve somewhat, but in many cases, it will fall off even more. In both examples, allowing the vocal tract to remain in a stable articulatory position, independent of the changing pitch, would result in a better outcome. Kenneth Bozeman uses the terms "passive vowel modification" and "vowel migration" to describe this timbral change due to a stable vocal tract shape (Bozeman, 2017). As the male crossed the note F3 on /i/, the timbre would change from open to close, and the second harmonic would be deemphasized. For the female singer, the constant articulatory position of / o/ would result in the vowel passing from close to whoop timbre as she ascends through D5, E5, and F5. Instead of becoming shrill and undersupported, the tone would bloom into a ringing, resonant head voice at the top notes of the scale. The result would be a well-supported, consistent tone and vowel throughout the scale, which would sound like a "natural" and "talented" young voice. The Rubens flame tube is a dramatic demonstration of acoustic standing waves. Similar to a propane burner, a tube with holes drilled in it is filled with flammable gas and lit. Sounds are then played into the tube. The changing standing wave affects

3. The Adolescent Years

the patterns of intensity in the flames along the tube. With simple tones, it is possible to see the soundwave represented by the sine curve. As the tone changes frequency, or more complex sounds are introduced to the tube, the flames react and reveal visual patterns (Gardner & Gee, 2009). There are a number of videos of this demonstration available on YouTube (Ficklin, 2006). Like the Rubens flame tube, the vocal tract is also a tube that resonates acoustic standing waves, which shift based on frequency, timbre, and intensity. Changes in the acoustic standing wave will affect vibrotactile feedback. To experience this the shifting positions of vibrotactile stimulus in your vocal tract, try this demonstration: ■

Place your hand on the side of your face, with the heal of the hand under the jaw and the finger tips on your temples.

■

Glide on a hum from your lowest to highest pitch and back. The Pacinian corpuscles are located near the surface of the skin of the palms, making them very sensitive to vibrotactile stimulation. As you glide up and down in pitch, notice the shifting location and intensity of vibrations. If you can hum above C6, you will likely notice that vibrations dissipate and even disappear as you reach the top of your range. This is because you are humming above the effective frequency range or our vibrotactile sensitivity range.

■

Try this on different vowels, noticing where they change timbre and if there is a corresponding shift in vibrations. Allow the gliding pitch to cross back and forth between lower and upper registers. Notice how the laryngeal register change affects the pattern of vibrations.

■

Finally, sing a chain of alternating vowels on a sustained, resonant tone. Notice if there are shifts in vibrations between vowels.

To help the students experience this, repeat the exercise in your voice, with your hand on your face. This time, have the students place their palm on top of your hand (if they are comfortable with this contact). The vibrations will clearly travel to their hand, and they will be able to feel the changing intensities and

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locations of the vibrations while they hear the changing pitches and timbres. This hand-on-hand demonstration can be less intimidating than having the students place their hand directly on your face. I have also found that this positioning is more effective than direct contact for this demonstration. The palms are extremely sensitive to vibrotactile stimulation (Verrillo, 1992). Direct contact with another person's face can be an overwhelming and distracting experience. The vibrotactile energy is often too intense in this position to clearly discern timbral changes. In the hand-on-hand position, the buffer between the teacher and student creates a safer environment and makes the demonstration more effective. These vibrations are real, and they are largely responsible for our conscious proprioception of our vocal tract and voice. They cannot stay in one alignment throughout a song, unless the efficiency and function of the voice is compromised by overcorrection. Learning to use these changing sensations is especially difficult for adolescent singers, but helping them understand and accept them can have a very positive impact on the function of their vocal instrument.

Level 2 Source-Filter Interactions

The previous model for singing was the "Linear Source-Filter Model," whereby the breath pressure from beneath the glottis causes the vocal folds to vibrate, initiating harmonic frequencies that go up and out. Now we know that a more accurate model is the "Nonlinear Source-Filter Model" that additionally accounts for interactions between the components of the vocal instrument. In the nonlinear model, interactions between the source (phonation) and the filter (the vocal tract) can affect and improve phonation and breath control (Titze, 2008). Titze identifies two categories of source-filter interactions. Level 1 interactions are linear. Source harmonics are filtered by the vocal tract. Some harmonics are amplified, and others are attenuated. This turns the buzzing source sound into vowels. Level 2 interactions are nonlinear and can cause changes and instability in the vibratory pattern of the vocal folds. Level 2 interactions can also increase the efficiency and power of the

3. The Adolescent Years

vibrations of the vocal mechanism, which in turn creates stronger source harmonics and acoustic energy that reflects back to the "source" and assists in closing the glottis (Bozeman, 2013; Rothenberg, 1983; Titze, 2008). This loop of interaction between phonation and resonance can create powerful, efficient, and expressive sounds that are not possible without both components. Scott McCoy (2012) says, "When the vocal tract is resonant, standing waves synchronize with vocal fold oscillation and assist in closing the glottis, increasing vocal efficiency" (p. 36). It is important to teach adolescent singers to utilize nonlinear interactions in their singing voice. A student once remarked that the feeling was "like learning how to ride a bike!" Level 2 source-filter interactions are more likely to occur above the range of conversational speech, as the first and second harmonics cross the first formant. However, instabilities can be caused by higher harmonics passing through the first three formants (Titze, 2008). Interactions between first two harmonics (the fo and the second harmonic, which is located one octave above the pitch being sung) and the first formant produce distinct timbral changes within a given vowel (Titze, Maxfield, & Walker, 2017). One of the unconscious goals in the voice is to maintain stability and consistency. These acoustic interactions and changing timbres can be disconcerting to young singers. Each element-respiration, vibration, resonance, and articulation-affects the other to improve or impair phonation. This is especially true for adolescent singers who are going through a period of extreme vocal growth and instability. Instinctive, subconscious avoidance of acoustic registration events is unfortunately achieved with overcorrections throughout the vocal instrument that are detrimental to optimal voice use (Titze, 2017). These include: ■

Speaking at a low fo □

Males speaking in the range of the musical notes A2 to B2 can avoid crossings of the first and second harmonics through the first formant (Titze, 2004).

□

Females speaking below the musical note C4 are able to avoid crossings of the first harmonic and the first formant.

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□

By speaking at a low fo, it is possible to regulate pitch with only the thyroarytenoid muscle carrying the tension in the vocal folds. Transferring tension to the vocal ligament is not necessary when fo is suppressed in conversational speech (Titze, 2017).

■

Use of vocal fry □ Vocal fry is a mode of phonation that creates broadband frequency noise instead of harmonics. Because the frequency components in vocal fry are not harmonic, there are no Level 2 interactions (Blomgren, Chen, Ng, & Gilbert, 1998; Miller, 2008). □ However, vocal fry is acoustically weaker than other modes of phonation. It cannot be used for projected speech and it has a restricted range of inflection. Habitual use of this mode can make the engagement of vocal fry a component of speech and singing articulation habits, making it more difficult to sing consistently in other modes of phonation (Titze, 2017).

■

Weakening the voice by speaking with low intensity or with a breathy tone □ By speaking with weaker adduction, the higher harmonics and their interactions with formants are weakened (Titze, 2017).

■

Modified and repressed articulation □ Rather than the active, heavy modification associated with some styles of singing, this is a restriction of articulation in speech. Assuming a neutral vocal tract position dulls articulation and restricts the movements of the tongue and lips. This restricts movement of the first three formants (Story, 2016). Combined with a suppressed fo, this means that the movement of both variables, harmonics and formants, is restricted. While this stabilizes vocal production, it negatively impacts clarity.

■

Hypernasalisty □ By allowing air and sound to pass through the nasal cavity, the strengths of the source-filter interactions

3. The Adolescent Years

□

□

■

are weakened. Since there are no moving parts in the nasal cavity, the dimensions of the vocal tract are also somewhat stabilized (Guzman et al., 2016). This has unintended side effects on intelligibility and inflection. In particular, the vowels /o/, /a/, and /i/ are frequently nasalized (Mciver & Miller, 1995). While this can be useful in SOVT exercises, reliance on it to navigate difficult passages in singing is a deadend. For example, it is often used by young tenors and belters above the musical note E4. Hypernasality might help them find a strong tone just above E4, but it will prevent them from establishing a truly efficient vocal technique, and it will limit the upper range.

Tracking the vertical position of the larynx to the fo and/ or the first formant □ Lowering and raising the larynx changes the overall length of the vocal tract. This changes the location and dispersion of the formants. Raising the larynx raises all the formants, and lowering the larynx does the opposite (Bozeman, 2013). □ When ascending in pitch or articulating a vowel with a low first formant, such as /i/ or /u/, the larynx will often subconsciously raise. This raises the first formant ahead of the rising pitch to preventfo from crossing the first formant. This results in a strained, spread, and/or pinched tone as the voice ascends to the first formant location of the given vowel (Bozeman, 2013). □ This can be especially problematic when it is a feature of a regional dialect, such as the Northern Cities Vowel Shift found in the Great Lakes Region (McCarthy, 2011). In this case, the problem oflaryngeal stability goes beyond vocal technique to speech articulation. A student who speaks in this dialect uses a version of /e/ that requires a raised larynx. While this might not be especially problematic in speech, it is magnified in singing. □ Laryngeal adjustments to avoid the second harmonic passing above the first formant are a nearly universal

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and subconscious habit (Bozeman, 2013). However, this is a severely limited and limiting strategy. The human larynx cannot move far enough to track the second harmonic with the first formant across the entire singable pitch range. Our necks just aren't long enough (Frey, Volodin, Volodina, Carranza, & TorresPorras, 2012). Instability of the laryngeal position also has a negative impact on pitch range, ease of vocal production, and laryngeal registration (Titze, 2007). Adolescent singers will benefit from their first voice lessons with their adult voices with the help of one-on-one instruction that is based on current understandings and a custom design for each student. Optimal motor patterns can be introduced, developed, and automatized for ideal vocal technique (Boltezar, Burger, & Zargi, 1997).

Orthodontics By the ages of 11 to 13, most adolescents have lost their baby teeth and their permanent teeth have come in. This coincides with the onset of the pubertal growth spurt, and it is the time often recommended for corrective orthodontic treatments (Johnson, n.d.). Malocclusion refers to the imperfect positioning of the teeth. Imperfect positions and dimensions of teeth, mandible, or maxilla can contribute to numerous speech defects (Van Lierde et al., 2015). "Open bite," when the upper and lower teeth are unable to make contact, is the most common cause of such speech defects (Doshi & Bhad-Patil, 2011). There is not necessarily a direct link between severity of the malocclusion and the degree of speech defect (Rathbone, 1955). The speech sounds most affected by malocclusion are the alveolars /s/, /n/, /1/, and /t/ (Van Lierde et al., 2015). In one study of patients with malocclusion seeking orthodontic treatment, it was observed that only 38% of the group with open bite had normal sound production (Leavy, Cisneros, & LeBlanc, 2017). Speech production can be affected by orthodontic treatments. Newly fitted traditional labial braces can initially obstruct consonant articulation. Gradually, patients adapt and regain nor-

3. The Adolescent Years

mal speech clarity within the first week of therapy (Khattab, Farah, Al-Sabbagh, Hajeer, & Raj-Hamed, 2013). Retainers have become thinner, with grooves and roughness added to imitate the articulatory surface of the alveolar ridge, so speech defects are less likely (Erb, 1967). Lingual fixed orthodontic appliances and palate expanders that have the benefit of being invisible have been shown to cause persistent speech difficulties during treatment (Hohoff et al., 2003). While traditional labial brackets cause temporary, resolvable speech difficulties during the first week of treatment, lingual braces have been observed to disrupt articulation even a month into treatment (Ata-Ali et al., 2016). The lingual brackets can cause a slight or noticeable lisp in speech and difficult, embarrassing, or even painful efforts to chew (Wu, McGrath, Wong, Wiechmann, & Rabie, 2011). Palate expanders are used in rapid maxillary expansion (RME) therapy. Maxillary expansion therapy relieves tooth crowding. It can have a positive impact on respiration by increasing nasal width and volume, and straightening the nasal septum (Yarttadur, Basciftci, & Ozturk, 2017). Initial investigations into the effects of RME on vowel formants found that the first and second formants decreased in frequency while the frequency of F3 increased (Macari, Ziade, Khandakji, Tamim, & Hamdan, 2016). Another study compared RME patients with a control group, finding statistical difference comparing changes in formant frequencies during the treatment period (Yarttadur, Basciftci, & Ozturk, 2017). It is difficult to determine whether the formant frequency changes are due to RME or the normal adolescent growth process of the vocal tract. Speech disturbance of alveolar articulation is common (Alghamdi, Farsi, & Hassan, 2017). Most studies of speech disturbances during orthodontic therapy have been limited to the duration of the therapy. There does not appear to be follow-up research on the long-term impact on speech after the conclusion of lingual bracket or RME therapy. The direct relationship between malocclusion and speech defects remains unproven. Patients seeking orthodontic therapy often have speech defects prior to therapy, and orthodontic therapy alone does not guarantee correction in speech defects (Doshi & Bhad-Patil, 2011). Speech therapy and consultation is recommended before, during, and after orthodontic treatment

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to correct persistent speech defects (Leavy, Cisneros, & LeBlanc, 2017). Voice students undergoing RME benefit knowing how the appliance can interrupt alveolar articulation of consonant sounds, so they can monitor and avoid long-term speech habits. During the phase of brackets, when interarch rubber bands are applied to correct bite and jaw alignment, the restriction of jaw movement has a temporary negative impact on vowel and consonant articulation in singing. Though they were advised not to remove rubber bands, issues are always cleared up when they take off the rubber bands. It is important to monitor hypernasality and articulation of alveolar consonants while a student is undergoing orthodontic therapy. Impact on speech is usually temporary, but special attention should be given to students undergoing RME therapy and those fitted with lingual brackets. Voice teachers should be aware that students who undergo substantial orthodontic surgeries, beyond brackets or RME, often had speech difficulties before treatment ( Goodstein, Cooper, & Wallace, 1974). In rare cases, maxillary advancement surgeries have disrupted velopharyngeal closure due to increasing nasopharyngeal distance that causes hypernasalized speech (Witzel & Munro, 1977). When working with a student exhibiting severe and persistent articulation and resonance issues, it is important to discern whether orthodontic surgeries radically altered the vocal tract and, therefore, what the degree of accommodation may be necessary. One particular student needed surgery to shorten the maxilla. While it was successful in its orthodontic goals, the surgery altered the aesthetic appearance of the student's bite so that at rest, he appeared to have an underbite. Previous speech coaches had told him to correct the underbite with a "down-and-back released jaw" when speaking and singing. He tried, but to no avail since it was a skeletal change that caused it. Instead, he experienced severe restriction of the vocal tract, limiting range and resonance. When we allowed his jaw to rest at its "new normal" neutral position, the constriction in his vocal tract was relieved with improved range and resonance. While this level of surgical intervention is much less common than fixed and removable orthodontic appliances, it is worth mentioning in cases where sensitivity is needed for young singers.

3. The Adolescent Years

Teachers who work with adolescent singers need a special ability to diagnose sounds, vowels, and consonants with adolescent expectations. Is it growth and development? Is it orthodontics? Is it muscle memory? Is it progress? Is it acoustic strategies? Individualized respiration, phonation, and articulation strategies and expectations may need to change just as quickly as adolescent bodies are changing. The goal is to move as smoothly as possible into their more adult vocal instrument with its new sounds, sensations, and coordination.

EXPECTATIONS

Middle school and high school vocal music educators work with students of varying levels of achievement. It is not unusual to have a wide mixture of changed and unchanged male voices, and therefore important that directors hear these voices regularly to make sure they are singing appropriate parts as their voices change. During middle and high school required general music classes and vocal ensembles are generally scheduled during regular school hours with extracurricular musical activities scheduled before or after school. Exemplary middle and high school vocal programs offer students a well-rounded musical community for learning music and developing musical skills. They have opportunities to sing with large and small ensembles, show choir, madrigals, jazz choir, and in music theater productions. Other music classes may include guitar, theory, and vocal pedagogy. Inspiring and meaningful experiences in rehearsals, concerts, tours, and music theater productions have been catalysts for countless aspiring young musicians who discover they have a passion for music and singing and want to pursue it further, perhaps even during college. Some high schools allow private voice teachers to do oneon-one voice lessons with students during the choir period. For others, parents facilitate transportation to and from voice lessons. Many students will already have taken piano or other instrumental lessons as children. A few will have taken voice lessons in grade and middle school. Music theater is a popular style of music among young students. Middle and high schoolers have often attended school,

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amateur, and professional productions. They have been listening and singing along with musical soundtracks for years. It is exciting when they transition to actually preparing a 32-bar cut for their first audition for a staged production at their school, community, or a summer camp. Voice lessons often provide the first exposure to singing solo music. Solo and ensemble competitions and the NATS Student Auditions are excellent opportunities to be adjudicated in classical and music theater styles. District choral festivals, AllState choral festivals, All-State music theater productions, college sponsored high school choral festivals, ACDA Honor Choirs, and summer camps can be life changing events for young singers. Significant opportunities for very serious young high school singers who know they want to pursue classical singing are offered during the summer with programs such as the six-week Boston University Tanglewood Institute Young Artists Program. The Julliard School and Manhattan School of Music, both in New York City, and the Merit School of Music in Chicago offer auditions to participate in pre-college conservatory-style programs on Saturdays. Adolescence is an excellent time to take voice lessons. There is a convergence of speech and growth in the adolescent years. Speech motor development plateaus around age 12 and reaches adult levels on average by age 14 (Smith & Zelaznik, 2004). Beginning vocal training at this age correlates to increased neuroplastic changes and increased amounts of gray matter in the regions of the brain associated with both auditory and somatosensory control of the voice (Kleber et al., 2016).

First Lesson The first lesson is an opportunity to establish a rapport with new adolescent students and to quickly assess and gain insight into their voice, musicianship, speech use, and artistic mind. Start the lesson with an informal interview about the students' previous study, current artistic activities, and expectations for voice lessons. Students with previous private vocal study may or may not be able to describe the elements of vocal technique they have

3. The Adolescent Years

worked on with other teachers. Sometimes they reveal a previous instruction was problematic, or perhaps misunderstood. Questionnaire: ■

Have you taken voice lessons before? If so, for how long and with whom? □ Were there any vocal ideas or exercises that you worked on together with your previous teacher that you remember or that you concentrated on in your lessons? □ What kind of songs did you work on together?

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Do you sing in choir? □ What kind of choir (i.e., at school, church, outside of school, professional)? □ What part do you sing? And which part do you prefer to sing?

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Do you play any other instruments? □ How long? □ Do you play them in an ensemble, or just private study? □ Do you take private lessons for your other instrument(s)?

■

Do you speak or study any other languages? □ If studied, for how long?

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Do you participate in other art forms outside of music? For example: theater, writing, dance, or graphic arts?

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Do you play any sports?

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What styles of music do you like, and are there any that you don't care for?

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Are you involved in other singing activities outside of choir and musicals, like a band or cantoring?

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What inspired you to take lessons? □ Are there particular parts of your singing that you would like to work on together? □ What are some aspects of singing that you really enjoy?

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□

Do you have anything coming up that you are preparing for, like an audition or performance?

Throughout this interview, evaluate the students' voice and speech use. At what stage are they in their voice mutation? Do they exhibit any speech deficiencies related to malocclusion or ankyloglossia (tongue tie)? Are they receiving orthodontic therapy that might inhibit articulation? Is there noticeable jitter (instability of pitch), shimmer (instability of intensity), or nonharmonic noise in their speaking voice? What is their speaking fo? How freely do they modulate their speaking voice between vocal registers, especially between vocal fry and their lower register? Do they speak primarily in their lower or upper register? How well do they coordinate breath with phonation? How clearly do they articulate vowels and consonants? Are there signs of a heavy regional accent that could have implications on vowel resonance for singing? Do they speak with a hypernasal tone? Are there signs of hoarseness or breathiness in their speaking voice? If so, does it seem like incomplete glottal closure common to young people, or does it sound like a possible pathology? Are there regular delays in onset of the spoken tone? Students' participation in sports can provide insights into their voice use outside of singing. Shouted instructions in basketball and yelling in cheerleading can manifest in speech and singing in positive and negative ways. Perhaps they have developed a robust chest voice, but suffer worse than average access to head voice due to habitual use of high-intensity, pressed phonation. Adolescent students are often already taking lessons on one or more instruments before they begin voice lessons as instrumental study generally begins at an earlier age than vocal instruction. Students with this experience have a foundation in the fundamentals of musicianship. Woodwind and brass players may have a sense of breath control. However, they could have more difficulty learning how to balance breath flow with actions of the larynx. The embouchure for wind instruments creates strong somatic sensory feedback from the vibrating lips. The vocal folds themselves do not provide any vibrotactile feedback. This is a challenge in the development of most every singer. For wind players accustomed to balancing breath pressure against the resistance of the lips, it can be especially difficult to trust that

3. The Adolescent Years

the "singing embouchure" (glottis) is now the primary resistor, with no direct vibrotactile feedback, and 6 to 7 inches farther upstream in the respiratory system. When we speak or sing a syllable, we have a learned, intended sound outcome in mind. This expected sound outcome sets in motion the articulators and the vocal instrument to hit this auditory target (Guenther & Hampson, 1998). For example, when we say the sound /a/, that sound is the target. The intended speech sound sets in action a synergy of movements in the vocal instrument that produces a sound that is then compared to the intended target sound for accuracy. This loop of intent, action, and feedback is constant, both conscious and subconscious, and important for understanding the motor-skill learning process of teaching young singers. Targets for articulation of component sounds of speech manage rapid, synchronized movements of the face, vocal tract, larynx, and respiratory system. Rather than a set configuration of the vocal tract for each sound, the target is an acceptable result of the expected sound. A target sound can be produced by a range of vocal tract configurations (Keating, 1990). The movements of the vocal instrument for speech and song are complex and fast. When we speak, rather than consciously adjusting each individual element of the vocal instrument, we have a series of target sounds. Those target sounds are organized by language. The target is the expected, learned speech or singing sound. These targets allow for automatic adjustments and corrections when there are unexpected conditions, either from feedback or movement restrictions (Guenther, 1994). In singing, restrictions and feedback include the pitches, intervals, and rhythms of the melody that may or may not match regular, conversational speech. When working with adolescent singers, it is important to recognize that they have developed a complex array of targets through their speech development. These targets will most likely not be the most efficient target sounds for singing. Regional dialect, habitual speech patterns, vocal development, and personality will all have an influence on these targets of articulation. In addition, singing typically occurs in a different range, tessitura, and register than conversational speech. These changes affect the perception of whether or not a target sound was correctly hit. For example, the vowel /i/ sounds and feels very different

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when spoken in the lower register as compared to when it is sung in the higher register. This difference in feedback makes it difficult for the singer to tell if the target sound was hit accurately in singing. The students must discover what the target sounds feel like in their own instrument, rather than just attempting to re-create someone else's voice in their own head. Exercises should be simple and structured to lead the students to discover new sound targets. It will often take reassurance from the teacher to help them identify which sounds they made are the best targets and which ones should be discarded. During this process of discovering and learning new targets, visual feedback from programs like VoceVista can be helpful by supplying constant, instant visual feedback for the student. As young people are building their resonant voice, the changes in the visual feedback are often pronounced and easy to follow without much more instruction than, "When did the display light up?" or "What did it feel like when there were suddenly many strong lines (harmonics) on the display?" This can be a beneficial aid for building not only the auditory component of the target sound but also the somatosensory feedback needed to identify what the sound feels like in their own instrument. During the interview process, it is possible to ascertain from the students' speech use valuable insight about how wellcoordinated and developed this motor control process is in a student based on speech alone. This will give you a glimpse into the maximum proficiency level of speech motor control from which a student is starting before a single note is sung. While they might be able to sing with more sound intensity than when they speak, it is highly unlikely that they will be able to control their vocal instrument at a higher level of skill than in their casual speech. Rarely will a beginning singer be able to connect this speech motor coordination directly to song. It is likely that the introduction of a sung melody will diminish the capabilities of normal articulation. Most will favor neutral, locked vocal configurations or will flail wildly and involuntarily as they desperately try to find targets that were so easy just a moment ago in speech. A young soprano will have no trouble saying, "When I was out with my family last night." Ask her to sing a simple five-note scale from A4 to ES on a sustained /a/ and that vowel target so easily found in speech is now a nearly impossible task.

3. The Adolescent Years

Simple Vocal Evaluation

To establish a starting point for instruction, assessment of the level of singing coordination can be determined quickly and without corrective instruction. Assure the new students that they will sing a couple of simple patterns just so you can hear them. From the interview, you can estimate the speaking fo- At all stages of the life cycle of the voice, people tend to speak at a pitch roughly three semitones above their lowest singable note (Killian, 1999). The speaking fo is likely their most comfortable musical note, even if it isn't the optimal pitch for their particular vocal instrument at the present stage of voice mutation. Discretely find the pitch nearest to their speaking fo.For a male or female who has not yet completed his or her voice mutation, this will likely be near the musical note F4. Young female singers who have completed their voice change, usually by age 14 or 15, will likely have a speaking fo of approximately B3. Post-voicechange males will usually speak the range of A2 to C3. Starting from this note, have them sing simple ascending five-note scales on /la la la la la/ and /mi mi mi mi mi/. In many cases, beginning students who are in Tanner Stage IV, the high-mutation or newvoice stage of voice change, will be starting with a comfortable singing range limited to roughly one octave or less. For both syllables, it is possible to check: ■

Musical skills, including pitch accuracy, rhythm, and the ability to follow the pacing of changing patterns

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Inhalatory gesture □ A noisy inhale is created by constriction in the vocal tract causing audible turbulence (noise) in the air stream. □ Are they exclusively using clavicular breathing? Or is there any evidence of thoracic or abdominal breathing? □ How much tension do they exhibit in the neck, jaw, and lips on inhalation?

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Degree of coordination between breath pressure and phonation □ Is there noticeable jitter (instability of pitch) or shimmer (instability of intensity) across a single scale?

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□

□ □

□

How much nonharmonic noise is in the tone? Do they track subglottic pressure to the pitch by increasing breath pressure with the ascending pitch? Does the rib cage fall rapidly during phonation, or does it stay mostly stable? Does the singer have any capacity for legato, staccato, or coloratura?

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Are there any signs of vocal pathology that weren't apparent in speech?

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Laryngeal registration □ For males, this will be limited to the lower register. /a/ is not an optimal vowel for upper register full or falsetto singing, so there is little gained from using this exercise to test out the highest note in a young male. Post-voice-break males will most likely not be able to comfortably ascend beyond C4 in lower registration. For some "new baritones," G3 will be the upper limit. • Does their larynx move dependently with the changing pitch? • Do they have pressed or breathy phonation? □ For female students, a five-note scale starting on their speaking fo will either cross or come close to their break between lower and upper registers. If they are in the high-mutation phase, it is possible that there will be minimal differentiation between lower and upper registers. If they have already reached the adult voice stage, the initial five-note scale will cross that passaggio at the musical note E4. An F major five-note scale will be entirely above the passaggio. • Do they use both lower and upper registers? Or are they using one exclusively? • Is there a difference in the amount of adduction between the two registers? • Is there a sudden change in amplitude between registers? • Does the change of register cause unintended changes in breath support or articulation?

3. The Adolescent Years

■

Are there signs of speech defect caused by speech-motor issues or orthodontic appliances?

Scales on "La" can reveal: ■

Do the students already have a sense of tuning vowel formants to source harmonics? If not, /a/ will likely sound unclear and nasalized. If they do, they might find easy clarity and acoustic power on the / a/ vowel on certain notes of their range. If they are particularly good at it, the /a/ will have consistent clarity and power throughout their range.

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How well articulated is the "L"? □ Which of the two versions of the English "L" are they using? • The front, alveolar, clear L used at the beginnings of syllables (correct) • Or the back, velarized, dark L used at the ends of syllables (incorrect in this case, but the more likely outcome at this point of the process) □ Can they articulate the "L"-"A'' combination with the tongue, freely moving from a stable jaw position? Or do the tongue and jaw move locked together in a flapping/chewing motion? □ Do they have consistent velopharyngeal closure? Neither /1/ nor /a/ require nasality, so the soft palate should remain up, closing off the sound and airflow away from the nasal cavity while singing "La."

Five-note scales on "mi mi mi": ■

Are they able to articulate an /i/ while singing? □ The vowel /i/ is a semi-occluded vocal tract configuration (Titze, 2006). The tongue creates a convergence in the oral cavity near the hard palate, and the pharynx is at its most open position. However, most beginning students mistake the forward tongue position and timbre of Ii/ as a constricted throat position. By overcorrecting for this misconception, they will actively constrict

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the vocal tract or neutralize the articulation to avoid singing a clearly formed Ii/. ■

Can they rapidly change the velopharyngeal closure? □ Im/ is a nasal consonant. Can they clearly articulate Im/ without also nasalizing the Ii/? □ While this seems simple, it requires rapid changes in the velopharyngeal closure. It is unlikely they have any awareness of this oscillating position even if they can execute it correctly.

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How much clarity is there in the Ii/? □ Ii/ has a large split between the first and second formants. This makes it a very useful tool for instruction, but it is often confusing for young singers. If they can achieve intensity in the upper harmonics falling in the bandwidth of the second formant, it is a sign that they can clearly articulate Ii/. □ The strong harmonics in this frequency range also show that they are getting some degree of efficiency from the voice source. A resonant voice will have stronger upper harmonics. Inefficient phonation will often lack any harmonics above 2000 Hz. You can either check this with spectrum analyzer software or just listen for whether it is a good Ii/ or not. □ The low first formant of Ii/ means that both male and female students should be experiencing a major acoustic registration event within the first few transpositions of the scale. • Is there a discernable shift in vowel timbre between the lowest and highest notes? • Or do they avoid timbre changes by actively modifying the vocal tract with the changing pitch?

The final steps in the vocal evaluation can be lip trills for both male and female students, and checking to see if males can access upper register in a falsetto engagement. Lip trills are a semi-occluded vocal tract exercise (SOVT) that are very useful for building technique. Unlike tongue trills (rolled "r"), most students will be able to produce a lip trill. Students who are in

3. The Adolescent Years

a choir, or have had previous vocal instruction, will likely recognize this exercise right away and will already be comfortable with some of the "silly" sounds used to build vocal technique. If it is the first time students have heard or attempted a lip trill, their ability to produce it will give you an idea of how much access they have to their speech motor controls to create novel vocal sounds. Premutation males should be able to sing in a clear, flexible upper register. "New baritones" will often have a substantial pitch gap between chest and falsetto in the range of C4 to F4. Some will not be able to produce any tone at all in the upper register. In these cases, one of the tasks of the first semester of study will be establishing access to the falsetto. If the student seems to have completed the voice mutation, the upper register should be easily produced. While a sudden jump in pitch across register changes is expected, there should not be the same gap in range between these registers as with a new baritone.

Getting Started Sound is created by the vibrating vocal folds. They change length, thickness, and stiffness to alter pitch and mode of phonation. When adduction is clean and phonation is efficient, the opening and closing vocal folds give a rich spectrum of source harmonics. Improving the function of the larynx and vibration of the vocal folds is like tuning up the engine of a car and then learning how to shift through the different gears.

When I first learned to drive a stick shift, I would often leave the old farm truck in one gear to avoid the awkward coordination of clutch and transmission. That certainly wasn't a good solution to the problem, but it is easy to make the same mistake with vocal registers.

It is normal for beginning singers to try to make-do with a single laryngeal and acoustical register across their entire vocal range. This limits the voice to roughly an octave of singable notes. Students are often instinctually reluctant to allow any changes in registration because the resulting shift in auditory

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feedback is so startling and funny sounding in their own ear. At first, switching between lower and upper registers will cause a sudden, involuntary change in pitch, timbre, and intensity-the dreaded "crack!" Voice cracking may be embarrassing, but it is simply an unskilled change in register. The vocal mechanism has just undergone a massive change, so it is natural that this skill must be learned now. Avoiding the crack prevents the voice from discovering its true potential. It is important to overcome this fear and develop a skillful transition between registers and embrace the differences in auditory and somatic feedback between the two registers. SOVT exercises provide a safe environment, both emotionally and physically, for the exploration of laryngeal registers. SOVT exercises utilize nonlanguage sounds. By nearly closing the opening of the mouth or introducing a downstream resister to the vocal tract, the resonances are lowered to the point where vowels are no longer perceived. The resonances are essentially disengaged, and you can concentrate on revving the engine of the vibrating vocal folds. In addition to teaching balanced breath support, SOVT exercises should focus on crossings of the break between lower and upper registers, which for prevoice-change students will be roughly A4 (Cooksey, 1984). For both male and female voices, postmutation, the break between these modes will be around E4. In new baritones with difficulty finding their falsetto, SOVT exercises alternating between lower and upper registers can be especially helpful in reestablishing the thin mechanism of falsetto. If this practice has been established premutation and continued through the voice change, there is a chance that the gap between modes will not be nearly as large or difficult to manage after the voice drop. There are many kinds of SOVT exercises. Several types are covered in detail in Chapter 8.

FROM THE TEACHERS Voice Teacher 1. Marianne Wilumsen Lewis

Marianne works with the Children Choirs of the Norwegian Opera and Ballet and in the music program ofMajorstuen Skole.

3. The Adolescent Years

The Short Career of a Boy Soprano-A Teacher's Perspective I started working with the acclaimed Norwegian boy soprano, Aksel Rykkvin, when he joined the children's choir at the Norwegian National Opera and Ballet. He was then 10 years old, and had already been singing in a boys' choir since he was 5. He had a very sweet, natural soprano voice and his musicality was obvious. He hadn't really worked much on his technique, so we started straight away with working on his breathing. As do many children, he lifted his shoulders when breathing without any contact with the deeper stomach muscles. We worked for a few weeks mostly on his breathing, with different breathing exercises to make his stomach automatically go out when he inhaled. Many children find this quite hard. When that was under control, we started searching for his best head tones, when singing the vowels "o" and "u." Then we worked with the position of the tongue, lip and mouth muscles, and posture. He responded very quickly to my teaching, absorbed what I said, and immediately worked on what he had learned in the lesson, going straight home and repeating everything he could remember, or what we had written down. Aksel's voice developed with amazing speed, and he started singing solo concerts as a boy soprano after about a year. When he was 12, he made his first recording with The Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment in London. The CD was very well received worldwide. Following the recording, his career started to take off, and he was invited to sing concerts all over Europe. I have often gone with him as his vocal coach for dress rehearsals and prior to his concerts. When we haven't been traveling, he has had a very close follow-up with two to five singing lessons per week due to the magnitude of repertoire he has had to learn in a very short space of time. These include concerts and several significant children's solo roles in modern and classical operas. I normally tell my students to have a lot of patience, but that's not really possible with boy sopranos! No matter what the voice, a key and common denominator at all times for the young singer is careful choice of repertoire. Tailor the choice of music to each pupil, avoid too dramatic repertoire, and never force the voice in a direction it doesn't want to go.

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Now at the age of 14, Aksel's voice has just broken, and he is quite proud to call himself a young baritone. The break was not dramatic and went quite smoothly. He was singing as a soprano one week, and the next he could sing as a baritone. We continue to work as we always have, but he has become more aware of his instrument after the break, and enjoys testing out his "new voice." He also loves the new repertoire, everything from opera to Lieder and musicals. While he was still singing as a boy soprano, we talked a lot about how it would be when he could no longer sing all these lovely high notes and fast runs. I tried to prepare him for the inevitable by talking about the change as something to look forward to and something he might want to happen. So instead of losing something, he would gain something really exciting. And of course: He wouldn't want to stay a boy soprano for the rest of his life!

Voice Teacher 2. Ken Donovan

(An experienced tenor who bas sung in the Lyric Opera of Chicago Chorus for over 25 years and teaches private voice lessons.) I train my students with the same basic technique and require all students to work on classical repertoire for their lessons. I begin the discussion about technique from the bottom up: a thorough explanation of breath support, pharyngeal space as it relates to acoustics and resonance, and tongue position for vowels. This often results in faster technical progress and better recognition of "when it feels right," as they experience why and what singing involves as many parts of the body work in a coordinated manner. Some young girls have a breathy head voice while others have a chest voice that they bring up too high for a pinched throaty, or nasal, bright sound, and sometimes the same girl has both. Most boys' voices are still going through the voice change when they start voice lessons during their freshman year of high school. I will typically see raised shoulders during their inhalation and tightening of the lower jaw when the larynx raises as they attempt to sing higher. ■

When working on breath support, I have them take in the breath over four beats, focusing on both lower body

3. The Adolescent Years

expansion and letting the inhalation open the back of the throat, telling them to breathe into the shape of the vowel they will be singing. ■

The first vocal exercise is usually a descending five-note scale on "i" or "e." We expand that to an ascending and then descending five-note scale (123454321) on the same vowel as the first exercise, and then alternate between two vowels on each pitch of a five-note descending scale ("u" and "i" or "e" and "o"), focusing on similarities between vowels and the pharyngeal space.

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Straw phonation exercises on an ascending and descending perfect fifth slide through a narrow straw followed by singing three five-note scales on "i," "e," and "a." Singers notice how much better their throat feels and how singing feels more effortless. Singers do onset exercises, 1234 5555 54321, starting with a legato scale up, then four repeated staccato notes, followed by a legato scale back down. With time and practice, they start developing the coordination between their breath support and a less constricted throat. Issues are due to both being new to voice lessons and to their young age and physical development.

Voice Teacher 3. Catherine Delanoy

(Author of "Warming Up With Rounds" and "8 Steps to Harmonization," Shawnee Press, and an experienced middle school music educator.) The chasm between elementary school singing and high school choir is huge, and the middle school choir director plays a vital role in helping bridge that gap. Perseverance is the key to getting results in the middle school choir classroom. Students join choir for different reasons, but having confidence plus a real desire to improve are big factors in their success. All of my middle school choir students want to sound "older" and are especially motivated after hearing the high school singers who perform in our classroom every year. In lieu of private voice lessons, I give the students mini voice lessons during warm-ups. Every single day, we cover posture and breathing, vowel placement, focus of

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tone, and consonants. Each new exercise is explained in terms of technique and how it affects their vocal output. While the boys are constantly negotiating their everchanging instrument, it is the girls who often make a subtler transition as they begin to gradually grow into their adult voice. A favorite exercise to that end focuses on vowel formation. Singers must find that "inch of space" where their jaw hinge attaches to their skull. Once jaws are dropped, they sing what I call an "open oo." The "open oo" gives them that cavernous feeling in the back of their mouths while using a vowel that easily blends with their fellow singers. Once they feel the resonance not only in their own voice, but in the ringing sound produced when singers join with a perfectly blended vowel, they are hooked! Another foundational vocal exercise employs the different vowel formations that I expect my singers to use in all of their music. Using a Do-Mi-Re-Fa-Mi-Sol-Fa-Re-Do pattern, singers start with a slack "ah" followed by an "ah" with high cheekbones. A spread "ee" is followed by an "ee" with relaxed lips. A neutral "oh" is changed into an "oh" with a high palate. A small, tight "oo" sound then transitions to the familiar "open oo." These techniques are simple, but when practiced daily, they can have profound results. Brianna, who was in my choir for all 3 years of middle school, sang for me at the beginning of eighth grade to test her range. As she moved into her upper register, out rang beautiful high notes with a pure, focused tone. I asked her in amazement, "How did you learn to sing so beautifully, Brianna?" Her response was touching: "You taught me, Mrs. Delanoy!" Bless her heart. She listened. She applied herself. It takes time, but with perseverance, these vocal exercises can have a huge payoff.

Voice Teacher 4. Kyle Sackett

(A young baritone and voice teacher who teaches at a 4-year liberal arts college and privately.) The changing voice can add an incredible amount of insecurity to a young singer. Given a sturdy foundation of technique, the student may forget how the change even happened.

3. The Adolescent Years

I first met Anthony when he was 13, a boy soprano and, to use his words, an aspiring Verdi tenor. There are not many students, particularly at his age, who enter with the kind of determination and passion for classical singing as Anthony. His musical intuition was quite high. He had strong intonation, a knack for phrase structure, and an ear for language. Though, with his limited range (about an octave from F4-F5 and shrinking by the week), choosing repertoire was a challenge. We focused on foundations of technique and production-breath, vibration, resonance-that would ultimately serve him no matter when or how his voice would settle. Anthony approached all notes with confidence and gusto, until he simply could not. There was a stark contrast between his chest and head voice. He sang with warmth and balance of color until the bottom of the voice seemed to drop out and he was forced to flip into a thin, heady vocal quality. To address this stark contrast, we approached these transitions similar to that of teaching a developed female voice. More time was spent in a mixed voice than predominant male chest quality. This strategy of highlighting and understanding transitions in the voice (primo and secondo passaggios) allowed Anthony to navigate between his vocal modes. While those modes would be changing relatively quickly, he understood that not all notes were created equal, and in order to avoid a shouted quality, some pitches require a headier quality, or turned-over approach. The image of an hourglass aided him here: narrowing through the break, and allowing the voice to open once above it. Even in his lighter head voice, I encouraged connection and vibrancy, using semi-occluded vowels, [i] and [e], as well as sustained "V" sounds and straw phonation. His breath production was often focused in the upper chest and shoulders (clavicular breathing). We did things like "lifting the piano," playing tug of war, and even singing in a standing pushup position against the wall, to engage from a lower, more anchored place. Images were a vehicle for understanding, such as creating a dome-cathedrallike space in the head for velum and pharyngeal stretch, or a clothesline of breath on which consonants are placed to reinforce legato singing. I began to hear the development of this young singer as he consistently worked to implement these concepts. He also self-identified when he fell short. My hope was that these techniques would translate to his "new voice."

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Over the next 4 to 6 months, Anthony matured, his masculine frame filled out, and his voice began to settle. He enjoyed weight training and took boxing lessons. These hobbies provided him a great deal of muscular awareness, aiding in the development of his singing as it pertained to breath connection and muscular antagonism. While his voice lowered, few "traditional flaws" took place, such as cracking and an elevated larynx. I credit this to his steady practice; deep, anchored breath connection; agility through the passaggio; and vocal awareness. Teaching young voices requires instruction that is image focused but pedagogically based. The language may change, but the concepts remain the same.

Voice Teacher S. Chadley Ballantyne: Four Student Examples Chris, Age 14

Chris started lessons after his voice mutation. He enjoyed singing in choir and musicals, but after his voice mutation, he could only produce a monotone and gravelly bass voice at approximately A2. His range was limited to A2 to G3. His choir director recommended that he take lessons to relearn how to match pitch in his new voice. At his first lesson, he was a little embarrassed about his gravelly voice, but he was excited to learn how to use it. We started with SOVT exercises described in Chapter 8, such as a "straw in a glass of water," "buzzing cards," and lip trills. These established a clean onset, sustained phonation in the range of his speaking fo, and eventually established a steady tone with less nasality. I then introduced him to close timbre /u/ vowel on simple speech glides spanning approximately the notes A2 to G3. When Chris could hit the target sound a few times, we added another goal. I wanted him to tune that sound to a steady musical pitch, near the pitch at the peak of his speech glides. His intonation and range improved progressing to G2 to G3. The close timbre /u/ helps overcome vertical tracking with the larynx as the pitch ascends. A vowel with a higher first formant, like / a/, has such a strong open timbre in the speaking

3. The Adolescent Years

range that the larynx will often begin rising with an ascending pitch as early as C3. Once he was comfortable crossing back and forth over the interval of a perfect fifth between open and close timbre on lo - u - o/, it was possible to change the pattern and introduce the open vowel to the pitches around G3. The combination of Io - u/ while ascending in pitch uses open to close timbre to establish good phonation and positioning of the vocal tract. Shifting from /u/ to /o/ after arriving at the higher pitch raises the first formant to the second harmonic, creating open timbre. The vowels /u/ and /i/ can remain in close timbre without modification to approximately D4 for most young baritones. By leading the vocal instrument to G3 with the close timbre /u/, Chris was able to experience the acoustically powerful open timbre /o/ with an open throat position created by the preceding /u/. Jason, Age 14

Jason also started lessons shortly after his voice mutation. Although his struggles were not as severe as Chris's, he was having trouble with range and matching pitch. His range at our first lesson was G2 to G3. As expected, he was using hypernasality, neutralized vowel articulations, and tracking the pitch with the vertical position of the larynx to avoid any turns and instabilities in his voice. During the first semester of our work together, we established close timbre on /i/ and /u/ at G3. Then we extended this to timbre crossings of /el and /o/. These vowels have similar first formant locations, and for a young baritone, they cross from open to close timbre at approximately C4. By using stepwise transpositions of the patterns described above, we established a consistent close timbre for the vowels /ii, /u/, / el, and / o/ in the range of C4 to E4. SOVT exercises increased his flexibility. They conditioned his voice to switch freely between carrying the tension for pitch in the thyroarytenoid muscle to the vocal ligament, improving his ability to navigate the passaggio. At the end of his first semester of lessons, he was able to comfortably vocalize to E-flat 4 while maintaining a relatively stable laryngeal posture and without

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shouting.Jason was excited about being able to sing in this range without straining. He was also interested in how vocal acoustics work. We used VoceVista (Sygyt Software) as visual feedback before moving on to explore the sounds of individual harmonics and understand how they comprise the sounds we perceive. Not only does VoceVista make it possible to see the spectrum of sounds, but it also makes it possible to listen to individual harmonics. Hearing the overtone series that is present in our speaking and singing voices is quite helpful. This aids in the process of overcoming the technical challenges and emotional barriers that can prevent exploring new areas of the voice. His interest in the way the sounds of the voice work was not unique among the adolescent students. I have learned to never underestimate what young people can comprehend when they are given the tools to experience and understand a concept in their own voice. Elizabeth, Age 13

Elizabeth was a severe "under-doer." She was hesitant to express herself verbally. During our first lessons, I was concerned that she would never be willing or able to engage her voice. Demonstrations, vocalizing, and encouragement did not yield much improvement. Answers to questions were one-word, noncommittal utterances. Despite this, she was always at her lesson on time and willing to mumble through the exercises. Our breakthrough was using VoceVista software as a simple "strength meter." When the spectrogram would light up with strong harmonics, she knew that she was creating a resonant tone. This became a simple video game for her. Once we had some acoustic material to work with, I could guide her through the passaggio between the lower and upper registers. I could help her to begin improving vowel articulations and establish whoop timbre with /i/ and /u/ near B4. She used the visual feedback of VoceVista to increase her awareness of auditory and somatosensory stimuli. She could then associate this stimuli with changes in register, intensity, and timbre in her voice. Her voice was now engaging enough to create strong upper harmonics. It helped me recognize that Elizabeth could be resonant while still sounding like an adolescent.

3. The Adolescent Years

Jennifer, Age 13

In our initial lessons, Jennifer struggled to communicate. Her speaking voice was a monotone near A3 and her production had a severely pressed quality. Her speech was halting, unsteady, and difficult to understand. Her vocal range was limited. She could sing from approximately G3 through F4, and she could not access her upper register. SOVT exercises helped to establish her lower and upper registers. She strengthened and improved her breath control. She also began to release the tension in her neck, tongue, and jaw. Our second area of focus was the articulation of /1/, /n/, and / d/. Jennifer exhibited severe versions of articulation issues common in adolescents. Jennifer used only a heavy version of the back-L. She also inflected initial consonants at a much lower pitch than the following vowel. Jennifer constricted the entire vocal tract to articulate consonants. Exercises to correct these articulation issues included simple patterns of "La La La," "Na, Na, Na," and "Da, Da, Da." They focused on using the tip of the tongue against the alveolar ridge articulation with independence from the jaw. We started this work in her comfortable speaking range and expanded it when she could sing comfortably in her upper register. To strengthen the upper register, we focused on finding whoop timbre for /u/ and /i/ between A4 and C5, /e/ and /o/ from D5 to E5, and eventually /a/ at F5. As her range expanded, we used VoceVista to first understand how articulation moved the formants through the spectrum of harmonics. Then, we used it to interpret the auditory and somatosensory feedback of articulation. The changes in feedback were sometimes distracting and even overwhelming. It was important for her to overcome her fear of feedback changes and vocal instability by associating these sensations with specific registration events and articulation actions. As her vocal function and articulation improved during her first 2 years of study, so did her ability to express herself verbally. It was so rewarding to see her restrictions while speaking fall away and reveal a thoughtful, highly intelligent, and expressive young person.

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Weber, B. (2010, August 23). Dr. James M. Tanner, an expert on how children grow, is dead at 90. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/24/science/24tanner.html Wiener Sangerknaben. (2017). Retrieved from http://www.wsk.at/ ueber_uns Willis, E. C., & Kenny, D. T. (2008). Relationship between weight, speaking fundamental frequency, and the appearance of phonational gaps in the adolescent male changing voice.Journal of Voice, 22(4), 451-471. Witzel, M.A., & Munro, I. R. 0977). Velopharyngeal insufficiency after maxillary advancement. The Cleft PalateJournal, 14(2), 176-180. Wu, A., McGrath, C., Wong, R. W., Wiechmann, D., & Rabie, A. B. (2011). Comparison of oral impacts experienced by patients treated with labial or customized lingual fixed orthodontic appliances. American Journal ofOrthodontics & Dentofacial Orthopedics, 139(6), 784-790. Xue, S. A., Cheng, R., & Ng, L. (2010). Vocal tract dimensional development of adolescents: An acoustic reflection study. International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology, 74, 907-912. Yarttadur, G., Basciftci, F. A., & Ozturk, K. (2017). The effects of rapid maxillary expansion on voice function. Angle Orthodontist, 87(1), 49-55.

4 Young Adult

INTRODUCTION From adolescence through the young adult years, the influence of sex hormones on growth and development of the vocal instrument is profound for the male and female singing voice. It is also vastly different between the two, not synchronized by age, but rather differentiated according to sex. The 17- to 19-year-old male student is in the latest Tanner stage of adolescence, labeled by Cooksey as the "settling baritone." Testosterone, measured in nanograms per deciliter (ng/ dl), reaches the highest levels, 300 to 1,200 ng/dl at 17 to 18 years of age, and is 300 to 950 ng/dl at ages 19 and 20. After that, it begins to decline approximately 1% each year until the age of 70 (Segal & Mastroianni, 2003). Most males have the range of a baritone before the age of 21, despite vocal qualities that may hint toward their future voice category. Growth and development continues until 27 years of age. In comparison to women, puberty in males begins later and ends later. There is also a later trajectory for peak adult years of singing for males (Miller, 1996). For females, the hormonal fluctuations associated with the monthly menstrual cycle are normally predictable during the young adult years and will remain so until menopause. Vocal folds, laryngeal cartilage, and vocal tract size reach their adult size and proportions between the late teens up until the age of 20. Coupling of the nonlinear elements of vibration and resonance 139

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is more possible than at the same age in males. Lighter female voice types, such as soubrettes and coloraturas, may show competitive capabilities as early as 21 years of age. Larger voices tend to mature later in both male and female. The later the vocal maturation, the older the longevity. Longevity of vocal types has sexual and voice type differences (Miller, 1996). Despite maturation differences between male and female, young adults are ready to begin serious training at a college or university or with independent voice teachers. Posture, vocal coordination, muscular strength, maturing vocal fold structure, and a longer developed vocal tract offer new possibilities for singing. The recent vulnerable pubertal voices will now begin to experience hormonal stability for the next few decades.

EDUCATION This is prime time to mold the vocal instrument. Voice teachers, choral directors, collaborative pianists, and college-level coursework in music are vital to the education and development of singers. The best young adult voice students are those who love to sing, enjoy experimenting with sounds, and have a discerning ear. Taking music lessons on other instruments along with music theory as a child and adolescent contributes a great deal to musical and vocal success at the start of the young adult years for classical singers, music theater (MT), and other contemporary commercial music (CCM) styles. Colleges and universities offer Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Music, and Master of Music degrees in vocal performance (usually inferring classical music) and music education. Some schools offer degrees or certificates in MT, and other CCM styles, or a combination of classical and nonclassical styles. There are opportunities for nonmusic majors to take voice lessons and music classes, as well as participate in choirs, opera, music theater, acapella groups, and more. Some classical singers do their training with independent voice teachers and do not go to college. They may take vocal study seriously through lessons, coachings, rehearsals, performances, and self-study. Numerous successful classical singers

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take this route. Probably slightly more young adult MT and CCM singers train with independent voice teachers outside of formal education. Television shows such as American Idol, The Sing-Off, The Glee Project, The Voice, and America's Got Talent have inspired many young adults to pursue singing. The lines for auditions for American Idol sometimes stretched for blocks. Fine young singers have benefited from appearances on these television shows and gone on to have anywhere from local to major star careers. Preparation for professional performance opportunities is geared toward working primarily with "for-profit" entities. Preparation for professional classical performance opportunities is geared toward working with "not-for-profit" organizations. MT and other CCM styles in undergraduate and graduate college/university curriculum may include voice lessons, vocal pedagogy, dance, acting techniques, history of the lyric theater, audition techniques, movement, Alexander techniques, camera techniques, technology, improvisation, aural skills, stage crew, repertoire, piano, courses for various vocal styles, vocal pedagogy, and music theory. Classical vocal performance undergraduate and graduate college/university curriculum may include voice lessons, theory, aural skills, keyboard skills, vocal pedagogy, diction, languages, music history, opera workshop, choir, and repertoire study from many musical periods and languages in art song, oratorio, concert, opera, and recitative. Singers whose voices show potential during undergraduate education may choose further study in vocal performance privately or through graduate schools with professional goals in mind. For them, this begins a more competitive cycle of auditioning for graduate schools, performance opportunities, summer programs, young artist programs, and competitions. Realistic expectations and a resilient attitude can make auditioning a positive learning experience.

RESPIRATION

The respiratory system reaches maturity during the young adult years. The primary purpose of the respiratory system is

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to maintain a homeostasis, an equilibrium in gas exchange, throughout life. The two main parts are the upper and lower respiratory tract. The upper respiratory tract includes the mouth, nose, pharynx, and larynx. The lower respiratory tract starts with the trachea that branches into a right and left main bronchi into each lung. Each bronchus enters a lung and branches many times to progressively smaller bronchi and then bronchioles that divide repeatedly with each successive generation doubling in number in each lung. The 16th generation of terminal bronchioles have alveoli in their walls that lead to alveolar ducts and sacs in generation 23, where the walls are entirely composed of alveoli. This is where the gases, oxygen, and carbon dioxide are exchanged (Rhoades, 2013). The number of alveoli in the human lung varies according to the stature of each person and increases from 20 to 50 million in newborns to 274 to 790 million after adolescence. The mean number of alveolar in adults is 480 million. After adolescence, alveoli only increase in size, and have limited ability to repair themselves once damaged, such as can happen due to smoking (Ochs et al., 2004). Blood vessels to the alveoli are not fully muscularized until approximately 19 years of age (Wilson, 1994). The lungs are located within the thorax formed by the sternum, ribs, and thoracic vertebral column (Ward, Ward, & Leach, 2010). The lung's ability to distend and recoil matures for the first two decades of life. The density of elastin fibers in the terminal airways increases so that recoil during expiration is easier. Vital capacity is the amount of air that can be expelled after a maximum inhalation. That measurement depends on a person's size and sex, along with other factors, and is usually between 3 and 5+ liters. Young male adults have a vital capacity of 3.5 to 5.9 liters of air (Beck, 2010). The breath rate in both males and females is 12 to 20 bpm according to PALS Guidelines, 2015, and remains at that rate through old age (Novak, 2016). Males consume more energy and have larger cranial airways than females. They have greater respiratory capacity and their ribcage volume is 10% to 12% larger than females (Bastir, Higuero, Rios, & Martinez, 2014). Larger lung size in mature males is due to a greater number of alveoli, as compared to mature women (Mcclaran, Harms, Pegelow, & Dempsey, 1998).

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Women have smaller lung volumes and maximal expiratory flow rates relative to men. Women spend less time in inspiration while at rest, with differences across the menstrual cycle attributed to the stimulating effects of estrogen and progesterone. There are differences between men and women in the initiation and termination of speech due to chest wall compliance. When a woman initiates speech, she begins with a higher lung volume than men. At the end of a sentence, when speech is terminated, she has lower lung, rib cage, and abdominal volumes. However, men and women achieve similar tracheal pressure. To achieve this, women either use more expiratory muscle force and/or start with a higher lung volume (Stathopoulos & Sapienza, 1997). There are 24 movable vertebrae in the spine, plus the sacrum and coccyx, which are fused together. Male vertebrae are larger than female vertebrae. The top 7 are called cervical vertebrae, and the next 12 are called thoracic vertebrae. The lower 5 are called lumbar vertebrae. The 24 ribs are each connected to a thoracic vertebra that undergoes size and shape changes throughout life. Their geometry, location, and orientation (angle) are variable according to age, sex, and location along the vertebrae. From young adulthood to old age, the ribs slowly become more perpendicular to the spine in both men and women, accounting for a more barrel-chested look toward middle age. Up until the age of 20, the curvature of the spine becomes straighter. After 20, there is an incremental rounding of the back that is greater in females than in males (Weaver, Schoell, & Stitzel, 2014). As you look at Figure 4-1, recall, from Chapter 1, that the ribs of newborns flare outward, are compliant, and are cartilage rather than bone. The human skeleton, in both male and female, changes in proportions and size. It ossifies over the course of the lifespan. Ossification of the ribs, clavicles, and vertebrae is usually complete by 25 years of age. Ossification of the sternum can take until the third or fourth decade of life (Bayarogullari et al., 2014). Intercostal muscle tone continues to strengthen in young adults. Ossification of the ribs and stronger intercostal muscles contribute a sturdy framework and functionality vital for a greater variety of vocal tones, colors, texture, volumes, and range.

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...,.,,.,

' FIGURE 4-1. Changes in skeletal proportions and size from infancy through adult.

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VIBRATION

By 18 years of age, the laryngeal cartilages, thyroid, cricoid, and two arytenoids are fully developed with adult proportions. The arytenoids are now a smaller percentage of the posterior glottal space, rather than what they were during childhood (Kelchner, Brehm, & Weinrich, 2014). The vocal folds are fully developed with five differentiated layers. The epithelium has an additional third layer of cells. The superficial, intermediate, and deep layers now form a mature lamina propria. The throarytenoid (TA) is fully formed in the deepest part of the vocal folds. In males this results in thicker vocal folds and elastin tissues that are more abundant in the cover than in the vocal ligament. Male vocal folds are 23 mm in length. Female vocal folds are 18 mm in length (Abitbol, 2006). The spongy infant cartilages of the larynx become firmer throughout childhood and adolescence (Savdovic, Delic, Isakovic, & Ljuca, 2010). Cartilages start to ossify during the later young adult years. As cartilage cells die, they are replaced by osteoblasts that cluster in ossification centers. The formation of bone spreads outward from those centers. Ossification of the thyroid cartilage begins sooner than other cartilages of the laryngeal structure. The thyroid consists of a right and left lamina, and superior and inferior horns in both rear sections. During the young adult years, thyroid cartilage ossification starts in both sexes, beginning at the posterior portion of the thyroid on the inferior horns. Increasing ossification incrementally offers more laryngeal stability in the young adult years, and even more so in the adult years (Tiirkman, 2012).

RESONANCE

Facial and vocal tract growth in females is close to complete by the upper teens. In males, that growth continues into the mid-20s. Growth of the palatal length, width, and height, with differences between male and female, continues to grow until approximately the age of 20. The length of the mandible grows significantly more and for a longer period in men than women. In men, the nasopharyngeal length and the oropharyngeal width area continue to grow. The length of the soft palate and the

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velopharyngeal area continues to grow throughout life in both males and females (Akguner, 1999). Between the ages of 18 and 24, wisdom teeth become apparent in most adults. They are also called third molars and are not expected to erupt into functional teeth. They often become partially or completely impacted and can cause swelling, become painful, and affect adjacent teeth and bone (Dodson, 2014). During the mid-1990s, surgical intervention to remove wisdom teeth was the most frequent procedure performed in young adults. Currently, there is more of a noninterventionist approach, with questions on both sides as to what is the best to do or not to do (Fernandes, Ogden, Pitts, Ogston, & Ruta, 2010). The greatest difference in speaking pitch between the sexes occurs in the early 20s. The speaking pitch in females from 19 to 29 years of age is 225 Hz and will lower later in life. From 19 to 29 years of age in males, the fundamental frequency is 121 Hz, and stays stable until the sixth decade, when it begins to rise gradually. However, in trained voice professionals, especially singers, female and male vocal technique maintains speaking pitch so that age-related senescent changes are not as prominent (Nishio & Niimi, 2008). EXPECTATIONS

Self-motivation is important when a young adult wants to pursue singing at a higher level for personal and/or professional reasons. Students are drawn to singing for various reasons. Some like the history, poetry, or story. Others like the physical challenge of singing and how it feels to produce sound. Yet others enjoy the mathematics of notation and the physics of sound and harmony. Some like the dramatic and presentation aspects of their voice on stage in front of an audience. If singers put their reasons in an order from their favorite to least favorite, the last on the list probably needs the most attention and self-motivation.

Voice Lessons During the young adult years, one-on-one voice lessons are of primary importance for those who enjoy singing and just want

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to improve and/or those who may be considering a career as a singer. The effectiveness of one-on-one voice lessons has not been thoroughly researched and is poorly documented. According to one resource, the evidence that does exist indicates semitransparent methods that are highly idiosyncratic in pedagogic vocabulary and the teaching process (Welch, Howard, Himonides, & Bereton, 2005). Working with voice students means working with a musical instrument that cannot be seen while playing it. Verbiage describing best practices and concepts for classical singing has been handed down over centuries. As of the last quarter of the 20th century, voice science has benefited from advances in technology to see the larynx, vocal folds, and vocal tract. Software and spectral analysis apps are used not only in the "clinic" but also in the voice studio and the practice room. It provides real-time feedback for vocal acoustics that can be tracked over time to provide analysis of vocal issues and vocal improvement (Howard & Murphy, 2008). These include legato, pitch, spectral analysis, vibrato, staccati, coloratura, pitch, ring, and vowel accuracy. Acoustic differences between classical and CCM styles can be seen and compared to the varying vocal techniques they use. An ongoing challenge to closing the gap between the art of singing and vocal science is the disparate languages used to talk about the voice between the medical and scientific community and the voice teaching community (Clemmons, 2006). The newest generation of voice teachers is more inclined to adopt the language and application of physiology and acoustics as they work on their own singing and their students'. "Teachers need to know how to stimulate vocal tract behaviors and tunings now known to be favorable" (Bozeman, 2017, p. 1). Newer vocal pedagogy textbooks, and training in vocology have contributed toward this "new normal." It is an excellent addition to experiential vocal, musical, language, performance, and repertoire knowledge handed down through centuries and still useful in the voice studio (Welch, Howard, Himonides, & Bereton, 2005). Vocal pedagogy merits constant revitalization as new understandings about the voice, based on scientific research, offer significantly better approaches in the voice studio for all genres

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Within the voice studio good rapport with students is stimulated when a teacher has an "indisputable foundation" of technical, artistic, and musical expertise, authority, and knowledge (Clemmons, 2006). Science will never replace the special one-onone rapport and singular attention given to students in the studio. Through it, students learn that singing is a process and not just a product. Together, teachers and students carefully listen for sounds that may reveal a truth, or a new aspect of their unique voice (Brown, 2016). Listening, dialogue, experimentation, fairness, realistic expectations, vocal challenges, feedback, solutions, losses, and wins all lead the way to progress (Frey-Monell, 2010) The American Academy of Teachers of Singing position paper, titled "In Support of Fact-Based Voice Pedagogy and Terminology," states,

"Now, building on the efforts of Garcia, Miller, and other pioneers, the American Academy of Teachers of Singing, informed by new and convincing evidence from disciplines such as anatomy, physiology, kinesthesiology, vocology, cognitive science, and psychology, states its full endorsement of Twenty-First Century, fact-based, and functional voice pedagogy and terminology. "The Academy believes that singing teachers and other voice professionals have a tremendous opportunity as well as a professional responsibility to expand their teaching skills through a clearer understanding of the actual mechanics of the singing system. The Academy acknowledges the value of the use of imagery and kinesthetic feedback in the teaching of singing. However, the efficacy of these devices is extremely variable. Knowledge of what is actually happening in the singing system, how it is functioning to produce the desired results, empowers teachers to direct their students to work consistently toward healthy, efficient, stylistically correct, and artistic performances." ("In Support of Fact-Based Voice Pedagogy and Terminology," 2014)

Despite assumptions to the contrary, research shows that there is no distinguishable difference between trained and

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untrained young adult speaking voices (Brown, Rothman, & Sapienza, 2000). It also shows that there is no reportable

variance between nasal resonance in the singing of trained or untrained singers (Fowler & Morris, 2007). However, there are distinguishable differences in singing, due to vocal training, in maximum phonational frequency range (MPFR). After only four semesters of voice lessons, the singing range increases much more in trained voices than in untrained voices (Mendes, Rothman, Sapienze, & Brown, 2003). Vibrato is a characteristic of singing in many styles. Vibrato rate can be measured for extent, regularity, and waveform. Normal vibrato rate is 5 to 7 Hz per second. In CCM styles, choral singing, and early music, it is used or not used for various affects. In classical singing, it is a more intrinsic quality in vocal production, and more difficult to maintain when singing softer than at louder decibels (Miirbe, Kuhlisch, & Sundberg, 2007). The singer's formant is a key feature of professional classical singing and rarely achieved without vocal training. It is a cluster of the third, fourth, and fifth formants centered around 2400 to 3200 Hz (Bozeman, 2013). It makes it possible to carry over an orchestra and is sensed by the singer as an overall efficient, dynamic presence in the coordination of the singing effort. It is most noticed in tenors, baritones, basses, and mezzos. In sopranos, it is less distinguishable from other harmonic clusters. Basses and baritones usually have five formants, tenors and mezzos four, and sopranos three, due to their vocal range. It is not created by pure chance but rather reflects a learned ability to control and coordinate the vocal source and the vocal tract. Singers have three changeable vocal options to increase the singer's formant cluster. They can change the geometry of the epilarynx tube, change the amount of glottal adduction, or increase subglottal pressure. This will, in turn, affect the nonlinear interaction of the source vibration with the first part of the vocal tract. The singer can search for the appropriate amount of breath flow or increase the closed quotient of the maximum flow declination rate (Howard, Williams, & Herbst, 2014). Students and teachers work to rebalance these constantly. It is not unusual for eager students to become impatient about their vocal progress. Imitating vocal production that they are not ready for can lead to "faux" resonance strategy substitutes

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that are poor, and even debilitating vocal choices. Such behaviors can turn into bad habits that are hard to break. Teachers must be on the lookout visually and aurally for tensions such as pressing, overblowing, hyper vocal production, and extremely high laryngeal positions. Young singers may perform and/or train in multiple singing genres at the same time. Vocal production differences between CCM and classical styles can include laryngeal position; a variety of epilarynx posturing; breath pressure variations; vibrato; timbre; nasality, noise, and breathiness; an inverted megaphone resonator for classical or a megaphone positioned resonator for CCM styles; and acoustics, such as presence of the "singer's formant cluster" in classically trained voices ("In Support of Contemporary Commercial Music (Nonclassical) Voice Pedagogy," 2008). In some situations, students study classically with one teacher and MT, or other CCM styles, with someone who specializes in those styles. There are teachers who train all styles. At NATS Student Auditions, students can audition in both classical and music theater categories (National Student Auditions Categories, 2017). The young adult years are a time to discover and develop abilities and see where interests and opportunities lead. It remains to be determined whether performing and/or training in contrasting styles at one time is better for both, has no bearing on either, or inhibits progress in one or both styles. Regardless of any research or opinions on the matter, young adult singers ultimately choose what they want to do.

Vocal Health

The earliest years of young adulthood are often the first time voice students become aware of their own vulnerabilities related to maintaining a healthy voice. Often it is the voice teacher who is the first person to notice: 1. Breathiness 2. Delayed onset 3. Extreme nasality in place of ring 4. Funny cracks at the top of the voice

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5. A consistent breaking point in the voice 6. Flatting or sharping 7. Irregular vibrato 8. Limited range When a voice seems compromised, the issue may or may not be obvious immediately. It can take time to determine if suspect sounds are due to vocal technique, overall health, ongoing normal pubertal development, vocal fatigue, a voice pathology, or just a bad day. Is it side effects or interactions with medications? Or is it allergies, a virus, hormonal changes, or a mental health issue? Is it reflux, vocal load, or vocal fold injury? Initially, the voice teacher may proceed normally, at the same time making mental notes about the vocal sounds they are hearing as they watch for extreme compensatory actions. Normally, jaw and neck tension, lazy support, overzealous support, overenergetic gestures, nasality, poor posture, and noise in the sound can be remediated with better vocal technique. Sometimes singers become so concerned about overdoing and causing injury to the vocal folds that they under-utilize their support so the vocal folds don't approximate correctly. This can be confusing to the student and the teacher. When there is a concern, it may take medical intervention to know exactly what is going on. This is discussed further in Chapter 7. It is important for young adult singers to monitor the possible vocal side effects of medications they take. These include diuretics, analgesics, antivirals, hormones, antihistamines, decongestants, drugs for depression, and steroids (Abaza, 2007). Numerous websites list medications and their side effects. Singers and their doctors should know the full range of prescribed and nonprescribed medications, including over-the-counter (OTC) and homeopathic. Occasionally, informed choices about what medications to take must necessarily be based on overall health first and foremost, and on the voice secondarily. How much a person uses his or her voice, and to what degree of strain, is referred to as "vocal load." I recall a young soprano who, during one week, worked on Bach and

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Poulenc repertoire in her lesson; had choral rehearsals to work on modern, straight-tone choral pieces; coached Jake Heggie songs with a collaborative pianist; rehearsed a small opera role; sang in Russian repertoire class; performed in a vocal solo class; auditioned for the music theater certificate program; rehearsed with a student-run Renaissance group; and, to top it all off, was in a performance with a studentrun acapella group. For some eager, healthy young adult singers, this may be an example of a diverse and wonderful week of singing. For others, it may be too much of a vocal load to maintain vocal health. This particular student was healthy at the time, kept loud talking to a minimum, and was better vocally because of her activities.

One would think that singers would instinctively protect their voices from overuse and abuse. However, even with some knowledge about vocal health, voice students engage in activities that are unhealthy. These can include speaking over a loud and crowded room, yelling at sports events, practicing too hard or too long, and not getting enough sleep. They may experience vocal fatigue, increased vocal effort, laryngeal discomfort, neck or shoulder tension, throat or neck pain, reduced pitch range, loss of flexibility, reduced power, reduced control, or voice loss that increases throughout the day. Symptoms vary depending on if they are due to laryngeal tissue fatigue or laryngeal muscle fatigue (Nanjundeswaran, Jacobson, & Gartner-Schmidt, 2015). Vocal fold fatigue is a "progressive increase in phonatory effort and a loss of phonatory abilities" (McCabe & Titze, 2002, p. 356). Laryngeal muscle fatigue can result in compensatory muscle tension. Usually symptoms for both improve with rest. A study of 31 MT students, 7 males and 24 females , with a mean age of 20 were screened for voice range profile, acoustic analysis, Dysphonia Severity Index (OSI), videolaryngostroboscopy, Voice Handicap Indexes, and a questionnaire. Overall voice quality was in a respectable range. However, videolaryngostroboscopy showed that the vocal folds of 45% of the students had organic lesions, of which 26% were inflammatory lesions. In 68%, there was a certain degree of supraglottic constriction dur-

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ing phonation. It is interesting that the voice quality is deemed good overall yet does not correlate with the vocal pathologies that were seen. The heavy vocal demands while using physical and emotion exertion for dancing, emotional outburst when acting, and vocal effects that are breathy or rough have been referred to as "vocally violent behavior." Dealing with dust, costumes, fog effects, heat, lights, makeup, wigs, and head gear all can impact vocal production. Singers, classical and CCM, who are working toward elite vocal careers should get a voice screening, baseline examination when they are healthy to establish their "normal" condition. This can be used as a comparison during follow-up visits with their ENT specialist (D'haeseleer et al. , 2017). Theresa Brancaccio is on the voice faculty at Northwestern University. She developed the "Vocal Points Tracker" as a voice budgeting tool. It helps singers self-evaluate their daily health and vocal tasks in conversation and singing with beginning and end of the day vocal self-assessment and vocal naps. Although the voice is generally resilient, researchers are seeking to quantify vocal loads that constitute healthy voice use. "The Vocal Points Tracker" builds mindfulness about a singer's quality and quantity of singing by keeping track of daily vocal load (Figure 4-2). Starting with a baseline of 100 points, singers (and speakers) can customize it based on tracking for several days. During illness, or when vocally compromised, the baseline should be decreased. Points for various singing activities may be as follows:

■

1 hour personal practice = 25

■

1 hour voice lesson or coaching = 25

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1 hour intermittent, relaxed conversation = 15

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1 hour moderate talking = 25

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1 hour talking in loud environment = 40

■

1 hour rehearsal-opera, chamber music, choral = 20

■

1 hour solo recital, opera, MT, or CCM performance = 50

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VOCAL POINTS TRACKER Name: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Date:_ _ __ MORNING- My voice feels /circle one)

Excellent

Good

Fair

Poor

Very Poor

POINTS TARGET TODAY: Vocal Activity

Length of Time

Notes

Points Used

TOTAL POINTS USED = VOCAL NAPS TAKEN /check):

0 0 0 0 0

END OF DAY-My voice feels /circle one)

Excellent

Good

Fair

Poor

Very Poor

FIGURE 4-2. Vocal Points Tracker.

Monitor speaking, take care of the body (Brancaccio, 2017), and do the Bastian Vocal Fold Swelling Checks at the beginning and end of every day. They are designed to detect possible acute or chronic vocal fold mucosal injury. By singing "Happy birthday to you" and staccati on 13531 softly in the upper range, and moving higher, singers will notice if onsets are easy, which signals good vocal health, or delayed, which may indicate mucosal swelling (Bastian, 2017). As young adults move out of their childhood homes, they are exposed to new allergens in their new environments. Sensitivities can develop over 2 or 3 years. Symptoms may include allergic rhinitis with itching, sneezing, and watery eyes, or allergic laryngitis with vocal fold edema. Over-the-counter medica-

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tions that address allergies include topical nasal steroids, oral antihistamines, saline solution, neti pot, decongestants, guaifenesin, and increased nasal humidification. Other medications, such as topical antihistamines, require a doctor's prescription. Shots or allergy immunotherapy are sometimes prescribed by a doctor, usually an allergist, and administered at the doctor's office. Exercise-induced asthma can elude diagnosis for many years. The exercise of singing can trigger asthmatic symptoms of airway inflammation and constriction, making phonation difficult. Those who have asthma need to see their doctor about management of symptoms. Medications can have side effects on the voice, and it may take time to find the right amount and combination of medication that works best (Spiegel, Sataloff, & Emerich, 1997). Hydration plays an important role in maintaining the wet, slippery mucosa! covering of the vocal folds. Drinking water (or nonalcoholic and decaffeinated fluids) is called systemic hydration with absorption at the cellular level of the vocal folds. This water goes down the esophagus, and never comes in contact with the vocal folds. Hot, cold, or room temperature does not matter because by the time it gets back to the cells in the vocal folds, it will be body temperature. Research has shown that drinking sufficient water benefits vocal performers, and is measurable acoustically and perceptually (van Wyk, Cloete, Hattingh, van der Linde, & Geertsema, 2017). People know they have drunk enough fluids when thirst is quenched and urine is clear or pale. Milk or sugary beverages can cause thicker secretions. Superficial hydration relies on the humidity of inhaled air and affects the moisture level of the epithelial surface of the vocal folds (Michael, n.d.). If taking medications that have drying effects, it may be necessary to increase fluid intake. When singing, there are times one experiences being "in the flow." This can happen in a lesson, in a rehearsal, in a practice session, and in performance. It can be a state or a trait. An aototelic activity is something done for its own sake with the experience as the main goal. Singers tend to easily become immersed in what they are doing with a balance between the "play" of challenge building and the "work" of skill building. "Music is an activity that fosters 'flow' more often than other activities" ( Chirico, Serino, Cipresso, Gaggioli, & Riva, 2015, p. 2). Time flies, there

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is good concentration, goals are clear, the task is freely chosen, and the means of reaching goals are attainable (Kirchner, Bloom, & Skutnick-Henley, 2008). Of three activities in music, listening, composing, and performing, flow may be less prevalent in performing than in the less physically exertive activities of listening or composing (Chirico, Serino, Cipresso, Gaggioli, & Riva, 2015). Anxiety can be the opposite of "being in the flow" when time seems endless, one is distracted, and the wish is for it all to be over soon. Performers may notice they have an increased heart rate. Stress and panic can raise the heart rate, but so can physical activity and attentiveness. The interpretation of an increased heart rate and other physical symptoms can be confusing to singers. Is it stress or exertion? Maybe both! A higher heart rate can coexist with being in the flow. It is not always a negative signal. Typically, attentiveness is more intense at the start of a performance and then levels off as the brain realizes the fight-or-flight response is not needed. Breathing for singing is complementary to a positive interaction of stress and being in the flow (Kirchner, Bloom, & Skutnick-Henley, 2008). Singers experience both and sometimes simultaneously. Most undergraduate and graduate vocal performance curricula include a vocal pedagogy course. It provides a basic education about the vocal anatomy and physiology, basic acoustics, and how to maintain good vocal health. An interesting study looked at what students know about anatomy and vocal pathology, and what their anxieties are about vocal pathologies. Undergrad, master of music, doctoral, and young artist singers from Rice University, The Julliard School, the Lindemann Young Artist Program at the Metropolitan Opera, and the Houston Grand Opera Studio participated in the study. The results showed that there was no significant difference in test scores for vocal knowledge across the levels of training. This may mean that greater experience does not translate to greater knowledge about the vocal instrument. It showed that students are twice as likely to consult with their voice teacher about vocal concerns before asking a doctor for help. Very few ever consider going to a voice pathologist. It also showed that the further along they are in their vocal career, the more anxiety there is about going to see a doctor about their voice (Kwak, Stasney, Hathway, Minard, & Ongkasuwan, 2014).

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Classical Repertoire Optimal vocal expectations should be complemented with a healthy sequence of selected repertoire that contributes to vocal development and builds musical integrity. It should challenge students within and toward their ever widening limits. It is important to have a balance of new and old, easy and complicated, with "technique stretchers" and "vocal comforters." Many students enjoy learning cutting edge new compositions by current composers. Teachers can learn a lot of new repertoire through such personally invested students. Students should learn how to research all aspects of their repertoire using the many resources available in books and on the Internet about repertoire, composers, language, diction, International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), harmonic and melodic analysis, historical practice, and performance practice. Further coordination of the instrument can be helped, challenged or hindered by repertoire choices. Sometimes the student may need to consider different keys that are more comfortable. Other times a piece may be geared for older singers with large voices and simply unattainable at their age. That is easily solved by putting the piece "back on the shelf." Students may need to be encouraged to face the challenge of singing coloratura, developing a longer sense of line, new languages or styles, or begin to access different parts of their registration and stretch the range up or down. Classical repertoire should include a cross section of standard repertoire from different musical periods, languages, and vocal textures, with an incremental trajectory toward increasing musical complexity and sophistication for each singer. Initially, the teacher may introduce appropriate repertoire to the student. Gradually, the students will have their own ideas and opinions about what repertoire they want to explore with guidance from the voice teacher or vocal coach. As singers learn more and more repertoire, they should: 1. Vary repertoire

2. Include repertoire from different performance genres

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a. Classical: Recital, Opera, Oratorio, Concert, Operetta 3. Include music from different periods of music

4. Include repertoire in different languages

5. Include repertoire with different vocal textures 6. Gradually diversify with more sophisticated repertoire by a wide variety of composers 7. Learn greater amounts of repertoire in shorter amounts of time 8. Progressively increase performing in public a. Sing one song in public b. Sing four songs in public c. Sing a small role d. Sing a solo part in a choral concert e. Sing a large role f. Sing a partial recital g. Sing a full recital Young adult classical singers are introduced to opera during their undergraduate education. Opera workshop classes and opera productions within college and university voice programs may be a singer's first experience singing a scene from an opera. First efforts at recitative are awkward and make singers aware of the importance of language skills that will take years to accumulate. They often sing their first operatic arias. Operatic repertoire requires a high level of vocal technique, development, language, and musical skill to sing healthily and convincingly. It should be chosen according to age, voice type, and technical stability of the voice. Students are prone to wondering what "fach" they are. Until the voice functions extremely well, with a level of maturity, it is not time to choose a label based on categories intended for professional singers. "Accurate vocal categorization with the overall, major divisions will emerge as both technical security and age move forward" (Miller, 1996, p. 200).

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Preparing and performing one's first operatic role, large or small, is exciting. Independent preparation is a must. Opera requires many people to bring many of the elements of production together. Singers should learn the role according to what is on the printed page first, then take it to voice teachers and repetiteurs, and to a music and language coaches. Normally the music director will schedule coachings for members of the cast. Never be late for rehearsals. Stay healthy. Hydrate. Sleep. Singers should watch the amount of singing they do to avoid vocal fatigue. Stop talking so much and save it for the singing. In professional opera houses, the expectation is to arrive at the first rehearsal memorized. In some college/university programs, that is the expectation as well. It is a good precedent to set for oneself. It may be wise to rehearse privately, without being told, with fellow cast members, particularly when dialogue or recitative is bantering back and forth. Production values become higher and higher as staging begins. Stage directions should be written in one's score. Imagination and inner instincts contribute to character development, as well as expressive vocal choices. Most operatic roles were not meant for the youngest adults. It is important that singers strategically pace themselves in rehearsals and performance and know when they have gone as far as they should for resonant and dramatic moments (Kirkpatrick, 2012). The sitzprobe with the conductor, orchestra, and all members of the cast is the first chance to sing the entire opera with all the musical forces together. Transferring the production to the stage, with new acoustics, an orchestra, a conductor, scenery, props, costumes, makeup, and wigs, is messy, wonderful business. It requires everyone's total cooperation, goodwill, preparedness, and respectful musical citizenship. Watching opera live, at the movies, on television, on the Internet, and on DVD has never been easier. Major opera houses have student rates for tickets. Colleges and universities can subscribe to the 600 full-length Met performances on their Met Opera on Demand streaming service (Met Opera on Demand, 2017). Metropolitan Opera performances are featured at local movie theaters. Audio and video recordings and the Internet offer easy access to the greatest singers of today and those from days gone by.

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Choir Most young adult singers in undergraduate and master of music vocal performance degree programs will sing in a choral ensemble. In 2003 and 2009, Chorus America did an initial and followup study called "The Chorus Impact Study." Choral singing is the most popular form of participation in the performing arts. There are over 270,000 choruses in the United States, with 32.5 million adults and 42.6 million Americans overall singing in choirs. There are 12,000 professional and community choirs, over 41,000 K-12 choruses with over 10 million children who sing in musical classes during their K-12 education, and 216,000 religious choirs (The Chorus Impact Study, 2012-2017). Many choral directors are members of the American Choral Directors Association and Chorus America. Many college and university choral directors are also members of the National College Choral Organization, which focuses on scholarship, research, program development, and performance specific to undergraduate and graduate choral programs (The National Collegiate Choral Organization, 2017). The joy of working with others in the choral setting builds camaraderie. Choral music brings people together to sing repertoire that covers a broad spectrum of music from different historical times, languages, cultures, styles, and purposes. There are more opportunities to sing with choirs than any other singing opportunity, whether as an amateur, a semi-professional, or a professional singer. There is so much great choral music that K-12 and college choral experiences barely tap a fraction of the repertoire. Pondering the breadth of great choral compositions that include all of Bach's cantatas and major works, Mozart, Verdi, Vaughan Williams, Palestrina, Brahms, Berlioz, Debussy, Taverner, Rachmaninoff, Rossini, Penderecki, and many more, makes it clear why choral music is a vital part of singers' lives. Choral conductors prioritize their attention to the overall sound of their choirs. This is very different from the priority given to building individual voices in the voice studio. A desirable vocal feature of classically trained singers is the singer's formant. There are many choirs that prefer developed singers who have "ring" in the voice. If there are only a few people in a choir with the singer's formant, they will easily stick out of the

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texture, unless they temper the ring and the vibrato. This may be a reasonable request unless it is too soft for too long, or too high and soft for too long, or, on one vowel, too soft and too high for too long (Hoch & Lister, 2016). Choirs that discourage vocal ring will have limited dynamic options as compared to the choirs that encourage it. In those choirs that use trained singers using top quality vocal production and musical skill, great choral repertoire is met with a wide spectrum of musical possibilities through vocal textures, dynamics, and language skill. Rehearsal can be a strategic place for singers to work on vocal technique, including messa di voce, posture, support, language facility, musical phrasing, acoustics, pharyngeal space, consonant articulation, relaxation of the throat and jaw, and respiration for singing.

Music Theater and CCM

The acronym CCM, contemporary commercial music, was first coined by Jeannette LoVetri and Edrie Means Weekly with a survey distributed at the NATS Winter Workshop in 2002. The survey was to elucidate experience, training, and education for methods of teaching the various CCM styles at colleges, universities, conservatories, and independent studios. These include the nonclassical musical styles of pop, gospel, experimental, country western, folk, rock, and jazz (Hoch & Lister, 2016; Lo Vetri & Means Weekly, 2003). More schools and independent voice studios have started to include training for young adults who pursue music through CCM styles. Some educational institutions offer majors, minors, or certificates for undergraduate students. A few offer a master of music or master of fine arts in CCM styles. There are more and more studios that "cross-train" students in both classical and CCM styles. Andrew Lloyd Webber's Phantom of the Opera offered classically trained singers years of performing opportunities in for-profit productions on Broadway, in national tours, and the 90-minute Las Vegas version. According to the official website, it played to over 140 million people in 35 countries in 166 cities around the world, in 15 different languages, with the original cast album sales of over 40 million. It has played at Her Majesty's Theatre in London for almost

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30 years, and became the longest running show in Broadway history in 2014 ("The Phantom of the Opera: Facts & Figures," 2016). Did this play an important part in rethinking vocal career paths that did not require making a choice, but rather doing both classical and music theater? I recall seeing the great mezzo soprano, Shirley Verrett, sing "You'll Never Walk Alone," as Nettie Fowler in Carousel in New York. Most recently, Renee Fleming played Nettie Fowler in the Broadway production at the Imperial Theatre. Lyric Opera of Chicago has done incredible productions of great musicals, including Bryn Terfel and Nathan Gunn in Sweeney Todd and Christine Brewer as Mother Abbess in The Sound of Music. A good number of this author's students have studied classically during their undergraduate studies and gone on to have careers singing and teaching music theater and other CCM styles. Melissa Foster teaches music theater at Northwestern University. She studied classical voice during both her undergraduate and master's degrees. Now she is known for her fine work teaching voice to MT students. She classifies and develops music theater singers according to the natural core sound and range, and the innate vocal variability options accessible to their voice. ■

Natural core range and sound □ Soprano, alto, tenor, baritone, bass □ Bright, warm, deep, light, sweet

■

Innate vocal variability options □ Legit Classical-similar to classical sound and production

□

• Vibrato, vertical, rounded vowels, lifted soft palate, lowered larynx • Upper register for females • Both modal and head register with smooth transitions for males Legit Contemporary-brighter timbre • Vibrato used, but not consistently • Long note may begin straight tone, and vibrato kicks in halfway through the duration of the pitch

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□

• The soft palate is still lifted • Larynx will often rest more at speech level • Females will be head voice, or upper register dominant • Male registration will shift between modal and head voice, with a smooth transition between the two Belting-variable mixture of lower and upper registers • Legit Mix: head dominance to chest mix • Belt Mix: chest dominance to head mix • Phrasing is conversational, vibrations felt in chest and head, strong placement in the mask, more jaw and tongue engagement, body anchoring, twang (primarily females)

Melissa's analogy to American stew is a helpful way to think about the different belt mixes. A stew with lots of vegetables, such as low-calorie peas and carrots and just a few pieces of meat and potatoes, is analogous to the "legit mix" with upper register dominance. The heartier, heavier stew, with lots of beef and potatoes, is analogous to "belt mix" with lower register dominance. Melissa matches student's music theater options to the natural instrument's tendencies through their core sound. Students must master how to cleverly adjust with instant, and eventually instinctive, access to variable vocal options such as laryngeal position, registration, resonance, various placements, phrasing, grammatical inflection, consonant priority, vowel modification, vibrato variations, use of vocal noises such a creaking and scooping, and genre-specific styling. These adjustments can allow singers to maintain both their technique and unique sound, while simultaneously expanding expressive options and marketability. Making adjustments can allow an MT singer to audition for several types of shows so they can be a classic legit singer in Phantom ofthe Opera or Showboat. Then with a few adjustments, they could be right for The Producers or Marie Christine. With further adjustment, they might be appropriate for Mamma Mia or The Little Mermaid, all while using their same core sound (Foster, 2017)!

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TYING IT ALL TOGETHER WITH LANGUAGE AND SPEECH MOTOR CONTROL (BY CHADLEY BALLANTYNE)

Assembling the components of a proper vocal technique can be overwhelming. How many directives from coaches, directors, teachers, parents, and friends does a singer have to remember while simultaneously performing a song in an artistic presentation? "Remember to breathe!" "But not too much breath!!" "Never wear jeans to an audition!" "Don't dress like a banker!" "Inhale through a smile ... but not a big smile, and sometimes you should breath through your nose." "Go into head voice here!" "Don't push to the high note!" "The high notes are like a gentle waterfall over the top of your head." "Don't forget to count during the interludes." "No diphthongs in 'Caro'!" "Look at the audience." "Never look the judges in the eye!" At some point, it is time to say, "Now, stop thinking about everything we worked on, and just sing!" What that means in terms of a dynamic, nonlinear vocal instrument is to "use language to motivate your singing," or as the old Italian directive, si canta come si parla (one sings as one speaks). The vocal mechanism is too complex, and moves too quickly, to be effectively controlled consciously (Titze & Verdolini Abbott, 2012). The movements of the muscles of adduction in the larynx are second only in speed to the movements of the eyelids (Titze, 2012). When students discover and understand concepts of singing in their own vocal instruments, they will remember and recall it. It is better to discuss the result of an action than to dwell

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on the action itself. The latter may actually hinder attempts to replicate a singing task successfully. Drawing attention to the sensory feedback result is often necessary to help the student overcome potentially misleading sensations (Titze & Verdolini Abbott, 2012; Wulf & Prinz, 2001). Singing and speech are controlled reflexively. They require routine executions of mechanical synergies that are faster than any other human activity. Singing technique is learned within a framework of the highly developed and evolved speech mechanism. As early as age 14, speech motor control reaches an adult level, and the functions of the vocal instrument in speech are essentially automatic (Kleber, Veit, Birbaumer, Gruzelier, & Lotze, 2010; Smith & Zelaznik, 2004). By connecting speech and language to song, we can use the way we talk, enhanced by acquired skills in vocal function and articulatory targets, to efficiently enhance the full capabilities of the speech motor system, language, and emotion in singing. Recent research has established that there is bilateral activation in the brain for vocal production in both speech and song (Brown, Martinez, & Parsons, 2006; Kleber, Veit, Birbaumer, Gruzelier, & Lotze, 2010). What was once thought to be two modes of vocalism, with language in the left hemisphere separated from song in the right hemisphere, is now understood to be controlled by a single motor system. It controls speech, song, and the expression of emotions (Belyk & Brown, 2017). This shifts the mode of control from a reactive, feedback-based technique, to an expressive, feedforward vocal instrument driven by language (Tourville & Guenther, 2011) To help students begin to let go of consciously controlled vocal technique in singing, have the student: ■

Speak a nonsense syllable like "wee" over a wide range of inflection. Refresh articulation targets so they are in a resonant voice production.

■

Speak a phrase from the song they are working on.

■

Repeat the phrase, but exaggerate the range of inflection and connect the words in a gliding legato. □ The inflections should be allowed to cross registers so that the student can experience expressing beyond conversational speech.

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■

Inflect the phrase roughly following the contour and pitch level of the melody. □ Notice if there are any places where the student's inflection runs contrary to the melody. Repeat those sections until the student can find an authentic emotional motivation for that direction in the inflection and melody. • These moments often reveal differences between the student's interpretation of a character and the way the composer intended the line. It can also significantly change the subtext of a moment. • These moments can also be a source of technical difficulties if not resolved. If the student naturally inflects down when the composer asks for a rising pitch, the conflict may impede the vocal production and disrupt the line of thought. □ Repeat until the contour of the melody can be followed with authentic, or even heightened, inflection. □ Begin to zero in on the tuned pitches and durations while maintaining the outcome of a resonant voice. □ Attempt to continue inflections and resonant voice while sustaining melody. It will take several tries to make the jump from nontuned

inflections to sung melody without losing the connection to the full range of speech inflection and to the resonant voice. This works in both classical and CCM styles of singing. It is more easily applied to CCM singing, as this style is more closely aligned with 21st-century speech patterns. However, if the articulation targets can be adjusted for classical resonance in speech, it is equally effective for classical singing. For exceptional young singers, this can have remarkable results toward fully realizing their potential and authentic voice in multiple vocal styles. The components of the vocal instrument-breathing, phonation, resonance, and articulation-are parallel actions. They influence each other in a resonant voice production, and function more effectively when practiced together (Titze & Verdolini Abbott, 2012). Motivating vocalism through language and inflection helps to unify these parallel actions under the highly developed single speech motor system.

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It is like driving a car. When you drive, you don't have to understand how all of the parts under the hood work. Just tum the key, grab the wheel, and hit the gas. Language is our steering mechanism for the subconscious speech motor. Recall schema can control the many rapid movements of the instrument. Recognition schema can be used to monitor and correct slow movements (Titze & Verdolini Abbott, 2012). If language does not motivate vocal production, the elaborate and deeply learned recall schema of speech motor control is underutilized, and vocal production in singing suffers. It also hampers the emotional and artistic connection between the singer and the audience. We vocalize to communicate. When the full impact of linguistic inflection is connected to the music, audiences will listen. This gets people's attention. They want to hear someone doing this. It doesn't matter who the singers are, how old they are, or if their voice is particularly beautiful. Our voice is enough.

EVALUATION AND ADJUDICATION

Evaluation and adjudication of singing plays an increasingly important role in the lives of young adult singers for purposes of college admissions, competition, jobs, performance opportunities, and fulfilling academic requirements. Occasions include juries, recital permissions, competitions, auditions for solos with ensembles, a role in a show, or for a "gig" such as church choir. Preliminary recorded and live auditions are often part of entrance requirements into music programs at colleges and universities, apprentice and summer programs, and summer stock theater. Organizations hold competitions such as the National Association of Teachers of Singing (NATS), Classical Singer, and the Metropolitan Opera National Council Auditions. Auditions are done in person, via streaming over the Internet, or via prerecorded audio or video. Some may include multiple rounds. The number of people who evaluate or adjudicate singers varies from one and higher. Repertoire requirements for each audition need to be carefully chosen based on the entities' requirements and the singers' choices. Performance assessment can have very low to exceedingly high stakes for the singer (Bergee, 2007).

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The subjective nature of auditory-perceptual judgment is particularly challenging in regard to singing. Unlike instrumental auditions, in singing, the instrument is not totally visible. Language that emits emotion through song has no instrumental equivalent. Among voice teachers and other voice experts, adjectives used to describe the voice are subjective. Some adjudicators are more influenced by the "intrinsic quality" of the sound. Others are influenced by the "execution" of the singing (Wapnick & Ekholm, 1997). There can be personal preferences among those assessing the singing for lighter or heavier vocal sounds, or one vocal category over others. It has been found that assessment tends to be more accurate when factored among multiple adjudicators, and adjudicators tend to be more lenient later within their day. The psychometric evaluation of intrarater reliability (reliability of one adjudicator's assessment) and interrater (reliability of consensus among numerous adjudicators) needs more research (Oates, Bain, Davis, Chapman, & Kenny, 2006; Wapnick & Ekholm, 1997). Over 15,000 voice students audition for NATS-sponsored student auditions annually. The National Student Auditions (NSA) categories used for chapter, district, and regional student auditions include ages 14 to 30 in classical and 14 to 25 in music theater. At the region level, singers who qualify may move on to national-level rounds. Although not included in NSA, there is flexibility for chapters, districts, and regions to add categories for children and adults. Adjudication is done using rubrics that have been developed as optimal standards, with appropriateness for the age of each category in mind, for tone, breathing/alignment, language/diction, musicianship, and artistry/expression. There are 14 categories based on age and sex, plus a Hall Johnson Spiritual Category during conference years. For these auditions, adjudicators are instructed to compare the singers' performance against the general standard for the category they are adjudicating (National Student Auditions, 2017). In Chapter 8, there is a vocal evaluation that includes a long list of assessable areas of singing. They include vocal production, interpretation, knowledge of music, preparation, languages, and much more. It can be used by the teacher and the student as a tool to compare their perceptions with each other. Repeating

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the evaluation each semester or quarter offers the possibility of a longitudinal evaluation process that is informative and educational for both teacher and student.

FIRST GIGS

The young adult years are about training the voice and accumulating musical and peripheral skills important for the singing genres being pursued. The next step requires a true passion, creativity, and an enterprising entrepreneurial spirit that looks for opportunities. Some colleges and universities include courses for credit that teach young singers about the business side of singing. They learn about making contacts, how to present themselves, do mock auditions, how to keep track of income and expenses, prepare a website, use of social media, time management, keeping a journal of auditions, and how to create an appropriate resume. Classical singers rely on websites like YAP Tracker to find audition opportunities for summer programs, opera apprenticeships, training programs, opera chorus auditions, voice institutes, and competitions. These vary from "pay-to-play" experiences to being paid. Many are appropriate for young adults who want to acquire singing and performing skills alongside a special experience nearby or in other countries. Some are considered prestigious resume and networking builders, and a few are associated with world-class opera companies (YAP Tracker Opportunities, 2018). Young adults in music theater can register and pay to audition for organizations that sponsor combined auditions where many producers and directors come to audition performers for summer stock, cruise ships, theme parks, faires, dinner-theatres, college summer theatres, children's theatres, touring companies, and special events. Auditionees must be 18 years or older and non-equity performers. StrawHat Auditions is New York City's premier combined audition service. (StrawHat Auditions-How It Works, 2018). New England Theatre Conference (NETC) represents an average of 35 companies who come to hear auditions annually. Auditions tend to be 2 minutes, or a dance call and 16 bars of a song. (NETC Theatre Auditions 2017, 2018)

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Some young adults audition for specific theatre companies or opt to do summer internships that show them the business end of the industry. First-paid gigs for young adults are often choir jobs in churches, synagogues, and professional choruses. They can be the beginning of progressive networking from amateur to professional choral opportunities. The influence of the Robert Shaw Chorale, The Roger Wagner Chorale, the Gregg Smith Singers, and the Norman Luboff Choir is seen in today's formation of many professional choirs that fly in their members from all over the country. These include Chanticleer, Cantamus, Skylark Vocal Ensemble, Seraphic Fire, Santa Fe Desert Chorale, Conspirare, The Crossing, Bach Collegium San Diego, The Thirteen, and others. There are highly trained singers, young adult and adult, who maintain careers as elite choral singers in a combination of these ensembles. A "circuit" of professional choral singers has emerged. Many maintain solo and teaching careers in addition. There are at least 25 American choral ensembles who regularly bring in their members from out of town. This has been a practice in Europe for decades (Mueller, 2017). Professional choral singers must have exceptional vocal and musical skills, flawless sight-reading and language capabilities, an excellent sense of pitch, and familiarity with repertoire and styles. Harmonies and dissonances must be instinctively and perfectly tuned and balanced, within the interplay of each choral piece. Sophisticated professional vocal qualities add to the choral sound. Accurate sight-reading and language proficiency cuts down on the number of rehearsals needed. Some clever young adults create ensembles, groups, opera, or music theater organizations that benefit themselves along with friends and colleagues. Students may start groups within their schools as student-run organizations. After graduation aspiring singers may start a group that uses the talents of recent graduated colleagues. Some of these run their course and some survive. The young adult years shift from formal education to taking on the responsibility of making a living. For those who aspire to sing, eclectic combinations of performing, teaching voice, and full or part-time jobs outside of music require organization and management of time, talents, and finances. For classical, MT, and other CCM genres, vocal, acting, and dance study, practice,

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preparation for many auditions, first gigs, and apprenticeships may need to be factored in. Building a career in the arts takes an entrepreneurial spirit. It is at this point when people begin to figure out what role their singing will be in their adult lives.

MANY STYLES-MANY TECHNIQUES Currently, we think of "cross-training" as between classical and music theater or other CCM styles. People sing differently between these styles. They also sing slightly or significantly differently between solo and choral singing. Research of baritones and sopranos who experienced both choral and solo singing revealed that the singer's formant was diminished in choral singing and added in solo singing. Furthermore, it was found that two famous opera sopranos had even higher levels of partials in the singer's formant area than any of the singers who did both choral and solo work (Sundberg, 2006)! Countless options for vocal tract and voice source variability make the singer and the teacher's work complicated and interesting.Johan Sundberg states, "The abundant timbral variability that may result certainly offers the singer access to one of the most flexible musical instruments" (Sundberg, 2006, p. 118). During the undergraduate years, many young singers training classically are just starting to experience and develop the overall possibilities for vocal technique that includes the singer's formant. CCM students are working on their belt, legit classical, and legit contemporary. A few schools in the United States, and more in Europe, offer degrees in Baroque or Early Music singing that uses the vibrato as an ornament rather than the norm. Globally, every vocal musical sound that can be produced is used somewhere on the planet, and for many purposes. In country-western styles, there are stars who have a roughness in their signature sound. Overtone or throat singing is an incredible vocal phenomenon and involves manipulations of the vocal tract, especially the tongue, that are not easy to do. Multiphonic singing has two sounds that sound at the same time. Tuvan throat singing comes from Inner Mongolia, Mongolia, and Siberia (Hsu, 2017). The lower sound is a drone. Sometimes they can sing three or four notes at once. Singing while inhaling is a method used by Tibetan monks

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along with overtone singing. The Sarni Yoik defies Western civilization ideas of form and symmetry (Burke, 2017). Singing with a very high larynx, a wide mouth position, and use of the vocal fry are preferred sounds in various styles and cultures. Sacred Harp singing is a unique American tradition. Its musical notation consists of four distinct shapes to make sight-reading easier. There are no key signatures. Singers sit around a hollow square, facing each other, in sections to sing four-part hymns and anthems (Welcome, 1995-2017). The singing is straight, chesty, and loud. FROM THE STUDENTS

At the end of each quarter, my students write a reflection about their vocal progress, what they are concentrating on, repertoire, frustrations, successes, performances they attended, and performances they were a part of. At their last lesson of the quarter, we have an enlightening discussion about their reflection and compare it to my thoughts about their progress. Longitudinally, it is profound to see evidence in their writing that reflects the very sounds I hear in their growing vocal and musical sophistication. A combination of factors contributes to this: aging of the instrument; singing more than they ever have; being with like-minded vocal performance majors; excellent coursework within an overall well-designed curriculum; hearing, preparing, and performing a lot of new repertoire in song, oratorio, opera, MT, CCM, and choral music; working with conductors; working with stage directors; coaching with experienced collaborative pianists; a precedence for high achievement, talking and singing with their classmates; audition experiences; rehearsals; performances; and voice lessons. Below are three examples taken from "student reflections."

Singer A-End of first freshman quarter: "The Songs of Travel book is full of great pieces, and I love to be on the road so I can relate to many of them. Lungi del Caro Bene is now one of my favorite pieces . . . and I got into the chorus (for the opera)."

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Singer A-Second quarter of second year master of music: "Facebook pointed out to me on opening night of Le Nozze di Figaro that 5 years ago that day I was in my first ever opera production as a member of the chorus for Northwestern's production of Magic Flute. Five years to the day, and there I was getting ready to make my debut as Count Almaviva in one of the most extraordinary works in the repertoire . ... The theme of this quarter has been work. Responsible work, Meaningful work. Balanced work. Excellent work."

Singer B-End of first freshman quarter "I worked on breath control and allowing my breath to move freer .... I also worked on paying more attention to my keeping my soft palate up, which helped greatly with resonance and legato this quarter." Singer B-End of junior year "Finally, and I do not say this word lightly, I finally got out of my comfort zone. When I worked with you, Dr. Oura and Jake Heggie on 'Winged Victory,' something happened. I do not know what it was-maybe it was out of necessity? Thinking that I could do it and wanting to push myself to achieve a personal goal? An 'enough is enough'-! know I'm a 'good girl,' but I might eventually have to play the 'bad girl' situation? . . . I finally feel comfortable enough with myself and my technique to be able to let go of inhibitions and just go for it on stage."

Singer C-End of first freshman quarter "In total, I had a total of 6 lessons over roughly 3 months. Now I have a lesson every week, and it is proving a wonderful thing. In those three months, I could hear little differences in my voice, now I have the opportunity to work on it every week to retain it and make it better."

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Singer C-End of sophomore year (after bearing two baritone senior recitals) "For me it was a great experience because this year I have been having a bit of an identity crisis on where my voice is and where it is going to be and how to make myself distinct from other singers, whether it is repertoire or my voice. Seeing those two recitals helped me to figure out that what I am doing now already distinguishes who I am, even though there is plenty I still want to do."

REFERENCES Abaza, M. M. (2007). Effects of medications on the voice. Otolaryngologic Clinics of North America, 40(5), 1080-1090. Abitbol, J. (2006). The odyssey of the voice. San Diego, CA: Plural. Akguner, M. (1999). Velopharyngeal anthropometric analysis with MRI in normal subjects. Annals of Plastic Surgery, 43(2), 142-147. Bastian, R. W. (2017, June 12). Swelling tests. Retrieved from http:// laryngopedia.com/swelling-tests-2/ Bastir, M., Higuero, A., Rios, L., & Martinez, D. G. (2014). Threedimensional analysis of sexual dimorphism in human thoracic vertebrae: Implications for the respiratory system and spine morphology. American journal of Physical Anthropology, 155(4), 513-521. Bayarogullari, H., Yengil, E., Davran, R., Aglagul, E., Karazincir, S., & Bald, A. (2014). Evaluation of the postnatal development of the sternum and sternal variations using multidetector CT. Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, 20(1), 82-89. Beck, J.M. (2010). Organic variation of the vocal apparatus. In W. J. Hardcastle, J. Laver, & F. E. Gibbon (Eds.), The handbook of phonetic sciences (2nd ed., pp. 153-201). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. Retrieved from http://site.ebrary.com.turing.library.northwestern .edu/lib/northwestern/reader.action?doclD=10577600&ppg=167 Belyk, M., & Brown, S. (2017). The origins of the vocal brain in humans. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 77, 177-193. Bergee, M.J. (2007). Performer, rater, occasion, and sequence as sources of variability in music performance assessment.Journal ofResearch in Music Education, 55(4), 344-358. Bozeman, K. W. (2013). Practical vocal acoustics: Pedagogic applications for teachers and singers. Hillsdale, NY: Pendrago Press.

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Bozeman, K. W. (2017). Kinesthetic voice pedagogy: Motivating acoustic efficiency. Gahanna, OH: Inside View Press. Brancaccio, T. (2017,January-February). Staying on track: Vocal Points Tracker, a voice budgeting tool. In Voice Prints. Retrieved from http:// www.nyst.org/sites/default/files/voiceprints/Volume%2014%20 %2816-17%29/NYSTA%20January-February%202017 .pdf Brown, M. K. (2016). Individual learning through one-on-one teaching. EnglishJournal, 105(3), 16-21. Brown, S., Martinez, M.J., & Parsons, L. M. (2006). Music and language side by side in the brain: A PET study of the generation of melodies and sentences. The European Journal of Neuroscience, 23(10), 2791-2803. Brown, W. S., Rothman, H. B., & Sapienza, C. M. (2000). Perceptual and acoustic study of professionally trained versus untrained voices. Journal of Voice, 14(3), 301-309. Burke, K. (2017, October 1). TbeSami Yoik. Retrieved from http://www .laits.utexas.edu/sami/diehtu/giella/music/yoiksunna.htm Chirico,A., Serino, S., Cipresso, P., Gaggioli,A., & Riva, G. (2015). When music "flows": State and trait in musical performance, composition and listening: A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 6(906), 1-14. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00906 The Chorus Impact Study. (2012-2017). Retrieved from https://www .chorusamerica.org/advocacy-research/chorus-impact-study Clemmons,]. (2006). Rapport and motivation.Journal ofSinging, 63(2), 205-210. D'haeseleer, E., Claeys, S., Meerschman, I., Bettens, K., Degeest, S., Dijckmans, C., ... Luygten, A. V. (2017). Vocal characteristics and laryngoscopic findings in future musical theater performers.Journal of Voice, 31(4), 462-469. Dodson, T. B. (2014). Impacted wisdom teeth. Clinical Evidence, 8(1302), 1-15. Fernandes, M. J., Ogden, G. R., Pitts, N. B., Ogston, S. A., & Ruta, D. A. (2010). Actuarial life-table analysis of lower impacted wisdom teeth in general dental practice. Community Dentistry and Oral Epidemiology, 38, 58-67. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0528.2009.00501.x Foster, M. (2017, July 7). Ingredients for great MT singing: Natural core mixed with innate vocal variability options. (K. Brunssen, Interviewer) Fowler, L., & Morris, R.J. (2007). Comparison of fundamental frequency nasalance between trained singers and nonsingers for sung vowels. Annals of Otology, Rhinology & Laryngology, 116(10), 739-746. Frey-Monell, R. (2010). Motivation in the Applied Voice Studio.Journal of Singing, 67(2), 147-152.

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Hoch, M., & Lister, L. (2016). Voice secrets: 100 performance strategies for the advanced singer. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Howard, D. M., & Murphy, D. T. (2008). Voice science acoustics and recording. San Diego, CA: Plural. Howard, D. M., Williams,]., & Herbst, C. (2014). "Ring" in the solo child singing voice.Journal of Voice, 28(2), 161-169. Hsu, S.-M. (2017). Social and cognitive functions of music based on the example ofTuvan throat singing. The New Research ofTuva, 1, 177185. Retrieved from https://nit.tuva.asia/nit/view/719, doi:10.25178/ nit.2017.2.8 In support of contemporary commercial music (nonclassical) voice pedagogy. (2008).Journal of Singing, 65(1), 7-10. In support of fact-based voice pedagogy and terminology. (2014).Journal of Singing, 71(1), 9-14. Kelchner, L. N., Brehm, S. B., & Weinrich, B. D. (2014). Pediatric voice: A modern, collaborative approach to care. San Diego, CA: Plural. Kirchner, J.M., Bloom, A. J., & Skutnick-Henley, P. (2008). The relationship between performance anxiety and flow. Medical Problems of Performing Artists, 23(2), 59-65. Kirkpatrick, C. (2012). Aria ready: The business of singing (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Bancroft. Kleber, B., Veit, R., Birbaumer, N., Gruzelier,J., & Lotze, M. (2010, May). The brain of opera singers: Experience-dependent changes in functional activation. Cerebral Cortex, 20(5), 1144-1152. Kwak, P. E., Stasney, C.R., Hathway, J., Minard, C. G., & Ongkasuwan, J. (2014). Knowledge, experience, and anxieties of young classical singers in training.Journal of Voice, 28(2), 191-195. Lo Vetri,J., & Means Weekly, E. (2003). Contemporary Commercial Music (CCM) survey: Who's teaching what in nonclassical music.Journal of Voice, 17(2), 207-212. McCabe, D. J., & Titze, I. R. (2002). Chant therapy for treating vocal fatigue among public school teachers: A preliminary study. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 11, 356-369. Mcclaran, S. R., Harms, C. A., Pegelow, D. F., & Dempsey, J. A. (1998). Smaller lungs in women affect exercise hyperpnea. Journal of Applied Physiology, 84(6), 1872-1881. Mendes, A. P., Rothman, H. B., Sapienze, C., & Brown, W. S. (2003). Effects of vocal training on the acoustic parameters of the singing voice. Journal of Voice, 17(4), 529-543. "Met Opera on Demand." (2017). Retrieved from http://metopera.org/ Season/On-Demand/? Michael, D. D. (n.d.). Singers etc . .. professional voice users vocal hygiene. Retrieved from http://www.lionsvoiceclinic.umn.edu/page4.htm

4. Young Adult

Miller, R. (1996). On the art of singing. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Mueller, K. (2017 ,June 15). A new careerpath for singers. Retrieved from http://www.chorusamerica.org/singers/new-career-path-singers Mupparapu, M. V. (2005). Ossification of laryngeal cartilages on lateral cephalometric radiographs. Angle Orthodontist, 75(2), 196-201. Mi.irbe, D. Z., Kuhlisch, E., & Sundberg,]. (2007). Effects of professional singing education on vocal vibrato-a longitudinal study. Journal of Voice, 21(6), 683-688. Nanjundeswaran, C.,Jacobson, B. H., & Gartner-Schmidt,]. (2015). Vocal Fatigue Index (VFI): Development and validation. Journal of Voice, 29(4), 433-440. The National Collegiate Choral Organization. (2017). Retrieved from https://www.ncco-usa.org/ National Student Auditions. (2017). Retrieved from https://www.nats .org/national_student_auditions.html National Student Auditions Categories. (2017). Retrieved from https:// www.nats.org/_Library/NSA_Files/Category_document_july_21. pdf NETC Theatre Auditions 2018. (2017). Retrieved from New England Theatre Conference: http://www.netconline.org/docs/2018/2018_ NETC_Theatre_Auditions_Application_Instructions.pdf Nishio, M., & Niimi, S. (2008). Changes in speaking fundamental frequency characteristics with aging. Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica, 60, 120-127. Novak, C. G. (2016, April 21). Pediatric vital signs reference chart. Retrieved from http://www.pedscases.com/sites/default/files/Vital %20Signs%20Reference%20Chart%201.2_1. pdf Oates,J. M., Bain, B., Davis, P., Chapman,]., & Kenny,]. (2006). Development of an auditory-perceptual rating instrument for the operatic singing voice.Journal of Voice, 20(1), 71-81. Ochs, M., Nyengaard, J. R., Jung, A., Knudsen, L., Voigt, M., Wahlers, T., ... Gundersen, H.J. (2004). The number of alveoli in the human lung. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 169, 120-124. The Phantom of the Opera: Facts & figures. (2016). Retrieved from http://www.thephantomoftheopera.com/facts-figures/ Rhoades, R. A. (2013). Ventilation and the mechanics of breathing. In R. A. Rhoades & D.R. Bell (Eds.), Medical physiology: Principles for clinical medicine (4th ed., pp. 327-355). Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams and Wilkin and Wolters Kluwer. Savdovic, A., Delic, J., Isakovic, E., & Ljuca, F. N. (2010). Age characteristics of the larynx in infants during the first year of life. Periodicum Biologorum, 112(1), 75-82.

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Segal, S. J., & Mastroianni, L. (2003). Hormone use in menopause & male andropause: Choice for women and men. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/ lib/northwestern/detail.action?doclD=279427 Smith, A., & Zelaznik, H. N. (2004). Development of functional synergies for speech motor coordination in childhood and adolescence. Developmental Psychobiology, 45(1), 22-33. Spiegel, J. R., Sataloff, R. T., & Emerich, K. A. (1997). The three ages of voice: The young adult voice.Journal of Voice, 11(2), 138-143. Stathopoulos, E.T., & Sapienza, C. M. (1997). Developmental changes in laryngeal and respiratory function with variations in sound pressure level.Journal ofSpeech, Language, & Hearing Research, 40(3), 595-614. StrawHat Auditions-How it works. (2018). Retrieved from StrawHatAuditions: https://strawhat-auditions.com/public/content/howitworks Sundberg, J. (2006). Vocal tract resonance. In R. T. Sataloff (Ed.), Vocal health and pedagogy: Science and assessment (2nd ed., pp. 103119). San Diego, CA: Plural. Titze, I. R. (2012). Roaring lions and crying babies.Journal ofSinging, 68(4), 427. Titze, I. R., & Verdolini Abbott, K. (2012). Vocology: The science and practice of voice habilitation. Salt Lake City, UT: National Center for Voice and Speech. Tourville, J. A., & Guenther, F. H. (2011). The DIVA model: A neural theory of speech acquisition and production. Language and Cognitive Processes, 26(7), 952-981. Turkman, S. C. (2012). Age-dependent structural and radiological changes in the larynx. Clinical Radiology, 67, e22-e26. van Wyk, L., Cloete, M., Hattingh, D., van der Linde,]., & Geertsema, S. (2017). The effect of hydration on the voice quality of future professional vocal performers.Journal of Voice, 31(1), 111.e26-111.e36. Wapnick, J., & Ekholm, E. (1997). Expert consensus in solo voice performance evaluation.Journal of Voice, 11(4), 429-436. Ward, J. T., Ward, J., & Leach, R. M. (2010). The respiratory system at a glance (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. Weaver, A. A., Schoell, S. L., & Stitzel, J. D. (2014). Morphometric analysis of variation in the ribs with age.Journal ofAnatomy, 225, 246-261. Welch, F. G., Howard, D. M., Himonides, E., & Bereton, J. (2005). Realtime feedback in the singing studio: An innovatory action-research project using new voice technology. Music Education Research, 7(2), 225-249. Welcome. (1995-2017). Retrieved from https://fasola.org

4. Young Adult

Wilson,]. W. (1994). Lung development. Seminars in Pediatric Surgery, 3(4), 221-232. Retrieved from http://www.clevelandclinic.org/pedi atrics/pdf/difiore_lung_dev. pdf Wulf, G., & Prinz, W. (2001). Directing attention to movement effects enhances learning: A review. Psycbonomic Bulletin & Review, 8(4), 648-660. Wyke, B., & Abo-el-Enein, M.A. (1996). Laryngeal myotatic reflexes. Nature, 209(5024), 682-686. YAP Tracker opportunities. (2018). Retrieved from YAP Tracker: https:// www.yaptracker.com/opportunities/

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AVOCATION OR CAREER By the end of the young adult years, constant growth and development of the vocal instrument is, for the most part, complete. Men and women settle into three to four decades of hormonal stability. As an adult singer, the anatomy of the vocal instrument is fully developed with more possibilities than other times during the lifespan. The bones, tissues, cartilages, muscles, and fully developed vocal tract offer peak adult capabilities for the interplay of respiration, vibration, and resonance. Previously, infants, children, adolescents, and young adults relied on support from parents, schools, and institutions for music instruction and performance opportunities. Informal and formal vocal music activities and education, with a formerly built-in structure, support, and curriculum, will now continue only with the initiative of the singers themselves. Some leave singing. Many enjoy singing as a volunteer in worship and community choirs, or community music theater. Some integrate singing as an amateur or semi-professional activity with money-making careers outside of music. Some pursue related professional fields in voice such as voice science and research, music education, medicine, speech-language pathology, and music therapy. Others pursue their singing at professional levels. They look for opportunities in opera, recital, choral, concert, oratorio, CCM, and teaching, and may pursue the highest level of 181

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formal education with doctorates and PhDs. Vocal careers can be manifested with a mixture of all these areas. They can be full or part-time and semi-professional or professional. They may include a rich combination of performing opportunities as soloists, ensemble singers, stage performance, teaching, and entrepreneurial initiatives "outside the norm." Such "portfolio careers" can be extremely fulfilling. Some may even cross, or blur, the lines between classical and CCM. Academic and personal trajectories can include additional elements of scholarship, creative activity, and leadership important to furthering the development and future of the singing world. For those who leave their singing behind, it is not uncommon to reengage in singing activities later, as they have time and inclination. The vocal instrument is always there to be called on. Fond memories of singing during younger years may eventually be a reminder of musical camaraderie, a disciplined intellectual activity, and the sheer enjoyment of singing. Singing and musical literacy can be learned, improved, maintained, or renewed any time during the lifespan. Singing can be for pleasure, for a purpose such as worship or community choir, for continuing music education, or as a therapeutic change of pace. For those who choose to earn a living by singing or teaching singing, all of these enjoyable qualities can continue, with the caveat that it becomes an adult business with adult rigor, expectations, and accountability. The quality of the singing voice among serious avocational and professional singers must be, at a minimum, maintained to stay competitive in the "select" world of adult singing. The rigors of regularly singing alongside fellow excellent singers in rehearsal and performance, being under the baton of great conductors, and preparation with teachers and coaches for auditions and singing engagements influence the professional standards they measure themselves against. It is important to stay active within such a cumulative, comparative environment that continually stimulates, informs, evaluates, exercises, and challenges virtuosic musical and vocal requirements of sophisticated professional singers. The requirement for vocal and musical fitness is equivalent to the level at which one is singing in classical and nonclassical styles. Adult professional CCM singers often perform in numerous singing styles, with or without microphones, and in a variety of performance venues. Their vocal timbre, repertoire, and stage

5. Adult

personae should distinguish them at auditions that may be as short as 16 bars of music and a monologue. A concerted and constant effort is necessary to stay in good musical, vocal, acting, dancing, and physical shape, especially if doing many shows a week. On the business side, it is important to keep good relationships with agents and managers, be a good and reliable colleague on and off stage, and a vibrant persona onstage. Workshopping new productions is a good way to engage and network with those on the cutting edge of the industry. Vocal activities may include singing in clubs, bars, at festivals, music theater productions, in concerts, with a band, recording projects as a soloist or back-up singer, voice-overs, and much more. In both classical and CCM styles, singers need to be savvy about self-promotion through social media. They should regularly refresh their audition materials (one-page resume and photo). Grooming choices should reflect the role or genre they are pursuing at an audition. The peripheral business of building a career, promoting oneself with or without agents, presence in media, and how well people present themselves in character and appearance matters. It is important to have a carefully chosen team of qualified and honest voice professionals to call on for vocal technique, vocal health, and personal support. General organizational skills are a must for management of time, talents, and finances. Usually singers are self-employed and/or may combine their singing career with other jobs, in or out of music, that offer a regular paycheck. Entities who hire singers are required to report income to the federal and state government on W-2 forms, when federal and state income taxes are taken out, or 1099 forms (over a certain amount), when taxes are not taken out. It is critical that singers learn about current tax laws that apply to all the money they earn, and how and what documents to keep in support of business deductions, income, and taxes. A big part of the business is the time it takes to learn, prepare, and memorize music; make travel plans for auditions and engagements; groom before auditions and performances; and find networking opportunities. The highest achieving singers have an intuitive sense for beautiful or interesting timbre, impeccable pitch, a knack and accumulation of language skills, a tangible depth of understanding, and love for their repertoire. Singers must learn and present repertoire that is beautifully sung, strikingly portrayed on stage,

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note and rhythmically flawless, and interpretively fascinating. Vocal, musical, and dramatic talent is often evident during young adult development. However, sometimes professional-level talent may not become apparent, or acted on, until long after formal education is complete. Bigger, more dramatic classical voices can take longer to emerge. Young singers in opera and MT may not be a natural fit for certain roles until they are closer to the actual age of the characters. Some singers have multiple life interests and pursue other careers until they are ready to take on the business of serious vocal and musical activity. A lifestyle with nighttime rehearsals, long commutes, constant travel, and being away from home weighs in on choices about singing careers. For some it may be difficult to achieve the breaks within the classical or CCM industry that singers think they need to be competitive on a professional level. There are wins and losses, good reviews and bad reviews, successes and disappointments. However, for those who love to sing, the pursuit, at all levels of adult involvement, is also an uplifting and motivating force with struggles that are worth it, welcome, and fulfilling. Adults who value the purpose of singing in their lives find outlets. Whether singing for a pleasurable avocational experience, a serious avocational experience, or as a professional livelihood, they will inevitably rely on expertise and skills related to: 1. Vocal production

2. Repertoire 3. Music fundamentals 4. Language 5. Acoustics 6. Acting 7. Movement 8. Communication 9. Performance energy 10. Technology 11. Performance anxiety

5. Adult

12. Musical interpretation 13. Stage deportment 14. Time management 15. Organization

RESPIRATION

The length and width of the lungs in adult males are larger than the lungs of females. Males have more respiratory bronchioles than women and, therefore, a greater number of alveoli (Thurlbeck, 1982). Total lung capacity (TLC) is the maximum amount of air the lungs can hold. It remains constant throughout adult life. In women, that amount is 3 to 5 liters of air. In men, it is 4 to 7 liters. Females reach their maximum TLC, with optimal lung function, by approximately 20 years of age, and males by approximately 25 years of age. Thereafter, there is a very slow, progressive decrease in lung performance. The respiratory system adapts and is capable of adequate gas exchange through old age (Janssens, Pache, & Nicod, 1999). Adult males and females take 12 to 20 breaths per minute, as they have done since puberty. This continues throughout the rest of their lives. Residual volume (RV) in adult lungs is approximately 1,200 cm3 • It is the amount of air that cannot be expelled regardless of exhaling as much as possible. It never goes down to zero, even after death, unless replaced with something else. The volume of air that can be taken on top of RV is the vital capacity (VC). From the age of 20 to 70, residual volume increases 50% and vital capacity decreases to 75%. Tidal volume (TV) is the amount of air inhaled and exhaled during each respiration cycle (McCoy, 2012). This varies according to exertion and age. Forced expiratory volume (FEVl) is the amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled in 1 second. It increases up to age 20 in females and age 25 to 27 in males, and then reduces with aging starting around the age of 35 to 40 years of age at 25 to 30 ml/year (Sharma & Goodwin, 2006). Maximum inspiratory pressure (MIP) measurement is an index of diaphragmatic strength. Men measure 30% higher than females (Sharma & Goodwin, 2006).

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Compared to males the female sternum is shorter and higher along the vertebral column. Females have more mobility in the upper ribs for greater expansion of the upper part of the thorax. This is helpful during the third trimester of pregnancy when the large size of the unborn child can encroach on spaces as high as the sternum. For men and women, the ribs are angled downward, and the chest diameter is increased by using the external intercostals to pull the ribs to a more horizontal position. The thorax is significantly larger in males than in females (Beck, 2010). Stature and lung volume are linked such that taller people have larger lungs and greater lung volume (Taylor, 2011). The rib cage increases in size in all three dimensions until 30 years of age (Weaver, Schoell, & Stitzel, 2014). Three very slow changes will affect respiration over the decades of adult singing. They will be more evident during senescence, but are ongoing before: 1. The chest wall becomes less compliant due to calcification of the rib cage. 2. The strength of the respiratory muscles decreases. 3. The static recoil of the lung decreases. Elastin tissues change slowly, with some loss of the ability to quickly rebound (Janssens, Pache, & Nicod, 1999).

VIBRATION The cartilages of the laryngeal structure are adult in size and proportion. Some of the laryngeal cartilages begin to ossify during the adult years. Only "hyaline" cartilages possess an ossification pattern. In the larynx, that includes the thyroid, the cricoid, and the two arytenoids. The "elastic" cartilages, including the epiglottis, the cuneiform, and the corniculate cartilages, do not ossify. From 20 to 29, or slightly before, ossification changes begin in the thyroid posteriorly and inferiorly. It moves on to the superior horns and then to the central and anterior portions of the thyroid (Figure 5-1). In males, it is complete in the fifth decade. In females, the thyroid may never fully ossify (Tiirkman, 2012).

Age (years) 0-9

Predicted ossification in the decade

10-19

20-29

30-39

40-49

>50

FIGURE 5-1. Laryngeal cartilage ossification.

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The cricoid and arytenoids start to ossify from the back, during the third decade of life, more so in males than in females (Sataloff, 2006). Hardening of the cartilages is a positive change for the adult singer. It increases structural support for fluctuating vocal cord tensions, with more predictability and stability during rigorous singing (McCoy, 2012). The dimensions of the laryngeal cartilages are significantly different between males and females. The female adult thyroid is 38 mm high and the male is 44 mm high. The weight of the female adult thyroid is 4 g. The male is 8 g. The cricoid is 19 mm high in females and 25 mm in males. The weight is 2.89 gin females and 5.8 g in males (Beck, 2010). The male and female vocal folds are now mature, just like the pictures and videos studied in vocal pedagogy classes. In adults, the bilateral full length of the vocal folds in women is 18 mm long and 5 mm wide. In men, they are 23 mm long and 6 mm wide (Abitbol, 2006b). Hirano reports shorter lengths of 17 to 21 mm in men, of which 14.5 to 18 mm is the membranous portion of the vocal fold and 11 to 15 mm in females, of which 8.5 to 12 mm is the membranous portion of the vocal fold. These measurements were based on data for Japanese subjects, which may represent a geographical genetic variation between populations. In both males and females, the membranous (vibratory portion) and cartilaginous portions of the vocal folds are one-third cartilaginous and two-thirds membranous, with males slightly more than two thirds (Beck, 2010). The overall structure of the adult vocal folds includes five layers: the epithelium, the three layers of the lamina propria, and the thyroarytenoid muscle (TA). In the 1970s, Dr. Minuro Hirano worked with his colleagues to examine cadaveric larynges and define the three-layered lamina propria structure in the vocal folds located between the epithelium, on the outside of the folds, and the thyroarytenoid muscle in the deepest portion of the vocal fold. The layers are labeled the superficial lamina propria (SLP, also called Reinke's space), intermediate lamina propria (MLP), and deep lamina propria (DLP). The SLP is loose, gelatinous, and flexible, with high amounts of hyaluronic acid that offers shock-absorbing protection to the vocal folds. Progressing deeper, the layers become more fibrous and dense.

5. Adult

The MLP features elastic fibers. The DLP features collagen fibers (Boseley & Hartick, 2006). The TA, at the core of the vocal fold, increases in mass as it contracts to shorten the vocal folds. This relaxes the vibratory parts of the vocal folds for lower frequencies. The muscle fibers in the TA are oriented longitudinally and transverse, allowing the vocal fold to move back and forth and side to side. There is not a consensus as to whether the vocal folds work as a two-layered system or a three-layered system. Hirano's cover/ body theory suggests a three-layered system such that the epithelium and the looser SLP vibrate freely over the MLP and DLP, and the vocalis muscle is the body of the vocal fold (Kuhn, 2014). Figure 5-2 indicates the layers of the vocal folds as a twolayered system with the epithelium, SLP, and MLP of the lamina propria as the "cover," and the DLP and thyroarytenoid muscle as the body of the vocal fold (Benninger & Murry, 2006). Yet another two-layered version includes part of the MLP in both the cover and the body. Further investigation to determine

Epithelium Cover

Body

Superficial lamina propria Intermediate lamina propria Deep lamina propria Thyroartenoid muscle

FIGURE S-2. Layers of the adult vocal folds.

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the exact boundaries of the cover and the body will examine the function of viscoelasticity, anatomy, and the biomechanics of the vocal folds (Bartnick & Prasad, 2005). Below is a summary of the three different ways that have been used to define the "cover/ body" of the lamina propria in the vocal folds .

Three-Layered System

mucosa EPITHELIUM SLP (loose, flexible, gelatinous)

ligament MLP (elastin fibers) vocal ligament DLP (collagen fibers) vocal ligament

body VOCALIS MUSCLE (TA muscle fibers)

Two-Layered System

cover EPITHELIUM SLP (loose, flexible, gelatinous)

body DLP (collagen fibers) VOCALIS MUSCLE (TA muscle fibers)

MLP (elastin fibers)

Two-Layered System

cover EPITHELIUM SLP (loose, flexible, gelatinous) MLP (elastin fibers)

body MLP (elastin fibers) DLP (collagen fibers) VOCALIS MUSCLE (TA muscle fibers)

5. Adult

In a study of a 64-year-old man with cerebral hemorrhage who could not phonate for over 11 years, it was found that the unphonated vocal fold changed to a uniform structure with mostly collagenous fibers, few elastic fibers, and little hyaluronic acid (Sato, Umeno, Ono, & Nakashima, 2011). This may be evidence that recurrent stress of the vocal folds is necessary to maintain mature function for optimal adult vibration. Chapter 2 discussed the importance of a baby's vocal sounds that signal cell changes in the uniform hypocellular vocal folds. Titze points out that a wide vocal range in adult humans is dependent on recurrent stress of the vocal fold tissue fibers and stretching the vocal folds. It is necessary to maintain the full function of elastin, collagen, and muscle fibers of the different layers of the vocal folds needed for singing. For lower notes, there is stiffness in the TA muscle. When the CT is engaged, the vocal folds stretch and the stiffness is transferred to the vocal ligament. Current trends in speech tend to remain low enough that the CT muscle may be underused and understressed. This may contribute to voice disorders such as muscle tension dysphonia. Singing is one way to work the entire range of the voice, including the CT muscle for higher pitches (Titze, 2017). For those who sing, it is essential. Adult sex hormones affect the vocal folds. Women produce estrogen, progesterone, and smaller amounts of testosterone. Regardless of how "hormonally stable" the voice is for a few decades, it is a challenge for women who contend with monthly hormonal fluctuations that can influence the voice. Dr. Jean Abitbol showed that the cervix and the vocal folds are both targets of the sex hormones. Throughout the menstrual cycle, smears from both the cervix and the vocal folds were similar when compared. Cells were sloughed off in both at the same time within the menstrual cycle (Abitbol, 2006). The menstrual cycle has three phases: follicular, ovulatory, and luteal. For the first 5 days of each menstrual cycle, the follicular phase, when estrogen and progesterone levels are low, there is menstrual flow. On the sixth day, estrogen increases during the ovulatory phase, peaking during ovulation on the 14th day. Singing is at its hormonal best when estrogen levels are highest. Estrogen results in a thickening of the mucosal membranes of the vocal folds, creating a greater vibratory amplitude. It also fosters permeability of the many blood vessels and capillaries in the

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vocal folds, increasing oxygenation (Abitbol, 2006). The ruptured follicle secretes progesterone and estrogen to prepare the uterus for pregnancy. On the 22nd day or so, if the egg is not fertilized, progesterone and estrogen levels drop, signaling the next menstrual cycle to begin (Morris, Gorham-Rowan, & Herring, 2009). Because of varying effects on the singing voice, women should learn when to expect vulnerabilities due to their own monthly, cyclical imbalance between estrogen and progesterone. Particularly vulnerable times for the voice are during the few days before menses when progesterone is high. Some women experience premenstrual syndrome. An increase in progesterone causes cells on the surface of the mucous membrane to slough off. The voice may feel thicker and drier, with a loss of upper range, power, and harmonics, which may signal minimal or significant swelling of the vocal folds. The severity varies from person to person. Vocal aggressiveness should be monitored to avoid hemorrhage, vocal fold swelling, ectasia, and nodes during this time (Wicklund, 2010). There is no cycle during pregnancy. For most women, pregnancy feels like a time of increased vocal beauty. For others, the hormonal changes can negatively affect the voice. Morning sickness and nausea can be problematic, usually only during the first trimester. In the third trimester, the higher levels of estrogen may increase epithelium thickness. Higher levels of progesterone may cause dryness in the intermediate layer of the lamina propria. As the baby grows, breathing to sing may require accommodating strategies until the baby drops just prior to birth. Although there are advocates on both sides of whether to sing or not during pregnancy, there is no formal or decisive assessment that anyone should not sing during pregnancy (La & Sundberg, 2012). A few weeks after giving birth, it is important to start strengthening the abdominal muscles with breathing exercises and gradually start to sing more (Bickel, 2008). Recovery after giving birth is variable from person to person. Most voices return to a version of normal, or sometimes even better. Breastfeeding may delay hormonal rebalancing. For singers whose voices do not return to normal, it is wise to see an ENT for answers. Oral contraceptives that were recommended in the past contained androgen-derived progestogens that can cause permanent

5. Adult

lowering of the voice in some women. Newer oral contraceptives have been developed that do not contain progestogens and have a diuretic effect that may help to minimize vocal fold swelling and water retention during the menstrual phase of the cycle. It can result in a less erratic voice over the course of the monthly cycle (La, Ledger, Davidson, Howard, & Jones, 2007). Singers should carefully consider all medications with their doctors. Women experience their peak singing years during adulthood. Yet they also experience gradual aging throughout their bodies and noticeably in their singing voices. An objective voice assessment of young and middle-aged premenopausal women presented similarities and differences. Younger singers were subjectively perceived as having better overall vocal quality. Middle-age voices were perceived as rougher. Middle-age women showed a more restricted vocal range but had more lower notes. In addition, there was a decrease in higher intensities and range. There was no difference in jitter (random fo variability) or HNR (harmonic to noise ratio) between middle-age and younger voices. Videolaryngoscopy showed no difference between the two age groups. Many differences described in one study are often attributed to menopause. However, in the study, all women were premenopausal. This may indicate that aging of the voice is ongoing and a factor that is present even before menopause (D'haeseleer, 2011). Throughout the adult years, male and female vocal folds gradually change in thickness and consistency. Elastic fibers decrease, and collagen fibers increase and distort the deeper layers of the vocal folds. There can be swelling of the outer portion of the connective tissue cover (Beck, 2010). Hormones secreted by adult males are called androgens. They contribute to the development of strong bones and muscles, and mental aggressiveness. Men secrete a small amount of progesterone and estrogen. The tall, strong, angular-type male has higher levels of androgens and is often a lower voice type. Obese males tend to produce increased amounts of estrogen due to conversion of testosterone to estradiol (Cohen, 2008). Men do not experience monthly hormonal changes like women, so their vocal folds remain in a more constant condition through the years. Acceptable average testosterone levels in male adults range from 270 to 1,070 ng/dL. Starting around 20 years of age,

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it lowers about 1% each year until the age of 70 (Severson & Barclay, 2015). Testosterone amplifies male attributes, including the voice. Anyone considering taking testosterone supplements should consider it carefully with a doctor.

RESONANCE

The growth and development of the vocal tract during infancy, childhood, and adolescence meets its full potential in adult singers. The odd, irregular, three-dimensional shape of this space changes as the articulators, including the lips, jaw, tongue, soft palate, and laryngeal position move. They are affected by coordinated adjustments of direct and indirect attachments to the skull, cervical spine, sternum, and scapula for vocal tract adjustments.(Miller, Gregory, Aspden, Stollery, & Gilbert, 2014) Vocal tract shape is crucial to voice production. At the lower part of the vocal tract, if the dimensions between the laryngeal tube and a narrowed epilarynx are a 6: 1 ratio, the spectral energy results in the "singer's formant cluster," around 2400 to 3200 Hz. (Bozeman, 2013). There are numerous formants present in the vocal tract at any given time during speaking or singing. Fl and F2 are vital in the delineation of vowels. Vocal source harmonics interact with formants (tube resonances) and are either attenuated or receive a boost in amplitude when close enough to a formant (Nair, 2007). Singers can cue off the acoustics of their own voices through kinesthetic feedback and skilled, artistic choices with adjustments of the vocal tract, breath pressure, glottal flow, laryngeal height, and the interplay among them all. Classical singers seek to maintain the "singer's format." CCM styles master the use of varied laryngeal heights, mouth opening, nasality, vibrato, and close quotient, among others, for their signature sounds and interpretive affect. Nimble and natural articulators result in less encumbered singing. The tongue, jaw, and extrinsic muscles of the neck should not add compensatory tensions that inhibit free interaction of the motor, vibrator, and resonator. It can take a long time to untangle and replace well-meaning intentions that negatively impact vocal production. This can be a downfall for professional-

5. Adult

level singers when compelled to maintain vocal technique on their own, while meeting the demands of difficult music, projecting over orchestras, portraying characters, making a special vocal affect, singing with other singers, appealing to the energy of conductors or a particular audience, and performance scenarios. "Survival mode" is not healthy for the voice. Strategic planning, conditioning, and good technique are. Trained adult classical singers tend to maintain distinctive speaking voices. They keep a higher mean speaking fo with wider phonation frequency ranges throughout their adult lives. Integration of vocal techniques, healthy rigors of singing, and vocal sound preferences carry over from their classically habilitated singing voices to more resonant speech. Speaking range in males and females is wider than in untrained voices fo in speaking, for trained and untrained women, drops to approximately 200 Hz around the age of 20. Thereafter, trained female singers maintain a higher fo than untrained during the adult years. fo in untrained men lowers slightly more than in trained men, reaching its lowest between the ages of 40 and 50, after which frequency curves upward to 150 Hz in the 80s (Morris, Brown, Hicks, & Howell, 1995; Titze, 2008).

EXPECTATIONS

The adult body offers strong muscle mass, fast nerve impulse, flexible joints, and a quick, sharp mind. The cartilages of the larynx gradually start to ossify, making them a stronger framework of support for greater vocal fold tensions. The vocal tract is fully developed and capable of sophisticated acoustics over a wide range of styles. Given good physical and mental health, good vocal hygiene, healthy personal habits, and regular singing activity, amateur and professional singers can enjoy decades of substantial vocal facility, quality, and range. Unlike most athletes, whose athletic bodies peak in their 20s, voices do not reach their prime until the 30s and 40s, with many productive years of singing after that. Serious singers who constantly rework their singing and their repertoire are doing much more than working on vocal

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production. There is evidence that adaptive changes in neural circuitry related to motor-skill training, such as playing the piano, have been associated with reduced premotor activation and a shift toward more focused activations in the regions of the brain related to motor execution. A study investigated highly accomplished opera singers, conservatory-level vocal students, and laymen singing Caro mio ben to see what training-induced adaptive changes there are in the reflexive mechanisms of the vocal system. The study found that the higher the level of classical singing, the more it is accompanied by increased involvement of primary somatosensory and connectivity of kinesthetic-motor activation for enhanced control of the vocal system. The voice is exceptional as a musical instrument. It is produced and amplified entirely within the body with no visual control over movement. The muscle fibers are designed for fast and variable contraction that is fatigue resistant. The motor activity is performed at a faster discrete rate than other human behavior (Klever, 2010). The fach system was developed in Germany at the end of the 19th century for auditioning and casting operas. The German word "Fach" means compartment. Some feel this system is too "compartmentalized." Maria Callas said she was a "soprano assoluto" as she could sing any soprano role. This system is particular to opera houses in Germany, but used more loosely, as a point of reference, in other countries throughout the world (Midgett, 2007). Over the course of a classical singer's career, it is normal for singers to transition from lighter roles to slightly heavier roles as the voice fills out and continues to mature due to age-related factors. Although singers may test out or stretch to try multiple fachs, for the long run, they are generally better facilitated remaining true to their own type (McCoy, 2012). Choosing appropriate arias and opera roles should take into consideration age, vocal color, vocal size and weight, vocal facility, general voice type, range, tessitura, physical appearance, transition points in the voice, suitability for roles, and personal comfort portraying and singing roles. Richard Boldrey's Guide to Operatic Roles and Arias (1994) is a valuable resource for singers as they consider what roles and arias are appropriate for them (Boldrey, 1994). Table 5-1 lists 27 voice categories, including their range, registers, timbre, weight of the voice, and vocal challenges.

TABLE S- 1. BoldreyVoice Categories

Range

Registers

Timbre

Weight/ Volume

Vocal Requirements and Challenges

Soubrette

(Bb3) C4-C6

Good top, clear middle, weak lower

Tender

Light

Flexible

Light coloratura soprano

(A3) C4-F6

Great top

Slender

Soft

Very agile

Light lyric soprano

(Bb3) C4-C6

Good top Weak lower

Mellow

Soft

Exquisite phrasing

Full lyric coloratura soprano

(G3) C4-C6

Great top

Slender Warm

Medium

Agile

Full lyric soprano

(Bb3) C4-C6

Solid throughout

Mellow

Sol id Not loud

Exquisite phrasing

Light dramatic coloratura soprano

C4-F6

Good top

Brilliant

Strong

Flexible, agile, dramatic penetrating resonance

Light dramatic (spinto) soprano

(A3) C4-Bb6 ((6)

Low more powerful than lyrics but not as solid as dramatics

Darker than lyrics

Lyric with more volume

Dramatic climaxes, flexible dynamics

Full dramatic coloratura soprano

C4-F6

Good top Strong middle

Metallic

Very strong

Flexible, dramatic penetrating resonance

Full dramatic soprano

(G3) B3-BbS ((6)

Generous top, welldeveloped, rich middle, hefty low

Metallic darker than spintos

Voluminous, big, heavy, spacious

Great penetratng sound, seldom floats high notes

Boldrey Voice Categories

continues

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TABLE 5- 1. continued

Weight/ Volume

Vocal Requirements and Challenges

Metallic

Exceptionally strong

Great penetrating resonance

Good top Even throughout

Slender

Soft

Agile

G3-BbS

Solid throughout

Warm

Medium

Fluid

Dramatic mezzosoprano

G3-BbS (CS)

Good top Emphatic low

Metallic dark and lusher than dramatic soprano

Big

Stamina Dramatic climaxes

Lyric contralto

(F3) G3-FS (AS)

Good low

Dark

Full

Less flexibility than mezzosoprano

Dramatic contralto

(F3) G3-FS (AS)

Good top Great low

Dark Metallic

Full Thick

Dramatic penetrating resonance

Countertenor

(D3) F3-AS (C6)

Strong throughout

Variable

Variable

Flexible

Comic tenor

(A2) C3-Bb4 (84)

Mostly middle

Slender Clear

Medium

Flexible

Light lyric tenor

C3-DS EbS

Great top Weaker low

Mellow

Soft

Agile Flexible top

Boldrey Voice Categories

198

Range

Registers

Timbre

High dramatic soprano

G3-AS (C6)

Welldeveloped middle and low

Light lyric mezzosoprano

(G3) B3-C6

Full lyric mezzosoprano

TABLE 5-1. continued Vocal Requirements and Challenges

Boldrey Voice Categories

Range

Registers

Timbre

Full lyric tenor

C3-CS (CS#)

Solid throughout

Mellow

Solid Not loud

Good line

Dramatic (spinto) tenor

C3-CS

More solid Lower than lyrics

Noble, metallic, darker than lyric tenors

Strong

Can do both lyrical passages and dramatic climaxes

Heroic tenor

C3-Bb4 (CS)

Strong middle

Baritonal

Heavy, voluminous

Penetrating resonance

Weight/ Volume

beautiful line

Full lyric baritone

(G2) C3- F4 (Ab4)

Bright and powerful top, good balanced middle and low

Can change colors

Heavy spacious powerful

Penetrating resonance

Bassbaritone

(E2) Ab2- F4 (G4)

Consistent throughout

Rich, wide gamut of colors

Big

Wide gamut of dynamics

Comic bass

(D2) F2- E4 (F4)

Vocal character throughout

Clear

From slender to voluminous

Flexible

Lyric bass

(F2) G2- F4

Great top

Warm

Medium

Good line

Dramatic bass

(C2) Eb2- D4 (F4)

Great low

Dark, rich

Full, thick

Wide gamut of dynamics

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For most singers in the United States, knowing about the fach system is a "guide" that pairs voice types to operatic repertoire. It is best used as an arbitrary system of labels that can lead a singer to arias and roles that may be right for them (Boldrey, 1994). Stephen W. Smith says, "The most important consideration is not what repertoire we sing but how we sing it.... All singers should find music they connect to and that speaks to them personally." (Smith, 2007, p. 130) This applies to all styles and genres of singing. Richard Miller's (1996) "Seven Pillars of Performance Success" were written with classical singing in mind. However, they can apply to CCM as well. 1. Musicianship 2. Vocal technique 3. Artistic imagination 4. Objectivity 5. Perseverance 6. Talent 7. Business acumen Dedicated amateur and professional-level singers should maintain a healthy way of life from all perspectives. The voice requires the entire person to be at its best. The voice is quick to rebel under the following conditions: when it is overused or abused; not hydrated; dealing with medications or irritants, such as smoking, that contribute to dryness; colds, flu, and allergies; sleep deprivation; stress; lack of preparation; poor physical or mental fitness; sadness; fear; or anxiety ridden. The opposite of all of this is to be disciplined and stay hydrated, eat healthy, stay in shape generally and vocally, be smart dealing with illness, get the rest the voice needs, have fun singing, and maintain an uplifting attitude that enjoys the sport of singing. Know your limits and live within them. Performance anxiety can be a force to reckon with. Most singers must struggle to learn how to become comfortable while performing. It can be difficult to manage insecurities, despite a

5. Adult

love of singing. Lynn Helding (2010) recommends strategies for singers dealing with performance anxiety: 1. Practice "deliberate calm"-Educate and train day after day,

and year after year, so that the process of preparation, vocal warm-up, walking on stage, knowing every angle of what you will be singing, where you will stand, where the conductor is, what you will hear in the orchestra, piano, or fellow singers, becomes comfortably second nature to you. Repeatedly live in that lap of musical luxury with "deliberate calm." 2. Use holistic cues-A one-word cue, perhaps written in your score, or etched in your mind, is a strategy regarded by the brain as a picture that does not interrupt verbal information, yet impacts behavior at a given moment. For instance: a pair of glasses penciled in a score reminds the performer to watch the conductor. A comma reminds the singer to take a breath. The word "count," or numbers above the staff, reminds singers to think strategically about coming in on time. International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) symbols remind singers which way to shade a vowel either for vocal reasons or language accuracy. Onstage, a gesture can be both dramatic and helpful vocally as a holistic cue. 3. Avoid avoiding-Respect the performance medium for what it is and mentally prepare for every rehearsal and performance. Orchestrate your circumstances for success. Perhaps that means going over an entire role or recital in your mind, in real time, not skipping over anything. Feel the pace, hear the piano or orchestral sounds in your head, and notice subliminal inspiration and ideas that you might add to your practice or performance. For adults who sing, vocal health should be at its most consistent and dependable. During these vocally prime years, speaking voices that have breathiness, delayed onsets, and/or huskiness either have a technique issue, a virus, or a vocal pathology that needs attention. Vocal hygiene is crucial for everyone who sings, teaches privately, is a choral director, or teaches in the classroom. Teaching music requires a great amount of communication, and more talking than singing. There are many differences between

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singing and talking. Teaching music is ranked high among the professions most commonly affected by voice problems. Behavioral changes that reduce risk factors and adhere to remediation are key. Hydration, talking less over noise, taking vocal breaks, warming up vocally, and modifying one's teaching schedule can alleviate some of the challenges for music teachers (Hackworth, 2007). Starr Cookman (2012) offers 10 tips to improve vocal health in the classroom, presentation, or lecture hall. 1. Use a personal amplifier if talking over a lot of noise.

2. Use recorded music. 3. Let students be the vocal models. 4. Avoid outside singing work until the voice is healthy enough. 5. Never push through laryngitis.

6. Use nonvocal communication. 7. Warm up your body, breath, and voice. 8. Maintain good posture. 9. Hydrate and avoid caffeine. 10. Take voice lessons or get vocal therapy. In addition, avoid anything that contributes to dehydration of the vocal folds, such as alcohol, smoking, and allergens (Cookman, 2012). During the adult years, many singers join or participate in organizations that promote the pursuit of excellence in singing and in the teaching of singing. These include the National Association of Teachers of Singing (NATS), The New York Singing Teachers' Association (NYSTA), The Music Teachers National Association (MTNA), the Pan-American Vocology Association (PAYA), the Voice Foundation, the American Choral Directors Association (ACDA), and National Collegiate Choral Organization (NCCO). Some pursue certificates in vocology or complementary areas of study that can contribute to vocal health, efficiency, and body awareness. The Feldenkrais Method uses gentle movement and attention to increase range and ease of motion, flexibility, and coordina-

5. Adult

tion. It is a unique synthesis of science and aesthetics developed by Moshe Feldenkrais (About the Feldenkrais Method, 2017). The intention is to learn by exploring possibilities, and then choose what allows the muscle to be free for movement. Students use newfound kinesthetic experiences they have in Feldenkrais lessons to lengthen the spine, find balance in their stance, release effort in the shoulders and neck, and sense the movement of the ribs and carriage of the head (Meitlis, 2015). The Alexander technique "shines a light on inefficient habits of movement." Repetitive strain injury is a professional hazard for musicians. Releasing undue pressure in the body helps achieve better vocal production. "The Alexander Technique is a method that works to change (movement) habits in our everyday activities. It is a simple and practical method for improving ease and freedom of movement, balance, support and coordination. The technique teaches the use of the appropriate amount of effort for a particular activity, giving you more energy for all your activities" (Musicians and the Alexander Technique, 2017). Numerous college and university voice programs offer the Alexander technique as a course for singers and instrumentalists. Alexander technique teacher training takes approximately 3 years to complete. The Alexander technique, developed by Frederick Matthias Alexander, teaches people to recognize their habits of movement by increasing awareness and developing a clearer connection between thought and movement. As an Australian actor during the 20th century, F. M. Alexander was afflicted with chronic vocal fatigue due to his poor habits in movement on and off the stage. He discovered that he was not using his body the way he intended to. He was sucking in his breath, gripping his feet, and pulling his head back and down as he recited his lines. Through careful observation and experimentation, Alexander discovered that the relationship between the head, neck, and spine was crucial in determining how well or poorly humans "used" themselves. He defined "use" as "the working of the organism in general." He went on to develop an educational method based on his discoveries, which is now taught by Alexander teachers all over the world. In an Alexander technique lesson, the teachers use their hands to demonstrate the feeling of proper muscle tone to the student. Students learn to release excess tension, as well as give

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more appropriate muscle tone to areas that might be lacking. The Alexander technique encourages students to think about how parts of the body relate to the whole organism, and to recognize particular habits of thought and movement, so that they may stop a harmful habit in order to learn a different way of action. Benefits for singers include more ease in movement, a greater understanding of the body as a whole, and more facility and versatility in how they choose to use themselves (Kateri Gormley, personal communication, September 29, 2017). Andover Educators Teaching the Art of Movement in Music is the organization for those who teach body mapping. They provide accurate information about the body in movement. Increasing ease while reducing and eliminating injury is a primary goal for musicians (Andover Educators: Teaching the Art of Movement in Music, 2016). Tai chi, Pilates, yoga, and meditation are other complementary "wellness" activities that have helped singers. The adult years are the longest period of hormonal stability in humans. All elements of vocal growth and development are complete. Tissues of the lungs, the bronchi and bronchioles, and alveoli are mature, as are the muscles used to support the voice. The ossification of the laryngeal cartilage has a stabilizing affect for vocal production. The vocal folds have three differentiated layers within the lamina along with a mature thyroarytenoid muscle. The vocal tract proportions, angle, and articulators offer a flexible resonating cavity. The voice is capable of a wide variety of singing styles. Singers may enjoy and challenge their expanded vocal limits commensurate to vocal health, aptitude, talent, and creative musical abilities.

REFERENCES Abitbol, J. (2006a). Normal voice maturation: Hormones and age. In M. S. Benninger & T. Murry (Eds.), The performer's voice (pp. 33-50). San Diego, CA: Plural. Abitbol, J. (2006b). The odyssey of the voice. San Diego, CA: Plural. About the Feldenkrais Method. (2017). Retrieved September 29, 2017, from https://feldenkrais.com/ Andover Educators: Teaching the Art of Movement in Music. (2016). Retrieved from http://bodymap.org/main/

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Beck,J. M. (2010). Organic variation of the vocal apparatus. In W.J. Hardcastle, J. Laver, & F. E. Gibbon (Eds.), The handbook ofphonetic sciences (2nd ed., pp. 153-201). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. Retrieved May 1, 2017, from http://site.ebrary.com.turing.library.northwestern .edu/lib/northwestern/reader.action?doclD=10577600&ppg=167 Benninger, M. S., & Murry, T. (2006). The performer's voice. San Diego, CA: Plural. Bickel, J. E. (2008). Vocal technique: A physiologic approach for voice class and studio. San Diego, CA: Plural. Boldrey, R. (1994). Guide to operatic roles & arias. Dallas, TX: Pst .. .Inc. Boseley, M. E., & Hartick, C. J. (2006, October). Development of the human true vocal fold: Depth of cell layers and quantifying cell types within the lamina propria. Annals of Otology, Rhinology, and Laryngology, 115(10), 784-788. Bozeman, K. (2013). Practical vocal acoustics. Hillsdale, NY: Pendragon Press. Cohen, P. G. (2008). Obesity in men: The hypogonadal-estrogen receptor relationship and its effect on glucose homeostasis. Medical Hypotheses, 70, 358-360. Cookman, S. (2012). Voice savers for music teachers: A voice pathologist offers 10 tips to prevent hoarseness, throat pain, and vocal fatigue. Teaching Music, 19(4), 28-30. D'haeseleer, E. D. (2011). Vocal characteristics of middle-aged premenopausal women.Journal of Voice, 25(3), 360-366. Hackworth, R. (2007). The effect of vocal hygiene and behavior modification instruction on the self-reported vocal health habits of public school music teachers. International Journal of Music Education, 25(1), 20-30. Bartnick, C. J., & Prasad, V. (2005). Development and maturation of the pediatric human vocal fold lamina propria. Laryngoscope, 115(1), 4-15. doi: 10.1097/0l.mlg.0000150685.54893.e9 Belding, L. (2010). Break a leg! The ironic effect, choking, and other mind games.Journal of Singing, 67(2), 207-212. Janssens,J. P., Pache,J. C., & Nicod, L. P. (1999). Physiological changes in respiratory function associated with ageing. European Respiratory Journal, 13, 197-205. Klever, B. V. (2010). The brain of opera singers: Experience-dependent changes in functional activation. Cerebral Cortex, 20(5), 1144-1152. Kuhn, M. (2014). Histological changes in vocal fold growth and aging. Current opinion in Otolaryngology & Head and Neck Surgery, 22(6), 460-465. La, F. M., & Sundberg, J. (2012). Pregnancy and the singing voice: Reports.Journal of Voice, 26(4), 431-439.

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La, M. B., Ledger, W. L., Davidson,]. W., Howard, D. M., &Jones, G. L. (2007). The effects of a third generation combined oral contraceptive pill on the classical singing voice.Journal of Voice, 21(6), 754-761. McCoy, S. (2012a). The choir issue, Part 2. Journal of Singing, 68(3), 287-289. McCoy, S. (2012b). Your voice: An inside view (2nd ed.). Delaware, OH: Inside View Press. Meitlis, R. (2015). Connecting through the breath towards expressive communication in performance: An enquiry into the training of opera singers. Theater, Dance and Performance Training, 6(2), 187-199. doi:10.1080/19443927.2015.1043469 Midgett, A. (2007, May 6). Home in the range? Who can sing what. The New York Times, p. AR13(L). Retrieved June 15, 2017, from go.galegro up.com/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&u=northwestern&v=2. l&id=GAL E%7CA163024428&it=r&asid=e8ddllfa73259fa99tbc2027a9a62973 Miller, N. A., Gregory, J. S., Aspden, R. M., Stollery, P. J., & Gilbert, F. J. (2014). Using active shape modeling based on MRI to study morphologic and pitch-related functional changes affecting vocal structures and the airway.Journal of Voice, 28, 554-564. Miller, R. (1996). On the art of singing. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Morris, R. J,, Brown, W. S., Hicks, D. M., & Howell, E. (1995). Phonational profiles of male trained singers and nonsingers. Journal of Voice, .9(2), 142-148. Morris, R.J., Gorham-Rowan, M. M., & Herring, K. D. (2009). Voice onset time in women as a function of oral contraceptive use. Journal of Voice, 23(1), 114-118. Musicians and the Alexander Technique. (2017). Retrieved from www .alexandertechnique.com Nair, G. (2007). The craft of singing. San Diego, CA: Plural. Notes: National Opera Teacher and Educator Source. (2017, June 15). Retrieved from https://www.operaamerica.org/Applications/Notes/ voice.aspx Sataloff, R. (2006). Clinical anatomy and physiology of the voice. In R. Sataloff (Ed.), Vocal health and pedagogy: Science and assessment (2nd ed., pp. 29-63). San Diego, CA: Plural. Sato, K., Umeno, H., Ono, T., & Nakashima, T. (2011). Histopathologic study of human vocal fold mucosa unphonated over a decade. Acta Oto-Laryngologica, 131, 1319-1325. Severson, A., & Barclay, R. S. (2015, March 23). Testosterone levels by age. Retrieved from http://www.healthline.com/health/low-testosterone/ testosterone-levels-by-age#adolescence3

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Sharma, G., & Goodwin, J. (2006). Effects of aging on respiratory system physiology and immunology. Clinical Intervention in Aging, 1(3), 253-260. Smith, W. S. (2007). The naked voice: A wholistic approach to singing. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Taylor, N. A. (2011). Pulmonary function in aging humans. In E. J. Masoro & S. N. Austad (Eds.), Handbook of the biology ofaging (7th ed., pp. 421-446). San Diego, CA: Academic Press, Elsevier. Thurlbeck, W. M. (1982). Postnatal human lung growth. Thorax, 37, 564-571. Titze, I. R. (2008). Getting the most from the vocal instrument in a choral setting. ChoralJournal, 49(5), 34-41. Titze, I. R. (2017). Human speech: A restricted use of the mammalian larynx.Journal of Voice, 31(2), 135-141. Ti.irkman, S. C. (2012). Age-dependent structural and radiological changes in the larynx. Clinical Radiology, 67, e22-e26. Weaver, A. A., Schoell, S. L., & Stitzel, J. D. (2014). Morphometric analysis of variation in the ribs with age.Journal ofAnatomy, 225, 246-261. Wicklund, K. (2010). Singing voice rehabilitation: A guide for the voice teacher and speech-language pathologist. Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Cenage Learning.

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6 The Senescent Singer Aaron M. Johnson and Karen Brunssen

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INTRODUCTION According to data from the U.S. Census, the number and percentage of people over the age of 65 is dramatically increasing ( Ortman & Velkoff, 2014). The number will double between 2012 and 2050, and increase from 14% to over 20% of the total U.S. population. This is a worldwide trend. With these statistics, and as life expectancy continues to increase, there is a growing need to consider how aging affects the voice and the implication for training aging singers who plan to keep singing. "There is no expiration date for singing. A time comes when goals for singing change and ... [older singers] seek to keep singing, to 'stay in the game"' (Smith, 2012, p. 293). Aging is a normal physiological process resulting in changes throughout the body, including the larynx, other structures, and systems related to voice production. Aging has been defined as "the time-independent series of cumulative, progressive, intrinsic, and deleterious functional and structural changes that usually begin to manifest themselves at reproductive maturity and eventually culminate in death" (Arking, 2006, p. 11). According to this definition, aging does not occur simply because of the passage of time. Rather, our bodies change across our lifespan because of intrinsic, biological change with great variability in how and when changes are manifested in each individual. External factors such as vocal hygiene, overall health status related to disease and medications, history of vocal use and training, and hormonal shifts will affect vocal physiology and ability.

Hormonal Senescence With increasing age, there is a decrease in sex hormone levels in both men and women. In women, the decrease in ovarian hormones is relatively sudden and results in a nearly complete loss of estrogen. In 1821, the term "menopause" was coined by a French physician Charles Pierre Louis De Gardanne (la menepausie) to describe this event (Dolgen, 2014). Menopause is a normal stage in life marking the end of the reproductive years for females. Upon the arrival of menopause, ovarian follicular activity ceases, estrogen levels decrease dra-

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matically, and progesterone is no longer produced. Even though androgen levels drop below their already low levels, this new hormonal balance results in a greater influence of androgens on various organs in the female body. The cervix and vocal folds, which showed similar sloughing off of cells during the menstrual cycle, now show similarities in mucosal thinning (Abitbol, 2006; D'Haeseleer, Depypere, Claeys, Van Borsel, & Van Lierde, 2009). Morphological changes within the larynx, due to menopause, include muscle atrophy, mucosal thinning, and an increase in microvarices. Laryngeal changes affect the sound and function of the voice. The postmenopausal voice is associated with decreases in overall vocal frequency range and speaking fundamental frequency, lower harmonics-to-noise ratio, decreased maximum phonation time, and a higher s/z ratio (Raj, Gupta, Chowdhury, & Chada, 2010). Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) is often recommended to postmenopausal women. In an investigation of surgical menopause, laryngeal and vaginal smears of those not taking HRT showed atrophy-dystrophy (Caruso et al., 2000). Some research supports estrogen-based HRT over therapies with combined hormones. Additionally, the method of application can be important. An intranasal form of estrogen therapy may directly affect the vocal fold epithelium with a greater impact on vocal quality than a pill or patch (D'Haeseleer et al., 2009). Other investigations concluded that there is less difference between nonsurgical postmenopausal women's voices taking HRT and those not. One showed that those without HRT had more low notes and a lower fundamental frequency, but no loss of top notes, as compared to those on HRT, and they were similar in all other perceptual ways (D'Haeseleer, Depypere, Claeys, Baudonck, & Van Lierde, 2012). Beginning around the age of 20 to 30, testosterone levels in men begin to gradually decline. Andropause is a term associated with men who have symptoms due to low levels of testosterone. Although sometimes referred to as "male menopause," it is not equivalent to the sudden hormonal shift and change in hormonal balance that women experience. In men, the loss of testosterone in later years has been associated with thinning vocal folds that may contribute to an increase in .lo and increased breathiness (Brown, Brown, Morris, Hollien, & Howell, 1991).

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The Sound of the Voice The perception of a speaker's voice is a good indicator of the speaker's chronological age. Based on recordings of sustained vowels and/or speech samples (both reading and spontaneous speech), listeners are reliable and confident when classifying a speaker as young or old, determining the decade of a speaker's age, or directly estimating the speaker's age (Jacques & Rastatter, 1990; Neiman & Applegate, 1990; Ryan & Burk, 1974; Shipp & Hollien, 1969). Age estimates made from speech samples are as accurate as those made from a photograph (Krauss, Freyberg, & Morsella, 2002). The primary perceptual vocal features associated with an "old" voice are alterations in pitch and vocal quality; specifically, vocal tremor, tension, strain, and/or breathiness indicate increased chronological age (Harnsberger, Brown, Shrivastav, & Rothman, 2010; Hartman, 1979; Ryan & Burk, 1974). In addition to vocal features, cues in the speech signal are related to the perception of advancing chronological age, such as a slow rate of articulation and imprecise consonants (Hartman, 1979; Ryan & Burk, 1974). Although the severity of these perceptual features does not seem to progress linearly with chronological age, it is clear that old and young voices are perceived as different (Eppley & Mueller, 2001). There are several factors that affect the accuracy of age estimations by listeners. Listeners more accurately judge the age of speakers who are of a similar age to themselves; younger listeners tend to underestimate the age of older speakers and older listeners have a more difficult time discriminating the age of younger speakers (Huntley, Hollien, & Shipp, 1987). Further study, however, has shown that listeners of all ages underestimate the age of older speakers (Eppley & Mueller, 2001). The disparity in these findings may result from two factors related to the sex of the listener and speaker: (1) listeners tend to be more accurate when listening to speakers of the same sex, and (2) a perceptual aftereffect has been shown in that listeners perceive voices as older after listening to a young voice; this aftereffect is stronger when listeners and speakers were of the same sex (Zaske & Schweinberger, 2011). Additionally, a history of voice training and professional voice use, as well as general physical

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fitness and activity level, lowers the perceived age of a speaker (Prakup, 2012; A. Xue & Muelle, 1997). Overall, the evidence supports that changes in perceptual voice features are indicative of a speaker's age and that these perceptual changes are linked to changes in the acoustic signal. Extensive study has been done on the acoustic changes in the aging adult voice (for review, see Baken, 2005; Linville, 1996). In general, acoustic measures of the normal aging adult voice (adults without complaints of a voice problem) are considered to be "worse" than those of the younger voice (S. A. Xue & Delyiyski, 2001). One of the hallmark acoustic changes in advanced age is alterations in speaking fundamental frequency (SFF), with a steady decrease in the female voice throughout the lifespan and a slow increase in the male voice after the age of approximately 70 years (W. S. Brown, Morris, Hollien, & Howell, 1991; Harnsberger, Brown, Shrivastav, & Rothman, 2009; Hollien & Shipp, 1972). Along with these changes in average speaking fundamental frequency comes a decrease in the overall frequency and intensity ranges, resulting in a smaller voice range profile (Teles-Magalhaes, Pegoraro-Krook, & Pegoraro, 2000). Acoustic measures of stability and regularity of the voice also decrease, as evidenced by a decrease in the harmonics-to-noise ratio and increases in perturbation measures, such as jitter and shimmer (Ferrand, 2002; Gorham-Rowan & Laures-Gore, 2006; Linville & Fisher, 1985; Wilcox & Horii, 1980). A consistent finding in acoustic studies of the aging voice is increased variability in measurements both within and between subjects with age (Gorham-Rowan & Laures-Gore, 2006; Morris & Brown, 1994; Stathopoulos, Huber, & Sussman, 2011). One interpretation of this finding is that aging negatively impacts the precision of control over the vocal mechanism (Baken, 2005). This increased variability may in and of itself be a hallmark of the aging voice and makes it difficult to define the effects of "normal" aging. This variability may also be a reflection of how acoustic measures, like perceptual measures, may be more of a reflection of physiologic age versus chronological age, since they are affected by overall health and well-being and history of professional voice use (W. S. Brown, Morris, Hicks, & Howell, 1993; Chodzko-Zajko & Ringel, 1987; Orlikoff, 1990; Ramig & Ringel, 1983).

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The age-related changes in the sound of the voice described above result from changes in the underlying anatomy and physiology of three major subsystems involved with voice production: the respiratory, vibratory, and resonatory systems.

RESPIRATION

Despite a steady decrease in lung function throughout adulthood, the respiratory system is capable of adequate gas exchange for maintaining homeostasis throughout life (Sharma & Goodwin, 2006). Quality vocal production for singing demands more from the respiratory system than maintaining homeostasis. Agerelated physiological changes affect singing and speech (Janssens, Pache, & Nicod, 1999). For example, decreases in static elastic recoil of the lung can reduce the passive pressure available for maintaining and regulating subglottal pressure. Decreased strength of the respiratory muscles and reduced lung capacity results in decreased ability to generate active forces of exhalation needed for loud singing and maintaining subglottal pressure during long phrases. Reduced lung function in advanced age is affected by anatomical changes in both the thorax and decreased chest wall compliance. The thorax becomes stiffer and rigid as the muscles of the chest wall, ribs, and costal joints become weaker. The costal cartilages undergo ossification and calcification starting as early as 20 years of age. The thorax changes shape as kyphosis (curvature of the spine) of the thoracic spine begins in women starting around age 50 and in men around age 60. This can result in a concave chest as the vertebrae disks degenerate (Linville, 2001). The size of the airway decreases due to changes in supporting connective tissues. Alveoli fusion lowers the total number of alveoli. Past the age of 40, the diameter of the bronchiolar narrows and, subsequently, resistance increases. The diameter of alveolar ducts increases while the alveolar sacs become shallower, possibly due to a decrease in elastic tissues and an increase in collagen tissues. This can result in air trapping and hyperinflation, sometimes referred to as "senile emphysema." By the ninth decade, there can be a 30% reduction in the alveolar surface area and a reduction in the volume of the lung

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that is occupied by alveoli. Lung elastic recoil decreases as elastin fibers decrease (Taylor, 2011). These anatomical and physiological changes have functional consequences. Maximum inspiratory pressure (MIP) is an index of diaphragmatic inspiratory muscle strength and a determinate of vital capacity. MIP is 30% lower in women than in men and decreases by 0.8 to 2.7 cm of H 2 O/year between the ages of 65 and 85. Diaphragmatic fatigue, though different from what newborns experience, is once again a vulnerability. Forced expiratory volume in 1 second begins to lower after the age of 35 by 30 ml/year. That rate doubles to 60 ml/year after the age of 70. Functional residual capacity, the amount of total lung volume below resting expiratory level, and residual lung volume, the amount of air that remains in the lungs after complete forced exhalation, both increase with age. Total lung capacity, however, remains unchanged during life. Therefore, vital capacity, the percentage of lung volume available for voicing, decreases with age (Beck, 2012). Respiratory muscle control required for singing must adapt to changes in available lung volume and function. Endurance exercise training can be beneficial for improving and making the most of ventilatory function. Muscles still respond to exercise, even in smaller doses. Older singers (and teachers of older singers) should take all of this into account, yet not be defeated. For the older singer, the effort to take a breath and support, for the purpose of creating sufficient subglottal pressure that will initiate vibration and resonation, will feel like more work in the body and the mind. Singing technique must make the most out of the available breath. For those who want to continue singing, it is worth the effort.

VIBRATION Laryngeal Framework

The cartilages of the laryngeal framework, including the thyroid, cricoid, and arytenoid cartilages, consist of hyaline cartilage that ossifies (hardens) throughout the lifespan. Ossification typically begins for men in the 20s and is complete by 39 years of age.

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Ossification does not appear in the female thyroid before the age of 50. Full ossification of the thyroid and cricoid is more common in men than in women (Tiirkman et al., 2012). The functional consequence of this ossification may be beneficial earlier in life by providing increased laryngeal stability. However, increased ossification later in life, as well as stiffening of the laryngeal joints, may cause reduced mobility and interfere with the rapid adjustments needed for agile singing.

The Vocal Folds The vocal folds can be divided into five anatomical layers (Titze, 2000). The epithelium is the thin (0.05 to 0.10 mm) outermost covering of the vocal folds consisting of stratified squamous epithelial cells. Beneath the epithelium is the three-layered lamina propria (superficial, intermediate, and deep layers). The deepest layer of the vocal fold is the thyroarytenoid muscle, which gives the vocal fold its bulk, helps regulate longitudinal tension in opposition to the cricothyroid muscle, and adducts (brings together) the vocal folds. Aging affects each of these layers and, consequently, changes the way the vocal folds vibrate. The biomechanical properties of the lamina propria determine how the vocal folds vibrate. Elastin and collagen are the two primary constituents of the lamina propria that contribute to the elasticity and stiffness of the vocal fold. Age-related changes in these outer vibratory layers have important consequences for geriatric voice change. Rheological study of the human vocal fold mucosa has shown an increase in stiffness and viscosity of the vocal fold with age (Chan & Titze, 1999). Histological studies of older larynges have shown alteration of the layered structure of the lamina propria, with differences between the sexes (Hammond, Gray, & Butler, 2000; M. Hirano, Kurita, & Sakaguchi, 1989; Madruga de Melo et al., 2003; Ximenes Filho, Tsuji, do Nascimento, & Sennes, 2003). Relative to females, the male vocal fold has more collagen, creating greater stiffness in the vocal fold. This stiffness increases in the male vocal fold with age, likely contributing to the increase in average speaking fundamental frequency observed in older men. There is a stark contrast between scanned electron micro-

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graphs of elastic fibers in the superficial layer of the lamina propria for younger adults age 34 to 39 and older adults age 74 to 87. In younger adults, the fibers appear long, smooth, similar in size, all going in the same directions, parallel to the vocal folds, with space between them. In the older adults, the elastin fibers seem to form a complicated network of rough surfaced fibers of various sizes and branches going in various angles, perhaps degenerated, atrophic, and irregularly fragmented. Younger elastic fibers in the superficial layer can stretch to about 150% of their original length. The elastic fibers in the older vocal folds have morphed so that turnover and repair is slower, and new fibers decrease with much less stretching resilience (K. Sato & Hirano, 1997). There is some disagreement, however, about how the lamina propria is altered by aging; for example, some report thickening and edema of the superficial layer (M. Hirano et al., 1989), while others have found thinning of the superficial layer with aging (Ximenes Filho et al., 2003). Individual variability may account for these discrepancies, as well as variations in measurement techniques. Despite the varied conclusions of the studies, there is agreement that these alterations of the layered structure with age are related to alterations in the amount, distribution, and structure of elastin, collagen, and hyaluronic acid in the lamina propria and that the functional consequence of this is an alteration in the biomechanical properties of the vocal fold (Ding & Gray, 2001; Gray, Titze, Alipour, & Hammond, 2000; S. Hirano, Bless, del Rio, Connor, & Ford, 2004; K. Sato, Hirano, & Nakashima, 2002). It is likely that the acoustic changes observed in older voices, particularly the changes in fundamental frequency, have much to do with the alterations in stiffness of the vocal fold as opposed to a change in vocal fold mass (Titze, 2011). Vocal fold fibroblasts are responsible for managing the proteins in the vocal fold lamina propria (Gray, 2000). A reduction of fibroblast activation with aging has been suggested, but this reduction may be reversed through treatment with basic fibroblast growth factor (S. Hirano et al., 2004). Gene expression analysis from human vocal fold fibroblasts has shown an aging effect in the messenger RNA (mRNA) expression levels of collagen and elastin, with a decrease in levels of collagen mRNA and an increase in levels of elastin mRNA (Chen & Thibeault,

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2008). The mRNA carry the information from our DNA (transcription) and then act as a blueprint for the creation of proteins (translation), such as collagen and elastin. Therefore, age-related changes in mRNA levels indicate changes in the quantity of collagen and elastin within the vocal folds are due to genetic alterations. Examination of fibroblasts in vitro may provide good indicators of physiologic age, such as differences in fibroblast morphology, proliferation rate, and telomere length (Chen & Thibeault, 2008; Thibeault, Glade, & Li, 2006). Reduced activation of the thyroarytenoid (TA) muscle as measured by electromyography has been implicated as a likely contributor to the typical acoustic and perceptual changes in the aging voice (Baker, Ramig, Luschei, & Smith, 1998). The TA and its innervation have been the focus of age-related neuromuscular changes in the larynx (for review, see Thomas, Harrison, & Stemple, 2008). As with other skeletal muscles, the TA muscle atrophies with age, likely due to a loss of muscle fibers and a conversion of muscle fiber type from fast to slow fibers (Malmgren, Fisher, Bookman, & Uno, 1999; Rodeno, Sanchez-Fernandez, & Rivera-Pomar, 1993; T. Sato & Tauchi, 1982; Suzuki et al., 2002; Tiago, Pontes, & do Brasil, 2007). Aging results in denervationlike changes in the laryngeal neuromuscular system, including reduction in myelinated nerve fibers, ultraterminal sprouting of axons at neuromuscular junctions, and remodeling of motor endplate morphology (Connor, Suzuki, Lee, Sewall, & Heisey, 2002; McMullen & Andrade, 2009; Mortelliti, Malmgren, & Gacek, 1990; Perie, St Guily, Callard, & Sebille, 1997). The functional consequences of these neuromuscular changes are decreases in muscle strength, contraction speed, and fatigue resistance.

Vocal Fold Oscillation Laryngoscopic examination of the larynx also reveals age-related changes. In a study comparing acoustic measures with laryngoscopic findings between young and old adults, older men were found to have a higher fundamental frequency and increased vocal fold atrophy compared with younger men; older women were found to have a lower fundamental and vocal fold edema (Honjo & Isshiki, 1980). A common appearance of the older

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larynx on stroboscopic examination is an anterior or spindleshaped gap during phonation (Linville, 1992; Pontes, Yamasaki, & Behlau, 2006). This is often attributed to bowing of the vocal folds and has been confirmed by examination of extirpated cadaveric larynges (Mueller, Sweeney, & Baribeau, 1985). The degree of bowing, however, is not necessarily directly related to the size of the glottal gap (Bloch & Behrman, 2001). Other age-related changes in videostroboscopic measures include increased aperiodicity of vibration, slower speed of vocal fold opening during phonation, alterations in the mucosa! wave, and protuberance of the vocal prominences (Biever & Bless, 1989; Murty, Carding, & Kelly, 1991; Pontes, Brasolotto, & Behlau, 2005). Some of these changes observed in vocal fold vibration, however, are not only a result of changes to the vocal folds themselves but also because of reduced respiratory ability (D'Haeseleer et al., 2011).

RESONANCE

Continued growth and development of the head, face, and structures surrounding the vocal tract result in alterations of vocal tract resonances in older age (Linville, 2002; Linville & Rens, 2001). The facial skeleton expands constantly throughout life from front to back, side to side, and top to bottom. Males and females, however, differ in the timing and nature of this expansion. Men have larger jaws, more prominent eyebrow ridges, and different shapes in the orbital rims around the eyes. Additionally, specific parts of the facial skeleton are subject to "resorption." Resorption is a continual lifelong process of tissue in the bones breaking down to transfer calcium to the blood. In childhood, ossification outpaces resorption, resulting in growth and development. During adult years, ossification and resorption keep an equal pace. In later years, resorption outpaces formation around the eye in the orbital rim and in the maxilla. In some ways, the mandible continues to expand, although the ramus height and mandibular body height and length decrease. This results in an increased mandibular angle, so the chin juts out a little or a lot (Mendelson & Wong, 2012). Overall, the vocal tract shape and volume change approximately 3% to 5% due to facial skeleton growth. See Figure 6-1.

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Young Female·

A

Old Female

B

FIGURE 6-1 . A. Young adult female. B. Older adult female.

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Muscle atrophy of the tongue and pharyngeal muscles can affect both resonance and articulation. Numerous studies have suggested that the larynx lowers farther in the neck because of pharyngeal muscle atrophy, stretching of the ligaments and strap muscles (sternohyoid, sternothyroid, thyrohyoid, and omohyoid), and weakening of structural support of the vertebral column. A functional consequence of this is a lowering of the first three formants across all vowel productions in elderly individuals, with a greater effect on females in F2 and F3 (Rens & Linville, 2001). These changes in the sound of the resonance occur slowly over time. Additionally, the perception of the resonance may be affected by advanced age. The Pacinian corpuscles are the nerve endings that detect vibrations in the range of approximately 30 to 1000 Hz. These receptors have been implicated in our ability to "feel" the resonance of the voice, particularly concerning the perception of the placement of the sound (chest/head voice, forward resonance, etc.). The response of these receptors declines with advanced age and, therefore, possibly reduces our somatic awareness of resonance, timbre, and registration (Gescheider, Bolanowski, & Verrillo, 2004).

PRESBYPHONIA

While there are normal age-related changes to the voice, when these changes cause a problem with communication, they are called "presbyphonia." The hallmark of presbyphonia is vocal fold atrophy (loss of mass) that causes a glottal gap during phonation (Kendall, 2007). Not all voice disorders in older adults, however, are caused by age-related changes. Presbyphonia is a diagnosis of exclusion and, therefore, vocal problems in older vocal students should not be accepted as "normal" (Woo, Casper, Colton, & Brewer, 1992).

EXPECTATIONS

The first rule for seniors who sing is to keep singing! It exercises the muscles of support and phonation, involves the mind, and

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is a meaningful social and musical outlet. The second rule for seniors is to sing within their limits, not below them, and not beyond them. Those limits change throughout our lives because of where bodies are within constant anatomical change. Seniors know, from their lifelong experiences, that dealing with reality and living within limits is always necessary. Seniors will notice that their voices change. Though they should never be complacent about maintaining their best vocal sound, they should continue to enjoy singing and understand the challenges presented by a little more airiness, a few more breaths, a narrower vocal range, a slower vibrato, and resulting changes in repertoire. The third rule is, expect to have to be more mindful about vocal production to make the most out of what they have. Sataloff and Linville (2006) explain that an 18-year-old might be able to get away with performing at only 50% of their ability. If an older singer performs at 50%, it will likely be far below his or her own standards. With mindful training, medication, and realistic expectations, perhaps they can maintain 70% to 90% (Sataloff, 2006). Sageetha Rayapati describes four kinds of aging singers. "Lifers" have always sung, may have trained their voices, and cannot imagine not singing, so find opportunities to do so. "Groupies" never intended to sing alone, enjoyed choirs, and still do. "Wounded Warblers" have slight or significant vocal dysfunction, may have avoided using their voice due to problems, but now want to sing again. "Explorers" are inexperienced, hopefully carry a tune, but just want to give it a try. They may have no musical training whatsoever (Rayapati, 2012). For three of the four types of aging singers, singing continues as an enhancement in their lives. The "Wounded Warblers" choose to address vocal problems so they can once again enjoy singing and keep singing into their senior years. "Lifers" could be subdivided into two categories. "LiferAmateurs" and "Lifer-Professionals." "Lifer-Professionals" may be profoundly affected personally and financially when their voice begins to be perceived as showing signs of vocal aging. Sometimes they notice this themselves. Other times it is brought to their attention. Their sincere efforts and energy can mask the fact that aspects of their singing may not meet up to professional standards.

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In professional or semi-professional choral auditions, singers may be put on notice that they must reaudition. Solo singers may start getting fewer gigs and need to carefully choose what repertoire they do (or do not) perform. Female opera singers and MT singers face the "age factor" earlier when they no longer fit leading roles. It varies significantly according to each person as to when it becomes noticeably more difficult to attain the professional vocal standards achieved during "prime years" of singing. Often, it is evident earlier in women than in men. Sometimes singers realize it themselves. Other times another set of ears brings it to their attention. Both are a humbling realization for the singer and can be frustrating and confusing. It can be a slight or significant notion that they do not feel as in shape as they used to. They may have difficulty singing through repertoire that was no problem just a few years earlier. It can be a "crisis" due to less than positive results at an audition. It can be comparing their own vocal facility to younger singers they are singing with. They may notice they need to take more breaths than younger singers, and it takes too long to take a "catch breath." Coloratura labors to keep up with younger singers. Perhaps the ease of high notes is not as fluid. They experience weakness through the primo passaggio, especially on open vowels. The vibrato may feel more sluggish. It may seem to take more support to keep everything going. In general, singing feels like more work than it used to be at the professional level. Instead of the "invigorating uphill climb" as a young and middle-age adult, singers experience a struggle to maintain, yet alone improve, their singing. Instinctively, singers try to "keep up" with younger singers. This is often exactly the challenge an older singer needs to stay motivated. Factors change in the body, but an experienced, or even professional, singer's training has been toward vocal and musical excellence that becomes almost instinctive. Survival strategies may call on compensatory muscles to substitute for achieving vocal clarity. These may have crept in gradually and are familiar and accepted by the singer. Addressing vocal technique head-on with a teacher or speech-language pathologist can help. Age-old habits or vulnerabilities that are ingrained can be more evident and difficult to avoid.

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Working with older singers in the voice studio requires honorable patience. Regardless of whether they are a "Lifer," a "Wounded Warrior," a "Groupie," or an "Explorer," by this time of life, almost all have experienced significant achievements and struggles in life. Lifers will have musical and vocal egos that need to be respected. Those who work with older singers need to understand the mindset, well-meaning efforts, and the actual physical situations that challenge these singers. Most older singers did not learn to sing with applied concepts of the 21st century, such as strategic use of semi-occluded vocal tract exercises and the idea of the nonlinear vocal model. That does not mean excellent singing wasn't happening in the past, but it was taught using a more sensation based empirical language. Now we know those sensations are evidence of semi-occlusion and formant tuning (Titze, 2006). Despite being older, singers love to learn and experience new truths about their voices. Teachers report that work from the acoustic vantage point has revived and reinvigorated vocal function significantly in older singers. Sometimes older adults are simply out of shape. Other times they operate with old understandings that may have been helpful years ago but aren't necessarily the answer to what they need now. If singers improved a great deal long ago by increasing their support, they may default to that as the answer to all vocal issues. As they feel age-related changes in their voices, compensatory efforts to self-correct may not result in better singing. Instead, inefficient substitutions may develop, such as tightening of the extrinsic neck muscles, a well-intentioned increase of energy that results in overblowing, or trying so hard not to push that there is insufficient energy to support the voice. Voice teachers can help older singers get back on track or, even better, get on a new track with new information. It is heartening to a singer to find out that age is not the only culprit. Often, they are just out of shape. Sometimes tapping into their own acoustics is revitalizing. They can reset their voice with new exercises and concepts they simply didn't know before. The voice teacher can be a positive catalyst in the renewal of older voices when they hear singing and detect a lack of support, lazy posture, a tired droopy look on the face, unfocused sound, and an obvious lack of vocal exercise. None of these are quick fixes, but beginning slowly can have some immediate results.

6. The Senescent Singer

Other times the situation may be more confounding, or even perplexing. In those situations, it may require medical attention for answers and solutions. A laryngologist can look at the vocal folds and diagnose abnormalities in vocal pathology and/ or function. Speech-language pathologists can facilitate exercises that address vocal production issues and help the singer understand maintenance of their voices as they age. Semi-professional and professional singers may need to consider nonprofessional opportunities in order to continue singing. It is far better for a singer to remain in control and responsibly "self-select" out of a professional situation than to feel the sting of being asked to leave. For those who seek to continue singing as a soloist, entrepreneurial opportunities may lead to recitals on a chosen topic or by a chosen composer in schools, libraries, private homes, for organizations, retirement homes, and whatever or wherever a person chooses. Churches, synagogues, small opera companies, and community organizations are an excellent place for those who enjoy singing in choirs. There is a surge in the number of choirs created with the senior singer in mind. The Community of Voices choir was set up in May 2013 as a 5-year research project in 12 senior center locations in the San Francisco area. Supported by the National Institute on Aging, the purpose of the study is to examine the cognitive, physical, and psychosocial benefits and cost-effectiveness of the choral experience in a diverse population of adults over the age of 60 (Johnson et al., 2015). Each year participants in the choir, many of whom have not sung in choirs previously, complete several health assessments to measure balance via Bluetooth-enabled belts and take memory tests, coordination tests, and a questionnaire about their mental well-being. Dr. Julene Johnson, a cognitive neuroscientist, leads the study at the University of California, San Francisco (May 2013). Encore Chorale is the nation's largest choral program for older adults. The late Dr. Gene Cohen approached Jeanne Kelly about his wish to study the potential benefits of arts activities on the physical, emotional, and social well-being of older adults. This endeavor is now known as the groundbreaking Creativity and Aging study. The study's emphasis was on artistic activities led by professional artists. The consortium of the NEA, NIH, and George Washington University released initial results in 2004

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and an executive summary (http://bit.ly/EncoreNEAStudy) in 2006. The study showed that choir members tended to need less medicine and had fewer falls, less hospital visits, and better morale. Older adults need to be challenged more, not less, musically ("Encore Creativity for Older Adults," 2017). Due to the enormous success, Jeanne Kelly created Encore Creativity as its own entity in 2007. It has expanded to 21 ensembles in the Washington, DC area serving more than 1,200 older-adult singers. There is a Summer Choral Institute, which is a summer choir camp for older adults, and Encore "Singing at Sea" journeys have included Caribbean and European river cruises ("National Center for Creative Aging," 2012). In 2016, Jonathan Miller and his wife, Sandy Siegel Miller, teamed up to create Encore Illinois, an independent affiliate of Encore. It already has seven ensembles and 400 participants, and replicates the Encore model of a nonauditioned, tuitionbased ensemble, for ages 55 and older. It is led by professionally trained choral conductors in collaboration with professional pianists. No individual singer is ever singled out when the conductor gives feedback. They rehearse during the day, one day a week. Music is accessible to beginning choral singers yet sophisticated enough to engage those who have been singing their whole lives. Soprano parts do not go too high (generally not above an F), and bass parts do not go too low. The ensembles are about 30% sopranos, 45% altos, and 25% tenors/basses. Singers who miss a rehearsal can attend another rehearsal in another location, where there is always instant camaraderie with visitors. Each year, there are three all-Encore Illinois performances at the historic Fourth Presbyterian Church on Chicago's Magnificent Mile. The thrill of singing in such a fine space and joining all 400 singers together is power-packed. Jonathan's own mother has been an Encore Illinois member. In 18 months she progressed with more comfort in her high notes and a better ability to multitask, watching the conductor, and keeping up with musical material on the printed page (Miller, 2017). In 2013, Dr. Julia Davids invited Karen Brunssen to be part of a unique intergenerational weekend workshop and concert called "A Lifetime of Singing" with the North Shore Choral Society. Its members range in age from 18 to 85+. A children's choir (ranging in age from 7 to 15), a college choir, and senior

6. The Senescent Singer

choirs from various churches in the Chicago area, along with the North Shore Choral Society, participated. They sat by age in the auditorium. The weekend included an interactive lecture on the Evolving Singing Voice with the participating singers serving as live examples of the different ages of the voice. They rehearsed together for a concert that took place the following day. Each age group performed their own selections. The finale was an arrangement, by Anne Heider, for combined choirs and soloist based on "How Can I Keep From Singing" by Robert Lowry (1826-1899) (Figure 6-2). It featured each of the age groups, and culminated with all 300 singers together for a meaningful ending. The music and singing brought to life the very essence of singing across the lifespan. Presentations of "The Evolving Singing Voice" include audio examples of singers from the ages of 3 months to 103. People are always touched by the youngest and oldest singers. The oldest is 103-year-old Thora singing a hymn. The vulnerability that one hears in her effort to get through four stanzas of Children of the Heavenly Father is deep. She works to find her pitch, to remember the version of the melody she wants to use. Her voice is heady and slightly hooty. She struggles to see the words, runs out of breath, and pauses a little longer to take a breath; the voice cracks and creaks, and all with undeniable sincerity and

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FIGURE 6-2. How Can I Keep from Singing?

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The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

wisdom. This is confirmed when she considers her own mortality and says, "Lordy, that's the song I want sung at my funeral." Thora lived to be 106 years old. A voice teacher's "vocal-radar" can make an "age-appropriate" and "age-optimal" vocal assessment that is both realistic and supportive of a senescent singer. All who are blessed with long life will deal with realities of aging. As voice teachers who work with older singers in the voice studio, a sensitive, educated, practiced, and principled approach offers the necessary honesty and integrity older students merit.

Vocal Changes in Older Singers ■

Loss of range (up and/ or down)

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Noise in the sound

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Breaks in the voice

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Knerdly sound and other compensatory effort

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Intonation

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Need to take a few more breaths

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Vibrato slower

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Warming up takes longer

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Open vowels unclear

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Coloratura is slower

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Less ring and intensity in the sound

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Vocal fatigue

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Cramping in voice: ceiling

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H's between notes

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Difficulty with soft singing and decrescendos

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Debilitating and compensatory efforts to make up for compromised function

6. The Senescent Singer

There are age-related factors beyond vocal production that can have a bearing on the activity of singing. They may need to be creatively accommodated within voice lessons, rehearsals, and performances.

Peripheral Changes in Older Singers ■

Less oxygenation generally with less overall movement

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Concentration

Folder shoulder

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Medication affects

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Hydration

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Changing posture

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More digestive issues

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Changing health issues

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Hearing loss

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Vision changes

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Standing

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FROM THE TEACHER Example 1

A 70-year-old retired high school choral director, revered by her many former students, returned, after a number of years, for a voice lesson. She started lessons years ago but had to discontinue when her husband's Alzheimer disease required her full attention until his passing. Then she had lung cancer, which required the removal of half of one lung. Most recently, she cared for her ailing stepfather until his passing. At one point, her niece told her she looked very tired and stressed. Then one night she had symptoms of a heart attack, so she drove herself to the hospital. Tests showed she did not have a heart attack but had symptoms that could lead to one. Once everything looked okay to the doctors, she was sent home, told to take a baby aspirin each day, do something enjoyable, and resume her regimen of walking. The "something enjoyable" turned out to be coming for a voice lesson. Comparing her singing to 5 years ago, her posture was slumped, breathing was shallow, the face

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was droopier, and the sound was very unsteady. This was a far cry from her warm, velvety contralto I remembered. We started with humming, which substitutes the nasal tract for the vocal tract. The entire mouth is occluded. Humming is an attainable semi-occlusion and a good starting point (Titze, 2006). I had her put her knuckles on her sides at the waistline, where she could feel the action of the oblique muscles, and to see if they engaged when she sang. There wasn't much engagement, so she immediately started to use her support muscles more, and the sound improved. We changed to an /i/ vowel. She started to draw on her instincts as focus and some hints of brilliance started to appear. Next we did bilabial lip trills on 132454321. She could not get that going because her support was too weak to create the necessary air pressure. With persistence it gradually got better. Then we did a "pharyngeal stretch" (explained in Chapter 8) and talked about all the good things that happen when she opens from the back to the front, rather than the other way around. She also remembered how important it is to keep her cheeks up with the inner smile inside. Finally, we did bibbedy, bobbedy, bibbedy bobbedy boo, 54321, pointing out the semi-occlusive effects of the /bl that sparks brilliance in the sound. Suddenly she sounded like the singer I recalled from years ago. I recommended she join one of the Encore Illinois choirs in her area, and practice 5 to 10 minutes four times a day for 5 out of the next 7 days. (5-Day Mini-Challenge explained in Chapter 8). Over the past 4 months, she has returned for voice lessons. She is better every time, has sung solos at church, and has an enviably rich, clear sound with a fair amount of "ring" in it. Her musicality is back. At Encore rehearsals, altos want to sit next to her as she is such a fine musician with such a beautiful voice. Her voice has brought music back into her life and lifted her spirits once again. She is learning Britten's Charm of Lullabies.

Example2 A 55-year-old baritone was concerned about singing as cantor for the upcoming High Holy Days. He was worried that his singing

6. The Senescent Singer

was not as good as it should be, and wondered if he was having aging issues. His approach was with a very relaxed face and jaw. His chest was very relaxed. It was clear in the first exercise that his vocal priority was to maintain comfort in his body and jaw more than anything else. His vibrato was slow. On a five-note scale from the top down, there were little hs between notes and the vibrato rate varied from none to some. It was a very pleasant voice, nicely in tune, with a decent range up to G4 and down to D2, although not much ring in the sound. He spoke about the importance of efficiency and relaxation in his body and jaw. This was an example of being overly cautious about his vocal production. Semi-occluded vocal tract exercises, and acoustic concepts behind them, changed his singing quickly. He needed to be introduced to the ring of the voice and the capabilities of the support muscles that in turn cause the vocal folds to vibrate better, which in turn causes more ring, which signals that the vibration at the source is benefiting from the resonance. He was not having aging issues. He needed to upgrade his technique. He responded immediately and has many years of fine singing ahead of him.

Example3 A 72-year-old baritone came to me looking for help with his singing after the conductor of a fine, large ensemble encouraged him to consider retiring from the choir. He had sung professionally years ago. When he decided to change to a nonsinging profession, he kept his singing going as an amateur for over 20 years through this fine ensemble. He did not study regularly during those years. Eighteen months before he first took a voice lesson, he had surgery for prostate cancer. He noticed that his voice was weaker since then. He also had some heart issues. In the immediate future, his goal was to sing a Gerald Finzi piece at a soiree for some friends. He wanted to do a couple lessons each month. In his first lesson, I could hear a core to the sound that popped in and out constantly. I could imagine what this was like decades ago. We worked on getting the support muscles to be a little more coordinated. He needed to sit down sometimes

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during a lesson, so we kept a chair nearby. After much effort on his part, and a few lessons over a few months, the coordination of his breathing was still labored and the voice unstable. He was not capable of making this coordinated physical effort and rejected the idea of going to see a doctor about his voice. He had vivid memories of how good his singing felt and sounded earlier in his life. We discussed aging issues and circumstances that necessitate different expectations when one sings. He had tested the waters, made some improvement, and was able to get through the Finzi song at the soiree with his friends. Soon after, he let me know he was going to become an appreciator of those who sing, but it was just too physically challenging for him to do himself. He guessed that the combination of heart issues, going through a surgery, and weakness that happens when getting older made the exertion for him more than he cared to do now. The end product was below his own standards and too exhausting. He looked forward to being an audience member and was more relieved than sad about his decision.

Example4 A church choir director once sent me an e-mail about an 86-yearold woman who came to her shyly and tearfully, at the first choir rehearsal of the new year, to say that this would be her final year in the choir. She had a harder time singing nowadays and driving to church wasn't easy, especially after dark or in bad weather. She had been a member of the choir for over five decades. Everyone loved her. The director knew of my interest in the aging singer and wondered if a gift to the woman of a few voice lessons might help her improve so she wouldn't feel like she had to quit. She also wanted to arrange rides for her to rehearsals. I thought a lot about my response, but didn't feel quite right about it until I visited my 88-year-old, extremely vibrant mother and father at their retirement community. Both of them did a lot of volunteering and had decided to discontinue some of that now. I was surprised. Why would they do that? My mother explained that it feels good to let go of some things, especially knowing others can take over and are better equipped to do the

6. The Senescent Singer

work and get to the meetings. They would rather be very comfortable now, and free to be selective rather than duty-bound. With that new understanding, my response to the director was that, in all honesty, any amount of lessons with me would not make a significant improvement. There is a point in the middle 80s when there is more noise and disturbance in the speaking and singing voice. This woman seemed to sense that singing in choir was a little too stressful for her now. Despite the wellmeant email from the choir director, I recommended that they honor her wishes, celebrate her many years with the chorus with a formal recognition such as a plaque or gift given by the choir in her honor, and leave the door open for whenever she might want to come and sing. She came to a sensible decision based on her comfort level. She could maintain her pride and the admiration of everyone in the choir, and yet deal realistically with making life a little more comfortable for herself.

Examples A 67-year-old female cantor came for a lesson to get back in shape for the upcoming holidays. It had been a year since I last saw her. She plays guitar and has a minimal ability to read musical notation. She had no idea she had an upper register until 10 years ago, and tends not to work on her voice during the interim beyond what her work as a cantor requires. The voice was healthy but more out of shape than I had heard previously. On /i/ and / e/ vowels, her sound had some ring, an element of clarity, and decent pitch. Every /a/ vowel was breathy. We used semi-occluded exercises with a straw (explained in Chapter 8) and went back and forth between the /a/ vowel and /i/ or the straw, but to no avail. Then I had her do something Kenneth Bozeman had just shared with me. I had her put the palms of her hands facing away from herself and say, "Woe, move away from me now!" Then I had her sing a phrase in the spirit of that gesture and it was much better. She noticed her back muscles were more engaged as she stayed in a position of inhalation rather than collapsing. It started out very isometric, so we added an element of legato with it by doing her "woe gesture" as if

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moving in water. The /a/ became much clearer. I gave her a 5-Day Mini-Challenge (explained in Chapter 8) to practice twice a day for 20 minutes for 5 out the next 7 days and to use the "Woe gesture in a swimming pool" during each session. Thankfully, it improved quickly. Undoubtedly, as seniors who sing, it is not possible to stay in presentational shape without some personal initiative put toward it regularly. It has been one year since I wrote this. Now this singer is 68 and came back for another lesson before the upcoming holidays. She was in much better shape and credited two things, one of which I didn't mention in the summary above. She used the straw, and she thought about her throat as heart-shaped. I do remember saying this, but had no idea that was what made the biggest impression on her. The heart shape made her widen across the maxilla, get her palate up, and not sing through her nose, as she went into the upper register of her voice.

Example6 A 67-year-old man took one lesson with me while I was teaching in Zurich. In this lesson, he sang quite well, and said he was a baritone. After a few exercises, I complimented him on his good sense of breathing and support. He told me he was an active trumpet player. That made sense. Often in lessons with mature adults, their muscles of breathing are not working sufficiently, so it can be a tangible place to start with guaranteed success. But he was extremely fine in that regard. I did notice that his / e/ vowel was too open, so explained that the side blades of the tongue should touch the upper molars or behind them. We then sang aye on 123454321. The change in the resonance was remarkable. He said it felt like a trumpet playing in his own head, and laughed when I told him I refer to that as a "party in your head." This led to further discussion about how the vocal instrument is nonlinear because some of the acoustic "party in your head" returns to the source (the vocal folds), making it all the more efficient. After that discussion, we repeated the exercise and did some incredible "formant tuning" up to a high D5.

6. The Senescent Singer

"Correction does much, but encouragement does more." -Johan Wolfgang von Goethe

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loproteinases in rat vocal folds: Comparison with skin and lungs. Journal ofSpeech, Language, and Hearing Research, 44(_2), 317-326. Dolgen, E. (Producer). (2014, December 22). A look at menopause through the ages. Huffpost. Retrieved from http://www.huffington post.com/ellen-sarver-dolgen/history-of-menopause_b_6159614.html Encore Creativity for Older Adults. (2017). Retrieved from http://www .encorecreativity.org/index.php Eppley, B. D., & Mueller, P. B. (2001). Chronological age judgments of elderly speakers: The effects of listeners' age. Contemporary Issues in Communication Science and Disorders, 28, 5-8. Ferrand, C. T. (2002). Harmonics-to-noise ratio: An index of vocal aging. Journal of Voice, 16(4), 480-487. Gescheider, G. A., Bolanowski, S.J., & Verrillo, R. T. (2004). Some characteristics of tactile channels. Behavioral Brain Research, 148(1-2), 35-40. Gorham-Rowan, M. M., & Laures-Gore, J. (2006). Acoustic-perceptual correlates of voice quality in elderly men and women. Journal of Communication Disorders, 39(3), 171-184. doi: 10.1016/j.jcomdis .2005.11.005 Gray, S. D. (2000). Cellular physiology of the vocal folds. Otolaryngology Clinics of North America, 33(4), 679-698. Gray, S. D., Titze, I. R., Alipour, F., & Hammond, T. H. (2000). Biomechanical and histologic observations of vocal fold fibrous proteins. Annals of Otology, Rhinology & Laryngology, 109(1), 77-85. Hammond, T. H., Gray, S. D., & Butler, J.E. (2000). Age- and genderrelated collagen distribution in human vocal folds. Annals of Otology Rhinology & Laryngology, 109(10, Pt. 1), 913-920. doi:10.1177/ 000348940010901004 Harnsberger, J. D., Brown, W. S., Jr., Shrivastav, R., & Rothman, H. (2010). Noise and tremor in the perception of vocal aging in males. Journal of Voice, 24(_5), 523-530. doi:10.1016/j.jvoice.2009.01.003 Hartman, D. E. (1979). The perceptual identity and characteristics of aging in normal male adult speakers. Journal of Communication Disorders, 12(1), 53-61. Hirano, M., Kurita, S., & Sakaguchi, S. (1989). Ageing of the vibratory tissue of human vocal folds.Acta Oto-Laryngologica, 107(5-6), 428433. doi: 10.3109/00016488909127535 Hirano, S., Bless, D.M., delRio,A.M., Connor,N. P.,&Ford, C. N. (2004). Therapeutic potential of growth factors for aging voice. Laryngoscope, 114(12), 2161-2167. doi:10.1097/0l.mlg.0000149450.37640.db Hollien, H., & Shipp, T. (1972). Speaking fundamental frequency and chronologic age in males. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 15(1), 155-159.

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Honjo, I., & Isshiki, N. (1980). Laryngoscopic and voice characteristics of aged persons. Archive of Otolaryngology, 106(3), 149-150. Huntley, R., Hollien, H., & Shipp, T. (1987). Influences of listener characteristics on perceived age estimations.Journal of Voice, 1(1), 49-52. Jacques, R. D., & Rastatter, M. P. (1990). Recognition of speaker age from selected acoustic features as perceived by normal young and older listeners. Folia Phoniatrica, 42(3), 118-124. Janssens,J. P., Pache,J. C., & Nicod, L. P. (1999). Physiological changes in respiratory function associated with ageing. European Respiratory Journal, 130), 197-205. Johnson,]. K., Napoles, A. M., Stewart, A. L., Max, W. B., Santoyo-Olsson, J., Freyre, R., ... Gregorich, S. E. (2015). Study protocol for a cluster randomized trial of the Community of Voices choir intervention to promote the health and well-being of diverse older adults. BioMed Central Public Health, 15(1049), 1-13. Kendall, K. (2007). Presbyphonia: A review. Current Opinion in Otolaryngology & Head and Neck Surgery, 15(3), 137-140. doi: 10.1097/ MOO.0b013e328166794f Krauss, R. M., Freyberg, R., & Morsella, E. (2002). Inferring speakers' physical attributes from their voices.Journal ofExperimental Social Psychology, 38(6), 618-625. doi:10.1016/s0022-1031(02)00510-3 Linville, S. E. (1992). Glottal gap configurations in two age groups of women.Journal ofSpeech and Hearing Research, 35(6), 1209-1215. Linville, S. E. (1996). The sound of senescence.Journal of Voice, 10(2), 190-200. doi: 10.1016/S0892-1997(96)80046-4 Linville, S. E. (2001). Vocal aging. San Diego, CA: Singular. Linville, S. E. (2002). Source characteristics of aged voice assessed from long-term average spectra.Journal of Voice, 16(4), 472-479. Linville, S. E., & Fisher, H. B. (1985). Acoustic characteristics of perceived versus actual vocal age in controlled phonation by adult females. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 78(1, Pt. 1), 40-48. Linville, S. E., & Rens,J. (2001). Vocal tract resonance analysis of aging voice using long-term average spectra.Journal of Voice, 15(3), 323330. doi: 10.1016/s0892-1997(01)00034-0 Madruga de Melo, E. C., Lemos, M., Aragao Ximenes Filho, J., Sennes, L. U., Nascimento Saldiva, P.H., & Tsuji, D. H. (2003). Distribution of collagen in the lamina propria of the human vocal fold. Laryngoscope, 113(12), 2187-2191. doi:10.1097/00005537-200312000-00027 Malmgren, L. T., Fisher, P. J., Bookman, L. M., & Uno, T. (1999). Agerelated changes in muscle fiber types in the human thyroarytenoid muscle: An immunohistochemical and stereological study using confocal laser scanning microscopy. Otolaryngoly-Head and Neck Surgery, 121(4), 441-451. doi:10.1016/S0194-5998(99)70235-4

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May, M. (2013, October 28). UCSF forming neighborhood choirs to test quality-of-life benefits. San Francisco Chronicle. McMullen, C. A., & Andrade, F. H. (2009). Functional and morphological evidence of age-related denervation in rat laryngeal muscles. The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 64(4), 435-442. doi:10.1093/gerona/gln074 Mendelson, B., & Wong, C. H. (2012). Changes in the facial skeleton with aging: Implications and clinical applications in facial rejuvenation. Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, 36(4), 753-760. doi: 10.1007/s00266-012-9904-3 Miller, J. (Producer). (2017). What is Encore? Encore Illinois: Choral singing for your life! Retrieved from http://encoreillinois.org/ Morris, R. J., & Brown, W. S. (1994). Age-related differences in speech variability among women. Journal of Communication Disorders, 27(1), 49-64. Mortelliti, A. J., Malmgren, L. T., & Gacek, R.R. (1990). Ultrastructural changes with age in the human superior laryngeal nerve. Archives of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, 116(9), 1062-1069. Mueller, P. B., Sweeney, R. J., & Baribeau, L. J. (1985). Senescence of the voice: Morphology of excised male larynges. Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica, 3 7(3-4), 134-138. Murty, G. E., Carding, P. N., & Kelly, P.J. (1991). Combined glottographic changes in the elderly. Clinical Otolaryngology and Allied Sciences, 16(6), 532-534. National Center for Creative Aging. (2012). Encore creativity for older adults and encore chorales. Retrieved from http://creativeaging.org/ creative-aging-program/6364 Neiman, G. S., & Applegate, J. A. (1990). Accuracy of listener judgments of perceived age relative to chronological age in adults. Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica, 42(6), 327-330. Orlikoff, R. F. (1990). The relationship of age and cardiovascular health to certain acoustic characteristics of male voices. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 33(3), 450-457. Ortman, J. M., & Velkoff, V. A. (2014). An aging nation: The older population in the United States. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/ prod/2014pubs/p25-1140.pdf Perie, S., St Guily, J. L., Callard, P., & Sebille, A. (1997). Innervation of adult human laryngeal muscle fibers. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 149(1), 81-86. Pontes, P., Brasolotto, A., & Behlau, M. (2005). Glottic characteristics and voice complaint in the elderly. Journal of Voice, 19(1), 84-94. doi: 10.1016/j.jvoice.2004.09.002 Pontes, P., Yamasaki, R., & Behlau, M. (2006). Morphological and functional aspects of the senile larynx. Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica, 58(3), 151-158. doi:10.1159/000091729

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Prakup, B. (2012). Acoustic measures of the voices of older singers and nonsingers. Journal of Voice, 26(3), 341-350. doi:10.1016/j.j voice.2011.05.007 Raj, A., Gupta, B., Chowdhury, A., & Chadha, S. (2010). A study of voice changes in various phases of menstrual cycle and in postmenopausal women.Journal of Voice, 24(3), 363-368. Ramig, L. A., & Ringel, R. L. 0983). Effects of physiological aging on selected acoustic characteristics of voice. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 260), 22-30. Rayapati, S. (2012). Singing into your sixties-and beyond! Delaware, OH: Inside View Press. Rens,J., & Linville, S. E. (2001). Vocal tract resonance analysis of aging voice using long-term average spectra.Journal of Voice, 15(30), 323-330. Rodeno, M. T., Sanchez-Fernandez, J.M., & Rivera-Pomar, J.M. 0993). Histochemical and morphometrical ageing changes in human vocal cord muscles. Acta Oto-Laryngologica, 113(3), 445-449. Ryan, W.J., & Burk, K. W. 0974). Perceptual and acoustic correlates of aging in the speech of males.Journal of Communication Disorders, 7(2), 181-192. Sataloff, R. T., & Linville., S. E. (2006). The effects of age on the voice. In R. T. Sataloff (Ed.), Vocal health and pedagogy: Advanced assessment and treatment (pp. 17-31). San Diego, CA: Plural. Sato, K., & Hirano, M. 0997). Age-related changes of elastic fibers in the superficial layer of the lamina propria of vocal folds. Annals of Otology, Rhinology&Laryngology, 1060), 44-48. doi:10.1177/0003 48949710600109 Sato, K., Hirano, M., & Nakashima, T. (2002). Age-related changes of collagenous fibers in the human vocal fold mucosa. Annals of Otology, Rhinology & Laryngology, 1110), 15-20. Sato, T., & Tauchi, H. 0982). Age changes in human vocal muscle. Mechanisms ofAgeing and Development, 180), 67-74. Sharma, G., & Goodwin,]. (2006). Effect of aging on respiratory system physiology and immunology. Clinical Interventions in Aging, 1(3), 253-260. Shipp, T., & Hollien, H. 0969). Perception of the aging male voice. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 12(4), 703-710. Smith, B. (2012). Singing and aging. In B. Smith & R. T. Sataloff (Eds.), Choral pedagogy and the older singer (pp. 293-304). San Diego, CA: Plural. Stathopoulos, E.T., Huber,J. E., & Sussman,]. E. (2011). Changes in acoustic characteristics of the voice across the life span: Measures from individuals 4 to 93 years of age.Journal ofSpeech Language and Hearing Research, 54(4), 1011-1021. doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2010/10-0036)

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Suzuki, T., Connor, N. P., Lee, K., Bless, D. M., Ford, C. N., & Inagi, K. (2002). Age-related alterations in myosin heavy chain isoforms in rat intrinsic laryngeal muscles. Annals of Otology, Rhinology & Laryngology, 111(11), 962-967. Taylor, N. A. S. (2011). Pulmonary function in aging humans. In E. J. Masoro & S. N. Austad (Eds.), Handbook of the biology ofaging (pp. 421-446). San Diego, CA: Academic Press, Elsevier. Teles-Magalhaes, L. C., Pegoraro-Krook, M. I., & Pegoraro, R. (2000). Study of the elderly females' voice by phonetography. Journal of Voice, 14(3), 310-321. Thibeault, S. L., Glade, R. S., & Li, W. (2006). Comparison of telomere length of vocal folds with different tissues: A physiological measurement of vocal senescence.Journal of Voice, 20(2), 165-170. doi:10.1016/j.jvoice.2005.04.006 Thomas, L.B., Harrison, A. L., & Stemple,]. C. (2008). Aging thyroarytenoid and limb skeletal muscle: lessons in contrast.Journal of Voice, 22(4), 430-450. doi:10.1016/j.jvoice.2006.11.006 Tiago, R., Pontes, P., & do Brasil, 0. C. (2007). Age-related changes in human laryngeal nerves. Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, 136(5), 747-751. doi:10.1016/j.otohns.2006.11.054 Titze, I. R. (2000). Principles of voice production. Denver, CO: National Center for Voice and Speech. Titze, I. R. (2006). Voice training and therapy with a semi-occluded vocal tract: Rationale and scientific underpinnings.Journal ofSpeech, Language, and Hearing Research, 49(2), 448-459. doi:10.1044/10 92-4388(2006/035) Titze, I. R. (2011). Vocal fold mass is not a useful quantity for describing F0 in vocalization. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 54(2), 520. doi: 10.1044/1092-4388(2010/09-0284) Tiirkman, S., Cansu, A., Tiiredi, S., Erygit, U., Sahin, A., Giindiiz, A., & Shavit, I. (2012). Age-dependent structural and radiological changes in the larynx. Clinical Radiology, 67, e22-e26. Why we need to shift attitudes towards menopause. (2017, February 28). Menopause Centre Australia. Retrieved from http://www.meno pausecentre.com.au/information-centre/articles/why-we-need-toshift-attitudes-towards-menopause/ Wilcox, K. A., & Horii, Y. (1980). Age and changes in vocal jitter.Journal of Gerontology, 35(2), 194-198. Woo, P., Casper, J., Colton, R., & Brewer, D. (1992). Dysphonia in the aging: Physiology versus disease. Laryngoscope, 102(2), 139-144. doi:10.1288/00005537-199202000-00007 Ximenes Filho, J. A., Tsuji, D. H., do Nascimento, P. H., & Sennes, L. U. (2003). Histologic changes in human vocal folds correlated with

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aging: A histomorphometric study. Annals of Otology, Rhinology & Laryngology, 112(10), 894-898. doi:10.1177/000348940311201012 Xue, A., & Muelle, P. B. (1997). Acoustic and perceptual characteristics of the voices of sedentary and physically active elderly speakers. Logopedics Phoniatrics Vocology, 22(2), 51-60. doi:10.3109/1401 5439709075315 Xue, S. A., & Deliyski, D. (2001). Effects of aging on selected acoustic voice parameters: Preliminary normative data and educational implications. Educational Gerontology, 27(2), 159-168. doi:10.1080/ 03601270151075561 Zaske, R., & Schweinberger, S. R. (2011). You are only as old as you sound: Auditory aftereffects in vocal age perception. Hearing Research, 282(1-2), 283-288. doi:10.1016/j.heares.2011.06.008

7 Medical Assessment Across the Lifespan Laryngeal Imaging, Perceptual, and Acoustic/Aerodynamic Assessment Michie/ Bove, Nathan Waller, and Peter Wagreich

A REVIEW OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY ACROSS THE LIFESPAN

Laryngologists and speech-language pathologists see patients of all ages who have difficulties with their voices. Approaches and considerations for senescent, adult, and pediatric patients are not always the same due to physiological and psychological differences. The normal process of aging affects the voice in significant and obvious ways. The voices of children, adults, and the elderly are easily discernable, even to the untrained ear. The effects of time on the human voice are multiple, ranging from natural to iatrogenic, from inevitable to treatable. Recognizing and successfully treating these conditions depends on a coordinated approach that combines the informed insights of laryngologists, speech-language pathologists, and voice therapists. Many vocal 243

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symptoms associated with aging, for instance, are actually deficits in conditioning, rather than the consequence of physiological effects. Pitch inaccuracies and the inability to sing softly, for example, can usually be managed with voice therapy. Other effects, such as those brought on by hormonal, pharmacologic, neurologic, or geriatric etiologies, need to be recognized and treated independently and integrated into an overall treatment strategy to optimize voice outcomes. The physiological basis for voicing is complex. Sufficient expiratory flow rates are necessary to initiate and maintain vocal fold vibration. As sufficient subglottal pressures are generated and adequate glottal closure is achieved, the mucosa over the paired opposing vocal folds separate and vibrate periodically. The fundamental frequency of vibration, which is approximately 100 cycles per second (hertz, Hz) in men and 200 Hz in women, determines the pitch of the speaking voice. The fundamental frequency of vibration of the vocal folds and its harmonics are then modified along the vocal tract to impart upon it the resonant qualities of the voice. This modification on the voice, called resonance, is the combined effect of the pharynx, oral cavity, nasal cavity, and sinuses. As the sound produced from vocal cord vibration travels along this tract, some frequencies are muffled while others are amplified. This mechanism results in the production of four to five important resonant frequencies called formants. The anatomic and physiologic structures that provide the airflow, vocal fold vibration, and resonance required for voicing are all subject to aging, resulting in what is often categorized into the general term known as "presbyphonia." The bases for these changes are multiple and complex. Laryngeal anatomy, for instance, evolves in important and vocally relevant ways from the time of birth until senescence. At birth, for instance, the hyoid and thyroid cartilages are closely associated and separate slowly with time. Ossification of laryngeal cartilages, similarly, progresses with time. The hyoid ossifies first (by age 2), while the cricoid cartilage starts to ossify by the age of 20, and the arytenoids ossify by age 30. At birth, the larynx lies high in the neonate's neck, close to the skull base, at about the third cervical vertebra (C3). By age 5, it descends to about the level of CS and comes to rest, by adulthood, to the level of C6 to

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C7. As these vocal tract relationships evolve, the average vocal pitch lowers. Puberty brings significant anatomic and physiologic changes to the vocal mechanism. Male vocal folds lengthen by 4 to 11 mm (60%), while female vocal folds lengthen 1.5 to 4 mm (34%). In addition, connective tissue changes to the superficial and intermediate layers of the lamina propria result in the mature vocal ligament by about the age of 16. The voice is also very sensitive to endocrinological influences (Abitbol & Abitbol, 1999; Kadaki, Carlson, & Sataloff., 2013). Indeed, hormonal changes are known to have a significant effect on the voice. As women experience changes in their estrogen and progesterone levels, vocal harmonics are measurably affected.

PRESBYPHONIA

Presbyphonia needs to be distinguished from vocal fold atrophy. Presbyphonia is a general term, which refers to the myriad anatomic and medical problems that can affect the aged voice (Woo, Casper, Colton, & Brewer, 1990). Some problems associated with the aging voice relate to poor breath support, generalized deconditioning, articulation deficits, and time-dependent changes in vocal fold histology (Yumoto, 2004). Vocal fold atrophy refers specifically to those age-related changes occurring at the glottic level. This may be due to atrophy of the intrinsic muscles of the larynx from deconditioning or disuse (Ramig, Scherer, & Titze, 1989). Alternatively, it may be due to stiffness of the vocal ligament, changes to the laryngeal cartilages and joints, or changes in the extracellular matrix of the lamina, resulting in decreased pliability of the mucosa! vocal fold cover (Silverman & Korobkin, 1983; Stearns & Cummings, 1982; Yonokawa, 1988). Clinical Assessment and Laryngeal Imaging of the Aging Voice

Laryngoscopy, using either a flexible transnasal fiberscope or rigid transoral telescope, with either constant or stroboscopic illumination, is invaluable in the assessment of the anatomical,

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physiological, and pathological characteristics of the aged voice. It is very important to recognize any conditions that may con-

found the treatment of presbyphonia. The compensatory muscle tension dysphonia characteristically seen in vocal fold atrophy can result in the development of vocal fold nodules, pseudopolyps, or hemorrhages. Neurological conditions that are increasingly prevalent as patients age, such as essential tremor of the voice (ETV), can be assessed for their amenability to botulinum toxin injection (Bove, Gartner-Schmidt, Wang, & Sulica, 2006). Other conditions affecting older patients, such as laryngitis sicca, iatrogenically induced laryngeal infections from the use of steroid inhalers for the treatment of asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), or even malignant disease processes, all need to be ruled out prior to initiating treatment for presbyphonia. The most useful and reliable examination for assessing vocal fold vibration is stroboscopy. The stroboscope provides the apparent slow motion of the vocal fold vibration during vocalization, which is visualized by the flashed light triggered by the subject's fundamental frequency of vocal fold vibration. Videostroboscopic evaluation in patients with vocal fold atrophy will often show bowing secondary to poor closure of the vocal folds (Hirose, 1988). On videostroboscopy, the vocal folds oscillate normally with excellent vibratory amplitude and mucosa! wave. In some patients, in fact, the mucosa! wave amplitude can even be increased. The glottal cycle, however, shows a decreased proportion of frames with the folds in a completely closed position. In severe cases, the vocal folds fail to approximate completely in any portion of the vibratory cycle (Tanaka, Hirano, & Chijiwa, 1994). The other characteristic of presbylarynges identifiable by stroboscopy is the type of glottal gap underlying the glottic insufficiency during vocalization. The spindle-shaped glottal gap pattern is seen when the vocal processes of the arytenoid cartilages approximate completely while a mid-membranous vocal fold gap persists through the glottic vibratory cycle. This can be seen with atrophic changes to the body of the thyroarytenoid muscle or changes in makeup of the lamina propria or sulcus vocalis. Other patterns include the persistence of a small gap just posterior to the anterior commissure (anterior glottic gap), or the pattern resulting from a persistent gap between the vocal processes of

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the arytenoid cartilages, resulting in what is often referred to as a posterior glottic chink. The latter pattern putatively results from weakness of the interarytenoid muscle, resulting in incomplete adduction of the arytenoids during vocalization. It is important to be aware, however, that some of these types of glottic gap can occur in asymptomatic vocalists. Posterior glottic gaps, or chinks, are commonly described in young women, as well as nondysphonic elderly individuals (Biever & Bless, 1989). The extent of the posterior glottic gap can also vary in proportion to the phonatory flow rates (Rammage, Peppard, & Bless, 1992). Also, completeness of the glottal closure can change, depending on the voice pitch conditions in normal subjects (Golfer & Untermeyer, 1990). Asymmetric and aperiodic vibration is also seen in the older dysphonic patient. This has been attributed to the possible contribution of the deterioration of neuromuscular control of the endolaryngeal musculature, due both to effects of time on neuronal and neuromuscular junction functions ( Gambino & Gacek, 1990; Mortelliti, Malmgren, & Gacek, 1990). This irregularity can be an additional source of voice perturbation and can best be quantitatively assessed with the frequency and amplitude perturbation quotients (jitter and shimmer). Laryngoscopic examination will also often reveal the patient using hard glottal attack and anteroposterior or lateral constriction of the supraglottic larynx. This increased muscle tension manifests as increased approximation of the false cords (lateral squeeze) or of the arytenoids to the epiglottis (anteroposterior squeeze). This is termed compensatory or secondary muscle tension dysphonia as the underlying cause for this adaptive strategy is the underlying glottal incompetence due to bowed and atrophic vocal folds. It is important to distinguish those patients presenting with secondary muscle tension dysphonia from those with primary muscle tension dysphonia or functional dysphonia. Indeed, patients with bowing and atrophy should have interventions (therapeutic and surgical) primarily directed at the glottal source of their symptoms rather than at their compensatory strategies. Mild to moderate cases are usually amenable to traditional or Lee Silverman Voice Treatment (LSVT) types of therapy. In severely affected patients, any attempts at mitigating the effects of the hyperfunction unmask significant breathiness. When glottal

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incompetence is too severe, the patient may benefit from a surgical intervention such as injection laryngoplasty or bilateral thyroplasty. Age-related changes to the functional and anatomical properties of the vocal folds are best clinically assessed and treated with the insight afforded by laryngoscopic and stroboscopic examinations. Laryngoscopy reveals detailed morphological pictures and video of the vocal folds as well as offering insight into patterns of impaired vocal fold motion as seen in vocal fold paralysis or paresis, spasmodic dysphonia, and muscle tension dysphonia. Stroboscopy, on the other hand, offers deep insight into the impact of aging on the vibratory characteristic of the vocal folds. These tools are indispensable for the safe and effective treatment by the otolaryngologist, speech-language pathologist, and vocal coach of dysphonia in the aging vocalist. ADULT VOICE DISORDERS ASSESSMENT: THE ROLE OF THE SPEECH-LANGUAGE PATHOLOGIST It is not uncommon for singing voice instructors to encounter a student who they suspect has a vocal injury or disorder or for singing teachers to be directly working with a student diagnosed with a vocal pathology. These circumstances can be intimidating, and the singing teachers may not be versed in how they may contribute to the rehabilitation of their students' voice. Singing voice instructors often are the first to identify a vocal problem and to make a recommendation to a health care provider. They also may end up collaborating with a speech-language pathologist in the management of their students' vocal problem. This section is included in order to provide clinical insight into the diagnosis of a voice disorder, to shed light on the role of a speech-language pathologist, and to review the contributions this profession can provide to those diagnosed with a voice disorder.

Team Approach

Typically, a team of clinicians will include a laryngologist, speechlanguage pathologist, and a singing voice instructor. The order

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in which each professional comes into play can certainly vary. As mentioned earlier, the singing voice instructors may be the first to suspect there is a problem beyond simply technical vocal difficulties and will recommend that their students visit an ENT for evaluation. Occasionally, singers who are not connected to a singing voice instructor will end up scheduling an appointment with a speech-language pathologist first and are seen by a laryngologist if the speech-language pathologist suspects a vocal problem beyond technical issues. If a diagnosis of a voice disorder is confirmed by a laryngologist, the patient may pursue voice therapy. Evaluation of Voice Disorders in Adult PopulationsAssessment by a Speech-Language Pathologist

Earlier in this chapter, you learned about the role of a laryngologist and laryngeal examination and anatomical/physiological changes to the larynx as we age. It is the laryngologist who makes the diagnosis of a voice disorder, not the speech-language pathologist. The speech-language pathologist also plays an important role in the diagnostic process and helps facilitate collaboration between the laryngologist, singing voice instructor, and patient. Voice centers across the country have variations of the assigned roles for the laryngologist and speech-language pathologist. For example, Clinic A may have the patients meet with the physician first and then see a speech-language pathologist immediately afterward for continued assessment. Clinic B may prefer the patients first see the speech-language pathologist, who may perform the laryngeal examination prior to physician involvement. In either case, the physician must confirm the diagnosis before therapy can be implemented. Outside of laryngeal imaging, there are several means of assessment that the speech-language pathologist may implement. They include intake of a detailed history, perceptual assessment, acoustic/aerodynamic assessment, and trial therapy. First, the speech-language pathologist collects historical information as it pertains to the patient's voice problem. In this regard, the clinician may want to know about when the voice

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problem began, whether the onset was gradual or abrupt, and how long the voice problem has been present. They will want to explore the nature of how the patients are using their voice when speaking and singing. Is it phonotraumatic in the approach or duration of use? A clinician will also want to explore adult patients' occupational and social vocal demands in order to obtain insight into voice use. Questions in this interview will vary depending upon the diagnosis. For example, the amount of voice use may be a concern for young adults who are overusing their voice because this may contribute to vocal fold swelling or a benign mucosa! injury, whereas amount of voice use may be a consideration for those who use their voice minimally and potentially develop vocal fold atrophy or presbyphonia. This would be a concern for an elderly patient. After a history is completed, the speech-language pathologist may want to review in detail the diagnosis that has been made to ensure the patients are well informed regarding the nature of their diagnosis and to provide counseling on vocal hygiene. This may include information on management of acid reflux if suspected by the physician. It is an excellent opportunity to design a customized vocal hygiene plan that fits the needs of the patient. More than likely, recommendations for amount of practice, frequency of performances, and consideration of changes to repertoire may be discussed. Other assessment tools that are often included in the evaluation include patient-completed questionnaires, which convey to the clinician how much of the patients' voice problem is impacting their quality of life. The Vocal Handicap Index, developed by Jacobson et al. (1997), and the Voice-Related Quality of Life measure, developed by Hogikyan and Sethuraman (1999), are two commonly used questionnaires. The clinician may include other scales or methods to administer informally such as a patient selfrating of talkativeness and loudness. Once a detailed voice-related medical history and patient self-rated questionnaire indicating impact on quality of life are completed, the clinicians will complete their perceptual assessment of the patients' vocal impairment. A common tool that speech-language pathologists will use to rate the level of perceptual impairment is the Consensus Auditory-Perceptual Evaluation of Voice (CAPE-V). Components of this assessment tool include

7. Medical Assessment Across the Lifespan

perceptual characteristics such as roughness, breathiness, strain, loudness, pitch, and other features of the voice the clinician may observe, which will lead to an overall severity rating. The clinicians may administer other perceptual assessments and, if they are working with a singer, may complete a singing voice assessment to listen for and rate the severity of dysphonia and the limitations of the singer's voice. Following a thorough perceptual assessment, the speechlanguage pathologist may complete an acoustic and aerodynamic assessment. According to Colton, Casper, and Leonard (2011), "Acoustics is the study of sound, and voice acoustics can provide important information about vocal fold movement" (p. 19). Objective acoustic measurements are gathered pertaining to average fundamental frequency of the speaking voice, fundamental frequency range, intensity or amplitude, maximum phonation time, and perturbation measurements such as jitter and shimmer. Aronson and Bless (2009) explain perturbation as "the presence of cycle-to-cycle variation in .fo, amplitude, and waveform morphology" (p. 146). Cepstral analysis is gradually becoming a preferred measurement for capturing the degree of dysphonia. According to the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (2015), "A cepstral-based measure is recommended based on growing evidence that such measures are viable for analyzing the entire range of dysphonia severity (not limited to Type 1 signals) in sustained vowels and connected speech" (p. 7). Acquisition of these data can be obtained via the Pentax Computerized Speech Lab, which includes the necessary hardware and software to capture this information. Some examples of tasks that the clinician may elicit include spontaneous speech, reading of a standardized passage, sustained phonation, and vocal range. These measurements are taken not only during the assessment but often posttreatment to compare pre and post results. According to Aronson and Bless (2009), "Aerodynamic analysis of voice involves measuring changes in air volume, flow, and pressure during phonation. Variation in these parameters allows insight into both respiratory and laryngeal performance." (p. 147) For objective aerodynamic measurement, the clinician may test for glottal airflow and subglottal air pressure, which may provide insight into glottal competency.

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Additional measurements that may be included before trial therapy or determination of services include a hearing screening and an assessment of oral motor control, which may provide insight into any hearing loss or neurological deficits. Trial therapy is an opportunity for the clinician to assess a patient's vocal ability and stimulability to common voice therapy techniques. This portion of the assessment may include tasks such as respiratory retraining, resonant voicing (i.e., forwardfocused voice production), adjustment to loudness/pitch, laryngeal massage, and semi-occluded vocal tract exercises (e.g., lip or tongue trills, straw phonation). If voice therapy is recommended, the clinicians will share with the patients what they recommend regarding frequency and duration of sessions. This can vary depending upon the diagnosis, if a patient is a surgical candidate or needs postoperative rehabilitation, or if there are conflicts in the patient's schedules that need to be worked around. Additionally, it is important that the clinicians provide the patients with home practice to be completed between sessions, and it is essential that the clinicians, with the patients' permission, share their insight and recommendations with the singing voice instructor. As outlined in this section, speech-language pathologists play a vital role in collecting information that complements the laryngeal imaging assessment and provides insight into the extent that the voice disorder is affecting the patient's vocal capability. They help determine whether or not a patient is a candidate for therapy, and often their role in a team-based approach is that of the educator. This guarantees that the end result is a well-informed patient with a plan in place to ensure the best plan of treatment.

PEDIATRIC VOICE DISORDERS ASSESSMENT: THE ROLE OF THE SPEECH-LANGUAGE PATHOLOGIST Evaluation of Voice Disorders in Pediatric PopulationsAssessment by a Speech-Language Pathologist

Children may vary greatly in the etiology and characteristics of their voice disorders. While there are certainly common trends

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that are seen in children with voice disorders, there is much to consider when a child is seen for a voice evaluation. This section will describe common problems that may arise with children's voices as well as the components of a voice evaluation and special considerations required when evaluating and treating a child with a voice disorder.

Common Voice Complaints in Pediatrics When children and their parents present at our clinic for a voice evaluation, the stories we hear tend to be fairly familiar and common: "My 7-year-old boy has had a raspy voice for as long as we can remember. Everybody always tells us how cute his voice sounds, but his pediatrician said we should come in and get it checked out. He yells a lot with his siblings and likes to play rough with others." There are of course variations on this theme, but this type of complaint is very common. This type of child may be hyperactive and yell a lot. They may like to talk over others or are the loudest one in the household. They may throw frequent tantrums or have other behavioral issues. Sometimes they like to make "funny voices" when playing with their friends. Often these children present with rough voices that may become worse as the day progresses or if they have been yelling a lot with friends. They may occasionally lose their voices if they have been yelling excessively (e.g., at a sporting event or at summer camp). The above characteristics are common in children with vocal fold nodules. Vocal nodules are the most common condition associated with pediatric voice disorders and account for up to 50% of cases of pediatric dysphonia (Colton, Casper, & Leonard, 2006). Vocal nodules are fibrous tissue on the mucosa of the vocal folds that builds up at the point of strongest contact of the vocal folds. They are often associated with children who yell, throw tantrums, and use their voices in very harsh ways. Though the most common, vocal nodules are not the only cause of voice disorders in children. Voice disorders may also appear as a result of a wide array of complex medical issues. For example, voice disorders may arise in children who were born

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prematurely, children who had an open heart surgery, children who had a significant stay in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU), or children who have been intubated for an extended period of time. These children tend to vary much more in their voice and communication characteristics. Some may have more global delays affecting their overall communication and cognition while some are more typically developing. An intubation tube is a breathing tube that passes through the larynx into the trachea. Intubation tubes may be required to maintain an open airway. Some children who have been intubated for long periods of time may experience scarring or laryngeal trauma, causing epithelial erosion ulceration, or the development of granulation tissue (Black, Hatch, & Nauth-Misir, 1990). Patients who have had open heart surgeries such as patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) ligation or heart transplants may have a weakened voice due to vocal fold paralysis or paresis. This is due to the path of the recurrent laryngeal nerve, which is an important source of innervation for the larynx, which may be injured during the course of a life-saving surgery (Daya, Hosni, BejarSolar, Evans, & Bailey, 2000). Vocal fold paralysis and paresis may result in dysphagia in the short term (difficulty swallowing), but many of these children wind up having a weak voice. In our hospital, we have seen some children try to overcome their vocal weakness by learning to phonate with other laryngeal structures (e.g., false vocal folds), resulting in a very rough vocal quality. Tracheostomy tubes may be inserted in some children with significant airway obstruction. A tracheostomy tube is placed through the anterior neck into the trachea, which lies below the vocal folds. Many tracheostomy tubes have a cuff that prevents air from escaping through the larynx, and while these tracheostomy tubes are in place with an inflated cuff, no voicing can take place. Depending on the amount of airway obstruction and size of the trachea, a child with a tracheostomy tube may be able to use a speaking valve placed on the end of the tube. Speaking valves allow inspiration through the tracheostomy tube but prevent air from exiting from the tracheostomy tube. The air then exits through the vocal folds, allowing a child to produce a voice. While some children with voice disorders may have a complex medical history and a severely disordered voice, others may have more mild complaints. In our clinic, it is not uncommon to

7. Medical Assessment Across the Lifespan

see adolescent singers who come in because their vocal range and/or endurance is not where it once was. Often these singers have begun to get more active in their high school choirs and are singing more frequently. These singers may have limited experience with voice lessons, vocal hygiene, and proper voice technique. They may have relatively mild dysphonia in their speaking voices, but they have begun to lose confidence in their ability to sing. These patients are usually very motivated to begin therapy and learn more about their voices.

The Pediatric Voice Evaluation When a patient is seen in our offices for a voice evaluation, the speech-language pathologist (SLP) uses many tools to gain as full a picture as possible of the voice characteristics, typical voice use, and impact of the voice disorder on the patient. The voice evaluation consists of the following: ■

Case history

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Perceptual assessment

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Acoustic/aerodynamic assessment

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Quality of life measures

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Laryngeal imaging

Case History The first step in any comprehensive assessment of a person's voice is the case history. In order to differentially diagnose a person's voice disorder, it is important to explore etiological factors that can contribute to the voice problem. A child's medical history must be reviewed, including the following factors: birth history, respiratory history, neurological status, developmental delays, surgical history, history of trauma, other medical diagnoses, and medications taken. As discussed above, it is important to know whether a child was born prematurely or full term and whether there were any

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complications that required intervention such as intubation or tracheotomy. Other respiratory issues such as asthma and allergies are also relevant to the voice. Not only does asthma impact the breath support needed to produce a voice, but there may also be a link between the inhalation of corticosteroids necessary to treat asthma and voice disturbances (lhre, Zetterstrom, Ihre, & Hammarberg, 2004). Allergies can also negatively impact the voice, so it is important to know what kinds of allergies a patient has and whether it is being treated medically. Allergies can cause laryngeal edema, excess mucus, and vocal fold erythema (Roth & Ferguson, 2010). Postnasal drip is a common complaint among those with voice disorders, so it is crucial to know if there is a history of allergies and if they are being treated. Many neurological impairments may affect the voice as well (e.g., myasthenia gravis, multiple sclerosis, cerebral palsy, etc.). In children especially, learning disabilities such as attentiondeficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), as well as diagnoses that may result in developmental delays such as autism spectrum disorders (ASD), are important to know, as they may relate to a child's vocal use (self-stimulating behaviors using the voice or frequent tantrums) and ability to make gains in therapy. Children with ADHD especially may also be at increased risk for voice disorders, laryngeal hyperfunction, and vocal nodules (BaronaLleo & Fernandez, 2016). Obviously, surgeries to the head and neck are important to know as they may result in a change in vocal quality. Also, as mentioned above, cardiac surgeries may result in vocal fold paralysis or paresis. Other relevant diagnoses to the voice include acid reflux, history of cancers, other communication disorders (e.g., language disorders, apraxia of speech, etc.), and psychological/psychiatric issues. In addition, it is important to know if the children have seen an otolaryngologist (ENT) for visualization of the vocal fold. If they have seen an ENT, it is important to know if any formal diagnoses were given such as vocal nodules and cysts. After review of the medical history, a child's psychosocial status should be reviewed. A child's number of siblings may be important. If a child has a lot of siblings, he or she may be more prone to talking loudly over others and competing with others to be heard. The child's academic performance may be relevant,

7. Medical Assessment Across the Lifespan

as well as classroom demands (whether the child needs to give many presentations or read aloud often). Extracurricular activities are also important in relation to voice use. Obviously, participation in any choirs or singing is relevant, but also enrollment in sports is important to know as some children may be encouraged to yell or cheer for their teammates at sporting events. The course and history of the present complaint must be explored as well. For children with vocal nodules, a hoarse voice may have first been noticed when the child began talking; however, nodules can arise more spontaneously as well, possibly after an illness or after a period of increased voice use (e.g., a stay at summer camp where children may be encouraged to yell and cheer). It is important to know if the patient's voice always has about the same level of hoarseness, if it has changed over time, if the patient ever completely loses his or her voice, or when the patient's voice gets worse over the course of the day or is worse in the mornings. A voice that is worse in the mornings may have some component of laryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR) or postnasal drip. Finally, it is important to get an idea of a child's regular voice use. The following questions may help gain insight into this matter: ■

How talkative is your child?

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How loud is your child?

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Do they do a lot of yelling?

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Do they every make funny voices while playing?

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Does your child talk over others to be heard?

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Does your child throw tantrums or get upset easily?

Perceptual Assessment As with adults, the CAPE-Vis frequently used with children to

perceptually assess vocal quality. However, when administering this assessment with children, there are several things to take into account. If children's literacy skills are such that they cannot read sentences yet, it may be more appropriate for them to repeat sentences after the clinician. In some cases, when a child

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has significant developmental delays and cannot produce a full sentence as needed for the full administration of the CAPE-V, it may not be appropriate to administer this tool. Nonetheless, the CAPE-V does provide a good framework for a qualitative description of the voice, which can be used with children during a voice evaluation. A child's voice may be described in terms of prominent characteristics (e.g., roughness, breathiness, etc.) present in the voice regardless of the ability to produce the exact sentences on the CAPE-V. As in any nonstandard administration of evaluation protocols, the evaluating clinicians should note how their impressions were arrived at. If a child was only heard to use his or her voice in one-word utterances, during conversational speech, or in a different structured setting (e.g., counting or singing the ABCs), this should be noted in the evaluation report.

Acoustic Measures Acoustic measurements are taken in voice evaluations in children much as they are with adults; however, there are several factors to consider when collecting acoustic data with children. Fundamental frequency is often measured and compared much like it is with adults, and normative data have been collected by various sources to determine whether a child's voice is within the normal range for his or her age and gender. Fundamental frequency range may also be obtained; however, there are currently no norms for lo range in children. These data can be collected before therapy and periodically during and at the end of therapy as a marker of progress if no norms are present for a particular child's age and gender. Perturbation is also measured in pediatric voices, and there are norms available. Most typically developing children over a certain age are able to sustain phonation long enough for a computer program to reliably measure perturbation; however, if a child has significant language delays or significant difficulties following directions or maintaining attention, these measures may become less reliable. Cepstral and spectral analyses of voice have become promising tools in objectively measuring dysphonia in children due to their ability to be used in connected speech and with more

7. Medical Assessment Across the Lifespan

dysphonic voices. At this time, no norms have been published for pediatrics; however, cepstral and spectral analyses of voice can be used as baseline and outcome measurements to track a child's progress in therapy. These, of course, should be used with caution until norms have been established.

Aerodynamic Measures

Aerodynamic measurements taken at a voice evaluation are the same as those taken with adults; however, there are several key considerations to take. There are several ways, both low- and high-tech, that may be used in a clinical setting to assess the aerodynamic characteristics of the voice. The s/z ratio is the ratio of the amount of time a person is able to sustain the phoneme /s/ divided by the amount of time a person is able to sustain the phoneme /z/. Because the /s/ and /z/ phonemes share the same place and manner of articulation but differ in voicing (/s/ is voiceless while /z/ is voiced), this measure is thought to determine whether a person's larynx is efficiently converting airflow into vibration. In cases where the patients are able to produce the /s/ much longer than the /z/, it may be one indication that their larynx is not working efficiently. There is, however, no known clinical explanation for the inverse (/z/ is sustained longer than /s/). Colton et al. (2006) state that there is much room for variation in this measure, but an s/z ratio greater than 1.4 can be considered abnormal. In working with children, several issues may arise when attempting to measure an s/z ratio. Some children may have a hard time understanding that the task is to produce the sounds as long as possible, and some may also "push" the /s/ phoneme to be as loud as they can. There is also a higher rate of misarticulation of these sounds with children than in the adult population, and this measure may be unreliable if the sounds are produced with a frontal or lateral lisp. Due to these factors, the s/z ratio should be used with caution and should be used in conjunction with other measures and never alone. Maximum phonation time is the amount of time a person is able to sustain a vowel in one continuous breath. Maximum phonation time can be influenced by many factors having noth-

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ing to do with the voicing efficiency such as the physical characteristics of the respiratory system. Maximum phonation time does vary based on age and sex, increasing into adulthood and with males and decreasing as adults age older than 65. Maximum phonation time may be a difficult measure to produce reliably with younger children. For example, children may have a hard time understanding that they are only supposed to produce the vowel during a single exhalation. Maximum phonation time and s/z ratio can be obtained relatively easily with minimal equipment. Other measures of aerodynamic efficiency may be taken with more instrumentation designed specifically for these tasks. Using more high-tech equipment, measures including intraoral air pressure, airflow during voicing, laryngeal airway resistance, and glottal efficiency may be taken. These are measured with the use of commercially available hardware and software systems that combine the use of pressure transducers, which measure air pressure; pneumotachographs, which measure airflow; and microphones. These measures allow the speech-language pathologist to estimate the efficiency of the vocal folds in converting airflow into vibration, as well as the amount of effort needed to initiate voicing. Currently, norms only exist for children aged 6 and older, so the utility of these measures may be reduced with younger children. Younger children may also have a harder time completing the tasks necessary to reliably measure the above parameters, so the use of these measures with children who are much younger may not be appropriate.

Quality of Life Measures

Not all children with voice disorders experience their disorder in the same way. Some with relatively mild hoarseness may report a greater functional impact of their voice on their life than a child with more severe hoarseness. That is because a person's voice can have a larger impact on the quality of life based on other external and internal factors. If a child is a singer and participates in choirs and competitions, even a relatively small voice disturbance can have a very large impact on quality of life. On the other hand, if a child has other developmental, medical, or

7. Medical Assessment Across the Lifespan

cognitive issues, a voice disturbance that is perceptually more severe may have relatively little impact on quality of life. Several instrument measures have been developed to measure the impact a person's voice has on quality of life; however, relatively few have been adapted specifically for use with pediatrics and the unique considerations necessary when working with children with voice disorders. The Pediatric Voice Handicap Index (pVHI) (Zur, Cotton, Keleher, Baker, Weinrich, & Lee, 2007) is a quality of life measure based on the Voice Handicap Index (VHI) that is used with adults. The pVHI is a set of questions answered by the caregiver that cover physical, functional, and emotional impacts a child's voice disorder may have. Parents are asked to rate on a scale of 0 to 4 how frequently they feel statements apply to their child (0 = never, 4 = always, and ratings in between). The scores are then added up and compared with norms that were taken in Zur et al. (2007) to provide a severity rating of mild, moderate, or severe. The pVHI was initially designed and normed with children younger than 13 years, so with children older than 12, the VHI may be more appropriate to use. Additionally, children older than 13 tend to be more aware of their voice and the impact their voice has on their daily lives, so the VHI may be more appropriate for these children. The pVHI and VHI can be a valuable clinical tool used in counseling families about treatment recommendations. For patients whose condition may not have a large impact on their quality of life, it can help guide whether to recommend therapy or surgery if appropriate.

Laryngeal Imaging As mentioned previously, the ENT diagnoses laryngeal patholo-

gies that may be contributing to voice disorders, and this is no different when working with children. Laryngeal videostroboscopy (LVS) is also routinely completed with children to assess the vibratory characteristics of the vocal folds. Many children are able to complete this assessment even despite their young age; however, children may have a harder time participating in a flexible scope passing through their nose, so care must be taken in preparing patients in the scope. We make sure to use

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child-friendly language when appropriate (e.g., calling the scope a "nose movie"), and we often take our time to talk about the process, what will happen, and what they will need to do while the scope is in place. We show the children the scope prior to inserting it in the nose so they can see how small it is and that it can fit in the nose. Children often do much better in this assessment when time is taken for adequate preparation. Rigid scopes that pass through the mouth to the back of the throat to view the vocal folds are difficult to use with younger children due to gag reflexes and overall smaller oral cavities. Using a rigid scope also requires children to hold a position that may be uncomfortable for them. However, because the rigid scope has a superior image to that of the flexible scope, they are often preferred when possible.

Pediatric Voice Therapy In many ways, pediatric voice therapy mirrors that of voice therapy with adults. For patients with laryngeal hyperfunction, we try to reduce the effort of phonation, often using therapy tools such as a semi-occluded vocal tract and teaching front-focus resonance when voicing and speaking. For voice disorders due to laryngeal hypofunction, we work on safely strengthening the vocal folds and larynx and increasing respiratory drive during voicing and speech. In general terms, voice therapy begins with establishing motor patterns in less complex communication contexts and then moves toward generalizing these patterns into everyday speech. Voice therapy often starts with basic voicing tasks such as sustained phonation or other speech contexts that facilitate the voice techniques that are desired. For example, therapy may start with phonation through a straw or with nasal sounds to establish the concept of resonant voice. Once the motor patterns are established and the patient can reliably distinguish and produce targets, the speech-language pathologist increases the demands with the goal of generalizing to more communication contexts. This may consist of moving from single sounds to syllables, words, sentences, and conversation.

7. Medical Assessment Across the Lifespan

Pediatric voice therapy mirrors voice therapy with adults in many ways, but there are several key differences that help with therapeutic success when working with children. Obviously, the language used within voice therapy sessions must be tailored to the developmental and cognitive abilities of the patient. For example, instead of describing a voice as having "front-focus resonance," we call it "buzzy." We talk about "straw buzzing" or "buzzy lips" rather than a "semi-occluded vocal tract." The more relatable and interesting children find the therapy goals, the more success they will have in therapy, and the more motivated they will be to come to therapy sessions and participate. When working with adolescents with voice disorders, it is important to treat them with respect and as members of the treatment team. If they feel like they have more control and understanding of the therapy process, adolescent patients will have more "buy-in" and will want to participate in therapy sessions more. If a clinician talks down to, uses childish language (no matter how innocent the clinician's intentions may be), or does not explain the therapy process to adolescent patients, they may quickly become disengaged and aloof. When working with a young patient with vocal nodules who yells and screams frequently and has tantrums, it is logical to say to that child, "You need to stop yelling." In fact, many voice therapy approaches tailored to working with children consist of exactly that. However, anyone who has been around a 6-yearold boy knows that this would be a very difficult thing to get a child to do for more than a short period of time. Education of the harms of yelling uncontrollably is important, but it should not be the only focus of therapy. There are some pediatric voice therapy programs that encourage children to use a resonant voice, and have built into them working up to using a loud/yelling voice while maintaining front-focus resonance. It is also important to consider that voice therapy is not necessarily appropriate for every child with a voice disorder. Voice therapy takes a certain amount of cognitive engagement on the part of the child, and children who have delays may have a very hard time making gains in therapy. Often times, children younger than 5 are not cognitively ready to begin voice therapy no matter how hard the clinician tries to work through the

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concepts and make them accessible. In these cases, the parents are provided with education regarding things they can do at home to encourage vocal hygiene such as hydration, controlling allergies and reflux, and reducing yelling when possible. We tell these parents to return when the child is a little older (6 months or a year depending on the child's age) to monitor the voice disorder and determine whether they are ready for therapy. Children with concomitant developmental delays, language disorders, or speech impairments may also not be appropriate for therapy given the complex directions, concepts, and motor control needed to make gains in therapy. A child who presents in an evaluation with a vocal fold paralysis or severely delayed language skills first may benefit from general speech therapy to increase vocabulary and language skills before it is appropriate to work on the voice.

REFERENCES Abitbol, J.P. A., & Abitbol, B. (1999). Sex hormones and the female voice.Journal of Voice, 13(3), 424-446. American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (2015). Recommended protocols for instrumental assessment of voice [Draft summary, Expert Panel to Develop a Protocol for Instrumental Assessment of Vocal Function]. Rockville, MD: Author. Aronson, A. E., & Bless, D. M. (2009). Clinical voice disorders (4th ed.). New York, NY: Thieme Medical. Awan, S. N., Roy, N., & Dromey, C. (2009). Estimating dysphonia severity in continuous speech: Application of a multi-parameter spectral/ cepstral model. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 23(11), 825-841. Barona-Lleo, L., & Fernandez, S. (2016). Hyperfunctional voice disorder in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): A phenotypic characteristic? Journal of Voice, 30(1), 114-119. Benjamin, B. (1993). Prolonged intubation injuries of the larynx: Endoscopic diagnosis, classification, and treatment. Annals of Otology, Rhinology & Laryngology, 102(4), 1-16. Biever, D. M., & Bless, D. M. (1989). Vibratory characteristics of the vocal folds in young adult and geriatric women. Journal of Voice, 3(2), 120-131. Black, A. E., Hatch, D. J., & Nauth-Misir, N. (1990). Complications of nasotracheal intubation in neonates, infants and children: A review

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of 4 years' experience in a children's hospital. British Journal of Anaesthesia, 65, 461-467. Bless, D. M., Hirano, M., & Feder, R.J. (1987). Videostroboscopic evaluation of the larynx. Ear, Nose & Throat Journal, 66(7), 289-296. Bove, M. D., Gartner-Schmidt,]., Wang, C., & Sulica, L. (2006). Development and validation of the vocal tremor scoring system. Laryngoscope, 116(9), 1662-1667. Colton, R. H., Casper, J. K., & Leonard, R. (2006). Understanding voice problems (3rd ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Colton, R. H., Casper, J. K., & Leonard, R. (2011). Understanding voice problems (4th ed.). Baltimore, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. Daya, H., Hosni, A., Bejar-Solar, I., Evans, J. N. G., & Bailey, M. (2000). Pediatric vocal fold paralysis: A long-term retrospective study. Archives ofOtolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, 126, 21-25. Gambino, D. R., Malmgren, L. T., & Gacek, R.R. (1990). Age-related changes in the neuromuscular junction in the human posterior cricoarytenoid muscles: A quantitative study. Laryngoscope, 100(3), 262-268. Golfer, M. P., & Untermeyer, D. (1990). Evaluation of vocal fold vibratory patterns in normal voices.Journal of Voice, 4(4), 334-345. Hirose, H. (1988). High-speed digital imaging of vocal fold vibration. Acta-Otolaryngologica (Stockholm), 458, 151-153. Hogikyan, N. D., & Sethuraman, G. (1999). Validation of an instrument to measure voice-related quality of life (V-RQOL). Journal of Voice, 13, 557-569. Ihre, E., Zetterstrom, 0., Ihre, E., & Hammarberg, B. (2004). Voice problems as side effects of inhaled corticosteroids in asthma patients-a prevalence study.Journal of Voice, 18(3), 403-414. Jacobson, B. H.,Johnson,A., Grywalski, C., Silbergleit,A.,Jacobson, G., Henniger, M. S., & Newman, C. W. (1997). The Vocal Handicap Index (VHI): Development and validation. American Journal of SpeechLanguage Pathology, 6, 66-70. Kadaki, S., Carlson, D., & Sataloff, R. T. (2013). The effect of hormones on the voice.Journal of Singing, 69(5), 571-574. Kempster, G. B., Gerrat, B. R., VerdoliniAbbott, K., Barkmeier-Kraemer, J., & Hillman, R. E. (2009). Consensus auditory-perceptual evaluation of voice: Development of a standardized clinical protocol. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 18, 124-132. Linville, S. E. (1996). The sound of senescence.Journal of Voice, 10(2), 190-200. Mortelliti, A. J., Malmgren, L. T., & Gacek, R.R. (1990). Ultrastructural changes with age in the human superior laryngeal nerve. Archives ofOtolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, 116(9), 1062-1069.

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Pereira Jotz, G., Cervantes, 0., Abrahao, M., Parente Settani, F. A., & Carrara de Angelis, E. (2002). Noise-to-harmonics ratio as an acoustic measure of voice disorders in boys. Journal of Voice, 16(1), 28-31. Peterson, E. A., Roy, N., Awan, S. N., Merill, R. M., Banks, R., & Tanner, K. (2013). Toward validation of the Cepstral Spectral Index of Dysphonia (CSID) as an objective treatment outcomes measure.Journal of Voice, 27(4), 401-410. Ramig, L., Scherer, R., & Titze, I. (1989). The aging voice. In Transcripts of the 5th Symposium: Care of the professional voice. New York, NY: The Voice Foundation. Rammage, L.A., Peppard, R. C., & Bless, D. M. (1992). Aerodynamic, laryngoscopic, and perceptual-acoustic characteristics in dysphonic females with posterior glottal chinks: A retrospective study.Journal of Voice, 6(1), 64-78. Roth, D., & Ferguson, B. J. (2010). Vocal allergy: Recent advances in understanding the role of allergy in dysphonia. Current Opinion in Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, 18, 176-181. Silverman, P. M., & Korobkin, M. (1983). High-resolution computed tomography of the normal larynx [in German]. Laryngorhinootologie, 71(4), 193-197. Stearns, M. P., & Cummings, C. W. (1982). Age-related changes in the epithelium of the monkey larynx. Annals of Otology, Rhinology & Laryngology, 91(4, Pt. 1), 370-371. Tanaka, S., Hirano, M., & Chijiwa, K. (1994). Some aspects of vocal bowing. Annals of Otology, Rhinology & Laryngology, 103(5, Pt. 1), 357-362. Wolk, L., Abdelli-Beruh, N. B., & Slavin, D. (2012). Habitual use of vocal fry in young adult female speakers.Journal of Voice, 26(3), 111-116. Woo, P., Casper, J., Colton, R., & Brewer, D.(1990). Dysphonia in the aging: Physiology vs. disease. Laryngoscope, 102(2), 139-144. Yonokawa, H. (1988). A clinical study of Reinke's edema. Auris, Nasus, Larynx, 15(1), 151-153. Yumoto, E. (2004). Aerodynamic, voice quality, and laryngeal image analysis of normal and pathological voices. Current Opinion Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, 12(3), 166-173. Zur, K. B., Cotton, S., Keleher, L., Baker, S., Weinrich, B., & Lee, L. (2007). Pediatric Voice Handicap Index (pVHI): A new tool for evaluating pediatric dysphonia. InternationalJournal ofPediatric Otorhinolaryngology, 71, 77-82.

8 Training Tools Across the Lifespan

Training across the lifespan requires age-appropriate means and approaches to encourage optimal vocal facility and musicianship. Ideally, vocal training should target best practices for each singer. Concepts, skill acquisition for specific vocal tasks, and muscular development and coordination all benefit from nurturing, skilled, and informed vocal pedagogues who have each student's best vocal and musical interests in mind. The vocal training tools in this chapter provide concepts, methods, and exercises to draw from in the voice studio, classroom, practice room, and rehearsals.

THE 5-DAY MINI-CHALLENGE

New exercises introduce new concepts, new sensations, and new coordinated physical effort. Sometimes initial attempts at new ways to sing seem daunting, or even impossible. This is especially the case if the exercise or concept is quite different from how someone thought about singing previously. Rather than feeling as if you must change everything immediately, why not eliminate the mental anxiety, and just commit to trying it for 5 out of the next 7 days? At least you would have 2 days off and you are only committing yourself to five trial runs. Students report 267

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that their "5-Day Mini-Challenge" is not only a vocal pedagogy tool, but also a "life lesson" to use when taking on any new initiative. Day 1-First efforts are clumsy, but they try, because they were told to. Day 2-They decide to forget about it all together. Day 3-They decide, why not try it again since they have a few minutes and it is on their mind. Surprisingly, they attempt to do it and it is, indeed, with better results than the first day. Day 4-They are on a roll, and figure that if it was that much better yesterday, it will be great today. It turns out it is about the same as the previous day. Oh well! Day 5-Well, they have gone this far, so why not give it one more effort, and it is downright impressive. They are thrilled. Day 6-Too busy today, and they forget to do it. Day 7-Although they forgot yesterday, they decide to complete the 5-day requirement today. So they do it, and are amazed by the improved coordination. The "5-Day MiniChallenge" is successfully completed! It is also etched in their mind and body and will be easier to call on moving forward.

5-DAY AND 6-WEEK RULE

Building on the "5-Day Mini-Challenge": Anyone who has done physical therapy for foot, ankle, shoulder, knee, or hip issues knows that the usual prescribed regimen is a series of exercises, specific to the symptoms, three to five times a week for 6 weeks. Once the mini-challenge has been successful, why not stretch it into 6 weeks. Give it a try for 5 days during the first week and note how, or if, it helps. Then keep doing the routine, with guidance, over a 6-week period to see how it contributes to relieving symptoms and improving function. After all the sessions are completed, and it is clear that exercise and coordination

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have helped, physical therapists will send patients on their way with a list of exercises to keep doing. Too often patients quit doing the exercises, and issues resurface. It is the same in singing. A purposeful routine of exercises alongside explanations about targeted vocal issues is a good game plan to send home with students of all ages. It can be customized accordingly for each person.

ONSET EXERCISES (See Exercises 4a, 4b, and 4c) Onset exercises were first introduced by Richard Miller. Repetitions of the balanced onset coordinate breath flow while discouraging breathy or glottal attacks (Miller, 1996). Choose one of the five Italian vowels, perhaps /i/ for women and / e/ for men. Start in a comfortable range, around A4 for women and A3 for men. Sing five quarter notes on the same pitch with a silent breath between each of them. Abduction is as important as the adduction in this exercise sequence (Hoch & Lister, 2016). Go up and down the scale, but not to the extremes. Then sing two eighth notes followed by a breath and repeat four times. Then do it with triplets, and then with four sixteenth notes. Try other vowels, or do a closed vowel for one beat, then an open vowel for the next within each set. The goal is for perfect onsets and offsets. Onsets need to be in the middle of the pitch, with no hs, no glottals, and no scooping (Miller, 1996). Offsets should be with the same vowel you started with rather than a grunt, or uh, or noise of any kind. Go ahead and multitask while doing these useful exercises while sitting at the computer, washing dishes, folding clothes, or cleaning.

PHARYNGEAL STRETCHES Pharyngeal stretches were introduced to me by renowned mezzo soprano and voice teacher, Mignon Dunn. It is a challenge to get singers to think about the back of their throat. Children do not have a lot of space in the back. Adolescents are in the midst of significant growth in the pharyngeal space. As adults, the pharynx reaches its full size. The "smile in the back of the throat"

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benefits from a good stretch sometimes. Open your mouth for a few seconds, and then open the pharynx behind it. Feel the stretch in the back of the throat, and then go back to neutral. Do it a couple times. This hearkens to Kenneth Bozeman's two-room metaphor of the mouth as the sun room and the pharynx as the parlor (Bozeman, 2017). Sometimes I have students "check their pees" by putting the heel of the palm of the hand on the pectoral muscles. When they open just the mouth, they don't feel any change in the pees. However, when they stretch the pharynx they feel numerous postural muscles engage. With further repetitions, students can shift their attention to feel the postural engagement of muscles in the upper back, and the "V" to the pubic bone in the front, lower abdomen. This is usually a revelation to them and adds credibility to the coordinated effort involved in good posture. They always sing better afterward.

SUPPORT FEEDBACK FROM A CHAIR

I often joke that the best Messiah solos I ever sang were while sitting on a folding chair in someone's living room. Sitting during a rehearsal can be a productive opportunity for the kinesthetic feedback about the respiratory cycle during phonation. While sitting, sing a sustained /v/ on 1-5-1 and notice muscular actions in five places, one at a time, and then collectively: 1. The obliques at the waistline (check with the knuckles at

the waistline on the sides) 2. The pubic symphysis (lean forward with elbows on the knees and notice the muscular action at the "V to the pubic bone") 3. The bottom against the chair (sit and notice) 4. Back muscles (lean against the back of the chair) 5. The epigastrium (check with the thumb right under the sternum) Proprioception is the goal. This is a simple activity to draw awareness to one's own muscular experience of postural inhalation and exhalation muscles involved in singing.

8. Training Tools Across the Lifespan

Despite the simplicity of building awareness through "support feedback from a chair," the actions of inhalation and exhalation while singing are complex. It is generally accepted that the main muscles of inhalation are the diaphragm and the external intercostals, and the muscles of exhalation are the internal intercostals and abdominal muscles that include the internal intercostals, external and internal obliques, rectus abdominus, and transverse abdominus. There are additional muscles involved. Some muscles may be involved in both exhalation and inhalation (Sataloff, 2006).

FALSETTO/GIGGEDY-GAGGEDY-GOO SEQUENCE

Since I first started teaching I have used a sequence of two exercises with men that my teacher used. Start on F4 with a hollow /u/ in falsetto, not too fast, 1-2-3-2-1. This stretches the vocal folds. Go up first, as high as the singer is comfortable. Then go back to the F4 and do the sequence in falsetto, going down. As they lose volume, remind the singers to stay in falsetto and that this is to be expected. If they make it to A3, that is sufficient. Then launch into giggedy-gaggedy-giggedy-gaggedy-goo, 5-4-32-1, starting on Bb3. Go down first. They will immediately feel more efficiency, ring, and beauty in the sound. Take it as low as they can go and still sing well. Then go back to the Bb3 and start taking the exercise up through the passaggio. The goal is to experience improved resonance and therefore have a better chance of not tracking the acoustic shifts with the larynx. The giggedy-gaggedy-giggedy-gaggedy-goo exercise is beneficial for all voices. It requires flexibility and coordination to keep the tongue in motion while experiencing the acoustic benefits of transitory fully occluded consonants as pilots for the vowels.

CREAKING

Creaking (vocal fry) can be useful for singers who have breathy or hollow sounding voices, which may be an indication that the vocal folds are not closing completely. It is produced by contraction of the TA muscle, which shortens and adducts the

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vocal folds, resulting in a looser mucous membrane. It lowers the larynx and tightly closes the velopharyngeal sphincter (VPS), also called the soft palate. The vocal folds and VPS are valves that synchronize during phonation. Creaking has been shown to improve glottal closure. At the same time it decreases hypernasality (Elias, Cielo, Jotz, & Christmann, 2016). Because the TA muscle is made up of type II muscle fibers, it is highly fatigable. For that reason, creaking should be used for brief amounts of time. Seasoned performers will use brief creaking backstage or below audibility to relax the throat or readjust glottal closure and any tendency to overblow. Students can use a vowel with a creak on lower pitches using 12321 or just on one note. Or they can say the word "wow" while creaking. Follow it with a phrase from a song or exercise to experience the vocal benefits.

LEARNING AND TEACHING STYLES

There are many learning styles: tactile, analytic, kinesthetic, visual, auditory, multiple sensory, concrete, abstract, spatial, verbal, nonverbal, reflective, impulsive, theorist, activist, pragmatist (Rolfe & Cheek, 2012). Should a teacher teach to students' strengths or challenge their weaknesses? Teachers can vary their approach according to the learning styles of individual students. Some suggest using multisensory representations in teaching, not ignoring learning weaknesses, but rather, moving concreteness toward abstractness. They suggest that the overall goal should be to increase ability rather than strive to be perfect (An & Carr, 2017). Learning to sing has built-in challenges. We cannot see or touch our instrument. We pull notes out of thin air. We imagine qualities of sound and then re-create them. The "think system" in Music Man doesn't seem so far off when it comes to singing. Below are concepts, activities, and exercises paired with different learning and teaching styles.

Tactile/Kinesthetic

1. Sit on a chair to feel the muscles of support engage and relax. Lean against the back of the chair to feel the back

8. Training Tools Across the Lifespan

muscles. Lean forward to feel the muscles that are like a "V" to the pubic bone. Sit tall and notice the muscle movement in the bottom against the seat of the chair. It is important to notice the muscular engagement, the potential for varied amounts of engagement, and the release of the engagement. 2. Check your obliques. Put your knuckles on the sides of your body, below the ribs, to feel the engagement of the oblique muscles during phonation and the relaxation of those same muscles when you breathe. Notice the many options available in staccato, legato, coloratura, messa di voce, and articulation. 3. Put your thumb under your chin while humming or singing a vowel on 54321 and see if there is any push against the thumb from a tense muscle as you begin, between notes, or as you end the exercise. Ideally, there should no engagement under the chin. 4. Check your pees. Put your hands on your pectoral muscles on the upper chest and see if they engage slightly when singing begins. 5. Put your hand on your sternum and feel the buzz on lower notes. 6. Hold something around 15 pounds such as a backpack of books. The effort to lift will lower the larynx naturally as the chest expands. This is helpful for students with a habitually high larynx and/or students who tend to have weak posture. 7. Pull the ears outward to further the idea of a smile in the back of the throat. 8. Sit on a posture ball. 9. Stand against a wall. 10. Hold both hands with someone and lean back. 11. Push your hands against the hands of someone else, or against a wall, or a piano. 12. Bend your knees when going to a high note.

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13. Use the buddy system and have a friend check your upper back muscles so you become aware of what they do. Analytic/Spatial

1. Singers and teachers who understand how acoustics work within the vocal tract have a mental image of formant tuning, formant clusters, and harmonic crossings. Bringing this information to life in the perceptions of singers edifies their vocal strategies. 2. Visualize exactly how the vocal folds begin phonation. 3. Visualize the epilarynx, how and where it is shaped, and why the relationship of 6 to 1 is important for classical singing. 4. Think of the ring of the voice and sophistication of the sound as your "acoustic aura." 5. Think of your feet as a three-pronged plug. 6. Keep a vocal journal. 7. Play with your own acoustics while observing the spectral analysis on Voce Vista or an app on your smartphone or tablet. Visual 1. Use the mirror to see if your cheeks are up or down.

2. Use the mirror to see if your jaw juts forward or rests back and down. 3. Use a medical mirror "detail reflector" just below the nose holes while singing a vowel. If there is any condensation, the nasal port is not fully closed off by the VPS. This means there is some nasality in the sound. 4. Have a friend(s) be your audience as if they are excited young children. Sing directly to them and feed off their reactions.

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5. Use a three-dimensional app of the muscles of the human body to see all the muscles of support. 6. View pictures and videos of the larynx to learn the names of the cartilages, ligaments, and laryngeal muscles involved in phonation. 7. Blow bubbles through a straw in a glass as you sing the melody of a song. See how steady you can keep the bubbles regardless of how high or low the notes are. 8. Videotape yourself. 9. Observe a spectral analyzer, such as Voce Vista, or free apps on a smartphone or tablet while singing an exercise. Look for the singer's formant cluster, vowels, steady vibrato, and legato.

Auditory 1. Sing 16 bars of a song through a straw. Then sing the same

16 bars with the words. Efficiency and vocal warmth are usually evident. 2. Sing 54321 on any vowel. Are there any hs between notes? Repeat and eliminate the hs. 3. Do onset exercises and listen for perfect initiation of the first utterance of sound with no scooping, no "h," and no glottal noise. 4. Listen to audio recordings of your lesson to compare what you experienced with what is heard.

THE FIVE TEXTURES OF SINGING

Within each lesson, rehearsal, and practice session, it is likely that these five textures will be used in an array of repertoire. Focusing on the acquisition of each skill within exercises contributes to vocal and musical development. By training them individually and in combinations with each other, physical coordination

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transforms to pleasing musical aesthetics for the singer and those who hear them sing. 1. Legato

2. Staccato 3. Coloratura 4. Messa di voce 5. Articulation

SEMI-OCCLUDED VOCAL TRACT EXERCISES (BY CHADLEY BALLANTYNE AND KAREN BRUNSSEN)

Semi-occluded vocal tract exercises (SOVT) provide a safe environment, both emotionally and physically, for the exploration of laryngeal registers. SOVT exercises can utilize nonlanguage sounds. By nearly closing the opening of the mouth or introducing a downstream resister to the vocal tract, the resonances are lowered to the point where vowels are no longer perceived. The resonances are essentially disengaged, and you can concentrate on revving the engine of the vibrating vocal folds. Semi-occlusion is a posturing in the vocal tract that is flow resistant and has a high maximum flow declination rate (MFDR) of the glottal pulse that encourages higher frequencies. The concept of SOVT exercises is to stretch and unpress the vocal folds and use the vocal tract to help the vocal folds vibrate (Titze, 2015). They can be ranked in order from their lowest to highest intraoral pressures: /ml, /n/, /z/, tongue trills, /vi, lip trills, small diameter straw, raspberry (tongue lays on the lower lip), and with the straw in water (Maxfield, Titze, Hunter, & KapsnerSmith, 2015). The vocal benefits include efficiency, acoustic feedback, and instantaneous improvements in voices. Once singers experience the positive effects, they want to experience it again and again. There are numerous ways to use semi-occluded and fully occluded transitory postures to influence the sound. 1. Through a straw, or with continuant voiced consonants /ml, /n/, /IJ/, /vi, or /z/

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2. Using stopped, voiced consonants /bl, /g/, /d/ as transitory pilots to vowels, as in bibbedy bobbedy, giggedy gaggedy, or digguh, digguh 3. Using the lips and tongue for the transitory semi-vowels /w/ and /j/ 4. Vibrating the lips or tongue for lip trills, the rolled /r/, the human kazoo, and the raspberry Singing a phrase using any of these, and then repeating the phrase with the text, almost always results in better vocal production (Nix & Simpson, 2008). The following sequence of exercises teaches students about the semi-occluded vocal tract by experiencing it. Each exercise progressively builds toward the interplay of support, semi-occlusion, articulation, ring, and formant tuning in singers. Before starting the sequence, have the singer do some glissandos or arpeggios on 1-3-5-8-5-3-1 using the raspberry (tongue vibrates on the lower lip) or lip trills up and down the scale. 1. 5-4-3-2-1 legato on /di/, /zi/, /de/ or /ze/

This simple exercise provides an immediate diagnostic tool for the teacher and the student and establishes vocal goals as the voice is first warming up. a. Hs between notes are not allowed. Many good vocal habits should be called on to remediate these breathy moments. Aesthetic preference for a smooth, legato vocal line has been the cornerstone of healthy, consistent airflow, and vocal vibration for centuries, and for good reason. b. Place the knuckles deep enough into the sides below the ribs to feel the action of the oblique muscles. You will feel the muscles engage while singing (exhalation) and relax during inhalation. For smooth, steady phonation, there should be dependable coordinated use of numerous muscles in the abdomen and torso. c. Remap the tongue position for the /i/ or /e/ vowel so the side blades of the back of the tongue gently touch the top back molars. This offers an immediate and noticeable semi-occlusive improvement in the sound. Many novice singers only have an awareness of the position of the tongue at its tip in the front of the mouth.

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2. Do staccati on 1133553311111 on /i/ or /e/ with knuckles feeling the oblique muscles under the ribs at the sides. Students experience that the muscles of support have different actions for different textures such as staccato. Again, the posterior tongue position may need to be brought to their attention. Listen for clean onsets and a consistent vowel. The oblique muscles they feel with their knuckles engage with each note. Add to this by having them do one set soft and one set loud. They will notice that, additionally, different degrees of muscle engagement are used for different dynamics. 3. On a /v/ sing 1-5-1 with the knuckles in the sides, feeling the greater intensity of support muscle engagement in this exercise. Note that the ribs automatically flare outward. The result is a positive pressure above the glottis and a lower pressure needed to start and maintain the tone. This often seems like a paradox to singers. The semi-occlusion is constant at the lips through a voiced, labiodental, fricative consonant. Repetition builds strength and a dynamic coordinated support routine. The results of this exercise are experienced when followed by a phrase from a song. The body remembers just enough so the voice feels buoyant, efficient and resonant. 4. Sing bibbedy-bobbedy-bibbedy-bobbedy-boo starting on Bb, 54321 (and/or giggedy-gaggedy-giggedy-gaggedy-goo). All consonants in this exercise are transitory and briefly fully occluded. It is during the brief movement of the pilot consonant that the benefit of the semi-occlusion is set up. a. Say Bibb Bibb Bibb as if they are Italian double consonants. b. Notice the "acoustic aura." c. Keep the "aura" going and sing bibbedy-bobbedy-bibbedybobbedy-boo starting on Bb, 54321, moving up and down the scale. Singers may sense a slight backpressure (not muscular, but acoustic). "Bob" is not as easy as "bib," so borrow from bib to keep the acoustics alive. 5. Using a straw (smaller diameter preferred for adult voices), slide 1-5-1 going up and down even slightly beyond the comfort zone in both low and high ranges. Discourage compensatory extrinsic muscle action around the throat.

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6. Immediately sing scales on /i/ or /e/ to reap the efficient and acoustic benefits from "the straw" on 12345678987654321. If this goes very well, try /o/ or /a/.

Straw Phonation

Straw phonation is a downstream resistor. It artificially, temporarily changes the length of the vocal tract by extending it with the added tube. By singing with a regular drinking straw in the mouth, the vocal tract is lengthened. This lowers the break between lower and upper registers by roughly three to four semitones (Titze, 2010). Part of learning to navigate this transition is overcoming reflexive shouting and straining that tends to kick in between C4 and F4. This brings the break to the bottom of the zona di passaggio, so that the transition happens before falling into the zone of the shout. Regular drinking straws are the best for introducing straw phonation. They are especially effective for learning how to glide back and forth across the passaggio between lower and upper registers. Aerodynamic and acoustic backpressure improves adduction of the vocal folds and positioning of the vocal tract. Most students must be reassured that the sudden, radical change in sound and vibratory sensations between registers is expected, essential, and preferred by the instructor. Small straws, like milk straws and stirring straws have a much higher level of air resistance (Maxfield, Titze, Hunter, & Kapsner-Smith, 2015; Story, Laukkanen, & Titze, 2000). Because of the increased flow resistance, the soft palate will sometimes instinctually drop to provide a pressure release through the nose, incorrectly resulting in humming instead. Small straws are especially effective for learning how to vary degrees of adduction in the upper register. There are four basic vocal fold alignments identified by Herbst and Svec (2014): upper and lower register and complete and incomplete adduction. Singers need help in learning to phonate in all four alignments. Complete adduction includes the closing of the cartilaginous portion of the vocal fold, which normally does not vibrate. When adducted, it "presses" the posterior portions of the vocal folds together so that air cannot

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escape between them during phonation. Incomplete adduction does not close the posterior portion of the glottis and results in a "breathy" tone. The adduction is incomplete, allowing breath to flow through the posterior glottal gap between the cartilaginous length of the vocal fold (Herbst & Svec, 2014). When the voice crosses between lower and upper registers, it is less likely to have an audible, sudden crack if the level of glottal closure phonation is maintained. Complete closure in the lower register changing to a breathy upper register will cause a crack. Breathy adduction throughout the passaggio will be smoother. Maintaining closure of the cartilaginous portion of the vocal folds in the upper register seems to be the most difficult combination to learn. The small straw is particularly good for conditioning the voice to this configuration while avoiding excess tension in the surrounding skeletal muscles. Other SOVT exercises that encourage the discovery and development of completely adducted upper register phonation are singing on an "ng" articulation with the mouth open and the jaw and neck relaxed. Large straws, like the ones used for smoothies and bubble tea, are also useful. The diameter of these straws creates a mouth opening that reassures the student that the sound will be able to flow out. However, large-diameter straws provide no air resistance. They only lengthen the vocal tract. To add flow resistance, put the straw in a glass of water and sing while blowing bubbles (Enflo, Sundberg, Romedahl, & McAllistera, 2013; Granqvist et al., 2015). The weight of the water provides resistance to the air flowing through the straw while still maintaining the larger mouth opening. The bubbles are an excellent indicator of velopharyngeal closure. If the soft palate is up, there will be bubbles. If it is down, no bubbles. Even in the most persistent cases of hypernasality, this is an effective method for teaching students how to phonate with velopharyngeal closure. Lip trills are especially helpful for learning breath control while traveling through the entire vocal range and across the passaggio (Maxfield, Titze, Hunter, & Kapsner-Smith, 2015). Two-octave diatonic scales are good for exercising the interplay between the thyroarytenoid and cricothyroid muscles and stretching the vocal ligament (Titze, 2017).

8. Training Tools Across the Lifespan

Buzzing Cards (From Mary Ann Hart)

Start with a card stock, such as a magazine insert, or business card. The edge of the card is held in front of a puckered-lip opening during phonation. This exercise is similar to the "finger kazoo" technique (Christmann & Cielo, 2017). The airflow and sound cause the card to vibrate like a reed, but outside of the body. This creates a strong, but not loud, external auditory feedback source that can override the internal sounds of the voice. Students will likely find that it is easier to switch between upper and lower registers without unwanted tension in the neck. If students are having trouble getting the card to vibrate in the sound and air stream, walk them through this demonstration: ■

Imagine that you are cooling off a spoonful of hot soup. Hold the back of the hand near the mouth and create a gentle, focused stream of air that cools a point on the back of the hand, but wouldn't "blow the soup off the spoon."

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Continue that stream of air, and add voice to it, while still maintaining the cooling sensation on the back of the hand.

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While continuing this sound, move the edge of the card across the face, about a quarter of an inch from touching the lips, so the edge crosses through the stream of sound and air.

Arpeggios work well with buzzing cards. Have the students start an ascending arpeggio with the buzzing card in the lower part of their range, near their speaking .fo. For treble voices, this will mean that the break between lower and upper registers is crossed on the first arpeggio. For male voices, the crossing will happen after several transpositions up. It is common for the card to stop buzzing suddenly as the student crosses through a passaggio. If the card position remained steady, it is likely that the soft palate dropped, and the sound nasalized at the moment the voice crossed a register change.

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After they are comfortable with these buzzy-card arpeggios, have them do "back-to-back" arpeggios on each transposition: ■

Sing the arpeggio first with the buzzing card.

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After taking a breath, repeat the arpeggio on the syllable /wi/ on 1-3-5-8-5-3-1.

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Following the buzzing card arpeggio immediately with an arpeggio on a speech sound gives the student a chance to experience that freedom on a vowel sound.

Finger Kazoo

Finger Kazoo is an SOVT exercise that is similar in posture and sound to the buzzing card, but without a prop. Vocalize with the forefinger pressed to rounded lips, in a shushing gesture (Cielo & Christmann, 2014). Finger Kazoo has been shown to decrease nonharmonic noise and instability in vocal production (Christmann & Cielo, 2017). It is especially helpful within the musical note range of C3 through GS. In my experience, it is not as effective as lip trills and buzzing cards for exploring the upper extremes of the range above GS.

Humming

Humming is an SOVT exercise that can help stabilize the vocal tract and maintain lowered formant frequencies during phonation and across the pitch range (Andrade et al., 2014). The soft palate is a gate in the vocal tract between two paths at the end of the vocal tract: the oral and nasal cavities. With the sound radiating through the nasal cavity, the oral cavity is bypassed. This simplifies the possible range of motion of the vocal tract. There are two contrasting ways to position the mouth when vocalizing on a hum. One can either maintain space between the tongue and the roof of the mouth, or with the tongue resting against the roof of the mouth and the jaw in a closed position. Encourage the student to hum with the mouth in a resting, internally closed, position (tongue resting against the roof of

8. Training Tools Across the Lifespan

the mouth, jaw closed). In this position, it is easier to notice the moments in the range when students habitually engage articulators to adjust or track the changing pitch.

Cow and Calf

This simple exercise can be utilized to experience different laryngeal positions during phonation and how that affects the auditory and somatosensory feedback. ■

Using the resting/closed position hum, make the sound of a cow and then a baby calf. Have them do this several times, until the contrasting sounds are clearly differentiated on the same pitch, or pitch glides.

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This should be accomplished without any movement of the tongue or jaw away from the resting position hum.

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Ask them how they are making the change between sounds. Even though they are clearly making a difference in the sounds, the likely response is, "I don't know!"

■

Instruct them to gently place their hand on their throat and repeat the two sounds, noticing if there is any detectable movement. Since the mouth and tongue are not moving, the only moving part left to change timbre is the laryngeal position. Most will be surprised by how much the larynx had been moving without their awareness.

Tongue-Out Phonation

Tongue tension can be the result of several different overcorrections, both conscious and subconscious. A common cause is that the tongue is trying to assist in creating the sensation of an open throat (Bozeman, 2017). It is also likely that the subconscious control of the voice is attempting to avoid a registrational change by actively modifying the vowel. The process of removing tongue tension will involve a period of instability, which the student might subconsciously reject. The result-

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ing sound will be different when the tongue is free. Without establishing a new sound target, the tongue tension will return because it is required to create the old sound. The students must learn what a tone produced free of excess tongue tension feels like and sounds like in their instrument. They will often need permission and encouragement to make that new sound, even though it might sound "funny" to them (Tremblay, Shiller, & Ostry, 2003). The styloglossus muscles retract the tongue. When the tongue is protruded, the styloglossus is stretched beyond its resting position. The resting length of a skeletal muscle is also its sarcomere length, or the length at which it is strongest (Rack & Westerbury, 1969). In this extended position, the styloglossus is beyond its sarcomere length and cannot retract the tongue easily or without drawing awareness to this action. Ascending arpeggios can reveal where the tongue reflexively attempts to retract. These moments will often coincide with a change in register. The arpeggio should be repeated across this register break until the maneuver can be completed without an impulse to retract the tongue.

CHADLEY'S ''WEIRD" EXERCISE

1bis exercise and concept was presented at the Pan-American Vocology Association 1bird Annual Symposium in October 2017. It was titled "1be Second Vocal Tract Resonance: JR.2 Strategies in Performance and in the Studio." The vocal tract resonances create formants in the harmonic spectrum. Formants are moved by articulation. It is most effective to control formant locations through language sounds. It is very difficult to try to directly manipulate a formant within a static vowel sound. By instead using language sounds to move formants, you can predictably and freely control formant locations. Bringing students' awareness to using articulation to move formants through the spectrum can help them develop nonlinear interactions in their singing. The first formant is often the strongest component of the sound, and it has strong reactions with the first three harmonics. These interactions are so strong that it is very difficult to

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let go of them, or avoid them to achieve an alternate resonance strategy. Resonance strategies using the second formant with the second, third, or fourth harmonic are very important for skillful singing for both males and females in the range of E4 through D5. This is true in both classical and contemporary commercial music styles of singing (Miller, 2008). In this strategy, the second formant becomes the dominant component of the sound. Learning to do this is difficult for most singers. Decoupling the first formant from the first and second harmonics is very difficult to "just do." As a result, it is challenging for most singers to maintain vocal power through the range of the treble staff while still achieving a unified, well-supported tone. When formants get close together in the spectrum, they boost each other (Sundberg, 1974). It is easy to boost the first formant with the second, by alternating vowel sounds like lu/, la/, and Ii/. To boost the second formant, we can use the third formant for help. We regularly use large movements of the third formant to create the sound of an American 111. This sound lowers the third formant by 80% (Hagiwara, 1995; Hamilton, Boyce, Scholl, & Douglas, 2014). In this sound, the second and third formants are close together and boost each other. 1. Say words that end with an American /l/, emphasizing the

/JI a. Far, car, bar b. Hair, there, bear 2. Notice the pitch inflection on the /JI of each word. 3. Say words with ending /JI on a constant pitch in the midrange. a. Ear, clear, near 4. In a resonant voice, say the word "weird" on a constant, midrange pitch, emphasizing the Ii/ and then /JI sounds. a. lwi_1__j b. Formants two and three are grouped together on both Ii/ and/JI. c. By gliding from Ii/ to /JI, the cluster of two and three walks down through the spectrum, boosting each other,

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and wiping out much of the upper spectrum. This is why we don't sing on /l/ very often. 5. If you go far enough into the /l/, you might notice that you can hear individual overtones. a. It's OK if the tongue retracts to do this. b. Once you find the overtone sound, you can rock the tongue back and forth to use this formant cluster to discover overtone singing. 6. To the chain of /w i 1__i, add a final /a/ or /o/. a. /w i_I_a__/ b. Release the retracted tongue back to a normal position when going from /l/ to /a/. c. The /a/ or /o/ should have a ringing, clear sound. 7. Put this pattern at the beginning of ascending and descending five-note scales in the middle range of the voice. a. /w i_I_a__/ on scale degree 1 i. After establishing /a/, then ascend through the scale. ii. Repeat, but put the /w i I a/ on scale degree 5 and descend. iii. As you transpose these patterns up and down, there should be easy transitions through the passaggi. The resulting tone on / a/ and / o/ should have a new level of clarity and ring. It will also have a new freedom from the typical tracking of the larynx when moving through the scales. This is because the larynx tracks the first formant. This instinctual vertical tracking with the larynx of changing pitches is done to maintain powerful alignments of the first formant. The tongue controls the second formant (Bozeman, 2013; Story, 2016). When the second formant is the dominant component of the sound, the larynx has no need to track vertically with the changing pitch. Apply this in songs by using the /w i 1/ to set up the first syllable of a phrase, or any challenging word in the range of the treble or bass staves. The movements of the formants and the acoustic results can be confirmed with spectrum analysis software.

8. Training Tools Across the Lifespan

FIFTY QUICK COMMENTS TO SHARE WITH SINGERS

1. Relax the jaw back and down, as when falling asleep on the bus. 2. Saying /v/ reminds the tip of the tongue where its natural resting place is when singing. 3. Pull your waist out of your hip sockets. 4. Regal posture. 5. Dull eyes mean a droopy soft palate. 6. Sing in the position of inhalation. 7. Choose repertoire that shows what you can do, not what you can't do. 8. Beginning of a sneeze. 9. Relax the larynx when taking a breath. 10. Sing while holding something to lower the larynx and expand the ribcage. 11. Silent breath. 12. Cheeks up. 13. Think wide across the maxilla for high notes. 14. Sing in the position of inspiration. 15. Be smart about amount, manner, and spacing of singing. 16. Divorce the tongue from jaw movement. 17. Breathe as if quietly surprised. 18. Think the beginning of a yawn in the back. 19. If you want to go forward in a boat, which way do you row? 20. Keep your "acoustic aura" going. 21. Roll out the sound.

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The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

22. Do it wrong, then do it right. 23. Follow the lead of your own acoustics. 24. Legato with no noises between notes. 25. Keep the vibrato rate constant. 26. Enhance your own ring. 27. Pacing matters. 28. If you are an "underdoer," nudge yourself. 29. If you are an "overdoer" back off 2%. 30. Open vowels need to inherit acoustics from closed vowels. 31. Tongue dead and spread. 32. Sing through it, not to it. 33. Have an acoustic party in your head. 34. Same notes within a phrase should increase in beauty as you go. 35. The vocal folds are together when phonation is initiated. 36. The voice should feel like you touch it rather than press it. 37. Behind every good consonant is a good vowel. 38. Follow the lead of the voice. 39. The voice develops best at mf. 40. Vary dynamics. 41. Vary textures. 42. Audiation. 43. Singing is a sport. 44. Model rehearsal/practice like an aerobic workout. 45. Nurture the head voice.

8. Training Tools Across the Lifespan

46. Vocal models can be more valuable than words. 47. Motivation is infectious. 48. Musical motion moves forward, even when it's slow. 49. Rhythm is our vocal friend. 50. Open from the back to the front, NOT from the front to the back.

VOCAL EVALUATION

Teachers can use some or all the assessable areas in the vocal evaluation to track student progress, patterns of distinguishing attributes, and ongoing, unaltered vocal and performance issues (Table 8-1). Evaluations can be for the teachers' edification or shared with the student. They can be filled out after each lesson, or once a semester. It is also useful for students to use as a self-assessment tool and can be particularly interesting to compare and discuss a student's self-assessment with the teacher's vocal evaluation.

EXERCISES

Vocal exercises warm up, condition, and challenge singers. In a sermon many years ago, the clergy quoted, "You should teach your children to do good things," and then said, "actually, a better translation of the original text is you should provoke, in the best sense of the word, your children to do good things." In the studio, classroom, and rehearsal, the goal is to provoke excellent singing and musicianship. Exercises play an important role in doing just that. Musical concepts and development of range, legato, staccato, coloratura, messa di voce, and articulation can be addressed through exercises. Numerous exercises used in voice studios were originally designed as rehabilitation exercises for those with vocal injuries. As those have filtered into voice lessons, we see that they contribute a great deal to habilitation as well.

289

TABLE 8- 1. Vocal Evaluation

Vocal Evaluation

Pitch

B

Flat

Sharp

Vibrato

Wide

Straight

Airflow

Breathy

Pressed

Breathing

Shallow

Tense

Support

Weak

Isometric

Jaw

Tense

Overdropped

Maxilla

Too wide

Flat

Chest

Concave

Hyperextended

High

Depressed

Sagging

Artificially up

Curled back

Pressed forward

Pressed down

Released

Up

Sagging/ nasal

Compliant

Tight

Balanced

Tilted

Interruptions

Fluid

Inaccurate

Accurate

Variety

No variety

Dark

Spread

Vague

Overdone

Awkward

Smooth

Only warm

Only bright

Coloratura

Accurate

Inaccurate

Ring of the voice

Never

Always

Glottal or H

Smooth

Laryngeal position Zygomatics Tip of the tongue Back of the tongue Palate Pharynx Head position Legato Staccato Messa di voce Vowels Consonants Passaggio Chiaroscuro

Onset

290

A

Place an X Where the Student Is Between Column A and B

TABLE 8- 1. continued

Vocal Evaluation

Offset

A

Place an X Where the Student Is Between Column A and B

B

Blown or stopped

Smooth

Harmonic intonation

Out of tune

Accurate

Melodic intonation

Out of tune

Accurate

Sight reading

Poor

Excellent

Memorization

Poor

Excellent

Ability to learn music

Poor

Excellent

Collaboration

Poor

Excellent

Preparation

Poor

Excellent

Preference for sound

Poor

Instinctual

Language facility

Poor

Instinctual

Overly

None

Musical collegiality

Poor

Excellent

Ability to improve

Poor

Excellent

Interest in repertoire

Low

High

Inexperienced

Experienced

Poor

Excellent

Guarded

Overdone

Overall performance

Poor

Excellent

Evenness of scale

Uneven

Very even

Weakness in scale

Low notes

High notes

Self-motivation

Acting skills Musical sensitivity Communication

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The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

For Children

These exercises, using animal noises and simple melodic contours, reinforce scale patterns, outline chords, and represent different divisions of the beat. The exercises include open and closed vowels and a variety of consonants, rhythms, and vocal colors. Systematically moving up and down the scale, with breaths taken between each sequence, exercises the muscles of the respiratory cycle for these young singers and can expand range.

Other exercises appropriate for children: 2 Articulation a, b, c, e, f, g 4 Onset a, b, c 5 Staccato a, b, c 7 Textures a, b, c 8 Legato a, b , c, d, e, f, g, j, k 9 Coloratura a, e, 10 Range a

la

&H cheep coo quack neigh moo

J

J

cheep coo quack neigh moo

cheep coo quack neigh moo

t

I

J t

II

J IJ cheep coo quack neigh moo

cheep coo quack neigh moo

lb

'1a

J

~

--J =1

J J J I;

rib - bit rib - bit rib - bit rib - bit cock- a -doo- die cock- a -doo- die

rib - bit do

8. Training Tools Across the Lifespan

le

ttJ

cheep coo

J

J

cheep coo

cheep

I

J IJ cheep cheep etc.

ld

&H cheep coo

r

J

J IJ

cheep coo

cheep

cheep cheep etc.

le

,,J cheep coo

J Ir

J cheep coo

cheep cheep

J cheep

J 1; cheep cheep

etc.

Articulation

Consonant combinations help singers develop agility of the tongue, establish targets for points of articulation within the vocal tract, and can offer acoustic benefits to the voice. Consonants can be voiced or unvoiced, continuants or stopped, fricatives, and nasal and nonnasal, all with semi-occluded and transitory fully occluded acoustic benefits due to impedance in the vocal tract. 2a

4J1, I

3

3

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Bib bi Dib bi Flib bi Gig gi Lig ge

dy dy dy dy dy

Bob bi Dob bi Flub bi Gag gi Lag ge

3

f J J JJI J t

dy Bib bi dy Bob bi dy dy dy etc. dy dy

Boo

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The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

2b

,g, I J

IV

J J J J

I,

Zing

Zing

a

Zing

IV

a

Zing

Zoo

a

Zing

Fl Zing

a

a

r

Zoo

V

4h Fl Zing

r::

J J J J J I

Zoo

a

27 F It LJ Fl a

a

Zing

Zing

Zoo

Zing

a

a

r: Zing

a

r;

0

a

Zing

Zoo

2c

4J1,1

JJ

Ma

ny

• mum

J• J J ~

ing

bl

mice

I

are

J J J J J JJ J mak

ing

ry

mer

mus

ic

in

) moon

the

J

~

11

light

2d

'~3z I

7

~

~

Gosh It's

Go1 a naugh no

1y

i

Nine

No

ty

r r

Gee beau knights nev

Oh ti er

~

~

My ful need a

Shucks! day naps gain

t

II

2e

,41 LJ Ming Dig Lil Mnea

0

-

guh ly

~ Ming Dig Lil Mnea

0

-

guh ly

~

~

Ming Dig Lil Mnea

0

-

guh ly

J J Ming Dig Lil Mnea

0

-

guh ly

J Ming Dee

Loo

Mnea

2f

Semi-Occluded Vocal Tract Exercises Do these exercises on /ml, /n/, /z/, tongue trills, /v/, lip trills, small-diameter straw, raspberry (tongue lays on the lower lip),

8. Training Tools Across the Lifespan

or with the straw in water. Their impact on singing increases according to their resulting intraoral pressure. It works well to immediately follow these with other exercises or repertoire to experience the benefits of SOVT.

3a

V

3b

J V

Onset Exercises The goal of onset exercises is to repeatedly experience the cycle of a low, silent breath with the glottis fully opened for inhalation, followed by appropriate vocal fold positioning and clean, precise closure of the vocal folds for optimal vibration. Students may check the obliques on the sides at the waistline to feel the coordinated engagement (during phonation) and disengagement (when not phonating and/or inhaling) of these muscles of support. Checking the obliques is a tactile way to reinforce muscle action that students can't see (Miller, 1996).

4a

&t J '

J ' J ' •~ '1 J

[il [il [el

[ol [al

[il [el

[ol [al

[il [el

~

II

295

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The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

4b

[ii [ii [el

[ol [al

[ii [el

[ol [al

[ii [el

4c

4I tb'tb'JTJ' ~j, _

Iw

[ii [ii [el

[ol [al

[i] [el

[ol

[a]

[i] [e]

Staccato Staccati are fast, short-onset exercises. Students may check the obliques on the sides at the waistline to feel the action of the support muscles used for staccati. This exercise is geared toward achieving an immediate, instinctive, healthy onset, with vocal clarity. It can serve as a diagnostic tool for the teacher and is remedial and healthy for singers. Overcorrection with compensatory muscles should be avoided.

5a

j [ii [el [a] [o]

[u]

II

8. Training Tools Across the Lifespan

5b

J.

j

J j. 4 I; J J J J,

7

[i]

f:j

[o [u]

5c jl

7

[i] [e] [a] [o] [u]

Support

This exercise conditions the strength, flexibility, and coordination of support muscles. Its success may vary according to age. The idea is to pulse while keeping the sound going. Students should not substitute staccato or move the back of the tongue to simulate the exercise. Some students may lack the strength needed for the exercise. Senescent singers' muscles may even cramp at first if their muscles of inhalation and exhalation are particularly weak and uncoordinated. Simplify the exercise, if necessary, by first pulsing using an unvoiced /s/. This may prompt inactive muscles into some degree of engagement. Then try it with the /z/. Two repetitions instead of three may be easier at first. The "5-Day Mini-Challenge" works well to encourage students as they move from initial awkward efforts toward stronger, flexible, and dependable execution of this skill. Students are "better for the effort" regardless of their first try. Positive effects on vocal production are evident quickly.

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298

The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

6 3

[zi] [ze]

3

3

~ ii J JJ I; JJJJJJi

[i] [e] [i] [e]

[i] [e] [a] [o]

[i] [e]

3

[i] [e] [a] [o]

-

[i] [e] [i] [e]

-

-

-

-

-

-

Textures

Subtle changes in texture may seem simple but require precision and efficiency in these exercises. 7a

J [i] [el [a]

etc.

[i]

[o]

[i]

7b

ft :0 u iJ t~ I0. V JJ -) I8. G a a Ia e r (ii

7c

f:I

etc.

(i(

• (o(

-

(ii

-

(o(

-

(ii

-

(o]

-

(i]

-

lo(

-

Ii]

-

lo(

-

(ii

-

lo(

-

(ii

-

(ol

-

(i]

l

8. Training Tools Across the Lifespan

Legato

Legato is at the heart of great singing from vowel to vowel, syllable to syllable, word to word, between small and large intervals, in all tessituras. Expressive qualities occur within the finest legato lines when there is a balanced sound with fluid consonant and vowel articulation. Typical issues that interrupt a legato line include hs or noise between notes in small or larger intervals, breaks in the voice, extrinsic muscle tension in the neck and consequential changes in vocal color, changes in vibrato rate, unsteady or weak breath flow, and awkward consonant and vowel articulation. Sa

[ii

[el [a [o] [u]

Sb

a? ttJ [ol [a Sc

J [i] [mi] [Ii]

[e] -

[me] [le]

[a] -

[ma] [Ia]

[o] - [u] -

[mo] - [mu] [lo] - [Ju]

299

300

The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

Sd

J J?J13

11

Se

[i] [e] [a]

etc.

m-~-m-~-m-~-m-~-ru Sf

[ii [e] [a]

[ol

[u

Sg

~ -- - ~ fi-+--i:?T _w _Ti?c~J- ~ (i] [e)

-

I

[u) [o)

love

to

sing.

Sh

$I t1BL rU J 1

I

(ii

lei

,~1

(u]

jilJ I a_jilJ U _JE

lj_P::Jf

8. Training Tools Across the Lifespan

Si

; u u r'1tIG :Jr n I J J :iii) 1 f~I

[a)

8j

[il [el

W -

[el

M [al

W -

[el

M

W

[al

[el

8k

fP f[5 .F Jl

IF J535 ]~dJ

[ej [ii [el [el

[ii

[a]

[el [el

[ii

[a]

[el [el

Coloratura

Coloratura comes from the Latin word colorare, which means to color. The agility required for florid runs and trills is a delight to hear, and evidence of great vocal dexterity as used in the early music of Monteverdi and the great music of Rossini. All voices benefit from learning to sing coloratura.

9a

[il [el [ol [al

301

302

The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

9b

&i1, . /!\[o[

n ,, ai!' np au C?'~ @t ,rr,;, n---1J :__,;

[a[

9c

9d ~ wJYLA ~--

p

n .r:J n rJ n 1;:J -

f

f

p

p

f

□

77

w

fG=r

.r~ •

nl [o[ 9e

4100

3

J J

[i]

Ir/

[o[

I

-J

.J

J

[i]

j]JDn [o]

[ii

9f

~ t tSS5Tr□ □-1 ;; r u [el

lYJ1 IJ [o]

Arpeggios

Arpeggios outline chords and extend vocal range in a sweeping motion. Stretching the vocal folds regularly contributes to optimal vocal function.

8. Training Tools Across the Lifespan

10a

4ts· )> [a)

17 :, 7 'j

[u ) · [ga]

[a]

· [u] · [ga)

'j

]> [a)

17

s

[u) · [ga)

10b

-fl [el

l~l VOCAL BUNDLING The idea of bundling was inspired by a marketing strategy that puts services and products together so that consumers will buy them all. The goal of "vocal bundling" is to put together a fivepart fact-based plan to address a particular vocal issue or concept. Vocal bundles provide a structure, strategy, and thought process for teachers and students with a vocal objective in mind. They can be applied in the home, classroom, studio, rehearsal, and practice room. 1. Vocal issue or concept that merits attention 2. Reason for the issue 3. Exercise or activity to address the issue 4. Concepts behind the issue and the strategy 5. 5-Day Mini-Challenge

Infant Vocal Bundle

1. Vocal play 2. Following the lead of infants is important and a joy. They experiment with sounds and movement with their everincreasing abilities. Parents usually instinctively communicate

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The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

at their baby's development level in an appropriate, cheerful, and playful manner. This is the best way always to communicate with infants. Stress should be avoided and replaced with happy and loving ways to comfort and bring music into a baby's life. 3. Mimicking sounds babies make at their speech level, matching pitches with them, and doing short songs while moving their arms or legs in a rhythm are all fun during playtime, changing time, and getting dressed. Gazing into each other's eyes is a vital part of their communication. While rocking a baby to sleep at bedtime, sing to him or her softly with melodies like Brahm's Lullaby, or make up short repetitive phrases with the child's name in it during playtime. It is never too early to pass down simple songs that have been family favorites to the newest generation. 4. Music Together promotes "the child's journey from the 'seed' behaviors of cooing and reflex actions to the full flowering of tonal and rhythm competence." Exposure and experimentation are important to musical development ( Guilmartin & Levinowitz, 2008). 5. For 5 out of the next 7 days, make a mental note of how often you and your baby engage in vocal play, and whether it is you or your child that starts it.

Toddler Vocal Bundles Toddler Vocal Bundle 1

1. Learning songs with actions. 2. Encourage musical, vocal, and gross motor skills that benefit cognition, balance, and coordination. Although toddlers may not be able to synchronize everything like an adult, their versions are sweet evidence of sorting out tone and rhythm. 3. Sing three songs with actions with your child such as 1be Itsy-Bitsy-Spider, 1bis Is the Way We Wash Our Clothes, and If You're Happy and You Know It, Clap Your Hands.

8. Training Tools Across the Lifespan

4. Engage toddlers at their level, and they will be receptive to hearing and learning music, words, and actions in a fun singing activity. Enjoy what they make of it regardless of how much they actually sing or move. Watch the progress over the months ahead. They are taking in and sorting out many things at this age. Songs should be part of that. 5. For 5 out of the next 7 days, find a singing time or moment with your toddler and sing the action songs. Take note of how often they initiative the activity, or you do. Does the repertoire expand? Do they sing versions of the songs on their own even after singing time is over? Do they get more and more of the words? Does their coordination with the actions improve? Which are they most adept at: melody, words, or actions? Does this change over time? Toddler Vocal Bundle 2 1. Toddler composition.

2. "Singing a story" instead of telling one will help toddlers connect their own imaginative ideas with their own melodies, rhythms, vocal qualities, and musical forms. 3. Engage toddlers in making up a story and singing it. Start by picking two characters. How old are they? What is their favorite food? What is their favorite toy? What is their favorite activity? How do they sound when they speak (and in this case sing)? Then let the child choose which character you will be and which they will be. What are the two characters doing, and where are they? Start singing a dialogue between your character and your toddler's. Make sure you allow spaces for the toddler to add his or her part of the story. 4. Composition, music theater, opera, vocal inflection, imagination, musical relationships, and vocal colors are all components of this fun activity. Establishing, and then keeping, such a creative and fun spirit in this musical activity can lay the foundation for singing and making music throughout lives. 5. For 5 out of the next 7 days, find 5 minutes to sing a story with dialogue between yourself and the toddler based on

305

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The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

the two characters initially selected. On successive days, add spin-offs from the previous day's story. Do musical motifs emerge? Are characters added?

Children Vocal Bundle (Younger} 1. Learning songs from different genres. 2. It is important that children start to accumulate songs in different modes, different languages, different time periods, and different genres. 3. Choose three songs to learn with your child(ren) that represent different styles or cultures such as one from a musical (Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious), one American folk song (If I Had a Hammer), and one in a foreign language, from the Baroque period (Bach's Bist du bei mir), or the melody to a round (Frere Jacques). Opportunities to sing might include car rides, singing around the piano or with a guitar or a recording, at home, at school, or in a children's choir. 4. A wide variety of music keeps children interested in singing while, at the same time, exercising different vocal functions. For instance, a released throat and good diction develops quickly when a child learns to say "supercalifragilisticexpialidocious," or pronounce the German words in Bist du bei mir. Do a quick search on the Internet for information about each song. When was it written? Who wrote it? Who sang it? 5. For 5 out of the next 7 days, make it a goal to sing one or two of the three songs with your child. Talk about why they were written and when they were written. Show them what the musical notation looks like on the printed page, and listen to recordings.

Children Vocal Bundle (Older} 1. Expand repertoire to include classical music. 2. It does not have to be assumed that children are only receptive to nonclassical repertoire or that they will only learn songs by rote. Once children hear the beautiful singing of a young girl

8. Training Tools Across the Lifespan

or boy singing Bach, Faure, Purcell, Schubert, or a Handel duet, they may prefer this repertoire. Boys in the Thomanerchor routinely read and sing the music of Bach, so we know it is possible for children to sing sophisticated classical repertoire. 3. Assign and help children learn three songs from the classical repertoire that are appropriate, yet challenging, for them. 4. We often underestimate what children can do vocally and musically. With training, children can become impressively accomplished musically and vocally. If they have musical skills to go with a pretty voice, this sort of repertoire can be very fulfilling and filter into their adult singing lives. 5. For 5 out of the next 7 days, introduce three selected classical songs alongside vocal approaches that can help facilitate the chosen selections. Introduce them to audio and video recordings of classical child singers and elite children's choirs.

Adolescent Vocal Bundles (by Chadley Ballantyne) Adolescent Vocal Bundle 1 1. Improve resonance and articulation.

2. Chadley's "WEIRD" exercise is good for addressing both of these issues. The /i-1/ sounds cluster and strengthen the second and third formants. The extreme tongue movement through /i-1-a/ encourages the use of the dorsum of the tongue to create strong vowel articulations. 3. For this exercise, females should start on B4, and males should start on B3. Sing a sustained tone, and go slowly and deliberately through the sounds, "wiiiiiiiiiiiuuiaaaaaaaa." Notice how the exercise improves the support and resonance of the /a/. Pick a phrase from your music. What is the first pitch and vowel sound of the phrase? On that pitch, sing "wiiiiiiiiiii111uu1" and add the first vowel. Continue the phrase as written. 4. The WEIRD exercise strengthens the second formant. It increases the clarity and power of the open vowels across the range. Shifting the power of the sound away from the

307

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The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

first formant and moving it to the second formant improves laryngeal stability and registrational flexibility. 5. For 5 out of the next 7 days, see how long you can sustain the effects of the exercise through a song. With the "llllll" sound, try rolling the tongue position of"1" back and forth to bring out different harmonics. This will develop your overtone singing. Not only is it fun, but this will increase your awareness of tuning resonance to different harmonics with steady phonation. Adolescent Vocal Bundle 2 1. Overcoming tension at the first and second passaggio.

2. The speech motor control subconsciously overcorrects. It adds pressure and tension to prevent changes or instability in the vocal instrument when approaching E4 and ES (adolescent males work only with E4, females work with both E4 and ES). 3. Buzzing cards and Finger Kazoos help to alleviate pressed phonation and tension when used on glides and arpeggios across E4 and ES. 4. These two SOVT exercises encourage the vocal instrument to freely switch registers without pressed phonation or displacing the vertical position of the larynx. 5. For 5 out of the next 7 days, practice these exercises several times a session and at multiple times during the day. Concentrate on flipping back-and-forth across register breaks. See if you can make the turn through a passaggio on these SOVT exercises with a steady flow of breath, rather than a sudden expulsion of breath. Look for places in your music that cross E4 or ES. Alternate the exercise back-to-back with the passage from the song.

Young Adult Vocal Bundle 1. Awkward onsets due to scooping, glottals, or hs.

2. Having a clean onset is often a new concept and a new coordination for singers. When it is done correctly, the vocal

8. Training Tools Across the Lifespan

folds approximate efficiently and optimal phonation is likely to continue. Noises at the beginning of a note mean that the coordination is unbalanced or awkward vocally. The goal is to have a good flow from the very first utterance of singing. 3. Using the onset exercises, notice the moment of utterance for each onset. If it is clear, continue. If there are hs, glottals, or scooping, keep trying. Fine motor skills take time to coordinate. Sometimes it can be helpful to do a short vocal fry followed by the onset exercises. 4. The better the onsets and offsets, the better the singing between them, because the aerodynamic coordination is appropriate. This can take time to perfect but is well worth the repetitive initiative and thought. 5. For 5 out of the next 7 days, twice a day for 3 to 5 minutes, do the onset exercises. If needed, do a short creaking sound and then see if that helped with the onset. Feel free to incorporate doing onset exercises while washing dishes or folding clothes. Multitasking is a perfect companion and a way to see how initiatives toward vocal improvements can be incorporated in day-to-day activities. The goal is noisefree, clear, coordinated vocal onsets and offsets.

Adult Vocal Bundle 1. Be the owner of your voice.

2. Adult singers, amateur and professional, may forget about the foundations of vocal technique that led to their adult singing capabilities. It is good to take ownership, give yourself a voice lesson, and do your own vocal checkup for: a. Onset and offset b. Consistent vibrato c. Vowels d. Legato 3. During a rehearsal or practice, pay attention to your breathing cycle, first utterances of each phrase, and maintaining uninterrupted vocal lines without deviant vibrato or vowel

309

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The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

sounds. Do your breathing muscles work dependably? Is there clarity on the onsets? Do you habitually leave out vibrato (for reasons other than style)? Is there a dependable flow to the air, or is there compensatory neck tension? Does your jaw join in as you change notes on a single vowel, or does the airflow help to facilitate intervallic adjustment? Are your bright vowels clear and your open vowels a little noisier? 4. Vocal technique needs to be a constant priority for singers. Best intentions do not always stack up to actual excellence. Facing reality is key to continuing progress as a singer. Sometimes it is good to hearken back to the fundamentals of good singing, and check those as if it is once again the first time. Age and experience enlighten the importance of fundamental vocal technique. All too often, singers let habits go unchecked. Knowing about fundamentals is not the same as doing those fundamentals. A self-check is where remediation begins. 5. For 5 out of the next 7 days, practice (or rehearse) and pay attention to your onset, offset, vibrato, vowels, and legato. Note what needs work, and address deficiencies. By the end of the week, see if your singing is significantly improved. Don't be surprised if doing this vocal bundle motivates you to take a voice lesson.

Senescent Singer Vocal Bundles Senescent Singer Vocal Bundle 1 1. Arrive at rehearsal (and concerts) warmed up.

2. Older voices take longer to warm up. More sedentary lives, and less talking and singing, can result in atrophy of many muscles involved in singing such as muscles needed for deeper breathing and support, the CT muscle involved in stretching the vocal folds for higher notes, and stretching the oral cavity. 3. Getting into better shape and staying in shape require that senescence singers practice. Incorporating a warmup regi-

8. Training Tools Across the Lifespan

men for just 10 minutes 5 out of 7 days in a week can make a big difference in overall vocal health. On days when there is a rehearsal or performance, do a daily warm-up earlier in the day and another just before arriving at rehearsal. 4. As people age, they need to be more "mindful" about their singing. Muscles that quickly regained strength and flexibility in younger years now take a more conscious effort. Singing each day is an individual choice that, if taken, activates the motor skills, muscle memory, strength, and flexibility involved in singing. A little warm-up earlier during the day and again prior to a rehearsal or performance will increase the pleasure of singing. It is always more enjoyable when singers "raise their own bar" musically and vocally. 5. For 5 out of the next 7 days, practice using these exercises: start with humming 54321 or 13531. Then do it on zzzz and then vvvv. Change to the vowel /i/ or /e/ on 123454321. Do a few "pharyngeal stretches." Do a few repetitions using a straw. Follow this by singing a song. Earlier on the day of the rehearsal, do the exercises above. On the way to or as you arrive at the rehearsal site, repeat the sequence and do bibbedy-bobbedy or giggedy-gaggedy to test out the voice. At the rehearsal notice, if there is less noise in the sound and a more cooperative vocal ebb and flow through the rehearsal. Compare how much better your musical and vocal contribution is. Senescent Singer Vocal Bundle 2

1. Airiness in the sound. 2. The vocal folds are not coming together completely. 3. Use support, SOVT exercises, and creaking. 4. The interdependence of support, resonance, and vibration occasionally needs extra attention if there is consistent breathiness in the voice. Sometimes the issue has to do with age, particularly for adolescent and senescent singers. In adolescents, time and maturation may do more than an exercise can do. For older singers, the vocal folds can become

311

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The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

slack and muscles of support weaken if people don't talk as much or as engaged as they once did. Creaking exercises the TA muscles, relaxes the position of the larynx, and encourages the soft palate to raise. The combination of SOVT and creaking helps glottal closure, as does singing or a lively conversation with friends. 5. For 5 out of the next 7 days, do 13531 up and down the scale on a hum while checking support by putting the knuckles into the sides at the waistline. Creak three times for 5 seconds, then do 13531 on a VVV, then creak again and do 13531 with the straw. Follow this with more exercises on vowels or bibbedy-bobbedy-boo, or songs to see how it feels. You can go back and forth between these exercises and repertoire to experience conditioning and automatic benefits of the exercises. The goal is to facilitate better vibration so there is more core and clarity in the sound.

REFERENCES An, D., & Carr, M. (2017). Learning styles theory fails to explain learning and achievement: Recommendations for alternative approaches. Personality and Individual Difference, 116, 410-416. Andrade, P.A., Wood, G., Ratcliffe, P., Epstein, R., Pijper, A., & Svec, J. G. (2014). Electroglottographic study of seven semi-occluded exercises: LaxVox, straw, lip-trill, tongue-trill, humming, hand-overmouth, and tongue-trill combined with hand-over-mouth. Journal of Voice, 28(5), 589-595. Bozeman, K. (2013). Practical vocal acoustics. Hillsdale, NY: Pendragon Press. Bozeman, K. W. (2017). Kinesthetic voice pedagogy: Motivating acoustic efficiency. Gahanna, OH: Inside View Press. Christmann, M. K., & Cielo, C. A. (2017). Acoustic and auditory perception effects of the voice therapy technique finger kazoo in adult women.Journal of Voice, 31(3), 390.e9-390.e15. Cielo, C. A., & Christmann, M. K. (2014). Finger kazoo: Modifica~oes vocais acusticas espectrograficas e autoavalia~ao vocal. Revista CEFAC, 16(4), 1239-1254. Elias, V. S., Cielo, C. A.,Jotz, G. P., & Christmann, M. K. (2016). Effect of vocal fry on voice and on velopharyngeal sphincter. International

8. Training Tools Across the Lifespan

Archives of Otorhinolaryngology, 20(2), 156-162. doi:10.1055/s-00 35-1569144 Enflo, L., Sundberg,]., Romedahl, C., & McAllistera, A. (2013). Effects on vocal fold collision and phonation threshold pressure of resonance tube phonation with tube end in water.Journal ofSpeech, Language, and Hearing Research, 56(5), 1530-1538. Granqvist, S., Simberg, S., Hertegard, S., Holmqvist, S., Larsson, H., Lindestad, P., ... Hammarberg, B. (2015). Resonance tube phonation in water: High-speed imaging, electroglottographic and oral pressure observations of vocal fold vibrations-a pilot study. Logopedics, Phoniatrics, Vocology, 40(3), 113-121. Guilmartin, K., & Levinowitz, L. M. (2008). Music behaviours of young children. In K. Guilmartin & L. Levinowitz (Eds.), Manual, music together teacher training (pp. 2: 1-2: 11). Princeton, NJ: Music Together. Hagiwara, R. (1995). Acoustic realizations ofAmerican Ir/ as produced by women and men. Los Angeles, CA: Phonetics Laboratory, Dept. of Linguistics, UCLA. Hamilton, S. M., Boyce, S. E., Scholl, L., & Douglas, K. (2014). An acoustic threshold for third formant in American English /r/. Journal of the Acoustical Society ofAmerica, 135(4), 2389. Herbst, C. T., & Svec, J. G. (2014). Adjustment of glottal configurations in singing.Journal of Singing, 70(3), 301-308. Hoch, M., & Lister, L. (2016). Voice secrets: 100 performance strategies for the advanced singer. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Maxfield, L., Titze, I., Hunter, E., & Kapsner-Smith, M. (2015). Intraoral pressures produced by thirteen semi-occluded vocal tract gestures. Logopedics, Phoniatrics, Vocology, 40(2), 1-7. Miller, D. G. (2008). Resonance in singing: Voice building through acoustic feedback. Princeton, NJ: Inside View Press. Miller, R. (1996). The structure of singing: System and art in vocal technique. New York, NY: Schirmer Books. Nix, J., & Simpson, C. B. (2008). Semi-occluded vocal tract postures and their application in the singing voice studio.Journal ofSinging, 64(3), 339-342. Rack, P. M., & Westerbury, D.R. (1969). The effects of length and stimulus rate on tension in the isometric cat soleus muscle. Journal of Physiology, 204(2), 443-460. Rolfe, A., & Cheek, B. (2012). Learning styles. InnovAIT, 5(3), 176-181. doi: 10.1093/innovait/inr239 Sataloff, R. T. (2006). Clinical anatomy and physiology of the voice. In R. T. Sataloff (Ed.), Vocal health and pedagogy: Science and assessment (2nd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 29-63). San Diego, CA: Plural.

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Stemple, J.C. (2006). Vocal function exercises. San Diego, CA: Plural. Story, B. H. (2016, October). Tuning vocal tract resonances to enhance voice quality. Paper presented at the Pan-American Vocology Symposium 2016, Scottsdale, AZ. Story, B. H., Laukkanen, A., & Titze, I. R. (2000). Acoustic impedance of an artificially lengthened and constricted vocal tract. Journal of Voice, 14(4), 455-469. Sundberg, J. (1974). Articulatory interpretation of the "singing formant." Journal of the Acoustical Society ofAmerica, 55(4), 838-844. Titze, I. (2010,June 14). Vocal straw exercise [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OxYDvwvmBIM Titze, I. (2017,July 25). Dr. Titze's Favorite Five vocal warmupsfor singers. Retrieved from http://ncvs.org/e-learning/warmup.html Tremblay, S., Shiller, D. M., & Ostry, D. J. (2003). Somatosensory basis of speech production. Nature, 423, 866-869.

INDEX

Note: Page numbers in bold reference non-text material

A Abitbol, Jean, 191 ACDA. See American Choral Directors Association Acoustic energy, 101 Acoustic measurements, 258-259 Acoustic registration, 85, 94-95, 98, 117 Acoustics, 251 Adam's apple, 70 Adenoids, 28 ADHD. See Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder Adjudication, of singing, 167-169 Adolescents/adolescence breath control in, 69 breath coordination in, 65 hormones in, 61-64 laryngeal cartilage in, 70 lung development in, 65 lung function in, 64-65 lung volumes in, 65 musical instrument training in, 110 music theater for, 107 parasitic movements in, 68 physical changes in, 62 pitch in, 70 puberty in, 62-64 resonance in free,84 level 2 source-filter interactions, 85, 100-104

orthodontics effect on, 104-107 overview of, 83-84 singing voice affected by, 84 somatosensory feedback, 84 timbre, 84-100 respiration in, 64-69 respiratory function in, 64 semi-occluded vocal tract exercises in, 66-68 singer's formant cluster in, 66-67 singing in history of, 72-83, 77, 79 questions regarding, 61-62 resonance effects on, 84-85 target sounds in, 111-112 speech motor development in, 108 speech sounds in, 111 teacher-related case studies of, 118-127 vibration in, 69-72 vocal bundles for, 307-308 vocal evaluation in, 113-117 vocal folds in, 65, 69 vocal programs for, 107 vocal tract in, 66, 83 voice disorders in, 263 voice in age-specific expectations for, 81-82 315

316

The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

Adolescents/adolescence (continued) changes in, 72-74, 78 mutation of, 81-83 voice lessons in, 108-110 voice mutation in, 81-83, 110 Adult(s). See also Older adults; Young adults airway shape in, 4 laryngeal cartilages in, 188, 195 resonance in, 194-195 respiration in, 185-186 singing by classical, 183 contemporary commercial music, 181-183 expectations, 195-204 menstrual cycle effects on, 191-192 professional opportunities for, 181-182 vibration in, 186-194 vocal bundling for, 309-310 vocal folds in, 188 vocal tract in, 194-195 voice assessment in, 193 Adult singers avocational, 181-182 Boldrey's voice categories for, 196, 197-199 careers of, 181-182 professional qualities in, 47 repertoire of, 183 speaking voice of, 195 vocal anatomy in, 181 vocal health of, 201 Aerodynamic measurements, 259-260 Aging. See also Older adults definition of, 210 facial skeleton affected by, 219, 220

hormonal senescence secondary to, 210-211 thyroarytenoid muscle affected by,218 vocal folds affected by, 216-218 Aging voice assessment of, 245-248 changes associated with, 212-214,243-244 Airway, in newborn, 4, 14, 18 Airway resistance, 64 Alexander, Frederick Matthias, 203 Alexander technique, 203-204 Allergens, 154 Allergies, 154-155 Alveolar ridge, 25 Alveoli, 18,142 American Academy of Teachers of Singing, 43, 148 American Choral Directors Association, 202 Amniotic fluid, 14 Analytic learning style, 274 Andover Educators Teaching the Art of Movement in Music, 204 Androgens, 193 Andropause, 211 Ankyloglossia, 110 Annie, 42 Anterior glottic gap, 246 Anxiety, 156, 200-201 Aototelic activity, 155 Appoggio, 66, 69 Appositional growth, 19, 29 Arpeggios,277,281,302-303 Articulation, 34, 36, 293-294 Aryepiglottic folds, 21 Arytenoids in newborn, 20 ossification of, 188

Index

in young adults, 145 ASD. See Autism spectrum disorders Ashley, Martin, 80 Asthma, exercise-induced, 155 Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, 256 Auditory learning style, 275 Auditory-perceptual judgment, 168 Autism spectrum disorders, 256

B Babbling, 32-33, 36 Babies. See Newborns "Baby teeth," 30 Ballantyne, Chadley, 124-127, 164,276,284-286 Baritones Boldrey's voice categories for,

199 formants of, 149 range of, 139 Bass, 199 Basses, 149 Bastian Vocal Fold Swelling Checks, 154 Behnke,Emil, 73-74 "Belly breathing," 16 Belting, 163 Biller, Georg, 46 "Birth cry," 14-15, 26, 35 Bizygomatic width, 28-29 Blood pressure, 15 Boldrey's voice categories, 196,

197-199 Bone appositional growth of, 19 development of, 19 growth of, 16-17 interstitial growth of, 19 ossification of, 19

remodeling of, 17 Bottle feeding, 25 Bouman, Paul, 44 Boys. See also Males brain size in, 63 in choirs, 72-74 lungs in, 18 pubertalchangesin,62, 72 thorax in, 18 Bozeman, Kenneth, 86, 98, 270 Brain gender differences in, 63 gray matter of, 63 postnatal growth of, 35, 40 prefrontal cortex of, 63 Brancaccio, Theresa, 153 Breastfeeding, 25 Breath pressure, phonation and, 113 Brewer, Christine, 162 Bronchus, 142 Browne,Lennox, 73-77 Brunssen, Karen, 226, 276 Buzzing cards exercise, 281-282

C Callas, Maria, 196 Cambiata I, cambiata II, baritone I, and baritone II, 74 Canterbury Cathedral, 73 CAPE-V. See Consensus AuditoryPerceptual Evaluation of Voice Cardiac output, 15-16 Cardiovascular system, 15 Carousel, 162 Case history, 255-257 CCM. See Contemporary Commercial Music Cepstral analysis, 251, 258 Cervical vertebrae, 143 Chest wall compliance, 143

317

318

The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

Children. See also Infants; Newborns; Toddlers laryngeal cartilages in, 19 lung development in, 18 lung function in, 17 musical program for, 38-39 perturbation in, 258 respiration in, 13-19 respiratory rate in, 17 respiratory system in, 81 in school, 40-45 singing by, 43-44, 51 sound production in, 18 tracheostomy tubes in, 254 vocal bundling for, 306-307 vocal exercises for, 292-293 vocal folds in, 65 vocal range of, 44 vocal training in, 46 voice development in, 51-52 voice lessons for, 45-49 voice therapy in, 262-264 Child-Voice in Singing, The, 52 Chin, of newborn, 28 Choirs adolescents in, 72-73, 119 children in, 42, 51-52 older adults in, 225-226 young adults in, 160-161 Choral Journal, 74 Classical repertoire, 157-159 Classical singers, 140-141 Classical singing laryngeal position in, 150 by young adults, 157-159 Close timbre, 86, 89, 91, 124 Coccyx, 19 Cohen, Gene, 225 Collagen, 216 Coloratura, 140, 301-302 Community of Voices choir, 225 Compensatory muscle tension dysphonia, 246-247

Consensus Auditory-Perceptual Evaluation of Voice, 250-251,258 Consonants, articulatory strategies for, 34, 36, 293-294 Contemporary commercial music in adults, 181-183 in children, 49, 51 classical style and, differences between, 150 laryngeal position in, 150 in young adults, 161-162, 171 Contralto,198 Cooing, 32 Cooksey,John, 74-76,80, 139 Cooper, Irvin, 74 Cortisol, 37 Costal cartilages, in older adults, 214 "Costly signal" theory, 82 Cow and calf exercise, 283 Cranium circumference of, 27-28f of newborn, 15, 27 Creaking, 271-272 Cricoid cartilage in infants, 20 ossification of, 188, 244 Cricothyroid membrane, 19, 20 Cricothyroid muscle, 44, 71 Crying, newborn communication through, 23, 36 Cuneiform cartilages, 20, 21

D Davids, Julia, 226 De Gardanne, Charles Pierre Louis, 210 Delanoy, Catherine, 121-122 "Deliberate calm," 201

Index

Diaphragm, in infant, 15 "Diaphragmatic breathing," 15-16 Die Zauberflote, 42 Dilworth, Rollo, 78 Donovan,Ken, 120-121 Double vibrated tones, 3 Dresdner Kreuzchor, 72 Dunn, Mignon, 269 Dysphagia, 254 Dysphonia, muscle tension, 191, 246-247,258

E Edwin, Robert, 49 Elastin, 216 Elastin fibers, 64 Ely Cathedral Girls' Choir, 73 Encore Chorale, 225 Encore Illinois, 226 Endochondral ossification, 16 Epiglottis in newborn, 21, 22 omega-shaped, 21, 22 Epilarynx, 47, 66, 68 Essential tremor of the voice, 246 Estradiol, 193 Estrogen, 62, 69, 78, 191-192 ETY. See Essential tremor of the voice Exercise-induced asthma, 155 Expiratory reserve volume, 18 "Explorers," 221, 224

F Fach system, 196, 200 Facial skeleton aging-related changes in, 219, 220

growth of, 27-28 resorption of, 219

Falsetto, 271 Feldenkrais, Moshe, 203 Feldenkrais Method, 202-203 Females. See also Girls brain in, 63 breath rate in, 142 facial growth in, 27-28, 145, 219 laryngeal cartilage in, 70, 188 laryngeal registration in, 114 lung development in, 65, 185 ovum in, 62 pubertyin,64,79, 139 respiration in, 185 respiratory capacity in, 142 sex hormones in, 62, 69 speaking pitch in, 146 sternum in, 186 thorax in, 186 thyroid cartilage in, 188, 216 total lung capacity in, 185 vertebrae in, 143 vocal fold length in, 22, 145, 188,245 vocal tract growth in, 26, 83, 145 voice changes in, 72-74, 78 voice mutation in, 78, 83 Fetus circulation of, extrauterine transition of, 15 laryngeal function in, 14 lung development in, 14 ovaries in, 63 sex determination in, 63 FEVl. See Forced expiratory volume in 1 second Finger Kazoo exercise, 282 First formant, 103 5-Day Mini-Challenge, 267-268, 297 5-Day and 6-Week Rule, 268-269

319

320

The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

Fixed orthodontic appliances, 105-106 Fleming, Renee, 162 Jo. See Fundamental frequency Follicles, 63 Forced expiratory volume in 1 second, 185,215 Forced resonance, 84, 86, 95 Formants definition of, 85, 244 exercises involving, 284-286 first, 103 vowel, 87, 105 Foster, Melissa, 162-163 Foster, Michael, 74 Free resonance, 84 Freer, Patrick, 76 Functional dysphonia, 247 Fundamental, 85, 113 Fundamental frequency, 23, 36, 146,195,211, 217-218, 244,246,251,258

G Gackle, Lynne, 78 Garcia, Manuel, 73 Giggedy-gaggedy-goo sequence exercise, 271 Girls. See also Females brain size in, 63 lung development in, 65 prepubertal voice change in, 72 pubertalchangesin,62 voice changes in, 72-74, 78 voice mutation in, 83 Glissandos, 277 Glottal gap, 246-247 Gray matter, 63 Growth charts, 27 Guilmartin, Kenneth K., 38 Gunn, Nathan, 162

H HA. See Hyaluronic acid

Hard palate, 25, 30 Harmonics, 85 Harmonics to noise ratio, 31, 193 Harpenden Orphanage, 75 Head, nonlinear growth of, 26-27 Heider, Anne, 227 Hints on Singing, 73 HNR. See Harmonics to noise ratio Hoarseness, 260 Holistic cues, 201 Hormone replacement therapy, 211 Hormones in adolescents, 61-64 senescence of, 210-211 sex,62,69, 139,191,210 "How Can I Keep From Singing," 227,227

Howard, Francis E., 52 HRT. See Hormone replacement therapy Humming exercise, 282-283 Hyaline cartilages, 186, 215 Hyaluronic acid, 21 Hyoid bone in infants, 20 in newborn, 25, 244 ossification of, 19, 244 Hypernasalisty, 102-103

Indianapolis Children's Choir, 76 Infants. See also Newborns breathing in, 16 cricoid cartilage in, 20 diaphragm in, 15 hyoid bone in, 20

Index

phonation in, 71 resonance in, 24-34 resonators in, 24-34 respiration in, 13-19 respiratory rate in, 17 ribs of, 15-16 skeletal changes in, 16 thyroid cartilage in, 20 vocal bundling for, 303-304 vocalizations by, 37 Inflective speech glides, 93 Inhalatory gesture, 113 Interarch rubber bands, 106 Intermediate lamina propria, 70-72, 188-189 International Phonetic Alphabet symbols, 201 Interstitial growth, 19 Intrarater reliability, 168 Intubation tubes, 254 IPA symbols. See International Phonetic Alphabet symbols

J Jaw age-related evolution of, 29f growth of, 28, 30 Jaw movement, 106 Jitter, 70, 110, 251 Johnson, Aaron M., 5 Johnson, Julene, 225 Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat, 42 Journal of Gerontology, 5

K Kelly, Jeanne, 225 Kemp, Helen, 43 Killian, Janice, 65

Kinesthetic learning style, 272-274 King and I, The, 42

L Lamina propria in adolescents, 69 aging effects on, 217 biomechanical properties of, 216 cover/body theory of, 189-190 deep,22, 70, 188-189 description of, 22 intermediate, 70-72, 188 layers of, 22, 70-71 middle layer of, 22 superficial, 188-189, 217 superior, 23, 70-71 Lamperti, Francesco, 66 Laryngeal cartilage in adolescents, 70 in adults, 19, 186, 195 in children, 19 gender differences in, 188 in older adults, 215 ossification of, 17, 145, 186, 187,195,204,215,244 in young adults, 145 Laryngeal muscle fatigue, 152 Laryngeal registration, 98, 114-115, 118 Laryngeal stability, 92 Laryngeal videostroboscopy, 261 Laryngopharyngealreflux,257 Laryngoscope, 73 Laryngoscopy,245 Larynx in adults, 24 anatomy of, 244 extrauterine functions of, 14

321

322

The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

Larynx (continued) in fetus, 14 hyperfunction of, 262 hypofunction of, 262 imaging of, 261-262 menopause-related changes in, 211 in newborn, 19,244 vertical position of, 103 Learning styles analytic, 274 auditory, 275 kinesthetic, 272-274 overview of, 272 spatial, 27 4 tactile, 272-274 visual, 274-275 Leck, Henry, 76 Lee Silverman Voice Treatment, 247 Legato, 299-301 Level 2 source-filter interactions, 85, 100-104 Levinowitz, Lili M., 38 Lewis, Marianne Wilumsen, 118-120 "Lifers," 221, 224 Lingual fixed orthodontic appliances, 105 Lip trills, 116-117, 280 Little Mermaid, The, 163 Little Orphan Annie, 42 Loney, Nikki, 51 LoVetri,Jeannette, 161 Lower register, 280-281 Lower respiratory tract, 142 Lowry, Robert, 227 LPR. See Laryngopharyngeal reflux LSVT. See Lee Silverman Voice Treatment Lumbar vertebrae, 143

Lung(s) alveoli of, 142 anatomy of, 142 in children, 18 development of in adolescents, 65 fetal, 14 in young adults, 142 gender differences in, 18 growth of, in newborn, 18 in newborn, 18 Lung volumes, 65 Lutte vocale, 66 Lymphoid growth curve, 27

M Maculae flavae, 71 Males. See also Boys brain in, 63 breath rate in, 142 facial growth in, 28, 145, 219 laryngeal cartilage in, 70, 188 laryngeal registration in, 114 lung development in, 65, 185 pubertyin,62-64,77, 139 respiration in, 185 respiratory capacity in, 142 sex determination of, 63 sex hormones in, 62, 69 speaking pitch in, 146 spermatozoa production by, 62 sternum in, 186 thorax in, 186 thyroid cartilage growth in, 70, 188 total lung capacity in, 185 vertebrae in, 143 vocal fold length in, 22, 145, 188,245 vocal tract growth in, 26, 83, 145

Index

Malocclusion, 104-105, 110 Mamma Mia, 163 Mandible, in newborn, 28 Mandibular angle, 219 Marie Christine, 163 Maternal singing, 36-37 Maxilla advancement surgeries for,

106 expansion of, 105-106 growth of, 28 Maximum flow declination rate, 276 Maximum inspiratory pressure in adults, 185 in older adults, 215 Maximum phonation time, 259-260 Maximum phonational frequency range, 149 McKenzie, Duncan, 74 Mechanoreceptors, 96 Medications for allergies, 155 vocal health affected by, 150 MENC. See Music Education National Conference Menopause, 193,210-211 Menstrual cycle, 139, 191-192 Messa di voce, 65 Messenger RNA, 217-218 Mezzo-sopranos, 78 MFDR. See Maximum flow declination rate Miller, Jonathan, 226 Miller, Richard, 200, 269 Miller, Sandy Siegel, 226 MIP. See Maximum inspiratory pressure MLP. See Intermediate lamina propria Moline Boys Choir, 74 Monitoring Your Voice, 80

MPFR. See Maximum phonational frequency range mRNA. See Messenger RNA MTNA. See Music Teachers National Association Muscle tension dysphonia, 191, 246-247 Music school teaching of, 40-45 teaching uses of, 39-40 Music Education National Conference, 41 Music educators, 40-41 Music lessons, 42 Music Man, 42 Music Teachers National Association, 202 Music teaching, 201-202 Music theater in adolescents, 107 in children, 42 in young adults, 140-141, 161-163, 169 MUSIC TOGETHER, 38 Musical instruments, 110 Musicals, 42-43 "Mutational chink," 72

N NAfME. See National Association for Music Education Nasal breathing, 15, 26 National Association of Teachers of Singing, 167-168, 202 National Collegiate Choral Organization, 202 National Student Auditions, 168 Nationals Association for Music Education, 41 NATS. See National Association of Teachers of Singing

323

324

The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

NCCO. See National Collegiate Choral Organization Neck, nonlinear growth of, 26-27 Neural growth curve, 27 "New baritones," 117-118 New York Singing Teachers' Association, 202 Newborns. See also Infants airwayin,4, 14, 18 arytenoids in, 20 chin of, 28 communication by, 23, 36 crying by, 23, 36 "diaphragmatic breathing" in, 15-16 epiglottis in, 21, 22 hyoid bone in, 25, 244 larynx in, 19, 244 lung growth in, 18 nasal breathing by, 15, 26 neck of, 17 nursing physiology in, 25 pharynx in, 25 phonation in, 23 resonance in, 24-34 resonators in, 24-34 respiration in, 13-19 respiratory rate in, 17 ribs of, 15-16, 17, 143, 144 soft palate in, 30 sounds by, 32, 34-40 teeth in, 29-30 trachea in, 17 vision by, 35 vocal folds in, 21-22 vocal tract in, 26 Noise making, 31 Non-speech-like vocalizations, 32 NSA. See National Student Auditions NYSTA. See New York Singing Teachers' Association

0 Older adults. See also Adult(s) case studies of, 229-234 in choirs, 225-226 costal cartilages in, 214 hormonal senescence in, 210-211 laryngeal framework of, 215-216 lung function in, 214 menopause in, 210-211 population growth of, 210 presbyphonia in, 221 resonance in, 219-221 respiration in, 214-215 respiratory muscle control in, 215 singing by, 221-229 thorax in, 214 vibration in, 215-219 vocal bundling for, 310-312 vocalchangesin,212-214,228 vocal folds in, 216-219 voice in assessment of, 245-248 changes associated with, 212-214,243-244 Oliver, 42 "Oller's Stages of Babbling," 32-33 Onset exercises, 269, 295-296 Open bite, 104 Open timbre, 86-87, 91, 93 Opera, 158-159 Optical coherence tomography, 4 Oral contraceptives, 192-193 Organizations, 202 Orthodontics, 104-107 Osmond, Donny, 42 Ossification, of ribs, 16 Ovarian follicles, 63 Ovaries, 63

Index

Overtone Analyzer, 67 Overtone singing, 171 Ovum, 62

p Pacinian corpuscles, 96, 221 Palate expanders, 105-106 Palate growth, 28 Pan-American Vocology Association, 202 Parasitic movements, 68 Passaggio, 114, 123, 279, 281 Passive vowel modification, 98 Patent ductus arteriosus, 254 PAVA. See Pan-American Vocology Association PDA. See Patent ductus arteriosus Pediatric Voice Handicap Index, 261 Perceptual assessment, 257-258 Performance anxiety, 200-201 Perturbation, 251, 258 Phantom of the opera, 161, 163 Pharynx in newborn, 25 pharyngeal stretches, 269-270 Phillips, Kenneth, 41 Phonation breath pressure and, 113 factors that affect, 101 in infants, 71 straw,67, 121, 123,279-280 tongue-out, 283-284 Piano lessons, 42 Pitch, 70 Posterior glottic gaps, 247 Prefrontal cortex, 63 Pregnancy, 192 Premenstrual syndrome, 192 Preprofessional singing, 43 Presbylarynges, 246 Presbyphonia, 221, 244-245

Private voice lessons, 45, 51 Producers, The, 163 Professional singing, 43 Progesterone, 62, 69, 78, 192 Proprioception, 97 Puberty in boys versus girls, 62-63 brain development in, 63-64 description of, 46 growth spurts in, 64 laryngeal cartilage changes, 70 onset of, 62 singing during, 72-83 Tanner stages of, 64-65, 75-76, 77,79 vocal changes associated with, 72-73,245 vocal fold development, 70, 245 p VHI. See Pediatric Voice Handicap Index

Q Quality of life measures, 260-261

R Rao, Doreen, 76 Rayapati, Sangeetha, 222 Rapid maxillary expansion, 105-106 Recreational singing, 43 Reinke's space, 188 Remodeling, bone, 17 Reproductive growth curve, 27 Residual volume, 18, 185 Resonance in adolescents/adolescence. See Adolescents/ adolescence, resonance in in adults, 194-195

325

326

The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

Resonance (continued) definition of, 244 forced, 84, 86, 95 free, 84 in older adults, 219-221 in young adults, 145-146 Respiration in adolescents, 64-69 in adults, 185-186 in children, 13-19 in infants, 13-19 in newborns, 13-19 in older adults, 214-215 in young adults, 141-144, 144 Respiratory system, 141-142 Retainer, orthodontic, 105 Ribs of adults, 17, 186 of newborn, 15-16, 17, 143, 144 ossification of, 16, 143 true, 16 of young adults, 143, 144 RME. See Rapid maxillary expansion Romer, F., 3-4 Royal Conservatory of Music Development Program, 47 Rubens flame tube, 98-100 Rutkowski, Joanne, 45 RV. See Residual volume Rykkvin, Aksel, 119-120

s Sackett, Kyle, 122-124 School, music teaching in, 40-45 Secondary muscle tension dysphonia, 247 Semantic knowledge, 40 Semi-occluded vocal tract exercises

in adolescents, 66-68, 103, 116-117 buzzing cards, 281-282 cow and calf, 283 description of, 276-278, 294-295 Finger Kazoo exercise, 282 humming, 282-283 laryngeal register practice with, 118 lip trills, 116-117 tongue-out phonation, 283-284 Senescent singers. See Older adults "Senile emphysema," 214 "Settling baritone," 139 "Seven Pillars of Performance Success," 200 Sex determination, 63 Sex hormones, 62, 69, 139, 191, 210 SFC. See Singer's formant cluster SFF. See Speaking fundamental frequency Shimmer, 70, 110, 251 Showboat, 163 Singer's formant, 47, 149, 194 Singer's formant cluster, 66-67, 149-150, 194 Singing adjudication of, 167-169 in adolescents history of, 72-83, 77, 79 questions regarding, 61-62 resonance effects on, 84-85 target sounds in, 111-112 aototelic activity, 155 breathing for, 156 childhood,43-44,51 classical laryngeal position in, 150 by young adults, 157-159

Index

evaluation of, 167-169 "in the flow" during, 155-156 as learned behavior, 43 by older adults, 221-229 reflexive control of, 165 textures of, 275-276, 298 tip for, 287-289 Skeleton age-related changes in, 144 facial aging-related changes in, 219,220 growth of, 27-28 resorption of, 219 Smith, Stephen W., 200 Soft palate, 30, 145 Somatic growth curve, 26 Somatosensory feedback, 84, 90, 92,96 Sopranos, 78,149,196, 197-198 Soubrettes, 140,197 Sound ofMusic, The, 42, 162 Source harmonics, 100-101 Source-filter interactions acoustic registration created by, 85 categories of, 100-101 level 2, 85, 100-104 South Pacific, 42 SOVT. See Semi-occluded vocal tract exercises Spatial learning style, 274 Speaking fundamental frequency, 213

Speech angry, 37 chest wall compliance effects on, 143 development of, 31-32 emotive quality of, 37 orthodontic treatment effects on, 104 reflexive control of, 165

Speech motor control, 163, 165 Speech sounds, 111 Speech-language pathologist assessments of voice disorders in adults, 249-252 in children, 252-253 Spermatozoa, 62 Spinal curvature, 143 Staccato, 296-297 Stenson, Randy, 76 Sternum, 143, 186 Straw phonation, 67, 121, 123, 279-280 Stroboscopy, 246 Styloglossus, 284 Sundberg, Johan, 171 Superficial lamina propria, 188-189,217 Superior lamina propria, 23, 70-71 Support feedback from a chair exercise, 270-271 Support muscles, 297-298 Suzuki method, 42 Swallowing, 25 Swanson, Frederick, 74 Sweeney Todd, 162 Synaptic density, 35 Systemic hydration, 155 s/z ratio, 259-260

T TA. See Thyroarytenoid muscle Tactile learning style, 272-274 Tanner, James M. description of, 75 pubertal stages of, 64, 76, 77, 78,79 Teeth, in newborn, 29-30 Tenor, 198-199 Terfel, Bryn, 162

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The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

Terminal bronchioles, 142 Tessitura, 76 Testosterone in adults, 194 age-related declines in, 211 in puberty, 62-63, 82 in young adults, 139 Textures, 275-276,298 Third molars, 146 Thomanerchor, 72 Thoracic vertebrae, 143 Thoracic wall, 16 Thorax in females, 186 lower, 16 in older adults, 214 Thyroarytenoid muscle in adolescents, 70-71 in adults, 188-189 age-related changes in, 218 in children, 44-45 in older adults, 218 pitch regulation using, 102 in young adults, 145 Thyroid cartilage in adolescents, 70 in females, 188 in infants, 19-20 in males, 188 in older adults, 216 ossification of, 145, 216 in young adults, 145 Tidal volume, 185 Timbre close, 86, 89, 91, 124 definition of, 85 description of, 84 open,86-87,91,93 vowel, 88-89, 93, 97 whoop,86-87,89,94 TLC. See Total lung capacity Toddlers. See also Children; Infants

language development in, 37 sounds by, 34-40 vocal bundling for, 304-306 Tongue control, in infants, 33 Tongue-out phonation, 283-284 Tonsils, 28 Total lung capacity, 185, 215 Trachea growth of, in female adolescents, 65 in newborn, 17 Tracheostomy tubes, 254 Training. See Vocal training Training the Boy's Changing Voice, 74 Trial therapy, 252 True ribs, 16 TV. See Tidal volume

u Upper register, 94, 279, 281 Upper respiratory tract, 142

V VC. See Vital capacity Velopharyngeal closure, 116 Velopharyngeal sphincter, 272 Verdolini, Katherine, 5 Verrett, Shirley, 162 VHI. See Voice Handicap Index Vibration in adolescents, 69-72 in adults, 186-194 fundamental frequency of, 244 mechanoreceptor sensitivity to, 96 in older adults, 215-219 stroboscopic evaluation of, 246 in young adults, 145 Vibrato, 47, 149

Index

Vibrato rate, 149 Vibrotactile feedback, 99 Vibrotactile sensations, 84 Vibrotactile sensitivity, 96 Videostroboscopy, 4, 246, 261 Vienna Boys Choir, 72-73 Visual learning style, 274-275 Vital capacity, 64-65, 142, 185 Vocabulary, 40 Vocal apparatus, 6 Vocal bundling for adolescents, 307-308 for adults, 309-310 forchildren,306-307 goal of, 303 for infants, 303-304 for older adults, 310-312 for toddlers, 304-306 for young adults, 308-309 Vocal evaluation in adolescents, 113-117 description of, 289, 290-291 in young adults, 168-169 Vocal exercises arpeggios, 302-303 articulation, 293-294 for children, 292-293 coloratura, 301-302 description of, 289 legato, 299-301 onset exercises, 295-296 semi-occluded vocal tract exercises, 294-295 staccato, 296-297 support muscles, 297-298 textures, 298 Vocal fatigue, 152 Vocal folds adduction of, 279-280 in adolescents, 65, 69 in adults, 188, 193 age-related changes in, 193 alignments of, 279-280

atrophy of, presbyphonia versus, 245 in children, 65 complete adduction of, 279 dehydration of, 202 fatigue of, 152 fibroblasts of, 217 growth and development of, 4, 70-71 hydration benefits for, 155 incomplete adduction of, 280 lamina propria in. See Lamina propria laryngoscopic evaluation of, 248 layers of, 70, 188-189, 189, 204,216 membranous portion of, 22-23 menopause-related changes in, 211 mucosa of, 216 in newborn, 21-22 nodules on, 253, 257 in older adults, 216-219 oscillation of, 218-219, 246 paralysis and paresis of, 254, 264 puberty-related changes in, 245 sex hormones' effect on, 191 singing-induced damage to, 47 stroboscopic evaluation of, 246,248 vibration of, 246. See also Vibration in young adults, 145 Vocal fry, 102, 271 Vocal function, 8 Vocal Handicap Index, 250 Vocal health in adult singers, 201 description of, 5 medication effects on, 150

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The Evolving Singing Voice: Changes Across the Lifespan

Vocal health (continued) tips for maintaining, 202 in young adults, 150-156 Vocal hygiene, 201, 264 Vocal instrument, 166 Vocal load, 151 Vocal mechanism, 164 Vocal pedagogy, 147,156 "Vocal Points Tracker," 153, 154 Vocalrange,44 Vocal tract acoustic differences in, 30 in adolescents, 66, 83 in adults, 194-195 age-related changes in, 30-31f characteristics of, 24 growth of, 83 neural growth of, 27 in newborn, 26 nonlinear growth and development of, 24 as resonator, 85 semi-occluded exercises for, 66-68 vibrotactile stimulus in, 99 in young adults, 145 Vocal training in children, 46 creaking, 271-272 falsetto/ giggedy-gaggedy-goo sequence, 271 5-Day Mini-Challenge, 267-268,297 5-Day and 6-Week Rule, 268-269 in older adults, 224 onset exercises, 269 pharyngeal stretches, 269-270 support feedback from a chair, 270-271 Vocalis muscle, 70 Vocalism, 166 Vocalizations, non-speech-like, 32

Vocal-technique curriculum, 41 VoceVista, 67, 126-127 Voice. See also specific vocal entries age-related changes in, 212-214,243-244 disorders that affect, 256 evaluation of, in children acoustic measures, 258-259 aerodynamic measures, 259-260 case history, 255-257 laryngeal imaging, 261-262 perceptual assessment, 257-258 quality of life measures, 260-261 Voice centers, 249 Voice changes in girls, 72-74 in older adults, 212-214, 228 Voice cracking, 118 Voice disorders in adolescents, 263 in adults evaluation of, 249-252 overview of, 248 speech-language pathologist assessment of, 249-252 team-based approach to, 248-249 in children speech-language pathologist assessment of, 252-253 types of, 253-255 vocal fold nodules, 253 voice evaluation. See Voice, evaluation of Voice Foundation, 202 Voice Handicap Index, 261 Voice lessons for adolescents, 108-110 for children, 45-50

Index

for young adults, 146-150 Voice mutation, 81-83, 110, 124-125 Voice therapy, in children, 262-264 "Voiceprint," 35 Voice-Related Quality of Life, 250 Vowel(s), articulatory strategies for, 34 Vowel formants, 87, 105 Vowel formations, 122 Vowel migration, 98 Vowel timbres, 88-89, 93, 97 VPS. See Velopharyngeal sphincter

w Webber, Andrew Lloyd, 161 Weekly, Edrie Means, 161 "WEIRD" exercise, 284-286 Welch, Graham, 45 Westermark, Sara, 50-51 Whooptimbre,86-87,89,94 Wilcocks, David, 76 Wisdom teeth, 146 "Wounded Warblers," 221,224

y YAP Tracker, 169 Young adults. See also Adult(s) in choirs, 160-161

choral singers, 170 classical repertoire in, 157-159 classical singers, 140-141 contemporary commercial music in, 161-162 "cross-training" in, 171 education of, 140-141 females, 139-140 first-paid gigs in, 169-171 laryngeal cartilage in, 145 lower respiratory tract in, 142 males, 139 music theater in, 140-141, 161-163, 169 opera performances by, 158-159 overview of, 139-140 resonance in, 145-146 respiration in, 141-144, 144 respiratory system in, 141-142 self-motivation of, 146 student reflections on vocal progress, 172-174 upper respiratory tract in, 142 vibration in, 145 vocal bundling for, 308-309 vocal folds in, 145 vocal health in, 150-156 vocal tract growth in, 145 voice lessons for, 146-150 voice training in, 140-141

331