The End of the World As We Know It: Faith, Fatalism, and Apocalypse in America 9780814795002

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The End of the World As We Know It

THE END OF THE W O R LD AS WE K N OW IT Faith, Fatalism, an d Apocalypse in America

DANIEL W O J C I K

N E W YOR K U N I V E R S I T Y PRES S New York and London

N E W YOR K U N I V E R S I T Y PRES S New York and London Copyright © 199 7 by New York University All rights reserved Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Dat a Wojcik, Daniel . The end of the world as we know it: faith, fatalism, and apocalypse in America / Daniel Wojcik. p. cm . Includes bibliographical reference s and index. ISBN 0-8147-9283-9 (alk . paper) 1. Millennialism—United States—History—20t h century . 2. End of the world—History of doctrines—20th century . 3. United States— Religion—1960- I . Title. BR526.W65 199 7 001.9—dc2i 97-478

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CIP New York University Press books are printed on acid-free paper, and their binding materials are chosen for strength and durability. Manufactured i n the United States of America 10

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Turning and turnin g i n th e widening gyr e The falco n canno t hea r the falconer ; Things fal l apart; the centre cannot hold ; Mere anarchy i s loosed upo n th e world, The blood-dimme d tid e i s loosed, an d everywher e The ceremon y o f innocence i s drowned; The bes t lack all conviction, whil e th e wors t Are full o f passionate intensity . Surely some revelatio n i s at hand ; Surely the Secon d Comin g i s at hand . The Secon d Coming ! Hardl y are those words ou t When a vast imag e ou t o f Spiritus Mundi Troubles my sight: somewhere i n sands of the deser t A shap e with lio n bod y an d th e hea d of a man, A gaz e blank an d pitiless as the sun, Is moving it s slow thighs , while al l about i t Reel shadows o f indignant deser t birds . The darknes s drop s again; but no w I kno w That twent y centurie s o f stony slee p Were vexed t o nightmar e b y a rocking cradle , And wha t roug h beast , it s hour com e roun d a t last, Slouches toward s Bethlehe m t o b e born ? —William Butle r Yeats, "The Second Coming"

Contents

All illustrations appear as a group following page 124. Acknowledgments ix 1 Approachin g Doomsday : The Contour s o f America n Apocalyptic Belie f 1 2 T h e America n Apocalypti c Legac y 2

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3 Sign s of th e Endtimes : Ha l Lindse y an d Dispensationalis t Prophecy Belief s 3

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4 Apocalypti c Apparitions o f th e Virgin Mar y i n Ne w York Cit y 6

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5 Secula r Apocalyptic Themes i n th e Nuclea r Er a 9

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6 Fatalis

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m an d Apocalypti c Belief s 13

7 Th e Transformation o f Apocalyptic Traditions i n th e Post-Col d War Er a 14

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8 Emergen t Apocalypti c Belief s abou t UFO s an d Extraterrestrial Being s 17

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Conclusion 20

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Notes 217 Bibliography 233 Index 2$j

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Acknowledgments

Researching thi s boo k ha s bee n a length y process , an d I hav e many people to thank for suggestions and words of encouragement alon g the way. I am indebted to Robert A. Georges and Michael Owen Jones of UCLA, who offere d guidanc e durin g th e earl y stage s o f thi s projec t an d helpfu l insights a s my researc h progressed . I am gratefu l t o Pau l Boyer , whose seminar at UCLA on nuclear weapons in American culture helped inspire this project and whose ideas have informed m y thinking on contemporary apocalyp tic beliefs. I also wish to thank Robert P. Flaherty (whose influence i s reflected in chapter 8) for our memorable discussions of apocalyptic topics. My sincere thanks to Sharon Sherman , Susa n Fagan , and Rober t Howar d at the University of Oregon for reading portions of the manuscript, and to the following colleagues and friends for their contributions and suggestions: Donald Cosentino, Diane Dugaw, Bill Ellis, John Gage , Regan Lee, Steve PoizatNewcomb, Leonar d Norma n Primiano , Mik e Stamm , Donal d Ward , Bren nan Washburn, and Catherine Wessinger. I a m especiall y indebte d t o Nik o Pfiind , directo r a t Ne w York Universit y Press, whose initial interest in my research and ongoing encouragement helpe d bring this book to fruition. I also am grateful fo r an Individual Research Grant from th e American Academ y o f Religion , an d th e suppor t provide d b y th e University of Oregon in the form of a Summer Research Award from th e Offic e of Research and Sponsored Programs and a Junior Professorship Developmen t Award from th e College of Arts and Sciences. I would like to express my appreciation a s well t o th e artists, authors, and publisher s who granted permissio n for the use of their illustrations, photographs, and quoted material . Finally, I a m gratefu l fo r th e suppor t an d patienc e o f m y family : m y mother, Beatrice ; m y father , Gerald ; m y brother , James ; an d especiall y m y wife, Wieslawa, and my son, Konrad . Portions o f thi s boo k hav e appeare d i n th e Journal of American Folklore (1996), American Folklore: An Encyclopedia (1996), Western Folklore (1996), and in my monograph, Punk andNeo-Tribal Body Art (1995). ix

1 Approaching Doomsda y The Contours of American Apocalyptic Belief

Beliefs and narrative s about th e end of the world have fascinate d people throughou t huma n history . In nearl y ever y society , sacre d narrative s are told abou t worldly cataclysm, th e regeneratio n o f the earth, an d th e creation o f a terrestria l paradis e (Talmo n 1968:349-351 ; Thrupp 1970:11-15) . Until recently , th e en d o f th e worl d ha s bee n interprete d a s a meaningful , transformative, an d supernatura l event , involvin g th e annihilatio n an d renewal o f th e eart h b y deitie s o r divin e forces . Durin g th e las t hal f o f th e twentieth century , however , widesprea d belief s abou t a meaningles s apoca lypse have emerged an d no w compet e wit h traditiona l religiou s apocalypti c worldviews. The creation an d proliferatio n o f nuclear weapons, in particular , have fundamentally altere d contemporar y apocalypti c thought , fuelin g fear s of globa l annihilatio n an d evokin g widespread fatalis m abou t th e futur e o f humanity. Th e droppin g o f atomi c bomb s o n Hiroshim a an d Nagasak i i n August 194 5 initiated a n era of nuclear apocalypticis m tha t ha s flourished i n American religiou s and secular cultures. Popular belief s abou t th e inevitabil ity of nuclear apocalypse are revealed b y a Yankelovich pol l take n i n 1984, in which 3 9 percent o f a sample populatio n agree d with th e statemen t "Whe n the Bible predicts that th e earth will be destroyed b y fire, its telling us that a nuclear war is inevitable" (L. Jones 1985:67). If this sampling of the populac e is representative , the n approximatel y eighty-fiv e millio n American s believ e that nuclear apocalypse is unavoidable (Halsel l 1986:10). Despite the end of the Cold War, anxieties about the possibility of nuclear apocalypse persist today, stemming from th e magnitude and seeming uncon trollability of nuclear weapons and the likelihood tha t the y will be developed and used by hostile nations or extremist organizations i n the future. I n addi tion to the fear of nuclear annihilation, other threats have emerged as possible causes or signs of impending doo m an d hav e enkindled apocalypti c specula tion. Perhaps poet T S . Eliot was right i n "The Hollow Men" that th e world ends not with a bang but with a whimper: the gradual destruction of the envi-

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2 I Approaching Doomsday ronment, th e greenhouse effect, ozon e depletion, th e AIDS epidemic, widespread famine , overpopulation , incurabl e strain s o f pneumonia , ebola , an d flesh-eating viruses , and other as yet unimaginable future afflictions ma y contribute to our eventual extinction. Indeed , the majority of Americans believe that the world will end someday, according to a 1995 Gallup poll, with 61 percent of adults and 71 percent of teenagers agreeing that "the world will come to a n en d o r b e destroyed " (Bezill a 1996:26) . Fatalis m abou t th e futur e o f humanity, especially pervasive among young people, is indicated by an extensive nationwide study of a representative sample of more than seventeen thousand hig h schoo l seniors ; mor e tha n one-thir d agree d wit h th e statemen t "Nuclear or biological annihilatio n wil l probabl y be the fate of all mankin d within m y generation" (La Farge 1987:27-28). A 1995 Gallup pol l reveale d a similar degree of apprehension abou t the imminence o f humanity s destruction, wit h approximatel y thre e teenager s i n te n fearin g tha t th e world ma y come to an end during their lifetimes (Bezill a 1996:26). In vie w o f suc h attitudes , an d th e numerou s potentia l disaster s tha t threaten humanity, i t is no surprise that with the approach of the year 2000, apocalyptic anxietie s hav e intensifie d an d doomsda y speculatio n flourishes. At the end of the second millennium, ancient apocalyptic traditions converge with recen t secular predictions of catastrophe and inflame th e popular imagination. Ideas and images about the end of the world permeate American popular culture an d folklore , a s well a s popula r religion , an d ar e expresse d i n films, literature, music , poetry , visual arts , dance, theater , cartoons, comics, humor, an d commercia l products . Religiou s apocalypticis m an d it s secula r counterpart ma y diffe r i n term s o f underlyin g premise s an d th e detail s o f doomsday, bu t th e proponent s o f suc h beliefs—whethe r televangelists , authors o f best-sellin g paperback s o n biblica l prophecy , seer s of th e Virgin Mary, Ne w Ag e visionaries , Hop i prophets , survivalists , o r futurologists — agree that global catastrophe is imminent. This confluence of popular beliefs about approaching doomsday has compelled some researchers to predict that before the century ends, political, economic, an d social problem s will b e interpreted a s portents of the endtime s and further contribute to widespread feelings of doom; an apocalyptic fervor will captivate millions of people throughout the United States and the world; a multiplicity of prophets and visionaries will appear; and apocalyptic movements will aris e and attain mas s followings, wit h som e apocalypticist s per haps even attemptin g t o fulfil l thei r own prophecie s b y instigating societa l catastrophes in order to usher in a new world (see Friedrich 1986:11; Schwartz 1990:8-10; Marti n 1982 ; Barkun 1983) . I n fact , a self-fulfilling apocalypti c

Approaching Doomsday I 3 scenario ma y hav e bee n th e goa l o f th e Aum Shinr i Ky o ("Suprem e Truth" ) sect, allege d t o hav e perpetrate d th e subwa y nerv e ga s attac k i n Toky o i n March 1995 . Th e sect s scientist s supposedl y wer e researchin g an d experi menting wit h chemical , laser , biological , an d conventiona l weapon s s o a s t o fulfill thei r leader s prophecie s o f worldly cataclysms. 1 Popular stereotype s o f apocalypticis m a s a "cult " phenomeno n involvin g fanatics and alienated outcast s hav e been reinforce d b y the medi a coverag e o f the Aum Shinr i Ky o sect, th e Branch Davidia n tragedy that occurred i n 1993, the suicides and murders associated with th e Swiss Order of the Solar Temple sect, an d mos t recentl y th e collectiv e suicid e o f th e Heaven s Gat e grou p i n March 1997. However, expectation s o f the end of the world are not limite d t o a handful o f religious groups existing on th e social margins. Today, millions o f Americans embrac e belief s abou t th e imminenc e o f societa l catastrophe . Apocalyptic thinkin g i s a n enormousl y influentia l an d pervasiv e mean s o f conceptualizing th e worl d an d one s plac e i n it , ye t scholar s hav e largel y neglected th e study of contemporary endtime s thought . The End of the World As We Know It offer s a framework fo r understanding various expressions of apocalyptic belie f that exist in the United State s today an d suggests reason s fo r th e prevalenc e an d endurin g appea l o f suc h ideas . Th e forms o f apocalypticis m discusse d herei n ar e predominatel y expression s o f "folk" or "popular " belief—widespread idea s tha t ar e no t officiall y promote d or approve d b y mainstrea m organization s bu t tha t exis t a t a grassroots leve l apart fro m th e forma l sanctio n o f thes e institutions . Th e wor k examine s th e underlying feature s o f differin g apocalypti c tradition s a s expresse d throug h oral narratives , fol k religiou s practices , an d th e prophecie s o f visionaries an d charismatic leaders , a s wel l a s throug h photocopie d fliers, religiou s tracts , videos, audiocassettes , paperbacks , popula r literatur e an d music , humor , an d computer newsgroups . Taking a comparative and multidisciplinary approach , this stud y analyze s th e way s tha t variou s apocalypti c tradition s hav e bee n adapted t o reflec t curren t concerns and ho w ne w religiou s and secular apoca lyptic belief s hav e emerged i n th e latter half of th e twentiet h century . This boo k focuse s i n particula r o n ho w th e prospec t o f nuclea r annihila tion an d other potentia l catastrophe s ha s influenced apocalypti c though t an d explores ho w th e concep t o f fatalism—commonl y understoo d a s th e belie f that certain events and experiences are inevitable, unalterable , and determine d by external force s beyon d huma n control—i s centra l t o apocalypti c specula tion in the nuclear age. The term fatalism i s not used here in a pejorative sense; fatalistic though t i s an endurin g an d widespread mean s o f interpretin g expe -

4 I Approaching Doomsday riences and understanding the world. The idea of fate embodies the sense of inevitability, both pessimistic and optimistic, that is inherent to religious and secular apocalypticism i n the United States today. The wor d apocalypse (fro m th e Gree k apokalypsis) mean s revelatio n o r unveiling. Thi s sens e o f a revealed, underlyin g design fo r history ha s traditionally characterized apocalyptic ideas and resembles ancient notions of fate as an absolute force in the universe that determines all things. As philosopher and theologian Martin Buber notes, in apocalyptic thought "everything is predetermined, al l huma n decision s ar e onl y sha m struggles " (1957:201) . B y asserting that history and worldly renewal are predetermined, religious apocalyptic belief systems affirm tha t the cosmos is ordered, that evil and suffering will b e destroyed, that human existence i s meaningful, an d that a millennial realm of peace and justice ultimatel y will b e created. Fait h and fatalism are thus interwove n int o th e fabri c of apocalyptic thought : a profound fatalis m for a world believed t o be irredeemably evil i s entwined with th e faith fo r a predestined, perfect age of harmony and human fulfillment . Unlike religiou s apocalypti c worldviews , secula r belief s abou t societa l cataclysm usually lack this sense of meaning and moral order. Although various secula r movement s promis e o r anticipat e a radical transformatio n o f the world after the destruction o f current society (Nazism, communism, or survivalism, fo r instance) , mos t secular belief s abou t imminen t apocalyps e are devoid o f the component o f worldly redemptio n an d therefore ten d t o be characterized by a sense of hopelessness and despair. This profound pessimism an d fatalisti c appraisa l o f the futur e i s especially eviden t i n secular beliefs abou t a nuclea r conflagration . Althoug h th e prospec t o f nuclea r annihilation ha s been readil y incorporate d int o some religiou s apocalypti c belief systems, and thus mythologized as a meaningful even t that is the fulfillment of a divinely ordained plan for the redemption o f the world, secular beliefs about an inevitable nuclear war express feelings of fatalism, helplessness, resignation , an d universa l doo m (Chernu s 1986:53—62 ; Lifto n 1987:137-147). Exploring th e complexities of fatalistic though t and the reasons tha t motivate peopl e t o interpre t events fatalistically provide s considerable insight into the nature of both religious and secular apocalyptic speculation an d thei r respectiv e visions o f a meaningful o r meaningless apoca lypse an d reveal s muc h abou t curren t concerns , fears , an d hope s fo r th e future. This study begins with a survey of the landscape of contemporary American apocalypti c belie f and the n discusse s th e terminology , "folk " attributes, and fatalistic underpinnings associated with apocalyptic worldviews. Chapter

Approaching Doomsday I 5

2 trace s th e histor y o f America n apocalypti c beliefs ; subsequen t chapter s explore th e followin g form s o f contemporary endtime s thought : (chapte r 3) premillennial dispensational prophecy beliefs as expressed in the books of Hal Lindsey, th e mos t influentia l prophec y interprete r i n th e twentiet h century ; (chapter 4) apocalyptic prophecies associated with visions of the Virgin Mar y as expressed in the Bayside apparitions in New York City; and (chapter 5) secular idea s abou t nuclea r apocalyps e i n America n popula r cultur e an d fol k belief, and within various subcultures. Chapter 6 analyzes the fatalistic aspects and cultura l an d psychologica l meaning s o f thes e divers e apocalypti c ideas , and chapte r 7 examine s th e transformatio n o f apocalypti c prophec y i n th e post—Cold Wa r er a an d th e curren t theme s no w emphasize d wit h th e approach o f the year 2000. The las t chapter explores the emergent apocalyp tic ideas associated with UFOs and extraterrestrial being s and compares these recent belief s t o previou s apocalypti c worldviews . Th e conclusio n offer s a typology o f apocalypti c beliefs , survey s apocalypti c speculatio n associate d with the year 2000, and reflects on the enduring appeal of apocalyptic thought at the end of the second millennium .

Contemporary American Apocalyptic Beliefs Narratives abou t th e en d o f th e worl d hav e existe d sinc e th e beginnin g o f recorded history . The tal e of Noah an d th e Flood , th e Norse myt h o f Ragnarok (popularize d i n Richar d Wagner s oper a Die Gotterdammerung) , the Hindu myth s o f recurrin g worldl y annihilatio n an d regeneration , an d selected Zoroastrian , Babylonian , Sumerian , Buddhist , Islamic , Greek , Roman, African, Mayan , an d Nativ e American myth s describe the destruc tion an d transformatio n o f th e world , th e struggl e betwee n th e power s o f good and evil, and the divinely determined destiny of humanity and the cosmos. As historian o f religion Mirce a Eliad e notes, "The myt h o f the end o f the world i s of universal occurrence ; i t is already to be found amon g primi tive peoples still at a paleolithic stage of culture . . . and it recurs in the great historic civilizations , Babylonian , Indian , Mexica n an d Greco-Roman " (1975:243). The pervasivenes s o f suc h narrative s historicall y an d cross-cul turally i s revealed b y the listings i n th e various folklor e moti f and tale-typ e indices, such as Stith Thompsons six-volum e Motif-Index of Folk-Literature (1955-1958), which classifie s particula r narrativ e motif s an d identifie s thei r distribution. Th e majo r apocalypti c narrative s ar e liste d unde r "Worl d calamities and renewals" (Aiooo—A1099), which includes subcategories such

6 I Approaching Doomsday as "Worl d catastrophe " (Aiooo) , "Deluge " (AIOIO) , "Escap e fro m deluge " (A1020), "World-fire " (A1030) , "Continuou s winte r destroy s th e race " (A1040), "Heaven s brea k u p a t en d o f th e world " (A1050) , "Eart h distur bances a t en d o f world " (A1060) , an d "Fettere d monster s escap e a t en d o f world" (A1070) . Th e narrative s an d motif s liste d i n thi s an d othe r folklor e indices contai n man y o f th e sam e underlyin g idea s an d structure s a s con temporary apocalypti c narratives , illustratin g th e continuitie s throug h tim e of apocalyptic thought . Christian belie f i n apocalypti c prophecy , founde d i n th e ancien t Jewis h prophetic tradition , ha s a n extensiv e legac y i n America n cultur e an d con sciousness, beginnin g wit h th e Puritan s an d continuin g t o th e presen t day . Scholars hav e frequentl y commente d o n th e presenc e o f apocalypti c theme s in America n religion , history , literature , an d "imagination " (se e Zamor a 1982a). Belief s abou t apocalyps e an d th e arrival o f the millenniu m hav e bee n central t o numerou s sectaria n group s (suc h as the Shakers and th e Millerites ) and th e Nativ e America n Ghos t Danc e movement s i n th e 1870 s an d 1890s , and contribute d t o muc h nineteenth-centur y socia l reform , includin g th e abolitionist an d temperanc e movements . Accordin g t o severa l scholars , suc h beliefs als o served as the ideologica l catalys t fo r numerou s slav e revolts , earl y feminist consciousnes s (Moorhea d 1987:17—18) , and eve n th e American Rev olution itsel f (Bloch i985:xiii) . Studies of American millennialis m hav e examined th e relationshi p betwee n millennialis t though t an d theme s o f American destiny (Cherr y 1971 ; Tuveson 1968) , millennialis t idea s i n th e fundamental ist an d holines s movement s (Marsde n 1980 ; Sandee n 1970) , th e ris e an d appeal o f premillennialism i n th e late nineteenth centur y and early twentiet h (Weber 1987), the nature and diversity of millennialist though t i n eighteenthcentury Ne w Englan d (Davidso n 1977) , millennialis t fundamentalis t tie s with rightis t politic s (Jorsta d 1970) , an d th e way s tha t millennialis t idea s influenced politica l action s durin g th e Civi l Wa r (Moorhea d 1978). 2 Th e prevalence of apocalyptic and millennialist ideas in the United States has even prompted comparison s wit h America n foodway s an d sportin g events : socia l scientist John Wiley Nelso n assert s that apocalyptic idea s are "as American a s the ho t dog " (1982:179 ) an d historia n Leonar d Swee t assert s tha t a preoccu pation with th e millennium "ha s become, even mor e than baseball, America s favorite pastime " (1979:531) . Most studies of American millennialis t tradition s examine such idea s prior to th e Civi l War , o r amon g selecte d sectaria n groups , o r as expressed i n pre millennial dispensationalis m i n th e lat e nineteent h an d earl y twentiet h cen turies (Bus s 1988:19) . With th e exception o f a few recen t studies (Boye r 1992;

Approaching Doomsday I 7 Brummett 1991 ; O'Leary 1994 ; Strozie r 1994) , surprisingl y littl e researc h o n contemporary America n apocalypticis m ha s bee n conducted , an d compara tive wor k o n America n apocalypti c belief s i n th e nuclea r er a i s practicall y nonexistent. 3 According to historian Paul Boyer, author of an important stud y of premillennial dispensationalism , "Despit e a vague awareness that prophec y belief is rampant 'ou t there'—in th e dark beyond th e campfire, s o to speak — academics hav e given thes e belief s littl e systematic attention " (1992:15). Often th e studies tha t have bee n conducte d conside r thos e who believ e i n the imminenc e o f th e en d o f th e worl d t o b e member s o f margina l socia l groups, th e disenfranchised , th e oppressed, o r the deprived. Historia n Timo thy Webe r observes , "Traditionally , advocate s o f apocalypticis m hav e bee n outsiders, alienate d an d disinherite d fro m th e privilege d an d powerful . Wit h few exceptions , the y looke d fo r thei r futur e redemptio n fro m beyon d th e clouds precisel y becaus e the y ha d n o recours e i n th e present " (i987:x) . Although thi s association ma y have been tru e in th e past, a s the thir d millen nium approaches , million s o f American s o f al l background s an d socioeco nomic level s currently hold belief s abou t apocalypti c prophecies . Today i n th e Unite d States , belie f i n apocalypti c prophec y i s integra l t o the worldviews o f many evangelica l Christians , suc h a s the Southern Baptis t Convention (wit h a n estimated fifteen millio n members ) an d various pente costal an d charismati c denomination s (roughl y eigh t millio n members) , including th e Assemblie s o f Go d Church , th e Churc h o f Nazarene , an d thousands o f independen t evangelica l "Bibl e churches " (Boye r 1992:4) . Pre millennial dispensationalism , a form o f evangelicalism tha t emphasizes apoc alyptic prophecy , i s espouse d b y th e majorit y o f televangelists , includin g Jerry Falwell, Pa t Robertson, Jack Van Impe , an d Oral Robert s (a s well a s the once-popular Jimmy Swaggert and Jim an d Tammy Bakker) , many of who m have stated, at one tim e or another, tha t nuclear weapons and the prospect o f nuclear wa r ar e a fulfillmen t o f biblica l prophecies . Accordin g t o a Nielse n survey o f televisio n viewer s conducte d i n Octobe r 1985 , approximatel y "6 1 million American s (4 0 percen t o f al l viewers ) regularl y liste n t o preacher s who tel l the m nothin g ca n b e done t o preven t a nuclear war in ou r lifetime " (Halsell 1986:11) . Althoug h suc h survey s d o no t revea l th e degre e t o whic h apocalyptic belief s ar e integra l t o people s lives , th e dat a gathere d throug h various poll s sugges t tha t belief s abou t biblica l prophec y an d th e Secon d Coming ar e muc h mor e pervasiv e tha n scholar s hav e recognized . Fo r instance, a 1983 Gallup pol l reveale d tha t 6 2 percen t o f th e respondent s ha d "no doubts " tha t Jesu s wil l retur n agai n t o earth , an d a 199 4 pol l fo r U.S. News and World Report indicate d tha t 6 1 percen t o f American s believ e tha t

8 I Approaching Doomsday Jesus will retur n (Gallu p an d Castell i 1989:4 ; U.S. News and World Report, December 19,1994, 64). The U.S. News and World Report survey also found that 53 percent of those polled believe that some world events in the twentieth centur y fulfil l biblica l prophecy , an d tha t a significan t percentag e o f Americans believe the Bible should be taken literally when it speaks of a final Judgment Da y (6 0 percent) , a Battl e o f Armageddo n (4 4 percent) , th e Antichrist (4 9 percent) , an d th e Raptur e o f th e churc h (4 4 percent ) (U.S. News and World Report, Decembe r 19,1994, 64). Widespread interest in apocalyptic prophecy is further indicated by the success of mass-marketed paperbacks on the topic, such as the numerous best-sellers by Hal Lindsey. His book The Late Great Planet Earth (1970), sold 7.5 million copies during the 1970s, making it the largest-selling American nonfictio n book of that decade {New York Times Book Review, April 6 , 1980 , 27). More than twenty-eight million copies of the book, in fifty-twolanguages, now have been sol d {Los Angeles Times, Februar y 23 , 1991 , F16; S. Graha m 1989:249) . President Ronald Reagans interest in biblical prophecies about the imminence of Armageddon, which receive d nationa l medi a attention i n April 1984 , is a further indication that such beliefs are held by not only members of marginal, disenfranchised groups. Although treated as an "aberration" by the press, Reagan's preoccupation wit h prophecy is like that of millions of Americans who are fascinate d b y apocalyptic biblica l predictions . The ubiquitou s natur e o f apocalyptic prophecy belief also was revealed in 1991, when some premillennialists interpreted the war in the Persian Gulf as the beginning of an endtimes scenario that would culminate i n a nuclear conflagration. Suddenly , the otherwise "invisible" beliefs about biblica l prophec y hel d by millions of Americans wer e activate d an d apocalypti c speculatio n escalated . Accordin g t o a Gallup poll conducted during the Persian Gulf War, 15 percent of Americans thought the war fulfilled prophec y and that Armageddon was at hand (Bezilla 1996:26). John Walvoords book Armageddon, Oil and the Middle East Crisis, originally published in 1974, was updated and reprinted in 1990, and immediately sold over 600,000 copies from December 1990 to February 1991. Another 300,000 copies were ordered and distributed by evangelist Billy Graham, who reportedly discussed the books predictions about Armageddon with President George Bus h (Los Angeles Times, Februar y 7, 1991 , E2). Walvoords opinion s concerning biblical prophecies and the Persian Gulf War were enthusiastically sought b y th e mainstrea m press , an d h e was interviewe d o n CNN , CBN , CBS-TV, and sixty-five radi o stations nationwide (Boyer 1992:330). Although premillennia l dispensationalis m i s th e mos t pervasiv e for m o f contemporary apocalypticis m i n th e Unite d States , i t i s only on e o f man y

Approaching Doomsday I 9

apocalyptic traditions , eac h o f which ha s a distinctive histor y an d syste m o f beliefs. Fo r example , th e expectatio n o f imminen t worldl y destructio n an d renewal i s an importan t par t o f the theolog y o f the Seventh-da y Adventists, Church o f Jesus Christ o f Latter-Day Saint s (Mormons) , and Jehovahs Wit nesses. Apocalyptic prophecies associated with visions of the Virgin Mary and delivered a t numerou s Maria n apparitio n sites , suc h a s Fatima , Portugal ; Garabandal, Spain ; Sa n Damiano , Italy ; Medjugorje , Croatia ; an d Bayside , New York , ar e familia r t o million s o f Roma n Catholic s worldwide . Belief s about Marys apocalyptic warnings are an expression of Catholic folk religion , existing apar t fro m th e approva l o f institutionalize d Catholicis m an d rein forced b y an extensiv e popula r literatur e abou t Maria n prophec y tha t inter prets recen t apparition s a s part o f a divin e pla n unfoldin g i n th e las t days . Apocalyptic prophecy belief was once central to Judaism, and although deemphasized today, persists among members of the Chabad Lubavitch movement , an Orthodo x Hasidi c sec t o f Judaism . In 1992 , man y o f th e mor e tha n 250,000 follower s o f Rabb i Menache m Mende l Schneerson , o f Brooklyn , New York, believed that he had prophesied various events and tha t he was in fact the Messiah who would bring about the redemption o f the world (Chan dler 1993:213-215). Native American beliefs about the end of the world bear some resemblance to the prophecy beliefs in Christian and Jewish traditions, with Hopi prophe cies, i n particular , foretellin g o f a period o f chastisement , calle d th e "Grea t Purification," tha t will occur prior to a fiery worldly cataclysm. Hopi prophe cies warn that if sacred knowledge is rejected and if the planets resources continue t o b e exploite d afte r thi s perio d o f tribulation , th e worl d wil l b e destroyed (Timm s 1994:150—170) . Hopi prophecie s hav e bee n embrace d b y some Ne w Ag e devotees , wh o hav e adopte d a n assortmen t o f previou s prophetic an d apocalypti c traditions , a s wel l a s th e prediction s o f Nos tradamus, Edgar Cayce, and Jeanne Dixon, among others, to create an amalgam of apocalyptic prophecy belief. The eclecticis m o f New Age prophetic belief s i s epitomized b y th e Har monic Convergence, which was organized around a cross-cultural melang e of prophecy traditions , th e cycle s o f th e Azte c an d Maya n calendars , an d th e configuration o f the planets in the solar system. The event was celebrated b y tens o f thousand s o f peopl e throughou t th e worl d o n Augus t 16-17 , l 9%7> dates interprete d a s a critical juncture tha t would hel p determine th e futur e salvation of the planet (Argiielles 1987). New Age beliefs tend to offer a kinder and gentler apocalypse, emphasizing "paradigm shifts" in global consciousness rather than societal destruction, and the gradual progression into a golden age

io I Approaching Doomsday of harmony and peace brought about by human effort an d new forms of spirituality. However, catastrophic apocalyptic beliefs do exist among some New Agers, such as the thirty thousand devotee s of the Church Universa l and Triumphant, whos e leader , Elizabet h Clair e Prophet , ha s bee n predictin g cata clysmic disasters for over a decade. The syncretic nature of emergent traditions of apocalypticism i n the twentieth centur y i s exemplified b y UF O beliefs , whic h compris e a synthesis o f Christianity, Theosophy , Spiritualism , Easter n religions , Ne w Ag e notions , and ideas inspired by science fiction literature and popular films. For the past fifty years , beliefs about UFOs and extraterrestrials have been characterized by expectations of imminen t worldly destruction an d salvatio n b y superhuma n beings, an d thes e apocalypti c theme s hav e bee n increasingl y emphasize d a s the year 2000 approaches. Like beliefs about UFOs which arose in the twentieth century, ideas about the senseless and unredemptiv e destruction o f humanity are a predominantly twentieth-century phenomeno n an d ar e often diffuse d wit h a sense of helplessness an d fatalisti c resignation . Secula r doomsda y speculation , whethe r related to fears about nuclea r annihilation, environmental catastrophes , overpopulation, or technological collapse, frequently ha s scientists and social critics as it s mai n proponent s (e.g. , Meadow s e t al . 1972 ; Schell 1982 ) and per vades contemporar y America n literature , art , music , popula r culture , an d folklore. I n popula r film, secula r doomsda y scenarios hav e become almos t a cliche, with portrayal s of future nuclea r cataclysms especially prevalent, fro m the early end-of-the-world vision s of On the Beach (1959) and Dr. Strangelove (1963) to the nuclear docudramas in the 1980s, such as Testament, Threads, and The Day After, and th e post-nuclea r wa r action pictures such a s the various Planet of the Apes films (late 1960 s an d 1970s ) an d Mad Max films (1979 1985). In recen t years , environmental catastrophe s hav e become increasingl y popular i n post-apocalypti c films; i n Waterworld (1995) , fo r example , th e action take s place in th e futur e afte r th e ic e caps have melted, with th e hero, a mutan t fish-man, battlin g barbaric , neotriba l punk-pirate s obsesse d wit h destroying what remain s of the earths resources. Filmic visions of a post-apocalyptic world often ar e similar to the scenarios imagined by some survivalist and militia groups that anticipate the collapse of society throug h a series of catastrophes, such a s nuclear war, worldwide economic disaster, or race riots. Stockpiling weapons and supplies, the member s of such group s prepar e fo r Armageddo n b y developing "surviva l skills " and establishing bom b shelter s o r refuge s i n remot e area s (se e Coate s 1987) . Although som e survivalist group s are not explicitl y racis t hate groups, white

Approaching Doomsday I n

supremacist an d neo-Naz i organization s suc h a s th e Poss e Comitatus , th e Order, and Aryan Nations are the most adamantly apocalyptic, expressing the determination t o establis h a n Arya n empir e afte r th e occurrenc e o f variou s societal cataclysms. In thi s sense, the beliefs of survival is ts and militi a group s differ fro m thos e of most other secular apocalypticists and resembl e religiou s apocalyptic beliefs in that the establishment of a cleansed, new world is anticipated after th e apocalypse. Unlike th e expectation s o f survivalists , member s o f variou s post-Worl d War I I yout h subculture s hav e expresse d a mor e pessimisti c visio n o f th e future, anticipatin g various societal cataclysm s without hop e o f redemption . The earl y pun k subculture , i n particular , exhibite d explici t apocalypti c themes, embracing as one of its mottos the idea of "no future" an d reveling in visions of societal collapse and destruction (Hebdig e 1979:27; Laing 1978:124; Wojcik 1995:9-11) . The celebrate d apath y an d nihilis m o f so-calle d slacker s and th e members of Generation X (reflected i n th e book Generation X, with its preoccupatio n wit h nuclea r annihilation , impendin g societa l doom , an d post-baby boom powerlessness) and the darker ethos of industrial music, with its preoccupatio n wit h societa l deca y an d destruction , furthe r illustrat e th e pervasiveness of secular visions of imminent catastrophe in American culture .

The Terminology of Apocalypse Contemporary speculation abou t imminen t societal cataclysm i s vast indeed , yet no t ever y referenc e t o disaster , decline , o r societa l transformatio n i s an expression of apocalypticism. The word apocalypse has differing connotation s among academics, who have reached no consensus on th e precise meaning of the term. When use d by biblical scholars, apocalypse usually refers to Jewish or Christian literatur e involvin g revelation s an d prophecie s abou t th e en d o f time an d th e establishmen t o f a ne w world , expresse d i n esoteric , crypto graphic, or symbolic language. 4 The biblical us e of the term derive s from th e Apocalypse of St. John, know n als o as the Revelation o f John o r the Book of Revelation, th e las t boo k i n th e Ne w Testament. Th e ter m apocalypse came into theological use in the second century to designate a specific type of literature characterize d b y mysteriou s revelation s communicate d b y a supernat ural figure that involve the ultimate defeat o f evil, the judgment of the world, and the creation o f a new heaven and ne w earth (J . Collins 1989:3-4). In contrast , othe r scholar s hav e favore d a broade r meanin g o f th e term , using the word apocalypse to refer to a sense of an ending, decline, societal cri-

12 I

Approaching Doomsday

sis, an d transformation , whethe r associate d wit h actua l historica l event s o r expressed a s themes i n moder n literatur e (e.g. , Kermod e 1967 ; Ketterer 1974; Robinson 1985 ; Wagar 1982) or science fiction (e.g. , Dewey 1990; Rabkin et al. 1983). I n popula r parlance , apocalypse is no w use d loosel y t o refe r t o an y sor t of disaster, with no reference to divine revelations about the end of the history, or expectations o f a supernatural scenari o involvin g worldly destructio n an d renewal. As literary critic Frank Kermode notes , "In fashionable use , the word apocalypse has n o ver y precis e meaning , onl y vagu e connotation s o f doom " (1985:84). Suc h broa d characterizations o f apocalypse as a reference t o any crisis or period of change are too general an d arbitrary for a clear understandin g of apocalypti c idea s today . O n th e othe r hand , definition s tha t conside r th e key feature s o f apocalypse to b e divin e revelation , th e supernatural defea t o f evil, an d th e creatio n o f a new worl d ar e restrictiv e an d eliminat e fro m con sideration various emergent form s of endtimes thought, such as secular expectations o f imminen t an d inevitabl e worldly cataclysm . In thi s stud y th e ter m apocalypse refers t o th e catastrophi c destructio n o f world o r curren t society , whethe r attribute d t o supernatura l forces , natura l forces, o r huma n actions . Althoug h thi s characterizatio n o f apocalypse i s unconventional an d perhap s somewha t controversial , i t reflect s th e emi c (o r "folk") understandin g of apocalypse as expressed i n th e wid e rang e o f beliefs , narratives, and behaviors discussed i n thi s book. Apocalypticism an d apocalyptic are used here to refe r to those beliefs and discourses that assert that the cataclysmic destructio n o f th e worl d i s inevitabl e an d unalterabl e b y huma n effort, an d thes e term s ar e used t o describ e bot h redemptiv e an d unredemp tive visions o f th e End . The sens e o f fatefulnes s abou t th e inevitabilit y o f worldl y destruction , whether believe d t o b e divinel y predetermine d o r th e inescapabl e conse quence o f th e destructiv e behavio r o f huma n beings , distinguishe s apocalyp tic though t fro m othe r type s o f catastrophi c speculatio n tha t predic t immi nent cataclysm s bu t asser t tha t huma n being s ca n interven e t o preven t them . For example, i n hi s boo k The Fate of the Earth (1982) , Jonathan Schel l specu lates about th e devastating effect s o f large-scal e nuclea r war, an even t tha t h e argues would en d civilization . Bu t Schel l assert s tha t huma n actio n ma y lea d to nuclea r disarmamen t an d thu s preven t a nuclea r apocalypse . Schel l doe s not conside r th e en d o f th e worl d t o b e inevitable , an d becaus e hi s specula tions are not fatalistic , the y are not truly apocalyptic bu t a form of secular cataclysmic forewarning . Th e belie f tha t worldl y destructio n i s inevitabl e an d determined b y uncontrollabl e externa l force s i s an essentia l featur e o f apoca lyptic though t tha t will b e explored throughou t thi s study.

Approaching Doomsday I 1 3 The term s millennialism an d millenarianism ar e usually applied t o the stud y of apocalyptic beliefs , and refe r t o ideas about th e imminent transformatio n o f the current social order and the expectation o f a perfect, ne w world of harmon y and justic e (Schwart z 1987:521) . In Christia n tradition , thi s perfec t ag e i s associated with th e retur n o f Christ an d a predicted thousand-yea r perio d o f peac e and prosperit y (th e millennium o r chiliasi)? Millenarianis m refer s t o the expectation o f imminent, this-worldly , collective salvation tha t will be brought abou t by a divine o r superhuma n pla n (Coh n 1970:15 ; Talmon 1968:349 ; Wessinge r forthcomings). Contemporar y millenarianis m i n th e Unite d State s generall y includes th e belie f tha t th e transformatio n o f th e presen t worl d wil l b e cata clysmic an d accomplishe d i n accordanc e wit h a divine plan , whic h wil l elimi nate evi l an d establis h a terrestria l paradise . Thi s worldvie w (referre d t o vari ously a s catastrophic millennialism, apocalypticism, o r premillennialism; Wessinger forthcomings ) expresse s a pessimistic view of humanity, maintain ing that the world i s fatally flawed an d unredeemabl e b y human effort , an d tha t only a divinel y ordaine d worldl y cataclys m ca n ushe r i n th e millennium . Ye t not al l millenaria n belief s emphasiz e a catastrophic scenari o involvin g worldl y destruction prio r to the millennium. Christia n postmillennialism , fo r example , asserts tha t th e millenniu m wil l b e brough t abou t graduall y an d noncata strophically b y human being s acting according t o a divine plan tha t will trans form th e world int o a place worthy o f Christ' s Secon d Coming .

Mythology and Eschatology Religious narrative s abou t th e en d o f th e world, whethe r ancien t o r modern , belong t o th e categor y o f mythology—sacred narrative s tha t explai n th e exis tence of the world a s well as the nature o f human existenc e (se e Dundes 1984) . These sacre d storie s addres s absolut e realitie s an d issue s o f ultimat e concern , expressing religiou s value s an d providin g model s fo r behavior . Deities , ani mals, an d cultur e heroe s ar e the mai n character s i n myths , which ar e often se t in an earlie r world differen t fro m th e world o f today or i n another world com pletely (Basco m 1965:9) . Creatio n myth s provid e a religiou s accoun t o f th e origin o f things , explainin g importan t aspect s o f huma n lif e an d othe r phe nomena: ho w and why th e world originated , th e rol e of deities i n th e creatio n of things, why peopl e mus t suffe r an d die , why evi l exists . Not al l myth s addres s origins ; som e concer n endings , o r eschatolog y (th e study of "the last things," from th e Greek eschatos, "last " or "furthest") , suc h a s the ultimat e fat e o f th e worl d o r th e fat e o f th e sou l afte r death . Individua l

14 I Approaching Doomsday

eschatology deals with the existence of an afterlife, th e transmigration of souls, the judgment o f the dead, and th e future o f the soul in other spiritual realms, such as heaven or hell. Cosmic eschatology is concerned with the destiny of the universe, the end of the world, the end of time, the end of the gods, the end of humanity, the fate of humanity after tha t ending, and the creation of a perfect age (Werblowsky 1987:149). In traditional eschatology, the end of things is not thought t o be a negative event, no r is it perceived as the absolute terminatio n of all things. Religious eschatologies usuall y regard the end of the world optimistically because the apocalypse promises a new beginning in a redeemed new world. However, i n the nineteenth centur y the belief in an unredemptiv e an d meaningless end developed, what W. Warren Wagar refers to as a secular eschatology, involving the "study of worlds ends that ignores religious belief or puts the old visions to use as metaphors for modern anxiety " (1982:4). Like creation myth s such as Genesis that awake n th e desire for a lost par adise tha t onc e existe d i n a primordia l time , apocalypti c myth s frequentl y appeal to a sense of loss and alienation, inspiring a yearning for a perfect world that is free from suffering and evil. This millennial paradise is envisioned as an entirely new world, although often i t is the symbolic equivalent of a mythical golden age or a paradise lost projected into the future and occurring at the end of time . The imagine d millennia l real m i s th e antithesi s o f curren t society , with it s overwhelmin g suffering , evil , an d injustice , non e o f whic h ca n b e remedied by the established political, social, and religious institutions. In religious apocalypti c system s o f belief , fatalis m fo r th e curren t societ y i s rein forced b y th e fait h i n it s inevitabl e destructio n an d redemptio n b y divin e forces. Th e mythi c narrative s o f apocalypti c tradition s thu s offe r religiou s solutions fo r bot h sufferin g an d injustic e b y promising the destruction o f an evil and oppressive old order, and th e establishment o f a morally just millen nial kingdom o f peace and harmony .

Folklore, Folk Religion, and Apocalyptic Beliefs Much o f contemporary religiou s apocalypticism ma y b e usefull y though t o f as expressions o f fol k religion , define d a s "the totality o f all thos e views an d practices of religion that exist among the people apart from an d alongside the strictly theological and liturgical forms of the official religion " (Yoder 1974:14). Although th e word s folk an d folklore may evok e image s o f peasant s i n cos tumes celebrating at harves t festival s o r sitting around a fireside telling tales, folklorists today consider the "folk" to be any group of people with shared cul-

Approaching Doomsday I 1 5 tural tradition s and expressive behaviors (thei r "lore") (Bauma n 1992:35 ; Dorson 1970 ; Dunde s 1965:1-3) . Th e ter m folklore ha s bee n define d i n varyin g ways, bu t folklorist s generall y agre e tha t th e concep t refer s t o expressiv e behaviors an d form s considere d t o b e traditiona l an d usuall y communicate d in informal context s or face-to-face interaction s (se e Georges and Jones 1995:1; Oring 1986:16-18) . O n th e whole , contemporar y folklorist s stud y grassroot s expressive culture and the experiences, beliefs , and behaviors of ordinary peo ple ofte n neglecte d o r otherwise devalued . Historically, apocalypti c idea s ofte n hav e bee n manifestation s o f fol k reli gion, originatin g apar t from th e official sanctio n o f religiou s institution s an d founded i n personal experience s rathe r than prescribe d by doctrines. The rev olutionary millenaria n movement s tha t occurre d i n Europ e betwee n th e eleventh an d sixteent h centuries , fo r instance , wer e form s o f apocalypticis m that existed outside and in opposition t o dominant ecclesiastical structures. In characterizing th e popula r appea l o f thes e medieva l millenaria n movements , historian Norma n Coh n note s tha t "th e importance o f th e apocalypti c tradi tion shoul d no t b e underestimated ; eve n thoug h officia l doctrin e n o longe r had any place for it, it persisted in the obscure underworld of popular religion" (1970:30). The leader s of such movements—self-proclaime d messiahs , visionaries, heretics, and mystical anarchists—gaine d thei r authority apart from th e institutional churc h an d attracte d disciple s throug h persona l charism a an d promises o f an apocalypti c en d t o curren t sufferin g an d th e establishmen t o f a worl d fre e fro m pain , evil , an d si n (Coh n 1970:16-17) . Member s o f som e groups, such as the Ranters and the Brethren of the Free Spirit, considered th e institutional churc h t o b e a n obstacl e t o salvatio n o r eve n th e enem y an d regarded themselve s a s divin e being s an d thu s incapabl e o f si n an d evil . Acknowledging n o authorit y bu t thei r ow n experiences , thes e medieva l mil lenarians create d thei r ow n anarchisti c religiou s communities , fre e o f restraints, believing that they could murder , rob , lie, and engage i n "fre e love" and othe r hedonisti c activitie s withou t si n (Coh n 1970:150) . Thi s exampl e may be extreme, but it illustrates the degree to which fol k apocalyptic though t developed outsid e officia l religiou s institution s an d gav e ris e t o specifi c mil lenarian social movements . British and American millenarianism i n the late eighteenth century and the nineteenth centur y als o develope d apar t fro m forma l religiou s institutions , according t o historian J. F. C. Harrison , who note s tha t "omen s and auguries, dreams an d divinations, magic , witchcraf t an d demon s . . . the popula r liter ature of chapbooks an d almanac s lies close t o th e world o f millenaria n mani festations. . . . Fol k cultur e provide d th e matri x i n whic h millenaria n yearn -

16 I Approaching Doomsday ings could be nourished" (1979:39). Apocalyptic traditions of belief frequentl y have rejecte d institutiona l religiou s dogm a an d expresse d desir e fo r salvatio n outside established institutions, which are considered t o be corrupt or evil and which therefor e mus t b e destroye d befor e a ne w socia l orde r ma y b e estab lished (B . Wilson 1973:19) . Today, man y o f th e leadin g proponent s o f apocalyptic worldview s ar e no t formally traine d theologian s associate d with mainstrea m religiou s denomina tions o r nationa l organization s bu t visionarie s o r prophec y interpreter s wh o derive thei r apocalyptic authorit y fro m thei r charisma, predictiv e abilities , o r divinely inspired revelations attained outside the formal sanctio n of dominant social institutions. 6 Fillin g th e voi d lef t b y th e genera l avoidanc e o f detaile d apocalyptic speculation within institutiona l religion , interpreter s of apocalyptic prophecie s usuall y d o no t lea d forma l pastorate s bu t promot e thei r idea s through persona l ministrie s an d rel y primarily o n thei r readership an d medi a constituencies fo r support rathe r than affiliatio n wit h a particular denomina tion o r a formally organize d religiou s bod y (Boye r 1992:305) . Contemporar y apocalyptic belie f in the United State s is characterized by this "unofficial" an d subcultural quality , existin g a t an informa l leve l an d usuall y transmitte d out side th e channels o f official religiou s instruction. 7 Current apocalypti c belief s ar e expressed throug h ora l tradition s an d cus tomary lor e an d als o communicate d throug h photocopie d fliers, mass-pro duced paperbacks , cabl e television , radio , telephon e helplines , communica tions satellites, and computer newsgroups . Audio-video program s and printe d materials ar e widely distribute d b y bot h small-scal e group s an d large , highl y sophisticated promotiona l organizations . Hundred s o f la y groups no w oper ate their own printin g presse s and audio and video recordin g studios, arrang e lectures and symposia, an d conduct advertising campaigns. Eve n as apocalypticists ma y bemoan th e state of current society an d condemn modernity , the y tend t o embrac e prin t an d electroni c technologie s wholeheartedly , an d ar e thus able to convey apocalyptic idea s to millions of people, spanning religiou s denominations a s well a s secular and religiou s distinctions. 8 Although apocalypti c idea s are now often transmitte d through th e technol ogy o f mas s communications , mos t o f thes e idea s reflec t commonl y hel d worldviews an d loca l fol k beliefs . Certainly , som e promoter s o f apocalypti c beliefs are savvy and exploitative entrepreneurs, but the majority of people who disseminate such ideas are sincere in their faith and have simply used new technologies to sustain and promote widespread popula r traditions. Their publica tions and audio and video cassettes are replete with testimonials and beliefs that reflect th e real experiences and fait h o f believers. The popula r origin an d ofte n

Approaching Doomsday I 1 7 ephemeral natur e o f man y o f thes e printe d an d electroni c document s bea r some resemblanc e t o th e chapbook s an d broadside s o f previou s times . Lik e these earlie r form s associate d wit h ordinar y peopl e an d existin g outsid e th e intellectual mainstrea m o f society, the y represent "subliterary forms" of expression tha t sta y clos e t o popula r traditions , reflec t th e belief s o f specifi c socia l groups, an d ignor e an d scor n literar y refinement s (Dorso n 1977:208) . Prin t and electroni c medi a ar e especially valuabl e source s o f informatio n abou t th e subliterary expression of apocalyptic beliefs, revealing much about the spiritual culture of popular apocalypticism, illuminating the common themes , recurrin g ideas, an d adaptabilit y o f apocalypti c ideas , an d providin g insight s int o th e concerns, feelings , an d hopes o f people who anticipat e th e end o f the world. Electronic an d prin t technologie s hav e resulte d i n th e increasin g privatiza tion o f religion, enablin g peopl e t o experience th e sacred outside th e sanctio n of religiou s institution s an d i n th e privac y of thei r own homes . Dramati c an d impassioned performance s o f radi o an d T V evangelists , inspirationa l video tapes containin g poignan t testimonials , o r publication s consistin g o f do-it yourself spiritual technique s allo w people t o engage i n religiou s pursuit s apar t from formalize d religiou s structures. Forma l religiou s institution s ma y not , i n fact, b e th e cente r o f religiou s belie f fo r th e majorit y o f peopl e i n America n society as individuals selectively choose and create belief systems from a variety of sources , forma l an d informal , mass-mediate d an d popula r (se e Luckman n 1967; Primiano 1995). The privatizatio n o f apocalypti c belief s i s exemplified b y th e profusio n o f mass-marketed item s on apocalypti c prophecy . The consumer s o f these mate rials ma y neve r com e int o direc t contac t wit h on e anothe r bu t instea d ma y construct a personal visio n o f apocalypse gleane d fro m a diversity o f sources. Most people who ascribe to or assimilate popula r apocalyptic prophecy belief s have no t forme d int o separatis t religiou s group s (lik e Davi d Koresh s Branc h Davidians) o r created specific socia l movement s (lik e th e cargo cults of Ocea nia). Instead , thi s interes t i n apocalypti c idea s i s a personalized expressio n o f belief, largely unsanctioned by formal religiou s institutions and authorities yet existing at an informa l leve l amon g million s o f individuals .

Fatalistic Beliefs and Apocalypticism Although contemporar y apocalypti c idea s hav e becom e increasingl y priva tized, the y are not idiosyncrati c notion s bu t are connected t o larger tradition s of belief , som e o f whic h hav e ancien t origins . I n th e past , scholar s hav e

18 I Approaching Doomsday attempted t o identif y an d typologiz e beliefs , usin g such categorie s as "magical," "superstitious, " "supernatural, " "religious, " an d "scientific " i n thei r efforts t o characterize peoples behavior. Researchers have long been intereste d in what have been regarded as "fatalistic" beliefs; however, relatively few studies have been conducte d o n th e meanin g an d appea l o f such belief s i n con temporary societies. 9 For the mos t part, scholars have assigned negativ e connotations t o fatalisti c beliefs , associate d the m wit h th e doctrine s o f ancien t civilizations and th e worldviews of non-Western people s or considered the m to b e "survivals"—"animistic, " irrational , prescientific , an d heathe n (se e Doob 1988:6; Shaffer 1984). 10 Although th e term fatalism is infrequently use d by researchers to describe contemporary behavior, fatalism no t only is central to American apocalypticis m bu t i s a pervasive mod e o f interpretin g experi ences and perceptions worldwide. One researcher asserts that "belief in fate is surely a cultural universal " (Grambo 1988:11) ; another estimates that thirtee n million people in a dozen countries including the United States and Germany are "resigned t o Fate or God's will" (Cantril 1965:277). The word fate comes fro m th e Latin fatum, literall y "that which ha s been spoken," implyin g a sentence or doom o f the gods, and originall y associate d with th e spoken wor d o f the Roman go d Jupiter, which coul d no t b e altered (Leach 1972:371). Fatalism is usually distinguished fro m relate d concepts such as determinism, fortune , and destiny by the belief that human will or effort i s incapable of altering the outcome of certain events. 11 Whether fate is believed to b e derive d fro m a persona l powe r ( a god ) o r a n impersona l order , th e underlying attitude i n both instance s is ultimately fatalistic i f events are considered t o b e inevitable , determine d b y externa l forces , an d unalterabl e b y human will or effort. As folklorist Helmer Ringgren notes, "Theism and fatalism ar e intertwined , an d ther e i s i n th e real m o f religio n a grea t variet y o f interpretations of destiny in the sense of that which happens to man, the predetermined lot , the inescapable" (1967:11). A broad definition o f fatalism thu s includes both theistic belief (i.e., Gods predetermined plan) and nonreligiou s belief (i.e., the inevitability of nuclear annihilation) about events that are considered to be unalterable by human action . The bul k o f researc h b y folklorist s o n fatalisti c idea s has focuse d o n th e documentation o f examples of fate as expressed in folktales, ballads, religious legends, and other narratives. 12 Rolf Wilhelm Brednic h (1964) , for instance , has examine d narrative s abou t th e Schicksalsfrauen—th e thre e wome n o f fate—often portraye d a s omniscient divinitie s who spin th e life an d destin y of all people and whose decrees the gods themselves often canno t alter. 13 Narratives about th e three Fates are widespread both cross-culturall y and histor -

Approaching Doomsday I 1 9 ically, know n i n Gree k traditio n a s th e Moirai , i n Nors e mytholog y a s th e three Norns , i n Roma n belie f a s th e Parca e an d Fata , i n Gyps y traditio n a s the Ursitori , an d i n Anglo-Saxon traditio n a s th e Wyrdes (an d portraye d i n Shakespeare's Macbeth as the three Weird Sisters; wyrd means "fate, " or "what is t o come " i n Ol d English) . I n assorte d fol k traditions , th e Fate s ar e por trayed as the three spinners who appea r after th e birth of a child and spin th e web o f destiny , an d i n som e folktale s th e Fate s hav e bee n transforme d int o fairy godmother s o r malevolen t spinsters , thei r once-omniscien t power s reduced t o tha t o f grantin g gift s an d goo d fortun e o r cursin g th e live s o f human beings. 14 Other folklorists have proposed typologies of the various ways fate has been conceptualized historically , discussin g ho w fat e i s conferred, th e distinction s between a personal an d impersona l determine r o f fate , an d th e relatio n peo ple may have with fat e (se e Brondsted 1967; Grambo 1988; Ringgren 1967) . C. J. Bleeke r identifie s genera l categorie s o f belief s abou t fate , suc h a s the belie f that one s destin y i s relate d t o th e time , place , an d circumstance s o f one s birth; that th e "whee l o f fortune " i s capricious an d turn s arbitrarily, with on e person bor n lucky , an d anothe r bor n wit h il l fortune ; tha t fat e i s tragi c an d inescapable (th e vie w presente d i n Gree k tragedies) ; tha t a world orde r con trols al l event s fo r goo d o r bad ; and tha t a n all-knowin g Go d predetermine s peoples destinie s (1963:114-116). 15 The persistenc e o f fatalisti c idea s toda y i s indicate d b y belief s i n portent s and omens, which ar e assertions tha t the future i s predetermined an d foretol d by premonitions . Numerou s commo n expressions , suc h a s "It was fate d tha t our path s would cross, " "It was mean t t o be, " "Its i n th e cards, " "What wil l be wil l be—n o matte r wha t yo u do, " an d "Whe n it s you r time , it s you r time," demonstrat e th e ubiquitou s natur e o f fatalisti c statement s i n dail y speech. The expressio n tha t someone i s "gifted," or born with certai n natura l abilities and talents, has its origins in the ancient belief that the Fates dispense gifts a t birth, as well a s good an d il l fortune, an d determine th e destiny o f th e child. After th e devastating Los Angeles earthquak e of January 17,1994, som e residents described thei r immediat e reaction s t o th e quak e i n fatalisti c terms : "I though t m y tim e ha d come—m y numbe r wa s up. " Widespread belie f i n astrology an d variou s form s o f fortune-tellin g als o indicat e tha t fatalisti c thinking is a common mean s of interpreting the world. Eve n family courtshi p narratives ofte n ar e characterize d b y th e belie f tha t initia l romanti c encoun ters an d subsequen t marriag e ar e no t coincidenta l occurrence s bu t fate d events (Zeitli n 1980:24-27) . Although curren t fatalisti c belief s an d behavio r ofte n concer n th e rol e o f

20 I Approaching Doomsday fate i n individua l life , apocalypti c thinkin g conceptualize s fat e a s a cosmic, controlling powe r tha t determine s histor y an d th e futur e o f th e eart h an d humanity. As historian Bernard McGinn observes, apocalyptic ideas from various religious traditions and historical periods exhibit "a sense of the unity and structure of history conceived as a divinely predetermined totality" (1979:10). In world mythology , idea s about omniscient an d omnipotent fat e traditionally are associated with concepts of history, time, the destruction and renewal of the world, and the end of humanity.16 Such ideas from Greek antiquity are revealed in Hesiods poem The Works and Days, which contains an account of the predestined decline of humanity through the five ages of the world, with each subsequent age becoming increasingl y violent or foolish an d culminating in Hesiods own age. This final age is populated by the last generation of humanity, which is condemned to an existence of suffering, sorrow , and endless toil in an evil world that Zeus will finally destroy (Lattimore 1977:31-43). Hesiod lists the various evils in the world that have been ordained by Zeus and concludes, "Ther e i s n o way t o avoi d what Zeu s ha s intended " (Lattimor e 1977:31). American apocalypti c belief s abou t th e foreordaine d destructio n o f th e world and the divine determination of history resemble these ancient notions about an unalterable and cosmic power that controls history and human destiny. The next chapter surveys the history of apocalyptic beliefs in the United States and explore s th e rol e of fatalisti c though t i n a diversity o f American apocalyptic traditions.

2 The American Apocalyptic Legacy We, while the stars from heaven shall fall, And mountains are on mountains hurled, Shall stand unmoved amidst them all, And smile to see a burning world. —Millerite hymn, 1843

Historically, th e United States has been conceptualized b y numerous scholars (an d characterized i n popula r sources) a s the ne w Eden, a terrestrial paradis e o f political , economic , an d religiou s freedo m unfettere d b y th e burdens o f history. The notio n tha t th e "ne w lands " represented a millennia l paradise was expresse d b y th e earlies t Europea n explorers , includin g Colum bus, wh o apparentl y believe d tha t h e wa s fate d t o fulfil l variou s prophecie s prior t o th e appearanc e o f th e Antichris t an d imminen t apocalyps e (Watt s 1985:74). Upo n landing , Columbu s supposedl y quote d scriptur e fro m th e Book o f Revelatio n abou t discoverin g th e Terrestria l Paradise—th e "ne w heaven and new earth" cited in the Bible. According to historian Lois Zamora, Columbus believe d tha t thi s millennia l paradis e wa s locate d a t th e ti p o f th e earth, which h e proclaime d wa s pear-shape d lik e a woman's breast , an d fro m which flowed th e water s o f th e River s o f Ede n (1982a:!). 1 Columbus , wh o intently studie d th e propheti c implication s o f biblica l scriptur e an d applie d these t o hi s ow n life , declare d tha t hi s destin y a s a n explore r wa s t o fulfil l Gods divin e pla n i n preparatio n fo r th e millennia l kingdo m o n earth ; as h e wrote in his journal, "Go d made me the messenger of the new heaven and th e new earth of which h e spoke i n the Apocalypse o f St. John . . . and he showe d me th e spot where t o find it " (Watts 1985:102). Eschatological belief s pervade the writings of the Puritans, many of whom maintained tha t they had been elected by God t o fulfill a divinely determine d historical plan . Purita n settlement s wer e conceive d a s communal millennial ist prototypes , establishe d i n anticipatio n o f Christ' s Secon d Coming . Th e

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22 I The American Apocalyptic Legacy sermons of Puritan preachers such as John Cotton and Increase Mather often dealt with apocalypti c prophecy . Cotto n asserte d i n The Pouring Out of the Seven Vials (1642 ) tha t doomsda y woul d occu r afte r th e destructio n o f th e Catholic Church , which was identifie d a s the Antichrist. I n The Mystery of Israels Salvation Explained and Applyed (1669), Mather maintaine d tha t the conversion o f th e Jews to Christianit y would foretel l th e end o f th e world. The apocalypti c speculations o f Increase Mathers son, Cotto n Mather , had an especiall y stron g influenc e o n America n colonialis t religion . Cotto n Mather was preoccupied with prophecy and the specifics o f Christ's Second Coming—how Chris t would return , who would accompany him , th e exact date, and the location of the millennial kingdo m o n earth—all o f which he believed coul d b e predicte d b y interpretin g contemporar y event s a s providences (Erwi n 1990:7-8) . A s folkloris t Richar d Dorso n notes , widesprea d beliefs i n providence , regarde d a s manifes t sign s o f God s divin e wil l an d intention, pervade d colonialist thought : "Since in the Puritan and Reformation concept, God willed every event, from the black plague to the sparrows fall, al l event s hel d meaning s fo r erran t man . The Lor d worke d chiefl y through natura l o r secondary causes , or He migh t interven e directl y i n th e processes o f th e world , a s a first cause, bu t whicheve r th e case , H e guide d every occurrence" (1973:17). Early Purita n an d Calvinis t apocalypti c writing s expres s th e belie f tha t human actions and historical events reflect Gods divine plan, that the world is unredeemable, an d tha t huma n salvatio n i s predetermined b y God. The widespread idea s abou t predestinatio n tha t wer e fundamenta l t o Calvinis t and Purita n belie f exemplify th e fatalistic underpinning s o f early American religious thought . Accordin g t o early Calvinist theology , huma n being s are completely deprave d (becaus e o f Adam s fall) , God s wil l i s absolute , an d humankind cannot be saved by good works but only by Gods grace. 2 Most important, according to this view, an elect group has been predestined from eternity fo r everlasting life i n heaven while th e rest of humanity i s doomed to suffe r th e eterna l torment s o f hell . A s th e historia n o f religio n Augus t Dorner observes, "According to Calvin, everything is subject to the omnipotent Will, and a certain number of the human race are rejected from the outset, simply because God willed that they should be sinful an d should persist in thei r sin. . . . God s horribile decretum is thus, so far as the reprobate are concerned, neithe r mor e o r les s a Fat e fro m whic h ther e i s n o escape " (i928:776).3 God s decisio n fo r the fate of each person could no t be known or influenced ; believer s coul d onl y striv e t o fulfil l God s law s regardles s o f their ultimate fate. 4

The American Apocalyptic Legacy I 2 3 The apocalypti c idea s prevalen t i n Purita n belie f ar e reflecte d i n Michae l Wigglesworths poe m "Th e Da y o f Doom " (publishe d i n 1662) , whic h enu merates i n graphi c detai l th e Da y o f Judgment, th e imminen t destructio n o f the world , an d th e punishmen t o f sinner s i n hell . Wiggleswort h base d hi s poem o n a dream tha t he ha d ha d nin e day s earlier, an d h e wrote i t i n balla d meter s o tha t i t coul d b e easil y memorized . Th e followin g passage , whic h depicts Christ' s retur n an d hi s divin e judgmen t o f sinners , typifie s Wig glesworths colloquia l style : For at midnight breaks forth a light, which turns the night to day, And speedily an hideous cry doth all the world dismay. Sinners awake, their hearts do ache, trembling their loins surpriseth; Amaz'd with fear, by what they hear, each one of them ariseth. They rush from beds with giddy heads, and to their windows run, Viewing this light, which shines more bright than doth the noon-day Sun. Straightway appears (they see't with tears) the Son of God most dread, Who with his Train comes on amain to judge both Quick and Dead. (1867:22-23)

In th e poem , th e Da y o f Judgment i s initiated with a burst o f light , whic h i s then followe d b y a blas t an d worldwid e fire tha t woul d fill al l wit h terror . Despite th e emphasi s o n impendin g doo m throughou t it s 22 4 stanzas, Wig glesworths poem , lik e th e sermon s o f other preacher s o f th e time , countere d the threa t o f imminen t destructio n wit h th e promis e o f th e millenniu m fo r the righteous . The poe m wa s s o popula r tha t n o first o r second edition s o f i t remain i n existence ; the y were thumbe d t o shreds . On e ou t o f ever y twent y citizens i n th e Ba y Colon y bough t a cop y o f th e poem , makin g i t th e first American best-selle r (Bene' t 1987:242). In th e seventeent h an d eighteent h centuries , influentia l preacher s suc h a s Jonathan Edwards sustained and elaborated upo n American prophec y beliefs . As Lois Zamora observes, "It is safe to say that every preacher in New Englan d between 166 0 an d th e Revolutio n preache d a goo d portio n o f hellfir e an d

24 I The American Apocalyptic Legacy

brimstone. The conventiona l apocalypti c imager y o f th e Da y o f Judgment, the seven vials of wrath, the last assize, the devouring flames, the catalogue of pestilences, the chaos of pandemonium were all exploited to the ample extent of thei r terror " (19820:104) . Edwards , a maste r o f apocalypti c rhetoric , fre quently warne d o f doo m i n hi s sermon s an d portraye d huma n being s a s depraved sinner s wh o wer e a t th e complet e merc y o f a wrathful God . Thi s sense of powerlessness before a deity who controlled all things is illustrated by the famou s passag e in Edwards' s sermon "Sinner s i n th e Hand s o f an Angry God": "The God tha t holds you over the pit of hell, much as one holds a spider, or some loathsome insect, over the fire, abhors you, and is dreadfully pro voked .Yo . .. u hang by a slender thread, with the flames of divine wrath flashing about it , and read y every moment t o singe it, and burn i t asunder" (cite d in Foerste r 1970:68) . Edward s wa s especiall y fascinate d wit h th e propheti c meanings of his era, and a collection o f his sermons entitled A History of the Work of Redemption (1786), publishe d forty-seve n year s afte r the y wer e first delivered, contains hi s ideas about history , which h e regarded as unified b y a grand desig n an d a causal chain o f events divinely directed b y God (Zamor a 1982^105).

Postmillennialist belief s were widespread during the Great Awakening and stressed the eventual establishment o f Gods kingdom o n earth. The religiou s revivals durin g thi s perio d deemphasize d imminen t worldl y cataclys m an d asserted tha t th e millennial age would b e brought about gradually by human beings in fulfillment o f Gods plan. In various postmillennialist prophec y traditions, the United State s was viewed as having a prophetic destiny as a chosen natio n tha t woul d redee m th e worl d an d ushe r i n th e millenniu m (se e Tuveson 1968) . Accordin g t o historia n Rut h Bloch , assorte d millennialis t ideas contributed t o th e development o f a revolutionary consciousnes s prio r to th e America n Revolution , providin g "th e mai n structur e o f meanin g through whic h contemporar y event s were linke d t o a n exalte d imag e o f a n ideal world " (i985:xiii) . Durin g thi s time , man y American s anticipate d th e coming of the millennium, althoug h the y differed wit h regar d to their inter pretations of its initiation. Some, for instance, saw the Great Awakening as the beginning of the millennium; others interpreted th e American Revolutio n as inaugurating the millennial age on earth . The lat e eighteenth centur y t o th e middl e o f th e nineteent h centur y saw the formatio n o f numerou s religiou s group s with Utopia n an d millennialis t aspirations. Many o f the mos t popula r an d successfu l o f these organization s stressed communa l living , withdrawa l fro m society , an d establishmen t o f a millennial kingdo m on earth. The Shakers, also known as the United Societ y

The American Apocalyptic Legacy I 2 5

of Believers i n Chris t s Second Appearing, ar e perhaps th e mos t celebrate d o f these religiou s groups . Th e founde r o f th e organizatio n wa s An n Lee , wh o emigrated fro m Englan d t o th e colonies i n 1774 , and who base d man y o f th e groups teaching s on he r own ecstati c experiences an d visions. "Mothe r Ann," as she became known , announce d tha t Chris t ha d returne d i n feminin e for m and tha t sh e hersel f was th e embodimen t o f Christ s Secon d Advent . A s th e result o f thi s proclamation , th e Shaker s contende d tha t th e millenniu m ha d been initiated and that it would b e attained on earth throug h thei r beliefs an d practices. Shake r custom s include d communa l living , equalit y o f th e sexes, celibacy, an d isolatio n fro m th e sinfu l influence s o f th e world . B y th e 1840 s approximately si x thousan d peopl e wer e member s o f nearl y twent y Shake r communities; a few year s ago onl y a handful o f Shake r women wer e stil l liv ing (Lipp y 1982:44). The Oneida Community, lik e the Shakers' community, was also established in the 1830s as the result of millennialist expectations . John Humphre y Noyes , its founder, becam e bette r known fo r hi s unorthodo x idea s about sexua l rela tions an d communa l livin g tha n fo r hi s assertio n tha t h e ha d attaine d a state of millennial perfectio n an d that the millennial kingdo m ha d been establishe d on eart h i n th e for m o f th e Oneid a Communit y (Barku n 1987^153-172) . Other sectaria n group s i n th e nineteent h century , suc h a s th e Christadelphi ans, also anticipated Christs return , interpreting contemporary events as signs that the End was imminent . Around the same time, th e predictions of William Mille r prompted th e for mation of the Millerites, known fo r their failed prophecies about the end of the world. Inspired by a conversion experience at a revival, Miller became immerse d in interpretatio n o f th e apocalypti c section s o f th e Bibl e i n a n attemp t t o pre dict the exact date of the end of the world and the beginning of the millennium. Like others before him, Mille r believed tha t the Scriptures contained a numerical cryptogram revealin g the exact date of the apocalypse. Convince d tha t thi s date could be mathematically decoded, Miller labored fervently to calculate precisely the day of doom. Mille r was reluctant to proclaim hi s views publicly, bu t his idea s wer e actively promote d b y others , particularl y th e publicis t Joshu a Himes. B y Marc h 1843 , th e designate d tim e o f Miller s predicte d en d o f th e world, he had thousands of followers (Harriso n 1979:192-203) . Belief in Millers prophetic pronouncements persiste d even though hi s predictions faile d i n 184 3 a n ( i agai n i n 1844 . Th e followin g recollectio n b y th e Millerite Hira m Edso n expresse s bot h th e joyfu l anticipatio n o f Christ s return as well a s the sense of profound disillusionmen t whe n i t did no t occu r as expected:

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[W]e confidently expected to see Jesus Christ and all the holy angels with him . . . and that our trials and sufferings with our earthly pilgrimage would close, and we should be caught u p to meet our coming Lord. . . . Our expectations were raise d high , an d thu s w e looke d fo r ou r comin g Lor d unti l th e cloc k tolled 1 2 a t midnight . Th e da y ha d the n passe d an d ou r disappointmen t became a certainty. Ou r fondes t hope s an d expectation s wer e blasted , an d such a spirit of weeping came over us as I never experienced before. It seemed that the loss of all earthly friends coul d hav e been n o comparison. W e wept, and wept, till the day dawn. (Numbers and Butler 1987:215) After th e devastatio n o f wha t becam e know n a s th e "Grea t Disappoint ment," man y disenchante d Millerite s wer e attracte d t o othe r millenaria n movements, th e mos t notabl e bein g tha t o f th e Seventh-da y Adventists . According t o Adventis t belief , Miller s prediction s wer e accurate . Adventist s asserted tha t a n "invisible " or spiritual apocalyps e wa s initiate d i n 1843-184 4 with th e "cleansing of heaven," and it was soon t o be followed b y the destructive cleansin g o f earth . Adventis t belief s an d practice s centere d aroun d th e teaching o f th e visionar y an d prophetes s Elle n G . White , who , lik e Shaker s founder An n Lee , ofte n fel l int o tranc e state s an d the n late r communicate d her divin e revelation s abou t th e establishmen t o f a millennia l kingdom . I n one vision, fo r instance , she was informe d tha t specific restriction s on dietar y and healt h practice s wer e a necessar y for m o f premillennia l purity , an d sh e thus denounce d th e evils o f meat , alcohol , tobacco , masturbation , an d mod ern medica l scienc e (William s 1990:215) . This emphasis on th e body and health as expressions of spiritual perfectio n and millennia l purit y wa s widesprea d i n th e Unite d State s i n th e earl y an d mid-i8oos. The evangelis t Sylveste r Graham, fo r instance, created the graham cracker i n th e 1830 s as an alternativ e mean s o f foo d refor m designe d t o pro mote physica l an d spiritua l health . The Adventist interes t i n alternativ e diet , health reform , an d millennia l bodil y perfectio n resulte d i n th e experimenta tion with water cures, the invention o f peanut butter , and the creation of cold breakfast cereal , which wa s develope d b y devotee John Harve y Kellogg , wh o perfected th e corn flake during hi s involvemen t i n th e Adventist communit y in Battl e Creek , Michiga n (William s 1990:215) . Adventist belie f toda y continue s t o stres s propheti c interpretation s o f th e present and future. According to Adventist doctrine, all of the apocalyptic predictions precedin g th e en d o f th e world hav e bee n fulfille d excep t one . Thi s final prophec y state s tha t whe n a group o f "prepare d people " (interprete d a s the Adventists themselves) proclai m tha t the End is imminent an d spread this message throughou t th e world, Chris t will return .

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The millennialism of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, better known as the Mormons, is based on the revelations that its founder Joseph Smith ha d i n th e 1820s . In hi s visions, Smith was informed b y an ange l tha t Christs Secon d Advent was imminen t an d tha t h e ha d bee n chose n t o hel p bring abou t God s wil l b y gathering togethe r th e saint s i n th e las t day s an d preparing humanit y fo r th e millenniu m (Harriso n 1979:176-178) . The mil lennial kingdom i s destined t o be established i n th e United States , according to Mormon belief , an d on e of the reason s for th e Mormon westwar d move ment an d settlemen t i n Uta h wa s to foun d th e Ne w Zio n i n expectatio n o f Christs Second Coming and millennial reign . The beliefs of the Jehovahs Witnesses also regard the establishment o f the millennium a s foreordained. Accordin g t o founde r Charle s Taze Russell, th e spiritual Secon d Comin g of Christ occurre d i n 1874 in th e "upper air," initiating a "Millennial Dawn. " However , Russel l asserte d tha t th e fulfillment o f Christs millennia l kingdo m woul d b e complete d onl y afte r th e prophesie d destruction of nations, governments, churches, and world leaders, all of which he considered t o represent Satan' s rule. Characterized b y a radical interpreta tion o f th e Bibl e an d th e rejectio n o f al l secula r an d religiou s source s o f authority, Russel l eliminate d th e concep t o f hel l fro m hi s theology , distin guished between Jehovah and Christ as distinct entities, denied th e existence of th e Trinity, an d predicte d a n elaborat e scenari o o f events t o occu r i n th e millennial kingdom (se e Penton 1983:169-207). Russell s idea s wer e continue d b y Joseph Rutherford , wh o name d th e group Jehovah s Witnesse s an d establishe d meetin g place s i n th e for m o f Kingdom Hall s (rathe r tha n churches , which wer e considered satanic) . As a result of this distrust of formal religiou s and governmental organizations , the Witnesses developed th e practice of door-to-door evangelism . All Witnesses are considered minister s who ar e obliged t o proselytiz e th e trut h a s the apocalyps e approaches . The Witnesses' emphasi s o n persona l interac tion an d proselytizin g continue s today . Within week s afte r I ordere d th e luxuriantly illustrate d Revelation: Its Grand Climax At Hand! fro m th e Witnesses' Watch tower Bibl e and Tract Societ y locate d i n Brooklyn , Ne w York (th e nationa l organizatio n maintaine d b y th e Witnesses) , severa l Witnesses came to my residence to hand delive r th e book and invit e me t o a "Saturda y memoria l o f th e deat h o f Jesus Christ, " hel d th e da y befor e Easter Sunda y a t a Kingdom Hal l i n th e neighborhood . Th e introductor y remarks i n th e boo k exemplif y th e spirite d anticipatio n o f inevitabl e worldly cataclys m an d transformatio n tha t pervade s muc h o f Witnesse s literature:

28 I The American Apocalyptic Legacy How d o w e fin d happines s throug h th e boo k o f Revelation ? W e d o s o b y searching out the meaning of its vivid signs, or symbols, and acting in harmony therewith. Mankind' s turbulen t histor y will soon reac h a catastrophic climax, as God and Jesus Christ execute judgment on today's wicked system, replacing it with " a new heaven an d new earth.". . . Here we find, not a mere fatalistic message of world doom, bu t an uncovering of divine truths that should build in our hearts a radiant hope and an immovable faith. (Watchtowe r Bibl e and Tract Society of Pennsylvania 1988:6) Because Jehovah's Witnesse s believ e tha t Christ' s millennia l ag e ha s bee n initiated o n earth , the y hav e often rejecte d othe r form s o f authority, refusin g to support th e military, t o salute the flag and say the Pledge of Allegiance, an d to engage i n certain type s of health car e such a s accepting bloo d transfusions . These refusals , i n additio n t o thei r earlie r targetin g o f Catholicis m a s th e embodiment of the Antichrist and their door-to-door proselytization, resulte d in widespread criticis m an d marginalization . Despit e th e ostracism, however , Jehovah's Witnesse s continue s t o b e on e o f th e fastest-growin g religiou s groups i n th e Unite d States . Not al l o f th e numerou s apocalypti c movement s tha t aros e i n th e nine teenth an d early twentieth centurie s occurred among white Americans. I n the 1870s and 1890s, beliefs about th e violent transformatio n o f the current socia l order were essential t o the Ghost Danc e movemen t amon g Native Americans. As a respons e t o cultura l oppressio n an d radica l cultura l change , th e Ghos t Dance movemen t stresse d th e rejectio n o f Western influences , th e reviva l o f traditional ceremonies , an d the apocalyptic promis e o f the divine destructio n of white settlers, followed b y a millenarian retur n to the world as it was befor e the whit e man s arriva l (se e Linto n 1943) . Millenaria n expectation s hav e als o been a part of African-American religiou s experience, particularl y Pentecosta l and Holiness groups , although severa l observers have stated that these group s tend t o stres s conversion , sanctification , perfection , rigi d morality , an d mil lennialist aspiration s rathe r tha n belief s abou t imminen t apocalyps e (se e Lippy 1982:51). In th e 1960s , apocalypti c belief s becam e increasingl y popula r amon g Christian youth movements , such as the Jesus people or "Jesus Freaks." As one researcher notes , "Everythin g i n th e Jesus Movement i s colored b y apocalyp tic mentality . Bumpe r sticker s flaunt it ; songs repea t it ; witnessing return s t o it over and over again; sermons and personal conversations are obsessed by it" (Enroth e t al . 1972:179-180) . Offshoot s o f th e Jesus Movement , suc h a s th e Alamo Christia n Foundation , th e Lov e Famil y (know n officiall y a s th e Church o f Armageddon), an d Davi d Berg s group th e Childre n o f God, hav e

The American Apocalyptic Legacy I 2 9 similarly asserted that th e annihilation o f current society an d th e transforma tion o f the world i s imminent an d inevitable . Apocalyptic visions have characterized th e beliefs associated with an extraordinary diversit y o f recen t religiou s organization s i n th e Unite d States : th e Unification Churc h o f Reveren d Su n Myun g Moon , th e Internationa l Soci ety o f Krishn a Consciousness , Baha' i organizations , an d othe r movement s based in non-Western religiou s traditions; various New Age religious groups, exemplified b y th e apocalypti c prediction s associate d with th e Churc h Uni versal an d Triumphant, th e Harmoni c Convergence , an d spiri t channele r J. Z. Knight/Ramtha . Althoug h know n primaril y fo r it s publication The Plain Truth and it s celebrit y concert s hel d a t Ambassador Colleg e Auditoriu m i n Pasadena, th e Worldwid e Churc h o f God , founde d b y Herber t W . Arm strong, continues t o stress the prophetic rol e of the United State s and Britai n in God s endtime s plan . The mos t publicize d America n apocalypti c group , prio r t o th e Branc h Davidians, wa s Jim Jones's "People s Temple," which ende d i n th e mas s mur der-suicide o f 91 4 peopl e wh o dran k Kool-Ai d lace d wit h cyanid e i n th e remote jungle s o f Guyan a o n Novembe r 18 , 197 8 (Chideste r 1988:15) . Jone s and hi s follower s viewe d th e curren t world , whic h the y sai d dehumanize d women, African-Americans, an d the elderly, as corrupt, and Jones pronounce d himself to be a messenger sent t o establish a socialist millennial kingdo m afte r an evil capitalistic society was destroyed by a nuclear cataclysm. When th e Peoples Temple was threatened by U.S. government investigation , damaging new s coverage, and defections, th e majority of the community chose to commit col lective suicide , which wa s considered t o b e a heroic ac t tha t would transfor m members int o a higher leve l o f existenc e an d provid e salvatio n fro m a n irre deemably evi l world (Chideste r 1988:155 ; Wessinger 1995:4 , 9). In the United State s today, a multitude o f contemporary popula r prophet s declare tha t apocalyps e i s foreordaine d an d par t o f a supernatura l pla n fo r humanity. Millions of people currently believe that the present is divinely patterned an d that th e world will en d i n th e nea r future (D . Wilson 1977:12) . As noted, th e extent t o which apocalypti c belief s permeat e American cultur e was illustrated i n April 1984 , when Presiden t Ronal d Reagan' s interes t i n biblica l prophecies about Armageddon receive d national attentio n i n the press and o n radio. An articl e i n th e Washington Post asserted tha t Reaga n hel d millennial ist beliefs about the inevitability of a nuclear Armageddon an d that his foreig n policy ha d bee n influence d b y thes e belief s (Dugge r 1984) . I n a presidentia l debate on Octobe r 21,1984 , when questione d b y Marvin Kal b of N BC abou t his beliefs concerning apocalypse, Reaga n said that he had discussed th e topi c

30 I

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of Armageddo n a s th e fulfillmen t o f divin e prophec y wit h variou s theolo gians. Reaga n ha d previously state d i n a telephone conversatio n i n 1983: You know, I turn back to your ancient prophets in the Old Testament and the signs foretellin g Armageddon , an d I find mysel f wonderin g if—i f we'r e th e generation that' s going t o see tha t come about . I don't kno w i f you've note d any of those prophecies lately, but believe me, they certainly describe the times we're going through. (Conversatio n wit h Thomas Dine , executiv e director of the American-Israeli Publi c Affairs Committee, October 18,1983; published in the Jerusalem Post, Octobe r 28,1983; cited in L. Jones 1985:65) Reagan's interest i n biblical prophecie s about the last days and his relationships wit h Christia n theologian s wh o ha d expresse d apocalypti c view s (Jerr y Falwell, Bill y Graham, Jimmy Swaggert , Pa t Robertson, Jim Bakker , and Ha l Lindsey) caused fearful speculation about the possibility of an apocalyptic religious coalitio n influencin g foreig n polic y an d initiatin g wha t the y believe d would b e a divinel y sanctione d nuclea r wa r (Halsel l 1986:40-50 ; L . Jone s 1985). These fear s escalated when peopl e learned that Secretary of the Interio r James Watt an d Secretar y o f Defens e Caspa r Weinberger expresse d interest s similar to Reagan' s about th e imminenc e o f the coming of Christ and the en d of the world. As thes e examples indicate , belief s an d behavior s expressin g a fascinatio n with prophec y hav e thrived i n American popula r belief , despit e th e fac t tha t most orthodo x churche s deemphasiz e prophec y an d rejec t outrigh t th e practice o f predictin g event s relatin g t o th e en d o f th e world. Televangelist s such a s Jerr y Falwell , Pa t Robertson , Re x Humbard , Ji m Robison , Ora l Roberts, Jimmy Swaggert , Jack Van Impe , an d Bill y Graham , amon g man y others, hav e popularized and reinforce d suc h belief s throug h broadcast s tha t regularly reach more than sixty million Americans (Halsel l 1986:11) . In addition t o premillennialis t televangelism , a profusion o f mass-markete d paper backs o n apocalypti c prophec y i n recen t year s depic t curren t disaster s an d contemporary politica l event s a s portents indicatin g th e inevitabilit y o f th e end o f th e world . Fo r individual s intereste d i n curren t update s o f th e sign s of th e End , periodical s suc h a s Prophecy 2000, The Endtime Messenger, Countdown, Rapture Alert Newsletter, Its Happening Now, International Intelligence Briefing, an d Bible Prophecy News provid e th e lates t interpreta tions o f recen t event s i n term s o f biblica l prophecies . I n additio n t o hun dreds o f nationwid e radi o broadcast s o n prophecy , mass-markete d vide o and audio cassettes, seminars, slide presentations, lectures , and retreats organized b y independent ministrie s are available. Film s and video cassettes tha t

The American Apocalyptic Legacy I 3 1

portray apocalypti c prophecies , suc h a s A Thief in the Nighty A Distant Thunder, Image of the Beast, Prodigal Planet, The Final Hour, an d The Road to Armageddon ar e regularl y show n i n premillennialis t evangelica l settings . According t o estimates b y its producers, A Thief in the Night (1973 ) ha s bee n seen b y one hundre d millio n peopl e i n th e Unite d State s (Balme r 1988:426) . Apocalyptic comi c book s distribute d b y Jack Chic k Publication s an d end times pictur e book s b y th e prolifi c autho r Sale m Kirba n ar e accessibl e guides t o th e en d o f th e world , wit h colo r illustration s o f th e tribulatio n period, th e ris e of th e Antichrist, th e force d laser-tattooin g o f th e "Mar k o f the Beast " in th e last days, the horror s of doomsday, an d th e joys of the mil lennial kingdom . These divers e contemporar y manifestation s o f Christia n apocalypticis m have thei r origin s i n th e ancien t Jewis h propheti c tradition , whic h asserte d that God s plan for humanity was revealed through divinely inspired prophet s (Bergoffen 1982:27-28) . The concep t o f human histor y bein g divinel y deter mined and ultimately resulting in the establishment o f an earthly paradise has been dated at least as far back as the prophecies of Isaiah in the eighth centur y B.C.E. (Bloch I985:xi) . The profoun d influenc e o f apocalyptic idea s o n Chris tian though t ha s been note d b y numerou s scholar s an d illustrate d b y theolo gian Ernst Kasemanns assertion that "apocalyptic was the mother of all Christian theology " (1969:40) . The inspiratio n fo r mos t contemporar y Christia n prophec y stem s fro m specific apocalypti c passage s i n th e Bible , particularl y th e book s o f Revela tion, Daniel , Zechariah , an d Ezekiel , whic h ar e generall y considere d t o b e the mos t complet e o f th e biblica l apocalypti c writings . Th e propheti c mes sages suggeste d i n thes e section s o f scriptur e hav e captivate d Christia n thought fo r centuries , an d continu e t o fascinat e a significant portio n o f th e populace today. Understandings o f the prophetic imager y associated with th e end o f the world hav e varied considerably i n differen t historica l an d cultura l contexts becaus e o f th e esoteri c languag e an d ambiguou s allusion s i n thes e ancient biblica l passages . Th e symbolis m o f th e openin g o f th e seve n seals , the pourin g o f th e seve n vials , th e judgmen t an d fal l o f Babylon , an d th e return o f Christ describe d i n th e Boo k o f Revelatio n ha s bee n interprete d i n numerous way s an d assume d t o represen t ofte n entirel y differen t incidents . The apocalypti c languag e an d unusua l ton e expresse d i n th e Boo k o f Reve lation, in particular, have motivated diverse explanations and have been com mented o n b y countles s observers . Th e novelis t D . H . Lawrence , fo r instance, offere d th e followin g interpretatio n o f it s imager y an d popula r appeal:

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And this is Jesus: not only the Jesus of the early churches, but the Jesus of popular religion today. There is nothing humble nor suffering her e . .. i t is a true account of man's other conception o f God; perhaps the greater and more fundamental conception: the magnificent Move r of the Cosmos! To John of Patmos, the Lord is Kosmokrator, and even Ko$modynamousr> the great Ruler of the Cosmos, and the Power of the Cosmos. . . . Now agai n we realize a dual feeling in ourselves with regard to the Apocalypse. Suddenly we see some of the old pagan splendour, that delighted in the might and the magnificence o f the cosmos. Suddenl y we feel agai n th e nostalgi a for the old pagan world. (Cite d in Kawada 1985:74-75) Other writer s hav e sai d tha t fo r man y peopl e th e symbolis m o f th e Boo k o f Revelation ha s supplanted other aspects of Christ s message; the atomic bomb, the apocalypti c attitud e o f th e sixties , an d perception s o f societa l upheava l have inspire d no t so muc h a revival o f belief in Jesus as a fascination wit h th e Book o f Revelatio n (Ventur a 1985:223) . Historia n an d psychoanalys t Charle s Strozier, commenting o n th e popular appeal of the apocalyptic sections of the Bible, observes, "If all the bombs go offor w e choke ourselves in a haze of pollution, th e huma n stor y will di e i n way s tha t mak e littl e sens e i n a theolog y based on th e compassion o f the Sermon o n th e Mount. The focu s on violenc e by way of tribulation give s the traditional Christia n stor y the edge i t needs t o fit ou r crumbling an d mayb e dyin g world" (1994:89) . Although interpretation s o f th e apocalypti c passage s i n th e Bibl e vary , th e eschatological vision s promote d b y popular premillennialists ar e relatively consistent i n one respect : most assum e tha t the events of the present are signs tha t foretell o f th e ultimat e destructio n o f a n unredeemabl y corrup t societ y pre dicted i n th e Bibl e a s a part of Go d s divine plan . Perhap s th e mos t persisten t theme i n contemporar y prophec y i s tha t th e en d o f th e worl d wil l occu r a s a result of nuclear apocalypse. Images an d vision s o f nuclea r annihilatio n hav e bee n easil y incorporate d into traditional Christia n eschatology, with the symbolic and cryptic languag e of the Book of Revelation regarde d as prophetic descriptions of the realities o f nuclear war. The inevitabilit y o f nuclea r annihilation no t onl y ha s been inte grated int o traditiona l apocalypti c belie f systems bu t ha s bee n sanctifie d a s a meaningful occurrenc e tha t i s necessary fo r the redemptio n o f humanity . Before th e inventio n o f nuclea r weapons, biblica l reference s t o a fiery cataclysm a t the end o f tim e were interprete d i n term s of natura l disasters , suc h as earthquakes , comets , an d volcani c eruptions . Afte r th e bombin g o f Hiroshima an d Nagasaki, man y interpreters of prophecy were convinced tha t the Scriptures had predicted th e inventio n o f atomic weapons and foretold o f

The American Apocalyptic Legacy I 3 3

their apocalyptic use (Boyer 1992:115). From th e beginning of the atomic age prophecy believers searched the Bible for possible allusions to nuclear confla gration an d foun d persuasiv e evidence for th e inevitability of nuclear apoca lypse. References t o fiery destruction i n the Book of Revelation, for example, suggested atomi c warfare—a n allusio n t o "hai l an d fire mixe d wit h blood " which burn s a third o f the land an d tree s and "al l green grass " sounded lik e nuclear wa r (Rev . 8:7) ; a n allusio n t o scorchin g hea t an d malignan t sore s might describ e th e aftermat h o f atomi c radiatio n (Rev . 16:2-8) . Fo r som e believers, Zechariah's (14:12 ) account of human flesh being consumed as people stand on their feet appeared to resemble the effects o f a nuclear firestorm, as do the predictions of a coming day that shall burn like an oven and set people o n fire (Malach i 3:19 ) an d flames burnin g al l th e tree s of th e field (Joe l 1:19). The compatibilit y o f ancient prophecie s about "fir e fro m th e heavens" and visions of nuclear cataclysm i s illustrated b y the often-cited passag e of a melting earth fro m 2 Peter: "The heavens shall pass away with a great noise , and the elements shall be disintegrated with intens e heat; the earth also, and all it s works, shal l b e burne d up " (3:10) . Convince d tha t nuclea r weapon s were the means by which ancient prophecie s of "fire and brimstone " rainin g down fro m th e heaven s would b e realized , prophec y believer s fro m variou s traditions embrace d th e development o f nuclea r weapons a s a portent indi cating tha t humanit y ha d accelerate d it s progressio n towar d a n apocalyps e that wa s inevitable . As one prophec y believe r remarked : "Th e holocaus t o f atomic war would fulfil l th e prophecies . . . . The Bibl e and scienc e go righ t down th e lin e togethe r o n th e forecastin g o f futur e event s fo r earth " (Rei d 1968:160,165). The endtimes that occur prior to nuclear apocalypse and Christ's return are envisioned b y prophecy enthusiasts as times of oppression, suffering, an d th e apparent triumph of evil over good. The last days are characterized as a period of signs and portents that reveal the imminence of doomsday and Christ's Second Coming , a t whic h tim e al l existin g evi l wil l b e judge d an d abruptl y destroyed. Consequently, apocalypse is anticipated by many believers with joyful expectation. This enthusiasm about the inevitability of the end of the world is exemplified in a fund-raising letter by singer Pat Boone, sent out by the international evangelistic organization Bibles for the World: "My guess is that there isn't a thoughtful Christia n alive who doesn't believe we are living at the end of history. I don't kno w ho w that make s you feel , bu t i t gets me pretty excited . Just think about actually seeing, as the apostle Paul wrote it, the Lord Himsel f descending fro m heave n with a shout! Wow! And th e signs that it' s about t o happen ar e everywhere " (Woodwar d e t al . 1977:51). Boone i s an advocat e o f

34 I The American Apocalyptic Legacy

premillennial dispensationalism , th e most influentia l for m o f religious apocalypticism i n the United States today. Dispensationalism i s a form o f Christian fundamentalism , ofte n associate d with Pentecostalis m an d espouse d b y the majorit y o f televangelists an d suc cessful apocalypti c authors, including Ha l Lindsey , Pat Robertson , Jerry Falwell, John Walvoord , Kennet h Copeland , Re x Humbard , Ti m an d Beverl y LaHaye, Jack Van Impe , Sale m Kirban , an d th e once-popular Jimmy Swaggert an d Ji m an d Tamm y Bakker . Dispensationalism , lik e Christia n funda mentalism, i s characterize d b y it s emphasi s o n biblica l literalis m an d inerrancy, supernaturalism , suppor t fo r conservativ e politica l causes , and it s condemnation o f communism , secularism , science , an d ecumenicism . Although the character and motives of dispensationalists Jimmy Swaggert and Jim Bakker came into question as the result of sex scandals (and Bakkers being found guilt y o f frau d an d misappropriatio n o f funds) , an d althoug h othe r fundamentalists hav e been accused of being motivated by the desire for fame , influence, an d wealth , mos t ar e sincere i n thei r effort s t o sav e souls, whic h involves teachin g th e gospe l o f Jesu s Chris t an d convertin g other s t o thi s gospel before Christ's imminent return (Hadden and Swann 1981:13-14). 5 The centrality o f apocalyptic belief s i n th e lives of fundamentalists i s explored i n detail by Charles Strozier in Apocalypse: On the Psychology of Fundamentalism in America (1994). Examining the ways that apocalyptic beliefs reflect th e life experiences an d affec t th e everyda y live s o f fundamentalists , Strozie r note s that "the apocalyptic is more than th e subtext. It is the ground of fundamen talist being" (1994:11). The dispensationalist beliefs embraced by many fundamentalists hav e their origins in th e nineteenth century , when thi s belief system emerged as a competing interpretation o f the meaning of millennialism i n America. The thre e distinctive type s of Christian millennialism , a s Timothy Weber (1987 ) notes , are generally identifie d a s amillennialism, postmillennialism , an d premillen nialism. The term amillennialism involves the belief that biblical references t o the millennium are symbolic and figurative, with the millennial rule of Christ occurring in the hearts of believers (Weber 1987:9). Postmillennialism is characterized b y an expectation o f the gradual transformatio n o f society brough t about b y Christian ideals , the belie f i n th e ide a of human progres s and per fection, an d a relatively liberal perspective . The millennium , thi s view maintains, will be brought abou t b y humans working in accordance with a divine plan and will be achieved by means of religious revivals, social reform, and the triumph of Christian principles. This steady progression toward goodness will ultimately result in the defeat of all evil and the establishment of a golden age,

The American Apocalyptic Legacy I 3 5

after whic h Chris t will retur n (Webe r 1987:9-14). In th e nineteent h century , some postmillennialist s regarde d slavery , alcoholism , chil d labor , an d othe r social ills as impeding the establishment o f Gods kingdom o n earth and the y worked t o improv e society i n a n effor t t o attain a state of millennial perfec tion. This movement, known as the Social Gospel, remained a popular means of millenarian socia l reform throug h th e 1920s. Christian premillennialism , o n th e othe r hand , ha s bee n identifie d a s involving an interpretation o f humanity and the world as unrecuperably evil. Premillennialists assert that a n inherentl y sinful worl d ca n b e redeemed onl y through catastroph e an d supernatura l intervention . Holdin g tha t th e immi nent return of Christ is the only means of rectifying the world s problems, premillennialists believ e tha t a thousand-yea r reig n o f peac e o n eart h wil l b e established afte r Chris t returns . Prio r t o th e Secon d Comin g o f Christ , humanity will become increasingly evil (a state that is generally thought t o be occurring durin g th e believers ' own lifetimes ) an d th e Antichrist wil l ris e t o power, persecute Christians, and wreak havoc upon the world during a period of tribulation. The Antichrist will be destroyed a t th e Battle of Armageddon by Christ and his legions and a millennial real m will then b e established tha t will last for on e thousan d years , after whic h Sata n an d th e force s o f evil will rise up t o do battl e with Chris t onc e again. The final defeat o f Satan an d all evil in this battle will be followed by the resurrection of the dead, the last judgment, an d th e creatio n o f a ne w heave n an d a ne w eart h fo r Go d s peopl e (Weber 1987:10-11).

Contemporary premillennial dispensationalism i s derived from a belief system tha t develope d i n Englan d i n th e 1820 s and tha t quickl y becam e a predominant expressio n o f apocalyptic idea s in th e Unite d States . Early American dispensationalis m wa s initiall y promote d b y Joh n Nelso n Darb y (1800-1882), a member of the Plymouth Brethren . Influenced b y Darby's system and relying on Cyrus I. Scofield's Referenc e Bibl e (1909), dispensationalists divid e histor y int o seve n epoch s an d maintai n tha t humanit y ha s bee n predestined t o pas s throug h eac h o f thes e dispensationa l periods , durin g which Go d test s and communicates with humankin d i n differing ways . One of these dispensational epoch s ended with Christ' s resurrection, and th e next will be initiated by the Rapture, when the Christian faithful ar e removed fro m the earth (Webe r 1987:16-24). Dispensationalism gaine d increasin g popularit y afte r th e Niagar a Bibl e Conferences tha t bega n i n 1875 , and thi s system o f belief had replace d post millennialism a s the dominant for m o f millenarianism b y the early twentieth century. As a response to the Protestant liberalis m o f the time, dispensation -

36 I The American Apocalyptic Legacy alism ultimately converged with the fundamentalist movement , emphasizing doctrine over religious experience and insisting on th e absolute authority of the Bible as a divine document dictated by God. Regarding the Scriptures as literally true and inerrant, dispensationalists use the Bible not only as a sacred guidebook fo r individual behavior but as a means of determining Gods plan for human history. Although scholars have noted that visions of catastrophe and social transformation a s well a s social progres s ar e foun d i n bot h premillennialis t an d postmillennialist systems of belief, and that the distinctions between the two are not absolute, premillennialism tends to be more pessimistic in its appraisal of th e worl d (Schwart z 1976:6) . Humanit y i s generall y regarde d a s irre deemably evil , an d social problem s ar e interpreted a s omens o f a bankrupt society on th e verge of imminent apocalypse. Premillennial dispensationalis t attitudes appear overtly fatalistic, emphasizing inevitable cataclysm and deemphasizing th e efficacy o f human effor t t o improv e th e world. Responsibilit y for bringin g abou t th e millenniu m i s attributed t o supernatural forces , and human beings cannot really effect any significant change in an unrecuperably evil world. As A. G. Mojtabai notes in her discussion of dispensationalist perspectives on the arms race, "The repeated theme of the dispensationalist vision is that humans are powerless to build a just and peaceful future , powerless to avert the destruction to come" (1986:149). Because human beings are destined to fail each of God s seven dispensations and are incapable of improving the world, dispensationalists emphasize enduring the evils of this world while vigilantly looking for the signs of the End that offer the promise of the Rapture and a redemptive, new realm. In the next chapter, the dispensationalist belief system will be examined in detail, specifically as it is expressed in the writings of Ha l Lindsey , th e mos t popula r an d influentia l proponen t o f apocalypti c prophecy in the twentieth century.

3 Signs of the Endtime s Hal Lindsey and Dispensationalist Prophecy Beliefs

To the skeptic who says that Christ is not coming soon, I would ask him to put the book of Revelation in one hand, and the daily newspaper in the other, and then sincerely ask God to show him where we are on His prophetic time-clock. —Hal Lindsey, There's a New World Coming

Premillennial dispensationalism , wit h it s emphasis o n interpret ing current events as the prophetic fulfillment o f a precise endtimes scenario, is the predominant form of popular apocalypticism in the United States today. From th e early 1970s through th e 1990s, the individua l mos t responsibl e fo r promoting dispensationalist belief s about th e imminence and inevitabilit y of the end of the world has been Hal Lindsey. Lindsey s role as the primary popularizer of contemporary prophec y belief is indisputable, and the apocalypti c scenario tha t h e presents i n hi s writings i s familiar t o mos t premillennialist s today. As noted, hi s book The Late Great Planet Earth (1973 [1970]) was th e largest-selling American nonfictio n boo k of the 1970s, outselling every othe r work excep t th e Bibl e (Halsel l 1986:4) ; by 1991 , the volum e ha d sol d mor e than twenty-eight million copies, making Lindsey the most widely read interpreter of prophetic apocalypticism i n history (Los Angeles Times, Februar y 23, 1991, F16; S. Graham 1989:249 ; Weber 1987:211) . Lindseys subsequent book s have been extremely successful a s well, with sales in the millions. He is one of the few authors ever to have had three books on the New York Times best-seller list at the same time (Lindse y 1981:179). Within th e dispensationalist subcul ture he is referred t o as "the father o f the modern prophec y movement," an d his books are estimated to have had a combined worldwide sales of more than thirty-five millio n (Lindse y I994:back cover).

37

38 I Signs of the Endtimes Prior to his interest in biblical prophecy , Lindsey was an agnostic, a business major, a member of the Coast Guard, and a tugboat captain on the Mississippi Rive r (Kirsch 1977:30) . After a conversion experienc e and then later hearing a sermon on prophecy in 1956, Lindsey became convinced that many recent historical events were forecast in the Bible. He soon launched his lifelong caree r o f decodin g th e symboli c meaning s o f Scriptur e (S . Graha m 1989:247-248), pursuing his interest in biblical literalism at the Dallas Theological Seminary , whic h i s th e mai n cente r fo r suc h studie s i n th e Unite d States and from which numerous independent, nondenominational dispensationalist expositor s hav e receive d thei r education. Lindse y later worked a s a missionary for the Campus Crusade for Christ in California, proselytizing on UCLAs Bruin Walk in the 1960s and on other campuses, and ultimately heading th e campu s ministr y a t UCLA , t o whic h h e gav e th e titl e "Th e Jesus Christ Light and Power Company" (Kirsch 1977:31). In 1970, Lindsey collaborated with writer Carole C. Carlson to publish The Late Great Planet Earth. I n this work, as in all his subsequent books, Lindsey declares tha t biblica l prophecie s ar e bein g fulfille d an d tha t th e Battl e o f Armageddon i s imminen t an d inevitable . A t th e outse t o f th e book , h e attempts to establish his credibility as a prophecy interpreter, noting the failure of previous prophets and Bible students who, he asserts, have been overly anxious in their attempts to interpret the signs of the End. According to Lindsey, these earlier prophets overlooked the importance of the nation of Israel in biblical prophecy : the establishment o f a Jewish natio n i n the land of Palestine in 1948 and Israels taking of Old Jerusalem in 1967 are the crucial events prophesied in the Bible that conclusively indicate that the end of the world is at hand . Onc e thes e event s occurred , th e doomsda y cloc k wa s accelerated: "This has now set the stage for the other predicted signs to develop in history. It i s like th e ke y piec e o f a jigsaw puzzl e bein g foun d an d the n havin g th e many adjacent pieces rapidly fall into place" (Lindsey 1973:47). At the beginning of the book, Lindsey also attempts to establish the legitimacy of the tradition of Christian prophecy , declaring that Christ's life had been completel y foretol d i n detail b y the Ol d Testament prophet s an d that Christ "showed simply and clearly how prophecies were being fulfilled b y His life" (1973:21). Calling these fulfilled prediction s Christ's "credentials," Lindsey says that "Jesus said that the signs leading up to His coming were just as clear a s th e fac e o f th e sky . Let s examin e thes e signs , thes e credentials " (1973:22). Afte r enumeratin g variou s fulfille d prophecie s regardin g Christ' s life, Lindse y examines prediction s about th e Second Coming of Christ that "are related t o th e specific patter n o f world event s which ar e precisely pre-

Signs of the Endtimes I 3 9

dieted a s coming together shortl y befor e th e coming of the Messiah th e second time" (1973:31). Employing what he calls a "deductive" means of analysis, Lindsey subsequently infer s an d decode s th e meanin g o f prophecies tha t h e believes Go d literall y o r symbolicall y ha s communicate d i n th e Bible . Fo r instance, biblical reference s t o flashes of lightning are interpreted b y Lindsey as missiles; hailstones are ICBMs; beasts and "locust s with scorpion tails " are armored tanks and Cobra helicopters spraying nerve gas from thei r tails. The biblical passage "And the ten horns out of this kingdom are ten kings that shall arise" is presumed t o be the revival of the Roman Empir e i n th e form o f ten nations belonging to the European Commo n Marke t (wha t is now the European Community ; Lindse y 1973:82-85) . Othe r sign s predicte d i n th e Bibl e that foretel l th e end o f the world includ e th e inventio n o f nuclear weapons; the prominenc e o f a Russia n confederac y a s th e powerfu l "natio n o f th e North"; the rise of China as the "nation in the East" with an army of 200 million soldiers; disasters (earthquakes, famine, strange diseases, unusual weather changes); increased crime, drug abuse, and violence; and widespread interes t in th e occult, ne w religions, and th e appearance of false prophets, all identi fied a s manifestation s o f th e "Babylonia n Myster y Religion " tha t Lindse y declares is predicted i n the Book of Revelation. The followin g scenario , which Lindse y maintain s i s foretold i n th e Bible , embodies many of the basic elements of dispensationalist endtimes belief. Prior to Armageddon, th e "Roma n Empire " will b e revive d throug h a n allianc e of ten European Common Marke t nations, and this new world power eventually will be controlled by a great charismatic leader who will protect Israel, resolve disputes in the Middle East, and bring peace to the world. This global leader, who wil l hav e miraculousl y recovere d fro m a fata l hea d wound , i s th e Antichrist, and he will be worshipped as the world s savior in the form of a oneworld religio n consistin g o f secula r humanism , "faithles s Christianity, " an d "occult practices" such as astrology, witchcraft, an d drug-induced mind expansion (Lindse y 1973:103-123) . Th e Antichrist , wh o wil l dominat e th e worl d through th e Europea n Commo n Market , wil l b e symbolized b y some repre sentation o f th e numbe r "666" (th e "Mark o f th e Beast") , whic h wil l b e required of all individuals for buyin g and selling. To control peopl e economically, the Antichrist will demand that the number be imprinted or tattooed on the hand o r forehead (1973:100—102) . The Antichrists ris e to power will initiate the seven-year tribulation perio d of Christian an d Jewish persecution , disasters, and worldly suffering tha t "wil l make the regime s of Hitler, Mao , an d Stalin loo k lik e Gir l Scout s weavin g a dais y chai n b y comparison " (Lindse y 1973:99). During his rule the Muslim Dome of the Rock Mosque in Jerusalem

40 I Signs of the Endtimes will be destroyed and the ancient Jewish Temple of Solomon rebuilt on its original site in its place. (Jewish terrorists actually have been convicted of plotting to destroy the Dome of the Rock and allegedly have received financialsupport from Christia n Zionis t organization s inten t o n expeditin g Christ' s retur n [Halsell 1986:9].) According to Lindsey, once th e Temple is rebuilt, th e end of the world is imminent. A t thi s point , a Russia n confederac y (assume d t o b e th e Sovie t Union during the Cold War) and its Arab and African allies will invade Israel and tak e Jerusalem . Lindse y state s tha t th e Europea n forces , le d b y th e Antichrist, will then obliterate the "Red Army" in Israel, as well as the Russian confederacy, mos t likely in a nuclear attack. Soo n afterward , a n army of 200 million "Red Chinese" will mobilize and challenge the Antichrist s world domination, attacking his forces at the Mount of Megiddo and the plain of Jezreel (Lindsey 1973:135-157). In the ensuing battle one-third of the population and all the major cities of the world will be destroyed, and just as the carnage escalates to its climax, Christ will retur n to defeat th e evil forces, judge the faithless, and protect the faithful. The "brigh t spot" of this scenario, according to Lindsey, wil l b e th e conversio n o f a grea t numbe r o f Jew s t o Christianit y (1973:156). These recen t Jewish convert s livin g i n Jerusalem will b e miraculously saved from the devastation of Armageddon when the ground separates at the Mount of Olives in Jerusalem. Jesus* feet will first touch the earth there when h e returns , creatin g a crack i n th e eart h int o whic h th e convert s will escape. Afte r Armageddon , a n earthl y paradise , establishe d ou t o f "atomi c materials," will then exist for one thousand years. At the end of that time, this millennial paradise will be threatened by a rebellion of unbelievers led by Satan, which Christ will suppress, after which a new heaven and new earth will be created and the faithful will become immortal (Lindsey 1973:158—168). Throughout thi s an d othe r books , Lindse y emphasize s th e ris e o f th e nation o f Israel as the mos t importan t fulfillmen t o f endtimes prophecy ; in one book he refers to Israel as the "Fuse of Armageddon" (1973:34), and in a documentary film he says that "the most important sign of all—that is the Jew returning t o th e lan d o f Israe l afte r thousand s o f years o f bein g dispersed" (Lindsey 1973: ii). From the Puritans to the present day, the return of the Jews to Palestine and their conversion to Christianity in the endtimes has been an enduring theme in numerous American prophecy traditions and an idea that has been especially embraced by dispensationalists. As Paul Boyer notes, current dispensationalist beliefs about the role of the Jews and Israel in Gods plan have precedent i n ancient prophec y tradition s and are a complex an d paradoxical phenomenon , privilegin g the Jews as the chosen peopl e and express-

Signs of theEndtimes I 4 1 ing support for Israeli causes and yet encouraging th e view that anti-Semitis m is foreordained b y God and that the future persecutio n o f the Jewish peopl e i s inevitable (1992:180-224) . Lindsey, for example, condemns anti-Semitism an d attributes i t to Satan's influence bu t asserts that previous tragedie s suffered b y the Jewish peopl e ar e foretol d i n th e Bibl e an d tha t th e prophesie d persecu tion o f th e Jews will inevitabl y increas e i n th e las t day s befor e th e en d o f th e world (1984:159,1973-35) The propheti c significance o f Israels role in the last days is so important t o the worldvie w o f dispensationalist s tha t som e advocat e militar y suppor t fo r Israel i n orde r t o accelerat e th e prophetic timetabl e an d haste n Armageddo n in th e Middle East . This dispensationalist-Israel i relationshi p ha s been exam ined b y journalist Rut h Halsel l (1986) , who travele d t o Israe l a s a member o f one o f Jerry Falwell s tour group s tha t was intende d t o establis h tie s betwee n Israeli Jews and th e Moral Majority . I n he r discussion o f the politica l dimen sions of "Armageddon Theology" and it s promotion b y televangelists, Halsel l notes tha t numerou s individual s wit h politica l an d financia l powe r i n th e United State s asser t tha t th e Battl e o f Armageddon i s foreordaine d an d tha t any attempt t o preven t a nuclear scenario i n th e Middle Eas t i s heretical. Fo r instance, televisio n evangelis t Jim Robison , wh o wa s invite d b y Ronal d Rea gan t o delive r th e openin g praye r a t th e 198 4 Republica n Nationa l Conven tion, states , "There'l l b e n o peac e unti l Jesu s comes . An y preachin g o f peac e prior t o thi s retur n i s heresy ; i t s agains t th e wor d o f God ; i t s Anti-Christ " (Halsell 1986:16) . Lik e Robison , Lindse y als o declare s tha t worl d peac e i s impossible, promisin g hi s reader s tha t Judgmen t Da y an d Jesus ' retur n wil l occur a generation afte r th e establishmen t o f Israel , whic h wa s proclaime d a nation o n Ma y 14,1948. ! The concep t o f the "Rapture, " a word use d t o describe th e protectio n an d salvation o f the Christian faithfu l prio r to worldly cataclysm, i s central t o dispensationalist visions of the end o f the world. Belie f in th e Raptur e i s characterized b y the notio n tha t devoted Christian s will b e physicall y "lifte d up " to meet Chris t i n th e air at some poin t prio r to doomsda y an d exis t with Chris t in th e heaven s unti l th e Secon d Coming , a t whic h tim e the y wil l retur n t o earth with glorifie d bodies . Popula r belief s abou t th e Raptur e ste m fro m th e following biblica l quot e fro m th e apostle Paul : For the Lord himself shall descend from heaven with a shout, with the voice of an archangel, with the trumpet of God; and the dead in Christ shall rise first. Then we which are alive and remain shall be caught up together with them in the clouds, to meet the Lord in the air; and so shall we ever be with the Lord. (1 Thessalonians 4:16-17)

42 I

Signs of the Endtimes

Although th e Raptur e i s generall y interprete d b y mainstrea m Christia n the ologians t o represen t th e Secon d Comin g o f Christ , premillennia l dispensa tionalists such a s Lindsey say that ther e will b e two Second Comings an d tha t a secret Rapture will actually occur prior to Christ's final return, involving th e divine rescu e o f th e Christia n faithful , wh o wil l b e th e onl y peopl e wh o wil l see Chris t i n th e clouds . Th e timin g o f th e Raptur e withi n Go d s propheti c plan i s a subject o f debate amon g premillennialis t Christians . Pretribulation ists believe tha t th e Christia n faithfu l wil l b e rapture d prio r to th e coming o f the Antichris t an d th e seven-yea r tribulatio n period . Midtribulationist s believe tha t th e Raptur e wil l occu r sometim e durin g th e tribulatio n period , after th e Antichrist ha s risen t o power , bu t prio r to th e perio d of divine retri bution involvin g God s vengeanc e an d judgmen t o f humanity . Peopl e wh o identify themselve s a s posttribulationist s believ e tha t th e Christia n churc h and the faithful wil l endure the tribulation perio d and be raptured at the tim e of Christ's retur n (Webe r 1987:11). Beliefs abou t th e Raptur e ar e quit e pervasive . Accordin g t o wide-rangin g estimate, somewher e betwee n 3 0 percen t an d 4 4 percen t o f American s embrace belief s about th e Rapture of the church (se e Tufts I986:vi ; U.S. News and World Report, Decembe r 19 , 1994 , 64) . I n he r stud y o f attitude s abou t nuclear wa r amon g fundamentalis t Christian s i n Amarillo , Texas , A . G . Mojtabai write s tha t dispensationalist Raptur e belief s are characterized by the theme o f "blesse d assurance, " involvin g th e promis e o f exemptio n fro m th e disasters an d sufferin g tha t wil l befal l others . Sh e states , "Fo r million s o f Christians i n the Unite d State s today, th e Rapture i s seen a s the final solutio n for al l ou r huma n ills " (Mojtabai I986:xi) . Jerry Falwell , wh o i n th e pas t ha s asserted tha t th e faithfu l wil l b e rapture d prio r t o nuclea r Armageddon , describes th e Raptur e a s follows : You'll be riding along in an automobile. You'll be the driver perhaps. You're a Christian. There'll be several people in the automobile with you, maybe someone who is not a Christian. When the trumpet sounds you and the other believers in that automobile will be instantly caught away—you will disappear, leaving behind only your clothes and physical things that cannot inherit eternal life. That unsaved person or persons in the automobile will suddenly be startled to find the car is moving along without a driver, and the car suddenly somewhere crashes. (Cited in Lukacs 1986:7) Rapture believer s ma y proclai m thei r views throug h bumpe r sticker s wit h slogans ("Th e Rapture—Wha t A Way To Go!"; "Warning—driver will aban don ca r in case of Rapture"; "Beam m e up, Jesus!") and by purchasing frame d

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paintings, postcards , watches , an d othe r item s depictin g th e Rapture , whic h are sol d a t Christia n bookstore s an d ar e availabl e throug h mai l order . Th e Bible Believers ' Evangelistic Association i n Sherman , Texas, fo r instance , dis tributes a n assortmen t o f Raptur e merchandise , suc h a s laminate d Raptur e dinner plac e mats , whic h depic t a n open-arme d Chris t returnin g abov e th e skyscrapers o f an urba n cente r as raptured Christian s float ou t fro m automo biles crashin g o n a freewa y an d dea d Christian s ris e fro m thei r grave s i n a cemetery. Som e peopl e wh o anticipat e th e Raptur e hav e arrange d fo r thei r unraptured relatives or friends to become th e legal heirs of their property afte r they are lifted u p to meet Jesus; the Mutual Insuranc e Compan y o f New York has even agreed to allow individuals t o draft rider s to their life-insurance poli cies tha t guarante e rapture d Christian s th e sam e statu s a s decease d clients , with th e benefit s o f the policies goin g t o th e next-name d beneficiar y (Wood ward et al. 1977:51). Hal Lindsey is a pretribulationist. I n his books he assures his readers that the true church will hav e already been rapture d prior to th e seven-year tribulatio n period and the Battle of Armageddon. Referrin g t o the Rapture with vernacu lar expression s suc h a s "Th e Ultimat e Trip " an d th e "Bi g Snatch, " Lindse y describes Jesus' lifting u p the believers to be reunited with Hi m i n heaven: "He is coming t o meet all true believers in the air. Without benefi t o f science, spac e suits, or interplanetary rockets, there will be those who will be transported int o a glorious plac e more beautiful, mor e awesome, tha n we ca n possibly compre hend" (1973:126) . Lik e othe r dispensationalis t writers , Lindse y als o offer s descriptions o f the startled reaction s o f the nonrapture d when th e tru e believ ers suddenl y disappear , a s well a s th e ensuin g disaster s an d worldwid e pani c that wil l occu r immediatel y afte r th e Rapture . Fo r instance , h e provide s numerous conversationa l portrayal s o f ho w nonbeliever s wil l interpre t th e mysterious disappearanc e o f Christians , suc h a s th e following : "Ther e I wa s driving down the freeway and all of a sudden the place went crazy... car s going in al l direction s . . . an d no t on e o f the m ha d a driver. I mea n i t was wild ! I think weV e go t a n invasio n fro m oute r space! " (1973:125) . Lindsey s promis e that th e faithfu l wil l b e delivere d i n th e Raptur e fro m th e terror s o f nuclea r apocalypse an d th e horror s o f th e tribulatio n perio d ha s a n obviou s psycho logical appeal, the escapist and fatalistic implications of which will be discussed later in thi s study. The assuranc e o f planetary escap e b y means o f th e Raptur e is especially appealing given Lindseys assertions that nuclear apocalypse i s predicted i n th e Bibl e and thus an inevitabl e par t of Gods ultimat e plan . In eac h o f hi s books , Lindse y detail s th e way s tha t nuclea r wa r an d it s aftermath ar e importan t part s o f th e divin e script , methodicall y interpretin g

44 I

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Scripture tha t refers to mass destruction o r fiery cataclysm i n terms of nuclea r annihilation. A passag e fro m Revelatio n (6:14 ) abou t th e atmospher e bein g torn an d pushe d apart like a scroll rolle d together , fo r example, i s regarded as a "perfec t pictur e o f a n all-ou t nuclea r exchange " whic h wil l shak e ever y mountain an d islan d fro m it s presen t positio n (Lindse y 1984:98) . The fourt h seal judgmen t i n th e Boo k o f Revelatio n (6:7-8 ) abou t th e arriva l o f a "pale horse" of deat h i s viewed a s a prediction indicatin g tha t betwee n one-fourt h and one-hal f o f humanit y wil l b e kille d i n a globa l nuclea r wa r (Lindse y 1984:88); the catastrophi c tremblin g o f th e eart h tha t i s part o f th e sixt h sea l judgment (Rev . 6:12) leads Lindsey to believe "that the Apostle John is describing a n earthquak e se t of f b y man y nuclea r explosions" ; th e prophesie d dark ening o f the sun an d th e moo n (Rev . 6:12 ) resemble s th e radioactiv e contam ination o f "dirty " cobal t bomb s an d a n ensuin g "nuclea r winter " scenari o (Lindsey 1984:96-98) . Lindsey declare s tha t th e ancien t biblica l prophet s coul d no t adequatel y describe th e sophisticate d technologie s o f nuclea r destructio n conveye d i n their revelations and thus referred to ICBMs and nuclear firestorms, for example, i n term s of "hai l and fire mixed with blood. " (Lindse y asks , "Ho w coul d God transmi t th e though t o f a nuclear catastroph e t o someon e livin g i n th e year A.D. 90! " [1984:12,117].) The inventio n o f nuclear weapons suddenly ha s made thes e unfathomabl e prophecie s comprehensible : [Zechariah 14:12] predicts that "their flesh will be consumed from their bones, their eyes burned out of their sockets, and their tongues consumed out of their mouths while they stand on their feet." For hundreds of years students of Bible prophecy hav e wondere d wha t kin d plagu e coul d produc e suc h instan t rav aging of humans while still on their feet. Until th e advent of the atomic bomb such a thing wa s no t humanl y possible . Bu t no w everythin g Zecharia h predicted coul d com e tru e instantl y i n a thermonuclea r exchange ! (Lindse y 1984:210-211)

Lindsey also provides descriptions o f the effects o f nuclear cataclysm i n term s of the biblical seven trumpe t judgments and the seven bowls of wrath, each o f which involve s a preordained scenari o o f suffering tha t will b e unleashe d o n humanity and that will ravag e the earth. The devastation and slaughter will be unparalleled: "Imagine, cities like London, Paris, Tokyo, New York, Los Angeles, Chicago—obliterated! John [i n the Book of Revelation] says that the Eastern forc e alon e wil l wip e ou t a thir d o f th e earth s populatio n (Revelatio n 9:15-18). H e als o predict s tha t entir e island s an d mountain s woul d b e blow n off the map. It seems to indicate an all-out attack of ballistic missiles upon th e

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great metropolita n area s o f th e world " (1973:155) . Accordin g t o Lindse y th e devastation wil l b e s o enormou s tha t "coastline s an d continent s wil l b e changed and all the mountains will b e shifted i n elevation . . . the cities of th e world wil l hav e bee n reduce d t o rubble . Th e worl d wil l loo k jus t a s you' d expect th e 'en d o f th e world * t o look " (1984:214) . A s th e resul t o f thi s mas s destruction, Chris t will ultimatel y hav e t o creat e a new world fo r human s t o inhabit durin g th e millennium , i n which "th e sky will b e bluer, th e gras s will be greener, th e flowers will smel l sweeter , th e air will b e cleaner, and man wil l be happier tha n h e ever dreamed possible! " (1984:255) . Lindseys subsequen t books , films, radi o broadcasts , an d lecture s expan d on theme s first presente d i n The Late Great Planet Earth, providin g update s that interpre t recen t world events in term s of prophecy and that furthe r illus trate God s desig n fo r humanity . Fo r instance , i n The Rapture: Truth or Consequences (1983), Lindsey elaborates on th e concept of the Rapture and the role of nuclea r cataclysm s i n th e las t days , slightl y modifyin g hi s previou s inter pretation o f th e meanin g o f th e openin g o f th e seve n seal s an d th e trumpe t judgments. I n Satan Is Alive and Well on Planet Earth (1972) , he identifie s th e satanic influence s an d manifestation s o f evi l tha t h e believe s hav e overtake n Western civilizatio n an d no w permeat e al l aspect s o f America n life . H e describes the demonic "thought bombs" set off by individuals such as Darwin, Marx, Freud , Hegel , Kant , an d Kierkegaar d an d provide s a n inventor y o f satanic phenomen a an d influences , rangin g fro m psychi c power s an d speak ing i n tongue s t o roc k music , televisio n (th e demoni c "ey e i n ou r livin g room"), an d th e behaviora l psycholog y o f B . F . Skinner (i n th e sectio n enti tled "Skinner Dipping," Lindsey asks, "Could i t be that the long-dreaded figure of Bible prophecy , th e Antichrist, wil l ris e up t o implemen t Dr . Skinner s basic tenet s int o reality? " [1972:101]) . I n on e luri d passag e involvin g a two page intervie w with a Los Angeles polic e commander , th e topic s o f satanism, drug use , blood sacrifice, an d sexual orgie s are combined t o paint a picture o f youth cultur e runnin g amuck: "Bloo d is put int o cauldrons, mixe d with LS D and use d a s a drink durin g thei r rite s o r ceremonies . . . . Not lon g ag o ther e was a 'Kiss-In1 on a Santa Monica b e a c h . . .. the y were just one big mass swaying to the throb of drums and weird music . . . som e bega n to indulge i n ope n sex . .. mos t of them wore charms around their necks" (1972:18-19). Lindsey s portrayals of the evils that pervade contemporary societ y reflec t th e view tha t American cultur e i s irredeemably corrupted, a belief that he shares with othe r dispensationalists an d premillennialist s i n general . Conspiratorial notion s abou t widesprea d satani c influence s i n America n society are substantiated i n this and other books through Lindsey s us e of quo-

46 I Signs of the Endtimes tations fro m "experts " and numerou s firsthand account s o f hi s ow n interac tions with satanist s an d evi l personages . Lindse y s somewhat haphazar d tech nique o f documentation consist s o f statements fro m member s o f th e Club o f Rome, Nobe l Priz e winners , "renowne d futurists, " Alber t Einstein , Joh n F . Kennedy, professor s fro m M.I.T. , anonymou s "authorities, " "researchers, " police officers , dail y new s reports , th e Bulletin of Atomic Scientists, an d th e National Enquirer, al l of which are treated as equally credible. Although Lind sey s scholarship ma y be questionable and somewhat indiscriminate , his books give the impression tha t he has a vast knowledge of contemporary events . Hi s interpretations o f current affair s i n term s o f biblica l prophec y conve y a sense of privileged information an d an understanding of the present and the future . Lindsey s assurances tha t biblical prediction s ar e being continually fulfille d i n Gods countdow n t o Armageddo n undoubtedl y motivat e man y reader s t o purchase hi s ne w publication s i n orde r t o receiv e update s o n prophec y an d fully understan d God s plan . Each o f Lindse y s publication s reinforce s th e idea s presente d i n hi s previ ous books , wit h revision s an d enumeration s o f variou s prophecie s tha t hav e been subsequentl y fulfilled . I n The 1980s: Countdown to Armageddon, whic h was o n th e New York Times best-seller lis t fo r mor e tha n twent y weeks, Lind sey recount s th e various predictions presente d i n The Late Great Planet Earth that have come t o pass : "During th e 2 5 years I have been studyin g prophec y I have see n incredibl e thing s forecas t 3,00 0 year s ag o happe n righ t befor e m y eyes.. . . The decad e of the 1980 s could very well b e the last decade of histor y as w e kno w it " (1981:8) . Lindse y retrospectivel y interpret s th e event s o f th e 1970s in terms of his prophetic framework , declarin g that he successfully pre dicted th e Sovie t invasio n o f Afghanistan, th e overthro w o f th e sha h o f Iran, the superiority of Soviet militar y strength, th e decline o f U.S. militar y power, and th e additio n o f ne w nation s t o th e Europea n Commo n Marke t t o reac h the biblicall y predicte d numbe r often . In addition t o verifying hi s previous predictions, i n this book Lindse y reit erates hi s endtime s scenari o bu t diverge s somewha t fro m th e traditionall y apolitical ton e o f dispensationalism . I n th e las t tw o chapter s h e advocate s right-wing politica l cause s an d a substantia l militar y buildu p i n orde r t o thwart communis t globa l dominanc e an d curtai l mora l deca y withi n th e United States . Lindse y stil l maintain s tha t Go d ha s determine d histor y an d that th e declin e o f th e Unite d State s an d th e destructio n o f th e worl d i s inevitable, bu t h e assert s tha t militar y strength , a conservativ e politica l agenda, and increase d capitalistic enterprise can temporaril y delay the proph esied decline unti l th e occurrence of Rapture, after which th e deterioration o f

Signs of the Endtimes I 4 7 the countr y will b e o f littl e consequenc e t o rapture d Christians . I n thi s way , Lindsey ha s politicize d th e dispensationalis t tradition , incorporatin g right wing ideology into basic dispensationalist tenets , i n a move similar to the pol itics of Pat Robertson an d Jerry Falwell . As previousl y noted , numerou s contemporar y premillennialist s expres s ideas simila r t o Lindse y s (thoug h the y ma y no t shar e hi s somewha t sensa tionalistic interpretiv e approach) . Pa t Robertson, fo r instance , als o ha s state d that th e Europea n Commo n Marke t nation s ar e th e ten-natio n confederac y mentioned i n th e Boo k o f Revelation, tha t th e ris e of the Antichrist i s immi nent, tha t th e Soviet Unio n wil l invad e Israel , an d tha t strange natura l disas ters will occu r prio r t o Christ' s return , whic h h e expecte d i n th e earl y 1980 s (Hadden an d Swan n 1981:96) . Best-sellin g author s Tim an d Beverl y LaHaye , who hav e bee n instrumenta l i n th e fundamentalis t Christia n campaig n o f identifying "secula r humanism " a s a forc e o f evil , als o declare , lik e Lindsey , that nuclear apocalypse is inevitable, tha t the faithful wil l b e raptured prior t o Armageddon, an d that world peac e organizations suc h as the United Nation s and World Council o f Churches are potentially satanic institutions foretol d i n the Book o f Revelation (1972,1975) . Numerou s book s b y Salem Kirba n simi larly identify current events and institutions as signs of God s unalterable plan. In his Guide to Survival (1973), for instance , Kirba n concludes, "Th e world i s rapidly comin g t o a n end . I t i s on a n irreversibl e course " (1973:21) . The pic ture-book versio n o f hi s 666 (Kirba n 1981 ) provide s a colorfull y illustrate d account o f th e tribulatio n period , th e ris e o f th e Antichrist, an d th e inferna l strategies tha t wil l b e use d t o forc e peopl e t o bea r th e "Mar k o f th e Beast, " identified a s the number 666. Evangelis t Bill y Graham, who professe s t o hav e "presented th e gospel fac e t o fac e t o mor e peopl e tha n an y othe r ma n i n his tory" (B . Graha m I983:bac k jacke t cover) , an d wh o ha s advocate d socia l activism rathe r tha n premillennia l passivity , nonetheles s embrace s prophec y beliefs abou t foreordaine d worldl y catastrophe . I n fact , i t appear s tha t Gra ham ros e t o fam e i n th e 1950 s initiall y becaus e o f hi s apocalypti c interpreta tions o f curren t events . Tw o day s afte r Presiden t Harr y Truman announce d the first Sovie t atomi c tes t o n Septembe r 23 , 1949, Graham , unknow n a t th e time, highlighte d th e apocalypti c capabilitie s o f atomi c weapon s an d inter preted the rise of communism a s a sign o f impending doo m (Boye r 1985:239). Hundreds of thousands of people flocked t o Grahams ten t revival , which wa s extended fro m thre e weeks t o tw o months . Although previou s premillennialist s hav e mad e simila r assertion s an d th e themes an d underlyin g eschatologica l structure s o f Lindse y s book s ar e no t new, his interpretations of the Bible as prophetic text are innovative and acces-

48 I Signs of the Endtimes sible. Like any talented storyteller or writer, Lindsey weaves a compelling and imaginative narrativ e fro m traditiona l stor y structures , motifs , an d images . Lindseys books, inspired by Revelation and other biblical texts and bolstered by th e prognostication s o f scientist s an d secula r doomsayers , ar e creativ e interpretations of current events that directly address contemporary concerns about earthl y destructio n an d worldl y evil . Nuclea r annihilation , environ mental disaster, war, famine, disease, drug addiction, divorce, increased crime, violence, and a sense of overwhelming evil in the world are explained as a foreordained and meaningful par t of Gods countdown t o Armageddon. In addition t o the graphic interpretations and innovative updating of traditional dispensationalis t eschatologica l narratives , th e appea l o f Lindsey s books ma y als o b e attributed t o hi s writing style , whic h i s engaging, ofte n humorous, and easily understandable. He says that his books are written in a way that is simple and free of jargon in an attempt to reach the "common person," particularly skeptics and the irreligious: "As I wrote, I'd imagine that I was sitting across the table from a young person— a cynical, irreligiou s person—and I'd try to convince him that the Bible prophecies were true" (Kirsch 1977:31). Chapter titles such as "Sheik to Sheik" (the role of the Arab nations in prophecy); "Russia Is a Gog" (Russia identified as the prophesied Gog that will invade Israel); "The Ultimate Trip" (the Rapture); and "The Main Event" (the Secon d Comin g o f Christ) illustrat e Lindsey s us e of catchy phrase s to introduce his ideas (Lindsey 1973). The content of Lindsey s books, his writing style, and his innovative reworking of the dispensationalist traditio n certainly account for much of his popularity, bu t th e marketin g of hi s books ha s greatly contributed t o thei r widespread appeal as well. From the beginning of his writing career, Lindseys ideas have been skillfully promoted through the paperback publishing industry. He insists that his books be published in both hardcover and paperback simultaneously so as to reach a greater number of people; he says he is "writing for the youth culture—and the average young person doesn't even look at hardbacks of any kind" (Kirsch 1977:31). Not only are his books affordable, they are available in general bookstores nationwide and often have sensational cover art that resembles other mass-marketed paperbacks. The cover of The Late Great Planet Earth* fo r instance, depicts the earth in flames,soaring through space leaving a trail of fire;the cover of The ipSos: Countdown to Armageddon has an illustration of an hourglass, with a green and blue planet earth inside the upper section, trickling down into a blackened pile of cinders in the bottom portion. The widespread appeal of Lindseys idea s is also attributable to their promotion throug h hi s managemen t firm, Ha l Lindse y Ministries , a s well a s

Signs of the Endtimes I 4 9

through his radio news and call-in talk show heard in more than one hundred cities in th e United State s every Saturday morning . Lindse y also travels on a nationwide lecture circuit and apparently i s one of the most sought afte r lec turers in the country (S . Graham 1989:247) . Various videotapes and film versions of his books also promote his apocalyptic predictions. In the film rendition of The Late Great Planet Earth (produced i n 1977 and featuring Lindsey , and narrate d b y an ominous-soundin g Orso n Welles) , th e event s precedin g Armageddon ar e presented i n a documentary style, enhanced with gruesome special effect s an d includin g a surrealistic portraya l o f th e Revelatio n o f St . John, with the Whore of Babylon slurping blood from a goblet, for instance , and dying sinners shown suffering th e wrath of God i n the last days. Lindseys interpretation s o f th e dispensationalis t traditio n hav e becom e codified, legitimized , an d seemingl y "institutionalized " a s the resul t o f thei r promotion throug h prin t an d electroni c technologies . I n thi s manner , th e mass media have allowed grassroots and individualistic explications of apocalyptic prophecy to rapidly gain credibility and an enormous following. Unlik e those apocalypticists who base their authority on charisma or direct commu nication with supernatural forces , the source of authority for prophecy inter preters such a s Lindsey i s not dependen t o n tranc e states bu t obtaine d indi rectly through textual exegesis. Traditional charismatic prophets convey direct messages fro m supernatura l beings ; Lindse y an d othe r literalis t prophec y enthusiasts are popular theologians and folk exegetes who derive their authority from a n apparent knowledge of current events and world history and fro m their ability to decipher symbolic information abou t the future a s revealed in the Bible. If anything, such speculations about th e end of the world resembl e divinatory practice s rathe r tha n prophec y becaus e the y ar e base d o n inter preting symbolic message s rather tha n direc t revelatio n involvin g th e imme diate communicatio n o f informatio n fro m deitie s wh o spea k throug h a n inspired individua l (se e Overholt 1989:140-147 ; Aune 1983:339) . Divination , prophecy, and oracles are similar i n tha t the y involve determining th e will of supernatural entitie s an d forces ; th e individual s involve d ar e intermediarie s between the supernatural and natural worlds. These practices are often implic itly fatalistic, implyin g tha t certai n future , present , o r pas t event s hav e bee n ordained and that their causes may be determined b y consulting supernatural forces. The predictiv e techniques employe d i n th e books of dispensationalis t prophecy interpreter s resembl e th e practic e o f "technica l divination" : thei r predictions are a form o f scriptural divination , base d on persona l knowledg e and training . This metho d o f "scientific" o r "rational " prophecy i s presented as if it is based on scientifi c inferenc e involvin g th e analysis and decoding of

50 I Signs of the Endtimes esoteric message s fro m Go d hidde n i n th e Bibl e an d correlating thes e with contemporary events. Although prophec y interpreter s suc h a s Lindse y d o no t profes s t o b e divinely inspire d prophets , the y do impl y tha t the y possess uniqu e insight s and special abilities in interpreting the Bible. For example, Lindsey states that he doe s no t believ e prophet s ar e currently receivin g direct revelation s fro m God but that "we do have prophets today who are being given special insight into the prophetic word" (1973:78). Biblical prophecy has been "unsealed" in recent times, says Lindsey, and he portrays himself as one who has special skills in interpreting the prophetic meanings of biblical passages. Although Lindsey and other prophecy interpreters are not charismatic leaders in the traditional sense, they do imply that they possess "exceptional powers or qualities" of exegesis that enable them t o unravel and decode Gods blueprin t fo r the end of history. Popular prophecy books such as Lindsey s are written fo r lay readers who may not have formal religious training, and the authors assert that knowledge of Gods plan is accessible to everyone, not only the ecclesiastical elite. In fact, popular interpreter s o f biblica l prophec y (lik e othe r apocalypticist s i n general), often situat e themselves i n opposition t o official religiou s institutions , portraying theologians as corrupt, depicting dominant religious organizations as controlled b y apostates, and informing reader s that although the y constitute the "true church," they are in the minority. Even though millions of people hav e rea d such books , the y are depicted a s marginalized an d frequentl y reminded that their beliefs exist outside or in opposition to the dominant theological trends in Christianity.

Folk Beliefs, Omens, and Apocalyptic Prophecies The content, structure, and cause-effect relationship s that characterize Lindsey s predictions and those of other dispensationalists resemble traditional folk beliefs about doomsday portent s i n which perceive d threats , social turmoil , anomalous occurrences , an d unusua l cosmi c an d natura l phenomen a ar e interpreted as signs that foretell of imminent worldly destruction. Wayland D. Hands monumental Popular Beliefs and Superstitions fromNorthCarolina, for example, lists meteor showers, an eclipse of the sun, comets, strange lights in the sky , an d th e disappearanc e o f pawpaw s a s doomsda y sign s (1961-1964:573). Stit h Thompsons Motif-Index of Folk-Literature(1955-1958) also contains various reference s t o the End, such as birds dripping blood on

Signs of theEndtimes I 5 1 doomsday (B259.5) ; bleeding wood a s a doomsday sig n (A1091.2) ; the moo n shining b y da y (A1053.1 ) an d th e su n shinin g a t nigh t a s doomsda y sign s (A1052.2); talkin g ston e a t doomsda y (A1091.3) ; and unusua l migration s o f birds at doomsday (A1091.4). In addition to natural and cosmic inversions and doomsday reversal s occurrin g befor e th e en d o f th e world , reversibl e dates , such as those that can be read back to front o r upside-down (e.g. , 1881 or 1961) also have been assigned doomsday significance (Simpso n 1978:562-564). 2 The date of doomsday has been frequently attribute d to round numbers, and thu s the end of every century is a time of apocalyptic angst for many. The two-volume Popular Beliefs and Superstitions fro m th e Ohi o collectio n o f Newbel l Niles Puckett (Han d e t al. 1981) includes cows lowing at night, ba d thunder storms, women wearing glass high heels, and the disappearance of the Eastern European fol k custom of painting on Easter eggs as signs that foretell th e end of the world (1981:1516) . The collection Popular Beliefs and Superstitions from Utah (Hand an d Talley 1984 ) contain s belie f statements abou t meteor s an d comets (11686,11700), the eclipse of the sun (11710,11722,11724), blood on the moon (9999 , 10001 , 10002) , an d chicken s layin g mor e egg s tha n norma l (9989) as signs of the last days. This collection also includes statements abou t certain socia l an d politica l event s tha t foretel l doomsday . Father s wil l tur n against sons , mother s agains t daughters , an d neighbor s agains t neighbors ; parents and children will hate one another; th e Unite d State s and th e USS R will unite to fight against China i n the last days (9991, 9994> 9996). Bleached hair (9997), hooped earrings, and the confusion o f gender distinctions (9998 ) are also signs that the end of the world i s approaching. Unlike "active" (or "magical") beliefs, in which human actio n i s prescribed in order to cause an effect, thes e doomsday portents foretell various events by themselves and do not involv e human agency . In 1926, Puckett distinguishe d between activ e an d predictiv e beliefs , whic h h e labele d "contro l signs " an d "prophetic signs"; the former allow for a degree of human control and the latter involv e "thos e undomesticate d causa l relationship s i n whic h th e huma n individual ha s no play . . . man ha s no control an d submits helplessl y to th e decrees of nature" (1926:312). Scandinavian ethnologist Albert Eskerod (1947) also differentiated betwee n passive and active superstitions, characterizing the condition-result relationshi p typica l o f passive beliefs suc h a s omens as ominant-ominat, an d tha t o f actio n belief s a s causant-causat. Th e first typ e o f belief involve s th e readin g o f sign s o r omen s (ominant) tha t predic t occur rences or states of being (ominai) and doe s no t involv e volition o r causality . The secon d typ e o f belief i s characterized b y a cause-and-effect relationshi p between actions and the results of those actions (causant-causat). 3 Omens and

52 I Signs of the Endtimes passive belief s (o r what Ala n Dunde s call s "sig n superstitions" ) predic t th e future, an d activ e belief s mak e th e future ; th e forme r allo w on e t o foretel l death, bad luck, o r the weather, and the latter enable one to produce results by means of magical practices (Dundes 1961:31). Similar to the noncausal ominant that foretells events and does not involve human actio n o r volition, Lindsey s prediction s express the notion tha t particular occurrences are predetermined and that humans are helpless to avert these inevitable events. Although Lindsey s prognostications ar e more elaborate than the isolated belief statements about doomsday assembled in folklore collections, hi s prediction s ar e similar i n structure and i n th e assertion tha t future events are foreordained. Dispensationalis t prophecie s indicate that the present reveals the future and that the future cannot by altered in any way by human action. Characterized by a belief in inevitability and human helplessness concerning certain occurrences, portents and prophecies reveal the fundamental huma n desire to predict future events and to attribute meaning to that which is regarded as unchangeable or unavoidable. Unlike traditional portents and omens that usually consist of a single condition an d result , Lindsey s prediction s includ e multipl e and general condi tions that allow for wide-ranging prophetic speculation. The somewhat vague nature o f hi s prediction s i s indicate d b y man y o f hi s statement s abou t th e future, such as the following: "In the Bible, He [Jesus ] told us that seven signals—war, revolution, plague , famine , earthquakes, religiou s deception, and strange occurrences in space—would alert us that the end of the old world and the birth of the new was near" (1981:19). All of these conditions can be said to be occurring now; on the other hand, one could argue that they have occurred throughout mos t o f huma n history . Lindsey s prediction s ar e ambiguou s enough to allow for many events to be interpreted as a fulfillment of signs that foretell specific results. For instance, his prediction of an attack on Israel from a northern nation might be understood by some readers in terms of the Iraqi launching of Scud missiles at Israel during the Persian Gulf War, even though Lindseys origina l predictio n forecast s th e massiv e destruction o f Israe l b y a northern confederacy. During the 1980s, Lindseys prophecy often nation s in the European Common Market was in fact fulfilled, unti l Spain and Portugal were added and the number increased to twelve. Some of Lindseys predictions are sufficiently vagu e to enable a multiplicity of interpretations; others are logical assumptions about political and social events that may occur in the future (e.g., "Keep your eyes on the Middle East. If this is the time we believe it is, this part of the world will become a constant source of tension for all the world" [Lindsey 1973:173]). Lindsey asserts that his

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numerous unfulfille d prediction s wil l al l b e realize d withi n thi s generation , such a s the ris e of a one-world religiou s organization , th e appearance o f th e Antichrist, the rebuilding of the Jewish Temple, and the sudden disappearance of the Christian faithfu l i n th e Rapture. His failed prediction s (e.g. , that th e "Jupiter Effect, " cause d b y th e alignmen t o f th e planet s i n th e sola r syste m would initiat e th e world s mos t disastrou s earthquake s i n 198 2 [Lindse y 1981:29-30]) are simply disregarded or modified i n subsequent books . In th e well-known sociologica l study When Prophecy Fails, Leo n Festinge r (1956) and his fellow fieldworkers focus on the beliefs and behaviors of a group of individual s i n th e 1950 s who wer e convince d tha t th e destructio n o f th e world wa s imminent . Th e researcher s concentrate d o n on e particula r prophecy b y the seer Mrs. Keech, who predicte d a widespread cataclysm , t o occur o n a specific date , involving a flood tha t would submerg e an d destro y the western portio n o f the North an d Sout h American continents . Devotee s believed that prior to the day of destruction, they would be saved by UFOs (a notion similar to the dispensationalist belief in the Rapture prior to the tribulation period) . I n thei r attemp t t o understan d ho w cognitiv e dissonanc e i s resolved, Festinger and his colleagues were particularly interested in the explanations and rationalizations that occurred after the prediction failed. Lindsey s predictions, unlik e Mrs . Keechs , which wer e specifi c enoug h t o b e discon firmed, are generally so ambiguous and open t o multiple interpretation s tha t they rarely can be refuted. Lindse y s predictions and thos e of other dispensa tionalists i n some ways resemble the speculations o f futurologists mor e tha n those of previous doomsday prophets , such as Mrs. Keech or William Miller , who not only provided precise information abou t the details of doomsday but anticipated its occurrence on a specific date. The abstract and symbolic nature of biblical apocalyptic writings allows dispensationalists like Lindsey to interpret retrospectivel y a diversity of events—from bar-codin g and internationa l terrorism to the establishment of the European Community and the Trilateral Commission—as fulfillment s o f prophecy.

Divine Determination and a Sense of Coherence and Control Underlying th e predictiv e belief s expresse d i n Lindseys book s i s the notio n that histor y resemble s a narrative tha t ha s bee n deliberatel y designe d an d i s ultimately meaningful. The story of human existenc e is presented by Lindsey and other dispensationalists as coherent from beginnin g to end, characterized by dramatic, preordained events and an ongoing battle between good and evil.

54 I Signs of the Endtimes Lindsey s account of the end of the world affirms that present and future disasters are not arbitrary and meaningless but explicable as part of a divine structure. His books directly address various dominating concerns and ofTer resolutions to the anxieties and uncertainties that these concerns evoke. As th e researc h o f folklorist s an d anthropologist s indicates , a primar y human aim is to maintain a sense of control over the environment and consequently over ones experiences and the outcomes of events. Anthropologists such a s Bronisla w Malinowski , E . E . Evans-Pritchard, an d A. R . RadclifFe Brown, among others, have discussed the relationship of belief and behavior to anxiety, uncertainty, and dominating concerns. Evans-Pritchard (1937), for instance, state s tha t amon g th e Azande i n Suda n causalit y i s attribute d t o supernatural force s particularl y i n case s of uncertain , inexplicable , o r tragic occurrences. H e note s tha t belie f i n witchcraft provide s th e Azande wit h a sense o f understandin g abou t th e cause s o f unusua l event s an d i n som e instances affords individuals an opportunity to act or retaliate, thus gaining a sense o f contro l ove r unfortunat e circumstances . Malinowsk i s (1954 ) well known hypothesis that magical beliefs are expressed more frequently in situations o f anxiety and uncertaint y ha s been verified b y numerous subsequen t researchers (see Mullen 1969; Vogt 1952). Albert Eskerod (1964), in an attempt to avoid the potentially negative connotations of Malinowski s concept of anxiety, ha s propose d th e notio n o f "dominatin g interests " {Interessendominanzen) t o characterize the emotional an d discerning attitudes of individuals in situations of extreme importance, uncertainty, or concern which are subsequently endowed with supernatura l significanc e (1964:89) . These an d other researchers have demonstrated that uncertain situations and dominating concerns ma y motivat e peopl e t o attribut e causalit y t o supernatura l forces , whether in the form of magic, witchcraft, fate, or Gods will. In such cases, the attributing of supernatural causality not only may reduce and explain uncertainty, bu t ma y enabl e peopl e t o gai n a sense o f contro l ove r inexplicabl e events and obtain a sense of meaning concerning such events. Lindsey s books are inventories of contemporary anxieties, uncertainties, and dominating concerns. In chapter after chapter he discusses the threat of nuclear war, the destiny of the readers soul, and the meaning of recent historical events, political turmoil, widespread social ills , disasters, wars, famine, an d disease. As assertions abou t th e supernatura l predeterminatio n o f worldly events , Lindse y s apocalyptic predictions provide a means of making sense of otherwise incomprehensible, tragic , or distressing occurrences identifie d a s divine sign s tha t are a part of God s plan. As such, the y are deliberate sources of informatio n about Christ's return and humanity's place on the apocalyptic clock as it winds

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down t o doomsday. Like other forms of apocalyptic belief that depict histor y as foreordained an d huma n actio n a s ineffectual i n alterin g th e outcom e o f events, Lindsey's writings may be considered a tragic form o f discourse offer ing explicit religious theodicies: assertions of order and meaning that provid e symbolic solutions to questions of why there is evil, suffering, an d death in the world (O'Lear y 1994:14 , 200-201). Apocalypticism, a s a tragic an d fatalisti c mode o f thought , offer s privilege d explanation s tha t "unveil " th e otherwis e obscure meaning s behin d event s an d experiences , reassurin g believer s tha t current crise s and socia l evil s are part o f a predetermined endtime s scenari o orchestrated b y God. Lindsey admit s tha t hi s prediction s ma y soun d lik e a "wil d fairytale " t o some readers but declares that for others the "realization of what's in store fo r them i n eternit y i s s o thrillin g tha t the y ca n hardl y wai t t o ge t there! " (1984:279). H e assert s tha t knowin g an d contemplatin g God s pla n fo r th e future a s i t i s reveale d throug h prophec y i s necessar y becaus e "thi s lif e ha s many disappointment s an d heartaches , bu t knowin g ther e is a ne w worl d coming fo r God s peopl e give s us patience an d strengt h t o joyfully bea r th e burdens of this life" (1984:279). Providing his readers with the promise of this new world an d a systemati c framewor k fo r interpretin g th e existin g world , Lindsey clarifies life' s uncertaintie s i n an authoritative tone , and hi s writings assert that God is not only controlling human history but personally involved in people s lives . Lindsey als o promises tha t believer s will mee t thi s persona l and approachable God in the millennial kingdom to come: "God will be there in person , an d we'l l se e Him face-to-face " (1984:273) ; "Its excitin g t o thin k about kneelin g a t God s fee t on e minut e an d sittin g besid e Hi s thron e th e next! There's n o chance of eternity bein g boring with tha t kin d o f challenge alternating with adorin g service" (1984:278). Many prophet s i n th e pas t hav e maintaine d tha t worldl y disaster s wer e warnings of God's wrath and the imminence of apocalypse if humans did no t repent, bu t th e calamitie s an d prophecie s highlighte d b y Lindse y ar e no t interpreted a s warning signs from Go d o r catalysts fo r action . Instead , thes e are noncausal indication s of God's timetable, codified i n the Bible thousands of years ago. In th e dispensationalis t view , the refor m an d repentanc e o f all humanity canno t aver t a doomsda y tha t ha s bee n divinel y determined . Although the supernatural motivation for allowing suffering and the spread of specific evil s prio r t o Armageddo n i s unknowabl e o r attribute d t o th e inevitable evil s o f huma n natur e an d Satan' s influence , Lindsey' s writing s affirm tha t all that occurs is ultimately meaningful within God's larger design. The belie f in divin e determination an d th e inextricabl e connectio n betwee n

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God's plan, human history, and ones own life has been identified as one of the cornerstones o f Christian fundamentalis t thought : The Bible also instructs fundamentalists that a rationale for life apart from God cannot exist. Nothing i n life i s an accident; rather, all is a part of God's plan. Bad things happen as God's chastisement of us or as God's way of closing doors on mer e huma n plans . Go d i s alway s good , bu t Hi s goodnes s i s sometime s . rather terrible... Fundamentalist s cannot think or speak of their history, their present, or their future apart from God as deus exmachinawho make s all things happen. (Hadden and Swann 1981:89-90) Within thi s framewor k o f ultimat e contro l i n divin e hands , suffering , death , and tragedies are not cruel or absurd occurrences in an insensitive universe but have a larger, symbolic meanin g a s part of a transcendent order . Lindseys writings offer reader s a sense of the significance o f their own live s within th e divine plan once the y are saved by belief in Christ, as well as a sense of th e importanc e o f living at th e en d o f history. Although worldl y cataclys m is inevitable, specifi c action s t o save oneself and ones famil y an d friend s fro m the horror s of apocalypse an d eterna l damnatio n ar e prescribed. Fatalisti c resignation abou t th e irredeemability of this world does not resul t in total passiv ity. Lindsey states that "far from bein g pessimistic and dropping out of life, we should b e rejoicin g i n th e knowledg e tha t Chris t ma y retur n an y momen t fo r us. This shoul d spu r u s t o shar e th e goo d new s o f salvatio n i n Chris t wit h a s many as possible . . . w e should plan our lives as though we will b e here our full life expectancy, bu t live as though Chris t may come today" (1973:176). Lindsey urges his reader s to accept Chris t int o thei r lives, regularl y rea d the Bible , an d attempt t o convert other s so tha t the y will b e rescue d i n th e Rapture . In a n essa y o n weathe r portent s an d magica l beliefs , folkloris t Michae l Owen Jone s (1967 ) discusse s th e behavioral response s tha t certai n belief s motivate, notin g als o his informants ' ow n interpretation s o f these beliefs . H e proposes the concept of "implicit activating beliefs," which are similar to Alan Dundes s notio n o f sig n superstition , bu t Jones demonstrate s tha t th e ac t o f reading portentou s sign s ma y implicitl y motivat e action . Lindsey s belie f propositions resembl e implici t activating beliefs i n tha t they are signs indicat ing tha t certai n event s ar e inevitable , bu t tha t huma n actio n ca n counterac t inevitability a t a personal leve l i f one act s i n accordanc e wit h divin e decrees . These prescription s fo r actio n ar e spiritual—a n ac t o f fait h o r a conversio n experience—and involv e evangelizatio n rathe r tha n explici t instruction s fo r social o r politica l action . At th e conclusio n o f a chapter entitled "Worl d War III" in The Late Great Planet Earthy after h e describe s worldwide destructio n

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and th e Battl e o f Armageddon , Lindse y ask s hi s readers : "A s histor y race s toward this moment, are you afraid o r looking with hope for deliverance? The answer should reveal to you your spiritual condition. One way or another history continues i n a certain acceleratio n towar d th e retur n o f Christ. Are you ready?" (1973:157). Although the end of the world is fated, th e destiny of ones soul and the souls of others remains undetermined an d is a matter of individual fre e will. As a master o f apocalyptic rhetoric , Lindse y s descriptions o f a foreordained apocalyps e an d hi s prescription s fo r individua l salvatio n ar e clearly an effective for m o f evangelism, encouraging conversion b y addressing contemporary fear s about worldly disaster and social disintegration . The belie f i n th e Rapture , i n particular , wit h it s promis e o f planetar y escape prior to nuclear cataclysms and other disasters, offers a compelling scenario by which fear s of inevitable doom ar e transformed int o expectations of salvation. The followin g accoun t o f Jerry Falwell s belie f i n hi s bein g take n away in the Rapture typifies thi s faith i n divine evacuation prior to Armageddon: " I hear d Falwel l sum u p hi s reaso n wh y a nuclear Armageddon woul d not bothe r him . 'Yo u kno w why I' m no t worried ' h e said . ' I ain' t gonn a b e here'" (Halsel l 1986:39) . Assuring th e faithfu l tha t they will b e exempt fro m bodily death and physical suffering i n the event of a nuclear war and other disasters associate d wit h th e tribulatio n period , Raptur e belief s ma y serv e a s a defense mechanis m o r compensator y fantasy , reducin g individua l fear s an d responsibility concerning nuclear apocalypse and transformin g anxiet y about such predicte d catastrophes int o passiv e acceptance o f thes e as foreordaine d events.

Impersonal Fate and God's Predetermined Timetable Several researcher s have noted tha t fatalisti c belief s an d narrative s with fatal istic themes often expres s the notion tha t huma n being s may develop a relationship with fate , ofte n alterin g i t throug h supplication , trickery , o r act s of kindness (Georges 1978; Ringgren 1967) . When fat e is regarded as completely impersonal, on e generally cannot aver t it or enter int o a relationship with it ; however, i f fat e i s believed t o b e decree d b y a god , interactin g wit h i t an d averting an evil destiny or creating a good one through sacrifices , prayer , and obedience i s possible (Ringgre n 1967:8) . Lindseys writing s asser t tha t indi vidual fat e ma y be altered throug h action , bu t tha t th e fat e o f earth an d th e future o f humanity as a whole are foreordained. Attempt s t o prevent worldly disasters throug h socia l actio n ar e considere d t o b e hopeles s an d huma n

58 I Signs of the Endtimes responsibility concernin g th e improvemen t o f thi s worl d i s discourage d an d even interprete d a s a direct denial o f Gods pla n fo r humanity. The worldvie w promoted b y Lindse y free s on e fro m persona l uneasines s an d responsibilit y concerning catastrophe s occurrin g throughou t th e worl d becaus e anythin g that take s plac e i s part of a divine design . The denia l o f persona l responsibil ity tha t ofte n characterize s fatalisti c belief s i s note d b y historia n o f religio n Kees Bolle , wh o state s tha t "a n attitude o f defea t i s i n evidenc e i n th e belie f that th e futur e i s inevitable an d fixed a s the past . One s act s become act s of a higher power . . . . [Fatalism ] consist s o f the renunciatio n o f ones ow n reaso n (hence als o o f one s ow n responsibility) , an d th e hypothesi s o f a rationa l coherence o f events i n another order " (1987:290) . This fatalisti c renunciatio n o f socia l actio n an d responsibilit y i s furthe r exemplified b y the widespread dispensationalist belie f that international peac e efforts ar e the work of satanic forces, with organization s such as the Europea n Community an d th e Unite d Nations , a s wel l a s variou s governmenta l an d church institutions , considere d t o b e par t o f a worldwide , evi l conspiracy . Human effort s t o improv e th e world ar e considered no t onl y useless bu t pos sibly satanic , an d believer s ar e free d fro m mora l obligation s t o sav e i t fro m annihilation becaus e th e world s problem s an d ultimat e destructio n ar e par t of the divine plan . Catastrophes and tragedies thus may be interpreted as positive events tha t signal th e En d an d porten d th e transformatio n o f the world, with th e promis e o f a divine order , i n which righteousnes s an d goodnes s wil l replace suffering an d wickedness. The view of the world presente d by Lindsey and othe r dispensationalist s regard s th e presen t a s irredeemabl y corrupt , a time of oppression, suffering , an d th e triumph o f evil ove r good. Throughou t his books, Lindsey juxtaposes images of this evil and unsalvageable world with portrayals o f Gods millennia l paradis e established afte r worldly annihilation . The ubiquitou s signs of doomsday are a cause for rejoicing, and the imminen t destruction o f the world serves as a motivation t o save souls. As portents of the last days, famine , wars , plagues , environmental disasters , and nuclea r war are regarded as markers on God s predetermine d timetable , o r as Lindsey put s it , "Gods grea t time-cloc k o f eternity ,, (1984:280) , no t a s event s tha t on e ma y avert. Recastin g ancient apocalypti c idea s about th e foreordinatio n o f histor y in term s of contemporary issue s and events, Lindse y s books serve as a means of confronting, interpreting , an d renderin g meaningfu l nuclea r annihilation , worldly disasters, social ills , and an assortment o f dominant concern s by situating thes e events i n a rigorous timetabl e o f cosmic design . The premillennia l dispensationalis t visio n o f th e en d o f th e world exem plified b y the writings o f Hal Lindse y remain s th e predominant for m o f pop-

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ular apocalypticism in the United States. Although less frequently studied, the prophecy beliefs associated with apocalyptic visions of the Virgin Mary, familiar to millions of Roman Catholics worldwide, are another expression of popular apocalypticism i n America today. As will be explored in the next chapter, apocalyptic Maria n worldview s shar e th e premillennia l dispensationalis t belief that the imminence of doomsday is revealed through prophecy and that the world is pervaded by evil, yet they differ i n terms of the forms of prophecy used, the apocalyptic scenario imagined, and th e underlying fatalis m o f such beliefs.

4 Apocalyptic Apparitions of the Virgin Mary in New York City And ther e appeared a great wonder i n heaven: a woman clothe d with the sun, and th e moon unde r her feet, and upo n her head a crown of twelve stars. —Revelatio n 12:1 O M y children, My heart is torn tha t you will not turn about and get down on your knees. Throughout you r world no w there will be great trials set upon mankind : Upheaval s of nature, discord i n governments , nations at war, fire rainin g from th e sky! My children, you ask for peace, but you are traveling to your own destruction a s you build u p armaments t o kill your brothers and maim! —Message from th e Virgin Mary delivered t o Veronica Lueken , July 15,1977

Contemporary belie f in apocalypti c prophec y i s usually associate d with Protestan t premillennialism , bu t speculatio n abou t th e en d o f th e worl d pervades popula r Roma n Catholi c though t a s well. Belief s abou t apocalypti c apparitions an d prophecie s associate d wit h vision s o f th e Virgi n Mar y ar e familiar t o Catholic s worldwide. Hundred s o f apparitions o f the Virgin Mar y have bee n reporte d sinc e th e beginnin g o f th e nuclea r age , man y o f whic h have warned tha t nuclea r apocalyps e i s imminent. Apocalypti c message s hav e been delivere d a t numerou s Maria n apparitio n site s tha t continu e t o attrac t pilgrims, suc h a s Fatima , Portugal ; Garabandal , Spain ; Sa n Damiano , Italy ; Akita, Japan ; Medjugorje , Bosnia ; an d Bayside , Ne w York . Belie f i n th e prophetic importanc e o f Marian apparition s remain s a strong undercurrent i n American Roma n Catholi c fait h an d i s supported b y a vast popula r literatur e on Maria n prophecy . For mor e tha n a decade, advertisements publicizin g apparition s o f the Vir gin Mar y occurrin g i n th e boroug h o f Queens, Ne w York City, hav e appeare d

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in newspapers and on billboards throughout the United States. The followin g headline, for instance , was published regularl y in th e classified sectio n o f the Los Angeles Times in January 1990 : "JESU S & MAR Y Predic t Grea t Earth quake For Los Angeles Area." The ad states that "w e are now in the end days of the world jus t precedin g th e grea t tribulatio n an d th e 2n d retur n o f He r Divine Son to Earth. It has been Her mission to now prepare mankind for the coming Chastisement from God , which is to consist of nuclear World War III and ou r plane t bein g struc k b y th e 'Bal l o f Redemption, ' a fiery come t o f Divine origin" (January 19,1990, A14). This advertisement was paid for by a group called Our Lad y of the Roses, Mary Hel p o f Mothers , whic h celebrate s th e prophecie s o f Mrs . Veronic a Lueken, through whom the Virgin Mary, Jesus, and various saints are believed to communicate to humanity, initially at Bayside, and then at Flushing Meadows-Corona Park , Ne w York . Simila r t o Ha l Lindsey s predictions , th e prophetic message s delivered a t thi s apparition sit e identify th e evils of contemporary society, reveal the signs of impending apocalypse and Gods plan in the endtimes , an d prescrib e specifi c behavio r fo r persona l salvation . Thes e prophecies and the supernatural occurrences associated with the site are a folk religious phenomenon , promote d outsid e th e officia l sanctio n o f clerica l authorities, through word of mouth and an assortment of print and electronic technologies.

Visions of the Virgin Mary and Popular Marian Devotion Apparitions of the Virgin Mar y have been a component o f Roman Catholi c folk religiou s experienc e fo r centurie s an d hav e often bee n th e basi s fo r th e continuing popularity of Marian devotion (Carrol l I986:xiv). The apparition s at Bayside and the divinely inspired messages of Mrs. Lueken have numerous antecedents i n th e twentiet h century : hundred s o f apparitions an d miracle s associated wit h th e Virgin Mar y hav e been reporte d sinc e th e end o f World War II . Man y o f th e mos t prominen t an d activ e contemporar y Maria n shrines—at suc h place s a s Lourdes, Fatima , Guadalupe , an d Medjugorje — were established as the result of sightings of the Virgin Mary. In each instanc e Mary appeare d t o humble , poor , an d theologicall y unschoole d individuals . The site s a t whic h thes e event s occurre d hav e becom e center s o f devotion , attracting millions of pilgrims each year. Approximately five million people annually visit the shrine at Fatima, where apparitions of the Virgin Mary appeared in 1917 to three peasant children. More

6i I Apocalyptic Apparitions of the Virgin Mary than four and a half million individuals make annual pilgrimages to the apparition sit e a t Lourdes , where Bernadett e Soubirou s ha d visions o f th e Blesse d Mother in 1858; and roughly twelve million people each year visit the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe near Mexico City, where Mary appeared in 1531 to Juan Diego (Carroll 1986:115). The most internationally celebrated of recent apparition sites is in Medjugorje, in the former Yugoslavia, where, until the outbreak of civil war, an ever-increasing number of pilgrims (estimated to be at least one million a year) transformed the small village where the Virgin Mary appeared to six children i n 1981 into the largest Marian apparition site in Eastern Europe. Numerous other shrines established a s the resul t of apparitions of the Virgin Mary attract several hundred thousand pilgrims annually as well, such as those at Knock (Ireland) , La Salette and Pontmain (bot h in France), Beauraing and Bannuex (both in Belgium), Garabandal (Spain), San Damiano (Italy), Betania (Venezuela), Hrushiv (Ukraine), and Zeitoun (Egypt), among others. In additio n t o th e million s o f pilgrim s who journe y t o thes e apparitio n sites, even larger numbers belong to organizations tha t promote devotion t o the Virgin Mary, primarily through the dissemination of the divine messages communicated durin g her appearances on earth . Catholi c la y organizations such a s th e Militi a o f th e Immaculat e Conceptio n (founde d i n 1917) , th e Legion of Mary (1927), the Slaves of the Immaculate Hear t of Mary (1940), and the Blue Army of Our Lady of Fatima (1947) are all committed to "winning the world for Mary" (Carroll 1986:219) . For instance, supporters of the Blue Army, which was formed at the beginning of the Cold War, distributed the apocalyptic and anticommunist message s supposedly revealed at Fatima. The primar y goal o f the Blue Army was the "conversion o f Russia" and the defeat of the "atheistic Red Army" by means of praying the Hail Mary. At one time this organization claime d twenty-five millio n members in no countrie s (Geisendorfer 1977:46). The impac t of Marian apparitions on Catholi c belie f is illustrated b y the fact that the rosary, the Brown Scapular of Our Lady of Mt. Carmel, and the Miraculous Meda l (th e thre e religiou s object s mos t ofte n associate d wit h devotion t o th e Virgin Mary ) were reveale d during Marian visions (Carrol l 1986:116). Belief in visions of the Virgin Mary and widespread popular devotion to her have played a significant rol e in the Catholic Church's approval of Marian apparitions. Traditionally, the church has taken a restrained position toward acceptance of Marian sightings, sanctioning onl y a few o f the thousands of visions that have been reported. In those instances in which Marian apparitions hav e been accepte d b y the church hierarchy , officia l approva l i s not considere d dogm a becaus e Catholic s ar e not require d t o believ e i n th e

Apocalyptic Apparitions of the Virgin Mary I 6 3

reality of the visions. Rather, th e church issue s an officia l statemen t tha t th e evidence i s sufficien t t o "justif y a purel y huma n fait h i n th e realit y o f th e apparition" an d tha t th e apparition doe s not displa y any characteristics anti thetic to Catholic fait h an d moral s (Grae f 1963:83-84; Carroll 1986:116) . The Bayside apparitions ar e among thos e tha t hav e no t bee n approved . After a n investigation i n 1973, the Diocese of Brooklyn declared that it had no basis for belief tha t Veronic a Lueke n ha d see n th e Virgi n Mary . The dioces e issue d another statement t o the same effect i n 1986 (Mugavero 1989:209-211). l Although officia l approva l o f moder n Maria n apparition s ma y tak e decades (or , a s i n mos t cases , b e denie d b y th e churc h completely ) an d despite the fact that the Second Vatican Council in the early 1960s attempted to deemphasize Mariology, belief in the prophetic importance and apocalyptic realit y o f Maria n vision s appear s t o hav e increase d amon g Catholic s worldwide. Popula r devotio n t o th e Virgi n Mar y ha s a lon g history , illus trated b y the festival s i n th e Middle Ages held i n hono r o f Mary's Immacu late Conception (Decembe r 8) , despite church opposition , an d th e fact tha t Marian feast s on th e day of the Nativity (Septembe r 8 ) and th e Assumption (August 15) were celebrated for centuries without the approval of church offi cials an d ofte n agains t thei r recommendation s (Matte r 1986:85) . Variou s unsanctioned tradition s and festivals celebrating the Virgin Mary were eventually mad e officia l b y the church hierarchy , with th e Immaculat e Concep tion considered dogma in 1854, and the Assumption achievin g official recog nition i n 1950. The somewhat recen t natur e of church sanctio n o f these tw o holy days indicates the obvious "lag" between fol k religio n an d institutiona l codification an d reveal s tha t officia l approva l o f Maria n devotio n i s a rela tively modern phenomenon . The theological basis for devotion to the Virgin Mary originates in the doctrine o f th e communio n o f saints, which proclaim s tha t a spiritual relation ship exists between the faithful o n earth, the souls in purgatory, and the saints in heaven (Turne r and Turner 1978:203). According to Catholic tradition, th e saints may be petitioned and may respond to the prayers of individuals, interceding with Go d o n behal f of the faithful, an d communicatin g with th e living through apparitions , prophecy , visions, dreams, and b y miracles (Turne r and Turne r 1978:203-205) . Account s o f Jesus, variou s saints , an d th e devi l intervening in human affairs hav e a long history in Catholic belief, yet it is the Virgin Mar y who ha s appeared mos t frequently , inspire d th e greates t degre e of observable devotion, and attracted th e largest number of pilgrims (Carrol l 1986:115; Rahner 1963:72-73). For centuries the Virgin Mary has been worshiped as the "Mother of God"

64 I Apocalyptic Apparitions of the Virgin Mary among the Catholic populace, particularly in regions in which an antecedent tradition o f goddess worship existe d (Gimbuta s 1982:199-200) . Durin g the Middle Ages, when Maria n devotio n wa s extremely widespread, th e depiction of the Virgin holding the infant Jesus was the most pervasive image associated with the cult of Mary. Although the Virgin Mary performed no miracles during her life and was not martyred, as were the majority of saints, she became the most popular devotional figur e of Catholicism: "Mary was more powerful tha n th e saints and less awful tha n God; as His Mother she had a quite peculia r influenc e wit h Christ , an d he r positio n betwee n ma n an d maker, as the Middl e Ages picture d it , i s exactly expressed b y St. Bernard , when he says that Christ desires us to have everything through Mary" (Power I928:xiii). The scant biblical references to the Virgin Mary have become the basis for the varying roles and attributes assigned to Mary in her earthly appearances. As E . An n Matte r notes , no t muc h i s know n abou t th e lif e o f Mar y o f Nazareth; th e majorit y o f reference s tha t mentio n he r actuall y focu s upo n Jesus and her relationship t o him as his mother (1986:81) . The Gospel o f St. Luke (1:26-38 ) state s tha t Mar y was a virgin wh o wa s betrothe d t o a man named Joseph when the angel Gabriel revealed to her that she had been chosen b y God t o conceiv e a son b y th e Hol y Spirit . Afte r a n accoun t o f th e Annunciation, th e Bible states that Mary visited he r relative Elizabeth, who was pregnant with John the Baptist. Elizabeths womb "leaped for joy" (Luke 1:44) a s Mar y approached ; an d Elizabet h joyfull y cried , "Blesse d ar t tho u among women, and blessed is the fruit of thy womb." These words were later combined wit h th e angel Gabriel s words at the Annunciation, "Hai l Mary, full of grace; the Lord is with thee," to form the Hail Mary, the prayer of the rosary (Matter 1986:81-82). Belief i n th e Virgi n Mar y a s "mediatrix, " o r divin e intercesso r betwee n human beings and God (one of her primary functions in Marian apparitions), seems to have its basis in the biblical account of the miracle at the wedding of Cana (John 2:1-11). Mary states that the wine has been depleted and more is needed. At her request, Jesus transforms water into wine in the firstof his miracles, thus exemplifying Marys capacity to influence th e behavior of her son. The biblical referenc e to the Virgin Mary most significant fo r an understanding of modern Marian apparitions occurs in chapter 12 of the Book of Revelation. The passage speaks of "a woman clothed with the sun," with the moon unde r her feet, appearing in the sky. It is the scriptural precedent for the appearance of the Virgin Mary in the sky during her visitations, as well as for the apocalypticism expresse d i n these apparitions. This citation, lik e

Apocalyptic Apparitions of theVirgin Mary I 6 5 much o f th e Boo k o f Revelation , i s vagu e an d ope n t o innumerabl e inter pretations. Although th e woman mentione d i n this reference i s never specifically identifie d a s the Virgin Mary , interpreter s sinc e th e Middl e Age s hav e assumed tha t th e passag e refer s t o Mar y (Matte r 1986:83) . The tex t prio r t o this excerp t (Revelatio n 12:1 ) i s essential fo r a n understandin g o f th e apoca lyptic explanations assigne d t o th e passage. After th e opening o f the sevent h seal, th e plagu e o f locusts , th e "beas t tha t ascendet h ou t o f th e bottomles s pit," an d variou s othe r forebodin g events , th e followin g passag e precede s the referenc e t o th e Virgin: "An d the templ e o f Go d wa s opene d i n heaven , and ther e wa s see n i n hi s templ e th e ar k o f hi s testament : an d ther e wer e lightnings an d voices , an d thunderings , an d a n earthquake , an d grea t hail . And ther e appeare d a grea t wonde r i n heaven : a woman clothe d wit h th e sun. . . . " The sectio n late r reveal s tha t th e woma n i s pregnant , tha t a "re d dragon , having seve n head s an d te n horns , an d seve n crown s upo n hi s heads, " attempts to devour the child as soon a s it is born. The woman, however , give s birth safely to a "man-child, who was to rule all nations with a rod of iron: and her chil d wa s caugh t u p unt o Go d an d t o hi s throne " (Revelatio n 12:1-5) . After th e child is taken to heaven, the woman escape s to a place in the wilderness, unde r th e protectio n o f God , a s angels fight th e dragon . Late r th e ser pent persecutes the woman, sending a flood of water from it s mouth t o drown her, bu t th e eart h save s th e woman , swallowin g u p th e flood (Revelatio n 12:15-16). Th e serpen t the n depart s t o "mak e wa r wit h th e remnan t o f he r seed," identified a s all of humanity familia r with th e testimony of Jesus Christ (Revelation 12:17) . The obscur e an d fantasti c symbolis m embodie d i n thi s passag e ha s motivated man y t o tr y t o deciphe r it s crypti c meaning . Catholi c theolo gians generall y regar d th e imag e o f th e woma n t o b e a symbol o f th e earl y church, an d th e drago n i s usuall y interprete d a s representin g th e Roma n Empire, which , a t th e time , threatene d th e existenc e o f th e church . Som e theologians regar d the woman's triump h ove r the serpent a s a symbol o f th e Second Eve s overcomin g th e origina l curs e brough t t o humankin d b y Ev e (Warner 1976:383) . However , fo r Veronica Lueken , he r followers , an d mil lions o f Catholics intereste d i n prophec y worldwide, "th e woman" refer s t o the Virgi n Mary , wh o i s no w appearin g t o war n humankin d o f imminen t worldly cataclysm . Accordin g t o thi s interpretation , th e propheti c passag e in Revelatio n specificall y refer s t o th e Virgin a s th e on e wh o wil l d o battl e and triump h ove r a multitude o f evil force s i n th e world symbolize d b y th e serpent.

66 I Apocalyptic Apparitions of the Virgin Mary

The Tradition of Apocalyptic Marian Apparitions Although prophec y has been associated with Marian apparitions for centuries, apocalyptic theme s i n Marian prophecie s are a relatively recent phenomenon , expressed i n th e apparition s a t L a Salette , Franc e i n 1846 , an d late r wit h increased fervo r a t Fatim a i n 1917 , an d a t th e ecclesiasticall y unsanctione d apparition site s i n Garabanda l (1961-1965 ) an d Sa n Damian o (1964-1981) . The vision s reporte d i n Medjugorj e hav e apocalypti c overtone s a s well : th e Virgin Mar y tol d th e visionaries tha t sh e appear s s o frequentl y ther e becaus e it i s the las t place she will appea r on eart h befor e th e Chastisemen t (Shinner s 1989:175-176). Maria n apparition s i n Lubbock , Texas , i n 1988-1989 , als o included apocalyptic prophecies , one of which described a star that would hi t the eart h within tw o year s {Los Angeles Times, April 10,1989 , pt . 1,1 , 19-20) . The apparition s o f th e Virgi n Mar y an d Jesu s see n b y housewif e Nanc y Fowler that began i n 1987, in Conyers, Georgia, also warn of imminent divin e punishments t o be unleashe d becaus e peopl e hav e rejected God . Historia n o f religion Sandr a L . Zimdars-Swart z refer s t o thi s popula r apocalypti c world view amon g Roma n Catholic s a s a "transcultural apocalypti c ideology, " an d asserts that Marian devotee s regar d Marys recen t appearances as part of a pattern of endtimes warnings revealin g an "all-encompassing divine plan " occurring at the end of history befor e th e retur n of Christ (1991:246) . I n he r role as intercessor, th e Virgi n Mar y represent s divin e mercy , th e nurturin g mothe r intervening o n behal f o f he r childre n t o rescu e the m fro m th e apocalypti c punishments o f a n angr y Go d (Zimdars-Swart z 1991:247-248) . Th e Baysid e apparitions, possibl y th e mos t apocalypti c o f contemporar y Maria n visita tions, represen t a n intensificatio n o f th e eschatological , anticommunist , an d conspiratorial theme s o f thi s moder n Maria n worldview , wit h Mar y appear ing as an apocalyptic prophetes s who reveal s Gods pla n i n th e last days. Perhaps the mos t familia r legend among Roma n Catholic s associate d wit h the traditio n o f apocalypti c Maria n apparition s involve s th e "thir d secre t o f Fatima," which wa s communicated b y the Virgin Mar y t o th e see r Lucia do s Santos on July 13,1917. According t o legend, th e secret messag e was delivere d in a sealed envelope t o th e Vatican and was to be revealed to the world b y th e pope i n i960 . However , th e thir d secre t ha s neve r bee n reveale d publicl y b y the Catholi c Church , an d stories circulate abou t th e adverse reaction s o f various pope s who opene d th e envelop e an d rea d th e prophec y (fainting , weep ing, suffering heart failure, going into comatose state). The third secret is commonly believe d t o predict a fiery apocalypse during the term of the fifth pop e after the letter was unsealed (John Pau l II, who was chosen t o be pope in 1978,

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is the third pope since th e letter was opened). Rumor s suggest that the churc h will not reveal the secret for fear that people will become suicidal and immora l if informed o f th e en d o f th e world. The thir d secre t i s also rumore d t o pre dict Worl d Wa r III , variou s othe r cataclysms , an d crise s i n th e Roma n Catholic Church . To determine the extent to which apocalyptic beliefs and stories such as the third secret of Fatima are known amon g Catholic s i s difficult, bu t th e peopl e who com e t o Flushin g Meadow s Par k ar e wel l verse d i n th e apocalypti c themes an d message s o f previou s apparitions . Fo r instance , a numbe r o f th e Baysiders that I spoke with tol d me tha t they either had been or would lik e t o go t o Fatim a o r Garabandal , th e place s wher e th e message s fro m Mar y hav e been th e mos t apocalyptic . Fe w mentione d Lourdes , Guadalupe , o r Medju gorje, where apocalyptic idea s are subordinate t o other themes or nonexistent . As note d earlier , no t al l Maria n apparition s hav e apocalypti c overtones , bu t the Baysider s seeme d t o prefe r th e shrine s wit h obviou s end-of-the-worl d messages. A t Lourdes , fo r instance , n o explici t apocalypti c sentiment s wer e expressed, nor have ensuing discussions o f the messages reinterprete d the m a s apocalyptic. Instead , th e Lourde s message s emphasiz e universa l penanc e an d traditional Catholi c doctrine . Althoug h th e Medjugorj e message s exhibi t a degree of apocalypticism, thi s them e i s secondary i n importanc e t o th e large r message of universal peace and a return to Catholic traditions . For this reason, many Baysider s believ e tha t th e Medjugorje apparition s ar e a fraudulent plo y influenced b y Satan , involvin g a false , Ne w Ag e Madonn a preachin g love , peace, and a one-world religion. They claim that the authentic Mother of Go d is currently appearin g onl y o n th e apparitio n ground s i n Flushin g Meadow s Park and that other Marian apparitions, such as those at Medjugorje, ar e spurious and spiritually dangerous . Since th e Fatim a visions, moder n apparition s o f the Virgin Mar y no t onl y have become increasingl y apocalypti c bu t hav e been repeatedl y interprete d as identifying communis m a s th e "serpent, " th e "beast, " an d th e "re d dragon " referred t o i n th e Boo k o f Revelation . Accordin g t o th e message s communi cated at Fatima an d several othe r apparition site s includin g Bayside , th e con flict of ideologies between communism an d democracy i s in fact a cosmic bat tle betwee n Sata n an d God , t o b e fough t i n a world seethin g i n si n an d tee tering on th e edge of total destruction . The Fatim a apparition s wer e perhap s th e mos t spectacula r Maria n vision s in history , purportedl y involvin g strang e occurrence s i n th e sky . Fo r instance , during the October 13,1917, apparition, rain clouds parted, the sun turned int o

68 I Apocalyptic Apparitions of the Virgin Mary a silver disk surrounded by a multicolored light, the sky seemed to revolve, and then th e sun appeare d t o spin an d plung e towar d th e earth, where it hovered for a momen t an d the n ascended . These supernatura l phenomen a wer e witnessed by many of the seventy thousand people assembled at the site, several of whom wer e reporter s (Grae f 1963:82) . Although som e controversy surround s this sighting as well as the messages delivered at Fatima, the church recognize d the apparition i n 1931, and, according to popular belief , Pope Pius XII consecrated th e worl d t o th e Immaculat e Hear t o f Mar y i n 194 2 becaus e o f th e Fatima messages . A major emphasi s of the second messag e of Fatima involves the Virgin Mary s reques t tha t "Russi a be consecrated t o Christianity," which allegedly was revealed to Lucia dos Santos in 1917. The Virgin Marys political views about Russia and communism were disclosed years later in Lucias memoirs, written in a convent between 1935 and 1941. Evidence suggests that Lucias pronouncement o f th e Virgin Mary s anticommunis t stanc e ma y hav e bee n based on experiences that occurred betwee n 192 5 and 1935, during a period of extreme anticommunist sentiment among Portuguese Catholics (Kselman and Avella 1986:408-409; Perry and Echeverria 1988:184-193). Lucias second message from th e Virgin Mary at Fatima reinforced and provoked anticommunis t sentiment , an d thi s zealous anticommunism finds ful l expression in the messages communicated by Mrs. Lueken at Bayside. In addition t o anticommunism an d apocalypticism, th e Bayside messages emphasize a return to traditional Catholic teachings, as do previous apparitions. Penance, fasting, and praying the Hail Mary are stressed as a means of preventing global war, disease, starvation, natura l disasters , and various divinely ordained cata clysms. Devotion t o the Virgin Mary is seen as the only remaining solution i n a world gone astray; veneration of Mary will divert the wrath of an angry God and prevent the destruction o f the planet. 2

Our Lady of the Roses, Veronica Lueken, and the Bayside Apparitions The Baysid e phenomeno n bega n o n Jun e 5 , 1968 , th e da y tha t Rober t F . Kennedy was assassinated. Veronica Lueken, a housewife fro m Queens , New York, and mothe r o f five children, experience d a perfume o f roses in he r car as she prayed for the dying New York senator. Shortly thereafter, Mrs . Lueken had a vision of Saint Therese of Lisieux, who later gave her sacred writings and poems b y dictation . O n Apri l 7 , 1970 , th e Virgi n Mar y appeare d t o Mrs . Lueken i n he r home , instructin g he r t o establish a shrine on th e grounds o f

Apocalyptic Apparitions of the Virgin Mary I 6 9

the Saint Robert Bellarmine Church i n Bayside, New York, and promising to make a personal appearance if vigils were held there on June 18,1970. The Virgin Mary requested tha t this shrine be named "Ou r Lad y of the Roses, Mary Help o f Mothers. " Th e Virgi n Mar y als o promise d t o appea r an d spea k through Mrs . Lueken (wh o would ac t as a "voice box" repeating words fro m heaven) i n th e evenings of all the great feas t day s of the Catholi c Church , i f vigils were faithfully kep t on thos e days. In addition, Mary told Mrs. Lueken to spread the messages from heave n throughout th e world. An essential component of Mrs. Luekens messages is her constant referenc e to propheti c sign s that indicat e tha t th e end o f the world i s near. These por tents, often simila r to those described by other proponents of imminent apocalypse, predict various disasters to be provoked b y increased social and mora l decay in the world. Worldwide cataclysm, or what i s referred t o as the "Grea t Chastisement," ma y be averted through persona l penance , prayer, and adher ence to traditional Catholic teachings, and particularly through the conversion of Russia to Christianity. Beginning in 1970, vigils were held regularly at the Bayside shrine. Several hundred message s have been transmitte d b y Mrs. Lueken, who declare s she repeats th e Virgin Mary s message s word fo r word , althoug h sh e often add s her own description s o f what sh e sees in he r visions. In 1975 , the apparitio n site was moved fro m Baysid e to Flushing Meadows-Corona Par k because of the objections o f the residents around Sain t Bellarmin e s Church t o the Saturday night vigils and the controversial natur e of the messages. Although th e apparitions no w occur at Flushing Meadows Park, they are still referred t o as the "Baysid e apparitions, " an d Mrs . Lueken s follower s continu e t o cal l themselves "Baysiders." Mrs. Lueken ha s been tol d b y the Virgin Mar y tha t the Baysider s will eventually b e allowed t o retur n t o th e original site , that a basilica will b e buil t there , an d tha t a miraculou s sprin g o f curative water s will come forth fro m th e sacred grounds, similar to Lourdes (th e shrines lit erature refer s t o th e Baysid e phenomeno n a s "Th e Lourde s o f America") . Baysiders maintain tha t Baysid e will eventually become the national Maria n shrine in the United States, like Lourdes in France or Our Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico. The numbe r o f Baysiders i s difficult t o estimate. According t o th e shrin e literature, between twelve and fifteen thousan d people attended the thirteenth anniversary celebration of Mrs. Luekens visions on June 18,1983, and as many as ten thousan d purportedl y attende d th e nineteenth anniversar y celebratio n in June 1989, at which I was present. On other occasions that I have attended, only a few doze n devotee s were a t th e Saturda y evenin g vigils. Publication s

70 I Apocalyptic Apparitions of the Virgin Mary from th e shrine refe r t o "thousands of followers" and th e "tens of thousands" of newsletters and message s that regularl y are mailed t o those who subscrib e to the shrines literature (se e Rose Notes 5, no. 10 [August 1993] 13). Groups dedicate d t o promotin g th e Baysid e message s hav e forme d i n numerous cities in the Unite d State s and throughou t th e world; a radio program abou t th e Baysid e prophecies, entitled "Thes e Las t Days," airs in various citie s i n mor e tha n thirt y states ; and th e Baysid e prophecie s hav e bee n translated int o more than twent y languages. In 1994 , the shrine organizatio n placed a full-page advertisemen t entitle d "Th e Virgin Mar y i n America . . . the worlds refug e a t th e last hour," i n th e Weekly World News (December 13, 1994), a tabloi d magazin e wit h a circulatio n o f 560,000 . Accordin g t o th e shrines literature, the ad elicited 5,000 phone calls and 1500 written responses, and more than 3,000 of the shrines introductory packet s were sent as a result {Rose Notes 7, no . 1 7 [Marc h 1995]:!) . In 1995 , upward s o f 120 0 peopl e attended a banquet celebratin g the twenty-fifth anniversar y of Mrs. Lueken s visions, and pilgrimages to the apparition site were organized in more than 150 cities i n eleve n countries . The shrine s newslette r predicts , "Th e da y i s no t long coming when million s throughout th e world will come to acknowledg e Bayside for what it truly is—the last refuge at the last hour" (Rose Notes 7, no. 18 [June 1995] :i). The apocalyptic messages and prophesies conveyed to Mrs. Lueken by the Virgin Mar y ar e documente d an d disseminate d b y Ou r Lad y o f th e Rose s Shrine and a network o f other organization s throug h a n assortmen t o f electronic an d prin t technologies . Eac h tim e Mrs . Lueke n speak s t o Mar y an d Jesus at the apparition site , she allegedly is recorded on audiotape . The messages are then transcribe d an d printe d b y the Ou r Lad y of the Rose s Shrin e and distribute d t o thousands o f Baysiders. Audiocassettes o f Mrs. Lueken i n a trance state receiving the divine communications are also available, as are an introductory pamphle t describin g th e shrin e (Our Lady of the Roses, Mary Help of Mothers:An Introductory Booklet on the Apparitions of Bayside, hence forth referre d t o a s OLR Booklei) an d th e larger , 168-pag e Our Lady of the Roses, Mary Help of MothersuBlue Book "(referred to as OLR Book), which provides detailed informatio n abou t th e message s and th e shrine. The complet e transcriptions of Mrs. Luekens visions are collected i n two large books, Roses from Heaven: fesus and Mary Speak to the World—1970-1976, Volum e 1 , and Roses from Heaven: Jesus and Mary Speak to the World—1977—1986, Volume 2. Other literature , inspirationa l pamphlets , videotapes, and various sacramen tal items, such as rosaries, medallions of saints, crucifixes, scapulars, and lam-

Apocalyptic Apparitions of the Virgin Mary I 7 1 mated ros e petals believed t o be blessed by Jesus and Mary during the apparitions, ar e available as well. The literatur e an d audio - an d videocassette s distribute d b y th e shrin e pro vide commentarie s o n a litan y o f topics : nuclea r weapons , natura l disasters , communism, AIDS, famine, abortion, pornography, terrorism, drug abuse, and corruption an d conspirac y i n th e governmen t an d especiall y i n th e Roma n Catholic Church . Th e imminenc e o f nuclea r annihilatio n i s a predominan t theme i n the Bayside messages, but current disasters are discussed as well, suc h as earthquakes, floods, drought , famine , starvation, and epidemics, all of which are regarded as further proof that these are the endtimes (OZ^&w^ 1986:52-53). Mrs. Lueken s apparition s als o provid e divin e commentar y o n a wide rang e o f various satani c influence s i n American society , includin g discussion s o f thing s like roc k music , immodes t dress , se x education , television , th e Illuminati , UFOs, an d test-tub e babies . Som e o f th e shrine s literatur e addresse s contem porary issues , bu t muc h o f th e distribute d materia l attempt s t o establis h th e shrines place within the tradition of Marian apparitions and often highlights the supernatural phenomen a associate d with th e apparition site. Although knowledg e o f th e apparition s o f Ou r Lad y o f Baysid e i s trans mitted verbally , thi s i s by n o mean s th e predominan t mod e o f disseminatin g information abou t th e shrine . Th e apparition s hav e bee n promote d largel y through religiou s tracts , videos , cabl e TV , advertisements , audiocassettes , public presentations, and a twenty-four-hour-a-day, 1-80 0 telephon e number . The us e of print an d electronic technologie s account s fo r muc h o f th e popu larity and continuing interes t i n th e apparitions, an d without thes e technolo gies t o transmi t th e message s an d rais e money , i t i s questionable whethe r th e Bayside movemen t woul d exis t a s a viable organization . As a visionary, Veronica Lueken derives her source of authority from direc t miraculous experience s an d revelations , an d sh e maintain s thi s charismati c authority b y her continuing visionary abilities . Lik e other seers, Mrs. Lueke n acts as an intermediar y betwee n human s an d th e supernatura l order , directl y communicating God s will and plan for humanity. She is, as she states, a "voice box fo r heaven, " repeatin g wor d fo r wor d th e pronouncement s o f supernat ural entities . He r visionar y an d oracula r capabilitie s resembl e wha t wa s referred t o i n antiquit y b y thinker s suc h a s Cicero an d Plat o a s "natura l div ination" (naturalis divinatio)> define d a s the ability t o understan d th e conver sation o f god s throug h direc t inspiration , trance , ecstasy , an d vision s (Aun e 1983:339). Tranc e state s ar e commonl y characterize d b y revelations , visions , hallucinations, an d out-of-body experiences , an d are distinguished fro m pos session states , which ar e associated with certai n type s of prophetic an d partic -

72 I Apocalyptic Apparitions of the Virgin Mary ularly shamanistic experience s (Bourguigno n 1976:1-10) . Although I have no t personally witnesse d Mrs . Lueke n i n a tranc e state—sh e i s surrounde d b y bodyguards durin g th e vigil s becaus e o f allege d attempt s o n he r life— I hav e seen photograph s an d videotape s tha t sho w he r conversin g wit h variou s deities i n whic h sh e i s trembling , weeping , waving , an d smiling , an d clearl y seems t o b e i n a n altere d stat e o f consciousness. The charismati c an d miracu lous abilities attribute d t o Mrs. Lueken emphasiz e th e subjective, experientia l aspects o f he r divin e callin g ove r formalize d religiou s education . Divinel y inspired prophet s an d charismati c seer s lik e Mrs . Lueke n ofte n ar e th e cata lysts fo r apocalypti c fervor , servin g as "channels" fo r supernatura l criticis m o f the existin g religious , social , economic , an d politica l institutions . Thei r per sonal experience s for m th e basi s for th e mytho s o f the apocalyptic movement , and thei r revelation s provid e explici t explanation s fo r curren t ill s an d pre scribe specifi c behavio r fo r individua l an d societa l salvation .

77?^ Virgin and the Bomb: Nuclear Destruction and the Fireball of Redemption The imminenc e o f divin e punishmen t an d worldl y catastroph e i s th e mos t prominent ide a addresse d i n Mrs . Lueken s visions . The apocalypti c scenari o prophesied i n th e Baysid e apparitions describe s a global "Warning, " followe d by a "Grea t Miracle, " an d the n a "Chastisement " tha t wil l destro y three fourths o f humanity. The Chastisemen t wil l consist o f two parts. The first wil l be World Wa r III ; th e second , a God-sent "Firebal l o f Redemption. " Prio r t o the Chastisement , a great Warning wil l b e sen t t o humanity , a s th e followin g message fro m th e Virgin Mar y indicates : There wil l b e a tremendous explosio n an d th e sk y shall rol l back like a scroll. This force shal l go within th e very core of the human. H e will understand hi s offenses t o his G o d . . .. Ther e will be tremendously high waves roaring and taking with the m cities; buildings shall disappear from thei r moorings; the atmosphere shall spew forth current s of great heat; a darkness of spirit and a darkness of atmosphere shal l settle in a deadly quiet upo n mankind . As the day follow s night, so shall this warning follow soon. Beware of the sunrise! Do not look u p to th e sky, th e flash! Close your windows ! Draw your shades ! Remain inside ! Do no t ventur e outsid e you r door , o r yo u wil l no t return ! (OLR Book 1986:44-45)

Apocalyptic Apparitions of theVirgin Mary I 7 3 In another vision, Mrs. Lueken experience d th e Warning, and describe s i t as follows: "I t i s as though everythin g exploded i n th e sky—the flash! It i s very hot, very warm. It feels like a burning. Now—the sky is very white . .. it s like a huge explosion. NOW—this VOICE, th e VOICE, th e VOICE, Ou r Lad y says i t i s a voice within you : 'YOU R WARNIN G BEFOR E TH E CHAS TISEMENT—FLASH, FIRE , AND THE VOICE WITHIN YOL T (OLR Book 1^6:44). Mrs. Luekens predictions of the Warning have precedents i n th e messages communicated by the Virgin Mary at Garabandal, Spain (1961-1965). According to one of the seers there, Conchita Gonzales , the Warning will be like an internal fire, and although i t will not cause physical injury, "dyin g is preferable to a mere five minutes of what i s awaiting us" (OLR Book 1986:44). Conchita also said that the Warning will involve the realization of ones sins and be experienced by everyone in the world, and be clearly divine in origin. Mrs. Luekens visions of the Warning are also similar to descriptions of the sun hurling toward the earth at Fatima, which was interpreted by some who experienced it as a terrifying chastisement from heave n and a prelude to the end of the world. The messages delivered by the Virgin Mary at Garabandal about the Warning appea r rathe r genera l (se e Zimdars-Swart z 1991:232-233) , bu t Mrs . Lueken s messages provide specific details and clarify th e nature of this event: the Warning will appea r afte r a revolution i n Rom e i n which th e pop e flees the Vatican , seekin g refug e i n anothe r country . I n Mrs . Lueken s graphi c descriptions, the Warning seems to resemble a divinely sent nuclear explosion, although th e cataclysmi c consequence s o f the Warning ar e no t exactl y clear. Unlike the Garabandal messages , Mrs. Luekens visions imply that th e Warning will cause death and physical injury (OLR Book 1986:44-45), but tha t th e faithful wil l not be harmed: "All who remain in the light of grace will have no fear. The y wil l pas s throug h thi s grea t Warnin g withou t suffering " (OLR Booklet n.d.:2). Although previou s Marian apparition s foretel l o f cataclysmic events such as the Warning, Mrs. Luekens visions expound on the destructive nature of these events, emphasizing i n greater detail th e devastation an d violence that will occur in the endtimes. According to Mrs. Luekens visions, following the Warning a "Great Miracle" will be sent to encourage humanity t o change its sinful behavior . The Miracl e will occur in the sky, for many to see, and will be the greatest miracle that God has performed fo r th e world. It will occur through th e intercession o f the Virgin Mary, but agents of Satan will attempt t o disprove its divine nature ( OLR Book 1986:45). The details of the Miracle are vague in Mrs. Luekens messages, but if humanity does not change after thi s supernatural spectacle, the Chastise-

74 I Apocalyptic Apparitions of the Virgin Mary ment wil l follow , th e first portio n o f which wil l involv e nuclea r war: " A war fa r greater than an y war fought i n the history of creation shall come upon mankin d soon. Flame s shal l engul f man y nations , burnin g th e skin fro m bones , an d th e skin shall dry u p and blo w away as if it had neve r been!" (messag e from th e Virgin Mary , Ma y 20,197 8 [Skovman d 1993:91]) . A messag e communicate d fro m Jesus confirm s th e imminenc e o f a nuclea r conflagration : "Th e greates t los s o f life, M y children , wil l com e wit h th e explosio n o f a nuclea r warhea d upo n mankind! The Bal l o f Redemptio n shal l follow , an d no t muc h shal l b e lef t o f flesh upo n earth " (messag e from Jesus , July 25,197 7 [Skovman d 1993:87]) . In anothe r apparition , Mrs . Lueke n ha s a visio n o f a nuclea r explosion , "Oh, I see a great horribl e war . I see . . . i t look s lik e a mushroom. A tremen dous explosio n an d everythin g i s gone ! Oh ! [Th e Virgi n Mar y the n says: ] 'Satan, M y child , shal l hav e his han d upo n th e button" ' (OLR Book 1986:49) . Later i n th e message, Mrs. Lueken speak s of uniformed soldier s with "re d stars on thei r hats, " and conclude s wit h a command fro m th e Virgin Mar y t o pra y for th e conversio n o f communis t Russi a t o Catholicis m i n orde r t o aver t nuclear catastrophe . I n th e Baysid e prophecies , lik e dispensationalis t predic tions, th e proliferatio n an d us e o f nuclea r weapon s i s ofte n portraye d a s inevitable, wit h peac e effort s an d nuclea r disarmamen t viewe d a s hopeless : The cries of peace going throughout your world are just a cover for armament s that ar e bein g gathere d no w t o enslav e an d ensnar e th e worl d int o a war o f major proportion. My children, all of the cries of peace that go out throughou t your worl d canno t preven t th e explosio n o f nuclea r warfar e upo n mankind ! The hand of God tha t withheld thi s punishment upo n mankin d i s being withdrawn. . . . (message from Jesus, June 16,1977 [Skovman d 1993:87]) Unlike dispensationalis m whic h attempt s t o correlat e curren t event s wit h scripture throug h impressiv e feats of biblical exegesis, such interpretativ e acro batics ar e rar e i n th e Baysid e literature , an d regarde d a s unnecessar y b y Baysiders becaus e prophecie s o f th e endtime s ar e directl y communicate d b y Mary, Jesus, an d th e saints . At on e o f he r apparitions , however , Mrs . Lueke n does interpre t biblica l scripture , citin g th e visio n o f Zecharia h i n whic h h e describes a "flyin g roll, " twent y cubit s lon g b y te n cubit s wide , whic h bring s a curs e ove r th e fac e o f th e whole earth , an d whic h consume s th e timbe r an d stones of houses (OLR Book 1986:50; Zechariah 5) . Mrs. Lueken the n explain s his vision i n term s o f nuclea r weapons : The flying rol l a s give n i n th e Bible , describe d i n th e Bible , destroy s thei r houses. The house s are burned an d consumed . No w th e size of the flying roll

Apocalyptic Apparitions of the Virgin Mary I 7 5 would be about the size of the new multiple warhead ICBMs or orbital bombs, the ones that will carry ten H-bombs each. Now that message is specifically on e reason why Heaven allowed me to be here this evening: because of the urgency of the times and the necessity to pray for Pope John Paul II. (OLR Book1986:50) This uncommo n interpretiv e ventur e o n th e par t o f Mrs . Lueke n reveal s th e preoccupation wit h nuclea r armament s an d thei r destructiv e capabilitie s tha t characterizes he r apparition s an d pervade s th e worldview o f her followers . The sens e of the imminenc e o f nuclear war and communis t invasio n i s also conveyed throug h th e illustration s i n th e shrine s publications . O n on e pag e of th e shrine s "Blu e Book, " fo r example , i s a n illustratio n o f a communis t demon emergin g fro m Russi a wit h bloo d drippin g fro m hi s fingers, anothe r illustration o f a cemetery filled wit h crosses , and a photograph o f a mushroo m cloud, unde r whic h i s th e boldface d subheadin g "Th e Goo d Wil l Als o Di e With The Bad " (OLR Book 1986:49). Such imagery , along with th e prophecie s and repeate d reference s t o nuclea r annihilatio n i n th e Baysid e literature , pre sents a vision o f the nuclea r threa t a s a menacing presence , a dark, radioactiv e cloud loomin g ove r al l humanity , wit h nuclea r wa r regarde d a s an imminen t event tha t huma n being s ar e powerles s t o prevent . The detail s o f thi s impendin g nuclea r scenari o ar e reveale d i n anothe r on e of Mrs . Lueken s visions , i n whic h sh e i s show n a ma p b y th e Virgi n Mar y depicting Jerusalem , Egypt , Arabia , Frenc h Morocco , an d Africa , an d i s tol d that World Wa r II I wil l star t i n thi s regio n (OLR Book 1986:50) . According t o Mary, communis t Russi a wil l unit e wit h Chin a an d attemp t t o tak e ove r th e world; Syri a wil l b e instrumenta l eithe r i n creatin g worl d peac e o r th e thir d world war ; an d a satanic leade r fro m Egyp t wil l star t a world wa r (Skovman d 1993:84—92). In a message delivered May 30,1978 , Mary als o told Mrs. Lueke n that a single , insan e individua l wil l initiat e a globa l nuclea r inferno : "You r world shall soon b e visited by a baptism o f fire. Is this what you want? You shall not escap e thi s baptis m o f fire, fo r si n i s insanity , an d on e insan e min d shal l plunge you int o a bloodbath an d a destruction b y fire" (Skovman d 1993:90) . In othe r visions, Mrs. Lueken i s shown war s in Africa, a hammer an d sickl e floating abov e th e African continent , an d th e continen t fadin g int o darkness . Finally, sh e sees "a n actua l glob e o f th e world , lik e w e hav e o n ou r des k i n school. An d th e first plac e t o burs t int o flames i s Africa. No w O u r Lad y i s pointing farthe r u p o n th e globe, and She' s saying now: 'Listen, My child, an d repeat thi s well. The Unite d State s of America i s fast approachin g o n th e star t of th e T H I RD W O R L D WAR " (Jul y 1,198 5 [Skovman d 1993:84-85]) . Afte r the wa r i n Africa , communis t Russi a wil l invad e th e Unite d States , attackin g

j 6 I Apocalyptic Apparitions of the Virgin Mary with nuclea r missiles . This nuclea r conflagratio n an d othe r nuclea r exchange s will exterminat e million s o f people , an d th e Unite d State s wil l b e destroye d because i t ha s becom e a natio n o f si n an d increasin g paganism . Thi s thir d world wa r i s considered t o b e a "man-made chastisement, " a punishmen t fo r sins tha t Go d wil l permi t unles s human s repent . The Baysid e prophecie s repeatedl y declar e tha t a s sinfulnes s increases , s o will disaster s an d socia l problems , resultin g ultimatel y i n God s wrathfu l con demnation o f th e huma n rac e i n th e for m o f th e "Firebal l o f Redemption, " a comet tha t wil l eliminat e mor e tha n three-quarter s o f th e world s population . An apocalypti c scenari o involvin g a divinel y sen t come t tha t wil l cleans e th e earth i s not uniqu e to the Bayside apparitions bu t i s mentioned i n various pop ular books on Catholi c prophecy . The privatel y published Prophecies, the Chastisement, and Purification (Herber t 1986) , written b y an interprete r o f Catholi c prophecy, survey s variou s Maria n chastisemen t scenario s prophesie d b y seer s and visionaries , on e o f which i s by a fireball o f redemption . Catholic Prophecy (Dupont 1973) , whose traditionalis t Catholi c autho r say s he ha s studie d hun dreds of prophecies, ha s a chapter entitle d "Th e Comet. " It s narratives about a fiery come t an d belief s abou t a divine chastisemen t ar e no t sanctione d b y th e Catholic Churc h bu t ar e a for m o f fol k apocalypticism , learne d throug h pop ular publication s an d discussion s tha t Catholic s hav e with on e another . Mrs. Lueken s description s o f th e Firebal l chastisemen t ar e a s extensiv e a s her depiction s o f th e nuclea r chastisement . I n on e o f he r apparition s sh e describes th e Firebal l a s follows : Now I see coming through the sky a tremendous huge ball, Oh! It's like a giant sun. Bu t as it is travelling through th e sky now it seems to be turning colours, white and orange, and spinning so fast, tha t it's like it's hurtling through space. Aaah! It has tremendous heat ! . . . Now I'm lookin g into th e street—it's a very large city an d I see people pointin g u p t o th e sky and the y loo k like the y ar e filled wit h terror ; they'r e runnin g and they'r e all runnin g bu t the y seem t o be running from th e cities .Oh ... , my goodness—Oh!! I see back as I look back— I se e what loo k lik e bodie s bu t I can't recogniz e the m becaus e the y loo k . . . Oooh! They loo k lik e they've bee n burnt , burn t black ! Ooh! . . . Oooh! . . . I see everything i s flattened back there . It looked lik e it was a city—but it' s flat and there's smoke rising, and everything looks like it was just knocked over, like a stack of cards. (OLR Book 1986:46) Although th e imager y migh t b e interprete d a s a metapho r fo r nuclea r war — the atomi c fireball—Mrs. Lueken s message s mak e i t clea r tha t thi s i s a God sent come t o f destruction . Humanit y wil l no t b e solel y responsibl e fo r th e

Apocalyptic Apparitions of the Virgin Mary I 7 7 final apocalypse; the fury of God will b e unleashed and most of humanity will perish. A s th e world itsel f become s increasingl y sinfu l an d violent , Go d wil l repay human violenc e with th e violence o f apocalypse . Mrs. Lueken s message s mak e a distinction betwee n th e nuclea r chastise ment an d th e come t chastisement , ye t on e canno t hel p bu t conside r th e Fireball i n term s o f th e imager y o f nuclea r conflagration . Mrs . Lueken s visions o f bodies burn t blac k an d cities completel y levele d evok e th e image s of the leveling o f Hiroshima an d Nagasaki b y nuclea r bombs an d th e black ened bodie s amid th e ruins . I t is tempting t o conside r visions o f the Firebal l to b e a projection o f fear s o f nuclea r destruction , wit h th e come t th e sym bolic equivalen t o f the bomb , disguise d an d recas t as a fireball hurle d b y a n angry God . Vision s o f a fiery apocalyps e an d it s aftermath , whethe r b y means o f nuclea r weaponr y o r divin e fireball, ar e eas y t o imagin e i n th e nuclear ag e an d imbu e Mrs . Lueken s prophecie s wit h a disturbin g visua l power. In contras t t o th e apocalypti c ange r o f God , th e ton e o f th e Virgin Mar y in he r apparition s t o Mrs . Lueke n i s tha t o f concer n an d lov e fo r humanit y gone astray : "My children, a s a Mother, M y hear t i s torn fo r you. O mother s who com e t o Me , heart s bleedin g i n sorrow , I will comfor t you , fo r I , too , know th e sufferin g o f loss " (Octobe r 6 , 1979 ; Directives from Heaven 1 , no . 8 [December 27,199i]:i) . Lik e previous Maria n visitations , th e Virgin Mar y o f Bayside appear s a s a compassionat e an d lovin g mothe r wh o i s warnin g he r children of imminent disaster and attempting t o save and comfort them . Mrs. Luekens prediction s fluctuate betwee n vision s o f devastation , wit h Mar y depicted a s a warrior deit y wh o wil l lea d th e battl e agains t Sata n an d ulti mately crush him beneath her heel, and Mary as nurturing and loving mother, pleading wit h he r childre n t o preven t th e prophesie d catastrophe s throug h repentance, prayer , an d conversion . Despit e th e apocalypti c etho s an d vio lence o f th e vision s a t Bayside , Baysider s emphasiz e th e rol e o f th e Virgi n Mary a s the forgivin g an d compassionat e Mother , th e Mothe r wh o nurture s all, wh o suffer s an d weep s ove r he r children , an d protect s the m fro m th e wrath o f God th e Father. Devotio n t o th e Virgin Mary , at Flushing Meadow s Park an d elsewhere , i s appealin g no t onl y becaus e i t ma y represen t th e wor ship o f th e feminin e sid e o f Go d bu t perhap s becaus e i t expresse s deepl y fel t emotions abou t ou r ow n mother s a s well a s the yearning fo r divine materna l protection otherwis e denie d i n th e Christia n traditio n dominate d b y mal e deities an d principle s (se e Cunningha m 1982 ; Greeley 1977 ; Jung 1970 ; Ksel man an d Avella 1986).

78 I Apocalyptic Apparitions of the Virgin Mary

Unique Aspects of the Bayside Apparitions The Baysid e apparitions hav e antecedents i n previou s Marian apparitions , bu t they als o hav e new , idiosyncrati c element s tha t modif y th e existin g corpu s o f beliefs an d narrative s an d tha t furthe r contribut e t o th e traditio n o f Maria n sightings. On e suc h element , fo r instance , i s th e belie f i n th e concep t o f th e Rapture, normall y associate d wit h premillennia l dispensationalism . Lik e dis pensationalist beliefs , Mrs . Lueken s prophecie s impl y tha t a selec t grou p o f the chosen fe w will no t hav e to endure th e horror s o f apocalypse becaus e the y will hav e bee n rapture d prio r t o thi s event . He r idea s abou t th e Raptur e ma y well hav e bee n influence d b y dispensationalis t though t (perhap s eve n Ha l Lindseys books , whic h wer e popula r durin g th e decad e i n whic h he r vision s began), althoug h he r description s o f th e Raptur e diffe r fro m thos e o f dispen sationalists an d ar e somewha t vague . I n a messag e delivere d b y th e Virgi n Mary, Mrs . Lueke n states : I give you grace of heart, My children, t o know that man y shall be taken fro m the earth befor e th e great chastisement. I t will be of great mirth , M y child, t o reveal t o yo u tha t ther e wil l b e muc h consternatio n an d conflictin g though t when thes e belove d childre n disappea r fro m th e earth . Man y o f you r new s media shall state that the y have been carrie d off b y flying saucers. Oh no , M y children, the y were carried of f int o a supernatural real m o f the Eternal Fathe r to await th e return o f My Son upon earth . (OLR Booklet n.d.ii) Unlike Lindsey, Mrs. Lueken doe s not develop a systematic articulation o f what will occur during the Rapture, and i t is unclear whether th e Rapture will involv e only Baysider s or includ e other traditionalis t Catholic s or Christians i n general . The ambiguou s natur e o f Mrs . Lueken s Raptur e scenari o i s indicate d b y other message s that specif y tha t th e faithfu l ma y have to endure th e horrors o f the las t days , suffering th e ordea l o f large-scal e nuclea r wa r an d th e Chastise ment, durin g which three-fourth s o f humanity will be destroyed. Som e of th e prophecies asser t tha t believer s wil l surviv e th e comin g destruction ; othe r messages fro m Mar y declar e tha t th e innocen t wil l b e kille d i n th e cataclysm s (OLR Book 1986:49) . The prophecie s encourag e believer s t o prepar e fo r th e catastrophes an d suffering s ahead : t o stor e food , nai l crucifixe s t o thei r doors , pray, an d protec t themselve s wit h thei r "spiritua l armor"—scapulars , cruci fixes, rosaries , religiou s medals , an d saints ' statues . Th e importanc e o f thes e spiritual object s i s continually emphasize d i n th e prophecies : "Bot h fron t an d back door s mus t hav e a crucifix. I say this t o you becaus e there will be carnag e within you r areas , an d thi s wil l pas s yo u b y i f you kee p you r crucifi x upo n

Apocalyptic Apparitions of theVirgin Mary I 7 9 your doors " {OLR Booklet n.d.ni) . Prayin g th e Hai l Mar y i s als o frequentl y mentioned a s an act tha t will protec t Baysider s fro m imminen t catastrophes . Another featur e tha t distinguishes Mrs . Lueken s visions fro m thos e of previous Roman Catholi c seers is that she has received prophecies from numerou s figures i n th e Roma n Catholi c pantheon , no t jus t th e Virgi n Mary . Mrs . Lueken frequentl y receive s message s fro m Jesus , an d occasionall y fro m Sain t Michael th e Archangel , wh o i s venerate d a s th e guardia n o f th e church , th e conqueror of Satan and the fallen angel s cast into hell fo r eternity for rebellin g against God . Othe r figures tha t hav e accompanie d th e Virgi n Mar y i n he r appearances a t Baysid e an d Flushin g Meadow s Par k includ e Sain t Th^rese o f Lisieux, Sain t Joseph, Sain t Paul , Sain t John th e Evangelist , Sain t Gabrie l th e Archangel, Sain t Teres a o f Avila , Sain t Franci s o f Assisi , Sain t Anne , Sain t Joachim, Sain t Bernadett e o f Lourdes , Sain t John Neuman n o f Philadelphia , Saint Gemma Galgani , Sain t Aloysius Gonzaga , Sain t Thomas Aquinas, Sain t Robert Bellarmine, Saint Catherine Laboure, Jacinta Marto (on e of the visionaries of Fatima), and Padre Pio (th e stigmatic Capuchi n friar) . The Baysid e literature explain s tha t th e appearanc e o f al l thes e saint s indicate s th e Virgi n Marys desire to reestablish "th e cult of the Saints, which th e modernists i n th e church hav e trie d t o destroy , mainl y b y th e remova l o f th e statues an d Sacre d Images from th e Catholic Sanctuarie s o f the World" {OLR Book 1986:81). Along with apparitions of saints, Mrs. Lueken has had visions of people who have recently died, such as a vision of her son (wh o was shot to death in an accident), ascendin g a golden staircas e int o heaven . Pop e Piu s X , know n fo r hi s antimodernist views, has appeared to Mrs. Lueken, as have several other popes, who sometimes speak to her directly. Pop e John Pau l II appeared in one visio n and said, "My children of the world pray for me" {Directives from Heaven 1 , no. 7 [Decembe r 13 , 1991]: 1). The profusio n o f saints an d othe r hol y figures wh o have appeared at the apparition sit e no t onl y confir m Mrs . Lueken s visionar y powers fo r Baysider s bu t indicat e tha t God s intermediarie s ar e activel y involved i n communicating an d implementing Go d s plan i n th e last days. Mrs. Lueken s lengthy and detailed accounts of what she sees in her visions is anothe r distinctiv e aspec t o f th e Baysid e apparitions . I n he r visions , Mrs . Lueken describe s th e colo r o f th e sky , th e clothing , th e gestures , an d th e expressions o f the divine being s with who m sh e communicates : The sky has been a very misty, subdued colouring of pink . . . but there is blue now . . . Our Lady's call, He r call signal i s blue in the sky, blue dots. Bu t the whole area surrounding the call colours of Our Lady, the area is turning into a velvety-looking plush . .. almos t like a floorcovering... a carpeting of deep blue

8o I Apocalyptic Apparitions of the Virgin Mary velvet. . . . Our Lady now is coming forward, and She's stepping onto this very beautiful, blue carpet. Our Lady is dressed in a white gown, a beautiful, almost translucent colour of white. And She has on a golden type of belting around Her waist. . . . Our Lady has a mantle of deep blue, a beautiful colou r blue, and all along the border of the mantle, there's a golden trim . Oh, from here it would appear to be around an inch and a half trim. . .. (OLR Book 1986:18) Such description s usuall y continu e fo r severa l paragraph s an d ar e typical o f most o f Mrs . Lueken s apparitions . Th e commo n expression s an d colloqui alisms used by Mrs. Lueken, as well a s the inclusio n o f her emotional interjec tions, giv e th e message s a n unpretentiou s o r "unrefined " qualit y tha t non Baysiders ma y find humorou s bu t tha t Baysider s do no t see m t o min d a t all. Skeptics might facetiousl y remar k that such accounts describe the Virgin Mar y as if she were participating i n a divine fashio n show, yet this emphasis on exac t detail an d visua l imager y enhance s th e perceptualizatio n o f Mrs . Lueken s visions and gives graphic testimon y t o thei r authenticity fo r Baysiders. The Baysid e literatur e provide s a reason fo r th e necessit y o f thes e length y descriptions: th e Virgi n Mar y ha s adapte d he r appearance s t o th e need s o f Americans: In th e Unite d States , Ou r Blesse d Mothe r know s th e American people . Sh e knows thei r hunge r fo r details . . . . And so , a t eac h vigil , Veronic a whil e i n ecstasy, describes in detail Ou r Lady's appearance, He r manner of movement, the celestial beings that accompany Her, and a wealth of other particulars dear to the hearts of those who love Her and pray to Her. . .. I n appearing in New York City, Our Lady has come to the capital city of a nation of television addicts. They have been conditioned to demand the details of the visual. And with Her typical graciousness, Our Lady seeks to accommodate them. (OLRBook1986:18) In th e past , visionaries usuall y hav e briefl y describe d th e Virgin Mar y an d conveyed Mary s concis e message s som e tim e afte r thei r visions ha d occurred ; Mrs. Lueken s extensiv e description s an d divin e communication s occu r i n th e immediate present, with devotees hearing her narration shortly after she receives the messages from heaven . Becaus e they are told exactly when Mary , Jesus, and the saints are present at the shrine, Baysider s actively participat e i n th e apparitions, responding immediately to the messages as they are conveyed. During my visits t o th e apparitio n site , Baysider s bega n noticin g increase d supernatura l phenomena o n th e apparitio n ground s a s soon a s Mrs. Lueke n indicate d tha t Mary and Jesus were approaching in the sky, and her descriptions of them mad e

Apocalyptic Apparitions of theVirgin Mary I 8 1 their presenc e palpabl e fo r man y Baysiders , providin g a heightene d sens e o f involvement in a numinous event as the apparitions occurred.

Miraculous Photography and Apocalyptic Divination The widespread use of photography by Baysiders to document the miraculous phenomena associated with the shrine is perhaps the most compelling innovation on previous Catholic traditions concerning Marian apparitions and miraculous images. Baysiders have adapted the image-making qualities of photography to document the signs of the apocalypse and reproduce these signs in tangible for m o n fil m (Wojci k 1996b) . Referre d t o a s "miracl e photos " o r "Polaroids from Heaven " by Baysiders, these photographic image s are said t o contain allegorica l symbol s an d ar e interprete d a s divin e communication s offering insight s of prophetic relevance. Taking miraculous photographs at the apparition site is central to the religious experiences of many Baysiders and an important mean s by which imminen t apocalypse is foretold.3 The shrines lit erature states, "Our Lady has said that the Eternal Father is making use of modern technology 'to communicate with a fallen generation, ' a generation whose hearts are so hardened, and eyes so blinded, tha t they need some kind o f tangible proof of the authenticity of the Bayside visions" (OLR Booklet n.d.:9). Mrs. Luekens messages explicitly encourage Baysiders to use Polaroid technology to document th e supernatural occurrence s a t the apparition site , and a booklet distributed by the shrine organization states that "in view of the fact that th e [Boo k of] Apocalypse itself makes extensive use of symbols, Heaven seems to b e using the same method b y communicating wit h symbol s i n th e miraculous pictures " (OLR Booklet nA.:^). Accordin g t o th e shrine s litera ture, th e Virgin Mar y ha s directe d Baysider s t o us e "Polaroi d o r othe r self developing cameras , sinc e thes e pictures develo p o n th e spo t an d therefor e eliminate late r accusation s o f tamperin g wit h th e negatives " (OLR Book 1986:22). The miraculous photographs are examined by Baysiders not only for prophetic informatio n abou t th e imminenc e o f apocalypse bu t fo r persona l revelations as well, and are valued as tangible souvenirs of supernatural man ifestations. Baysider s ar e familiar wit h th e legen d o f Saint Veronica an d he r veil, a piece of cloth that is said to have been imprinted with a miraculous and true imag e of Christ, somewha t lik e a photograph, afte r Veronic a wipe d hi s sweating and bleeding face with i t on hi s way to Calvary. Baysiders note tha t their visionary's name is also Veronica, which they claim comes from th e Latin

82 I Apocalyptic Apparitions of the Virgin Mary vera icona, or "tru e image, " an d the y sa y tha t heaven , throug h miraculou s photography, i s showing its "true face" to humanity. When I was present at the apparition site, I observed Baysiders taking photographs throughout three-hour Saturday evening vigils, although most began taking pictures once Mrs. Lueken entere d a trance state of divine ecstasy. As she described th e approach o f Jesus and Mar y i n th e heavens , Baysiders fer vently snapped photographs of the sky and shrine. The sound of clicking and fluttering camer a shutters and then th e whirl-buzz of film being ejected fro m hundreds of Polaroid cameras could be heard all over the apparition site. Once the sheets of Polaroid film are dispensed from th e cameras, images begin forming almost immediately, and the photos are completely developed within sixty seconds as the photographers and other anxious Baysiders look on. The supernatural symbol s an d figures manifeste d o n th e photo s includ e streak s an d swirls of light; images representing Mary, Jesus, and various saints; symbols for angels and demons ; th e "re d bea r of communism"; th e Firebal l o f Redemption; th e world i n flames. Dotted line s and bead s of light appear i n man y of the photos ; thes e ar e sai d t o b e th e Baysiders * rosar y prayer s ascendin g t o heaven. Some Baysider s tape ros e petals believed t o have miraculous power s to the side of their cameras in order to enhance the possibility of taking a miracle photograph. The petal s are said t o have been blesse d by Jesus and Mar y during previou s apparitions a t th e site. Several individual s I spoke with tol d me that the y also had their cameras blessed by a priest. Various publications and videocassettes distributed by the shrine organization contain reproduction s o f som e o f th e mor e famou s miracl e photos , whic h Baysiders often show to the public during lectures and video presentations. NonBaysiders have difficulty seein g the miraculous imagery in the photos and may even laugh at the pictures, but many Baysiders believe that the photographs defy all scientifi c analysis , tha t the y ar e proo f o f th e miraculou s natur e o f Mrs . Luekens visions. Rationalistic explanations attribute the imagery on the photos to accidenta l doubl e exposures , lon g hand-hel d exposures , an d th e fac t tha t Baysiders usually take the photos at night, without a flash.This results in a slower shutter speed, thus exposing the Polaroid film to the various light sources on the apparition grounds and creating unusual photographic imagery. For the skeptical, the Baysiders' misunderstanding of photographic technology has resulted in the mystification an d sacralization of the Polaroid process. Baysiders confidently deny such explanations and openly discuss their own views about how the photos are miraculously created. One explanation tha t I frequently hear d was that the Holy Spirit enters the camera and "directs" the content and symbolism of the photos. Other explanations are that Mary, Jesus, the saints, and previous vision-

Apocalyptic Apparitions of the Virgin Mary I 8 3 aries actually draw or create the image s insid e th e camera . The photo s ar e considered by Baysiders to be graces bestowed fo r private revelation. Baysiders ar e no t uniqu e i n thei r us e o f camera s t o documen t miraculou s phenomena a t a Marian apparitio n site . Miraculou s photo s hav e bee n take n of the Virgin Mar y appearing over a Coptic churc h i n Zeitoun, Egypt ; over a tree i n Sa n Damiano , Italy ; and i n th e su n a t Medjugorje . Man y pilgrim s a t the apparitio n sit e i n Lubbock , Texas , i n 1989 , too k picture s o f th e miracle s associated with tha t shrine, a s do follower s o f Nancy Fowler s Maria n appari tions i n Conyers , Georgia . Th e creatin g o f sacre d image s throug h photogra phy i s a n emergin g Catholi c fol k traditio n associate d wit h contemporar y Marian apparition sites. As a folk religiou s phenomenon, miraculou s photog raphy is an institutionally unsanctioned expression of the doctrine of the communion o f saints . Thi s tene t tha t th e sacre d manifest s itsel f i n matte r an d intervenes in the lives of people may pose problems regarding communicatio n between a n invisibl e spiritua l worl d an d th e faithfu l o n eart h becaus e on e i s never sur e tha t one s prayer s hav e bee n hear d b y Go d o r a saint (Turne r an d Turner 1978:205) . Miraculou s photograph y resolve s thi s dilemma , providin g Baysiders with direct and palpable experiences of supernatural interventio n i n their lives, as well as permanent photographi c record s that verify th e reality o f contact with th e divine . As a mean s o f predictin g apocalypse , determinin g th e wil l o f God , an d interpreting th e present , miracl e photograph y i s a for m o f divination , a technique of interpreting symbolic message s communicated b y supernatura l forces believe d t o shape th e destin y o f individual s an d histor y itself . Histor ically, som e o f th e mor e popula r form s o f divinatio n hav e include d numerology, palmistry , astrology , decodin g th e behavio r o f animals or read ing thei r entrails , interpretin g natura l phenomena , analyzin g dreams , an d communicating wit h th e spirit s o f th e dea d (G . Foste r 1972) . I n th e Greco Roman world , th e primar y form s o f divinatio n include d kleromanc y (th e casting o f lots) , ornithomanc y (th e flight an d behavio r o f birds) , haruspic y (the entrail s o f animals) , cledonomanc y (variou s omens , sounds , chanc e remarks, o r events) , an d oneiromanc y (dreams ) (Aun e 1983:23) . Accordin g to classicis t Geor g Luck , "Almos t anythin g tha t coul d b e experience d o r observed, anythin g tha t attracte d attention , anythin g tha t coul d b e manip ulated" wa s use d t o predic t th e futur e an d divin e th e meanin g o f event s (1985:256-257). I n a n ag e i n which peopl e hav e becom e increasingl y depen dent o n technology , th e us e o f Polaroi d camera s a s device s o f divinatio n should no t b e surprising .

84 I Apocalyptic Apparitions of the Virgin Mary

Various shrin e publication s abou t th e Baysid e phenomeno n provid e a guide t o the mai n symbol s that appea r on th e Polaroids, similar t o a divinatory chart , givin g Baysider s a basis for decipherin g th e miracl e photos . The types o f symbol s ar e divide d int o fou r categories : numbers , letter s o f th e alphabet, concret e symbols, and colors . For instance , th e numbe r 2 symbolizes a man or woman; the number 3 means warning; the letter M means Mary; W i s for worldwide warning. The omega sign means the End is at hand. Concrete symbol s ofte n includ e snakes , which represen t th e force s o f hell . And among colors, blue equates with th e Virgin Mary ; pink, Jesus Christ; green , Saint Michael; and purple , suffering o r sorrow (OLR Book 1986:22). The divinator y practice s of Baysiders resembl e what usuall y i s characterized as "technical divination, " which i s based on th e knowledge and abilitie s of th e divine r t o interpre t signs , sacrifices , o r dream s (Aun e 1983:23 , 349). Although th e symbolis m tha t i s manifeste d o n miracl e photo s i s divinel y communicated, th e meaning s o f th e photo s ar e not , no r ar e Baysider s divinely inspired, with the exception of their visionary, Veronica Lueken. The photos mus t b e decode d b y Baysiders , an d interpretatio n i s based o n one s knowledge of the established divinator y system. The symbolism o n th e photos i s ambiguou s an d undecipherabl e t o non-Baysiders , an d th e crypti c meanings are not always apparent even to Baysiders themselves. For instance, after I took a Polaroid phot o at the apparition site , various people at th e site offered somewha t genera l interpretation s o f its meaning. On e perso n state d that th e scrawl s o n th e sid e o f th e phot o represente d th e Baysiders ' rosar y prayers, said at the apparition site , ascending to heaven. Bu t the person was unable t o deciphe r th e othe r imager y o n th e photograph . Later , anothe r Baysider—who had previously asked me about m y religious background an d knew tha t I was not a Baysider, tha t I did no t necessaril y believe in miracu lous photography—confidentl y deciphere d variou s image s o n th e photo , identifying variou s symbols, such a s the Baysiders ' rosar y prayer s ascendin g to heaven, as well as a symbol of the Freemasons, identified a s enemies of the church, an d a gree n strea k representin g Sain t Michael . I was tol d tha t th e photo indicate d tha t evi l force s wer e battlin g fo r m y sou l an d tha t Sain t Michael coul d protec t me . After explainin g this imagery, this individual discussed th e Bayside apparitions at length, his own initia l doubts about them , and Veronic a Lueken s miraculou s abilities . H e als o sai d tha t h e di d no t understand some symbolism i n my photo, but that Veronica would be able to tell me what i t meant. He advised me to examine the photo further an d contemplate it s meaning. The vague symbolism o f miracle photos permit s a multitude o f interpre-

Apocalyptic Apparitions of the Virgin Mary I 8 5 tations, influence d b y individua l an d socia l contexts . I di d no t provid e th e interpretation o f th e photos ; thei r meaning s wer e formulate d i n situationa l context, suggeste d b y other s presen t wh o wer e familia r wit h th e divinator y system an d the Baysid e literature . I n m y case, miracl e photograph y serve d as a mean s o f spiritua l diagnosi s an d a s a basis fo r a discussion abou t th e Bay side apparitions , th e fol k theolog y o f th e shrine , an d Mrs . Lueken s super natural abilities . Later , afte r I too k anothe r photograp h tha t ha d streak s o f light i n it , I asked the ma n wh o ha d suggeste d tha t I take a photo, an d fro m whom I borrowe d a Polaroi d camera , wha t i t meant . H e replied , "Well , d o you se e anythin g i n i t tha t relate s t o you r ow n life ? Wha t di d yo u as k for?" When I responded tha t I had n o ide a what i t meant , h e tol d m e t o tak e ye t another photo , thi s tim e concentratin g o n a specifi c subjec t o r "askin g heaven" a specific question . Lik e a religiou s Rorschac h test , th e ambiguou s imagery on miracl e photos allows for a variety of attributed meanings , whic h reflect bot h th e theolog y o f th e shrine an d th e dominatin g concern s o f indi viduals a t th e apparitio n site . Some of the photos are diagnostic in nature and provide information abou t ones curren t spiritua l stat e o r a n understandin g o f curren t evils ; other s ar e predictive and reveal information abou t the fate of the world. On another visit to th e apparitio n site , I notice d tha t man y peopl e wer e takin g photo s o f th e sky. I decide d t o tr y thi s an d too k severa l picture s o f th e sun . M y Polaroid s contained a n imag e o f a white or b surrounde d b y a blackene d sky . Peopl e began gatherin g around m e an d attempte d t o interpre t th e photos . On e per son exclaime d loudly , "It s th e Fireball—th e Firebal l o f Redemption! " Th e photos wer e passe d aroun d an d scrutinized . I was temporaril y treate d a s if I, or perhap s m y camera , ha d specia l divinator y powers , an d severa l peopl e waited fo r m e t o tak e mor e photos , whic h I did. I n thi s instance , photodiv ination reaffirmed Mrs . Luekens predictions of imminent worldly destructio n by a divinely sent comet, provided a means to discuss the imminence o f futur e disasters, an d momentaril y afforde d m e a certai n degre e o f socia l status . Although th e predictive and diagnostic image s on miracl e photos are not nec essarily interprete d a s explici t prescription s fo r behavior , th e imager y ofte n motivates peopl e t o pray , proselytize , o r engage i n othe r activities believe d t o be spiritually efficacious. Photodivinatio n i s thus a means of spiritual instruc tion tha t reinforce s th e message s of the Baysid e apparition s an d reveal s God s design fo r the world and fo r one s own life . Fo r Baysiders, Polaroi d photogra phy has become th e technolog y o f prophecy, providin g a lens throug h whic h Gods pla n is revealed and brought int o focus, literally unveiling images of the endtimes. 4

86 I Apocalyptic Apparitions of the Virgin Mary

The Bayside Movement, Roman Catholic Traditionalism, and Conspiracy in the Church The Baysid e phenomeno n i s a n expressio n o f th e broade r Roma n Catholi c traditionalist movemen t tha t arose after th e reform s initiate d durin g th e Sec ond Vatica n Counci l (1962-1965) . Catholi c traditionalis m develope d a s a response t o the liberalizing changes in church doctrine and policy, such as the Mass bein g sai d entirel y i n th e vernacular, th e pries t facin g th e congregatio n during th e consecration o f the Hol y Eucharist , increase d participatio n i n services b y member s o f th e congregation , an d les s emphasi s o n religiou s cere mony an d mor e o n th e wor d o f God . Althoug h th e majorit y o f Roma n Catholics welcome d thes e changes , th e Councils aggiornamento ("updating" ) was regarded by some as a betrayal of the Catholic faith and the abandonmen t of a rich heritag e o f sacred traditions . Like man y traditionalis t Catholics , mos t Baysider s regar d Vatica n I I a s heretical o r th e resul t o f a conspirac y an d rejec t it s modernis t theology , it s liturgical changes , an d it s sacramenta l rites . Man y traditionalist s condem n Pope Pau l VI, wh o approve d th e reform s o f Vatican II , an d som e rejec t out right th e authorit y an d infallibilit y o f th e pop e a s Christ' s representativ e o n earth. Thi s view , hel d b y th e sedevacantis t traditionalist s (fro m th e Latin , meaning "vacant see") asserts that all the popes since Pius XII are invalid, considering the m "deposed , excommunicated , o r improperl y elected, " an d tha t currently Rom e ha s n o legitimat e pop e (Dinge s 1991:88) . Baysider s sa y tha t the authentic pope , Pau l VI, was poisoned an d replace d by an imposte r pop e who, wit h hi s satani c allies , the n implemente d th e modernis t change s i n th e church. Consequently , Baysider s believ e tha t the y d o no t oppos e th e author ity of the actual pope , Pau l VI, because , the y maintain , h e had nothin g t o d o with th e progressiv e reform s o f th e church . Conspiracy theorie s abou t th e change s institute d b y th e Secon d Vatica n Council ar e no t uniqu e t o th e Baysider s bu t ar e a persistent featur e o f tradi tionalist Catholi c worldview . Traditionalis t literatur e consistentl y proclaim s that th e church i s infiltrated b y evil force s an d tha t th e reform s o f Vatican I I are a part of a plot b y the enemies o f Christ t o destroy the church, with com munists an d Freemason s a s ubiquitou s conspirator s (Dinge s 1991:89-90) . According to many traditionalists, post-Vatican I I revisions were not the result of reasonable , negotiate d change s i n Catholi c religiou s cultur e bu t par t o f a diabolic pla n orchestrated b y devious force s t o undermin e th e church's sacred traditions an d contaminat e it s institutions . The natur e an d rang e o f change s brought abou t b y Vatica n I I an d th e spee d wit h whic h thes e wer e imple -

Apocalyptic Apparitions of the Virgin Mary I 8 7 mented by an institution perceive d as immutable ar e cited by traditionalists as further proo f of a conspiracy. A conspiratoria l vie w o f th e worl d associate d wit h Maria n apparition s i s encountered i n th e for m o f th e suppose d "secrets " conveye d b y th e Virgi n Mary i n he r appearance s a t L a Salett e an d especiall y a t Fatima . Th e thir d secret o f Fatima , rumore d t o predic t variou s cataclysms , wa s supposed t o b e disclosed i n i960 , bu t th e Catholi c Churc h ha s neve r reveale d th e secret . Soon afte r th e i960 deadline , however , th e alleged contents o f the secret were published i n variou s periodicals , wit h th e mos t famou s an d influentia l appearing i n th e Germa n weekl y Neues Europa o n Octobe r 15 , 1963 . Th e account, which was purported t o revea l th e mai n point s o f the message , pre dicted tha t Sata n woul d infiltrat e th e highes t position s o f th e Catholi c Church an d confus e it s leaders , woul d convinc e worl d leader s t o manufac ture nuclear weapons in great numbers, and then initiat e a massive war in th e second hal f of th e twentiet h centur y i n which million s o f peopl e woul d die . This apocalyptic scenario was inevitable unles s peopl e converted , th e churc h and world leader s encourage d suc h conversions , an d th e buildu p o f nuclea r warheads wa s prevente d (Zimdars-Swart z 1991:213-214) . Rumor s als o circu lated tha t th e see r Luci a ha d warne d tha t i f th e churc h di d no t revea l th e secret, communis t Russi a woul d soo n brin g abou t th e en d o f th e worl d (Alonso 1979:54) . The apocalypti c message s conveye d t o Mrs . Lueke n b y th e Virgi n Mar y not onl y reflec t thes e rumor s an d popula r belief s abou t th e thir d secre t o f Fatima bu t cal l fo r Luci a (wh o wa s livin g i n a Carmelit e conven t i n Coim bra, Portugal , i n th e 1980s ) t o revea l th e secre t becaus e th e Catholi c Churc h will no t an d th e En d i s near : "Th e hourglas s i s almos t empty ; day s ca n b e counted b y hours. Fo r at this very moment W e see a most terribl e explosion , with th e los s o f man y live s abou t t o tak e plac e . . . hav e Luc y [Lucia ] com e forward an d tel l th e Third Secre t wor d fo r word " ("Roses " newsletter , mes sage fro m th e Virgin Mary , June 18,1986) . Mrs. Lueken s message s concernin g th e thir d secre t especiall y emphasiz e the ide a o f the "satani c infiltration " o f th e church , interprete d a s the change s that occurre d a s th e resul t o f th e Secon d Vatica n Council . Fo r instance , o n May 13,1978 , Mar y reveale d t o Mrs. Lueke n "ho w I warned an d warned tha t Satan woul d ente r int o th e highes t realm s o f th e hierarch y i n Rome . Th e Third Secret , M y Child , i s tha t Sata n woul d ente r int o M y Son s Church " (OLR Book 1986:113). According to the Bayside literature, th e disclosure of the third secret of Fatima i n i96 0 woul d hav e alerted th e faithfu l o f the insidiou s takeover o f th e church , an d perhap s prevente d th e liberalizin g change s tha t

88 I Apocalyptic Apparitions of the Virgin Mary occurred afte r Vatican II . Like other traditionalists , Baysider s regard th e strug gle fo r th e restoratio n o f traditiona l Catholi c doctrine s an d rite s a s a conflic t between goo d an d evil , a n eschatologica l battl e betwee n th e siniste r minion s of Satan an d righteou s arm y o f Christ .

Antimodernist and Nativistic Aspects of the Bayside Apparitions The Baysid e phenomeno n i s no t uniqu e amon g apocalypti c movement s i n its emphasi s o n a retur n t o previou s traditions . Numerou s apocalypti c movements i n th e pas t hav e advocate d a restoratio n o f traditiona l value s when accepte d system s o f meanin g were bein g destroyed b y change o r whe n the world wa s perceived t o b e i n a state of severe spiritual, moral , o r cultura l crisis. I n suc h situations , establishe d belief s an d practice s ar e reasserte d while individual s awai t th e imminen t an d supernaturall y ordaine d destruc tion o f th e presen t world , whic h i s regarded a s irredeemabl y corrupt . Ralp h Linton identifie s suc h worldview s a s expressions o f "nativisti c movements, " defined a s any "conscious , organize d attemp t o n th e par t o f a society's mem bers t o reviv e o r perpetuat e selecte d aspect s o f it s culture " (1943:230) . Although thi s concep t i s usuall y applie d t o non-Wester n societie s t o describe response s t o cultura l contact , conflict , an d oppression , i t seem s t o be a n appropriat e characterizatio n o f th e theme s expresse d i n th e Baysid e apparitions a s wel l a s th e behavio r o f Baysiders . Nativisti c movements , according t o Linton , plac e emphasi s o n restorin g an d preservin g practice s considered t o b e traditional , an d attemp t t o eliminat e specifi c foreig n influ ences fro m th e society. An often-cite d exampl e o f a nativistic respons e i s th e Ghost Danc e movemen t o f variou s Nativ e America n tribe s i n th e 1890s , which wa s characterize d b y th e rejectio n o f Western cultura l influences , th e revival o f traditiona l ceremonie s an d games , an d th e millenaria n promis e o f the destructio n o f th e ne w settler s an d a retur n t o a n idealize d conditio n prior t o th e white man' s arrival (Linto n 1943) . Like previous nativisti c move ments, th e emphasi s o n th e restoratio n o f tradition s tha t characterize s th e Bayside phenomeno n i s a respons e t o a sense of religiou s an d cultura l crisis , and especiall y a sens e o f loss—th e los s o f on e s religiou s heritag e an d on e s religious identity . Another concep t usefu l fo r understandin g th e ideas communicated i n Mrs . Lueken s visions i s th e notio n o f "revitalization, " propose d b y Anthony Wal lace (1956 ) an d define d a s a deliberat e an d organize d religiou s respons e tha t attempts t o rejuvenat e an d reinterpre t existin g cultura l pattern s i n orde r t o

Apocalyptic Apparitions of the Virgin Mary I 8 9 save the culture and construc t a more satisfying existence . Wallace asserts tha t religious revitalizatio n i s a respons e t o cultura l disintegration , situation s o f stress an d crisis , an d widesprea d dissatisfaction , an d h e demonstrate s tha t nativistic movements , messianism , an d millenarianis m ma y al l b e subsume d under thi s genera l term . The nativisti c an d revitalisti c aspect s o f th e Baysid e apparition s ar e illus trated b y th e repeate d pronouncement s tha t contemporar y societ y i s i n a state of social crisi s and decay . Mrs. Luekens vision s enumerate th e ways tha t traditional Catholi c attitude s abou t God , morality , community , family , sex uality, and th e role s of women an d men , amon g othe r things , have been chal lenged o r destroyed. The restoratio n o f traditional beliefs , practices , and spir ituality i s regarded a s the only mean s o f averting worldly destruction. Agains t the assertion s o f science , relativism , ecumenism , an d modernism , Mrs . Luekens prophecie s deman d a retur n t o immutabl e Catholi c tradition s an d completely rejec t th e recen t innovation s i n th e church : "M y Son s Churc h has bee n lai d ou t an d th e cours e t o Heaven , th e wa y t o Heave n ha s bee n given b y Him. Therefore, chang e causes confusion an d error . When yo u hav e something beautiful , whe n yo u hav e a firm foundation , yo u don' t star t bor ing hole s i n it , o r yo u wil l weake n it " ("Roses " newsletter , messag e fro m th e Virgin Mary , Marc h 18 , 1983). Mrs . Lueken s message s ar e a direc t respons e to th e change s brough t abou t b y th e Secon d Vatica n Council , whic h trans formed th e natur e o f Catholicis m worldwide , dramaticall y alterin g th e tra ditional liturgy , doctrines , an d ritual s tha t ha d bee n associate d wit h th e Catholic Churc h fo r centuries . He r apparition s no t onl y describ e th e en d o f the world bu t portra y th e end o f triumphalist Catholicism , th e end o f beliefs , rituals, values , an d religiou s form s tha t million s o f Catholic s learne d an d expressed throughou t thei r live s an d tha t man y peopl e continu e t o find meaningful. The Baysid e vision s ar e aggressivel y antimodernist , lik e othe r Maria n apparitions an d th e Catholi c traditionalis t movemen t i n general . Th e anti modernist sentiment s o f Maria n vision s an d pilgrimage s hav e bee n note d b y Victor an d Edit h Turner , wh o stat e tha t moder n (postmedieval ) pilgrimage s have becom e a significan t mean s o f defens e agains t th e secularizatio n tha t characterizes th e post-Darwinia n world , an d tha t Maria n apparition s "giv e emotional expressio n t o doctrine s unde r fire fro m scientifi c an d rationa l crit icism" (1978:210) , reaffirming th e realit y of the supernatural an d th e doctrine s of th e church . Thoma s Kselma n (1983) , Barbar a Corrad o Pop e (1985) , an d Nicholas Perry and Loret o Echeverria (1988 ) also note that Marian apparition s and devotio n wer e use d i n th e nineteent h centur y t o refut e modernis t an d

90 I Apocalyptic Apparitions of the Virgin Mary rationalist ideas . Veronica Lueken s apparitions , lik e previou s Maria n visions , condemn modernis t idea s a s th e sourc e o f contemporar y ill s an d asser t tha t they wil l precipitat e th e destructio n o f humanity : "Th e worl d ha s becom e polluted with al l forms of'ism' : communism , atheism , humanism , al l destructors o f th e soul " ("Roses " newsletter , messag e fro m Jesus , June 18 , 1991). Secularism, communism , science , an d Vatica n I I ar e al l considere d b y Mrs . Lueken t o b e par t o f a diaboli c conspiracy . She , lik e Ha l Lindse y an d othe r premillennialists, offer s criticis m o f th e majo r societa l development s o f th e twentieth centur y an d insist s upon a return t o traditiona l belief s an d practice s in th e las t day s befor e Christ' s return .

Apocalyptic Admonitions and the Concept of Fate Apocalyptic apparition s o f th e Virgi n Mar y an d dispensationalis t prophecie s of a precis e doomsda y scenari o bot h expres s th e vie w tha t huma n histor y i s unfolding accordin g t o a divin e endtime s plan . However , unlik e th e predic tions o f dispensationalists , wh o sa y tha t th e en d o f th e worl d i s imminent , inevitable, an d unalterabl e b y huma n wil l o r effort , th e message s o f Veronic a Lueken, an d othe r Roma n Catholi c visionaries , asser t tha t apocalyps e i s imminent bu t tha t th e divin e timetabl e ma y b e postpone d i f peopl e repen t and retur n t o God' s ways . Th e apocalyps e predicte d b y Mrs . Lueke n wil l occur a t a specifi c historica l momen t no t becaus e i t i s completel y fate d t o occur a t tha t tim e bu t becaus e o f God's ange r a t humanity' s increasin g sinful ness. As th e literatur e fro m th e shrin e states : Our Lad y has been chose n b y the Eternal Fathe r t o alert mankind no w of the scriptural predictions of a cleansing of the earth with fire unless mankind makes a complete reversal of his sinful ways. A world-wide Warning according to Our Lady shall precede thi s Chastisement i n an effor t t o recall God' s children t o a life of grace. She has also promised tha t God will perform a great Miracle afte r this Warning, and if men still refuse t o change, then God will be forced t o send the Chastisement. (OLR Booklet n.d.:i) Although overwhelmin g evi l o n eart h an d th e corruptio n o f th e Catholi c Church ma y soo n provok e Go d t o destro y th e world , futur e chastisement s and worldl y destructio n ar e no t unalterabl e o r predetermine d becaus e th e purpose o f th e Virgi n Mary' s appearanc e a s intercesso r i s t o sav e humanity , restore traditionalis t devotion , an d encourag e th e consecratio n o f Russi a t o the Immaculat e Hear t o f Mary .

Apocalyptic Apparitions of the Virgin Mary I 9 1 Like previous Marian visionaries, Mrs . Lueken maintain s tha t worldly disasters ar e bot h chastisement s fo r sinfu l behavio r an d portent s o f th e en d o f time. Thi s interpretatio n o f worldl y catastrophe s a s supernatura l warning s and admonishments i s represented b y th e followin g messag e fro m th e Virgin Mary: "Earthquakes i n your country,. . . kno w i t comes bu t from th e hand o f God. Famine, starvation, your crops will rot. The heat will burn, the cattle will starve. And why ? Becaus e yo u refus e t o tur n back , complacen t i n you r arro gance" (OLRBookletn.d.:^-4). I n enumerating th e reasons for Gods anger — communism, secularism , modernism , socia l an d mora l decay , corruptio n i n the church , homosexuality , abortion—Mrs . Lueken s message s occasionall y specify th e precise punishments t o be unleashed. I n one messag e tha t predict s a plague t o b e sent t o th e Unite d States , fo r instance , th e cause of God' s out rage i s specificall y identified : "You r cit y an d man y citie s throughou t you r country shall feel th e plague. I t is for the murders of the unborn tha t your city receives th e plague " (OLR Booklet n.d.:4) . I n thi s way , cause-and-effec t rela tionships ar e posite d betwee n huma n behavior , worldl y disaster s a s chastise ments, and the signs of the End. The prediction s o f dispensationalists suc h as Hal Lindsey , o n th e othe r hand , interpre t th e sign s o f th e En d a s noncausa l markers on a foreordained timetabl e of irreversible doom. Repentance , prayer, righteousness ar e encourage d b y Lindsey , bu t no t a s a n effectua l mean s o f averting the end o f th e world. According t o Mrs . Lueken , th e intercessio n o f th e Virgin Mar y o n behal f of humanit y ha s delayed th e destructio n o f th e world, a s the followin g mes sage from Mar y makes clear: "All I can say is I stand before th e Eternal Fathe r and continuousl y plea d you r caus e befor e Him . I f thi s wa s no t t o be , yo u would hav e received th e Bal l of Redemption already . I do no t know , M y chil dren, ho w lon g I ca n hol d th e han d o f th e Eterna l Fathe r back . I ca n sa y a t this time, tha t when th e Ball of Redemption hit s the earth, only a few will b e saved" ("Roses" newsletter, June 18,1991). Mary can petition an d interact with God, bu t the prophecies reiterat e that once worldly sin reache s a specific anti Christian critica l mass , Mary s mercifu l plea s will b e powerles s t o hol d bac k the punishing hand of God an d avert the end of the world. This belief is indicated b y th e followin g messag e delivere d t o Mrs . Lueke n fro m th e Virgi n Mary: "M y child an d M y children , ther e ar e scoffers wh o wil l sa y ther e shal l not be a Third World War. They do not know and cannot conceive of the plan of th e Eterna l Father . B e i t know n no w tha t th e Fathe r ha s great hear t fo r all His children , bu t when th e si n reache s a peak onl y know n t o th e Fathe r . . . then th e Fathe r will tak e action" ("Roses " newsletter, Ma y 5,1983) .

92 I Apocalyptic Apparitions of the Virgin Mary

The "Eterna l Father " mentione d i n Mrs . Lueken s prophecie s resemble s Jehovah, th e warrio r Go d o f th e ancien t Israelites , who control s al l earthl y phenomena and sends divine punishment to the wicked while showing mercy to hi s chose n peopl e (se e Ringgre n 1966:69-104) . Unlik e th e distan t Go d characterized b y dispensationalists , wh o i s personall y uninvolve d wit h th e inevitable disasters and dispensations foreordaine d i n th e Bible, the wrathfu l Eternal Father in Mrs. Luekens visions actively participates in the destruction of the world, sending warnings and chastisements in the form of plagues, disasters, and earthquakes t o those who disobey his divine will. Although angr y with humanity , thi s Go d respond s t o th e appeal s an d petition s o f huma n beings through hi s intermediaries, the saints, and Mary in particular . The prophecies of Mrs. Lueken reveal God s wrath toward those who have deviated fro m a divinel y prescribe d sacre d orde r an d pla n fo r humanity , while offering th e hop e tha t th e world will b e transformed throug h huma n behavior as ordained by God. Popular Roman Catholic prophecy, because of its emphasis o n th e persona l relationshi p betwee n th e saint s i n heave n an d the faithful o n earth, i s less overtly fatalistic tha n dispensationalism , with it s emphasis on biblica l literalism, inerrancy , and predetermine d dispensations . Because the saints may intercede with God on behal f of the faithful an d also convey Gods will t o those on earth , th e fat e o f world an d huma n histor y is not utterl y determined—a s i t i s i n th e dispensationalis t worldview . Th e sacramental quality of Catholicism i s epitomized by the Virgin Marys role as mediatrix between humanity and an otherwise distant and inaccessible God, and Baysiders, like many other Roman Catholic s today, believe that throug h Mary the destiny of the world may be altered. Yet even as Mrs. Luekens apparitions assert that apocalypse may be averted if people fulfill God s requests for reform, a sense of inevitability about immi nent catastroph e a s well a s th e unrecuperabilit y o f humanit y als o pervade s these predictions . Nearl y al l of the message s state tha t humanit y i s living in the last days prior t o Christ's return. Some messages imply that apocalypse is inevitable, assertin g tha t th e Chastisemen t an d comin g Bal l of Redemptio n are preordained: "D o no t b e affrighted, M y child; you mus t see this, for i t is important. Withi n thi s centur y thi s Bal l will b e sent upo n mankind " (OLR Booklet n.d.:4). This combination o f imminence an d inevitability—a n over whelming sense of impendin g doom—characterize s th e Baysid e prophecies . Mrs. Luekens lengthy descriptions and th e specific details about futur e cata clysms tha t wil l tak e plac e giv e th e impressio n tha t thes e event s ar e i n fac t fated. Th e message s impl y tha t human s will no t hee d thes e divine warnings and will continue o n a sinful pat h t o destruction: "M y child, you mus t pra y

Apocalyptic Apparitions of the Virgin Mary I 9 3 more, d o muc h penance , fo r th e Warning i s coming upo n mankin d . . . thi s warning shall be of short duration , an d ma n shal l continue upo n thei r roa d t o perdition, s o har d ar e th e heart s now , M y child " (OLR Book 1986:44) . Thi s divinely sent Warning i s said to be inevitable, and will be followed b y the Mir acle, an d the n th e Grea t Chastisement . Mrs . Lueken s vision s o f a millennia l realm tha t wil l exis t afte r th e Chastisemen t als o indicat e tha t th e destructio n of the presen t worl d i s inevitable : And now , Our Lad y is going back. It's becoming very bright: "My child, I am not leaving , I am only moving so that you can see the world a s it will be afte r the purification." . . . [T]h e sun is shining .... It' s like summer. I see these green trees and a beautiful lake . And no w as I'm lookin g at the most beautiful , rest ful place I have ever seen . .. an d now, through th e trees . .. Oh ! I can see Jesus coming! Oh, it' s like another world! It's . .. Oh ! A beautiful land—oooh!!! . . . Now it must be warm because Jesus doesn't have anything on His feet and He' s coming now through th e foliage in the trees.... Oh, now Jesus is saying: "You see, M y Child , ther e wil l b e a renewe d Earth . Yo u ar e watching, M y Child , soon after m y arrival upon Earth. " (OLR Book 1986:47) These descriptions , similar t o Lindse y s depictions o f a new earth tha t will fol low Armageddon, promis e tha t th e curren t worl d wil l b e cleanse d i n a "bap tism o f fire" an d the n renewe d i n th e for m o f a terrestrial paradise . Mrs. Luekens apparitions repeatedl y assert that th e Fireball of Redemptio n and th e ensuing apocalyptic scenari o will b e divinely sent an d beyon d huma n power t o avert , an d he r forecast s o f worldly cataclysm s i n th e for m o f earth quakes, plagues , famine , an d othe r disasters , a s supernaturall y ordaine d events, ar e believe d t o revea l G o d s pla n i n th e las t days . Thi s belie f i n inevitable disaster s prio r t o doomsda y i s expresse d i n th e introductio n t o a publication o n th e Baysid e prophecie s tha t states , With thes e ne w prophecie s yo u wil l discove r ho w t o prepar e you r famil y an d loved ones for the days just ahead. You will be free from th e anxiety and worry of the things to come. This is the most important boo k you could read, along with the Holy Bible, in these last days before tha t glorious day when Jesus returns t o earth.... Mos t of all you will discover how to protect yourself from th e great misfortunes comin g to North America. (The Incredible Bayside Prophecies I99i:v). The boo k delineate s Mrs . Lueken s prediction s abou t imminen t destructio n and maintain s tha t mos t Baysider s wil l escap e th e impendin g cataclysm s through th e spiritual protectio n offere d b y the Virgin Mar y and th e us e of various sacramental objects .

94 I Apocalyptic Apparitions of the Virgin Mary Although Baysider s ma y interpre t worldl y calamitie s t o b e divinel y sen t "imminent mercifu l warning s o f Almighty God " {OLR Book 1986:44), thes e large-scale disaster s tha t indiscriminatel y destro y complet e families , cities , o r regions are somewhat difficul t t o explain a s part of a benevolent an d mercifu l Gods pla n becaus e th e innocen t ar e punished a s well a s the sinful. Th e Bay side prophecies acknowledge th e seeming cruelty of Gods wrath and the fatefulness implici t i n divinel y sen t disasters , proclaimin g tha t thes e ar e th e inevitable resul t o f human sinfulness : My children, I hear voices of disdain shouting, sadism!! Is this a sadist God who promises such destruction upo n Hi s creation? I say unto you, as your God, I bring no t your destruction; you will brin g about your own destruction , fo r I leave you, as your God, to the exercise of your free will. In your free will, if you reject your God an d the plan for man' s redemption a s given fro m th e beginning of time, I say unto you—you will destroy yourselves1.!* (OLR Booklet n.d.iy, message from Jesus, May 18,1977). This messag e maintain s tha t huma n being s hav e fre e wil l an d thei r sinfu l behavior is the cause of current and future disasters, yet it also implies that history and human behavio r are divinely prescribed. Individual salvatio n an d the salvation o f th e world i s dependent upo n human s actin g i n accordanc e wit h the divin e will , wit h th e acceptanc e o r rejectio n o f God s prescription s fo r behavior an d belie f th e onl y tw o option s available . I n eithe r cas e thi s inter pretation o f th e result s o f huma n actio n appear s t o expres s a n underlyin g fatalism; humans , throug h thei r ow n efforts , canno t sav e themselve s o r th e world fro m apocalyps e unles s the y follo w God s wil l an d behav e i n way s decreed. Huma n being s ar e fre e t o choose , bu t ultimatel y God s wil l deter mines th e final fat e o f al l things . The apparen t contradictio n betwee n God s will, fre e will , an d divin e inevitabilit y i s no t uniqu e t o th e theolog y o f Baysiders bu t ha s characterize d Christia n though t fo r millennia , wit h th e omniscience o f Go d seemin g t o impl y th e inevitabilit y o f everythin g tha t occurs (R. Taylor 1967:362). Those who act according to God s mandates "perform Go d s will" ("accept the decrees of fate") and are promised salvation. The Bayside prophecie s encourag e peopl e t o accep t an d ac t t o fulfil l God s will , from whic h collectiv e an d individua l fat e i s derived . I f peopl e ignor e o r oppose tha t whic h i s supernaturall y decree d an d g o agains t God s will , humanity will b e destroyed. Fatalism ha s been characterize d a s "the view tha t whatever happen s mus t happen o f necessit y an d whateve r doe s no t happe n o f necessit y doe s no t happen a t a l l . . .. I t is generally take n t o be an obvious consequence o f fatal -

Apocalyptic Apparitions of theVirgin Mary I 9 5 ism tha t nothin g a man doe s i s ever reall y u p t o him . Wha t h e ha s don e h e had t o do ; an d wha t h e wil l d o h e mus t do " (Adam s an d Kretzman n 1969:3-4). Mrs . Lueken s prophecie s prescrib e wha t peopl e mus t inevitabl y do and assert that human being s are helpless t o save the world throug h thei r own efforts . Th e wil l o f Go d a s communicated b y Mrs. Lueke n i s a fatalis tic mandat e an d adherenc e t o thi s mandat e i s require d fo r salvation : "Th e world ha s no t progresse d a s th e Eterna l Fathe r ha s asked . Ma n ha s becom e obsessed wit h sin . I tel l yo u now , i n th e Trinity, tha t unles s yo u liste n now , your worl d wil l b e planet-struck " ("Roses " newsletter , messag e fro m Jesus , June 18,1991) . Although individua l fat e an d th e fat e o f th e world ma y b e conceptualize d as originating either from a personal deit y or an impersona l sourc e (Ringgre n 1967:8), i n either case fate i s assigned, determined , an d inescapable , excep t i n those instance s i n whic h huma n being s obedientl y fulfil l divinel y prescribe d behaviors. Mrs . Lueken s prophecie s asser t tha t on e canno t escap e fro m th e unalterable decree s o f Go d an d tha t human s mus t eithe r accep t the m o r b e destroyed an d eternall y damned . An y attemp t t o sav e th e worl d o r onesel f from disaste r tha t i s outside God s wil l i s rejected a s futile . The sens e o f fatefulnes s inheren t i n belief s abou t a n omniscien t God s absolute knowledg e an d will ove r all thing s ha s been debate d fo r centuries b y theologians wh o hav e attempte d t o reconcil e th e concep t o f fre e wil l wit h divine will , usuall y subordinatin g individua l freedo m t o God s powe r an d acknowledging th e helplessness o f humanity apar t fro m God : St. Augustine and virtually every other theologia n wh o contributed greatl y to the development of Christian thought assumed without question that God, as thus conceived, must know in advance every action that every man is ever going to perform.... A man is helpless to do anything except sin unless he is assisted by the power and grace of God. . . . Accordingly, n o man can be saved by the exercise o f hi s ow n will , whic h ca n lea d hi m onl y t o damnation . H e ca n b e saved only by being chosen by God. (Taylor 1967:363) Through prophecy , Baysider s discove r God s will , an d b y followin g God' s decrees the y obtain God s grac e as well a s knowledge o f the fat e of th e world, derived fro m th e wil l o f Go d an d contingen t upo n huma n behavio r a s pre scribed b y God . Prophecy an d photodivinatio n no t onl y provid e informatio n abou t Go d s will concernin g th e futur e bu t als o serv e a s a means o f interpretin g event s i n the presen t an d th e pas t a s par t o f a divine endtime s scenario . The repeate d assertions b y Baysider s tha t Mrs . Lueken s prophecie s ar e continuall y bein g

96 I Apocalyptic Apparitions of the Virgin Mary

fulfilled furthe r reinforc e th e belie f tha t disaster s an d curren t crise s ar e no t senseless but meaningful occurrence s that revea l God s wrath i n the last days. Claims of prophecies fulfilled als o support Mrs. Luekens status as a soothsayer while confirming tha t th e supernatural i s actively involved in human history . According to Mrs. Luekens prophecies, an omnipotent God, along with Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary , and the saints, oversees the fate of Baysiders and th e fate o f the world, an d th e inescapabl e duty o f human being s i s to carry ou t Gods unalterabl e will.5 In contras t t o religiou s apocalypticist s wh o believ e i n a redemptiv e an d divinely ordained apocalypse, many people in the United States today believe that th e end o f the world i s an inevitabl e bu t no t a meaningful o r supernat ural event . Th e nex t chapte r explore s selecte d secula r apocalypti c idea s i n American society, focusing specifically on attitudes about nuclea r apocalypse, and th e differences betwee n thes e ideas and religiou s concepts about th e end of the world.

5 Secular Apocalyptic Themes in th e Nuclear Era Our tragedy today is a general and universal physical fear so long sustained by now that we can even bear it. There are no longer problems of the spirit. There is only the question: when will I be blown up? —Willia m Faulkner , Nobel Priz e speech, 1954

Apocalyptic idea s traditionally have been associated with religiou s eschatologies, bu t America n secula r cultur e als o ha s contribute d t o wide spread beliefs, images , and expectations abou t th e end of the world. The con cept o f a meaningless apocalyps e brough t abou t b y huma n o r natura l cause s is a relatively recent phenomenon, differin g dramaticall y fro m religiou s apoc alyptic cosmologies . Instea d o f fait h i n a redemptive ne w real m t o b e estab lished after the present world is annihilated, secular doomsday visions are usually characterized b y a sense o f pessimism, absurdity , an d nihilism . Secular apocalypti c idea s hav e becom e increasingl y pervasiv e i n contem porary American society ; thes e notions, however , ar e not uniqu e t o th e twen tieth century. Visions of the world destroyed b y humans, a s well a s by natura l cataclysms, bega n appearin g i n fictional literatur e i n th e 1800s . According t o Warren Wagar, Mary Shelley's The Last Man (1826 ) was the first of such works, and the majority of these early secular doomsday writings, lik e religious apocalyptic visions , offere d th e hop e o f a renewe d an d transforme d societ y afte r the destructio n o f th e world (1982:11-13) . Nineteenth-centur y secula r vision s of worldly destruction an d renewa l were not limited t o literature; the Marxis t promise of world revolution and redemption o f the working class is an explicit form o f secularized millenarianism . As Eric Hobsbawm note s i n his Primitive Rebels, th e politica l ideal s o f socialis m an d communis m resembl e th e mil lenarian "hop e o f a complet e an d radica l chang e i n th e world " (1965:57 ,

97

98 I Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era 93-107). Thes e nineteenth - an d early-twentieth-centur y vision s o f worldl y destruction an d transformation wer e usually optimistic in their evaluation o f apocalypse, viewing it not as the end but the beginning of the transformatio n of society. Since th e en d o f World Wa r II , visions an d belief s abou t th e en d o f th e world appea r t o hav e becom e increasingl y pessimistic , stressin g cataclysmi c disaster a s muc h a s previou s millenaria n vision s emphasize d th e imminen t arrival o f a redemptiv e ne w era . Numerou s observer s hav e note d tha t th e romantic, millennia l visio n o f America a s a redemptiv e paradis e o r pristin e wilderness has been challenged and altered during the latter half of the twentieth century, becoming more bleak and apocalyptic in nature (see Rovit 1968; Ketterer 1974; Zamora 1982a). Literary critics have made similar assertions in their attempt s t o characteriz e th e "postmoder n condition " a s an apocalypti c psychological an d socia l milie u involvin g individua l an d collectiv e percep tions o f the deca y and destructio n o f art, culture , philosophy , an d meanin g (see Baudrillard 1988 ; Jameson 1984 ; Kamper an d Wulf 1989) : "a fin-de-millennium consciousness which, existin g at th e en d o f histor y . . . uncover s a great arc of disintegration an d decay against the background radiatio n of parody, kitsch , an d burnou t . . . a suicida l nihilis m . . . o n th e violen t edg e between ecstasy and decay" (Kroker and Cook 1986:8-9). Numerous scholars have suggeste d tha t th e propheti c apocalypti c imagining s o f th e pas t hav e become secula r apocalypti c realitie s i n recen t decades . As one write r notes , "Images o f Hiroshim a an d Nagasaki , th e Holocaust , Vietna m (rendere d b y filmmaker Franci s Ford Coppola as Apocalypse Now) give unalterable contours to th e landscap e o f contemporar y memory . Apocalyps e i s n o longe r a dar k shapeless terror , bu t a statisticall y documente d event , complet e wit h date , time, and place " (Kawada I985:x). The pervasiveness of secular apocalyptic ideas became particularly evident in th e 1970 s an d 1980s . Man y book s writte n b y academics , scientists , an d social critic s predicte d o r warne d o f th e cataclysmi c destructio n o r gradua l decline o f humanit y a s the resul t o f huma n an d natura l causes . As Michael Barkun notes , thes e influentia l forecast s o f imminen t globa l disaster s bega n appearing in the early 1970s with Barr y Commoners The Closing Circle (1971) and th e Clu b o f Rome' s publicatio n The Limits to Growth (Meadows e t al. 1972) (Barkun 1983:263). Among the more prominent of numerous books that address the possibility of naturalistic or human-made cataclysms are Roberto Vacca's The Coming Dark Age (1973), Robert Heilbroners An Inquiry into the Human Prospect (1974), L. S. Stavrianoss The Promise of theComing Dark Age (1976), Isaa c Asimov s A Choice of Catastrophes (1979) , Fre d Warshofsky s

Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era I 9 9 Doomsday: The Science of Catastrophe (1977), and Jonathan Schell s The Fate of the Earth (1982) . These an d othe r works delineat e variou s destructiv e scenar ios, rangin g fro m astrophysical , climatological , an d geologica l disaster s t o nuclear disasters , societa l breakdown , th e "populatio n bomb, " economi c exploitation an d collapse , th e greenhous e effect , pollution , ozon e depletion , toxic waste, an d technologica l collapse . In addition to secular apocalyptic literature, secular organizations exist tha t warn o f imminen t apocalypse , suc h a s D O O M : Th e Societ y fo r Secula r Armageddon ism, whic h i s " a non-religiou s grou p dedicate d t o promotin g public awareness of the coming end of the world." Based in San Francisco, th e organization ha s established a telephone "Hotlin e o f Doom," which provide s callers with a brief message abou t th e causes o f the end o f the world: We believ e the apocalypse is at hand, and our reasons for this belief are overwhelming: chemica l an d biological weapons , nuclea r proliferation, deforesta tion, the greenhouse effect, ozone depletion, acid rain, the poisoning of our air and water, rising racism, massive species loss, toxic waste, the AIDS pandemic, the continuing population explosion, encroaching Big Brotherness, and at least another thousand point s o f blight. These aren' t just conversationa l topic s fo r cocktail parties; they're Grade-A, unadulterated harbingers of destruction. One hundred percent , bon a fid e specter s o f doom . An d they'r e al l proo f tha t we don't need God to end it for us. The coming end will be a strictly do-it-yourself apocalypse. The messag e end s wit h a bell tollin g i n th e backgroun d an d wit h a promis e that futur e telephon e message s will provid e profile s o f specifi c globa l threat s and refe r caller s t o group s resistin g thes e threats . Th e societ y receive d mor e than te n thousan d call s fro m Septembe r t o Decembe r 199 0 (Dial-a-Bumme r 1990:22).

Emphasizing th e destructiv e capabilitie s o f huma n beings , secula r predic tions o f doo m describ e unredemptiv e worldl y cataclys m brough t abou t b y ignorance, technology , o r chanc e natura l disasters . O f th e variou s secula r apocalyptic scenario s imagined , vision s o f an d belief s abou t th e worl d destroyed b y nuclea r weapons remai n amon g th e mos t widesprea d an d fatal istic. I n thi s regard , man y secula r apocalypticist s ar e i n agreemen t wit h reli gious apocalypticists wh o conside r nuclea r apocalypse t o b e inevitable . Since th e developmen t o f nuclea r weapons , a sens e o f profoun d anxiet y and uncertaint y ha s existe d i n America n societ y abou t a futur e i n whic h nuclear warfare is a possibility. As Paul Boyer s By the Bombs Early Light (1985 ) and Spence r Wear t s Nuclear Fear (1988) demonstrate , th e developmen t an d

ioo I Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era use o f nuclea r weapon s i n th e mid-i940 s dramaticall y altere d America n thought and culture. For some Americans, nuclear weaponry represente d mil itary superiorit y o r th e promis e o f a techno-utopia n future ; fo r others , th e bomb evoked feelings of helplessness and fatalism about the future of humanity. In his study of the effect o f nuclear weapons on American culture and consciousness between 194 5 and 1950, Boyer notes, for instance, that the droppin g of atomic bombs on Japan i n August 1945 fueled fear s of irrational mas s death and collectiv e annihilation , a s well a s a los s o f fait h i n technology , progress , and th e futur e (1985:278-281) . Th e feelin g o f fatalis m tha t aros e afte r th e bombing o f Hiroshima an d Nagasaki, an d that persist s toda y despite th e en d of th e Col d War, i s described b y Alfred Kazin : "Th e bom b gav e th e shap e o f life, oute r an d inner , a n irreversibl e charge ; a sense o f fatefulnes s woul d no w lie on al l things . . . w e are still struggling—often enoug h without knowin g it , all to o ofte n i n tota l resignation—wit h ever y effec t an d implicatio n o f tha t change" (1988:1). Since th e bombin g o f Hiroshim a an d Nagasaki , enormou s development s in nuclea r weaponry an d deliver y system s hav e furthe r increase d contempo rary fears about nuclea r annihilation. The bom b droppe d o n Hiroshima , th e equivalent o f 12,50 0 ton s o f TNT, wa s smal l b y current standards , with war heads o f tha t siz e no w considere d t o b e merel y "tactical " weapon s (Schel l 1982:36). A typica l nuclea r warhea d currentl y ha s a n explosiv e capabilit y o f 2,000,000 ton s o f TNT, th e equivalen t o f al l th e bomb s explode d i n Worl d War I I (Saga n 1986:13) . Expert s estimat e tha t i n th e mid-1980 s th e Unite d States ha d approximatel y 27,00 0 nuclea r weapon s an d th e Sovie t Unio n roughly 33,000 (Broa d I992:4A), enough destructive powe r to obliterate mor e than a millio n Hiroshima s (Saga n 1986:13) . Th e doctrin e o f nuclea r deter rence, o r Mutua l Assure d Destructio n (MAD) , base d o n th e premis e tha t nuclear war can be avoided i f each nuclea r superpower has an arsenal tha t can completely destro y th e entir e societ y o f an y aggresso r i n a retaliatory secon d strike, mad e the self-destruction o f humanity a genuine possibilit y during th e Cold War era. A large-scale nuclea r war not only might resul t in the complet e destruction o f civilization i n less than an hour but could conceivably resul t i n human extinctio n an d th e extinctio n o f othe r lif e form s (Saga n 1986:13—18 ; Schell 1982:93-96) . Despite the end of the Cold War and the resulting arms control treaties and unilateral action s tha t hav e designate d a significan t portio n o f th e nuclea r stockpile t o b e "retired, " nuclea r fear s an d th e nuclea r threa t persis t today . Concerns hav e bee n expresse d abou t th e contro l o f nuclea r weaponry i n th e now-independent forme r Sovie t republics , stemmin g fro m th e fea r o f clan -

Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era I 10 1 destine sales to black marketeers, theft b y terrorists, nuclear disasters resultin g from th e imprope r storage of radioactive materials , an d th e possibilit y o f for mer Sovie t scientist s disseminatin g knowledg e abou t nuclea r weapon s b y working fo r othe r countrie s (Broa d 1992:^) . Curren t nuclea r anxietie s ar e also related to the export of nuclear technology and the possibility that nuclear weapons wil l b e develope d an d use d b y hostil e nation s o r terroris t group s within th e Unite d States . A t th e tur n o f th e millennium , th e nuclea r bom b remains th e mos t concret e embodimen t o f humanity' s potentia l fo r globa l self-destruction, continuin g t o fue l fear s and fatalis m abou t inevitabl e apoca lypse.

Bomb Culture and Nuclear Lore Ideas about the inevitability of nuclear apocalypse were expressed immediatel y after th e detonatio n o f th e first atomi c bom b a t Alamogordo, Ne w Mexico , on July 16,1945. Popular images, narratives, and conceptions at the time ofte n implied tha t afte r th e inventio n o f th e bomb , humanit y coul d no t revers e it s inevitable pat h t o destruction , an d tha t scientist s ha d create d a n uncontrol lable weapo n tha t woul d ultimatel y destro y th e world . Fo r instance , storie s about Rober t Oppenheimer , th e directo r o f th e first atomic bom b tests , cor relate hi s interes t i n ancien t mytholog y wit h idea s o f inevitabl e apocalypse . Upon seein g th e first atomi c mushroo m clou d i n th e Ne w Mexic o desert , Oppenheimer supposedl y envisioned th e Hindu deit y Krishn a i n the form o f the All-Devourer , an d the n recalle d th e followin g vers e fro m th e Bhagavad Gita: If the radiance of a thousand suns Were to burst into the sky That would be like the splendor of the Mighty One. I am become Death, The shatterer of worlds. (Chilto n 1986:129-130 ) In thi s account , an d i n man y others , th e atomi c blas t i s associated wit h cos mic destructive power, a manifestation o f mythic image s of death and worldly destruction. Numerou s report s compare d th e blas t t o th e creatio n o f th e world an d th e Secon d Comin g o f Christ. The publishe d account s o f th e first bomb tes t describe d i t i n almos t euphori c terms , wit h pros e an d imager y resembling th e languag e o f th e Boo k o f Revelation . Fo r instance , Genera l Thomas F . Farrell characterized th e explosion a s follows :

IO2 I Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era The effects coul d be called unprecedented , magnificent , beautiful , stupendou s and terrifying . N o man-mad e phenomeno n o f suc h tremendou s powe r ha d ever occurre d before . Th e lightin g effect s beggare d description . Th e whol e country was lighted by a searing light with th e intensity many times that of the midday sun. It was golden, purple, violet, grey and blue . It lighted every peak, crevice and ridg e of the nearb y mountain rang e with a clarity and beaut y tha t cannot b e described bu t mus t b e seen t o b e imagined . I t wa s that beaut y th e great poets dream about but describe most poorly and inadequately. Thirty seconds after , th e explosio n came , first the ai r blas t pressin g har d agains t peopl e and things , t o b e followed almos t immediatel y b y the strong, sustained , awe some roa r whic h warne d o f doomsday an d mad e u s feel tha t w e puny thing s were blasphemou s t o dar e tampe r wit h th e force s heretofor e reserve d t o Th e Almighty. (Grove s 1962:303-304 ) The siniste r connotation s o f nuclear weapons a s devices of inevitable apoc alypse wer e als o reinforce d b y popula r depiction s o f th e physicist s wh o worked o n th e developmen t o f th e atomi c bomb . Simila r t o th e legendar y Faust character, atomi c scientists were often portraye d a s evil geniuses or mad dened technologica l wizard s engage d i n nuclea r alchemy , obsesse d wit h har nessing th e sacre d power s o f th e universe , wh o woul d ultimatel y destro y th e world i n th e pursui t o f divine, forbidde n knowledg e (Wear t 1988:21) . In contras t t o thes e apprehension s an d negativ e depictions , th e commer cial exploitatio n an d enthusiasti c promotio n o f "atomic " good s an d style s began immediatel y afte r th e bombin g o f Hiroshima an d Nagasaki . Countles s businesses adopte d th e wor d "Atomic " a s par t o f thei r title ; bartender s con cocted "Atomi c Cocktails " ( a luminou s gree n beverag e o f Perno d an d gin) ; burlesque clubs in Lo s Angeles advertised "Ato m Bom b Dancers"; departmen t stores ha d "Atomi c Sales" ; atomic bom b song s proliferate d i n popula r music ; and designer s create d atomi c jewelr y (i n som e instance s fro m th e greenish , glass-like, and perhap s still radioactiv e melte d san d fro m th e Alamogordo tes t site) (Boye r 1985:10-12). l Thi s lighthearte d adoptio n o f th e signifie r "atomic " seems t o hav e bee n a reactio n t o deepe r anxietie s abou t th e bomb , servin g a s a mean s o f subduin g th e fea r o f th e atomi c threat ; b y associatin g th e atomi c bomb wit h commoditie s an d commonplac e events , it s destructiv e capabilit y was domesticate d an d incorporate d int o everyda y life . Widespread belief s durin g thi s tim e expresse d ambivalenc e abou t ne w technologies an d reflec t feeling s o f individua l helplessnes s concernin g th e prospect o f nuclea r apocalypse . I n th e 1950s , push-butto n device s wer e sym bols o f convenience , modernity , an d technologica l ease ; ye t th e destructiv e potential o f technology was represented b y beliefs abou t th e "Doomsda y But -

Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era I 10 3 ton," a re d butto n that , whe n pushed , woul d destro y th e world . A s on e observer notes , "ther e was on e commo n househol d objec t tha t was inextrica bly linked t o th e threat of nuclea r annihilation—the pus h button . The Presi dent of the Unite d State s was widely viewed a s having a push butto n o n o r in his desk tha t would trigge r atomic war as surely as a housewife coul d activat e her dishwasher. And i n th e Kremlin ther e was another pus h button , with jus t about th e sam e power " (Hin e 1989:132) . The push-butto n efficienc y o f dish washers, televisio n sets , washin g machines , an d vacuu m cleaner s simplifie d life an d provide d entertainment , bu t th e sam e technologica l efficienc y ha d made a push-button apocalyps e a reality. The belie f tha t th e world coul d b e ended b y pressing a button bot h reflecte d an d reinforce d feeling s o f helplessness an d apocalypti c inevitability . Onc e th e butto n wa s pushed , nothin g could b e don e t o sto p th e proces s becaus e th e technolog y wa s fo r th e mos t part overwhelmingly sophisticate d an d beyon d one s understandin g an d con trol. Apocalyps e wa s n o longe r a cosmi c even t execute d b y supernatura l deities; it was no w reduce d t o a mundane, technologica l absurdity . While adult s hav e pondere d th e possibilit y o f a push-butto n apocalypse , the cultur e o f th e bom b an d a n awarenes s o f th e threa t o f th e nuclea r cata clysm hav e als o bee n a part o f th e experience s o f childre n growin g u p i n th e postwar era . Youngster s sen t awa y fo r atomic-bomb-rin g toy s promote d o n the bac k o f Ki x cereal boxes , at e red-ho t candie s calle d Atomic Fireball s (stil l marketed today) , rea d comic book s tha t describe d th e nuclea r destruction o f worlds, an d playe d A-bom b game s o n playgrounds. 2 B y th e lat e 1950s , th e imminence o f a nuclear attack pervade d th e consciousnes s o f most America n schoolchildren livin g i n larg e citie s a s the y sa t throug h lecture s abou t th e atomic bom b an d civil defense an d practiced air-rai d drills. Children i n som e school districts in high-risk target areas were issued metal dog tags for the purpose o f identifyin g the m i f the y wer e los t o r burn t beyon d recognitio n i n a nuclear attack (i n New York City, fre e dog tag s had been issue d t o 2. 5 millio n children b y 1952) (Jona s and Nissenso n 1994:39) . Duck-and-cover drills wer e commo n i n majo r cities : a t th e soun d o f th e school sire n o r when th e teache r yelled , "Drop! " children woul d div e unde r their desk s wit h thei r hand s claspe d behin d thei r neck s an d thei r face s shielded. Th e ever-presen t threa t o f nuclea r attac k wa s furthe r conveye d b y civil defens e films, suc h a s the well-known ree l starring Ber t th e Turtle, wh o teaches childre n t o "Duc k an d Cover. " In actualit y th e duck-and-cover strat egy offere d littl e protectio n i n th e even t o f majo r nuclea r attack , an d a t leas t some childre n seeme d awar e o f this , a s th e followin g intervie w wit h sixt h graders in 196 3 reveals:

104 I Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era Teacher: hit ther e shelter s a t you r school , Susan ? Susan: No , ther e aren' t any . . . . Bu t I don' t reall y thin k thes e drill s woul d do muc h goo d a t all . Becaus e i n suc h bombing s a s a n ato m bom b an d if it wa s a s close a s one hundre d mile s off , th e radiatio n woul d i n tim e reach you . . . . Teacher: And wha t d o yo u think , Robert ? Robert: I think tha t i f a radiation-type bom b were to be dropped nea r or o n you, yo u wouldn' t hav e a chance. . . . Susan: I t wouldn' t see m righ t t o m e a t al l i f I were on e o f th e onl y peopl e who lived . And so , I would reall y prefe r t o di e i n a bombing. . . . Teacher: Kathy? Kathy: I' d rathe r di e an d le t som e perso n liv e who woul d b e mor e helpfu l to whoeve r survives—lik e a doctor , (interview s wit h Mrs . Els a Knigh t Thompson's sixth-grad e class , Sa n Francisco , California ; cite d i n Barasch 1983:86 ) Though no t necessaril y representativ e o f children' s response s t o th e prospec t of nuclea r war , thes e statement s expres s recurrin g idea s associate d wit h th e nuclear bomb : imminen t death , th e futilit y o f efforts a t persona l survival, an d feelings o f guil t i f on e wer e t o survive . I n reality , duck-and-cove r drill s ma y have been performe d mor e for adults than fo r children, providin g a semblance of safety , order , an d persona l contro l whe n confronte d wit h th e massiv e destructive powe r o f th e bomb . Suc h drill s no t onl y offered a sense of protec tion i n th e fac e o f a n uncontrollabl e threa t bu t emphasize d th e efficac y o f human effor t an d persona l actio n throug h a ritualize d duck-and-cove r response, a secularize d version , perhaps , o f magico-religiou s practice s cus tomarily performe d i n situation s characterize d b y danger , uncertainty , an d helplessness. The fallou t shelte r frenz y tha t climaxe d i n 196 1 may hav e serve d simila r functions, providin g peopl e wit h a n activ e respons e t o th e threa t an d per ceived inevitabilit y o f nuclea r destruction . Althoug h shelter s wer e estab lished i n publi c building s (stil l identifiabl e b y yello w an d blac k "Fallou t Shelter" signs) , th e U.S . governmen t encourage d peopl e t o buil d fallou t shelters beneat h thei r home s o r i n thei r backyards . Individua l initiativ e an d personal surviva l i n th e even t o f nuclea r attac k wer e stresse d rathe r tha n th e survival o f th e large r community . Entrepreneur s an d popula r magazine s marketed bom b shelter s t o families , promotin g the m a s practica l addition s to suburba n homes. 3 Offerin g th e hop e o f survival throug h prope r prepara tion an d resourcefulness , bom b shelte r dealership s boome d an d merchant s

Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era I 10 5 sold item s though t necessar y fo r lif e undergroun d i n th e even t o f a nuclea r attack.4 Although Life magazines cover story on Septembe r 15,1961 , claimed that ninety-seve n ou t o f on e hundre d peopl e woul d b e protecte d fro m th e bomb i n a shelter , i n actuality , mos t fallou t shelter s withi n te n mile s o f ground zer o would hav e functione d a s crematoria, incineratin g o r asphyxi ating people . For a whil e belie f i n th e effectivenes s o f fallou t shelter s persisted , an d moral debate s arose concerning th e ethics o f sharing ones shelte r with negli gent neighbor s wh o ha d no t bothere d t o buil d on e fo r themselves , an d whether gunning the m dow n i f they attempted t o brea k into th e family shel ter was okay. Fallout shelter lore also involved speculation abou t what emerg ing fro m a shelter afte r a nuclea r wa r woul d b e like . Ofte n thes e imagine d scenarios were compensatory fantasie s i n which th e problems of current soci ety were eliminated—afte r th e apocalypse , lif e woul d b e simpler , th e worl d would b e les s crowde d an d perhap s purified , an d th e dut y o f th e survivin g men an d wome n woul d b e t o ge t dow n t o th e busines s o f repopulatin g th e planet. The mani a fo r shelters no t onl y reflecte d popula r perception s concernin g the imminenc e o f nuclea r war bu t ma y hav e bee n a momentary outburs t o f the hope o f survival i n the fac e of the nuclea r threat . This hopefulnes s gradu ally deteriorated afte r th e acknowledgmen t tha t shelter s offere d littl e protec tion agains t intercontinenta l ballisti c missile s tha t coul d annihilat e entir e cities within thirt y minutes and that, launched fro m submarines , coul d oblit erate coastal target s within a couple o f minutes . Onc e th e fact s about a post nuclear-holocaust worl d an d th e horror s o f nuclea r winte r wer e revealed — worldwide fallout, subfreezing temperatures , and the destruction o f the ozon e layer—fallout shelter s an d civi l defens e seeme d increasingl y futile . Wit h increased knowledg e abou t th e realitie s o f a full-scal e nuclea r conflagratio n and it s aftermath, fatalisti c resignatio n appear s t o hav e becom e th e predomi nant response , eve n amon g som e civi l defens e authorities , a s th e followin g statement b y th e deput y directo r o f Ne w Yor k City' s Offic e o f Civi l Pre paredness indicates : A Russia n submarine forty mile s off New Yor k can lob missiles a t New York City that from launch to detonation will take seven seconds. In that time, the military comman d ha s t o discer n th e attac k a t it s headquarter s i n Colorado , and notify Albany, and they notify us , and we have to notify fifty-six precincts to turn on the sirens, and the people who hear them will run into buildings and will be turned into sand in a few seconds anyway. (Lieutenan t Robert Hogan, August 1979; cited in Barasch 1983:85)

io6 I Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era

Nuclear Apocalypse in Popular Literature American literatur e expresse s simila r theme s o f inevitabilit y an d resignatio n concerning nuclea r apocalypse . Althoug h apocalypti c idea s historicall y hav e been widesprea d i n literar y works , critic s hav e observe d tha t th e notio n o f apocalypse an d entrop y becam e increasingl y commo n concept s i n th e 1950 s and 1960s and hav e been deal t with b y many contemporary American writer s (Lewicki 1984:^ ; Zamor a 1982^97). 5 Amon g th e bette r know n popula r works that address the idea of accidental and meaningless nuclear annihilatio n are Nevi l Shute s On the Beach (1957 ) an d Eugen e Burdic k an d Harve y Wheelers Fail-Safe (1962 ) (late r mad e int o successfu l films). Secula r apoca lyptic idea s are particularly prevalen t i n th e science fiction an d fantas y genre , and work s wit h increasingl y pessimisti c an d fatalisti c theme s see m t o hav e proliferated i n th e nuclea r er a (se e Boye r 1985:257-265 ; Rabki n e t al . 1983) . Ward Moore s satiric Greener Than You Think (1947) , fo r instance , chronicle s the en d o f th e world brough t abou t b y a n aberran t strai n o f gras s created b y scientists ( a metaphor fo r nuclea r fallout ) an d describe s th e fatalisti c worshi p of inevitable doom tha t ensues. Another particularly fatalistic depiction o f the end o f the world i s Level7 (198 9 [1959] ) b y Mordecai Roshwald , i n which th e inhabitants o f a seven-tiered fallou t shelte r ar e slowly kille d leve l b y leve l b y radiation fro m a nuclear cataclysm. As the lethal radiatio n seeps toward them , the inhabitant s o f th e deepes t leve l creat e a new religio n i n which strontiu m embodies th e elemental forc e o f evil (Boye r 1985:354). Themes o f inevitabilit y and helplessnes s concernin g nuclea r apocalyps e ar e als o centra l t o Walte r Millers A Canticle for Leibowitz (198 2 [1959]) . Mille r describe s a post-apoca lyptic religiou s order—th e piou s monk s o f th e Orde r o f St . Leibowit z th e Engineer—who liv e i n a monaster y i n th e Uta h desert , wher e the y worshi p the relics of their physicist founder and venerate the blessed nuclear blueprint s housed i n th e shrin e o f th e sacre d fallou t shelter . The monks * efforts t o kee p the knowledg e o f nuclea r physic s fro m secula r society ultimatel y fail , an d th e world i s destroyed b y human s onc e again . The Martian Chronicles (1950) b y Ray Bradbur y als o contain s severa l storie s wit h explici t secula r apocalypti c themes; the best know n i s probably "Ther e Will Com e Sof t Rains, " in whic h the machine s i n a techno-utopian hom e continu e t o perfor m thei r function s long after th e extinction o f the huma n specie s b y nuclear catastrophe . Similar theme s ar e expresse d i n th e writing s o f Kur t Vonnegut , Jr. , wh o often depict s th e inevitabl e destructio n o f societ y fro m a n absurdis t view point. I n Cats Cradle (1981 [1963]) , fo r instance, th e protagonist describe s th e approach o f doomsday brough t abou t b y th e substance ice-nine^ create d b y a

Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era I 10 7 scientist know n a s the Fathe r o f th e Atom Bomb . When accidentl y droppe d into the ocean throug h a series of absurd occurrences, ice-nine triggers a chain reaction tha t freezes th e earths ocean s and waterways, leadin g t o th e eventua l extermination o f all life. I n Slaughterhouse Five (1984 [1969]) , th e time-travel ing Bill y Pilgri m ha s vision s o f inevitabl e apocalypse , whic h ar e i n fac t prophetic, wit h th e en d o f th e worl d brough t abou t b y a test pilo t fro m th e planet Tralfamadore wh o accidentl y ignite s th e univers e whil e testin g a ne w fuel fo r his flying saucer . A sens e o f doo m an d declin e i s als o exemplifie d b y muc h o f th e writin g associated with th e Bea t movemen t i n th e 1950s , th e first generatio n o f writers after th e inventio n o f th e bomb . Whethe r i n th e for m o f th e apocalypti c transcendentalism of Alan Ginsbergs "Howl" and Jack Kerouacs On the Road, the melanchol y fatalis m o f Pau l Bowles , o r th e unredemptiv e visio n o f deca dence an d decay of William S . Burroughs , Jr., the writing o f numerou s Beat s is often characterize d b y a sense o f inevitabl e societa l destruction . Ginsberg s "Howl," fo r instance , wit h it s revelator y languag e condemnin g th e moder n world, proclaim s th e doom o f American civilization—"Moloc h whos e fat e i s a clou d o f sexles s hydrogen!"—an d present s bana l image s o f waitin g fo r th e H-bomb: disillusioned , exhauste d beatnik s si t "throug h th e stal e bee r after noon i n desolat e Fugazz i s, listenin g t o th e crac k o f doo m o n th e hydroge n jukebox" (Ginsber g 1965:17,10) . Ginsberg s apocalypti c indictmen t o f America disputes th e propheti c visio n o f the American millennia l paradise , declar ing instea d th e end o f American innocenc e an d glory . The writing s o f Willia m S . Burroughs , Jr. , i n particular , provid e a n emphatically unredemptiv e visio n o f America n societ y i n a state o f disinte gration an d decadence. According t o one biographer , Burrough s s preoccupation wit h nuclea r apocalyps e i s th e basi s fo r muc h o f hi s writing : "Fo r Bur roughs, the Bomb an d not th e birth of Christ was the dividing line of history. The Bom b stole the relevance from al l that had preceded it , and from it s ramifications Burrough s constructed a worldview.... Afte r th e Bomb, Burrough s had a sens e o f everythin g goin g wrong . H e ha d vision s o f worl d deat h an d death-in-life" (Morga n 1988:55) . Burroughss surrealisti c sense of doom, anar chy, and nihilis m i s exemplified i n Naked Lunch (196 6 [1959]) , in which ther e is littl e plo t o r characte r developmen t bu t instea d a sequenc e o f macabr e occurrences i n a hellish , post-apocalyptic , drug-addicte d society . Burrough s depicts a worl d destroyed , characterize d b y violence , fear , paranoia , an d a sense of fatalism. The characters in the novel wander through a wasteland dev astated by nuclear war, hopelessly addicted, with incurabl e diseases and afflic tions, resigned to their fate. Burroughss Cities of the RedNight (1981) , in which

io8 I Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era a lethal virus destroys humanity, an d his Apocalypse (1988), a collaborative project wit h graffit i artis t Keit h Haring , als o express a sense o f imminent , unre demptive, worldl y doom . Burroughs s visio n o f th e En d i s conveyed withou t remorse o r sentimentality— a nihilistic , nuclear-ag e Boo k o f Revelation , which accept s th e inevitabilit y o f th e End without hop e o f renewal . The complet e absence of the theme of millennial redemptio n characterize s these work s an d muc h recen t apocalypti c literature . A s on e criti c observes , "More representativ e o f recen t decade s i s a reversio n t o th e savager y an d destructiveness o f the original biblica l paradigm , bu t without it s sanction i n a transcendent othe r world. Much of our literature of absurdity and black comedy i s a form o f blac k apocalypse—grotesqu e vision s o f an ultimat e violenc e which destroy s no t t o rene w but t o annihilate a world which i s regarded as an affront t o being " (Abram s 1971:426-427) . The vision s o f a meaningless apoc alypse presented i n recent literature vary in terms of the nature of the destruction of the human species. In some instances the extermination o f humankin d occurs i n a n immediat e an d violen t manner ; sometime s i t happen s slowly , a gradual decline . Th e theme s o f helplessness , despair , an d fatalis m i n thes e writings mos t ofte n directl y reflec t th e threa t of nuclea r annihilation .

The Nuclear Bomb in American Art Images o f a n inevitabl e an d meaningles s apocalyps e als o pervad e contempo rary art, although accordin g t o several observers , depictions o f nuclear apocalypse did no t becom e a frequent subjec t i n th e arts until th e 1980s, with mos t artists actually avoiding nuclear apocalyptic themes or responding with a sense of despair , denial , o r psychologica l numbin g (Lifto n 1987:257—272 ; Wear t i988:39i-404). 6 Althoug h explici t nuclea r apocalypti c imager y wa s uncom mon, apocalyptic attitudes may have been implicitl y expressed in much of the art that appeared afte r th e bomb : Abstract Expressionists shut out th e world to paint the insides of their minds, but the images came out explosive, splayed and splattered over the canvas with the violence of an irrational force.... Th e style contained large amounts of selfdestructiveness an d denial: the canvas had to suffer violent transformations — wiping out, covering over, continually destroying in order to go beyond. . . . Only now is a connection becomin g visible between the mushroom cloud and de Kooning' s disintegratin g "Women, " Pollock' s tangle s o f debris , Still' s creviced darkness , Rothko' s spreadin g reddis h glow , Gottlieb' s col d orbs , or Reinhardt's absolute negation. (Levin 1988:38)

Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era I 10 9 Several art critics have asserted that the emphasis on ephemeral and "dematerialized" art, as well as the pop art glorification o f banal commodity cultur e and it s insistenc e tha t al l object s ar e equall y meaningfu l an d thu s utterl y meaningless, reveal s distinct apocalypti c tendencie s (Gumper t 1983:47) . The emphasis on the process of creating art rather than th e final art product itself , exemplified b y actio n paintin g o r performanc e ar t an d "happenings, " ha s been interpreted as being possibly related to nuclear apocalyptic fears and feelings o f futurelessnes s (Schel l 1982:164-165) 7 Suc h observation s abou t th e influence o f image s an d fear s o f nuclea r apocalyps e ma y appea r somewha t overstated, bu t th e persona l statement s o f som e artist s themselve s see m t o confirm thes e interpretations (se e Gumpert 1983:55—81). During th e 1980s , artist s bega n t o expres s explicitl y nuclea r apocalypti c themes and fears. Numerous exhibits and group shows dealt with apocalypti c ideas in art, such as the Terminal New York show in Brooklyn in October 1983; the Apocalyptic and Utopian Image s in Contemporary Art exhibit in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania , i n 1983 ; and th e extensiv e The En d o f the World: Con temporary Visions of the Apocalypse show held at the New Museum of Contemporary Art in New York City in 1983-1984. Similar to contemporary apocalyptic literature, the art exhibited in these shows was characterized by a sense of imminent worldly disaster and social decay, the banality and meaningless ness of the end of the world, and apocalyptic gallows humor. 8

Atomic Bombs, Nuclear Apocalypse, and Societal Catastrophe in Film Many filmic portrayals of the End also express a sense of the meaninglessness, absurdity, an d inevitabilit y o f nuclea r apocalypse . The tw o best-know n films that portra y a nuclea r doomsday , On the Beach (1959) an d Dr. Strangelove (1964), have been seen by millions of individuals. Other doomsday films from the same period include Fail-Safe (1964), The Day the Earth Caught Fire (1961), and Panic in the Year Zerol (1962). In thes e and numerou s othe r films of th e apocalyptic genre , technology i s often portraye d a s awesome, unmanageable , and yet banal in its destructiveness. In Fail-Safe, for instance, the nuclear annihilation of Moscow occurs as the result of a technological malfunction. On the Beach depicts the lives of a handful o f people who survive a large-scale nuclear war and await their fate as a radioactive cloud approaches. As the lethal fallou t draws near, the scientist (played by Fred Astaire) contemplates the causes of the End and concludes, "The world was probably destroyed by a bunch of vacuum

no I

Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era

tubes and transistors." In Crack in the World(1965), a scientist searching for new energy sources sets off an atomic bomb in the center of the earth and the world begins cracking in two ; in The Day the Earth Caught Fire y th e earth is knocked out o f orbit and sent spinning towar d th e sun as the result of coincidental an d concurrent nuclea r bom b test s i n th e Unite d State s and Sovie t Union . A s th e earth get s hotte r an d peopl e prepar e fo r th e End , teenager s cop e wit h th e prospect o f doomsday b y engaging i n rock-V-rol l riot s in th e streets. The masterpiec e o f apocalypti c gallow s humo r i s Stanle y Kubrick s Dr. Strangelove—Or, How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb. I n thi s film a paranoid Genera l Jack D. Rippe r launches a preemptive nuclea r attack on th e Soviet s i n orde r t o preserv e "ou r preciou s bodil y fluids," whic h h e believes ar e being contaminate d b y a global communis t conspirac y t o fluoridate th e world s wate r supply . Ripper s assistan t franticall y trie s t o sto p th e attack an d break s th e secre t recal l code , recallin g th e B-52S . However , on e bomber gets throug h an d th e bom b i s dropped, straddle d b y a wahooing air force majo r playe d b y cowbo y acto r Sli m Pickens . Th e bom b activate s th e Soviets' doomsda y machine , an d th e world i s destroyed. Dr. Strangelove satirizes th e Col d War fear s o f th e 1950s , bu t it s underlyin g them e i s the inanit y of the end o f the world. Huma n attempt s t o avert th e preemptive attac k ulti mately fail, and once th e technology of annihilation i s activated, apocalypse i s unalterable b y huma n effort . Th e films titl e exemplifie s th e psychologica l transformation o f nuclea r fea r int o a helpless , fatalisti c acceptanc e o f th e bomb an d ultimat e doom . Huma n powerlessnes s t o aver t apocalyps e i s fur ther represente d b y th e destructio n o f th e worl d b y a "doomsda y machine " that canno t b e stoppe d onc e se t i n motion , a metapho r perhap s fo r nuclea r proliferation leadin g humanit y dow n a n inevitabl e roa d to destruction . In additio n t o films tha t depic t a meaningles s nuclea r apocalyps e ar e th e dozens o f atomi c bom b mutatio n films, particularl y i n th e low-budget , "B movie" category . I n suc h films, nuclea r bomb s an d radioactivit y inevitabl y result i n th e creatio n o f monsters , mutants , an d threat s t o societ y an d indi vidual existence . Among th e better-know n o f such films ar e Them! (1954), i n which massive , migratin g ant s expose d t o radiatio n a t a n atomi c tes t sit e invade th e sewers of Los Angeles an d Attack of the Crab Monsters (1957), wit h atomic radiatio n creating , o n a n isolate d island , oversize d crab s tha t decapi tate scientists, eat thei r heads, and gain thei r intelligence. I n th e Beginning of the End (1957) , radioactiv e fertilize r result s i n monstrou s grasshopper s wh o converge o n Chicago ; i n It Came from Beneath the Sea (1955), San Francisco i s attacked b y a radioactiv e octopu s tha t destroy s th e Golde n Gat e Bridg e an d Market Stree t Tower befor e bein g torpedoe d t o bits.

Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era I i n A relate d film typ e involve s dinosaur s bein g revive d fro m thei r primordia l slumber b y an atomic blast . I n The Beast from 20,000 Fathoms (1953), a prehistoric creatur e brough t t o lif e b y a n atomi c bom b tes t i n th e Arctic swim s t o New York City and attacks Manhattan, stompin g o n peopl e i n Times Squar e and Wall Street, and taking a bite out of the roller coaster at Coney Island. The first Godzill a film, Godzilla, King of the Monsters (1954), release d i n Japa n a year later , ha d simila r themes , wit h th e four-hundred-foo t radioactiv e dinosaur tramplin g Tokyo . Th e sam e basi c plo t i s use d i n a Britis h versio n entitled The Giant Behemoth (1959), in which a brontosaurus with radioactiv e breath burns the skin off people, attackin g London an d destroying the Hous e of Parliament. B y the end of the 1950s, films about oversized monsters create d or unleashed by atomic energy—likely personification s an d projections of the fear of nuclear annihilation an d radioactivity—ha d becom e a sci-fi subgenre . By ultimatel y defeatin g o r tamin g thes e cinemati c beasts , th e otherwis e uncontrollable threa t o f imminen t nuclea r destructio n wa s perhap s symboli cally vanquished i n th e context o f a movie theater . The mutatin g effect s o f radiatio n o n huma n being s serve d a s th e basi s fo r numerous othe r films. I n The Incredible Shrinking Man (1957) , the protagonis t passes through an atomic cloud and suddenly begin s shrinking, so that his suburban home ultimately is transformed int o a place of terror. In Creature with the Atom Brain (1955) , atomi c zombies—nuclea r deat h mad e manifest—stag e a mass attack; and in George Romeros cult classic Night of the Living Dead '(1968), radioactive materia l brough t bac k t o eart h b y a space vehicle cause s corpse s t o return to life. Like similar films in the radioactive-mutants-battle-humans genre , flesh-eating zombie s becom e th e personification o f the invisible , deathly powe r of radioactivity, threatenin g t o destroy civilization a s they stalk and cannibaliz e the living. I n other films the invisibility of radioactivity i s transmuted int o tan gible, creeping , blob-lik e monster s tha t destro y everythin g i n thei r path . Fo r example, in X The Unknown (1956), radioactive mud from the center of the earth dissolves people as it searches for isotopes; in The H-Man (1958) , fallout change s people int o a n oozin g gree n slim e tha t the n eat s othe r humans . I n The Blob (1958, starring Steve McQueen), the radioactive goo is a bright red color from the blood o f peopl e consume d i n a supermarket, a theater , an d a diner . Lik e th e threat of nuclear annihilation and radioactivity, these atomic blobs are mindless, inhuman, an d impersonal, disintegrating and devouring unsuspecting victims. A relate d subgenre consists of movies tha t portray a post-apocalyptic world , from cul t classic s suc h a s World without End (1955) , Teenage Cave Man (1958) , The Omega Man (1971) , A Boy and His Dog (1975), and the numerous Planet of the Apes films (late 1960s and 1970s), to th e highly successful Mad Max (1979) ,

H2 I Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era The RoadWarrior (1982), and MadMax Beyond the Thunderdome (1985), and the more recent Judge Dredd{iy%) an d Waterworld (1995). These films depict lif e on earth in the aftermath o f nuclear war or some other global catastrophe, such as the melting of the ice caps {Waterworld) or a plague {Omega Man), with th e survivors usually living in a state of post-apocalyptic savagery or often battlin g mutants in the ruins of destroyed cities. In Roger Cormans first science-fiction film, The Day the World Ended (1956), an atomi c blas t ha s transformed thos e exposed t o radiatio n int o horned , three-eyed , four-arme d mutan t cannibal s with telepathic powers who attack unradiated humans sheltered in a mountain cabin. In Beneath the Planet of the Apes (1970), the mutant humans dwell underground and worship a nuclear bomb in the buried ruins of Grand Central Station. In one scene they congregate before the nuclear missile, the "Holy Weapon of Peace," and chant, "I reveal my inmost self unto My God!" In the same film the splitting of the atom serves as the source for an apocalyptic nursery rhyme, as children sing a post-nuclear-holocaust version of "Ring around the Rosie": Ring-a ring o' neutrons A pocketful of positrons, A fission!Afission! We all fall down. Whether th e survivor s o f nuclea r cataclys m deif y o r fea r th e bomb , the y usually have been transformed b y it into subhumans—mutants, monsters, savages—who live underground, under siege, or enslaved by evil tyrants. In a few films (for example , The World, the Flesh, and the Devil [1958] and Five [1951]) the remnan t survivor s ar e portraye d a s postwa r Adam s an d Eve s wh o wil l remake the world, liberated by the bomb from a corrupt, overly technological civilization. Bu t i n th e majorit y o f such films, th e post-apocalypti c worl d i s inhabited by degenerated barbarians and inhuman creatures, victims of forces beyond thei r control, battling for survival on a brutal and ruined planet .

Humor in the Nuclear Age With th e exception o f a few films, such as Dr. Strangelove, explicit apocalyp tic gallows humor is relatively infrequent i n film. Cartoonists and illustrators, on the other hand, generally have had fun with the topic of doomsday. In particular, th e stereotype d imag e of a bearde d an d robed doomsaye r holdin g a sign with some humorous twist or wordplay is a frequent objec t of parody. For instance, a n illustratio n b y Gaha n Wilso n depict s a n anguished , bearde d

Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era I 11 3

doomsayer i n sandal s attemptin g t o sel l balloons , pennants , buttons , an d baseball caps that rea d "THE WORLD I S COMING T O IT S END" (Grif fin I979:xiv) . In anothe r cartoon , a bearde d doomsaye r i n sandal s i s shown racing into a bar with a sign that reads "THE END I S UPON US! " and fran tically shouting to the bartender: "Doubl e Scotch , and burryf' (Medical Economics, February 3,1990,169). The series "Grin an d Bear It" shows a bearded doomsayer in a suit in an urban setting carrying a sign that reads "DOOMSDAY IS NEAR"; a cheerful-looking woman asks him, "Will there be a doomsday sale?" (July 29,1988, "Wagner," North America Syndicate, Inc.). Cartoons and illustration s about doomsday are pervasive and usuall y satirize doomsayers , bu t joke s abou t nuclea r apocalyps e see m t o b e relativel y scarce and express a sense of ironic inevitability : Did you hear the World War III knock-knock joke?" No. Knock, Knock . Who's there? (Silence!). (Dunde s I98y:viii ) What do you do if they drop the bomb? What? Hide under a table, put your head between your legs, and ... kiss your ass goodbye! What should you do in case of a nuclear attack? What? Get a shovel and a sheet and walk slowly . .. t o the nearest cemetery. Why slowly? You mustn't start a panic. (Wear t 1988:239) What do you do if they drop the bomb? I don't know, what? Get a six-pack, go up on your roof, and enjoy th e show. 9 Parodying civil defense instructions , thes e jokes express an absurdis t sense of helplessness in the face of nuclear doom. The third joke, for instance, not only mocks civil defense evacuation plans as ludicrous, but also the instructions t o "stay calm" in th e event o f a nuclear attack , with doome d citizen s marchin g fatalistically to their own graves. Similar themes of futility an d absurdity characterize the fourth joke , with it s gallows humor derived fro m th e equation o f

ii4 I Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era nuclear apocalypse with Fourt h of July celebrations or some other public display. The spectators hav e no choice bu t t o embrace doomsday, watching th e End from thei r rooftops an d perhaps even cheering, between swigs of beer, as the apocalyptic fireworks illuminat e the sky. Comparable humo r abou t th e futility o f civil defense effort s an d th e possibility of surviving a nuclear attack is reflected i n what i s commonly referre d to as "Xeroxlore"—printed o r written materials that are reproduced by means of photocopiers , Xero x machines , an d fa x machines . Suc h xerographi c lor e tends to be a reflection o f popular beliefs and concerns, and usually is unoffi cially or illicitly reproduced and informally displaye d (se e Dundes and Pagte r 1987; Dunde s an d Pagte r 1992). 10 The followin g exampl e o f Xeroxlore wa s widely circulated i n the 1970s: NOTICE Office of Civilian Defens e Washington, D.C. INSTRUCTION TO PATRONS ON PREMISES IN CASE OF NUCLEAR BOMB ATTACK UPON THE FIRST WARNING: 1. STAY CLEAR OF ALL WINDOWS. 2. KEEP HANDS FREE OF GLASSES, BOTTLES, CIGARETTES, ETC. 3. STAND AWAY FROM BAR , TABLES, ORCHESTRA, EQUIPMEN T AND FURNITURE. 4. LOOSEN NECKTIE , UNBUTTO N COA T AN D AN Y OTHE R RESTRICTIVE CLOTHING. 5. REMOVE GLASSES , EMPTY POCKETS O F AL L SHARP OBJECT S SUCH AS PENS, PENCILS, ETC. 6. IMMEDIATELY UPO N SEEIN G TH E BRILLIAN T FLAS H O F NUCLEAR EXPLOSION , BEN D OVE R AND PLAC E YOUR HEAD FIRMLY BETWEEN YOUR LEGS. 7. THEN KISS YOUR ASS GOODBYE. (Dunde

s and Pagter 1992:105)

Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era I

11 5

Like other types of xerographic folklore, thi s example imitates the style and rhetoric of an "official" documen t bu t ultimatel y mock s institutiona l instruc tions, expressing cynicism about surviving a nuclear attack, like the joke men tioned abov e with th e same punchline . Folklorist and noted scholar of humor Alan Dundes state s that people joke about tha t which i s of utmost concer n an d tha t jokes serve as a means of projecting anxietie s o r allowing fo r psychologica l catharsi s (i987:viii) . The infre quency o f verbal humo r about doomsda y indicate s tha t apocalyptic fear s an d anxieties are scarce, that fears associated with th e subject are so great that peo ple consciousl y avoi d jokin g abou t it , o r tha t thi s avoidanc e i s unconscious . Numerous psychologist s hav e demonstrated tha t a common respons e t o per ceptions of imminent death or disaster is denial (e.g. , Becker 1973). Robert Jay Lifton, i n particular, says that a common respons e to the threat of nuclear war is consciou s o r unconsciou s denia l an d "numbing " (Lifto n an d Fal k 1982:3-12). Thi s denia l i s on e possibl e explanatio n fo r th e relativ e lac k o f explicit verbal humo r abou t th e en d o f the world. Certain topica l jokin g cycles , however , particularl y disaste r o r "sic k joke" cycles, ma y indirectl y expres s fear s an d anxietie s abou t nuclea r apocalypse . According t o Willie Smyth , th e graphi c image s o f deat h an d mutilatio n tha t characterize Challenge r Shuttl e jokes , fo r instance , expres s no t onl y disillu sionment wit h capitalis m an d fear s o f persona l deat h bu t widespread anxiet y about globa l annihilatio n an d fear s o f destructiv e technolog y tha t ca n n o longer b e controlle d (1986:254) . I n a n articl e o n th e sam e subject , Elizabet h Simons state s tha t th e gruesom e imager y an d prevalenc e o f sic k joke s i s directly relate d t o th e events of World War II and th e influenc e o f the media : "Since World War II th e world itsel f seems t o hav e grow n sicker . The Holo caust and th e dropping o f the atomic bom b brok e all earlier sense of the lim its of peoples inhumanity . . . . The explosio n o f the Challenger Seve n was yet another unprecedente d deat h (t o b e adde d t o deat h b y Holocaust , atomi c explosion, an d nuclea r accident)" (1986:265—266) . Images of large-scale disaster and the distrust of technology were also manifested i n Chernobyl joke s and popula r response s to th e accident a t the Three Mile Islan d nuclea r powe r plan t nea r Middletown , Pennsylvania , i n 1979 . After th e Thre e Mil e Islan d disaster , facetiou s greeting s amon g resident s included "My , yo u loo k radiant! " o r "You'r e glowin g today! " bu t belief s an d rumors abou t th e danger s o f exposur e t o radioactivit y (e.g. , sterility , geneti cally mutate d offspring , increase d rate s of infan t mortality ) sprea d rapidly , a reflection o f th e suspicio n tha t authoritie s wer e withholdin g information , a s well a s uncertaint y abou t th e long-ter m effect s o f radiatio n (Milspa w 1981 ;

ii6 I Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era Malsheimer 1986) . The nuclea r disaster that occurred i n Chernobyl, Ukraine , in 1986 , provoke d simila r belief s an d rumors , a s well a s jokes with ironi c an d macabre theme s tha t expresse d anxietie s abou t uncontrollabl e nuclea r tech nology ("Wha t ha s feathers , glow s i n th e dark , an d cook s b y itself ? Chicke n Kiev"; "What do you serve with Chicken Kiev ? A blac k Russian"; "What's the weather repor t fro m Kiev ? Overcas t an d 10,00 0 degrees") . These joke s wer e responses t o specifi c nuclea r disasters , bu t the y als o expres s underlyin g fear s and anxieties abou t nuclea r doom . Cultural critic Kim Levin asserts that the invention of nuclear weapons had a direc t influenc e o n America n humo r an d vernacula r speech : "Th e bom b spawned th e humo r o f th e '50s , th e sic k jokes , th e Littl e Willie rhymes , th e moron jokes . I t crep t int o th e slang : teenager s tryin g t o shu t ou t th e worl d only succeede d i n 'bombin g around * i n crowde d Chevy's " (1988:38) . I n hi s analysis o f th e phenomeno n o f "Dea d Bab y Jokes" tha t proliferate d i n th e 1960s, Alan Dunde s state s tha t thes e jokes reflec t widesprea d anxietie s abou t abortion, contraception, and the carnage of the Vietnam War, but also express fear of technology: "Certainly a large percentage of the dead baby jokes explicitly describ e babie s bein g groun d u p b y a variet y o f moder n conveniences , e.g., lawnmowers , blenders , razor s blades , garbag e disposals. I s the joke cycl e warning o f th e possibl e o r probabl e fat e o f moder n man ? Are we doome d t o be destroyed by uncaring machines that we ourselves have created allegedly t o make lif e easie r and mor e pleasurable? " (1979:153). Although dead-bab y joke s do no t explicitl y refe r t o nuclea r war , th e gruesom e imager y o f babie s bein g mutilated, burned , and obliterated may unconsciously or symbolically express prevailing fears of nuclear annihilation, which intensifie d aroun d the time th e jokes becam e current . Childre n represent , a s Rober t Ja y Lifto n remarks , a "symbolization o f ou r ow n future , o f th e proces s o f bein g par t o f th e grea t chain o f bein g an d th e flow o f generations " (1987:23) . Th e mutilatio n an d obliteration o f children (th e symbolic destructio n o f th e future ) tha t charac terizes the sick and cruel joke cycles that have become especially popular since the 1950s may express to some degree the sense of radical futurelessnes s tha t is often a psychological respons e t o threa t of nuclea r war. Speech forms , neologisms , an d euphemism s associate d wit h nuclea r weapons als o see m t o expres s a sens e o f futurelessnes s an d th e vie w tha t nuclear apocalyps e i s a n inevitabilit y beyon d huma n control . Th e commo n use o f th e expressio n "th e bomb " when referrin g t o th e multitud e o f nuclea r warheads tha t exis t i n th e worl d reflect s popula r perception s o f nuclea r weapons a s a single, massive , inescapable , omnipresen t forc e o f destruction . Often i n popula r speec h "th e bomb " is described a s if i t were a superorgani c

Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era I 11 7

or supernatural entit y with a power and will of its own, beyond human com prehension an d control, tha t ultimatel y will destroy humanity. According t o Paul Chilton, th e rhetoric about th e bomb frequentl y ha s religious connota tions associated with supernatural aw e and th e notion tha t th e bombs development wa s someho w destine d an d inevitabl e (1986:127-142) . H e refer s t o this specialize d languag e associate d wit h nuclea r weaponr y a s "nukespeak, " and declare s tha t nuclea r metaphor s an d eve n grammatica l construction s evoke the supernatural characte r o f the bom b an d serv e t o condone nuclea r proliferation an d acceptance of the idea of nuclear war (1986:128). The bombing o f Hiroshim a an d Nagasaki , fo r instance , ha s ofte n bee n referre d t o a s inevitable, rather tha n somethin g tha t migh t hav e been avoided . Statement s about nuclea r weapons harnessing the "basic power of the universe" or bein g a "force from whic h th e sun draws its power," "a vast and mysterious power," embodying th e "revelatio n o f th e secret s o f nature, " equat e th e bom b wit h supernatural agency . As Chilton observes , "On e i s left wit h th e suppositio n that me n wer e no t ultimatel y responsibl e fo r th e inventio n an d us e o f th e atomic bomb; it was given to them by some outside force" (1986:132). Nuclear weapons, rathe r tha n huma n action , becom e th e agent s o f apocalypse, wit h the bomb bestowed with a n uncontrollabl e powe r that i s out o f the hands of human beings . A sense of helplessness and fatalis m i n th e mids t o f overwhelming force s may evoke what Rudol f Otto , i n his book The Idea of the Holy> describe s as a sense of the numinous: an ineffabl e sens e of terror, magnificence, an d lim itless powe r ("absolut e overpoweringness") , a s wel l a s feeling s o f persona l powerlessness, mystery , danger , an d a sens e o f th e "wholl y other " (1958:12-24). Thought s abou t th e enormou s destructiv e powe r o f nuclea r weapons and the inevitability of nuclear annihilation ma y precipitate feeling s similar t o wha t Ott o calle d th e mysterium tremendum —a sens e o f over whelming awe, fear, dread, and " a terror fraugh t wit h a n inwar d shudderin g such a s no t eve n th e mos t menacin g an d overpowerin g create d thin g ca n instil" (1958:14). The sens e o f th e numinous , lik e fatalisti c belief s an d behavior , i s ofte n characterized by the admission of ones own powerlessness and the submission of one s sel f t o a greate r power , whethe r God , fate , o r som e othe r externa l determining agency . As the embodiment o f incomprehensible an d terrifyin g destructive power, nuclea r weapons ma y be ascribed with a numinous terro r that i n th e pas t was associated onl y with th e supernatural , an d ma y inspir e similar feeling s o f helplessness and perhap s an embracing of one s powerlessness. In thi s way, perhaps, th e bomb itsel f may become a symbol o f unalter -

n8 I

Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era

able, supranorma l fat e fo r th e secula r apocalypticist , a s a numinou s an d uncontrollable powe r tha t wil l determin e individua l fat e an d th e fat e o f humanity.

Survivalists and Secular Millenarianism Even thoug h secula r apocalypti c idea s pervad e America n literature , art , film, popular culture , and folklore , secula r apocalypticists themselve s are not a s easily identifiabl e a s religious apocalypticist s becaus e the y generall y d o no t for m into group s o r activel y solici t members . Som e do , however , shar e an d expres s their belief s i n imminen t apocalyps e wit h like-minde d individuals . Many peopl e wh o identif y themselve s a s survivalists, fo r instance , antic ipate th e destructio n o f curren t societ y throug h a serie s o f catastrophi c occurrences, suc h a s nuclea r war , worldwid e economi c collapse , epidemi c disease, environmenta l disasters , o r rac e riots . Preparatio n fo r imminen t worldly destructio n involve s developin g "surviva l skills, " stockpilin g foo d and weapons , an d establishin g refuge s i n remot e areas . Determinin g ho w widespread survivalis m i s can b e difficul t becaus e mos t survivalist s conside r anonymity an d secrec y crucia l t o thei r safet y durin g thes e cataclysms . Th e few studies tha t exis t on th e subject indicat e tha t survivalis m tend s t o appea l to Caucasia n male s of conservative o r independen t politica l affiliations , bu t also tha t survivalist s ar e a n eclecti c grou p o f individual s an d no t easil y cate gorized (Coate s 1987 ; Houglum 1986 ; Linder 1982 ; Myers 1982) . T he prolif eration o f survivalis t books , magazines , newsletters , catalogs , an d supplies , as well a s survivalist shops , conventions , an d consultants , reveal s tha t inter est i n survivalis m seem s t o hav e increase d i n recen t years , wit h a s man y a s three millio n peopl e estimate d t o b e involve d i n thi s movemen t (Linde r 1982:11).

The sens e of unavoidable cataclys m tha t motivate s muc h survivalis t behav ior i s exemplified b y the following statemen t b y survivalist writer Mel Tappan , who i s generall y acknowledge d a s on e o f th e "foundin g fathers " o f th e sur vivalist movement : We are about t o witness the profound disruptio n o f this country and, possibly, the entir e civilize d world . Barrin g som e deus ex machina miracle, ther e i s n o longer any practical way to prevent it and, unles s you are willing to believe for yourself tha t wha t I am tellin g you her e i s truth, yo u wil l probably becom e a victim of this holocaust without ever having the opportunity to strike a blow in behalf of your country or yourself. (Tappan 1981:1)

Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era I 11 9 Survivalist publication s an d newsletter s consistentl y maintai n tha t impending catastrophe s wil l completel y destro y societ y a s i t currentl y exists . According to one writer, "What all survivalists share is a belief that somethin g terrible will happe n soon , an d tha t peopl e ha d bette r get read y for it " (Myer s 1982:12). Whether tha t eventualit y i s envisione d a s economic collapse , racia l conflicts, o r nuclear war, many survivalists insist that these future catastrophe s are inevitable . Of th e variou s apocalypti c scenario s prepare d fo r b y survivalists , nuclea r conflagration i s b y fa r th e mos t predominan t (Coate s 1987:9 ; Houglu m 1986:69-70; Myer s 1982:13) . Unlik e individua l response s t o th e threa t o f nuclear war that are characterized b y denial, avoidance , o r escapism, survival ists hav e develope d specifi c plan s fo r dealin g wit h th e nuclea r destructio n o f society. Researche r Jame s Coate s maintain s tha t survivalis m i s a mean s o f directly copin g with th e fea r of nuclea r annihilation an d "th e terrors of post Hiroshima lif e o n a fragil e an d unfriendl y planet . . . . Instea d o f worryin g about ho w t o preven t th e comin g holocaust , thes e Survivalist s hav e devote d their energy t o planning ho w t o prospe r b y it" (1987:9). In his book Life after Doomsday, prominen t survivalis t autho r Bruc e Clay ton state s that of the numerou s potentia l cataclysm s tha t threate n th e Unite d States (such as famine, epidemi c disease, economic collapse , political an d reli gious disruption, and various natural and environmental calamities) , "nuclea r war is both the greatest possible catastrophe our nation could ever face and the most immediat e and continuous threa t to our lives" (1980:14). After conduct ing a statistical analysi s on th e probability of a nuclear cataclysm occurrin g i n the nea r future , Clayto n conclude s tha t "unde r thes e circumstances , th e advent o f nuclea r war can b e regarde d a s a certainty. Onl y th e dat e i s unpre dictable" (1980:15) . Lik e religiou s apocalypticists , th e belief s an d rhetori c o f many survivalists assert that predicted futur e events are unalterable b y huma n effort. Instea d o f bein g par t o f a divinel y ordaine d pla n fo r th e world , sur vivalists contend that these cataclysmic events will inevitabl y occur as the consequence o f "natura l laws, " huma n ignoranc e an d violence , uncontrollabl e technology, governmenta l ineptitud e an d deceit , o r conspiracie s b y siniste r groups. Survivalist literatur e assure s reader s tha t with th e prope r planning , prepa ration, an d trainin g the y will endur e eve n th e mos t devastatin g catastrophes . As Clayton states , "Believ e i t or not, even a nuclear war is survivable. Wit h a n eye toward realistic preparation, you can see to i t that your famil y an d a small group of friends will b e able to live through th e holocaust an d th e post-attac k period with a minimum o f unpleasantness" (1980:17). Clayton provide s exten-

120 I Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era sive informatio n abou t survival strategies, discussing i n detail various types o f shelters, plan s fo r evacuation , foo d storage , foraging , alternativ e energ y sources, weapons , emergenc y medicine , th e tactic s o f self-defense , an d th e psychology o f managin g peopl e durin g a disaster . Som e survivalist s hav e formed group s and purchased propert y in rural areas that they plan to inhabi t once societ y collapse s o r when urba n area s become to o dangerous . The mor e retreatist survivalists have relocated to remote areas where they await the apocalypse. B y providing individual s with a plan of action, survivalism ma y transform a sense o f helplessnes s o r resignatio n abou t inevitabl e societa l destruc tion int o a n ethos o f self-reliance an d self-salvation . Although ther e are some religiou s survivalists (midtribulationist s an d posttribulationists) wh o believ e tha t comin g catastrophe s ar e par t o f th e foreor dained tribulatio n perio d tha t the y wil l hav e t o endur e prio r t o th e Rapture , it appears that th e majorit y of survivalists expect tha t imminen t worldly cata clysms wil l b e natura l o r human-made . Som e o f thes e secula r survivalists , however, envisio n th e renewa l o f society afte r it s destruction. Lik e other mil lenarians, thes e individual s ar e pessimisti c abou t th e curren t societ y an d believe tha t futur e disaster s will haste n th e transformatio n o f the world. Sim ilar to dispensationalists an d th e Baysiders , who regar d apocalypse as a purification o f th e eart h prio r t o th e establishmen t o f a millennia l paradise , thes e millenarian survivalist s anticipat e a catastrophic cleansin g o f th e planet , th e abolishment o f government, an d a state of unlimited , anarchisti c freedom . As Michael Barku n notes , some Christia n Identit y survivalist s envisio n a n apocalypse tha t will involv e the genocide o f specific racia l or religious minori ties (1990 ; 1994:213-217). The racis t millenarian tendenc y o f this paramilitar y minority withi n th e survivalis t movemen t i s exemplifie d b y th e writing s o f Kurt Saxon , wh o state s tha t World Wa r II I "wil l b e a blessin g fo r survivors . We ca n star t anew, hopefull y avoidin g pas t errors . . . the earths surplus pop ulation i s long overdue fo r a culling" (Myer s 1982:45) . Saxons writings antici pate a WASP golde n ag e fre e fro m "foreign, " nonwhit e inhabitants , who , h e asserts, will hav e bee n eliminate d durin g th e collapse o f civilization. Anothe r racist post-apocalypti c scenari o i s described b y researche r James Coates , wh o observes tha t th e survivalis t righ t i s characterized b y th e ide a "tha t th e worl d is on th e verge of some form of catastrophic renewal, after which the stage will be set for them t o eliminate th e Jews, blacks, Hispanics, Catholics , and other s who ar e their targets " (1987:10). Usin g th e eschatologica l image s o f th e Bibl e to support it s ideology, th e apocalypse imagine d b y the survivalist righ t i s the pivotal momen t i n whic h a contaminate d societ y wil l b e destroye d an d humanity "cleansed " of racial and religiou s "impurities. " Life after apocalyps e

Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era I 12 1

often i s envisioned a s a n Edeni c terrestria l paradis e wit h whit e Adam-and Eve-like survivors repopulating a pristine planet. The millenarian aspects of survivalism clearly resemble religious apocalyptic traditions that emphasize the salvation of a select few rather than society as a whole. The dangers and crises that threaten humanit y are viewed as unsolvable by human effort, and , like many religious apocalypticists, most hard-core survivalists hav e "give n up " o n a corrup t societ y tha t they conside r t o b e doomed. Although human action is regarded as futile i n averting catastrophes and savin g society , persona l salvatio n i s possibl e throug h self-sufficiency , retreatism, an d th e developmen t o f certai n prescribe d skill s an d behaviors . The feeling s o f powerlessness otherwis e evoke d b y fears o f nuclear annihila tion and other imminent disasters are displaced by elaborate preparations that provide th e hop e o f survivin g doomsday . Unlik e th e promis e o f planetar y escape i n th e Rapture , th e protectio n afforde d b y th e Baysiders ' "spiritua l armor," and other assurances of supernatural interventio n o r protection, secular survivalists must rely on their own skill, resourcefulness, an d rugged individualism t o endure societal destruction. The majorit y o f survivalists seem t o embrace th e fatalisti c vie w tha t nuclea r wa r an d othe r cataclysm s ar e inevitable, envisionin g themselve s a s post-apocalypti c pioneer s wh o wil l b e the dominant inhabitant s of a devastated new frontier an d who will gradually rebuild society from th e ruins.

Visions of Apocalypse in Punk Subculture Survivalism is one of the more obvious examples of secular apocalyptic think ing, but ideas about imminent societal destruction also have been a part of the worldview of numerous other subgroups in the United States during the past four decades , particularly so-calle d counterculture s an d yout h subcultures. 11 Unlike various groups i n th e 1960s and 1970 s that expresse d th e millenaria n hope tha t societ y woul d b e transforme d an d redeemed , th e behavio r an d rhetoric of members o f the punk subcultur e i n th e late 1970s was character ized b y pessimism, nihilism , an d a sense of impendin g societa l destruction . Apocalyptic idea s wer e no t necessaril y th e definin g characteristi c o f pun k worldview; however, a sense of imminent doo m was a dominant theme , consistently expresse d i n son g lyrics , fanzines, newsletters , posters , manifestoes , beliefs, and behavior . As Dick Hebdig e observes , "Th e rhetori c of punk was drenched i n apocalypse : i n th e stoc k imager y o f crisi s an d sudde n change " (1979:27). Greil Marcus, commenting on early punk music, notes that it "was

122 I

Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era

millenarian fro m th e beginning , certai n t o lead the listener int o th e promise d land, or fort y years i n th e wilderness" (1989:5) . The apocalypti c temperamen t of pun k etho s an d aestheti c i s als o suggeste d b y Ted Morgan , wh o observe s that "th e punk scen e flourished wit h th e coming o f the age of the first generation raise d o n th e concep t o f nuclea r annihilation , th e Soviet s havin g announced i n 195 0 tha t the y ha d th e Bomb " (1988:537). Although th e apoca lyptic theme s o f punk worldview hav e bee n note d b y other writers (cf . Lain g 1978:124), a s wel l a s punk s themselves , extende d analyse s o f thi s aspec t o f punk rhetoric , belief , an d styl e hav e no t bee n made . This discussio n concen trates o n variou s manifestation s o f th e pun k cultur e i n lat e 1970 s an d earl y 1980s, befor e pun k wa s transforme d int o a variety o f othe r subcultura l an d musical movements. 12 Punk mad e it s debu t i n th e popula r medi a i n th e summe r o f 1976 , pri marily as the resul t of th e scandalous antic s of th e roc k ban d th e Se x Pistols . Much o f th e attentio n focuse d upo n thei r styl e o f bod y adornment , thei r loud and "obnoxious" music, their "self-mutilation" (burnin g their arms with lighted cigarette s an d scratchin g thei r face s with needles) , an d thei r obscen e behavior (cursin g on a nationally televise d tal k show and performin g a "spitting an d vomitin g act " at Heathro w Airport) . I t was no t lon g befor e a variety of other pun k band s appeared, th e member s o f which generall y ha d littl e or no prio r musica l training . These initia l group s emphasized a raw, amateur musical styl e an d a self-effacing, "anti-roc k star " approach. The do-it-your self attitud e o f pun k i s epitomize d b y th e often-cite d advic e i n th e pun k fanzine Sniffin Glue, which ha s an illustration o f three finger positions on th e neck o f a guitar an d th e caption , "Here' s on e chord , here' s tw o more , no w form you r own band. " In general , earl y pun k subcultur e wa s characterize d b y antiromanticism , anticommercialism, an d th e lac k of distinctions betwee n musician s an d fans . It als o quickl y becam e renowne d fo r a style o f adornmen t calculate d t o dis turb and outrage: dyed hair , mohawks, studded leather jackets, torn clothing , bondage wear , profane d religiou s articles , tattooing , an d safet y pin s piercin g the nose , lips , an d ears . Claimin g t o b e anarchist s an d nihilists , punk s offended a s many peopl e a s they could: some wer e distressed b y th e profana tion o f religiou s object s an d th e us e of sexually "deviant " paraphernalia; oth ers were disgusted b y the emphasis on th e sordid and obscene. Pun k behavio r and rhetori c evoked a "moral panic"— a genera l horro r and condemnation i n the popular media that spread throughout society. Punks were demonized an d depicted i n stereotypical ways as "folk devils" that threatene d nationa l moral s and th e social orde r (Hebdig e 1979:157-158) .

Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era I 12 3 Punk becam e popula r whe n i t di d becaus e i t wa s a grassroots reactio n t o the mas s marketing , commercialism , an d elitis m tha t characterize d main stream roc k music; it also captured the mood o f the time, giving expression t o many of the frustrations and concerns of youth, such as a high unemploymen t rate, dismal economi c conditions , an d a pervasive attitude o f desperation an d futility (Lain g 1978:123-125 ; Hebdig e 1979:23-29) . Th e fatalisti c underpin nings of punk ar e noted b y Tricia Henry, who state s that punks "fel t the y ha d 'no future ' (on e o f th e slogan s whic h becam e synonymou s wit h th e pun k world view), and that their lives had been predestined by a society run by people with unfai r advantage s (i.e. , mone y an d politica l power) . When the y finished high school, i f they did, the y either couldn't find wor k o r were doome d to job s whic h the y foun d unbearabl y boring , an d whic h offere d n o creativ e challenge an d ver y littl e pay " (1989:1) . Th e pun k mott o "n o future, " whic h summed u p the sense of fatalism inheren t in early punk ethos, comes from th e Sex Pistol s son g "Go d Sav e th e Queen " (1977) , whic h becam e a n interna tional pun k anthem . I n it , Johnny Rotte n screams : God save the Queen The fascist regime It made you a moron A potential H-bom b God save the Queen She ain't no human being There is no future In England's dream No futur e No futur e No futur e For you. .. . The sens e o f cultural pessimism , futurelessness , an d nihilis m expresse d b y the Se x Pistol s appeale d t o disaffecte d yout h aroun d th e world , an d pun k quickly becam e a global phenomenon . Becaus e earl y pun k musi c wa s gener ally no t promote d b y th e recor d industr y o r playe d o n th e radio , knowledg e about th e subcultur e wa s communicate d primaril y b y wor d o f mout h a t record stores, nightclubs , an d othe r meetin g places , a s well a s through corre spondences an d hundreds of fanzines ru n by punks themselves , such a s Punk, Sniffiri Glue, Search and Destroy, Rotten to the Core, Slash, Maximumrocknroll, Damage, World War III, an d Flipside. Th e grassroot s characte r o f pun k i s

124 I Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era exemplified b y the fact tha t even though "Go d Sav e the Queen" was banned on British radio and some stores refused t o sell the record, it rose to the top of the music charts in England. Unlike Britis h punk , th e American pun k movemen t wa s no t s o muc h a response to economic oppression as an expression of alienation fro m an d disgust fo r mainstrea m values . Like their Britis h counterparts, however , American punk s ofte n embrace d a sens e o f societa l disintegration , fatalism , an d futurelessness. As a former pun k fro m Ne w York put it : "I liked that tim e of decay. There was a nihilism i n th e atmosphere, a longing t o die . Part o f th e feeling of New York at that time was this longing for oblivion, that you were about to disintegrate, go the way of this bankrupt, crumbling city. Yet that was something almost mystically wonderful" (Savag e 1991:133). The sentiment tha t there was no future an d that society was collapsing pervaded American pun k fanzine s an d lyrics . The well-known documentar y film about punks in Los Angeles, The Decline of Western Civilization (1981), by Penelope Spheeris , capture s thi s sens e o f pessimisti c inevitability , epitomize d b y singer Darby Crash of the band the Germs, who was one of the first and mos t influential pun k singers in Southern California . Cras h performe d i n a state of drug- an d alcohol-induce d oblivio n an d eventuall y committe d suicide . Pun k self-destructiveness ofte n ha s been interprete d a s an aesthetic style rather tha n an expressio n o f a genuine sens e o f despair o r fatalism , ye t ther e were man y punks who were absolutely fatalisti c an d completel y seriou s about destroyin g themselves, an d man y did . Th e destructiv e aspec t o f th e pun k movemen t became ritualized i n the form o f slam-dancing, ceremonial violence, drug and alcohol abuse, and other forms of actual or symbolic self-negation . This emphasis on destruction wa s palpable at punk concerts, which ofte n felt lik e symbolic enactments , o r perhap s celebrations , o f th e collapse o f all social order , a momentary , catharti c releas e fro m societa l constraints . Th e music shoo k th e wall s o f th e ramshackl e club s an d ruine d auditorium s i n which it was played; band members screamed, collapsed, spit on the audience, had seizures, lacerated their bodies, and threw themselves into the crowd. Fans leaped u p on th e stage and di d th e same, hurling bottles and chairs , spitting their approval rathe r than applauding, and diving head first or somersaulting into the crowd. Punk dances also expressed this sense of destruction and negation: slam-dancin g involve d runnin g an d throwin g onesel f int o th e othe r dancers; and th e pog o was a denial o f all previou s danc e aesthetics , as individuals hoppe d u p and dow n with thei r arm s at thei r sides and crashe d int o one another. The editor o f Punk magazine, John Holmstrom , who authore d one o f man y initia l pun k manifestoes , state s tha t a punk concer t "i s like an

/. Fearfu l Sights and Great Signs. The portents of the last days shown in this nineteenth-century Millerite illustration include earthquakes, eclipses, erupting volcanoes, and showers of falling stars. (From a reprinted edition of S. S. Brewer, The Last Day Tokens: Nos. i, 2, 3,1874.)

2. The Theater of the Universe on th e Eve of Time. This eighteenth-century depic tion of the dead rising from thei r graves on th e Day of Judgment illustrate s a tract that use s the metaphor of the theater for conveying a sense of history's predestine d plot. While the righteous few are being allowed into the Gallery to watch th e endtimes drama unfold , a mob of sinners is being cast into the Pit, which "is very wide and commodious, which causes great numbers to flock to it, [and ] it is generally crowded." (From a publication b y G. S . Peters, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania , n o date; from th e collection of the Library of Congress.)

j . Thi s portrayal of the return of Jesus Christ and his angels to gather up th e faithfu l illustrates a home-study lesson on "The Four Horsemen o f Revelation" distribute d by Seminars Unlimited, a Seventh-day Adventist ministeria l supply and resourc e center. (Courtes y of Seminars Unlimited. )

4. The Last News. The role of atomic weapons in God's plan and the inevitability of nuclear apocalypse prior to Jesus Christ's return are recurring preoccupations in popular prophecy, conveyed by this cover of a prophecy tract (circa 1990) styled after the front page of a tabloid. (Courtesy of Feral House.)

5. Apocalypse at a Theater Near You. Hal Lindsey's endtimes scenario was not only promoted in the 1970s by his best-selling book The Late Great Planet Earth but also by a documentary-like film featuring Lindsey and narrated by Orson Welles (some ads claimed that the film was the "ultimate disaster movie"). (From the advertisement for the film The Late Great Planet Earthy a Pacific International Enterprises release.)

6. Rapture Place Mat. Charles Anderson's painting of the Rapture, well known in dispensationalist circles, is available as a place mat, postcard, or framed print. (Courtesy of the Bible Believers' Evangelistic Association, Inc.)

7. The Great Snatch! The comic book version of Hal Lindsey's There's a New World Coming (1974), illustrated b y Al Hartley, presented dispensationalis t belief s t o teenagers in the 1970s in the vernacular style of the times. (From the Spire comic book There's a New World Coming)

8. Like previous prophecy interpreters, Hal Lindsey recast ancient biblical passages in terms of modern concern s and contexts, in this instance identifying th e locusts mentioned in the Book of Revelation as swarms of apocalyptic helicopters. (From the Spire comic book There's a New World Coming)

p. Accordin g to premillennialist interpretations of the Book of Revelation, the major armies of the world will converge at the Batde of Armageddon where the Antichrist and the forces of evil will be finally defeated by Jesus Christ and the forces of good. (From the Spire comic book There's a New World Coming)

io. Lef t Behin d Mowing the Lawn. This illustration o f the Rapture in suburbia fro m The Rise of the Antichrist by Salem Kirban warns that some family member s ma y miss the Rapture and be forever separate d from thei r loved ones. (Courtesy of Salem Kirban.)

ii. Th e Judgments of the Tribulation Period . This prophecy chart details the predetermined punishment s t o be inflicted upo n humanity—the Seve n Seal Judgments, the Seven Trumpet Judgments, and th e Seven Vial Judgments—during th e seven year tribulation perio d prior to Jesus Chrises return. (Courtes y of Salem Kirban. )

12. Body Art in the Last Days. In this illustration, th e Mark of the Beast is depicted as a fashionable for m o f body modification tha t people will embrace willingly in the endtimes in order t o buy, sell, and express their allegiance to the Antichrist. (Courtes y of Salem Kirban. )

/?• Some prophecy enthusiasts believe that the Mark of the Beast will be required fo r all financial transac tions in the future and will take the form of an invisible tattoo on the back of the right hand which will be scanned by lasers, similar to the way Universal Product Codes are now scanned at check-out counters at supermarkets. (Cour tesy of Salem Kirban.)

14. Business as Usual in the Endtimes. A business man with the Mark of the Beast on his hand an d forehead hail s a taxi during the reign of the Antichrist. From th e cover of Signs of the Times, a Seventh-day Adventist publication . (Courtesy of Jim Starr. )

JJ. Rapture Time. Prophecy believers may purchase an assortment of inspirational endtimes products such as this "Rapture watch" with the reminder that each passing hour brings the wearer "one hour nearer the Lord's return." (Courtesy of Salem Kirban.)

16. An illustration of the Virgin Mary appearing to three children at Fatima in 1917, perhaps the most famous apparition site where Mary is believed to have delivered apocalyptic, anticommunist, and traditionalist messages. (From a newsletter published by St. Paul's Guild.)

IJ. Warning s from Heaven . At various contemporary Marian appari tion sites, visionaries claim that th e Virgin Mary has warned of the imminence of nuclear apocalypse, symbolized i n this advertisement by an image of Mary framed b y a mushroom cloud . (Fro m a newsletter published b y St. Paul's Guild. )

18. Promotin g the Virgin Mary in America. This full-page advertise ment by Our Lad y of Roses Shrine about the Bayside apparitions appeared in the Weekly World News in December 199 4 and elicite d nearly fifteen hundre d writte n responses and five thousand phon e inquiries. (Courtesy of Our Lad y of the Roses, Mary Help of Mothers Shrine.)

ip. Veronica in Ecstasy. These photographs from a publication that promotes the Bayside apparitions document Veronica Lueken's ecstatic visions of the Virgin Mary. The first three photos show her envisioning the gate of heaven, holding Baby Jesus, and blowing a kiss to the Blessed Mother; the fourth photo shows her in ecstasy, while the last two pictures document her response to a vision of hell. (Courtesy of Apostles of Our Lady.)

20. The messages from Jesus and Mary communicated t o Veronica Lueken ar e transcribed and disseminated throug h a n assortment of print and electronic media; thi s tract (date d March 26,1983 ) contains a message from Jesus that expresses a recurring theme in the Bayside apparitions despite the end of the Cold War—the imminenc e of a nuclear attack on th e United State s by communist forces . (Courtes y of Ou r Lady of the Roses, Mary Help of Mothers Shrine. )

2i. Phot o of Exterminatus. This photograph is believed by some Baysiders to be a miraculous picture of "Exterminatus, the angel of death," a skull-faced figure on horseback brandishing a sickle who will soon claim those who are not in a state of grace. (Courtesy of Our Lady of the Roses, Mary Help of Mothers Shrine.)

22. Take Cover. As a part of school routin e in the 1950s and 1960s, duck-andcover drills offered a sense of protection fro m the uncontrollable an d ever-present nuclear threat; here, second grade children practice taking cover in the event of a surprise attack by the Soviets. (Phot o by Sondak, courtes y of FPG Internationa l Corp.)

2j. Soo n after th e detonation o f the first atomi c bombs, the word atomic was used by hundreds of businesses to promote an assortment o f products and services mar keted as modern, powerful, o r scientifically advanced . Atomic Fire Ball candy, first released in 1954 by the Ferrara Pan Candy Company and still sold today, transform s the terror of the atomic bomb into the jawbreaker "wit h th e red hot flavor." A more cynically apocalyptic commercial us e of the image of the mushroom clou d occurre d in 1985 when Topps Chewing Gum, Inc . issued Garbage Pai l Kid trading cards, the trademark for which was an image of "Adam Bomb " pressing a button o n a remote control device as a mushroom clou d explodes out of the top of his head. (Fro m th e Ferrara Pan Candy Company and Topps Chewing Gum, Inc. )

24- Doomsayers holding signs pronouncing the end of the world have been frequent objects of caricature and mockery, but Gahan Wilson's gallows humor goes one step further in this illustration of the earth in pieces and an endtimes sign in space. (Reproduced by special permission of Playboy magazine; copyright © 196 1 by Playboy)

2$. This illustration of a family fallout shelter beneath a patio, from a pamphlet issued by the Civil Defense Preparedness Agency in 1977, depicts the perpetual threat of imminent nuclear catastrophe underlying everyday life and leisure during the Cold War era. (From Protection in the Nuclear Age.)

26. Survivalist publication s durin g th e Cold War er a directly addresse d nuclea r apocalyptic fears, exemplifie d b y this cover of Life after Doomsday* a guide fo r preparing for an d survivin g nuclea r war and various othe r cataclysms . (Courtes y of Paladin Press. )

2j. Image s of mushroom cloud s were ubiquitous in early punk fanzines, reflectin g nuclear apocalyptic fears and the idea of "no future," illustrate d here by a modifie d version of Edvard Munch's The Scream. (Fro m th e cover of Fallout fanzine.)

28. This illustration fro m a sixteenth-century Germa n broadshee t depicts strange objects sighted in the sky over the city of Nuremburg on April 14,1561, which were interpreted a t the time as apocalyptic warnings from God ; toda y various UF O enthusiasts consider accounts of this medieval aerial spectacle to be evidence of flying saucers in the Middle Ages. (From the collection of the Zentralbibliothek , Zurich.)

29. The Space Brothers Want You to Survive Doomsday. This advertisement fo r the book Psychic & UFO Revelations in the Last Days depicts a UFO evacuation of the "chosen ones" prior t o worldly catastrophe, a scenario that resembles Christian Rapture beliefs about planetary escape prior to the tribulation period . (Cour tesy of Inner Light Publications. )

$o. The sense of cosmic fate controlling earth's final day s is conveyed by this cover of Psychic & UFO Revelations in the Last Days which depicts the earth engulfed in flames as an escaping UFO slips through th e sinister looking hands of some interstellar entity. (Courtes y of Inner Ligh t Publications. )

JJ. At the beginning of the atomic age, UFO contactees described the Space People as beautiful, benevolent , and humanlike in appearance. According to early encounter narratives, these angelic beings, frequently depicted in jumpsuits with flowing, shoulder-length hair, had come from Utopian planets in an attempt to save humanity from destroying itself. (From The Book of Spaceshipsand Their Relationship with Earth)

32. In this syncretism of Christian and UFO symbolism, Jesus Christ is portrayed as a Space Being in an astronaut-like jumpsuit. (Fro m "Angeles ayer extraterrestres hoy," by La Asociacion Adonai para la Fraternidad Cosmica Desojo.)

33- Georg e Adamski, the first person to claim direct contact with space beings (i n the California deser t on November 20,1952) , poses with a painting of a Space Brother. Although Adamski's encounter narrativ e has been dismissed as a hoax by some ufologists, its emphasis on the dangers of atomic weapons influenced subse quent contactee accounts in the 1950s and 1960s. (Courtesy of UFO Magazine.)

54- Members of the Aetherius Society charge a spiritual battery with "praye r power"; Aetherians believe that thi s spiritual energy may be discharged i n th e future durin g times of crisis to avert worldly cataclysms. (Photograph b y Douglas Curran, from In Advance of theLanding)

35. Rut h Norman, known as Uriel by students of the Unarius Academy of Science, stands beside a hand-crafted replic a of STARCENTER ONE , consisting of a tower of UFOs from eac h of the planets of the Interplanetary Confederation. Unariun s believe that these starships will land on earth in the year 2001 and interlock to form a two-mile-high "college of cosmic wisdom," the interplanetary inhabitants of which will lead humanity into a golden age of peace and prosperity. (Courtesy of the Unarius Academy of Science.)

$6. A persistent belie f in th e UFO fait h i s that extraterrestrials are monitoring th e development and use of nuclear weapons on earth an d that they either will interven e to prevent worldly destructio n or rescue a chosen few prior t o global annihilation. (Illustra tion by Jefferson R . Weekley, courtesy of UFO Magazine.)

37. A depiction o f an alien abduction, illustratin g the aliens' ability to pass throug h matter and abduct victims anywhere and at any time against their will. (Illustratio n courtesy of Darryl Anka, from Beyond My Wildest Dreams: Diary of aUFO Abductee.)

$8. Thi s cover of a special issue of Fate magazine devoted to alien abductions no t only illustrates the popular fascination wit h the abduction phenomenon , bu t also the complete helplessness of the abductee at the hands of extraterrestrial captors. (Copyright Fate Magazine, September 1992. Reprinted with permission. )

39. Some alien abductees assert that extraterrestrials are engaged in a process of genetic engineering and are interbreeding with human being s and then late r removing the hybrid fetuses i n order to ensure the survival of the human rac e prior t o worldly cataclysm. (Illustration courtes y of Darryl Anka, from Beyond My Wildest Dreams: Diary of a UFO Abductee.)

40. An artist's depiction o f alien/human hybridization—an d a representation o f the continuation an d evolution of the human experimen t in the form o f a genetically transformed an d transhuma n offspring—fro m th e cover of Kim Carlsberg's boo k Beyond My Wildest Dreams: Diary of aUFO Abductee (1995). (Illustration courtesy of Darryl Anka.)

4i. Lik e angels, extraterrestrials are depicted in some accounts as otherworldly beings with omnipotent powers who have intervened to save the lives of people, in some cases curing them of AIDS, cancer, and other illnesses. In this illustration, benevolent ETs are shown using crystals to heal a terminally ill woman. (Fro m UFO Universe.)

42. God or Extraterrestrial? This illustration accompanies an article in a UFO magazine that discusses some of the attributes of benevolent and malevolent extraterrestrials. Unlike the Space Beings in the early flying saucer faith who generally were de-picted as benevolent and often Christ-like, recent UFO beliefs and encounters increasingly have asserted that some aliens are amoral or sinister entities with an evil plan for world domination. The caption alongside this illustration warns, "Beware of any extraterrestrials or entities who say they are your creators or who put down Jesus or God." (From International UFO Library.)

43- Wit h the advent of World Wide Web sites and Internet forums, the communication of apocalyptic beliefs is being transformed by new technologies, satirized in this caricature of a stereotypical doomsayer holding an endtimes sign with a World Wide Web-site address. (Drawing by Robb Armstrong; copyright 1996. Courtesy of The New Yorker Magazine, Inc.)

Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era I 12 5 assault, you know. What the kids want is World War III, and we're giving it to them" (Selzer 1979:119). Although feeling s of despair and anomie have been expressed by members of numerou s yout h groups , man y punk s elevate d th e ide a o f persona l an d societal negatio n t o an aesthetic . The name s of various punk band s illustrat e this emphasis o n destruction , futility , an d decay : The Last ; Damned ; Dam age; U.K. Decay; Dead Kennedys; Living Abortions; Null and Void; Suicidal Tendencies; Dead Boys ; Wasted Youth; Rotters. The pseudonym s that punk s often assume d emphasize d th e sam e themes , a s well a s self-effacement, par ody, and th e absurd: Johnny Rotten ; Si d Vicious; Lorna Doom ; Jello Biafra ; Adam Bomb ; Steve Havoc; Rat Scabies ; Tequila Mockingbird; Alan Suicide ; Phester Swollen. The pessimistic and apocalyptic roots of punk music and aesthetics can be traced t o earlie r influence s o f musician s suc h a s Lo u Ree d an d th e Velve t Underground, Igg y Pop, Patti Smith, Richar d Hell , the New York Dolls, and the Ramones. In addition to celebrating street life, urban decay, and social outcasts, these musicians frequently expressed pessimistic, fatalistic, and apocalyptic sentiments. The abusive and destructive aspects of these punk predecessor s are exemplified b y Iggy Pop, who cut himself with broken glass during perfor mances while he harassed an d spi t o n hi s audiences. I n hi s well-known son g "Search and Destroy " (1973 ) he screams, "I'm th e runaway son o f the nuclea r A-bomb /1 am the world s forgotten bo y / The one who searches and destroys." The association of nuclear weapons and the threat of global annihilation wit h images of personal or societal destruction is a recurring theme in punk and protopunk lyrics . Another sourc e of punk doomsda y imager y was reggae music, which is inspired by the millenarian belief s of Rastafarianism, with its prophecies about th e destruction o f Babylon (identifie d variousl y as white colonial ism, oppression, an d capitalism). The musi c of David Bowie , who frequentl y addressed th e theme of societal destruction an d decay, also served as an inspiration fo r earl y pun k apocalypticism . O n hi s albu m The Man Who Sold the World (1970), Bowie sings, "The world i s doomed / We can't make it any better"; and the predominant theme of the albums The Rise andFallofZiggy Stardust and the Spiders fromMars(1972) and Aladdin Sane (1973) is that of an alien who visits the earth, which i s teetering on self-destruction. A s Patricia Henr y notes, "Pun k rocker s embrace d Bowie s interest s i n gende r ambiguit y an d doomsday imagery, while rejecting what they perceived as a distasteful interes t in commercial appeal and monetary gain" (1989:36-37). Punk lyric s abou t nuclea r doomsda y ar e blun t an d explicit , an d usuall y accompanied b y extremel y lou d an d fas t music ; sometime s th e lyric s ar e

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screamed; occasionally the y are spoken with sarcasm or remorse. For instance, in th e song "Rando m Relations " (1981) , th e lea d singer o f The Suspect s sing s slowly an d fatalistically : I'm living in a world I really hate What can I can do? Reluctantly I take the bait Just like you. . . . We've been threatened with a terrible death Nuclear war. . . . There ain't no fallout shelter, No food t o eat We'll have to take our chances With the shriveling flesh on the street. Punk lyric s abou t doomsda y ar e generall y characterize d b y theme s o f tota l helplessness an d despair . I n som e song s th e lyric s ar e nearl y unintelligible ; however, th e sens e o f inevitabl e doo m i s clear. I n th e son g " 4 Minute Warn ing" by U.K. Chao s (1982) , th e only comprehensibl e words , screamed a t reg ular intervals, ar e "Hiroshima i s here again! / Hiroshim a i s here again! / Fou r minute warning! / Fou r minute warning!" In "When th e Last Day Comes" by The Insan e (1982) , th e lyric s are mostly incomprehensible , bu t th e song end s with soun d effect s simulatin g a nuclear explosion . Graphic depiction s o f nuclea r catastroph e ar e also common, narrate d as i f the bomb had just been dropped, and often detailing the gruesome aftereffect s of a nuclear attack : I saw a blinding flash of light I felt the heat burn through my bones A giant mushroom in the sky The smell of burning human flesh The people scream in agony I stumble blindly through the heat Memories of life before. . . . (St. Vitus Dancers; "The Survivor," no date) The gritt y description s tha t frequentl y characteriz e pun k vision s o f nuclea r destruction ar e often provide d b y a dying pun k survivo r wanderin g throug h the radioactiv e rubble , wh o comment s o n th e meaninglessnes s o f apocalyps e and condemn s politicians . Th e imag e o f th e pun k apocalypti c survivo r i s exemplified i n on e stri p fro m th e comi c "Jimbo, " b y Gar y Panter , i n whic h the protagonist , a punk Everyma n preoccupie d wit h fear s o f nuclea r annihi -

Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era I 12 7 lation, survive s a n atomi c explosio n an d run s barefoo t an d o n fire throug h a burning, decimate d cit y (Pante r 1988) . The ban d Vic e Squad , i n thei r son g "Last Rockers" (1982), provides a comparable visio n o f nuclea r doom : Stepping through the rubble My head's in a spin I hear them fighting th e war No on e can win I'm too young to die It's too late to live As politicians do the thing No Go d can forgive. . . . The time has come for us to die No memorie s left to cry No chanc e of a rebirth For the last rockers on earth. . . . Our job here is to remind A day may come in future time For we who fought on city streets And perished in atomic heat. Whether consistin g o f angr y o r sarcasti c statements , o r candid , persona l reflections tha t revea l individua l fear s about nuclea r annihilation, pun k lyric s often emphasiz e th e destructiv e powe r o f uncontrollabl e technolog y an d depict th e governmen t a s th e immora l agen t o f doomsday . A fatalisti c endorsement o f nuclear annihilation i s expressed i n th e Passion Killers ' "Start Again" (no date): Nuclear forces out of control Let's start again Let's start again All buried down in an A-bomb hole Let's start again Let's start again. . . . Nothin's left, not a single soul Let's start again Let's start again. In it s simplicity , thi s pun k ran t epitomize s attitude s abou t th e threa t o f nuclear apocalypse—feelings o f helplessness , pessimism , gallow s humor , an d perhaps even a yearning fo r th e End an d a new beginning . Numerous other songs, such as Mutual Assured Destructions "Holocaust, " Nick Cave s "Cit y of Refuge," the Minutemens "Drea m Told by Moto," Cru-

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cifix's "Annihilation, " Elvi s Costello s "Hurr y Down , Doomsda y (Th e Bug s Are Taking Over), " and th e Crass s "Wher e Nex t Columbus? " express apoca lyptic themes , describin g th e destructiv e capabilitie s o f technolog y an d vari ous doomsday scenarios. I n songs like Elvis Costellos "Waitin g for the End o f the World, " Fishbone s "Part y a t Groun d Zero, " an d R.E.M. s cheerfu l "It s the End of the World as We Kno w I t (and I Feel Fine), " the doomsday them e becomes a metaphor fo r other concern s an d topic s o r i s subordinate t o othe r ideas. Pun k expectation s o f doomsday ar e most ofte n associate d with nuclea r apocalypse an d resembl e othe r contemporar y secula r vision s tha t regar d th e End as an absurd event brough t about b y human ignorance , violence, o r accident. In addition t o punk song lyrics and rhetoric, themes of worldly destructio n also pervad e pun k art , albu m covers , posters , fliers, an d fanzin e illustrations . Images o f demolishe d citie s wit h punks , mutants , o r pun k skeleton s wit h mohawk hairstyle s wandering throug h th e rubbl e are common, a s are image s of nuclea r annihilation . Fo r example, artis t Winston Smit h modifie d Edvar d Munchs woodcu t The Scream fo r th e cove r o f Fallout fanzine , drawin g a mushroom clou d behin d th e shriekin g skeletal figur e (Fallout, n o date , issu e 3). The depiction s o f mushroo m cloud s scattere d throughou t pun k publica tions acquired an iconic quality; some were accompanied b y nihilistic, gallow s humor caption s suc h a s "SUPPOR T NUCLEA R ANNIHILATION! " o r "GOD Listen s . . . PRAY FOR NUCLEA R ANNIHILATION " {NO MAG, "Close-ups' 83" issue, 1983,15 , 20) . Certain aspect s o f pun k bod y adornmen t als o ma y b e interprete d a s symbolic expression s o f feeling s abou t persona l an d societa l doom . Som e punk s explicitly dressed like irradiated survivors of a nuclear catastrophe; others, pale and emaciated , resemblin g zombie s o r corpses, presente d themselve s a s symbols of death o r physical ailment , portrait s of a diseased societ y tha t reflecte d the ide a of futurelessness . Adorne d i n tor n an d tattere d clothing, earl y punk s decorated themselves with emblems and debris that signified depravity, doom , and decay (e.g. , image s of death, garbage, sexual fetishisti c objects , swastikas). Hair wa s shave d i n patches ; th e bod y pierced , mutilated , scarred , tattooed , tied with bondag e wear, or smeared with fak e blood. Makeup was used to give an impressio n o f lifelessness , wit h lip s painte d i n color s associate d wit h death—black, dar k brown, or gray-purple. The overal l impression , a s one ex punk stated , wa s "kind a meal y looking—yo u know , kind a dead , lik e afte r World War III—the walking dead." Punk style was rife with image s of death, destruction, an d futility, with punk s expressing their alienation throug h com munal ritual s of symbolic negatio n an d persona l act s of self-abuse. Presentin g

Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era I 12 9 themselves a s symbols o f a disintegrating an d doomed society , punk s enacte d their ow n dram a o f societa l cataclysm , creatin g th e overal l impressio n tha t they were sacrificing thei r bodies o n th e altar of postmodern despai r (Wojci k 1995:7-20). Although image s of nuclear apocalypse pervade punk music, literature, art, and adornmen t t o a n exten t unprecedente d i n previou s yout h subcultures , punk feeling s about nuclea r war may in fact be fairly representative of nuclea r anxieties amon g contemporar y youth . A s researc h o n fear s o f nuclea r wa r among childre n an d adolescent s ha s indicated , a sense o f fatalism , hopeless ness, an d resignatio n abou t th e inevitabilit y o f nuclea r wa r seem s t o b e extremely pervasiv e amon g youn g peopl e (Mac k 1982) . Fo r instance , i n a study that surveyed the attitudes of 1,424 adolescents, 8 2 percent believed tha t civilization woul d b e destroye d i n thei r lifetime s (Blackwel l an d Gessne r 1983). Anothe r study , mentione d previously , reveale d tha t mor e tha n 3 3 percent o f seventeen thousan d hig h schoo l senior s surveyed said they feare d tha t nuclear o r biologica l annihilatio n woul d b e th e fat e o f humankin d withi n their lifetime s (L a Farg e 1987:27—28) . A surve y o f th e literatur e o n children' s fears of nuclea r war concludes tha t "ove r the past 2 5 years, separate surveys o f children and adolescents in varying locales have repeatedly indicated that children ar e expressin g emotiona l distres s relate d t o th e threa t o f nuclea r war . Themes o f fear, powerlessness , resignation , hopelessness , an d despai r are present t o some exten t i n al l samples" (Dunca n e t al . 1986:33) . I n another study , involving interview s with childre n fro m 196 1 to 198 2 about thei r thoughts o n nuclear war, i t was foun d tha t th e primar y mean s o f coping with nuclea r war anxieties wa s b y denyin g th e existenc e o f th e threa t (Schwebe l 1982:610) , a response tha t support s Lifton s hypothesi s abou t pervasiv e psychologica l numbing associate d wit h th e though t o f nuclea r war . Th e stud y als o states , however, tha t thos e who di d thin k abou t th e possibility o f nuclear war generally felt powerles s and helpless, with som e expressin g feeling s o f bitter resent ment an d a sense o f betraya l towar d adult s fo r bringin g abou t a world wit h nuclear weapons (Schwebe l 1982 , cited i n Dunca n e t al. 1986:30) . The sens e o f resentment , betrayal , anger , an d helplessnes s associate d wit h the threa t o f nuclea r wa r i s clearl y expresse d i n th e earl y pun k subculture . Punks, i n general , di d no t appea r t o b e desensitize d t o nuclea r fear s bu t through thei r rhetoric and style often evoke d graphic image s of nuclear apoc alypse, confronting th e terror of the bomb directly . The grassroots , participa tory, and noncommercia l natur e of the punk subcultur e allowed fo r the articulation o f divers e idea s an d concerns , particularl y apocalypti c ones , tha t might no t otherwis e b e expressed i n dominant discourses .

130 I Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era Although an y punk s embrace d th e imager y an d rhetori c o f societa l destruction, fo r others , apocalyptic theme s were simply an expressio n o f pun k style, a fashion statement , a way to shock, o r a means of articulating a sense o f nihilism o r anger. When I asked one ex-punk i f the punk movemen t expresse d ideas abou t th e en d o f th e world , h e replied , "W e didn' t reall y tal k abou t i t that much , bu t ther e wa s th e genera l attitud e o f ' W h o cares ? Everything' s fucked an d it'l l probabl y ge t worse.' " Anothe r ex-pun k stated , " I woul d say , definitely, pun k wa s apocalyptic . Th e bomb , th e feelin g tha t ther e wa s n o future, n o opportunities . Bu t ther e wer e othe r thing s too— a lo t o f politica l ideas being throw n around. " Anothe r individua l replied , "Som e of it i s [apoc alyptic], bu t mor e nihilisti c really . Bu t pun k wa s als o a way t o shoc k society , to wake u p a dead society , show peopl e ho w ba d i t is , that mayb e everything' s not al l right. " Fo r some punks , then , th e metapho r o f apocalypse was adopte d as a means o f expressing a sense of social rebellio n an d societa l dissatisfaction , as well a s general feeling s o f fatalis m an d futurelessness . Many o f th e ex-punk s I spok e wit h state d tha t th e pun k worldvie w wa s characterized b y it s pervasive emphasi s o n destruction , epitomized , accordin g to severa l individuals , b y th e lyric s o f th e son g "Anarch y i n th e U.K. " (1976) , by th e Se x Pistols : I am an antichris t I am an anarchist Don't kno w what I want, But I know how to get it I wanna destroy passers-b y 'Cos I wanna be Anarchy. . . . Destroy. . . . When I aske d abou t th e meanin g o f thi s emphasi s o n destruction , on e ex punk responde d tha t i t had n o "meaning": "It was just destruction fo r destruc tion's sake." Another stated : "Punk was revolutionary i n a way, but pun k reall y didn't hav e a plan—jus t mindles s anarchy—w e jus t wante d t o destro y every thing." This emphasi s o n "destruction"—persona l destruction , societa l destruc tion, th e destructio n o f al l dominan t discourses—reveal s th e apocalypti c themes i n punk . Havin g n o politica l an d economi c power , an d believin g tha t they ha d n o possibilitie s fo r improvin g thei r situation , man y punk s regarde d their ow n live s as "doomed " an d "fated. " Th e pun k emphasi s o n destructio n and futurelessnes s seem s t o b e a n extensio n o f feeling s o f persona l helpless -

Secular Apocalyptic Themes in the Nuclear Era I 13 1 ness, anger , an d a desire fo r th e obliteratio n o f a n unjus t societ y tha t punk s felt ha d condemne d the m fro m birth . I n thi s regard , th e pun k worldvie w bears some resemblanc e t o th e ideas of religious apocalypticists who expres s a contempt fo r society, rejec t the achievements o f the modern world, regar d the current socia l orde r a s corrup t an d unredeemable , an d fee l tha t th e presen t world will be, or must be, destroyed. A shared sense of powerlessness and fatalism is integral to these visions of imminent societal destruction, i n addition t o the desire for an end to the suffering associate d with a debased and evil world. Although punk rhetori c calls for the destruction o f a corrupt and bankrup t society, th e pun k Da y o f Judgment i s no t formulate d a s par t o f a coheren t eschatology, an d punk s generall y ha d n o articulate d plan s fo r a redemptiv e new real m t o replac e a worl d destroyed . Devoi d o f th e promis e o f societa l redemption, punk ideas about the future often were both fatalistic and nihilistic, characterized b y a sense of meaninglessnes s an d doom . The apocalypti c rhetori c tha t pervade s th e pun k subcultur e an d th e othe r ideas an d image s abou t doomsda y discusse d i n thi s chapte r depic t societa l destruction a s inevitabl e an d offe r littl e hop e fo r th e salvatio n o f humanity . These secular doomsday visions are a radical departure fro m traditiona l apoc alyptic belief s an d narrative s tha t offe r som e promis e o f huma n survival , redemption, o r worldl y transformation . Althoug h recen t secula r doomsda y speculation ma y shar e theme s wit h religiou s apocalypti c views , suc h a s th e wickedness and unrecuperability of humanity, i t differs i n it s emphasis on th e meaninglessness o f doomsda y brough t abou t b y destructiv e technolog y an d human ignorance . The senselessnes s an d absurdit y o f worldly annihilatio n i s expressed repeatedly i n secular doomsday thought—whethe r i n the punk cul ture, i n gallow s humo r o f numerou s author s an d artists , i n films suc h a s Dr. Strangelove and On the Beach, or i n popula r jokes about th e bomb . Interpretations o f worldl y destructio n a s meaningfu l o r meaningles s ar e determined b y th e way s tha t individual s attribut e causalit y i n thei r explana tions for the apocalypse. Fo r example, nuclea r weapons, famine , an d environ mental disaster , identifie d b y dispensationalist s a s divinel y determine d sign s that revea l God s foreordaine d plan , ar e considered b y secular apocalypticist s to be the causes, not the signs, of a meaningless End brought about by huma n beings. Althoug h muc h secula r speculatio n abou t worldl y destructio n i s no t fatalistic an d postulate s tha t peopl e ca n preven t predicte d cataclysms , man y secularists d o agre e with thei r religiou s counterpart s i n thei r pessimisti c eval uation o f th e present , th e unrecuperabl e stat e o f th e huma n condition , an d the sens e tha t huma n being s ar e powerles s t o alte r th e fat e o f th e world . Attributing n o meanin g t o worldly destruction, secula r visions of the End are

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pervaded b y image s o f th e helplessnes s o f human being s an d thei r manipula tion b y larger , determinin g force s (th e government , multinationa l corpora tions, th e bomb) . Survivalism i s an exceptio n t o thi s view of human powerlessnes s i n th e fac e of inevitabl e apocalypse . Rathe r tha n feeling s o f helplessness, survivalists see k a sens e o f persona l contro l an d self-salvatio n b y preparin g t o endur e antici pated cataclysms , perhap s eve n harborin g th e expectatio n o f worldly renewa l following th e catastrophes . Survivalists , however , ar e atypica l amon g secular ists in thei r expectations of living through a n apocalyptic scenario. Ideas abou t the unalterable destruction o f the world, when lackin g the mythic componen t of worldl y renewa l an d th e belie f i n divin e control , ultimatel y ma y b e expressed as a form o f nihilistic fatalism . The nex t chapter furthe r explore s th e nature o f fatalis m an d it s role i n contemporar y apocalypti c thought , an d sug gests reason s fo r th e persistenc e an d continue d appea l o f apocalypti c belie f and behavior .

6 Fatalism and Apocalyptic Belief s

As noted i n chapte r i , relativel y fe w comparativ e studie s o f contemporary American apocalypti c beliefs and behavio r hav e been undertaken . However, numerou s studie s exis t tha t analyz e and compar e suc h belief s his torically and i n other cultures, with man y of the best-known an d most influ ential theoretical works focusing on non-Western societies. These studies offe r assorted typologie s and interpretation s o f millenarian movements , identifie d variously a s "nativistic " (Linto n 1943) , "revitalistic " (Wallac e 1956) , "mes sianic" (Lanternar i 1963) , "crisi s cults " (LaBarr e 1971) , an d "carg o cults " (Cochrane 1979 ; Jarvie 1977 ; Worsley 1957) . I n general , millenaria n move ments have been interprete d a s responses to societal crises, the disintegratio n of previous ways of life, cultural conflict, an d colonialism. The phenomeno n of th e carg o cult , fo r instance , exemplifie s a millenaria n respons e resultin g from th e cultural crisi s caused by colonialism an d the exposure of indigenous peoples in Melanesia to the material goods of Western societies. Predicting that supernatural force s would one day deliver an abundance of Western good s in the form o f a ship s cargo, members of cargo cults believed that their ancestors, deities, or local heroes would return to destroy their Western oppressor s an d initiat e a terrestrial paradis e fre e o f injustice, illness , an d death (Worsle y 1957) . Carg o cult s an d othe r millenaria n movement s fre quently have been explained in terms of the concept of "relative deprivation," which ma y occur among people who fee l tha t the y are being denied specifi c material, social, and symbolic benefits (Aberl e 1970:209). The sense of deprivation resultin g fro m th e exclusion fro m certai n benefit s i s said t o motivat e people to anticipate and prepare for another, mor e perfect world, a supernaturally created ideal age that will remedy current inequities . In addition t o the many analyses of millenarian movement s i n non-West ern cultures, numerous studies focus on apocalyptic groups that have arisen in Western societies in the past.1 Similar to anthropological approaches, many of these works conceptualize idea s about th e end o f the world i n term s o f millenarian responses resulting from cultura l crisis, conflict, an d a sense of depri-

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134 I Fatalism and Apocalyptic Beliefs vation, and ofte n occurrin g among th e disenfranchised, th e marginalized, an d the oppressed . I n hi s influentia l The Pursuit of the Millennium, fo r instance , Norman Coh n (197 0 [1957] ) assert s tha t millenarianis m ha s bee n a persisten t and highl y adaptabl e worldvie w i n Wester n civilization , an d h e show s tha t medieval revolutionar y millenaria n movement s aros e durin g time s o f socia l upheaval an d turmoi l amon g th e poor an d marginalize d masses . According t o Michael Barkun , millenaria n movement s "almos t alway s occu r i n time s o f upheaval, i n th e wak e o f cultura l contact , economi c dislocation , revolution , war, an d natura l catastrophe " (1974:45) . Afte r surveyin g selecte d studie s o f apocalyptic ideas , Barr y Brummet t conclude s tha t "scholar s ar e agree d tha t apocalyptic stem s fro m a sense of unexplained an d inexplicabl e chang e or cri sis, fro m a sense tha t receive d system s o f explanations hav e failed , an d fro m a resulting sense o f anomie , disorientation , lawlessness , an d impendin g chaos* ' (1991:23). Anthony Wallac e (1956 ) refer s t o th e experienc e o f prolonge d soci etal crisi s an d individua l stres s a s a "perio d o f cultura l distortion, " whic h h e says is characterized b y the perceived breakdow n o f previous meaning systems, and subsequen t feeling s o f disillusionment , meaninglessness , anxiety , an d apathy. Conceptualizing apocalypti c belief s as fatalistic seem s to support thes e previous interpretations, which hav e shown tha t perception s of societal upheaval , crisis, an d disintegratio n frequentl y precipitat e feeling s o f powerlessness , anomie, an d anxiety . Scholar s fro m varie d discipline s agre e tha t suc h feeling s often caus e peopl e t o interpre t event s and experience s fatalisticall y (se e Doo b 1988; Grunig 1971 ; Nielsen 1975) . Communications studie s researcher s Everet t Rogers an d Lynn e Svenning , fo r instance , describ e fatalis m a s "th e degre e t o which a n individua l perceive s a lac k o f abilit y t o contro l hi s future . Henc e fatalism i s a sort o f generalized sens e o f powerlessness, on e o f th e five dimen sions of alienation" (1969:273) . Folklorist Ake Strom make s a similar assertion , noting tha t "trend s i n moder n psycholog y hav e appeare d t o giv e scientifi c sanction t o certai n idea s o f fate : What w e cal l fat e i s the totalit y o f those psy chological mechanism s agains t whic h w e fee l ourselve s powerless " (1967:78) . Fatalistic belief s an d behavior , a s thes e an d othe r researcher s hav e suggested , are associate d wit h feeling s o f helplessnes s an d alienation , especiall y a s thes e are relate d t o perception s o f unmanageabl e societa l crise s an d th e belie f tha t events canno t b e controlled b y one' s ow n actions . The concep t o f "locus of control," use d b y psychologists t o study th e sens e of contro l tha t individual s fee l ove r thei r environment , i s particularl y usefu l for a n understandin g o f th e fatalisti c aspect s o f apocalyptic beliefs . This con cept i s use d t o identif y th e way s tha t peopl e interpre t events , a s either deter -

Fatalism and Apocalyptic Beliefs I 13 5

mined an d controlle d b y one s ow n effort s ("interna l locu s o f control" ) o r externally determined by forces outside of oneself ("external locu s of control") (Rotter 1966:1) . Fatalisti c belief s exemplif y th e notio n o f an externa l locu s o f control becaus e suc h belief s ar e characterize d b y th e assertio n tha t outsid e forces beyon d one s contro l determin e th e outcome o f events. I n contrast, so called magica l beliefs , i n whic h huma n actio n i s believe d t o caus e a specifi c outcome, revea l a n interna l locu s o f control . Certai n experiences , especiall y tragedies and disasters , and situations o f great concern, uncertainty , o r threa t often motivat e peopl e t o attribut e causalit y t o externa l forces , whether God s will, th e devil, fate , the government, one s parents , or the configuration o f the planets a t birt h (Doo b 1988:20-29) . Extraordinar y o r extremel y fortuitou s events ma y als o promp t individual s t o attribut e th e outcom e o f event s t o external sources . Although peopl e us e bot h externall y an d internall y directe d orientations t o interpre t th e world , individual s ma y emphasiz e on e orienta tion ove r the other , dependin g o n previou s experiences , persona l characteris tics, an d context (Spilk a et al . 1985:21-26) . The concep t o f "learne d helplessness, " whic h i s relate d t o th e notio n o f external locus of control, als o is helpful i n examining bot h fatalisti c an d apocalyptic belie f and behavior . The ter m wa s coined b y Martin Seligma n (1975), who, i n a classic operan t conditionin g experiment , foun d tha t dog s expose d to inescapabl e shoc k learne d tha t thei r response s di d no t diminis h th e nega tive stimuli; a s a result the y "learne d t o b e helpless" and were unabl e t o lear n to escap e i n late r experiments . Learne d helplessnes s i n human s i s frequentl y associated with anxiety , depression , an d alienation an d i s characterized b y th e perception tha t events and outcomes ar e considered t o b e uncontrollable an d that all response s ar e futile (Abramson , Garber , and Seligma n 1980:4) . Feelings of helplessness, define d b y one researche r as "a perceived inabilit y to affec t one s fat e meaningfully " (Lefcour t 1976:21) , ar e characterize d no t only b y a sense of uncontrollability bu t b y uncertainty an d apprehension. Yet all people seek, to some degree, a sense of control, certainty, predictability, an d inevitability. A s Leonar d Doo b ha s stated , "Th e ques t fo r inevitabilit y i s a basic, conscious activity that is unavoidable and hence inevitable... . W e cannot plan, we cannot avoid danger, we cannot achieve goals unless some uncer tainty i s removed and replace d with inevitability " (1988:124) . Fatalisti c mode s of thought provid e a framework fo r interpretin g event s otherwis e considere d to b e haphazard , uncontrollable , o r incomprehensible , reducin g uncertaint y and offerin g a sense o f control an d meaningfu l explanation s fo r situations i n which persona l actio n i s believe d t o b e futile . A s assertion s abou t th e inevitability of important lif e events, fatalisti c belief s ar e a pervasive mean s b y

136 I Fatalism and Apocalyptic Beliefs which peopl e cognitivel y structur e thei r experience s an d attemp t t o mak e sense o f tha t whic h appear s uncontrollable . Althoug h fatalisti c belief s ar e often ascribe d i n retrospec t t o explai n event s tha t appea r beyon d mer e acci dent o r chance , suc h belief s ma y als o involv e th e projectio n o f a fate d pla n into th e future , wit h anticipate d event s attribute d t o externa l causes . Apoca lyptic idea s exemplify thi s latter, future-oriente d form o f fatalisti c thinking . The underlyin g fatalis m tha t characterize s th e apocalypti c beliefs , behav iors, images , and rhetori c examined i n thi s study i s directly relate d to perceptions o f uncontrollabl e societa l crisi s an d inevitabl e disaster . Contemporar y society i s depicted a s bein g i n a state o f upheava l o r disintegration, wit h th e current turmoi l attribute d t o a n assortmen t o f unmanageabl e factors . Ha l Lindsey, fo r instance , ask s hi s readers , "Ha s ther e eve r bee n a time when th e potential fo r self-destructio n wa s a s grea t a s i t i s today? " (1973:89-90 ) an d then provide s the m wit h inventorie s o f unprecedente d crises : wars , revolu tions, politica l tensions , pollution , disease , famine , crime , drugs , lawlessness , the destructio n o f th e family , an d th e threa t o f nuclea r wa r (i98o:xi-xii ; 1984:65). Lindsey , Lueken , an d othe r religiou s apocalypticist s attribut e thes e current calamitie s t o liberalism , secularization , an d th e evil s o f th e moder n world, bu t ultimatel y regar d thes e crise s a s a meaningfu l par t o f Go d s end times scenario . Secula r apocalyptic speculatio n i s pervaded b y a similar sens e of societa l crisis , wit h th e cause s o f th e curren t predicamen t identifie d vari ously a s the threa t of nuclea r war, economic collapse , environmenta l destruc tion, disease , famine , an d increasin g lawlessness . Althoug h thes e imminen t disasters ar e explaine d i n term s o f huma n ignorance , violence , exploitation , and th e misus e o f technolog y rathe r tha n a s par t o f a divin e plan , the y nonetheless tend to be regarded as inevitable and determined by forces beyon d ones control .

Fear of Nuclear Annihilation and Fatalism The sense of powerlessness an d fatalis m associate d with perception s of immi nent societa l cataclys m i s mos t clearl y an d persistentl y expresse d b y belief s about nuclea r annihilation . Variou s researcher s hav e note d th e relationshi p between apocalypti c idea s and fear s of nuclear war, but few have explored th e inherent fatalis m i n suc h ideas . Th e prediction s o f nuclea r annihilatio n b y religious apocalypticist s an d widesprea d secula r fear s associate d wit h th e thought o f nuclea r warfar e ar e characterize d b y a sens e o f helplessnes s an d inevitability. Popula r endtimes though t rarel y conceptualizes nuclea r destruc-

Fatalism and Apocalyptic Beliefs I 13 7 tion a s a "tactical" or limited war, assuming instead tha t such an event will b e uncontrollable an d tota l i n it s devastation. This vie w i s typified b y th e state ment o f survivalis t Bruc e Clayton : "Th e lon g ter m effec t whic h a full-scal e nuclear war will hav e on Western civilizatio n i s fairly eas y to define . Wester n civilization a s we kno w i t will ceas e t o exist " (1980:36) . The tota l destructio n of society i s similarly predicted b y Lindsey, who maintain s tha t th e final Bat tle o f Armageddon wil l involv e a nuclear conflagration , durin g which "ever y city i n th e worl d i s goin g t o b e leveled " (1984:213) . Lueken s prophecie s als o envision complet e worldl y destructio n cause d b y nuclea r war : "M y child , look an d weep with Me , fo r you ar e witnessing th e tota l destructio n tha t will come upo n mankin d i n th e Great War, your third World War" (OLR Booklet n.d.:2). The prolonge d effec t o f nuclea r fear s an d Col d Wa r tension s o n peopl e s lives has only recently been explored b y scholars, who generall y agree that th e development o f nuclea r weapons ha s precipitate d widesprea d perception s o f societal crisis , feelings o f uncertaint y abou t th e future , an d fear s of imminen t doom (se e Boyer 1985; Lifton an d Falk 1982; Weart 1988). E. P. Thompson sets the self-identit y o f man y Americans an d Soviet s a s having bee n conditione d by the tension s o f the Cold War (1982:171) , and Rober t Jay Lifton assert s tha t the threat of nuclear warfare formed th e "context" of life during the Cold War period, with th e imag e of the bomb castin g an ever-present "shado w that per sistently intrude s upo n ou r menta l ecology " (Lifto n an d Fal k 1982:3). As Pau l Boyer demonstrates, nuclea r weapons hav e fundamentally altere d the basi s o f existence, an d this sense of radical chang e an d crisi s was immediatel y eviden t and felt by people after th e bombing of Hiroshima an d Nagasaki: "Most suc h changes occu r gradually ; the y ar e mor e discernibl e t o historian s tha n t o th e individuals livin g throug h them . The nuclea r era was different. I t burst upo n the world with terrifyin g suddenness . Fro m th e earliest moments , th e American peopl e recognize d tha t thing s would neve r be the same again" (1985:3-4). The initia l feeling s o f imminen t crisis , fearfulness , an d fatalis m tha t aros e at th e daw n o f th e atomi c ag e continu e t o pervad e an d influenc e America n culture an d consciousnes s today . Lifton , i n particular , tell s u s tha t anxiet y about nuclea r destruction ha s generated ne w orientations towar d concepts o f history an d tim e an d motivate d " a ne w wav e o f millennia l imagery—o f killing, dying , an d destroyin g o n a scale s o grea t a s to en d th e huma n narra tive" (1979:3). He contends that the threat of nuclear annihilation also has radically changed perception s abou t th e continuity o f life afte r individua l death . Declaring tha t peopl e nee d a sens e o f huma n continuity , o r wha t h e call s "symbolic immortality, " t o enable the m t o confront an d transcen d th e realit y

138 I Fatalism and Apocalyptic Beliefs of death, Lifton maintain s that a sense of symbolic immortality is achieved in five general ways : biologically, throug h one s descendant s an d family ; theo logically, through belief in the survival of the "immortal soul" and an afterlife; creatively, through ones human influences, materia l creations, and contributions; throug h belie f in natur e and i n it s unending existence ; and experientially, through belief that mortality can be transcended through ecstatic experiences (1987:10-27). Images of nuclear annihilation and other impending catastrophes threaten or negate perceptions of all of the forms of symbolic immortality advanced by Lifton. Rather than a sense of human continuity, the nuclear age is characterized b y image s o f extinctio n an d widesprea d feeling s o f imminen t an d inevitable death , no t onl y individua l deat h bu t th e deat h o f al l humanity . Although th e imagery of extinction i s associated primarily with nuclear annihilation, Lifto n think s tha t event s suc h a s th e genocid e committe d b y th e Nazis i n Worl d Wa r II , widesprea d famine , variou s nuclea r accidents , an d environmental disaste r an d depletio n hav e altere d perception s o f symboli c immortality a s well (Lifto n an d Fal k 1982:60-61; Lifton 1987:19) . H e state s that individua l response s t o pervasiv e image s an d perception s o f extinctio n may includ e psychologica l avoidance , denial , deat h anxiety , an d feeling s o f meaninglessness and radical futurelessness (Lifto n an d Falk 1982:1-11). One of the most frequent psychologica l reaction s to the threat of nuclear war is what Lifton calls "psychic numbing," a mental and behavioral response to painfu l o r disturbin g feeling s cause d b y perception s o f overwhelmin g threat. Lifton (1967) coined the term to describe the psychological state of survivors of the bombing of Hiroshima who walked among the corpses and the dying and later stated that they felt no emotion. Psychic numbing may occur in situations characterized by a lack of control and a sense of complete helplessness; extrem e example s o f psychi c numbin g wer e th e Muselmanner , o r "walking corpses" of the Nazi concentration camps , who labored dispassionately with no apparent fear of death (Levi 1961:82).2 Psychic numbing, associated with thoughts of nuclear war, is characterized by a sense of apathy and futility, th e purposeful denia l of thought about the bomb, and the belief that one personally can do nothing to avert inescapable doom—from which resignation ensues ("Well, if it happens, it happens—and it will happen to all of us") as well as cynicism ("They'l l dro p it all right and it will be the end of all of us—that's the way people are, and that will be that!") (Lifton an d Falk 1982:100—105, 10-11). This psychic numbing clearly appears to be a manifestation of fatalism. The fatalistic response to thoughts about the bomb is described in the following way by Gunther Anders: "What stuns and

Fatalism and Apocalyptic Beliefs I 13 9

panics u s at such moment s i s the realization no t o f the danger threatening us , but of the futility o f our attempts to produce an adequate respons e to it. Hav ing experienced thi s failure we usuall y rela x and retur n shamefaced , irritated , or perhap s eve n relieved , t o th e huma n dimension s o f ou r psychi c lif e com mensurable wit h ou r everyda y surroundings " (1962:296) . Confronte d wit h the enormous destructiv e capabilities of nuclear weapons, feeling s of helplessness an d vulnerabilit y ar e no t "irrational " o r "pathological " response s bu t appropriate an d norma l reaction s (Lifto n an d Fal k 1982:14). Fatalistic thought s abou t nuclea r cataclys m ar e characterize d b y a n exter nal locu s o f control , associate d no t onl y wit h th e unfathomabl e destructiv e power o f th e bom b bu t wit h th e perceptio n tha t nuclea r technolog y i s no w unmanageable an d beyon d huma n control . Suc h thought s abou t uncontrol lability ofte n resul t i n a sense o f complet e powerlessness : "Compare d t o th e bombs infinite , mysteriou s killin g power, we fee l ourselve s to be nothing—t o be vulnerabl e creature s whos e live s an d ver y humanit y ca n b e snuffe d ou t instantaneously. W e fee l ourselve s t o be unable t o break out o f the death-tra p we kno w t o b e o f ou r ow n making " (Lifto n an d Fal k 1982:14) . These behav ioral response s an d th e pervasiv e publi c apath y concernin g th e threa t o f nuclear cataclys m indicat e tha t fatalis m i s a dominant , i f no t th e predomi nant, reactio n t o thought s abou t th e nuclea r menace . Th e undercurren t o f nuclear fatalis m tha t ha s permeate d America n though t an d cultur e fo r mor e than half a century continues t o serve as a primary means of coping with feel ings stemmin g fro m perception s o f nuclea r wa r a s uncontrollabl e an d inevitable. But th e feeling s o f imminen t disaste r expresse d b y contemporar y apoca lypticists ar e als o relate d t o broade r perception s o f societa l turmoil . A s Ir a Chernus has noted, "The feeling of powerlessness and victimization, althoug h intensified b y nuclea r weapons , wa s a dominan t featur e o f th e moder n ag e before these weapons were invented. Mass culture, mass technology, an d mass political movements—some leadin g to totalitarianism—all create d an increasing sense that individuals counted for little and could do little to shape the circumstances o f thei r lives " (1986:56) . Numerou s writer s hav e describe d th e twentieth centur y a s a tim e o f unprecedente d chang e i n technolog y an d i n social an d cultural norms , a s well a s a time of a multitude o f unrivaled crises. Lifton believe s tha t the latter half of the century i s a time of "psychohistorica l dislocation," a crisis period cause d b y a sense o f radica l historica l change , th e breakdown o f traditional meanin g systems and symbols, th e mass-medi a rev olution, an d th e pervasiv e imager y o f huma n extinctio n associate d primaril y with nuclea r weapons (1987:16-23) . D . S . Russel l ha s compare d th e contem -

140 I Fatalism and Apocalyptic Beliefs porary era to that of the years just prior to the life of Christ: "Each is an age of crisis—politically, socially, and religiously—when long established institutions an d deepl y roote d belief s hav e com e unde r sever e attack , sometime s from withi n an d a t othe r time s fro m a n externa l source " (1968:5) . Victo r Turner, applyin g Arnold va n Gennep s concep t o f liminalit y t o transitiona l moments i n huma n history , describe s suc h time s a s bein g "betwix t an d between" cultural periods that are characterized by heightened anxiety, ambiguity, and a sense of crisis (Turner 1969:94-113). Turner notes that liminal historical period s may evoke millenarian aspirations and scenarios, the imagery of which resembles a rite of passage, with similar themes of the destruction of the ol d condition , marginalit y an d transition , an d transformativ e rebirt h involving the establishment of a new status or condition.

Perceptions of Evil and Fatalism The relation between perceptions of severe societal crisis and fatalism i s illustrated by the widespread view among apocalypticists that contemporary society i s irreversibl y evil . Belief s abou t overwhelmin g evi l an d omnipresen t satanic influences characteristi c of much religious apocalyptic thought reveal feelings o f powerlessnes s an d a lack o f fait h i n th e effectivenes s o f huma n effort t o remedy societal ills . Lueken proclaims, for instance, that the Virgin Marys appearance s i n Ne w Yor k Cit y ar e occurrin g becaus e o f th e over whelming evi l i n th e world (OLR Booklet n.d.:\). Dispensationalist s suc h as Lindsey declar e tha t human s ar e powerles s t o sav e a n unrecuperabl y evi l world, with emphasis placed instead on personal salvation. The conspiratoria l vie w o f th e worl d tha t undergird s muc h apocalypti c thought also reveals the inherent fatalism of such ideas. Lindsey, Lueken, and many othe r apocalypticist s attribut e specifi c historica l event s an d muc h human sufferin g t o th e machination s o f a secret caba l o f evi l groups : th e Freemasons, the Catholic Church, the Elders of Zion, the Trilateral Commission, th e United Nations, th e media, internationa l bankers , communists, or secular humanists. The Bayside messages, for instance, ascribe the liberalizing changes i n th e Catholi c Churc h tha t occurre d durin g th e Secon d Vatica n Council t o the infiltration o f satanists who have obtained the highest hierarchical positions and are in league with various other demonic forces, including the communists, th e Freemasons, the secular humanists, and the Illuminati—an allege d "Luciferian " secret society committed t o th e destruction o f Christian principle s tha t ha s bee n plottin g t o contro l th e worl d sinc e th e

Fatalism and Apocalyptic Beliefs I 14 1 French Revolution. As noted previously, Lueken also asserts that Pope Paul VI was poisoned b y agents of Satan and replace d by an imposte r pope, hastenin g the evil infiltration an d ensuring that the demonic changes would occur at the Second Vatica n Council . Lindse y similarl y attribute s unfavorabl e event s i n world histor y to secret and powerfu l agencies , asserting that Satan i s the mas termind behin d th e curren t corruptio n o f societ y an d tha t variou s organiza tions unknowingl y ma y b e part of Satan's evil plan : "I believe th e Trilateralist movement i s unwittingl y settin g th e stag e fo r th e political-economi c one world syste m th e Bibl e predict s fo r th e las t days . It s happenin g i n concer t with al l th e othe r piece s o f th e propheti c scenari o describe d i n thi s book . What th e trilateralist s ar e tryin g t o establis h wil l soo n b e controlle d b y th e coming world leader—th e anti-Chris t himself " (1981:128) . These conspiratoria l mode s o f though t vie w histor y a s controlled b y mas sive, demoni c force s engage d i n a cosmi c struggl e wit h th e force s o f good . According t o Richard Hofstadte r (1967) , conspiratorial thinkin g i s characterized b y a "paranoid style," involvin g a rigid, dualisti c vie w o f th e world, sus piciousness, an d feeling s o f persecution . Hofstadte r note s tha t althoug h th e paranoid style may be structurally similar to clinical paranoia, i t differs i n tha t these paranoid modes of thinking are part of shared systems of belief expressed by relatively norma l peopl e rathe r than privat e delusions (1967:4) . Lik e apocalyptic worldviews , conspirac y theorie s offe r explanation s fo r perceive d ill s and the problem o f evil i n the world an d similarly appear to be related t o per ceptions o f crisi s an d fea r o f catastroph e (Hofstadte r 1967:39) . Apocalypti c conspiracy theorie s maintai n tha t evi l mus t inevitabl y proliferat e i n th e end times (epitomize d b y the Antichrist s reign) befor e i t is ultimately defeate d b y supernatural force s a t th e tim e o f th e apocalypse . Thi s fatalisti c vie w o f his tory an d societa l ill s assert s tha t huma n being s ar e basicall y helples s agains t overpowering, siniste r force s and that human effor t i s ineffectual i n saving an increasingly evil an d doomed world . Secular apocalypticists als o ma y embrace th e belie f that th e current worl d is evil, corrupt, and unrecuperable b y human effort . Thoughts abou t th e possibility of nuclear annihilation, fo r example, ma y motivate such feelings, wit h nuclear weapon s an d nuclea r destructio n interprete d a s manifestation s o f overwhelming an d uncontrollabl e evil . (Catholi c bishops , Methodis t minis ters, and other religiou s leaders have in fact labeled nuclea r war "evil" in thei r attempts t o preven t suc h a n even t [Lifto n 1987:5]. ) Secula r apocalypti c spec ulation i s also rife with a sense of other type s of evil i n the world, attributabl e to various malevolen t force s suc h a s uncontrollable technology , bureaucracy , the militar y industria l complex , an d bi g business , whic h ultimatel y will lea d

142 I Fatalism and Apocalyptic Beliefs to th e collaps e o f society . Man y survivalists , fo r instance , ar e disillusione d with societal institution s and distrust the government, which the y maintain is the primary cause of impending catastrophes. Survivalist Mel Tappan, who insists tha t government representative s hav e ruined the American economy , driven th e country t o bankruptcy , an d periodically initiat e wars in order to unite th e country agains t a common enem y and delay imminen t economi c collapse, exemplifie s thi s mistrust o f the government (1981:3 , 15). Some survivalists asser t tha t th e governmen t ha s neglecte d t o educat e citizen s abou t bomb shelters and civil defense issue s and that it is not adequately prepared to handl e large-scal e disasters . Othe r survivalist s maintai n tha t societ y ha s been corrupted by many of the same evil forces identified b y religious apocalypticists, such as a conspiracy of world communism, international bankers, Trilateralists, and other sinister groups. Secular apocalyptic interpretations of historical event s and current problem s as being part of an evil pla n orchestrated by secret groups resemble the "paranoid style" endemic i n much religious apocalypticism . Suc h thinkin g i n bot h case s i s characterize d b y a n external locus of control, exemplified b y the belief that societal corruption as been determined by clandestine, powerful , an d uncontrollable forces . These beliefs reveal not only a sense of powerlessness and fatalism but also the profound alienatio n fro m contemporar y societ y tha t i s central t o muc h apocalyptic thought.

Meaning, Divine Control, and the Apocalypse Religious and secular apocalypticists may agree that the world is characterized by uncontrollable crisis , evil, an d th e threa t of imminen t disaster ; however, they assig n differen t meaning s t o th e presen t turmoil . A s noted , wit h th e exception o f some survivalist s secular apocalyptic speculatio n i s usually no t marked by the belief that current crises are meaningful or that a "plan" underlies historical events . Predicted cataclysms such as nuclear annihilation, societal breakdown, economic collapse, or environmental disasters are regarded as meaningless events brought about by human ignorance, error, or corruption. Religious interpretation s o f apocalypse are appealing precisel y because of their insistence that events and history itself are fated, that a controlling and meaningful pla n underlies all things. By placing current crises within a divine pattern, religious apocalyptic beliefs explicitly address feelings of helplessness and uncontrollability , convertin g the m int o a n optimistic visio n o f worldly redemption and salvation. Such beliefs reinforce perceptions of inevitable and

Fatalism and Apocalyptic Beliefs I 14 3 uncontrollable crise s on th e on e hand , an d simultaneously provid e hop e an d comfort i n the face of seemingly inexplicabl e event s on th e other. I n thi s way, the inherentl y fatalisti c attribute s o f apocalyptic worldview s reduc e th e anxi ety an d uncertaint y evoke d b y perception s o f intractabl e crise s an d offe r a sense o f contro l an d meaning . B y obeying an d advancin g God' s will a s man dated b y apocalypti c pronouncements , powerlessnes s an d chao s ar e replace d with th e assuranc e tha t everythin g i s i n "God' s hands. " Accepting God s wil l and acquiescing t o God s pla n i s a means o f participating i n th e power o f th e deity, as well a s knowing th e concealed fat e of human history . The sens e o f control, meaning , an d orde r provide d b y apocalyptic world views is illustrated by interpretations of worldly disasters as part of Gods plan . The significanc e o f historical event s i s deciphered i n relatio n t o a supernaturally determined pattern , with curren t crises explained as part of a design tha t orders the universe. Dispensationalis m demonstrate s thi s fatalistic interpreta tion o f phenomena , regardin g recen t event s a s sign s tha t foretel l th e immi nence o f Christ' s retur n (th e proliferatio n o f wars , earthquakes , famine , plagues, pollution , an d dru g use) ; a s Lindse y states , "Eve n thoug h man y o f these sign s ar e appalling i n themselves , thei r tremendou s significanc e shoul d gladden th e hear t o f ever y tru e believe r i n Christ " (1984:65) . Disaster s an d misfortunes, interprete d as preordained portents, promise imminent salvatio n and an end t o suffering . Apocalyptic belie f system s provid e fatalisti c explanation s fo r localize d o r personal tragedie s a s well, attributin g thes e t o pervasiv e satani c influence s o r God's plan for each human being . Every human lif e and human decisio n ma y thus b e i n accor d with God' s will o r God's plan . I n a discussion o f th e deter mining rol e of the Holy Spirit i n peoples lives , for instance, Lindse y remarks, "The Spiri t assures you tha t you're right where Go d wants you t o b e and tha t He ha s you ther e fo r som e tremendou s purpose . Yo u ma y no t b e abl e t o se e the future , bu t yo u know th e On e wh o hold s it . Go d want s ever y believe r t o be unde r th e contro l o f th e Spiri t al l th e time " (1984:21) . Persona l sufferin g and worldly disasters may be inexplicable i n scientific term s or attributable t o random event s o r extremel y comple x factors , bu t apocalypticists ' interpreta tions ar e clea r an d concise . Nonbeliever s ma y conside r thes e explanation s intellectually insupportable , bu t such belief s offe r a n appealin g an d inclusiv e structure o f meanin g an d explanatio n fo r otherwis e enigmati c events , assur ing believers tha t matter s are progressing a s God planned . The appea l o f apocalypticism ma y also be attributable t o the fact tha t such beliefs enhanc e th e self-estee m o f believers . Revelatio n o f th e secre t orde r o f events i n th e mids t o f seemin g chao s make s devotee s priv y t o arcan e knowl -

144 I

Fatalism and Apocalyptic Beliefs

edge of th e meanin g o f history. Believer s are assured membershi p i n a n elect , righteous group that will b e rescued from apocalypse and enjoy eternal life. By living i n th e las t days and b y bein g member s o f the "termina l generation, " as Lindsey put s it , one s lif e take s on a renewed importanc e becaus e on e i s participating i n th e cosmic dram a tha t will en d i n th e grand culmination o f history. The sens e of enhanced self-esteem tha t apocalyptic knowledg e ma y provide i s illustrate d b y Lindsey s describin g hi s reader s a s wise an d discerning , descriptors h e deem s appropriat e becaus e th e prophe t Danie l "observe d tha t at th e en d o f tim e th e wise * would understand . I n biblica l terminolog y th e 'wise' are people wh o stud y what Go d ha s t o sa y and becom e enlightene d t o its meanin g b y the Hol y Spirit " (1984:12). The prophecie s o f Veronic a Lueke n similarl y assur e he r follower s tha t they ar e priv y t o a special endtime s wisdo m an d tha t the y ar e a select rem nant o f th e "tru e Church " whos e curren t sufferin g wil l b e avenge d b y a n angry God . Baysider s ar e told tha t the y ar e among th e fe w chose n b y deitie s themselves, wh o throug h Lueke n promis e believer s heavenl y rewards , a s th e Virgin Mar y declare s i n th e followin g words : "I hold deepl y i n m y Hear t al l who wil l hel p u s i n thi s battl e t o save our children. We will rewar d you wit h the greates t o f expectations " (OLR Booklet n.d.:26) . Th e self-estee m o f Baysiders i s also enhance d throug h thei r direc t experience s o f th e supernat ural a t th e apparitio n sit e an d especiall y b y takin g miraculou s photographs , which preserv e o n film bot h God' s sanctio n o f thei r activitie s an d involve ment i n thei r lives . Apocalyptic belief s provid e individual s wit h a sens e o f empowermen t a s well b y assuring the m tha t th e suffering the y no w endur e a t the hand s o f th e unjust an d th e corrup t will b e rectifie d b y an avengin g God . Apocalypticis m emphasizes a rigid polarit y betwee n goo d an d th e evil , th e righteou s an d th e sinful, an d promise s tha t th e wicke d wil l b e punishe d o r destroyed . Lindse y provides th e followin g descriptio n o f wha t i s t o come : "Ther e ar e tw o rewards—one a dazzling robe of white linen given t o each believer as he enters heaven, an d th e othe r a blinding flash o f th e nake d powe r o f Jesus Chris t a s He reduce s t o a sea o f bloo d al l thos e wh o wav e thei r fists i n defianc e wit h their last ounce of strength!" (1984:236). The element of divine retribution an d expectations o f revenge , eve n a t on e remove , ma y b e a mean s o f empower ment t o thos e who fee l victimized , disempowered , o r alienated. This sens e o f vindication insist s o n a large r mora l orde r underlyin g th e universe , makin g meaningful th e perceive d crise s an d injustic e o f contemporar y existenc e b y promising tha t a new world of complete justice and perfec t orde r will replac e a world gon e seriousl y awry .

Fatalism and Apocalyptic Beliefs I 14 5

The wa y tha t fatalisti c doctrine s enhanc e self-esteem , alleviat e anxieties , and provid e a sense of control i s exemplified b y religiou s interpretation s o f nuclear annihilation . Althoug h secula r speculation s abou t nuclea r wa r ar e fraught wit h a sense of helplessness and futility , th e predictions o f numerou s religious apocalypticist s spea k o f nuclea r war a s a divinely determine d phe nomenon tha t will purif y an d redee m a corrupt world . As noted previously , the nuclear threat was immediately interpreted i n terms of traditional apoca lyptic myths, symbols, and imagery, and the bomb imbued with supernatura l significance, givin g credenc e t o a divin e underlyin g plan . Fear s o f huma n extinction an d perception s o f senseles s globa l destructio n ar e transforme d into vision s o f a redemptiv e apocalypse , promisin g worldl y salvatio n an d offering th e prospect of eternal life .

Fate and the Fulfillment of God's Will Fatalism i s commonly seen as involving resignation, helplessness , and passiv ity, and thu s a s motivating n o actio n o r behaviora l respons e t o alte r events . However, som e fatalist s ma y activel y "embrac e thei r fate " an d ac t t o fulfil l God s will or fat e s plan. As Max Weber notes , the Calvinist doctrin e o f predestination di d no t lea d t o a passiv e fatalis m bu t motivate d individual s t o prove tha t they wer e amon g th e elec t throug h har d wor k an d succes s i n a worldly calling (1958:232). The millenaria n ideolog y of the National Socialis t Workers Part y repeatedl y appeale d t o a sense of fate, proclaimin g tha t Ger mans were the elect members of a pure-blooded Aryan "master race" destined to establis h th e Third Reich . Naz i rhetori c ofte n assure d follower s tha t they were actin g i n accordanc e wit h a fate d plan , an d throug h thei r effort s th e world would b e cleansed o f evil forces an d a thousand-year perio d o f Aryan rule would be created. This notion of actively fulfilling on e s fate is epitomized by Adolf Hitler s chillin g statement " I go the way fate ha s pointed m e like a man walking i n hi s sleep" (Gordo n 1993:486) . Whether promote d b y totalitarian leader s or regarde d a s the decrees of the gods, the authoritaria n certi tude o f fatalistic doctrine s ha s the potentia l t o motivat e individual s t o wor k with absolute determination t o fulfill thei r fate, their nations fate, or specifi c historical mandates that they believe are predestined. Most millenarian s anticipat e th e tota l destructio n o f th e curren t social , economic, an d politica l orde r an d it s replacemen t b y a millennia l society . Others, according to Michael Barkun, "couple this anticipation with an active desire t o spee d th e inevitabl e result , ofte n throug h violent , revolutionar y

146 I Fatalism and Apocalyptic Beliefs means" (1974:18). Premillennial dispensationalists , certai n of planetary escap e in the Rapture, no t only eagerly await doomsday an d th e return of Christ bu t may attemp t t o haste n th e End . A cas e i n point : premillennialis t suppor t o f militant Israel i group s inten t o n destroyin g th e Dom e o f th e Roc k i n Jerusalem exemplifie s th e notio n tha t a n endtime s pla n ca n b e expedite d i f predetermined condition s ar e fulfilled . Modern-day apocalypticists , lik e thei r historica l precursors—whethe r medieval millenarians , Millerites , member s o f carg o cults , o r participant s i n Ghost Danc e movements—ar e confiden t tha t a n unalterabl e patter n under lying histor y wil l culminat e i n th e redemptio n o f a worl d i n which , i t i s thought, goo d rarel y triumphs , evi l prevails , an d huma n effor t change s ver y little. Directl y counterin g feeling s o f helplessness , despair , an d uncontrolla bility, apocalyptic belie f systems promise th e annihilation an d regeneration o f contemporary civilizatio n throug h radica l supernatural transformation , a promise tha t bring s t o individual s a sens e o f control , meaning , an d self esteem. Apocalypti c tradition s offe r comprehensiv e meanin g system s tha t explain curren t crise s as well a s personal turmoil , besto w individua l salvatio n upon believers , an d fulfil l th e universa l yearnin g fo r a n ideal , harmoniou s world fre e fro m suffering , sorrow , an d injustice . Fait h i n imminen t worldl y destruction i s accompanie d b y optimis m abou t an d confidenc e i n a divin e fate, i n th e for m o f Gods plan , tha t i s moral an d benevolent . In contrast , secula r apocalypticism , devoi d o f optimis m abou t worldl y redemption an d belief in an underlying moral order, is pervaded b y a sense o f the cruelty of fate. The en d of the world i s not viewed as the culmination tha t will revea l th e patter n determinin g histor y bu t simpl y a s th e terminatio n o f human existenc e tha t wil l la y bar e it s meaninglessnes s an d randomness . Doomsday wil l no t b e a morall y jus t da y o f reckonin g tha t wil l cleans e th e world o f evil, but , rather , an unjus t catastroph e withou t purpose . Like th e pessimisti c notio n o f fat e i n classical Gree k tragedy , secular apoc alypticism ofte n expresse s th e belie f that human being s ar e struggling agains t an unhapp y fat e tha t wil l en d i n rui n an d tha t wil l b e brough t abou t b y human flaws . I n numerou s secula r apocalyptic scenarios , worldly destructio n is considere d immanen t i n huma n natur e rathe r tha n externall y prescribed , fulfilled b y the actions and character of human being s rather than determine d by outside forces . Generall y finding n o underlyin g mora l purpos e fo r presen t suffering, secula r apocalypticists commonl y blam e human failing s fo r current crises and predicte d catastrophes , implyin g i n som e case s that huma n extinc tion i s warranted becaus e o f innat e huma n ignorance , greed , evil , o r destructive capabilities . This gloom y appraisa l o f huma n natur e a s flawed an d inca -

Fatalism and Apocalyptic Beliefs I 14 7

pable o f improving th e world ha s some resemblanc e t o religiou s apocalypti c ideas that regar d human being s as inherently evil , in a state of sin, and com pletely incapable of redeeming themselves or the world. As noted, th e fatalis m tha t pervade s th e religiou s an d secula r apocalypti c beliefs o f the Cold War era is often directl y relate d t o perceptions o f nuclear cataclysm as uncontrollable and inevitable. With the end of the Cold War and the decrease d threa t o f nuclea r war , America n apocalypti c belief s ar e bein g reformulated an d new endtimes traditions are emerging. Although visions of nuclear annihilation remai n a central feature in much recent apocalyptic speculation, othe r cataclysmi c scenario s involvin g ecologica l disasters , plagues , Islamic fundamentalism , an d globa l economi c an d politica l unificatio n increasingly have fueled curren t apocalyptic thought. The next chapter examines th e transformation o f apocalyptic belief s i n th e post-Col d Wa r er a an d the degre e t o whic h fatalis m remain s a n importan t aspec t o f apocalypti c thinking as the third millennium draw s near.

7 The Transformation o f Apocalyptic Traditions i n the Post-Cold War Era

The change s an d curren t emphase s withi n prophec y belie f systems in the post-Cold War era illustrate the adaptability and dynamic natur e of apocalyptic traditions . Interpreter s o f apocalyptic prophec y ar e masterfu l bricoleurs, skillfull y recastin g element s an d theme s within th e constraint s o f their respectiv e tradition s an d reconfigurin g the m t o formulat e new , mean ingful endtime s scenarios . Traditions ar e no t unchangin g "products " passe d from on e generatio n t o th e nex t bu t continuitie s i n huma n though t an d behavior ove r time, configurations o f ideas, and ways of thinking and doin g things that symbolically connect th e present with th e past. 1 Although th e basi c theme s an d forma l element s o f Christian apocalypti c traditions hav e remaine d fairl y stabl e throug h time , the y hav e been imbue d with th e culturally relevan t flavor of particular historica l epochs. Interpreter s at different historica l moments have pinpointed potentia l Beast s or described the breaking of the seven seals and the pouring of the seven vials referred t o in the Book of Revelation i n term s of real catastrophes tha t threatene d human ity and that reflected th e cultural milieu. 2 The varying beliefs about the rise to power of the Antichrist in the endtimes exemplifies this updating of tradition, with th e actua l identit y o f th e Antichrist havin g bee n repeatedl y revise d t o reflect perceive d enemie s o f Christianity (i.e. , Nero, Napoleon , Hitler , Sad dam Hussein) . Book s identifyin g Mikhai l Gorbache v a s the Antichrist ma y now gather dus t o n th e botto m shel f of the "Prophecy " section a t Christia n bookstores, bu t ne w publication s detailin g propheti c event s i n th e Middl e East, imminent ecocatastrophes, and the role of the European Community in the endtimes have taken their place. This chapter first examines current beliefs about nuclea r cataclys m i n post-Col d Wa r apocalypti c prophec y an d th e reformulation o f idea s abou t th e rol e o f Russi a i n th e endtimes . I t the n explores severa l curren t emphase s i n Christia n premillennialis t traditions , including the preoccupation with the endtimes role of Islamic nations; a "false peace," globa l unification , an d th e Ne w Worl d Order ; th e ris e o f th e 148

The Transformation of Apocalyptic Traditions I 14 9

Antichrist; ne w technologie s an d th e Mar k o f th e Beast ; an d deadl y viruse s and ecological disasters.

The Nuclear Bomb in Post-Cold War Prophecy Although th e fea r o f imminen t nuclea r catastroph e ha s decreased i n secula r culture wit h th e en d o f th e Col d War , prediction s o f nuclea r annihilatio n remain a central feature i n apocalyptic prophecy traditions even as new cataclysmic endtimes scenarios have emerged. Many religious apocalypticists still regard nuclea r weapons a s a fulfillment o f prophecy and predic t thei r us e in the near future, emphasizin g that existing nuclear arsenals have the capability to destroy the world and that nuclear weapons eventually will be used by hostile nations , terroris t organizations , o r a "mad-man" militar y dictato r i n th e future. Furthermore , visions of nuclear conflagration remai n compatible with biblical prophecies about the destruction of the world by fire. As Hal Lindsey puts it: "In this nuclear age, it makes sense to us that the mass annihilation we read abou t [i n th e Bible ] migh t wel l b e th e resul t o f a nuclea r exchange . Because the Bible talks about mass destruction b y fire and brimstone (melte d earth), this scenario seems to make sense" (1994:197). In contrast to diminishing secular concerns about global nuclear war, many prophecy enthusiast s declar e tha t th e en d o f th e Col d Wa r ha s brough t th e possibility o f nuclear Armageddon eve n closer . Lindsey , fo r instance , i n discussing the arms buildup in Arabic nations, asserts that "Planet Earth i s more unstable today than i t has been at any time in human history . We must never put ou r fait h i n fals e prophet s preachin g abou t fals e peace " (1994:62) . H e remains "thoroughly persuaded " that the world will soon experience interna tional nuclea r war and devotes a chapter in Planet Earth—2000 A.D. t o a discussion o f this inevitability (1994:255—265) . While acknowledgin g th e end o f the Col d War , Lindse y continue s t o emphasiz e th e Russia n nuclea r threat : "The Soviet Union i s gone. The Cold War is over. But the Bible tells us Russia i s going t o pla y a critical rol e i n th e final moment s o f history . And th e world stage is clearly being set for the drama. . . . Russia still poses a real danger t o th e Unite d States , wit h it s modernize d nuclea r forc e whic h too k decades t o buil d aime d a t ou r natio n lik e a gun t o ou r head " (1994:188) . A change i n leadershi p o r a coup, Lindse y states, migh t pu t communis t hard liners back in power and quickly reverse recent political transformations . Other prophec y writers also remind thei r reader s tha t Russi a stil l ha s th e nuclear capacity to destroy the United State s and th e entire world. Ed Hind -

150 I The Transformation of Apocalyptic Traditions son, Ministe r o f Biblica l Studie s a t Atlanta' s nine-thousand-membe r Rehoboth Baptis t Church , cites recent estimates fro m th e Center for Defens e Information t o confir m th e continuin g nuclea r apocalypti c threat : th e hun dred-megaton H-bomb s i n the forme r Sovie t Unio n hav e the capacity t o create all-consumin g firestorm s 17 0 mile s i n diameter ; twent y coul d destro y three-quarters o f th e U.S . populatio n i n les s tha n a n hour ; an d a retaliator y U.S. nuclea r forc e coul d kil l 40 0 millio n peopl e i n countrie s formerl y i n th e Soviet Unio n an d i n Chin a within hal f an hour (1996:86-87) . A numbe r o f prophec y interpreter s asser t tha t th e Russia n nuclea r arsena l has no t diminishe d bu t is , i n fact , bein g enlarged . Th e "devastatin g truth, " according t o Gran t Jeffrey , i s tha t Russi a an d it s allie s ar e developin g ne w weapons t o complete "th e most overwhelming militar y build-u p i n history t o place themselves in a position t o put a gun to the head of the West" (1994:186). Lindsey agrees , writin g tha t althoug h som e nuclea r weapons , suc h a s MIR V ICBMs, ar e bein g eliminate d unde r th e term s o f STAR T I an d STAR T I I treaties, th e Russia n nuclea r arsena l i s also bein g modernize d t o hav e greate r accuracy and mor e destructive power , hence an improved ability to annihilat e the Unite d State s i n a first strike (1994:197-198) . Conspiratoria l idea s perme ate suc h belief s an d ar e exemplified b y th e Baysid e messages : "Fo r i t i s thei r plan t o subdue you , onc e the y get th e billion s tha t the y nee d i n aid , t o brin g up th e econom y an d bu y mor e armaments . They hav e no t dispose d o f thei r armaments, M y chil d an d M y children . The y stor e the m i n othe r nations . They hav e the same goals as their forefathers" (messag e from th e Virgin Mary , June 18,1992 ; Directives from Heaven}, no . 5 7 [Novembe r 12,1993]:!) . Along with assertion s abou t Russia' s stockpiling o f arms , premillennialist s from variou s prophec y tradition s continu e t o predic t endtime s nuclea r sce narios. The y speculate , fo r instance , tha t Russi a wil l eventuall y attac k th e weakened arme d force s i n th e Wes t an d tha t th e Unite d State s wil l answe r with a nuclear attack. The respons e will provoke a second Russian attack annihilating mos t o f the American populatio n an d tha t of the Western world (se e Jeffrey 1994:186) . Regardless o f th e imagine d scenario , nuclea r cataclys m remain s a centra l part o f premillennia l prophec y traditions , wit h th e eventua l us e o f nuclea r weapons regarde d a s foreordained . Th e en d o f th e Col d Wa r ha s ha d littl e effect o n prophec y belief s abou t nuclea r apocalypse , revealin g ho w deepl y embedded the y ar e i n a wid e rang e o f catastrophi c millennialis t traditions . Fears an d feeling s abou t th e bom b hav e fuele d eschatologica l though t sinc e the daw n o f th e nuclea r age , an d i n ligh t o f th e continue d existenc e o f larg e nuclear arsenals , th e possibilit y o f nuclea r terrorism , an d th e cover t attempt s

The Transformation of Apocalyptic Traditions I 15 1

by some nations to develop nuclear weapons, predictions of nuclear Armageddon are unlikely to fade from apocalypti c speculation. As a permanent fixtur e in th e American cultura l an d religiou s landscape , th e bom b wil l remai n a n ominous endtimes sign until th e day nuclear war is no longer a possibility.

Russia in Post-Cold War Prophecy In Cold War apocalyptic prophecy, the Soviet Union was often assigne d a crucial rol e as an evil , atheistic natio n tha t would b e one o f Satan's allies in th e last days. Identified i n a biblical passag e as the norther n natio n name d Go g that i s the enemy o f Christianity (Ezekie l 38) , common prophec y belie f was that the Soviet Union would attack Israel and thereby initiate a worldly cataclysm. Historically, the reasons for Go g s invasion o f Israel have been a topic of debate based on various geopolitical factors , but after th e Bolshevik Revolution man y prophecy believer s concluded tha t th e Sovie t Union , a "godless nation," woul d naturall y attemp t t o destro y God s chose n peopl e (Boye r 1992:156).

With th e thawing of the Cold War and the end of the official Sovie t ideology of atheism, this scenario suddenly seemed i n question, bu t th e apocalyptic vie w o f worldly event s a s foreordaine d an d th e adaptabilit y o f religiou s apocalyptic worldview s hav e readil y accommodate d th e change d circum stances. A currentl y popula r interpretatio n i s tha t th e easin g o f tension s between th e East and th e West i s only temporary o r tha t i t i s a "false peace " prior to the end of the world. In either case, the changes that have occurred in the Soviet Union, the creation o f the Commonwealth o f Independent States , and the rise of market economies throughout mos t of the former Sovie t bloc are regarded as prophetic events on Go d s timetable, the newest pieces in th e endtimes puzzle. Post-Cold War Christian apocalyptic prophecy belief for the most part still identifies Russi a as the prophesied Go g that will invade Israel in the last days, although som e recen t attempt s t o identif y Go g hav e focused o n Syria , Iraq , and new Islamic nations with nuclear weapons that were once part of the for mer Soviet Union. Post-Cold War prophecy interpreters viewed glasnost with suspicion, and many still assert that changes in the Soviet Union are simply a subterfuge prio r to an attempt a t world domination. According to numerou s premillennial dispensationalis t prophec y writers , Russi a wil l reviv e it s Col d War ideology after receivin g a wealth of assistance from th e United States and European nations . Onc e i t ha s increase d it s financia l an d technologica l

152 I The Transformation of Apocalyptic Traditions strength, i t wil l becom e increasin g belligeren t an d ultimatel y pla y a centra l role i n some sor t o f nuclea r exchange . Some prophec y believer s hav e sai d tha t th e overthrowin g o f Sovie t Presi dent Mikhai l Gorbache v i n Augus t 199 1 b y a coup le d b y th e KG B an d th e army, as well a s the struggle betwee n Parliamen t an d Bori s Yeltsin i n Octobe r 1993, wer e stage d t o deceiv e th e Wes t further . Gran t Jeffrey , discussin g thi s theory a t lengt h i n Prince of Darkness: Antichrist and the New World Order, calls report s abou t th e end o f th e Col d War and th e deat h o f communism " a Russian fair y tale, " and th e coup, "Russia n theate r at its best" (1994:168-171) . In 1991 , Pat Robertso n state d tha t th e cou p was a managed even t whose pur pose was to assuage any lingering suspicions tha t recent reforms were a deception. Glasnost , h e explained , i s a ploy t o gai n billion s o f dollar s i n ai d fro m Western democracie s an d t o reduc e Western militar y arsenal s (i99i:xiv-xvi) . Then, when th e West least expects it, the Russians will rever t to their previou s communist ideolog y an d attack th e weakened Western world . The Baysid e apparitions epitomize these beliefs about Soviet deception an d the persistenc e o f th e communis t threat ; th e message s carr y agai n th e anti communist idea s and the same basic themes expressed in the Cold War era. For example, i n a message delivere d t o Veronica Lueke n i n 1991 , the Virgin Mar y cautions: "Do not be deceived. Their father is the father of all liars: satan. Their master pla n i s in motion . Pra y fo r th e light . Mind s ar e clouded. I repeat: i t i s a ruse . Wake u p America o r you wil l suffe r much " {Directives from Heaven 2 , no. 1 0 [Januar y 24 , 1992]) . Althoug h som e Roma n Catholic s intereste d i n Marian apparition s believ e tha t th e transformation s i n th e Sovie t blo c hav e ushered i n a Marian ag e o f peac e an d prosperity , th e Baysid e message s con tinue t o forewarn o f imminent Sovie t attack and emphasize that the democra tic reform s i n th e Sovie t Unio n ar e a ploy: "Russi a i s perpetuating on e o f th e crudest hoaxes in history... wit h its objectives remaining, as always, the same: communist enslavemen t o f the world" {Directives from Heaven^ no . 6 3 [February 4,1994]: 2). Predictably, th e rol e o f Gorbache v i n thi s endtime s communis t schem e received muc h attentio n i n th e Baysid e message s durin g th e thawin g o f th e Cold War, and dispensationalists wer e preoccupie d with hi s prophetic signif icance a s well . Th e Baysid e prophecie s condemne d Gorbache v a s a satani c emissary, "th e two-legge d demon " wh o wa s plannin g t o deceiv e th e Unite d States {Directives from Heaven 2 , no. 1 0 [Januar y 24,1992]: 2). Pat Robertson , echoing a standard dispensationalis t view , insiste d that Gorbachev was not t o be truste d an d tha t h e ha d a n agend a fo r a new world orde r (1991:47) . Gran t Jeffrey, remindin g reader s tha t Gorbache v i s a n "unrepentan t Marxist-corn -

The Transformation of Apocalyptic Traditions I 15 3

munist," similarl y asserted tha t h e helped initiat e th e New World Order , i n clandestine collaboratio n wit h th e Vatican, an d tha t h e will continu e t o b e instrumental i n its development i n the years ahead (1994:183). Some post—Cold War prophecy writers even speculated as to whether Gorbachev might i n fac t b e the Antichrist. According to popula r interpretation s of biblical scriptures, the Antichrist will have a charismatic and appealing personality and initially will bring a message of peace to the world before his reign of evil. The correlation betwee n propheti c descriptions of the Antichrist an d Gorbachevs persona l qualities, political agenda, and ris e to power was subsequently explore d b y Rober t W . Fai d i n Gorbachev! Has the Real Antichrist Come?(1988). Faid not only analyzes Gorbachevs political career, but provides some numerica l evidenc e that reinforce s th e Antichrist equation : th e sum o f "Mikhail S . Gorbachev " i n Russia n equal s 1,332 , or 666 x 2, tw o time s th e Mark of the Beast. In addition t o those prophecy believers who viewed Gor bachevs peac e efforts throug h perestroika , glasnost , an d democrati c reform s as Antichrist traits, some wondered whether the birthmark on his head migh t not be somehow related to the Mark of the Beast. The persistenc e of such belief s indicate s that th e end of the Cold War has not significantly altere d long-standing ideas about Russia' s sinister role in th e endtimes because it is deemed a possibility that th e Communist Part y migh t regain politica l ascendancy . Lik e belief s abou t th e inevitabl e rol e o f nuclea r weapons in the last days, beliefs about the Russian threat are also firmly established i n America n apocalypti c prophec y traditions , reflectin g decade s o f depictions of the former Soviet Union as an evil, apocalyptic adversary. As previously noted, when such long-standing and deeply held beliefs are challenged or disconfirmed , prophec y believer s d o no t necessaril y abando n the m bu t often find way s t o explai n faile d prophecie s an d ma y eve n asser t th e belief s with greate r intensit y (se e Festinger e t al . 1956). For prophec y believers , th e seeming end o f the Col d War an d th e collapse of th e Soviet Unio n hav e no t irrefutably disconfirme d earlie r predictions bu t ar e regarded a s the latest ful fillments of Gods endtimes plan.

Emergent Beliefi about the Role of Russia and Islam in the Endtimes Various apocalypti c tradition s continu e t o reflec t Col d Wa r ideologie s an d advance the notion tha t nuclea r annihilation i s inevitable, but ne w concern s also have emerged an d som e previous prophec y theme s hav e been reempha -

154 I The Transformation of Apocalyptic Traditions sized i n th e 1990s . Lindsey s Planet Earth —2000 AD. (1994 ) an d The Final Battle (1995 ) exemplif y severa l innovation s tha t hav e occurred . Althoug h retaining the basic endtimes narrativ e structure described i n his previous writings, Lindse y ha s update d th e scenari o wit h reference s t o recen t geopolitica l changes tha t h e contend s ar e fulfillment s o f prophecy . Coverin g al l bases , Lindsey first asserts that Russia remains a major player in Gods pla n and the n argues that the collapse of the Soviet Union, feature d fo r decades as Gog, doe s not refut e th e prophecie s i n Ezekie l 38-3 9 bu t actuall y fulfill s them . Modify ing hi s previou s stanc e slightly , h e argue s tha t Go g refer s t o ethnic Russians , not th e Sovie t Unio n wit h it s variou s nationalities , an d conclude s tha t th e recently forme d Republi c o f Russia i s the real Gog foreordaine d i n prophecy . His explanation : durin g th e Col d Wa r th e Sovie t Unio n wa s movin g towar d world dominatio n bu t thi s was no t destine d t o occur . " I believe God s provi dential han d was working behin d th e scenes becaus e i t was never in th e cards for th e Kremli n t o rul e th e world. . . . Prophec y declare s th e ethni c Russian s will indee d pla y a significant rol e i n thos e endtim e events , bu t establishin g a Pax Sovieticus over th e worl d wa s neve r i n th e script " (1995:4) . With charac teristic ingenuity, Lindsey has explained the collapse of the Soviet Union without disconfirmin g long-standin g belief s abou t Russia' s rol e i n th e endtimes , creatively reformulatin g an d updatin g th e dispensationalis t prophec y tradi tion. In additio n t o thi s subtl e shif t i n interpretation , Lindse y pinpoint s ne w developments i n th e Middl e Eas t an d discusse s th e endtime s rol e o f Islami c nations, furthe r adaptin g th e dispensationalis t traditio n t o assimilat e recen t concerns an d perceive d threats . As Paul Boyer notes , th e importanc e o f Islam in apocalypti c prophec y i s no t a completely ne w ide a bu t ha d bee n empha sized fro m th e lat e thirteent h centur y t o Worl d Wa r I , wit h th e Ottoma n Turks ofte n identifie d a s Gog , th e evi l aggresso r fro m th e nort h (1992:153) . After th e collaps e o f th e Ottoma n Empir e an d th e 191 7 Russia n Revolution , the Soviet Union quickl y became identified a s the real Gog. The decades-late r dissolution o f th e Sovie t Unio n ha s resulte d i n a reviva l o f interes t i n th e eschatological rol e of Arabic nation s and Islam as enemies of Christianity an d the natio n o f Israel . The first chapte r o f Lindsey s The Final Battle (1995 ) i s representative. Today, Communism appear s to be on its way to the ash heap of history. But a greater threat—a more evil empire—is quietly, without fanfare, filling the void left b y th e break-u p o f th e Sovie t Union . Thi s movemen t seek s no t onl y t o destroy th e stat e o f Israe l bu t als o th e overthro w o f th e Judeo-Christian cul -

The Transformation of Apocalyptic Traditions I 15 5 ture—the very foundation of our Western civilization. While Communism was only on the scene for seventy-five years, this evil empire is more than 1,300 years ... e name of this movement—the greatest threat to freedom and world old.Th peace today—is Islamic fundamentalism. (1995:4-5 ) Referring t o Islamic fundamentalism a s "a force mor e explosive than sim ple totalitarianism, Marxism-Leninism o r Nazism" (1995:6) , Lindsey devote s several chapters oi The Final Battle to the "Islamic threat," discussing Muslim anti-Semitism an d Musli m hatre d o f Christianity . H e detail s ho w wealth y Islamic nations are developing chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons, and relative to Muslim fanaticism an d terrorism asks readers to "imagine what this kind of zealotry means in the nuclear age—in the age where nuclear weapons can fit into a suitcase" (1995:8). Former Soviet republics now Islamic nations—Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan , Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan—ar e depicte d i n recen t dispensationalis t prophecy as having an instrumenta l rol e in th e las t days, joining force s wit h other Islami c countrie s t o attac k Israel . Fo r example , Lindse y an d othe r prophecy enthusiasts state tha t Kazakhstan' s 1,15 0 strategic nuclea r weapons , make it the worlds third-larges t nuclea r power ; the y also point ou t tha t for mer Sovie t nuclea r scientist s ar e working i n Arabic nation s an d tha t Ira n i s actively pursuin g nuclea r weaponry , purportedl y alread y havin g purchase d three nuclea r weapon s fro m Kazakhsta n an d currentl y developin g th e tech nology to produce it s own b y the year 2000 (se e Jeffrey 1994:194-196 ; Lindsey 1995:51-57). According to Lindsey, Islamic countries worldwide will eventually unit e i n a n allianc e tha t wil l eventuall y engag e i n a holy war, a jihad against Israe l an d Wester n civilizatio n (1995:70) . A s thes e statement s an d beliefs indicate, by the time the Cold War had defrosted completely , prophecy enthusiasts ha d filled th e voi d lef t b y th e declin e o f communis m wit h th e threat of "fanatica l Muslims" foreordained t o assault Western civilization with nuclear weaponry. A number of dispensationalists (Lindsey , televangelist Jack Van Impe, and prophecy writers Sale m Kirba n an d Gran t Jeffrey, fo r example ) hav e merge d Cold War belief s abou t th e Soviets' role in th e endtimes with recen t fear s o f Islamic militaris m t o arriv e a t th e predictio n tha t Russia , becaus e o f it s alliances with Islami c fundamentalis t nations , wil l invad e Israel , which wil l result i n a nuclear conflagration ; they cite passages in Zecharia h tha t predic t that th e las t wa r wil l originat e i n a disput e ove r Jerusale m (se e Lindse y 1994:256-258). Lindsey interprets a passage in Ezekiel 38, about Go d puttin g "hooks int o th e jaws" of Gog and pullin g i t into battle , as a prophetic refer -

156 I The Transformation of Apocalyptic Traditions ence to Islamic influences on Moscow (the "hooks") that will draw Russia into an endtime s scenari o leadin g to nuclea r war (1994:200-201) . Jeffrey declare s that radica l Ara b group s ma y attac k Jerusalem i n th e nea r future . "Russia n KGB securit y officer s hav e offere d t o sel l tactica l nuclea r weapons , smal l enough t o fit into a duffel bag , to Arab countries fo r $20 million each, " and he adds that these alleged sales may allow the PLO, Hamas, or some other terrorist group to become nuclear powers (1994:196). This sense of the inevitability of a nuclear cataclys m brough t abou t b y Islamic force s i s exemplified b y prophecy write r E d Hindson : "i t probabl y won' t b e lon g befor e almos t an y well-funded dictato r in the oil-rich Middle East will have nuclear warheads at his disposal. As the cloc k tick s onward, i t i s only a matte r o f time unti l th e inevitable disaster strikes" (1996:88).

The Gulf War in Post-Cold War Prophecy The increase d attention t o the eschatological rol e of Islam i s not only related to the end of the Cold War and Islamic fundamentalism bu t also to the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 1990. As previously mentioned, many prophecy believers interpreted th e war in the Persian Gulf as the beginning of the endtimes countdown , wit h a n estimate d 1 5 percent o f th e America n populac e believing that the war was a fulfillment o f prophecy and that Armageddon was at han d (Bezill a 1996:26) . The intensifie d interes t i n prophecy belief s durin g the wa r reveale d th e connectio n betwee n perception s o f societa l crisi s an d apocalyptic speculatio n nationwide ; prophec y interpreter s wer e interviewe d on the national new s about the role of the Middle East in endtimes traditions and bookseller s reporte d hug e sale s o f prophec y book s (Maxwel l 1991:60 ; Boyer 1992:329) . Prophec y telephon e hotline s eve n provide d dail y update s about th e endtimes significance o f the unfolding event s in th e Gulf: "For $2 a minute , yo u ca n b e read y b y calling th e 900-numbe r Tribulatio n Hotlin e and liste n t o . . . what th e Bibl e says about The En d an d ho w events i n th e world fit into prophecy " {Los Angeles Times, January 28,1991 , D2). As noted, a revised edition of John Walvoords Armageddon, Oil and the Middle East Crisis (1990) quickly sold upward of 600,000 copies from Decembe r 1990 to February 199 1 (more copie s sold i n te n week s than ha d sol d fro m 197 4 to 1984, when th e first editio n wen t ou t o f print ) an d anothe r 300,00 0 copie s wer e ordered and distributed by Billy Graham {Los Angeles Times* February 7,1991, E2). Walvoord , presiden t o f th e Dalla s Theological Seminar y fro m 195 2 t o 1986 and autho r o f twenty-seve n books , state s tha t conflict s ove r oi l i n th e

The Transformation of Apocalyptic Traditions I 15 7 Middle Eas t wil l pla y a centra l rol e i n th e las t day s an d asks , "D o curren t events point t o the final global war, Armageddon?.. . This i s exactly what th e Bible anticipates i n its prophecies of the end time . The world stage is set for a showdown" (i9$)o:bac k cover) . Some prophec y theorists went furthe r and suggested that Saddam Hussei n might b e th e Antichrist . Th e followin g advertisemen t appeare d i n th e Los Angeles Times (as well a s other majo r newspapers ) immediatel y afte r th e Gul f War had ended : Will Sadda m Hussei n Ris e Fro m th e Dead ? Maybe tha t question seem s premature, sinc e Sadda m i s stil l counte d amon g th e living . Whil e h e migh t b e defeated and down for the time being, he just might be killed and come back from the dead. . . . Preposterous, you say? There are predictions of just such a thing happening—t o a person calle d "th e man of sin." He i s sometimes als o referred to by a number—"666." Th e same source predicts the political, eco nomic and spiritual future of the Middle East, and in fact of our planet. It tells of war s an d outcome s o f wars , fro m ancien t Babylo n t o modern-da y Israel . That source is a book. The Bible. (March 28,1991A24 ) The a d characterize s dispensationalis t prediction s abou t th e recover y o f th e Antichrist fro m a fatal hea d wound, hi s unitin g al l nation s agains t Israel , an d the similaritie s betwee n suc h prophecie s an d curren t event s i n th e Middl e East. Reader s intereste d i n learnin g mor e abou t apocalypti c prophec y ar e encouraged to request information fro m th e nationwide organization Jews for Jesus, base d i n San Francisco . The propheti c significanc e o f Babylo n i n th e las t day s an d Sadda m Hus seins role in the endtimes were addressed by various prophecy writers, includ ing Charles Dyer, whose The Rise of Babylon: Sign of the End Times (1991) wit h its colorfully embossed cover featuring Husseins face juxtaposed with the profile of Nebuchadnezzar, promptl y sold 300,000 copies (Boye r 1992:330). Dyer, a colleagu e o f John Walvoord s a t th e Dalla s Theologica l Seminary , declare s that Hussei n no t onl y look s lik e Nebuchadnezza r bu t i s als o simila r i n hi s desire t o rul e th e world (i99i:bac k cover) . Although America n dispensation alists in th e past have customarily interprete d th e Babylon i n Revelatio n 1 8 to be th e Vatican, th e Unite d States , o r a one-world economi c o r religiou s sys tem, Dye r argue s tha t th e referenc e i s to th e litera l rebuildin g i n th e las t day s of th e ancien t cit y (1991:192) . Fro m hi s offere d evidenc e (wit h photographs ) of Hussein s reconstructio n o f Babylon , Dye r extrapolate s tha t Hussei n con siders himsel f th e ne w Nebuchadnezza r an d predict s tha t someda y thi s ne w Babylon will becom e a great economic powe r b y controlling th e oil wealt h o f

158 I The Transformation of Apocalyptic Traditions

the Middle East (1991:208-210). Dyer sees a rebuilt Babylon as the third-mostimportant endtimes sign, with the other two most significant prophetic events being th e establishmen t o f Israe l a s a natio n an d th e reviva l o f th e Roma n Empire i n Europe. The city will eventually be destroyed, he says, by a multinational forc e (th e revive d Roman Empir e led by the Antichrist), which will gain th e oil resource s before th e end of the world. Dye r concludes, "Regard less of what happen s t o Saddam Hussein , th e Bible makes it clear that Baby lon wil l b e rebuilt . The Middl e Eas t i s the worlds tim e bomb , and Babylo n the fus e tha t wil l ignit e th e event s o f th e en d times " (i99i:bac k cover) . By focusing o n th e propheti c importanc e o f Babylo n rathe r tha n prediction s about th e Gulf Wars escalating into a global conflagration, Dyer s interpreta tion wa s no t disconfirme d onc e militar y action s ceased , unlik e th e specula tions of various other prophecy interpreters .

A Moment of Peace before Armageddon After th e Iraqi forces were defeated an d it became apparent that predictions of a globa l conflic t initiate d i n th e Middl e Eas t woul d no t b e fulfilled , som e believers shifted thei r attention t o the prophetic implication s of peace in th e endtimes scenario. For example, in his weekly television broadcasts from Troy, Michigan, Jack Van Imp e predicte d tha t th e defeat o f the Iraqi force s b y the United States and the Iraqi surrender were the beginning of a period of international peac e and th e creatio n o f a ne w world orde r prio r t o Armageddo n (Jack Van Impe Presents^ Octobe r 1994) .

Since th e en d o f th e Col d War , man y premillennialist s hav e argue d tha t there will be a "false peace," a period of security and concord prior to the rise of the Antichrist, a stance compatible with beliefs about Russia's grand deception and secret communist machination s in the endtimes. Numerous premillennialists, including Pat Robertson, cite Isaiah 2:2-4 as prophetic proof that a temporar y peac e wil l prevai l i n th e latte r day s (Robertso n 1991:226) , an d others cit e 1 Thessalonians 5:3 , which reads : "For when the y say, 'Peace an d safety!' the n sudde n destructio n come s upo n them , a s labo r pain s upo n a pregnant woman. And they shall no t escape." This fatalisti c vie w o f peac e effort s i s espouse d b y prophec y interprete r Dave Hunt of Bend, Oregon, whose books have sold more than three million copies. Asserting that the end of the Cold War is an endtimes sign prior to the emergence of a one-world order and the arrival of the Antichrist, Hunt states, "At long last, the prospect of a peace such as the world has never known befor e

The Transformation of Apocalyptic Traditions I 15 9 seems t o hav e metamorphose d fro m a n impossibl e drea m t o a realistic hope . In fact, th e nations of the world will indee d establish a n unprecedented inter ... t time of peace is mentioned, national peace, and probably fairly soon .Tha however, no t with joy but with sorrow, for the prophets declared that it would precede a holocaust tha t would threate n th e survival o f all life o n thi s planet " (1990:13). Hun t declare s tha t peac e negotiation s canno t influenc e th e foreor dained cours e o f events , an d tha t althoug h worl d leader s ar e compelle d t o work fo r peace , thei r effort s ar e unavailin g withi n th e contex t o f th e divin e plan: "If mankind could b y its own effort s establis h a just and lasting peace, i t would prov e tha t th e Bible—whic h declare s tha t tru e peac e ca n onl y com e through Jesu s Chris t reignin g upo n earth—i s no t true . Therefor e al l suc h humanistic attempt s ar e doomed" (Hun t 1990:14) . Other premillennialist s sa y that attempts t o reduc e tensions i n th e Middl e East als o porten d th e ris e of th e Antichrist an d th e imminen t destructio n o f the world. In his best-selling Beginning of the End: The Assassination of Yitzhak Rabin and the Coming Antichrist(1996), Joh n Hage e argues that the assassination o f Rabin fulfill s endtime s prophecie s an d reveal s humanity's place on th e prophetic timetable . According t o Hagee , th e pasto r of the fifteen-thousandmember Cornerston e Churc h i n Sa n Antonio, Texas, whose view s ar e broadcast nationall y an d internationall y o n televisio n an d radio , th e assassinatio n "launched Bibl e prophec y ont o th e fas t track " because i t will lea d to renewe d peace effort s betwee n Israe l an d Arabi c nation s (1996:8) . Prio r t o Rabin s death, Hage e says , there was resistance t o th e peace proces s i n Israe l bu t now , to hono r hi s lif e an d memory , Israeli s will d o a wholehearted turnabout . I n pursuit of peace, the nation will embrace the Antichrist, who will appear to be a peacemaker . Defense s dow n an d lulle d int o a fals e sens e o f security , Israe l will b e attacked b y Arabic nations , initiatin g a n apocalypti c scenario . As noted earlier, Lindsey predicts a similar series of events, concluding tha t Muslim nation s wil l eventuall y attac k a n unsuspectin g Israel , which wil l no t be abl e t o defen d itsel f wit h conventiona l weapon s bu t hav e t o resor t t o nuclear weapons: "Thi s latest phon y peac e deal i n th e Middl e Eas t thu s onl y ensures that eventually there will b e a thermonuclear holocaus t i n th e Middl e East. . . this seems t o paralle l prediction s i n Revelatio n an d elsewher e t o a T. Mark m y words. I t will happen " (1994:244) . Like othe r dispensationalists , Lindse y an d Hage e asser t tha t peac e effort s in the Middle East are useless but nonetheles s a foreordained par t of the unal terable chronology of endtimes events. Such ideas reveal once again the deeply pessimistic underpinning s of apocalyptic worldviews and further indicate tha t despite the end of Cold War, fatalistic beliefs about the inevitability of nuclea r

160 I The Transformation of Apocalyptic Traditions annihilation an d about the inability of human being s to create universal peac e through thei r own effort s ar e intrinsic t o dispensationalist though t a t the en d of the second millennium .

Global Unification and a One-World Government Post-Cold Wa r apocalypti c prophec y als o ha s becom e increasingl y preoccu pied wit h recen t attempt s a t politica l an d economi c unification , whic h ar e interpreted a s a fulfillmen t o f prediction s abou t th e reviva l o f th e Roma n Empire (Danie l 7) , an empire that , with th e Antichrist a s its leader, will dom inate th e worl d prio r t o th e retur n o f Christ . Propheti c indication s o f th e empire ar e believe d t o includ e th e reunificatio n o f German y i n 199 0 an d efforts t o increase th e power of the European Communit y an d European Par liament, such as the Treaty of Maastricht, signed on Decembe r 10,1991. Other international treatie s als o hav e bee n viewe d throug h th e len s o f apocalypti c prophecy; fo r example , som e premillennialist s interprete d th e signin g o f th e North America n Fre e Trade Agreement (NAFTA ) i n Decembe r 199 3 b y th e United States , Canada , an d Mexic o a s part of a secret agend a tha t eventuall y will lea d t o economic dominatio n unde r th e rul e of th e Antichrist. The activitie s o f the European Union , th e European Community , an d th e European Commo n Marke t hav e been closely monitored b y premillennialist s and regarde d by some a s evidence of the coming of the Antichrists one-worl d economy an d one-worl d government . On e prophec y interprete r states , "There i s a chance tha t th e Europea n Communit y i s makin g th e thron e o n which th e Beas t coul d sit , coverin g no t onl y Europe , bu t th e whol e world " (Arthur Berg , cited i n Jeffrey 1994:122) . According t o Lindsey , th e imminenc e o f th e evi l one-worl d syste m wa s revealed when Western Europ e becam e a single economi c marke t on Januar y 1,1993, linking twelve nations and eliminating tariffs and custom barriers ; and it dre w eve n close r whe n th e 34 5 millio n citizen s o f thos e twelv e nation s became citizen s o f th e ne w Europea n Unio n o n Novembe r 1 , 199 3 (Lindse y 1994:219). Th e fulfillmen t o f prophecie s abou t a n encroachin g one-worl d order is explored at length i n Grant Jeffrey s Prince of Darkness: Antichrist and the New World Order (1994). He states that the one central bank and currency, one Europea n citizenshi p an d passport , on e hig h court , on e foreig n policy , and th e Europea n arm y tha t hav e bee n establishe d ar e all indication s tha t a n emergent "confederate d superstat e is destined t o rule the world under the dictatorial contro l o f th e coming Princ e of Darkness" (Jeffre y 1994:123) .

The Transformation of Apocalyptic Traditions I 16 1 The introductio n o f th e Europea n Currenc y Uni t (ECU ) o n Januar y i , 1993, has been interprete d as an endtimes sig n as well, bu t i t is the symbolis m of th e EC U currency—Europ a ridin g Zeu s i n th e for m o f a bull—tha t ha s received particula r attention ; th e symbo l o f th e bul l i s interprete d a s "th e beast," an d Europ a i s th e "woma n sittin g o n a scarle t beast " mentione d i n Revelation 17:3 . According t o on e interpretation , th e woma n i s a symbol o f the Fals e Prophe t an d th e beas t represent s th e revive d Roma n Empire ; together the y symboliz e a n unhol y allianc e betwee n th e fals e ecumenica l church and the new Roman Empire . Jeffrey exclaims, "It is amazing to see this prophetic symbo l o f th e 'Mothe r o f Harlots ' and th e revive d Roma n Empir e appear on th e ne w currency of th e European Community . Thi s sam e symbo l was also engraved on the new stamp commemorating th e election of the European Parliament " (1994:111). Although muc h post-Col d Wa r apocalypti c speculatio n abou t a n emerg ing global syste m focuse s o n activitie s i n Europe , Presiden t Georg e Bus h wa s suspected o f being involve d i n th e one-world-order conspirac y afte r hi s statements durin g th e Gul f War abou t th e beginnin g o f a "Ne w Worl d Order. " According t o Pa t Robertson i n The New World Order (1991) , Bush' s referenc e was not just rhetoric but part of a "precise, systematic, and rigorously planne d mechanism t o manage peopl e and nations collectively b y proxy and by global authority" (i99i:xi) . Robertso n examine s "th e invisibl e han d shapin g U.S . government policies" and the trends in world politics that are leading to a oneworld dictatorship . Th e ultimat e goal , say s Robertson , a s foreordaine d b y Bible prophecy, i s the establishment o f a one-world governmen t unde r a centralized authority that will replac e the old world order of Christianity (1991:14 , 246). Th e Gul f Wa r wa s especiall y significan t becaus e th e militar y actio n against Iraq, authorized by the United Nations, "wa s the first time since Babe l that all of the nation s o f the earth acte d i n concert with on e another . . . . I t is as i f som e powe r reache d ou t fro m Babel , wher e th e first worl d rebellio n against Go d wa s quashed , an d onc e agai n calle d th e nation s o f th e worl d t o unity" (1991:252). The mov e toward a new world order, for Robertson, i s inexplicable i n term s o f the desir e fo r wealth o r political powe r bu t spring s "fro m the dept h o f somethin g tha t i s evil, " a n evi l conspirac y controlle d b y secre t societies and occult organization s (1991:8-9) . Robertson implicate s th e usua l endtime s conspirators—th e Unite d Nations, th e World Ban k an d th e Internationa l Monetar y Fund , th e Societ y for Worldwid e Interban k Financia l Transaction s (SWIFT) , th e Bilderber g Group, an d th e Federa l Reserv e Board—an d explain s tha t worldwide indoc trination t o th e value s tha t wil l suppor t a one-worl d governmen t i s bein g

i6i I

The Transformation of Apocalyptic Traditions

brought abou t throug h th e mas s medi a an d popula r cultur e a s well. The per vasive and insidiou s urg e fo r a unifie d worl d i s exemplified, h e argues , b y th e popular son g "Imagine, " b y John Lennon , th e decease d forme r Beatle . Wit h its reference t o a future i n which ther e would b e n o countries , n o religion , n o heaven o r hell , n o possessions , an d everyon e livin g fo r toda y wit h th e worl d "as one," i t typifie s th e seemingl y innocen t desir e fo r Utopi a o n earth , whic h may lead to a one-world government , say s Robertson. "Georg e Bush an d Joh n Lennon ar e no t alon e i n championin g a ne w world order, " h e continues , an d cites statement s abou t establishin g a world orde r b y Woodro w Wilson , Nel son Rockefeller , Adol f Hitler , an d Jimmy Carter , an d writing s fro m th e secre t society o f the Illuminat i i n th e eighteent h centur y (1991:4—6) . The conspirac y is complex, unifie d b y a "singl e threa d [that ] run s fro m th e White Hous e t o the Stat e Departmen t t o th e Counci l o n Foreig n Relation s t o th e Trilatera l Commission t o secre t societie s t o extrem e Ne w Agers" (1991:6) . Robertsons book , publicize d a s a New York Times best-selle r wit h mor e than hal f a million copie s i n print , reveal s the degree t o which conspirac y the ories abou t secretiv e group s controllin g worldl y event s continu e t o b e a fea ture o f apocalypti c worldviews . Exhibitin g extrem e xenophobi a an d perhap s anti-Semitism (fea r o f "internationa l bankers " i n th e traditio n o f previou s anti-Semitic publications) , th e widesprea d credenc e i n globa l conspirac y reflects feeling s o f powerlessnes s abou t seemingl y inexplicabl e o r threatenin g global economi c an d politica l transformations . Post-Col d War belief s abou t a one-world syste m an d a sinister gran d desig n fo r histor y asser t tha t althoug h such change s ar e overwhelmingly evil , externally determined , an d completel y beyond one s control , the y ar e meaningfu l withi n a foreordaine d endtime s plan tha t promise s thei r eventua l destructio n an d th e ultimat e triump h o f th e faithful.

The Rise of the Antichrist Endtimes idea s abou t worldwid e conspirac y an d monstrou s evi l ar e epito mized b y contemporary belief s abou t th e primar y antagonis t i n th e apocalyp tic drama : th e Antichrist . Historically , legend s abou t th e Antichris t hav e emphasized hi s cruelt y an d grea t power s o f deception , whic h wil l b e use d ruthlessly t o maltrea t th e righteous . Th e Antichrist s tremendou s decei t fre quently ha s bee n associate d wit h religiou s hypocrisy , an d a s a resul t a long standing traditio n exist s amon g Protestant s an d Catholi c dissenter s o f equat ing the pop e with th e Antichrist. Tyrants an d persecutor s o f Christianity hav e

The Transformation of Apocalyptic Traditions I 16 3 also bee n identifie d a s th e Evi l One ; som e o f thos e labele d th e Antichrist i n the pas t hav e include d Nero , Justinian , Saladin , Luther , Pete r th e Great , Napoleon, Kaise r Wilhelm , Mussolini , Hitler , Stalin , Khrushchev , Su n Myung Moon , Anwa r el-Sadat , Moamma r Qaddhafi , Kin g Jua n Carlo s o f Spain, Jimm y Carter , Davi d Rockefeller , Mikhai l Gorbachev , an d Bori s Yeltsin. John F . Kennedys Catholicis m an d his receiving 666 vote s at the 1956 Democratic Conventio n wa s caus e fo r muc h Antichris t speculation ; som e believed h e woul d rul e th e worl d afte r makin g a n allianc e wit h th e Vatican , African Americans , an d communists . Henr y Kissinge r wa s a favorit e candi date fo r the Antichrist i n th e 1970 s because o f his diplomatic successe s i n th e Middle Eas t (Antichris t a s " a bringe r o f peace" ) an d a calculatio n tha t hi s name adde d u p t o 666 (Alno r 1989:22) . I n th e 1980s , Presiden t Ronal d Wil son Reaga n cam e unde r th e scrutiny o f Antichrist hunter s (eac h of his name s had six letters, and in 1988 Reagan changed th e street numbe r of the mansio n given to him b y wealthy friends from 666 t o 668) (Boye r 1992:276). One pop ular belie f i s tha t th e Antichris t wil l miraculousl y recove r fro m a seemingl y fatal wound : Reagan' s recover y fro m a n assassinatio n attemp t le d t o specula tion abou t hi s rol e i n th e endtimes , an d Pop e John Pau l U s simila r recover y also evoke d Antichris t accusations . Som e person s hav e offere d specific s con cerning th e Antichrist s persona l history . Astrologe r Jeann e Dixo n sai d th e Antichrist woul d b e exactl y thirt y years old o n Februar y 5,1992 ; i n 1980 , Pa t Robertson speculate d tha t th e Antichris t wa s twenty-seve n year s ol d a t th e time (Alno r 1989:25). Robertson himsel f was accused of being a potential can didate fo r th e Antichris t b y som e premillennia l dispensationalist s whe n h e broke wit h conventiona l premillennialis t view s i n declarin g tha t th e comin g New Worl d Order , th e ris e o f th e Antichrist , an d th e apocalyps e coul d b e averted i f Christia n Americ a rallie d t o preven t a one-worl d government . According t o Constanc e Cumbey , autho r o f severa l book s o n th e satani c underpinnings o f th e Ne w Ag e movemen t an d th e comin g o f a Ne w Ag e Antichrist, Robertso n migh t b e the Antichrist becaus e o f his activist theolog ical views, politica l aspirations , an d hypnoti c power s (Alno r 1989:23) . Although Antichris t legend s hav e alway s figure d prominentl y i n Christ ian apocalypti c speculation , i n th e post-Col d Wa r er a th e figure o f th e Antichrist ha s receive d extensiv e attention , wit h particula r emphasi s o n th e fact that he will either bring peace to the world or rise to power during a time of peace . Prophec y interpreter s cit e a biblica l passag e abou t th e first horse man o f the apocalypse ridin g a white hors e (Revelatio n 6:2) , a symbol o f th e Antichrist comin g i n fals e peace , an d hav e focuse d o n th e conspiratoria l machinations tha t will allo w hi m t o becom e th e rule r of th e revive d Roma n

164 I The Transformation of Apocalyptic Traditions Empire, an d hi s final reig n ove r th e entir e worl d fo r a seven-yea r perio d through a one-worl d government , a one-worl d economy , an d a one-worl d religion. Many prophec y believer s asser t tha t th e Antichrist wil l emerg e fro m on e country withi n th e Europea n Unio n o r a country o r confederation tha t wa s once par t of th e Roma n Empire , an d a s a result hav e given specia l notic e t o powerful an d charismati c individual s withi n th e Europea n Community . According t o John Hagee , "I n his rise to power, th e Antichrist will weave hi s hypnotic spel l first ove r on e natio n i n th e ten-kingdo m federation , the n over al l ten " (1996:118) . Popula r belief s als o asser t tha t th e Antichris t wil l guarantee peac e i n th e Middl e Eas t throug h a seven-year treat y wit h Israe l that amon g it s provision s wil l permi t th e Jews t o rebuil d th e Temple. Dur ing thi s time , th e Antichris t wil l rul e wit h complet e authority , bu t afte r three an d a hal f year s h e wil l brea k th e treaty , desecrat e th e Temple , an d begin a reig n o f terro r wit h th e hel p o f a religiou s leade r identifie d a s th e False Prophe t ( 2 Thessalonians 2 ; Revelatio n 13:11-18) . Th e Antichris t wil l eventually declar e himsel f divin e an d convinc e man y Jew s tha t h e i s thei r Messiah (fo r thi s reason , som e prophec y enthusiast s assum e th e Antichris t will b e Jewish). H e wil l als o convinc e Christian s wh o remai n afte r th e Rap ture tha t h e i s th e tru e Christ , an d man y wil l worshi p hi m a s a go d (se e Hagee 1996:117-131 ; Jeffre y 1994:184 ; Lindse y 1995:163-167 ; Robertso n 1991:255). Prophecy interpreters have gone to great lengths to describe the cruelty and powers o f deceptio n o f th e Antichris t tha t wil l b e ruthlessl y use d agains t al l who resis t him . Lindse y refer s t o th e Antichris t a s "Th e Futur e Fuehrer, " a charismatic, attractive man who will dazzle the world with miracle s and yet be so evil tha t h e will "mak e Adolph Hitle r and Josef Stalin loo k lik e choir boys" (1994:232-233). Emphasizin g th e peac e effort s tha t wil l b e a part o f th e earl y career o f th e Antichrist , Hage e speculate s tha t h e migh t b e a winner o f th e Nobel Peac e Priz e or perhaps th e ma n wh o resolve s th e conflict betwee n Ser bia, Bosnia , an d Croati a (1996:118) . Many dispensationalist s believ e tha t th e Antichris t wil l no t emerg e unti l after th e Rapture and that h e will com e fro m th e revive d Roman Empire , bu t a fe w eage r Antichris t spotter s se e i n Presiden t Bil l Clinto n a potentia l Antichrist an d i n Vice Presiden t Al Gor e a potential Fals e Prophe t o f a Ne w Age nature religion, while others think that Hillary Clinton migh t be the False Prophet. An y connection , rea l or imagined , t o th e Ne w Age , environmental ist issues , peac e efforts , o r "secula r humanism " define d i n th e broades t sens e continues t o inspir e Antichrist speculatio n amon g premillennialists .

The Transformation of Apocalyptic Traditions I 16 5 References t o th e Antichris t hav e alway s bee n a par t o f th e Baysid e mes sages an d hav e bee n increasingl y emphasize d i n th e recen t literatur e distrib uted b y th e shrin e organization . Th e prophecie s describ e th e ris e o f th e Antichrist an d hi s cruelty and give details about hi s age and whereabouts, suc h as the following messag e attributed t o the Virgin Mary , which state s flatly tha t the Antichrist "no w walks you r earth . Earth-yea r 194 0 was hi s beginning . H e entered you r countr y i n 1970 " (OLR Book 1986:111) . O n e frequentl y cite d message assert s tha t th e Antichris t entere d int o th e priesthoo d i n 1971 ; another, tha t Sata n entere d int o th e bod y o f a mal e practitione r o f th e occul t in 197 5 and onc e h e i s finished hi s missio n usin g th e man s body , h e will pos sess another bod y (OLR Book 1986:96) . Formal theologica l discussion s about th e Antichrist loo k upo n th e concep t as standing fo r evi l i n th e world o r a n interna l spiritua l stat e o f religiou s self deception o r resistanc e t o Christ' s message ; popular belief s an d legend s depic t the Antichris t a s a n externa l force—th e embodimen t o f ultimat e evi l i n human for m (McGin n 1994:4-5) . Suc h belief s an d legend s hav e reflecte d th e fears an d perception s o f ultimat e evi l hel d b y Christian s historically , under scoring th e way s tha t Christia n apocalypti c tradition s ar e ultimatel y con cerned wit h th e struggl e betwee n th e force s o f goo d an d evil , wit h evil regarded a s a n overwhelming , uncontrollabl e powe r tha t i s foreordaine d t o dominate i n th e endtimes .

New Technology and the Mark of the Beast, 666 In post-Col d Wa r apocalypti c speculation , th e sense of overpowering evi l ha s been increasingl y identifie d wit h computer s an d technologica l advancements , which man y believ e th e Antichrist wil l us e t o enslav e humanity . The associa tion o f computers with th e Antichrist i s revealed b y belief s tha t th e Antichris t may in fact be a. massive computer, suc h a s the computer house d i n the admin istration buildin g o f th e headquarter s o f th e Commo n Marke t i n Brussels , Belgium, which employee s supposedly hav e nicknamed "Th e Beast. " Accord ing t o numerou s prophec y interpreters , thi s computer , whic h occupie s thre e floors o f th e building , ha s th e capacit y t o stor e financia l an d persona l infor mation o n tw o billio n people ; "Th e Beast " allegedl y wil l b e replace d b y a larger and mor e ominou s compute r currentl y bein g buil t i n Luxembour g (se e Relfe 1981:44-48) . A rumo r tha t bega n circulatin g o n th e Interne t an d i n ora l traditio n i n 1994-1995 als o associate s th e Antichrist wit h computers :

166 I The Transformation of Apocalyptic Traditions Warning! Bill Gates (presiden t o f Microsoft) ma y be the next Antichrist. Rev elation 13:1 8 says, "Let anyone who has intelligence work out the number of the beast, for th e numbe r represent s a man's name , and th e numerical value of its letters is six hundred and sixty-six. Bill Gates' full name is William Henry Gates III. Nowaday s h e i s known a s Bill Gate s (III) . B y converting th e letters of his current nam e to their ASCII values , you get the following : BILLGATES3 66+73+76+76+71+65+84+69+83+3=666 Daniel 7:23 says, "The explanation h e gave was this: 'The fourth beas t signifie s a fourth kingdo m which will appear on earth. It will differ fro m th e other kingdoms; i t will devour th e whole earth, treadin g it down an d crushing it.'" Cur rent history knows three Antichrists: Adolf Hitler, Joseph Stalin, and the Pope. Is the fourth beas t th e Microsoft Corporation , whic h represent s th e powe r o f money? {Foafiale News 37 [June 1995]: 11; Forteana News List on May 16,1995) Beliefs abou t th e Antichrist bein g a computer mogu l o r someho w incarnate d in computer s ar e innovation s o n standar d premillennialis t notion s abou t th e Antichrist s being a peacemaker an d politica l leader , epitomizing curren t idea s about th e evil an d apocalypti c ramification s o f technology . Apocalyptic prophec y interpreter s hav e asserte d fo r decade s tha t technol ogy wil l b e use d b y th e Antichris t t o achiev e worldwid e worship . Som e prophecy writer s sa y tha t th e Antichrist wil l requir e worshi p befor e two-wa y television console s tha t wil l monito r th e frequenc y o f one s devotio n t o th e image o f the Beas t (se e Relfe 1981:127) . Vigilantly assessin g th e propheti c pos sibilities o f th e lates t technology , recen t prophec y writer s explai n tha t th e ref erence t o th e worshi p o f th e imag e o f th e Beas t i n Revelatio n 13:14-1 5 migh t be a descriptio n o f a n Antichris t imag e conveye d throug h th e technolog y o f "artificial realit y o r created b y the sophisticated us e of computer graphic s an d holograms. Suc h a n imag e migh t the n b e transmitte d throug h televisio n set s which woul d plac e a three-dimensional , life-lik e apparitio n o f th e Antichris t in livin g room s throughou t th e world (se e Kinman 1995:247) . Numerous premillennialist s asser t tha t th e contro l o f individual s throug h computer technolog y will b e an inescapabl e par t o f the Antichrists one-worl d order an d tha t suc h technologie s ar e alread y bein g implemented . Book s suc h as The Mark of the Beast: Your Money, Computers, and the End of the World (Lalonde an d Lalond e 1994 ; chapter heading s includ e "Kis s Your Cash Good bye," "Boy , Hav e I Got You r Number, " an d "You r Body : The Onl y I D You'l l Ever Need" ) examin e th e curren t trend s an d th e rational e leadin g inevitabl y to a cashles s societ y controlle d b y computer s (simplifie d monetar y transac -

The Transformation of Apocalyptic Traditions I 16 7 tions, th e eliminatio n o f much crime , an d increase d profi t fo r businesses , fo r example). Like numerous othe r recen t prophec y books , The Mark of the Beast asserts tha t fo r th e first tim e i n histor y th e syste m o f complet e contro l described i n the Book of Revelation ha s been mad e possibl e by advanced com puter technology , lase r scanning devices, and electroni c surveillance. I n Prince of Darkness: Antichrist and the New World Order, Gran t Jeffre y describe s th e totalitarian us e of technology i n th e comin g brav e Ne w World Order : This syste m wa s technicall y impossibl e unti l th e introductio n durin g th e las t decade of laser scans, computer chips beneath the skin and computerized financial systems. . .. [T]h e Mark of the Beast system will eliminate money, forcin g men t o bu y and sel l through a computerized syste m requirin g eac h perso n t o possess an individual Mark. The tru e horror of the coming New World Orde r is that its global and all-encompassing secret police state will be equipped wit h the most advanced technolog y making escape virtually impossible. (1994:293 ) Pat Robertso n imagine s a similar futur e i n 77? ^ New World Order, comput ers abl e t o proces s trillion s o f bit s o f informatio n wil l contai n th e complet e vital statistics and lif e recor d of every person i n th e world; all wealth an d mon etary transaction s coul d b e monitore d an d controlled ; an d trackin g mecha nisms coul d b e implemente d t o observ e th e physica l movement s o f everyon e (1991:216). Advance s i n technolog y hav e mad e suc h tyrannica l monitorin g possible, Robertso n ventures , an d i f a "demonized madma n lik e Hitle r coul d seize control o f a worldwide, homogenize d government, " th e world coul d b e transformed int o a massive priso n (1991:216) . Numerous othe r prophec y interpreter s als o hav e examine d th e ne w tech nologies that are setting the stage for the totalitarian rul e of the Antichrist, an d discuss a t lengt h th e propheti c significanc e o f recen t form s o f surveillance : massive corporat e an d governmen t compute r databases ; th e FBI' s fingerprint records an d compute r files o n mor e tha n fifty millio n Americans ; recen t pro posals fo r D N A geneti c identificatio n o f al l citizens ; th e futur e issuanc e o f biometric healt h an d identificatio n card s tha t wil l contai n eac h person s elec tronic fingerprint o r voiceprint ; th e abilit y o f th e Nationa l Securit y Agenc y and othe r organization s t o monito r ever y phon e call , fax , an d e-mai l trans mission i n th e world ; voiceprint-recognitio n technology ; credit-reportin g agencies; and lase r an d optica l scannin g tha t allow s objects an d person s t o b e monitored fro m a distanc e (se e Jeffrey 1994:92-104 ; Ka h 1992:8-22 ; Kinma n 1995)In additio n t o expressin g apprehension s abou t th e los s o f individua l free doms an d th e invasio n o f privac y b y technology , post-Col d Wa r apocalypti c

168 I The Transformation of Apocalyptic Traditions beliefs reflec t distrus t o f technologica l chang e an d fea r o f economi c control . This las t concer n i s exemplified b y th e belie f tha t n o on e wil l b e able t o bu y or sel l i n th e futur e cashles s societ y withou t th e Mar k o f th e Beast , ofte n believed t o b e a tattoo o r emblem someho w relate d t o th e numbe r 666. Th e Mark, i t i s maintained , wil l b e require d o f al l livin g unde r th e Antichrist s reign, and thos e who refus e t o accept th e emblem wil l b e killed o r eventuall y starve t o death . A commo n belief , base d o n th e followin g passag e fro m th e Book o f Revelation , i s that th e Mark will b e placed o n th e forehea d o r top o f the righ t hand : He causes all, both grea t and small, ric h and poor, fre e and slave, to receive a mark on their right hand or on their foreheads, and that no one may buy or sell except one who ha s the mark or the name of the beast, or the numbe r of his name. Her e is wisdom. Le t him who has understanding calculate the number of th e beast , fo r i t i s th e numbe r o f a man: Hi s numbe r i s 666. (Revelatio n 13:16-18)

Beliefs abou t th e desig n o f th e Mark—th e symboli c embodimen t o f ulti mate evil—ofte n reflec t perception s abou t curren t societa l threats . Fo r instance, i n th e 1960 s an d 1970s , th e peac e symbol associate d with th e coun terculture wa s frequentl y identifie d wit h th e Antichris t an d considere d b y some t o b e th e potentia l Mar k o f th e Beast . On e prophec y writer said a t th e time, "W e kno w tha t b y peac e th e antichris t wil l gai n som e powe r ove r th e nations, an d we can thin k o f n o bette r anti-type o f the cross tha n th e broke n cross" (Webbe r 1976:23) . I n th e lat e 1970s , Veronic a Lueken s message s con tinued to warn of the dangers of the peace symbol: "The broken cross, the sign of the Man of Perdition, the sign of the Antichrist, i s the so-called 'Peace Symbol/ Al l wh o wea r thi s ar e doomed " (OLR Book 1986:96) . Th e adaptabilit y and updatin g o f th e Mar k o f th e Beas t traditio n i s illustrate d b y th e recen t assertion amon g som e prophec y believer s tha t th e curren t popularit y o f tat tooing and bod y piercin g among yout h ha s prophetic implication s becaus e i t may lead t o a willingness i n th e futur e t o accep t a tattoo o r body mar k whe n the Antichrist s 666 economi c syste m i s implemented . In th e 1990s , th e Mar k o f th e Beas t an d hi s 666 syste m hav e becom e increasingly associated with computers, electronic banking , ba r coding, lasers, and microchi p implantation , revealin g growin g apprehension s abou t th e intrusion o f technolog y int o huma n activities . I n th e traditio n o f earlie r prophecy books such as When Your Money Fails: The "666System" Is Here (Relfe 1981), numerous post-Col d War prophecy works are devoted t o accumulatin g evidence tha t indicate s tha t th e 666 syste m i s at hand. 3 Fo r example, Dwigh t

The Transformation of Apocalyptic Traditions I 16 9 Kinman, a pasto r an d prophec y interprete r fro m Canby , Oregon , write s i n The Worldfs Last Dictator (1995 ) tha t the emblem o f the European Communit y is 666; tha t th e symbo l o f th e World Bank , Trilateral Commission , an d Ne w Age movemen t i s 666; an d tha t ever y perso n i n th e industria l worl d ha s a n international eighteen-digi t identificatio n numbe r that begins with 666 i n th e Common Marke t computer i n Belgiu m (1995:259) . The author s of The Mark of the Beast (Lalonde and Lalonde 1994) suggest that prophecies about the 666 Mark and a one-world economic system are being fulfilled i n the form o f electronic bankin g alternative s t o cas h transactions , b y "smar t cards, " an d b y national identity cards containing a microchip with personal data. In En Route to Global Occupation (1992) , Gary Kah similarly argues that the 666 economi c system will initially be promoted through conveniences such as debit cards and electronic banking , whic h ultimatel y wil l pav e th e wa y fo r th e Antichrist s worldwide monitorin g system : "Onc e th e debi t car d ha s becom e widel y accepted, everythin g woul d b e i n plac e fo r th e nex t an d final step , whic h would b e t o forc e eac h individua l t o b e tagge d wit h a personal identificatio n code withou t whic h h e woul d b e unabl e t o bu y o r sell . Th e technolog y fo r such a worldwide electroni c syste m i s already i n place , an d experiment s wit h such a mark have been conducte d i n several countries " (1992:12) . Prophetic significanc e als o ha s bee n attribute d t o th e internationa l ba r code, o r Universa l Produc t Cod e (UPC) , whic h som e prophec y believer s se e as being transforme d int o th e Mar k o f th e Beas t i n a future cashles s society : "The mar k will probabl y b e simila r t o th e ba r cod e syste m o f th e Universa l Product Code , eac h perso n tagge d wit h thei r ow n permanen t identificatio n number easily read by scanners. The mark , however , will mos t likel y come i n the for m o f a n invisibl e lase r tattoo " (Ka h 1992:150) . I n suc h scenario s th e human bod y i s physicall y altere d an d marke d lik e a product , scanned , processed, monitored , an d ultimatel y condemne d t o hel l b y involvemen t i n the 666 system . A variation o f this endtimes assaul t on th e bod y i s offered b y Dwight Kinman , wh o assert s tha t b y th e yea r 2000 , transponde r microchi p implantations wil l allo w fo r th e trackin g an d controllin g o f individuals . Pro viding photographs an d illustrations, Kinma n claim s that these 666 biochips , encased in tiny glass tubes the size of a grain of rice, will be inserted in the back of the hand and used as a universal identificatio n card . Supermarket checkou t scanners wil l sca n thes e microchi p implants , makin g shoppin g an d othe r financial transaction s easie r bu t als o ultimatel y makin g trackin g an d contro l convenient durin g th e Antichrists reig n (1995:259-262) . As Pau l Boye r notes , fo r year s prophec y writer s hav e assigne d advance ments i n technolog y a pivotal rol e i n th e endtimes, an d recen t notion s abou t

170 I The Transformation of Apocalyptic Traditions the evi l us e o f technolog y t o contro l peopl e reinforc e an d updat e previou s ideas (1992:267-269) . Commonplac e object s an d everyda y conveniences ar e infused wit h sinister meanings, and seemingly harmless daily activities seen as parts of an insidious, overall conspiracy that will lead to mass conformity an d final enslavement. Technological advancement s foretel l o f decline and immi nent destruction , wit h "progress " viewe d pessimisticall y an d ultimatel y equated with dehumanization an d doom. As the authors of Computers and the Beast of Revelation state, "I n spit e o f all th e scientifi c wizardr y an d politica l developments of our age, the world masses for the most part seem hypnotize d with th e wonder of it all. If we could go back one hundred years in time and look upon mankind [i n the present] . . ., i t would appear that the average person today is like a man caught in a nightmare, hoping that he wakes before he plunges over a precipice into oblivion" (Webber and Hutchings 1986:25). Pervaded by the fear of manipulation b y overwhelming evil powers, beliefs about th e inescapabl e 666 syste m an d th e Mar k o f th e Beas t ar e inherentl y fatalistic, expressin g a profoun d sens e o f helplessnes s i n th e fac e o f a n all encompassing and unavoidable web of technological surveillance and control. Like developments i n nuclea r technology , recen t technologica l change s have been readil y interprete d a s foreordaine d occurrence s an d incorporate d int o apocalyptic worldviews , an d no w complemen t th e bom b i n th e endtime s countdown: technology initially will be used to dehumanize and enslave, and then, inevitably , to obliterate humanity .

The Beginning of Sorrows: Prophecies of Environmental Destruction and Pestilence The prophetic significance of natural disasters, diseases, famine, and environ mental destruction i s another prominent them e in current apocalyptic speculation. Searchin g th e Bibl e fo r prophecie s describin g recen t crises , believer s cite passages such a s Matthew 24:7-8 , which say s that i n th e last days "there will be famines, pestilences, and earthquakes in various places. All of these are the beginnin g o f sorrows. " Puttin g a propheti c twis t o n th e lates t new s reports, prophec y interpreter s hav e explained th e apocalyptic importanc e o f current threats within the divine timetable, focusing increasingly on endtimes viruses and ecological disasters. In various instances, previous interpretations of prophecy have been revised to account for new potential catastrophes. For example, during the Cold War, a biblical passage about a plague that would dissolve peoples flesh (Zechariah

The Transformation of Apocalyptic Traditions I 17 1 14:12-15) was interpreted by some prophecy writers as a reference to nuclear war and the effects of nuclear radiation. However, in the mid-1990s, the passage has been given an up-to-date propheti c relevanc e in the context of the ebola virus, dengue fever , an d variou s emergin g viruse s referre d t o a s "Apocalyps e Bugs. " John Hagee , citin g Michae l Preston' s best-selle r The Hot Zone, argue s tha t a n airborne strain of the ebola virus could emerge and in about six weeks create a worldwide epidemi c tha t would devastat e th e world s population. H e als o says that new , mutate d viruses and antibiotic-resistan t bacteri a could d o th e same , and i f used i n chemica l o r biologica l warfare , coul d creat e a plague simila r t o that describe d b y Zechariah , an d conclude s tha t "AIDS , ebola , an d kille r viruses ar e a trumpet blas t fro m th e thron e o f God t o th e spiritually deaf . . . . You are the terminal generation!" (Hage e 1996:88 , 98) . Lindse y similarl y sug gests that AIDS, increase d incidence o f tuberculosis, malaria , and cholera, an d the appearance of the hanta virus (relate d to th e bubonic plague ) ar e fulfillin g endtimes prophecie s (1994:114-116) ; an d Jack Van Imp e hold s tha t th e refer ence t o the fourth horsema n o f the apocalypse who ride s a "pale horse" (Revelation 6 ) an d bring s deat h throug h "beast s o f th e earth " ma y refe r t o deadl y viruses i n the last days (Jack Van Impe Presents, July 8,1996) . Prophecy interpreter s als o hav e reevaluate d biblica l prophecie s i n ligh t o f ozone depletion , globa l warming, pollution , an d other environmental threat s (see Boyer 1992:331-337). Apocalyptic predictions about ecological devastatio n are largely based on prophecie s i n th e Boo k o f Revelation abou t th e breakin g of the seven seals and th e pourin g out o f the seven vials of wrath, afte r whic h the seas are poisoned lik e "th e blood o f a dead man " and every living creatur e in th e ocean s die s (Revelatio n 16:3) ; the world i s filled wit h darknes s an d ye t people ar e "seare d b y intens e heat " (Revelatio n 16:9-10) ; an d th e su n grow s black, th e moo n become s th e colo r o f blood , an d a tremendou s earthquak e strikes (Revelatio n 6:12) . In the 1970s, Lindsey and others often viewe d these prophecies i n term s o f the effect s o f nuclea r destruction , an d discusse d ho w a globa l nuclea r wa r would pollut e th e oceans, kill sea creatures, create a cloud tha t would obscur e the sun, and burn the grass and trees (see Lindsey 1984 [i973]:ii7-i2i). Twenty years later, Lindsey still speaks of the effects o f a "nuclear winter" on th e envi ronment bu t also analyzes the prophetic implication s of the destruction o f the ozone layer , mismanagemen t o f natura l resources , depletio n o f oi l reserves , deforestation, an d th e greenhous e effect , an d say s tha t th e Bibl e predict s a total breakdow n o f the earths ecosystem i n th e endtimes (1994:83-100 , 117) . By th e mid-1990s , Lindse y s newsletter , International Intelligence Briefing, regularly ha d report s o n environmenta l destructio n an d th e increasin g fre -

172 I The Transformation of Apocalyptic Traditions quency o f natura l disasters , ofte n referre d t o a s a "quickening" o f cataclysm s prior t o th e retur n o f Christ . I n Planet Earth —2000 AD. Lindse y provide s specific example s o f th e fulfillmen t o f prophecie s concernin g tribulation s o f the eart h an d th e deca y o f th e environment , declaring , fo r instance , tha t th e depletion o f th e ozone laye r combined wit h th e greenhous e effec t ma y resul t in th e "scorching heat" and "horribl e sores" described i n Revelatio n 1 6 (9-11): "the Scripture refer s t o futur e event s tha t sound strikingl y simila r t o a plague of ski n cance r tha t erupt s amon g th e populatio n o f th e world " (1994:116) . After detailin g a n assortmen t o f othe r environmenta l endtime s signs , Lind sey s assessment of the current situation i s predictably fatalistic: "There's nothing we as a people can do about it . It' s too lat e to reverse the adverse effects o f industrialization" (1994:309) . Although som e prophec y believer s view environmental devastatio n simpl y as a foreordaine d par t o f God' s plan , other s sugges t tha t th e sufferin g occa sioned b y ecologica l crise s i s th e resul t o f divin e judgmen t upo n humanity' s careless destructio n o f th e eart h an d cit e a passag e i n Revelatio n tha t Go d would "destro y them which destroy the earth" (11:18). As Dave Hunt states, "A number of God's judgments are ecological i n nature, devastating the grass and the trees and polluting th e oceans and rivers . The implicatio n i s that man ha s brought th e dire consequences upo n himself " (1990:163-164) . Some premillennialist s asser t tha t althoug h nothin g ca n b e don e t o aver t environmental devastation , th e ecologica l crisi s ma y becom e s o extrem e tha t people will welcom e a one-world governmen t o r perhaps an environmentall y aware Antichrist t o dea l wit h th e problem . Lindse y wrote i n 197 7 tha t a ne w world orde r ma y b e embraced b y peopl e a s the onl y solutio n t o th e environ mental crisis ; Dave Hunt , i n 1991, declared tha t ecological crisi s and the envi ronmentalist movemen t ma y unit e humanit y i n a commo n internationa l cause, creatin g th e global unit y necessar y fo r th e ris e of th e Antichrist (Lind sey 1977:69-70; Hun t 1990:164) . Just a s th e possibilit y o f nuclea r annihilatio n ha s bee n embrace d b y pre millennialists as divinely ordained, so too has environmental destructio n bee n viewed a s a n endtime s sign , a certaint y rathe r tha n a disaste r tha t huma n beings might prevent through responsibl e action. Consistent with th e broader fatalism o f the premillennialist worldviews , humanit y i s powerless t o save th e earth an d wil l inevitabl y destro y i t i n accordanc e wit h th e divinel y foreor dained plan . Th e regeneratio n o f th e environmen t ca n b e achieve d onl y b y God afte r th e cataclysmic destruction o f the earth; as Lindsey puts it, "Only a supernatural event—the retur n of Jesus—is able to restore the planet to health again, t o allow i t t o support huma n lif e again " (1994:117). Although environ -

The Transformation of Apocalyptic Traditions I 17 3 mental destructio n i s unavoidable , believer s ar e assure d o f planetar y escap e through th e Raptur e an d promise d tha t the y wil l dwel l i n a cleanse d an d renewed eart h with th e arrival o f the millennium . Whether centere d o n th e propheti c meaning s o f ecodisaster s o r nuclea r bombs, globa l unificatio n o r Islami c fundamentalism , ne w technologie s o r a new worl d order , post-Col d Wa r apocalypti c belief s continu e t o reflec t th e view tha t today s societ y i s i n extrem e crisis , tha t th e worl d i s unrecuperabl e by huma n effort , an d tha t worldl y cataclys m i s imminent . Environmenta l destruction an d deadl y viruse s hav e receive d greate r emphasi s i n recen t prophecy beliefs , ye t visions o f nuclea r annihilation hav e no t decline d signif icantly in apocalyptic tradition s and now are complemented b y predictions o f other disasters, evil conspiracies, an d risin g Antichrists. I f nuclear destructio n appears les s imminent , i t i s still regarde d a s an inevitabl e even t t o occu r afte r a period of false peace. In the meantime beliefs about overwhelming evil force s intensify. Characterized b y perceptions of overpowering evil and uncontrollable eco nomic, political , an d technologica l change , curren t prophec y belief s reflec t a complete los s o f fait h i n governmen t an d dominan t socia l institution s an d reveal the depth of despair and alienation tha t exists among man y Americans. The emphasi s i n post-Col d Wa r prophec y belief s o n globa l conspiracie s exemplifies th e deeply roote d feeling s o f helplessness an d fatalis m intrinsi c t o apocalyptic worldviews . Th e preoccupatio n wit h th e Mar k o f Beas t an d th e encroaching 666 syste m epitomize s th e sense of pervasive evil i n the world, as everyday phenomena such as bar codes, ATM machines , televisions, and computers tak e o n a siniste r aur a a s potentia l tool s o f surveillanc e an d enslave ment. These recen t emphases within prophecy beliefs also illustrate the process o f innovation withi n apocalypti c traditions ; prophec y interpreter s an d believer s have inventively reformulate d an d updated thei r belief systems t o incorporat e new technology , curren t crises , an d perceive d threats . I n thi s regard , apoca lyptic traditions are both ancient and emergent, continually bein g revised and made relevan t i n respons e t o changin g circumstances . Some observer s hav e speculate d tha t premillennialis t prophec y belie f systems ma y collaps e b y th e yea r 200 2 i f n o redeemin g supernatura l even t ha s occurred b y the n (se e Chandle r 1993:284) . Thi s predictio n appear s t o b e doomed t o fail, considering the endurance of apocalyptic thinking , th e adaptability o f apocalyptic traditions , an d th e importan t religiou s an d psychologi cal need s tha t suc h belief s fulfill. I n a world believe d b y man y t o b e increas -

174 I The Transformation of Apocalyptic Traditions

ingly evil and out of control, with even greater threats appearing on the horizon, apocalypti c belief s explai n curren t crise s an d sufferin g a s meaningfu l within God s endtime s plan . Th e fac t tha t Christia n apocalypti c tradition s have flourished a t a grassroot s leve l fo r tw o millenni a demonstrate s thei r enduring relevance and explanatory power and portends the continued appeal of such beliefs well into the third millennium .

8 Emergent Apocalyptic Beliefs abou t UFOs and Extraterrestrial Being s In the threatening situation o f the world today , when peopl e are beginning to see that everything is at stake, the projection-creating fantas y soars beyond th e realm of earthly organizations and powers into th e heavens, into interstellar space, where the rulers of human fate , th e gods, once had their abode in the planets. —Carl G . Jung, Flying Saucers

Of th e various eschatologica l idea s tha t hav e arisen i n th e nuclea r age, thos e concerning th e rol e of UFOs an d extraterrestria l being s i n th e end times offer particula r insight s int o the emergence an d transformatio n o f apoc alyptic traditions . A s th e thir d millenniu m approaches , a fascinatio n wit h UFOs an d alien s ha s arisen , an d belief s abou t sighting s an d encounter s wit h extraterrestrials (ETs ) hav e increase d i n frequency . Suc h belief s ofte n reflec t apocalyptic anxietie s an d millennia l yearnings , assertin g tha t extraterrestria l entities wil l pla y a rol e i n th e destruction , transformation , salvation , o r des tiny o f th e world . Despite over t differences , Christia n apocalypti c tradition s an d th e U F O phenomenon hav e concerns i n commo n an d expres s similar themes : a preoc cupation wit h th e threa t o f nuclea r annihilation , environmenta l destruction , and other disasters; a sense of imminent crisi s and th e loss of confidence i n th e government t o resolv e curren t problems ; cultura l pessimis m an d a n increas ing emphasis o n evi l conspiracies; feeling s o f powerlessness an d manipulatio n by externa l force s beyon d one s control ; an d a yearning fo r worldl y transfor mation b y otherworldl y beings . Lik e othe r millenaria n traditions , th e com plex lor e o f UFO s als o provide s interpretation s o f event s a s bein g par t o f a meaningful plan , explains th e existence o f evil and sufferin g i n th e world, an d offers th e promis e o f salvation . A multivalen t phenomeno n tha t coul d hav e

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176 I Emergent Apocalyptic Beliefs about UFOs

arisen only in the latter half of the twentieth century, beliefs about the destructive and redemptiv e aspect s of UFOs reflec t th e apocalyptic fear s an d hope s of our er a and constitut e an emergen t mytholog y of new gods and superhu man technolog y consistin g o f a synthesi s o f religiou s an d secula r ideas . According to psychiatrist Carl G. Jung, the emergence of beliefs about UFO s offers " a golden opportunit y o f seeing how a legend i s formed, an d ho w in a difficult an d dar k tim e fo r humanit y a miraculou s tal e grow s u p o f a n attempted interventio n b y extra-terrestrial, 'heavenly ' powers" (1978:16-17). As a syncretic religiou s phenomenon , th e flying saucer fait h tha t aros e in the 1950s and that continues today in varying forms is composed of an assortment o f earlier mythologies , religiou s traditions , occul t teachings , scientifi c notions, and American popula r culture adapted an d modifie d t o express current concerns . A recurrin g belie f ami d thi s diversit y o f influence s i s tha t worldly destruction an d transformation i s imminent. The initial flying saucer movement expresse d explici t apocalypti c themes , relate d primaril y t o anxi eties abou t atomi c testin g an d th e fea r o f nuclea r war . Earl y flying sauce r enthusiasts advance d th e notio n tha t th e detonatio n o f atomi c bomb s ha d attracted benevolent , extraterrestrial being s to earth t o warn humanit y abou t nuclear catastrophes, to prevent a nuclear cataclysm, or to save a chosen people prior t o nuclea r apocalypse . Since th e 1950s , wide-ranging endtime s scenarios associated with UFO s hav e developed, with continuin g theme s bein g that extraterrestria l entitie s wil l eithe r invad e eart h i n th e las t days , rescu e human being s from worldl y cataclysm, or help humanity transform th e world and ushe r in a new age of peace and enlightenment . The moder n UF O er a bega n whe n Kennet h Arnold , a businessma n an d pilot, reporte d seein g nin e larg e disk-shaped object s "skipping " throug h th e sky at a n incredibl e spee d nea r Mt . Rainer , Washington , o n Jun e 24 , 1947. Less than two months later, according to a Gallup poll, 90 percent of the adult population ha d heard of flying saucers, and by the end of the year, more than eight hundre d othe r sightings ha d occurre d (Curra n 1985:13—14) . Millions of individuals have since reported sighting UFOs, and an elaborate body of lore has developed, giving rise to hundreds of UFO groups and a wealth of publications and films.1 To date no conclusive physical evidence of the existence of UFOs ha s bee n produced , bu t thi s lac k o f tangibl e proo f ha s no t deterre d widely hel d belief s i n UFO s an d extraterrestria l intelligence . According t o a November 1973 Gallup poll, 95 percent of adult Americans had read or heard about UFOs , an awarenes s of a topic tha t was one of the highes t i n th e history o f Gallu p polls . The pol l reveale d tha t 5 1 percent o f adul t American s believed that UFOs are "real" and not products of the imagination; 11 percent

Emergent Apocalyptic Beliefs about UFOs I 17 7 (a projecte d fifteen millio n people ) sai d the y ha d see n a U F O (Jacob s 1975:296). Subsequen t poll s indicat e tha t belief s abou t UFO s hav e no t changed muc h sinc e th e 1970s . Gallu p poll s i n 1978 , 1981 , and 198 7 reveale d that approximatel y 5 0 percen t o f Nort h American s believ e tha t U F O s exis t and tha t the y ar e controlle d b y intelligen t being s fro m anothe r plane t (Cur ran 1985:10 ; Gallup I988:52~54). 2 Some peopl e thin k o f thes e intelligen t being s a s benevolent. A mor e sinis ter view of ETs and UFO s ha s bee n offere d b y numerou s Christia n prophec y interpreters, includin g Ha l Lindsey , wh o regard s UFO s a s satanic , endtime s manifestations. Th e rol e o f UFO s i n th e endtime s als o ha s bee n note d b y Louis Farrakhan, th e leader of the Nation o f Islam, who asserts that UFO s wil l be used t o destroy the white man s world an d th e enemies of Allah i n a n apoc alyptic battle. At a press conference o n Octobe r 24,1989 , Farrakhan describe d his encounte r wit h a U F O , durin g whic h h e receive d message s fro m th e founder o f th e Natio n o f Islam , Elija h Muhammad , wh o purportedl y dwell s in a mothe r ship , whenc e h e orchestrate s th e downfal l o f th e six-thousand year reig n o f th e whit e ma n (Koss y I994:27). 3 These divergen t belief s abou t and encounter s wit h UFO s demonstrat e th e polysemi c possibilitie s o f th e U F O phenomeno n an d th e degre e t o whic h i t ma y serv e a s a reflectio n an d projection o f current hope s an d concerns . Although belief s abou t UFO s ofte n hav e bee n ridicule d b y academics, th e lore tha t ha s arise n concernin g contac t wit h extraterrestrial s ha s man y o f th e attributes o f a popula r religiou s phenomenon : it s ow n mythology , legends , and system s o f belief , constructe d fro m previou s tradition s abou t th e super natural, an d affirme d an d elaborate d upo n throug h persona l encounters , visions, tranc e states , marvelou s journeys , an d othe r numinou s experiences . Scholar o f religion J. Gordo n Melto n argue s tha t th e flying sauce r movemen t is essentially a religious phenomeno n an d tha t i t constitute s a significant por tion o f th e broade r Ne w Ag e movemen t i n th e Unite d State s (1995:9-10) . According t o folkloris t Rober t Flaherty , th e U F O phenomeno n ha s becom e a folk religiou s movement o f global proportions, which ha s been transmitte d b y believers throug h rumors , legends , memorates , an d variou s informa l net works, an d imbibe d throug h scienc e fiction literature , films, pul p magazines , and other forms o f popular cultur e (i990:5). 4 Unlike religious movements tha t have bee n promote d an d sprea d b y ecclesiastica l institutions , earl y belief s about UFO s wer e no t codifie d o r co-opte d b y a n institutiona l body , bu t dif fused a t a grassroots level and the n formulate d int o an assortmen t o f belief systems an d traditions . Thi s divergen t lor e i s vas t an d include s legend s abou t crop circle s an d cattl e mutilations , abduction s b y invasiv e gra y alien s wh o

178 I Emergent Apocalyptic Beliefs about UFOs conduct bizarr e medica l examinations , mysteriou s me n i n blac k suit s wh o attempt t o silence thos e who hav e seen UFOs , an d conspiracy theorie s abou t thoroughgoing governmen t coverups , suc h a s tha t concernin g th e rumore d recovery o f a crashed spaceshi p nea r Roswell , Ne w Mexico , o n Jul y 8 , 1947 . Ideas abou t imminen t societa l disaste r an d worldl y renewa l ofte n for m th e subtext fo r these eclectic beliefs, and apocalyptic theme s have assumed greater prominence a s the year 2000 approaches . This chapte r initiall y focuse s o n som e o f the recurrin g eschatological idea s associated with variou s well-known flying sauce r groups and on assorte d nar rative account s b y individual s regardin g thei r persona l contac t wit h extrater restrial beings . I t then examine s narrative s and beliefs abou t alien abductions , evil ET s and global conspiracies , an d Christia n prophec y belief s abou t UFO s and ET s i n th e las t days . Th e chapte r conclude s wit h a discussio n o f UF O beliefs that assert that a golden age will b e brought about not by an apocalypse but by humans working i n accordance with a n extraterrestrial o r cosmic plan .

Flying Saucers and Nuclear Apocalypse: The Beginnings of the UFO Movement Traditionally, th e appearanc e o f enigmatic object s i n th e sky has bee n associ ated with divin e portent s an d apocalyptic warnings , an d i t was no t lon g afte r Kenneth Arnold s sightin g o f flying saucer s i n 194 7 tha t peopl e bega n specu lating about th e apocalypti c meaning s o f thes e object s a s well a s the possibil ity of salvation b y beings fro m oute r space. According t o some UF O enthusi asts, th e wav e o f mor e tha n eigh t hundre d sighting s i n 194 7 wa s directl y related t o th e recen t detonatio n o f five atomi c bomb s (Alamogordo , Hiroshima, Nagasaki , Crossroad s A , an d Crossroad s B) . The sighting s wer e frequently reporte d t o hav e occurre d nea r nuclea r powe r plants , an d a com mon belie f was tha t nuclea r bom b test s ha d draw n attentio n t o plane t earth . Flying saucers , som e said , ha d com e t o war n humanit y o f th e danger s o f atomic weapons , t o sav e u s fro m destroyin g ourselves , o r t o kee p u s fro m endangering lif e o n othe r planets , simila r t o th e plo t o f th e film The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951) , in which a saucer lands near the White Hous e and th e Christ-like alie n Klaat u forewarn s o f th e threa t o f atomi c bombs . UF O researcher Jacques Vallee observe s tha t various UF O belie f tradition s sugges t "that othe r galacti c communitie s hav e kep t a long-ter m routin e watc h o n earth and may have been alarmed by the sight of our A-bombs as evidence that we ar e warlike an d o n th e threshol d o f space exploration" (1985:47). The det -

Emergent Apocalyptic Beliefs about UFOs I 17 9 onation o f atomic bombs , som e U F O enthusiast s conjectured , woul d caus e a chain reactio n tha t woul d disrup t th e cosmos ; others , tha t extraterrestrial s feared fo r thei r ow n live s because o f the development o f nuclear weapons (se e Beckley 1980:8) . Thes e notion s asser t tha t th e developmen t o f th e atomi c bomb no t onl y threatene d th e future o f humanity bu t transgresse d th e laws o f the universe , endangering lif e o n othe r worlds and violatin g th e cosmi c order . T h e U F O contacte e narrative s fro m th e 1950 s tha t describ e encounter s with benevolen t spac e being s exhibi t consisten t eschatologica l theme s tha t have informe d subsequen t belief s abou t UFOs . Th e account s resembl e othe r types of visionary experiences and hav e frequently le d t o the formatio n o f religious group s an d spiritua l movements . Becaus e th e contacte e experienc e i s often positiv e an d tend s t o involv e repeate d communication s wit h familia r extraterrestrial entities , a n extensiv e bod y o f narrative s an d belief s ha s emerged, givin g ris e t o assorte d fol k cosmologies . I n th e stories , th e alien s often mak e contac t i n a n isolate d locatio n wit h a n ordinar y an d unsuspectin g person, bringin g th e contacte e aboar d thei r craft , an d sometime s explainin g its technolog y o r takin g th e perso n fo r a ride . Unlik e th e p re-World Wa r I I conceptions o f bug-eye d monster s fro m oute r spac e depicte d i n pul p fiction , the alien s encountere d a t th e daw n o f th e atomi c ag e ar e human-lik e i n appearance an d portraye d a s rational , benevolent , an d beautifu l being s pos sessed o f superhuma n abilities . Comin g fro m superior , Utopia n civilizations , these beings , like angels, often giv e messages throug h telepath y tha t forewar n of imminen t disaster s becaus e o f th e failure s o f huma n beings , an d usuall y express concer n wit h th e conditio n o f humanity an d plane t earth . The worl d is said t o b e i n a state o f crisis, which i s attributed variousl y t o nuclea r prolif eration, ecologica l destruction , societa l breakdown , huma n ignorance , vio lence, cruelty , an d selfishness . Th e contacte e i s the n give n a crucia l mission : to war n other s o f impendin g worldl y catastroph e (Beckle y 1980:5 ; Ellwoo d and Parti n 1988:113). 5 The sens e o f imminen t doo m tha t pervade s th e earl y contacte e narrative s and tha t persist s i n subsequen t flying sauce r lor e usuall y i s directly relate d t o the threa t o f nuclea r destruction . I n th e 1950s , fou r o f th e first flying sauce r contactees wh o receive d nationa l attention—Georg e Adamski , Truma n Bethurum, Danie l Fry , an d Orfe o Angelucci—al l conveye d message s fro m space peopl e warnin g o f th e danger s o f atomic bombs . Adamsk i wa s th e first to declar e tha t h e ha d ha d actua l contac t wit h spac e people (i n th e Californi a desert o n Novembe r 20,1952) , an d thei r primar y messag e deal t with th e dan ger o f radioactivit y t o th e inhabitant s o f eart h an d othe r planets. 6 Th e encounter narrative s of other contactee s contained simila r forewarning s abou t

180 I Emergent Apocalyptic Beliefs about UFOs atomic bomb s and radiation . The space beings warned Orfeo Angelucci o f a horrible war that would destroy th e planet and urge d him t o alert the world: "For th e presen t tim e yo u ar e our emissary , Orfeo , an d yo u mus t act ! Even though th e peopl e o f Eart h laug h derisivel y an d moc k yo u a s a lunatic, tel l them abou t us! " (Jacobs 1975:118). Whether condemne d a s kooks , hoaxers , o r pseudoreligiou s fanatics , o r hailed a s messiani c shaman s o f the atomi c age , thes e initia l contactee s hav e had a profound influenc e o n subsequen t UF O lore . Nearly all of them wer e ordinary me n who were self-educated an d came from working-class , manuallabor backgrounds . Thei r vision s an d account s expresse d th e widesprea d apocalyptic apprehensions o f the tim e and offere d a n escap e from Col d War fears of inevitable nuclear annihilation. This sense of planetary crisis and otherworldly salvation is exemplified b y the statements of Gabriel Green, founde r of the Amalgamated Flyin g Saucer Clubs of America, a major organizatio n i n the movement: "To the Earth people they contacted, the Space People told of their advance d science s an d o f thei r relativel y Utopia n wa y o f life . T o ou r planet, in the throes of social and political upheaval and teetering on the brink of self-annihilation b y nuclear warfare, the y had come, they said, to show us the wa y ou t o f ou r crisi s an d th e solution s t o ou r problems " (Ellwoo d an d Partin 1988:125). In numerou s contacte e accounts , th e apocalypti c dange r o f nuclea r weapons i s juxtaposed with description s of the space peoples Utopia n lif e on their home planets, where no war, poverty, suffering, o r unhappiness existed. 7 The spac e peopl e frequentl y wer e sai d t o liv e fo r thousand s o f years; som e were immorta l an d nearl y al l coul d b e reincarnate d i n anothe r lif e (Jacob s 1975:115). Ofte n earthling s wer e tol d tha t the y als o ha d eterna l soul s tha t would survive physical death. This emphasis on eternal life and reincarnatio n seems especiall y significan t i n th e contex t o f th e nuclea r era , i n whic h th e bomb threaten s perceptions of symbolic immortality .

Worldly Destruction and Planetary Evacuation in the Flying Saucer Faith Many contacte e narrative s asser t tha t th e spac e being s ar e communicatin g with earthling s t o preven t nuclea r destructio n an d othe r disasters ; i n som e instances, however , worldl y cataclys m i s regarde d a s inevitable . A recurrin g idea i n flyin g saucer lore is that a chosen fe w will b e lifted of f before eart h i s destroyed, a belief that occasionall y ha s given ris e to small UF O group s tha t

Emergent Apocalyptic Beliefs about UFOs I 18 1 center o n a theolog y o f imminen t apocalyps e an d planetar y escape . Perhap s the best-know n cas e stud y o f suc h belief s i s When Prophecy Fails, whic h focuses o n a group i n th e 1950 s led b y Mrs . Maria n Keech , wh o declare d sh e was receivin g channele d message s fro m spac e beings , who warne d o f worldl y flood disaste r an d promise d t o rescu e believer s beforehan d (Festinger , Riecken, an d Schachte r 1956) . The U F O grou p tha t ha s receive d th e mos t extensiv e medi a attentio n an d warrants som e discussio n i s Heaven s Gate , thirty-nin e member s o f whic h killed themselve s b y swallowin g phenobarbital-lace d applesauc e chase d wit h vodka o n Marc h 23-25,1997 . The collectiv e suicide o f member s o f th e sect i n the gate d communit y o f Ranch o Sant a Fe , nea r Sa n Diego , California , wa s a media event—"th e wors t mas s suicide i n U.S . history"—with th e grou p por trayed a s a New Age-UF O doomsda y "compute r cult " o f brainwashe d devo tees, sci-fi techno-millenarians , som e of whom wer e castrated an d al l of whom were fan s o f th e X-Files an d Star Trek. The sec t designe d Worl d Wid e We b pages and use d th e Interne t t o disseminat e thei r belief s an d recrui t members . Although so-calle d cult s ar e no t typica l withi n th e U F O movemen t an d Heaven's Gat e wa s muc h mor e dogmati c an d authoritaria n tha n typica l U F O groups , aspect s o f it s belie f syste m resembl e idea s presen t i n othe r apocalyptic U F O group s (an d America n apocalypticis m i n general) , partic ularly th e sens e of fatalis m fo r a world regarde d a s evil an d doomed , an d th e desire fo r planetar y escape . Lik e othe r U F O groups , th e theolog y o f Heavens Gat e consist s o f a synthesis o f concept s borrowe d fro m Christian ity, Theosophy, scienc e fiction, Easter n religions , an d Ne w Ag e mysticism , as wel l a s notion s associate d wit h Gnosticism , Mormonism , an d Scientol ogy, melde d togethe r an d reinterpreted . A centra l ide a amon g thi s diversit y of belief s i s tha t doomsda y i s a t han d an d tha t b y livin g a n asceti c lifestyl e one ma y transcen d earthl y existenc e an d ultimatel y b e transporte d b y a U F O t o a higher realm . The group , whic h wa s starte d b y Marshall Herf f Applewhit e an d Bonni e Lu Nettles, first receive d nationa l medi a attention i n September 1975 , after th e couple gav e a lectur e o n UFO s i n Waldport , Oregon , an d mor e tha n thirt y people suddenl y disappeared . Believer s ha d sol d thei r possession s an d lef t family, friends , an d job s t o relocat e with Applewhit e an d Nettle s an d wai t fo r their evacuatio n b y flying saucer s t o th e nex t "evolutionar y level " (Balc h 1995:138—142). Referrin g t o themselve s variousl y a s "D o an d Ti, " "th e Two " (after th e tw o witnesse s prophesie d i n Revelatio n 11) , an d "B o an d Peep, " Applewhite an d Nettle s believe d tha t thei r earthl y missio n wa s to lead th e los t sheep o f humanity bac k t o heaven .

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The grou p cam e t o b e calle d th e Huma n Individua l Metamorphosi s an d later the Total Overcomer s Anonymous (reference s t o th e goal o f overcomin g human attachments ) an d develope d a highl y regimente d lifestyl e tha t included th e abandonmen t o f worldly pursuits , th e effacemen t o f one s ego , various physica l deprivations , an d isolatio n fro m outsid e influence s tha t would jeopardiz e one s salvation . Believer s attempte d t o control an d conque r human instinct s and desires (rangin g fro m sexua l urge s to ties with thei r fam ilies), regardin g suc h attachment s a s well a s thei r bodie s (o r "vehicles" ) a s a hindrance t o salvation . The belief s o f th e sect changed ove r th e years, especially afte r Nettle s die d in 1985 , but a basic tene t was tha t alien s dwelling i n th e Kingdo m o f Heave n had planted huma n being s on eart h as a gardening experiment t o grow souls. Representatives fro m thi s Kingdo m periodicall y mak e "sou l deposits " i n th e bodies o f humans , preparin g the m t o b e transplante d t o a higher evolution ary level. Applewhite considere d himsel f a messianic representativ e fro m thi s higher level , lik e Jesus , wh o wa s incarnate d int o a huma n body , an d whos e mission wa s t o hel p earthl y being s graduat e fro m th e huma n kingdo m b y overcoming huma n attachments . B y bondin g wit h Applewhite , th e celestia l messenger, an d purifyin g themselve s throug h th e denia l o f thei r humanness , the elect could escape from an irredeemably corrupt world and progress to the next level . The secretive group disappeared from publi c view until May 27,1993, when it placed an ad in USA Today entitled "UFO Cult Resurfaces with Final Offer, " which declare d tha t societa l institution s an d mainstrea m religion s ar e con trolled b y a conspiracy involvin g Sata n an d th e evi l Luciferians , an d tha t th e earth would soon b e "recycled" and "spaded under." The group also warned o f imminent worldl y destruction throug h thei r Heaven s Gat e World Wide We b site an d b y sendin g unsolicite d message s (o r "spamming" ) o n Usene t news groups. The group s belief s were generally ignore d or ridiculed on th e Interne t and thi s respons e was interprete d b y believers as a sign tha t they should begi n to prepar e t o retur n t o thei r hom e i n th e heavens , becaus e "th e weed s o f humanity" had taken ove r earths garden (Newsweek, Apri l 7,1997 , 35) . The passin g o f Come t Hale-Bop p i n lat e Marc h 1997 , wa s embrace d a s a final propheti c sign, the "marker" that believers had been waiting for, offering a sudden opportunity for planetary escape. Followers believed that the comet was being traile d by a gigantic spacecraft tha t would transpor t the m t o th e "Evolutionary Kingdo m Leve l Abov e Human" ; collectiv e suicid e wa s viewe d a s a means of evacuating an evil world, a way to shed ones physica l "container " and transport oneself onto thi s Next Leve l spacecraft an d the Kingdom o f Heaven.

Emergent Apocalyptic Beliefs about UFOs I 18 3

Although depicte d a s a bizarre , occul t U F O group , th e basi c theolog y o f Heavens Gat e largel y consist s o f vernacula r an d persona l interpretation s o f Christian doctrine . Belie f i n UFO s wa s a key elemen t i n th e group s constel lation o f beliefs , ye t it s rigi d dualism , emphasi s o n demoni c influence s an d conspiracies, rejectio n o f th e worl d a s evil , an d yearnin g fo r planetar y escap e clearly resembl e various Christia n premillennialis t worldviews . Few U F O group s ar e characterize d b y thi s degre e o f apocalypti c fervor ; however, idea s abou t th e imminen t rescu e o f a chose n elec t b y spac e being s persist i n th e wider U F O movemen t today . The followin g full-pag e advertise ment tha t regularl y appears i n U F O periodical s contains th e basic elements o f a mor e commo n disaste r an d evacuatio n prediction : UFOS AND TH E SPAC E BROTHER S WANT YOU TO SURVIV E DOOMSDAY Psychics, spiritual leaders , scientists an d UF O contactee s al l agree tha t w e are living in what has been called the END TIMES . • Th e foundation o f our civilization is about t o crumble. • The physical world as we know it is going to be destroyed. • Psychi c spiritual and "other-worldly " forces are about t o take over! THE TRUT H CA N NO W B E TOLD . . . W e ar e bein g tol d th e Eart h i s rapidl y enterin g th e twelfth—AN D FINAL!—hour fo r humankind . Al l indication s ar e tha t a "tim e bom b o f destruction" is about to go off ridding the planet of civilization as we have come to accept it. . . . YOU CA N B E SAVED! While utte r chao s will tak e place all around us , all of those who have receive d this highl y advanced , trul y propheti c warnin g hav e sai d tha t th e "Chose n Ones" who "ar e ready" will be saved and taken off this planet just i n th e nic k of time. . . . [A ] mass evacuation b y space ship will tak e place i n whic h hun dreds of flying saucers will come down from th e sky and "lif t off " th e worthy. {UFOReview27 [1988] : 3 ) The a d i s fo r th e publicatio n Psychic & UFO Revelations in the Last Days (Beckley 1980) , which provide s a synthesi s o f assorte d apocalypti c narrative s and belief s associate d wit h th e U F O movemen t compile d b y Timothy ("Mr .

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UFO") Beckley , edito r an d publishe r o f UFO Review. According t o Beckley , the doomsday predictions collected i n his volume were conveyed to more than twenty prominen t UF O contactees , al l o f whom agre e tha t worldly catastro phe is imminent, whether in the form of a global nuclea r war, devastating ecological imbalances , land changes, or a shift i n the earths axis that will tip it out of it s orbit an d sen d i t hurtling towar d th e sun. I n addition , thes e contactee s predict increase d lawlessness , immens e earthquakes , storms , volcanoes , an d other natura l disaster s resultin g i n devastatin g famin e an d plague s i n th e las t days. Although th e world will soo n g o throug h a "doomsday phase, " the chosen one s will b e physically remove d fro m th e planet . Similar t o othe r catastrophi c millenaria n scenarios , th e apocalyps e antici pated within th e UFO movemen t i s often conceptualize d a s a cleansing of the world, t o b e followe d b y a terrestrial paradis e o f peace , fulfillment , an d har mony. On e trac t describes it : After our rescue, the EARTH WILL BE CLEANSED. Then, after a sufficient time, we will be returned, to the earth . . . after which will be the Golden Age, the Age they speak of as the Millennium. We will be taken up into the sky; millions o f eart h people . Onl y t o b e returne d i n du e tim e t o repopulat e an d t o bring into bein g the Golden Age; the Age of Wisdom an d Purity; the Age of Christness! (Michael X. 1969:29) The millennia l visions , endtime s predictions , an d evacuatio n scenario s i n the flying sauce r movemen t clearl y resembl e Christia n belief s abou t th e Rapture prio r t o a perio d o f worldl y tribulation—althoug h th e criteri a diffe r regarding who wil l b e save d befor e th e apocalypse . I n som e case s th e chose n will b e members of a specific UF O group ; in others, everyone who believe s i n space being s as well a s those who ar e metaphysically attune d or have the abil ity to evolve spiritually will be evacuated. Some scenarios include the salvation of childre n an d "goo d people " with specia l skill s an d n o crimina l recor d (se e Beckley 1980:30) . A commo n belie f is that th e chose n one s will b e "sta r children" and "cosmic blends"—people whose ancestors mate d with spac e being s eons ago . Anyon e intereste d i n UFO s o r wh o sense s tha t the y themselve s come fro m "somewher e else " may be the star children referre d to , people wh o are believe d t o hav e bot h earthl y an d alie n gene s o r attribute s (Beckle y 1980:33-35). Ideas abou t th e planetar y evacuatio n o f "cosmi c blends " ma y o r ma y no t be directl y base d o n Raptur e beliefs , bu t i n man y instance s flying sauce r enthusiasts ar e explicit about thei r reinterpretatio n o f biblical passage s within the framewor k o f belief s abou t UFO s an d ETs . Searchin g th e Bibl e fo r sug -

Emergent Apocalyptic Beliefs about UFOs I 18 5

gestive references t o sky gods and unusua l celestial phenomena, UF O believ ers have readily incorporated an assortment of Christian beliefs into the flying saucer pantheon. For example, Ezekiels vision of spinning or revolving wheels making a rushing nois e (Ezekie l 1:4—28 ) is frequently interprete d a s a spaceship, as are the Star of the East that glowed brightly over Bethlehem an d th e light tha t blinde d Pau l on th e way to Damascus. Some UFO enthusiast s say that Ada m an d Ev e were extraterrestrial s an d tha t angel s an d variou s saint s were spac e being s (e.g. , th e ange l Gabrie l wa s a spaceman wh o hypnotize d Mary and artificiall y inseminate d her) ; that Chris t was an enlightene d spac e being an d tha t hi s numerou s miracles , transfiguration , an d ascensio n wer e caused b y alie n activity . Popula r book s suc h a s Chariots of the Gods? (vo n Daniken 1969) , The Bible and Flying Saucers (Downing 1968) , an d God Drives a Flying Saucer(Dione 1973) have fueled such speculation, asserting, for instance, that God was an astronaut, that UFOs may have parted the Red Sea and led the Israelites out of Egypt, that the ark of the covenant was some sort of radio transmitter, and tha t the destruction o f Sodom an d Gomorra h actu ally describes a nuclear cataclysm, with Lots wife the victim of radiation. Unlike Christian fundamentalis m o r other traditions that tend to reject or demonize th e deitie s o f othe r religions , th e UF O fait h activel y seek s an d assimilates Christian idea s and those from othe r belief systems as well as from popular culture. The UF O fait h i s thus a composite an d repositor y of previously existin g traditions , whic h imbu e th e UF O pantheo n wit h historica l depth an d th e authority o f the past, even a s it is recast i n a space-age frame work (Flahert y 1990:48-50).

The Ashtar Command y Religious Syncretism, and Apocalyptic Admonitions The reworking and assimilation of previous beliefs into the UFO faith i s illustrated b y the numerou s UF O group s an d publication s tha t asser t tha t Jesus will retur n i n th e Raptur e o r i n th e Second Comin g a s the commander o f a fleet o f spac e ships . On e grou p o f thi s persuasio n i s th e Guardia n Actio n International organization , whic h i s centered o n th e channele d message s o f Ashtar, who is said to be a space being and commander of thousands of space ships that together are referred to as the Ashtar Command, which will descend prior t o worldl y catastrophe . Whe n Jesu s returns , according t o on e Ashta r Command leader named Romilar, he will not be alone: "For Jesus, the Christ figure, will not float down ou t o f heaven unescorted . H e will b e surrounded

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by our messengers , th e angel s i n th e ship s o f gold , pur e gol d tha t will shine . He wil l lea d th e Armageddon, th e armad a o f spaceship s tha t wil l tak e thos e from thi s planet, who hav e bee n chosen " (Beckley 1982:55). The belief s associated with th e Ashtar Command exemplif y bot h th e apocalyptic an d syncreti c aspect s o f th e UF O faith . Fo r decades , th e spac e bein g known as Ashtar is purported to have channeled messages to hundreds of individuals, beginning i n 1951 with George Van Tassel, a desert visionary who lived at Giant Rock, California, nea r Joshua Tree.8 The Ashtar Command pantheo n consists of a wide rang e of gods, goddesses, and spiritual master s from divers e planets, includin g a Trinity no t o f th e Father , Son , an d Hol y Spiri t bu t com prising a coalitio n o f Commande r Ashtar , Jesu s Chris t (know n a s Lor d Sananda), an d Lad y Athena, th e forme r Gree k goddess. 9 According t o devo tees, Ashta r continue s t o transmi t message s t o variou s tranc e mediums , including the primary representative of the Ashtar Command, Thelma B . Terrell (whos e spiritua l nam e i s Tuella) , wh o bega n receivin g message s fro m Ashtar i n 1979 . Believer s hol d tha t Ashta r ma y b e "th e wises t spac e bein g assigned t o our solar system . . . [with ] th e tas k of bringing Eart h mor e safel y through th e trouble d time s tha t will mos t certainl y cross our path i n th e nex t few years" (Beckley 1980:25) . Beaming hi s messages t o contactees fro m a colossal starship , Commande r Ashtar predict s enormou s natura l disasters , shiftin g plate s o f land , nuclea r cataclysm, an d numerou s othe r crise s i n th e nea r future, warnin g tha t "suc h an event cannot b e postponed muc h longer . Your planets vibrations ar e very, very negative " (Beckle y 1980:27) . The sens e of approaching catastroph e con veyed i n th e Ashta r Comman d message s resemble s tha t o f th e Baysid e prophecies, warnin g o f imminen t doo m bu t holdin g ou t th e slende r hop e that huma n being s wil l chang e thei r ways . Fo r instance , i n on e message , when Ashta r i s asked throug h a channeler i f apocalypse ca n b e prevented, h e replies: There i s a chanc e thi s ca n al l b e averted , bu t wit h eac h passin g day , th e chance gets less and less. If mankind could change the way it lives, if mankind were to put down its arms, then it could be averted. However, there is no sign that thi s wil l happen . Someda y someon e wil l tak e matter s int o thei r ow n hands and will pus h th e button, th e button tha t will en d civilization a s you have com e t o recogniz e it . Loo k t o th e sky . Tell thos e tha t you kno w wh o believe, to look up , that we are coming in greater numbers. We will do what we can. Tell those who believe, tell those who are righteous, that we are here, that we are watching over them, that we are praying for their safety. (Beckle y 1980:29)

Emergent Apocalyptic Beliefs about UFOs I 18 7

This an d othe r message s fro m th e Ashtar Comman d cal l fo r th e refor m o f humanity yet repeatedly impl y that huma n being s are incapable of changing and tha t futur e destructio n wil l b e th e unavoidable resul t o f huma n trans gression: "It is impossible to change the course of history.. . . This is a natural occurrence, something you have brought upo n yourselves, and you will have to pay the karmic consequences" (Beckley 1980:28-29). Although catastroph e is imminent, believer s are assured that benevolen t being s are observing eart h and if need be will rescue the chosen ones. When disaster s intensif y an d apocalyps e become s inevitable , th e Ashta r Command wil l rescu e between 140,00 0 and 170,00 0 chosen individual s an d take the m t o a saf e place , t o eithe r anothe r plane t o r a larg e mothe r ship , where they will be able to watch the destruction fro m afar . Evacuees will then be returned t o repopulat e th e plane t a t some point i n th e future, dependin g on th e degree of devastation an d nuclea r fallou t (Beckle y 1980:27) . The res cued chose n one s wil l b e believer s i n UFO s an d other s whos e presenc e i s essential fo r th e repopulatio n o f th e planet . Accordin g t o recen t message s delivered t o Tuella b y th e Ashtar Command , thi s endtime s evacuatio n sce nario, referred t o as the "Great Exodus of Human Souls, " will occur i n thre e phases by the year 2000 (Tuella 1993).

Aetherians, Ascended Masters, and Conditional Apocalyptic Beliefs Numerous other UFO groups also warn that worldly catastrophe is imminent but asser t tha t complet e annihilatio n ma y b e averte d i f peopl e follo w th e directives of space entities. This conditional apocalypticism , which resemble s the apocalyptic warnings delivere d a t various Maria n apparitio n sites , main tains tha t i f peopl e chang e thei r behavio r a s prescribe d b y superhuma n beings—put a n en d t o violence, become spiritually attuned , o r work fo r th e transformation o f planetar y consciousness—th e worl d ma y b e saved. 10 Th e Aetherius Society , on e o f th e best-know n an d longest-live d UF O contacte e groups, has said for decades that imminen t disaster s may be averted throug h prayer an d othe r spiritua l practices . Base d i n Lo s Angeles, th e societ y wa s founded b y George King, who states that he has been selected as the primary channel fo r extraterrestria l message s transmitte d fro m a bein g name d Aetherius. Accordin g t o King , h e wa s contacte d telepathicall y i n 195 4 b y numerous Cosmi c Intelligence s orbitin g eart h i n spacecraf t an d give n mes sages concerning th e salvatio n o f th e world : imminen t worldl y destructio n

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may b e avoide d i f th e danger s o f atomi c weapon s ar e acknowledged , an d worldly redemptio n i s possibl e throug h praye r an d th e promotio n o f th e metaphysical teaching s o f th e Cosmi c Master s (includin g Jesus, Mar s Secto r 6, and Jupiter 92). Kin g and his devotees us e "Spiritual Energ y Batteries" that harness an d amplif y thei r prayer s fo r worl d salvation ; thi s "Praye r Power, " a form o f psychic healing energy, i s then discharge d periodicall y t o avert planetary catastrophes . Lik e th e Baysiders , th e Aetherians believ e i n th e powe r o f prayer t o forestal l o r aver t cataclysm , an d th e Aetherian s declar e tha t thei r prayers, amplifie d b y th e spiritua l technolog y provide d b y th e Masters , ar e responsible fo r the end of the Cold War and for averting various disasters such as a predicte d earthquak e tha t woul d hav e submerge d Californi a (Curra n 1985:63-69). In additio n t o th e threa t o f earthl y cataclysms , Kin g declare s tha t a con stant threat of invasion b y evil space beings exists, and that the Aetherians an d the Cosmi c Master s hav e fende d of f thes e nefariou s being s o n variou s occa sions. I n th e lat e 1950s , fo r example , evi l entities—scientist s fro m th e dyin g planet "Garouche"—wer e defeate d b y Maste r Aetheriu s an d a fleet o f nin e thousand spaceship s tha t encircle d eart h with a n impenetrabl e shiel d (Salib a 1995:36). I n othe r messages , th e Master s hav e promise d tha t th e Aetherian s will b e warned i f the apocalypse should occur , so that the y ma y gather at certain sacred , spirituall y charge d mountain s t o awai t rescu e fro m above . Th e goal of the society, however, i s to prevent worldly annihilation, save every soul on th e planet , an d transfor m planetar y consciousness . In additio n t o UF O group s tha t venerat e extraterrestria l entitie s i n flying saucers wh o visi t eart h an d mak e contac t wit h huma n beings , numerou s groups focus on Ascended Master s who exis t on othe r planets but do no t visi t earth i n vehicles. On e suc h group , which ha s been anticipatin g an apocalyps e for decades , i s th e Churc h Universa l an d Triumphan t (th e Summi t Light house), which ha s roughly thirt y thousand devotees . It s followers sa y that th e Ascended Master s i n th e cosmo s communicat e throug h paranorma l means , channeling redemptiv e message s through Elizabet h Clair e Prophet, the leader of the group. Like UFO groups , the doctrines of the church ar e syncretic an d include idea s fro m Christianity , Easter n religions , Theosophy, an d aspect s o f the I AM movement , a n American depression-er a sect . Ms. Prophet , th e "Anointe d Messenger " of the Grea t White Brotherhood , has received numerous apocalyptic warnings from th e Ascended Masters, who include Jesus , th e Virgi n Mary , Archange l Raphael , th e eighteenth-centur y French noblema n St . Germain , th e heroe s of th e American Revolution , Har riet Beecher Stowe, Albert Einstein , a mysterious entit y name d Ray-O-Light ,

Emergent Apocalyptic Beliefs about UFOs I 18 9 and K-17 , th e supernatural directo r o f th e Cosmi c Secre t Police . These Mas ters are believed to guide the world and help humanity fulfil l th e "cosmic destiny of the million s o f souls evolving o n th e planet earth " (Prophet 1987^) . I n the early 1980s the church, which ha d it s headquarters i n Malibu , California , since th e 1960s , purchase d twelv e thousan d acre s of land i n Montana , severa l miles nort h o f Yellowston e Nationa l Park . Th e churc h receive d extensiv e media coverag e whe n reporter s learne d tha t bom b shelter s wer e unde r con struction o n th e property . Ms . Prophe t announce d tha t the y were being buil t in preparatio n fo r twenty-fiv e thousan d year s o f negativ e karm a tha t woul d soon b e mad e manifes t o n eart h i n th e for m o f cataclysmi c disasters , includ ing a Soviet missil e attack . Although th e Church Universal and Triumphant, th e Aetherians, and other groups within th e wider UF O an d Ne w Ag e movement s ma y diffe r i n term s of specific theologie s an d endtime s scenarios , a fundamental belie f shared b y all i s tha t a complete transformatio n o f societ y an d th e huma n rac e i s neces sary t o thwar t humanity' s destructiv e tendencies . Huma n being s ar e usuall y viewed b y thes e group s a s an unenlightened , lowe r lif e form , an d extraterres trials ar e sai d t o b e helpin g humanit y attai n a highe r form o f consciousnes s that will lea d to th e nex t leve l o f evolutionary development . Thi s widely hel d belief is espoused b y Brad Steiger, a leader in th e UF O movemen t an d autho r of more tha n on e hundre d book s o n UFOs . Steige r maintain s tha t UFO s ar e multidimensional, highe r entitie s tha t ar e guidin g huma n being s int o a ne w age of harmony and enlightenment, an d that these godlike beings have always assisted humanity bu t tha t since th e 1950 s have accelerated th e interactions i n preparation fo r th e imminen t transformatio n o f th e planet . Th e transition , which ha s bee n predicte d fo r centuries , wil l inevitabl y involv e apocalypti c trauma: "For generations ou r prophets and revelator s have been referrin g t o i t as Th e Grea t Cleansing , Judgmen t Day , Armageddon . Bu t w e hav e bee n promised that, after a season of cataclysmic changes on th e earth plane, a New Age consciousnes s wil l suffus e th e planet . I t i s t o thi s en d tha t th e god s hav e been utilizin g th e UFO a s a transformative symbol " (Steige r 1983:39—40).

The Radians, Cosmic and Religion

Cloning, and the Syncretism of

Science

The synthesi s o f religio n an d science , nuclea r apocalypti c fear s an d spac e ag e millenarian hopes that characterizes beliefs about UFOs, finds full expression i n the cosmolog y o f th e Raelians , a well-know n UF O grou p tha t assert s tha t

190 I Emergent Apocalyptic Beliefs about UFOs humanity will b e transforme d an d save d b y the arrival and guidance o f superhuman beings . The Raelia n movement, which has more than twenty-five thou sand members worldwide, was founded in 1973 by Rael (born Claude Vorilhon) after a n encounte r wit h spac e beings . I n thi s an d subsequen t encounter s Rae l was informed tha t his mission i s to warn humanit y tha t it has entered th e "Age of Apocalypse" since the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki i n 1945 and that human being s no w mus t choos e whethe r the y will annihilat e themselve s i n a global nuclea r wa r o r mak e a leap t o a new planetar y consciousness . Raelian s contend that human being s were scientifically create d by extraterrestrials, called the "Elohim," who fashione d humankin d i n their own imag e through th e synthesis o f D N A i n thei r laboratories, an d the n se t huma n being s o n earth . Th e 1945 detonations alerte d th e Elohim, ou r extraterrestrial forefathers , t o th e fac t that humanity i s now sophisticated enoug h t o learn about it s origins, i f it does not destroy itself first. Rael, as the messenger of the Elohim and the last of forty earth prophets , state s tha t UFO s manne d b y th e Elohi m an d th e thirty-nin e previous prophets (Jesus , Buddha, Mohammed, Joseph Smith, et al.) will arrive on eart h //"a n Elohi m embass y i s built fo r the space beings in Jerusalem b y the year 2025. If not, th e Elohim wil l no t come and earth will b e destroyed. Unlike man y other UFO groups , th e Raelian s do no t emphasize planetar y bodily escap e but , rather , persona l salvatio n an d a typ e o f immortalit y achieved throug h a proces s o f cosmi c cloning . B y attainin g spiritua l perfec tion, th e Raelian s believ e tha t the y wil l alte r an d perfec t thei r DNA ; i t i s hoped tha t duplicate s o f themselve s wil l b e clone d b y th e Elohi m fo r futur e space trave l an d settlemen t o n virgi n planets . Raelian s participat e i n fou r annual festival s i n which the y believ e tha t thei r D N A code s ar e registere d b y the Elohi m a s they hove r overhea d i n spacecraft . Th e Raelian s eac h als o sig n a contract tha t permits a mortician t o cut a piece of bone fro m one s forehea d (the "thir d eye"), which i s then froze n and saved for the arrival of the Elohim , who ma y use it to immortalize th e devotee through D NA replication . In addition t o savin g themselve s b y bein g regenerate d throug h superhuma n tech nologies suc h a s cloning , th e Raelian s wor k t o sav e th e worl d b y informin g others o f th e teaching s o f Rae l an d th e Elohi m an d b y advocatin g construc tion o f an embassy fo r the space being s i n Jerusalem (Palme r 1995:106—107). Like th e apocalypti c prediction s o f previou s prophets , th e techno-mil lenarian belief s communicated b y Rael, George King , and other UFO vision aries express th e notio n tha t the fat e of humanity i s determined b y the arrival or guidance of superhuman being s and tha t worldly salvation i s possible onl y if human being s act in ways prescribed by these messiah-like entities . Huma n beings, b y themselves , ar e depicte d a s relativel y powerles s an d havin g con -

Emergent Apocalyptic Beliefs about UFOs I 19 1

tributed ver y littl e t o th e developmen t o f huma n histor y an d culture . Th e sense of fate and the powerlessness of humanity to save or transform itsel f that characterize these UFO beliefs is epitomized by the Raelian cosmology, which asserts tha t huma n being s ar e th e product s o f a n experimen t conducte d b y space scientists . According t o th e Raelians , no t onl y di d th e Elohi m creat e human being s in test tubes long ago, but they have impregnated female earthlings i n orde r t o produc e al l the grea t spiritua l leader s of the world, orches trating th e religiou s developmen t o f humanit y an d determinin g significan t historical events. Messages from th e Ashtar Command similarl y assert that the world s great cultural and spiritual leader s were either space entities or were influenced b y ETs, and tha t message s fro m th e space peopl e inspire d numerou s America n leaders and thinkers, including George Washington, Abraham Lincoln , Ben jamin Franklin , and Franklin Roosevel t (se e Beckley 1982:38). Related belief s about ancient astronauts who were responsible for many of the achievement s of humanity throug h th e age s also reflec t thi s sense of powerlessness: aliens, not human beings , oversaw construction o f the pyramids and development of ancient civilizations and agriculture. Alone, humans are helpless and doomed; worldly salvation an d transformatio n i s possible only if they follow th e man dates o f superhuma n entitie s wh o determin e th e fat e o f humanit y an d th e planet.

Apocalypse, Technological Angels, and Fatalism in the UFO Faith As various researcher s hav e noted , belief s an d narrative s abou t spac e being s resemble previous stories about interventio n b y supernatural entities , specifi cally encounter s wit h angel s (se e Jung 1978 ; Godwin 1990 ; Flahert y 1990) . These similaritie s hav e caugh t th e attentio n o f Christia n writer s a s well , including evangelis t Bill y Graham , wh o notes , "UFO s ar e astonishingl y angel-like i n som e o f thei r reporte d appearances " (Curra n 1985:10) . Lik e angels, the space people are often depicte d as superior otherworldly beings of light; the y ar e gentle , benevolent , peaceful , helpful—th e perfectio n o f har monious and youthful beauty . Both us e remarkable means of aerial transpor t and ar e superior t o human s intellectually , morally , spiritually, o r technologi cally (Godwin 1990:184-185). Most important, perhaps, both angels and space beings are messengers, communicating God s principles or cosmic laws. However, encounter s wit h angel s ten d t o involv e communication s o f a persona l

192 I Emergent Apocalyptic Beliefs about UFOs nature, wherea s missive s fro m spac e being s ar e ofte n sai d t o hav e globa l importance an d t o concer n planetar y crisi s an d threat s t o th e futur e o f th e human race . These message s frequently reflec t th e view that the planet can n o longer sustain huma n life ; that although plane t earth i s hostile, th e universe is friendly; an d tha t angeli c being s wit h benevolen t technolog y wil l rescu e believers. Lik e the prophet s of old, UF O contactee s warn of impending chastisements an d worldly destructio n unles s humanit y change s it s behavior, an d offer th e hop e o f survival an d salvation . In hi s stud y o f th e psychologica l meaning s o f UFOs , Flying Saucers: A Modern Myth of Things Seen in the Skies (1978), Carl G. Jung wrote tha t tradi tional belief s about supernatural being s change with th e times and assume th e cultural form s o f particula r historica l periods . Documentin g th e antecedent s to UFO s i n pas t religiou s belief s abou t a divine mediator , h e suggeste d tha t space people were the equivalent of modern angel s in technological guis e wh o had emerged i n popular belief traditions. Jung believed that early UFO sight ings wer e a direct resul t o f Col d Wa r anxieties : wit h th e worl d divide d int o two hostil e superpower s wit h nuclea r weapons , peopl e yearne d fo r a divin e resolution o f the crisis. Although man y peopl e ma y have trouble believing, i n an increasingl y secular age, that the human rac e will b e saved by Gods mirac ulous intervention , the y ar e willin g t o believ e i n superhuma n being s wit h advanced technology . Accordin g t o Jung, "Anythin g tha t look s technologica l goes down without difficulty wit h modern man . The possibility of space travel has mad e th e unpopula r ide a o f a metaphysica l interventio n muc h mor e acceptable" (1978:22-23) . Focusin g i n particula r on vision s o f UFO s a s lumi nous disks , Jung declare d tha t flying saucer s resemble d mandalas , archetypa l symbols o f psychi c totalit y an d salvatio n foun d i n mythologie s throug h th e world. UFO s migh t b e psychologica l projection s o r perhap s "materialize d psychisms" emerging fro m th e collectiv e unconsciou s tha t expresse d people s yearning fo r harmony , reassurance , an d reconciliatio n i n th e nuclea r er a (1978:14-23). Although Jungs study was first published in 1958, the beliefs and lore of UF O movements an d encounters with benevolen t spac e being s since tha t tim e see m to support hi s thesis. One does not have to dig deep to uncover the apocalypti c ideas of UFO groups and contact narratives, and it is readily apparent that many of the m ar e preoccupied wit h th e threa t o f nuclea r destruction an d othe r per ceived crises. As a popular religiou s respons e to the anxieties of the nuclea r age, the UF O fait h directl y addresse s apocalypti c fears , promisin g salvatio n b y allknowing being s wit h superio r consciousnes s an d technolog y wh o overse e th e fate o f humanity . I n contras t t o th e destructiv e technolog y o f atomic weapon s

Emergent Apocalyptic Beliefs about UFOs I 19 3 and the inescapabl e specte r of nuclea r annihilation, UFO s represen t a benevolent technolog y tha t offers th e prospec t o f planetar y escap e an d th e possibilit y of a golden age of peace and harmony. Just as the image of the mushroom clou d has becom e a maste r symbo l o f destructio n i n th e moder n era , th e UF O ha s emerged as a folk symbol o f hope an d salvation, promisin g rescu e by means o f a technologica l Raptur e brough t abou t b y savio r being s descendin g fro m th e heavens, the traditional dwellin g place of the gods in Western religions . Like postwa r apocalypti c belief s i n Christia n traditions , th e UF O fait h often expresse s th e belie f tha t nuclea r annihilatio n an d othe r cataclysm s ar e imminent an d uncontrollabl e b y huma n beings . Althoug h earthling s ar e encouraged b y th e spac e peopl e t o sto p usin g nuclea r weapon s an d wor k t o avert worldly cataclysms by promoting peac e and harmony, a sense of fateful ness an d impendin g doo m i s ofte n pervasive . A s a messag e fro m th e Ashta r Command states , "I f you watc h th e new s yo u ca n se e tha t th e eart h i s lik e a festering wound, a wound tha t keep s gettin g large r and larger . There i s mor e hatred amon g mankin d tha n eve r before . Th e bom b i s abou t read y t o explode" (Beckley 1980:32). Helpless before the destructive power of the bom b and other impendin g disasters , humanit y sees it s only salvatio n i n th e plane tary escape and protectio n offere d b y otherworldly beings . The UFO fait h exemplifies th e ways that traditions arise from current eschatological an d soteriologica l concern s an d hav e bee n reinvente d fro m existin g beliefs an d practice s i n accordanc e wit h th e cultura l an d mythi c form s o f th e atomic age. The continuin g developmen t an d reformulatio n o f traditions con cerning the endtimes role of UFOs illustrate the ways that apocalyptic belief systems are constructed i n respons e to the dominating concern s of the times.

The Transformation of UFO Lore: The Eschatological Meanings of Alien Abduction Narratives In recen t year s a variety o f ne w UF O tradition s hav e emerge d tha t cente r o n the abduction o f human being s b y extraterrestrials. Alien abductio n narrative s are first-person account s abou t encounter s an d capture s b y alie n being s wh o are often describe d as small, gray-skinne d creatures with larg e triangular heads and bulgin g blac k eyes . Although suc h encounter s hav e bee n know n i n UF O circles since th e mid-1960s , th e phenomeno n wa s popularized afte r th e publi cation i n 198 7 of Whitley Strieber s Communion, whic h reache d th e to p of th e New York Times best-seller list in May that year. Striebers account of his abduction was followed b y extensive coverage of the phenomeno n o n televisio n an d

194 I Emergent Apocalyptic Beliefs about UFOs radio tal k show s an d i n a profusio n o f publications , includin g Abduction: Human Encounters with Aliens (1994 ) b y Harvar d psychiatris t John E . Mack , Close Encounters of the Fourth Kind (1995 ) b y journalist C . B . D . Bryan , Secret Life: Firsthand Accounts of UFO Abductions (1992 ) b y historia n Davi d M . Jacobs, and Intruders (1987) b y ufologist Bud d Hopkins. Ufologist s mak e bol d claims about th e pervasiveness of the abduction phenomenon , estimatin g tha t anywhere between 900,000 and 3.7 million individuals have undergone abduction (Brya n 1995:256 ; Whitmore 1995:67). Although abductio n account s hav e come fro m countrie s othe r tha n th e Unite d States , som e researcher s see alie n abductions a s primaril y a n America n phenomenon , wit h n o othe r natio n expressing th e same intensit y o f interest i n th e subject (Whitmor e 1995:80) . Despite th e wealt h o f literatur e o n abductio n encounters , th e apocalypti c aspects o f suc h experience s hav e bee n largel y neglecte d b y researchers , eve n though abductee s themselve s ofte n assig n a n eschatologica l meanin g t o thei r experiences, which frequentl y dea l with imminen t worldly destruction , huma n destiny, transformation , an d a controllin g powe r tha t oversee s al l existence . Some abductees (or "experiencers") assert that the aliens are evil beings who have a siniste r pla n fo r worl d dominatio n o r tha t the y ar e amora l being s wh o ar e exploiting humanit y fo r thei r ow n purpose s i n orde r t o insur e th e surviva l o f their race. The other, more predominant view, is that aliens are benevolent beings or multidimensional entitie s who ar e warning u s of imminen t disaste r or overseeing the evolution of humanity, either by interbreeding with human beings or by directing human consciousnes s t o a more advanced level. The latter view has obvious redemptiv e themes . I n som e scenarios , th e salvatio n o f humanit y wil l not b e brough t abou t throug h worldl y cataclys m bu t graduall y throug h th e genetic an d spiritua l perfectio n o f huma n being s a s directe d b y superhuma n entities—a view that differs significantly fro m previou s apocalyptic worldviews.

Recurring Eschatological Themes in Abduction Accounts Folklorists such as Robert Flaherty (1990) , Thomas Bullar d (1989) , and Davi d Hufford (1977 ) have noted that although th e abduction phenomeno n ha s precipitated a variety of narratives, beliefs, and interpretations, the accounts share features wit h previou s legend s o f supernatura l encounters , abductions , an d otherworldly journeys, particularl y nightmar e experiences , out-of-body expe riences, shamani c journeys , an d traditiona l encounter s wit h fairies , dwarves , demons, an d other diminutive creature s of the lower mythologies . Accordin g to thes e researchers , a n actua l cor e experience o f some typ e ma y underli e th e

Emergent Apocalyptic Beliefs about UFOs I 19 5 abduction reports , and the transcultural experienc e i s then interprete d withi n the contex t o f specific belie f traditions, suc h a s the "Ol d Hag " tradition, th e fairy faith, or UFO belief s (Bullar d 1989:168 ; Flaherty 1990:373-482 ; Huffor d 1982:232-234). In additio n t o thei r parallels with earlie r accounts o f encounters wit h oth erworldly beings , UF O abductio n narrative s hav e a consistent structur e an d are characterize d b y simila r themes . First , alien s ar e intereste d i n huma n reproduction an d th e geneti c makeu p o f huma n beings , an d abductee s describe in vivid detail their often frightenin g encounters in which aliens conduct medica l experiments . Abductees describ e examination s ofte n o f a sexual nature i n whic h the y ar e penetrated o r thei r bod y part s an d organ s remove d and late r reassemble d (Bullar d 1989:156 ; Whitmor e 1995:70) . Accordin g t o some, aliens submit abductees to this gruesome ordeal so as to procure geneti c materials t o create hybrid breedin g pools i n an attempt t o save their own rac e or to develop a new bree d of human being s tha t will surviv e afte r th e curren t world i s destroyed . Othe r abductee s declar e tha t th e alien s com e fro m a "dying planet " tha t ha s bee n devastate d b y catastrophes , an d becaus e thei r planet and its inhabitants are no longer fertile, they seek human geneti c mate rials to rejuvenat e thei r race (Bullar d 1989:156-158) . As numerou s researcher s hav e commented , abductio n narrative s no t onl y share the features of traditional narrative s about incub i an d succubi, dwarves , and fairie s (capture , paralysis , tempora l distortions , "missin g time, " an d sex ual an d reproductiv e themes ) bu t als o resembl e account s o f shamanic initia tions, i n whic h individual s ente r a deathlik e tranc e an d journe y t o othe r worlds where they endure torture and dismemberment an d the n ar e reassembled by supernatural being s and bestowed with sacre d knowledge, ofte n o f an eschatological nature . Som e abductee s asser t tha t some sor t of spiritual trans formation occur s afte r th e encounter , a turnin g poin t i n thei r live s (Bullar d 1989:162-163; Whitmor e 1995:70-72) . Abductee s regularl y repor t tha t afte r the physica l ordeal , the y ar e subjecte d t o a spiritua l examinatio n i n whic h their soul s ar e scrutinized fo r flaws—again, a paralle l wit h th e spiritua l self examination an d transformation reporte d i n traditional shamani c an d visionary encounters. After th e physica l an d spiritua l examination , th e abducte e i s give n mes sages b y th e beings , which usuall y tak e th e form o f prophecie s an d warning s about worldly destruction, th e end of the human race , and the salvation of the planet (Bullar d 1989:156-157 ; Brya n 1995:421) . A s Bullar d states , th e alien s warn "tha t humans ar e on a path t o nuclear , ecological , o r mora l destructio n and [deliver] prophecies of a coming time of tribulation or cataclysm. In other

196 I Emergent Apocalyptic Beliefs about UFOs words, earth is well on its way to the fate already suffered by the aliens' planet" (1989:156-157). Often thes e messages resemble those delivered to early flying saucer contactees , similarl y warnin g tha t i f humanit y doe s no t chang e it s ways, stop using nuclear weapons, and end world conflicts, some sort of catastrophe is inevitable. In some cases, abductees have been shown images of the world blowing up and of an otherworldly metropolis being built by aliens for those evacuated prior to worldly destruction. Although warnings of the dangers o f nuclea r weapons persist , curren t abductio n lor e i s also preoccupie d with apocalypti c scenario s involvin g environmenta l catastrophes , suc h a s global warming, the destruction o f the ozone layer, deforestation, an d pollution of the oceans, with man y in the UFO movemen t believing that the primary message of the aliens is the conservation of earth (Bryan 1995:421). In som e instance s imminen t catastroph e i s regarde d a s a natural conse quence o f huma n error , wit h human s destroyin g themselves ; i n othe r instances i t i s spoken o f as a chastisement, simila r to th e chastisements predicted i n Marian apparitions, although inflicte d fo r different reasons . Sometimes the aliens encourage the abductees to study metaphysics and to become more caring and thoughtful of others as a means of averting apocalypse, again similar to the religious message of many earlier flying saucer contactee experiences. Abductees are often informed that they have been chosen and that their experiences are part of a larger plan that is to be revealed at a later date. They are also told that humanity will survive the upcoming cataclysm in some way, if not through planetary escape, then through the process of hybridization in which a new human/alien bein g will be created (Bullard 1989:157). In addition to the themes of worldly destruction and salvation, feelings of complete powerlessnes s als o pervad e UF O abductio n accounts . Unlik e th e benevolent Space People and Cosmic Masters encountered by early UFO contactees, th e beings i n abduction account s are often depicte d a s intergalactic vivisectionists, all-controllin g extraterrestria l geneti c engineers who conduc t torturous experiment s o n huma n being s i n orde r t o sav e th e huma n race , which cannot b e saved through human effort. Man y abductees not only feel helpless bu t sense that although alien s seem altruisti c and courteous, i n fact they are cold and indifferent, with little regard for human suffering or perhaps no understanding of it: "Some abductees complain that they were treated like guinea pigs and merely used by the beings. . . . Manipulativeness i s another common complain t lodged against the abductors . . . some abductees realize they were compelled to obey some hypnotically repeated insistence" (Bullard 1989:157). Abductees often fee l that the aliens have a hidden agenda and that they hav e completel y controlle d th e abductio n an d ar e controlling worldl y

Emergent Apocalyptic Beliefs about UFOs I 19 7 events as well. As one abducte e pu t it , "They'r e doing thing s agains t ou r will. And th e mos t frightenin g thin g is , we hav e n o control . . . . I t doesn't matte r what we do or think. They're going to do whatever they want anyway" (Brya n 1995:227-228). I n thes e accounts , th e gray aliens forcibl y abduc t victim s an d dissect the m a s i f the y wer e la b rats ; th e abductee s ofte n emerg e fro m thes e experiences feelin g traumatized , exploited , an d abused . Som e abductee s eve n announce tha t beadlik e object s hav e bee n implante d i n thei r bodie s fo r rea sons o f surveillance , control , o r furthe r exploitation . I n an y case , futur e abduction ma y b e imminent—i t coul d happe n a t an y time , t o anyone . Despite th e feeling s o f transformatio n tha t som e abductee s report , thes e accounts are marked by an undeniable sense of helplessness and victimizatio n by overwhelming force s beyon d one' s control . Whatever on e make s o f such narratives , the y ar e consistently apocalyptic , reflecting anxietie s abou t th e imminenc e o f the end o f the world an d th e en d of the huma n species . The narrative s ma y resembl e traditiona l experience s o f initiatory deat h an d transformatio n involvin g otherworldl y beings , bu t th e broader and more explici t messag e concern s th e destruction o f the world an d the salvation o f humanity. Although no t yet formulated int o a cohesive apoc alyptic worldview, abductio n lor e shares features with othe r apocalyptic belie f systems: it is characterized b y a sense of powerlessness, perception s o f societa l crisis, and the belief in a superhuman pla n or superhuman force s that are overseeing th e salvatio n o f humanity , i n thi s cas e throug h extraterrestria l geneti c engineering. Abduction narrative s impl y tha t th e world i s doomed unles s th e human rac e undergoe s som e sor t o f radica l transformatio n tha t canno t b e accomplished throug h huma n effor t bu t only throug h th e guidance o f otherworldly o r interdimensional entities . Unlike earlie r U F O evacuatio n scenarios , abductio n lor e expresse s th e idea that salvation will no t necessaril y come fro m abov e through sudden res cue b y benevolen t spac e being s bu t fro m withi n throug h th e gradua l trans formation o f humanit y b y mean s o f unpleasan t bu t necessar y geneti c manipulations. I n Abduction (1994) , Joh n E . Mac k write s tha t abducte e experiences ar e characterized b y a n awarenes s o f "th e failur e o f th e huma n experiment i n it s presen t form, " a s wel l a s th e necessit y fo r alien/huma n hybridization an d a radica l chang e o f huma n consciousnes s an d behavior . According t o Mack : Abduction experiencers come to feel deeply that the death of human beings and countless others will occur on a vast scale if we continue on our present course and that some sort of new life-form mus t evolv e i f the human biological an d

198 I Emergent Apocalyptic Beliefs about UFOs

... spiritual essence is to be preserved. [W] e may be witnessing... an awkward joining of two species, engineered by an intelligence we are unable to fathom, for a purpos e tha t serve s bot h ou r goals , wit h difficultie s fo r each . (1994:415-416)

In an age in which notion s of symbolic immortality and human continuity are threatened b y visions o f nuclea r catastrophe, environmenta l destruc tion, deadl y viruses, and other crises, beliefs about UFO s and ETs offer th e hope that a superhuman plan exists for the salvation of humanity and the continuation of the human experiment. The yearning for a sense of continuity and symbolic immortality is fulfilled through beliefs about millennial redemptio n an d an immortal soul, and also through a sens e o f connectio n wit h one s ancestor s a s wel l a s "livin g on" through ones children (Lifto n 1987:10-27) . I n UFO lor e aliens are depicted as not only our ancient ancestors but our children as well; ETs are a futuristic vision of what human beings will become as they continue to evolve. In some scenarios the aliens are believed to be our future descendants who have traveled back in time to visit earth and observe their primitive human ancestors. At a time in which humanity is confronted with images of ultimate extinction, extraterrestrials represent the symbolic recovery of the future and the continued existence and evolution of the human race (Flaherty 1990:710-712). Like the alien/human hybrid spawned in these narratives, abduction lore is itself a hybrid o f religiou s an d secula r ideas , a n amalga m o f motif s abou t worldly destruction and salvation expressed in terms of futuristic technology , evolution, and genetic manipulation. As superhuman genetic engineers with omnipotent technology , th e alien s ar e a secularized counterpar t o f Go d i n some scenarios; in others, they are depicted as some sort of transcendent consciousness o r power i n th e universe , like "th e Force" of Star Wars. I n either case, extraterrestrial s ar e otherworldly being s who fulfil l man y of th e traditional functions of deities. Like the gods and goddesses of old who mated with mortals to create hybrid heroes with extraordinary powers, aliens interbreed with human s t o creat e ne w being s wh o insur e th e surviva l an d continue d development o f humanity . Th e extraterrestrial s ar e sai d t o b e overseein g human evolution and, like gods, are believed by some to have created human beings, and they intervene in history and warn humankind of its moral transgressions (Whitmore 1995:74). As noted previously, history is often presented as the unfolding of a superhuman pla n controlle d b y extraterrestrial s i n UF O lore , simila r t o God s divine pla n i n Christia n prophec y belief . Contactee s an d abductee s hav e a

Emergent Apocalyptic Beliefs about UFOs I 19 9

critical rol e in thi s plan : t o warn humanit y o f imminen t destructio n an d t o participate i n crucial cosmi c experiments involvin g the contribution o f their blood, sperm, and ova to ensure the survival of human being s or to help create a new hybrid race . In thes e accounts th e sacred and th e profane g o han d in hand, and salvation occurs through painful experiment s and genetic recombination. Above all else, beliefs about aliens and UFOs assert that humans will survive worldly destructio n a s th e resul t o f superhuma n guidanc e an d ulti mately transcend earthly existence, gaining the technology and wisdom of the aliens and perhaps becoming superhuman being s themselves.

Evil Aliens, Abductions, and Conspiracies Although muc h alie n abduction lor e warns of imminent worldly catastroph e but offers th e promise of survival, with the approach of the year 2000 increasingly siniste r an d unredemptiv e UF O lor e abou t malevolen t ET s wh o wil l usher in the apocalypse has emerged. These aliens are described as evil beings who are plotting to destroy the human rac e and sometimes are depicted as the demonic counterparts and enemies of the benevolent aliens. In this endtimes lore, good and evil aliens take on mythi c dimensions and wage wars that will determine th e fat e o f humanit y an d th e world . Previou s abductio n experi ences have been reinterprete d a s part of this alien invasion plan. In some scenarios the human/alien hybrid s fro m dyin g planets will invad e and conque r earth in the future. In other scenarios the aliens are already walking among us and preparing to colonize earth. This recen t UF O lor e offer s littl e chanc e o f avertin g imminen t worldl y destruction o r humanity' s enslavemen t b y aliens . Th e hop e o f salvatio n promised by the early flying saucer faith ha s been replaced by beliefs and nar ratives about sinister abductions and cattl e mutilations that are characterized by a sense of imminent crisis , overwhelming evil in the world, paranoia , an d manipulation b y uncontrollable forces . I n a characteristically syncreti c fash ion, this UFO lore has adopted the conspiratorial themes that pervade Christian apocalypti c traditions , becomin g mor e an d mor e preoccupie d wit h th e rise of the New World Order , th e Antichrist, an d theorie s abou t th e balefu l machinations of organizations such as the Trilateral Commission, th e Unite d Nations, and the Bilderberg Group, to name a few. Conspiracy theorie s about government cover-up s and secret organization s have been a theme i n UF O lor e fro m it s beginnings. Storie s have bee n tol d since 1947, for instance , abou t th e menacin g "Men-in-Black " (MIBs) , dark -

200 I Emergent Apocalyptic Beliefs about UFOs clothed stranger s wh o stal k an d threate n thos e wh o tr y t o increas e publi c awareness o f UFO s (an d who , a s folkloris t Pete r Rojcewic z ha s discussed , resemble th e devils of earlier folk tradition s [Rojcewic z 1987]). The sense of helplessness and overwhelming evil tha t characterizes this lore is exemplified by recent beliefs about government cover-ups concerning a pact between the gray aliens and the MJ-12, a group of top-level scientists and military officer s planning to establish a one-world dictatorship. In his chronology of the development of UFO phenomenon , aerospace historian Curtis Peebles states that recurring beliefs about UFOs from 1987 to 1993 assert that gray aliens who suffer from genetic disorders abduct human beings in order to survive, removing their sperm and ova, and combining them with their own genetic material to produce alien/human hybrids. In exchange for the aliens' knowledge of space technology (whic h ha s bee n use d t o buil d advance d weaponry) , th e MJ-12 granted the "Grays" permission to abduct earthlings for their experiments and for extracting the enzyme from the blood of humans and cattle (hence the cattle mutilations) necessary for their survival. It also built underground bases for them. According to some beliefs, the aliens then deceived the MJ-12 (referred to a s th e "Gran d Deception" ) an d no w ar e increasin g thei r assault s an d preparing for invasion; this, according to some, was the underlying motivation fo r Presiden t Reagan s proposed "Sta r Wars" program fo r the construction of a protective shield (Bullard 1989:158; Peebles 1994:273). Another common them e in this belief tradition i s that the aliens and the MJ-12 are collaborating t o establish a New World Order . According t o thi s scenario, the MJ-12 and the Grays, in league with the Trilateral Commission, the Bilderber g Group , th e Counci l o n Foreig n Relations , an d internationa l bankers, has formed a "Secret Government" that controls every aspect of politics, th e military , industry , religion , commerce , banking , an d th e media , a view espoused by Milton William Cooper, perhaps the most infamous UF O conspiracy theorist . Th e belief s asser t tha t humanit y ultimatel y wil l b e enslaved or exterminated i n concentration camp s at the hands of the Grays, millions of whom now await in bases to invade the United States from within (Peebles 1994:281-282) . Belief s abou t th e imminenc e o f alie n attac k ar e reflected b y the statements and publications of the influential ufologis t John Lear (son of Learjet inventor Bill Lear), who has declared on various occasions that human beings have no hope of resisting this invasion, stating in one interview, "They'r e goin g t o marc h u s just exactl y lik e th e Holocaust " (Peeble s 1994:274). Such beliefs not only reflect the view that humanity is doomed but imply that the cosmos itself is perhaps dying as sickly aliens from dead planets invade and destroy earth.

Emergent Apocalyptic Beliefs about UFOs I 20 1 Unlike belief s abou t alien s developin g human/alie n hybrid s t o ensur e th e survival of both races threatened with extinction, more recent lore has absolutely no redemptive themes ; in this sense it resembles secular apocalyptic ideas about the imminenc e o f nuclea r cataclysm , expressin g feeling s o f hopelessnes s an d fatalism. The evil aliens have superior technology and intelligence, as well as the help o f th e U.S . governmen t an d th e siniste r Secre t Government , a coalitio n that is all-powerful an d that will enslav e and exterminate humans , as the Grays conduct crue l experiment s o n th e survivors. Fatalism, nihilism , an d powerless ness—the trinit y o f secula r apocalypti c thought—ar e characteristic s o f suc h beliefs an d ar e distilled an d amplifie d i n thi s UF O tradition . Inexplicabl e an d inescapable evil forces are everywhere; they are uncontrollable, and the creeping tentacles of the conspiracy entwine with every aspect of human existence . The increasin g secularizatio n o f UF O tradition s i s exemplifie d b y ye t another emergen t traditio n withi n broade r UF O lore . Thi s branc h o f lor e does not involv e aliens at all but holds instea d tha t the increase in accounts o f UFO visitation s an d abduction s i s th e resul t o f a globa l conspirac y b y evi l earthly powers: alien abductions hav e been faked , and UFOs hav e been devel oped by global organizations that are preparing to stage a UFO invasio n in the future t o frighte n peopl e int o acceptin g a Ne w Worl d Order . Th e threa t o f alien attac k would mak e th e nation s o f th e world forge t thei r differences an d unite t o fen d of f th e invasion . The globa l unificatio n wil l the n brin g about a totalitarian societ y o f surveillanc e an d complet e control . Accordin g t o UF O researcher Nari o Hayakawa , "Secre t internationa l bankin g group s an d othe r global secret groups are going to forcefully eliminate international border s and create some kind of controlled society.... The most amazing weapon the y will use t o do thi s will b e the extraterrestrial threat " (Kossy 1994:27). I n thi s lates t merging of traditions, UFO lor e and Christian prophecy beliefs about a global dictatorship associate d wit h th e ris e o f Antichris t converg e i n a secularize d endtimes conspirac y about overwhelmin g evi l powers . As th e great diversity o f religious an d secular UFO lor e indicates , th e UF O phenomenon ha s becom e a Rorschac h tes t o f popula r eschatologica l ideas . Debunkers and enthusiasts may debate the existence of UFOs, but unquestion ably the UFO phenomeno n ha s served as a barometer and projection o f domi nant psychosocial concerns in the postwar era. The range of UFO lor e illustrates the protea n qualitie s o f apocalyptic belief s an d th e ways ne w tradition s reflec t dominant concerns , fears , hopes , an d preoccupation s i n America n society . Despite th e wide-rangin g natur e o f this lore , commo n theme s emerge — immense conspiracies , imminen t destruction , an d individua l helplessness — that also characterize Christian apocalypti c tradition s and that similarly express

202 I Emergent Apocalyptic Beliefs about UFOs the extreme level of alienation and hopelessness felt by many in American society today . The fatalisti c underpinning s o f thes e varying system s o f belie f ar e revealed by the pervasiveness of conspiracy theories, which situate every event in a labyrinthine plan. The invention and use of nuclear weapons, the rise and fall of the Soviet Union, AIDS, the drug trade, recent trends in politics, commerce, and banking , an d ultimatel y th e destructio n an d salvatio n o f humanit y ar e explained as part of a grand design, whether foreordained b y God, controlled by the Secret Government, or orchestrated by ETs. Conspiracy theories, like other fatalistic systems of belief, are appealing precisely because they provide reasons for perceive d evils and directly address feelings of powerlessness and victimization, attributin g thes e t o sinister , impersona l force s beyon d one s control . By naming actual enemies and revealing an underlying master plan, these differin g eschatological tradition s offe r a sens e o f understanding , order , an d symboli c control over otherwise inexplicable and uncontrollable events.

UFOs and Christian Apocalyptic Traditions The multivalent meaning s of UFOs and the adaptability of apocalyptic traditions are epitomized b y the ways that UFO s have been emphasized i n Christian prophecy belief and interpreted as part of Gods endtimes plan. In Christian traditions throughout history, sightings of strange aerial phenomena have been associate d wit h divin e portent s an d apocalypti c warnings , inspire d i n part b y the biblica l passag e in which Jesus says that "fearfu l sight s and grea t signs shal l ther e b e fro m heaven " befor e th e en d o f th e worl d (Luk e 21:11). Some hav e interpreted th e mor e numerou s UF O sighting s a s a portent tha t apocalypse draw s near , bu t a goodl y numbe r o f prophec y enthusiast s hav e interpreted UFO s a s malevolent manifestation s an d ET s as demonic being s that will be involved in an apocalyptic scenario prior to Judgment Day . According t o Leo n Bate s o f th e Bibl e Believers ' Evangelisti c Associatio n (Texas), the demonic feature s o f ETs include thei r avoidanc e of strong light , foul odor s reporte d a t UF O landin g sites, their purporte d telepathi c powers, and their ghostlike attributes (1985:90). Christian author I. D. E. Thomas cites references in Genesis 6 about the Nephilim—sons of God who mated with the daughters o f men—and conclude s the y ma y have been falle n angel s who are returning in the last days to use UFOs as part of a plan t o create a super race, conquer earthlings, and prepare the world for the Antichrist (1986:232). Various other prophecy enthusiasts, including Hal Lindsey, paint UFOs as a satanic endtimes delusion devised to take the faithful awa y from Go d in the last

Emergent Apocalyptic Beliefs about UFOs I 20 3 days before Christ' s return. In his Planet Earth—2000 A.D. y Lindse y devotes an entire chapter to the prophetic importanc e of UFOs, statin g at the outset: Since the publication of the Late Great Planet Earthy I have become thoroughly convinced tha t UFO s ar e real. . . . And I believe the y ar e operated b y alie n beings of great intelligence and power. Where I differ from most "ufologists" is in the question of origin. I believe these beings are not only extraterrestrial but supernatural in origin. To be blunt, I think they are demons. The Bible tells us that demons are spiritual beings at war with God. We are told that demons will be allowed to use their tremendous powers of deception i n a grand way in the last days. (1994:68) According t o Lindsey , thos e wh o ar e unsave d wil l b e deceive d b y th e "grea t wonder" o f UFOs ; demon s disguise d a s aliens fro m a n advance d civilizatio n will lan d thei r spacecraft an d perhaps assert that the y had plante d human lif e on eart h and tha t the y have returne d t o hel p guid e ou r evolution. This even t will b e so staggering in it s implications tha t it will resul t in all the faiths of the world forgettin g thei r differences an d coming together . A New Age one world religion will the n be created, which will pav e the way for the acceptance of the Antichrist. Lindse y declares that the media have been preparin g the world fo r such a n event , conditionin g humanit y t o accep t th e ide a o f superio r alie n beings (Lindse y 1994:69-71) . Numerous othe r Christian evangelical s hav e expressed th e view tha t UFO s may intervene during a time of world crisis and present a "Divine On e Worl d Plan" that will eventually becom e th e evil New World Order . "It s no acciden t that the incredible emphasis on alien beings, flying saucers, extraterrestrials, has burst upon humanity in recent times" says prophecy writer David Allen Lewis, "UFOs will be instrumental i n preparing the minds of humanity for the reception o f th e Antichrist" (Chandle r 1993:189) . Othe r prophec y enthusiast s hav e noted th e connection s betwee n th e UF O phenomenon , th e Ne w Ag e move ment, an d occult-base d spirituality , al l o f which ar e said t o b e par t o f Satan' s conspiracy t o lea d people awa y from Christ . Forme r New Ag e author Randal l Baer, no w a n evangelica l Christian , state s tha t UFO s ar e integra l t o th e Ne w Age movement an d that they have demonic, "delusionar y brainwashing effect s on peopl e . . . UFOs ar e messengers of deception, nothin g else" (1989:109). UFO enthusiast s hav e validated thei r faith throug h ambiguou s biblica l ref erences to sky gods and heavenly phenomena; Christian prophecy believers, on the contrary, have found biblica l evidence that UFOs an d ETs are devils, falle n angels, an d satanic manifestation s tha t will lea d t o th e ris e of a global religio n and the Antichrist. The demonizatio n o f UFOs an d ETs by prophecy believer s

204 I Emergent Apocalyptic Beliefs about UFOs seems relate d i n par t t o th e threa t tha t th e actua l existenc e o f intelligen t extraterrestrial being s woul d pos e t o conservativ e Christia n theology . Som e scholars hav e even speculate d tha t fundamentalis t Christianit y migh t collaps e as a result of the discovery of extraterrestrial intelligences . Fo r example, in God and the New Physics, physicis t an d science author Pau l Davie s writes: The existence of extra-terrestrial intelligences would have a profound impact on religion, shattering completely the traditional perspective on God's relationship with man. The difficulties ar e particularly acute for Christianity, which postulates that Jesus Christ was God incarnate whose mission was to provide salvation for man on Earth. The prospect of a host of "alien Christs" systematically visiting every inhabited planet in the physical form of the local creatures has a rather absurd aspect. Yet how otherwise are the aliens to be saved? (1983:71) According t o Davie s an d others , th e assumptio n tha t eart h an d humanit y are at the center of the universe makes conservative Christianity especially vulnerable t o an encounte r wit h ETs . Furthermore , th e popula r view within th e UFO movemen t tha t ET s have created human being s and hav e been respon sible fo r human evolutio n obviousl y challenges literalis t interpretation s o f the Bible. Although som e devotee s of the UF O fait h assig n a central rol e to Jesus Christ i n thei r pantheo n o f deities , a n underlyin g implicatio n o f th e UF O phenomenon nonetheles s i s that the source of humanity s salvation i s not onl y Jesus but a race of highly evolved being s with superior technology, which ma y include Jesus . Th e demonizatio n o f th e UF O phenomeno n b y prophec y believers an d othe r conservativ e Christian s illustrate s th e exten t t o which it s alternative mytholog y o f creatio n an d salvatio n pose s a threa t t o Christia n fundamentalist view s an d demonstrate s onc e agai n th e dynami c aspect s o f premillennialist prophec y tradition s an d th e abilit y o f prophec y interpreter s to explai n curren t phenomen a i n term s of God s divin e plan .

Progressive Millennialism and UFO Beliefs Endtimes idea s about malevolen t alien s intensif y an d spawn ne w eschatolog ical belief s withi n bot h Christianit y an d th e UF O movement , bu t th e approach o f th e thir d millenniu m ha s als o precipitate d a renewa l o f idea s about benevolen t being s an d extraterrestria l intelligence s tha t wil l hel p humanity attai n a golden ag e on earth . Deemphasizing th e idea of apocalyps e and stressing notion s o f human evolutio n an d progress , these idea s assert tha t if human being s follo w a cosmic pla n prescribe d b y an extraterrestria l force ,

Emergent Apocalyptic Beliefs about UFOs I 20 5 they will establis h a terrestrial paradis e and achieve th e salvation o f humanity . Such idea s constitut e a for m o f millennialis m tha t differ s significantl y fro m apocalyptic traditions , whic h maintai n tha t th e worl d mus t b e destroye d before it can be renewed. Relatively optimistic and noncatastrophic i n empha sis, thes e idea s ar e a n expressio n o f wha t schola r o f religio n Catherin e Wessinger call s "progressiv e millennialism, " characterize d b y th e notio n tha t a golden age may be brought about gradually by human being s acting according t o a divine pla n o r cooperating wit h th e guidanc e o f superhuman agent s (Wessinger 1994:56 ; Wessinger 1995:2) . A progressiv e millennialis t vie w wa s held b y Christia n postmillennialist s wh o preache d th e Socia l Gospe l i n th e nineteenth centur y an d declare d tha t Christia n principle s woul d eventuall y prevail an d defea t al l evil , transformin g th e worl d int o a plac e worth y o f Christ's Secon d Coming . A s note d i n chapte r 2 , thes e postmillennialist s ha d a reformis t visio n o f th e salvatio n o f th e worl d an d worke d t o establis h th e millennial kingdo m o n eart h throug h goo d works—the y contribute d t o th e abolition o f slavery and of child labor, the temperanc e movement , an d priso n reform. In the UFO movement , progressiv e millennialis m take s a variety of forms , and i s identifie d b y th e notio n tha t instea d o f th e apocalypse , a sweepin g change wil l occu r involvin g a transformatio n o f planetar y consciousness , behavioral patterns , energy fields, o r the genetic code o f all human beings . As manifestations o f cosmic intelligences, UFO s an d ETs are believed to be guiding human beings through thi s monumental transformatio n int o a golden ag e of peace and prosperity . In some scenarios collectiv e transformatio n an d terrestria l salvatio n i s contingent upo n th e arrival and guidance o f superhuman being s who wil l hel p t o bring about th e millennium . Thi s view i s promoted b y th e Unariu s Academ y of Science in El Cajon, near San Diego. Le d until recentl y by Uriel, "Archange l and Cosmi c Visionary " (otherwis e know n a s Rut h Norman , 1900-1993) , th e Unariuns anticipate a spacefleet landing in 2001 involving thirty-two spacecraf t from eac h plane t o f th e Interplanetar y Confederation . Eac h spac e shi p wil l carry on e thousan d scientist s wh o wil l wor k wit h huma n being s t o sav e ou r dying world, spirituall y transformin g eart h s o tha t i t will finally b e advance d enough t o join th e other thirty-two enlightened planets . I n anticipation o f the arrival o f thes e interplanetar y beings , th e Unariun s wor k t o sprea d th e teach ings o f th e Interplanetar y Confederatio n i n orde r t o transfor m th e spiritua l consciousness o f humanity gradually . Rathe r tha n stressin g th e imminenc e o f apocalypse, th e Unariu n worldvie w emphasize s th e effort s o f huma n being s working i n harmony with space beings t o create a golden age .

2o6 I Emergent Apocalyptic Beliefs about UFOs Other progressiv e millennialis t UF O tradition s asser t tha t th e salvation o f humanity and the attainment of a terrestrial paradise will b e brought about by human being s actin g accordin g t o a divine pla n a s communicated b y super human beings . This vie w characterize s th e "II:I I Doorway " movemen t le d b y Solara Antar a Amaa-ra , wh o state s tha t sh e channel s message s fro m variou s extraterrestrial being s an d assert s tha t huma n being s ar e angel s originall y descended fro m various stars in the cosmos. According to Solara and her thousands o f followers , a cosmi c "doorwa y o f opportunity " fo r th e salvatio n o f humanity opene d o n Januar y n , 1992 , an d wil l clos e o n Decembe r 31 , 2011. During th e twenty-yea r interval , humanit y wil l b e given th e chance t o elimi nate evil , spirituall y cleans e an d transfor m itself , an d the n ascen d t o a ne w realm o f consciousness. Lik e numerou s othe r UFO an d New Age millennial ist movements , Solar a hold s tha t 144,00 0 believer s ( a numbe r prophesie d i n the Boo k o f Revelation ) mus t unit e worldwid e i n "consciou s Oneness " t o attain some sort of spiritual critical mass that in turn will launch all of humanity int o a higher leve l o f consciousness tha t will ushe r i n a golden ag e (Solar a 1990). Althoug h evi l i s acknowledged i n progressiv e millennialis t worldview s such a s Solaras, th e worl d i s no t considere d t o b e irredeemabl y evil , an d th e spiritual action s of humans beings are believed to be essential fo r the salvation of the entir e plane t an d th e redemptio n o f humanity . Solaras "11:11 Doorway" movemen t i s similar in its beliefs to the Harmoni c Convergence, th e mos t famou s exampl e o f Ne w Age/UF O progressiv e mil lennialism. Coordinate d b y autho r Jos e Arguelles , th e Harmoni c Conver gence was celebrated b y tens of thousands of people throughou t th e world o n August 16-17 , l 9%7> Th e even t wa s centere d o n a variety o f Mayan , Nativ e American, an d Christia n prophecies , th e en d o f specifi c cycle s o f th e Azte c and Maya n calendars , an d purporte d cosmi c occurrence s an d planetar y con figurations. Accordin g t o Arguelles, th e ancien t Mayan s wer e cosmi c vision aries wh o lef t a "galacti c callin g card " i n th e form o f code d message s i n th e Mayan calendar that reveal how human being s may transform themselve s an d join th e Galacti c Federatio n afte r th e Maya n calenda r end s i n 2012 . I n The Mayan Factor (1987), Arguelle s state s tha t Augus t 16-17 , l 9%7> w a s a critica l juncture i n th e histor y o f th e planet , a dangerous transitio n fro m on e er a t o another durin g whic h th e futur e o f humanit y woul d b e determined . Th e world wa s t o hav e plunge d int o a "negative cycle " towar d apocalyps e unles s 144,000 peopl e o r mor e participate d i n thi s rit e o f planetar y passage , whic h was t o restor e earth s sola r an d cosmi c resonance . The even t woul d creat e a n atmosphere o f increase d spiritua l understandin g an d trus t o f extraterrestria l and cosmi c powers , triggerin g th e Harmoni c Convergenc e i n which human -

Emergent Apocalyptic Beliefs about UFOs I 20 7

ity would progres s toward "galacti c synchronization" an d eventuall y join th e federation o f other enlightene d planet s afte r th e alien s mak e contac t i n th e year 2012.

Over th e weeken d o f Augus t 16-17 , individual s gathere d a t renowne d sacred site s suc h a s Stonehenge , th e Grea t Pyramid , Mach u Picchu , an d Mount Shasta , where they chanted, meditated , an d engage d i n various ceremonies in an attempt to transform th e planet spiritually and connect human ity, earth , an d universa l energies . In thi s scenario , huma n effor t woul d no t only prevent Armageddon but also activate the return of the spirit of the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl and all the gods and goddesses and heroes and heroines that have ever existed in the human imaginatio n (Argiielle s 1987:170). The archetypal divine energy of these beings was to be reborn in the hearts of all people on August 16-17,1987, instilling a new global consciousness that would resul t in a world in which humans beings would live in harmony with on e anothe r and the environment. Organizer s and participant s of the Harmonic Conver gence emphasized tha t thei r spiritua l effort s durin g th e two-day even t save d earth fro m destructio n an d allowed humanity t o pursue its evolutionary cosmic destiny in establishing a new age. The progressive millennialist tendencie s of the Harmonic Convergence event are exemplified b y the belief that evil and worldly catastrophe may be overcome by humans who act in consonance with a cosmic plan for salvation. Like othe r Ne w Ag e an d UF O progressiv e millennialis t traditions , th e Harmonic Convergence was characterized by the notion tha t all of humanity may achieve a terrestrial paradise , no t just a select few . In contras t t o apoca lyptic traditions , which expres s a pessimistic an d tragi c view of the world as irredeemably evil , progressiv e millennialis m regard s evi l a s conquerabl e b y humans wit h hel p fro m superhuma n beings . A golden ag e i s believed t o b e attainable throug h th e incrementa l improvemen t o f th e world, a n ide a tha t has its secular equivalent i n the notion o f a Utopia achieved through progres s and huma n effort . Accordin g t o Charle s Strozier , Ne w Ag e millennialist s attempt "t o ge t ahea d o f th e apocalypti c an d direc t it, " graduall y bringin g about th e Ag e o f Aquarius throug h persona l spiritua l transformation s tha t affect th e larger transformation o f society (1994:231). Unlike apocalyptic belief systems that emphasize salvation for the righteous and destruction fo r the evil "others," progressiv e millennialism , a t leas t withi n th e UF O an d Ne w Ag e movements, tends to be less dualistic and t o accept all humanity i n it s inclusive millennial embrace . UF O an d Ne w Age millennialists hav e take n idea s about worldly salvation from an assortment of previous traditions and cultural sources, and ma y anticipate not only the return o f Jesus to redeem th e world

2o8 I Emergent Apocalyptic Beliefs about UFOs

but als o the arrival of Ashtar an d Lad y Athena, Quetzalcoat l an d th e Virgin Mary, Lad y Gaia , Maste r Aetherius , th e Elohim , th e Kachina , Buddha , Mohammed, ou r extraterrestrial ancestor s as well as our progeny i n the for m of human/alien hybrids , and potentiall y ever y go d an d goddes s an d cultur e hero that ha s ever existed. Although UF O an d Ne w Ag e progressiv e millennialis m place s mor e emphasis o n huma n actio n i n bringin g abou t th e millennium an d therefor e appears les s deterministic tha n apocalypti c worldviews , bot h form s o f mil lenarianism reflec t th e view that history unfolds as part of a superhuman pla n and that the fate of humanity is guided by external forces. Just as Gods divine will determines and oversees events in Christian prophec y belief, so too in the UFO movement do the extraterrestrials oversee human history: they have created earth, directed th e development o f the human race , and have a plan fo r humanity's salvation. Within thi s cosmic drama human beings are said to have a foreordaine d rol e to play , and throug h spiritua l effort , genetic transforma tion, an d th e guidanc e o f th e extraterrestrials , the y will realiz e thei r destin y and perhap s becom e godlings themselve s with th e cosmic ability t o create a golden ag e o n earth . Lik e previou s millenaria n worldviews , thes e emergen t UFO and Ne w Age traditions provide systems of meaning for understandin g human existenc e and promis e tha t th e univers e i s ordered, tha t evil and suffering will be eliminated, and that an age of harmony and justice will be established throug h th e fulfillment o f a cosmic plan.

Conclusion

With th e approach o f the year 2000, and i n th e aftermath o f the events associated with th e Branch Davidian , Sola r Temple, Aum Shinr i Kyo , and Heaven s Gat e groups , understandin g th e varietie s o f apocalyptic belie f has become increasingly important. Although various optimistic and noncat aclysmic vision s o f humanity' s inevitabl e progres s t o a golde n ag e hav e emerged i n recen t years , the y ar e i n th e minority , overshadowe d an d out numbered by apocalyptic worldviews that predict imminent worldly destruction. As the twentieth centur y comes to an end, apocalyptic visions flourish, reflecting perception s o f overwhelming societa l crisi s an d a pessimistic out look for a world so corrupt that it can be redeemed only by superhuman force s through a worldly catastrophe. Despite th e diversit y o f visions , rhetoric , an d belief s abou t impendin g worldly cataclysm, fou r categorie s can b e derived fro m th e data examined i n this study: (1 ) unconditional apocalypticism , (2 ) conditional apocalypticism , (3) unredemptive apocalypticism, and (4) cataclysmic forewarning. These categories do not constitute a n absolute typology but ar e useful fo r conceptual izing the fatalistic aspects of endtimes discourse, and may serve as a framework for understandin g th e variou s expression s o f apocalypti c belie f tha t hav e existed in the past and that have emerged i n recent years. Unconditional apocalypticism is characterized by the belief that history is predetermined an d tha t apocalyps e i s imminen t an d unalterable : th e worl d i s believed t o b e irredeemabl e b y huma n effort ; it s cataclysmi c destructio n i s regarded a s inevitable; and a superhuman pla n exist s fo r collectiv e salvation . Premillennial dispensationalism , exemplifie d b y Hal Lindsey s writings, epitomizes unconditiona l apocalypti c thinking . Dispensationalist s asser t tha t a divine patter n control s al l o f history , tha t contemporar y event s ar e fulfillin g Gods pla n fo r humanity , an d tha t human s ar e completely powerles s t o alte r these fate d event s i n an y way . Collectiv e effort s canno t affec t historica l inevitability, an d whe n certai n preordaine d condition s ar e fulfille d (e.g. , th e rebuilding of the Temple i n Jerusalem, th e appearance o f the Antichrist), th e 209

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end of the world will occur . Although th e destruction o f the world i s related to human sinfulness , si n i s considered ineradicabl e an d universa l repentanc e no t achievable. I n th e dispensationalis t view , th e worl d i s irredeemabl y evi l an d unrecuperable throug h huma n action ; even thoug h Go d test s humanity i n different stages , humanit y wil l inevitabl y fai l eac h stag e an d collectiv e salvatio n may occu r onl y throug h cataclysmi c destruction . Unconditiona l apocalypti cism has characterized the worldviews of many catastrophic millennialist move ments othe r tha n dispensationalism , includin g th e Millerite s an d th e Branc h Davidians. A s noted , unconditiona l apocalypticis m i s als o inheren t i n th e beliefs o f various UF O group s an d endtime s tradition s tha t predic t inevitabl e worldly destructio n an d th e salvation o f the chosen one s either through plane tary evacuation o r genetic engineering and human/alien hybridization . Conditional apocalypticism i s characterize d b y th e belie f tha t apocalyps e i s imminent but may be postponed i f human beings behave in ways prescribed by a superhuman power , such as God o r extraterrestrials. Conditiona l apocalypti c worldviews asser t tha t huma n being s canno t preven t worldl y destructio n through thei r ow n effort s bu t tha t withi n th e broa d constraint s o f history' s inevitable progression, human being s may forestall worldl y catastrophes i f they act in accordance with divine will or a superhuman plan . This view is illustrated by th e prediction s o f Veronica Lueke n an d th e belief s o f th e Baysiders , whic h assert tha t th e en d o f th e world i s nea r bu t tha t huma n being s ma y postpon e the day of doom i f they follow Gods will and if God permits that the world no t be destroyed . I n thi s scenario , huma n wil l i s effectua l i n avertin g worldl y destruction whe n i t corresponds t o Gods decrees . This sense of an all-powerfu l divine wil l tha t characterize s th e Baysid e prophecie s resemble s Yahweh s wil l and Allah' s kismet , whic h human s mus t carr y ou t usin g thei r allotte d ethica l freedom (Brondste d 1967:173) . An assortmen t o f UF O endtime s scenario s ar e structurally similar to the conditional apocalypti c idea s of the Baysiders in tha t humanity i s warned of imminent apocalypse, but catastrophe may be averted if instead human s follo w th e decree s o f extraterrestrial s o r a galacti c plan . Th e messages fro m th e Ashtar Command forewar n o f impendin g worldly destruc tion an d state that th e course of history cannot b e deflected, ye t also maintai n that i f humanit y improve s it s way s an d increase s it s spiritua l efforts , som e worldly cataclysms may be averted. Both the Bayside and the Ashtar Comman d messages ar e characterize d b y a n appea l fo r humanit y t o ac t i n conformanc e with prescribed behaviors and the implication that change is impossible: "[T]he Warning i s coming upo n mankin d . . . [but ] ma n shall continue o n thei r roa d to perdition, so hard are the hearts now, M y child" says one Baysid e prophecy , and a message from the Ashtar Command concludes, "[I]f mankind were to put

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down it s arms, then it could be averted. However, ther e is no sign that this will happen. Someda y someon e . . . wil l pus h th e button " (Beckle y 1980:29) . I n these scenarios, apocalypse will occu r as a consequence o f humanity s destructive or evil behavior that is a violation o f divine or cosmic laws . Unredemptive apocalypticism, i n contras t t o thes e redemptiv e apocalypti c views, i s characterized b y th e belie f that apocalyps e i s imminent an d unalter able and that no superhuman pla n exists for worldly redemptio n o r collectiv e salvation. As discussed i n chapter 5 , unredemptive apocalypti c idea s are a relatively recent and rarely studied phenomenon; the y are pervaded by a sense o f hopelessness, futility , an d nihilism . Specifi c worldl y catastrophes—nuclea r war, ecologica l destruction , a pola r shift , widesprea d famine , disease—ar e regarded a s inevitabl e an d no t subjec t t o huma n agency . Instea d o f a super human pla n o r divin e wil l a s determinant s o f history , unredemptiv e apoca lypticism expresse s th e vie w tha t th e en d o f histor y wil l b e determine d b y humans, technology , o r impersona l force s unde r n o one s directio n tha t ar e progressing inexorabl y towar d a cataclysmi c culmination . Unti l recently , beliefs abou t th e inevitabilit y o f nuclea r annihilatio n wer e th e mos t predom inant expressio n o f unredemptiv e apocalypticism , bu t i n th e post-Col d Wa r era fear s abou t a n assortmen t o f othe r apocalypti c scenario s (environmenta l destruction, deadl y viruses , earth s collisio n wit h a large asteroi d o r comet , a catastrophic alie n invasion ) hav e becom e increasingl y common . Cataclysmic forewarning, anothe r genera l categor y o f endtime s thinking , includes various types of doomsday speculatio n i n which apocalyps e i s said t o be imminent bu t avoidable throug h huma n effort . Althoug h cataclysmi c fore warning resemble s conditiona l apocalypticism , i t i s no t inherentl y fatalisti c because histor y an d th e futur e ar e no t believe d t o b e determined , no r d o th e warnings o f imminen t catastrophe s revea l a n operativ e superhuma n pla n o r unalterable will underlying history. The prediction s of potential disastrou s scenarios described i n books such as The Fate of the Earth (Schel l 1982) , The Closing Circle (Commoner 1971) , and The Limits to Growth (Meadow s e t al . 1972 ) are presented with th e hope o f motivating peopl e t o act to avert possible cata strophes an d save humanity fro m approaching , bu t no t inevitable , doom .

77?^ Future of Apocalyptic Belief: The Year 2000 and Beyond Given th e significanc e attribute d t o transitiona l number s an d dates , i t i s n o surprise tha t th e year 200 0 ha s bee n investe d with portentou s meaning s an d inspired widespread feeling s tha t something monumenta l wil l occu r with th e

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flip of the calendar page. Although th e year is a subjective demarcation o f the passage of time, it seems like a watershed i n history, with it s sense of an end ing and a new beginning. The prospect of triple zeros may even suggest complete nullification. The endings of centuries have been viewed by many as critical junctures, weird limina l time s tha t ar e betwix t an d between , period s o f danger and transition . Like previous epochs, this fin de siecle evokes feeling s of crisis, exhaustion, and catastrophe, as well as hope of tremendous transfor mation an d rejuvenatio n i n the birth of a new era. Although th e end of the millennium i s not assigned any particular signifi cance in the Bible or other prophetic texts, it is the focal poin t for the projection o f a wide range of popular eschatological concern s and hope s generate d over th e years tha t no w permeate American cultur e an d consciousness . Th e grassroots natur e o f end-of-the-millennium belief s abou t imminen t worldl y destruction an d salvatio n i s revealed b y the fac t tha t eve n thoug h mos t con temporary Christia n prophec y interpreter s ar e reluctan t t o predic t a specifi c date fo r Christ' s return , survey s indicat e tha t man y Christian s believ e tha t Jesus wil l arriv e sometim e aroun d th e yea r 2000 . Fo r example , i n a Time/CNN pol l conducted b y Yankelovich Partner s on April 28-29,1993, 20 percent o f the respondent s answere d yes to the question "D o you thin k tha t the secon d comin g o f Jesu s Chris t wil l occu r sometim e aroun d th e yea r 2000?"; 31 percent were not sure; and 49 percent answered no. Twenty percent is a significant number , but the 31 percent who believe that Christ might possibly return around th e year 2000 perhaps reveals even more about the pervasiveness of millennial speculation . Although mos t contemporar y Christia n prophec y interpreter s hav e avoided endtimes date setting (a notable exception was Edgar Whisenants On Borrowed Time/88 Reasons Why the Rapture Will Be in ip88), a number of them have implie d tha t Chris t wil l retur n b y th e yea r 2000 . Pa t Robertso n an d other prominen t prophec y writers and lecturer s such a s Mary Stewar t Relfe , Lester Sumral l (founde r o f LeSE A Broadcasting) , an d Jame s McKeeve r (founder o f Omeg a Ministries ) hav e suggeste d tha t th e tur n o f th e millen nium has endtimes importance; and televangelist Jack Van Impe has gone out on a limb and predicted the Rapture and Jesus' return for October 1999 (Alnor 1989:35-39; Boye r 1992:337-338 ; Chandle r 1993:278) . Accordin g t o som e Catholic fol k beliefs , the apparitions of the Virgin Mary at Fatima and Gara bandal included predictions that the world would end in 1999—2000, and th e end o f th e centur y ha s propheti c significanc e fo r som e Jehovah's Witnesses, whose founder , Charle s Taze Russell, purportedl y sai d tha t 199 9 would b e a time of doom when God s divine plan will be revealed (Mann I992:xiii) .

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In addition t o turn-of-the-millennium prediction s associate d with specifi c Christian prophec y traditions , th e propheti c meaning s o f th e crypti c qua trains o f th e Frenc h physicia n an d astrologe r Nostradamu s (1503-1566 ) hav e stimulated an industr y of prophecy interpretation . Various interpreter s of th e quatrains predic t worldl y cataclysm s prio r t o th e yea r 200 0 (includin g a nuclear attack o n Ne w Yor k City i n 1997) , an d som e declar e tha t th e follow ing loosel y translate d quatrai n predict s th e final destructio n o f th e worl d i n July 1999: In the year 1999 and seven months The great King of Terror will come from the sky. He will resurrect Ghengis Khan. Before and after war rules happily. (CenturyX, quatrai n 72; cited in Hogue 1987:204) According t o othe r prophec y enthusiasts , Nostradamus s vision s o f pesti lence, famine , an d natura l catastrophes b y the year 1999 were also foreseen b y Edgar Cayce, th e "sleepin g prophet" of Virginia Beach , who predicte d earth quakes, climate changes , th e flooding o f coastlines, an d a cataclysmic shiftin g of the earths axis sometime betwee n 199 8 and 2001 . Astrologer Jeanne Dixo n also predicts extensive floods, geographi c changes, Armageddon, an d Christ' s return by the year 2000. Som e maintai n tha t these catastrophic eart h change s and a shift o f the polar axis will b e caused b y an unusua l planetar y alignmen t on August 18,1999 , or on Ma y 5 , 2000 (Man n I992:xiii-xiv , 104-105,112-113 ; Chandler 1993:278-280) . As end-of-the-millenniu m apocalypti c expectatio n intensifie s an d ne w doomsday date s ar e forecast , i t i s wort h rememberin g tha t th e en d o f th e world ha s bee n predicte d man y times . Eve n thoug h humanit y ha s survive d every on e o f thes e predicte d doomsdays , curren t apocalypti c speculatio n ha s a ring of plausibility, given the potential disasters and the enormousness of the problems tha t confron t humanit y a t th e tur n o f th e millennium . I n a n er a plagued b y the threa t of nuclea r weapons, environmenta l destruction , AIDS , famine, and other possible forms of extinction, apocalypti c tradition s have an obvious appeal , directl y addressin g fear s o f collectiv e deat h b y offerin g th e promise o f salvatio n an d th e assuranc e tha t a divin e pla n underlie s history . Steeped i n images of catastrophe tha t reflect a n awareness of our own ending s and th e widesprea d feelin g tha t th e worl d itsel f ma y b e dying , apocalypti c beliefs alla y fear s o f huma n extinction , provid e th e hop e o f continuit y an d renewal, an d give expression t o th e desire for a meaningful narrativ e underly ing individua l existenc e an d huma n history . I n apocalypti c traditions , th e

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desire fo r symboli c immortalit y converge s wit h th e yearnin g fo r a terrestria l paradise o f happines s an d huma n fulfillment , i n whic h deat h an d sufferin g will no t exis t an d huma n being s wil l liv e i n harmon y an d understan d thei r purpose i n th e universe . Although apocalypti c worldview s addres s issue s of ultimat e concern—th e reasons for suffering an d injustice, the awareness of death and the yearning fo r immortality, th e natur e o f goo d an d evil , huma n destin y an d th e fat e o f th e earth—the belief that the world can be saved only by otherworldly beings ma y reinforce feeling s o f helplessness an d serve as a substitute fo r confronting th e actual problem s tha t fac e humanity . Apocalypti c tradition s ten d t o den y th e efficacy o f huma n effor t t o improv e th e worl d an d ma y encourag e a passiv e acceptance o f human-made crise s and potentia l disasters . If th e year s 200 0 an d 200 1 pas s uneventfully , perhap s th e emphasi s i n American millennialis t belief s wil l shif t fro m vision s o f th e worl d a s irre deemably evi l an d inevitabl y doome d t o mor e optimisti c view s i n whic h human being s ar e compelle d t o brin g abou t millennia l transformation s through thei r actions , confrontin g crise s an d working t o overcom e sufferin g in th e traditio n o f th e postmillennia l socia l reformists o f th e nineteent h cen tury. Whether o r no t reformis t millennialis t movement s aris e i n th e twenty first century , apocalypti c tradition s predictin g inevitabl e worldl y cataclys m most certainl y wil l flourish a s lon g a s perception s o f overwhelmin g societa l crises and uncontrollabl e evi l exist . Beliefs abou t worldly destructio n an d transformatio n hav e bee n a n ongo ing an d significan t par t o f th e cultura l an d religiou s heritag e o f th e Unite d States an d ar e a n endurin g wa y o f interpretin g th e world . Develope d thou sands of years ago and up through th e nuclear age, apocalyptic tradition s provide comprehensiv e system s o f belie f that fulfil l importan t religiou s an d psy chological needs . Despit e prediction s t o th e contrary , apocalypti c belie f systems wil l no t becom e outdate d o r "collaps e fro m exhaustion " i n th e nea r future. Whethe r analyzin g th e propheti c implication s o f computer s an d recent globa l economi c configurations , o r recastin g ancient apocalypti c idea s in term s of UFO s an d extraterrestria l geneti c engineering , endtime s enthusi asts hav e consistently update d eschatologica l belief s an d mad e the m relevan t and will continu e t o transfor m suc h idea s creatively i n th e years ahead. At th e tur n o f th e millennium , ancien t apocalypti c tradition s converg e with current concerns and popular-culture influences ; individual s may choose from amon g a smorgasbord of endtimes ideas , reformulating thes e within th e constraints o f thei r respectiv e traditions , expandin g thei r belie f systems , o r constructing personalize d apocalypti c scenario s tha t sui t thei r ow n tastes .

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With the development of communication o n the Internet through e-mail and newsgroups, endtimes enthusiasts from divers e belief traditions now exchange ideas and debat e everythin g fro m th e symbolis m o f th e Boo k o f Revelatio n and Nostradamus s quatrain s t o th e propheti c significanc e o f th e Ne w Ag e movement an d Star Trek episodes. Given th e dynami c natur e o f apocalypti c traditions an d th e diversit y o f eschatological idea s tha t hav e emerged a t th e end of the twentieth century, one need not be a prophet to predict that at this moment a multitud e o f roug h beasts , saviors , an d doomsda y scenario s ar e slouching toward Bethlehem t o be born.

Notes

I. A P P R O A C H I N G DOOMSDAY : TH E C O N T O U R S O F AMERICA N APOCALYPTIC BELIE F

i. Cite d i n th e Register Guard (Eugene , Oregon) , Marc h 26 , 1995 , 4A; Register Guard Apri l 7,1995, 20A. 2. The nature and range of such works are suggested by the bibliographical essay s and survey s o f America n millenarianis m b y Ir a V . Brow n (1952) , Davi d E . Smit h (1965), Leonard Sweet (1979), Dietrich G . Bus s (1988), and Loi s P. Zamora (1982a). 3. Some notable exceptions include Charles B. Strozier's important psychohistori cal study, Apocalypse: On the Psychology of Fundamentalismin America (1994), which compares Christia n fundamentalis t belief s wit h Ne w Age idea s and Hop i prophec y beliefs; Barry Brummett's Contemporary Apocalyptic Rhetoric(1991), a rhetorical analysis of various religiou s and secular apocalyptic discourses; and Hille l Schwartz's Century's End: A Cultural History of the Fin de Siecle from the 990s through the 1990s (1990), a sweeping survey of a thousand year s of fin d e siecle thought. 4. There exist s an extensiv e bod y o f commentary o n th e literar y genr e o f apoca lypse, much of which has been written since the early 1960s. These works examine the genre from literary , theological, historical, and sociological perspectives . An overview of approaches i s contained i n Apocalypse: The Morphology of a Genre (published a s a special issu e of the journal Semeia), which survey s Jewish, Christian , Greco-Roman , Gnostic, and Persia n apocalyptic literature (J . Collins 1979). A later issue of Semeia is devoted t o th e characteristic s an d definition s o f earl y Christia n apocalypticis m (A . Collins 1986). Another anthology, Apocalypticism in the Mediterranean World and the Near East (Hellholm 1983) , contains thirty-fiv e essay s on th e literary genre of apocalypse, as well as discussions of the historical an d sociological backgroun d o f the liter ature, a s expressed i n a variety o f societal an d religiou s contexts , suc h a s Egyptian , Iranian, Gnostic, Christian, Jewish, Akkadian, and Palestinian . The 197 9 special issu e of Semeia mentioned abov e and John J . Collins' s boo k o n the subject define th e term apocalypse as "a genre of revelatory literature with a narrative framework , i n whic h a revelatio n i s mediate d b y a n otherworldl y bein g t o a human recipient , disclosin g a transcendent realit y which i s both temporal , insofa r a s it envisage s eschatological salvation , an d spatia l insofa r a s it invoke s another , super natural world" 0- Collins 1989:4). As a noun, apocalyptic is considered by some schol-

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2i8 I Notes to Chapter i ars to refer to a specific worldview or historical movement , t o be distinguished fro m the term apocalypse as a literary genre (J. Collins 1989:1-15). The ter m apocalypticism has multiple connotations as well. Some historians use it to characterize a particular worldview limited to a specific period: "Apocalypticism in the full sense of the word, a balance of myth, method, and way of life existed only for about 20 0 years , an d forme d a unique mentality " (Funkenstei n 1985:57) . On e fre quently cited terminological distinctio n defines apocalypse as a specific literary genre; apocalyptic eschatologyzs a specific religious perspective involving ideas and motifs that may exist in a variety of literary works and social contexts; and apocalypticism as a system of thought associated with visionary movements and related to specific social factors (Hanson 1976:27-34). 5. Millennialis m i s mor e commonl y use d t o characteriz e Christia n beliefs ; mil lenarianism i s frequently employe d t o designate any belief system or movement that includes expectations of a future age of perfection and salvation. Another synonymous term is millenarism, whic h has the advantage of being shorter than millennialism and millenarianism\ howeve r the word is infrequently used . The term adventism is sometimes applied to beliefs and movements that anticipate the coming of the millennium, specifically thos e tha t plac e particular emphasis on speculation s abou t th e retur n or "Second Advent" of Christ rather than his thousand-year reign. The Second Advent of Christ is also referred t o as the Parousia, a Greek word that literally means "presence" and is used in the Bible to refer to the arrival of Christ. The term chiliasm (from the Greek word chil, "on e thousand") i s infrequently applied , although sometimes it is use d t o refe r t o expectation s o f a hedonistic, carnal , o r bacchanalian millenniu m (Schwartz 1987:522) . The wor d Armageddon (a s in "Battl e o f Armageddon") come s from the Book of Revelation and is used in some Christian discourse to refer specifically to the anticipated final battle between Christ and the forces of good against the forces of evil, which will occur before or at the end of the world. Its root is somewhat unclear, althoug h man y premillennialist s asser t i t refer s t o th e nam e o f a valley i n northeast Israel called Megiddo, where, they believe, a finalsupernatural conflagration will occur involving the major armies of the world, as well as the Antichrist, who will be destroyed by Christ and the saints. Prophesied as the largest and bloodiest battle in history, Armageddon will usher in the millennium. 6. Apocalyptic movements frequently have centered on individuals believed to be endowed with supernatural abilities—charismatic leaders, culture saviors, visionaries, or prophets—wh o mediat e betwee n humanit y an d th e supernatural , an d conve y a divine plan for worldly redemption (Walli s 1943; Lanternari 1963) . Such individual s are not granted authority by official religiou s institutions but take it unto it themselves based on what Max Weber identified a s "charisma": "a certain quality of an individual personalit y b y virtue o f which h e i s set apart from ordinar y men an d treated as endowed with . .. exceptiona l powers or qualities" (1947:358-359). Unlike priests, who have th e role of administering th e teachings of official religio n and whose source of authority i s a n establishe d religiou s organization , th e authorit y o f charismati c

Notes to Chapter i I 21 9 prophets stem s from direc t religiou s experiences an d specia l abilities , such a s trance, prophecy, healing, divination, performance of miracles, or inspired preaching (Weber 1963:46-59). This extraecclesiastical authorit y result s from a prophet's abilit y to con vey messages found t o be meaningful b y believers and th e willingness o f believers t o act on these pronouncements. 7. In a discussion of the folk religious nature of apocalyptic beliefs, historian Ernest Sandeen adopts and expands Robert Redfield's (198 9 [1956]) notion of the "Little Tradition" to include not only agrarian and preindustrial societies but millenarian move ments in industrial societies. Sandeen argues that contemporary millenarian beliefs are still part of the "Little Tradition," but diffe r fro m preindustria l millenarianis m i n th e manner i n which such belief s are communicated: "[Modernizin g millenaria n move ments seek the expansion of their membership throug h centrall y directed campaigns; concentrate upo n th e mas s medi a t o sprea d thei r message , historicall y throug h th e printed pag e and , increasingly , i n th e secon d hal f o f th e twentiet h centur y throug h television; authenticate thei r claims by reference t o a printed source , the Bible ; organize their belief s int o an ideolog y which i s rationally defended ; ar e male dominated ; and discourag e direc t revelations , especiall y fro m women " (1980:175) . Althoug h Sandeen's observations accurately describe contemporary apocalypti c tradition s suc h as premillennia l dispensationalism , a numbe r o f curren t millenaria n movement s emphasize th e direc t revelation s o f femal e visionaries . Variou s Roma n Catholi c groups tha t cente r o n apocalypti c Maria n apparition s ar e founded o n th e vision s o f female seers , and severa l New Age millenarian movement s celebrat e th e apocalypti c ideas communicated b y female prophets , channelers , an d visionarie s (e.g. , Elizabet h Claire Prophet , o f th e Churc h Universa l an d Triumphant) . Assorte d group s withi n the UF O movemen t als o ar e founde d o n th e revelation s o f femal e visionaries , con tactees, or channelers (e.g., Uriel, of the Unarius Academy of Science; and Tuella, who channels messages from th e Ashtar Command) . 8. Although folklorists have tended to focus their studies on verbal lore, many have recognized th e interdependence o f oral and other type s of communication, a s well as the dynamic relationship betwee n mas s media communication, popula r culture , and folklore (se e Bausinge r 1990 ; De'g h 1994 ; Dunde s an d Pagte r 1992 ; Howar d 1995 ; Mechling 1996 ; Santin o 1996) . Folklore i s no t onl y transmitte d throug h printe d sources and electronic media but now through th e Internet and e-mail, as members of global subculture s wh o neve r interac t face-to-fac e exchang e an d creat e folklor e i n cyberspace. Despite predictions to the contrary, technology and industrialization hav e not necessaril y destroye d tradition s bu t hav e altere d th e way s tha t tradition s ar e expressed and communicated, an d have helped to generate and perpetuate ne w types of folklore. 9. As Helmer Ringgre n observes , "The question o f man's attitude towar d destin y has never, as far as I know, been treated systematically" (1967:16). 10. I n hi s discussio n o f th e natur e o f "inevitabilit y doctrines, " psychologis t Leonard Doo b note s that although th e term destiny often suggest s good fortune, fate

220 I Notes to Chapter i usually ha s negative implications . Accordingly, h e defines fate base d o n it s negative associations: "I assign fatalism to negative affect because often—though no t always— fate i s associate d wit h doom , whic h usuall y ha s th e sam e negativ e connotation " (1988:6). 11. As J. T. Hicke y notes , "Fatalis m maintain s tha t the human will canno t affec t the outcome of affairs, however, whereas determinism may or may not deny the efficacy of the will as cause" (1967:1324). 12. For example, Antti Aarne and Stith Thompson's The Types of the Folktale (1961) includes numerous stories in which fate plays a predominant role, such as the Predestined Wife (930A), Prophecy of FutureGreatness for Youth (930, mt. 312), The Youth to Die on his Wedding Day (934B), Oedipus (931), and The Predestined Death (934A). For a study of the diffusion o f the Predestined Wife tale, see Archer Taylor (1958). Thompson's Motif Index of Folk-Literature(1955-1958) also contains the chapter "Chance and Fate," which has subheadings such as "Luck and Fate Personified" and "Determination of Luck and Fate." 13. Storie s abou t th e thre e Fate s hav e ancient root s an d were personifie d b y the Greek poet Hesiod (eighth century B.C.E.) in his poem Theogony as three goddesses— Klotho, Lachesis , and Atropos, th e daughters of Night—who contro l th e destiny of mortals and punish the transgressions of humans and gods {Theogony 211-222). Later in Theogony, Hesio d say s that the Fates are the daughters of Zeus and Themis, and that Zeus gave them the highest position: "they distribute to mortal people what people have , fo r goo d an d fo r evil " (Theogony 905-906) (Lattimor e 1977:178) . Kloth o spins the thread of life and thus one's destiny; Lachesis measures its length and weaves the threads of luck or chance into the fabric of one's life; and Atropos, the inescapable one, snip s th e threa d an d determine s th e momen t o f one's death . The siste r of the three Fate s i s Nemesis, wh o wa s sent t o chastis e thos e who offende d th e god s and reward those who were good. Mortal s might offend th e gods by transgressing moral law, an act that made the gods angry, or by achieving too much success in life, which made them jealous; in either case, Nemesis was dispatched t o punish offender s wit h death or disaster. A survival of the idea of offending the gods or the fates persists today in folk beliefs that caution against "tempting fate" ("Don't say 'I never have problems' or 'I never get sick' for fear of tempting fate"; or the idea that "pride comes before a fall"). 14. The word fairy comes from the Latin fata (th e Fates) and fatum (fate) . 15. The role of fate in stories told by Greeks has been addressed by folklorist Robert A. Georges (1978), who notes that in some narratives, characters may be powerless, a pawn of fate's plan; in others, they may be able to supplicate, implore, or trick fate on certain auspicious occasions by themselves or with the help of magical or religious specialists. Folklorist Donald Ward (1972) has considered the way that humor in folk narratives functions to intensify the irony of tragic fate, providing people with a means of laughing a t th e inevitabilit y o f deat h an d sufferin g an d thu s makin g tolerabl e tha t which might otherwise be insufferable.

Notes to Chapter 2 I 22 1 16. Norse idea s about th e thre e Norns , fo r instance , exemplif y th e belie f i n th e omnipotence o f fate an d it s relation t o tim e and history . The Norn s wer e believe d not onl y to spin th e thread o f human lif e and deat h bu t t o rule the fate o f the gods and th e univers e a s well, introducin g tim e int o th e cosmo s an d therefor e control ling th e sequenc e o f al l event s tha t mus t inevitabl y occur . Thei r contro l ove r al l things is further represente d by the belief that they watered and nourished th e world tree Yggdrasi l tha t connecte d heave n an d hel l (Leac h 1972:797 , 1190) . Fro m th e beginning o f time, i t was believed, thes e Norse goddesse s o f fate decree d th e anni hilation o f th e world b y destructive force s (Ragnarok ) an d th e tragi c doo m o f th e

gods.

2 . TH E AMERICA N APOCALYPTI C LEGAC Y

i. For a feminist analysis of the colonialist, racist, and sexist implications of Columbus's apocalypti c beliefs , se e Catherin e Keller' s forthcomin g work , Apocalypse Now and Then: A Feminist Guide to the End of theWorld. 2. Calvin's Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536) contains the primary tenets of his theological system. The idea of predestination also found ful l expression in the theologies of Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli, the other principal leaders of the Protestant Reformation . 3. The association o f the forces of fate with God' s divine will are also expressed in previous Christian doctrine s of predestination tha t hold tha t Go d has predetermine d each individual' s salvatio n o r damnation . Accordin g t o Sain t Augustin e (354-43 0 C.E.), humans are so contaminated b y sin that the y cannot hop e to enter th e celestial realms through thei r own efforts bu t onl y if they have been chosen b y God, who has destined some for salvation an d others for damnation (Gramb o 1988:13). 4. In The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1958 [1904-1905]), sociologist and political economist Max Weber discusses at length th e concept of predestination, which h e declare s i s Calvinism's mos t characteristi c an d influentia l doctrine . Webe r argues that the doctrine of predestination an d the attempt t o determine one's fate ultimately motivated th e Protestant ethic that contributed t o the development of modern capitalism. The implications of the Calvinist view of a God that has predestined the salvation or damnation o f every soul is described by Weber in the following manner : The Fathe r i n heave n o f th e Ne w Testament, s o human an d understanding , who rejoice s ove r the repentance of a sinner . . . [ha s been replace d i n Calvin ism] b y a transcendenta l being , beyon d th e reac h o f huma n understanding , who with His quite incomprehensible decrees has decided the fate of every individual an d regulate d th e tinies t detail s of the cosmos from eternity . . . . I n it s extreme inhumanity, this doctrine must above all have had one consequence for the life of a generation which surrendered t o its magnificent consistency . Tha t was a feeling o f unprecedented inne r lonelines s o f the single individual . (195 8 [1904-19051:104)

222 I

Notes to Chapter 2

According to Weber, th e doctrine of predestination no t only evoked a profound spir itual loneliness but resulted in widespread religious anxiety at the popular level among believers who agonized over the fate of their souls: were they among God's predeter mined elect or destined for eternal damnation? This intolerable psychological tormen t motivated believer s t o see k "signs" that indicate d the y ha d bee n chose n fo r eterna l salvation. Despit e Calvin' s clai m tha t on e coul d no t determin e th e final fat e o f one's soul, Calvinist folk theolog y asserted that living a godly life and fulfilling God' s will throug h goo d work s an d succes s i n a worldly callin g were proof o f one's fait h and tha t on e wa s amon g th e elec t an d predestine d fo r salvatio n (Webe r 195 8 [1904-19051:110-115).

Yet because good works and proving one's faith throug h worldly activity were not a means of gaining salvation bu t interprete d a s "signs" of one's predetermined salva tion, even the slightest moral transgression might indicate that one was not among the elect but was condemned t o damnation fo r eternity (Weber 1958 [i904-i905]:ii5-n6). Therefore, th e rigorous control of one's behavior was necessary to assure oneself tha t one was among th e chosen, an d a s a result a moral cod e developed tha t emphasize d hard work , a fruga l lifestyle , an d th e rationa l organizatio n o f labo r t o accumulat e wealth—what Webe r call s the Protestan t ethic . According t o Weber, thi s asceticis m unintentionally instille d th e work ethic and driv e necessary for successful capitalism ; the original "capitalis t spirit" was not motivate d b y the desire for worldly pleasure or power but by the religious anxiety associated with th e doctrine of predestination an d the ensuin g attemp t t o prov e one' s salvatio n throug h succes s i n a worldl y callin g assigned b y God. 5. The affluen t lifestyle s o f numerou s premillennialis t writer s an d T V minister s have contributed t o suspicions about their motives. Hal Lindsey's literary success and lifestyle, fo r instance , have led some t o question th e sincerity of his writings. As one observer notes , "It' s ironic , t o sa y the least , tha t th e write r o f boo k afte r boo k pro claiming the soon-coming end of the world should sink a substantial portion of those book royaltie s into long-term rea l estate investments" (S. Graham 1989:253) . Lindsey declares that his investments ensure the continuation o f his ministry . 3. SIGN S O F TH E ENDTIME S

i. At th e tim e of the publication o f The Late Great Planet Earth in 1970 , Lindsey stated tha t a generation wa s approximately fort y years, which would place the apocalypse sometime i n th e late 1980s, but h e has since revised th e length o f a generation, saying that in biblical time generations ma y have spanned on e hundred years. 2. Beliefs about doomsday reversals, such as animals chasing humans and riding in carriages o n doomsday , ar e suggested b y English loca l buria l legend s fro m th e eigh teenth an d nineteent h centuries . Thes e legends , abou t me n bein g arrange d t o b e buried upside down, supposedly resulted from th e popular belief that the world would turn upsid e down o n doomsday (Simpso n 1978:559-564).

Notes to Chapter 4 I

22 3

3. Eskerod (1947 ) suggests tha t noncausa l omen s (e.g. , " A red sunris e means ba d weather" or "When ants leave their holes—good weather ahead") imply a belief in an a-causal relationshi p betwee n th e sign (whethe r animals , plants, human behavior , o r forces o f nature) an d th e result; causal superstitions (e.g. , "If you brea k a mirror yo u will have seven years of bad luck") are characterized as involving "intentional or unintentional" cause-effect relationships . 4 . A P O C A L Y P T I C A P P A R I T I O N S O F T H E V I R G I N MAR Y I N N E W YOR K C I T Y

i. According to the most recent statement, issued on November 4,1986, by Bishop Francis Mugavero of the Diocese of Brooklyn, an investigation reveale d that the Bayside visions "completely lacke d authenticity." "N o credibilit y can be given t o th e socalled 'apparitions' reported by Veronica Lueken and her followers.... Becaus e of my concern for their spiritual welfare, members of Christ's faithful ar e hereby directed t o refrain fro m participatin g i n th e Vigils ' an d fro m disseminatin g an y propagand a related to the 'Bayside apparitions.' They are also discouraged from readin g any such literature" (Mugavero 1989:210-211). The condemnation doe s not appear to have discouraged belie f i n th e prophecie s amon g Baysiders , however , an d i n fac t ma y hav e motivated many of them t o increase their efforts t o disseminate the Bayside messages and gai n ecclesiastica l acceptanc e fo r Mrs . Lueken' s visions . Th e Baysid e literatur e declares that the Brooklyn Dioces e did not conduct a thorough an d proper investiga tion an d note s tha t th e apparitions a t Lourdes and Fatim a were initially condemne d as well and tha t th e church too k years before i t officially sanctione d thes e apparitio n sites. Baysider s believ e tha t unti l a mor e extensiv e investigatio n i s conducted, thei r involvement i n th e Baysid e movemen t i s ecclesiasticall y permissibl e (OLR Book 1986:40). 2. Although n o studies hav e bee n publishe d o n th e Baysid e apparitions, researc h by th e Turner s (1978) , Christian (1984) , Matter (1986) , Kselman an d Avell a (1986) , and especially Zimdars-Swartz (1991) note the apocalyptic themes of previous Marian apparitions. I n additio n t o thes e important works , other studie s o f the Virgin Mar y and Marian devotion includ e attempts t o trace the origins of the veneration o f Mary to pre-Christia n goddes s an d fertilit y cult s (Gimbuta s 1982 ; James 1959 ; Neuman n 1963); to works that discus s the psychological need s fulfilled b y Marian imager y an d devotion (Cunningha m 1982 ; Greeley 1977; Jung 1970) ; to psychoanalytical explana tions (Carrol l 1986); to feminist interpretation s (Kristev a 1986 ; Warner 1976) ; and t o the political implication s o f Marian devotio n (Ba x 1987; Perry and Echeverri a 1988). A samplin g o f othe r significan t studie s includ e th e Nolans ' surve y o f pilgrimag e i n modern western Europe (1989) , Orsi's history of devotion t o the Virgin Mar y in Italian Harlem (1985) , and th e historical analyse s of Marian devotio n i n nineteenth-cen tury Franc e b y Kselma n (1983 ) an d Pop e (1985 ) an d o f Maria n apparition s i n rura l Spain from 139 9 to 1523 by Christian (1981).

224 I Notes to Chapter 4 3. For a more extensive consideration o f the meaning of miraculous photography for Baysiders and a discussion o f this practice as an innovation i n regard to previous Roman Catholic traditions concerning miraculous images, see Wojcik (1996b). 4. Miraculous photography and the other unique features of the Bayside phenomenon an d Mrs. Lueken's apparitions are linked b y Baysiders to broader traditions of Marian apparitions and regarded as part of a progression of Marian sightings. Despite their various idiosyncratic elements, the Bayside messages do resemble other messages communicated at previous Marian apparition sites, particularly those communicated by the Virgin Mary to another American visionary, Mrs. Mary Ann Van Hoof, in the town o f Neceda h i n rura l Wisconsi n durin g th e 1950s . Mrs . Va n Hoof s vision s received extensive media coverage at the time, especially after approximately 100,00 0 people journeyed to her farm to witness her enter a state of ecstasy and converse with the Virgin Mary on th e feast of the Assumption, August 15 , 1950 {Welcome to Queen of the Holy Rosary, Mediatrix of Peace,Mediatrix Between God and Man Shrine n.d.). Like Mrs. Lueken' s apparitions , th e Van Hoo f message s are lengthy and discursive, and express Cold Wa r fears, anticommunis t sentiments , a preoccupation wit h con spiracies, an d apocalypti c apprehensions . Th e possibilit y tha t Mrs . Lueke n con sciously or unconsciously imitated the Necedah messages is noted by Michael Carroll (1986:139-140), who points out similarities in the language used by Mrs. Lueken and Mrs. Van Hoof. 5. In August 1995, Veronica Lueken died at the age of seventy-two. The most recent newsletter maile d b y the shrine after her death calls for a renewed effort t o disseminate th e Baysid e prophecie s an d carr y on th e missio n o f th e Baysid e movement . I t notes that the Virgin Mary also died at the age of seventy-two and that Mrs. Lueken's death date, August 3, is not designated as a feast day for any saint in the Church—it's an open slot. All indications are that Veronica Lueken will eventually be canonized a saint of the Roman Catholic Church. . . . Our Lady of the Roses Shrine now enters a new and glorious phase of existence, just as its founder, Veronica, has now entered into a ne w an d gloriou s phas e o f he r existence . Fo r bein g loose d fro m he r earthly bindings, she is now at liberty to assist from Heaven the mission she so loved while on earth. When we reflect on the life of St. Theresa, we see that it wasn't unti l afte r he r death tha t her message and sanctity becam e universall y acclaimed. Such was the case with many other saints. So we should understand that Heaven has cued us up to this point, and has entrusted us with a great mission. ("Veronica of the Cross" n.d.:3) The newslette r als o reiterate s th e belief tha t th e Virgin Mar y and Jesus are always present at the apparition site vigils, even if Mrs. Lueken is not, and includes as proof of thi s heavenl y presenc e a miraculou s phot o take n a t a vigil hel d a t th e sit e i n remembrance of Mrs. Lueke n on August 5 , 1995. Beneath th e photograph th e caption reads:

Notes to Chapter^ I

22 5

After th e announcemen t wa s mad e o f Veronica's death , a n audi o segmen t o f timely and uplifting word s from Jesus , Mary, and Veronica was played for th e crowd. Just a s it ende d a t 7:5 0 p.m. , Mrs . Anne Scrivener , a Maryland orga nizer, snapped a Polaroid photo . A beam o f light descends upo n th e statue of Our Lady of the Roses, Mary Help of Mothers. Heaven was punctuating Their own words with a wondrous and permanent sign to remember: that this Shrine is of Divin e origi n an d tha t it s growt h an d developmen t wil l continu e t o b e directed b y Jesus, Mary and , o f course, Veronica, fro m he r ne w abode o f th e blessed. ("Veronica o f the Cross" n.d.rphoto insert ) Now that the messages from Mar y and Jesus are no longer directly conveyed b y Mrs. Lueken throug h apparitions , th e practic e o f miraculou s photograph y ma y com e t o play an even more important role in the religious lives of Baysiders as a means of determining the divine will, receiving apocalyptic messages, and experiencing the sacred at the apparition site. 5. SECULA R APOCALYPTI C THEME S I N TH E NUCLEA R ER A

i. Th e atomi c bom b als o served a s the inspiratio n fo r namin g skimp y two-piec e swimsuits "bikinis." French fashio n designe r Loui s Reard introduce d hi s swimsuit a t the same time the United State s began postwa r atomic testing on th e Bikin i Atoll in the Marshall Islands in 1946. Reard supposedly selected the name "bikini" because the word wa s use d extensivel y i n th e medi a coverag e o f th e bombin g an d becaus e h e believed his design was "explosive." 2. Th e followin g accoun t o f a n atomi c ag e innovatio n i n children' s pla y wa s recorded i n th e New Yorker on Augus t 18 , 1945, twelv e day s afte r th e bombin g o f Hiroshima an d Nagasaki : For year s th e playgroun d i n Washingto n Squar e ha s resounde d t o th e high strung anh-anh-an h o f machine gun s an d th e long-drawn-out whin e o f high velocity shells. Last Saturday morning a great advance was made. We watche d a militar y ma n o f seven o r eigh t clim b ont o a seesaw, gather a number o f his staff officer s aroun d him , an d explai n th e changed situation . "Look, " h e said , "I'm a n atomic bomb. I just g o 'boom.' Once . Lik e this." He raise d his arms, puffed ou t his cheeks, jumped down from th e seesaw, and went "Boom!" Then he le d hi s arm y away , leavin g Manhatta n i n ruin s behin d him . {New Yorker^ August 18,1945,17 ) 3. For example, Popular Mechanics magazine feature d a fallout shelte r i n it s i96 0 house of the year and included an article that began: "A bomb is dropped on a key target. Bu t who cares , you liv e miles away. Fallou t can' t reac h you. Bu t soon , you an d your family become ill, dangerously ill. Now you wish you had heeded the importance of a fallout shelter " (Hine 1989:135). 4. General advice was that fallout shelters should be stocked with a two-week sup-

226 I Notes to Chapter^ ply of food and water, with standard fare consisting of canned and dried foods, evaporated milk, potatoes , cereal , and crackers. Also recommended were flashlights, bat teries, candles , a radio, and , a s one narrato r of a civil defens e fil m advised , "B y all means, provide some tranquilizers to ease the strain and monotony of life in a shelter. A bottle of one hundred should be adequate for a family of four. Tranquilizers are not a narcotic, and are not habit forming." (RafFerty et al. 1982:105). 5. As Lois Zamora notes in an essay on American literature with end-of-the-worl d themes, "Our best writers have constantly questioned the nature of that end, and they have ofte n frame d thei r question s i n th e term s o f th e myt h o f th e apocalypse " (19820:97). Anothe r write r state s tha t "image s o f th e en d o f th e worl d aboun d i n American literature, and with good reason: the very idea of America in history is apocalyptic, arising as it did out of the historicizing of apocalyptic hopes in the Protestant Reformation" (Robinso n I985:xi) . Literar y theorist s hav e examined apocalypti c an d millenarian theme s expresse d i n th e writings o f American author s such a s Herman Melville, Mar k Twain, Edgar Allen Poe , Ralp h Waldo Emerson, William Faulkner, Nathanael West , Ralp h Ellison , Rober t Coover , Susa n Sontag , John Updike , Joan Didion, Don DeLillo, and Thomas Pynchon, among others (cf. Dewe y 1990; Ketterer 1974; Kroes 1985; Lewicki 1984; May 1972; Robinson 1985; Wagar 1982; Yoke 1987; and Zamora 1982b). 6. Some artists did, however, address the idea of the nuclear destruction of humanity. Henry Moore's sculpture Nuclear Energy (1966) depicts a mushroom cloud in the shape of a skull; Jean Tinguely created a motorized device that destroyed itself before an audience at the New York Museum o f Modern Art; and Jasper Johns assembled fragmented painte d cast s o f scattered bod y parts—ear , nose , mouth , fingers , penis , toes—set in wooden containers above a target (Weart 1988:403-404, 394). 7. Jonathan Schell, in The Fate of theEarth (1982), asserts that contemporary artists may sens e tha t al l o f art—thei r ow n creation s a s well a s previou s timeles s master pieces—may ultimately be destroyed by nuclear holocaust, and that posterity and history no longe r offe r th e hope of saving art from tim e an d destruction. Th e nuclea r peril "threatens not each individual work but the world to which all works are offered, and make s u s fee l tha t eve n i f we di d accomplis h ou r individua l aim s i t woul d b e pointless, thus undercutting our will to accomplish anything at all" (1982:164). Schell writes that action painting, performance art, and "happenings" are self-fulfilling form s of art that are "isolated from the past and the future—in th e moment, thus giving up on communio n wit h th e dead and with th e unborn : doing away, i n fact , with art's whole dependence on the common world, which assumes the existence of the human future" (1982:164-165). 8. One of the few artists in "The End of the World" show at the New Museum of Contemporary Art whose work expressed the idea of a redemptive apocalypse was the Reverend Howar d Finster , on e o f th e few nationall y renowne d "fol k artists " in the United States. Finster has been featured in Life magazine, the Wall Street Journal,and People magazine; he also has been a guest on the Johnny Carson show and designed

Notes to Chapter^ I 22 7 album covers for musical groups such as the Talking Heads and R.E.M. Although best known fo r th e variety of his art and hi s prodigious output , an d th e two-acre folk ar t environment in his backyard in Pennville, Georgia, Finster turns out creations that are often explicitl y apocalyptic. A number o f his paintings and sculptures detail the various evils of contemporary society, announce the coming end and ensuing millennium, and depic t hi s visions o f heaven, hell , other worlds , an d imager y fro m th e Boo k o f Revelation. Finster's apocalyptic visions are less horrifying and judgmental than most , and he often present s his message in an endearing and witty manner. Hi s painting of the Fou r Horseme n o f the Apocalypse, fo r instance , i s entitled Find the Four Horsemen of the Revelation and portray s a ranch scen e of dozens of horses, with th e apocalyptic Four Horsemen hidde n somewher e in their midst, disguised a s saddled ponies. Yet Finster' s ow n statement s indicat e th e seriou s apocalypti c underpinning s o f hi s work, as well as his sense of the inevitability of doomsday: "I have the whole world on my shoulders, and I feel responsible for this world, because it's livin' out its Last Days, and I' m her e as a red light t o warn thi s world abou t al l o' that . Go d sen t m e here t o preach His Word i n the Last Days, and t o be a Man o f Visions, and t o tell the world 'bout my visions through my sacred art and my garden, to bring out things where they wouldn't be forgotten. And that's what I'm adoin' . I'm fulfillin ' God' s plan for me on Earth's Planet" (Finster 1989:178). 9.1 have heard people express similar sentiments with statements like "If they drop the bomb, I hope it lands on m y house. The quicker the better. " 10. Xeroxlore often th e takes the form o f parodies of office document s and letters, exemplified b y the following mem o regarding a union disput e concerning th e end of the world: MEMO TO AL

L PERSONNE L

FROM HEADQUARTER

S

Due t o the fact tha t th e tw o union s involve d hav e been unabl e t o agree upo n who shal l blo w th e trumpets , th e en d o f th e worl d ha s bee n postpone d fo r another two weeks. (Dundes and Pagte r 1987:92) 11. One researcher , fo r instance , observes tha t th e countercultural apocalypticis m and millenarianis m o f th e 1960 s and 1970 s was a response t o widespread feeling s o f anomie among youth, and gives as an exampl e the Charles Manson "Family, " which he notes was millenarian i n its expectations of a racist apocalypse and the transforma tion of society: "Manson though t of himself as leader, as father, a s savior. His years at the Spahn movi e ranch an d i n the desert mountain s nea r Los Angeles, preparing fo r doomsday, see m like a perverse biblical image . Still, there was a promise of salvation here, too, with the otherworldly savior being replaced by a charismatic leader" (Bodemann 1974:444) .

228 I Notes to Chapter 6 12. The pun k aestheti c has persisted, i n various forms, t o th e present day. Som e original punks have declared that the punk subculture "died" soon after its inception, but ther e ar e still man y individual s wh o conside r themselve s punks , postpunks , o r "alternatives" (as well as many who refuse such labels altogether) and who continue to be inspire d b y th e legac y o f earl y pun k i n som e way . Late r incarnation s o f pun k include hard-core , ne w wave , n o wave , thrash , gloom , gothic , gloom-glam , spee d metal, straight edge anarchist punk, grunge, industrial, and riot grrrls, among others. The music and ethos associated with these movements are occasionally nihilistic and apocalyptic as well. 6 . FATALIS M A N D APOCALYPTI C BELIEF S

i. Among the better known studies are works by Barkun 1974, Chamberlain 1975, Cohn 1970, Festinger et al. 1956, Friedlander et al. 1985, Friedrich 1986, Garrett 1975, Hanson 1979 , Harriso n 1979 , Hobsbaw m 1965 , McGin n 1979 , Schmithal s 1975 , Schwartz 1990, and the studies of American millenarianis m cited in chapter 1. 2. Prim o Levi , recallin g th e psychologica l stat e o f th e Muselmanner , describe d them a s "non-me n wh o marc h an d labo r i n silence , th e divin e spar k dea d withi n them, already too empty to suffer. On e hesitates to call them living: one hesitates to call thei r death death, in the face of which they have no fear, as they are too tired to understand" (1961:82). 7 . TH E T R A N S F O R M A T I O N O F APOCALYPTI C T R A D I T I O N S I N TH E P O S T - C O L D WA R ER A

i. Reflectin g on the persistence and variability of Christian apocalyptic traditions, Paul Boye r observes, "One is struck no t only by the durability of apocalyptic belief, but also by its enormous adaptability. From second-century Asia Minor to eighteenthcentury America, in vastly different historical circumstances, interpreters found vastly different meaning s in the prophecies" (1992:77). 2. The variable content but underlying structural consistency of apocalyptic narratives suggest folklorist Vladimir Propp's observations about the morphological simi larities in folktales tha t otherwise appear unrelated because of their seemingly differ ent content (1968). As Propp noted, although the specific actions or characteristics of the dramatis personae may differ in folktales, th e function, o r "act," of these characters remains the same, thus constituting the fundamental element s of the tale. Apocalyptic narratives similarly contain certain formal regularities that serve as the basis for the stability of the tradition , bu t th e content i s variable and serves as the source for innovation. 3. Mary Stewart Relfe explains in When Your Money Fails: The "666 System" Is Here (which reportedl y sold mor e than 600,00 0 copie s within fiv e month s afte r publica tion) tha t before "Mr . 666 n come s to power, th e use of the number 666 t o buy and sell must be established worldwide. Relfe then presents numerous examples of the cur-

Notes to Chapter 8 I 22 9 rent us e of the numbe r 666: the World Ban k cod e number , ne w credit card s i n th e United States , IR S forms , a s wel l a s variou s products , includin g computers , shoe s made i n countries of the European Community , menswear , gloves , and fertilizer , i n an attempt t o illustrate the imminence of the Antichrist's arrival (1981:15-20 , 235). 8. EMERGEN T APOCALYPTI C BELIEF S ABOU T UFO S AN D EXTRATERRESTRIAL BEING S

1. As mainstay s i n America n popula r cultur e sinc e th e lat e 1940s , UFO s an d extraterrestrials hav e been depicte d i n thousand s o f science fiction book s an d popu larized furthe r b y hundred s o f films , suc h a s 2001: A Space Odyssey, E. T, Close Encounters of the Third Kind, the Star Wars trilogy, Independence Day, Star Man, Cocoon, th e various Alien movies , as well a s dozens of such B-movi e classic s as Mars Needs Women, I Married a Monster fromOuterSpace, and Devil Girl fromMars.UFOs and ET s have pervaded televisio n program s a s well, ranging from My Favorite Martian to Star Trek and The X-Files. 2. I n a n August 6 , 1990 , Gallu p poll , 1 4 percent o f Americans asserte d the y ha d seen a UFO, u p 3 percent fro m th e 197 3 poll. These poll s indicate tha t UF O belief s and sightings do not seem to be related to particular population groups or educational level; roughly 50 percent of those who believe in UFOs or have reported sightings have attended colleg e (Jacobs 1975:296; Gallup 1988:52-54). 3. Farrakhan describe d hi s UFO encounte r a t a press conference o n Octobe r 24 , 1989: "A beam of light came from th e Wheel and I was carried up on this beam of light into the Wheel.... At the center of the ceiling was a speaker and through th e speaker I heard the voice of the Honorable Elijah Muhammad speaking to me as clearly as you are hearin g m y voice thi s morning " (Koss y 1994:27) . The visio n fro m Muhamma d warned of the U.S. war planned against Moammar Qaddaf i an d also of the war being waged "against the rise of Black youth and Black people in America" (Kossy 1994:27). The rol e of UFOs i n the endtimes also has been discussed i n Farrakhan's newspaper , The Final Calk the lead story of the September 8,1992, issu e was entitled "UFOs an d the New World Order," and it discusses a government plot to create a one-world order by staging a false UFO invasio n i n the future . 4. Flaherty's (1990) work is the most extensive study of the flying saucer faith fro m the perspectives of folkloristics an d comparative mythology . 5. The followin g excerp t fro m a trac t o n UFO s an d th e endtime s rol e o f spac e beings illustrates a number of the themes that characterize messages delivered to UF O contactees: They tell us that they are coming here to assist humankind through these troubled times . The y brin g wit h the m a genera l warnin g whic h tell s u s w e ar e doomed unles s w e alte r ou r ways . They sa y tha t the y themselve s hav e gon e through simila r period s and survive d becaus e the y learned ho w t o live in har mony with th e Universe as well as their fellow beings . They ar e offering thei r

230 I Notes to Chapter 8 hand i n hel p i f w e wil l liste n an d hee d thei r words . However , the y hav e informed al l those who are willing to listen that they are powerless to prevent the worst from taking place if we refuse to acknowledge their existence—something whic h worl d leader s an d th e militar y hav e refuse d t o do . (Beckle y 1980:5-6) 6. Adamski related that the elder philosopher of the space craft told him not only that atomic weapons would endanger earth, but that the radiation would harm other planets as well (Jacob s 1975:111). According to Adamski, th e space people "were concerned with radiations going out from earth . .. I asked if this concern was due to the explosions of our bombs with thei r resultant vast radioactive clouds? He understoo d this readil y and nodde d i n th e affirmative. M y nex t questio n wa s whether thi s was dangerous, and I pictured in my mind a scene of destruction. To this, too, he nodded his head in the affirmative, bu t upon his face there was no sign of resentment or judgment. His expression was one of understanding, and great compassion; as one would have toward a much loved child who had erred through ignorance and lack of understanding" (Leslie and Adamski 1967:59-60). 7. I n contactee narratives descriptions of an idyllic life on other planets are often contrasted with life on earth, as conveyed by the following account from VIVENUS, an alleged space woman: We wear no shoes, for the touch of our ground is blessed when we are moved to touch it. .. . We don't have money; we don't have wars; we don't have cars; we don't hav e bombs; we don't hav e guns; we don't hav e pain; we don't ge t lonely; we don't have misunderstanding; we don't have ridicule; we don't have misfortune. W e don't have a lot that the Earth has—and there is no lack anywhere. (Beckley 1982:69) 8. Van Tassel was one of the most influential o f the early organizers of the flying saucer movement, holding flying saucer conventions at Giant Rock from 19^4 to 1974 (the first convention, in 1954, attracted more than five thousand people). 9. Although Commander Ashtar is a male, his name resembles that of Ashtoreth, the ancient Syrian and Phoenician goddess of love and fertility. In addition to Ashtar, other space deities from the Ashtar Command who frequently channel messages are a "beautiful spacewoman " named Aura Raines from th e planet Clarion and the somewhat militaristic Monka from Mars (see Beckley 1982). 10. The statements of Gabriel Green, long-standing president of the Amalgamated Flying Saucer Clubs of America, exemplify th e combination of conditional apocalypticism and an evacuation scenario that is frequently expressed in the UFO subculture. Green states that apocalypse is not inevitable as long as human beings abandon their destructive ways and learn, throug h th e guidance of aliens, t o develop positiv e attitudes and behaviors that will move humanity into an Aquarian Age of peace and harmony. However, if an apocalypse does occur, Green asserts that the space beings will

Notes to Chapter 8 I 23 1 swoop down and evacuate one-tenth of the world's population in the Rapture: "only one-tenth of the population will be spiritually qualified t o live in an environment o f harmony, and there are some limitations on their ability to provide for us, to house us and so forth" (Fulcher 1984:2). In the universalist manner characteristic of the flying saucer worldview, Gree n declare s not onl y tha t thi s UF O adven t will fulfil l biblica l prophecies of the Second Coming but that it will "fulfill th e purposes of all religions simultaneously" (Fulcher 1984:2).

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Bibliography I 25 5 The Apocalyptic Vision in America: Interdisciplinary Essays on Myth and Culture, ed. Lois Parkinson Zamora , 97-138. Bowling Green, OH : Bowlin g Green Universit y Popular Press. Zeitlin, Steve n J. 1980 . "An Alchemy of Mind": The famil y courtshi p story. Western Folklore 39:17-33. Zimdars-Swartz, Sandr a L. 1991. Encountering Mary: From La Salette to Medjugorje. Princeton: Princeto n Universit y Press.

Index

Aarne, Antti, lion Abduction: Human Encounters with Aliens (Mack), 194,197-9 8 Abolition, postmillennialis m and , 35 , 205 Abstract Expressionism , 10 8 Absurdity, 113-14,13 1 in film, 10 9 in literature , 10 8 in music , 128 punk subcultur e on , 125 technology and , 10 3 Acquired immunodeficienc y syndrom e (AIDS), 171 Action painting , 109 , 226n Adam an d Eve , as ETs, 185 Adamski, George , 179, 230H, fig. 33 Adventism, definitio n of , 218 n Advertisements for Baysid e (NY ) Maria n apparitions , 60-61 , 70 for Heaven' s Gat e group , 182 for Psychic and UFO Revelations in the Last Days, 183-84, fig. 29 Aetherius, 20 8 Aetherius Society , 187-89 , fig. 34 Africa, Baysid e (NY ) Maria n apparition s on , 7 5 African American s and millenarianism , 2 8 persecution of , 10-11,120-2 1 Age of Apocalypse, 19 0 Age of Aquarius, 207, 230W AIDS (Acquire d immunodeficienc y syndrome) , 171 Akita, Japan, Maria n apparition s at , 6 0 Aladdin Sane (Bowie) , 125 Alamo Christia n Foundation , 2 8 Alamogordo bomb , 178 Album covers , 128, 227W Alienation

and apocalypticism , 134,14 4 learned helplessnes s and , 135 in post-Col d Wa r era , 173 in pun k subculture , 124,12 8 Aliens. See Extraterrestrials (ET ) Amaara, Solar a Antara, 20 6 Amalgamated Flyin g Saucer Club s o f America 180, 230 W

America. See also United State s destiny of, 2 4 as terrestrial paradise , 21 , 98 American apocalypti c beliefs , 1-2 0 contemporary, 5-1 1 history of , 21-3 6 millenarianism, 15-1 6 syncretic natur e of , 1 0 American Revolution , 24,18 8 Amillennialism, definitio n of , 3 4 Anarchism, i n pun k subculture , 122,13 0 "Anarchy i n th e U.K. " (Se x Pistols), 130 Anders, Gunther , 138-3 9 Angels of death, fig. 2 1 and ETs , 179,185,191-93, 202, fig. 41 fallen, 20 2 Gabriel, 64 , 79,18 5 and Joseph Smith , 2 7 Michael, 79 , 84 Raphael, 188 Uriel, 20 5 Angelucci, Orfeo , 179-8 0 Anger, i n pun k subculture , 12 9 Anne (Saint) , 7 9 "Annihilation" (Crucifix) , 127-2 8 Anomie and millenaria n movement , 13 4 in pun k subculture , 125 Antichrist and Armageddon, 218 n

257

258 I

Index

Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparition s on , 16 5 beliefs on , 8 characteristics of , 153,16 4 false peac e and, 159,163-6 4 formal religio n on , 16 5 head woun d of , 157,162-6 3 Lindsey on, 39-40 , 53 in post-Col d Wa r prophecy , 16 3 premillennialism on , 35 rise of, 162-6 5 and Roma n Empire , 158,160,163-6 4 technology and , 165-7 0 Trilateral Commissio n and , 14 1 U F O movemen t on , 19 9 UFOs and , 202- 3 worship of , 164,16 6 Antichrist equatio n and Gates , 166 and Gorbachev , 153 and Kennedy , 16 3 and Kissinger , 16 3 and Reagan , 16 3 Antichrist identifications , 16 3 Catholicism, 2 8 Clinton, 16 4 computer, 16 5 Gates, 16 6 Gorbachev, 148,15 3 Hitler, 14 8 Hussein, 148,15 7 Napoleon, 14 8 Nero, 14 8 Pope, 162 Anticommercialism, i n pun k subculture , 12 2 Antimodernism, i n Baysid e (NY ) Maria n apparitions, 88-9 0 Antiromanticism, i n pun k subculture , 122 Anti-Semitism in conspiratoria l thinking , 16 2 Islamic, 155 Lindsey on , 4 1 among survivalists , 120 Anxiety determinism and , 5 4 learned helplessnes s and , 135 and millenaria n movement , 13 4 religious apocalypti c account s and , 14 3 Apathy, public , o n nuclea r issues , 139 Apocalypse avoidable. See Cataclysmic forewarnin g

black, 10 8 dating o f folk belief s on , 51 Miller on , 25-2 6 definition of , 4,11 , 217/1 broader, 11-1 2 in films, 109-1 2 and genocide , 12 0 hastening, 145-4 6 inevitability of . See Inevitability invisible/spiritual, 2 6 legends of , 5 as literary genre, 217H in lyrics , 125-28 meaningful, 5 8 in Baysid e (NY ) Maria n apparitions , 9 6 divine determinis m and , 142-4 5 meaningless, 10,131 , 209 , 211 in film, 109-1 0 planning for , 119-2 0 prevention/postponement of , a s heresy, 41, 57-58 punk subcultur e on , 121-3 2 push-button, 102- 3 resolution of , U F O movemen t on , 18 9 terminology of , 11-1 3 U F O movemen t on , 180-8 5 world after , 10 4 films on , 111-1 2 in pun k subculture , 126-2 7 Apocalypse (Burroughs), 10 8 Apocalypse: On the Psychology of Fundamentalism in America (Strozier) , 34 , njn Apocalypse Now (film) , 9 8 Apocalyptic, definitio n of , 12 , 217-18 n Apocalyptic belief s about UFO s an d ETs , 175-20 8 in fol k religion , 2,14-17 , 219 n, 22m future of , 211-1 5 in non-Wester n societies , 133 of past, 133-3 4 in post-Col d Wa r era , 148-7 4 privatization of , 1 7 of Puritans , 21-2 2 Apocalyptic eschatology , definitio n of , 21 8 n Apocalypticism. See also Premillennialism adaptability of, 73,151, 168, 22 8 n American. See American apocalypti c belief s appeal of , 143-4 4 conditional, 187-89 , 209-1 1

Index I

in Baysid e (NY ) Maria n apparitions , 90-96 , 210

in E T messages , 179,186-88,193,195-96 , 230-31 n countercultural, 227 n definition of , 12 , 218 n fatalism and , 17-20,133-4 7 feminism and , 22 1 n in Maria n apparitions , 66-6 8 media of , 1 6 popular, spiritua l cultur e of , 1 7 proponents of , 2,16-1 7 psychology of, 21 3 in pun k subculture , 11,125,13 0 stereotypes of , 3 in U F O abductio n narratives , 193-9 4 in U F O movement , 17 6 unconditional, 209-1 0 unredemptive, 209 , 211 Apocalyptic motifs , 5- 6 Apocalyptic movement s leaders in , characteristics of , 72 , 218-19 w, 227n women in , 219 n Applewhite, Marshall Herff , 18 1 Argiielles, Jose\ 206- 7 Armageddon beliefs on , 8 dating of, Dixo n on , 213 definition of , 21 8 n in film, 4 9 Gulf War and , 156-5 7 Harmonic Convergenc e and , 20 7 Lindsey on, 38-39 , fig. 9 as nuclear cataclysm , 137 peace before, 158-6 0 premillennialism on , 35 Rapture and , 4 3 Reagan and , 29-3 0 as U FO armada , 18 6 Armageddon, Oil and the Middle East Crisis (Walvoord), 8,156-6 7 Arms race , 36 Armstrong, Herber t W. , 2 9 Arnold, Kenneth , 176,17 8 Art destruction of , 9 8 ephemeral/dematerialized, 10 9 nuclear cataclys m in , 108-9 , 226 n process of creating in, 10 9 punk, 12 8

25 9

Aryan Nations , 11 Ascended Masters , 188-8 9 Ashtar, 208 , 230W Ashtar Command , 185-86,191,193 , 210-1 1 Ashtoreth, 230 ^ Asimov, Isaac , 98 Assemblies o f God Church , apocalypti c belief s of, 7 Astaire, Fred , 10 9 Astrology, 19 Atheism Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparition s on , 9 0 in Sovie t Union , 151 Athena, 186 , 20 8 Atomic bomb , the . See Nuclear cataclysm ; Nuclear technolog y Atropos, 22 0 n Attack of the Crab Monsters (film), n o Audio cassettes , 30 , 70-7 1 Augustine (Saint) , 95, 221 n Aum Shinr i Ky o group, 3 , 209 Authoritarianism, an d fatalism , 14 5 Aztecs, 9, 20 7 Babel, 161 Babylon in endtime s scenarios , 157-5 8 identifications of , 15 7 Whore of , i n film, 4 9 Baer, Randall , 20 3 Baha'i organizations , 2 9 Bakker, Jim an d Tammy , 7 , 30, 34 Bannuex, Belgium , Maria n apparition s at , 6 2 Bar coding, 168-6 9 Barkun, Michael , 98,120,134,145-4 6 Basilica o f Our Lad y of Guadalupe, 6 2 Bates, Leon , 20 2 Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparitions , 8 , 60-96 , 140,150

accounts of , 79-8 0 advertisements for , 60-61 , 7 0 on Antichrist , 16 5 beginning of , 68-6 9 on communism , 67-68 , 74 , 9 0 conditional apocalypticis m in , 90-96 , 21 0 devotee participatio n in , 80-8 1 elect and , 73 , 93,144 groups promoting , 7 0 on Mar k o f the Beast , 168 merchandise pertainin g to , 70-7 1

i6o I

Index

Bayside {Continued) messages of, 7 1 on nuclea r cataclysm , 72-77 , 87,13 7 publications from , 69-70 , 75 , 82, 224H, fig. 18, fig. 2 0 Roman Catholi c Church' s positio n on , 63, 223W on Russia , 68-69 , 75 > *5 2 supernatural phenomen a associate d with , 71, 79-85 unique aspect s of, 78-8 1 Beast from 20,000 Fathoms, The (film), i n Beat movement , 10 7 Beauraing, Belgium , Maria n apparition s at , 6 2 Beckley, Timothy, 183-8 4 Beginning of the End (film) , n o Beginning of the End: The Assassination of Yitzhak Rabin and the Coming Antichrist (Hagee), 159 Behavior beliefs and , 5 6 and endtime s signs , 91, 94 in pun k subculture , 12 2 Behavioral psychology , 135 Lindsey on, 4 5 Believers characteristics of , 7 self-esteem of , apocalypticis m and , 143-4 4 Bellarmine, Rober t (Saint) , 7 9 Berg, David , 2 8 Betania, Venezuela , Maria n apparition s at , 6 2 Bethurum, Truman , 17 9 Bhagavad Gita, 10 1 Biafra, Jello , 125 Bible. See also specific books decoding, 25 , 49-50 Lindsey on, 38-39 , 55 fundamentalist interpretation s of . ^ C h r i s t ian fundamentalis m on Mary , 64-6 5 on Rapture , 4 1 on UFOs , 184-85 , 20 2 Bible and Flying Saucers, The (Downing), 185 Bible Believers ' Evangelisti c Association, 43 , 202 Bible Prophecy News (periodical) , 3 0 Biblical prophecy , 31 current event s and . See Current event s a s ful fillment o f endtimes prophecie s interpretations of , 3 1 and Maria n apparitions , 6 5

Lindsey on, 38-39 , 47-4 8 survivalists on, 120-2 1 Big business, fear s of , 14 1 Bikinis, 225W Bilderberg Group , 161,199-20 0 Bleeker, C . J., 1 9 Blob, The (film), i n Bloch, Ruth , 2 4 Blue Army o f Our Lad y of Fatima , 6 2 Body in earl y American beliefs , 2 6 in Heaven' s Gat e beliefs , 182 Body adornment, 122,128 , fig. 12 Body piercing , 168 Bolle, Kees , 58 Bomb, Adam, 125 Bomb, the . See Nuclear cataclysm ; Nuclea r technology Boone, Pat , 33-3 4 Bowie, David , 12 5 Bowles, Paul, 10 7 Boy and His Dog, A (film) , i n Boyer, Paul , 7 , 40, 99,137-38,154,169-70 , 228 n Bradbury, Ray , 10 6 Branch Davidia n group , 3,17 , 29 , 209-1 0 Brednich, Rol f Wilhelm, 1 8 Brethren o f the Fre e Spirit, 15 Broadsides, 17 Brown Scapular , 6 2 Brummett, Barry , 134 , 217W Bryan, C . B . D., 19 4 Buber, Martin , 4 Buddha, 190 , 20 8 Bullard, Thomas , 194-9 6 Bumper stickers , on Rapture , 42-4 3 Burdick, Eugene , 10 6 Bureaucracy, fear s of , 14 1 Burroughs, William S. , Jr., 107- 8 Bush, George , 8,161-6 2 Button technology , 102- 3 By the Bomb's Early Light (Boyer) , 9 9 Cable television , 16 , 71 Calvinism, 22 , 221-22;* Campus Crusad e fo r Christ , 3 8 Canticle for Leibowitz, A (Miller) , 10 6 Capitalism, Protestan t ethi c and , 222/ 1 Cargo cults , 17,13 3 Carlson, Carol e C , 3 8

Index I

Carrol, Michael , 224;* Carter, Jimmy, 162-6 3 Cartoons, 112 , fig. 24 Cataclysmic forewarning , 12 , 209, 211 books on, 98-9 9 Catastrophic millennialism . See Premillennialism Catholic fol k religion , 8 , 60, 76, 8 3 Marian apparition s and , 61,15 2 Catholicism, 12 0 as Antichrist, 2 8 traditional, Baysid e (NY ) Maria n apparition s on, 68-69 , 79 » 86- 89 Catholic Prophecy (Dupont), 76 Cat's Cradle (Vonnegut), 106- 7 Cattle mutilations , 177,199-20 0 Causant-causat relationship , 51-52 , 223 n Cave, Nick, 12 7 Cayce, Edgar , 9 on yea r 2000 , 213 Century's End: A Cultural History of the Fin de Sieclefrom theppos through theippos (Schwartz), 217 n Chabad Lubavitc h movement , 9 Challenger Shuttl e jokes, 115 Change, Baysid e (NY ) Maria n apparition s on , 89 Chapbooks, 17 Chariots of the Gods? (von Daniken) , 185 Charisma, definitio n of , 218-19 n Charismatic seers , 72, 2277* Chastisement in Baysid e (NY ) Maria n prophecies , 69 , 72-74, 78 , 90, 92-9 3 U F O movemen t on , 19 6 Chernobyl jokes , 115-16 Chernus, Ira , 139 Children labor by , abolition of , 35 , 205 nuclear technolog y and , 102-3,129 , 225H in sic k humor, 11 6 Children o f God group , 2 8 Chiliasm, definitio n of , 218 n Chiliast, 13 Chilton, Paul , 117 China Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparition s on , 7 5 Lindsey on, 39-4 0 Choice of Catastrophes, A (Asimov) , 98 Cholera, 17 1

26 1

Christadelphians, 2 5 Christian apocalypti c beliefs , 6 . See also Bayside (NY) Maria n apparitions ; Premillennia l dispensationalism and Revelation , 3 2 and UFOs , 202- 4 Christian fundamentalism , 36 . See also Premillennial dispensationalis m apocalyptic belief s in , 7 , 3 4 on divin e determinism , 55-5 6 ETs and , 20 4 and nuclea r cataclysm , 4 2 on secula r humanism , 4 7 Christian Identit y survivalists , 120 Christianity Heaven's Gat e grou p and , 183 message of, versu s apocalypticism , 3 2 Muslims and , 155 New Worl d Orde r and , 16 1 and U F O movement , 1 0 Christian millennialism , type s of , 3 4 Christian postmillennialism , 13 , 205 Christian yout h movements , 2 8 Church o f Armageddon, 2 8 Church o f Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, 8, 27 Church o f Nazarene, 7 Church Universa l an d Triumphant , 10 , 29, 188-89 Cicero, 71 Cities of the Red Night (Burroughs) , 107- 8 "City of Refuge " (Cave) , 127 Civil defens e authorities , 105,113-14,14 2 Clayton, Bruce , 118-19,137,147 , fig. 2 6 Cledonomancy, 8 3 Clinton, Bill , 164 Clinton, Hillary , 16 4 Cloning, cosmic , 19 0 Close Encounters of the Fourth Kind (Bryan) , 194 Closing Circle, The (Commoner) , 98 , 211 Club o f Rome , 98 , 211 Coates, James, 118,12 0 Cognitive dissonance , an d failur e o f prophecy , 53 Coherence, sens e of, determinis m and , 53-5 7 Cohn, Norman , 15,13 4 Cold Wa r end of , 10 0 Aetherius Societ y on, 18 8 and apocalypti c beliefs , 148-7 4 tensions o f

262 I

Index

Cold Wa r {Continued) effects o n individuals , 137 and UF O movement , 180,19 2 Collective unconscious , an d UFOs , 19 2 Collins, John J. , 217/ z Columbus, Christopher , 21 , 221 n Comets, 7 6 Hale-Bopp, 18 2 Comic books , 31 , 126-27, %• 7 Coming Dark Age, The (Vacca), 98 Commoner, Barry , 98, 211 Communication satellites , 16 Communion o f saints, 63 , 83 Communion (Strieber) , 193-9 4 Communism Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparition s on , 67-68 ,

locus of, 134-3 5 sense o f determinism and , 53-5 7 religious apocalypti c account s and , 14 3 Conventions, survivalist , 118 Conyers, Georgia , Maria n apparition s at , 66 y 8 3 Cooper, Milto n William , 20 0 Copeland, Kenneth , 3 4 Coppola, Franci s Ford , 9 8 Corman, Roger , 112 Cornerstone Church , 15 9 Corpses, 128,13 8 Cosmic cloning , 19 0 Cosmic Masters , 188 Costello, Elvis , 128 Cotton, John , 2 2

74.90 Billy Graham on , 4 7 in conspiracy , 140,142,151-5 2 conspiracy in , 150 in films , n o Marian organization s on , 6 2 and millenarianism , 9 7 premillennial dispensationalis m and , 3 4 revival of , 15 3 and Secon d Vatica n Council , 8 6 Computer, a s Antichrist, 16 5 Computer newsgroups , 16 Computers and the Beast of Revelation (Webbe r

Council o n Foreig n Relations , 162 , 20 0 Countdown (periodical) , 3 0 Coupland, Douglas , n Courtship narratives , fatalis m in , 19 Crack in the WW/(film) , n o Crash, Darby , 12 4 Crass, th e (band) , 128 Creation myths , 13

and Hutchings) , 17 0 Conservatism Lindsey on, 46-4 7 premillennial dispensationalis m and , 3 4 Conspiracy beliefs on , 141 fatalism and , 140-41 , 20 2 in forme r Sovie t Union , 15 0 in governmen t Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparition s on , 7 1 U F O movemen t on , 199-20 2 and one-worl d system , 161-6 2 in Roma n Catholi c Church , 140-4 1 Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparition s on , 71, 86-88 satanic beliefs on , 140-4 1 Heaven's Gat e grou p on , 182-8 3 Lindsey on, 45-4 6 and UFOs , 20 3 Control

Creature with the Atom Brain (film) , i n Crop circles , 177 Crossroads bombs , 178 Crucifix (band) , 127-2 8 Cults, i n U F O movement , 18 1 Cultural distortion , perio d of , 13 4 Culture, destructio n of , 9 8 Cumbey, Constance , 16 3 Current event s a s fulfillment o f endtime s prophecies Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparition s on , 6 9 comfort of , 14 3 folk belief s on , 51 one-world syste m and , 16 8 in premillennialism , 32 , 37-59 Dallas Theological Seminary , 38,156-5 7 Damage (band) , 125 Damage (fanzine) , 12 3 Damned (band) , 125 Daniel, Boo k of, 31 , 48,144,160,166 Darby, John Nelson , 35 Darwin, Charles , 45 Dating of apocalyps e folk belief s on , 51

Index I

Miller on , 25-2 6 failure of , 53,18 1 of Second Comin g Mather on , 2 2 Russell on, 2 7 year 200 0 and , 212-1 3 Davies, Paul , 20 4 Day After, The (film), 1 0 "Day o f Doom , The " (Wigglesworth) , 2 3 Day the Earth Caught Fire, The (film), 109-1 0 Day the Earth Stood Still, The (film), 178 Day the World Ended, The (film), 112 Dead bab y jokes, 116 Dead Boy s (band) , 125 Dead Kennedy s (band) , 125 Death, ange l of , fig. 2 1 Death anxiet y apocalypticism and , 21 3 perceptions o f extinction and , 138 Debit cards , 169 Decline of Western Civilization, The (film), 12 4 de Kooning , W., 10 8 Dengue fever , 17 1 Denial in art , 10 8 among children , 12 9 and humor , 115 perceptions o f extinction and , 138 Depression, learne d helplessnes s and , 135 Despair, 4 in art , 10 8 among children , 12 9 in literature , 10 8 in post-Col d Wa r era , 173 in pun k subculture , 124-26,12 9 in unredemptiv e apocalypticism , 21 1 among youth, 12 9 Destiny, 18-19 . See also Fatalism of America, 2 4 definition of , 219-20 n Destruction perceptions of , 98 in pun k subculture , 124-25,128,13 0 Determinism, 18-19 , 52. See also Fatalism divine Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparition s on , 6 1 and fate , 57-59,145-4 7 and individua l events , 143 Marian apparition s and , 66 and meaningfulnes s o f apocalypse, 142-4 5

26 3

and sens e of coherence an d control , 53-5 7 versus fatalism , 220 n in U F O movement , 196,198-99 , 204- 5 Diego, Juan, 6 2 Die Gotterdammerung (Wagner) , 5 Dinosaurs, i n film, i n Disasters Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparition s on , 71 , 91 , 94 inevitability of , 21 1 secular belief s on , 9 9 and sens e of human continuity , 13 8 U F O movemen t on , 18 4 warning of . See Cataclysmic forewarnin g Distant Thunder, A (film) , 31 Divination, 49-5 0 natural, 71 technical, 8 4 through miraculou s photography , 81-8 5 types of, 8 3 Dixon, Jeanne, 9,16 3 on yea r 2000 , 213

DNA

transformation of , 20 5 in U F O movement , 190,19 5 Dome o f the Roc k Mosque , 39-40,14 6 Dominating interests , 5 4 apocalypticism and , 21 3 in humor , 115 Doob, Leonard , 135 , 219-20W Doom, Lorna , 125 Doom, sens e o f in pun k subculture , 121,126,130-3 1 in U F O messages , 186 D O O M : Th e Societ y for Secula r Armageddon ism, 9 9 Doomsayer, i n cartoons , 112-13 , fig. 24 Doomsday. See Apocalypse Doomsday: The Science of Catastrophe (Warshof sky), 98-9 9 Doomsday Button , 102- 3 Doomsday clock , 37-38 , 54 , fig. 15 Lindsey on, 5 8 Dorner, August , 2 2 Dorson, Richard , 2 2 "Dream Tol d b y Moto" (Minutemen) , 12 7 Dr. Strangelove —Or, How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb (film) , 10, 109-10 Duck-and-cover drills , 102-3, fig. 2 2

264 I

Index

Dundes, Alan, 52,56,115—1 6 Dyer, Charles , 157-5 8 Earth, evacuatio n of . See also Rapture U F O movemen t on , 180-85 , 230-31 « Earthquakes Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparition s on , 6 1 Lindsey on, 44-4 5 Easter eggs, 51 Eastern religions , an d U F O movement , 1 0 Ebola virus , 171 Echeverria, Loreto , 8 9 Economic control , fea r of , 167-68 , 228-297 2 Ecumenism Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparition s and , 8 9 premillennial dispensationalis m and , 3 4 Edson, Hiram , 25-2 6 Edwards, Jonathan, 23-2 4 Egypt, Baysid e (NY ) Maria n apparition s on , 7 5 Einstein, Albert, 18 8 Elders of Zion , 14 0 Elect in Baysid e (NY ) Maria n prophecies , 73 , 93, 144 in Calvinism , 22 , 2227* concept o f and appea l o f apocalypticism, 143-4 4 rejection of , 20 7 in dispensationalism , 41-42 , 55 in Puritanism , 2 3 in Seventh-Da y Adventism, 2 6 in survivalism , 121 in U F O abductio n narratives , 19 6 in UF O movement , 180-81,183,187 , 231^ 11:11 Doorway, 20 6 Eliade, Mircea , 5 Eliot, T. S. , 1 Elizabeth (Saint) , 6 4 Elohim, 190 , 208 Empowerment, apocalypti c belief s and , 14 4 End o f world. See Apocalypse "End o f th e World, The " (ar t show), 109, 227W

Endtime Messenger, The (periodical) , 3 0 Endtimes scenarios , 33 in Baysid e (NY ) Maria n apparitions , 72-7 7 Lindsey on, 38-4 0 Marian apparition s and , 66 Russia an d Isla m in , 153-5 6 secular, 9 9

self-fulfilling, 2- 3 UFOs in , 17 6 Endtimes signs , fig. 1 at end o f century, 2 environmental destructio n as , 172 human behavio r and , 91 , 94 UFOs as , 202- 3 En Route to Global Occupation (Kah) , 169 Environment, regeneratio n of , 17 2 Environmental cataclysm , 1- 2 as divine judgment, 17 2 as endtimes sign , 172 inevitability of , 17 2 prophecies of , 170-7 3 and sens e of human continuity , 13 8 Environmentalism, dispensationalist s on , 16 4 Eschatology, 13-14 . See also Apocalypticism apocalyptic, definitio n of , 2i8 » cosmic, 14 definition of , 1 3 individual, 13-1 4 secular, 1 4 Eskerod, Albert, 51 , 54, 223 n ETs. See Extraterrestrials European Commo n Market , 16 0 computer of , a s Antichrist, 16 5 Lindsey on, 39 , 46, 52 Robertson on , 4 7 European Community , 160,16 9 dispensationalists on , 5 8 Lindsey on, 39-4 0 European Currenc y Uni t (ECU) , 161 European Union , 16 0 and Antichrist , 16 4 Evangelization Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparition s on , 8 5 dispensationalists on , 56-5 7 Jehovah's Witnesse s on , 2 7 Evans-Pritchard, E . E. , 5 4 Eve as ET, 185 Second, 6 5 Evil nuclear wa r as , 141 perceptions of . See also Societal crisis , sense o f and fatalism , 140-4 2 in post-Col d Wa r era , 173 in U F O movement , 199-200 , 206- 7 Exterminatus (ange l o f death), fig. 2 1 Extraterrestrials (ETs) , fig. 33

Index I

amoral, 19 4 apocalyptic belief s about , 175-20 8 benevolent, 191,194,199 , fig. 31 , fig. 41 characteristics of , 191,193 , 202 conspiracy theorie s regarding , 199-20 2 as demons, 202- 4 evil, 188,194,196-97,199-20 2 in film, 17 8 as gods, 198, fig. 42 gray, 177-78,193 , 200-20 1 Heaven's Gat e grou p on , 182 invasion by , 188 , 200 in protopun k music , 125 societies of, 18 0 Ezekiel, Boo k of , 31,151,155,18 5 Faid, Rober t W. , 153 Fail-Safe (Burdic k & Wheeler) , 10 6 Fail-Safe (film) , 106,10 9 Fairies, 194-95, 220 « Faith, an d fatalism , 4 Fallout (fanzine) , 128 , fig. 27 Fallout shelters , 103-4, 225-26/*, fig. 25 False peace, 149,15 1 Antichrist and , 159,163-6 4 before Armageddon, 158-6 0 computers and , 16 6 False Prophet , 16 4 Falwell, Jerry and Israel , 41 politics of , 4 7 popularity of, 3 0 and premillennia l dispensationalism , 7 , 34 on Rapture , 42 , 57 and Reagan , 3 0 Fanzines, 122-2 3 illustrations of , 128 , fig. 27 Farrakhan, Louis , 177, 229 n Farrell, Thomas F. , 101- 2 Fatalism, 17-20,133-47 , 20 2 in Baysid e (NY ) Maria n apparitions , 92 , 94-95 bombing o f Hiroshima an d Nagasak i and , 100 concept of , 3- 4 in curren t beliefs , 19 definition of , 1 8 versus determinism , 22 0 n on environmenta l cataclysm , 17 2 faith and , 4

26 5

in film, n o functions of , 135-3 6 future-oriented for m of , 13 6 and individua l events , 143 in literature , 106- 7 and millenaria n movements , 134 nuclear technolog y and , 105,117,136-4 0 versus passivity, 5 6 perceptions o f evil and , 140-4 2 in premillennialism , 3 6 prevalence of, 2,13 9 prophecy and , 4 9 in pun k subculture , 123-27,130-3 1 responsibility in , 57-5 8 and technolog y fears , 17 0 in U F O movement , 181,191-93 , 201 among youth, 12 9 Fate in Calvinism , 2 2 categories o f beliefs about , 1 9 concept of , 4,13 4 in Baysid e (NY ) Maria n apparitions , 90-96 cosmic, 2 0 definition of , 18 , 219-20w and divin e determinism , 57-59,145-4 7 in pun k subculture , 13 0 secular vie w of, 118,14 6 Fate (magazine), fig. 3 8 Fate of the Earthy The(Sche\\), 12 , 99, 211 , 226H Fates, the , 18-19 , 220W Fatima, Portugal , Maria n apparition s at , 8 , 60-62, 66-68 , 73 , fig. 16 third secre t of , 66-67 , 87-8 8 on yea r 2000 , 21 2 Fear and conspiratoria l thinking , 14 1 coping with, 12 9 among youth , 12 9 Federal Reserv e Board , 16 1 Festinger, Leon , 53,18 1 Festivals, Raelian, 19 0 Films, 30-31 , 4 9 apocalyptic, 109-1 2 science fiction, 229 n secular apocalypti c belief s in , 1 0 and U F O movement , 10,17 7 Final Battle, The (Lindsey) , 154-5 5 Final Call, The (newspaper) , 229 n Final Hour, 7 ^ (film) , 31

266 I

Index

Finance Mark o f the Beas t and , 16 8 technology and , 166-67 , 228-29 H Fin-de-millennium consciousness , 98 Finster, Howard , 226-27 n Fireball o f Redemption , 72-77 , 85 , 91-93 Fishbone (band) , 128 Flaherty, Robert , 177,194 , 22 9 n Fliers, 16,12 8 Flipside (fanzine), 12 3 Flood, 5 Flying saucers. See U FO movement ; UFO s Flying Saucers: A Modern Myth of Things Seen in the Skies (Jung), 175,19 2 Folk beliefs , an d dispensationalism , 50-5 3 Folk, definitio n of , 14-1 5 Folklore apocalyptic belief s in , 2 definition of , 14-1 5 on nuclea r technology , 101- 5 transmission of , 219 n Folk religio n apocalypticism in , 2 , 14-17, 219H, 222« Catholic, 8 , 60, 76, 83 Marian apparition s and , 61 , 152 definition of , 1 4 UFO movemen t as , 177,179,19 2 Formal religio n on Antichrist , 16 5 and apocalypticism , 1 6 and Maria n apparitions , 62-6 3 peripheral natur e of , 1 7 popular prophec y interpreter s and , 5 0 and supernatura l phenomena , 8 3 Fortune, 18-19 . See also Fatalism Fortune-telling, 1 9 "4 Minute Warning " (U.K . Chaos) , 12 6 Fourth sea l judgment, Lindse y on , 4 4 Fowler, Nancy , 66, 8 3 Francis o f Assisi (Saint) , 7 9 Franklin, Benjamin , 19 1 Freemasons, 86,14 0 Free will, 94-9 5 Freud, Sigmund , 4 5 Fry, Daniel , 17 9 Futility in pun k subculture , 12 8 in unredemptiv e apocalypticism , 21 1 Futurelessness, feelings o f art on , 10 9

perceptions o f extinction and , 138 in pun k subculture , 11,123-24,128,13 0 Gabriel (angel) , 64 , 7 9 Gaia, 20 8 Galactic Federation , 20 6 Galgani, Gemma (Saint) , 7 9 Garabandal, Spain , Maria n apparition s at , 8 , 60, 62 , 66-67, 7 3 on yea r 2000 , 212 Garouche (plane t o f ETs), 188 Gates, Bill , as Antichrist, 16 6 Gender ambiguity , 51,12 5 Generation X , apocalypti c belief s of , 1 1 Generation A^Coupland) , 11 Genesis, Boo k of , 20 2 Genocide, an d sens e of human continuity , 13 8 Georges, Rober t A., 220 « Germany, reunificatio n of , 16 0 Germs (band) , 124 Ghost Danc e movement , 6 , 28 , 88 Giant Behemoth, The (film), i n Ginsberg, Alan, 10 7 Glasnost, a s deception, 151-5 2 Global unification , 160-6 2 God in Baysid e (NY ) Maria n apparitions , 76-77 , 91-92 dispensationalism on , 55 , 57 as ET, 185,19 8 wrath of , environmenta l cataclys m as , 172 God and the New Physics (Davies), 20 4 God Drives a Flying Saucer (Dione), 185 "God Sav e th e Queen " (Se x Pistols), 123-2 4 Godzilla, King of the Monsters (film) , i n Gog hooks i n jaws of, 155-5 6 identifications of , 15 1 Ottoman Empir e as , 154 Russia as , 151 Russian Republi c as , 154 Soviet Unio n as , 154 Golden age . See Terrestrial paradis e Gonzaga, Aloysius (Saint) , 7 9 Gonzales, Conchita, 7 2 Gorbachev! Has the Real Antichrist Come? (Faid), 153 Gorbachev, Mikhail , 152 as Antichrist, 148,153,16 3 in endtime s scenario , 152-5 3

Index I

Gore, Al, 16 4 Gottlieb, Adolph, 10 8 Government and apocalypse , 142 conspiracy i n Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparition s on , 7 1 U F O movemen t on , 199-20 2 distrust of , 141-42,17 3 one-world, 160-6 2 punk subcultur e on , 12 7 Graham, Bill y on ETs , 191 on inevitabilit y o f apocalypse, 4 7 popularity of, 3 0 and Reagan , 3 0 and Walvoord , 8,15 6 Graham, Sylvester , 2 6 Grand Deception , 20 0 Great Awakening, 2 4 Great Chastisement , 69 , 72-74, 78 , 90, 92-9 3 Great Miracle , 72-73 , 9 3 Greeks and apocalypse , 2 0 and fate , 19,146 , 220 n Green, Gabriel , 180 , 230H Greener Than You Think (Moore) , 10 6 Greenhouse effect , 171-7 2 Guadalupe, Mexico , Maria n apparition s at , 61-62, 67 Guardian Actio n International , 185 Guide to Survival(Kirban), 4 7

GulfWar as endtimes sign , 8,156-5 8 Lindsey on, 5 2 and one-worl d system , 161 Hagee, John, 159,164,17 1 Hal Lindse y Ministries, 4 8 Halsell, Ruth , 4 1 Hamas, 156 Hand, Waylan d D. , 5 0 Hanta virus , 171 Haring, Keith , 10 8 Harmonic Convergence , 9 , 29 , 206- 7 Harrison, J. F . C, 1 5 Haruspicy, 8 3 Havoc, Steve , 125 Hayakawa, Nario , 20 1 Heaven's Gat e group , 3,181-83 , 20 9 Hebdige, Dick , 121

26 7

Hegel, G . W . F. , 45 Heilbroner, Robert , 98 Hell, Richard , 125 Helplessness in Baysid e (NY ) Maria n apparitions , 9 5 among children, 12 9 in colonia l America, 2 4 and conspiratoria l thinking , 20 2 definition of , 13 5 in film, n o learned, 135 and millenaria n movements , 13 4 nuclear technolog y and , 100,117,136,13 9 in pun k subculture , 126-27, 1 2 9-3 X religious apocalypti c account s and , 14 2 survivalism and , 121,13 2 in U F O abductio n narratives , 196-97 , fig. 37, fig. 38 in U F O movement , 190-91 , 200-20 1 Henry, Tricia , 123,12 5 Heroes, 207- 8 Hesiod, 20 , 220 » Hickey, J. T. , 220 « Himes, Joshua, 2 5 Hindson, Ed , 149-5 0 Hiroshima an d Nagasaki , bombin g of , 98-99 , 178 and Ag e of Apocalypse, 19 0 effects on children , 225 n on individuals , 137 inevitability of , 11 7 and prophecy , 32-3 3 and psychi c numbing , 13 8 Hispanics, persecutio n of , 12 0 History Burroughs on , 10 7 concepts of , anxiet y and , 137 crisis/transition period s in , 139-4 0 Edwards on , 2 4 Lindsey on , 53-5 4 as predetermined, 20 , 53-54 , 56 , fig. 2 premillennial dispensationalis m on , 35 Raelians on , 19 0 religious apocalypti c account s and , 14 3 U F O movemen t on , 198-9 9 History of the Work of Redemption, A (Edwards) , 24 Hitler, Adolf, 145,148,162-6 3 H-Man, 72 ^ (film), i n

268 I

Index

Hobsbawm, Eric , 9 7 Hofstadter, Richard , 141 Holiness groups , 28 "Hollow Men , The " (Eliot) , 1 Holmstrom, John , 124-2 5 "Holocaust" (Mutua l Assure d Destruction) , 127

Holy Spirit , rol e of, 143-4 4 Hope, UFO s a s symbol of , 19 3 Hopelessness. See Despair Hopi apocalypti c beliefs , 9 Hopkins, Budd , 19 4 Hotline o f Doom , 9 9 Hot Zone, The (Preston), 171 "Howl" (Ginsberg) , 10 7 Hrushiv, Ukraine , Maria n apparition s at , 6 2 Hufford, David , 19 4 Human continuity . See Immortality Human/extraterrestrial hybrids , 184,196-99 , 208, fig. 39 , fig. 4 0 Human Individua l Metamorphosis . See Heaven's Gat e grou p Humanism. See Secular humanis m Humanity, achievement s of , ET s and , 191 Human natur e in Calvinism , 2 2 in premillennialism , 35-3 6 Humbard, Rex , 30 , 34 Humor, 112-1 8 and fate , 22c m in film, n o in literature , 10 8 in pun k subculture , 127-2 8 Hunt, Dave , 158-59,17 2 "Hurry Down , Doomsda y (Th e Bug s Are Tak ing Over) " (Costello) , 12 8 Hussein, Saddam , 148,15 7 Idea of the Holy, The (film), 117 Illuminati, 140-41,16 2 Image of the Beast (film), 31 "Imagine" (Lennon) , 16 2 Immortality symbolic, 137-38,19 8 U F O movemen t and , 180,19 8 Implantation of microchips, 168-6 9 in U F O abductio n narratives , 197 Incredible Shrinking Man, 7 ^ ( f i l m ) , m Industrial music , 11

Inevitability, 219— ion of apocalypse, 12 enthusiasm for , 33-3 4 in film, n o Kirban on , 4 7 LaHayes on , 4 7 Lindsey on, 55 in literature , 10 8 nuclear technolog y and , 33 survivalists on , 118-1 9 U F O movemen t on , 184,186-87,193,19 9 of Armageddon, 4 1 of bombin g o f Hiroshim a an d Nagasaki , 117 of disasters, 211 of environmental cataclysm , 17 2 of nuclear cataclys m Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparition s on , 71 , 74, 92 early belief s in , 101 in film, 10 9 LaHayes on , 4 7 Lindsey on, 43-4 4 literature on , 106- 7 polls on, i Reagan on , 29-3 0 secular belief s on , 9 9 televangelists on, 7 U F O movemen t on , 180,19 3 youth on , 12 9 quest for , 13 5 Inquiry into the Human Prospect, An (Heil broner), 9 8 Insane, The (band) , 12 6 International bankers , 140,142,162, 200-20 1 International Intelligence Briefing (periodical) , 30,171

International Monetar y Fund , 16 1 International Societ y of Krishna Consciousness , 29 Internet and apocalypti c beliefs , 215 , 219 «, fig. 4 3 Heaven's Gat e group and , 181-8 2 Interplanetary Confederation , 20 5 Intruders (Hopkins) , 19 4 Iran, 155 Iraq, 151,16 1 Isaiah, Boo k of , 31,15 8 Islamic fundamentalism, 15 5 Islamic nations, 149,153-56,17 7 as Gog, 15 1

Index I

nuclear technolog y in , 159 Israel Antichrist and , 16 4 Lindsey on, 38, 40-41, 5 2 military suppor t for , dispensationalis m and , 4i Robertson on , 4 7 Russia and , 151 It Came from Beneath the Sea (film), n o It's Happening Now (periodical) , 3 0 "It's th e En d o f the World a s We Kno w I t (an d I Fee l Fine)" (R.E.M.) , 128 Jack Chic k Publications , 31 Jacobs, Davi d M. , 19 4 Jeffrey, Grant , 150,152-53,155-56,160-61,16 7 Jehovah's Witnesse s apocalyptic belief s of , 8 , 27-2 8 on yea r 2000 , 212 Jerusalem in endtimes , 155 Raelians on, 19 0 Jesus Chris t as Ascended Master , 188 and Baysid e (NY ) Maria n apparitions , 61, 79, 84 , fig. 2 0 as ET, 185-86,188 , fig. 32 Lawrence on, 3 2 Second Comin g of . See Second Comin g U F O movemen t and , 190 , 20 4 Jesus Movement , 2 8 Jews and Antichrist, 16 4 apocalyptic belief s of , 6 , 9 conversion of , 22 , 4 0 persecution of . See Anti-Semitism prophetic traditio n of , 3 1 Jews for Jesus, 157 Jezreel, Lindse y on, 4 0 Jihad, 155 "Jimbo" (comi c strip), 126-2 7 Joachim (Saint) , 7 9 Joel, Boo k of, 3 3 John Pau l I I (Pope) , 163 Bayside apparitions and , 66-67 , 75 , 79 Johns, Jasper, 226 H John th e Baptis t (Saint) , 6 4 John th e Evangelis t (Saint) , 7 9 Jones, Jim, 2 9 Jones, Michae l Owen , 5 6

26 9

Joseph (Saint) , 7 9 Juan Carlos , Kin g of Spain, 16 3 Judge Dredd (film) , 112 Judgment Day , fig. 2 beliefs on , 8 poems on , 2 3 UFOs prio r to , 20 2 Jung, Car l G. , 176,19 2 Jupiter Effect , 5 3 Justinian, 16 3 Kachina, 20 8 Kah, Gary , 16 9 Kalb, Marvin , 2 9 Kant, Immanuel , 4 5 Kasemann, Ernst , 31 Kazakhstan, 155 Kazin, Alfred, 10 0 Keech, Marian , 53,18 1 Keller, Catherine , 22 1 n Kellogg, John Harvey , 2 6 Kennedy, John F. , 163 Kennedy, Rober t F. , 68 Kermode, Frank , 12 Kerouac, Jack, 10 7 Khrushchev, Nikita , 16 3 Kierkegaard, S. , 4 5 King, George , 18 7 Kingdom Halls , 2 7 Kinman, Dwight , 168-6 9 Kirban, Salem , 31 , 34, 47,15 5 Kissinger, Henry , 16 3 Klaatu, 17 8 Kleromancy, 8 3 Klotho, 22o w Knight, J. Z . (Ramtha) , 2 9 Knock, Ireland , Maria n apparition s at , 6 2 Koresh, David , 17 Krishna, 10 1 Kselman, Thomas , 8 9 K-17 (Ascende d Master) , 189 Kubrick, Stanley , n o Kyrgyzstan, 155 Labour^, Catherin e (Saint) , 7 9 Lachesis, 220 n LaHaye, Tim an d Beverly , 34 , 47 La Salette, France , Maria n apparition s at , 62 , 66,87 Lasers, 168

270 I

Index

Last Man, The (Shelley), 9 7 "Last Rockers " (Vic e Squad), 12 7 Last, The (band) , 125 Late Great Planet Earth, The (film), 49 , 56-57 , fig-5 Late Great Planet Earth, The (Lindsey), 8, 37, 46, 48 , 212/ 2 Lawlessness, an d millenaria n movements , 134 Lawrence, D . H. , 31-3 2 Lear, John, 20 0 Learned helplessness , 135 Lectures, 30 , 49 Lee, Ann, 25-2 6 Legion o f Mary, 6 2 Lennon,John, 16 2 Leuken, Veronica , 224-25/? , fig. 19. See also Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparition s Level 7 (Roshwald), 10 6 Levi, Primo , 228/ * Levin, Kim , 116 Lewis, Davi d Allen , 20 3 Life afte r death . Sr c Immortalit y Life after Doomsday (Clayton) , 118-19, fig. 26 Life magazine , 105 Lifton, Rober t Jay, 115-16,129,137-3 9 Liminality, 14 0 Limits to Growth, The (Club o f Rome) , 98 , 211 Lincoln, Abraham, 191 Lindsey, Hal , 34 , 37-59, 20 9 background of , 3 8 Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparition s and , 7 8 documentation of , 4 6 on environmenta l cataclysm , 171-7 2 on Europea n Union , 16 0 on fals e peace , 159 and fatalism , 136-37,140-41,143-4 4 on Islam , 154-5 5 marketing by , 48-4 9 methods of , 4 9 in post-Col d Wa r era , 149 predictions o f failed, 5 3 reinterpretations of , 15 4 vagueness of, 5 2 and Reagan , 3 0 style of, 48 success of, 8 , 222/2 on UFOs , 177 , 202- 3 Linton, Ralph , 8 8 Literature

apocalyptic theme s in , n6n nuclear cataclys m in , 106- 8 survivalist, 118-2 0 Living Abortions (band) , 125 Locus of control, 134-3 5 and conspiratoria l thinking , 14 2 and fatalism , 13 9 Loss, sense of, nativisti c movement s and , 8 8 Lourdes, France , Marian apparition s at , 61-62 , 67 Love Family , 2 8 Lubbock, Texas , Maria n apparition s at , 66, 8 3 Luck, Georg , 83 Luther, Martin , 163 , 221 n Macbeth (Shakespeare) , 19 Mack, John E. , 194,197-9 8 Mad Max films, 10,111-1 2 Malachi, Boo k of , 3 3 Malaria, 171 Malinowski, Bronislaw , 5 4 Mandalas, UFO s as , 192 Manson, Charles , 227// Man Who Sold the World, The (Bowie) , 125 Marcus, Greil , 121-2 2 Marian apparitions , 60-65 , 223/* , figs. 16-18 apocalypticism in , 8 , 66-6 8 in Bayside , NY. See Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparitions and Catholi c beliefs , 6 2 competition among , 6 7 messages of, 224/ 1 popularity of, 63-6 4 Roman Catholi c church' s positio n on , 63 , 223/7

Marian organizations , 6 2 Mark o f the Beast , 39,168-69 , figs-12-14 Gorbachev's birthmar k as , 153 technology and , 165-7 0 Mark of the Beast: Your Money, Computers, and the End of the World, The (Lalonde an d Lalonde), 166-67,16 9 Martian Chronicles, The (Bradbury), 10 6 Mar to, Jacinta, 7 9 Marxism. See Communism Marx, Karl , 45 Mary appearances of . See Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparitions; Maria n apparition s as Ascended Master , 18 8

Index I

biblical reference s to , 64-6 5 character of , i n Baysid e (NY ) Maria n appari tions, 7 7 return of , 20 8 role of, 63-64 , 9 2 Mather, Cotton , 2 2 Mather, Increase , 2 2 Matter, E . Ann, 6 4 Matthew (Saint) , 170 Maximumrocknroll (fanzine) , 12 3 Mayan Factor, The (Arguelles) , 20 6 Mayans, 9 , 20 6 McGinn, Bernard , 2 0 McKeever, James, 212 McQueen, Steve , i n Meaning, destructio n of , 9 8 Meaninglessness of apocalypse, 10,131, 209 , 211 feelings of , perception s o f extinction and , 138 in film, 109-1 0 in pun k subculture , 131 in secula r apocalypti c beliefs , 4 , 97, 99,146 , 211

in literature , 106,10 8 Media of apocalypticism, 16 , 30-31 in conspiracy , 14 0 values of one-world syste m in , 162 , 203 Medjugorje, Croatia , Maria n apparition s at , 8 , 60-62, 66-67 , 83 Melton, J. Gordon , 17 7 Men i n black , 178,199-20 0 Merchandise pertaining t o Baysid e (NY ) Maria n appari tions, 70-7 1 pertaining t o nuclea r technology , 102 , 225», fig. 2 3 pertaining t o Rapture , 43 , fig. 6, fig. 15 Michael th e Archangel, 79 , 84 Microchip implantation , 168-6 9 Midtribulationists, 4 2 Military-industrial complex , fear s of , 14 1 Militia o f the Immaculat e Conception , 6 2 Millenarianism American, 15-1 6 definition of , 13 , 218n of past, 134 punk subcultur e and , 12 2 in Rastafarianism , 12 5 secular, 118-2 1

27 1

in survivalism , 121 Millenarian movement s medieval, 15,13 4 non-Western, 13 3 Millennialism Christian, type s of , 3 4 communal, 2 1 definition of , 13 , 218 n nuclear fear s and , 13 7 progressive, an d U F O movement , 204- 8 Millennialist groups , 24-2 5 Millennium, 13 , 40, 45 Millerites, 6 , 21 , 25-26, 210 Miller, Walter , 10 6 Miller, William , 25-26,5 3 Minutemen (band) , 127 Miraculous Medal , 6 2 MJ-12, 20 0 Mockingbird, Tequila , 12 5 Modernism, Baysid e (NY ) Maria n apparition s and, 8 9 Mohammed, 190 , 20 8 Mojtabai, A. G. , 36 , 42 Monka, 230 ^ Monsters, i n films, n o - i i Moon, Su n Myung , 29,16 3 Moore, Henry , 226 « Moore, Ward, 10 6 Moral Majority , 4 1 Morgan, Ted , 12 2 Mormons. & e Church o f Jesus Chris t o f Latter Day Saint s Motif-Index of Folk-Literature (Thompson) , 5-6 , 5O-5I, 220 H

Mount o f Megiddo , 4 0 Mount o f Olives, 4 0 Mugavero, Francis , 223/2 Muhammed, Elijah , 177 , 2297* Munch, Edvard , 128 , fig. 27 Muselmanner, 138 , 228 n Music "Imagine" (Lennon) , 16 2 Lindsey on , 4 5 lyrics, apocalyptic, 125-2 8 mainstream rock , characteristic s of , 12 3 of Millerites, 21 punk, 11,121-2 2

heirs of, 22 8 n influences on , 125 reggae, 125

272 I

Index

Mussolini, Benito , 163 Mutants, i n film, 110-1 1 Mutual assure d destruction , 10 0 Mutual Assure d Destructio n (band) , 12 7 Mutual Insuranc e Company , 4 3 Mystery of Israel's Salvation Explained and Apply ed, The (Mather), 2 2 Mythology, apocalyptic , 5,13-1 4 NAFTA (Nort h American Fre e Trade Agreement), 16 0 Naked Lunch (Burroughs) , 10 7 Napoleon, 16 3 National Securit y Agency, 16 7 Nation oflslam , 17 7 Native American apocalypti c beliefs , 9 . See also Ghost Danc e movemen t Nativistic movements , Baysid e (NY ) Maria n apparitions as , 88-9 0 Natural divination , 7 1 Nazis, 138,14 5 Nebuchadnezzar, 15 7 Necedah, WI , Maria n apparitions , 224 ^ Nelson, John Wiley , 6 Nemesis, 220 H Neo-Nazi organizations , 11 Nephilim, 20 2 Nepoleon, 14 8 Nero, 148,16 3 Nettles, Bonni e Lu , 181 Neumann, Joh n (Saint) , 7 9 New Age movemen t and Antichris t equation , 16 9 characteristics of , 9-1 0 dispensationalists on , 16 4 eclecticism of , 9 and one-worl d system , 16 2 progressive millennialis m in , 20 7 and satanism , 16 3 and UF O movement , 10,177 , 20 3 New heave n an d earth , 173 . See also Terrestrial paradise Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparition s on , 9 3 Lindsey on, 40 , 45 premillennialism on , 35 New Museu m o f Contemporary Art, 109 , 227H New Worl d Order , 161 , 203 UFO movemen t on , 199-20 1 New World Order, The (Robertson), 161-62,16 7 New Yor k Doll s (band) , 125

Niagara Bibl e Conferences, 3 5 Night of the Living Dead (film) , i n Nihilism in literature , 10 7 in pun k subculture , 121-23,130-3 1 among slackers , n in U F O movement , 20 1 in unredemptiv e apocalypticism , 21 1 1980s: Countdown to Armageddon, The (Lindsey), 46, 48 Noah, 5 Norman, Rut h (Uriel) , 205, fig. 35 Norns, 19 , 221 n North America n Fre e Trade Agreemen t (NAFTA), 16 0 Nostradamus, 9 , 213 Noyes, John Humphrey , 2 5 Nuclear cataclys m in art , 1 0 8 - 9 , 1 2 ^ n Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparition s on , 72-77 , 87,137 Christian fundamentalist s on , 4 2 contemporary prophec y on , 32-3 3 as evil, 141 films on , 109-1 2 inevitability of . See Inevitability insane individua l and , 75,14 9 meaningful, 5 8 in popula r literature , 106- 8 in post-Col d Wa r prophecy , 149-5 1 in pun k subculture , 12 7 punk subcultur e on , 12 6 secular belief s about , 4 Sodom an d Gomorra h destructio n as , 185 survivalists on , 118 totality of, 136-3 7 Nuclear Energy (Moore), 226 H Nuclear Fear (Wean), 9 9 Nuclear technology , 116-1 7 and America n apocalypti c belief , 1,100-10 5 and children , 102-3, 12 9» 2 2 5 w development of , 10 0 dinosaurs revive d by , films on , n o enthusiasm for , 10 2 fears of , 100,15 0 coping with , 12 9 and fatalism , 136-4 0 and U F O movement , 176,178-80 , fig. 3 6 among youth, 12 9 feelings about , 10 0

Index I 27 3 in art , 10 9 in pun k subculture , 125,12 9 in forme r Sovie t republics , 155 and humor , 11 6 in Iran , 155 in Islami c nations , 159 language of , 116-1 7 merchandise pertainin g to , 102, 225H, fig. 23 mutations cause d by , films on , 110-1 2 punk subcultur e on , 125 rhetoric of , 11 7 uncontrollability of , 139-4 0 Nuclear winter , 44,105,17 1 Nukespeak, 117 Null an d Voi d (band) , 125 Numinous, sens e of, nuclea r weapons and , 117 Nursery rhymes , apocalyptic , 112

Oil and Armageddon, 156-5 8 depletion of , 17 1 Omega Man, 7 ^ ( f i l m ) , m - 1 2 Omega Ministries , 212 Ominant-ominat relationship , 51-5 2 On Borrowed Time/88 Reasons Why the Rapture Will Be in 1988 (Whisenant), 21 2 Oneida Community , 2 5 Oneiromancy, 8 3 One-world syste m Antichrist and , 16 4 as Babylon, 157 government, 160-6 2 religious as Babylon, 157 Lindsey on, 53 , 203 technology and , 166-6 7 U F O movemen t on , 20 0 values of, indoctrinatio n to , 161-62, 20 3 On the Beach (film), 10,106,10 9 On the Beach (Shute), 10 6 On the Road(Kerouac), 10 7 Operant conditioning , 135 Oppenheimer, Robert , 10 1 Oral tradition , 16 , 219 n Order o f the Sola r Temple , 3 , 209 Ornithomancy, 8 3 Ottoman Empire , a s Gog, 154 Otto, Rudolf , 117 Our Lad y of the Roses , Mary Hel p o f Mother s group, 61 , 69

Padre Pio , 7 9 Palestine Liberatio n Organizatio n (PLO) , 156 Panic in the Year Ztrol (film) , 10 9 Panter, Gary , 12 6 Paperbacks, 16 , 48 Paranoia and conspiratoria l thinking , 141-4 2 in U F O movement , 19 9 Parousia, 21 8 n "Party a t Groun d Zero " (Fishbone) , 128 Passion Killers , 127 Paul (Saint) , 7 9 Paul V I (Pope) , 86,14 1 Peace. See False peace; World peac e Peace symbol, a s Mark o f th e Beast , 16 8 Peebles, Curtis, 20 0 Pentecostalism, 28 , 34 "Peoples Temple, " 2 9 Performance art , 109 , 226W Periodicals dispensationalist, 3 0 survivalist, 118 and U F O movement , 17 7 Perry, Nicholas, 8 9 Personal identificatio n codes , 169 Pessimism and fatalism , 146-4 7 in premillennialism , 3 6 in pun k subculture , 121,123,125,12 7 in secula r beliefs , 9 8 Peter, epistl e of, 3 3 Peter th e Great , 16 3 Philosophy, destructio n of , 9 8 Photocopied fliers, 16,114-1 5 Photography, miraculou s in Baysid e (NY ) Maria n apparitions , 81-85, 224-25n, fig. 21 explanations of , 82-8 3 interpretations of , 82 , 84-8 5 other site s of, 8 3 Pickens, Slim , n o Pius X (Pope) , 7 9 Pius XII (Pope) , 68 Plague, 170-7 1 Plain Truth, The, 2 9 Planet Earth —2000 A.D. (Lindsey) , 149,154 , 172, 203 Planet of the Apes (films) , 10 , i n Planets alignment o f

274 I

Index

Planets {Continued) and Harmoni c Convergence , 9 in yea r 2000 , 213 other, lif e on, 230 H Plato, 71 PLO (Palestin e Liberatio n Organization) , 156 Plymouth Brethren , 35 Pogo, 12 4 Pollock, Jackson, 10 8 Polls on en d o f world, 2 on Gul f War, 8 on inevitabilit y o f nuclear war , 1 on prophecy , 8 on Rapture , 4 2 on Secon d Coming , 7- 8 on UFOs , 17 6 on U F O sightings , 229/ j on yea r 2000 , 21 2 Pontmain, France , Maria n apparition s at , 6 2 Po

P ' !ggy > I 2 5 Pop art , 10 9 Pope. See also Second Vatica n Counci l as Antichrist, 16 2 Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparition s on , 7 3 Pope, Barbar a Corrado , 8 9 Popular Beliefs and Superstitions (Puckett), 51 Popular Beliefs and Superstitions from North Carolina (Hand) , 5 0 Popular cultur e apocalyptic belief s in , 2 definition o f apocalypse in , 12 prophecy in , 2 9 and U F O movement , 17 7 values of one-world syste m in , 16 2 Popular literature , nuclea r cataclys m in , 106- 8 Posse Comitatus, 11 Possession states , 71-7 2 Posters, 128 Postmillennialism in colonia l America, 2 4 definition of , 34-3 5 Posttribulationists, 42,12 0 Pouring Out of the Seven Vials, The (Cotton), 2 2 Powerlessness. See Helplessness Prayer Power , 188 , fig. 34 Preachers, colonial, 23-2 4 Predestination, 22,145 , 22i-22 « Premillennial dispensationalism , 35-59,14 0 on environmenta l cataclysm , 17 2

methods of , 4 9 politicization of , 4 7 popularity of , 7-8 , 34-3 6 unconditional apocalypticis m in , 20 9 Premillennialism current event s a s fulfillment o f endtime s prophecies in , 32 definition of , 34-3 5 history of, 6 Preston, Michael , 171 Pretribulationists, 42-4 3 Primitive Rebels (Hobsbawm), 9 7 Prince of Darkness: Antichrist and the New World Order (Jeffrey), 152,160,16 7 Prison reform , postmillennialis m and , 20 5 Prodigal Planet (film) , 31 Profanity, i n pun k subculture , 12 2 Promise of the Coming Dark Age, The (Stavriano), 9 8 Prophecies, the Chastisement, and Purification (Herbert), 7 6 Prophecy beliefs on , 8 Catholic. See also Marian apparition s comet imager y in , 7 6 fatalism in , 9 2 failure of , 5 3 folk belief s on , 50-5 3 Jewish, 31 miraculous photograph y and , 81-8 5 in popula r culture , 2 9 in post-Col d Wa r era , an d nuclea r cataclysm , 149-51 practitioners of , 7 2 methods of , 4 9 rational, 49-5 0 on Unite d States , 2 4 Prophecy 2000 (periodical), 3 0 Prophet, Elizabet h Claire , 10,188-8 9 Propp, Vladimir, 22 8 n Protestant ethic , 221-22 W Providence, belie f in, 2 2 Psychic & UFO Revelations in the Last Days (Beckley), 183-84, figs. 29-3 0 Psychic numbing , 138-3 9 in art , 10 8 among children, 12 9 Psychohistorical dislocation , 139 Psychology, trend s in , 134 Puckett, Newbel l Niles , 51

Index I

Pulp magazines , an d U F O movement , 17 7 Punk (fanzine) , 123-2 4 Punk subculture , 121-32 , 228 « in America, 12 4 apocalyptic belief s of , 11,125,13 0 grassroots natur e of , 123-24,12 9 influences on , 125 names an d pseudonym s in , 125 reactions to , 122 rhetoric of , 12 1 Puritans, apocalypti c belief s of , 6 , 21-2 3 Pursuit of the Millennium, The (Cohn), 134 Qaddhafi, Moammar , 163 , 229 n Quetzalcoatl, 207- 8 Rabin, Yitzhak, 159 Racism, amon g survivalis t groups , 10-11,120-2 1 Radcliffe-Brown, A . R. , 5 4 Radiation effects o n humans , 115 films on , 110-1 1 and Lot' s wife, 185 U F O movemen t on , 230 n Radio, 16, 30 Lindsey's sho w in , 4 9 Rael (Claud e Vorilhon), 19 0 Raelians, 189-9 1 Ragnarok, 5 Raines, Aura, 230 n Ramones (band) , 125 Ramtha (J . Z. Knight) , 2 9 "Random Relations " (Th e Suspects) , 126 Ranters, 15 Raphael (angel) , 188 Rapture, fig. 1 0 in Baysid e (NY ) Maria n apparitions , 78 beliefs about , 8 as defense mechanism , 5 7 prevalence of , 4 2 Falwell on , 4 2 Lindsey on, 43 , 53 merchandise pertainin g to , 43, fig. 6, fig. 15 in premillennialism , 36 , 41-4 2 secret, 4 2 timing of , 42 , 212 U F O belief s and , 184-86,19 3 vernacular expression s for , 4 3 Rapture: Truth of Consequences, The (Lindsey), 45

27 5

Rapture Alert Newsletter (periodical) , 3 0 Rastafarianism, millenarianis m in , 125 Ray-O-Light (Ascende d Master) , 188 Reagan, Ronald , 8 , 29-30, 41,163, 20 0 Reard, Louis , 225H Redemption. See Salvation Redfield, Robert , 21 9 n Reed, Lou , 125 Reggae music , 125 Rehoboth Baptis t Church , 15 0 Reincarnation, i n U F O contacte e narratives , 180 Reinhardt, Ad , 10 8 Relative deprivation , 133 Relativism, Baysid e (NY ) Maria n apparition s and, 8 9 Relfe, Mar y Stewart , 212 , 228-297* Religion. See also Folk religion ; Forma l religio n privatization of , 1 7 and U F O movement , 189-91,198 , fig. 32 R.E.M. (band) , 128 , 227* Reproduction, ET s and , 195,197-200 , fig. 3 9 Resentment, i n pun k subculture , 12 9 Resignation to nuclea r cataclys m among children , 12 9 in literature , 106- 7 among youth , 12 9 psychic numbin g and , 138 Responsibility, dispensationalis m on , 57-5 8 Retreats, 3 0 Revelation, Boo k of , 31 , 60 on Antichris t equation , 166,16 8 on Armageddon , 21 8 n on Babylon , 157 Christian eschatolog y and , 3 2 dominance of , 3 2 on environmenta l cataclysm , 17 2 on Fals e Prophet , 16 4 in film, 4 9 Heaven's Gat e grou p and , 181 imagery of , i n bom b descriptions , 101- 2 interpretation of , 6 5 Lindsey on, 44 , 48 , fig. 8 and Maria n apparitions , 64-6 5 on Mar k o f th e Beast , 168 and nuclea r technology , 3 3 as origin o f ter m apocalypse , 11 U F O movemen t on , 20 6 Revelation: Its Grand Climax at Hand!, 27

276 I

Index

Revelations, i n tranc e states , 71 Revitalization, 88-8 9 Revivals, 24 , 34, 47 Ringgren, Helmer , 18 , 219^ Rise and Fall ofZiggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars, The (Bowie), 125 Rise of Babylon: Sign of the End Times, The (Dyer), 157 Road to Armageddon, The (film), 31 Road Warrior, The. See Mad Max films Robertson, Pa t as Antichrist, 16 3 on Antichrist , 16 3 on breakdow n o f Soviet Union , 15 2 on fals e peace , 158 on Gorbachev , 15 2 on Ne w Worl d Order , 161-6 2 politics of , 4 7 popularity of , 3 0 and premillennia l dispensationalism , 7 , 34 and Reagan , 3 0 on technology , 16 7 on yea r 2000 , 212 Roberts, Oral, 7 , 3 0 Robison, Jim, 30 , 41 Rockefeller, David , 16 3 Rockefeller, Nelson , 16 2 Rogers, Everett , 13 4 Rojcewicz, Peter , 20 0 Roman Catholi c Churc h conspiracy in , 140-4 1 Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparition s on , 71, 86-88 position o n Maria n apparitions , 62-63 , 2 2 3 w Roman Empir e Lindsey on, 3 9 Revelations and , 6 5 revival of , 158,160-61,163-6 4 Rome, revolutio n in , 7 3 Romero, George , m Romilar, 185 Roosevelt, Franklin , 191 Roshwald, Mordecai , 10 6 Roswell, New Mexico , 178 Rothko, Mark , 10 8 Rotten, Johnny, 12 5 Rotten to the Core (fanzine), 123 Rotters (band) , 125 Russell, Charles Taze, 27 , 212 Russell, D . S. , 139-4 0

Russia. See also Soviet Unio n Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparition s on , 68-69 , 75.15* conversion of , 6 2 in endtime s scenarios , 153-5 6 as Gog, 151 Lindsey on, 39-4 0 in post-Col d Wa r prophecy , 151-5 3 Russian Republic , a s Gog, 154 Rutherford, Joseph , 2 7 Sadat, Anwar el- , 163 St. Germain , Comt e de , 188 St. Vitu s Dancers , 12 6 Saladin, 163 Salvation absence o f in literature , 10 8 in pun k subculture , 131 in recen t U F O lore , 199, 201 Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparition s on , 61 , 8 5 dispensationalists on , 56-57 , 210 New Age movement on , 207- 8 Raelians on, 19 0 in survivalism , 121 U F O movemen t on , 192-94,197 , 205- 8 San Damiano , Italy , Maria n apparition s at , 8 , 60, 62 , 66, 8 3 Sandeen, Ernest , 219W Santos, Luci a dos , 66-68, 8 7 Satan and Antichrist , 16 5 influence of . See also Conspiracy, satani c Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparition s on , 71 , 73 , 75, 86-8 8 beliefs about , 140-4 1 on individua l events , 143 LaHayes on, 4 7 Lindsey on, 40 , 45 in Ne w Age movement, 16 3 Russell on , 2 7 and UFOs , 17 7 Satan Is Alive and Well on Planet Earth (Lind sey), 45 Saxon, Kurt , 12 0 Scabies, Rat, 125 Schell, Jonathan, 12 , 99, 211, 226n Schicksalfrauen, 18-1 9 Schneerson, Menache m Mendel , 9 Schwartz, Hillel , 217/*

Index I

Science Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparition s on , 89-9 0 premillennial dispensationalis m and , 3 4 and U F O movement , 177,189-9 1 Science fictio n films, i n , 229 n T V shows , 229 n and U F O movement , 10,177,18 1 Scientists extraterrestrial, 20 5 portrayals of , 10 2 in film, 109-1 0 in literature , 106- 7 Scofield, Cyru s I. , 35 Scofield Referenc e Bible , 35 Scream, The (woodcut), 128, fig. 27 Search and Destroy (fanzine), 123 "Search an d Destroy " (Igg y Pop) , 125 Second Coming , fig. 3 beliefs on , 7- 8 dating o f Dixon on , 21 3 Mather on , 2 2 Russell on, 2 7 Van Imp e on , 21 2 as year 2000 , 21 2 dispensationalists on , 4 2 endtimes and , 3 3 and environment , 172-7 3 Lindsey on, 4 0 New Age movement on , 207- 8 premillennialism on , 35 preparation for , 20 5 spiritual, 2 7 U F O movemen t on , 185-86 , 207- 8 Second Eve , 65 Second Vatica n Council , 6 3 conspiracy theorie s about , 86-88,140-4 1 effects of , 8 9 Secret Life: Firsthand Accounts of UFO Abductions (Jacobs), 194 Secular apocalypti c beliefs , 1,10 , 97-13 2 causality in , 131 on evil , 98,141-4 2 meaninglessness in , 4 , 97, 99,146, 211 literature on, 106,10 8 millenarianism in , 118-2 1 in 1800s , 97-9 8 in 1970 s and 1980s , 98 Secular eschatology , 1 4

27 7

Secular humanis m Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparition s on , 9 0 Christian fundamentalis m on , 4 7 and conspiracy , 14 0 dispensationalists on , 16 4 H u n t on , 159 Secularism Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparition s on , 9 0 premillennial dispensationalis m and , 3 4 Secular organizations , 9 9 Sedevacantist traditionalists , 8 6 Self-esteem, apocalypticis m and , 143-4 4 Self-mutilation, i n pun k subculture , 122, 124-25,128 Self-negation, i n pun k subculture , 124-25,12 8 Seligman, Martin , 135 Semeia (journal) , 217 n Seminars, 3 0 Seven bowl s of wrath, 44 , fig. 11 Seven seals , 4 4 Seventh-Day Adventists, 8 , 2 6 Seven trumpe t judgments , 44 , fig. 11 Seven via l judgments, 171 , fig. 11 Sex Pistol s (band) , 122-24,13 0 Sexuality in earl y America, 24-2 5 ETs and , 19 5 folk belief s on , 51 Lindsey on, 4 5 Shakers, 6 , 24-2 5 Shakespeare, William, 1 9 Shamanic initiations , U F O abduction s and , 194-95 Shelley, Mary , 9 7 Shute, Nevil, 10 6 Sign superstition , 52 , 56 Simons, Elizabeth , 115 "Sinners i n th e Hand s o f an Angry God " (Edwards), 2 4 666. See Mark o f the Beas t 666 (Kirban), 4 7 Sixth sea l judgment, 4 4 Skin cancer , 17 2 Skinner, B . F., 45 Slackers, apocalyptic belief s of , 1 1 Slam-dancing, 12 4 Slash (fanzine), 12 3 Slaughterhouse Five (Vonnegut), 10 7 Slaves of th e Immaculat e Hear t o f Mary, 6 2 Slide presentations , 3 0

278 I

Index

Smith, Joseph, 19 0 Smith, Patti , 125 Smith, Winston , 128 , fig. 27 Smyth, Willie , 115 Sniffin' Glue (fanzine), 122-2 3 Social actio n Billy Graham on , 4 7 fatalism and , 5 8 Social Gospel , 35 , 205 Social reform , 3 4 Societal crisis , sense o f Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparition s on , 61 , 69, 71, 89 , 91,14 0 and conspiratoria l thinking , 141 in determinism , 5 8 and fatalism , 136,13 9 films on , 109-1 2 in Heaven' s Gat e group , 182 and humor , 115 Lindsey on, 45-48,58,136,14 0 and millenaria n movement , 13 4 nuclear fear s and , 13 7 in post-Col d Wa r era , 173 in pun k subculture , 121,124,13 1 in secula r beliefs , 98,141-4 2 in U F O movement , 178-79,197,19 9 Societal transformatio n gradual in Ne w Age beliefs , 9-1 0 in postmillennialism , 34-3 5 U F O movemen t on , 194,197-98 , 204-5 , 207 secular view s of, 98 U F O movemen t on , 18 9 Society fo r Worldwid e Interban k Financia l Transactions (SWIFT) , 161 Sodom an d Gomorrah , destructio n of , a s nuclear cataclysm , 185 Soubirous, Bernadett e (Saint) , 62 , 79 Southern Baptis t Convention , 7 Soviet Union . See also Russia former new weapons of , 15 0 as nuclear threat , 100-101,149,15 5 as Gog, 154 invasion o f U.S., Baysid e (NY ) Maria n apparitions on , 75-76 , fig. 2 0 Robertson on , 47,15 2 Spheeris, Penelope , 124 Spiritual armor , 78-7 9

Spiritual Energ y Batteries , 188 , fig. 34 Spiritualism, an d U F O movement , 1 0 Stalin, Joseph, 16 3 Star children, 18 4 "Start Again" (Passio n Killers) , 127 Star Trek (T V shows, films), 181 , 215, 229n Star Wars defens e program , 20 0 Star Wars (film), 198 , 229W Stavriano, L . S., 98 Steiger, Brad , 189 Still, Clyfford, 10 8 Stowe, Harrie t Beecher , 188 Strieber, Whitley , 193-9 4 Strom, Akc, 134 Strozier, Charles , 32, 34, 207, 217W Submission t o greater power , 117 Substance abuse , in pun k subculture , 12 4 Suicidal Tendencie s (band) , 125 Suicide in pun k subculture , 124 as transformation, 29,18 2 Suicide, Alan, 125 Summit Lighthouse . See Church Universa l an d Triumphant Sumrall, Lester , 21 2 Superstitions passive versus active , 51-5 2 sign, 52,5 6 Supreme Trut h sect , 3 Surveillance by ETs, 197 in one-worl d system , 168-70 , 20 1 Survivalists, 10-11,118-2 1 characteristics of , 11 8 and helplessness , 121,132,14 7 and millenarianism , 12 1 publications of , 118-1 9 racism among , 10-11,120-2 1 religious, 120 "Survivor, The " (St . Vitus Dancers) , 12 6 Survivors o f apocalyps e in film, 11 2 punk subcultur e on , 126-2 8 Suspects, th e (band) , 126 Svenning, Lynne , 134 Swaggert, Jimmy, 7 , 30 , 34 Swollen, Phester , 125 Symbolic immortality , 137-3 8 in U F O faith , 19 8 Syncretism

Index I

of American apocalypti c beliefs , 1 0 of Heaven' s Gat e group , 181,18 3 in U F O movement , 10,176,185-91,198-99 , fig. 32 Syria, 230 n Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparition s on , 7 5 as Gog, 15 1 Tajikistan, 15 5 Tappan, Mel , 118,14 2 Tattoos/tattooing, 16 8 Mark o f the Beas t as, 169, fig. 13 Technical divination , 8 4 Technology and Antichrist, 165-7 0 in Baysid e (NY ) Maria n apparitions , 81 beliefs about , 10 3 communications, an d apocalypti c beliefs , 2I9« fears regarding , 103,116,127,141,167-70 , 20 1 and finance, 166—67, nS-iyn U F O movemen t on , 192-93 , 201 Teenage Cave Man (film) , i n Telepathy, 179,187 , 20 2 Telephone numbers/hotlines , 16 of Baysid e organization, 7 1 of D O O M , 9 9 for prophecie s o n Gul f War, 15 6 Televangelists on Armageddon, 4 1 characteristics of , 34 , 222H popularity of, 3 0 and premillennia l dispensationalism , 7 and privatizatio n o f religion, 17 Television, 1 6 and Antichrist, 16 6 by Baysid e organization, 71 , 80 Lindsey on, 4 5 science fiction shows , 181, 215, 229 n Walvoord interviewe d on , 8 Temperance movement , postmillennialis m and , 35» 20 5 Temple o f Solomon, 40 , 53,16 4 Teresa o f Avila (Saint) , 7 9 Terrell, Thelma B . (Tuella), 186-8 7 Terrestrial paradise . See also New heave n an d earth America as , 21 beliefs about , 1 cargo cults on, 133

27 9

Harmonic Convergenc e and , 20 7 Lindsey on , 40 , 58 survivalists and , 120-2 1 U F O movemen t on , 184 , 204, 20 6 Terrorists, with nuclea r weaponry , 149-50,15 6 Testament (film) , 1 0 Theism, an d fatalism , 1 8 Them! {£i\m)y n o Theogony (Hesiod), 220 n The Order , 11 Theosophy, an d U F O movement , 10,18 0 TheVese of Lisieu x (Saint) , 68 , 79 "There Wil l Com e Sof t Rains " (Bradbury) , 10 6 Thessalonians, 158,16 4 Thief in the Night, A (film) , 31 Thomas, I . D . E. , 20 2 Thomas Aquinas (Saint) , 7 9 Thompson, E . P. , 137 Thompson, Stith , 5-6 , 50-51 , 220W Threads (film), 1 0 Three Mil e Islan d jokes , 115 Time. See Doomsday clock ; Histor y Tinguely, Jean, 226W Totalitarianism, an d fatalism , 13 9 Total Overcomer s Anonymous . See Heaven's Gate grou p Tracts, 71 , fig. 4 Tragedy Greek, 1 9 Lindsey's wor k as , 55 Trance states , 71 in abductio n accounts , 195 Transcendentalism, apocalyptic , 10 7 Transitional moments , 14 0 Treaty o f Maastricht, 16 0 Tribulation Hotline , 15 6 Tribulation perio d Lindsey on, 3 9 Rapture and , 4 3 Trilateral Commission , 140,162,169,199-20 0 Trilateralists, 141-4 2 Truman, Harry , 4 7 Tuberculosis, 171 Tuella (Thelm a B . Terrell), 186-8 7 Turkmenistan, 15 5 Turner, Victo r an d Edith , 89,14 0 Twentieth century , latte r hal f o f as crisis period, 13 9 as transitional moment , 14 0 and U F O movement , 17 6

280 I

Index

U F O abducte e narratives , 177-78,193-94, % s 37-38 as earthly conspiracy, 20 1 recurring eschatological theme s in , 194-9 9 sinister aspect s of, 196-97,199-20 2 U F O contacte e narratives , 179-80, 229-30/ * U F O movemen t beginnings of , 178-8 0 biblical interpretatio n by , 184-8 5 characteristics of , 17 5 composition of , 17 6 millennialism in , 204- 8 opinions about , 177,180 , 20 1 psychology of, 192 , 201 secularization of , 20 1 syncretic natur e of , 10,176,185-91,198-99 , fig. 32 unconditional apocalypticis m in , 21 0 UFO Review (periodical) , 184 UFOs beliefs i n apocalypticism in , 175-20 8 prevalence of , 176-7 7 Christian apocalypti c tradition s and , 202- 4 as demonic, 177 , 202- 4 as mandalas, 19 2 medieval sighting s of , fig. 2 8 U.K. Chao s (band) , 126 U.K. Deca y (band) , 125 Unarius Academy o f Science, 20 5 Uncertainty determinism and , 53-5 7 religious apocalypti c account s and , 14 3 Unidentified flying objects . See UFOs Unification Church , 2 9 United Nations , 47 , 58,140,161,19 9 United Societ y of Believer s i n Christ' s Secon d Appearing. See Shakers United States . See also America as Babylon, 157 destruction of , Baysid e (NY ) Maria n appari tions on, 7 6 invasion o f by ETs , 188 , 20 0 by forme r Sovie t Union , Baysid e (NY ) Mar ian apparition s on , 75-76 , fig. 2 0 Universal Produc t Cod e (UPC) , Mar k o f th e Beast as , 169, fig. 13 Uriel (Rut h Norman) , 205 , fig. 35 USA Today (newspaper), 182

Utopian groups , 2 4 Uzbekistan, 155 Vacca, Roberto , 9 8 Valine, Jacques, 178 Values mainstream, rejectio n of , i n pun k subculture , 124

of one-world system , indoctrinatio n to , 161-62, 20 3 van Gennep , Arnold, 14 0 Van Hoof , Mar y Ann, 2247* Van Impe , Jack and fals e peace , 158 popularity of , 3 0 and premillennia l dispensationalism , 7 , 34 on Russi a an d Islam , 155 on viruses , 171 on yea r 2000 , 212 Van Tassel , George, 186 , 230n Vatican. See also Second Vatica n Counci l as Babylon, 157 Velvet Undergroun d (band) , 125 Veronica (Saint) , 81-8 2 Vice Squad (band) , 127 Vicious, Sid, 125 Video cassettes , 30-31 , 49 , 71, 82 Violence, ceremonial, i n pun k subculture , 124 , 128

Virgin Mary . Se e Marian apparitions ; Mar y Viruses, 170-7 1 Vonnegut, Kurt , Jr., 106- 7 Vorilhon, Claud e (Rael) , 190 Wagar, W . Warren , 14 , 97 Wagner, Richard , 5 "Waiting fo r th e End o f the World" (Costello) , 128

Wallace, Anthony, 88-89 , *34 Walvoord, John, 8 , 34,156-5 7 Ward, Donald , 220 « Warning, 72-73 , 90 , 93, fig. 17 Warshofsky, Fred , 98-9 9 Washington, George , 191 Wasted Yout h (band) , 125 Waterworld (film) , 10,11 2 Watt, James, 3 0 Weart, Spencer , 9 9 Weber, Max , 145 , 218-19W, 221-22/z Weber, Timothy , 7 , 34

Index I

Weekly World News, 70 Weinberger, Caspar , 3 0 Welles, Orson, 4 9 Wessinger, Catherine , 20 5 Wheeler, Harvey , 10 6 When Prophecy Fails (Festinger), 53,18 1 "When th e Las t Da y Comes " (Th e Insane) , 12 When Your Money Fails: The "666" System Is //m'(Relfe), 168 , 228-297* "Where Nex t Columbus " (th e Crass), 128 Whisenant, Edgar , 21 2 White, Elle n G. , 2 6 White supremacis t groups , 10-11,120-2 1 Whore o f Babylon , i n film , 4 9 Wigglesworth, Michael , 2 3 Wilhelm, Kaise r o f Germany, 16 3 Wilson, Gahan , 112-13 , fig. 24 Wilson, Woodrow, 16 2 Works and Days, The (Hesiod), 2 0 World Bank , 161,16 9 World Counci l o f Churches, 4 7 World peac e dispensationalists on , 16 4 impossibility of , 41,15 9 Marian ag e of, 15 2 Russia and , 15 4 as satanic movement , 5 8 Worlds Last Dictator, The (Kinman), 16 9 World, the Flesh, and the Devil, 7^Mfilm) , 11 2 World Wa r II I Bayside (NY ) Maria n apparition s on , 72 , 75-76, 91,13 7 and pun k subculture , 125,12 8

World War HI (fanzine) , 12 3 Worldwide Churc h o f God, 2 9 World Without End (film), m Xenophobia, i n conspiratoria l thinking , 162 Xeroxlore, 114-15 , 227 n X-Files (T V show), 181 , 229« X The Unknown (film) , i n Year 200 0 apocalyptic belief s after , 211-1 5 consciousness of , 98 earthly evacuatio n in , 18 7 as liminal time , 212 Yeltsin, Boris , 152,16 3 Youth concerns of , 12 3 feelings of , 125,12 9 Youth culture(s) . See also Punk subcultur e apocalyptic belief s of , 1 1 Christian, 2 8 Lindsey on , 45 , 48 Zamora, Lois , 23-24, 226 n Zechariah, Boo k of , 31 , 33, 44, 74-75,155, 170-71 Zeitoun, Egypt , Maria n apparition s at , 62 , 82 Zimdars-Swartz, Sandr a L. , 66 Zombies, 128 Zwingli, Ulrich , 22 1 n

28 1

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