The Education Systems of Africa (Global Education Systems) 3030442160, 9783030442163
146 62 16MB
English Pages [977]
Foreword
Acknowledgment
Contents
About the Editor
Contributors
Issues of Social Justice and Colonialism in the Education Systems of Africa
1 Introduction
1.1 Fourie on African Education History
2 Social Change and Education in Africa
2.1 Current Trends, Issues, and Development
2.2 Access, Equity, and Performance
2.3 Curriculum and Pedagogy
2.4 International and Comparative Perspectives
3 Concluding Remarks
References
Part I: Current Trends, Issues, and Development
Rethinking Ethiopian Education System: Restoration and Rectification
1 Introduction
2 Conceptualisation
3 Historical Background of Educational Development in Ethiopia
4 Education Policy Formation in Ethiopia: Trends and Implications
5 Assessing the Education Policy from Gender Participation AAatt Tertiary Level
5.1 Challenges and Opportunities the Current Ethiopian Education Policy
6 Evaluating Quality of Education for Sustainable Development at All Level
7 Local Languages and Mother Tongue in the Education Policy
7.1 The Absurdity of Political Ideology and Education Model Fusion
7.2 Findings and Commendation
References
Historical Upheavals of the Educational Policy Formulation and Implementation in Ethiopia
1 Introduction
2 Traditional Education in Ethiopia
2.1 Indigenous Education in Ethiopia
2.2 Religious Education in Ethiopia
2.2.1 Traditional Church Education in Ethiopia
2.2.2 Traditional Quranic Education in Ethiopia
2.2.3 Missionary Education in Ethiopia
3 Modern Education in Ethiopia
3.1 Modern Education in Ethiopia During the Reign of Menelik II
3.2 Modern Education in Ethiopia During the Reign of Haile Selassie
3.2.1 The First Innovation: A 6-6 Structure
3.2.2 The Second Innovation in the Area of the Curriculum
3.2.3 The Third Innovation: Experimental Curriculum
3.2.4 The Fourth Innovation in the Area of the Curriculum
3.3 Modern Education in Ethiopia During the Derg Era
3.3.1 Curriculum Innovation, Undertaking, and Organization
3.3.2 Criticisms of the Education System and the Curriculum of the Derge Era
4 Implications for the Current Education in Ethiopia
5 Conclusion
6 Cross-References
References
Decentralization of Education in Postapartheid South Africa
1 Introduction
2 Decentralization, Neoliberalism, Neoconservatism, and New Managerialism
2.1 Decentralization
2.2 Neoliberalism
2.3 Neoconservatism
2.4 New Managerialism
3 Performance-Based Funding (FBF) Model
4 Establishing Institutions of Higher Learning in South Africa
5 Enrollments and Access to Higher Education Institutions in South Africa
6 Funding Policy for Higher Education System in South Africa
7 University State Budget for Higher Education
8 Decentralization and Social Justice in the Education System of South Africa
9 Conclusion and Recommendations
10 Cross-References
References
Mediation as the Management Strategy for Policy Implementation
1 Introduction
2 Theoretical Worldview
3 History of Religion Education in South Africa
4 Religion-in-Education Policy
5 Methodology
6 Findings
7 Discussion
8 Policy Development
9 Learner Admission and Educator Appointment
10 Teaching About Religion
11 Religious Observances
12 Conclusions
References
Assessment of Education Financing and Quality on Sustainable Development of Nigeria
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
3 Stylized Fact on Educational Quality and Sustainable Development
4 Methodology
5 Estimation Technique
6 Result and Discussion
7 Unit Root Test
8 Co-integration Test
9 Short-Run Coefficients and Error Correction Model
References
Quality Education for Sustainable Development in Zimbabwean Higher Education
1 Introduction
2 Quality and Sustainable Development in Higher Education
3 Key Theoretical Framework Concepts: Structure and Agency
4 Research Methods
5 Data Collection
6 Data Analysis
7 The Interplay of Structure and Agency in Constraining the Achievement of Agenda 2030 Global Goals in Higher Education
8 Selected Quotes from Participants
9 Challenges Faced by Institutions to Implement Agenda 2030 Global Goals Specifically on Quality in Education (SDG4)
10 Selected Quotes from Participants
11 Stakeholders of Higher Education and Strengthening of the Integration of ESD
12 Selected Researcher´s Quotes on the Integration of ESD by Stakeholders
13 Support Mechanisms, Strategies, and Opportunities to Enhance the Achievement of ESD
14 Specific Quotes from Participants
15 Discussion, Conclusion, and Recommendations
16 Recommendations
17 Cross-References
References
Faculty Views of Adaptive E-Learning in a South African University
1 Introduction
2 Criticisms of and Need for Adaptive E-Learning (AEL) Technology and Cognitive Enhancement
2.1 Means/Approaches for Cognitive Enhancement
2.2 Pervasive Nature of Adaptive Learning (Digital) Technologies: Potential Implication for Cognitive Enhancement
2.3 Potential Implication 1
2.4 Adaptive (Digital) Technology and Other Industries
2.5 Conundrum 1
2.6 Criticism of Theoretical Stance and Potential Ramification
2.7 Potential Implication 1 for Multi-disciplinarily Cognitive Enhancement
2.8 Conundrum 2
2.9 Conundrum 3
2.10 Potential Implication 2 for Advancing STEM
2.11 Summary/Research Aim
2.12 Understanding and Approaches of Enhancing Cognition
2.13 Applying Adaptive E-Learning (Digital) Technology and Cognitive Enhancement in STEM
3 Conclusion
4 Cross-References
References
Celebrating Diversity
1 Introduction
2 South African Equality Law
3 The Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act
4 The Harksen v Lane Test
5 The Exercise of Religion in South African Public Schools
6 Challenges Facing South African Government Schools
7 Diversity as Legal Conceptual Consideration
8 Concluding Remarks
References
Monitoring and Implementation of Universal Primary Education (UPE) in Uganda
1 Introduction
2 Overview of the Education System and Structure in Uganda
3 The Concept and Composition of the SMC
4 Responsibilities of SMCs in Implementing UPE
5 Community Participation in School Management
6 Conceptual Framework
7 SMCs Influence on the Implementation of UPE
8 Conclusion and Recommendations
References
The Education System of Kenya
1 Introduction
2 The National Goals of Education
3 The Vision and Mission of the Education Sector
4 The Structure of Education in Kenya
5 Governance and Management of Education
6 Development of Kenya´s Education
7 The Education Sector Performance, Achievements, and Challenges
8 Education Reforms in Kenya
9 Conclusion
References
Côte d´Ivoire´s Education System and Its Impact on Ivorians´ Quality of Life
1 Overview
2 Reforms
3 Improvement Plans
4 Access
5 Critique of Reforms and Improvement Plans
6 General Analysis of the Ivorian Education Sector
6.1 Strength
6.2 Weakness
6.3 Opportunities
6.4 Threats
7 Discussion
8 Conclusion
References
Factors Affecting Student Transition from Conventional Schools to an Open Schooling System in Namibia
1 Introduction
2 NAMCOL and Distance Education in Namibia
3 Student Transitioning
4 Transition Theory
5 Research Design
6 Results
7 Discussion
8 Conclusion
9 Cross-References
References
Implementation of NQF Policy in Namibia Public Universities
1 Introduction
2 The National Qualifications Framework Policy
3 The National Qualifications Framework Policy in Namibian Higher Education Context
4 Conceptualization of the National Qualifications Framework Policy in the Context of Higher Education Institutions
5 Evidence
6 Concluding Notes
References
The Theory and Practice in Teacher Education in Zimbabwe
1 Introduction
2 The Zimbabwe Education System
3 Relationship Between Theory and Practice
4 Challenges Faced by Student Teachers When Transferring Theory into Practice
5 Conclusion
6 Cross-References
References
Internationalization Efforts in the Nigerian Higher Education Sector
1 Introduction
2 An Overview of the Internationalization of Higher Education
3 An Overview of Nigerian Universities
4 Internationalization in Nigeria
5 Profiles of the International Students and the Two Participating Universities
5.1 The University of Ibadan
5.2 Covenant University
6 Demographic Characteristics of the International Students
6.1 Gender
6.2 First Language
6.3 Country of Origin
6.4 Residence
6.5 Funding
6.6 Discipline
6.7 Type of Degree Program Enrolled for
7 Conclusion
References
Re-entry Policy Implementation Challenges and Support Systems for Teenage Mothers in Zambian Secondary Schools
1 Introduction and Background
1.1 Zambia´s Re-entry Policy and Implementation
1.2 The Concept of Implementation
1.3 Peer Discrimination
1.4 Academic Challenges
1.5 Duo Responsibility as a Mother and a Pupil
1.6 Financial Challenges
2 Current Support Systems
2.1 School and NGO Support
2.2 Government Effort Via Social Welfare
2.3 Parental and Pupil Support
3 Conclusion
4 Recommendations
References
Pathways to Principalship in South Africa
1 Introduction
2 Appointment of Principals in South Africa
2.1 School Leadership and Management in South Africa
2.2 Appointment of Principals before 1994
2.3 Appointment of Principals after 1994
2.4 ACE School Leadership and Management Program
2.5 The South African School Act (SASA)84 of 1996
2.6 Pathways to Principalship
3 Career Paths of School Principals
4 Implications
5 Recommendations
6 Conclusion
Annexure A
Progression Path after ACE (SLM)
Annexure B
Principal Interview Protocol
References
Women and Status of Lifelong Learning in Nigeria
1 Introduction
2 Education, Lifelong Leaning, and Women´s Career Progression
3 The Career Plan of the Participants
3.1 Organizational Opportunities
4 Continous Learning for Women
4.1 Internal Training
4.2 External Studies
5 Women Connecting in the Work Place
6 Concluding Remarks
References
Part II: Access, Equity, and Performance
Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Botswana
1 Introduction
2 Implications of Employing Graduates with Higher Education Qualifications
3 Higher Education: The African Agenda
4 Unemployment in Botswana
5 Conclusion
References
The Educational Challenges of Children of Street Vendors in Ghana
1 Introduction
1.1 Historical Background of Ghana
2 Street Vending and Education Factor
2.1 Emerging Challenges in Education Reforms in Basic Education in Ghana
3 Concluding Remarks
References
Lifelong Learning and Career Progression of Women in Nigeria
1 Women Access to Education and Social Justice in Nigeria
2 Lifelong Learning: A Conceptual Clarification
3 Barrier to Women´s Career Progression Education
4 Personal Factor
5 Organizational Factors
5.1 Discrimination
6 Social Factors
7 Creating Opportunities for Lifelong Learning Education
7.1 Networking
7.1.1 Organizational Strategies
8 Career Choices
9 Conclusion
References
The Contemporary State of Education in South Africa
1 Introduction
2 Dysfunctionality in School System
3 Accessibility to Basic Education
4 Dropout Rate
5 Concept of Social Justice in Relation to Education
6 Position of Education as Mechanism in Curbing Unemployment
7 Accompanying Challenges Confronting South African Education System
8 Conclusion
9 Cross-References
References
Management of School Finances in South African Schools
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
3 Theoretical Framework
4 Semi-structured Interviews
4.1 SGB Members´ Knowledge of, and Skills and Training in, Managing Finances
4.2 Lack of Finance Policy Implementation
4.3 Tasks Performed in the Management of School Finances and Budgeting Processes
4.4 Collaborative Tasks of SGBs in Managing School Finances
5 Conclusion
6 Recommendation for Further Research
References
Learner Dropout in South African Schools
1 Introduction
2 Background and Conceptual Framework
2.1 Educational Recognition
3 Rationale and Research Questions
4 Let the numbers talk
5 Understanding the Phenomenon of Dropouts
6 What have we learnt or Discussion
7 Conclusion
References
Involving Girls Early in STEM for Sustainable Development
1 Introduction
2 Statement of the Problem
3 Literature Review
3.1 STEM Education and African Development
3.2 Public Spaces and Placemaking
3.3 Girls´ Education in STEM Subjects
3.4 The Placemaking Framework
3.5 Case Study: Evaluation of the Placemaking Concept for Girls´ Education in Nigeria
3.6 More Evidenced Perceptions on Placemaking
3.7 The Way Forward for Placemaking as Strategy
4 Conclusion
5 Cross-References
References
Empowerment Spaces of Female School Principals in South African Township Schools
1 Introduction
2 Education Management Practices
3 Leadership of Female Principals
4 Challenges Experienced by Female Principals
5 Context of the Study
6 Legislation
7 Feminist Post-structuralism
8 Methods and Theory
8.1 Experiences of Female School Principals as Managers
8.2 Challenges and Barriers
8.3 Empowering Spaces and Sources of Power
9 Conclusions
10 Recommendations
References
Counsellor Training and Supervision in Uganda
1 Introduction
2 Methods
3 Status of Counsellor Supervision Globally
4 Status of Counsellor Supervision in Uganda
5 Counsellor Educational Institutions
6 Interns´ Developmental Needs
7 Concluding Remarks
References
The Role of Resources in Promoting Teaching and Learning in South Africa
1 Introduction
2 Teaching and Learning Materials in Public Schools
3 Resources as Determinant to Promoting Teaching and Learning
4 The Role of the School Library
4.1 The Bottom Line
4.2 Who Is Affected?
4.3 Caveats
5 Concluding Remarks
6 Cross-References
References
The Causal Effect of Education Policy on Female´s Decision-Making in Sub-Saharan Africa: Evidence from Nigeria
1 Introduction
2 Stylized Fact About Nigeria Education System
3 Analytical Framework and Econometric Strategy
4 Data Source and Summary Statistics
5 Results and Interpretation
5.1 Regression Discontinuity Design
5.2 RD Stability Test Using Treatment Effect Derivative (TED)
6 Conclusion
Appendix 1
Appendix 2
References
Women in Higher Education Leadership and Parenthood: Experiences from a University in Zimbabwe
1 Introduction
2 Women and Higher Education Leadership
3 Organizational Barriers to Women´s Leadership
4 How to Make Climbing the Ladder Less Difficult?
5 Women Leadership Styles
6 Challenges Facing Women in Higher Education Leadership
7 Differences in Leadership Styles Between Women and Men
8 Parenthood and Religious Factors Affecting Women in Higher Education Leadership
9 Conclusion
10 Cross-References
References
Part III: Curriculum and Pedagogy
South African Language History
1 Overview
1.1 Afrikaans and British Conquests
1.2 The Soweto Uprising
2 The Spread of English
3 English and Globalization
4 Mother Tongue Education
5 Conclusion
References
Transformational Leadership and Teaching in Montessori Schools
1 Introduction
2 Principal Roles and Learning Methods in Montessori Schools
3 How Leadership Styles Determine Educational Outcomes
3.1 Impact on Teaching
3.1.1 My Principal Evaluates Teachers´ Performance Objectively (Fig. 1)
3.1.2 Principal Has Been in My Class While Teaching
3.1.3 Principal Encourages Teachers to Discuss Teaching Methods in Staff Meetings
3.1.4 Principal Sends Teachers for Training (Fig. 13)
4 Data Analysis
5 Conclusion
6 Cross-References
References
Transfer of Learning in a Distance Education Programme in South Africa
1 Introduction and Rationale
2 What Is Transfer of Training and What Are the Benefits of Training?
3 Why Is It Difficult for Graduates to Transfer What They Have Learned to the Workplace Environment in the Educational Sector?
4 What Is the Value of Conducting Research into This Important Field in the Educational Sector?
5 How Can Studies into Training Transfer Be Conducted in the Educational Sector?
5.1 Training Evaluation Models
5.2 The Discussion of Two Popular Models
5.2.1 Kirkpatrick´s Training Evaluation Model
5.2.2 Baldwin and Ford´s Training Evaluation Model
5.3 Research Designs and Methods That Have Been Used in the Field of Training Transfer
6 The Suggested Training Transfer Evaluation Model for the BEd(Hons) Program
6.1 Some Background
7 Discussion of the Suggested Model in Relation to the Need for Research into Training Transfer at School Level
7.1 Support and Organizational Environment That Affect Training Transfer
8 Implications of Discussion for Further Research and Conclusion
References
Diversity and Diversity Management in UNISA´s Open Distance Learning Through Bernstein and Foucault´s Lens
1 Introduction and Background
2 The Genesis and Meanings of Diversity and Diversity Management
3 Diversity Management as a Problem Ontology and Epistemology
4 Diversity Management as an Organizational Paradigm in Open Distance Learning
5 Diversity Management as Ideology and Discourse
6 Critiquing Diversity Management Through the Bernstein´s Model of Transmission Context
7 Conclusion
8 Cross-References
References
Some Psychological Constructs and Mathematics Performance in Nigerian Secondary Schools
1 Introduction
2 Academic Motivation
3 Mathematics Anxiety
4 Mathematics Attitude
5 Attribution Style and Mathematics Performance
6 Conclusion
References
Ensuring Child-Friendly Learning Environments in Nigerian Early Childhood Centers
1 Introduction
2 The Child-Friendly School Environment
3 The Importance of Early Childhood Education in Nigeria
4 Elements of Early Childhood Learning Environment
5 The Physical Learning Environment
5.1 The Home as a Learning Environment
5.2 The School as a Physical Learning Environment
6 Psychosocial Learning Environment
6.1 Parent-Child (Learner) Relationship
6.2 Teacher-Learner Relationship
6.3 Peer Relationship
6.4 School Administrator-Teacher Relationship
6.5 Classroom Discipline of Learner
7 Creative Learning Environment
8 Healthy Learning Environment
8.1 Sickbay/First Aid
8.2 Prevention of Infectious Diseases
8.3 Kitchenette, Food, and Nutrition
8.4 Personal Hygiene Toilet Habits
8.5 Water and Environmental Sanitation
8.6 Cleaning the School Environment
9 Recommendations
10 Conclusion
References
Open, Distance, and E-learning Education in Kenya
1 An Introduction to the Definition and Concept of E-learning
2 An Overview of the Numerous Advantages of E-learning to Institutions of Higher Learning
3 The Inception of E-learning in Higher Education in Kenya and Challenges Hindering Successful Adoption of E-learning in Kenya...
4 The Future of Online Learning
5 Conclusion
6 Cross-References
References
Researching Namibian Student Teachers
1 Introduction
2 Background
3 Studies on Namibia
4 Teaching Practice
5 Knowledge of Learner´s Background, Learning Needs, and Pedagogies
6 Student Teachers´ Equity Practices and Attitudes
7 Unity and Tolerance
8 Conclusion
9 Cross-References
References
Accommodating Comprehensive Sexuality Education within the Grades R-3 Curriculum in South Africa
1 Introduction
2 The Importance of CSE in the Early Grades
3 The Difference Between Sexuality Education and Comprehensive Sexuality Education
3.1 Comprehensive Sexuality Education
3.2 Sexuality Education
4 Policy Context and CSE Within South Africa
4.1 Policies
4.2 Care and Support for Early Grade Learners
4.3 Foundation Phase Learner and CSE
4.4 Curriculum and CSE
5 Teacher Development
5.1 Teacher Knowledge, Competence, and Comfort Level
6 Factors impacting the Accommodation and Strengthening of CSE in the Early Grades
6.1 Subject Advisors
6.2 Principals and School Management Team (SMT)
6.3 Attitude and Role of Parents
6.4 Cultural Factors
7 Recommendations to Accommodate and Strengthen CSE Within the Curriculum in the Early Grades: R-3
7.1 Accommodating and Strengthening CSE in the Life Skills Curriculum
7.1.1 Teacher Development and Training
7.1.2 Teacher Content Knowledge Upgrade
8 Conclusion
References
Caregivers´ Knowledge of Improvisation of Materials in Pre-Primary Schools in Nigeria
1 Introduction
2 Assumption of the Study
3 Issues
4 Discussion
5 Conclusion
6 Recommendations
References
Reading Comprehension in Early Childhood
1 Introduction
2 Interpreting Results from ILSAs for Policy-Making, Planning, and Development
3 South Africa´s Participation in PIRLS Across Cycles
4 An Initial Exploration of the Nature of Growth as Seen from the PIRLS Literacy 2016 Study from a Socioeconomic Lens
5 A Further Exploration of the Nature of Growth in Attainment of Benchmarks and by African Language Students
6 Further Evidence That Qualify the Nature of Growth: Methods and Analysis for the Current Study
7 Conclusion
8 Cross-References
References
Further Reading
The Usage of English Language as a Challenge for Students to Access and Succeed in Zambian Higher Education
1 Introduction
2 The Background: Major Language Policy Development and Pronouncements in Zambia for the Use of Zambian Languages
3 English Language and Education in Zambia
4 Postcolonial Theory
5 Orientalism as a Way of Describing Post-Colonialism
6 The Beginning of the Usage of English in Zambia
7 The Need for Zambia to Reform, Restructure, and Introduce Local Languages
8 The Advantages and Disadvantages of Using either English or Local Languages
9 The Way Forward
10 Conclusion
11 Cross-References
References
Part IV: International and Comparative Perspectives
Educational System Obstruction Consequence in the Political Volatility
1 Introduction
2 Background and Literature Survey
3 Africa Education Systems Architecture and Its Structural Challenges
4 Traditional Education Systems in the Horn of Africa
5 Comparative Analysis of Educational Systems in Djibouti and Somalia
5.1 Djibouti Education Systems Chronological Perspectives and Current Standing
5.2 Somalia Education Systems Chronological Perspectives and Current Standing
6 Closing Argument
7 Conclusion
References
Education and Training Policies in South Africa and the BRICS Countries
1 Synopsis
2 Theoretical Consideration
3 The Status of Education Across BRICS Countries
4 Concluding Remarks
References
The Accessibility and Affordability of Education in Sub-Saharan Africa
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
2.1 Defining Low-Cost Private Schools
2.2 Education and Private Schooling in Africa
2.3 Data Sources and Search Strategy
2.4 Reporting the Review
3 Discussions and Implications
3.1 Inequality in African Educational Systems
3.2 Competing Perspectives on Low-Cost HEIs, Private HEIs, and EFA
3.3 Access, Equity, and Affordability of Low-Cost and Private HEIs
3.4 The Relationship Between Affordability and Quality
4 Conclusions and Recommendations
5 Cross-References
Appendix 1 PRISMA 2009 Flow Diagram
References
The Comparative Analysis of Rankings in South African and Nigerian Higher Education Systems
1 Introduction
1.1 Ranking Issues in South Africa
1.2 Overview of Ranking in Nigeria
1.3 Ranking and Performance of Higher Education in Nigeria and South Africa
1.4 Analysis of Rankings and Performance
1.4.1 South Africa
Performance
Research
Teaching and Learning
1.4.2 Nigeria
Ranking Status
Performance
Research
Teaching and Learning
2 Concluding Remarks
References
Betrayal Trauma Theory
1 Introduction
2 Theoretical Framework
3 The Behavior of Toxic Leadership
4 Common Leadership Styles in African Education Spaces
5 Skills Required in African Higher Education (HE) Spaces
6 Leadership in African Higher Education Contexts
7 Accountability and Moral Competence
8 Theoretical Implications
9 Practical Implications
10 Conclusion
11 Cross-References
References
Reviews on School Climate, Lifelong Learning, and Community Engagement
1 Introduction
2 Engagement and Lifelong Learning
3 Global Context of Engagement and School Climate
4 Broader Implications
References
Promoting Inclusivity Through Quality Assessment in Rural Secondary Schools
1 Introduction
2 The Concept of Inclusive Education
3 Principles of Quality Assessment
4 Types of Assessment
4.1 Formative Assessment
4.2 Summative Assessment
5 Assessment Practices in Inclusive Learning
6 Constraining Factors to Quality Assessment
7 Intervention Strategies That Promote Quality Assessment
8 Conclusion
9 Cross-References
References
Teacher Absenteeism in South Africa
1 Introduction
2 What Is Teacher Absenteeism?
3 Some Factors Influencing Teacher Absenteeism
3.1 Illness
3.2 School Leave Policy
3.3 Stress
3.4 Management Style
3.5 Demographic Variables and Teacher Absenteeism
3.6 School Culture and Leadership Style
4 Teacher Absenteeism: An International Perspective
4.1 Teacher Absenteeism in Norway
4.2 Teacher Absenteeism in Pakistan
4.3 Teacher Absenteeism in India
4.4 Teacher Absenteeism in the United States of America
4.5 Teacher Absenteeism in the West Indies
4.6 Teacher Absenteeism in Queensland, Australia
5 Teacher Absenteeism in South Africa: A Local Perspective
6 Effects of Teacher Absenteeism
7 Concluding Comments
8 Cross-References
References
Part V: Policy Recommendations
Postcolonial Reflections on African Education
1 Introduction
2 Unity and Diversity in the Colonial Response
3 Postcolonial Rethinking
4 Concluding Thoughts
References
Index
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Global Education Systems
Kolawole Samuel Adeyemo Editor
The Education Systems of Africa
Global Education Systems
This series of handbooks presents analytical descriptions of the educations systems around the world. It provides easily accessible, practical, yet scholarly, sources of information about the structural features of the respective education systems, including the history of the education system, the socio-cultural context of the education system and the organizational context. More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/13430
Kolawole Samuel Adeyemo Editor
The Education Systems of Africa With 76 Figures and 44 Tables
Editor Kolawole Samuel Adeyemo Faculty of Education University of Pretoria Pretoria, South Africa
ISSN 2570-2262 ISSN 2570-2270 (electronic) ISBN 978-3-030-44216-3 ISBN 978-3-030-44217-0 (eBook) ISBN 978-3-030-44218-7 (print and electronic bundle) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44217-0 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Foreword
Issues of Social Justice in The Education Systems of Africa marks a significant step forward for its comprehensive and in-depth analysis of the African education system. It explores these issues from a multifaceted perspective and identifies gaps in the studies of the education systems in Africa with a strong focus on education outcomes and its aims. The book marks an important contribution with its combination of comprehensiveness and in-depth analysis in several areas. It begins by setting the context with current trends and issues, then addresses three critical areas: current trends, issues, and development; access, equity and performance, curriculum, and pedagogy; and international and comparative perspectives. It brings together scholars from across Africa to explore socio-political and economic dynamics shaping the education landscape across a wide range of African nations. Each author is attuned to the need for a detailed and contextualized consideration of the challenges and possibilities facing the education systems in Africa. They help the reader explore the complexities of African education within particular national and local contexts by highlighting progress while also recognizing the considerable challenges ahead. Even readers who are well versed in international and comparative education will find the detailed accounts in this volume original, provocative, and informative. One of the key challenges facing African nations is the issue of access, particularly access for women to tertiary education. Multiple chapters explore the status of women in lifelong learning, career development, and their role in educational leadership. Improved access to primary and secondary level education has increased tertiary enrollment; however, the tertiary enrollment rate across African nations remains relatively low. New generations of students not only need somewhere to study, they also need to have employment opportunities to achieve the social benefits of tertiary education. And, while enrollment continues to increase, there remains a considerable outflow of intellectual talent from the continent due to issues of unemployment among graduates. This part explores the role of access and equity to address these challenges and achieve the social benefits of education, including alleviating poverty, reducing inequality, and fostering sustainability. The book offers a critical lens to consider how the quantitative increase in primary, secondary, and tertiary student enrollment must be matched with attention to qualitative improvements and a commitment to equity and inclusion. The authors v
vi
Foreword
explore tensions and issues in curriculum and pedagogy with concrete examples and from distinctive perspectives, including mathematics literacy, critical diversity management, sexuality education, and open and distance education. Readers have an opportunity to explore efforts to reform curriculum and pedagogy across a wide range of educational contexts from early childhood centers to Montessori schools, to primary and secondary schools, to universities. The final part gives voice to international and comparative perspectives that explore education across a wide range of national contexts. The chapters offer rich accounts that explore primary schools and rural secondary schools in comparative context. In addition, readers have an opportunity to explore comparative perspective on public university system and the fast-growing private higher education sector that is on pace to outnumber public institutions. Global and international perspectives are offered by situating education in South Africa in comparison with other BRICS nations, that is, Brazil, Russia, India, and China. The final chapter draws together the main conclusions from each chapter to provide concrete policy recommendations to strengthen educational policies in African nations. The editor offers research-based recommendations relevant for university administrators, scholars, and policymakers that are essential reading for in-depth understanding of contemporary African higher education it is crucial that policymakers recognize the tensions and issues highlighted in this book and heed the call to continue to take the small but significant steps needed to march towards progress. Old Dominion University Editor, Journal of International Students
Chris R. Glass, Ph.D.
Acknowledgment
This book project is large and one of the very few reference works on Africa with more than 50 chapters in a single volume. This research handbook has benefited from the contribution of education experts and professionals from around the world. First, I would like to acknowledge all the authors for their contribution and colleagues from Springer, Nick Melchior (Editorial Director), Mokshika Gaur (Reference Publisher), Claudia Acuna (Publishing Editor), Shruti Datt (Associate Editor), Akshara PP (Development Editor), and Navin Rajendran (Project Manager), for managing the review process for book proposal, all chapters, and other administrative matters that make this book project a huge success. Similarly, I also want to acknowledge the expertise and contribution of reviewers for their constructive comments and feedback to authors during the review process. Reviewer’s name Prof. Hellen Wildy Dr. Chris R. Glass Prof. Ken Jones Dr. Tony Mays Prof. Joanna Madalinska Michalak Prof. A.H. Makura Dr. Charity MekiKombe Prof. Everard Weber Dr. David Nkengbeza Dr. Shava George Prof. TT Bhengu Prof. Vitallis Chikoko Dr. K.S. Adeyemo
Title and affiliation Emeritus Professor, The University of Western Australia, Australia Associate Professor, Old Dominion University, USA Editor: Journal of International Students (USA) Editor: Journal of Professional Development in Education Education Specialist: Open Schooling Commonwealth of Learning, Canada Professor, University of Warsaw, Faculty of Education, Poland Associate Professor, Central University of Technology Lecturer, Mulungushi University, Zambia Professor, University of Pretoria, South Africa Senior Lecturer, University of Namibia, Educational Foundations and Management Lecturer, National University of Science and Technology, Zimbabwe Associate Professor, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, School of Education Professor, University of KwaZulu Natal, South Africa, Educational Leadership, Management and Policy, Senior Lecturer, University of Pretoria, South Africa
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Acknowledgment
Furthermore, I would like to thank the University of Pretoria, Faculty of Education, Department of Education Management and Policy Studies (EMPS) for providing enabling environment that assisted me to complete this book project while I was still busy with teaching, research, coordination, and postgraduate supervision at EMPS. Essentially, I would like to appreciate my wife, Mary Margaret Adeyemo, and my son, Emmanuel Ife Adeyemo, for their continuous support and understanding. Finally, a special thanks to God for giving me good health and ability to complete this book project.
Contents
Issues of Social Justice and Colonialism in the Education Systems of Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kolawole Samuel Adeyemo Part I
1
Current Trends, Issues, and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
Rethinking Ethiopian Education System: Restoration and Rectification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T. K. Seife
13
Historical Upheavals of the Educational Policy Formulation and Implementation in Ethiopia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Solomon Mengistie
35
Decentralization of Education in Postapartheid South Africa . . . . . . . . Rakgadi Phatlane
59
Mediation as the Management Strategy for Policy Implementation . . . Maitumeleng A. Nthontho
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Assessment of Education Financing and Quality on Sustainable Development of Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oluwaseyi A. Adelowokan and S. A. Ajibowo
103
Quality Education for Sustainable Development in Zimbabwean Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . George N. Shava
119
Faculty Views of Adaptive E-Learning in a South African University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anass Bayaga
145
Celebrating Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Caitlin Reid and Anton Kok
163
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Contents
Monitoring and Implementation of Universal Primary Education (UPE) in Uganda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Robert Mugabe and Teresa Auma Ogina
187
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211
Côte d’Ivoire’s Education System and Its Impact on Ivorians’ Quality of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ophélie Dangbégnon
225
Factors Affecting Student Transition from Conventional Schools to an Open Schooling System in Namibia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Heroldt Vekaama Murangi
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The Education System of Kenya Andrew Rasugu Riechi
Implementation of NQF Policy in Namibia Public Universities . . . . . . . Samuel Angaleni Kambonde
265
.......
277
...
287
Re-entry Policy Implementation Challenges and Support Systems for Teenage Mothers in Zambian Secondary Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N. Chiyota and R. N. Marishane
313
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327
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347
The Theory and Practice in Teacher Education in Zimbabwe Hwami Evelyn and Munorweyi Matamba
Internationalization Efforts in the Nigerian Higher Education Sector Olaide Agbaje
Pathways to Principalship in South Africa Sharon Thabo Mampane
Women and Status of Lifelong Learning in Nigeria Akinola George Dosunmu Part II
Access, Equity, and Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
369
Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Botswana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dalitso Dick Chitema
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The Educational Challenges of Children of Street Vendors in Ghana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pardikor Madjitey
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Lifelong Learning and Career Progression of Women in Nigeria . . . . . Akinola George Dosunmu and Mpho Dichaba
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The Contemporary State of Education in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . Adeniran Gregory Adewusi
421
Contents
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Management of School Finances in South African Schools . . . . . . . . . . Kgatabela Albert Mphethi
437
Learner Dropout in South African Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nevensha Sing and Felix Maringe
455
Involving Girls Early in STEM for Sustainable Development . . . . . . . . Adetoun Adebisi Oyelude
471
Empowerment Spaces of Female School Principals in South African Township Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Teresa Auma Ogina Counsellor Training and Supervision in Uganda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jane Namusoke
487 505
The Role of Resources in Promoting Teaching and Learning in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Azwindini Moses Molaudzi
529
The Causal Effect of Education Policy on Female’s Decision-Making in Sub-Saharan Africa: Evidence from Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Olanrewaju A. Adediran, Michael Fakoya, and N. P. Sikhweni
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Women in Higher Education Leadership and Parenthood: Experiences from a University in Zimbabwe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . George N. Shava and D. Chasokela
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Part III
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Curriculum and Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
South African Language History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ophélie Dangbégnon
585
...
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Transfer of Learning in a Distance Education Programme in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Folake Ruth Aluko
627
Diversity and Diversity Management in UNISA’s Open Distance Learning Through Bernstein and Foucault’s Lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Victor J. Pitsoe and Moeketsi Letseka
649
Some Psychological Constructs and Mathematics Performance in Nigerian Secondary Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Akolade Olubunmi Lapite
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Ensuring Child-Friendly Learning Environments in Nigerian Early Childhood Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Martin Chukwudi Ekeh and Roy Venketsamy
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Transformational Leadership and Teaching in Montessori Schools Folasade Ololade
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Contents
Open, Distance, and E-learning Education in Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mary Ooko
705
Researching Namibian Student Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Beatrice Sichombe and Everard Weber
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Accommodating Comprehensive Sexuality Education within the Grades R–3 Curriculum in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Roy Venketsamy and Jenny Kinnear Caregivers’ Knowledge of Improvisation of Materials in Pre-Primary Schools in Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Babajide Gboyega Abidogun, Muraina Adeniyi Lamidi, and Aderemi Folashade Adebowale
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The Usage of English Language as a Challenge for Students to Access and Succeed in Zambian Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dominic Mulenga Mukuka
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Part IV
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Reading Comprehension in Early Childhood Surette van Staden
International and Comparative Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . .
Educational System Obstruction Consequence in the Political Volatility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T. K. Seife Education and Training Policies in South Africa and the BRICS Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kolawole Samuel Adeyemo, Nevensha Sing, and Adeniran Gregory Adewusi
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The Accessibility and Affordability of Education in Sub-Saharan Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. N. Irene and Tahmina Hussain
859
The Comparative Analysis of Rankings in South African and Nigerian Higher Education Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Olushola Adebayo Olatunji
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Betrayal Trauma Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vimbi Petrus Mahlangu Reviews on School Climate, Lifelong Learning, and Community Engagement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mpho Dichaba
903
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Contents
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Promoting Inclusivity Through Quality Assessment in Rural Secondary Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lwazi Sibanda and Joyce Mathwasa
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Teacher Absenteeism in South Africa Keshni Bipath and Linda Naidoo Part V
Policy Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
963
Postcolonial Reflections on African Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kolawole Samuel Adeyemo
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Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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About the Editor
Dr. K. S. Adeyemo is a policy researcher with a particular focus on issues of quality assurance in higher education regionalization in the Global South. These two strands enable him to contribute to the interdisciplinary and transnational perspective on issues of international and comparative higher education over the last 10 years. He has used his interdisciplinary training in different fields of management and education to inform research in higher education policy and quality assurance. His recent book on higher education policy in the Philippines and ASEAN integration is published by Brill NV, Leiden, the Netherlands. This book deals with the globalization, internationalization, and integration of higher education at the regional level. He has published more than 15 scientific papers in peerreviewed journals/book chapters and scholarly books, given more than 13 presentations at the national and international level, and served in the funding committee of the National Research Foundation (NRF) in South Africa and QS-Wharton Reimagine Education Awards (USA) as a judge. Similarly, he has written technical reports for British Council-DAAD and National Institute of Humanities and Social Sciences BRICS Think Tank. Dr. Adeyemo is a higher education researcher of international repute. Dr. Adeyemo is the assistant editor for the leading Journal of International Students, a top-20 ranked academic journal in Higher Education (h5-median: 37, Scopus CiteScore:1.35), and #2 most-cited journal in international higher education according to GoogleScholar metrics. Dr. Adeyemo is a senior lecturer in the Department of Education Management and Policy Studies at the University of Pretoria, South Africa. He holds a Ph.D. in xv
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About the Editor
educational management from Cavite State University, Philippines, and did a postdoc at the University of Pretoria. He was a visiting scholar at Indiana University, USA, and Aarhus University, Denmark.
Contributors
Babajide Gboyega Abidogun Early Childhood Education, Lagos State University, Ojo, Nigeria Aderemi Folashade Adebowale Early Childhood Unit, Department of Educational Foundations and Counseling Psychology, Faculty of Education, Lagos State University, Lagos, Nigeria Olanrewaju A. Adediran Africa Centre for Sustainability Accounting and Management, School of Accountancy, University of Limpopo, Mankweng, South Africa Oluwaseyi A. Adelowokan Department of Economics, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State, Nigeria Adeniran Gregory Adewusi The Kola Scholars (TKS), Pretoria, South Africa Kolawole Samuel Adeyemo Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa Olaide Agbaje Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa S. A. Ajibowo Glob-Afrique Research Consultancy, Ijebu Ode, Ogun State, Nigeria Folake Ruth Aluko Unit for Distance Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa Anass Bayaga Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, University of Zululand, KwaDlangewza, South Africa Keshni Bipath University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa D. Chasokela National University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology Education, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe Dalitso Dick Chitema Educational Consultant, Lilongwe, Malawi N. Chiyota Department of Education Management and Policy Studies, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa Ophélie Dangbégnon University of Pretoria (UP), Pretoria, South Africa xvii
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Contributors
Mpho Dichaba University of South Africa (UNISA), Pretoria, South Africa Akinola George Dosunmu University of South Africa (UNISA), Pretoria, South Africa Martin Chukwudi Ekeh Early Childhood Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa Hwami Evelyn Mutare Teachers’ College, Mutare, Zimbabwe Michael Fakoya Africa Centre for Sustainability Accounting and Management, School of Accountancy, University of Limpopo, Mankweng, South Africa Tahmina Hussain London School of Commerce, London, UK B. N. Irene International Center for Transformational Entrepreneurship, Coventry University, Coventry, UK Samuel Angaleni Kambonde Department of Education Management and Policy Studies, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa Jenny Kinnear University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa Anton Kok Department of Jurisprudence, Faculty of Law, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa Muraina Adeniyi Lamidi Early Childhood Unit, Department of Educational Foundations and Counseling Psychology, Faculty of Education, Lagos State University, Lagos, Nigeria Akolade Olubunmi Lapite Department of Educational Psychology, Guidance and Counselling, Adeniran Ogunsanya College of Education, Lagos, Nigeria Moeketsi Letseka UNESCO Chair on Open Distance Learning, University of South Africa (UNISA), Pretoria, South Africa Pardikor Madjitey Zenith University College, Accra, Ghana Vimbi Petrus Mahlangu Educational Leadership and Management, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa Sharon Thabo Mampane Educational Ledership and Management, University of South Africa, Pretoria, Gauteng Province, South Africa Felix Maringe Division of Education Leadership and Policy Studies, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa R. N. Marishane Department of Education Management and Policy Studies, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa Munorweyi Matamba Mutare Teachers’ College, Mutare, Zimbabwe Joyce Mathwasa School of General and Continuing Education (SGCE), Faculty of Education, The University of Fort Hare, East London, South Africa
Contributors
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Solomon Mengistie Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia Azwindini Moses Molaudzi Department of Education, Institutional Governance, Polokwane, South Africa Kgatabela Albert Mphethi Department of Education, Thulare Primary School, Limpopo, South Africa Robert Mugabe Uganda Management Institute, Kampala, Uganda Dominic Mulenga Mukuka The United Church of Zambia University-Lusaka Centre, Woodlands, Zambia Heroldt Vekaama Murangi University of Pretoria (UP), Pretoria, South Africa Linda Naidoo University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa Jane Namusoke Kyambogo University, Kampala, Uganda Maitumeleng A. Nthontho Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa Teresa Auma Ogina Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa Olushola Adebayo Olatunji University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa Folasade Ololade University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa Dr. Mary Ooko Faculty of Education, Unit for Distance Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa Adetoun Adebisi Oyelude University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria Rakgadi Phatlane Faculty of Education Dean’s Office, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa Victor J. Pitsoe Education Management and Leadership, University of South Africa (UNISA), Pretoria, South Africa Caitlin Reid University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa Andrew Rasugu Riechi Department of Educational Administration and Planning, College of Education and External Studies (CEES), University of Nairobi, Kikuyu, Kiambu, Kenya T. K. Seife Political Science Department, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa George N. Shava Faculty of Education, Department of Education Management and Policy Studies South Africa, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa National University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology Education, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe
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Contributors
Lwazi Sibanda Faculty of Science and Technology Education, National University of Science and Technology, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe Beatrice Sichombe National Institute for Educational Development, Windhoek, Namibia N. P. Sikhweni Economics Department, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa Nevensha Sing Department of Education Management and Policy Studies, Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa Surette van Staden Centre for Evaluation and Assessment, Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa Roy Venketsamy Early Childhood Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa Everard Weber Department Education Management and Policy Studies, Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
Issues of Social Justice and Colonialism in the Education Systems of Africa Kolawole Samuel Adeyemo
Contents 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 Fourie on African Education History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Social Change and Education in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Current Trends, Issues, and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Access, Equity, and Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Curriculum and Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 International and Comparative Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Abstract
This chapter analyzes issues that have emerged in the various studies on Africa’s education systems. The present book, Education Systems of Africa, forms part of a Springer-published book series on Global Education Systems. Throughout this publication, authors have discussed trends, reforms, and approaches that are most promising for Africa. This was done in a manner that addresses the socio-political and economic problems of different dynamics that are shaping the education landscape in their countries. This introductory chapter, however, synthesizes the main findings and the recommendations for the strengthening of African nations’ education policies. Thus, the objective of this book is to highlight African nations’ capacity to address issues of social justice and to generate ideas that can help translate the increasing strengths of the continent into achieving sustainable development. In summary, the following are the main highlights:
K. S. Adeyemo (*) Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 K. S. Adeyemo (ed.), The Education Systems of Africa, Global Education Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44217-0_39
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• In terms of the economy of education, this book highlights the importance that education should play in the distribution of social benefits. It further argues that the contribution of education to sustainable development is missing, yet a crucial element in many African countries. • Also, writers have argued for the need to help prepare students for success in and outside the classroom, as well as develop proper expectations for learning and goal setting. • Notably, readers will come across issues related to unequal opportunities in different contexts. Many authors have shown that there is also a major issue with gender biases, which must be addressed in order for Africa to achieve sustainable development through education. Keywords
Social justice · Colonialism · Postcolonialism · Education system · Africa
1
Introduction
The topic of sustainable development has become a priority for governments in many countries across the world and in Africa in particular. The primary purpose of this is to critically examine the aforementioned issue of sustainable development in different contexts and to recommend policies to improve education outcomes in Africa. Essentially, there is an urgent need for a guiding philosophy to improve education provisions in Africa. With this in mind, it is worth reflecting on the role of education in Africa and what it means for development. Globalization has accelerated the processes of education reforms (Zajda 2010). Though the reforms and changes that are taking place around the world have reshaped the discussions on the present education systems on the African continent (Salehi-Isfahani et al. 2014), the relevant sections of literature (Geo-JaJa and Zajda 2015) have not adequately theorized the purpose of education in Africa. As a result, the literature suggesting that Africa’s education purpose should be to serve industry or economy has further created another form of inequality or widened it. Furthermore, the politics of education in Africa is the result of unequal opportunities in many African countries (Boyle 2018). The political processes, in particular, have either impacted funding for education or the funding of educational programs which is based on diverging views on Africa’s education purpose (Stasavage 2005). In several cases, many African countries are using education to foster economic growth and development (Kamara et al. 2008). The philosophy of education in Africa (Higgs 2012), in recent centuries, is centered on the concept of transformation, and it is manifesting through the idea of decolonization in education systems. This has been done through several reforms and curriculum transformation in many African countries. For instance, several African countries are now advocating that African history be included and taught in their curriculum.
Issues of Social Justice and Colonialism in the Education Systems of Africa
1.1
3
Fourie on African Education History
Fourie (2013), in one of his writing, provides a narrative on the rise of education in Africa where he discusses the impact of education history on what we learn, how we learn it, and on the development on the African continent. In his writing, Fourie suggests that formal schooling or education was used to create social classes, and gave the educated elite the power to control. Thus, the early education systems were not directed toward development per se and were not designed to serve society equally either, but rather to divide it more. Therefore, inequality in our current society and our education systems globally and in Africa has been a long-standing issue. In 385 BC, Greek and Roman elites were the only ones who had access to a formal education, in order for them to secure economic and political favor (Fourie 2013). This revelation is critical in understanding the fundamental issue of social justice and the problem of inequality broadly. Still, archives reveal that only men could be educated and receive the religious education of scribes in ancient Egypt. Hence, gender inequality can be traced back to ancient times, and its effect is still far from disappearing in Africa and its education system. One can rightly suggest that education has been used as a tool of political and economic power to rule over less fortunate groups. Interestingly, education in Africa started in homesteads. Unlike countries such as Greece, Rome, India, and China, Africans only learned informally from their community or parents. This is where indigenous education started from, without needing any form of formal reading and writing. Indeed, this form of education remains relevant for Africa’s future development. There are several perspectives on formal education and whether it should completely replace indigenous knowledge in Africa. If formal education has classified and reclassified society structures from early civilization, Africa may need to rethink the purpose of formal education in the present century and what it means for its future. The current knowledge pool in Africa is influenced by a number of factors, such as the arrival of Islam to West and Central Africa around 1075, the spread of Christian missionaries in North Africa, European dominance and colonizers, and the effect of independencies between 1950 and 1960. These events had a great influence on Africa’s education systems and its development. The arrival of Islam, for example, brought formal education to Africa; Christian missionaries also brought literacy, more freedom, and greater equality to Africa. Now, Africa has created a different form of formal education based on its political structure. Yet, many African countries have a low level of education; literacy levels need much improvement in these countries, and women are still underrepresented when it comes to access to quality education. To reiterate, this is a long-running issue, where colonizers used formal education to restructure African society. Though religion has had a good influence on Africa’s education systems, its relevance for Africa’s future in terms of development needs to be reconsidered. There is an urgent need to discover how Africa could take advantage of digital technology to revamp its education systems for the benefit of all. In summary, the narrative on the rise of education in Africa, according to Fourie, is a piece of work one can use to evaluate Africa’s current position and lessons to learn
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for the future. Essentially, how can education be used to both transform African society and achieve equality for all? Education is expected to play a crucial role in the African society. The aim of education, considering several challenges faced by African nations before civilization and today, should be to educate students to acquire values that will help them contribute to its growth. One of education’s many roles is to produce critical thinkers, who are able to challenge and provide solutions to issues delaying African development. Therefore, an education that focuses solely on producing graduates for the labor market will not adequately make Africa a global competitor. In many African countries, education has been considered and used by politicians to drive their economic growth agenda without paying attention to systemic issues that could facilitate development in their countries. The aim of education in Africa should be to produce individuals, who are prepared to advance the agenda of economic development through open discussions on crucial issues such as social justice, inequality, and inequity at different levels. This chapter reviewed various authors’ perspectives on the education systems in Africa. It posited critical engagement to history and social change as a necessity toward sustainable development in Africa.
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Social Change and Education in Africa
The education system is a major societal agency that has the social benefits of reducing poverty, inequality, and sustainability (Lauder et al. 2006). However, education in Africa has always been subject to public scrutiny (Caddy et al. 2007) for not contributing to social change. In recent times, the need to demonstrate social change through education has put more pressure on educators, institutions, and policy makers in Africa. Many institutions are now obliged to help government implement transformation policies, in most cases. Moreover, governments are now beginning to tie funding to transformation programs. This is not also without challenges, which are mostly systemic. For instance, movements for the decolonization of curriculum, language of instruction, and the impact of technological change have also altered the social justice discourse (Stein and Newfield 2006). Essentially, the school as one of the social institutions was the pioneer of social change. Supporters of this concept were the organizers of the Progressive Education Movement in Africa (Apple 2014). In addition, the dynamic changing universe was used as the frame of reference in this movement. True to their progressivist view, pupils were not taught how to think but were given the tools to tackle any problems in an ever-changing world. This book is organized according to themes and divided into five sections as follows: • • • •
Current trends, issues, and development Access, equity, and performance Curriculum and pedagogy International and comparative perspectives
Issues of Social Justice and Colonialism in the Education Systems of Africa
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Current Trends, Issues, and Development
The section on the current trends, issues, and development critically examines different aspects of the education systems in Africa. For instance, Seife T. in his chapter seeks to explore and highlight some of the education policy challenges and their implications in Ethiopia. The chapter argues that educational policy in Africa, in terms of reference and ownership, has presented various historical challenges. This education development challenge needs to be addressed in a holistic approach since the problem is deep-rooted, and the damage manifests itself in Ethiopia’s socioeconomic sector, in particular. Similarly, Mengistie S.M. reviews Ethiopia’s education system and concludes that educational programs should be suggested on the basis of the strong deliberations made by different stakeholders in Ethiopia who are conversant with local, national, and international experiences, in order to make a significant impact on Ethiopian people. Schools should be places of attainment of knowledge, regardless of its variety or its contradictory nature. Farther, schools would gain from being places, where the continuous reconstruction of social theory and practice is institutionalized. On the other hand, Phatlane R., in her chapter, shows that the neoliberalistic, neoconservative, and new managerialism has affected the way the social justice agenda unfolds in higher education in South Africa. From a religious perspective, Nthontho M. claims that despite different legislations in education in South Africa, schools still remain unconstitutional and ignore the implementation of religion-in-education policy. Meanwhile, ReidC. and Kok A. use a legal analytical approach to consider how South African courts are currently dealing with the concept of “celebrating diversity” and how they should be solving these disputes in South Africa. The problem of policy implementation is uncommon in Africa, but instead, Adelowokan A. and Ajibowo S.A. recommend the need for private investors to adequately and conscientiously fund the education sector in light of the weak and sluggish trend in public expenditure on education in Nigeria. Whether funding education systems will result in achieving sustainable development is unclear. Therefore, Shava G.N. explores the challenges and opportunities of achieving Agenda 2030 Global goals on education for sustainable development in Zimbabwe. He recommends the need to update the higher education curriculum, pedagogy, and educational resources to address the twenty-first-century context of teaching and learning. Evidently, all these changes require adequate funding to education. Bayaga A., on the other hand, found that many of the university academic participants lacked sufficient understanding of Adult Education and Literacy (AEL) for AEL to be adequately implemented and used at the university. This is the issue of capacity, and coping with it also required adequate funding. The political, social, and economic life of people in a mass society is highly determined by those who seek to shape opinions and influence decisions. Furthermore, Mugabe R. and Ogina T. suggest that there is a need for policy makers to fully empower School Management Committee SMCs to take complete responsibility of managing affairs pertaining to the schools, if school resources are to be fully utilized and lead to improved education outcome. Riechi A. claims that with an enhanced
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governance and management structure and continued stakeholder support, if carefully implemented, the new curriculum can potentially address long-standing socioeconomic challenges faced by Kenyan citizens. On the contrary, Dangbegnon O. examines whether Côte d’Ivoire’s government’s efforts in spurring economic growth by revamping the education system along with sizable cash investments in the sector have had a positive impact on the quality of life of Ivorians. All this speaks to how the decisions made by governments can affect citizens and the development of their countries. In another context, Murangi H. is concerned about the government decision, on the possible factors that hinder and impede student transition from conventional schools to an Open and Distance Learning (ODL) schooling system in Namibia. Similarly, Kambonde S. examines the implementation of National Qualification Framework (NQF) in Namibia. However, Hwami E. and Munoruneyi M. look at the theory and practice in teacher education in Zimbabwe to draw conclusions about the quality of teaching in the country. These issues problematized resources and outcomes of education in many African countries. From another perspective, Agbaje O. examines the internationalization of Nigerian higher education, and finally, Chiyota N. and Marishane R. review the policy implementation in relation to the support system for teenage mothers in Zambian secondary schools. In general, there seems to be a commonality between the various issues affecting the education systems in different African countries. One critical issue is the disparity in the distribution of resources and challenges related to policy implementation. In terms of education policy, the importance of understanding the role of education plays a significant part in both its drafting and implementation. Taking this into account, one critical factor in Africa is the issue of the unemployment rate among graduates that has placed education systems in the hot seat, because the aim of education in Africa is defined as such. Hence, many studies have surfaced regarding the link between education and graduate employability. However, a few pitfalls have been identified in the literature. First, the word graduates seems to be an all-encompassing word and needs to be better explained. It is crucial to know if graduates from every African country are trained to create jobs rather than looking for jobs. This will only happen if outdated notions of the role of education are deconstructed and if curricula are reimagined for present situations in Africa. With the current all-encompassing approach, the question to ask would be whether education policies in Africa are relevant and effective to drive sustainable development. Second, literature seems to be placing a lot of import on the link between obtaining extra years of study and entering the labor market at a higher-income point. Yet, apart from a few studies, it fails to differentiate between “doing additional years” and “studying further.” In essence, “doing extra years of study” at an institution does not necessarily mean that your performance is up to par or that the quality of education that you are receiving is particularly good. Third, though the literature mentions multiple times that there is a disparity between the qualification of graduates and what employers are looking for, it does not really delve into the issue. All these ideas about the aim of education are bias furthering and benefiting capitalism, not sustainable, nor resolve systemic issues that education outcomes should have addressed.
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7
Access, Equity, and Performance
This section focuses on topics related to access to education, issues of inequality, quality assessment, and student support. Fundamentally, it addresses and analyzes the big issues of social injustice and inclusion in Africa. In relation to the issue of social justice and inclusion, Chitema D. probes into the way Technical and Vocational (TVET) education can be used to promote graduate employability in Botswana. Madjitey P. shows through empirical data the challenges faced by children of street vendors in Ghana in terms of accessing educational opportunities. Dosunmu A. and Dichaba M. analyze how lifelong learning has influenced the career progression of women in Nigeria. Adewusi A. basically discusses issues related to access, funding, and social injustice in the education systems of Africa. Meanwhile, Mpheti K. provides findings to demonstrate how School Management Teams (SMTs) can collaborate to manage school finances in South Africa. Likewise, Sign N. and Maringe F. examine the issue of social injustice and critically question the reason behind learners continuously dropping out of the education systems of South Africa. On the other hand, Oyelude A. uses the concept of placemaking as a strategy to argue for the early involvement of girls in STEM for sustainable development. In a different context, Ogina T. argues for empowerment spaces of female school principals in South African township schools. On the other hand, Namusoke J. explores counsellor education and training in Uganda. On the issue of inequality, Molaudzi A. analyzes data to provide evidence of unequal resources provisioning in the South African school system. Adediran O., Fakoya M., and Sikhweni N. address the issue of access and equity, while reviewing the effect of education on female autonomy in Nigeria. Similarly, Sibanda L. and Mathwasa J. claim that few women in Zimbabwe are in leadership positions in the higher education sector. These authors have addressed issues related to gender, resource management in education, and graduate employability in relation to unequal access to opportunities. It is apparent that these issues are critical to achieving sustainable development, and the question remains how policies could address the issues that Africa’s education systems currently face. In a democracy in which all men are politically free, all should have a liberal education. It is this freedom which is incorporated in the idea of a “public” school, a school open and free to all (Taylor and Bodgan 1980).This is what curriculum should be teaching and what policies in education in Africa should have addressed. On the contrary, the polices in education in Africa are devoting more money to achieving graduate employability and ignoring fundamental issues. Several studies have shown that obtaining an education qualification does not always guarantee job opportunities. Hence, the issue remains how to get graduates to contribute to society through their initiatives. In that vein, this book has identified a gap in the studies of the education systems in Africa, in terms of education outcomes and their aims. One of the causal factors of graduate unemployment mentioned is often quality of education provisions; there are very few studies on how to use curriculum transformation to address this problem. Therefore, this book has proposed that deconstructing colonial ideas on the purpose of education in Africa through curriculum change and critical pedagogy could play a major role in promoting the continent’s development as whole rather than focusing on the microscopic aspect of employability as a major outcome of education.
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Curriculum and Pedagogy
The section on curriculum and pedagogy reconsiders education outcomes in Africa from the perspective of curriculum change. This section engages topics of curriculum and pedagogy using concepts of social justice as a lens through which to analyze the status of the education systems of Africa. In this case, Dangbegnon O. examines South African language history and how it has affected teaching and learning. Similarly, Ololade F. explores Montessori school curriculum and how transformational leadership influences its teaching in South African education system. However, Aluko F. uses discourse analysis to unravel a topic of transfer of learning in a distance education program in South Africa. Pitsoe V and Letseka M. critique diversity and diversity management in UNISA’s open learning. Lapite A. analyzes issues related to mathematics literacy and performance in the Nigerian secondary schools. Ekeh M and Venketsamy R. study the early childhood learning environment and parent partnerships in Nigeria. Ooko M. provides an overview of open and distance education in Kenya. Bipath K. uses the idea of mentoring to understand the advantages and disadvantages of cross-racial learning. Sichombe B. and Weber E. show the dimension of teaching for diversity and social cohesion from Namibian student teachers’ perspectives. Venketsamy R. and Kinnear J. provide an analysis of how sexuality education in the early grades in South Africa can be strengthened. These authors have unraveled what must be taught and how to achieve quality education provisions through effective curriculum.
2.4
International and Comparative Perspectives
The international and comparative section looks at the dimension of Africa’s education systems internationally and comparatively. The major ideas came from Somalia, Djibouti, Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa (BRICS) and Sub-Sahara Africa, in general. Seife T. compared Somalia and Djibouti’s education systems from a political point of view. Adeyemo K.S., Sing N., and Adewusi A. compare BRICS countries in terms of the successes and failures of their education and training policies. Bridget I. and Hussain T. dive into the debate on low-cost and private higher education in Sub-Sahara Africa. Finally, Olatunji O. provides a comparative analysis of rankings in South African and Nigerian higher education systems. The comparative and international perspectives help to examine similarities and differences in global education systems, while focusing on Africa.
3
Concluding Remarks
The discussion on social justice in Africa’s education systems requires a critical engagement from African perspectives, which this book attempts to provide. The aim of this publication series is to make a significant contribution to the debate and
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discourse on equity and social justice in the education systems of Africa. Different sections in this book foreground issues of social justice and especially the aspects of inclusivity. Interestingly, a new perspective regarding education rights and politics of social justice is also explored. The analysis and several views on the discussion on social justice help to reframe the debate within the larger human rights spectrum, but from an African experience. Based on the review of several chapters in this book, it is noted that the educational challenges in Africa find their solutions deeply rooted within political ideologies. The most important concerns in this regard are the distribution of political power in Africa and how it has affected education, including funding thereof. The book addressed five major focus areas, which are (1) current trends, issues, and development in education; (2) access, equity, and performance; (3) curriculum and pedagogy, and (4) international and comparative perspectives. All the authors engage these problems and demonstrate the way they impact the continents’ various education systems from different contexts. The findings generate questions that have further implications for the way Africa can use colonial experience to reform its education systems. The following questions were coined from issues that have emerged from different narratives, and they are: What are the implications of colonial thinking on current education policy in Africa? How curriculum change processes should be more democratic in Africa? Does the notion of social justice also include international students? How much should be learnt from countries that have success in their education systems? These are the questions education leaders and government and policy makers should digest. One main recommendation is that educators and learners (including disabled people) must be free from influences imposed by curricula or polices, which often prevent students from becoming agents of truth or limit their competency. By this, it means Africa needs true freedom for all, where access to quality education is not determined by class, race, or gender. This book, therefore, argues for a policy that will recognize and use Plato’s ethics of justice in decision-making, in that each group in society is being educated in-line with its talents to benefit the whole group. It means that academics (or teachers) must bear in mind that each student has a set of different experiences, needs, and goals. Institutions are to provide for differences that exist between individual students, seeing that the purpose of education in a democratic society should be to develop the individual as a freeman.
References Apple, M. W. (2014). Official knowledge: Democratic education in a conservative age. London: Routledge. Boyle, P. M. (2018). Class formation and civil society: The politics of education in Africa. Routledge. Caddy, J., Peixoto, T., & McNeil, M. (2007). Beyond public scrutiny: Stocktaking of social accountability in OECD countries. Washington, DC: OECD. Fourie, J. (2013). The rise of education in Africa. In E. Frankema, E. Hillbom, U. Kufakurinani, & F. M. Selhausen (Eds.), The History of African Development: An online textbook for a new
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generation of African students and teachers. African Economic History Network. www. aehnetwork.org/textbook/ Geo-JaJa, M. A., & Zajda, J. (2015). Globalisation and the future of education in Africa. In Second international handbook on globalisation, education and policy research (pp. 287–307). Dordrecht: Springer. Higgs, P. (2012). African philosophy and the decolonisation of education in Africa’s education: Some critical reflections. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 44, 37–55. Kamara, A., Bousrih, L., & Nyende, M. (2008). Growing a knowledge-based economy: Evidence from public expenditure on education in Africa. Tunis Belvedere, Tunisia: African Development Bank. Lauder, H., Brown, P., Dillabough, J. A., & Halsey, A. H. (2006). Education, globalization, and social change. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Salehi-Isfahani, D., Hassine, N. B., & Assaad, R. (2014). Equality of opportunity in educational achievement in the Middle East and North Africa. The Journal of Economic Inequality, 12(4), 489–515. Stasavage, D. (2005). Democracy and education spending in Africa. American Journal of Political Science, 49(2), 343–358. Stein, P., & Newfield, D. (2006). Multiliteracies and multimodality in English in education in Africa’s education: Mapping the terrain. English Studies in Africa, 49(1), 1–21. Taylor, S. J., & Bogdan, R. (1980). Defending illusions: The institution’s struggle for survival. Human Organization, 209–218. Zajda, J. I. (2010). Globalisation, ideology and education policy reforms (p. xiii). Dordrecht: Springer.
Part I Current Trends, Issues, and Development
Rethinking Ethiopian Education System: Restoration and Rectification T. K. Seife
Contents 1 2 3 4 5
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conceptualisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Historical Background of Educational Development in Ethiopia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Education Policy Formation in Ethiopia: Trends and Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Assessing the Education Policy from Gender Participation AAatt Tertiary Level . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Challenges and Opportunities the Current Ethiopian Education Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Evaluating Quality of Education for Sustainable Development at All Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Local Languages and Mother Tongue in the Education Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 The Absurdity of Political Ideology and Education Model Fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Findings and Commendation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Abstract
From the outset, educational policy in Africa in terms of reference and ownership has presented various historical challenges. The attribution of knowledge production to a specific society, race, or continent is highly problematic. While global contemporary education system has evolved through time with contributions from multiple societies, Africa, in general, and Ethiopia, in particular, have demonstrated that improving the education system is still a top priority in state agenda. In consideration of the twenty-first-century educational transformation from conventional to digital and online systems, Africa has to prepare to join in resolving the local challenges. Therefore, this chapter explores and highlights some of the education policy challenges and implications in assuring social justice and socioeconomic development holistically. However, the dichotomies in an educational system that can deliver quality living condition to its people and one that cannot satisfy the aspiration of the people still poses questions like the case of the Ethiopian education system. This chapter, therefore, attempts to look T. K. Seife (*) Political Science Department, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 K. S. Adeyemo (ed.), The Education Systems of Africa, Global Education Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44217-0_1
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at the missing link in Ethiopia’s education structure by providing possible rectification strategies that would heighten the educational progression to anticipate local socioeconomic development, create political maturity, and improve the living conditions of the Ethiopian populace. As there is an apparent need to revisit and rethink various education systems and policies in Africa and Ethiopia in particular that have not responded to the local needs. In consideration of the twenty-first-century educational transformation from conventional to digital and online systems, Africa has to prepare to join in resolving the local challenges. Therefore, this chapter explores and highlights some of the education policy challenges and implications in assuring social justice and socioeconomic development holistically. Therefore, this chapter seeks to explore and highlight some of the education policy challenges and implications in assuring social justice and socioeconomic development holistically. Keywords
Education Policy · Postcolonial Africa · African Indigenous Knowledge · Ethiopian Language
1
Introduction
The primary role of education is to transform society with knowledge to make use of a positive impact on the economy, political, and sociocultural situation of a given country. It is a constructed belief that education is a means of societal development as sometimes it impacts immensely individuals, as well as members of the family. Education is a path for carrier development, achieving passion, and ultimately a way for a better life but not always. Similarly, the impact can be felt at the national and cross-boundary, through developing and transforming information communication technology (ICT), medicine, industrialization, and social development (David and Oyelaran-Oyeyinka 2012). Overall, the actual benefits of education are often glossed over or not reflected, as it should be. However, education mainly helps poverty reduction and economic growth and promotes equality, and it provides an environment and health benefits of society. Therefore, considering the above facts, hypothetically, education is a problem-solving instrument both at the individual and societal level. The question should be where the missing links in Africa to make use of for societal empowerment. Why Africa, in general, specifically Ethiopia, is lugging behind after introducing the modern education system over a century. Therefore, assessing what went wrong is crucial in maximizing the benefits of harnessing the dividend of education. Postcolonial Africa has invested and given priority for education immensely; yet the current education system has not made the expected impact. The investments in education considered in reducing poverty, correcting maladministration, improving social ills, and transforming the economy of countries. Despite all efforts and investment, Africa remains technologically incompetent, economically at the
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periphery, politically unsound, and the world’s poorest continent (Luiz 2009). The critical question in this exercise is why education in Africa could not impact the very intended objectives. Thus, examining the reasons behind the failure that needs to be interrogated to the bottom of the matter is indispensable. The education policy interrogation needs to encompass how education policy-related problems addressed systemically and structurally. Within the lens of historical, philosophical, psychological, political, and socioeconomic contexts should be examined. The African education policy and curriculum are based on “western or developed world.” Evidently, education has been the cornerstone for the development of the western world. If Africa is using the same education system, why could Africa not harness the impact the same way as the developed world? The incompatibility quest remains for further investigation of why such fundamental variation happens. Seemingly, the developed world has its matrix and recipe in which the homegrown education system independently worked for society. Regardless of the education method that Africa applies similar curricula and frameworks with the developing world, there is a missing link that needs analyzing and acclimatizing the living conditions on the ground. The African context may need to configure different educational syllabuses related to the local realities and circumstances. The critical examination of this paper is to examine and contextualize Africa’s/ Ethiopia education system challenges and confrontation in different eras. African education has encountered double three waves that are different in magnitude and nature. The two types of wave have an immense impact on the one hand to disconnect the local education system on the other hand mismatch with the rest of the world. This chapter’s critical examination is to examine and contextualize Africa/ Ethiopia’s education system challenges and confrontations in different eras. African education has encountered double three waves that are different in magnitude and nature. The two types of waves have an immense impact, on the one hand, to disconnect the local education system and, on the other hand, to mismatch with the rest of the world. These changes in governance system waves that have created disconnect and interruption of education patterns in the continent are the colonial and postcolonial education systems. The second type of wave created a mismatch in the education system and could not respond to the challenges in a different phase. The three mismatch waves are explained in the following manner. The first wave of the education system was developed to accommodate and serve the agrarian economic policy and served accordingly, mainly in the developed world. The second wave was made to respond to industrialization growth in the developed world and also to create a bond between the two. Similarly, the third educational wave is the contemporary technological era that advances information communication technology. Through these developments, education has served as a connecting and empowering instrument to widen the scope and outreach. Precolonial Africa education has demonstrated the capacity of development in the area of astronomy, mathematics, architecture, and music in a different part of the continent. Today we can witness the print of these achievements in a different part of the continent. Besides Egypt, Ethiopia, and Sudan civilizations of the great pyramids, Axum and Lalibela wonder the education footprint was in Mali Timbuktu.
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Moreover, the rule of law and order, as well as societal occupation, includes medicine, iron working, farming, animal keeping, and pottery making. According to Spindler (1974), precolonial era education has much emphasis on infants and children to act and think appropriately in their childhood learning process. During this period, education is considered as the way individuals are engaged to be part and a member of a cultural contingent, and whereby culture is maintained. Before colonization, most African education systems were oral systems in which knowledge passed either formally or informally from one generation to the next generation culminating in an initiation ceremony. The colonial period of education is designed in a way that employed to facilitate the assimilation and surrender policy of colonial objectives. These education projects started from the language imposition and assimilation and gradually moved into the mainstream education system. Kay and Nystrom (1971) stated that the colonial education system predominately has two manifestations. The first one is the disconnection with the African value system and the African point of view undermined and ignored. The second point is the colonial agents dictated what education would be like, should be given to Africans and the extent which the colonial powers should provide. The colonial served as the interaction between government policies and the colonial mission efforts. The influence of colonial education has transcended into the postcolonial period. Postcolonial Africa inherited colonial-oriented education systems that are designed to serve the interest of imperial forces. The post-independence education system was developed by African academics who have been the product of western universities. According to David (2001), postcolonial African educational policies were redeployed with the priority of national economic development. Primarily, the initiative was to change from Eurocentric education system to Afrocentric or local context that was imposed by the colonial education system. Equivalently, to empower African peoples, introducing Afrocentric Education systems and building a socially-inclusive society are necessary. However, there have been many challenges caused by extreme poverty, lack of infrastructures, financial access, absence of financial access, and lack of adequate human resource among few. These impediments have made difficulties in achieving rapid industrialization and modernization in the continent. The postcolonial African education system has faced several challenges; yet, the primary responsibilities of failure depend on the shoulder of African leaders. The blame goes not only to the political leaders but also academic, and elites are among the responsible citizens. The leadership could not be able to lead training institutions and universities to be local problem-solving epicenters. Regardless, there have been many challenges caused by extreme poverty, lack of infrastructure, financial access, absence of financial access, and lack of adequate human resources among few. The transposes of agrarian, industrial, and technological waves of educational pattern for the last one century have never synchronized with the Africa development plan. These discrepancies have hampered the education system and national development plans in Africa. Preindustrial education system mainly operated among the feudal and petite bourgeoisie class. During this era, education is considering as the means to achieve a “common consensus” in governance, political ideas, as the
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prerequisite of a harmonious social order (Eddy 2014). The arrival of imperial power to Africa was immediate after the industrial revolution. The European education system has already developed at different levels and designed to serve the European living condition and societal order. Much of this education system was not only technical but also includes social and moral. The introduction of the western education system in Africa was not compatible with living conditions on the ground. The industrialization era has changed the way society interacts and created the need for universal schooling. However, Africa was out this journey due to historical, political, and societal development and structure. According to Becker et al. (2011) analysis indicated that industrialization might itself cause shapes the need and demand for education in a particular way to function the interest of industrial development and societal need. These developments created a high demand in education with the arrival of new industrial technologies, and other areas of disciplines got a chance to be elevated incrementally upward. The most significant challenges of the African education system were to catch up already advanced system and also which is designed to serve a specific societal need. Zachernuk (1998) describes the situation as the colonial master justification and assertion that African natives were incapable of creating historical and cultural advancement of European leadership. Part of the reasons was that the absence of written language in Africa hindered the preservation of knowledge and talent with few exceptions. Such impediments also presented as an enormous gap that African nationals were incapable of creating historical and cultural advancement. The absence of written language, in Africa, has a massive impact in rambling to keep the record historical and intellectual progress in certain areas. According to Read (1955), western standards measured African advancements in the level of cultures, traditions, technology, and quality of life at the time. Zachernuk (1998) described that portraying Africans’ psychological effect is naturally intellectually stagnation transcending influence in the design of an education system in Africa. As a result, African students lost the opportunity to preserve their past and were taught that African culture was inferior to western culture. The third wave represents the cotemporary educational development systems that are happening through technological advancement in the world. Africa is part and parcel of this phenomenon, nonetheless as the result of infrastructure deficiency and right policy not benefited as expected. Such discrepancy is immensely affecting the economy not to advance and compete with the developed world. As a result, African countries are lagging in adapting ever-growing information communication technology (ICT)-based education systems. According to Alcardo et al. (2019), analysis, African countries’ effort to adopt ICT policies to underpin the growth of socioeconomic sectors through education. Most African countries have introduced ICT policies long back, and yet, after many years, the focus is not supported by adequate investment. Information Communication Technology has been making successive waves of new technologies transformation within a short period; most countries cannot keep the pace and the benefit. Most leaders, irrespective of a better understanding of ICTs in education today, the critical question is how they are planning to integrate and transform African society’s socioeconomic development in this knowledge era.
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Conceptualisation
African education policies are a direct reflection of the political ideology of the respective countries. Postcolonial Africa’s education rectification has faced two influence from an ideological perspective; the first one is the elite political leadership ideology and secondly the colonial bequest. Accordingly, the education strategies groomed through either capitalist, socialist, or Islamic, and recently, the developmental states education model is widely introduced. Most national education policy is a direct product of ruling ideological orientation. Based on these facts, African countries have never had a similar education policy for years and still to date, yet the United Nations and the African union attempted to make the necessary foundation to have corresponding policies. Therefore, discussing the African education system should be impartially at the individual country level. From the time when this paper is discussing the Ethiopian education system as a case study; thus, it is crucial to deliberate the education path from the modern introduction. Ethiopia education system has adapted three ideological paradigms in a different era. The contemporary education system is introduced in the early 1900. Nonetheless, modernization and consolidation happened during Emperor Haile Selassie I. During the period, the education policy was adapted from western countries by implicating the curriculum related to liberal and capitalist ideology cohorts till the fall of Emperor in 1974. The second phase started after the fall of the feudal system, which is taken by the military socialist junta from 1974 to 1991. During this period, the socialist leaders adapted the education policy from socialist countries (Eastern Bloc). The third phase education policy started from 1991 to date; the education policy has been changing a mix of Scandinavian countries and Asian developmental state education models. The focus of this paper will be the current education policy since it has direct implication to the new generation and the socioeconomic and politics of the country. However, briefly looking back, the chronology factor of the modern education systems and policies is crucial to have the whole picture. The education policies have been a contestation in Ethiopian politics the many years, but the current dimension is too far to consolidate and understand. The third phase of fundamental contestation concerned language usage in the education policy and its outcome. The concept of language and education is fundamentally intrinsic and has intertwined to the development of the human experience to the consumption of research and development. In Ethiopia, the language dynamics have been the center of contention, especially after ethnic-based ruling party Tigray People Liberation Front (TPLF) led rebel groups took over the central government they brought forward as a critical weapon to demonize the past. The idea has some truth in it, but it was far overextended for political advantage. As a result of the current education policy, the quality and equity compromised and severely damaged the education output for the last 30 years. On the other hand, there is significant improvement exclusively in primary education rollout coverage, and the higher education expansion programs are considered as an achievement. In contrast, the issues of quality education and societal impacts are wide open questions.
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Since Ethiopia has never been colonized, there was an opportunity and treat in the language preference. The opportunity is that Ethiopia has well-established proven written language that is Amharic as a national language. Since Ethiopia has never been colonized, there was an opportunity and threat in the language preference. The opportunity is that Ethiopia has a well-established proven written language, that is, Amharic, as a national language. However, some “elite narrow ethnic groups leaders,” they had been politicizing that Amharic does not represent their ethnic identity. Such confrontation remains a threat unless the political environment has got its maturity and settlement made with a different concerned group on the subject matter. Similarly, introducing several mother tongue languages as a teaching medium from nursery up to grade four was an option and implemented in several areas. The question is that some of these languages are not well developed as a teaching medium, and there is sufficient resource to provide that necessary assistance is remaining to be answered. Africa has witnessed that the imposition of colonial language was unavoidable because the colonial masters they have destroyed the African linguistic values and knowledge systems and imposed their own. Today almost all African countries except Ethiopia, the education medium is a European language. Undeniably, it has a benefit and, at the same time, a drawback. Language has a critical role in cultivating ingenuous culture and a factor in socioeconomic development that is locally driven. Africa, with a legacy of colonial past, has faced enormous damage not to preserve its cultural heritage and development stride. The conceptual framework of this chapter is to establish orderly connections between observation and facts. Progressively, examining the educational policy impedes and the implementation process that causes failure is essential to make an impact on local socioeconomic development. Primarily responding to the structural and agency comprehension of education policy is vital. To have the desired outcome, the inputs and remedial action is pivotal. The formulation of education policy in Africa needs to be associated with the local knowledge system to produce productive, confident, and capable citizens. Therefore, evaluating the current education system and looking at the opportunities, challenges, and recommending some essential inputs are the aim of this chapter.
3
Historical Background of Educational Development in Ethiopia
At present Ethiopia is the second-most populous country next to Nigeria, with a population of 112 million UNECA (2016). Ethiopia is the most diverse country in ethnic, religion, and language. Ethiopia is a home of more than 70 languages that are classified into Cushitic, Nilotic, Semitic, and Omotic as part of Afro-Asiatic and NiloSaharan language family Adamu (2013). The Horn of Africa is the most diverse and complex linguistic regions, not only the number of languages but also the dissimilarity of the language family. The number of languages in this area is more than a hundred, but only a few languages are popular such as Amharic, Oromifa, Somali, and Tigrinya, among 114 languages. The modern Ethiopia education system is characterized as an
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active element of Ethiopianization through Christianity and the Amharic language in the southern part of Ethiopia. Emperor Menelik II ruled from1889 to 1913 at the time of Berlin balkanization and secured the existing territory of Ethiopia with diplomacy and by defeating his rivals from outside and inside. Consequently, in his education policy, he introduced and strengthen the Amharic as a national language and a government communication medium and the Orthodox Christian church as government religion. Though he intensifies the implementation throughout the country, his predecessors, Emperor Yohannes IV and Emperor Tewodros II, also had similar positions in making Amharic as a national language. Similarly, the policy continues during Emperor Haile Selassie I ruling era from 1930 to 1974, who has made a considerable contribution to modern education by being the first Minister of education. The Emperor has promoted the Amharic language to serve both the traditional church-based school system as well in modern European school system along with the English language. The assumption that Amharic got an advantage over other languages in Ethiopia is because of two factors. The first one is that Amharic is a derivative of Geʽez that is the mother of different scripts and languages of the biggest Orthodox Church in Ethiopia. Second, most Ethiopian rulers and elite are from the northern part of Ethiopia that dominantly speaks Amharic and Tigrinya, which is the same source of Geʽez. These historical connotations have become a central point of various disputes regarding the status of languages Amharic in southern Ethiopia (Záhořík and Teshome 2009). The question of emancipating from the Amharic language “domination” has a direct link with the ethnic liberation movement in early 70th. Though, the question language equality and education policy got necessary attention in 1974 with the Military government overthought the Emperor Haile Selassie I Kingship. The concept of traditional education started in the sixth century, within the Orthodox Church, for the indoctrination process (Shishigu 2015). The practice has brought up two significant developments, the transition Geʽez into Amharic as a teaching medium and the introduction until the modern education system with local Amharic language. Kassaye (2013) analyzes that the beginning of the twentieth century was an ear of widening education throughout the nation but mainly on the northern corridor. The attribution demonstration that Ethiopia has a reach history of accusation with an education system that endured and counted for a century (Eyasu 2016; Amlaku 2013). The exhibit shows that education existed in Africa long before the continent falls under colonials or even before the slave trade. Knowledge, skills, and attitudes were passed from generation to generation not only through word of mouth but also written documents and different forms. The commonality of African ancestry is a knowledge system that has a unique characteristic of the ability to adapt the environment to suit the inhabitants. The Ethiopian education scheme at the time of Emperor Haile Selassie assumed its significance strongly as a vehicle toward economic deliverance. The Emperor believed that through education, they were laying down the foundations for the modernization of the country. The expansion of education at reasonable rate created integration with the Western world in general and the African continent in particular. The education system was not far from criticism and described as an elitist system that the reach out
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was mostly the urban and less of the rural population. At the same time, it is described as a very generous public benefit delivered free of cost to those who lived close enough to access it (Negash 2006). The Emperor has been the primary promoter of education in numerous platforms indicates that modern education the only means for transformation to enlightenment. During the 50th and 60th, the Ethiopian educational system had great opportunities and significant challenges the reflected till to date. To understand modern, the context of educational reform, one must understand the history of the country that battled and challenged by Western influence. Among the challenge beyond the political spectrum, the curriculum lacks emphasis on vocational education, such as creating industrialists, engineering,veterinary science, and modern languages, among few (Bishaw and Jon 2012). Besides, the schools’ leadership challenge was vivid, and the schooling system has become the aristocrats, close emperor circles. Ethiopia has adopted different education policies during three waves. The first wave is considered from the introduction of Eurocentric education system till 1974. In this period, different tier system employed the first one was a three-tier 4-4-4 system that is four times three in primary, intermediate, and secondary school. The second trial was 6-6-4, 6 years in primary school, 6 years of junior secondary school, and 4 years of senior secondary education. Eventually turned into 6-2-4 s years of primary education, 2 years of junior secondary education, and 4 years of senior secondary school. This model has been implemented for a long time, and it was a successful journey in Ethiopian education policy history (Bishaw and Jon 2012). During this era, the education subject was limited and offered in excellent quality educational material and teaching syllabuses. “the subjects at all levels were Amharic, English, science, art, geography, history, arithmetic, music, handicraft, and physical education. Amharic was the medium of instruction in grades one and two. In grades three and four, English was used as a medium of instruction for teaching art, science, physical training, handicraft, music, geography, history, and arithmetic. In grades five and six, all subjects except Amharic were taught in English (ibid.).” In contrast, the deep conviction of modernizing the education project has improved the living condition of the country; however, it created a disconnect between ordinary citizens and the elites. The intention was not deliberate in assumption to beneficiate a particular class of the society rather economic and societal awareness challenge. However, there were inadequate strategy impediments due to the lack of local expertise in the field. The curriculum’s fundamental problem is less focused on vocational and entrepreneurship, and more emphasis on producing white-collar employment opportunities. The second wave of education policy from 1974 to 1991 has shifted the opposite direction as a result of political orientation. Following the fall of the kingdom in 1974, the provisional military rule announced the socialist ideology since the education system changed dramatically without proper preparation and transition. The declaration of scientific socialism derived out experts from the USA and opened the door to educational experts from Eastern Germany. The education system replaced by the political economy of Marxism/Leninism and the curriculum infused with socialist ideology from elementary school up to tertiary level (Zewdie 2000). Though, this period has a remarkable contribution to the outreach program, unusual to the rural
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mass. On the other development, the introduction of eradicating illiteracy through the provision of universal education was an astonishing achievement of the era. The third phase of government educational policy started from 1991 onward as the previous government began by dismissing the education policy and started from scratch. This period was a complete transformation in the global political arena from a bipolar system to unipolar world order. The new dawn has brought fresh air not only in Ethiopia but also around the world. The end of the cold war replaced by globalization and the education systems should be organized in the manner to be compliant with the emergence. The Ethiopian regime has no option left rather to comply with the new development; nonetheless dragged the process to the original ideology. The matter of the fact the rebel regime which took over the government role has an in-depth subscription to the far-leftist philosophy. Nonetheless, there is no way to impose into a socialist ideology in Ethiopian people, and therefore adapting western education system was unconditional. According to Sime and Latchanna (2018), the government have revisited the education system and transformed the entire system. The 1994 education reform introduced four cycles. The first two cycles are primary from grade 1–4, second cycle grade 5–8, third cycle from grade 9 to 10, and fourth cycle grade 11–12. The system introduced a matriculation examination to be 10th grade to decide the student which way to go. Those who got the higher mark they deployed to preparatory class grad 11&12 and those who got less score they go to the vocational stream. The policy as a whole, not a wicked approach; however, after grade 10 matriculation, the choice of preference is problematic because of the following reasons. First, the academic result in 10th grade should not be the only requirement for student choice for further education, and another matrix should emplace. Second, vocational training considered a less preferable subject and discriminated against to contemplate the field of failure.
4
Education Policy Formation in Ethiopia: Trends and Implications
The primary motivation of the analysis is to examine the impasses of education in Ethiopia. The purpose is to explore and pinpoint the calamity of education, despite huge investment and priority to make it functional and contributing to national economic growth. However, undeniably, there is a growth in enrolment and infrastructure development, yet the output remained shady and unsatisfactory for both parties that are the government and citizens. The education development challenge needs to be address in a holistic approach since the problem is deep-rooted, and the damage is manifests in the socioeconomic of Ethiopia. The principal objective of education is imparting all-round knowledge to citizens to play a conscious and active role in the economic, social, and political life. On the contrary, mostly the education policy is designed to serve out of political interest than national development. Ethiopian education policy was not immune in the regard, and it has been a greenfield for manipulation to nurture and comprehend its doctrine more special 1974 onward. Education has been used not only for the indoctrination of the government ideology positions but also to create a unison view among citizens against
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divers thinking and inclusion. There was a need to dichotomize the whole notion of policy manipulation and diversion to the more significant cause than party interest. Accordingly, it is vital to examine Ethiopian education systems’ three phases from academic freedom and policy persuasion. At the same time, the African education system faced multiple challenges of the colonial legacy. Ethiopia has been able to choose the kind of education system that seemed most suitable to its needs, Gilbert (1967). However, this farfetched conundrum never lasts long and trapped by an internal and external force. Gashaw (2018) explains the Addis Ababa University academic freedom articulated in the following manner. During the imperial government, in the 50th, 60th, and early 70th, academic freedom and the quality of education were superb, with minor reservations. The compression is between the 70th, 80th of the Military junta, and after 1991 TPLF led the EPRDF regime. In the 70th, the Military junta firmly revealed its expansive intention to implement socialist ideology through education structures, and they ensured to happen. Education becomes an instrument to induce socialist ideology; the curriculum prepared in conformity with the Marxist-Leninist philosophy to impregnate the citizens without their preference. The period considered a plunge Ethiopian education system. The education crises can be explained that neither the socialist regime never achieved objectives, nor the Ethiopian people benefited from the process. However, Ethiopia people become experimentation and victim of the failed imported education system. The current education system is a brainchild of ethnic-led guerrilla fighters who took the government in 1991. The de facto government introduced language and ethnic-based federal government systems. The government, led by a socialist-oriented government, introduced a new approach without making an allowance for heuristic past. The period considers not only the governance system of the education institution but also to demolish the central thinking of Ethiopianism and its association. According to Negash (2006), the ruling party, which by then led TPLF junta with its creation of other three political clusters called Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front, (EPRDF). The faction introduced a Eurocentric federal structure of governance and destroyed ingenious formation, including the education system. One of the positive developments was during this period, the allowance of children to learn on their mother tongue. Since the government introduced a new governance structure based on the Stalin theory of nations and nationalities, the whole system was in masse. Eventually, the federal system of governance introduced an educational policy that became operational in 1994 as the third policy in the country’s history since 1945. The primary challenge was that it is the introduction of ethnic languages as mediums of education without depth study.
5
Assessing the Education Policy from Gender Participation AAatt Tertiary Level
With all odds, Ethiopia is among the leading African countries that invested massively in education with particular focus on the tertiary level. Currently, over 38 public and 98 nongovernmental universities are operating with a massive number of
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students. The higher education program offers for undergraduate degree 3 years except for engineering and medicine and 4 or more years for Master’s and Ph.D. programs (MoE 2018). The paradoxes are many critics, and appreciations are contradictory. The government data interpretation and output have been contentious from different actors. The analysis should go both ways, the positive development, and the constraints. The education system was fundamentally limited and inequitable access, lack of quality and significance, and continuous decline in the quality and standard. Tatto (2012) argues that education policy made within the context of attaining the preferred purpose to enlighten and produce practical knowledge. According to Molla (2014), analysis strengthens the above argument by scrutinizing the critical challenges of the current education system. The critics begin by explaining that the education model is alienating the local knowledge system that has been for years in place. Besides, they criticize two way of failure in the current tertiary entrance requirement limitation and underqualified teaching staff. On the other hand, Tadesse et al. (2018) define the situation otherwise not total shady but also not as it should be. Students and teachers agree that there are problems in the process of teaching and learning that affect the quality of the outcome critically. The majority of the students appreciate the provision of facilities like handouts, worksheets, and better-equipped laboratories. Also, the practical engagement of community-based education courses helps students to have significant learning and problem-solving skills. The challenges also highlighted in Tadesse et al. (2018) research documents. Among which are large class sizes, lack of pedagogical skills, misunderstanding of the reform ideas, and misapplications of student-centered teaching techniques. Education quality is a willpower that comes with the process of belonging and ownership with its merit within Ethiopian context as the academic culture develops. In this context, most tertiary institutions in Ethiopian, except for a few, have not gone through the evolution process to become a university. The method of erecting tertiary institutions without due diligence and requirements, instead of the process in an attempt to abort the whole process. Traditionally universities start from school, institution, college, and then university. Thus, these parachuted universities have no connection and belonging with the locality, and besides, they did not develop academic culture through time. The emergence of these tertiary education institutions is mostly political satisfaction of the constituency locality rather than to create academic excellence in the holistic approach. Education is the best instrument and driving force for national development and economic growth. Then the need for a conducive environment to serve its purpose from the political-economic and sociocultural approach. While the political conditions are dire and contested by the wider society and the economy is in a stranded situation, education as a standalone subject cannot move forward. Educational institutions should be considered as a reflection of the local communities and a vehicle for transformational change. That should embrace the local ownership by intertwined the universality culture to have a complete picture. The emergence of new universities expanded the enrolment in a meaningful manner; the developments expected to benefit female student enrolment significantly. Saint (2004) has raised two relevant issues regarding female participation
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and admission to the tertiary education system. These are equity and cultural impediments. Equity is an essential element of education in general and higher education in particular. Ethiopia is characterized as inequitable education access similar to that found in other African countries. Survey of 1999 specifies that 71% of university students come from households with the highest 20% of incomes. Similarly, education attainment levels across regions in Ethiopia; access to higher education often favors students from upper-income homes, especially those from urban areas. Likewise, cultural impediments have played a significant role in the participation of women’s in education enrolment. Nonetheless, with the new development, the involvement of women has increased from 17% full time in public universities and 24% of part-time (non-residential) and, notably, 44% of private tertiary institutions (ibid.). However, the dynamics of expansion may well generate difficulties in maintaining educational quality. The following data shows the recent development of female enrolment in the country. According to MoE (2018), the information illustrated in Table 1 and Chart 1 shows that in 2016/17 enrolment both government and nongovernment the entire undergraduate programs produced 788,033, of which 281,429 (35.7%) are females. The empirical fact demonstrates that female enrolment in higher education is given special attention. Besides, with affirmative action, female students encouraged to enroll 0.4 grades points less than those of male students who are admitted to colleges and universities. Furthermore, the government to offer accommodates and fully subsidized free education system in the country. The private sector is also playing a crucial role in the education sector. Presently, there are more than a hundred accredited private universities and colleges in the education space; similarly, several vocational training institutions to provide technical skills.
Table 1 Enrolments in Undergraduate by Program 2016/17 Source Ministry of Education, (MoE 2018) Program Regular
Extension
Summer
Distance
Total
Sex Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Total
Government 255,657 137,131 392,788 68,143 40,124 108,267 104,251 37,138 141,389 23,624 13,231 36,855 451,675 227,624 679,299
Nongovernment 19,821 23,371 43,192 14,773 16,097 30,870 507 241 748 19,828 14,096 33,924 54,929 53,805 108,734
Total 275,478 160,502 435,980 82,916 56,221 139,137 104,758 37,379 142,137 43,452 27,327 70,779 506,604 281,429 788,033
Nongovernment (in %) 7.2 14.6 9.9 17.8 28.6 22.2 0.5 0.6 0.5 45.6 51.6 47.9 10.8 19.1 13.8
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450,000 400,000 350,000
Enrolments
300,000 250,000 200,000 150,000 100,000 50,000 Female
Male
Femal e
Femal e
Male
255,6 137,1 392,7 68,14 40,12 108,2
104,2
37,13
507
241
Regular Government
Total
Total
Male
Extension
Non-Government 19,82 23,37 43,19 14,77 16,09 30,87
Total Male
Summer
Female
Distance 141, 3 748
23,62
13,23
19,82
14,09
Chart 1 Enrolments in Undergraduate by Program, 2016/17. (Source Ministry of Education, (MoE 2018))
5.1
Challenges and Opportunities the Current Ethiopian Education Policy
Education for Africa is a one-way ticket for change and transformation from the status quo. Similarly, Africa needs quality education that will propel the African continent into the future. The education system should be designed in a way to transform from an agricultural-based economy to industrial and service-based economy in the light of future demands. The challenge and opportunity of education is a determining factor on future trends of economic and political destination of the continent. At this point, education has got an emphasis on Africa considerably. However, since there were neglect and backlog for long-time, there is a need for fast-tracking to make the sector relevant and productive. According to Dembélé and Oviawe (2007) argument, there are three fundamental issues to harness opportunities and to minimize challenges. First, adopting the local environment for educational development is a key regardless of specified skills, or desired values and behaviors. Second, the core value of any education is to serve the local societal demand by empowering the local community. In the end, educational quality should be evaluated in achieving the target aimed not by superficial standards instead of by pragmatic reality. Third, the evaluation mechanism of quality based on the output within the context of locality quality of education is, therefore, continually re-defined and re-specified. In this respect, the Ethiopian situation is not unique; the educational policy challenge and opportunities have evaluated with the benchmark that has never been a similar environment. Ethiopia’s political, economic, philosophical, historical, and sociocultural conditions are different and unique; hence, every assessment needs to be conducted in its context. Education is an instrument or a vehicle but not the only pathway for problem human face. Therefore, articulating an effort to correct
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and refine the education policy from time to time based on local reality to meet broader scope is vital. Such a move is an excellent stride to revisit any strategy for that matter and make a rectification before it is too late.
6
Evaluating Quality of Education for Sustainable Development at All Level
Quality is a very relative term which can be contested from a different perspective. Having education access and providing quality are not identically equal. The assessment is in a context of African countries financial resource, small numbers of qualified teachers, unsuitable classrooms, and unavailability of learning materials. Quality of education can be evaluated in a separate manner according to excellence, drive, and outcome as (best, very good, or fair) rather than in a blanket approach. The standard should emanate within the strategy set initially. There are not and cannot be universal best practices in the absence of local circumstances. Since most African academic institutions have adapted western education models, the evaluation should go parallel. The only means to divert these vicious circles is adapting the reality of local context. Education in Africa is as ancient as the pyramids of Egypt, the obelisks of Ethiopia, and the Kingdom of Timbuktu. Currently, the African countries have adapted a dominate European education model, which is as a result of colonial legacy (Teferra and Altbach 2004). Thus, the education system as it stands is the discussion of a European education system in the African context. The monitoring and evaluation should be conducted in the same context; otherwise, Africa should develop its system that has a say and knowhow. The way move forward is having the African education system; there is a need to prepare a ground-breaking system which adaptable across the continent and customize based on local circumstances. Contrary to this idea is surrendering to the European method and fully adapt to all prone and cons. The Ethiopian education system should be a model for African countries considered rich historical, philosophical, and cultural perspective. Nonetheless, with unfinished nation-building, western scrutiny, and local politics, it could not save itself, and dishonorably today, it stands from the recipient end. According to Maaza (1968), an analysis of the education system under the auspices of the orthodox church introduced ecclesiastics and scholarly teaching methods back in the sixteen century that maintained until the early twentieth century. The sustainment of this heritage sacrificed the Ethiopian empire a lot, fighting with the Europeans, the Turkish, and the Arabs. Even after excessive imposition, Ethiopia was conducting the education system parallelly. The effort is still taking place but in a more diminished way. My understanding is that Ethiopia has deviated from the original education capacity in several ways. Mainly Ethiopia is victimized by colonial negative education effect without any distinction like any other African country. Being uncolonized, not immune to the education system interruption, and surrender to western imperial power. There is a good lesson in Africa in general Ethiopia, in particular, should learn. One of the critical elements Ethiopia has maintained to save its scriptures to date for schooling purposes with all local politics and economic challenges. With a similar position in Japan, China, and Korea, Ethiopia has all the ingredients. Thus, if
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economic prosperity conceivably assured in these countries with cultural revelation and indigenous knowledge, why not Ethiopia and Africa as a whole.
7
Local Languages and Mother Tongue in the Education Policy
Langue is at the heart of education policy in any country more, especially in Africa. Factually, in most African countries, the instruction medium is a colonizer language; those who were under British English, under France, French, and under Portugal Portuguese. The phenomena have created its advantage and disadvantage. Since Africa has never produced a convincing majority language, these colonial languages have provided the position to facilitate communication across the broader line. Besides, since these languages are well developed, African scholars have got an advantage and sufficient space for literature, research, and development. The shortcomings and devastation are many but the political divide along the colonial language line, and crimpling the progress on social and cultural heritage throbbing. The colonial language limited the participation of Africans in the global world literature and scientific experiment because of the mother tongue’s alien nature. African intellectual ability has been defined as the result of language challenges to reflect through works of literature, cultural experiences, and scientific research as it should be, except for famous writers like Chinua Achebe, Nuruddin Farah, and Aminatta Forna. As Ngugi (1998) explained, “Language and culture are the collective memory bank of people experience in history.” The postcolonial Africa education policy attempted to embrace local languages as bilingual and multilingual versus monolingual of colonial language. However, development of local language was challenged by the economic situation, cultural assimilations with a European language, and colonized mindset, among the few. The paramount importance language in the development, social, cultural, and political is crucial. Moreover, to exhibit excellence in academics, music, and art, science and technology, and cultural activities. The teaching and learning processes in the second language it has limitation and diversion of explaining a particular subject. “to capture the vivid image of African speech, I had to eschew the habit of expressing my thought first in English. It wasn’t easy at first, but I had to learn. I had to study each low expression. I used and discovered the probable situation in which it was used to bring out the nearest memory in English. I found it a fascinating exercise.” Ngugi (1998). Such challenges are in regular cycles of African students more, especially in tertiary level education; students are challenged and forced to be more eloquent in the language than the very substance of the central argument or scientific findings. The disorientation and dispossession of local language usage and development have to revisit at a continental framework. A proper language policy will help Africans be competent in the global market and be more productive citizens. According to Teferra and Altbach (2004), an argument widely used languages in Africa for education purposes are Afrikaans, Arabic, English, French, Portuguese, and Spanish. Among indigenous African languages used as a medium of instruction are Amharic Meshesha and Jawahar (2008). Nonetheless, Teferra and Altbach (2004) challenge this
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idea by including Arabic, and, arguably, Afrikaans is languages indigenous to Africa. Such manifestations show that the dominant position of European languages has become even more heightened and apparent. According to Meshesha and Jawahar (2008), Amharic is the only African indigenous language with a script and survived and served as an official and working language of Ethiopia. In Africa, there were more than six languages with a script, but they are no more in use except for Amharic. African language that has scripts Amharic from Ethiopia, Bassa script of Liberia Bassa script is phonemic rather than syllabic. There were also Egyptian writing systems; ancient pictographic writing now dated to be 3400 BC. Additionally, unique African scripts like Mende script of Mende people in Sierra Leone, Nsibidi/Nsibiri writing system of the Ejagham people of Nigeria and Cameroon, Meroitic script Meroe people of Sudan, Shumom script Shumom people in Cameroon, and Vai script Vai people of West Africa. Most African scripts are diminished or abandoned over time, such as the Kpelle, Gola, Lorma, Grebo, and Kissi. Amharic and Tigray still serve as a writing system and for schooling, but they are using the same scripture.
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Table one and two Amharic Alphabets numerical. (Source: (www.geez.org)) Developing local languages is a critical aspect of ushering national development through the best education policy. As an underdeveloped country, Ethiopia cannot afford or impractical to make over 72 languages a national teaching medium of instruction. There should be an in-depth study without partisan matter investigating the importance of language to bring economic development and political settlement once and for all. Amharic has been promoted and developed as a national language for the last hundred years as a result of several historical reasons. Moreover, as it stands, it becomes the language of more than 110 million people. The Amharic language current position does not belong to a specific ethnic group even if the naming attached to one particular ethnic entity; instead, it becomes a national endowment. Thus, the development of Amharic is critical as an asset to make it inclusive better to rename to (Ethiopic or Tobic). The benefits are not only left to Ethiopia but also an Africa asset.
7.1
The Absurdity of Political Ideology and Education Model Fusion
Education has to be free from ideological imposition, and academic autonomy should be assured to be successful. Political ideology can be debated and articulated in the academic environment, but making education an instrument is a suicidal
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mission. Ideologies like conservatism, anarchism, ecologism, nationalism, fascism, socialism, capitalism, communism, and developmentalism are party politics, not an academic option. Undeniably, in some countries, ideology has played a significant role in shaping cultural and educational development. Ideological contradictions between political ideology and popular culture reflection are an academic debate. Academic institutions are a dominant actor in constructing political ideology and producing elite politicians (Woldegiyorgis 2015). Mostly in developing countries, academic institutions becoming a battleground of conflicting ideologies, as well as indoctrination place for ruling parties. Such a move hampers academic excellence and a destruction point of academic autonomy. Along this line, the Ethiopian government has been introducing the developmental state model into the education system, which is the ideology imported from the Far East countries to make the government policy. The question is how it imposed such ideology into academic institutions; rather, the doctrine should emanate from educational institutions. Academic institutions may play a critical role in evaluating the relevance of such ideology in conjunction with psychological makeup, the Ethiopian society’s cultural attitude. In other words, the academic institution should expect to shape the political and economic thinking instead of getting directions to outline an education system to carry particular political ideology.
7.2
Findings and Commendation
The foundation of modern education ownership has given without consensual agreement to the western world in its entirety. Smilingly the unanimous the origin of education resulted, none westerners as a recipient, and the world of the west turn into as providers by default. The same goes that education interlocks with modernity have a special relationship with the western education system. This historical precedence has created a more significant psychological impact and inferiority, especially among African academics, singularly and, in general, to the larger society. The imposition and importation of the “Western education system” have three significant challenges in Africa’s continent. The first point is that Africa has been a substantial contributor to knowledge and wisdom to the world undermined or left behind. Secondly, with the emergence of the slave trade and colonialism, Africa considered a continent that lives under the shadow of western mercy. Third, the colonialist legacy in Africa’s education system divides the continent into thinking and assimilating in the colonial language line and curriculum. More importantly, as the result of these scenarios, we are in the moral decay that manifested in the willing assimilation and surrender to the Eurocentric education. It has made the elite live in denial. The emerging ethnic and language-based politics has made the continent to live in its shadow. The academic institutions were expected to be in the highest moral ground to liberate from this division instead to the contrary, and it becomes the incubation hub for narrow ethnic nationalism and chauvinism. The education policy framework is relevant in addressing the issues raised in this chapter.
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References Adamu, A. (2013). Diversity in Ethiopia: A historical overview of political challenges. 12, 17–27. Alcardo, A. B., Lazaro, A. W. A., Ainea, N., Mkwizu, M. H., Maziku, H., Matofali, A. X., Iddi, A., & Sanga, C. (2019). Transforming african education systems in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) using ICTs: Challenges and opportunities. Education Research International. Becker, S., Hornung, E., & Woessmann, L. (2011). Education and catch-up in the industrial revolution. American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics, 3(3), 92–126. Bekele, M. (1968). Ethiopian education challenges of the 70s. need for creation a more functional system of education (pp. 511–517). Bishaw, A., & Jon, L. (2012). Education in Ethiopia: Past, present and future prospects. African Nebula, 5, 53–69. Dembélé, M., & Oviawe, J. (2007). Introduction: Quality education in Africa: International commitments, local challenges and responses. International Review of Education / Internationale Zeitschrift Für Erziehungswissenschaft / Revue Internationale De L’Education, 53(5/6), 473–483. Eddy, U. (2014). What was the petty Bourgeoisie? Cultural positioning and reification of Marxist Classes in Early PRC Discourse. University of California Davis, One Shield Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA. Eshetie, A. (2013). Language policies and the role of English in Ethiopia 1. Gemechu, E. (2016). Quest of traditional education in Ethiopia: A retrospective study. Research Journal of Educational Sciences, 4, 1–5. Gilbert, A. (1967). Higher education in Ethiopia. Africa Today, 14(2), 6–8. Retrieved from http:// www.jstor.org/stable/4184754. Kassaye, W. (2013). Curriculum development and research in Ethiopia. International Handbook of Curriculum Research, 161–182. Kay, S., & Nystrom, B. (1971). Education and Colonialism in Africa: An annotated bibliography. Comparative Education Review, 15(2), 240–259. Luiz, J. M. (2009). Institutions and economic performance: implications for African development SA. Journal of International Development: The Journal of the Development Studies Association, 21(1), 58–75. Meshesha, M., & Jawahar, C. V. (2008). Indigenous scripts of African languages. Indilinga: African Journal of Indigenous Knowledge Systems, 6. https://doi.org/10.4314/indilinga.v6i2.26422. MoE. (2018). Education statistics annual abstract. 2009 E.C. (2016/17) EMIS and ICT Directorate: http://www.moe.gov.et/policies-and-strategies Molla, T. (2014). Higher education development and knowledge economy optimism in Ethiopia. Knowledge Cultures, 2(4), 110–132. Negash, T. (2006). Education in Ethiopia from Crisis to the Brink of Collapse Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, Uppsala Printed in Sweden, Stockholm. pp. 12–23 Ola-David, O., & Oyelaran-Oyeyinka, O. (2012). Can FDI foster inclusive innovation and technology development in Africa. In Prepared for the African Economic Conference on ‘Fostering Inclusive and Sustainable Development in Africa in an Age of Global Economic Uncertainty. Read, M. (1955). Education in Africa: Its pattern and role in social change. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 298, 170–178. Saint, W. (2004). Higher education in Ethiopia: The vision and its challenges. Journal of Higher Education in Africa, 2, 83–113. Shaw, G. (2018). The relations between the State and the University in Ethiopia: The case of Addis Ababa University Since 1950. Arts and Social Sciences Journal, 9, 327. https://doi.org/10.4172/ 2151-6200.1000327. Shishigu, A. (2015). Foundation of curriculum in Ethiopia: Historical, philosophical, psychological and sociological perspectives. Sime, T., & Latchanna, G. (2018). Education System in Ethiopia and India: Comparative Analysis of Selected Educational Issues. IRA International Journal of Education and Multidisciplinary Studies, 11(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.21013/jems.v11.n1.p1. (ISSN 2455-2526),.
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Spindler, G. D. (Ed.). (1974). Education and cultural process: Toward anthropology of education. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Tadesse, T., Manathunga, C. E., & Gillies, R. M. (2018). Making sense of quality teaching and learning in higher education in Ethiopia: Unfolding existing realities for future promises. Journal of University Teaching & Learning Practice, 15(1). Tatto, M. T. (2012). Learning and doing policy analysis in education. Examining diverse approaches to increasing educational access (pp. 1–13). Rotterdam: Sense Publisher. Teferra, D., & Altbach, P. (2004). African higher education: Challenges for the 21st century, (pp. 23–46). UN-ECA. (2016). The United Nation Economic Commission for Africa; The demographic profile of African Countries Addis Ababa, Ethiopia all rights reserved First printing March 2016. ISBN: 978-99944-68-06-5, pp. 4–26 Wa, N. (1998). Decolonising the mind. Diogenes, 46(184), 101–104. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 039219219804618409. Woldegiyorgis, A. A. (2015). Higher education in early-stage developmental states: lessons for beginners. Working Papers in Higher Education Studies, 1(1), 1–22. Woolman, D. C. (2001). Educational reconstruction and post-colonial curriculum development: A comparative study of four African countries. International Education Journal, 2. Zachernuk, P. S. (1998). African history and imperial culture in colonial Nigerian schools. Africa, 68(4), 484–505. Záhořík, J., & Teshome, W. (2009). Debating language policy in Ethiopia. Asian and African Studies, 18(1), 80–102. Zewdie, M. (2000). A study guide for curriculum implementation and evaluation, Unpublished People and Society: Chad. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/theworld-factbook/geos/cd.html
Historical Upheavals of the Educational Policy Formulation and Implementation in Ethiopia A Historical Analysis Solomon Mengistie
Contents 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Traditional Education in Ethiopia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Indigenous Education in Ethiopia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Religious Education in Ethiopia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Modern Education in Ethiopia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Modern Education in Ethiopia During the Reign of Menelik II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Modern Education in Ethiopia During the Reign of Haile Selassie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Modern Education in Ethiopia During the Derg Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Implications for the Current Education in Ethiopia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36 36 36 37 41 41 43 50 54 55 56 56
Abstract
The purpose of this review was to outline the history of Ethiopian education from ancient time’s right through to the present day. It is generally noted that Ethiopia has a long history of its own writing system, calendar, art, music, numeration, and poetic systems. The nation is also known for the existence of the culturally diversified ethnic groups. This seems to have laid the foundation for establishing indigenous education for the purpose of transmitting these diverse cultural heritages from generation to generation. In addition, the introduction of various religious beliefs into Ethiopia had also led to the introduction of religious education in the country. These social and cultural foundations were found influential factors that made the philosophy of the traditional Ethiopian education to be the training of the child in the beliefs and social values of the respective society. Hence, the purpose of education became the transmission of valuable cultural heritages of the past as an input to reconstruct the education system of S. Mengistie (*) Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 K. S. Adeyemo (ed.), The Education Systems of Africa, Global Education Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44217-0_2
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the present. By doing so, relevant and worthwhile cultural heritages can be scrutinized and sustained; non-scientific and dogmatic beliefs and harmful cultural practices can be eliminated or at least be minimized. At the same time, knowledge of modern education is to be used as a frame of reference to evaluate the merits and demerits of the traditional school systems of Ethiopia. Having outlined a review of the history of Ethiopian education system from ancient time’s right through to the present day, therefore, this paper suggests some relevant recommendations to reconstruct the current educational practices of the nation and beyond. Keywords
Education · Policy formulation · Policy implementation · Historical analysis
1
Introduction
Ethiopia, with its diversified cultural groups, has its own distinctive calendar, writing, art, music, poetic forms, and numeration system. This seems to have laid a foundation to establish traditional education for the purpose of transmitting these cultural heritages to the next generation. In addition, the introduction of different religions into Ethiopia has also led to the introduction of religious education in the country. These social and cultural foundations were influential factors that made the philosophy of Ethiopian education to be the training of the child in the beliefs and social values of the society. Hence the purpose of education became the transmission of worthwhile cultural heritages of the past to reconstruct the education system of the present. By doing so, retainable and worthwhile cultural heritages can be scrutinized and sustained; nonscientific and dogmatic beliefs and harmful cultural practices can be eliminated or at least be minimized. At the same time, knowledge of the modern school system is to be used as a frame of reference to evaluate the merits and demerits of the traditional school system. This chapter, therefore, tried to disclose the educational journey of Ethiopia from ancient times to date.
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Traditional Education in Ethiopia
It is believed that traditional education in Ethiopia could take two forms. One is indigenous education and the other is religious education. The two forms of educational experiences are briefly addressed below.
2.1
Indigenous Education in Ethiopia
During the early years and currently in some parts of Ethiopia, the indigenous type of education was and/or has been responsible for the socialization of the respective
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children. Therefore, the purpose of indigenous education in Ethiopia has been directed toward making the child capable of respecting and meeting social and cultural expectations. That is, the child has to learn the values, norms, beliefs, and ideals of the respective social group where she/he is in. Doing this helps the child to know the rules and regulations, the taboos, and his/her roles and responsibilities in the respective society and be prepared for life in the society. The child learns these value elements through interaction with his/her family and the respective community members. In the beginning, the family could serve as a school and later on the larger community shares the role as the social fabric in Ethiopia had been very cohesive. Until some years back in time, the community members in Ethiopia provide advice and monitor the lifestyles of the younger generation. For example, the community’s elderly men/women have been selected as role models from whom the child acquires knowledge and develops skills through oral interaction and observation. The child practices what she/he has learned under the supervision of the family or the elders in the community. When it is believed that the child has reached an age and mastered the necessary knowledge, attitudes, and skills that prepare her/him for adult life, she/ he will be examined through the method of initiation. During initiation, the young person is expected to exhibit knowledge, attitudes, skills, and physical strengths that meet the standards set by the respective social group. Upon passing this test of mental and physical fitness, the young person is allowed to enjoy the privileges of the adult and is made to know the secrets of the adult social group and shoulders certain adult responsibilities in the respective community.
2.2
Religious Education in Ethiopia
The second traditional education in Ethiopia is religious education. Below an attempt is made to briefly explicate the three types of religious educations in Ethiopia, i.e., the traditional church education, Quranic education, and missionary education.
2.2.1 Traditional Church Education in Ethiopia The church education system in Ethiopia is said to date back to the sixth century B. C., which is seen in connection with the time when the Sabian alphabet was used in the Axumite kingdom (Ingidayehu 1976). However, it is toward the beginning of the fourth century A.D. that the church has become a formal indigenous institution of education, and it was the time when King Ezana accepted Christianity (Ibid.). In the beginning, three languages were adept in the church education system, namely, the Sabaean, Greek, and Geʽez though later on Geʽez has become dominant after some years. The primary purpose of the Ethiopian Church education was to teach the doctrines of Christianity, and it aimed at producing church men including priests and deacons for church services (Melesse and Bishaw 2017). The content was mainly biblical including theology, history, poetry, music, and what you name it. Later on, the church education involved the training of personnel for clerical services
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in the government and civil servants such as governors, treasurers, and administrators (Wagaw 1979). In Ethiopia, it is believed that the church has served as the guardian and preserver of the traditional Ethiopian culture. Moral and ethical elements, reading, and writing were also part of the church education curriculum. The church education has been known for literature and composition. For example, sophisticated literacy forms such as “Kine” (poem) and music were soon developed as a result of the teachings of Yared, the most known church hymn producer (Melesse and Bishaw 2017). Despite the facts mentioned earlier regarding church education, it was not accepted as mass education in the country as it was reserved for a few social groups and did not offer much more opportunity for employment. Moreover, a child enroled in church education has to face hardships in the search for instruction. Usually, the child traveled long distances to find well-versed teachers and enough food for survival throughout his training years. It is also true that the traditional church school has no buildings but students are taught in the church yard or in the teacher’s house. I personally feel that these hardships might be good reasons for church education to have mainly been attended by boys than girls in Ethiopia. The size of the class and the qualification of teachers varied from school to school depending on the location and the level of learning. The number of students is greater at monasteries than other training levels but gets smaller at the higher levels than the lower levels of church education. The structure of church education included elementary, intermediary, and higher levels of learning. To this effect, the church has developed a complex system of education which includes various stages that are logically organized. The first stage is known as Nebabbet, which aims at training the child to read the alphabets at the onset and religious books later on. At this stage, the child is constantly drilled to master the alphabets and gradually exposed to reading skills till she/he becomes proficient in reading the “Dawit.” The second stage is “Zema Bet,” which includes singing, drumming, and dancing. The third stage is “Akuakuam” or “Kidase Bet,” which aimed at the training of the altar priest for the service of the church. The fourth stage is “Quene Bet” (poetry school), and the last stage is known as “Metsihaf Bet” (school of commentaries) where astronomy is taught (Melesse and Bishaw 2017). In each of the above stages, the student learns the traditions of the church, i.e., church music, poetry, theology, church history, and regulations (Ingidayehu 1976). Completion of the traditional church school is very difficult and long-lasting (it may take about half of the age of an average person). That is, the traditional scholar’s road is long and arduous, which takes 30–40 years to achieve the highest qualifications (Ingidayehu 1976). Despite all these hardships, the teachers never express any sign of dissatisfaction. Particularly, the highly qualified “leq” is totally devoted to his profession and, therefore, imparts his knowledge to his fellow students without pay. As an authority in his field of specialization, he feels a king of himself and a servant of mankind (Ingidayehu 1976) – a very good quality that is lacking in the modern education system. Despite the hardship encountered in the journey of church education, the relationship between the teachers and the students was paternalistic and cordial.
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On a certain festival day, for instance, students bring food and liquor to their teacher and wish him a good day. In return, they get blessing from the teacher. Teachers were also highly praised by their students. One of the good wishes that could come from the students to their teacher as the literal translation may mean, “in the throat of the teacher let ‘Tej’ (Ethiopian liquor made of honey) pour, in my throat let a bone splinter tore.” Though the church school teachers were admired for their sincerity and devotion to the profession, they were highly criticized for their traditional method of teaching (recitation) as behavioral change especially at the higher level needs the active involvement of the learner. That is, the strategy employed at the lower levels of traditional church education was mainly oral, which involved memorization and recitation. This approach pays little attention for the students’ deep learning and is said to be a mechanical approach that does not contribute to the development of the learner’s creativity and imagination (higher-order thinking). That is why the current methodology literature confirms that memorization and recitation as methods of teaching have the following limitations: • Little is done by the teacher as his role is minimized to the hearing of lessons conducted by each student. • Recitation does not allow students to follow up personal interests as the whole operation is textbook dominated. • Much time is spent by students in memorizing abstract concepts from religious books like the Holy Bible. Though different historical sources (e.g., Ingidayehu 1976) raise recitation as one of the basic limitations of traditional church education, the researcher does not fully accept the blame as the educational practices in the traditional church education sessions are usually infused with highly critical events. This is usually true as we go up the educational ladder starting from the stage of “Nibabet” to “Metsihaf Bet.” In religious education, corporal punishment was also used as a means to motivate students to work hard, which is in line with the basic tenets of the philosophy of perennialism. With regard to the evaluation mechanisms of traditional church schools in Ethiopia, there has no formal evaluation mechanism to test the child’s work. But the teacher monitors the day-to-day progress of his student, and finally the student will be asked to orally recite on previously assigned material, and upon successful recitation of the assigned material (i.e., when the teacher is convinced that the child has mastered the art), then the student would be promoted to the next level. If not, he will study the same material or will be turned back. Generally, traditional church education has been the vehicle of church literature and religious ceremonial for many centuries in Ethiopia. It has reserved the cultural heritage and has passed it to the coming generation. It has been a good avenue to train various categories of church personnel. Above all, it has provided literacy to many children and equipped them with the initial tools of learning. Despite this fact, however, church education is criticized for its indoctrination, preaching that life on earth is meaningless and so there is no need to worry about what to eat or
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wear, but to think about life after death. That is, the major philosophy in church education, which has been governed by the motto “to flourish your soul to its maximum potentiality you need to punish your body.” Such an embedded philosophy in the traditional church education was said to block the advancement of science and technology and the introduction of modern education and innovation in Ethiopia (Melesse and Bishaw 2017).
2.2.2 Traditional Quranic Education in Ethiopia The other religious education in Ethiopia is known as the traditional Quranic education. Even though the Islamic religion was known in Ethiopia from the time of the coming of the first followers of Mohammed in the fifth century A.D., it was only the sixteenth century A.D. onward, i.e., after Ahmad Gragn’s invasion of most of the places of Ethiopia that the religion of Islam has developed its own system of education and the teaching of Quran was started. The aim of the Quranic School was mainly to teach the doctrines of Islam. The structure of Quranic School included elementary and higher levels of learning. At the elementary level of Quranic School, the students have been learning reading and writing in Arabic. At the next higher levels of learning, contents such as the teaching of the Islamic Canon Law (Fith), Arabic grammar (Naheu), and the commentaries (Tefsir) have been offered (Ingidayehu 1976). The process of instruction and evaluation is more or less the same as that of the instruction and evaluation practices in the traditional church education. Different from traditional church educational practices, most Quranic schools are not attached to mosques; rather they are usually established in a Muslim community by a teacher known as “Sheik” who is well versed in Islamic faith. The “Sheik” depends for his livelihood on parents’ gifts that he received when children succeed various levels of the journey of Quranic education. 2.2.3 Missionary Education in Ethiopia Another educational influence in the educational practices of Ethiopia was emanated from missionaries. Starting from the second half of the sixteenth century A.D., European missionaries have played significant roles in the education system of Ethiopia. This was the time when Christopher de Gama of Portugal arrived in Ethiopia with an expeditionary force to assist Emperor LibneDingil whose country had been largely overrun by Ahmed Grange (Bender 1976). At the beginning of mission schools in Ethiopia, the Portuguese attempt to preach Catholic doctrine was in vain. However, they were able to open schools in Ethiopia through the support of the then Ethiopian Emperor Susinyos who was converted to Catholicism in 1622 and who then forced his people to adopt his faith (Bender 1976). This was followed by strong opposition and revolt against the emperor by the large sector of the Ethiopian population. Consequently, Emperor Susinyos abdicated in 1632 in favor of his son Fasiledes who then expelled the Jesuits and began reinforcing the original Orthodox Christian faith (Ibid.). This resulted in isolation of the country from the other parts of the world community due to its cutoff from missionary activities for about 299 years. In the early years of the nineteenth
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Century, contact with Europe Protestant missionaries revived again (MoE 1973). In the 1830s, Iseberg and Kraft (Protestant missionaries) taught boys in Shoa in their mission school (Bender 1976). In 1841/1842, Isenberg published the first secular book in Amharic – the Ethiopian national language (Bender 1976). Through the efforts of these missionaries, unlike the traditional religious schools, modern type of education like spelling, reading a book, geography, and history was introduced in the school curriculum. The Roman Catholic missions of the nineteenth century were predominately French, and their schools taught French in three major centers: Eriteria, Shoa, and later at Harar (Awurajas in the then Ethiopian sovereignty though since the last 20 years Eritrea has become a sovereign country).While the Catholic missionaries employed French as the medium of instruction, the Protestant missionaries used English which later on has become an important language in the Ethiopian modern school ever since (MoE 1971). At present, mission schools are disseminated throughout the country, and they offer all types of education including teacher training. Many mission schools have gained higher standard of education than any of the traditional religious schools in Ethiopia. Perhaps this can be attributed as one of the major factors for the expansion of mission schools in the country (Ingidayehu 1976).
3
Modern Education in Ethiopia
3.1
Modern Education in Ethiopia During the Reign of Menelik II
Modern education in Ethiopia was started during the reign of Menelik II, the then emperor of Ethiopia. Menelik II was so convinced about the importance of modern education for the Ethiopian people. As a result, he issued the first education proclamation in 1906. This historic proclamation reads in part as follows: In other countries, not only do the younger citizens learn, even more they make new things. Hence, as of today, all six year old boys and girls in Ethiopia should attend school. As for parents who would not send their children to school, when the former die, their wealth, instead of passing to children, it will be transferred to the government. My government will prepare the schools and avail the teachers. (Translation mine) (Bender 1976; p. 6)
The proclamation gave modern education legitimacy through the force of law. Two other points are also worth noting from the preceding proclamation. The first one is that the emperor’s interest in education was not for its own sake but rather to use it as an instrument to make new things. And the second was that the inclusion of “girls” in the educational proclamation in itself is a step forward as traditional educational practices in Ethiopia had been the exclusive domain of the male. In spite of all these arrangements, however, much was not achieved in Menelik’s reign. By the time of his death in 1913, only three more schools were established in the provincial centers, one of each in Harar, Dessie, and Ankobar (places in Ethiopia). Although attendance was free during this period, the schools attracted neither the
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attention of the people nor the interest of the youth, mainly due to the influence of the clergy. In this regard, Wagaw (1979) forwarded the following comments: The public had no concept of education outside the church, i.e., sending one’s child to a modem school was tantamount to being anti-Ethiopian. Since the teachers were mostly foreigners associated in the public mind with Catholics, attending a modern school seemed like an acceptance of Catholicism - a betrayal of one’s honor and religion or willingness to become instrument in the hands of aliens. By encouraging such attitudes, the leaders of the organized church seriously hampered the government’s plan to expand learning throughout the land. (Wagaw 1979; p. 36)
The early history of Menelik II School had underlined the problem that would be faced in developing a more modern and secular system of education. On its establishment, the student population amounted to 100 students, nearly all the sons of chiefs. But the nobles did not take easily to this departure from tradition and, therefore, began to send the children of their servants or members of the extended family. This contributed to some mobility in the then national system, which continued after the death of Menelik II and promoted the growth of educated elite who were influential in the next stage of development. Later on, there was a felt need for modern public education during the early beginning of the twentieth century, where neither the Church nor Quran education was in a position to satisfy the demands or the needs (political, economic, foreign relations, maintaining the sovereignty) of the country. Among the conditions were formation of a centralized government at the close of the nineteenth century which demanded the establishment of diplomatic relations with the external world, establishment of the Franco-Ethiopian railway which linked the country with the external world and demanded mechanics and technicians for its running, and the introduction of modern means of communication such as telephone, radio, and postal system which required trained personnel to maintain the establishments functioning. These cumulative effects had necessitated Emperor Menelik II (who ruled Ethiopia from 1889 to 1913) to introduce modern public education in Ethiopia in 1908. The aim of education during this time was to produce Ethiopians who are knowledgeable in European languages as thought to contribute for maintaining sovereignty of the country. Generally, the purposes of education were to keep the ruling elite for better contact with the outside world and to make the elite competent in court affairs and in defining law articles. In order to realize these purposes of education, French (the then medium of instruction), English, Italian, and Amharic as well as mathematics, science, physical training, and sports were part of the curriculum. Mainly the curriculum in operation was not indigenous but was one which was brought from France. This entailed the offering of education in French, which made the Ethiopians alien to the French experience and the curriculum become alien too. In addition, French education was characterized by assimilation, i.e., there was a French mentality in the Ethiopian body kind of thing in the then Ethiopian education system. While introducing modern education in Ethiopia, Emperor Menelik II had faced strong opposition from the Church. It was opposed by the Coptic Church of Alexandria and Syria for its emphasis on worldly affairs. The then opponents
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of modern education believed that such education could promote anti-Ethiopian attitude particularly in introducing foreign religion as well as sinister ideas to destabilize the status quo. However, Emperor Menelik wisely overcame the challenges particularly that of the church by adopting the diplomatic policy of recruiting teachers from among the Copts of Egypt. Such expatriate teachers coming from Egypt, because of their faith, were assumed to give due respect for the Ethiopia orthodox church. Emphasizing that school would only be engaged in the teaching of foreign language in order to maintain the country’s sovereignty was the other mechanism employed by Menelik to make mollify the challengers. As a result of this opposition, the curriculum was also made to include moral education, Ethiopian history, Geʽez, reading, and writing. By the 1920s the opposition of the church on modern education as well as the activity of missionaries in education had greatly reduced (Negash 1990). The reign of Menelik had also contributed in the growth of non-government education. However, the attitude of the people toward modern education was at an infant stage. As recent as the 1960s, for instance, associating modern education with conversion to other Christian denominations – Catholic and/or Protestant – was continued and resulted in strong opposition when planning to erect secondary schools in the northern and central highlands of Ethiopia (e.g., Menz, Axum, etc.) by the government. Obviously this had an adverse effect on the expansion of modern education in Ethiopia. After Menelik’s death, the more religious and conservative Ethiopian leader, Empress Zewditu (daughter of Menelik II), came to power in Ethiopia. Following the examples of her father, she also made an education proclamation in 1929. The educational proclamation charted out by the Empress was translated as in the following: Those parents who failed to send their children to schools and made them learn reading and writing skills, respecting the empress and God would have to be penalized 50, 50 Ethiopian birr each and the birr collected from such penalties would be given to the respective church and being used to serve the needy people. The baptism priest was also requested to advice his religious children to send their biological children to schools. If they failed to send their children to schools, the priest should inform this to the respective government representatives. The teachers are requested to teach children. Church leaders are also expected to provide life skill advice to its people. Moreover, parents need to initiate their children to learn local skills that could help them to lead their future. (Translation mine) (Bender 1976, p. 4)
However, the type of education envisaged in the proclamation was more of the traditional church education type than being in its form of modernity, which was intentionally happened to mollify the opposition of the public.
3.2
Modern Education in Ethiopia During the Reign of Haile Selassie
The thrust for advancing modern education in Ethiopia was largely halted by the death of Menelik II in 1913. However, the coming of Emperor Haile Selassie to power (first as a regent and heir to the throne in 1916, second since becoming emperor as of 1930) was a hallmark in the history of Ethiopian modern education.
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Teferi Mekonen School, the second government school by the time next to Menelik II School, was inaugurated by Emperor Haile Selassie and had started to provide modern education as of 1925. Like Menelik II, the emperor had faced opposition from conservatives while making all his efforts for the opening of this school. However, he delayed the project for a couple of years to overcome the opposition. There were two main streams of medium of instruction – French and English – even if most of the instruction was in French. The curriculum consisted of French, English, Arabic, mathematics, chemistry and physics, history, geography, gymnastics and sport, as well as Amharic. Most of the teaching staffs were composed of expatriate teachers (i.e., French and Lebanese). However, there were also some Ethiopian teachers who had been engaged in teaching Amharic and elementary French. As the curricula in both schools (i.e., Menelik II and Teferi Mekonen) were emphasizing the acquisition of languages, they resembled as “language schools” rather than a proper modern education schools. Assuming that modern education was crucial for the creation of modem government, Emperor Haile Selassie established a Ministry of Education and Fine Arts in 1930. During this time, some steps were taken including the allocation of education budget and an order that soldiers should learn to read and write and that priests should convince themselves to teach the youth. Furthermore, Professor Ernest Work (an American educational advisor to the then Ethiopian education system) was appointed and in due course produced a proposal on curriculum. Ernest Work suggested 6 years of primary, 6 years of secondary, and 4 years of university education with high emphasis on teacher education (teacher training) and agriculture. In fact, Ernest Work stressed the need to consider the issue of Ethiopianization in the curriculum (an excellent curricular innovation of the time). However, the non-existence of qualified teachers was cited as the bottlenecks for implementing the suggested proposal. In spite of the problems, a modest attempt was taken. Accordingly, provincial schools, community schools for children of foreigners, a teacher training, and a Boy Scouts’ school were opened in the years 1930–1935. By and large, as Pankhurst (1976) – a renowned historian – noted, the decade or so prior to the Italian invasion was characterized by significant advances in literacy as well as education. The modest attempt that was made by Emperor Menelik II and further enhanced by Emperor Haile Selassie to modernize the country through Western education was disrupted by the Italian occupation (Teferra 1996). As Markakis (1974) noted, the Italian occupation (May 1936–May 1941) was to “nip the novel process of modem education in the bud” (p. 24). Its effect on education is significant and lasting. That is, the functioning of education was suspended for 5 years, and the hiatus was extended for some years after liberation until the state machinery could be reassembled and the schools reopened (Ibid.). Markakis (1974) writes the severity of this problem as follows: The fledging system of state education was completely demolished, students and teachers were dispersed, the meager collection of educational materials was scattered and destroyed, foreign teachers left or were expelled, the school buildings were commandeered by the occupying army. (p. 147)
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After the expulsion of the Italians from the land of Ethiopia in 1941, the task of reorganizing the education system started from nothing, because of the serious destruction made by the Italian during their occupation. This evil act was prevalent not only in the education sector but also in other sectors. As a result, the period between 1944 and 1950 was characterized by sluggish growth (characterized by an acute shortage of resources) in the Ethiopian education system although efforts were made to organize the education system. Generally, the objectives of the Ethiopian education during the post-war periods were different from the pre-war periods. During the pre-war periods, the teachings of foreign languages were primarily the objective of Ethiopian education. Contrary to this, the post-liberation period proved that the teachings of languages were not adequate for modern administration as the development of the governmental bureaucracy and the growth of the modern sector demanded qualified civil servants, trained professionals, and technocrats in areas other than languages. Thus, the education system of Ethiopia prior to 1950 was aimed at fulfilling the objective of providing the leadership that was necessary after the restoration. However, fulfilling this objective was not that easy. On the problems that had been existed for years with regard to elementary and secondary education, for instance, Bequele (1967) writes: The provision of basic elementary education was the result of the need for clerical personnel in the Civil Service just after the liberation. A stammering of languages, some elementary mathematics, history and science were all that formed the education provided in the elementary schools. The courses were often short and promotion did not follow the regular grade by grade procedure. The curriculum was neither standardized nor oriented towards what one might call “the Ethiopian world” in view of the fact that the teaching staff was overwhelmingly foreigners. . ..Prior to 1950, however, almost all the secondary schools provided only academic education. (p. 14)
During the first years of post-liberation period, foreign advisors and teachers were instrumental in the formation of directives given to the nation’s schools. The then system was somewhat equivalent to that of the British system in which the headmasters (who were appointed from British) submit to the Ethiopian Ministry their schedule and curricula that, if accepted, become the guide for instruction and teaching. The directives were craftily prepared mainly with British assistance, during which English became the medium of instruction. The curriculum, the structure, and the textbooks used were that of East African British colonies, and even students were prepared for the London General Certificate Examination (LGCE), which was functional in the Ethiopian education system from 1947 to 1958 (Negash 1990). The structure of the education system has varied throughout the history of modern education in Ethiopia. Along the structural changes, different curricula that conform to the structures were suggested. The innovations during Haile Selassie period could be divided into four phases: the first innovation, a 6-6 structure; the second innovation, a 8-4 structure; the third innovation, experimental curriculum; and the fourth innovation, a 6-2-4 structure.
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3.2.1 The First Innovation: A 6-6 Structure A committee consisting of largely foreign staff published the first formal school curriculum in Ethiopia in 1947. This curriculum consists of the structure of 6 years of primary education to be followed by 6 years of secondary education. The purpose of introducing such a structure was that the elementary program would eventually be expanded to include the work of Grades 7 and 8, while the secondary program would then be reduced to Grades 9 through 12. Subjects included in the curriculum were Amharic, English, science, art, geography, history, arithmetic, music, handcraft, and physical education. Amharic was the medium of instruction for all subjects during the first two grades (i.e., Grades 1 and 2). There was an assumption that a gradual transition to the use of English as a medium of instruction in Grades 3 and 4 in the teaching of art, science, physical training, handicraft, music, geography, history, and arithmetic. English was suggested to be the medium of instruction in Grades 5 and 6 to all subjects with the exception of Amharic subject. In spite of the attempts made to structure the curriculum, some problems were proliferated in this curriculum. First, books in some instances were translated from other languages and printed in Amharic, which hardly reflected the Ethiopian reality. Second, no effective steps were taken to implement the curriculum, for instance, with regard to availing teaching and learning materials. That is, teachers in many instances were provided neither textbooks nor suggestions of specific titles for their use. Third, the secondary school syllabus was based entirely upon the London School Leaving Certificate Examination, without giving due regard to its relevance to the Ethiopian context. Fourth, in the teaching of Amharic on the elementary level, because of the recognition of the Christian heritage of the country and an inability to find other suitable text materials, the Bible was selected as the textbook from Grades 1 through 4. Although the country had large Christian population, there were also a large number of non-Christian populations; hence, teaching the Bible for the non-Christian became a debate. Fifth, the teaching of English required considerable improvements, as pupils were not gaining sufficient fluency in the language during their elementary schooling. Such lack of fluency had made a negative impact in the students’ later learning particularly at the secondary school level. As a result, this curriculum was criticized for reasons that the aim was remaining national and the content being foreign. The educated was expected to apply his/her knowledge in solving immediate problems of the society but failed to do so for the learning experiences he/she had acquired were alien to the Ethiopian situation and therefore failed to use his/her knowledge. As a result, knowledge became impractical to achieve the intent. The selection of contents was said to be examination oriented. Most of the time was devoted to academic subject, English having the lion’s share. Overall the contents were borrowed from foreign countries and were directly implanted to the Ethiopian education without any adaptation to the organic nature of the nation. As a result, there was a disparity between objectives and contents, and the contents could not serve to achieve the desired ends. Moreover, the subjects were more theoretical. There was also a mix up of contents. In mathematics, for instance, the students were made to learn the British system after having learned the metric system, and this created complication among learners. The history and geography
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contents were more of the external world jumping from continent to continent, from country to country, at the cost of addressing historical upheavals of Ethiopia. As a result, the syllabi of most of the subjects lacked relevance to the Ethiopian needs. To overcome these problems, a long-term planning committee was appointed in 1953, and this committee designed the 8-4 curriculum structure. Below, an attempt is made to explicate the nature of this structure.
3.2.2 The Second Innovation in the Area of the Curriculum The original tendency of the educational system was directed toward developing the humanities, later on; however, the emphasis had been on technical and vocational education just to provide plumbers, engineers, mechanics of various kinds, electricians, agriculturalists, artisans, as well as experts. To this end, the appointed committee to facilitate educational practices of the time recommended that the curriculum be designed to prepare the learner for life in his/her community or immediate environment. Accepting the suggestions made in the first curriculum, Grades 7 and 8 became part of the primary level, thereby making elementary school consisting of Grades 1 to 8 as of 1949 and changing the structure from 6-6 to 8-4. The main reason for adopting 8-4 structure was related to overcoming language problem particularly English difficulty and the desire to extend and expand elementary education. The language of instruction became English as of Grade 4. The course outlines as specified in the curricula for Grades 7 and 8 were given in somewhat more detail, which provided for greater standardization than those which had been listed in the earlier volume covering the lower grades. During the same year (in 1949), a secondary school curriculum was approved and issued by the Board of Education (ICDR 1996). Until 1963, all schools in Ethiopia with the exception of the experimental schools of the time followed a system that consisted of 8 years of elementary education and 4 years of secondary education. The curriculum emphasizing the 8-4 structure (developed before 1963) was criticized. Some of the criticisms included that the curriculum hardly considering the Ethiopian situation, not containing streaming rather focused on one type of education, and resulting in language difficulty, i.e., English. It was reported that when pupils learn both foreign language and content during their elementary years, they had difficulty of grasping either. The structure and emphasis of education was totally foreign, which was reflecting the country that had an influence in the Ethiopian education sector. Usually the structure adopted during 1941–1955 was a hybrid from Great Britain and from neighboring African countries such as the Sudan and Kenya (Negash 1990). 3.2.3 The Third Innovation: Experimental Curriculum This curriculum was associated with the influence of the Americans in the education sector of Ethiopia from 1952 to 1974 (Negash 1995). As of 1954, the Americans had begun to shape the Ethiopian education policy through the Advisory Group assimilated into the Long-Term Planning Committee (Negash 1990). The recommendation of this committee included the introduction of the community schools for basic education; the curriculum should be designed to fit the student for better
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life in his/her community; the educational objectives should be geared to the quickest possible spread of universal fundamental education; students should display effective command of communication in Amharic (Negash 1990, p. 6). With the assumption that further improvement would someday be made, five schools were provided with an experimental curriculum, presuming that after the study and revision, this curriculum would then serve as the basis for any future changes. In 1957, the “Department of Research and Curriculum Development” put forward a proposal for a new scheme with regard to the medium of instruction in schools (based on the suggestions made by the Advisory Group) that the Ministry of Education approved the curriculum for a pilot study before nationwide implementation. One of the main reasons that necessitated the pilot study was, particularly, a change in medium of instruction from English to Amharic in primary grades. First, the children were being handicapped by having to learn in a foreign language which more than 90% of them would not need to use after leaving the school. Second, much of the contents of the courses were incorrectly or inadequately conveyed, partly because of the language barrier. Third, foreign teachers were paid 45% more on average than the Ethiopian teachers, where this money could gainfully be used to train teachers and to supply books and materials for the primary schools. Fourth, since books would have to be written in Amharic, they would be produced locally, and the cost of the books would consequently be greatly reduced. Fifth, the question of national prestige may also have played an important role in planning this curriculum. The result of the pilot study revealed that both teaching and learning were improved when Amharic was used as the medium of instruction as is agreed in the international literature; however, lack of suitable books and teaching materials was reported as the major bottleneck of the time. To alleviate this problem, a Textbook Production Unit was established within the Ministry’s “Department of Research and Curriculum Development.” The major aim of the Unit was to produce all the basic textbooks necessary for the Ethiopian elementary education considering Amharic as the medium of instruction.
3.2.4 The Fourth Innovation in the Area of the Curriculum Another curricular change was made for the fourth time, i.e., after the experimental program in 1963, which changed the structure from 8-4 to 6-2-4. This structure provided 6 years of primary education followed by 2 years of junior secondary education and then tracked by 4 years of senior secondary education. The researcher of this article was one of the products of this structure. Actually the changes of this structure as well as the introduction of the then new curriculum were the result of a pilot project initiated in 1958. With the new structure, i.e., 6-2-4, Amharic became the medium of instruction at the primary level (i.e., Grades 1 to 6) throughout the country as of 1963–1964, where Negash (1990) (one of the Ethiopian noble writers in educational matters) considered this measure as “the most significant reform of the decade.” The then Ethiopian curriculum at the primary level consisted of syllabi, which were classified as academic and non-academic. Subjects in the academic area
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included Amharic, English, arithmetic, social studies, natural science, and health and safety. On the other hand, the non-academic subjects were morals, agriculture, arts and crafts, homemaking, physical training and games, and music. The revised secondary school curriculum, which came into being in 1963, marked a departure from the previously academically dominated secondary school system. It was due to this influence that the researcher of this article was highly pressurized by his early secondary school teachers to join one of the technical and vocational colleges of the country though the researcher failed to accept the teachers’ invitation due to the influence of favoring the long aged elite education primacy in the country. Despite all these efforts, there was an enormous disparity between the educational program and the needs arising from the then social situations. As a result, there were strong calls from educators, intellectuals, university students, government officials, and students often echoed by parents, for further improvement of the educational system. Dissatisfaction with the educational sector was also voiced by conservative elements. The church and the nobility pointed out that those who passed through the modern school were disrespectful of their society and its institutions. They argued that there was very little that was Ethiopian in the curriculum. Furthermore, they jointed to the problem of unemployment facing secondary graduates – a most paradoxical situation in a country where only about 4% of the age group had access to secondary education and where over 90% of the population was illiterate. As a response to the above criticisms, the Education Sector Review (ESR) was officially constituted in 1971 with the following responsibilities: • Analyze the education and training system of Ethiopia and its capability of promoting economic, social and cultural development; • Suggest whenever necessary ways to improve and expand the education and training system in order that it might achieve aims relevant both to the society and the overall development of the country; • Suggest ways in which education could best be utilized to promote a natural integration; and • Identify priority studies and investments in education and training (Negash 1990). Study results of the Education Sector Review proposed three alternatives that could hasten the pace of primary education. The first alternative proposed a three-tier system based on 6 years of primary, 4 years of junior secondary, and 4 years of senior secondary schooling (6 + 4 + 4). Alternative two called for a system based on 4 years of primary education (known as minimum formation education) for the great majority of the population, which is followed by another 4 years of junior secondary program and the next 4 years of senior secondary program (4 + 4 + 4). Alternative three (4 + 2 + 2) was a modification of alternative two where the junior secondary and senior secondary are reduced from 4 to 2 years. It was also suggested that students begin Grade 1 at 9 years of age. The ESR conference that met in August 1972 approved alternative two (4 + 4 + 4). According to this system, a great majority of school-going age
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population attend a 4-year primary education; about 20% would then proceed to follow another 4-year junior secondary program, and the best of those completing Grade 8 would be allowed to attend the 4-year senior secondary program. Moreover, the ESR made the rural population the target of educational policy. It was also envisaged that secondary education would increase at the rate of the growth of the population, estimated at 2.1% per annum. This was indeed a sharp decrease compared with the over 10% annual increment of senior secondary enrolment during the decade of the 1960s (Negash 1990). The recommendations of the ESR were not implemented, partly because the urban population – parents, students, and teachers – perceived the decrease in secondary enrolment and the emphasis given to the rural population as detrimental to their interests. The crisis in education and the recommendations of the ESR mobilized students and teachers to strike and led to successive wave of local and national strikes that began early in 1974 and continued unabated until the overthrow of the imperial system in September 1974.
3.3
Modern Education in Ethiopia During the Derg Era
The new government known as “Derg” came to power by throwing Emperor Haile Selassie in 1974 through coup. Derg considered education as a key to national development, mainly to manifest the socialist ideology, and as a result adopted a new education policy. This view was charted out in the National Democratic Revolution (NDR) in 1976, further elaborated in the five-volume policy document known as General Directives of Ethiopian Education produced by the Ministry of Education in 1980 (Negash 1990). Again another aim of education was endorsed by the ruling party in 1984 (WPE 1984): The aim of socialist education is to mold citizens who have an all-rounded personality by inculcating the entire society with socialist ideology thus arming them with the required knowledge for socialist construction. The fundamental aim of education is. . .to cultivate Marxist-Leninist ideology in the young generation, to develop knowledge in science and technology, in the new culture and the arts, and to integrate and co-ordinate research with production to enable the revolution to move forward and secure productive citizens. (p. 14)
As discussed previously, the major problems of education during Haile Selassi’s regime were low enrolment of secondary education and failure to achieve universal education (illiteracy was very high). The new government – Derg – was encouraged to overcome these problems by developing various strategies. Literacy campaign (it had a lasting positive impact to educating the school-age children. By the way, the researcher was initiated to begin schooling due to the positive influence of such a campaign) and expansion of education both in primary and secondary education were some of the strategies that were given emphasis by the then government. Quite a vigorous national campaign was launched by July 1990, and a 75.3% national literacy rate was reported by the then government. The campaign
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had its own strengths and weaknesses. Some of the strong points of the campaign were creating an awareness on the value of literacy among the populace; if systematically studied, informing and positively influencing future literacy initiatives and programs; providing educational opportunity for large number of adults as well as children; sensitizing the general public toward continuing education; and considering the local languages – 15 languages – for literacy use. On the other hand, its weak points were lacking an explicitly stated educational philosophy to guide actions and practices and being highly centralized. Such conditions resulted in several problems such as evasion of accountability, curtailment of local initiative and independent action, concealment of individual and group waste, and inefficiency. The rate of expansion both in primary and secondary education during the Derg era was very high as compared with the Haile Selassie’s regime. Negash’s (1990) comparison reveals this assertion (the expansion) between Haile Selassie’s regime and Derg’s regime as follows: Enrolment (including those in private schools) increased from 224,934 in 1959–1960 to 1,042,900 in 1974–1975 or at the rate of about 15% per annum. During the period 1975–1989, enrolment increased from 1,042,900 to 3,926,700 or at a rate of about 12% annually. Despite the educational system of the Derg period being high in terms of expansion, the system faced shortage of educational resources, shortage of qualified teachers, etc. resulting in the deterioration of the quality of education (Teferra 1996). Indeed these problems were identified by the government and led to take further action, i.e., to review the education sector. In view of this, in 1983, the government adopted a resolution, which reads: [t]he formal education sector expanded rapidly after the revolution, but the fact that there are some weaknesses in the quality of education must now be recognized. The content and quality of education must fully prepare students to meet the objective demands of the nation and the ideological needs of the society. [S]teps should be taken without delay to implement the program for expansion of technical and vocational education in line with the manpower demands of the country. (COPWE 1983, p. 3, in Negash 1990, p. 18)
In response to this resolution, the then Ministry of Education launched a project known as the Evaluative Research on the General Education System of Ethiopia (hereafter ERGESE) in 1983, which was completed by 1986. This study focused on four major areas: curriculum development and teaching-learning process; educational administration structure and planning; educational logistics, supportive services, and manpower training; and educational evaluation and research. However, the study was left shelved due to different reasons (Negash 1990; Teferra 1996). Some of the objectives of the ERGESE regarding curriculum development and the teaching-learning process are as follows: to examine the degree of integration of each subject with the national educational objectives; to analyze student textbooks with the aim of understanding their integration (content and clarity) with the national objectives; and to assess the impact of time allocation, language of instruction, and the material delivery system on educational objectives. In light of this, the findings of the study revealed that:
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• The syllabi of secondary school subjects reflected the national objectives; textbooks do not reflect national educational objectives and that most of them pay attention to the teaching rather than learning dimensions. • The subjects (except agriculture) suffer either from lack of clarity, coherence, and consistency of content or from poor style of presentation. • Amharic as a medium of instruction in the primary schools (Grades 1 to 6) had created difficulties for students whose mother tongue was not Amharic. • Using English as a medium of instruction from Grades 7 up to 12 created difficulties both for teachers and students. • The stages of the education ladder, i.e., primary (1–6), junior secondary (7–8), and senior secondary (9–12), were not satisfactorily integrated and coordinated. • The expansion of the educational system was not in accordance with the economic resource capability of the state. • The problem of Ethiopian education was the result of poor textbooks, lack of instruments, and widespread incompetence among the teaching staff. Some of the recommendations of the study with regard to curriculum are the need for informing the results of the study for experts at the curriculum department and establishing of curriculum institute. Furthermore, the study recommended the preparation of textbooks for vocational education. This is because the Ten-Year Development Plan envisaged that vocational education ought to match with the country’s socialist economic orientation and to meet its target by the end of the plan period. ERGESE also recommended for further study with regard to the use of Amharic and English as media of instruction. As was discussed earlier, a new proposal for reforming education came primarily as a result of the expansion of secondary education. Basically, the expansion of secondary education was beyond the capacity of the economy, which particularly created unemployable graduates (Negash 1990; Teferra 1996). Hence, the then MOE devised a plan – 8-year universal polytechnic education – assuming that such program could contribute to the creation of skilled manpower into the economy. The new reform was partially accepted by the government to be implemented by 1986. The idea of the reform, particularly to promote polytechnic education, was contained in the Ten Year Plan of the sector on the bases of the following aims: to enhance respect for work; to make the curriculum relevant; to intensify the eradication of illiteracy; to strengthen Amharic as the medium of instruction at the primary level; to improve teacher education; to upgrade the teaching profession; and to provide education to the physically and mentally handicapped (PMGSE 1985, pp. 436–39 in Teferra 1996). The overall objective was to obtain a middle-level trained manpower. Though an attempt was made to implement some aspects of these objectives, by 1991 with the collapse of the regime, the Ten Year Plan faced a deathblow once and for all.
3.3.1 Curriculum Innovation, Undertaking, and Organization After the collapse of the monarchy in 1974, a group of curriculum developers – curriculum experts, subject experts, and experienced teachers – were formed to
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revise the curriculum on the bases of the new educational goals, which took the task for 2 years. Subsequently, the responsibility for further refinement and development of new curricular materials was given for the then Curriculum Department (now known as the Institute for Curriculum Development and Research and hereafter ICDR). The curriculum planning was too centralized, where syllabi and curriculum materials were prepared and distributed from the center. Two curricular packages – transitional and the general polytechnic – had been operated side by side during the Derge regime. The latter was subjected for experiment (pilot study) before replacing the former at national level. In this experimental program, considerable professional efforts, financial input, and other resources were invested. However, it was not found feasible in terms of inputs and other situational factors to implement the experimental curriculum at a large scale. Both lack of sufficient financial investment and its coincidence with the apparent downfall of the communist ideology in its country of origin, i.e., Soviet Union, had made the program in vain except its slim memories (ICDR 1996).
3.3.2
Criticisms of the Education System and the Curriculum of the Derge Era The education system of the Derge Era did not escape from criticism. The MOE (1996), for instance, forwarded criticisms that include the following: various proposals were made to change the structure of the education system, but not implemented; most of the regular budget (56.8%) was allocated to the military and other related activities at the expense of education and other social development issues and endeavors; teachers’ and students’ attention was directed to political and propaganda activities; and the literacy campaign, which was inefficiently launched in 15 national languages, had many setbacks due to lack of genuine commitment and undemocratic nature of planning and implementation. The other criticism is associated with curriculum undertaking. Basically, a very few authors made study on the curriculum of Ethiopia. Feleke (1990), for instance, in his study indicates the type of curriculum approach employed at the Department of Curriculum. The same author findings revealed that first, the process of the development of the transitional curriculum (it refers to the curriculum that replaced the one before 1974 and was in operation at Ethiopian schools except those 70 schools where polytechnic education was under experiment) followed neither and established set of procedures nor was founded on the bases of the evaluation results of the old curriculum. It was rather patchwork, and piecemeal in its approach, characterized by more inclusion and exclusion of content in the same old curriculum of the day. Second, the goals of the Ethiopian education during the Derg regime were that education for production, class struggle and consciousness, and scientific research had become the philosophical bases for planning the curriculum. The goals were vague, too general, and broad to provide necessary direction to education throughout the country. Teferra (1996), for instance, considers the goal of education endorsed in the 1984 report on the formation of the Workers’ Party of Ethiopia as unrealistic, i.e., sounded
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more of rhetoric than realistic. Two reasons were given for his premise. First, creating an all-round socialist personality is far-reaching in a society that had the culture of deep-rooted feudalism for so many years. Second, indoctrinating with an alien and radical ideology, Marxism-Leninism, was incompatible and incomprehensible for the majority of the then Ethiopian children. Although Negash’s (1990) study is mainly based on the history subject curriculum for secondary education, it provides very useful information related to the overall curriculum of the era. The findings of this study reveal that “although the new state-Derg- showed a far more consistent concern over the need of evolving an appropriate curriculum, the case of the history subject curriculum for secondary schools strongly suggests that in reality far less has been done.”
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Implications for the Current Education in Ethiopia
The educational history of Ethiopia reviewed here has a multitude of implications to the current educational practices in Ethiopia. Of which, the researcher has suggested the following basic implications: • Despite all the hardships disclosed in the review section, teachers in church education never express any sign of dissatisfaction. Particularly, the highly qualified “leq” is totally devoted to his profession and, therefore, imparts his knowledge to his fellow students without pay. As an authority in his field of specialization, he feels a king of himself and servant of human being (Ingidayehu 1976) – a very good quality that needs to be seen in educational practices that is highly lacking in the modern education system of Ethiopia. Therefore, teachers and other civil servants of the current Ethiopia should instill this good lesson that comes from church education teachers’ experience and show strong dedication to provide quality service in their respective professional areas and thereby contribute some in the country’s move toward a better future. • Educational thoughts of Ethiopia should primarily emanate from its social, political, cultural, economic, and educational contexts. Failure to emanate from the previous educational experiences of the country (be it indigenous and/or religious education) has cost the country much and made it to be easily influenced by other countries’ education system, to initiate changes from scratch, and/or to move as per the political wind of the day. The researcher’s long years of experience in the field of education informed that education should not be seen as a revolutionary activity and/or a haphazard activity. It should be systematically managed so that our earlier strengths will be used as the bouncing points to another modification in the education system that fit with the current national and international dynamism. • The historical upheavals of the educational practice in Ethiopia disclosed the presence of unbalanced attempts in the different educational eras. This is the result of giving emphasis as per the direction of the blow of the wind. This move in education has cost the country much. So, reasonable balance needs to be maintained in deep understanding of relevant issues and coverage; urban and rural experiences;
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•
•
•
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local, national, and international experiences; the three domains of behavioral changes (i.e., affective, cognitive, and psychomotor); and what you name it. As educational reforms are evolutionary in nature, indigenous and religious educational practices should be the starting points for modern education in any nation, and educational reforms of any nature should emanate from the strengths of early educational practices as said before. That is, educational reforms should emanate from the assessment results of the old educational practices. This assessment should identify the strong and weak points of the old educational practices and their possible root causes, and thereby the new educational emphasis will systematically consider the strengths of the old as a bouncing point and replace past limitations with other educational emphases that fit with the demands of the day and the future. Historical upheavals indicated that foreign educational advisories who were not conversant with the in-house organic nature of the country usually recommend irrelevant experiences to the country’s educational practice. This led us to invest our meager resources on areas which have little contribution to the advancement of the country’s educational system. To avoid this mislink, educators in Ethiopia who know the organic nature of the country need to take the centerpiece of managing the educational practices in the country. Educational decisions in the different eras of our education system showed that there was lack of deliberation on educational matters by possible stakeholders in the education system. This led to resistance among possible stakeholders at any corner of the education system. To minimize such a resistance and come up with educational focal points that serve all, educational programs should be suggested on the basis of the strong deliberations made by different stakeholders in Ethiopia who are conversant with the local, national, and international experiences. From the historical challenges of introducing modern education in Ethiopia, we can learn that introducing changes into the system is not as simple as practicing the routine day-to-day actions. It rather requires emanating the change from the cultural fabric of the nation, and much work needs to be done during the adoption process. Moreover, change agents should be open-minded and consider people’s resistance to change as something natural and instead work on finding the possible causes of their resistance to change and alleviate the negative repercussions of the causes from the bud. That is, there is a strong need to take much time on the preparation phase (which the country is highly blamed of the problem) before large-scale implementation of the innovation in the country’s educational system.
Conclusion
Traditional education in Ethiopia had two forms – indigenous and religious education. Indigenous education, as is the case in any social group, has the role of socializing the child by learning the social norms, values beliefs, etc. and by developing the fundamental arts of survival. Parents and elderly people of the community were responsible for the informal education of the child.
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The church education, on the other hand, was responsible to inculcate the Christian faith and develop the child morally. To this effect, it has an organized and hierarchically structured system of education that involved reading, writing, computing, singing, and dancing that were used to enhance learning and reader service to the church. The methods involved were oral memorization and reaction, and evaluation was based on checking mastery of orally learned learning material. Modern education in Ethiopia is a twentieth-century phenomenon where the first modern elementary school was opened in 1908 by Emperor Menelik II. The then prevalent conditions that demanded the establishment of modern education were both political and social. Politically a central government was established at the turn of the nineteenth century and there was a need for educated people to establish diplomatic relations. At the same time, new types of communication services such as telephone, postal system, radio, and rail transport were introduced which called for trained personnel other than those who have church education. Though there were oppositions from the Coptic Church against the introduction of modern education, it got momentum and many schools were opened from 1908 to 1935 when Italy invaded Ethiopia. When Ethiopia restored its independence in 1941, it embarked on reopening the schools considering education to be the key factor to development. The curriculum, however, was influenced by Western forces that were in attachment with the country. First, it was French-influenced then British and then American. This was at the time of Emperor Haile Selassie II. Even though the curriculum underwent different changes and reforms, it has not become relevant to the Ethiopian situation and could not serve the purpose for which it was meant. In 1994 when the Imperial government was overthrown by the military regime (Derg), the curriculum of the Emperor’s time was criticized for being irrelevant to the Ethiopian realities, for being elitist and for preparing white-collar workers giving less emphasis to technical and vocational education. In addition to this, since the Derg regime was socialist ideology oriented, the curriculum was again influenced by the eastern bloc; measures that were said to be democratizing and socializing education, such as decentralization, participation, and use of mother tongue, were taken but to no avail.
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Cross-References
▶ Education and Training Policies in South Africa and the BRICS Countries ▶ Rethinking Ethiopian Education System: Restoration and Rectification
References Bender, M. L. (1976). Language in Ethiopia. London: Oxford University Press. Bequele, A. (1967). The educational framework of economic development in Ethiopia. Ethiopian Observer, 2(1), 54–62.
Historical Upheavals of the Educational Policy Formulation and. . .
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Feleke, D. (1990). An Investigation into the Practice and Processes of Curriculum Planning and Development in Ethiopia since 1974. Unpublished Master of Arts Thesis, AAU, Ethiopia. ICDR (1996). Guideline for the Try-Out of the New Curriculum. (Unpublished Document), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Ingidayehu, Y. (1976). In-service education provision for primary school teachers in Ethiopia (A Thesis for the Degree of Master of Education). University of Bathe. Markakis, J. (1974). Ethiopia: Anatomy of Traditional Polity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Melesse, S., & Bishaw, A. (2017). Historical analysis of the challenges and opportunities of higher education in Ethiopia. Higher Education for the Future, 4(1), 31–43. The Kerela State Higher Education Counsel, SAGE Publications. Ministry of Education. (1971). The development of in-service teacher education. Addis Ababa. Ministry of Education. (1973). Education challenge to the nation: Parts A and B. Addis Ababa. MoE (1996). Educational Statistics Annual Abstract, 1987 E.C. (1994/95). (Unpublished Document), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Negash, T. (1990). The crisis of Ethiopian education: Some implications for nation building. Uppsala: Uppsala University, Department of Education. Negash, T. (1995). Rethinking Education in Ethiopia. Uppsala: Nordiska Africa institute. Pankhurst, R. (1976). Historical background of education in Ethiopia. In Bender et al. (Eds.), Language in Ethiopia. London: Oxford University Press. Teferra, S. (1996a). Attempts at educational reform in Ethiopia: A top-down or a bottom up reform? The Ethiopian Journal of Education, XVI(1), 1. Addis Ababa University. Teferra, S. (1996b). The impact of legislation on the development of modern education in Ethiopia: 1906–1984. Ethiopian Journal Development Research, 18(1), 15–24. Wagaw, T. G. (1979). Education in Ethiopia (Dissertation). University of Micro-films, Ann Anbor. WPE (1984). Education in Socialist Ethiopia: Origins, reorientation, Strategy for development. (Unpublished Document), MoE, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Decentralization of Education in Postapartheid South Africa From post-colonial apartheid to post-apartheid democracy Rakgadi Phatlane
Contents 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Decentralization, Neoliberalism, Neoconservatism, and New Managerialism . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Decentralization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Neoliberalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Neoconservatism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 New Managerialism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Performance-Based Funding (FBF) Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Establishing Institutions of Higher Learning in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Enrollments and Access to Higher Education Institutions in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Funding Policy for Higher Education System in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 University State Budget for Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Decentralization and Social Justice in the Education System of South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Conclusion and Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Abstract
The ongoing debates on education decentralization are sparked by multiple factors, including both managerial and financial concerns influencing the delivery of higher education in Africa and globally. Africa experienced colonialism and has education systems, which are progressively influenced by the upsurge of new managerialism rooted in neoliberalistic and neo-conservatist ideologies. This chapter provides an analysis of how higher education in South Africa responds to the sudden reorientation towards running institutions as private business entities, through market-driven strategies and with less state subsidy. It should be understood that the South African context of social justice education concerns itself with the achievement of quality and equitable education among all R. Phatlane (*) Faculty of Education Dean’s Office, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 K. S. Adeyemo (ed.), The Education Systems of Africa, Global Education Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44217-0_3
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students from diverse backgrounds. It has the exclusive objective of attaining “full and equal participation of all groups” (The OECD 2012). This is propagated in a society that is mutually shaped to meet the needs of its diverse groups. Though postapartheid South Africa is “democratic” in many ways, one cannot deny that it is still a developmental state with roots coming from both the colonial and the apartheid periods. It is further argued in this chapter that this history continues to define and create constraints in controlling the direction of postschool education institutions even during the new democratic order in South Africa. Although there are decentralized tendencies to fund and manage higher education in South Africa, the neoliberalistic, neoconservative, and new managerialism affect the way the social justice agenda unfolds in higher education of that country. Keywords
Centralization · Decentralization · Neoliberalism · Managerialism · Capitalism · Marketization · Privatization · Neoconservatism · New managerialism · Internationalization · Globalization · NSFAS (National Student Financial Aid Scheme) · Higher Education Policy · Access and Success · Social Justice
1
Introduction
The transition to democracy in many African states, including South Africa, occurred at the height of neoliberal hegemony and led to the decentralization of public services including the higher education sector. South Africa in particular underwent massive transformation from the apartheid regime to the current democratic dispensation, hoping to identify and eradicate the historic inequalities of its diverse society. Gray (2016) points out that radical transformation particularly in the higher education sector is propelled by globalization and closely analyzed; this has also affected South Africa’s higher education institutions. It therefore is, in the light of the foregoing, significant that most governments resort to a combination of neoliberal and neoconservative policies (Apple 2000), to steer the market action necessary to attain their economic objectives, while their social responsibility is relinquished and abdicated in the process. The difference between neoliberalism and neoconservativism is the amount of freedom an institution has as an engine for national and economic competitiveness. While neoliberalism creates a new institutional theory that combines economic, social, and political agendas (Peters 2013), it also entails finding free-market strategies, which could bring more freedom from control and the necessary institutional autonomy (Ball 2017). Against this background, it is argued that neoconservatism encourages authoritarian mechanisms of order and control of institutions by the state (Letizia 2015), through regulation and inspection to ensure the operation of the free market (Robertson 2014). Although conflicts often arise within the alliance of the two theoretical frameworks, they are affirmed to provide the necessary conditions to
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make education internationally competitive, enforce discipline, and intensify profit (Apple 2004). A combination of these two forces laid a foundation for decentralization of higher education in South Africa. In doing so, more emphasis was on the regulation of institutions by market principles and the state’s capacity to provide the conditions and laws of creating the appropriate education market (Mok and Han 2017). It is because of this that new managerialism was planned to realize the neoliberal mission through the institutionalization of principles of the market with regard to the governance of institutions for profit purposes. This approach endorses the prioritizing of private and for-profit segment ethics of effectiveness and efficiency, the attainment of financial targets, and market-type accountability through audits of quality service delivery in the public sector spending (Lynch 2014a). In line with this approach, policy-makers strategically drive transformation in the higher education institutions by creating a new bureaucratic managerial structure that will make institutions more efficient and accountable (Letizia 2015), while at the same time neoliberal marketized solutions are used to solve education problems (Harber 2005). Both public and private partnerships are encouraged, and various legislative bodies enforce accountability (Letizia 2015). In his analysis of historical evolution of international higher education practices in South Africa during the colonial, apartheid, and the postapartheid periods, Sehoole (2006) alludes to the influence of international education in the establishment of formal education in South Africa. He argues that the Dutch and the English colonists first initiated this scenario. Based on this analysis, it is understandable why a higher education system in South Africa tended to disadvantage black people as opposed to their white counterparts, thus perpetuating segregation and apartheid which in turn gave rise to the multifaceted, alienated, and conflict-ridden nature of the society (Sehoole 2006). Also lamenting this approach, Murove and Mukuka (2007) argue that the postcolonial African universities have become more orientated toward the promotion and dissemination of the values of neoliberal capitalism at the expense of African indigenous knowledge systems and values, which are very critical for the transformation of African societies. As a result, African universities reduced their investments in disciplines within the humanities and preferred for commercial and technical disciplines. In South Africa, for instance, the school subject’ History was among the casualties of this new academic orientation since the advent of democracy, with university student enrollments in the discipline dwindling largely because of the marginalization of the humanities in basic education. It is against this historical background that this chapter seeks to analyze the narrating of decentralization of higher education in South Africa from the social justice standpoint. It focuses on the landscape and historic development of decentralized higher education reviews in the apartheid and postapartheid periods. It is contended here that the phenomenon of decentralization in South Africa, like other countries globally, has introduced new theories and practices that dictate a completely new social and political environment. This includes among others the changing role of the state in higher education and the placing of decentralization at the center of higher education reform.
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A focus on higher education in South Africa is presented with regard to the implementation of decentralized management and governance practices, subject to globalization as well as the promotion of neoliberalism and neoconservatism theories. It is further argued that such neoliberal practices in the context of a developing state are the root cause of inefficiency in managerial functions mainly because quite often the available resources do not match the demands of advanced global transformative forces. One could expect that higher education establishments should advance economic expansion and redress the historic disparities within society. While the clients are part of a society that is ridden by inequality majority of whom may be defined as the poorest of the poor, they too want to benefit from higher education which no doubt is the key to changing people’s lives.
2
Decentralization, Neoliberalism, Neoconservatism, and New Managerialism
This section analyzes decentralization of the management and financing of higher education in South Africa and the underlying marketization ideologies of neoliberalism, neoconservatism, and new managerialism. Thorsen and Lie (2006) argue that neoliberalism and neoconservatism are philosophical concepts underpinning policy-making in a capitalist society. The two represent the new hegemonic alliance in the reform of education systems.
2.1
Decentralization
Decentralization is the transfer of political, financial, budgetary, and administrative decision-making powers, obligations, and responsibilities from higher to lower line managers in an organization. While the state reserves its supervisory role by retaining power and control at central level in order to realize its political agenda through policies (Hanson 1998; Lynch 2012; Tran 2014; Martinez-Vazquez et al. 2015; Pucciarelli and Kaplan 2016), other powers are relentlessly given to lower levels. In the view of Mok and Han (2017), decentralization is a neoliberal strategy similar to new managerialism which promotes private market activities and privatization for profit. Also concurring, Lynch (2012, 2014b) maintains that this creates an expansion of the public sector (Martinez-Vazquez et al. 2015). Decentralization by definition means deconcentrating of transference, assignment, and privatization. It involves political devolution of functions and authority with greater autonomy and fiscal decentralization that brings delegation of local power and responsibility (Bui 2014). On the other hand, deconcentrating is where operations of central government are decentralized, with little or no delegation of any decisionmaking authority (Martinez-Vazquez et al. 2015). As opposed to these, privatization is the transfer of certain functions that require the institution to operate as a private enterprise. Many countries around the globe, South Africa included, have over the last several decade’s devolved fiscal and political powers to sub-national or local
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governments. However, problems of ineffective public institutions emerged, such as lack of resources, poverty, and economic instability. In Asian countries, nonetheless, problems with this implementation of decentralization approaches and incorporating entrepreneurial market-facilitating activities while the state holds power led to fragmentation (Mok and Han 2017). The government expects that the implementation of neoliberal marketization strategies in the areas of provision, regulation, and financing in organizations as in higher education institutions would yield improved institutional governance (Tran 2014; Li and Du 2016). They assumed that these neoliberal marketization strategies would improve the administration in the public sector and ensure improved planning and performance. They thought that they would create opportunities for higher economic growth and make service delivery competitive (Martinez-Vazquez et al. 2015; Pucciarelli and Kaplan 2016). The higher education sector was subjected to fundamental challenges brought about by neoliberal ideologies of globalization (Tran 2014). The relationship between higher education institutions and government changed considerably from the time when the education reforms of the 1980s were introduced. The central government now exercises a less tight macro-control over higher education by giving national policy directions in an attempt to promote educational goals and increase the effectiveness of the system to bringing more autonomy, accountability, and efficiency of educational resource allocation to institutions (Mok and Han 2017). Li and Du (2016), however, report that in China, institutions experienced pressures in their administration and management, including human resource shortages, elimination of financial support, and, consequently, internal competition for resources. Tran (2014) in a different study also found that unclear strategies that must drive policy implementation limited experience in change management. This also led to ambiguous functions and authority and similarly led to lack of the necessary financial support for change, which in turn impeded all efforts to decentralize the system. Due to the challenges identified by these authors, it is therefore argued in this study, while striving for prestige through international rankings, for higher education institutions to transfer education policies to the national context will no doubt have challenges not unrelated to the ones identified. For practical reasons, where central government tends to loosen control, these institutions will not be sufficiently powerful to effect and thus accomplish the intended positive change (Hartley et al. 2016). It is against this background that it would not be out of place to conclude that education is no more a public good with a clear societal mission. It has instead become a global service delivered for profit in a competitive knowledge marketplace by organizations (Pucciarelli and Kaplan 2016). In order to overcome challenges, managers in higher education in particular should define how far their institutions can adapt to change while preserving the university’s societal role with regard to incorporating entrepreneurial market principles, business practices, and digital solutions. Both academic and administrative staff need to advance their skills and performance to meet the desired outcomes (Pucciarelli and Kaplan 2016). Admittedly, reform of higher education governance seeks to promote greater
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institutional autonomy and accountability, expand efficient stakeholder interactions, increase access, and advance the overall educational quality (Hartley et al. 2016).
2.2
Neoliberalism
Internationally, a movement to privatize public services is evidently growing. Among those, higher education is also included. This movement advocates privatizing public services in order to profit. These speedy changes are influenced by globalization and neoliberalism, however, Lynch (2014a), argues that they may not synchronize with indigenous preferences. Over the past 40 years, the ideas of liberalism influenced educational policy dramatically (Letizia 2015). Closely analyzed, it is clear that the World Bank was one of the first key organizations to endorse higher education as a merchandisable service as early as the1990s (Lynch 2014a). Beckmann and Cooper (2013) define neoliberal globalization as a new style of governance of the education system that promotes privatization of higher education for profit, marketization, and inclination toward individualism; neoliberal market conditions of competition and price are applied to social services such as education (Letizia 2015; Ball 2017). Neoliberalism defines a new relationship between the state and the public and private sectors (Ball 2017), but unlike in the private sector, where a production firm can fail, public services cannot cease even under marketized conditions (Peters 2013). The emergence of the influence of neoliberalism has given rise to a situation in where education as a service sector has turned out to be “an industry” with students as “consumers” (Sehoole 2006). The rise of neoliberalism as a structure of principles attempted to off-load the cost of public services including education and health to the individual (Lynch 2014a, p. 2). It seeks to promote the idea of developing private universities and encouraging the reliance on private funding for universities but is subject to performance. It is interesting to note that while performance is key in higher education institutions at the juncture of the international knowledge market, public expenditure of public higher education is declining (Gray 2016). The introduction of performance-based funding model is another form of control, which compels institutions of higher learning to meet targets set by the government (Letizia 2015). The magnitude at which public higher education adds value to development and economic growth is, therefore, used as a performance measure (Gray 2016). In this way, performance and efficiency are measured by means of neoliberal metrics, and funding is centered on the quantity of outputs, such as the number of graduates per year, which can be quantified and ranked. Ironically, the government plays an oversight role, while institutions have no choice but to perform on the stage of the international knowledge market and abide by market metrics in order to qualify for funding, which nonetheless is exponentially declining (Letizia 2015). Every year institutions are shocked by the expectations placed upon them by the state and the subsidy cuts. The degeneration in state disbursement on public higher education under the current globalist neoliberal governance (Bui 2014; Gray 2016) increasingly puts
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institutions of higher learning under severe pressure to fund their own teaching and learning programs (Bui 2014; O’Brien 2017). Consequently, academic activities are turned into an enterprise promoting academic capitalism where remuneration of workers is also based on individual performance. Ball (2017) and Mok and Han (2017) contend that neoliberalism cannot simply be translated to a nation state withdrawing from providing social welfare services by transferring the cost of public services to an individual (Lynch 2014) because in this way the function of state would be to create a quasi-market of education. It is further argued that this decline in public resources, at the time the demand for tertiary education is rising, can only lead to the admission of more students to curb the shortfall, which will clearly be no less than a trade-off at the expense of quality (Darvas 2017). Consequently, student protests demanding finance and physical resources such as residences as was the case with the “#fees must fall” unrest of recent times would be unavoidable, thus creating more academic problems and high repetition rates (The World Bank 2010). Withholding or limiting government subsidy for tuition fees in higher education resulted in financial grants to needy students being replaced by loans or financial aid that the students are expected to repay with interest upon completion of studies. This was found to be the root cause of the fees-must-fall campaign in the South African higher education system (Ismi 2016). It is interesting to note further that South Africa spends about 0.8% of its GDP as compared to the OECD average of about 1.6% on postsecondary education. According to the CHE report (CHE 2016), despite a number of achievements that define South Africa’s transition to democracy, levels of student inequality and differences in quality of education persist. In 2015 and 2016, students expressed their dissatisfaction through the foregoing and rather very costly and disruptive protests, demanding increased access to student funding (CHE 2016). Regrettably, though, this shift in institutional discourses toward the market may significantly realign pedagogical relationships to meet business needs, reorient the direction of scholarly work in terms of restructuring curricula, undo disciplinary integrity, de-professionalize academic work, and thus subject cognitive labor to exploitation (Gray 2016). In the light of this complex hegemony of the global neoliberal forces, education is viewed in terms of human capital because of the personal social benefits that an individual accrues, hence the insistence on the need for individuals to make a financial investment on education (Bui 2014; Rizvi 2016). The role of a public university is characterized under neoliberal regimes as a hybrid expected to fulfill both private and public roles (Valenzuela 2015), facilitating critical thinking in a socially inclusive democratic society while at the same time operating as commercial entities advancing economic growth (Beckmann and Cooper 2013; Gray 2016). In Gray’s view, this represents a hegemonic assault on public higher education (Gray 2016). As if to concur, Ball (2017) argues that in this way knowledge and cognitive labor are open to capitalist exploitation, thus taking away the autonomy so much craved for. It is argued, therefore, that the government can re-evaluate and employ strategic financing models, which incorporate performance-based assessment criteria that
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are in line with the attainment of its policy objectives. Alternatively, it can use inputoriented funding formulae based on the number of low-income students enrolled while also maintaining communal investment in higher education relative to the gross domestic product (World Bank Working Group 2016). It is contended that only in this way will universities be able to produce a cadre of qualified and innovative individuals equipped to deal with global problems (The World Bank 2010). If reliable market information is made available and an enabling environment is created in an economic context (Rizvi 2016) with partners in labour, capital, government, and business (Gray 2016), then best practices can be shared to achieve national socioeconomic development goals (Bui 2014). It is also imperative that the principles of equal participation, democracy, and social justice are upheld in public education (Lynch 2016).
2.3
Neoconservatism
Neoconservatism is an American ideology that was utilized for the first time in the early 1970s to promote traditional values, such as internationalism, primacy, unilateralism, militarism, and democracy (Vaïsse 2010). A conservative approach upholds belief in tradition, elites, hierarchy, order, and morality (Robertson and Hill 2014). Vaïsse (2010) argues that central to the American foreign policy is internationalism, which plays an active role in the world, which is built on international order that preserves and maintains American interests to liberate and democratize, rather than to conquer and oppress. In education, the political and economic factors of neoliberalism and neoconservatism continue to compete for power in the field of education policy and practice (Apple 2000). In South Africa, however, economics affect issues of social justice in that the political freedom is in the hands of the majority, while the economic freedom is enjoyed by the elite few. Neoconservative agenda endorses order and control by regulation to ensure standardization and high productivity in order to meet economic needs. Neoconservative managerial ideologies support a hierarchical chain of command in order to ensure compliance with decisions endorsed by legislature (Letizia 2015). Essentially, a neoliberal vision is driven by neoconservative compression to control academic activities through national syllabuses and teaching; countrywide testing and standards, which prescribe content, competencies, outcomes, and assessment; and a move toward pedagogic similarity. Ideally, conditions are set to instill neoconservative practices of standardizing prescribed knowledge, values, and conduct (Apple 2004; Harber 2005). The offering of higher education is in itself a costly initiative, and the use of private partnership for services, for example, the establishment and maintenance of digital information and technological systems in an institution of higher learning, is costly. In the final analysis, such contractually outsourced business practices are very much taxing for institutions; but it is in the global market where they must compete (Letizia 2015). It is therefore imperative that higher education reflects and utilizes all possible knowledge from research engines to find an amicable solution
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to sustainable financing. Apple (2004) concludes that reasonable substitutes to neoliberal and neoconservative strategies and practices can be realized by conceptualizing a political project that will systematically articulate liberal policies and practices in curriculum, education, and assessment. Through critical and strategic thinking, democracy can be produced in education at local level, without ignorance of democratic policies and external forces that are progressively becoming global.
2.4
New Managerialism
The management of the public service as we see it today is influenced by the power of global capital (Lynch 2012). New managerialism is an impartial management strategy intended to realize thorough change in the business of free enterprise. It is a management strategy for neoliberalism, a neoliberal political project with the aim of institutionalizing marketplace ideologies in the governance of all organizations (Lynch 2014). The restructuring of state education systems in many Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries throughout the preceding two decades has complicated a noteworthy change away from an emphasis on organization and procedure to an emphasis on management to improve cost-efficiency. Most of these reforms of new managerialism in higher education institutions were carried out in the 1980s and 1990s (Peters 2013). The management of higher education institutions puts emphasis on entrepreneurship and innovation (Peters 2013, p. 11). Most prominently, there was decentralization of management mechanisms and fiscal authority away from the midpoint or large state bureaucracies to the individual institution. Public education has been progressively marketized with emphasis on clarification of organizational objectives, output measures, and performance targets, and therefore, short-term performance contracts are offered for senior managers. New managerialism puts emphasis on sector values of efficiency and productivity in the regulation of public entities as well as privatization of service through outsourcing (Peters 2013). The privatization of the university encouraged all forms of capitalism and profit-making practices such as commercialization of inquiries, wired teaching creativities, and private-public enterprises in knowledge production (Peters 2013). Bureaucratization of the university led to growth of administrative functions as opposed to the teaching and research faculty. The role of an original class of knowledge bosses and managerial cadre was to screen and ration academic enactment and to take full advantage of returns from research (Peters 2013). Consequently, the introduction of alternative funding patterns that encourage feepaying students because of human capital theory led to excessive student debt. At the same time, the internationalization of higher education increased the global competition for international apprentices (Peters 2013). Once executed in the public arena, services and outputs are measured in terms of crucial performance indicators and rankings. They promote the decentralization
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of budgetary and personnel authority to line managers and project leaders employed on contractual arrangements to exercise control and reduce costs (Lynch 2012). Performance indicators are set to measure performance irrespective of resource provision. The success in meeting financial and performance targets is measured through audits of higher education’s outputs. The auditing process involves disciplinary regulation and inspection as a quality assurance mechanism for control. Because of the imposition of neoliberalism (Beckmann and Cooper 2013), the new modes of ranking are not a national phenomenon anymore, since higher education is now distinct as a global product traded in the global market (Lynch 2016). Ranking and equating universities countrywide and worldwide in terms of standing and influence has become big business to market the university (Lynch 2016). Similar to the way countries are ranked based on GDP levels or on their levels of global competitiveness, readiness of their knowledge economy, and purposeful ICT usage, universities are themselves standard setters, and it is therefore inevitable that they will be subjected to comparisons and rankings (Marope et al. 2013). Governments to determine the worldwide standing of their institutions through their affordability (Marope et al. 2013) use rankings in the knowledge market (O’brien 2017). Donors select exercise positions to best place their donations to realize best returns on investments. Information becomes available for the private sector to find promising partner institutions in higher education. Universities themselves and policymakers use rankings to know more about the strengths of their higher education institutions and recognize areas of enhancement (Marope et al. 2013). While rankings promote accountability, transparency, and introspection, the fact that rankings embrace only a certain percent of world’s universities focusing on research and mostly scientific research has been criticized immensely (Marope et al. 2013). Muller (2011) explains how international ranking systems create a distorted and costly behavior where participants engage in obtaining awards and incentives for publications, without regard for the social value of these activities. Academics are being tyrannized by the rhetoric of ranking and labeling (Lynch 2015). The ranking of unparalleled institutions on numerous benchmarks across different countries and continents is ethically dubious as wealthier students will choose to study in highly ranked universities (Lynch 2015), denoted by students as the “best” universities (Marope et al. 2013). These authors caution that decisions pertaining to the quality of universities should not be solely based on information from rankings. Harvey (2008) concurs that a few have attempted to address value for money, but do not address fitness for purpose nor do they operationalize aspects of excellence in the learning process.
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Performance-Based Funding (FBF) Model
According to Hanson (1998), decentralization is the transmission of political, financial, budgetary, and administrative supervisory authority, obligation, and responsibilities from higher to line managers at subordinate organizational levels, joint with the retaining of power and control at principal level (Lynch 2014; Tran 2014).
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Decentralization in higher education under the current influences of globalization and neoliberal ideologies imply more autonomy to the institutions, while the state holds minimal control but ensures an inspectoral role by regulation and performance measures. Higher education is governed by new managerial principles in both their academic and administrative functions. They must perform to meet political targets while implementing market-oriented strategies that uphold privatization practices such as contractual appointments for accountability purposes and outsourcing of services. As a result, academic staff is under extreme pressure to perform to meet both local and international ranking standards that can make their institution attractive to students and thus more marketable. A decline in state funding and withdrawal from offering grants to assist needy students create financial constraints and student debts. Smith (2015) clarifies the purpose of performance-based funding (PBF) as a new model adopted by many states in the 1990s, which involved extra funding for institutions and persons where performance metrics were encountered. PBF becomes the base of funding for higher education institutions. PBF commits institutions to some quantitative and qualitative measures of performance outcomes or output, believing that institutions will be empowered to better resource utilization by funding what really works. However, obstacles to success include unfitting performance measures, inadequate institutional capability, insufficient state funding to allow package, deficient knowledge of and responsibility for reacting to PBF in administration and faculties, and disadvantaged student composition having a negative impact on performance with regard to student learning outcomes. It can, therefore, be concluded that in order to derive success on the implementation of performance-based funding in higher education, it is crucial to build capacity of institutions to answer adequately to new funding principles. The implementation of a decentralized market-driven higher education system in South Africa therefore requires definition of purpose in terms of both academic and administrative functions. As such, higher education policy must develop and implement appropriate funding mechanisms to realize economic development goals while allowing higher education institutions to claim their autonomy and integrity as high-quality knowledge and skill providers within a societal transformation agenda.
4
Establishing Institutions of Higher Learning in South Africa
The region of Africa experienced colonialism, and its education structures are unfortunately ever more affected by the phenomena of globalization and internationalization. While the current inequalities in higher education together with the marginalization of blacks from access to higher education have their origins in colonialism, they were continued and intensified during the apartheid period (Sehoole 2006). During this period, the policy of racial segregation was practiced during the admissions of students in South African universities. For this reason,
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some black people involuntarily acquired higher education mainly in the USA and Britain (Sehoole 2006). The establishment of higher education institutions in South Africa was clearly influenced by the political landscape of white minority rule. Consequent to that, when the postapartheid administration took power in 1994, there was a highly segregated and ineffective higher education system (Sehoole 2006). The higher education sector in South Africa underwent a major restructuring, and new institutions were created through the mergers (CHE 2016). There are now 26 public universities – the traditional universities, the universities of technology, the new comprehensive universities, and over a hundred private higher education institutions. It is therefore contended that in spite of the transformed higher education landscape (from the stratified and disjointed 36 public institutions of different types and over 300 private institutions that existed prior 1994), the inheritance continues to shape and influence the sector in less appropriate ways. The result is the challenging socioeconomic contexts, which impacts negatively on the quality of the system as a whole (CHE 2016). The types of schools are still perpetuating the cultures they had before 1994. The author acknowledges the few changes from the rural and township schools, which are breaking the barriers by producing quality grade 12 results. These schools contribute positively to the change the country wants to see, although it is very at an insignificant scale. It is imperative to note that South Africa has the most diverse and differentiated tertiary education system in Africa. It has three of its universities in the top 12 list in the (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) BRICS and developing countries. The postgraduate system and the part it plays in the knowledge-based economy in the continent characterize the South African higher education system (Cloete 2016). Cloete’s study found that where government investment in education is low and costs are high, participation rates are also low. For this reason, Cloete supports the implementation of the government’s “free” higher education for the underprivileged as opposed to loans that students must repay upon completion of their studies. The missing middle students whose parents belong to the working class as well as the affluent middle class should contribute to higher education through paying back loans, since such students have a better completion rate and better success in the labor market. Comparatively, a national direct loan such as NSFAS is much cheaper than commercial banks, even though the latter have effective debt collection mechanisms (Cloete 2016). In recent years, however, after the “fees must fall” student protests, the NSFAS loan was transformed into a study bursary in the quest to produce “free higher education” in South Africa. The Commission of Inquiry into Higher Education and Training Report (2017), taking into consideration the South African context of increasing costs and the need for greater participation and the declining state funding, recommended the state-subsidized model as opposed to the cost-sharing model. In this model, the poor are defined as those earning less than the lowest taxable income of R54 200 in 2010, as per the South African Revenue Service (SARS) data, and moved up to R350 000 per family at the end of 2019. The Commission considered both up-front fees by parents and differed fees where the individual is responsible and recommended
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the income-contingent loans (ICL) as opposed to the NSFAS ICL. Problems experienced in the NSFAS NCL include administrative problems, lack of resources to offer full-cost loans, as well as low recovery rate. The ICL model proposed that students repay loans over a 15-year period. This had since fallen off, as the NSFAS has now become a grant to study, which provides free education to poor students and sharing of costs with parents in cases where the income of the family warrants that as per the SARS submissions. At the time of going to press, the working group’s recommendation of a full-cost loan for poor students and loans with parent contribution for students from middle-income households, and no loans for those from affluent households, was then changed to full bursaries for poor students and partial bursaries for middle-income households and full payment for the rich students. In this model, no student is denied access based on financial ability but, rather, academic ability. The government increased its subsidy in order to ensure academic success in the universities. The demands for feefree education by tertiary students which led to protests as a way of expressing dissatisfaction, together with a surprise announcement in December 2017 by the outgoing president of the African National Congress (ANC) which was the ruling party at the time of going to press, led to the introduction of the latter. The Commission advised the President to make it clear to students to accept the inevitable truth that those who have the funds should pay for their studies, in favor of the delivery to future generations (Commission of Inquiry into HE&T Report 2017). Habib (2016) observed that the 2015 student protests alluded to above have forever changed the postapartheid South African higher education system, thus forcing the state and all the stakeholders to establish a new fiscal foundation that assured students’ admittance to higher education without hindrance. He advised that a positive sustainable outcome could be attained through ongoing institutional engagement and a public social action in support of the students’ movement, in order to avoid public violence.
5
Enrollments and Access to Higher Education Institutions in South Africa
The CHE (2016) reports the increase in enrollments in the higher education sector which were remarkable in relation to size; from a half a million in 1994, to almost a million students in the public universities as compared to about 90,000 in the private higher education institutions, in 2015. There was a dramatic change caused by a significant increase in access for black, African students. This increase in access, however, did not increase the participation rate of that group of students as the participation rates between black and white students still differed significantly. In 2015, the participation rate of black students was around 19%. This was an increase of 3% from 16% in 2013, while white students’ participation was at 55%, at the same time (CHE 2016). This is a factor, which will haunt the system for quite some time. This is because there remains a constant difference in the provision of quality of
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education to learners in schools. The inequality of content knowledge among teachers in some black schools continues to determine who qualifies to enter which universities. Most of the affluent universities in South Africa still deliberately provide limited access to the admission of black students, a phenomenon which was noted to continue to exist by Sehoole in his 2006 analysis. For equity and improved access to take place, universities have to create deliberate transformed recruitment strategies for specific students in order to improve the participation rates for all students. This is a social justice issue, as one cannot claim to level the playing field where the players do not come from similar backgrounds. The headcount enrollment target for universities as reported in the 2014/2015–2019/2020 enrollment planning cycle was predicted at 1,087,281. This is a growth of 133,908 from the 2012 actual headcount enrollment of 953,373. The system would have to grow at a yearly rate of 1.9% during the period 2012 to 2019 to reach a projected Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) and a participation rate of 21.2% in 2019 (DHET Annual Monitoring Report 2015). In 2015, the audited data indicated an increase from 969,154 enrolled students in 2014 to 985,212 in 2015, an under-enrollment of 34,978 headcounts in relation to the projected target of 1,020,190 for 2015 (DHET Annual Monitoring Report 2015). The number of first-time entrants in 2014 to 2015 indicated an increase, (even though nationally the system under-enrolled) with 171,930 first-time entering undergraduates of 32,520 fewer than the projected target of 204,450 in 2015 (DHET Annual Monitoring Report 2015).
6
Funding Policy for Higher Education System in South Africa
Higher education was regarded as a key factor required to spearhead social and economic development in a knowledge-driven global economy through excellence in research and teaching (SA NDP 2014). It would be expected that any country serious about social and economic development would put systems in place to push for the success of that agenda. It was found, however, that the funding formula for South Africa revealed an undesirably much lower expenditure as compared to its counterparts in the sub-Saharan countries (CHE 2016). While the provision of higher education was fundamental to economic efficiency, equality, and raising human capital for social justice, South Africa has since the mid-1930s experienced inefficient allocation of resources under apartheid, leading to wasted resources and lost opportunities, thus making it difficult to achieve those goals (CHE 2016). One can argue that South Africa needs a considerable growth in student numbers. It is imperative to increase access of students and the academic staff component, which seems to have remained relatively low. Because of that, the staff-student ratios were less desirable, and research outputs declined (CHE 2016). Styger, van Vuuren, and Heymans (2015) clarified that the New Funding Framework (NFF) for South African higher education institutions was based on FTE student enrollment as the primary input. A student needed to enroll for all
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modules in a specific year for an academic qualification to receive an FTE value of one. It means a student enrolled for less modules would have an FTE value of less than one while still being counted as one head. Other funding determinants were outputs, which included students who completed their qualifications within the stipulated period and research productions in the form of publications. In the NFF, funding per research output units was increased, subsequently motivating some universities to become more research productive, while others still prioritized teaching and student output. Styger, van Vuuren, and Heymans (2015) asserted that more research was required to improve the funding formula in the NFF. The participation within these opportunities were consistently marred with biasness toward the middle class and mostly white students and white academics in previously white universities. Some universities created funding mechanisms favouring specific academics and students from formerly disadvantaged groups in order to bring them on par with their counterparts from other backgrounds. An analysis of the demographic context of South Africa showed that between 1900 and 2000 the population increased eightfold; however, from the commencement of the 1970s, it was evident that the country needed appropriately educated people in the population to achieve economic growth. The table below sets out a forecast of the South African 20- to 24-year age cohort participating in higher education for a 10-year period, the period between 2013 and 2023. From this table, it is evident that the growth of the cohort will slow appreciably on the “without migration” hypothesis (CHE 2016) (Table 1). Projected growth in enrollments in higher education and the predicted increased access for prospective academically deserving students could be limited by funding shortfalls. Universities would experience pressure in maintaining academic standards and satisfactory levels of teaching and learning maintenance from the government, required in achieving satisfactory throughput rates (CHE 2016). This prediction could change as most deserving poor students were given free education and therefore funding was no longer an issue. The distribution of government grants to individual institutions is in harmony with national planning and policy priorities. Funds from the higher education budget and permitted enrollment strategies of specific institutions play a role in the funding decisions. The funding framework was specifically expected to improve impartial admission, the quality of research and teaching, student progress and graduation Table 1 Demographic projections for 20–24 year age group, 2013–2023 2001 2013 2018 2023 Annual growth (average) 2013–2023 Source: CHE 2016
With migration 4,486,136 5,091,638 5,211,661 5,507,504
Without migration 4,486,136 5,091,638 5,074,802 5,307,308
0.79%
0.42%
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rates, and the realization of economic and social needs (DHET 2014). The framework infused the curbing of dropout rates at universities, which was a serious concern. Access of students at higher education institutions was not leading to success. There was also another growing phenomenon of unemployed graduates, which posed a serious concern. The industry produces jobs every day, but graduates are unemployed. There seemed to be a misfit and lack of communication between the trainers and the industries for which the trainees were being trained. Although it is not the focus of this chapter, it is a social justice issue as most of the unemployed graduates are black. The funding framework was then criticized by various stakeholders since it distributed funds without justification of a number of critical issues. Some of those issues included the cost of running certain programs, the quality and preparedness of students, the historically underprivileged universities, particularly those located in poor rural areas where most of the students depended on the NSFAS for funding. In these cases, the NSFAS funding is seen as inadequate. Due to inherited historical legacies, some universities have a resource- and revenue-raising potential that earns them international recognition and accreditation, while others do not. Some universities continue to admit students to programs, which are not lucrative to industry, therefore finding a continuous thread of unhappy unemployed graduates who worked very hard for many years for their degrees, with no company prepared to employ them, citing work readiness as a problem. Other government distributions to higher education contain a block grant based on formula for instruction, research, and operative expenses; assigned allocations mainly used for infrastructure development and specific national research projects; and a national loan/grant scheme for financial assistance to students (DHET 2014, p. 117). These are done benchmarking funding mechanisms with international trends. Governments use different international higher education funding approaches to allocate funds to institutions and programs, including incremental funding which entails incremental or subtractive adjustments to all line items. It is not however, considering submitted budgets, the cost of provision nor does it incentivize performance. Formula-based funding based on a number of factors, including historical data, enrollment and graduation data, projected trends, research outputs, and negotiated political arrangements. Since formulas are based on data, which some institutions can possibly exploit, this approach has loopholes (DHET 2014, p. 19). Performance-based funding emphasizes the performance of higher education institutions. Institutions are funded based on their outputs, and the primary objective is to improve efficiency, accountability, and quality. This is also problematic as South African universities continue to differ in the type of student who registers at particular universities. It still perpetuates the status quo, where affluent former white universities continue to attract excellent academics, while the former poor rural universities continue to suffer lacking capacity to manage and invest while maintaining the infrastructure, etc. The different types of funding include performance-based contracts or service-level agreements, performance pointers or processes (found in the USA and South Africa), and competitive funds. In other instances, these approaches get used in combination (DHET 2014).
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The universities are encouraged to enroll former disadvantaged students, by receiving factor grants among their funds, which is an inducement for them to admit more African and Coloured South African students (DHET 2014). Some universities tap into this fund by deliberately enhancing their recruitment strategies to include deliberate targets of African and Coloured students. The recruitment includes assistance in the application to NSFAS finance, which since recently assists needy students who have academic potential and focuses on redress to increase participation of the poor in higher education. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) in its World Economic Outlook (October 2013) projected that the South African normal economic growth ratio would be 3.49% in 2017 and 2018, and it was expected that this growth degree would be preserved between 2018 and 2023. It was noticed that over the years, including in 2018, the South African economy did not grow as anticipated; therefore the projections might obviously be affected. If it were according to those forecasts, the subsidy obtainable for the total higher education system counting NSFAS would grow to an average actual rate of 2.74% per annum between 2013 and 2023 (CHE 2016). As it was, during the time of going to press, more than 70% of poor students in higher education institutions depended on government subsidy, while the other 30% received financial assistance from private companies (BIRAP 2018). The analysis indicates that, over the coming decade, universities will experience progressively constricted financial restrictions as the directive for places rises relative to the number of students who need funding. The components of the funding system include the block grant and the earmarked grant (CHE 2016). With regard to the block grant, the degrees of freedom available to the universities allow the distribution of the amount of spaces funded under the teaching input grant across the subject categories and types of qualifications as set out in the institutional enrollment plans. Over-enrollments resulting from exceeding the number of students approved are not prevented; however, tuition fee revenue received from such overenrolled students does not cover the full cost of providing university education for the student, without the allowance portion. It is noted that all these factors mean that the provision of higher education is costly. Most institutions are looking at cost reduction systems and consider the integration of distance and online learning so that there can be fewer contact students, which may alleviate the problem, since distance-education students carry half the input subsidy compared to the contact student (CHE 2016). Another factor in addition to the possible change of the modes of delivery of higher education programs could be to find sources of provision outside the public sector and increase efficiencies in the educational processes with technological innovations such as online learning (CHE 2016). Funding will remain tight throughout the decades, and NSFAS needs urgent and sustained attention, as it does not reach all students in need; therefore, huge injections of funds could relieve funding constraints and ascertain equality of opportunity (CHE 2016). While the government seems adequately equipped with tools for steering the system during the decade to 2023, she should be careful not to impose unrealistic burdens on universities. Advances in technological innovations such as computing,
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telecommunications, and the Internet present a viable system, if they are costefficient and a quality or success rate is not compromised. Participation in global education rankings, while beneficial, should not be hurried into, but, rather, universities should be given leeway to first build an uncomplicated system for growth of high-level human capital that is cost-effective (CHE 2016). Universities should be allowed to balance the requirement to be among the high international rankings, with being responsive to their context. There is a tendency for some universities to be so absorbed into the rankings while their context suffers. The Report of the University Panel of Funding Model(s) for higher education in South Africa (Wits 2016) recommended that the private sector should support the funding of higher education, other than earmarking funds for specific projects, for the reason that both the public and private sectors benefit from graduates produced from South African universities as potential employees. Dlamini (2016) also argued that South African universities should counter the effects of neoliberalism, specifically the current discourse of global rankings, by considering student demographics and socioeconomic standing as they work on strengthening their international profiles and joining the super league of global universities. A view that should strongly be supported should be the adoption of a multidimensional approach for universities in South Africa to contribute to sustainable development and redress of the underrepresented groups. Universities should not compete globally if they are ignorant to their context.
7
University State Budget for Higher Education
The Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) as already noted is responsible to report on current and historical state budgets for universities within the existing university funding framework. The DHET maintains the historical component for purposes of constant comparison and for redress. The Department continues to implement deliberate steering tendencies for the continuation of social justice. Funding mechanisms in the higher education sector are instrumental in steering essential areas, including participation rates (enrolled funded full-time equivalents-FTE students); teaching output (graduates); research output (publications, research masters, and doctoral); equity of access (according to enrollments); and equity of outcomes (in general) for funding disadvantaged students. The aim of the grants for universities with large proportions of disadvantaged students is to increase the involvement, achievement, and graduation rates of such students in general. African and Coloured students who are South African citizens are categorized as “disadvantaged” in all funding frameworks. In 2017, in particular, the gap funding grant was implemented to keep student fee increases at “zero” for the poor and missing middle students (University State Budget 2017). Universities obtain government funds in the form of block grants and earmarked grants. Block grants comprise approximately 70% of the total government budget toward universities, intended for operational costs including university teaching, learning, and
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research activities. The university council, which therefore decides how these funds can be utilized, manages block grants (DHET 2016). The Ministerial Statement on University Funding 2017/2018 and 2018/2019 (DHET 2016) reprioritized two new categories of funding within the post-school education and training sector. First, unfunded university students from 2016 academic year, with an amount totaling R2 369, 924 million, and, the second, a “gap funding grant” to cover up to 8% university fee increase for all students from households with a combined annual income below R600 000 (DHET 2017). These students referred to as the poor and “missing middle” experienced a 0% increase on the fees in 2017. The implementation of the 0% student fee increase came into effect in 2016 (University State Budget 2017). Shizha (2017) asserted that just as other universities worldwide, marketization and privatization policies associated with neoliberal globalization affected the management and governance of universities in the sub-Saharan Africa, particularly causing financial inadequacies in that process. University academics experience poor remunerations and working conditions that lead to dissatisfaction and brain drain from those universities. Students’ educational grants have also been affected. There was a need for discussions on government policy on the financing and management of higher education. Both financial and political support for research and innovation should be in such a way that it can retain experienced academics. If the South African government has seriously noted the crucial contribution of universities to human capital development as well as economic growth, it should increase support to upcoming young academics who come from the designated groups, as they are in a majority. The causes of the demands of neoliberal managerialism on developing countries to implement structural adjustment programs (SAPs) and to cut public expenditure in order to access loans from international financial institutions led to macroeconomic adjustments and reduced budget deficits, currency devaluation, and privatizing state entities. The imperatives of new managerialism and corporatism brought significant changes in the academic profession in South Africa (Ntshoe et al. 2008). The emphasis changed from teaching and learning to increasing emphasis on performance and external accountability, entrepreneurship, quasi-marketization activities, revenue-generating programs, professional standards, complexity of university work, and increasing workloads. These demands contributed to the low morale of academics. As a result, academics usually find themselves neglecting their core business of teaching, research, and community work in order to meet performance requirements. These unprecedented inevitable changes compel academics and universities in the ever-changing higher education landscape to redefine their roles. Davis et al. (2016) studied the effects of managerialism on university managers in developing countries and used South Africa as a case. They found that both academic and nonacademic middle managers at the chosen institutions were constrained by the effects of managerialism and disempowered by the tyranny of bureaucracy enforced from the advanced management ranks. The study revealed that middle managers were merely implementers of bureaucratic rules and authoritarian leadership through command and control, contrary to collegiality and autonomy that
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used to characterize academe. There was also a noted obsessive conformance to rules and simply carrying out decisions made by their paymasters, undermining their problem-solving and innovative abilities. Davis et al. (2016) argued that university managers needed to find strategies to encourage active participation, beyond the topdown bureaucratic approaches, and created their own systems to provide support to peers and subordinates. Some of the mentioned systemic decisions drive excellent academics out of the system, and universities experience brain drain. That is why Van der Walt (2017) maintained that typical “manifestations of a neoliberal approach in higher education are depicted by institutions being portrayed as business enterprises.” Managers are sympathetic toward students’ demands and subjected to external quality assurance procedures and public accountability, thus lessening the autonomy, as well as externally accredited programs and a closer linkage between education and the economy. International status, investment, and communication became key to the rankings of universities. Optimizing the system’s performance through business and management strategies, productivity and output measures have become profit-making mass institutions. Students are seen as clients or consumers purchasing qualifications and staff members as factors of production. Economic competitiveness and production of knowledge are key products. They reduce education to a commodity, which only becomes rote learning and memorization. There seemed to be growing anti-neoliberalist movements expressing strong resistance to the dominance of neoliberalism over the entire economic, social, political, and academic spheres during the last four decades. New movements took up the social space performing the functions of redressing the political, financial, and economic shortcomings of neoliberalism. There are marked incidents such as protests against higher education fees, which were earmarked to be a cause of limitation to access and therefore “required” a national solution. These new developments expressed the correction on neoliberalism. They were, however, not considered as constructive and had not suggested an alternative approach to life or to education in particular. The people’s power is replacing the power of the neoliberal elite. At the time it gains momentum, it might bring significant changes to life in general and education in particular. There is a limitation, however, as the economy is in the hands of the elite and they decide where to put their money. These tendencies delay the existence of social justice in South Africa. Another phenomenon, however, is the existence of corruption in both government institutions and private sector organizations in South Africa. This continues to undermine the gains of the social justice movement in South Africa. Globalism, internationalism, and cosmopolitanism seem to be replaced by nationalist ideas that represent trade protectionism; and the economy may take a turn toward socialist policies that address inequalities. This will be a move away from economics and utilitarianism (Van der Walt 2017). Education, in particular, should be seen in a different light as the formation of the whole person, nurturing, guiding, equipping, and giving the young an identity. Education should not be aligned to the economic agenda as it instills intrinsic values fundamental to the formation of
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the whole person and preparedness for life, and not just to fulfill utilitarian purposes in a business-dominated economic environment. The restricted view of a human being as only homo economicus is changing to a view of a human being as a holistically educated being (Van der Walt 2017). Although everything seems to be connected to economics, including education, the above author seems to disagree. Manomano et al. (2016) report low throughput rates for degree and diploma courses for students in higher education in South Africa and deduce that only 15– 20% of the cohort actually graduates. Thirty-five percent of the first entrants drop out after the first year of registration (Gale 2000). Financial constraints and a lack of academic preparedness were the two causes of the dropout. In cases where students have adequate financial and academic support, which is monitored, studies have shown improved dropout rates of up to 78% of supported student passing their first year, instead of them dropping out. Moreover, some institutional challenges arise from failure to provide adequate support to ensure the preparedness of students for the university.
8
Decentralization and Social Justice in the Education System of South Africa
The conceptualization of social justice in higher education in this section is based on the debates within the decentralization and funding of higher education in South Africa as a core of the possible result of affecting the economy of the country as noted by the DHET reports constantly. The assumption that seems to form a thin thread throughout the literature on social justice is that higher education is a treasured machinery for social justice (Tjabane and Pillay 2011). The South African higher policy documents, which sets the stage for South African dreams when it comes to achieving social justice goals, are analyzed. The debates and engagements with issues of social justice in higher education are diverse, depending on which side of the fence one is standing. This debate takes place within the local and global contexts, the neoliberalistic tendencies of funding higher education and the new managerialism where institutions happen to be run as businesses. The question, which one struggles with, is “how can one advocate for social justice in an atmosphere not conducive to issues of social justice?”. It is sad that there are tendencies in most South African higher education institutions, especially the former white universities, that there are constant daily humanitarian and bread and butter issues which most students from both former advantaged and disadvantaged sections of the South African society deal with. There is serious manifestation of hunger among students, which, if not taken care of, lead to all sorts of vulnerability including ultimate dropout of those students. This indirectly increases socioeconomic injustices among South African students. Nkomo (2007) and Tjabane and Pillay (2011) contend that human emancipation from international social unfairness is intertwined at the single and collective levels and that it necessitates a collective human action inherent in the radical tradition of
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social justice, which displays remarkable credentials for enabling the accomplishment of social justice. The foundation of the South African social justice discourse can be drawn from the anti-apartheid engagements, climaxing in the formation of the National Education Policy Investigation (NEPI) in the 1990s (Tjabane and Pillay 2011). The NEPI is a policy initiative conversant by a liberal philosophy of education transformation and restructuring, evident in principles of democracy, non-sexism, non-racism, and a unitary system. The NEPI researchers encompassed a wide range of people, including political leaders and academic practitioners (Chetty et al. 1993), who contributed in a joint, complete process to formulate policy options, taking into account the diversity and diverse shareholders of the education enterprise. Thereafter, many policy documents focusing on transforming and recreating higher education were published. The National Plan for Higher Education (NPHE 2001) and the New Academic Plan for Programs and Qualifications in Higher Education (NAPPQHE 2002) were among them. These plans and most other policy documents of the time culminated into the White Paper 1995 together with the “Size and Shape of 2000.” The recurring themes raised in these documents were framed in the social justice language where democracy, transformation, human rights, and progressive critical academic culture (“Size and Shape” 2000) were analysed and emphasised. Just as the DHET reports continue to note, the NPHE recognizes the important role of higher education in continuing the democratic framework and social justice while contributing to socioeconomic development (NPHE 2001). The enhancement of the economy of the country and the democratic dispensation are linked to social justice needed in an emerging democracy. These principles also culminate in the preamble of the South African Constitution, particularly the advancement of the culture of human rights and democracy (The South African Constitution 1996). The notion of social justice informs the diverse means of funding the students from different backgrounds in the South African higher education sphere received. This is done with the aim to bring about equitable participation and redress. Improving access should possibly breed success. It does not help much to enroll many students from disadvantaged backgrounds into the system in order to set them up for failure. Some students deal with two most important challenges in this scenario. While the other students deal with the transition from high school to university, most disadvantaged students deal with yet another transition of living in slow rural life where everybody knows anybody to that of transcending to a fast urban life where it is everybody for himself. It is therefore imperative that within the competitive mode of higher education institutions, this kind of student is not left behind. Although access to higher education institutions can be improved for the disadvantaged students, the funding model has to also ensure access with success by provision of organized, deliberate, and paid support mechanisms. In order to elucidate the complication and multiplicity of social justice, one can give an example of multiple layers of discrimination or inability to get social justice. Some intellectuals mention vulnerable groups as black, rural, young, women, disabled, HIV and AIDS positive etc. Sometimes, one person can have all these layers affecting him/her. This person can be young, female, with a disability, HIV positive,
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and come from a rural area. In cases such as the one mentioned, a whole lot of equality and social justice in education is needed to bring this one person on par with others. Intellectuals within the academic space conceptualize social justice in a transformed higher education system in South Africa, with the moral obligation of encouraging the public good. There are themes, which emphasize that human liberation requires collective human intervention. One of the developing explanations of social justice in the South African context is its relationship with diversity and all-encompassing education. In this respect, a communally just education system necessitates the celebration and appreciating of diversity, accommodation and open-mindedness of all learners, construction of identical occasions, (Nkomo (2007) and the development of the aptitudes of all learners (Pendlebury and Enslin 2004). Inclusive education, as seen by Tjabane and Pillay (2011), also encompasses other mechanisms of social justice, viz., increased and broadened contribution of previously excluded and underprivileged people. In this context, social justice agenda is advanced through prime social and educational enclosure. The concept of transformation in South Africa is understood from different perspectives. It is always not easy to get people understanding the concept of transformation in a similar manner. To a disadvantaged student, the concept will mean something completely different from what a conservative white student in a South African former white university might understand. The capitalist socioeconomic order associated with the third tradition emphasizes its strong affinity to critical theory and the Frankfurt school of thought (Kellner 2005). While several social theorists are linked with leftist politics and critical theory, of specific relevance to this mission are Habermas (1984) and Freire (2004) who have a clear stance on democracy and united human agency as components of thorough social justice. Habermas’ position on social justice is severely predisposed by his belief that fairness exists and that intention or reasonableness can profit society through forthcoming action leading to human liberation.
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Conclusion and Recommendations
If one argues in the context of the contraction of the policy schedule, the everchanging policy coalitions and uncertainties, this chapter contends that the search for social justice is indispensable and therefore very critical. Subsequent to studying research on the social justice disputes in South Africa, one can safely conclude that the national policy documents are associated to serve and authenticate the current socioeconomic context, which is informed by neoliberalism. In fact, the social justice agenda is articulated by the frequent concentration on equity, redress, and social responsiveness. It is additionally influenced by the democratic and diversity education. It is just as important to carry out curriculum transformation so that it includes indigenous knowledge systems (Odora-Hoppers 2001) and recognizes diverse ways of knowing and knowledge creation.
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There should be consideration of other social factors within the excluded missing middle and the middle class in the funding model. The South African context is a unique context where one person who is employed within a family of seven as per the STATTSA and the SARS data, might be supporting the whole community. In other instances where one person who owns a car, uses it as an ambulance for the sick in the community due to lack of transport to the nearby health center or hospital. This means that the definition of the concept “working class” and affluent middle class should be revisited with rigour. The social justice agenda should not see borders or see colour; however, there is a tendency among South Africans to be xenophobic, and this factor defeats the whole notion of social justice as per the original South African “Ubuntu” notion. What is amazing is that xenophobic South Africans see colour and geography within the people who are discriminate against. Most victims of xenophobia are of African descent, very dark skinned, and speak other African languages. Those who are white, of European descent, and speak other languages such as English, French, and Portuguese are not targeted. Within the social justice agenda and creation of policies for social justice, this factor has to be emphasized, and students should be educated about the tenets and the indespensability of coexistence. Another concept, which is usually misconstrued, is the concept of poverty. It is a misconception to think that only black people are poor in South Africa. It is not only in South Africa; it has become a worldwide phenomenon. A NEON report recently found that white students made up the majority of people living in areas where university attendance was lowest, and those who attended were more likely to enroll at less prestigious universities built after 1992 (Neon 2012). Among the students receiving financial and humanitarian food assistance, there was a sizeable increasing number of needy, white students. This is due to the changes in the country after 1994, where some white people found themselves without decent jobs, decent education, and even decent places to stay. One cannot ignore the fact that there is a growing phenomenon of the white “poor” in South Africa. Although this is an old concept, there were mechanisms through which this group of South Africans were taken care of during the apartheid years. The current available mechanisms to assist the vulnerable groups usually close them out, with a misconception that because they are white they should be able to fend for themselves. The funding mechanisms and policy framework of South Africa have to also include this group of vulnerable people. NSFAS assists many students; however, it could be better if the administration of the bursary could be enhanced. Some students receive Sms’s from NSFAS notifying them that they would be funded in the following year; during November of the previous year already, however, they arrive at the university and at the most receive financial assistance in the seventh month of the year! In some cases students drop out of the institution, wasting another year of possible studying due to inability to continue as a result of not receiving funds. One has to remember that NSFAS is the sole funding mechanism for most of the disadvantaged students in universities in South Africa.
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The scenario existent at the time of going to press seemed to not rock the boat but leave existing and traditional institutional practices intact. Institutions seemed to be out of touch with the realities around them. It remains the responsibility of individual institutions to decide on how institutional practices can be redirected to support the social justice agenda. There are many projects, which run in different universities, which are anecdotes of good practice. Those projects need to be centralized into policy in order to compel higher education institutions to have them as common practices, in order to bring about redress, equity, and social justice. These scattered projects in various institutions if centralized, can improve the dropout rates in universities and enhance participation and success rates of university outputs. Further, the local responsiveness of the university will be enhanced, while the participation in the economy by graduated students will also improve. Institutions need transformation, reconstruction, revitalization, innovations, and relevance to the existing funding models. These will enhance the meeting of required projected targets of participation needed in the system. The need for monitoring projects and providing evidence of success is indispensable in order to be able to account. This becomes even more indispensable as South Africa was hit by the malice of corruption in both the public and private sectors, which led to the economy to be downgraded. This corruption also reared its ugly head in higher education institutions where there were rumours of qualifications, which were sold or were bought. Stringent measures need to be put in place to guard against such. Ethics courses should be immersed into curriculum transformation processes, to deliberately teach it in all programs at existing universities. Although literature indicates that the South African history, coupled with the economics of education as informed by the frameworks of neoliberalism, neoconservatism, and new managerial tendencies, seem to stagnant the dreams of pragmatic social justice, it is important to spark new hope. It is important to find continuous progressive voice and practices which will stand the test of time. These encouragements of opportunity provide noteworthy potential for the reformation of the social justice agenda along broadminded and autonomous lines (Tjabane and Pillay 2011). This is a significant thought for the construction of an all-inclusive and sensitive citizenry, who do not either blame everything on racism, apartheid, and colonialism or use the past to discriminate against others and undermine them while excluding them from the social justice agenda. These should be people living in South Africa, from all race groups, from all backgrounds, within a common space, who use and understand the past as a catalyst of the present and as a springboard for the future while planning that future with a possibility not to repeat the mistakes of the past.
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Cross-References
▶ Education and Training Policies in South Africa and the BRICS Countries ▶ Faculty Views of Adaptive E-learning in a South African University ▶ Issues of Social Justice and Colonialism in the Education Systems of Africa ▶ The Contemporary State of Education in South Africa
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Mediation as the Management Strategy for Policy Implementation Prospects for Religion-in-Education Policy Maitumeleng A. Nthontho
Contents 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 2 Theoretical Worldview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 3 History of Religion Education in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 4 Religion-in-Education Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 5 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 6 Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 7 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 8 Policy Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 9 Learner Admission and Educator Appointment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 10 Teaching About Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 11 Religious Observances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 12 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Abstract
Debates with regard to the implementation of religion-in-education policy have become a worldwide phenomenon. An increasing number of costly and protracted court and legislative battles between schools and parents over religion in schools are being reported. The aim of this chapter is to highlight some of the school management issues surrounding the implementation of religion-in-education policy in some selected South African schools. Based on mediation theory, individual interviews were used to gather data from 12 purposively selected school principals on how they implement the religion-in-education policy in their respective schools. The findings show that despite their legislated position in education, schools remain unconstitutional and ignore such policy. It was also found that when confronted by tensions and dilemmas, principals in this study M. A. Nthontho (*) Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 K. S. Adeyemo (ed.), The Education Systems of Africa, Global Education Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44217-0_4
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avoid them by either ignoring them completely or partially subcontracting into the policy directives. The implications of the findings are discussed. Keywords
Conflict in schools · Conflict management strategy · Mediation · Policy implimentation · Religion in education policy · South Africa
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Introduction
The implementation of democratic policies poses serious challenges for school principals, especially in terms of their management role (Hallinger 2010). Key among these is the challenge of interpreting and translating national and provincial policies into school policies. Given the different interests and literacy levels of relevant stakeholder groupings, interpretations, and translations are bound to differ, and, without proper leadership, conflicts generated by these differences end up in courts of law. The case of the religion policy for schools in South Africa is evidence of this reality. Although the government had already realized the importance of developing a policy that specifically deals with religion in schools in 1994, it was not until 2003 that it released such a policy. The debates on religion in education have led to unfortunate and tense clashes. In fact, there have already been numerous court cases in which the way the school governing bodies deal with religion in schools was contested (cf. Mfolo and others v Minister of Education, Bophuthatswana 1994 (1) BCLR 136 (B); Christian Education SA v Ministry of Education 2000 (4) SA 757 (CC); 2000 (10) BCLR 1051 (CESA); Danielle Antonie v Governing Body, The Settlers High School and Head of Western Cape Education Department 2002 (4) SA 738; MEC for Education: KwaZulu-Natal v Navaneethum Pillay 2008 (1) SA 474 (CC). As a result, many schools have been faced with lawsuits for violating the religious rights of both learners and staff by refusing to accommodate their religious beliefs and practices in organized school religious observances. The fines, which are costly to the school, could include back pay, job reinstatement, overtime tutoring, and other costs. In contexts like these, where conflict is more than likely, it would be up to school principals to ensure that relations between the various parties are cordial and constructive. In order to build such relations effectively, the principal should first transform the quality of his own intrapersonal interactions and then do the same with those of stakeholder groupings. In other words, it is up to the principal to manage any intra- or interpersonal conflicts that may hinder or impede democratic policy implementation. “What transforms education, is a transformed being in the world” (Palmer 1998). This chapter would argue that one way of affecting such transformation is through mediation which, although already a familiar practice in the field of labor, is as yet underdeveloped in fields like education.
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Theoretical Worldview
Grounded in the mediation theory of Bush and Folger (1994, 2005), the chapter argues that mediation as a management strategy has the potential for dealing with conflict in schools. Bush and Folger (1994) define mediation as a process in which a third party works with conflicting parties to help them change the quality of their interaction from negative and destructive to positive and constructive. From an education management perspective, this implies that the principal, being “an insider,” negotiates with various interest groups to try and reconcile differences and to find a way in which the implementation of the religion-in-education policy acknowledges the legitimate position of the school and appreciates the diverse religious interests of various stakeholders. The reviewed literature demonstrates that mediation could serve two very different purposes, namely, problem-solving and transformative. In problem-solving mediation, the mediator’s task is outcomes-oriented, viewing the process itself in instrumental terms. The mediators first help disputants to focus on their interests and then to identify possible solutions to the problem. Their activities typically include “shaping the definition of the problem into a tangible problem to be solved,” discarding any issues raised by disputants if they cannot be treated as tangible problems, and proceeding toward a particular solution (Noce 1999; Bush and Folger 1994). Applying this approach to the context of the South African school governing body (SGB), Mestry (2006) and others (Naidoo 2005; Xaba 2011) found that selfabsorption and its concomitant emotions are part and parcel of many school governance conflicts. Numerous instances have been cited where principals and educators blame the ineffective execution of SGB functions on parents’ low levels of education, parents blaming educators for undermining their efforts and looking down on them because of their so-called illiteracy, and educators blaming principals for being undemocratic and influencing parent members of the SGBs. The SGBs where conflicts like these occur are infused with social tension, rejection, domination, and psychological stress, emotions which could well lead to the isolation and exclusion of parents and learners from low socioeconomic status families (Harber and Mncube 2011; Heystek 2011). The second mediation approach, as described by Bush and Folger (1994), is transformative mediation. The primary purpose of this approach is the transformation of the opposing parties’ relationship with one another – usually from negative and destructive interaction to interaction that is positive and constructive. The latter kind of interaction is meant to benefit everybody concerned: disputants would derive personal, societal, and public benefits from such a transformation simply because the quality of their interaction would have changed (Bush and Folger 2005). Noce (1999) calls this kind of mediation “relational transformative mediation.” The transformative mediation approach tends to be process-oriented, with success being defined in terms of improvements in disputants’ personal clarity and interpersonal understanding (Bush and Folger 1994, 2005; Folger and Bush 1996;
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Noce 1999). The premise on which transformative mediation rests is that individuals in conflict should seek to improve the quality of their relationship with their opponents, first by seeking a better understanding of themselves and of the opposing party and then by creating shared meanings. Both parties must, however, strive for the same goals, namely, empowerment (growth in strength of self) and recognition (concern for others). Crucial to the success of this approach is the opponents’ realization that they first need to understand themselves before they attempt to understand others. Like any other transformative process, this takes time (Fullan 2007). The transformative mediator’s task is, therefore, not to seek resolution of the immediate problem but rather to foster opportunities for empowerment and recognition. In the South African education context, transformation and its mediation would therefore entail more than simply putting religion-in-education policy in place. It would require intensive action sustained over several years to transform – physically and attitudinally – the cultures of classrooms, schools, districts, and universities (Fullan 2007). Based on Fullan’s (2007) claim that change cannot be managed or controlled, merely understood and led, this chapter would like to argue that in transformative mediation the school principal is ideally situated within the SGB to perform the task of a transformative mediator, provided that he/she is well-trained in this strategy. The chapter bases its argument on the fact that, in his/her position as the head of the school, an ex officio member of the education department as well as an official member of the SGB, the school principal is in an ideal position to understand policy change in the way the school experiences it. Because of this, he/she stands a good chance to lead it in an amicable way.
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History of Religion Education in South Africa
After the National Party came into power in 1948, they deliberately advanced their ideology of Christian National Education (CNE) making it the official education policy in 1967. Actually, the CNE was the brainchild of General Jan Smuts, the head of the South African Party – the party that governed South Africa before the National Party came into power. The “Christian national education” taught in public schools did not only give preference to a particular Christian Protestant religious doctrine based on Calvinism but also to an ideology spawned from apartheid principles. Religious instruction classes served as opportunities for evangelism and the nurturing of Calvinist values and principles. Parent communities not in favor of this were denied the same opportunities to develop their own religious orientations and cultures (Mitchell 1993). Bible education was taught in most of the state schools, and children attended such classes irrespective of whether they were Christians or not. Children were expected to accept Christian national education with its underpinning philosophies and assumptions. Sundays were observed as days of rest, and certain forms of entertainment were taboo on Sundays (Sooka 1993). Independent schools based on other religious orientations, while allowed, had to adhere to the apartheid policy of racial separation. Provision was made, however, for
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learners with a Muslim or Hindu religious orientation in public schools controlled by the House of Delegates. South Africa has never completely denied religious freedom and diversity. The wrongs perpetrated in this regard during the apartheid era could thus be described as a denial of equal freedom and treatment to the followers of religions other than Christianity rather than as a denial of religious freedom per se. Such unequal treatment implies a lack of respect for the full diversity of South Africa’s peoples and their beliefs and practices (Bilchitz 2011). This is illustrated by the fact that even though other religions were allowed permission to build temples and mosques, they were not allowed to provide their own religious instruction in public schools (Saayman 1993) for whites, which were under the control of the various provincial departments, or for blacks, under the control of the Department of Education and Training or the former Bantustans (Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda, and Ciskei). What is particularly notable is the intolerance against traditional African religions during colonialism and the use of deliberate strategies aimed at estranging people from their religious and cultural roots (Masondo 2011). For instance, engagement in traditional rituals, adherence to ancestor worship, consulting of traditional healers, animal sacrifices for special events, and honoring the spirits of the ancestors were marginalized (Masondo 2011) and/or frowned upon. Muslim, Jewish, Catholic, and Hindu communities had to establish their own religion-based private schools, many of which were in fact created within white, colored, and Indian communities (Saayman 1993). Because of this discrimination, religious freedom and the acknowledgement of religious pluralism did not manifest, or exist, at every level of South African society. In addition, because most religious groups seem to know little about the customs, beliefs, and rituals of others (Lubbe 1998), it is not surprising that groups with different religious orientations were, and still tend to be, suspicious and intolerant of those with different religious orientations (Kilian 1993). Grounded from these discussions, there is no doubt that religion became a tool to divide the South African society. After 1994, displacement, refugee movements, and the migration of people due to political, economic, and/or religious reasons have increased the pluralist nature of South African society. By implication, it is no longer that easy for South Africans to uphold their traditions, customs, and beliefs in isolation from others. However, while some could influence other’s beliefs, their life orientations, and the like, are not dependent on others for what they believe. Neighbors, groups, communities, and nations are interdependent and interrelated, and, locally as well as elsewhere, we form part of majorities and minorities simultaneously (Lubbe 1998). This interconnectedness of communities has resulted in religious diversity becoming a global feature, having become an accepted part of most nations, states, and communities of the world. The learner composition of schools all over the world, being mini-communities, is therefore also a mix of diverse cultures, languages, backgrounds, and religions (Amin et al. 1998). By implication, there is a need for an educated citizenry that consists not only of lifelong learners but also of individuals and groups that are able
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and willing to live and work in contexts characterized by diversity (Fullan 2007). South Africa is no exception: since 1994, she has begun to move toward secularism, with the state remaining neutral in terms of religious preference. Striving for unity in diversity, the post-1994 government decided that it was necessary to treat all religions equally, also in education, and that learners should be taught to respect religious diversity in their interaction with others, and this consensus resulted in the introduction of the National Policy on Religion and Education of 2003. It is therefore the intention of the following section to uncover how this process unfolded.
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Religion-in-Education Policy
Prior to and post its first democratic elections, the ANC government was faced with the challenge of rethinking and restructuring institutions of the previous era (Du Toit and Kruger 1998). A whole plethora of legislation and policies was therefore developed for the purposes of reforming the apartheid state into a liberal democracy. These include (a) the South African Constitution of 1996, the South African Schools Act of 1996, and the National Policy on Religion and Education of 2003 (thereafter referred to as religion-in-education policy), aimed at removing “enforced Christian education from public schools” (Dreyer 2007). According to section 7(2) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, the state must respect, protect, promote and fulfill the rights entrenched in the Bill of Rights (RSA 1996a). Through its policies, the state therefore has to display respect for religious diversity, protect the religious rights of individuals, promote the rights that will afford people the freedom to practice their own religious orientation, and fulfill its constitutional responsibilities. In accordance with Article 2(1) of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), Article 2(2) of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1979), and Article 2 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (2015) as three of the international instruments, section 9(5) of the Constitution further prohibits unfair discrimination on the grounds of, among other things, religion and, by so doing, enforces respect for and protection of the most basic constitutional values of equality and human dignity. Section 15(1) of the Constitution provides that “[e]veryone has the right to freedom of conscience, religion, thought, belief and opinion.” This right overlaps with Article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (2015). Section15 (2) of the Constitution points out that religious observances may be conducted at state or state-aided institutions, provided that (a) those observances follow rules made by the appropriate public authorities; (b) they are conducted in an equitable manner; and (c) the attendance at them is free and voluntary (RSA 1996a). Section 16(2) (c) of the Constitution further extends respect and protection of the right to freedom of religion, reassuring everyone that they have “the right to freedom of expression,” although indicating that such a right may be “limited” if it extends to advocacy of hatred based on race, ethnicity, gender, or religion. These provisions underscore the state’s commitment to respect for religious rights but within certain limits. In accordance with the foregoing provisions, the state is under an obligation to
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establish a society based on democracy and equal citizenship and to ensure that the fundamental rights and freedoms of all South Africans are protected. It is worth noting at this stage that schools as organs of state are in no way excluded from the obligations outlined above. In other words, if the Constitution states that the state must provide the right to freedom of conscience, religion, thought, belief, and opinion (s 15[1]) and that religious observances may be conducted at state or state-aided institutions (s 15[2]), this right must be provided through schools. Thus, as legal persons, public schools become institutions to fulfill the mandate of equipping learners with knowledge of religion, morality, values, and diversity. In other words, schools automatically become “legal persons.” In their legal status, schools have the option to use religion education to reinforce and/or reaffirm constitutional values like diversity, tolerance, respect, justice, compassion, and commitment in young South Africans. It is also their mandate to create opportunities for learners to examine, critically and creatively, the moral codes embedded in all religions, as well as their own religion and that of others through religion education (Amin et al. 1998). In so doing, they facilitate access to a wide range of political, social, and economic rights. These include among others the right to freedom of religion, belief, and opinion as well as the right to freedom of expression and association. In order for them to fulfill their mandate, schools have been provided with a legal framework to guide them, and this gave birth to the South African Schools Act of 1996 (RSA 1996b). The South African Schools Act of 1996 is one piece of legislation that makes room for religious rights to be enjoyed. Notably, one of the primary aims of the Constitution is to establish a representative democracy, supplemented by direct and participatory governance – that is, a democracy in which the people participate not only in governance decisions that affect them but also when they are asked to make decisions on other matters (s 1). In compliance with the Constitution, section 23(1) of the South African Schools Act makes provision for the creation of the democratic structures and participatory processes by means of which stakeholder representatives (parents, educators, non-educators, learners in secondary schools, and even the state, as represented by the principal) can become members of SGBs (RSA 1996b). Section 16(1) of the same Act divides the mandate between stakeholder groupings. The Act stipulates that, “subject to the Act, the governance of every public school is vested in its governing body and it may perform only such functions and obligations as specified in the Act.” The Act categorically allocates the professional management of the public school to the principal, who is accountable to the provincial Head of Department (s 16[3]). Thus, the 1996 Schools Act grants schools and their constituent communities a significant say in decision-making and also devolves power to stakeholders, who can now participate in the “democratic governance” of schools (Naidoo 2005). In the same way that the company has a “board of directors” as the brains through which it can act, the governing body of the school acts as the brain of the school. It is within this framework that section 7 of the South African Schools Act delegates authority to the SGB to issue the rules that will govern and manage religious observances at schools.
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It should be noted, however, that the position of schools as state-aided institutions does not give the state the liberty to limit the rights of individuals or groups within the school in an unjust manner. Nor does it afford the school unrestricted freedom to determine a religious policy for itself since this may result in the development and adoption of discriminatory policies. The state must therefore, in assigning certain functions to SGBs in terms of how they want to deal with religion, provide them with guidelines and/or spell out the parameters within which they may do so (RSA 1996). At this juncture it is important to mention that apart from the stipulations outlined earlier on, the 1996 Schools Act does not deal with religion in education, religion education, or religious instruction in proper detail. For instance, the Act does not specify how schools should respect, protect, promote, and fulfill the rights contemplated in sections 15(1) and 31(1) of the Constitution. Nor does it define “religious observances,” thus leaving the door open to schools (legal person) and their SGBs (their brains) to give meaningful content to the standards entrenched in national legislation, the Constitution, and international human rights instruments. Section 20(2) of the Act does, however, indicate that SGBs “may allow the reasonable use of the facilities of the school for community, social and school fund-raising purposes, subject to such reasonable and equitable conditions as the governing body may determine which may include the charging of a fee or tariff which accrues to the school.” Paragraph 58 of the religion-in-education policy rubber-stamps the Constitution and the Schools Act by stipulating that the governing bodies of public schools may make their facilities available for religious observances provided that this is also done on equitable basis. The policy also gives the SGB the power to determine the nature and content of religious observances for educators and learners (DoE 2003). One could argue that these stipulations open the door for the use of school facilities by religious organizations for religious purposes and that in terms of these provisions every school, as a juristic person, has the legal capacity to perform its functions in terms of the Act (s 7). The question then remains: do schools through their governing bodies of which the school principal is the member interpret and understand their role as legal persons and implementers of legislations and policies discussed above?
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Methodology
The study followed a qualitative research approach in which it explored the way in which school principals mediate religion education in their schools. Individual interviews were used to solicit information from the school principals regarding their experiences in implementing the religion policy in their schools (Saldaña 2015). Due to the limited work done on the phenomenon described above, the study employed a phenomenological research design, which has seldom been used to study the experiences that influence principals’ thoughts, actions, and choices of strategies when implementing democratic policies such as that of religion (Grey 2014).
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The study employed purposive sampling. School principals, who were postgraduate students at the University of Pretoria, were purposefully selected as research participants (McMillan and Schumacher 2014). The main reason for choosing this sampling technique was to avoid generalized findings. These principals participated in their private capacity, not as spokespersons of specific schools. That is, they narrated their stories as they had experienced the implementation of religion-ineducation policy, not as per the expectations of their departments of education. When the fieldwork for this study took place, these school principals were (a) engaged in leadership and management training at postgraduate level; (b) had been in education for at least 15 years; (c) had been exposed to various religion-in-education policies; and (d) were from various religious orientations, language, and cultural groupings. School principals who were postgraduate students at the University of Pretoria, who met the above criteria, and who were willing to participate were invited to do so. Twelve principals became the sample for the study. The sample comprised school principals from Gauteng, Limpopo, Mpumalanga, and KwaZulu-Natal. Although they appeared to be from one region (Northern region), their leadership backgrounds and experiences were very different. Moreover, even though this was not the focus of the study, it would be of interest to the reader to note that the study was gender and racially balanced. Only three religions were represented, namely, Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity. Data were collected by means of narrative interviews, with the principals’ stories being recorded, transcribed, analyzed, and interpreted. Religious issues are usually debated and discussed at a sentimental level or are elevated to litigation through the courts, as stated in the introduction; thus, the subject is rarely explored scientifically. In contrast to this, the study made use of narrative inquiry to examine principals’ experiences of religion that were not clouded by emotion or sentiment. In doing so, the strategy enabled probing beyond what principals like or dislike about the religion-in-education policy (Farrell 2012). Data were collected over a period of 4 to 5 months. Approval to involve the principals/postgraduate students in the study was obtained from the Faculty of Education. Invitations were then directed to school principals who were willing to participate regardless of gender, province, historical origin, and the type of school (secondary or primary) in which they worked. Invitations were made in person or via email. Principals’ audio-recording interviews were transcribed and analyzed in terms of the categories initially identified (Babbie 2014). These included principals’ understanding of their mediating role in religion-in-education policy implementation. From this, themes such as policy development, learner admissions and educator appointment, teaching about religion, and religious observances emerged. The raw data (audio-recording interviews), interview transcripts, interview guides, and list of participants and their profiles, as well as the field notes, were audited throughout the study period to validate their accuracy and authenticity. In addition, transcriptions were sent to participants, asking them to correct errors of fact. This ensured that they and their ideas are accurately represented (Major and Savin-Baden 2010). Finally, the study went through the program called “Turnitin,” as per the university’s requirements, to ensure its originality.
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Findings
From the data presented in this study, it is evident that regardless of how explicit the laws and policies are in terms of religious rights, school principals regard a single-faith approach as the only way to deal with religion in education. They felt that by forcing schools to implement the policy, the government was interfering provocatively in the running of schools. One of the principals expressed the view that “forcing a different style, a different way of doing things, causes conflict which tolls the other school activities and we are not happy with the enforcement that is going on in our schools.” One of the principals reflected that “one of the completely strange things to me was the request that we had to release 35 Muslim children to leave for Mosque at 12:00 on Fridays.” This clearly indicates that most of the principals could not accommodate differences. It would therefore be difficult for them to lead the way in accommodating diverse religions in schools as required by legislation. It was mentioned earlier on that one of the values religion education is intended to promote is tolerance. This was, however, found not to be the case with the principals with a Christian orientation in this study. According to them, Christianity enables them to promote moral values and acceptable norms and principles to learners and staff. For this reason, they resist the religion-in-education policy arguing that it brings divisions into schools. On the other hand, principals with Hindu and Islamic orientations were not openly negative about the religion-in-education policy. To them, the greater equality between religions, at a policy level at least, would ensure that today’s children would be spared their negative experiences. The new policy would allow them to create a different type of environment for learners who attended their schools, an environment where free association was the norm. Indications from the data presented in this study are that most of the principals who participated in the study have ignored the religion-in-education policy. Consequently, Christian religious education is still dominant in most South African schools since it is the religion of the majority. Another conclusion, based on the same data, is that there are no signs of mediation in their actions. Put differently, principals in this study did not mediate the religion-in-education policy. Instead they resisted religion policy change and subcontracted into policy directives through compliance with legislative instructions only. Subcontracting in the context of this study refers to a strategy in which the school principal implements the intended policy changes according to the wishes of the Department of Education. This study found that a number of schools had adopted some of the clauses from the South African Constitution of 1996, South African Schools Act of 1996, and the national religion policy into their school policies, not necessarily with the intention of applying them in their daily school lives but to technically or administratively comply with the directives of departments of education. Muslim learners attending non-Muslim schools are, for instance, given time off to attend their religious ceremonies in school hours, but no extra time is allocated to helping them recover lost lessons. Compliance is therefore simply administrative. It could be inferred, therefore, that most of the principals do not understand (a) the aim behind the religion-in-education policy, (b) their mediation role in the implementation process, and, more importantly, (c) that schools as legal persons, through
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the SGB, the body of which they are members, are obliged to fulfill the rights and freedoms as stipulated in legislation and educational policies. The section that follows discusses the study findings.
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Discussion
The findings presented above clearly indicate that most of the principals in this study did not interpret or understand schools as juristic/legal persons with obligations to fulfill and that they act as the brains of such schools. Their misinterpretation and misunderstanding of legislation and educational policies manifested in areas such as policy development, learner admissions and educator appointment, and teaching about religion, as well as religious observances.
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Policy Development
One of the functions of an SGB, as stated in Section 20 of the Schools Act, is to develop and adopt school policies, including those pertaining to religion. In describing the way in which policies are developed and implemented in their schools, it is clear that the majority of the principals in this study subcontracted into the policy by becoming the appropriate authorities that crafted the religion policy of the schools. The study found that a number of schools adopted some of the clauses from the South African Constitution, the South African Schools Act, and the national religion policy into their school policies, not necessarily with the intention of applying them in their daily school lives but to technically or administratively comply with the directives of Departments of Education. In so doing some of these school principals took full ownership of the task of policy development, while others involved the school management team (SMT). Those that involved the SGB would agree with the decisions taken but would either practice the opposite or manipulate SGB elections with the intention to have people from the same faith in the majority. It is in terms of such practices that, in accordance with the Constitution and section 22(1) of the Schools Act, the participating principals adopted some clauses to their school policies and the SGB acted as a “rubber stamp” without any guarantee that such clauses would in fact be implemented. The implication is therefore that although the policy preaches a message of tolerance, in practice intolerance prevails. As indicated earlier, such practice not only makes conflict destructive but also increases or sharpens differences that lead to irresponsible and harmful behavior that in turn leads to litigation hence financial implications.
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Learner Admission and Educator Appointment
Principals in this study were aware of the religious changes that came about with the Constitution post-1994. Some of the changes they mentioned were that no learners may be refused admission to a school on religious grounds. Similarly, religion is not
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a ground for an educator to be denied appointment. On the basis of these changes, some principals in the study who grew up in the Hindu and Islamic faiths were appointed to Christian-oriented schools despite being non-Christians. However, religious intolerance still prevails in this regard. The majority of the schools led by the principals in this study still describe themselves as having a Christian character during the admission and appointment processes. The case in point is Glenstantia Primary who approved a new policy on religion in 2012 (citing the Constitution, the religion-in-education policy, and other documents as references) (Rousseau 2013b). The SGB of this school decided that “Glenstantia Primary shall be a Christian based school.” In so doing, this created an impression of bias rather than neutrality toward not only religion but, more importantly, a specific religion. Statements such as these are contraventions of section 15 of the Constitution, as well as the Schools Act, both of which allow for religious expression but only on an “equitable basis.” Although the principals in this study allay parents’ and appointees’ fears by telling them that they should feel free to invite their religious leaders to come and address learners as part of their different religious observances, this study doubts that the manner in which these conversations take place leave room for either debates or objections. The parent or educator concerned either obeyed or forfeited the space. Their silence, however, does not go unnoticed. In 2014, an Organisation for Religious Education and Democracy (OGOD) filed an application in the Gauteng High Court seeking to prohibit six public schools from advertising themselves as exclusively “Christian” or as having a “Christian ethos” (Thamm 2014). The organization actually aims to broaden the experience of religious and spiritual instruction in public schools, in keeping with the country’s Constitution and other policies. It is important to mention that on Wednesday June 27, the High Court in Johannesburg condemned such practices by schools stating that no public school may promote a single religion to the exclusion of others. Financial and emotional implications are therefore obvious in court cases of this nature. Learning from the fact that principals in this study are a product of the schools they were exposed to, for instance, one religion only, it would be very difficult for them to change their perceptions of and attitudes toward people of other religions (Ferguson and Roux 2003). Because of this, their right to make decisions on religious matters in schools, including decisions on morning devotions, was seldom if ever questioned. Hence, stakeholder groupings had no say in this regard. Although, for example, records are kept with regard to the religions that are represented in a school, nowhere in school practices or processes is such information effectively utilized. This then leaves this study to conclude that the participating principals do not understand their role in fulfilling the right to religious freedom even for those in the minority.
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Teaching About Religion
The principals’ narratives indicated that educators in their schools did not give religion education the attention it required. One reason for this was their ignorance of other religions: all they knew was, for example, Christianity. It is, however,
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pertinent to note that there are principals in this study who admitted that in every religion there is something good. Even so, challenges remain. For instance, an educator of Muslim origin may not be able to teach about Christianity and vice versa. Thus, although these principals had a positive outlook on differences, they would not be able to help transform the teaching and learning of religion education in their schools. In this manner, they did not comply with the two laws and the policy. The second group of principals – those who admitted that each religion is worth learning about – went further and played their leadership role. They either secured support material/resources and/or staff development opportunities. In so doing, these principals demonstrated understanding of their role to promote the religious “other” in schools. The third and last group of principals – those who ignored the behavior of educators toward the teaching of religion education – admitted that they were having difficulty imagining the teaching of religions different from theirs. Many expressed doubts about any “good” coming out of other religions, hence their reluctance to have learners educated in these religions. Presumably, it is attitudes like these that have promoted denominationalism, hatred, and disunity between different religious groups. Research also suggests that such attitudes might lead to a denunciation of some of the religious beliefs and practices and by so doing destroy even the good that prevails in South Africa and elsewhere (Frankema 2012). Attitudes such as these are a clear indication that some principals are not clear about what is expected of them – protection, promotion, respect, and fulfillment of the “right to basic education.” Failure of schools to comply with these principles has serious financial implication.
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Religious Observances
The principals’ narratives revealed that morning devotions continued in the Christian way, while other minority religions were marginalized. In some schools, learners and educators subscribing to other religions were not allowed to observe their religions, either in terms of dress code or in terms of worship. In some cases, classrooms were provided for the use of minority groups. Muslims were on occasion released to go to mosque on Fridays. The majority of the principals who participated in the study interpreted that permitting, for instance, Muslim learners to go to mosque without considering their lost time or sparing them a classroom was in a way conducting religious observances on an equitable basis as well as availing their facilities for such observances. It is, however, important to bring to light that although these learners are granted permission, some school principals in this study regard these as special demands, or privileges, claimed by Muslim children and that they are potentially undermining school discipline and/or complicating school management. As a result, lost teaching time is never recovered, and learners simply have to catch up on their own. The implication is that the religious observances of the majority dominate and religious intolerance, inequalities, social injustice, and unfair discrimination are still the order of the day. Alston, Van Staden, and Pretorius (2003) cite an incident where a learner was intercepted because she was dressed in Muslim attire. In response to this, the father
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instituted action against the school via the KwaZulu-Natal Education Department, which informed the school that it could not refuse the girl admission. While the school engaged legal counsel, the girl attended school in Muslim attire. In the following academic year, the same parent enrolled a second daughter to start in Grade 8 the following year. As a matter of principle, he signed the code of conduct again but crossed out references to the dress code. His second daughter was subsequently refused admission to the school. Finally, the principal was given an ultimatum by the provincial department of education to accept the child and to allow her to wear her Muslim dress or to face removal from his post (Alston et al. 2003). In a similar case, two children were sent home from Eben Dönges, a high school in the Western Cape, for wearing religious headgear (Rousseau 2013a). Sakeenah Dramat (16) was asked to remove her hijab, and her brother Bilaal (13) was asked to remove his fez, and they were told that they could not come back wearing their respective headgear. This was on the first day of the new term, and the learners were only able to return to school a week later, after the Western Cape Educational Department intervened. Based on court cases cited above, schools today, more than ever before, have become battlefields rather than legal persons. Tensions and dilemmas such as those discussed above do not only compromise the exercise of the right to freedom of religion, conscience, thought, and belief but also hinder the promotion of peace, stability, sustainable economic development, good governance, and poverty eradication which education is meant for (Mogoeng wa Mogoeng 2014).
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Conclusions
Based on the preceding discussion, it is clear that schools, through their SGBs, do not identify themselves as legal/juristic persons. Without this in mind, it becomes difficult for them to comply with the legislation and stipulations presented in this article. With reference to religion-in-education policy, religions other than their own are not observed in these principals’ schools. As a result, whatever is deemed necessary is done to ensure that the right to religion, conscience, opinion, and thought is not acknowledged or promoted on school premises. It is evident that tensions and dilemmas are inevitable when one or the other party feels marginalized. Because of the lack of knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes, these principals use whatever means they can to avoid existing religious conflicts in their schools. Some adapt a certain clause of the religion-in-education policy to the school policy in order for it to appear to be in line with what the department requires but then implement a different version altogether. These practices, however, lend schools in courts of laws where in most cases they lose and bear the costs. This chapter therefore recommends that universities offer a course on mediation, as a management strategy for handling disputes and solving problems in schools as it holds potential benefits for fields such as education.
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Assessment of Education Financing and Quality on Sustainable Development of Nigeria Oluwaseyi A. Adelowokan and S. A. Ajibowo
Contents 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Stylized Fact on Educational Quality and Sustainable Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Estimation Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Result and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Unit Root Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Co-integration Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Short-Run Coefficients and Error Correction Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Abstract
This study assesses the impact of education financing and quality on sustainable development from 1990 to 2016. The study employs error correction modeling and fully modified ordinary least square. The short-run result shows that school enrollment inversely affects human capital development while public expenditure on education posits a positive effect on human capital development. However, none of the school enrollment and public expenditure on education is significant enough to explain the human capital development in the short run. The long-run result shows that both school enrollment and public expenditure on education have a positive effect on sustainable development in Nigeria. However, only school enrollment is significant enough to drive human capital development in Nigeria; public expenditure on education is not statistically significant to human O. A. Adelowokan (*) Department of Economics, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State, Nigeria e-mail: [email protected] S. A. Ajibowo Glob-Afrique Research Consultancy, Ijebu Ode, Ogun State, Nigeria e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 K. S. Adeyemo (ed.), The Education Systems of Africa, Global Education Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44217-0_5
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capital development. The explanatory power of the model explained that approximately 91.5% of the total variations in the human capital development are explained by school enrollment and public expenditure on education. The study recommended that there is a need for the private investors to adequately and conscientiously fund education sector in the light of weak and sluggish trend of public expenditure on education in Nigeria. This effective collaboration between the government and private sector is considered indispensable for the development of education sector in particular and the development purposes in Nigeria in general. Keywords
Sustainable development · Education quality · Education financing
1
Introduction
From time immemorial, researchers have been adherent about the relationship between education and development. Indeed, scholars from immemorial have affirmed the dictums enunciated in the phrases, “As is the state, so is the school,” and “what you want in the state, you must put into the school” (Akinsanya 2004). The fact is that there is no contention for the statement that education is the sure way to sustainably develop any society. Itari and Ugbe (2018) draw concentration on education as the process of imparting and acquiring knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, and experiences in institutions of learning, while living, at work or play. The skills so acquired are subsequently applied to sustain present and future generations in their everyday life. It is the proper nurturing, transmission, and application of such skills and knowledge that guarantee the development and sustenance of the society (Abiodun 2002). Achieving the concept of sustainable development had over the years become very difficult especially to Nigeria and other emerging economies. In an attempt to achieve sustainable development, Nigeria particularly has launched several strategies such as poverty reduction strategies by governments at different times and at all levels, all aimed at economic growth, human development, and environmental protection and conservation. More so, there have been an increased number of sustainable development initiative programs being implemented across Nigeria and beyond. These initiatives manifested in the initiative of National Poverty Eradication Programme (NAPEP), Youth Empowerment Schemes (YES), Rural Infrastructure Development Fund scheme, STW scheme, social welfare service schemes, and recent N-Power scheme. Concurrently, the issue of sustainable development in Nigeria education is being addressed through the increase in financing education, curriculum innovations, and curriculum offerings. School curriculum has been diversified to include courses that are predisposing to development issues (Osuji 2004). In spite of these efforts shown by several governments in Nigeria, there is a growing perception that Nigeria could fail in achieving sustainable
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development. As observed by Osie-Kojo and Ahenkan (2014), this perception is fueled by the evidence that while the world is undergoing rapid change, which is driven predominantly by technology, education, civilization, and globalization, Nigeria remains backward, exploited, and uneducated. Though severe cuts in public spending following the recession have affected government services nationwide and in education sector, the situation has exacerbated existing problems. Student protests and strikes have rocked Nigerian universities for years and are a symptom of a severely underfunded higher education system. Austerity measures adopted by the Nigerian government in the wake of the current crisis further slashed education budgets. Several issues in the financing of education in Nigeria are embedded in the virtually endemic problems of fiscal federalism in particular, the so-called vertical and horizontal fiscal imbalances. Additionally, the continued escalating poverty and diminishing capacity of governments and the environment to meet the current and future needs of the citizens are also reasons why Nigeria has failed to achieve sustainable development. This chapter therefore reviews the role of education in promoting economic well-being, with a particular focus on the role of educational quality and public financing.
2
Literature Review
The contribution of education in any country varies with variation in the level of development. Some of the previous studies find that the effect of education on any economic development/growth is higher in less developed countries than OECD countries. Education has been addressed extensively in a number of studies due to its importance in economic status. Ugoh (2008) describes sustainable development as a construct, which envisions development as meeting the need of the present generation without compromising the needs of the future generation. It implies that while education meets the need of the present, it does not compromise the ability of the future generations to meet own needs. Nevertheless, this ability to meet the needs is determined by human capital (through education) and through physical capital (machine, tool, etc.). Ugoh (2008) argues that continued sustainable development is only possible or assured when it is agreed and indeed concrete steps are taken to raise the level of literacy and numeracy in any society. Educational institutions and their programs are, therefore, the tools with which to achieve development and its sustainability. Education for sustainable development is a lifelong process that leads to an informed and involved citizenry having the creative problem-solving skills, scientific and social literacy, and commitment to engage in responsible individual and cooperative actions (Nnabuo and Asodike, 2012). According to Itari and Ugbe (2018), education for sustainable development in Nigeria in recent times has been a paradigm shift in defining development and the way it is practiced. They addressed that this paradigm shift is what has resulted in the adoption of sustainable development as a concept. All over Nigeria, there are rumors and evidences of failed leadership characterized by dwindling educational, economic, social, and political fortunes. All these problems are results of the inability
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of the leadership to plan successfully for development using appropriate educational tools. It is the opinion here that education for sustainable development (ESD) can function to educate, train, and undertake research to contribute to the sustainable development of the Nigerian society. For instance, the UK Panel for Education for Sustainable Development (1998) envisages that such education can provide the citizens with skills, perspectives, values, and knowledge to live sustainably in their communities. It can also produce leaders who manage the affairs of government and private sector industries to constitute the stakeholders of sustainable development. There is both significant theoretical and empirical basis for the assertion that human capital and education in particular are essential for both economic growth and development (Power and Sophister 2008); numerous models of economic growth include human capital as an important explanatory variable in the achievement of economic growth. Most notably endogenous growth theory asserts that investment in human capital will significantly contribute to economic growth and indeed foster development (Schneider et al. 2011). Furthermore, Mankiw et al. (1992) demonstrate that an augmented Solow model of economic growth that includes human capital is superior in its predictive power of growth. Similarly, Jones asserts that extending the original Solow model to include the investment of resources in skills accumulation, as well as in physical capital, is superior in explaining variation in wealth across countries (Jones 2002). The effect of human capital upon aggregate income and development can thus be seen to be of “central importance” to policymakers and economists when considering the essential nature of human capital in development outcomes (Acemoglu and Dell 2010). Several studies have since found very similar results. Early contribution by Hanushek and Kimko (2000) using data from 1970 to 1971 from 17 countries shows that education has no significant effect on growth. In similar trends but more encompassing set of international tests, Barro (2001) finds that, while both the quantity and the quality of education matter for economic growth, quality is much more important. Employing the quality measure developed by Hanushek and Kimko (2000) in a development accounting framework, Wößmann (2003) finds that the share of cross-country variation in levels of economic development attributable to international differences in human capital rises dramatically when the quality of education is taken into account. More so, Jamison et al. (2007) use the panel structure data to assess whether the mechanism by which education quality appears to improve per capita income levels is through shifting the level of the production function through increasing the impact of an additional year of education or through increasing a country’s rate of technological progress. Mortality rates complement income levels as indicators of national well-being show that improved education quality increases the rate of decline in infant mortality. Throughout the analysis, the study finds a stronger impact of education quality and of years of schooling in open than in closed economies. Hanushek and Wößmann (2007) paper reviews the role of education in promoting economic well-being, with a particular focus on the role of educational quality. It concludes that there is strong evidence that the cognitive skills of the populationrather than mere school attainment are powerfully related to individual earnings, to
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the distribution of income, and to economic growth. In the same vein, Hanushek and Woessmann (2010) further reviews the economic literature on international differences in educational achievement, restricting itself to comparative analyses that are not possible within single countries and placing particular emphasis on studies trying to address key issues of empirical identification. While quantitative input measures show little impact, several measures of institutional structures and of the quality of the teaching force account for significant portions of the immense international differences in the level and equity of student achievement. Variations in skills measured by the international achievement tests are in turn strongly related to individual labor-market outcomes and, perhaps more importantly, to cross-country variations in economic growth. New empirical results show the importance of both minimal and high-level skills, the complementarity of skills, and the quality of economic institutions and the robustness of the relationship between skills and growth. Ali and Jabeen (2015) deliberations on the issue of education and economic growth in Pakistan reveal the significance of education in the improvement of economic condition by disseminating quality education. The observations gathered by developing countries reveal that education greatly influences economic development. The work chiefly aimed at identifying share the key macroeconomic variables contributed toward the growth of Pakistan’s economy during the periods from 1973 to 2013. Particular emphasis was laid down on four cardinal education levels specifically speaking preliminary school enrollment (PSE), middle school enrollment (MSE), higher school enrollment (HSE), and allied educational institute enrollment playing instrumental roles in aggregate output. Several variables determine basic health units (BHUs) as fundamental macroeconomics variables. It has been derived that the psychological behavior of individuals emerges as a chief driving force for financial development instead of ordinary school fulfillment, individual income, and circulation of salary. The required size of progress makes it clear that end to the financial hole with mechanical nations will force major basic changes in educational organizations. Odit et al. (2010) focused on the impact of investment in education on economic growth in Mauritius. It explores the extent to which the education level of the Mauritian labor force affects its economic growth that is its output level. Using the Cobb-Douglas production function with constant returns to scale where human capital is treated as an independent factor of production in the human capital augmented growth model reveals that human capital plays an important role in economic growth mainly as an engine for improvement of the output level. The study shows that there is compelling evidence that human capital increases productivity, suggesting that education really is productivity-enhancing rather than just a device that individuals use to signal their level of ability to the employer. Khan (2012) concentrates on the contribution of education to economic growth of Pakistan during 1971–2008. The study uses ordinary least squares (OLS) and the Johansen co-integration test as analytical techniques for this purpose. The results from OLS show that secondary education contributes significantly to the real GDP per capita in Pakistan. The elementary education also positively affects economic
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growth, but the result is statistically insignificant. The co-integration test results confirmed the existence of a long-run relationship in education and real GDP per capita. It is, therefore, suggested to keep education on top priority in public policies, make serious efforts for universalization of primary education, and discourage the drop-out rate at all levels of education to achieve sustained economic growth. Hanif and Arshed (2016) on the relationship between school education and economic growth in SAARC countries use three proxies for the human capital for the case of SAARC countries to see whether a higher proxy has better marginal impact on the growth of the selected countries. The results for dynamic panel data models reveal that tertiary education enrollment has the highest impact on growth as compared to primary and secondary education enrollments. KobzevKotásková et al. (2018) introduce a unique insight along with contemporary evidence about the relationship between education and economic growth in India from 1975 to 2016 by focusing on primary, secondary, and tertiary levels of education. The relationships are examined by utilization of econometric estimations with the Granger causality method and the co-integration method. The findings of this work show that there is compelling evidence proving a positive connection between education levels and economic growth in India which might influence governmental actions and shape the future of India. In Nigeria, Omojimite and Akpokodje (2010) examines the notion that formal education accelerates economic growth using Nigerian data for the periods 1980– 2005. Co-integration and Granger causality tests are applied to test the hypothesis of a growth strategy led by improvements in the education sector. The results show that there is co-integration between public expenditures on education, primary school enrollment, and economic growth. The tests revealed that public expenditures on education Granger cause economic growth, but the reverse is not the case. The tests also revealed that there is a bidirectional causality between public recurrent expenditures on education and economic growth. No causal relationship was established between capital expenditure on education and growth and primary school enrollment and economic growth. Okuneye and Adelowokan (2014) in their paper on the impact of tertiary enrollment on economic growth in Nigeria between 1980 and 2010 utilized the ordinary least square estimation techniques. The findings of the empirical investigation confirm that tertiary enrollment is a veritable tool through which appreciable economic growth can be enhanced in Nigeria. The study equally observed that tertiary enrollment exhibits a strong predictive power in explaining the variation in economic growth in Nigeria. On the links between government investment on human welfare and economic development, Adelowokan et al. (2018) investigated the contribution of public spending on education and health toward ensuring pro-poor growth and overall development of the Nigeria economy between 1986 and 2015. The study uses batteries of estimation techniques in place of fully modified ordinary least square, dynamics ordinary least square, and canonical co-integration regression. The finding shows that the public health spending gross investment and currency depreciation have a positive impact on the human welfare, but government expenditure on health
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was not significant at the conventional level. The result also indicated that the coefficient of public expenditure on education and labor is negative, indicating inverse effects on human development. However, both were not significant to human welfare development. In summary, school enrollment and public expenditure on education have not delivered fully on their promises as the drivers of economic success. Expanding school attainment, at the center of most development strategies, has not guaranteed better economic conditions. What’s been missing is attention to the quality of education ensuring sustainable development.
3
Stylized Fact on Educational Quality and Sustainable Development
There are recent concentrations on education quality attainment in the academic literature and how this quality in education can influence development. However, contrasts with much of the policy discussion that, even in the poorest areas, it involves elements of “quality” of schooling which cannot be under estimated (Hanushek and Wößmann 2007). Most countries are involved in policy debates about the improvement of their education. These debates are often phrased in terms of such things as teacher salaries, class sizes, and student-teacher ratio which rest on a presumption that there is a high rate of return to schools and to the economy at large. One of the four sub-Saharan people lives in Nigeria, making it Africa’s most populous country. It is the seventh most populous country in the world, one with ongoing growth. From an estimated 42.5 million people at the time of independence in 1960, Nigeria’s population has more than quadrupled to 186,988 million people in 2016 (UN 2018). The United Nations anticipates that Nigeria will become the third largest country in the world by 2050 with 399 million people. Nigeria’s education system encompasses three different sectors: basic education (9 years), post-basic/ senior secondary education (3 years), and tertiary education (4–6 years, depending on the program of study). According to Nigeria’s latest National Policy on Education (2004), basic education covers 9 years of formal (compulsory) schooling consisting of 6 years of elementary and 3 years of junior secondary education. Post-basic education includes 3 years of senior secondary education. At the tertiary level, the system consists of a university sector and a non-university sector. The latter is composed of polytechnics, monotechnics, and colleges of education. The tertiary sector as a whole offers opportunities for undergraduate, graduate, and vocational and technical education. Looking more on the education quality in Nigeria, the education enrollment has considerably increases over the years. Gross education enrollment is the total enrollment, regardless of class and age, to the population of the age group that officially corresponds to the level of education. The education enrollment in Nigeria was reported at 16688736 in 1990, according to the World Bank (2018). The increasing trend in education enrollment in Nigeria continues as it increases to
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Table 1 Nigeria’s development and education quality indicators Years 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2016 2017 2018
Education enrollment 16688736 23388599 32287768 35734029 36279208 37692472 37611518 – –
Expected years of schooling 6.7 7.2 8.0 9.0 8.4 9.7 9.5 9.7 9.7
Mean years of schooling
5.2 5.2 6.2 6.3 6.5 6.5
GNI per capita (2011 PPP$) 3,221 2,872 2,828 3,819 4,793 5,540 5,336 5,203 5,086
HDI value 31.5 34.76 46.5 0.467 0.484 0.527 0.528 0.533 0.534
Source: Word Development Index, 2018
23388599 in the year 1995. Between 2000 and 2005, education enrollment has increases from 32287768 to 35734029. The total education school enrollment is projected to continue increasing as earlier shown and did not deviate; however, the increase was low compared to other years as education enrollment increases from 36279208 in the year 2010 to 37692472 in the year 2015. The subsequent year (2016) witnessed a little decrease in education enrollment to 37611518. Nigeria’s HDI value for 2018 is 0.534 which put the country in the low human development category positioning it at 158 out of 189 countries. Between 2005 and 2018, Nigeria’s HDI value increased from 0.467 to 0.534, an increase of 14.4% as indicated in Table 1. Table 1 also reviews Nigeria’s progress in each of the HDI indicators. Between 1990 and 2018, Nigeria’s mean years of schooling increased by 1.2 years, and expected years of schooling increased by 3.0 years. Nigeria’s GNI per capita increased by about 57.9% between 1990 and 2018.
4
Methodology
An ex post facto research design was employed. The researcher’s predisposition is to observe occurrence over a period of time. Ex post facto or “after the fact” design attempts to identify a natural impetus for specific outcomes without actually manipulating the independent variable (Onwumere 2005). The time series data was obtained from the Central Bank of Nigeria’s Statistical Bulletin (2016) and World Development Indicators (2018). The data cover the periods of 1990–2016 (27 years). The theoretical framework for this study is the augmented Solow model of Mankiw et al. (1992) that added human capital to the Solow growth model (1956). The Solow model takes the rate of saving, population growth, and technological progress as exogenous. There are two inputs, capital and labor, which are paid their marginal products. Assuming a Cobb-Douglas production function, so production at time t is given by Solow as
Assessment of Education Financing and Quality on Sustainable Development. . .
Y ðtÞ ¼ K ðtÞα H ðtÞβ ðAðtÞLðtÞÞ1α, thus, 0 < α < 1
111
ð1Þ
where Y is the output, K capital, H stock of human capital, L labor, and A level of technology. L and A are assumed to grow exogenously at rates n and g: The number of effective units of labor, A (t)L(t), grows at rate n + g. Thus, with the inclusion of human capital, the production function be restated as Y ðtÞ ¼ K ðtÞα H ðtÞβ ðAðtÞLðtÞÞ1αβ,
ð2Þ
where H is the stock of human capital. Let Sk be the fraction of income invested by the government in physical capital and Sh the fraction invested in human capital. The evolution of the economy is determined by kðtÞ ¼ Sk yðtÞ ðn þ g þ δÞkðtÞ,
ð3Þ
hðtÞ ¼ Sh yðtÞ ðn þ g þ δÞhðtÞ,
ð4Þ
where y ¼ Y/AL, k ¼ K/AL, and h ¼ H/AL are quantities per effective unit of labor based on the assumption that the same production function applies to human capital, physical capital, and consumption. In addition, it was assumed that human capital depreciates at the same rate as physical capital. Therefore, it was assumed that the two types of production functions are similar. Thus, they concluded that α + β 1, there are increasing returns to scale, while if α + β ¼ 1, then there are constant returns to scale in the reproducible factors, where k(t) and h(t) are re-written as. K ¼
S1β Sβh nþgþδ
h ¼
!1=ð1αβÞ
Sαh S1α h nþgþδ
ð5Þ 1=ð1αβÞ ð6Þ
Substituting Eqs. 5 and 6 into Eq. 2 and taking logs give an equation for income per capita as.
Y ðt Þ αβ α In Inðn þ g þ δÞ þ InðSk Þ ¼ In Að0Þ þ gt 1αβ 1αβ LðtÞ þ
β InðSh Þ 1αβ
ð7Þ
This equation shows how income per capita depends on population growth and accumulation of physical and human capital. The essence is to measure the effect of education financing and quality on sustainable development in Nigeria. The model specified for testing the effects of education financing and quality on sustainable development broadly consists of a regression equation with human capital
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development as the dependent variable and a set of independent variables such as school enrollment and public expenditure on education. In order to achieve the objective, the study follows the theoretical framework of the Solow growth model. Specifically, the equations specified for estimation are identified below: HCD ¼ Fð, SMER, PEE Þ
ð8Þ
where HCD is the human capital development, SERM is the school enrollment, and PEE is the public expenditure on education. Arising from Eq. 8, econometrically, the model is specified thus. HCDt ¼ β0 þ β1 SMERt þ β2 PEE t þ μt
ð9Þ
Thus, the measurements of the variables intended to be used are discussed below: Human capital development: A composite index measuring average achievement in three basic dimensions of human development: a long and healthy life, knowledge, and a decent standard of living. It is the proxy for sustainable development. School enrollment: The school enrollment includes the combination of primary school enrollment, secondary school enrollment, and tertiary school enrollment. Public expenditure on education: Public expenditure on education is measured in million naira.
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Estimation Technique
To estimate the objective of the study, error correction modeling and fully modified ordinary least square were employed. The fully modified ordinary least square (FMOLS) estimation of Philips and Hansen (1990) was employed in providing robustness to the ECM estimation as well as its suitability for estimating a longrun estimate of I (1) variables. The fully modified ordinary least square (FMOLS) was developed by Phillips and Hansen in 1990. Their option was for FMOLS to deal with endogeneity and serial correlation. FMOLS is a single equation estimator for co-integrated relationship. The method modifies least squares to account for serial correlation effects and for the endogeneity in the regressors that resulted from the existence of co-integrated relationship. In order to apply this model, all series in econometric time series studies must be stationary. Stationary series implies a constant mean, same variance with mean normally and independently distributed over time; otherwise, it is called a random walk or non-stationary series. The unit root test tests if a time series is non-stationary using an autoregressive model. The following model will be used to consider the unit root test: Y t ¼ Y t1 þ μt where μt is the stochastic error term that follows the classical assumption, namely, it has zero mean and constant variance and is non-autocorrelated. Such an error term is also known as a white noise error term.
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Result and Discussion
The study presents the analysis and discussion of findings on educational financing and quality on sustainable development in Nigeria. The descriptive statistics and subsequent estimation test were considered to ascertain the necessary conditions for modeling. Table 2 presents the descriptive statistics of the data for verification of the series characteristics. These data were human capital development (HCD) index, school enrollment (SERM), and public expenditure on education (PEE) between 1990 and 2016. The HCDI, SERM, and PEE posit a mean value of 42.69556, 31282610, and 123.7233 with a standard deviation of 7.41, 7135632, and 132.298, respectively. The value of the standard deviation depicts that there exists high variation around the data sets. The results also indicate that HCD, SERM, and PEE Jarque-Bera statistics shows normally distributed series in accordance with the probability of 0.27, 0.11, and 0.13 lying above 0.05. Table 3 presents the correlation matrix of the independent variables. The essence of the correlation matrix is to show the possibility of the existence of multicollinearity in the model. The result shows the correlation coefficient of 0.68 between SERM and PEE. Since the correlation coefficient between the SERM and PEE is moderate, this study concluded that the existence of multicollinearity issue in the model is minimal. Table 2 Descriptive statistics Observations Mean Median Maximum Minimum Std. dev. Skewness Kurtosis Jarque-Bera Probability
HCD 27 42.69556 44.30000 53.00000 31.50000 7.410530 0.085556 1.481965 2.625423 0.269089
SERM 27 31282610 35516545 37692472 16688736 7135632. 0.940556 2.340066 4.470861 0.106946
PEE 27 123.7233 76.53000 390.4200 0.290000 132.2988 0.895830 2.290271 4.177983 0.123812
Source: Author’s computation (2019), underlying data from Word Development Index, 2018 Note: HCDI, human capital development index; SERM, school enrollment; PEE, public expenditure on education
Table 3 Correlation matrix
SERM PEE
SERM 1 0.677212
PEE 1
Source: Author’s computation (2019), underlying data from Word Development Index, 2018 Note: HCDI, human capital development index; SERM, school enrollment; PEE, public expenditure on education
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Unit Root Test
The result of the unit root in augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) was presented in Table 4. The results indicated that the time series of HCD, SERM, and PEE are not stationary at level giving the t-statistics of 0.609, 2.937, and 0.609, respectively, and the critical value of 2.98 at 5% inference. This indicates that the series have unit root problem at level. However, at the first difference, the t-statistics of 3.70, 3.35, and 4.60 are higher than the critical value of 2.98. The result indicates that HCD, SERM, and PEE were integrated of order one. The conditions for testing for co-integration have been met. Hence, the application of error correction modeling is sufficient.
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Co-integration Test
Table 5 presents the unrestricted co-integration test using both the trace test and maximum-Eigen test. Given that the variables are integrated of order one, this study proceeds to examine the presence of co-integration among the human capital development, school enrollment, and public expenditure on education. To this end, the Johansen co-integration technique is utilized because the specified model is multivariate and also there is the possibility of having more than one co-integrating vector. As observed on Table 5, both the trace and maximum-Eigen statistics reject the null of no co-integration for r ¼ 0 at 5% critical value. Both the trace and maximum-Eigen estimates reveal one co-integration equation at 5% critical value. Therefore, trace and maximum-Eigen statistics rejected the null of no Table 4 Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) unit root Variable HCD SERM PEE
Level 0.609265** 2.937412 0.051014
First difference 3.698002** 3.352932** 4.596017**
Critical value 2.986225 2.986225 2.986225
Lag 2 2 2
Order of integration I (1) I (1) I (1)
Source: Author’s computation (2019), underlying data from Word Development Index, 2018 Note: HCDI, human capital development index; SERM, school enrollment; PEE, public expenditure on education Where *, **, and *** imply 10%, 5%, and 1% significance level Table 5 Unrestricted co-integration test Unrestricted co-integration rank test (trace) Null Alternative Trace No. of CE(s) Statistic r¼0 r1 37.93536** r1 r2 9.945182 r2 r3 3.461735
0.05 Critical value 29.79707 15.49471 3.841466
Where *, **, and *** imply 10%, 5%, and 1% significance level
Max-Eigen Statistic 27.99018** 6.483447 3.461735
0.05 Critical value 21.13162 14.26460 3.841466
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co-integration indicating the existence of one co-integration equation at 5% critical value. The implication of the co-integration results indicates that linear combinations of the variables were found to be stationary and co-integrated.
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Short-Run Coefficients and Error Correction Model
Table 6 presents the estimated coefficients of the dynamic effect and error correction model. The results of the assessment of financing and quality of education on sustainable development in Nigeria reveal that school enrollment with the coefficient of 2.64 reveals that about 2.64 decrease in human capital development as a result of a unit increase in school enrollment. Also public expenditure on education posits a positive effect of 0.006 increase in human capital development in response to an increase in public expenditure on education. However, none of the school enrollment and public expenditure on education are significant enough to explain the human capital development at 5% inference. The error correction model result shows that about 23.2% represents the speed at which the independent variables adjust annually as warranted by the error correction term (ECT) value of 0.232. The co-efficient of the ECT (1) conforms with theoretical exposition of the error correction modeling with the negative value and corresponding probability value of 0.01 which shows that the error correction term is significant at 5% inference. The value of the adjusted coefficient of determination of 0.36 is an indication that about 36% variation in human capital development are explained by school enrollment and public expenditure on education while about 64% are explained by external factors. The F-test which is the test of overall significance of the model indicates that by its value of 4.435 and the corresponding probability value of 0.009, it is statistically significant at 5% level. Therefore, the result of the individual Table 6 Estimated coefficients of the dynamic effect and error correction model Variables Coefficient Std. error Method: Error correction modeling D(HCD(1)) 0.137951 0.198809 D(SERM(1)) 2.64E-07 1.96E-07 D(PEE(1)) 0.005907 0.003690 C 0.871698 0.338872 ECT(1) 0.232064 0.081528 R-squared 0.470077 Adjusted R-Squared 0.364092 F-statistics 4.435328 (0.009956) Durbin Watson 1.684665
t-Statistics
P-value
0.693885 1.349221 1.600751 2.572355 2.846438
0.4957 0.1923 0.1251 0.0182 0.0100
Source: Author’s computation (2019), underlying data from Word Development Index, 2018 Note: HCDI, human capital development index; SERM, school enrollment; PEE, public expenditure on education Where *, **, and *** imply 10%, 5%, and 1% significance level
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Table 7 The effect of education financing and quality on sustainable development in Nigeria Dependent variable: HCD Method: Fully modified least squares (FMOLS) Variable Coefficient Std. error PEE 0.028486 0.015265 SERM 5.39E-07 1.05E-07 C 22.79907 2.981141 R-squared 0.921519 F-statistic Adjusted R-squared 0.914695 Chi-square Long-run variance 6.697310
t-statistic 1.866099 5.126853 7.647766 `
Prob. 0.0955 0.0000 0.0000 29.816*** 119.2644***
Source: Author’s computation (2019), underlying data from Word Development Index, 2018 Note: HCDI, human capital development index; SERM, school enrollment; PEE, public expenditure on education Where *, **, and *** imply 10%, 5%, and 1% significance level’
independent variables regressed against the dependent variables as shown below is reliable and is a true representation of the data used in the analysis. Table 7 presents the result of the long-run assessment effect of education financing and quality on sustainable development in Nigeria. The result shows that both school enrollment and public expenditure on education have a positive effect on sustainable development in Nigeria. The coefficient of SERM and PEE of 5.39 and 0.028, respectively, shows that a unit increase in SERM and PEE brings about an increase of 5.39 and 0.028 in human capital development in Nigeria. The individual significance also indicates that while SERM is significant to human capital development in Nigeria, PEE is statistically not significant at 1%, 5%, and 10% significance level. The explanatory power of the model explained that approximately 91.5% of the total variations in the human capital development are explained by school enrollment and public expenditure on education. This showed that the model had a high goodness of fit. The value of the F-statistic was statistically significant at 1%, 5%, and 10% level indicating that the model was statistically significant to explain human capital development in Nigeria. Summary, conclusion and recommendations This study assesses the impact of education financing and quality on sustainable development from 1990 to 2016. The study mainly discusses the short-run and long-run effects of the contribution of educational financing and quality on sustainable development in Nigeria. The study employs error correction modeling and fully modified ordinary least square. The short-run result shows that school enrollment inversely affects human capital development while public expenditure on education posits a positive effect on human capital development. However, none of the school enrollment and public expenditure on education is significant enough to explain the human capital development in the short run. The speed of adjustment shows about 23.2% at which the independent variables adjust annually. The long-run result shows that both school enrollment and public expenditure on education have a positive effect on human capital development in Nigeria. However, only school enrollment is significant enough to drive
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human capital development in Nigeria; public expenditure on education is not statistically significant to human capital development. The explanatory power of the model explained that approximately 91.5% of the total variations in the human capital development are explained by school enrollment and public expenditure on education. This study argued that financing in education is essential for development, largely by discussing the problems that occur as a result of suboptimal levels of education that are highly damaging to development, as well as some of the challenges facing effective educational provision in Nigeria, and the possible policy implementations to combat this. This study emphasized that a thorough look on the type of quality and level of financing on educational is necessary for development due to its positive effects on human capital development. The study concluded that school enrollment and public expenditure are positively related to sustainable development, whereas only school enrollment is significant enough to drive the development in Nigeria; the study recommended that the government should channeled more funds to the education sector in order to improve the service and efficiency of the sector by developing more talents and increase the contribution rate of educational investment to development. The study also recommended that there is need for the private investors to adequately and conscientiously fund the education sector in the light of weak and sluggish trend of public expenditure on education in Nigeria. This effective collaboration between the government and private sector is considered indispensable for the development of education sector in particular and the development purposes in Nigeria in general.
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Quality Education for Sustainable Development in Zimbabwean Higher Education Towards UNDP 2030 SDG George N. Shava
Contents 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quality and Sustainable Development in Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Key Theoretical Framework Concepts: Structure and Agency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Research Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Interplay of Structure and Agency in Constraining the Achievement of Agenda 2030 Global Goals in Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Selected Quotes from Participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Challenges Faced by Institutions to Implement Agenda 2030 Global Goals Specifically on Quality in Education (SDG4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Selected Quotes from Participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Stakeholders of Higher Education and Strengthening of the Integration of ESD . . . . . . . . 12 Selected Researcher’s Quotes on the Integration of ESD by Stakeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Support Mechanisms, Strategies, and Opportunities to Enhance the Achievement of ESD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Specific Quotes from Participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Discussion, Conclusion, and Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Abstract
The article explores the challenges and opportunities of achieving Agenda 2030 Global Goals on education for sustainable development in Zimbabwe higher G. N. Shava (*) Faculty of Education, Department of Education Management and Policy Studies South Africa, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa National University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology Education, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 K. S. Adeyemo (ed.), The Education Systems of Africa, Global Education Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44217-0_6
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education. The challenges posed by the need to provide for quality, sustainability, and development demand a renewed reflection on the nature and scope of the higher education systems in order to address current issues of education for sustainable development as stated by the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals which proposes that education for sustainable development (ESD) should be addressed at all levels of education. ESD allows every human being to acquire the knowledge to shape a sustainable future including key sustainable development issues into teaching and learning. The vision of Agenda 2030 is to transform lives through quality education, recognizing the important role of education as a main driver for development and achieving proposed Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and their vision which is fully captured by the proposed SDG4 “ Ensuring inclusive equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all.” The aim of the study is to explore the complexity of raising higher education quality drawing from the structure and agency theoretical view point to offer deeper insights into the role that agency and structures in higher education may play in achieving the vision of Agenda 2030. In essence the qualitative study provides possible measures for enhancing the achievement of Agenda 2030 Global Goals. Findings from the study pointed to the lack of integrated ESD in higher education professional standards and into curriculum. The study recommends the need to update higher education curriculum, pedagogy, and educational resources to address the twenty-first-century context of teaching and learning. Keywords
Agenda 2030 Global Goals · Higher education · Quality education · Teaching and learning · Transformation · Zimbabwe
1
Introduction
Since independence, successive Zimbabwean governments have made several attempts to address concerns about the quality, sustainability, and development since the concern for quality in higher education has been on the rise. The concern for quality and sustainability in higher education comes at a time of growing recognition of the potential powerful role of higher education as the engine for growth and as a natural response to scale up ESD Agenda 2030 Global Goals for sustainable development which was unanimously adopted in 2015 by all UN member states as a plan of action for people, planet, and prosperity (Boeren 2019). Education, research, and innovation are essential in sustainable development making higher education a key contributor to achieving ESD goals. Access to quality higher education is crucial for sustainable development and a prerequisite for the achievement of other goals. More recently, UNESCO (2017a) advocates for ESD to play an active role in all countries across the globe to empower all learners to take informed decisions and responsible actions for environmental integrity, economic viability, and a just society for present and future generations while respecting cultural
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diversity (Leitcht et al. 2018). The UN Sustainable Development Goals (Gabay 2015; UN 2015) are not the first set of goals designed to help nations work together to create a cleaner planet and more just global society. The Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG4) recommends for quality education for all which has deep roots in many international declarations like Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Convention on Rights of the Child, World Declaration on Education for All, Dakar Framework for Action, and Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) all considering quality in education as crucial for the well-being of individuals, nations, and the world (UNESCO 2005). Considering higher education as the key driver for Sustainable Development Goals, many international conferences were organized with the aim of bringing together global experience and expertise to highlight and strengthen the role of quality education in realizing the Sustainable Development Goals and recognizing education as a key enabler. The movement for quality in education and for enhanced international cooperation in education began in 1990 with the adoption of the World Declaration on Education for All (EFA) in Jomtien, Thailand, by nearly 150 governmental and nongovernmental organizations (Mohanty and Dash 2018). According to UNICEF (2017a), the goal was to create universal access to education for all children, youth, and adults by the end of the decade. In 2000 the movement was given a new impetus at the World Education Forum in Dakar (Gabay 2015; UN 2015) where 164 governments committed themselves to achieving six education goals for all integrating the concepts of gender, equality, and quality education. In the same year, the United Nations adopted the eight MDGs with Goal 2 aiming to achieve universal access to education by 2015, continuing the work of EFA. In 2016 the World Education Forum in Incheon, Republic of Korea, adopted the Incheon Declaration, which reaffirmed the commitment to Education for all in Jomtien and Dakar and is committed to implementing the New Education 2030 Global Agenda (WEF 2016). The key principles of SDG4, Education 2030 vision are lifelong learning, quality of education (“relevance and learning outcomes and equity and inclusion” (WEF 2016). SDG4 advocates to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all thus keeping the target that by 2030 all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development through education for sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, global citizenship, and promoting a culture of peace (WEF 2016). As highlighted in this article in 2016, a more ambitious new plan was launched known as the Incheon Declaration Agenda 2030 which increased the number of goals to 17 with goal number 4 emphasizing the achievement of quality education for all which was broken down into 10 targets. The reason for breaking down the targets (Boeren 2019; WEF 2016; UNESCO 2017b; WEF 2000 into different perspectives was to increase knowledge of underlying action that might help reach the targets. This article explores the challenges and opportunities of achieving Agenda 2030 Global Goals for sustainable development in Zimbabwe higher education. The aim is to explore the complexity of raising higher education quality drawing from the structure and agency theoretical view point (Giddens 1984; Bourdieu 1984; Bhaskar 2010, 2011) to offer deeper insights into the role that agency and structures in higher education may play in achieving the vision of Agenda 2030.
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The article opens with a brief literature review on quality and sustainable development in higher education with a specific focus on the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and Agenda 2030 which proposes that ESD should be included at all levels of education. This is followed by a discussion of the current global education issues of quality, sustainability, and development in higher education which is strongly oriented towards achieving vision 2030 (Boeren 2019). A separate section focuses on structure and agency approaches underlining their contribution to understanding educational change. Building further on this line of thought, I argue that, currently, the principles of quality and sustainable development are becoming increasingly important, and universities are acting as both structures and agency in promoting these principles within society; thus universities will inevitably play a crucial role in promulgating these principles and more so in achieving Agenda 2030. The literature review will be followed by a brief research methodology. This shall be followed by the research questions and findings of the study which are based on six research questions. The six questions were used in each interview to solicit participants’ views on challenges of achieving Agenda 2030 on education for sustainable development (ESD). Finally a discussion on Agenda 2030 together with conclusions and recommendations is provided.
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Quality and Sustainable Development in Higher Education
Education for sustainable development empowers (OAU 2015) learners to take informed decisions and responsible actions for environmental integrity, economic viability, and a just society, for present and future generations, while respecting cultural diversity. It is about lifelong learning and is an integral part of quality in education. Very recently (UNESCO 2017a), ESD is placed at the center of the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda and has been widely acknowledged as a key enabler of all 17 SDGs. ESD was a United Nations program that defined it as an education that encourage changes in knowledge, skills values, and attitudes to enable a more sustainable and just society for all (Palmer 2015). ESD addresses target Goal 4 of the Sustainable Development Goals, “Ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education and promoting lifelong learning for all,” and it addresses target 4.7 of Sustainable Development Goal which requires all governments to: By 2030, ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non- violent, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development. (Boeren 2019; WEF 2016; Panetta and Williams 2018)
Thus Agenda 2030 on education for sustainable development identified education as an essential tool and weapon for achieving sustainable development. Agenda 2030 aims to provide equal access to affordable vocational training and eliminate
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gender and wealth disparities (Mohanty and Dash 2018) with the aim of achieving universal access to quality higher education, and quality education is one of the 17 Global Goals that make up the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development. Achieving inclusive and quality education for all reaffirms the belief that education is one of the most powerful and proven vehicle for sustainable development. ESD gives attention to among other learning activities: • Learning content: integrating critical issues such as climate change, biodiversity, disaster risk reduction, and sustainable consumption and production into the curriculum • Pedagogy and learning environment: designing teaching and learning in an interactive, learner-centered way that enables exploratory, action-oriented, and transformative learning and contributes to learning environments that are inclusive and that inspire learners to act sustainably • Societal transformation: empowering learners, in any education setting, to transform themselves and society they live in to enable transition to greener economies and societies, develop skills for green jobs, adopt sustainable lifestyles, and become global citizens who can create a more just, peaceful, tolerant, secure, and sustainable world • Learning outcomes: stimulating learning and promoting core competencies, such as critical and systematic thinking, collaborative decision-making, and taking responsibility for present and future generations (Boeren 2019; UNESCO 2014a, 2017a; Nolet 2016) Every goal in the 2030 Global Agenda requires education to empower people (Kelly and Dikkens 2016) with the knowledge, skills, and values to live in dignity, build their lives, and contribute to their societies. In this article I argue that quality higher education just like any other level of education is not only a fundamental human right but also an indispensible tool in the pursuit of sustainable development. The primary purpose of adopting ESD is to build up an institutional culture that would improve teaching and learning and help students to become responsible individuals by fostering sustainability (Boeren 2019; Oziga 2012) for the sake of conservation of natural resources and promote equality, sustainable consumption, lifestyle, and practices to protect our environment and make our world a place sustainable habitat. ESD is an interdisciplinary methodology (UNESCO 2014a; Laurie et al. 2016) covering the integrated social, economic, and environmental aspects of formal and informal curriculum. UNESCO (2014a) tell us that ESD is integrating the principles and practices of sustainable development into all aspects of education and learning, to encourage changes in knowledge, value, and attitudes with the vision of enabling a more sustainable and just society for all. According to UNESCO (2014), ESD is thought to have four thrusts: (1) access and retention in quality education, (2) orienting existing education to address sustainable development, (3) increasing public awareness of sustainability, and (4) providing training for all sectors of the work force. ESD consequently promote competences like critical thinking; imagining future scenarios; making decisions, in a collaborative way;
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participatory teaching methodologies that motivate and empower learners to change their behavior; and taking action for sustainable development. This is in line with the humanist tradition which emphasizes education as a process with the learners at the center of the process (Agbedahin and Lotz-Sisitka 2019). Education for a more sustainable future includes improving quality in teaching and learning, orienting education to address sustainability improving public awareness, and providing training to many sectors of society. Quality higher education can also include (Kelly and Dikkens 2016) increasing skills in relation to learning for sustainability, such as caring for the planet. Sustainable education has been considered as renewable resources to be geared towards the acquisition of key competences of the twenty-first century including quality in education. In the twenty-first century, the United Nations (UN) decade of education for sustainable development (UNESCO 2005; Morgren and Garicke 2017; Kelly and Dikkens 2016) significantly highlighted the virtual role of quality education that can and must play in the universal journey towards sustainable development across the globe and securing our planet. Agenda 2030 Global Goals for sustainable development advocate for providing the opportunity to progress towards implementing universal quality higher education that fosters the knowledge, skills, perspectives, values, and actions and that leads towards more sustainable future. The role of quality in higher education (UNESCO 2015) and its outreach applied research, sharing and access to information, networking, partnerships, etc. becomes the key strategies for achieving Agenda 2030 Global Goals. Agenda 2030 Global Goals and specifically SDG4 advocate to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and the promotion of lifelong learning opportunities for all, thus maintaining the target that by 2030 all boys and girls to complete free, equitable, and quality education leading to relevant and effective learning outcomes and also ensuring that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development through education for sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, global citizenship, and promoting a culture of peace (WEF 2016). Higher education therefore needs to update its curricula, pedagogy, and educational resources to address the twenty-first-century challenges and achieve Agenda 2030 Global Goals. To achieve Sustainable Development Goals, there is a critical need for universal access to quality education and visionary leadership (Van Den Branden 2015). ESD for 2030 targets to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all are based on the following areas: 1. Expanding access to quality learning for all across the various levels of education which includes higher education 2. Attending to the quality of education including content, relevance, and learning outcomes across the disciplines 3. Greater focus on equity for access and resources of education 4. Gender equality across all levels of education with safe and supportive learning environments (Mohanty and Dash 2018; Madsen 2013; UNESCO 2015; Van Den Branden 2015)
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To structure and implement quality in higher education for sustainable development are key challenge for every country and Zimbabwe in particular. Zimbabwe needs to strengthen learning performance and provides the learners with competences and capabilities to address the challenges of a sustainable future for all. UNESCO (2018) reports advocates for ESD to play an active role in all countries across the globe to empower all learners to take informed decisions and responsible actions for environmental integrity, economic viability, and a just society for present and future generations while respecting cultural diversity (Leitcht et al. 2018; Nolet 2016). This calls for all structures and agency to reform education systems to promote holistic and transformational education that would address learning content and outcomes, innovative pedagogy, and learning by doing and use a whole system to engage communities in achieving sustainable change. UNESCO and higher education institutions are the lead agency as recognized by UN General Assembly Resolution in 2015, which recommends ESD to be placed at the center of the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda and to act as key enabler for all the 17 SDGs which include SDG4 on quality education aiming towards how to live and work sustainably. The UN Global Action Programme also aims to generate and scale up ESD actions and activities and monitor its implementation at all levels and disciplines or areas of education, training, and learning. Global Action Programme also focuses on SDG collaboration and networking for accelerating the reorientation of education systems towards achieving a sustainable world and resilient planet. If Zimbabwe higher education system is to achieve Agenda 2030 Global Goals for sustainable development especial SDG4, there is need to adopt ESD as a process and mechanism for making higher education system robust, progressive, and sustainable. It is widely acknowledged that quality education and ESD have an important role in meeting the challenges of global change. The UNESCO report of 2018 acknowledges that ICTs can be leveraged to accelerate the achievement of the targets of 2030 Agenda by combining the views of policy makers, academics, and the private sector. There is need to adopt an education system that promotes the awareness of the complexities, diversities, and uncertainties of the surrounding world and promotes changes through ESD strategies which can be considered as reflexive in relation to local learning and new social movements. Kelly & Dikkens (2016) tell us that, there is need to bring reform and achieve ESD in our education system we have to improve the basic unit of higher education as an organisation that encompass the agency who are the human efforts and structural which are the material equipment which could collectively improve student’s performance. The current approach to ESD on SDGs for 2030 advocates for whole learning institution approach to bring sustainable change in the institution’s vision, policies and structures, professional knowledge creation, and pedagogical practices which include the use of information communication technology (ICT) in teaching and learning. It is widely acknowledged that quality education and education for sustainable development and the adoption of ICTs in teaching and learning have an important role in meeting the challenges of achieving sustainable development and the challenges of global change (AUC 2015). This suggests that the adoption of ICTs in higher education teaching and learning can act as a powerful
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engine to achieving Agenda 2030 Global Goals. Further understanding the possibilities for individuals, educational institutions, relevant stakeholders, and governments to work together to achieve both SDG4 and other goals might thus increase knowledge of potential routes to progress. This article therefore focuses on the challenges facing higher education in achieving Agenda 2030. Quality education is a human right and a force for sustainable development and peace. Every goal in the 2030 Agenda requires education to empower people with knowledge, skills, and values to live in dignity, build their lives, and contribute to their society. There are two pedagogical interpretation of ESD: the ESD as a means to transfer appropriate sets of knowledge, attitudes, and values to the learner, and the second one is to equip people with the needed capacity to make conscious, prosustainability choices in their daily lives, to collectively explore the issues to transform the mindsets and lifestyles through discourse (UNESCO 2009). This therefore means ESD integrates education systems with measurable learning targets and outcomes which should become a cornerstone of ESD and 2015 SDGs and as a pathway for global education quality reform and improvement.
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Key Theoretical Framework Concepts: Structure and Agency
The key objective of the study was to understand the challenges of achieving Agenda 2030 Global Goals for Education on Sustainable Development specifically focusing on SDG4 on quality in education. I approached this objective using the structure and agency theoretical view point (Bhaskar 2010, 2011, 1989a: Archer 1995, 1996, 2003; Giddens 1984; Bourdieu 1984). As I approach my objective of understanding the way structure and agency influence the achievement of Agenda 2030 Global Goals, Bhaskar (2010) has explained that social structures exist, are exercised, and are being continually reproduced for transformational only by virtue of, in, and by human agency. The continuous reproduction or transformation of social structures can be understood through a system of mediating concepts that describe the point of contact between human agency and social structures. Such a point of contact links action of agency to the structure. The position structure practice system is crucial to my argument about agency for sustainability as it is at this stage that agentive actions arise (Archer 1995; Bhaskar 1998). The theoretical perspective offers deeper insight into the roles that individuals and institutional structures and stakeholders play in achieving the specified education targets by 2030. The concept of structure and agency is interested in the structures of social reality and the extent to which individuals are free to act within that structure, the capacity of individuals in the structure to make a difference (Boeren 2019; UNESCO 2004). The article also focuses on what these different players can contribute in relation to achieving Agenda 2030 Global Goals on education for sustainable development in Zimbabwe higher education. According to Bhaskar (1979, 1989, and 1998), agency emerges from the structures via the position-practice system at different levels. Structure comprises roles, organizations, institutional structures, systems, policies,
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committees, substructures, and positional levels within the organization (Archer 1995). Structure also includes the material conditions which would motivate action (Archer 1995, 1996, 2003). These include material transactions with nature, social interactions between humans, social structures, and stratification of the embodied personality (Bhasker and Norrie 1998; Bhasker and Danermark 2006; Bhaskar 2010). Archer (2003) tells us that social structures exist in organizations and are exercised or continuously reproduced or transformed by virtue of human capacity. This continuous reproduction or transformation of social structures can be understood through a system of mediating concepts (Archer 2003) that describe the point of contact between human agency and social structures. There is a point of contact which links action to the structure which should be sustained and directly occupied by individuals (Bhaskar 2010). It is the actions or practices (Bhaskar 1989a; Archer 1998) of human agents in and around social structures that determine transformation or change. Giddens (1984) suggests that structural positions should be understood not only as literally as the post individuals occupy but rather elaborately as the places, functions, rules, tasks, duties, and rights occupied or assumed by individuals. Practices of individuals are on the other hand activities by virtue of their occupancy of the positions. Agency according to Shava and Heystek (2018) refers to the personal and psychological makeup of individuals, their social roles, and their capacity to act in a voluntary way. It is important to understand that each of these individual agencies lives within a structured environment which is defined by its own rules and resources. To understand the complex reality of social issues including the achievement of Agenda 2030 Global Goals needs to draw from a combination of structural and agential understanding. In this article I argue that in any setting, there are structural and agential properties that play a role of enablers and constrainers in achieving sustainability and development in higher education. Figure 1 provides a visual representation of the interplay of structure and agency, depicting the interconnectedness and the sphere of influence of different human agency (Bhaskar 1989b) in hindering the achievement of Agenda 2030 Global Goals on ESD.
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Research Methods
A qualitative study embedded in an interpretive paradigm was considered most suitable to establish challenges of achieving Agenda 2030 Global Goals on education for sustainable development. The interpretive paradigm enabled the researcher to see, hear, and understand the particular meaning – making inherent in people’s lives within the institutions. Henning Van Rensburg and Smit (2004) tell us that the feelings and values to which human beings ascribe cannot be quantified or measured but rather interpreted from an insider perspective. To gather a breadth of contextual information about each case, I used six common questions to solicit higher education practitioners’ views on the challenges of achieving Agenda 2030 Global Goals on education for sustainable development and the implementation of ESD across universities. The questions were broad and open ended to capture the breadth of ESD implementation in Zimbabwe higher education institutions.
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Agency
Structure
ü ü ü ü ü ü
Material conditions Roles Institutional structures ICT infrastructure Decision making Polices
Education for sustainable development Position practice
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Staff Individuals Management Communities People Quality assurance staff
Fig. 1 The interplay of structure and agency towards achieving Agenda 2030 Global Goal for ESD. The figure depicts the interplay of roles, policies, and other structures that are superimposed with agency to achieve Agenda 2030 Global Goals
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Data Collection
The strong desire to collect data that reflected the perspectives of the research participants resulted in the choice of in-depth, semi-structured interviews with participants drawn from two universities in Zimbabwe. One university is an open distance learning institution, and the other one is a convectional university of Science and Technology. The two universities were chosen because they have representatives who have participated in ESD capacity building workshops organized by UNESCO. Participants were selected from people who had participated in ESD workshops organized by UNESCO. The study participants were asked six interview questions which correspond with the theoretical framework of structure and agency in achieving quality and Agenda 2030 Global Goals on ESD. Participants were asked the following six common questions: • What if at all is the interplay of structure and agency in enabling or constraining the achievement of Agenda 2030? • What challenges do institutions face in their effort to implement Agenda 2030 specifically on quality and sustainable development in higher education? • How if at all do stakeholders strengthen the integration of ESD? • What support mechanisms are needed in higher education institutions to enhance the achievement of ESD? • What opportunities exist in higher education to enhance the achievement of ESD
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• What strategies can be adopted to achieve Agenda 2030 Global Goals on education for sustainable development? My contact interview sessions with participants improved my understanding of the challenges faced by institutions in implementing Agenda 2030. Creswell (2013) shows that interviews present the researcher with means to obtain the participants’ experiences, knowledge, thoughts, and feelings. I made an attempt to follow Bernard’s (2002) lead; the idea was to get participants to open up and let them express themselves in their own terms and at their own pace. In seeking trustworthiness in my study, I used Creswell’s (2013) norms of trustworthiness, namely, prolonged engagement which is the investment of sufficient time to achieve a certain purpose, learning more from participants about what is constraining them in enhancing the achievement and implementation of ESD and testing for misinformation introduced by distortions of the self or the participants and building trust. Half way through the process of conducting interviews, I introduced some member checks by requesting an external coach who is a partner of SANORD who is an expert in ESD to review manuscripts for accuracy and clarification on the sequence of events. Triangulation as a means of establishing trustworthiness and credibility was also implemented where I used multiple data sources from each institution.
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Data Analysis
In this section of the article, I present my findings and insights into the challenges of achieving Agenda 2030 Global Goals on education for sustainable development with a specific focus on SDG 4 on quality in higher education. My argument is structured according to the structure agency approaches to offer deeper understanding and insights into the roles that individuals may play in achieving the specified education targets by 2030. Qualitative content analysis strategies were used to analyze the data. The presentations are based on six interview questions with institutional leadership and practitioners who had significantly embedded ESD in their universities:
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The Interplay of Structure and Agency in Constraining the Achievement of Agenda 2030 Global Goals in Higher Education
The interview question on the interplay of structure and agency in constraining or enabling the achievement of Agenda 2030 Global Goals pertains to the roles that individuals in higher education and stakeholders play in enhancing the specified education targets of quality higher education. The question is interested in structure of social reality and the extent to which individuals are free to act within the structure. The structural domain comprises roles, organizations, institutional structures like quality assurance structures, systems, policies infrastructure, and positional
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levels within the institution. The organizational structure is the skeletal framework within which people carry out their work (Shava and Heystek 2018). It is important to understand that each of the individual agents in higher education operates within a structural environment which is defined by its own rules and resources. To understand the complex realities of social issues surrounding Agenda 2030 Global Goals is not enough to draw on individual agency but a combination of structural and agential perspectives. The bottom line of structure and agency is that the individual and society are interdependent and thus both perspectives should ideally be crucial in establishing how both constrain the achievement of Agenda 2030 Global Goals on ESD. Participants provided evidence showing that structural and agential conditions in higher education constrain the achievement of Agenda 2030 Global Goals, yet the realization in ESD in higher education goes beyond improving the performance of students and helps other desired learning outcomes such as student retention, attendance, motivation, and problem-solving skills. Collectively evidence from participants highlighted that structural and agential factors significantly contributed towards constraining the achievement of Agenda 2030 Global Goals. Several responses indicated that the scarcity of competent academics together with poor infrastructure had a significant effect on the achievement of Agenda 2030 Global Goals. Structural factors which include physical infrastructure and technical challenges like the absence of ICTs hinder effective teaching and learning which leads to sustainable development. It emerged from the study that higher education institutions are failing to attract high-quality staff who can engage in effective and efficient educational management, who are capable of reaching out to local communities to get support or make their educational offers. Competent staff would need to work with staff in their institutions and make decisions with them to focus on inclusion and quality, which are common themes throughout the Sustainable Development Goal 4 targets. Collectively, participants in the study identified the following structural and agential challenges facing the achievement of Agenda 2030 Global Goals: • Lack of sufficient funding to invest in higher education • Lack of awareness of the benefits of quality and sustainability among policy makers • Lack of quality assurance structures and agencies in higher education institutions • The absence of common sets of activities in teaching and learning that institute quality and sustainability development among learners especially at institutional level • Difficulty of funding a sufficient number of academics who are qualified to spear head ESD • Lack of teaching and research experiences at most universities • Lack of strong and accessible system of education • Lack of vibrant staff development programs • Lack of current infrastructure such as science laboratories, workshops, and student hostels • Lack of ICT infrastructure
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• The absence of up-to-date curricula and pedagogy and educational resources to address the twenty-first-century challenges in teaching and learning • Not even a single form of enriching existing forms of agency in ways that expand people’s learning participation and contribution
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Selected Quotes from Participants ESD allows students to improve their problem solving skills but the current crop of academics in higher education tend to focus only on learning theories because the teaching environment is dominated by lecture methods with learners taking notes from the lecturer. I have seen lecturers talking and talking throughout the lecture without giving learners chance to think critical and attend to problem solving. There is need to stop teaching and let the learners learn. Higher education institutions have seen little or no infrastructure improvement for the past few decades and access to infrastructure such as internet, laboratories and workshops are limited resulting in the deterioration of quality teaching and learning. There is lack of integrated ESD into higher education professional standards and into curriculum revision processes. The state of facilities also affects the quality of research for both academics and learners and its capacity to contribute to societal development and progress among learners. There are no capacity building programmes and policy dialogues emphasising the importance of strengthening ESD for wider achievement of quality and ESD targets.
Evidence mainly from senior academics interviewed showed that the key drivers of sustainable education or education for sustainable development would be to respond to the three fundamental questions of: • How much learning the students are actually experiencing in higher education? • What information and skills (curriculum) shall they need to succeed in their future and in life? • How can these gains be expanded for progressive and sustainable life? To achieve these key drivers, there is need for agency and structures that are put in place. This is in line with Van Den Branden (2015) who identified four principles of learning which are relevant even today in the twenty-first century for achieving quality and sustainable outcomes, and these four pillars of quality higher education are learning to know, learning to do, learning to be, and learning to live together. All participants noted that for achieving Agenda 2030 Global Goals and especially achieving Sustainable Development Goals, there is a critical need for universal access to quality education and visionary leadership which seeks to promote quality learning structures through the provision of high-standards infrastructure. In this study participants argued that sustainable development goal on Agenda 2030 targets to ensure inclusive and equitable education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all by expanding access to quality learning for all. However to achieve this goal, there is need to address issues relating to structural and agential conditions in higher education institutions. Throughout the interviews, all reports indicated that higher education institutions in Zimbabwe do
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not yet possess adequate infrastructure and skilled manpower needed to make them beneficiaries of global knowledge and to generate or adapt knowledge, innovation, and problem-solving that are needed for quality teaching and learning which lead to achieving Agenda 2030 Global Goals on education for sustainable development. One of the most critical challenges faced in the universities that participated in this study was the scarcity of competent academics and professionals to serve as quality assurance agency. Higher education institutions in Zimbabwe do not have policies that are embedded in a wide range covering ESD. There is also no cooperation between a wide range of stakeholders to support ESD; there is no partnership for increasing education quality in higher education. The major challenge raised by participants is that the concept of ESD in Zimbabwean higher education content, curriculum, and pedagogy is a new phenomenon and is not well rooted even in the existing school system. Teacher training colleges and universities have recently started a capacity building program for teachers on ESD which is a collaborative capacity building program for teacher educators on ESD in Southern Africa. According to the findings across universities covered in this study, there is no adequate support for ESD from Ministry of Higher Education and university-wide top management, and the reason being they are not aware of what ESD seeks to achieve and worse still the teaching methodologies associated with ESD. Evidence for structural absence of support included the total absence of ESD-related support policies, systems, and mechanisms or structures in higher education ministry. Furthermore, the implementation of ESD is constrained by the total lack of institutional ESD quality education policy framework or strategy. This according to participants resulted in multiple interpretation of the program and the lack of institutionally coordinated activity to address sustainability issues and little awareness about ESD. The deficit of awareness hampered the emergency of individual agency directed towards achieving ESD and the entire effort to work towards achieving Agenda 2030 Global Goals on ESD.
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Challenges Faced by Institutions to Implement Agenda 2030 Global Goals Specifically on Quality in Education (SDG4)
From the findings in the universities, there are certain institutional specific factors related to the implementation of Agenda 2030. Such challenges include the lack of institutional ESD policies or strategies, and interviews revealed that institutions lack coordinated efforts that incorporate all faculties in an effort to ensure the implementation of ESD and the key challenges of resisting to change. In most cases academics want to teach the way they were taught and considering their teaching methods as the best way of teaching. In summary participants identified the following institutional challenges of implementing Agenda 2030 Global Goals on quality higher education: • Lack of policy and strategy relating to achieving ESD. • Lack of coordinated institutional effort that seeks to enhance ESD in different faculties.
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Total lack of awareness about ESD among academics across disciplines. Lack of adequate value for the implementation of ESD. The implementation of ESD constraining agency at institutional level. The lack of financial and material support from university top management. Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education failure to provide adequate support to the universities. Little support and attention were given to ESD by stakeholders. Lack of structural influences and the absence of ESD-related courses in the universities. Lack of institutionally coordinated activities or programs to address sustainability (change program for colleges/universities) issues, and lack of awareness about ESD at all levels in the universities and the deficit of awareness hampered the emergency of individual agency directed at implementing ESD. Negative attitudes of university community members (university council) towards ESD. Challenges related to the traditional practices and hierarchy of senior academics and lack of ESD expertise in most of the disciplines and faculties. The negative feeling that ESD should be the mandate of faculty that houses education and should not be a concern for other faculties such as social sciences, science, engineering, and commerce. Educational content, curriculum, and pedagogy for ESD are not well rooted in existing school system in Zimbabwe. Total misunderstanding and misconception of what ESD is all about among senior academics significantly inhibited the flourishing of ESD at all institutions covered in this study. ESD in universities was historically constrained by institutional hierarchical approaches to curriculum change and course development. Suggestions on ESD from junior members of staff were largely unsupported or undermined by senior academics and top management. Lack of trained academics that have the capacity to approve new ESD courses and concepts which resulted in institutional barriers when it comes to approval and the long period or length of time for program to be approved. Lack of ESD professional training or development within the institutional structures and culture, this constituted a source of constraint for the agency or even others interested in the implementation of ESD. The interaction of academics relating to ESD in different departments and faculties faced some resistance. Lack of professionally trained and motivated lecturers and poor quality of teaching and learning resulting in weak learning outcomes.
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Selected Quotes from Participants
ESD cannot be achieved with the state of infrastructure in higher education. Zimbabwe higher education institutions have seen little or no infrastructure improvement for the last few decades.
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Learning infrastructure is widely deficient due to insufficient budget and overdependence on public financing. Access to infrastructure such as ICT, internet, laboratories and classroom space is limited resulting in deterioration of quality teaching and learning Most buildings in universities do not have facilities to accommodate disabled students Students on wheel chairs are often lifted by their colleagues up the stairs. Poor state of facilities affects the achievement of ESD and quality higher education. There is low enrolment in the areas such as Science, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences which are needed for innovation, knowledge generation and national competitiveness. Among the unresolved challenges are the need to expand quality higher education in a sustainable and equitable way, as well as inequalities of access and outcomes. Any attempt to open up the system of higher education through mass education or going comprehensive seems inevitably to lead to the decline in quality education and achieving Agenda 2030 will be in all cases at the price of lower quality. We taught some of the prominent politicians and even the minister of higher education and who are you to make us change our teaching styles
ESD is considered to be about lifelong learning and is an integral part of quality education, ESD is holistic and transformational education which addresses learning content and outcomes, pedagogy and the learning environment, in the institutions covered in this study it was regarded as an extra load for academics . Conclusively, the institutional structures, agents and cultures, and facilities in which participants operate are vital to the achievement of Agenda 2030 Global Goals. The material circumstances, institutional structures, and policies in relation to the implementation of ESD constrain the effective achievement of Agenda 2030 Global Goals. The critical engagement with institutional structures and agency matters significantly in determining the achievement of Agenda 2030 Global Goals. In this article I argue that the role of institutional structures and their subcommittees including policies and roles plays a crucial role in achieving Agenda 2030 Global Goals. The agents through their structures propel the systematic transformation of influencing action towards achieving Agenda 2030 Global Goals. The material circumstances and conditions in higher education to a great extent shape or reshape the achievement of Agenda 2030 for higher education. Findings from the study show that the poor infrastructures and facilities cannot be seen as a driver of education for sustainable development. While quality education plays a pivotal role in development and transformation, the general neglect of higher education institutions in Zimbabwe has greatly affected the provision of quality teaching and learning. The study also established that weak leadership, management, and governance are rampant in higher education institutions and further exacerbate challenges associated with achieving ESD Goals. I argue that poor leadership and ineffective management drain scarce resources away from the fundamental objectives of increasing quality, access, and chances of achieving ESD Goals. The ineffectiveness of institutional leadership leads to underutilized and uneconomic procurement procedures resulting also in the large share of the budget channeled towards non-educational expenditures. The shortage of skilled professionals in Zimbabwe has its roots in higher education systems that are in serious crisis. Although Zimbabwe’s higher education ought to be the breeding ground for skilled manpower, the institutions are plagued by critical shortages of quality senior staff at
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PhD levels. The majority of lecturers are teaching assistants who are not qualified research scholars. The critical shortage of senior staff in higher education institutions cripples the achievement of quality and sustainable development in education. The synthesis from interview scripts has confirmed or reaffirmed that ESD encourages changes in knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes to enable a more sustainable and just society for all through the provision of quality teaching and learning. While ESD aims to empower and equip current and future generations to meet their need, there are institutional challenges that Zimbabwean higher education finds it difficult to overcome. As clearly indicated in the interviews, higher education institutions in Zimbabwe do not possess adequate institutional infrastructure capacity and facilities, limiting their capacity to achieve Agenda 2030 Global Goals on ESD.
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Stakeholders of Higher Education and Strengthening of the Integration of ESD
This question pertains to how different agencies including local communities or government officials strengthen the integration of ESD in higher education institutions. While there are structural and agential challenges of enhancing the achievement of Agenda 2030 Global Goals in higher education, interviews with participants revealed that nongovernmental organizations like UNESCO, UN, and government departments are playing a crucial role in advocating for policy framework on quality and ESD that address the key challenges by identifying the key ESD factors, educational content, and learning processes and incorporating into the educational development model through an integrated and holistic framework. Rhodes University in South Africa, Swedish International Centre on Education for Sustainable Development (SWEDESD), Southern African Regional Universities Association (SARUA), and Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA) are running projects to build capacity base for ESD on sustainability starts with teachers. Collaboration partners with SARAU and SEWDESD for capacity building are a global priority under the global ESD for Agenda 2030 and are an integral part of supporting implementation for the Agenda 2030 SDGs. The study interviews with lecturers established that policy dialogues to advance ESD in higher education particularly in teacher education institutions are held annually, to ensure that ESD is integrated into teacher education professional standards and into curriculum revision processes. It emerged from the interviews with participants that stakeholders are making significant efforts to support and integrate ESD through: • Organizing workshops for lecturers and teachers on ESD • Capacity building for lecturers to strengthen the integration of ESD • Reorienting higher education curriculum to address issues of quality and sustainability • Incorporating issues of ESD in teaching • Monitoring and empowering higher education to contribute more actively to the adoption of ESD principles
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• Ministry of Higher Education investing and interventions on ESD with a strong focus on science and technology education • Government establishing higher education institutions on science and technology, e.g., the Harare Institute of Technology and some universities of science and technology • Raising awareness of the benefits of ESD and learning among citizens and policy makers • Building partnerships and networks with regional and international organizations, e.g., SWEDESD, SIDA, SANORD, Sustainable Future Africa (SFA), and many others • Ministry of Higher Education enriching existing forms of agency in ways that expand people’s learning, participation, and contribution to creating quality education • Investing in infrastructure development in higher education institutions • Monitoring and ensuring the idea that reaching the SDG4 target is a responsibility shared by individuals, communities, educational training institutions, and the government • UNESCO working systematically with higher education institutions and sustainable development government partners to ensure that ESD is integrated into the higher education curriculum • Establishing ESD implementation partners • Providing adequate funding for affordable and quality technical and vocational education by government • Cultural shift towards perceiving quality education and ESD as making a positive contribution to society • Making available high-quality higher education learning institutions • Integrating literacy and numeracy evaluation in quality control mechanisms • Establishing quality assurance structures in higher learning institutions • Government making ESD a core part of the compulsory higher education systems and providing adequate funding • Education and training institutions adopting a cross-course approach to themes of ESD • Providing intra and extra mural activities focusing on ESD • Availability of high-quality teacher education training institutions to fulfill the needs of ESD
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Selected Researcher’s Quotes on the Integration of ESD by Stakeholders
ESD helps prepare our students for a sustainable future and the government of Zimbabwe has put in place policies that address key issues of quality, sustainability and development, although these policies lack monitoring and evaluation. The government has made efforts to provide for affordable higher education for all. Stakeholders providing educational loans for higher education eg Eduloan. Government emphasising the use of technology in teaching and learning.(on line teaching and learning) Establishment of quality assurance structures and Zimbabwe Higher Education Council (ZIMCHE) standards in higher education institutions.
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Monitoring the implementation of ESD and quality higher education Government emphasising the inclusion of agriculture in training and higher education institutions as a means of showing the importance of food security and eradication of hunger.
All in all, the study findings revealed that higher education stakeholders and UNESCO offices in Zimbabwe are advocating for ESD to play an active role to empower all learners to take informed decisions and responsible actions for environmental integrity. Stakeholders in Zimbabwe are calling for a major reform in higher education systems to promote holistic and transformational education that would address issues of sustainability on learning content and outcomes, innovative pedagogy, and learning by doing. Additionally the Global Action Programme (GAP) is working to generate and scale up ESD actions at all levels and disciplines. Since the attainment of independence in Zimbabwe, successive governments have addressed a number of key challenges in higher education by introducing new higher education policies and schemes as part of addressing issues of education for sustainable development and higher education quality. Considering quality higher education as the key driver for SDGs, the government of Zimbabwe runs many international conferences, e.g., National Research Priorities-Zim Asset Matrix and Zimbabwe International Research Symposium, with the aim of bringing together global experiences and expertise to highlight and strengthen the integration of ESD and the role of higher education in realizing the SDGs, creating an opportunity to recognize the need to integrate ESD in higher education systems. According to the findings across all universities covered in the study, contributions of higher education ministry are crucial for the integration of ESD to be implemented in higher education. More so the achievement of Agenda 2030 Global Goals on ESD needs massive financial investment on the part of government; there is also need for adequate supporting and liaising with policy makers, stakeholders, and government agencies for more effective ESD implementation in higher education. Drawing on the responses from participants, stakeholders have a crucial role to play in the implementation of ESD. The agency, structures, and culture of different institutions and the facilities in which agency operate are vital to the achievement of Agenda 2030 Global Goals particularly their reception to change and transformation. Most of the participants noted that most stakeholders like the Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education and people who occupied various positions in UNESCO and other ministries were able to use their sphere of influence to transform the integration of ESD through change project development and implementation education. Participants emphasized that stakeholders positively contributed to the implementation of ESD in higher education through capacity building and other related mitigation and training programs.
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Support Mechanisms, Strategies, and Opportunities to Enhance the Achievement of ESD
The question on support mechanisms, strategies, and opportunities to enhance the achievement of ESD pertains to the different support mechanisms and strategies that are provided or adopted in higher education to enhance the achievement of Agenda
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2030 Global Goals. The question also examined opportunities that exist in higher education that enable the achievement of Agenda 2030 Global Goals. Participants provided evidence that highlighted support mechanisms and strategies, and these are summarized as: • Capacity building programs organized by UNESCO, SARUA, SIDA, SWEDESD, SADC Education Sector, Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, and universities for lectures in both colleges and universities • Expanding tertiary education coverage in a sustainable and equitable way • Increasing access and outcomes in relation to gender, ethnic groups, and geographic coverage • Increasing graduate level (MSc and PhD) student enrolment • Increasing science, mathematics, and technology courses in higher learning institutions • Increasing access to ICT in higher learning institutions • Increasing enrolment figures in science, engineering, and technology and health sciences which are critically needed for innovation, knowledge generation, and adaptation and national competitiveness • Conducting outreach programs and providing training, communication, creating public awareness, conducting research, networking, partnership programs, and sharing and accessing information that is meant to create awareness of ESD • Ensuring that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills to promote sustainable development • Strengthening training and the twenty-first-century skills for work and life and adopting “shop floor” training and attachment programs for work and life and improving learning outcomes at all levels of education • Permanent re-skilling of updating the curriculum, pedagogy, and education resources and competences of all learners to address the twenty-first-century challenges • Policy dialogues to advance ESD in higher education institutions • Integrating ESD into teacher education programs at colleges and universities • Contributing practically and through social learning for inclusive ESD in a variety of contexts
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Specific Quotes from Participants
For achieving sustainable development goals there is a critical need for universal access to quality education and visionary leadership. There is need to expand access to quality learning for all across the various levels of education and specifically higher education. There is need to pay attention to the quality of education including content, relevance and learning outcomes across the disciplines. There is need for greater focus on equity for access and educational resources There is need for gender equality across all levels of education.
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The government of Zimbabwe is making efforts to have a robust and sustainable education system based on sustainability and development policies, practices, curriculum, pedagogy and continuing education for all. ESD develop strong critical thinking skills and deeper understanding of the topic under study such that educators should expose their learners to engage in critical thinking and problem solving rather than spending the whole lecture giving students notes. Education should play a key role in promoting sustainable development and lecturers should prepare learners for sustainability through teaching topics that give examples of real life experiences but in school context. We suggest for a whole education system reform through some sustainable strategies for policy makers. There is need for instructional improvement and teamwork. There is need for a change of educational culture that develops and embodies the theory and practice of sustainability and development. In Zimbabwe higher education very few research work and practices are going on in the area of sustainability and quality education. There is need for a paradigm shift to create a higher education culture and systems that implies systematic change, education policy and system in the thinking and practice of every stakeholder linked to higher education.
The synthesis of findings from the study on issues relating to mechanisms, strategies, and opportunities needed to enhance the achievement of ESD in higher education revealed that agents need to change the institutional culture and emphasize a culture of quality teaching and learning if at all Zimbabwe higher education is to achieve Agenda 2030 Global Goals on ESD. There is also need for institutional capacity building which would enhance the capacity to improve the quality of teaching and learning. As clearly indicated by the study participants, there is need for continuous engagement and creation of awareness of the importance of quality in higher education which is crucial for the success of working towards achieving Agenda 2030 Global Goals on ESD.
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Discussion, Conclusion, and Recommendations
This article has used the critical realist theoretical viewpoint which draws on structure and agency approaches to offer deep insights into the roles that individuals higher education institutions, stakeholders, and regulating government in Zimbabwe play in achieving Agenda 2030 Global Goals specifically focusing on SDG 4 target on quality education. The data for the analysis was obtained from a case study of two universities in Zimbabwe. Study findings established that the primary purpose of adopting ESD in higher education to build up a school culture would among others improve the quality of teaching and learning and help students to become responsible individuals by fostering sustainability for the sake of promoting quality learning outcomes to make Zimbabwe a place of suitable habitat. The data collected from participants revealed that there are structural and agential factors that constrain the achievement of Agenda 2030 Global Goals on education quality. Quality higher education is considered as a key driver for achieving ESD and specifically for achieving Agenda 2030. Policy instruments for technological solutions may not be
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enough for enhancing Agenda 2030 Global Goals, but rather behavioral change among agents and public awareness are crucial for achieving ESD. The role of quality in higher education together with applied research plays a crucial role for achieving Agenda 2030 Global Goals. SGD4 advocates to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all” thus keeping the target that by 2030 all boys and girls complete equitable and quality education. New challenges to learning are emerging, and the twenty-first-century higher education must seek to address these challenges and contribute to greater humanity by seeking to adopt ESD principles and practices in teaching and learning. In the twenty-first century, the United Nations decade of education for sustainable development significantly highlighted the vital role that quality higher education plays in the universal journey towards achieving ESD and specifically achieving Agenda 2030 Global Goals on ESD. While the sustainable development goal on education for 2030 targets to ensure inclusive and quality education based on expanded access to quality learning in higher education, Zimbabwe education would need to address key issues of structure and agency which are interested in the structure of social reality and the extent to which individual agencies are free to act within that structure. From the findings of the study, I conclude that the achievement of Agenda 2030 Global Goals in Zimbabwe higher education is constrained by: • Lack of individual institutional ESD policy or strategy resulting in multiple interpretations of the ESD content and pedagogy. • The lack of institutional coordinated effort that in cooperate ESD principles and procedures. • Lack of awareness among stakeholders and staff about ESD. • Lack of sufficient financial investment in ESD which is hampering the progress towards its implementation. • Inadequate contribution and support from ministry of higher education. • Little attention is given to issues of ESD and the absence of ESD courses in higher education curriculum. • Furthermore, the implementation of ESD in higher education is constrained by the lack of institutional policies to drive its achievement. I therefore argue that the achievement of Agenda 2030 Global Goals on quality education would need a quick fix of the entire education system and adopt technological teaching methodologies to address the broken down system dominated by ICT immigrants that are teaching ICT natives of the twenty-first century learners.
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Recommendations
From the evidence provided by the study participants and the literature review on ESD, a wide range of recommendations are suggested: • If Zimbabwe higher education is to achieve quality and Agenda 2030 Global Goals on ESD, there is need to improve the basic unit of the institution that
Quality Education for Sustainable Development in Zimbabwean Higher. . .
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• •
• •
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encompasses the human (agency) and material (structures) equipment which could collectively improve student’s learning and institutional culture. The literature on ESD for 2030 advocates for whole institutional approach to bring about sustainable change in the institution’s vision, routine and structures, professional knowledge creation, and pedagogical practices. The recent ESD literature on SDGs for 2030 advocates for the whole schooling approach to bring sustainable change in the institutions’ vision, routines and structures, professional knowledge creation, and pedagogical practices. Participation in quality higher education correlates with a wide range of indicators concerning good health and well-being; thus the implementation and maintenance of high-quality education in Zimbabwe are highly recommended through investing in quality education which should be given top priority. The achievement of Agenda 2030 Global Goal on ESD may be easier to reach when strong and accessible system of higher education and training are put in place leading to stronger knowledge-based infrastructures. Zimbabwe should adopt online strategies of teaching and learning, a platform that can be used to establish a comprehensive mapping of, and serve as a gateway for, information on existing science, technology, and innovation initiatives, mechanisms, and programs, within and beyond. The online teaching strategy will facilitate access to information, knowledge, and experience, as well as best practices and lessons learned, on science, technology, and innovation facilitation initiatives and polices. There is need for a policy framework and a strategy on ESD that address ESD issues relating to educational content, learning processes, and incorporating into higher education principles relating to quality teaching and learning. Zimbabwe higher education should update its curriculum, pedagogy, and educational resources including infrastructure to address the twenty-first century context of teaching and learning. There is need to examine and respond to issues relating to how learning, what information, what skills are needed to succeed and how do we expand our gains for progressive and sustainable learning outcomes among our learners. We need to design higher education teaching and learning in an interactive, learner-centered ways that enable exploratory, action-oriented, and transformative learning and contribute to learning environments that are inclusive and that inspire learners to act for maximum benefits and sustainability. There is also need to enrich existing forms of agency in ways that expand people’s learning and participation and contribute to creating a good life through quality teaching considering investing in infrastructure development. Finally there is need to build partnerships with other stakeholders; this means that cooperation and networking with a wide range of stakeholders should be encouraged if Zimbabwe higher education is to achieve Agenda 2030 Global Goals.
I therefore argue that in the field of higher education teaching and learning, critical realism philosophy and tools of structure and agency can provide a deep insight to fully understand the educational process required to achieve transformation towards achieving Agenda 2030 Global Goals for ESD in the Zimbabwean
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context of higher education teaching and learning. Higher education in Zimbabwe which is the cornerstone for sustainable development should reaffirm its unwavering commitment to achieving Agenda 2030 and utilizing it to the full to transform Zimbabwe as a country on the better 2030 Agenda.
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Cross-References
▶ Involving Girls Early in STEM for Sustainable Development ▶ Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) in Botswana
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Faculty Views of Adaptive E-Learning in a South African University Anass Bayaga
Contents 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Criticisms of and Need for Adaptive E-Learning (AEL) Technology and Cognitive Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Means/Approaches for Cognitive Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Pervasive Nature of Adaptive Learning (Digital) Technologies: Potential Implication for Cognitive Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Potential Implication 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Adaptive (Digital) Technology and Other Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Conundrum 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 Criticism of Theoretical Stance and Potential Ramification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 Potential Implication 1 for Multi-disciplinarily Cognitive Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . 2.8 Conundrum 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9 Conundrum 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.10 Potential Implication 2 for Advancing STEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.11 Summary/Research Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.12 Understanding and Approaches of Enhancing Cognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13 Applying Adaptive E-Learning (Digital) Technology and Cognitive Enhancement in STEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Abstract
The current study draws on research conducted on the pervasive nature of adaptive e-learning (AEL) (digital) technologies and cognitive enhancement for South Africa’s science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) and non-STEM education. The current research was anchored on the perceived A. Bayaga (*) Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, University of Zululand, KwaDlangewza, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 K. S. Adeyemo (ed.), The Education Systems of Africa, Global Education Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44217-0_7
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failure of execution processes or delayed adoption rates regarding adaptive elearning (digital) technologies and cognitive enhancement as compared to other industries. Guided by this objective, the current study was conducted involving ten university academics recruited from a South African university. The design was exploratory, in which respondents’ experiences were analyzed via discourse analysis. This study found that many of the university academic participants lacked sufficient understanding of AEL for AEL to be adequately implemented and used at the university. A hypothetical stance for future research is that while it could be inferred that the current cohort was particularly weak, the literature suggests that the challenge is much more pervasive. Indeed, it is hypothesized that if academics generally were to be investigated from almost any university, similar results would ensue. The implication is that there is an extensive need to concretize notions regarding AEL within any university and possibly beyond for successful implementation to occur. Keywords
Adaptive learning technology · E-learning · E-health · Computational cognition · Information processing
1
Introduction
The current research examines adaptive e-learning (AEL) (digital) technology and cognitive enhancement in a South African university. Therefore, the research has two distinctive but related aims: (1) to ascertain possible consequences of adaptive learning technologies for one’s cognitive skills and (2) to make suggestive modalities/approaches to analyze such consequences.
2
Criticisms of and Need for Adaptive E-Learning (AEL) Technology and Cognitive Enhancement
The significance of the interface of both cognition and adaptive e-learning (AEL) technology has had immense consequences on cognitive enhancement, particularly in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) and even non-STEM (humanities and arts) fields in the last decade (Bostrom and Sandberg 2007; Bostrom 2008; Piccinini and Scarantino 2011; Di Giacomo et al. 2017; Fernandez 2019). For example, while cognition may be understood slightly differently in different fields and by different researchers, generally, it means approaches that involve organizing information processes (Bostrom and Sandberg 2007; Bostrom 2008; Piccinini and Scarantino 2011; Di Giacomo et al. 2017; Fernandez 2019). Piccinini and Scarantino (2011) suggest that these processes are termed cognitive abilities, which may include memory and attention, while Bostrom (2008) argued that other processes might include language. From a geometric position, other processes refer to visual and spatial
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processing, while from computational or mathematical perspectives, there are those of logic and reasoning and, in social terms, also interpersonal and intrapersonal reasoning. A perceptive but shared observation is the need to enhance various cognitive abilities mentioned earlier such as memory, attention, language, visual and spatial processing, logic and reasoning, and interpersonal and intrapersonal reasoning (Bostrom 2008; Piccinini and Scarantino 2011). For instance, for memory, the ultimate goal is to enhance cognitive ability to store and recall information, whereas for attention, the need is to enhance one’s ability to progressively concentrate on a particular act, thought, or object through either a sustained, selective, or even divided attention (Bostrom 2008; Piccinini and Scarantino 2011). In the case of language, the expectation is to enhance the translation of sound or sight and the other sensory experiences into more accurate verbal output and vice versa. The ability to accurately read maps or bearings could significantly be enhanced via visual and spatial processing. As opposed to visual and spatial processing, logic and reasoning enhancement could target skills that provide or assist in solving problems by using dissimilar processes or information. Understanding and managing one’s self primarily addresses issues of intrapersonal skills as opposed to interpersonal skills, which requires the ability to interact and communicate reasonably well with others. What could be assumed this far is the need for general cognitive enhancement. Cognitive enhancement may be explained in a variety of ways, depending on the mode of enhancement (Bostrom and Sandberg 2007; Bostrom 2008). Generally, though, the essential role of cognitive enhancement is to improve low-level mental functions such as mental energy, mental speed, timing, and awareness. Bostrom (2008) reported that the primary role of cognitive enhancement was amplifying or even extending essential skills (core faculties) of the mind. The extension may be in the form of either improving or augmenting internal or external information processing systems and hence improving one’s cognition, which designates processes and procedures involved with the organization of information. Even though there are various methods of processing and organizing information, the dominant ones have been reported as obtaining the information via perception, choosing and selecting (attention), representing (understanding), and retaining, which involves the memory of information. These are then used to direct and monitor behavior, which may involve reasoning and coordination of motor outputs. As a consequence, any mediation of cognition or interventions thereof, in the form of enhancing such cognition, may be directed toward improving and even refining the cognitive functions via the core faculties (Bostrom and Sandberg 2007; Bostrom 2008). In essence, the refinement of the cognitive functions via the core faculties led to means and approaches being developed to achieve cognitive enhancement.
2.1
Means/Approaches for Cognitive Enhancement
There are fundamentally two means for achieving cognitive enhancement, viz., conventional and unconventional means. Usually, conventional approaches have
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largely been ascribed to modalities such as external information technologies, education, mental techniques, neurological health, and epistemic institutions. The unconventional modalities primarily pivot around the use of drugs, sensory implants, and direct brain-computer interfaces. For the most part, while the conventional approach is characterized as being uncontroversial, the latter is most often seen as likely to evoke moral and ethical concerns, due primarily to its invasive nature (Bostrom and Ord 2006; Bostrom and Sandberg 2007). Notwithstanding the controversial stance, arguably, the frontiers or interfaces of cognitive enhancement in terms of the approaches are increasingly becoming blurred and applied not only in the medical field but also applied to enhance cognition for educational purposes (Bostrom and Ord 2006; Bostrom and Sandberg 2007). Piccinini and Scarantino (2011) also suggest that cognitive enhancements have steadily extended, one method being adaptive (digital) technology in cognition, as the next section examines.
2.2
Pervasive Nature of Adaptive Learning (Digital) Technologies: Potential Implication for Cognitive Enhancement
The motive to use education principally hinges on the fact that it advances broadspectrum mental faculties, which include concentration, memory, and critical thinking. Another widely circulated view is that given the pervasive nature of adaptive e-learning (digital) technologies, brain enhancement imminently will be digital, hence the current explorative study (Fernandez 2019; Bostrom and Sandberg 2007; Piccinini and Scarantino 2011; Di Giacomo et al. 2017). This means a transition from conscious face-to-face interaction between a teacher and learner toward artificial intelligence, which does not require the intervention of the teacher. For instance, Fernandez (2019), the CEO and Editor-in-Chief of Sharp Brains in the recent (2019) World Economic Forum, recounted five reasons why the phenomenon of brain enhancement will be digital and pervasive. Even though reflecting on the complete views of Fernandez (2019) is somewhat beyond the scope of the current paper and readers are therefore encouraged to interact with Fernandez’s (2019) report, the author highlights three (3) key reasons for the pervasiveness of digital brain enhancement. The first important fact to consider is that there are nearly seven and a half billion (7.5B) brains with potential and a need toward the utilization of Fourth (4th) Industrial Revolution (4IR) solutions, which involves use of adaptive learning (digital) technologies. In simple terms, cognitive enhancement in the 4IR cannot be preserved or limited for the few or only the elites but has to be available for all. This may include any brain connectivity which may be possible, improving and augmenting complex/multifaceted problem-solving, innovative thinking, emotional intelligence, dexterity, and tractability, leading to strategic leadership (executive decision-making) both in STEM and non-STEM. Thus, we are arguing that there is a further dimension – in which case, 4IR requires lifelong learning rather than front-ended learning typical of traditional schooling and tertiary systems.
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The second highpoint, which is as a consequence of point one (first), leads to lifelong neuroplasticity. In simple terms, this means that one’s brains could be enhanced to solve challenges such as dementia, noting that neuroplasticity designates brain plasticity. The phenomenon is where the brain can revamp or rewire on its own, given conditions such as experience, in which case the brain generates new neurons. The ramification of neuroplasticity or brain plasticity thus defies the notion that as one grows old, one’s neurons’ functionality necessarily reduces or at least remains fixed (Fernandez 2019).
2.3
Potential Implication 1
The third highlight, as noted by Fernandez (2019), is the rise of mobile, sensing, and wearable technologies/devices. These devices, jointly with artificial intelligence (AI), create a new interface to connect with neuroplasticity. The ramification thereof regarding cognitive enhancement opportunities may be directed by noninvasive processes with targeted interpolations of adaptive technology in real time for empowering and better learning. For instance, ongoing research is pioneering harnessed neuroplasticity via ways such as cognitive assessments and therapies in the form of BrainHQ, CogniFit, and Akili, and companies such as Pear Therapeutics, MyndYou, Click Therapeutics, Cogniciti, and the SBT Group. There are also mindfulness apps available such as Headspace, ClaritasMindsciences, as well as Electroencephalogram (EEG) in the form of Emotiv, InteraXon, and NeuroSky, coupled with virtual reality technology in the form of MindMaze.
2.4
Adaptive (Digital) Technology and Other Industries
While not a new trend, adaptive (digital) learning technology, enhancing cognition, has endured since the 1970s (Carbonell 1970). Work in the early 1970s already demonstrated that there is a link between computer-aided instruction (CAI) and artificial intelligence (AI). In later years, research that linked computer-aided instruction (CAI) and artificial intelligence (AI) appears to have metamorphosed into adaptive and intelligent web-based educational technologies or systems (Brusilovsky 2003; Bostrom and Sandberg 2007; Di Giacomo et al. 2017). As a consequence, this development immensely augments and amplifies one’s ability to accumulate, store, analyze, and communicate information, besides education. A recent examination of Di Giacomo et al.’ s (2017) findings, which state that digital learning leads to enhanced learning processing, reveals evidence for new insights into smart learning, a confirmation of what is already known about adaptive (digital) technology in cognition in the form of impact on social factors as well as the quality of end-users’ application. While the work of Di Giacomo et al. (2017) tends to support that of Hsin, Li, and Tsai (2014), the advancement in computing and information technology, especially
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in education, has merely been reduced or limited to the influence of the end-user application of technology on their learning. For instance, similar to the work of Heider (2015), Di Giacomo et al. (2017), and Hsin et al. (2014), Basitere and Ivala (2017b) in South Africa, when analyzing adaptive learning technology among first-year students, found a positive relationship between high-performing learners and the application of technology in their learning. Examples of adaptive learning technology, such as Blackboard and Moodle, are shown in the works of Basitere and Ivala (2017a), using the WileyPlus ORION (WPO) adaptive learning platform. The platform, similar to Blackboard and Moodle, provides online access to learners when they need to submit web-based formative assessments and also provides individualized feedback. Several other studies, such as those by Basitere and Ivala (2017a), reaffirm the effectiveness of using multimedia and WileyPLUS webbased technology in enhancing learning. Beal, Qu, and Lee (2008) also concluded that help-seeking by learners or students through the use of instructional software is a predictor of mathematics or STEM motivation and achievement. Of course, it is not necessarily the case that teachers use Blackboard or Moodle in these ways. Most of the time, learning management systems (LMSs) simply perpetuate traditional teaching in an online space. Some service providers (such as Khan Academy) provide a better example of a platform that by its very design adapts to learners’ needs – within a very short time, learners, who started at the same time, will be branching out into alternative learning pathways. Nevertheless, we have not yet encountered many university or school courses able to do this; and in fact, the traditional classroom probably only works for about a third of the learners as does the traditional LMS offering. Collectively, what is demonstrated and reaffirmed is that using digital learning solutions could address higher education’s current learning and teaching challenges. Contrastingly, there are three ramifications for the collective conclusion in education: First (1st) is that most of the studies either explore digital learning tools and resources such as Really Simple Syndication (RSS) or they explore Social Readers, Google+ Communities, YouTube Channels, iTunes U, cloud-based word processors (i.e., Google Drive), file-sharing platforms (i.e., Dropbox), Evernote, and Digital Pocket. Accordingly, it could be assumed that the challenge with such narrowly focused studies is being able to generalize from the specifics. The second (2nd) implication is that adaptive learning technologies are mainly divided into different folds or models such as expert model, student model, and instructional environment. Usually, the expert model tends to model information or situations for teaching environments. Student models comprise models that tend to track and learn what students learn, whereas the instructional environment simply delivers the information and serves as the end-user interface for interacting with available system; hence, only the 2nd represents an adaptive approach. The third (3rd) ramification is the implementation type. Arguably, while some implement adaptive (digital) technology as LMS, others implement it as a distance learning system, and some implement it in the form of educational game design. Hence, the challenge is then to find relevant examples to study, i.e., ones that deliberately set out to be adaptive rather than linear.
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Jointly, the research on adaptive (digital) technology benefits users in the educational spaces. It also evidently responds to the challenges experienced in education, especially regarding the types of digital learning solutions in use (Przybylski 2014; Barr et al. 2015).
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Conundrum 1
Regardless of the collective ramifications, what is needed is rather how students and instructors are in search of individualized responses to cognition. This, in turn, raises question about the role of adaptive (digital) technology in cognitive enhancement and the value of cognition. For instance, Bell, Bishop, and Przybylski (2015) and Barr et al. (2015) argue for the need of the “brain in one’s pocket” via a case where smartphones tend to supplement thinking. Bostrom and Roache (2011) report the need for a smart policy by enhancing cognition for the public interest. Bostrom and Roache (2011) and Bostrom and Sandberg (2009) examined the need to enhance human capabilities. Anchored upon these studies, Buchanan (2011); Nestojko, Finley, and Roediger (2013); and Walsh (2016) suggest one fundamental idea – being the cognitive extension and enhancement of the core faculties. However, in recent times, various researchers and theorists have expressed concerns regarding simply limiting adaptive (digital) learning technology in enhancing cognition via (1) digital learning tools and resources, (2) models, and (3) the current implementations methods (Buchanan 2011; Nestojko et al. 2013; Walsh 2016). Buchanan (2011), for example, argues that (1) the digital learning tools and resources, (2) the models, and (3) the current implementations methods do not fully provide us with the capability focus. Similar to Buchanan’s (2011) view, Bostrom and Roache (2011), Bostrom and Sandberg (2009), and Nestojko et al. (2013) argue that (1) digital learning tools and resources, (2) models, and (3) the current implementations result in far more cognitively superficial end-users. Thus, the rise of fake news. For example, some Presidents (of countries) consider their tweets to be more substantive than evidence painstakingly collected and analyzed by scientists. Some of the opponents tend to draw from the work of Bostrom and Roache (2011) and Bostrom and Sandberg (2009), suggesting that information must be easily available and access to such information must be facilitated both internally and through external media (wearable devices). If access to information is easier and faster, users may have to put less effort into accessing, retaining, and storing the information from the core faculties. As a consequence, too, it will develop processes of enhancing how to store and process Big Data in a manner that is freer of errors and has a precise content. Given the rapid digitization of current human endeavors, enabling the steadily increasing use of dependable and adaptive technologies is certainly imperative. This is a significant phenomenon, which needs to be examined, not just for students and instructors in STEM but also for non-STEM at large, hence the current study.
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Criticism of Theoretical Stance and Potential Ramification
Debates on the appropriate theoretical basis related to adaptive e-learning (digital) technology and cognitive enhancement have endured over many years (Bostrom and Ord 2006; Bostrom and Sandberg 2007). The principal reason for such debates has been the fact that while some theories refer to cognition as computational information processing, others have made assumptions, leading to the nature of the model of the brain (Piccinini and Scarantino 2011). There were others who suggested the incorporation of the representation of a model of information (Bostrom and Sandberg 2007), while others argued for the mix of both natural intelligence (NI) and artificial intelligence (AI), in line with the consideration of autonomic computing (AC) vs imperative computing (Fernandez 2019; Geake 2000).
2.7
Potential Implication 1 for Multi-disciplinarily Cognitive Enhancement
Even though the scope of the current research does not consider the extent of theoretical work, which readers may wish to interact with for further analysis, fundamentally, what can be accepted is that theories of adaptive e-learning (digital) technology and cognitive enhancement embrace transdisciplinary areas. Principally, the transdisciplinary areas have yielded and presented an intensive overview of the theories developed for adaptive e-learning (digital) technology and cognitive enhancement forming the basis of the examination of, for instance, the interface of natural intelligence as well as its uses in other areas, but not exclusively, such as mathematics, brain science, neural informatics, knowledge engineering, and software engineering or STEM. As a consequence, this is yielding new frontiers of adaptive e-learning (digital) technology and cognitive enhancement. These frontiers have or at least led to – the enhanced understanding of mechanisms of human perception processes, the cognitive processes of formal inferences, and the formal knowledge system, particularly via STEM-related disciplines, thus blurring the lines of multiple disciplinary avenues.
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Conundrum 2
There are several reasons for blurring nature. The dominant reason has largely been the fact that cognition is a function of information processing, computation, or both, especially not only in STEM disciplines but also regarding general cognition (Piccinini and Scarantino 2011). A contrasting position is that others oppose the theory of cognition grounded on either computation or information processing (Spivey 2007). It is also uncertain as to how information and computation are related and how different theorists employ them. It is equally problematic to compare and contrast theories. It is even more challenging to integrate research findings and descriptions from different research disciplines, due in part to the fact that researchers functioning
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in different areas may employ key approaches/means and terms in a wide variety of ways or different senses (Piccinini and Scarantino 2011, p. 32). These different viewpoints have laid the foundation for the current research. For example, some researchers as well as theorists of cognitive architecture versus connectionist and neuro-computational theories, over the years, have been raging with varying degrees of understanding (Piccinini and Scarantino 2011; Spivey 2007). That is to say, it is difficult to find consensus because different theorists and researchers work from different assumptions – the challenge of a postmodern and rapidly changing world. Essentially, while cognitive architecture hinges robustly on the interphase of cognitive systems and digital computers, connectionism rests chiefly on neural network models of cognitive occurrences, which is anchored principally on behavioral cognition as opposed to neurophysiological cognition. By contrast, though, computational neuroscience rests on the use of neural network models, controlled by neurophysiological and sometimes behavioral information.
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Conundrum 3
Given that the current debate has primarily hinged upon cognitive systems and digital computers and not so much on connectionism and computational neuroscience, the primary goal of the current research rests on examining academic views of adaptive e-learning technology in STEM. Another reason for the debate is that the theory stating that cognition is computation developed into a pervasive notion is increasingly headed to a broadening functioning notion of computation (Piccinini and Scarantino 2011; Spivey 2007; Fodor and Pylyshyn 1988). The theory appears to have been sustained over the years due in part to the fact that unlike “digital computation,” which signifies STEM tools in the examination of applications, occasionally, computation is interchangeably used as any internal process to explain cognition. In the face of these fundamental differences, occasionally, various ideas of information (processing) have distinct roles about performance, querying whether the roles are described as digital computation or general computation, or even cognition. For instance, while digital computation refers to the manipulation of sequences or series of discrete elements, to be precise, strings of letters that may result from a finite alphabet, generic computation designates the processing or procedures in accordance with rules that are sensitive to certain properties and, specifically, to differences between different parts of the processes (Piccinini and Scarantino 2011, p. 7).
2.10
Potential Implication 2 for Advancing STEM
Notwithstanding the significance of educational systems, not much is known regarding how abstract STEM thinking occurs (Hassy and Grodd 2016). While there is ongoing research, studies have customarily been preserved for understanding
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STEM’s more simple forms such as numeration or counting, primarily at the elementary or primary education levels. Even though the current research acknowledges that numeration or counting constitutes the basic knowledge upon which other STEM abilities advance, there is a gap in knowledge regarding the link between the fundamental knowledge and the processing of complex STEM ideas, where such data are in part ill-understood. However, what is satisfactorily understood is the acquisition of numeracy, which the 1970s through to 2019 ushered in and which designated a considerable turning point in researchers’ approach to human cognition as a whole and STEM specifically (Chassy and Grodd 2012; Carbonell 1970; Brusilovsky 2003; Bostrom and Sandberg 2007; Di Giacomo et al. 2017), wherein adaptive learning technologies, for instance, have provided and facilitated localization of neural activity. They are also enriching one’s understanding that STEM cognition, just like other forms of cognition and skills, is dependent on comprehending cognitive systems (cognitive architecture) and digital computers via various theories. Hence, there was a need for the current study to examine the consequences of the adaptive learning technology for one’s cognitive abilities as well as approaches that may be considered in evaluating these consequences.
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Summary/Research Aim
The current research sought to examine the following questions: What are some of the probable consequences of adaptive learning technology for one’s cognitive abilities? What approaches are suggested and may be considered in evaluating these probable consequences? In examining cognitive enhancement through adaptive learning technology, ten (10) academics (denoted, R1, R2, R3, . . ., R10) were recruited from a South African university. The participating academics were in the university’s department of mathematics, sciences, and technology education. All participants had access to, and expertise with, how the university’s e-learning portals work, how many faculty utilize them, and how they are purported to enhance learning. The university used the open-source learning management system Moodle as well as the proprietary LMS Blackboard and the department made use of other software platforms such as MATLAB, Geometer’s Sketchpad, R, and GeoGebra. A questionnaire was designed for determining their views regarding the use, importance, and implementation of AEL systems in university student learning. The task was adapted from the problem statement, the literature, contestations, and gaps found in the literature particularly regarding cognitive processing via AEL systems (e.g., Deary et al. 2007; Spinath et al. 2006), working memory (e.g., Passolunghi et al. 2007; Swanson and Kim 2007), spatial processing (e.g., Guay and McDaniel 1977; Jones and Burnett 2008), and language abilities (e.g., Koponen et al. 2007; Lee et al. 2004). Participants were allowed to either write their responses to the questionnaire or provide oral answers which were recorded and transcribed.
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The project was implemented in the first semester of the 2019 academic year and examined participant understanding of AEL technology by investigating definitions, methodologies, and factors promoting AEL. Noesgaard and Ørngreen (2015) recount that many studies have used various quantitative and statistical methodologies to examine learning through AEL technology (e.g., Grgurovic et al. 2013; Means et al. 2013; Rosenberg et al. 2003; Veneri 2011). However, the current study employs a qualitative, exploratory data analysis (EDA) and methodology (Given 2008) to investigate participant opinions. In this study, data analysis was performed through discourse analysis (Gee 1999; Johnstone 2002; Schiffrin et al. 2001). Participants were interviewed regarding their level of understanding of information systems, computer applications technology, information processing and computational cognition, and learning through AEL technology. Through discourse analysis, the researcher sought to discover and review patterns, themes, and discrepancies among responses. Ethical considerations in terms of anonymity and privacy were observed at all times.
2.12
Understanding and Approaches of Enhancing Cognition
One of the difficulties immediately recognized in analyzing participants’ responses parallels the findings previously mentioned (e.g., Guilhermina 2007; Thompson et al. 1996) that inconsistencies arise among definitions of AEL nomenclature and applications. For instance, when participants were asked to define adaptive e-learning (AEL) technology, R1 uses the description: “technology that adapts to one’s unique way of learning over time. The technology collects data about how one learns to improve one’s future learning experiences.” This has some consistencies with responses from R4 and R9. However, R3 adds that computational cognition should be referred to as “the brain’s ability to compute. It could be a human brain or a computer’s operating system. But I think in higher education it means both. It could mean to study cognition, or to use operating systems” (R8 had a similar opinion.) Notably, the articulations from R1 seem more refined and precise than those by R3, who, in further communications, states that “all the technology we use can provide students with different assignments based on needs. Similar responses are provided by R2, R5, and R8. At variance with R3, R5 suggests that cognitive enhancement via AEL technology in higher education (and everywhere) “. . . could mean to use technology to enhance computational cognition, information processing, and use computer applications. . . for learning and to study learning.” These ideas are consistent with R4 and R7. Defining information processing, R5 articulates, “. . .a process of decrypting pieces of information, which appear disconnected to make connections, so to understand a phenomenon or solve a problem. This could be done in higher education to understand students’ experiences, failures, and success within the higher education system.” Similar notions are stated by R1, R2, R4, and R9. While these few responses indicate that the participants have differing understandings of AEL, many hold the belief that any technology, which instructors can use
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to provide or students use to access different assignments, could be considered AEL (R2, R3, R5, R7, R8). This is notably far from the characteristics of AEL provided by Wu et al. (2018) and Räsänen et al. (2009), and this different perception may in part explain the respective department’s limited implementation of AEL. Consistent with the response of R1, R9 suggests that cognitive enhancement via AEL technology should be seen as “software that elicits particular responses from the students. The software then manages the interaction, leading to a ‘custombased’ learning environment for the learner in question.” This is similar to R4. However, for AEL technology, R9 argues that it should encompass “. . .software development that mediates the learning process by customizing the learning environment” (R1, R4). In this case, R9 is consistent with the opinions of Bostrom and Sandberg (2009). Conversely, R10, when asked for a definition for AEL, states, “I don’t know. I teach with technology, but I don’t think that I have an exact definition for AEL” (similar to R8). Examination of literature on cognitive enhancement suggested a variety of ways to enhance one’s cognitive capacities. While some approaches include gaining, processing, and storing information, others involve retrieving information as both R1 and R6 claim, together with Räsänen et al. (2009). Nevertheless, in the last two decades, other pharmaceutical possibilities for cognitive enhancement have become prevalent (Piccinini and Scarantino 2011; Spivey 2007; Bostrom and Sandberg 2009). While some include the use of modafinil, others highlight the use of Ritalin. Respectively, both are used to treat narcolepsy and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), but they also possess the ability for memory-enhancing effects, together with enhancing alertness and improving concentration/attention in healthy individuals. Another technique geared toward improving some forms of motor learning is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). TMS, which is an example of external stimulation, in some instances, may be developed as hardware. For example, when used, TMS could reduce or increase the readiness of the cortex. This intend changes the level of plasticity. The result of increased TMS of the motor cortex leads to enhanced performance in procedural learning activities. When TMS is used in the appropriate regions of the brain, the consequences are beneficial and are visible in the form of enhanced learning and improved motor tasks. Some benefits have been associated with visio-motor-coordination tasks, while others are affecting memory as well as finger sequence tapping, or classification and even declarative memory consolidation during sleep. Gene variations have also shown promising accounts of about 5% of memory performance and, as a consequence, have given rise to cognition-enhancing genetic intermediations (Piccinini and Scarantino 2011; Spivey 2007; Bostrom and Sandberg 2009). Regardless of the list of cognitive enhancement approaches proposed through pharmaceutical or from medical methods, whose primary objective is the treatment of a disease or a medical condition, the current shift in methods used has primarily been toward the use of adaptive learning technologies as alluded by some respondents (R7, R1, and R9) in the study (Piccinini and Scarantino 2011; Bostrom and Roache 2011). While not fully articulated by respondents, from the
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perspective of the Model of the Brain theory, the fundamental reason has been the present medicine control and licensing system, which exercises a one-sided directional pull. This means that the system was designed to handle, prevent, detect, cure, or mitigate diseases or medical conditions of the brain (Piccinini and Scarantino 2011) – as traditional medicine requires, thereby not making room for medicine or pharmaceutical products that can enhance the brain’s functions, because improving cognitive functioning by using pharmaceutical products still encounters enormous challenges (Piccinini and Scarantino 2011). As such, any potential cognitive enhancement drug is geared for the treatment of a precise disease condition, which includes, but is not limited to, ADHD, narcolepsy, and Alzheimer’s disease, as mentioned earlier. While all research participants in this study worked in the same department at the same university and had access to the same technological resources, participants had differing levels of knowledge of AEL. Notably, the literature seems to tie information processing with computational cognition through the mechanisms of obtaining, retaining, and reproducing information contextualized within a task (Bostrom and Sandberg 2009). In AEL architecture and information processing, these three mechanisms have evolved unevenly over time without established results, particularly in most institutions of higher education in Africa. This may explain the difficulty in succinct explanations being made of some of the concepts of AEL, as noted by some of the participants. In summary, it can only be assumed that inconsistencies among participants’ notions of the nature of AEL would certainly affect the implementation of AEL within a particular department. This is all the more noteworthy when all participants work in the same department at the same university. It must be queried as to what will be needed to achieve more consistent definitions, which could be shared within a department and across a university. Thus, a future work to be considered may be to investigate their views on the nature of cognitive enhancement and how they thought their current practice achieved this/did not achieve this and how AEL might then play a part.
2.13
Applying Adaptive E-Learning (Digital) Technology and Cognitive Enhancement in STEM
In studying cognitive correlates of performance in computational cognition, Wei, Yuan, Chen, and Zhou (2012) suggest that not much-advanced research is devoted to advanced computational cognition such as AI, cryptography, or modern algebra and logic reasoning. This is seen in the statements of R1: “I have not seen true AEL in higher Math university courses. It seems like all those options are for lower-level courses with a greater number of students in each class. And, I have not seen much research regarding student learning in these environments. It seems like they are mostly geared to classroom management of larger classes than really investigating if students learn better” (R4 and R9 have similar comments). Since some of the
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participants in this study have expertise only in some of these fields and not in others, this may also partially explain why some participants, such as R1, R7, and R6, do not share the same views, in contrast to participants such as R2, R9, and R5. One respondent, R5 says, while I believe in the power of technology, I confess that I rarely see provable results regarding improving student learning. Despite the consequence of the Matthew effect, Wei et al. (2012) reveal that basic numerical processing and computation do not generally correlate with performance in advanced cognitive computing. As a result of the existential challenge, cognitive architecture theory proposes that developers of cognitive enhancement approach including those for adaptive learning instead of directing unswervingly at enhancements from the medical perspective, should rather direct effort ultimately to demonstrating that noninvasive approaches such as adaptive learning are more appropriate. These could be in the form of the third highlight of Fernandez (2019), including but not limited to mobile, sensory, and wearable technologies. Thus, we believe AEL might work to enhance cognitive functioning, but we do not have a sufficient base of evidence to be able to generalize. There are several implications. The first implication is that given the different means in improving one’s cognitive capabilities for different reasons, the expectations are higher, especially given the innovative breakthroughs offered by technologies. The second implication is that, in light of the dearth of evidence to support the use of AEL, learners and parents fall back on medication to try to enhance performance. The challenge remains for parents and the institutes of higher learning, how to respond to such trends, and the effects it will have on the students and thus, the general educational systems. As a consequence of such challenges, could users be required to undertake blood or urine tests before writing their school or university exams? Until recently, such questions/challenges were muted. However, due to the increasing need/application for enhanced cognition, these challenges have led to alternative approaches being considered, such as mobile, sensors, and wearable technologies (Hassy and Grodd 2016). The inspiration has largely been derived from research innovation and therapeutic devices such as neural prostheses, with a similar purpose being cochlea implants (Finn and LoPresti 2003). The development of an artificial retina has also added to the possibility of enhanced cognition (Rizzo et al. 2001). Neural stimulation, in many ways, has been successful in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. For instance, a brain implant has been useful in patients who have suffered a stroke, which provides physically incapable brainstem-stroke patients with the ability to control the movement of a cursor on a computer screen (Kennedy et al. 2004). Even though some participants (R3, R5, R6, R8, and R10) reveal limited knowledge of AEL integration in the classroom, it is believed that all could continue to create innovative and student-centered learning materials and aid in the process of AEL technology implementation at the university (Mendezabal and Tindowen 2018).
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However, as previously mentioned, there has been a substantial body of work demonstrating an inclination to use AEL in teaching and learning, with frequently mixed results (Bostrom and Sandberg 2009; Harrison et al. 2004; Lyons et al. 2008; Mendezabal and Tindowen 2018; Räsänen et al. 2009; The Royal Society 2011). For instance, it has been confirmed that “. . .the use of the applets created with the help of GeoGebra and used in differential calculus teaching had a positive effect on the understanding and knowledge of the students” (Mendezabal and Tindowen 2018, p. 385). The suggestion is that there is a connection between conceptual understanding, procedural skills, and comprehension. Parallel research demonstrates that the implementation process appears slow (Safdar et al. 2011). Even though participant R3 echoes the need for “. . .technology that assists, supporting and facilitation of the functioning of the mind,” the challenge of implementation remains at the core of AEL. In summary, participants who seemingly know less of AEL and its appropriate applications seem more defensive in their responses and more strongly insist that their instructional uses of technology are the appropriate implementation of AEL.
3
Conclusion
Considering both the participants’ views and literature from previous works, the results remain mixed. While overwhelmingly, participant responses suggest that the academics advocated for the use of AEL technology, they had significantly different views regarding such use. Indeed, academics had inconsistent views regarding whether they were each properly applying AEL in their regular practices. The recommendation from this study is that we first need to prove that AEL can produce better results with fewer negative consequences than drugs or surgeries. There remains a continued need for advanced training of university academics in the constructs and applications of AEL technologies to empower change at the university level. The researcher argues that until academics are sufficiently knowledgeable in AEL matters, there is little hope that students will benefit from AEL technologies. Researching the actual effect of AEL technology in learning may be premature. It is important to realize that this research occurred only at one university with academics from one department. While it may be inferred that these academics were unusually weak regarding AEL technology, the researcher believes that this is far from the case. Indeed, it is hypothesized that if academics were investigated from almost any university, similar results would ensue. Thus, there is an extensive need to concretize notions regarding AEL within any university and possibly beyond for successful implementation to occur.
4
Cross-References
▶ Involving Girls Early in STEM for Sustainable Development ▶ The Contemporary State of Education in South Africa
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Celebrating Diversity The Right to Exercise Religion in Public Schools in South Africa Caitlin Reid and Anton Kok
Contents 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 South African Equality Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 The Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 The Harksen v Lane Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 The Exercise of Religion in South African Public Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Challenges Facing South African Government Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Diversity as Legal Conceptual Consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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In this chapter, the authors consider how the rights to freedom of religion and substantive equality, as concretized in the South African Constitution and equality legislation, should be harmonized in the context of the exercise of religion in public schools. We use a legal analytical approach in considering how South African courts are currently dealing with the concept of “celebrating diversity” and how they should be solving these disputes: a descriptive and normative legal approach, in other words. Keywords
Freedom of religion · Equality · Substantive equality · Public schools · Equality legislation · Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act 4 of 2000 C. Reid University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] A. Kok (*) Department of Jurisprudence, Faculty of Law, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 K. S. Adeyemo (ed.), The Education Systems of Africa, Global Education Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44217-0_8
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Introduction
Religion, faith, and culture are deep-seated and firmly entrenched aspects of humankind, which despite being matters of deeply intimate conviction have an ineluctable communal implication (Venter 2012: 433). For centuries, history has demonstrated a close causal nexus between the propagation of religion and education justifying the significance of an analysis of their relationship and the implications thereof (Venter 2012: 433). Globalization has resulted, and continues to result, in the widespread and unstoppable mobility of humankind. These global migration trends have resulted in the everincreasing proliferation of religious plurality within states. History reveals that social stability in multireligious societies has faced inherent risks due to such trends giving rise to conflicting or competing religious and cultural views and observances (Venter 2012: 439). Monoreligious societies are becoming increasingly less prevalent and safeguarding social harmony, catering for religious diversity and endeavoring to achieve equality within all societal contexts, including the educational sphere, is progressively becoming a primary concern for civil societies and governments alike (Venter 2012: 439). The preservation and equal treatment of varying religions and cultures have consequently become a notable theme in both national and international law, with several legal instruments purporting to safeguard such religious rights and freedoms (for example, article 9 of the European Convention on Human Rights and article 8 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights of 1981). The manner in which respective legal systems address religion in schools hinges on a particular society’s social constitution, history, and prevailing political order (Venter 2012: 441). In constitutional states such as South Africa, which are governed by a want for equality and dignity, finding harmony between the religious preferences of role-players in society as well as a balance with other rights, such as equality, proves to be complicated (Venter 2012: 441). The exercise of religion in public schools is ubiquitous and bears an international footprint. Religious discrimination and inequality is not an unfamiliar concept, particularly within the educational sphere. Learners in various parts of the world have been forced to subscribe to religious practices which are far removed from their own, conform to the teachings of a favored denomination and being subjected to discrimination and unequal treatment. In Germany, for example, there used to be a law which required that a crucifix be placed on public school classroom walls (Hodgson 2017: 197). This law has since been declared unconstitutional by the German Constitutional Court as such practice would imply that the school subscribes to Christianity and would likely result in coercion of the learners to identify with the Christian faith. Canadian cases have also demonstrated confessional or doctrinal school curricula and practices which were offensive to those who did not subscribe to the Christian faith (See Corp. of the Canadian Civil Liberties Assn v. Ontario (Minister of Education) (1988), 64 O.R. (2d) 577 (Ont. H.C.J.); Zylberberg v. Sudbury (Board of Education) (1986), 55 O.R. (2d) 749 (Ont. Div. Ct.)). The exercise of religion in public schools in South Africa has been, and continues to be, a highly contested and controversial area of the law (Van der Walt 2011: 381).
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The debate surrounding this issue seemed to have been settled following the promulgation of the National Policy on Religion and Education in 2003 by the South African Department of Basic Education. Many South African public schools, however, continue to market themselves as having a “Christian ethos” and selected schools still offer confessional or sectarian Christian practices and religious education (Van der Walt 2011: 381). Some South Africans do not appear to be entirely satisfied with how the state has addressed the issue of religion and religious freedom in public education. This is evident from the OGOD judgment published in 2017 (Organisasie vir Godsdienste-Onderrig en Demokrasie v Laerskool Randhart and Others 2017 3 SA 943 (GJ) (hereafter “OGOD”)). Prior to the first democratic elections in 1994, the apartheid government implemented “Christian National Education” (hereafter “CNE”) (Hodgson 2017: 192). CNE was a policy that governed religion in public education in South Africa (Hodgson 2017: 192). Many viewed the policy as being rooted in a narrow interpretation of Christianity that underpinned racial discrimination and apartheid (De Waal et al. 2011: 62). The policy was regarded as a means to indoctrinate the youth with a particular conservative strand of Christianity and devalue other cultures and religions (Hodgson 2017: 192). In light of this view, CNE, arguably, discouraged individualism and religious difference (Hodgson 2017: 192). Consequently, in line with this argument, schools served as institutions which encouraged children to develop and internalize sexist and racist views consistent with this (warped) worldview (Hodgson 2017: 192). Following 1994, against the emerging human rights backdrop, South Africa began to restructure the education system (Hodgson 2017: 192). A National Policy on Religion in Education was adopted in 2003 under the umbrella of the Schools Act 84 of 1996 (hereafter “the Schools Act”) and was preceded by the guidelines therein as well as those in the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (hereafter “the Constitution”) (Van der Walt 2011: 382). In 2001, prior to the policy being finalized, “Religion Education” was introduced in public schools to educate learners about religion and religious diversity (Hodgson 2017: 192–193). The policy, which remains in force, considers the role played by “religious observances” and “religious education” respectively in educational institutions (National Policy on Religion and Education par 54–59). The policy, however, deems “religious instruction” in the public educational setting “inappropriate” (National Policy on Religion and Education par 22). The policy highlights that no distinct religious ethos should repress others in public schools (Hodgson 2017: 192–193). South African public schools are confronted with various challenges in respect of the exercise of the right to religion. These challenges range from the implementation of religious practices, including religious observances, education, and instruction, to the enforcement of a school uniform and code of conduct. Freedom of religion has been described as a cornerstone fundamental right safeguarded by the Constitution (Venter 2012: 438). This right, embodied in section 15 of the Constitution is, however, not without limitation and is always in a “delicate balance” with other entrenched fundamental rights (Venter 2012: 438). One right that often stands in competition with the right to religious freedom is that of the right to equality.
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The Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act 4 of 2000 (hereafter “PEPUDA”) was enacted to, inter alia, establish a caring South African society founded on egalitarianism. PEPUDA prohibits unfair discrimination, harassment and hate speech on numerous grounds including conscience, religion, belief, and culture. Section 9(3) of the Constitution outlaws unfair discrimination on the same prohibited grounds. All laws, including PEPUDA, are required to be interpreted in accordance with the object, spirit, and purport of the Bill of Rights (section 39(2) of the Constitution). The Constitution espouses a substantive, rather than formal, approach to equality (Albertyn 2007: 258). The very essence of equality may in some instances require that groups or individuals be treated differently to cater for and accommodate their respective needs and interests (Christianson et al. 2017: 122). In light of South Africa’s history and vision for the future, equality serves as a central tenet of the Constitution. It is often regarded as the foundational principle of the South African Constitution and society as a whole (President of the RSA v Hugo 1997 4 SA 1 (CC) (hereafter “Hugo”) par 74). South Africa, arguably, accommodates a myriad of beliefs. This is consistent with the Constitution’s preamble which emphasizes that “South Africa belongs to all who live in it, united in our diversity.” Faith and religion, as inherent characteristics of humanity that cannot be sidestepped or dismissed, are ubiquitous (Venter 2012: 433). South Africa boasts a rich religious plurality (Venter 2012: 433). How is it then possible to balance competing rights: that of the right to religion, as well as association and expression, with the right to equality? This envisaged balance translates into what place or role religion holds in the public education sphere. Is it justifiable to discriminate against others on the basis of one’s religion, freedom of expression, or freedom of association? Is it acceptable to prohibit learners from wearing certain jewellery, hairstyles, clothing, or religious symbols at schools? Is it tolerable (or at all fair) taking into consideration that in some instances the latter form an integral part of one’s cultural and religious practices? Although most South Africans, arguably, identify as Christian, we do not live in a Christian state (Hodgson 2017: 187). Should it however then be acceptable, for example, that school assemblies or sports matches commence with a prayer to the Christian God or that educators express views that undermine the importance of the theory of evolution (which forms part of the national curriculum)? How should the South African education system celebrate diversity? Given South Africa’s history, demographics, and ostensible religious plurality, arguably measures should be implemented to address the issue of religion in public schools to cater for religious diversity, the need for substantive equality, and “transformative constitutionalism” (Klare 1998: 150–151). In this chapter, we address the operation of South African equality law and the challenges currently faced by South African public schools regarding the place of religion in the public education system. We outline the approach currently followed by South African courts. Lastly, we address diversity as a conceptual consideration and undertake a legal analysis of how the notion of “celebrating diversity” in South African public schools should practically be applied.
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South African Equality Law
Both the right to equality and the right against unfair discrimination have pervasive application in most legal systems and human rights instruments. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights as well as numerous conventions of the International Labor Organization, the European Convention of Human Rights and Individual Freedom, and the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights all embody provisions which pertain to antidiscrimination and equality (see, for example, article 1 of the ILO Discrimination (Employment and Occupation Convention 111 of 1958, article 14 of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms Rome, 4.XI.1950 and article 28 of The African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights). The South African Constitution, like most national constitutions that provide for and safeguard basic constitutional rights, embodies provisions which pertain to equality and antidiscrimination. This is attributable to South Africa’s unique history and the contemporary transformative vision that underpins the Republic’s democracy. Equality, often referred to as the cornerstone of the South African democracy, is a value in section 1 and right in section 9 of the Constitution (Hugo par 74). Equality also features in other constitutional provisions including section 36(1) and section 39 (1) of the Constitution. South Africa is described as a democratic, sovereign state underpinned by the realization of equality as well as the promotion of human dignity and the advancement of human rights (section 1(a) of the Constitution). Brink v Kitshoff NO 1996 4 SA 197 (CC) par 40 (hereafter “Brink”) highlights the “particular importance” of the right to equality in South Africa. Its significance emanates from South Africa’s history of apartheid and colonial rule which perpetuated both inequality and discrimination. Given South Africa’s history, it comes as no surprise that equality “lies at the very heart of the Constitution” (Fraser v Children’s Court, Pretoria North 1997 (2) SA 261 (CC) (hereafter “Fraser”) par 20). The notion of equality shares a golden thread with the acceptance and celebration of difference. The right necessitates that people’s diversity be acknowledged, protected, and celebrated (Minister of Home Affairs v Fourie 2006 (1) SA 524 (CC) (hereafter “Fourie”) par 60). Equality presupposes equal regard and respect for other individuals irrespective of the differences that may exist between them (Fourie par 60). Equality does not entail the suppression of uniqueness nor should it serve as the foundation for stigma or marginalization (Fourie par 60).
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The Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act
PEPUDA was introduced as an imperative legislative endeavor to create a kind, egalitarian society and negate the effect of years of racially underpinned oppression and marginalization in South Africa (sections 2(a) to (h) of the Act). PEPUDA expressly outlaws unfair discrimination, harassment, and hate speech in all societal contexts on various prohibited grounds. These grounds are consistent with those laid
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out in the Constitution, including religion, conscience, belief, and culture. PEPUDA, like all laws, must be interpreted in accordance with the Bill of Right’s spirit, purport, and objectives (section 2(b) of the Act). PEPUDA’s preamble speaks of the eradication of social and economic inequalities, specifically those entrenched in social structures and practices rooted in South Africa’s past of apartheid, colonialism and patriarchy (also see section 4(2)(a) and (b) of this Act). An analysis of a number of PEPUDA’s provisions demonstrates that the legislature intended for PEPUDA to bring about change in the hearts and minds of the South African populace (Kok 2017: 28). Section 9 of the Constitution is referred to as the equality clause. Section 9(1) provides that everyone is entitled to equal application and protection of the law. Section 9(2) stipulates that equality comprises of absolute and equal enjoyment of all rights and freedoms for all persons. The subsection furthermore provides that in order to realize equality, legislative and other measures may be implemented to safeguard and advance categories of previously disadvantaged persons. Sections 9(3) and 9(4) list various grounds on which the state and any person may not unfairly discriminate against other persons. These grounds inter alia include religion, conscience, belief, and culture. Section 9(5) provides for a presumption of unfair discrimination based on the grounds explicitly listed in section 9(3). In the South African context, the achievement of equality not only entails the removal of discrimination but also the implementation of active measures to promote equality. The terms “formal” and “substantive” equality are used frequently throughout this chapter. It is therefore important to elaborate on their meaning. Formal equality refers to the situation where all persons in shared circumstances are subject to uniform treatment or a consistent standard (City Council of Pretoria v Walker 1998 2 SA 363 (CC) (hereafter “Walker”) par 73). Formal equality therefore entails that all individuals are treated in the same manner despite their unique circumstances and without regard to their respective societal positions. The Constitutional Court has, however, previously remarked that insistence on uniform treatment in all circumstances will not necessarily realize equality on the grounds of person’s equal worth and freedom (Hugo par 41). On the other hand, substantive equality, which has been endorsed by the Constitutional Court on various occasions, epitomizes the absolute and equal enjoyment of all rights and freedoms for all persons and encompasses both de jure and de facto equality (Kok 2001: 295). Substantive equality necessitates consideration of the unique, diverse circumstances under which different categories of persons may find themselves (Christianson et al. 2017: 122). Substantive equality takes into account different factors including historical and social context, economic disparities, and the group to which a person belongs. It consequently seeks to acknowledge and appreciate that different categories of persons may receive identical treatment or standards differently (Christianson et al. 2017: 122). For this reason, substantive equality views the application of a uniform standard to all categories of persons in the same circumstances as the perpetuation of inequality. Substantive equality differs from formal equality in that it concerns the equality of the outcome of a measure and therefore focuses on the effect of a measure as opposed to the manner of its formulation (Christianson et al. 2017: 122).
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National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian Equality and Another v Minister of Justice and Others 1999 1 SA 6 (CC) par 61 emphasized that in the South African context, the achievement of equality requires a remedial approach. The need for the implementation of corrective measures is underpinned by the notion of transformation, and the need for social justice which, although not expressly embodied in the wording of the Constitution, has been endorsed by the Constitutional Court on several occasions (e.g., Bato Star Fishing v Minister of Environmental Affairs 2004 4 SA 490 (CC) par 47; South African Police Service v Solidarity obo Barnard 2014 10 BCLR 1195 (CC) par 29 (hereafter “Solidarity obo Barnard”)). The notion of remedial equality is further endorsed by section 9(2) of the Constitution which deals with affirmative action. Since the advent of the current constitutional dispensation, and in the light of past atrocities which plagued South African society, the Constitution has endeavored to realize an august transformative mission. This vision of “transformative constitutionalism,” a term coined by Klare (1998: 150), is described as a long term project of constitutional enactment, interpretation and enforcement committed to transforming a country’s political and social institutions and power relationships in a democratic, participatory and egalitarian direction.
Through the lens of transformative constitutionalism, the Constitution is the legal framework for the transformation of inequitable social, political, economic, and cultural engagements. The notion not only calls for, but demands, a truly open and substantively equal society and is said to require “(a) complete reconstruction of the state and society, including a redistribution of power and resources along egalitarian lines” (Albertyn and Goldblatt 1998: 249). Equality and inclusive social reconstruction therefore lie as the forefront of the desired transformed South African society. Over the years, the “net of inclusion” in South African society has been widened by equality jurisprudence (Albertyn 2007: 254). South African society has become more accommodating and tolerant of diversity. The underlying social framework built up during apartheid has, however, not been fully dismantled. A transformative approach requires that the law establish a new, just, and nonhierarchal framework which promotes equal treatment, inclusivity, and engagement. The basis for the want for an egalitarian society is entrenched in the idealistic vision of a “natural” human condition – envisioned as a homogenous society buttressed by level social rankings and substantive equality (Albertyn and Goldblatt 1998: 249–253). Seen in this context, inequality is viewed as abnormal and unorthodox – a harrowing consequence of historical atrocities in which the only justifiable state of equality was distorted and replaced by one dominated by tyranny, oppression, and inequality (Albertyn and Goldblatt 1998: 249–253). It is important to reiterate that equality, freedom, and dignity serve as the founding values of South African society – all law and actions hinge on their application (section 1(a) of the Constitution). The intimate nexus shared between transformatism and substantive equality results in the dismissal of formal equality. The notion of substantive equality is regarded an important transformative legal tool and often viewed as the means to generate justifiable legal solutions (Albertyn 2007: 253).
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Without the application of substantive equality, outcomes will likely be unfair and constitutionally invalid. Substantive equality’s legal and practical application needs to become more “conceptually consistent” for equality jurisprudence to move away from being solely inclusionary and towards becoming truly transformative (Albertyn 2007: 254). Substantive equality further needs to be informed by an openly progressive and transformative jurisprudence which is better equipped to resist legal formalism and consequently also discrimination and unequal treatment (Albertyn 2007: 254). The celebrated mission of transformation is to realize this want for an egalitarian society underpinned by elemental homogeneity and true equality. The need for substantive equality should stem from an understanding of perpetuated oppression, discrimination, and inequalities and the aim of eradicating them. While South Africa’s equality jurisprudence has come a far way since 1994, it has not yet harnessed its full potential. Equality, as a “transformative right,” could be reinforced by an improved, more consistent, and committed blend of theory and practical application (Albertyn 2007: 260). It is important to distinguish between two important concepts. Differentiation on the one hand simply appears to constitute distinction or “difference in treatment” between persons in the absence of any prohibited ground (Hugo paras 33 and 39). Discrimination, however, amounts to a distinction made between persons or categories of persons on recognized (listed or unlisted) prohibited grounds (Harksen v Lane NO and Others 1997 11 BCLR 1489 (CC) (hereafter “Harksen”) paras 54 and 89). Section 9(3) of the Constitution contains a comprehensive list of prohibited grounds. The unlisted prohibited grounds are those grounds which are not so codified yet bear the potential to impair a person’s fundamental dignity or those which may affect a person in a comparably, adverse manner (Harksen par 46). For the purposes of this chapter, the focus will fall on the explicitly listed grounds in section 9(3) of religion, conscience, and belief. Furthermore, a distinction can be drawn between direct and indirect discrimination (Walker paras 30–32). Indirect discrimination is prima facie impartial but has the result that particular benefits are disproportionately withheld or particular disadvantages disproportionately imposed on particular categories of persons (compare Walker par 32). Direct discrimination is expressly discriminatory in its formulation or can otherwise constitute conduct based on a prohibited ground (Walker par 32). For the purpose of establishing whether or not discrimination has taken place it is not necessary to establish that there was an intention to discriminate (Christianson et al. 2017: 121).
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The Harksen v Lane Test
The Harksen test serves as a single test for the right to equality and the right against unfair discrimination as concretized in section 9 of the Constitution (Harksen paras 44–54). In terms of this test it must first be established if the provision in question differentiates between people. If answered in the affirmative, such differentiation must bear a rational relationship to a legitimate governmental purpose (Jooste v
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Score Supermarket Trading (Pty) Ltd (Minister of Labour intervening) 1999 2 SA 1 (CC) (hereafter “Jooste”) par 12). If such differentiation is on a listed prohibited ground it will constitute discrimination. If the differentiation is based on an unlisted ground, it will constitute discrimination if such ground bears the potential to impair a person’s fundamental dignity or affect such person in a manner that is comparably adverse. There is a presumption of unfairness if the discrimination occurred on an explicitly listed ground. If the discrimination occurred on an unlisted ground, the onus rests with the applicant to establish unfairness. The respondent can, in cases where unfair discrimination has been established, still contend that the latter was justifiable in terms of section 36 of the Constitution – if the discrimination occurred on the basis of law of general application. Harksen v Lane and various other cases have dealt with what constitutes fair discrimination taking into account various factors including the impact of discrimination, the position of the complainants in South African society, whether the complainants are or were victims of historical inequality, the discrimination’s nature and purpose as well as the cumulative effect of all the relevant factors. All the aforementioned factors need to be considered in the determination of unfairness – some of these factors cannot be “cherry-picked” and dealt with in isolation. Section 14 of PEPUDA provides additional factors that should be considered to determine whether the discrimination in question is fair or unfair. Minister of Finance v Van Heerden states that if an affirmative action measure falls within the ambit of section 9(2) it does not constitute unfair discrimination (Minister of Finance v Van Heerden 2004 6 SA 121 (CC) (hereafter “Van Heerden”) paras 36–44). However, if such measures do not fall within the ambit of section 9(2) and constitute discrimination on a prohibited ground, then it would be necessary to apply the Harksen test (Van Heerden paras 36–44). Section 9(2) lays down three distinct requirements. Firstly, whether the measure earmarks a specific group of persons previously disadvantaged by unfair discrimination. Secondly, whether the measure is designed to safeguard or promote such group of persons. In terms of this requirement, the measure itself must be capable of realizing the desired result with reasonable probability without relying on capricious, bare preferences. Thirdly, it must be established whether the measure advances the realization of equality. The effect of the measure should be evaluated within the South African context. The measure should not amount to a misuse of power nor should it, to the extent that it would undermine South Africa’s long-term democratic goals, levy unnecessary harm on those that fall outside the ambit of its benefits. Solidarity obo Barnard reaffirms the transformative purpose of affirmative action, as set out in section 9(2), as a measure directed at remedying past discrimination, provided that it does not infringe the human dignity of those involved (Solidarity obo Barnard par 29, 74, and 78). This case affirms the three requirements to determine whether the provision falls within the scope of section 9(2). Firstly, it must be aimed at a class that was previously disadvantaged (Solidarity obo Barnard par 36). Secondly, it must, or have the potential to, protect or advance such class of persons (Solidarity obo Barnard par 36). Lastly, it must endorse the achievement of equality (Solidarity obo Barnard par 36).
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There is an interplay between section 9 and section 36 of the Constitution. Section 36, commonly referred to as the limitation clause, provides for the limitations of rights. Section 36(1) stipulates that the rights, as embodied in the Bill of Rights, may only be limited in terms of a law of general application and only to the degree that such restriction is “reasonable and justifiable in an open and democratic society based on human dignity, equality and freedom,” taking into consideration various factors including the nature of the right, the purpose and importance of the limitation, the nature and extent of the limitation, the nexus between such limitation and its intended purpose, and whether there are less restrictive means to realize the same purpose. Section 36(2) further provides no right in the Bill of Rights may be limited by any law except as outlined in the aforementioned subsection or any other constitutional provision. If section 9(3) is breached – if a court finds that unfair discrimination occurred – a court must then still consider if the unfair discrimination is reasonable and justifiable in terms of section 36. However, no South African court has to date held that unfair discrimination may be justifiable in terms of section 36. It is evident that South Africa boasts several legislative and constitutional endeavors to promote equality and nondiscrimination within the Republic. It is clear that a quintessential feature of the transformed South African legal framework is progression towards a classless, truly equal society premised on substantive equality. Equality is, very clearly, the focus of the Constitution and – in law – the country’s organizing principle.
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The Exercise of Religion in South African Public Schools
The adoption of the Constitution and ensuing political affairs that have occurred since South Africa’s first democratic elections in 1994 have resulted in far-reaching effects in various spheres of life, including the educational sphere (De Waal et al. 2011: 62). Interestingly, the debate regarding education served as one of the final impediments which stood in the way of the acceptance of the Constitution (De Waal et al. 2011: 62). During the apartheid regime, the South African government adopted a policy, known as “Christian National Education” (hereafter “CNE”), which regulated religion in government schools (Hodgson 2017: 192). The policy was condemned as being one that advanced a “national religion” rooted in a specific strand of Christianity – one which underpinned discriminatory practices, inequality, and racial discrimination (De Waal et al. 2011: 62). CNE influenced the approach of South African state schools to religious education and the curriculum generally (Hodgson 2017: 192). Some scholars contend that CNE indoctrinated learners with a desired strand of Christianity which ultimately resulted in other religions being undervalued (Hodgson 2017: 192). After the 1994 democratic elections, South Africa began to reconfigure the state’s education system (Hodgson 2017: 192). The Schools Act, with its primary objective being the achievement of “relevant stipulations guaranteed by the modern constitutional supremacy” was praised for introducing a new era in South African education
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(De Waal et al. 2011: 62). In 2003, the state adopted the National Policy on Religion in Education (Van der Walt 2011: 381–382). However, in 2001, prior to the policy’s implementation, South African schools introduced “Religion education” (Hodgson 2017: 192). Religion education, described by the policy as an integral part of any complete, well-balanced education, aims to facilitate an understanding and acceptance of religious plurality in South Africa (Hodgson 2017: 192). Religious education, as opposed to advancing any specific religion, endorses a “balanced approach” to teaching learners about religion (National Policy par 25). This approach is intended to serve as a platform to allow learners to develop a deeper sense of selfawareness and a wider “civil acceptance of others” (National Policy par 25). The policy further distinguished between two important concepts: religious instruction and religious observances (Hodgson 2017: 192–193). Religious instruction, which the policy stipulates should be advanced in the private sphere, is a form of teaching which encourages a particular religious understanding or following (National Policy paras 54–55). Religious observances, on the other hand, include various religious practices such as prayer, ceremonies, dietary requirements, singing, and the use of religious symbols (National Policy paras 58–59). The policy, which recognizes the value of both religious observances and religious education in the public schooling environment, regards religious instruction as “inappropriate” (National Policy par 22). The policy, in line with the constitutional tenets of equality and nondiscrimination, furthermore asserts that no religious ethos may enjoy preference over others in South African state schools (Hodgson 2017: 192). While private schools have the freedom to advance an exclusive religious character, public schools are not afforded the same autonomy (Hodgson 2017: 192). Given South Africa’s history and religious plurality, as well as the significant cultural importance of religion for many South Africans, awareness and tolerance of differing religions is important. South Africa has made progressive attempts to realize the latter, including the introduction of a compulsory school subject called Life Orientation in terms of which learners are educated about the various religious perspectives (Hodgson 2017: 192). Life Orientation embodies content which pertains to the Constitution and democracy, which serves as a crucial background to a learner’s understanding and acceptance of religious diversity, not only in the classroom, but also within the larger societal context (Hodgson 2017: 192). In the next part, by means of a discussion of pertinent court judgments, we illustrate the challenges currently faced by South African public schools with regards to the place of religion in the public education system and how schools have, and continue to, dealt with this vexing issue.
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Challenges Facing South African Government Schools
Despite 23 years of democracy and concerted efforts to realize the constitutional dream of a free and equal society, South Africa still finds itself grappling with the ghosts of its past as both inequality and discrimination still appear to be prevalent in the South African public education sphere. Religion and religious equality remain
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highly topical and controversial subjects, particularly in the context of the South African public education system. The recent OGOD judgment has shed some light on the current state of affairs and highlights issues that are still prevalent in contemporary South African society. This judgment, and a significant number of similar cases, proves that the country still has a long way to go before “South Africa belongs to all who live in it, united in [their] diversity” (the preamble to the Constitution). The OGOD judgment dealt with an application by the Organisasie vir Godsdienste-Onderrig en Demokrasie (OGOD), a nonprofit organization, regarding the overt and overwhelming Christian character and practices at particular schools (OGOD par 1). OGOD members approached the High Court and requested that the Court declares the practices under scrutiny to be an unlawful infringement of both the Constitution and the policy. Each of the six government schools under scrutiny employed unique practices. The OGOD members, however, expressed a general dissatisfaction regarding improper religious instruction, misguided religious education, inequality, discrimination, involuntary religious observances, and the adoption of an exclusive religious ethos at some of the schools (OGOD par 4). Learners at two of the schools were required to attend compulsory Christian Bible study, which falls within the ambit of that which is explicitly proscribed by the policy, namely, religious instruction (OGOD par 6). The schools were found to display exclusive Christian symbols, including crosses, on the school premises and perform singing, scripture readings, and prayers that were exclusively Christian (OGOD par 6). These observances, in conjunction with the backdrop of the Christian ethos, served to confirm that the schools under scrutiny favored one religion over others, namely Christianity. With the support of the Council for the Advancement of the South African Constitution, OGOD argued that the practices conducted at these schools aimed to make government schools exclusively Christian which consequently infringes the rights of learners to religious freedom (OGOD par 2). The Council for the Advancement of the South African Constitution contended that the National Policy is consistent with the Constitution (OGOD par 2). Since the advent of the constitutional democracy, attempts have been made to protect the rights of learners to religious and cultural practices in schools, particularly in respect of dress and hairstyles (Hodgson 2017: 195). The National Guidelines on School Uniform, for example, was drafted for this purpose (section 2 of the Department of Basic Education “National Guidelines on School Uniform,” 2006 (hereafter “National Guidelines on School Uniform”)). The policy, furthermore, also recognizes “dress” as a religious observance (Hodgson 2017: 198). Therefore, while on paper it may appear that religious diversity and uniqueness among learners within the public education sphere is accommodated, reality paints a rather different, and somewhat distressing, picture. The past decade has seen many issues relating to how certain religious beliefs and observances may conflict with a school’s uniform policy and code of conduct (Hodgson 2017: 195). This calls into question the value attributed to the right to equality and the right to religious freedom, respectively, and how schools deal with these competing rights.
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Most schools have strict rules regarding the jewellery that may or may not be worn by leaners at school. Much like hairstyles and clothing, jewellery also holds significant religious and cultural significance for many South Africans (Hodgson 2017: 195). MEC for Education: KwaZulu-Natal and Others v Pillay 2008 1 SA 474 (CC) (hereafter “Pillay”) is one of many similar cases, where a learner was disallowed from wearing a nose stud to school as it was in conflict with the school’s code of conduct. In the South Indian tradition, a nose-piercing is a symbol of a young girl’s physical maturity (Pillay par 7). Insertion of a stud into the piercing does not serve a fashionable purpose but rather a religious one – to honor and bless the bearer (Pillay par 7). The Constitutional Court held that both the school’s code of conduct and failure to exempt the learner therefrom amounted to an infringement of the child’s right to freedom of religion, culture, and freedom of expression and equality (Pillay par 28). Similarly, many schools attempt to regulate learners’ hairstyles through strict uniform policies (Hodgson 2017: 196). Although such policies are required to be consistent with the guidelines set out by the Department of Basic Education, in which they cannot infringe the religious rights of learners, this is not always the case (Hodgson 2017: 196). Radebe and Others v Principal of Leseding Technical School and Others 2013 ZAFSHC 111 (hereafter “Radebe”) supports this assertion. In this case, a learner at Leseding Technical School was a Rastafarian and, due to her faith, wore dreadlocks (Radebe par 10). On account of this fact, the principal of the school repeatedly dragged the learner out of the classroom and subjected her to public humiliation (Radebe par 12). On occasion, the learner was forced to miss classes as the principal demanded that she remain in the staff room (Radebe par 12). The Equal Education Law Centre (EELC) approached the Free State High Court on behalf of the child’s father. The Free State Department of Education informed the EELC that the learner’s Rastafarianism was not a belief that was seriously held (Radebe par 15). The learner was informed by the school that she could only resume classes once she had cut off her dreadlocks as the hairstyle was a violation of the school’s uniform rules (Radebe par 13). The court held that the school violated the learner’s right to freedom of religion, belief, expression, and culture and discriminated against her on the grounds of her religion (Radebe par 4). In the past decade, various news reports have revealed that religious clothing has also served as a catalyst for debate surrounding religious freedom and equality (De Waal et al. 2011: 64). The Muslim faith requires that Muslim woman cover their hair with a headscarf, including either a burka, niqab, or hijab (Hodgson 2017: 196). Additionally, as symbols of their faith, many Muslim and Jewish men either wear fezzes and yarmulkes on their heads (Hodgson 2017: 196). The media has portrayed numerous instances where school children have been instructed to remove their headscarves or have been suspended due to the item of clothing being an infringement of a school’s code of conduct (Hodgson 2017: 196–197). Faith and religion are pervasive and deeply inherent characteristics of humanity (Venter 2012: 433). On account of South Africa’s rich religious plurality, how is it then possible to balance competing rights: that of the right to religion, as well as association and expression, with the right to equality?
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In light of South Africa’s transformative constitutional vision and egalitarian ethos, is it acceptable for public schools to prohibit learners from wearing jewellery, hairstyles, or clothing at school if it serves a religious purpose? Is it at all tolerable to discriminate against learners on the basis of their religion, freedom of expression, or freedom of association, especially taking into consideration that the latter form an integral part of one’s cultural background and personal identity? It is trite that certain circumstances demand prohibitions and rules of this nature. It could arguably, for example, be both fair and justifiable to prohibit all learners from wearing any form of headgear during a test or examination. This prohibition would therefore include beanies, caps, fezzes, and burkas, inter alia. Such prohibition may be necessary to prevent cheating during assessments and therefore may serve a crucial purpose within the schooling environment. However, there is no hard and fast rule in such matters. Each case would need to be decided on its own merits and tested against the limitations clause as embodied in section 36 of the Constitution to determine whether it is justifiable in an open and democratic South African society premised on equality, human dignity and freedom. It must be borne in mind that although the majority of South Africans identify as Christian, South Africa is not a “Christian state” (Hodgson 2017: 187). Given the current constitutional dispensation, how should courts deal with schools that promote a Christian ethos, endorse religious instruction, and prohibit learners from expressing their unique cultures and religions? Having a view or belief that is not consistent with that of the majority is not always easy, particularly when the latter concerns a subject as sensitive as religion (De Vos 2015). On the topic of religion in public schools, the Gauteng MEC for Education, Panyaza Lesufi, remarked that on account of the fact that 85% of the South African population is Christian, he was “opening up schools to preachers” because “as [he] last understood the Constitution, it was the majority that won” (Hodgson 2017: 202). The Federation of Governing Bodies of South African Schools (Fedsas) similarly contended that as long as the majority of parent body desire it, public schools may endorse a Christian ethos. Fedsas quoted research allegedly conducted at the six schools under scrutiny in the OGOD saga which reveals that out of the 7000 children at these schools only 3% of the learners found the Christian practices and ethos to be unpleasant (De Vos 2015). In the face of South Africa’s constitutional democracy, the remark of the MEC and the argument proposed by Fedsas are problematic. The same argument is also often raised by schools and their governing bodies to deny learners the right to express their religion and culture in their hairstyles, jewellery, and clothing at school (Hodgson 2017: 202). The South African government and state officials have a duty to promote constitutional values and morality and must advance religious activity “even-handedly” (OGOD par 91). If schools are then to be opened up to Christian preachers, it would only be fair to extend the invitation to Muslim, Jewish, Jehovah’s Witness, Hindu, and traditionalist preachers as well as atheists and agnostics (Hodgson 2017: 202). Assuming that the survey conducted by Fedsas is accurate, in which only 3 % of the learners expressed disapproving views, what is the real problem? On account of
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the fact that such a small percentage of the student body find the practices unpleasant, would it then not be easy to address the problem and cater for that handful of learners? Arguably, the more learners that do not share the majority view, the more complicated and difficult the problem becomes to address. The issue in the public education sphere ultimately boils down to what schools practically need to do to not only accommodate religious diversity but celebrate it. A rather distressing picture of the prevalence of religious discrimination and inequality in South African public schools has been painted. It appears that although in some respects South Africa has come a long way since 1994, a lot of remedial work still needs to be done, particularly in the context of religion in government schools. It is unacceptable that school children still feel ostracized, stigmatized, and are “othered” on account of their religious preferences (Hodgson 2017: 197).
7
Diversity as Legal Conceptual Consideration
Unpacking the meaning of “celebrating diversity” is by no means a simple task. There is unlikely to be any single concrete explanation or uniform understanding of the concept. In an endeavor to unmask what it means to celebrate diversity in the context of the public education sphere, it may prove useful to furnish illustrative examples. Celebrating diversity goes beyond simply recognizing and appreciating the differences between people. To celebrate diversity goes further than the mere acknowledgment of and respect for difference and entails accepting and embracing that another’s faith and religious convictions are equally as important and deserving of protection as our own. Celebrating diversity takes into consideration that another’s beliefs and practices may not be the same as one’s own but acknowledging that neither is more correct or more superior as compared to that of another. While it may be trite that most learners at South African schools may be predominantly Christian, what does that mean for those learners who subscribe to other nonmajority religious (or nonreligious) denominations when, for example, Christian bible readings and prayers are performed in assemblies or before sports matches or Christian crosses are displayed in classrooms? While S v Lawrence; S v Negal; and S v Solberg 1997 (4) SA 1176 (CC) (hereafter “Lawrence”) made it clear that school prayers should be conducted on an equitable basis, Justice Chaskalson went further to suggest that the latter does not entail that public schools need to make provision for prayers for all the various religious denominations that may prevail in any particular school. By looking through a lens focused solely on formal equality this may very well be true – but does the latter not merely endorse religious tolerance or at most religious accommodation? In decoding what it means to celebrate diversity, it may even entail schools endeavoring to provide platforms in terms of which they allow and encourage learners to perform readings from their respective religious scriptures during assemblies or awards ceremonies. While the latter does not detract from the fact that most of the students may subscribe to the Christian faith, it is likely to allow those learners who belong to minority religious denominations to not feel “othered” or
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marginalized within the schooling environment. In fact, implementing such practices in schools may help foster a culture within schools which leans in favor of the notion of celebrating religious diversity among the learners. Furthermore, while the school subject Life Orientation was introduced to educate learners on different religious perspectives which prevail within society, the subject itself is unlikely to endorse the celebration of religious differences among learners and promote inclusivity. Perhaps, in this respect, it may be necessary for the appropriate authorities to evaluate and revise the educational curriculum in public schools to allow for the different religious perspectives prevalent in society to permeate other modules. For example, the English or History syllabi could possibly be adapted to focus on different themes, one of which could be aimed at recognizing the importance or the role of religion in the respective disciplines. Perhaps the introduction of a new school subject, one which is entirely devoted to the teaching of South Africa’s many religious (and nonreligious) perspectives, is a feasible option. The latter, however, would need to be implemented equitably and in such a manner not endorsing any religious ethos as being more favorable than another. Such an endeavor would serve a similar purpose to religious education, with the difference that focus would not fall on a single religion. Pillay was a revolutionary judgment, where, for the first time, the Constitutional Court was tasked to pronounce on the ambit of antidiscrimination provisions contained in equality legislation to ascertain whether the school attended by the learner had unfairly discriminated against her on the grounds of her religion and culture (Pillay par 166). The Court displayed a genuine understanding of the importance of religion and culture in the South African society and the different ways in which majority cultural groups tend to discriminate against and ostracize other minority religious groups through the enforcement of their own religious views (De Vos 2015). To better understand the notion of celebrating diversity it is important to reconcile Pillay with OGOD. In Pillay, Justice Langa even went as far as to describe a school’s code of conduct as a means to impose historically privileged practices (Pillay par 44). Accordingly, a school should, at the very least, when drafting a code of conduct, reasonably accommodate all the various religious and cultural practices prevalent among the learners to avoid the marginalization of nonmajority religious denominations. This goes beyond merely tolerating minority religious views and practices and calls for a celebration of the religious differences that prevail among learners in public schools. In Pillay, the school raised an argument that if they were to allow one learner to wear a nose stud, it would incite other learners to then insist on claiming that their respective cultural and religious practices should also be allowed which would consequently result in what the school referred to as a “parade of horribles” (Pillay par 107). Justice Langa subsequently made it very clear that if the latter were to incite learners, who were previously too fearful, to express their cultures or religions it is something worthy of celebration (Pillay par 107). Following consideration of Pillay, the position regarding a nose stud worn by a Hindu learner at school is relatively clear. But what about Christian crosses, Muslim prayer beads, Jewish Kabbalah pendants, and Hindu Shanti charms? What happens
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to learners when they choose to wear such adornments at school? Celebrating diversity in schools may entail making exceptions for those learners to wear such jewellery in expression of their religious and cultural practices. The same argument could then be extended in respect of other religious garb including, inter alia, headscarves, yarmulkes, and fezzes. In allowing learners in public schools to express and embrace their respective religions and cultures, we will then arguably make progress towards the achievement of a transformative, truly substantively equalitarian society as envisaged by the Constitution. The concept of diversity as explained in the Constitution can be used as a tool of analysis to understand the challenges related to the exercise of religion in South African public schools. Within a constitutional context diversity is pronounced as one of the nation’s most positive features and valuable treasures (Fourie par 60). The Constitution “does not envisage a society of atomized communities circling in the shared space that is our country” but rather one that is unified and strengthened in its state of diversity (Pillay par 155). The root of inequality does not lie with the notion of difference itself but rather the “manner in which difference is tied to hierarchies, exclusion and disadvantage” (Albertyn 2007: 260). Diversity in schools is delineated by differences regarding race, ethnicity, color, social and cultural class, religion, language, age, gender, sexual orientation as well as capabilities and disabilities – all of which have been the subject of systemic discrimination and unequal treatment. On a structural level, within the context of the South African public educational system and the theme of this chapter, diversity refers to the numerical and proportional representation of learners from different religious and cultural groups. Diversity within the constitutional context of this chapter, however, encompasses the rich religious plurality and multiculturalism among pupils in South African public schools. Diversity, despite being based on difference, should not highlight it. South African public schools and the role-players which constitute them are tasked with the challenge of fostering a shared national identity which espouses diversity while still embracing learners’ right to self-determination and their individuality (section 235 of the Constitution). As the Constitution serves as the point of departure for arguments raised by both the applicants and the defendants in most of the aforementioned judgments, including OGOD, it is necessary to refer to section 15 of the Constitution. Section 15(1) provides that every person has the right to religion, freedom of conscience, belief, thought, and opinion. Section 15(2) furthermore provides that religious observances may be conducted at state or state-aided institutions, if such observances abide by rules made by appropriate authorities, that they are conducted in an equitable manner and that attendance at such observances is “free and voluntary.” It has been suggested that it is apposite to deduce from the latter, and from the absence of an express establishment clause, like in the USA, that a strict separation between the state and religion is not required by the Constitution (Lawrence par 119). The voluntariness requirement is further qualified by the stipulation that even where such attendance is voluntary, the observances of the said religious practices must still be equitable. The equity component reflects an important element of the conception
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of the right to freedom of religion as embodied in the Constitution (Hodgson 2017: 194). South African society boasts a rich diversity of religious views and while the state can permit religious observances, it cannot do so inequitably (Hodgson 2017: 194). In Lawrence, with reference to the Canadian judgment in Big M Drug Mart, certain aspects of the right to religion were identified (Lawrence par 92). The Constitutional Court held that one has the right to hold and entertain one’s own religious views and beliefs and accordingly openly declare the latter without fear of reprisal (Lawrence par 92). The Court further held that persons have a right to manifest such religious beliefs by means of practice, worship, teaching, and dissemination (Lawrence par 92). The right further embodies the rights to change one’s religious convictions, to endorse and teach them and to assemble with others who share the same convictions (Lawrence par 92). Furthermore, the right also embodies a negative element, namely that a person may not be forced to act in a manner that conflicts with their convictions (Lawrence par 92). As previously mentioned, at the date of finalizing this chapter, OGOD is the most current judgment which addresses the place of religion in the public education sphere. The judgment, in addition to the cases previously discussed, clearly illustrate that despite the transformative mission of the Constitution and the desire for South Africa to become a truly, substantively equal society, there is still a disparity between what legislation and the Constitution seeks to achieve and the reality of what happens in the public education setting. While the case concerned the rights of learners to freedom of religion, the applicant in OGOD could not rely directly on the applicable constitutional provisions, namely those contained in section 15, on account of the principle of subsidiarity (OGOD par 26). In terms of this principle, the applicants were required to invoke the provisions of the relevant legislation which gave effect to those rights (OGOD par 25–26). My Vote Counts NPC v Speaker of the National Assembly and Others 2016 1 SA 132 (CC) provides that the principle of subsidiarity entails that a litigant is precluded from directly relying on the Constitution to enforce a right without first invoking, or attacking the constitutionality of specific legislation which has been drafted to give effect to such right. Accordingly, the applicant either needed to base its cause of action on a breach of the applicable subsidiary laws, being the relevant school governing body (“SGB”) rules pertaining to religious observances, or alternatively ground their cause of action on the unconstitutionality of such SGB rules (OGOD par 55). The applicant, however, failed to do so (OGOD par 55). The court held further that the applicant could not rely directly on the National Religion Policy as the policy itself indicated that it did not constitute law that was to be enforceable against government schools but should rather be used to construct parameters within which “people of goodwill could work out common ground” (OGOD par 52). The court, however, found that in the circumstances it was apt to grant a declaratory order in respect of a public school’s advancement of, or adherence to, a single religion (OGOD paras 78 and 97). The Court held that conduct of this nature was not to be permitted even in instances where the entire school feeder community
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belonged to the said faith (OGOD paras 79 and 92). The court held further that both the preamble and section 31 of the Constitution acknowledge the diversity embodied within South African society and that case law highlights the need to not only accommodate such diversity but also to celebrate it (OGOD paras 82–83). The judgment recognized that the case concerned the right to freedom of religion, conscience, belief, thought, and opinion and accordingly found it appropriate to revisit the approaches previously followed by the courts, in particular the Constitutional Court, in dealing with matters of a similar nature. In this respect, the judgment highlighted that the point of departure in such matters, considering the diversity of the South African society, is an approach which endorses “even-handedness” and “neutrality” (OGOD par 22). In other words, the state cannot show a preference for any one religious or nonreligious denomination over another (OGOD par 22). In this respect, OGOD referred to Lawrence. Lawrence grappled with what was then section 14 of the interim Constitution (which now corresponds with section 15 of the Constitution). In Lawrence, Justice Chaskalson stated that in his view, section 14(2) did not justify extending the meaning of section 14(1) and that freedom of religion would undoubtedly be violated by compulsory school prayers (Lawrence par 103). Chaskalson further explained that in the context of the schooling environment, on account of relentless peer pressure, even voluntary school prayers could perpetuate the coercion of learners into participating in the prayers of the “favoured religion” (Lawrence par 103). To this end, we concur with Chaskalson. The judgment highlights that in accordance with section 14(2) and to prevent such an outcome and to still allow for prayers to be conducted at schools, there should be no such coercion (Lawrence par 103). Chaskalson highlighted that it is in this context that it is necessary that school prayers be regulated and conducted in an equitable manner (Lawrence par 103). It was, however, emphasized that this is unlikely to mean that all public schools should make provision for prayers for as many religious denominations as there may be among the learners (Lawrence par 103). It was suggested in Lawrence that it may be more likely that appropriate education authorities should allow schools to offer prayers that must be most apposite for a particular school, to have such a decision taken in an equitable fashion and to oblige the appropriate authorities to do so in a manner which does not, directly or indirectly, coerce nonbelievers (Lawrence par 103). O’Regan J, however, emphasized that the element of even-handedness does not demand an adherence to a “scrupulous secularism” nor absolute neutrality (Lawrence par 121). It was recognized that in some instances, affording freedom of religion full protection necessitates that certain provisions afford protection to the adherents of a particular religion (Lawrence par 121). The even-handedness element may produce varying results dependent on the context in which it finds application. In respect of religious observances conducted at public educational institutions, O’Regan suggests that the equity requirement may demand that the observances should, to the degree possible, reflect the religious beliefs of the particular community within which the school is located (Lawrence par 121). In respect of religious observances at national level, however, the effect of such a requirement may be to insist that religious observances should not favor one religion over others (Lawrence par 121).
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Evidently, it is clear that OGOD reaffirms and endorses salient principles that have previously been laid down by the courts in matters where they had to pronounce on similar issues in respect of the place of religion in the public education sphere. In addressing the question of whether a public school may endorse any one religion to the exclusion of others, the Court in OGOD outrightly answered in the negative (OGOD par 92). The Court recognized that feeder communities for schools continuously develop, and that such development should be nurtured, on account of past racially biased laws that resulted in “unnatural residential demographic[s]” (OGOD par 92). The Court further considered the case of learners who subscribe to nonmajority religious denominations, who due to social and economic circumstances, may have no other choice than to attend a particular school (OGOD par 93). Evidently, the latter proves problematic when such school advances a particular religious character which is different and possibly exclusionary of those learners’ religions. The Court went further to acknowledge that even in instances where SGB rules provide that attendance at religious observances is substantively free, fair, and voluntarily, a school’s endorsement of a particular religious ethos could inculcate in such learners “a sense of inferior differentness” (OGOD par 93). Lastly, the Court highlighted that the advancement of a single religious brand by a school would undermine and misrepresent the “legally required position” as SGB rules must cater for all religious denominations on an equitable basis (OGOD par 96). The fact that the Court outrightly rejected the notion of single faith branding in the public education setting is undoubtedly consonant with the transformative and egalitarian vision of the South African society. The judgment, in its recognition of and appreciation for the importance of the right to religion and religious freedom, reinforces the democratic values which underpin the Republic, including equality, human dignity, and attainment of human rights and freedoms. The Court correctly applied firmly entrenched legal rules, particularly with regards to the application of the principle of subsidiarity and was further also correct to grant the declaratory order. The Court went on to recognize that the merits of the case necessitated that “something more ha[d] to be said about diversity, particularly in the context of public schools” (OGOD par 82). The Court found that government schools, as organs of state, are required to respect the diversity of the society within which they are located, as they are “public assets” which serve society’s interests generally (OGOD paras 89–90). While the judgment makes several references to the diversity of the South African society and the need to celebrate such diversity, it fails to enter into any sort of discussion as to what this phrase actually means. Therefore, while the judgment, in its affirmation of existing legal principles and its alliance with transformative constitutional directives, may be comforting it also proves frustrating in the sense that it fails to do much more than that.
8
Concluding Remarks
We promised to address the operation of South African equality law as well as the challenges currently faced by South African public schools regarding the place of religion in the public education system in this chapter. We addressed the approach
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currently followed by South African courts and how the notion of celebrating diversity in South African public schools should practically be applied. Academic literature, policy, and law documents were cited and discussed to provide a critical analysis into this investigation. The concept of diversity as laid down in the South African Constitution was further used as a tool of analysis to understand the challenges related to exercising the right to religion in public schools. What do our findings mean for the South African public education system? • Policy and legislation aptly embrace the idea of diversity, but South Africa’s transformative mission will only truly be achieved if South Africans change their mindsets and become more accepting of difference. • While constitutional and legislative endeavors to promote diversity exist, these will remain a hollow and unattainable reality until all South Africans abandon preconstitutional thinking and superiority complexes. • The government, civil society, and role-players in public schools themselves (such as educators and principals) must take progressive steps to fully and equally accommodate learners’ religious preferences within the South African public schooling environment. • Religion is a sensitive topic which must be addressed accordingly. South African public schools are tasked with the challenge of applying the principles of fair and equal treatment of learners without detracting from religious expression, thereby constricting diversity and undermining the Constitution’s transformative objectives. • South Africa’s equality jurisprudence has undoubtedly made huge strides since 1994. It has, however, not yet harnessed its full potential. Equality, as a transformative right, could be reinforced by an improved, more consistent, and committed blend of theory and practical application. The legal and practical application of substantive equality must therefore become more “conceptually consistent” for equality jurisprudence to become truly transformative as opposed to solely inclusionary. Since 1994, South Africa has embarked on several constitutional and legislative endeavors to realize the goal of a transformed, caring, and egalitarian society. The enactment of the Constitution and various pieces of subsidiary legislation which give effect to the rights contained therein, particularly the right to religion and religious freedom, have inculcated a culture within South African society which recognizes and appreciates the differences between people. The country, however, still grapples with deeply entrenched racial and discriminatory arrogances and practices, also in our public schools. Although public education in South Africa is no longer governed by CNE, as it was under the apartheid government, case law and media reports illustrate that South African public schools continue to implement suspect religious practices and portray questionable attitudes towards the place of religion in the public education sphere. In this chapter we demonstrated that the courts, due to a significant amount of litigation in this regard, have laid down some principles with regards to the place and the significance of religion in the context of the public schooling system. In OGOD the court outrightly rejected the notion of single faith branding in the public education setting (OGOD par 92). This is indisputably consistent with South
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Africa’s want for a transformative, substantively egalitarian society. The judgment, in its confirmation of salient legal principles in respect of the right to religion, such as those contained in Pillay and Lawrence, serves to endorse the constitutional tenets of the South African society, including equality, human dignity, and attainment of human rights and freedoms. Furthermore, the court aptly applied firmly entrenched legal rules, particularly in respect of the application of the principle of subsidiarity. In this respect, the judgment is deserving of commendation. OGOD, however, did not deliver much more than that. Despite the judgment acknowledging that “something more ha[d] to be said about diversity” and recognizing the need to celebrate the diversity of the South African society, it failed to consider what the latter would practically entail in the context of the public education setting (OGOD par 82). We illustrated that unpacking the meaning of celebrating diversity is not a simple endeavor and that the meaning thereof is unlikely to take the form of any one concrete definition. Celebrating diversity may very well be understood in different ways for different people. In this chapter we made a modest attempt to unmask what it means to “celebrate diversity” by furnishing select illustrative examples of what the notion could practically entail in public schools. Furthermore, in order to gauge a better understanding of celebrating diversity, aspects of the Pillay judgment were considered to reconcile the principles contained therein with the OGOD decision. The significance of the right to equality, as the organizing legal principle of the Republic, is emphasized by means of recurring references thereto in the Constitution, various pieces of legislation, including PEPUDA, as well as in case law. Moseneke aptly explains that the realization of the right to equality “goes to the bedrock of [South Africa’s] constitutional architecture” and rightly argues that equality is a standard against which all laws and policies should be verified for constitutional consonance (Van Heerden par 22). South African public schools and appropriate authorities are tasked with “finding a place for all religions” without showing a preference for any one religion over another (Hodgson 2017: 192). The Constitutional Court has expressed that, with regards to the interim Constitution’s conception of the right to freedom of religion, the notion of equity is a renunciation of South Africa’s past – a rejection of a history which favored Christianity (Lawrence par 123). Accordingly, although the country has come a long way since the birth of the South African democracy, there is still work to be done. To achieve a truly equal and caring South African society, diversity cannot simply be accommodated or tolerated – it should be celebrated.
References Albertyn, C. (2007). Substantive equality and transformation in South Africa. South African Journal on Human Rights, 23, 253–276. Albertyn, C., & Goldblatt, B. (1998). Facing the challenge of transformation: Difficulties in the development of an indigenous jurisprudence of equality. South African Journal on Human Rights, 14, 248–276.
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Bato Star Fishing v Minister of Environmental Affairs 2004 4 SA 490 (CC). Brink v Kitshoff NO 1996 4 SA 197 (CC). Christianson, M. A., McGregor, M., & van Eck, B. P. S. (2017). The right to equality in employment: Non-discrimination (chapter II of the EEA). In A. van Niekerk & N. Smit (Eds.), Law at work (pp. 117–160). Cape Town: Lexis Nexis Butterworths. City Council of Pretoria v Walker 1998 2 SA 363 (CC). Corp. of the Canadian Civil Liberties Assn v. Ontario (Minister of Education) (1988), 64 O.R. (2d) 577 (Ont. H.C.J). De Vos, P. (2015). Religion in schools: Time to decolonise our education. https:// constitutionallyspeaking.co.za/religion-in-schools-time-to-decolonise-our-education/. Accessed 27 Feb 2018. De Waal, E., Mestry, R., & Russo, C. J. (2011). Religious and cultural dress at school: A comparative perspective. Potchefstroom Electronic Law Journal, 14, 62–217. Fraser v Children’s Court, Pretoria North 1997 2 SA 261 (CC). Harksen v Lane NO and Others 1997 11 BCLR 1489 (CC). Hodgson, T. F. (2017). Religion and culture in public education sphere in South Africa. In F. Veriava & A. Thom (Eds.), Basic education rights handbook – Education rights in South Africa (pp. 188–204). Johannesburg: Section 27. Jooste v Score Supermarket Trading (Pty) Ltd (Minister of Labour intervening) 1999 2 SA 1 (CC). Klare, K. (1998). Legal culture and transformative constitutionalism. South African Journal on Human Rights, 14, 146–188. Kok, A. (2001). The promotion of equality and prevention of unfair discrimination act: Why the controversy? Tydskrif vir die Suid-Afrikaanse Reg, 2, 294–310. Kok, A. (2017). The promotion of equality and prevention of unfair discrimination act 4 of 2000: How to balance religious freedom and other human rights in the higher education sphere. South African Journal of Higher Education, 31, 25–44. MEC for Education: KwaZulu- Natal and Others v Pillay 2008 1 SA 474 (CC). Minister of Finance v Van Heerden 2004 6 SA 121 (CC). Minister of Home Affairs v Fourie 2006 1 SA 524 (CC). My Vote Counts NPC v Speaker of the National Assembly and Others 2016 1 SA 132 (CC). National Coalition for Gay and Lesbian Equality and Another v Minister of Justice and Others 1999 1 SA 6 (CC). Organisasie vir Godsdienste-Onderrig en Demokrasie v Laerskool Randhart and Others 2017 3 All SA 943 (GJ). President of the RSA v Hugo 1997 4 SA 1 (CC). Radebe and Others v Principal of Leseding Technical School and Others 2013 ZAFSHC 111. S v Lawrence, S v Negal; S v Solberg 1997 4 SA 1176 (CC). South African Police Service v Solidarity obo Barnard 2014 10 BCLR 1195 (CC). The African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights. The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996. The Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms Rome, 4.XI. 1950. The Department of Basic Education ‘National Policy on Religion and Education’, 2003. The Department of Basic Education ‘National Guidelines on School Uniform’, 2006. The ILO Discrimination (employment and occupation) convention 111 of 1958. The Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act 4 of 2000. The South African Schools Act 84 of 1996. Van der Walt, J. (2011). Religion in education in South Africa: Was social justice served? South African Journal of Education, 31, 381–393. Venter, F. (2012). Religion in the classroom: Comparative observations. South African Public Law, 27, 433–453. Zylberberg v. Sudbury (Board of Education) (1986), 55 O.R. (2d) 749 (Ont. Div. Ct.).
Monitoring and Implementation of Universal Primary Education (UPE) in Uganda Robert Mugabe and Teresa Auma Ogina
Contents 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Overview of the Education System and Structure in Uganda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 The Concept and Composition of the SMC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Responsibilities of SMCs in Implementing UPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Community Participation in School Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Conceptual Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 SMCs Influence on the Implementation of UPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Conclusion and Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Abstract
This chapter is culled from my PhD thesis. The purpose of this study was to conduct an empirical study on the ascribed roles of School Management Committees (SMCs) in monitoring the implementation of UPE in Uganda. SMCs are mandated to participate and monitor all the activities that make a school operational. The research questions that guided this study were twofold: (1) How do SMCs describe their roles in monitoring the implementation of UPE? (2) To what extent the SMCs influence the implementation of UPE? Secondary data is used in this study. The results of the study seem to suggest that SMCs understand their roles and execute them in some schools. However, some members seem not to understand their roles according to the study findings. Even those understanding their roles, they were not fully implementing them as a result of not understanding their mandate fully. The study finding further seem to suggest that in schools where SMCs were active in their monitoring roles, there was an improvement in R. Mugabe (*) Uganda Management Institute, Kampala, Uganda T. A. Ogina Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 K. S. Adeyemo (ed.), The Education Systems of Africa, Global Education Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44217-0_9
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UPE implementation seen in increased enrollment and support supervision that are vital for promoting teaching and learning. There is need for a policy by the government that stipulates a minimum level of education and experience as a requirement for one to be elected as a member of an SMC. This should be accompanied by a clear policy of continuous training in new skills of monitoring and managing school resources to support teaching and learning in schools. Keywords
Monitoring · Implementation · Universal primary education · School management committee
1
Introduction
Universal primary education is regarded as the best strategy for any country’s development, because it is the beginning of knowledge and skills needed for exploiting resources for the national economic growth and development (Webster 2000). It is in line with this that governments are putting in place more resources to warrant quality education for all school-going age based on gender. To ensure that education is accessed by all school-going age children, education for all (EFA) policy has been emphasized in international meetings on education, which comprises the World Education Round Table meeting in Jomtien, Thailand, in 1990, the Dakar Agenda for Action in Senegal in 2000, and the Millennium Summit in September 2000, all these advocated EFA. These international meetings that backed the education for all initiative pulls from the eight Millennium Development Goals, which are the eradication of extreme poverty and hunger; the achievement of universal primary education; the promotion of gender equality and empowering women; reducing child mortality; improving maternal health; combating HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases; ensuring environmental sustainability; and developing a global partnership for development (Beattie et al. 2017). The second goal emphasized the need to achieve UPE by 2015 by ensuring that all school-age children enroll and complete the primary cycle and acquire basic knowledge and skills to enable them exploit the country’s resources for their livelihoods while contributing to economic growth and development of their country (ESSP 2004–2015; UNICEF 2007). This initiative was further emphasized under Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) that emerged on the expiry of millennium development goals that ended in 2015. Goal 4 of the 17 SDGs that were agreed upon by almost all counties under UN summit in September 2015 is to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. In this respect, all countries especially the developing countries have made significant progresses in the provision of inclusive basic education based on access, equity, and quality in line with their resource availability (UNESCO 2009). To ensure that all children access and be retained in schools and attain the required basic education, policies have been formulated and enforced (Glennerster
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and Kremer 2008). The policies comprise of one on capitation grant that has proved to be effective as it has enabled children basically from unable to do families attain the required education. There has been also a policy on the provision of inputs that include classroom blocks to ensure enough space for children, educational materials, and instructional materials, as well as the provision of qualified and skilled manpower to efficiently manage and govern schools to deliver and achieve better education outcome. In an effort of ensuring the efficient implementation of UPE in Uganda, UPE policy was enacted to ensure inclusive education by all in terms of sex, socioeconomic status, and geographical location. The UPE policy also ensures that the necessary inputs in terms of quantities are evenly distributed to enable schools deliver quality education. To emphasis the efficient implementation of UPE in the country, the government saw the need for community participation through SMCs with the mandate of assisting on the management of schools, developing and approving development plans to ensure the government resources disbursed to schools are well utilized. SMCs also participate in mobilizing resources as a way of complementing the capitation grant from the government that is insufficient in meeting the financial requirement of schools. SMCs further are mandated to ensure that there is constant and systematic monitoring to ensure that all the resources are optimally utilized. Monitoring as systematic and continuous activity that involves data collection and analysis is the key in tracking the progress of program activities by identifying the deviations of the actual activities undertaken from the planned activities so that corrective actions are undertaken. It gives a coherent way in which decisions are made and guides the way resources are efficiently utilized (Marriott and Goyder 2009). Community engagement in governance of schools through School Management Committees (SMCs) is considered by the government as key in the administration of schools through mobilization and monitoring of school resources to ensure that there is efficient teaching and learning in schools to provide quality education in Uganda (UPE Handbook 2004). Government transfer of governance of schools from the center to the communities is seen as empowering the communities to manage their own schools’ resources and activities and this promotes teaching and learning that results into delivery of quality education (James et al. 2011). The transfer of governance of schools from the central government to the communities that promotes independence of schools is in both developed and developing countries because of its vital roles in the management of school resources and delivery of quality education (Bush and Heystek 2003). In Uganda, schools are managed by the communities through the SMCs who are mandated by the government to take over the roles of managing the affairs of schools and monitor the way resources are utilized on behalf of the government (Karlsson 2010; Serfontein 2010; Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES) 2011; Lunenburg and Ornstein 2012). The school governing body is mandated to mobilize resources, monitor the way resources are utilized by demanding accountability, as well as engaging in physical infrastructure like constructing classroom blocks, toilets, and other necessary infrastructure. Much as the responsibility of running the daily activities of schools are entrusted with the head teachers, SMCs monitor the way
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activities of the school are being undertaken (MoES 2011). Tsotetsi et al. (2008) observed that, committee members are elected to undertake their roles and responsibilities based on the assumption that they are knowledgeable and skilled in undertaking the roles and responsibilities of managing the schools, and yet in electing the SMC members, knowledge and skills are not a requirement. Uganda has registered a significant increase in enrollment in both male and girl child since the introduction of UPE in January 1997. The introduction of UPE policy was to ensure that children are equipped with knowledge and skills that are key in eradicating poverty in the country (MoES 2012). All school-going age were to access and be retained at school to complete the whole education cycle as the main objective of introduction of UPE. Bategeka and Okurut (2006) assert that the other objective of introduction of UPE in Uganda is to ensure that knowledge and skills necessary for poverty reduction are achieved by all children in the country including children from poor families in order to be well trained in human resource that is vital for country’s development. This helps the country meet the national goal of achieving sustainable national development at both micro and macro levels. To ensure that all children access education and are retained in schools, the government of Uganda abolished school fees and other financial contributions made by parents in 2003. The government introduced a policy of paying school fees to only four children per household (MoES 2012). Government later revised the policy of paying school fees for only four children, and education was made free for all school-going age children with the intention of increasing access and retention based on gender in terms of girl child and boy child. Since primary education was taken to be key in poverty eradication intervention strategy through a poverty action plan as well as the poverty fund in 1997, the government under UPE program other than making education free, the government went ahead to provide educational resources to facilitate teaching and learning. This is aiming at improving the provision of quality basic education in the country (Munene 2009). To accomplish the goal of universal primary education in Uganda, the government took the initiative of provision of better school infrastructure such as constructing classroom blocks, teacher training, teacher availability, and the provision of teaching materials. All these were made possible through the education investment plan based on the education strategic plan that focused towards availing funding to schools in the country where education financing over 50% of the total budget from the time UPE was introduced (MoFPED 2011). The UPE program implementation in the country has increased government expenditure on the education sector, taking over the parents’ role of paying school fees for their children’s’ education (MoFPED 2011). The increase in government expenditure on basic education and reduction in parents’ burden of paying school fees for their children has resulted in tremendous increase in pupil enrollment and retention in schools (Okumu 2008) from 16% in 1996 to 73% in 1997, and has continued to increase at an average rate of 5% every year (MoES 2012). The increase in pupil enrollment, however, is not marching with the resource inputs required to offer quality education in terms of classrooms, teachers, and textbooks, which are all still below the
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government’s set targets (Guloba et al. 2010). Most schools in the country have insufficient infrastructure, teaching materials are inadequate, and teacher availability and their performance are still lacking. This could be the reason for the declining quality of education indicated by the Primary Leaving Examinations (PLE) pass rates (UNEB 2009). To ensure the effective and efficient implementation of UPE in the country, government has put in place a monitoring framework where different players take on different roles at different levels (Bategeka and Okurut 2006; ESSP 2004–2015). At the national level, monitoring of schools in the country is undertaken by the Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES), Ministry of Local Government (MoLG), and the President’s Office. Monitoring is also undertaken by the Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development (MoFPED), because it is responsible for releasing funds to schools. The Ministry of Education and Sports is responsible for monitoring how the districts use the capitation grant. The MoLG’s role is to monitor the way the money released from Ministry of education and Sports to districts for schools are utilized. Chief Administrative Officers (CAOs) and Inspectors of Schools monitor how school capitation grants and other resources are utilized. They are assisted by the subcounty chiefs in their areas of jurisdiction as well as the representative from the President’s Office. SMCs monitor the operations of the schools, which are legal statutory organs managing primary schools on behalf of the government (MoES 1998). Although SMCs exist in all public primary schools in Uganda, little is known about the extent to which they are efficient in the way they understand and undertake their monitoring role in schools. Despite the existence of UPE monitoring framework and structures put in place by the government for the efficient operations of schools, there is still a high level of incompetence in school management and governance, which affects the quality of primary education in Uganda (Winkler and Sondergaard 2008). Winkler and Sondergaard (2008) found that incompetence in UPE implementation may be caused by several factors, such as misuse of resources at national level by the central government and at local level by the schools, the incidence of schools inflating the number of teachers in their schools, as well as inflating the numbers of pupils in the registers in order to obtain more money from the government’s capitation grant, which is paid per child. The estimated misuse of funds by the time it is released by the MoFPED to the schools is 6% of the total budgeted recurrent primary education expenditures (Annual Budget Report 2005/06). Misappropriation of the capitation grant is estimated at 16% of the total UPE grants (Winkler and Yeo 2007). Another factor linked to the misappropriation of the UPE grants by the district local governments is that of diverting the capitation grant meant to be used in running UPE to other activities of the district (Winkler and Sondergaard 2008). Much as the government has put policies, frameworks, and structures in place to ensure efficient implementation of UPE in terms of enrollment and retention, statistics indicate that the education performance has not improved over the years (Uwezo 2010). For example, data available shows that 98% of pupils in Primary Three cannot read and comprehend a paragraph of a story from a Primary
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Two textbook, a class they have purportedly completed, while 80% cannot solve mathematical numbers that involve divisions and sums from textbooks for Primary Two (Uwezo 2010). Monitoring of school activities is vital for the successful implementation of any education program if improved performance is to be achieved (Kayani et al. 2011). Since monitoring is done as a systematic, continuous, and regular activity involving data collection and analysis to track the progress of the program implementation and taking corrective action, its function should be helping in aiding effective teaching and learning that results into quality education outcome in schools. It is, therefore, noted that school activities could be lacking sufficient monitoring function that is evidenced in schools operating with insufficient resources such as teaching materials, the misappropriation of school funds, irregular attendance of teachers, and lack of lesson plan preparation, absenteeism of pupils which could be negatively affecting education performance in schools. Much as SMCs are mandated by the government to take the role of monitoring the implementation of UPE on behalf of the government and community in their areas of jurisdiction to ensure the school resources are optimally utilized and promote quality education, the study shows that monitoring has not improved the implementation of UPE (ANPPCAN 2009). Studies on UPE have concentrated on the significance, quality, access, and equity of basic education, as well as the effectiveness of capitation grants in promotion of education (Reinikka and Swensson 2004, cited in Kugonza 2009). There are no known studies on the monitoring and implementation of UPE in Uganda. This study, therefore, assumes that the implementation of UPE, if monitored efficiently, may result in improving educational performance. Based on this assumption, the study aimed at exploring how SMCs monitor the implementation of UPE in Uganda to find out whether the government’s objective of free education for all school-going children based on access, equity, and quality is being achieved or not. There is need for effective monitoring of the implementation of UPE in Uganda since a lot of resources are used to ensure the delivery of education services in schools. The absence of continuous monitoring of the whole process of UPE implementation is likely to lead to policy failure and wastage of government resources owing to lack of corrective actions that are vital for the UPE implementation process.
2
Overview of the Education System and Structure in Uganda
Uganda is a country located in East Africa. It covers an area of about 241,500 km2 (MoFPED 2011). It borders the Republic of Kenya to the east, Tanzania and Rwanda to the south, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) to the west, and South Sudan to the north. Uganda is a former British colony which regained its independence in 1962 and has, since then, not fundamentally changed its education system and structure.
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A map of Uganda showing the districts and bordering countries
Uganda’s education system comprises the following phases: the preschool phase termed as nursery level; the primary level that takes 7 years; the secondary level that takes 4 years as ordinary level, leading to the award of the Uganda Certificate of Education (UCE), and advanced level that lasts 2 years, leading to the award on completion of the Uganda Advanced Certificate of Education (UACE); and then the postsecondary level that involves tertiary institutions that on completion award certificates, diplomas, and university level that awards degrees and postgraduate qualifications (MoES 2013). Uganda’s education is implemented under policy frameworks that give it legitimacy. These policies include the Education White Paper 1992 that spells out how the development of citizens should be undertaken by emphasizing the issue of norms
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and values that need to be followed. It also emphasizes knowledge and how it should be acquired, including skills that are key for exploiting the country’s resources to foster economic growth and development in the country. Another policy guideline in place for promoting education in Uganda is the Education Sector Strategic Plan (ESSP). This plan is intended to assist the institutions that are charged with the delivery of education services, particularly the MoES, with the clear guidelines on how to deliver quality education that promotes national development (MoES 2013). In emphasizing the importance attached to education, the government has made education for all a fundamental human right, and this is enshrined in Article 30 of the Constitution of the Republic of Uganda 1995. The country’s policy on education is meant to ensure that educational systems and structures are flexible and should keep on upgraded and adjusted to ensure that quality education is provided in the country that meets the needs of national development. This is aimed at equipping people with knowledge and skills that builds competences that are necessary to exploit the countries resources, increase individuals and community incomes, and contributing to poverty eradication as well as contributing to development (MoES 2013). A significant change took place in education system in Uganda in 1997 when the country introduced the UPE program. The policy led to the abolition of tuition fee and the other financial contribution that was made by PTAs in schools. This policy has led to increased enrollment in schools, which rate of enrollment has almost outstripped the capacity of the government to handle it. At the same time, the government transferred the responsibility of managing UPE from the central government to district local governments and to lower local councils with the major intention of involving local communities in UPE implementation through demanding accountability from schools, mobilizing resources complement government resources that are inadequate with the aim of promoting teaching and learning in schools (MoES 2012). It is important to note, however, that much as the education system and structure that came up with UPE have led to increased enrollment and retention in schools, and the duty of governing schools has shifted to the community through the SMCs, they have not executed their mandate role as expected. This has resulted in a decline in education performance in terms of quality education in schools (Osei-Owusu and Kwame 2012). Following the establishment of the Education Sector Investment Plan (ESIP) (1997–2003), communities were formalized as vital participants in primary education. This, in turn, necessitated the establishment of community responsibilities. Accordingly, the government legalized community responsibilities by enacting the Education Act 2008 that redefined the duties of each key stakeholder in UPE in Uganda. The Act clarifies the roles and responsibilities of SMCs and PTAs as stakeholders in UPE implementation. To ensure the successful implementation of UPE in Uganda, the government deemed it necessary to come up with an institutional structure entrusted with the responsibility for a range of issues concerning the management of primary schools (Suzuki 2010; MoES 2013). Under this structure, the central government retained the roles of policy formulation, standardization, monitoring, and overall financing for efficiency and equity (Prinsen and Titeca 2008). Internationally, there has been a
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move for the central government to share power and control over the management of schools at lower levels (James et al. 2011). The administrative supervision and monitoring of primary schools are often under the jurisdiction of District Education Officers (DEOs) who work closely with the governing bodies. In Uganda, the SMCs are expected to monitor the implementation of UPE at school level (Suzuki 2010). To emphasize the role of local communities in UPE implementation, the Education Sector Investment Plan (ESIP) (1997–2003) was established and mandated communities as key stakeholders in the management of schools. The Education Act 2008 spells out the duties and responsibilities of every stakeholder in school under UPE. The Act spells out the roles of SMCs and PTAs in the implementation of UPE (MoES 2013). In Uganda, the school governing body referred to as the SMC is the statutory organ charged with the overall responsibility for the public primary schools (Suzuki 2010; Karlsson 2010; Serfontein 2010; Lunenburg and Ornstein 2012). In Uganda and internationally, the school governing body is the primary means of stimulating and sustaining improvements while operational management is the responsibility of the head teacher (Serfontein 2010). The SMCs in the country are within the management hierarchy for implementing UPE in schools on behalf of the other stakeholders of the school including the central government and every school is required to have one if teaching and learning is to be promoted in schools.
3
The Concept and Composition of the SMC
A SMC is a group of agents representing different concerns of the community that include teachers, head teachers, parents, children, and other community members with the mandate to govern a school (Shatkin and Gershberg 2007). A SMC can be constituted differently according to the needs of the country. In some countries, most of the committee members are teachers, while in other countries, members of the governing body are nominated by the parents. Studies show that in some schools, the governing body committee members have less power in the decision-making process on issues concerning the management of the school, while in other schools’ committee members have power and influence in the way the school is managed (Heystek 2011). This is because the ability of the community members to make decisions differs in different school contexts. In some cases, decision-making and control over school management and governance are in the hands of the head teacher. Professional control and decision-making on instructional matters are in the hands of the teachers, while the community or parents control decision-making on issues of school governance (Barrera-Osorio et al. 2009). When one looks at the composition, roles, and responsibilities the school governing bodies exercise in schools, one realizes that many countries have adopted the balanced control school-based management approach. In Uganda, the SMC is composed of parents, teachers, an old boy/girl, and members appointed by the Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES) and those appointed by the District Education Committee (DEC). The head teacher is an ex-officio member and
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secretary to the committee (SMC Handbook 2007). The SMC members are elected from among different stakeholders of the school, including the foundation body, local council representatives, subcounty chiefs, parents, old boys/girls, staff, and the head teacher as the secretary (Suzuki 2010; Karlsson 2010; James et al. 2011). The selection of members of SMCs is premised on the assumption that all major stakeholders would have a clear understanding of managing schools. This composition is like that of the school governing bodies in some other countries. In Kenya, the SMC comprises of parents, the District Education Board (which is the local education authority), and three members of the school sponsor (which commonly is the church that started the school) (Adeolu and Olusola 2013). In South Africa, Bush and Heystek (2011) indicate that the composition of school governing bodies (SGBs) is similar in most countries and are often comprised of parents, teachers, community representatives, and the head teacher. Braatz and Putnam (1996) observe that in California and Chicago, where the SMCs are dominated by parents with broad decision-making authority, there are high levels of efficiency and effectiveness in the provision of education services. However, evidence shows that the Chicago model of the SMC is dominated by the parents and there is more efficient running of schools than in California where the committees are dominated by sections of the local communities rather than by parents (Shatkin and Gershberg 2007).
4
Responsibilities of SMCs in Implementing UPE
Prew (2009) observed that schools with dedicated and committed participation of the local communities in management of school activities are efficiently operating according to plan and budgets, because they can mobilize the needed financial and human resources from various stakeholders necessary for the provision of better education services. Prew (2009) further observed that involvement of stakeholders in management of schools is vital for the successful implementation of school programs in developing countries. This is because developing countries operate with scarce resources and as such there is community need to mobilize more resources, monitor their use in line with the approved plan that are needed to complement government disbursements to schools that are insufficient to meet the necessary requirements needed to promote teaching and learning. This is a phenomenon of developing countries as opposed to developed countries where schools operate with surplus resources and thus community engagement seems to be unnecessary. Chikoko (2008) argues that despite the vital roles played by the SMCs in schools, majority of the members especially in rural schools are less educated, because education is not a prerequisite for one to be elected a member of SMC, and this makes them lack competences in the management and governance of affairs of schools. This occurrence negatively affects the attainment of better education outcome. In order to ensure the successful implementation of UPE by the school governing committee members, developing countries have come up with policy interventions
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informed by the principles of demand and supply. The supply-side policy interventions include the provision of physical infrastructure, instructional materials, school uniforms, and free lunch, while the demand side focuses on governments providing capitation grant to schools (Jensen 2010). To ensure that the UPE implementation is done successfully, the demand and supply sides should be in equilibrium which most of the time is not attained in developing countries due to scarcity of resources. Studies show that school-based management (SBM) has proved to be the best policy that has registered an improvement in the management of schools in both developing and developed countries by meeting the interests of all stakeholders of the schools, and that this has resulted in creating a favorable environment that is conducive for improving the pupils’ performance and accomplishments (Cheng and Mok 2007). It is believed that SBM is the model that serves pupils best since it meets the various expectations of the stakeholders of the school in the provision of better education services (Bandur and Gamage 2009). This can be witnessed in California in the USA and in Wales in the United Kingdom where SBM has led to the effective management of schools through the formulation of clear visions, missions, and development plans by the school committees or boards that are relevant for promoting teaching and learning in schools (Smith and Piele 2006). The SMCs operates within the SBM objectives and structures. Several SMC members perceive their duties and functions as recognition by the community members and district officials, who have trusted them with the mandate of monitoring the activities of the school (MoES 2013). However, according to Prisen and Titeca (2008), SMC members have a feeling that they are not financially supported by the government in executing their obligations, yet the work they do takes a lot of time. Some SMCs lack motivation as a result of the absence of financial benefits from the services they offer to schools (Prisen and Titeca 2008). Lack of motivation has created low levels of morale and lack of interest, which has resulted in inefficiency in the monitoring of school activities (Prisen and Titeca 2008). Bartol and Martin (2008), as cited in Muogbo (2013), describe motivation as a power that shapes behavior and creates the inclination towards work continuity. Motivation induces an individual to work towards the attainment of organizational goals (Muogbo 2013). A study by Obonyo (2012) on the factors influencing the effectiveness of school management in public primary schools in Karemo division, Siaya county, in Kenya reveals that managerial inefficiency, lack of clear roles and functions, and failure to recognize the importance of budget formulation negatively influence the management of schools. This view was in support of Maurren and Gunilla (2009), who point out that the governance structures within the SMCs are weak, being characterized by low capacity to plan, budget, allocate, and control finances, poor management and supervision, and lack of both internal and external audit. All these have caused unfavorable conditions, leading to financial mismanagement and corruption, which have a direct effect on the performance of schools. Another Kenyan study by Keriga and Bujra (2009) found that it was because of the poor management practices and weak administrative structures of SMCs that pupils learn in unhealthy environments resulting from inability to make use of resources to achieve educational needs.
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It is evident from the literature that SMCs undertake the monitoring role with positive perceptions in which lies the potential for the promotion of the successful implementation of UPE. However, much as SMCs are legally mandated to undertake their roles, they lack the knowledge and skills that should enable them to be efficient in their work. While governments are aware that the roles played by SMCs tend to be technical and engaging, the policy guidelines for electing the SMC members are silent on the educational requirements for members of SMCs. The researcher in this study deduces from the literature that SMCs are not fully mandated to make decisions affecting the operations of the schools and this act as demotivating factor in the way they execute their duties. There is, therefore, need for the government to fully empower the SMCs with knowledge and skills that can enable them to take on the full mandate to manage schools.
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Community Participation in School Management
Community involvement in school governance is key because it makes a school efficiently functional in attainment of stated goal of provision of education of quality services (Moritsugu et al. 2010). This is due to the fact parents that have children in schools are part of the members of SMCs who are concerned with the learning of their children and as a result they have a duty of ensuring that teaching and learning take pace for the better outcome of their children. Moritsugu et al. (2010) assert that community involvement in school management is vital in creating change because they are the beneficiaries of the proposed and implemented change since all this is done to ensure there an improved education outcome. SBM therefore is a clear policy whose intention to implement the change throughout the education system that benefits all the stakeholders of schools. Evans and Shirley (2008) observed that teamwork is created when there is community participation through SMCs or school board, because this leads to attainment of one common outcome other than fronting of personal interest in resource mobilization from diverse stakeholders and how the mobilized resources are optimally utilized. This was also observed by Sullivan (2003) who found [out] that community involvement makes corrective decisions that supersedes the personal interests in making decisions that are vital in running the activities of the school. This is because of the corrective actions that are done legitimately in line with the situation in which a school is governed. A study conducted in Hong Kong schools on the effectiveness of community participation revealed that SBM were less effective in management of school resources due to negative perceptions they had in effecting their mandate in schools SBM (Yau and Cheng 2014). This was because the participating community members lacked incentives as a motivator to stimulate them to perform their roles and responsibilities in addition to having insufficient knowledge and skills concerning the governance of schools. Mushi (2006) observes that an SBM policy that has created restructuring in the management of schools tends to bring about conflict between the SMCs, the head teacher, and teachers due to the roles played by each party that seem to overlap. Mushi (2006) reveals that SBM that empowers SMCs to
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monitor and supervise the activities of the school creates tension between the school committee chairperson and head teacher and between the school committee and district education officials, which undermines the effectiveness and efficiency in the provision of education services. Studies in South Africa have shown that school governing bodies operate efficiently in developed countries and in urban schools in developing countries but perform poorly in the rural areas of developing countries (Mestry 2004; Sithole 2004). According to Zondi (2005), some school governing bodies have failed to perform to their expectations because they do not understand their duties and responsibilities and, as such, they feel that they are not empowered and feel discouraged from doing their work effectively and efficiently. Under the devolution of power, schools are supposed to be democratically governed with clear guidelines on accountability, transparency, and mutual understanding by all the stakeholders in the schools (Mabitsela 2004). In a South African study, Beckmann and Prinsloo (2009) state that efficient governance demands the effective management and control of the school resources, which leads to the attainment of education service delivery. Waghid (2005), however, argues that it is the lack of democracy in the way school governing bodies perform their duties that has made them fail to operate according to their mandate in many developing countries. The understanding from the literature is that community participation in the management of schools promotes commitment and brings about a sense of ownership that is vital for the efficient delivery of education services. However, there are some differences in the way in which SMCs undertake their management roles. In developed countries and in urban areas in some developing countries, school governing bodies operate efficiently in the management of schools; however, they operate poorly in rural areas in developing countries. It is probable that this is due to high levels of understanding of the roles that SMCs play resulting from high levels of education and skill, as well as greater experience and commitment, which may be lacking in SMC members in rural schools in developing countries. There is, therefore, need for the government to ensure that SMCs operate equally efficiently in both urban and rural schools since all schools are expected to perform in the same way to ensure the successful implementation of the UPE program in the country.
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Conceptual Framework
Monitoring is a systematic process of collecting data about the progress of a project (Mertens 2005). Noh (2006) define monitoring as a continuous activity that involves regular collection and analysis of data to inform stakeholders about the progress of program intervention in relation to set targets and goals. Monitoring deals with regular and frequent collection of data analysis with the intention of coming up with the issues that affect the implementation of the education program (Mishra 2005). Monitoring is the process that involves the activity of gathering data using scientifically tested data collection tools, followed by analysis of the collected data and implementation of recommendations from the findings as actions to be taken to
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ensure that the activities of the program or project are efficiently undertaken (Shah 2009). Monitoring is a consistent activity that assesses the way the project or program activities are undertaken with an intention of correcting the deviations from the set targets and actions to ensure that the implementation objectives are achieved (Hanson 2010). The activity of monitoring looks at the process of how inputs are fed into the activities, how activities are fed into outputs, and how outputs are fed into outcomes (Mishra 2005). According to Gibbon (2004), monitoring is the process of keeping track of the performance of a system using well formulated measurable indicators. Within the education sector, monitoring encompasses the exercise of inspection and supervision. Willms (2003) came up with three types of monitoring classification that can be used in monitoring the activities of a school: The first monitoring classification is conformity monitoring, which ensures that schools operate with needed requirements in terms of classrooms, teacher qualification and attendance, the use of instructional materials, procurement, and the use of library materials. It also looks at how pupils are taught and examined and the number of support staff available in a school. The underlying principle of this monitoring is to ensure that the set standard indicators that should be used to determine output are met by the school and that school finances are put to optimal use. The second monitoring classification is diagnostic monitoring, which emphasizes school results, especially pupils’ performance based on equity. It monitors how the syllabus is taught. It also identifies the competencies of the school head teacher and teachers and then puts in place a means for enhancing the benefit from the contribution of all stakeholders. The third monitoring classification, according to Willms (2003), is performance monitoring, which emphasizes the examination results by comparing the performance of the school with other schools in the same area. This form of monitoring helps to determine the position of the school in comparison with other schools with the intention of making the school accountable to its stakeholders. This phenomenon generates the element of hard work among the school staff and the efficient use of resources that promotes teaching and learning in schools. Since monitoring is a continuous and systematic process, at school level, the responsibility of monitoring the school activities is undertaken by the head teacher, with the help of deputy head teacher and director of studies, who make sure that classes are attended to, teaching materials are in place and used, lesson plans are made and followed, tests are given and marked, the whole syllabus is taught, and the library and computer laboratory are properly used (Kayani et al. 2011). However, to make the monitoring exercise more meaningful and thorough, there is need for a participatory approach that includes external monitors, who tend to be neutral and give credibility the work of SMCs in various countries in ensuring that monitoring the activities of the schools is done to achieve better learning outcomes. With the involvement of the community through the participatory approach, there is a possibility that school resources are efficiently utilized, which promotes teaching and learning in schools with the intention of achieving quality education (Kayani et al. 2011). This is because: through monitoring, deviations in the way school
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resources are utilized are identified and, through the combined efforts of all school stakeholders, corrective action is taken for the benefit of the program implementation (Shah 2009). Through the monitoring structure in place, the resources received in schools can be utilized effectively and efficiently which leads to delivery of better and improved education outcomes (Marriott and Goyder 2009). There is need to put in place a monitoring system to track progress if education programs are to be effectively implemented to deliver education outcome Mertens (2005) observes that for monitoring function to be successful in the implementation of a program, there is need to put in place a monitoring system with well set parameters with measurable indicators to measure the progress. An effective and efficient monitoring system should be able to provide information about the development of the program implementation with an intention of putting in place corrective action in case deviations from the planned so that informed decisions on how to deliver education services are undertaken to achieve continuous and improved outcomes that benefit all the stakeholders of the education program stakeholders (Kayani et al. 2011). A monitoring system that is dependable should be able to provide sufficient information on the program implantation by identifying best practices to enhance and weaknesses where a corrective action is put in place so that all resources are put to optimal use in order to facilitate teaching and learning in schools. However, Luginbuhl et al. (2009) reveal that much as monitoring is taken to be a key component of the implementation of education programs, the implementation of school programs has continued to be a challenge even when management is undertaken by the local communities. It is revealed that in developing countries, the activity of monitoring the implementation of basic education in schools is undertaken by the local communities that lack knowledge and skills required having full functioning schools. This has resulted in conflict regarding the roles and responsibilities played by different stakeholders, thus hindering education service delivery (Marriott and Goyder 2009). Kusek et al. (2004) observes that diverse interests of stakeholders are a threat rather than an opportunity in implementation of education service delivery. Educational programs need to be planned and implemented based on clear set approach that makes its monitoring and evaluation possible (Khawaja 2001). Consistence and logical monitoring and management based on a competent monitoring and evaluation system is key for the successful implementation of an educational program (Khawaja 2001). Winkler (2005) observes that attainment of quality schooling can significantly be enhanced if the approach of community engagement involves parents in monitoring the school activities vital for improvement of teaching and learning. Kayani et al. (2011) reveal that regular and continuous monitoring of school administration that includes head teachers and teacher attendance, budget preparation, implementation and control, undertaking procurement process, and general management of schools is vital for promoting teaching and learning.. An efficient monitoring system therefore needs to be enforced to provide information about the progress of program implementation so that decisions on how to achieve better education outcomes are achieved (Kayani et al. 2011). Such a monitoring
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system needs to provide accurate information about all the set indicators of performance that need to be monitored to efficiently guide the decision-makers on how to achieve the program’s objectives (Noh 2006). Analyzing the above assertions seem to suggest that monitoring is a systematic, regular, logical, and continuous process that involves the collection of data and analysis of data with the intention of coming up with results that inform decisionmakers about the way the program is implemented. Its main intention is to identify the deviations during program implementation in line with what is agreed during the program design so that corrective actions are undertaken to ensure the implementation activities get back on track. Monitoring, therefore, looks at how inputs of the programs are fed into activities, how activities are fed into outputs, how outputs are fed into outcomes, and how outcomes are fed into the impact from the program intervention. This understanding of the meaning of monitoring gives a clear direction on what is expected of SMCs in line with the hierarchy of what to monitor in schools. The inputs in schools to monitor include the school infrastructure, instructional materials, funds that are disbursed to schools from the central government, pupils, teachers, head teachers, and all other inputs that facilitate the activities of the school. The outputs expected from such activities include: classroom blocks, a wellstocked library, motivated teachers, and regular attendance by teachers and pupils. The outcome is good grades based on quality education, and the impact is knowledgeable and skilled labor force. In Uganda, to ensure that monitoring is efficiently done, the MoES (2012) put in place a monitoring framework with indicators to simplify the work of SMC members, which includes the following: monitoring the attendance of learners by checking the registers and the attendance board; monitoring the attendance of staff by checking in the arrival book; monitoring the attendance of the head teacher by checking in the arrival book, the log book, and the head teacher’s diary; monitoring the attendance of parents through meetings, class days, and speech days; and monitoring the attendance of support staff by checking the attendance card. Monitoring the school performance is done by checking on the work done by teachers and their commitment in carrying out the development projects as well as teaching in class, which should amount to at least six lessons a week (MoES 2013). Each of the highlighted activity that is monitored has performance targets that need to be attained, and this has significantly eased the work of SMCs in schools. According to the MoES (2013), SMC have a duty of monitoring the school resources: school health, hygiene, and sanitation; classroom teaching and learning; and school staff attendance. They are also required to advise the school head teacher on the governance of the school and coordinate all the activities of the school; and they are, therefore, at the centre of coordinating all the activities to make the schools functional (Kabiaru 2013). This is shown in Fig. 1. A monitoring framework gives a clear guide on how the whole process of monitoring needs to be undertaken. It guides on the type of data that needs to be collected, on which performance indicators, the frequency, the tools to use to collect data, how the collected data need to be analyzed and the mode of reporting the findings, and how the recommendations and action plans need to be handled to
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Fig. 1 SMC monitoring framework
ensure that teaching and learning is promoted to achieve better and improved education outcome (Mishra 2005). Effective monitoring is vital in promotion of teaching and learning if education outcome is to be achieved (Marriott and Goyder 2009). Schools that do not take monitoring function seriously in their operations their performances have remained low (Luginbuhl et al. 2009). To ensure the improved performance, schools need to have monitoring systems to track progress by continuously assessing the way in which inputs are used and how outputs that lead to outcomes are to be achieved. Monitoring systems enable the school stakeholders to be constantly informed on how the school inputs, activities, and processes are undertaken, which becomes a basis of tracking the progress of how the school is implementing the program. In this way, the school resources are efficiently utilized which leads to improvement in learning outcomes that are based on access, equity, and quality. According to Greaney and Kellaghn (2008), a clear monitoring system of the education sector is a key in the growth of the manpower required to exploit the resources all over the world. A monitoring system need to be comprehensive and should encompass all the processes that are needed by the stakeholders to track the progress of an intervention (Mishra 2005). Holmes (2003) reveal that if effective monitoring is to be achieved, monitors should be well trained with knowledge and skills to know what to monitor, how to monitor, and what to do with monitoring reports. Monitors should also be morally upright and act professionally without compromising their objectivity. He further
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emphasizes that monitors should have interpersonal skills that enable them work in a team through participatory approach if all the views of stakeholders are to be listened to and incorporated in decision-making. Zukoski and Luluquisen (2002) observe that since monitoring activity is engaging and technical, there is need for members’ commitment and skills building to all members to focus on one common goal of promoting teaching and learning by ensuring that all the resources are efficiently utilized. Uganda’s Education Act (Management Committees) Amendment Rules 1969 No. 224 (MoES 2011) highlight the composition of the SMC and its representation but is quiet about the education levels and skills and experiences required for one to be elected as a member of SMC, yet the roles and responsibilities they are mandated to undertake are technical in nature. Kawala (2015) reveals that much as UPE in Uganda is being implemented through the decentralization of powers from the central government to the local governments and to the local communities through the SMCs, the SMCs have limited right to take decisions affecting the operations of the schools without the approval of the authority from the district local governments’ where the schools are situated and the central government which limits their independence in running the affairs of the school. Kawala (2015) further reveals that SMCs in rural areas are ignorant about their roles and responsibilities, and, as such, they meet the challenges of politicians and bureaucrats who normally take over their role functions, thus rendering them insignificant. This has led to inefficiencies in the implementation of UPE grogram in Uganda, most especially in the rural areas. It is evident from the literature that the monitoring function involves the continuous and regular process of data collection and analysis and the production of reports containing the monitoring findings and recommendations that need to be carried out to correct anomalies that are identified. It is, therefore, an important function that requires commitment and competences. If monitoring exercise is to be effective, there is need for setting clear monitoring indicators by stakeholders through participatory approach. To ensure that there is clear guidance on the monitoring activities in schools, there is need for the use of a monitoring framework that is user-friendly and that is developed in consultation with all stakeholders. However, the literature is quiet on the monitoring framework used by SMCs in facilitating their operations. Besides, the literature reviewed is silent on the competences that those to do the monitoring work in schools are required to possess. There is need for the government to come up with a monitoring tool to guide the SMCs in carrying out their work if school resources are to be used efficiently to support education service delivery.
7
SMCs Influence on the Implementation of UPE
There evidence to show that SMCs in schools are vital in UPE implementation. It is revealed that SMCs role in monitoring the implementation of UPE to a big extent has been effective. Pupils’ access and enrollment in schools have increased and resource inputs that facilitate teaching and learning have been monitored and
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efficiently utilized. This is evidenced by Osei-Owusu and Kwame (2012) who observed that school management committee is an integral part of the school management which is responsible for administering the overall affairs of the school from identifying the development and infrastructure needs to the implementation and monitoring of school development projects. Kipkoech and Cheruto (2012) also found out that the roles of SMCs in schools is the initiation and approval of development plans, approval of procurement of school assets, monitor the utilization of capitation grants, provision of school infrastructure, helping the head teachers in negotiations, and acquisition of school entitlements from the districts, ensuring that there is discipline and harmony in schools aiming at creating conducive learning environment required for better education outcomes. The findings are also in agreement with those of Bategeka and Okurut (2006) who found out that the roles of SMCs is to provide a general direction to the activities of the schools such as ensuring that schools have development plans, approving and managing school budgets, and monitoring school finances to ensure transparency, especially in the use of UPE grants. The findings are further supported by Benedict and Kwame (2012) who asserts that the committee’s main duties comprise of: monitoring and supervision of all school employees and pupils, ensuring the school has sufficient infrastructure, planning and approval of budgets, ensuring pupil and teacher discipline, assisting teachers to improve teaching and learning, resolving school-community conflict, and improving teacher community relations. They are accountable for all the money disbursed to schools and for school property as well as for monitoring the activities of head teachers, teachers’ conduct and performance, and pupils’ progress and to ensure that all the children that enroll complete the primary cycle (Bategeka and Okurut 2006). Researchers and policy-makers have found that school-based management (SBM) that devolves the power of managing schools from the central government to the school level, including financial control, has proved to be successful in the implementation of UPE (Barrera-Osorio et al. 2014). The findings support the view that SBM is the best mode that serves pupils best since it meets the various expectations of stakeholders of the school in the provision of better education services (Bandur and Gamage 2009). This is witnessed in both developed and developing countries where school-based management has led to effective management of schools through formulation of clear mission, vision, and strategic plans by the school committees or boards that are relevant for efficient education service delivery. However, Chikoko (2008) observed that, much as the SMCs play significant roles in the management of schools, in most of the rural schools, members of the committees have low levels of education and, therefore, lack knowledge and skills required to make development plans, make and approve school budgets, monitor the activities of the school, as well as demand accountability. The low education levels limit the role played by the committee members in the implementation of school programs. This explains why rural schools have continued to perform poorly as compared to their counterpart in urban centers as a result of wrong decisions made in the governance of schools (Xaba 2011).
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Conclusion and Recommendations
The purpose of this study was to conduct a study on how SMCs monitor the implementation of UPE in Uganda. The objectives of the study were twofold: (1) To find out how SMCs describe their roles in monitoring the implementation of UPE and (2) To ascertain the extent the SMCs influence the implementation of UPE. The study findings seem to suggest that there is planned and structured use of funds in schools by SMCs done through development and approval of development plans, drawing the school budgets, mobilization, and use of school resources. In ensuring that school activities are undertaken efficiently, monitoring function is undertaken by SMCs to ensure that resources are efficiently utilized to promote effective teaching and learning. The SMCs role in monitoring school activities seem to have resulted into increased school enrollment, improved staff welfare, and support supervision that aim at performance improvements in UPE schools. Much as SMCs monitoring role promotes UPE program in schools, the study concludes that some members of the committees especially in some rural schools do not seem to understand their roles, the reason why ineffectiveness has remained in schools that hinders the delivery of quality education in schools. This is caused by lack of knowledge and skills in management of schools. There is therefore a need for continuous enhancement of community participation in schools to ensure that scarce government resources are put to optimal use. However, for this strategy to work efficiently, there is need for the government to equip the SMCs with the requisite knowledge and skills, especially those operating in the rural schools. There is also need for a policy by the government that stipulates a minimum level of education and experience as a requirement for one to be elected as a member of an SMC. This should be accompanied by a clear policy of continuous training in new skills of monitoring and managing school resources to support teaching and learning in schools.
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The Education System of Kenya Philosophy, Vision, and Mission Andrew Rasugu Riechi
Contents 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 The National Goals of Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 The Vision and Mission of the Education Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 The Structure of Education in Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Governance and Management of Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Development of Kenya’s Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 The Education Sector Performance, Achievements, and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Education Reforms in Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Abstract
Evidence shows that appropriate investments in education and training are a catalyst to socioeconomic development in many countries. This is possible where these investments generate three key outcomes, namely, knowledge, skills, and appropriate attitudes. An appropriate education system for a country is founded on a philosophy, vision, and mission with targets and goals pursued through clearly stated objectives. This chapter spells out the philosophy, vision, mission, goals, and objectives of Kenya’s education system as a whole. Kenya’s Ministry of Education is guided by the national philosophy, which places education at the center-stage of the country’s socioeconomic development strategies. Despite this emphasis, the system of education has largely been academic and examination-oriented. Faced with many challenges, the sector has been a subject of many committees, which failed to realize its vision and mission. Ongoing education reforms in the sector include implementing a competency-based curriculum that has seen a change of structure from 8-4-4 to 2-6-3-3 and an elaborate A. R. Riechi (*) Department of Educational Administration and Planning, College of Education and External Studies (CEES), University of Nairobi, Kikuyu, Kiambu, Kenya © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 K. S. Adeyemo (ed.), The Education Systems of Africa, Global Education Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44217-0_10
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philosophy being “provision of a holistic, quality, and inclusive education and training for transformation to a knowledge economy, social cohesion, and sustainable development.” With an enhanced governance and management structure and continued stakeholder support, the chapter concludes that, if carefully implemented, the new curriculum can potentially address long-standing socioeconomic challenges facing Kenyan citizens. Keywords
Human capital · Education · Reforms · Innovation · Curriculum reforms · Kenya vision 2030
1
Introduction
Education is a vital tool in the development of any country including Kenya. Education plays a significant role in economic, social, and political development of a country. Development of education would lead to accelerated economic growth, more wealth and income distribution, greater quality of opportunity, availability of skilled manpower, a higher life expectancy, better health outcomes, low crime rate, national unity, and political stability (Harbison 1973; Psacharopoulos 1988; Schultz 1988). It is for this reason that many countries make investments in education and training. Focusing on frameworks of investments in education for close to six decades, this chapter highlights the basis of Kenya’s education and training as well as the progress that has been made toward improving the country’s education sector. Over the years, since Kenya became politically independent in 1963, the government recognizes the critical role of education in development. For this reason, the Government of Kenya has been spending about 30% of the national recurrent budget on education (Republic of Kenya 2018a), which has caused a large quantitative expansion of the sector over the years.
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The National Goals of Education
Education and training is the primary means of social mobility, national cohesion, and socioeconomic development (Republic of Kenya 2019). These outcomes are summed up in eight national goals. Education in Kenya should: 1. Foster nationalism and patriotism and promote national unity 2. Promote the social, economic, technological, and industrial needs for national development 3. Promote individual development and self-fulfillment 4. Promote sound moral and religious values 5. Promote social equality and responsibility
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6. Promote respect for and development of Kenya’s rich and varied cultures 7. Promote international consciousness and foster positive attitudes toward other nations 8. Promote positive attitudes toward good health and environmental protection To achieve the first goal, the national government (through the Ministry of Education) and County Education Boards have been mandated to ensure access to education by all its citizens (Republic of Kenya 2010, 2019). It is significant that the National and County Education Boards are expected to enforce the use of the two official languages Kiswahili and English both in and out of school. The mother tongue is the language of the catchment area being used for child care, for early childhood development and education (ECDE), and for the education of children in lower primary who are aged 0–8 years. To achieve national integration, it recommended that as far as possible, learners are not being confined in their local areas (Republic of Kenya 2019). The second national goal is about the link between education and the economy. Reported high rates of youth and educated unemployment in Kenya over the years are clear evidence that this has not been fully achieved. Consequently, the Ministry of Education has made strides over the years to strengthen that link through a review of the national curriculum to ensure that all learners are exposed to developments in science and technology and to opportunities to apply that knowledge practically. In recent years, technical and vocational education and training (TVET) has received special attention in Kenya. The development and implementation of the relevant policy in the recent years has led to information and communications technology (ICT) being integrated into the education system in an effort to improve access to a quality and relevant education as envisaged in the Constitution of Kenya, 2010 (Republic of Kenya 2010, 2015). To facilitate individual development and selffulfillment, a revised structure, which will enable learners to follow alternative knowledge pathways, shall be introduced. Learners shall be equipped with practical skills to make them employable or to be self-employed to improve Kenya’s economic competitiveness. Education and training shall inculcate moral and spiritual values, as well as the valuing of cultural differences among the various communities in Kenya (Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development 2019). It shall instill the importance of integrity, honesty, respect for others, and hard work. Further, it shall develop inter-personal skills; moral values shall be incorporated in the national curriculum. Education is closely linked to culture. Efforts are being made to ensure that an educated person is not only one who has sufficient knowledge and skills but one who knows how to interact with others courteously and harmoniously. With the ongoing interventions by stakeholders in Kenya, equity issues in the education and training sector shall be addressed so as to create equal opportunities for all, especially the nomadic people, orphans, and vulnerable groups especially girls throughout Kenya. Kenya’s cultural diversity and ethnic heritage is best demonstrated by her wealth of 42 indigenous communities. It is through education and training that integration of Kenya’s communities can be enriched. For many years now, efforts have been
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made to harness the country’s cultural diversity through non-formal curricula activities such as music, dance, games, and debating in all Kenyan schools. This has seen schools being used as channels of cultural integration. The Ministry of Education is making efforts to ensure that local cultural traditions are celebrated, thus forming part of the life of every school (Republic of Kenya 2009b). Despite the fact that not all national goals of education have been achieved, significant efforts are being made by local and international stakeholders to make progress toward achieving them. Information and communications technology (ICT) has globalized education and made it easier for people to learn from one another. By promoting e-learning, the Ministry of Education is making efforts to ensure that Kenyan schools develop links with schools internationally to extend the education of Kenyan children, thereby raising the level of international awareness of Kenyan children. Education and training shall impart to learners’ good health practices by including in the curriculum knowledge of how to prevent and combat malaria, HIV and AIDS, and other diseases. Through appropriate collaborations, the Ministry of Education is ensuring that programs designed to raise the awareness of young people to HIV and AIDS, STDs, and drug abuse are supported. To enhance environmental education in all schools, community service programs have been proposed to use schools as channels of sharing knowledge to the wider Kenyan community (Republic of Kenya 2015).
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The Vision and Mission of the Education Sector
The vision of Kenya’s education sector is “to have a globally competitive quality education, training, and science, technology, and innovation (STI) for the national production systems and processes for sustainable development.” In line with the vision, the sector’s mission is “to provide, promote, and coordinate quality education, training, and integration of science, technology, and innovation into the national production systems for sustainable national development.”
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The Structure of Education in Kenya
Until 2019 when the competency-based curriculum was implemented in Kenya, the structure of education in Kenya consisted of 8 years of primary, 4 years of secondary, and a minimum of 4 years of university education (commonly referred to as 8-4-4). For the time being, the two systems of education are being implemented in a phase-in, phase-out model. The 8-4-4 system of education was introduced in 1985 following the recommendations of the 1981 “Presidential Working Party on the Establishment of the Second University in Kenya.” The guiding philosophy of the system was “education for self-reliance.” This 8-4-4 education structure is summarized below and briefly described thereafter:
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No. of years Not formally integrated 8 years 4 years Not formally integrated
Age – 6–13+ 14–17+ Flexible and variable
6 years 4 years
18+ 18–21+
Pre-primary Education. Prior to joining primary school, children between the ages of 3 and 6 are required to attend pre-primary (pre-unit) for 2 years. The main objective of pre-primary education is to cater for the total development of a child, including the physical, spiritual, social, and mental growth, brought about through formal and informal interaction with the parents and the community taking a leading role. A focus of pre-primary education has been health, nutrition, care, and basic education. Programs are run through partnership with the government, district-based agencies, local communities, and external agencies. The Pre-School section of the Ministry of Education is responsible for the registration of pre-schools and the coordination of all partners. Primary Education. Primary school is the first phase of the 8-4-4 education system and serves students between the ages of 6 and 14 years. The main purpose of primary education is to prepare students to participate in the social, political, and economic well-being of the country and prepare them to be global. In the reformed education system, primary school curriculum has been designed to provide a more functional and practical education to cater to the needs of children who complete their education at the primary school level and also for those who wish to continue with secondary education. In addition, it caters for students who wish, and have the means, to proceed to secondary school education. A major goal of primary education is to develop self-expression, self-discipline, and self-reliance while at the same time providing an all-round educational experience. Secondary Education. Learners of secondary school begin at the age of 14. Secondary school education in Kenya is aimed at meeting the needs of the students who proceed to secondary education after completion of their primary education. It takes 4 years to go through secondary school. In addition, students are expected to acquire necessary knowledge, skills, and attitudes for the development of the self and the nation and enhance understanding and respect for one’s own and other people’s cultures and their place in contemporary society. Tertiary Education. In addition to adding technical courses at the primary and secondary school level, vocational education has been a focus of the Kenyan education system. The Ministry of Higher Education developed a national strategy for technical and vocational education and training aimed at the rehabilitation of physical facilities and equipment and ensuring that vocational and technical institutions are appropriately equipped. There are colleges which offer certificates at diploma level. These public and private colleges offer technical hands-on skills in
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various fields including engineering, medical sciences, nursing, education, computer science, mass communication, tourism, and business. Students who attain specified grades are admitted to universities where they undertake programs leading to degrees.
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Governance and Management of Education
The Constitution of Kenya (2010) provides that education and training in Kenya is governed and managed under a two-tier government, the national government and the county governments. Whereas the county governments are responsible for TVET and ECDE, the national government, through the Ministry of Education, is responsible for national policies and programs that help Kenyans access quality and affordable, school education, post-school, higher education, and academic research (Republic of Kenya 2010). The Ministry of Education is responsible for providing education to all Kenyan citizens. The responsibilities of the Ministry of Education and relevant agencies as well as constitutional bodies include employment of teachers for government schools, distribution of learning resources, and implementation of education policies. Governance focuses on the rules and mechanisms by which various stakeholders influence decisions and how they are held accountable. Governance and management in the sector are guided by the provisions of the Constitution, especially Articles 10, 201, and 232. Therefore, the sector is committed to implementing the national values and principles of governance in the provision of services. The overall policy leadership is vested in the Ministry responsible for education, training, and research. The Ministry is headed by a Cabinet Secretary. The Cabinet Secretary may delegate policy implementation to semiautonomous agencies. The other institution in the sector is the Teachers Service Commission (TSC), which is a constitutional commission. The Ministry has decentralized its operations to regions, counties, and sub-counties. The decentralized units work closely with the county governments in delivery of services. Management at institutional level is delegated to Boards of Management, Boards of Governors, Governing Councils, and Boards of Trustees. For youth polytechnics (vocational training centers), the appointment of Board of Governors is done by the respective county governments (Republic of Kenya 2019).
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Development of Kenya’s Education
All major policy and strategic developments in the education sector since independence have been developed through the work of successive commissions, committees, working parties, and task forces (Republic of Kenya 1964, 1976, 1981, 1988, 1999, 2012). The key policy interventions that were generated and implemented from reports were the introduction of Free Primary Education in January 2003 and Free Day Secondary Education in 2008. Thereafter, there was a national education conference whose recommendations led to the development of the Sessional Paper
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No. 1 of 2005 on Education and Training has led to major reforms in the education sector. These reforms have enabled Kenya to make significant progress toward attaining the Education for All (EFAX) and Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). For a long time, the main focus of Kenya’s education has been on improving levels of access, retention, equity, quality, relevance, and the overall efficiency of the education sector. However, Kenya Vision 2030, Kenya’s development blueprint, which was launched in 2008 and the Constitution of Kenya, 2010, made it necessary to re-align the education sector to the current needs of the country (Republic of Kenya 2007, 2010). Ministry of Education and other relevant policy and planning frameworks confirm that the Government of Kenya is committed to the provision of quality education and training to its citizens at all levels (Republic of Kenya 2018b, 2019). The ongoing Free Primary Education, Free Day Secondary Education, and bursaries and loans provided through the Higher Education Loans Board bear testimony to this fact. The Social Pillar in the Kenya Vision 2030 singles out education and training as the vehicle that will drive Kenya into becoming a middle-income economy. In addition, the Constitution of Kenya, 2010, has provided for free and compulsory basic education as a human right to every Kenyan child. The country is therefore obliged to align education and training to the demands of the two documents. This means reviewing all aspects of the education system to make it responsive to the new realities (Republic of Kenya 2007, 2010). The Education Task Force on the Realignment of the Education Sector to the Constitution of Kenya 2010 noted that the current system of education, curriculum, and assessment does not include early childhood development and education. In addition, the quality of education is not clearly spelt out so that the curriculum delivery can focus on development of specific expected competences to be assessed. In view of this, the Task Force found it necessary to recommend a more flexible and comprehensive structure for Kenya’s education system and curriculum reform to specify the expected competences at every level of learning. The recommended structure is 2 years of pre-primary, 6 years of primary (3 years lower and 3 years upper), 6 years secondary (3 years junior and 3 years senior), 2 years minimum of middle-level colleges, and 3 years minimum university education. As recommended by the Task Force, this structure will have two cycles: basic education cycle of 14 years which is free and compulsory and a higher education cycle (Republic of Kenya 2012). The submissions to the education Task Force strongly recommended a change of structure to make it more flexible and allow for a number of exit and entry points aligned with international best practice. The rationale for the revised structure of education according to the Task Force is to ensure learners acquire competencies and skills that will enable them to meet the human resource aspirations of Kenya Vision 2030 by offering a choice of subject pathways at the end of the elementary school phase; ensure the attainment of 100% transition rate from primary to secondary, thereby reducing wastage by introducing automatic progression to the junior secondary phase based on the acquisition of the core skills and competencies that is literacy, numeracy, and communication skills; focus on early identification and nurturing of
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talent in individual learners at the end of the junior secondary phase; allow for specialization at the end of junior secondary; introduce competency assessment tests (CATs) measuring knowledge, skills, and competences, the results of which will be cumulative and form part of a formative assessment process, the credits from which will be accumulated in the summative assessment at the end of each phase; and fit more naturally into the child’s maturation cycle, especially for girls.
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The Education Sector Performance, Achievements, and Challenges
According to the National Education Sector Plan (NESP) for 2013–2018, the number of basic and tertiary education institutions increased by 7% from 71,513 learning institutions in 2008 to 78,102 institutions in 2012. Pre-primary education centers increased by 4.7% from 37,954 in 2008 to 39,758 in 2011. During this period, enrolment in pre-primary increased from 1.7 million to 2.4 million children. The number of primary schools increased by 9% from 26,206 to 29,161, while secondary schools increased from 6,566 in 2008 to 8,179 in 2012, while enrolment increased by 15% from 8.6 million to 9.9 million pupils during the same period. High level of expansion was observed at secondary education level where enrolment increased by 46% from 1.3 million to 1.9 million during the same period (Republic of Kenya 2015). According to the Ministry’s Education Management Information System (EMIS), Kenya has reportedly been doing relatively well in terms of the level of access to basic education. However, there are major inequalities across regions in terms of access, educational learning attainment, and literacy. Kenya’s primary level net enrolment rate in 2012 was 95.3%, while the gross enrolment rate (GER) was 115.8%. Kenya has a more educated youth population. In 2009, the youth literacy rate was higher compared to South Africa, Ghana, Uganda, and Tanzania. Kenya, however, needs to increase the proportion of learners especially of girls and vulnerable groups. There is need to also reduce the percentage of learners who fail to complete primary education level and increase the number of learners who progress to post-primary education levels. In 2012, for instance, the primary education completion rate and primary to secondary education transition rate were 80.4% and 76.6%, respectively. At the same time, the country witnessed growing internal regional variations in education outcomes, for instance, female literacy rates were below 10% in counties in the North Eastern Kenya – Mandera, Turkana, and Wajir – but as high as 90% in Nairobi and Uasin Gishu Counties. Of the people with a university degree, 77% come from urban areas (Republic of Kenya 2015). In 2009, 74% of the Kenyan population had at least a primary education (Republic of Kenya 2009a). However, this national-level educational attainment is not true in most counties, especially among those situated in the arid and semiarid lands. Female literacy rates were below ten percent in Mandera, Turkana, and Wajir districts. Female literacy is a critical dimension that will require both county and national education policy makers’ attention. In terms of absolute numbers, rural Rift
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Valley accounts for the largest share (23%) of the total population without schooling (Republic of Kenya 2015). Enrolment rates in pre-primary education have increased, but the focus of care and teaching at this level needs to improve to maximize the positive impact an early childhood education can have on development. The net enrolment rate increased from 32.9% in 2005 to 53.3% in 2012, and there is near gender parity in enrolments (0.99%). Although the pre-primary curriculum is guided by the early childhood development policy of 2006 which emphasizes the principle of holistic development; in practice, public pre-primary schools do not have well-developed early childhood services for children under the age of 3 years. Teaching is focused on literacy and numeracy skills meant for early primary education centers, partly because the providers and parents view ECDE as early schooling. Child-centered pedagogical methods, which would provide a better basis for learning, exist only in few private centers in urban areas. The quality of early childhood care in Kenyan public schools does not take account of the need for early stimulation and better nutrition. NESP provides an opportunity for counties to improve pre-primary access, the quality of early childhood care, and better focus on pedagogical methods (Republic of Kenya 2015). In primary education the net enrolment rate increased from 82.8% in 2005 when the FOE policy was introduced to 95.3% in 2012. Gender parity in access has also improved at primary level, increasing from 0.95 in 2005 to 0.97 in 2010. A worrying trend though is the rise in drop-out rates and unsatisfactory progression levels. Although the primary school completion rate increased from 77.6% in 2005 to 83.2% in 2009, it dropped to 80.3% in 2011. The decline can be attributed to among other factors such as the effect of additional levies being charged at the school level (Republic of Kenya 2015). Expanding access to secondary education has been increasing but remains low and challenging, especially at the regional levels. Net enrolment rates remain low 33.1% in 2012 – albeit increasing from 20.5% in 2005. The percent of children transiting from primary to secondary has risen from 57.3% to 73.3% during this same period. Within Kenya, there is a much greater regional variation in attending secondary school, than at primary. County enrolment rates range from 5% to 10% in the northern region and some parts of the coast to around 50% in Kamba and Nairobi. There is also a wider gender gap between boys and girls at secondary schools. The gender parity index worsened from 0.89 in 2005 to 0.86 in 2010. Majority of girls in the counties from North Eastern part of Kenya (Mandera, West Pokot, Garissa, Samburu, Turkana and Wajir) are less likely to transit to secondary schools (Republic of Kenya 2015). Transition to tertiary education, access, and participation levels are relatively low despite the importance of the sector in skills development for the attainment of Kenya Vision 2030 human capital needs. In the 2010/2011 academic year, 7.7% of Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE) students were admitted to public and private universities locally. This represented 23.2% of the students who qualified (attained grade C plus and above). Only 27.3% of KCSE candidates qualified to join university. Although students who are not admitted to universities are expected to
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join other middle-level colleges for certificate and diploma courses, only 10.6% got admission to these middle-level colleges. Total enrolment in technical institutions increased from 63,823 students (46% female) in 2003 to 127,691 students in 2012 (39% female). Total enrolment in university education increased from 122,847 students (46% female) in 2008 to 240,551 students in 2012 (44% female). Tertiary education gross enrolment rate is 4.1%. Therefore, recent situation analyses of the country’s education present significant levels of achievement as per the Ministry of Education plans. However, several challenges have, over the years, emerged during implementation (Republic of Kenya 2015, 2018a, 2019). The main challenges include the following: Uncoordinated Skills Training. Several ministries oversee the management of public TVET institutions, an arrangement that creates difficulties due to multiplicity of testing and certification standards. This situation has implications on standardization of training, quality assurance, recognition of prior learning, and further education of TVET graduates due to the absence of a framework for mutual recognition of qualifications. These inefficiencies lead to duplication and segmentation of training and the absence of a common platform for developing coherent policies and joint initiatives. Furthermore, there is inadequate industry participation in the formulation of the curriculum, and therefore graduates do not have relevant skills that match the labor market needs. This mismatch between demand and supply of labor has led to unemployment and low productivity. Regional and Gender Disparities in Access, Completion, and Transition. Gender disparity exists with low enrolment in some regions especially marginalized regions. In some regions of the country, girls do not have same opportunities in accessing education and training as their male counterparts due to retrogressive cultural and religious practices. Some religious and cultural beliefs such as female genital mutilation (FGM) and child labor hinder girls from attending schools. At TVET and university level, enrolment of female trainees in science-related courses is lower compared to male counterparts. The marginalized areas which still lag behind the rest of the country require targeted interventions. Extreme Poverty in Informal Settlements and ASALs. Despite the government interventions to reduce the cost of learning through initiatives such as Free Primary Education (FPE), Free Day Secondary Education (FDSE), payment of examination fees, and school feeding among others, some indirect costs still hamper access to education and training. Some of the costs include extra levies such as development projects; purchase of school buses; teaching and learning materials; boarding, equipment, stores, and meals; repairs, maintenance, and improvement; local travel and transport; administrative costs; electricity, water, and conservancy; medical activity fees; personal emolument; and insurance – medical and property – and commercialized tuition. The impact of additional education-related cost has a negative impact to the population living in informal settlements, rural poor, and arid and semiarid lands (ASAL) areas. Weak Governance and Accountability Systems. A major challenge of the present structures is inefficiency in the management and utilization of resources. There have been cases of Boards of Management implementing ambitious development projects
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without adequate planning and financing which leads to incomplete and stalled projects. Due to poor management at the institution level, some schools do not adhere to fees guidelines and inconsistently submit inaccurate student enrolment data for capitation. The existence of chronic teacher absenteeism coupled with persistent students’ unrest in schools leads to destruction of property and unnecessary expenditure to other stakeholders in education and training. Other challenges include weak accountability and inefficient monitoring and tracking systems coupled with an over-centralized, hierarchical, and bureaucratic decision-making system which encourages mismanagement. Inadequate Funding. The growth in enrolment across all levels of learning was affected by inadequate funding, staff, and infrastructure against competing needs. During implementation, programs are affected by challenges such as high food prices; schools located away from markets spend more; suppliers colluding to charge above the market price; and no funds allocated for health programs, thereby depending on development partners to fund activities. The quality of research in the universities has been affected by lack of research funds as many are unable to meet the 2% expenditure requirement on research. Mass retirements and natural attrition of adult education officers and instructors without replacement and lack of teaching and learning materials led to high drop-out rate of adult learners. Low ICT Integration. The high cost of ICT equipment and infrastructure has led to inadequate ICT facilities in the learning institutions. The ICT-related costs include high costs of computing devices, Internet connectivity, electricity costs, maintained costs, and initial costs for training trainers and teachers. There is a lack of digital literacy device of digital content, while most of the adult education instructors lack exposure to the devices to build their capacities in program delivery. Inadequate and Dilapidated Infrastructure. Most education and training institutions have infrastructure challenges, which need upgrading and rehabilitation. Data Management in Education and Training. In the sector, data for planning purposes is either inaccurate, incomplete, or untimely. There exists a weak linkage between ICT and Education Management Information System (EMIS) department, thus affecting data capture and verification for use in the disbursement of grants to institutions. Drug and Substance Abuse (DSA). The problem of DSA is a rising concern in the education and training sector. The underlying causes include peer pressure, ease of availability of drugs and alcohol, and dysfunctional families. The overall effects include violence and crime, risky sexual behavior leading to increased HIV and AIDS infection, sexual pervasion, poor academic performance, and high school drop-outs. Adverse Effects/Impacts of HIV and AIDS. The achievement of SDG 4 targets is seriously threatened by the HIV and AIDS pandemic which has devastating and farreaching impacts on education and training. HIV and AIDS is eroding quality of education, weakening demand and access, drying up the country’s pool of skilled workers, and increasing health cost which is already high in relation to available resources. Poor Perception and Recognition of TVET and SNE. The public, parents, and potential trainees view TVET as last resort career choice leading to little impact.
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There is stigmatization of learners with disabilities. The parents and guardians have continued to look down on educating children with special needs. Overlaps in Acts of Parliament in Education and Training. Existence of fragmented and multiple legislations governing education and training sector poses a problem in the coordination of education and training functions. Fragmentation of policies, e.g., some policies in TVET sector, remains contrary to the spirit of the education regulations and the Constitution. Outdated Language Policy. Selection of a language for literacy education is a complex issue that is shaped by socio-cultural, political, and economic forces at a given point in time. The outdated language policies have not been adequately addressed, hence the need for learning support materials for diverse language groups and learners with disabilities and special needs. Security Threat. Lack of security hinders access to education and training in some regions of Kenya, especially the arid and semiarid lands. There are threats to security, including terrorism, cattle rustling, radicalization, and drug and substance abuse, in learning institutions, which are addressed effectively. Security of all neighborhoods is paramount to ensure that learners, teachers, and parents are safe. Inadequate Training and Capacity Building. The sector has been affected by uncoordinated and fragmented training, capacity building and research by various capacity development agencies, and lack of a harmonized National Capacity Development policy, agenda, and priorities. Understaffing. Mass retirement and natural attrition of adult education officers and instructors without replacement compromised adult education program management, leading to closure of some centers and decrease in enrolment. The teacherpupil and teacher-student ration remain high. Skill and Competency Manpower Gap in TVET Trainers Management. In line with the current TVET reforms which are geared at producing skilled manpower that can actively contribute to the country’s economic development, courses offered in TVET institutions are highly specialized and require trainers who are skilled in those specific areas for effective training. The current Teachers Service Commission (TSC) scheme of service for technical teachers does not adequately attract and retain competent professionals such as engineers, technologists, and medics to work as trainers in TVET institutions.
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Education Reforms in Kenya
Over the years, there have been efforts to address some of the challenges already pointed out. These efforts have been accomplished through education commissions and task forces whose reports contain important recommendations, which had for long remained unimplemented. In some cases, several task force reports as well as summative and formative evaluation reports led to curriculum reviews in 1992, 1995, and 2002. However, these reviews have only addressed issues of curriculum content, unnecessary overlaps, and emerging issues. The reviews have not adequately addressed fundamental issues that would transform society by enhancing
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productivity of every Kenyan citizen and accelerate economic growth (Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development 2019). This saw Kenya’s education system remain hugely academic and examination-oriented, with learners not attaining adequate knowledge, skills, and appropriate attitudes, which are the key outcomes of investments in human capital. In most cases, the teaching and learning processes at nearly all levels of education in the country focus on examination results and not the three ingredients of human capital, which drive the developed economies as well as the newly industrialized ones. In response to this state of affairs, the Ministry of Education embarked on reforms geared toward attaining the education-related Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Education for All (EFA). In 2003, the Ministry of Education organized a National Conference on Education and Training out of which Sessional Paper Number 1 of 2005 was developed to guide the development of the education sector (Republic of Kenya 2005). It outlined sector targets, which included the attainment of Universal Primary Education (UPE) by 2005 and Education for All (EFA) by 2015. The momentum for reforming Kenya’s education continued to grow, and by 2016, the Government of Kenya, through the Ministry of Education and related agencies, made a bold move to implement a key recommendation of the report of a 2011–2013 Ministry of Education Task Force chaired by Professor Douglas Odhiambo to align the country’s education to the Constitution of Kenya, 2010, and the Kenya Vision 2030 by introducing a competency-based curriculum. The need for curriculum reforms was strengthened in a report of the summative evaluation of the 8-4-4 curriculum (Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development 2019), which revealed that the curriculum was examination-oriented and emphasized coverage of content with little emphasis on skill development and application. Stakeholders in education therefore proposed a new curriculum that will address these bottlenecks, and they called it competency-based curriculum (CBC) (Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development 2019). CBC is designed to start at pre-primary when the child is about 4 years and ends at grade 12 when the learner is about 18 years. It is being rolled out in phases to guarantee quality, and the implementation is planned to go on up to the year 2028. CBC for early years of education was rolled out in pre-primary 1 and 2 and grades 1, 2, and 3 in January 2019 and grade 4 in 2020. Learners are expected to generate knowledge through inquiry-based learning. Critical thinking, problem-solving, creativity, and imagination will be built in the learners through exploration, experiments, and investigation in the activities they will perform. The learners will also develop competencies such as learning to learn, self-efficacy, and digital literacy. The curriculum also seeks to develop useful Kenyan and global citizens who will participate in the development of the country (Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development 2019).
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Conclusion
After processes that can only be described as curriculum reviews, Kenya finally has rolled out a very dynamic education system, which, if carefully implemented, will address long-standing socioeconomic challenges facing citizens. Potential
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challenges that may affect the implementation of the CBC include inadequate funding, shortage of appropriately trained manpower to implement the CBC, potential resistance to change by stakeholders, as well as capacity of the Ministry of Education to consistently support the process of curriculum reforms. However, with strong partnerships and continued collaborations, potential challenges will be addressed to see the philosophy, vision, and mission of Kenya’s education system fully realized in the foreseeable future.
References Harbison, F. H. (1973). Human resources as the wealth of nations. New York: Oxford University Press. Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development. (2019). Basic education curriculum framework (BECF). Nairobi: Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development. Psacharopoulos, G. (1988). Education and development: A review. The World Bank Research Observer, 3(1):99–116. Republic of Kenya. (1964). Kenya education commission report (Ominde commission). Nairobi: Government Printers. Republic of Kenya. (1976). Report of the National Committee on educational objectives (Gachathi report). Nairobi: Government Printer. Republic of Kenya. (1981). Report of presidential working party on the establishment of second university (Mackey report). Nairobi: Government Printer. Republic of Kenya. (1988). The presidential working party on education and manpower training for the next decade and beyond (the Kamunge commission). Nairobi: Government printer. Republic of Kenya. (1999). Report of the inquiry into the education system of Kenya (TI QET) (Koech report). Nairobi: Government Printer. Republic of Kenya. (2005). Sessional paper no. 1 of 2005: A policy framework for education, training and research, on meeting the challenges of education, training and research in Kenya in the 21st century. Nairobi: Ministry of Education, Science and Technology. Republic of Kenya. (2007). Kenya vision 2030. Nairobi: National Economic and Social Council (NESC). Republic of Kenya. (2009a). Kenya population and housing census, 2009. Nairobi: Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. Republic of Kenya. (2009b). National policy on culture and heritage, 2009. Nairobi: Government Printer. Republic of Kenya. (2010). The constitution of Kenya. Nairobi: National Council for Law Reporting. Republic of Kenya. (2012). The education task force on the realignment of the education sector to the constitution of Kenya 2010: Towards a globally competitive quality education for sustainable development. Nairobi: Ministry of Education. Republic of Kenya. (2015). National education sector plan – Volume one: Basic education programme rationale and approach. Nairobi: Ministry of Education. Republic of Kenya. (2018a). Education and training sector plan medium term plan III for the period 2018–2022. Nairobi: Ministry of Education. Republic of Kenya. (2018b). National Education Sector Strategic Plan, 2018–2020. Nairobi: Ministry of Education. Republic of Kenya. (2019). Sessional paper no. 1 of 2019 on a policy framework for reforming education and training for sustainable development in Kenya. Nairobi: The Government Printer. Schultz, T. P. (1988). Education investment and returns. In H. Chenery & T. N. Srinivasan (Eds.), Handbook of development economics (Vol. 1). Amsterdam: North Holland Pub. Co..
Coˆte d’Ivoire’s Education System and Its Impact on Ivorians’ Quality of Life Ophe´lie Dangbe´gnon
Contents 1 2 3 4 5 6
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Improvement Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Critique of Reforms and Improvement Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General Analysis of the Ivorian Education Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Weakness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Abstract
Côte d’Ivoire, a West African nation, gained its independence in 1960 from France and was led by Felix Houphouët-Boigny. The country’s economic affluence was supported by significant exports of coffee and cocoa, making it one of the most prosperous nations among its African counterparts. HouphouëtBoigny’s death in 1993 plunged Côte d’Ivoire in a prolonged period of political instability and civil unrest, which have been partly fuelled by the introduction of a competitive electoral process that has exacerbated tensions between the northern and southern regions of the country. These tensions culminated with the outbreak of the 2002–2007 civil war, during which Côte d’Ivoire was divided between the north, occupied by the rebels, and the south, controlled by the government. After a couple of years of peace, exiting President Laurent Gbagbo’s refusal to concede to the controversial victory of the opposition candidate Alassane Ouattara in the 2010 elections fuelled hostilities. A military intervention and previous President O. Dangbégnon (*) University of Pretoria (UP), Pretoria, South Africa © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 K. S. Adeyemo (ed.), The Education Systems of Africa, Global Education Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44217-0_11
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Gbagbo’s arrest in April 2011 put an end to the crisis, after which Ouattara assumed the presidency. Previously seen as one of West Africa’s education pillar, Côte d’Ivoire’s education system has rapidly broken down, hence causing the loss of significant infrastructure and a decline in literacy and numeracy test scores (Groupe de la Banque Mondiale, Situation économique en Côte d’Ivoire 4:1–43, 2017). As such, the various recession periods combined with the lack of safety and the political instability of Côte d’Ivoire have significantly impacted the education system. Hence, this chapter offers an overview of the Ivorian education system and also highlights its current status. With its objective to achieve emerging market status by 2020, Côte d’Ivoire’s government emphasize the need to invest in its human capital by revamping its education sector. Thus, the chapter further discusses the various reforms and development plans implemented to not only improve education in Côte d’Ivoire but also to ameliorate the youth’s overall quality of life and chance of success. However, these improvement plans have not entirely generated the expected results, hence jeopardizing the country’s vision of becoming an emerging market by 2020. Simply put, the chapter addresses whether the government’s efforts along with sizable cash investments have had a positive impact on the quality of life of Ivorians. Keywords
Côte d’Ivoire · Education system · Emerging market · Plans nationaux de développement · Access to schooling · Years of schooling · 100% enrolment goal · PASEC 2014 · Youth employability · Quality of life
1
Overview
As of September 2019, there are two regulatory bodies that oversee the education sector in Côte d’Ivoire: the Department of National Education, Technical Education, and Vocational Training or Ministère de l’Éducation nationale, de l’Enseignement technique et de la Formation professionnelle (MENETFP) and the Department of Higher Education and Scientific Research or Ministère de l’Enseignement supérieur et de la Recherche scientifique (MESRS). The Department of National Education, Technical Education, and Vocational Training’s objective is to oversee and manage all matters pertaining to pre-primary, primary, and the two phases of secondary education in the country. Secondly, the regulatory body responsible for the implementation of the government’s higher education and scientific research policy is the Department of Higher Education and Scientific Research (Gouvernement de la Côte d’Ivoire 2016). The Ivorian education system is structured in three main levels: primary, secondary, and higher education, comprising of sub-levels or forms. Pre-primary education caters for children aged between 3 and 5 years of age. This stage in Ivorian education remains optional, though essential in preparing children for entering the main first level. Next, primary education lasts for a period of 6 years – during this stage, children are
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6–11 years of age. This level of education is made up of three sub-levels of 2 years each: les cours préparatoires (CP1, CP2) or the first years of primary school, les cours élémentaires (CE1, CE2) or the second and third years of primary school, and les cours moyens (CM1, CM2) or the fourth and fifth years of primary school. At the end of this level, students sit an exam to receive the Certificat d’Études Primaires Élémentaires (CEPE) or primary and elementary school leaving certificate, which gives them access to the first level of general or vocational secondary schooling. Moreover, the first level of secondary schooling or collège lasts for a period of 4 years and is validated by a national diploma called Brevet d’Études du Premier Cycle (BEPC), which can be likened to the British General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). At this stage, students have the choice to either continue with their general education or undergo vocational training at the end of the second year. However, access to this option can only be obtained by sitting a competitive exam. The successful candidates continue their studies in vocational training centers or Technikons for a period of 2 to 3 years depending on the field of study, upon which graduates receive either the Certificat d’Aptitude Professionnelle (CAP) or the Brevet Professionnel (BEP), which are equivalent to National Vocational Qualifications. In addition, the second level of secondary schooling takes 3 years to complete, at the end of which students sit an examination to receive le baccalauréat, which is equivalent to the British A levels or to the American high school diploma. During this stage in their education, students can start preparing for their higher education by choosing the options they would like to specialize in. Those in the general education stream can choose modules such as literature, sciences, mathematics, physical sciences, and biology. Students in Technikons and vocational training centers can go into technology and industrial streams to finally obtain the Brevet de Technicien Supérieur (BTS) or Advanced Technician’s Certificate, which is the British equivalent of the Higher National Diploma (HND) (Gouvernement de la Côte d’Ivoire 2016). Students can also be awarded a baccalauréat in the arts (fine arts, music, and drama) as well as a Brevet de Technicien des Arts Appliqués (BTAA) or an Applied Arts Technician Diploma, which can be obtained in art training institutes (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1 Education system in Côte d’Ivoire
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Fig. 2 Number of students per level from 2010 to 2016
Finally, the third main level of Ivorian schooling is higher or tertiary education, which lasts between 2 and 8 years. In recent years, the university system has adopted the système LMD or bachelor-master-doctorate system. According to the 2016 state report on the national education system of Côte d’Ivoire, there were 5 public universities consisting of training and research units; the Houphouët-Boigny National Polytechnic Institute consisting of 7 Grandes Écoles; the École Normale Supérieure for the initial and continuous training of teaching and executive staff in general secondary education; and 27 private universities and 153 private Grandes Écoles. Furthermore, higher education institutions also offer technical training postmatriculation. However, these services are mainly provided by the private sector (Fig. 2).
2
Reforms
Since the end of the various economic, political, and electoral crises, Côte d’Ivoire’s government has invested itself in several reforms. Some of these reforms, such as the bachelor-master-doctorate system that was initiated before the crisis, were based on regional considerations under the impetus of the West African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA/WAMU). The following recent reform strategies were taken to improve the state of the Ivorian education system: 1. A bill amending the Education Act, which made schooling compulsory for children between age 6 and 16, was passed by the National Assembly on 20 September 2015. This decision was taken with the aim to render the Ivorian education system more inclusive and compatible with the need for a fair and equitable economic and social development, which is concerned with taking care of the marginalized portion of society (Gouvernement de la Côte d’Ivoire 2016). The amendment of the Education Bill came as a response to the problem of access in Ivorian education. The introduction of compulsory schooling in Côte d’Ivoire resulted from the high inequalities in terms of access to education stemming from the level of household income, place of residence, and gender issues. Indeed, statistics gathered by the UNESCO Institute for statistics shows that extremely low enrolment rates are displayed at pre-primary level, and though that number
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increases at higher levels, the rates need improvement (Institut de Statistiques de l’UNESCO 2018) (Figs. 3, 4, 5, and 6). 2. In a report released by the council of ministers on 19 October 2011, the exam pass mark for access to the secondary level was lowered in compliance with the government’s objective to improve the rate of secondary school enrolment. This change came into effect during the 2012–2013 academic year, thus allowing all
Fig. 3 Pre-primary raw enrolment rate by gender in Côte d’Ivoire (%) (Unesco Institute for Statistics)
Fig. 4 Primary raw enrolment rate by gender in Côte d’Ivoire (%) (Unesco Institute for Statistics)
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Fig. 5 Secondary raw enrolment rate by gender in Côte d’Ivoire (Unesco Institute for Statistics)
Fig. 6 Higher Education raw enrolment rate by gender in Côte d’Ivoire (Unesco Institute for Statistics)
holders of the CEPE to automatically register for the first year of secondary school. 3. The Ivorian government also increased the budget attributed to the education sector from 2015 (Groupe de la Banque Mondiale 2017). Hence, this influx in the budget led to the creation of various committees, units, and centers tasked with coordinating and monitoring the new policies (Fig. 7).
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Fig. 7 Government’s expenditure in the education sector (Unesco Institute for Statistics)
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Improvement Plans
In line with its 2020 development agenda, the Ivorian government had adopted two Plans Nationaux de Développements (PND) or National Development Plans 2012– 2015 and 2016–2020. The 2012–2015 PND has allowed the economy to return to a strong and sustainable growth of about 9% over a period of 4 years, which is a great shift from the 4.1% decline in the GDP in 2011. This improvement in the country’s economy served to attract investors to participate in the development of Côte d’Ivoire in terms of the creation of two million jobs over the same period (Ministère du Plan et du Développement 2017). Additionally, the 2016–2020 PND aims to validate the achieved results and addresses the remaining challenges. As such, the latter consists of five major goals: to strengthen the quality of institutions and governance, to accelerate the development of human capital and social well-being, to accelerate the economy’s structural transformation through industrialization, to develop infrastructure on the national territory and to preserve the environment, and, finally, to strengthen regional integration and international cooperation (Ministère du Plan et du Développement 2017). Placing emphasis on the education sector, the government’s goal of developing its human capital and social well-being involves the following: 1. The youth must be provided with schooling that provide quality education and that meet national standards. 2. Men and women alike must be given impartial and unbiased access to quality vocational training. 3. The population at large must be taught how to read, write, and do mathematics. This step is achievable by giving villagers and people living in rural areas access to literacy centers and by encouraging adult education, especially women in those areas. 4. The youth must be given access to a quality higher education. The various legal and institutional frameworks must be revised. Moreover, student preparedness for university entrance needs to be improved to ensure success. What’s more, the
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revision of curricula is essential to ensure graduate employability. Also, incorporating the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) at tertiary levels will increase graduates’ employability in the modern world. With regard to the enhancement of the social and environmental climate in higher education institutions (HEIs), the government plans to organize awareness campaigns in order to render these HEIs conducive to studies and increase the chances of success.
4
Access
It is important to note that difficulties to access HEIs in Côte d’Ivoire are partly due to the fact that most of these institutions are gathered in Abidjan, the economic capital of the country, which provides little access for students residing inland. Also, certain private universities’ failure to respect the predetermined national standards in terms of content taught or curricula negatively impacts access and success at tertiary level (République de Côte d’Ivoire 2016c). In line with government’s aim to provide the Ivorian youth with quality education (Ministère du Plan et du Développement 2017), a more considerable budget was attributed to the sector. It was revealed during the 2016 budget that government expenditure in the education and training sector was doubled over the 2010–2016 period, with an evolution of 107.4%. Moreover, this expenditure grew by 18.1% between 2015 and 2016 (Agence de Presse Africaine 2016). In fact, the Ivorian government dedicated about 5% of its gross domestic product (GDP) to education in 2015, which is significantly higher than the average on the African continent (Groupe de la Banque Mondiale 2017). Unfortunately, the state’s investment in the education sector is not yielding the desired results, which ultimately places some doubts on the usefulness and the adequacy of the various reforms and the several units and committees created as a result (Fig. 8). Despite this increase in funding over the years, there is a considerable shortage of infrastructure and qualified educators, i.e., human resources, to meet the substantial increase in the number of students at tertiary level since 2015 (Ministère de l’Éducation Nationale, de l’Enseignement Technique et de la Formation Professionnelle 2017). Therefore, inadequate infrastructure or lack thereof becomes one of the prevailing causes for the low enrolment rates at tertiary level and the lack of access to HEIs (Fig. 9). Nonetheless, access to education at primary level has significantly increased due to an increase access in underserviced areas (Global Partnership for Education 2019). However, with the increase in demand and the near achievement of complete access at primary level, there is a crucial need to pay particular attention to the quality of education, as one of the goals of the PND, and to reach children in secluded areas. As a result, the government implemented the 2016–2025 education and training sector plan, which were ratified by several development partners. In line with its agenda for quality education, the education sector’s plan created several projects that attracted numerous funding.
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Fig. 8 Public expenditure on education 2009–2017 (World Bank-Education Data)
Fig. 9 Higher education raw enrolment rates (%) (Unesco Institute for Statistics)
For instance, the Education Service Delivery Enhancement Project (ESDEP) is a project that works at increasing the quality standards of pre-primary schools in rural areas. The four main objectives of the project are the following (Global Partnership for Education 2019): 1. 2. 3. 4.
Enhance and ameliorate conditions to achieve positive learning outcomes. Reinforce management and accountability in the education sector. Ameliorate teaching and learning conditions in participating schools. Implement and evaluate the project.
The state’s cash injection into basic education has allowed for the creation of new infrastructure and the hiring of human resources. Though the government’s 100% enrolment at primary level has not yet been achieved, the below Fig. 10 illustrates that the percentage of children out of school has drastically decreased (Global Partnership for Education 2019).
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Fig. 10 Out-of-school rate for children of primary school age (World Bank-Education Data)
5
Critique of Reforms and Improvement Plans
Côte d’Ivoire’ s National Development Plan emphasizes its aim to diversify its economy from being agricultural-based to a more developed industry, in order to promote growth by creating more employment. Hence, the Ivorian government recognized that this strategy requires the production of a skilled and knowledgeable labor force. In other words, authorities are aware that achieving growth – which depends on the creation of jobs and the promotion of good workforce productivity, according to this model – is directly linked to the promotion and acquisition of new skills. Evidently, such an acquisition rests upon an efficient and reliable education system. Indeed, it is crucial that students acquire the required skills to enter the labor market (Glewwe and Muralidharan 2016) and to succeed as fully functional members of society. Research has shown that human capital is a key factor of any society’s economic growth. Moreover, reaching high levels of education augments the human capital in the labor force, which causes a high likelihood of productivity. As a result, this productivity translates into growth and high outputs (Bhorat et al. 2016). As seen above, the Ivorian government has made several efforts to reverse more than a decade worth of damage done to the education sector. Thus, the sector saw its budget increase by 7.5% per year from 2010. Nevertheless, a crucial question needs to be asked: Have these reforms, improvement plans, and considerable cash injections had a meaningful impact on Ivorian’s quality of life? The budget allocated to the education sector has led to a total of 12.791 classrooms being built and 26.162 teachers being hired (Groupe de la Banque Mondiale
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2017). Though this is a much-needed endeavor, the Ivorian youth living outside of the economic capital, Abidjan, continues to be less favored due to the fact that 55% of all technical school are located in the city. This difficulty to access schools perpetuates poverty in a country, where the poverty rate in rural areas is as high as 56.8% (République de Côte d’Ivoire 2016a). What’s more, the various reforms seem not to have change the fact that the total number of years of schooling received by the youth in Côte d’Ivoire is considerably lower than that of other countries in the region, with Côte d’Ivoire having an average of 7.7 years, whereas the total number of years of schooling across all education levels was 9.7 years on the African continent as of 2014 (Mingat and Ndem 2014). Moreover, despite having almost reached its 100% enrolment goal at primary school, the completion rate at this education level in Côte d’Ivoire remains below that of Africa with 63.1% and 72.6%, respectively (ibid.). Though some improvement has been recorded, boys are still given priority over girls, in terms of access to schooling. UNESCO reports that for every 100 boys enrolled at secondary school level, a mere 71 girls have access (UNESCO 2016). Likewise, the percentage of girls across all education levels is significantly lower than boys, and this phenomenon is more predominant in rural regions. Besides the fact that the Ivorian youth receives on average only a total of 7.7 years of schooling, test scores provided by the CONFEMEN (Conference of the Ministers of Education of French speaking countries) Programme for the Analysis of Education Systems (PASEC) in 2014 demonstrate that learners at the end of primary school received an aggregated average score of 517 in literacy (this is barely above the international average set at 500) and 475.7 in numeracy (this score is below the international average set at 500) (PASEC 2016). These figures indicate that despite having received at least 6 years of primary schooling, a high proportion of students still experience significant difficulties which negatively affect their learning outcomes. For this reason, there is an urgent need to address the inadequate state of teaching and learning in the country. With regard to graduate employability, only 26.2% of the youth aged between 25 and 34 years obtained a skilled job as of 2013 (Groupe de la Banque Mondiale 2017). However, a number as high as 73.8% were either unemployed or obtained low-level employment. Although it is necessary to acknowledge that the role of institutions is not solely to prepare its graduates to earn a source of income and that other factors – type of degree, the economy, demand, etc. – play a role in unemployment rates, the importance of reassessing the efficiency of the Ivorian education system comes to the forefront, when reviewing the statistics above. In terms of achieving its National Development Plan, Côte d’Ivoire will need to rapidly overcome several difficulties. Under the current circumstances, the Ivorian youth does not have access to quality education, which inevitably impacts skills attainment and therefore does not boost the country’s human capital. Though some headway has been made since the end of the decade-long crisis, the various reforms and other steps taken to ameliorate the current state of the education sector are slow to achieve results. Hence, such slow progress impacts economic growth and delays Côte d’Ivoire emerging market aspiration.
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6
General Analysis of the Ivorian Education Sector
6.1
Strength
Côte d’Ivoire’s development objective to become un pays émergent or an emerging country/market by 2020 has led it to place emphasis on its human capital, among other areas, by way of improving the country’s quality of education. As such, the country has implemented a series of structural and sectoral reforms. Firstly, the increase in the budget allocated to the education sector has allowed for the building of schools and the betterment of the sector, especially after the 2011 crisis. Secondly, the reform of higher education by way of implementing the LMD system gives much credibility to Ivorian qualifications and brings the sector up to par with its regional and international counterparts. What’s more, the country’s goal to provide schooling for all children having reached the age to attend primary school and its subsequent decision to lower the exam pass mark for access to the secondary level has both decreased the rate of out-of-school children (see Fig. 10) and increased enrolment rates at secondary level (see Fig. 5). Furthermore, the strategic implementation of both PND plans gives the country a clear directive as to objectives met and the challenges to face when it comes to improving the country’s human capital.
6.2
Weakness
Albeit the noticeable improvements in the sector, several weaknesses still remain. A lack of adequate infrastructure negatively impacts access to education and hinders any progress toward its emerging country objective. Although there has been an improvement over the years, the rates of completion at elementary and secondary levels are lower than the average on the African continent (Groupe de la Banque Mondiale 2017). According to the 2017 World Bank report, there is a severe deficiency in terms of teaching and learning material in Côte d’Ivoire, since the sector only attributes 5% to that end (Fig. 11). The issue of access is also negatively influenced by inadequate, insufficient, or unkept facilities such as washbasins, toilets, drinking points, electricity, canteens, 2,7
3 2
1,8
2,2 1,6 1
1
1 0
Number or reading books per pupil Ivory Coast
Number or mathematics books per pupil
Sub-Saharan Africa
Cape Verde
Fig. 11 A comparison of study material in Côte d’Ivoire, sub-Saharan Africa, and Cape Verde (World Bank Data)
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Fig. 12 Student-teacher ratio at primary level
fences, etc. (Ministère de l’Éducation Nationale, de l’Enseignement Technique et de la Formation Professionnelle 2017.) A further instance of weakness in the education sector includes the fact that there are more learners than teachers at both primary and secondary levels compared to other regional countries (Fig. 12). However, it is important to note that one of government’s objectives is to provide training to more educators and to build schools in rural and secluded areas to achieve its 100% goal (Global Partnership for Education 2019).
6.3
Opportunities
The country has partnered with several organizations in its development objective in order to ameliorate access and better the quality of education offered to the Ivorian youth. As such, the country has received funding from institutions such as the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) (Fig. 13). Furthermore, Côte d’Ivoire has displayed a remarkable economic growth since the 2011 electoral crisis and is on its way to becoming a regional contender. As a result, this progress has attracted investors and development funds (US Department of State 2018).
6.4
Threats
Côte d’Ivoire’s political instability over the years present a significant threat to the country’s 2020 emerging market agenda. Moreover, any political crisis may undo all
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Fig. 13 External funding to the country in dollars for the education sector
the advances made in the education sector since 2011. Secondly, the growing threat of terrorist attacks in the region endangers the national security of the country and has a direct impact on students’ education. Thirdly, the many floods that have assaulted the country over the years are not only a menace to learners’ lives but to their education, as schools, sources of income –mainly agricultural – and other infrastructures are destroyed (International Federation of Red Cross And Red Crescent Societies 2019).
7
Discussion
In order to reach its goals, the government must address the shortcomings associated with its improvement plans. The production of a skilled workforce, as required by the government diversification plan, demands that the education system be strengthened and that inadequate areas be targeted. The question of access to schools, especially in rural areas, must be promptly addressed. A “decentralization” project needs to be undertaken, whereby the youth in rural areas would no longer have to travel to the city to get an education (Oyeniran 2017). New schools, especially technical schools, should be built in rural zones to promote access to education for the less advantaged. This would help reverse inequality in the education system and break the cycle of poverty by producing a skilled youth (République de Côte d’Ivoire 2013). What’s more, discrimination against girl education is prevalent in the country’s education (Ouattara-Goita and N’debe 2012). As such, gender issues should be included in the curriculum in order to highlight the importance of an education for all. In addition, the government should prioritize the recruitment of women as secondary school level teachers, since research has shown that having an educator of the same gender improves learning outcomes and the likelihood of student retention (UNESCO 2016). Moreover, one of the key points in improving the education system is to improve educator training and performance (Sultana et al. 2009). Since educator training in Côte d’Ivoire takes place in specialized institutes such as CAFOP, INSAAC, and
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ENS, curricula in those establishments should be updated and tailored to not only Ivorian realities and goals but also to international standards. Educators must be well-trained in their disciplines and introduced to the latest equipment and material. Hanushek and Rivkin (2010) put forth that learners with a poorly trained teacher assimilated less than 50% of the curriculum, whereas those with good educators advanced fasters. Unfortunately, Weisberg et al. (2009) show that in most developing countries, it is not often possible to penalize poorly performing educators, and this has a devastating effect from primary to higher education. As such, it is essential that once teachers assume their functions, their performance be regularly evaluated not only by means of an annual examination but by also reviewing their schools or – in some cases – their classes’ performance. As a result, educators who fail to perform at the required standard would be obligated to resume their training. Also, more educators are placed in Abidjan, the economic capital, to the detriment of schools in rural areas (Oyeniran 2017). In the future, more education graduates should be posted in rural areas, as part of the decentralization project mentioned earlier. Investing in the education of a country is essential to its growth (Global Partnership for Education 2014), but judiciously allocating the funds is crucial to the survival and advancement of its education sector. As depicted in Fig. 11, there is a shortage of study material in the Ivorian classroom compared to its sub-Saharan counterparts. As such, the sector – and most importantly the learners – would benefit from a heavier investment in study material, equipment, and adequate teacher training, rather than attributing a hefty amount of funds to administrative endeavors.
8
Conclusion
Côte d’Ivoire is a West African nation that has experienced a series of crisis since the death of its first President Houphouët-Boigny. As a result, the country’s education sector has suffered due to the destruction of infrastructure, missed academic years, and a shattered economy. However, with the help of several reforms and development plans, Côte d’Ivoire has seen an exponential economic growth in recent years, hence allowing the country to invest in its human capital as outlined in its PND. Nevertheless, the various reforms are not yielding the desired effects since much improvement in terms of access and quality still needs to be made. Still, the country has strategically partnered with well-known and reputable organizations in its objective to educate and invest in its human capital. Overall, the reforms being put in place must assist in the efficient use of public expenditure for a return on investment to be observed. Simply put, the youth and the country require a betterperforming education system to produce a much-needed skilled workforce. Hence, issues such as difficulty of access in rural areas, gender disparity in education attainment, and quality of education and educators must urgently be addressed to revive the Ivorian education system. Should the country’s political climate remain stable and the government urgently take the necessary steps to improve Ivorian education, Côte d’Ivoire’s education sector has the potential to thrive and to produce
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educated and employable graduates. Thus, the production of a skilled workforce will expedite government's emerging market action plan in terms job creation, hence positively impacting the life of the Ivorian people.
References Agence de Presse Africaine. (2016). RTI. Retrieved November 06, 2019, from https://www.rti.ci/ actualite_article.php?categorie¼societe&id¼13469&titre¼la-cote-deivoire-consacrera-22-deson-budget-national-a-leeducation-en-2016&page¼3 Bhorat, H., Cassim, A., & Tseng, D. (2016). Higher education, employment and economic growth: Exploring the interactions. Development Southern Africa, 33(3), 312–327. Glewwe, P., & Muralidharan, K. (2016). Improving education outcomes in developing countries: Evidence, knowledge gaps, and policy implications. In E. Hanuschek, S. Machin, & L. Woessman (Eds.), Handbook of the Economics of Education (pp. 653–743). Elsevier. Global Partnership for Education. (2014). 250 million reasons to invest in education: The case for investment. Global Partnership for Education. Global Partnership for Education. (2019). Global Partnership for Education. Retrieved November 04, 2019, from https://www.globalpartnership.org/country/cote-divoire Gouvernement de la Côte d’Ivoire. (2016). Rapport d’état sur le système éducatif national: Pour une politique éducative plus inclusive et plus efficace. Dakar: Institut International de Planification de l’Éducation (IIEP). Groupe de la Banque Mondiale. (2017). Le Défi des Compétences: Pourquoi la Côte d’Ivoire doit réformer son système éducatif? Situation économique en Côte d’Ivoire, 4, 1–43. Hanushek, E., & Rivkin, S. (2010). Generalizations about using value-added measures of teacher quality. American Economic Review, 267–271. Institut de Statistiques de l’UNESCO. (2018). Côte d’Ivoire: éducation et alphabétisme. Retrieved November 05, 2019, from http://uis.unesco.org/fr/country/ci International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. (2019). Côte d’Ivoire: Floods – emergency Plan of action (EPoA) DREF n° MDRCI011. International Federation of Red Cross And Red Crescent Societies. Mingat, A., & Ndem, F. (2014). L’équité: un fil rouge des politiques éducatives nationales. Dijon: Institut de Recherche sur l’Éducation (IREDU). Ministère de l’Éducation Nationale, de l’Enseignement Technique et de la Formation Professionnelle. (2017). Rapport d’Analyse du Système Éducatif 2015–2016. Abidjan: Direction des Stratégies, de la Planification et des Statistiques. Ministère du Plan et du Développement. (2017). Ministère du Plan et du Développement. Retrieved November 05, 2019, from http://www.plan.gouv.ci/accueil/odd/3 Ouattara-Goita, K. I., & N’debe, B. F. (2012). Le genre dans l’éducation de base en Côte d’Ivoire. African education development issues. Oyeniran, R. (2017). Basic education in Ivory Coast: From education for all to compulsory education, challenges and perspectives. Journal of Education and Learning, 283–293. PASEC. (2016). PASEC2014- Performances du système éducatif ivoirien: Compétences et facteurs de réussite au primaire. Dakar: CONFEMEN. République de Côte d’Ivoire. (2013). Document de présentation de l’État des Lieux. Renforcement des Capacités des Encadreurs Pédagogiques et Formation Continue des Enseignants. Côte d’Ivoire: Projet Unesco Fonds Chinois en Dépôt. République de Côte d’Ivoire. (2016a). Plan national de développement 2016–2020: Diagnostique stratégique de la Côte d’Ivoire sur la trajectoire de l’émergence Tome 1. Abidjan: Ministère du Plan et du Développement. République de Côte d’Ivoire. (2016b). Plan National de Développement PND 2016–2020 Tome 2: Orientations Stratégiques. Abidjan: Ministère du Plan et du Développement.
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République de Côte d’Ivoire. (2016c). Rapport sur la mise en œuvre de la Convention et de la Recommandation concernant la lutte contre la discrimination dans le domaine de l’enseignement. Abidjan: République de Côte d’Ivoire. Sultana, N., Yusuf, M., Naseer Ud Din, M., & Rehman, S. (2009). The higher the quality of teaching the higher the quality of education. Contemporary Issues In Education Research, 59–64. UNESCO. (2016). Education for people and planet: Creating sustainable futures for all (2nd ed.). Paris: UNESCO. US Department of State. (2018). Integrated country strategy: Côte d’Ivoire. US Department of State. Weisberg, D., Sexton, S., Mulhern, J., & Keeling, J. (2009). The widget effect: Our National Failure to acknowledge and act on differences in teacher effectiveness. Brooklyn: The New Teacher Project.
Factors Affecting Student Transition from Conventional Schools to an Open Schooling System in Namibia Heroldt Vekaama Murangi
Contents 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 NAMCOL and Distance Education in Namibia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Student Transitioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Transition Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Research Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Abstract
This chapter is part of a doctoral study, and it explores the possible factors that hinder and impede student transition from the conventional schools to an open and distance learning (ODL) schooling system. The study was driven by the notion that change in the learning environment could be one of the possible factors having an impact on students’ ability to integrate into the distance learning environment. The research design was an exploratory case study that follows both qualitative and quantitative approaches in data collection. The sample consisted of 260 students at senior secondary level (grade 12) and 28 staff members from various categories (area coordinators, heads of tutorial centers, and tutors). The results of the study show that some students experienced some difficulties in adjusting, while others have indicated that they did not experience serious obstacles during the transition process. The study reveals time management, poor work ethics of tutors, lack of motivation, and insufficient guidance and information to study at a distance as some factors that hinder their full integration H. V. Murangi (*) University of Pretoria (UP), Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 K. S. Adeyemo (ed.), The Education Systems of Africa, Global Education Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44217-0_13
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into the distance learning environment while learning resources and student-tutor interactions were highly rated as factors that facilitate integration. Keywords
Conventional schools · Open and distance learning · Open schools · Students · Transition
1
Introduction
The views expressed in this paper are that students that enter the new learning environment of ODL are confronted with some factors that impede their learning, while at the same time, there are factors that facilitate their full integration. The Namibian College of Open Learning (NAMCOL) was established through a government legislation to upgrade the educational levels of adults and out-of-school youth to improve their level of general education as well as their professional and vocational skills. The NAMCOL secondary education program (SEP) enables those students that were denied the opportunity for education at this level to pursue the Junior Secondary Certificate (JSC) and the Namibia Senior Secondary Certificate (NSSC). The JSC is the third year of the junior secondary phase, while NSSC is in turn the exit level of the school career. A high proportion of students pursuing the SEP are those who did not meet the minimum requirements to be integrated into the formal system or to enter higher education. The study was based on the assumption that change from one learning environment (conventional schools) to another (open schools) could have an impact on students’ ability to integrate fully into the new learning environment of ODL. Locks, Hurtado, Bowman, and Oseguera (2008) posit that successful transition could lead to persistence and academic achievement. The conventional school system where the students hail from is characterized for the pedagogical approach where the entire learning process is directed by the teachers because they are seen as custodians of all knowledge. Freire (2009) refers to this pedagogical learning approach as the banking approach to learning where students are seen as empty containers that need to be filled by the teachers. On the contrary, in ODL students are the central agents of the learning process, and they are viewed as self-directed, self-determined, motivated, and autonomous. Scholars differentiate ODL from the conventional system through three approaches to learning, namely, pedagogy which is teacher-directed education, andragogy, and heutagogy which are alternatives to pedagogy and refer to self-directed learning and self-determined learning, respectively (Knowles et al. 2014; Blaschke 2012; Manning 2011). Every learning environment and approach has its own advantages and some challenges that can either lead to students to succeed or negatively affect their academic progression. Students joining NAMCOL from the conventional system are accustomed to a particular habit and learning style and could join this new environment with certain expectations which might be contrary to the principles and high demands of ODL. The students enter NAMCOL with limited knowledge
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about the distance learning environment and become vulnerable because they are not fully equipped with the high demands of the new environment. Dzakiria (2005) claims that the new approach to learning can either be accepted by the students to enhance learning or impede learning. The different learning approaches and environments have prompted the researcher to investigate possible factors that impede or facilitate learning as students migrate from the conventional school system to ODL. The purpose of the study was to establish student transition by looking particularly into the factors that facilitate and impede learning when students migrate from the traditional school environment to ODL in general and open schools in particular. The key research question that guided this study was: What factors facilitate and hinder student integration during the transition stage?
2
NAMCOL and Distance Education in Namibia
This study will focus on ODL in the Namibian context. Geographically, Namibia occupies an area of more than 824,000 square kilometers, and because of its vastness, it is highly unlikely for the conventional system to accommodate all prospective students who have the desire to advance their educational career through the different sectors of the education system. ODL has the potential to address the training and educational needs of the less privileged groups in Namibia such as the San, Ovahimba, and Ovatue who never had the opportunity to attend the conventional schools because of their nomadic lifestyles. Furthermore, the pressure on governments to address the growing demands of providing educational opportunities at all levels necessitates the expansion of education through ODL. The latter takes advantage of the limitations of the conventional system of expanding education at all levels. The enormous financial resources required to provide education through the conventional way, which many developing nations can no longer afford, present a golden opportunity for ODL to offer affordable quality programs. This mode of education delivery is viewed as a viable, affordable, quick, and effective method of providing education and training (Pityana 2008). This enquiry is a case study in Namibia on the transition from the conventional to open schooling. ODL in Southern Africa has gain substantial grounds because the system has been in existence for more than 50 years with the establishment of one of the leading higher education ODL institution, namely, the University of South Africa (UNISA) in 1946. Other provisions of correspondence education in the 1960s and 1970s include among others the Botswana Extension College (1973), Malawi Correspondence College (1964), and the Swaziland International Education Centre (1974) (Young et al. 1980). These provisions were meant to cater for those that were denied opportunities to education because of colonialism. Distance education has undergone an evolutionary process over a number of decades. The rapid technological innovations and developments that have taken place over the years have put distance education at the forefront of educational expansion. As a result of technological developments, distance education has gone
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through fundamental transformation in terms of pedagogical approaches, starting from simple postal correspondence to correspondence by telephone, to slightly improved correspondence with audio and then video, to broadcasting, to distance education using a blended delivery model, and finally to Internet online delivery using the web (Heydenrych and Prinsloo 2010; McKee 2010; Lou et al. 2006; Hannay and Newvine 2006; Taylor 1995, 2001). What is common throughout the evolutionary process in all generations is the separation between the teacher and the student (Heydenrych and Prinsloo 2010). Some literature has identified only three generations of distance education: the first generation is being the correspondence teaching or what Cleveland-Innes and Garrison (2010) refer to as “teaching through text”: the second generation involves multimedia teaching which integrates printbased materials with video, audio, and minimal use of computers; and the third generation focuses more on the use of interactive information technology (Anderson and Dron 2011, 2012; Guri-Rosenblit 2005; Sumner 2000). According to Sumner (2000), the first generation is more individualistic and isolates students because of its one-way communication, while the later generations present a two-way communication possibilities because they emphasize the interaction between the parties. Given the background above and the way ODL is currently being implemented at different institutions, it appears that the different types of generations are complementary to each other because each generation has its own unique values. Despite its evolution over the years, it appears that the delivery of ODL provision in developing countries including the SADC region falls predominantly within the first three generations because print remains the primary mode of delivery supplemented with other technologies. Belawati et al. (2010) express the same view. There are serious attempts at various ODL institutions in the region to move toward Internet online delivery; however the full utilization of technology is posing a considerable amount of challenges because of high costs related to hard and soft ware, lack of Internet facilities, low bandwidth, inaccessibility of technology, and the lack of human resources to provide technical support to institutions and students. ODL delivery at NAMCOL falls within the first three generations. NAMCOL follows a blended-learning approach in courses delivery. Students receive selfinstructional learning resources at the point of enrolment, which are supplemented with technologies such radio, television, and little online content in few selected subjects. The current state of ODL provision in the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) region in general and Namibia in particular where ODL falls predominantly within the first three generations calls for ODL institutions to seriously enhance ODL delivery through the use of technology. The shrinking financial resources would make it impossible in the near future to delivery ODL through print media. There is a need to consider low-cost devices that would not require sophisticated software and Internet connectivity. We tend to bring the challenges of technology in the forefront than to find solutions to implement ODL through the use of technology. ODL institutions may become obsolete should they fail to apply technology in course delivery. There is an assumption that students joining NAMCOL from the conventional system will perform better because they are repeating few subjects in schools.
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However, people fail to appreciate and acknowledge that some of these students may struggle to adjust to the new mode of delivery because of their past learning experiences. NAMCOL has commissioned several studies looking at the effectiveness of support services and how they could be improved; however the college continues to experience low pass rates. The researcher believes that transition from the traditional classroom teaching to open learning puts a considerable pressure on the students and may eventually affect their academic performance. This study is motivated by two related factors. The first is the large number of learners who migrate from the conventional school system to NAMCOL annually. The second is the relatively poor performance of students which gives people a negative perception of the quality of NAMCOL programs. Since the results for NAMCOL students are poorer than those of their counterparts studying through the conventional schooling system, NAMCOL is perceived as offering education of low quality (SAIDE 2011; Murangi 2009). Generally, course completion and retention rates in conventional face-to-face institutions are higher than in distance learning programs (Carr 2000). Because of the standardized curriculum and the fact that the students enter for the same national examinations as their peers in the conventional system, many stakeholders compare the performance of NAMCOL students with those in the conventional schools, and they view this comparison as fair (Murangi 2009). Although the institution serves as a “safety net” to those students that do not succeed through the conventional system, this important role tends to be overshadowed by lower student pass rates. The relatively poor performance of the students leads to the poor public perception of the college system. The researcher is of the opinion that if transition from conventional to open schooling is studied more carefully, it will assist open schools to serve students better as they would have a better understanding of the process the students are going through. The government of Namibia launched several initiatives with the purpose to improve the quality of education provision in the country. One such measure is to improve the performance on the quality of grades achieved by both JSC and NSSC students during the external examinations. Furthermore, NAMCOL is funded on a per-subject enrolment formula basis, and the government as the main funding agency is putting pressure on the institution to perform. Though funding is input-based per full-time equivalent, the value for money spent is measured against the students’ outputs. Students come to NAMCOL with high expectations of better academic achievement in examinations. The quality of education offered is benchmarked against the number of students achieving good grades. In the 2012 national examinations, both NAMCOL and the conventional system students achieved 80% and above in graded entries (refers to G-grade and above); however more than 20% subject entries of students in the conventional system achieved better grades (C and above) compared to 7% achieved by NAMCOL students. Despite the high percentage in graded entries, the college is faced with the challenge of pushing as many students as possible to achieve the desired higher grades that will ultimately enable them to proceed to the next level in their school career (Murangi 2009, p. 9). NAMCOL has been instrumental in increasing the number of students but also experiencing unsatisfactory throughput
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rates. NAMCOL has managed to increase its student intake from 28,297 in 2007 to 38,960 in 2016 which is an increase of 27% (NAMCOL 2016). Low pass rates have a negative effect on institutional reputation. There is no institution that wants to be characterized for low pass rates. The state of performance by students, despite the comprehensive student support model adopted by the institution, has prompted the researcher to establish how the students cope with the transition from the traditional classroom environment to a new mode of open and distance learning. The study will therefore examine the extent to which the transition from the conventional school-based system to an open and distance learning system affects students’ integration into the new learning environment. Though a substantial amount of research has been done on transition, through the literature reviewed the researcher did not come across any study that has examined the transition from the conventional to ODL school-level program. In addition, the researcher did not come across a study on transition from conventional to ODL in the Namibian context. Generally, ODL at school level is a relatively new area especially in the SADC region; therefore, research in the area has received less attention compared to other levels of education. Sir John Daniel remarks that little research is done on ODL at school level and advocates for more research in the area (Latchem 2012). Furthermore, Brindley (1995) remarks that most research in the discipline of distance education focused more on access and availability of learning opportunities, but less attention was given to research on student experiences. The gap in research for open schools necessitates a research study in this particular area, noting also that not much research has been done for school-level programs in Namibia, the SADC region, and internationally. Dodd et al. (2009) expressed the view that little is known on the impact of distance education experience at the secondary level on the postsecondary education system. A recent study on distance education at school level in Southern Africa by (Gatsha 2010) explored the impact of learning support on the academic performance of distance learners in Botswana who enrolled for the secondary school-leaving certificate. Other studies were commissioned by the Commonwealth of Learning (COL) and focused on financing open schools, using NAMCOL and the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) in India as case studies (Du Vivier 2008; Rumble 2006) The research studies at school-level depicted above, though critical, do not touch on the element of transition from conventional to ODL. Hence, this enquiry is quite significant in contributing to the limited body of knowledge. Most of the empirical research has focused on transition from secondary school level to higher learning (Elffers and Oort 2013; Wilson et al. 2012; Galusha 1998; Kirby et al. 2010; Barron and D’Annunzio-Green 2009; Cross and Carpentier 2009; Kember 2007). This study, therefore, has the potential of expanding on the existing knowledge on student experiences and challenges during the transition stage. As much as ODL practitioners argue that ODL at school level is as good as the conventional system, there is an urgency to substantiate this claim with more research in order to expand knowledge on the challenges students experience during the transition stage and possibly inform mitigating measures. It is therefore
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important to note that apart from building on the existing literature on transition, the researcher will be able to develop a unique transition model for school-level ODL programs. A reasonable approach for this study is to explore practical ways of integrating students into the institutional settings because secondary education is a very critical stage in the education system as it links the school to higher education and to the labor market. This study intends to fill this gap in the body of knowledge particularly in the context of Namibia distance education. The government of the Republic of Namibia has introduced accountability measures which state funded institutions are measured against. One such measure is to improve on the performance of students at junior and senior secondary phases. The focus over the last couple of years from government has shifted from access to student success. The outcome of this study is of significant value to administrators and policy makers at governments’ level as it will enable them to develop policies and guidelines for ODL in general and for open schools specifically to support the provision of ODL. These policies ensure that ODL provision is not affected by changes in government and will enable funding for ODL institutions (Du Vivier and Ellis 2009). Additionally, the study may identify to have a better understanding of students’ experiences and perceptions during the transition stage. The findings may require open schools to reconsider some institutional policies and strategies to serve students better to cope with the challenges of transition. Open schools may consider alternative ways such as developing a student support guide that focuses on student integration into an ODL system at school level. Better management of the transition by students may in turn lead to improved learner retention and pass rates. The study is also of value to the students as primary beneficiaries of programs. The outcome of the study will be used by the administrators of open schools to advise new entrants of programs through the development of most effective means of increasing student integration into open schools’ setups.
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Student Transitioning
The research literature on student transition especially from secondary to tertiary education is extensive. However, it appears that literature on student transition from traditional school environment to ODL at school level received little scholarly attention. Sir John Daniel attests to this and advocates for more research on ODL at school level (Latchem 2012). Due to the limited research in the area of student transition at school level, the review of literature mainly focused on transition from secondary school to higher education as experiences and challenges relating to student transition at any level of education are unavoidable. Transition into higher education is not different from the previous transitions students already experienced in their school career (Mdakane 2011). Any change in the learning environment comes with certain challenges and can be very unsettling and intimidating (Chemers et al. 2001; McInnis 2001; McInnis et al. 1995). Students joining NAMCOL from the conventional system have developed
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certain study habits and might find it difficult to adapt and adopt to the new learning environment of ODL. The students enter the new learning environment with certain demands and expectations which are not congruent with the underpinning philosophy of distance learning. One factor that impedes on students’ adjustment is their inexperience and inability to adjust to ODL. In view of Bullen (2007), a particular study habit or learning style makes some students feel comfortable, while some struggle to cope with it or refuse to accept it. Talbot (2010) highlights perseverance and balanced learning style as attributes affecting distance students that could possibly lead to stress during the transition stage. A study by SAIDE (2014) to establish the quality of support services at NAMCOL showed that students want to be taught the same way; it is done in the conventional schools as they demanded for more tutorial sessions and full-time teachers (SAIDE 2014). Other researchers echoed the same sentiments that students expect traditional forms of teaching and interactions (Jaggars 2014; Baloyi 2012; Gatsha and Evans 2010; Talbot 2010; Kember 2007; Guri-Rosenblit 2005). The mere fact that students prefer the traditional form of face-to-face learning clearly indicates the mismatch between the students’ expectations and the distance learning mode of delivery. This tension has a great potential to obstruct the transition process. The demand for the traditional method of teaching testifies that students in the ODL environment are not confident in adopting an independent approach to learning. The change of the learning environment requires a paradigm shift and change in the traditional student-teacher relations (Taylor 2010; Price et al. 2007; Msila 2006). Both the student and teacher perform completely different roles. The teacher moves from traditional teaching approach and performs a more of a mentoring, tutoring, and facilitating role, while the student adopts an independent approach to learning and mastering new learning skills. Despite this, students continue with the learning habits developed at school though they are required to become independent students (Richardson and Long 2003). Elffers and Oort (2013) claim that transition to any new learning environment can be met with excitement and anxiety depending on the students’ prior learning experiences. They posit that students who do not succeed with the first attempt are more skeptical about the prospects of the second opportunity (Elffers and Oort 2013). This observation is applicable to the NAMCOL students because the great majority did not succeed in the conventional system during the first attempt and could also be pessimistic of succeeding through ODL where they are expected to take an independent approach to learning. Isolation, insecurity, self-discipline, and alienation are some factors distance students are confronted with when migrating from one learning environment to another (Morgan 2015; Kember 2007; Mowes 2005; Dzakiria 2005). Other factors that are cited as impeding student transition to higher education related to the challenge of coping with the assignments, adjusting to the new institution’s life, and developing relationships with peers (Wilson et al. 2012). Unlike in the conventional schools where students have mandatory teaching sessions to attend, in distance learning, the onus to attend rests with the students. The student determines own study time and at what pace to study. It could be that some students may lack the discipline and experience to manage own study time. Some researchers cited managing study time or balancing
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between studies and other commitments such as work, family, and social lives as concerns contributing to distance learning students not to complete their studies (Mdakane 2011; Romero 2011; Talbot 2010; McGivney* 2004). Proficiency of the English language appears to be a factor impeding the students’ smooth transition into ODL. Baloyi (2012) cited the lack of reading, writing, and listening skills as some of the challenges, ODL students have to deal with. Supporting the same view, Cross and Carpentier (2009) indicated that historically disadvantaged groups in South African higher education have difficulties of adjusting to the new learning environment as they are confronted with the academic text in English. On the contrary, research also reveals certain factors that appear to be instrumental to facilitate student transition from conventional schools to distance learning. A study by NAMCOL revealed that stakeholders claimed that ODL is not suitable for secondary education students because they are perceived as immature, lack motivation, and self-discipline (SAIDE 2011). Stakeholders suggested parental support and structured monitoring systems at tutorial centers. To some extent, Park and Choi (2009) echoed the same view by stating that support from their family and organization, relevance of the course, and course satisfaction are important to accelerate student transition to ODL. The teacher-student interaction seems to be one factor being valued for facilitating student transition. Studies by Leese (2010), Guri-Rosenblit (2005), and Lentell (2004) also indicate that students have high demand for student-teacher interactions despite the additional learning resources provided to them. These views are consistent with the findings in the study by Potter (2013) where both students who experienced the conventional and distance learning expressed the view that they prefer the traditional face-to-face student-teacher interactions. Student support in distance learning is widely recognized as vital for ODL students to succeed and to bridge the gap of loneliness and isolation (Daniel 2010; Moore 2013). It is vital to assist distance students to cope with the transition and to reduce possible barriers and facilitate academic integration. Expressing the same view, Tinto (2006) mentioned academic, social, and personal support, feedback, involvement, and learning as key conditions for first year college students to succeed. Tinto (1997) suggests a learning model referred to as “learning communities” that encourages and promotes social and academic networks among the students. He proposes peer tutoring, whereby senior students will serve as mentors and tutors to first year students. Other researchers echoed the same sentiments of supporting peer mentoring (Colvin and Ashman 2010; Heirdsfield et al. 2008b; Shotton et al. 2007). Mentoring program is viewed as a two-way process where both the mentor and mentee learn and benefit from the social and academic support (Heirdsfield et al. 2008a).
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Transition Theory
The theoretical framework that underpins this study is Tinto’s (1997) model of student integration and Moore’s (1993) theory on transactional distance. Firstly, Tinto’s model suggests that educational institutions have social and academic
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systems and for a student to fully integrate into the learning environment a reciprocal relationships between the two are important. Academic environment consists of classroom activities or the connection between the student and the intellectual life of the institution, while the social environment of the institution consists of the interactions; the student has with peers and the staff but outside the classroom environment (Karp, Hughes, and O’Gara 2010; Tinto 1987). Tinto claims that students enter the learning environment with certain attributes, such as, prior learning experience, family and work commitments which determine whether they will complete their studies or withdraw from the learning environment (Tinto 2016). Students are more likely to remain with the institution if they are socially and intellectually integrated. However, Tinto (1987) claims that even those students that are able and socially mature, they experience some difficulties in making adjustment to the college life. The higher the level of integration, the more they are committed to the institution and to their own individual goals. The purpose of using Tinto’s (2016, 1987) model of student integration was to provide a framework for understanding the factors that impacts on students’ full integration into NAMCOL’s life. Secondly, Moore (1993) argues that transaction in distance learning occurs when the student and teacher are in relationship and in an environment where both are separated in space and time. According to Moore (1993), transactional distance in a distance learning environment is a function of three variables: dialogue, structure, and student autonomy. The latter refer to dialogue in more qualitative terms when the teacher engages the student in a more constructive way in the learning process, while the structure refers to the structure of the course, learning resources, and the support services put in place to enable students to achieve a positive learning outcome. Student autonomy refers to the degree the student takes control over the learning process to become self-directed and self-determined. It was also important to establish how Moore’s (1989, 1993, 2013) three variables of transactional distance impact on students to adjust to distance learning.
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Research Design
This particular study falls within the interpretivism and positivism paradigms. The research design is an exploratory multiple case study that focused on exploring and explaining the factors that impede and facilitate student transition from the conventional school learning environment to an ODL schooling system. Case studies examine contemporary phenomena in real-life situations and are not bounded by time and place (Creswell 2012; Mukherji and Albon 2009; Teegavarapu et al. 2008). The research applied a multimethod design by blending and integrating both the quantitative and qualitative data collection methods. The data was collected through interviews, focus group discussions, questionnaires, and document review. The population for the study comprised mainly of the more than 26,000 Namibia Senior Secondary Certificate (grade 12) students who transfer from the conventional schools to NAMCOL to improve their grades from 2013 to 2015. The other category
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of the population consisted of tutors, heads of tutorial centers, and area coordinators. The main participants included those students who attended their weekly tutorials (contact students), those who attended their support sessions during certain intervals because of work, family, and other commitments (noncontact students), and those that completed their studies through NAMCOL between 2013 and 2014. The study focused on the participants from two NAMCOL regions, namely, northern and southern regions, and data from the students were mainly collected from four tutorial centers, two in each region. Data were collected from 288 participants through the questionnaires, 26 individual interviews from students and staff, and through 2 focus group discussion with students. The final stage of data collection included the review of some key documents. The data collected was analyzed by applying both quantitative and qualitative data analysis techniques, SPSS version 8, and ATLAS.ti version 7, respectively.
6
Results
In the process of transition, there are certain factors that impede adjustment, while other factors accelerate the transition process. The findings in this study show that some students experienced some difficulties in adjusting to the new ODL environment, while others indicated that they did not experience serious obstacles during transition. The quantitative data shows that students had difficulties in managing their time as was indicated by many (53%) of them. Nevertheless, students were split in their views on the element of motivation, some (45%) felt they lack the motivation to engage with their studies, while others (48%) felt motivated enough to study with NAMCOL. There were quite a number of students (38%) who claimed not to have received sufficient information and guidance on how to study through the distance learning mode, while 35% also felt that they were fully oriented at the beginning and that assisted them with the adjustment needed to cope in the new environment of ODL. Although 55% of the students felt to be part of the learning community at NAMCOL, 27% experienced isolation. It appears from the findings in this study that many students (61%) did not experience any inferiority complex of being associated with NAMCOL, although there was quite a number (24%) who experienced the inferiority complex. On the other hand, the staff expressed their views through the quantitative data that students lack motivation as was highlighted by the majority (80%) of the participants. Additionally, many (58%) of the staff felt that the guidance and advice given were not sufficient to assist students cope with the new distance learning mode. Another factor raised by staff was the lack of smooth integration from convention to ODL system. It was evident that there was student overdependence on the tutors as was indicated by the majority (84%) of staff. Contrary to the views expressed by students, some (46%) of the staff members were of the opinion that the negative perception about ODL in general and NAMCOL in particular affects students negatively and lead to low self-esteem. Student isolation was also indicated as an impeding factor affecting the students, as was stated by some (36%) staff
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members. Time management, teenage pregnancy, and students’ vulnerability to drug abuse were cited by some staff as inhibiting factors. The qualitative data revealed tutors ‘work ethics, lack of motivation, management of study time, frequency and timing of contact sessions, parental and community involvement, and independent learning as key factors that delay student integration. The findings show a significant number of students who were not comfortable with the general work ethics of tutors. They complained about the insufficient support and lack of commitment from tutors. The students felt that the quality of teaching and learning is compromised because of the multiple roles tutors performed by engaging in an already fully packed program in formal schools and at the same time participating in the NAMCOL program. It appears from the interviews that some students had lost trust in the tutors. Three of the students aptly stated: “You come to the centre there is no teacher; tomorrow you come the teacher is there, other day the teacher is not there. If the teacher is not there, sometimes I take my books and study and sometimes I go back home”. (Student LJ) “The teachers are always absent. Sometimes they stay away for the whole week without informing us. They don’t value the distance students much. It is very discouraging”. (Group LQ) “The teachers coming to teach are already tired because they also teach on a full-time basis at their schools”. (Student LM)
Furthermore, both the students and tutors cited the lack of supportive relationships with parents, families, and communities as a barrier affecting them during the transition process. Students felt that supportive relationships from their parents, families, and communities were lacking. Some of these students were falling within the schoolage category where much support from the parents and family was needed. One student had the following to say: “Sometimes you want to come to NAMCOL at 08:00 to start doing your school work, then your parents will ask you; what are going to do at school very early in the morning if your classes only start at 14:00”? (Student LB)
This view was supported by one tutor who claimed: “The students do not receive enough support from home and community because some will say, NAMCOL is for school repeaters and failures. So, we as tutors also play the role that the parents and community should play”. (Staff TB)
Both the students and staff raised concerns on timing and frequency of contact sessions at tutorial centers. They claimed that the time scheduled for tutorial centers is inconvenient for learning as it compromises on their safety, and the allocated time is also not sufficient. In their views, the classes end late, and students have to walk
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long distances at night to get to homes. This situation is caused by the fact that NAMCOL makes use of the formal education facilities (schools) for its programs in the afternoon or evening. At times schools have their own extramural activities which results in NAMCOL starting with its program as late as 16:00 and ending at 22:00. One student had the following to say: “The challenge is that students are getting taught until late and by the time one gets home, you are exhausted. You don’t have the energy to study because your brain is drained for sitting from 14:00 to 20:00”. (Student LA)
Another student echoed the same view by stating: “The challenging part is coming to NAMCOL in the afternoon, and you go home at night. It is very challenging especially for the people who are footing going home”. (Student LK)
Independent learning was viewed as a positive learning experience and also cited as a factor that hinders student transition to ODL because this form of learning did not mirror the pedagogical approach to learning that students were used to. The regular personal engagement with fellow students, tutors, and the institution, and to some extent, their close relationships with friends and family members were cut off because of geographical and environmental changes. These changes led to some students experiencing the sense of isolation in the new learning environment. One student stated: “Personally, I really find it difficult to do studies on my own. First of all because of the facility at home, and the child who is nagging on me. There is always something at home and the fear that the environment is really not motivating. It is totally different from the spoon feeding and the baby attention I used to receive from the school”. (Student LE)
Students are engaging in several activities in their daily routine in addition to their studies. That, to some extent, is leading to students devoting much attention to the other activities and spending minimal time on their studies. It appears from the findings of the study that some students had difficulties in managing their study time. The study establishes that some participants find it difficult to strike a balance between their full-time or part-time jobs, family commitments, studying, attending contact sessions, and other equally important activities. One student pertinently stated: “To study with NAMCOL you need to seriously think of the time to study and which time to do daily chores. It is not always easy to balance between your school work and normal daily activities. You have to wake up early in the morning to prepare your child to go to school and also prepare yourself to go to work. The only free time I find in my daily plan, I have to use it for my studies”. (Student LE)
The staff participants strongly felt that NAMCOL students lack of motivation affect their transition into an ODL environment. Research has shown that dropout in
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distance education is also attributed to lack of motivation, and the best approach to retain students is for ODL institutions to imbed student motivation in their support systems (Simpson 2008, 2013; Anderson 2003). In this study, the lack of motivation contributed to low confidence levels among the students to the extent that some students felt shy to freely participate in class activities. From students’ perspective, the lack of motivation was aggravated by the discouraging remarks made by some tutors, their own general attitude toward studies, learning environment, and methodology of teaching. For example, one of student from the focus group discussion stated: “At high school, you have the courage to study very hard, but here at NAMCOL you don’t feel like you have the courage to study”. (Group LC)
Another participant gave a completely different dimension by stating: “If you are serious you motivate yourself. First as a person, you need to motivate yourself and then maybe later teachers, principals and others motivate you”. (Student LB)
The quantitative and qualitative data showed key factors that facilitate student adjustment in the new learning environment of ODL. Quantitatively, the provision of study guides and face-to-face tutorials were rated as significant to student adjustment as was stated by 21% and 18.5% of the students, respectively. Vacation workshops (16.6%), formation of study groups (11%), and comments on tutor marked assignments (9.5%) were also found to be useful. Other interventions the students found to be appropriate in their adjustment to the new environment include the motivational talks, prize giving, feedback tutorial letters, orientation workshops, information campaign, information booklets, and academic counselling. On the other side, the staff endorsed the views expressed by the students that study guides (17%), face-to-face tutorials (15%), study groups (14%), feedback tutorial letters (11%), and motivational talks (9%) received relatively high ratings. The qualitative data indicated that students and staff showed appreciation for the comprehensive support systems, NAMCOL offers to support students. Chiefly, all respondents were in agreement that face-to-face tutorials are an important component for student integration. The students showed high respect for students-tutor interaction because of the historical relationships they had with teachers when they were in formal schools. Equally, the students were appreciative of the learning resources given on time at the point of enrolment unlike in the conventional system where late delivery of textbooks was experienced and the sharing of textbooks was the order of the day, as Student LD, stated: “I think the good thing from NAMCOL is just the modules they give us. You can study alone and you are free because when you are in school you are sharing modules or textbooks. Now you get your own modules and study alone”.
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Discussion
The findings show greater similarities pointing to critical factors that impede student transition into the distance learning environment. Both qualitative and quantitative data collection instruments showed consistency on the participants’ views with regard to students’ lack of motivation, their inability to manage study time, and the feeling of isolation experienced by students. However, there were also divergent views expressed by the participants. The quantitative data showed deficiency in students’ knowledge on ODL because of the claim that students did not receive sufficient knowledge at the beginning of the academic program that will enable them to cope with the transition difficulties. The qualitative data also revealed the timing and frequency of tutorials as an impeding factor. Students on their side alluded to the undesirable work ethics of tutors and a gap in support from home and community as contributing factors affecting their integration. The findings show a gap between students’ expectations and what NAMCOL can offer. It appears from the findings in the study that the college did not provide a conducive learning environment enough to stimulate student motivation and boost their confidence level. The lack of motivation among the students could not be attributed to one factor only but rather to a combination of factors such as students’ general attitude toward studies, tutors, learning resources, learning environment, and the methodology of teaching. The factors that contributed to the lack of motivation are similar to the key ingredients of motivation, namely, student, teacher, content, method, and the learning environment as mentioned by Williams and Williams (2011). The gap in support students experienced from external stakeholders such as family and community shows that full integration requires both institutional and noninstitutional support functions. This finding implies that some of these key stakeholders do not value or have little appreciation for education delivered through the distance learning mode. This could have a negative effect on students’ ability to adapt and succeed in distance learning. Borup, Graham, and Davies (2013) viewed student-parent interaction as motivational, and that parental involvement could lead to a high student performance. The flexibility of ODL is meant to create room for students to engage in multiple tasks and to balance their other daily commitments and studies. The finding in this study implies that students lack the necessary time management skills to survive in an ODL environment. The inexperience of distance students to manage study time is cited by researchers as affecting them not to succeed (Mapolisa 2012; Talbot 2010; Barron and D’Annunzio-Green 2009; Galusha 1998). The unsuitability of the timing and frequency of the tutorial sessions show the institution’s inability to address the diverse training needs of the students. This observation is not only peculiar to NAMCOL, a study by Chikoko (2010) revealed on the unsuitability of contact sessions to enable students to integrate into the institutional culture. The finding on the tutors’ general poor work ethics implies that the tutors’ relationships with
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students were not based on the core values of mutual respect, sense of caring, and of equal partners in the learning process but rather characterized by a teacher-led dominated environment where the teacher decides what, when, where, and how to learn. Independent learning was viewed an inhibiting factor because of the lack of regular personal engagement with peers, tutors, and the institution due to geographical and environmental changes. This finding implies that students lack the ability to internalize the principles of distance learning. There seems to be a resistance in paradigm shift from the traditional face-to-face learning to self-regulated, selfdirected, and self-determined learning. The finding further suggests that students join NAMCOL with certain expectations which are totally contrary to the expectations and high demand of ODL. On the factors that facilitate student integration, similar views on the provision of face-to-face interactions and learning resources were expressed by all the participants through both data collection methods. However, the quantitative data revealed some other support services such as formation of study groups, counselling services, orientation workshop, feedback on assignments, and motivational talks which the participants found to be useful and effective to help students adjust easily to the new environment of distance learning. The findings show that students prefer a system which is characterized by a high degree of dialogue and structure because of the great value they attached to interpersonal relationships through various forms of interactions and the quality of learning resources. The great appreciation for learning resources implies that students receive value for money and that the materials are “fit for purpose” to enhance learning experiences, which contribute to high retention rate and better learning outcomes. The key issues that emerged from the findings in this study signify the importance of various forms of interactions in the learning process. Moore posits that dialogue in ODL is possible through the three forms of interactions, namely, teacher-student, student-student, and student-content interactions (Moore 1993). It appears there is real connection between factors that hinder or facilitate students’ full integration into the ODL system and different forms of interactions. The fear of independent learning, poor work ethics of tutors, frequency, and timing of tutorials show that students need guidance and support from tutors and peers to assist them cope with the transition process. Similarly, the high regard for more face-to-face tuition, quality learning resources, and the formation of study groups show that students value high degree of dialogue and structure, a situation they are accustomed to. The data above correlates with the view by Moore (1993) that transactional distance can be bridged if students have access to well-developed learning resources and if there is increased communication between the teacher and student. To some extent these findings also supports Tinto’s model on student integration that students need both academic and social relationships to persist with their learning. The gap experienced by the students on support from parents, family, and community supports the view by Kember who modified Tinto’s model to fit the distance students by claiming that academic success of students in a distance learning environment depends on social systems such as support from family members, fellow students, employers, and friends (Gibson 2003).
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Conclusion
The results of this study lead to the conclusion that students migrating from the conventional school system to NAMCOL preferred a learning approach characterized by the teacher-student regular interactions which resembles the learning approach they are accustomed to. The study further identified the mismatch between the students’ expectations and the high demand and expectations of ODL. The findings of this study have several implications for practice among governments, ODL institutions in particular open schools, ODL practitioners, and researchers. This study is of significant value to government as it will enable the policy makers to understand the transition process from one level of education provision to another when developing national policies. Researchers and ODL practitioners could use this study to further explore and identify the needs of the students in a particular learning context in order to design transition programs and strategies. Open schools should use the results of this study to put systems in place that will enable them to understand, appreciate, and manage high expectations of students when entering the new learning environment. As with any other research, there are limitations in this study. The study focused on the student transition in the Namibian context without drawing a comparison with other open schools in the SADC region or elsewhere. Another limitation is related to some students’ inability to answer all questions in the questionnaire and to respond to some questions during the interview process. This could have affected the degree of obtaining accurate data. The limitation could be attributed to the students’ level of understanding since most had not participated in this kind of study before. The third limitation is the focus of the study. This study mainly focused on students who engaged with NAMCOL through its secondary education program at the senior secondary phase (grade 12) but excluded the learners who migrated from the same system but were pursuing studies at the junior secondary phase (grade 10). It could have been beneficial to compare the two groups of learners because of their different ages. Further research could be directed at the two levels of education provision, junior and senior secondary phases, to draw a comparison on how the two groups of students experience the transition process. Also, there is also a need to conduct a study to determine how male and female learners experience the transition process to identify any gender-specific challenges that affect the transition process.
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Cross-References
▶ Diversity and Diversity Management in UNISA’s Open Distance Learning Through Bernstein and Foucault’s Lens ▶ Issues of Social Justice and Colonialism in the Education Systems of Africa ▶ Learner Dropout in South African Schools ▶ Open, Distance, and E-learning Education in Kenya ▶ Transfer of Learning in a Distance Education Programme in South Africa
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Implementation of NQF Policy in Namibia Public Universities Samuel Angaleni Kambonde
Contents 1 2 3 4
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The National Qualifications Framework Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The National Qualifications Framework Policy in Namibian Higher Education Context . . . Conceptualization of the National Qualifications Framework Policy in the Context of Higher Education Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Concluding Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Abstract
This chapter presents the findings about how Namibian public universities are responding to the implementation of National Qualifications Framework (NQF) Policy in their institutions. The findings reveal lack of understanding among internal stakeholders particularly among students concerning what NQF is all about and its implementation process. Essentially, from the findings, the lack of support plan from the state in terms of finance was one of the emerged challenges facing Namibian public universities in implementing the NQF Policy. Keywords
National Qualifications Framework Policy · Policy implementation · Public universities · Quality assurance · Namibia
S. A. Kambonde (*) Department of Education Management and Policy Studies, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Republic of South Africa e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 K. S. Adeyemo (ed.), The Education Systems of Africa, Global Education Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44217-0_14
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Introduction
The National Qualifications Framework (NQF) Policy, and its quality assurance mechanism in education, is a worldwide concern. Apart from NQF Policy, the concept of quality assurance in higher education (HE), in particular, has received numerous attentions from various researchers; thus several definitions have been recorded, but they all allude to the same meaning. Researchers such as Seameo, Biggs, and Grant (2000) view quality assurance as a set of standards, measures, checks, and evaluations of the non-conformity of an institution’s operations in terms of ensuring quality education. Generally, the main purpose of quality assurance is to maintain and improve the quality of education in institutions. Quality assurance is an umbrella of all quality mechanisms and processes that ensure quality education in a given institution of any country (ibid). The National Qualifications Framework (NQF) Policy is one of the primary mechanisms and processes that institutions devise to ensure quality education. NQF Policy is acknowledged as a worldwide phenomenon as some continents have been noted making an effort to establish their regional qualification frameworks. The purpose of establishing regional qualification frameworks is to harmonize qualifications within their regions or continents. According to the European Qualifications Framework (2010) and the Namibia Qualifications Authority Act No. 29 of 1996, National Qualifications Framework Policy is described as the best tool in redressing inequalities in higher education. For example, in Namibia, all institutions of higher education are legally compelled to register their academic programs on the National Qualifications Framework (NQA Act No. 29 of 1996). Furthermore, in reviewed literature the trend of implementing the National Qualifications Framework Policy has been noted in various educational systems among numerous countries around the world since the 1980s. The above-given background indicates that much attention has been paid to the issue of implementing quality policies which includes the NQF Policy in higher education around the world. Given the above discussion, the question that seems to beg an answer in this study is: How do public universities in Namibia understand their role in implementing the National Qualifications Framework Policy? Other countries such as New Zealand, Australia, Ireland, and Uganda have adopted their National Qualifications Framework Policy at different levels, and they regard that framework as the key driver in their economic development plans. Now one would want to know if it is the same in Namibia or it is a different case. In addition, various literature (Nguyeni 2012; Shan et al. 2011) have also shown that there is an ongoing debate among researchers about the effectiveness of implementing the National Qualifications Framework Policy at higher education institutions and that the academic debaters further question NQF contribution towards social and economic facets of any country (Kadhila 2012). It is the above-given background that have also prompted this study to investigate the nature of National Qualifications Framework Policy implementation particularly in the two selected state-owned institutions of higher education in Namibia, namely, the University of Namibia (UNAM) and the Namibia University of Science and Technology (NUST).
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The National Qualifications Framework Policy
The National Qualifications Framework Policy in higher education is described as a policy framework within which all nationally recognized qualifications and unit standards are registered into and made available for instruction by institutions (NQA Act No. 29 of 1996). An institutional framework policy ensures, there are qualifications that meet national standards as well as the individual, social and economic needs of the nation are available (Jewison 2008: 13; NQA Act No 29 of 1996). In fact, there is an assumption that the National Qualifications Framework Policy implementation facilitates lifelong learning for higher education among communities, and, therefore, it is critical that it should be in place and should be implemented in any country (Bjornavold and Coles 2010). In Europe, for example, the implementation of national qualifications framework is well known in different countries, such as Ireland, Wales, Poland, Lithuania, and France. In the eastern hemisphere region, it has been also experienced in various countries, such as Australia, New Zealand, the Philippines, and Japan. In subSaharan Africa, the implementation of National Qualifications Framework Policy has been noted in Mauritius, South Africa, and Botswana. The report further highlights some African universities sharing commonalities in their national qualification frameworks, which is a sign of cooperation among African universities in implementing their National Qualifications Framework Policy. In addition, the universities under the Inter-University Council of East Africa (IUCEA) that is formed by Kenya, Uganda, Burundi, Rwanda, and Tanzania are also seen to be progressing in ensuring that they offer quality-assured qualifications within their institutions. The presence of the IUCEA movement suggests that there is high spirit of cooperation among Eastern African universities in the fight against poor-quality academic programs. The National Qualifications Framework (NQF) Policy has been known as a tool for guaranteeing quality qualifications in Namibia. And it was introduced with the establishment of two quality assurance agencies, the Namibia Qualifications Authority (NQA) and the Council of Higher Education (NCHE), shortly after independence in 1990 (NQA Act No. 29 of 1996; Higher Education Act No. 26 of 2003). With the establishment of the accrediting agencies, all institutions of higher learning in Namibia are compelled to be accredited and to register their academic programs or qualifications on the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) Policy which is one of the Namibian government’s legal quality assurance policies in force for the promotion of quality standards as well as the maintenance of quality education (NQA Act No. 29 of 1996; Higher Education Act No. 26 of 2003). Kadhila (2012) criticizes institutions of higher learning which tend to rely on external evaluation for the accreditation and registration of their academic programs instead on internal evaluation, which is the key role player in institutional internal quality control. This to Kadhila further questioned the effectiveness of implementing the National Qualifications Framework Policy as institutions might simply prepare themselves for the external evaluation at a given time. To him (Kadhila) institutional internal review should be a continuous exercise to improve the quality of their education.
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In responding to the call for the National Qualifications Framework Policy implementation in Namibia, both the University of Namibia and the Namibia University of Science and Technology established their own internal quality assurance units (IQAUs) to ensure that all their academic programs are quality-assured. Generally, the purpose of creating an institutional quality assurance unit is to monitor, coordinate, and promote the overall quality teaching and learning within an institution of higher education (Nguyeni 2012; Namibia Qualifications Authority Act No. 29 of 1996; Higher Education Act No. 26 of 2003) and to ensure that all quality assurance policies including the NQF Policy are well maintained and coordinated. With reference to NQF Policy implementation in Namibia, institutions of higher education must ensure that all old and new qualifications or programs are registered on the National Qualifications Framework Policy as per the regulations stipulated in the HE quality assurance policy in the country (NQA Act 29 1996). In supporting the above-given discussion, both public institutions of higher education that are selected for this study are known to be committed to the quality assurance policy implementation of the country. According to their Quality Policy Manuals, all academic qualifications are recognized by competent and legally accredited agencies, and all their qualifications or programs are registered on the National Qualifications Framework. In his 2014 unpublished research paper on the “Effective Implementation of Quality Mechanisms at the Polytechnic of Namibia” – now called NUST – Tuaundu argues, in support of the above argument, that the purpose of implementing National Qualifications Framework Policy in HE institutions is to ascertain if academic qualifications and awards to be awarded by HE institution meet the standards required as per the NQA regulation (Tuaundu 2014). Although institutions of higher education in Namibia are historically known to have quality assurance units in place (Kadhila 2012), studies in the area of effective implementation of the NQF Policy are rare. Therefore, there is a need to investigate public universities in Namibia in order to understand their role in implementing the National Qualifications Framework Policy. The finding that will be obtained in the proposed study will help inform the higher education institutions in devising effective NQF Policy implementation mechanisms that are geared towards quality assurance in higher education. The study will also add to the existing literature pertaining to the debate of the status of the National Qualifications Framework Policy implementation in Namibia.
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The National Qualifications Framework Policy in Namibian Higher Education Context
The restructuring and reform of the Namibian higher education system have been driven by some educational political principles, namely, access, equity, quality, and democracy, which the new government adopted soon after independence. Like other developing countries, such as South Africa, Namibia’s higher education institutions are known, among African institutions, for their sound quality assurance systems resulting from the implementation of the National Qualifications Framework Policy
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(NQA Act No. 29 of 1996; HE Act No. 36 of 2003). According to the literature, Namibia is one of the African countries in the second group of countries around the world that started implementing the National Qualifications Framework a long time ago (Kadhila 2012). Like South Africa, the trend of inequality in the distribution of educational services, brought about by colonial injustice in education, necessitated some of the drastic educational reforms, which included the introduction of NQF Policy as part of quality assurance system in Namibian higher education. The reviewed local studies confirm a positive development among Namibian public higher education institutions in terms of quality assurance mechanisms of which the National Qualifications Framework Policy is one. However, the studies by Tuck and Kadhila have some limitations in that the two researchers did not provide adequate evidence on how HEIs in Namibia are committed to the National Qualifications Framework Policy, particularly in terms of implementation. It is for this reason that the proposed study will explore how public higher education institutions in Namibia make use of the National Qualifications Framework Policy to ensure that quality academic programs are developed and offered to students. The Namibian National Qualifications Framework has been established and administered for HEIs by the Namibia Qualifications Authority, and institutions of higher education are being compelled to develop their qualifications based on the framework. To date, it seems that no study has been conducted in Namibia to evaluate its implementation at institutional and program levels (NQA Act No. 29 of 1996; HE Act No. 26 of 2003). It is the responsibility of all institutions of higher education to ensure that their qualifications or programs are registered on the National Qualifications Framework of the country. The NQF regulations clearly states that existing programs that fail accreditation/re-accreditation may no longer be offered in institutions, as they do not meet the requirements for accreditation. That institutions need to have their implementation plans in place and conduct review and evaluations periodically (NQA Act No. 29 of 1996; HE Act No. 26 of 2003). The purpose is to determine their strengths and weaknesses in terms of academic excellence is confirmed in the quality assurance policies of the two selected institutions of education, UNAM and NUST; they have plans in place to ensure that all quality assurance procedures, processes, and mechanisms are adhered to by all stakeholders (NQA Act No. 29 of 1996; HE Act No. 26 of 2003). In addition, the NQA Act No. 29 of 1996 stipulates that the implementation of quality assurance policies in higher education should include, but is not limited to, the following: 1. Accredited study programs should be in line with the mission and vision of an educational institution. 2. Quality-assured and registered programs should be on the National Qualifications Framework. 3. Quality of existing programs should be reviewed at institutional level to be reregistered on the framework. 4. Procedures for program accreditation should be in place, and there should be a feedback mechanism and implementation plan.
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5. Old programs should be periodically reviewed and re-registered on the National Qualifications Framework. 6. Plans for improvement should be developed and monitored. The objective of implementing the National Qualifications Framework in HEIs includes, but is not limited to, improving the quality of higher education to address the skilled labor shortage to realize a knowledge-driven economy in the country (Ministry of Education Document Planning for Learning Nation: Programme Document: Phase 1, 2006–11 of 2007). All the documents cited above acknowledged the importance of establishing and maintaining quality academic programs in HEIs. NQF involves developing and implementing qualification based on the legal quality assurance standard set by the quality assurance. It became known that effective NQF Policy implementation by universities could bring about quality higher education in any country (NQA Act No. 29 of 1996). Authority in the country (NQA Act No. 29 of 1996). It also came to light that effective NQF Policy implementation by universities can bring about quality higher education in any country (NQA Act No 29 of 1996). Quality academic programs would only be achieved through ensuring effective National Qualifications Framework Policy implementation by institution of higher education in the country (NQA Act 29 of 1996). Hence, this study is aiming at examining the role of the public universities in Namibia in implementing the National Qualifications Framework Policy. The other purpose is to determine how committed are the public universities in ensuring quality education in the country through effective implementation of NQF Policy. In reviewing various literature, it came to the light that effective NQF Policy implementation by universities in any country can bring about quality higher education (NQA Act No 29 of 1996). Higher education institutions in Namibia are expected to implement the National Qualifications Framework Policy for quality higher education in the country.
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Conceptualization of the National Qualifications Framework Policy in the Context of Higher Education Institutions
Various researchers have shown different understandings of what the National Qualifications Framework Policy is all about in the context of higher education around the world (Nallbani 2015). Many have used different concepts in defining it; however, they have all given almost similar meanings. Tuck attempts to define the National Qualifications Framework Policy as a tool for designing and classifying qualifications in categories according to their learning achievements. Raffles, cited in Bolton and Reddy (2015), describes the National Qualifications Framework Policy differently and defines it in three forms: firstly, as a communication framework; secondly, as a reform framework; and thirdly, as a transformational framework for higher education. Raffles sees a qualifications framework policy implementation in terms of redressing and facilitating communication between qualifications, as they
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need to have a pathway to positive relationships. Students should be able to transfer from one qualification to another without difficulty. Nallbani (2015) and Keevy and Bolton consider the National Qualifications Framework Policy to be outcome-based or competence-based. According to them, the National Qualifications Framework is based on learning outcomes that are acquired from any formal and non-formal education in a learning environment. Some researchers explain that learning outcomes in a qualification enable employers as well as other educational institutions to know exactly what the qualified learner’s competent skills are. In a context like in South Africa, the National Qualifications Framework Policy has been extensively researched; Young agrees with Keevy and Bolton’s definition. They refer a National Qualifications Framework as a place on which to register the qualifications of the country; HEIs are mandated to register their qualifications as per the requirements of the National Qualifications Framework Policy to guarantee the internal quality assurance of academic programs at their institutions. In some countries, like New Zealand, it is a binding law that educational institutions should offer programs that are accredited by a recognized quality assurance agency or by the Ministry of Higher Education. Some researchers view the whole National Qualifications Framework Policy implementation approach inherently in the context of any given country (Bolton and Reddy 2015). The two authors above reflect a different understanding in exploring the implementation of the National Qualifications Framework Policy at institutional and program levels. They believe that national qualification frameworks are different from country to country, and, therefore, their implementation too is likely to be different from context to context. In view of the above, the National Qualifications Framework Policies are, mostly, defined according to the educational status quo of each country. For example, in the South African context, Bolton and Reddy (2015) refer to it as competence-based, while in the Scottish context, it is referred to as outcomes-based. Therefore, taking into consideration some views argued above, background seems to play a major and important role in terms of implementing the NQF Policy, regardless of whether a country is developed or developing. Therefore, there are many factors that one should take into consideration when implementing the National Qualifications Framework Policy in any setting or context. Apart from context, some reviewed studies see a qualification framework policy as representing the “hopes and dreams” of people in developed and developing countries (Allais 2010, p. 2). This simply means that in many countries, people regard quality higher education as means of economic development. Therefore, people need a quality-assured qualification to acquire jobs and employment. Therefore, there is a need for qualifications to be harmonized and developed in relation to the industries’ needs in any country. This approach is being considered and applauded by many in developed and developing countries, such as Namibia. There are examples of where qualifications and awards are viewed as a gateway to a better quality of life in any given context. Students want quality qualifications or awards that will overcome obstacles to free movement, getting a job, and further education. They also expect qualification recognition that guarantees them fitness of
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purpose in the development processes of their country. It is against the above background that the implementation of the National Qualifications Framework Policy should be given full priority in all institutions of higher education worldwide.
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Evidence
Findings of this study have shown different views of students on how they involve in the implementation of the NQF at their public universities. Of the 16 students, 3 see their participation in NQF implementation through school activities. School activities include aspects such as studying, lecturing, and lab activities as well as through writing assignments, quizzes, group homework, and attending classes, while the other four see their participation through attending academic-related meetings, for example, senate meeting and curriculum review and development meetings. Some of the SRC student gave the response on the attestation above. However, six students in the focus group indicated not involved in NQF implementation as they were always not informed to share their experience and involvement in the implementation of national qualifications framework at their university (concern). Students have shown involvement and experience NQF implementation through various ways. Of the six interviewed students, one of them (SRC Student A) revealed involvement in NQF implementation through internship, while the other two revealed student involvement and experienced NQF implementation through the various trainings by alumnae. One student, for example, Student C, said that they experience the implementation of NQF through e-learning where they often get their notes for their studies. The last student (Student E) in the interview revealed the University did not have enough support for effective learning. Most of the interviewed quality assurance (QA) practitioners in this study described and explained how they have been involved in the process of quality assurance of qualification. The purpose of this question was to determine the level and status of NQF implementation at public universities in Namibia in terms of the academic program development processes and their delivery in their universities. QA practitioners and academic staff on what entails their involvement in the implementation of the national qualifications framework. Of the 20 interviewed QA practitioners and academic staff, most of the participants, for example, QA Practitioner A, QA Practitioner B, QA Coordinator C, and QA, revealed their universities have in place their own internal curriculum framework that guides and facilitates the process of academic program development. However, one of them revealed both two selected Public Universities managing their quality assurance of qualification throughout their quality assurance unit and throughout faculties department (QA Coordinator B). One of the QA practitioners (QA Practitioner C) during the interview described the quality assurance of qualification as an inclusive process. In addition, one of the academic staff (Academic Staff A) in the interview revealed that, before the process of quality assurance of qualification, the feasibility study has to be conducted. The feasibility studies to be conducted have to include various stakeholders including
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industries, as well as former students (alumnae), during revised program to confirm the need of the program to be developed. It is when then the concerned department has to commence with the development of such qualification when it is relevant as confirmed by all affected stakeholders. However, one of them from a different university said that before they start with the development of the program, they train the qualification developer first on how they should develop the qualification. Once they start developing the programs, they start together from the beginning until they develop and draft the curriculum. During the development of the qualification they also involve other stakeholders, for example, industries and professional bodies, as well as benchmark with other universities. One of the QA practitioners (QA Practitioner C) in the interview revealed their university has in place what is called Professional Advisory Committee. That committee is composed of people from different industries who will implement those standards. The purpose of establishing the above-discussed committee is to ensure that developed programs are in line with the institution’s curriculum framework and that of the NQF regulation. The committee discussed above is also responsible for looking into the credits of the developed programs to ensure everything is in line with what is stipulated in the documents. The committee also looks at referencing style and checks if the prescribed textbooks are up to date as required by the regulation setting up the implementation of the National Qualifications Framework. After the above-discussed process, then the concerned faculty or department has to send it to the Program Development Unit for comments. Until the Program Development Unit is satisfied is when the programs are to be approved. One of the QA practitioners (QA Practitioner C) in the interview acknowledged the issue of validation check of academic programs by the National Quality Committee (NQC) within the university as part of the qualification quality assurance process. According to this QA Practitioner, this happens only when a new program or existing programs are to be revised or new programs are to be introduced. After the development of such programs, the concerned department or faculty sends such programs to the Program Development Unit (PDU) and to other various units within the university for their input and recommendations. The role of NQC is to do quality checks to ensure consistency of the whole documents to be submitted. The above-discussed QA Practitioner further confirmed that some universities make sure that the latest textbooks are used during the delivery upon the approval by the concerned professional bodies and industries. Furthermore, after the approval of all programs is when the responsible department will have to expect the endorsement letter from the National Quality Committee attached to the University. The university through the Program Development Unit ensures that NQF standards meet the NQF regulation (QA Practitioner C). Under this theme, participants from all categories were asked to share their view on the kinds of support services that are in place in their universities to ensure the effectiveness of the implementation of the National Qualifications Framework regulation. The purpose of the question was to determine the level of support public universities in Namibia are receiving for effective implementation of NQF regulations.
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The findings of this study have shown the various support activities and services in place that enhance effective implementation of NQF in the public universities under this study. Some of the interviewed student (Student B) revealed Universities receiving training support from alumnae to ensure student are being given current required industrial skills. SRC Student A in the interview commented on universities having a good approach on seeking internship for their students in different fields of studies and providing equipped library for them to do their assignment. Furthermore, two of the six interviewed students (SRC Student D and SRC Student C) revealed public universities provide course outline and have in place Internet and e-learning educational services to assist students who are staying off the campuses while studying their courses. One of the students (Student E) in this category revealed the university has insufficient support in terms of learning and studying materials. Three of the eight interviewed students revealed Public Universities getting support of feedback on the previous student performance from the industries and alumnae in terms of their graduate performance (SRC Student A and SRC Student B). However, 1 out of 10 interviewed students revealed universities get financial support from the government but expressed his dissatisfaction on inadequate budget from the government (Student D). Three students (SRC Student D, Student I, and Student J) in the interview revealed their satisfaction and happiness during the focus group discussion on the provision of e-learning by their universities. Only one student (Student E) in the focus group felt dissatisfaction and complained about poor Internet service at one of the public universities under study. However, two students in the focus group suggest that universities increase the number of practice activities, internship, and excursion project to improve the performance of NQF-registered academic programs (Student F and Student G).
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Concluding Notes
There are various evidence on the implementation of NQF in two public universities under this study. Analyzed documents have proven the following evidence in terms of NQF implementation in the public universities in Namibia. There are evidence on various quality assurance policies in place. Those policies include internal quality assurance policy under the QA Unit called CEQUAM. The two public universities have a number of various NQF-registered academic programs. In addition, there is evidence on the statistic of NQF-registered qualification by all public universities under the study. Documents reviewed for this study have shown various experiences on NQF implementation policies by public universities under the study; this includes, for example, the seven engineering academic programs NQF-registered by one of the public universities. Reviewed documents have also shown the process on how the two public universities’ curriculum and academic programs are developed. Wide and deep consultation with stakeholder is evidenced. Financial challenges have been also highlighted in the document reviewed which hamper the NQF implementation within the public universities under study.
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References Allais, S. (2010). The implementation and impact of national qualification framework: Report of a study in 16 countries (pp. 39–56). Geneva: International Labour Organization. Bjornavold, J., & Coles, M. (2010). European framework series: Added value of national qualification framework in implementing the NQF.UK. Bolton, H., & Reddy, J. (2015). Using cultural activity theory (chat) to assess the impact of the national qualification framework on education and training in South Africa. Grant, H. (2000). International conference on quality Assurance in Higher Education: Standard mechanisms and mutual recognition. Bangkok. Jewison, R. (2008). The National Qualifcation Framework. South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA). 2012. Level Descriptors for the South African National Qualifcatios Framework, November 2012, SAQA, Pretoria South Africa. 16 pp Kadhila, N. (2012). Quality assurance mechanisms in higher education institution in Namibia. University of the Free State, Republic of South Africa. Nallbani, S. (2015). Institutional weaknesses in implementing the priciples of the European qualifcation framework in higer education system in Kosovo. 3(4), 9–16. Namibia Qualification Authority Act. (1996). Republic of Namibia. Nguyeni, T. (2012). Internal quality assurance in Vietnam’s higher education: The influence by international project. Republic of Namibia. (1996). Namibia qualification authority act, 1996, No 29 of 1996, Government Gazette, No 333. Republic of Namibia. (2003). Higher Education Act, 2003, No 26 of 2003. Government Gazette no. 268. Shah, M., Nair, S., & Wilson, M. (2011). Exploring the impediment of successful ERP implementation. A Case Study in a Public organization. International Journal of Business and Social Science Vol.2. No 22. Tuaundu. (2014). The impact of National qualification framework (NQF) on the quality of teaching, learning and research in higher Education in Namibia, Republic of Namibia.
The Theory and Practice in Teacher Education in Zimbabwe Hwami Evelyn and Munorweyi Matamba
Contents 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 The Zimbabwe Education System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Relationship Between Theory and Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Challenges Faced by Student Teachers When Transferring Theory into Practice . . . . . . . . . 5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Abstract
The premise that theory informs practice guides training and educational programs. Teacher education programs impart knowledge and skills (theory) which are meant for use during teaching and learning, thereby putting theory into practice. There seems to be inconsistency between theory as taught at college and the practices by teachers in Zimbabwean schools. Teachers use theory at a rather superficial level as they tend to forget the theory for various reasons. As a result, there is the need for synchronization of theory and practice by educators to close the gap. Keywords
Theory · Practice · Dilemma · Teaching practice attachment
H. Evelyn (*) · M. Matamba Mutare Teachers’ College, Mutare, Zimbabwe © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 K. S. Adeyemo (ed.), The Education Systems of Africa, Global Education Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44217-0_15
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Introduction
The significance of theories, beliefs, and principles that inform teachers’ decision making and practice has a long history and is a controversial issue (Rose and Rogers 2012). There has been an ongoing debate on whether there is a relationship between theory and practice in teacher education. There is a school of thought which maintains that theory informs practice. Others doubt the relationship between the two, for example, Bayles (as cited in Kay and Kibble 2016) who argues that theory is divorced from routine classroom practice. Studies show that student teachers face problems when implementing what they learnt at college in school settings (Loughran et al. 2001). This is supported by Day (1985, p. 34) who saw the need for student teachers to “interconnect theory and practice and to eliminate discrepancies between intentions and practices.” The lack of connection between theory and practice creates disappointment in the very early stages of students’ teaching career. This leads to theory and practice dilemma. Understanding the link between theory and practice is of central value to teacher education. This understanding can be used to “assess the professional development of prospective teachers and to design learning opportunities to support and foster teacher growth” (Talanquer et al. 2007, p. 402). Theory focuses on explaining human behavior and provides a framework for analyzing behavior and actions. However, some find it difficult to use theories in a practical setting because theory only explains a small part of a person’s behavior while the whole person’s behavior needs to be addressed (Stam 2010). This creates inconsistency between theory and practice. The inconsistency leads to anxiety and disappointment of the student teacher; hence, theory and practice dilemma. From Zimbabwe perspective, studies have shown that student teachers have problems when trying to put theory into practice (Mapfumo et al. 2012). They are bewildered at the difference of what is expected of them as attachés compared to the qualified teachers who are their mentors. Students go on Teaching Practice Attachment having been “equipped” with theory of learning and teaching; the expectation being that they translate this into practice (Mukeredzi 2013). This brings about the question of the relationship between theory and practice.
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The Zimbabwe Education System
Education in Zimbabwe is under the authority of the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education (MoPSE) and the Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Innovation, Science, and Technology Development (MHTEISTD). Both are regulated by the Cabinet of Zimbabwe. Figure 1 shows the structure of the education system in Zimbabwe. The education system in Zimbabwe encompasses 9 years of primary (2 years Early Childhood Education and 7 years for grades one to seven) and 6 years secondary school (4 years General Certificate in Education Ordinary Level and 2 years Advanced Level). One can exit schooling after the General certificate in Education Ordinary Level. This certificate enables one to join industry and commerce or tertiary
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Primary education: Early Childhood learning and Grades 1-7
Zimbabwe General Certificate in Education: Lower secondary Zimbabwe General Certificate in Education: Upper secondary Tertiary Education University Education Technical Vocational Education
Teacher Education
Fig. 1 Flowchart representing the education system in Zimbabwe
education. Tertiary Education caters for University Education, Technical, Vocational Education and Training (TVET) and Teacher Education. Teacher education is offered by universities and teacher education colleges which are associate colleges of the University of Zimbabwe. The school calendar runs from January to December and spans over 40 weeks with three terms and about a month’s break in-between each term. One of Zimbabwe’s Millennium Development Goals was to achieve universal education for all students; however, the goal was not achieved as of 2015 due to a number of factors such as economic downturn and inability to afford costs associated with education. The country is currently working toward the Sustainable Development Goal of providing universal and free education to all students by 2030. The Zimbabwean education curriculum is subject to constant revamping to cater for new demands and new issues. In line with this, MoPSE introduced the new competence based curriculum (Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education 2015). At the same time, MHTESITD has introduced Education 5.0 which is heritage based. The main thrust of the new curricular is for it to be needs-driven. King (2011) reiterates that the school curriculum needs to be redesigned to fulfill local needs. For the implementation of the redesigned curriculum to be successful teacher education as the linchpin to education is mandated to prepare teachers who are able to bridge the gap between theory and practice. This is the best way for applying learning to real life situation.
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Relationship Between Theory and Practice
Theory and practice can be perceived as two sides of a coin. Bedau and Humphreys (2008) state that theory is a set of details about a specific theme and is a tool used to explain, predict, and understand a particular topic. The proposition is that all practice in education is based on theory. Theory is used to explain a certain phenomenon in a particular setting and should address practical problems. The overall goal of the education system is the facilitation of understanding and transfer of skills and knowledge to real life situations (Boikhutso 2013). This could be the reason for
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one to believe that the main focus of theory is in its application. Some of the confusion and contradiction is the result of our unwillingness or inability to identify the theories underlying our statement regarding learning and our classroom behavior (Rose and Rogers 2012). Theory is typically born out of academic research which is grounded in observation of the real world (Pried 2014). When talking about real world, we are referring to traditions, beliefs, and values of the society (praxis). Rose and Rogers (2012) argue that tradition, personal experience, and research are three main sources from which we draw the learning theories. Thus, there is very little difference between theory and practice. According to Rappaport (1996) theory informs practice as it provides insight into interpreting behavior contextually and for the generation of an alternative way for new settings. A theory is used to explain the collection, analysis, classification, storage, recovery, and dissemination of information, while providing a framework for analysis (Pried 2014). This reveals the interconnectedness nature of theory and practice. The relationship of the two is reciprocal. The practice cannot position itself without the theoretical questions guiding it. Furthermore, their relationship is symbiotic, in that an advance in one automatically requires modification of the other. Theory is abstracted practice and practice is applied theory. This means that theory specializes on the quality of dealing with ideas rather than events, whereas practice is the actual application of the idea. On the other hand, Klabnik (2012) observes that there is always tension between theory and practice. Cabaroglu (2014) supports the idea that student teachers face problems when implementing the theory, they learnt in college. These are two separate realms connected through a process of abstraction and application. The confusion starts with the perception that theory is content taught in Educational Foundations (Psychology, Philosophy and Sociology). What is learnt in subject areas and Professional Studies courses are simply regarded as subject content and methodology. This perception could be a result of the collective term used in colleges for Educational Foundations that is, Theory of Education (TOE). The title seems to claim that these are the only educational theories and everything else taught is not. Laursen (2007) noted that theory meant subject content, tools, and methods used when teaching and managing classes. This lack of a unified view could cause a wide gap between theory and practice as there would be piecemeal understanding of what theory entails. On another level, it reflects that preservice teachers are not aware that Educational Foundations are applied when drawing up the syllabi and other resources used for teaching. By analogy people see beautiful buildings but they never think about the foundation on which the building was laid. This could be due to the fact that there is no direct reference to these components during the teaching and learning exercise. Regarded as critical was subject content. An analysis of the Teaching Practice Attachment (TPA) supervision critique form reflects that theories of education informed its construction but it did not make an obvious demand for a theoretical framework for the lessons taught. Meeting the dictates of the form is mechanical. Another observation is that one supervision form is used throughout the TPA stint. It is as if the skills expected of students as they began TPA remained constant till end of that course. The implication is that if
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students miss on an aspect or fails to transfer theory into practice at the beginning of TPA, the student would not be corrected because there is no instrument that guides or forces them to change. As experienced, entry and exit competencies do not differ yet theory as taught in colleges reflects development from one level to the other. Thus, teacher education system is perpetuating or not adequately addressing the issues of skills development which is emphasized in theory. Another discrepancy in practice is that, upon getting to a school, student teachers are allocated to classes and given all necessary documents. They are instructed to scheme as taught in college. In some schools, they are told to prepare a scheme-cum plan for the school and the scheme and Detailed Lessons Plans (DLP) for the college. By implication, the theory taught in colleges is not needed in schools, thereby, creating a discrepancy. This is supported by Bayles as cited in Kay and Kibble (2016), who argues that Theory of Education is generally divorced from daily routine of the teacher hence making it appear irrelevant. This, however, could be an indication that some teachers are not reflective and only put theory into practice vicariously. In support of Bayles as cited in Kay and Kibble (2016), some teachers do not see the relevance of theory of education. While the general perception is that theory and practice are separate entities, there is another notion that theory is all that is taught at college and that theory is applicable in teaching and learning setups. The conception is based on the argument that at college, students learn educational foundations, subject content, and methodology. They found subjects like Psychology and Sociology helpful in understanding the learner and on methodology the students gained knowledge and skills on teaching and learning. Content is the substance on which suitable methodology is derived.
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Challenges Faced by Student Teachers When Transferring Theory into Practice
Based on Klabnik (2012)’s observation, what students experience in colleges may be different from what appears on the ground in a real teaching situation. As a result, they abandon what they were taught and create their own body of knowledge which they now use in order to cope with what is in the social, cultural, and political environment. For example, in college, students are taught that scheming and writing Detailed Lesson Plans (DLP) was mandatory. Any student found without a Detailed Lesson Plan gets a failing mark (Mutare Teachers’ College Teaching Practice critique form 2016). But then, dissonance is observed as mentors do not prepare detailed lesson plans. The relevance and importance of lesson plans as taught in college become questionable. The mentors use the scheme-cum plan, a combination of scheming and planning which is less cumbersome. They wonder whether they should or should not plan (Cabaroglu 2014). This causes confusion when students are under observation. Another issue relates to the DLP is whether to stick to the lesson plan or be flexible to the dictates or conditions existing in the class (Cabaroglu 2014). This raises a concern as the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education
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(MoPSE) accepts the scheme-cum plan as an official document implying it suffices. The reason for colleges to insist on so much documentation which is never used after training is questioned. This made some aspects of the theory taught seem trivial as they would be abandoned soon after graduation. It has been observed that student teachers have problems with transfer of learning (Korthagen and Kessels 1999). This could be due to a number of factors like their pretraining experiences. Cheng et al. (2010, p. 92) argue that during their schooling years, students familiarize “with teachers’ tasks and foster the development of identification with teachers.” The students would have absorbed and internalized the practice by their teachers. These preexisting experiences shape how they perceive teaching. This creates an impediment if their teachers fail to merge theory and practice. The tendency is usually to fall back on what they experience at school. Teacher educators have the challenge of de-teaching what the students internalized over years. Whatever teaching strategy they used, had to be convincing. Also noted is that most students were left to work on their own as the schools ignore the “attachment” aspect. As a result, they do not have role models to emulate but their high school teachers. Hence, the gap between theory and practice remains wide. Teacher education is normalizing the gap because they know the practice in the schools and vice versa but are not responding to the gap issue. Teaching methods refer to the modus operandi of teaching. It focuses on how information is transmitted to the learner and how the learner uses and interacts with that information. The quality of learning relies heavily on the effectiveness of the methods or approach used (Knott and Mutunga 1995). Of note is the fact that there is no one best method for every situation. In college, students are taught particularly student centered methods requiring less teacher talk. There seems to be a gap between what is taught in college (student centered methods) and what is prevailing in the school (lecture method). This could be a result of many factors such as class size, time constrains, facilities, the degree of autonomy of the learners (Knott and Mutunga 1995) and also the fact that the Zimbabwean education system is examination oriented (Mafa 2012). Focus is on passing tests and examinations for them to go on Teaching Practice Attachment. As a result, students tended to memorize the theory and never really reflect on it. In such a case, the teachers tend to focus on completing the syllabus in the shortest time possible. There is a heavy reliance on the lecture method though new teaching trends are taught in colleges, for example, transformative teaching (Freire 1994[1970]). Still on methodology, new trends of teaching favor transformative teaching where participatory methodologies are used. The Teaching Practice Assessment Forms emphasizes the use of participatory methods (Mutare Teachers’ College Teaching Practice Critique Forms 2016). However, participatory methodologies are used at a superficial level. For example, group work which by the frequency of use proves to be popular but focus is more on the seating arrangement and not what is supposed to happen in that group formation. Participatory methodologies are used particularly when teacher educators are present for assessment but ordinarily students use the lecture method in order to cover content at the same pace as their mentors. Even if the mentors ignore their mentorship role, they still have to plan for the classes taught
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by the student teacher. Every day documents (DLPs) reflect participatory methodologies but every day practices reflect the lecture method. This reflects a discrepancy between theory and practice. Classroom management involves “teacher actions to create a learning environment that encourages positive social interaction, active engagement in learning and self-motivation” (Burden 2003, p. 3). It has been noted that managing student behavior is a thorny issue that student teachers have to deal with. In college, they are taught many models of discipline such as positive classroom discipline, behavior modification, discipline, and self- control and many more (Burden 2003). On the other hand, student teachers observe the practicing teachers shouting, scolding, treating students badly or rudely, threatening them with low grades, humiliating and giving punishments (Cabaroglu 2014). This poses a dilemma to the student teacher; whether they will be able to maintain order and discipline as taught in college in such a teaching and learning context. The students feel frustrated that the techniques taught in theory did not yield good results as evidenced by the behavior of the trained teachers. From the discourse above, dissonance has been observed. It becomes of necessity that teacher educators ensure that students have been provided with theory and practice knowledge that is required in the field. Conscious effort has to be made to merge the two as an attempt to reduce the gap. For colleges to minimize the gap between theory and practice, they could develop models that focus on praxis. These models should stimulate professional activities within the schools in order to develop the skills of “enquiry, reflection, problem solving and collaboration” (Rock and Levin 2002, p. 7). Learning is enhanced when the student teachers are provided with multiple opportunities to apply what they have learned in meaningful contexts. One model is where student teachers take theories learnt into a practical setup. Site-based experience is an instrument in developing an understanding of the day-to-day school life. It provides a medium of increased linkage between theory and practice as well as more opportunities for successfully applying what they are learning within the context of the classroom (Hillman et al. 2000). In this regard, there would be integration of course content and experiences within the practicum. Teacher educators would become models of interdisciplinary instruction in an action (Hillman et al. 2000). One way that could be used to close the gap between theory and practice is the implementation of the guided instruction and practice model. The model has two facets: instruction and practice. Guided instruction is a set of teacher behaviors based on what the student knows and needs to know. For guided instruction, the lecturer has to clearly explain the learning goal and the teaching point or skill. The lecturer then guides the students with the aid of reminders, cues, questions, prompts, explanations, and modeling. Re-teaching the lesson can be done with modifications to match the group’s needs (Schaub 2014). Guided practice involves students practicing a skill with the help of the teacher. The lecturer provides scaffolding. The lecturer gives assisted activities that are just one level beyond that of what the student can do in order to assist the student through the zone of proximal development. As soon as the student exhibits mastery of skill, the lecturer support is
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decreased and the student teachers become more autonomous and responsible. As scaffolding takes place, the student is given the opportunity to merge theory and practice. Another strategy is explicit teacher modeling. Using this model, the teacher provides a clear structure that guides the student by following these steps: 1. Make sure the students have appropriate background knowledge and prerequisites skills to perform the task. 2. Break down the skill into logical and learnable parts 3. Provide a meaningful context for the skill 4. Describing or modeling using a variety of techniques 5. Appeal to the five senses as a way of illustrating important aspects of the skill/ concept 6. Think aloud as you perform each step of the skill 7. Periodically check students’ understanding 8. Engaging students through showing enthusiasm, keeping a steady pace, asking good questions and checking for student understanding 9. Model the skill a number of times (Intel Teach Program 2012) This instructional strategy could help bridge theory and practice as the skill to be learnt is made clear. Teacher support and direction is high, enabling students to make meaningful connections. Teacher educators could address the challenges students face when teaching. It has to be noted that there will never be a one to one relationship between theory and practice but there could be ways in which teacher educators and student teachers can minimize the gap. Concerning ways to close the gap between theory and practice, teacher educators acknowledged their weakness of overreliance on bookish knowledge instead of demonstrating what they taught. On the same, lecturers tend to remain abstract. They do not demonstrate what they teach. However, some teachers’ colleges have set up Practicing Schools, as an effort to close the gap using three strategies: modeling, continuous microteaching, and the thematic approach. 1. For modeling lecturers in the professional studies section give the theory on the skill they want to teach in a mass lecture, for example, introducing a lesson. Subject areas re-teach the skill in context. Lecturers in subject areas re-teach the skill in context of their various areas of specialization. After that, they demonstrate/model the skill with a real high school class. 2. Micro-teaching: This program runs throughout the year till students go out on TPA. This gives the students the opportunity to do review of lessons and correct each other. Thus, they are able to learn from each other. Lecturers scaffold till the students have mastered the art of teaching. They also model lessons from which the students can observe theory put into practice. 3. Use of the thematic approach to teacher training: Four themes were identified by the college- knowing the learner, managing the learner, tools for learning and professional growth. A theme is adopted by all departments at a time. Theory of
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Education gives the theoretical framework while Professional Studies provides pedagogy. Areas of subject specialization infuse subject to the theory and pedagogy given. With this three pronged approach, the colleges hope to minimize the gap between theory and practice.
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Conclusion
In conclusion, there is a strong relationship between theory and practice. Theory is regarded as abstracted practice while practice is theory in application. Noted are many militating factors against the transfer of theory into practice. Some of these factors are lack of role models for the students, influence of pretraining experience, focus by students on passing theory only as a gateway to TPA and compartmentalization of knowledge. One fact to contend with is that the gap between theory and practice cannot be entirely closed but teacher educators could use a number of strategies, for example, guided practice, site-based teaching, thematic approach, and modeling to minimize the gap between theory and practice.
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Cross-References
▶ Decentralization of Education in Postapartheid South Africa ▶ Education and Training Policies in South Africa and the BRICS Countries ▶ Researching Namibian Student Teachers ▶ Quality Education for Sustainable Development in Zimbabwean Higher Education
References Bedau, M. A., & Humphreys, P. (2008). Emergence: Contemporary readings in philosophy and science. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Boikhutso, K. (2013). The theory into practice dilemma: Lesson planning challenges facing Botswana student teachers. Botswana: University of Botswana. Burden, P. R. (2003). Classroom management: Creating a successful learning community (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley. Cabaroglu, N. (2014). Re-visiting the theory and practice gap through the lens of student dilemmas. The Australian Teacher Journal of Teacher Education. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.14221/ ajte.2014v39n2.10. Cheng, M. M. H., Cheng, A. Y. N., & Tang, S.Y. F. (2010). Closing the gap between theory and practice of teaching: Implications for Teacher Education programmes in Hong Kong. Journal of Education for Teaching, 36(1), 91–104. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1080/ 02607470903462222. Day, C. (1985). Professional learning and researcher intervention: An action research perspective. British Educational Research Journal, 11(2), 13–351.
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Internationalization Efforts in the Nigerian Higher Education Sector Olaide Agbaje
Contents 1 2 3 4 5
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . An Overview of the Internationalization of Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . An Overview of Nigerian Universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internationalization in Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Profiles of the International Students and the Two Participating Universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 The University of Ibadan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Covenant University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Demographic Characteristics of the International Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 First Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Country of Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Residence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 Funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6 Discipline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7 Type of Degree Program Enrolled for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Abstract
Incorporating international perspectives into teaching and research has become one of the core goals of higher education institutions that are keen about maintaining global relevance. For a developing continent like Africa, higher education is an essential instrument for socioeconomic development. In contrast with the popular view that African countries such as Nigeria are often sidelined in the move of internationalization, this chapter explores a new dimension in the internationalization of higher education. This chapter provides an insight into the internationalization efforts made by the higher education system of Nigeria. O. Agbaje (*) Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa e-mail: [email protected] © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 K. S. Adeyemo (ed.), The Education Systems of Africa, Global Education Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44217-0_26
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Particularly, the chapter highlights the profiles of two out of the topmost Nigerian universities and the characteristics of the international students studying at these two universities – the University of Ibadan (public university) and Covenant University (private university). Using valid responses collected through questionnaires from 64 international students at both universities, the findings reveal some significant differences in the demographic features of the international students between the public and the private universities. These features include differences in funding, first language, countries of origin, enrolment types, and residences. Very few studies report on internationalization in Africa; even more rare are studies that focus on internationalization in the Nigerian higher education sector, even though there are copious studies on the broad subject of internationalization globally. Hence, this study brings a significant contribution to the current trends and issues in the internationalization of higher education landscape of Africa, with a focus on Nigeria. Keywords
Internationalization · Higher education · Nigeria · International students · University
1
Introduction
Globally, internationalization has become a fundamental component of higher education. This notion is evident in the shift of internationalization from the periphery to the core of higher education, from both a national and a global perspective. Moreover, internationalization has been given attention in global debates on higher education innovation in Africa, and its effect is apparent in many African universities. Recognizable measures taken towards internationalization in higher education institutions in Africa include student and staff exchange programs; study abroad initiatives; and inculcating an international dimension in the curriculum. However, the total number of outbound students from Africa’s 54 countries is substantial (World Education Services [WES] 2017a). African students made up 10% of the world’s internationally mobile students in 2013, and the number rose by 24% from 343,370 to 427,311 between 2006 and 2014. Even so, the number of African students studying abroad between 2013 and 2014 increased yet again by 9% (WES 2017a). The outward-bound mobility of students and mobility from Africa to the northern hemisphere has received attention in literature (African Union 2014; Mello 2013; Zeleza 2012; WES 2017a). Researchers of student mobility, including Alemu (2014), Mpinganjira (2008), and Robert-Okah (2014), observe that Africa and its institutions face challenges that push students and scholars to more developed countries, thereby causing the continent to suffer a brain drain. Nevertheless, a new trend is emerging rapidly in Africa with countries, like South Africa and Egypt, attracting more inbound international students and becoming regional hubs (African Union 2014; Lee and Sehoole 2015). In the same vein, internationalization in
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Nigeria has been on the periphery, in spite of a long history of higher education in the whole of sub-Saharan Africa (Jaja 2013). The phenomenon of the brain drain and a disproportionate one-way flow from Nigeria to more developed countries such as the USA and the UK are often associated with the country. Despite the fact that Africa is seen as a continent suffering from a brain drain (Sehoole 2011), some African countries, such as Nigeria, South Africa, and Ghana, play important roles in welcoming higher education students from other countries – especially within the continent (African Union 2014; Lee and Sehoole 2015). For example, contrary to an upheld notion that international students are not attracted to Nigeria at all, a study conducted by Agbeniga (2016) found that some international students, especially from other African countries, find Nigeria to be a worthwhile study destination for reasons such as scholarship opportunities, religion, and better educational standard. However, very little empirical research has been done on this important trend (Lee and Sehoole 2015). There is particularly a prevalent dearth in the literature on the inward mobility of higher education students to Nigeria; 95% of the existing literature is concerned with the outward mobility of students from Nigeria to other countries (Alemu 2014). This chapter therefore explores an ongoing effort of the Nigerian higher education sector in attracting international students, as parts of its internationalization agenda. In addition, the chapter sheds some light on the kind of international students that are studying in Nigeria, using the University of Ibadan and Covenant University as case studies.
2
An Overview of the Internationalization of Higher Education
Internationalization of higher education has become a growing concern for researchers since the 1990s (Teichler 1999). It is one of the biggest terms used in the international education circle and has become one of the inevitable tools for evaluating the national objectivity, global relevance, and innovation of a higher education institution. In other words, the world is a global village, and the internationalization of higher education has become a crucial engine that drives international competitiveness, economic transformation, as well as an educational and social revolution. The result of this is that more and more higher education institutions are including an international and intercultural dimension into their curriculum, mission statements, and strategic plans (Wei 2013). For example, a survey of Canadian universities in 2014 reported that 82% of responding institutions consider internationalization as one of their top five priorities while 95% of these institutions identify it as part of their strategic plans (Universities Canada [UNIVCAN] 2014). Authors of the discourse of internationalization such as De Wit (2011) opine that the number of international students enrolled at an institution is one of the strong performance indicators often used to measure global engagement or internationalization. Putting it more precisely, De Wit (2011, p. 39) says that “internationalization has become an indicator for quality in higher education.”
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At this juncture, it is imperative to examine the actual meaning of internationalization. Although, due to the dynamic nature of its actors as well as economic, sociocultural, academic, and political rationales (De Wit et al. 2015) and the impacts of local and national traditions, the internationalization of higher education has different definitions for different scholars of this phenomenon. Notwithstanding, Knight’s definition has gained popularity for more than one decade. She defined the internationalization of higher education as “the process of integrating an international, intercultural or global dimension into the purpose, functions or delivery of post-secondary education” (Knight 2004, p. 11). Knight’s definition suggests strongly that internationalization is not just the existence of an international dimension in education; rather, it is an all-encompassing dimension to all aspects of higher education. With this established, internationalization is not a cheap process; it is a painstaking attempt to imprint an institution’s academic and research footprints around global issues, to promote an institution’s presence, relevance, and impact in international markets and ensure an institution’s adoption of best practices in content, programs, and processes. The definition of Elkin, Devjee, and Farnsworth (2005) opines that the core objective of internationalization should be the creation of values, beliefs, and intellectual insights that will promote equal participation of and equal benefit for international and domestic students as well as faculty. Although the internationalization of higher education goes beyond students and faculty alone, it also includes curriculum, policymakers, and other important players. In spite of the efforts of scholars to define internationalization, the core values and operations underpinning the subject seem to lack a universal identity (Yemini and Sagie 2016). Knight (2014, p. 16) while pondering on internationalization in the last decade lamented that “internationalization has become a catch-all phrase used to describe anything and everything remotely linked to the global, intercultural or international dimensions of higher education and is thus losing its way.” She, therefore, called for the fundamental values of internationalization to be re-examined. From the second half of the 1990s, the driving force of internationalization witnessed a shift from the political to the economic (Guo and Guo 2017). This could be seen from the operations of many institutions in developed countries such as the USA, the UK, and Australia where international students and international activities served as means of income generation (Teichler 2010). The academic aim of internationalization was deemed to be a means of improving the quality of teaching and learning as well as preparing students for the globalized world (De Wit et al. 2015). The sociocultural aim of internationalization, on the other hand, was perceived as a means of enhancing mutual understanding and cooperation among people from diverse backgrounds through international mobility (Khoo 2011). Over the past decade, attracting the world’s top talent for the knowledge economy and preparing graduates for the competitive global market have become strong pillars of the internationalization of higher education (De Wit et al. 2015). Internationalization of higher education is one of the most successful initiatives of the world’s educational system (Hellsten 2002). It has become expected that international students make up the student body of a higher institution of learning; the competition to enrol international students has therefore grown, not only within but
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also between countries (Schulmann and Choudaha 2014). Internationalization is not the mere presence of international students on campus. Besides the fact that it has to do with how well international dimensions are inculcated into the curriculum of higher education, it also has to do with how well international students are integrated into the academic, social, and cultural aspects of their institutions. In a nutshell, internationalization can be described as a two-way process of effecting positive change externally while also accepting positive change internally towards international standards. According to Yee (2014), there are some common terms used about internationalization, which include international studies, transnational education, international education, internationalism, and globalization; each of these differs in accent and approach. Internationalization is also seen as being influenced by the “activity approach” (De Wit 2002) in the form of student mobility, study abroad, student exchange, and international cooperation and partnerships, although there is a strong advocacy against internationalization being a mere activity (Kehm and Teichler 2007; Yemini and Sagie 2016). Another approach, according to De Wit (2002), is curriculum-based – “studies in education, intercultural education, international studies, multi-cultural education, cross-cultural education, language and global studies.” Summarily, internationalization is valuable for the future of higher education all over the world; thus, higher education systems need a proper response towards real internationalization if they must create “global competency” or “global citizens” (Yemini and Sagie 2016, p. 96).
3
An Overview of Nigerian Universities
Nigeria has one of the oldest, biggest, and most comprehensive university education systems within the continent of Africa (CODESRIA 2005). As of 2018, there were 40 federal, 44 state, and 68 private accredited universities in Nigeria. The Nigerian university sector witnessed a rapid expansion over time in response to demographic pressures. From one university in 1948, the University College of Ibadan which was originally an affiliate of the University of London, to five universities in 1962, namely, the UI, Obafemi Awolowo University (formerly known as the University of Ife), the University of Nigeria, Ahmadu Bello University, and the University of Lagos. The National University Commission (NUC) is the government body in charge of all university (federal, state, and private) affairs in Nigeria. Its responsibilities include granting accreditation to universities and universities’ programs, maintaining the minimum academic standard, creating guidelines for the establishment of universities, sanctioning erring universities, as well as the general monitoring of universities. According to the NUC, the number of accredited universities in Nigeria grew tenfold from 16 to 51 between 1980 and 2005, and by 2017, the number had risen to 152 (World Education Services [WES] 2017b). A dramatic expansion started in the late 1990s when the Nigerian government approved the establishment of private universities. Before then, the higher education sector was dominated by public universities under the control of the federal and state
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governments. From 3 in 1999 to 68 in 2017, private universities (about two-thirds of which are religiously affiliated) account for 45% of the entire university sector (World Education Services [WES] 2017c). The UTME (Unified Tertiary Matriculations Examination) applications show the enrolment into private universities to be a relatively low percentage compared to the overall HE enrolment in Nigeria, despite its swift growth. For example, Covenant University, the largest private university in Nigeria, enrols around 9000 students as of 2019 out of the country’s total tertiary enrolment of about 1,700,000. Admission into Nigerian public universities is highly competitive. Applicants must possess the required score in the Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination (UTME) administered by the Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board (JAMB) and the required number of credits in the Senior School Certificate Examination (SSCE) or its equivalents in the General Certificate Examination (GCE) or the National Examination Council (NECO). A minimum score of between 180 and 200 out of 400 is required by most universities, although universities and programs in higher demand do require higher scores. A minimum of five credits, including Mathematics and English language, is also required in the SSCE, GCE, or NECO, but some universities permit potential candidate to combine results from two of these examinations in order to meet up with the required number of credits. In addition, many universities carry out their own entrance exams or post-UTME before making a final admission decision. Applicants often find this highly demanding and frustrating because a failure in the postUTME may nullify a good score in the UTME and SSCE. This led to the JAMB announcing a set of reforms in 2016 including abolishing the post-UTME; this met with resistance from universities and as of February 2017, the status of the reform was still not clear (Domestic Education News 2017). While the federal government is responsible for the financing and administration of federal universities, state universities are the responsibilities of the state governments, while private universities generate their own funds.
4
Internationalization in Nigeria
Nigeria is the most populated country in Africa, and its higher education system has been connected to the Western system through the colonial ties of the eighteenth century (Alemu 2014). With over 365 higher institutions of learning, universities inclusive, and an enrolment of 24 million, the Nigerian higher education system is one of the largest in Africa (WES 2017c). Even though the number of international students in the country is meagre (Agbeniga 2016), Nigeria remains a study destination option for some students, especially from other African countries. Given the vast higher education system of Nigeria, research on the international student body in the country is almost insignificant. Scholars of internationalization pay little or no attention to inbound student mobility in Nigeria. There is a wide belief that Nigeria is not a viable study destination for internationally mobile students (Madichie and Madichie 2013). On the contrary, international students from some African countries, such as Benin Republic, Cameroon, Kenya, and Mali, find the quality of education and scholarship opportunities, inter alia, to be strong motivations to
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study in Nigeria (Agbeniga 2016). This does not imply that students do not come from more developed countries in North America and Europe; interestingly, such students also find Nigeria to be a viable study destination. Yet, the mere presence of international students in institutions is not tantamount to internationalization (Urban and Palmer 2014). According to Urban, “reciprocal learning and the development of intercultural competencies are prerequisites for internationalising and diversifying the Nigerian higher education, thereby helping all students to function in an increasingly globalized society” (Urban 2012). Developing an internationalization agenda is advantageous to promoting the Nigerian higher education brand both locally and internationally, increasing revenue generation streams towards sustainability, delivering social, academic, and spiritual impacts on students while also building a graduate portfolio with competence and durable skills for employability in any part of the world (Odon 2014). One popular way Nigerian higher institutions drive internationalization is through international partnerships. The question, however, is whether these partnerships are strategic and functional. What happens to the Memorandum of Understanding (MOUs) signed between Nigerian higher institutions and overseas institutions after the excitement and the media frenzy? A lack of knowledge and proactive measures on how to operationalize these MOUs seems to be an issue in the education sector. Nevertheless, a few universities in the country, through their international offices, understand the importance of internationalization and are taking the right steps towards its implementation. An example of such universities is the University of Benin, which, within a year of signing an MOU with Lancaster University in the UK in 2015, set up a co-developed split-site PhD program as well as an academicindustry forum, to mention a few. Besides internationalization through partnerships with foreign universities, many private universities are promoting impressive academic and industry linkages with universities in more developed countries. These international linkages, which involve exchange programs involving faculty members and students, are a viable way of boosting the education structure of Nigeria while also developing human resources. Together with other policies of the NUC, it is believed that these internationalization efforts will advance meaningful international practices in the Nigerian higher education landscape. Importantly, more internationalization effort in Nigeria is promoted on the ground of regional and continental ties. Concerning regional ties on the one hand, Nigeria attracts its share of international students from West Africa through the student mobility scheme of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). This initiative by ECOWAS promotes intra-Africa mobility via the exchange of students between French-speaking countries and English-speaking countries. The initiative supports scholarships for students from member countries to undertake international study in another member country. There is also the West African Agricultural Productivity Programme (WAAPP) supported by the World Bank. Through WAAPP, Nigerian universities such as the University of Ibadan attract a considerable number of students from the neighboring country of Benin Republic. Concerning continental ties on the other hand, the establishment of the Pan African University (PAU) by the African Union in 2008 is a way through which international students are attracted to Nigeria. The establishment of the PAU was in a bid to
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revitalize higher education and research in Africa, as well as boost the attractiveness and global competitiveness of African higher education. Its strategic mission is to develop institutions of excellence in five focus areas of science, technology, innovation, social sciences, and governance, which form the foundation for an African pool of higher education and research. The PAU is currently hosted by five universities in five African countries, one representing each region in Africa. The University of Ibadan in Nigeria hosts the Pan African University for Life and Earth Sciences (PAULESI). Thus, international students from around Africa who are interested in studying Life and Earth Sciences and who have secured scholarships from PAU automatically study in Nigeria. Internationalization of higher education in Nigeria is crucial enough to be a national agenda, and as such, there needs to be a holistic and strategic approach (Odon 2014). It will not be out of place if all higher institutions in the country are mandated to submit an internationalization strategy at one time. An overhaul of the entire education system will also not be inapt to allow for international competitiveness in the country. One critical reason why Nigeria should be more proactive in embracing international students is that they contribute positively to the diversity of the society, campus, and classrooms. In other words, as indicated by Wu, Garza, and Guzman (2015), these students enhance divergent perspectives in the classroom and promote the appreciation and mutual understanding of the world differences, not forgetting that they also positively influence financial input, cultural exchange, and academic excellence. As the Nigerian higher education system makes an effort towards internationalizing its institutions and increasing international student enrolment, the demographic characteristics of these students are worthy of consideration. Hence, it is important to understand the sending countries of the international students, the funding opportunities driving their choice of Nigeria, their language preferences, the types of degrees they enrol for, and their residential status in Nigeria. An understanding of these factors will be instrumental in the further understanding of Nigeria’s position in internationalization strategies.
5
Profiles of the International Students and the Two Participating Universities
The subsection presents the profiles of the two participating universities and the demographic information of the international students that completed the questionnaire. Two university types were involved in this study, one private (CU) and one public (the UI). The profiles of these universities are first discussed in this section to shed some light on the character of the institutions concerning the background information of their international students. This is followed by an analysis of the demographic information collected through the questionnaire. The demographic information include race, gender, discipline, degree enrolled for, etc. Analyses are done per university and in comparison between both universities.
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The University of Ibadan
Popularly referred to as the first and the best, the UI is Nigeria’s oldest university. UI has maintained its position as the overall best university in Nigeria in the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities for at least 3 consecutive years (2017–2018); and also, it was ranked the 15th best university in Africa in the 2019 Webometrics Ranking. The university began in 1948 as the University College of London and attained the status of a fully autonomous university in 1962. As of 2017, UI had a total number of 5,746 staff members in its workforce which included 1,524 academic staff. Over 60% of the academic staff possessed a PhD, while 410 were professors. The university runs 76 undergraduate and 478 postgraduate programs in 13 faculties and has 11 specialized centers and institutes, as well as professional courses and distance learning programs. International students at UI are mainly enrolled for postgraduate programs. Internationalization at the UI is at the core of the University, with the establishment of the Office of International Programmes (OIP) in 2009. Among several internationalization engagements, the OIP is tasked with the responsibility of attracting international students and scholars to the university and ensuring their adjustments while also securing international partnerships for the university to maximize the benefits of global engagement. The university has recorded noteworthy developments in collaborations and partnerships. These include hosting the Pan African University for Life Earth Sciences (PAULESI); partnering with the University of Swansea in English for a sponsored professional master’s degree in Biomedical Education with UI as a hub for students from five other universities in West Africa; and also offering a joint master’s degree in Project Management with the University of West England. UI leverages on PAULESI to increase the number of international students at the university. PAULESI offers four programs with options in Reproductive Health Science (Reproductive Health and Reproductive Biology options); Geosciences (Petroleum Geoscience and Mineral Exploration options); Plant Breeding; Environmental Management; Veterinary Medicine (Avian Medicine, Vaccine Production and Quality Control); Medicine Plant Research and Drug Development; as well as Sport Development and Policy Management. These programs are offered at both master’s and doctoral levels. In addition, UI attracts a considerable number of international students from other West African countries. These students are studying on postgraduate scholarship platforms such as those offered by the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the West African Agricultural Productivity Programme (WAAPP). The university also runs some internationally funded Centres of Excellence and postgraduate programs which have grown in both quality and quantity over the years. As a research university, UI attracts international funds and partnerships involving student and staff exchanges based on its high caliber of staff and academically bright students. Overall, UI has over 170 collaborations with institutions and agencies all over the world. The UI continues to thrive as an aspiring world-class institution for academic excellence.
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Covenant University
Covenant University was established in 2002 by Bishop David Oyedepo, the founder of Living Faith Chapel Worldwide, the church with a 50,000-seat capacity renowned as the largest in the world. CU is the best private university in Nigeria as of 2019. CU has maintained its lead in the league of private universities in Nigeria for at least 5 consecutive years (2015–2019), according to Webometrics Ranking. CU was ranked number one in Web of Repositories in Nigeria and West Africa from 2013 to 2017. CU was also ranked the best West African university and the sixth best African university by the Times Higher Education (THE) World University Ranking for 2019. In addition, Covenant University made it to the THE subject rankings in Business, Economics, Engineering, and Technology in the 501–600 range globally as the only ranking Nigerian institution. Globally, CU ranked as 151 in the THE Emerging Economies Ranking as well as 301+ in the Inaugural THE Impact Ranking for 2019. CU was founded on Christian ethos with the aim of becoming a world-class university that will be the pride of Africa while also competing for a place among Ivy League institutions globally. The university’s commitment to excellence is driven by seven core values, namely, spirituality, possibility mentality, capacity building, integrity, responsibility, diligence, and sacrifice. The student population has grown from the first batch of 1500 students in October 2002 to over 9000 students in 2019. Academic programs at CU run in 4 colleges and boast of about 1,120 staff members. The colleges are the College of Business and Social Sciences, College of Engineering, College of Leadership Development Studies, and College of Science and Technology. So far, CU has achieved some rare feats. Apart from being the leading private university in Nigeria, it was the first private university in Nigeria to get the fastest approval for its operating license and the accreditation of its 16 programs by the National Universities Commission (NUC). CU was the first in the history of tertiary institutions in Nigeria to commence full academic and administrative activities at its permanent site right from inception, with full facilities in place. The university has also received several awards and recognitions from within and outside Africa. These include the National Model United Nations Awards for Outstanding Performance in 2018, National Association for Foreign Student Affairs’ (NAFSA) Global Dialogue Fellows Award in 2018, and the best university at the Nigerian Technology Expos 2018 as well as receiving Patent Rights for eight inventions in 2018 (Covenant University Portal). CU is one of the World Bank Centres of Excellence’s (ACE-Impact) host institutions in Applied Informatics and Communication (ACE-ApIC). A drive towards internationalization at the university brought about the establishment of the International Offices and Linkages (IOL). The IOL commenced operations in October 2007, 5 years after the establishment of CU. This was necessitated by the rapid and global expansion of the university. By acting as the central coordinator, the IOL has been leading the development of internationalization at CU by facilitating all internationally related initiatives and activities. The
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International Office and Linkages promotes international collaborations between CU and renowned institutions around the world through several internationalization activities including faculty and student exchange, exchange of materials, research participation and involvement, and shared conferences. With only 14 international students at inception, the IOL has witnessed a rapid growth in the number of international students registered at the university till date. Through the office of the IOL, CU has established multiple collaborations with various institutions around the world while also driving a visible presence on both local and international scenes through partnerships. More so, the IOL directs all programs of the university through global community service, institution building, and networking. So far, the IOL has been able to facilitate collaborations between Covenant University and over 32 foreign universities and organizations. Data for this quantitative study was collected through a tested paper questionnaire that took about 20 min to complete. The questionnaire mainly captured the demographic characteristics of the international students at Covenant University and the University of Ibadan. Sixty-four questionnaires were completed and retrieved out of the 102 questionnaires administered at both universities. While 22 questionnaires were retrieved out of the 30 administered at CU, 42 questionnaires were retrieved out of the 80 administered at UI. At the time of this research, there were 30 international students at CU; however, the number of international students at UI could not be ascertained by the international office of the university. The information from the questionnaires was captured in Excel. The data was checked by manually comparing the data in Excel to the data in the questionnaires. After corrections were made, the Excel data was imported into a statistical computer package, IBM SPSS Statistics version 24, for further statistical analysis. The first step of data analysis was to describe the data. In most instances, the data was categorical, and the descriptive statistics consisted of frequencies and cross-tabulations. The inferential statistics included Fisher’s exact tests to test whether there existed associations between two questions, for example, between the ethnicity of the participants and whether they were studying at a private or public university. Where a significant association was found, the standardized residuals were checked, and for cells in the cross-tables with standardized residual values close to two (2), the observed and estimated counts were interpreted to show where the differences occurred.
6
Demographic Characteristics of the International Students
For a proper contextualization of the study, the demographic profiles of the respondents discussed in this subsection include gender, first language, country/region of origin, residence, funding, and the type of degree for which the students have enrolled. These variables are important in understanding the characteristics of international students at each university. These demographic features are represented in tables and discussed accordingly.
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6.1
O. Agbaje
Gender
The total population of the international students that completed the questionnaire consists of 67.2% males (n ¼ 43) which was twice the percentage of female students, 38.2% (n ¼ 21). A further breakdown of the total population reveals 7 females and 15 males at the private university compared to 14 females and 28 males at the public university. Fisher’s exact test showed that there was no association between gender and university type because the p-value was greater than 0.05, the level of significance (Table 1).
6.2
First Language
There was diversity in the first language of the participants as 13 different languages were reported. At both universities 39.1% (n ¼ 25) of the respondents speak French, closely followed by 37.5% (n ¼ 24) who speak English, and then 7.8% (n ¼ 5) Swahili speakers, while the remaining 15.6% (n ¼ 10) reportedly speak ten different first languages (see Table 2). A Fisher’s exact test was performed to test whether there existed an association between first language and university type. This helps to establish if some firstlanguage speakers are more attracted to one university than the other. From Table 3, the Exact Sig. (2-sided) is smaller than 0.05. So we reject the null hypothesis (H0) and conclude that there is a statistical difference in the first language of the respondents at the two universities.
Table 1 Gender of international students who completed the questionnaire Gender * University cross-tabulation
Gender
Female
Male
Total
Count Expected count % within university Standardized residual Count Expected count % within university Standardized residual Count Expected count % within university
University Private university 7 7.2 31.8% 0.1 15 14.8 68.2% 0.1 22 22.0 100.0%
Public university 14 13.8 33.3% 0.1 28 28.2 66.7% 0.0 42 42.0 100.0%
Total 21 21.0 32.8% 43 43.0 67.2% 64 64.0 100.0%
Frequency showing the gender of international students who completed the questionnaire per university
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Table 2 First language * University cross-tabulation
First language
Amharic
Bemba
Boze
English
Fon
French
Kiprigin
Count Expected count % within university Standardized residual Count Expected count % within university Standardized residual Count Expected count % within university Standardized residual Count Expected count % within university Standardized residual Count Expected count % within university Standardized residual Count Expected count % within university Standardized residual Count Expected count % within university Standardized residual
Private university 0 0.3 0.0%
Public university 1 0.7 2.4%
0.6
0.4
1 0.3 4.5%
0 0.7 0.0%
1.1
0.8
0 0.3 0.0%
1 0.7 2.4%
0.6
0.4
16 8.3 72.7%
8 15.8 19.0%
2.7
2.0
0 0.3 0.0%
1 0.7 2.4%
0.6
0.4
2 8.6 9.1%
23 16.4 54.8%
2.2
1.6
0 0.3 0.0%
1 0.7 2.4%
0.6
0.4
Total 1 1.0 1.6%
1 1.0 1.6%
1 1.0 1.6%
24 24.0 37.5%
1 1.0 1.6%
25 25.0 39.1%
1 1.0 1.6%
(continued)
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O. Agbaje
Table 2 (continued)
Kirundu
Rukiga
Somali
Sonrhai
Swahili
Tswana
Total
Count Expected count % within university
Count Expected count % within university Standardized residual Count Expected count % within university Standardized residual Count Expected count % within university Standardized residual Count Expected count % within university Standardized residual Count Expected count % within university Standardized residual Count Expected count % within university Standardized residual 22 22.0 100.0%
Private university 0 0.3 0.0%
Public university 1 0.7 2.4%
0.6
0.4
0 0.3 0.0%
1 0.7 2.4%
0.6
0.4
0 0.3 0.0%
1 0.7 2.4%
0.6
0.4
0 0.3 0.0%
1 0.7 2.4%
0.6
0.4
2 1.7 9.1%
3 3.3 7.1%
0.2
0.2
1 0.3 4.5%
0 0.7 0.0%
1.1
0.8
42 42.0 100.0%
64 64.0 100.0%
Total 1 1.0 1.6%
1 1.0 1.6%
1 1.0 1.6%
1 1.0 1.6%
5 5.0 7.8%
1 1.0 1.6%
Frequency showing a cross-tabulation of the first language between a private and public university
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Table 3 Difference in the first languages of the respondents Pearson chi-square Likelihood ratio Fisher’s exact test N of valid cases
Value 26.882a 31.146 26.788 64
df 12 12
Asymptotic significance (2-sided) 0.008 0.002
Exact Sig. (2-sided)