The Economy of a Norse Settlement in the Outer Hebrides: Excavations at Mounds 2 and 2A Bornais, South Uist 9781789255386, 9781789255393, 1789255384

Citation preview

The Economy of a Norse Settlement in the Outer Hebrides Excavations at Mounds 2 and 2A, Bornais, South Uist

The Economy of a Norse Settlement in the Outer Hebrides Excavations at Mounds 2 and 2A, Bornais, South Uist edited by

Niall Sharples

With contributions by

J Best, J Bond, B Cartwright, E Casanova, D Challinor, A Clarke, L Cramp, O Davies, A Davies-Barrett, I Dennis, S Evans, R Evershed, A Forster, P Forward, C Freer, I Freestone, G Gaunt, J Griffith, M Hall, K Harding, T Horne, C Ingrem, J R Jones, R Jones, M Law, J Light, R Madgwick, J Mulville, A Pannett, J Peake, A Powell, M Redknap, C Riley, A Rowe, N Sharples, R Smith, J Summers, N Thew, K Waddington, H Wickstead, G Williams and T P Young

Cardiff Studies in Archaeology

Oxford & Philadelphia

Published in the United Kingdom in 2021 by OXBOW BOOKS The Old Music Hall, 106–108 Cowley Road, Oxford, OX4 1JE and in the United States by OXBOW BOOKS 1950 Lawrence Road, Havertown, PA 19083 © Oxbow Books, Niall Sharples and the individual authors 2021 Hardcover Edition: ISBN 978-1-78925-538-6 Digital Edition: ISBN 978-1-78925-539-3 (epub) A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Control Number: 2020945164

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission from the publisher in writing.

Printed in Malta by Melita Press Typeset in the United Kingdom by Frabjous Books ~ www.frabjousbooks.com For a complete list of Oxbow titles, please contact: United Kingdom Oxbow Books Telephone (01865) 241249 Email: [email protected] www.oxbowbooks.com United States of America Oxbow Books Telephone (610) 853-9131, Fax (610) 853-9146 Email: [email protected] www.casemateacademic.com/oxbow Oxbow Books is part of the Casemate Group Front cover: A view of an abandoned plough on the coastal plain of South Uist with Hecla in the background Back cover: Two copper alloy keys recovered during the excavation of mound 2A

Contents

Illustrations...................................................................................................................................................................... x Tables............................................................................................................................................................................ xix List of Contributors...................................................................................................................................................... xxii

1 The excavations at Bornais – N Sharples. .................................................................................................. 1

Introduction – N Sharples......................................................................................................................................... 1 The history of the excavations – N Sharples................................................................................................................ 1 The stratigraphic sequence in mound 2 – O Davies and N Sharples............................................................................ 3 The stratigraphic sequence in mound 2A – K Waddington and N Sharples................................................................. 6 The chronological sequence – N Sharples.................................................................................................................... 8 The research focus of this volume – N Sharples........................................................................................................ 11 Acknowledgements – N Sharples............................................................................................................................... 12

2 Site activities: the artefact assemblages..................................................................................................... 13

Introduction – N Sharples and R Smith.................................................................................................................. 13 Manufacturing evidence – N Sharples.................................................................................................................... 13 Copper alloy – R Smith and N Sharples............................................................................................................. 14 Lead – R Smith and N Sharples.......................................................................................................................... 17 Iron – R Smith...................................................................................................................................................... 18 Bone waste – R Smith and N Sharples................................................................................................................ 22 Antler waste – R Smith and N Sharples.............................................................................................................. 29 Organisation of comb manufacture – R Smith and N Sharples.......................................................................... 40 Horn – R Smith and N Sharples.......................................................................................................................... 45 Stone tool manufacture – A Clarke...................................................................................................................... 46 Flint – A Pannett.................................................................................................................................................. 46 Pumice – R Smith and N Sharples...................................................................................................................... 50 Clay mould – N Sharples..................................................................................................................................... 50 Slag – T Young..................................................................................................................................................... 51 Conclusion – N Sharples...................................................................................................................................... 56 Vessels – N Sharples.................................................................................................................................................. 57 The ceramic assemblage – N Sharples and K Harding....................................................................................... 57 An experiment in the construction and use of ceramic platters – C Freer......................................................... 69 Organic residues from Late Iron Age and Norse pottery – L Cramp, E Casanova and R Evershed................. 79 Steatite vessels – A Forster.................................................................................................................................. 98 Copper-alloy vessels – R Smith and N Sharples............................................................................................... 102 Iron vessels – R Smith and N Sharples............................................................................................................. 102 Cetacean pot lids – R Smith.............................................................................................................................. 104 Currency and exchange............................................................................................................................................ 104 Coins – G Williams............................................................................................................................................ 104 Weights – T Horne and R Smith........................................................................................................................ 107 Balance component – T Horne and R Smith..................................................................................................... 109 Hacksilver? – T Horne....................................................................................................................................... 110 Personal Objects – R Smith and N Sharples............................................................................................................ 110 Composite combs – N Sharples, R Smith and C Riley..................................................................................... 110 Pins – A Rowe, R Smith and N Sharples.......................................................................................................... 128 Other dress accessories – R Smith and N Sharples, with A Forster................................................................. 144

vi

Contents

Utilised tine tips – N Sharples and R Smith, with H Wickstead...................................................................... 152 Decorated objects – N Sharples and R Smith................................................................................................... 157 Gaming pieces – M Hall, N Sharples and R Smith........................................................................................... 160 Musical instruments – R Smith.......................................................................................................................... 165 Weapons – P Parkes, R Smith and N Sharples.................................................................................................. 167 The distribution of personal objects – N Sharples............................................................................................ 169 Tools – R Smith and N Sharples.............................................................................................................................. 172 Metalworking tools – R Smith and N Sharples................................................................................................. 172 Woodworking tools – R Smith and N Sharples................................................................................................. 172 Leatherworking tools – R Smith and N Sharples.............................................................................................. 174 Agricultural and fishing tools – R Smith and N Sharples................................................................................. 174 Household activities – R Smith and N Sharples............................................................................................... 179 Tools for textile production – R Smith and N Sharples with B Cartwright...................................................... 197 Miscellaneous bone and antler tools – R Smith and N Sharples...................................................................... 212 Miscellaneous stone tools – A Clarke................................................................................................................ 222 The distribution of tools – N Sharples............................................................................................................... 225 Fittings – R Smith and N Sharples........................................................................................................................... 228 Architectural features – S Evans........................................................................................................................ 228 Structural fittings – R Smith and N Sharples.................................................................................................... 229 Decorative fittings – R Smith and N Sharples................................................................................................... 236 Horse fittings – R Smith.................................................................................................................................... 242 Other iron fittings – R Smith and N Sharples................................................................................................... 243 Miscellaneous objects – R Smith and N Sharples............................................................................................. 246 The distribution of the structural fittings – N Sharples..................................................................................... 248 3 Site activities: the biological evidence..................................................................................................... 251

Introduction – N Sharples..................................................................................................................................... 251 Archaeobotanical remains – J R Summers and J M Bond...................................................................................... 251 Crops/domestic taxa........................................................................................................................................... 251 Chaff . ................................................................................................................................................................. 254 Wild taxa............................................................................................................................................................ 255 Comparative analysis of floors and middens..................................................................................................... 259 Statistical analysis.............................................................................................................................................. 261 Summary............................................................................................................................................................ 264 Charcoal – D Challinor............................................................................................................................................ 265 The bird bone – J Best............................................................................................................................................. 268 Taphonomy......................................................................................................................................................... 268 Anatomical representation................................................................................................................................. 269 Domestic Birds................................................................................................................................................... 269 Age..................................................................................................................................................................... 269. Season................................................................................................................................................................. 270 Fish preparation and consumption – C Ingrem........................................................................................................ 271 Herring............................................................................................................................................................... 271 Saithe, cod, hake and other gadoid fish............................................................................................................. 274 Cetacean bone – S Evans......................................................................................................................................... 276 Methodology...................................................................................................................................................... 276 Species by mound and block............................................................................................................................. 278 Skeletal elements................................................................................................................................................ 281 Site activities...................................................................................................................................................... 281 Bone as fuel........................................................................................................................................................ 283 Small species and meat utility........................................................................................................................... 284 Worked bone...................................................................................................................................................... 284 Animal bone – C Ingrem and A Powell................................................................................................................... 287 Taphonomy......................................................................................................................................................... 287 Anatomical representation of major terrestrial species..................................................................................... 292 Spatial analysis................................................................................................................................................... 302 Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................................... 310

Contents

vii

Human bone – A Davies-Barrett.............................................................................................................................. 313 Conclusion – N Sharples.......................................................................................................................................... 315

4 Resource exploitation: the bioarchaeological evidence...................................................................... 317

Introduction – N Sharples........................................................................................................................................ 317 Fish – S Evans and C Ingrem................................................................................................................................... 320 Herring............................................................................................................................................................... 320 Saithe, cod, hake and other gadoid fish............................................................................................................. 323 Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................................... 325 Sea mammals – S Evans and C Ingrem................................................................................................................... 325 Procurement of cetaceans................................................................................................................................... 325 Late Iron Age..................................................................................................................................................... 325 Norse period....................................................................................................................................................... 327 Shellfish – M Law.................................................................................................................................................... 328 Results................................................................................................................................................................ 328 Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................................... 335 Crab – J Light........................................................................................................................................................... 335 Results................................................................................................................................................................ 335 Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................................... 336 Land snails – N Thew and M Law........................................................................................................................... 336 Methods.............................................................................................................................................................. 336 Results................................................................................................................................................................ 336 Discussion.......................................................................................................................................................... 338 Birds – J Best............................................................................................................................................................ 343 Seabirds.............................................................................................................................................................. 345 Shore birds......................................................................................................................................................... 345 The machair........................................................................................................................................................ 346 Moorland ........................................................................................................................................................... 346 Small vertebrate fauna – A Powell........................................................................................................................... 346 Discussion.......................................................................................................................................................... 348 Animal management – C Ingrem............................................................................................................................. 350 Age and sex........................................................................................................................................................ 350 Size..................................................................................................................................................................... 357. Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................................... 361 Animal management and marine resource use: the stable isotope evidence – J R Jones, R Madgwick and J Mulville..................................................................................................... 361 Materials and methods....................................................................................................................................... 362 Results and discussion....................................................................................................................................... 362 Comparisons with other Norse sites.................................................................................................................. 365 Conclusions........................................................................................................................................................ 366 A sequential multi-isotopic analysis of Norse Cattle teeth – J Griffith and J Mulville.......................................... 367 Incremental stable isotopic analysis.................................................................................................................. 367 Methodology...................................................................................................................................................... 368 Results................................................................................................................................................................ 369 Discussion.......................................................................................................................................................... 376 Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................................... 381 Carbonised plant remains – J Summers and J Bond................................................................................................ 381 Barley................................................................................................................................................................. 381 Oat...................................................................................................................................................................... 382 Flax..................................................................................................................................................................... 384. Wheat................................................................................................................................................................. 385 Large legumes.................................................................................................................................................... 385 Wild taxa on the machair................................................................................................................................... 385 Rye...................................................................................................................................................................... 385. Hay..................................................................................................................................................................... 386. Wild and gathered taxa...................................................................................................................................... 386

viii

Contents Trees – D Challinor.................................................................................................................................................. 386 Conclusion – N Sharples.......................................................................................................................................... 388

5 Resource exploitation: inorganic materials............................................................................................. 389

Introduction – N Sharples..................................................................................................................................... 389 The stone – N Sharples............................................................................................................................................ 389 The flint – A Pannett and N Sharples................................................................................................................ 390 Slate – N Sharples.............................................................................................................................................. 391 The geological sources of the whetstones – G Gaunt....................................................................................... 393 Other imported stones – N Sharples.................................................................................................................. 395 Steatite sources – A Forster and R Jones........................................................................................................... 396 The ceramics – N Sharples....................................................................................................................................... 400 An imported cooking pot – M Redknap with D Brown.................................................................................... 401 The iron knives and structural Iron – P Forward..................................................................................................... 401 The blades.......................................................................................................................................................... 402 The structural iron.............................................................................................................................................. 403 Provenance of the ferrous metalwork................................................................................................................ 403 The copper alloys – M Davis (based on a dissertation by K Hopkins)................................................................... 407 Glass analysis – J R N Peake and I C Freestone..................................................................................................... 410 Methods.............................................................................................................................................................. 410 Results................................................................................................................................................................ 410 Discussion.......................................................................................................................................................... 413 Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................................... 415 Conclusion – N Sharples.......................................................................................................................................... 415

6 Discussion......................................................................................................................................................... 417

Introduction – N Sharples..................................................................................................................................... 417 The exploitation of the landscape – N Sharples ..................................................................................................... 418 The machair........................................................................................................................................................ 418 Coastal exploitation............................................................................................................................................ 420 Exploiting the sea............................................................................................................................................... 421 Moorland settlement........................................................................................................................................... 422 Settlement rhythms and taskscapes – N Sharples.................................................................................................... 424 Landscape orientation........................................................................................................................................ 425 Cosmologies....................................................................................................................................................... 426 Change through time in the agricultural economy – N Sharples............................................................................ 428 Late Iron Age..................................................................................................................................................... 428 Early Norse period............................................................................................................................................. 428 Middle Norse period.......................................................................................................................................... 429 Late Norse period............................................................................................................................................... 430 Archaeobotanical remains – J R Summers and J M Bond...................................................................................... 430 The arable economy at Bornais in its regional setting...................................................................................... 431 Trade and exchange............................................................................................................................................ 432 The long-term trajectory of arable cultivation in the Bornais area................................................................... 433 Animal bone – J Mulville......................................................................................................................................... 435 Birds – J Best............................................................................................................................................................ 438 Fish – C Ingrem........................................................................................................................................................ 439 Material modifications – N Sharples........................................................................................................................ 441 Stone................................................................................................................................................................... 441 Wood, bone and antler....................................................................................................................................... 443 Ceramics, metals and glass................................................................................................................................ 445 The wider context – N Sharples............................................................................................................................... 448 Cille Pheadair and Bornais................................................................................................................................ 449 The Northern Isles.............................................................................................................................................. 456

Contents

ix

Conclusion – N Sharples.......................................................................................................................................... 461 Viking colonisation............................................................................................................................................ 461 1266 and all that................................................................................................................................................. 463 The end of the settlement................................................................................................................................... 466

7 Bibliography...................................................................................................................................................... 469 8 Appendix 1. Artefact catalogue – R Smith and N Sharples, with A Clarke, A Forster, M Hall and G Williams.................................................................................................................................. 495 Bone, antler and horn................................................................................................................................................495 Copper alloy..............................................................................................................................................................566 Iron.............................................................................................................................................................................574 Lead...........................................................................................................................................................................602 Silver..........................................................................................................................................................................606 Ceramics....................................................................................................................................................................607 Glass..........................................................................................................................................................................607 Stone..........................................................................................................................................................................609 Pumice.......................................................................................................................................................................617

9 Appendix 2. A list of the illustrated ceramics – K Harding and N Sharples. ............................... 619 10 Index........................................................................................................................................................................625

Illustrations

Chapter 1 1

A plan of the mounds at Bornais showing the areas excavated and the location of the site on the Western Isles 2 An outline plan of the excavated area on mound 2 showing the three principal houses: pink House 1, blue House 2, brown House 3 3 A diagram illustrating the stratigraphic relationships of the different blocks on mound 2 4 An outline plan of the different phases of activity on mound 2A A The Early Norse cultivation marks (GAA) B The Middle Norse structures (GBA, GBB, GBD) C Late Norse House 12 (GEA) D Late Norse House 13 (GED) and ancillary structure 5 (GCA) E Late Norse House 14 (GEG) and ancillary structure 6 (GCC) F Late Norse House 15 (GCE) and ancillary structure 6 (GEI) 5 A plan of the different areas excavated on mound 2A 6 A diagram illustrating the stratigraphic relationships of the different blocks on mound 2A 7 A simplified plan of the activity on mound 2 and mound 2A in the Early, Middle and Late Norse periods

Chapter 2 8 9 10

11

12 13 14 15

Bronze ingot 4925 A selection of copper-alloy sheet and strip fragments showing the general character of the assemblage Bar charts showing the distribution of various categories of copper-alloy scrap. Left the variation between mounds 2 and 2A. Right the chronological variations A representative selection of the lead waste: bar 5512; rod 3121; small fragment 5267; scrap 1785, 2118, 2753 6971; object 4969; coiled strip 3041, 4432; folded sheet 2978, 3195, 3588 Bar charts showing the distribution of the different categories of lead waste. Top the variation between mounds 2 and 2A. Bottom the chronological variations A histogram showing the length of the iron strips A scatter diagram showing the dimensions of the iron sheet fragments A selection of iron sheet fragments

16 Bar charts showing the distribution of the different categories of iron waste from mounds 2 and 2A by block 17 A bar chart showing the distribution of iron waste by mound 18 A detailed view of the roughly shaped pin head 3649 19 A representative selection of bone-working debris from the production of bone pins: splinter with score marks 7521, 7559, 7993; scored long bone 7564; pin roughout 3492, 3542, 3649, 3813, 4016, 4157, 4198, 4936, 4980, 8642; pig fibula pin roughout 8630; splinter 7567; splinter with chopped end 7505, 7519, 8039, 8051 20 A bar chart showing the distribution of debris from the production of bone pins by mound 21 Bar charts showing the distribution of debris from the production of bone pins from each mound by phase 22 A selection of worked whale bone (note 4044 and 4029 are also illustrated on Figure 35) 23 Worked whale bone plates 3339 and 3401 24 A diagram of an antler showing the various component parts that were required for comb production 25 A selection of primary antler debris: burr 2727, 7563; beam 4270; junction 4030, 6763; tine 3075, 4031, 6134 26 A histogram showing the size of the antler burrs from Bornais in relation to the assemblage from Hamwic (Riddler and Trazska-Nartowski 2003, 66) 27 A scatter diagram showing the length and breadth of the antler burrs 28 Antler burr and tine 6128, showing heavy gnawing of the beam and brow tine 29 Antler burr and tine 3833, which has been gnawed and then burnt 30 Antler burr and tine 2718 showing the saw marks where the beam was removed 31 Antler burrs 2952 and 3168 showing the saw marks where the beam was removed 32 A selection of antler tines showing three sawn examples (5851, 2733, 3513) on the left and three chopped examples (3559, 3758, 6592) on the right. The scale is indicative only because of perspective error, consult the catalogue for the dimensions 33 A selection of tine sections (1480, 2852, 3338, 3822, 2311, 1827, 6419) that could be used to make handles. The scale is indicative only because of perspective error, consult the catalogue for the dimensions

Illustrations 34 A selection of antler segments (3861, 3410, 2758, 2757, 2890, 4381, 2276, 2317, 4041, 2321) that were probably comb-making debris 35 A selection of secondary antler and whale bone debris: 2276, 4018, 4035, 5164, 7532 segments; 3363, 4045, 2216 sideplate blanks; 2850, 2875, 3136, 3317, 3416, 4037, 4042, 4383, 4384, 4833, 5630, 5671 toothplate blanks; 2747, 3320 offcuts; 4029, 4044 are whale bone blanks (the whale bone was also illustrated in Figure 22) 36 A histogram showing the lengths of the antler segments 37 A selection of shavings from the antler comb making workshop 38 A selection of comb toothplate blanks. The scale is indicative only because of perspective error, consult the catalogue for the dimensions 39 Three toothplate blanks (4383, 5630, 4384) designed for double sided combs. The scale is indicative only because of perspective error, consult the catalogue for the dimensions 40 A scatter plot showing the length and breadth of the antler blanks, demonstrating the difference between sideplate and toothplate blanks, and offcuts 41 A bar chart showing the chronological distribution of the comb making debris from mounds 2 and 2A 42 A bar chart showing the character of the antler waste assemblage from the ancillary buildings (GC) and the surrounding middens (GD) 43 The distribution of the comb-making debris in mound 2A. The bulk of the debris lies within ancillary structure 6 (GCD), and the middens to the east (GDC), which may be contemporary with House 13 (GED) to the southeast, though there is no conclusive evidence for this association 44 A horn core (3636) with clearly visible cut marks where the horn was removed 45 The tip of horn core 3881 which has been sawn off, possibly for further use 46 Spindle whorl 6204 which has an unfinished perforation, suggests spindle whorl production on site. 47 A histogram showing the nature of the flint assemblage in the stratigraphic blocks with reasonable flint assemblages 48 A selection of flint: cores 1371, 1745, 4493, 6599, 7017, 7103; chunk 2577; scraper 1751, 2238, 2335, 6062; notched flake 1724; edge retouch 1345; denticulate edge 2486A; retouched chunk 2486B; blade 7649; backed bladelet 7148; arrowheads 2466, 3684, 7290 49 Pumice fragment 5924 showing the grooved wear patterns that indicate it was used to smooth pins 50 The clay mould 3501 51 A section through a large cake of fuel ash slag (2377, 717, GBG) 52 A large cake of fuel ash slag from context 874 (GBG) 53 A selection of the significant Late Iron Age vessels 54 A selection of Norse Plain bowls with sagging bases 55 A selection of Norse Plain bowls with flat bases

xi

56 A selection of Norse bowls with unusual features, including a large thick-walled vessel with slashed rim decoration from Early Norse House 1 57 A selection of everted, flared and dot incised rims 58 Various Norse plain bowl rims, expanded rims and pierced rims 59 A selection of upright and incurving rims 60 A selection of some of the larger platter sherds and some unusual patterned base sherds from flat based bowls 61 A drawing and photograph of platter 3846 from the infill of House 2 (BD) 62 A photograph of platter showing perforations 63 A close up of the sections through two platter sherds showing fine (top) and coarse (bottom) tempering 64 A selection of three platter sherds showing the variation in colour and surface treatments 65 The six small experimental platters after construction 66 Making a platter: A The proportions of clay and temper used in experimental platter 1; B Forming platter 1 using fingertips; C Creating the stabbed perforations using a bone pin 67 Platter 1 showing edge cracking 68 The four experimental platters 69 Using the platter in the cooking experiment A The hearth with the fractured small test plate B Platter 3 on the hearth suspended above the embers C Placing the flatbread on the platter D Cooked flatbread E Cooking steaks F Platter 2 and 4 on the hearth note platter 4 is resting on a metal gridle 70 The remains of cooking A Platter 3 showing the surface encrustation caused by cooking meat B The upper surface of platter 4 C The underside of platter 3 D The underside of platter 2 71 Plot showing the ranges (one standard deviation) of single compound stable isotope values (δ13C16:0 against Δ13C (δ13C18:0 – δ13C16:0) derived from modern reference values for pig, ruminants and marine fats (Dudd 1998; Cramp & Evershed 2014; Cramp et al. 2014). Mixing lines have been modelled using fatty acid compositions of modern reference species for terrestrial and aquatic species (Dudd 1999 and Cramp unpublished data). Black dots mark a modelled 50:50 mix of equal quantities of fats from the end-points 72 Histogram showing the numbers of sherds from each phase investigated according to mound 73 Box-and-whisker diagrams showing the concen­ trations of lipid from pottery investigated from Bornais compared with much higher lipid yields from Early Neolithic pottery (