The Early Mediaeval Archaeology of Croatia, A.D. 600-900 9780860546856, 9781407348339

Citation preview

The Early Mediaeval Archaeology of Croatia A.D. 600 - 900

Huw M. A. Evans

BAR International Series 539

1989

B.A.R.

122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S539, 1989: 'The Early Mediaeval Archaeology of Croatia' © Huw M . A. Evans, 1989

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860546856 paperback ISBN 9781407348339 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860546856 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

A BSTRACT T his s tudy d eals w ith t he material r emains o f t he S lays w ho s ettled p ermanently i n C roatia i n t he l ate s ixth a nd e arly s eventh c enturies. T he s tudy p roceeded b y employing t he e pistemology o f R G C ollingwood ,

which

i s

a imed a t u nderstanding t he t hought b ehl .nd t he p ast a ct. A nalysis o f t he main d ocumentary s ources w as u ndertaken , w ith t he i ntention o f d ealing w ith t he p roblem o f t he a rrival o f t he C roats i n p articular. m aterial

A fter t his t he r eliability a nd c haracter o f t he

w as

a ssessed a nd t he q uestion o f the C roats'

a rchaeological

a rrival w as r esolved

b y i nteraction o f t he d ocumentary a nd material s ources. T he

s ocial

s tructure

o f

t he

S lavic s ettlers w as e xamined t hrough t he

c emetery material. R estrictions u pon t he b urial o f c hildren i n D almatia a nd P annonia w ere n oted a nd t he g eneral n ature o f t he g roups g iving r ise t o t he c emeteries e stablished. E xamination

o f

L evels o f c omplexity v aried b etween c emeteries.

t he

e conomic

u nderstanding p ottery p roduction , s ome

a dvance

w as

made.

s ystem

w as

l argely

r estricted

a nd i n s pite o f t he l ow l evel o f

t o

e vidence

W ith r egard t o i deology the material e vidence f or

t he c onversion o f t he S lays t o C hristianity w as e xamined f rom t he k nown p atterns e lsewhere i n m ediaeval E urope.

b asis

o f

F inally t he a nalysis o f p ower n etworks i n C roatian s ociety w as u ndertaken u sing

t he

f ramework

d eveloped

b y

M ichael

Mann

( 1986).

T he i ncrease i n

s ocial c omplexity a nd s tratification d uring t he p eriod w as a r esult b oth o f t he g rowth o f p ermanent m ilitary a nd p olitical s tructures t hat the S lays n eeded t o maintain t heir p osition , F rankish a nd B yzantine e mpires.

a nd

t he

e ffect

o f

the

p roximity

t o

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS

T he t ext o f t his v olume i s

s ubstantially t he s ame a s t hat p resented f or a

P hD a t N ewcastle U niversity i n S eptember 1 988 ( awarded J uly 1 989), o nly i n h aving h ad s ome s ections o f g eneral d iscussion s hortened. My r esearch , My

t hanks

c arried o ut b etween 1 984 a nd 1 988,

must

g o

f irst

o f

a ll

t hroughout my p ost-graduate s tudies,

d iffering

o wes much t o many p eople.

t o K evin G reene, a nd f irst s et

w ho h as

m e

o n

s upervised m e

e arly

m ediaeval

p ath. I h ave b enefited much f rom d iscussions f rom h im . N ext, I must t hank J ohn C hapman, w ho f irst e xposed m e t o C roatia a nd t he S lays s till t o b e f ound

t here.

H is

h elp

h as

c ontinued ,

a nd I r etain t he m emories o f many

Y ugoslav r oads a nd f ields c overed a longside h im . T on a B uri6 h as a lways b een w illing t o t alk, a nd t o s how material, e ven w hen i t w as o n d isplay, w hilst R adomir J uri6 g enerously a rranged f or me t o a ttend s everal c onferences, i ncluding the H AD c entenary c onference a t K nin. T imotej K nific a nd A ndrej P leterski w ere v ery h ospitable w hen I a rrived u nannounced a t B led a nd I t hank t hem f or t hat. 2 eljko D emo a lso d eserves a m ention f or c oping w ith my s poradic v isits. w hether

I

w ould

W ithout A ttila K iss

i n

B udapest

i t

i s

d oubtful

h ave b een a ble t o p ut s ome o f t he P annonian c emeteries

i n

t heir c ontexts. T here

a re

p rofitable, must

n umerous

p eople

i n Z adar w ho m ade s tays t here e njoyable a nd

o ne a t l east w ould l ike t o r emain ' Anonimus'.

t hank

S iniUa

B ili6 a nd Anamarija K urilid ,

P articularly ,

I

w ho h ave e ncouraged m e a nd

p rovided p ractical h elp i n t racking d own r eferences.

I am v ery g rateful

t o

t hem . I n B ritain I w ish t o t hank G ordon Moir f or h is c alculation o f t he s olar f igures, T revor C ox f or s uggesting M DS(X ), Mary M orris f or h er a ssistance

i n

u sing

w ith t ext p rocessing. S erbo-Croat,

that

p ackage a nd S PSS(X ),

I a lso w ish t o t hank

Maja

a nd J udith H unter f or h elp C hapman

T he I CI E ducational T rust h as b een g enerous i n i ts t his o pportunity t o e xtend my t hanks t o t he T rustees F inally i n t his my

f or

l essons

mutterings

o n

s upport,

a nd

l itany o f g ratitude c ome my f riends c emeteries a nd s till e ncouraged m e)

w ith

a nd my f amily.

T hey

e nabling

B eyond e ven t hat,

e ncouragement t hey h ave g iven , r eading

my

t ext.

w ithout w hich...

I must t hank t hem f or g ently a nd

A p art o f i ts

r eadability i s d ue t o t hem .

s hortcomings a re my o wn r esponsibility.

i i

t ake

( who h ave b orne

f orthcoming ,

t o b uy a c omputer,

I

f or t he h elp r eceived.

h ave s upported m e f inancially w hen g rants w ere n ot m e

i n

a nd f or much a ssistance i n Z adar a nd N ewcastle.

a s

w ell

a s

a nd t he

e ffectively Any r emaining

C ONTENTS

1 I NTRODUCTION 1 .1 1 .2

1 .3

1

I ntroductory R emarks D efinition o f t he S tudy A rea

1 3

1 .2.1

T he k ingdom o f C roatia

4

1 .2.2 1 .2.3

A C ultural L imit A p ragmatic c hoice

9 9

P hysical C onditions

1 1

1 .3.1

L and F orms

1 1

1 .3.2

T he D inaric R egion

1 1

1 .3.3 1 .3.4

T he C oastal R egion T he D anubian P lain

1 2 1 3

1 .3.5

T he C roatian a nd B osnian H ills

1 3

1 .3.6 1 .3.7

S oils C limate

1 4 1 4

1 .3.8

T emperature

1 5

1 .3.9

R ainfall

1 6

1 .3.10

T he E ffects o f G eophysical C onditions U pon H uman

A ctivity

1 .4

1 .5

1 .6

1 6

1 .3.11

Agriculture a nd S ettlement

1 6

1 .3.12

C ommunications

1 8

1 .3.13 I nter-regional c ontacts C roatia Until A D 6 00

1 8 1 8

1 .4.1 1 .4.2

P rehistory T he C oming o f R ome

1 8 1 9

1 .4.3 1 .4.4

L ater H istory R omanisation

2 0 2 1

H istorical B ackground o f t he S tudy 1 .5.1 F irst S teps

2 3 2 3

1 .5.2 1 .5.3

B etween t he Wars P ost-war W ork

2 5 2 5

1 .5.4

T he T hread o f N ationalism

2 6

L ines o f A ttack

2 8

2 O N T HEORY 2 .1 A rchaeological T heory i n C roatia: A C ritique 2 .2 2 .3

A T heory f or A rchaeology? P ost-processualism a nd C ollingwood

.. . . . .

3 0 3 0 3 5 3 6

2 .3.1 2 .3.2

C ollingwood Question a nd Answer

3 8 3 8

2 .3.3

T he T hought b ehind t he A ct

3 9

2 .3.4

I ntegration

4 1

2 .4

S ocial R econstruction

2 .5

E conomy

4 1 4 4

2 .6

I deology

4 6

2 .7

P olitical O rganisation

4 8

i ii

2 .8

P ower R elationships

4 9

2 .9

T he U se o f H istory

5 1

3 D OCUMENTARY MATERIAL 3 .1

3 .2

3 .3

3 .4

5 5

S ources

5 5

3 .1.1

B yzantine W riters

5 5

3 .1.2

P rocopius o f C aesarea

5 5 5 6

3 .1.3

C onstantine P orphyrogenitus

3 .1.4

W estern S ources

5 7

3 .1.5

C roatian S ources

5 8

3 .1.6

W ider S ources

5 8

3 .1.7

I nscriptions

5 9

P rocopius

5 9

3 .2.1

S lays a s m ercenaries

3 .2.2

S lays a s

5 9

3 .2.3

S lays Among O ther B arbarians

I nvaders

6 0 6 1

D e Administrando I mperio

6 4

3 .3.1

I ntroduction

6 4

3 .3.2

C hapter 2 9

6 5

3 .3.3

C hapter 3 0

6 9

3 .3.4

T he A rrival o f t he C roats

7 1 8 3

3 .3.5

C hapter 3 1

3 .3.6

C hapters

3 .3.7

C onclusions

3 2-36

8 4 8 4

F rom D ocuments t o A rchaeology

8 5

4 ARCHAEOLOGICAL MATERIAL

8 6

4 .1

I ntroduction

8 6

4 .2

T he S patial D istribution o f S ites

8 6

4 .2.1

F igure

4 .2.2

F igures

4 .1:

Y ugoslavia A D 4 00-800

4 .2-4:

( Vinski 1 971)

B ibliografija S eobe N aroda

. .

1 984)

4 .3

4 .4

8 6

( Mrkobrad 8 6

4 .2.3

F igure

4 .5:

r eport o n G rborezi c emetery

4 .2.4

G eneral C onclusion.

( Beälagic

1 964)

9 7 9 7

T imescale o f E xcavation

9 7

4 .3.1

D almatia

4 .3.2

I stria a nd P annonia

9 7

4 .3.3

G eneral C onclusion

1 02

D ate R ange o f C emeteries

1 02

1 00

4 .4.1

D almatia

1 02

4 .4.2

I stria

1 04

4 .4.3

P annonia

1 04

4 .4.4

O verview

1 06

4 .5

S ettlements

4 .6

T owns,

4 .7

C hurches

1 12

4 .8

C ultural U nits

1 13

C ities

1 08 a nd F ortifications

1 11

4 .8.1

S tarohrvatska c ulture

1 13

4 .8.2

A var C ulture

1 15

i v

4 .9 4 .10

4 .8.3

T he K eszthely C ulture

1 27

4 .8.4

T he K arantanian-Kbttlach C ulture

1 39

4 .8.5

T he B ijelo B rdo C ulture

1 41

4 .8.6

O ther i nfluences

1 46

4 .8.7

C omparisons

1 47

G eneral D ating C onsiderations T he Arrival o f t he C roats

1 47 1 52

4 .10.1

T races o f t he M igration

1 55

4 .10.2

On t he M igration o f t he C roats

1 56

4 .10.3

N otes

1 58

5 T HE S OCIETY O F T HE C ROATIAN S LAVS

1 59

5 .1

S ocial S tructure:

5 .2

S ocial S tructure F rom t he C emeteries

1 59

5 .3

S ocial S tructure F rom t he P rocopian A ccount

1 61

T he P rocess o f Analysis

1 62

5 .4

5 .5

O rganisation

1 62

5 .4.2

M ethod o f P rocedure

1 62

5 .4.3

P roblems a nd B iases

1 63

G ender a nd Age C haracteristics o f c emeteries 5 .5.1

R avni K otari C emeteries

5 .5.2

N in C emeteries

5 .5.4

5 .7

5 .8

5 .9

1 64 1 64 1 66

D almatian C emetery Summary

1 66

I strian c emeteries

1 66

5 .5.5

P annonian C emeteries

1 67

5 .5.6

G eneral C omments

1 67

5 .5.7 5 .5.8

L ater C emeteries L ater C emeteries C omments

1 68 1 68

5 .5.9

G eneral C onclusions:

1 69

5 .5.10

G raves o f C hildren

5 .5.11

D ouble G raves

Male a nd F emale B urials

1 77 1 79

P resence a nd A bsence o f G rave G oods

1 81

5 .6.1

D almatian S ummary

1 81

5 .6.2

I strian S ummary

1 82

5 .6.3

P annonian S ummary

1 82

5 .6.4

P resence/Absence C onclusions

1 82

G rave g oods:

n umbers a nd d istribution

5 .7.1

G rave G oods Numbers:

5 .7.2

On t he Numbers o f O bjects W ith I ndividuals

5 .7.3

D istribution o f O bject C ategories

C onclusions

Multi-Dimensional S caling

1 83 1 83 1 85 1 86 1 88

5 .8.1

I ntroduction

5 .8.2

Multi-Dimensional S caling

1 90

5 .8.3

Application

1 91

5 .8.4

P rinciples o f I nterpretation

1 91

5 .8.5

C onclusions

O n t he L ocation o f G rave G oods 5 .9.1

5 .10

1 59

5 .4.1

5 .5.3

5 .6

F irst A pproaches

1 88

1 96 1 97

C onclusions

1 98

C emetery S ummary

1 98

5 .11

5 .10.1

R avni K otari C emeteries

1 98

5 .10.2

T he N in C emeteries

2 00

5 .10.3 5 .10.4

V inodol C emeteries I strian C emeteries

2 01 2 01

5 .10.5

P annonian C emeteries

2 03

C onclusions 5 .11.1 C hange

2 03 2 05

6 E CONOMIC A CTIVITY 6 .1

2 06

I ntroduction

2 06

6 .2

Agriculture

2 06

6 .3

Manufacture

2 07

6 .4

6 .3.1

J ewellery

2 07

6 .3.2

D omestic Manufacture

2 08 2 08

6 .3.3

D almatian P ottery

6 .3.4

C haracteristics o f t he P ottery

2 09

6 .3.5

Manufacture

2 10

6 .3.6 6 .3.7

O rganisation o f t he P otters U se

2 11 2 20

6 .3.8

P rospect

2 20

T rade 6 .4.1 Maritime Activity 6 .4.2

6 .5

2 20 2 20

T he O bjects o f T rade

2 22

C hange a nd D evelopment i n t he E conomy

7 I DEOLOGY I N C ROATIA 7 .1 I ntroduction 7 .2 S lavic C osmology 7 .2.1 T he P ractise o f R eligion

2 23 2 24 2 24 2 27 2 28

7 .2.2

C oncepts o f a n A fterlife

2 29

7 .2.3

C osmology o f t he C roats

2 30

T he P hysical I ndications o f I deology 7 .3.1 C remation o r I nhumation

2 31 2 31

7 .3.2

O n t he O rientation o f B urials

2 33

7 .3.3

D eposition o f g rave g oods.

2 37

7 .3.4 O n F easting 7 .4 R esults f rom C roatian C emeteries

2 40 2 41

7 .3

7 .5

7 .4.1

C remation

2 41

7 .4.2

O rientation o f B urials

2 44

7 .4.3

D eposition

2 50

7 .4.4

T he F unerary F east

2 65

C onclusions

2 65

v i

8 P OWER N ETWORKS

I N CROATIA A D

6 00-900

2 67

8 .1

I ntroduction

2 67

8 .2

Military P ower

2 67

8 .3

P olitical P ower

2 73

8 .4

E conomic P ower

2 78

8 .5

I deology

2 82

8 .6

C onclusions

2 87

9 C ONCLUSIONS 9 .1 I ntroductory

2 90 2 90

9 .2

Summary

9 .3

W ider I mplications

2 90 2 91

9 .4

P rospects

2 92

9 .5

F inal R emarks

f or F urther Work i n C roatia

2 94

Appendix A :

2 95

v ii

C HAPTER O NE I NTRODUCTION 1 .1

I NTRODUCTORY R EMARKS

T he

s ubject o f t he p resent

s tudy i s t he material c ulture o f p arts o f

t he D almatian c oast o f Y ugoslavia, A D

6 00 a nd A D

f rom

t he

9 00.

s tarohrvatska

i dentification

I stria a nd P annonia b etween t he d ates

F or t he most p art t his d oba,

t he

c onsists o f

O ld

a rea,

a nd

n ot

p roofs h ave b een s ettlers,

t o

i t

p art t o p lay i n t he

N either,

w hen

r eferring

f orming o f t he material

o f t heir r ole i s d ifficult.)

i J eople

o f

f ormed

t o

the

S lavic

i nhabitants h ad n o

c ulture,

b ut

a s

y et

the

g reater

u nderstanding

o f

t he

i ts o rganisation a nd the n ature o f i ts

i nteractions w ith the o ther e thnic a nd p olitical h ave

s ettlers

T he a ttempt w ill b e made t o g o

s ome

s ociety o f t he d epositing g roups, q uestions

S lavic

b e t hought t hat t he i ndigenous

f rom t he material c ulture t o g ain

S uch

( The

a dopt a c loser e thnic i dentification u ntil t he

e xamined.

s hould

a ssessment

p eriod.

i s u nfortunately p roblematical a nd i t w ill b e e asier f or

t he moment t o r efer t o t he material c ulture o f t he t he

f unerary material

C roatian

g roups

i n

t he

a rea.

s ome o f t he b asic r esearch t hemes o f many

s tudying t he e arly m ediaeval p eriod a nd a

e xamination

o f

T he e arly m ediaeval p eriod w as a t ime o f c onsiderable c hange b oth

i n

t hem i s

p olitical E urope, f rom

b rief

i n o rder h ere.

a nd

m ilitary

o rganisation

a nd

s uch t hat the map o f E urope i n A D

t he

s ituation

a s

i t

i n

the e thnic g roupings o f

1 000 w as d rastically d ifferent

w as a t the t ime o f the R oman Empire.

w here t here w as n o major movement o f p opulation the h ad c hanged , C hristianity

a nd v arious

u nited C hristianity , h ad

b eliefs

f orms o f p aganism ,

t hat

e ncompassed

p art

w ith a n o rganisation that

s tretched a cross

a lso t aken p lace i n s ocial o rganisation; o utside

f ederation '

i t

o f s tates

h ad

b oth

( Mann 1 986,

g iven 3 76).

b oth

t o a f irmly e stablished a nd E urope.

the I mperial R oman

s ystem i n s ome p arts a nd the t ribal o rganisation which e xisted most

E ven

o rganisation

a nd i n many p arts o f E urope t he p redominant i deology o f t he

p opulation h ad c hanged f rom a r ange o f

C hange

s ocial

f or

t he

w ay t o a ' multiple a cephalous While n ot a ll o f

these

s tates

e ventually p roduced modern n ation s tates t he n ational i dentities o f s ome n ations a re p erceived t o l ie i n t he e vents o f t his p eriod. One a rea w here

t his

S erbs,

C roats,

a nd

S lovaks

i s

t o

b e

S lovenes,

f ound i s B ulgars,

H ungarians,

i nto t he p resent,

a nd

p eriod. t hese

c onstrain

I f a ny

o f

i dentity

A part

f rom

i n

s tudies

o f

C zechs

t he

h is

o bvious

the

r ecent

p ast

w hich

S uch

p erceptions

i nevitably

t he a rchaeology a nd h istory o f t his

j ustification w ere n eeded f or

f ormation p eriods,

o rigins,

P oles,

w ith a f irm e xpression o f e thnic u nity w hich

i s p rojected i nto the more d istant p ast. c olour

R omanians,

l ook b ack t o t his p eriod a s t he t ime o f their e thnogenesis.

T here h as b een a r e-creation c ontinues

i n t he B alkans a nd E astern E urope w here

a n

o utsider

t o

e xamine

l ack o f p artisanship w ould b e o ne. i nterest

o f

p articular

t here a re a s eries o f t hemes w hich w arrant

1

i n

t heir

e xamination ,

g roups

t hemes

w hich

e ncompass

a ll a spects o f t he e arly m ediaeval p eriod.

T he t hemes

i nclude i nvasion a nd r esponse t o i nvasion , s ocial s tructure d evelopment a nd c hange, m ilitary a nd p olitical o rganisation , a nd

e xternal

p roduction

i deological

c hange.

i nterlocks a t

s ome p oint

a nd

N one

d istribution o f

w ith

t he a t

n etworks

a nd

s tands

a lone,

t hemes

l east

o ne

o ther,

s o

a nd i ts i nternal

o f

c ourse e ach

t hat

o ne

i t

i s

i mpossible t o u nderstand, f or e xample, t he d evelopment o f a s ocial s tructure w ith o ut k nowing t he o riginal s ituation , t he s ocial s tructure o f a ny i ncomers, t he e ffects o f n eighbouring g roups a nd a ny i deological c hanges w hich m ay a ffect s ocial l ife. T he

a dmissability

o f

s ome

o f

t hese

t hemes

a s

s ubjects

o f

a rchaeological r esearch h as c hanged i n t he l ast t hirty y ears a nd much m ore w ork h as b een c arried o ut, i n p articular o n t he a rea o f s ocial o rganisation ( Arnold 1 980, S heppard 1 979 ), a nd t he u nderstanding o f t he d evelopment o f s tates i n E urope h as i ncreased. Y et t here a re s ome r egions w hich h ave n ot b enefited f rom t hese s tudies, o nes

b eing t he B alkans,

p ersisted w ith s ome s trength , a vailable

h istorical

b eing l inked t o

e vents

t o

t ypologically-produced c ulture g roups. p roblems i n t he

o ne

o f

t he

m ain

w here t he C hildean model o f c ulture h istory h as t he

s mall

p rovide T his

i s

s election

d ating

f or

u nfortunate,

o f t he

f or

t he

f ormation o f E astern E urope m ight w ell b e s usceptible t o

a rchaeological s olution a nd a re a t b ottom v ery i nteresting. N ot

a ll o f t he i nteresting e vents h appened i n W estern E urope,

m ight b elieve i f o ne c ame t o l ook a t t he n umbers t he

s tudies

t hat

w ent

a long

E urope many o f t he p henomena c hanged

f rom

t he

a re

t he

s ame.

T he

f or

t he

p roblems

h ave

E urope s aw t he s aw t he s pread o f o f

t he

T here w ere c ontacts w ith o ther g roups,

i nvasions a nd a ll o f t he u sual b loody m ess o f e arly m ediaeval E astern

n ot

a nd a lthough many o f t he p rocesses

h appened. E astern o f t emporary empires,

n ew c hurch.

o f

f or i n E astern

C hristianity among h itherto p agan p eoples a nd t he e stablishment h ierarchy

a s o ne

d istributions

t he n ewly-set-out l ines,

W est t o t he E ast,

h appened l ater t hey s till e stablishment o f k ingdoms,

a nd

p olitics.

E urope i s n o d ifferent i n t hat r espect a nd i n s o f ar a s t he a im

o f a rchaeology , a nd a lso o f h istory , i s t o g ain a n u nderstanding o f p ast, i t i s a r elevant g eographical a nd c hronological a rea t o s tudy.

t he I f

w e w ish t o k now h ow C hristianity s pread a nd h ow i t m anaged t o e stablish i tself among p agan g roups w e c an t urn t o E astern E urope f or m ore e xamples o f h ow i t h appened; s imilarly i f w e w ish t o e xamine h ow s mall g roups o f mounted w arriors c onquer a nd c ontrol l arge a reas o f t erritory , t he A vars a re s ubstantial

t here a reas

t o o f

b e

l oosely o rganised g roups, B alkans

h as

l ittle

s tudied ,

c ivilisation t hat

t hen c an

t he

a nd c an

i f b e

m ovement

match i t.

w e

w ish

t o

k n3w

h ow

s wamped a nd e liminated b y o f

t he

S lays

i nto

t he

F or t he s pread o f a l anguage

g roup, t he e xtension o f t he t erritory o f t he S lavic b ranch o f t he I ndo-European f amily s tands o ut. T here a re more t han e nough t hings t o s tudy h ere,

b oth f or t heir o wn s ake a nd f or t he s ake

o f

c omparison

t o

e xpand o ur r eturn. W hy t hen C roatia i n p articular? O ne

a nswer

t o

s uch q uestions

Why n ot

s ome o ther g roup

i s o pportunity ,

2

a nother,

o f

S lays?

more c onsidered

a nswer,

may

a bove. t he

b e g iven b y e laboration o f s ome p oints

F irst,

a ll t he p roblems a re t here,

b asic c ultural

p robably n ot l ater

s equence;

f inally.

w ritten

t hat h ave b een made

q uestions o f

c hronology,

many o f t hese h ave b een d ealt w ith ,

T hen t here i s a rchaeological material,

material w hich c an b e u sed a s

a b asis

o f

t hough

a nd

s ome

f or e xploration o f

t he a rchaeological r ecord. o ld p roblems, w hich r ange

A t t his p oint i t i s p ossible t o b oth l ook a t f rom h ow s ocial s tructure may b e d educed f rom

t he a rchaeological

t o h ow d id c onversion t o C hristianity

t he

l ives

o f

r ecord ,

S lavic

s ettlers

i nteract w ith t he i ncomers? f ed

b ack

i nto

t he

a nd

T reatments o f these p roblems m ight t hen

i f f or S lav

S econdly ,

f eatures

a re

t he

S lays,

a nd

f inally ,

i ts o wn s ake,

t he

s ubstitute a re

S axon

Avars

t he

G ermanic.

i nteresting i n

f our-part

i nteraction

a nd C arolingians t he e ffect o f

a rea

i s

there h as t o b e t he

s pecifics o f t he

o r

s pecifically

i n p articular t he

B yzantines,

w hich u pon the i nhabitants o f T hirdly ,

w e

t hat

C roatia b ecause o f i ts p osition , b etween

b e

s ituation t hat e xisted i n B ritain w here a ll o f t he

a bove q uestions a pply , t here

a ffect

h ow d id the i ndigenous p opulation

s tudy.

n ot

p roperly

u nderstood.

f ascination o f t he a rea

I f there i s

n o

f or

i nterest

i n

t his t hen there i s n o p oint i n l ooking a t i t. I t s hould b e c lear b y n ow t hat t here i s c onsiderable p otential f or i nvestigation. I n

t his

f irst

c arried o ut, t he

s et

c hapter t he n ecessary g roundwork t o a nalysis w ill b e

b eginning w ith a c learer d efinition o f i ts b oundaries

o f p ossible b oundaries t hat e xist

f or c onsideration.

f rom

Once the

l imits h ave b een e stablished t he p hysical g eography o f the a rea w ill c onsidered

a s

l onger

t erm

c onstraints

T his w ill i nvolve b oth the a ctual c limatic

v ariations

that

s tructure o f t he l andmass a nd then t he

e xist

a cross t he a rea.

c onsideration w ill t hen b e g iven t o the s ituation p rocess

p receding

b e

u pon the h istory o f t he a rea. W ith this

a rchaeological

t he a rrival o f t he S lays

a nd

l aid o ut, h istorical

i n C roatia - a n e ssential

i f a t a ny p oint the r elations o f t he i ndigenous

p opulation

a nd

t he i ncomers a re t o b e t reated.

H aving d elineated the n atural a nd human

s ituation i n t he a rea u p t o t he

p eriod

d evelopment

o f

the a rchaeological

o f

the

t o a ssess a nd a ttempt t o u nderstand t he r easons e xposed

a rchaeological

s tudy w ill b e 1 .2

r ecord.

S lavic

i nvasion ,

t he

s tudy o f the p eriod w ill b e e xamined f or a ny

b iases

i n

t he

F inally the c ourse o f the r est o f t his

l aid o ut.

D EFINITION O F T HE S TUDY AREA

A ny s tudy n eeds r egard

t o

the

s tarting d ate

s ome

f orm o f b oundary a nd o ne

p articular i ntention o f t he

f or this

o f

l arge p ortions

o r

s ubject g roups.

that

s tudy.

s tudy f alls a t a bout A D

6 00,

i s

c hosen

w ith

C hronologically t he w ith the

s ubmersion

o f t he B yzantine empire b y the Avars a nd t heir a llies T he c losing l imit

i s t aken a s A D

9 00,

b ecause,

b y

a bout t hat t ime,

t he k ingdom o f C roatia i s w ell e stablished a nd emerging

g radually t o t he

f ull l ight o f h istory ,

t he

e stablishment

o f

i nvasion o f the Avars a nd S lays, a nd

t hus g iving the

the C roatian s tate.

f irst

the s ettlement o f the S lays

t he e stablishment o f p rincedoms

o f

i n

C roatia

i n D almatian a nd P annonian C roatia,

t he u nion b etween the two o ccuring i n t he r eign o f T omislav

3

s tages

W ithin t he p eriod o ccur t he

( reigned

A D

9 10-

9 28) ( jiäi6 1 975,

a vailable

d ating

1 15).

methods

A s w ith much d o

n ot

c loser d ating o f t he

s tudy p eriod v iable,

a s

o f

t o

t he

e xistence

d ating

a rchaeological

a ccord

h istorically

e vents

( and e ven t heir

- t he a rrival o f the C roats b eing t he n otable e xample)

g eographical

l imits

o f t he

t he

a nd f requently t here i s d ebate

r ecorded

a r ange f rom A D 6 00-900, w ith i ts b oundaries most o f t he p rocesses o f i nterest. T he

r esearch

s ufficient a ccuracy t o make

l oosely t aken ,

s o t hat

e ncompasses

s tudy a re r ather h arder t o s et,

f or

t here a re three main b oundary s etting p remises a vailable:

1 .

T he h istorical k ingdom o f C roatia, s ome

2 .

A

t aken a t

i ts

l argest e xtent o r a t

s uitable p oint.

c ultural

l imit,

b ased u pon t he d istribution a reas o f o ne o r more

o f the a rchaeological c ultures. 3 .

A p ragmatic l imit,

e stablished

u pon

r ecognition

o f

t he

p resent

s ituation a nd the v arious p roblems t o b e t ackled.

S ome o f t hese p ossibilities h ave c ommending

f eatures,

though

t here

a re i nevitably d rawbacks t hat must b e w eighed. 1 2 .1

T he k ingdom o f C roatia

A t

t he

s tart

o f

t he

p eriod t he k ingdom o f C roatia d id n ot e xist,

r ather the B yzantine p rovinces s urvived i n v arious s tates o f h ealth , a nd i t w as o nly much l ater t hat t here a ctually e xisted a n a rea k nown a s C hrobatia ( 1975, t he

( Croatia ).

T he b oundaries a re

4 77) ( see F igure 1 .1),

S ava,

w hilst

S ava/Drava

i ts

i nterfluve

b y

S isic

t hough i t e xtends N orthwards o nly a s

f ar a s

E astern f rom

c learly

b oundary

f alls

d elineated o n

the

D rina.

t he S ava a nd B osna w as k nown a s P annonia o r P anonska H rvatska C roatia )

t o

d ifferentiate

T he

t he l ine o f the S utla t o t he c onfluence o f i t

( Pannonian

f rom t hat p art o f C roatia which o ccupied

much o f t he t erritory t hat h ad o nce b een t he R oman p rovince o f D almatia. T he

t erritory

p eriod

( c A D

k ingdom

o f

o f

9 28)

t he i s

k ingdom o f C roatia s hortly a fter the e nd o f t he

s hown i n F igure

T omislav

h eld

t he

1 .2

( after

c oastline

1 975,

4 78).

N eretva t o t he mouth o f t he R aäa i n I stria a nd e xtended i nland a s t he

D rava

i n

t he

N orth a nd t he D rina i n t he E ast, A lso ,

c hange

i n

t he

b oundary

w as

t he

a rea

t he a rea o f P agania t o t he

S outh o f D almatian C roatia w as n ow i ncluded i n t he k ingdom . main

f ar a s

the u nification o f

P annonian a nd D almatian C roatia h aving i ncorporated t he S ava/Drava w ith the t erritory S outh o f t he D rava.

T he

f rom t he mouth o f t he R iver

T he

o ther

E astern g ain o f t he t erritory

b etween t he S ava a nd D rava t owards t he c onfluence o f the S ava a nd B osut. T he i slands

o f R ab,

K rk a nd C res

r emained i n B yzantine h ands w hilst B raC

a nd H var w ere a dded t o C roatia.

4

1

` 4: 1 : ), . ( e . c y C 7

c ,„e b .

2

F igure

1 .1

D almatian and P annonian Croatia

1 Dalmatian C roatia

2 Pannonian Croatia.

( after

n ä ib- 1 975,

4 77).

F igure

1 .2 C roatia a t t he T ime o f T omislav

1 A ccording t o n S --i t

( 1975,

4 78)

2 A ccording t o K lait

( 1975,

P rilog I V ).

6

F igure

1 .3

P resent

7

D ay Croatia

F igure

1 .4

R egions o f C roatia

1 D almatia 2 I stria 3 P annonia ( broken s hading i ndicates u ncertain a reas)

8

H owever,

m ore r ecent a uthors a re n ot p repared t o b e a s

d elineation

o f

t he b oundaries o f C roatia,

a s a m ore h esitant, s ources.

K lait-

b ut

r ealistic p icture,

( 1975,

m ap

I V ,

g iven

c oastal o ccupation f rom t he R aäa t o T rogir ,

much o f

d ay

Z adar )

s till

p art

D almatia a long w ith t he i sland o f P ag a rchipelago. s triking;

I t

w here

B ulgarian

i s

i nland

t he

q uality

t hat

a nd t he

a s

t he

o f

a s

C roatia,

i slands

d ifference

K laib

i ndicates

t he

b ut

w ith

B yzantine t heme o f o f

i n

t he

v iews

Z adar i s m ost

iié w as p repared t o a llocate a ll t he t erritory t o

f rontier

t he

p resents a

ä ibi ,

t he

i n

s trikes o ne

r eproduced o n f igure 1 .2)

D iadora

( present

c ertain

a nd p resent w hat

t he

t hat much o f i t w as

p olitically u norganised t erritory a nd a s s uch n ot t o b e i ncluded w ithin C roatia. G iven s uch a d ifference i n v iew a s t o w hat a ctually c onstituted C roatia a nd t he i nherent p roblem o f a ssociating a e ntity

w ith

a

material

c ulture

g roup ,

C roatia a s t he s tudy a rea i s u nlike:1 r. s hares t he material c ulture o f i ncorporated i nto i t a t a ny p oint. 1 .2.2

p olitical

t he c hoice o f t he k ingdom o f

F urther ,

t he

a rea

o f

I stria

t he K ingdom o f C roatia b ut w as n ot S ome o ther b oundary i s n eeded.

A C ultural L imit

A t 8 . 9

f irst,

t he employment o f t he b ounds o f a n

a rchaeological

t hose o f t he s tudy a rea s eems a u seful p ossibility ,

u nder

e xamination.

I f

t hat

w ere

s o

t hen

the

c ulture

p lacing o ne u nit

S tarohrvatska

( Old

C roatian ) c ulture w ould b e t he o bvious c hoice. An a rea d efined o n t his b asis c ould j ust a bout i nclude I stria a s t hat c ulture d id make a dvances i nto t he a rea b y t he e nd o f t he d efined p eriod , a nd a t l east o ne major c emetery o f t hat c haracter e xists i n I stria. Y et, i n a p eriod w here h istorical e ntities e xist, h ow much p oint i s t here i n a dopting a c ulture w hich d oes n ot

r epresent o ne u nit o f p olitical a ction n or

o f e thnic c omposition? 1 .2.3

p robably

o ne

R egretably i t i s n ecessary t o p ass o n.

A p ragmatic c hoice

P erhaps i nevitably , t he l ast c hoice i s b ound t o b e t he r ight o ne. T here p robably i s n ot a g iven e ntity i n t he p ast t hat w ill d efine t he s tudy a rea,

t hough b oth t he e ventual a rea o f t he k ingdom a nd t hat o f t he

c ulture g roup p rovide s ubstantial h elp i n

d etermination.

c hoice

t he

s hould

b e

a b le

t o

c o-ordinate

p roduce a u seful w orking d efinition. d ay c oast

S ocialist R epublic o f C roatia

A

A s uitable c hoice i s

( SR H rvatska )

p ragmatic

b est a spects o f b oth a nd t he

p resent

w hich e xtends a long t he

f rom t he g ulf o f K otor i n t he S outh t o Umag ,

a nd

i nland

b etween

t he S ava, D rava a nd D anube ( Figure 1 .3). T his c rescent s hape i ncludes t he D almatian h eartland o f t he O ld C roatian c ulture, t he I strian a rea a nd t he a rea o f P annonian C roatia.

T hese t hree r egions c ontain t he m ost

p art o f t he material o f t he O ld C roatian c ulture, w hilst t he c onsequences o f t he d ifferent e vents I stria a nd D almatia u nderwent m ay b e u sefully c ontrasted. a rchaeological s ites.

P annonia a lso h as a d ifferent h istory b ut

s ites may o ccur i n B osnia, b ut,

f ewer

A p ossible d isadvantage i s t hat a f ew i nteresting t he r epublic w hich C roatia i s w rapped a round ,

g iven t he a reas i ncluded ,

t his i s a s mall p rice t o p ay.

9

F igure 1 .5 R elief o f W estern Y ugoslavia ( after Admiralty 1 944, f igure 3 ).

1 0 - 4 00 m .

2 4 00 - 8 00 m .

3 a bove 8 00 m .

1 .3

P HYSICAL C ONDITIONS

1 .3.1

L and F orms

T he

i nitial i mpression g iven b y a m ap o f Yugoslavia i s o f a two f old

d ivision , t he

b etween t he N orthern ,

S outhern ,

T o a n e xtent

D anube d rained ,

s uch a d ivision a pplies t o C roatia,

a s ideways V ,

e xtending a s

o ther,

thinner ,

the Adriatic t o t he mouth o f t he b ay o f K otor

s imple d ivision b etween mountain a nd p lain d oes p articularly

w ell

a nd

P ounds

w hich may t hemselves b e i n C roatia,

a nd

i t d oes

i n

w ith o ne a rm s tretching f rom t he D anube b order w ith S erbia

t o t he W estern c oast o f I stria a nd t he d own

a rea o f t he l owland

mountainous a reas o ccupying t he r emainder o f t he c ountry.

( 1969,

6 24)

e xtending 1 .5)

a ctually

h old

n ot

d escribes

s ubject t o s ubdivision ,

a rm

( see f igure

T he u p

s ix main r egions

o f t hese s ix ,

f our o ccur

b eing:

1 .

T he

D inaric R egion

2 .

T he

C oastal R egion

3 .

T he

D anubian P lains

4 .

T he

C roatian a nd B osnian H ills.

A d escription o f e ach f ollows. 3 .2

T he D inaric R egion

S ome 3 0 km N orth o f R ijeka a s ystem o f mountain r idges b egins,

w hich

T he mountainous w idth

o f

I t i s

h ardness

o f

t owards

t he

D anube

N orth-Eastern margin , Adriatic.

i t

t he

N orth-West t o S outh-East t rend. p art,

T he

r uns

S outh ,

l imestones

w ith

f eatures

f olding ,

the

p rincipal

f urrows

o f

t he

a ppearing a s d isruptions o f s olution

h oles

o r s harply

( Admiralty

p roducing

t he

l arge,

e longated

a nd a lluvium .

s olution

1 944,

p lateaux ,

maximum

F inally ,

the

f requently

r esult o f

t han d oline,

t o o f

the f orms the

s olution l imestone

t his,

a nd

c ircular

w ith c lay a nd o ther

t here a re t he p olja

w hich

a re

c omposed o f c lay

T hese w ill o ften p artially f lood i n w inter ,

1 1

a

most

r ising i n the

r idges

f eatures w ith f lat b ottoms

t hey a re g enerally d ry.

t he

a part f rom t he

L arger a re

f or

s mall s cale,

d efined 4 7).

6 27).

g eneral

W estward

t he

A t the

p lateaux ,

d epressions

s olution p roducts a t t he b ase.

i n

r ivers

f lowing

a re s olution f eatures,

f eatures a re a reas o f l apiez, b y

a

( ibid ,

p roduces

D rainage o f the a rea i s,

d issolving o f the l imestone b y r ain w ater. d ivided

r eaching

c omes c omplex f olding

a nd o nly m inor s treams

main

r esulting f rom the

p lateaux

f ormed o f l imestone o f T riassic a nd C retacious

w ith t he v arying a ges,

d iffering

a nd

t he w hole l ength o f t he S outhern arm o f C roatia.

r egion b roadens a s

1 60 km .

p eriods a nd , T he

e xtend

b ut

i n s ummer

O f

t he

C roatia. w ith ,

s pecific f eatures o f t he D inaric r egion two a re i mportant i n T he N orth k arstic r egion e xtends

f or

most

t he V elebit t o

L iüko

o f t he d istance,

r ange. a nd

f or 2 20 km

a long

the

v irtually n o c oastal l owland ,

c oast t his i s

I ts d ip s lope i s o n t he E ast a nd t he l and d rops d own

o ther P olja.

T he d irection o f V elebit

i s c ontinued n ear

t he c oast b y t he D inara r ange w hich i n f act f orms t he E astern b order o f C roatia , w ith t he f eatures much t he s ame a s t he V elebit. S outh o f t his t he k arstic 1 .3.3

z one a pproaches t he

s ea a gain.

T he C oastal R egion

O n t he W estern s ide o f t he c oastal

l owland

k arstic

h ighland

o f w hich t wo main s ections l ie i n C roatia, Z agora t hat

l ies

o f

a re

a reas

o f

t he I strian p eninsula a nd t he

i n f ront o f t he S outhern V elebit a nd t he D inara.

I stria i s a l owlying t riangular h eight

r egion

( though l ow o nly c ompared t o t he r est o f the c ountry ),

p lateau

j ust o ver 4 30 m t owards

t hat

i ts c entre,

r ises

t o

a

maximum

w ith t he W estern c oastal

r egions l ying g enerally b elow 1 50 m . T he c oastline h as numerous l ow c liffs a nd s everal f looded v alleys, s uch a s t he L imski K anal, w hich d eeply c ut t he c oast. e xtends

d own

R . 17ers a s

t he

A t t he E astern e dge a b ranch o f t he J ulian

c oast

a nd d escends

a re i ncised i nto t he p latform ,

s everely

d eveloped i n I stria a s

k arst

s harply i nto t he G ulf o f R ijeka.

a nd t he k arstic f eatures i n t he D inaric r egion

a re

( Pounds

n ot 1 969,

6 35). F rom

t he

G ulf

o f

l ittle c oastal l and , t he Z rmanja,

R ijeka

d own

t o t he r iver Z rmanja t here i s v ery

t hough a c hain o f

r oughly a s

s lands

a nother l ower-lying l imestone p lateau w ith r ocks.

L imestone

r idges

r un

s ome

a rchipelago

e xists

i nland ,

i s

p art

o f

t he

o f

c overing t he

F rom

l ies t he Z agora,

N orth-West/South-East,

p arallel t o the c oast a nd t he i sland c hain T his

f ollows t he c oast.

f ar a s t he g orge o f t he C etina,

o f

t ertiary

f or a l arge p art

Z adar

A rchipelago.

s ame s eries o f l imestone r idges a s

b ut t he v alley b ottoms a re b elow s ea l evel.

O ther v alley

b ottoms a re f illed w ith t ertiary d eposits a nd a lluvium w hich a t t he N orth-Western e nd o f t he R avni K otari h ave b een e roded b efore the r idges o f

l imestone,

Z aliv ,

t o

p roduce a s eries o f b ays

i nland ,

a gainst t he D inara. b eing s easonal Z rmanja, f lows

s uch a s

s treams

r elated

t o

f looded

K rka a nd C etina r un a ll y ear r ound ,

s altwater b ays w hilst t he C etina, i n

S injsko P olje,

N ot m any p ermanent r ivers

a g orge a nd e nters t he

c oastal

t he s ea.

l and i n C roatia,

T he i slands

A rchipelago h ave m any o f t hem , ( ibid ,

F urther

v alley

b ottoms,

u p most

b ut

t he

t he f irst t wo emerging i nto

a fter

l eaving

S injsko

s ea s pectacularly a t Omi . t here

i s

P olje,

A part

l ittle

f rom o ther

a s b y M akarska t he mountains a gain r each

s uch a s P ag a nd U glian a nd

f eatures

w hich l ies

f low i n t he v alleys,

t he marshy l owland a t t he mouth o f t he N eretva l ow ,

P ag.

t he g round r ises i nto t he g ap b etween t he V elebit a nd the D inara

a nd t he v alleys g ive w ay t o p olja,

l arge

s uch a s L jubaüki a nd N inski

w hich a re matched b y s imilar b ays o n t he c oast o f

o thers

o f

i n c ommon w ith t he h igher l imestone

i n p articular D ugi O tok,

6 36).

1 2

t he

Z adar

r idges

a nd

l ack s ubstantial a reas o f l owland

1 .3.4

T he D anubian P lain

T he E astern a rm o f C roatia l ies b etween t he h ighland o f S lovenia t he

l owland

a rea

o f

the H ungarian P lain ,

a nd

p art o f the d rainage o f t he

D anube,

a nd c ontains t he S ava ,

g round

l ies b elow 1 50 m but t he p lains o f t he t wo r ivers a re d ivided b y

a nd t he v alley o f the D rava.

t he H ills o f S lavonia ,

a b elt o f h ighland w hich d escends

m

4 50 m i n t he E ast.

i n t he W est t o s ome

b ut a s eries o f s eparate u nits, a re

Much o f t he

f rom a bout

9 00

T hese h ills a re n ot o ne u nit,

w hich m ake u p a c ontinuous

d ivide;

they

n earer t o the D rava t han t he S ava a nd c onsequently t he d escent i nto

P odravina i s a brupt. o nly

A number o f s mall s treams d rain i nto t he D rava b ut

a f ew t ributaries

f low i n t he w ide v alleys t o the S ava.

c onsist o f t ertiary r ocks r ocks

w hich ,

a s

t he

s urrounding o utbreaks o f

r esult o f e rosion ,

a ncient

T he h ills c rystalline

h ave a r ugged a ppearance w ith

s teep-sided v alleys a nd r avines. T he

v alleys

o f

t he D rava a nd t he S ava,

t he P odravina a nd P osavina,

b order t he S lavonian h ills t o t he N orth a nd S outh. t he

t ertiary

s ea

that

o nce c overed t he a rea,

O riginally g ulfs

they h ave

f illed w ith s ediment a nd a lso a lluvium f rom t he m eandering r ivers. t he

r ivers h ave l ow g radients w ith t he S ava a t

Z agreb a nd t he D rava a t t here

i s

l and.

F irst,

o f

4

w ell a s these

there i s t he meander b elt i tself, f loods a s

c onsequently

km

s econdly ,

a nd t hirdly ,

T he m eander b elt may r each

w hile the marsh z one i s

i n p laces a s w ide a s

8 km .

w hich

c onsists

o f

( Admiralty 1 944,

C roatia

o f

a

f alls

a A s

f eatures b oth r iver p lains h ave many meander c ut-offs

T he v ery E astern e nd

a nd

3 4).

i nto

the

H ungarian

s eries o f l evel p lains

w hich a re t he r esult o f a lluvial d eposits a nd w ide d eposits t hat

a marshy z one,

i t b orders t he m eander b elt,

t he r emains o f a bandoned c ourses

1 .3.5

B oth

s ea l evel a t

1 65 m a bove s ea l evel a t V ara2din ,

w ell d rained a reas b eyond t he marsh z one.

p roper,

1 15 m a bove

c onsiderable meandering o n t he p lain p roducing t hree t ypes o f

l iable t o o ccasional w idth

i n

s ince l argely

P lain

a nd l ow t erraces

s pread b ands o f l oess

r each t hicknesses o f 4 0 m .

T he C roatian a nd B osnian H ills

I n

t he

a rea

b etween

t he

D inaric

s ystem a nd the S ava v alley i s a

n arrow b elt o f h ill c ountry w hich e xtends b asin

t o

t he

I bar v alley ,

c haracterised

b y

r elatively

N orth-West t o S outh-East, t he S ava,

t he e xtent o f t he p alaeozoic

a nd

i s a ll t hat

f alls

m ixture

s hort

o f

mountains

h ave n umbers

o f

t ributaries

V ariation o f t he g eology i n t he

s tripping a way o f t he t ertiary s econdary r ocks.

I t

i s

r unning

i nto C roatia,

that

f low

r egion d epends u pon

r ocks

t o

r eveal

T he N orthern p art o f t his

z one,

t he w hich

c onsists o f t he K rka r egion w hich h as

o f D inaric a nd A lpine t rends,

o f l imestone,

s ections

L jubljana

8 0 km .

t hat a re c rossed b y s ome o f the t ributaries o f

w hich i n t heir t urn ,

a long w ide v alleys.

f or 5 20 km f rom t he

w ith a maximum w idth o f a bout

b eing a d issected p lateau ,

b ut w ithout t he s trong k arst

f eatures.

i s t he Z umberaüka G ora w hich r ises t o 1 180 m .

1 3

I ts

T he h ill

main

a

m ainly f eature

d rop d own a fter

t his

t o t he b asin o f t he K upa w hich w inds

p lain a nd i s o ne o f t he l east

r ising o ut o f o ccasionally marshy g round 1 .3.6

f rom h igh p lateau t o a lluvial

r ugged p arts o f t he r egion , ( Pounds

1 969,

w ith l ow h ills

6 37).

S oils

T he

g eneral d istribution o f s oil t ypes

i n C roatia i s a s

c oastal r egion a nd a c onsiderable p ortion o f c ombinations

o f

s keletal

t erra

r ossa,

t he

f ollows;

D inaric

t he

r egion

h ave

t rue t erra r ossa a nd a lluvial

s oils b ut v ery l ittle h umus. F or t he m ost p art t he a lluvial s oils o ccur i n t he p olja a nd r iver v alleys, w hile t he t erra r ossa o ccurs i n s mall s poradic p atches,

m ainly i n t he l owland .

v ery

c over,

p oor

s oil

w ith

e ither

Most o f t he u pland r egion a

t hin s keletal s oil,

s keletal t erra r ossa,

o r i n many p laces,

o r

k arstic r ock e xposure.

s imply

c omplete

p oor r emains o f o nce e roded.

f ully

d eveloped

T he d ifference i n s oils

o nly s oil b etween e xposed r ock, T he s keletal s oils a re t he

s oils

I n N orthern C roatia,

a ssessment

o f

c onsiderable

w hile t he

D anube,

s ituation,

mountains

c hernozems

w hich

a t

s ome p oint

V ery l ittle w ork h as

P roject

i ndicates

t hat,

i n

t hat

t here

b een

c hanges

h ad

t aken

h as

d one

p atterns,

s mall c hanges t aking p lace b etween t hen a nd t he p resent

u pon

l east,

a nd

p lace b y t he s eventh c entury ,

i s n ot k nown h ow f ar t his p icture p articularly the i nland r egions. 1 .3.7

o f

t hough t he N eothermal

t he R avni K otari a rea a t

t here h as b een v ery l ittle d ramatic c hange o f s oil m ajor

e xtend

i n t he p ast t o p roduce t hese

t he r econstructions o f t he s oil p atterns i n Y ugoslavia, r ecent w ork o f D r R obert S hiel i n c onnection w ith t he

t he

h ave

t here a re

t here r emains t he p roblem

f or t he e vidence i ndicates

e rosion

p oor s oils a nd k arstic f eatures.

D almatia

a nd

c hange i n s oil p atterns b etween t he e arly m ediaeval

p eriod a nd the p resent d ay , b een

d egraded

T he r iver v alleys h ave c onsiderable a lluvium .

A lthough t his i s t he p resent t he

h ave

b etween t he S ava a nd D rava,

p odzols a nd f urther E ast t owards t he i nto S erbia.

t hat

c an b e a v ery l ocal p henomenon w ith t he

p olja h aving s ome m easure o f c ultivable s oil, v ery l ittle.

h as

s uch a s a

t hat

w ith o nly

( pers c o rm ).

I t

a pplies t o t he r est o f C roatia,

C limate

Y ugoslavia a s a w hole i s t he

A driatic

S outh-West) w hich

s ea

t o

t wo

r egions, T he w inter

c limatic

d eterminants,

( and t o s ome e xtent t he A egean t o t he

w hich p roduces a M editerranean c limate a nd t he D anube o r C entral E uropean c limate.

i s a ffected b y b oth t hese s ystems.

c limatic g roups

B asin

C roatia ,

b y

I nevitably ,

c an b e a gain s ubdivided t o g ive s ix c limatic

o f w hich f our o ccur i n C roatia. M editerranean a nd

h ot

r egion

s ummer

p articular t he b ura, t ime.

W est

p roduces a c ontinental,

v irtue o f i ts p osition , t hese

s ubject t o t wo main

t he

w ith

h as

t he

s tormy

g eneral c haracteristics o f m ild a nd

r ainy

a N orth-East w ind w hich b lows

T he l ow m ean t emperature

r anges

1 4

c onceal

a utumn

w eather,

i n

f or s everal d ays a t a t he

p eriods

o f

c old

w eather w hen t he t emperature m ay f all b elow f reezing a nd r emain t here f or a s l ong a s t hree w eeks. I n s ummer t he w eather i s s unny a nd l argely r ainless w ith h igh h umidity n ear t he s ea ( Admiralty 1 944, 2 19 a nd f ollowing ). G enerally t he e ffect o f t he s ea i s t o moderate t he p ossible e xtremes o f t emperature. f rom

t he

I n t he c oastal r egions t he

N orth o r N orth-East

s peeds o f o ver 1 00 k m/h ,

b ura

w hich

i s t he m ost v iolent w ind s ystem ,

b lows

r eaching

a ffecting b oth s hipping a nd l and t ransport.

T he D inaric r egion f orms a t ransitional z one, c utting o ff a s i t d oes t he M editerranean a reas f rom t he C ontinental a reas, a nd i ts o wn c limate f alls

i nto

n either

r ainfall w ith l ess

p attern. s unshine

T he t han

m ain t he

c haracteristic i s v ery h eavy

o ther

a reas,

f requency a nd g reater r ain d ays f requency h eavy s nowfall w hilst s ummers a re c ool. T he S erbia,

a

h igher

( about 5 0% ).

c loud

W inter s ees

E astern H ighland r egion e xtends i nto t he h ighland r egions o f B osnia a nd C roatia a nd h as a c ontinental mountain t ype o f

c limate w ith h eavier s ummer t han t emperatures a nd a bout 3 0% r ain d ays

w inter ( ibid ).

r ainfall,

w ith l ow w inter

T he D anube l owlands, i nto w hich t he E astern e dge o f C roatia f alls, h as a s traight c ontinental c limate, t his i s a u niformly d istributed c limate

i n

t erms

o f

r ainfall

a nd t emperature.

I n w inter c old w inds

b ring s ub-zero t emperatures a nd i n t he s ummer t here a re l ong h ot d ry w eather. 1 .3.8

s pells

o f

T emperature

I n

t he

c oastal

r egion

t he

m ean

t emperature

v aries u pon a verage

b etween 5 d egC i n t he N orth t o 1 0 d egC i n the S outh o f t he r egion d uring t he w inter , b ut f urther i nland t here i s a r apid d ecline i n t emperature, s o t hat t he m ean i n J anuary a t K nin i s s ome 2 - 4 d egC c older t han t hat o n t he c oast ( ibid , 2 33 a nd f ollowing ). I n s ummer, a lthough t he A driatic t empers t he h eat, w ith

t he

m ean

J uly

t here a re u sually t hree t o

t emperature

j ibenik r uns f rom 1 2 - 3 8 d egC.

b eing

2 4

d egC,

A gain t here i s a

f ive

h ot

c ooling

e ffect

a ltitude a nd t he a verages a t S inj ( 330 m a bove s ea-level) d egC l ower t han a t S plit. I n t he v alleys t he c onsiderable e xposed

l imestone

t end

t o

r etain

h eat,

a nd

months

t hough the r ange a t

s o

w ith

a re a bout 3 amounts o f

i ncrease

l ocal

t emperature. T he

h ighland

a reas

h ave c ontrasts b etween v alley a nd h ill;

h igh p oints t he t emperature m onthly m ean d oes n ot s ix

months.

O ne

c urious

f eature

o f

t he

t emperature i nversion t hat o ccurs i n t he p olja, p olja b eing t he l owest p oints

o n s ome

r ise a bove 0 d egC

f or

t emperature r egime i s t he f or

i n mountainous a reas,

i n

s pite

o f

t he

i n c alm w eather c old

a ir f rom t he n eighbouring p lateaux s inks a nd f orms a c old a ir

' lake'

s o

t hat a t G ospie ( 520 m a bove s ea-level) the t emperature i s s ome 8 d egC c older t han a t O stanje ( 460 m h igher )(ibid , 3 6 ). D uring t he s ummer t he t emperature

d epends

u pon

a ltitude

s ummers t han t he l ower.

1 5

w ith

h igher

p olja

h aving c ooler

o f

W inds b lowing a cross t he H ungarian P lain p roduce t he w inter m inimum 20 d egC a nd s eventy t o e ighty f rost d ays a y ear f or t he D anubian

B asin , t hough t here i s a s light W estern p art o f t he r egion

i ncrease o f m ean t emperature t owards t he ( that i s i n C roatia ). T he t emperature

m aximum f or J uly i s 3 5 - 4 1 d egC. O ne f eature o f t he a rea i s t he r apid t emperature r ise t hat o ccurs i n s pring a nd t he e qually r apid f all i n t emperature o f a utumn ,

w ith a d ifference o f 3 d egC a m onth

b etween

t he

m eans. 1 .3.9

R ainfall

F or t he most p art t he r ainfall p attern o f C roatia i s r elief r elated , w ith t he m ountainous r egions r eceiving more r ain t han l owland r egions, s o

t hat

m ost

o f

D inaric C roatia h as o ver 1 200 mm p er y ear,

w hile t he

S ava a nd D rava a reas, a long w ith t he c oastal r egions, r eceive b etween 8 00 a nd 1 200 mm p er y ear ( see f igure 1 .6). W ithin t he m ountains t hemselves t he h igher p arts T here

a re

t wo

r eceive more r ainfall t han t he n earby p olja.

m ain s easonal p atterns o f r ainfall t hat a ffect C roatia,

t he Mediterranean ,

c haracterised a s a w inter r ainfall maximum ,

a nd

t he

c ontinental, a s ummer m aximum p attern . W hilst t his i s g enerally t rue, t he c oastal r egion i n f act h as i ts r ainfall m aximums i n t he a utumn a nd _ ate i n t he s pring. 1 .3.10

T he E ffects o f G eophysical C onditions U pon H uman A ctivity

T hree

m ain c ategories o f h uman a ctivity a re a ffected b y t he p hysical

c onditions, t hese a re a griculture a nd s ettlement, t he w ider i nter-regional c ontacts b etween g roups. 1 .3.11

c ommunications,

a nd

Agriculture a nd S ettlement

T he

r egion

most a ffected b y g eo-physical c onditions i s t he h ighland

r egion w here c ultivable l and i s g enerally l imited t o p olja a nd p arts s ome

r iver v alleys.

t o t hese a reas a nd t he r emainder o f t he r egion w as a vailable e ither p astoralism

o r

h unting.

b een b ased i n t he p olja, t ranshumance d ensity w as g reater

w hile a p astoralist

l ikely t o b e l ess t han

m ay

b e

g rown

i n

t he

o f l and w as c ultivable. ( the o live t hat

c ould

l owland

h ave

i nvolved

t he p opulation

r egions,

w here

B esides t hese e ffects, i n

t erms

o f

t he

a t he

c rops

f lourishes o n t he A driatic i slands

a nd o n t he c oast w ill n ot g row i n t he a vailable g rowing s eason a nd c onditions.

1 6

o ne

W hich e ver o ccured ,

c limate a ffected t he a gricultural s ystem b oth w hich

f or

An a rable b ased e conomy w ould t herefore h ave

b etween t he t wo a reas.

p roportion

o f

A s a c onsequence a rable c ultivation w as r estricted

m ountains)

a nd

a lso

i n

t he

•

4 Figure

1 .6 R ainfall

( after Admiralty

1 4 00 - 6 00 mm .

2

3

5

6

i n Western Yugoslavia

1 944,

2 42)

2 6 00 - 8 00 mm .

4 1 200 - 1 600 mm .

1 7

3 8 00 - 1 200mm .

5 1 600 - 2 500 mm .

6 a bove 2 500 mm .

1 .3.12

C ommunications

T he c oastal l ands p resent v ery l ittle b y w ay o f o bstacle t o t ravel i n a

N orth-West/South-East

d irection

a long

t he

n arrow

s trip

o f

t he

c oastline, e xcept t hat, i n p laces, t he l owland i s a v ery n arrow b and a nd t his h as t ended t o p romote s ea t ravel. I t i s a ccess t o t he i nterior o f t he c ountry a nd t ravel a nd c ommunications p rovide

d ifficulties.

i n t he

i nterior

A c lear i ndication o f t his

o f p oints a t w hich t he D inaric r ange may b e c rossed t o i nland

a reas.

modern r oads p attern p eriod , I n

S plit)

a ccess

t o t he

d oes

n ot

S outhern

p art

S enj,

K arlobag ,

s ubstantially

w hen t he main r oute

t he

d iffer

g ive

O brovac a nd

f rom t he R avni K otari r an u p

through

r unning

E ast-West,

t here t he

a re

v ery

majority

f ew

f ollow

a

K nin.

o f t he c oastland t he a pproach f rom S alona i nland

A s w ould b e e xpected f rom t he g enerally mountainous

much o f t he i nterior,

K nin ,

f rom t hat o f t he R oman

i s d ominated b y t he p ass a t K lis w hich l eads

P ol j e.

t hat

F rom the c oast b etween I stria a nd t he R avni K otari,

c ross o nly a t R ijeka,

w hich

i tself

i s t he l imited n umber

e asily

c haracter o f r outes

c rossing t he

r idges

f rom o ne t o a nother,

u sed ,

p articularly the t ributaries o f t he S ava w hich g ive a ccess t o t he

P annonian P lain a nd the D anubian l ands.

T his a rea,

r iver

( near

S injsko

a ccessible

l ines o f p olja,

though w hen t hey o ccur,

t o

b y

v alleys

v irtue

o f

a re i ts

f latness p resents l ittle o bstacle t o t ravel. S uch c oherent

i nfluences r egions

u pon

c ommunications

c entred o n t he v arious

R avni K otari a nd I stria ), 1 .3.13

e ffectively

p roduce

c oastal a reas

the S ava b asin a nd t he l ess

s everal

( for e xample t he

a ccessible p olja.

I nter-regional c ontacts

A s a r esult o f the i nternal d ivisions c ome

f irmly i n t he M editerranean s phere w hilst w ith

i n C roatia,

u nder d ifferent i nter-regional i nfluences, C entral

E urope.

I n

d ifferences b etween c oastal a nd i nland p lain a nd mountain.

t he

the p ast t his h as i nland

a reas,

d ifferent

t he c oastal N orthern

r egions

r egion l ies

p arts

c onnect

r esulted i n d ivisions a nd c oast

a nd

i sland

a nd

S ome o f t hese e ffects w ill b ecome c learer i n

l ater c hapters. 1 .4

C ROATIA U NTIL A D

1 .4.1

P rehistory

T here p eriods i s

6 00

i s

l ittle that n eed b e

i n C roatia,

p ossible,

s aid o f t he p alaeolithic a nd m esolithic

l ittle i dentification o f p articular

c ulture

g roups

t he main t rend b eing a move t owards m icrolithic i ndustries

i n t he m esolithic

( 8000-6000 B C )

b een o verlap w ith the e arliest

t hough i n s ome p laces

f armers

( Alexander 1 972,

t here

m ay

T he n eolithic f arming t echniques a rrived i n C roatia p robably v ia A egean-Vardar-Morava

r oute,

h ave

3 1). t he

p roducing t he S tarüevo c ulture o f t he l ate

1 8

6 th

m illenium

B C

t hat

r eached a s

f ar a s V uüedol

v ery l ittle p enetration o f t he mountains. a ppear

g round

F or

( ibid ,

t he

3 4),

f irst

b ut w ith

t ime

t here

s tone t ools a nd c onsiderable q uantities o f p ottery.

T he

c oastal r egion r eceived t he I mpresso o r c oastal n eolithic c ulture o f t he M editerranean ,

a gain p roducing g round s tone t ools a nd t he c haracteristic

s hell-impressed p ottery a t t he

c oast,

s ea

t his

s ites

s uch a s S milöiö a nd

T inj.

w as s upplanted b y t he D anilo c ulture,

( flourishing c 5 M t o 3 500 B C ),

w hilst

i nland

t he

b egan i ts l ong d evelopment w ith a m ixed e conomy t hat C roatia t he

( ibid ,

3 9 ).

L ater,

V inüa

c ulture

s pread i nto E astern

T he f inal p hase o f t he n eolithic i s r epresented

s till-surviving V inüa c ulture,

b y

t he c entral E uropean L engyel c ulture

a nd , o n t he c oast, t he D anilo p ersists w hile t he H var c ulture w ith p ainted p ottery , i ndicating G reek a nd I talian c ontacts. A lthough c haracterised b y u se o f b ronze, u se d uring t he b ronze a ge.

o n

a gain s pread b y

emerges

s tone t ools c ontinue i n w ide

I n N orthern Y ugoslavia t he B aden-Pe6e1 g roup

s pread f rom H ungary a fter 3 000 B C, b ringing w ith i t i ncreased u se o f b ronze, w hilst t he B aden-Lasinja g roup e ventually s pread a s f ar a s D almatia. c ulture

T he m iddle o f

b ronze

N orthern

C roatia

a ge

w as

c haracterised

b y

t he

V uüedol

a nd B osnia w hich p roduced e laborate c lay

a nimal models. T he c limax b ronze a ge o f 1 450-700 B C s aw a n i ncrease i n b ronze p roduction , t he o peration o f l ong d istance t rade r outes a nd t he o bvious

i nfluence o f t he U rnfield c ulture o f

c entral

E urope,

a nd

t he

V illanovan o f I taly. T owards the e nd o f t he p eriod o bjects w ith G reek i nfluence a ppear o n t he c oast i n t he p ost-Mycenaean h iatus ( ibid , 5 4 a nd f ollowing ). T he p re-roman i ron a ge,

w as a p eriod o f

g reat

i ncrease

i n

o utside

i nfluences, a s D almatia p roperly e rtered t he M editerranean z one. T he A ttestine c ulture f lourished i n I stria, w hile i n c entral D almatia h illforts w ere c onstructed i n s ome n umbers. g roups a re k nown , i nterpretation ) c oast, o n

t he I llyrians a ppeared a s

w ell

a s

a nd t he J apodes i nland

c onsiderable

p roblem

f or

s maller g roups s uch a s t he L iburni o n t he ( ibid,

1 22).

C ontact w ith G reek

c olonies

H var a nd V is p rovoked c hange a nd e ventually L iburnian p irates b ecame

n otorious a long t he D almatian c oast. t he

F or t he f irst t ime n ames o f

( a

S ava

V eneti.

a nd

D rava

v alleys

I nland t he C elts o ccupied p arts o f

a nd I stria w as h eavily i nfluenced b y t he

A g rowing s ophistication i n b oth material c ulture a nd p olitical

o rganisation

i s o bservable a s t he r esult o f t hese c ontacts a s w ell a s a

t endancy t oward m ilitary c onfederation.

T his w as the s ituation a s R oman

c ontact b egan. 1 .4.2

T he C oming o f R ome

T he

c onquest

a nd

i ncorporation

o f

w hat

b ecame

D almatia a nd P annonia w as a l ong a nd c omplex b usiness, f or

t he

most

p art,

a t t he

t hat a rea f or i tself. r equest

o f

e xpedition i n 2 44 B C.

R omans,

c arried o ut p iecemeal f or t he f irst t wo c enturies,

more a s t he r esult o f o ther a ctions c ontrol

t he p rovinces o f t hat the

G reek

t han

o ut

o f

a

c lear

d esire

t o

T o b egin w ith t he R omans b ecame i nvolved

c olonies

o n

V is

a nd

C orfu ,

mounting

a n

A f urther c ampaign i n 2 29 B C l ed t o the p olitical

1 9

r e-organisation o f t he a rea w ith a k ingdom o f I llyria b eing e stablished ( Wilkes 1 969, 1 9 a nd f ollowing ). D uring t he M acedonian w ars o f 2 14-148 B C

R oman

a rmies

a nd

f leets

s aw

a ction i n t he a rea ,

M acedonia w as made a R oman p rovince a nd t he k ingdom

a nd i n t he e nd ,

o f

I llyria,

b ased

a bout S kadarsko J ezero a lso a nnexed . F rom t hat t ime u ntil t he c ivil w ars, t he R omans u ndertook s everal p unitive c ampaigns a gainst t he I llyrians,

o ften a t t he r equest o f t he G reek c olonists,

e ffective

s ubjugation

o f

most

o f

t he

c oast

a nd

r esulting i n t he t he

n eighbouring

m ountains. I t w as f rom 3 5 B C t hat more s erious a ttempts w ere m ade t o c onquer t he r emainder o f t he a rea, w hen O ctavian u ndertook t hree s easons o f c ampaigning , a nd

t o

J apodes. i n

a dvancing i nto t he i nterior t o d efeat a

r eceive

t he

s ubmission

o f

o ther

n umber

g roups,

o f

t ribes

i n p articular t he

O ctavian moved o n t owards t he S ava a gainst t he P annonians

t he f inal y ear a dvanced e ven f urther,

C olonies w ere e stablished a t P ola a nd C aesarean

I ader

c olonies h ad n ew s ettlements.

B ellum P annonicum o f 1 3-9 B C w hen i t

a nd

t o w here B eograd s tands t oday. ( Pula,

Z adar)

a nd

o lder

T he n ext c ampaigns c ame i n t he

w as

d ecided

t o

c onsolidate

t he

o verland r oute t o t he o ther B alkan p rovinces a nd g ain t hat t erritory. T he r emaining a rea b etween t he S ava a nd t he D inaric A lps w as c onquered. A lthough

t here

w as

a n

I llyrian

r evolt

s uppressed a nd R oman p ower w as u pheld 1 .4.3

w ay

A D

6 -9 i t w as

f inally

4 6-71).

L ater H istory

O nce t he I llyrian r evolt h ad b een s uppressed t here w as v ery l ittle b y o f m ilitary a ctivity i n D almatia u ntil t he e nd o f t he f ourth

c entury ,

a s e ven t he b arbarian i nvasions o f t he t hird c entury h ad l ittle

e ffect.

T he

D iocletianic

r e-organisation

i ntact e xcept

f or a p ortion t o t he S outh o f

b ecame

o f P raevalitana.

p art

D almatia, a nd

f rom

( ibid ,

l eft t he

t he p rovince l argely g ulf

o f

K otor

t he P annonias a nd N oricum f ormed t he P refecture

w ere p art o f t he W estern Empire.

A D 3 95

o f

I llyricum

s aw a ttacks o n s ome o f t he

c oastal c ities b y G oths w ho a lso a ttacked t he i nland l atter w ere more v ulnerable a nd s uffered m ore s everely.

c ities, t hese A t t his t ime a

g overnment t extile f actory w as moved f rom P annonia t o S alona f or ( ibid ,

w hich

I n t he s cheme o f d ivision o f t he empire,

s afety

4 19 ).

F rom A D 4 54 M arcellinus

D almatia

w ho

r efused

o perated

a s

a

s eparate

u nit,

f irst

u nder

t o a cknowledge t he a uthority o f V alentian I II

a nd w as r ecognised b y L eo I ,

a nd ,

f ollowing h is d eath ,

b y

J ulius

N epos

w ho w as a lso r ecognised b y L eo a nd r uled u ntil h is a ssassination i n 4 80. I t w as t o d eal w ith h is a ssassins t hat O dovacar i nvaded D almatia.

F rom

t his p oint o n D almatia o fficially b elonged i n t he E astern e mpire. s pite o f t his, i t e ffectively b ecame p art o f t he O strogothic k ingdom T heodoric,

w hose

g ranted

t erritories

a lso i ncluded P annonia S ecunda.

T heodoric's administration w as a ctive i n s ettling G oths i n D almatia m aintained

much

o f

t he

R oman

a dministration ,

d ecade a fter t he d eath o f T heodoric, a gainst

t he

G oths

J ustinian

i ncluding t axation.

l aunched

h is

b ut A

c ampaigns

a nd a lthough t he m ain a ttack w as u pon I taly ,

2 0

I n o f

f orces

w ere

s ent a gainst t he G oths i n D almatia.

w as t aken a nd s uccessfully h eld u ntil t he r esistance

( ibid ,

A fter i nitial r everses

S alona

g eneral

G othic

c ollapse

o f

4 26).

H owever , e ven a s t he G othic p roblem w as b eing d ealt w ith , t he S lays w ere b eginning t o r aid t he p rovinces o f t he empire a nd h olding s ome t erritory w ith a m easure o f p ermanence.

I n r eaction t o

b egan

T he

f ortifying

t he

l ower

D anube.

i ntensified t he p roblems o f B yzantium , A vars

t urned

t heir

a ttention

o verrunning o f D almatia a nd t he c ities

i ncluding S alona.

a rrival

t his

J ustinian

o f t he Avars o nly

t hough a fter a d efeat i n 5 97

more

W estwards.

d estruction

o f

t he

T his

l ed

t o

o f

t he

c oastal

most

t he

T he c ities a nd i slands r emaining i n B yzantine

h ands w ere f ormed i nto t he t heme o f D almatia w ith a n a rchon a t Z adar a nd u nder t he o versight o f t he E xarchate o f R avenna T he s ituation i n P annonia c oncern

h ere)

( ibid ,

4 37)

( the p ortion S outh o f t he D rava

w orsened e arlier f or ,

u nlike D almatia ,

b eing

t he

i t w as a f rontier

p rovince a nd s o s ubject t o a ll t he a ttacks o f t he s econd a nd third c enturies w hich e ventually c aused c onsiderable d estruction o f b uildings a nd t he l oss o f m any c itizens.

Under t he f ourth

c entury

r estructuring

P annonia w as d ivided i nto f our, w ith P annonia S avia a nd P annonia S ecunda l ying S outh o f t he D rava. T he n umerous l ater b arbarian i ncursions l ed ' o

t he

e stablishment

a nd p art o f S avia,

o f H uns,

G oths a nd A lans a s

f ederates i n S ecunda

t hough t he e xact r elations b etween

t hese

b arbarians

a nd t he l ocal p opulation i s n ot c lear, b ut i t i s t hought s ome m easure o f R oman a dministration r emained. H owever , the a rrival o f t he main b ody o f t he H uns r esulted i n t heir o btaining s ole f ederate s tatus a nd c ontrol o f P annonia P rima , S ecunda a nd S avia a s p art o f t heir t erritory. F ollowing t he H unnic d efeat a t t he h ands o f t heir a llies a c onsiderable n umber o f G oths

s ettled i n P annonia a nd b egan t o e xpand t heir i nfluence.

T he

G oths

w ere

t he

D anube

t o

P annonia

a nd

c apital

o f

S irmium .

I n

c rossed

p refectural S irmium , w as

n ot

t o

maintain

t heir g ains, b y a

5 36

i n 5 27 t he L ombards

t he

G epids

B yzantium i nterfered i n t he L ombardo-Gepid w ar.

s hort-lived.

L ombards;

I n

5 67

t ogether t he

t he

a llies

h eld

t he

s uccessful a ttempt t o r egain T his

s uccess

Avars a rrived a nd t ook t he p art o f t he a nihilated

t he

G epids

a nd

t he

Avars

o ccupied t he P annonian p rovinces f rom w hich t hey b egan t o a ttack B yzantium , c apturing S irmium i n 5 83. F rom t his t ime P annonia w as p ermanently l ost t o B yzantium . 1 .4.4

R omanisation

T he f orces w hich g ave r ise t o t he l ate R oman s ituation i n b oth P annonia a nd D almatia h ad b een o perating s ince b efore t he f inal c onquest a nd

s ubjugation

o f

t he

t erritory.

R ecent w ork

( Haselgrove 1 984 a nd

M illet 1 984) h as e xplored t he e xtent t o w hich R omanisation t ook p lace n ot p rimarily a s a d irect i mposition , b ut a s t he r esult o f i nteraction b etween l ocal e lites a nd a ristocracies b eyond t he f ormal b ounds e mpire

a nd

t he

s tarting p oint a

R oman

s tate

c ore-periphery

i tself. model

2 1

T his o f

v iew,

o f

w hich t akes a s

r elations,

m aintains

t he i ts t hat

R omanisation d id n ot b egin a t t he i nvasion , b ut a t a n e arlier s tage, a nd t hat R ome w as a lways c reating u pon i ts b orders c onditions s uitable f or f urther a dvance. T he

i ron

a ge

s ocieties o f N orth-Western E urope h ad r eached a s tage

w here l eaders o f l ocal p olities w ere a ttempting t o e xtend t heir c ontrol o ver n eighbouring p olities. O ne m echanism e nvisaged i s t hat o f a ttaining s tatus b y f orcing o bligation b y

m eans

o f

g ift

g iving.

A n

a spiring i ndividual must, i n o rder t o s ucceed , h ave a ccess t o s urplus p roduction a nd t he c apability t o t ransform s uch a s urplus i nto d esirable c ommodities.

H aselgrove h as d emonstrated t hat t he s ubstantial g rowth o f

t he i ron a ge p olity l ying N orth o f t he T hames,

c entred

o n

C amulodunum ,

w as b ased u pon t he a bility o f t he l eaders t o t rade w ith R ome i n s uch a w ay a s t o p rovide t he n ecessary g oods f or d omination. H aselgrove i s u nsure w hether t his p olity w as a pproaching s tatehood o r w as s till a p aramount c hieftaincy , b ut t ends t owards t he l atter v iew. E ventually R ome i nterfered p ermanently a nd i nvaded B ritain , b ut e ven f ollowing t hat t here a re s igns t hat t ribal g roupings w ere m aintained a s t he b asic u nits o f

a dministration

a nd t hat l ocal e lites r etained t heir p osition i n t he

p olitical s ystem , m erely f inding t hey h ad e xchanged o ne p aramount f or a nother. M illet d iscovers t he o rigins o f t owns ' i n a s imilar p rocess, w ith t heir p lacement a nd g rowth b eing t he r esult o f t he R oman d esire

t o

i nfluence t ribal e lites a nd u se t hem a s t he m eans o f g athering t axation r evenue. T he ' private e ncouragement a nd o fficial a ssistance' t hat T acitus

r ecords

a s

b eing

g iven t o t he B ritons

( Agricola 2 1)

c ould b e

s een a s p art o f t his p rocess. C an t he i nsights g ained i n B ritain b e a pplied t o t he p rocess o f R omanisation a s i t o ccured i n D almatia a nd P annonia? T he a ttempt m ay b e m ade, s o l ong a s i t i s r emembered t hat t he p hases o f c ontact w ere more c omplex i n t he M editerranean c ase. T he

f irst

p hase

t o b e e xamined must b e t hat p receding t he i nvasion

a nd i ncorporation o f t he t erritories i nto t he empire. c ontacts

h ad

a

l ong

d uration

b ut

d o

n ot

H ere w e f ind t hat

s eem

t o

b e c ast i n t he

c ore-periphery model a lready o utlined. W ilkes ( 1969, 8 0 ) e conomy o f i ron a ge D almatia t o h ave b een p oorly d eveloped , n o s ign o f c onsiderable t rading c ontacts b etween R ome a nd i nland a reas; c ommunities b eing , C oinage, a nother f eature o f t he p roduced

b y

a ny

o f

a lthough

i t

w as

p roduced

s uppression.

T he

o ther

c ore-periphery r elations

t he

s ave t he D aorsii

k ingdom

p henomenon

f ollowed

most

o f

t he

f or t he most p art, s elf s ufficient. R omanisation o f B ritain , w as n ot

t he i ron a ge t ribes b y

r eckons t he a nd t here i s

t he

t hat model

o f

I llyria

s hould i s

p aramount c hieftaincies b ased u pon r e-distribution.

t he

b e

( ibid ,

1 81),

b efore

i ts

a pparent

i f

d evelopment

o f

H owever,

t here d oes

n ot s eem t o b e a g rowth i n t he s ize o f p olitical u nits p rior t o t he i nvasion , n or i s t here a s udden b reaking u p i nto s maller u nits a s p art o f t he p ost-invasion s ettlement.

I ndeed ,

t here

s eems

t o

h ave

b een

l ittle o rganisation a bove t he t ribal l evel. W hat t hen o f t he s ituation a fter t he i nvasion? a ccorded t o t he n ative a ristocracies, i n s o f ar

2 2

W hat s tatus i s a s t hey c an b e

i dentified ,

a nd

q uestion i s h ave

h ow

d id

t he

g rowth

o f t owns t ake p lace?

d ifficult t o a nswer i n d etail,

b ut

T he

w e

a re t hat n ative e lites w ere maintained i n t heir p ositions a nd that

a dministration p ractise.

p assed

O ne

t hrough

them ,

t his

b eing

f urther h int t owards t his may b e

l ocation o f t owns.

I t

i s

n ot

p ossible

i n

t he

n ormal

t he

c oastal

i s v ery l ittle a rmy a ctivity i n the a rea a fter t he

r egions

f irst

s uch a s a t N in ,

a nd

most

f ollowing ).

H ere

the

o f

T hus,

t he

most

i mportant

i n t hese a reas a t

I n

K arin a nd Z adar

( ibid ,

I n P annonia,

c ities,

w as

S iscia ,

t he

which

b ecame

u se,

t he l onger t erm the p rocesses o f R omanisation c ontinued , c entury

H owever, n ear

D almatia

a nd

c ontinuity o f the n ative o rganisations

w ith the

g radual g rowth o r e stablishment o f o ther t owns a nd c ities u ntil t hird

2 03

o n t he

a n oted p re-invasion c entre.

l east t he n ative c entres c ontinued i n

p rovide a n i ndication o f u nder t he i mperial s ystem .

What

l ocated u pon

r apid u rbanisation t ook p lace,

f oundation o f i ron a ge d evelopments.

t o

f or t here

phases.

i s n oticable i s t hat o n t he R avni K otari t he municipia w ere t he s ites o f i ron a ge c entres

R oman

f ound b y c onsidering t he

a ttribute t he g rowth o f t owns t o the p resence o f t he m ilitary ,

o ne

f irst

s uch i ndications t hat

c ould

b e

r egarded

a s u rbanised

e ven a t t his t ime there r emained a reas

b y

( ibid ,

i n the i nterior,

the 2 90).

s uch a s

D oclea where c ity o rganisation a nd administration d id n ot d evelop.

O verall,

t he

c ultural

f ive o r

s o

i nfluence

c enturies

c onsiderably

o f

u ninterrupted

c hanged

the

p olitical

s ystems o f i ron a ge D almatia a nd P annonia,

e nd ,

the

t o

R oman

s ocial,

r ule

a nd

e conomic

a nd

g iving r ise,

i n the

s ociety that the Avars a nd S lays o verran i n the s ixth a nd

s eventh c enturies. 1 .5

H ISTORICAL B ACKGROUND O F T HE S TUDY

1 .5.1

F irst

T he

S teps

s tudy o f t he a rchaeology o f t he O ld C roatian p eriod i s

a h undred y ears c entenary

o f

o ld , the

w ith

1 987

b eing

t aken

t o

1 666

w hen

a nd

T his

m ediaeval

s ituation b efore t he V enetian

h istory

s ources

R oman

( Povijest H rvata,

s tolje6a,

published h rvatskoga

n arodnih v ladara A rchaeological c ame

g oing

b ack

a t

b etween n aroda

t he

a vailable,

a nd

p eriod

f or

s tarting

c ontinuing

a s

which

w ith the

f ar

a s

the

b een

p roduced

by

h istorians

o d n ajstarijih v remena d o s vr J etka X IX

1 899

a nd

( Zagreb

1 911) 1 916 ),

a nd

F

S iäi

( Pregled

P ovijest H rvata u v rijeme

( Zagreb 1 925)). i nvestigation

e arlier a ccidental d iscovery

the

but the

F rom t hen u ntil the p resent d ay a number

o f h istories o f the a rea a nd p eriod h ave

p ovijesti

h istory ,

c overed

w ere

i nvasion

c ontrol o f D almatia.

s uch a s V K lai6

o ver

a s

I oannis L ucii p ublished h is D e R egno D almatiae e t

C roatiae i n Amsterdam . c lassical

j ust

c elebrated

C roatian S ociety f or the S tudy o f Antiquity ,

g eneral h istorical i nvestigation h as a l onger l east

a nd

i n

f inds

b egan f ormally i n t he

o f e pigraphic material.

T he

1 880's

f irst

f ollowing

s ignificant

1 871 w hen building w ork a t t he p arish c hurch o f Muá

G ornji p roduced a f ragment o f a c hancel-screen d ecorated w ith

2 3

i nterlace

r elief a nd a n i nscription g iving t he n ame o f a C roatian p rince a nd

t he d ate o f A D 8 88.

A d iscovery w hich ,

v i),

' resounded

t he

a mongst

C roatian

B ranimir

a ccording t o G unjaüa

p atriotic

p ublic'

( 1976,

b ecause

i t

d emonstrated b oth t he ' ethnical e xistence o f t he C roats a nd t heir c ultural c reativity '. I n 1 885 t he p arish p riest o f D rnis, L ujo M arun , a C roatian

p atriot,

s et a bout h is

o f s imilar d iscoveries.

f irst e xcavations,

i nspired b y t he h ope

O f t hese e xcavations G unjaüa

( ibid )

r emarked:

' It w ould b e d ifficult t o s ay w hich w as t he more modest - h is k nowledge o r t he m eans a vailable t o h im , b ut i t w as p recisely S tjepan

Marun 's e xplorations i n P etrovac a nd G radac t hat m arked

t he b irth o f C roatian a rchaeolcgy.'

M arun

w as

s oon

p resented

w ith

o ther o pportunities w hen a r ailway

e xtension w as p lanned t o c ross t he s uspected s ite o f K apitul n ear H e

f ound

a b asilica,

K nin.

a n umber o f f ragments o f d ecorative s tonework a nd

s ome e arly C roatian g raves,

t o w hich n o a ttention w as p aid.

F urther,

a

m ore r ecent c emetery h ad t o b e r emoved a nd t wo r e-used s labs w ere f ound r 1 o ne g rave, i nscribed s labs w ith t he e nding o f a n ame ( ...CLAV ) a nd t he m ention o f a C roatian d uke ( DUX H ROATORUM ). u nearthed a nd i n 1 888 a monograph o n t he p ublished

b y

D on F rane B uliö,

m ore s erious a ttention b egan

O ther i nscriptions w ere C roatian monuments w as

a c lassical a rchaeologist.

t o

b e

p aid

t o

t he

g raves

A t t his t ime d iscovered ,

p ossibly b ecause o f t he q uality o f m aterial f ound i n t hem . A ll o f t his w ork w as u ndertaken b y amateurs s upported b y p ublic s ubscription , a t f irst j ust i n K nin , b ut i n 1 887 Marun f ounded t he C roatian S ociety f or t he S tudy o f A ntiquity a nd r emained i ts p resident f or

f orty

y ears.

t he p atriotism o f i nvestigation , d iscoveries s o s ites

w here

G unjaüa a dmits t hat t his a mateur b asis, n ationalists,

h ad

d rawbacks

f or

t he

r elying u pon s trategy

o f

f or d onors h ad t o b e k ept i nterested b y s pectacular ' excavations w ere c arried o ut w ithout a ny p lan o nly o n a r ich f ind c ould s afely b e a nticipated

1 894 a museum w as o pened i n K nin ,

a nd l ater,

( ibid ,

a s t he r esult

v iii )'. o f

I n

p ersonal

d isputes b etween r esearchers ( ibid , i x ) c ollections w ere f ounded i n S plit, N in, B iograd , O brovac a nd e ventually B ribir. F inally among t hese f irst

f ruits

t here

c ame

C roatian E nlightenment) b eginnings

t he

j ournal

w hich w as

a rchaeological

S tarohrvatska p rosvjeta

f irst p ublished i n 1 895.

i nvestigations

( Early

F rom

t hese

i nto t he O ld C roatian p eriod

c ontinued i n a s imilar m anner u ntil t he F irst W orld W ar a nd b eyond. A lthough t he main t hrust o f r esearch i nto t he e arly C roatian p eriod h appened i n D almatia, w ork i n t he t wo o ther a reas o f C roatia s hould n ot b e

i gnored.

museums

I n

I stria

a nd

N orthern

C roatia,

w here t here h ad b een

f rom t he e arly p art o f t he n ineteenth c entury ,

i nvestigation

o f

t he e arly m ediaeval w ent t ogether w ith t he r est o f a rchaeology a nd w as n ot s uch a n i ndependent p henomenon a s i n D almatia. T he e xcavation o f t he B ijelo B rdo c emetery , t ype s ite f or t he B ijelo B rdo c ulture , b egan i n 1 895 a nd c ontinued i n 1 896, d irected b y N uber a nd f inanced b y t he

2 4

C roatian A rchaeological S ociety i n b etween 3 1).

Z agreb ,

t he

f inds

t o

t he N ational Museum i n Z agreb a nd N uber h imself

L ater e xcavation t ook p lace a t

B ijelo

B rdo

i n

b e

d ivided

( Brun§mid 1 904, 1 907

w here

t he

r emainder o f t he c emetery w as r evealed ( Ercegovid 1 958, 1 65). B ijelo B rdo w as n ot t he f irst s ite o f t he e arly m ediaeval p eriod f ound , a nd B runämid p ublished t hree s maller c emeteries r ecognising t he a rchaeological c onnections w ith

a t t he s ame t ime, H ungarian m aterial.

E xcavation c ontinued i n t he a rea u ntil t he F irst W orld W ar. I strian a rchaeology b egan w ith a c lassical b ias b ut i n 1 895 V rata f ound ,

a t

M ala

n ear B uzet a s mall c emetery o f e ight e arly S lavic g raves w as d ating t o t he m iddle o f n inth c entury ( Maruäid e 1 986, 9 7) a nd i n

1 898 a r ich l angobardic w arrior g rave w as f ound a t B re a dn ear B uzet ( ibid , 9 1). A s w ell a s t he c emeteries a n umber o f e arly m ediaeval a nd p alaeo-Christian c hurches w ere i nvestigated t hroughout 1 .5.2

I stria.

B etween t he W ars

T he

p eriod

b etween

t he

t wo

w orld

w ars

f orms t he s econd p hase o f

a rchaeological e xploration o f t he e arly C roatian p eriod , e xtending u ntil 1 941 w hen t he G ermans i nvaded Y ugoslavia. A t t he s tart o f t his p eriod t he t hree a reas

f ell u nder d ifferent g overnments,

w ith N orthern

C roatia

a nd D almatia b eing p art o f t he k ingdom o f Y ugoslavia a nd I stria p art o f I taly. Z adar, t he main c ity o f N orth D almatia , a nd R ijeka w ere I talian e nclaves. I n s pite o f t he c hange o f a dministration a nd t he a pparent g ranting o f S outh S lav u nity v ery l ittle s eemed t o c hange i n t he s tudy o f t he e arly m ediaeval p eriod i n D almatia, w ith L ujo Marun r emaining p resident o f t he S ociety u ntil 1 925. A lthough t l ie s econd s eries o f S tarohrvatska P rosvjeta w as b egun , v ery l ittle i mportant w ork t ook p lace i n t he p eriod. T he d iscovery, i n B ranimir.

most 1 928

s ignificant f or t he h istorical a spect w as t he a t o pot, o f a n i nscription m entioning P rince

B eloäevid

( 1980,

1 6 )

s tates

t hat

t here

w ere

n o

more

s ignificant i nvestigations i n N orth D almatia u ntil t he e nd o f t he S econd W orld S oh n.

W ar, t hough t he B ihad s ociety u ndertook i mportant e xcavations a t A s imilar s ituation e xisted i n I stria u nder I talian r ule, w here

s uch e arly m ediaeval e xcavation a s t ook p lace w as c oncentrated u pon c hurches. A lthough Z agreb w as i n Y ugoslavia t here d oes n ot s eem t o h ave b een

a

l ot

o f e xcavation c arried o ut.

T he i nterwar p eriod w as o ne o f

s tagnation o r d ecline. 1 .5.3

P ost-war W ork

I n

t he

y ears

f ollowing

t he

l iberation

o f

Y ugoslavia

e stablishment o f t he S ocialist F ederal R epublic o f Y ugoslavia , p resent d ay ,

a nd

a c onsiderable a mount o f e xcavation h as t aken p lace,

w ith t he r eorganisation o f a rchaeology a nd museums.

2 5

t he

u ntil t he a long

E xcavation

a nd

r esearch i n D almatia r ecovered a fter l iberation f rom

i ts p re-war moribundity a nd a c arried

o ut,

mainly

c onsiderable

amount

o f

w ork

h as

u nder t he a uspices o f t wo i nstitutions,

H rvatskih

A rheoloäkih

monuments,

h enceforth MHAS)

S pomenika

( Museum

o f

C roatian

b een

t he Muzej

a rchaeological

a nd t he A rchaeological Museum i n Z adar

( AMZ)

w hich d ivided t he t erritory o f N orthern D almatia b etween t hem . I n 1 948 Z adar museum c arried o ut e xcavations a t Materiza n ear N in , w hich w ere c ompleted i n 1 955 a nd p roduced t he f irst c ompletely e xcavated c emetery f rom t he p agan p eriod. I n 1 954 G unjaüa u ndertook e xploratory w ork i n t he c entral p art o f t he e xcavation.

T he

R avni

a rea w ith b oth MHAS a nd AMZ a nd

1 957

K otari

m id-fifties

s easons

t o

Maklinovo

i n

1 955

f ielding e xcavation t eams

i nvestigate

Mastirine a nd K a i dR azbojine. a t

a nd

o pot.

B esides

i n t he

1 955,

1 956

1 960's e xcavation t ook

p lace

S tara P ovljana o n P ag a s w ell a s a round

N ear N in ,

a t t he

s ite o f Z drijac,

i nhumation c emetery w as f ound a nd e xcavated ( Beloäevi6 1 980, 1 7-18). More r ecently MHAS h as a t

s ystematic

c emeteries a t K aäid Maklinovo B rdo ,

During the

B rdo a gain a nd a t

t he c hurch o f S v K rii a t N in.

b egan

s aw a c onsiderable amount o f w ork i n t he

e xcavation

t he

a l arge

f rom 1 969 u ntil 1 977 r e-opened e xcavations

a rchaeological

c ollections

r e-housed b oth i n Z adar a nd i n S plit w here t he material

w ere

f rom t he e arlier

e xploration p hases w ere c ollected i n a n ew museum b uilding. I stria h as a lso s een a s ubstantial a mount o f e xcavation f ollowing t he w ar

a nd

i ts

a ddition

t o

Yugoslavia.

E arly C hristian ,

S lavic s ites h ave a ll b een u ncovered a t l ocations M ejica,

B rioni

a nd

Dvograd ,

B yzantine a nd

s uch a s 2 minj,

s o t hat t he majority o f s ites

C elega,

f rom t hose

p eriod h ave p robably b een u ncovered s ince t he w ar. T he A rchaeological Museum o f I stria w as o pened i n 1 949 a nd a c onsiderable amount o f p ublication h as t aken p lace. I n

t he

P annonian

e xcavation. a nd

i n

the

T he

a rea

1 940's

1 950's

B oänjaca ,

while

F rankish

metal-work

f ollowing

t he

w ar

t here

w as

a s purt o f

s aw t he c ompletion o f e xcavation a t B ijelo

e xcavations

V inski

t ook

c arried

o ut

p lace

a t

c onsiderable

o f P annonia a nd D almatia.

r esearch

i nto

t he

U nfortunately t here h as

b een v ery l ittle r ecent e xcavation c arried o ut b y the N arodni Z agreb,

B rdo

B rodski D renovac a nd

Muzej

i n

mainly a s a c onsequence o f t he f inancial c risis t hat Y ugoslavia

i s a t p resent u ndergoing

( the e ffects o f the c risis a re

a lso

a ffecting

t he p rogrammes o f o ther museums a nd i nstitutions). 1 .5.4

T he T hread o f N ationalism

T he

h undred

y ear

h istory

o f

a rchaeological e xcavation o f t he O ld

C roatian p eriod h as b riefly b een l aid o ut a nd i n t he n ext c hapter the e pistemological p osition o f t he r esearch w ill b e a ssessed , b ut b efore t hat t he main t rends a rchaeology

c an b e d rawn f rom t he h istory.

i n t he p eriod w as t o a n e xtent

o f c lassical a rchaeology i n Y ugoslavia a nd w as n ationalistic a

b elief

i nception

f ounded

i n

o ne

o f

movements o f t he B alkans w hich h eld t hat t here w as

g lorious p ast t han t he g overning Austrians a dmitted S uch

T he

i nevitably

c oloured

2 6

o f

s eparate f rom t he b eginnings

( Gunjaüa 1 976,

b oth t he r esearch p attern

t he

a more ( it

v i). c an

h ardly

b e

c alled

a

s trategy )

a nd t he i nterpretation o f t he r esults.

T his l ed t o a s tress u pon t he e xcavation o f c hurches, l ikely

t o

p rovide

t he

i nscriptions

a nd

a rchitecture

w as t hus p ut i n p lace.

i mpressive

c arving.

A

c oncentration

B elogevi6

( 1980,

t he b ias t owards t he t enth a nd e leventh c enturies b ased

a round

w hich

w ere

more

e vidence o f c ultural a chivement i n t he f orm o f

c hurches,

a nd

t he

u pon

1 3)

c hurch

a lso o bserved

i nevitable i n a

s tudy

c onsequent l ack o f r esearch i nto t he i mportant

a s

t his c hronological b ias i s t he i nfluence o f t he e arlier n ationalism ;

e arlier p hase r egarded g enerally a s t he p agan p eriod.

A s

h as

i t i n f act b een d iscarded f rom t he s tudy o r d oes

t he

i t

s till

i nfect

w ork w hich i s b eing d one? I nevitably a n a nswer t o d irection o f g overnment,

t his

q uestion

must

l ook

a t

t he

o verall

a nd i n 1 962 T ito s tated:

' I w ould n ote t hat t he p rocess o f i ntegration s hould n ot d eprive n ationalities

o f

t heir t raditions.

t he

c ultural

a nd

B ut,

w ith t he

u nification

o ther p ositive a spects o f o f

n ations,

n ew

f orms o f c ulture e merge a nd t ake s hape, i n t he s ense o f a c ommon c ulture b eing c reated a t t he l evel o f u nity. ( Tito 1 983, 1 02)'

S o

f ar

a s a rchaeology i s c oncerned s uch a v iew o f t he i mportance o f

n ational t raditions i n Y ugoslavia r esults i n t he C roats'

b eing s tressed ,

c ulture d iscovered b y a rchaeology , ( 1980, 1 4) D almaciji'

w hich

d emonstrates

A

n ationalistic,

' the

w hat

B eloäevi6

o r p erhaps a g enerally p atriotic t one may

b e d etected f rom Marun t o t he p resent d ay , i s

o f

r efers t o a s ' materijalne i d uhovne k ulture H rvata u ( the material a nd s piritual c ulture o f t he C roats i n

D almatia ). i t

a chievements

a nd a v ery p ositive a spect p ut u pon t he material

n ot

v ery

s ignificant

t here

a nd w hile f or t he

a re

o ccasions

a ttribution o f a material c ulture b ecomes a p ride i nfects

matter

w hen i n

most t he

w hich

p art e thnic

n ational

s cholarship.

T here i s t hroughout t he s tudy a f eeling o f c ontinuity f rom t he o rigins t o t he p resent d ay e ven t hough modern a rchaeologists f ind t hat t he w ork c arried o ut ' Such

a

method

i n t he f irst d ecades w as p oorly d ocumented: o f

f ieldwork

s cientific u se o f t he material v alue S plit

o f

n umerous

n egatively r eflected u pon l ater a nd ...decreased

a rchaeological

( Beloäevi6 1 980,

f inds

t he

s cientific

p reserved i n MHAS i n

1 5)'.

T his h as s purred s ome o n t o b etter r ecording a nd p ublication , b ut s uch a move h as t aken many y ears ( Bili6 , p ers c omm ) a nd t he s tandard o f r ecording

a nd

t he

m ethodology o f e xcavation i s

s pite o f t he e xistence o f a p eriodical p ublication o f a s ite i s o ften l imited A rheologki P regled.

Y et

t he

o verall

t hrust

s till n ot u niform .

t owards

m aterial a nd s piritual c ulture o f t he C roats r emains.

2 7

I n

d evoted t o t he p eriod, t o a s hort p age r eport i n u ncovering

t he

1 .6

L INES O F A TTACK

A t t he b eginning o f t his

c hapter s everal

t hemes

w ere

s uggested

a s

t hose w hich s hould b e a ddressed b y a rchaeologists o f t he e arly m ediaeval p eriod , a nd more s pecifically o f t he e arly m ediaeval p eriod i n C roatia. A lthough w hat m ight b e c alled t he g rand t hemes, s uch a s t he d evelopment o f t he s tate,

a re s uitable f or u ndertaking i t i s n ot i ntended

w ith

f or

t hese,

c ompetent

f urther d own t he s cale, T he

r elations

o f

a nalysis

a nd i t i s t his t hat w ill

i ndividuals

t o

t o

s tart

w ill h ave t o r est u pon w ork d one b e

i ndividuals

u ndertaken

a nd g roups,

f irst.

t he s ocial

s tructure a nd s ocial r elations w ill b e e xamined f irst, b eginning a t a t t he l evel o f t he l ocal c ommunities a nd t hen moving t o a r egional v iew, b efore f inally a ttempting t o c ompa-e r egions a nd e valuate t he w hole. I t m ay

b e

p ossible

t o

o bserve

t he c riteria u pon w hich s tatus d epended ,

w hether i t w as h ereditary o r a scribed a nd w hat l evel o f e xisted.

d ifferentiation

W hilst t he t ime c ontrol a vailable t hrough t he m aterial c ulture

i s n ot v ery a ccurate i t m ay b e p ossible t o o bserve c hange o f t he

s ocial

s ystem t hrough t ime. T hat t he a nalysis o f t he e conomy o f t he

p eriod

w ill

b e

u ndertaken

a fter t hat o f t he s ocial s tructure d oes n ot i mply t eleological p riority o f t he l atter, r ather t hat o ne a spect must b e t aken f irst, a nd t here i s s ubstantially

more

e vidence

f or

s ocial

s tructure

a ctivity.

B ecause o f t his more m ay b e l earned o f

f ramework

o f

t he s ocial

s tructure a lready s tands.

e conomy i s t aken t o i nclude m anufacture

o f o bjects,

a gricultural

t han f or e conomic

t he

p roduction

i nternal a nd e xternal t rade.

e conomy

I n t his a nd

i f

c onsumption ,

T he n ature o f t he

e xcavated m aterial d oes n ot e nable h igh h opes t o b e h eld c oncerning u nderstanding

o f

t he

a gricultural

s ystems

t he

c ontext t he

t he

a nd a s a c onsequence more

e ffort w ill b e c oncentrated o n manufacture a nd t rade. T he

c entral

f eature i n t he s tudy o f i deological e vents

( ideological

f or t he p resent c omprises t he r eligious a nd c osmological a spect o f l ife ) i s t he c onversion o f t he p opulation f rom a p oorly u nderstood p aganism t o W estern C hristianity , t he

a ssessment

t he n ature o f t his

c hange,

w hen i t t akes p lace a nd

o f i ts a ppearance i n t he p hysical r emains.

T his l atter

w ill i nvolve c onsideration o f t he r elation o f g rave g oods

t o

a s

a lthough

w ell

a s

t he

o rientation

o f

g raves.

H owever,

c onstruction o f c hurches d oes b egin i n t he p eriod t here i s n o t o a nalyse t hem d irectly ,

p aganism , t he

i ntention

p artly b ecause i t w ould b e t oo l arge a s ubject

a nd p artly b ecause a c omprehensive a nalysis w ould e xtend f ar b eyond

t he

c hronological l imits a lready s et. T here r emain t wo t hemes w hich a re b est c onsidered t ogether, a s t hey d o t o t he o peration a nd m aintenance o f l arger g roups. i s t he d evelopment o f p olitical o rganisation ,

r elating T he f irst

t he move f rom t ribalism t o

t he d eveloped s tate t hat u nder T omislav h ad c omplex p olitical r elations w ith o ther n eighbouring s tates. T hese r elations w ill b e c ast i n b road t erms,

f or

t he s uccession o f s pecific k ings

t hat t here w as a k ing a t a ll i s u nderstanding

o f

s tate

a

m ore

d evelopment.

2 8

i s a d istraction;

i mportant

i ndicator

t he f act f or

t he

T he s econd t heme i s t hat o f t he

o verall l ast,

p ower

s ystems

o perating

i n C roatia.

O f n ecessity t his c omes

f or a c omprehensive u nderstanding o f t he p articular p ower f orms o f

i deology ,

e conomic

a ctivity ,

p olitical r elations a nd m ilitary c apacity

i s n eeded b efore t heir i nterrelation c an b e a ccurately d ealt w ith. B efore

a ll

t hese

t hemes

m ay b e t reated ,

t he t heoretical b asis

f or

a nalysis must b e s et o ut, b uilding b oth a g eneral t heory a nd s pecific t heory f or i ndividual a reas. D ocumentary material, w hich m ay p rovide u seful i nformation , m ust b e a ssessed a nd t ransmuted i nto a n a pplicable f orm . T hen t he a rchaeological material i tself must b e c onsidered , i n o rder t hat i ts r eliability , a ccuracy k nown. a lready

T hese p rocesses d etailed

c onclusions, s uggest

t he n ature o f a ny o bservable b iases a nd

o f f irst l evel i nferences

l ines

w ill

c hapters

( those c oncerning d ating e tc )

o ccupy 5 -8.

c hapters C hapter

2 -4 9

w ill

a nd

t he

c ontain

a nalyses o verall

a ttempt t o a pply t hem i n t he b roader r egional c ontext, f or f urther r esearch.

2 9

t he

c an b e

a nd

C HAPTER TWO O N T HEORY 2 .1

ARCHAEOLOGICAL T HEORY I N CROATIA :

I n t he C roatian

f irst

c hapter t he

p eriod

A C RITIQUE

d evelopment

w as o utlined.

N ow ,

o f

t he

s tudy

t he c onstraints

o f

t he

e arly

s et u pon t he s tudy

b y t he p erceived l imits o f a rchaeological k nowledge a nd e nquiry w ill e xamined

i n

more

d etail b y m eans

t he l iterature a nd t he c onclusions

o f c onsidering s tatements r esulting f rom t he

b e

d rawn f rom

i nvestigation

o f

p articular s ites. T he p hrase t hat a rchaeology B eloäevib,

o f

c an b e t aken t o i ndicate t he

t his

p eriod

o ccurring a lmost

i s

g eneral

t enor

o f

t he

f ound f requently i n t he w orks o f J anko

a s a b enediction i n most o f h is p ublications

o f c emetery material:

' materijalna i d uhovna k ultura H rvata n a t lu D almaciji.'

T he

material

a nd

D almatia.

What d oes

s piritual

c ulture

s piritual

c ulture o f t he C roats

B eloäev r ä m ean that

D oes

u pon t he s oil o f h e

mean

b y

t he

o f

t he

C roats?

T hat

the

c emetery

a nd s lotted i n t o t he matrix o f c hronological g roups h as b een

s hown t o h old t he k ey t o the n ot. What then? P erhaps c ontext,

t his?

h e h as d emonstrated s ome d eep i nsight i nto t he

r eligious o r i deological b eliefs d escribed

b y

a t,

f or e xample,

s ocial o rganisation o f t he C roats? H e d oes i t i s f airer t o s ee the p hrase i n a f ull

t he e nd o f

t he

r eport

o n

t he

c emetery

o f

B iljane D onje.

' s o bzirom n a i znijeta z apafanja i n a a rheoloäke momente g robovi u B iljanima D onjim i maju i zuzetno v aino a rheoloäko z na5enje z a d aljne p rouEavanje i d uhovne

o svjetljavanje

u vijek n edovoljno p rouEena 1 09).

n ajstarije

( With

r egard

t o

a rchaeological importance, e xceptionally

i

s labo

d rawing

p oznata o ut

a n

k oji

( BeloäeviC o bservation

t he g raves a t B iljane D onje

j e

i j oä

1 975, o n t he

h ave

a n

i mportant a rchaeological s ignificance f or f urther

r esearching a nd e nlightening t he o ldest material c ulture

materijalne

k ulture H rvata n a t lu d almatinske H rvatske,

o f t he C roats

o n t he

a nd

s piritual

s oil o f D almatian C roatia w hich i s

s till i nsufficiently s tudied a nd p oorly k nown.)'

T hat

t he

o f D almatia i s

m aterial a nd s piritual s till i nsufficiently

3 0

c ulture o f the C roats u pon t he s tudied

a nd

p oorly

k nown

i s

s oil n o

h ardship t o a gree w ith ,

b ut b eyond t hat,

w hat more h as b een d iscovered?

F irst t here h as b een t he p ublication o f a s et b een

f itted

t he p eriod g raves). m aterial, t heir

i nto

o f

g raves

w hich

h as

t he g eneral p attern o f t he a rchaeological r emains o f

( which f or t he most p art c onsists o f c emeteries w ith

s imilar

S econdly t here i s t he e stablishment o f t he d ate r ange o f t he s o t hat t he p hysical r emains s o l aboriously r ecovered c an t ake

p lace

i n

T hirdly t he

t he

g eneral

o rigins

o f

s cheme

s ome

i tems

o f o f

e arly m ediaeval a rchaeology. material

c ulture

h ave

b een

d etermined. T he f ew c oins f ound ( Byzantine a nd C arolingian ) a re among t he e asiest o bjects t o p lace, f or t hey a re s pecific a s a c lass a nd i ndividually , a s w ell a s

a nd

c an b e f ixed i nto w ider p atterns w ith s ome a ccuracy ,

e nabling

o ther

i tems

t o

b e

d ated.

T he

o ther

u se

o f

a ttributable i tems i s t he d etermination o f c ontacts w ith t he s urrounding c ulture g roups. j ewellery

C arolingian s words

s hows

t hat

r eveal s uch a

c onnection ,

a nd

t he

n ot o nly w as B yzantine m aterial i tself a vailable

b ut a lso t hat i t c onstituted a v ery s trong i nfluence u pon t he i ndigenous c ommissioners a nd m anufacturers o f i nto a d eep c oncern w ith t ypology

j ewellery. a nd t he

T his s tudy h as d eveloped c ompletion o f c orpuses,

p articularly o f J elovina, 1 986 ).

t he more e asily a ttributable m ilitary material ( see T he c ompleted w orks c an then b e u sed t o f ill i n

d etails

d ating o f o bjects a nd e ventually c emeteries.

o f

t he

s ome o f t he r itual b ehaviour o f t he g roup h as b een r evealed; o f b urial, t he g ruesome a spects,

F inally ,

the

m ethod

d eposition o f g rave g oods, a s w ell a s s ome o f t he more s uch a s d ecapitation a nd the p lacing o f s pare h eads i n

s ome g raves. H ow t hen d o c ulture? a nd

A

t he

t hese f irst

m anner

r epresentative

r emains

o f o f

r epresent

r eaction i s b urial

a re

' poorly '.

the

m aterial

r evealed

t hey

t he w hole m aterial c ulture,

o f t he c emetery material

w hich

h as

a nd

s piritual

While t he i ndividual o bjects

u ndergone

a re

b y

n o

m eans

f or i t i s o nly a p ortion d ecay

p rocesses

s ince

d eposition. I t i ncludes n othing f rom t he s ettlement s ites a nd i s o nly a s ignificantly f iltered s ub-set t hat e nables the a rchaeologist t o f ix h is e xcavated g roup i nto t he e stablished f ramework o f c hronology , a nd t o d escribe a ny o bscure o r s trange o bjects w hich d o n ot f it i n t he g eneral p attern.

A nd

w hat

o f

t he s piritual c ulture o r t he C roats?

e nlightenment i s l ess c oncrete a nd t akes t he f rom

the

c emeteries.

T he

f orm

o f

b elief

H ere the i nferred

d eposition o f g rave g oods d emonstrates t he

b elief i n a n a fterlife. T he l arge s tones s et o n s ome c orpses a re t aken t o i ndicate i deas o f v ampirism a nd s pirits ' walking '. I n s uch a w ay t he s pritual c ulture i s d etermined; a s uitably p agan s et o f b eliefs. B ut i s t here n othing k nown o f t he s ociety o f t he l iving i n t he C roatian p ast? A l ittle,

a s t he p resence o f k nives i n many g raves

i s t aken t o

i ndicate

f ree s tatus. W hat e vents,

i s more f requently a ttempted i s t he d etermination o f d ates f or o r s tages o f k nown p rocesses. Maruäid , a nalysing t he m aterial

f rom 2 minj, i nteraction

d eals w ith t he s tages o f t he S lavic a dvance i nto I stria,

o f b oth p henomena i n t he c emetery m aterial m anages

t he

o f p agan S lav a nd a boriginal i nhabitants a nd t he v isibility ( Maruäiä 1 987).

F rom t his h e

t o i mprove t he c hronology o f t he S lavic a dvance i nto I stria a nd

3 1

g ain s ome v iew o f R ather m ore s pecific, b y G unja d a f ollows:

' When

i nto

t he i nteraction o f t he S lays a nd t he B yzantines. b ut w holly i n t he s ame c haracter w as t he r esearch

t he d eath o f k ing Z vonimir.

G unjaca s ummarises i t a s

C roatian h istoriography g ot s tuck i n a r ut t rying t o f ind

a n e xplanation f or t he c omplicated d eath o f w as

u p

t o

C roatian

K ing

Z vonimir...it

a rchaeology t o s olve t he p roblem .

A nd i t

s ucceeded b y d iscovering t he r emains o f t he f ive E arly

C roatian

c hurches

o f

w hich

Z vonimir. b y

t he

s tood

a t

K osovo

d uring

t he

r eign

K ing

A vailable i nformation s tated t hat t he k ing w as k illed p eople

a ssembly t here,

o f

t he

v illage

o n a s pot

i ts

name,

o f c ourse,

T he

v erification

o f

K osovo ,

w hile h olding a n

c alled F ive C hurches.

T his p lace o wed

t o t he e xistence o f f ive c hurch b uildings.

o f

t he

h istorical

f act

d epended

o n

t he

d iscovery o f t races o f t hese c hurches. T his u ndertaking t oo w as c rowned w ith s uccess. ( Gunjaüa 1 976, x vii )'

T his

r eliance

h istorical e vents T he

u pon

t he

a rchaeology

t o

p rovide

' evidence'

f or

i s n ot u ntypical.

t wo main t hreads o f C roatian a rchaeology h ave b een d escribed a nd

i llustrated , h ow t hen c an t hey b e u nderstood a nd e xplained? T here a re t wo w ays t o a pproach t hese v iews o f a rchaeology , f irst t o t ry t o g rasp w hat t he C roatian a rchaeologists m ight u nderstand b y s piritual

c ulture,

t he

material

s imilar t heory t hat h eld s way i n B ritain s ome y ears a go. i s

a nd

a nd s econd t o e xamine t he r estraints i n t he l ight o f T o b egin w ith ,

t here a ny w ay t hat t he material a nd s piritual c ulture c ould b e t aken

t o h ave b een e nlightened? c ulture

i s

t aken ,

n ot

T here i s, p erhaps

s omething n earer t o a ' collective' w hole

p opulation

w as

i f a s lightly d ifferent v iew o f t he

t he

n ormative c ulture o f C hilde,

c ulture.

e ngaged,

i s

T his c ulture,

d isplayed

a rchaeologist i n t he m aterial f ound i n t he g round. t he

p art

g enetic,

r epresents

i n w hich

u ltimately

t o

T he m anner i n

b ut t he t he

w hich

t he w hole c an b e u nderstood b y t wo a nalogies,

o ne

o ne c hemical.

I f t he f requently d rawn p icture o f a s ociety a s a n o rganism i s t aken , e ach o ne o f t he c ells o f t he b ody c ontain

a ll

t he

c haracteristics, l ooking

a t

( of t he p articipants o f

t he

s ociety )

2 3 p airs o f c hromosomes t hat d etermine i ts p articular s o t hat t he c hromosomes o f a b ody m ay b e d etermined

a ny

o ne

c ell

o r

s mall

g roup o f c ells.

b y

I n t he c hemical

a nalogy t he s ociety s hould b e c onsidered a s t he s olution o f a s alt w hich w ill,

i n

c ertain

d isplay t he c hemical

c ircumstances,

p roduce

s tructure o f t he

c rystals.

s olution.

I f

T hese t he

c rystals

s olution

i s

d iscarded t he c rystals r emain w ith t he c omposition o f t he s alt l ocked i n t hem . p ast

T he a pplication t o a rchaeology s hould s ociety

( culture,

e thnic g roup )

b y a ll m embers, w hich w ill a t s ome p oint p hysical r esults, w hich t he a rchaeologist

3 2

b e

r easonably

c lear.

h as a s et o f c haracteristics ' crystalize' may l ater

A

s hared

t o p roduces f ind. A s t he

c rystals

i ndicate

t he

c omposition o f t he s olution f or t he c hemist,

s o

t he a rchaeologist c an d iscover t he n ature o f t he g roup f rom t he p hysical r emains. i s,

T he

u nderstanding ,

t he e nlightenment a chieved b y a rchaeology

i f w e t ake t he g enetic e xample,

a k nowledge o f t he

e ssence

o f

t he

c ulture, a ll p arts c ontaining t he b asic c haracteristics. I n c hemical t erms t he r ecovered o bjects p rovide a ccess t o t he c omposition o f t he o riginal c ultural s olution. t o

e nlightenment

m ade

S uch m ight b e a n e xplanation f or t he c laims b y

B elo ä evid.

H owever,

t he

e ssential

c haracteristics o f a s ociety ( culture, e tc ) c onjured f rom t he a nalogies a re r ather m ore mysterious t han a nything s uggested i n h is w ork. I f

t he

e xciting

p revailing

p rospects o f i nner e ssences a re d iscarded t hen t he

a rchaeological

t heory

must

b e

d ealing

i n

t he

C hildean

c oncepts o f c ultures m emorably s et d own t hus:

' We f ind c ertain t ypes o f r emains - p ots, b urial r ites, a c omplex o f ' culture

i mplements,

o rnaments,

h ouse f orms- c onstantly r ecurring t ogether. S uch r egularly a ssociated t raits w e s hall t erm a

g roup'

o r

j ust

a ' culture'.

W e s hall a ssume s uch a

c omplex i s t he m aterial e xpression o f w hat t oday w ould b e c alled a p eople.

( Childe 1 929,

v -vi)'

T he e stablishment o f c ultures

i s a t

t he

h eart

o f

e arly

m ediaeval

a rchaeology i n C roatia, a nd p roduces a t heory r eminiscent t o t hat p revalent i n t he 1 950's b efore t he a dvent o f t he ' New A rchaeology '. I n b oth

c ases

t he a rchaeology c an b e c haracterised a s b eing a ' normative'

a rchaeology , t he f iner

a c ulture h istory a rchaeology , a n a rchaeology o bsessed w ith p oints o f t ypologically-based d ating a nd t he c orrect

i dentification a nd p igeon-holing o f o bjects a nd s ites.

S uch a rchaeology

h as t he s econdary c haracteristic o f u sing t he a rchaeological e vidence t o p roduce i nformation w hich f its i nto t he h istorical f ramework ,

p roviding

c onfirmation o f e vents a nd p rocesses a ttested i n d ocuments. I n B ritain t he a

p aper

S mith

( 1955),

a spects

j ustification f or t his a pproach w as l aid o ut n eatly i n

e ntitled o f

' The L imitations o f I nference i n A rchaeology '

w here i t w as t he

p ast

w hich

T echnology w as t he

m ost

e conomic

l ife.

p art

o f

h ardest

t itle,

t o u ncover.

a nd w as t hat

i lluminate

s ome

a rchaeology

a ccessible

f ollowed

a t

a

d istance

b y

l eaving c oncepts o f r eligion a nd

i deas

T he r eason f or t his s cale i s h inted a t

a rchaeology

t hings.

o f

c ould a spire t o i nvestigate. t he

A fter t his s ocial r elations a nd o rganisation

w ere l argely v eiled i n m ist, t he

b y M A

s tated t hat t here w as a n a scending l adder

c ould

o nly

g o

s o

T hat i s w hy t echnology w as

f ar,

a s

i n t he

c ould

o nly

f irst o n t he l ist,

a s i t i s s een f irst, i t i s o bservable, e ven i f a m icroscope m ight b e n eeded a t s ome p oint. T he e conomy w as r egarded a s more d ifficult t o o bserve b ecause t o m ake a ny u seful s tatement t here h ad t o b e o f

c orrelation

o f

e vidence,

a nimal b ones,

s ieve,

d eposits

f ind v egetable r emains,

t o

d ry o r

a

m easure

o ne h ad t o d ig u p s ettlements t o f ind t he

w et

t o

3 3

f ind

t he

s eeds,

s earch

t hrough

a nd t hen d etermine t he p roportions

o f

c rops

g rown

o r

t he

s ubsistence o f a g roup. t he

i mportance

F rom h ere i t

o f

p articular

a nimals

s hould b e q uite e asy

s ocial s phere c ame a s t he n ext p roblem ;

t here i s

t o

t o

t he

s ee

w hy

f ar more w hich w as

n ot l aid d own i n t he a rchaeological r ecord , f or t he a rchaeological r ecord i s, w ith r egard t o h uman a gency , a s tatic p henomenon. T here a re w hat m ay b e c alled n atural t ransforms b ut t hey o nly c onfuse t he p icture r ather t han a lter t he o riginal f ormation p rocess. A s tatic s ocial p henomenon h as t o b e t ransformed i nto i ncluding

b odies,

t he

s upposedly

a

d ynamic

s tate;

f rom

t hings,

c omplex f orms o f s ocial i nteraction

h ave t o b e i nferred - t hat i s a n i mportant w ord.

E ven a s

w e

g o

a bout

o ur l ives w e must b e a ware t hat t he m ajority o f w hat g oes o n c ould n ot b e a rchaeologically r econstructed , a nd S mith r ecognised t his p roblem . ( Whether a n s een l ater.) s ocial

o pposition t o t hat v iew h as a nything t o c ommend i t w ill b e T he r ealm o f i deas i s, l astly , much m ore d ifficult t han

r elations,

s ocial r elations, w ere t hinking.

I t

a fter

a ll,

i f

i t i s v irtually i mpossible t o i nfer

h ow much h arder i t must b e i s,

f or e xample,

t o

d iscover

w hat

p eople

i mpossible t o i nfer f rom a rchaeology

t he c ontents o f l ost w orks o f A ristotle. I n s pite o f a t endency t o p roduce i rritation , s cale o f p ossibilities a nd d ifficulties s et o ut I nference'

s eem

t o

f all

i n

w ith

t he

t he main f eature o f t he i n t he

g eneral

' Limitations

e xperience

o f

o f most

a rchaeologists, i t i s i n f act f ar more d ifficult t o s et o ut c oherent a nd r easonable c onclusions a bout m atters o f a ncient i deology t han t echnology. i ntended

U p t o t hat p oint

t o

t he

s cale

i s

c orrect

c ontradict t hat g eneral o bservation.

a nd

i t

i s

n ot

B ut m ore s ignificant

t han t he c ommonsense r easonableness o f t he ' Limitations' i s t he s tultifying e ffect t hat s uch a s cale h as; f or i f m atters o f i deology a re s een a s b eing v irtually i naccessible w hat

p oint

i nvestigations i nto t hose p articular a reas. u nderstanding b ecome i nstead f ixed l imits o f w hat d emarcate

the

' Limitations' t raced ,

l egitimate

a reas

f or

p aper w as n ot a vailable,

i s

t here

a nalysis.

s o n o

u ndertaking

T he g uidelines o f i s p ermissable, a nd

d irect

I n

C roatia

i nfluence

I f t he a nalyses p erformed a re e xamined ,

i s

t he r ange i s

r apidly

s een

t hat

l imited ,

' commonsense' e xists

c onstraints c onsequence

s tatements a re made, a

f loating

t hat

f eudalism

w as

u nderstanding

o f

s uch a s

g rafted

p eriod a nd i f t here i s i nsufficient

f eudalism .

T he r oots o f

w ith.

u nderstanding

o f

t hat,

t he l ater d evelopments w ill b e f lawed. F or

t he

o nto l ay i n t he p roto-historical

s uch l ong t erm a nalyses t he d ifficult a reas o f t he e arlier d ealt

I nstead

u nanchored b y r elations t o e conomic

o r p roperly t hought o ut s ocial s ystems. A f urther o f t hese c onstraints i s a l oss o f d epth o f p erspective w hen

c onsiderating l ater s ocial s ystems s ociety

A nalysis a ttempted ,

b ut l ittle g oes b eyond t hat.

c ulture,

t hen i t

d ealing f or t he m ost p art

w ith o nly t echnical m atters a nd q uestions o f c ulture h istory. o f t he e conomic s ystem o f t he C roats h as n ot b een

b e

b e

y et t he a rchaeological c limate h as b een s imilar t o t hat i n w hich

t he p aper w as p roduced.

t here

t he

c an

t hen

a ny

T o f acilitate p eriod

t his t o h appen t he t hrottling c onstraints

must s o f ar

a ccepted must b e r emoved a nd t he a pparent c ommonsense v iew r ejected , f or i f t he e vidence i s h ard t o f ind t hen m ere moaning w ill n ot p roduce r esults.

3 4

F inally t he a cceptance o f

t he

c onstraints

r esults

b eing t oo o ften s ought a nd c ouched i n h istorical t erms G unja d a's a ccount o f h ow a rchaeology h elped x vii )). i n t he

i n

e xplanation

( as w as

h istorical

s een w ith

s cience

( 1976,

T he c onsequence o f t his i s t o b linker f urther t he a rchaeologist s earch f or u nderstanding ,

a s t he h istorical e xplanations r egarded

a s l egitimate a re t hemselves l imited , mainly t o b attle, i nvasion a nd m igration. G unjaba w as d ealing w ith a s pecific e vent, a h istorical e vent

t hat w as

s ignificant i n t he p olitical d evelopment o f C roatia,

s uch e vents d o n ot e ncompass t he w hole o f a dmit. e ver ,

E conomic h istory e xists,

h istory

a s

h istorians

b ut w ill

b ut t he a rchaeologists h ave r arely ,

i f

employed e conomic e xplanations.

T he c ounter t o t he f ormulae a nd t he p essimistic l imitations o f t he c ulture h istory s chool b egan w ith t he w ork o f t he p rocessualist s chool. A lthough t heir

s ome

o f

t heir

c onclusions

i nvestigations.

w ork may b e s een a s

d ubious, T he

t here

w as

a

i ll-conceived a nd s ome o f

f lourishing

o f

i deas

a nd

b asic t enet w as t hat t here w ere n o r eal l imits t o

w hat a rchaeologists c ould r ewardingly s tudy ,

f or

p rovided

the

c orrect

h ypotheses w ere e mployed , t he p ast c ould b e a nalysed f rom i ts p resent r emains. T his v iew c ould r emove t he c onstraints a rchaeological r esearch s uffered

f rom ,

b ut e ven s o w as o nly h alf o f t he p rocessualist

t o t he p roblems o f e xplanation a nd r esearch. c ritique

o f

n ormative

s een

s olution

i mportant w as

t he

a rchaeology a nd i ts t endancy t o s ee t he c ulture

a nd t he c ultural e vent a s t he f ield o f b een

J ust a s

s tudy.

E xplanation

w hich

h ad

i n c ultural t erms - e xcept w hen a h istorical e xplanation w as

a vailable - h ad t o d evelop t o i nvolve p rocesses i n t he p ast, a nd i n d oing s o r eject t he s imple m echanisms o f i nvasion a nd t he c atch-all ' influence'. T he c ulture w as n ot t o r emain t he u nit o f s tudy , n or c ould e xplanations b e c ouched i n t erms o f c ultures a nd d iffusion o f t raits. B y a bandoning t he l imits a nd t heories o f c ulture h istory a rchaeology , t he

e xplanatory

c apacity o f a rchaeology c an b e i ncreased a nd n ew a reas

o f r esearch o pened u p. I t s hould n ow b e p ossible t o i lluminate s ignificantly t he material a nd s piritual c ulture o f t he C roats. 2 .2

A T HEORY F OR ARCHAEOLOGY?

G iven

t hat

p rocessual a rchaeology p rovided a n e ffective c ritique o f

t he c ulture h istory s chool d oes i t a lso p rovide a s uitable f or

p roceeding

w ith

a nalysis?

T he

a nswer

a rchaeology i s o pen t o c riticism w ith r egards r esults.

1 .

T he

i s t o

n o , i ts

f or

e pistemology p rocessual

a ssumptions

a nd

T here a re f our main p oints w hich c an b e made:

a ssumption

t hat

a rchaeology i s a s cience a nd s hould t herefore

a dopt t he s cientific m ethod , a nd more p articularly t he h ypothetico-deductive method. B inford o riginally l ighted u pon t he w ork o f C arl H empel a nd h is t heory o f c overing l aws, b ut t here i s l ittle a greement among p hilosphers o f s cience a bout t he v alidity o f h is v iews ( Morgan 1 973) a nd i n B ritain t he b etter k nown a pproach o f P opper

( 1959)

w as

a dopted.

H owever,

3 5

t he o bjection h as b een made

t hat t he a rchaeologist c an n ot

r epeat

i s a s ingular e vent,

h as

f ormulation , d eductive H odder

a nd t hus

f alsification

s cience.

a nd

2 1),

w ho

f or e xcavation

w ith

t he

c ycle

c riticism

o bserved

t hat

h as

b een

the

c onstruction

l eveled

a pplication o f s econdary p redictions d oes n ot i n f act h ypothesis a s t hey a re o nly f urther f ormal s imilarities. 2 .

T he

d emonstration

t he c ausal

o f

s tatistical l inks d oes

l inks t hat a rchaeology i s

n ot

p articular

c ould

b y

b e

g enerated

d istribution.

a rtifact

s tatistical

U nfortunately

s uch

o r

t est

T his

f unctions

a

p roblem

w here i t

s ettlement

f unctions

b y a nd

i n i tself p roduce

c oncerned w ith.

came t o l ight mainly i n t he a rea o f s patial a nalysis, b e d emonstrated t hat

o f

r e-formulation r equired t o a dvance

A m ore s erious

( 1982,

h is e xperiment,

d ifficulty

c ould

p atterns

s uch a s t he P oisson h ad

n o

e xplanatory

p ower. 3 .

T he

f unctional

B inford 's

a pproach

s tatement t hat

t o

a rchaeology ,

c ulture i s

a daption ,

m eant

w as t aken ,

w ith e very a spect o f

n eed.

Whilst

t hat s uch

man 's

a d eterministic, a

v iew

p alaeolithic i t w as v ery

d ifficult

f ulfilling

h ave t o

c haracterised m eans

b y o f

materialist v iew o f s ociety

c ulture m ight

b est

e xtra-somatic

s ome

s ome

s urvival

v alidity

i ntegrate

i nto

f or

t he

h istorical

p eriods w ithout a bandoning much t hat w as a lready k nown. 4 .

P rocessual g eneral

a rchaeology

h as

b een

c oncerned w ith t he p roduction o f

l aws o f c ulture p rocess w hich w ould e nable

p rediction

t o t ake p lace.

b eing s implistic w ith l ittle u seful c ontent

B ecause

o f

t hese

a nd

e xplanation

a nd

T he l aws p roduced h ave b een c ondemned a s

o ther

c riticisms,

( Flannery 1 982,

2 70).

p rocessualism c an n ot b e

a ccepted a s a n e pistemology t o u ndergird f urther a nalyses. 2 .3

P OST-PROCESSUALISM A ND C OLLINGWOOD

I f p rocessual a rchaeology d oes n ot s omewhat

i nevitable

t his i s n ot

a

f ragmentary

s et

p rovide

a n

e pistemology

t hat p ost-processual a rchaeology d oes.

u nified

a nd

c oherent

o f a pproaches,

f rom o ther d isciplines a s

movement,

b ut

i t

i s

A t p resent

s till

a

r ather

c haracterised by a w illingness t o a dapt

s eems n ecessary.

T hus

s tructuralism ,

Marxism

a nd s emiotics maybe f ound m ixed i n t he p ost-processualist r epertoire. c onsequence o f t his d etailed

i s t hat

c haracter

o f

t here

i s

l ittle

t his a pproach.

p oint

i n

p resenting

I nstead the main t hrust t hat

g enerally s hared w ill b e d escribed a nd t hen t he

s pecific

s tance

t o

A a i s b e

t aken h ere w ill b e e laborated. I an H odder, a rchaeology

s een a s

h as

s et

o ne o ut

o f i ts

t he

p rime

movers

c haracteristics

d ichotomies:

3 6

i n

o f t he

p ost-processual f orm

o f

f our

1 .

t he i ndividual v s t he n orm

2 .

s tructure v s p rocess

3 .

t he i deal v s t he m aterial

4 .

s ubject v s o bject

( Hodder 1 986,

I n t he s etting o ut o f t hese

1 47).

H odder

f aces

u p

t o

the

p roblems

o f

u nderstanding a nd e xplanation h e p erceives i n p rocessual a rchaeology. P rocessual a rchaeology e ffectively h eld t he e ffect o f t he a ctor u pon t he n orms

a nd r ules o f b ehaviour t o b e m inimal,

a ctor s ubject t o t hem . a re

c omplex ,

t here

H owever,

t hey w ere i mportant a nd t he

t he r elation o f t he a ctor t o t he

n eed n ot b e o ne s imple i nteraction ,

a ctors r ecognise a nd a ttempt t o a dhere t o n orms, r eshape,

r econstruct

a nd

r einterpret

w hile t he

b y

b ehaviour

t hey c an

t hose n orms,

t hus

r aising t heir

p rocessual p uppet s tatus t o t hat o f i ndividuals w hose v ery n orms.

T he p roblem o f e qui-finality t hat c aused p roblems

n orms

f or,

a cts

c reate

f or p rocessual

a rchaeology i s t ackled b y H odder i n h is s econd d ichotomy w hich

s uggests

t hat t he p rocess p ut f orward a s e xplaining t he d evelopment o f s ettlement p atterns, u sually a daption o f s ome k ind , d oes n ot u sually e xplain w hy t hat p articular f orm o ccurs a nd t hus a d eeper ' structure' h as t o b e s ought. t o

O n t his b asis t he a chieved e xplanation w ill h ave more

t he

s pecific

d istribution. c ontrast s ocial,

s ituation

r ather

t han

a loof

l aws

o f

r elation s ettlement

P rocessual a rchaeology i s a materialistic a pproach a nd i n

t o t his H odder h as

s tressed t he n eed f or a n e xploration o f t he

t he s ubjective a nd t he i deational.

h istorical u nderstanding u nderstanding o f t he p ast. P ost-processual

b ecomes

a rchaeology

I t i s

i mportant

a t

t his

a gain

p oint f or

a

t hat f ull

a s a g eneral a pproach c an b e s ummarised

b y a s tatement o f H odder's r eferring t o h is o wn b rand o f i t: ' Within c ontextual a rchaeology a rchaeology ]

[ a s ubdivision o f p ost-processual

a r ecognition o f t he n eed f or

g eneral

theory

a nd

f or t heoretical a rchaeology r emains, b ut r ather, t he c oncern i s t o d emand a c loser r elationship b etween t heory a nd d ata, p lacing o ne

i n t erms o f t he o ther,

d eductive p rocedures

H aving t here i s

a nd e mphasising i nductive a s w ell a s

( Hodder 1 986,

1 46).'

e stablished p ost p rocessual a rchaeology a s a g eneral a pproach s till t he n eed t o s et o ut more s pecific w ays o f

w orking ,

b oth

a t t he l evels o f g eneral p rinciples a nd a lso o f t he w orkface. I n t he f ormer c ase m any o f t he i deas a nd t heories o f R G C ollingwood c an p rove t o b e o f u se.

3 7

2 .3.1

C ollingwood

T hat t he w ork a nd i deas o f C ollingwood p rominence o ver f orty y ears a fter h is d eath i s

s hould c ome a gain t o r emarkable, a nd i n p art

i s a r eflection o f t he r ecent h istory o f a rchaeological t hought. T he c hanging r elations b etween a rchaeology a nd h istory , f rom a rchaeology a s a ' handmaiden o f h istory ' t o a c laim t o b e h ard s cience ( under t he a uspices o f t he p rocessualist s chool) o r a s s omething s eparate a nd s pecific ( Clarke's ' archaeology i s a rchaeology i s a rchaeology ' ( 1978, 1 1)) a re s till w orking t hemselves o ut. Y et t he s eparation b etween h istory a nd a rchaeology - o riginally b ased o n t he p erception o f d ifferent s ource m aterial ( with t hat o f a rchaeology s een a s b eing i n s ome w ay i nferior ) h istory w as e xploitation ,

- w as b asically d enied b y C ollingwood.

H e h eld

t hat

d efined n ot b y t he f orm o f s ource m aterial b ut b y i ts t hat i s h ow h istory p roceeded. H e d efined a rchaeology a s

' history i n w hich t he s ources u sed a re ' unwritten ' s ources, o r , more a ccurately , a re n ot p re-existing n arratives o f t he e vents i nto w hich t he h istorian

i s

e nquiring'

( Collingwood

i gnored a s a rchaeology w ent p rocessual, e pistemology i s b eing q uestioned ,

1 978, b ut

1 33).

n ow ,

, as

T hese v iews w ere t he

' scientific'

t hey h old o ut t he p romise o f k nowledge

o f t he p ast o btained b y a d ifferent,

b ut e qually v alid r oute.

I h ave f ound t hat t wo m ain a spects o f C ollingwood 's i deas o n h istory ( and t hus a rchaeology ) c an b e u sefully a pplied t o f orm p art o f a g eneral a pproach

t o

a rchaeology.

T he

f irst

i s h is i nferential q uestion a nd

hich e nables t hings t o a nswer method w

b e

o riginally ,

h istory

a nd

t he

s econd

t hat

u nderstanding o f p revious t hought. r emoved

k nown

f rom

n ot

f irst

g iven

w ith

t he

s eem

f ar

b ut C ollingwood h imself T he t wo p oints m ay n ow

Q uestion a nd A nswer

E ffective

h istory

a nd a nswers t hat n ot

a re

c oncerned

T his l atter may a t

t he p otential o f a rchaeology , ot b elieve t hat t o b e t he c ase. c ertainly d id n urn. b e t reated i n t 2 .3.2

w hich i s

e xist

i n

f or C ollingwood p roceeds b y a s eries o f q uestions

c an g ive t he h istorian a ccess t o i nformation t hat o riginal

d ocuments.

S uch

a

c onsiderable u se i n a rchaeology , f or t he c ontinual p roblem j ustification o f e xtrapolation o f u n-excavatable e ntities. R eacting a gainst w hat h e

t ermed

d oes

b asic p osition c an b e o f

s cissors-and-paste

h istory,

i s

t he

w hich

c ould o nly c onduct c riticism o f s ources, C ollingwood c onsidered t hat t he h istorian i s n ot l imited t o p resented f acts b ut i s e ntitled t o i nfer f rom g iven d ata t o p oints b eyond. T his i nferential p rocess y ields n ot j ust i nferences b ut f urther h istorical i nformation w hich c an i tself b ecome

t he s ubject o f q uestioning.

C aesar:

3 8

A s a b asic e xample C ollingwood u sed

' ...our a uthorities t ell u s t hat o n o ne d ay C aesar w as a nd

o n

a

l ater

d ay

i n

G aul;

j ourney f rom o ne p lace t o a nother , a p erfectly g ood c onscience

i n

R ome

t hey t ell u s n othing a bout h is b ut w e i nterpolate t his

( Collingwood 1 961,

w ith

2 40).'

S uch a s imple e xample may s eem t rivial b ut i t i s t he f irst s tep t o f inding t hings n ot s pecifically w ritten d own. F rom t here t he p oint i s e asily m ade t hat i f i nformation n ot g iven m ay b e o btained

f rom

w ritten

s ources t hen i t may c ome f rom u nwritten s ources a s w ell, a nd a rchaeology i s n ot r estricted i n i ts s ubject r ange. I ndeed C ollingwood h imself t reated

h istorical

p roblems

t hing i s t he c orrect

w ith

a ddressing

a rchaeological d ata.

o f

q uestions

t o

t he

T he i mportant p roblem

w hich

e nables h istory t o p roceed. T he p roblem i s t he u nit a nd a im o f r esearch , H adrian 's

W all

w ork?'

o r

' What

w hether i t b e

f orm d id t he C roat

F rom t he p roblem s tem t he q uestions t hat must b e

' How

d id

s ocial s ystem t ake?'

a sked

t o

o btain

t he

a nswer, n ot t o d eal a t f irst w ith t he w hole p roblem b ut t o b reak i t d own i n t o a s eries o f q uestions w ith s hort t erm s olutions t hat w ill c umulatively

a nswer

t he

i nitial

q uestion.

B Y

t his m ethod b oth t he

c onstraints o f c ulture h istory a nd t he i napplicable d eductivism u sefully 2 .3.3

c an

b e

r eplaced.

T he T hought b ehind t he A ct

I f

f or

C ollingwood

h istory

c oncerned w ith human t hought, p erformed t houghts.

w as

n ot

t o

w ith

p roceed m ere

b y q uestions,

e vents,

b ut

i t w as

w ith

a cts

b y human b eings a nd u ltimately t he r easons b ehind a cts, t he I n C ollingwood 's s ystem t hought i s i mportant a nd i s w hat

s eparates h istorical a cts, w hich h ave i ntentions b ehind t hem , f rom m ere c hronological e vents s uch a s g eological s uccessions w hich a re f requently g iven a p seudo-historical

f orm .

I n c ommenting u pon C roce's v iew t hat

i s b y i nternal a pprehension o f a t hing , t hat h istory p roceeds,

b y

t hinking

o neself

i nto

C ollingwood o bserves:

' As c oncerns n eolithic man...If y ou c an e nter h is m ind a nd make h is t houghts y our o wn , y ou c an w rite h is h istory , a nd n ot o therwise;

i f y ou c annot,

a ll y ou

c an

d o

i s

t o

a rrange

h is

r elics i n s ome k ind o f t idy o rder , a nd t he r esult i s e thnology o r a rchaeology , b ut i t i s n ot h istory. Y et t he r eality o f n eolithic i mplement,

man w as a h istorical r eality. When h e m ade a c ertain h e h ad a p urpose i n m ind ; t he i mplement c ame i nto

b eing a s a n e xpression o f h is s pirit, n on-spiritual t hat i s o nly b ecause o f h istorical i nsight

( Collingwood 1 961,

3 9

a nd i f y ou t reat i t a s t he f ailure o f y our

1 99- 2 00).'

i t i t,

T he

u nderstanding

o f

p ast

t hought,

t he

r ethinking

C ollingwood p uts i t, i s w hat h istory i s a bout, i t i s u nderstanding o f t hese p ast t houghts i n t he p resent. t hought i s n ot r estricted t o t hat i n t he p hysical a s w ell,

i t

a s

t he i nternal And t he p ast

f rom d ocumentary m aterial,

f rom w hence i t m ay b e r ecovered.

o f

b ut

l odges

T he r elevance

o f t he q uestion a nd a nswer b ecomes o nce m ore a pparent, f or t he r oute t o u nderstanding t hought f rom t he p hysical r uns t hrough i t. O nly b y f ormulating c orrectly t he p roblem w hich a s tone a xe s olved i s t he a xe t o b e

c orrectly

u nderstood.

I f

i t

i s a rranged a long w ith o ther a xes t o

g ive a s eries a nd t he c hange b etween t hese i s o bserved i t r emains a d ead a rchaeology. S uch a n a pproach c an move b eyond a xes t o s ettlements a nd p resumably l arger a nd m ore i ntractable p roblems w hich p rocessual a rchaeology s aw i n t erms o f a daptive p rocesses. a b asic f ormation p rocess o f t he a rchaeological

H uman t hought t hen , i s r ecord , f or p henomena

o bserved a re c umulative c onsequences o f t hought-provoked a ction , e ven s uch b iological p henomena a s t he c hange o f f orm o f w heat o r maize i s t he r esult o f a t hought t o s olve a p articular p roblem .

' It d oes n ot

f ollow t hat a ll human

a ctions

H owever ,

a re

s ubject-matter

f or h istory; a nd i ndeed h istorians a re a greed t hat t hey a re n ot. B ut w hen a sked h ow t he d istinction i s t o b e made b etween h istorical a nd n onhistorical human a ctions,

t hey a re s omewhat a t

a l oss h ow t o r eply. F rom o ur p resent p oint o f v iew w e c an o ffer a n a nswer: s o f ar a s man 's c onduct i s d etermined b y w hat m ay b e c alled h is a nimal n ature, i s

n on-historical;

p rocess.

h is i mpulses a nd a ppetites,

t he p rocess o f t hose a ctivities

i t

i s a n atural

T hus t he h istorian i s n ot i nterested i n t he f act

t hat

m en e at a nd s leep a nd m ake l ove a nd t hus s atisfy t heir n atural a ppetites; b ut h e i s i nterested i n t he s ocial c ustoms w hich t hey c reate

b y

t heir

t hought

a s

a

f ramework

w ithin w hich t hese

a ppetites f ind s atisfaction i n w ays s anctioned b y c onvention a nd morality ( Collingwood 1 961, 2 16).'

T he l imits

s et h ere a re s ensible,

f rom a c lear r econstruction.

a p ragmatic

c hoice

w hich

s prings

v iew o f t he r ange o f r eason a nd t he c apacity f or ( Incidentally t he l imits f or a nalysis c oincide w ith

t hose i ndependently d etermined b y M ichael M ann , w hose s ociological w ork w ill b e e xamined l ater.) H uman a ppetites a re n ot p roducts o f t hought, b ut t hought

i s n eeded t o s atisfy t hem .

s ubject o f t hought, t hat m en d ie t hat

N or a re human a ppetites t he o nly

f or w hen b urial i s c onsidered i t

i s

C ollingwood 's t erms),

i nteresting

i s

n ot

t he

f act

( that i n i tself i s h ardly h istorical i n

b ut t he r esponse t o d eath ,

w hat

f rom t he p hysical r emains t hat c onsititute t he a ct, p roblem a nd o ne t hat i s w orth r esolving.

c an

b e

i nferred

t hat i s a h istorical

E ven a pproaches t o

t rade

m ay

b e a ffected a s i t c eases t o b e o bjects t ravelling g reat d istances a nd c an b e v iewed a s t he e vidence o f h uman a ct a nd t hought b eing e mployed t o m eet h uman n eed ,

s atisfying t he n atural a ppetites,

4 0

a lbeit i ndirectly.

T he

c onsequences

o f

a dopting a C ollingwoodian a pproach f it i n w ith

t hose o f p ost-processual a rchaeology a s a w hole w ith

o ne

i mportant

s ignificant a gain ,

o nes b eing t hat t he t he i ndividual b ecomes

n o l onger a p oor d upe o f t he m adly r ushing c ultural a ctor, 2 .3.4

o f

t he

t rajectory

most

b ut

a n

a ttempting s olutions t o p roblems.

I ntegration

T he r est o f t his c hapter w ill d etermine t he v arious a reas o f a nalysis a nd c ontain t he b asis o f t heory a nd m ethodology n eeded o ne.

A lthough

t o

t ackle

e ach

t hese a spects o f i nterpretation d o o f c ourse i nterlock,

a s t hey a re o f c ourse p arts o f t he s ame e vents a nd t he

a ctors

i nvolved

o perate i n t he s pheres o f i deolocy , e conomy , p olitics a nd s o o n , t hese w ill b e c onsidered s eparately , n ot b ecause i t i s a n a ccurate r eflection o f

t heir

i nteraction ,

b ut

p ossible. T he i nteraction c onsidered t hrough t he

b ecause

s uch

a

v iew

i s n ot

a nd c ross i nfluences w ill, m edium o f M ann 's s ocial

i mmediately

h owever , b e p ower m odel.

C ollingwood 's t heory w ill n ot b e m entioned i n e very s ection

b ut

s hould

b e t aken a s u nderlying t hese m ore s pecific p oints. 2 .4

S OCIAL R ECONSTRUCTION

O nce

t he

p ossibility o f o btaining s ome m easure o f i nformation a bout

t he s ocial s tructure o f a g roup f rom t he b een a dmitted t he q uestion a rises a s g athered.

a rchaeological e vidence h as t o h ow much a nd h ow i t may b e

T he a nswer g iven w ill d epend f irst u pon

a rchaeological

m aterial

a nd

t he

n ature

o f

t he

s econdly u pon t he t heoretical a pproach o f

t he i nvestigator. T wo main t ypes o f a rchaeological material h ave b een h eld t o b e u seful i n e xamining s ocial o rganisation; mortuary m aterial a nd s ettlement e vidence, o ften

t han

t he

w ith t he f ormer b eing u sed

l atter.

B ecause

o f t his,

s ubstantially

more

a nd l ooking f orward t o t he

m aterial a vailable i n C roatia, t he p otential o f mortuary b e e xamined f irst a nd i n d etail. T he f irst s et o f a nalyses a imed a t r ecovering s ocial

a nalysis

w ill

s tructure

f rom

m ortuary m aterial w as c onducted b y t he ' New A rchaeologists' w ho h eld t hat mortuary p ractise w as c onnected t o t he h eart o f t he s ocial o rder. A s

a

r esult,

s imilarity i n r itual b etween g roups d id n ot h ave t o b e a

m easure o f t he d iffusion o f a

c ultural

t rait

a s

t he

t raditionalists

m aintained. D isagreeing i n p rinciple, B inford s et o ut t o p rove t he p oint i n f act, a nd p roduced o ne t he m ost i mportant a nd f requently r eferred

t o

p apers o n mortuary a rchaeology:

s tudy a nd P otential'

' In

m ortuary

( Binford 1 972).

' Mortuary P ractises:

T heir

H ere h e s tated t hat:

r itual w e o bserve a c lass o f p henomena c onsisting

o f b oth t echnical a nd r itual a cts. T echnically , b urial c ustoms p rovide f or t he d isposal o f t he p otentially u npleasant b ody o f t he d eceased.

R itually ,

m ortuary r ites c onsist o f t he e xecution

4 1

o f a n umber o f s ymbolic a cts t hat m ay v ary i n t wo w ays: t he

f orm o f t he s ymbols e mployed a nd

( 2)

o f r eferents g iven s ymbolic r ecognition.

B inford

f ormed s everal h ypotheses,

o f r eferents s ocial

( 1 )

i n

i n t he n umber a nd k inds ( ibid ,

2 23).'

t ouching u pon t he n umber a nd t ype

r ecognised i n t he s ocial p ersona a nd t he c omplexity o f

u nit

r ecognising

t he

s ocial

p ersona.

T aking

t he 4 0

n on-state-organised s ocieties h e t ested f or a h igh d egree o f i somorphism b etween t he c omplexity o f t he s ocial s tructure a nd t he c omplexity o f mortuary b ehaviour w ith r egards t o t he t reatment o f p ersons o ccupying d ifferent s ocial

s tatus

p ositions.

c omplexity

d etermined

b y

f rom

T here

t he

s ubsistence

w as

i nformation a ctivity

a griculturalists employed s ymbols

n o d irect w ay o f t esting t he a vailable

w ere

s o

f our

c lasses

e stablished.

T he

s ettled

f or a lmost t wice a s m any c ategories a s

t he o thers. B inford 's s econd p roposition w as t hat w ith i ncreasing c omplexity o f t he s ociety t he r eferents s ymbolized b ecome more a bstract. T his w as n ot f alsified. F inally , B inford s uggested t he i nitial p rinciple o f e xpenditure o f e nergy: t he more s ignificant t he d isruption c aused b y d eath t he more e nergy w ill b e e xpended i n m ortuary r itual. B inford's w as o nly o ne o f a s et o f

p apers

p ublished

i n

1 971,

a nd

i nspired b y these m ore c ases w ere e xamined a nd f urther p ropositions d efined , i n k eeping w ith t he a im o f p roducing g eneral l aws. C omparisons w ere

made

a s

t o

w hether

e thnographic a ccounts

a rchaeologically c onstructed s ocial d evised

o r

b orrowed ,

s ystems.

c ould b e m atched w ith

M ethods o f

i ncluding a nalysis o f e ntropy ,

a nalysis

t he o rganisational l evel o f t he c emetery b y c alculating t he r edundancy i n t he mortuary r itual o rganisation

w ere

w hich i nvestigates

( Tainter,

d egrees

1 978).

o f

A s more

r esearch w as p erformed more p roblems w ere i dentified a nd h ypotheses w ere r efined , i n p articular S axe ( 1970) g enerated a w hole s eries o f h ypotheses

a imed

a t

l inking

mortuary

v ariation

w ith

o ther

s ocial

p henomena s uch a s l and t enure. A lmost

i nevitably t here

c oncentrated

mainly

w as

u pon

a

f rom t he a rchaeological r emains. f rcm

t hose

w ho

a dopted

r eaction

c ases w here t he a

a gainst ' truth'

s uch

More s erious c riticisms b egan t o

p ost-processualist

s tance.

b elieve t hat mortuary b ehaviour c ould n ot b e t aken a s a o f

s ociety ,

R ather i t T he

w ith

a

u se o f

c ome

T hey d id n ot p assive

m irror

d irect r eflection o f t he s ocial o rder o bservable.

s hould b e s een a s a d eliberately c onstructed s ystem . o f

b urial

d emonstrated b y H odder , n ature

r esearches,

w ould n ot b e o bvious

the

s ystems

b urial

p articular c emetery

t o

i nterpret

u sing t he N uba a s a n c ustoms

c lusters.

a nd

i dealise

e xample.

T he

h as b een i dealising

c an b e s een i n t he b urial o f f emales i n B ecause

o f

t he

r ules

o f

p atrilocal

r esidence a w ife l eaves h er f amily 's c ommunity t o l ive w ith h er h usband w hile t he c hildren w ill r eturn t o l ive w ith t he m other 's b rother, s eparate f rom t heir m other. Y et a w oman w ill, u sually , b e b uried w ith h er maternal g roup. H odder e xplains t his a s a n e xpression o f a n i deal; t hat

o f matrilineal g roups.

i s c ontinually f rustrated

b y

' In l ife' male

4 2

h e w rites,

d ominance

a nd

' the m atrilineal l ine c ompeting

p aternal

r ights.

B ut i n d eath t he matrilineal l ine i s a ssembled

' pure'

w ithout

t he h usband .. t he p attern o f d eath r einforces a s ocietal i deal w hich i s o nly p art o f w hat e xists i n p ractise a nd a bout w hich t here i s c oncern ' ( Hodder 1 982, 1 43). A lso t he y ounger N uba a re t aking more p art i n t he S udanese e conomy a nd n ew p atterns o f s ettlement a nd l and u se a re d eveloping ,

b ut t he c emetery r ituals a nd l ayout c ontinue,

o f s tability , ( ibid , 1 42).

c ooperation

a nd

c ontinuity

i n

l abour

' an e xpression

a nd

s ettlement'

T here i s a f undamental d ifference o f t heory h ere b etween t he p ost-processualist a nd t he f unctionalist-materialist w ho s ees c ulture a s m an 's e xtra-somatic m eans o f a daption. a pplication p redict,

o f

G iven t he

c ross-cultural l aws d etermine,

t he m ethod o f a daption employed.

a daptive

s ystem

t he

o r f or t he p rocessualist

T he p ost-processualist c laims

t hat t he l aws d o n ot w ork a nd t hat t here i s a n u nbridged g ap b etween t he s ubsistence s trategy o f s tatistical o ne?

l ink

a

s ociety

m ay e xist b ut,

T he p ost-processualist

a nd

i ts

s ocial

o rganisation.

A

w hat e xplanation i s t here f or a c ausal

s eeks i t i n i deology.

I n t he c ase o f t he N uba ( ibid.) i t i s a h ighly-developed v iew o f p urity a nd p ollution. D eath i s r egarded a s a p olluting o ccurrence w hich m ust b e c ontrolled. T he more i mportant a n i ndividual i s, t he more s ocial l inks

s /he h as,

d eath ,

i t

a nd

i s

t he

o nly

g reater

t he

p ollution

t hat

b ecause o f t his t hat a ge,

r esults

f rom

s ex a nd r ank c an b e

i dentified. I t i s t he c oncepts o f p urity w hich g enerate t he r itual, w hich r elates c ausally , n ot t o t he o rganisational l evel a nd s ubsistence b ut t o the i deology. T his i nevitably c onforms t o t he p ost-functionalist s tress u pon i deology a nd s hatters t he m irror o f s ociety t he b uried r emains h ad b ecome. S hanks

a nd

T illey

( 1982)

d emonstrated

a pproach i n t heir s tudy o f c hambered t ombs, b one

n umbers

i n

d ifferent

t he

a pplication

e xamining t he

o f

t he

o bvious,

B ritish

b arrows

o f

p arts o f c hambered t ombs a t F ussels L odge,

L anhill a nd L uckington i n E ngland a nd R amshog a nd C arlshogen i n I n

this

v ariation

d eliberate

s election

S weden.

o f s ome b ody p arts w as

a s w ell a s a d ifferential t reatment o f t he l eft a nd r ight

s ides

o f t he b ody i n b oth B ritish a nd S wedish c ases. I n t he B ritish c ases a d ifferentiation w as o bservable b etween male a nd f emale r emains i n t he p iles.

S hanks a nd T illey c laimed t he d ifferences c ould b e u nderstood i f

p arallels b etween s ociety a s a b ody a nd t he p hysical b ody i n

p articular

a s human r emains w ere a ccepted a s s ymbolizing c ollectivity a nd t he d enial o f i ndividual d ifferences, a s w ell a s b oundedness a nd c ollectivity , a nd a d istinction b etween t he i mmature a nd a dults. T he r esult o f t his i s t he p ossibility o f s ocial c ontrol b y a d istortion o f ' reality ' t hrough i deology a nd a n i nversion o f s ocial r eality. N ot o nly i s m ortuary b ehaviour c apable o f e xpressing a n i deal f or t he N uba , b ut i t

may

b e

d eliberately

d istorting

m anipulating t he i deological i mplications

p erception o f

o f

b urials

' reality ', f or

r easons

a nd o f

s ocial c ontrol. G iven t his s udden v iew o f b urial a s a p rocess t hat c onceals r ather t han r eveals, a re t hings t urned f ull c ircle t o t he v iews s et o ut i n ' The

4 3

L imitation o f I nference i n A rchaeology '?

T he s tout-hearted r eply i s n o.

W hat h as t o b e d one i s t o b uild more c omplex v iews o f b urial,

t o s ee

i t

a s a s ocial c onstruction b y t he l iving , a s eries o f a ctions p erformed a s t he r esult o f t hought. B ecause o f t his b urial w ill b e, i n s ome p art, a r eflection

o f t he o rganisation o f t he b urying g roup,

a s the c onstituent

i ndividuals d eal w ith t he e vents o f d eath a nd p roduce t he a cts o f b urial. I n a ttempting t o u nderstand t hese a cts a nd t houghts i t w ill n ot b e s ufficient m erely t o e xamine t he i ndividual i tems,

f or

t he

p atterns

r esult f rom t he a pplication o f s ymbols a nd n ot s olely f rom t he e mployment o f a n o bject. T he u nderstanding o f s ymbols d emands a t l east s ome c omprehension o f t he s ymbolic g rammar , t he w ays i n w hich s ymbols, w hich n eed n ot o nly b e o bjects a re p ut t ogether. P ader

( 1980)

d emonstrated a s ystolic g rammar among t he K ayapo I ndians

o f B razil a nd u sed t he i nsight g ained i n a n a nalysis o f t he H olywell R ow a nd

W estgarth G ardens A nglo-Saxon c emeteries.

S ubmitting t he d ata f rom

t he c emetery t o v arious a nalyses b ased o nly o n g rave g oods, P ader f ound t hat t here w as v ery l ittle c oherent v ariation i n t he p atterning f rom g raves; a nd

i n e ffect a r andom d istribution.

H owever w hen a rtifact l ocation

s keletal p osition w ithin t he g rave w as t ested t he r esults i ndicated

a n onrandom r esult

a t

a

s tatistically

s ignificant

l evel.

T he

s ix

s ectors o f t he H olywell R ow c emetery w ere c learly i dentified o n t he m ain v ariables. b ut

a s

T he c lustering o f g raves o btained w as n ot a bsolutely

more

t han

l ikely t o b e i ncreased. a spects

o f

t he

b ecause i t w as a n e xamination , y et o f a ccess t o t he T his

c lear,

o ne s tatus g roup o ccured p er s ector v ariability w as I n b oth c emeteries t here w as a s ignification o f

i ndividual.

T he p roblem o f t he d eviant g rave ,

v isible

' interuption ' i n t he s ymbolic o rder, n eeded f urther g enerally , P ader's a nalysis o pened u p t he p ossibility s ymbolic o rder o f a g roup.

t hen l ooks t o b e t he b est b road a pproach t o a dopt

t o u nderstand a s ocial s ystem f rom t he c emetery

i n a ttempting

material,

i n

t hat

i t

a ccepts t he c onstructed n ature o f t he m aterial, b ut i s a lso a n o ptimistic a pproach. T here s till r emains t he c omprehension o f a s ociety 's

o rganisation

f rom

o ther

a spects

o f

i ts material r emains,

n otably s ettlement o rganisation a nd p atterning , b ut a nticipating c hapter f our s lightly , t he l ack o f s ettlement material i n C roatia r enders a ny d iscussion r edundant. 2 .5

E CONOMY

A ccording t o S mith

( 1955)

t he e conomic a ctivity

o f

m an

w as

t o

a n

e xtent o bservable, b ut w as n ot a s a ccessible t o a rchaeology a s t he m erely t echnological, b ut i n s pite o f t his i t w as c onsidered a v alid a rea

f or

e xamination .

g reater i nsights t hrough

a

T he n ew a rchaeology ,

v ariety

o f

m eans,

b e

f ar

g ained

A s a c onsequence o f t hese t wo v iews

e xploration o f t he e conomic b ase o f s ocieties h as g reatly i ncreased

i n i ts t he

h eld t hat

c ould

employing t he a gain i nevitable d eductive

a pproach o r a c ybernetics a pproach. t he

i nevitably ,

i nto t he e conomies o f p ast s ocieties

c omplexity a nd s cope o ver t he l ast t hirty y ears,

r ecognition

b oth i n t erms o f

a nd a nalysis o f o rganic r emains a nd t he r econstruction

4 4

o f p atterns o f e xploitation o f r esources s uch a s m inerals. D istribution s tudies h ave b een c arried o ut u pon p ottery g roups a nd t he d evelopment a nd i ncreasing c omplexity o f t he i ndustries h as b een n oted ,

p articularly

f or t he R oman p eriod. T he

e conomic

s ocieties, e ffort

h as

a

f undamental i mportance i n t he u nderstanding o f

b eing a s phere o f a ctivity

a nd

t hus

( when

w hich

a ccounts

t aken a t i ts w idest m eaning )

h uman a ctivity.

F or t here i s n o n eed t o l imit t he

t he

o r

i ndustrial

p roduction ',

t o

f iscal p olicy ,

b oth t he maintenance

p eople p ast a nd p resent, l ife w orth m aintaining . C roats

i s

i mportant

o f

f or

much

e conomic

t o

r ather i t e mbraces t he l ife,

p rimary

human

r egulates much o f m erely

' means o f

c oncern

o f

most

a nd t he p rocurement o f t he i tems w hich make t he G iven t hat b asis, t he e conomic a ctivity o f t he

f or

a

f ul]

u nderstanding

o f t he s ociety,

w ithout t he b elief i n s ome f orm o f e conomic d eterminism

t hat

e ven

s ees

t he

e conomy a s t he p rime m over o f a ll a ctivity. I t i s n ecessary t o d elineate t he a reas o f t he e conomic w hich e xamined

a nd

t o c omment b riefly u pon w hat m ay b e a chieved.

may

b e

F irst,

a nd

m ost d irectly r elated t o m ere s urvival, t here e xist t he a gricultural a nd g athering c ircuits, t he o btaining o f s ufficient o rganic material t o s ustain l ife, p ermit i ts p ropagation a nd s upport s uch p ower o rganisations

a s

e xist.

H ow

i s

t he

material o btained?

T his b asic

q uestion h as b een s tudied f or m any s ocieties, b ut e xcept i n b road t erms i t h ad n ot r eally b een a ddressed t o t he O ld C roatian p eriod , mainly b ecause t he e vidence h as n ot e xisted. c emetery a nd

S ettlement e xcavation l ags b ehind

e xcavation a nd n o s ample o f f aunal m aterial h as b een r ecovered

a nalysed.

S ite

c atchment

a nalysis

i s

t he

o ther

m ethod

o f

d etermining t he e conomic p otential a vailable t o a g roup a nd t he e stablishment o f t he c onstraints t hat a ct u pon i t. A gain t here h as b een n o

w ork

o f

this

t ype

c arried

o ut,

p artly

b ecause

o f t he l ack o f

m otivation a nd p artly b ecause t he e xact l ocation o f s ettlements h as b een

d etermined.

A ll

i nformation

g ained

w ill

h ave

t o

b e

n ot

g ained

i ndirectly , a nd w ill, i n c onsequence, b e v ery c oarse. F or e xample, t he p resence o f i tems s uch a s s ickles w ould i ndicate t he h arvesting o f s ome f orm o f g rain. O btaining

s ufficient

r equirements,

t he

n eed

f ood f or

b rings t ools

i n i ts t rain t he o ther s econdary s uch

a s

s ickles

o r

p loughs

i f

a griculture i s p ractised , t hese i n t heir t urn h ave t o b e manufactured. B esides t he o bvious t ools t here a re t he h ouses, f ittings, c lothes a nd o rnaments o btained. h ave

t hat T his

f ulfil o ther human n eeds, a nd a lso h ave t o b e made o r r epresents t he a rea o f e conomic a ctivity f or w hich w e

p otentially

m ore i nformation a s a c ertain p ortion o f t he material

r emains a nd h as b een e xcavated. F or t he m oment t wo a reas o f a ctivity c an b e s eparated , f irst t hat o f c rafts; i nternally m anufactured i tems, s uch a s p ottery a nd p robably much o f t he a wls,

a xes),

p roductions s uch a s F rankish g lass w are , a nd

p robably

' domestic'

a nd s econdly t rade a nd t raded g oods; s words.

i nevitably b e d ifferent, i dentical q uality.

B yzantine

i ronwork

( sickles,

d emonstrably e xterior j ewellery

a nd

c oins

T he e xamination o f t hese t wo m aterial t ypes w ill f or t he i nformation a vailable w ill

4 5

n ot

b e

o f

T he

p otential

o f t he e xamination o f t he c raft material i s d ifficult

t o d etermine i n t he f ace o f i ts u neven q uality.

S tudy must

b e

l argely

l imited t o e xamining t he p roducts a nd a ssessing t he t echniques e mployed , b ut a s t o t he o rganisation o f t he m anufacture i t s eems p robable t hat f or m any c ategories o f m aterial n o i nformation i n this a rea e xists. E ven s uch t hings a s t he r aw materials

f or m anufacture e vade

t he

p ossibility

o f a nalysis t hough s ome i ndication o f s ources a nd t he p attern o f e xploitation m ay b e p ossible w hen t he p ottery p roduction i s c onsidered. O ne

s mall

s pot o f l ight w ill b e s een i n t he f ield o f m etalworking ,

v irtually a lone,

w hile f or s toneworking a nd

b uilding

t here

i s

b ut

l ittle

p ossiblity o f g oing f urther t han G unja ö -a 's s upposition o f t he g eneral i neptitude o f t he b uilders ( 1976, x i ). A fter

t he

e xamination

o f

t he

l ocally

i ndicators o f w ider e conomic a ctivity m ust b e t hat

i s k nown t o c ome f rom o ther a reas,

h ave t heir c losest a ffinities

p roduced

material,

e xamined ,

t he

t he

j ewellery

t he s o-called l uxury i tems t hat

i n B yzantine w orks,

o r

i n

t hose

o f

t he

F rankish k ingdom . E stablishment o f t he m eans by w hich i t r eached t he C roats i s a d aunting p rospect a nd w ill c all f or f urther c omment. Among t he more s pecific i tems w hich m ight b e t hought t o have a d irect e conomic s ignificance a re t he c oin f ound i n t he g raves. M uch o f w hat h as b een n oted s o f ar h as a n a ir o f g entle p essimism a nd a lso a c oncern f or t he

o bjects

a nd

w hat

l ittle

i nformation

c an

b e

o btained f rom t hem . L ittle h as b een s aid o n t he s ubject o f t he g eneral e conomic i nterpretation o f t he material n or o n t he d evelopment o f t rade d uring

t he

t hree

a vailable t heory , p rimitive

c enturies

t o

b e e xamined.

T his

f or much r ecent w ork h as b een d one

e conomics,

b oth

H odges' D ark Age E conomics' e xchange a nd movement o f

a nthropologically ( 1982) g oods,

i s n ot i n

a nd

f or l ack o f

t he

f ield

o f

a rchaeologically.

e xamines t he p ossible b ases o f w hether i t b e t rade a s s uch o r

r eciprocity t hat i s

f irmly f ixed i n a n etwork o f s ocial r elations.

s tudy

i ndicates the d evelopment o f t rade b etween c ountries

o f

e mporia

a nd t he m eans

b y

e conomic d ebates

w hich

t he O rigins o f E urope' d ebate

a nd

i s

w as

s uch a s t hat p ut

i ndicated

( Hodges

a nd

a nything

l ike

a nd

d eveloped.

Whitehouse

1 983)

B roader

C harlemagne, h ave

a nd

s timulated

t he p ossibility f or a rchaeology t o c ontribute t o

t hese e arly h istorical p roblems. t hat

c ontrolled

f orward i n ' Mohammed ,

H is

T here i s

l ittle p ossibility a t p resent

a s d etailed a p icture c an b e p roduced f or C roatia.

S ome s mall d etails m ay b e p ainted i n ,

a nd b road s ketches,

o r s uggestions

made, c oncerning g eneral a ttitudes t o t rade b ut a w ell f inished c anvas w ill p rove i mpossible. I nstead , b asic g roundwork c an b e d one t hat w ill r eveal c oarse o utlines o f t he C roatian e conomy. 2 .6

I DEOLOGY

U nlike s ome o f t he o ther a spects o f l ife i n C roatia i n t he n inth c enturies,

t here i s a c lear e vent t hat a t

s ome p oint

s eventh t o

c hanged

t he

s tructure o f t he f ield. W hen t he i nvaders w ere s ettled t hey w ere p agans a nd b y t he e nd o f t he p eriod c onversion t o C hristianity, i f n ot c omplete,

h ad

s ubstantially

b egun.

4 6

S o

t here

w ere

t wo i deological

s ystems

w hich a t

s ome p oint i nteracted t o t he d etriment o f o ne,

s uccess o f t he o ther.

E xactly w hen i t h appened i s h arder t o

a nd t he

d etermine,

s o t he v arious m eans o f a ssessing t he p hysical e ffects o f i deological e vents a nd d ecisions m ust b e c onsidered . T he p hysical r emains o f C hristianity c an b e s ubstantial; t he c hurch b uildings w hich a re c haracteristic a nd e asily i dentifiable. U sually t heir

s hape c an b e r ecognised a nalogically f or t he c oncern w ith c orrect

d octrine a nd p ractise g ave a s trong r ules

f or

r emain ,

f orm a nd s tructure.

d ecorative f eatures,

i mpetus

t o

o bserving

e stablished

E ven i f t he b uildings t hemselves d o n ot

o ften p ieces o f c hurch ' furniture'

s uch

a s

s creens, c iboria a nd b aptistries a re f requently f ound o n s ites w here p reviously c hurches s tood. A dditionally , s maller i tems t hat c an b e t aken t o i ndicate i deological a dherence a re f ound , t hese r ange f rom s pecifically d esigned o bjects s uch a s c rosses.

F urther t here i s

m ainly o f a s ituation ,

l ater f or

d ate,

e xample

c halices

t o

j ewellery

s uch

a s

s ome t extual e vidence r elating t o t he c hurch , b ut

o ccasionally

i lluminating

t he

e arlier

i f b ishops a re r ecorded a s b eing i n c ontention

t hen b ishoprics w ould h ave e xisted p reviously. C ompared

t o

C hristianity

t he p agan i deology o f t he S lays i s p oorly

u nderstood , a s t heir b eliefs p revious p articularly c arefully r ecorded. V ery t heir i deology , M ost

o f

t he

t o c onversion w ere n ot l ittle i s r eally k nown a bout

a nd a S lav w orld v iew i s a p recarious

d eities w orshipped b y S lays, b ut t hey p roduce l ittle w ith t he s urvivals o f n ames i n f olklore o r c urses s ignificant

t hing

t o

o ffer.

the e arly w ork c oncentrated u pon the e stablishment o f t he

f or C roatia w ill

b e

t he

r emains

o f

more t han ( Le e 1 984).

i deologically

l ists More b ased

a ction i n t he c emeteries. T his i s mainly r eckoned t o b e t he d eposition o f g oods i n t he b urials. U ntil n ow t he p resence o f g oods i n c emeteries h as b een s een a s a d irect d emonstration o f t he n ature o f t he s ocieties' b elief i n a n a fterlife, a n a fterlife f or w hich i t w as n ecessary t o h ave s uch

i tems a s w ere r equired i n d aily l ife.

t he s pirit, b elief

i t i s h eld that t he c ustoms

i n s ome s urvival o f t he s pirit,

A long w ith t his s urvival o f

f ound i n burials a lso

s labs u pon t he c hest o f i ndividuals i s s upposed t o ' walking ',

s een

a s

p erhaps

s ome

f orm

c onsiderable i ncoherence i n t hese e xamples, o verall i deology t hat might b e e xplicable. u nlikely t hat e xamination

o f

i deology

p revent

vampirism .

t he

s pirit

T here

i s

a

a l ack o f f eeling f or a n A t p resent i t i s c onsidered

s ignificant a dvances c an b e made i n o f

r epresent

f or e xample t he p lacing o f l arge

t his

f ield

a nd

t he

w ill c oncentrate m ore u pon t he c hange b etween

p aganism a nd C hristianity. T wo

p arts

o f t he c onversion w ill b e e xamined,

a nd t he n ature a nd d epth o f t he c onversion. i mportance

a nd

i s

p roblematic

i n

T he

t he d ate o f t he e vent f irst

i s

o f

o bvious

t hat t he d ocumentary s ources o ffer

s everal c onflicting d ates. T he s econd a spect d erives i ts i mportance f rom t he f requently e xpressed b elief t hat c onversion t o C hristianity w as n ot, i n t he e arly m ediaeval p eriod , a lways a matter o f i ndividual c onviction. K ings a nd p rinces a re o ften s een a s a cting p olitically , w ith t he c onsequent s uspicion i n t he h istorian 's w as

l argely

a n

i rrelevant

m ind

t hat

c onversion

p henomenon f or t he majority o f p eople.

4 7

T o

d eal

w ith

a ssessed. a

t his,

t he

d epth o f p enetration o f the n ew i deology must b e

I n t he a ttempt t o d ate a nd u nderstand the i deological

C ollingwoodian

a pproach

p ast a cts w ill p rove i nvaluable, i s o f n ecessity e ngaged.

f or i n t he f ield o f i deology

c hange,

s hould

a ll

p arts

C hristians

l imited t o o ne

a s

s implistic c onclusion , a nd

a

n ot.

o utworkings

o f t he p enetration

L eaving

a spect

o f

i deology

r eal

r emains.

o f

s ystem .

b urial

This

mind

e xtent

o f

H owever ,

t he

,

b ut

must

s hould p revent t he

t hat p agans h ad g rave g oods

a side t he

i t i s n ot b ased

o f i deology ,

t otality o f i deological 2 .7

c oherent

t oo-frequently d rawn ,

d id

a ccurate g eneralisation , p hysical

a nd t he

b e v isible i n t he physical

e xamination must n ot b e e xamine

t he

A s mortuary p rocedure i s t o a s ubstantial p art

i deologically d riven a c hange i n t he i deology , t hat

c hange

t owards t he u nderstanding o f thought b ehind

i n

f act t hat t his i s n ot a n

a n

u nderstanding

o f

t he

n or d oes i t e nable a s ubtle a nalysis

t hrough

a ll

a spects

o f

l ife.

T he

i nfluence must b e e xamined.

P OLITICAL ORGANISATION

T he t reatment o f p olitical o rganisation i n t he e arly m ediaeval p eriod h as

f or a l ong t ime

h istorical

b een

s ources

hampered

w hich

b etween k ings a nd t heir e nemies. p articularistic,

b y

a

c onstant

r eference

t he

p olitical

A s a c onsequence o f t his a ccounts

o rganisation

i s

r equired ,

a rchaeological t reatment must b e g enerated. d ifficult

b usiness,

a s

n ot

o nly

d o

a re

I f a b etter p icture

then s ome f orm o f p roper

T his

the

i s

t races

o rganisation n ot a lways e asily s pring t o mind , p icture

t he

d ealing w ith the d etails o f t he e vents a nd n ot w ith t he

f orm o f t he l eadership o r t he n ature o f t he s ystem . o f

t o

s et o ut t he d escents o f k ings o r t he b attles

l ikely o f

t o

t he

but o nce a gain

h as t o b e c reated f rom a s tatic s et o f e vidences.

o f c onsiderable i ngenuity i s n eeded o nce a gain.

b e

a

p olitical a

moving

T he e xercise

I s t he game t hen

w orth

t he c andle? T here c an b e

l ittle d oubt

f or t he

a nswer

t o

b e

g iven

h ere.

T he

g rowth o f t he means o f g overnment

f rom u ncertain a nd p ossibly u nobserved

b eginnings t o t he

k ingdom

k ings,

a nd

f ormation o f a

t hat

k ingdom 's

w orth u nderstanding. C roatia

i s

l ikely

s ubsequent

Unfortunately ,

w ith

a

s eries

o f

t he d evelopment

o f

t o b e a c omplex p rocess t o u nravel,

t he

w as

r etreat?), t he

Avars,

the

t he

s tate

o f

g overnment

u nder

s tate

i nvolving a s

d oes t he c ollapse o f t he B yzantine p rovinces u nder t he Avars e xample

r ecorded

e xpansion i s a p rocess t hat

the A vars,

( what,

i s o f i t f or

b efore t heir

s ystem o f o rganisation i n D almatia a fter t he w ithdrawl o f

w hether

o rganised

b y

t he

c onsolidation o f C roatian p ower u ntil t he

C roats o r n ot,

a nd t he g radual

i nscriptions a vailable

r ecord

n ot merely d ukes o f t he C roats, b ut p rinces, a nd e ventually k ings. N or i s t hat a ll, f or t here i s t he a dded c omplication o f t he n inth c entury r eplacement

o f

t he

n ominal

B yzantine

o verlordship

b y

t hat

o f t he

e xpanding C arolingian empire. S o

f ar,

t he u nderstanding o f t he d evelopment

h as b een b ased u pon t he u se o f t he e lse,

t extual

o f t he p olitical

material

a nd

v ery

s ystem l ittle

w ith t he g eographical o rganisation g iven i n t he t exts u sed a s t he

4 8

k ey t o p olitical o rganisation. s tart. P olitical o rganisation i s, o f

human

a cts.

H owever t his i s n ot t he b est p lace t o m ore t han many o ther t hings, a s eries

I t i s n ot t o b e s een a s e ntirely t he d irect r esult o f

h uman t hought w orking d eliberately f rom b eginning t o e nd , a n

a rea

i n

b ut r ather

a s

w hich h uman a cts h ave a p art a nd p roduce c onsequences.

T o

u nderstand t he p olitical o rganisation i s t o u nderstand t he t hought b ehind i t, a nd f or t he a rchaeologist t he f irst p art o f t he p rocess i s t o i dentify t hose p arts o f t he a rchaeological r ecord

w hich

a re

p roducts,

f ull o r p artial, o f p olitical a cts. T his p romises t o b e n o e asy matter , b ut t he a reas f or e xamination c an b e o utlined. T wo g roups o f e vidence f or p olitical s ystems c an b e d elineated , t he f irst i s t he v isible t rappings o f p olitical o rganisation , t he s econd c onsists

o f

t he s lighter t races t hat a re r ecognisable a s d iscrepancies

i n t he b roader r ange o f a rchaeological material. T he

v isible t rappings o f a p olitical o rganisation c over a s ize r ange

f rom c oinage t o p alace s tructures, i nscriptions,

w ith much e lse i n b etween.

o bjects w ith w riting o n ,

C oins a nd

a re t he most o bvious i ndicators;

a k ing s etting u p a n i nscription d eclares h imself a s

s uch ,

a nd h is t itle

o n c oinage i ndicates e ither h is s tatus o r a spiration. O f c ourse, c oins, b y t he v ery f act o f b eing i ssued c an i ndicate v arious l evels o f p olitical a nd e conomic o rganisation. O f a s imilar o rder t o t hese a re t he i nsignia t hat m ay b e f ound w ith r ecognisable s tatus.

O n

c omplexes,

o bjects a

f ar

t hat l arger

h ave

i ndividuals, a n

s cale

p robably

i ndication

a re

o f

i n

g raves;

r ank o r p olitical

a dministrative

s tructures

a nd

w hat a re m ore t raditionally r eferred t o a s p alace c omplexes,

s uch a s t hat b uilt b y C harlemagne a t A achen a nd t he A nglo-Saxon s ites o f Y eavering a nd C heddar. B esides t heir e xistence a nd r ecognition a s s ites o f i mportance b y t heir s ize, i t m ay b e c onceivable t o o bserve t he d istribution o f t hese s ites a nd s o g ain s ome i dea o f t he a reas a dministered b y t hem . T he

s econd

f orm

o f

e vidence

f or p olitical s tructure i s s lighter,

c onsisting o f r emains o nly i ndirectly a ffected b y p olitical o rganisation. S uch e ffects m ay b e v isible i n t owns ( as H odges d emonstrates w ith t he p ositioning a nd d evelopment o f t he emporia o f N orth-Western E urope ( 1982)), t he m inute t races o f a uthority t hat e xisted i n t he e very d ay l ife o f t he v illage, a nd t hat p art o f t he r elation o f t he v illage t o t he t own a nd t he t own t o t he o ther t own t hat i s n ot

2 .8

s trictly e conomically

d etermined.

p olitical

o rganisation

w ould

b e

e vidence.

T hat i s n ot a vailable.

A ll

d ifficult

t hese t o

t race

a spects

o f

t he

g iven t he b est

P OWER R ELATIONSHIPS

S everal t hemes h ave b een

e xamined ,

l argely

a s

i f

t hey

w ere

a ll

i ndependent o f e ach o ther , m ainly f or e ase o f p erforming t he a rchaeological e xamination o f t he m aterial. Y et t he t hey a ll r elate t o t he s ame material a nd t he s ame p roducing g roups, a re a ll m anifestations o f o ne o riginator. T he f inal a nalysis w ill h ave t o d raw m any o f t he

4 9

i ndividual t hreads t ogether a nd p roduce a h igher l evel a nd more a bstract a ccount

o f

t he

material.

o verall t heme t hat l ater

o n.

T he

i s

A f ramework f or s uch a nalysis

f lexible b ut a lso s uitable

o ne l inking c oncept t hat

a nd

a n

c omprehensive

f or a nalysis.

p ower

m ethod

i n t he r ecent w ork o f M ichael Mann.

O ne s uch s et

h as

s et

o ut

S ome

s ome d efinition o f p ower a nd a

e xists

( 1986),

s tate d evelopment a nd t he t hings d one. A ll o f t he

c an b e d rawn t ogether b y t he u se o f

b asic

P ower

a n

w ork

a nalysis o f p ower r elationships a ttempted.

f ramework i s n eeded f or s uch a n a nalysis,

S ocial

i s n eeded ,

c omparative

c an d raw i n a ll o ther s pheres

f rom t hat o f s ocial o rganisation t o i deology , e conomy i s p ower. T he c apacity t o g et p reviously d iscussed a nalyses

f or

o f d efinitions a nd f rameworks H is v olume,

T he

S ources

o f

a method o f a nalysis a nd a s et o f

c ategories o f p ower w hich f orm t he b asis o f a nalysis. M ann 's p remise i s t hat o verlapping a nd i ntersecting u nitary ,

s ocieties a re c onstituted o f s ocio-spatial n etworks. T hey

h ave n o b asic t otality.

' A g eneral a ccount

o f

G iven t hat:

s ocieties,

t heir

s tructure

a nd

h istory c an b est b e g iven i n t erms o f t he i nterrelations I

w ill

c all

e conomic, 1 986, 2 )'

T hese

t he

f our

military

a re

the

a nd

multiple a re n ot

s ources

o f

p olitical

o verlapping

s ocial

( IEMP)

p ower:

t heir o f w hat

i deology ,

r elationships.

( Mann

n etworks o f s ocial i nteraction a nd a lso

o rganisational a nd i nstitutional m eans o f a ttaining human

g oals.

t hen d rives t hem?

r esolution o f

What

f orces t hese t hings a long?

t he i ssue o f p rimacy i s that b eings

w ith

their

u ltimately

r estless

d riving

f orce

n ature a nd d emands t o b e

r esult o f a ttempts t o f ulfil t hese n eeds b eing ,

the

Mann 's

i s

human

f ulfilled.

s ocial p ower n etworks

A s a

c ome i nto

a nd a re t hen maintained a nd t ransformed.

P ower i tself c an b e c lassified by two b inary p airings: i ntensive,

d iffused

a nd a uthoritative.

t o o rganise l arge n umbers o f e ngage

i n

p eople,

c ommitment

f rom

i nstitutions

o bedience,

a nd

c ommand

p articipants. a nd

w hilst c ommon

f ar-flung

t erritories,

t o

I ntensive p ower i s t he a bility

h igh

l evel

d efinite

p ower

i nterest.

a nd

o f

m obilisation

o r

Authoritative p ower i s w illed b y g roups

c omprises

d iffused

u nderstanding t hat p ractises a re e vident

o ver

a

e xtensive

E xtensive p ower i s t he a bility

m inimum s table c o-operation .

t o o rganise t ightly , a nd

What

i s

' moral', T hese

c ommands

more t wo

a nd

s pontaneous,

' natural'

c onscious p erhaps

o r r esult

p airings

c an

b e

a n

f rom s elfg enerally

i llustrated i n f igure 2 .1.

T hese

types

t he q uestion w hat n etwork

o f

o f p ower t hen o perate w ithin a s ociety. i s a s ociety?

s ocial

H e g ives

t he

a nswer

Mann t hen a sks t hat

i nteraction a t t he b oundaries o f w hich i s

l evel o f i nteraction c leavage b etween i t

5 0

a nd

i ts

i t

i s

' a

a c ertain

e nvironment'

( ibid ,

Authoritative

D iffused

I ntensive

a rmy c ommand s tructure

g eneral

E xtensive

m ilitaristic empire

market e xchange

s trike

F igure 2 .1 M ann 's D ivision o f S ocial P ower T ypes 1 3). n ot

B ut

w ith

t hat h e a lso s tates t hat

s ocial a nd thus

a re

u sually

t aken

i nterstitial r ise, o rganise

human b eings a re

s ocieties a re n ot t he u nitary t o

b e.

C oupled

w ith

t his

t he f requent means o f c hange,

s ufficiently

s ocietal a nd

phenomena

t hat

they

i s the c oncept o f t he

f or

a

s ociety

c annot

t o p revent t he r ise o f n ew n etworks t hat p rovide

f or t he n ew n eeds o f p articular g roups. W hilst t he d one h ere model

I EMP p ower t ypes c ould b e f urther d efined t his w ill n ot b e

f or i t

t o

t he

p ower r elations s cope

t he

i s more i mportant t o c onsider t he e arly

m ediaeval p eriod .

Mann 's

f rom t heir b eginnings t o 1 760,

a pplication

E uropean

c ursory.

Dynamic.

C onsequently

t he

t he

a nd b ecause o f t his

p eriod r eceives a s hort amount o f a ttention ,

s ome

t reatment

w ide

f our p ages

f illing i n t he g ap b etween t he e nd o f t he R oman Empire a nd the t he

o f

f irst v olume d eals w ith

s tart

o f

i s b rief b ut n ot

T he b arbarian k ingdoms w ere e stablished b ecause the b arbarians

w anted t he f ruits o f c ivilization ,

b ut u pon i nvading the empire w ere n ot

c apable o f p roviding t he e xtensive o rganisation which h ad g enerated that c ivilization.

A s a r esult t he Empire c ollapsed a nd s mall k ingdoms w ere

f ormed w hich k ept

s uch p arts

o f

t he

i mperial

a dapted t o s mall d ecentralised u nits. t he empire w ere

r apidly

a ccepted

R oman

c ivilization

k ingdoms

c ame

a cephalous

t he

c onverted

s ituation

f ederation

o f

t o

w ithout t hat

s tates

s ystem

that

c ould

b e

T he b arbarians w ho s ettled w ithin C hristianity t he b egan

w ith

a

s tate. t he

a nd ,

i n

F rom

e ffect,

t his mass o f

E uropean

D ynamic,

r estlessness

that w as

a n j ust

w aiting t o p ut C apitalism o n t he r oad. I nevitably , o f t he

the c ompression r esulted i n a d istortion o f the p rocesses

f ormation o f t he e arly mediaeval k ingdoms and

w ith t he R oman Empire,

their

i nteraction

a nd the e vents i n the B alkans a nd the r est o f t he

E astern Empire a re n ot d ealt w ith a t a ll ( Mann 's r eason f or t his e xclusion i s that h e c laims t o b e d ealing w ith the l eading e dge o f t he h istory o f p ower ). c onsiderable

S ome r ectifiction o f this

s cope

p rovide b oth a l onger c onsideration o f a t m ediaeval p eriod , p erspective o f t he 2 .9

i s d esirable,

s o t here

i s

f or a n a pplication o f t he model i n t his o ne c ase t o l east o ne p art

o f

t he

e arly

a nd a lso t o b e a ble t o a chieve a v iew f rom a d ifferent s ituation i n C roatia.

T HE U SE O F H ISTORY

O nly o ne f urther m ethodological q uestion r emains t o b e d ealt w ith , q uestion

t hat

i s most

s uch a s the p resent c ase p resents), i s

t o

b e

employed.

( a

f requently a ddressed i n a p roto-historical p eriod a nd t hat

i s h ow d ocumentary material

P rehistorians h ave l ittle t o w orry a bout

5 1

i n t his

r espect, T hree

b ut

f or

b asic

a p roto-historic p eriod i t i s a n i mportant q uestion.

a pproaches

h istorical

e xist,

i nformation

f irst,

a s

a

a rchaeological d ata h as t o b e f itted , A rnoldian

a pproach ,

t he

f ixed

t raditional

f ramework

s econdly ,

u se

i nto

w hat m ay b e

o f

t he

w hich

t he

c alled

t he

a nd f inally a n a pproach w hich a ccepts t he n ature o f

t he s ources, r ealistically d etermines t heir p ossible u se a nd t hen e ndevours t o e mploy t he d ocuments a nd t he a rchaeological m aterial t ogether a s

f ar a s i s p ossible.

T he t raditional a pproach h as b een t acitly d ealt w ith a t e arlier p oints i n t he c hapter, a nd c onsists o f u sing t he h istorical s ources a s a f ramework,

a

s eries o f f ixed p oints

f or t he a rchaeological m aterial t o

b e s trung o ut b etween ,

f illing

i n

d ocumentary

m ay

s ubject

s ources

b e

a s

m any t o

h oles

a s

p ossible.

i ndependent

T he

c riticism ,

t o

d etermine t heir v alue a nd v alidity , w hilst t he a rchaeology r emains f irmly s ubservient a nd i f a d iscontinuity e xists i t i s t he a rchaeology t hat i s

f or t he

i nterpretation t his,

m ost

p art

r egarded

a s

i n

e rror.

I n

c onsequence,

o f t he a rchaeological e vidence i s h amstrung.

W orse t han

t he c onstraints i mposed u pon i nterpretation m ay a ctually r esult i n

a voidable

e rror.

O ne

o f

t he

most

a cceptance o f B ede's d ating o f t he H istory ,

1 :15)

w hich

l ed

t o

s erious e xamples o f t his w as t he

' Adventus S axonum '

t o

A D

4 46

( Bede

c onfusion i n t he c hronology b esides t he

m isdating o f c onsiderable a mounts o f a rchaeological m aterial. R ectification o f m istakes s uch a s t hese b ecomes a d ifficult b usiness. B ecause s uch m istakes a rise o ut o f t he p osition a lloted t o i t

must

b e

a sked

w hether

t he

p rimacy i s

j ustified.

d ocuments

I f a n arrative

e xists t hen t he t endency i s t o a ccept i t, a s i t i s u seful f ramework, b ut a n a ccount o f g eneral p rocesses, s uch

t o h ave a a s e conomic

d evelopment o r t he g rowth i n s tate o rganisation may n ot

e nlightened

b e

b y a n arrative t hat w as c onstructed a bout b attles a nd b ishops. T he p rimacy t hen may n ot b e j ustified , c ertainly C ollingwood d id n ot h old i t t o b e s o, a nd w rote o n t he d ebate c oncerning t he v alue o f w ritten a nd u nwritten s ources:

' The

t erms

w ere

u nhappily c hosen.

' Written s ources'

c onceived a s e xcluding o ral s ources,

o r a s

h aving

a ny

w ere n ot s pecial

c onnection w ith h andwriting a s d istinct f rom c hiselling i n s tone o r t he l ike. ' Written s ources', i n f act, m eant s ources c ontaining r eady-made s tatements a sserting o r i mplying a lleged f acts b elonging t o i nterested. p otsherds, i mpression o f

t he

s ubject

i n

' Unwritten s ources' a nd s o f orth , i t

w hich

t he

h istorian

w as

m eant a rchaeological m aterial,

c onncected w ith t he s ame

s ubject....My

t hat t he c ontroversy f izzled o ut i n t he f eeblest

c ompromises,the

p artisans

o f

s cissors-and-paste

h istory

a ccepting t he p rinciple t hat ' unwritten s ources' c ould g ive v alid r esults, b ut i nsisting t hat t his c ould h appen o nly o n a v ery

s mall

s cale a nd w hen t hey w ere u sed a s a n a uxiliary a rm t o

' written s ources'; c ommerce,

i nto

a nd o nly a bout l ow m atters

w hich

a n

h istorian

5 2

w ith

l ike i ndustry t he

a nd

i nstincts o f a

g entleman w ould n ot

i nquire.

C ollingwood h imself d id n ot a ccepted

( Collingwood 1 961,

c onsider t hat a s tatement w as

a s t he t ruth a bout a p articular e vent,

o bject o f i nvestigation. s tatement

2 77)'

j ust t o

b e

r ather i t w as i tself a n

W hile t his m ight b e s atisfactory a s a

o f p rinciple c an i t b e u pheld i n p ractise?

g eneral

O ne a rchaeologist

h as d ecided t hat t here may b e c ircumstances w hen t he

' written

s ources'

m ay b e i gnored. C J A rnold i n h is b ook

' This t he

b ook

' Roman B ritain t o A nglo-Saxon E ngland '

d eliberately a voids t he h istorical e vidence,

m ajority

u ndoubtedly

o f

p revious

D ark

A ge

f requently i n t he

t radition a nd r arely c ontemporary. b e

d istorted

a rchaeological

a nd

i t

i s

p atterning

' written

s ources'

m aterial i n t his

c ase.

s o

a s

t hey

m ight

p osition? a s

s ources'

a re

a

matter b e

( 1984,

n ot

f orm

f or

f itted

b e

n ot

h eroic

d ebate t o

w hether

t he

n ebulous

6 )'

g ood e nough f or t he a rchaeological

T here i s n ot e nough b y w ay o f

w ell

o f

b e

c onsidered.

' written

s ources'

I s t hat a r ealistic

T he t aint o f p essimism l urks t here a nd w hile i n a n a rea

E ngland

w ider

a re

S uch d ocumentation i s l ikely

c an

i nformation t hat i t p rovides.

T he

u nlike

s tudies...There

g reat d angers i n a ttempting t o w ring t ruth f rom t he

h istorical material w hich i s t o

s tates:

w here

s uch

s o much h as g one a stray b y o ver r eliance o n ' written

i t m ay b e p ermissible t o a ttempt a n a ccount t hat d eals w ith t he

a spects

o f l ife w hich t he

' written s ources'

d o n ot t ouch u pon i n

t heir mad n arrative d rive. Y et w hile c onceding t he p ossibility o f a dvantage i n t he B ritish c ase, i t a ppears t o b e a d angerous p rinciple t o f ollow g enerally a nd i t i s p robable t hat A rnold w ould n ot a dvocate i t a s o ne.

I n

C roatia t he f ull p otential o f t he w ritten material t o p rovide

e vidence b eyond a n arrative h as n ot y et b een f ully e xploited , i s s till r eason f or i ts employment. G iven t hat t he w ritten t reated?

T here

s ources

w ill

b e

u sed ,

h ow

s o

w ill

a re two a reas i n w hich t hey m ight b e o f u se,

t here

t hey

b e

t he f irst

i s i n c onstructing a h istorical n arrative o f t he p eriod , w hich i s w hat t hey h ave b een s o f ar u sed f or, a nd t he s econd , t he i nvestigation o f t he a spects o f t he p eriod a lready o utlined. b road

A s r egards t he f irst

s eries o f e vents w ill h ave t o b e b orne i n m ind ,

t he main t hrust o f r esearch.

c ase

t he

b ut w ill n ot

f orm

T hus m any o f t he q uestions o f d etail

h ave b een r aised b y p revious w orkers w ill n ot b e t ouched u pon h ere. t he s econd p urpose,the i nformation

o f

d ata t o e nable a s p ossible.

u se,

w ritten

s ources

more

l ikely

t o

F or

p rovide

i nformation t o b e c ombined w ith t he a rchaeological

f ull a c onsideration o f

W ritten

a re

t hat

i nformation

i s

n ot

t he

p articular

s acrosanct,

p roblems

a s

i t m ay b e w rong ,

p erhaps f rom m isinformation , o r m isinterpretation a nd c an d emand n o l ogical p riority o f c onsideration o ver t he a rchaeological m aterial.

5 3

W hen

employed

i t

s hould

b e

w ith

c are,

a llowing f or c orruption a s a

r esult o f g eographical a nd t emporal d istance b etween t he s ituation u nder a nalysis a nd t he a vailable s ource material.

5 4

C HAPTER T HREE D OCUMENTARY MATERIAL 3 .1

S OURCES

' I

h ave t herefore m ade a h eap o f a ll t hat

d eclaration s ources a

a t

t he

s ources

m ediaeval

s tart

( 1980,

w riter,

9 ). b ut

o f

h is

s ources

w hich

a re

p rovince o f D almatia, a mong

t he

S lays

e ither

c omplete

d irectly

i n t he a rea,

s tudy.

h istorical p olitical

A s

f all o f t he d evelopments

o r w hich g ive d etails o f the c ustoms

a nd

A d etailed l ist o f t he e arly

f or Y ugoslavia h as b een published b y Antoljak ( by r epublic ),

( 1978)

a nd c hronologically.

B yzantine W riters

T he majority o f t he i nformation p rovided b y B yzantine w riters t he

f orm o f c hronicles,

w hich r elate e vents

m ention t he B alkan t erritories a nd t he C onsequently

most

B yzantines. J ohn

t he

S lays

i n

E ugarius

a nd T heophilus.

P riscus,

a l ate R oman ,

mentions

b roader

who

a re

w ider

c ontext.

o f

a nd

Agathius,

s urvives o nly i n

S lays among A ttila's T here a re,

s ubjects

f inally ,

t wo

n ot c oncerned s olely w ith c hronology a nd thus p rovide

i nformation.

P orphyrogenitus,

i n

W ith a s lightly w ider s cope

a uthor o f a h istory that

i n h is a ccount o f a m ission t o A ttila's c ourt. w riters

t his

I nto t his c ategory o f w riting f all t he w orks R ector ,

e xcerpts.

i s

c oncerning t he empire a nd s o

o f t he material i nvolves w ars b etween b arbarians

i s t hat o f M enander P rotector,

3 .1.2

f or

n arrative,

r elevant t o the

s ubsequent e vents a nd t he

w ho d ivided t hem g eographically . 1.1

w as N ennius's

s uffice f or t he p resent

w ay o f l ife o f t he S lays w ill b e e xamined. m ediaeval d ocuments

f ound '

o f B ritish h istorical

T hat may h ave b een a s uitable p rocedure i t w ill n ot

t he p rimary t ask i s n ot t o c onstruct a o nly

I h ave

c ompilation

These two,

P rocopius o f C aesaria

a nd

C onstantine

must b e c onsidered more c losely.

P rocopius o f C aesarea

B orn

a t

t he

e nd

o f t he

f ifth c entury i n C aesarea,

l awyer b efore moving t o B yzantium where i n s ecretary P ersian , p lague

t o

t he g eneral B elisarius.

A frican a nd I talian c ampaigns, o f

A D

5 42.

A fter that

A D

5 27

h e

h e t rained a s a b ecame

p rivate

H e a ccompanied B elisarius o n h is b ut w as

i n B yzantium d uring

l ittle i s k nown a bout him ,

t he

t hough i n A D

5 60 h e w as g iven t he r ank o f i llustris a nd may w ell h ave b een P refect o f t he C ity. H e d ied e ither i n A D 5 62 o r A D 5 65. T hree o f h is w orks s urvive,

o f w hich o ne i s o f c onsiderable

u se.

T he

W ars

( De

B ello ),

d eals w ith the w ars o f J ustinian u p t o A D 5 54 i n a d etailed a nd a ccurate w ay, c overing a w ide r ange o f material. B esides t he s pecific w ars a gainst t he V andals, P ersians a nd G oths, i nformation a bout t he D anubian S lays, t heir r elations w ith B yzantium a nd n eighbouring p eoples a nd t heir c ustoms i s i ncluded. H is Anekdota i s l ess u seful i n this r espect, m entioning o nly t he r aids u pon B yzantine t erritory b y the S lays, w hich

5 5

J ustinian

( possibly a d evil i n h uman f orm )

( Anekdota,

1 1,

1 8,

2 3).

J ustinian a s t he A nekdota

w as

a chievements i nformation. t he

t ime

1 2,

f ailed t o p revent e ffectively

T he B uildings, i n

a s

f ullsome i n p raise f or

c ondemnation ,

r ecord

f or t he D anubian S lays o f t he s ixth c entury '

( 1978,

t he s cope o f t he i nformation h e p rovides a nd P rocopius' c entre

o f

c laim .

D e B ello i tself w ill b e e xamined l ater.

3 .1.3

h is

b uilding

i n s ubstantial d etail a s w ell a s p roviding t opographical Antoljak d escribes h is w ork a s ' the r ichest t reasury o f

military

a ffairs

t his

5 ).

p lace

G iven

n ear

t he

i s u nderstandable a nd n ot t oo w ild a

C onstantine P orphyrogenitus

A part

f rom a n umber o f s hort

o f w hich a re e xternal,

r eferences t o S lays

b oth o f i nformation a nd c ontroversy: P orphyrogenitus

( reigned

f requently b een s tated ; f or

the

A D

the B yzantine

9 13-959).

h is u ncle A lexander h is

9 05,

a nd a lthough h is b irth w as o ut o f

l egitimised a nd a t h is e ighth

f ather's

( Toynbee y ear

d eath

1 973,

u ntil

( 912)

8 ).

h is

C onstantine o f

h is

t he

w ork

f or t he C elts

( quoted i n A ntoljak 1 978,

C onstantine P orphyrogenitus w as b orn i n A D

f rom

emperor

R ombaud c ompared t he s ignificance

G ermania f or t he G ermans

( the w ise)

a ll

T he i mportance o f h is w orks h as

C roats a nd S erbs t o t hat o f C aesar's G allic Wars

a nd T acitus'

V I

i n t his p eriod,

t here i s o ne w riter w ho i s u nrivalled a s a s ource

1 7).

s econd s on o f L eo

w edlock

h e b ecame

h e

w as

l ater

j oint emperor w ith

A lexander d ied

i n

A D

9 13

a nd

s ixteenth C onstantine w as u nder t he

d omination o f a c ouncil o f r egency c onsisting o f h is mother a nd

s everal

p alace o fficials. I n A D 9 20 t he L ord Admiral R homanos L epencus o ver-awed C onstantinople w ith the f leet a nd b y r apid s tages s eized p ower a nd

p roclaimed

h imself

emperor

a long w ith h is

s lowly d emoted d own t he l adder o f the i n

A D

9 44,

e arly

i n

R homanos'

A D

C onstantine.

9 45 F rom

h is o wn a ccount, t he

i nfluence

s ons

t hey

t here

i n

turn

o verthrown

t hen u ntil h is d eath i n A D i s

n umerous

C onstantine w as E ventually ,

a nd

t onsured

b y

9 59 C onstantine r uled o n

( it

s eems h ard t o b elieve that

c ould h ave s uccessfully maintained

t heir

H is e ffectiveness a s emperor h as b een v ariously d etermined ,

i s a measure

o ver-fondness

f or

o f

a greement f ood

but

c laimed t hat d uring t his time h e w as u nder i ndividuals,

s uch a w ide r ange o f o fficials c abal).

s ons.

s uccession .

S tephanos a nd C onstantine o verthrew h im ,

w ere

t hough i t o f

I mperial

o n

a nd

o ver-severity a nd v indictiveness

h is

d rink. i n

c apable

administration

A ccused

i n

punishment,

h e

s ome

w as

but a nd

t exts

o f

d escribed

b y

L iutprand , B ishop o f C remona , a s v ery a ffable ( Toynbee 1 973, 1 9 ). H is r eign w as marked b y s ome m ilitary s uccess, w ith o nly o ne s etback i n C rete.

More

m inor r evival Much o f t he

i mportant

f or t he p resent

i n l iterature,

s tudy h is

r eign w as n oted f or a

o f C onstantinian i nspiration.

s tudy o f l iterature w hich C onstantine u ndertook must h ave

t aken p lace w hile h e w as o ut o f e ffective r ule a nd i n s eclusion. o nly

o n

h is

I t w as

a ssumption o f f ull a uthority t hat h e d etermined t o e xtend

t he s cope o f h is p rivate w ork b y u sing i mperial r esources.

I n

t he

e nd

t his i nvolved o rganising s ynopsists t o w ork o n t he a vailable m aterial, c ompiling s elections f rom d iverse s ources, c ausing n ew w orks o f

5 6

i nstruction

t o b e w ritten ,

g athering t ook p lace,

a nd w riting f our w orks

w ith e nvoys,

h imself.

I nformation

p rovincial g overnors a nd e ven f oreign

a mbassadors b eing m ade t o w rite d own w hat t hey k new o f a reas a nd c ustoms ( Jenkins, ( Vita

1 967,

1 0).

B asilius),

H is

o wn w orks w ere a l ife o f h is g randfather B asil

a w ork o n t he t hemes o f t he empire

a n a ccount o f t he c eremonies a nd

a

b ook

d edicated

h andling t he n ations h enceforth

c ited

t o h is

s on ,

R homanos

s urrounding t he empire

a s

DAI).

s ettlement o f t he S lays,

( De P raefecturis),

a nd l iturgies o f the c ourt

I t

i s t his

I I,

( De

( De C aeremoniis)

g iving h im a dvice u pon Administrando

I mperio,

l ast w ork w hich d eals w ith t he

t he a rrival o f t he C roats a nd S erbs,

a nd

s ome

o f t he e vents u p t o the m id t enth c entury. T he c omposition o f t he DAI f irst

C onstantine's C onstantine h is

c an b e

f ather w rote), P orphrogenitus

u nlikely ,

T hat

i t

a

b egan

p arallel

f rom

a s

t o

w ork

c ame a bout

t o

b e

t he

t o

c hanged

a nd

1 967,

b y

o f

1 2)

P raefecturis, t his

o ccupied A t

o ther

emperors'

i s

t he

t heir

i t

w as

w hich J enkins

t hat

( 12)

c ase

t hen

i t

w as

s urrounding t he empire i nhabitants,

t he

t our

the empire i n a c lockwise d irection

s ome p oint t hough t he i ntention o f t he w ork

a nd t he h istorical c hapters w ere i nterleaved w ith d idactic

i ndicating h ow f oreign p olicy h ad p roceeded a nd h ow

c ontinue.

Unfortunately

T oynbee,

i n s pite o f a

emperor

m istaken

b ook.

o wn

( Jenkins D e

I f

c ircuit

s tarting f rom t he n orth. s ections

h is

b e a d escription o f t he t erritories

a nd h ow t hey p roceeding

w hich

a d idactic t reatise o f i nstruction i s

p rovisionally c alls P en i E thnon. i ntended

o f t hree t hings,

t he g eneral a tmosphere o f l iterature

a nd i t h as b een s uggested

o riginally

r esult

( such a s t he T aktika w hich

f ostered a nd h is o wn p articular c oncern t hat

s on s hould b e a ble t o b enefit

e xperience.

w as

s een a s the

t he B yzantine p redilection f or manuals

i n

t he

d eep

n ew r egard

a ttempting

B e t hat a s i t m ay ,

i t

s hould

material w as n ever p roperly e dited. f or

t o

C onstantine,

c onsidered

t he

t urn a f ile o f i nformation i nto a

s tudents o f t he p eriod a re b oth

g rateful

a nd

f rustrated b y h is a ttempt. 3 .1.4

W estern S ources

A s

w as

the c ase w ith many o f t he B yzantine s ources,

the majority o f

t hose f rom W estern E urope a re c hronicles w hich u sually r efer t o

C roatia

w hen the s ubjects o f t he c hronicles a re i nvolved i n e vents t here. I sidore o f S eville i n h is C hronica Maiora r ecords e vents s o f ar a s t he s ixth

y ear

o f

H eraclius

a nd

i n

e pitome

e xtends

a s

f ar a s A D

m entioning t he l oss o f p rovinces a nd i slands t o t he S lays. R egni

F rancorum

Empire

f rom A D

a nd

Annales

7 41 t o A D

8 29,

E inhardi r ecord e vents a nd a s

i n

t hat

p eriod

T he

6 26,

Annales

i n t he C arolingian t he

empire

w as

e xpanded t o t ake i n I stria a nd p ortions o f D almatia t here a re r ecords o f e vents e vents

i n t hat i n

a rea.

P annonia,

emperor 's c areer. i ts o wn s ake.

S imilarly , I stria

N o o ne

D almatia

f rom t he W est w as

M ore s pecific h istories e xist H istory o f t he G oths

E inhard 's L ife o f

a nd

C harlemagne

r ecords

w hen t hey i mpinge u pon t he i nterested

c overing o ne n ation ,

i n

C roatia

s uch a s

J ordanes'

a nd P aul t he D eacon 's H istory o f t he L ombards.

5 7

f or

T he

f irst, o f

t he

i n n arrating t he G oths' a rrival i n E urope, e nables t he l ocation S lays a nd Antaes t o b e t raced , w hilst t he l atter m entions the

d epredations o f t he S lays i n I stria a nd t he b order a rea ( eg B ook I V c hapter x l, B ook V I c hapter x xiv ). H owever, n either p rovides a ny a ccount o f i nternal e vents i n C roatia. A f inal w riter i n t his c ategory i s

P ope G regory I ,

w hose l etters m ention t he a dvances o f t he S lays

i nto

t he B alkans. 3 .1.5

C roatian S ources

A ntoljak o bserves t hat t heir

l and

s ources

' from t he t ime

w hen

the

u ntil t he n inth c entury w e d o n ot

a t o ur d isposal'

( 1978,

1 7).

T his

i s

C roats

a rrived

i n

h ave c ontemporary w ritten i ndeed s o,

a nd i t i s

o nly

w ith the emergence o f t he k ingdom o f C roatia t hat i nternal s ources a re p roduced , t wo o f w hich a re w orth m ention. T he L jetopis P opa D ukljanina ( Chronicle

o f

the

D uklja/Doclea ) c entury

t o

o f

D uklja )

e vents

i s

l ife

A rchdeacon o f S plit.

T homas

s et

o ut

t o

S alona/Split

f rom R oman t imes u ntil

d estruction

o f

S alona h e i s

a

s outhern

n inth

More i mportant t han t his

i s t he

F ollowing

a

w rite

a

1 266.

A lthough h e

f rom t he middle o f the n inth c entury ,

h istory

w ithdrawal o f

s ources 3 1.6

i t.

f rom

t he c hurch i n

d eals

w hen

H e i s most

r ulers

w ith

the

s uch

a s

B ranimir,

i mportant w hen d ealing w ith

t he t enth c entury c hurch s chism i nvolving N in a nd S alona, r esolved

( from

t he

a n a ccurate s ource o nly f or c hurch a ffairs

T omislav a nd D rzislav a re named. t hat

s ource

f rom t owards t he e nd o f

the m iddle o f t he t welfth.

h istory o f T homas, p ublic

P riest

w hich n arrates

a nd t he

s ynods

inth c entury b oth i nternal a nd e xternal A fter the n

a re more numerous.

W ider S ources

S o f ar t he migration

s ources l isted h ere d eal e ither

w ith C roatia i tself a nd i ts s ources

w ith

o f the S lays b efore t he e stablishment s ubsequent h istory.

h as y et t o b e d ealt w ith ,

t he

i nvasions

a nd

o f C roats i n C roatia o r One

f urther

g roup

o f

t hose w hich d o n ot d eal d irectly w ith

t he D anubian S lays o r w ith C roatia, b ut w ith t hings g enerally S lavic. B ecause t he emergence o f t he S lavic l inguistic g roup a s a n e ntity i s a l ate phenomenon , t he

n inth

C onsequently , G ermany

o r

U kranians)

t he S lavic g roup maintained a

c entury , c ustoms P oland ) h ave

a nd

a long

r elated o f t he W estern S lays a nd E astern S lays

among the S outhern S lays.

Adam

B remen

a nd

i deological matters, a s imilar v alue,

( such

( the R ussians,

s ome v alidity f or u nderstanding s ocial

p atterns o f

l inguistic

t hat h ave

o f

u nity

u ntil

w ith this a measure o f c ultural u nity.

S axo

s ome v alue.

T hus w orks

5 8

a s

i n a nd

a nd

i deological

s uch a s t he c hronicle o f

G rammaticus,

w hich

t ouch

u pon

T he R ussian P rimary C hronicle h as

p articularly b ecause o f the a ccount o f

o f P rince V ladimir o f K iev.

t hose

B yeloRussians

t he

c onversion

3 .1.7

I nscriptions

A fter t he b ehind

l ast

( the

i nscriptions

s arcophagus

o f the

Antique

n inth c entury w ith t he c onversion o f t he i nscriptions

r e-appear

p eriod

o f t he n un J oana a t i n

t he

h ave

S alona )

C roats

t o

i t

b een

l eft

i s o nly i n t he

C hristianity

c ontexts o f c hurches.

T here i s

t hat l ittle

p oint i n e xamining e ach , b ut i t i s s ufficient t o n ote t hat t hey h ave b een o f c onsiderable u se i n s etting o ut t he o rder o f r ulers o f C roatia ( GunjaZa 1 976, 3 .2

x viii ).

P ROCOPIUS

B ecause o f t he c oncerted

f orm o f

n arrative,

D e

b ut

B ello

r ather

p assages d ealing w ith t he S lays a re t heir

r aiding

S lays

d o

o ne

s ection

a ppear

i n

t he

most

p art

a T he

r eferences

t o

o r their employment a s m ercenaries

t hough t here a re d etails o f t heir

a nd

n ot

they p lay a p art i n e vents.

f or

i nto R oman t erritory ,

b y t he R omans, b arbarians

t he a s

o f e thnography.

r elations

w ith

o ther

T hese c ategories w ill b e

c onsidered s eparately. ( The t ext u sed w as t he t ranslation o f H B D ewing , u sing t he t ext e dited by H aury. P rocopius r efers t o the S lays a s

S claveni thoughout h is w orks

s ections. 3 .2.1

a nd t his

R eferences a re g iven by b ook ,

h as b een maintained c hapter a nd ,

i n

s ometimes,

q uoted l ine.)

S lays a s mercenaries

' Martinus a nd V alerian a rrived b ringing w ith them 1 600 h orsemen , the most o f w hom w ere H uns, S claveni a nd Antae w ho a re s ettled a bove the

I ster r iver n ot

f ar f rom i ts b anks. ( V x xvii 2 )'

' [A p risoner i s t o b e c aptured f rom the e nemy ] p romised w ere

r eadily

t o p erform s uch a s ervice

s ome men i n h is

S claveni,

who

c ommand ,

a re

h e

a ccustomed

s aid , t o

f rom the

a n e nemy.

I n f act,

their n ative h aunts a nd

a long t he r iver I ster,

w as

w ell

e spcially a ctive... ( VI x xvi

n ear

..

s uited

b oth

w hom

J ohn

h ad

l eft

b arbarians e xcel a ll o thers g round

..

W hen

o f

a nd

o n

the

p ounce

the

i n

R omans

S o Valerian c hose o ut o ne o f a s

t o

s ize

o f

b ody

a nd

1 8)'

' And t hree h undred A ntae a lso w ere h elping t hem t o men

F or there

n ation

t hey a re c onstantly p ractising t his

o n t he b arbarians a s w ell

the S claveni w ho

A nd V alerian

c onceal themselves b ehind a

s mall r ock o r a ny b ush w hich may h appen t o b e u pon

..

f or h im .

there

k eep

p reviously

i n t heir a bility t o f ight

g uard ,

F or

these

o n

r ough

t hese two f orces e ngaged i n b attle a v iolent

5 9

s truggle

e nsued

b ut

t he

Antae b y t heir v alour ,

b ecause t he r oughness o f t he g round w as t o t heir t urned

t heir

o pponents

w ere s laughtered s ame A ntae

t o

f light;

( VII x xii)'.

a nd a lso

a dvantage

..

a nd a g reat n umber o f t hem

[ Later i n

t he

s ame

c hapter

t he

f ollow J ohn a s h e r etreats a nd m ay h ave b een i nvolved

i n a l ater a ction.]

I t i s n ot s urprising t hat w hen t he S lays i n q uestion a re a cting a s m ercenaries t hat i t i s t heir martial c apacity t hat i s made m ost o f. T hey

a re

g ood

i ndiscriminate B esides

f ighters

t hat

t here i s

s ide o f t he D anube

S lays a s

b ad

Among

g round

t heir

a nd

n umber

a re a re

p ractised s ome

a nd

h orsemen.

l ittle t o n ote s ave t hat t hey d well o n t he n orth

( Ister ),

a re p assing b arbarians, 3 .2.2

o n

a mbushers.

b ut n ot i n a n e xclusively S lavic a rea;

t here

a s w ell a s R omans t o a ttack.

I nvaders

B ecause o f t he l arge n umber o f r eferences a nd t he r epetitious n ature o f S lavic i nvasions o nly a f ew w ill b e q uoted i n f ull, t he r emainder w ill o nly b e n oted.

' And i t

s o f ell o ut t hat d uring t his

u nexpectedly

r endered

a

g reat

g reat t hrong o f t he b arbarians, r ecently

c rossed

t he

r iver

j ourney

s ervice S claveni,

I ster,

t hey

h ad ,

a s

p lundering

c ountry a nd e nslaved a v ery g reat n umber

[ the

E ruli]

t o t he R omans.

o f

i t

F or a

h appened ,

t he a djoining

R omans.

N ow

t he

E ruli s uddenly c ame u pon t hese b arbarians a nd j oined b attle w ith t hem , a nd , a lthough f ar o utnumbered , t hey u nexpectedly d efeated t hem ,

a nd s ome t hey s lew ,

a ll t o g o t o t heir h omes

T hat

i s

o ne o f t he f ew o ccasions t hat P rocopius r ecords t he f ailure

o f S lavic r aid ,

' At

a nd t he c aptives t hey r eleased o ne a nd ( VII x iii 2 3)'.

more f requently t hey a re s uccessful:

a bout

t his

t ime

[ AD 5 48]

r iver I ster

a nd

I llyricum a s

f ar a s E pidamnus,

t heir w ay , A nd

s pread

a n a rmy o f S claveni c rossed t he

d esolation

t hroughout

t he

y oung a nd o ld a like,

a nd p lundering

t heir

t hey h ad a lready s ucceded i n c apturing numerous

o f t hat r egion , p reviously

h ad

w hich w ere b een

c ontinued t o r oam a bout

t hen

r eputed

w hole

o f

k illing o r e nslaving a ll w ho c ame

q uite t o

b e

u ndefended , s trong

s earching o ut e verything

p roperty. s trongholds b ut

p laces, a t

w hich

a nd t hey

t heir

o wn

p leasure. A nd t he c ommanders o f t he I llyrians k ept f ollowing t hem w ith a n a rmy o f 1 5 0 00 m en , w ithout, h owever, h aving t he c ourage t o g et c lose t o t he e nemy

6 0

( VII x ix )'.

T he

r emaining

r eferences t o S lavic i nvasions m ention c aptured S lays

w ho r evealed t hat t he i ntention h ad b een S lays

w ho

o verran

t he

empire

i rreparable damage i n a ll E urope, s udden

r aids

t o

' with

c apture

c omplete

T hessalonike

f reedom '

a nd

n ot m erely p lundering t hat

b ut a ctually s pending t he w inter a s

o wn l and a nd h aving n o f ear o f t he e nemy '

a nd

' wrought

c ountry

b y

i f t hey w ere i n their

( VII x l ).

I t w as

t his

g roup

o f S lays w ho d efeated a l arge R oman army o utside Adrianople. F rom t hese r eferences, a nd f rom o ther w riters, S lavic r aids u pon t he empire c an b e c onstructed , i tself i mportant

i t

o rganisation

t he S lays o r t heir s ociety ,

o f

d oes

n ot

a ssist

i n

t he

t he c ourse o f t he a nd w hile t his i s i n

u nderstanding

o f

t he

f or the c omposition o f t he

' great throng o f S claveni' ( VIII x xv 1 ) i s n ot d escribed. Y et there must b e s ome m easure o f o rganisation t o e nable t he S lays t o r emain t ogether a nd t o b e a ble t o c ounter s uch a rmies a s a gainst

them .

f orm o f o rganisation e xisted b ut p roof, Procopius,

3 .2.3

t he

S uspicions may b e e ntertained t hat

escapes

a t

l east

B yzantines

s ent

s ome q uite e ffective

f rom t hese s ections

o f

us.

S lays Among O ther B arbarians

S everal

o f t he p assages

i n t his

t he a rea o ccupied b y t he S lays t he

E ruli,

s ixth c entury.

f ollowing t heir d efeat b y t he L ombards,

h omeland a cross ( VI x v 2 ).

c ategory h ave b een u sed t o d elineate

i n the

T he

m igration

' all t he n ations o f the S clavini o ne

a fter

t he

o ther '

A s t he E ruli e ventually a rrived i n S candinavia i t w ould s eem

t hat t he n ations o f t he S claveni e xtended a cross a c onsiderable o f

o f

t ook them f rom their

c entral E urope.

p ortion

I n a nother p lace t he Antae a re l ocated a long w ith a

n umber o f o ther n ations:

' Above t he S aginae a re s ettled numerous H unnic t ribes. there o nwards t he c ountry h as t he

b arbarian l and ,

a nd

t he

f ar a s t he s o-called Maeotic L ake

t his

l ake h as a n o utlet o n t he c oast o f t he E uxine S ea.

T anais w ho

a re

R iver

[ Don ]

s ettled

w hich empties

t here

w ere

b ut n ow t hey a re c alled U tigurs.

t he

t he

[ Sea

i n

b esides t he e xact p oint w here t he o utlet o f t he

T he Antae t hen a re f ound N orth o f t he B lack f its

w ith

o f t he G oths I n S lays

o ther d escriptions,

A zov ]

( VII

And

N ow t he

a ncient t imes

And a bove t hem

c ountless t ribes o f t he Antae a re

d well t he G oths w ho a re c alled T etraxitae

o f

i nto the l ake.

named

C immerians, n orth

a nd

h old b oth t he c oast a nd the i nterior o f

t his

p eople

a s

p eoples

A nd f rom

r eceived t he name o f E ulysia ,

s ettled.

l ake

t o B ut

c ommences

i v 7 ).

S ea,

a

p osition

n otably t hose o f J ordanes

w hich

i n h is H istory

( IV 3 3-35).

V II x xxv 1 6 a nd 1 9 t he r elations b etween t he G epids,

L ombards a nd

c oncerning

t hrone,

I ldiges,

a

c laimant

6 1

t o

t he

L ombard

a re

n arrated.

F irst h eard o f t aking r efuge among

t he

S lays,

h is

s everal

a ttempts t o b ecome k ing f ailed i n s pite o f t he s upport o f G epids a nd m any S lays. E ventually a fter f urther a dventures h e r etired o nce more t o t he

S lays.

I t

w ould b e r emarkable i f t he S lays h ad n ot t aken p art

b arbarian p olitics, I t

i s

t he

i n

a nd t his n arrative c onfirms t he u nremarkable.

f inal

r eference

w hich

p rovides

o therwise i naccessable d etail a bout t he S lays.

t he

m ost

u seful a nd

i ncludes

t he

i nformation a s a d igression i n t he m iddle o f a c omplex n arrative. A ntae a nd S claveni h ave g one t o w ar , t he A ntae h ave b een d efeated ,

T he a nd

s ome

w ho

t aken

p risoner.

Among

h appens t o s hare t he name o f c unning

R oman

c aptive

t hese a

i s

f amous

P rocopius

a y outh named C hilbudius, R oman

g eneral.

( taken p risoner i n T hrace)

t hat the Antae C hilbudius

i s

i n f act t he

R oman

E ventually

p ersuades h is

g eneral

a nd

t hat

R omans w ould b e g lad t o h ave h im r eturned:

' But w hen t he r eport w as n ation ,

p ractically

s ituation , o ne,

c arried a bout a nd

a ll

t he

Antae

r eached

a ssembled

t hat

g reat

f act t hat t hey h ad n ow

e ntire

t o d iscuss t he

a nd t hey d emanded t hat t he m atter b e

t hinking

t he

made

a

p ublic

b enefit w ould c ome t o t hem f rom t he

b ecome

masters

o f

t he

R oman

g eneral

C hilbudius. F or t hese n ations, t he S claveni a nd t he Antae a re n ot j ust r uled b y o ne man, b ut t hey h ave l ived f rom o f o ld u nder a

d emocracy ,

w elfare, I t

i s

a nd

c onsequently e verything w hich i nvolves t heir

whether f or g ood o r f or i ll,

a lso t rue t hat

i s

r efered t o t he

i n a ll o ther matters,

p eople.

p ractically s peaking ,

t hese two b arbarian p eoples h ave h ad f rom a ncient t imes the

s ame

i nstitutions a nd c ustoms. F or t hey b elieve t hat o ne g od , t he maker o f t he l ightning i s a lone l ord o f a ll t hings, a nd they s acrifice

t o h im c attle a nd a ll o ther v ictims;

but

a s

f or f ate,

they n either k now i t n or d o t hey i n a ny w ise a dmit that a ny

p ower

among

men ,

but

w henever d eath s tands

t hem ,

e ither s tricken w ith s ickness o r

make

a p romise that,

i f they e scape,

b eginning t hey w ill

l ife;

e scape,

h ave

s acrifice

c onsider t hat their s acrifice.

s afety

their

w hat

h as

T hey r everence,

s ome o ther s pirits, make

j ust

t hey

b een

h owever ,

b ought

i n

c onnection

f ar

c hanging h is p lace

o f

a bode.

When

majority

g o a gainst t he e nemy o n f oot

a nd

c orselets. c loak ,

j avelins I ndeed

i n s ome

t heir

e very

t his

N ay f urther ,

a nd s ame

t hey

h ands,

a nd

t hey

f rom

o ne

e nter

but

b attle,

t he

c arrying l ittle

t hey

n ever

w ear

o f t hem d o n ot w ear e ven a s hirt o r a

b ut g athering t heir t rews

t wo p eoples h ave a lso t he

t hey

man i s c onstantly

u p a s

f ar a s t o

their

p arts t hey e nter i nto b attle w ith t heir o pponents. t ongue.

i f

a part

t hing ,

t hem

t hey

w ith t hese s acrifices.

g eneral

o f

a s

a nd

p romised , w ith

a

s hields

b ut,

w ar,

b oth r ivers a nd nymphs a nd

T hey l ive i n p itiful h ovels w hich t hey s et a nother,

a

a nd t hey s acrifice t o t hese a lso ,

d ivinations

h as

c lose b efore

s traightway make

a s acrifice t o t he g od i n r eturn f or t heir they

i t

s ame l anguage,

a n

6 2

p rivate

A nd b oth the

u tterly

t hey d o n ot d iffer a t a ll

a

c aptor

b arbarous

f rom o ne a nother

t he

i n a ppearance. m en ,

F or t hey a re a ll e xceptionally t all a nd s talwart

w hile t heir b odies a re n either v ery

f air

o r

b londe,

n or

i ndeed d o t hey i ncline e ntirely t o t he d ark t ype, b ut t hey a re a ll s lightly r uddy i n c olour. A nd t hey l ive a h ard l ife, g iving n o

h eed t o b odily c omfort,

t hem ,

j ust a s t he Massagetae d o ,

t hey a re c ontinually a nd a t a ll t imes

h owever

t hey

a re

i n

n o

a nd , i n

r espect b ase o r e vil-doers,

p reserve t he H unnic c haracter i n a ll i ts t he

c overed

s implicity.

l ike

f ilth; b ut t hey I n

f act

S claveni a nd Antae a ctually h ad a s ingle n ame i n t he r emote

p ast;

f or t hey w ere b oth c alled S pori i n o lden t imes,

b ecause

I

s uppose, l iving a part i n a s poradic f ashion.

f rom o ne a nother, t hey i nhabit t heir l and A nd i n c onsequence o f t his t hey h old a

g reat

f or t hey i nhabit t he g reatest p art o f t he

a mount o f l and ,

n orthern b ank o f t he I ster. t hese p eoples

S o m uch then may b e s aid

r egarding

( VII x iv ).'

I t i s n ot d ifficult t o s ee w hy P rocopius h as b een r egarded a s o ne t he

most

i mportant

s ources

t heir l ives a re t ouched u pon. f irst t hing i s t hat t hey

f or

t he S outh S lays,

o f

f or many a spects o f

What t hen o f t he S c) _aveni a nd A ntae? T he a re s ufficiently s imilar t o b e c onsidered

t ogether w ithout a ny n eed f or d ifferentiating t he c haracteristics o f o ne f rom

t he

o ther,

t hey

l ook s imilar,

h ave t he s ame l anguage,

h ave f rom

a ncient t imes h ad t he s ame c ustoms a nd o nce w ere d esignated b y t he n ame.

W hether

d iscussion ,

t his

w as

t he

s ame

c ase i s b eyond t he s cope o f t he p resent

b ut t hat P rocopius c onsidered i t

s o i s u seful.

T he S claveni t hen , a re t all s talwart m en , s lightly r uddy i n c olour , i f t hat c olour c an b e s een u nder t he f ilth w ith which t hey a re c overed , r ushing

i nto b attle w ith t heir t rousers h itched u p,

b earing o nly s hield

a nd j avelin. I t i s n otable t hat P rocopius n ever g ets b eyond m ales, a nd t hat l eads t o t he s uspicion t hat h is i nformation i s b ased u pon military c ontacts. More i nteresting i s t he c laim that the S claveni p ossess t he H unnic c haracter a nd a lthough f ilthy a re n either ' base o r e vil-doers'. T his i s a l ittle r ampaging ,

s urprising

l ooting ,

w hen

t he

g eneral

a ttitude

m urderous S claveni i s c onsidered.

t owards

t he

P rocopius a ppears

t o d etach t heir b ehaviour a s e nemies f rom t heir g eneral b ehaviour t o r each t his s tatement. T ied more f irmly t o w hat a rchaeology m ay r eveal a re t he d etails o f t he s ettlement p attern o f the S claveni. t heir

p itiful

h ovels

c ontent w ith that,

w hich

a re

s et

a part

T hey

o ccupy

f rom e ach o ther,

a nd n ot

f requently move t heir s ettlements.

G iven t his,

i t i s

n ot r emarkable that t hey ' inhabit t heir l and i n a s poradic f ashion ',

n or

t hat t hey h old a g reat amount o f l and. P rocopius'

d etails o f t he a ncient d emocracy o f t he S claveni c ould b e

c onsidered a s the s ame t ype o f p olitical w ishful

thinking

d escription o f t he u pright c ustoms o f t he f ree G ermans 1 9,

2 0),

f or i t g ives n o r eal d etails,

a s

T acitus'

( Tacitus G ermania

p roviding o nly t he

most

g eneral

a ccount. T hat t he g overnment o f t he S claveni r eally w as s o d emocratic i s o pen t o d oubt, f or t wo p ossible r easons; t he f irst, t hat t he o rganisation d emocracy ,

o f

t he r aids w ere b eyond the c apacity o f t his g eneralised

a nd t he s econd ,

t hat t his d emocracy a ctually i ndicates n ot

6 3

a

g loriously f ree

f ully-representative d emocracy but a l ack

o rganisation.

T his

h as

n ot

s topped

o f

p olitical

many r eferences t o t he s plendid

e arly p olitical e nlightenment o f t he S lays. I t

i s k nown f rom o ther s ources t hat t he a ccount o f t he T hunder g od a s

t he c hief d eity o f t he S claveni i s a ccurate , a nd a lthough P rocopius d oes n ot g ive h is n ame o ther s ources n ame h im P erun ( Le e 1 984, 6 1). T he r est o f t he p antheon o f d eities t hat L e e g ives P rocopius,

b ut

t hey

h onoured s pirits.

m ight

( passim )

a re u nknown

t o

c onceivably f all i nto t he c ategory o f o ther

S acrifices t o t he

v arious

d eities

a re

k nown

f rom

a rchaeological a nd d ocumentary s ources. O verall P rocopius h as p acked a i nto

a

s hort

c onsiderable

amount

o f

i nformation

d igression w hich i s more u seful than t he s tory c ontaining

i t. 3 .3

D E A DMINISTRANDO IMPERIO

3 .3.1

I ntroduction

H aving s ources f or

a lready

a cknowledged

t hat

DAI i s

f or t he h istory o f t he S outh S lays

t he

e xamination

o f

t he

h istorical

c hapters d ealing w ith the S outh s pecifically

w ith

t he

S lays

s ubject,

a re

philologists,

o f

p roducing

t he

b asis

s tructure o f t he p eriod. 2 9-36,

a nd

t hose

s ituation i n C roatia a re 2 9-31.

t he s ubject o f a c onsiderable amount o ccasionally ,

o ne o f t he most i mportant

i t c an b e u sed a s

s crutiny

b y

T he

d ealing

T hey h ave b een h istorians

a nd ,

a s ubstantial l iterature o n t he

f ocusing p articularly o n t he n arratives

o f t he

f all

o f

S alona

a nd the a rrival o f the C roats i n D almatia a nd the e jection o f t he Avars. A fter t hese q uestions, i nterest i s c oncentrated o n t he g eographical d escriptions u nits, o f

g iven o f t he c oastal l ands a nd i nland d isposition o f p ower

e specially t he d ivisions o f t he C roatia

DAI

i s

that

o f

J enkins

( 1967)

( the t ranslation employed

w ho u sed the most r ecently e dited

t ext). T he

i nterest t hat t he D AI c hapters p resent t o the a rchaeologist

a long

s imilar,

h istorian k ings s o

i s

n ot

d esperate

t o

e xactly

i dentical,

d evise t he c orrect

i n D almatia a nd P annonia a nd t he r elations

f ar

i n

s ome

a rchaeologist, t hat

t hough

a

c hange

c ases

a s

t o

i nvent

l ines.

Whilst

r uns t he

s equence o f p rinces a nd o f t he d ynasties

u nattested

( going

i ndividuals),

t he

a nd i ndeed c ertain t ypes o f h istorian ,

a re more c oncerned

f rom p rince t o k ing h as t aken p lace.

F or s uch a c hange

m ay b e t he s urface i ndication o f a d eeper c hange than t he r eplacement o f o ne

name

b y

a nother

( seeing a s t hese k ings

c an h ardly b e s aid t o h ave

i dentities n or r eally p olicy o f a ny k ind s ave the most c hapter w ill b e d ealt w ith i n t urn ,

o nce i t w ill b e t reated i n d etail u nder o nly o ne

6 4

g eneral ).

E ach

t hough w hen a t opic o ccurs more t han c hapter.

3 .3.2

C hapter 2 9

T his

i s t he f irst o f t he

e vents t hat p roduced t he

c hapters

c oncerning the S outh S lays a nd t he

s ituation i n t he m iddle o f the t enth c entury i n

D almatia a nd t he r est o f the B alkans. T here i s c onsiderable c onfusion i n i ts n arrative, t he d iscussion o f t he s ituation i n D almatia b eing i nterrupted 8 67-886)

b y e vents

i n L ombardy w hich i nvolved b oth B asil

( reigned A D

a nd s ome n umber o f the C roats a nd o ther S lays.

L ines

1 -14:

A s

C onstantine

h as

a d esire t o i nform h is

s on o f t he

' difference b etween o ther n ations,

their o rigins a nd c ustoms a nd

o f l ife'

c hapter o n D almatia w ith a s ection o f

h e i nevitably b egins t his

e thnogenesis, r ather

t han

b ut o f t he R omani,

t he p revious

the

i mportant

S lays.

The

i nhabitants

p erson

e thnogenesis

i s t he o riginal l eader o f t he p eople,

f athers

l eads

o r

t he R omani i t

t he n ation t o i ts p resent

i s t he e mperor D iocletian ,

i n

o f

manner

D almatia ,

a n a ccount o f a n

t he g uide who

s ituation.

b enificent

e ither

I n the c ase o f

f ounder o f

S palato ,

b oth c ity a nd p alace, w ho p assed h is name o n t o a nother c ity a nd p eople. A s a f oundation myth i t i s s atisfactory , a s h istory i t i s a v ast d istortion

o f

t he

l ate

R oman

r eality

a nd f ounders

u pon a s eries o f

m isconceptions. T he

t wo

D almatia, f lourish.

1 .

T he

c orrect

a nd h is

a spects

T he main o nes a re a s

R omani

o f

t he

t ale

a re

c onstruction o f t he p alace.

i n

D almatia

D iocletian 's

After t his

t he

l ove

f or

mistakes

f ollows:

came o riginally f rom R ome a t t he t ime o f

D iocletian a nd w ere s ettled t here i n D almatia b ecause h e s o d ecided. G iven

C onstantine's

u ntil t his d ay ' c onnecting D almatia g roup

s tatement

i t i s

t he

t hat

r easonable

k nown D iocletian ,

p eople

t itle a ttaches t o t hem

a ssume

t hat

k nown a s R omani.

D iocletian

N iceia. i s

t hat

w as

emperor

a

p alace )

w ith

a

c ontempary

o f t he E ast,

( Romani)

a nd h ad h is

w ith

a re

R omans

r epresent the i nhabitants

h im .

r esidence a t

T hus a more l ikely r eason f or a g roup b eing k nown a s t hey

i s

L ogically a R oman emperor w ould

l ive a t R ome a nd w hen moving w ould b ring R omans Y et

C onstantine

a n emperor o f R ome who s ettled i n

( to t he e xtent o f building

o f

' this

t o

R omani

a s d istinguished f rom S lays a nd i n f act o f

t he

c oastal

c ities

t hat

w ere

n ot

d estroyed b y t he A vars a nd S lays. 2 .

D iocletian f ounded t he c ity o f S palato. I t i s k nown t hat D iocletian b uilt h is p alace a f ew miles d istant f rom t he c ity o f S alona a nd t hat f ollowing t he d estruction o f t hat c ity s ome o f t he p opulation t ook r efuge i n t he d eserted p alace a nd t hat i t w as t he p alace t hat p rovided

the n ucleus o f t he c ity.

H owever i f t he m id t enth c entury

s ituation i s c onsidered s ome measure o f d evelopment b eyond the w alls i s

l ikely

t o

h ave t aken p lace,

a nd t his w ould c onsititute a nother

p art o f t he c ity .

S palato c ould e asily b e a ttributed t o D iocletian ,

e specially

t he

g iven

e tymological

p osibilities

S palato the c ity w ith a ' little p alace',

6 5

t hat

c ould l ink

a nd thus D iocletian.

I t

i s

n ot

o nly u nfortunate

d erivation

s hould

f or C onstantine b ut i nartistic, l ie

t hat

t he

r eal

w ith A spalathos a n earby p lace m entioned i n

t he N otitia D ignitatum . 3 .

T he c ity o f D ioclea

' now o ccupied b y t he D iocletians'

w as

b uilt

b y

D iocletian a nd t he p opulation o f i t a nd t he n earby a rea t ake t heir n ame f rom h im . D ioclea w as o riginally a n I llyrian c ity , c aptured b y t he R omans D ioclea ,

i n 1 68 B C.

Only l ater w as

i ts name D oclea t ransformed t o

u nder t he i nfluence o f the t radition

t hat

D iocletian

h ad

b een b orn t here ( Dvornik 1 962, 1 41). G iven t his mutation o f t he name t he D iocletians b ecome c omprehensibly n amed.

O verall, C onstantine ( or h is p roducing p lausible s tories o ut o f k nowledge

o f

t he

l ater

s ource ) d isplays b oth a c apacity f or f ew f acts, a nd a lso v ery l ittle

R oman empire.

f urther d emonstrated i n t he n ext

T his l ack o f k nowledge

s ection o f h is n arrative,

the

i s e ven f all

o f

S alona t o t he Avars. L ines w hich

1 4-53:

w hen

S ome

t aken

s even p roblems a rise t ogether

r esult

f rom t his v ersion o f t he

i n

t he c onviction t hat

i t

s tory

i s b oth

u nrealistic a nd u ntrue:

1 .

T he

i dentification o f t he S lays w ith t he Avars;

2 .

T he p eaceful n ature

o f

t hese

p eoples

i s

a t

v ariance

w ith

t he

i nformation g iven b y c ontemporary c hroniclers; 3 .

T he

i gnorance

e xistence, t here

w as

c ontradicts

o f

t he

R omani

a nd

Avars/Slays

b egging t he q uestion o f w hy t he R omani n o

o ne

a cross the r iver?

c ontemporary a ccounts o f

o f

e ach

o ther's

s et t his g uard

i f

T his u nawareness a lso f latly the

i nvasion

o f

t he

B alkan

p rovinces; 4 . 5 .

T he T he a t

R omani r aiding t he A vars/Slays p erpetually; s tupidity o f t he R omani

f rontier g uard ,

a nd t he c urious

f rontier

K lis;

6 .

T he i nstant

e xplulsion o f t he R omani b y t he Avars/Slays;

7 .

T he w orking o utwards o f t he i nvasion o f D almatia f rom S alona.

A gainst t he i ndications t hat t he

s tory i s u tterly u nreliable there i s

t he f act t hat t he g eography o f

S alona

K leisa

c orrect

( Klis)

b eing

i n

the

i s

a ccurately

p ortrayed ,

w ith

p osition i n r elation t o S alona.

T here a rises t he d esire t o ' explain t his a way ' a nd r eject t he s tory e ntirely a s a r esult, b ut t wo p oints c an u sefully b e made h ere. F irst, t he e xistence o f o ne c orrect p iece o f i nformation d oes n ot i ncorrect

f acts a nd c an n ot

s ave the

6 6

s tory a nd ,

s econd ,

j ustify o ther

t he a ccuracy i n

p lacing

K lis

i s more l ikely t o s tem f rom t he

s ituation o f t he o riginal

i nformant t han a s uccessfully p reserved t radition. D almatian

o riginal,

w hich t he t wo a re i ndependently d erived , t his

o riginal

i s

I f t he s tory

h as

e ither i n t he f orm o f c hapter 3 0 o r a d ocument f rom

o ne

o f

t he

a nd t he i nformant o r a uthor c oastal

a

f rom o f

c ities t hen i t w ould b e

r easonable f or t he g eography t o b e c orrect. I ndeed t he i mpression o f t he w hole c hapter i s o f d etailed k nowledge o f t he g eography o f t he c oast b ut v ery l ittle i dea o f w hat e xists b eyond , t he D anube c ould a ny d istant r iver f or t he c haracter i t r eceives. T he a lternative r eaction t o u tter d ismissal a ttempt J ak ng '

t o

s alvage

( 1984).

d estruction

a s

much a s p ossible.

H e a ccepts

o f

S alona.

u ntil t he A D 6 30's,

t he

r ecently

Marovi6

( 1984)

a nd d id n ot

t owards

C onstantinople,

a fter A D

6 14.

t he

f all

o f

t he D anube l imes,

5 80's,

a nd t he a dvance o f t he

Avars

i s

a n

l ater

d ate

f or

t he t he

i nitial

A var

a dvance

p revious d ate o f s hortly i n w ith t he m ission

J akäi6 s uggests t hat t here w as a

t emporary f rontier o n t he r iver C etina. a fter

e stablished

w hich a lso f its

o f J ohn o f R avenna t o r ecover c aptives,

a ccount

s uggests t hat t he c ity s urvived

r ejecting

G iven t he l ater d ate,

t he

b e

T his h as b een u ndertaken b y

f all d uring

t hus

o f

r eally

T he R omani w ould h ave h eld t his t he c apture o f S irmium i n t he A D

a nd

S lays

i nto

o ther

a reas

o f

D almatia a nd t he B yzantine E mpire. I f t his w ere s o t hen t he g uard w ould h ave b een s et h ere a nd K leisa w ould i ndeed h ave b een a f rontier p ost g uarding

t he

a pproaches t o S alona a nd t he c oastal a rea t owards T rogir.

T his i s a v aliant a ttempt t o r escue t he C onstantinian a ccount, t o

c over

m ost

n arrative.

Y et

o f

t he

r easonable

f acts

i n s pite o f t his t here

managing

a nd r einterpret much o f t he

r emains

t he

f eeling

t hat

t he

i nitial a ccount i s u nrecoverable, i t i s t oo s hot t hrough w ith f ancy t o b e s aved. A t emporary f rontier may h ave e xisted o n t he C etina, t here must

h ave

b een

o ne

s omewhere,

b ut t his n arrative c an n ot b e u sed t o

u phold i ts e xistence. T he

f inal p ortion o f t his

s ection i s t he most

f easible.

T he r emnant

o f t he R omani, a s a r esult o f t he i nvasion o f t he Avars/Slays, f led t o t he c oastal c ities a nd h eld s ome o f t hem u p t o t he m id t enth c entury. V ery l ittle n eeds b e s aid c oncerning t his, r ecords

i n

t he

i mperial

a rchive

w ould

a b e

l ocal

i nformant

o r

e ven

a ble t o p rovide a ccurate

i nformation a bout t his a nd i ts p resence h ere i s n ot s urprising. T he c ities w ill b e c onsidered a t a l ater p oint b ut i t s hould b e n oted t hat t he o rder o f naming r uns u p t he E ast c oast o f t he Adriatic f rom S outh t o N orth , s hifting W est t o t ake i n O psara , t hus t racing t he l ine o f t he B yzantine t erritory i n D almatia. i s

u ntrustworthy ,

O verall,

t he n arrative o f l ines

1 4-53

t he o nly u seful i nformation b eing t hat c oncerning t he

c ities t hen o ccupied b y t he R omani. L ines

5 4-115:

H aving d ealt w ith t he R omani a nd t he l oss o f D almatia,

C onstantine g oes o n t o o utline t he n ature o f t he a uthority o f t he e mpire o ver t he C roats a nd h ow t hat a uthority w as r estored. U nfortunately i n d oing s o h e i s s idetracked b y I talian m aterial, a nd l ines 1 15-216 a re o f n o u se a t a ll.

6 7

T he d ate o f t he i t

c an b e

f all o f S alona h as n ot b een g iven b y C onstantine,

r eign o f H eraclius n ations

but

s upposed t o h ave t aken p lace e ither i n o r s lightly b efore a bout

K analites,

( AD

i t,

6 10-41),

s uch

D iocletians f rom

a

b ecause f rom t hat t ime C roats,

a nd

T here i s a t t his p oint m aterial

a s

S erbs,

A retani,

l acuna

l ater l ines,

' Dalmatia a nd t he

Z achlumi,

T erbouniotes,

w ho a re a lso c alled P agani

i n

t he

t ext.

t he

H owever,

* **'.

g iven

t he

t hat t he c ities o f D almatia a nd t he v arious

n ations h ad t hrown o ff t he r eins o f empire, t he l acuna may b e f illed t o g ive a r eading s omething l ike: ' Since t he r eign o f H eraclius...Dalmatia a nd t he n ations a bout i t...Aretani, s ubject

t o

n ations w ere,

t he

empire

i n more d etail l ater, f rom

t he

w ho

a re

o f t he R omans.' b ut h ere i t

e arliest t imes,

a lso

c alled

P agani

i s

f irmly s et

o ut

t hat

r esult

r ulers

( reigned A D 8 20-829 ).

o f

t he

empire,

r esponsible

n otably M ichael

t he

d ynasty

A s

a

r esult

a chieved

I I

p revious

t o

t he

T he

i ncompetent I t

o wn

i s w as

n or t hat t he f ounder o f

s ituation s o c reditably.

o f t he i nattention o f B yzantium t he c ities o f D almatia

s elf-government

s elf-governing ,

o f

C onstantine's

f or t he t errible d ecay o f a uthority ,

h is d ynasty r estored t he

t hey

u nder t he a uthority o f B yzantium .

s tate o f i ndependence t hat o ccured w as the n ot s urprising t hat

w ere

C onstantine d escribes a ll t he

b ut

a nd

n ot

i n

t he

a ny

S lav

n ormal

n ations

w ay ,

a lso

b ecame

w ith p rinces,

b ut w ith

c haracteristically S lavic ' zupans'. G iven t he s tate o f B yzantine a uthority i n t he B alkans d uring t he r eign o f H eraclius i t i s u nnecessary t o t ake

the

s eriously;

o riginal

d ominion

o f

t he

empire

o ver

t he

c laim t o p rimary a uthority f or the s ake o f n egotiation. i n

w ith

S lays

t oo

s ome w ould s ee C onstantine a s o nly s etting o ut t he B yzantine t he

p urpose

o f

a uthority w ould b e c ast:

DAI

a nd

o ne

' We h ave a lways

may

T his w ell

f its

imagine h ow t he c laim t o

h ad a uthority h ere,

i t w as

n ot

e xercised a t o ne t ime b ecause o f t he s loth a nd i ncompetence o f s ome p oor emperors, p articularly M ichael I I. I t w as r estored a t y our r equest by B asil

a nd

s ince t hen h as b een maintained '.

t he p ale o f n ormal n ations

i n t wo w ays,

r ulers

b eing

a nd

s econdly

c orrected b y B asil T he

a uthority

b y

T he S lays

f irst b y

u nbaptised.

r emained o utside

b eing B oth

w ithout

t hese

p roper

f aults w ere

i n t he m iddle o f t he n inth c entury. o f B yzantium i s d emonstrated b y t he s ubmission o f t he

l eaders o f t he S lays t o t he c ivil a uthority o f B asil a nd

t he

a uthority

S lays h as b een

h e

c hallenged , p agan.

r epresents.

a nd i t

Y et

t he

p aganism

o f

t he

i s s uggested t hat o nly a p roportion o f t he S lays w ere

A s w ell a s d emonstrating t his g eneralised a uthority ,

s hows B asil e xercising a

v ery

D almatians,

S lav a like,

t he S aracens. g iven ,

R omani

s piritual

a nd

s pecific

c apacity

f or

t he

p resent a t a ny o f t hese

B yzantine p assage

s ubjects o r a llies. i s

p olitical

s ieges, A s

i t w as

J enkins h as

i n t hat i t

d ealing w ith t he

s iege

o bject ( 1962,

a nd

d oes n ot a dd a nything o f u se t o t he D almatian s ituation.

6 8

i f

the t hey

c apacity a nd n ot a s

' the

r ather t han m erely h istorical'

r emainder o f t he n arrative,

a ccount

a s a r esult o f t he t reaty o f A achen ,

D almatian C roats w ere s ubjects o f t he F rankish empire a nd t hus, w ere

t he

t o the d efence o f L ombardy a gainst

T here a re many h istorical c uriosities a bout

most p articularly t hat,

C onstantine

mobilising

t he

o f

t he

1 01 ).

T he

i ntrigues,

L ines

2 17-295:

F ollowing

t he

B asilian

i ntermission

t he material

d ealing w ith t he R omani a nd t heir c ities c ontinues w ith a d escription o f t he c ities a nd n otable f acts a bout t heir p opulations. I t i s n ot n ecessary t o d eal w ith t his i n d etail. A ll t hat s hould b e n oted i s t hat t he

t ime

e lapsed

s ince

t he

f oundation

a mended f rom 5 00 t o 3 00 y ears,

o f R agusa s hould p robably b e

w hich w ould g ive A D 6 49 a s

t he

d ate

o f

f oundation , a nd t hat e very e tymology t hat C onstantine a ttempts i s w rong. W hilst t he i slands a nd c ities h ave f or t he most p art b een i dentified , t he

o rder o f t heir n aming i s n ot v ery o rdered a nd s ome i slands,

U gljan a re n ot n amed. a re

' very

H owever ,

n otably

g iven C onstantine's a dmission t hat t here

many o thers o f w hich t he n ames a re n ot i ntelligible'

n either

o rder n or o missions a re w orth f urther m ention. A t t his p oint t he r un o f t he C onstantinian m aterial i s i nterrupted b y c hapter 3 0,

w hich p roceeds t o r epeat t he n arrative o f t he f all o f S alona

a nd g oes o n t o t he a rrival o f t he C roats i n D almatia a nd f urther d etails o f t heir l ife. 3 .3.3

C hapter 3 0

Q uite c learly t his c hapter h as n ot b een f ully e dited i nto D AI,

f or i f

i t w ere n ot p resent c hapter 3 1 w ould c ontinue f rom 2 9 q uite e asily w ith t he a rrival o f t he C roats a nd i nformation c oncerning t heir g overnment a nd

g eographical s ituation.

a nd a p oor e ditor,

T oynbee t hought C onstantine muddle-headed ,

a nd t he i nsertion o f c hapter 3 0,

C onstantinian i nterpolation ,

w ould j ustify t his

i f o f c ourse i t

i s a

j udgement.

G iven t hat i t i s n ot p roperly i ncorporated a nd d oes n ot

f it i nto

t he

s equence t he q uestion o f a uthorship must a rise. B ury ( 1906, 5 25) n oticed t hat i s w as a t o dds w ith 2 9 a nd 3 1 b ut c onsidered i t t o h ave b een w ritten b y C onstantine a t a l ater d ate a nd i nexpertly i nserted i n t he most r easonable p lace.

G enerally t his a ttribution i s

n ot

a ccepted

t oday , f or t here a re l inguistic d ifferences b etween c hapter 3 0 a nd t he r emainder o f DAI, i n p articular t he f orm o f t he i ntroduction ( Dvornik 1 962,

1 12),

a nd i t h as b een s uggested t hat

s ome o f t he e vents r ecorded

must h ave t aken p lace a fter C onstantine's d eath.

D vornik d oes n ot a gree

w ith t he l atter, b ut c onsiders 3 0 t o h ave b een w ritten a bout A D 9 55 ( ibid , 1 00) b y a nother h and a nd i nserted b y C onstantine. B ut w hose w as t he o ther h and? T here a re n o n amed c andidates, o nly s uggestions f or t he a uthor's n ationality. T hat h e w as a S lav s eems u nlikely , b ut h e m ay w ell

h ave

b een

a

D almatian

T his w ould a lso a ccount t he

most

e xtreme

w ho w as o ften i n c ontact w ith t he S lays.

f or h is i nterest i n D almatia.

s tatement

o f

t he c ase,

H owever

t his

i s

f or t he a uthor n eed o nly b e

v isiting D almatia t o o btain most o f t he i nformation a nd l ater w riting a r eport f or C onstantine. B ut a s a ll s uch h ypotheses r est s olely u pon h is t ext t here s eems l ittle c hance o f b eing a ble t o m ore c losely. T his c hapter c an b e d ivided i nto s ix u nits ( such

p lace

f or p urposes

a d ivision t aken a s a n i ndication o f d ifferent

s ections a re:

6 9

t he

a uthor

o f

a ny

a nalysis

s ources e tc ).

T he

1 .

L ines

1 -5

2 .

L ines

6 -13 G eographical a ccount;

3 .

L ines

1 3-61 T he f all o f S alona a nd D almatia t o t he Avars;

4 .

L ines

6 1-71 T he a rrival o f t he C roats;

5 .

L ines

7 1-90 O f t he o rigins o f t he C roats a nd t heir l ater h istory;

L ines

9 0-142 T he o rganisation o f t he C roats a nd t heir r elations w ith

6 .

I ntroduction;

t he c oastal c ities.

I ntroduction: a bove,

A g ood p lain d idactic i ntroduction w hich ,

a s w as n oted

h elps t o s uggest t hat t his c hapter r epresents a s eparate a uthor.

G eographical

A ccount:

T he

c oastal r ange o f D almatia i s c learly s et

o ut, b ut o nce a gain the i nland r ange i s e xtended a s f ar a s t he D anube, w hereas i n r eality this a rea w as p art o f P annonia. I f t here i s a ny s ignificance i n t his a ccorded e xtension o f t he p rovincial b oundary i t i s more l ikely t o r eflect t he n ature o f t he t ale, f or i t w ould make l ittle s ense t o h ave t he R omani b eing o utside D almatia.

a ttacked

f rom

T he F all o f S alona a nd D almatia t o t he Avars: b uilder

o f

S palato

i s

m entioned

m igrating R omani a re n ot p resent, c ity

f or

t he i mperial p alace.

h ere

i nside

t he

empire

b ut

A lthough D iocletian the

a s i n 2 9,

t he g reat n umber o f

i nstead S alona a ppears

a s

a

s ervice

A s w ith m any s imilar f oundation l egends

t he p assage o f t ime i s t otally i gnored t he n arrative l aunches

i nto

the

d ealings o f t he Avars a nd t he c itizens o f D almatia i mmediately a fter m entioning D iocletian. F undamentally , this i s t he s ame a ccount a s i n 2 9,

t hough w ith o ne o r t wo n otable d ifferences:

1 .

T he

2 .

T he Avars a re the r eason f or t he g uard , a nd a re n ot the u nsoldierly p easants o f 2 9. I t i s d ifficult t o u nderstand w hy the R omans, w ho

C onfusion o f Avar/Slav i s n ot p resent h ere.

a re k eeping g uard b ecause o f t he Avars, that h ad t heir a bode t here'. a g uard t o b e o ver-turned , g uard a gainst s omething. o ver-turners c onfused.

w ere

t he

s hould w onder ' who t hey w ere

T he c onstruction o f t he s tory r equires a nd t o a l ogical a uthor , a g uard h ad t o

Unfortunately , s ame

g roup,

b ecause t he t hreat a nd

t he

the

s tory i s b ound t o b ecome

T he Avars a lso h ave a m ilitary c apacity a nd d o n ot

w orry

a bout t he p roblem o f r eccuring a ttack b ut r evenge. 3 .

K lis i s n ot m entioned ,

4 .

T he

R omans

maintain

t he Avars i nstead f all s traight u pon S alona. t he

c oastal

l iving f rom t he s ea.

7 0

c ities b ecause t hey g ain their

B ecause t he t wo v ersions o f t he s tory a re s ource h as b een p ostulated , T his i s p ossible, o f

3 0.

s o

s imilar

a n

i dentical

e ven t hat t he v ersion i n 2 9 d erived f rom 3 0.

a nd w ould m ean t hat t he 2 9 v ersion i s a p oor r edaction

S uch a c onclusion i s l argely b ased u pon t he c onfusions p resent

i n 2 9 t hat a re a bsent i n 3 0.

T he

s tory g ains

n o

more

c redibility

b y

r epetition a nd s hould c ontinue t o b e d ismissed. 3 .3.4

T he A rrival o f t he C roats

T his s hort s ection h as p roduced s ome o f t he g reatest c ontroversy , w ildest t heorising a nd most i nconclusive r esults o f a ll p arts o f D AI, r elating

a s

i t

d oes

t he

e thnogenesis

o f

t he

C roats.

c onsider t he q uestion o f t he a rrival o f t he C roats a s t he a ccount p oint. W ith

o f

t he

t heir

Avars

a rrival

i n

D almatia,

f rom w here t he B elocroats

t he C roats n ow

s uddenly a ppear, ( mid

K osentzis,

Mouchlo ,

( a

s trangely

C hrobatos,

o ff f rom t he main b ody o f C roats a nd p roceded a rrival t o

s pringing

c entury )

l ive

n ear B avaria ). A s , m ight b e e xpected t he t hey c ome l aden w ith t he r equisite

T hese s even s iblings

L obelos, t hey

D almatia,

t enth

i nformation t hat n o r espectable m igrating g roup w ould d are

t o l eave b ehind. K loukas,

p ossible

3 1 w ill a lso b e d ealt w ith a t t his

( White C roats)

( Belocroatia b eing s omewhere C roats d o n ot s imply a rrive, g enealogical

i n

I n o rder t o

f ully a s

f ought

t he

Avars,

d efeated

n ow t o b e k nown a s C roatia.

p erfect

n umber ),

T ouga a nd B ouga ,

t o

D almatia.

t hem ,

s plit

On

t heir

a nd s ettled d own i n

I n c hapter 3 1 t he C roats m igrated

s eek t he p rotection o f t he emperor H eraclius,

w ho s ent t hem t o c lear

t he A vars o ut o f D almatia a nd s ettle i n t he d epopulated a rea t hemselves. S o much h as b een w ritten o n t hese t wo s ections t hat e ven i n 1 945 G rg ogoire c ould o bserve s erait f acile, mais f atigant d e f aire l ' histoire d e c ette i nterminable c ontroverse ( 88)'. T he main q uestion i s w hether t here w as a m igration o f t he C roats. A fter t his v arious s ubsiduary w here,

q uestions

a rise,

w hen

d id

t he m igration t ake p lace,

R ather t han g o t hrough e very a ttempt a t r esolution f rom L ucius o nwards, s tarting

t he s ummary p rovided b y B arada p oint.

B arada

h imself

( 1952)

n amed

w ill

I s

DAI

D id 6 .

3 .

Y es:

1 7.

N o:

( 1666 ) a s

t he

t o

g ive

n umbers

o f

4 .

B elocroatia e xist a nd i f s o w hen? N o:

t aken

t rustworthy i n t he i nformation c oncerning t he m igration o f

t he C roats? 2 .

b e

t he v arious p roponents o f t he

t heories, b ut i n t he p resent c ase i t w ill s uffice a dherents t o e ach a nswer r ather than n ames.

1 .

f rom

i n w hat manner a nd d id H eraclius h ave a ny r ole i n i t?

Y es,

i n t he

t enth

c entury:

5 .

W here w as i t? L ittle P oland: 3 .

E astern G alicia: 3 . L aba i n C zechslovakia: I t r epresents S amo's k ingdom : 2 .

7 1

7 .

4 .

H ow

many

migrations w ere t here?

One a nd f rom N orthern H ungary:

5 .

C roatian:

9 .

H ow

the

d id

C roats

T hrough P annonia:

I n

v iew

o f

7 .

One a nd f rom t he C arpathians:

1 .

a rrive?

T wo,

a n Avaro-Slavic a nd

About

t he

c lear

t he d egree o f d ivergence

s ummary ,

a nd t he

c omplied b y B arada,

i nformation.

U nfortunately ,

n on-Slavic

g roup

t o

r eplace

u nderstanding o f e thnic a nd material

t hrows

u p.

a nd

t his

p ossibility o f a n on-Danubian S lavic i nvasion ,

i t

c oncentrate

c annot b e d one,

o ther

B ecause

b efore

o r t he

q uestions

o f

the

b orne i n m ind o ne t endency i n e xplanation a re

a bsolutely

c ontingencies e xplanation

s hould

u pon

f or t he

a ppearance

o f

t hat

t he

a rchaeological

s hould

' no more t hings

n ecessary '.

E xplanations w ith

( assuming o f c ourse

that

s hould b e p referred t o the c omplex o ne.

a lso

b e

t hat

s uspicion ,

i t

n ot

c onsidered.

a ccounts

d emand a nd

f or

s pecial

t he a ll

s impler f eatures)

A rchaeology h as moved a way f rom

c aution s hould b e e xercised w hen f aced w ith t he

B arada h imself,

a fter s etting o ut t he c ontroversy s o f ar,

a ny s upporting e vidence, w ritten

a t

a s w ell).

p articularly

a s

DAI

s ome t hree h undred y ears d istance I n

the

m id

C arpathians,

a rrival o f t he Avars i n

the

i s

s ixth

c entury

a

s econdary

w ere a nd

D almatia c A D

b usily t heir

a nd

t he

e ngaged

e ventually r eaching a s

i nvasion a re

A t this p oint t he e vidence ' Hrvat'

i n P annonia.

a nd t he

Whilst t he

a nd a s

a r esult

c rossed t he S ava , t he

t aking

L ower

D anube

f ar a s t he P eloponnese.

f rom R ussian ,

mentioned

i n

7 2

P aul

B ut where w ere t he C roats? G erman a nd C zech s ources

t he R ussian P rimary C hronicle i s

T he

f ound i n s ources a s w ide s pread a s

t he D eacon a nd I sidore o f S eville.

I n

t he

1 0).

w ith the P ersian W ar o n t heir E astern

S lav t ributaries/allies

c rossed i nto the B alkans,

i ntroduced.

A lut,

Avars e liminating t he G epids,

O ther S lavic a nd Antic t ribes o n

I ndications o f t his

Antes

c hanged t he a ffairs o f C entral E urope c onsiderably, L ombards

6 14.

t he

( ibid ,

f rontier t he d efence o f t he B alkans t ook a s econd p lace, Avars

s ource

the S outhern a nd W estern

t he u pper T isza a nd t he u pper O der

Avars t aking o ver t he t erritory o f t he L ombards B yzantines

f orward

( and s everal h undred m iles

H e then c onstructed the movement o f the S lays a nd

E urope.

r esulting

p ut

s hould n ot b e t aken a s a ccurate w ithout

b oundaries o f the S lav o ccupation w ere the l ower D anube,

named

h istorian 's

f or i nvasions.

t he p rinciple that DAI n arrative

t he

t he

i nvasions t hat n eed b e p ostulated the b etter i s t he p resent v iew.

G iven that, d esire

b e

s hould b e p resumed t o e xist

b e

r egarded

c an

A s t he a rchaeology i s t o b e

t he a ttempt t o e xplain a ll c ulture c hange b y m igration o r i nvasion , f ewer

a

e ffect o f t he A rrival u pon t he

t hat h as b een c onsidered.

W illiam o f O ccam s tated t hat

S outh

i s

the Avars w ould make a d ifference t o t he

i nterpretation o f t he a rchaeological e vidence a f inal v iew p roduced

a cross

3 .

3 .

s hown b y t his

T here i s a t emptation t o a void the f ray

amenable

than

a

that n o e asy s olution e xists t o t he p roblem o f the a rrival o f t he

C roats. more

E astern C arpathians:

A bout the e nd o f t he A lps:

f act that more h as b een p ublished s ince i t w as

1 2.

t hen

E astern

( henceforth R PC ) G alicia

i s

a t ribe

( Cross

a nd

S herbowitz-Wetzor 1 973, a bout

K rakov

i n

5 3),

L ittle

a nd a s tate c alled

P oland

i n

White

C roatia

t he m id t enth c entury.

e xisted T enth a nd

e leventh c entury s ources f rom G ermany r ecord p lacenames a ssociated w ith ' Hrvat', ' Chruuati' n ear H alle a nd ' Churbate' a nd ' Crawat' i n S axony. R ecords o f t he a rchbishopric o f

P rague

o pposing

' Chrovati

b anks

o f

t he

L abe,

r ecord e t

t wo

p roduces

f urther t oponyms a nd c oncludes t hat t hey a re

r ecords

o f

C roat

p resence

b ut

r ather

t ribes

l iving

a lera C hrovati'.

i ndicate

n ot

o n

B arada

c ontemporary

p revious p ositions.

B arada's p osition i s t hat t he C roats, o ne t ribe, o r m ore l ikely a n u nion o f t ribes o f S lavic o r A ntic c haracter , w ere s ettled i n E astern G alicia u ntil A D 5 65,

w hen t hey a llied t hemselves w ith t he A vars w ho w ere moving

W est a nd S outh. I n t his a lliance t he C roats moved w hen t he A vars moved a nd e ventually t ook p art i n t he i nvasion o f D almatia. T hey f inally r evolted a gainst t he A vars, A D

6 26,

p ossib_y w ith B yzantine h elp ,

s ometime a fter

t he t ime o f t he A var d efeat a t t he g ates o f C onstantinople.

T he

r eferences t o t he f ive b rothers a nd t wo s isters B arada v iews a s s ome c onfusion i nvolved w ith t he s ources a nd t he n ormal B yzantine m ethod o f t reating e thnonyms. S ince B arada p ublished t hese v iews t he d ating o f t he

f all

o f

S alona

h as b een p ushed f orward t o t he A D 6 30's a nd t he p ossibility o f a H eraclian i nvitation i s c onsiderably d iminished , b ut t he c entral p oint o f h is t heory r emains; r ebelled a gainst t hem . r emarkable

manner.

t he C roats a rrived a long w ith t he A vars a nd t hen T he m igrations a re k ept t o a m inimum i n a

B ut

w hat o f K loukas,

C hrobatos, T ouga a nd B ouga? a uthor's c onfusion?

t o

L obelos,

K osentzis,

A re t hey o nly t he r esult o f

t he

Mouchlo, a nonymous

G rggoire c onsiders t he n ames t o b e e ponyms w hich w ill p rovide a c lue w here t he C roats o riginated a nd p rovides s uggestions f or f our o ut o f

t he

s even:

L ovelos=Lublin ,

K loukas=Crakow o r d aring s uggestions'

K osentzes=Kosice,

B ouga=River

B ug ,

G logau. D vornik r egards t hese a s ' ingenious a nd u nfortunately ' they a re n ot c onclusive' ( 1962, 1 17).

V arious o ther s uggestions h ave b een made,

i ncluding A var o rigins

f or t he

n ames Mouchlo a nd K oszentzes a nd e ven G othic o r S armatian f or t he l atter n ame. I f G r6goire's e tymologies a re d ismissed t hen d o w e l ose h is g eographical l ocation? p rop

u p

a nd l ater ,

t he

T he s imple a nswer i s t hat t hey a re n ot n eeded t o

l ocation o f W hite C roatia.

O nly o ne n ame s eems a t

g lances o f a ny u se a nd t hat i s C hrobatos.

f irst,

I f a ny n ame i s

a n

e thnogenetic o ne i t i s t his, t he o thers may n ot b e S lavic, maybe t hey a re S armatian a s D vornik s uggests ( ibid ) b ut C hrobatos c an o nly b e a l egendary l eader o f t he C roats

( Chrobati).

T he s usceptability o f t his n ame t o e xplanation r esulted

i n

G regoire

a lso f alling u pon C hrobatos i n h is e xploration o f t he p roblem o f t he C roat m igration. H e a lso c ompounded C hrobatos w ith K ouvratos ( or K rovatos), a B ulgar c hief w ho r evolted a gainst t he A vars a nd m ade a t reaty o f f riendship w ith t he emperor H eraclius. A s G regoire p ointed o ut t he p arallels w ith C hrobatos a re s triking , b oth l ed t heir p eople i n r evolts a gainst t he A vars, w ere e ventually a llied t o H eraclius a nd o perated a bout t he s ame t ime.

N ot

c ontent w ith t his

s tartling r eduction

o f u nnecessary e ntities G rdgoire t ransforms C hrobatos/Kouvratos

7 3

i nto

a

t rinity b y t he i ntroduction o f a f urther B ulgarian p rince. t he

Miracula

p risoners

S ancti

a nd

D emitrii

t he

p eople

u nder

e xiled

A ccording t o

A var K han p laced a l arge n umber o f t he

r ule

o f

K ouber

( Kouver ).

E ventually o vercome w ith h omesickness, t he e xiles d ecided t o l eave, h aving t o d efeat t he A vars i n s ome f ive o r s ix b attles b efore r eaching a nd A D

s ettling by T hessalonike. 6 38 o r

6 45,

t he

T his

s ort o f d ate

f inal

s et o f e vents o ccurred a round

s uggested f or t he o ther t wo.

i tself i s g iven a n I ranian o rigin b y G rdgoire; meaning

' he

w ho

p ossesses

C hrobatos/Kouvratos/Kouver

f irm

o pposed

f riends'.

I n

t he K han o f t he Avars,

a nd r uled a l arge n umber o f m ixed r aces w ho e ventually o wn

t raditions,

w hich

s urvive

t o

t he

T he

name

C hrovathos o r C horouathos

p resent

s ummary

d efeated h im

g enerated

t heir

i n t he three s eparate

f orms. I t

i s

a b eautiful,

b ut u ntrustworthy s olution.

c onflate t hese t hree i ndividuals, t he h ypothesis

1 .

i t

T here i s n o n eed t o

i s a s tep t oo f ar.

Dvornik r ejects

o n a n umber o f p oints:

S imilarity

a nd

c oincidence

d o n ot

f orm s ufficient r eason o n t heir

o wn. 2 .

T he s imilarity b etween t he B ulgarian K ouvratos a nd C hrobatos a pparent than g ive o nly K urt.

r eal,

T he h ard c onflict a gainst the Avars i n D almatia i n w hich t he a re

s aid

t o

h ave

i s more

i n p articular w hen t he B ulgarian r egnal l ists

C roats

b een e ngaged t ook p lace a c onsiderable d istance

a way f rom t he B ulgarian theatre o f w ar.

D vornik s tates

' The

S lays

i nstead that:

o f

emancipated

t he

o ld

p rovince

themselves..,

w ith

S erbs...the emperor H eraclius t ribes,

who

o f

I llyricum

b efriended

t hese

t wo

S armatian

w ere a lready S lavicised t o a g reat e xtent but w ere

a s e ager a s e ver f or n ew a dventures a nd , h e

a pparently

t he h elp o f the C roats a nd t he

l iberated t he p rovince o f I llyricum .

w ith

t heir

a ssistance

T here a gain t he C roats

a nd S erbs s ucceeded t o t he Avars a nd b rought w ithin their o wn r ule, u nder B yzantine s uzerainty , t he S lavonic t ribes t hey h ad j ust

F or

s et

f ree

D vornik DAI

the a ccounts s ources,

( Dvornik 1 949,

i s b asically c orrect,

i n c hapters

t he

f irst

i nterest

s ettlement,

n ot

t o

w ith t he d iscrepancies b etween

2 9/31 a nd 3 0 b eing t he r esult o f t wo

a ccount

imperial a rchives a nd the C roats

1 5).'

b eing

t aken

f rom

f iles

s econd f rom a D almatian r eport. m ention

w hile C onstantine,

H eraclius

a nxious t o

7 4

a s

s tress

d ifferent

l urking i n the I t w as i n t he

b ringing B yzantine

a bout their a uthority ,

c ites h im a s t he m otive f orce i nstigator

o f

t heir

b ehind

c onversion

t he

t o

m igration

a s

C hristianity.

w ell

a s

t he

D vornik p roduces a

s ubstantial a mount o f e vidence f or t he e xistence o f White

C roatia

f rom

i ndependent s ources ( ibid , 2 83 o nwards), a nd f rom t his s upports h is b elief i n t he DAI a ccount. W hen B arada c laims t hat t he a ccount i n DAI i s

u nsupported ,

D vornik v iews t he 2 9/31 n arrative a nd t he 3 0 n arrative

a s b eing i ndependent t hus g iving the n ecessary s upport t o a ccount.

the

i nvasion

I f t hat i s i ndeed t rue t hen i t i s o ne more t hing t o b e b rought

i n f avour o f a s eparate m igration o f t he C roats. T o c omplicate a n a lready c onfused s ituation t he d ate o f f irst h alf o f t he s eventh c entury f or t he a rrival o f c hallenged

b y

Margetid,

h as a bandoned h er e arlier p osition. r ecent

c ommentators,

3 1

b eing

a s

M argetid,

u ntrustworthy.

b een

i n

c ommon

w ith

w ho

o ther

B yzantine T hus o nly

t he

p lace?

r ecently

a

m igration

I t

i s

s een

o f

t he

e vents

A long w ith 3 1 g oes t he o nly

t he H eraclian o ne.

K laiä o bserves,

a s

e stablishment

o f t he C roats.

g iven d ate f or the m igration: t ake

h as

o f t heir c laim t o a uthority o ver t he C roats.

t he n arrative o f 3 0 i s o f a ny u se i n t he s urrounding

C roats

d ismisses t he a ccount o f C roat m igration g iven i n

u tterly

r ationalisation

t he

a nd h is v iews h ave b een e ndorsed b y K laiä,

' I b elieve h e i s

When d id t he m igration r ight w hen h e d oubts t he

g enerally-held b elief t hat t he C roats a rrived i mmediately a fter t he o f S aiona '

( 1985,

3 7).

f all

Margetiä d ates t he C roat m igration t o t he e nd o f

t he e ighth c entury o r t he s tart o f t he n inth c entury ,

o n

t he

b asis

o f

t he i nternal c hronology o f 3 0 c ombined w ith o ther i nformation. T he i mportant

s tatements

f or

M argetiä

a re

that

t he

C roats

w ere

s ubject t o t he F ranks i n t heir h omeland ( je W hite C roatia ) a nd t hat t hey a ri .ived a nd f ought t he Avars f or s ome y ears, l ater r ebelling a gainst t he F ranks

t o

e vents,

t o w hich h e a llows a s pan

r ebellion

e ventually o f

L judevit

l iberate

t hemselves. o f

P osayski

s ome

w hich

d ating t he C roats a rrived a round A D

Margetiö 2 0

b roke

7 95,

a t

t ies

t o

3 0

o ut

i n A D 8 22.

t he

e nd

i n these

y ears, o f

t he

t o

t he

On t hat e ighth

c entury w hen t he w ar o f the Avars a nd F ranks w as g etting u nder w ay. I f Margetiä i s c orrect i n h is d ating t hen t he d evelopment o f C roatian p olitical a nd s ocial i nstitutions w ill b e s ignificantly d ifferent. T he e stablishment o f t he s tate a nd s imilar matters w ould n ot h ave o ccupied c enturies b ut r ather d ecades.

F urther,

t he n ature o f t he Avar o r S lavic

o ccupation o f D almatia w ould h ave t o b e d rastically r e-assessed. K laid,

w hilst

a ccepting

w ith many o f Margetiä's t he

Avaro-Frankish

w ar

t he

n ew d ating o f t he m igration d isagrees

s econdary v iews,

i n p articular

a nd i ts Adriatic f ront.

e xistence o f a n A varo-Croat w ar,

r egarding i t a s

h is

o pinion

o f

K laid a lso d oubts t he a

r epetition

o f

t he

C roato-Frankish w ar b ecause b oth l ast s even y ears a nd t here w ould b e n o Avars f or t he C roats t o f ight. F inally t he a ssociation o f t he r ebellion a gainst t he F ranks w ith t he r ebellion o f L judevit P osayski i s q uestioned o n t he g rounds t hat t he r ebellion m entioned i s w hile

L judevit's

r ebellion

t ook

a

p lace i n P annonia.

K laiä put t he r ebellion s lightly l ater.

7 5

i n

D almatian

s ource

B ecause o f t hat,

G iven t he c onflicting v iews, q uestions

i s n ecessary ,

t he v arious p arts o f e xistence o f White m igration.

R ather

e xistence C roats

o f

o rdered

e xamination

o f

t he

main

t he C roat a rrival p rocess. F or e xample, t he C roatia c an n ot i n i tself b e t aken a s p roof o f t he t he

White

f rom t here.

a n

f or l ogical l inks n eed t o b e e stablished b etween

e xistence

C roatia

o f

a nd

W hite

n ot

C roatia

s hows

o nly

t he

t he r eality o f t he m igration o f

A f uller b reak-down

o f

t he

p rocess

p roduces

t he

f ollowing l inked q uestions:

1 .

D id

White C roatia e xist

i n the t enth c entury?

2 .

D id

White C roatia e xist

i n s ome f orm i n t he

3 .

D id t he C roats

c ome

4 .

When ,

d id t he C roats a rrive i n D almatia?

i f e ver,

f rom White C roatia?

D id White C roatia e xist M aking

o f

C entral

o r

a t

i n

E urope',

s ources o ther than C roats,

the

t enth

h as

p resented

C onstantine

l east

t hat

C roats

S erbs.

E urope

a nd

Ma'sudi i n

( Moravians),

t he

g ive

f rom

t he

t enth

o n

mare's

i n

' The

e vidence

e xistence

o f

f rom White

a nd

o f

S lavic

t ribes

i n

a re f ound m ention o f C roats a nd

c entury

( Croats)

names

S urbin

C achin

( Serbs),

( Czechs).

f rom a l ost

Morawa

T hree

s ource,

o ther

p robably

t ravel n otes o f a n Armenian o r P ersian t raveller

w ho j ourneyed among t he S lays. l ives

t he

a ccounts

w riters t ake t heir a ccounts o f S lav l ands o riginating

D vornik,

s ufficient

a llows

i n t heir a ccounts

C horwatin

c entury?:

N orth o f t he C arpathians t o b e a ccepted.

S everal Arab a nd P ersian w riters N orthern

s eventh c entury?

One S lav l and i s

r uled

m ilk f rom a c apital c alled J rvab ,

t he t hree v ersions a vailable.

b y

a

k ing

w ho

K hurdab o r J rvat

i n

T he k ing i s k nown a s S wet Malik a nd h as a

v iceroy c alled S upandj. D vornik a nd o thers d etect h ere the C roats w ith a s tate o f s ome c apacity e xisting o n t he N orthern s lopes o f t he C arpathians t here

( Dvornik 1 949,

i s A lfred

t ranslation

o f

t he

2 71-3)

G reat

O rosius'

t o

I f t he A rab a ccount i s n ot

b e

H istory

t hrown o f

t he

i nto

t he

W orld t he

s ufficient

s cale.

I n

h is

f ollowing p assage

o ccurs:

' To

t he E ast o f t he c ountry o f t he Marava i s t he c ountry o f t he

W isle

[ Vistula],

a nd t o t he E ast o f t hem a re

f ormerly w ere t he G oths. t he D alamensan

[ the D aleminzi,

o n t he E lbe],

t he D alamensan a re t he H orithi D alamensan a re t he S urpe 2 72-3,

D acians,

w ho

[ Croats],

[ Serbs]...

a nd t o t he E ast

o f

a nd t o t he N orth o f t he

( Quoted

b y

D vornik ,

i bid ,

h is b racketed e xpansions).'

A gain t he C roats a re p robably

t he

T o t he N orth-East o f t he Moravians a re

a bout

t he

l ocated

N orthern

n ear

t he

C arpathians.

7 6

S erbs

a nd

t he

Moravians,

G iven t his material,

which

s trongly

c onfirms C onstantine's a ccount o f a W hite C roatia i n t he N orth

C arpathian a rea, e xistence d oubted. p resent

o f

a nd t he p lace n ames c ited

White

C roatia

p reviously

b y

B arada ,

i n t he t enth c entury c annot

t he

r easonably b e

B arada 's o pinion t hat t he C roat name w as a s urvival, a nd n ot a ( mid t enth c entury ) r eality , d oes n ot h old , f or t here d oes s eem

t o h ave b een a n a rea o ccupied b y C roats i n t he t enth c entury. D id

White

C roatia

e xist

i n t he s eventh c entury?:

W hite C roatia m ight t urn o ut m igration

o ccurred

i n

t o

b e

a n

u nimportant

t he l ate e ighth c entury ,

c onsidered h ow f ar b ack W hite C roatia g oes. e vidence

t hat h as b een p ut

l ittle

i f

t he

b ut e ven s o i t must b e

R egrettably

most

o f

t he

f orward s o f ar d oes n ot t ouch o n t he p roblem

o f e arlier o ccupation o f W hite C roatia. h ow

T he e xistence o f q uestion

H owever,

w hen i t i s

c onsidered

e vidence t here i s f or a ny a spect o f N orthern C entral E urope

i n t hat p eriod i t

i s n ot

i f

h ave b ecome f ixed e nough t o b e r ecorded t hen a c ertain

p lace

n ames

s urprising t hat a b lank i s d rawn .

l ength o f o ccupation m ust b e

a llowed.

Y et

w hether

a pplicable t o t he s eventh c entury i s i ncalculable, p roved o ne w ay o r t he o ther.

P resumably ,

t he

e vidence

i s

t he c ase c an n ot b e

D id t he C roats C ome F rom W hite C roatia: E ven i f i t i s a ccepted t hat W hite C roatia e xisted t he p roblem o f t he o rigin o f t he m igration f rom t here r emains u nresolved.

I t i s c ertainly a p ossibility t hat t he C roats

c ame f rom W hite C roatia,

b ut i t i s b y n o m eans t he o nly

t hem

w ould

c ome

f rom

t here

b e

a n

e asy s olution ,

o ne.

T o

h ave

b ut h ow f ar i s i t

r ealistic? T he t emptation t o a ccept i t o utright i s s trong , w orth e xamining a f urther p ossibility, t hat t he C roats,

b ut i t i s w ho f or t he

m oment m ight b e s een a s a S armatian g roup r ather t han a S lavic o ne, f rom

t he

S teppe

a t

s ome

s eventh c entury a nd d ivided , n ot i n W hite C roatia b ut a t b efore t hat. T hese t wo g roups o f C roats w ent s eparate w ays, P oland a nd t he o ther e ventually t owards D almatia. i ndeed

o f

3 1,

c ame

t ime d uring t he h urly-burly o f t he s ixth o r

k new o f White C roatia,

s ome p oint o ne t owards

T he w riter o f 3 0,

a nd

a nd t hat t he C roats a rrived f rom

s omewhere. An o bvious p lace f or t hem t o a rrive f rom w ould b e t he o ther k nown C roatia. S uch a m igration w ould b e s atisfactory , p roviding a g ood r ounded s tory.

T here r emains,

o f c ourse,

t he

q uestion

o f

t he

C roats

b eing u nder F rankish a uthority i n White C roatia w hen t hey l eft. T his a dmits o f n o e asy s olution , b ut c ould b e c ountered b y t he w riter o f 3 0 r eflecting t he r ealities o f h is o wn t ime u pon t he p ast h e i s

s ituation ,

f or i f

s o m istaken a s t o c onsider t hat t he C roats c ame f rom W hite C roatia

t hen t hey w ould h ave t o h ave b een s ubject t o t he F ranks b ecause t he F ranks c ontrolled White C roatia a t t he t ime o f w riting. T he a t a ll.

t hird

p ossibility i s t hat t he m igration n ever a ctually h appened

T his i s G regoire's v iew a nd

p articularly

i f

t he

n arrative

G regoire's t riple i dentification r eally c annot b e,

b ut,

h as

s ome

p oints

t o

c omend

i t,

o f t he m igration c ame f rom t he C roats. n eed

n ot

b e

maintained ,

i ndeed

i t

g iven t he c o i t unonness o f e ponymous e thnic f ounders

i n t he e arly m ediaeval p eriod ,

t he

e xistence

o f

a

K ouvrat/Chrobatos

a ssociated w ith t he C roats i s t oo r emarkable t o m iss.

Most o f t he n ames

g iven i n 3 0 h ave d efied a n a greed e xplanation ,

C hrobatos

o ut

c learly.

w hile

T ouga a nd B ouga c an h appily b e d iscarded ,

7 7

s tands

a long w ith t he

o thers,

t o

a

must r emain.

l exicon

o f c urious e arly m ediaeval n ames,

N ot t hat h e e xisted ,

a ny more t han d id

b ut C hrobatos

O ld

F ather

C zech

w ho s tood o n Mount R ip a nd d eclared t hat h is p eople w ere t o l ive n earby , n o , b ut h is naming more t han a nything s hows t he l egendary n ature o f t he n arrative t hat

3 0 p resents.

b e a f abrication , C roatia e xisted. A t t his f its

p erhaps

s tage i t

t he

On s uch a b asis t he migration a ccount w ould d rawing

i s n ot

u pon

a s o ther

w riters

h ave

a nswered.

k nowledge

t hat

a

i mmediately n ecessary t o d ecide w hich

q uestion most a ccurately.

a ccurately

t he

b een

I ndeed ,

t hat

t he

I am n ot

q uestion

F or t he moment i t w ill

n early a s

c an

a t

White

a nswer c ertain

p resent

b e

s uffice t o p ass o n t o t he

f inal q uestion. W hen ,

i f

e ver,

t he q uestion i s

d id t he C roats A rrive

n ecessary ,

I n D almatia:

T he h esitation i n

f or a s w as n oted a bove i t h as n ot a lways b een

a ccepted t hat a m igration t ook p lace.

I f a n on-migration theory w ere t o

b e p roposed t hen t he C roats w ould h ave t o b e s een a s a S lavic g roup a rrived

w ith

t he

Avars

a nd ,

e stablished t hemselves a s a n i ndependent n ation. t he

f inal

p art

o f

B arada 's

v iew ,

f rom

T his

i n f act

r esembles

but w ould n ow t o h ave t aken p lace

w ithout t he i ntervention o f H eraclius. m igration

w ho

u pon t he Avar r etreat t owards P annonia,

What

t hough

s omewhere o utside D almatia?

i f

t here

w as

a

When w ould that h ave t aken

p lace? A s

Margetid's

d iscarded ,

w ork

p roves,

o nce

b ecause t he f irst p arts

f abrication ,

t he

o f

3 1

the d ating q uestion i s o pen.

H eraclian a re

d ate

r egarded

T he r evised d ate

o f S alona w ould t end t o make the H eraclian d ate u ntenable, o n

i ts

o wn

m igration.

imply

a

l ate

e ighth

W ith c hapter 3 1's

r ests u pon 3 0,

w hich i s

a ccount

that

the

t radition ' 3 0.

a nonymous

( 1985,

K laid

3 6).

s tates

h as

g one

c entury d ate

i s

f or t he f all b ut d oes

e arly n inth c entury d ate d iscarded

A long w ith K laiä ,

a uthor

o f

3 0

t he

d ating

n ot f or a

q uestion

I d o

n ot

a ccept

T here i s t oo l ittle by w ay o f f olk t radition

t hat

i t w ill n ot b e p ossible

b y the b oard ,

but

i t

t he

' faithfully t ransmitted f olk

d ate t o b e maintained f ollowing Margetid 's w ork. d ate

b een

B yzantine

u sually r egarded a s b eing t rustworthy b ecause i t

r epresents a n ative t radition. v iew

o r

h as

a s

i n

f or a s eventh c entury P erhaps t he

H eraclian

i s u nclear w hether the l ate e ighth

s atisfactory.

T he l ater d ate d epends u pon t he a cceptance o f t he w hole 3 0 n arrative, w ith the m igration b eing f rom White C roatia, t he

C roats

i n

h ypothesis h as C roats,

t heir

h omeland ,

a lready b een

e xamined

a nd t here i s n o i ndication g iven t hat t he

C roatia. I t

a nd

a t t he t ime t he Avars t ook S alona,

b efore

f amily

s even

a

f ound

w anting.

T his

A lso,

t he

w ere d welling b eyond B avaria, l ong

p eriod

( with r etainers)

o f

t ime

p assed

s plit o ff a nd a rrived i n

A l ate o r e arly d ate c ould b e p lucked f rom t he s ame m aterial.

s eems

o ccurred )

o f

w here t he F ranks h ad s ubued

p resumably b efore t he m igration.

t hat

the

d ating

i s a n i nexact b usiness,

w ould h ave i t,

a nd

c ourse

o f

t he

m igration

c ertainly n ot a s a ccurate a s

a nd r esolution i s a pt t o b e v ery d ifficult.

7 8

( if o ne M argetic

Y et o ne

f orm

o f

e vidence

m aterial. i n

h as n ot s o f ar b een c onsidered ,

T here i s a n eed t o e xamine t his,

t hat o f t he a rchaeological

f or i f t he m igration o ccured

t he l ate e ighth c entury t hen t he material

f rom t he e ighth c entury s o

f ar c alled e arly C roatian w ill h ave t o b e r eattributed. t hat

O n t he

g rounds

t he a rchaeological m aterial h as t o b e p roperly i ntegrated w ith t he

h istorical s urmises f inal r esolution o f t he m igration w ill b e d eferred u ntil c hapter f our.

q uestion

I f t here i s a ny i nclination t o v iew t he c ontents o f p articularly C roats

p ure

s ource

t hen

s hould d ispel t hat v iew.

t he

b eastliness

A lso i t

s eems

o f

3 0

t he

a s

C roat

b eing

a

o f t he F ranks t o t he

t o

c onflate

t he

f inal

s uccessful r ebellion a gainst t he F ranks a nd t he c onversion o f t he C roats t o C hristianity. l east

T he l atter p rocess i s k nown t o

b e

w ell

u nderway

b y 8 00 b ecause o f t he b aptismal f ont o f t he d uke V yäislav ,

t he t ime o f t he r evolt t he b ishopric o f

N in

w as

a lready

a t

a nd b y

e stablished.

H owever t he F ranks o nly g ained a uthority i n D almatia f rom t he e nd o f t he e ighth c entury , t reaty

o f

w hich w as

A achen

( AD

f inally c onfirmed i n t he n inth c entury a t 8 12),

s uccessful a bout A D 8 76. u pon

t he

C roats,

c onsiderable,

a nd

t he

r evolt

A s a r esult o f t his t he e ffects o f t he

t heir

p olitical

o rganisation

a nd t he d evelopment o f t he f eudal

t he

a gainst t he F ranks w as F ranks

a nd s o f orth must b e

s ystem

i n

C roatia

i s

f requently r egarded a s b eing a c onsequence o f this d omination. L ines

9 0-119:

T his

i s

o ne

o f

t he

most

i mportant

g eographical

d escriptions

o f C roatia i n t enth c entury ,

o rganisation ,

a nd i ts p osition w ith r elation t o t he o ther S lavic

o n

t he A driatic c oast.

e xcept o ne b e i dentified

T he

' zupanias',

s etting o ut b oth i ts

i nternal s tates

e ach w ith i ts o wn z upan c an a ll

( see t able 3 .1).

C hlebiana

L ivno

T zetina E mota

C etina I motski

P leba

P liva

P esenta

P etrovac

P arathalassia B reberi

K lis B ribir

N ona

N in

T nina

K nin

S idraga

P ridraga

N ina T able 3 .1

T he o nly p roblem i s t he

( on t he V rbas)

u nattested Z upanias i n C roatia

z upanship

o f

N ina,

f or

t he

n ame

a ttested a s s uch. D vornik w ould p lace i t b etween K nin , N in , B ribir , i f i t e xists, b ut a s h e o bserves, t he n ame i s v ery

i s

n ot

S idraga a nd s imilar t o

N in , t he more r ecent n ame f or C onstantine's N ona ( Roman A enona ) a nd i t m ay b e t hat t his i s a s imple d uplication w ith b oth t he S lavic f orm a nd a c orrupt a ntique f orm b eing l isted. T hese m entioned

z upanias c ame d irectly u nder t he c rown, ( Kribasa=Udbina ,

w hilst t he o ther

L itza=Lika a nd G outziska=0tocac ),

7 9

t hree

c ame u nder

t he

B an ,

a

t itle

t hat

r uling p rince o r k ing. r eflection

o f

s eems

t o i ndicate a n a uthority s econd t o t he

S uch a n i nstitution h as

g enerally u nknown among t he S lays A part

f rom

t he

t wo

( Dvornik

n ations

o f

Adriatic

s ufficient

s een

a s

c oast.

d etail

f or

1 962,

a ccurate

i s

t he W estern

a ll o f

w hich

l ay

g ives

t heir

b oundaries

C onstantine

a n

a nother f or i t

1 20-1)

t he C roats a nd S erbs,

B alkans h ad f our o ther p olitical e ntities, E astern

b een

t he S armatian o r I ranian o rigin o f t he C roats,

r econstruction

o f

u pon

t he

t he i n

c oastal

b oundaries w hich l argely a gree w ith l ater s ources. H owever t he i nland b oundaries o f P agania, Z ahumlje, T ravunija a nd D uklja a re n ot a ccurately t raceable, L ines

b ut w hat t hey g ain ,

1 19-142:

i nhabitants g ives a t

o f

l east

S erbia l oses

( see

R elations b etween t he S lays D almatia

f igure 3 .1)

a nd

a re p oorly u nderstood ,

t he

R omano-Illyrian

b ut t his b rief s ection

s ome i ndication o f t he s truggle o f the c ities t o

a fter t he l oss o f most o f t he p rovince t o t he S lays.

s urvive

T he c oastal c ities

h aving e ither s urvived t he i nvasion o r b een f ounded b y

r efugees,

f aced

t he p roblem o f c ultivating s ufficient g round t o f eed t he p opulation. the S lays w hereas

h ad a rrived by l and t hey d id n ot t he

c ities

r esource t hat w as e xpected

t hat

t he c oast, ( the

c learly d id,

a

maritime

I t

w as,

h owever ,

A s

c apacity ,

t hus t he i slands w ere a n o bvious

s afely e xploitable.

the

h ave

o nly

l and

t o

b e

S lays w ould b egin t o u se s hips o nce they s ettled o n

a nd t his t hey d id.

T he P agani a re

b lamed

f or

l ater o ccupants o f the a rea w ere l ater n otorious c oncentrate

i slands

n ear

P agania ,

C onstantine h as the P agani o ccupying B rad,

H var,

e arlier

M ljet a nd K orüula, t he

f act

C roatia,

t hat t o

t he

a nd f arming t he i slands.

G iven t hat,

t o

S lays,

f or

a nd

n ot

t he

empire,

T etrangourin a nd D iadora

t heir

s urvival.

T he e mperor B asil,

s een f irmly d ealing w ith t he S lays,

c ompromising

l ight,

a nd h ow t he c ities,

o btained

e nough

l and

S lays.

S palato a t 1 00.

T he

c ash

a s

a

p aid

D iadora a t

r esult

o f

g ive t hree

a

p ound

o f

g old ).

1 10 a nd

b ut n ote

o f

e ither

f or t he moment t hat

t he

i t i s

t he

s tatus

r emaining

a t otal o f 7 2

t o w ith

c ities

n omismata

a t

( that

T he

f igures

c ould b e t aken

a s

a n

o r e conomic p rosperity o f t he c ities,

s ufficient t o n ote t he d ifferences a nd a lso

c oin p ayments a re n ot a ll t hat a re made,

c ommodities w ere a lso l evied. b een s ome

t he

p aid

l evels o f c ities,

S alona t hen p ays m ore a lthough D iadora w as t he

c hief c ity o f t he t heme o f D almatia. i ndication

a

i ts p osition b etween t he Z achlumi a nd

T erbounia p aid t wo l ots o f 3 6 n omismata , i s

i n

a llowing a n ominal t oken o f s ubmission t o t he

v alues

2 00 n omismata ,

R agusa ,

i n t o

w ho i n t he p revious

i s h ere p resented

empire t o b e p aid a nd the majority o f t he t ax o r t ribute t o b e t he

i s

T he a ccount a lso e xplains w hy t he c ities o f the c oast p aid t he

c hapter w as

I t

w hich p ortions o f t he mainland s ome o f t hem w ould b e

p articular S palato, c ultivate

a nd

the m ajority o f t he c ities p aying t ribute a ctually f ace s ee

c ultivating.

more

o n

t here i s n o n eed t o r estrict t he r aiding t o t he P agani.

d ifficult t ribute

l iving o n ,

d amage

r aiding

w hich p resumably w ould b ut

t he

t he

f or t heir p iracy )

B esides t his l evy ,

t o

w ine a nd o ther

t here must

a lso

h ave

f orm o f t rade c ontinuing b etween t he c ities a nd t he C roats a nd

o ther S lays.

8 0

F igure

3 .1

S lavic

( after K laic, 3 Z achlumia

' Nations'

1 975,

o n t he E astern Adriatic

p rilog V ).

4 S erbia 5 T erbunia

1 C roatia 2 P agania 6 D ioclea.

F igure C ities:

3 .2 The L ocation o f C ities 1 D ecatera

5 D iadora 1 0

6 A rbe

7 V ekla

T zetina

1 1

Emota

1 6 N ona

1 5

B reberi

2 1

G outziska C roat

2 5

S tolpon 2 6 K ori.

and Z upanias:

2 R agusa 3 S palato 1 2 1 7

8 Opsara Z upanias:

P leba Tnina

C ities:

1 3 1 8

2 2

P esenta S idraga

DAI

2 9,

3 0,

3 1.

4 T etrangourin 9 Chlebiana

1 4 P arathalassia 1 9 K ribasa

B elgrad 2 3

2 0

B elitzin 2 4

L itza S kordona

3 .3.5

C hapter 3 1

C onstantine's o wn t ext o f t he c hapter

3 0.

A s

d ealt w ith a t p art

r esumes w ith t he c ontinuation o f t he n arrative

s ettlement o f D almatia b y the C roats a fter t he

o f

t he

s ome l ength i t w ill n ot b e

t his

i nterpolation

o f

q uestion o f t he m igration o f t he C roats h as b een

c hapter

i s

s een

a s

t ackled

l ess t o

a gain.

T he

e arlier

t rustworthy t han 3 0

t he

A rrival

s uch

a

( if n ot

c ompletely w rong ),

a nd w ith r egards

v iew

p robably c orrect.

L eaving a side t he m igration n arrative the c hapter may

i s

b e e xamined f rom l ine 3 1. L ines

3 1-57:

O nce

a gain t he c onversion o f t he C roats

r eign o f H eraclius a nd a lthough t his p oints

o ut

t hat

t here

e cclesiastical a ffairs a s

must a

i s

s et

i s n ot g enerally a ccepted ,

h ave

r esult

b een

o f

s ome

t he

i n t he Dvornik

r e-organisation

i nvasion

o f

t he

o f

S lays,

f urther, t he a uthority o f t he P ope o ver D almatia w as r ecognised a t t hat t ime. I nevitably , a l ater m igration o f C roats w ould c onfute a ny e arly c onversion ,

b ut

l eaves

t he

q uestion

g eneral S lavic p opulation u nanswered. d ate

o f

t he

c onversion d ate o f t he

T he r ejection o f

t he

c onversion

must a lso r eflect u pon t he P apal p rohibition f orbidding t he C roats

t o a ttack o ther n ations,

b ut p ermitting s elf d efence.

N ot

c ontent

w ith

t he P apal p rohibition C onstantine g ives t he t ale o f Martin the F ootless, w hich r einforced t he p rohibition. C roatia,

o r

i ndeed

i mportant

f or the

r estated

h istorian

Whether Martin e xisted ,

i s

t he

p rincely s uccession t hat

i s p resented:

o f K rasimir

A r ough

T rpimir

( Kresimir ).

w as a live i n 8 52,

t ravelled

the o riginal b an i s u ndeterminable,

d ate

w hen h e

s mall

s ection

T erpimer c an

b e

o f

( Trpimir )

t he

C roatian

w as t he

o btained

f or

i n more

f ather

this

a s

s igned a d ecree t o the b enefit o f t he

C hurch i n S palato. L ines

5 4-7

t rade which ,

c ontain a r eference t o C roatian t rade i n the Adriatic,

f rom t his

s tatement,

i ncluded much o f t he c oastline o f

a

t he

E astern Adriatic. L ines t aken

5 8-67:

p lace

D vornik

b etween

( 1962, 8 54

1 28)

j udges t he a ttack o f M ichael t o h ave

a nd 8 60 a nd t he r eference t o s ubjection must

a pply o nly t o D almatian a nd n ot P annonian C roatia. L ines

6 8-70:

A ll

o f

t he

c ities

c onverted C roatia c an b e i dentified W hen

t his

l ist

o f c ities

g iven

i n t his

l ist

o f c ities

i n

( see t able 3 .2).

i n D almatian C roatia i s

c ollated w ith t he

l ist o f z upanias g iven i n c hapter 3 0 a more c omplete v iew o f z upanias a nd their c entres c an b e o btained. L ivno, K nin a nd N in ,

t he f o/

e xample,

a ll h ave e ponymous

t he

z upania

o f

B ribir

z upanias,

whereas

S kradin

f alls

a nd t he r elation b etween t he t wo s ettlements

i n i s

n ot

c lear. L ines C roatia

7 1-82:

T he

f igures

g iven h ere

f or t he

s ize o f t he f orces o f

s uggests b oth t he t otal emergency f orce a vailable,

i nclusion

o f

m en

f rom

P annonian C roatia,

8 3

a nd a lso

t he

s uch w as p robably t he c ase.

DAI

P resent

L ist

I dentification

N ona

N in

B elgrade

B iograd

B elitzin

B elica

S kordona

S kradin

C hlebena

L ivno

S tolpon

S tupin K nin

T enin K ori

K arin

K laboka

K lobuk T able

( Now R ogoznice)

3 .2 C ities o f C roatia

T his maximum a pplies t o t he t ime o f T omislav , g reatest

e xtent.

A llowing

t otal numbers

c ome o ut a s

f or

a t

C roatia

t his

a

1 :2

r oughly 1 65

t ime.

T he

w hen C roatia

r eached

0 00,

a

v ery

n umerical

c onsiderable

f igure

game may b e c ontinued b y

a pplying the r eduction r atio c alculated f rom t he g alleys t o the r est t he f orces

T omislavian N o.

H orsemen F ootsoldiers

P ost-dissensions N o.

6 0

0 00

2 2 5 00

1 00

0 00

G alley s ailors

3 2 00

3 7 5 00 1 2 00

C utter s ailors

1 3 00

5 00

1 64

T otal

5 00

6 1

T able 3 .3 T roop N umbers

8 3-91:

T his

P annonian C roatia, White

C roatia ,

b etween the C roatia

o f

( see t able 3 .3).

T roop T ype

L ines

i ts

r atio o f s mall t o l arge c utters t he

s ection

f or C roatia

g ives n o i nformation a bout D almatian o r

b ut i nstead c onfirms t he e xistence

n oting

i ts

p lundered s tate.

s tatement h ere o f t he T urkish

a nd

7 00

a nd

l ocation

o f

T here i s a c ontradiction

( Magyar )

p lundering

o f

White

t he a ccount o f t heir f riendliness p resented i n c hapter 3 0.

T his i s p robably t he r esult o f d iffering d ates o f c omposition o f 3 0

a nd

3 1. 3 .3.6

C hapters

T hese

3 2-36

c hapters d eal w ith t he n ations n eighbouring C roatia a nd a re n ot

d irectly r elevant t o t he p resent 3 .3.7

s tudy.

C onclusions

C onstantine, c onsiderable

a nd t he u nknown a uthor o f c hapter 3 0,

q uantity

o f

i nformation

8 4

o f

p resent

i n

DAI

a

v arying l evels o f a ccuracy ,

c ausing a s many p roblems u seful d ocument,

b ut

a s t hey s olve f or t he h istorian.

i ts

i nformation

must

a lways

DAI

b e

i s a v ery

t reated

w ith

c aution. 3 .4

F ROM D OCUMENTS T O ARCHAEOLOGY

t he

m ere

s uccession o f r ulers,

S outh

S lavic

l ife,

b e t hey d ukes,

b eyond

b ans,

p resented

i n

s ome

measure

p roceeding

t o

t he

b y

e numeration z upans,

P rocopius

a rchaeological

e vidence

o f

p rinces

a nd

b attles

a nd

o r k ings,

i s

C onstantine.

t he

a reas

B efore

where

t he

d ocumentary e vidence w ill meet t he a rchaeological must b e s ketched. t wo w riters h ave d ifferent t raditions; s tems

P rocopius

f rom H erodotus,

m anual

a nd

t he

i n

r eligious

o f

t he

G reek

i nstruction t he

b ook.

P rocopius

S lays,

T heir

s pheres

p hysical

v ariation b etween them .

a r aiding n uisance, u nits

w hile

C onstantine

w as

n o

w hat

w as

their

Y et t his

e xplanation

f or

h ad c eased t o b e a nd

o nce B yzantine t erritory ,

h ad

f ormed

t he B yzantine

I t may n ot b e g oing t oo f ar t o s tate t hat

n eed f or C onstantine t o g ive a n a ccount o f S lavic h abits

a nd c ustoms w hen t erritories

d elineates

s ole

a n

b eliefs,

f ramework.

s evere though t hat m ight h ave b een ,

o n

t he

o f u sefulness a re

I nevitably o nce t he S lays

p erception must h ave c hanged. t here

T he

d ifferent

c haracteristics,

r elations w ith B yzantium i n a h istorical

p olitical

two

h istoriographical t radition t hat

d ifference o f t radition s hould n ot b e s een a s t he t he

i n

i s m ore c oncerned w ith p resenting

t heir

c eremonies a nd c ustoms,

p olitical

f or t hey s tand

a nd C onstantine i n t he B yzantine t radition o f

c onsequently d ifferent. e thnography

s trengths,

S lays

o ccupied

o f t he e mpire.

s ome

three-quarters

O nce more t he

o f

t he

B alkan

f amiliarity o f the p resent t o

t he r ecorder f rustrates t he r esearcher. T here

a re

s ome

t ouches u pon: b asic

a spects

o f

S lavic l ife t hat n either w riter r eally

t he s ocial o rganisation o f t he

d emocracy ),

o r

the

e ffect

o f

S lays

( beyond

P rocopius'

the c onversion t o C hristianity.

N either d o t hey i nform o n the s ubject o f i nternal t rade a nd manufacture. I n

a ll

t hese

a rchaeology s tands o n i ts o wn.

t he s ocial

s cale,

s tructure,

C onstantine

o rganisation , S lays.

What

w here

f amily c omes

a nd t he r elations

i nto h is o wn , b etween

t hen o f t he m iddle?

d ocumentary e vidence c ome t ogether, S lays

Y et a t the h igher e nd o f

o rganisation

T his

t he

b lends

w ith

p olitical

d ealing w ith the p olitical c oastal

c ities

a nd

t he

i s w here t he a rchaeological a nd

w here t he s poradic d wellings o f

t he

a nd t he s ite o f J azbine b oth d etail t he s ame p henomenon o f S lavic

s ettlement. i gnore t he

I t i s o n t hese t opics that t he a rchaeologist s hould n ot w ritten e vidence, n or t he h istorian the a rchaeological

e vidence.

8 5

C HAPTER F OUR ARCHAEOLOGICAL MATERIAL 4 .1

I NTRODUCTION

I n

t his

b e g iven , t he

c hapter a n o verview o f t he material c ulture o f t he a rea w ill

s tarting w ith a n e xamination o f t he

s ites

f rom

e xcavations.

s patial

d istribution

T hen c lasses o f s ites w ill b e e xamined i ndividually i n the

f ollowing

o rder:

c hurches.

A fter t hat t he material c ulture g roups o f t he

s ummarised. F inally ,

o f

t he e arly m ediaeval p eriod a s w ell a s t he t imescale o f c emeteries,

T he

n ext

s ettlements,

s ection

t owns

a nd f ortifications, a rea

w ill

b e

w ill d eal w ith t he d ating o f m aterial.

i n t he l ight o f the e xamination o f

t he

material

c ulture

the

p roblem o f t he a rrival o f t he C roats w ill b e a ddressed. 4 .2

T HE S PATIAL D ISTRIBUTION O F S ITES

N o

e xhaustive

d istributions maps

map

e xists

f or

the

p eriod

s o o bservations o n the

o f s ites w ill b e made by e xamining a v ariety o f

a nd d rawing g eneral c onclusions

f rom them .

d ifferent

I n o rder t o a ssist t he

c omprehension o f t he C roatian p atterns d istribution maps

f or

t he

whole

o f Y ugoslavia w ill b e u sed. 4 .2.1

F igure

4 .1:

Y ugoslavia A D

4 00-800

( Vinski

1 971)

T he s ites o n t his map a re those t hat V inski m entions d iscussion o f t he e arly m ediaeval p eriod a nd v ary f rom B yzantine i n

the

S outh

i n t he N orth a s

Avar

( such a s

a nd

F rankish

c over i n s ome a reas S outhern

S tobi a nd P rima J ustiniana )

( Bled-Pristava ).

T he

f irst

impression i s t he

c ompared t o t he c oncentration i n

Yugoslavia

t o S lavic c emeteries

A lso i ncluded a re G othic r emains

f inds.

D almatia ,

I stria,

a s

w ell

s parsity o f

o thers.

h as p roduced v irtually n othing a s h as

o f W estern a nd N orth-Western C roatia.

i n h is c ities

Much

o f

a l arge a rea

c entral

B osnia

a nd the V ojvodina/Eastern S lavonia h ave t he h eaviest c oncentrations w hilst S lovenia h as a g entle s catter o f s ites. A re t hese c oncentrations g roup

s pecific,

f rom G oths,

t he D almatian o ne r esulting f rom S lays,

f or e xample?

a nd t he I strian

T o a nswer q uestions o f t his o rder t he n ext

s et

o f m aps must b e u sed. 4 .2.2

F igures

4 .2-4:

B ibliografija S eobe N aroda

O n t hese t hree maps Mrkobrad p lots t he ( two p er map ) T hese

a reas

w hich a llows d epend

a cross b y t he g roup , l ess b ase.

r estricted On

t he

t o s ame

t o

f inds

f rom s ix s eparate g roups

c omparison o f t he o ccupied a reas t o b e

made.

a n e xtent u pon t he t erritory h eld o r t ravelled

t hus t he

f inds

t he Vojvodina, map

( Mrkobrad 1 984)

( figure

8 6

f rom t he H unnic n ations p art 4 .2)

a re more

o r

o f t he a rea o f t heir P annonian t he

O strogothic

r emains

a re

F igure 4 .1 E arly Mediaeval S ites

i n Yugoslavia

( after V inski 1 971).

c oncentrated i n D almatia a nd I stria w ith B osnia , 4 .3)

S lovenia

a nd

E astern S erbia.

h ave c omplementary d istributions

a ntagonistic

g roups,

w ith

( mainly t he V ojvodina ) A lso

s catters

i s

b est

i n

a s might b e e xpected

c entral

t he G epid f inds

o f

( figure mutually

i n N orth-Eastern Y ugoslavia

a nd t he L ombards i n S lovenia a nd p arts o f

i nteresting o n t his map a re t he e mpty a reas

o f N orthern C roatia, T his

s maller

T he G epids a nd L ombards

B osnia a nd

v ast

t racts

I stria.

s uch a s D almatia,

o f

S outhern

much

Y ugoslavia.

e xplained b y t he c ontinuation o f B yzantine r ule o ver the

p rovince o f D almatia. c oncentration

T he l ast map

o f A var material

w ith s ome

s poradic f inds

m aterial

c oncentrated

( figure

a cross t he r est i n

4 .4)

r eveals

a n

amazing

i n t he V ojvodina a nd n eighbouring a reas,

D almatia ,

o f

the

c ountry ,

p articularly

N orth-Eastern B osnia a nd E astern S erbia.

Apart

a nd

N orthern

S lavic

D almatia,

f rom t hat t here

a re

n o

o ther c oncentrations o f f inds. I n

o rder

t o

r elationships

o btain

b etween

a

m ore

t he

o btained b y e ye t he material w as ( Hodder

a nd

O rton

1 976,

r elatedness o f d istributions q uadrats

o bjective

d istributions s ubjected

2 03). b y

t he

t o

T he

means

u nderstanding

o n V

o f

V

m embers'

a

a nalysis

measures

c o-occurrence

- h r efer t o a s tandard c ontingency t able. ( totally u ncorrelated )

a nd + 1

i n

T his g ives a r ange

( totally

c orrelated ).

a re

g iven

r esults

a re

t he

i n

t able

l ow

l evels

4 .1. o f

T he most

v ery

T he

s triking f eature a bout t he

p ositive

a nd

o btained , p articularly i n c ases w hen there i s d istinction b etween t he d istributions c oncerned. the

A

I n t he

c ase the a rea w as d ivided i nto 3 08 q uadrats o f 1 cm s ides.

r esults

i nclude

t he

2

o f 0 i ndicates n either p ositive n or n egative c orrelation.

p resent

t he

u sing t he f ormula

o f V b etween 1 r esult

o f

t han c ould b e

c oefficient

c oefficient

V = a d-bc/+(efgh ) w here

maps

n egative

c orrelation

a v ery c lear v isual E xamples o f t his

l ow f igure f or H un a nd G epid c orrelation c onsidering

t hat they a re b oth c entred i n t he Vojvodina ,

a nd the l ow L ombard a nd H un

n egative

there

c orrelation

f igure,

g iven

that

i s n o q uadrat w ith a

c o-occurrence.

T he

p robable

r eason

f urther t han 0 .15

f or

t he

l ow

f igures,

f rom 0 i n e ither d irection ,

o f empty q uadrats h ave a d epressing e ffect e ffectively mask t he t rends t hat may b e there. n ature

o f

the

r esults

f rom t he V c oefficient

a nother measure t o s ee i f c learer r esults T he

c oefficient

o f

s egregation

S

w ith n ot o ne

i s t hat the

s traying

l arge

number

u pon t he c alculations a nd G iven the u nsatisfactory i t w as d ecided t o employ

c ould b e o btained. d epends u pon t he m easurement o f

p aired r elationships b etween m embers o f t wo d istributions

b y

means

o f

t he f ormula S = 1 - ( c+b ) N/(eh+fg ). B ecause

i n

t his

t est

the

p airings a re made u pon a n earest n eighbour

b asis the l arge a reas o n t he maps w ithout a ny p oints d o n ot o utcome.

R esults

g iven i n T able

a nd

c hi-squared

4 .2.

8 9

f igures

a ffect

t he

f or t he d istributions a re

G oths

H uns

L ombards

G epids

Avars

H uns L ombards

0.058 0 .063

0.113

G epids A vars

0.056 0 .075

0 .006 0 .016

0.019 0 .073

0 .036

0 .073

0.054

0.132

0.053

S lays

T able 4 .1: G oths H uns

0.036

V c oefficient R esults

H uns

L ombards

G epids

A vars

0 .019

C hi-sq. S ig .

( *)

L ombards

0 .369

0 .726

C hi-sq.

1 8.2

2 5.09

S ig.

0 .2%

G epids

0 .297

C hi-sq.

1 0.85

S ig .

0 .2% 0.08

0 .585

0 .17

0 .2%

2 1.12

N S

0 .2%

A vars

0 .299

0 .004

C hi-sq.

2 1.96

( *)

1 06.13

0 .2%

-

0 .2%

S ig. S lays

0 .221

0 .744

0.016 0 .0003 N S

0 .339

0 .577

0 .400

0 .251

C hi-sq.

7 .04

( *)

2 8.61

1 3.89

1 2.87

S ig.

1 .0%

-

0 .2%

0 .2%

0 .2%

( Chi-squared w as c alculated u sing Y ate's c orrection f or a 2 x2 c ontingency t able

( Langley 1 979,

2 85-7).

T he s ymbol

( *)

i ndicates t hat n o c hi-squared c alculation w as p ossible b ecause t he e xpected n umber

( E )

f ell b elow 5 i n o ne c ase.

S ig i ndicates t he p ercentage p robability l evel o f s ignificant d eparture f rom t he n ull h ypothesis o f n on-association o r n on-disassociation , w ith N S s howing n on-significant d eparture f rom t his a ssumption.) T able J udging b y d isassociation ,

4 .2:

t he r esults f rom t he v isibly o bvious c ases o f s uch a s Avars a nd L ombards t he S c oefficient i s more

s uccessful i n t he p resent d ifferent g roups. e xist,

w hilst

S c oefficient R esults

t here

d isassociations.

c ase f or m easuring t he r elations

b etween

t he

T he o verall t rend i s t hat n o s ignificant a ssociations a re

Among

a t he

c onsiderable

n umber

c learest a nd m ost

o f

s ignificant

c onsistent o f t hese a re

t he d isassociations b etween t he L ombards a nd a ll o ther g roups e xcept t he G oths.

T he

r elations

w hich

g o

a gainst

t his

o verall

t rend

d isassociation a re t hose b etween t he t hree g roups w hich h ave t heir c oncentrations t he w ider s pread

i n

t he V ojvodina, o f

t he

A vars

t he H uns, m eans

a ssociation.

9 0

G epids a nd A vars,

t here

c an

b e

n o

o f m ain

b ut h ere,

s ignificant

A

VREME HUNSKE DOM INAC IJE

•I STOC 'N I GOT I

_1 5

4 .5 5 210

65°

•5 3

\ \ 054 •5 7

u \ _ r \\ , 5 6,

.5 8 •59

\ e,

e 460

6% \

6 2 •

70

•6 3 •6 4 •6 5

• „

6 7

s 6 6

c ‚a r

8 4

•8 9

oz , 8 7

2 , e88

2

F igure 4 .2 H unnic a nd G othic S ites H uns A

G oths

I ,

9 1

( after Mrkobrad 1 984) .

• GEP ID I A

LANGOBARD I

443 £42 £41

440

,

\ ,\

(

\3 9 r

fr ; \

1,

.

‘

2 . -s -e

) —

' -

‘-\ _ _ > r: \ . . . . . . .

F igure 4 .3 G epid a nd L ombard S ites G epids4, L ombards Ä

9 3

-- -

" 1 --,

( after M rkobrad 1 984).

•6 •6 • 6 4• 5 6 4 , 43 4 ;•

4 :0 31 4

.3 A 3 9 -

1 49

5 4 4 ,

3 7

1 48 I\

• •

1 47

* is

3 3

* 33

64

2 62 5

U

•52

65 1 6

•

09 . . 8 • 9 8 / / l

1 83 A r ' A1 82 1 81 A 0 1180

F igure 4 .4 A var a nd S lav S ites A vars

4 1

S lays A K 9 5

( after Mrkobrad 1 984) .

A

SLOVEN '

7 97

,-

•

8 2 .58 2

2 2 . . •1 9 2 1 2 0* la 1

£7 6 • 7 7

•

6 "56 5 5 5

1 61 5 l • •\8 1

3

1 28 • 10

0\1 85

7 5 8

£158

e186

1 . ‘

• AVAR I

7 5

t o -' '

•• 4 9

3 1 23 92 • *28

2 7

7 5 0

6 46 * I 4 7 n r— •. 4

.34

: 55 43

S1 57

5 • 6 9f: , ; 6 7 7 10 • n 6 3 7 0 ; 73

1 7

1 2

,

* 1 4er•

8 • 8 •8 7

1 3 * •6 7 A. ,• r e e t: .‘ J7r •86 49

e 3f1 1. 1 ' . • L .A9r 9 36 / A • t, • 9 4 1 0 1 e. 9 _ 5 , 9 9 1 02 •' ' ' ''' 1M • 1 04 \ A

• 8 9

9 2 •

e10 1 06 \

1 08 A 1 1 A

1 09 10

F igure

4 .5

E arly Mediaeval S ites

( after B eslagic

1 964).

O verall, t he S c oefficient p rovides a b etter i ndication o f t he s patial r elationships b etween t he d istributions o f t he v arious e thnic g roups t han d oes t he V c oefficient. 4 .2.3

F igure 4 .5:

T his

map

p arallels u sual

r eport o n G rborezi c emetery

f rom

t he

l ater

m ediaeval

( Beälagia 1 964)

p eriod

g ives s ites p roducing

f or material f rom t he c emetery o f G rborezi.

m ethod

t his

w ould

i nvolve

l arge n umber o f s ites a re g iven. s urprising

c iting most

A ccording t o

s imilar o bjects,

A s t he s ite i s i n

B osnia

t hat many s ites a re r ecorded i n c entral B osnia ,

a c oncentration r unning

N orth

f rom

S plit

t owards

i t

t he

t hus a i s

n ot

a nd t here i s

K nin.

I stria

i s

r emarkably e mpty. 4 .2.4

G eneral C onclusion.

T he

main

c oncentrations

t hat a re w ide s pread m aterial

i n

t erritory ) l ighter

most

t hat a re v isible u pon maps o f d istribution

( ie i gnoring s uch o f

t hings

a s

the

l ack

o f

G epid

Y ugoslavia b ecause o f t he l imited r ange o f G epid

a re i n t he

V ojvodina,

c oncentrations

i n

D almatia

I stria ,

a nd

S lovenia

c entral a nd

N otably empty a reas a re f ound i n W estern C roatia, M ontenegro a nd l arge t racts o f B osnia. T wo i ndependent c auses c an b e g iven t hat t he empty a reas r eally w ere empty , n ot b een s ufficiently s tudied

b y

B osnia,

E astern

w ith

S lavonia.

much o f S erbia p roper,

f or t hese v ariations, f irstly a nd s econdly t hat t he a reas h ave

a rchaeologists.

A rgument

f rom

t he

f irst w ould h old t hat t he p otential f or s ettlement i n t he empty a reas w as s mall a nd s o t he v arious g roups d id n ot h eavily o ccupy t hem , o r a ctually

i gnored

p ossible,

w ith the p otentially

p olja.

T his

t hem .

w ould

F or

n ot

s eem

W estern a rable t o

C roatia l and

h old

this

o ccuring

c ould b e s een a s o nly

i n

u pland

f or o ther p arts o f C roatia o r

S outhern S erbia. T he s econd e xplanation , d epending a s i t d oes u pon t he w orking m ethods o f a rchaeologists, i s more r ealistic. I n t his c ase t he r elative i naccessibility o f t hese a reas o r t he s mall q uantity o f r esources, c arried

e ither

o ut.

m en

o r money ,

C onversely ,

m eans t hat i nvestigation h as n ot b een

a reas

w hich

h ave

a lready

p roduced

g ood

r eturns, s uch a s K nin , a ttract l arger p roportions o f r esources. A lthough t here i s t he t emptation t o b elieve t hat i t i s a lways t he a rchaeologists' r esources p ut t rends 4 .3

f ault,

i t

i s

l ikely

t hat

t he

i nto s ome a reas h as e xacerbated w hat

d iffering amounts o f p robably

w ere

r eal

i n s ome c ases.

T IMESCALE O F E XCAVATION

4 .3.1

D almatia

S ome i mpression o f t he c hronological s cale o f e xcavations i s r ecoverable i f t he d ate o f f irst i nvestigation o f e ach c emetery i s

9 9

p lotted.

A lthough

t he

m easure

i s

n ot a bsolute a g ood i ndication o f

a ctivity c an b e o btained f rom t his q uite e asily w ithout h aving t o r esort t o n oting e very i nsertion o f a s pade i nto t he s oil.

T he c emeteries u sed

w ere t hose d etailed i n J elovina's S tarohrvatske N ekropole ,

a

s et

t hat

i ncludes b oth t he D almatian c emeteries o f t he e arlier p eriod ( up t o a nd i ncluding t he n inth c entury ) a nd c emeteries f rom t he t enth c entury o nward.

T his

e xcludes

t hose

s ingle

f inds w hich h ave n ever b een t he

s ubject o f p roper e xcavation a nd w hose d iscovery d ate i s n ot g iven. o f 4 3 4 2.

c emeteries o nly o ne d oes n ot h ave a d ate g iven ,

O ut

l eaving a t otal o f

T he d ate o f d iscovery ( and b y t his t he d ate o f f irst a rchaeological i nvestigation i s m eant, r ather t han t he f irst r eport b y p easants f or e xample ) f or e ach c emetery w as f irst p lotted p recisely b y y ear. b asis o f t hese y early b locks t wo s ets o f t en y ear b locks w ere r unning b y s traight d ecade

( that i s

s tarting w ith 1 881-90 )

O n t he s et u p

a nd o ffset b y

f ive y ears ( starting i n 1 885-94), i t i s t hese t hat a re s hown i n F igure 4 .6. C omparing t he t wo g raphs i t i s c lear t hat o ne main t rend i s d emonstrated ,

a n e arly p eak o f s ome

d ecline w ith p eriods

s ize

f ollowed

b y

a

c onsiderable

4 a nd I V p roducing n o e xcavations a t a ll.

T he r eal

r ecovery l ies i n 7 a nd V II, b ut e ven t he n ew p eak r eached may h ave b egun t o d ecline, t hough I X i s a f airer r epresentation t han 1 0. T he p attern p roduced d oes c onfirm t he v iew p ut t hat

t here

w as

a n

p re-WWI

p eak

a lready b efore t he w ar s tarted ,

o f

a ctivity ,

f orward i n c hapter o ne w hich w as t ailing o ff

a nd w as n ot c aused b y t he w ar,

w hile t he

s econd p ost-WWII p eak i s t he r esult o f t he c reation o f a n a rchaeological e stablishment w ith f unds

a nd

a rchaeologists

a vailable.

Any

f urther

a ttempt t o e xplain t he p attern w ould b e c onstructing t oo much u pon t he f oundations. G iven t he t wo p eaks, a nd t he p oor s tandard o f r ecording i n t he f irst i t w ill n ot c ome a s a s urprise t hat t he s econd p roduced t he c emeteries w hich w ill b e e xamined i n more d etail. 4 .3.2

I stria a nd P annonia

B ecause o f a l ack o f a p ublication f or I stria a nd P annonia c omparable w ith J elovina's a nd B eloäevid 's s ummaries,

t he c emeteries i n t hese a reas

c annot b e d ealt w ith i n t he s ame

y et

d etail,

g eneral

t rends

c an

b e

d etermined. I stria h ad e arly i nvestigations i n t he 1 890s, a t s ites s uch a s M ala V rata, t hese, h owever w ere n ot f ollowed b y f urther f ieldwork u ntil a fter t he S econd W orld W ar , w hen I stria b ecame p art o f Y ugoslavia. T he p eak o f e xcavations o ccured i n t he 1 950s, w ith many o f t he most i mportant

s ites,

s uch a s 2 minj,

b eing e xcavated t hen.

S ome e xcavations

t ook p lace i n t he 1 960s, b ut t he 1 970s g ive a p oor s howing. R ecent, u npublished , e xcavations h ave t aken p lace, b ut t heir e xistence w ould n ot d iminish

t he

m ediaeval

I stria.

s ignificance

o f

t he

1 950s

f or

e xploration

T he e xcavation h istory o f P annonia b egins c onsiderably t hat

o f

w as n ot

I stria,

w ith t he

o f

e arlier

f irst e xcavation t aking p lace i n 1 871.

f ollowed u p u ntil t he 1 890s a nd t he e xcavations a t

1 00

B ijelo

e arly

t han T his B rdo

.

I

I

I

V

V I

V I I

V I I I

I X

B

1 5

0

I V

-

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

1 0

F igure 4 .6 T he T imescale o f E xcavation i n D almatia A 1 0 y ear b locks s tarting i n 1 885 B 1 0 y ear b locks V ertical

s cale

s tarting i n 1 881

s hows

c emeteries d ug p er d ecade.

a nd S vinjaverac. b etween

t he

Only o ne e xcavation i s

s tart

o f

t his

r ecorded a s h aving t aken

c entury a nd 1 940,

p lace

a nd s ince t hen t here h as

b een a l ow f requency r un o f d iscoveries p roducing a f ew g ood s ites, m any s ingle 4 .3.3

G eneral C onclusion

T he

I strian p attern r esembles t hat

i n t he p ost-war y ears t hat n umbers

t hat

D almatia

d ifference must b e t hat A rchaeological

o f D almatia,

f ades b y t he 1 970s,

p roduced.

P art

l arge s ites

p roportion

o f

w hich

t he

i t

i t h as a p eak

l acks

t he

e arly

e xplanation f or t his

u ndertook much o f t he e arly e xcavation , who

i nspired

o f t he e arly e xcavations.

i s d ifficult t o u nderstand ,

m ediaeval p opulation ,

i n t hat

y et

I stria h ad n o s ociety c omparable t o t he C roatian

S ociety ,

n or h ad I stria a p ioneer s uch a s M arun ,

4 .4

b ut

f inds.

y et

i t h as

f or t here

a nd

u ndertook

a

P annonia's o verall l ack o f must

h ave

b een

a n

e arly

s o f ar l argely e scaped d iscovery.

DATE R ANGE O F C EMETERIES

4 .4.1

D almatia

T he d ates o f t he c emeteries p oint

o f

g raves

o f t he

i n D almatia

v iew o f d iscovery d ates)

c emeteries

s eventh t o t he

a ccording

( previously e xamined f rom t he

c over a p eriod f rom t he f irst

s eventeenth

c enturies.

A

t o t ime o f u se p roduces F igure

4 .7;

o f t he c hronological r anges a nd p eriods t hat e xist.

p lot

S lavic o f

t he

a n i mpression

L ooking

f irst

i ndividual c enturies t he most h eavily r epresented i s t he n inth ,

a t

f ollowed

b y t he t enth a nd e leventh c enturies. B eyond t his i t i s l ater c enturies w hich h ave h igher r ates, a nd i t i s o nly t he s ixteenth c entury o nwards w hich p roduces t o

t ake

a

f ewer c emeteries t han the e ighth c entury.

b roader

p icture

f our

p eriods

c omprises o f t he s eventh t o n inth c enturies, t he

t enth

f ifteenth c enturies.

t o

t welfth

a nd

t he

T he

c enturies,

f inal

a verages

g roup

t he f rom

c an t he

t hird t he

I n a n

b e d efined , s econd f rom

a ttempt t he

f irst

e xtending

f rom

t hirteenth t o t he

s ixteenth

t o

s eventeenth

o f c emeteries p er c entury a re g iven i n t able

4 .3. T able

4 .3

C emetery U sage b y T hree-Century P eriods D ate R ange

Average/Century

V II-IX X -XII X III-XV XVI-XVII ( * T his i s a t otal

T otal/Period

8 .0

1 8

1 0.6

1 6

9 .3

1 0

3 .5

4 *

f or o nly t wo c enturies

r ather

t han t he t hree o f t he o ther g roups.)

i n

I f t hat i s t he g eneral p icture h ow d oes t he i ndividual c emetery v ary l ength o f u se? T hey r ange f rom o nes t hat f all w ithin o ne c entury t o

o nes t hat e xtend t hrough much o f t he d ate r ange.

1 02

T he

f ormer a re

u seful

C emetery

V II V III 1

1

1

I X

X 1

X I X II X III X IV XV XVI XVII 1

1

1

B iskupija-Crkvina B iskupija-Bra d it-a B iskupija-BukoroviCa B iskupija-Dolovi B iskupija-LopuUka B iljane Donje-Begovat 'a B ijaei-Sv Marta B ribir-Centar B ribir-Dol B ribir-Novi P ut B ribir-Vratnice B enkovac-Podgrade B rnaze C etina-Sv S pas Danilo-Eraci Danilo-Sematorij Bevrske Devrske-Leiajida I voäevac K aäid-Glav3urak K a nd-Maklinovo B rdo K a ne-Mastirine K a ie-Razbojine K nin-Kapitul K nin-Plavno K oljane-Crkvina Knin-Spas Maljkovo G reblje N in-Sv K rii N in-Materiza N in-fdrijac Novigrad-Gori nna S kradin-Morpolata S kradin-Smrdelje S kradin-fdrpanj S olin-Glav r dine S olin-Majdan S olin-Otok S olin-Rilinice S udürac-Gajine V rpolje-Kosa V rlika-Zduä

F igure

4 .7 Dates o f Dalmatian C emeteries

1 03

1

1

1

1

1

i n g iving a b rief t ime s ection t hat i s i nteresting t o e xamine, s uch a s a t M aklinovo B rdo. D almatia h as m ore o f t he l ong-use c emeteries, n otably t hose a t B iskupija C rkvina D onje

B egovaüa,

B ija i S v Marta ,

i s r egrettable t hat t he f irst t wo

a nd

B iskupija

B ukoroviüa ,

B iljane

B ribir C entar a nd C etina S v S pas. o f

t hese

w ere

a mong

t he

I t

e arliest

e xcavated b y M arun a nd c onsequently b adly d ug a nd r ecorded , a nd t hus n ot s uitable f or d etailed a nalysis. Most o f t he l ong-use c emeteries l ay a bout

c hurches,

a nd

t his i s a p ossible r eason f or t heir c ontinued u se

( it m ight e ven b e p ossible t o s uggest t hat t he c ontinuity i s b roken b y t he i nvasion o f t he T urks, b ut t his h as n ot e xamined ).

I n s pite o f t he e xistence o f

s uch

e ventually s o f ar b een

l ong-lasting

c emeteries

n one o f t hem e xtended f rom t he s eventh t o n inth c enturies, a nd t here i s n o c emetery w hich c overs t he w hole p eriod. R easons f or t his a re n ot e ntirely c lear, b ut s ome s ignificant b reak o ccurs a bout t he t urn o f t he e ighth a nd n inth c enturies. F ar more o f t he l ater s ites l ay a bout c hurches

w hilst

most o f t he e arly o nes d id n ot,

l eading t o t he o bvious

s uggestion t hat a n inth c entury c onversion phase l ead t o t he e stablishment o f c hurches a nd t he g rowth o f c emeteries a bout t hem . I t s eems l ess l ikely t hat t he r everse i s t he c ase, a nd t hat c emeteries a ttracted

c hurches,

f or t hen a g reater c ontinuity t han e xists m ight b e

e xpected. 4 .4.2

I stria

C ompared t o D almatia, r emarkable

c entury o nward f rom

t he

P olaüine,

t he d ate r ange o f

f or i ts e arly b eginning , ( figure 4 .8).

t he

I strian

e xtending a s

c emeteries

S everal t ransitional c emeteries,

s ixth o r s ixth t o s eventh c enturies, F ranüini a nd ü elega.

i s

i t d oes f rom t he s ixth t hat d ate

h ave b een f ound ,

T his l ink b etween B yzantine

s uch a s

a nd

S lavic

p opulations i s a rchaeologically u nrecorded i n t he o ther t wo r egions o f C roatia. B esides t hese s hort-lived c emeteries there i s a lso M ejica , w hich

e xtends

f rom

g reater c ontinuity. c emeteries

a t

t he s ixth t o e ighth c entury ,

d emonstrating a n e ven

T he s eventh a nd e ighth c enturies a re r epresented b y

Mali

V rh ,

Z ajüji

B rijeg a nd V rh ,

b ut t here i s a s harp

b reak b etween t he e ighth a nd n inth c enturies,

w ith

c ontinuity

c emeteries f rom t he n inth

a cross

t he

d ivide.

T here

a re

c entury o nward ,

p articularly t hat a t Z minj,

n inth

t o

c entury

t he

e leventh

c entury.

w hich

l ittle w as

o f

A D

7 88,

u sed

w ay f rom

o f t he

T his b reak i n t he c emetery

p attern c ould b e t ied i n w ith t he F rankish i nvasion I stria

b y

a nd

a nnexation

o f

b ut b efore i t i s a ccepted s ome m echanism f or s uch a

c onnection w ould h ave t o b e c onstructed .

A m ore

r ealistic

a ssociation

b etween t he t wo e vents m ight b e f ound i n t he p resence o r a bsence o f F rankish o bjects i n c emeteries, w hich w ould e nable t hem t o b e n eatly p laced o n t he a ppropriate s ide o f t he i nvasion w atershed. 4 .4.3

P annonia

T aking

t he

i nformation

g iven i n T omiüid

p lot o f f ind/cemetery d ates may b e s triking

f eature

i n t his p lot

p roduced

( 1978) ( Figure

a nd B ojCid 4 .9).

( 1984) T he

a

most

i s t he g ap b etween m aterial d ated t o t he

1 04

C emetery

V 1

V I V II V III 1

1

1

I X

1

X 1 '

X I 1

X II 1

1

V rh iminj M ejica Mali V rh S y Margerita ü elega P olaCine

«

M .N .

Mala Vrata

« M I M I .

V eli M lun F ranCini F igure 4 .8 P lot o f C emetery D ates F or I stria

1 05

e ighth

a nd n inth c enturies a nd t he l ater p eriod ,

B rdo c ulture material.

w hich i s mainly B ijelo

T he r eason f or s uch a g ap i s d ifficult t o

f ind ,

b ut i t f alls i n t he p eriod o f c onflict i n t he a rea a nd t he s ubmission o f P annonian C roatia t o F rankish a uthority . T his t hough d oes n ot i n a ny w ay

e xplain

t he

g ap.

A b etter e xplanation ,

a t l east

f or t he V araidin

r egion w ould b e t hat t he e arlier p eriod i s p artly r epresented b y

w eapon

f inds a t V ara z din a nd C irkovaljan a nd o therwise b y a n e xploded c emetery ( note 1 ), a s mall q uantity o f p ottery f rom a c ave a nd a c ouple o f a rrowheads, t he l atter t ightening t he d ate o n t he f ormer. S uch o bjects e asily f it i nto t he c entral E uropean c hronologies. W hat i s l acking i s a w ell-excavated

c emetery t hat w ould h ave t he w hole r ange o f g rave g oods,

e nabling a c learer v iew n ot e ntirely b ased u pon s pectacular f inds. S lavonija

a nd

B aranja

p resen t

a

s imilar p icture w ith B ijelo B rdo

material d ating f rom t enth c entury o nward a nd Avar a nd m aterial f ading o ut i n t he f irst h alf o f t he n inth c entury.

C arolingian T here h ave

b een more e xcavated c emeteries h ere s o t he p resented p icture i s more c onvincing a s a r epresentation o f a r eality , h owever , i t i s s till n ot c lear i f t he d efined

g ap

c ultures

r eflects r ather

t he t han

h iatus a

r eal

b etween

t wo

a rchaeologically

l ack o f i nhabitants d uring the

p eriod. Another

s imilarity

b etween

t he

t wo

p lots

i s t he l ack o f s eventh

c entury s ites a nd t he s mall n umber o f e ighth c entury s ites

t hat

e xtend

b ack t o c A D 7 00. I t i s more d ifficult t o k now w hether t his i s t he r esult o f t he s mall a mount o f e xcavation o r t he o riginal l ack o f i nhabitants. T he a pparent s ixth c entury g ap e xists l argely b ecause m igration p eriod f inds, G othic, G epid a nd L ombard , h ave n ot b een p lotted. 4 .4.4

O verview

T he t hree r egions h ave a ll p roduced d ifferent p atterns,

b ut P annonia ,

b ecause o f t he s mall n umber o f s ites, c an n ot a ccurately b e c ompared w ith t he o ther t wo. T he m ain d ifference b etween I stria a nd D almatia i s t o b e f ound a t t he b eginning o f t he p eriod , w here I stria h as s everal c emeteries w hich r epresent t he c ontinuity b etween t he a ntique a nd e arly m ediaeval p eriods,

a nd D almatia h as n one.

T he g ap i n

f act b e l ess t han i t a t f irst s eems, d estruction o f S alona. A 6 30's f all w ould d ecades

b etween t hat a nd t he f irst S lav g raves

p ossible t hat

D almatia

may

i n

g iven a l ater d ate f or t he l eave p erhaps o nly a f ew i n D almatia.

l ate a ntique f inds t end t o b e d ated e arly

a nd

I t i s a lso S lav

o nes

l ate, i ncreasing t he a pparent h iatus. O ne o ther d ifference r emains b etween I stria a nd D almatia, v iz t he s harp b reak b etween t he e ighth a nd n inth O n

t he

c entury c emeteries i n I stria w hen c ompared t o t he D almatian o nes. w hole,

B iskupija ),

D almatia

h as

l onger-lasting

c emeteries

( such

a s

b ut e ven s o t he e ighth t o n inth c entury t ransition i s n ot a s

w ell r epresented a s a f irst

i mpression m ight

s uggest.

H owever ,

t he

f act

r emains t hat D almatia h as a g reater n umber o f c emeteries t hat e xtend a cross t he e ighth t o n inth c entury t ransition.

1 06

C emetery

V I 1

V II V III 1

1

I X

1

X 1

X I 1

X II 1

1

V eliki B ukovac g enkovac Vara2din

. 1 . 1 1.• »

. .. 1 1

L udberg C ave

S ite

P relog C irkovaljan B ijelo B rdo S vinjarevac L ijevoj

B ari

Darai O tok

dm

o m 1 1 .•

C rkviäte P rivlaka S tan i J ankovci K lisa-Groblje B orik B ajer D alj

• 1 1 . 1 ».1

F igure

4 .9 D ates

1 07

o f Pannonian F ind S ites

4 .5

S ETTLEMENTS

I f t here i s o ne c ertainty i n t he a rchaeology o f the p eriod i t i s t hat t he i ndividuals that w ere b uried s omewhere.

T here

b urial g rounds,

must

i n

t he

c emeteries

h ave b een s ettlements,

a s d emonstrated a t

2 drijac ,

must

h ave

l ived

p resumably c lose t o t he

where

t he

c emetery

l ies

c lose t o a t own that i s k nown t o h ave b een o ccupied t hrough a t l east p art o f t he c emetery 's u sage. Y et i n s pite o f t he l ikelihood o f i ndividuals

l iving

i n

b urials t here a re v ery p roperly

e xcavated

o ne o f t he I ndeed i t

t he

v icinity

f ew

o f

i ndications

s ettlement

e xcavated s ettlements.

a nd

n o

T his a bsence i s

T he a bsence s hould n ot b e t aken

t he c hurch o f S v K rii

a rchitecture,

s o f ar,

w ere

f ound

t o

i mply

t hat

f or o ne o r t wo d o e xist.

i n N in.

w as

H ere,

d ry-stone

f ound

d uring

e xcavation

amid the r emains o f a ntique

s tructures,

a dapting

p arts

o f

b uildings t o p roduce o ne r oomed d wellings t hat p roduced S lavic

p ottery a nd , the

s ettlements,

i n t he D almatian a rea.

J ust a bout t he o nly p hysical e vidence

p revious

c emeteries b efore t heir

t he

s everest l acunae i n t he a rchaeological r ecord f or t he p eriod. i s s evere e nough f or B elobevid t o n ote t he a bsence o f

t here a re n o t races o f h ouses

a round

t he o f

i n two r ooms,

s tructures

d epends

t races o f d omestic h earths. u pon

t he

p ottery

T he

d ating

o f

a nd a n Avar b elt t ongue o f

e ighth c entury d ate a lso f ound i n t he buildings. F rom t hese r emains B eloäevid " c onjures a p icture o f t he C roats a rriving a nd s ettling:

' These t hat

f inds p rove the p resence o f t ime

o n

that

s pot,

S lavic

r uined r emains o f a ntique N in s et 1 980,

n ot

u p

t heir

h ouses

n ow

p roduced

i ndeed S lays

s ettled i n N in

n o

s igns o f s ettlement

( Beloäevid

by

t he

G iven

e ighth

c entury

i s w orrying.

s uch

a s

B ribir ,

i n t he n inth c entury a nd e arlier

a nd n one o f t he c emeteries b eyond N in h ave t hem .

i n

w ho o n t he

b e d enied b ut t he l ack o f o ther s ettlements

S ites that w ere n oted by C onstantine P orphyrogenitus, h ave

e lements

8 2).'

T hat there w ere w ill

e thnic

a nd t hose w ere t he C roats,

s ettlements

a ssociated

w ith

that t here must h ave b een s ettlements o f s ome d escription

w hy h ave t hey n ot b een f ound? S everal

r easons

t he o riginal s uch

a s

w ood ,

l earned f rom t he b e

t rue.

s ame s ite.

h ave b een g iven f or this.

s ettlements w ere o f a nd

t hat t hese w ere

s urviving

material,

l ater a bandoned a s t echniques w ere

s urviving a ntique p opulation

Another r eason i s t hat T his

B eloJevi6 c onsiders t hat

f limsy a nd p oorly ( 1980,

8 0).

T his may w ell

s ettlements may h ave c ontinued o n t he

i s p articularly t rue i n

t he

u pland

o rder t o maintain t he amount o f a gricultural l and ,

p olja

w here,

i n

s ettlement t ook p lace

a t t he e dge o f, a nd more t han l ikely u pon , t he s ite o f t he p revious s ettlement. T his i s n ot n ecessarily a pplicable i n t he c ase o f t he R avni K otari where t here

i s n ot

s o much p ressure u pon a gricultural

1 08

l and.

An

a ttempt must b e made t o p ut t his b light s ettlements

f ound e lsewhere?

i nto

p erspective,

a re

W hat t race i s t here o f P rocopius'

S lavic s poradic

S lavic d wellings? T o

b e b lunt t here i s

c onsiderable e vidence f rom o ther c ountries t hat

h ad S lavic o ccupation o f t he i ndividual h ouses,

s ame p eriod.

E ast

G ermany

h as

p roduced

w hole s ettlements a nd l arge n umbers o f d efended s ites

f rom t he s eventh c entury o nward ( Herrmann 1 985, 1 78-86). C zechoslovakia a nd B ulgaria h ave p roduced S lavic s ettlement s ites ( Vät ia 1 983), a nd c loser t o C roatia r ecent e xcavation i n S lovenia h as p roduced e vidence a t P ristava n a B ledu ( Knific, n umber o f s ites e xcavated i n B osnia. T he

f irst

s ettlement

( note

e xcavation o f a R oman v illa,

2 ),

w here,

p ers c omm ).

a t

Z abljak ,

s uperimposed

s ettlement

B esides t hese a re a

w as o n

f ound d uring t he t he

v illa ,

w ere

t hick o rganic l ayers c ontaining m igration p eriod a nd S lavic p ottery , w ell a s t he r emains o f s ome d ry-stone w alling , a nd a s hallow p it. w as n ot

a s I t

c lear w hether t he p it r epresented a g rubenhaus o r w as a ssociated

w ith t he d ry-stone w alling. T his i n i ts t urn i s s uggested t o b e t he f oundation o f a w ooden s tructure. T he r emains a t Z abljak w ere n ot i n a v ery g ood c ondition , h ouse i n Y ugoslavia

b ut w ere s till t he ( öremoänik 1 970,

f irst

1 07-111).

e xcavated

e arly

a nother v illa s ite a t Muäidi t he r emains o f s even m igration S lavic b uildings w ere f ound t he S lavic o nes, d iameter

( see f igure 4 .10).

c onsisted o f

a nd 1 5-20 c m d eep ,

a

I n

s ooty

B uilding 3 , l ayer

s ome

p eriod

a nd

t he f irst o f 3 .5-4

m

i n

t here w ere s ome t races o f w alls h aving b een

h eld t ogether b y l ime mortar , c hemselves.

d ark

S lavic

D uring t he e xcavation o f

b ut v ery l ittle t race

o f

s tanding

t he b lack l ayer w ere f ound a nimal b ones,

w alls

a b one n eedle

a nd q uantities o f c rudely m ade d omestic p ottery. B uilding 5 , s et o n t he b anks o f t he D rina p roduced t wo p its a nd a h earth u nder a 1 7 x 5m l arge b lack s ooty l ayer. t hat b uildings p eriod. C learer

T here w as a lso S lavic p ottery,

w hich

o verall

meant

3 /4/5/6 w ere S lavic a nd 1 a nd 7 b elonged t o t he m igration

T he s tructures w ere d ated t o t he s eventh c entury ( ibid , 5 2-64). r emains c ame t o l ight a t J azbine w here o ver 3 5 p its w ere f ound ,

m any o f t hem w ith t races o f p ostholes s urrounding t hem , e nabling a c ertain amount o f c onjectural r econstruction. ä remoänik admits t hat i t w as i n s ome c ases d ifficult t o d etermine w hether t he i ndividual p its w ere d wellings o r w orkshops, t hough t he p resence o f h earths i n d wellings a ided i dentification ( 1980, 1 35). T hese h earths c onsisted o f a reas o f b urnt

s oil

b etween 5 0-70 c m w ide a nd 5 -6 c m d eep.

T he p its t hemselves

w ere mostly e lliptical, o r n early s o , a nd b etween t hree a nd f ive m etres l ong a nd Ö remoänik d ates t hem f rom t he l ate s eventh t o n inth c entury. J azbina t hen , a part I f

c ould e asily r epresent P rocopius

f rom o ne a nother ' i t

Y ugoslavia ,

i s

t hen w hy

p ossible

h ave

"pitiful h ovels

s et

f ar

( the s ite o ccupies a n a rea o f 1 80 x 2 50 m ).

t hey

t o n ot

f ind

a nd

e xcavate

s ettlements

s o f ar c ome t o l ight i n C roatia,

i n a part

f rom t hose f ew a t N in? O ne o f t he m ost f requently c ited r easons f or n ot f inding s omething , i s f ailing t o l ook f or i t, a nd t his m ay w ell a pply h ere.

C emeteries,

w hich

a re

most

f requently

r eported

t o

t he

a rchaeologists b y t hose w orking t he l and o r e xtracting s and , a re e asily i dentifiable. T here i s l ittle d ifficulty i n i dentifing a s kull o r a

1 09

F igure

4 .10

1 J azbine

The L ocation o f S ettlement

2 Zabljak

1 10

3 Muäi f t.

S ites

g rave w hen h uman b ones a re p resent, s tones. B ut a s ettlement, h ut, m ay n ot b e s o o bvious n ormally

o r t he g rave may

b e

s urrounded

b y

o r r ather a s poradically s et g rubenhaus o r o r e asily i dentifiable. I t w ould n ot

p roduce h uman b ones,

o r t he o bvious

s tone s urrounds o f g raves,

i nstead i t w ould p resent a s et o f d ark s tains d uring p loughing , o r a s catter o f p ottery , b oth o f w hich t he a gricultural w orker i s q uite c apable o f i gnoring. T hat i n i tself w ould b e e nough t o e xplain t he l ack o f

e xcavation

w hen t he l ack o f a rchaeological s urvey i s a lso a dded i n.

H owever t here i s a lso t he q uestion a s t o w hether t he a rchaeologists w ant t o d ig s ettlements, o r a re c emeteries more e xciting? I n t he l ight o f t he e xperience o f Z abljak i t i s n ot s urprising t hat t he N in h ouses w ere f ound d uring t he e xcavation o f a c emetery , c hurch a nd a ntique b uildings. I f s ettlements a re t o b e f ound i n C roatia t hen i t w ill p robably b e t he r esult o f f ield s urvey a nd a c are'ul c onsideration o f t he r elationships b etween c emetery a nd s ettlement

f ound i n o ther S lav-settled a reas.

A t p resent t he l ack o f s ettlement material c an o nly b e l amented. p otential i nformation a vailable f rom s uch material w ould many

a spects

o f t he p resent i nvestigation.

b e d rawn o n t he b asis o f w hat 4 .6

T OWNS,

i s,

T he

u seful

i n

c onclusions must

i s a vailable.

C ITIES A ND F ORTIFICATIONS

S etting a side t he B yzantine d irect

A s i t

b e

B yzantine

c ontrol

c oastal

c ities,

w hich

r emained

u nder

f or a c onsiderable p roportion o f t he p eriod ,

t he p hysical e vidence f or t he e xistence o f t owns a nd

c ities

a mong

t he

S lays i n C roatia i s l imited. I t i s i n f act a s b ad a s ituation a s t hat c oncerning s ettlements g enerally. C onstantine n amed a s eries o f t owns i n C roatia, b ut v ery f ew o f t hem h ave p roduced a nything b esides c hurches a nd c emeteries. N in , i t i s t rue, h as p roduced e vidence f or s ome f orm o f o ccupation ,

a nd

t hat

may

b e

c onsidered

a s a p aradigm f or t he o ther

c ities. N in h as c hurches w hich d ate f rom t he n inth c entury , t he c hurch o f S v K rii ( the H oly C ross) a nd t he E piscopal c hurch. T here i s k nown t o h ave b een a z upan b ased a t N in , a nd h is h ouse i s c onjectured t o l ie o pposite t he E piscopal c hurch ( Ve it " 1 986, 2 02). T he c emetery a round S v K rii d ates t o t his p eriod a nd o nly a l ittle w ay a way i s t he c emetery 2 drijac. t he b ay N in

i s

( Brusib- 1 969 ). o ne

o f

t he

T his i s a ll t hat r emains b est

e xcavation s et i n a reas a way a nother t own m entioned b y

r epresented

s ites,

f rom

t he

t here

p eriod ,

i s a lso n oted a nd l ittle e lse.

b ut n o s igns

s o f ar

o f

t he

f ortifications

i n

d wellings.

b y c hurches, c emeteries a nd t he I n e ffect a ll t hat a rchaeology

h as r evealed a bout t hese t owns a re t he o bvious p henomena, e xamination o f t heir s tatus a s t owns i s a l ong w ay o ff. o f

a nd

h as b een l ittle

f rom c emeteries a nd c hurches. B ribir , C onstantine, h as a t l east t hree e xcavated

c emeteries a nd a c ouple o f c hurches, K nin 's f lourishing c astle's f oundation ,

M ost

o f

T wo e arly m ediaeval b oats h ave b een r escued f rom t he mouth o f

a nd a ny r eal

t he s tudy a rea h ave t heir o bserved

f oundations a fter t he n inth c entury a nd w ill t hus n ot c ontribute much t o t he s tudy.

1 11

4 .7

C HURCHES D uring t he d etermined ,

s tudy p eriod ,

a t

s ome

t ime

t hat

b ut p robably i n t he n inth c entury ,

h as

n ot

b een

e xactly

t he S lays i n C roatia w ere

c onverted f rom t heir p aganism t o W estern C hristianity ,

p robably

a s

t he

r esult o f m issions f rom A quilaea. O ne i nevitable c onsequence o f s uch a c onversion w as t he c onstruction o f c hurch b uildings. S o f ar a s i s k nown t hese

w ere

w ooden p hase t he

u se

b uilt

o f

s tone

f rom t he b eginning a nd d o n ot h ave a p rior

( suffice i t t o s ay t hat o ne h as n ot b een f ound ).

o f

s tone,

p reservation.

a n umber o f c hurches

T hanks t o

s urvive i n v arying d egrees o f

T hey h ave b een d ivided i nto

t hree

c hronological

g roups

a nd t wo s tructural g roups. C hronologically , t here a re c hurches t hat a re a daptations o f l ate a ntique b uildings ( such a s G ospe o d Z vonika, p art o f a

c orridor o ver a g ateway i n D iocletian 's p alace i n S plit),

C arolingian s tyle a nd c hurches o f p re R omanesque a nd

s tyle.

c hurches o f

S tructurally ,

t his i s more i mportant g iven t he p roblems w ith d ating ,

t he c hurches

a re e ither l ongitudinally p lanned o r c entrally p lanned w ith a c upola. T he p urest o f t he c entrally p lanned c hurches i s t hat o f S y Marija a t M ali I i, w hich , b efore l ater a dditions, w as a c ircular b uilding w ith a n a pse

o n o ne e nd.

V ariants o n t his t ype a re f ound i n S y N ikole n ear N in

( situated o n a p rehistoric b urial mound a nd t opped b y t ower )

w hich

h as

t hree t he l imit, a bout

a

t hree

a pses

c entrally

t hree

a pses

f or t here a re c hurches w ith

c entre.

a

T urkish

s et a round t he c entral c upola. s ix

o r

e ight

w atch N or i s

a pses

s et

S y K ri2 i n N in i s a gain i nteresting w ith a c upola a nd

i mposed

p lanned

u pon

a

b uildings

( particularly R avenna )

c ruciform c an

b e

p lan.

f ound

P arallels

among

a nd C arolingian s tructures

f or

c hurches

s uch a s t he

t hese

i n I taly o ctagonal

c hurch i n C harlemagne's p alace c omplex a t A achen. L ongitudinally p lanned c hurches r ange f rom s uch s imple S v

J uraj

n ear

S plit

a nd S y I lije a t B ale,

o nly o ne a pse a t t he E astern e nd , a s

S v

S pas

t hree a pses s emicircular

a t

B iskupija

t hrough t o more c omplex b uildings

s uch

a rea a t t he W est a nd A ll o f t hese a re s ingle

a nd s tand i n c ontrast t o b uildings

w hich ,

a s

i n a ddition t o a s tanding b ell t ower h as

a t i ts E astern e nd , a p orch b uttresses o n b oth l ong s ides.

a isled c hurches, a t

C etina w hich ,

b uildings

w hich a re r ectangular w ith

s uch a s S v

C ecilija

w hilst h aying b uttressing s imilar t o S v S pas,

t hree a isles w ith c ruciform p illars,

e ach a isle e nding i n a n a pse.

h as S uch

b uilding i s i n t he mainstream o f W estern C hristianity. B ecause t here d oes n ot c hronological t ypology ,

s eem

t heir f ittings a nd d ecoration. f ixtures

h ave

t o

b e

a

articularly

s urvived.

S tone s creens,

T heir d ecoration ,

a ltars,

o n i nterlace p atterns,

i s d atable w ith r easonable f act

i nscriptions,

i s

t he

d eveloped

t hat

i t

i s

c iboria a nd o ther

w hich i s u sually b ased u pon

t his

t here

w ell

much o f t he d ating o f t he b uildings d epends u pon

t hese

a ccuracy. f ittings

A dded w hich

t o

c arry

o ften n oting t he c hurch 's o r c arving 's d onor o r d edicator ,

s uch a s D uke B ranimir a t a c hurch i n g -opot .

1 12

4 .8

C ULTURAL U NITS

A n umber o f a rchaeologically d etermined u nits h ave e xist

i n

C roatia

d uring

t he

e arly

m ediaeval

b een

p eriod ;

c laimed

t o

t hese a re t he

S tarohrvatska c ulture ( Old C roatian c ulture) a nd t he B ijelo B rdo c ulture. B esides t hese t here a re n eighbouring c ultural g roups w hich p roduced s ome o f t he f inds t he i nternal g roups, m aterial

c ulture

r ecovered f rom C roatia a nd

h ave

l inks

w ith

t hese i nclude t he K arantanian-Köttlach c ulture,

o f

t he

A vars

a nd

t he

K eszthely

c ulture.

t he

B rief

d escriptions o f t hese w ill b e g iven a nd s ome c omparisons d rawn. J 8 .1

S tarohrvatska c ulture

T his

i s

t he main a rchaeological c ulture o f t he D almatia a nd I stria ,

w ith s ome f inds a lso c oming i n t he i mplicitly

b y name,

P annonian

a rea.

a nd s pecifically b y d octrine,

A lthough

i t

i s,

s upposed t o r epresent

t he material c ulture o f t he C roats, t hat n eed n ot b e w holely a ccepted , n or n eed t he q uestion b e a ddressed f or t he moment , . I t i s s ufficient t o s ay t hat t he S tarohrvatska c ulture i s t he s urviving material c ulture o f t he D almatian S lays a nd t he s urviving l ate-antique i nhabitants. T he c onsequence o f t his a dmitted m ixture i s a S lavic c ulture w hich , p ottery a nd j ewellery i n p articular, d isplays a ntique i nfluence.

i n

i ts

A s d etailed d escriptions o f t he S tarohrvatska c emeteries a nalysed a re g iven i n a ppendix 1 o nly a b rief a ccount w ill b e g iven h ere. o ne k nown G raves

c remation

v aried

c emetery

f rom

b urials

w ere

b acks

c orpses

i n

s ides,

o ccasionally

A part

a n

e xtended p osture,

I ndividuals w ere

o r s ometimes o n p elvis o r c hest, c rossed

a t

k nee

o r

r epresented

c lothing

l aid

a nkle.

w hilst

S uch

l egs

g rave

o r s imilar a djuncts.

w ere

o nly

g oods a s w ere a nd i n most

P ottery v essels w ere

most f requently p laced a t t he h ead o r f eet o f t he d eceased. majority o f c ases o nly o ne i ndividual w as b uried i n a g rave, multiple g raves c ontemporary o r

o n

a rms p laced i n most c ases b y t he

p rovided w ere u sually p laced i n c lose p roximity t o t he b ody , c ases

f rom

i nhumations.

s imple p its t o more e laborate o nes t hat w ere l ined

w ith d rystone masonary o r l arge s tone s labs. t heir

e xclusively

I n t he b ut s ome

h ave b een f ound , t hough w hether t hey r epresent s erial i nhumations i s n ot a lways d eterminable. T he

o rganising p rinciple b ehind c emeteries i s n ot a lways

c lear,

b ut

t here

s eems t o b e a g eneral a im o f l inearity. M ost g raves d o n ot i ndividually d isplay a g reat ( there a re o f c ourse e xceptions) t he r ange o f r easonably w ide, w eapons,

b ut

h orse-gear,

c an

b e

t ools,

d escribed p ersonal

i n

s everal

n umber o bjects main

i tems a nd j ewellery

o f f inds f ound i s c ategories: ( the mutual

b oundary o f t he l ast t wo i s n ot a lways c lear ). W eaponry

i s

n ot

f ound i n a ny g reat q uantity ,

t he most p art t o s words,

w ar-knives a nd a rrows.

a nd i s r estricted f or

A xes,

w hich w ere

f ound

a t Maklinovo B rdo, a re a mbiguous, b ut w ill b e r egarded f or t he p resent a s t ools. S words a re C arolingian i n o rigin , a nd h ave b een c lassified b y

1 13

V inski

( 1978)

a nd J elovina

( 1986 ).

T he s words a re a bout

w ith s ome 0 .15 m o f t hat b eing h ilt a nd p ommel,

0 .95

m

l ong ,

w ith t he main d ecorative

v ariation o ccurring a t t he p ommel; t he t op b eing t riangular o r r ibbed ( see p late I ). T hey a re a r are f ind i n D almatian c emeteries o n t he R avni K otari,

b eing f ound m ainly f urther E ast i n t he h igher p olja

( ibid ,

s l 1 ). W ar-knives a re s ingle-bladed w eapons, u sually w ith f lat b acks t o t he b lade, a nd r ange i n l ength b etween 0 .2 - 0 .4 i n . K nives s horter t han t his,

b ut

l onger

w ar-knives o r

( 1980,

w illow

t han 1 01).

l eaf t ypes

n ormal

k nives

a re c lassified b y B eloäevid a s

A rrowheads a re o f t he s wallow t ail,

l aurel l eaf

( all n ames i ndicating t he b asic s hape).

T he r are

s pears a re C arolingian f orms. H orse-gear i ncludes t hose i tems t hat

f ormed p art o f t he t ack,

i ron b its a nd s addle d ecorations a s w ell a s e quipment w orn u sually s purs.

I t i s t his l ast

a s w ith t he s words,

c ategory w hich i s

a re o f C arolingian t ypes,

s uch a s

f or

r iding ,

f ound i n D almatia a nd ,

i f n ot m anufacture.

T hey

a re mainly h eavy i ron o bjects w ith a s pike p rotruding o utward a t t he m iddle o f t he c urving b ack a nd t he r emains o f s ome m eans o f a ttachment o n

e ach

t erminal

( Jelovina

1 986 ).

W hen

t hey

h ave

b een

f ound i n

u ndisturbed c ontexts t hey a re o ften a ccompanied b y t he b uckles f asten t hem t o t he f oot.

u sed

t o

S ometimes t he s purs a re d ecorated o n t he s pike

o r t he a rms, t his d ecoration i s e ither i ncised o r p atterns ( see p late I I ).

c hip-cut

i n

v arious

T he r ange o f t ools f ound i n g raves i s q uite w ide a nd i ncludes k nives, a xes,

r azors,

a wls,

w hetstones,

f iresteels w ith s mall f lints, ( see

p lates

I II-V ).

s ickles,

k eys,

n eedles a nd n eedle-holders,

s pindle w horls a nd

p ottery

v essels

S uch i tems a re f or t he most p art n on-diagnostic,

a nd h ave p arallels w ith much o f t he material f ound e lsewhere i n t he S lav o ccupied B alkans a nd C entral E urope. p ottery w ill b e f ound i n C hapter 6 . T he

most

e ar-rings, w ay

f requently

b ehind.

u sually

f ound i tems o f

w ith f inger-rings, I n

t his

s implest o f t he t wr _ s ilver

c omplex

j ewellery

( see p lates V I-X )

n ecklaces a nd o ther f orms

l ight

f ollowing l oops

o f

a re s ome

e ar-rings w ill b e d ealt w ith f irst.

e arly v arieties o f e ar-rings w ere

T he

m etal,

w ith o ne e nd c urved t o f orm a h ook a nd t he o ther f olded

b ack t o m ake a l ocp f or f astening. M ore

More d etailed d escription o f t he

t han

t hese a re t he

S uch a s imple

f orm

' bunch o f g rapes'

i s

w idespread.

e ar-rings:

a lthough

t here a re v ariants t he b asic f orm c onsisted o f a l oop w ith a s et o f s mall b alls h anging f rom i t, u sually w ith more b elow t he l oop t han a bove, b alls

the i mpression b eing t hat o f a b unch o f g rapes. O ccasionally t he w ere more s tylised a nd s eem more l ike n otches o n a s tem . T he

p rototypes

f or t hese a re B yzantine a nd,

f ound

I voäevac.

a t

i n

f act,

a

g olden

p air

p roduced w hich t ended t o h ave more a nd more o rnamentation o n O ne

t ype

o f

t hese

w as

f ound a t 2 minj,

h ollow r ugby-ball s hape f ixed o n e ither

c ast

i t.

o r made o f s heet m etal

R ings

f ound

i n

a nd o ften

C ast

r ings

1 14

l oop.

D almatia

w ere

u sually

w ere

T he l atter h ad

w idened

o f t he r ing t hus g iving a l arger f ace t o d ecorate

b eing p unched o r s tamped ).

t he

a nd c onsisted o f a l oop w ith a

( silver o r b ronze ).

e ither o verlapping e nds o r u nited e nds, f ront

w ere

F rom t he n inth c entury more c omplex e ar-rings w ere

t owards

t he

( the d ecoration

s imple

l oops

o f

m etal.

N ecklaces

o ccasionally

c onsisted

s mall

m etal

o f

g lass

p endant

t ogether,

a s

m ale a nd f emale g raves a re g enerally v ery s imple i n

f orm ,

b eing

e ither

r oughly

h ave

r ectangular

b een

w ith

T orcs o f t wisted

s ilver w ire a s w ell b oth

b ells

s trung

o n t hem .

B uckles

f rom

l ittle

b eads

o bjects

o r

o ccasionally

r oughly

f ound.

c ircular.

O nly

f ragments o f c ombs h ave b een f ound , b ut t hese a re e nough t o i ndicate t hat t hey t ook a c ommon e arly m ediaeval f orm a nd c onsisted o f a f lat b one

p late

f rom

w hich

t he

t eeth

w ere

c ut r iveted b etween t wo n one

s trengthening s trips. B esides t he a bove r egular c ategories t here a re o ccasionally o ccurring i tems

s uch a s b uckets

s trips

f rom

s hoes,

( or a t l east t he i ron

r emains

o f

t hem ),

b ronze

a nd w hat a re d escribed a s d eer a ntler s alt h olders.

T hese c urious o bjects a re f ormed f rom a j unction i n a d eer a ntler, a nd a re d ecorated w ith e ither g eometric p atterns o r, i n t wo c ases, w ith w hat i s t aken t o b e a s hamanistic s cene o f t wo h orned a nimals c onfronting e ach

o ther

w ith a c urious p ole o r t ree b etween t hem

r egard t hem m erely a s s alt h olders F rom

t he

l ate

s eventh

c entury

o nwards

t here

o bservable i n j ewellery t ypes i n f emale g raves t hat n inth c entury a nd e ven b eyond ,

( see p late X ).

T o

s eems a n a ct o f m ild d esperation. i s

a

r uns

c ontinuity

o n

i nto

t he

w ith s ome c emeteries d isplaying c ontinual

u sage u ntil t he s ixteenth a nd s eventeenth c enturies. T his s trong c ontinuity i s n ot s o v isible i n male g raves f or t he d eposition o f w hat i s g enerally s een a s p agan g oods

( tools,

p ots

a nd

w eapons)

d iminishes

a nd c eases b y t he t enth c entury. C onsequently , t he t ypology a nd d ating o f t he S tarohrvatska c ulture d epends h eavily u pon f emale j ewellery a s t he

o ther i tems a re e ither t oo i nvariable t o g ive a ccurate d ates o r a re

a bsent. 4 .8.2

A var C ulture

T he Avars,

w ho w ere s ubstantially r esponsible

m any S lays i n t he B alkans,

t ime o f t he m igration o f t he L ombards u ntil F ranks.

A s a c onsequence o f t he A vars'

S lav g roups F rom

t his

t here

d eveloped

A varo-Slavic.

a

t heir

c ulture

o wn

p resence

d efeat

i ncluding S lays

a nd t he a lly s tatus t hat m erged

I ts

t he

o f

b y

t he

o rganisation t hey d ominated m any

s ettled a round t heir b orders, s ituation ,

f or

o ccupied much o f w hat i s n ow H ungary f rom t he

t hat

i s

i n

P annonia.

s ome o f t hese g roups h ad , n ow

r eferred

t o

a s

d efinition i s r egrettably u nclear a nd i n d ebate t he

K eszthely c ulture h as b een i ncluded ,

w ith a s ubsequent

r edefinition

( see

b elow ).

A s A var m aterial s tudy i s o nly a p eripheral p art o f t he p resent

s tudy i t

s eems b est t o c haracterise t he

material

c losest

t o

C roatia,

t hat f rom S outhern H ungary. A s

w ith

t he

r epresented

S tarohrvatska

a lmost

e xclusively

i nterred w ith i ndividuals. p artially

e xcavated ,

h ave

c ulture b y

Avar

T he c emeteries v ary i n s ize, r eached

s izes

o f

I nhumation i s t he m ain r ite w ith b odies p laced p its,

o ften

w ith

m aterial

a bove i n

s ome q uantity o f g rave g oods.

1 15

c ulture

i s

t he f unerary r emains a nd t he i tems b ut

s ome,

o nly

3 00 i ndividuals.

r oughly

r ectangular

T he m ain e xception t o

P late 3 K nin

I S tarohrvatska Culture: ( scale

S words;

1 D rniJ,

r oughly 1 :4)(after J elovina 1 986,

2 Vukovi6a Most, T ab X IV/XVIII).

7 5

7 9

8 1

P late I I S tarohrvatska C ulture:

S purs;

a ll f rom C rkvina n ear K nin

( scale r oughly 1 :2)(after J elovina 1 986,

T ab V I).

P late I II S tarohrvatska C ulture: 4 /5 A rrowheads, 1 6 Axehead ,

1 Awl,

6 /7 F iresteel a nd f lint,

1 8/19 K eys.

8 N ail,

3 /10/12/14/17/20 P ots, 9 /11/13/15/21/ K nives,

F ound a t M aklinovo B rdo 1 /2/3/ 9 /1 0 /15/16,

2 drijac 4 -8/13/14/17-21, ( after B eloäeviC 1 980,

2 S ickle,

B iljane D onje 1 1/12

T ab X XXI).

( scale r oughly 1 :2)

P late I V S tarohrvatska C ulture: 3 /4 / 14/16/31

2 0 B uckle,

P ots,

2 3 C loth F ragment,

2 6/27 A rrowheads, f ragments. F ound a t S tankovci

1 /11/15/17/21 K nives,

2 /5/7/22 Awls,

8 /9/10/18/19/28/29 F iresteels a nd F lints, t he

1 3/14

( after B elo ä ev M 1 980,

2 4/25 B ronze s trips

r emainder

2 1-30,

( 6/13/30)

t he r est

T ab XXXIII).

1 2 R azor,

f rom s hoes, a re

f rom 2 drijac

u nidentifiable

m etal

( scale r oughly 1 :2)

3 a

1 9

0

P late

V

S tarohrvatska

C ulture:

1 /2/5-10

S purs,

3 /26

P ots,

4 /15/25

A rrowheads, 1 1 R ing , 2 1 B ucket

1 3/14/20 K nives,

1 7/22-24 F iresteel a nd F lints,

( metal b indings o nly ),

2 7 S pearhead ,

a re u nidentifiable m etal f ragments. ( after B elo eviá 1 980,

T ab X XVII).

1 9 W arknife,

t he r emainder

F ound a t 2 drijac

( 12/16/18)

( scale r oughly 1 :2)

1 2

•

2 9u

3 30

NN

W \ AAA/A 3 2a

3 8

AA

• 1 - I v % I /1 •A A 3 8a

P late V I S tarohrvatska C ulture: E ar-rings 1 -28, R ings 2 9-42. F ound a t 2 drijac 1 /2/5/6/11-14/17/19/20/25/25/29-31/36/37/39-42, Maklinovo B rdo 3 /4/7/8/21/33, M ateriza 3 4,

R azbojine 9 /10,

B iljane D onje 3 5

( after B eloäevi6 1 980,

C rkvina 1 5/16/22-24, ( scale r oughly 1 :1)

T ab X LII).

I voäevac 2 8,

P late V II S tarohrvatska C ulture: P endant,

1 7-20 B ells.

2 drijac 4 /5/7-12/14-16/20, ( after B elobeviä 1 980,

1 -10 N ecklace B eads,

F ound a t B iljane D onje 1 , S v K rii

T ab X LIV ).

1 7-19

1 1 C ruciform

Maklinovo B rdo 2 /3/6/13,

( scale r oughly 1 :1)

P late V III S tarohrvatska C ulture:

1 -6 S pindle Whorls,

7 -18 B uckles.

F ound a t 2 drijac 1 /2/6/9/12-18, Maklinovo B rdo 3 /4/7/8/10/11, S mil nd 5 ( scale r oughly 1 :1) ( after B elo§evid 1 980, T ab X LII).

n

il l e l I I i ', I l l ,

n 1.1 11 . 1 'I I I I;

I

A

1 I

1 : 1, 1

1 .;

A

: ;' , 1 0:; 'I;I I I ;

1 1,

„

-

If

1 " i n, 1 1 1

1111 , 1 1: t '

1

--_ -_ .

•

I •

—

11 ' 1 1 1;

‘ i

« . ‘

: I l t11 0 1 ,1 1 ‘11 1 t 1. o I , : 0 , 1 ; 11 ; I: I , . ; st I , I I

1 ,. 1i

I t I , 1. It 1 ) 1

I I

I

;

—

I

‘ --

, _

I'

ll

i

I

'

I i

2

: I II "

n

I

,

"

' ' ' : : ;I

; :

Ii

i

:I I

li I

;

I lli l

: I

H !

1 ;

;

i

1

l ' \l

r ' ,

, r , ,,I

,

i ',

II

I I

"

I

:1

i . "

i

j

i '• n I t : 11 % 1

I 'i : I

. 1

•I i i i

I ll

1 ,; 1 1:1

I

' , i

I , :

1 . :

i i: 11

1 1 2

I,

I:

;

'

01

I

,

1 1 :1 1 : ::: : ti I 'l

l

;

I I,

f ii n ' l l :l ' I

:

: ii :

1 1 111t

i i10 1 ‘ ;1 1 1 1 11 , 1, 1 10

,, I 2 , I1 j

l i : » t:

4T . j . r

jr

i t:

"

,g i

ll,

I 1

.

,

I

1

I I

i!

I I I

1 ,

11 011, I ' ll

1 1 11 ;

' " ; " s • s % : ' :

' 01. 1

i . : 1 ,0; 11

j

„ 1 : 1, 3

P late I X S tarohrvatska C ulture: F ound a t 2 drijac

rl ,

: ; 1 11 , 1 1 11, !

I:i i .

r f

:t

; 1; 0: ' 1

:

* 11 11 :1 11 : "I I I II I

Z

I

. I q,:,. i 3 I I ,

:: :

2 0

1 -3 C ombs,

3 0

4 /5 N eedle H olders.

( scale r oughly 1 :1) ( after B eloäevid 1 980,

T ab XLV ).

P late X S tarohrvatska Culture: ( scale

r oughly

Antler Salt H older(?)

1 :1)(after B eloäevid 1 980,

T ab XLVI).

f rom 2 drijac

t he n ormal r ite i s t he i n t he

s ame g rave a s

s et o f g raves w hich i ncluded h orse b urials e ither

a human ,

o r i n a p it n ext t o a h uman g rave.

O ften

h orses s o b uried h ad s ome o f t he n ormal t rappings buried w ith t hem . S uch i nhumations h ave u sually b een t aken t o r epresent t he b urials o f w arriors

a nd t heir

s teeds,

a n e asy h ypothesis g iven t hat t he Avars w ere

o riginally mounted n omads. G raves t hemselves t end t owards a lignment i n a c emetery , b ut w ith a g ood m easure o f v ariation. I n

e xamining

t he

c ategories

t hat

e mployed.

W eapons

e quipment.

material

f rom

f ound

s words

i nclude

h ad n o

s words,

t he

s ame

b road

f ound

a re

a nd

a rchery

h aving e ither o ne o r t wo

0 .8 m i n l ength.

s urviving h ilts.

a long w ith many o f the o ther s words s pearheads

s pearheads

a re o f v arious t ypes,

e dged b lades a nd m easuring s ome

i ron

c emeteries

m ain

w ere e stablished f or t he S tarohrvatska c ulture w ill b e

T he

f ound a t l ' cs

the

o ne

A

d ouble-edged

T here a re a lso s abres,

a re n ot v ery

w ell

s word

b ut t hese,

p reserved.

g enerally s hort b lades w ith s ockets

T he a t t he

o ther e nd. Much more f requent t han s words o r s pears a re the r emains o f b ows, a rrows a nd q uivers. T he b ows a re r epresented b y b one r einforcing p lates

f rom c omposite b ows,

q uiver

( found

a t

w hilst m etal d ecorative s trips

P6cs).

i ncluding s wallow t ailed ,

V arious d ouble

t ypes

e dged ,

o f

r emain f rom a

a rrowhead

t rilateral

w ere b uried ,

a nd

q uadrilateral

h eads. H orse-gear c onsists o f i ron s tirrups o f v arious p atterns, a ssociated p ieces. o ther

w ith

h orse

b urials,

D ecorative p lates i tems

o ccur

o ften f ound

a s w ell a s b its w ith o r w ithout c heek

f or i tems o f h arness,

e ither w ith h orses,

i n a s imilar

s tyle

t o

o r e lse a s p art o f n ormal g rave

g oods. T he

r ange

o f

t ools

i s much t he

c ulture g raves,

w ith k nives,

n eedle-holders,

f iresteels w ith s mall

v essels, i tems a t

t hough r azors,

i nclude

l east o ne

m ethods

f ishhooks s hovel.

o f

s ame a s t hat

f ound i n S tarohrvatska

w hetstones,

s ickles,

f lints,

a wls a nd k eys h ave n ot b een

The p ottery v essels

h and made,

T wo s pecial

t ypes

o f

t he g rey a nd y ellow w ares,

a nd

f ound.

o r

p ottery

o f

f orms

a nd a nd

f ormed u pon s low o r f ast a re

w hich h ave

A dditional

' suspension h ooks'

s how a v ariety

b eing

n eedles

s pindle w horls a nd p ottery

a nd w hat a re d escribed a s

manufacture,

h and-wheels. g raves,

a xes,

r epresented

i n

f orms w hich i nclude

t he j ugs,

j ars a nd mugs. O ne p henomenon w hich s eparates Avar material c ulture o f t he

f ittings p resent

f rom m any o thers

s ame p eriod i s the o ccurrence o f l arge q uantities f or i t

i s

s trapends,

b elts.

h ole

r einforcers, s uch a s

t hat

t he

d ecorative

s words,

o n t hese o bjects

o f

d ecorative

material f orms a s tudy i n i tself.

s ufficient t o n ote

s uspending i tems d ecoration

T his

i s

f ittings p lates,

q uivers a nd k nives

i nclude a nd

F or t he b uckles,

f astenings

f rom t he b elt.

f requently c haracterised by t he p resence

o f g riffons u pon t he b elt b uckles,

s uspension p oints a nd

t endril

s ets c an c omprise o f a s many a s

a nd

l eaf

d esigns.

p ieces a nd a re u sually c ast g raves

l ack a ny

B elt

f rom b ronze.

A part

d isplay

a

w ide

1 26

r ange

o f

s trapends,

f rom t hese

j ewellery o r p ersonal d ecorative

o n t he o ther h and ,

f or T he

i tems.

o r

f orty

f ittings male F emale g raves,

j ewellery.

E ar-rings,

u sually made o ut

o f b ronze,

s imple p enanular l oops t aking t he T hese

f orm o f t he a ddition o f

p endants

s egments r ather

c ome i n a v ariety o f f orms,

( see p late XV ).

v ary

i n

i n

a

w ritten

h aving

( this

o ther

e ar-rings h as a nd

o rnament

s ets o f b alls

b esides

o f

g lass

b eads

o f

s triking t ype i s t hat

o f

a re

s hape

B racelets

made

o verlapping

a re

a lso

s uch a s b reast d etail.

w ith

w ith

s heet

C ombs,

g roup

v arious

t he

a nd o f

n umbers,

N ecklaces

m elonseed

c lasps a nd f ibulae,

b roadening o r

w ire

o f b one,

f ound i n f emale g raves.

C hildren 's

p lates,

a re f orm

f or t he most p art p enanular a nd m ade o f

m etal

d ecorated w ith punches d esigns. h olders

Another

f orm pyramid s hapes.

v arying

b ronze, r ings

p endants.

f ixed b eneath t he l oop i n

p redominating. t he most

s een f rom t he

I f the p endants m aybe more

h aving more c omplex s ections

t he

a t t he most e xtreme t hese b alls

m ade

l oop.

o nly o ne o r p erhaps many

i s b est

d escription ).

c omplex t he l oops t hemselves b ecome s o, s ometimes

w ith

f ixed o r l oose p endants t o t he

c omplexity ,

o f c ircular o r o ther s hape t han

b eginning

T hereafter o rnamentation v aries,

e nds.

o ccur,

s ometimes

O ther ,

F inger

a nd may b e w ith

m etal

r arer i tems d o o ccur ,

b ut t hese w ill n ot

b e

d escribed

g raves d isplay a s election f rom the a dult

i n

r ange o f

o bjects. O n

t he e dges o f t he Avar K hanate a re

f ound c emeteries which h ave t he

c ombined c haracteristics o f t he Avar a nd S lavic material o f t hese t radition , w ith

f olded

b ack e nds o r l ink-like p endants

O ne

a nd D anubian type p ottery.

T his c ombination f orms the Avaro-Slavic c ulture that D anube

c ulture.

i s B rodski D renovac, w hich c ontains h orse burials i n t he Avar b ut a lso i tems t hat a re S lavic i n n ature s uch a s e ar-rings

r egion

f rom

the e nd o f t he

f lourished

n inth c entury a nd r epresents t he r uling s tratum o f the Avars i n

t he

b y

C harlemagne

i n

t he

s eventh c entury t o b eginning o f t he a nd

S lays

a rea u ntil t he t ime o f t he d estruction o f the Avar o verlordship ( Vinski-Gasparini

a nd

E rcegovi6

1 958,

1 49 ).

T he

d estruction o f the A var k hanate g reatly i ncreased the i nfluence o f t he F ranks S outh a nd N orth o f t he D anube. 4 .8.3

T he K eszthely C ulture

N amed a fter a s eries o f c emeteries a nd

1 882

( Hampel

1 905,

v ol

I I

f ound a t

1 66-215)

K eszthely

b etween

t o r epresent t he r emnant o f t he R oman p opulation i n P annonia s urvived

t he d isruptions o f e arlier c enturies

t he Avars. K esthely

H owever ,

a

r edefinition

h as

l ate

a ntique c ulture.

r esult

( A K iss,

h ad

t aken

p lace

a nd

t he

t erm

c ulture n ow o nly a pplies t o a s mall g roup o f Avar p eriod f inds H owever,

o f p opulation movement,

p ers

o f m aterial

c omm ).

T his m ixture i s

f ound i n b urials

i s thought t o b e

r ooted

r ather t han s een a s b eing d escended

d irectly f rom the l ate a ntique i nhabitants t he

w hich

a nd n ow s truggled o n amid

a round the S outhern e nd o f L ake B alaton where i t i n

1 878

t he c ulture w as o riginally t aken

i t

i s

r egarded n ow

a s

b eing

p robably b rought a bout b y t he Avars o bservable i n t he r ange a nd

( inhumations),

w here

i tems t hat

t ypes

a re c learly

A var i n i nspiration a nd manufacture mingle w ith t hose

t hat

o rigins.

t hose i tems w hich

d eviate

B ecause

o f

t his

c omposite

o rigin

o nly

h ave

o ther

f rom t he Avar c ulture t hat h as b een p reviously d escribed w ill b e

g iven s pecific mention.

1 27

P late X I Avar C ulture: 1 2/13

S tirrups.

( after K iss

1 977,

A ll

1 -10 B elt B uckles a nd F ittings,

f rom g rave 1 84 a t K 6kesd

T ab XXII).

1 1 B it,

( scale r oughly 1 :2)

1

T yp A

TYP B

T yp C

T yp D

T yp F

T yp E

1 0

P late X II Avar C ulture: N y6klädhäza-Vasütällamäs

B elt F ittings. 3 ,

D6vavänya 4 ,

1 1

T yp G F ound a t V rap 1 , P anEevo 5 ,

Ö skü 2 ,

L eobersdorf

U known 7 , Mödling 8 , K eszthely 9 , S latare 1 0, A lttygn 1 1, ( scale r oughly 1 :1)(after W erner 1 986, Abb. A ).

6 ,

6 0

3

` u ' 1 : 37 1 1 :7 1 1 1 1

6 1

0 )0 C PO

5

2

1

4

3

6 3

P late X III A var C ulture: F ittings

6 0:1-18 B elt

6 B one p urse f astener,

6 7

7

6

f ittings,

6 2:1-2 B uckles,

6 1:1-2 r ings 3 -5 B elt 6 3:1 B uckle 2 K nife

3 P ot, 6 4:1 P ot, 6 6:1-2 E ar-rings 3 K nife, 6 7:1-2 E ar-rings 3 -4 B racelets 5 N ecklace B eads 6 P ot, 6 8:1 N ecklace B eads 2 E ar-ring 3 P ot

4 -5 B uckle

6 -7

I ron F ragments

F ound a t H omokm6gy-Halom , ( after K ovrig 1 975, 1 9).

g raves a s

8 -9 i ron h ooks. f irst n umbers

( scale 1 :2,

p ottery 1 :4)

P late X IV A var C ulture

1 :1-2 E ar-rings

2 :1-16 B elt b uckle a nd f ittings 2 2 B uckle

f ragment

2 3-24 K nives,

1 8-19 R ings 2 0 K nife, 7 :1 E ar-ring 2 -3 n umbers

( scale

P ots,

1 :2,

3 N eedle H older 4 S pindle-whorl,

1 7-18 E ar-rings 3 :1 P ot,

5 :1 E ar-ring 2 B uckle, 8 :1 P ot.

F ound a t

1 9-20 R ings

2 1 F iresteel

4 :1-17 B elt buckle a nd f ittings 6 :1 K nife,

S zeb6ny I ,

p ottery 1 :4) ( after K ovrig 1 975,

2 I ron H ook,

g rave n umbers a s 5 3).

f irst

4 a

7

4 c

4 b

1

8

9

1 0

1 6

1 5

P late X V Avar C ulture: S zebgny

1 2

1

( scale

5

4

3

2

1 3

1 7

7

6

1 4

1 8

E ar-ring types a nd N ecklace B ead t ypes

1 :1)(after K ovrig 1 975,

1 01).

f rom

W eapons a rrowheads

a re o f

n ot

p articularly

Avar

t ype,

c ommon ,

t hough

a nd m ainly t ake t he f orm o f

t here

a re

o ccasionally

s words.

S imilarly s uch i tems o f h orse-gear a s a re f ound ( stirrups a nd b its) a re a lso o f Avar m anufacture. T he t ools b uried i n t he c emeteries r epresent p arts o f t he u sual e arly m ediaeval r ange a nd i nclude k nives, s ickles, f iresteels w ith f lints,

s pindle w horls,

l atter a fter A var s tyles. a nd t hat

T here i s

f ound i n A var c emeteries.

p ottery ,

t his

l ittle d ifference b etween t his

a xes a s w ell

a s

r ange

O n e xamining t he

j ewellery a nd i tems

o f p ersonal d ress a nd a dornment t he most o bviously A var o bjects a re t he m ale b elt f ittings, w hich i nclude b uckles, s trap e nds, h ole r einforcers a nd p ropeller-shaped m ounts o rnamentation a nd t he g riffon f orms.

H owever,

s ome

o f

( plate X VI). B oth t he t endril s tyle o f f orms a re r epresented i n n ormal Avar t he

b uckles

d o

n ot

f it i nto n ormal Avar

c ategories a nd d isplay a ffinities w ith l ate a ntique a nd B yzantine f orms, h aving o penwork d esigns t hat a re l argely g eometric a s w ell a s m ore o val l oops

f or t he b elt

a lso

c ontained b ronze r ings w ith t riple o r q uadruple r adial l egs,

s trap t o p ass t hrough

m eet e ither a t t he c entre, T he

f emale

g raves

K eszthely c ulture, l arge

XVIII).

M ale

g raves w hich

o r a t a s maller i nternal r ing.

p rovide

t he most

b asket-shaped

( some 0 .1 m a cross

( plate

t he

i tems

r emarkable b eing

p endants

( plate

f or t he l argest),

w hich c learly d elineate t he t he e ar-rings w ith v ery

X X ).

a nd

T heir s ize i s c onsiderable

i t

i s

p robable

t hat

t hese,

an b e b etter c haracterised a long w ith many o ther s uch l arge e ar-rings c a s t emporal r ings w orn o n b ands a round t he h ead o r o n h ead-dresses. T here a re t wo main p arts t o t he e ar-rings, f irst t he l oop i tself, h as a b roadened p late o pposing t he o pening a nd s ometimes

w hich o ther

d ecoration. T hese p lates a re d ecorated w ith p atterns o f u pstanding l umps t hat may b e j oined o r s urrounded w ith t wisted w ire. B etween t he p late t op,

a nd

t he

o pening

i s

f ixed t he b asket,

a n o penwork w ire c reation o f

n early

c onical

a nd

f ormed o f t wo h alves,

j oined l oops a nd

d ecorated i n i ts t urn.

T he

t he

b ottom ,

t he

s olid ,

f ixing o f t hese l arger

b askets b y w ire a t b oth t he t op a nd m iddle s uggests t hat t hey d eveloped f rom t he s maller b asket f orms, t he f irm c apture o f t he b asket o ccurring w hen t hey b ecame t oo c umbersome t o h ave l oose.

O ther f orms o f e ar-rings

i nclude many A var f orms a nd a lso s ome w hich h ave b een s een a t c emeteries s uch a s

2 minj,

N ecklaces

t he

d ouble-hemisphere

c onsisted

o n

a

l arge

l oop

f or

e xample.

o f n umerous g lass b eads.

Another s ingular f orm o f

t he K eszthely c ulture i s t he d ivided-head p in.

T he s quare-sectioned r od

o f t he p in i s

s plit i nto f our p ieces w hich b ow o utwards

t he p in t o f orm a s ort o f c age. w ith

p unched

o r

B eyond t his the p in

a pplied d esigns.

f rom t he l ine o f

may

b e

d ecorated

T hese a re p robably t he most c omplex

f orm o f p in , a nd t here a re o thers w ith s ingle s tems b ut more c omplex h eads. D isc b rooches a re a lso f ound , w ith v arious t ypes o f d ecoration , b ut m ainly r estricted t o g eometric d esigns. F inally , m ention must b e m ade

o f

b racelets w ith p unched d ecoration

( Salamon a nd S ös

w hich may b e p enannular w ith o r w ithout a f astening.

1 33

1 980,

4 13),

P late X VI K eszthely C ulture: F ound a t

K eszthely

( scale

B elt B uckles,

s trap e nds

9 :10)(after H ampel

1 905,

v ol

a nd f ittings. I II T ab 1 39/140).

1

P late X VII 4 -6 P ins,

K eszthely C ulture:

1 B one k nife h andle,

7 /9 N ecklace B eads.

( after H ampel

1 905,

v ol

I II T ab

F ound a t

K eszthely

1 41/142).

2 /8

B racelets,

( scale

9 :10 )

f

P late XVIII K eszthely C ulture: ( scale

9 :10)(after Hampel 1 905,

B uckles. v ol

F ound a t K eszthely

I II T ab 1 59/160).

1 1 3

1 4

2

1 8

1 9

5

P la te X IX K eszthely C ulture: K eszthely

( scale

1 -8 E ar-rings,

9 :10)(after H ampel

1 905,

9 -19 P ins.

F ound a t

v ol I II T ab 1 65/168).

P late X X K eszthely C ulture: ( scale

9 :10) ( after H ampel

B asket

1 905,

v ol

E ar-rings.

F ound a t

I II T ab 1 66/167).

K eszthely

4 .8.4

T he K arantanian-Köttlach C ulture

T his

c ulture g roup o ccupied t he a rea r oughly e ncompassed b y S lovenia,

p arts o f L ower Austria a nd s ections o f I talian F urlania. c ame

I nto t his a rea

S lays a s p art o f t he A var a dvance i nto t he B yzantine e mpire.

s ettled h ere, i nhabitants,

p robably a fter s ome c onflict w ith t he a nd e ventually g enerated s ome f orm

o rganisation. T he i ndependent s tatus w as l ost t o t he F ranks a dvancing E astwards. F ollowing t he d efeat o f t he A vars, c onsiderable

p olitical

d evelopment

o f

a

r eorganisation

f eudal

s ystem

a cceptance o f C hristianity. K arantanian

p eriod

a nd

S ivec

w hich

u pon

e ventually

t he

( 1986,

F rankish

5 1-2)

a K ot t lach p eriod ,

T hey

l ate a ntique o f p olitical w ho w ere t here w as

l ed

model

t o

t he

a nd

t he

d ivides t he g roup i nto a

t he f irst e xtending f rom t he

e ighth c entury t o t he m id n inth c entury , a nd r epresented i n c emeteries s uch a s P tujski G rad a nd K rungli, w hilst t he s econd e xtends f rom t he s econd h alf o f t he n inth c entury t o t he e leventh c entury,

a nd w as

f ound

a t K öttlach ( inevitably ) a nd B led P ristava. I t i s s ufficient h ere t o n ote t he d ifferences b etween t he p hases a s t hey o ccur. A s

w ith

most o f t he o ther e arly m ediaeval c ultures i n t he s ame a rea

b urials w ere i nhumations i n c emeteries, w ith b urials c onforming t o r oughly t he s ame o rientation. A rchaeologically , t he r emains a re n ot d ramatically d ifferent f rom o ther S lavic g roups. B rdo

c ulture

b urials

t here

a re v ery f ew w eapons

( Roje p ri M orav a

v irtually

n o

h ad

h orse-gear.

n o

i n

Vuga

1 973,

6 4)

w ith

t he

B ijelo

1 973))

a nd

S imilarly p oorly r epresented a re t ools,

w eapons

w ith

k nives a nd w hetstones b eing a mong t he ( quoted

A s

f ound i n K arantanian-Kottlach

f ew

s tates t hat

p resent e xamples

( Auga

p resent.

K oroäe6

f unerary p ottery i s a bsent

f rom

t he K arntanian-Köttlach g roup. T his i s n ot a lways c lear i n c emeteries, w hich h ave a l ong p eriod o f u se, a nd c onsequently d isplay s everal p hases o f c ultural p rocess. T he o verall i mpression o f t he f irst, K arantanian p hase i s o f s mall q uantities o f g rave g oods w ith e ven j ewellery b eing i nfrequently f ound. a nd

i t

i s

A fter t he i nitial p eriod t here i s

m ore

j ewellery ,

u pon t his t hat t he c haracterisation o f t he g roup i s l argely

b ased. I t

i s

e nough

t o

n ote

t hat

t here

a re

m inor

d ifferences

m anufacturing t echnique b etween t he f irst a nd s econd p hase,

s uch a s

o f t he

u se o f e namel i n t he s econd , b ut most o f a ctual f orms r emain t he s ame. O ne o f t he m ost c haracteristic f orms i s t he l unate e ar-ring , w hich c onsists o f a s emi-circular l oop f or t he s tem w hich i s j oined a t o ne e nd t o a c rescent-moon s haped p endant p ortion. T he f ace o f t his f lat p late i s d ecorated ,

e ither w ith p unched ,

w hich a re u sually g eometric o r e ar-rings a s

' S'

r eflect

i ncised o r c hamp l ev6 e namel d esigns,

f loral

( plate

X XI).

O ther

f orms

i nclude s imple l oops o f b ronze w ith o verlapping e nds,

s haped o nes, t he

w hich a ppear t owards t he

g rowing

e nd

o f

t he

o f

a s w ell

c ulture

a nd

i nfluence o f t he B ijelo B rdo c ulture i n t he a rea.

M ore o rnate

f orms

i nclude c onstructs o f b ronze w ire d ecorated w ith g lass

b eads,

w ell

a s

a s

b ronze w ire e ar-rings w ith s ets o f d angling c hains

s uspended f rom t he b ase o f

t he

l oop.

D isc-shaped

b eaten o r s tamped b ronze o r s ilver s heet w ere c ommon ,

1 39

f ibulae,

m ade

o f

a nd w ere d ecorated

1

4

3

6

5

P late X XI

K arntanian-Kottlach C ulture:

F ound a t P tuj-grad 1 /2,

( cross-hatched a nd b lack a reas ( scale

r oughly 1 :1,

( after V inski e t

a l

1 -4 E ar-rings,

K ranj-Kr2iäüe 3 /4,

r epresent v arious

e xcept 2 a t 1 986,

T ab

5 -6 D isc b rooches.

B led B rdo 5 ,

r oughly 2 :1 )

9 3,95-97,100).

B led P ristava

c olours o f e namel)

6

w ith

g eometric

a nd

i nterlace

d esigns,

e ither p unched o r g ranulated.

E ventually t he r epetoire o f d ecoration c ame t o i nclude s tylised p ictures o f C hrist o r A gnus D ei. R ing t ypes i ncluded c ast c ircles o f s ilver w ith t riangular s ection. 4 .8.5

T he B ijelo B rdo C ulture

T he t ype a nd n ame s ite l ast

y ears

o f

t he

f or t his c ulture w as

n ineteenth

c entury ,

f ound n ear O sijek i n

t he

a nd e ventually e xcavated a nd

p ublished b y B runämid

( 1904).

t he

a ble t o e stablish a n e leventh c entury d ate f or t he

g raves

c emetery.

h e

w as

A s w ith m ost o f t he o ther

C roatia t he m aterial i s s ingle s imple

O n t he b asis o f H ungarian c oins

f unerary ,

e arly

m ediaeval

f ound

c ultures

i n

a round

b eing f ound e ither i n c emeteries o r i n

f inds o ut o f a ny c ontext. I ndividuals w ere i nhumed , u sually i n g rave p its w ithout a ny s urround , w ith t heir b odies e xtended ,

t hough a rms m ight b e c rossed o r p laced o n t he b ody , i nstead o f j ust a long s ide. T he a lignment o f g raves w as u sually W est-East, t ending t o f orm r ough l ines. W hen

t he

g rave

g oods

a re

e xamined a ccording t o c ategory t he most

r emarkable t hing i s t he v ery l ow n umber o f w eapons a nd g raves.

B runämid o bserved

( 1904,

3 7)

t ools

f ound

i n

t hat i n o ver 2 00 g raves t here w ere

n o w eapons f ound. I n t he c emetery o f L ijevo B are t he o nly w eapons f ound w ere 2 5 a rrowheads a nd t he r emaining b one p ortions o f a b ow. T he a rrowheads w ere t anged w ith r homboidal b lades, a nd w ere c onsidered b y t he e xcavator t o b e f or h unting r ather t han w ar s ame c emetery , t weezers

b y

a nd

w ay

o f

b one a wls.

t ools

p roduced

( Vinski 1 955,

o nly

k nives,

2 42).

S uch a l imited r ange i s typical o f t he B ijelo

B rdo c ulture, a nd a t B ijelo B rdo i tself o nly a f ew p ots, t he r emains a s ickle a nd w hat w as p ossibly t he c ase f or a k nife w ere f ound. J ewellery ,

T he

f iresteels,

h owever i s much b etter r epresented ,

b ut c omes

o f

f or t he most

p art f rom f emale g raves ( so f ar a s c an b e d etermined , f or a t B ijelo B rdo n o d etails o f i ndividual s ex a re g iven ). T he most c haracteristic e ar-ring

o f

t he

B ijelo

B rdo

c ulture i s t he s imple l oop w ith o ne

s haped t erminal f ormed by f lattening a nd b ending c ross-section w ire w hich made u p t he r est o f the a daptation o f t he s imple l oop w as t he

e ar-ring

w ith

the l oop.

w ire

' S'

c ircular Another

t wisted

i n

c onical m anner o n o ne t erminal. B esides t hese, a nd the most s imple e ar-rings t here w ere c ast b ronze e ar-rings w ith p endant d rops a nd o rnamentation o n t he l oop i tself. F inger-rings o ccur i n t wo main f orms, t he f irst made o f s heet metal a nd d ecorated e ither w ith p unched

d esigns

o r w ith t he a ddition o f a d ecorated f ace-plate, t he o ther f orm i s a c ast c ircle d ecorated o n t he o utside w ith i ncisions o r more c omplex o rnamentation

( plate X XIII).

N ecklaces a re e ither made e ither o f g lass

b eads o f v arying f orms, o r a re more l ike t orcs. f rom t wo o r t hree s trands o f b ronze w ire, f astening a t t he t erminals t o m ake many b racelet e xist, d ecorated

w ith

( plate X XIV ).

o f t he b racelets most n otably c ast w hat

c ould

T hese l atter a re f ormed w ith h ooks a nd l oops f or

T his t echnique w as

b e s nake h eads a t t he t erminals.

1 41

a lso

u sed

f ound i n g raves, b ut o ther f orms o f b ronze o nes, w hich a re s ometimes T wo p art

P late XXII B ijelo B rdo C ulture:

E ar-rings.

( scale r oughly 1 :1)(after B runämid 1 904,

F ound a t B ijelo B rdo

3 8).

®

A

t & &

-

4 7 .7i 7 .9

( f lT rr rc TT2:

P late XXIII B ijelo B rdo C ulture:

R ings.

( scale r oughly 1 :1)(after B runämid 1 904,

F ound a t B ijelo B rdo 4 1).

1

\

P late XXIV B ijelo B rdo Culture: ( inside n ecklaces). 4 4).

N ecklaces

F ound a t B ijelo B rdo

( torcs)

a nd B racelets

( scale 1 :1)(after

B runämid

1 904,

c ‘ A GC )( 3( . Guz J 4@ ? 1 313 u . 0 ( L ä

G 0 3

a f D

/ Alen G L I LI ZJ

L

¼ : ! T4 • ü äG

(

1 . , . . ; •

;

-

j

L J

P late X XV B ijelo B rdo C ulture: N ecklace B eads ( mainly o f g lass) a nd n ecklace p endants ( bottom r ow ). F ound a t B ijelo B rdo ( scale r oughly 1 :1) ( after B runämid 1 904,

4 3).

p endants u pper, p art

a re

f ound

a cross

u sually c ircular, ( Demo

g raves,

1 983).

t he B ijelo B rdo c ulture,

J ewellery

w ith t he most

a nd c onsist o f a n

p ortion f rom w hich h angs t he l ower ,

f requent

l eaf-shaped

o r p ersonal i tems a re v ery r are i n male f inds b eing b elt

f ittings

a nd

s ometimes

r ings. T he B ijelo B rdo c ulture h as a d istribution t hat c overs most o f t he C arpathian b asin , f rom s outh o f t he D anube i n Y ugoslavia t o s outhern C zechoslavia, c oins

t aking i n a ll o f H ungary i n

b etween.

T he

i nclusion

i n g raves h as e nabled q uite a ccurate d ating t o b e a chieved ,

o f

g iving

a r ange o f n inth c entury f or t he o ldest p hase t o t welfth c entury f or t he e nd

o f

t he l atest.

R ather more c ontroversial i s the o rigin a nd e thnic

c ontent o f the c ulture , S lays p resent

i nvolving a s

i t must,

t he r elations b etween

t he

i n t he C arpathian b asin f ollowing t he d efeat o f t he Avars,

a nd t he H ungarian i nvaders o f

t he

n inth

c entury.

T here

i s

g eneral

a greement t hat t he B ijelo B rdo c ulture i n s ome w ay f ollows t he K eszthely c ulture o f

( using f or t he moment t he b roader Avaro-Slavic f orm )

i ts

c lear

a rea a nd

( Ercegovi6 ,

a ttempts

' transitional'

1 958,

h ave

p eriods

b een

s o ).

I nevitably t he H ungarians c ulture,

b asis. B jelo

c ulture

made

t o

i nsert

c laim a H ungarian b asis

p reviously

R ecently B alint B rdo

o ver

most

h owever t he e xact m echanism i s n ot u nsatisfactory

( the B rodski D renovac f inds h ave b een c onsidered

B rdo

w hilst

1 75),

( 1986,

w as

1 4)

b rought

t he

S lays

h as

a ffirmed

a bout

f or

t he

B ijelo

c laimed a l argely S lavic

by

t hat

t he

' the

s o-called

c ommoners

among t he

c onquering H ungarians b y b lending t heir o wn c ulture w ith t hose f ound t he

s pot'

d ating i s

( this

p resumably m ean Avaro-Slavic c ulture).

o n

I f t he

c orrect then i t w ould b e d ifficult t o s ustain s uch a v iew but,

o nce more, a ffiliations 4 .8.6

w ould

e thnic a ttributions o f t he p resent.

i n

the

p ast

a re

d ependant

u pon

B esides these c ultures t hat h ave b een d efined a s e xisting i n o r

n ear

O ther i nfluences

C roatia i n the e arly m ediaeval p eriod t here a re t wo o ther major c ultural i nfluences that F rankish.

s hould

T here

a t

s hould

l east b e

b e

n o

material c ulture u pon t he S lays,

n oted ,

s urprise

a t

t he

B yzantine

a nd

t he

the e ffect o f B yzantine

f or the mere p roximity o f

the

c oastal

t owns t hat maintained s ome c ontact w ith C onstantinople w as b ound t o h ave a n e ffect a lone

i s

u pon S lays

r eceived t ribute t he

f orm

i n t he v icinity ,

c onsiderable. o f

F urther,

t he c ontrast a s

f rom t hese c oastal t owns,

' wine

a nd

v arious

o ther

N either d id the S lays

s imply s it a nd w ait

h ad

t hese

s hips

a nd

' in

v essels

i n h ousing t raditions

C onstantine

n otes,

c ommodities'

I f t he B yzantines s o

b y

d irectly

a nd p olitical t here

w as

a nd e ven a s

S lays

( DAI 3 0:137-8).

f or g oods t o a rrive,

f or

they

g o t hose o f t he C roats w ho w ish t o

e ngage i n c ommerce t ravelling r ound f rom c ity t o c ity , t he g ulf o f D almatia ,

t he

n ot o nly i n money b ut a lso i n

f ar a s V enice'

i nfluenced t he S lays

( DAI

i n

P agania

a nd

3 1:5457).

i n s uch w ays,

t he

F ranks

d id

i nvading much o f t he a rea a nd e xtending t heir m ilitary

c ontrol o ver P annonia,

a n e ffect

I stria a nd D almatian C roatia.

T hat

i s o bservable i n t he p resence o f F rankish s words

1 46

i n

g raves

i n

D almatia

a nd

a lso

a s

c hance

f inds

i n o ther a reas.

T he

i mposition o f p olitical a uthority w ould t end t o i ncrease t he

a cceptance

o f

a nticipate

F rankish

s lightly , a ssessment a nd s words t hat

material

c ulture

t here w ould o f

b e

s uch

b y

t he

d eeper

i n D almatia ,

S lays.

c hange

e ffects must w ait,

i n g raves

d eveloped

a

A lso,

i n

S lavic

s ociety.

T he

b ut t he p resence o f t heir c oins

o f B yzantine e ar-rings,

f rom B yzantine models

t o

a nd

e ar-rings

f ound i n D almatia s hould a t

l east

b e m entioned a t t his p oint.

4 .8.7

C omparisons

T he

f ive c ulture g roups d escribed c an n ow b e c ompared i n b road

b y m eans o f t able 4 .4. a c ulture t he h igher t he f rom

1

( X )

t o

Avar

c ultures

c ategories, s upremacy i n f ittings.

s core i t

4 ( XXXX )). d isplay

w ith

t he

t he

r eceives

I t w ill b e g reatest

r emainder

( in a ll c ases

the

f requency

o f

g oods

C ulture

t he

b asis

W eapons

o f

i s most

T he Avar b elt

t he a bove d escriptions a nd the t able t he

H 'gear

T ools

P ottery

c an t raced.

J ewellery

S tarohrvatska

X X

XX

X XXX

XXXX

X XX

A var

X X

XXXX

X XXX

XXXX

XXXX

K eszthely

X

XX

X XX

XXXX

XXX

K aratanian(1)

X

X

X

XXX

B ijelo B rdo

X

X

X

X XX

I ncludes K öttlach T able 4 .4:

4 .9

i n

d isplaying s maller n umbers.

r elation o f S tarohrvatska material c ulture t o i ts n eighbours

( 1)

r ange

s een t hat t he S tarohrvatska a nd

j ewellery i s a ttributable t o t he p resence o f the male O n

t erms

T he g reater t he f requency o f o ne c ategory w ithin

C omparative O ccurrence o f G rave G oods

G ENERAL DATING C ONSIDERATIONS

T he

d ating

o f

a ll t he

s ites a nd s mall

f inds mentioned s o f ar r ests

f or t he most p art u pon t ypological c omparison , w here

c oins

h ave

( though t his

b een

l atter

i s

mainly

i n

S o

p eriod

f rom t he N in b oats).

( apart

g raves,

l imited

s culpture ).

b e o f l ittle u se

f ar

f ound

t o

e xcept p ieces

t here a re n o r adio-carbon d ates And ,

i n the

r are

c ases

o r t here i s a n i nscription o f

e cclesiastical

f or this a rea a nd

e ven i f there w ere,

t hey

w ould

i n d ealing w ith t he p resent d ating c ontroversies a s t he

s tandard d eviations o f e rror a ssociated w ith r adio-carbon d ates d o n ot a llow s ufficiently a ccurate d ates t o b e o btained. I n s pite o f t he f laws a nd p roblems o f t ypology i t ( note

3 ).

i s a b etter s olution

D ating i s t hen l argely i ncestuous,

p roviding a r elative c hronology w hich i s t he f irm d ifficult.

a ssociation

w ith

s ome

1 47

i n

t he

p resent

r eally h ardly c hallenged ,

a bsolute

c ase

w ith i nternal c omparisons c hronology

that

i s

i t

i s

most

A dded t o t hese s pecific

c onsiderations

f actors

t he I strian material t he

b elief

i n

i s

t he

p resence

E uropean c hronologies. o bservable, b ut t he i nfluence i s l acking. a ny u seful d ating c ulture g roups. c learest

o f

s ome

i s

a

c omparative

d ating

s uch a s

material i tems

c ultures material

f orm o f t he p ottery

a rises

f rom

i n

t he

B yzantine

p articular

f or

A fter t hese l arger g roups,

o f

t he

c an g ive

K arantanian ,

more

f rom

f requently

Moravia,

w hich

q uoted , h as

t o t hat o f C roatia.

s imilar,

t hough

s ome

a nd

t he

more

a

s ome m easure o f

g eneral

o f

d ating ,

a nd B ijelo B rdo

s ome

s ort.

Most

p articularly b y B elosevic, c lose

r elation

I n p articular,

i tems

the

t he p resence o f

K eszthely

o ccurring i n g raves e nable c ross-dating a nd

i s

( Vinski h as c arried o ut d etailed w ork

f rom o ther more l ocal g roups

s tylistically ) a re most

d esign o f o bjects, e specially s trictly c omparable w ith c entral

t his

s words.

( 1978).)

r epresentative

important,

T he main f actor i s

f ound i n Y ugoslavia a nd i ntegrated t hem i nto

c ontext

many

c omparison w ith o ther b etter-dated a reas a nd

s pectacular i tems F rankish

a re

r emnant o f t he R omano-Illyrian

S uch a n i nfluence o n t he

f ound i n g raves,

s words

t here

a nd t o s ome e xtent

a ssessment o f t he r ate o f c hange o r r eal d epth o f I n s pite o f s uch d ifferences t he main h ope f or

F rankish material o n t he

t hat

f rom t he o ther S lavic material.

t he

p opulation t hat s omehow i nfluenced t he p ottery , s o t hat i t c eased t o b e

T he

c laim

w hich d ifferentiate t he D almatian ,

s uch

a s

i t

( at

i s

l east

i s t he t ools w hich

c ombs

h ave

s ufficient

r esemblance t o C roatian i tems t o b e m entioned. T he a pplication o f t hese a nd o ther p arallels a nd

t he

d ating

c ontroversies,

a nd

t hese

f orm t he b asis

o f d ating

m ay b est b e u nderstood a nd

a ssessed by a s tudy o f t he d isagreement b etween B elosevic

a nd

J elovina

o ver t he d ating o f R azbojine a nd Materiza. T he a rgument r ests u pon t he p ottery , a greed b y b oth t o b e t he most u sefully d atable i tem . T he a rguments

( in B eloäevi

1 973,

1 980:

J elovina 1 968)

c an b e

s ummarised a s

B eloäevi : T he p ottery f rom Materiza i s t he s ame R azbojine. D almatian p ottery , s uch a s that f rom Materiza ,

a s t hat f rom i s s pecial.

f ollows:

N one I I.

the T hus

l ess i t

J elovina: Materiza. N one I I.

t he T hus

G iven

i t

f its

i nto P ou l ik 's c ategory I I a nd E isner 's

T he

p ottery

f rom

D almatian p ottery , l ess i t

c ategory

i s e ighth a nd n inth c entury.

i s

i t

f its

R azbojine

s uch a s t hat

i s

t he

s ame

a s t hat

f rom R azbojine,

i s

f rom

s pecial.

i nto P oulik 's c ategory I I a nd E isner 's

c ategory

s eventh a nd e ighth c entury.

t he g reat

s imilarity b etween the t wo a rguments,

the r eason f or

the f inal d isagreement s eems more t han a l ittle e lusive. T he s tage t o e xamine must b e t he d ating o f P oulik's a nd E isner's C entral E uropean c lassifications. E isner's

P oulik's g roup I I h as a t ime

I I a s pan o f A D

5 50 - 8 00.

s pan o f A D

6 50

B oth o f t he c emeteries

- 8 00,

a nd

c ould e asily

l ie w ithin t hese r anges, t hough c onspicuously a t t he l ater e nd. W hat B eloäeviJ a nd J elovina a re b asically d isagreeing a bout i s w here i n t he t ime r ange t hey f all,

b ut n o o bjective c riteria f or

1 48

t he

d ecisions

a re

g iven.

I s t here a ny h ope,

R azbojine

f rom a ny o f t he o ther g rave

o f c learing u p t he i ssue?

c an b e d ealt w ith i ndividually , T he o bjects a vailable a nnulets, b uckles, a wls.

1 .

a re:

c omparing t hem p ots,

g oods

k nives,

w ith

d atable

s pindle w horls,

C ompared w ith t he o ther D almatian material,

Knives:

f ound

i n

T he o ther d atable c lasses o f i tems e xamples. f iresteels,

w hich g ives

n o

o utside d ate; w ith Moravian a nd C zech e xamples w hich put t hem i n t he e ighth a nd n inth c entury. 2 .

F iresteels: D almatian c omparisons p rovide n o e xternal d ate, F rankish p arallels d ate t o t he e ighth a nd n inth c entury , a nd Avaro-Slavic t o t he n inth c entury o nward

3 .

A wls:

A re among A varo-Slavic

( which s eems v ery l ate).

f inds a nd a re a lso

g iven

a

d ate

b y

a bsence f or t hey a re n ot f ound i n t he c emeteries o f the B ijelo B rdo c ulture o r t he K öttlach c ulture, t his m eans t hat t he c onsidered d ate l ies

s omewhere b efore t he n inth c entury.

4 .

S pindle w horls:

5 .

Annulets:

T here

T hese

i s n o c omparative material a vailable.

s imple

w omens'

e ar-rings

f rom the n inth t o t welfth c enturies, K öttlach

c ulture

f rom

t he

P ushing f or a n e arly d ate,

e nd

which

o f

t he

f ound i n D almatia d ate i s

l ate,

a nd

i n

J elovina i nvokes a

r e-classification

t he K öttlach c ulture which w ould p lace t he e ar-rings b efore, a fter t he n inth c entury. 6 .

B uckles:

T able

l ikely

p eriod a re

p art

o f

the

l ikely.

t he

a nnulet

n eedlessly i ncreased ,

t he

c hronologically

F urther, r ange

H owever,

i f

w hile t he

k nives

s eventh c entury e quipment g roup,

t hen t he p icture i s a ltered

c entury p icks u p t o 5 /7. d ividing

f inds,

i s e ighth c entury f ollowed by t he n inth ,

s eventh a nd t enth c enturies a re l ess f easable,

o f n ot

4 .5 g ives a summary.

S o a ccording t o t he c o-occurrence o f t he

f iresteels

but

T hese a re v irtually u ndatable.

W hat t hen d oes a ll t his a dd u p t o?

most

t he

n inth c entury a nd l ater.

a nd

w e

f ind

t hat

t here c ontinues t he

i nto

t hree

t heir

a nd

w hich i s

mid

s eventh

s uspicion that b y

i mportance

h as

they c an b e c ombined t o f orm o ne g roup.

b een

T able

4 .6

p resents t he n ew p icture.

A lthough

k nives

a nd p ots h ave a n e ffect a t the e ighth/ninth c entury

a nd n inth/tenth c entury b reaks o n t he e arlier o ne. the f ull d ifferent

h orror b ecomes

T his

o f

the

c lear;

r espectively ,

t he k nives h ave

n o

e ffect

l eaves t he p ottery a s o nce a gain c entral. c laims

t hat

D almatian

p ottery

i s

N ow

s omehow

e ven i f P oulik a nd E isner a re g ood g uides t hey

a re b eing i nvoked i n a t erritory where

1 49

t hey

a re

m ildly

i napplicable.

VII POTTERY

>