The Early Iron Age of Slovenia 9780860548287, 9781407349510

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The Early Iron Age of Slovenia

Philip Mason

BAR International Series 643 1996

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 643 The Early Iron Age of Slovenia © Philip Mason and the Publisher 1996 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860548287 paperback ISBN 9781407349510 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860548287 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Tempvs Reparatvm in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 1996. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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CONTENTS PAGE A cknow ledgemen t s C onven t ion s I n t roduc t ion L i s to ff i gu re s L i s to fm ap s CHAPTER I

i x x i x i i x i v T he G eog raph ica lB ackg round

1

1 .

P hy s ica lG eog raphy 1 . 1 C a r in th ia 1 . 2 S t y r ia 1 . 3 S l oven ia

1 1 1 2

2 .

C l ima te a nd V ege ta t ion

3

3 .

M ine ra l s 3 . 1 C oppe r 3 . 2 I r on 3 . 3 L ead 3 . 4 G o ld 3 . 5 S a l t 3 . 6 T in 3 . 7 A n t imony

3 8 4 5 6 6 6 6

4 .

C ommun ica t ion s

6

CHAPTER 2

A rchaeo log ica lP er spec t ive

9

1 .

P rev iou sA rchaeo log i ca l Wo rk 1 . 1 E xcava t ion 1 . 2 C h rono log ica la nd T ypo log ica lD eve lopmen t s 1 . 3 S oc ia lI n te rp r e ta t ion

9 9 1 1 2

2 .

C h rono logy a nd C u l tu ra lS equen ce s 2 . 1 T he L jub l jana a nd D o len jska G roup s 2 . 2 T he R u ge a nd W ie s—Ma r t i janec G roup s

1 2 1 4 3 2

CHAPTER 3

T h eD a ta B a se a nd i t sL im i ta t ion s

4 0

1 .

G ene ra lQ uan t i f ica t ion 1 . 1 L a te B ronz eA ge ( Ha l l s ta t tB ) 1 . 2 E a r ly I r on A ge ( Ha l l s ta t t Ca nd D )

4 0 4 0 4 1

2 .

Q ua l i ty o fD a ta 2 . 1 L a te B ronz eA ge ( Ha l l s ta t tB ) 2 . 2 E a r ly I r on A ge ( Ha l l s ta t t Ca nd D )

4 2 4 2 4 3

3 .

C r i te r ia o fS i te S e lec t ion 3 . 1 L a te B ronz eA ge ( Ha l l s ta t tB ) 3 . 2 E a r ly I r on A ge ( Ha l ls ta t t Ca nd D )

4 9 4 9 5 0

CHAPTER 4 METHODOLOGY C lu s te rA na ly s i s

T he A na ly s i so ft h eD a ta B a se

5 2 5 2 5 2

T he C omb ina t ion T ab le s

5 4

C onc lu s ion

5

1 .

T he L a te B ron ze A ge ( Ha l l s ta t tB 1 a nd B 2 ) 1 . 1 D o len jska 1 . 2 t a je r ska 1 . 3 S ou th S t y r ia

5 5 5 7 5 8

2 .

T he L a te B ron ze A ge /Ea r ly I r on A ge I n te r f ace ( Ha l l s ta t tB 3 ) 2 . 1 D o len jska 2 . 2 t a je r ska 2 . 3 S ou th S t y r ia

5 8 5 8 5 9 6 0

3 .

T he H a l l s ta t t CP e r iod 3 . 1 D o len jska 3 . 2 t a je r ska 3 . 3 S ou th S t y r ia

6 0 6 0 6 6 6 7

4 .

T he H a l l s ta t t Da nd E a r ly L aT ene P e r iod s 4 . 1 D o len j ska 4 . 2 g t a je r ska 4 . 3 S ou th S t y r ia

6 8 6 8 7 4 7 4

CHAPTER 5

1 . 2 . 3 .

4 . 5 . 6 .

S o c ia lO rgan isa t ion i nt h eS ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion b e tween 1 000BC a nd 3 00BC

L a te B ron ze A ge D o len jska ( L jub l jana I ) L a te B ronze A ge /Ea r ly l i on A ge I n te r f ace i nD o len jska ( L jub l jana H at oL jub l jana I l b ) T he E a r ly I r on A ge D o len jska G roup 3 . 1 R anked S o c ie ty a nd P r e s t ige E xchange 3 . 2 T he R eg iona lS y s tem L a te B ronze A ge t a je r ska ( Ha l l s ta t tB l a nd Ha l l s ta t tB 2 ) L a te B ron ze A ge a nd E a r ly l i on A ge I n te r fa ce i nS t a je r ska a nd S ou th S t y r ia ( Ha l l s ta t tB 3 ) E a r ly I r on A ge g t a je r ska a nd S ou th S t y r ia

P o s t sc r ip t CHAPTER 6

S t ra teg ie so fE xchange i nt h eS ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion b e twe en 1 000BC a nd 3 00BC

S u r vey 1 . 1 1 . 2 1 . 3 1 . 4

2 .

S t ra teg ie so fE xchange 2 . 1 T he r o le o ft h eS ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion a sa n a r ea o fp roduc t ion o fR aw Ma te r ia l s . 2 . 2 T he r o le o ft h eD o len j ska G roup a sa nI n te rmed ia ry i nR eg iona lE xchange . 2 . 3 C ra f tP roduc t ion i nt h eS ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion .

1 .

7 5 7 6 7 8 7 8 8 3 8 5 8 5 8 7 8 9

1 .

CHAPTER 7

7 5

o ft h eE v idence o fE xchange N o r th er na nd C en t ra lI t a ly A lp ine a nd C en t ra lE u rope T he P annon ian P la in ,C a rpa th ian a nd E a s ter nE u rope T he N o r th We s ta nd C en t ra lB a lkan s

T he S ou thern E x ten s ion o ft h e Amber R ou te

T he L a te B ronz eA ge

9 0 9 0 9 0 9 6 9 8 1 00 1 04 1 04 1 0 5 1 07 1 08 1 09

1

2 .

T he L a te B ronze A ge /Ea r ly I r on A ge I n te r f ace

1 09

3 .

T he H a l ls ta t t CP e r iod

10

4 .

T he H a l ls ta t tI D ,L aT ene A a nd L aT ene B P e r iod s

11

C onc lu s ion

11

CHAPTER 8

T he I c onography o fS i tu la A r t

13

1 .T he C h rono logy a nd D i s t r ibu t ion o f' S i tu la A r t '

13

2 .T h eO r ig in sa nd I c onog raphy o f' S i tu la A r t '

13

3 .T he I n te rp r e ta t ion o f' S i tu la A r t 'I c onog raphy

14

C on c lu s ion

15

CHAPTER 9 CHAPTER 1 0

C onc lu s ion R ecen tT rend si nL a te B ronz eA g ea nd E ar ly I r on A ge S tud ie s i nt h eS ou thea s tern A lp ine R eg ion

17

1 2 1

T he W ie s—Ma r t i jan ec G roup

1 2 1

T he L jub l jana G roup a nd t h eD o len jska G roup

1 22

D i scu s s ion

1 25

ABBREV IAT IONS AND B IBL IOGRAPHY

1 26

A PPEND IX _

1 37

1 .

L jub l jana 1 . 1 1 . 2 1 . 3 1 . 4 1 . 5 1 . 6 1 . 7 1 . 8 1 . 9 1 . 10 1 . 11 1 . 12 1 . 13 1 . 14

2 .

1 38 1 38 1 39 1 39 1 40 1 40 1 40 1 40 1 41 1 41 1 42 1 42 1 42 1 42

N ovo m e s to—Br g l j in 2 . 1 2 . 2

3 .

P lan o fL jub l jana C eme te ry ( A f t e rG ab rovec 1 973 ) C omb ina t ion T ab le o fL jub l jana IG rave sa tL jub l jana C omb ina t ion T ab le o fL jub l jana H aG rave sa tL jub l jana C omb ina t ion T ab le o fL jub l jana l bG rave sa tL jub l jana C omb ina t ion T ab le o fL jub l jana I na G rave sa tL jub l jana C omb ina t ion T ab le o fL jub l jana I lb G rave sa tL jub l jana C omb ina t ion T ab le o fS t iena 2G rave sa tL jub l jana C omb ina t ion T ab le o fC e r to sa G rave sa tL jub l jana K ey t oL jub l jana G roup C e ram ic S e t s C e ram ic S e t si nL jub l jana IG rave sa tL jub l jana C e ram ic S e t si nL jub l jana H aG rave sa tL jub l jana C e ram ic S e t si nL jub l jana I bG rave sa tL jub l jana C e ram ic S e t si nL jub l jana Ma G rave sa tL jub l jana C e ram ic S e t si nL jub l jana I lb ,S t icna 2a nd C e r to sa G rave sa tL jub l jana

C omb ina t ion T ab le o fL jub l jana IG rave sa tN ovo m e s to B r g l j in C e ram ic S e t si nL jub l jana IG rave sa tN ovo m e s to —B r g l j in

1 42 1 43

P lan o ft h eR u se C eme te ry ( A f te r Mü l le r—Ka rpe 1 9 59 ) C omb ina t ion T ab le o fH a l l s ta t tB IG rave sa tR ue C omb ina t ion T ab le o fH a l l s ta t tB 2G rave sa tR ue

1 43 1 43 1 43

R ue 3 . 1 3 . 2 3 . 3

3 . 4 3 . 5 3 . 6 3 . 7 3 . 8

4 .

1 47 C omb ina t ion T ab le o fL jub l jana I i ba nd L jub l jana H aG rave sa t Mo ln ik C e ram ic S e t si nL jub l jana I i ba nd L jub l jana I l ia G rave sa t Mo ln ik

1 47 1 47

P l an o ft h eN ovo m e s to-Me s tne n j ive C eme te ry ( A f te rK nez 1 966 ) C omb ina t ion T ab le o fL jub l jana I G rave sa tN ovo m e s to-Me s tne n j ive C e ram ic S e t si nL jub l jana I G rave sa tN ovo m e s to-Me s tne n j ive

1 48 1 48 1 48

Me t l ika-Bo r g tek 7 . 1 7 . 2 7 . 3

8 .

1 4 5 1 46 1 46 1 46 1 46

N ovo m e s to-Me s tne n j ive 6 . 1 6 . 2 6 . 3

7 .

P l an o fP ob r ei je C eme te ry ( A f te rP ah ic 1 972 ) C omb ina t ion T ab le o fH a l l s ta t tB 1 G rave sa tP ob rei je C omb ina t ion T ab le o fH a l l s ta t tB 2G rave sa tP ob rei je C e ram ic S e t si nH a l l s ta t tB 1G rave sa tP ob r ei je C e ram ic S e t si nH a l l s ta t tB 2G rave sa tP ob r ei je

Mo ln ik 5 . 1 5 . 2

6 .

1 44 1 44 1 44 1 4 5 1 4 5

P ob r ei je 4 . 1 4 . 2 4 . 3 4 . 4 4 . 5

5 .

C omb ina t ion T ab le o fH a l ls ta t tB 3G rave sa tR u ge K ey t oR u ge G roup C e ram ic S e t s C e ram ic S e t si nH a l l s ta t tB i G rave sa tR u ge C e ram ic S e t si nH a l l s ta t tB 2G rave sa tR u ge C e ram ic S e t si nH a l ls ta t tB 3G rave sa tR u ge

P l an o f Me t l ika-Bo r g tek C eme te ry ( A f te rJ .D u la r 1 979 ) C omb ina t ion T ab le o fL jub l jana I a nd L jub l jana Ma G rave sa t Me t l ika-Bo rkek C e ram ic S e t si nL jub l jana I a nd L jub l jana I na G rave sa t Me t l ika-Bo r g tek

1 49 1 50 1 50

P odzeme l j 8 . 1 8 . 2 8 . 3 8 . 4 8 . 5 8 . 6 8 . 7 8 . 8 8 . 9 8 . 10 8 . 11 8 . 12 8 . 13 8 . 14 8 . 15 8 . 16 8 . 17 8 . 18 8 . 19 8 . 20 8 . 21 8 . 22 8 . 23 8 . 24 8 . 25 8 . 26

P l an o ft h es i te o fP odzeme l j( A f te rJ .D u la r1 978 ) C omb ina t ion T ab le o fP odzem l j 1G rave sa tP odzeme l j C omb ina t ion T ab le o fP odzem l j 2G rave sa tP odzeme l j C omb ina t ion T ab le o fS t ia ia 1G rave sa tP od zeme l j C omb ina t ion T ab le o fS t i& la 2G rave sa tP odzeme l j C omb ina t ion T ab le o fS e rpen t ifo rm G rave sa tP odzeme l j C omb ina t ion T ab le o fC e r to sa G rave sa tP od zeme l j C omb ina t ion T ab le o fE a r ly N egova G rave sa tP od zeme l j C omb ina t ion T ab le o fL a te N egova G rave sa tP odzeme l j K ey t oD o len jska G roup C e ram ic S e t s C e ram ic S e t si nP odzeme l j 1G rave sa tP odz eme l j C e ram ic S e t si nP odzeme l j 2G rave sa tP odzeme l j C e ram ic S e t si nS t iCna 1G rave sa tP od zeme l j C e ram ic S e t si n Sdna 2G rave sa tP od zeme l j C e ram ic S e t si nS e rpen t i fo rm G rave sa tP odzeme l j C e ram ic S e t si nC e r to sa G rave sa tP odzeme l j C e ram ic S e t si nE a r ly N egova G rave sa tP odzeme l j C e ram ic S e t si nL a te N egova G rave sa tP odzeme l j D is t r ibu t ion o fP odzeme l j 1G rave sa tP odzeme l j D i s t r ibu t ion o fP odzeme l j 2G rave sa tP od zeme l j D i s t r ibu t ion o fS t iCna 1G rave sa tP odzeme l j D i s t r ibu t ion o fS t iC r ia 2G rave sa tP od zeme l j D i s t r ibu t ion o fS e rpen t i fo rm G rave sa tP od zeme l j D is t r ibu t ion o fC e r to sa G rave sa tP od zeme l j D is t r ibu t ion o fE a r ly N egova G rave sa tP odzeme l j D is t r ibu t ion o fL a te N egova G rave sa tP odzeme l j

i v

1 5 1 1 52 1 52 1 5 3 1 54 1 54 1 54 1 5 5 1 5 5 1 5 5 1 56 1 56 1 56 1 56 1 5 7 1 57 1 57 1 57 1 5 8 1 5 8 1 5 9 1 59 1 60 1 60 1 6 1 1 6 1

9 .

&nome l j 9 . 1 9 . 2 9 . 3 9 . 4 9 . 5 9 . 6 9 . 7 9 . 8 9 . 9

1 0 .

1 63 1 63 1 64 1 64 1 64 1 64 1 65 1 65 1 65 1 65 1 65 1 65 1 65 1 65 1 6 5 1 65

P l an o ft h es i te o fL egen n ea rS l oven jG radec ( A f t e rS t r tna l ik-Gu l iS 1 979 ) C omb ina t ion T ab le o fB a r row G rave sa tL egen n ea rS l oven jG radec K ey t oW ie s-Ma r t i jance C e ram ic S e t si nS t a je r ska ( A f te rP ah iC 1 973 ) C e ram ic S e t si nB a r row G rave sa tL egen n ea rS l oven jG radec

1 66 1 67 1 67 1 68

K le in-K le in 1 2 .1 1 2 .2 1 2 .3 1 2 .4 1 2 .5 1 2 .6 1 2 .7 1 2 .8

1 3 .

C omb ina t ion T ab le o fP odzeme l j 1G rave sa tV aC e C omb ina t ion T ab le o fP odzeme l j 2G rave sa tV aC e C omb ina t ion T ab le o fS t i aa 1G rave sa tV aSe C omb ina t ion T ab le o fS t iS na 2G rave sa t Vge C omb ina t ion T ab le o fS e rpen t ifo rm G rave sa tV aS e C omb ina t ion T ab le o fC e r to sa G rave sa tV aSe C omb ina t ion T ab le o fE a r ly N egova G rave sa tV age C omb ina t ion T ab le o fL a te N egova G rave sa tV as e C e ram ic S e t si nP odz eme l j 1G rave sa tV aC e C e ram ic S e t si nP odz eme l j 2G rave sa tV aS e C e ram ic S e t si nS t iCna 1G rave sa tV aS e C e ram ic S e t si nS t iS na 2G rave sa tV aC e C e ram ic S e t si nS e rpen t ifo rm G rave sa tV as e C e ram ic S e t si nC e r to sa G rave sa tV aCe C e ram ic S e t si nE a r ly N egova G raves a tV aCe C e ram ic S e t si nL a t eN egova G rave sa tV aCe

L egen n ea rS l oven jG radec 1 .1 1 .2 1 .3 1 .4

1 2 .

1 62 1 62 1 62 1 62 1 62 1 62 1 63 1 63 1 93

V aS e 1 0 .1 1 0 .2 1 0 .3 1 0 .4 1 0 .5 1 0 .6 1 0 .7 1 0 .8 1 0 .9 1 0 .10 1 0 .11 1 0 . 12 1 0 .13 1 0 .14 1 0 .15 1 0 .16

1 .

C omb ina t ion T ab le o fP odzeme l j 1G rave sa t Cmome l j C omb ina t ion T ab le o fP odzeme l j 2G rave sa t Cmome l j C omb ina t ion T ab le o fS t icna 1G rave sa t Cmome l j C e ram ic S e t si nP odzeme l j 1G rave sa t gnome l j C e ram ic S e t si nP odzeme l j 2G rave sa t Cmome l j C e ram ic S e t si nS t icna 1G rave sa t Cmome l j D i s t r ibu t ion o fP odzeme l j 1G rave sa t &nome l j D i s t r ibu t ion o fP odzeme l j 2G rave sa t &nome l j D i s t r ibu t ion o fS t icna 1G rave sa t Cmome l j

P l an o ft h es i te o fK le in-K le in ( Af te rD ob ia t 1 980 C omb ina t ion T ab le o fP ha se 1G rave sa tK le in-K le in C omb ina t ion T ab le o fP ha se 2G rave sa tK le in-K le in C omb ina t ion T ab le o fP ha se 3G rave sa tK le in-K le in K ey t oK le in-K le in C e ram ic S e t s( A f te rD ob ia t1 980 ) C e ram ic S e t si nP ha se 1G rave sa tK le in-K le in C e ram ic S e t si nP ha se 2G rave sa tK le in-K le in C e ram ic S e t si nP ha se 3G rave sa tK le in-K le in

1 68 1 69 1 70 1 70 1 70 1 7 1 1 7 1 1 7 1

Magda len ska g o ra 1 3 .1 1 3 .2 1 3 .3 1 3 .4 1 3 .5 1 3 .6 1 3 .7 1 3 .8

P l an o ft h es i te o f Magda len ska g o ra ( A f te rH en cken 1 978 ) C omb ina t ion T ab le o fP odzeme l jG rave sa t Magda len ska g o ra C omb ina t ion T ab le o fS t icna 1G rave sa t Magda len ska g o ra C omb ina t ion T ab le o fS t icna 2G rave sa t Magda len ska g o ra C omb ina t ion T ab le o fS e rpen t ifo rm G rave sa t Magda len ska g o ra C omb ina t ion T ab le o fC e r to sa G rave sa t Magda len ska g o ra C omb ina t ion T ab le o fE a r ly N egova G rave sa t Magda len ska g o ra C omb ina t ion T ab le o fL a te N egova G rave sa t Magda len ska g o ra

1 72 1 72 1 72 1 73 1 73 1 74 1 7 5 1 76

1 3 .9 1 3 .10 1 3 .11 1 3 .12 1 3 .13 1 3 .14 1 3 .15 1 3 .16 1 3 .17 1 3 .18 1 3 .19 1 3 .20 1 3 .21 1 3 .22 1 4 .

P lan o ft h es i te o fS t idna ( A f te r We l l s 1 981 ) C omb ina t ion T ab le o fP odzeme l j 2G rave sa tS t ie na C omb ina t ion T ab le o fS t idna 1G rave sa tS t iena C omb ina t ion T ab le o fS t i cna 2G rave sa tS t idna C omb ina t ion T ab le o fS e rpen t i fo rn G rave sa tS t idna C omb ina t ion T ab le o fC e r to sa G rave sa tS t idna C e ram ic S e t si nP odzeme l j 2G rave sa tS t idna C e ram ic S e t si nS t icna 1G rave sa tS t iena C e ram ic S e t si nS t icna 2G rave sa tS t idna C e ram ic S e t si nS e rpen t i fo rm G rave sa tS t idna C e ram ic S e t si nC e r to sa G rave sa tS t idna D i s t r ibu t ion o fP odzeme l j 2G rave sa tS t idna D i s t r ibu t ion o fS t i cna 1G rave sa tS t idna D i s t r ibu t ion o fS t iena 2G rave sa tS t idha D i s t r ibu t ion o fS e rpen t i fom G rave sa tS t idna D i s t r ibu t ion o fC e r to sa G rave sa tS t idna

1 80 1 80 1 80 1 8 1 1 8 1 1 82 1 82 1 82 1 83 1 83 1 83 1 84 1 84 1 85 1 8 5 1 86

N ovo m e s to-Kand i ja /Ma lenkk 1 5 .1 1 5 .2 1 5 .3 1 5 .4 1 5 .5 1 5 .6 1 5 .7 1 5 .8 1 5 .9 1 5 .10 1 5 .11

1 6 .

1 77 1 77 1 77 1 77 1 77 1 77 1 77 1 78 1 78 1 78 1 78 1 79 1 79

S t idna 1 4 .1 1 4 .2 1 4 .3 1 4 .4 1 4 .5 1 4 .6 1 4 .7 1 4 .8 1 4 .9 1 4 .10 1 4 .11 1 4 .12 1 4 .13 1 4 .14 1 4 .15 1 4 .16

1 5 .

C e ram ic S e t si nP odzeme l jG rave sa t Magda len ska g o ra C e ram ic S e t si nS t iZna 1G rave sa t Magda len ska g o ra C e ram ic S e t si nS t iC r ia 2G rave sa t Magda len ska g o ra C e ram ic S e t si nS e rpen t i fo rm G rave sa t Magda len ska g o ra C e ram ic S e t si nC e r to sa G rave sa t Magda len ska g o ra C e ram ic S e t si nE a r ly N egova G rave sa t Magda len ska g o ra C e ram ic S e t si nL a t eN egova G rave sa t Magda len ska g o ra D i s t r ibu t ion o fP odzeme l jG rave sa t Magda len ska g o ra D i s t r ibu t ion o fS t iCna 1G rave sa t Magda len ska g o ra D i s t r ibu t ion o fS t idna 2G rave sa t Magda len ska g o ra D i s t r ibu t ion o fS e rpen t ifo rm G rave sa t Magda len ska g o ra D i s t r ibu t ion o fC e r to sa G rave sa t Magda len ska g o ra D i s t r ibu t ion o fE a r ly N egova G rave sa t Magda len ska g o ra D i s t r ibu t ion o fL a te N egova G rave sa t Magda len ska g o ra

C omb ina t ion T ab le o fS t iCna 1G rave sa tN ovo m e s to-Kand i ja /Ma lenkk C omb ina t ion T ab le o fS t iCna 2G rave sa tN ovo m e s to-Kand i ja /Ma lenkk C omb ina t ion T ab le o fS e rpen t i fo rm G rave sa tN ovo m e s to-Kand i ja /Ma len gek C omb ina t ion T ab le o fC e r to sa G rave sa tN ovo m e s to-Kand i ja /Ma len gek C e ram ic S e t si nS t iCna 1G rave sa tN ovo m e s to-Kand i ja /Ma len gek C e ram ic S e t si nS t iC na 2G rave sa tN ovo m e s to-Kand i ja /Ma len gek C e ram ic S e t si sS e rpen t i fo rm G rave sa tN ovo m e s to-Kand i ja /Ma len gek D i s t r ibu t ion o fS t icna 1G rave sa tN ovo m e s to-Kand i ja /Ma len gek D i s t r ibu t ion o fS t icna 2G rave sa tN ovo m e s to-Kand i ja /Ma len sek D i s t r ibu t ion o fS e rp en t i fo rm G rave sa tN ovo m e s to-Kand i ja /Ma lenkk D i s t r ibu t ion o fC e r to sa G rave sa tN ovo m e s to-Kand i ja /Ma lenkk

1 86 1 86 1 86 1 87 1 87 1 87 1 87 1 87 1 87 1 87 1 87

B rez je n ea rT rebe lno 1 6 .1 1 6 .2 1 6 .3 1 6 .4 1 6 .5 1 6 .6 1 6 .7 1 6 .8 1 6 .9 1 6 .10

P lan o fs i te o fB r ez je n ea rT r ebe lno C omb ina t ion T ab le o fP odzeme l jG rave sa tB r ez je n ea rT r ebe lno C omb ina t ion T ab le o fS t iCna 1G rave sa tB rez je n ea rT r eb e lno C omb ina t ion T ab le o fS t idna 2G rave sa tB r ez je n ea rT r ebe lno C omb ina t ion T ab le o fS e rpen t i fo rn G rave sa tB r ez je n ea rT r eb e lno C omb ina t ion T ab le o fC e r to sa G rave sa tB rez je n ea rT rebe lno C omb ina t ion T ab le o fE a r ly N egova G rave sa tB r ez je n ea rT r ebe lno C omb ina t ion T ab le o fL a te N egova G rave sa tB r ez je n ea rT r eb e lno C e ram ic S e t si nP odzeme l jG rave sa tB rez je n ea rT rebe lno C e ram ic S e t si sS t idna 1G rave sa tB rez je n ea rT r ebe lno

v i

1 88 1 88 1 88 1 88 1 89 1 89 1 90 1 90 1 90 1 90

1 6 .11 1 6 .12 1 6 .13 1 6 .14 1 6 .15 1 6 .16 1 6 .17 1 6 .18 1 6 .19 1 6 .20 1 6 .21 1 6 .22 1 7 .

C omb ina t ion T ab le o fS t icna 2G rave sa tB r u sn ice C omb ina t ion T ab le o fS e rpen t i fo rm G rave sa tB ru sn ice C omb ina t ion T ab le o fC e r to sa G rave sa tB ru sn ice C e ram ic S e t si nS t icna 2G rave sa tB r u sn ice C e ram ic S e t si nS e rpen t ifo rn G rave sa tB r u sn ice C e ram ic S e t si nC e r to sa G rave sa tB ru sn ice D i s t r ibu t ion o fS t icna 2G rave sa tB ru sn ice D i s t r ibu t ion o fS e rpen t i fo rm G rave sa tB ru sn ice D i s t r ibu t ion o fC e r to sa G rave sa tB ru sn ice

1 93 1 93 1 93 1 93 1 93 1 93 1 94 1 94 1 94

C omb ina t ion T ab le o fP odzeme l j 1 / 2G rave sa tB okan j C omb ina t ion T ab le o fS t icna 2G rave sa tB okan j C omb ina t ion T ab le o fS e rpen t i fo rm G rave sa tB okan j C omb ina t ion T ab le o fC e r to sa G rave sa tB okan j C e ram ic S e t si nP odzeme l j 1 / 2G rave sa tB okan j C e ram ic S e t si nS t iCna 2G rave sa tB okan j C e ram ic S e t si nS e rpen t i fo rm G rave sa tB okan j C e ram ic S e t si nC e r to sa G rave s a tB okan j D i s t r ibu t ion o fP odzeme l j 1 / 2G rave sa tB okan j D i s t r ibu t ion o fS t iCna 2G rave sa tB okan j D i s t r ibu t ion o fS e rpen t i fo rm G rave sa tB okan j D i s t r ibu t ion o fC e r to sa G rave sa tB okan j

1 94 1 94 1 95 1 9 5 1 95 1 95 1 95 1 95 1 96 1 96 1 96 1 96

P lan o ft h es i te o fL ibna ( Af te rG uk in 1 976 ) C omb ina t ion T ab le o fP odzeme l jG rave sa tL ibna C omb ina t ion T ab le o fS t iZna 1G rave sa tL ibna C omb ina t ion T ab le o fS t iCna 2G rave sa tL ibna C omb ina t ion T ab le o fS e rpen t i fo rm G rave sa tL ibna C omb ina t ion T ab le o fC e r to sa G rave sa tL ibna C omb ina t ion T ab le o fS e rp en t i fo rm o rC e r to sa G rave sa tL ibna C omb ina t ion T ab le o fE a r ly N egova G rave sa tL ibna C e ram ic S e t si nP odzeme l j G rave sa tL ibna C e ram ic S e t si nS t iCna 1G rave sa tL ibna C e ram ic S e t si nS t iCna 2G rave sa tL ibna C e ram ic S e t si nS e rpen t ifom G rave sa tL ibna C e ram ic S e t si nC e r to sa G rave sa tL ibna C e ram ic S e t si nS e rpen t i fom o rC e r to sa G rave sa tL ibna D i s t r ibu t ion o fP odzeme l jG rave sa tL ibna D i s t r ibu t ion o fS t i aa 1G rave sa tL ibna D i s t r ibu t ion o fS t iCna 2G rave sa tL ibna D i s t r ibu t ion o fS e rpen t ifo rm G rave sa tL ibna D i s t r ibu t ion o fC e r to sa G rave sa tL ibna

1 96 1 97 1 97 1 97 1 98 1 98 1 99 1 99 1 99 1 99 2 00 2 00 2 00 2 00 2 0 1 2 01 2 02 2 02 2 03

B okan j 1 8 .1 1 8 .2 1 8 .3 1 8 .4 1 8 .5 1 8 .6 1 8 .7 1 8 .8 1 8 .9 1 8 .10 1 8 .11 1 8 .12

1 9 .

1 90 1 90 1 90 1 90 1 90 1 9 1 1 91 1 9 1 1 9 1 1 92 1 92 1 92

B r u sn ice 1 7 .1 1 7 .2 1 7 .3 1 7 .4 1 7 .5 1 7 .6 1 7 .7 1 7 .8 1 7 .9

1 8 .

C e ram ic S e t si nS t iCna 2G rave sB rez je n ea rT rebe lno C e ram ic S e t si nS e rpen t ifo rm G rave sa tB rez je n ea rT rebe lno C e ram ic S e t si nC er to sa G rave s a tB r ez je n ea rT rebe lno C e ram ic S e t si nE a r ly N egova G rave sa tB r ez je n ea rT r eb e lno C e ram ic S e t si nL a te N egova G rave sa tB rez je n ea rT reb e lno D i s t r ibu t ion o fP odzeme l jG rave sa tB rez je n ea rT rebe lno D i s t r ibu t ion o fS t iCna 1G rave sa tB r ez je n ea rT r eb e lno D i s t r ibu t ion o fS t iCha 2G rave sa tB r ez je n ea rT r eb e lno D i s t r ibu t ion o fS e rp en t i fo rm G rave sa tB r ez je n ea rT rebe lno D i s t r ibu t ion o fC e r to sa G rave sa tB r ez je n ea rT reb e lno D i s t r ibu t ion o fE a r ly N egova G rave sa tB rez je n ea rT r eb e lno D i s t r ibu t ion o fL a te N egova G rave sa tB r ez je n ea rT rebe lno

L ibna 1 9 .1 1 9 .2 1 9 .3 1 9 .4 1 9 .5 1 9 .6 1 9 .7 1 9 .8 1 9 .9 1 9 .10 1 9 .11 1 9 .12 1 9 .13 1 9 .14 1 9 .15 1 9 .16 1 9 .17 1 9 .18 1 9 .19

v i i

1 9 .20

2 0 .

C omb ina t ion T ab le o fP odzeme l j 2G rave sa tD raga t6 C omb ina t ion T ab le o fS t iCna 1G rave sa tD raga tu § C e ram ic S e t si nP odzeme l j 2G rave sa tD raga tu § C e ram ic S e t si nS t icna 1G rave sa tD raga tu §

2 04 2 04 2 04 2 04

D o len jske T op l ice 2 1 .1 2 1 .2 2 1 .3 2 1 .4 2 1 .5 2 1 .6 2 1 .7 2 1 .8 2 1 .9 2 1 .10

2 2 .

2 03

D raga tu § 2 0 .1 2 0 .2 2 0 .3 2 0 .4

2 1 .

D i s t r ibu t ion o fE a r ly N egova G rave sa tL ibna

P lan o ft h es i te o fD o len jsk eT op l ice ( A f te rK ra '1 992 ) C omb ina t ion T ab le o fC e r to sa G rave sa tD o len jske T op l ic e C omb ina t ion T ab le o fE a r ly N egova G rave sa tD o len j ske T op l ic e C omb ina t ion T ab le o fL a te N egova G rave sa tD o len jske T op l ice C e ram ic S e t si nC e r to sa G rave sa tD o len jske T op l ice C e ram ic S e t si nE a r ly N egova G rave sa tD o len jske T op l ice C e ram ic S e t si nL a te N egova G rave sa tD o len jske T op l ice D i s t r ibu t ion o fC e r to sa G rave sa tD o len jske T op l ice D i s t r ibu t ion o fE a r ly N egova G rave sa tD o len jske T op l ice D i s t r ibu t ion o fL a te N egova G rave sa tD o len jske T op l ic e

2 05 2 06 2 07 2 07 2 08 2 08 2 08 2 09 2 09 2 10

V o lC je n j ive 2 2 .1 2 2 .2 2 2 .3 2 2 .4 2 2 .5

P l an o ft h es i te o fV o lC/j en j ive B a r row ( Af te r G ab rovec 1 9 56 ) C omb ina t ion T ab le o fS e rpen t i fo rm G rave sa tV o lE je n j ive C omb ina t ion T ab le o fC e r to sa G rave sa tV o le je n j ive C e ram ic S e t si nS e rpen t i fo rm G rave sa tV o le ' je n j ive C e ram ic S e t si nC e r to sa G rave sa tV o le je n j ive

v i i i

2 11 2 12 2 12 2 12 2 12

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The following work was accepted for the degree of D.Phil at Oxford in 1987. It has not been subject to alteration and the acknowledgements below are still valid today. However, I would like to thank David Davison and Rajka Makjanic of BAR Publishing for bearing with me through the various delays, which have arisen during preparation for publication. I would like to thank Ildik6 Pinter for her tireless work on the tables, graphs, maps and text figures, as well as for her moral support. Marko Prsina succeded in producing legible tables and graphs from unpromising originals. Borut Kriz, Peter Turk and Predrag Novakovic read and commented on the original text and the latter has even inflicted it on his students. The opinions expressed here are my own and none of the people listed here necessarily agree with them. I am grateful to the following for their help whilst this thesis was being written. I should like to thank my supervisor, Prof. B. Cunliffe, who provided the initial impetus for my work in the South East Alpine Region and advised and encouraged me during the course of my studies. I am particularly grateful to the trustees of the Meyerstein Fund, which provided me with the means to make study trips to Innsbruck and Ljubljana. For information, advice and discussion, both general and specific, during my D.Phil. studies, I would like to express my thanks to Dr. J. Alexander, Cambridge; Dr. D. Britton, Oxford; Prof. S. Gabrovec, Ljubljana; Dr. M. Gustin, Ljubljana; Dr. E. Jerem, Budapest; Prof. K. Kromer, Innsbruck; Dr. C. Pare, Birmingham; Dr. T. Taylor, Bradford; Dr. B. Slapsak, Ljubljana; Dr. B. Terzan, Ljubljana; Dr. G. Tomedi, Innsbruck; Dr. W. Leitner, Innsbruck; Dr. N. Trampuz-Orel, Ljubljana; Prof. H. Friesinger, Vienna; Dr. D. Marzoli, Innsbruck, and any others, whom I have neglected to mention. Catharine Price was a considerable support whilst I worked on the material, providing valuable criticism, both of the approach and style of writing. I would like to thank my father, who supported me financially throughout my time in Oxford, as well as allowing me to use his office facilities, whilst I was writing up, and my mother and sister for their encouragement and support for my choice of career. In addition, I would like to thank Prof. Gabrovec of the Narodni muzej, Ljubljana, for allowing me to examine the material from the recent excavations at Sticna. I would also like to thank Dr. A. Sherratt, who gave me access to the material from the Mecklenburg excavations at Vace, which is now kept in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.

ix

CONVENT IONS

T he c onven t ion se mp loyed i nt h et e x ta r ea sf o l low s . T he H a rva rd S y s tem h a sb een u s ed f o rq uo ta t ion sa nd r e f e renc e s ,a nd n o s epa ra te F oo tno te s h ave b een g i ven . C e r ta in a bb rev ia t ion s a r e u s ed i nt h e se r e f e rence s , w he r e t h e t i t le o f ab ook i s f r equen t ly u s ed . T hu s ANSL s t and s f o r A rheo lo gka n a jd ika S l oven i je , L ex ikon r e f e r s t oF ran z , L . a nd N eumann , A . , 1 965 ,i nt h eB ib l iog raphy ,a nd F Or e p re sen t sF undbe r ich te a u sÖ s te r r e ich . T he a bb rev ia t ion ' Ha 'i so cca s iona l ly e mp loyed i np l ace o ft h et e rm ' Ha l l s ta t t ' . P lac en ame sa r eg i ven i nt h e i rS l ovene o rG e rman f o rm s ,e xcep ti nc a se sw h e re ac ommon E ng l i sh e qu iva len te x i t s ,s u ch a s V ienna r a the r t h an W ien , o rB e lg rade r a the rt h an B eog rad . A dd i t ion s s u ch a s" n ea r . . . . " h ave b een u sed w he r e t h ey f o rm p a r to ft h es i te n ame ,r a the rt h an t h eS l ovene f o rm ,f o re a se o fr e cogn i t ion . A l lm ea su r emen t so fd i s tan ce a nd s i ze h ave b een g i ven i nt h em e t r ic s y s tem t h roughou tt h es t udy .

I NTRODUCT ION

T h is w o rk i si n tended t od i scuss t h ep rob lem so fs oc ia lo rgan i sa t ion a nd e xchange i nt h e S ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion b e tween 1 000 B .C . a nd 3 00 B .C . T h is t imespan c ove r s t h e L a te B ron ze A ge ( Ha l ls ta t t B )p e r iod a nd t h e E a r ly h on A ge ( Ha l l s ta t t Ct oL a Une B ) p er iod i nt h e R eg ion . R e sea r ch i sc oncen t ra ted o n t h e g roup s a r chaeo log ica l ly w e l l r ep re sen ted i nt h e a r ea . T he L a te B ron ze A ge g roup s s t ud ied a r e t h e L jub l jana g roup i nt h e r eg ion s o f D o len jska a nd B e la K ra j ina i nt h e R epub l ic o fS loven ia a nd t h eR u ge g roup l o ca ted i nt h er eg ion o fS ta je r ska i nS loven ia a nd i nt h e s ou ther np a r to ft h e L and o fS ty r ia i nA u s t r ia . T he E a r ly l i on A ge G roup sc on s ide red b e low a r et h eD o len jska g roup ,w h ich o ccup ied t h es ame a r ea s a st h e L jub l jana g roup a nd t h eW ie s— Ma r t i janec g roup , w h ich o ccup ied t h e s ame a r ea s a st h e Rae g roup . (Mü l le r—Ka rpe 1 959 , 15-116 ,G ab rovec 1 966 , 1 -48 ; 1 973 ,3 67-373 ) . T he a bove g roups a r e i mpor tan t b ecau se o ft h e l a rge q uan t i t ie s o fe xcava ted a nd p ub l ished ma ter ia l a va i lab le f o r s t udy . T he b u lk o f t h e ma te r ia l r e la t ing t ot h e D o len jska a nd W ie s— Ma r t i janec g roup s w a s e xcava ted i nt h e l a te n i ne teen th o r e a r ly t wen t ie th c en tu r ies , a nd w a s l a rge ly d e r ived f r om mo r tua ry c on tex t s , many o f w h ich w e r e p oo r ly r e co rded o r e xcava ted . I t mu s tt h e refo re b e s t re ssed a tt h eo u t se tt h a tt h e ma te r ia lp re sen ted b e low d oe sn o tf o rm ac omp le te s amp le o f t h e m o r tua ry d a ta . T h i s , i nf a c t , i su ndes i rab le , a s m any s i te s t oday c on s i s t o fo n ly ama ss o fl a rge ly u na s soc ia ted f i nds , w h ich , w h i l s t g i v ing a n i nd ica t ion o f t h e c h rono log ica l r ange i n vo lved , g i ve v ery l i t t le i n fo rma t ion c once rn ing t h e s oc ia l c omp lex i t ie s p re sen t . T he L a te B ronze A ge s i te s a r e a ga in l a rge ly mo r tua ry i nc ha rac te r a nd a r e s ub jec t t o s im i la r l im i ta t ion s a s t h e E a r ly B ronze A ge s i te s , a l though as i gn i f ican t n umbe r w e re w e l l e xcava ted r e cen t ly ( s ee C hap te r 3 ) . R ecen t c h rono log ica l a nd t ypog raph ica l r e sea rch , p a r t icu la r ly i n D o len jska a nd B e la K ra j ina , h ave r e su l ted i n t h e c on s truc t ion o fc l ea rs equences f o rt h ee n t i re p e r iod u nde rd i scu ss ion ( s ee C hap te r2 ) . T he s t udy o fs oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion i s ma in ly c once rned w i th t h e r i se o fr anked s oc ie ty i nt h e r eg ion . T he L a te B ronze A ge g roup s w e re c ha rac ter ised b y at yp ica l Ur n f ie ld b u r ia l r i te , c on s is t ing o f r e la t ive ly u nd if f e ren t ia ted f l a t c r ema t ion c eme te r ies , w h ich d eve loped i n to t h e p a t te rn t yp ica l o f t h e E a r ly h on A ge g roup s , t h a t o fb a r row c eme ter ie s , c on ta in ing g rave l o t s , w h ich e xh ib i ted c l ea r e v idence o f ma rked i n equa l i ty i nt h e g rave g ood s , c l u s te red a round d e f ended h i l l top o r s ca rp e dge s e t t lemen t s ( h i l l f o r t s ) . T h is c hange w a sn o ts udden ,t h eE a r ly h on A ge g roup s w e re c l ea r ly d e scended f r om t h e L a te B ronze A ge g roup s , a nd , i n deed , d u r ing t h e t r an s i t ion f r om b ronze t o i r on u s ing t h e t wo c eme tery t ypes w e re c on tempo ra ry a nd s ha red s im i la r ma te r ia l c u l tu ra l t r a i t s . A n i mpo r tan tp a ro ft h e s t udy w i l l , t h e re fo re , b e c oncer ned w i th t h e d eve lopmen t o f r anked s oc ie ty i nt h e r eg ion a nd t h e t r an s i t ion f r om b ron ze t o i r on u s ing . V a r iou s mode l s w i l l b e d i scu ssed t oe xp la in t h is a nd t h e d eve lopmen t o f r anked s oc ie ty d u r ing t h e E a r ly I r on A ge , c oncen t ra t ing i np a r t icu la r o n t h e r o le o fp r es t ige e xchange a nd e l i te c ompe t i t ion i nt h e D o len jska a nd W ie s— Ma r t i jance g roup s ( s ee C hap te r 5 ) . T he s t udy e nd sw i th t h ea ppea rance o fL a Une B a nd L a Une C g roup si nt h er eg ion a f te ra bou t 3 00 B .C . E xchange s ys tem s a nd t r ade w i l l a l so b e c on s ide red .

T he p o s i t ion o f t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion a tt h e h ead o f t h e

A d r ia t ic S ea m ean tt h a ti ff o rmed ama jo rl i nk ing z one i nt h e L a te B ron ze A ge a nd E a r ly I r on A ge b e tween t h eg roup ss uch a sE s te i n Nor ther nI t a ly a nd t h eB a lkan s a nd P annon ian P la in . I tw a s a l so a d jacen t t ot h em ine ra lr e sou r ce s o ft h e e a s ter n a l p s a nd c on ta ined m ine ra l r e sou rces i t se lf , w h ich m ay h ave b een e xp lo i ted i np reh i s to ry ( s ee C hap te r 1 ) . T he e x ten t a nd d eve lopmen to fe xchange l i nk s i nt h e L jub l jana a nd R u se g roup s a nd i nt h e D o len jska a nd W ie s— Mar t i janec g roup s w i l lb e d i scu ssed . E x t ra— reg iona le xchange s y s tem sa r e o fp a r t icu la ri mpo r tance , a s much o ft h ee l i te a r tefa c ts e ti nt h eD o len jska g roup c omp r i sed d i rec ti mpor t s o rc op ies o fm a te r ia l d e r ived f r om No r the rn I t a ly , t h e B a lkan s , a nd P annon ian P la in . T h is a l so h a s i mp l ica t ion s f o r t h e a c tua l s ou rce o ft h e i r on t e chno logy e mp loyed i nt h e a r ea ( s ee C hap te r 6 ) . S u rpr is ing ly f ew e xamp le s o f i mpo r ted G reek m a te r ia l h ave b een f ound i nt h e a r ea , i nd i rec t c on t ra s t t o t h e Wes t Ha l ls ta t t F u r s ten s i t z c omp lex , w h ich w a s n o ted f o r i t s c on tac t w i th t h e Med i te r ranean w o r ld i nt h e Ha l l s ta t t Dp e r iod (We l ls 1 985 , 6 9-89 ) . T h is p rob lem w i l la l so b ec on s ide red i nC hap te r6 . T he n a tu re o ft h e d a ta , c om ing , a s mo s t o f t h em d o , f r om p oo r ly r e co rded mo r tua ry c on tex t s , p rec ludes t h e u se o f mo re s oph is t ica ted t e chn ique s o f a na ly s is . I n s tead , t h e m a te r ia l w i l l b e a na lysed u s ing t h e s ecu re g rave l o t s a nd t ypo log ica l s equence s t op roduce c omb ina t ion t a b le s f o r e ach p ha se w i th in e ach c eme tery , i no rde r t oi s o la te p a t te rn ing i nt h e d a ta , w h ich m igh t i n d ica te s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion a nd /o r s exua l d i cho tomy ( s ee C hap te r 4a nd Append ix 1 ) . T he r e su l t s o f t h e a na ly s i s w i l lb ed i scu ssed i nC hap te r5 .

x i

L IST OF F IGURES 1 .

2 .

3 .

4 .

5 .

6 .

7 .

8 .

9 .

1 0 .

1 .

1 2 .

1 3 .

1 4 .

1 5 .

1 6 .

1 7 .

1 8 .

C ompa ra t ive c h rono logy i nt h eS ou th—Ea s tA lp ine R eg ion i n t h ee a r ly F i r s tM i l len ium BC ( a f te rD ob ia t1 980 a nd D u la r 1 982 )

1 3

L jub l jana IP ha se —t y p ica la r tef a c t s( a f te rG ab rove c 1 976 )

1 5

L jub l jana H aP ha se —t y p ica la r te fa c t s( a f te rG ab rovec ( 1 976 )

1 5

L jub l jana H b /Podzeme l j IP ha se —t y p ica la r te fa c t sf o und i nb a r row g r ave sa nd f l a tg r ave s( a f te rG ab rove c 1 976 )

1 6

T he P odzeme l j 1P ha se A n tennae H i l ted S wo rd G rave f r om P odzeme l j( a f te rG ab rovec 1 966 )

1 7

L jub l jana I Ia /Podzeme l j 2P ha se —t y p ica la r te fac t s f o und i nb a r row g r ave sa nd f l a tg r ave s( a f te rG ab rove c 1 976 )

1 8

E l i te g r ave so fP odzeme l jP ha se ,c on ta in ing d i sc h e lme t ( S chu s se lhe lm ) —S t iena ,G rave I V / 13 ( a f te r We l l s 1 981 )

1 9

S t iena 1P ha se e l i te g r ave w i th c ompo s i te b r on ze h e lme t Magda len ska g o ra ,G rave I V / 3( a f te rH en cken 1 978 )

1 9

S t iena 1P ha se e l i te g r ave w i th b r on ze v e s se l sa nd h o r se r id ing e qu ipmen t —T he N ovo m e s to T r ipod G rave ( a f te rG ab rovec 1 968 )

2 1

S t iena 1P ha se a s semb lage —P odzeme l jG rave G rm 1 / 16 ( a f te rD u la r1 973 )

2 2

P lan so fS i ppenhüge lb a r row si nD o len jska ( a f te rK nez 1 974 a nd G ab rovec 1 980 )

2 3

S t iena 2P ha se t y po log ica l ly f ema le e l i te g r ave —S t iena B a r row 1( Na rodn im uze j ) ,G rave 2 7( a f te rG ab rovec 1 966 ) .

2 4

S t iena 2P ha se t y po log ica l ly f ema le e l i te g r ave — S t iena B a r row 1( Na rodn im uze j ) ,G rave 2 7( c on t . ) ( a f te rG ab rovec 1 966 ) .

2 5

G o ld d i adem a nd g o ld n eck lace f r om S t iena 2P ha se t y po log ica l ly f ema le e l i te g r ave —S t iena B a r row 1( Na rodn im uze j )G rave 2 7( c on t . )( a f te rG ab rovec 1 966 )

2 6

C e r to sa p ha se e l i te g r ave w i th D oub le—C re s ted H e lme t —L ibna ,S p i le rB a r row I ,G rave 1( a f te rG u s t in 1 976 )

2 8

C e r to sa p ha se e l i te g r ave w i th N egova h e lme t —S t iena B a r row 1( Na rodn im uze j ) ,G rave 1 04 ( a f te rG ab rovec 1 966 )

2 9

E a r ly N egova p ha se e l i te g r ave w i th b r on ze v e s se l s— Magda len ska g o ra ,G rave V /6-7 —7 a( a f te rH en cken 1 978 )

3 0-31

H a l ls ta t tB Ia s semb lage i nt h eE a s tA lp ine R eg ion ( a f te r Mü l le r—Ka rpe 1 959 )

3

x i i

1 9 .

R u ge G roup A s semb lage i nt h eH a l l s ta t tB 2P ha se ( a f te r Mü l le r—Ka rpe 1 9 59 )

3

R u §e G roup A s semb lage i nt h eH a l l s ta t tB 3P ha se ( a f te r Mü l le r—Ka rpe 1 9 59 )

3 6

2 1 .

P ha se 1A s semb lage a tK le in—K le in ( a f te rD ob ia t1 980 )

3 7

2 2 .

P ha se 2A ssemb lage a tK le in—K le in ( a f te rD ob ia t1 980 )

3 8

2 3 .

P ha se 3A ssemb lage a tK le in—K le in ( a f te rD ob ia t1 980 )

3 9

2 4 .

H a l l s ta t t Bs i te si nt h eS ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion

4 0

2 5 .

E a r ly l i on A ge ( Ha l l s ta t tC ,H a l l s ta t t Da nd L aT en e Aa nd B )s i te si nt h eS ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion

4 1

E x ten to fe xcava t ion o fH a l l s ta t t Bs e t t lemen ts i te s i nt h eS ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion

4 3

E x ten to fe xcava t ion o fH a l l s ta t t Bm o r tua ry s i te s i nt h eS ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion

4 3

E x ten to fe xcava t ion o fE a r ly I r on A ge s e t t lemen ts i te s i nt h eS ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion

4 3

E x ten to fe xcava t ion o fE a r ly l i on A ge m o r tua ry s i t es i nt h eS ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion

4 3

Mo r tua ry s i te si nE a r ly l i on A ge D o len jska m en t ioned i nC hap te r3

4 4

3 1 .

W ies—Ma r t i janec b a r row c eme te r ie sm en t ioned i nC hap te r3

4 6-47

3 2 .

F la tc eme te ry s i te so ft h eW ie s—Ma r t i janee G roup m en t ioned i nC hap te r1 .

4 7

H a l l s ta t tB 1 a nd H a l l s ta t tB 2c eme te r ie si nD o len jska a nd t a je r ska :N umbe r so fm e ta la r te fa c t si nm o r tua ry c on tex t s

5 6

H a l l s ta t tB 3c eme te r ie si nD o len jska a nd t a je r ska : N umbe r so fm e ta la r t e fac t si nm o r tua ry c on t ex t s

5 6

S e rpen t i fo rm f i bu la f r om G rave 1 09 a tR if n ik ( a f t e r B o l ta 1 979 )

7 4

3 6 .

G rave 7 7a tR i fn ik ( a f te rB o l ta 1 979 )

7 4

3 7 .

D u ra t ion o fs i te t y pe sa tD o len jska a nd B e la K ra j ina

7 6

3 8 .

B ron ze v e s se ls e t si nH a l l s ta t t Da nd L aT ene A e l i te g r ave si nt h eD o len jska G roup

8 1

3 9 .

D u ra t ion o fE a r ly I r on A ge c eme te ry s i te si nD o len j ska

8 4

4 0 .

D u ra t ion o fs i te t y pe si n t a je r ska a nd S ou th S t y r ia

8 6

4 1 .

D u ra t ion o fE a r ly I r on A ge c eme te ry s i te si n t a je r ska a nd S ou th S ty r ia

8 7

2 0 .

2 6 .

2 7 .

2 8 .

2 9 .

3 0 .

3 .

3 4 .

3 5 .

4 2 .

B ronze v e s se ls e t si nH a l l s ta t t Ce l i te g r ave so ft h e W ie s Ma r t i janec g r oup

8 8

L IST OF MAPS Map 1 . T he p o s i t ion o ft h eS ou th —E a s tA lp ine R eg ion i nE u rope

1

Map 2 . G eog raph ica lb ackg round

2

Map 3 . T he Ambe rR ou te a nd t h el o ca t ion o fm ine ra l s( 1 000BC t o3 00BC )

4

Map 4 . P r eh i s to r ic c ommun ica t ion s( b a sed o nt h eR oman r o ad s y s tem )

7

Map 5 . L o ca t ion o fs i te sm en t ioned i nC hap te r4

5 3

Map 6 . H a l l s ta t t Bf l a tc eme te r ie sa nd H a l l s ta t tB 3b a r row c eme te r ie s

5 3

Map 7 . H a l l s ta t t Cb a r row c eme te r ie sa nd f l a tc eme t e r ie si nD o len jska ,g t a je r ska a nd S ou th S t y r ia

6 1

Map 8 . S e rpen t i for na nd C e r to sa p ha se b a r row c eme te r ie sa nd f l a tc eme t e r ie si nD o len j ska a nd g t a je r ska

6 9

Map 9 . N egova P ha se b a r row c eme t e r ie sa nd f l a tc eme te r ie si nD o len jska

6 9

Map 1 0 .C u l tu ra lg r oup si nc on tac tw i th t h eL jub l jana /Do len jska a nd Rae G roup sf r om 8 00BC t o7 00BC

9 1

Map 1 .C u l tu ra lg r oup si nc on ta c tw i th t h eL jub l jana /Do len jska a nd t h e W ie s—Ma r t i janec g r oup sf r om 8 00BC t o7 00BC

9 2

Map 1 2 .H a l l s ta t tB 3S wo rd G rave si nt h eS ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion

9 3

Map 1 3 .C u l tu ra lg roup si nc on ta c tw i th t h eD o len jska a nd W ie s—Ma r t i jan ec G roup sf r om 7 00BC t o6 00BC

9 4

Map 1 4 .D i s t r ibu t ion o f' f o r e ign 'p r e s t ige g ood si nt h eS t iaa 1a nd S t iC na 2P ha se si nt h eS ou th E a s tA lp s

9 4

Map 1 5 .C u l tu ra lg r oup si nc on ta c tw i th t h eD o len jska G roup f r om 6 00 BC t o4 50BC

9 5

Map 1 6 .D i s t r ibu t ion o f' f o r e ign 'e l i te a r te fac t si nD o len jska b e tween 5 80BC a nd 3 90BC

9 5

Map 1 7 .S i te sw i th m a te r ia lo fD o len j ska G roup o r ig in ,d a t ing t ob e tween 4 50BC a nd 3 00BC

9 6

Map 1 8 .T he A d r ia t ic R eg ion ,s how ing c u l tu ra lg r oup s ,r e g ion sa nd p r in c ip le t r ade r o u te s ,m en t ioned i nC hap te r7

1 08

Map 1 9 . L a te B ronze A ge a nd E a r ly I r on A ge s i te si nt h eN ovo m e s to a r ea .

1 23

x i v

CHAPTER 1 THE GEOGRAPH ICAL BACKGROUND p l a teaux , e . g . , t h e D a ch s te in . T hey a r e d i v ided f r om t h e C en t ra l C ry s ta l l ine A lp s b y t h e l o ng i tud ina l t r oug h r u nn ing w e s tt oe a s t , w h ich i so c cup ied b yt h er i ve rS a lzach a nd r i ve r E nn s . T he H ohe T auer n i n t h e w e s t i s ah i gh c r y s ta l l ine r a nge w i th m any g l a c ia l f e a tu r e s , w h i l s t t h e N iede re T aue rn a nd S t e ir i sche R andgeb i rge i nt h e e a s t a r e l owe r c r y s ta l l ine r a nge s , w h ich r e ach h e igh t s o f 2 800 m a nd 1 800-2200 m r e spec t ive ly . S ou th o f t h e se i s t h e s ou ther n w e s t—ea s t l o ng i tud ina l t r ough , w h ich i s o ccup ied b y t h e r i ve r D rau ( D rava ) . I tf l ow s s ou th—ea s ti n to t h eP annon ian p l a in t oj o in t h e r i ve r D anub e . T h e S ou the rn L imes tone A lp s f o rm t h e s ou the rnmo s t s e c t ion o ft h e A lp ine s y s tem . T he K a ravanke ( Ka rawanken ) a nd J u l ian A lp s i nn o r th—we s te rn S l oven ia a r e c ompo sed o fh i gh l i me s ton e r a nge s a nd p l a teaux , w h i l s t t h e P oho r je m oun ta in s i ng t a je r ska a r e t h e s ou the rn e nd o f t h e S t e i r i sch e R andgeb i rge . L ime s tone p r ea lp s e x tend s ou th o f t h eJ u l ian A lp s t oL jub l jana ( L ich tenbe rge r 1 975 , 8 ,1 011 ) . I nt h e s ou th o fS loven ia a r e t h e l i me s tone moun ta in s o f t h e D ina r ic s y s t em . T he se e x tend n o r th—we s t t o s ou th— ea s t , g r adua l ly b r oaden ing t ot h e s ou th—ea s t u n t i l t h ey r e ach t h e V a rda r a nd Mo rava t r ench i n s ou the rn D a lma t ia ( Pound s 1 969 ,6 22-623 ) . Am o r ed e ta i led d e sc r ip t ion o ft h ep hy s ica l g eog raphy i sn ece s sa ry t oa pp rec ia te t h e c u l tu ra lr e spon se i n t h eL a te rB ron ze A ge a nd E a r ly I r on A ge .

1 . PHYS ICAL GEOGRAPHY T he S ou th E a s t A lp ine r e g ion i ss i tua ted a tt h e h ead o f t h e A d r ia t ic S ea . N o r th e rn I t a ly a nd t h e P o v a l ley l i e t o t h e w e s t ; n o r th o f t h e r e g ion a r e t h e e a s ter n A lp s a nd C en t ra l E u rope . t h ee a s ti sd om ina ted b yt h eP annon ian p l a in a nd t h e m idd le a nd l owe r D anube v a l ley , a nd t h e s ou th b y t h e m oun ta inou sB a lkan p en in su la . I ti st h u sa ni mpo r tan tr e g ion a tt h e i n t e r fa ce o f t h e a bove f o u rr e g ion s ( s ee Map 1 ) . T he S ou th E a s t A lp ine r e g ion c an b e b r oken d own f o r e a se o f d i scu s s ion i n to t h ree s e c t ion s u s ing t h e mode rn p o l i t ica l d i v i s ion s . T he se t h r ee s e c t ion s a r e C a r in th ia a nd S ty r ia i n A u s t r ia , a nd S loven ia . T he a r chaeo log ica l g r oup s i n t h e r e g ion so fB e la K ra j ina ,D o len jska a nd S t a je r ska i nS l oven ia a nd s ou the rn S ty r ia i nA u s t r ia w i l l b e d i scu s sed i nf u r the r c hap te r s ,b u t t h e e n t i re r e g ion i sc on s ide red h e re t os how t h e r a nge o f r e sou r ce s a nd t h e l a nd fo rm s a va i lab le f o r e xp lo i ta t ion i nt h eE a r ly F i r s tM i l len ium B .C . ( s ee Map 2 ) .

1 . 1 C ar in th ia C a r in th ia i s s i tua ted i n s ou th—ea s ter n A u s t r ia a nd i s e s sen t ia l ly a nd a l p ine l a nd . I ti sd om ina ted b y r i ve r D rau , w h ich r i se s i n t h e E a s t T y ro l a nd f l ow s e a s t t h rough t h e L ien z b a s in a nd i n to C a r in th ia . N o r th o ft h e r i ve rv a l ley l i e t h e C en t ra l C ry s ta l l ine A lp s o f S a lzbu rg ,t h eH ohe T au ren a nd N iede re T auer n . T he r i ve r G a i l i ss epa ra ted f r om t h e r i ve r D rau b y t h e G a i l ta le r A lp s , a nd f l ow s i n to t h e D rau e a s t o fV i l lach . T he D rau v a l ley o pen s i n to t h e K lagen fu r t b a s in , w h ich i sf l oo r ed w i th T e r t ia ry s ed imen t s . T he re a r e n ume rou s g l ac ia l l a ke s i n a nd a r ound t h e b a s in , e . g . t h e M i l l s ta t te rS ee ,t h e Wö r the rS ee a nd t h eO ss ia che rS ee . S ou th o f t h e D rau a nd G a i l r i ve r v a l ley , t h e S ou ther n L ime s tone A lp s f o rm t h e m oder n f r on t ie r w i th I t a ly a nd S l oven ia . N o r th o f t h e K lagen fu r t b a s in l i e t h e c r y s ta l l in e r a nge s o ft h e G u rk ta le r A lp s a nd t h e S t e i r ische R andgeb i rge ( L ich tenbe rge r 1 975 , 8 ) . 1 . 2S tyr ia S ty r ia l i e s e a s t o f C a r in th ia a nd n o r th o f S l oven ia . P hy s ica l ly i td i v ide s i n to t wo p a r t s . T he n o r th a nd w e s t o f S t y r ia a r e a l p ine . T he H ohe a nd N iede r e T au r en r a nge s r u n e a s t i n to S ty r ia , r i s ing t o o ve r 2 754 m . T he n o r the rn l o ng i tud ina l v a l ley d i v ide s t h em f r om t h e N o r the rn L ime s tone A lp s . E a s t o f t h e se a r e t h e S t e i r i sche R andgeb i rge , c ompo sed o f t h e E i sene r z A lp s i n t h e n o r th ( p a la eozo ic s l a te a nd l i me s tone ) , t h en t h e G le in A lp s ( Gne i s s ) a nd t h e G raze r B e rg land ( pa laeozo ic l i me s ton e ) . S t y r ia i sd i v ided f r om C a r in th ia b yt h eK o ra lp ei nt h es ou th

Map 1 . T he P o s i t ion o ft h eS ou th —E a s tA lp ine R eg ion i n E u rope ( The H ach eu red a r ea i ss hown i n Map 2 ) A s t h e n ame s ugge s t s . t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine r e g ion i s d om ina ted b y t h eT e r t ia ry A lp ine f o ld s y s t em so ft h ee a s ter n A lp s . T he e a s t e rn A lp s c an b e d i v ided i n to t h ree s e c t ion s f r om n or th t os ou th . I nt h en o r th a r e t h e N o r the rn L ime s tone A lp s c ompo sed o f l i me s tone p r ea lp s a nd h i gh l i me s tone

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Map 2 . G eog raph ica lB a ckg round S av in jske A lp s , r a r e ly r i s ing o ve r 2 000 m . S ou th o f t h e se a r e t h e h i gh l i me s tone J u l ian A lp s . T he h i ghe s t p o in t i s Moun tT r ig lav a t2 , 863 m . T he se m oun ta in s e x tend r o ugh ly w e s t—ea s t . N o r th o fT r ig lav i st h e r i ve r S ava D o l inka , a nd s ou th o fi tt h e S ava B oh in j ska r i ve r a nd t h e g l ac ia l m o ra ine l a ke s o fB oh in j a nd B led . T he t wo r i ve r s f l ow w e s t t oe a s t t oj o in a nd b ecome t h e r i ve r S ava . T h e v a l ley s a r e d eep , p e r hap s 2 000 m b e tween v a l ley f l oo r a nd moun ta in t o p ( Mood ie 1 945 ,2 6-29 ;P ound s 1 969 ,6 24 ,6 26 ) .

a nd t h e P a cka lpe , S t uba lpe a nd G le in A lp s i nt h en o r th . T he r i ve r Mu r r i se s i n w e s ter n S ty r ia a nd f l ow s w e s t— ea s t t h rough a n umbe r o f T e r t ia ry b a s in s , t h e L ungau a nd T he A ich f e ld . T he Mu r v a l ley n a r row s e a s t o fL eoben , w i th t h e E i sene r z A lp s t ot h e n o r th o ft h e r i ve r . T he r i ve rr u n s s ou th t h rough at r an sve r se v a l ley i nt h e G le in A lp s a nd t h e G ra ze r B e rg land . T he Mu r f l ow s i n to t h e G raz b a s in a nd t h e E a s t S t y r ian h i l l c oun try . T h i si sa na r ea o fT e r t ia ry l a ke d epo s i t s w i th g en t le r o l l ing r e l ie fd ue t op r ea lp ine f o ld ing . I ti sd om ina ted b yt h e r i ve r s Mu ra nd R aab , w i th t h e i rt r ibu ta r ie s ,f l ow ing s ou thea s t i n to S loven ia a nd H unga ry . T he a r ea i so pen t ot h e e a s t t o t h eP annon ian p l a in ,b u t i ss h ie lded f r om t h e M idd le D anube a nd C en t ra l E u rope b y t h e S t e i r i sche R andgeb i rg e ( S ien 1 979 , 1 67169 ; D ob ia t 1 980a , 3 8 ) .

S ou th o f t h e J u l ian A lp s a r e t h e J u la in K a r s t ( K ra s ) a nd N o t ran jska . T h e K a r s t i sp a r t o f t h e D ina r ic c ha in , r u nn ing f r om t h e m idd le S oea v a l ley t ot h e s ou th e a s t . T he a r ea i s f a u l ted ,r i s ing t o9 15 m i nt h en o r th e a s t , w h e r e i tb o rde r s t h e D o len j ska r e g ion . T he J u l ian A lp s a r e d r a ined b y t h e r i ve r S o ca ( I son zo ) t o t h e s ou th . T he N o t ran jska r e g ion i s c ha rac te r ised b y al i me s tone K a r s t l a nd scape , t h a t i s , h i gh d ry p l a teaux a nd h i l l s w i th l i t t le s u r face d r a inage a nd l a rge s o lu t ion v a l ley s ( p o l je s ) w h ich p rov ide a r ab le l a nd a nd s p r ing s . S ome c on ta in s e a sona l l a ke s , e . g . t h e C e rkn i gko j e z e ro . T he r e g ion i sb o rde r ed t o t h e w e s t b y an a r row c oa s ta l p la in a nd t h e V en ez ia—G iug l ia r e g ion o f I t a ly ( Mood ie 1 945 , 3 1-32 ;P ound s 1 969 ,6 26-627 ; K a rou&ovä— S ope r 1 983 , 1-38 ) .

1 . 3 S l oven ia S l oven ia i s a n i n dependen t r e pub l ic , T h e R epub l ic o f S l oven ia ( f o rme r ly t h e n o r the rnmo s t r e pub l ic o f t h e f o rme r Y ugo s lav ia ) , w i th a n a r ea o f8 ,36 1 s qua r ek i lome t re s . I ti s n o t a n h omogenou s g eog raph ica l u n i t , b u t i sd i v ided i n to a n umbe r o f r e g ion s , w h ich r ef lec t n o t o n ly g eog raph ica l b u t a l so p r eh is to r ic a nd h i s to r ic d i v i s ion s ( Pound s 1 969 ,6 73 ) .

T he r i ve r S ava t u rn s s ou th a nd r u n s t h rough a w ide v a l ley f l oo red w i th T e r t ia ry l a ke d epo s i t s . I t r u n s i n to t h e L jub l jana b a s in , am a r shy a r ea f l oo r ed w i th Q ua t e rna ry d epo s i t s . I td ra in s af a n o fs h o r t r i ve r s f r om t h eJ u l ian A lp s

T h e h i gh m oun ta in r e g ion i nt h e n o r th , k nown a sG o r en jska , b o rde r s I t a ly i nt h e w e s ta nd A u s t r ia i nt h en o r th . T he s c h i s t C a rn ic A lp s r u n i n to t h e l i me s tone K a ravanke A lp s a nd

2

T he G eograph ica lB a ckg round a nd n o r th e rn K a r s t . I th a s s t eep i s o la ted h i l l sr i s ing f r om t h e v a l ley f l oo r . T he r i ve r S ava f l ow s e a s t o u to ft h e L jub l jana b a s in i n as upe r impo sed a nd g o rge— l ike v a l ley , w h ich f o rm s t h e n o r th e rn e dge o f t h e r e g ion o f D o len jska . T h i s l i e s b e tween L jub l jana a nd Z ag reb . I ti s ap l a teau o f T r ia s s ic l i me s ton e o n ac a rbon i f e rou s b a se , r i s ing t o9 15 m , d eep ly d i ssec t ed . S ou th o ft h e S ava i st h e K rka r i ve rv a l ley , w h ich i sw ide r a nd c on ta in s m o re a r ab le l a nd . T he a r ea e xh ib i t s b o th A lp ine a nd D ina r ic t r end s . T he 2 um b e r aa c ag o ra , a J u ra s s ic l i me s tone m a s s if r i s ing t oo ve r 115 m , f o rm s t h e n o r ther nb ounda ry o fB e la K ra j ina . T he w e s ter nb ounda ry i s t h e K ocev sk i R og a nd t h e e a s te rn a nd s ou the rn i st h e r i ve r K o lpa ( Kupa ) , w h ich r i se s i nt h e K a r s t a nd j o in s t h e S ava a t S i sak i nC roa t ia ( Pound s 1 969 ,6 25 ,6 37-638 ; Mood ie 1 945 , 3 2 ) . T he n o r th—ea s ter np a r t o f S loven ia , g t a je r ska , i sd om ina ted b y t h e r i ve r D rava ( D rau ) a nd t h e r i ve r Mu ra ( Mu r ) . T he P oho r je m oun ta in s , r i s ing t o 1 500 m , l i e t ot h e s ou th o f t h e r i ve r D rava a nd f o rm t h e e a s t er n e nd o f t h e C en t ra l C r y s ta l l ine A lps . T he D rava f l ow s t h rough ad eep ly i n c i sed g o rge b e tween t h e P oho r je m oun ta in s a nd t h e P o s s ruck m oun ta in s , t o Ma r ibo r , t h en f r om Ma r ibo r t oP tu j t h rough a w ide b a s in , t h e P tu jsko p o l je . T h e P tu jsko p o l je i sb ounded o n t h e n o r th e a s t b y t h e S l oven ske G o r ice a nd o n t h e s ou th e a s t b y t h e P oho r je . T he r i ve r Mu ra f l ow s t h rough t h e e x t r eme n o r th e a s t o f S loven ia a nd f o rm s p a r t o f t h e H unga r ian b o rde r . T he w ho le a r ea i s ap a r t o f t h e E a s t S t y r ian H i l l C oun t ry a nd u s ed t o b e k nown a s U n te r s te ie rma rk ( Lowe rS ty r ia ) . I ti sc ove r ed b ys o f tU ppe r T e r t ia ry d epos i t s a nd h a s ag en t le r o l l ing r e l ief . T he v a l ley s f o rm w ide a l luv ia l b e l t s w i th in t h i s e x ten s ion o f t h e P annon ian P la in ( Pound s 1 969 ,6 25-626 ) . 2 . CL I MATE AND VEGETATION T h em ode rn c l ima t eo fm u s to ft h e S ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion i sA lp ine . T he w in t e r s i nm uch o fS ty r ia , C a r in th ia a r e l o ng a nd c o ld w i th c on s ide rab le s now fa l l . S umme r s a r e w a rme r , b u t i na l p ine a r ea s t h e J u ly t emp e ra tu r e s a r e u sua l ly u nde r 2 0 °C . T he c l ima te o f t h e E a s t S ty r ian H i l l C oun t ry a nd S t a je r ska i sr e la ted t ot h a t o ft h e H unga r ian P la in . I th a s a c on t inen ta l c l ima te w i th c o ld , d ry , s nowy w in te r s a nd w a rme r , w e t te r s umme r s . T he G ra z b a s in h a s w a rme r w in te r s a nd s umme r s t h an t h e s u r round ing a r ea d ue t o t h e a me l io ra t ing e f f ec t s o f t h e S t e i r i sche R andgeb i r e ( Dob ia t 1 9 80 ,4 0 ) . D o len jska h a s as im i la rc l ima te t ot h e H unga r ian P la in a r ea , a l though mod if ied b y a l t i tude . N o t ran jska h a s c o ld w in te r s w i th h i gh r a in f a l l a nd c l oud c ove r . T he r e a r e s h a rp d i f f e ren ce s b e tween l o ca l a r ea s i nt e rm s o f c l ima te . T he p o l je s o f t h e K a r s t a r ea a r e o f ten w a rme r a nd w e t te r t h an t h e s u r round ing h i l l s . O n t h e o t he r h and t h e L jub l jana B a s in s u f f e r s f r om f r o s t p o cke t s d ue t o c o ld a i r d ra in ing d own f r om t h e s u r round ing m oun ta in m a s se s ( Pound s 1 969 , 6 57-661 ) .

c l ima te d e t e r io ra ted f r om a bou t7 70 B .C . a nd b ecame c o lde r a nd w e t te r . T h i s m ay h ave a f f ec ted h uman a c t iv i ty i nt h e h i gh land a r ea s , p a r t icu la r ly m in ing a nd a g r icu l tu r e ( P i t t ion i 1 980 b , 2 7-36 ) . T he c l ima t ic p i c tu re p re sen ted h e r e i s d e r ived f r om p o l len s equence s f r om S a lzbu rg a nd S ty r ia ( P i t t ion i 1 980 b , 3-36 ) . H oweve rt h e s i tua t ion w a s s im i la r i n t h e P oho r je m oun ta in s i n t a je r ska ( Ter ian 1 983 , 5 4 ) . A na ly s is h a s b een c a r r ied o u t o fp o l len s equence s f r om t h e D a lma t ian a nd w e s t I s t r ian c oa s t s , b o th o f w h ich a r e K a r s t a r ea s , a nd K a rou gkovä—Sope r ( 1 983 , 2 4 ) s ugge s t s t h e r e su l t s , w h ich s how t h a t t h e c l ima te w a s s im i la r t o t h e p r e sen t , m ay a l so b e t r ue o f t h e T r ie s t ine c oa s t . I ti s t h e r e fo r e p o s s ib le t h a t as im i la r s i tua t ion p r eva i led i n N o t ran jska . T he m oder n v ege ta t ion o f t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion i s s t rong ly i n f luenced b y c l ima te . I ti s aC en t ra l E u ropean t y p e v ege ta t ion , w i th m ixed o ak w ood land b e low 1 000 m , t h en b eech f o r e s t u p t o 1 500 m . A bove t h i s , s p ruce a nd f i r p r edom ina te u p t o 1 800 m , t h en a l p ine m eadow u p t o t h e s now— l ine ( Tu r r i l l 1 929 , 1 40-144 , 1 57 ) . T h i si st h es i tua t ion i nt h e A lp ine a r ea s o fS t y r ia a nd S l oven ia , a nd i nD o len jska . T he E a s t S ty r ian H i l l C oun t ry a nd t a je r ska a r e c ha ra c te r i sed b y m ixed o ak w ood land ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 4 0 ) . T he n a tu ra l v ege ta t ion h a s b een mod if ied b y h uman a c t iv i ty , p a r t icu la r ly i nt h e K a r s t , w he re t h eo r ig ina l f o re s tc ove rw a s r emoved a nd h a s b een r e p laced b y s h rub g row th ( maqu is ) a nd s e conda ry f o re s t( Ka rou gkovä—Sop e r 1 983 ,2 3 ) . T he S ub—Bo r ea l p ha se e xh ib i ted a d i f f e r en t v ege ta t ion p a t te rn . T he r e w a s ab r oade r b eech w ood land z one a nd a h i ghe r t r ee— l ine a nd s now— l ine ( 3 000 m ) . T he c l ima t ic d e te r io ra t ion w a s r ef lec ted i n al owe r t r ee— l ine a nd a r e p la cemen t o fp i ne a nd s p r uce b yj u n ipe r ( P i t t ion i 1 980 b , 2 7-33 ) . T he S ub—Bo r ea l f o r e s t i n t h e P oho r je w a s d om ina ted b y b eech a nd p i n e , b u th or nbeam a nd a l de r w e re a l so c ommone r . T he l owe rt r ee— l ine i nt h e e nd o ft h e S ub— B o r ea l w a s d ue t ob o th c l ima t ic c hange a nd f o re s tc l ea rance . T he S ub—A t lan t ic f o re s t w a s d om ina ted b y o ak a t l owe r l e ve l s ,t h en b eech a sw e l l a sa l d e r . A s t h ep e r iod p rog re s sed f i r a nd l a r ch r e p la ced b eech a nd p i ne a t h i ghe r l e ve l s . A r chaeo log ica l e v iden ce , f r om t h e a na ly s i s o fc ha r coa l f r om g r ave sn ea rP o s te la ,s ugge s tt h a tt h ec l imax f o re s tu nde rwen t as e r ie s o f p ha se s o fd eg rada t ion a nd r e gene ra t ion ( Te rI an 1 983 ,5 4 ) . T he L jub l jana B a s in a nd t h e v a l ley s o ft h e r i ve r s S ava , D rava a nd Mu ra w e re f o rme r ly ma r shy , a s w a s t h e G ro sup l je p o l je a nd p o ss ib ly t h e l owe r K rka v a l ley i n D o len j ska , a nd a s s u ch w e r e c ha rac te r i sed b y m a r sh v ege ta t ion , i n c lud ing v a r iou s t y pe s o f r e ed ( Tu r r i l l 1 929 , 1 28129 ) . H oweve r t h e K r gko p o l je may a l so h ave b een s u i tab le f o r a r ab le a g r icu l tu r e . T he K a r s t a r ea h ad n o tb een d enuded o f i t s o r ig ina l f o r e s t c ove r , w h ich w a s m ixed o ak f o r e s t , i n c lud ing s t one o ak , a sh a nd b l a ck h o rnb eam ( Ka rou gkova—Sope r 1 983 ,2 0-25 ,3 2 ) . 3 . MINERALS

T he c l ima te i nt h e F i r s t M i l lenn ium B .C . w a s d i v ided i n to t wo d i s t inc t p ha se s . T he e a r l ie r p ha se , t h e S ub—Bo r ea l , w h ich l a s ted f r om 2 400 B .C . t o6 00 B .C . , w a s w a rme r a nd d r ie ri nt h eA lp s , w i th t h et r ee l i ne h i ghe rt h an t o day , a t2 000 m t o 2 300 m . I n t h e f o l low ing S ub—A t lan t ic p ha se t h e

T he S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion i s n o ted f o r i t s m in e ra l w ea l th , a nd i t s p rox im i ted t om ine ra l d epo s i t s i n a d ja cen t r e g ion s . Many o ft h e se , i np a r t icu la rm e ta l s , w e re e xp lo i ted i np r eh i s to ry , a nd w e r e am a jo rf a c to ri nt h ed eve lopmen to f

3

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia

Map 3 . T he Ambe rR ou te a nd t h eL o ca t ion o fM ine ra l s( 1000BC t o3 00 BC ) : A u —G o ld ; C u —C oppe r ; F e —I r on ;N aC 1— S a l t ;P b —L ead ; S b —A n t imony ; S n —T in .

Ambe rR ou te :A .P omme ran ia ; B .J u t land

s o c ie t ie s i nt h e r e g ion b e tween 1 000 BC a nd 3 00 BC . I ti s t h e r e fo re n ece ssa r y t o e xam ine t h e l o ca t ion o f t h e se r e sou r ce s , i n o r de r t o s e e w ha t i nf luence t h ey h ad o n t h e d eve lopmen t o f e xchange n e two rk s i n t h e a r ea . T he r e sou r ce s i nq ue s t ion —c oppe r , i r on , l e ad , g o ld , s a l t , t i n a nd a n t imony — w i l l b e e xam ined i nt u rn , d e ta i l ing t h e e x ten t o f r e sou rce s a nd t h eh i s to ry , i fa ny ,o fe xp lo i ta t ion i nt h ep e r iod u nd e rs t udy .

3 . 1a T he T yro l T he r e a r e t wo m a in a r ea s o f Ur n f ie ld c opp e r p roduc t ion k nown i n t h e N o r th T y ro l i n w e s te rn A u s t r ia . T he m ine c omp lex o f K i t zbühe l h a s t wen ty s me l t ing s i te s k nown a r ound t h e J o chbu rg b e i K i tzbühe l ( P reu sch en a nd P i t t ion i 1 9 55 , 4 5-6 1 ) , a nd s e ven s me l t ing s i te s i n t h e B r ixen ta l , w h ich a ppa ren t ly d a te t ot h ee a r l ie r Ur n f ie ld p e r iod . C oppe r w a s a l so e xp lo i t ed a t t h e A l te Z eche s i te n ea r S chwa z ( P i t t ion i 1 980 a ,3 7 ) . C oppe r e x t rac t ion a l so t o ok p l a ce d u r ing t h e U rn f ie ld p e r iod a tL ava rone a nd V e t r io lo i nt h e T ren t ino i nn o r th I t a ly ( P i t t ion i 1 980 b ,8 6 ) .

3 . 1 C opper C opp e r w a s e xp lo i ted i n t h e e a s ter n A lp s t h roughou t t h e B ronze A ge a nd E a r ly I r on A ge . A n umbe r o f s p ec if ic c oppe rp roduc ing a r ea sa r ek nown w i th in t h ee a s ter nA lp s .

T he E a s t T y ro l a l so c on ta in s s i t e s w i th e v iden ce o fc opp e r

4

T he G eograph i ca lB a ckground e x t rac t ion . T he s i tes a t P re t tau i n A h rn ta l a r e o fM idd le B ron ze A ge d a te ( P i t t ion i 1 980 b ,7 8 ) . C oppe r s me l t ing o f Ur n f ie ld d a te i si n d ica ted a t Ma t re i ; i tm ay c on t inue i nt h e E a r ly I r on A ge , a s t h e re i s c on s ide rab le E a r ly I r on A ge m a te r ia l a t Ma t r e i . T he r e i s s im i la r e v idence f o r t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f c oppe r r e sou rces i nt h e V i rgen ta l d u r ing t h e E a r ly I r on A ge ( P i t t ion i 1 980 a ,3 7 ) [ S ee Map 3 ] .

H u t tenbe rg , w i th s i x ty s me l t ing s i te s , p rodu c ing b e tween 1 000 a nd 1 00 ,000 t o nne s o fo r e , a s w e l l a s a tF e ldk i r chen , K le in S t . P au l , G u t ta r ing , B a lde r sdo r f , S t . L eonha rd ,R uden , E i s a nd S chwabegg ( P i t t ion i 1 980 b , 1 68170 ) . H oweve r t h e se s i te sp robab ly o pe ra ted i nt h e L aT ene p e r iod , a nd t h i s e xp la in s t h e i mpo r tan ce o f t h e R oman t r ade c o lony o n t h e Magda len sbe rg , t h e c en t r e o f t h e l a te L a T en e k i ngdom o f N or icum , w h ich w a s p a r t icu la r ly c oncer n ed w i th t h e e xpo r t

3 . 1b S a lzburg

o f i r on g ood s ( P i t t ion i 1 980 b , 1 69170 ) . T he H a l l s ta t t C F rög g roup w a sc onc en t ra ted i nt h eD rau v a l ley a nd h ad f a rr e ach ing e xchange c on tac t s , w h ich m ay s im i la r ly h ave b een r e la ted t o i r on p roduc t ion ( A igne r-Fo r e s t i 1 980 , 7 -40 ) . [ S ee Map 3 ] .

T he M i t te rbe rg a r ea o f S a lzbu rg w a s a n i mpo r tan t c opp e r p roduc t ion a r ea t h roughou t t h e B ron ze A ge a nd E a r ly h on A ge , u s ing s oph i s t ica ted m e thod s o f m in ing . T he r e a r e t we lve s me l t ing s i t es i nt h e B i scho f sho f en a r ea a l one . T he M i t te rp in zgau a r ea h a s am ine a tW i r t sa ln b e iV iehho f en a nd s i x teen s me l t ing s i te s ( P reu schen a nd P i t t ion i 1 956 , 2 642 78 ) . T he se a r ea s w e re t h e ma in p roduc t ion a r ea f o rc oppe r i nt h eE a s t e rn A lp s . I ti se s t ima ted t h a tt h ee n t i r ep roduc t ion o ve r at h ou sand y ea r s a moun ted t o s ome 5 0 ,000 t o nn e s ( P i t t ion i , 1 980 a ,3 5 ) . C oppe r f r om B i scho f sho f en h a s b een t r aced t h rough a na ly s i s o f a r te f ac t s t o t h e c eme te ry o f H a l l s ta t t i nU ppe r A u s t r ia ( P i t t ion i 1 980 a ,3 4-37 ; 1 980 b , 8 5 ,8 7 ) . [ S ee Map 3 . ]

3 . 2b S tyr ia T he re i se v idence f o r e xp lo i ta t ion o f t h e l i mon i te o r e s a t T i l lm i t sch b e i L e ibn i t z i n t h e H a l l s ta t t p e r iod , w he r e a f u rnace h a s b een f o und ( P i t t ion i 1 980 b , 9 2 ) . T he B u rg s ta l lkoge l a tK le in K le in w a s a n i mpo r tan t i r on m in ing c en t re i nt h eM idd le sA ge s ,a nd m ay h ave b een w o rked i nt h e E a r ly I r on A ge , a s i tw a s t h e c en t r e o ft h e w ea l thy S u lm ta l n ec ropo l i s ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 3 9-30 ) . L a te r S ty r ia f o rmed p a r t o ft h ek i ngdom o fN o r icum ( s ee s e c t ion 3 . 2a ) . [ S ee Map 4 ] .

3 . 1c L ower A u s tr ia 3 . 2c B urgen land C oppe r s me l t ing s i te s a r e k nown f r om P i t ten a nd t h e K u lmbe rg , s ou th o fN eunk i rchen , a nd i ns e ve ra l o t he r a r ea s . H oweve r t h e se a r e a l l d a ted t o t h e e a r l ie r p a r t o f t h e Um f ie ld p e r iod , a nd d i d n o t c on t inue i n u se i n t h e F i r s t M i l len ium BC ( P i t t ion i 1 980 b ,7 8 ) . [ S ee Map 3 . ]

L a T ene i r on e x t rac t ion t o ok p l ace i nB u rgen land ( P i t t ion i 1 980 b , 1 70172 ) . T he a r ea w a s i n ten s ive ly s e t t le i nt h e H a l l s ta t t Cp e r iod b y t h e K a lende rbe rg g roup , w h ich m any a l so h ave e xp lo i t ed t h i s r e sou r ce ( Kau s 1 981 , 1 49158 ) . P a tek ( 1 982 , 2 5 ) s ugge s t s t h a t t h e Ka lende rbe rg s i te s i n S op ron a nd t h e s u r round ing a r ea m ay b e s i tua ted t o t a ke a dvan tage o f t h e i r on d epo s i t s i n t h e r e g ion , w h ich i s a d jacen tt oB u rgen land . [ S ee Map 3 ] .

3 . 1d S tyr ia C opp e r e xp lo i ta t ion s i te s a r e k nown f r om R adme r G raben a nd W i lda lpene r G raben , a nd d a te t o t h e U rn f ie ld p e r iod ( P i t t ion i 1 980 b ,7 8 ) . [ S ee Map 3 ] .

3 . 2d S loven ia

3 . 1e S l oven ia

h on b ea r ing d epo s i t s a r e r e la t ive ly c ommon i n t h e U ppe r K rka v a l ley a nd i nB e la K ra j ina ( Knez 1 972 , 1 04 ) . E v iden ce o fi r on s me l t ing h a s b een r e cove r ed f r om N ovo m e s to ( Knez 1 972 , 1 04 ) a nd Vge ( Gab rovec 1 966 , 4 2 ) i nD o len jska , a nd f r om P od zeme l j i n B e la K ra j ina ( J . D u la r 1 978 , 1 8 ) . U n fo r tuna te ly t h e se s i te s a r e i n comp le te ly p ub l ished a nd s o l i t t le m o re c an b e s a id b eyond t h a t t h ey a r e p robab ly E a r ly I r on A ge i nd a t e . T he S v . L uc i ja g r oup a l so a ppea r s t oh ave b een i n vo lved i n i r on e x t rac t ion a s t h e r e i s e v idenc e o f s me l t ing f r om B oh in j ( Gab rovec 1 966 ,4 2 ) . T he a r ea a r ound K ran j i n n o r th -w e s t S loven ia w a s a n o ted i r on e x t ra c t ion /p roduc t ion a r ea i nt h e m ed ieva l a nd e a r ly m oder n p e r iod s ( Pound s 1 969 , 7 06 ) , a n i n du s t ry w h ich m any h av e e x i s ted i n t h e E a r ly I r on A ge , w hen t h e r e w e r e w ea l thy b u r ia l sa tK ran j ( Gab rovec 1 966 ,6 ) . [ S ee Map 4 ] .

T he P oho r je m ou n ta in s i n S 't a je r ska c on ta in a n umbe r o f c oppe rb ea r ing a r ea s . T he re i s n o d i r e c t e v iden ce f o r e xp lo i ta t ion i n t h e L a te B ron ze A ge o r E a r ly h on A ge , b u t t h e re i s ac on s ide rab le d en s i ty o f H a l l s ta t t B a nd H a l l s ta t t C s e t t lemen t a nd c eme te ry s i te s w i th in t h e r e g ion , w h ich m ay h ave b een a s soc ia ted w i th c oppe rp roduc t ion ( Te r zan 1 984 ,5 1-52 ,6 57 2 ) . [ S ee Map 3 ] . 3 . 2I r on E v idence f o r p r eh i s to r ic i r on e xp lo i ta t ion i sm o re l i m i ted i n t h e e a s t er n A lp s , b u t n o l e s s i mpo r tan t . I n t h e L a T ene p e r iod t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion w a s n o ted f o r i t s h i gh q ua l i ty i r on w o rk .

3 . 3 L ead L ead w a s e xp lo i ted a tL i t i ja n ea r L jub l jana i nt h e R oman p e r iod . T h i s s i te i sc l o se t ot h e D o len jska g roup w he r e l e ad a l loy o r namen t s w e r e u sed i n t h e l a te r H a l l s ta t t p e r iod . H oweve r i ti su n l ike ly t h a t t h i s s ou rce w a s e xp lo i ted i nt h e p r eh i s to r ic p e r iod ( P i t t ion i 1 980 b ,9 2 ) .

3 . 2a C ar in th ia T he r e a r e i r on e x t rac t ion s i te s k nown p r io r t o t h e R oman c onque s t i n 1 5 B C , a f te r w h ich n ume rou s s i te s a pp ea r , e . g .

5

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia L ead a l so o ccu r s a t B le ibe rg i n t h e E a s te rn K a ravanke m oun ta in s( P i t t ion i 1 980 b ,9 2 )a nd i nt h eP oho r je m oun ta in s i nn o r the rn S l oven ia ( Te r ian 1 983 ,5 1-52 ) . A l though t h e re i s n o e v idenc e f o rp r eh i s to r ic e xp lo i ta t ion , i t s i mpo r tanc e l i e s i nt h ef a c tt h a ti ti sc l o se t ot h ec eme t e ry o fF rög b e iR o segg , f amou sf o ri t sl e ad f i gu r in es ( A igne r—Fo re s t i 1 980 7 -40 ) . I t i s am o re l i ke ly s ou rce t h an L i t i ja . [ S ee Map 3 ] . 3 . 4G o ld

3 . 5c T he G u lf o fT r ie s te I th a sb e en s u gge s ted t h a tt h eG u lf o fT r ie s te w a s ac en t r eo f m a r ine s a l t p roduc t ion . I t m ay h ave b een t r aded i n to n o r the rn I s t r ia ( Ka rou gkovä—Sope r 1 983 ,7 3 ) . H oweve rt h i s i n du s t ry , i fi te x i s ted , h ad l i t t le i mpa c t o n t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion . I tm ay h ave e x i s ted s o le ly t os a t i sfy t h e n eed s o f t h e l o ca l p a s to ra l e conomy o f t h e T r ie s t ine a nd n o r th—we s tI s t r ian r e g ion s( Ka rou §kovä—Sope r1 983 ,2 01 ) . 3 . 6T in

G o ld w a s e x ten s ive ly u sed i nt h e S ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion . T he g o ld d i adem s f o und a t 6. n ome l j , V e l ike Ma len ce , Magda len ska g o ra , N ovo m e s to , P odzeme l j , L ibna , g ma r je ta a nd S t ina d u r ing t h e S t ina 1a nd S t iei n a 2p ha se a r e n o e xcep t ion t ot h i s ( Ka s te l ic 1 960 , 3 -26 ; K nez 1 974 , 15-118 ) . T he re a r e s ou r ce s o fa l luv ia l g o ld i nt h e T aue rn a r ea , a nd i nt h e r i ve r S a lza ch i nS a lzbu rg , a sw e l l a si nt h e K l ien ingba ch a r ea i n C a r in th ia . H oweve r t h e r e i s n o e v idenc e o f E a r ly l i on A ge e xp lo i ta t ion ( P i t t ion i 1 980 b , 1 72173 ) . T he re a r e a l so s ou r ce s o fg o ld i nt h e s o u the rn C a rpa th ian s , w h ich a l so m ay h ave b een e xp lo i ted i nt h i s p e r iod ( P i t t ion i 1 980 b ,8 8-89 ) . [ S ee Map 3 ] .

Two s ou r ce so ft i nm ay h ave b een u s ed i np r eh i s to r ic b r onze p roduc t ion . O ne m a jo r s o u rc e i s s i tua t ed i n t h e C o l l in i Me ta l l i f e r i i nT u scany i nc e n t ra l I t a ly a nd w a s e xp lo i ted i n t h e E t ru scan a nd R oman p e r iod s , a nd p robab ly e a r l ie r ( Muh ly 1 973 , 2 55-256 ) . T he o t he r m a jo r s ou rce i si nt h e E r zgeb i rge m oun ta in s o n t h e b o rde r b e tween B oh em ia a nd S axony . H oweve r t h e r e i s n o e v idenc e f o r p r eh i s to r ic e xp lo i ta t ion ( Muh ly 1 973 , 2 56 ) . F ina l ly t i n d epo s i t s h ave b een l o ca ted i nt h e C e rr e g ion o fS e rb ia , b u tn oe v idenc e o f p r eh i s to r ic a c t iv i ty h a s b een f o und ( J ankov ic 1 982 , 1 86 ) . [ S ee Map 3 ] .

3 . 5S a l t 3 . 7A n t imony S a l t w a s a n i mpo r tan t r e sou r ce i np r eh i s to ry . I ti su s ed t o f l avou ra nd p r e se rve f ood , i nt a nn ing a nd i nt h em a in t enan ce o f l i ve s to ck . T he r e a r e t h r ee s a l t—p roduc ing a r ea s i nt h e E a s te rn A lp ine a r ea a nd a d jac en ta r ea s . [ S ee Map 3 ] .

A n t imony i s am ine ra l w h ich w a s w ide ly u s ed i nE a r ly l i on A ge g l a s s p r oduc t ion i n S l oven ia a s ac o lou r f i x i t ive ( Hende r son p e r s . c omm . ) . A n t imony o r e d epo s i t s a nd o ccu r ren ce s a r e w id e ly d i s t r ibu ted i n B o sn ia a nd S e rb ia , p a r t icu la r ly i nt h e D r ina d i s t r ic t a nd w e s ter n S e rb ia a nd i n c e n t ra l B o sn ia ( J ankovk 1 982 , 1 4 4 , 1 83184 ) . H oweve r s ma l le rd epo s i t s m ay h ave b een u s ed i np r eh i s to ry , a l though t h e r e i sn o e v idenc e f o re xp lo i ta t ion o fa ny o ft h e d epo s i t s . [ S ee Map 3 ] .

3 . 5a H a l l s ta t t T he s i te o fH a l l s ta t t i nt h e S a lzkamme rgu t ( Uppe r A u s t r ia ) w a sa ni mpo r tan tE a r ly I r on A ge c e n t r e ,w h ich w a sb a sed o n t h e e x t rac t ion o fr o ck s a l t . I th ad i mpo r tan t c on ta c t s w i th n o r th er n I t a ly a nd t h e S ou th E a s t A lp in e R eg ion , a nd h a s b een e x ten s ive ly s t ud ied i nt h el i t e ra tu re ( K rome r 1 9 58 , 3 95 8 ; 1 9 59 a ;B a r th 1 980 a ,6 7-69 e t c . ) .

4 . CO M MUN ICATIONS T he m oun ta inou s n a tu re o f t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion m ean s t h a t c ommun ica t ion s a r e d i ff i cu l t o ve r m uch o f t h e a r ea . T hu s , a c ce s s t o p a s se s a nd r o u te s w h ich f a c i l i ta te c ommun ica t ion ,o f ten h ave c on s ide rab le i n f luence o nh uman s e t t lemen tb e tween 1 000 BC a nd 3 00 BC .

T he s a l t m ine s f o rm t h r ee s e pa ra te g r oup s , w h ich r ad io ca rbon d a t ing h a s s hown c o r r e spond t o p ha se s o f o pe ra t ion . T he n o r th g r oup h a sd a te sr a ng ing f r om 1 000 ±3 5 B C t o3 20 ± 9 0 BC , a nd w a s p robab ly o pe ra t ing i nt h e l a te Um f ie ld p e r iod ; t h ee a s tg r oup h a sd a te sr a ng ing f r om 9 70 ± 1 00 BC t o 1 90 ± 8 0 BC , a nd w a s o pe ra t ing d u r ing t h e H a l l s ta t t C , H a l l s ta t t Ca nd e a r l ie r L a T en e p e r iod s . T he w e s tg r oup d a te st ot h eL aT ene a nd R oman p e r iod s( P i t t ion i 1 980 b ,1 26131 ) .

T he D rau v a l ley a nd t h a t o fi t s t r ibu ta ry t h e G a i l f o rm t h e m a in a x i so fc ommun ica t ion w e s tt oe a s ti nC a r in th ia ,l i nk ing t h e I n ne r A lp ine m e ta l p roduc ing g r oup s w i th E a s t a nd S ou th—ea s tE u rope . T he D rau v a l ley i sl i nked t ot h e A d ige v a l ley a nd n o r th er n I t a ly v i a t h e P u s te r ta l a nd Z o l l f e ld i n E a s t T y ro l , t h e G ro s sg lock ne r p a s s ( 2 500 m ) , w h ich i s u sab le o n ly i ns umme r , l i nk s t h eU n te rP in zgau v a l ley o ft h e S a lzach w i th t h e Mö l l v a l ley a nd t h e D rau . T h e S a lzach f l ow s e a s t , t h en n o r th t h rough t h e c opp e rp roduc ing a r ea so f S a lzbu rg a nd t h e s a l t c en t r e o fH a l le in . T h e G a i l v a l ley i s l i nked t ot h eT ag l iamen to v a l ley i nn o r the rn I t a ly a nd t h u st o t h e P o p l a in b y t h e P locken p a s s ( 1 360 m ) o ve r t h e Cyn ic A lp s . T he re a r e o t he r p a s se s o ve r t h e C am ic A lp s , t h e N a s sf e ld p a s s( 1 552 m )a nd t h eB e la v a l ley ,s o u th o fV i l lach a nd t h e V i l lache r A lp s . T he D rau v a l ley i sl i nked t ot h e S ava D o l inka a nd t h eS ava v a l ley b yt wo p a s se s ,t h e Wü r zen p a s s ( 1 073 m ) , w e s t o f J e sen ice , a nd t h eL o ib l( L jube l j )

3 . 5b H a l le in T h e D ü rmbe rg b e iH a l le in i sa l so a ni mpo r tan tc e n t r eb a sed o n s a l t m in ing , a nd i s w e l l k nown t h rough t h e l i t e ra tu r e ( P enn inge r 1 972 ; Moo s le i tne r , P au l i , P enn inge r 1 974 ; P au l i 1 978 ) . T he s a l tm ine s a tt h i s s i te , 1 0k m s ou th o fS a lzbu rg , c ame i n to p roduc t ion i nt h e H a l l s ta t t Dp e r iod a nd l a rge ly r e p laced H a l l s ta t t a st h e m a jo rs a l tp rodu c t ion c e n t r e i nt h e e a r ly L aT ene p e r iod , a l though t h er a d io— ca rbon d a te so ft h e f i ve m in ing s i te s r a nge f r om 7 20BC t o 5 0 8 0 BC , a nd t h e r efo r e s ugge s t s ome e a r l ie re xp lo i ta t ion ( P i t t ion i 1 980 b , 1 66-168 ) .

6

T he G eograph i ca lB ackground

•

EARLY I RON AGE S ITE

-

LAND ROUTE - -R IVER ROUTE

Map 4 .P reh i s to r ic C ommun ica t ion s ( b a sed o nt h eR oman r o ad s y s tem ) : 1 . k oc jan 2 .A ' i n ihe l 3 .K n eiak 4 .Z emon 5 .U laka .6 . L jub l jana 7 . Magda len ska g o ra 8 .S t i ba 9 .V aCe 1 0 . D o len jske T op l ice 1 .N ovo m e s to 1 2 . Sma r je ta 1 3 . V e l ike Ma lence 1 4 . L ibna 1 5 . P odzeme l j 1 6 . B o g tan j 1 7 . R i fn ik n ea r g en t ju r j 1 8 . Ma r ibo r 1 9 . L egen n ea r S l oven j G radec 2 0 . K le in—K le in 2 1 . F rög b e iR o segg 2 2 . V i l la ch—Napo leonw ie se 2 3 . Mo s tn aS o C i g ap o fF r ie sach a nd t h e G u rk v a l ley , u p s t ream o f t h e H ohe T auer np a ss r ou te . T he Mu rt u rn ss ou th a tB ruck a nd e r Mu r a nd i n to t h e r o l l ing E a s t S ty r ian H i l l C oun t ry a nd t h e G ra z b a s in . T he Upp e r Mu ra nd t h eG ra zb a s in a r el i nked b yt h e

p a s s ( 1 370 m ) , s ou th o fK lagen fu r t . E a s t o ft h e K a ravanke , t h e m oun ta in r a nge s b ecome l owe r a nd m o r e d i scon t inuou s , a nd a cc e s s t ot h e s ou th i se a s ie r , i ns p i te o ft h e D rava g o rge b e tween D ravog rad a nd Ma r ibo r . T he D rava v a l ley w id en s f o r f o rm t h e f e r t i le P tu jsko p o l je b e tween t h e S l oven ske G o r ice t ot h e n o r th a nd t h e P oho r je a nd H a loze h i l l s t ot h e s ou th . B eyond t h e se h i l l s t h e D rava f l ow s i n to C roa t ia a nd e ven tua l ly i n to t h er i ve rD anub e ( A lfö ldy 1 974 , 9 13 ) . [ S ee Map s 3a nd 4 ] .

G abe r l—Sa t te l ( 1 547 m ) . T he D rau v a l ley i sc onnec ted w i th t h e Mu r v a l ley a nd i t st r ibu ta r ie s ,t h eS u lm a nd S aggau ,w i th i mpo r tan t p r eh i s to r ic s i te s , a nd L a ssn i tz v i a t h e L avan t v a l ley a nd t h e P ack sa t te l p a s s ( 1 166 m ) o ve r t h e K o ra lpe . T he Mu r f l ow s o n s ou thea s t t h rough t h e P annon ian p la in i n n o r thea s ter nS loven ia ( P re l cmu r je ) a nd t h e H unga r ian b o rde r ( s ee Map s 3a nd 4 ) [ A lfö ldy 1 974 , 9 ] 1 3 ; D ien 1 979 , 1 67 ] 1 69 ; D ob ia t 1 980 ,4 1 —4 2 ] .

T he r i ve r Mu r r i se s i n t h e H öh e T auer n a nd f l ow s e a s t t h rough t h eC en t ra lC ry s ta l l ine A lp s( t he N iede re T auer na nd E i sene r z A lp s ) , f o rm ing a no the r r ou te t h roug h t h e I n ne r A lp ine R eg ion . I ti sc onnec ted t ot h e E nn sv a l ley a nd t h en ce t ot h e D anube v a l ley b y an umbe ro fp a sse s , t h e R ad s tad te r T aue rn p a s s ( 1 739 m ) a nd t h e H ohen taue rn p a s s ( 1 265 m ) a c ro s st h eN iede re T auer n ,t h eP rab ich lp a s s( 1 232 m )a c ro s s t h e E i sene rz A lp s a nd t h e A f len ze r S eebu rg p a s s ( 1 253 m ) b e tween t h e S a lza v a l ley a nd t h e Mu r , a c ro s s t h e H o ch schwab m oun ta in s . T he Mu r h a s c onnec t ion s t o t h e s ou th w i th t h eD rau v a l ley a c ro ss t h e K a t schbe rg p a s s ( 1 641 m ) ,s ou th o ft h eR ad s tad te rT aue r np a s s ,a nd t h en o r th— sou th

T he S ava v a l ley f o rm s t h e m a in c ommun ica t ion s a x i s s ou th o f t h e D rava , r u nn ing n o r thwe s t t o s ou thea s t . T he J u l ian A lp s l i e b e tween t h e S ava v a l ley a nd t h e P o v a l ley i n n o r ther nI t a ly , b u t c an b e c r o s sed b y t h e T a r v i s p a s s , w h ich l e ad s i n to t h e U ppe r T ag l iamen to v a l ley a nd v i a t h e S o ca v a l ley , w h ich l e ad s i n to t h e S ava v a l ley v i a t h e S ava B oh in jska ( Mood ie 1 945 ,3 1-32 ) .

7

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia T he R oman r oad n e two rk a nd t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fL a te B ronze A ge a nd E a r ly I r on A ge s i te s a l ong i ti n S loven ia a r e a n i mpor tan t i n d ica to r o f t h e ma jo r r ou tes i n to t h e S ava v a l ley a nd D o len jska . O ne b ranch o f t h is n e two rk l e d f r om A qu i le ia o n t h e Ad r ia t ic c oa s t a c ro ss t h e K a r s t v i a t h e V ipava v a l ley a nd r an e a s tt on o r th—ea s tv i aG o ren j iL oga tec a nd V rhn ika t o t h e L a te B ron ze A ge , E a r ly h on A ge a nd R oman c en t re o f L jub l jana o ve r t h e P o s to jna a r ea . O ne b ranch r a n f r om L jub l jana , n o r th e a s t t o C e l je a nd P tu j , w h i ls ta no the rr an s ou thea s tv ia t h e G ro sup l je p o l je , c l o se t o Magda len ska g o ra a nd S t iCna , a nd d own t h e K rka v a l ley t o j o in t h e S ava n ea r t oD rnovo . T he r oad t h en r an a l ong t h e S ava v a l ley i nC roa t ia t oS i sak a tt h ec on f luence o ft h eK upa a nd S ava . T he r i ve r s L jub l jan ica , S ava , K rka a nd K o lpa ( Kupa )m ay h ave b een n av igab le t h rough Do len jska a nd B e la K ra j ina ( s ee Map 4 ) . A f u r the r r ou te r an a c ro ss No t ran jska f r om T r ies te t o L jub l jana a nd t h eh eadwa te r so ft h er i ve rK rka . I tw en tn o r th e a s t v i a k oc jan , aH a l ls ta t t c en t re , a nd gm ihe l , t ot h e k a r s t b e tween t h e U nec p o l je a nd t h e C e rkn igIo p o l je , w he re i t

8

b i fu r ca ted .

O ne b ranch j o ined t h e R oman r oad a t G o ren j i

L oga tec , a nd w en t o n t o L jub l jana , w h i ls t t h e o the r b ranch r a n e a s t a c ro ss t h e K oC ev sk i R og t oj o in t h e R oman r oad i n t h e K rka v a l ley , e a s t o f Novo m e s to ( s ee Map 4 ) [ gag e l 1 975 , 7 4 —8 8 ; 1 977 , 1 57 — 1 60 ] . F ina l ly m en t ion m u s t b e made o f t h e l o ng—d is tance ambe r t r ade r ou te . I ti ss u rm ised f r om f i nd so f ambe rt h a tt h is r ou te r an f r om t h e B a l t ic c oa s t t h rough Mo rav ia a nd t h e e a s te rn r im o f t h e A lp s i n to D o len jska . T hence i td i v ided , o ne b ranch p robab ly f o l low ing t h e s ou the r ly b ranch o f t h e r ou te f r om L jub l jana a nd D o len jska i n to n o r ther n I t a ly , w h i l s t a no the r w en t s ou th i n to D a lma t ia , a nd at h i rd , e a s t i n to t h e B a lkan s v i a t h e r i ve r S ava ( Ma l inowsk i 1 982 , 13-123 ) . T h is r ou te w a s o n ly t h e e a s te r ly b ranch o f t h e a mbe r t r ade , w h ich r an f r om o t he r p a r t s o f t h e B a l t ic c oa s t i n to t h e We s ter n Ha l l s ta t t a r ea ( Ko ssack 1 982 , 9 5112 ) . Howeve r t h is r ou te c on t r ibu ted t o t h e i mpo r tan ce o f t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion i n t h e E a r ly I r on A ge , a nd i lu s t ra tes t h e i mpo r tance o ft h e r eg ion a s ac en t re o fc ommun ica t ion s ( s ee Map 3 ) .

CHAPTER 2 ARCHAEOLOG ICAL P ERSPEC I1VE

1 .P rev iou sA rchaeo log i ca l Work . A r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch i n t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion i n to t h e L a te B ron ze A ge a nd E a r ly I r on A ge i s a c ompa ra t ive ly r e cen t d eve lopmen t . P r io r t o 1 850 l i t t le m a te r ia l h ad b een r e cogn i sed a nd n o s y s tema t ic e xcava t ion h ad t a ken p l ace . I n deed i n S loven ia , t h e 1 845 h i s to r ica l S u r vey o f K ra i r i ( S loven ia ) d e sc r ib ed t h e e x ten s ive b a r row c eme te r ie s a t S t ia la a s f e a tu r e s c au sed b y f l uv ia l a c t ion , a nd t h e a s so c ia ted h i l l f o r t a s a ' n omad ' s ' e ncampmen t ( Gab rovec 1 974 , 1 70 ) . I n t h e s e cond h a lf o f t h e n i n e teen th c en tu ry t h e s i tua t ion c hanged , e xcava t ion a nd s ub sequen t ly a na ly s i s i n c rea sed d rama t ica l ly . T he d i scu s s ion o f a r chaeo log ica lr e sea r ch i nt h er e g ion f a l l sn a tu ra l ly i n to t h ree p a r t s ; f i r s t ly e xcava t ion , s e cond ly c h rono log ica l a nd t y po log ica lr e sea r ch , a nd t h i rd ly s o c ia l i n te rp re ta t ion . I t i su nd e r t h e se t h ree h ead ing s t h a t t h e f o l low ing d i scu s s ion w i l lt a ke p l ace . 1 : 1 E xcava t ion . 1 :1 aT he 1 9 th C en tury I nt h en i ne t een th c en tu ry t h e S ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion w a s a p a r t o f t h e A u s t ro-Hunga r ian Emp i r e . A r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch o n ly b egan w i th t h e f o unda t ion o f t h e r e g iona l m u seum s . T he se w e re s e t u p e a r l ie r i nt h e e t hn ic G e rman p a r t so ft h er e g ion , 1 8 11 i nG raz , 1 843 i nK lagen fu r t , t h an i n t h e n on-Ge rman a r ea s , 1 821 i nL jub l jana . T he W iene r H o f Mu seum i n V ienna w a s a l so i mpo r tan t a s i tc onduc ted e xcava t ion s i n a l l p a r t s o n t h e e mp i r e , i n c lud ing t h e S ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion ( Sk lena r 1 983 ,7 9-81 ) . E xcava t ion b egan e a r l ie r i n S t y r ia t h an i n t h e r e s t o f t h e r e g ion . T h eb a r row a tS t r e t tweg , n o r th o fJ udenbu rg , w a sd i scove red i n1 8 52 ( S chm id 1 934 , 6 ) . T he ' p r in ce ly ' b a r row s a tK le inK le in w e r e u n sy s t ema t ica l ly e xcava ted b e tween 1 881 a nd 1 883 . An umb e r o f s ma l le r e xcava t ion s a l so t o ok p l ac e d own t o1 9 17 ( Dob ia t 1 980 ,2 0-25 ) .

C . Ma r che se t t i o n t h e f l a t c eme te ry o f Mo s t n a S oe i i nt h e S o C 'a v a l ley ( ANSL 1 975 , 17-118 ) . A s ar e su l t t h e f i nd s w e r ed epo s i ted i nV ienna . I ti sn o tp o s s ib le t od e ta i l a l l t h e a r chaeo log i s t s w ho w o rked i nS loven ia d u r ing t h i s p e r iod , b u ta mong s t t h o se w ho w e r e a c t ive i n t h e a r ea w e re F . Ho ch s te t te r , w ho e xcava ted a t S ' ma r je ta ( ANSL 1 975 , 2 28 ) , a nd R . H oeme s , t h eb ro the ro f t h e a r chaeo log ica l s yn the s i se r , e xcava ted t wo b a r row s a t N ovo m e s to ( Knez 1 972 , 1 00 ) a nd o ne b a r row a t L ibna ( Gu§ t in 1 976 , 112 ) . T he p o s i t ion o fL ibna i si n te re s t ing , i nt h a t , a l though p a r to ft h eD o len jska g r oup , i tl a yw i th in t h e a dm in i s t ra t ive d i s t r ic t o f S ty r ia , a nd s o m uch o f t h e e a r ly e xcava t ion t o ok p l ace u nde r t h e a u sp ice s o f t h e J oanneum Mu seum i n G raz , w he r e m o s t o f t h e f i nd s a r e n ow k ep t ( ANSL 1 975 ,2 6 1 ;G u g t in 1 976 , 112 ) . D u r ing t h e l a s td ecade o ft h e n i ne teen th c en tu ry a nd t h e f i r s t d ecade o f t h e t wen t ie th c en tu ry t h e l o ca l a n t iqua r ian , J . P eCn ik ,w a sa c t ive o nb eha lf o ft h eW ien e rH o f Mu seum . H e e xcava ted w i th v a ry ing d eg r ees o f s k i l l a tP odzeme l j ( J . D u la r 1 978 , 2 0 ) , B ru sn ice ( Te l-Z an 1 974 , 4 6 ) , D o len jske T op l ice ( Te r ian 1 976 , 4 43 ) Magda len ska g o ra ( ANSL 1 975 , 2 01 ) , Mok ronog ( ANSL 1 975 , 2 17 ) a nd S mar je ta ( ANSL 1 975 , 2 27-228 ) a nd L oka n ea r ü rnome l j ( J . D u la r 1 983 , 2 19-244 ) , a nd m any o t he rl o ca l i t ies . Na tu ra l ly m o s t o ft h e se f i nd s a r e n ow i nV ienna , a nd s ome h ave g ood g r ave a s so c ia t ion s , w h i l s t o t h e r s h ave n o a s so c ia t ion s b e low t h e s i t el e ve l . A r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch w a s p opu la r a mong s t t h e A u s t r ian n ob i l i ty , w ho h e ld v a s t e s ta te s i nt h e r e g ion . T he P r ince W ind i schg ra tz e xcava ted a tV aCe f r om 1 874 t o 1 881 ( ANSL 1 975 , 2 04 ) . G ra f G . W i innb rand e xcava ted t h e R ue umf i e ld c eme t er y i n 1 875 ( ANSL 1 975 , 3 10 ) a nd a t K le in-K le in b e tween 1 870 a nd 1 880 ( Dob ia t 1 980 ,2 2 ) . T he m o s t i mpo r tan t e xcava t ion so f t h i s t y pe w e r e t h o se o f t h e D uche s s o f Meck lenbu rg , w ho u nde r took as e r ie s o f e xcava t ion s f o r h e r p r iva te c o l lec t ion . S he e xcava ted a t Magda len ska g o ra b e tween 1 905 a nd 1 913 ( ANSL 1 975 , 2 0 1 , H en cken 1 978 , 1 ) , a t S t iCna b e tween 1 905 a nd 1 914 ( ANS 1 975 , 1 98 ; We l l s 1 981 ,4 5 ,4 7 ) ,a tV aCe b e tween 1 90 5 a nd 1 907 a nd i n 1 9 13 ( ANSL 1 975 , 2 04 ) , a nd a tV in ica b e tween 1 903 a nd 1 907 ( ANSL 1 975 , 2 45 ) . A f te r t h e F i r s t Wo r ld Wa r t h e Meck lenbu rg c o l le c t ion w a s i mpounded i n L jub l jana b y t h e n ew Y ugo s lav g ove rnmen t , b u t w a s r e lea sed t ot h e D uche ss ' s h e i r s , a nd w a s a uc t ioned i n 1 934 ( Mah r 1 934 ) . T he f i nd s w e r e d i sp e r sed , t h e m a ter ia l f r om Magda len ska g o ra , S t iCna a nd V in ica i sn ow i nt h eP eabody Mu seum , H a rva rd i nt h e U n i ted S t a te s ( Hen cken 1 978 , 2 ) , a nd t h e m a te r ia l f r om V aCe i si nt h e A shmo lean Mu seum i n O x fo rd , E ng land . A t h i rd g r oup o f f i nd s w a s a c c iden ta l ly l e f t i nt h eN a rodn im uze j i nL jub l jana ,w he re t h ey r ema in t o t h i s d ay ( Hencken 1 978 , 2 ) . T he e xcava t ion s p roduced a

T he f i r s t e xcava t ion s i nS l oven ia w e r e c a r r ied o u t o n b eha l fo ft h e L ande smu seum R udo l f inum o fL jub l jana b yC . D e sc lunann ( K . D eiman ) b e tw een 1 875 a nd 1 889 . I tw a s d u r ing t h i s p e r iod t h a t t h e f i r s t s y s tema t ic e xcava t ion s t o ok p l a ce a t Sma r je ta ( ANSL 1 9 75 , 2 27 ) , Mok ronog ( ANSL 1 975 2 16 ) , Magda len ska g o ra ( ANSL 1 975 , 2 00-20 1 ) a nd V ace ( ANSL 1 975 2 04 ) . T he d i scove r ie s i n S loven ia r e su l ted i nn ume rou s a r cha eo log i s t s w o rk ing i nt h e a r ea , t o t h e e x ten t t h a t S l oven ia b e tween 1 880 a nd 1 9 14 h a s b een d e sc r ibed a s a' t r ea su r e h un t e r 's p a rad i se ' ( Gab rovec 1 974 , 1 66 ) . I ta l so r e su l ted i ni n ten se r i va l ry b e tween t h e W iene r H o f m u seum a nd t h e R udo lf inum . S zomba thy e xcava ted a t P od zeme l j i n 1 887 a nd 1 888 ( ANSL 1 985 , 2 42-243 ) , a s w e l l a s a tL ibna ( ANSL 1 97 5 ,2 6 1 ) a nd i n c on jun c t ion w i th

9

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia l a rge q uan t i ty o f m a te r ia l w i th a ppa ren t ly g ood g rave a s soc ia t ion s a t Magda len ska g o ra a nd S t iCna , a nd ma te r ia l w i th g rave a s soc ia t ion s o f u nknown o r ig in f r om V aCe . I t mu s t a l so b e s t ressed t h a t a n u nknown q uan t i ty o f a r te fac t s f ound t h e i r w ay i n to p r iva te c o l lec t ion s ( B . Sm i th-Demo p e r s .c omm . ) . I n s umma ry , t h e n i ne teen th c en tu ry e xcava t ion s p roduced t wo ma jo r t r end s w h ich a f f ec t d a ta a na lys is t oday . F i r s t ly , t h e e xcava t ion s w e re c oncen t ra ted o n p rom inen t b a r row o r f l a t c eme tery s i tes , w h ich g i ve s a n o verwhe lm ing b i a s t o day f o r s t ud ie s o f mor tua ry d a ta . S econd ly , t h e l a rge n umbe r o f d i f f e ren t e xcava to r s a nd i n s t i tu t ion s a c t ive i nt h er eg ion r e su l ted i nv a r ied s t anda rd s o fd a ta r e covery a nd i n aw ide d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e f i nd s b e tween n a t iona l a nd r eg iona l mu seums a nd p r iva te c o l lec t ion s .

c eme tery a t N ovo m es to ( Gab rovec 1 960 , 2 7-80 ; 1 968 , 1 57188 ) . T he i n te r-wa r p e r iod i s as ha rp c on t ra s t w i th t h e n i ne teen th c en tu ry e xcava t ion s . T he w o rk w a s o n a s ma l lsca le a nd w a s o f ten i n i t ia ted b y u n t ra ined i nd iv idua l s w ho u sed c r ude t e chn ique s . T he r e su l t ing ma ter ia l , w he re i t i s a va i lab le , i so f ten w i thou t g ood mo r tua ry a s soc ia t ion s . No n ew s i tes w e re d i scove red a nd e xcava t ion w a s c on f ined t o mo r tuary s i te s . S chm id 's e xcava t ion s w e re a ne xcep t ion t o t h i s ,b u tt h er e su l t sw e re n eve rp ub l i shed .

1 : 1c T he P o s t- War P er iod . A r chaeo log ica l f i e ldwo rk s oon r ev ived a f te r t h e h i a tu s o f t h e S econd Wo r ld Wa r . Mo s to ft h e w o rk h a s t a ken p lac e i n S loven ia . D u r ing t h e r ebu i ld ing o f t h e S lovene A cademy o fA r t s a nd S c ience s i nL jub l jana i n1 948 , al a rge B ronze A ge a nd E a r ly I r on A ge c r ema t ion c eme te ry w a s d i scove red , a nd s ub squen t ly s y s tema t ica l ly e xcava ted a nd p ub l i shed ( F . S ta le 1 954 ; P u g 1 971 ; 1 982 ) . T he Na rodn i m uze j i n s t i tu ted a n e xcava t ion c ampa ign a tS t iCna i n 1 946 ,

1 :l bT he I n ter- War P er iod . A f te r t h e F i r s t Wo r ld Wa r t h e A u s t ro-Hunga r ian Emp i re w a s s p l i t i n to n ew n a t ion s t a te s . T he n ew ly c r ea ted s t a te o f Y ugo s lav ia i n co rpo ra ted t h e S lovenespeak ing r e g ion s o f

w h ich c on t inued i n 1 952 , 1 953 , 1 960 a nd 1 964 .

T hese

C a rn io la ( K raM ) a nd L owe rS ty r ia ( Un te r s te ie rma rk ) , w h i ls t t h e p rov inces o f C a r in th ia a nd S ty r ia w e re i n c luded i n t h e R epub l ic o f A u s t r ia , c omp r is ing t h e e t hn ic G erman p a r t o f t h ee mp i re ( Sk lena r 1 983 , 1 52-153 ) . No t s u rp r is ing ly , t h is h ad c on s ide rab le i n f luence o nt h ec onduc to ff i e ld w o rk i nt h e

c oncen t ra ted o n t h e c eme te r ie s , w h i ls t t h e 1 967 e xcava t ion s w e re c on f ined t ot h er ampa r t so ft h eh i l lfo r t (We l ls 1 981 ,4 5 , 4 7 ) . T he i s o la ted b a r row o fV o lC je n j ive w a s e xcava ted b y G ab rovec ( 1 956 , 6 2-130 ) i n 1 953 , a nd i s p a r t icu la r ly

S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion . t h e p re-wa r W iene r H of a r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch i n w a s c onduc ted f r om t h e

T he Na tu rh i s tor i sche s Mu seum , Museum , n o l o nge r d om ina ted t h e r eg ion . I n s tead , f i e ldwo rk r e g iona l m u seums a t G raz a nd

i mpo r tan t , b ecau se t h e s ke le ta l ma te r ia l w a s p re served a nd a na ly sed . T he D o len jsk i m uze j a t Novo m e s to h a s a l so b een a n i mpo r tan t c en t r e f o r e xcava t ion . T he Ha l ls ta t t B c eme te r ie s o f B r g l j in ( Knez 1 967 , 1 55-16 1) a nd Me s tne

a s e r ies o f s ma l l e xcava t ion s a t

n j ive ( Knez 1 966 , 5 1-101 ; 1 984 , 19133 ) h ave b een d i scove red , a nd f u r the r w o rk h a s t aken p lace o n t h e Kand i ja b a r row c eme tery ( Knez 1 981 , 2 44 ) . T he P o say sk i muze j

L jub l jana . W .

S chm id c a r r ied o u t

K le in-K le in

b e tween

1 917

a nd

1 928 ,

i n c lud ing

a n

o f B rei ice h a s b een r e spon s ib le f o r e xcava t ion s o n t h e n ec ropo l i s a nd s e t t lemen t a tL ibna ( Gu g t in 1 976 , 1 011 ) . T he P ok ra j in sk i m uze j a t Ma r ibo rh a s c on t inued t oe xcava te l a te B ronze A ge a nd E a r ly l i on A ge mo r tua ry a nd s e t t lemen t s i te s i n S 't a je r ska ( Pah iC 1 973 , 5 22-523 ) , a nd t h e G or igk i

e xcava t ion t oc l a r ify t h e i n ter na l c on s tr uc t ion o f t h e MI 5 1 1S chm iedkoge l . An umbe ro fu n sys tema t ic e xcava t ion s o ft h e b a r row s

a t K le in-K le in

w e re

u nder taken

b y

u nknown

i n d iv idua ls ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 2 5-26 ) . T he f i nd s a tW i ldon w e re a cc iden ta l ly d i scove red d u r ing b u i ld ing w o rk ( Heub inge r 1 930 , 14 ) . S chm id

a l so

c on t inued

t o w o rk

i n S loven ia .

H e

m uze j i n Nova G o r ica h a s c oncen t ra ted o n t h e c eme te r ie s o f Mo s tn a S o C i a nd T o 1m in ( Svo l jgak 1 973 , 3 97-415 ) a nd t h e s e t t lemen to f Mos tn aS o ( Svo l jgak 1 980 , 1 88-197 ) .

h ad

p r ev iou s ly e xcava ted t h e Ma len gek b a r row a t Novo m es to

T he J oanneum Mu seum o fG raz w a s a c t ive i nt h e e xcava t ion o f b a r rows a tK le in-K le in d u r ing t h e 1 970 s ( Dob ia t 1 980 ,

o n t h e A pno a nd R ayne n j ive c eme ter ie s ,a nd t h eZ go rn j i a nd S podn j i K ron s e t t lemen t a tV aCe ( F . S ta r e 1 955 , 6 9 ; ANSL

2 , 6-28 ) a nd D ob ia t h a s s i nce b egun t o e xcava te

t h e

1 975 , 2 04 ) , b e tween 1 932 a nd 1 935 , a nd o n t h e K uca r h i l lfor t a t P odzeme l j ( J . D u la r 1 978 , 1 8 ) . D u r ing t h e

B u rgs ta l lkoge l s e t t lemen t a tK le in-K le in .

S econd Wo r ld Wa rh e e xcava ted f o rt h eJ oanneum Mu seum a t L ibna , w he re e xcava t ion s h ad b een c a r r ied o u t b y t h e

b een p ub l ished , t h e f i nd s a r e n o t a va i lab le f o rs t udy . Apa r t

Na rodn i muze jo fL jub l jana i n1 928 ( ANSL 1 975 ,2 61) .

e x ten s ive .

U n fo r tuna te ly

a l though t h e s i te r e co rd s o f t h e c eme te ry e xcava t ion h ave f r om t h i s , e xcava t ion i n s ou the rn S ty r ia h a s n o t b een

T he ma jo r i ty o f e xcava t ion s i n i t ia ted b y l o ca l p ea san t s

F ie ldwo rk h a s i n c r ea sed c on s ide rab ly i n q ua l i ty i nt h e

w e re c on sequen t ly u n sys tema t ic . Al o ca l f a rme r , A . H ra s t , d ug i nt h is f a sh ion a t S t iCna a nd d amaged ac on s ide rab le , b u tu nknown n umbe ro fb a r row s . F o r tuna te ly s ome m a te r ia l r e ached t h e N a rodn i muze j i n L jub l jana , p ar t icu la r ly t h e f amous S t iCna A rmou r g rave ( Gab rovec 1 974 , 1 70-172 ) . S im i la r ly p ea san t s e xcava ted al a rge b a r row i nt h e K and i ja

p o s t-wa rp e r iod , a nd m o re e xcava t ion s h ave t a ken p lace , a l though n o t a s many a s i nt h e n i ne teen th c en tu ry . R e sea r ch i s mo re p rob lem-o r ien ted t h an b efo re a nd s e t t lemen t e xcava t ion h as b ecome mo re i mpor tan t , b u t m o r tua ry d a ta s t i l lp redom ina te . T h e s y s tema t isa t ion o ft h e m a ter ia l l e d t o t h e p ub l ica t ion o f t h e G aze tee r o fa r chaeo log ica l s i te s i n S loven ia ( ANSL 1 97 5 ) .

1 0

A r chaeo log i ca lP e r spe c t ive C en t ra l E u rop e a nd t h eB a lkan s . T h i sc h rono logy r ema in si n u se t o day ,a l though i th a sb een mod if ied .

1 : 2 C hrono log ica la nd T ypo log ica lD eve lopmen t s T he c h rono log ica l a nd t y po log ica l f r amewo rk o ft h e L a te B ronze A ge a nd E a r ly I r on A ge d eve loped p a ra l le l t o e xcava t ion . T he f i r s t s yn the s i s a ppea r ed s oon a f te r f i e ldwo rk b egan . T he v a r iou s c h rono log ica l a nd t y po log ica l w o rk s o ft h ep a s th und red y ea r s h ave a l l c on t r ibu ted t o t h e p r e sen t c h rono logy , b u t t h e m o s t i mpo r tan t d eve lopmen t s h ave t a ken i nt h ep o s t-wa rp e r iod . D e schma rm a nd H och s te t te rp ropo sed ac u l tu ra l s equen ce i n 1 879 , b a sed o n t h e i r e xcava t ion s a t gma r je ta a nd V aC e . I t w a s s omewha t s imp l i s t ic , a t t r ibu t ing t h e s t a r t o f t h e E a r ly I r on A ge t o' I l ly r ian I n va s ion s ' ( Gab rovec 1 966 , 4 ) . T he f i r s t c h rono logy w a s p ropo sed b y M . H oe rne s , t h e f i r s t p rof e sso r o f p r eh i s to r ic a r chaeo logy a t V ienna U n ive r s i ty , w ho d i v ided t h e E a r ly I r on A ge i nS l oven ia i n to t wo p ha se s o nt h e b a s i so ft h e m a te r ia lf r om t h e Mo s tn aS o& ( S . L uc ia ) c eme te ry ( Gab rovec 1 966 , 4 ) . T h e w o rk o f P . R e inecke ( 1 900 , 4 4-49 ) o n t h e c h rono logy o f t h e H a l l s ta t t c eme te ry p rov ide s as ou r ce f o r c ompa r i son w i th c en t ra l E u rope . I t r ema in s t h e b a s i s o f t h e c h rono logy o f t h e l a te B ronze A ge a nd E a r ly I r on A ge i nc en t ra lE u rop e .

T he e xcava t ion o ft h e c eme te ry a tL jub l jana w a s i mpo r tan t i n t h a t i tp rov ided a s equence o f g r ave s d a t ing f r om t h e b eg inn ing o ft h eH a l l s ta t t Bp e r iod t ot h e H a l l s ta t t Dp e r iod , s pann ing t h e t r an s i t ion f r om L a te B ron ze A ge t oE a r ly h on A ge . G ab rovec ( 1 973 , 38-385 ) w a s a b le t oc l ea r ly d e f ine t h e c u l tu ra l s equen ce s o f t h e L a te B ronze A ge a nd e a r l ie r p a r t o f t h e E a r ly h on A ge b y u s ing t h i s m a te r ia l a nd c ompa r ing i tw i th o t he rs i te s i nt h ec i r cum-Ad r ia t ic a nd e a s t A lp ine r e g ion s . A ni mpo r tan tb ody o fc ompa ra t ive d a ta w a s c on ta ined i nF rey ' sa na ly s i so ft h eE s te g roup ( F r ey 1 969 ) . S ub sequen t ly t h i s w o rk h a s b een e mp loyed i nt h e d i scu ss ion o f r e g iona l g r oup s i n S loven ia , p a r t icu la r ly t h e B e la K ra j ina s e c t ion o ft h eD o len jska g roup ( J .D u la r 1 973 , 5 445 91 ) , t h e N o t ran jska g r oup ( Gug t in 1 973 , 4 61-506 ; 1 979 ) , a nd t h e S v . L uc i ja g r oup ( Te ri an a nd T rampui 1 973 , 4 164 60 ) . Much o ft h i sr e s t so nF rey a nd G ab rovec 's a na ly s i so f c r o sscu l tu ra l c on tac t b e tween B o logna , E s te a nd t h e S ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion ( F r ey a nd G ab rovec 1 976 , 1 93-2 18 ) . T he G ab rovec c h rono logy h a s b een mod if ied b y J .D u la r ( 1 978 ,6 5100 ) w ho h a se xam ined t h e t r an s i t ion t ot h e E a r ly h on A ge , a nd s hown t h e c on tempo rane i ty o fb a r row a nd f l a t c eme te r ie s i nt h el a te e i gh th c en tu ry B .C . T ea m ( 1 974 , 4 64 8 ; 1 976 , 4 26-433 , 4 37-443 ) r eexam ined t h e s i x th , f i f th a nd f o u r th c en tu r ie s B .C . i n D o len jska u s ing t y po log ica l m e thod s a nd c r o s sda t ing w i th E s te , D on ja D o l ina a nd C en t ra l E u rope . T he p ub l ica t ion o f t h e Meck lenbu rg e xcava t ion s a t Magda len ska g o ra ( Hen cken 1 978 ) w a s t h e l a rge s t s i ng le b ody o f d a ta f r om a n E a r ly h on A ge b a r row c eme te ry a va i lab le , a nd r e in fo r ced t h e c h rono log ica l a d ju s tmen t sp o s i ted b yT e r ian ( 1 981 ,6 59-662 ) .

T he i n f luence o f H o eme s a nd t h e V ienna s c hoo l o f a r chaeo logy c on t inued i n t h e i n te r-wa r y ea r s t h rough t h e w o rk o f h i s p up i ls . L oia r a nd S c hm id . S chm id w a s m o re c on ce rn ed w i th e xcava t ion , b u t L o za ra t temp ted t oc on s t ruc t ac h rono logy b a sed o n h i s e xam ina t ion o f t h e Meck lenbu rg c o l lec t ion , w h i l s t i tw a s l o dged i nL jub l jana . I n deed , t h e c h rono logy o f F . S t a r e ( 1 954 ) , w h ich w a s b a sed o n t h e m a te r ia l f r om V a Ce u sed t h e w o rk o f H o er n e s a nd L oza r . S chm id ' s c h rono logy a t temp ted t oc r o s s-da te t h e S loven ian m a te r ia lw i th t h a tf r om E s te ( Gab rovec 1 966 ,4 ,1 519 ) . T he M e rha r t s choo l o f a r chaeo logy , w h ich d eve loped i nt h e 1 940 sa nd 1 950 s ,h ad c on s ide rab l ei mpac to nc h rono logy a nd t y po logy i nt h e r e g ion . Me rha r t h im se l f w ro te e x ten s ive ly a bou tc on tac t s b e tween t h e M idd le D anube a nd t h e n o r ther n B a lkan s i nt h e L a te B ronze A ge a nd E a r ly I r on A ge , b u tt h e m a in i mpa c t w a s t h a t o ft h e w o rk o f Mü l le r-Ka rpe ( 1 954 ) o n t h e Ur n f ie ld g roup s n o r th a nd s ou th o f t h e A lp s , w h ich p rov id ed t h e f r amewo rk o ft h ec h rono logy o ft h eR ue g roup i nn o r th-ea s t S loven ia a nd S ty r ia , w h ich i ss t i l l u sed t o day . K o s sa ck ( 1 959 ) r e f ined R e in eck e 's c h rono logy o f t h e E a r ly h on A ge i n S ou ther n B ava r ia , w h ich p rov ided o ne o f t h e s ou r ce sf o rf u r the rc h rono log ica lw o rk i nS loven ia .

T ypo log ica l s yn the se s h ave a l so b een i mpo r tan t i n t h e d i scu s s ion o fc h rono logy a nd c u l tu ra l s yn the s i s . A na ly s i s o ft wolooped b ow f i bu lae ( Gab rovec 1 970 , 5 -65 ) , Maha i ra s wo rd s ( Gu g t in 1 974 , 6 7-94 )a nd s em iluna te f i bu lae ( De Ma r in i s a nd G u g t in 1 975 , 2 37-253 ) h ave c on s ide rab le r e levance f o r t h e r i se o ft h e E a r ly I r on A ge i nS loven ia a nd s t udy o f r e g iona l e xchange n e two rk s . A s im i la r f u nc t ion a pp l ie s t ot h e s t udy o fC e r to sa f i bu lae ( Te l-Z an 1 976 , 3 175 36 )i nt h eH a l l s ta t t Da nd E a r ly L aT ene p e r iod s . A m a jo r e f fo r t h a s a l so b een m ade t o p ub l ish t h e e xcava t ion s o f t h e n i ne teen th c en tu ry . S o f a r t h e s i te s o f B o g tan j ( Gu g t in 1 974 , 8 7119 ) B r u sn ice ( Te r ian 1 974 , 3 16 6 ) , L ibna ( G ta t in 1 976 ) , Magda len ska g o ra ( Hencken 1 978 ) , D o len jske T op l ice ( T e r ian 1 976 , 3 93-413 , 4 435 36 ) , S t iCna ( Gab rovec 1 974 , 1 63187 ; We l l s 1 981 , 4 58 7 , 1 49-229 ) P odzeme l j ( Ba r th 1 969 ; J . D u la r 1 978 ) , C /r n ome l j ( J . D u la r 1 963 , 2 19244 ) D raga tu ( Sp i tze r 1 973 , 7 80-830 ) a nd s S ma r je ta ( V . S t a r e 1 973 ) a mong s t o t he r s h ave b een p ub l i shed . H oweve r , m u ch o f t h e m a te r ia l d oe s n o th ave s e cu r eg r ave a s so c ia t ion s .

P i t t ion i ( 1 954 ) p roduced a c h rono log ica l a nd c u l tu ra l s yn th e s i s o f p r eh i s to ry i n A u s t r ia . T h i s i s a n i mpo r tan t o ve r v iew o fr eg iona lg roup s i nA u s t r ia ,p a r t icu la r ly t h eR uk a nd W ie s- Ma r t i janec g r oup s . U n fo r tuna te ly t h e c h rono logy i s am od i f ied v e r s ion o f t h e t h r ee a ge s y s tem , a nd w a s n o t w ide ly a dop ted . T h e m o s t i mpo r tan t d eve lopmen t s i n c h rono logy a nd t y po logy b egan w i th t h e w o rk o f G ab rovec ( 1 966 , 1 -48 ) . T h i s d ea l t c h ief ly w i th D o len jska , b u t i d en t if ied r e g iona l E a r ly h on A ge g r oup s . G ab rovec w a s a b le t od raw o n t h e r e su l t s o f r e cen t s y s tema t ic e xcava t ion s , a t S t iCna , a nd t o c r o s s-da te t h e p ha se s w i th m a te r ia l f r om n o r ther n I t a ly ,

T he W ie s-Ma r t i janec g roup d oe s n o t h ave a u n if ied c h rono log ica l s e quence , d ue t ot h e p auc i ty o ft h e d a ta , b u t a c u l tu ra l s yn the s i s h a s b een a t temp ted f o r t h e s e c t ion i nt h e

1

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia t a je r ska r e g ion ( Pah iC 1 973 , 5 21-543 ) . T he c u l tu ra l s equence a nd c h rono logy p o s i ted b y D ob ia t ( 1980 ; 1 981 , 1 85-204 ) i s v e ry u sefu l , b u t i s o n ly r ea l ly v a l id f o r t h e K le in—K le in c eme ter ie s . I ti s a l so h ampe red b y t h e p oo r g r ave a ssoc ia t ion so ft h em a ter ia l .

t h e D o len jska g roup a nd t h e K a lende rb e rg g roup . T h i s wo rk s ugge s t s t h a t ' s ympo s ium ' d r ink ing s e t s a nd d r ink ing g i f t s c an b ed e tec t ed i nb o th c e ram ic v e sse l s e t s f r om t h e S t icna 1 t oC er to sa p ha se sa nd i nt h eb ronze v e s se l s e t so ft h eC e r to sa a nd N egova p ha ses , a nd r ef lec t t h e s c ene s o f S i tu la a r t ( s ee C hap te r8 ) .

1 : 3 S oc ia l I n terpre ta t ion . T h i s i st h e mo s tr e cen ta r ea o fa r chaeo log ica l r e sea rch i nt h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion . E a r ly e xp lana t ion s o f c u l tu ra l c hange w e re s imp l is t ic , t h e ' I l ly r ian i n va s ion ' o fD e schmann a nd Hoch s te t te r h a s l o ng b een c u r ren t , a nd i ss t i l l e mp loyed ( Pu g 1 980 , 7 4-75 ) . Many a r chaeo log i s t s h ave t a lked o f s t rong i nf luences o r i n f luxe s f r om d i f f e ren t r e g ion s i n to S loven ia ( Gab rovec 1 966 , 1 6 ) w i thou ta dequa te ly e xp la in ing t h em echan i sms b eh ind t h em . T he r oo t so ft h i sc an b es een i n t h e t ypo log ica l a pp roach t a ken t o ma te r ia l . I t m u s t b e s t a ted , h oweve r , t h a ti nt h ea b sence o fr ad ioca rbon a nd o t he r modem d a t ing m e thod s i tw ou ld b e d i f f icu l t t o u nde r s tand t h e v a s t q uan t i ty o f L a te B ronze A ge a nd E a r ly I r on A ge ma ter ia l i nt h e r e g ion , a nd t o f o l low t h e i n te rac t ion s o f t h e d i f f e ren tg roup s . T he c oncep t o f t h e S ippenhüge l b u r ia l s i n t h e D o len jska g roup r ep re sen t ing c l an s , o r c o rpo ra te d escen t g roup s , i s w e l l d eve loped ( Gab rovec 1 966 , 1 4 , 4 3-44 ; 1 980 ,4 4 ) , a nd

We l l s ( 1981 , 9 3-128 ) a t temp ted a n i n teg ra ted s y s tem ic i n te rp re ta t ion o f s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion a nd t r ade i n t h e L a te B ronze A ge a nd E a r ly I r on A ge i nt h e S ou th—Ea s t A lp s . A n umbe ro fc r i t i c isms h ave b een l e ve l led a tt h is w o rk . F i r s t ly , b u r ia l p opu la t ion s a r e t a ken t o r ep re sen t t h e t o ta l l i v ing p opu la t ion s , i g no r ing p o s s ib le b ia s i mposed b y s t a tus , i n deed t h e s o c ia l mode l d oes n o t t a ke i n to a ccoun t t h e p o ss ib i l i ty o f p r e—ex is t ing h i e ra rch ie s i n t h e l a te B ron ze A ge ; h i s s oc ia l mode l i s b a sed o n a f am i l ia l g roup o rgan i sa t ion a nd s oc ia l c hange i s a t t r ibu ted t o i nd iv idua l i n i t ia t ive a nd r e su l t ing i n c rea se i np roduc t ion b a sed o n i r on (We l ls , 1 981 , 1 22-128 ) , a pp rop r ia te t o a n i n du s t r ia l r e vo lu t ion . I t i su n fo r tuna te t h a t t h e s ou r ces u sed d o n o t i n c lude t h e c eme te ry o f L jub l jana , a nd u se i n fo rma t ion d rawn f r om t h en or th—ea s t A lp ine r eg ion . F ina l ly , t h er o le o f t h ep res t ige e conomy i so n ly c u r so r i ly e xam ined . S oc ia l i n te rp re ta t ion i s n o t a s f u l ly d eve loped a s c h rono log ica l —t ypo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion s . T he s oc ia l mode l s u sed t e nd t o s imp l i s t ic b u t p rov ide a venue s f o r f u r the r r e sea r ch . T h i s i s ad i rec t r e su l t o f t h e p reoccupa t ion o f a r chaeo log is t s i n t h e r eg ion w i th c h rono log ica l a nd t ypo log ica l s equence s a nd al a ck o ft h e a pp l ica t ion o fs o c ia l t h eo ry t o t h e d a ta . T he s y s tem ic a pp roa ch o f We l ls ( s ee

s ome a t temp t h a s b een m ade t o s ugge s t i n te rna l s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion o f b a r row c eme ter ie s i n D o len jska ( Gab rovec 1 974 , 1 80-182 ; 1 975 , 5 6-57 ; T e rian 1 976 , 4 41-442 ) , b u t n o t a t ac omp lex l e ve l . R ecen t ly K au s ( 1981 , 1 49-158 ) h a s a t temp ted t o i s o la te i n d iv idua l c en t res w i th in t h e K a lende rbe rg g roup o f E a s te rn A u s tr ia , u s ing mod if ied T h iessen p o lygon s a nd t h e c oncep t o f S i ed lung skamme rn t o

a bove ) e xp lo res t h e i n te res t ing f i e ld o f t r ade , b u t w i thou t a na ly s is e mp loy ing s oc ia l a n th ropo log ica l e v idence o f e xchange , p a r t icu la r ly p re s t ige e xchange a s a n i mpe tu s o r

i n d ica te s e t t lemen th i e ra r chy .

a r t icu la to ro ft r ad e . T he i n va s ion t h eory h a s b een r e fu ted b y D u la r ( 1979 , 6 51 00 ) i nh i s w o rk o nt h e f l a t c r ema t ion c eme tery o f Me t l ika— B o r s tek , w h ich d a te s t ot h e t r an s i t ion f r om t h e L a te B ronze A ge t o E a r ly l i on A ge . H e re t h e e s sen t ia l s im i la r i ty o f t h e

2C hrono logy a nd C u l tura l S equence s . T he re i s n o o ve ra l l c h rono logy f o r t h e e n t i re S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion b e tween 1 000 B .C . a nd 3 00 B .C . I n s tead , a

b u r ia l r i tes i n b o th f l a t c r ema t ion c eme te r ies a nd e a r ly b a r row s i sd esc r ibed , a s w e l l a s t h e mo r e h i e ra r ch ica ln a tu re o f b a r row b u r ia l . ' P r ince ly ' g raves h ave b een c on s tan t ly m en t ioned , b u t t h e e xac t n a tu re o f t h e c oncep t h a s n eve r

n umbe ro f l o ca l c u l tu ra l s equence s h ave b een f o rmu la ted .

b een d ef ined ; a n e l i te a r tefac t s e t a nd w ha t c on s t i tu te s a ' p r ince ly ' g rave h ave b een d e sc r ibed , b u t t h e w ay i nw h ich t h e se r i ch b u r ia l s f i t i n to t h e s oc ia l

o rgan isa t ion h a s n o t ,

b eyond t h eo bv iou s f a c tt h a tt h ey a r e a ti t sa pex . S ta tu s

d i sp lay ,

p re s t ige

e xchange

a nd

c on sp icuou s

T he se r e ly o n t wo ma in a r ea s o fr e sea rch : c r o s s—da t ing w i th t h e c u l tu ra l g roup s i nn o r the rn I t a ly , w h ich h ave f i xed d a te s b a sed o n a s soc ia t ion w i th i mpo r ted G reek m a te r ia l , a nd o n c ompa r ison w i th t h e b e t te r k nown ma te r ia l f r om C en t ra l I t a ly ( F rey 1 969 , 4 -42 ; F rey a nd G ab rovec 1 971 , 1 93-218 ) . T he o t he r ma in a r ea o fr e sea r ch h a s b een t h e d eve lopmen t o f l o ca l t ypo log ie s a nd a na log ie s w i th m a te r ia l i n o t he r p a r t s o f E u rope . R ad ioca rbon d a t ing h a s n o t b een w ide ly e mp loyed ( See F igu re 1 ) .

c on sump t ion ap a r to fe l i te l i f eh ave b een i n ten s ive ly s t ud ied . P a r t icu la r ly t h e f i gu ra l f r ieze s o f S i tu la a r t w h ich d ep ic t f e a s t ing , d r ink ing , s exua l a c t iv i t ie s , h u .n t ing , spo r t ing a c t iv i t ies a nd i mp l ied g i f t—g iv ing ( Lücke a nd F r ey 1 962 ; F rey 1 969 ; E ibne r 1 981 ; K rome r 1 980 e t c . ) , a nd a r e s e en a s

T he r e g iona l c u l tu ra l s equences f o rm ac on t inuum f r om t h e S v . L uc i ja g roup i nt h e n or th—wes t o f S loven ia t h rough t h e D o len jska r e g ion a nd i n to S ta je r ska a nd s ou the rn S ty r ia . T he

p a r t o f ac omp lex o n b o th s i de s o ft h e A dr ia t ic , w h ich d a te b ack t o t h e H a l l s ta t t Bp er iod ( Gab rovec 1 973 , 3 67-373 ;

l a te B ronze A ge s equence o f t h e L jub l jana

g roup i n

1 976 ,5 88-600 ) . K rome r( 1980 , 2 25-240 )h a ss ugge s ted t h a t

G o ren jska . D o len jska a nd B e la K ra j ina i sb a sed o n t h e t ype s i te o f t h e c eme ter y a tL jub l jana ( F . S ta re 1 954 ; P u s 1 971 ;

t h e S i tu la a r t ' f r iezes r ep re sen ted a s e r ies o f e ven t s i n a r i s toc ra t ic l i f e i nt h e S ou th E a s t a nd e a s t A lp ine R eg ion s i n t h e E a r ly I r on A ge . T ef ian ( 1980 , 3 43-352 ) h a s f u r the r

1 982 ) , a nd h a s b een d i scus sed b y Gab rovec ( 1973 , 3 383 85 ; 1 976 , 5 88-600 ) . E x ten s ive u se w a s made o f a na logy w i th t h e c i rcum—Ad r ia t ic r eg ion , C en t ra l E u rope a nd t h e

e l abo ra ted t h i s i nh e re xam ina t ion o fv esse l s e t s i ng rave s o f

u rn f ie ld g roup so ft h en o r th—ea s tA lp ine r eg ion ,H unga ry a nd

1 2

A r chaeo log ica lP er spec t ive

C en t ra l

L jub l jana

D o len jska

R tge

K le in K le in

S v . L uc i ja

E s te

E u rope

.

H aB l

l a

H aB 1

H aB 2

I b

L j I b

I l a

L j H a

9 00 BC H aB 2

I

8 00 BC H aB 3

H aB 3

T o lm in H a

I b 7 00

L j l I b / P odzeme l j 1

I a 1

BC H aC l

I Ia

P odzeme l j 2

H aC 2

I Ib

S t iena 1

2

S t iena 2

3

l b

l i b I c

I c

6 00

I / I I I

BC H aD 1

H a

I l Ia

S erpen t i f orm 5 00

H aD 2 -D3

BC

C er tosa I Ib I l b L aT ene A

4 00

E a r ly

BC

N egova L aT ene B L a te

I c

I Ic

N egova

F igu re I :C ompa ra t ive C hrono logy i nt h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion i nt h e E a r ly F i r s t M i l len ium BC ( Af t e rD ob ia t 1 980 a nd D u la r 1 982 ) .

1 3

I r on A ge i nS l ov en ia a nd n o r th—we s te rn C roa t ia , a s w e l l a s t h e h o r izon ta l s t ra t ig raphy o f t h e s i te i t se l f . T he H a l l s ta t t B g r oup c h rono logy i s b a sed l a rge ly o n t h e i n ter na l c h rono logy o f t h e R u ge ( Ma r ia R a s t ) c eme te ry i n t h e S loven ian D rava v a l ley n ea r Ma r ibo r , a nd d i scu s s ion o f i t s p o s i t ion w i th in t h e U rn f ie ld g r oup t h e N o r th—Ea s t A lp ine r e g ion , H unga ry a nd n o r thwe s ter nC roa t ia ( Mü l le rK a rpe 1 9 59 , 1513 ) . T he D o len jska g roup o ve r lap s c h rono log ica l ly w i th t h e L jub l jana U r n f ie ld g roup . T he c u l tu ra l s equence u sed h e r e i sd e r ived f r om t h e w o rk o fS loven ian a r chaeo log i s t s i nt h e l a s tt h i r ty y ea r s ,u s ing b o th o l de xcava ted m a te r ia l a nd n ew d a ta d e r ived p a r t icu la r ly f r om t h e r e cen t e xcava t ion s a t L jub l jana a nd S t i& ia ( Gab rovec 1 966 , 1 -148 ; 1 973 , 383 85 ; 1 974 , 1 63187 ; 1 976 , 5 88-600 ; F r ey a nd G ab rovec 1 971 , 1 93-2 18 ; T e rian 1 975 , 3 1-66 ; 1 976 , 3 17-536 ; 1 981 , 6 59-664 ) , a s w e l l a sc on t r ibu t ion s r e la ted t ot h e s i te o f Magda len ska g o ra a nd t h e Meck lenbu rg c o l lec t ion ( Hencken 1 978 , 8 3-89 ) .T he s equence i sb a sed o n i n ten s ive a r te fac tua l a na ly s i s a nd c r o s s—da t ing w i th t h e E s te a nd B o logna g r oup s i n n o r ther n I t a ly . I t p rov ide s a g ood c h rono log ica l f r amewo rk , w h ich i sb a sed o n m o r tua ry d a ta . I ti s u n l ike ly t h a t t h i s s equen ce c an b e i mp roved u pon w i thou t a n e x t en s ive p rog ramme o fs e t t lemen t a nd m o r tua ry e xcava t ion c oup led w i th au se o ft e chn ique s o fr ad ioca rbon d a t ing . T he W ie s—Ma r t i janec g r oup o f n o r th—ea s ter n S loven ia , s ou the rn S ty r ia a nd n o r th—we s ter nC roa t ia h a s n o t b een t h e s ub jec t o f s u ch ar a nge o f s t ud ie s . T h e m a in s equence i s d e r ived f r om t h e m a jo r c en t r e a tK le in—K le in i nt h e S u lm v a l ley . I ti s am uch l e s s s e cu re d a t ing s y s tem b a sed o n m o r tua ry d a ta , w h ich d oe s n o t c on ta in m any c l o sed g r ave l o t s . T he c h rono logy i sb a sed o n a na logy w i th t h e D o len j ska g r oup , n o r the r n I t a ly a nd t h e E a s ter n H a l l s ta t t c u l tu ra l p rov in ce s a s w e l l a s o n a na ly s i s o ft h e i n ter na l t y po logy o f t h es i te ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 1 59176 ; 1 98 1 , 1 8 5-202 ) . T he s i t e s i n S /t a je r ska a nd n o r th—we s ter n C roa t ia h ave b een l i t t le s t ud ied b ecau se o ft h e l a ck o fs e cu re g r ave l o t s ( Pah ic 1 973 , 5 21-543 ) . T he c u l tu ra l s equence i so n ly r e a l ly a pp l icab le t o K le in—K le in , w h e r e i td oe s p rov ide ab r oad f r amewo rk f o r d i scu s s ion , a nd s how s ad eg ree o f c ong ruence w i th t h e D o len jska g roup . H oweve r , i tc an o n ly b e i mp roved b y f u r the r e xcava t ion o n t h e c eme t er ie s a nd s e t t lemen t a t K le in—K le in , a nd i ng t a je r ska , i nw h ich m oder n e xcava t ion t e chn ique s a nd r ad ioca rbon d a t ing m u s tb ee mp loyed .

i n C en t ra l E u rope . I ti s m a rked i n D o len jska a nd B e la K ra j ina b y t h e a ppea ran ce o f an ew H a l l s ta t t Bg r oup , a p henomenon f o und e l sewh e r e i n E u rop e . T he L jub l jana g r oup i sk nown m a in ly f r om c eme te r ie s . I ti sc ha rac te r i sed b y at y p ica l =f ie ld b u r ia l r i te o f c r ema t ion , i n umed o r l o o se , i n af l a t c eme te ry . T he m a te r ia l c an b e d i v ided i n to t wo p ha se s , L jub l jana l a a nd L jub l jana l b , w h ich a r e e qu iva len t t ot h e Ha l l s ta t t B1a nd H a l l s ta t t B 2 i nC en t ra l E u rop e ,r e sp ec t ive ly ( Gab rovec , 1 973 ,3 68-369 ,3 70-371 ) . L jub l jana l a i st h e f i r s t p ha se o f t h e L jub l jana g roup a nd d a t e sf r om 1 000 B .C . t o9 00 B .C . I ts e em st ob ep r e sen to n ly a tt h eL jub l jana c eme te ry i t se lf .T he f ew g r ave so ft h i sp ha se a r es im i la rt ot h e l a te rg r ave s a tD obova i ne a s te rn S loven ia , w h ich i s ap a r to ft h en o r th—we s tC roa t ian H a l l s ta t t Bg r oup . T yp ica l m a te r ia l i n c lude s c a r ina ted c up s ( F igu re 2 : 15 ) , b r on ze k n ive s ( F igu r e 2 : 12 ) a nd o n ion a nd c l ub—headed b r on ze d r e s sp i n s( F igu r e2 : 2 ,5 )[ Gab rovec 1 973 ,3 68-369 ] . L jub l jana l b i sd a ted t ob e tween 9 00 B .C . a nd 8 00 B .C . T h i s p ha se i sm uch b e t te rr e p r e sen ted w i th f i f te en g rave s a t L jub l jana a nd a t B led i n G o ren jska , t h e Mok ronog c eme t e r ie s a nd N ovo m e s to — B rA in i n D o len jska a nd G r ib l je i n B e la K ra j ina . T ypo log ica l ly m a le g r ave s c on ta ined o n ion— , r o l l— , c l ub— , v a se— a nd n a i l—headed b r on ze d r e s s—p in s ( F igu r e 2 : 1 -6 ) , b ron ze s em i— luna te r a zo r s ( F igu r e 2 : 11 ) a nd ' H ' s hap ed b ron ze b e l t h ook s ( F igu re 2 : 14 ) . T ypo log ica l ly f ema le g r ave sc on ta ined b r onze s p ec tac le f i bu la e w i th ' f i gu r e—o f—e igh t ' l o ok ( F igu re 2 : 7 ) , b r on ze s h ee t a r rn r ing s a nd b r onze w i re a r rn r ing s t h readed w i th b one b ead s ( F igu r e 2 : 13 ) . T h i s m a te r ia l s how s c l ea r l i nk s w i th t h e R ü ge g r oup i nS ‘ t a je r ska a nd S ty r ia , a nd t h e c eme te ry a t T o lm in i n t h e S v . L uc i ja g r oup , t h e g ko c jan h oa rd a nd B r ei ec c eme te ry i n N o t ran jska a nd E s te a nd B o log na ( Gab rovec 1 973 ,3 68-369 , 3 70-371 ) . 2 :1 bL jub l jana I l a( 8 00 t o7 50 B .C . ) T h i s i sa ni n t e rmed ia te p ha se e qu iva len tt ot h ef i r s th a l fo f t h e H a l l s ta t t B 3 p e r iod i nC en t ra l E u rope . T h i s p ha se i s r e p r e sen ted b y f i ve g r ave s f r om L jub l jana a nd s t ray f i nd s f r om t h e Mok ronog c eme te r ie s . O the r c eme te r ie s i n D o len jska a nd B e la K ra j ina h ave i n su f f ic ien t m e ta lwo rk t o e nab le t h e L jub l jana I a p ha se t o b e d e tec ted ( J . D u la r 1 979 , 8 3 ) . T he m a te r ia l c ha ra c te r i s t ic o f t h i s p ha se i si n m any r e spe c t s s im i la r t o t h e p r ec ed ing p ha se , a l though s ome n ew f o rm s d o a ppea r . T he se a r e c on ica l— a nd m u sh room—headed b r on ze d r e s s—p in s ( F igu r e 3 : 1 ,2 ) , w inged b ron ze a xe s ( F igu r e 3 : 3 ) , a nd t h e f i r s t i r on o b jec t s , k n ive s ( F igu r e 3 : 4 ) . T he b r on ze s i ng le— looped b ow f i bu la ( f igu r e 3 : 6 ) i sa l so f ou nd i nN o t ran jska a nd a tT o lm in , w h i l s t t h e G o l in jevo t y p e f i bu la ( F ig u r e 3 : 7 ) i s aw e s t B a lkan t y p e . C e ram ic u r n s i nt h i s p ha se h ave c on ica l o rc y l ind r ica l n eck s a nd e ve r ted r im s( Gab rovec 1 973 ,3 69-372 ; 1 976 ,5 91 ) .

2 : 1 T he L jub l jana a nd D o len jska G roup s . T he L jub l jana g r oup a nd t h e D o len jska g r oup o ve r lap i n s pace a nd t ime . T he L jub l jana g r oup i sf o und i nG o ren jska , D o len jska a nd B e la K ra j ina , b u t o n ly t h e l a s t t wo a r ea s a r e r e levan t h e re . T h e D o len jska g r oup i sf o und i nD o len jska a nd B e la K ra j ina . T he e nd o f t h e L jub l jana g r oup o ve r lap s w i th t h e r i se o ft h e t h e D o len jska g r oup a nd t h e t wo g r oup s a r e c l ea r ly r e la ted . T he re fo r e t h e t wo c h rono log ica l s e quence sw i l lb ed i scu s sed a s aw ho le .

2 :l c L jub l jana I P odzeme l j 1( 7 50 t o7 00 B .C . ) . T h i s p ha se i se qu iva len t t ot h e s e cond h a lf o ft h e H a l l s ta t t B 3p e r iod i n C en t ra l E u rope . I ta l so ma rk s t h e t r an s i t ion f r om l a te B ronze A ge t oE a r ly I r on A ge i n D o len jska a nd B e la K ra j ina . T he c eme te r ie so f L jub l jana a nd Mok ronog

2 :1 aL jub l jana 1( 1 000 t o8 00 B .C . ) . T h i s p e r iod i se qu iva len t t ot h e H a l l s ta t t B 1 a nd B 2 p ha se s

1 4

A r chaeo log i ca lP e r spe c t iv e

F igu r e2 :L jub l jana IP ha se —T yp ica l A r tef ac t s( a f te rG ab rovec 1 976 )

F igu r e3 :L jub l jana I aP ha se —T yp ica lA r tef ac t s( a f te rG ab rovec 1 976 )

1 5

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia

F igu re 4 :L jub l jana I l b /Podzeme l j IP ha se —Typ ica lA r te fac t sf ound i nB a r row g rave s a nd F la tg raves ( a f te rG ab rovec 1 976 )

1 6

A r chaeo log i ca lP er spec t ive c on t inued i nu se , i n deed t h is p ha se i s t h e a pex o f t h e L jub l jana c eme tery . N ew f l a t c r ema t ion c eme te r ie s a ppea red a t Novo m e s to Mes tne n j ive ( Knez 1 966 , 5 11 01 ; 1 984 , 19-133 ) a nd Mo ln ik ( Pu § 1 984 , 1 34-162 ) i n D o len jska , a nd a t Me t l ika -Bo r g tek ( J .D u la r 1 979 ,8 3-84 )i n B e la K ra j ina . A n ew b u r ia l r i te a l so a ppea red , c r ema t ion g rave s u nde r b a r row s a t P odzeme l j i n B e la K ra j ina a nd *f r i a r je ta i n Do len jska a s w e l l a s f l a t c r ema t ion s o n t h e i mpo r tan tE a r ly I r on A ge s i te o fV aCe ( J . D u la r1 979 , 4 848 6 ) . I r on a r te fac t s a ppea rf o rt h e f i r s t t ime i nq uan t i ty i nb o th t h e f l a t c eme te r ies a nd t h e b a r row s a s p a r t o f a n o rnamen t h o r izon . I r on a rm— a nd n eck— r ing s ( F igu re 4 : 10 , 1 ) a r e r e la t ive ly c ommon i n t ypo log ica l ly f ema le g rave s , a s a r e b ronze a nd i r on t wo— looped b ow f i bu lae ( F igu re 4 : 18 ) , w h ich a ppea r s udden ly i nt h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion i n t h is p ha se a nd s eem t ob eo fc en t ra lo rn o r the rn B a lkan o r ig in ( Gab rovec 1 970 , 4 3 ) . O the r f i bu la t ype s i n c lude t h e b ronze l e a fb ow f i bu la ( F igu re 4 : 9 ) , w h ich a r ew ide ly d i s t r ibu ted o n b o th s i des o f t h e Ad r ia t ic a nd i n S ty r ia , a nd t h e b ronze s pec tac le f i bu la w i th o rw i thou t s ma l l ' f i gu re—o f -e igh t ' l o op ( F igu re 4 : 7 ) . Af u r the r l i nk w i th t h e n o r the rn B a lkan s i st h e c ompo s i te s pec tac le f i bu la ( F igu re 4 : 8 )f r om L jub l jana g rave 6 4 ( Gab rovec 1 976 , 5 91) . T ypo log ica l ly ma le g rave s c on ta ined c on ica l—headed b ronze d r e ssp in s ( F igu re 4 : 2 ) a nd s phe r ica l h eaded b ron ze d ressp in s w i th r i f led n eck s ( F igu re 4 :4 ) . T owa rd s t h e e nd o f t h e p ha se t h e m u l t iheaded b ron ze d res sp in w i thou t c l o th g ua rd ( F igu r e 4 : 5 ) b egan t o a ppea r . T he c e ram ic s e tc on s i s ted o fb i con ica l o rs phe r ica l um s w i th h i gh—wa i s ted o r l ow f unne l n eck s a nd f i nge r t ipped c o rdon d eco ra t ion a round t h e b ody ( F igu re 4 : 1 9-21 ) . T he Ho s tom ice c up ( F igu re 4 : 17 ) i s a n e x t ra— reg iona l f o rm w h ich s how s l i nk s w i th t h e e a s te rn A lp ine r im ( Gab rovec 1 973 , 3 69 , 3 71-372 ; 1 976 , 5 91 , 5 94-5 ) . T h i s m a te r ia l i s f ound i n b o th t ype s o f g rave , b u t t h e b a r row g rave s a r e d i f f e ren t ia ted f r om t h e f l a t g rave s b y t h e p re sence o f w eapon s s uch a s s p ea r s o r s wo rd s a s i n t h e A n tennae—h i l t s wo rd g rave a t P odzeme l j ( F igu r e 5 ) . T h is a ppea rance o f b a r row b u r ia l i s f ound i n t h e e a s t a nd S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion s , a nd ma rk s t h e b eg inn ing o f v i s ib le s o c ia l d i f f e r en t ia t ion ( J .D u la r 1 979 , 8 3-86 ) .

i l ted Swo rd F igu re 5 : T he P od zeme l j 1P ha se A n tennae H G rave f r om P odzeme l j ( a f te rG ab rovec 1 966 )

T h i s p ha se i s e qu iva len t t o t h e H a l ls ta t t C l i n C en t ra l

l ooped b ow f i bu lae , p a r t icu la r ly i r on k nobbed—bow f i bu lae , t h e s o—ca l led V aCe k nobbed—bow f i bu lae ( F igu re 6 : 7 , 6 ) , w h ich a r e l o ca l v a r ian t s o f t h e t wo— looped b ow f i bu la ( Gab rovec 1 976 , 5 97 ) a nd t h e t wo— looped s em i— luna te f i bu lae ( F igu re 6 : 5 ) , w h ich h ave a ma in c en t re i n t h e S v . L uc i ja g roup ( De Ma r in i s a nd G u g t in 1 975 , 2 37-253 ) . I r on

E u rop e , S v . L uc i ja p ha se l ba nd E s te l a te p ha se h a a nd p ha se I l b . F la tc eme ter ie s d ec l ined i n i mpo r tance , b e ing p re sen t a tL jub l jana a nd V aCe , a nd af ew g rave s a t Mo ln ik a nd Me t l ika—Bo rkek . B a r row c eme te r ie s p redom ina ted i n

6 : 11 , 1 2 ) a nd b ronze a nn r ing s a nd e a r r ing s ( F igu re 6 :8 , 1 0 ) w er e a l so u sed . T ypo log ica l ly ma le g raves c on ta in w eapon s , u sua l ly s pea r s , m u l t i—headed p i n s w i th a nd w i thou t

2 :1 dL jub l jana I na /Podzeme l j 2( 700 t o6 50 B .C . ) .

a rm— a nd n eck— r ing s c on t inued i nu se i nt h i s p ha se ( F igu re

c l o thgua rd s ( Gab rovec 1 976 , 5 91) . T yp ica l c e ram ic f o rm s i n c luded l u gged f a ce ted b ow ls w i th i n ver ted r im s ( F igu re 6 : 16 ) ,b ow l s w i th u p s tand ing b and h and le s ,o cca s iona l ly w i th

B e la K ra j ina , a t &nome l j , D raga tu g a nd P odzeme l j , a nd t h e l owe r K rka v a l ley a t Smar je ta ( J . D u la r 1 979 , 8 5 ) . A f ew b a r row g raves o f t h is p ha se h ave b een f ound a t B rez je , L ibna , Magda len ska g o ra a nd S t iCna , b u t c anno t b e s a f e ly

b ronze r i ve td eco ra t ion ( F igu re 6 : 17 ) ,b i con ica l v e sse l s w i th f unne l o r c on ica l n eck s ( F igu re 6 : 14 , 1 5 ) a nd ' Kege lha l sgefä s se ' ( F igu re 6 : 13 ) . T he g eome t r ic d eco ra t ion

a s s igned t oe i the rt h eP odzeme l j 1o r 2p ha ses ( Te rian 1 981 , 6 60 ) . T he h i l lfor t s e t t lemen t s t h a t a r e a s so c ia ted w i th t h ese c eme ter ie s w e re p robab ly f o r t if ied a tt h is t ime , a si s t h e c a se a tS t iCna ( Gab rovec , F r ey a nd F o l t iny 1 969 , 1 771 96 ) .

w h ich h a s i t s r oo t s i n t h e H a l l s ta t t B p e r iod w a s s upp lemen ted b yn ew d eco ra t ive e l emen t s , t h e Ma l te se c ro ss a nd r e cumben t r unn ing ' S ' d eco ra t ion , w h ich w e re u l t ima te ly d er ived f r om t h e B a sa rab i g roup i ns ou th w es tR uman ia a nd t h e V o jvod ina ( J . D u la r 1 973 ,5 71-572 ) . E l i te , t ypo log ica l ly

T ypo log ica l ly f ema le g rave s c on ta in a v a r ie ty o f t wo—

1 7

I r on A g ei nS l ov en ia

F igu re 6 :L jub l ja na I la /Podze r ne l j 2P ha se —T yp ica lA r t e fa c t sf o und i nb a r row g r av e sa nd f l a tg r ave s( a f t e rG ab rovec 1 976 )

1 8

A r chaeo log i ca lP e r spec t ive

F igu re 7 :E l i te g raves o fP odzeme l jP ha se ,c on ta in ing D isc h e lme t( Schus se lhe lm ) —S t iCna ,G rave I V / 13 ( a f te r We l ls 1 981)

F igu re 8 :S t i& la 1P ha se e l i te g rave w i th c ompo s i te b ronze h e lme t Magda len ska g o ra ,G rave I V /3 ( a f te rH encken 1 978 )

1 9

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia a r rn r ing s , f o r e shadowed t h e r i ch f ema le g r ave s o f t h e f o l low ing p ha se ( J .D u la r 1 973 ,5 72 ,T . 13 ,T .15 ) .

m a le , g r ave s c on ta ined t h e d i s t inc t ive b r on ze d i sc h e lme t ( F igu r e 7 ) , w h ich w a s a l o ca l d eve lopmen t o f t h e D o len jska g r oup ( Gab rovec 1 9621963 ,3 17-321 ) .

T he c e ram ic s e t i n c lud ed a v a r ie ty o f f oo ted b i con ica l v e s se l sa nd t u rbanr immed b ow l s ( J .D u la r 1 983 ,5 72 ; 1 982 , 1 83-188 , 1 97 ) .

2 :l e S t iena 1( 650 t oc i r ca 6 00 B .C . ) T h i s p ha se i s e qu iva len t t o t h e H a l l s ta t t C 2 i n C en t ra l E u rope , S v . L uc i ja e a r l ie rp ha se l c , a nd E s te p ha se I c a nd t h e f i r s t p a r t o f p ha se i n n o r thea s te rn I t a ly . F la t c eme t e r ie s c on t inued o n ly a t L jub l jana , w h ich w a s i n d e c l ine , a nd V aee . B a r row b u r ia l w a s n ow t h e d om inan t f o rm a nd i n huma t ion t h e d om inan t r i t e . Mo r e s i te s c ame i n to u se o r e xpanded o u t s ide B e la K ra j ina a nd t h e l owe r K rka v a l ley , a t Magda len ska g o ra ( Te r ian 1 981 , 6 60 ) , L ibna ( Gu g t in 1 976 , 1 7 , 2 1 , 2 6 ) a nd S t iaa ( Gab rovec 1 966 , 2 4 , 2 6 , 2 8 ) a nd B rez je ( K rome r 1 950 , 3 7-38 ) , b u t s i te s s u ch a s g ma r je ta ( V . S ta rt 1 973c , 5 4-55 ) , 6nome l j ( J . D u la r 1 983 , 2 19-244 ) D raga tu ( J . D u la r 1 973 , 5 49 ) a nd P odzeme l j( J .D u la r 1 978 ,2 1 )c on t inued t ob ei mpo r tan t . T h i s p ha se h a s b een d e sc r ibed a s a ' P r ince ly H o r izon ' b ecau se o f t h e r i ch ly f u rn i shed , t y po log ica l ly m a le , g r ave s p r e sen t ( Gab rovec 1 966 , 2 6 , 2 8 ) . G rave s c on ta in ing b r onze c u i ra s se s a nd /o rb ron ze c ompo s i te h e lme t s( F igu r e8 ) h ave b een f o und a t B rez je ( K rome r 1 9 59 , T .7 ) , L ibna ( Gal in 1 976 , T6 ) , Magda len ska g o ra ( Hencken 1 978 , F ig . 3 8 , e ) , N ovo m e s to ( Gab rovec 1 960 , 2 7-80 ) a nd S t ie na ( Gab rovec 1 966 , 1 013 ; We l ls 1 981 , 1 7 5176 ) . S im i la r h e lme t s h ave b een f ound i nt h e s ame p e r iod i nP i cenum a nd a tS e s to C a lende i nt h e G o la secca a r ea , b u t t h e D o len jska t y p e s a r e o f l o ca l o r ig in ( Egg 1 980 , 2 41-249 ) . T he A rmou r g r ave s a t S t iena ( Gab rovec 1 966 , 2 6 ) a nd N ovo m e s to ( Gab rovec 1 960 , 2 7-80 ) a l so c on ta ined T h racoC imme r ian t y pe h o r se b i t s . Weapon s i n c luded i r on s p ea r s a nd s o cke ted a xe s , a s w e l l a s e xo t ic f o rm s s u ch a s t h e b a rb ed a nd t a nged a r rowhead s , a nd t h e l a te Mö r igen b r onze s wo rd f r om S t i ena ( Gab rovec 1 966 , 1 ;H en cken 1 978 ,5 ) .

2 :1f .S t iena 2( c i r ca 6 00 t oc i r ca 5 75 B .C . ) . T h i si s at r an s i t iona lp ha se s pann ing t h el a te Ha l l s ta t tC 2a nd e a r ly H a l l s ta t tD 1 i nC en t ra lE u rope ,l a te p ha se l ca nd e a r ly p ha se I a i nt h e S v . L uc i ja g r oup a nd l a te r p ha se a nd e a r ly p ha se I I a t E s te . A n ew b u r ia l t y pe m ay h ave a ppea red , t h e ' S ippenhüge l ' ( c lan b a r row ) , w h ich h ad c oncen t r ic r i ng s o fi n huma t ion s a nd o f ten n o c en tra l g r ave . T h i s b u r ia l p r a c t ice m ay h ave g a ined g r ea te r c u r r en cy i nt h e f o l low ing p ha se , b u t G ab rovec ( 1 984 , 4 4 ) s ugge s t s t h a t S ippenhüge lb u r ia lm ay d a te t oa se a r ly a st h eS t ie na 1p ha se ( F igu r e 1 ) . T h i s m ay b et h ec a se a tS t ie na , b u tg rave p l an s a r el a ck ing f o rm o s ts i te s a nd i t s l a te rs p read t h roughou tt h e D o len jska g r oup m ay h ave r e su l ted i n t h e r emode l l ing o f s ome o l de r b a r row s . T he b u r ia l r i te i sw e l l-documen ted i n t h eC en t ra lB a lkan s( Gab rovec 1 966 , 1 4 ) . T he re a r e n o t y po log ica l ly m a le e l i t e g r ave s i n t h i s p ha se , i n s tead t y po log i ca l ly e l i te f ema le g r ave s a r e f ound . T h i s a t yp ica l s i tua t ion m ay a l so b e r e la ted t ot h e i n t roduc t ion o f n ew b u r ia l p r a c t ice s . T ypo log ica l ly f ema le g r ave g ood s c on s i s ted o f s ma l le r , r i bb ed , b r on ze b oa t f i bu lae , g l a s s , b one- o r a mbe r-bead-bowed f i bu lae , a nd g l a ss-hedgehog b ow f i bu lae ( V . S t a it 1 978 , 6 4-84 ) a nd s e rpen t i fo rm f i bu lae w i th a n t ennae o r w avy b ow s ( Te r ian 1 981 , 6 60 ) , w h ich a r e t y pe s s im i la r t ot h o se i nE s te a nd t h e S v . L uc i ja g r oup . F ibu lae w h ich d e r ive f r om t h ec en t ra lB a lkan s i n c lude t h e r i bbed-bow f i bu la , f o und i n e a s t er n a nd c en t ra l D o len j ska , a nd t h e G la s ina cfoo t , t wolooped b ow f i bu la ( Gab rovec 1 970 , 3 , 3 9 ; T e r ian 1 974 , 4 7-48 ) . S o l id , i n c i sed , f l a t tened , b r on ze a rm- a nd a nk le r ing s , a nd o va l , h o l low , r i bbed b r on ze a rm r ing s a r e f o und t h roughou t D o len jska , a nd af ew e xamp le s o f t w i s ted b r onze a nn r ing s w i th t a pe r ing t e rm ina l sh ave b een f ound i nc en t ra lD o len jska . L a rge , l o ng i tud ina l ly r i bbed , s h ee t-b ronze e a r r ing s a r e a l so f ound ( Hen cken 1 978 , 6 ;T e l-Z an 1 974 , 4 6-47 ; 1 981 , 6 6 1 ) . T he e l i te g r ave s a r e d i s t ing u i sh ed b y h av ing l a rge q uan t i t ie s o ft h e se g ood s ,e . g . Magda len ska g o ra g r ave V I I /40 ( F igu re s 1 2 a nd 1 3 ) [ Hen cken 1 978 , F ig . 2 61 , 2 62 ] . Mo s t o f t h e g r ave s i nD o len j ska t h a t h ave g o ld d i adem s ( F igu r e 1 4 ) d a te t o t h i s p ha se ( Ka s t e l ic 1 960 , 3 -26 ; K nez 1 974 , 15118 ) . N one l i te f ema le g r aves c on ta in s im i la r g r ave g ood s b u t i n s ma l le r q uan t i t ie s , a nd d o n o t c on ta in g o ld d i adem s .

F u r the r e v idence o f e l i te c on tac t w i th I t a ly c ome s f r om t h e T r ipod g rave f r om N ovo m e s to , w h ich c on ta ined ab r on ze t r ipod , s im i la r t oo ne d a t ing f r om t h e l a te r s e ven th c en tu ry B .C .f r om V e tu lon ia i nT u scany ( F igu re 9 )[ Gab rovec 1 968 , 1 78 ] . T he b ronze-deco ra ted s i tu la l i d a nd t h e E t ru scan b r on ze b ow l f r om S t iein a a r e a l so l a te rs e ven th c en tu ry B .C . i nd a te ( F rey 1 969 , 5 3 ) , a s i st h e I t a lo-Co r in ean o i nochoe ( J . D u la r 1 982 , 2 35 ) . Macha i ra a r e f o und a t Cmome l j , a nd a r e i d en t ica l t ot h o se f ound i nP i cenum ( Guk in 1 974 , 9 3 ) . T he A pu l ian ' c r a te r s f ound i nB e la K ra j ina d u r ing t h i s p ha se m ay a l so c ome f r om t h i sr e g ion ( J .D u la r 1 982 , 1 89-190 ) . T he o r namen t s e ts t i l l c on ta ined V aee k nobbed b ow f i bu lae a nd t h e o t he r t wolooped b ow f i bu la f o rm s f o und i n t h e p r ev iou s p ha se , b u tn ew t y pe s w e re a l so u sed . L ongfoo ted b oa t f i bu lae ( F igu r e 1 0 :3 ) a nd t wo-and t h ree-knobbed f i bu lae ( F igu r e 1 0 :7-9 )b ecame c ommon ,a nd w e r ep robab ly d e r ived f r om E s te a nd S v L uc i ja . I r on a nn r ing s s t i l l a ppea r ed , b u t w e r e l a rge ly r e p laced b y b r on ze , r i bbed a nn r ing s ( F igu re 1 0 : 5 -6 ) a nd r i bbed a rm r ing s w i th

T he c e ram ic i n ven to ry c on ta in s m any v a r ie t ie s o f f o o ted v e s se l s . I n d igenou s c op ie s o f E s te a nd S v . L uc i ja t y pe f o o ted s i tu la te v e s se l s w i th b l a ck a nd r e dp a in ted b and sf i r s t a ppea ri nt h i sp ha se ( J .D u la r 1 982 ,2 19-220 ) . 2 :1 gS erpen t i form ( 5 75 t o5 25 B .C . )

o ve r lapp ing t e rm ina l s . T he w ea l thy t y po log ica l ly f ema le g r ave s a t C 'mome l j w i th g o ld t r efo i l h a i r d eco ra t ion s , ' mobbed , b ronze n eck r ing s a nd J apod ics ty le s p i ra l , i r on

T h i s p ha se i se qu iva len t t ot h e l a t e rH a l l s ta t t D 1 a nd e a r l ie r H a l l s ta t tD 2 i nC en t ra l E u rope , t h e l a te rp ha se I ao ft h e S v .

2 0

A r chaeo log i ca lP e r spec t ive

F igu r e9 :S t iCna 1P ha se e l i te g r ave w i th b r onze v e s se l sa nd h o r se r id ing e qu ipmen t —T he N ovo m e s to T r ipod G rave ( a f te rG ab rove c 1 968 )

2 1

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia

F igu re 1 0 : S t iCna 1P ha se a s semb lage —P odzeme l j G rave G rm 1 / 16 ( a f te rD u la r 1 973 )

2 2

A r chaeo log i ca lP e r spec t ive

F igu re 1 :P l an so fS ippenhüge lb a r row si nD o len jska ( a f te rK nez 1 974 a nd G ab rovec 1 980 )

2 3

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia

F igu re 1 2 :S t iCna 2P ha se t y po log ica l ly f ema le e l i te g r ave —Sdna B a r row 1( Na rodn im uze j ) ,G rave 2 7 ( a f te rG ab rovec 1 966 ) .

2 4

A r chaeo log i ca lP er spe c t ive

F igu r e 1 3 :S t iCna 2P ha se t y po log i ca l ly f ema le e l i te g r ave — S t iCna B a r row 1( Na rodn im uze j ) ,G rave 2 7( c on t . )( a f te rG ab rove c 1 966 ) .

2 5

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia

F igu re 1 4 : G o ld d i adem a nd g o ld n eck lace f r om Sdna 2P ha se t ypo log ica l ly f ema le e l i te g rave — S tf 6na B a r row 1( Na rodn i muze j ) G rave 2 7 ( c on t . )( a f te rG ab rovec 1 966 ) 2 6

A r chaeo log ica lP er spe c t ive L uc i ja g roup , a nd t h e l a te r p ha se I Ia a tE s te . S ippenhüge l b u r ia l b ecame w ide sp read t h roughou t D o len jska , a ppea r ing f o r t h e f i r s t t ime a t L ibna ( Gu§ t in p e r s . c omm . ) . T he p r ev ious n am ing o f t h i s p ha se a f te r t h e b ronze d oub lec r e s ted h e lme th a s b een r e fu ted b y T er ian ( 1976 , 4 37 ) , a s i t a ppea r s t h a t t h e h e lme t d a te s ma in ly t o t h e C e r to sa p ha se ( s ee 2 : 1h ) , a l though s ome e a r ly e xamp les m ay b e o f s e rpen t ifo rm d a te , a se a r ly f o rm s a r ek nown e l sewhe r e i nt h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 1 70 ) . E qua l ly s ome o ft h e ' S cy th ian ' h o r se r i d ing e qu ipmen t d a tes t ot h is h o r izon ( Ga t in a nd T e r ian 1 977 , 7 7-89 ) . T he p ha se i s n amed a f te r t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine v a r ian t s e rpen t ifo rm f i bu la w i th s add le b ow a nd d i sc , b u t o t he r s e rpen t ifo rm f i bu lae o ccu r w i th r i ve ted f l a t a n tennae ( Te rian 1 976 , 4 374 38 ) . T he re m ay b e s ome t ypo log ica l ly m a le , e l i te g rave s a t Magda len ska g o ra ( Hencken 1 978 , 6 )a nd S t iCna ( Gab rovec 1 974 , 1 78 , 1 80 ) . T he n o rma l ma le s e tc on ta ined i r on s pea r s a nd s ocke ted a xes , b e l t p la tes a nd b e l t a t tachmen ts ( Hen cken 1 978 , 5 ) . T ypo log ica l ly m a le a nd f ema le g rave s

n eck lace s ( Ter i-a n 1 976 ,4 39 ; 1 981 ,6 6 1) . T ypo log ica l ly ma le g raves c on ta ined a w eapon s s e t o f a s ocke ted i r on a xe a nd t wo i r on s pea rhead s , a nd ab ronze b e l t p la te a nd b e l t a t tachmen t s . T ypo log ica l ly ma le e l i te g raves c on ta ined t h is b a s ic s e t , i na dd i t ion t o ' S cy th ian ' h o r se g ea r a nd a r chery e qu ipmen t , d er ived f r om t h e S zen te s-Vekerzug g roup ( Gug t in a nd T eri an 1 977 , 7 7-89 ) . B ronze d oub lec r e s ted h e lme t s o ccu r red i nt h e e a r l ie r p a r t o f t h is p ha se ( F igu re 1 5 ) , a nd I t a l ian v a r ian tN egova h e lme t s t owa rd s t h e e nd o ft h ep ha se ( F igu re 1 6 ) . Ho r se b u r ia ls , a ga in aS zen tesV eke r zug c u s tom , a r e f ound i n S ippenhüge l b a r row s a t Magda len ska g o ra ( Hencken 1 978 , 6 ; T e rian 1 981 , 6 61 ) a nd S t icna ( Gab rovec 1 974 , 1 78 ) . O the rh o r se h ar n ess i t ems i n c lude l e ad-a l loy , h o r se-headed s wa s t ika s ( F rey 1 980 , 2 27-240 ) . T he o t he r ma in e l i te i t em w h ich i sw idesp read i n D o len jska i s t h e d eco ra ted s i tu la ( Knez 1 983 , 8 5-105 ) , w h ich o r ig ina ted i nn o r ther n I t a ly . I n f a c t t h is p e r iod i st h e f l o ru i to fS i tu la a r t( F rey 1 969 , 8 3-91) .

m igh t c on ta in f i bu lae , b u t b ronze c og a rm- o r a nk ler ing s , i n c ised s p i ra l a nn r ing s ,c y l ind r ica l b r onze s h ee te a rr ing s a nd s p i ra l h a i r r ing s a r e e xc lu s ive ly f ema le t y pe s ( Te rian 1 976 , 4 37-438 ; 1 981 ,6 61 ) . N ew c e ram ic

a nk le r ing s , s ma l l s p i ra l b ron ze h a i r r ing s , c y l ind r ica l s hee tb ron ze e a rr ing s w i th p unched z oomo rph ic d eco ra t ion , s p ind lewho r l s a nd q uan t i t ie s o fa mbe r a nd g l a ss b ead s f r om

T he c e ram ic i n ven to ry i sm uch t h e s ame a s t h e p reced ing p ha se , a l though w ide r i bbed d i shes b ecame r a re r a nd w ide r i bbed f oo ted b ow l s b ecame mo re c ommon . Many o f t h e se

f o rm s i n c lude w ide r i bb ed f oo ted b ow l s ,

d i shes a nd w ide r i bbed a nd f r inged d i she s . T he se r ema in i n u se i n t h e f o l low ing p er iod s . F oo ted s i tu lae v es se l s a nd v a r ious b l ack a nd r ed p a in ted f oo ted v es se ls o ccu r( J . D u la r 1 982 , 1 88-189 ) . T he w ho le p ha se i sd i f f icu l t t oa dequa te ly d ef ine a sm any o f t h e t ypes a r e l o ng l ived a nd may o r may n o tb eg in i nt h i sp ha se . 2 :l h C er to sa ( 525 t oc i r ca 4 50 B .C . ) T h is p ha se i sr ough ly e qu iva len t t ot h e Ha l l s ta t t D 2 a nd D 3 i nC en t ra l E u rope , t h e e nd o f p ha se I a a nd t h e f i r s t p a r t

c e ram ic t ypes a r e u b iqu i tou s t h roughou t t h e l a te r p a r t o ft h e E a r ly I r on A ge , a nd n o c l ea r s equence c an b e o b served ( J . D u la r 1 982 , 1 86188 , 1 90-191 , 1 92 , 1 96 , 1 97 , 1 97-199 ) . 2 : 1 i E ar ly N egova ( c ir ca 4 50 t oc i r ca 3 90 B .C . ) . T h is p ha se r ough ly c o r re spond s t ot h e L a Tne A i nC en t ra l E u rope , t h e l a te p ha se I b a nd t h e e a r ly p ha se I c o f ft h e S v . L uc i ja g roup , a nd p ha se I Ic a tE s te . I ti sn amed a f te r t h e N egova h e lme t s w h ich a r e l o ca l i no r ig in ( Gab rovec 1 965 , 1 77-186 ) , b u t i sm a in ly c ha rac ter i sed b y t h e p resence o f i mpo r ted L a T ene A m a te r ia l i n e l i te g raves ( Gab rovec

o fp ha se I l b o f t h e S v . L uc i ja g roup a nd p ha se I lb a nd t h e f i r s tp a r t o fp ha se I Ic a tE s te . I ti sn amed a f te r t h e C er to sa f i bu la , w h ich w a s f i r s t u sed i nt h is p ha se , a nd o r ig ina ted i n

1 966 , 3 5-36 ; T e rZan 1 976 , 4 39-440 ; 1 981 , 6 60-662 ) . Howeve r , t h e D o len jska g roup r ema in s c l ea r ly l o ca l i n c ha rac te r w i th c on t inued u se o f ' S ippenhüge l ' b u r ia l a nd h i l l

E s te a nd B o logna i n No r ther n I t a ly , a l though D o len jska r ap id ly b ecame ama jo rc en t re o ft h i s t ype . N ew s e t t lemen t s a nd b a r row c eme te r ies w e re f ounded i n t h e m idd le K rka v a l ley , w h i l s t t h e c en t re s i n B e la K ra j ina d ec l ined i n

f o r t s e t t lemen t s . S t iCna d oes n o t a pp ea r t oh ave a ny g raves o f t h is p ha se a nd s eems t o h ave b e en s upe r sceded b y Magda len ska g o ra .

i mpo r tance ( Gab rovec 1 966 , 4 2-46 ; T e l-Z an 1 976 , 4 384 39 , 4 42 ; J .D u la r 1 979 , 8 586 ) . A l though T e rian ( 1976 ,

T ypo log ica l ly ma le g rave s c on ta ined t h e s ame w eapon s a nd b e l ts e t a sa bove . H oweve r , t h ep r ince ly h o r izon o ft h i sp ha se h a s g raves w h ich c on ta in t h e N egova h e lme t m en t ioned

4 42 ) d i s t ingu i shed t wo d iv i s ion s o ft h e C er to sa p ha se , t h ese a r ed i f f icu l tt od e tec ti nt h eg rave g ood s .

a bove , a nd ' S cy th ian h o r se g ea r , a s w e l l a s l a te t ypes o f s i tu la . H o r se b u r ia ls c on t inued . L a T ene A ma te r ia l h a s

C er to sa f i bu lae a re f ound i n b o th t ypo log ica l ly m a le a nd

b een f ound i ne l i te c on tex t s , ' Koppe l r inge ' b e l t a t tachmen t s

t y po log ica l ly f ema le g rave s .T he C e r to sa p ha se a tD o len jske T op l ice ( Ter Ian 1 976 , 4 38-439 , 4 42 ) p r esen t s t h e

a nd o penwo rk b e l t h ook s , a nd L a T ene A s wo rd s ( F igu re 1 7 ) . B ronze r oa s t ing s p i t s a nd ab ronze r od k nown a s a

f o l low ing p i c tu re . Ma le g rave s c on ta ined t y pe V I Ia a nd t y pe X I I I C er to sa f i bu lae , a nd z oomo rph ic c r o ssbow

' s ty lu s ' o r ' s cep t re ' a l so o ccu r red ( Ter ian 1 976 , 4 39-440 ; 1 981 ,6 61-662 ) .

f i bu lae , a s w e l l a s s ma l l b oa t- a nd t h ree k nobbed f i bu lae a nd s e rpen t iform f i bu lae o f t h e p r eced ing p ha se ( Te r n 1 981 , 6 6 1) . Ma le g raves u sua l ly c on ta in p a i r s o ff i bu lae a nd

C e r to sa f i bu lae r ema ined c ommon , c ro ssbow f i bu lae p redom ina t ing , a l ong w i th t ype X C er to sa f i bu lae .

f ema le g r aves a s i ng le f i bu la . We s ter n H a l l s ta t t k e t t led rum f i bu lae a r e a l so f ound ( Hen cken 1 978 , 6 ) . T ypo log ica l ly f ema le g ood s a l so i n c lude h o l low b ronze r i bbed a rm- o r

T ypo log ica l ly f ema le g rave s c on ta ined t ype X c . X I a nd V I lb C er to sa f i bu lae . P a i red f i bu lae r ema ined c ommon . S ou thE as t A lp ine z oomo rph ic f i bu lae a r e a l so f r equen t ly f ound .

2 7

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia

F igu re 1 5 :C e r to sa p ha se e l i te g r ave w i th D oub le—C re s ted H e lme t —L ibna ,g p i le rB a r row I ,G rave 1( a f te rG u g t in 1 976 )

2 8

A r cha eo log i ca lP e r spe c t iv e

F igu r e 1 6 :C e r to sa P ha se E l i t eG ra ve w i th N egova h e lme t —S t i Cna B a r row 1( Na rodn im u ze j ) ,G rave 1 04 ( a f t e rG ab rovec 1 966 )

2 9

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia

F i gu r e 1 7 :E a r ly N egova P ha se E l i te G rave w i th B ronze V e s se l s —Magda len ska g o ra ,G rave V /6-7 —7 a( a f te rH encken 1 9 78 )

3 0

A r chaeo log i ca lP e r sp e c t ive

F igu r e 1 7 : E a r ly N egova P ha se E l i te G rave w i th B ronze V e s se l s — Magda len ska g o ra , G rave V /6-7 — 7 a ( c on t . ) ( a f t e r H encken 1 978 ) 3 1

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia E a r ly L a Une f i bu lae o cca s iona l ly o ccu r , a nd a tt h e e nd o f t h e p ha se i r on C er to sa f i bu lae a r e f ound , ap ra c t ice mo re c ommon i nt h e l a te N egova a nd m i r ro r ing d r e ss f o rm s i nt h e n o r thwes te rn A lp s . O the r f ema le g rave g ood s a r e h o l low

( Dob ia t 1 980 , 1 66167 ) a nd i s o la ted s e cu re g rave l o t s f r om g ta je r ska ( Pah iC 1 973 , 5 37 ) . F o r t h e se r ea son s t h e t wo s equence s w i l lb ed i scus sed a s as i ng le e n t i ty a sw a s t h ec a se w i th t h eL jub l jana a nd D o len jska g roup s( s ee s ec t ion 2 : 1 ) .

a nd /o r s o l id , r i bbed , b ronze a rm o r a nk le r ing s , c y l ind r ica l , b ronze— shee te a r— r ing s , g la ss a nd a mbe rb ead s a nd s p ind le w ho r ls ( Te rian 1 976 , 4 40 ; 4 43 ; 1 981 , 6 61-662 ) .

2 : 2a H a l l s ta t tB 1 ( 1000 t o9 00 B .C . ) . T he Ha l l s ta t t B 1 i se qu iva len t t oL jub l jana l a i nD o len jska . T he Rae g roup f i r s t a ppea r s i nt h i s p ha se a nd i sd i f f e r en t f r om t h e p r eced ing Ha l l s ta t t A g roup s i nt h e r eg ion . T he c h rono logy i sd rawn a lmo s te n t i re ly f r om m or tua ry d a ta . T he b ur ia l r i te i st y p ica l o f t h e Um f ie ld p e r iod , w i th i n u rned o r l oo se c r ema t ion s i nf l a tc eme ter ies . R ea sonab ly s ecu re g rave l o t s h ave b een r e cove red f r om P ob rei je ( Pah iC 1 972 ) a nd Rae ( Mü l le r—Ka rpe 1 959 , 15-126 ) . No u sab le d a ta h ave b een f ound i ns ou th S ty r ia , a l though i s o la ted f i nd s h ave b een

T he c e ram ic s e t i ss im i la rt ot h e p reced ing p ha se s ( J . D u la r 1 982 , o p . c i t . ) , a l though c e ram ic v e sse l s w e re l a rge ly r ep laced i n e l i te g rave s f r om t h e S e rpen t ifo r rn p ha se o nwa rd sb yb ronze v esse ls ( Tedan 1 980 ,3 43-352 ) . 2 :1 jL a te N egova ( c ir ca 3 90 t o3 00 B .C . ) T h i s p ha se i se qu iva len t t o t h e L a Une B i n C en t ra l E u rope , t h el a te rp ha se I ci nt h eS v . L uc i ja g roup , a nd p ha se

made . T he R u se g roup i s p a r t o f t h e s e r ies o f Ha l l s ta t t B g roup s , w h ich a r e f ound i nt h e n o r thea s te rn A lps , H unga ry , n o r thwe s te rn C roa t ia , S lavon ia a nd D o len jska ( Mü l le r— Ka rpe 1 959 , 19 , 1 25 ; G ab rovec 1 973 , 3 68-369 ; 3 71 ;

l i c a tE s te . T h i s i st h e f i na lp ha se o fD o len jska g roup , w h ich e nd s i nt h ea ppea rance o fL a Une C u s ing g roup s i nt h e a r ea a nd v i r tua l ly c omp le te c u l tu ra l r ep lacemen t ( Gab rovec 1 966 4 4 ) .

V in sk i—Ga spa r in i 1 973 ,2 07-210 ) .

T ypo log ica l ly ma le g raves i n c rea sed i nn umbe r s i nt h e l a te N egova u n t i l t h ey v i r tua l ly d om ina te t h eb u r ia l r e co rd . T h i s t r end c an b e o b served t h roughou t t h e E a r ly I r on A ge , b u t t h i s ma jo r i n c rea se may b e p a r t o f t h e ' wa r r io r h o r izon ' , w h ich e x tend s f r om E s te i nt h e w e s t o f t h e a r ea t oS an sk i mo s ti nn o r the rn B o sn ia i nt h ee a s t .

T he H a l ls ta t t B 1 g raves i n t h e R uge c eme tery a r e c oncen t ra ted i n t h e e a s te rn h a lf o f t h e c eme te ry . T yp ica l m e ta lwo rk i n c lude s t h e s ma l l v a se— a nd e gg—headed b ronze d re ss p i n s ( F igu re 1 8 :12 , 1 3 ) . P u ta t ive ma le g raves c on ta in b ronze t a nged k n ives ( F igu re 1 8 :18 ) a nd b ronze s em i— luna te r a zo r k n ive s ( F igu re 1 8 :14 ) . S pec tac le f i bu lae w i th ' f i gu re— o f—e igh t ' l o op a r e f ound i n t ypo log ica l ly f ema le g r ave s

T edan ( 1977 , 9 -21) h a s s ugge s ted t h a t i ti s ar eac t ion t o i n c rea sed ' C e l t ic ' p re ssu re d u r ing t h i s t ime . Weapon s e t s n ow c on ta ined o n ly a s i ng le s pea r i ni m i ta t ion o fL a Une

( F igu re 1 8 :15 ) . T he b u lk o ft h e g r ave g ood s c on s i s t s o fc e ram ic v e sse ls s uch a s b i con ica l v e s se l s w i th l u g s t h a t f unc t ion a s u rn s ( F igu re

p rac t ice i nt h e n o r th—we s te rn A lp s . T he s ocke ted a xe s t i l l a ppea red , b u t n ew f o rms h ave b een f ound , s haf tho le a xe s i n w e s ter n D o len jska w i th ap re sumed c en t re a t Magda len ska g o ra , a nd o ne— s ide w inged a xe s i n t h e K rka v a l ley . I r on

1 8 :22 , 2 5 ) h and led j ug s ( F igu re 1 8 :20 , 2 4 ) , a nd t wo—hand led a mpho rae ( F igu re 1 8 :23 ) , c up s ( F igu re 1 8 :19 ) a nd b ow ls w i th i n ver ted r im s . D eco ra t ion i sg eome t r ic a nd o f ten w hee l— a pp l ied . S hor t ' f r inge s ' a r e a l so c ommon o n c ups ( Mü l le r—

K oppe l r i nge a r e c ommon , a nd t h e i r on b e l t h ook a nd p la te w i th m idd le r i b f ound i n P annon ia a nd t h e n o r th—we s ter n

K a rpe 1 959 , 16-124 ;Pah iC 1 972 , 1 5-18 ) .

B a lkan s o ccu r s ( Ter ian 1 976 , p4 40-441 ; 1 981 , 6 62 ) . E l i te 2 : 2b H a l ls ta t tB 2( 900 t o8 00 B .C . )

ma le g rave sc ea sed t oo ccu ri nt h i sp ha se , n one c an b ed a ted l a te r t h an t h e e a r ly N egova . Many o f t h e s i te s i n B e la K ra j ina a nd e a s te rn D o len jska a ppa ren t ly f e l l i n to d i su se ,

T h is p ha se i se qu iva len t t oL jub l jana l bi nD o len jska a nd t o p ha se 1a tE s te . T he c h rono logy i sd rawn a sb efo re f r om t h e

a l though t h o se i nt h e K rka v a l ley a nd w e s ter n D o len jska , w i th t h eo bv iou se xcep t ion o fS t i aa ,r ema ined i nu se .

c eme te r ie s o f P ob rei je a nd R ug e . T he l i nk s o f t h e p rev iou s p ha se w e re s t i l l a ppa ren t( Sec t ion 2: 2 a ) .

T he C e r tosa f i bu la c on t inued t o d om ina te t h e f i bu la s e t , t ype s V I Ib , V I I I , X I , X I I a nd X I I I b e ing i n u se . T hey n o

A v a r ie ty o f l a rge v a se h eaded b ron ze d re s s lp in s ( F igu re 1 9 :3-5 ) o ccu r red a t Rae a nd P ob rd je . S pec tac le f i bu lae

l o nge ro ccu r i np a i r s , b u t a s s i ng le o b jec t s : f u r the rL a Une i nf luence , a si st h e a ppea rance o ft h in ,r i bbed b ronze a rm— o r

w i th ' f i gu re—o f— e igh t ' l oop s ( F igu re 1 9 :9 ) c on t inued i nu se , a nd t h e b ronze h a rp f i bu la ( F igu re 1 9 :7 , 8 )a ppea red f o r t h e

a nk le r ing s w i th r i ve ted t e rm ina ls i n f ema le g rave s ( Te r zan 1 976 , 4 40-441 ) . C e ram ic s a r e s im i la r t o t h e p reced ing

f i r s t t ime . B ron ze b a r a rm r ing s w i th i n c i sed d eco ra t ion ( F igu re 1 9 :10 ) a nd b ronze ' h ou rg l a ss 'p endan t s ( F igu re 1 9 :6 )

p ha se ,b u tr a re .

w e re a l so u sed . T he b ronze k n ive s i nt h is p ha se w e re m o re e l abo ra te , w i th a ng led b l ade s , o f ten i n c ised a l ong t h e b ack , a nd r i ng g r ip s ( F igu re 1 9 :1 ,2 ) . O b lekov ice s em i— luna te

2 : 2 T he R uge a nd Wie s— Mar t i janec g roups . T he L a te B ronze A ge R u ge g roup a nd t h e E a r ly I r on A ge W ie s— Ma it i janec g roup o c cup ied t h e s ame a r ea s o f

b ronze r a zo r sw e r e a l so p re sen t (Webe r 1 982 ,4 5-56 ) .

S ta je r ska i n n o r th—ea s te rn S loven ia a nd s ou th S ty r ia i n A u s t r ia . T he f i na l p ha se o f t h e Rae g roup o ve r lapp ed t h e

C e ram ic

v e s se l s

r ema ined

t h e

d om inan t

g rave

g ood .

' Kege lha l sge fä sse ' ( F igu re 1 9 :15 ) r ep laced t h eb i con ica l um s o f t h e Ha l l s ta t t B1p ha se a nd h and led j ug s ( F igu re 1 9 :11 , 1 4 ) , c up s ( F igu r e 1 9 :12 ) a nd b ow ls w i th i n ver ted r ims

i n i t ia l p ha se o f t h e W ie s— Ma r t i janec g roup , a s f a ra sc an b e a sce r ta ined f r om t h e l o ca l s equence f r om K le in—K le in

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A r chaeo log i ca lP er spe c t ive

F igu re 1 8 :H a l l s ta t tB i A ssemb lage i nt h eE a s tA lp ine R eg ion ( a f te r Mü l le r—Ka rpe 1 959 )

F igu re 1 9 :R u ge G roup A s semb lage i nt h eH al s ta t tB 2P ha se ( a f te r Mü l le r—Ka rpe 1 959 )

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I r on A ge i nS l oven ia ( F igu r e 1 9 :13 )c on t inued i nu s e .G eome t r ic i n c i sed a nd w hee l d eco ra t ion r ema ined c ommon ( Mü l le r-Ka rp e 1 9 54 , 161 24 ;P ah iC/1 972 , 1 518 ) . 2 : 2c H a l l s ta t tB 3( 8 00 t o7 00 B .C . ) T h i s p ha se i s e qu iva len t t o L jub l jana I l a a nd I l b i n D o len jska , t h e T o lm in a nd l a p ha se s i nS v . L uc i ja g r oup a nd p ha se h a a t E s te . T he s t ab i l i ty o f t h e p r ev iou s t wo p ha se si sn o ta ppa ren th e r e . P ob rei je c ea sed t ob eu s ed a f t e r t h eH a l l s ta t t B 2( Pah iC 1 972 , 1 8 ) ,a l though t h e re a r e al a rge n umbe ro fH a l l s ta t tB 3g r ave si nt h ew e s te rn p a r to ft h e Rae c eme te ry ( Mü l le r-Ka rpe 1 9 59 , F ig . 1 2 ) . F u r the rr e sea r ch i s n eeded , b u t as im i la r d i v i s ion o f H a l l s ta t t B 3 c an b e p o s i ted ,a sh a sb een a ccep ted f o rt h eL jub l jana g r oup . T he f i r s ti r on a r te fac t s a ppea r ,u sua l ly k n ive s a nd n e ck r ing s , s h ow ing t h a t a n o r namen th o r izon e x i s ted . B ronze s p ec ta c le f i bu lae c on t inued i nu s e ( F igu r e 2 0 :7 , 8 ) , a nd t h e f i r s t t wolooped b r onze b ow f i bu lae ( F igu re 2 0 :4 ,5 ) s p r ead i n to t h e a r ea f r om t h e n o r ther n a nd c e n t ra l B a lkan s , a nd c o r r e spond t o f i nd s i n D o len jska a nd w e s ter n S l oven ia ( Gab rovec 1 970 , 9 -15 ) . B ronze s em iluna t er a zo r s ( F igu r e 2 0 :16 , 2 2-23 ) a r e f o und , a s a r e b r onze s o cke ted k n ive s ( F igu r e 2 0 :15 ) c l o se ly r e la ted t o f o rm s a t E s te . I n c i sed s p i ra l b r on ze a r rn r ing s F igu r e 2 0 :11 , 1 2 ) a l so o ccu r ( Mü l le r-Ka rpe 1 9 59 , 1 24-126 ) . K ege lha lsgefä sse w i th h i gh n e ck s ( F igu r e 2 0 :24 ) a nd l u gged b i con ica l v e s se l s w i th f i nge r t ipped c o rdon s ( F igu r e 2 0 :33 ) w e r e u sed a s u r n s . H and led j u g s ( F igu r e 2 0 :26 , 2 9 ) a nd t wo-hand led a mpho rae F igu re 2 0 :27 , 2 8 , 3 0 , 3 1 ) , d eco ra ted w i th i n c i sed g eome t r ic d e s ign s a r e o f ten a s soc ia ted w i th t h ese u r n s . B ow l s w i th i n ve r ted r im s a nd i n c i sed c hanne l ing a r ound t h e r im ( F igu r e 2 0 :25 ) a ppea r , a nd an ew c e ram ic f o rm , t h e ' S 'p r of i led v e s se l w i th v e r t ica l c o rdon s ( F igu r e 2 0 :32 ) i sf o und ( Mü l le r-Ka rpe 1 9 59 :1161 24 ;J .D u la r 1 982 ,2 21 ) . A ni n d ica to ro fs o c ia l i n s tab i l i ty i st h ei n c r ea sed o c cu r r en ce o f h oa rd s i n S t y r ia a nd C a r in th ia a t G ro s swe ike r sdo r f , S chönbe rg ,T r e f f e l sdo r fa nd S eeboden ( Mü l le r-Ka rpe 1 9 59 , 1 2 7133 ; P i t t ion i 1 9 54 , 5 20-521 ) . T he se h oa rd s a r e c ompo sed o f an umbe ro fi n te r e s t ing a r te fa c t s . Mu l t iheaded p i n s ( F igu r e 2 0 :2 ) a ppea r ed f o rt h e f i r s t t i me , a nd w eapon s , a xe s ( F igu re 2 0 :18-21 ) a nd s wo rd s ( F igu r e 2 0 :13-14 ) a r e a l so f o und . Weapon s a r e u n common i nm o r tua ry c on tex t s , a nd t h e se h oa rd s m ay b e r e la ted t o s t a tu s a c t iv i t ie s , a s uppo s i t ion r e in fo r ced b y t h e p r e sence o fb r on ze v e s se l s i n s ome h oa rd s ( Mü l le r-Ka rp e 1 9 59 , 1 30 , 1 33 ) . T he T r e f f e l sdo r f h oa rd c on ta ined T h raco-C imme r ian ' h o r se g ea r , s ugge s t ing i n c r ea sed c on tac t w i th E a s ter n E u rope ( Gab rovec 1 981 , 1 59 ) .

s e t t lemen t w i th a s so c ia ted b a r row c eme t e r ie s . T he b a r row s i nt h e K le in-K le in 1p ha se c on ta ined , a ppa r en t ly , as i ng le c r ema t ion ,a l though t h eb u r ia lr i t eb ecome sm o re c omp lex i n t h es u cceed ing p ha se s , i n huma t ion w a s n eve r af e a tu r eo f t h e b u r ia l r i t e . O n ly t h e m a jo r b a r row c eme t e ry o f K le inK le in i nt h e S u lm v a l ley a nd t h e s i te o f L egen i nS l oven j G rade c i ng t a je r ska a r e s u ff i c ien t ly w e l l p ub l i shed t ob e o f u s ef o rc h rono log ica l a nd a na ly t ica l w o rk . Many o t he rs i t e s k nown a r e i n su ff i c ien t ly p ub l i shed o r e xcava ted t o b e e mp loyed h e r e ( Pah ig 1 973 , 5 21-543 ; D ob ia t 1 980 ; 1 98 1 , 1 8 5-204 ;S tan C n ik-Gu l iC 1 979 , 1 01150 ) . K le in-K le in 1 i s ab r oad p ha se e qu iva len t t o t h e l a t e r H a l l s ta t tB 3 a nd H a l l s ta t tC l ,L jub l jana I b /Podzeme l j 1a nd P od zeme l j 2i nD o len jska , p ha se l aa nd l bi nt h eS v . L uc i ja g r oup a nd l a te r p ha se h a a nd I b a tE s te . T he F o r s twa ld b a r row 1 7 c on ta ined a s o l id h i l ted s wo rd a nd H a r the rm iche lkoge l 1c on ta ined a n a n t ena e-h i l ted s wo rd ( F igu r e 2 1 :1 ) ,w h ich a r ec on tempo ra ry w i th t h es wo rd g r ave a tG om ja R adgona ( Pah iC 1 966 , 1 22 ) ,a nd w i th t h ea n tennae h i l ted s wo rd g r ave f r om P odzeme l j a nd t h e ' wa r r io r g r ave ' f r om V i l lach i nC a r in th ia ( Mü l le r-Ka rp e 1 9 52 , 1 04113 ) . T he d i sc h e lme t( F igu r e2 1 :2 )i nO f enma che rwa ld b a r row 4 8 w a s d e r ived f r om t h e D o len jska g roup i nt h e P odzeme l j 2 p ha se ( Gab rove c 1 962-63 ) . B ronze w inged a xe s ( F igu r e 2 1 :3 ) a nd i r on t r unn ion a xe s ( F igu re 2 1 :4 ) a r e a l so f o und i n t y po log ica l ly m a le g r ave s , a s i st h e m u l t iheaded b r onze d r e s s-p in w i th c l o thgua rd ( F igu re 2 1 :5 ) . T ypo log ica l ly f ema le g r ave s c on ta ined t woloop ed k nobbed-bow f i bu lae ( F igu r e 2 1 :6 ) a nd s em iluna te f i bu lae ( F igu r e 2 1 :7 ) ,i n d igenou sS ou th E a s t A lp ine f o rm s ,a nd b ron ze d i sc f i bu lae w i th p un ched d eco ra t ion ( F igu re 2 1 :8 ) . S ome m e ta l t y pe s a r e l a te Um f ie ld i n t y p e , s uch a s t h e ' fshaped b r on ze b e l th ook f r om L egen ( S t rmän ik-Gu l i b i 1 979 ,T .9 ,3 ) . T he m a cha i ra , f r om L egen , i s aw eapon c ommon i n t h e B a sa rab i c u l tu re a nd t h e m idd le D anube a r ea ( Gu g t in 1 974 , 6 79 4 ) .T he G om ja R adgona ' Ku l twagen ' h a s p a ra l le l sw i th l a te Um f ie ld f i nd s i nn o r th a nd c en t ra l I t a ly ( Pah id ' 1 966 . 1 38 , T3 ) . Me ta l a r te fac t s w e re n o t c ommon a nd a s i n t h e p r eced ing l a te B ronze A ge , c e ram ic v e s se l s w e r e t h e m a jo r c omponen t o f t h e g r ave i n ven to ry . S ome o f t h e v e s se l t y pe s r e ca l l t h o se o f t h e R ue g r oup . Two-hand led a mpho rae ( F igu r e 2 1 :9 ) a nd h and led j u g s ( F igu re 2 1 :14 ) , K ege lha l sge fä s se ( F igu re 2 1 :1013 )a r et h ed om inan tt y pe i n t h ec eme te r ie sa tK le in-K le in t h roughou tt h eE a r ly I r on A ge . B a sa rab i d eco ra t ion i sa l so f o und i n t h i s p ha se a tK le inK le in a nd i ng t a je r ska ( J . D u la r 1 973 , 52 , 55 , 57-558 ; D ob ia t 1 980 , 1 66-168 ) . 2 : 2e K le in-K le in 2( 6 50 t oc i r ca 6 00 B .C . ) . T he K le in-K le in 2 p ha se i s a t r an s i t iona l p ha se e qu iva len t t ot h eH a l l s ta t tC 2i nC en t ra l E u rope , S t iCna 1i n D o len jska ,e a r ly p ha se l ci nt h e S v . L uc i ja g r oup a nd p ha se I ca nd e a r ly p ha se a tE s te .T he m a te r ia li n§ t a je r ska i s s l igh t ly d i f f e r en t i nc ha rac te r f r om t h a t a t K le in-K le in , p a r t icu la r ly t h e c e ram ic i n ven to ry , e . g . , t h e h i gh-necked K ege lha l sge fä ss i sn o tf o und i nS t a je r ska ( P ah i C 1 973 ,5 39 ) .

2 : 2d K le in-K le in 1( 7 50 t o6 50 B .C . ) . T he K le in-K le in s equenc e i sn o t s t r ic t ly a pp l icab le t ot h e e n t i r e W ie s-Ma r t i janec g r oup i ns ou th S t y r ia a nd S t a je r ska , b u t t h e c h rono logy i st h e b e s t a va i lab le f o r d i scu s s ing t h e W ie s-Ma r t i janec g r oup a s aw ho le ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 1 661 76 ) .T he W ie s-Ma r t i jane cg r oup i sc ha ra c te r i sed b yh i l l fo r t

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A r chaeo log ica lP e r spec t ive T he b u r ia l r i te a tK le in—K le in i ss im i la r t ot h e p reced ing p i t c r ema t ion s , b u t s ome s t one s e t t ing s a nd l o o se c r ema t ion

T .18 , 5 ) . T he re a r e an umbe r o f w ea l thy e l i te g raves a t K le in—K le in , w h ich a r e q u i te d i f f e ren t f r om t h e p reced ing p ha se s , a n i n d ica to r o f i n c rea sed h i e ra rch isa t ion i n t h is p ha se . T he S t re t tweg b a r row i s c on tempo ra ry w i th t h i s . B u r ia l r i te i sp redom inan t ly c r ema t ion , i n l aye r s u nde r

l a ye r s o ccu r . T ypo log ica l ly ma le g r ave s l a ck mu l t iheaded b ronze d re ss—p in s , b u t c on ta in i r on s pea rhead s ( F igu re 2 2 :3 ) . T he f ew t ypo log ica l ly f ema le g rave s c on ta in b oa t f i bu lae ( F igu re 2 2 :1 , 2 ) s im i la r t o t h en o r th I t a l ian f o rm s t h a t a ppea r ed i nt h e D o len jska g roup i nt h e S t iCna 1p ha se . C e ram ic v e s se l s ma in ta ined t h e i r d om inan t p os i t ion i nt h e

b a r rows , s ome t ime s e n c lo sed b y s t one s e t t ing s o r s t one c hambe r s . T he g rave g ood s i n t h e r i ch b a r rows o f K rö l l— S chm iedkoge l a nd P omme rkoge l s how many l i nk s w i th D o len jska a nd n o r the rn I t a ly . T he n o rma l w eapon s e t c on ta ined i r on s pea r s ( F igu re 2 3 :3 , 4 ) a nd i r on a xes ( F igu re

m o r tuary r e co rd . C a r ina ted a nd h o rn—hand led c up s ( F igu re 2 2 : 1 2-14 ) , d i shes w i th e ver ted r im s ( F igu re 2 2 :5 ) , b ow l s w i th i n ve r ted r ims ( F igu re 2 2 :4 , 1 ) a nd c o l la r r immed v e s se l s ( F igu re 2 2 :6 , 7 ) w e re a l so p re sen t . T he K ege lha l sgefä ss ( F igu r e 2 2 : 8 -10 ) r ema ined i mpor tan t a nd w a s n ow o f ten p a in ted r ed a nd b l a ck ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 1 681 69 ) .

2 3 :5-7 ) . T he c u i ra s se s ( F igu re 2 3 :2 ) i n t h e P omme rkoge l a nd K rö l l—Schm iedkoge l h ave p a ra l le l s w i th t h e S t icna 1 p r ince ly g rave s i n D o len jska ( s ee s e c t ion 2 : 1e ) , wh i ls t t h e d oub le—c re s ted h e lme t ( F igu re 2 3 :1 ) i n t h e K rö l l— S chm iedkoge l i s mo re c ommon i nD o len jska i nt h e C er to sa p ha se ( s ee s e c t ion 2 : 1 j ) . T he b ronze v e sse l f ound i n b o th b a r rows a nd a tS t re t tweg h ave c l ea r p a ra l le ls w i th t h o se i n

2 :2 f K le in—K le in 3( c ir ca 6 00 t oc i r ca 5 75 B .C . ) .

E s te ( F rey 1 969 , 6 8-71 ) a nd t h e G o la secca g roup ( De Ma r in is 1 974 , 6 7-86 ) . T he b ronze ma sk a nd h and s i n t h e

T h is i s t h e f i na l p ha se o f t h e W ie s— Ma r t i janec g roup t h roughou tt h ea r ea o c cup ied . I ti se qu iva len tt ot h e H a l ls ta t t C 2 a nd H a l l s ta t t D 1 i nC en t ra l E u rope , S t iCin a 2p hase i n

K rö l l—Schm iedkoge lp a ra l le lt h eT reben ig te f i nd s . K ege lha l sge fä sse

D o len jska , t h ee nd o fp ha se l ca nd b eg inn ing o fp ha se I l ai n t h e S v . L uc i ja g roup a nd t h e l a te rp ha se 1 1 1 1 1 a nd t h e s t a r to f p ha se I l ia a t E s te . T he e nd o f t h i s g roup i s d i f f icu l t t o c l ea r ly i d en t if y ,b u tt h el a ck o f' S cy th ian ' ma te r ia lm ean s t h a t i tc an b e n o l a te r t h an t h e Ha l l s ta t t D l . A f te r t h is d a te

( F igu re

2 3 :16-20 )

a re

t h e mo s t

c ommon v e s se lt ype , o f ten w i th a n ima lp ro tomes a nd b lack p a in t ing . Ar a nge o fc up s r ema ined i nu se ( F igu re 2 3 :101 3 ) , a s d id b ow l s w i th i n ve r ted r im s ( F igu re 2 3 :9 ) , a nd d i shes ( F igu re 2 3 :8 ) . T he f oo ted d i sh ( F igu re 2 3 :14 ) h a s c l o se p a ra l le l s w i th e xamp le s f r om t h e Do len jska g roup ( Dob ia t 1 980 :169170 ; 1 981 , 1 91 ; J . D u la r 1 982 ,196 ) . T he S t r e t tweg b a r row c on ta ined b l ack a nd r ed p a in ted f oo ted s i tu la te v esse l s ( ? ) c ommon i nE s te a nd S v . L uc i ja

b a r row b u r ia l d i ssapea red a nd w a s p robab ly r ep laced b y i n huma t ion i n f l a t c eme te r ie s , a s h appened i n t h e K a lende rbe rg g roup i n e a s ter n A u s t r ia , u n t i l t h e l a te a ppea rance o fL a Une C u s ing g roup s i nt h e r eg ion ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 1 70 ) . Ha l ls ta t t D f l a t g rave s h ave b een f ound a t R i fn ik n ea r S ' fe n t ju r i n g ta je r ska ( Bo l ta 1 981 , T .12 ,9 -12 ,

i nE s te p ha se I I ( Schm id 1 934 , 2 0-21) .

3 5

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia

F igu r e2 0 :R ü ge G roup A s semb lage i nt h eH a l l s ta t tB 3P ha se ( a f te r Mü l le r—Ka rp e 1 9 59 )

3 6

F igu re 2 1 :P ha se 1A s semb lage a tK le in—K le in ( a f te rD ob ia t 1 980 )

A r chaeo log i ca lP e r spe c t ive

3 7

F igu r e2 2 :P ha se 2A s semb lage a tK le in—K le in ( a f te rD ob ia t 1 9 80 )

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia

3 8

F icn ire 'A - PhacP

C CPrnh lar rp a t Klp in—I(lp in ( af tpr F Inh iat 1 OR M

A r chaeo log ica lP e r spec t ive

3 9

CHAPTER 3 THE DATABASE AND I TS L IM ITAT IONS

T he d i scu ss ion o f t h e d a taba se a nd i t s l im i ta t ion s i s d i v ided i n to t h ree p a r t s , f i r s t ly a g ene ra l q uan t if ica t ion o f t h e d a ta w i th r e f e rence t o t h e d i f f e ren t t y pes o f s i te f ound a nd t h e i r g eog raph ica l a nd c h rono log ica l d i s t r ibu t ion s ; s e cond ly , t h e q ua l i ty o ft h e a va i lb le d a ta w i l l b e d i scu ssed , t h e e x ten t a nd n a tu re o f e xcava t ion , a s w e l l a s t h e a cces s ib i l i ty o f t h e r e su l t s i n p ub l ica t ion s a nd m u seum c o l lec t ion s . F ina l ly ,t h e c r i ter ia o fd a ta s e lec t ion w i th in t h e c on st ra in t s o f t h i s s t udy w i l l b e s e t o u t w i th p a r t icu la r r e f e rence t ot h e t h emes o f s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion a nd h i e ra r chy a nd t o t h e c on s t ra in t s o f t h e d a ta m en t ioned i n s ec t ion 2 ( a bove ) .

m e s to , gma r je ta , Mok ronog a nd P odzeme l j ( J .Du la r 1 979 , 6 5100 ) . T h i sh ypo thes is h a sn o tb een t e s ted d ue t ol a ck o f e xcava t ion a tt h e se s i te s . T he t h i rd t ype o fs i te i nD o len jska i s t h e c ave s i te . T hese s i tes a re o f ten mu l t ipe r iod i n o ccupa t ion , w i th s ome u rn f ie ld c e ram ic s i nt h e u ppe rl e ve l s . T he i r f u nc t ion i s u nknown , b u t may r e la te t o s ea sona l a c t iv i t ie s , e g t r an shumance , o r r i tua l u se . T hey c ha rac te r i s t ic o ft h eh i ghe rk a r s t ic h i l ls o fK o Cev je .

a r e

1 :l b g ta jer ska ( See F igure 2 4 ) . T he H aB s i te s i nS .t a je r ska a r e a l l p a r t o f t h e R uge ( Ma r ia

T he s i te s o f t h e l a te B ronze A ge a nd e a r ly I r on A ge i nt h e r eg ion a r e s e t o u t i nf i gu res 2 4 a nd 2 5 . T hese s i te s w i l l b e

R a s t ) g roup , w h ich a l so i n c ludes s ou ther n S ty r ia a nd C a r in th ia ( Chap te r 2 :s ec t ion 2 ) . Mo r tua ry s i te s a ga in f o rm t h e m a jo r i ty o f t h e s i te s ( n ine o u t o f f i f teen ) , a l though s e t t lemen t s a r e b e t te r r ep re sen ted t h an i n D o len jska . T he mo r tua ry s i te s a r e f l a t c r ema t ion c eme te r ie s , a s i n

d i scu s sed g ene ra l ly b e low i n c h rono log ica l a nd r e g iona l t e rm s .

D o len jska , a nd c h rono log ica l ly s pan t h e e n t i r e H aB p er iod , e . g . , Rae , P ob r ei je ( Mü l le r—Ka rpe 1 959 , 15-126 ; P ah iC#

1 : 1 L a te B ronze A ge ( Ha l ls ta t t B ) .

1 957 , 1 972 ) . T he c eme ter ies a r e a l so l a rge r , w i th o ve r t wo h und red g rave s a t R uk , a nd o ne h und red a nd e i gh ty a t

1G enera l Quan t if ica t ion .

P ob rei je . T he l a tes t f l a t c r ema t ion g rave s a tR ue may b e c on tempo ra ry w i th t h e e a r l ies t b a r row g rave s a tP o g te la a nd K le in—K le in ( Pah iC 1 973 ,5 21-543 ; Dob ia t 1 980 ) .

1 :1a D o len jska ( s ee F igure 2 4 ) . Settlement

F lat

Barrow

Hoard

Cemetery Cemetery

Dolenjska

2

h ' a jerska

6

9

2 (+)

2

South Styria

1 0

4

C ave S ite

S ix s e t t lemen t 1 975 , 5 3-54 ) .

s i te s a r e k nown f r om .t a jer ska ( ANSL T hey a ppea rt ob e u ndef ended h i l l top s i te s ,

3

e . g . , B r in jeva g o ra a nd O rmo2 . I n te rna l s t ruc tu res c omp r i se r e c tangu la r h ou ses w i th s t one f ounda t ion s a nd ' B lockbau ' ( l og c ab in s ) o r w a t t le a nd d aub s up e r s t ruc tu res . O the r c l a sse so fs i te a r ea b sen td u r ing t h e Ha l ls ta t t Bi nA t a j e r s k a .

1

F igu re 2 4 : H a l l s ta t t BS i tes i nt h e S ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion . 1 : 1c S ou th S tyr ia ( s ee F igure 2 4 ) . T he H aB s i tes d i scussed h e r e a l l b e long t o t h e L jub l jana g roup ( s ee C hap te r 2 :s e c t ion 2 ) . T he ma jo r i ty o f t h e s i te s

T he H a l ls ta t t Bs i te s i n s ou th S ty r ia a r e p a r t o f t h e R ue ( Ma r ia R a s t ) Um f ie ld g roup ( s ee s e c t ion 1 : 1b a bove ) . Mo r tua ry s i tes a r e s ca r ce , i ns ha rp c on t ra s t t ot h e p reced ing

k nown a r e mo r tua ry i n c ha rac te r a nd c omp r ise t e n f l a t c r ema t ion c eme te r ies . O n ly t h ree o f t h e se c eme te r ies b e long t ot h e e a r ly p a r t o ft h e g roup H a l ls ta t t B I—B2 ) : L jub l jana , Mok ronog a nd Novo m e s to—Br g l j in . T he r ema inde r ,

t wo r e g ion s . O n ly i n d iv idua lf l a tc r ema t ion g r ave s a r ek nown f r om G raz / Judendo r f a nd T i l lm i t sch , a l though t h ese may r ep re sen tp a r t so fl a rge rc eme te r ies .

i n c lud ing a l a rge p a r t o f t h e L jub l jana a nd Mok ronog c eme ter ies , d a te t o HaB3 a nd H aC , t h e t r an s i t ion f r om t h e t r an s i t ion s ome

S e t t lemen t s i te s a r e n ume rou s . H i l l top s i te s a r ek nown f r om

i n huma t ion s o ccu r , a nd s ome c r ema t ion s a r e p laced u nde r

B ronze

A ge

t o I r on

A ge .

D u r ing

W i ldon a nd H e i l igen B e rg b e i B amback , a nd s ome s i x teen

e a r ly b a r rows a tV aCe . Sma r je ta a nd P odzeme l j ( Gab rovec 1 976 5 88-600 ; J . D u la r 1 979 . 6 5-100 ) . T he c eme te r ies a r e g ene ra l ly s ma l l , t h e l a rges t s i ng le p ha se c eme te ry

o t he r s a r e k nown t h roughou t S ty r ia ( P i t t ion i 1 980a 1 221 23 ) . H oweve r , t h e e xac t c ha rac te r o f t h e se s i tes i sh a rd t o a sce r ta in .

b e ing Novo m es to /Mes tne n j ive w i th c i rca 2 00 g raves ,m o s t b e ing m uch s ma l le r , e . g . Mo ln ik w i th e l even g raves ( Knez

T he mo s t n ume rou s T he re a r e f ou r H aB ( Roh i t sch ) t o H aB3 1 959 , 1 27 ) . T hey

1 984 19133 ;P u s 1 984 , 1 34162 ) . S e t t lemen t s i te s a r e p oo r ly r ep resen ted d ue t o f i e ldwo rk b i a s . O n ly o ne c an b e p o s i ted w i th s ome c e r ta in ty , t h a t o f t h e C a s t le ( G rad ) a t L jub l jana w h ich i sk nown f r om s t ray

t ype o f s i te i n t h e a r ea i s t h e h oa rd . h oa rd s f r om S tyr ia d a t ing f r om H aB I ( Schönbe rg , Wi ldon ) ( Mü l le r—Ka rpe a r e c ompo sed o f b ron ze o rnamen t s ,

w eapon s , t o o l s a nd s c rap .

T he i r f unc t ion w i th in t h e r eg ion

w i l l b e d i scu s sed b e low , b u t i t mu s tb e n o ted t h a t i ta ppea r s t ob e f a r mo r e c omp lex t h an t h en o t ion o ff ounde r s ' h oa rd s o f s c rap m e ta l ( Levy 1 982 ) . F ina l ly , t wo o t he r t ype s o f s i te

f i nd s a round t h e l a te m ed iaeva l c a s t le . O the r s e t t lemen t s m ay b e p re sen t w he re H aB c eme ter ies o ccu r a d jacen t t o E a r ly I r on A ge h i l lfo r t sa nd b a r row c eme te r ie s ,e .g .a t Novo

m u s t

4 0

b e

m en t ioned .

A

s i ng le

c ave

s i te

o ccu r s

a t

T he Da tabase a nd i t sL im i ta t ions H e iden tempe l ( Kö f lach ) ; a s p rev iou s ly , t h is s i te i s r ep resen ted b y u rn f ie ld c e ram ic s i nt h e u ppe r l e ve ls o f a m u l t iper iod s i te . Au n ique s i te i sr ep r e sen ted a tT i l lm i t sch , aHa l l s ta t t B 3 i r on— sme l t ing s i te . T h i s s i te i st h e e a r l ie s t i r on—wo rk ing s i te k nown i n t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine r eg ion ( Lex ikon 1 965 , 1 57 ) . 1 : 2 E ar ly I ron A ge ( Ha l ls ta t t C& D ) . 1 : 2a D o len jska ( s ee F igure 2 5 ) .

e xcep t ion s . T he s i te o fV aCe c on ta in s a ni mpor tan t l a rge f l a t c eme tery e l emen t t h roughou t t h e E a r ly h on A ge , w i th o n ly a f ew b a r row s k nown f r om t h e s i te . Two o t he r f l a t c eme ter ie s a r e k nown f r om t h e a r ea a round Z ago r je o n t h e r i ve r S ava . I n huma t ion s upp lan ted c r ema t ion a s t h e d om inan tr i te i nt h ese c eme ter ies , ad om inan t t r end i n many o f t h e l a te r L jub l jana g roup c eme te r ie s . Howeve r , t h e a t yp ica ln a tu re o ft h ese s i te s i sd ue i np a r t t o t h e i r o u t ly ing p o s i t ion o n t h e i n ter face o f t h e Do len jska g roup w i th t h e G o ren jska g roup i n t h e c a se o f V aCe , a nd w i th t h e W ies— Ma r t i janec g roup i nt h e c a se o f Z ago r je ( ANSL 1 975 , 2 68 ) .

Settlement F lat

Barrow

Hoard

Cemetery C e metery

Cave

Dolenjska

1 79

3

2 80

2

h ajerska

1 4

8

1 8

3

South Styria

8

2 (?)

3

Two c ave s i te s a r e a l so k nown f r om t h e D o len jska r eg ion . T hese a r e , a si nt h e Ha l l s ta t tB ,r ep re sen ted b yc e ram ic f i nd s

Site

1

i n t h e u ppe r l a ye r s o f c ave d epo s i t s , a nd may r ep resen t s ea sona l e xp lo i ta t ive s i tes ( t ran shumance ) o r ' r i tua l ' s i te s , a l though t h e se e xp lana t ion s mus t r ema in s uppo s i t ion . T he o n ly o the rs i tes k nown i nt h e a r ea a r e s t ray f i nd s , a nd a r en o t c on s ide red h e re .

8

F igu r e 2 5 : E a r ly I r on A ge ( Ha l l s ta t t C , H a l ls ta t t Da nd L a 1 : 2b g ta jer ska ( s ee F igure 2 5 ) .

T ene A a nd B )S i tes i nt h eS ou th E a s tA lp ine r eg ion . T he n umbe r o f s i te s b e long ing t o t h e E a r ly I r on A ge D o len jska g roup c on t ra s t s s ha rp ly w i th t h ep o s i t ion s hown b y

T he E a r ly I r on A ge s i te s i n t a je r ska a r e p a r t o ft h e l a rge r W ie s— Ma r t i ianec g roup , w h ich e x tend s n or th i n to s ou th

t h e e a r l ie r L jub l jana g roup ( s ee a bove ) . S e t t lemen t s i tes a r e n ow n ume rou s . T he ma in s e t t lemen t t ype i s t h e h i l lfor t , u sua l ly u n iva l la te . L i t t le i sk nown o f t h e i n ter na l l a you t o f t h ese s i te s , w h ich n umbe r 1 70 d ef in i te E a r ly l i on A ge e xamp le s , a nd a n a dd i t iona ln umbe r o fu nda ted b u t s im i la r s i tes . I nm any c a se s , e . g . S t iCna a nd L ibna ( Gab rovec , F rey a nd F o l t iny 1 969 , 1 77196 ) , t h e s e t t lemen t s a ppea rt oh ave b een f ounded c .7 50 B .C . a nd t oc on t inue i nu se d own t ot h e e nd o f t h e E a r ly I r on A ge , c .3 00 B .C . , a nd i ns ome c a ses

S ty r ia ( s ee b e low ) a nd e a s t i n to n or th—wes t C roa t ia ( Gab rovec 1 966 , 8 ; P ah iC 1 973 , 2 1-543 ) . S e t t lemen t s i tes s how a n i n c rea se o ve r t h e p reced ing p er iod f r om n i ne t o t h i r teen , a nd e xh ib i t a mo rpho log ica l c hange f r om u nef ended h i l l top s e t t lemen t s t o d ef ended h i l l top s e t t lemen t s w i th as i ng le r ampa r t , e x ten s ive o u two rk s , a nd ,

b eyond ( e .g . L ibna ,S t iCna ) .

i n t h e c a se o f P o g te la a nd L imbu g , i n tu rned e n t rance . I n te rna l f e a tu res a r e s i tua ted o n t e r races a nd p la tfo rms . H ou se s t ruc tu re s a r e r e c tangu la r o r s ub— rec tangu la r w i th s t one f ounda t ion s a nd w a t t le a nd d aub o r ' B lockbau '

Mor tua ry s i te s c on t inue t o d om ina te t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , d ue t o b ia s i n f i e ldwo rk , a s t h ey a r e c on sp icuou s

s upe r s t ruc tu re . S ome h ouses a r e d i v ided i n to t wo r oom s , w i th ah ea r th i no ne . A n o pen a nnexe i ss ome t imes p resen t ( S chm id 1 915 , 2 29-305 ) .

monumen t s . 2 83 mo r tua ry s i te s a r ek nown , t h ev a s t m a jo r i ty o f w h ich a r e b a r row c eme ter ie s o r i s o la ted b a r row s ( 280 e xamp le s ) . T he b a r row c eme ter ies a r e g ene ra l ly a soc ia ted w i th a n a d jacen t h i l lfo r t , e . g . Magda len ska g o ra ( Hencken 1 978 ) , S t iCna (We l l s 1 981 ) , L ibna ( Guk in 1 976 ) , D o len jske

Mor tua ry s i te s p re sen t as im i la r p i c tu re o f c hange a nd i n c rea se . F la t c eme te r ie s a r e m uch r educed i nn umber s , r ep resen ted b y s even c e r ta in e xamp le s a nd o ne p o ss ib le ( Pah iC 1 973 ) . T hey n umbe re i gh teen ( Pah iC 1 973 , 5 21-543 ) . T he b a r row s a r e l e s s c omp lex t h an t h e D o len jska e xamp le s , t h e mound u sua l ly c ove r ing a s i ng le o r o cca s iona l ly a

T op l ice ( Te rian 1 976 , 3 93-413 ) ; i s o la ted b a r row s a r e o f ten p a r t o fl a rge r g roup s , b u t n o t n ece s sa r i ly c l o se ly a s so c ia ted w i th ah i l l fo r t , e . g . B o g tan j ( Gu g t in 1 974 , 8 7-119 ) . T he s i ze o f b a r row c eme te r ie s v a r ies f r om c . 3 0 b a r row s a t

d oub le c r ema t ion . T he b a r row c eme te r ies o f t h e Wies— Ma r t i janec g roup i nt h is a r ea a r e r e la t ive ly s ma l l ,n umbe r ing b e tween o ne a nd t e n b a r row s , a l though much l a rge r

Magda len ska g o ra t o c .7 0 a t L ibna a nd c . 1 30 a t S t iCna ( ANSL 1 975 , 1 97 , 2 00 , 2 60 ) . B u r ia l s w i th in b a r row s a r e u sua l ly i n huma t ion s , a r ranged i nc oncen t r ic r i ng s o f b u r ia ls w i thou t ac en t ra l g rave , t h e s o— ca l led ' S ippenhüge l ' t ype o f

c eme ter ie s a r e p re sen t , w i th o ve r7 0b a r row s a tL egen ,6 0 a t P ivo la , 4 9 a tP ote la a nd 3 0 a tC r e ta . T he g roup b eg in s c .

b u r ia l , w i th a s many a s 4 00 g rave s p resen t ( ANSL 1 975 , 2 01 ) , a l though 3 0t o5 0i s amo re n o rma l f i gu re , a nd b a r row s o f ten c on ta in o n ly af ew g rave s ( Gab rovec 1 974 , 1 72 , 1 80 ) . B a r row c eme ter ie s b eg in a round 7 50 B .C . a tP od zeme l j a nd

b u t o n ly c on t inues u n t i l c .6 00 / 575 B .C . ( Pah iC 1 973 ; D ob ia t 1 980 , 5 21-543 ) . T h ree c ave s i tes o f u nknown p u rpo se a r e

o t her s i te si nB e la K ra j ina , a sw e l la sa t Sma r je ta a nd V aCe , a nd a r e c on tempo ra ry w i th t h e l a te s t f l a t c eme te r ie s a t Mo l c ronog , L jub l jana a nd Me t l ika—Bo rkek , i n deed s ha r ing as im i la r c r ema t ion r i te ( J . D u la r 1 979 , 6 5100 ) . B a r row s

1 : 2c S ou th S tyr ia ( s ee F igure 2 5 ) .

7 50 B .C . , c on tempo ra ry t o t h e r i se o f t h e D o len jska g roup ,

a l so k nown i nt h e a r ea ( s ee D o len jska ,a bove ) .

T he W ie s— Ma r t i janec g roup i ns ou th S ty r ia c on t ra s t s s ha rp ly w i th t h e p r eced ing R ue g roups . T he re a r e e i gh t s e t t lemen t

l a rge ly r ep lace f l a tc eme ter ie s a s m or tua ry s i tes d u r ing t h e

s i te si nt h e a r ea ( K rame r 1 981 , 1 73184 ) . D e fended h i l l top s i te s p redom ina te a nd s how s im i la r i t ies t o t h e s i tes i n

H a l ls ta t t C 2 ( S t iCna I ,c .6 50-600 B .C . ) , w i th t h ree m a jo r

4 1

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia g t a je r ska ; i n deed , t wo s i te s , N ov ine—Bubenbe rg a nd R adke r sbe rg , a r e a s soc ia ted w i th b a r row c eme te r ie s o n t h e S l oven ian s i de o ft h e b o rde r . L i t t le i sk nown o ft h e i n te rna l f e a tu r e s , a l though a s i ng le r e c tangu la r s t ruc tu r e w i th s t one f o unda t ion si sk nown f r om B u rg s ta l lkoge l ,K le in—K le in . Mo r tua ry s i te s s how a c on s ide rab le i n c rea se i nn umbe r s . I n d iv idua l f l a tc r ema t ion g r aves a r ek nown f r om t wo s i te si n t h e a r ea , b u tt h e m a jo r i ty o fs i te s p a ra l le l s d eve lopmen t s i n g t a je r ska .T h r ee b a r row c eme te r ie s a r e k nown , t h e s i t eo f S t r e t tweg w i th o ne b a r row a nd W i ldon w i th t wo ( ? )b a r row s . T he m a jo r s i te i st h e S u lm ta l n ec ropo l i s c e n t red o n K le in— K le in a nd t h e B u rg s ta l lkoge l h i l lfo r t , w h ich e mb ra ce s c . 700 b a r row s . B u r ia l r i te p a ra l le l s g t .a je r ska w i th s i ng le c r ema t ion su nde r ab a r row ,a l though i nt h ef i na lp ha se so ft h e S u lm ta ln ecopo l i s m u l t ip ie b u r ia ls a ppea r . T he g r oup b eg in s c .7 50 B .C . a nd , a s i nS t a je r ska , c ome s t oa n e nd a r ound 6 00-575 B .C .( Dob ia t 1 980 ) . H oa rd f i nd s a r e i n s ign if ican t i nt h e E a r ly I r on A ge i nt h i s a r ea w i th o n ly o ne e xamp le b e ing k nown . C ave s i te s a r e m o re n ume rou s t h an i nt h ep r ev iou s p ha se . T he c ha ra c t e ro f t h e se s i te sh a sa l r eady b een d i scu s sed . 2 Qua l i ty o fD a ta . 2 : 1 L a te B ronze A ge ( Ha l l s ta t tB ) . 2 :l aD o len jska ( s e eF igure s2 6a nd 2 7 ) . T he q ua l i ty o ft h e d a ta r e t r ieved f r om m o r tua ry s i te s o ft h e L jub l jana g r oup v a r ie s g r ea t ly d ue t od i f f e r ing s t anda rd s o f e xcava t ion o ve r t i me . A l l t e n m o r tua ry s i te s h ave b een e xcava ted . T he f l a t c eme te ry c omp lex a t Mok ronog w a s e xcava ted b y J e rne j P eCn ik i nt h e l a te n i ne teen th a nd e a r ly t wen t ie th c en tu r ie s . T he a r te fac t s w e r e d epo s i ted i n L jub l jana a nd V ienna . I ti se s t ima ted t h a t c . 1 500 g r ave s d a t ing f r om t h e H a l l s ta t t B t o t h e H a l l s ta t t C w e r e e xcava ted , b u t l i t t le o r n o r e co rd r ema in s o f g r ave a s so c ia t ion s . T he s ame a pp l ie s t o t h e c eme te ry o f D obe , e xcava ted b y P eZn ik i n1 904 a nd G o lob in jek , e xcava t ed b y K u g l jan i n1 898 ( ANSL 1 975 ,2 16-217 ,2 24 .2 52 ) . T he r ema in ing s e ven s i te s w e re e xcava ted i nt h e y ea r s a f te r t h e S econd Wo r ld Wa r . T h e f l a t c r ema t ion c eme te ry i nt h e g r ound s o f S l ovene A cademy o f S c ience s a nd A r t s i n L jub l jana , t h e t y pe s i te o ft h e g r oup w a s e xcava ted d u r ing r e s to ra t ion w o rk b e tween 1 948 a nd 1 965 b y F .S t a r e , a nd i n 1 9711972 b yI .P u g . 3 23 g r ave sw e re f o und : a l lw e r ew e l l r e co rded a nd p ub l i shed ( F . S t a re 1 954 ;P u g 1 971 , 1 982 ) .T he s i te s o f B r s l j in a nd Me s tne n j ive , i nt h e v i c in i ty o f N ovo m e s to ,w e r e w e l le xcava ted , a l though Me s t n en j ive h a s o n ly b een p a r t ly p ub l i shed ( Knez 1 966 , 5 1101 ; 1 967 , 1 5 51 6 1 ; 1 984 , 19133 ) .R ecen te xcava t ion s a t Mo ln ik o nt h e e dge o f t h e L jub l jana b a s in h a s p roduced e l even g r ave s , w h ich h ave r e cen t ly b een p ub l i shed . H oweve r , s ome g r ave s m ay h ave b een l o s td u r ing q ua r ry ing o n t h e e dge o ft h e s i te ( P u s 1 984 , 1 34162 ) .

b e tween 1 956 a nd 1 968 . T he g r ave s h ave b een c omp le te ly p ub l i shed a nd f o rm t h e m o s t i mpo r tan t b ody o f d a ta o f H a l l s ta t t Bd a t ei nB e la K ra j ina . T h ree o t he r mo r tua ry s i te s a r e k nown f r om t h e a r ea , Me t l ika— p i ta l ska d raga , S adei n ea r &nome l j , a nd G r ib l je . T he se s i t e s a r e a l so w e l l p ub l i shed , b u t c omp r i se o n ly i n d iv idua l g r ave s a nd s t ray f i nd s( J .D u la r 1 9 79 ,6 5100 ) . 2 :l bg ta jer ska ( s e eF igure s2 6a nd 2 7 ) . N ine m o r tua ry s i te s h ave b een l o ca ted i n§ t a je r ska . T he e a r l ie s t e xcava t ion s t o ok p l a ce o n t h e s i t e o f R ui e ( Ma r ia R a s t ) i n t h e D rava v a l ley n ea r Ma r ibo r i n 1 875 . T he e xcava t ion sw e re c a r r ied o u tb y Mü l le ra nd Wünnb rand ,a nd 1 72 f l a t c r ema t ion g r ave s w e r e f o und . T he s t anda rd o fd a ta r e t r ieva l w a s g ood a nd g r ave a s soc ia t ion s a nd a s i te p l an e x i s t . H oweve r , o n ly p a r t o f t h e s i te h a s b een p ub l i shed ( Mü l le r—Ka rpe 1 9 59 , 15126 ) . T he o t he rm o r tua ry s i te se xcava ted i nt h el a t en i ne teen th a nd e a r ly t wen t ie th c e n tu r ie su n fo r tuna te ly d on o to f f e rt h es ame q ua l i ty o f d a ta . S podn je R advan je n ea r Ma r ibo r w a s e xcava ted b e tween 1 903 a nd 1 907 , b u t n o d e ta i l s o f a r te f ac t s ,g r ave a s so c ia t ion so ri n ter na l s t ra t if i ca t ion s u r v ive ( ANSL 1 975 , 3 06 ) . T he c eme te ry a tZ go rn ja H a jd ina n ea r P t u j ,e xcava ted i n1 906 , p roduced m a te r ia l c ha rac te r i s t ic o f t h eR u ge g r oup f l a tc eme te r ie s ,b u ta ga in n od e ta i l so fg r ave a s so c ia t ion s o r s i t e s t ruc tu r e w e re f o und , a l though t h e a r te fa c t s a r ep ub l i shed ( ANSL 1 975 , 3 22 ) . i upeC ja v a s , a f l a tc eme te ry i nt h e D rava v a l ley n ea r L ov r enc , p roduc ed c e ram ic a nd m e ta l a r te fa c t s i n1 865 , b u t i ti sn o t c l ea r i f t h e se w e re s y s t ema t ica l ly e xcava ted o r d ug b y p ea san t s ( ANSL 1 975 ,3 19 ) . Wo rk o n t h e H a l l s ta t t Bs i te i n Ma r ibo r t o ok p l ace l a te r , i n 1 9 32 a nd 1 9 33 , b u t w e r e s c a r ce ly b e t te r t h an m any o f t h e a bove e xcava t ion s . I ti sk nown t h a t p e rhap s 3 20 g r ave s w e re f o und , b u t n o d e ta i l s o f g rave a s so c ia t ion s o r s i te s t ruc tu r e w e re k ep t , a l though t h e a r te fa c t s h ave b een p ub l i shed ( ANSL 1 975 ,3 04 ) . T he b e s t r e co rded m o r tua ry s i te s a r e , n o t s u rp r i s ing ly , t h o se e xcava ted m o s tr e cen t ly . P ob ra je ,d ug i n1 936 , 1 939 , 1 9 52 a nd 1 964 ,c on s i s t so f1 80 g r ave s a nd s ome s t ray f i nd s f r om g r ave s d i s tu rbed b y q ua r ry ing ( Pah iC 1 972 , 7 -9 ) . T h e s e cond c eme te ry a tR u ge w a s f o und i n1 9 52 d u r ing b u i ld ing w o rk a nd c on ta ined 3 5 c r ema t ion g r ave s ( P ah iC 1 957 , 6 8 ) . T he m o s t r e cen t d i scove ry w a s t h a t o f t h e 7 5 c r ema t ion g r ave s a t B r in jeva g o ra i n 1 963 . U n f o r t una te ly u n l ike P ob r el je a nd R u ge t h i s s i te i sn o tp ub l i shed ( ANSL 1 975 , 2 96 ) .O ne l a s ts i t em u s tb em en t ioned ,t h a to fL imbu g ,w he r e o ne g r ave w a sd i scove red i n1 944 ( ANSL 1 975 ,3 08 ) . S i x s e t t lemen t s i t e sh ave b een l o ca ted i n§ t a je r ska , as h a rp c on t ra s t t o t h e p auc i ty o f s u ch s i te s i n D o len jska . T he s e t t lemen t o f B r in jeva g o ra h a s b een s u b jec t t o m o r e e x ten s ive e xcava t ion t h an m o s to ft h e s i te s , a l though o n ly a f r a c t ion o ft h ei n t e r io ro ft h eu nd ef ended h i l l top s i te h a sb een e xp lo r ed u s ing n a r row t r en che s a nd s ma l l o pen a r ea s . E xcava t ion s t o ok p l ace f r om 1 9 53 t o 1 963 . T he s i te h a s m u l t ip e r iod o c cupa t ion f r om t h eN eo l i th ic t ot h el a te R oman

T he re i so ne m a jo r f l a t c eme te ry o ft h e H a l l s ta t t Bi nB e la K ra j ina , Me t l i l ca—Bo r g tek c omp r i se s 4 7 g r ave s e xcava t ed

4 2

T he Da tabase a nd i t sL im i ta t ions p er iod , b u t t h e ma jo r o ccupa t ion t ook p lace i nt h e H a l l s ta t t Aa nd B . T h ree Ha l ls ta t t Bs t ruc tu r es a r e k nown f r om t h e w es t e dge o f t h e s i te . S t ruc tu re C i s ar e c tangu la r s t one s t ruc tu re , 2 . 5 X 4me t res , t h e f ounda t ion s o fa' B lockbau ' b u i ld ing . S t ruc tu re D ( 5 x3 . 5 m e t re s ) i s as im i la r s t ruc tu re w h ich i sl a te r t h an a nd o ve r l ie s s t ruc tu re C , a nd c on ta in s a h ea r th . S t ruc tu re E ( 5 X2 . 5 m e t re s ) i ss im i la rt o Ca nd D ,b u t l i e s u ph i l l f r om t h em a nd h a s a5 0 c m h i gh r e ta in ing w a l l o n i t s s ou th s i de ( Pah i 1 981 , 7 1-143 ) .

S e t t lemen t s i te s a r e b e t te rr ep resen ted . T he s i te o f Wi ldon i s am u l t ipe r iod u nde f ended h i l l top s e t t lemen t w i th Ha l l s ta t t B o ccupa t ion . Twe lve r e c tangu la r s t one s t ruc tu res w e re r e co rded , w h ich p robab ly d a te t ot h e um f ie ld p e r iod , e i the r B r .D o r H aB , b o th o f w h ich a r e r ep re sen ted o n t h e s i te ( Lex ikon 1 965 , 1 62 ) . T he h i l l top s i te o f H e i l igen B e rg b e i B ambach d a te s t o t h e H a l l s ta t t B , b u t f ew d e ta i ls a r e a va i lab le . S ix teen o t her s im i la r s i tes o fr epu ted ly HaB d a te h ave b een l o ca ted b y K rame r , b u t a n a dequa te d i s tr ibu t ion h a sn o tb een p ub l ished ( K rame r 1 981 , 1 73-184 ) .

T he s i te o fO rmoz i sa l so a n u ndef ended h i l l top s e t t lemen t , w h ich w a s t r enched i n1 954 b yP e rc . T he s ca le o fe xcava t ion w a s s uch t h a t n o s r uc tu re s w e re v i s ib le , a l though a l a rge a moun t o fH a l ls ta t t Bm a ter ia l w a s r e cove red ( ANSL 1 975 , 3 20 ) . A no the r u ndef ended h i l l top s e t t lemen t i sk nown a t G om ja R adgona n ea r t h e Au s tr ian b o rde r . E xcava t ion w a s l im i ted t os ma l l t r enche s d u r ing b u i ld ing w o rk i n1 962 a nd 1 977 o n t h e e dge o f t h e h i l l , t h e s umm i t h av ing b een e x ten s ive ly d amaged b y m ed iaeva l o ccupa t ion . T he a r ea e xcava ted w a s t o os ma l l t oe nab le t h ee xcava to rt oi d en t ify s t ruc tu r e s b u t a q uan t i ty o f l a te um f ie ld ma te r ia l w a s r e cove red ( I .H o r va t— S ave l 1 981 , 2 91-310 ) .

A n i n te re s t ing e a r ly i r on— sme l t ing s i te w i th a c obb led a rea a nd c l ay s upe r s truc tu re w a s f ound a tT i l lm i t sch i nt h e Mu r v a l ley n ea r L e ibn i tz i n 1 937 ( Lex ikon 1 965 , 1 62 ) . T h ree o f t h e f i ve h oa rd s k nown , T rö s ing , S t ra ssenge l a nd R oh i t sch , w e re d i scove red i n t h e n i ne teen th c en tu ry a nd a r e p oo r ly d e sc r ibed a nd p ub l i shed . T he S chönbe rg h oa rd i s b e t te r k nown a nd w a sf ound i n ac e ram ic v es se l s ugges t ing t h a ti ti s p robab ly c omp le te ( P i t t ion i 1 954 , 5 17 ) . T he Wi ldon h oa rd w a s f ound d u r ing b u i ld ing w o rk a nd a ppea r s t o h ave b een d epo s i ted o n ab u rn t s u r face i n t h e v i c in i ty o f t h e l a te r H a l ls ta t t Cb a r row ( Mü l le r—Ka rpe 1 959 , 2 83 ; L ex ikon 1 965 , 1 62 ) . 2 : 2E ar ly I ron A ge ( Ha l ls ta t t Ca nd D ) .

T he s e t t lemen t s i tes o f S od inc i a nd K r ii evc i n ea r L ju tome r w e re b o th t r enched b y P ah iC i n 1 963 a nd 1 961 r e spec t ive ly , b u t n o d e ta i ls a r e a va i lab le ( ANSL 1 975 , 3 21 , 3 32 ) . H a l l s ta t t B s t ray f i nd s a nd s e t t lemen t m a ter ia l h ave b een f ound d u r ing e xcava t ion s a t P tu j , b u t t h e s i te i s m uch d i s tu rbed b yt h el a te rR oman t own ( ANSL 1 975 , 3 22 ) .

2 : 2a D o len jska ( s ee F igure s2 8a nd 2 9 ) . Settlement

Excavated

Dolenjska

1 79

1 3

g tajerska

1 4

1 1

S outh Styria

8

Published

3

7

2 :l c S ou th S tyr ia ( s ee F igure s2 6a nd 2 7 ) .

Settlement

Dolenjska

1

g tajerska

6

South S tyria

2 (+)

E xcavated

4

F igu re 2 8 : E x ten t o f E xcava t ion o f E a r ly S e t t lemen tS i tes i nt h eS ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion .

Published

4

Cemetery

A ge

Published

1

F igu re 2 6 : E x ten t o f E xcava t ion o f H a l ls ta t t BS e t t lemen t S i te si nt h eS ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion . Cemetery

E xcavated

D olenjska

1 0

1 0

g tajerska

9

S outh S tyria

Excavated

I r on

8

Dolenjska

2 83

1 47

g tajerska

2 6

2 0

South Styria

5

3

3 3 7 3

F igu re 2 9 : E x ten to fE xcava t ion o fE a r ly l i on Age Mo r tua ry S i te si nt h eS ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion .

Published

T he c on s ide rab le i n c rea se i nt h e n umbe r s o f mor tua ry s i tes f r om t e n t ot wo h und red a nd e i gh ty— th ree ( F igu re s 2 7 a nd 2 9 ) o fE a r ly l i on A ge d a te o ve r t h o se o f Ha l l s ta t t Bd a te i n t h e a r ea , i si np a r t d ue t o f i e ldwo rk b i a s . T he monumen ta l n a tu re o f t h e b a r rows w h ich c ha rac ter i se mor tua ry s i te s i n

1 0 7

2

F igu re 2 7 : E x ten t o f E xcava t ion o f H a l ls ta t t B mo r tua ry S i te s i nt h eS ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion .

D o len jska n a tu ra l ly make s t h em mo re v i s ib le t h an t h e p rev iou s f l a tc r ema t ion c eme ter ies , w h ich t e nd t ob ef ound a s

Mo r tua ry s i te s o f Ha l ls ta t t Bd a t e a r e r a re i ns ou th S ty r ia .

ar e su l t o f a g r icu l tu ra l , b u i ld ing a nd i n dus t r ia l a c t iv i t ie s . A s ar e su l t , t h e b a r row c eme ter ies o f D o len jska h ave l o ng

O ne g rave h a s b een f ound d u r ing b u i ld ing w o rk a t G ra z— J udendo r f , a nd a no the r a tT i l lm i t sch i n 1 937 . U n fo r tuna te ly

b een a t a rge t f o r d e l ibe ra te e xcava t ion b y a n t iqua r ian s a nd a r chaeo log i s t s . T he e xac t n umbe r o f e xcava ted s i tes i s d i f f icu l t t o e s t ima te ; t h e f i gu re s ugges ted h e re i s 1 47 , a l though i tc ou ld b e mo re ( ANSL 1 975 , 1 7 ) . Twen ty o ne

t h e J udendo r f f i nd c on s i s t s o n ly o f as i ng le v es se l , a nd n o d e ta i ls s u rv ive c once rn ing t h e T i l lm i t sch g rave ( Lex ikon 1 965 , 1 56 , 1 62 ) .

4 3

I r on A ge i nS l ov en ia a s so c ia ted w i th t h ed a ta d e r ived f r om t h em ( F igu r e3 0 ) .

s i te s h ave b een s e lec ted , r e p re sen t ing a s f a ra sp o s s ib le t h e f u l l r a nge o fm o r tua ry s i te s i nD o len j ska a nd t h e p rob lem s

Number o f

Number of

B arrows

Barrows

Barrows

On S ite

Excavated

Published

Number o f

Magdalenska g ora

4 0

Date o f e xcavation

1 881-1883;

1 892-1895;

2 2

1 0

2 1+

1 1=

1 905-1913. c 131

S ti8na

1 853;

1 892;

1 930-1940;

c 2000

Vaäe

1 905; 1 946;

1 953;

1 960-1964.

1 877;

1 878;

( Graves) 1882-1883;

1 914; 1 952-

1 879-1881;

c 2000

( Graves)

6 4

1 913;

1 932;

B oitanj

3 2+

1 879;

1 904-1905;

Brezje

1 9

1 893-1895.

1 9(?)

B rusnice

2 5

1 895-1896.

2 5

2 1

1 7

1 7

Dolenjske Toplice Dobrava

( DobrniE)

Mokronog

( Graves)

1 905-1907; 1 935;

1 949. 1 911

1 7

1 898-1899.

c 100

1 896-1898;

1 899

c 1500

1 884-1886;

1 900-1901;

1 0+

1 0

c 27 c 1500

6

4 ( Graves)

?

( Graves) 1908. N ovo m esto

g marjeta

1 0

c 100

1 890;

1 894;

1 941;

1 967+.

1 879-1882;

1 905;

1 939-

1 880-1900;

9

2 +

8 1+

1 914. ValiCna vas

?

1 885;

V inkov vrh

2 0

1 895.

VolCje n jive

1 c 70

L ibna

c 40

1

1 884-1886;

1 888;

1 894-1895;

1 905-1909;

1 954;

Loka n r.

1 0

1 896.

1 891;

P odzemelj Vinica

c 79 2

1 958;

1 962;

c 70

1 888;

1 890;

7

1 1 7+

1 969. 6

1 884-1886;

1 +

1 890;

1 882.

3 0

Dragatu;

1 940. 1 0

Velika Malence

C rnomelj

1 930;

1 953.

1 928; RoviiCe

1 896;

2

1 0(?)

1 892. 1 0 1

1 900. 1 887-1888;

1 891.

3 7+ 2

1 906.

8 1 2 6 0

F igu re 3 0 : Mo r tua ry S i te si nE a r ly l i on A ge D o len j ska m en t ioned i nC hap te r3 . T he h i s to ry o f a r chaeo log ica l f i e ldwo rk o n t h e m a jo rs i t e s i s c ha rac te r i sed i nm o s t c a se s b y as e r ie s o fe xcava t ion c ampa ign sb y av a r ie ty o fi n d iv idua l sr e p r e sen t ing n o to n ly t h e m u seum s i nL jub l jana a nd t h e r e g ion s o f S l oven ia , b u t a l so t h e H o fbu rg i n V ienna , t h e c o l lec t ion s o f w h ich a r e h ou sed i nt h e N a tu rh i s to r i sche smu seum . T he s i te o f V aCe w a s o ne o f t h e e a r l ie s t t o b e i n ve s t iga ted . E xcava t ion s b egan i n1 877 o nt h e c omp lex o ff l a tc eme te r ie s o nt h e s i te . C ampa ig n s w e re c a r r ied o u t b y t h e R udo lf inum ( Na rodn i m uze j ) i n1 878 ,F ü r s tW ind i schg rä tz f r om 1 879 t o1 881 , t h e V ienne se A cademy i n 1 881 , t h e D uche s s o f Me ck lenbu rg f r om 1 905 t o1 907 a nd i n1 9 15 , a nd b y S chm id i n1 932 a nd 1 935 , a s w e l l a s t h e a c t iv i t ie s o f l o ca l p ea san t s . I ti s e s t ima ted t h a t s ome 2 000 g r ave s w e re d i scove r ed , o n ly a f ew o f t h e se i nb a r row s . T he m a te r ia l h a s b een d i sp e r sed b e tween t h r ee m u seum s ,t h eN a rodn im uze j i nL jub l jana ,t h e N a tu rh is to r i sche smu seum i n V ienna , w h i le t h a t p a r t o ft h e Meck lenbu rg c o l lec t ion r e s ide si nt h eA shmo lean Mu seum i n O x fo rd .T he s t anda rd o fd a ta r e co rd ing d i f f e r ed r a d ica l ly .

4 4

T he m a te r ia l i n L jub l jana i s l a rge ly w i thou t g r ave a s soc ia t ion s a pa r t f r om t h a t f r om S chm id e s e xcava t ion s , a l though i ti s p ub l i shed . T he m a te r ia l i n V ienna i s u npub l i shed b u t d oe s c on ta in s ome r e co rd s o f a s soc ia t ion s , a sd oe s t h e A shmo lean m a te r ia l , a l though t h e b a s is f o rt h i s i su nknown ( B . S m i th—Demo , p e r s . c omm . ; F . S t a r e 1 9 54 ; ANSL 1 975 ) . T h e c omp lex o f b a r row c eme te r ie s a t§ ma r je ta w a s a l so s u b jec t t oe a r ly r e sea r ch . T h ree ma in p ha se s o f e xcava t ion c an b e i d en t if i ed ; t h e e xcava t ion s o f S chu lz a nd h i s c o l league s f r om 1 8 79 t o 1 882 , t h e e x cava t ion s o f P ecn ik f r om 1 880 t o1 900 , a nd t h e e xcava t ion so fK u s l jan i n1 9 14 . I ti se s t ima ted t h a ta tl e a s t 1 00 b a r row sw e r ep r e sen t o nt h e s i t e , a nd o ft h e se a tl e a s t 8 1 w e re e xcava t ed . H oweve r , t h e m a te r ia l ,b o th i nV ienna a nd i nL jub l jana ,i sv i r tua l ly w i thou t as i ng le g r ave a s so c ia t ion ( V . S t a re 1 973e ; ANSL 1 975 , 2 27-228 ;A .D u la r , p e r s .c omm . ) .

T he Da tabase a nd i t sL im i ta t ion s K rka r i ve r a r e s ma l le r t h an t h e a bove , c omp r i s ing t e n b a r row s , t h ough n o l e s s i mpo r tan t . S chu lz e xcava ted o ne b a r row i n1 890 , w h i le P eCn ik a nd H oe rne s e xcava ted t wo i n 1 894 , a nd S chm id d ug t h e Ma lenkk b a r row i n1 906 . T he s i x b a r row ss ou th o ft h eh i l lfo r t' Ma rof i n Kand i ja w e re a f f ec ted b y p ea san t a c t iv i ty r e su l t ing i nt h e r e co rd ing o fo ne b a r row b e tween 1 939 a nd 1 941 . F ou r o f t h e r ema in ing b a r rows i n

T he Magda len ska g o ra b a r row c eme ter ie s c on ta in a round f o r ty b a r row s . T he R udo lf inum c onduc ted t h e f i r s t e xcava t ion s f r om 1 881 t o 1 883 , w h i l s t P eCn ik e xcava ted b e tween 1 892 a nd 1 895 , a nd t h e D uchess o f Meck lenbu rg f r om 1 905 t o 1 913 . At o ta l o f2 2 b a r rows c on ta in ing o ve r 1 000 g raves w e re e xcava ted . T he ma ter ia l f r om t h e Meck lenbu rg c o l lec t ion k ep t i n t h e P eabody Mu seum i n H a rva rd , c on s is t ing o f t e n b a r row s w i th 3 57 g rave s , h a s b een p ub l i shed ( Hencken 1 978 ) , b u t t h e r ema in ing ma te r ia l i n L jub l jana a nd V ienna r ema in s u npub l ished , a l though s eve ra l b a r rows h ave b een t h e s ub jec t o f d oc to ra l

t h is c eme tery h ave b een d ug b y T . K nez , c u ra to ro ft h e l o ca l m u seum , s i nce 1 967 . O n ly t h e Ma lenkk b a r row h a s b een c omp le te ly p ub l i shed ( Guk in a nd T er ian 1 977 , 7 1-89 ) . T he mo s t r e cen t e xcava t ion s h ave b een c a r r ied o u t w i th a h i gh

d i sse r ta t ion s , a nd a ppa ren t ly c on ta in w e l l-a sso c ia ted ma te r ia l( ANSL 1 975 ,2 00-20 1 ; T e r ian 1 981 ,6 59-664 ) .

i n comp le te ly p ub l i shed ( ANSL 1 975 ,2 18 ) .

T he b a r row c eme ter ie s a t L ibna o ve r look ing t h e n o r ther n b ank o ft h er i ve rS ava n ea ri t s c onf luence w i th t h er i ve rK rka

Many o ft h e r ema in ing s i te s i nF igu re 3 0 w e re e xcava ted b y P ecn ik i nt h e l a te n i ne teen th c en tu ry . T he l a rge c omp lex o f

may o r ig ina l ly h ave c on s is ted o f 7 0 b a r row s . E xcava t ion s w e re c a r r ied o u t b y P eCn ik , S zomba thy , a nd S chm id a nd o t he r s f r om 1 884 t o 1 909 . L a te r e xcava t ion s t ook p lace i n 1 928 , b y F . S ta re i n1 954 a nd 1 958 , a nd S ka le r a nd K nez i n1 962 a nd 1 969 . T he e xac t n umbe r o fb a r row s e xcava ted i su nknown , a l though 1 7h ave b een p ub l ished t o ge the rw i th a

D ob rava w a s e xcava ted i n c on junc t ion w i th S zomba thy b e tween 1 896 a nd 1 899 . 2 7 o f t h e c . 1 00 b a r row s w e re e xcava ted ,b u to n ly f ou rh ave b een p ub l ished , a l though s ome w o rk h a s b een c a r r ied o u t i nI n n sb ruck ( P rean 1 969 ) o n t h e ma te r ia l i n V ienna ( V . S ta re 1 973b , 7 44-779 ) . T he

l a rge n umbe r o f f i nd s w i thou t g r ave a s soc ia t ion s . T he f i nd s a r e d epo s i ted i nB rd ice a nd L jub l jana i nS loven ia , a s w e l l a s i nV ienna a nd G raz i nA u s t r ia ( ANSL 1 975 , 2 602 6 1 ; G uh in 1 976 ) . P odzeme l j i n B e la K ra j ina i s a no the r l a rge m or tua ry c omp lex , w i th c . 7 9 b a r row s , w h ich w a s e xcava ted b y d i f f e ren ta r chaeo log i s t s o ve r an umbe r o f s ea son s o f w o rk . F ie ldwo rk c an b e d iv ided i n to t wo , p ha ses , 1 887 t o 1 888 ,

g rave g roup s ( Te r ian 1 974 , 3 1-66 ) . T he c eme tery o f 1 7 b ar rows a tD o len jske T op l ice w a s e xcava ted f r om 1 898 t o 1 899 a nd d e ta i l s o f g rave a s soc ia t ion s s u rv ive , a l though , a s i ns o many c a se s , n o p lans a r e e x tan t f o r t h e i n t ra-ba r row

w i th t h e i n ven to r ie s o f 1 96 g rave s , a l though o r ig ina l ly 3 00 g raves w e re f ound ( K rome r 1 959 ) . T he t e nb a r row s a t L oka n ea r .mome l j e xcava ted i n 1 896 h ave r e cen t ly b een p ub l i shed ; e i gh t b a r row s c on ta in ing 3 1 g raves s ur v ive t oday

r e spec t ive ly . T he b u lk o f t h e f i nd s w a s d epo s i ted i nV ienna a nd h a s b een p ub l ished a l ong w i th r e co s t ruc ted b a r row p lan s f o r 2 4 b a r rows ( Ba r th 1 969 ) . A f u r the r t wo b a r row s i n c lud ing t h e f amou s a n tennaes i l t ed s wo rd g rave h ave b een p ub l i shed a long w i th s t ray f i nd s f r om L jub l jana ( J . D u la r 1 978 ) .

( J . D u la r 1 983 , 2 19-244 ) . T he s i ng le b a r row f r om D raga tu g c on ta ined 6 0 g rave s a nd w a s e xcava ted i n 1 900 ( Sp i tze r 1 973 , 7 80-830 ) . T he r ema in ing c eme te r ie s , w i th t h r ee e xcep t ion s , w e re a l so e xcava ted b y P eCn ik . H oweve r , u n l ike t h e a bove e xamp le s , t h e s i te s o f V inkov v rh , V a l iCna v a s a nd V e l ike Ma lence h ave f ew a r te fac t s w i th g rave a s soc ia t ion s e ven t h ough

T he s i te o f Sdna i n w e s ter n D o len jska , c l o se t o Magda len ska g o ra , h a s o f ten b een p o s i ted a s t h e d om inan t c en t re o f t h e Do len jska g roup . I to r ig ina l ly c on s i s ted o f

t h ey a r e p ub l i shed ( V . S ta re

a round 1 3 1 b a r rows , a l though m odem p lan s s how o n ly 5 1 a t

1 964-65 , 2 15-258 ; T e rian

1 973 , 6 60-729 ; V S ta re 1 960 , 5 0-87 ) . T h is i sd ue p a r t ly t ot h e s t anda rd o f e xcava t ion , b u t ma in ly t o t h e l o ss o f t h e

p resen t t ime . T he e a r l ie s t k nown w o rk i nt h e a r ea w a s t h e e xcava t ion o f f i ve b a r rows i n 1 853 , a bou t w h ich f ew d ea i ls s u rv ive . P eCn ik c a r r ied o u t l im i ted e xcava t ion s i n 1 891 a nd t h a t

e xcava t ion o f 2 1 b a r row s o u t o f ag roup o f 2 5 a tB ru sn ice h a s a l so b een r ea sse sed r e cen t ly a nd p ub l i shed w i th i n tac t

s i tua t ion ( Te l-Z an 1 976 ,4 43 ) . T he b a r row c omp lex o fB rez je n ea r T rebe lno w a s e xcava ted b y P eCn ik f r om 1 893 t o 1 895 ; i tc on s is ted o f 1 9 b a r row s , o f w h ich 6 h ave b een p ub l ished

a nd 1 891 , d u r ing w h ich S zomba thy a nd P eCn ik c a r r ied o u t e xcava t ion s f o r t h e r i va l mu seum s i nV ienna a nd L jub l jana

1 892 , b u t t h e ma in e xcava t ion c ampa ign w a s

s t anda rd o f r e co rd ing a nd p reserva t ion o f f i nd s , b u t a r e

e xcava to r ' s s i te r e co rd s a f te r t h ed epo s i t ion o f t h e f i nd s i n t h em useum i nL jub l jana .

o f t h e T he s i te o fR ovß-C e c on s i s t s o f4 0 b a r row s , o fw h ich 6 w e re

D uche ss o f Meck lenbu rg f r om 1 905 t o 1 914 . T rea su re h un t ing b y t h ep ea san tA . H ra s ti nt h e i n terwa ry ear sr e su l ted i n t h e p lunder ing o f a n u nknown n umbe r o f b a r row s . T he Na rodn i m uze j i nL jub l jana c onduc ted e xcava t ion s o f t h ree

e xcava ted b y S chu lz i n 1 882 . Two o f t h ese b a r row s h ave b een p ub l i shed t o ge the r w i th s t ray f i nd s p resumab ly o r ig ina l ly a s soc ia ted w i th g raves f r om t h er ema in ing f ou r( V . S ta r e , 1 962-63 , 4 35-467 ) . T he t wo b a r row s o f E a r ly l i on A ge d a te e xcava ted a t V in ica i n 1 906 b y t h e D uchess o f Meck lenbu rg a r e u nde rp repa ra t ion f o rp ub l ica t ion b y We l ls a tt h eP eabody Mu seum .

b a r row s i n 1 946 , 1 952 t o 1 953 , a nd 1 960 t o 1 964 . O n ly t h e e l even b a r rows o f t h e Meck lenbu rg c o l lec t ion a r e f u l ly p ub l ished (We l ls 1 981) , t h e s t a tu s o f P eCn ik ' s m a te r ia l i s u nknown , w h i ls t I l ly o ne gave l o ti sp reser ved f r om H ra s t ' s a c t iv i t ie s , a nd t h e ma ter ia l f r om t h e Na rodn i m uze j e xcava t ion s i so n ly p a r t ia l ly p ub l i shed ( ANSL 1 975 , 1 971 98 ) .

T he r ema in ing s i te s m en t ioned i nt h is s amp le a r e t yp ica l o fa l a rge n umbe r o f i s o la ted b a r row s . Howeve r , t h e s i ng le b a r row f r om V o lC je n j ive d i f fe r s i no ne ma jo rr e spec t . I tw a s c omp le te ly e xcava ted i n 1 953 b y G ab rovec , a nd c on ta ined

T he b a r row c eme te r ie s a round N ovo m e s to o n t h e m idd le

4 5

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia 2 1 g r ave s . T he g r ave a s semb lage s w e re r e co rded i nd e ta i l , a nd ,m o s ti mpo r tan t ly , t h e s k e le ta lm a te r ia l w i th w h ich t h ey w e r e a s so c ia ted w a s s ub jec ted t op hy s ica l a n th ropo log ica l e xam ina t ion ( Gab rovec 1 9 56 ,6 2-130 ) .T he i s o la ted b a r row s a r ound B o g tan j w e re s ub jec t t o f o u r m a in e xcava t ion c ampa ign s . Twe lve o ft h et wen ty b a r row sa tV e l ika D ob rava w e r e e xcava ted i n1 879 b y P .B ohu t in sky a nd M . S cheye r , a nd t h e f i nd s d epo s i ted i nt h e N a tu rh i s to r i sche smu seum i n V ienna . K u g l jan e xcava ted s i ng le b a r row s a t K lanc , P o tovec , R ayne a nd g g i t . T he se s i te s h ave b een p ub l i shed , b u t o n ly t h e b a r row a tK lan c n ea r B o g tan j c on ta in s c l o sed d a ta s e t s . P ecn ik e xcava ted s i ng le b a r row s a t B uCn i v r h , K o sma tec ,K r i ike n ea rV e l i l c iL ukovec ,a nd Ma l iL ukovec . A l l t h e se s i te s c on ta in c l o sed a s semb lage s . T he f i na l e xcava t ion s i nt h e a r ea w e r e c a r r ied o u t b y J . Man tuan i i n 1 9 11 a t D o len j i B o s tan j . T he f i nd s f r om a s i ng le b a r row f r om t h i s s i te a r e i nt h e N a rodn i m uze j i nL jub l jana a nd c omp r i se s ome c l o sed a s semb lage s( Gu g t in 1 974a ,9 9 ) . S e t t lemen t s i te s g r ea t ly o u tnumbe r t h o se k nown i n t h e H a l l s ta t tB .T h i si sa ga in d ue t ot h ec on sp icou sn a tu r eo ft h e h i l lfo r t s , w h ich r e p r e sen t t h ev a s tm a jo r i ty o f t h e 1 70 s i t e s i nt h e a r ea . T he re a r e al a rge n umbe r o fu nda ted h i l l fo r t s i te sn o td i scu s sed h e re . Mo s to ft h e b a r row c eme te r ie s a r e a s so c ia ted w i th h i l lfo r t s , e . g . Magda len ska g o ra , S t iCna , P odzeme l j , L ibna , N ovo m e s to , K o r i ta ( Dob rava ) e t c ( Gu g t in 1 978 , 1 00-121 ) . O n ly 1 3 s e t t lemen t s h ave b een e xcava ted a nd i nm any c a se s l i t t le o r n o r e co rd s u r v ive s ( F igu re 2 8 ) . T he s i te o f Magda len ska g o ra w a s s u b jec t t o l i m i ted e xcava t ion o ft h e r ampa r t s b y P eCn ik ( ANSL 1 975 , 2 00-

2 0 1 ) . E xcava t ion s w e re c a r r ied o u t a tt h e s i te o fP odzeme l j o nt h e K uC ' a rh i l l fo r tb y S chm id b e tween 1 932 a nd 1 934 ( J . D u la r 1 978 , 1 8 ) , w he r e an umbe r o f h ou se s t ruc tu re s a nd i r on— sme l t ing s i t e s w e re l o ca ted . S chm id a l so e xcava ted f o u r h ou se s t r uc tu r e s i nt h e C v inge rh i l l fo r t a t D o len jske T op l ice i n1 935 ( T e rian 1 976 , 4 43 ) . E xcava t ion s w e r e a l so c a r r ied o u tb yS chm id i n1 932 a nd 1 935 o nt h es e t t lemen t so f Z go rn ja a nd S podn ja K rona a tV aCe ( F . S t a r e 1 955a , 7 1 ; ANSL 1 975 , 2 0 5 ) . U n fo r tuna te ly v e ry l i t t le m a te r ia l a nd f ew r e co rd s s u r v ive f r om t h e se s i te s . S im i la r ly t h e e xcava t ion s o n t h e K uCa r a r e k nown f r om s ho r t n o te s . T he C v inge rm a te r ia lh a sb een p ub l i shed a nd i sa t t r ibu ted t of o u r s t ruc tu re s ,a bou tw h ich n od e ta i l sa r ea va i lab le . S ome l i m i ted e x cava t ion w a s c a r r ied o u t o n t h e h i l l fo r t a t S t iCna b y F r ey a nd G ab rovec f r om 1 967 t o1 974 . H oweve r , a l l2 2t r enche sw e r ec on f ined t ot h er ampa r t s ,a nd n oi n t e r io r e xcava t ion w a s a t temp ted . T h i s h a s s e rved t o c l a r if y t h e c h rono log ica l s e quence o f t h e f o r t i f ica t ion s , b u t h a s d on e l i t t le t ot h row l i gh to n t h e o r gan i sa t ion o ft h e i n te r io ro ft h e h i l l fo r t ( Gab rovec , F rey a nd F o l t iny 1 969 , 1 77 , 1 96 ) . A s im i la r s i tua t io n p r eva i l s a tL ibna , w he r e s e c t ion s o f t h e d e f ence s o f t h e h i l l fo r t w e r e e xcava ted i n1 975 a nd 1 976 ( Gu g t in 1 976 , 1 7 ) . O nt h eb a s i so ft h i s w o rk , i ti sp o s s ib le t os ugge s t ag en e ra l m ode l f o r t h e r i se o ff o r t i f ied s i te s i n D o len j ska a nd B e la K ra j ina , b u t n o s u ch m od e l c an b e p o s i ted f o r t h e d eve lopmen t o f t h e s e t t lemen t s t h em se lve s , p a r t icu la r ly t h e d a te o ft h e i n i t ia l s e t t lemen t , w h ich m ay b e c on tempo ra ry w i th t h ea d ja cen tH a l l s ta t t Bc eme te r ie s a sa t N ovo m e s to ( J . D u la r 1 979 , 6 5-100 ) . T he s ma l le rh i l l f o r t s h ave n o tb een s t ud ied a nd n ou ndef ended s i t e sh ave y e tb een l o ca ted ( s ee C hap t e r1 0 ) .

2 : 2b g ‘ t a jer ska ( s e eF i gure s2 8a nd 2 9 ) .

Number o f

Benedikt i n S lovenske

Number o f

Number o f

Barrows

D ate o f e xcavation

Barrows

Barrows

On S ite

Excavated

Published

?

1 900.

?

1 830.

1

1 964.

1

g orice G ornja R adgona G riZe

5 0

Hardek

?

Legen near

1

1 899.

7 9

1 909-1912.

6 0

1 848;

2 8+

2 6

S lovenj G radec P ernica P ivola

3

Podgrad

5

1 830.

Podloie

5

1 906.

Po;tela

4 9

S traigonjci g entilj i n S lovenske

1 911.

4 +

1

Podgrad

1 903;

5 1 934.

4 9(?)

2 1 0

1 935.

1 0

g orice g e 2 iCe n ear P rebold Velenik Zamarkova

' C 'rni Les'

1 9

1 884;

1

1 956.

4

1 921.

1 9

1 895.

1 1

4 6

1

T he D a taba se a nd i t sL im i ta t ion s Z gornja Hajdina

2

K lein-Klein

c 700

?

?

1 844-1861; 1 905;

1 917;

S trettweg

1

1 850.

Wildon

3

1 927-1928;

1 881-1883;

1 43

1 43

1 972-1877

1 930.

1

1

1

1

F igu r e3 1 :W ie s—Ma r t i janec B a r row C eme t e r ie sm en t ioned i nC hap te r3 . Number of

Number o f

Barrows

Barrows

Barrows

On S ite

Excavated

Published

Number o f

Date o f e xcavation

L Ako

1

1 908.

Mali b reg

?

1 930.

R ifnik

?

1 899;

Savinsko

?

1 907.

S v.

Jo t

i n Kozjak

?

1 925.

S v.

Lovrenc near P rebold

1

1 938.

Sempeter

i n t he S avinjska

6

1 900;

1 963.

6

1 964-1965.

valley Jani

1

1 963.

Kalsdorf

S t.

1

1 958.

Kapfenstein

3

1 966;

1 1 3

1 969.

F igu r e3 2 :F la tc eme te ry S i te so ft h eW ie s—Ma r t i janec g r oup m en t ioned i nC hap te r3 .

T he r e a r e 2 6 m or tua ry s i te s o f E a r ly I r on A ge d a te i n S ‘ t a je r ska a s o ppo sed t o 1 3 i nt h e p r eced ing H aB p ha se ( Pah iC 1 973 , 5 21-543 ) . 1 8 o f t h e se s i te s a r e b a r row c eme te r ie s o r i s o la ted b a r row s ( s ee F igu re 3 1 ) , t h e r ema in ing 8a r ef l a tc eme te r ie s( s ee F igu re 3 2 ) .T he e a r l ie s t e xcava t ion s c oncen t ra ted o n t h e c on sp icuou s b a r row c eme te r ie s o f G o ti l i a R adgona , w he re o ne b a r row w a s e xcava t ed , a nd P odg rad , w he r e f i ve b a r row s h ave b een l o ca ted , in 1 830 . T he m a te r ia lf r om G o r n ja R adgona h a sb een p a r t ia l ly p ub l i shed , b u t n o d a ta i s a va i lab le c once rn ing P odg rad ( Pah iC 1 966 , 1 03143 ) . T he l a r ge c eme te r ie s o f P ivo la , w i th 6 0 b a r row s , a nd R adva n je—P a te la w i th 4 9 b a r row s , n ea r Ma r ibo r i n t h e D rava v a l ley , w e re a l so s ub jec tt or e la t ive ly e a r ly r e sea r ch . S ch lo s s e r a nd S chm id e xcava ted f o u r b a r row a tP i vo la i n 1 911 , b u t o n ly s ho r t n o t e s a nd p a r t o f t h e m a t e r ia l i s p ub l i sh ed , a l though t h e s t anda rd o f e xcava t ion a ppea r s t o h ave b e en g ood . Two p ha se so fe xcava t ion t o ok p l ace o nt h e s i te o fR advan je—Po g te la , t h o se o fF e rk i n1 903 , a nd L o rbe r i n 1 934 . A l though t h e b a r row s a pp ea r t o h ave b een w e l l e xcava t ed a nd g rave p l an s a r e p r e ser ved i n Ma r ibo r , G raz a nd P t u j , t h es i te h a sn o t b een e x ten s ive ly p ub l i shed ( ANSL 1 975 ,30 1 ,306-307 ) . T he l a r ge s t s i te i nt h e a r ea i st h e c eme tery o f7 8 b a r row s a t L egen n ea r S loven j G radec . 3 0 b a r row s w e r e e xcava ted b y B a ron C zoem ig i nt h el a te n i ne teen c e n tu ry a nd W ink le rf r om 1 909 t o1 9 12 . T he W ink le re xcava t ion s w e r e w e l lr e co rded , a l though n o g rave p l an s r ema in a nd i ti sd i ff i cu l t t or e loca te e xcava ted b a r rows o nm odem s i te p l an s . T h i ss i te h a sb een

p ub l i shed a nd p rov ide s t h e m o s t a c ce s s ib le m a te r ia l r e la t ing t om o r tua ry s i te s o ft h e W ie s—Ma r t i janec g roup i nS t a je r ska ( S t rmCn ik—Gu l iC 1 979 , 1 0 1-150 ) . E a r ly e xcava t ion s w e r e a l so c a r r ied o u to n t h e 1 9b a r row s a t S e en ea rP r ebo ld i n 1 884 a nd 1 895 ,B ened ik ti nS loven ske g o r ice i n 1 900 , H a rd ek d ug b y F e rk i n 1 899 , a nd t h e f i ve b a r row s a tP od loie i n1 906 . T he m a te r ia lf r om B ened ik ta nd H a rdek h a s b een p ub l i sh ed , t h ough f ew d e ta i l s a nd f ew c on tex t s s u rv ive ( Pah iC 1 966 , 1 04147 ) . V i r tua l ly n o d a ta i sa va i lab le o n t h e o t he rs i te s a l though af ew a r te fa c t s f r om P od loie h ave b een p ub l i shed w i thou t a s so c ia t ion s ( ANSL 1 975 , 3 18 ) . T he m o s t r e cen tb a r row c eme te ry e xcava t ion s t o ok p l ace a t Z ama rkova ' C rn i L e s ' a nd V e len ik . O ne b a r row w a s e xcava ted f r om t h e g roup o f f ou r a tZ ama rkova m i L e s ' b yK ovaC iC i n1 921 . T he m a te r ia l i sb r ief ly m en t ioned b u tn o f u l l d e sc r ip t ion i sa va i lab le ( ANSL 1 975 , 3 03 ) . T he s i ng le b a r row e xcava ted a tV e len ik i n1 956 p roduced t wo c e ram ic v e s se l s w h ich h ave b een p ub l i shed w i thou t d e ta i ls o f t h e m o r tua ry s t r uc tu r e ( Ter ian 1 983 , 7 1 ) . T he s i x r ema in ing b a r row c eme te r ie si nt h e a r ea h ave n o tb een e xcava ted . T hey r a nge i ns i ze f r om G r iie w i th 5 0 b a r row s a nd C r e ta w i th 3 0 b a r row s t o S t ra igon jc i a nd Z gom ja H a jd ina w i th t wo b a r row sa p iece ( Pah iC 1 973 ,522-523 ) . T he re a r e e i gh t f l a t c eme te ry s i te s w i th in t h e a r ea . T he f l a t c eme te ry o f R if n ik n ea r C e l je w a s e xcava ted i n 1 899 a nd 1 900 a nd t h e f i nd s w e r e d epo s i ted i nt h e mu seum s o fC e l je , Ma r ibo r , G ra z a nd V ienna . T he s i te h a s b een e x ten s ive ly

4 7

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia d i s tu rbed b y a g r icu l tu ra l a c t iv i t ie s a nd n o d e ta i l s o fg r ave i n ven to r ie s o r c on s t ruc t ion a r e a va i lab le ( F . S t a r e 1 9 51 , 1 8 5-203 ; P ah iC 1 956 , 5 1-6 1 ) . S im i la rc on s t ra in t sa pp ly t o t h e s i te so fS av in sko e xcava ted i n 1 907 , L a gko e xcava ted i n1 908 , S v . J ot o n K oz jak e xcava ted i n1 925 , Ma l i b r eg d i scove r ed c . 1 930 , S t . J an i e xcava ted i n 1 963 , a nd S ' empe te r i nt h e S av in ja v a l ley e xcava ted i n1 964 a nd 1 965 i n p a r t o f al a rge r R oman c eme te ry ( Pah iC 1 973 , 5 23 ; ANSL 1 975 , 2 83 , 2 82 , 2 70 , 2 90 ) . T he s i ng le f l a t g r ave f r om S v . L ov r enc n ea rP rebo ld w a sf o und i n1 938 ,b u tu n l ike t h e o t he r f l a tc eme te r ie s i nt h e a r ea t h e f u l l g r ave i n ven to ry h a sb een p ub l i shed ( F .S t a r e 1 9 55b ,2 84-286 ) . T he r ea r e 1 4s e t t lemen t s i te s i nt h e g t a je r ska a r ea . I ns h a rp c on t ra s tt ot h eH a l l s ta t t Bp ha se ,t h eE a r ly I r on A ge s i t e sa r e m a in ly d e f ended h i l l top s e t t lemen t s . T he c on sp icuou sn a tu r e o f t h e se h i l lfo r t s h a s r e su l ted i n as u b s tan t ia l a moun t o f f i e ldwo rk c onc en t ra ted o nt h em . L ike t h eD o len j ska h i l lfo r t s o f s im i la r d a te , t h ey a r e n o t a lway s a s so c ia ted w i th a m o r tua ry s i te . T he m o s t e x ten s ive e xcava t ion p rog ramme h a s b een c a r r ied o u t o n t h e h i l l fo r t o fP og te la n ea r Ma r ibo r . I n i t ia l f i e ldwo rk w a s c onduc ted b y P . S ch lo s se r f r om 1 9 10 t o 1 9 11 ; m o r e e x ten s ive w o rk w a s c a r r ied o u tb y S chm id f r om 1 9 11 t o 1 9 17 ( S chm id 1 9 15 , 2 29-266 ; ANSL 1 975 , 3 06 ) . S ome l i m i ted t r enche s w e re r e cen t ly d ug o nt h e s i t eb y t h e Ma r ibo r m u seum . A t o ta l o f 1 4 r e c tangu la r a nd s u b— r e c tangu la rd r y s tone s t r uc tu r e s ,t h ef o unda t ion so fw a t t le a nd d aub o r ' B lockbau ' b u i ld ing s d a t ing t ot h e E a r ly I r on A ge , l a te L a T ene a nd R oman p e r iod s , w e re l o ca ted . T he d e f en ce s p roved t o h ave t wo p ha se s , t h e f i r s t p ha se c on s i s t ing o f t h e u n iva l la te r ampa r ta nd i n tu rned e n t ran ce , d a t ing t o t h e E a r ly I r on A ge a nd e nd ing i n ab u rn t l a ye r i n t e rp re ted a s a d e s t ruc t ion p ha se . T h e s e cond p ha se c on s i s ted o ft h er e bu i ld ing o f t h e r ampa r t a nd t h e a dd i t ion o ft h ree i n t er n a l w a l ls a c ro s s t h e s i te , o ne o fw h ich c ove red H ou se J .T h is p ha se d a te s t ot h e l a te L a T ene p e r iod a nd a l so e nd si n ab u rn tl a ye r( S chm id 1 9 15 ,2 29-266 ) . T h e h i l l fo r t o f L imbu g w a s a l so e xcava t ed b y S chm id , i n 1 9 12 . T he s i te s e em s t ob e p a r t o ft h e P o g te la b a r row a nd h i l l fo r t c omp lex , s i tua ted a s i ti sn o r th o f P oke la o n t h e t e r ra ce b e low t h er i ve r . T he h i l l fo r t i st r apezo ida l i ns h ape , w i th a n a r ea o f0 . 5 h a i nc on t ra s t t oP o g te la , w h ich h a s a n a r ea o f6 . 0h a . , t h e l a rge s t h i l lfo r t i n t a je r ska . T he s i te i s u n iva l la te a nd t h ee n t rance a nd f o l low s an a tu ra lg u l ly w h ich i sp a r t ia l ly c obb led . T he r ema in s o f ar e c tangu la r b u i ld ing w i th d r y s tone f o unda t ion s w e re l o ca ted i nt h e s ou th—we s t c or n e r o ft h e h i l lfo r t a nd c on ta ined ah ea r th . H oweve r , t h e c u l tu ra l l a ye r i n t h e i n te r io r o f t h e h i l l fo r t w a s g ene ra l ly p oo r ly r e p r e sen ted , d ue e i the rt oe r o s ion ,o rt ot h el a te ru s e o ft h es i te a s ar e fuge f o r t( S chm id 1 9 15 ,2 66-270 ) . T he s ma l l h i l l fo r t o f T u r i gka v a s i nt h e s ou ther n P oho r je m oun ta in s w a s a l so i n ve s t iga ted b y S chm id . I t i s a m u l t iva l la te h i l lfo r t w i th a n a r ea o f 1 0ha . T he r ampa r t s a r e d i scon t inuou s , b e ing a b sen t o n t h e s t eepe s t s l ope s o ft h e h i l l .F ou rt e r race si nt h ei n te r io ro ft h eh i l l fo r tw e r ep r obab ly o c cup ied b y b u i ld ing s , l a rge q uan t i t ie s o fp o t s h e rd s h av ing b een f o und o n t h e e a s t e rn h a l fo ft h e s e cond t e ra ce a nd t h e

4 8

l owe s tl owe s t t e r race . T he u ppe rt e r rac ew a s o ccup ied b ya r e c tangu la r t wo— roomed s t one b u i ld ing w i t h ah ea r th . T he r o om w i thou tt h eh ea r th w a so pen a to ne e nd , ap a t ter nf o und a tP o g te la a nd o t he rs i te s . T he B ab iCevo g r ad igd e a tT in je i s a l so o fE a r ly I r on A ge d a te w i th l a te rR oma no ccupa t ion ,b u t f ew d e ta i l s a r e a va i lab le f r om S chm id ' s e xcava t ion s ( S chm id ,1915 ,2 74-276 ;2 73 ) . A g r oup o f t h r ee h i l l fo r t s i sc l o se ly a s so c ia ted w i th t h e b a r row c eme te ry o fL egen n ea rS loven jG rad ec . T h eh i l l fo r t o fG rad i sc e i ss i tua ted n o r th o ft h eb a r row c eme te ry . I th a s a n a r ea o f c . 4 h a , b u t i su nexcava ted ( S chm id 1 924 , 3 663 67 ; P ah ic 1 973 , 5 22 ; ANSL 1 925 , 2 76 ) . We s t o f t h e c eme t e ry a r e t h e t wo h i l l fo r t s o f S an ca a nd P ugava n ea r S t an T rg . T he P u gd 'ava h i l l fo r t i su n iva l la te a nd h a s a na r ea o f 0 . 35 h a . T h e i n te r io r w a s b ad ly d i s tu rb ed b y aS l av ic i n huma t ion c eme te ry . S even h ou se s w i th s t one f ounda t ion s , o f ten r e c tangu la rw i th t wo o rm o re r oom s ,w e r el o ca ted ,b o th i n s ide a nd o u t s id et h eh i l l fo r t .T he f ou rh ou se so nt h ee a s ter n s l op e o f t h e S ch lo s sb e rg a r e o f l a te L a T ene a nd R oman d a te ,w h i l s tt h et wo h ou se s i n s ide t h er ampa r t s a r ep r obab ly E a r ly I r on A ge ,a sa r et h ec obb led a r ea s a nd d i s tu rbed s t one f o unda t ion s( S chm id 1 924 ,3 67-380 ) . T he a d jac en tg an ca h i l l fo r ti ss ma l le r ,o n ly 0 . 25 h ai na r ea .I t i s d e f ended b y as i ng le d i scon t inuou s r ampa r t , w i th t h e e n t rance i nt h es o u th w e s to ft h ei r r egu la re l l ip t ica ls i te . T he i n te r io r p roduced f i nd s o f H a l l s ta t t a nd L a T ene d a te , a l though n os t ru c tu r e sh ave b een f o und d ue t ol a te n i ne teen th a nd e a r ly t wen t ie th c e n tu ry d i s tu rbance ( S chm id 1 924 , 3 803 81 ) . T h ree h i l l fo r ts i t e s h ave b een l o ca ted i n t h eS av in ja r i ve r v a l ley i n t h e s o u the rn p a r t o f g ta je r ska . T he h i l l fo r t o f M ik lay sk i h r ib a bove C e l je i sk nown f r om s u r fac e f i nd s ( ANSL 1 975 , 2 80 ) . T he h i l l fo r t o n t h e r i dg e a tR i fn ik w a s f i r s t m en t ioned b y K ova C iC i n 1 905 , a l though n o e xcava t ion sw e r ec a r r ied o u tu n t i l t h o se o fS chm id i n1 94 1 . F u r the r w o rk t o ok p l a ce u nde r B o l ta f r om 1 9 57 t o 1 963 . E igh teen s t ruc tu r e s o fL a te R oman d a te w e r e l o ca t ed , b u t n o f u r the r d e ta i l sa r ek nown , a pa r tf r om f i nd so fE a r ly I r on A ge p o t t e ry a nd b r on ze o b jec t s ( ANSL 1 9 75 , 2 91-292 ) . T he s ma l l s e t t lemen to fS v . Magda lena n ea rP r ebo ld o nt h e H o r n r i dge m ay b e ah i l l fo r t , a l though d e ta i ls o f t h e e xcava t ion si nt h el a te 1 9 50 ' sa r eu nc lea r( ANSL 1 975 ,2 86 ) . T he h i l l fo r to f r e ta ,s ou th o fP o g te la ,w a ss u b jec tt ol i m i ted e xcava t ion i n1 9 53 . I th a s ad i scon t inuou s s i ng le r ampa r t a nd a n a r ea o f 2 . 0 h a . ; n o o t he r i n fo rma t ion i sa va i lab le ( P ahu 3 1 973 , 5 22 ) . T he K r Cev ina h i l lfo r t o n t h e n o r th e a s t b ank o ft h e D rava n ea rP t u j i su n iva l la te a nd h a s a na r ea o f 1 . 0 h a . P ah iC c onduc ted s ome l im i ted f i e ldwo rk i n1 963 ( ANSL 1 975 , 3 22 ) . T he r ei ss ome i n d ica t io no fs e t t lemen t o n t h e P tu jsk i g r ad , a l though i t s e xac t n a t u r e i s u n c lea r ( ANSL 1 975 ,3 22 ) . T h e u ndef ended H a l l s ta t t B s e t t lemen t o f B r in jeva g o ra c on t inue si n to t h e E a r ly I r on A ge , t h ough i td im in i she s i n i mpo r tanc e ( ANSL 1 975 ,2 95-296 ; Oman 1 9 8 1 , 1 49-216 ; P ah iC 1 981 ,7 1143 ) .

T he Da tabase a nd i t sL im i ta t ion s 1 937 ( Lex ikon 1 965 , 1 60161 ; ANSL 1 975 , 3 12 ) .

2 : 2c S ou th S tyr ia ( s ee F igure s2 8a nd 2 9 ) . T he t o ta l n umbe r o f f i ve mo r tua ry s i te s i n S ou th S ty r ia i s d ecep t ive ly s ma l l w hen s e t a ga in s t t h e t o ta l n umbe r o f s im i la rs i te s i n Do len jska a nd A 't a je r ska ( s ee F igu re s 3 1 a nd 3 2 ) . H oweve r , t h is s eem ing ly s ma l l f i gu re i n c lude s t h e e x ten s ive S u lm ta l c omp lex o f b a r row c eme te r ies . I t i s e s t ima ted a r ound 7 00 b a r rows a r es i tua ted i nt h eS lum v a l ley a round K le in—K le in . T he e a r l ies t w o rk w a s c oncen t ra ted o n t h e s o—ca l led ' P r ince ly b a r rows ' o f H ar tnerm iche lkoge l , K rö l l—Schm iedkoge l a nd P omme rkoge l b e tween 1 844 a nd 1 861 . T he ma in p ha se o f e xcava t ion w a s c onduc ted b y S zomba thy a nd R adm in sky f r om 1 881 t o 1 883 ,d u r ing w h ich t ime 1 04 b a r rows w e re o pened i n t h e H uoch schus te rwa ld , O f enmacherwa ld , Ka ise r schn iederwa ld , Musker va s t lwa ld , F o r s twa ld , T schonegger f ran zwa ld , T schonegger f ranz l ,

S ome

e i gh t s t ruc tu re s w e re f ound i n t h e i n te r io r o f t h e h i l lfor t , c on ta in ing ma ter ia l o f Ha l ls ta t t a nd L a Une d a te . T he h i l lfo r t i s d ef ended b y a s i ng le r ampa r t w i th l im i ted o u two rk s . T en b a r row s l i e t ot h e s ou th o ft h e s i te i nS loven ia ( s ee a bove ) , a nd w e re a ppa ren t ly d i s tu rbed i na n t iqu i ty . T he K u lmbe rg h i l lfo r t i n t h e E nn s v a l ley w a s e xcava ted b y S chm id i n 1 948 . A l though t h e s i te d a tes t ot h e f i f th c en tu ry B .C . , i t may w e l l b e c l o se ly c onnec ted t o t h e Hugu lf ing— S chä rd ing g roup i n Uppe r A u s t r ia , S a lzbu rg a nd t h e Nor th T i ro l( Lex ikon 1 965 , 1 52 ) . S t ray f i nd s f r om t h e l a te u rn f ie ld s i te o f t h e S ch lo ssbe rg a t W i ldon i nd ica te Ha l l s ta t t B o ccupa t ion , t h ough n o tw ha tf o rm i tt ook ( FÖ 1 973 , 7 3 ) . A s i ng le h ou se o f E a r ly I r on A ge d a te i s r epo r ted b y Mod r i jan a tS t ra s senge l n ea r G raz , b u t t h e o ve ra l l c ha rac te r o f t h e s e t t lemen t i s u nknown ( Lex ikon 1 965 , 1 56 ) . T he

G re l lwa ld , L e i teng r i t schwa ld a nd P reck lwa ld b a r row g roup s . T he ' P r ince ly B a r rows ' w e re r e—exam ined b yS chm id i n 1 917 . Mo re r ecen t e xcava t ion s b y Mod r i jan a nd B u rböck p roduced d i sappo in t ing ly f ew r e su l t s . T he s t anda rd o f e xcava t ion v a r ied , t h e b e s t r e co rded d a ta b e ing t h a t p roduced b y S zomba thy a nd R ad im sky a nd b y S chm id . T he

K on ig sbe rg h i l lfor t n ea r R adke r sbu rg h a s p roduced l a te Ha l l s ta t t f i nd s b u t a ppa ren t ly n o s t ruc tu re s ( FÖ 1 956-1960 , 7 4 ) . As econd d ef ended s i te h a s b een f ound n ea r H a r tbe rg , t h e B uchbe rg b e i H e rben s te in . F ie ldwo rk h e re h a s b een l im i ted t o s u r face c o l lec t ion ( FÖ 1 968 , 1 28 ) . T he B u rg s ta l lkoge l , i nt h e c en t re o ft h e S u lm ta l b a r row c omp lex , i st h e s i te o f aH a l ls ta t t Cd ef ended s i te , w h ich i sc u r ren t ly u nde re xcava t ion ( Dob ia t 1 980 ) .

1 43 e xcava ted b a r row s h ave b een f u l ly p ub l i shed , w i th d e ta i led f i nd r epor t a nd s i te p lan s , b y D ob ia t ( Dob ia t 1 980 ) . T h is c omp lex i s o ne o f t h e l a rges t a nd b e s t k nown i nt h e S ou th E a s tA lp ine r eg ion .

3 C r i ter ia o fS i te S e lec t ion T he t wo r ema in ing b a r row s i te s a r e m uch s ma l le r i ns i ze . T he s i ng le b a r row a tS t re t tweg o n t h e l e f t b ank o f t h e Mu r n ea r J udenbu rg wa s o pened i n 1 851 d ue t o a g r icu l tu ra l a c t iv i ty . T he f u l l g rave i n ven to ry a nd s ome d e ta i l o f t h e b u r ia l r i te a r e p rese rved . T h i s r e la t ive ly l a te W ies— Ma r t i janec s i te p roduced t h e f amou s ' Ku l twagen ' a mong s t i t s r i ch a nd v a r ied c on ten t s ( Schm id 1 934 ; P i t t ion i 1 954 ,

T he c r i ter ia o f s e lec t ion o pe ra t ing o n t h e a bove d a te s a r e i n i t ia l ly t h o se o f q ua l i ty a nd e x ten t o f e xcava t ion . T h is m ean s t h a t al a rge p ropo r t ion o f t h e s i te s d i scussed a bove a r e p rec luded f r om t h e s t udy b ecau se o f i n adequa te r e co rd ing o f s i te d a ta a nd i n suf f ic ien t p ub l ica t ion . T he mor tua ry s i te s i n many c a ses a r e n o mo re t h an c o l lec t ion s o f

6 20-62 1 ;L ex ikon 1 965 , 1 61 ) .

u na ssoc ia ted f i nd s . T he l a ck o f l a rge s ca le o pen a r ea e xcava t ion o f s e t t lemen t s i te s m ean s t h a t e ven w he re e xcava t ion h a s t a ken p l ace , e . g . a t B r in jeva g o ra , i ti s i mpo s s ib le t o c ommen t o n t h e i n ter na l s t ruc tu re o f t h e

T he b a r row a t Wi ldon , ' t h e G a lgenkoge l , i sa l so r e la t ive ly w e l lr e co rded , c on ta in ing b ronze p l aque d eco ra ted c e ram ic s ( Lex ikon 1 965 , 1 62 )

s e t t lemen t c once rned . T hese c r i te r ia a r e a l so a f f ec ted b y t h e mode o f a na ly s i s w h ich i sd e ta i led mo re f u l ly i nC hap te r 4 a nd A ppend ix 1 .I ti ss u ff icen tt os t a te t h a t mor tua ry d a ta a r e r equ i red t oc on s is to fr ea sonab ly s ecu re g rave g roup s .

T he t wo f l a t c eme ter ie s a r e c hance f i nd s . T he Ka lsdo r f c eme te ry i n G raz w a sd i s tu rbed b yw o rk o n ad ra inage d i tch i n 1 958 . T he re i s as ho r t n o te r e la t ing t o t h e mo r tua ry c e ram ic s b u t n o o the r d e ta i ls ( FÖ 1 956-1960 , 7 3 ) . T he t h ree c r ema t ion g raves f r om K ap f en s te in w e re f ound d u r ing e xcava t ion o f a Nor ic—Pannon ian b a r row c eme tery o f

3 : 1 L a te B ronze A ge ( Ha l ls ta t tB ) . 3 :1aD o len jska .

R oman d a te ( FÖ 1 966 , 1 ; 1 969 ,2 08 ) . T he ma in d a taba se i s d e r ived f r om mor tua ry s i tes . T he T he e i gh t s e t t lemen t s i te s l o ca ted i n s ou th S ty r ia t o b e

a na ly s i so ft h es i te s i nt h i s a r ea o ft h e HaB i se s sent ia l t ot h e

s im i la r i n c ha rac te r t o t h e

i n

u nde r s tand ing o f t h e p recu r so r s t o t h e f l o ru i t o f t h e E a r ly

S ta je r ska . A l a rge n umbe r o f s i te s w e re e xcava ted b y S chm id , b u t t h ey a r e n o t e x ten s ive ly p ub l ished . T he s i te o f

I r on A ge D o len jska g roup . T he d a taba se c on s i s t s o f f i ve r e cen t ly e xcava ted f l a t c eme te r ies . T he r ema in ing f i ve i nt h e L jub l jana g roup w i th in D o len jska a r eu nu sab le o nq ua l i ta t ive

d e f ended h i l l— top

s i te s

S t . Ma rga re then am S i lbe rbe rg o n t h e Mu r w a s e xcava ted b e tween 1 929 a nd 1 935 . 5 0 h ou se s w e re r epo r ted , d a t ing t o t h e H a l l s ta t tC , L a Une a nd R oman p e r iod s ( Lex ikon 1 965 ,

g round s . T he l a rge s t s i ng le s i te i st h a t o fL jub l jana i t se lf , a c eme tery o f3 69 g raves s pann ing t h ep er iod f r om 1 00 B C . t o c . 4 50 B C . T he w e l l— reco rded g rave l o t s a nd i n t ra s i te s t ruc tu re make i t i d ea l f o r t h e a na ly s i s o f L a te B ronze A ge a nd L a te B ron ze A ge /Ea r ly I r on A ge s o c ia l o rgan isa t ion a nd c hange ( F . S ta le 1 954 ; P u g 1 971 , 1 982 ) .

1 58 ) . T he d ef ended s e t t lemen t s o f t h e R ingkoge l n ea r Ha r tbe rg i ne a s te rn S ty r ia p roduced t h ree h ou se s t ruc tu re s i n 1 930 ( Lex ikon 1 965 , 1 55 ) . T he e xcava t ion s o n t h e B ubenb e rg

( Nov ine )

h i l lfo r t

n ea r

S p ie lf ie ld

d e se rve

c ommen t . T he h i l lfo r t l i e s d i r ec t ly o n t h e A u s t ro—S lovene b o rde r a nd w a s e xcava ted b y S chm id a nd B a g i n 1 936 a nd

T he

4 9

s ma l l

f l a t

c eme tery a t Mo ln ik w i th e l even g raves

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia b e long s t ot h e L a te B ronze A ge /Ea r ly I r on A ge i n te r f ace i n w e s te rn D o len j ska . I ti sr e cen t ly e xcava ted a nd p rov ide s a v a luab le s ou r ce o f c ompa r i son w i th L jub l jana a nd w i th d eve lopmen t s w i th in t h e s i te s o f Magda len ska g o ra a nd S t icna , w h ich b e long t o t h e E a r ly I r on A ge i n w e s ter n D o len jska ( Pu s 1 984 , 1 34162 ) . Two s i te s a r e c on s ide r ed i nc en t ra l D o len jska a r ound t h e m idd le K rka , a n a r ea o fd en se s e t t lemen t i nt h e E a r ly I r on A ge .N ovo m e s to—B r s l j in i s as ma l l s i te w i th f o u rg r ave s . I t i sv e ry e a r ly ,d a t ing t oL jub l jana I( s ee F igu re 1 ) .T he s i te o f N ovo m e s to—Me s tne n j ive i st h e l a rge s t s i ng le L jub l jana I s i te i n D o len jska w i th 1 80 g r ave s . I t i s o n ly p a r t ia l ly p ub l i shed , b u t s u f f ic ien t d a ta i sa va i lab le f o r i tt om ake a v a luab le c on t r ibu t ion t oa na ly s i s . T h i s i sa ugmen ted b y i t s p rox im i ty t ot h e i mpo r tan t b a r row c omp lex a nd h i l l fo r t o f E a r ly I r on A ge d a te a tN ovo m e s to—Kand i ja a nd Ma ro f .T he c omp lex o f s i te s i su n ique i nt h a t t h e e n t i re t r end s i nt h e d eve lopmen to fh i e ra r ch i sa t ion c an b eo b se r ved i nt h eg r oup , a nd m ay b e t r ea ted a s am ic ro co sm o f t h e p ro ces se s t h roughou t D o len jska ( Knez 1 967 , 1 5 516 1 ; 1 966 ,5 110 1 ; 1 984 , 19133 ) . T he c eme te ry o f Me t l ika—Bo r g tek i so fs im i la ri mpo r tan ce i n t h e s ou ther np a r to ft h e a r ea , B e la K ra j ina . I tc on s i s t s o f4 7 g r ave s , w h ich d a te t ot h e L jub l jana I p ha se , a nd f o rm s a n i mpo r tan t l i nk w i th t h e l a te r s i te s a tP odzeme l j , Ü rnome l j a nd D raga tu g . I n deed , s ome g r ave s o f t h i s d a te a r e k nown f r om t h e l a rge b a r row c eme te r ie s a t § ma r je ta , L ibna a nd S t iCna ( J .D u la r 1 979 ,6 5100 ) . 3 :l b g ta jer ska . T he r a nge o f d a ta a va i lab le i n g t a je r ska i s s im i la r ly r e s t r ic ted b yp oo re xcava t ion a nd d a ta r e t r ieva l . O n ly t h ree o ft h e H a l l s ta t t Bc eme te r ie s i nt h e Ra e g r oup a r e s u i tab le o ri n deed a va i lab le f o r a na ly s i s . T he c eme te ry a tB r in jeva g o ra i s u n fo r tuna te ly u npub l i shed , s o t h a t t h e s i t e s c on s ide r ed h e re a r e a l l l o ca ted i n t h e D rava v a l ley n ea r Ma r ibo r . T he t wo c eme te r ie s a t Rae w e re e xcava ted a t d i f f e r en tt i me s . Rae Iw a s e xcava ted i nt h e l a te n i ne teen th c en tu ry , b u tt oa na ppa r en t ly h i gh s t anda rd . U n fo r tuna te ly , o n ly p a r t o ft h e m a te r ia l i sa va i lab le ( Mü l le r—Ka rpe 1 9 59 ) . H oweve r , i ti s b e t te r r e sea r ched t h an t h e s i t e o f Rae c eme te ry 2 ( Pah iC 1 9 57 ) , a nd i su s ed i np r e f e r en ce t ot h i s s i te ,a si tr e p r e sen t st h ee n t i re H a l l s ta t t Bp e r iod .

a r e s u ff i c ien t ly w e l l e xcava ted t o b e o f u s e t ot h is s t udy . S ome i n d ica t ion o f s e t t lemen t p a t te rn i s a va i lab le . T he d a taba se h e r e i sc ompo sed e n t i re ly o f h oa rd s . T he h oa rd s b e long t oa l lp ha se s o ft h e H a l l s ta t t B( P i t t ion i 1 954 , 5 175 22 ; Mü l le r—Ka rpe 1 9 59 , 1 27-131 ) . T he i rc ompo s i t ion i s s u ch t h a tt h ey m ay b et r ea ted a sr e l ic t so fp a s t e xchange o r m o r tua ry a c t iv i ty , a si no t he ra r ea so fE u rope ( Levy 1 982 ) . 3 : 2 E ar ly I r on A ge ( Ha l ls ta t t Ca nd D ) . 3 : 2a D o len jska . T h e m a jo r i ty o fe xcava ted m o r tua ry s i te s i nD o len jska a r e u n su i tab le f o r a na ly s i s d ue t o t h e l a ck o f w e l l a s soc ia t ed m a te r ia l . T h i s i n c lude s m any o f t h e i mpo r tan t s i tes o f t en q uo ted i n t h e l i t e ra tu re , e . g . gma r je ta ( V . S t a re 1 973c ) , V a l iC na v a s ( Te r ian 1 973 , 6 60-729 ) , V e l ik e Ma lence ( V . S t a r e 1 962 , 5 0-87 ) a nd Mok ronog ( Gab rove c 1 973 , T . 1— T . 10 ) . T h e s i t e s s e lec ted f o ra na ly s i s h ave af a i rp ropo r t ion o f w e l l—a s soc ia ted m a te r ia l , b u t f ew a r e c omp le te ly p ub l i shed o r p o s se s g ood i n t ra s i te p l an s d ue t o t h e f r agmen ted n a tu r e o ft h e e xcava t ion s c a r r ied o u t . T he s i t e s h ave a l so b een s e le c ted t or ef l ec t t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f s u ch s i te sa c ro s s t h ea r ea o fD o len jska . T he m a jo r i ty o ft h em a r e a s so c ia ted w i th l a rge u nde f ended h i l l t o p s i te s w h ich h ave b een s ub jec tt ov e ry l i m i ted f i e ldwo rk . T h ree m o r tua ry c omp lexe s a r e c on s ide red i nw e s te rn D o len jska .T he t e nb a r row s f r om t h e Meck lenbu rg c o l le c t ion f r om Magda len ska g o ra f o rm a n i mpo r tan t a nd w e l l p ub l i shed d a ta s e t ( Hencken 1 978 ) . T hey a r eo n ly p a r t o f t h e t o ta l o f4 0 b a r row s o n t h e s i te , b u t d o p o s se ss g r av e l o t s o f r e a sonab le v e rac i ty , a l though f ew d e ta i l s o f i n t ra b a r row s t r uc tu re . T he Sana c omp lex o f 1 3 1 b a r row s i s t h e l a rge s t i n D o len jska . U n fo r tuna te ly o n ly t h e Meck lenbu r g C o l le c t ion o f e l even b a r row si sf u l ly p ub l i shed (W e l l s 1 9 81) , t h oug h i tc an b es u pp lemen t ed b yt h ep a r t ly p ub l i shed m a te r ia lf r om N a rodn im u ze j e xcava t ion s , w h ich c on ta in d e ta i l s o fb a r row s t ruc tu re ( Gab rovec 1 974 , 1 63187 ) . T he s i te a t V a C e i sc ompo sed l a rge ly o f f l a t c eme te r ie s g r ouped a r ound t wo u nde f ended ( ? ) h i l l top s i t e s ( F . S t a r e 1 9 55a ) . 6 7 g r ave s c an b e i d en t if ied c e r ta in ly f r om t h e m a te r ia li nL jub l jana ,a nd af u r the rt we lve ,a nd f o u rb a r row s , a r e k nown f r om t h e Meck lenbe rg C o l lec t ion , a l though t h e i r a s so c ia t ion i s u nknown ; p e rhap s 4 00 g r ave s a r e t ob e f o und i nV ienna . G iven t h e se p rob lem s , V a c e c anno t b e c on s ide red am a jo rs ou r ce o fa na ly t ica ld a ta .

T he t h i rd s i te o fP ob rei je i sc l o se t o Ma r ibo r a nd c on ta in s 1 57 g r ave s . T he s i te m ay h ave b een l a rge r b u t w a s p a r t ly d e s t royed b yq ua r ry ing . T he s u rv iv ing g r ave l o t sd a te t ot h e H a l l s ta t tB 1 a nd H a l l s ta t tB 2( Pah iC 1 972 ) .

F i ve s i te s a r e u s ed f r om t h e d en se g roup a r ound t h e m idd le K rka . B r ez je n e a r T rebe lno i sp rob lema t ic . S i x b a r row s w i th g ood g r av e a s soc ia t ion s s u rv ive o u t o f a n o r ig ina l n i ne teen , b u t t h e se a r e a s so c ia ted w i th o ne s ma l l h i l l fo r t ( K rome r 1 9 59 ; ' C hi p e r s . c omm . ) . 2 1 b a r rows c an b e a na ly sed o u t o f at o ta l o f 2 5 f r om B ru sn ic e ( T e rian 1 974 , 3 1-66 ) .

O n ly t h ree s e t t lemen t s i te s a r e s u f f ic ien t ly w e l le xcava ted t ob e o fi n t e re s t . O n ly B r in jeva g o ra h a sp r odu ced s t ruc tu re s ( s ee s e c t ion 2 : 1b ) . N one o f t h e se s i te s a r e c l o se t o t h e c eme te r ie s m en t ioned a bove ,b u t a tl e a s t s ome i n d ica t ion o f t h en a tu r eo fH aB s e t t lemen ti nA .t a je r ska c an b eg a ined . 3 :l cS ou th S tyr ia .

T he s i te o f D o len jske T op l ice c on s i s t s o f s even teen b a r row s , w h ich r e ta in g ood r e co rd s o fg r ave l o t sb u t f ew o f

N one o ft h es e t t lemen ts i te so rm o r tua ry s i te si nS ou th S t y r ia

5 0

T he Da tabase a nd i t sL im i ta t ion s t h e b a r row s t r uc tu re ( Te r ian 1 976 3 93-4 13 ) . T he Novo m e s to b a r row c omp lex i s o n ly p a r t ly p ub l ished b u t i s i mpo r tan t a s as ou rce o f s upp lemen ta ry d a ta . I tc omp r ises t e n b a r row s , o f w h ich t h e Ma lenkk b a r row a nd o ne o ft h e K and i ja b a r row s a re c omp le te ly p ub l ished , w h i ls t t h e r ema in ing f ou rK and i ja b a r row s h ave b een p a r t ly p ub l ished ( Gab rovec 1 960 , 2 7-80 ; 5 8 , 1 57188 ; G i . tt in a nd T ea m 1 977 , 7 7-89 ; K nez 1 971 , 1 23-132 ; 1 972 ; 1 973 , 3 06-309 ; 1 974a , 2 43-252 ; 1 974b , 15-118 ; 1 976 , 6 01-610 ; 1 978 , 1 35-149 ; 1 981 ,3 41-360 ; 1 983 ,8 5105 ) . T he i s o la ted b a r row a t V o lhe n j ive i s o f g r ea t i mpor tance . T he 2 1 g raves h ave a l l b een s ub jec ted t o p hy s ica l a n th ropo log ica l a na ly s is a nd s o i t p rov ide s v a luab le d a te w h ich r e in fo r ce s i n te rp re ta t ion s o f s exua l d i cho tomy a nd h i e ra rchy i nD o len jska ( Gab rovec 6 ,6 2130 ) .

s i tua ted o ni s o la ted h i l ls o rh i l ls pu r sa bove r i ve rv a l leys . 3 : 2c S ou th S tyr ia . T he

ma in d a ta r e sou r ce

i n S ou th

S ty r ia i s t h e l a rge

n ec ropo l i s i nt h e S u lm ta l a tK le in—K le in . 1 43 o f t h e t o ta l 7 00 b a r row s h ave b een e xcava ted a nd p ub l ished ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 1 6-38 ) . I n many c a ses d e ta i ls o fb u r ia l r i tes c anno t b e ma tched w i th a c tua l a r tefac t s . T he b a r rows t e nd t o c on ta in s i ng le c r ema t ion g raves , b u t an umbe r d o c on ta in d oub le b u r ia l s a nd a t l e a s t o ne , T schone rgger f ranz lkoge l c on ta in s m u l t ip le b u r ia l s . T h i s s i te i ss u i tab le f o r l im i ted a na ly s is , p rov ided c au t ion i se xe rc ised . I ti sa ssoc ia ted w i th ah i l lfo r t ,w h ich i sn o ty e tf u l ly e xcava ted ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 1 5 ) . T he i s o la ted S t re t tweg b a r row c on ta in s ar i ch ' p r ince ly g rave '

T he i s o la ted b a r row s a round Ba tan j n ea r t h e c on f luence o f t h e r i ve rM i rna w i th t h er i ve r S ava i ne a s t—cen t ra l D o len jska

o ft h e t ype f ound a tK le in—K le in ( Schm id 1 934 ) . F ew d e ta i ls o f t h e b u r ia l s u rv ive , b u t t h e i n ven to ry i s a ppa ren t ly

a r e a na ly sed . T he s even b a r row s a va i lab le f o r s t udy a r e i n te res t ing ,p rov id ing v a luab le d a ta o n t h e i n ter face b e tween t h e D o len j ska g roup a nd t h e W ie s—Mar t i janec g roup ( Ga t in

c omp le te .

1 974a , 8 7-119 ) .

s e t t lemen t s t y p ica lo ft h e a r ea .

F ew d e ta i l s a r e a va i lab le c once rn ing t h e f o r t if ied h i l l top

O ne s i te f r om e as te rn D o len jska i s a va i lab le f o r s t udy . L ibna , w i th c . 7 0 b a r row s w a s l i ke s o m any o t he r s i te s e xcava ted b y av ar ie ty o fa r chaeo log i s t s . Al a rge a moun to f t h ef i nd s a r eu nusab le a st h ey a r ew i thou tg rave a s soc ia t ion s , b u t t we lve b a r row s c an b e a na ly sed w i th r ea sonab le c e r ta in ty ( Guh in 1 976 ) . T h ree s i te s i nB e la K ra j ina a r ed i scu s sed . T he c omp lex o f7 9 b a r row s a tP odzeme l j a round t h e K uCa r h i l lfo r t h ave b een e x ten s ive ly , t h ough n o t c omp le te ly , d ug . 2 6 b a r row s a r t a va i lab le h e re , a t as i te s pann ing t h e e n t i re E a r ly I r on A ge p e r iod ( Ba r th 1 969 ;J .D u la r 1 978 ) . T en b a r row s w e re f ound a tL oka n ea r C 'r nome l j . T he e i gh t r ema in ing a r e a l l e a r ly i nd a te a nd h ave r ea sonab le , t h ough e x tens ive ly r e con s t ru c ted g rave l o t s ( J . D u la r 1 983 , 2 192 44 ) . T he s i ng le l a rge b a r row a tD raga td c on ta ined 6 0 g raves , a l lo fw h ich d a te t ot h e e a r l ie rp a r to ft h e E a r ly l i on A ge ( Sp i tze r 1 973 , 7 80-830 ) . A f u r the r s i x b a r row s w e re e xcava ted a tt h is s i te , b u t t h e ma te r ia l i sl o s t ( ANSL 1 975 , 2 41 ; D u la r 1 985 ,6 9-70 ) . 3 : 2b g ta jer ska . A l though m any o ft h e mo r tua ry s i te s i nS 't a je r ska h ave b een e xcava ted , o n ly o ne i s s uf f ic ien t ly w e l l r e co rded t o b e a na ly sed h e re . T he s i te o f L eg en n ea r S loven j G rade c c on s i s t s o f ag roup o f 7 8 b a r row s , 3 0 o f w h ich h ave b een e xcava t ed . T he s i te h a s many p o in t s o f c ompa r i son w i th K le in—K le in ( s ee b e low ) a nd c a se s t ob e u sed a tt h e e nd o f t h e s even th o r b eg inn ing o f t h e ( S t rmCn ik—Gu l iC " 1 979 , 1 01-150 ) .

s i x th c en tu ry B .C .

S ome e xcava t ion h a s t aken p lace o n s e t t lemen t s i te s , t h ough n o t t h a ta s so c ia ted w i th L egen . G ene ra l ly t h e r e i sn o te nough d a ta t oc ommen t o n t h e i n te rna l s t ruc tu re o f t h ese s i te s , a l though , a s i n D o len jska , t h ey a r e u sua l ly f o r t i f ied a nd

5 1

CHAPTER 4

THE ANALYS IS OF THE DATABASE T h i s c hap te r p r e sen t s t h e r e su l t s o f t h e a na ly s i s o f t h e d a taba se , c on ta ined i nf u l l i nA ppend ix 1 .T he d a ta h ave b een e xam ined o n as i te l e ve l , a nd w i l lb e l a rge ly d i scu s sed h e r e i n t h i s c on tex t . B roade r r e g iona l a nd c h rono log ica l t r end s a r e d ea l t w i th i nC hap te r 5 . A l l t h e s i te s m en t ioned h e r ea r es hown o ns i te l o ca t ion m ap 5( Map 5a nd Map 6 ) .

t o e nab le t h e a bove m e thodo logy t o b e u sed a nd f o r a t empo ra l a nd s pa t ia l m ode l o f e xchange a nd s o c ia l o r gan i sa t ion i n t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion t o b e f o rmu la ted .

T h e d a ta w a s a na ly sed u s ing c omb ina t ion t a b le s f o r e a ch c h rono log ica lp ha se r e p re sen ted o n ap a r t icu la rs i te . T h e a im w a s t oi s o la te g roup s o fg r ave s , b a sed o n t y pe a nd q uan t i ty o f a r tef ac t s , w h ich m igh t r e p re sen t s o c ia l g r oup s . T h i s m e thod w a s u sed b y T e r ian ( 1 985 , 7 710 5 ) o n as ma l le r s amp le o f s i te s a nd u s ing d i f f e r en t c r i te r ia , a nd i so f t en e mp loyed i n t h e a na ly s i s o f c h rono logy ( Gab rovec 1 973 , 38-385 ; J . D u la r 1 973 , 5 44-591 ; Mü l le r—Ka rp e 1 9 59 ; P au l i 1 978 e t c . ) . T h i s s e t o f t a b le sd ea l t w i th t h ef u l lr a nge o fa r tef ac t s p r e sen t i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage i nt h e r e g ion i n t h e L a te B ron ze A ge a nd E a r ly I r on A ge r e sp ec t ive ly . A s e cond s e t o f c omb ina t ion t a b le s w a s f o rmu la ted t oi s o la te c ommon ly r e cu r r i ng c e ram ic s e t s a nd t y pe s . I nt h i s w ay i ti sp o s s ib le t oi d en t i fy g r oup s o fg r ave l o t s , s ha r ing s im i la r a s semb lage s , w h ich c on s i s ten t ly a ppea r a tt h e i n te r— a nd i n t ra— s i te l e ve l s i nt h e L jub l jana a nd R ue , a nd l a te r , t h e D o len jska a nd W ie s—Ma r t i janec g r oup s . A t h i rd s e t o f t a b le s , h i s tog ram s , w e re e mp loyed t o s h ow t h e r e la t ive i mpo r tance o f e a ch b a r row w i th in a s i te o f t h e D o len jska g roup i n t e rm s o f m o r tua ry p opu la t ion a nd n umb e r so fw eapon s a nd e l i te g r ave s .

T he a im o f t h i s s e c t ion i s t o p rov ide a mo re d e ta i led d i scu s s ion o f t h e m e thodo logy e mp loyed i nt h e a na ly s i s o f t h ed a ta u t i l i sed i nA ppend ix 1a nd C hap t e r4 ,t h e i n ten t ion s b eh ind t h i s a na ly s i s a nd t h e i r s ho r tcom ing s . A na ly s i s w a s c on cen t ra ted o n t h e l a rge r b a r row c eme te r ie s w i t h r e a sonab ly s e cu r e g r ave s e t s , n ame ly t h e D o len jska g r oup s i te s o f Magda len ska g o ra a nd S t idna . I tw a s i n tended t h a t t h e d a ta s e t s a va i lab le f r om e ach s i te w ou ld b e s ubd iv ided c h rono log ica l ly s o a st oe xp lo r e t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o fd e tec t ing s o c ia l g r oup ing s a nd t h e i r c hange o ve r t i me . T he d a ta s e t s u sed w e r e t h e r e fo r e r e la t ive ly s ma l l , r a r e ly e xceed i r lg f i f ty i n d iv idua l g r av e s , a nd o f t en c on s ide rab ly f ewe r ( s ee A ppend ix 1 ) . A t t h i s s t age i ti sa pp rop r ia te t oc on s ide r t h e r a nge o ft e chn ique se mp loyed i nt h ea na ly s i so ft h ed a ta .

METHODOLOGY .

B a s ica l ly t wo a pp roache s w e r e a pp l ied t o t h e d a ta s e t s c on ce rned .T he se w e r ef i r s t ly c ompu te ra na ly s is ,s pec if ica l ly C lu s t e r A na ly s i s , w h ich c an b e u sed t o i s o la te g r oup s o f s o c ia l o r s e xua l s i gn if ican ce , a nd s e cond ly t h e m o re s ub jec t ive m e thod o f g roup ing b y t h e u se o f c omb ina t ion t a b le s , w h ich r e su l ted i n t h e f o rmu la t ion o f t h e s o c ia l g r oup ing s s h own i nA ppend ix 1a nd d i scu s sed i nC hap te r s 4 a nd 5 .E a ch o ft h e se a l t er na t ive s t ra teg ie s w i l l b e e xam ined i n t u rn , a nd t h e r e a son s b eh ind t h e r e la t ive f a i lu re o f t h e C lu s te r A na ly s i s a pp roach a s c ompa r ed w i th t h e C omb ina t ion T ab le sw i l lb ed e sc r ibed i nf u l l .

T h i s m e thod m ay a ppea r s omewha t s ub jec t ive , b u t r ema in s n eve r le ss t h e b e s t o p t ion a va i lab le f o r r e cove r ing p a t te rn ing i n t h e d a ta . Mo r e s oph is t ica ted t e chn ique s o f a na ly s i s , s u ch a s c ompu te r b a sed a na ly s i s , p a r t icu la r ly s i ng le a nd a ve rage l i nkage c l u s t e r a na ly s i s , a s u s ed b y H od son t o e xam ine t h e d i cho tomy i n t h e g r ave g ood s a t H a l l s ta t t ( Hod son 1 977 , 3 94-412 ) a nd s e t o u t i nt h e C lus tan 1 —C v e r s ion ( W i sha r t 1 978 ) w e r e u n fo r tuna te ly u nu sab le . T he m a jo r p rob lem l i e s i nt h e u n r e l iab i l i ty o ft h e d a ta s e t s , w h ich w e re u n re l iab ly e xcava ted o rr e co rded ( s ee C hap te r 3 ,s e c t ion s 2a nd 3 ) . T h i s a pp l ie s n o t o n ly t os i t e s w he r e n o g r ave l o t s h ave b een r e cove red s u ch a s m a r je ta ( V . S t a r e 1 973 ) ,b u ta l so t os i te s s u ch a st h o se b e low ,w he r e g r ave l o t s m ay b e m ixed a nd m uch o f t h e d a ta c on ce rn ing g r ave c on s t ruc t ion a nd l a you t m ay b e m i s s ing . F ina l ly , s amp le s i ze s o re ach c h rono log ica l p ha se m ay b e t o o s ma l l t op rov ide am ean ing fu l s u i t , a nd a ne xam ina t ion o ft h e t o ta l p opu la t ion o f ac eme te ry o ve ra l l i t sp ha se s i sc on t ra ry t ot h e r e sea r ch d e s ign , a s i tw ou ld r e su l ti nt h e l o s s o f e ph eme ra l s o c ia l p henomena o f s ho r t d u ra t ion a nd t h e r efo re n o t r ef lec tt h ea c tua lr ank ing o ft h ec eme te ry i n vo lved . H oweve r , i ti sp o ss ib le t o u s e t h e r e a sonab ly s e cu re g r ave l o t s t o i s o la t e g roup s w i th t h e m e thod d e sc r ibed a bove . I n t h e a b sen ce o f r ad ioca rbon d a t ing o r g ood s t ra t ig raphy , t y po log ica l e v id ence m u s t b eu sed f o rd a t ing ,w i th t h er e su l t t h a t ac e r ta in p ropo r t ion o f g r ave s a r e e xc luded f r om t h e s amp le . S u f f ic ien td a ta a r ea va i lab le t h roughou tt h er e g ion

1C lu s ter A na ly s i s . T he c ompu te rt e chn ique o fC lu s te rA na ly s i sh a s a l r eady b een u sed w i th s ome s u cce s s i nt h e a na ly s i s o fg r ave s e t s w i th a v i ew t oi s o la t ing g r oup ing so fs i gn if ican ce t os oc ia ls t ruc tu re a nd s exua ld i cho tomy . Ap a r t icu la r ly r e levan te xamp le i st h e S i ng le L inkage C lu s te rA na ly s i s o ft h e gave g ood s f r om t h e E a r ly I r on A ge c eme te ry o f H a l l s ta t t i n U ppe r A u s t r ia , w he r e c l ea re v id enc e o fs exua l d i cho tomy i nt h e s e lec t ion o f g r ave g ood s w a s n o ted , ad i cho tomy l a rg e ly i n a g reemen t w i th t h e t r ad i t iona l i n te rp r e ta t ion o ft h e d a ta ( Hod son 1 977 , 3 94-4 12 ) . T he f o l low ing a na ly se s w e re c a r r ied o u tu s ing t h e C lu s tan 1 Cp a ckage ( W i sha r t 1 978 ) o n t h e 2 988 ma in f r ame c ompu te ri nt h eO x fo rd U n ive r s i ty C ompu t ing C en t re . T h e f i r s t a na ly s i s a t temp ted u sed S i ng le L inkage C lu s te r a na ly s i s . T h i s i s t h e s imp le s t f o rm o f C lu s te r A na ly s i s a va i lab le , a nd l i ke a l l f o rm s o f C lu s te r A na lys i s i s a n a gg lome ra t ive h i e ra r ch ica l p rocedu re . T h e i n i t ia l s t age c on s i s t s o f t h e c a lcu la t ion o f as im i la r i ty m a t r ix , w h ich p rov ide s p r e sence a nd a b sence i n fo rma t ion , w h ich i su sed t o a s se ss t h es im i la r i ty o fm embe r so f ap opu la t ion o fg rave so r

5 2

T he A na l y s i so ft h eD a taba se

• B ARROW G ROUP AL F LA T C EMETERY

M ap 5 .

L o ca t ion o fS i te s Men t ioned i nC h ap t e r4 :1 .L j ub l jana 2 .N ovo m e s to - B rk j in /Me s tn e n j ive /Kand i ja /Ma le rgek 3 . Rae 4 .P ob r ei je 5 . Mo ln ik 6 .

M e t l ika-Bo rk ek 7 .P odzem e l j8 . ür nom e l j9 .V a .& 1 0 .L egen n ea rS lov en jG r ad ec 1 . K l e in-K le in 1 2 . Magda len ska g o ra 1 3 .S t iena 1 4 . B r ez je n e a rT r ebe lno 1 5 .B r u sn ice 1 6 .B o g tan j 1 7 .L ibna 1 8 .D r aga ta 1 9 .V ok ie n j ive 2 0 .S t r e t tweg 2 1 .D o len j sk eT op l ice 2 2 .R if n i l cn ea rg en t ju r .

Map 6 .

H a l l s ta t t BF l a t C eme t e r ie s a nd H a l l s t a t t B 3 B a r row C em e t e r ie s i nD o len j ska , g t a j e r ska a nd S ou th S ty r ia : 1 .L j ub l jana 2 . Mo ln ik 3 .V ae e 4 .

Mo l c ronog 5 .N ovo m e s to-B r g l j in /Me s tne n j ive 6 . Me t l ika-Bo rk ek 7 .P odz eme l j 8 .‘ r r iom e l j9 . §ma r je ta 1 0 . P ob r ei je 1 . Ra e 1 2 . B r in jeva g o r a 1 3 .L eg en n ea rS loven jG rad ec 1 4 .K le in-K le in 1 5 .P ok e la 1 6 .G o r n ja R adgona .

5 3

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia a r tefac t s . I nt h i s c a se b o th J acca rd ' s C oef f ic ien t ( Do ran a nd H odson 1 975 , 1 41-142 ) a nd G owe r 's S im i la r i ty C oeff ic ien t ( Do ran a nd Hod son 1 975 , 1 42-143 ) w e re u sed i n t h e c a lcu la t ion o f t h e s im i la r i ty ma t r ix , a nd b o th p rov ided s im i la rr e su l t s .

c o r roded w eapon ry i n a h i gh s t a tu s g rave m igh t n o t h ave b een r e tr ieved o rr e co rded . I ti sa ppa ren t t h a t t h e d a ta s e t s w e re u n su i tab le f o r C lu s te r Ana ly s i s f o r t h e f o l low ing r ea son s : t h e d a ta s e t s w e re o f i n suff i c ien t s i ze f o r C lu s te r A na ly s i s t o w o rk p rope r ly , a nd a ny a t temp t t o m e rge c h rono log ica l g roup s f u r the r w ou ld h ave n ega ted o ne o f t h e m a jo r a im s o f t h e s t udy , n ame ly t o e xam ine s oc ia l c hange o ve rt ime . T he f i na l p o in tr ema in s , t h e f a c t t h a t t h e i n ab i l i ty t og ua ran tee t h ei n teg r i ty o ft h eg rave s e t sm ean t t h a tt h ee nd r e su l t sw e re s u spec t .

S ing le L inkage C lu s te r a na ly s is i s b a s ica l ly a f o rm o f n ea re s t n e ighbou r a na ly s is , w h ich , u s ing t h e d a ta f r om t h e s im i la r i ty ma t r ix , f u se s t h e c l o se s t p a i r o f p rev iou s ly u n l inked u n i t s a te ach s ucce ss ive s t age o f t h e h i e ra rchy . I f t h e se u n i t s a r e a l ready p a r t o f e x i s t ing c l u s te r s , t h en t h ese c l u s te r s a r e f u sed . T he refo re a te ach l e ve l o f t h e h i e ra r chy , e ach u n i t a s s igned t o ac l us te r i s mo re l i ke o ne m embe r o f t h a tc l u s te rt h an a ny m embe ro fa ny o t he rc l u s te r( Do ran a nd Hod son 1 975 , 1 75-177 ) .T he e nd r e su l ti st h en p r in ted o u ta s ad end rog ram , w h ich i lus t ra te s g raph ica l ly t h e r e la t ion sh ip o ft h eu n i t s ,i nt h i sc a se g rave so rg rave g ood s ,t oe ach o t he r .

2 T he C omb ina t ion T ab le s . C omb ina t ion t a b le s h ave b een g ene ra l ly u sed i n t h e f o rmu la t ion o f c h rono logy t h rough t ypo logy i n c eme te r ie s . T hey h ave b een u sed e x ten s ive ly i nc h rono log ica l w o rk o n t h e L a te B ronze a nd E a r ly I r on Age s i n t h e S ou th E a s t

a nd , i n b o th c a ses , t h e S e rpen t ifo rm , C e r to sa a nd E a r ly N egova p ha ses ( Chap te r2 ,s e c t ion s2 : 1g ,2 : 1h a nd 2 : 10 w e re

A lp ine R eg ion ( Gab rovec 1 973 , 3 38-385 ; G ut in 1 973 ,4 615 06 ; T e rian a nd T rampui 1 973 , 7 7-105 ) . T he b a s ic t e chn ique i sr e la t ive ly s imp le , t h e d a ta , i nm os t c a se s g rave s e t s , i s o rgan i sed i n to g roup s o f g rave s e t s o f s im i la r c ompo s i t ion , a nd i sp re sen ted i nt abu la r f o rm . T he a r te fac t s a r e s e t o u t a l ong t h e h o r izon ta l a x is w i th t h e t ypo log ica l ly e a r l ie r f o rm s o n t h e l e f t , t h e f u r the r r i gh t t h e p o s i t ion t h e l a te r t h e d a te o f t h e f o rm . T h is mean s t h a t t h e t a b le h a s a

c l a ssed a s o ne , i no rde r t o o b ta in a s uf f ic ien t s amp le . T he r e su l t s w ere u n sa t isfac tory a s c ha in ing o ccu r red , ac ommon p rob lem w i th t h is t ype o f c l u s te r a na ly s is ( Do ran a nd Hod son 1 975 , 1 76 ) .

s t epped a ppea rance f r om t h e t op l e f t h and c o rne r t o t h e b o t tom r i gh t h and c ome r . T he a c tua l g rave s a r e r ead a l ong t h e v e r t ica l a x i s ( s ee App end ix 1 ) . T h is m e thod h a s a l so b een u sed t or ep resen t p o ten t ia l s oc ia l g roup s w i th in E a r ly

As e cond t ype o fc l u s te r a na ly s i s , A ve rage L inkage C lu s te r

l i on A ge c eme te r ie s i n t h e r eg ion ( Ter ian 1 985 , 7 7-105 ) . G rave n umbe r s c on t inue t o b e p laced o n t h e v er t ica l a x i s ,

T he d a ta f o r e ach c h rono log ica l p ha se o f t h e c eme ter ie s o f Magda len ska g o ra a nd S t iCha w a sc onve r ted i n to an umer ica l s e r ie s o f a t t r ibu tes , a s b o th g raves a nd g rave g ood s w e re c l u s te red . S ome o f t h e e a r ly p ha se s c on ta ined s uch s ma l l p opu la t ion s t h a t i tw a s n o t f e a s ib le t op e r fo rm t h i s a na ly s is ,

w h i l s t o n t h e h o r izon ta l a x is t h e t ype s n o l o nger r ep re sen t c h rono log ica l ma rke r s , b u ti n s tead ma jo rc l a s ses o fa r tefac t s w i th in g rave s e t s , w h ich a r e l a id o u t t of a c i l i ta te t h e s oc ia l

A na ly s is , w a s c a r r ied o u t . A ga in a s im i la r i ty ma t r ix , u s ing b o th J acca rd ' s C oef f ic ien t a nd G owe r 's S im i la r i ty C oeff ic ien t , w a s c a lcu la ted . T h i s p ro cedu re a l low s au n i t t o j o in a c l us te r o n ly i f i t s a ve rage s im i la r i ty w i th a l l t h e e x is t ing m emb e r s o f t h a t c l us te r r eache s as pec if ied l e ve l . T h is r e su l t s i n t h e a vo idance o f c ha in ing , w h ich o ccu r s i n S i ng le—L inkage c l u s te rA na ly s i s ,b ecau se au n i tn eed o n ly b e s im i la r t o o ne m embe r o f ac l us te r a nd n o t t o a l l o f t h e

g roup ing o fg rave s e t s . T he refo re a l l t ype s o n t h e l e f t m igh t r ep re sen t t y po log ica l ly ma le a r tefac t s , t h o se o n t h e r i gh t t ypo log ica l ly f ema le a r tefac t s , a nd t h o se i nt h e c en t r e t y pe s c ommon t ob o th g roup s . T h is f a c i l i ta te s t h e o b serva t ion o f s exua l d i cho tomy a nd a l so o f p o ss ib le s oc ia l g roup s o r h i e ra r chy . A s b e fo re a s t epped p a t te rn ing s hou ld b e e v iden t

m embe r s ( Do ran a nd Hod son 1 975 , 1 77 ) .

f r om t h et o pl e f tt ot h eb o t tom r i gh th and c o rne ro nt h et a b le . T he d a ta w a s i n pu t u s ing t h e s ame s t ra teg ie s a s a pp l ied a bove . R ea sonab le c l u s te r s w e re a ppa ren t ly f o rmed , w h ich c ou ld b e r e la ted g ene ra l ly t os exua l d i cho tomy . H oweve r a

T he f o rmu la t ion o f c omb ina t ion t ab le s i s at ime c on sum ing p roce s s . F i r s t ly i ti sn ece ssa ry t os e lec t t h er a nge o fa r tefac t

n umbe r o f u naccep tab le a noma l ie s w e r e p re sen t . T hese

c l a sse s b e s t s u i ted t o p roduce mean ing fu l g roup s . T he

m an if es ted t h em se lves a s t h e p re sence o f a r tefac t s , w h ich h ave t r ad i t iona l ly b een c on s ide red a s p a r t o f t h e ma le a r tefac t s e t , i nt h e t ypo log ica l ly f ema le g roup ing i s o la ted i n

a t tr ibu te se mp loyed i nt h eC lu s te r a na lys i se xper imen t sw e re u sed i nt h i s c on tex t , a nd b a s ica l ly c on s i s ted o f t h e b road ly f u nc t iona l a r te fac tc a tego r ie s , w h ich c ou ld b e a pp l ied t o

t h e A ve rage L inkage C lu s te r A na lys i s . T he a r te fac t s i n

a l l t h e p ha se s o f t h e D o len jska g roup , w h i ls t as im i la r

q ue s t ion a re b ron ze h e lme t s a nd b ronze v e sse l s , w h ich h ave b een f ound i ng raves c on ta in ing ma le i n huma t ion s a t Novo

r ange w a s p roduced f o r t h e L jub l jana , R ue , a nd W ie s— Ma r t i janec g roup s . T hu s t h e w ho le r ange o fa r tefac t sp r esen t w a s e xam ined a nd , w he re p o ss ib le , m e rged t o r educe t h e

m es to—Kand i ja ( Knez 1 978 , 1 25-149 ) . A n e xp lana t ion f o r t h eb ehav iou ro ft h e se a r tefac t sc an b ef ound i nt h eD o len jska g roup p rac t ice o f p l ac ing t ypo log ica l ly f ema le a r tefac t s i n

n umbe r o fv a r iab le s . T he mo s t u nw ie ldy p a r t o f t h e p roce ss c omp r i sed t h e c ompa r i son a nd s or t ing o f g rave s e t s i n to

e l i te ma le g rave s , ap rac t ice w h ich c ou ld h ave l e d t o t h e a s s ign ing o ft h ee l i te t ypo log ica l ly ma le a r tefac t s i nq ue s t ion

g roup s b y h and , a nd t h e i r s ub sequen t p re sen ta t ion i nt a bu la r f o rm t oi nd ica te h i e ra rchy a nd s exua l d i cho tomy . H oweve r

t ot h e t ypo log ica l ly f ema le g roup . T h is w ou ld p a r t icu la r ly b e

t h e d a ta w a s s u ch t h a t t h e se g roup ing s c ou ld b e r e ad i ly

t h e c a se , i ft h e d a ta w a s f r om o ld e xcava t ion s i nw h ich t h e i n teg r i ty o ft h e g rave s e t s c ou ld n o t b e g ua ran teed . I tw ou ld

i s o la ted .

a ppea rt h a td u r ing t h e Meck lenbu rg e xcava t ion s p o t te ry m ay h ave b een d i sca rded , s o i ti s e n t i re ly p o ss ib le t h a t b ad ly

T he c omb ina t ion t a b le s o f c e ram ic v esse l s w e re f o rmu la ted w i th av i ew t oe xam in ing v es se l s e t s a nd t h e i rr e la t ion sh ip t o

5 4

T he A na ly s is o ft h eD a taba se s pec if ic p r ac t ice s , s uch a s t h e d r ink ing r i tua l a ppa ren t i n t h e i c onog raphy o f S i tu la A r t ( s ee A ppend ix 4 b e low ) . T he r a nge o f v e sse l t ypes w i th in t h e f i ve g roup s o r s ub—g roup s

1

T he L a te B ronze A ge ( Ha l ls ta t tB 1 a nd B 2 ) .

c on s ider ed , w e re c onver ted t on ume r ica l a t t r ibu tes a nd t h en t h et a b le s w e re c on s t ruc ted i nt h e m an ne rd esc r ibed a bove . A ma jo r p rob lem a rose i nt h a t many v e s se ls w e re i n comp le te

1 : 1 1 : 2 1 : 3

D o len jska . § ta je r ska . S ou th S ty r ia .

2

T he L a te B ronze A ge /Ea r ly I r on Age I n ter face .

2 : 1 2 : 2 2 : 3

D o len jska .

3

T he H a l l s ta t t CP er iod .

3 : 1 3 : 2 3 : 3

D o len jska . S ta je r ska . S ou th S ty r ia .

4

T he H a l l s ta t t Da nd E a r ly L aT ene P er iod s .

4 : 1 4 : 2 4 : 3

D o len jska . t a je r ska . S ou th S ty r ia .

a nd t h us c ou ld n o t b e a s s igned t o as pec if ic c a tego ry b y f o rm , a s w e l l a s t h e f a c to r t h a t m any v e sse ls w e re m i ss ing f r om t h e g r ave s e ts f r om l a te 1 9 th a nd e a r ly 2 0 th c en tu ry e xcava t ion s . Howeve r i tw a s p o s s ib le t os how t h a t d r ink ing s e t s e x is ted t h roughou t t h e p e r iod f r om 1 000BC t o3 00BC , a nd t h a t m a jo r d i f fe rence s c ou ld b e s e en b e tween t h e L a te B ronze A ge d r ink ing s e t s a nd t h o se o f t h e E a r ly I r on A ge , p a r t icu la r ly t h e D o len jska g roup . Af i na l p o in tt ob em ade o n t h i s s ub jec ti st h el a ck o fc ong ruence b e tween e l i te g rave s e t s a nd e x ten s ive c e ram ic d r ink ing s e t s ( Chap te r 5 . s e c t ion 5 ; A ppend ix 1 ) . T he h i s tog rams , w h ich i lus t ra te t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f e l i te g raves , w eapon sg rave s a nd n on—e l i te g raves o ve rt ime a nd s pace i nt h e c eme ter ie s o ft h e D o len j ska g roup , w e re a l so o f r e la t ive ly s imp le c on s t ruc t ion ( s ee A ppend ix 1 ) . A s imp le n ume r ica l s y s tem w a s u sed t o r e p re sen t t h e p opu la t ion , w h ich w a s d i v ided a mong s t t h e c omponen t b a r rows , u s ing t h e d a ta d er ived f r om t h e c omb ina t ion t a b les . T h is w a s a n e f f ec t ive m e thod o f i lu s t ra t ing t h e d ynam ics o f i n te rna l c ompe t i t ion o na n i n t ra— s i te b a s i s .

T he c hap te ri ss e to u t a sf o l lows :

t a je r ska . S ou th S ty r ia .

1T he L a te B ronze A ge ( Ha l l s ta t t

a nd B 2 ) .

1 : 1 D o len jska .

T he t e chn ique s o f S ing le L inkage a nd A ve rage L inkage C lus ter A na ly s is w e re u n sa t i sfac to ry m e thod s f o r t h e a na lys i s o ft h e d a ta s e t l a rge ly b ecau se o f t h e s ma l l s i ze o f t h e s amp le p opu la t ion s a va i lab le , a nd b ecau se o ft h es u spec t n a tu re o fs ome o ft h e g rave s e t s w h ich w e re e i the r m ixed o r i n comp le te d ue t o p o s t—depo s i t iona l p roce sses a nd b i a s i n t h e r ecovery a nd r e co rd ing t e chn iques e mp loyed . T hese m e thod sw ou ld b e mo re a pp rop r ia te f o r al a rge rs amp le f r om r e cen t e xcava t ion s , i nw h ich t h e i n teg r i ty o ft h ed a ta c ou ld b e

T he t wo m o r tua ry s i tes . L jub l jana a nd Novo m es to— B rA in a r e u sed . L i t t le H a l l s ta t t B 1 a nd B 2 ma te r ia l o c cu r r ed o n o t he r s i te s i n D o len jska ( Chap te r 3 , s e c t ion 2 : 1a ) . 1 : 1 L jub l jana ( Append ix 1 . 1) .

g ua ran teed . I tw ou ld h ave b een p o s s ib le t oa na l ize t h e e n t i re r a nge o fg r ave s e t s f r om e i the r Magda len ska g o ra o rS t ie/n a ,

T he m o r tua ry s i te o f L jub l jana w a s s i tua ted i n t h e c ou r tya rd o f t h e S lovene A cademy o f A r t s a nd S c iences o n

a nd t o p roduce ag ene ra l o ver v iew o fs exua l d i cho tomy a nd h i e ra rchy w i th in t h ese d a ta s e t s . H oweve r t h is w ou ld h ave n ega ted t h e a ims o f t h e a na lys i s , w h ich w e re t o t r ace t h e c hange s i n h i e ra rchy o ve r t i me . S im i la r ly m e rg ing c on tempo ra ry s amp le s f r om d i f f e ren t s i te s w ou ld m a sk

t h e r i gh t b ank o f t h e L jub l jan ica r i ve r i nt h e e a s te rn p a r t o f t h e L jub l jana b a s in ( s ee Map 5 ) . I t c on ta ined 3 23 f l a t c r ema t ion g rave s d a t ing f r om c i rca 1 000 B .C . t o c i r ca 4 50 B .C . I tw a s e xcava ted b e tween 1 948 a nd 1 965 a nd i n 1 971 a nd 1 972 ( F . S ta re 1 954 ;1 31 , 1 971 ; 1 982 ) .

s pa t ia lc hange si nh i e ra rchy . A g roup o f 4 8 g rave s , l a rge ly i n t h e e a s te rn h a lf o f t h e T he u se o f c omb ina t ion t a b le s w a s s uccessfu l i n t h a t i t

c eme tery , c an b e d a ted t ot h e L jub l jana Ip ha se ( Pu, 1 982 ,

p roduced m ean ingfu l d a ta f o r s ub sequen t i n te rp re ta t ion .

1 96 ) .

U nfo r tuna te ly t h e p rocess i n vo lved i s s omewha t t ime c on sum ing a nd u nw ie ldy , a nd h a s as ub jec t ive e l emen t , w h ich c ou ld b e e l im ina ted b y c ompu te r a na ly s i s . O ne s p in— o f f f r om t h e c ompu te r a na ly s is w a s t h e a t t r ibu te l i s t w h ich

t h a t w eapon s w e re n o t f ound a nd t h e t ypo log ica l ly ma le a r tef ac t t y pes ( Chap te r 2 ,s ec t ion 2 : 1a ) , w h ich o ccu r red i na t o ta l o f 2 3 g rave s , w e re o f ten a soc ia ted w i th t ypo log ica l ly

T he g rave s d o n o t f o rm c l ea r g roup s ;

w as f ound t ob e i dea l ly s u i ted t ot h e t a b les . I nr e t ro spec t i t w ou ld p e rhaps h ave b een u sefu l t ot r y at e chn ique s u ch a s P r inc ip le C omponen t s A na lys i s ( Do ran a nd H od son 1 975 , 1 94-197 ,2 69-272 ) , w h ich i sp a r t icu la r ly a pp rop r ia te f o rt h e a na lys i s o f s ma l l p opu la t ion s w i th a l a rge n umbe r o f a t tr ibu te s . H owever , g i ven t h e s ma l l s i ze o f t h e p opu la t ion s i n vo lved , t a bu la t ion c ou ld b e c a r r ied o u t r e la t ive ly q u ick ly

b u tn oo t he rt y po log ica l ly ma le a r tefac t s , may f o rm ag roup , b u t a ga in , i n t h ree c a se s , h ave t ypo log ica l ly f ema le

f ema le a r tefac t s .

i ti sn o tab le

T he f ou r teen g rave sc on ta in ing d re ss p in s ,

a r tefac t s . T he t y po log ica l ly ma le a r tefac t s may h ave o pe ra ted a s s exua l i n d ica to r s i n c on junc t ion w i th t h e t ypo log ica l ly f ema le a r tef ac t s , a nd n o t a s d i sc re te e l emen t s . R ank ing w i th in t h e c eme te ry s e em s t o b e l a rge ly b a sed o n q uan t i ty

a nd g roup ing s i d en t if ied a nd s o r ted .

r a the rt h an t y pe o fb ronze a r tefac t s ( s ee F igu re 3 3 ) .T he l ow

5

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia n umbe r s o f g r ave s w i thou t m e ta l g ood s i s d ue t o t h e d i f f icu l ty i n d a t ing g r ave s w h ich o n ly c on ta ined c e ram ic s , a nd i sp robab ly m uch h i ghe rt h an i ta ppea r s . T hu s av e r t ica l r a nk ing s y s tem i s m o r e r e ad i ly n o tab le t h an s exua l d i cho tomy .

F u r the r , t h e l a r ge n umbe r o fu n u n iden t i f ied v e sse l s h e rd s m u s t b e t a ke n i n to a c coun t , a nd m ay h ave c on s ide rab le b ea r ing o n t h i s . T he p r e sence i n g r ave 5 4 o f t wo a sko i , z oomo rph ic p ou r ing v e s se l s , i s i mpo r tan t . S uch v e s se l s o c cu ri nc en t ra la nd n o r ther nI t a ly , a nd s h ow t h a te ven a tt h i s e a r ly s t age D o len jska w a s i n c on ta c t w i th t h e se r e g ion s ( Bud ja 1 980 , 8 5-94 ) . T he r e s e em s t o b e n o s p ec if i c r e la t ion sh ip b e tween m e ta la r tefac t s a nd s p e c if ic v e s se ls e t s , w h ich a r ec on s i s t en ti na l lg r aves o ft h i sd a t e .

T he c e r am ic a s semb lage i sr ema rkab ly h omogenou s . 3 2 c on ta ined c i n e ra ry u r n s , a nd m o r e m ay h ave b een p r e sen t , b u t a r e n ow u n iden t if iab le s h e rd s . T he r e s t o ft h e c e ram ic a s semb lage i s s t rong ly i n d ica t ive o f af o rm o f d r ink ing c e remony , w h ich m ay b e r e la ted m o r tua ry r i t e , p r e s t ige c ompe t i t ion , o r i n deed a c omb ina t ion o f b o th . T he s e t c on ta in s v a r ia t ion s o n t h e g ene ra l t h eme o f v e s se l : b ow l : d i sh : c up : o n a1 : 1 :1 r a t io . Ampho rae a nd h and led j u g s a r e a l so f ound i n t h i s c on tex t . T he s e t i s d i f f e ren t ia l ly r e p re sen ted , w he the r b y i n ten t o r b y b i a sed r e cove ry .

T he L jub l jana I p ha se o f t h e L jub l jana c eme te ry i s c h a rac te r i s ted b y al ow l e ve l e l i te s y s tem . T he n umb e r s o f b u r ia l s p r e sen t a r e r ema rkab ly s ma l l f o r t h e t wo h und red y ea r s pan o f , t h i s p ha se , b u t d i f f e ren t ia t ion b e tween g r ave l o t si sn o tg r ea t .

Number o f Artefacts p er G rave.

1

2

4

3

L jubljana

4

8

Brgljin

1

Pobreije

5

1 8

1 0

1 1

5

4

9

7

1

1

9

6

2

2

3

1

5

1 1

5

6

7

8 +

3

2

1

4

1 2

( Ha B 1) Ruge

1

1

1

( Ha B i) P obreije

3

1

1

( Ha B 2) Ru e

2

( Ha 8 2)

F igu re 3 :H a l l s ta t tB 1 a nd H a l l s ta t tB 2C eme te r ie si nD o len jska a nd S t a je r ska :N umbe r so fm e ta la r tefa c t si n m o r tua ry c on tex t s .

N umber o f Artefacts p er G rave.

L jubljana

o 8

Metlika-Borgtek Mestne n jive

1 1 5 4

1

4 4

5

1

1

1

Podzemelj

9

3

Crnomelj

1

H uge

1 3

3 9

Molnik

VaCe

2

3

3

4

5

6

3

5

2

1

1

1

2

1

7

8 + 3

3 7

3

1

2

F igu r e3 4 :H a l l s ta t tB 3C eme te r ie si nD o len jska a nd t a je r ska :N umbe r so fm e ta la r te fac t si nm o r tua ry c on tex t s . 1 : 1 N ovo m e s to—Br g l j in ( Append ix 1 :2 )

1 5 5-16 1 ) . T he f o u r g r ave s a r e a l l f l a t c r ema t ion s . T h e s ma l l s amp le s i ze m ean st h a tn ou s ef u lo b se rva t ion sc an b em ade ,a l though t h ree g r ave s d i d c on ta in m e ta lwo rk . T h e a r te f ac t s e t s m a t ched t h o se a tL j ub l jana .

T he m o r tua ry s i te o fN ovo m e s to—Br g l j in i ss i tua ted o n t h e l e f t b ank o f t h e r i ve r K rka a tN ovo m e s to ( s ee Map 5 ) . I t w a s d i scove red d u r ing b u i ld ing w o rk i n 1 963 , a nd f o u r g r ave s w e r e r e cove r ed b y r e scue e xcava t ion ( Kn ez 1 967 ,

5 6

T he A na ly s i so ft h eD a taba se T he c e ram ic a s semb lage w a s c ha r ac te r i sed b y as e t o f v e s se l : a mpho ra . T h is m a tche s s im i la rs e t s a tL jub l jana , a nd i sp robab ly r e la ted t o af o rm o fd r ink ing c e remon ia l . 1 : 2

T he c e ram ic i n ven to ry o f t h e g r ave s w a s a l so s im i la r . 1 9 g r ave s c on ta ined c i ne ra ry u r n s , w h i l s t t h e c r ema t ion w a s l o o se i nf ou r o t he r g r ave s . A c omb ina t ion o f b ow l s a nd h and led v e s se l s o n a1 : 1 r a t ion w a sf ound i n1 7g r ave s . T h i s i sc l ea r ly r e la ted t ot h ed r ink ing s e tf o und i nt h eH a l ls ta t tB 1 p ha se ,w h ich i s ,i fa ny th ing , mo re s t anda rd i sed a nd u n re la ted t ot h eq uan t i t ie so fb ronze a r tef ac t sp r e sen t .

t a jer ska .

T wo m o r tua ry s i te s , P ob rei je a nd R ue , h ave b een s u f f ic ien t ly w el e xcava ted a nd p ub l i shed t ob e e xam ined . T he o t he r s i t e s i nt h e a r ea a r e r e p r e sen ted b y u na s soc ia ted

1 : 2b R u se ( Append ix 1 : 3 ) .

a r tefac t s( Chap te r3 ,s e c t ion 2 :l b ) . T he l a rge m o r tua ry s i te o fR ue i ss i tua ted o n at e rrace o ft h e r i ve rD rava , w e s t o ft h e t own o f Ma r ibo r . I tw a s e xcava ted i n t h e l a te n i ne teen th c en tu ry b y G ra f Wü rmb rand a nd c on s i s ted o f 1 72 f l a t c r ema t ion g r ave s d a t ing f r om t h e H a l l s ta t t B1t oH a l l s ta t t B 3 ( Mü l le r—Ka rpe 1 959 , F ig 1 2 ; ANSL 1 975 ,3 10 ) .

1 : 2a P obrei je ( Append ix 1 : 4 ) . T h e s i te l i e s a t t h e e a s te rn e dge o f t h e Ma r ibo r s ubu rb o f P ob rei je o n at e r race o f t h e r i ve r D rava ( s ee Map 5 ) . T he s i te c ame t o l i gh t d u r ing g rave l e x t rac t ion f r om 1 936 t o 1 939 , a nd w a s f u r the r d amaged b y q ua r ry ing f r om 1 944 t o 1 947 . T he g r aves c on s ide r ed h e r e w e r e e xcava ted b e tween 1 9 52 a nd 1 9 58 a nd n umbe r 1 62 . T he e a r l ie rm a t e r ia ld e r ived f r om t h e g r ave l w o rk ing s i s u n st ra t if ied , a nd t h e o r ig ina l n umb e ro f g r aves w a s p robab ly b e tween 2 00 a nd 2 30 . T he g r ave s a r e a l f l a t c r ema t ion s a nd d a te t o t h e H a l l s ta t t B 1 a nd H a l l s ta t tB 2p ha se s( Pah i 1 972 ) .

At o ta l o f t we lve g r ave s c an b e d a ted t ot h e H a l l s ta t t B1 p ha se . S even g r ave s c on ta ined b ronze a r tefa c t s , b u t c l ea r g r oup s a r e d i ff i cu l t t oi s o la te , b ecau se t y po log ica l ly f ema le a r te f ac t s s u ch a s a rm r ing s o ccu r n o t o n ly i n g rave s w i th f i bu lae ,b u t a l so i nt y po log ica l ly m a le g r ave s w i th d r e s sp in s ( s ee C hap te r 2 , s e c t ion 2 : 2a ) . R e s t r ic ted a ce ss s t om e ta l a r te f a c t s i sa ppa r en t , w i th o n ly t h r ee g r ave s c on ta in ing t h e m a jo r i ty o ft h eb ronze o b jec t s( s ee F igu re 3) .

2 2 g r ave s d a te t o t h e Ha l l s ta t t B 1 p ha se , a l though a n u nknown n umbe r o f t h e u nda ted g r ave s m ay b e c on tempo ra r y . Weapon s w e r e a b sen t f r om t h e g r ave l o t s o f t h i s p ha se , b u t ad i cho tomy i sa ppa ren t b e tween g r ave s c on ta in ing d r essp in s a nd t h o se w h ich c on ta ined f i bu lae a rmr ing s , n eck r ing s , e a r r ing s a nd /o r s p ind le w ho r l s , a l though t h i s g i ve s ar a t io o f4 : 13 , r ema rkab ly d i spa ra te i f s e xua l d i cho tomy i sr e p r e sen ted . T he e v id en ce f o r v e r t ica l r a nk ing b a sed o n q uan t i ty o f b r on ze m e ta lwo rk i s c l ea re r ( s ee F igu r e 3) . T he m a jo r i ty o f g r ave s c on ta ined o ne o r t wo m e ta l a r tefac t s . T he g r ea te rt h en umbe ro fa r te fa c t s , t h e f ewe r t h e n umbe r o f g r ave s i nw h i ch t h ey a r e f ound . O n ly t wo g r ave s h ave s even o r mo re b r on ze a r tef ac t s a nd b o th o f t h ese h ave t y po log ica l ly f ema le i n ven to r ie s ( s ee C hap t e r 2 , s e c t ion 2 : 2a ) .

C ine ra ry u r n s w e re f o und i nf i ve g r ave s , a nd m ay h ave b een p r e sen t f o rme r ly i no t h e r g r ave s . A l l t h e g rave s c on ta ined h and led v e s se l s . I n t wo c a se s t h e se w e r e s i ng le j u g s a nd a mpho rae . T he u sua l s e t i st h a t o fb ow l ; h and led c up ; j ug ; a mpho ra — n o g r ave c on ta ined t h e f u l l s e t , b u t i tw a s s t anda rd i sed t h roughou t t h e c eme te ry i n t h i s p ha se a ga in i n dependen to ft h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fm e ta lwo rk ( s ee C hap te r4 , 1 : 1a , l ba nd 1 : 2a ) . 2 1 g r ave s a r e a s s ig nab le t ot h e H a l l s ta t t B 2 p ha se a tR u se , a nd p robab ly r e p re sen t o n ly a f r a c t ion o f t h e o r ig ina l n umbe r s p r e sen t o n t h e s i te , d ue t ot h e d i f f icu l ty o f d a t ing g r ave s w i thou t m e ta lwo rk . Weapon s w e re a b sen t , b u t t wo g r oup s o f g r ave s , b a sed o n b ron ze a r t efac t s , a r e c l ea r ly v i s ib le . O ne g r oup i s c ompo sed o f g rave s c on ta in ing d r e ssp in s , w h i l s t t h e o t he r i sc ompo sed o fg r ave s c on ta in ing f i bu la e , a rmr ing s , n eck r ing s a nd n eed les . F ou r o f t h e r ema in ing g r ave s m ay l i e w i th in t h e p a rame te r s o f t h e l a s t g r oup a s t h ey c on ta ined a rm r ing s , n eck r ing s a nd n eed le s . T he r e i sm o r e e v iden ce o fd i cho tomy i nt h e b ronze a r te fac t s e t t h an w a s a ppa r en t i n t h e H a l l s ta s t t B1 g r ave s . T he p a t ter no fd i s t r ibu t ion o fm e ta lwo rk s e en i nt h e H a l l s ta t tB 1 i sr e p ea ted ( s ee F igu r e 3) .

C ine ra ry u r n s w e re f ound i ne i gh t g r ave s , a nd f i ve g r ave s c on ta ined v e sse ls w h ich s e rved a su r n s . 1 6 g r ave s c on ta ined c omb ina t ion s o fb ow l s a nd h and led c up s , j u g s , o rh and led v e s se l s , i n d ica t ing a d r ink ing r i tua l s im i la r t o t h e c on tempo ra ry L jub l jana g roup e xamp le s . I tw a s c on s tan t t h roughou tt h i s p ha se a nd d i dn o t a ppea ra s af o rma l r a nked s e tr e la ted t ot h em e ta lwo rk . As im i la rp a t te rn c an b ed i sce rned i nt h e2 3 d a tab le H a l l s ta t t B 2g r ave s . Ad i cho tomy b e tween g r ave s w i th d r e s sp in s a nd g rave s w i th f i bu la e o ccu r red , b u t t h e f u l l r a nge o f o t he r b ronze t y p e s ( a rm r ing s e t c . ) w a s n ow f o und i nb o th g roup s . T h e r a t io w a s n ow 5 : 7 , w i th t h ree o t he r g r ave s d i ff i cu l t t o a s s ign t oe i the r g r oup . T he e v idence f o r r a nk ing b a sed o n q uan t i ty o fb ron ze i sa ga in i n te r e s t ing ( s ee F igu r e 3) ; t h e m a jo r i ty o fg rave s h ave o ne o rn o m e ta l a r te fa c t s , a nd o n ly t wo h ad s e ven o r m o r e m e ta l a r tef ac t s . T he s t a temen t s c once rn ing r a nk ing i nt h e H a l l s ta t tB 1 a l so h o ld t r ue f o rt h i s p ha se .

C ine ra ry u r n s w e r e i d en t i f iab le i no n ly t wo g r ave l o t s , a nd t wo g r ave l o t s c on ta ined v e s se ls w h ich s e r ved a s u r n s . Many o t he r i n ven to r ie s i n c luded s h e rd s o f v e s se l s o f u nknown f o rm , w h ich m ay h ave b een u r n s . T he m o s t c ommon v e s se l s e t w a s o ne o f b ow l : j ug ; a mpho rae a nd c up sw e r e m uch l e s s e v iden t . T hu s t h ed r ink ing s e tc on t inued t o b e p r e sen t a s as t anda rd p i ece o f g rave f u rn i tu re , a nd c on t inued t ob e i n dep enden to ft h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fm e ta lwo rk a si tw a s i nt h e H a l l s ta t t Bp ha se . Me ta lwo rk s e em s t ob e t h em ed ium t h rough w h ich s t a tu sw a sr e p re sen ted .

5 7

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia 1 : 3 S ou th S tyr ia . T he H a l l s ta t t B 1 a nd B 2 p ha se s a r e p oo r ly r e p r e sen ted . A f ew g r ave s a r e k nown f r om G raz— Judendo r f a nd a r e , a s f a r a s c an b e a s ce r ta ined , p a r t o f t h e R u se g r oup ( Chap te r 3 , s e c t ion 1 : 1c ) .

2 B ronze A ge /Ear ly I r on A ge I n ter f ace ( Ha l l s ta t t BYL jub l jana Ha-l ib ) . 2 : 1

g r ave s c on ta in ing d r e ss p i n s a l so e xh ib i ted f i bu lae a nd i r on o r namen t s , w h ich m ay s ugge s t as imp le r a nk ing s y s tem i n t h e t y po log ica l ly m a le g r aves . A r tefa c t s s u ch a s s p ind lewho r l s a nd b ronze n eed le s o c cu r red i n b o th g r ave s e t s , a nd t h e m a jo r i ty o fi r on o rnamen t s o c cu r red i ng rave s w i th f i bu lae o rw i th n o i n d ica to r a r te f a c t . R ank ing o n t h e b a s i s o f q uan t i ty o f m e ta lwo rk i sv e ry m a rked ( s ee F igu re 3 4 ) [ Chap te r2 ,s e c t ion 2 :l c ] . T he c e ram ic s e t d ec l ined i ni mpo r tan c e i nt h i s p ha se . T he r e p r e sen ta t ion o fv e s se l s i ng r ave s d e c r ea sed ma rk ed ly a nd t h ed r ink ing s e to fp r ev iou sp ha ses wa s f o und i no n ly t wo o r t h r ee g r ave s . T h em a jo r i ty o fg r aves c on ta ined a n ur n , a nd a v e s se l o r b ow l a nd d i sh . I nt h e L jub l jana H a t h e p a t ter n i s r e pea ted , w i th t h e w ea l th ie s t g rave c on ta in ing a s i ng le c i ne ra ry um ( s ee a bove ) .

D o len jska .

T he L jub l jana H aa nd I l bp ha se s ( s ee C hap te r2 ,s e c t ion 2 :l b a nd 2 : 1c ) w e re c ha rac te r i sed b y t h e a pp ea rance o f n ew m o r t ua ry s i te s t h roughou t D o len jska , b o th t r ad i t iona l f l a t c eme te r ie s , a nd , l a te r , b a r row s . T he u se o fi r on a l so b ecame w ide sp read a nd t h e b eg inn ing s o ft h eh i e ra r chy c u r r en ti nt h e s u c ceed ing E a r ly I r on A ge c an b e o b se r ved . R ecen t a r chaeo log ica l w o rk ( s ee C hap te r 3 : s e c t ion 2 : 1a ) h a s r e su l ted i na n i n c r ea se i nt h e n umbe r o f s i te s a va i lab le f o r a na ly s i s , n ame ly L jub l jana , Mo ln ik , N ovo m e s to—Me s tne n j ive , Me t l ika—Bo r k tek , a s w e l l a s t h e o l de r g r ave s i nt h e l a rge E a r ly I r on A ge c eme te r ie so f 6nome l j ,P odzeme l j a nd V aCe . T he g r ave s e t s w e r e s im i la r i n t h e f l a t c r ema t ion c eme te r ie s , a nd t h is s im i la r i ty h a s b een f o und t o e x tend f u r the r t o t h e c l a ss ic E a r ly I r on A ge s i te s o f C im ome l j , P odzeme l j a nd V ade . T he L jub l jana I a i s o n ly d i s t ingu i shab le i nt h ec eme te ry o fL jub l jana .

2 :l b Mo ln ik ( Append ix 1 : 5 ) . T he m o r tua ry s i te o f Mo ln ik i s s i tua t ed o n t h e f o re s ted h i l lo ft h es ame n ame ,s ou th e a s to fL jub l jana , o nt h ee dge o f t h e L jub l jana b a s in . T he f l a t c eme te ry w a s e xcava ted i n 1 980 a nd 1 981 , a nd w a s f o und t o c on ta in e l even g r ave s d a t ing t ot h e L jub l jana I l b a nd L jub l jana I laRod zeme l j 2 p ha se s . Ah i l l f o r t a nd b a r row o f E a r ly I r on A ge d a te a r e a l so a s so c ia ted w i th t h es i te ( Pu k1 984 , 1 34162 ) . O n ly t wo g r ave sd a te t ot h e L jub l jana I l bp ha se a nd b o th a r e f l a t c r ema t ion s , o n e o f w h ich c on ta in ed m e ta lwo rk . T h e s ma l l s amp le s i z ed o e s n o t a l low ma jo rc ommen t , a l though e v idence o f ad r ink ing s e t i sk nown f r om g r ave I .V e s se l s a l so s e r ved a s c i ne ra ry ur n s .

2 :1aL jub l jana ( App end ix 1 : 1 ) . D e ta i l s o f s i te l o ca t ion a nd s i ze a r e g i ven i n s e c t ion 1 : 1a . L jub l jana p ha se I a a t L jub l jana i sr e p r e sen ted b y s e ven f l a t c r ema t ion g r ave s . T he d i cho tomy i n t h e g r ave g ood s t r ad i t iona l ly a s soc ia ted w i th L a te B ron ze A ge b u r ia l s i sn o t a ppa ren t i nt h i s p ha se ( Chap t e r 2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 1a , 2 : 1b ) ( Gab rovec 1 973 , T . 1 ) . A l l t h eg r ave s c on ta ined d r e s s p i n s i n v a ry ing n umbe r s , a s w e l l a s b ron ze f i bu lae , n eck r ing s a nd e a r r ing s i n t h ree c a se s , b u t n o s p ind lewho r l s o r b ronze n eed le s . Weapon s a ppea r ed f o r t h e f i r s t t i me , i ng r ave 3 9 ( F . S t a re 1 954 , 5 2-53 ) , w h ich a l so c on ta ined t h e l a rge s t c omp lemen t o f b ron ze o b jec t s a nd a n i r on k n i f e . I r on f r agmen t s w e r e a l so f o und i ng r ave 2 2 ( F . S t a re 1 954 , 3 53 6 ) . T he w ea l th ie s t g r ave i n t e rm s o f m e ta lwo rk a l so c on ta ined i r on ,a nd ab ronze a xe ( s ee F igu r e3 4 ) .

2 : 1c N ovo m e s to —Me s tne n j ive ( App end ix 1 : 6 ) . T he c eme te ry o f Me s tne n j ive i sl o ca ted o n ar i dge ,n o r th o f t h e t own o f N ovo m e s to i nt h e m idd le K rka v a l ley . Two p ha se so fe xcava t ion h ave t a ken p lace o nt h es i te , w h ich h a s b een d amaged b y d eep p o lugh ing . T he f i r s t p ha se o f w o rk t o ok p l a ce i n1 9 59 a nd 1 960 a nd p roduc ed 5 0g r ave s , w h ich a r e d ea l t w i th h e re . F u r the r w o rk i n 1 9 82 r e su l ted i nt h e r e cove ry o f 1 40 g r ave s , w h ich a r e a s y e t u nava i lab le f o r s t udy . T he g r ave s a r ef l a tc r ema t ion s a nd a l lo ft h em d a te t o t h eL jub l jana I p ha se ( Chap te r2 ,s ec t ion 2 :l b a nd 2 : 1c )b u t c anno t b e m o re c l o se ly d a ted . T h is i st h e re fo r e t h e l a rge s t s i te o f t h i s d a te i nD o len jska ( Knez 1 966 , 5 1-101 ; 1 984 , 19133 .

A l l g r ave s c on ta ined c i ne ra ry um s , a nd f o u r a l so c on ta ined h and led v e s se l s . T he se g r ave s b e long t ot h e m idd le r a nge i n t e rm s o f q uan t i ty o f m e ta lwo rk , b u t c on ta in t h e l a rge s t n umb e r s o f v e s se l s , w h i l s t t h e w ea l th ie s t g r ave c on ta ined o n ly as i ng le u r n . I ts e em s t h a t t h e r e i sa n i n c r ea se i nt h e e xp re s s ion o fw ea l th t h rough t h em ed ium o fm e ta la r te f ac t s .

T he 5 0 g r ave s i n t h e s amp le w e re v e ry p oo r i n b r on ze a r te fac t s . A g r oup o f f o u r d ressp in s a nd t wo o t he r s c on ta in ed s i ng le b r on ze o r i r on a rm r ing s . P re sen ce o f m e ta lwo rk m ay d eno te s t a tu s( s ee F igu r e3 4 ) . C e ram ic v e s se l s w e r ef ound i n4 1 g rave s , t h er ema in ing n i ne b e ing w i thou t g r ave g ood s . A l l t h e g r ave s w i th c e ram ic s c on ta ined as i ng le ur n . 1 4 g r ave s h ad as e tc on s i s t ing o f ur n a nd b ow l a nd t h r ee g r ave s h ad as e t o ru r n a nd h and led c up . T he se s e t s a r e s imp le w hen c ompa r ed w i th t h o se a t L jub l jana ( s ec t ion 2 : 1a ) . V e s se l s e t s o ccu r red w i th m e ta lwo rk i n f o u r g r ave s , w h ich m ay h ave s t a tu s s i gn if i can ce .

T he L jub l jana l i bp ha se h a s b een d e sc r ib ed a st h e f l o ru i to f t h eL jub l jana c eme te ry ( Pu k1 982 ,2 03 ) . At o ta lo f4 2g r ave s c an b e a s s igned t o t h i s p ha se w i th c e r ta in ty , a nd t h e se a r e ma in ly l o ca ted t h e w e s te rn h a l f o ft h ec eme te ry ( Pu k 1 982 , 1 96 ) . T h i s p ha se m ay b e d e sc r ib ed a s a n o r namen t h o r izon o na c coun t ,o ft h eo ccu r r ence o fi r on a rm ing s , n eck r ing s a nd f i bu lae i n n i ne o f t h e g r ave s . A s i gn i f ican t n umbe r o f t h e

5 8

T he A na ly s i so ft h e Da taba se 2 : 1d Me t l ika—Bor g tek ( Append ix 1 : 7 )

2 : 1f &nome l j ( Append ix 1 : 9 )

T he f l a tc r ema t ion c eme te ry o fB or S tek i n Me t l ika , at own i n

T he b a r row g roup a t L oka n ea r 6nome l j i sl o ca ted i n t h e L ah in ja r i ve r v a l ley i nB e la K ra j ina , a nd w a s e xcava ted b y P eCn ik i n 1 896 ( Chap te r 3 ,s ec t ion 2 : 2a ) . T he e a r l ies t g rave

t h e Ko lpa ( Kupa ) r i ve r v a l ley i nB e la K ra j ina , c on ta ined a t o ta l o f 4 7 g r aves e xcava ted b e tween 1 956 a nd 1 968 . 3 4 g raves c an b e a s s igned t ot h e L jub l jana I p e r iod , o ne t ot h e L jub l jana I l ia p ha se ( s ee s ec t ion 3 : 1c ) a nd 1 2 h ad n o g rave

d a te s t ot h eL jub l jana I l b /Podzeme l j 1p ha se ( J . D u la r 1 983 , 2 19-244 ) .

g oods ( J . D u la r 1 979 ,6 5-100 ) . T he s i ng le P od zeme l j 1p ha se g rave I V /2 ( J . D u la r 1 983 , T . 9 )c on ta ined n om e ta lwo rk ,b u tc on ta ined t yp ica lc e ram ic s , a c r ema t ion i n ac i ne ra ry ur nw i th t wo b ow l s a nd a n a mpho ra ( J .D u la r 1 982 , 1 77 , 1 80 ) .

E igh t g rave s c on ta ined g rave g ood s o t he r t h an c e ram ic s . T he se d iv ide i n to t wo g roup s o f e qua l s i ze , t h ose w i th d r e ssp in s a nd t h ose w i th s p ind lewho r l s . Me ta lwo rk w a s s ca rce a nd o n ly o ne e xamp le o f a n i r on a r te fac t i sk nown . H oweve r , e ven t h is may r ep re sen t af o rm o f r ank ing i nt h e U rn f ie ld t r ad i t ion , g iven t h e p ove r ty o ft h e o t he rg rave s ( s ee F igu re 3 4 ) .

2 : 1g Vüe ( Append ix 1 : 10 ) T he E a r ly h on A ge c eme te ry o fV aCe i ss i tua ted n or th o ft h e R ive r S ava a tt h e w es ter ne dge o ft h e Do len jska g roup , a nd

C ine ra ry ur n s w e re f ound i n mo s t g raves . O the r v es se ls o ccu r red ,u sua l ly s ma l le rv esse l s a nd b ow l s i n ar a t io o f 1 : 1 . H and led c up s w e re f ound i n s i x g rave s a nd w e re u sua l ly

w a s s ub jec tt oa numbe ro fe xcava t ion c ampa ign s ( Chap te r3 , s e c t ion 2 : 2a ) . T he c on s t ra in t o ft h e d a ta e xc lude s t h e u se o f mo s to ft h eP odzeme l j 1ma te r ia lh e re ( F . S ta re 1 955 ) .

a s soc ia ted t os ome e x ten tw i th g rave sc on ta in ing m e ta lwo rk , b u tn o te xc lu s ive ly .

T he t h ree g rave s , p a r t o f t h e l a rge f l a t c eme tery c omponen t

2 :l e P odzeme l j ( Append ix 1 : 8 ) .

o ft h e s i te , a r e c r ema t ion s . O ne g rave c on ta ined ad re ss p in , w h i l s t t h e o t he r t wo c on ta ined i r on n ec la ing s , a r rn r ing s a nd c e ram ic w eav ing e qu ipmen t . T he g rave l o t s a r e v i r tua l ly i d en t ica lt ot h o se a tL jub l jana ( sec t ion 2 : 1a ) .

T he b a r row c eme tery a t P odzeme l j , n ea r t h e c onf luence o ft h er i ve rL ah in ja w i th t h er i ve rK o lpa i nB e la K ra j ina ,w a s l a rge ly e xcava ted i nt h e n i ne teen th c en tu ry ( s ee C hap te r 3 ,

T he c e ram ic i n ven to ry w a sc ha rac te r ised b yc i ne ra ry v e sse l s . K len ik g rave 2c on ta ined u n iden t if iab le s he rd so ft wo v e sse ls ( F . S ta rt 1 955a ,7 1 )

s ec t ion 2 : 2a ) , a nd h a s i t s g ene s is i nt h e L jub l jana I b p ha se . T he g rave s w e re s im i la r i nr i te t o t h e f l a t c eme te r ie s , b u t d i f f e red i nt wo ma jo r r e spec t s , i nt h a t t h ey o f ten c on ta ined w eapon s a nd f o rmed t h e p r ima ry mo r tuary d epo s i t s i n

2 : 2 St a jer ska .

b a r row s( Ba r th 1 969 ;J .D u la r 1 978 ; 1 979 , 7 8 ,8 4-85 ) . T he Ha l ls ta t t B 3 p ha se r ep resen t s at r an s i t iona l p ha se i n t a jer ska i n t e rm s o f b o th s oc ia l s t ruc tu res , a s p e rce ived t h rough mo r tua ry p rac t ice , a nd t e chno logy . T he mo r tua ry

Twe lve b a r row s h ave g raves o fL jub l jana I b ( Podzeme l j I ) p hase . S even g raves c on ta ined w eapon s , a nd o ne g rave may h ave p a r t o f ab e l t s e t . T he g rave w i th a n tennae—h i l ted

s i tes i n S ta je r ska s how a s im i la r p a t te rn t o t h o se i n D o len jska , w i th b o th f l a t c eme ter ie s a nd b a r row g roups p resen t . T he f l a t c eme te ry o fR ue a nd t h e b a r row c eme te ry o fL egen i nS loven j G radec a r e d i scu ssed h e re ( s ee C hap te r

b ronze s wo rd ( J . Du la r 1 978 , 3 5 : T . 3 5 : 1 -3 ) i sp a r t o f a s e r ies o fg raves f ound i nt h eS ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion a tt h is t ime ( Chap te r 2 , s ec t ion 2 : 1c , s e c t ion 2 : 2d ) . T he o t he r w eapon s g r aves c on ta ined i r on a xe s , s pea r s a nd k n ive s a s w el a s d r e s sp in s . T h i s i st h e e a r l ies t m an if e s ta t ion o f t h e l a te r w eapon s s e t c u r ren t i n t h e D o len jska g roup o f t h e E a r ly I r on Age . T he se g rave s h ave t r ad i t iona l ly b een i n te rp re ted a s ma le w a r r io r g rave s o n t ypo log ica l g round s .

3 ,s ec t ion 2 : 1b a nd 2 : 2b ) . 2 : 2a R u ge ( Append ix 1 : 3 ) . T he s i te l o ca t ion a nd d e ta i ls o f e xcava t ion a re g i ven i n s e c t ion 1 : 2b . T he re a r e 1 3 Ha l l s ta t tB 3 f l a tc r ema t ion g raves i n t h e c eme te ry , c oncen t ra ted ma in ly i n t h e w e s te rn h a lf ( Mü l le r—Ka rpe 1 959 , F igu re 1 2 ) . S ix g rave s c on ta ined

O ne g rave c on ta ined a n i r on a rm r ing , p a r t o f t h e t ypo log ica l ly f ema le g rave s e ti nt h ef l a tc eme te r ie s( Chap te r 2 ,s ec t ion 2 : 1c ) . T he r ema in ing g r ave s w e re w i thou t m e ta l a r tefac t s . T he c r ema t ion s w e re p laced i n

m e ta lwo rk , w h ich c on t inued t o s ho t h e d i cho tomy b e tween g rave s w i th d re s sp in s a nd s em i— luna te r azo r s a nd t h o se w i th f i bu lae a nd o t he r m e ta lwo rk t h a t w a s a ppa ren t i n t h e

c i ne ra ry u r n s , u sua l ly

H a l l s ta t t B 1 a nd B 2 p ha se s . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e b ronze a r tefac t s i ng raves i si n d ica t ive o f al ow l e ve l e l i te , a l though t h e l ow n umbe ro fH a l l s ta t t B 3 g rave s w i thou tm e ta lwo rk i s

b i con ica l c o rdoned v es se l s , K ege lha l sgefä sse o r a mpho rae , w h ich a r e i d en t ica l t ou rn f ie ld c e ram ic t ype s ( J . D u la r 1 982 , 2 15-216 ) . T he mo s t c ommon a company ing v e sse l s w e re b ow ls , i nf i ve g raves . Howeve r ,o ne s e to ft h r ee u rn s , eb ow l

l i ke ly t o b e l ow d ue t o t h e d i ff icu l ty i n d a t ing g raves c on ta in ing o n ly c e ram ic s ( s ee F igu re 3 4 ) .

a nd ah and le c up w a s f ound i nt h e w eapon s g rave i nS k r i l je 1 /40 ( Ba r th 1 969 , 1 62-163 ) . T he b a r row g raves r ep resen t at r an s i t ion t o amo re s t ruc tu red h i e ra r ch ica ls oc ie ty f r om t h e

Mo s t g rave s c on ta ined c i ne ra ry u rn s , a l though a j ug s e rved th i s p u rpo se i no ne c a se . F ive g raves c on ta ined a s e t

l ower l e ve le l i te s oc ie ty i n d ica ted b yf l a tc r ema t ion s .

o f ur n : b ow l : j ug /amho ra , a nd t h re e o f t h ese a l so h ad m e ta lwo rk . B ow ls , j ug s a nd a mpho rae o ccu r r ed

5 9

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia i n d iv idua l ly w i th um s i n t h r ee o t he r g r ave s . T hu s t h e d r ink ing s e tc on t inued i nt h is p ha se . 2 : 2b L eg en n ear S loven j G radec ( Append ix 1 : 11 ) . T he l a rge b a r row c eme tery o f L egen i ss i tua ted n ea r t h e t own o f S loven j G radec w e s t o ft h e P oho r je m oun ta in s a nd w a s e xcava ted i n t h e l a te n i ne teen th c en tu ry ( Chap te r 3 , s e c t ion 2 : 2b ) [ S t rme 'n ik—Gu l id s 1 979 , 1 0 1150 ] . T he f r agmen ta ry n a tu r e o f t h e d a ta m ake s i td i ff icu l t t o c l o se ly d a te t h ec eme te ry , b u tt h eg r ave i nb a r row 2 2 w i th a t y p ica l b ron ze s h aped b e l t h ook ( S t rme 'n ik—Gu l ie ' 1 979 , T .9 : 3 10 ) i s p robab ly H a l l s ta t t B 3 d a te ( Chap te r 2 , s e c t ion 2 : 2d ) . T he g r ave w a sp robab ly ac r ema t ion a nd c on ta ined a c e ram ic ur n a nd p o t . T he b u lk o f t h e a s semb lage i s u n iden t if iab le . 2 : 3 S ou th S tyr ia . T he H a l l s ta t tB 3 p ha se i nS ou th S t y r ia i sv e ry d i f f e r en tf r om t h e p roc eed ing H a l l s ta t tB 1 a nd B 2 p ha se s . An umb e ro ft h e g r ave s i nt h e K le in—K le in b a r row c eme te r ies a r e k nown t o d a te t o t h i s p ha se ( Chap te r 2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 2d ) . T he h oa rd s o f b r on ze a r te f ac t s f r om W i ldon a nd S chönbe rg b e i O be rwo lz , w h ich c on ta ined w eapon s , o r namen t s a nd b ron ze v es se l f r agmen t s ( Mü l le r—Ka rpe 1 959 , 1 27131 ) a l so d a te t ot h e H a l l s ta t tB 3 . T hey w i l lb ed i scu s sed i nC hap te r5 .

R u ge g r oup , w i th w h ich i ti sp a r t ia l ly c on tempo ra ry . T he v e s se l s e ti nF o r s twa ld b a r row 1 7 i se x t reme ly f r agmen ta ry , w i th a s e t o f s i x K ege lha l sgefä s se , 1 3 b ow ls , 1 2 o t he r v e s s le s a nd 2 7 v e s se l s r e p r e sen ted b y s h e rd s . C omb ina t ion s o f ur n : b ow l : d i sh : c up : v e s se l w e r e f o und i n H o ch schu s te rwa ld b a r row s 4a nd 3 2 , a nd i n F o r s twa ld b a r row 1 6 ( Dob ia t 1 980 , T . 4 ,T . 8 ,T . 3 1 ; 8 -11 ) . F oo ted v e s se l s a l so s t a r tt oa ppea r . T he d r ink ing s e to rs ympo s ium , m en t ion ed a bove , i s u sua l ly c ompo sed o fc e ram ic v e s se l s a nd i sm o re f u l ly f o rmu la ted i nt h e E a r ly l i on A ge , b u t t h e c e ram ic s e t d e sc r ibed h e re i sc l ea r ly p a r t o f i t . C e ram ic s a lway sf o rm t h em a in c omponen to ft h eg r ave g ood s . 3T he H a l l s ta t t CP er iod . T he H a l l s ta t t Cp e r iod c o r r e spond s t o t h e P odzeme l j 2 , S t iC r ia 1a nd S t aa 2p ha se s i nD o len jska ( Chap te r2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 1d , 2 : le 2 : 10 . T he n umbe r o f s i te s , b o th mo r tua r y a nd s e t t lemen t ,e xpanded i nt h i s p a r t o f t h e E a r ly I r on A ge i n D o len j ska ( Chap te r 3 ,s e c t ion 1 : 1a . T he P od zeme l j 2p ha se i se qu iva len tt ot h eH a l l s ta t tC l , t h eS t iCna 1p ha se c on f o rm s t ot h e H a l l s ta t tC 2 , w h i l s tt h e S t iCna 2p ha se i s at r an s i t iona l p ha se b e tween t h e l a te H a l l s ta t t C 2 a nd E a r ly Ha l l s ta t t D 1 p ha se st h ep e r iod a r ound 6 00 B .C . 3 : la L jub l jana ( Append ix 1 : 1 ) . T he d e ta i l s o fs i t e s i ze , l o ca t ion a nd e xcava t ion a r e g i v en i n s e c t ion 1 : 1a . A l l t h ree p ha se s o f t h e H a l l s ta t t p e r iod a r e r e p r e sen t ed i n t h e L jub l jana f l a t c r ema t ion c eme te ry , a nd t h en umbe ro fg r ave l o t ss t ead i ly d ec l ined o ve rt h ep e r iod .

2 : 3a K le in—K le in ( Append ix 1 : 12 ) T he K le in—K le in n ec ropo l i s i ss i tua ted o n t h e c on f luen ce o f t h e Sa lm a nd S aggau r i ve r s o n t h e s ou th w e s ter ne dge o ft h e G raz b a s in , a nd c on s i s t s o f ah i l l top s s u r rounded b yb a r row g r oup s . Mo s t o f t h e e xcava t ion t o ok p l ace i n t h e l a te n i ne teen th c en tu ry ( Chap te r 3 , s e c t ion 2 : 2c ) . T he c h rono log ica l p ha se 1c ove r s t h e H a l l s ta t t B 3 a nd H a l l s ta t t C l p ha ses , a nd af ew g r ave s m ay b e d a ted t ot h e H a l l s ta t t B 3 ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 1 66167 ) .

T he r e a r e 1 7L jub l jana I la ( Podzeme l j 2 ) g rave s o nt h e s i te ( Pu s 1 9 82 , 2 04 ) . T he c ompo s i t ion o f g rave s e t s i s s im i la ri nm any a sp ec t s t ot h ep r ev iou sp ha se s ( s ec t ion 1 :l a ; 2 : 1a ) . T he r e i s ad i cho tomy b e tween t h e s ma l l g r oup o f g r ave sw i th d r e s sp in sa nd t h eg r ave s w i th f i bu lae , w h ich a l so c on ta ined b r on ze a nd i r on n eck r ing sa nd a rm r ing s . T h e se a l so o c cu r r ed i ng r ave sw i thou tf i bu lae o rd r e s sp in s . T he m a jo r i ty o fg r ave sc on ta in ed m e ta lwo rk a nd t h el a rge s tc oncen t ra t ion s w e re i nt y po log ica l ly f ema le g r aves ( Chap te r2 ,s ec t ion : 1 d ) .

Two r i ch s wo rd g r ave s ,H a r t n e rm iche lkoge l 1a nd F o r s twa ld 1 7 , f o rm p a r t o f t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion s e r ie s o f s wo rd g rave s ( s ec t ion 2 : 1e ; C hap te r 2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 1d , 2 : 2d ) . T he o t he r w eapon s , b e l t s e t s a nd h o r se r i d ing e qu ipmen t i n t h e se c on tex t s p rov ide m o r e c ompa r ison s w i th t h i s s e r ie s . T he t h ree m e ta l v e s se ls i n t h e H a r tne rm iche lkog e l g r ave f o rm p a r t o f as ympo s ium d r ink ing s e t a nd s h ow t h e i n c r ea s ing i mpo r tan ce o ft h i s a sp ec to ft h e p r e s t ige s y s tem ( Te r zan 1 980 ,3 43-352 ) .

E ve ry g r ave c on ta ined a c i ne ra ry u r n . 1 0 g rave s h ad a dd i t iona l v e s se l s , m o s t c ommon ly b i con ica l o r s phe r ica l v e s se l s , b ow l s a nd d i she s , t h ough a mpho rae a nd h and led c up sa pp ea r ed i nf o u rg r ave s t of o rm ad r ink ing s e t . A l lf o u r g r ave s w e re m od e ra t e ly w e l l f u rn i shed w i th m e ta l w o rk ,b u t t h e w ea l th ie s t g r ave c on ta ined o n ly a s i ng le ur n , i n d i ca t ing t h e i n c r ea s ing p r eva lence o f m e ta lwo rk o ve r c e ram ic s a s i n d ica to r so fs t a t u s .

T he H a r tne rm iche lkoge l 2a nd t h e H o ch schu s terwa ld 4 a nd 4 7 b a r row s ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 1 66168 ) c on ta ined w eapon s a nd d r e s s p i n s , a nd h ave m any p o in t s o f c ompa r i son w i th U rn f ie ld b u r ia l s i te s . H och schu s te rwa ld b a r row 3 2 ( Dob ia t 1 980 ,2 07-208 ; T .7 :6 -8 )c on ta ined af i bu la ,p a ra l le l ing t h e t y po log ica l ly f ema le Um f ie ld g r ave s e t , ad i cho tomy w h ich c on t inued i nt h e W ie s—Ma r t i janec g r oup , b u t d i sapp ea r ed i n t h eD o len jska g r oup ( Chap te r2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 2c , 2 : 2d ) .

T h eS t iCna 1( L jub l jana II )p ha se ( Chap t e r2 ,s ec t ion 2 : 1e ) h ad f i ve d a tab le g r ave s , w h ich w e r e a s b efo r e f l a t c r ema t ion s . D r e s s p i n s w e r e n o l o nge r i n u se , a nd w e re r e p laced a s t y po log ica l ly m a le i nd ica to r s b y b e l t p a r t s , w eapon s b e ing a b sen t — b r onze f i bu la e , a rm r ing s a nd n e c i c r ing s w e r e f o und i nb o th t y po log ica l ly m a le a nd f ema le g r ave s , b u t b r onz e h a i r r ing s a nd g l a s s b ead s w e r e e xc lu s ive ly i nt h el a t te rc a tego ry . T he l a rg e s ta s semb lage o f m e ta lwo rk w a s i n at y po lo ica l ly f ema le g r ave ( Pu g 1 9 82 , 2 04 ) .

T he f r agmen ta ry n a tu re o ft h ec e ram ic s m ake s i td i f f icu l t t o a s se s s t h e f u l lv e s se l s e t . T he p o t te ry i ss im i la rt ot h a to ft h e

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Map 7 . Ha l ls ta t t CB a r row C eme te r ies a nd F la tC eme ter ie s i nD o len jska ,

t a je r ska a nd S ou th S ty r ia : 1 .L jub l jana 2 . Mo ln ik

3 . Magda len ska g o ra 4 .V aCe 5 .S t iCna 6 . Novo m es to-Kand i ja 7 .B rez j, en ea rT rebeL no 8 . Sma r je ta 9 .B ru sn ice 1 0 . B og tan j 1 . L ibna 1 2 . V e l ike Ma lence 1 3 . Me t l ika-Bo r g tek 1 4 . P odzeme l j 1 5 . Cmome l j 1 6 . D raga tug 1 7 .R ifn ik n ea r C e l je 1 8 . Ma l i B reg 1 9 . P od loie 2 0 . L egen n ea r S loven j G radec 2 1 . C re ta 2 2 . P o g te la 2 3 . G o rn ja R adgona 2 4 . ' e n t i l j-Sp ie lf e ld 2 5 . K le inK le in 2 6 . S t re t tweg . I Ia p ha se , a nd c on ta in b o th c r ema t ion s a nd i n huma t ion s i n

C ine ra ry u r n s w e re f ound i n f ou r g raves a nd a s pher ica l v esse l s e r ved t h is p u rpo se i nt h e f i f th . T he g r ave w i th t h e

f l a tg raves ( Pu g 1 984 , 1 54-155 ) .

w ides t r a nge o f c e ram ic t ype s a l so c on ta ined t h e g r ea te s t q uan t i ty o fm e ta lwo rk . T he c e ram ic s e t h e re c on s is ted o f a n

T h ree g raves c on ta ined m e ta lwo rk - g rave 5 w i th a s i ng le d r es s p in c on ta ined a ma le c r ema t ion , a nd a f ema le

um , ab i con ica l v es se l , ah and led c up , a nd af oo ted s i tu la te v esse l . O the r g rave s c on ta ined b i con ica l v esse l s , b ow l s a nd

c r ema t ion w i th a f i bu la . G rave 8 h ad t wo c r ema t ion s , o ne m a le a nd o ne f ema le , s oi ti sd i f f icu l t t oa s s ign t h e a rmr ing

h and led c up s . Ad r ink ing s e t i sc l ea r ly r ep resen ted , b u t t h e

i nt h e g rave t oe i the r , a l though i tb e long s t o t h e f ema le o n t ypo log ica lg round s ( Tomazzo-Ravn ik 1 984 , 1 63165 ) .

s amp le i s t o o s ma l l t o m ake f u r the r c ommen t o n i t s c ha rac te r . T he v esse ls i n g rave 2 67 f o rm a n i n te rmed ia te g roup b e tween t h e u r nf ie ld a nd D o len jska c e ram ic s e t s ( Pu 1 982 ,T .4 :1-4 ) .

T he n o rma l c e ram ic s e t i n c lude s a n um a nd b i con ica l o r s phe r ica l v e s se l . T he s e t i s mo r e c omp lex i ng rave 5 ;e ach

T he t h ree S t ie.n a 2g rave s a r e p oo r i n c ompa r ison t o t h e

c r ema t ion w a s s epa ra te ly i n u rned , a nd t h e r ema in ing s i x o r

p reced ing p ha se . Two c on ta in s i ng le m e ta l a r tef ac t s , b u t o therw i se o n ly c e ram ic s a s g rave g ood s . T he g rave s w e re

m o re v es se ls c anno t b e s epa ra ted i n to d i f f e ren t g roup s ,

f l a t c r ema t ion s , b u t c i ne ra ry u r n s w e re a b sen t . F oo ted s i tu la te v e sse l s o ccu r red , a nd o ne g rave c on ta ined a b ow l a nd a na mpho ra ( Pu g 1 982 , T8 :7 12 ) .

w e re p r esen t . T he f l a t c eme tery c ea sed a f te r t h is p ha se a nd t h e ma ter ia lf r om t h eb a r row i sn o ta va i lab le f o rs t udy .

a l though t wo v e s se ls , ab ow l a nd a f oo ted s i tu la te v es se l

3 : 1c Me t l ika-Borg tek ( Append ix 1 : 7 ) . 3 :l b Mo ln ik ( Append ix 1 : 5 ) . D e ta i l s o f s i te l o ca t ion , s i ze a nd e xcava t ion a r e g i ven i n s e c t ion 2 : 1d . T he re i s as i ng le c r ema t ion g rave o fL jub l jana I Ia ( Podzeme l j 2 )d a te a t Me t l i l ca-Bo r g tek . T he i n ven to ry

D e ta i ls o f s i te l o ca t ion , s i ze a nd e xcava t ion a r e g i ven i n s ec t ion 2 :l b . F ou rg raves a t Mo ln ik d a te t ot h eL jub l jana

6 1

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia s ugge s t s t h a t i ti s ar e la t ive ly w ea l thy t y po log ica l ly f ema le g r ave w i th t y p ica l m e ta lwo rk a nd c e ram ic s ( J . D u la r 1 979 , 6 7 ,T .2 ) .T he c eme te ry w a sn o tu s ed a f te rt h i sp ha se .

T he r e a r e f ew c e ram ic s e t s , p robab ly ar e su l t o fe xcava t ion t e chn ique s . F oo ted v e s se l so ccu r red i nf o u rg r ave s . O n ew a s a s so c ia ted w i th ac up a nd l a rge v e sse l s , a nd a no the rw i th a s ma l lv e s se l .N oc e ram ic sw e r ep re sen ti ng r ave V I I /40 .

3 : 1d Magda len ska g ora ( Append ix 1 : 13 ) . 3 : le S t iena ( Append ix 1 : 14 ) . T he h i l l fo r t a nd b a r row c eme te r ie so f Magda len ska g o ra a r e s i tua ted a tt h e n o r th w e s ter n e dge o f t h e G ro sup l je p o l je , s o u th e a s t o f L jub l jana . T he s i ze a nd a r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch o nt h es i te a r ef u l ly d i scu s sed i nC hap te r3 , s e c t ion 2 : 2a . T he h i l l fo r t i su nda ted b u t i sp r obab ly c on tempo ra ry w i th t h e f i r s t b u r ia l s i nt h e b a r row c eme te ry . T he s amp le a va i lab le f o r a na ly s i s r e p re sen t s a pp rox ima te ly o ne t h i rd o f t h ee n t i r ec eme te ry ( Te r zan 1 981 ,6 59-664 ) ;H encken 1 978 ) . O n ly t h ree g r ave sw e re p r e sen t i nt h e P od zeme l j p ha se o f t h e s i te , a nd t h e re i s i n su ff i c ien t m a te r ia l t o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween P odzeme l j 1a nd P od zeme l j 2( Te r zan 1 981 , 6 59 ) . T he t wo g r ave s i n b a r row V I w e r e c r ema t ion s w i th t y po log ica l ly f ema le g r ave s e t s o ff i bu lae a nd i r on a r rn r ing s . T he i n huma t ion i nb a r row I Vc on ta ined c e ram ic s ,w h ich w e r e s im i la r t o t h o se a tL jub l jana , a nd s h owed n o e mpha s i s o n d r ink ing c e r emon ia l( Hencken 1 978 , 1 9 ,F ig 5 0a ) .

T he S t iCna c omp lex i ss i tua ted a pp rox ima te ly 1 5k me a s to f Maga len ska g o ra a nd c on s i s t s o f al a rge b a r row c eme te ry a nd h i l l fo r t ( Chap te r 3 ,s e c t ion 2 : 2a ) . T he d e f enc e s o f t h e h i l l fo r t , a t l e a s t , d a te t o t h e l a te e i gh th c en tu ry o r e a r ly s e ven th c e n tu ry B .C . , c on tempo ra ry w i th t h e f i r s t b a r row g r ave s ( Gab rovec , F r ey , F o l t iny 1 969 , 17-169 ; F rey 1 974 , 1 5 1162 ) . T he t e n b a r row s i n t h e Meck lenbu rg c o l lec t ion ( W e l l s 1 981 ) , a sw e l l a sg r ave s f r om b a r row 1o f t h eN a rodn im uze j e xcava t ion s( Gab rovec 1 966 , 1 6 , 1 7 ,2 02 3 , 2 7 ; 1 974 , 1 6 3187 ) a nd t h e S t iaa A rmou r g r ave ( Gab rovec 1 966 , 1 013 )a r ed i scu s sed h e r e . T he f i r s t b a r row s w e r e b a r row V I o f t h e Meck lenbu rg C o l lec t ion a nd b a r row 1 f r om t h e N a rodn i m uze j e xcava t ion s . T h e g r ave s w e r e c r ema t ion s w i th t y p ica l P odzeme l j 2p ha se a r te fac t s . G rave V I I / 13 ( We l l s 1 981 , 7 5 )w a su nu sua l ly r i ch ,c on ta in ing ad i sc h e lme t , a na xe ,a nd s p ea r s . C e ram ic s o n ly s u rv ive i nt h e t wo g r ave s i nb a r row I ( Na rodn i m uze j ) . B o th g r ave s c on ta ined h and led c up s a nd u r n s , a nd i na dd i t ion g r ave 1 / 101 h ad ab ow l a nd af o o ted v e s se l .T hu st h ed r ink ing s e ts t i l le x i s ted .

B u r ia l s i n c r ea sed a nd n ew b a r row s w e re f o unded i n t h e S t icna 1p ha se . T he m a jo r i ty o ft h eg r ave sw e r ec r ema t ion s b u t t wo w e r e i n huma t ion s . O ne o f t h e se , g r ave I V / 3 ( Hencken 1 978 , 1 7-18 , F ig . 3 9 ) i sa ' p r in ce ly ' b u r ia l , a nd c on ta ined w eapon s a nd a P i cenes ty le c ompo s i te h e lme t . G rave s o f t h i s t y pe f o rm a d i s t inc t h o r izon i nt h i s p ha se t h roughou t D o len jska , a s w i l l b e s e en b e low , a nd r e p re sen t t h e a pex o f t h e e l i te s y s tem . T hey a r e t y po log ica l ly m a le . T ypo log ica l ly f ema le a r te fac t s , s u ch a sa rm r ing s ,n e c i c r ing s a nd f i bu lae a r e a l so o cca s iona l ly f o und i nt h e se c on tex t s . Weapon s g r ave s o ccu r red i n b a r row V I a nd t h e f o und ing g r ave s i nb a r row V I I . T ypo log ica l ly f ema le g r ave s w e r e l o ca ted i nb a r row sV Ia nd V I I( s ee C hap te r, s e c t ion 2 : 1e ) .

T he n umbe r o f g r ave s i n c rea sed i nt h e f o l low ing S t iaa 1 p ha se . B o th t h e a bove b a r rows c on ta in b u r ia l s o f t h i s p ha se a nd f o u r n ew b a r row s w e re b u i l t . T he S t iCna 1 ' p r ince ly 'h o r izon w a s w e l l r e p r e sen ted b y t h eA rmou rg r ave ( Gab rovec 1 966 , 1 013 ) , g r ave 1 / 72 ( Gab rovec 1 966 , 1 61 7 ) , a nd g r ave I V / 30 ( We l l s 1 981 , 6 2 , 1 76177 ) a nd g r ave V / 15 ( We l l s 1 981 ,7 1 , 1 94 ) .T he a r te fac t si n c luded w eapon s , h o r se r i d ing e qu ipmen t , b e l t s e t s , b r onze a rmou r a nd a ' P icene t c ompo s i te h e lme t , a sw e l l a st y po log ica l ly f ema le a r te fa c t s s u ch a sb r on ze b u t ton s , a nn r ing s . T h e h o r se b i t s a r er e la ted t oT h raco-C imme r ian t y pe s . T he b r onze b ow li n t h e' A rmou rg r ave 'i sa ni mpo r tf r om aG r eek a r ea ( Gab rovec 1 966 , 1 ) . T h ef ew t y po log ica l ly f ema le g r ave sa r ep oo ri n c ompa r i son t ot h ee l i te g r ave s( Chap te r2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 1e ) .B o th c r ema t ion s a nd i n huma t ion s w e re p r e sen t a nd G ab rovec ( 1 980 ,4 4 ) s ugge s t s t h a t S i ppenhüge l b u r ia l i s p r e sen t a t t h i se a r ly s t age ( s ee S ec t ion 4 : 1 ) .

T he c e ram ic s e t w a s s imp le , w i th n o h and led v e s se l s , t h e m a in t y p e sb e ing f o o ted v e s se l sa nd b i con ica lv e s se l s .B ow l s w e re f o und i nt h r ee g r ave si na s soc ia t ion w i th f o o t ed v e s se l s o r b i con ica l v e s se l s , d epa r tu r e f r om t h e n o rm i n t h e p r eced ing L jub l jana g r oup ( Te r ian 1 980 , 3 43-353 ) . T he l a ck o f c e ram ic s i ng r ave I V /3 m ay b e ar e su l t o f b i a sed r e cove ry t e chn ique s . T he s i ze o ft h em o r tua ry p opu la t ion c on t inued t oi n c rea se i n t h e S t aa 2p ha se . B a r row s I ,I ,V I I I , a nd X w e r e f o und ed a nd b a r row s V I a nd V I I c on t inued t oh ave t h e l a rge s tb u r ia l p opu la t ion s . O n t h e o t he rh and , b a r row I V c on ta ined g r ave s o f t h i s d a te . Weapon s g r ave s , c on ta in ing a nn r ing s a nd f i bu lae , w e r e f o und i nb a r row s I ,I a nd X . B o th t h e r i che s t g r ave s w e re t y po log ica l ly f ema le . G rave V I I /40 ( Hencken 1 978 ,5 8-59 ,F i g .2 -F ig .2 62 )w a s af ema le i n huma t ion w i th t e n f i bu lae , s i x n eck r ing s , s i x a nn r ing s , 2 8 a nk le r ing s a nd 2 85 g l a s s a nd a mbe rb ead s -e l i te f ema le g r ave s s u pp lan ted t y po log ica l ly e l i te m a le g r ave s i nD o len j ska i nt h i s p ha se . N ine o ft h e g r ave s o fS t iCna 2d a te a r e t y po log ica l ly f ema le ( Chap te r2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 1f ) , ab r eak w i th t h en o rma l p a t ter no f t h e D o len jska g r oup , w h ich w a sd om ina ted b y t y po log ica l ly m a le e l i te g r ave s .

T he n ew c e ram ic s e t i nS t iCna 1d oe s n o t c on fo rm t o t h e p r ev iou s u r n f ie ld d r ink ing s e t o rt h e s ympo s ium s e t s i nt h e e a s te rn A lp s ( Tei ian 1 980 , 3 43-352 ) . F oo ted v es se l s w i th l i d s r e p laced u r n s , a nd h and led c up s a nd b i con ica l v e s se l s o ccu r r ed i nb o th e l i te a nd t y po log ica l ly f ema le g rave s . T h i s , t o ge the rw i th t h ek er no s i ng r ave I V / 30 ( We l l s 3 1 , 6 2 , 1 77 ) , s u gge s t s d r ink ing c e r emon ia l s w e r e c l o se r t o t h o se i l u s t ra ted i nS i tu la a r t( Te r ian 1 980 ,3 52 ) . T he b u r ia l p opu la t ion w a s l a rge r i nt h e S t iCna 2p ha se . T h e n umbe r so fg r ave si nb a r row sI V ,V I ,V a sV i ra nd I( Na rodn i m uze j ) i n c rea sed , a nd b a r row I I w a s f o und ed . B a r row 1 ( Na rodn i m uze j ) c on ta ined a n o tab le e l i te t y po log ica l ly f ema le g r ave ( Gab rovec 1 966 ,0 -23 ) ,w h i ch c on ta ined ag o ld

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T he A na ly s i so ft h eD a taba se d i adem a nd n eck lace , a nd o t he rs im i la rg r ave s i nb a r row V I m ay h ave b een r o bbed . Weapon s g r aves h ave b een f o und i n b a r rows I V , V I ,V a s V i ra nd I( Na rodn im uze j )b u tc on ta ined n oe l i te m a te r ia l( Chap te r2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 10 . T hu s af l uc tua t ion i nt h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f w ea l th c an b e d e tec ted — t h e r e w e r e t h r ee w ea l thy b a r rows i nt h eS t iCna 1 p ha se , i nt h eS t iCna 2 p ha se b a r row I V h ad al a rge b u r ia l p opu la t ion , b u t n o e l i te g r ave s , b a r row V r ema ined s t a t ic w i th n o e l i te g r ave s . V a s V i r i n c r ea sed i np opu la t ion a nd b a r row s V I a nd 1( Na rod rü m uze j ) c on ta ined e l i te g rave s , i n deed t h e l a t te r w a s t h e p a ramoun tb u r ia l a r ea i nt h i s p ha se . I n huma t ion w a s n ow m o re c ommon t h an c r ema t ion , a nd t h e b a r row s w e r e c e r ta in ly o r gan i sed o nS i ppenhüge l l i ne s , ar i te w h ich w il b e d e sc r ibed b e low . F oo ted a nd b i con ica l v e sse l s o ccu r r ed , e i the r a l one o r i n c on junc t ion w i th b ow l s a nd /o r d i she s . H and led c up s w e r e r a r e . T h e l a rge rv e s se ls m ay h ave c on ta ined l i qu id s a nd t h e b ow l sa nd d i she sm ay h ave s e rved a s d r ink ing v e s se l s .T he s e t s e em s s t anda rd i sed i nt h i s p ha se a nd n o t l i nked t oe l i te a r tef a c t s e t s , a l though g r ave 1 / 27 c on ta ined a n o tab le s e t ( Gab rovec 1 966 , 2 3 ) . T er ian ' s o b se r va t ion s a r e a pp rop r ia t e i nt h i sp ha se ( Ter ian 1 980 ,3 52 ) . 3 : 1f V aC e( Append ix 1 : 10 ) . D e ta i l s o f s i te l o ca t ion , s i ze a nd e xcava t ion m ay b ef o und i ns e c t ion 2 : 1g . T he P odzeme l j 2g r ave s w e re p a r t o f t h e K le rük f l a t c eme te ry . S i x w e re c r ema t ion s a nd o ne w a s a n i n huma t ion ( F . S ta re 1 955a , 7 1-72 ) . T he g r ave g r oup s c on ta ined f i bu lae a nd i r on a rm r ing s , a s w e l l a s o cca s iona l g l a s sb ead s , i r on k n ive s , ad r e s s—p in a nd s p ind lwho r l s . T hey a ppea rt oh ave m o re i nc ommon w i th t h e L jub l jana c eme te ry t h an t h e b a r row s i n D o len jska ( Chap t e r 2 , s e c t ion 2 : 1d , s e c t ion 3 :1a ) .

K rka , i st o day a s ubu rb o f t h e t own o f Novo m e s to . I ti s a s so c ia ted w i th t h e Ma ro fh i l l fo r t , w h ich i sl o ca ted i n ab end o f t h e r i ve r K rka ( Knez 1 974 , 2 43-252 ) . T he h i l l fo r t m ay d a te t ot h e e i gh th c en tu ry B .C . , a s ar e cen t f i nd o f ab ronze a xe h a sb een m ade i nt h ei n te r io r( Va r s tvo s pomen ikov 1 984 , 2 03-20 5 ) . T he f l a t c eme te ry s i t e s i nt h e a r ea h ave a l r eady b een d i scu ssed ( S ec t ion 1 : 1b , 2 : 1c ) . T he d e ta i l s o f a r chaeo lg ica l r e sea r ch i n t h e a r ea a r e g i ven i nC hap te r 3 , s e c t ion 2 : 2a . O n ly o ne b a r row i nt h e c eme te ry i sa dequa te ly p ub l i shed ,a nd i sc on s id e r ed h e re ( Gab rovec 1 960 , 2 93-347 ; 1 968 , 1 57188 )( s ee C hap te r 1 0 ) . T he re a r e t wo e l i te S t ia ra 1p ha se g r aves i n t h e K and i ja b a r row ( Gab rovec 1 960 , 2 93-347 ; 1 968 , 1 60-163 ) . T hey b o th f o rm p a r t o f t h e s o— ca l led ' p r ince ly ' h o r izon i n D o len jska . T he ' A rmou r g r ave ' c on ta ined a T h ra co— C imme r ian h o r se—b i t , ab r onze c o r se le t , a nd aP icene e— t ype c ompo s i te h e lme t . T he c o r se le t a nd h e lme t a r e i d en t ica l t o t h e e xamp le s f r om Magda len ska g o ra ( s ec t ion 3 : 1d ) , S t i& ra ( s ec t ion 3 : 1e ) , B rez je n ea rT rebe lno ( s e c t ion 3 : 1h ) a nd L ibna ( S ec t ion 3 : 1k ) . B o th g r ave s c on ta ined s pea r s . T he ' T r ipod g r ave 'a l so c on ta ined a' T h raco—C imme r ian 'h o r se b i t ,a nd a n a mbe rb eaded m u l t i—headed p i n o f at y pe f ound a tF rög b e i R o segg i n C a r in th ia a nd E s te i n n o r th—ea s ter n I t a ly . T he b r on ze t r ipod a nd c au ld ron a l so h ave p a ra l le l sw i th n o r th a nd c en t ra l I t a ly . T he t r ipod , s i tu la a nd s i eve may b e s e en a s a l o ca l m an if e s ta t ion o f t h e I t a lo—G r eek w ine s ympo s ium ( Te r ian 1 980 , 3 43-352 ) , a l though w ine n eed n o th ave b een t h eb eve rage u sed , a nd t h e se a r t ef ac t s w ou ld o n ly h ave b een a dop t ed i ft h ey h ad m ean ing i n al o ca lp r e s t ige c on tex t . F oo ted v e s se l s o c cu r r ed i nb o th g r ave s . T he c e ram ic s e t i n t h e A rmou r g r ave i sm o r e v a r ied t h an t h a t i n t h e T r ipod g r ave , b u th i s m ay b e ar e su l to ft h el a ck o fb ronze v e s se l s i nt h i s g r ave . B ow l s a nd c up s , w h ich m ay h ave b een u sed f o r d r ink ing , w e r e f o und , b o th g r ave s . T he se c e ram ic s e t s a r e c onne c ted w i th t h e l o ca l m an i f e s ta t ion o f t h e d r ink ing c e remon ia l .

O n ly t h ree s e cu r e S t iCna 1 g r ave l o t s e x i s t . T hey w e r e c r ema t ion s , i n u rn ed , w i th f i bu lae , a rm r ing s , a nd d r e s sp in s . T he u n s t ra t if ied m a te r ia l s ugge s t s t h a t ' p r ince ly ' g r ave s s im i la r t o t h o se e l sewhe re i nD o len jska ( s ee s e c t ion 3 : 1d ; 3 : 1f ,3 : 1g )e x i s ted .

O ne S t iCna 2 p ha se g r ave w a s f ound i n t h i s b a r row ( Gab rovec 1 968 , 1 64 , T . 8 ) . I tc on ta ined at y p ica l b ron ze a rm— r ing a nd g l a s s a nd a mb e r b ead s ( Chap te r 2 , s e c t ion 2 : 10 . T h i s i s at y po log ica l ly f ema le g r ave a nd i ss im i la r t o o t he r n on—e l i te g r ave s i nt h i s p ha se i nD o len jska . T he c e ram ic s e t o f f oo ted v e s s le s , b ow l s a nd a d i sh i sa l so t y p ica lo fg r ave sa tt h i sd a te i nD o len j ska .

Al a rge n umbe ro fS t iCna 2p ha se g r ave l o t s a r ea va i lab le f o r a na ly s i s . T he m a jo r i ty a r e f l a t i n huma t ion a nd c r ema t ion g r ave s a nd a s i ng le b a r row g r ave , A shmo lean 1 / 2 , o f u nknown r i te . T he r i ch t y po log ica l ly f ema le g r ave , A shmo lean 1 2 , h a s am ixed i n ven to ry i n c lud ing a l a te N egova s ha f t—ho le a xe a nd h o r se— r id ing e qu ipmen t .

3 : 1h B rez je n ea rT rebe lno ( App end ix 1 : 16 ) T he E a r ly I r on A ge c omp lex o f B rez je n ea r T rebe lno c on s i s t so fo ne h i l l fo r tw i th at o ta lo f1 8b a r row sd i v ided i n to f ou rg r oup s . 3 00 g r ave s w e r e r e co rded d u r ing e xcava t ion i n t h e n i ne teen th c en tu ry ( s ee C hap t e r 3 ,s e c t ion 2 : 2a ) . T he s i x b a r row s c anno t b e d i rec t ly a s soc ia ted w i th a ny o ne b a r row g r oup ,s ot h ey a r et r ea ted a s as i ng le g r oup . 4 6o ft h eg r ave s w e r ew i thou ta ny g r ave g ood s( K rome r 1 959 ) .

O th e rw i se t h ei n ven to ry i si nk eep ing w i th e l i t e t y po log ica l ly f ema le g r ave s o f t h i s p ha se . T h e r ema in ing g r ave s a r e s im i la r ly t y po log ica l ly f ema le , c on ta in ing f i bu lae , b r onze a rm r ing s , e a r— r ing s p ind lewho r l s a nd g l a s s a nd a mb e rb ead s ( Chap te r 2 , s e c t ion 2 : 10 . P o s t— excava t iona l b i a s h a s r e su l ted i nt h e l o s s o f a l l c e ram ic s e xcep t t h e b i con ica l v e s se l , w h ich s e r ved a s a n um , i nK len ik f l a t g r ave 1 0 ( F . S t a r e , 1 955a ,7 2 ) .

T he i n i t ia l P od zeme l j 2p ha se w a s r e p r e sen ted b y o n ly f o u r g r ave s i n t h r ee b a r row s . Two o f t h e g r ave s , g r ave V I / 5 ( K rome r 1 959 , 2 12 ) a nd g r ave 1 / 5 ( K rome r 1 959 , 1 9 ) c on ta in ed d i sc h e lme t s , a nd g r ave 1 / 82 ( K rome r 1 959 , 1 9 ) i s

3 : 1g N ovo m e s to —K and i ja ( Append ix 1 : 15 ) . T he E a r ly I r on A ge c eme te ry o f K and i ja s ou th o ft h e r i ve r

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I r on A ge i nS l ov en ia a l so p a r t o f t h i s t y po log ica l ly m a le w eapon s g r ave g r oup . T he o t he r g rave , g r ave V I /4 ( K rome r 1 959 , 2 1 ) c on ta ined a V ace k nobb ed—bow f i bu la a nd i s at y po log ica l ly f ema le g r ave ( Chap te r2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 1d ) .

c on f ined t o t h e l a rge r c eme te ry c omp lexe s . T he f i ve t y po log ica l ly f ema le g rave sm ay b el o ca l ly r e p re sen ta t ive o f t h i s h o r izon , b u t d o n o t c on ta in l a rge q uan t i t ie s o f a r te fa c t s ( Chap te r2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 10 .

T he t wo c r ema t ion g r ave s , V I / 5 a nd 1 / 82 , b o th c on ta ined c i ne ra ry u r n s . 1 / 82 c on ta ined a n a r cha ic v e s se l , at wo— h and led a mpho ra , w h ich i sa nu r n f ie ld t y p e . Ad r ink ing s e to f ac up a nd b ow l s w e r e a l so f o und i n t h i s g r ave . G rave V I /4 a l so c on ta ined as e to fu r n f ie ld t y p e( J .D u la r 1 982 ,2 15 ) .

T en g r ave s w e r e f u rn i shed w i th f oo ted v e s se l s , t h e t wo w i thou t c on ta ined r e spec t ive ly a s e t o f b ow l , ac up a nd a l a rge b i con ica l v e s se l , a nd a s e t o f t wo s ma l le r b i con ica l v e s se l s . B ow l s c ommon ly o ccu r red w i th f oo ted v e s se l s , i n c on jun c t ion w i the r i n s tead o f , b i con ica l v e s se l s . T he se c e ram ic s e t s w e r ep r e sen tw i th a l l t h et y pe s o fa r te fac ts e ti n t h ec eme te ry , a nd a r e i n d ica t ive o f ag ene ra l i sed c e remon ia l d r ink ing s e t .

T he re a r e t h ree S t id 'na 1p ha se i n huma t ion s , t wo w e re i n b a r row Ia nd t h e t h i rd i st h e o l des t g r ave i nb a r row X I I I . G rave 1 / 37 ( K rome r 1 959 , 1 5 ) c on ta ined a P i cene— typ e c ompo s i te h e lme t a nd i sp a r tt h e S t idüa 1 p r ince ly h o r izon d i scu s sed a bove . G rave X I I I / 53 ( K rome r 1 9 59 , 3 6 ) w a s a w eapon s g r ave , c on ta in ing t h e w eapon s s e t c u r r en t t h roughou t D o len jska i n t h e E a r ly I r on A ge ( Chap t e r 2 , s e c t ion 2 :l e ) . G rave 1 / 30 ( K rome r 1 9 59 , 1 4 ) c on ta ined o n ly p o t t e ry , t wo f oo ted v e s se l s , an o rma l c e ram ic s e t i n D o len j ska . T he v e s se li ng r ave X I I I / 53 i so fi n de te rm ina te t y pe . T he mo r tua ry p opu la t ion i n c rea sed i nt h e S t idna 2p ha se , b o th i nt h en umb e ro fg r ave s( t en )a nd t h en umb e ro fb a r row s . O n ly g rave 1 / 87 ( K rome r 1 959 , 1 9 ) c on ta ined w eapon s . T h e h o r izon o fe l i te t y po log ica l ly f ema le g r ave si sr e p r e sen ted b y g r ave s 1 / 34 ( K rome r 1 959 , 1 4 ) , X I I I / 18 ( K rome r 1 9 59 , 3 2 ) a nd p o s s ib ly g r ave 1 / 43 ( K rome r 1 959 , 1 5 ) . T he r ema in ing s e ven g rave s a r e p a r t o f t h e n on—e l i te t y po log ica l ly f ema le g r ave g roup , w i th f i bu lae , h a i r r ing s , a rmr ing s , a nd g l a s s a nd a mbe rb ead s ( Chap te r2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 10 . T he g r ave s c on ta ined i n huma t ion s ,e xcep tf o ro ne w he re d e ta i l so ft h eb u r ia lr i t en o l o nge rs u r v ive .

3 : 1 j B o S ian j( Append ix 1 : 18 ) . T h e m o r tua ry s i te s a r ound B o g tan j , u n l ike t h e o t he rb a r row s d i scu s sed i nt h i s s e c t ion , a r e i s o la ted b a r row s a nd b a r row g r oup s , w i thou t c l ea r ly a s soc ia ted s e t t lemen t . T hey a r e s i tua ted o n h i l l t o p s o r s l ope s i nt h e h i l ly r e g ion a r ound t h e c onf luence o f t h e r i ve r s M i rna a nd S ava . T h i s d i s t in c t p a t ter n m ay r e su l t f r om t h e g eog raph ica l p o s i t ion o f t h e b a r row s a tt h e i n te r f ace o f t h e D o len jska g r oup a nd W ie s— Ma r t i janec g r oup i n§ t a je r ska t o t h e n o r th . T he c e ram ic s f r om t h i s s i te a r e s im i la r i ns ome r e sp ec t s t ot h o se f r om t h e s i te o f R if n ik n ea r C e l je ( Gu g t in 1 974a , 9 9 ) . A t l e a s t 2 0 b a r row sw e r ee xcava ted i nt h ea r ea ,b u to n ly s e ven c on ta ined c l o sed d a ta s e t s a nd c an b e d i scu s sed h e r e ( s ee C hap te r 3 , s e c t ion 2 : 2a ) . T h e s i ng le b a r row g r ave f r om V e l ika D ob rava , p a r t o f a g r oup o f 1 2 b a r row s , d a te s t ot h e P odzeme l j 1 / 2 t r an s i t ion ( Gu g t in 1 974a , 9 9 ) . I tw a s ac r ema t ion w i th a n i r on k n i f e , b e l tr i ng a nd aw he t s tone . T he c r ema t ion w a s i n umed w i th a b i con ica l v e s se l a nd ab ow l . T he c e ram ic s e t i sr em in i scen t o fc on tempo ra ry e xamp le s a tL jub l jana ( J .D u la r 1 982 , 2 152 16 ) .

T he re w e r e c e ram ic s i ns e ven g r ave s , b u t i nt wo o n ly s h e rd s s u r v ived . F oo ted v e s se l s o c cu r red i nt h r ee g r ave s a nd b ow l s i nt wo , b u t af u l l s e t o f t wo f oo t ed v e s se l s a nd ad i sh w a s o n ly f ound i nt h ew eapon sg rave 1 / 81 .

T h e r e i sn o S t idna 1p ha se m a te r ia l , b u t t h e S t icna 2p ha se w a s w e l l r e p re sen ted i n t h e b a r row s a t Ma l i L ukove , c , K r i i gde n ea rV e l ik iL ukovec , Bd dn i V rh a nd K o sma tec n ea r P r e ska . N ine o f t h e f ou r teen g r ave s c on ta ined m e ta lwo rk , a nd t h e m a jo r i ty o f t h e se w e re t y po log ica l ly f ema le a s semb lage s ; B udn i V rh g r ave 4i s al o ca l f o rm o ft h e e l i te s e t i nt h i s p ha se ( Gu g tü i 1 974a , T . 10 : 6 -18 ) . T he re w e r e t wo w eapon s g r ave s , b u t t h ey w e r e r e la t ive ly p oo r . Mo s t , i f n o ta l ,o ft h e g r ave s w e re i n huma t ion s . T he l a rge b a r row a t K o sma t ec h ad t h e l a rge s t mo r tua ry p opu la t ion i nt h i s p ha se a nd w a s aS ippenhüge l . T he s c a t te red n a tu re o ft h e b a r row s m ean st h a t ad om inan tb u r ia lg r oup c anno tb ed e tec ted .

3 : 1 i B ru sn ice ( Append ix 1 : 17 ) . T he b a r row c eme te ry o fB ru sn ice i ss i tua ted i nt h eh i l ly a r ea b e tween N ovo m e s to a nd S • en t je rne j ( Te r i/a n 1 974 , 4 6 ) , a nd w a s e xcava ted b y P ee r& i n t h e l a te n i ne teen th c en tu ry ( Chap te r3 ,s e c t ion 2 : 2a ) . T he b a r row so n ly c on ta ined t wo o r t h ree g rave s e ach , b u t w e re o f S ippenhüge l t y pe , a l though s ma l le r t h an t h e l a rge b a r row s a tt h e s i te s d i scu s sed a bove ( Te r ian 1 974 ,3 1-66 ) . T h e i n i t ia l p ha se a t B ru sn ice d a t e s t o t h e S t id 'na 2 . 1 b a r row s w e re f o unded i nt h is p ha se . O n ly b a r row X I h ad m o re t h an o ne g r ave , b u t n one a r e p a r t icu la r ly r i ch . T h r ee w a r r io rg rave sw e re p r esen t , i nb a r row s V I .X , a nd X IX , a nd f i ve t y po log ica l ly f ema le g r aves w e r ep r e sen t ,i nb a r row s V . V I I , XV , XV I I , a nd X I . F ou r g r ave s w e re w i thou t m e ta l a r te fac t s . T he r i te o fc r ema t ion i sn o tf ound , a l lg r ave s b e ing i n huma t ion s . T he d oub le g rave , XX I /2 ( Ter ian 1 974 , 3 7 ) c on ta ined o n ly c e ram ic g r ave g ood s . E l i te t y po log ica l ly f ema le g rave s a r e n o t f o und i n B r u sn ice , a nd s e em t o b e

F oo ted v e s se l s w e r e f o und i nt e n g r ave s , i nf ou r c a se s w i th b ow l s ,a nd o ne w i th ac up . I tc l ea r ly s how st h ep r e sence o fa d r ink ing s e t , d i scu s sed i no t h e r c eme te r ie s i nD o len jska i n t h i sp ha se . 3 : 1k L ibna ( Append ix 1 : 1 ) . T h e E a r ly I r on A ge c omp lex o fL ibna i sl o ca ted n o r th o ft h e r i ve r S ava , a t t h e p o in t w he re i t l e ave s t h e g o rge s o f D o len jska , a nd f l ow s s ou th—ea s twa rd s a c ro s s t h e K r gko

6 4

T he A na ly s i so ft h eD a taba se p o l je a nd o n i n to n o r thwe s te rn C roa t ia . I td om ina te s t h e K riko p o l je a l ong w i th t h e s i te o fV e l ike Ma lence n ea r t h e K rka—Sava c onf luence . I tc on s i s t so f ah i l l s ide a nd c eme te ry o f 7 0 b a r rows ( Gu S i in 1 976 , 1 011 ) , b u t m uch o f t h e e xcava ted ma te r ia l i su n s t ra t if ied a nd o n ly 2 2 b a r row s c an b e e xam ined ( Chap te r 3 , S ec t ion 2 : 2a ) . T he p o s i t ion o f L ibna o nt h ee a s te rn e dge o ft h eD o len jska g r oup g ave r i se t o an umbe r o f p ecu l ia r i t ie s i nb u r ia l p r ac t ice i nc ompa r i son w i th t h es i t e si nt h em idd le K rka v a l ley ,G ro sup l je p o l je a nd B e la K ra j ina . I ti ss im i la r t oB okan j , w h ich i sa l so o n t h e i n te r f ace w i th t h eW ie s—Ma r t i janec g r oup . T he P odzeme l j 2p ha se b u r ia l s w e re f o und i n t h e s ma l l D e r ian iE b a r row s . T he re a r e n o d e ta i l s o fb u r ia l r i t e . T he f o u r g r ave s c on ta ined m e ta lwo rk . T he s i ng le i d en t if iab le g r ave i nt h e 1 892 D er ian iE b a r row I I g r ave ( Guk in 1 976 , 4 1 ,T .3 : 1 -10 ) w a s aw eapon sg r ave w i th a nu r n f ie ld s t y le i r on a xe a nd aw he t s tone . T he r ema in ing g r ave s a r ep a r to f t h e t y po log ica l ly f ema le g r oup w i th i r on o r namen t s a nd a V aC ek nobbed—bow f i bu la ( s ee C hap t e r2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 1d ) . K ege lha l sg efä sse i nt h e D e r iand b a r row s Ia nd H I ( Gu g t in 1 976 , T . 3 :1 ; T .34 :7 ) s ugge s t s t h a t t h e se c on ta ined c r ema t ion s . T he L jub l jana c e ram i c s e t i sr e ca l led b y t h e a s so c ia ted b ow l sa nd c up s . H oweve r ,t h et r an s i t iona ln a tu re o ft h e c e ram ic s e t s s how s i nt h ep r e sence o f af o o t ed v e s se l i n t h e 1 9 54 D er ian iC b a r row I ,g r ave 3 ( Guk in 1 976 , T . 12 :3 ) . T he S t iCna 1p ha se m a rked t h e e xpan s ion o fL ibna a si td i d a tS t ia ra , Magda len ska g o ra e t c . ( s ee a bove ) . T he g r ave , S p i le rb a r row 1 / 6( Guk in 1 976 ,T .8 ;T .9 ;T . 10 ) i sp a r to ft h e ' p r ince ly h o r izon 'i nt h is p ha se ,a nd t h es t ray f i nd o f a' P icene ' t y pe c ompo s i te h e lme t ( Guk in 1 9 76 , T .66 ) s u gge s t s t h a t a no the rg r ave o f t h i s t y pe w a s p r e sen t . T he re i s aw eapon s g r ave a l so i ng p i le rb a r row 1 .T he f o u rr ema in ing g r ave s a r e t y po log ica l ly f ema le ( Chap te r2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 1e ) . T he r e a r en o d e ta i l s o fb u r ia l r i te , a nd m o s t o ft h e g r ave s w e re f o und a s s i ng le g r ave s i nt h e D e r ian iC b a r row g r oup . H oweve r , t h e f i r s t g r ave s i nt h e S i pp enhüge l b a r row s , G logoi gek Ia nd P l an inc , d a te t ot h i s p ha se . T he m a in p ha se o fu s e o ft h e se b a r row sw a sl a te ri nt h eS e rpen t i fonn p ha se .

c e ram ic s e t i nt h e 1 954 D e rian iC "b a r row I ,g r ave 1( Gu§ t in 1 976 , T . 1 ; T . 1 2 :4 ) i sh oweve r m o re l i ke t h e H a l l s ta t t B f l a t c eme te ry a s semb lage s , u n l ike t h e E a r ly l i on A ge d r ink ing s e t s c ommon ly f o und a t L ibna a nd T h roughou t D o len jska . 3 : 1 1 Ü r z tome l j( Append ix 1 : 9 ) D e ta i l s o f s i te l o ca t ion , s i ze a nd e xcava t ion a r e g i ven i n C hap t e r3 ,s e c t ion 2 : 2a a nd s e c t ion 2 : 1f .E igh tb a r row s ,e ach o f w h ich c on ta ined b e tween t wo a nd f i ve g r ave s a r e c on s ide red h e r e( J .D u la r1 983 ,2 19144 ) . T he re i s as i ng le P odzeme l j 2g r ave a tt h e s i te ,g r ave 5 / 1 ( J . D u la r1 983 ,T . 1 0 ,3 -5 ) ,c on ta in ing ac r ema t ion i n ac i n e r a ry u r nw i th as ma l lK ege lha l sgefä s s .T h i sa s semb lage i ss im i la r t ot h o se i nt h e f l a t c eme te ry a t Me t l ika—Bo rkek ( s ec t ion 2 : 1d ,3 : 1c ) . T he S t iCna 1p ha se i st h e m a in p e r iod o fu se o ft h e s i te , a s w e l l a s l a s t . T he re w e re S t iEna 1p ha se g r ave s i na l l e i gh t b a r row s , at o ta lo f1 3g r ave s , a nd 1 7u nda ted o ru n fu rn ished g r ave s . I n huma t ion p r edom ina ted , c on t ra s t ing w i th t h e p r eced ing t wo p ha se s .F ou rr i ch w eapon sg r ave sw e re f o und , n o ted e spec ia l ly f o r t h e p r e sence o f i r on Maha i ra s wo rd s ( Guk in 1 974 , 7 7-94 ) . T he e l i te t y po log ica l ly f ema le g r ave 1 / 1 ( J .D u la r 1 983 , T1 ;T .2 ) 1 / 2( J .D u la r 1 983 ,T . 3 ; T .4 :14 ) a nd 2 / 1 ( J . D u la r 1 983 , T . 5 ) , w h ich c on ta ined b ronze a nd i r on a nn r ing s , a nk le r ing s , n eck r ing s a nd f i bu lae , a s w e l l a s t wo g o ld d i ad em s e t s , f o r e shadowed t h e S t icna 2 e l i te g r ave si nD o len jska ( Chap te r2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 1e ) . B a r row 2 h ad t h e l a rge s tm o r tua ry p opu la t ion ,b u tb a r row 1s t and so u t w i th t h et wo e l i te t y po log ica l ly f ema le g r ave s . T he c e ram ic a s semb lage i sp oo r ly p r e ser ved i na l l b u t f i ve c a se s . H oweve r , t h e p r e sen ce o f ' Apu l ian ' s t y le ha te r s i n g r ave s3 / 1 ( J .D u la r 1 983 , T -7 :5 )a nd 8 / 2( J . D u la r 1 983 ,T . 1 2 :3 )i si n te r e s t ing ,d eno t ing c on ta c tw i th t h eI t a l ian A d r ia t ic c oa s t( G logov iC 1 979 ,5 7-84 ) . 3 : 1m D raga tu g( Append ix 1 : 20 ) . T he l a rge b a r row a tV e l ik iN e ra jec n ea rD raga tu g i sl o ca ted i nf i e ld sn ea rt h eR ive rL ah in ja ,u p s t r eam a nd s ou th o fL oka n ea r 6. n ome l j ( Sp i tze r 1 973 , 7 85-786 ) . D e ta i l s o f e xcava t ion a r eg i ven i nC hap te r3 , s e c t ion 2 : 2a . 3 7o ft h e6 0 g r ave s c an b ed a ted t ot h e P od zeme l j 2a nd S t iCna 1p ha se s ( S p i tze r 1 973 ,7 80-830 ) .

T h e c e ram ic g rave g ood s w e r e d om ina ted b y s e t s o ff o o ted v e s se l s , b ow l s , a nd /o rc up s . t h e l a rge s t o fw h ich w a s i nt h e g r ave S p i le r1 / 6 .T h is i s at y p ica ld r ink ing s e t . T h e S t ia ra 2p ha se m o r tua ry p opu la t ion w a s s l igh t ly l a rge r w i th 1 5g r ave s . A ga in ,n od e ta i l so fb u r ia lr i t es u rv ive . 1 3o f t h e g r ave s c on ta ined u n typo log ica l ly f ema le a s semb lage s ( Chap te r 2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 1 f ) . T h r ee g r ave s a r e o u t s tand ing a nd c a n b e e qua t ed w i th t h e t y po log ica l ly f ema le h o r izon i n D o len jska . S p i le r 1 / 5 ( Gu s t in 1 976 . T .6 : 7 16 , T .7 ) i s p a r t icu la r ly n o tab le , a st h i sb a r row c on t inued t oc on ta in e l i te b u r ia l s . Many o f t h e g r ave s w e r e i nt h e D e r ian iC b a r row g r oup ,w h ich i sr e s t r ic ted t ot h i sp ha se ,b u tb u r ia l s i n c r ea sed i nt h eP lan in cb a r row .

T he re w e re 1 7g r ave s p r e sen t i nt h e P odzeme l j 2p ha se , a l l b u to ne o fw h ich w e r e i n huma t ion s . F ive g r ave s c on ta ined m e ta lwo rk , b u t n o w eapon s w e re f o und . G rave 5 6 ( Sp i t ze r 1 973 ,T . 15 :3-6 )w i th m u l t iheaded p i na nd i r on a rm— r ing ,a nd t h eo t he rg r ave s ,h ave a s semage s s im i la r t ot h eP odz eme l j 1 p ha se ( Chap te r2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 1c ) . T he c e ram ic w hee led h o r se i ng r ave 1( Sp i tze r 1 973 , T . 1 ) h a s n op a ra l le l s e l sewhe re i n t h eD o len jska g r oup .

T he e l i te g r ave p i le r1 / 5 c on ta ined t h e l a rges t c e ram ic s e t o ff o o ted v e s se ls , b ow l s a nd ab i con i ca l v e s se l , b u t a l l b u t t wo g r ave s w i th c e ram ic s c on ta ined f o o ted v e s se l s . T he

T he c e ram ic a s semb lage , l a rge b i con ica l u r n s , K ege lha l sgefä s se , b i con ica l a nd s phe r ica l v e s se l s a nd a s i tu la te v e s se l r ef l ec t t h e a s semb lage s i n t h e L jub l jana

6 5

I r on A ge i nS l ov en ia g r oup o ff l a tc eme te r ie s ( J . D u la r 1 982 , 2 12 , 2 15 ) , a l though t h ey a r e f o und w i th i n huma t ion s , n o tc r ema t ion s . Ad r ink ing s e t o f ab ow l a nd /o r ac up i sa l so p a r t o f t h i s s e t . T he a mpho ra i ng r ave 5 7 ( Sp i tze r 1 973 , T . 16 :1 ) i sa no the r a r cha i sm . F oo ted v e sse l s , an ew e l emen t , a r e r e la t ive ly c ommon . Twen ty g r ave s b e longed t ot h e S t iaa 1p ha se , a nd 1 3 o f t h e se c on ta ined m e ta l o b jec t s . O n ly o ne g r ave c on ta ined w eapon s , g r ave 1 0 w i th a n i r on Maha i ra ( Sp i tze r 1 973 , T .4 :2 ) [ s ee s e c t ion 3 : 11 ] .T h em a jo r i ty o f g r ave s c on ta ined t y po log ica l ly f ema le a s semb lage s o f a nn r ing s , n e c i c r ing s , f i bu lae , p endan t s , s p ind lewho r l sa nd g l a s sa nd a mb e rb ead s ( Chap te r 1 s e c t ion 2 : 1e ) . G rave 4 5 ( Sp i t ze r 1 973 , T . 1 9 ) c on ta ined t h e m o s t o b jec t s , b u t d oe s n o t c ompa r e w i th t h e g r ave sa tC i rome l j .

A g r oup o f 1 3 g r ave s c on ta ined f oo ted v e s se l s , u sua l ly u na ccompan ied , b u t o c ca s iona l ly c omb ined w i th b ow l s , d i she s o r b i con ica lv e s se l s .T h i sc omb ina t ion a l so a ppea red i ng r ave s w i th c i n e ra ry u r n s . C up s a nd b ow l s a l so o c cu r r ed i n d iv idua l ly . L inked w i th t h i s d r ink ing s e t w a s t h e s i ng le e xamp le o f a n ' Apu l ian ' s t y le k r a te r f r om t h e s i te ( s ee s e c t ion 3 : 11 ) . T he m o r tua ry p opu la t ion c on t rac ted i nt h eS t iaa 2p ha se a s d i d t h e n umb e r o f b a r row s , t wo o f w h ich c on ta ined t h r ee g r aves e a ch , t h e r ema in ing s i x c on ta ined t wo o r l e s s . T he e l i te w eapon sg r ave w i th h o r se— r id ing e qu ipmen t , S k r i l je 1 / 7 ( Ba r th 1 969 , 1 46-147 ) w a s a t yp ica l f o r t h i s p ha se i nt h e D o len jska g r oup a s aw ho le . L e s s w e l l f u rn i shed w eapon s g r ave s w e r e a l so f o und i nt h e b a r rows G rm Ia nd I . T he r ema in ing t e ng r ave sh ad t y po log ica l ly f ema le a s semb lage s , n one o f w h ich c ompa re s w i th t h e e l i te a s semb lage s i n D o len j ska ( Chap te r2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 10

T he c e ram ic s e t w a s n o t s t anda rd i sed . S i x g r ave s h ad f o o ted v e s se l s , e i the r a s so c ia ted w i th b ow l s , c up s o r b i con ica l v e s se l s ,o ru na ccompan ied . Af u r the rf o u rg r ave s c on ta ined ' Apu l ian ' s t y le l c r a te r s ( s ee s e c t ion 3 : 11 ) a c compan ied b yb ow l s , b i con ica l v e s se l so rc up s . A no the r g r oup c on s i s ted o f b i con ica l v e s se l s w i th b ow l s a nd c up s . B ow l s a nd c up s w e re m u tua l ly e xc lu s ive , b u t a ppa r en t ly p e r fo rmed af u nc t ion a sd r ink ing v e s se l s . T he s e t s h e re a r e t r an s i t iona l f r om a n u r n f ie ld t oE a r ly l i on A ge c e ram ic s e t , b u tt h ec on t inu i ty o f ad r ink ing c e remon ia lc an b eo b se r ved .

G rave S k r i l je 1 / 7 c on ta ined t h e l a rge s t c e ram ic s e t c ompo sed o ff o o ted v e s se l s , ab ow l a nd ab i con ica l v e sse l . T he o n ly s im i la rs e t , i nP odzeme l j X I /4 , w a sn o t a s soc ia ted w i th m e ta lwo rk . O therw i se f o o ted v e s se l s t e nded t o b e u nac compan ied , a nd s i ng le b ow l s , d i she s a nd b i con ica l v e s se l sa r ek nown . T h i ss e tw a sa l ready i nu s e i nt h er e s to f t h e D o len j ska g r oup , a nd b e came m o r e c ommon : t h e s u cceed ing p ha se s( Te r ian 1 980 ,3 43-352 ) .

3 :i n P odzeme l j( Append ix 1 : 8 ) .

3 : 2 g ta jer ska .

D e ta i l s o f s i te l o ca t ion , s i ze a nd e xcava t ion a r e g i ven i n s e c t ion 2 : le a nd C hap te r 3 , s e c t ion 2 : 2a . T he c eme te ry e xpanded i nt h eP odzeme l j 2p ha se . T he b a r row s P od zeme l j X I I I , XX I , XX I I , a nd XXX I w e r e f o unded i nt h i s p ha se , a l though n o g r ave s o f t h i s p ha se o ccu r r ed i nt h e b a r row s P odzeme l j I ,G rm I I , XXV I I I , XX IX a nd XXX . T he re w e r e t wo w eapon s g r ave s , w i th a xe a nd s p ea rr e spec t ive ly . T he r ema in ing g r ave s , w i th f i bu lae a nd i r on a nd /o r b r onze a r rn r ing s , a r e p a r t o f t h e t y po log ica l ly f ema le g r ave g r oup ( Chap te r2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 1d ) .

T h e o n ly s i te d i scu s sed h e r e i st h a t a tL egen i n S loven j G radec ( S t rmCn ik—Gu l iC ' 1 979 , 1 0 1-150 ) . T he o t he r E a r ly I r on A ge s i te s i n t h e r e g ion a r e u n su i tab le f o r a na ly s i s , b e cau se t h em a te r ia li sg ene ra l ly u n s t ra t if ied ( s ee C hap te r3 , s e c t ion 2 : 2b ) . A l lt h es i te si nt h ea r ea s e em t oe nd a tt h ee nd o ft h e s e ven th c e n tu ry B .C . o rb eg inn ing o ft h e s i x th c en tu ry B .C .( Pah ic 1 9 73 ,5 38-539 ) 3 : 2a L eg en n ea rS l oven jG radec ( Append ix 1 : 11 ) . T he b a r row c eme te ry o f L egen l i es b e low t h e G rad ik e h i l l fo r t ( S t rmCn ik—Gu l iC 1 979 , T .4 ) . D e ta i l s o f s i te s i z e a nd e xcava t ion a r eg i ven i nC hap te r3 ,s e c t ion 2 : 2b .

T he c e ram ic s e ti ng r ave so fP odzeme l j 2d a te w a ss im i la rt o L jub l jana g r oup c e ram ic a s semb lage s . C ine ra ry u r n s , a mpho rae a nd s ma l le sv e s se ls i nc omb ina t ion w i th b ow l sa nd c up s p r edom ina ted , f o o ted v e s se l s a ppea r ing i no n ly t wo g r ave s . T he a s semb lage i sr e la ted t ot h e L a te B ronze A ge d r ink ing s e t .

T h i r ty f o u r o f t h e t o ta l o f 7 8 b a r row s a r e a va i lab le f o r a na ly s i s . B u r ia l s e em s t o h ave c on s i s t ed o f ac r ema t ion u nde r ad r y s t one c hambe r i n t h e c en t r e o f t h e b a r row . D e ta i l s o fi n te rna l c h rono logy a r e p oo r , a l though t h e s i ng le H a l l s ta t t B 3 b a r row h a s b een d i scu ssed ( s ee s e c t ion 2 : 2a ) . T h e r e i sv e ry l i t t le m e ta lwo rk p r e sen t a nd t h e c e ram ic s a r e f r agmen ta ry a nd d amaged .

T he S t iena 1p ha se m a rked t h e g r ea te s t e xpan s ion o f t h e m o r tua ry p opu la t ion , at o ta lo f5 8g r ave si n1 7b a r row s . T he b a r row G rm Ih ad t h e h i ghe s t b u r ia l p opu la t ion w i th t e n g r ave s , t h ree o fw h ich c on ta ined w eapon s . Weapon sg r ave s a l so o ccu r red s i ng ly i nt h e b a r row s G rm I a nd XXV I I I a nd

T he p o t te ry i ss im i la r t ot h e K le in—K le in a s semb lage s a nd t h o se f r om o t h e r W ie s—Ma r t i janec g roup s i te s ( Pah ie 1 973 , 5 39 ) . Mo s t o f t h e g r ave s c on ta in ed o ne o r m o r e K ege lha l sge f ä s se ,w h ich s e rved a sc i ne ra ry u r n s .T he se w e r e o f ten a s so c ia t ed w i th b ow l s a nd /o r d i she s , h and led c up s , b a r r e l— shaped p o t s a nd f u nne l—necked v e sse l s . O n ly t wo f o o t ed v e s se l s a r ek nown . T h ese a s semb lage s a r e s im i la rt o t h e s ympo s ium s e t f o und i nt h e K a lende rbe rg g r oup a nd a t N ova K o ia r igka a nd d i s t ingu i shed b y T e ri-a n ( 1 980 , T . 3 ,

i n t h e t h ree S k r i l je b a r row s . T he r ema in ing 3 7 g r ave s c on ta ined t y po log ica l ly f ema le a s semb lage s ( s ee C hap te r 2 , s e c t ion 2 : 1e ) . H oweve r , i ft h i s w e r e ar e a l s e xua l d i cho tomy , t h en t h e re w a s am a rk ed i mba lanc ei nt h es e xua l r a t io o ft h o se d eemed f i tf o rb u r ia l . P robab ly s ome o ft h e se g r ave s r e p re sen t m a le i n d iv idua l s , p e rhap s o f l owe r s t a tu s , t h an t h o se i nt h ew eapon sg r ave s .

6 6

T he A na ly s i so ft h eD a taba se T .4 , 3 52 ) . T he se a r e d r ink ing s e t s , p robab ly b e long ing t o i n d iv idua l e l i te m embe r s , l i nk ing w i th c on sp icuou s f u ne ra ry monumen t s ,b a r row s . T he w eapon s s e t i n t h e K rama r g r ave i s p a r t icu la r ly i n te r e s t ing , a s i t i n c lud ed a Maha i ra o f B a sa rab i t y pe d e r ived u l t ima te ly f r om s ou th—we s te rn R uman ia ( F . S ta r 1 974 , 6 7-76 ; G uk in 1 974 b , 9 3 ; S t rmCn ik—Gu l iC 1 979 , T .19 :2 ) . I n deed t h i s i sa nu nu sua l ly w e l l— fu rn i shed g r ave o f t h is p e r iod . T he c eme t e ry w a s n o t u sed a f te r t h e e nd o ft h e H a l l s ta t t C p e r iod , t h e s ame p a t ter n f o u nd t h roughou t t h e W ie s— Ma r t i jan ec g roup .

g r oup s m ay r e p r e sen t as e r ie s o fc o rpo ra te d e scen t g roup s , at h eme t h a tw i l l b ef u r the rd eve loped i nC hap te r5 . T h e c e ram ic a s semb lage i sf r agmen ta ry a nd m ixed , b u t a b a s i s s ympo s ium s e tb a sed o n m u l t ip le s o fK ege lha lsge fä s s , b ow l /d i sh , c up , b a r r e l— shaped v e s se l a nd f oo ted—ve s se l c an b e d e tec ted . L a rge r s e t s a ppea r ed i nt h e r i che r g rave s l i ke O f enma che rwa ld 4 8 . H oweve r , i ti sa l so f ound i n g r ave s w i thou t m e ta lwo rk s u ch a s O f enmacherwa ld 2 3 D ob ia t 1 980 ,2 10-211 , T . 13 ; T . 14 : 1 -9 ) . T h i s s e t may b e ag r ea te r i n d ica to r o f s o c ia l s t a tu s t h an m e ta lwo rk . S ome K ege l ha l sge fä s se f u n c t ioned a s c i n e ra ry u rn s . D u r ing t h i s p ha se d e co ra t ive e l emen t s o r ig ina t ing i nt h e B a sa rab i g roup i n s ou thwe s ter n R oman ia w e r e a dop ted i n t h e c e ram ic d e co ra t ive r e pe r to i re a tt h es i te ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 1 32139 ) .

3 : 3 S ou th S t yr ia . T he t r an s i t iona l p ha se 2h a s as ma l le r mo r tua ry p opu la t ion t h an t h e p r eced ing p ha se , w i th o n ly 1 6 b a r row s . T he t wo w eapon s g r ave s d i d n o t c on ta in d r e s s p i n s , w h i l s t t h e t wo g r ave s w i th f i bu lae c on ta ined n or th I t a l ian— type f i bu lae , w h ich d a t e t ot h e S t i Cna 1p ha se i nD o len jska ( Chap te r 2 , s e c t ion 2 : 2e ) . T h r ee b a r rows ,c on ta in ing s p ind lewho r ls , a r e a l so c on s ide red t o r e p r e sen t f ema le b u r ia l s . H a l f t h e b a r row s h ad n o m e ta lwo rk b u t c on ta ined l a rge q uan t i t ie s o f c e ram ic s i ns e t s t h a t r e semb le t h e p r eced ing p ha se ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 1 68169 ) .

T he r e w a s a n i n c r ea se i n t h e n umbe r o f s i te s d u r ing t h e H a l l s ta t t Cp e r iod , p a r t icu la r ly m o r tua ry s i tes ( c hap te r 3 , s e c t ion 2 : 2 c ) . A ni n c r ea s ing n umb e ro fs e t t lemen t sh ave b een f ound t h roughou t S ty r ia , b u t t h e se a r e a s y e t i n comp le te ly k nown ( K rame r 1 981 , 1 73-184 ) . U n fo r tuna te ly o n ly t wo m o r tua ry s i te s a r e s u f f ic ien t ly w e l l r e co rded t o b e c on s ide r ed h e re , t h e K le in—K le in b a r row c eme te r ie s ( Dob ia t 1 980 ) a nd t h e S t r e t tweg b a r row n ea r J udenbu rg ( S chm id 1 934 ) . T h e S t re t tweg b a r row i s i nf a c t i n n o r th—we s ter n S ty r ia ,b u ti sp ar to ft h eW ie s—Ma rf i janec g roup . A f te r 6 00 B .C . t h e b a r row c eme te r ie s w e r e n o l o nge r u s ed , b u t n o c ompa rab le d e ta i l s a r e a va i lab le f o r t h e o ccupa t ion o f s e t t lemen ts i te s .

T he t h i rd p ha se i sc on tempo ra ry t ot h e S t iCna 2p ha se o ft h e D o len jska g r oup . O n ly 1 7 b a r row s c an b e d a ted t o t h i s p ha se , b u t a mong s t t h em a r e an umb e r o f s pec tacu la r e l i te b a r row b u r ia l s . T he se a r e t h e ' p r ince ly ' b a r row s o fK rö l l— S chm iedkog e l ( Dob ia t 1 980 , T . A 5 — T . A 9 ) a nd P omme rkoge l( Dob ia t 1 980 ,T .A 2 —T .A4 ) . T he b u r ia lr i te s a r e u nk nown , b u t t h e K rö l l—Schm iedkoge l c on ta ined a n e l abo ra te d r y s tone b u r ia l c hambe r . T he m e ta lwo rk a s semb lage s i n c luded w eapon s , s pea r s a nd a xe s , a nd l a rge n umbe r s o f b r on ze v e s se l s , am e ta l v e r s ion o f t h e c e ram ic s ympo s ium s e t . F ibu lae u sua l ly c on s ide r ed a s t y po log ica l ly f ema le g r ave g ood s a r e a l so f ound , s ugge s t ing t h a t t h e a s semb lage s a r em ixed ( Chap te r2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 20 . T he b ron ze d oub le— c re s ted h e lme t i nt h e K rö l l—Schm iedkoge l ( Dob ia t 1 980 , T .A 5 : 2 ) i s at y pe c ommon i nD o len jska i n t h e S e rpen t i fo rm o r C e r to sa p ha se s , b u t p robab ly d eve lop ed i n t h e S t iCna 2p ha se ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 1 70 ) . T he b ron ze c u i ra s se s i nt h e P omme rkoge l a nd K rö l l—Schm iedkoge l ( Dob ia t 1 980 , T .A 2 : 6 ; T .A 5 : 5 ) p a ra l le l t h e c u i ra s se s i nt h e p r ince ly g r ave s i nt h e S t icna 1c a se i nD o len jska ( Chap te r2 , s e c t ion 2 : 1e ) . F i na l ly ,t h eb r onze f a ce m a sk a nd h and s i nt h eK rö l l— S chm iedkoge l ( Dob ia t 1 980 , T .A 5 : 1 , 3 , 4 ) o n ly h ave p a ra l le l s i nt h e T r ebeng te b a r row c eme te ry o n t h e s ho re s o f L ake O h r id i nt h e R epub l ic o f Ma cedon ia ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 1 7 1 ) .

3 : 3a K le in—K le in ( Append ix 1 : 12 ) S i te l o ca t ion , s i ze a nd e xcava t ion h ave b een d i scu s sed i n s e c t ion 2 : 3a a nd i nC hap te r 3 ,s e c t ion 2 : 2c . T he b u lk o ft h e m a te r ia l f r om h e K le in—K le in b a r rows a ppea r s t o b e o f H a l ls ta t t Cd a te . T he m a in b u r ia l r i t e i so ne o f c r ema t ion , s ome t ime s i np i t s , i n l a ye r s o r u nde r s t one s e t t ing s o r d r y s ton e c hambe r s , a l l o fw h ich w e r ec ove red b y ab a r row . T he b a r row s u sua l ly c on ta ined s i ng le c r ema t ion s , b u t m u l ip le b a r row b u r ia l s a r e k nown a nd , d ue t o p oo r r e co rd ing , m ay b e m o re n ume rou s t h an i s n ow a ppa r en t ( Dob ia t 1 980 ,4 7-63 ) . P ha se 1 i sd a ted t o t h e Ha l l s ta t t B 3 a nd H a l l s ta t t C l p ha ses ( s ee s e c t ion 2 : 3a ) . I t h ad t h e l a rge s t mo r tua ry p opu la t ion o f a ny p ha se a tt h e s i t e w i th 4 2 b a r row s . T he e l i te g rave so fH a l l s ta t tB 3d a te h ave a l ready b een d i scu s sed ( s e c t ion 2 : 3a ) . T he r e i s ad i cho tomy a ppa ren t i nt h e f ew g r aves w i th m e ta l a r te fa c t s , b e twe en t h e g r ave s w i th a xe s , s p ea rhead s , k n ives , b e l t p a r t s a nd m u l t i—h eaded d r e s sp in s , a nd t h e g r ave s w i th f i bu lae , g l a s s a nd a mb e r b ead s a nd s p ind lewho r ls ( c hap te r 2 , s e c t ion 2 : 2d ) . O ne g r ave , O f enmache rwa ld 4 8 ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 2 13-214 , T . 2 0-22 ) , c on ta ined ab r onze d i sc h e lme t , t y pe c ommon a mong s t t h e D o len jska g r o up i n t h e P odzeme l j 2p ha se ( Chap te r 2 , s e c t ion 2 : 1d ) . T he t wo— looped k nobb ed—bow f i bu lae a r e o f s im i la r d a te ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 1 46 ) . S ome o f t h e b a r row s h ad m o r e t h an o ne b u r ia l , s o t h a t t h e a s semb lage s a r e m ixed . Mo s t g rave s c on ta ined o n ly c e ram i c s , o f ten i n l a rge q ua n t i t ie s ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 1 66-168 ) . T he v a r iou s b a r row

T he o t he r g r ave s e xh ib i t ad i cho tomy b e tween t h o se w i th s p ea r s ,a nd t h o se w i th f i bu lae a nd b ead s . O n ly t h r ee b a r row s h ad n o m e ta lwo rk i nt h e i r i n ven to r ie s . T he c e ram ic s e t s a r e v e ry s im i la r t ot h o se i nt h e p ha se 1b a r row s ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 1 69170 ) . A t l e a s t t e n b a r row s c on ta ined m u l t ip le b u r ia l s , a nd m ay e ven h ave b een a r ranged o n aS ippenhüge lp r inc ip le , w i th c on cen t r ic r i ng s o f b u r ia l . T h is p ha se c on ta ined t h e m o s th i gh ly r a nked g r ave s i nt h ec eme t e ry . A f te rt h i s p ha se

6 7

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia t h ec eme te ry c ea sed t ob eu s ed ( Dob ia t 1 9 80 , 1 20 ) . 3 : 3b S t re t tweg . E xcava t ion d e ta i l s a r eg i ven i nC hap te r3 ,s e c t ion 2 : 2c . T he b a r row w a s s i tua ted n ea rt h e t own o fJ udenbu rg i nt h e Mu r v a l ley ,n o r th-we s to ft h eG ra zb a s in . I ta ppa r en t ly c on ta ined as i ng le c r ema t ion u nde r ac en t ra l r u bb le m ound . I nm any r e spec t s t h e a s semb lage i ss im i la rt ot h e P omme rkoge l a nd K rö l l-Schm iedkoge l b a r row s a tK le in-K le in ( s ec t ion 3 : 3a ) c on ta in ing at y p ica l S ou th E a s tA lp ine w eapon s e t , w i th a n a xe , a tl e a s t o ne b e l t s e t , ag o ld h a i rr ing , g o ld a nd a mbe r b ead s , t we lve b r onze v e s se l s , h o r ser id ing e qu ipmen t a nd m o s t n o tab ly a b r onze ' Ku l twagen ' ( S chm id 1 9 34 ) . T he ' Ku l twagen 'w a sw rong ly r e con s t ruc ted a nd i sm ade u po ft h e p a r t s o f t wo b r onze m ode l w agon s ( Tomed i , p e r s . c omm . ) . E a r l ie r e xcava to r s r e co rded t h e p r e sence o f af u l ls ized w agon ,a l though t h i s i sn o tm en t ioned b yS chm id . T he se t wo e l emen t s t o ge the r w i th t h e b r on ze v e s se l s s ugge s t t h a t t h e s i te h ad s t rong l i nk s w i th n o r ther n I t a ly , p a r t icu la r ly t h e G o la secca c u l tu re ( Pa r e ,p e r s . c omm . ) . T h i s i sr e in fo r ced b y t h e p r e sen ce o fb l ack a nd r e d p a in ted w a r e , w h ich m ay b e r e la ted t oE s te c e ram ic s .

4 .

T he H a l l s ta t t Da nd e ar ly L aT ene P er iod s . 4 : 1 D o len jska .

T h is s e c t ion d ea ls w i th t h e S e rpen t ifo rm , C e r to sa , E a r ly N egova a nd L a te N egova p ha se so ft h eD o len j ska g r oup ( s ee C hap te r 2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 1g ; 2 : 1h ; 2 : 1 i , 2 : 1 j ) . F la t c eme te r ie s w e re n o l o nge r i n u s e e xcep t a t L jub l jana . B a r row c eme te r ie se xpanded i nt h eD o len jska b u tc on t rac ted i nB e la k r a j ina a nd t h e S i ppenhüge l b u r ia l r i t e b ecame p r eva len t t h roughou tt h er e g ion .T he D o len jska g r oup w a sr e p la ced b y t h e i n t ru s ive L a T en e C Mok ronog g r oup a tt h e e nd o ft h e f o u r th c en tu ry B .C .( Gab rovec 1 966 ,4 4 ) .

( Hencken 1 978 , 2 5-26 , F ig . 8 4 , F ig . 8 5 , F i g . 8 6 ) , I / 19a ( Hencken 1 978 , 1 5 ,F i g . 2 9 )a nd V I I 139 ( H enck en 1 978 ,5 8 , F ig . 2 58 , F i g . 2 59 ) c on ta ined w eapon s s e t s o f a xe s a nd s p ea r s , p l u s h o r ser id ing e qu ipmen t . T he d oub le-c r e s ted b r on ze h e lme t i ng r ave V I I /39 , i su sua l ly at y p ec on s id e red b yT er ian ( 1 976 ,4 37 )t ol i e ma in ly w i th in t h eC e r to sa p ha se , b u t t h e a b sence o f C e r to sa f i bu la e a nd t h e p r e sence o f a v a r ie ty o f s e rpen t i f o rm f i bu lae s ugge s t a d a te i n t h e S e rpen t i fo rm p ha se . T he h o r se b i t i n g rave V I I / 139 i sa n o l de rT h raco-C imme r ian t y p e ,w h i l s t t h eh o r se b i t i ng r ave I / 19a i s a' S cy th ian 't y pe . T he se g r ave s a r ep robab ly l a te i n t h e S e rpent i fo rm h o r izon . T h e o t he r w eapon s g r ave s c on ta ined t h en o rma ls e to fa xe s ,s p ea rhead s ,k n ive s a nd b e l t s e t s , a s w e l l a s f i bu lae , w h ich o ccu r red i nt y po log ica l ly m a le a nd f ema le g r ave s .T ypo log ica l ly f ema le g r ave s w e re c ommon , b u td i dn o t c ompa r e w i th t h ee l i te g r ave s o ft h e S t iena 2p ha se ( Chap te r2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 1g ) . An ew a r te f ac t i n t h e se g r ave s i st h e c y l ind r ica l b r onze s h ee t e a r r ing ( T er ian 1 981 , 6 61 ) . B a r row I V s e em s t o h ave c on ta ined t h e d om inan t g r oup i n t h i s p ha se w i th t h e l a rge r m o r tua ry p opu la t ion , a nd a n e l i te g r ave . T he b u r ia l s i te w a s p r edom inan t ly o ne o fi n huma t ion , a r ranged i n' S ippenhüge l ' b a r row s . T h i s s t y le o f b a r row b u r ia l , o r ig ina t ing i n t h e C en t ra l B a lkan s , r e p re sen t s b u r ia ls o f c o rpo ra te d e scen t g r oup s ,a nd a ppea r ed p e rhap s a se a r ly a st h eS t ie 'na 1p ha se o ns ome s i te s( Gab rovec 1 980 ,4 4 ) . B u r ia l sw e re a r ranged i n c on cen t r ic r i ng s a nd t h e b a r row s w e r e u s ed o ve r al o ng p e r iod o ft i me . I tw a s c l ea r ly t h ed om inan tb u r ia l r i t ei nt h e D o len jska g r oup b y t h e S t iena 2 o r S e rpen t i fo rm p ha se , a l a ck o fg r ave p l an s a nd t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t e a r l ie r b a r row s m ay h ave b een r emode l led i n to ' S ipp enhüge l ' m ake s i t d i f f icu l t t oi s o la te t h e e xac t d a te o f i t s a dop t ion a tm any s i te s . T he c e ram ic a s semb lage w a s p oo r , p o t te ry b e ing f o und i no n ly s e ven g r ave s . I ti sl i ke ly t h a t m uch w a s l o s t d u r ing e xcava t ion . T h ed om inan t s e ti so ne o f af o o ted v e s se l a nd b ow l /d i sh , t h e d r ink ing s e t c ommon i nD o len jska d own t o t h eN egova p ha se s( Ter ian 1 980 ,3 51-352 ) .

4 :1a L jub l jana ( Append ix 1 : 1) . T he m o r tua ry p opu la t ion w a s l a rge s t i nt h e C e r to sa p ha se . 5 7 g r ave s w e r e p r e sen t o n t h e s i te , 2 o f w h ich c on ta ined w epon so rb e l tf i t s . F ibu lae o c cu r red i nt h e se g rave sa nd t h e t y po log ica l ly f ema le g r ave s( Chap te r2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 1h ) . G rave I V /30 ( Henck en 1 9 78 , 2 2 , F i g . 6 9 ) w i th ah o r se b i t i st h e o n ly e l i te g r av ei nt h i sp ha se .

D e ta i l s o f s i te l o ca t ion , l a you ta nd e xcava t ion a r eg i ven i n s e c t ion 1 :l a a nd C hap te r 3 ,s e c t ion 2 : 1a . T he re w e r e o n ly t wo g r ave s i n t h e f i na l p ha se , t h e C e r to sa p ha se , a t L jub l jana . B o th w e r e f l a t c r ema t ion g r ave s , a nd c on ta ined C e r to sa f i bu lae . T he c e ram ic a s semb lage i sf r agmen ta ry , b u t f oo ted s i tu la te v e s se l s w e r e u s ed a sc i ne ra ry u r n s ( Pu g 1 982 , 1 20 ) . T he s i te h ad l a rge ly b een s upe r seded b y t h e b a r row c eme te r ie s i nw e s ter nD o len j ska i nt h i s l a s t p e r iod o fu se .

Weapon s g r a ve s w e re u neven ly d i st r ibu ted a mong s t t h e b a r row s .B a r row Ih ad n ow eapon sg r ave s ,a nd b a r row X h ad t h e h i ghe s t n umb e r o f b u r ia l s , b u t t h e s ame n umbe r o f w eapon s g r ave s a s b a r row I V . T h e se t wo b a r row s p r e sen ted t h ed om inan tg r oup s o nt h es i t e . T he p oo rc e ram ic a s semb lage w a sd om ina t ed b ys i ng le f o o t ed v e sse l s .

4 :l b Magda len ska g ora ( Append ix 1 : 13 ) . T he s i te l o ca t ion , s i ze a nd e xcava t ion sh ave b een d i scu s sed i ns e c t ion 3 : 1d a nd C hap te r3 ,s e c t ion 2 : 2a .

T he E a r ly N egova p ha se g r aves w e re l e s sn ume rou s , b u t p r e sen t i na l t h e b a r row s o n t h e s i t e . T he re w e r e f i ve e l i te w eapon sg r av e s ,V /1 9-20 ( Hencken 1 978 ,3 3-34 ,F ig . 1 2 5 ) , V /26a ( Hen cken 1 978 , 3 5 , F ig . 1 30-132 ) , V /29 ( Hencken 1 978 ,3 6-37 ,F i g . 1 3 5 ,F ig . 1 47 ) ,V /6-7-7a ( Hen ck en 1 978 , 3 0-31 , F i g . 1 0 8-F ig . 12 ) a nd I V / 32 ( Hencken 1 978 , 2 3 , F ig . 7 2 , F i g . 7 3 ) . T he se c on ta ined t h e n o rma l w eapon s s e t ,

T he S e rpen t if o rm ,C e r to sa ,a nd N egova p ha se sr e p r e sen tt h e h eyday o ft h e Magda len ska g o ra b a r row c eme te ry . T he S e rp en t i fo rm p ha se w a s r e p r e sen ted i ns i x o f t h e t e n b a r row s c on s ide r ed . T he e l i te w eapon s g r ave s I V /43

6 8

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Map 8 .

S e rpen t ifo r rn a nd C e r to sa P ha s e B a r row C em e t e r ie sa nd F l a tC em e te r ie s i nD o len j s l ca a nd S 't a je r sk a : 1 .L jub l jana 2 . Magda len ska g o ra 3 .S t iCna 4 .

V aZe 5 .D o len j ske T op l ic e6 .N ovo m e s to—Ka nd i ja 7 .B ru sn ice 8 .B r ez je n ea rT r eb e lno 9 . gma r je ta 1 0 .B o i t an j 1 .V o le ' je n j ive 1 2 .L ibna 1 3 .V e l ike Ma lence 1 4 .P odzem e l j2 5 .R ifn i l cn ea rS • e tn ju r .

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N egova P ha se B a r row C em e ter ie sa nd F l a tC em e t e r ie si nD o len j sk a : 1 . Magda len s l ca g o ra 2 .V aC e3 .D o len j sk e T op l ic e4 .N ovo m e s to—Kand i ja 5 .

B r ez je n ea rT r eb e lno 6 . gma r je ta 7 .L ibna 8 .P odz em e l j .

6 9

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia p l u s h o r se b u r ia l s a nd ' S cy th ian ' h o r se— r id ing e qu ipmen t , b r on ze N egova h e lme t s , a nd b r on ze v e s se l s ,c au ld ron s , c i s ta c o rdon ia nd s i tu lae ,o f ten d eco ra t ed i nt h e' S i tu la A r t 's t y le . E a r ly l aT ene s wo rd sa l so o c cu r r ed i nt h ree o ft h eg r ave sa nd p robab ly c ame f r om t h eN o r th A lp ine f o r e land ( Te rian 1 981 , 6 61-662 ) .T he b r onze v e s se l sf o rm c e r emon ia ld r ink ing s e t s , i l u st ra ted i ns i tu la a r t( K rome r1 980 ,F ig .9 ) . P a i r ed f i bu lae a nd t y po log ica l ly f ema le a r tef ac t s a l so o c cu r r ed . E leven o f t h e r ema in ing g r ave s w e r e w eapon s g r ave s , f o und i n b a r row s I V , V I , V I I , V I I I a nd X . T ypo log ica l ly f ema le g r ave s w e r e f o und i na l l t h e b a r row s a nd c omp r i sed a bou t 5 0% o f t h e t o ta l m o r tua ry p opu la t ion ( Chap te r 2 , s e c t ion 2 : 1 i ) . B a r row V r e p r e sen ted t h e d om inan t g r oup a l ong w i th b a r row s I V a nd X . T he c e ram ic i n ven to ry i ss c a r ce , ac up i n g r ave I V / 32 a nd a f o o ted v e s se l i ng r ave V I /42 ( Hencken 1 978 ,f i g . 2 16 b ) , w h ich m ay b ep a r to f ac e ram ic v e r s ion o f t h eb r on ze v e s se ld r ink ing s e t . T he r e w e re 4 3 L a te N egova p ha se g r ave s . T he n umbe r o f w eapon s g r ave s i n c r ea sed a nd f o rmed t h e m a jo r i ty o f g r ave s i n a l l b a r row s e xcep t b a r row I w i th t wo t y po log ica l ly f ema le g r ave s a nd b a r row I ,w h ich h ad n o g r ave so ft h i sd a te . T he a xe t y pe i nt h e w eapon ss e tc hanged s o t h a t ao ne— s ided w inged o r s ha f t—ho le a xe a nd as i ng le s p ea r w a s n ow m o re c ommon t h an as o cke ted a xe a nd t wo s p ea r s ( Chap t e r 2 , s e c t ion 2 : 1 j ) . T he l a rge s t m o r tua ry p opu la t ion s w e re i nb a r row s Va nd V I I , w h ich m ay h ave r e p re sen ted t h ed om inan tg r oup s ,a l though b a r row sI Va nd X c on ta ined o n ly w eapon s g r ave s . T he i n f luen ce o f C en t ra l E u rope c an b es e en i nt h e i n c rea se o fL aT ene B f o rm s s u ch a sK oppe l r inge a nd o penwo rk b e l thook s ,a nd i nt h ef i bu la s e t a nd a rm r ing s ( T edan 1 976 , 4 40-442 ; 1 981 , 6 62 ) . I th a s b een a r gued t h a t t h e i n c r ea se i nw eapon s g r ave s t h roughou t t h eS ou th E a s tA lp ine r e g ion a tt h i st i me w a s ar e spon se t o a' C e l t ic t h r ea t ' ( Te r ian 1 977 , 9 -21 ) a nd t h e l a ck o fe l i te g r ave sm ay b ec onnec ted w i th t h i s( s ee C hap te r5 ) .C e r ta in ly t h i si st h ef i na lp ha se o ft h e Magda len ska g o ra c eme te ry .

b a r row a nd b a r row I( Na rodn im uze j ) [ Gab rove c 1 974 , 1 631 87 ; We l l s 1 981 ] . T ypo log ica l ly f ema le g r ave s w e re a l so w e l l f u rn i shed c on ta in ing s e rpen t ifo r rn f i bu la e , h a i r r ing s , c y l ind r ica l b r on ze e a r r ing s , b ead b ronz e a rm— a nd a n lde r ing s , l a rge n umb e r s o fb r on ze b u t ton s a nd g l a s s a nd a mb e r b ead s ( Chap t e r 2 , s e c t ion 2 : 1g ) . T h e se g r ave s s t i l l m ade u p t h e m a jo r i ty o f t h e m o r tua ry p opu la t ion . T he a ppa r en t ly p a ramoun t g roup s w e r e r ep r e sen ted b y t h e b u r ia l si nb a r row sI Va nd V I . T he m a jo r i ty o f g r ave s w i th p o t te ry c o n ta in ed f oo ted v e s se l s , i n s ome c a se s a s soc ia ted w i th b ow l s o r d i she s a nd /o r ab i con ica lv e s se l . B icon ica lv e sse ls a l so f o rmed s e t s w i th b ow l s a nd d i she s . G rave s w i th b ronze v e s se ls t e nded n o t t o p roduce p o t te ry , a nd t h e e l i te g rav e I V / 16 (We l l s 1 981 ,5 0-59 ,F ig .7 0 )c on ta ined as e to ff ou rf o o ted v e s se l s . E s te s t y le f o o ted s i tu la e , w h ich f i r s ta ppea r ed i nt h eS t ia ra 2p ha se , w e r e c ommon i nt h i s p ha se ( J . D u la r 1 982 , 1 881 89 ) . E l i te b u r ia l s i n c r ea sed i nt h e C e r to sa p ha se , a nd w e r e f o und i nb a r row s I ,I , I V , V I I I a nd b a r row 1 ( Na rodn i m uze j ) . T he e l i t e s e tw a ss im i la rt ot h e S e rp en t i fo rm p ha se e xamp le s w i th t h e a dd i t ion o f f i gu ra l ly d e co ra ted b ron ze s i tu lae , s h ow ing s c ene s o f f e a s t ing a nd e l i te c ompe t i t ion . T he se w e re u l t ima t e ly d e r ived f r om t h eE s t eg r oup , b u tw e r e p robab ly l o ca l ly m ade a nd d ep ic t f o rm s o f p r e s t ige c ompe t i t ion o f l o ca l o r ig in ( Chap te r 2 , s e c t ion 2 : 1h ) . T he e a r l ie r I t a l ian t y pe N egova b r onze h e lme t s w e re f o und i n t h i sp ha se i nt h eN a rodn im uze jg r ave 1 / 104 ( Gab rovec 1 965 , F i g .! ) . O rd ina ry w eapon s g r ave s w e re f o und i nb a r row I V a nd t h e V a s P ee b a r row . F i f teen t y po log ica l ly f ema le g r ave sw e r eu n even ly d i s t r ibu ted a mong s tt h e b a r row s , t h e m a jo r i ty b e ing i n t h e m o s t p opu lou s b a r row I V , a nd i n b a r row I a nd b a r row 1( Na rodn im uze j ) .

T he s ma l l c e ram ic a s semb lage c on ta ined f o o ted v e s se l s a nd b i con ica lv e s se l s . H oweve r ,o n ly o ne c a se o f af o o t ed v e s se l i na soc ia t ion w i th a c up i sk nown , t h e l a s t v e s t ige o f t h e d r ink ing s e t .

T he re w e r e A d r ia t ic G r eek v e s se l s i nt h e e l i t e g rave s 1 /7 ( We l l s 1 981 , 5 1-52 ) a nd I V /47 (We l ls 1 9 81 , 6 6 ) . B o th o f t h e se v e s se l s , ak y l ia a nd ar h y ton r e spec t ive ly , w ou ld h ave f i t t ed i nw i th t h e n o rma l d r ink ing s e t o fb ow l s a nd f o o ted v e s se l s o r b i con ica l v e s se l s . F oo ted b i con ica l v esse l s a l so o ccu r r ed s i ng ly .

4 :l c S t i aa .( Append ix 1 : 14 ) .

4 : 1d V aC e( Append ix 1 : 10 ) .

D e ta i l s o f s i t e l o ca t ion , s i ze a nd e xcava t ion a r e g i ven i n s e c t ion 3 : le a nd C hap te r 3 , s e c t ion 2 : 2a . T he b e s t d o cumen ted e xamp le s o f' S ippenhüge l ' b a r row s h ave b een e xcava ted a tS t iCna ( Gab rovec 1 974 , 1 68-169 ; 1 980 , 4 3 ) . A l though t h ey m ay h ave b egun i nt h e S t iCna 1p ha se , t h e m a jo r i ty o ft h e c l ea r ly a r ranged g r ave s d a te t ot h e S t icna 2 o rS e rpen t i fo rm p ha se s . T he S t iCna m o r tua ry c omp lex w a s a ti t sh e igh td u r ing t h eS e rp en t ifo rm a nd C e r to sa p ha se s ,b u t w a sn o tu s ed a f te rt h i s( Te r ian ,p e r s .c omm . ) .

T he d e ta i l s o f s i t e l o ca t ion a nd e xcava t ion a r e g i ven i n s e c t ion 2 : 1g , a nd C hap t e r 3 , s e c t ion 2 : 2a . ' S ippenhüge l ' b a r row s d i d n o t f o rm p a r t o f t h e V aCe m o r tua ry c omp lex . F i ve o ft h eS e rp en t ifo rm p ha se g r aves w e r e f o und i nt h ef l a t c eme te r ie so fA pno a nd K len ik ( F . S ta r e 1 9 55 ,7 2-125 ) ,a nd t h et wo g r ave si nt h eb a r row sf r om t h eA s luno lean c o l le c t ion h ave n o s u r v iv ing p l an s . T he se t wo g r ave s ,A shmo lean I / 1 a nd I 1 / 1 w e r ew eapon sg r ave s . T he f l a tg r ave sa l lc on ta ined t y po log ica l ly f ema le a s semb lage s o f t h e S t iCna 2 p ha se ( Chap te r2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 1f ) . T he o r ig ina l c e ram ic a s semb lage s h ave l a rge ly b e en l o s t .

N ine o f t h e t we lve b a r row s c on ta ined S e rpen t i fo rm p ha se g r ave s . E l i te g r ave s w e r e p r e sen t i nb a r row s I V , Va nd V I a nd c on ta ined t h e n o rma l w eapon s s e t w i th t h e a dd i t ion o f ' S cy th ian ' s t y le h o r se— r id ing e qu ipmen t , b r onze v e s se l s , r o a s t ing s p i t sa nd b r on ze d oub le—c re s ted h e lme t s . L e s sw e l l f u rn i shed w eapon s g r ave s h ave b een f o und i nt h e V a s V i r

T he m o r tua ry p opu la t ion w a s o n ly s l i gh t ly l a rge r i n t h e C e r to sa p ha se , b u t e l i te a s semb lage s h ave b een f o und i n A s luno lean b a r row s Ia nd I I a nd i n t h e K len ik f l a t c eme te ry . B a s ic w eapon s g rave s w e r e a l so f o und i n

7 0

T he A na lys i so ft h e Da tabase A shmo lean b a r row I I a nd t h e K len ik f l a t c eme tery . T he b a r row g raves , R ayne n j ive A / 1 ( F . S ta r e 1 955a , 1 28 , P la te 9 : 15 ) c on ta ined t r i loba te a r rowhead s , w h ich a r e a' S cy th ian ' t ype , p a ra l le led b y t h e ' S cy th ian ' h o r se b i t i n A shmo lean g rave I I / 1 . T he r ema in ing g raves c on ta ined C er to sa f i bu lae , g l a s s a nd ambe r b ead s a nd c e ram ic s ( Chap te r 2 , s e c t ion 2 : 1h ) . T he p o t tery , w he re p re served , f o rmed s e t s s im i la r t o t h o se e l sewhe re i nt h eD o len jska g roup . T he g r aves o f t h e E a r ly N egova p ha se w e re s im i la r i n n umbe rt ot h ep reced ing t wo p ha se s . T he o n ly e l i te w eapon s g rave w a s f ound i nt h e K len ik f l a tc eme tery ( F . S ta re 1 955a , 7 2 ) . Weapon s g raves o cu r red i nA shmo lean b a r row s I I a nd I V , a nd i n t h e Apno f l a t c eme te ry . T ypo log ica l ly f ema le g rave s w e re n ow i n am ino r i ty , a nd w e re o n ly f ound i n b a r row I I a nd t h e A pno a nd K len ik f l a t c eme te r ies . P o t te ry i sv i r tua l ly a bsen t .

Mo s t o f t h e g rave s c on ta ined p o t tery . T he l a rges t c e ram ic a s semb lage w a s i nw eapon s g rave 1 /35 ( Ter ian 1 976 , 3 98 ) a nd c on s is ted o f a f oo ted v es se l , d i sh , c up a nd b i con ica l v e sse l . Many g rave s c on ta ined a s i ng le f oo ted v esse l o r b i con ica lv e sse l s a l though t h e se w e re s ome t imes a s soc ia ted w i th b ow l s a nd /o r d i she s a nd c up s . T he l a t te r t h ree v esse l t ype s s eem t oh ave f u lf i l led t h e s ame f unc t ion a s d r ink ing v e sse l s . T he se d r ink ing s e t s o ccu r red i na l lg rave s r ega rd less o fm e ta lwo rk a s semb lage . T he

mor tua ry

p opu la t ion

d ec l ined i n t h e E a r ly N egova

p ha se . B a r row s V I , V I I , V I I I„ I X a nd X I w e re w i thou t g rave s o f t h is d a te , a l though t h e n ew b a r rows I , I I , V . X I I I a nd XV I w e re f ounded i nt h i s t ime . Weapon s g rave s made u p o ve r h a lf o f t h e g rave n umbe r s a nd d om ina ted a l l t h e b a r row s e xcep t b a r row I , w h ich w a s w i thou t w eapon s g raves . B a r row V r ep re sen ted t h e d om inan t g roup i n t h is p ha se w i th f ou r e l i te w eapon s b u r ia l s w i th b ronze v esse l s

T he L a te N egova p ha se h ad n o e l i te g rave s i nc ommon w i th t h e r e s t o f t h e D o len jska g roup . F ive w eapon s g rave s a r e k nown f r om t h e A pno f l a t c eme tery a nd R ayne n j ive b a r row A . T ypo log ica l ly f ema le g rave s o ccu r red i n t h e f l a t c eme te r ies . C eram ics a r ea ga in m is s ing .

a nd r oa s t ing s p i t s . No h o r se r i d ing e qu ipmen t w a s f ound . T he f i r s t L aT ene m a te r ia l m ade i t s a ppea rance i nt h is p hase i n t h e f o rm o f ' Koppe lr inge ' b e l t p a r ts a nd o penwo rk b e l thook s i nw eapon sg r ave s ( Ter ian 1 976 ,4 39-440 ) .

T he E a r ly I r on A ge mor tua ry a nd s e t t lemen t c omp lex o f

F oo ted v e sse ls a nd b i con ica l v e sse ls w e re t h e mo s tc ommon c e ram ic t ype s , w h i l s t s e t s w i th b ow l a nd /o r d i sh a nd c up w e re l e ss c ommon . B ronze v es se ls a nd c e ram ic v e sse ls w e re

D o len jske T op l ice i s s i tua ted n ea r t h e c on f luence o f t h e

m u tua l ly e xc lu s ive .

4 : le Do len jske T op l ice ( Append ix 1 : 21) .

C ' rmo kin j iC ica s t ream a nd t h e K rka , w es to ft h e t own o f Novo m e s to . T he C v inge r s e t t lemen t i s l o ca ted o n a h i l l , s u r rounded o n t h ree s i des b y t h e R adeica a nd S t rica s t ream s a nd t h e r i ve r K rka . T he b a r rows a r e f ound i nt wo g roup s , n o r th a nd s ou th o f t h e h i l l f o r t ( Te r ian 1 976 , 4 43 ) . D e ta i ls o f t h e e xcava t ion o f t h e 1 7 b a r row s a r e g i ven i n C hap te r 3 , s ec t ion 2 : 2a . a na ly s i s .

1 3 b a r row s a r e a va i lab le f o r

B ur ia l b egan a t t h e s t a r t o f t h e C er to sa p ha se , a nd g rave s

T he n umbe ro f g rave s i n c rea sed i nt h e L a te N egova p ha se , b e ing f ound i nt e n b a r rows , i n c lud ing b a r rows V I I I a nd X I . Weapon s g rave s p r edom ina ted i n a l l t h e b a r row s . T he w epon s s e t c hanged s l igh t ly t o o ne s i de w inged a xe s a nd s i ng le s pea r s , af a sh ion f ound i nt h e n or thwe s te rn A lp s i nt h e e a r ly L a T ene p er iod . T ypo log ica l ly f ema le g rave a l so c on ta ined L a T ene— in f luenced a r tefac t s s uch a s r i ve ted t e rm ina l a r rnr ing s a nd i r on f i bu lae , b u t p a t te rned o n l o ca l f o rms ( Te rian 1 976 , 4 40-441) . B a r row V w a s a ga in

o ft h is p ha se o ccu r red i ne i gh t o ft h e b a r row s . T h is w a s t h e l a rge s t m o r tua ry p opu la t ion d u r ing t h e s i te ' s u se . T he d i cho tomy b e tween t ypo log ica l ly m a le a nd f ema le g rave s i sf ound h e re a s i nt h e r e s t o ft h e D o len jska g roup ( Chap te r 2 ,s ec t ion 2 : 1h ) . Two e l i te g rave s c an b e i s o la ted f r om t h e w eapon s gave g roup , g rave s 1 /23 ( Te rian 1 976 , 3 98 , T1 , T . 1 2 ) a nd V 1 1 /5 ( Ter ian 1 976 , 4 04 , T .31 :3 ) . G rave 1 /23 i s

r ep re sen ta t ive o f t h e d om inan t g roup . T he c e ram ic s e t w a s

mos t n o tab le d ue t ot h e p re sence o fh o r se r i d ing e qu ipmen t , a nd af i gu ra ld eco ra ted b ronze s i tu la . G rave V I I /5 i sa ne a r ly g rave a s i si n d ica ted b y t h e p resence o f ab ron ze d oub le— c r es ted h e lme t ( Ter ian 1 976 , 4 39 ) . T he r ema in ing w eapon s

s i tua ted s ou th o ft h e Ma ro f h i l l f o r t a nd c on ta ined t wo e l i te w eapon s g raves . Ma lenkk g rave 1i sn o tab le f o r t h e h o r se

s im i la ri na l lr e spec t s t ot h o se o ft h ep reced ing p ha ses . 4 : 1f N ovo m e s to ( Append ix 1 : 15 ) D e ta i l s o f e xcava t ion a nd s i te l a you t a r e g i ven i n s ec t ion 3 : 1g a nd C hap te r 3 ,s e c t ion 2 : 2a . T he Ma lenkk b a r row w a s

g raves c on ta ined as ocke ted a xe a nd /o rt wo s pea r s , a nd k n if e

b i t w h ich i ss im i la r t of i nd s a tS e s to C a lende , a Go la secca s i te i nL omba rdy ( Guä in a nd T e r ian 1 977 , 7 7-89 , T .1—T .2 ; D ehn 1 980 , 3 26 ) . T he a r chery e qu ipmen t i n Ma lenkk g rave

a nd b e l t s e t , a nd r a re ly a ny t ypo log ica l ly f ema le a r tefac t s . No w eapon s g raves w e re f ound i n b a r row s V I I I a nd X I I .

p robab ly d er ived f r om t h e S zen tes—Veke rzug g roup .

2( Guk in a nd T e r ian 1 977 , T .3 ) i so f ' S cy th ian ' t ype a nd

T here w e r e 2 5 t ypo log ica l ly f ema le g r ave s t h roughou t t h e c eme tery c ompa red t o 1 8 w eapon s g r aves . T ypo log ica l ly f ema le g r aves c on ta ined a n i d ea l a s semb lage o f C e r to sa f i bu lae , e a r r ings , a nn r ing s , g la s s a nd a mbe r b ead s a nd

T he t wo S e rpen t ifo rm p ha se g rave s i n t h e K and i ja b a r row w e r e l e s s w e l l f u rn i shed , a nd h ad t ypo log ica l ly f ema le a s semb lage s ( Gab rovec 1 968 , 1 63-164 , T .6 ) . T he p o t tery a s semb lage w a s c ompo sed o f f oo ted v esse ls , b ow l s a nd d i she s , i nc ommon w i th t h er e s to ft h e D o len jska g roup .

s p ind lewho r l s . F ibu lae w e re c ommon t ob o th a s semb lage s . I n huma t ion i n' S ippenhüge l ' b a r row s w a s t h e n o rma l b u r ia l r i te . B a r row I c on ta ined t h e b e s t f u rn i shed g r aves , b a r row s

Ma lenkk g rave 3d a te s t ot h e C e r to sa p ha se a nd i sa n e l i te w eapon s g rave . I tc on ta ined b ronze v esse ls d eco ra ted w i th

V I a nd V I I h ad t h e l a rges t mo r tua ry p opu la t ion s a nd b a r row X Ic on ta ined t h e mos tw eapon sg rave s .

7 1

I r on A ge i nS l ov en ia a ne a r ly f o rm o fs i tu la a r t ,a nd a' S cy th ian ' t y pe h o r se b i t ,a s w e l l a s a n e a r ly t y pe o fC e r to sa f i bu la ( Ga t in a nd T e rian 1 977 , T 4 ) . T he g r ave i n t h e K and i ja b a r row h ad a t y po log ica l ly f ema le a s semb lage o f t wo C e r to sa f i bu lae , b r on ze a rm—and a nk le r ing s ( Gab rovec 1 968 , 1 64 , T7 : 1-8 ) . T he b r onze v e sse l i n Ma ledek g r ave 3 i s ac e remon ia l d r ink ing s e t( Te r i ' an 1 980 , T2 . ) .

b a r row s . S u rp r i s ing ly , t h ey a l l c on ta ined t y po log ica l ly f ema le a s semb lage s , w eapon s a s semb lage s b e ing t h en o rm i n t h i s p ha se ( C hap t e r 2 , s e c t ion 2 : 1 j ) . T he p o t te ry a s semb lage s w e r e u s ua l ly s i ng le f o o ted v e s se l s , b ow l s a nd c up s ,t h el a s tm an i f e s ta t ion o ft h ed r ink ing s e t .

T he m a te r ia li nt h eo t he rK and i ja b a r row sa l so i n c lude se l i te E a r ly N egova g r ave s , b u t i si n comp le te ly p ub l i shed ( s ee C hap te r3 ,s e c t ion 2 : 2a ) .

D e ta i l s o f s i te l o ca t ion , s i ze a nd e xcava t ion a r e g i ven i n s e c t ion 3 : 1 a nd C hap te r 3 , s e c t ion 2 : 2a . E l even o f t h e b a r row sc on ta ined S e rpen t i fo rm p ha se g rave s . T he l a you to f t h e b a r row s s ugge s t s t h a t t h ey w e re o r gan i sed o n t h e ' S ippenhüge l ' p r inc ip le , b u t t h e i r s ma l l s i ze p robab ly r e p re sen t s s ma l le r d e scen t g r oup s , p e rhap s ' f am i l ia l g r oup s ' ( Te r i= 1 974 , 4 6 ) . T he se b a r row s c on ta ined w eapon sg r ave s o fs imp le t y pe . T he t ypo log ica l ly f ema le a s semb lage s i ng r ave s w e re r i che r w i th p a i red a rm— a nd a nk le r ing s ,g l a s so ra mbe rb ead sa nd s p ind lewho r l s( Chap t e r 2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 1g ) . T he b e s tc e ram ic s e tw a s i nt h e w eapon s g r ave X IX / 3 ( T e r ian 1 974 , 3 4 T . 15 :1-8 ) , c omp r i s ing a t l e a s t t wo f o o t ed v e s se l s a nd t wo b ow l s o r d i shes . T h i s d r ink ing s e ta l so o c cu r r ed i nl e ss w e l lf u rn i shed g r aves .

4 :1 gB rez je n ear T rebe lno ( Append ix 1 : 16 ) D e ta i l s o f s i te l o ca t ion s i ze a nd e xcava t ion a r e g i ven i n s e c t ion 3 : 1h a nd C hap te r 3 ,s e c t ion 2 : 2a . T he S e rp en t i fo rm p ha se w a st h em o s tp opu lou sp ha se i nt h eB r ez je b a r row s ,a l l o fw h ich ,w i th d a tab le g r ave s , w e r e i nu s e . Weapon sg r ave s f o rmed o n ly as ma l lp a r to ft h em o r tua ry p opu la t ion b u tw e r e f o und i n f o u r o f t h e f i ve b a r row s . O ne o f t h e se g r ave s c on ta ined a ne l i te a s semb lage w i th a ' S cy th ian 'h o r se b i ta nd ah o r se b u r ia l , ap r a c t ice i n sp i r ed b y t h e S zen te s—Veke rzug g r oup . T he o t he r e l i te g r ave a l so h ad ' S cy th ian ' m a te r ia l , m a te r ia l , a r che ry e qu ipmen t . A l l t h e b u r ia l s w e r e i n huma t ion s , b u t t h e s k e le ta l r ema in s a r e l o s t . T he m a jo r i ty o f t h e g r ave s c on ta in ed t y po log ica l ly f ema le a s semb lage s , s t rong ly r e semb l ing t h ee l i te f ema le g r ave s o ft h ep r ev iou s p ha se ( Chap te r 2 , s e c t ion 2 : 1f , 2 : 1g ) . F oo ted v e s se l s , a s soc ia ted w i th b ow l s o r s i ng ly , w e r e c ommon . B ow l s , d i she s ,a nd c up sa l so o c cu r r ed i n d iv idua l ly .E s te s t y le f o o ted s i tu la te v e sse l sm ade a na ppea ran ce a tt h e s i te i nt h i sp ha se . T he l a rge s t m o r tua ry p opu la t ion s w e r e i nb a r row s V I I a nd X I I I ,b u te l i t eg r ave sw e re p r e sen ti nb a r row s Ia nd V I . I nc on t ra s t ,t h eC e r to sa p ha se i sl e s sw e l lr e p r e sen ted ,g r ave s o c cu r r ing i no n ly f o u r b a r row s . Weapon s g r ave s w e r e i na m ino r i ty a nd w e r e f o und i nb a r row s Ia nd X I I I . T he s i ng le e l i t e w eapon s g r ave w i th ' S cy th ian ' h o r se g ea r o c cu r red i n b a r row X I I I ( K rome r 1 9 59 , 3 5 , 4 3 : 1 11 ) . T he g r ave s w i th t y po log ica l ly f ema le a s semb lage s w e r e m o re m ode s t ly f u rn i shed t h an i n t h e p r eced ing t wo p ha se s ( Chap te r 2 , s e c t ion 2 : 1h ) . T he c e ram ic a s semb lage i sf r agmen ta ry , b u t t h e t wo i d en t i f iab le f o o ted v e s se l s a r e i nk eep ing w i th t h e c u r ren t c e ram ic s e t s o f t h e D o len jska g r oup . B a r row X I I I w a s c l ea r ly r e p re sen ta t ive o f t h e d om inan t g r oup , b o th i n n umbe r sa nd q ua l i ty o fg r ave l o t s .

4 :i h B ru sn ice ( Append ix 1 : 18 ) .

T he C e r to sa p ha se w a s t h e l a s tp ha se o n t h e s i te , w i th o n ly t h ree b a r row si nu s e . Af u l lw eapon s s e tw a sf o und i ng r ave X I /4 ( Te r ian 9 74 ,3 ,1 .8 1 : 12 ) , w h i ls tg rave XX I / 1 ( Te ri an 1 974 , 3 4 , 3 7 , T . 1 7 : 6 -8 , T . 1 8 ) , a l though c on ta in ing n o w eapon s ,h ad ab r on ze v e s se l a nd b e l t s e t . T he t wo f o o ted v e s se l s i nt h i s g r ave s upp lemen ted t h e b ron ze v e s se l i nt h e d r ink ing s e t . T h ree f o o ted v e sse l s w e re a l so f o und i ng r ave XX / 1( Te r ian 1 9 74 ,3 4 ,T . 17 :1-5 ) . 4 : 1 i B o g tan j( Append ix 1 : 18 ) , D e ta i l s o f t h e l o ca t ion o f t h e i s o la ted b a r row s , t h e i r n umbe r sa nd e xcava t ion a r eg i ven i ns e c t ion 3 : 1 j a nd C hap te r 3 ,s e c t ion 2 : 2a . T h eS e rpen t i fo rm p ha se w a sr e p re sen ted o n ly i nt h eb a r row s o fD o len j i B o g tan j a nd K o sma tec . T he s i z e o ft h e m o r tua ry p opu la t ion i nt h e K o sma tec b a r row i n d ica t e s t h a t i tw a s o f ' S ipp enhüge l 't y p e .G rave sw i th s i ng le w eapon s a s semb lage s o c cu r r ed i n b o th b a r row s . T he ma in c e ram ic t ype w a s t h e f o o ted v e s se l o r E s te s t y le f o o ted s i tu la , o f ten a s so c ia t ed w i th a b ow l , d i sh o rc up , l i ke t h e o t he rc e ram ic d r ink ing s e t si nt h eD o len j ska g r oup ( Gd t in 1 974a ,9 9 ) .

T he E a r ly N egova p ha se g r ave l o t s w e r e c oncen t ra t ed i n t h r ee b a r row s a nd w e re a l lw eapon sg r ave s . T h es i ng le e l i te g r ave V I I ( K rome r 1 9 59 , 2 5-26 , T . 2 8—T .29 ) h a s a n i n ven to ry c ompa rab le w i th s im i la r E a r ly N egova g r ave s o n o t he r s i te s i nt h e D o len jska g r oup w i th a f u l l s e t o f ' S cy th ian ' h o r se r i d ing e qu ipmen t , ad r ink ing s e t o fb r on ze v e s se l s , ab r on ze N egova h e lme t a nd t h e b a s ic w eapon s s e t . T he r ema in ing a s semb lage s p o sse s sed v a ry ing p a r t s o f t h eb a s ic w eapon ss e to fs o cke ted a xe a nd s p ea r s( Chap te r2 , s e c t ion 2 : 1 i ) . C e ram ic s w e re p oo r ly r e p r e sen ted . A l l t h e g r ave s w e re i n huma t ion s i n ' S ippenhüge l ' b a r row s , t h e d om inan tg r oup b e ing i n te r r ed i nb a r row V I I .

N o g r ave s d a te t o l a te r t h an t h e C e r to sa p ha se . C e r to sa p ha se g r ave sw e r ep r e sen ti nt h eb a r row sa tD o len j iB o g tan j , K lan c n ea r B o g tan j a nd K o sma tec . T h e r e w a s ah o r se i n huma t ion w i th f o u rh uman i n huma t ion s( Gd t in 1 974a , 8 , T3 : 1-6 , 1 9-20 ) . Two o f t h e K o sma te c g r ave s c on ta ined w eapon s . T he o t he rt wo g r ave sw e re t y po log ica l ly f ema le i n a s semb lage . T he w eapon s g r ave , K o sma tec 1 6 ( Gd t in 1 974a ,9 0 ,T .1 4—T . 1 5 ) ,h ad a na s soc ia t ed c e ram ic d r ink ing s e to ft h r ee f o o t ed v e s se l s w i th l i d s a nd ad i sh , a l lo fw h ich w e r ep a in ted w i th b l ack t r an sve r se l i ne so n ar ed g round .

T he f i na lL a te N egova p ha se c on s i s ted o ff i ve g r ave si nt wo

T he i s o la t ed b a r row o f V o lC je n j ive w a s s i tua t ed i n t h e

4 :1 jV o lC je n j ive ( Append ix 1 : 22 ) .

7 2

T he A na ly s i so ft h e Da tabase s ou the rn p a r t o f t h e M ima r i ve r v a l ley a nd c on ta ined 2 2 b u r ia ls ( Gab rovec , 1 956 , 9 2 ) . F u r the r d e ta i l s o f t h e e xcava t ion a r e g i ven i nC hap te r 3 ,s e c t ion 2 -2a . I tw a s a s ma l l ' S ippenhüge l ' b a r row a nd i s p a r t icu la r ly i n te res t ing b ecause t h e s ke le ta l r ema in s p rov ide u sefu l p hy s ica l a n th ropo log ica l d a ta c once rn ing t h e a ge a nd s ex o f t h e mor tua ry p opu la t ion . N ine g rave s may b e d a ted t ot h e S e rpen t ifo rm p ha se . T he re w e re n oe l i te a s semb lages , b u tt h e w eapon sg raves c on ta ined a du l t ma le i n huma t ion s , e xcep t f o r as i ng le g rave w i th t ypo log ica l ly f ema le a r tefac t s w i th t h e w eapon s , w h ich c on ta ined a c h i ld i n huma t ion . T he g raves w i th p u re ly t ypo log ica l ly f ema le a r tefac t s c on ta ined f ema le a nd c h i ld i n huma t ion s . A ss uch t h is r e in fo rce st h et ypo log ica l ly s exua l d i cho tomy w h ich h a s b een o b se rved i nt h e g rave l o t s o f t h e Do len jska g roup ( Te rian 1 974 , 4 37-438 ) . A c e ram ic d r ink ing s e tc ompo sed o fb i con ica l v e sse ls a nd b ow ls a nd /o r d i she s w a sf ound i ns ome g rave s .

f o rmed t h e ma jo rp a r t o f t h e mo r tua ry p opu la t ion i nb a r row G logov gek I ,b u t i nn o i n s tance w e re t h ey c ompa rab le w i th S t iCna 2 e xamp les ( s ee C hap te r 2 , s ec t ion 2 : 1 1 ) . T he V o le 'an gek b a r row c on ta ined t h e l a rges t mo r tua ry p opu la t ion i nt h is p ha se . T he c e ram ic s e ti nS ' p i le rI / 1 o ft h ree f oo ted v e sse ls a nd t wo d i she s w a s s upp lemen ted b y ab ron ze s i tu la ( Gu g t in 1 976 , T .2 ) , w h i l s t t h e s e t s i nV o le-a n gek / i ( Gu g t in 1 976 , T .37 ) a nd V o lavgek /d ( Gu g t in 1 976 , T .60 :1 , 2 , 6 ; T .61 :7 ) w e re w ho le ly c e ram ic . T he b a s ic s e t o f f oo ted v e s se l a nd b ow l , d i sh o r c up i sf ound i no the r g rave s , b u t w a s l a rge r i nt h e e l i te g raves . S p ind lewho r ls w e re a l so f ou nd i n t wo o f t h e e l i te g rave s . T h ir ty g raves c ou ld d a te t o e i the r t h e S e rpen t ifo rm o r C er to sa p ha se s . T he m a jo r i ty w e re f ound i n t h e t wo G logov gek b a r rows a nd t h e V or dan gek , V o lav gek a nd P lan inc b a r row s , o f w h ich t wo g rave s may h ave h ad e l i te a s semb lage s , f i ve w e r e w eapon s g raves , a nd f i ve h ad t ypo log ica l ly f ema le a s semb lages . H oweve r , t h ey , l i ke t h e e i gh teen o t he r s , w e re ma in ly d a tab le f r om c e ram ic s , w h ich c omb ined i nd r ink ing s e t s l i ke t h ose d e sc r ibed a bove .

T he r e a r e n i ne C e r to sa p ha se g rave s , a f te r t h i s t h e b a r row f e l l i n to d i suse . None o ft h e ma le i n huma t ion sh ave a ne l i te a s semb lage b u t c ommon ly c on ta ined w eapon s a nd /o r b e l t s e t s . T he ' S cy th ian ' t ype s ha f tho le a xe i n g rave 2 0 ( Gab rovec 1 956 , 8 8 , T .17 :1 ) i s p a r t icu la r ly n o tewo r thy . T ypo log ica l ly f ema le a r tefac t a s semb lages t e nd t oo ccu r i n g rave s c on ta in ing c h i ld i n huma t ion s , w h ich m ay i n d ica te t h a t n on—adu l t s ,r ega rd le ss o fs ex , w e re p e rhap sc on s ide red t ob e s oc ia l ly f ema le ( Te l-Z an 1 976 , 4 38 ) . F oo ted v e sse ls l a rge ly r ep laced b i con ica lv es se ls b u t i no n ly o ne c a se , i ng rave 1 8 ( Gab rovec 1 956 , 8 788 ) ,w a so ne a s soc ia ted w i th ab ow l .

O n ly o ne E a r ly N egova g rave c an b e s e cu re ly i d en t if ied o n t h e g round s o f t h e l a te r f o rm C er to sa f i bu la i n i t . V o lC s an gek i l 1( Gug t in 1 976 , 4 2 , T .41 :6 ) . A f ew o t he r s may h ave b een p re sen t a s t h e re a r e s t ray f i nd s w h ich s ugge s t t h i s . B u r ia la ppa ren t ly c ea sed a f te rt h is p e r iod . 4 : 1 P odzeme l j ( Append ix 1 : 8 )

4 : 1k L ibna ( App end ix 1 : 19 ) .

F u l l d e ta i ls o f t h e l o ca t ion , s i ze a nd e xcava t ion o f t h e mo r tua ry c omp lex a r e g i ven i ns ec t ion 2 : le a nd C hap te r 3 ,

A d i scu s s ion o f s i te l o ca t ion , s i ze a nd e xcava t ion i st ob e f ound i n s e c t ion 3 : 1k a nd C hap te r 3 , s e c t ion 2 : 2a .

s e c t ion 2 : 2a . T he c eme ter ies d ec l ined i ni mpo r tance i nt h e S e rpen t i fo rm p ha se , a si th ad s i nce i t s p eak i nt h e S tkna 1 p ha se ( s ee s e c t ion 3 : 1n ) . E l i te g rave s o f S e rpen t ifo rm o r e a r ly C er to sa d a te w e re f ound i nG rm b a r row Ia nd S k r i l je b a r row Iw i th a s semb lages c on ta in ing ' S cy th ian ' s t y le h o r se

S ippenhüge l b a r rows c ame i n to f u l l u se i nt h e S e rpen t ifo rm p ha se a nd a r e r ep re sen ted b y t h e b a r row s G logovkk I , V o lcan sek a nd P lan inc , a l though b a r row s w i th o n ly as ma l l mo r tuary p opu la t ion w e re s t i l l u sed ( Gu g t in , p e r s . c omm . ) . Weapon s g rave s w e re f ound i n f i ve b a r row s , b u t w e re

r i d ing e qu ipmen t a nd a r chery e qu ipmen t ( Ba r th 1 969 , 1 09 , 1 5 1-152 ,T .34 :1-15 ) . Weapon s g rave sf o rmed ama jo r i ty o f t h e mo r tua ry p opu la t ion , b u t w e re u neven ly d i s t r ibu ted i n

w i thou t o u t s tand ing e l i te e l emen t s . G rave s w i th t ypo log ica l ly f ema le a s semb lage s w e r e o f ten w e l l f u rn ished , f o ri n s tance G logov gek 1 / 12 ( Gus t in 1 976 , 4 0 , T .

t h e

2 4 :119 )a nd 4i le r1 /2 ( Gu g t in 1 976 , 3 7 ,T .4 )b o th o fw h ich h ave mo r e i nc ommon w i th t h ep reced ing S tkna 2p ha se ( s ee C hap ter 2 ,s e c t i on 2 : 11 ) . T he l a rge s t mo r tua ry p opu la t ion w a s i nG logovkk I .T he c e ram ic s e t w a s d om ina ted b y a c omb ina t ion o ff oo ted v e sse l ,b ow l ,d i sh a nd /o rc up .

b a r row s , P od zeme l j b a r row XXX b e ing d om ina ted b y

t h em . I ndeed , t h i s b a r row a nd G rm b a r row Ih ad t h e l a rge s t m or tua ry p opu la t ion s i nt h i s p ha se , a r ranged a s o n a ny o the r s i te s i n t h e ' S ippenhüge l ' b u r ia l p a t ter n . T he c e ram ic a s semb lage w a s c ha rac te r i sed b y t h e d r ink ing s e t o f f oo ted v e sse l s a nd b ow l s ,d i shes o rc up s . T he mo r tua ry p opu la t ion f u r the r d ec l ined i n t h e C er to sa p ha se , a nd e l i te g rave s w e re l a ck ing , u n le ss t h e t wo m en t ioned a bove d a ted t h is l a te . T he S k r i l je b a r row s Ia nd I

T he D er iank. b a r row s w e re n o l o nge r i nu se i nt h e C er to sa p ha se ,b u r ia ls i n s tead w e re c oncen t ra ted i nt h e ' S ippenhüge l ' b a r row s . T he p ropo r t ion o f g rave s c on ta in ing w eapon s

b e s tr ep re sen t t h is p ha se . Weapon s g raves w e re f ound i nf i ve b a r rows , a nd t wo o t he r s c on ta ined o n ly g rave s w i th t ypo log ica l ly f ema le a s semb lages o r c e ram ic s . T he S k r i l je b a r row I r ep re sen ted t h e d om inan t g roup o n t h e s i te .

a ssemb lages i n c rea sed . Among s t t h e se a r e t h e e l i te g rave s , S ' p i le r I / 1 ( Gug t in 1 976 , 3 7 , T .1—T .3 ) , V o lCan gek / i ( Gug t in 1 976 , 4 1 , 4 4 , T .36 , T .37 , T .57 :210 ) a nd V o lav gek /d ( Gu y s t in 1 976 , 4 4 , 4 5 , T .60 , T .61 :6-8 ) . § p i le r I / 1 i sa n

F oo ted V e sse l s w e re r a re o r a b sen t i n t h e c e ram ic a s semb lage , w h ich n o rma l ly c omp r i sed b ow l s o r c up s i n c omb ina t ion w i th b i con ica l v e sse l s o r s i ng ly . Many g raves c on ta ined o n ly as i ng le v esse lo rv e s se l t ype .

e a r l ie r g r ave t h an V o lCan gek / i w h ich c on ta ined a N egova h e lme t . ' S cy th ian ' a r chery e qu ipmen t o ccu r red i n V o lCan gek / i , V o le-a n gek /aa ( Gug t in 1 976 . 4 2 , T .41 :4 ) a nd V o lavgek /d . G rave s w i th t ypo log ica l ly f ema le a s semb lage s

7 3

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia E a r ly N egova p ha se g rave s w e r e f o und o n ly i nG rm b a r row Ia nd S l c r i l je b a r row Ia nd w e r ep oo r ly f u rn i shed . T he s i ng le t y po log ica l ly m a le g rave c on ta ined o n ly a n i r on k n i f e , a p oo r ly f u rn i shed e xamp le . T he r ema in ing g r ave s h ad t y po log ica l ly f ema le a s semb lage s o f C e r to sa f i bu la e , h a i r r ing s a nd g l a s s o r a mbe r b ead s ( s ee C hap te r 2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 1 ) . T he l a rge s t b u r ia l p opu la t ion w a s i nG r rn b a r row I . C up sa nd d i she sw e r et h e ma in p o t te ry f o und . T he s i ng le L a te N egova g rave o ccu r r ed i nG r rn b a r row I .I t w a s aw eapon s g rave w i th a s ha f tho le a xe a nd a f oo ted s i tu la te v e s se l ( Ba r th 1 969 , 19120 , T . 18 :6-8 ) . T he s i te w a s o ccup ied i nt h e m idd le L a T ene p ha se , w hen a L a T ene f l a tc eme te ry w a s i nu se a tZ eme l j ( J . D u la r 1 978 , 1 9 , 2 2 ) . 4 : 2 g ta jer ska . T h e r e a r e n o k nown b a r row c eme te r ie s t h a t c on t inued i n to t h e s i x th c en tu ry B .C . , a st h e W ie s—Ma r t i janec g r oup s e em s t oh ave e nded a ta round a bou t 6 00 B .0 ( s ee s e c t ion 3 : 2 ) . H oweve r ,t wo s i x th c en tu ry B .C . f l a tg r ave sh ave b een f o und a tR i fn ik n ea rg en t ju r al a rge ly R oman f l a ti n huma t ion c eme te ry ( Bo l ta 1 981 ) . B o th g rave sc on ta ined i n huma t ion s , i nc on t ra s t t ot h ec r ema t ion s o f t h ep r eced ing p ha se . G rave 1 09 ( F igu r e 3 5 ) c on ta ined a S e rpen t i fo r rn f i bu la s im i la r t o t h o se i nt h e S e rpen t ifo rm p ha se g rave s i nD o len jska ( Bo l ta 1 981 , T . 18 :5 ) , a nd g rave 7 7 ( F igu r e 3 6 ) c on ta ined aC e r to sa f i bu la , i r on k n i f e a nd t wo i r on a w l s , a nd i ss l igh t ly l a te r i n d a te o n a na logy w i th t h e ma te r ia l i nD o len jska ( Bo l ta 1 981 , T . 12 :912 ) . T h i s i s as im i la r p a t te rn t o d eve lopmen t s i n n o r thea s ter n A u s t r ia , w he r e t h e K a lende rbe rg g r oup w h ich w a s s im i la r t o t h e W ies—Ma r t i janec g roup , w i th b a r row c eme te r ie s c on ta in ing c r ema t ion s , w a s r e p la ced b y f l a t i n huma t ion c eme te r ie s d u r ing t h e Ha l l s ta t t Dp e r iod . I ti s p robab le t h a tt h i sp a t te rn w a sr epea ted i nS t a je r ska , a nd m ay h ave c on t inued u pt ot h e a ppea rance o fL aT ene C g roup si n t h er e g ion .

F igu r e3 6 :G rave 7 7a tR ifn ik ( a f te rB o l ta 1 979 )

4 : 3 S ou th S tyr ia . T he re a r en o e xcava ted g r ave s o f Ha l l s ta t t Dd a te k nown i n s ou th S ty r ia ,b u tD ob ia t( 1 980 , 1 70 ) s ugge s t s t h a tt h ep a t t er n o f r e p la cemen t o f H a l l s ta t t b a r row s w i th c r ema t ion g r ave s b y H a l l s ta t t Df l a t i n huma t ion c eme te r ie s , f ound i nn o r th— e a s ter nA u s t r ia a nd p robab ly 8 ‘ t a je r ska ,i sr e pea ted h e r e .

F igu re 3 5 : S e rp en t i fonn f i bu la f r om G rave 1 09 a t R i fn ik ( a f te rB o l ta 1 979 )

7 4

CHAPTER 5 SOC IAL ORGAN ISAT ION I N THE SOUTH EAST ALP INE REG ION BET WEEN 1 000 B .C . AND 3 00 B .C .

T he d a ta d i scu s sed i n C hap te r 4f o rm s t h e b a s i s o f t h e e xp lana tory mode l s c on s ide r ed h e re . T he mode ls a r e p r ima r i ly c oncer ned w i th t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion o f t h e L jub l jana a nd R u ge g roup s i nt h e L a te B ronze A ge a nd t h e D o len jska a nd W ies— Ma r t i janec g roup s o f t h e E a r ly I r on A ge ( s ee C hap te r2 : s ec t ion 2 ) . T he t wo a rea s o f p r ima ry i mpo r tance a r e r ank ing a nd p r e s t ige e xchange a nd t h e i r d eve lopmen t a nd c hange o ve r t ime a nd s pa ce . T he t empo ra l e l emen t i nt h is a na ly s is mu s t b e e mpha s ised .

T h is n a tu ra l ly l e ad s t o at r ipa r t i te d iv is ion o ft h ee xp lana to ry mode ls e mp loyed , t h e L a te B ronze A ge , t h e L a te B ronze Age /E a r ly I r on A ge i n ter face a nd t h e E a r ly I r on A ge . T he mode ls w i l l s eek t o g i ve a s oc ia l r a the r t h an t e chno log ica l a nd a nd a r e a nd

T he c eme te r ie s o f t h e L jub l jana g roup ( s ee Map 6 ) h ad

T h i s c on t ra s t s w i th t h e P r zeczyce s i tua t ion w he re 1 00 i n d iv idua ls w e re p re sumed t ob e p r e sen t i ne ach g ene ra t ion o ve r a2 50 y ea r p e r iod ( Ha rd ing 1 984 , 1 39-140 ) . T hu s t h e L jub l jana Ig raves a t L jub l jana m u s t r ep resen t ad i f f e ren t

T he C hap te ri sl a id o u ta sf o l low s :

3 ) 3 : 1) 3 :2 )

L a te B ronze Age D o len jska . L a te B ron ze Age /Ea r ly I r on

b u r ia l p opu la t ion f r om t h o se i n t h e v i l lage o r f am i ly A ge

I n te r face

c eme te r ie s o ft h e L aus i tz g roup , w he re a t o ta l p opu la t ion i s p re sumed t ob e p re sen t . T he r ema in ing p opu la t ion may h ave b een b u r ied e l sewhe re , o r d i spo sed o f d i f f e ren t ly . I nt h i s

i n

D o len jska ( L jub l jana I at oL jub l jana I b T he E a r ly I r on A ge D o len jska G roup . R anked S oc ie ty a nd P r es t ige E xchange . T he R eg iona l S y s tem . a nd

S ou th

c on tex t i ti si n te res t ing t on o te t h a t t h e L jub l jana c eme te ry a nd c r ema t ion p y re ( Pu 1 982 , 9 8 ) a r e a d jacen t t o t h e L jub l jana r i ve r .

4 )

L a te B ronze A ge S ta je r ska ( Ha l ls ta t t Bt o Ha l ls ta t tB 2 ) .

5 )

L a te B ronze A ge /Ea r ly I r on A ge I n ter face S t a je r ska a nd S ou th S ty r ia ( Ha l l s ta t tB 3 ) . E a r ly h on A ge S ta je r ska a nd S ou th S tyr ia .

6 )

c r ema t ion c eme ter ies i nt h e v a l ley s o f t h e S ava , K rka a nd K o lpa ( Kupa ) r i ve r s , o f ten o n o r a d jacen t t o t h e s i te s o f E a r ly I r on A ge mo r tua ry a nd s e t t lemen t c omp lexe s a s a t L jub l jana ( F . S ta rt 1 954 ; P u g 1 971 ; 1 982 ) , Mok ronog ( ANSL 1 975 , 2 16-217 ) a nd N ovo m es to—Br g l j in ( Knez

r e la t ive ly s ma l l mo r tuary p opu la t ion s , e spec ia l ly w hen c ompa red t o c on tempo ra ry L au s i tz s i tes l i ke t h a t o f P r zeczyce ( Ha rd ing 1 984 , 1 39140 ) . T he t o ta l L jub l jana I mo r tuar y p opu la t ion o f 4 8 g r ave s a t L jub l jana c ou ld n o t r ep re sen t af u l l p opu la t ion , a st h is w ou ld g i ve af i gu re o fs i x i n d iu idua ls p e r 2 5 y ea r g ene ra t ion o ve r t h e 2 00 y ea rp er iod .

c hange a r e a l so c on s ide red s pa t ia l ly , a ta n i n t ra— s i te , i n te r— s i te a nd i n t ra— reg iona l l e ve l . T he i n te r— reg iona l r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e g roup s w i l lb e b r ief ly r e v iewed , b u ti ti sm a in ly d ea l t w i th i n C hap te r 6 , w h ich a l so c ove r s t h e s phe re o f e x te rna lc on tac t s , p a r t icu la r ly r e la t ion sh ip s o fe xchange w i th L a te B ron ze Age a nd E a r ly h on A ge g roup s o u t s ide t h e S ou th E a s tA lp ine r eg ion .

1 ) 2 )

T he L jub l jana g roup i sr ep re sen ted b y an umbe ro fs ma l l f l a t

1 967 , 1 5516 1) . S e t t lemen t s i te s a r e a s y e t u nknown , a l though t h e L jub l jana s e t t lemen t m ay l i e b enea th t h e m ed iaeva l c a s t le o n t h e C a s t le h i l l ( F . S ta rt 1 954 , 1 34 ) a nd t h es e t t lemen ta s soc ia ted w i th t h eB r g l j in c eme tery may h ave b een w i th in t h e Ma rof h i l l fo r t ( J . D u la r 1 979 , 8 5-6 ) . A na logy w i th s e t t lemen ti nS ta je r ska s ugge s t s t h a t L jub l jana g roup s e t t lemen t s w e r e o n s im i la r u ndef ended h i l l top s i tes ( s ee b e low ) .

B o th t h e L jub l jana a nd R uge g roup s w e re t r an sfo rmed b y t h e i n t roduc t ion o f i r on i n to t h e v i s ib ly d i f f e ren t ia ted D o len jska a nd W ies— Ma r t i janec E a r ly h on A ge g roup s .

e xp lana t ion f o r t h ese c hange s . E qua l ly t h e D o len jska W ie s— Ma r t i janec g roups w e re n o t s t a t ic e n t i t ie s e xh ib i ted i n te rna l s o c ia l c hange o ve r t ime , a nd t h e re fo re d i scussed a cco rd ing ly . S oc ia l s t ruc tu re s

m es to—Br g l j in , d i scu ssed i n C hap te r 4 , s ec t ion 1 : la a nd s e c t ion 1 :1 b .T he o t he rs i te s i nt h er eg ion h ave p roduced o n ly u n s t ra t if ied f i nd s ( s ee C hap te r3 ,s ec t ion 2 : 1a ) ,

S ty r ia T he g rave l o t s a ppea r t o c on s i s t o f a n e l i te s ec t ion o f t h e i n

p opu la t ion , a l though n o p hys ica l a n th ropo log ica l d a ta i s a va i lab le t os how t h e s ex a nd a ge o f t h e i n d iv idua ls . T he r e i s , h oweve r , s ome e v idence o f d i cho tomy i n t h e b ronze a s semb lage s ( s ee C hap te r 2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 1a ) , e ven t h ough t h i s d oes n o t c ompa re w i th t h e l a te r E a r ly I r on A ge , a nd may b e s exua l i nn a tu re , a nd n o t n ece ssa r i ly r e la ted t o s t a tu s . T he d i s t inc t ion b e tween t ypo log ica l ly ma le a nd f ema le g rave

I )L a te B ronze A ge D o len jska ( L jub l jana I ) . T he L jub l ja na Ip e r iod i nD o len jska w a s ma rked b y t h e r i se

s e t s r e s t s o n t h e d i cho tomy b e tween a s semb lage s o fk n ives , r a zo r s , b e l thook s a nd p i n s i n t h e f o rme r , s ome t imes i n c on junc t ion w i th t h e f i bu lae a nd or namen t s o f t h e l a t te r ( s ee

o fg roup s i nt h e n o r th—ea s te rn A lp s a nd P annon ian P la in ( s ee C hap te r2 ,s e c t ion 2 : Ia ) , a nd s eem s t oh ave b een t h er e su l to f ap roce s s o fi n f i l l ing i nt h e S ava v a l ley , D o len jska a nd B e la K ra j ina b e tween t h e P annon ian u rn f ie ld g roup s a nd t h e l a te

C hap te r4 ,s e c t ion 1 : la a nd 1 :l b ) . A n i n dex o fs t a tu s c an b e

Ur n f ie ld p opu la t ion s i nt h e V enez ia—G iu l ia r e g ion o fn o r th—

d er ived f r om t h e n umbe r s o fb ronze a r tefac t s i ne ach g rave , w h ich m ay d eno te t h er e la t ive a c ce ss o fi nd iv idua ls t ob ronze

e a s te rn I t a ly a nd t h e J u l ian A lp s . T he mode ls o f f e red h e re a r e b a sed o n t h ee v idence o ft wo s i te s ,L jub l jana a nd Novo

a nd h ence t o p re s t ige ma ter ia l ( s ee F igu r e 3 3 ) . T he l im i ted d a ta a va i lab le s how s t h a t o n ly a f ew g rave s

7 5

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia c on ta ined l a rge q uan t i t ies o f b ronze . T he r e la t ive l a ck o f g raves w i thou t m e ta lwo rk i sd ue t ot h e d i f f icu l ty o f d a t ing

T h is i s r e in fo r ced L jub l jana g roup .

g raves w i th o n ly c e ram ic g rave g ood s . E ven i ft wo— th i rd s o f t h e a c tua l n umbe r o fg raves o ft h i s d a te a r e m is s ing , t h e a c tua l mo r tua ry p opu la t ion a t L jub l jana w ou ld s t i l l b e r e la t ive ly s ma l la nd u n l ike ly t or ep resen t a' f am i ly 'c eme te ry

c on s i s ten t ly w ea l thy o ve r t ime , e ven w hen v i ewed a ga in s t t h e l im i ted d a ta a va i lab le . I tw a s s i tua ted o nt h e L jub l jan ica r i ve r c l o se t o i t s c on f luence w i th t h e r i ve r S ava , w ho se

a si ti sn o rma l ly i n te rp re ted ( Ter ian ,p e r s .c omm . ) T he b a s is o ft h e e l i te i sh a rd t od ef ine . I tm ay h ave r e s ted o n c on t ro l o f a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion , f o r w h ich t h e re i s n o e v idence . T h i s w ou ld h ave g i ven g r ea te rp o ten t ia l f o r a cce ss t op re s t ige a r te fac t s s uch a sb ronze a r tefac t s , a nd t o al e sse r e x ten t f o r e ign e xo t ica s uch a s t h e t wo c e ram ic a sko i i n L jub l jana g rave 5 4 ( Bud ja 1 980 , 8 5-94 ) , w hen c on s ide red i n c on junc t ion w i th t h e f a vou rab le p o s i t ion i n t h e c ommun ica t ion s

n e two rk

a nd

e xchange

s y s tem

o f t h e

L jub l jana g roup . I tw a s a d jacen t t ot h e e a s t A lp ine c oppe r s ou rces a nd i na n i n te rmed ia te p o s i t ion o n t h e m a jo r r ou te s f r om n or ther nI t a ly t ot h e P annon ian P la in a nd t h e B a lkan s ( s ee C hap te r 1 ) . S uch ap o s i t ion s ugge s t s t h a t ad eg ree o f c on t ro lm igh th ave b een e x ter ted o n t h ec i rcu la t ion o fm e ta l s .

b y t h e r eg iona l p a t te rn ing o f t h e T he c eme tery a t L jub l jana w a s

i mpo r tance i n i n te r— r eg iona l e xchange i s men t ioned i n C hap te r 1 , s e c t ion 3 , a nd w i l l b e e xam ined i ng rea te rd e ta i l i nC hap te r 6 . A n e l i te p re sen t a t t h i s s i te c ou ld ma in ta in h i gh s t a tu s w i th in t h e D o len jska r eg ion b y v i r tue o f i t s s upe r io r a cces s o rp o ten t ia l a ccess t o t h e r e g iona l e xchange n e two rk a nd c on sequen t ly t o s upp l ie s o f b ronze e i the r a s a r tefac t s o r s c rap , a nd c oppe r . I ndeed , t h e e l i te m ay h ave d eve loped h e r e a s ar e spon se t o t h e i n c rea s ing a moun t s o f c oppe ra nd b ron ze p a ss ing t h rough t h ea r ea f r om t h e e a s ter n A lp s . T h is w ou ld a ccoun t f o r t h e r e la t ive ly p oo r c ha ra c te r o ft h e s i te si nD o len jska i t se lf , d ue t o g r ea ter a cce s s t oa nd e xp lo i ta t ion o f p r e s t ige g ood s b y t h e e l i te b a sed a t L jub l jana . T he c eme tery a t Mok ronog ( Gab rovec 1 973 , 3 66-367 , 3 70 ) w a s r e la t ive ly w ea l thy a nd may h ave b een i n vo lved i n t h e e xchange n e two rk a nd c i r cu la t ion o f m e ta l i n to t h eK rka v a l ley a nd i n to n o r thwe s t e rn C roa t ia .

B ronze i sa n i d ea l p r es t ige m a ter ia l , d ue t ot h e p o ten t ia l o f a ny s i ng le a r te fac tt ob er e ca s t i n to n ew f o rm s . T he l a ck o fa f o rma l s t a tu s s e t s ugges t s al ow l e ve l e l i te , w i th s t a tu s r e la ted t oq uan t i ty r a the r t h an t y pe o fb ronze a r tefac t , b a sed o n i t s v a lue a s a r e—u sab le r e sou rce . E v idence f o r c ompe t i t ion i sd i f f icu l t t o a s se ss i n t h e mo r tua ry d a ta , a s h oa rd ing a c t iv i t ie s a s soc ia ted w i th c on tempo ra ry g roup s i n t h e E a s ter n A lp s a r e a b sen t ( Mü l le r—Ka rpe 1 959 , 1 27 ) . H oweve r , t h e v e sse l s e t s p re sen t i n m any o f t h e g rave s i n d ica te s t h a t ad r ink ing r i tua l w a s a n i mpo r tan t p ar t , a t l e a s t , o f m o r tua ry p rac t ice , a nd p o ss ib ly f i gu red i n a

2T he L a te B ronze A ge /Ear ly I ron A g eI nter f ace i n D o len jska ( L jub l jana I at oL jub l jana I b ) . T h is p er iod w a s c ha rac te r i sed b y t h e t r an sfo rma t ion o f t h e L jub l jana g roup i n to t h e E a r ly I r on A ge D o len jska g roup ( s ee C hap te r 2 , s e c t ion 2 : 1b a nd 2 : 1c ) . Mo r tua ry s i tes c on t inued t o d om ina te t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . N ew m or tua ry s i tes a ppea red i nD o len jska a nd B e la K ra j ina , a nd

Man ' s oc ie ty ( Sah l in s 1 972 , 1 35-139 ; H o rd ing 1 984 , 1 40-

t h e f l a t c eme tery a tL jub l jana r eached i t s z en i th i nt e rm s o f w ea l th a nd b u r ia l p opu la t ion ( Chap te r 4 , s ec t ion 2 : 1a ) . T rad i t iona l f l a t c r ema t ion c eme ter ie s h ave a l so b een f ound a t Mo ln ik ( Chap te r 4 , s e c t ion 2 : 1b ) a nd V aCe ( Chap te r 4 , s e c t ion 2 : 1g ) i n w e s ter n D o len jska , N ovo m e s to—Me s tne n j ive ( Chap te r 4 , s ec t ion 2 : 1c ) i n t h e m idd le K rka r i ve r v a l ley , a nd Me t l ika—Bo r g tek ( Chap te r 4 , s ec t ion 2 : 1d ) i n B e la K ra j ina . I na dd i t ion t ot h ese s i t e s , c eme te r ie s w i th a n ew b u r ia l r i te w i th t r ad i t iona l c r ema t ion u nde r b a r rows

1 44 ) . B o th t y pe so fs oc ia l o rgan isa t ion w ou ld h ave f e a tu re s

o ccu r red a tL oka n ea r Cr nome l j ( Chap te r4 ,s ec t ion 2 : 10 a nd

s uch a s c on sp icuou s c on sump t ion o f a g r icu l tu ra l p roduce a nd p re s t ige m a te r ia l . T he l ow— leve l h e red i ta ry e l i te i s mo re l i ke ly f o r t h e m a jo r r e a son t h a t t h e c eme ter ie s r ema ined i n u se o ve r al o ng p e r iod o ft ime . T he u n s tab le n a tu re o f a' B ig

P odzeme l j ( Chap te r 4 , s e c t ion 2 : 1e ) i n B e la K ra j ina a nd §ma r je ta ( V . S ta re 1 973 c )i nt h e K rka r i ver v a l ley ( s ee Map 6 ) . T he s e t t lemen t a t S t iCna i n w es ter n Do len jska w a s

d r ink ing c e r emon ia l a nces t ra l t o t h e c omp e t i t ive f e a s t ing c yc les e v iden t i nt h e E a r ly I r on A ge i nD o len jska a nd m uch o fe a s te rn C en t ra l E u rope ( Ter ian 1 980 ,3 51-352 ) . T h is d a ta s ugge s t s t h a t t h e s oc ie ty m igh t b ec ha rac te r i sed b y al ow l e ve l h e red i tary e l i te , o r an on—he red i ta ry ' B ig

f o r t if ied t owa rd s t h e e nd o f t h e p er iod ( s ee C hap te r 3 , s e c t ion 2 : 2a ) . I t may a l so b e s u rm ised t h a t t h e h i l lfo r t s

Man ' s oc ie ty m igh tb e e xpec ted t om an if e s t i t se lf i n amo re d i spe r sed b u r ia l p a t te rn , w i thou t s uch r egu la r ly u sed c eme te r ie s . 9 00

8 00

7 00

6 00

a s so c ia ted w i th t h eo the rc eme ter ie sm en t ioned a bove d a te t o t h e s ame p e r iod ( J . D u la r 1 979 , 8 4-86 ) [ s ee F igu r e 3 7 ] .

5 00

4 00

3 00BC

Unefended Settlement

Defended S ettlement

Flat C emetery

Barrow Cemetery

F igu re 3 7 : D u ra t ion o fS i te T ype s i nD o len jska a nd B e la K ra j ina .

7 6

S o c ia lO r gan i sa t ion i nt h eS ou thea s tA lp ine R eg ion B e tween 1 000 B .C .a nd 3 00 B .C . T he ma te r ia l a s semb lage p r e sen t i n t h e f l a t c r ema t ion c eme te r ies e xh ib i ted n ew f e a tu r e s . Me ta lwo rk w a s r a re a t a l l o f t h e f l a t c eme te r ie s w i th t h e n o tab le e xcep t ion o f L jub l jana ( s ee C hap te r 4 , s e c t ion 2 : 1a ) . T he m a jo r i ty o f m e ta l a r tef a c t s w e r e c on cen t ra ted i n o n ly a s ma l l p ropo r t ion o f t h e g rave s ( s e e F igu r e 3 4 ) . H oweve r , 4 2 o f t h e 5 0 g rave s d a t ing t ot h i s p e r iod c on ta in ed i r on a r te fa c t s , i n deed t h e w ea l th ie s t L jub l ja na I b g r ave , g r ave 1 75 ( Pu g 1 971 , 4 9-50 , T .28 ; 9 -10a , T .29 ) , c on ta ined n o b ron ze a r te fac t s a t a l l . T he i r on a r t efa c t s i m i ta ted l o ca l b ron ze f o rm s , b u t s ome n ew e l emen t s o c cu r red , p a r t icu la r ly t wol o oped f i bu lae , a l so i n b r on z e , w h ich w e re f ound i n t h e c en t ra l B a lkan s a nd t h e D anube r e g ion s o f C roa t ia a nd S e rb ia ( Gab rovec 1 970 , 5 -6 5 ) . T he o ccu r r en ce o f i r on i n t h e se c on tex t s a t L jub l jana m ay b e c ha ra c te r i sed a s a n o r namen th o r izon . I r on w a s i n i t ia l ly u sed a s an ew p re s t ige m a t e r ia l t o s upp lemen t b r onz e , a nd w a s e mp loyed i n t h e s ame w ay a s b ron ze a r tef ac t s i nt h e p reced ing L jub l jana I p e r iod . T he r ea son s f o r i t s a dop t ion m u s t b e s ough t i n t h e e i gh th c en tu ry B .C . c r i s i s i nt h e e xchange n e two rk s i nt h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion . T he n a tu r e o ft h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd p re c lude s t h e p r e se r va t ion o fa l l p roduc t s t h a t m igh t h ave h ad p re s t ige v a lue a pa r tf r om b ron ze a nd i r on . E v idence f o r s t r e s s i nt h e p r e s t ige s phe re i nt h i s p e r iod i s r e la t ive ly w e l l d ocumen ted i n t h e L a te B ronze A ge i n C en t ra l E u rope a nd A t lan t ic E u rop e . T he a moun t o fb ron ze i n c i r cu la t ion h ad i n c rea sed o ve r t h e c ou r se o f t h e L a te B ron ze A ge , a nd l e dt oi t sd eba semen ti nv a lue a s ap r e s t ige m a te r ia l . T he m o s tc ommon s t ra t egy a dop ted t om a in ta in i t s v a lue w a s h oa rd ing , w h ich m ay h ave s e r ved t o r emove q uan t i t ie s o f b r on ze f r om c i r cu la t ion i n d i sp lay s o f c on sp i cuou sc on sump t ion o r d es t r uc t ion , t h e reby i n c r ea s ing t h e v a lue o f t h a t r ema in ing a nd i n ten s ify ing c ompe t i t ion ( Row land s 1 980 , 1 5-55 ; O 'Shea 1 981 , 1 67183 ; B rad ley 1 982 , 1 08-122 ; 1 984 , 1 00127 ) . T he h oa rd ing p henomenon a l so a ppea red t h roughou t t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion f r om t h e H a l ls ta t t A 2 ( Mü l le r-Ka rpe 1 959 , 1 08-115 ) . T h i sm a rk ed t h ee nd o ft h eE a r ly U rn f ie ld p e r iod a nd t h er i se o ft h e L jub l jana g r oup , a nd d i sco n t inu i ty b e tween o l d a nd n ew s i t e s ( V . P ah iC 1 984 , 1 2 1122 ) . H oa rd ing d i d n o t o ccu r i n t h e H a l l s ta t t B 3 p e r iod i n D o len jska , b u t w a s r e la t ive ly c ommon i n C a r in th ia a nd S ty r ia ( P i t t ion i 1 954 , 5 17-522 ; Mü l le r-Ka rpe 1 959 , 1 27 ) . T he d epo s i t ion o f b ron ze i n g rave s w ou ld a l so s e r ve t o r emove i t f r om c i r cu la t ion , a nd i tw a s t h e s t ra teg y p robab ly e mp loyed a t L jub l ja na i nt h eL jub l jana Ia nd I ap ha se s ,n o tab ly i ng r ave 3 9 ( F . S ta le 1 954 , 5 2-53 , T . 3 4 ; 6 10 ; T .35 , T .36 , T .37 : 1 2 ) .

c ame f r om t h e C roa t ian a nd S e rb ian D anube r eg ion o r t h e C en t ra l B a lkan s , a s i ss ugge s ted b y t h e a ppea ran ce o f t h e t wolooped b ow f i bu la c ommon i nt h e se r e g ion s ( Gab rovec 1 970 , 1 6-32 , 4 3 ) , b u t t h e c l o se c on tac t s b e tween t h e L jub l jana g r oup a nd t h e c on tempo ra ry g roup s i nt h e J u l ian A lp s a nd P ov a l ley ( Gab rove c 1 976 , 5 91-595 ,5 98 ) make s a n o r th o rc en t ra lI t a l ian o r ig in e qua l ly f e a s ib le . T he i n c rea se i nt h e n umbe r o f f l a t c r ema t ion c eme te r ie s i n D o len jska m ay b e ar e su l t o f i n c rea sed o ppo r tun i t ie s f o r c omp e t i t ion .T h en umbe r so fg rave sp re sen ta tV aC e( Chap te r 4 , s e c t ion 2 : 1g ) , Mo ln ik ( Chap te r 4 , s e c t ion 2 : 1) a nd Me t l ika-Bo r g tek ( Chap te r 4 ,s e c t ion 2 : 1d ) , a l though p oo re r i n m e ta lwo rk , r e p r e sen t t h e s ame t y pe o f l owleve l e l i te p r e sen t a t L jub l jana . T he N ovo m e s to-Me s tne n j ive c eme te ry ( Chap te r 4 ,s e c t ion 2 : 1c ) i st h e l a rge s t s i te o ft h i s t y pe i n D o len j ska , a nd a l though o n ly t h r ee g rave s a r e c ompa rab le w i th L jub l jana , as i gn if ican t p ropo r t ion o f t h e g r ave l o t s c on ta ined m e ta lwo rk ( s ee F igu r e 3 4 ) . T he s i ze a nd d u ra t ion o f t h e Me s tne n j ive c eme te ry s ugge s t s t h a t i t w a s c l o se r i nt y p e t ot h e L au s i tz c eme te r ie s i nP o land ( s ee s e c t ion 1 ) . Weapon s w e re r a re o r a b sen t i nf l a t c r ema t ion g r ave s ; o f t h e t wo e xamp le s k nown , L jub l jana g rave 3 9 ( F . S ta re 1 954 , 5 2-53 , T . 3 4 : 6 -10 ; T .35 , T . 3 6 , T . 3 7 : 1 -2 ) d a te s t ot h ep r e-o rnamen th o r izon , L jub l jana p ha se I a ,a nd Me s tne n j ive g r ave 1 86 ( Knez 1 984 , 1 27 ) c an o n ly b e d a t ed g ene r ica l ly w i th in t h e L jub l jana I p e r iod . T he c e ram ic i n ven to ry w a s s imp le o n a l l s i te s , c i ne ra ry ur n s w e re t h e m o s tc ommon v e s se l s ,b u tb ow l sa nd h and led c up s d i do ccu r , a nd i n d ica te t h e c on t inued i mpo r tance o f t h e H a l l s ta t t B d r ink ing r i tua l( s ee S ec t ion 1 ) . T he b a r row g r ave s ,i na l lc a se s , r e p r e sen tt h ee a rl i e s tb u r ia l s i ni mpo r tan t E a r ly I r on A ge mo r tua ry c omp lexe s s uch a s ( " rnome l j ( Chap te r 4 , s e c t ion 2 : 10 , P odzeme l j ( Chap te r 4 , s e c t ion 2 : 1e ) a nd S .m a r je ta ( J . D u la r 1 979 , 8 5 ) . T he b u r ia l r i te a nd c e ram ic a s semb lage s w e r e s im i la r t o t h e f l a t c r ema t ion c eme te r ie s , w i th w h ich t h ey w e re c on tempo ra ry , b u t an umbe r o f d i f f e r ence s i n g r ave c on s t ru c t ion a nd m a te r ia la s semb lage o ccu r r ed . T he c on s t ruc t ion o f ab a r row o ve r t h e c r ema t ion g r ave w a s an ew f e a tu re w i th n o a n teceden t s i nt h eL a te B ronze A ge i nt h e a r ea . Many o ft h e b a r row s f o unded i nt h e L jub l jana I b /Podzeme l j Ip ha se a t P odzeme l j c on t inued i nu se i n to t h e E a r ly h on A ge ( s ee A ppend ix 1 : 8 ) , s ugge s t ing t h a t t h e d eve lopmen t o fc o rpo ra te d e sc en t g r oup s , w h ich c an b e m o r e e a s i ly d e tec ted i n t h e E a r ly h on A ge , s t a r t s , a r chaeo log ica l ly a t l e a s t , i n t h i s p ha se . T he m e ta lwo rk a s semb lage s a tb o th c l a s se s o f s i te c on ta in t h es ame or namen t t y pe s i nb r onze a nd i r on , w i th t h e s ame s o c ia l v a lue i n ve s ted i nt h em . H oweve r , w eapon s , c h ie f ly i r on s pea r s , w e r e r e gu la r ly d epo s i ted i n g r ave s a t P odzeme l j a nd w e r e r a r e ly a ccompan ied b y o r namen t s ( J . D u la r 1 979 ,7 8 ,8 6 ) . T h i sd i cho tomy d eve loped mo re f u l ly i n t h e E a r ly h on A ge . T he A n tennae-h i l ted S wo rd G rave a t P odzeme l j ( J .D u la r 1 978 , 2 1 , T .35 : 1 -3 ) i sc ompa rab le t o s im i la rg r ave s a tV i l lach ( Mü l le r-Ka rpe 1 954 , 1 04-113 ) i n C a r in th ia , K le in-K le in ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 1 42 ) , a nd G o rn ja R adgona ( Pah iC 1 966 , 1 38 ) i n S ou th S ty r ia a nd S t a je r ska r e spec t ive ly . T he r e w a s as h i f t i nt h e b a r row c eme te r ie s

T he a dop t ion o fi r on a s ap r e s t ige m a te r ia l w a s t h e o u tcome o f t h e s e a r ch f o r an ew s ca rce r e sou r ce . I ti st h e n a tu re o f many e t hnog raph i ca l ly d ocumen t ed p r e s t ige s y s tem s t o s upp lemen t t h e e x i s t ing r epe r to i re o f p r e s t ige m a te r ia l b y s eek ing t o a cqu i r e e xo t ic g ood s o r m a te r ia l a s a n a i d t o s t a tu s e nhan cemen t . T he b e s t-k now n e xamp le s o f t h i s a r e t h ep re-Co lumb ian c h iefdom si nP an ama ( He lm s 1 979 , 1 281 43 ) . T he s t r e ss i nt h e b r onze c i r cu la t ion s y s tem , d ue t ot h e i n c rea s ing a va i lab i l i ty o f b ronze , a lowed t h e a dop t ion o f i r on a s am a jo r e l emen t i nt h e p r e s t ige s y s tem . T he a c tua l o r ig in o f i r on t e chno logy i su nce r ta i n . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t i t

7 7

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia f r om t h et r ad i t iona l Um f ie ld r e p r e sen ta t ion o fs t a tu s ,t h rough q uan t i ty o fp r e s t ige m a te r ia lt o am o r es t ab le d eve lopmen to f a ne l i te s e tc on ta in ing s pec if ic , r e gu la r ly r e-occu r r ing i t em s s u ch a s s p ea r s . T he c on s t ruc t ion o r f o r t if i ca t ion o fh i l l fo r t s a nd t h e b u i ld ing o f b a r row s e mpha s i se e l i te p owe r a t s p ec if ic c en t re s , i ns h a rp c on t ra s tt ot h e f l a tc eme te r ie s a nd u nde f ended s e t t lemen t so f Und ie ld t y pe . T he r am if i ca t ion o f e l i te s w i th in t h e L jub l jana /Do len j ska g r oup w a s ac on sequence o fi n c rea sed c ompe t i t ion .T he s i te o fV aC e w a s l o ca ted n ea r t h e R ive r S ava o n t h e n o r thw e s ter ne dge o fD o len jska . ap o s i t ion d om ina t ing t h e w e s te a s tr o u te f r om I t a ly t ot h e P annon ian P l a in ( s ee C hap te r 1 , s e c t ion 3 ) . L jub l jana Ic eme te r ie s a r e r e la t ive ly u nknown i n t h e V aCe a r ea , b u t m ay b e p r e sen t . H oweve r , t h e m idd le K rka r e g ion w a s r e la t ive ly i mpo r tan t i nt h e L jub l jana I p e r iod w i th s i te s a t Mo l c ronog ( Gab rovec 1 973 , 3 70 ) a nd N ovo m e s to-B r g l j in ( Knez 1 967 , 1 5 516 1 ) , s o t h e a pp ea rance o f t h e Me s tne n j ive s i te ( Knez 1 966 , 5 110 1 ; 1 984 , 19133 ) a nd c on t inua t ion o f t h e Mo l c ronog s i te ( Gab rovec 1 973 , 3 70-372 ) m e re ly m a in ta in t h i s t r ad i t ion . L jub l jana r ema ined t h ew ea l th ie s ts i te i nw e s te rn D o len jska . T he r i se o f t h e b a r row c eme te r ie s i nB e la K ra j ina a nd t h e m idd le K rka r i ve r v a l ley w a s ar e su l t o f g r ea te r a c ce s s t o a nd c on t ro lo ve rt h ee xchange n e two rk s . T he l o ca le l i te sh ad c on tac t w i th g r oup s i n t h e C roa t ian a nd S e rb ian D anube r e g ion a nd t h e c en t ra l B a lkan s ( J . D u la r 1 973 , 5 70-572 ; 1 979 ,8 6 )a nd ar e su l t ing a c ce s st on ew e xo t ic m a te r ia l . T h i s w a s c oup led w i th t h e i r p o s i t ion a tt h e e a s t er n e nd o f t h e m a jo r r o u te s t h rough D o len jska ( s ee C hap te r 1 ,s e c t ion 4 ) w h ich r e su l ted i n a c ce s s t o m a te r ia l f r om n o r th e rn I t a ly ( Gab rovec 1 973 , 3 69-373 ) . T h e a gg rand i semen to ft h ee l i te l e d t o mo r e r e gu la r s t a tu s s t ru c tu re s , e v idenced b y b a r row b u i ld ing ,a ne l i te a r te fac ts e ta nd d ef ended s e t t lemen t s . S uch as t ruc tu red e l i te s y s t em w a s r a p id ly a dop ted b y o t he r g r oup si nD o len jska i nt h ef o l low ing p e r iod .

e n t ranc e i n to t h e G ro sup l je p o l je a nd t h e r ou te t ot h e K rka r i ve r v a l ley f r om t h e L jub l jana b a s in . S t icna h a s a cce s s t o t h e l ow land a r ea e a s t o f I v ancna g o r ica a nd i se qu id is tan t b e twen t h e h eadwa t e r s o f t h er i ve r sK rka a nd M ima . T he s i te so f V a l icna v a s( Te r zan 1 973 , 6 60-729 )V inkov v r h ( V . S t a r e 1 964-65 , 2 15-258 ) , D o len jske T op l ice ( Te r zan 1 976 , 3 93-4 13 ,4 43-536 )a nd N ovo m e s to ( Gab rovec 1 960 , 2 7-80 ; 1 968 , 1 57188 ; G u s t in a nd T e r zan 1 977 , 7 7-89 ; K n ez 1 980 , 2 4 1-260 ) a r e s i tua ted i nt h e K rka v a l ley . T he L ibna c omp lex ( Gu s t in 1 976 ) i sl o ca ted a tt h e p o in t w he r e t h e r i ve r S ava l e av e s i t s g o rge a nd e n te r s t h e K r sko p o l je , w h i l s tt h es i te o fV e l ik e Ma lence ( V .S ta re 1 960-6 1 ,5 0-87 ) i sc l o se t ot h ec on f luen ce o ft h er i ve rK rka a nd r i ve rS ava i n t h e K r sko p o l je . T he t h ree s i te s i nB e la K ra j ina d i scu s sed h e r e , a r e l o ca ted i nt h e b r oad v a l ley o f t h e r i ve r K o lpa ( Kupa ) a nd i t s t r i bu ta ry r i ve r , L ah in ja . T he a va i lab le d a ta s ugge s t s t h a t t h e m a jo r i ty o f t h e m o r tua ry / se t t lemen t c omp lexe s , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o fD o len jske T op l ice , w e r e f o unded i nt h e P od zeme l j 1a nd P odzeme l j 2p ha se s . T he l a rge n umbe r o f s ma l l h i l l fo r t s w i thou t a s so c ia ted b a r row s h ave n o t b een s y s t ema t ica l ly s t ud ied ( Chap t e r 3 ,s e c t ion 1 ) a nd t h e i rs pa t ia la n ds o c ia lr e la t ion sh ip t ot h el a rge c en t r e si s u nc lea r . T he b a r row g r oup s a tl a rge c en t r e s w e re c l ea r ly r e la ted t o t h e h i l lfo r t s e t t lemen t s , d ue t o t h e i r p rox im i ty , e . g . a t Magda len ska g o ra ( Hencken 1 978 , 9 4 ) , S t igna ( W e l l s 1 981m 4 5 , 4 2 ) a nd L ibna ( Guk in 1 976 , 1 ) , a l though i n s ome c a se s t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e m o r tua ry a nd s e t t lemen t s i te s i su n c lea r . E a ch b a r row g r oup a nd i n deed e a ch b a r row m ay c on ta in b u r ia ls d a t ing t o t h e e n t i r e c h rono log ica l r a nge o f t h e E a r ly I r on A g e . T he m o r tua ry d a ta e xh ib i t s ac o n s ide rab le d eg ree o ft empo ra lc hange . T he f l a t c eme te ry s i t e s a t Mo ln ik ( Pd s 1 984 , 1 54-155 ) a nd Me t l ika-Bo r g tek ( J .D u la r 1 979 ,8 4 )c ea sed t ob eu sed a f t e r t h e P odzeme l j /L jub l jana Ma p ha se . B u r ia l c on t inued i nt h e f l a t c eme te r ie s a tL jub l jana ( P u g 1 982 , 2 03-205 ) a nd Vg e ( F . S t a re 1 9 55 a )a nd t h ese s i te sw i l l b ee xam ined i ng r ea te r d e ta i l b e low . T h e g ene ra l t r end i n m o r tua ry r i te i n t h e b a r row g r ave so ft h eE a r ly I r on A ge d a te w a sf o ra ni n c r ea se i n i n huma t ion s a t t h e e xpen se o f c r ema t ion s . H oweve r c r ema t ion s c o n t inued t o o ccu r u p t o t h e e nd o f t h e L a te N egova p ha se . T he f i r s t b a r row s c on ta in ed a n i n i t ia l , o f ten c en t ra l ,b u r ia l a n d s e conda ry b u r ia l s , w h ich o f ten i n d ica t e a c on s ide rab le p e r iod o fu se a si nb a r row 1( Na rodn i m u ze j ) a t S t iCna ( Gab rovec 1 974 , 1 63-187 ) , B a r row V I I a t Magda len ska g o ra ( Hen ck en 1 978 , 5 1-62 ) a nd S l c r i l je B a r row I a t P odzeme l j ( Ba r th 1 969 , 1 44-153 ) . T h i s s ugge s t s t h a t e a ch b a r row r e p resen t s as pec i f ic m o r tua ry a r ea e mp loy ed b y a s pe c if ic c o rpo ra te d e scen t g r oup a t tached t oo rr e s iden t a tt h e mo r tua ry / se t t lemen t c omp lex o ve r ap e r iod o ft i me .T he n umbe r so fb u r ia l si ne ach b a r row i ne ve ry p ha s ef l uc tua te , s ome t ime s i n c r ea s ing i no ne p ha se a nd d ec rea s i ng i nt h en ex t( s ee A ppend ix 1 ) .

3 ) E ar ly I r on A ge D o len jska . 3 : 1 R anked S o c ie ty a nd P re s t ig eE xchange . T he m a jo r s ou r ce o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta r e la t ing t o t h e D o len jska g r oup i s d e r ived f r om b a r row c eme te r ie s a s soc ia ted w i th h i l l f o r t s e t t lemen t s , a nd , t o al e s se re x ten t , f r om i s o la ted b a r row sa nd b a r row g r oup s( Chap te r3 ,s e c t ion 2 : 2a ; C hap te r4 ,s e c t ion s 3a nd 4 ) . Af u l l d e sc r ip t ion o ft h e c h rono logy a nd m a te r ia l c u l tu r e o f t h e g r oup i sg i ven i n C hap t e r2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 1 . T he l a rge m o r tua ry / se t t lemen tc omp lexe sa r eu sua l ly l o ca ted a tt h e i n te r face o f t h e l i me s tone p l a teau w i th d i sc re te l ow land b a s in s s u ch a st h eG ro sup l je p o l je , o rr i ve rv a l ley s s u ch a s t h o se o f t h e R ive r S ava , K rka a nd K o lpa ( Kupa ) . T he se l o ca t ion s g i ve a c ce s s t o t h e l i m i ted a r ea s o f p o ten t ia l ly a r ab le l a nd i nt h e l ow land a r ea s a nd t op l a teau l a nd w h ich m ay h ave b een u s ed f o r p a s to ra l a c t iv i t ie s ( s ee C hap te r 6 , s e c t ion 2 : 1 ) . H oweve r , m any o f t h e s i te s a r e l o ca ted o n l i ne s o f c ommun ica t ion a nd t r ade ( Chap te r 1 , s e c t ion 3 ) . Magda len ska g o ra d om ina te s t h e w e s ter n

T he i n te rna l o r gan i sa t ion o f b a r row b u r ia l c hanged i nt h e H a l l s ta t t Dp e r iod .T h is c hange may h ave h ad i t sr o o t si nt h e S t iCna 1a nd S t iC na 2p ha se s( s ee C hap t e r2 ,s e c t ion 2 :l ea nd s e c t ion 2 : 1 f ) ,b u ti sc l ea r ly v i s ib le i nt h eS e rpen t ifo rm p ha se ( s ee C hap t e r 2 , s e c t ion 2 : 1g ) . T h i s c h ange t o ok p l ace t h roughou t D o len jska a nd w a s c ha ra c te r ised b y t h e

7 8

S oc ia lO rgan isa t ion i nt h eS ou thea s tA lp ine R eg ion B e tween 1 000 B .C .a nd 3 00 B .C . a ppea rance o f ' S ippenhüge l ' b a r row s ( Gab rovec 1 980 , 4 4 ) . T h e ' S ippenhüge l ' b ar row c on ta ined c oncen t r ic r i ng s o f b u r ia ls , o f ten w i thou t ac en t ra l g rave . T he r i ng s o f b u r ia ls c an b e d iv ided i n to d i s t inc t c h rono log ica l g roup s , a nd t h e b a r row m igh t b e r a ised o r e x tended t oa ccommoda te m o re b u r ia l s ( Gab rovec 1 974 , 1 63187 ; T er ian 1 976 , 4 37-438 ) . T he m o r tua ry p opu la t ion o ft h e' S ippenhüge l 'b a r row sv a r ied , t h e b a r row s a t al a rge c en t r e s u ch a s Magda len ska g o ra c on ta ined a n a ve rage o f 5 0g rave l o t s p e rb a r row b u t w e re o f ten s ma l ler ,o ri n deed a sm any a s4 00 i n d iv idua ls m igh tb e p r e sen t a s i n Magda len ska g o ra B a r row X I I ( ANSL 1 975 , 2 00-201 ) , ' S ippenhüge l ' b a r rows o ccu r red o n as ma l le rs ca le a ts ma l l mor tuary / se t t lemen t s i te s s uch a s B ru sn ice ( Te r ian 1 974 , 3 1-66 ) , a nd a t i s o la ted b a r rows l i ke V o lC je n j ive ( Gab rovec 1 956 , 6 2-130 ) . S ome o f t h e b a r row s a t l a rge c en t r e s c on ta ined b u r ia ls d a t ing t o t h e P od zeme l j 2a nd S t iCna 1p hases ( Gab rovec , F rey , F o l t iny 1 970 , 1 9 ) , w h i l s t

P odzeme l j 1a nd P odzeme l j 2p ha ses a nd o c cu r red i nb a r row c eme ter ies , e . g . P od zeme l j g rave G r rn XX IX /2 ( Ba r th 1 969 , 1 37-138 ) a nd f l a t c eme te r ies , e . g . Me t l ika—Bo reek g rave 6( J .D u la r 1 979 ,6 7 ; T2 : 1-9 ) . T hese g raves c on ta ined t yp ica l o rnamen t s o f t h e se p ha se s , e . g . i r on a rm r ings a nd b ronze t wo— loop ed f i bu lae ( s ee C hap te r 2 ,s ec t ion 2 : 1c a nd s ec t ion 2 : 1d ) . T he r a nge o fa r tefac t s i nt ypo log ica l ly f ema le g raves g r ew w ide r o ve r t h e s ucceed ing p ha se s , b ronze r ep lac ing i r on a s t h e mo s t c ommon m e ta l , a nd n eck r ing s , h a i r r ing s , a nd e a r r ing s b ecame w idesp read . T he t ypes o f a r tefac t s v a r ied a cco rd ing t o t h e c h rono log ica l p ha se ( s ee C hap te r 2 , s e c t ion 2 : le t o s e c t ion 2 : 1 j ) , b u t t h e a c tua l a r tefac t s e t ma in ta ined c on s ide rab le i n ter na l i n teg r i ty u p t o t h ee nd o ft h eE a r ly I r on A ge . S ome c l a s se s o fa r tefac t w e re c ommon t ob o th t ypo log ica l ly ma le a nd t y po log ica l ly f ema le g rave s , i np a r t icu la r f i bu lae . F ibu la t ype s v a r ied o ve r t ime , t wo— looped b ow f i bu lae a nd

o the r s w e re f ounded i nt h e S e rpen t i fo rm a nd C er to sa p ha se s ( Te r-a n 1 976 , 4 38-439 ; ag t in , p e r s . c omm . ) . T he c on t inu i ty o fb u r ia l i ns ome b a r row s a nd t h e f ound ing o fn ew

v a r ie t ies o f N o r th I t a l ian f i bu lae b e ing c ha rac ter i s t ic o f t h e S t i& ta 1 a nd S t i& ra 2 p ha se s ( Chap te r 2 , s ec t ion 2 : le a nd

b a r row si si nd ica t ive o fc o rpo ra te d e scen t g roup s ,p e rhap s a s egmen ta ry l i neage s y s tem w h ich w ou ld e xp la in t h e p ro l if e ra t ion o f b ar row s a t e ach s i te . T he ' S ippenhüge l ' b u r ia lr i te i sa l so r egu la r ly f ound i nt h e G la s inac g roup o ft h e C en t ra l B a lkans a nd i n Macedon ia ( Gab rovec 1 966 , 1 3-14 , 4 3 ) .

2 : 10 , a nd S e rpen t ifo rm a nd C e r to sa f i bu lae w e re t yp ica l o f t h e S e rpen t i fo rm , C e r to sa , E a r ly N egova a nd L a te Negova p ha ses ( s ee C hap te r 2 , s ec t ion 2 : 1g , 2 : 1h ; 2 : 1 i a nd 2 : 1 j ) . h on k n ives may a l so h ave a n a mb iguou s p o s i t ion i n t h e d i cho tomy . T he s exua l b a s is o f t h e t ypo log ica l d i cho tomy a ppa ren t i n t h e b a r row g rave s i s r e in fo rced b y t h e p hy s ica l a n th ropo log ica l d a ta f r om V o lC je n j ive ( Do l ina r—Oso le 1 956 , 1 31-136 ) . T h is i s o la ted b a r row , d a t ing t o t h e S e rpen t i fo rm a nd C er to sa p ha se s , y i e lded d a ta w h ich c on f i rm s t h e t y po log ica l ly—der ived d i cho tomy a bove .

T he a r tefac t a s semb lage s , w h ich w e re d epo s i ted i nt h e g rave s , s how p a t te rn ing i nd ica t ive o fs exua l d i cho tomy a nd ma rked s t a tus d i f f e ren t ia t ion , a p a t ter n ing w h ich w a s c on s i s ten t t h roughou t t h e D o len jska g roup o ve r t h e e n t i re E a r ly h on Age . T he s exua l d i cho tomy w a s l a rge ly d e term ined o n t ypo log ica l g round s a st h e re i sl i t t le p hys ica l

G raves , w h ich c on ta ined w eapon s a nd b e l t s e t s w e re i n deed ma le , b u t a r tefac t s e t s o f t y po log ica l ly f ema le c ha rac te r o ccu r red n o t o n ly i np hy s ica l ly f ema le g raves , b u t a l so i nt h e

a n th ropo log ica l e v idence a va i lab le , a l though t h e b a r row a t V o lc je n j ive i sa n i mpo r tan t e xcep t ion t ot h is , a nd p rov ides

g raves o f c h i ld r en u p t o a do le scence . T h is i mp l ies t h a t c h i ld ren w e re b u r ied a s ' f ema le ' r ega rd less o f s ex , a nd i n d ica te s t h a t c h i ld ren w e re r e ga rded s oc ia l ly a s f ema le . T hus t h e t ypo log ica l ly f ema le g rave s a t o t he r s i tes i n

d a ta w h ich r e in fo r ces t h e t ypo log ica l d i cho tomy ( Gab rovec 1 956 ,6 2130 ; Do l ina r—O so le 1 956 , 1 3 1-136 ) . T he t y po log ica l ly ma le g roup o f g raves c on ta ined a n a s semb lage c on s is t ing o f w eapon s a nd /o r ab e l t s e t . T he w eapon s s e t f i r s t a ppea red i n t h e P odzeme l j 1p ha se a t P odzeme l j i n g raves G rm 1 / 20 a nd S k i r i l je 1 /40 a nd c omp r i sed i r on s pea rhead s ( J . D u la r 1 979 , F ig . 6 ) . I tw a s

D o len jska p robab ly c oncea l s ome c h i ld b u r ia l s , w h ich may a ccoun t f o r t h e i mba lance b e tween t ypo log ica l ly ma le a nd f ema le a s semb lage s i ng rave s i nt h e Ha l l s ta t t Cp er iod . T he i n c rea s ing n umbe r s o f t ypo log ica l ly ma le g raves d u r ing t h e

f u l ly d eve loped i n t h e S t iCna 1p ha se , i nw h ich o ne o r t wo

c ou r se o ft h e H a l ls ta t t Da nd L a Une A a nd B p er iod s may

i r on s pea rhead s w e re f ound i n a s so c ia t ion w i th a n i r on s ocke ted a xe i nb a r row g raves a t m any s i tes i nD o len jska

t h en b e e xp la ined a s ac hange t ot h e b u r ia l o f ma le c h i ld ren i n as oc ia l ly ' ma le ' m anne r , a nd ac o r re spond ing d ec rea se i n t h e s t a tu s o f t h e t y po log ica l ly f ema le b u r ia l , a s i si n d ica ted

( Gab rovec 1 966 . 4 4 ; H encken 1 978 , 4 -7 ) . T h is w eapon o ccu r red r egu la r ly i n g rave l o t s t h roughou t t h e E a r ly I r on A ge , a l though i t wa s s ub jec t t o m ino r c hange s i n t h e l a te

b y t h e h i s tog rams i n App end ix 1 .I th a s b een s ugges ted t h a t i n ter na l d i s t inc t ion s w i th in t h e t ypo log ica l ly f ema le a s semb lage s a t P odzeme l j , S t ia la a nd V aCe r e la te t o t h e

N egova p ha se ( s ee C hap te r 2 , s e c t ion 2 : 1 j ) . T he b e l t s e t c omp r ised a n i r on o r b ronze b e l t p l a te a nd /o r h ook a nd b ronze s t rap a nd r i ng a t tachmen t s . I tt o o w a s f u l ly d eve loped i nt h e S t iCna 1p ha se a nd r ema ined i nu se u n t i l t h ee nd o ft h e f ou r th c en tu ry B .C . , a l though L a Une i r on Koppe l r inge '

f am i l ia l s t a tu s o f w omen , s uch a s c h i ld , u nma r r ied w oman a nd ma r r ied w oman ( Teaan 1 985 , 1 01-102 ) . S ta tu s d i f f e ren t ia t ion i s h i gh ly v i s ib le . T he l owes t l e ve l , w h ich c an b e d i s t ingu ished , a r e t h o se g rave l o t s , w h ich

w e re s ome t imes s ub s t i tu ted f o r t h e s t rap a nd r i ng a t tachmen t s i n t h e L a te N egova p ha se ( s ee C hap te r 2 , s e c t ion 2 : 1 j ) .

c on ta ined o n ly c e ram ic s o rw h ich w e r e w i thou tg rave g ood s ; s uch g rave s w e re c ommon i nB a r row X a t Magda len ska g o ra ( Hencken 1 978 , 6 5-80 ) , a nd B a r row Ia t B rez je ( K rome r 1 959 b , 1-19 ) , w he re 2 6 o f t h e 8 2 g raves c on ta ined n o

T he t ypo log ica l ly f ema le a r tefac t s e t w a s o f e qua l ly e a r ly o r ig in , a nd i sf u l ly d escr ibed i nC hap te r 2 ,s ec t ion 2 : 1a-1 j . T he e a r l ie s t t ypo log ica l ly f ema le g rave l o t s d a te t o t h e

g rave g ood s .

7 9

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia T h r ee l e ve l s o f h i e ra r chy c an b e d i s t ingu i shed i n t h e t y po log ica l ly m a le g r ave s . T he l owe s t g r oup a r e t h o se w i th a s semb lage sc on ta in ing o n ly b e l tse t s , a nd t h e s e cond g r oup c on s i s t s o f t h o se g r ave s w i th c omb ina t ion s o fw eapon s a nd b e l t s e t s . T e r ian ( 1 985 , 9 9103 ) f u r the r s ubd iv ide s t h i s s e cond g roup , b u t v a r ia t ion s i n w eapon s e t a r e n o t n ece s sa r i ly r e la ted t os o c ia l s t a tu s a s t h ey a r e q u i te s ma l l a nd m ay r ef l ec t a n e l emen t o f p e r sona l c ho ice , a nd a r e d i s tr ibu ted o ve r aw ide c h rono log ica l r a nge . T he se t wo s t a tu s g roup s a r e f o und i n a l l b a r row s b o th i n t h e l a rge c en t r e sa nd t h es ma l lc en t re s a nd i s o la t ed b a r row s .

u r n s a nd b ow l s t of o o ted v e s se l s e t s ( s ee C hap t e r4 ,s e c t ion 3 : 1 ) , ac hange r e la t ed t oc e r emon ia l f ea s t ing ( T e rian 1 980 , 3 46 , 3 51-352 ) . O the r f o re ig ne xo t ica i n c lud e t h e E t ru scan b r on ze b ow l a nd a r che ry e qu ipmen t i nt h e S t iaa A rmou r G rave ( Gab rovec 1 966 , F ig . 5 : 4 , F ig . 6 : 17-26 ) . T he b ron ze s wo rd o f Mö r igen t y pe i n t h e s ame g rave w a s t h e l a s t a pp ea ran ce o f s wo rd s i nt h e g r oup u n t i l t h e E a r ly N egova p ha se . T he i r on Maha i ra s wo rd s f ound i nB e la K ra j ina i n e l i te g r ave s w e r e w ide ly d i s t r ibu ted i n I t a ly a nd t h e S ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion ( s ee C hap te r6 ,s e c t ion 1 : 1c ) . As e r ie s o fw ea l thy t y po log ica l ly f ema le g r ave s a ppea r ed i n t h e S t iC na 1( s e e C hap te r 2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 1e ) a nd S t iCna 2( s ee C hap te r 2 , s e c t ion 2 : 10 p ha se s . T he se w e r e a n u nu sua l g r oup w i th in t h er a nge o ft y po log ica l ly f ema le a s semb lage s , w h ich i no t he rp ha se s w e re r ema rkab ly h omog enou s , mak ing i t d i f f icu l t t o d i s t ingu i sh s t a tu s g roup s . T he w ea l thy t y po log ica l ly f ema le e l i te g r ave so ft h e S t iCna 1p ha se w e r e c on f ined t oB e la K ra j ina a nd c on ta ined al a rge t y po log ica l ly f ema le a s semb lage a nd s h ee t g o ld t r efo i l s f r om ad i ad em o rh a i r or nam en t , e . g . 6nome l j g r ave s 1 / 1 , 1 / 2 a nd 2 / 1 ( J . D u la r 1 983 ,2 19-244 ) .

T he t h i rd g r oup c on s i s t s o fe l i t e t y po log ica l ly m a le g r ave s , w h ich w e r e m o s t c ommon ly f ound i n l a rge m o r tua ry c omp lexe s , a l though o cca s iona l e xamp le s h ave b een r e cove red f r om t h e s ma l le r s i te s , s u ch a s g r ave XX I / 1 a t B ru sn ice ( Ter ian 1 974 , 3 4 , 3 7 , T . 17 : 6 -8 ; T . 18 ) . T he e l i te a r te fac t s e t r e ached i t s f i na l a nd m o s t e x ten s ive f o rm i nt h e C e r to sa a nd E a r ly N egova p ha se s , b u tw a s p r e sen t f r om t h e P odzeme l j 2 p ha se . T he a s semb lage w a s v a r iab le i n c ompo s i t ion i nt h e H a l l s ta t t Cp e r iod i nc ompa r i son t ot h e m o re s t anda rd i sed s e t o f h i gh s t a tu s a r te fa c t s i n t h e f o l low ing p e r iod . E l i te a r te fac ts e t s w e re r e la t ive ly s imp le i nt h e P od zeme l j 2 p ha se . T he t y p ica l w eapon s s e t w a s s upp lemen ted b y a b ronze d i sc h e lme t ( S chü s se lhe lm ) i nt h e s ma l l n umb e r o f e l i te g rave s p r e sen t , s u ch a s g r ave V I / 13 a tS t iCna ( We l l s 1 981 , 7 5 , F ig . 1 44 ) a nd g r ave s 1 / 5 a nd V I / 5 a t B r ez je ( K rome r 1 959 b ,2 1 ,T .49 :4 ;2 1-22 ,T . 18 ,T . 19 :1-4 ) . T he t y po log ica l ly m a le e l i te g r ave o ft h eS t iC "na 1p ha se w a s c on sp icuou s ly w ea l thy ; t h i s p ha se h a s b een d e sc r ibed a s a ' P r ince ly H o r izon ' ( Gab rove c 1 966 , 2 6 , 2 8 ) , a nd f o re shadowed d eve lopmen ti nt h eC e r to sa a nd E a r ly N egova P ha se s . E lemen t s o f t h e e l i te a r te fa c t s e t p a ra l le l t h e e l i te a r tefac t s e t i nt h e se p ha se s . T he b a s ic t y po log ica l ly ma le a r tefa c t s e t w a s p r e sen t a nd w a s o f ten a ccompan ied b y a P icenetype c ompo s i te b ron ze h e lme t ( Ka lo t t enhe lm ) , e . g . , Magda len ska g o ra g r ave I V /3 ( Hencken 1 978 , 1 718 , F ig . 3 9 , F ig 4 0 ) . T h i s w a s t h e m o s t c ommon ly e l i te a r te fac t i n t h i s p ha se . B ronze c u i ra s se s w e re f o und i n t h e ' A rmou r G rave ' a t S t iCna ( Gab rove c 1 966 , 1 013 , F ig . 4 -F ig . 7 ) , S t iaa g r ave I V / 30 ( We l l s 1 98 1 , 6 2 , F ig . 8 5 ) a nd t h e N ovo m e s to ' A rmou r G rave ' ( Gab rovec 1 960 , 2 93-347 ) . H o r ser i d ing e qu ipmen t w a s f o und i nt h e S t ia la a nd N ovo m e s to ' A rmou r G rave s ' a nd i n t h e N ovo m e s to ' T r ipod G rave ' ( Gab rovec 1 968 , 1 79 ) . B ronze v e s se l s a ppea r ed f o r t h e f i r s t t ime i nt h i s p ha se a nd t o ge the r w i th t h e n ew c e ram ic s e t m a rk t h e g ene s i s o f t h e s ump tua ry s e t a s soc ia ted w i th c e remon ia l f e a s t ing , g ood e xamp le s o fw h ich w e re f o und i n t h eS t iCin aA rmou rG rave ( Gab rovec 1 966 , 1 3 ,F ig .7 )a nd t h e N ovo m e s to T r ipod G rave ( Gab rovec 1 968 , 1 77178 ) . T he c e r emon ia lf e a s t ing c omp lex i sf u r the rd i scu s sed b e low . T he a r te fac ts e t w a s s upp lemen ted w i th f o re ig ne xo t ica , m uch o f w h ich o r ig ina ted i n o r i m i ta ted I t a l ian m a te r ia l . I n t h i s c a tego ry a r e t h e b ron ze v e s se l s a nd h e lme t s , a sw e l l a st h e c e ram ic A pu l ian t y pe k ra te r sf o und i nB e la K ra ji na a nd , t oa l e s se r e x ten t , D o len j ska ( s ee C hap te r 6 ,s e c t ion s 1 : 1c ) . T he a ppea rance o ft h e se v e s se l s c o inc ided w i th ag ene ra l c hange i nt h e c e ram ic a s semb lage f r om L a te B ron ze A ge c i ne ra ry

8 0

E l i te g r ave l o t s i nt h e S t iaa 2 p ha se w e r e d om ina ted b y w ea l thy t y po log ica l ly f ema le g r ave l o t s , t y po log ica l ly m a le e l i te g r ave s b e ing a b sen t , a l though s ome o r d ina ry w eapon s g r ave s a r e k nown . T he e l i te a r te fac t s e t c omp r i sed l a rge q uan t i t ie s o f b r on ze or namen t s a nd g l a s s a nd /o r a mbe r b ead s ,e . g . Magda len ska g o ra V I I /40 ( Hen cken 1 978 ,5 859 , F ig . 2 60-262 ) a nd B rez je , g r ave X I I / 18 ( K rome r 1 959 , 3 23 ,T . 51 ) . Al i m i ted n umbe ro fg raves c on ta in ed ,i na dd i t ion , s h ee t g o ld t r e fo i l d i adem s a nd mo re r a r e ly s hee t g o ld n eck lace s ( Ka s te l ic 1 960 , 3 -26 ) . T he e l i t e t ypo log i ca l ly f ema le g r ave c on t inued i n a n a t tenua t ed f o rm i n t h e f o l low ing S e rpen t ifo rm p ha se , e . g . V a C ' e , A shmo lean f l a t g r ave 4 . I n t h e f o l low ing C e r to sa a nd N egova p ha se s t y po log ica l ly f ema le g r ave s w e re l e s s w e l l e qu ipped a nd a l so d ec l ined i nn umbe r s( s ee A ppend ix 1 ) . T he d eve lopmen t o f h i gh s t a tu s t ypo log i ca l ly ma le g r ave s d u r ing t h e H a l l s ta t t Da nd L a Une A p e r iod s w a s i ns h a rp c on t ra s t t o t h e s equen ce o f t y po log ica l ly f ema le g r ave s . T ypo log ica l ly ma le e l i te g r ave s r e app ea r ed t owa rd s t h e e nd o ft h e S e rpen t ifo rm p ha se . T he b a s ic w eapon s a nd b e l t s e t s w e r e u t i l i sed i nc on jun c t ion w i th b r on ze v e s se l s a nd h o r se r i d ing e qu ipmen t , e . g . Novo m e s to-Ma len sek ,g ave 1( Gu g t in a nd T er ian 1 977 , 7 7 , T .1 , T .2 ) a nd S t icna , g r ave V I /8 ( We l l s 1 981 , 7 3-74 , F ig . 1 38 ) . T h e e a r l ie s t e xamp le s o fb ron ze d oub le-c re s ted h e lme t s m ay d a te t o t h i s p ha se , e . g . Magda len ska g o ra g r ave V I I /39 ( Hen cken 1 978 ,5 8 ,F ig . 2 58-259 ) . T he h i gh s t a tu s a r te fa c t s e t r ea ch ed i t s h e igh t i n t h e t y po log ica l ly ma le e l i te g r ave s o f t h e C e r to sa a nd E a r ly N egova p ha se s i nt h e l a rge b a r row c eme te r ie s a s so c ia ted w i th m a jo r s e t t lemen t c omp lexe s . T h e b a s ic w eapon s a nd b e l t s e t w a s r e gu la r ly a s so c ia ted w i th ' S cy th ian ' s t y le h o r se r i d ing e qu ipmen t a nd b r on ze v e sse l s e t s , e . g . N ovo m e s toMa lenkk , g r ave 3 ( Guk in a nd T er ian 1 977 , 7 8 , T .4 ) . T he m a jo r i ty o f t h e e xamp le s o f d oub le c r e s ted h e lme t s w e re f ound i ne l i te g r ave s o ft h i sd a te , a sw e r et h ee a r l ie s tN egova

S oc ia lO rgan i sa t ion i nt h eS ou thea s tA lp ine R eg ion B e tween 1 000 B .C .a nd 3 00 B .C . h e lme t s ( s ee C hap te r 2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 1h ) . B ron ze v e s se l s s e em t oh ave f o rmed r e gu la r ly r e cu r r ing s e t s i nt h e C e r to sa a nd E a r ly N egova p ha se ( F igu re 3 8 ) . T he c on c lu s ion t h a t t h e se s e t s w e re r e la ted t o c e remon ia l f e a s t ing i sr e in fo rc ed b y S itula

Cista

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Mag.g. V/29

1

3

2

Mag.g. V/6-7-7a

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Mag.g.IV/32

1

1

1

1

Dol.Top. V/34

1

1

Dol.Top. V/17

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3

StiCna 1 1/4 Vade A .III

7

Brezje VII/16 VaCe Klenik/ VaCe A .I/

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Dol.Top.11/23 Dol.Top. V/36 Dol.Top. V/9

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1 3

2

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Libna Sp.II/1

e xam ina t ion o f t h e i c onog raph ic e v idence f r om ' S i tu la A r e , w h ich i sf ound o nb ron ze v e s se l s o f t h i s d a te i nD o len jska ( Knez 1 983 , 8 5105 ) .

1 1 1

1 1 1 1

StiCna 1 1/3

1

StiCna 1 1/6

1

StiCna VIII/2

1

Dol.Top. V/33

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2

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StiCna 1 1/7

F igu re 3 8 : B ronze V e s se lS e t si nH a l l s ta t t Da nd L aT ene A E l i te G rave si nt h eD o len j ska g roup T he ' S i t u la A r t ' o fD o len jska w a s c l o se ly r e la ted t ot h a t o f E s te a nd B o logna i nn o r the rn I t a ly ( Chap te r6 ,s e c t ion 1 : 1d ) a nd i sd i scu s sed i nm o re d e ta i lb e low . T he e l i te a r t ef ac ts e t w a s s upp lemen ted b y t h e u se o fe xo t ic m a te r ia l a nd i d ea s . T he r i te o fh o r se b u r ia lo b se r ved a tm any s i te s i nD o len jska , i n c lud ing Magda len ska g o ra ( Henck en 1 978 , 6 -7 ) , S t iCna ( Gab rove c 1 974 , 1 68169 a nd B okan j ( Guk in 1 974 , 9 9 ) , d u r ing t h eC e r to sa a nd E a r ly N egova p ha se s w a sp robab ly d e r ived f r om t h e S zen te s—Veke r zug g r oup i n t h e e a s t e rn C a rpa th ian b a s in ( Guk in a nd T e r ian 1 977 7 7-89 ) . T he ' S cy th ian ' a r che ry e qu ipmen t f o und t h roughou t D o len j ska , e . g . L ibna g rave V o l Can gek i i ( Guä in 1 976 , 4 4 , T . 57 : 2 10 ) , a nd t h e s ha f tho le a xe f r om V o l6 je n j ive g r ave 2 0 ( Gab rovec 1 956 , 8-89 , T . 1 7 ) h ave a s im i la r o r ig in . T h e c e ram ic a s semb lage a l so h a s a n e xo t ic c ompon en t , n ame ly t h e f oo ted s i tu la te v e s se l s w i th b l a ck a nd r e d p a in ted b and s , w h ich i m i ta te v e s se l s f r om E s te a nd S v . L uc i ja , a nd f i r s t a ppea r ed i nt h e S t iCna 2 p ha se ( J .D u la r 1 982 , 2 19-220 ) . Al i m i ted n umbe ro fi mpo r ted G r eek v e s se l s h ave a l so b een f ound ( J . D u la r 1 982 , 2 35 ) . I ti si n te r e s t ing t h a t t h e r e a r e s pe c if i ca l ly d r ink ing v e sse l s a nd a s s u ch w ou ld h ave m ean ing w i th in t h el o ca lc e ram ic s e t .

a r te f ac t s a ppea r ed . T he b ron ze N egova h e lme t w a s d epo s i ted i ng r ave c on tex t s ( s ee C hap te r 2 , s e c t ion 2 : 1 i ) . N ew e xo t ic a r tef ac t s w e r e a dop ted , m o s t n o tab ly f r om t h e L a T ene A g r oups i nC en t ra l E u rope . T he se i n c lude t h e e a r ly L aT ene s wo rd s w i th g o ld s cabba rd f i t t ing s i n g r ave s a t Magda len ska g o ra ( Te r ian 1 981 , 6 61-662 ) , a nd i t em s o fL aT ene b e l tf u rn i tu re a nd f i bu lae ( Te l-Z an 1 976 ,4 40 ) . T he L a te N egova p ha se , t h e f i na l p ha se o f t h e E a r ly l i on A ge , e xh ib i ted a c hange i n t h e m o r tua ry d a ta . N o e l i te g rave s h ave b een r e cove r ed . T he m o r tua ry r e co rd w a s d om ina ted o n a l l s i te s b y w eapon s g r ave s t o t h e v i r tua l e xc lu s ion o f t y po log ica l ly f ema le g r ave s ( s ee Append ix 1 ) . T he t y po log ica l ly ma le a r tef ac t s e t c on ta ined e l emen t s d e r ived f r om L a T ene B g r oup s i n t h e n o r thwe s te rn A lp s . T he se w e r e i d ea sr a the rt h an a c tua l a r te f ac t s . T he c hange i n a rmamen t f r om t wo t o o ne s pea rhead a nd t h e i n c rea sed n umbe r s o f K oppe l r inge i nt h e b e l t s e t a r e p a r t o f t h i s . T he f i bu la s e t a l so c hanged i n b o th t y po log ica l ly m a le a nd f ema le a s semb lage s , a nd l o ca l f o rm b r onze a rm r ing s a cqu i red r i ve ted t e rm ina l s( Te r ian 1 976 ,4 40-44 1 ,4 43 ) .T he i mp l ica t ion s o f t h i s a ppa r en t s o c ia l c hange a r e c on s ide red b e low .

T he t y po log ica l ly m a le e l i te a r te fac ts e to ft h ee a r ly N egova p ha se w a s s im i la r t o t h e p r eced ing C e r to sa p ha se s e t . H owev e r , i n a dd i t ion t o t h e t r ad i t iona l w eapon s , b r on ze v e s s le s a nd ' S cy th ian ' h o r se e qu ipmen t , an umbe r o f n ew

T he e v idence o fs o c ia l s t ra t if i ca t ion , s e t t lemen t h i e ra r chy a nd p r e s t ige c ompe t i t ion p r e sen ted a bove i n d ica te s t h a t t h e s oc ia lo r gan i sa t ion o ft h e D o len jska g r oup m ay b ed e sc r ibed

8 1

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia a s t h a t o f ar anked s oc ie ty u sed i n t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta a r e d er ived f r om S oc ia l A n th ropo logy . T he d eve lopmen t a nd c l a ss if ica t ion o f r anked s oc ie t ie s f o rmed p a r t o f a s oc ia l e vo lu t iona ry s choo l o f s o c ia l a n th ropo log ica l r e sea rch , a nd h a s a n e x ten s ive l i t e ra tu re , m uch o f w h ich i sc oncer ned w i th P o lyne s ia ( Sah l in s 1 958 ; 1 963 , 2 85-303 ; S erv ice 1 967 , 1 975 ; F r ied 1 967 ; K i r ch 1 984 ) . I t i s n o t s ugges ted h e re t h a t t h e re i s a ny g r ea t s im i la r i ty b e tween r anked s oc ie t ie s i n E a r ly I r on A ge E u rope a nd P o lyne s ia , ma in ly d ue t o t h e s oc ia l b ackg round a nd e x t reme e nv i ronmen ta l c on s t ra in t s i nP o lyne s ia ( K i r ch 1 984 , 1 7-69 , 1 23-151) , b u t t h is w o rk d oe s p rov ide a t h eo re t ica lf r amewo rk i nw h ich t oc on s ide rt h e m a te r ia l , a nd g i ves a n i n s igh t i n to t h e n a tu re o fr ank ing , c ompe t i t ion a nd r ed is t r ibu t ion . A p ionee r w o rk a pp ly ing a n th ropo log ica l t h eo ry t o a r chaeo log ica l d a ta i s t h a t o f H e lms ( 1979 ) i n r e con s tr uc t ing t h e P re—Co lumb ian c h iefdom s o f P anama , u s ing a r chaeo log ica l d a ta , S pan ish l i t e ra ry s ou r ce s a nd moder n e t hnog raph ic d a ta . T he e l i te a r tefac t s e t i s s pec if ica l ly d ea l t w i th , a nd t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween c h ief ly p owe r a nd p res t ige e xchange ( He lms 1 979 , 7 -179 ) . C h iefdom a nd r anked s oc ia l mode ls h ave p roved p opu la r a s e xp lana t ion s o f t h e d om inan t f o rm o fs oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion i n E a r ly l i on A ge E u rope . T he ma jo r i ty o f s t ud ie s h ave c oncen t ra ted o n t h e b e t te r—known ma te r ia l f r om t h e Wes te rn Ha l l s ta t t c u l tu ra l p rov ince ( F ranken s te in a nd R ow land s 1 978 , 7 3-112 ; Ha rke 1 979 ; R ow land s 1 980 , 1 5-55 ; We l l s 1 980 ) . Af u r the r a r ea o f i n te re s t i st h e e v idence f o r t h e f l uc tua t ion i nd eg ree o fr ank ing t h rough t ime , p a r t icu la r ly t h e Ma rx is t—S t ruc tu ra l is t mode l e mp loyed t o e xp la in t h e s oc ia l p henomena i nh on A ge D enma rk ( Pa rke r—Pea r son 1 984 ,5 9-71 ) .

T he c on s t ruc t ion o f t h e b a r row , w h ich i sd i scussed a bove , a nd t h e n a tu re o f t h e mor tua ry l o t s s ugge s t s t h a t t h e c o rpo ra te d e scen t g roup o ccup ied a n i mpo r tan t p o s i t ion i n t h e r anked s oc ie ty . E v idence f o r t h is w a s p re sen t f r om t h e P odzeme l j 2p ha se . F ound ing g raves i n t h i s p ha se w e re f r equen t ly i nD o len jska p rope ra tl e a s t ,n on e l i te i nc ha rac te r , e . g . Magda len ska g o ra g raves V I /24 ( Hencken 1 978 , 4 6 , F ig . 1 98 ) , I V / 14 ( Hencken 1 978 , 1 9 , F ig . 5 0 ) a nd S t i na g rave s 1 / 100 ( Na rodn i m uze j ) a nd 1 / 10 1 ( Na rodn i m uze j ) ( Gab rovec , F r ey , F o l t iny , 1 970 , 1 9 . ) . T he p resence o f t h e o t he r t wo t o t h ree s t a tu s g roup s may s ugge s t t h a t ab road c r o ss s e c t ion o f ad escen t g roup w a s b u r ied , a n o b se rva t ion r e in fo rced b y t h e l o ng p e r iod o f u se o f s ome b a r row s . H oweve r i ti sd i f f icu l t t oa scer ta in w he the r t h is w a s at o ta l p opu la t ion o ro n ly ah i ghe rs t a tu sp opu la t ion . T he t empo ra l d imen s ion p e rm i t s f u r the r d educ t ion s t o b e m ade a bou t t h e s t ruc tu re a nd f unc t ion o f t h e e l i te s y s tem . H ighe s t s t a tu s b u r ia l s w e r e n o t c on f ined t empo ra l ly a nd s pa t ia l ly t o as i ng le b a r row o rg roup o fb a r row s , i n ab a r row c eme te ry ( s ee A ppend ix 1 ) . I ns ome b a r rows s uch a sb a r row X a t Magda len ska g o ra ( Append ix 1 : 13 ) n o e l i te g rave s w e re p re sen t ; i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h e p opu la t ion s i n s ome b a r row sr ep r e sen t l owe rs t a tu s i nd iv idua l so rd e scen tg roup s . T he d i f f e ren t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o fh i gh s t a tu s g raves i nt ime a nd s pace r ef lec t s c ompe t i t ion b e tween i n d iv idua l s a nd c o rpo ra te d escen t g roup s f o r s oc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l p owe r , a nd t h e r e la t ive s ucce ss o f t h e se g roup s , a s i s s hown b y t h e h i s tog ram s i nA ppend ix 1 .T he p ro l if e ra t ion o fb a r rows a ta s i te m ay b e i n te rp re ted a s t h e e xpan s ion a nd r am if ica t ion o f c o rpo ra te d e scen t g roup s a s soc ia ted w i th ap a r t icu la rc en t re . T he r e la t ive i n f requency o fe l i te b u r ia l s a nd s ma l le r s i ze o f b a r row s , b o th i n d imen s ion a nd b u r ia l p opu la t ion , a t t h e s ma l le r s i te s i si n d ica t ive o f al owe r p o s i t ion i nt h e r ank ing s y s tem . T he B ru sn ice c eme tery ( Te r ian 1 974 , 4 6-48 ) , t h e

A m ax imum o f t h ree o r p o s s ib ly f ou r l e ve ls o f s t a tu s d i f f e ren t ia t ion w e re p resen t t h roughou t t h e E a r ly i r on A ge i n D o len jska . T he h ighe s t s t a tu s l e ve l r ep resen ted b y t h e

B o§ tan j i s o la ted b a r row s ( Gd s t in 1 974 a ,9 9-100 ) a nd t h e V o lZ je n j ive b a r row ( Ter ian 1 976 , 4 37-438 ) a l so h ad a s ha l lowe r t empo ra l d imen s ion , a nd m ay r ep re sen t l o ca l d e scen tg roup s . T hey may h ave b een d ep enden to n t h e l a rge r

t ypo log ica l ly m a le e l i te g rave s a nd t h e t ypo log ica l ly f ema le e l i te g raves o ft h e S t i& la 1a nd S t iCna 2p ha ses w a s d ef ined b y a s pec if ic a r tefac t s e t d i scus sed a bove , w h ich w a s i n te rna l ly c on s is ten t o ve r mo s t o f t h e p e r iod a nd l a rge ly

c en t re s , a nd t h e c essa t ion o f b u r ia l m igh t r ep resen t g row ing d om inan ce o f e l i te s b a sed i nt h e l a rge mo r tua ry / se t t lemen t

l im i ted t o t h e ma jo r b a r row c eme te r ies a s soc ia ted w i th t h e l a rge h i l l fo r t s e t t lemen t s . T he s e cond s t a tu s l e ve l ,

c omp lexe so ve rt h e se s i te s .

c omp r is ing t h e g rave s w i th t h e b a s ic t ypo log ica l m a le s e t , a nd t h e g rave s w i th t ypo log ica l ly f ema le a s semb lage s , w a s

T he

p re sen t t h roughou t t h e d u ra t ion o f t h e D o len jska g roup a nd

g rave s w a s ar e su l t o f p res t ige c ompe t i t ion .

w a s f ound i na l l b u r ia l c on tex ts o n a l l c l a s ses o f s i te . T he p o s s ib le t h i rd l e ve l w i th in t h e t ypo log ica l ly ma le s e tw a s t h e

o bv iou s e v idence f o r t h is l i es i nt h e c ompe t i t ion o ft h e h i gh

s h i f t ing

t empo ra l a nd s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f e l i te T he mo s t

s t a tu s a r te fac t s e t s . T he d i scuss ion a bove s how s t h a t a r e gu la r e l i t e s e t d eve loped b y t h e S t i aa 1 p ha se a nd

g rave s w i th o n ly b e l t s e t s a nd n o w eapon s . T he f ou r th a nd l owes tl e ve l w a st h eg roup o fg raves w i th n o g rave g ood s o r

ma in ta ined i t s i n teg r i ty , a pa r t f r om t h e S t iCna 2p ha se , u p t o t h e e nd o f t h e E a r ly N egova p ha se . H oweve r , i tr egu la r ly i n c luded f o re ign e xo t ica o r i m i ta t ion s o f f o re ign a r tefac t s i n i t ia l ly d e r ived f r om t h e No r th I t a l ian a r ea a nd l a te r

o n ly c e ram ic s , a nd w a s a l so f ound o n a l lc l a sse so fm o r tua ry s i te . U n fo r tuna te ly t h is g roup o fg raves i se x t reme ly d i f f icu l t t o d a te a ccu ra te ly d ue t o t h e l a ck o f d iagno s t ic a r te fac t s ,

w i th t h e l a rge mo r tua ry s e t t lemen t c omp lexe s a t t h e a pex

s upp lemen ted b y ma te r ia l f r om C en t ra l E u rope a nd t h e P annon ian P la in . T he u se a nd c on t ro l o f f o re ign e xo t ica , s ymbo l is ing c onnec t ion s w i th e x t ra— reg iona l g roup s , w a s

a nd t h e s ma l le r mo r tua ry / s e t t lemen t s i te s b e low a nd p o ss ib ly d ependen to nt h em . U n fo r tuna te ly , i ti si mpo s s ib le

ar egu la r m e thod o f ma in tenance o fh i gh s t a tus p o s i t ion a nd i sw e l l d ocumen ted i nt h e e t hnog raph ic d a ta ( He lm s 1 979 ,

u n l ike t h e u ppe r t wo t o t h ree l e ve ls . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e se g rave s make s i tp o ss ib le t op o s i t as e t t lemen th i e ra r chy

1 29-143 ;

t o d eve lop t h is f u r the r , d ue t o t h e l a ck o f e xcava t ion o f s e t t lemen t s i te s , a nd t h e d i f f icu l ty o f f i t t ing i nt h e s ma l l h i l lfo r t s i te s , w i thou t a s soc ia ted mo r tua ry d a ta , i n to t h i s s c hema .

K i rch

1 984 ,

2 19 ,

2 38-242 )

a nd

i n

t h e

a r chaeo log ica l d a ta r e la t ing t ot h e E a r ly I r on A ge i nC en t ra l E u rop e( F ranken s te in a nd R ow land s 1 978 ,7 3-112 ) .

8 2

S o c ia lO rgan i sa t ion i nt h eS ou thea s tA lp ine R eg ion B e tween 1 000 B .C .a nd 3 00 B .C . P r e s t ig e c omp e t i t ion a mong s t t h e D o len jska g roup w a s a r t i cu la ted b y ac e r emon ia l f e a s t ing c omp lex . T h i s i s i n d i ca t ed b y t h e c hange i n t h e c e ram ic a s semb lage i n t h e S t iaa 1p ha se f r om t h e t r ad i t iona l u nf ie ld s e t t o an ew s e t c ompo sed o f f oo ted v e s se ls a nd d r ink ing v e s se l s ( s ee a bove ) . A t t h i s t ime t h e f i r s t s e t s o f b ronze v e s se l s a pp ea r ed . T he b r onze t r ipod ,s i tu la a nd s t ra ine rf r om N ovo m e s to ( s ee A ppend ix 1 : 15 ) w e r e a l l i t em s r e gu la r ly a s so c ia ted w i th t h e c e remon ia l c on sump t ion o f a l coho l ( Team 1 980 , 3 43 , 3 52 ) . S e t s o fb ron ze v e s se l s a nd c e ram ic d r ink ing s e t s b ecame mo r e c ommon i nt h e S e rpen t i fo r rn , C e r to sa a nd E a r ly N egova p ha se s ( s ee F igu re 3 8 ) . T he n a tu r e o ft h is c omp lex c an b e b e t te r u nde r s tood , a tl e a s t i n t h e s i x th a nd f i f th c en tu r ie s B .C . , b yr e f e r ence t oS i tu la A r t , T he i c onog raph ic e v idence f r om D o len jska , a sw e l l a sE s te a nd B o logna , s how s ac e r emon ia l d r ink ing r i te , u s ing t h e v e s se l sf o und i nb u r ia lc on tex t s( A . E ibne r 1 981 , F ig . 1 ,2 64 , 2 70 , 2 72 , 2 73 ) . L inked t o t h e se a r e d ep ict ion s o f c ha r io t r a c ing , h o r se r i d ing , b ox ing , w a r f a r e a nd h un t ing . T h i s ' Game s ' c omp lex h a s b een d i scu s sed b y m any a u tho r s ( Lucke a nd F rey 1 962 ; K rome r 1 980 , 2 25-240 ; A . E ibne r 1 981 , 2 61-296 ) , b u t c an b e e xp la ined a s b e ing p a r t o f a c yc le o fe l i te c ompe t i t ion l i nked t ot h e c e remon ia l d r ink ing s i te . T h e d ep ic t ion s o ff i gu r e s l e ad ing h o r se s o n t h e s e cond s i tu la f r om Novo m e s to-Kand i ja , g r ave 1 V /3 ( Knez 1 973 , 3 13-315 , F ig . 2 6 ) m igh t r ep r e sen t g i f t-g iv ing , c e r ta in ly t h e p o s i t ion o f h o r se r i d ing e qu ipmen t a nd h o r se s i n b u r ia l c on tex t s i s s ugge s t ive o f h i gh s t a tu s a nd p r e st ige v a lue . T he r e f o r e h i gh s t a tu s c ou ld b e g a ined a nd m a in ta ined b y p a r t ic ipa t ion i n t h e p r e s t ige s phe re , r e p re sen ted b y c e remon ia l d r ink ing a nd c ompe t i t ion , w h ich a r t icu la ted c e r emon ia l e xchange ( He lm s 1 979 ,6 8-69 ) . A cce s s t oh i gh s t a tu s d oe s t o s ome e x ten t s e em t oh ave b een l im i ted t oa n umb e ro fc o rpo ra te d e scen tg r oup s ,r e p re sen ted b yb a r row s , a t a ny o ne s i te , a nd c ompe t i t ion o pe ra ted a ta n i n t ras i te l e ve la sw el a sa ta ni n te rs i te l e ve l . T he c ha ra c te ro f t h ec o rpo ra te d e scen t g roup s i nD o len j ska a nd t h e r o le t h ey p l ayed i np r e s t ige e xchange i sd i ff i cu l t t oa s se s s . T he t e rm l i neage h a s b e en u sed t od e sc r ibe t h em ( Co l l i s 1 9 84 , 8 2 , 8 3 ) , b u tt h e n a tu re o ft h ek i n sh ip s y s tem i s n o tc l ea r . T he p re sen ce o fe l i t e t y po log ica l ly f ema le g r ave s c ou ld b e t a ken a s e v idence o f ab i la te ra l k i n sh ip s y s t em , w h ich b e came i n c r ea s ing ly a g na t i c a st i me p rog re s sed . T h i s m igh t e xp la in t h e p rog re s s ive i n c r ea se i nt h e p ropo r t ion o f t h e w eapon s g rave s i n b a r row s . H oweve r , i ti s e qua l ly p o s s ib le t h a t t h e e l i t e f ema le a s semb lage s r ep re sen ted a n a l ter na t iv em e thod o f ' ma le 'e l i te d i sp lay . S ome h i gh s t a tu s t ypo log ica l ly ma le g rave s c on ta ined e l emen t s o f t h e t ypo log i ca l ly f ema le a s semb lag e , s u ch a s t h e g l a s s-bead n eck la c e s a nd a rm r ing s i nN ovo m e s to-Kand i ja , g r ave I V /3 ( Knez 1 978 , 1 25-149 ) , i n d ica t iv eo f t h ed om ina t ion o fa l l s ec t ion s o f s oc ie ty b y t h e e l i te . I ti sn o t c e r ta in t h a t e l i te s h e r e h ad a r ed i s t r ibu t ive f u n c t ion . E l i te a r t efac t s w e r e c onf in ed t o h i gh s t a tu s g r ave s a nd d i d n o t s how a p rog re s s iv ly r e s t r ic ted d ownwa rd m ob i l i ty a si nt h e We s ter n H a l l s ta t t c u l tu ra l p rov inc e ( F ranken s te in a nd R ow land s 1 978 , 7 3112 ) . T he c e remon ia l f e a s t ing a nd d r ink ing c omp lex m igh th ave i n vo lved t h es u ppo r to fa ni n d iv idua lb y ac o rpo ra t e d e scen t g r oup i n o r d e r t o g i ve a f e a s t , a nd f e a s t ing m ay h ave p e r fo rmed ar e d i s t r ibu t ive f u nc t ion . T h i s

8 3

r ema in s u nc lea r i n adequa te .

a s s e t t lemen t

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d a ta

i s

T he c o l lap se o f t h e e l i te i nt h e L a te N egova p ha se ( s ee C hap te r2 , s e c t ion 2 : 1 j )w a sd ue t o an umbe ro ff a c to r s . T he u t i l i sa t ion o fL aT en e m a te r ia l i ne l i te c on tex t s i nt h e E a r ly N egova p ha se a nd t h e p r e sen ce o f L a T äne i nf luenced m a t e r ia li nt h el a te N egova p ha se h a sb een d i scu ssed a bove . T h i s c an b e s e en i np a r t a s a n a dop t ion o f e l i te f o rm s b y l owe rs t a tu sg r oup s ,w h ich i nt u rn l owe red t h ep r e s t ige v a lue o ft h e se f o rm s . T he l a ck o fe l i te g r ave s i nt h e L a te N egova p ha se d i d n o t s i g na l ac hange i n b u r ia l r i te . ' S ippenhüge l ' b a r row s r ema ined i n u se , b u t w e r e n ow d om ina ted b y w eapon s g r ave s . T he p a ra l le l n a t u re o f t h e L a T äne B a nd D o len jska w eapon s e t s a nd d r e s s s e t s ( Ter ian 1 976 , 4 404 41 , 4 43 ) w a s ar e su l t o f i n c rea s ing c on tac t b e tween t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion a nd L a T äne B g roup s i nC en tra l E u rope . T he l a te f ou r th c en tu ry B .C . w a s t h ep e r iod o fL a T äne e xpan s ion i n to t h eP annon ian P la in , t h e B a lkan s , a nd n o r th er n I t a ly , a nd t h e e xpan s ion o f w eapon s g r ave s i n D o len j ska w a s r e f lec ted b y t h e a ppea ran ce o f w eapon s g r ave s a mong s t t h e E s te a nd S v . L uc i ja g roup s t ot h e w e s t a nd i nt h e n o r th-we s t B a lkan s t ot h e e a s t ( Te r ian 1 977 , 9 2 1 ) . T he i n c r ea sed p r e s su re o ft h e e xpand ing L aT äne u s ing g r oup s w ou ld h ave r e s t r ic t ed a cce ss t o t r ad i t iona l p r e s t ige g ood s f r om t h e S zen te s-Veke rzug g roup i n t h e e a s ter n H unga r ian P la in , s hown b y t h e l a ck o f ' S cy th ian ' h o r ser i d ing e qu ipmen t . I tw ou ld h ave d i s rup ted t h e a mb e r r ou te t h rough T ran sdanub ia ( s ee C hap te r6 ,s e c t ion 1 : 3 ) a nd w i th i t t h ec i r cum-Ad r ia t ic ' S i tu la 'c omp lex . 3 : 2 T he R eg iona lS y s tem . T he d i scu s s ion o f r a nked s o c ie ty a nd p r e s t ige e xchange i n s e c t ion 3 : 1 c an b eu sed t oi n te rp re t t h er e g iona l a nd t empo ra l p a t te rn p r e sen ted b y t h e a r chaeo log ica ld a ta f r om D o len jska ( s ee F igu r e 3 9 ) . T he c h ang ing i n t e rs i te d i s t r ibu t ion o fe l i te m a te r ia l r e p r e sen t s t h e o u tcome o f c ompe t i t ion b e tween l o ca l ly b a sed e l i te s f o r p r e s t ige , s o c ia l s t a tu s a nd p o l i t ica l p owe r , a nd a c ce s s t o s ca r ce m a te r ia l r e sou rce s . I ti s d i ff i cu l tt od o cumen tt h ea c tua lp roce sse s o fe l i te i n te rac t ion , b u t t h e f o l low ing s h ow s t h e o u tcome o f t h em . T he r i se o f r anked s o c ie ty i n D o len jska w a s p a r t o f ar e spon se t o a g ene ra li n ten s if ica t ion i nl o ng d i s tan ce e xchange i nt h eE a r ly h on A ge . R anked s o c ie t ie s s e em t oh ave b een b e t te r a b le t o c on t ro la nd f o s t e re x change a c t iv i t ie s( Row land s 1 984 , 1 53 ) , i np a r t g ene ra t ing t h e n eed f o r p r e s t ige g ood s b y t h e i r v e ry e x i s t en ce . T he s phe r e o f e x ter na l c on tac t s i sd i scu s sed i n C hap te r6 ,s e c t ion 1 . T he d om inan tc e n t r e si nt h eP odzeme l j 2p ha se w e re s i tua ted i n B e la K ra j ina a t C . r n ome l j ( Chap te r 4 , s e c t ion 3 : 11 ) , D raga t u g ( Chap te r 4 , s e c t ion 3 : 1m ) Me t l ika ( Chap t e r 4 , s e c t ion 3 : 1c ) a nd P odzeme l j ( Chap te r4 ,s e c t ion 3 : 1n ) a nd i n t h e m idd le K rka r i ve r v a l ley a tA m a r j e t a ( V .S ta rä 1 973c ) . T he d i scu s s ion i n S ec t ion 2 p o s i ted a mode l f o r t h e d eve lopmen to ft h o se u nde rt h es t imu lu s o fg r ea te ra c ce s s t o n ew i n t en s i f ied e xchange a c t iv i t ie s r e p r e sen ted b y t h e ' O rnamen t H or i zon ' . T he se c en t r es o ve r shadowed t h e f ounda t ion o f c e n t r e s i nt h e r e s t o f D o len jska . I n i t ia l ly t h e s i te s o f Magda len ska g o ra ( Chap te r 4 ,s e c t ion 3 : 1d ) , S t iCna

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia ( Chap te r4 ,s e c t ion 3 : 1e ) a nd V aCe ( Chap te r4 ,s ec t ion 3 : 1f ) i n w e s ter n D o len jska , B rez je n ea r T rebe lno i n c en t ra l

D o len jska ( Chap te r 4 , s ec t ion 3 : 1h ) a nd L ibna ( Chap te r 4 , s ec t ion 3 : 1k ) i n e a s te rn D o len jska , h ad

7 50

7 00

6 50

6 00

5 50

5 00

4 50

4 00

3 50

3 00

BC

BC

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L jubljana Magdalenska gora Stiäna VaCe BoStanj Brezje Brusnice Dolenjske Toplice Novo mesto Voläje n jive Libna

DragatuS Podzemelj

F igu re 3 9 : D u ra t ion o fE a r ly I r on A ge C eme tery S i te s i nD o len jska . r e la t ive ly s ma l l mo r tua ry p opu la t ion s , b u t b u r ia l w a s i n b a r rows , a nd h i l lfo r t s w e re a ppa ren t ly c on s tr uc ted a t t h i s

a r tefac t s e t a nd b y i n f e rence i n t h e p r e s t ige s phe r e

t ime ( Gu g t in 1 987 , 1 00121 ) ( s ee Map 7 ) . I ndeed h i gh s t a tu s P odzeme l j 2b u r ia ls h ave b een r e cove red f r om S t iCna , B rez je a nd f r om V e l ike Ma lence ( V . S ta r e 1 960 , 5 0-87 ) i n e a s ter nD o len jska . T he r ap id s p read o fv i s ib le r ank ing w a s a r e su l to ft h er e la t ive s ucce ss i ns oc ia lc ompe t i t ion b yt h ec o re a r ea i nB e la K ra j ina a nd o n t h e m idd le K rka r i ve r , a nd t h e i r e mu la t ion b y t h e p er iphe ry i nw e s te rn , C en t ra l , a nd e a s te rn D o len jska . T he

i n

D o len jska i s i mpo r tan t , a s t h is ma te r ia l w a s a b sen t f r om B e la K ra j ina . I tw ou ld a ppea r t ha t t h e t r ade r ou te s i nt h e s i x th a nd f i f th c en tu r ie s B .C . h ad s h i f ted f r om t h e K o lpa ( Kupa ) r i ve r v a l ley t ot h e K rka r i ve r v a l ley ( s ee C hap te r 1 , s e c t ion 4 ) . T he ma in e l i te c en t res w e r e c oncen t ra ted i n w es ter nD o len jska , t h e K rka r i ve rv a l ley a nd t h e K rka—Sava w a te r shed ( s ee Map 8 ) . E a s te rn p re s t ige ma ter ia l c on t inued t oe n te rt h e e xchange n e two rk , p robab ly v i a t h e K riko p o l je , w i tne ss t h e c oncen t ra t ion o f ' S cy th ian ' m a ter ia l a t L ibna ( Chap te r4 ,s e c t ion 4 : 1 j ) .

o u tcome o f t h is p roce s s c an b e s een i n t h e S t iCna 1 L a rge mo r tua ry p opu la t ion s w e re p r e sen t o n mo s t o f t h e s i tes i n D o len jska d u r ing t h e S t i aa 2 , S e rpen t ifo rm a nd C er to sa p ha se s . E l i te b u r ia ls w e re p r e sen t a t a l l t h e l a rge r

p ha se , w hen l a rge r mo r tua ry p opu la t ion s a nd e l i te g rave s w e re p re sen t o n many o f t h e a bove s i te s a nd a tn ew s i te s s uch a s Novo m es to ( Knez

1 972 , 1 02-105 ) .

T he r i se o f

S t icna a s ama jo rc en t re i nD o len jska c an b es een i nt h e l a rge n umbe ro fe l i te g rave s p resen t a tt h e s i te ( Chap te r4 ,s e c t ion

c en t re s a nd o ccu r r ed i na t tenua ted f o rm a ts ma l le r s i te s l i ke

3 : 1e ) . T he t r ad i t iona l f l a t c eme tery a tL jub l jana ( Chap te r 4 ,

p re s t ige c omp lex w a s a ti t s h e igh t i nt h e se p ha se s a nd t h e re i s s ome e v iden ce t h a t n ew c en tre s w e re f ounded i n t h e C e r to sa p ha se , e . g . D o len jske T op l ice ( Te rian 1 976 , 4 42 ) .

B ru sn ice ( Te rian

s ec t ion 3 : 1a ) d ec l ined , b u t p r ev iou s ly h ad h ad s uper io r a cce ss t o t h e e xchange s y s tem . I tr e ta ined t h e U rn f ie ld s oc ia l s ys tem , a nd w a s i n c rea s ing ly s upp lan ted b y t h e n ew

w i th

b e t te r

a cce ss

t o e l i te s

t o a nd

c on t ro l

T .18 ) . T he

n i che i nt h e e xchange n e two rk c r ea ted b y t h e i n ten s if ica t ion o fe xchange a nd c ompe t i t ion .

e xp lana t ion c an b e p o s i ted f o r V aCe a nd L ibna , l o ca ted a t e i the re nd o ft h e S ava g o rge s . P res t ige m a ter ia l w a si n sp i red b y n or th I t a l ian a nd B a lkan a r tefac t s a nd i d ea s , w h ich may D o len jska

3 7 , T . 17 :6-8 ;

T h i s c ou ld r e p re sen t a n e xpans ion i n p opu la t ion , b u t i s e qua l ly a t t r ibu tab le t ot h e e xpan s ion o fa n e l i te t oe xp lo i t a

c en t res o f Vge , SWna a nd Magda len ska g o ra . T he r i se o f Novo m es to w a s t h e r e su l t o f i t s p o s i t ion o n t h e c ommun ica t ion s r ou te t h rough t h e K rka v a l ley . A s im i la r

h ave b een mo re r ead i ly a va i lab le

1 974 , 3 4 ,

T he E a r ly N egova p ha se p resen t s a n e n t ire ly d i f f e ren t

b a sed i n

p i c tu re .T he c en t res i ne a s te rn a nd c en t ra lD o len jska s u f f e red ad ec l ine i nm o r tuary p opu la t ion . T h r ee b a r rows c on t inued i n

o f i r on

u se a tB rez je , w i th o n ly as i ng le e l i te g r ave . T he s ma l l s i tes a tB ru sn ice a nd a round B ohan j i nc en t ra l Do len jska w en to u t

p roduc t ion ( s ee C hap te r 1s e c t ion 3 : 2 ) t h an t h e L jub l jana s i te ( s ee Map 7 ) .

o f u se . Mo s t i mpor tan t ly t h e e l i te c en tre o f S t i aa w a s w i thou tb u r ia l s l a te r t h an t h e C er to sa p ha se . I mpo r tan te l i te

T he e l i te c en t res i nB e la K ra j ina d ec l ined i ni mpo r tance o ve r

g rave s h av e b een f ound a t Magda len ska g o ra , V ace , D o len jske T op l ice a nd Novo mes to—Kand i ja ( Te r ian 1 976 ,

t h er ema inde ro ft h e E a r ly I r on A ge a f te r t h e S t iCna 1p ha se ,

4 39-441 ; 1 981 , 6 62 ; K nez 1 973 , 3 09-336 ) . Magda len ska g o ra w a s t h e d om inan t c en tre i nw e s te rn Do len jska a l ong

t ot h e e x ten t t h a t i nt h e L a te N egova p ha se o n ly as i ng le g rave w a s p r esen t a t P odzeme l j . B u r ia l a t C 'r nome l j a nd D raga td g c ea sed a f te r t h e S t iC r ia 1 p ha se . T he i n c rea s ing i mpo r tance o f n o r th a nd c en t ra l I t a l ian m a te r ia l i nt h e e l i te

w i th V aCe , L jub l jana a nd S t iCna h av ing f a l len o u t o f u se . T he w e s ter ne nd o ft h e e xchange n e two rk w i th n o r ther nI t a ly

8 4

S oc ia lO rgan i sa t ion i nt h eS ou theas tA lp ine R eg ion B e tween 1 000 B .C .a nd 3 00 B .C . a nd C en t ra l E u rope w a s c on t ro l led b y Magda len ska g o ra a nd V aCe a nd r an a l ong t h e K rka r i ve rv a l ley . C en t re s s i tua ted a l ong t h is r ou te w ou ld h ave b e t te r a cce ss t o p re s t ige m a te r ia ls , a nd c ou ld r e s tr ic t t h e a cce ss t o t h ese o f l e ss a dvan tageous ly s i tua ted s i te s . T h i s r e su l ted i n d ependency o n mo r e s ucce ssfu l e l i tes , a nd u l t ima te ly t h ee c l ip se o fl e ss s ucce s s fu le l i te s( s ee Map 9 ) . T he c o l lapse o f t h e e l i te s y s tem h a s b een d i scu ssed i n s ec t ion 3 : 1 . T he c en t res o f Magda len ska g o ra , V aCe a nd D o len jske T op l ice c on t inued t of l ou r i sh i nt h e L a te N egova p ha se , b u t t h e r ema in ing s i te s d ec l ined , a l though mo s t h ave b u r ia l s o f t h is p ha se ( s ee Map 9 ) . T he d em ise o f t h e D o len jska g roup m ay h ave b een a d i rec t r e su l t o f t h e i n va s ion o f aL a T ene — u s ing g roup , t h e Mo l c ronog g roup , w h ich r e p laced t h eD o len jska g roup i nt h e t h i rd c en tu ry B .C . ( Hencken 1 978 , 7 -9 ; G uk in 1 977 , 6 7-103 ) . T he h i l lfo r t s e t t lemen t s a nd b a r row c eme te r ie s w e re a bandoned a f te r3 00

h omogene i ty o f t h e g rave g ood s i n i t ia l ly

a ppea red t o

r ep re sen t a n e ga l i ta r ian s oc ia l o rgan isa t iona l . C e ram ics a r e t h e mo s t c ommon g rave g ood t ype , u sua l ly c i ne ra ry ur n s , s ome t ime s i nc omb ina t ion w i th b ow l s , j ugs a nd a mpho rae . Me ta lwo rk w a s s ca rce b u t ad i cho tomy c an b e o b se rved b e tween g raves w i th d r e ssp in s a nd g rave s w i th o rnamen t s a nd f i bu lae , w eapon s w e re a b sen t ( s ee C hap te r 2 , s ec t ion 2 : 2a , s e c t ion 2 : 2b ) . As exua l b a s is f o r t h is d i cho tomy h a s b een p o s i ted , i nc ommon w i th o t he r u rn f ie ld g roup s ( Pah iC 1 972 , 1 0 , 1 4 , 2 9 ) , b u t i sn o tc o r robo ra ted b y a ny a na lys is o f p hy s ica l r ema in s . T he s i ze o f t h e b u r ia l p opu la t ion , 3 1 i n d iv idua ls p e r 2 5 y ea r g ene ra t ion a t P ob rei je a nd 1 8 .33 i n d iv idua ls p e r 2 5 y ea r g ene ra t ion a t R uk , m igh t c once ivab ly r ep re sen t s ma l l v i l lage g roup s . T he s i tes w e re i nc l o se p rox im i ty , a nd c on ta ined s im i la r ma te r ia l , s o t h ey d o n o t s eem t o r ep re sen t d i f f e r en t s ec t ion s o f t h e s ame p opu la t ion . Af o rm o f s t a tu sd i f f e ren t ia t ion i sv i s ib le o nt h e g round s o f

B .C .t ob er e—occup ied i nt h el a te L aT ene p e r iod . G ene ra l ly f l a t i n huma t ion c eme ter ies n ow p reva i led , b u t s ome

t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e m e ta lwo rk a mong s t g raves . T h i s d i s t inc t ion w a s b a sed o n t h e q uan t i ty r a the r t h an t ype o f b ronze a r te fac t s ( s ee F igu re 3 3 ) . T he ma jo r i ty o f g rave g ood s c on ta ined o n ly c e ram ic s o r as i ng le b ronze o b jec t , t h e m a jo r i ty o f b ronze a r tefac t s b e ing f ound i n a s ma l le r n umb e r o f g rave s . T he r e la t ive ly d en se d i s tr ibu t ion o f c eme te r ies i nt h eD rava v a l ley m ay m ean t h a tt h e ma jo r i ty o f i n d iv idua ls w e re p r esen t , b u t t h i s d oes n o t p rec lude

s econda ry L a T ene C g rave s w e re f ound a t Magda len ska g o ra a nd sma r je ta , a l though t h e i r r e la t ion sh ip t o t h e e a r l ie r H a l ls ta t tg roup i su nc lea r( Ter ian 1 981 ,6 62 ) .

4L a te B ronze A ge S ' ta jer ska a nd S ou th S tyr ia ( Ha l l s ta t t B ia nd Ha l l s ta t tB 2 .

d i f f e ren t ia l b u r ia lp rac t ice s a nd d i spo sa l ( s ee s ec t ion 1 ) . T he H a l l s ta t t BR ue g roup o ccup ied S ta je r ska a nd y ou th S tyr ia a nd e x tended i n to n e ighbou r ing C ar in th ia ( s ee C hap te r 2 ,s e c t ion 2 :2a ) . I tw a s r e la ted t ot h e L jub l jana g roup a nd w a s p a r t o ft h e w ide rE a s t A lp ine Ha l ls ta t t Bc u l tu ra l g roup (Mü l le r—Ka rpe 1 959 , 15116 ) .T he mode ld i scu s sed h e re i s b a sed o n t h e s i te s o fP ob rei je ( Chap te r 4 ,S ec t ion 1 : 2 ) a nd R uk ( Chap te r 4 ,s ec t ion 1 : 2 ) i nS ta je r ska . T he l a ck o fd a ta i ns ou th S t yr ia h a s b een d i scu s sed a bove ( Chap te r 3 ,s e c t ion 1 : 1c )( s ee Map 6 ) .

T he l a ck o f ar egu la re l i te a r tefac t s e t a nd t h e s ma l l s ca le o f t h e d i f f e ren t ia t ion s ugge s t s t h a t e i the r a s ma l l s ca le h e red i ta ry e l i te w a s p resen t o r t h a t a' b ig man ' s oc ie ty e x i s ted . T he s ame r ea son ing w h ich w a s a pp l ied t o t h e L jub l jana g roup , t h a t t h e r e gu la r r e—u se o f t h e s ame c eme te ry w a s i nd ica t ive o f a nh e red i ta ry e l i te ( s ec t ion 1 ) a pp l ies h e re . T he b as is o ft h ee l i te si nt h e Ma r ibo rr eg ion a nd t h roughou t t h e Mu ra ( Mu r ) a nd D rava ( D rau ) r i ve r v a l ley s may h ave r e s ted o n t h e c omb ina t ion o f t h e c on t ro l o f

T he re a r e t wo t ypes o fs i te i nH a l ls ta t t B 1 a nd H a l ls ta t t B 2

a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion i n t h e f e r t i le r i ve r

i nS ta je r ska , t h e f l a t c r ema t ion c eme tery , o fw h ich P ob rei je

c on sequen t a b i l i ty t o monopo l i se t h ese r e sou r ces t o o b ta in p re s t ige ma te r ia l a nd t ake p a r t o n p res t ige c ompe t i t ion . B ron ze w a s t h e d om inan t s ca re r e sou rce , wh ich c ou ld b e

a nd R ue a r e t yp ica l , a nd u ndef ended h i l l t op s e t t lemen t s s uch a sB r in jeva g o ra , G o rn ja R adgona a nd O rmoi ( Chap te r 3 ,s e c t ion 2 : b ) . P ob rei je a nd R ue w e re n o t a s so c ia ted w i th

a

o b ta ined b y v i r tue o f t h e R ue g roup 's p o s i t ion o n t h e r ou te s i n to t h e E a s te rn A lp ine c oppe rp roduc ing r eg ion s ( s ee C hap te r 1 , s ec t ion 3 : 1) . T he h omogenou s n a tu re o f t h e b ron ze a r tefac t t yp es s how s t h a t t h e e xchange n e two rk

k nown s e t t lemen t s , a s t h e s i te o f B r in jeva g o ra w a s ( ANSL 1 975 , 2 95-296 ) . P ob rei je a nd R ue w e re l o ca ted i n t h e D rava r i ve r v a l ley c l o se t o t h e mode rn t own o f Ma r ibo r , w h ich s e ems t o h ave b een a n i mpo r tan t c en t re i n t h e Ha l ls ta t t B1a nd Ha l l s ta t t B 2 p ha ses , d ue t oi t s p o s i t ion a t t h e p o in t w here t h e r i ve r D rava f l ows o u t o ft h e A lp s i n to a b road f e r t i le v a l ley ( Chap te r 1 ,s e c t ion 4 ) .

o p e ra ted t h roughou t t h e e a s te rn a nd s ou thea s ter n A lp s . T he e x ten t o f t h e a g r icu l tu ra l b a se o f t h e e l i te c anno t b e r e con s t ruc ted , g i ven t h e p r esen t s t a te o f a r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch . 5L a te B ronze A ge /Ear ly I ron A ge I n ter face i n S ta jer ska a nd S ou th S tyr ia ( Ha l l s ta t tB 3 )

T he p opu la t ions o f t h e c eme ter ie s c on s ide red h e re w e re l a rge r t h an t h e c on tempo ra ry L jub l jana g roup s i te s ( s ee s ec t ion 1 ) .

v a l leys , a nd

P ob r ei je h ad a t o ta l mo r tua ry p opu la t ion o f

b e tween 2 00 a nd 2 50 g raves i nt h e Ha l l s ta t tB I a nd H a l l s ta t t

I r on w a s i n t roduced i nt h e Ha l ls ta t t B 3 p ha se a nd t h e R ue

B 2 p ha se s , a nd R ue h ad at o ta l o f 1 72 g raves f o r t h e e n t i re H a l l s ta t t Bp er iod . O n ly a s ma l l p ropo r t ion o f t h e g rave s

g roup w a s t r an sfo rmed i n to t h e W ies— Ma r t i janec g roup .

c an b e s e cu re ly d a ted . T he m or tua ry p opu la t ion a l so c on t ra s t s w i th t h e m uch l a rge r L au s i tz c eme te r ie s i nP o land

n ew b a r row c eme ter ie s i nS t .a je r ska a ts i tes l i ke L egen n ea r S loven j G radec a nd P ote la ( Chap te r3 ,s ec t ion 2 :l b ) . T hese

a nd t h e f o rme r E a s t G ermany ( Co les a nd H a rd ing 1 979 , 3 59-36 1 , 4 43 / 1 41 ; H a rd ing 1 984 , 1 39140 ) . T he

b a r row s c on ta ined c r ema t ion g raves a nd w e re a s soc ia ted w i th l a rge h i l l top s s e t t lemen t s , s im i la r i nc on s truc t ion t o

T rad i t iona l f l a t c r ema t ion c eme te r ie s o ve r lapped w i th t h e

8 5

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia t h ec on tempo ra ry s i te si nD o len j ska ( Gu g t in 1 978 , 1 00-121 ) . S im i la r b a r row c eme te r ie s a s soc ia ted w i th h i l l fo r t s w e r e c on s t ru c ted i nS ou th S ty r ia , m o s t n o tab ly a t K le in—K le in ( s ee C hap te r 2 , s e c t ion 2 : 2d ) , f r om w h ich t h e b u lk o f t h e a na ly t ica l d a ta i s d r awn ( Chap te r 4 , s e c t ion 2 : 3a ) . T he d i v i s ion o f t h e s i te s i n to t wo g r oup s i sa r t i f ic ia l a s t h e t wo t y pe s o f c eme te ry a r e c l ea r ly p a r t ly c on tempo ra ry a nd c on ta in v e ry s im i la rm a te r ia l . At h i rd c l a s s o fs i te s a r e t h e h oa rd f i nd s , w h ich w e re l a rge ly c on f ined t o s ou th S t y r ia . T he re m ay b e g round s f o r as ubd iv i s ion o ft h e H a l l s t a t t B 3 p ha se a s h a s b een c a r r ied o u t i n t h e c h rono logy o f t h e L jub l jana g r oup ( s ee C hap te r 2 ,s e c t ion 2 -1b , s e c t ion 2 : 1c ) ( s ee Map 6 ) . T he m a te r ia l a s semb lage o ft h e f l a t c r ema t ion c eme te r ie s i sc l o se ly r e la ted t o t h o se i n t h e p r ev iou s p ha se s , t h e d i s t r ibu t ion a nd t y p e s o f a r tef ac t s a r e v e ry s im i la r t o t h o se i nt h e H a l l s ta t t B 1 a nd H a l l s ta t t B 2 . T he s ame i st r ue o ft h e e l i te s t ruc tu re i nt h e g r ave s , r e p re sen ted b y q uan t i ty o f m e ta lwo rk ( s ee F igu r e 3 4 ) . T he l a ck o f a n ' O rnamen t H o r izon ' m ay b e i n d ica t ive o fc on tempo ran e i ty w i th t h eL jub l jana I ap ha se g r ave s a tL jub l jana ( Chap te r2 , s e c t ion 2 : 1b ) , w h ich a l so l a ck i r on a r te fac t s a nd a r ed a ted t o t h e f i r s t h a lf o ft h e e i gh th c en t r uy B .C . ( s ee F igu re 1 ) . T he c e ram ic s e t a l so m a in ta ined i t s i n teg r i ty a nd w a s d om ina ted b y c i ne ra ry u r n s a nd ar a nge o f d r ink ing v e s se l s . T h i s w a s i n d ica t ive o f t h e c on t inua t ion o f t h e d r ink ing r i tua l o f t h e p r ev iou s p ha se , r e la ted t o m o r t ua ry r i te a nd /o r p r e s t ige c ompe t i t ion .

1 980 , 1 5155 ) . T he s ugge s t ion t h a t s ome h oa rd s r e p r e sen ted s u r roga te e l i te b u r ia l s a nd o f f e r ing s o f p e r sona l m a te r ia l ( Levy 1 982 , 11 ) a c co rd s w el w i th c ompo s i t ion o f h oa rd s f r om S chönb e rg b e i O be rwo lz ( P i t t ion i 1 954 , 5 18-521 ) a nd W i ldon ( Mü l le r—Ka rpe 1 959 , 1 27 , T . 144 A ) . B o th c on ta ined w eapon s , o r namen t s a nd b r onze v e s se l f r agmen t s , o f w h ich b r on ze v e s se l s a nd w eapon s w e re n o tab le f o r t h e i r a b sen ce f r om f l a t c eme te ry s i te s . T h i s i sf u r the r s uppo r ted b y t h e l a ck o f Ha l l s ta t t B 3 g r ave s f r om s ou th S ty r ia , a l though t h i s m ay b e d ue t o a r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch . T he o t he r f a c to r w h ich m u s t b e t a ken i n to a c coun ti st h e d amaged c ond i t ion o ft h e m a te r ia l . T h i s c ou ld m ean t h a t t h e h oa rd s w e re i n deed f o unde r s ' h oa rd so fs c rap b r onze , o rt h a ta ne xp la na t ion may b es ough t i nt h e p r e s t ige s phe r e . B rad ley ( 1982 , 1 08-122 ) s ugge s t s t h a t s ome h oa rd d epo s i t ion i s r e la ted t o p r e s t ige c on sump t ion a nd d e s t ruc t ion o f e l i te a r te f a c t s . T h i s i sw el d ocumen t ed e t hnog raph ica l ly ( Levy 1 982 , 1 8-21 ) , a nd c an p e rhap s b e e x tended t ot h e Ha l ls ta t t B 3 i nt h e s ou thea s ter n A lp s . T he d e s t ruc t ion o fw ea l th i nt h e A t lan t ic L a te rB ronze A ge h a s b een l i nked t o af l uc tua t ion i n t h e q ua l i ty o f t h e b r on ze s upp ly ( Row land s 1 980 , 4 1-46 ) . S t re s s i n t h e e xchange s y s t em o ft h e Rae g roup m ay h ave b een ar e su l to f t h e i n c rea s ing q uan t i t ie s o fb ronze e n t e r ing t h e s y s tem o ve r t h e H a l l s ta t t B p er iod . T he u se o f b r on ze f o r o rd ina ry a r t ef ac t s a sw e l l a sh i gh s t a tu s a r tef a c t s ( Co les a nd H a rd ing 1 979 , 3 73-374 ) i mp l ie s t h a t i th ad d ec r ea sed i n s t a tu s v a lue . T he d epo s i t ion o f h oa rd s w a s t h u s as t ra tegy f o r m a in ta in ing t h e v a lue o fb r on ze b y r emov ing q uan t i t ie s f r om c i r cu la t ion . S uch a s t ra tegy wou ld a l so r e su l t i n t h e i n ten s i f ica t ion o fc ompe t i t ion a nd d emand f o rb ron ze , a nd a n i n c r ea s ing c on cen t ra t ion o f s t a tu s o n t h o se g r oup s a nd i n d iv idua l sw i th t h er e sou r ce st ot ake p a r ti ns uch ac yc le .

D esp i te t h i s t h e r e i se v idence o fs t re s s o n t h e s y s tem . T h i s c ome s f r om h oa rd d epo s i t ion . T he a c tua l f u n c t ion o fh oa rd s i s d i spu ted , b u t m any w e r e m o re c omp lex t h an s imp le f o unde r s ' h oa rd s o f s c rap a nd a r e s e em ing ly r e la ted t o c on sp icuou s c on sump t ion a nd t h e d e s t ruc t ion o f w ea l th ( B rad ley 1 982 , 1 08-122 ; 1 984 , 1 00-127 ; R ow land s 1 000

9 00

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Undefended S ettlement

Defended S ettlement

F lat Cemetery

Barrow C emetery

F igu r e4 0 : D u ra t ion o fS i te T yp e si n t a je r ska a nd S ou th S ty r ia . T he f o unda t ion o ft h eb a r row c eme te r ie s a s soc ia ted w i th h i l l f o r ts e t t lemen t s ( F igu re 4 0 ) c l ea r ly r e p r e sen ted t h ee x i s tence o f ar a nked s o c ie ty . T h i sw a st h eo u t come o f the p roce s se so f i n ten s if ied c ompe t i t ion a mong s t t h e s ma l l s ca le e l i te s o ft h e R u se g roup . T h es i ng le c r ema t ion g r ave s b enea th ab a r row s upe r s t ru c tu r e w e r e s im i la r t o t h e g r ave s i n t h e f l a t c r ema t ion c eme te r ie s ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 4 7-52 ) . Many e l emen t s o f t h e m e ta l a r te fa c t a s semb lage w a s c ommon t o b o th g r oup s , a nd t h e d i cho tomy b e tween t y po log ica l ly ma le g r ave s w i th d r e s sp in s a nd t h e t y po log ica l ly f ema le g r ave s w i th or namen t s a nd f i bu lae c an b e o b se r ved i n t h e b a r row g r ave s a t K le in—K le in ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 1 52-154 ) .

H oweve r w eapon s w e re d epo s i t ed i n s ome o f t h e t y po log ica l ly m a le g rave s , m os t n o tab ly t h e ' Swo rd G rave s ' a tK le in—K le in , t h e H a r tne rm iche lkoge l 1a nd F o r s twa ld 1 7 ( s ee C hap t e r4 ,s e c t ion 2 : 3a ) . T he se g r ave s w e r e p a r t o f a w ide r g r oup o f ' Swo rd G rave s ' i n t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion ( s ee s e c t ion 2 ) . T he se g rave s a r e t h e f i r s t r egu la r i n d ica t ion o f a s pec if ic e l i te s e t , i n d eed t h e H a r tne rm i che lkage l f o r e shadowed t h e r i se o f t h e ' P r ince ly B a r row s ' a rK le in—K le in i np ha se 3( s ee b e low ) . T he b ron ze v e s se l s i nt h i s g r ave a nd t h e c e ram ic s e t a r e c onnec ted w i th d r ink ing r i t ua l s i n ap r e s t ige c on t ex t . T he c e ram ic v e sse l s s e t w a s c l ea r ly r oo ted i n t h e R u se g r oup t r ad i t ion , b u t

8 6

S oc ia lO rgan i sa t ion i nt h eS ou theas tA lp ine R eg ion B e tween 1 000 B .C .a nd 3 00 B .C . v es se l s w e re f ound i n l a rge n umbe r s a nd w i th s ome i n d ica t ion o f as pec if ic r u le ( s ee C hap te r 4 , s ec t ion 2 : 3a ) . T he se s e t s w ere c l o se ly r e la ted t o t h e s ympos ium d r ink ing

c on t ro l o f a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion r ema in s u nknown a t t h e p r esen tt ime .

s e t o ft h e K a lenderbe rg g roup ( Te r ian 1 980 , 3 51-352 ) . T he c on s t r uc t ion o f b a r row s a nd h i l lfo r t s w a s p a r t o f t h e c on sc iou sd i sp lay o fs t a tu sb yt h er anked s oc ie ty .

6 E ar ly I ron A ge g ta jer ska a nd S ou th S tyr ia

T he b a s i s o ft h e n ew v i s ib le e l i te r e s ted o nc on t ro l o fa c ce ss t o s ca rce r e sou r ces a nd e xcha nge . T he ma jo r c en t re o f K le in—K le in i n S ou th S ty r ia w a s s i tua ted i na n a r ea w h ich b ecame a n i mpor tan t c en t re o f i r on e x t rac t ion i n t h e m ed iaeva l a nd e a r ly moder np er iod s ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 3 9-40 ) . E a r ly s i tes i n ' t a je r ska w e re a dvan tageou s ly p laced t o c on t ro l c ommun ica t ion s a nd t r ade r ou tes ; t h e P oke la h i l lfo r t a nd b a r row c eme te r ies d om ina ted t h e Ma r ibo r a r ea a tt h e n o r the rn e nd o f t h e D rava v a l ley i n S loven ia , w h i l s t t h e Gom ja R adgona c omp lex d om ina ted t h e Mu ra v a l ley , a tt h e p o in t w he re i tf l owed o u t o f t h e G raz b a s in a nd i n to t h e u ndu la t ing c oun try o f n o r thea s ter n S loven ia . D om ina t ion o f t h ese r ou te s , w h ich h ad b een i mpo r tan t i nt h e L a te B ronze A ge , e nab led t h e Wie s— Ma r t i janec c en t re s t oc on t ro l t o s ome e x ten t t h e s upp ly o f c oppe r f r om t h e A lp ine i n te r io r . T he L egen s e t t lemen t a nd mo r tua ry c omp lex w a s s i tua ted i n a s ma l l l ow land a r ea c l o se t o t h e m e ta l— r ich P oho r je moun ta in s ( Te r zan 1 983 , 5 1-84 ) . T he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e l o ca l c en t res o f t h e W ies—Mar t i janec g roup a nd t h e

T he a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd o f t h e Ha l ls ta t t C p e r iod i n g ta je r ska a nd s ou th S ty r ia i sd om ina ted b yh i l lfor ts e t t lemen t a nd b a r row c emer te r ies . T he f l a tc r ema t ion c eme te r ies i nt h e D rava r i ve rv a l ley c ea sed , a l though s ome f l a t c eme ter ie s o f u nknown r i te w e re s i tua ted o n t h e s ou ther n a nd s ou th— w e s te rn e dge o f t h e g roup a t t h e i n te r face w i th t h e G o ren jska g roup , ap henomenon s im i la r t o t h e c on t inua t ion o f t h e V a& f l a t c eme te ry i n t h e D o len jska g roup ( s ee C hap te r 4 , s e c t ion 3 ) . T he p rac t ice o f s i ng le b u r ia l i n a b a r row w a s f ound a t L ibna i n e a s te rn D o len jska a t t h e i n te r face b e tween t h e D o len jska g roup a nd t h e Wie s— Ma r t i janec g roup ( Gug t in , p e r s . c omm . ) . O n ly t wo o f t h e b a r row c eme ter ie s w e r e s u f f ic ien t ly w e l l e xcava ted t ob e o f u se h e re , L egen n ea r S loven j G radec ( s ee C hap te r 4 ,s ec t ion 3 : 2a ) a nd K le in—K le in ( s ee C hap te r4 ,s ec t ion 3 : 3a ) . K le in— K le in i st h e l a rge s t k nown b a r row c omp lex i nt h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion , w h i ls t L egen i ss ma l le r i ns i ze a nd e xh ib i t s l e ss s oc ia l c omp lex i ty . At h i rd s i te , c on s ide red h ere , i st h e i s o la ted b a r row a t S t re t tweg ( s ee C hap te r4 , s ec t ion 3 : 3b ) ( s ee F igu re 4 1 ) .

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Klein-Klein

Legen n ear S lovenj Gradec

Strettweg

R ifnik n ear gentjur

F igu re 4 1 : D u ra t ion o fE a r ly I r on A ge C eme te ry S i tes i n t a je r ska

a nd S ou th S ty r ia .

P oho r je moun ta in s . T he R ifn ik c eme tery n ea r C e l je a nd a d jacen t s i te s f o rmed a l o ca l g roup i n t h e S av in ja r i ve r

T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f h i l lfo r t s e t t lemen t s a nd b a r row c eme te r ie s i sn o t a s d en se a s t h a t o ft h e m o r tua ry / se t t lemen t c omp lexe si n Do len jska . H oweve r , an umbe ro fg roup s c an b e o b ser ved . T he l a rges t a nd b e s t k nown i st h e K le in—K le in c omp lex a tt h e c on f luence o ft h e S u lm a nd S aggau r i ve r s i n s ou th S ty r ia . T he mo r tua ry / se t t lemen t s i te s o f ' en t i l j— S p ie lf e ld a nd G or n ja vR adgona w e re l o ca ted i n t h e Mu ra v a l ley i nn o r thea s ter nS ta je r ska c l o se t ot h e A u s t r ian b o rde r .

v a l ley , n or th o f t h e D o len jska g roup . T he ma jo r i ty o f s i tes w e re l o ca ted i n t h e D rava v a l ley , w h ich f o rmed t h e mos t e x ten s ive l ow land i n t h e r eg ion . T h i s d i s t r ibu t ion w a s n o t l i nked e n t i re ly t oa cce ss t op o ten t ia l ly a r ab le l a nd . A ma jo r R oman r ou te f r om n o r the rn I t a ly r an v ia L jub l jana a long t h e

a nd Cr e ta

r i ve r S ava t oC e l je a nd t h ence i n to t h e D rava r i ve r v a l ley a nd t h ee a s te rn A lp ine R eg ion . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f E a r ly I r on

d om ina te t h e n o r the rn e nd o ft h e D rava v a l ley , w i th amo re d i f fu se g roup ing b e tween t h e T u r igka v a s h i l lfor t a nd t h e

A ge s i te s a ppea r s t o r ef lec t t h e u se o f t h i s r ou te i n t h e p reh i s to r ic p e r iod ( c hap te r 1 ,s e c t ion 4 ) ( s ee Map 7 ) .

T he g roup o f s i tes a t P og te la , P ivo la , L imbu

P od loze b a r row c eme tery t o t h e s ou th . T he u ndef ended s e t t lemen t o f B r in jeva g o ra a nd t h e f l a t c eme tery o f Ma l i

T he b u r ia l r i te a tL egen a nd K le in—K le in w a s s im i la r . T he n o rm t h roughou t t h e p e r iod w a s f o r s i ng le c r ema t ion g rave s t o b e p l aced u nde r b a r rows . T he K le in—K le in

b r eg a r e w es t o f t h is . T he L egen c eme tery f o rms ad i sc re te g roup w i th t h e t h ree a d jacen t h i l l fo r t s s ou th w e s t o f t h e

8 7

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia m o r tua ry d a ta i sm o r e c omp lex . E xcava t ion i n d ica te s t h a t s econda ry b u r ia l s w e r e p r e sen t i nm any b a r row s , a l though t h ei s o la t ion o fs pe c if i cg r ave l o t si sd i ff i cu l t . I ns ome c a se s ad ry s t on e c hamb e r w a s c on s t ru c ted o ve r t h e b u r ia l p r io r t ot h e e r ec t ion o f t h e b a r row ( Pah iä " 1 973 , 5 37-539 ; D ob ia t 1 980 , 5 3-6 1 ) . I nt h e f i na l p ha se a tK le in—K le in a tl e a s t t e n b a r row s c on ta ined m u l t ip le b u r ia l s p e rhap s o n t h e S ippenhüge l p r inc ip le ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 6 0 ) . T he r e w a s at r end o ve r t h e t h ree p ha se s a t K le in—K le in f o r t h e n umb e r s o f b u r ia l s t o d ec rea se a nd t h e w ea l th o f t h o se p r e sen t t o i n c r ea se o ve r t ime ( s ee C hap te r 4 , s e c t ion 3 : 3a ) . T h i s i s r e p re sen ta t ive o f i n c r ea s ing r a nk ing i n t h e c eme te ry , r e in fo r ced b yt h ea r te fac tua le v idence . T he r e w a s ac l ea r d i cho tomy i nt h e f ew a s semb lage s w h ich c on ta ined m e ta lwo rk a t K le in—K le in . I n p ha se 1 , t h e d i cho tomy w a s c l o se ly r e la ted t o t h e p r ev iou s H a l l s ta t t B p e r iod , a l though s ome o f t h e g r ave l o t c on ta ined w eapon s . P ha se 2 , c on tempo ra ry w i th t h e S tk "na 1 p ha se i n D o len jska , d i f f e red i nt h a t t h e t y po log ica l ly m a le g r ave s n o l o nge r c on ta ined d r e s sp in s , o n ly w eapon s , u sua l ly s pea r s ( s ee C hap te r 2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 2d ; s e c t ion 2 : 2e ) . T he Wa r r io r G rave a tL egen , w i th a n i r on m aha i ra s wo rd , m ay d a t e t o t h i s p ha se ( F . S t a re 1 974 , 6 7-16 ) . T he f ew t y po log ica l ly f ema le g r ave s t h a t e x i s ted c on ta ined f i bu lae a nd a rm r ing s ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 1 66-169 ) . I tm u s tb en o ted t h a tt h ed i cho tomy i sp u r e ly t y po log ica l . S t a tu s d i f f e r en t ia t ion h a s b een d i scu s sed i ns e c t ion 5 . E l i te g r ave s c on ta in ing w eapon s a nd b ronze v e s se l s w e re p r e sen t i n P ha se 1 , b u t w e re l e s s v i s ib le i nP ha se 2 ,i n w h ich o n ly H o ch schu s te rwa ld b a r row 2 c on ta ined a b ronze v e s se l , t h e r ema in ing a s semb lage s w i th m e ta lwo rk w e re t y po log ica l ly f ema le ( Chap te r 2 ,s e c t ion 3 : 3a ) . P ha se 3 a t K le in—K le in , w h ich c o r r e sponded t o t h e S t iCna 2 p ha se i n D o len jska h ad a n umbe r o f w ea l thy g r ave s , e . g .

P omme rkoge l , K rö l l—Schm iedkoge l a nd F o r s twa ld b a r row 5 9 , w h i ch h ave b een c a l led P r ince ly G rave s ' ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 1 69170 ) . T he S t r e t tweg b a r row i sa l so o f t h i s t y pe . T he n umbe ro fi n d iv idua l s i n te r red i nt h e se b a r row s i su nce r ta in , s o t h a t i ti sd i ff icu l t t oi s o la te i nd iv idua l e l i te a r tef a c t s e t s . H oweve r , t h e p r e s t ige m a te r ia l i n c luded w eapon s , p a r t icu la r ly i r on s pea r s , s ock e ted a xe s , b r onze s wo rd s a nd b e l t s e t s . H o r se r i d ing e qu ipmen t a nd aw agon m ay h ave b een p r e sen t i n t h e S t re t tweg b a r row ( Pa r e , p e r s , c omm . ) . S e t s o fb r on ze v e s se l s w e re c ommon a nd i ts e em s p robab le t h a t t h ey r e p r e sen t ah i gh— s ta tu s v e r s ion o f t h e c e ram ic s ympo s ium s e tf o und i na l lp ha se s a tL eg en a nd K le in—K le in ( s ee F igu r e 4 2 ) . E xo t ic m a te r ia l o c cu r r ed i n a l l o f t h e p ha se s . T he f i bu la t y p e s s how c onnec t ion s w i th b o th D o len jska a nd t h e Ka lende rbe rg g roup s i np ha se 1 ,w h i l s t p ha se 2 a nd p ha se 3 f i bu lae w e re m o r e c l o se ly r e la ted t o t h o se i nD o len jska a nd n o r the rn I t a ly ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 1 451 47 ) . T he s ame a pp l ie st oo t he ra r te f ac t s ,t h e h e lme t i nt h e p ha se 1O f enmache rwa ld b a r row 4 8 w a s ab ronze d i sc h e lme t ( S ch lü s se lhe lm ) o f at y pe c ommon i nP od zeme l j 2 p ha se g r ave s i n D o len jska , w h i l s t t h e d oub le— c r e s ted h e lme t i nt h e K rö l l— S chm iedkoge l a nd t h e a rmou r i n t h e P omme rkoge l a nd K rö l l—Schm iedkoge l h ave a s im i la r , t h ough l a te r , o r ig in ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 1 4 1-142 ) . T he b r onze v e sse l si nP ha se 3g r ave sw e re r e la ted t ot h ev e s se l t y pe si n E s te d u r ing E s te P ha se I ct op ha se I / I I I ( s ee C hap te r 6 , s e c t ion 1 : 1c ) . T he b ronze s h ee t m a sk a nd h and s i n t h e K rö l l—Schm iedkoge l c an o n ly b e e xp la ined b y a na logy t o T r eben i g t e i n e l emen t s c an b e t r a ced i n t h e c e ram ic a s semb lage . I np ha se 1d eco ra t ive e l emen t s o ft h e B a sa rab i c u l tu r e o f s o u th—we s ter n R uman ia a nd t h e V o jvod ina a ppea red o nc e ram ic s ( Chap te r6 ,s e c t ion 1 : 4c ) . I n p ha se 3 m any p o t te ry t y pe sr e la ted t ot h o se f r om D o len jska a nd E s te b egan t oa ppea ra tK le in—K le in a nd S t re t tweg ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 9 2-93 , 1 04 ) .

S itula

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3

7

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2

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1

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1

6

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3 9

F igu re 4 2 : B ronze V e sse lS e t si nH a l l s ta t t CE l i te G rave si nt h eW ie s—Ma r t i ja nec g r oup . T h e l owe r s t a tu s g roup s a r e d i f f icu l t t o d ef ine , a l though g r ave s w i th as imp le rm e ta l a r te f ac t s e th ave b een d i scu s sed a bove . Many o f t h e g r ave s c on ta ined o n ly c e ram ic s . T he n a tu r e o f W ies—Ma r t i jan ec b a r row s i s s u ch t h a t a l l t h e g r ave s p r e sen t c ou ld b e o fh i gh s t a tu s . T he r e i sl i t t le o rn o e v idence o fc o rpo ra te d e sc en tg roup si nt h e mo r tua ry r e co rd .

U n l ike t h e D o len jska g roup e xamp le s b a r row s h ad c ompa ra t ive ly s ho r tp e r iod so fu se . T he L egen g r ave sd on o t c ompa r e w i th t h e ' P r in ce ly G rave s ' a t K le in K le in o r S t r e t tweg . T he b a r row g roup s a t K le in—K le in c ou ld c on ce ivab ly r e p re sen t c o rpo ra te d e scen t g r oup s , b u t t h e n umbe r s o f b u r ia l s i n vo lved s ugg e s t t h a t t h e m o r tua ry

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S o c ia lO rgan i sa t ion i nt h eS ou thea s tA lp ine R eg ion B e tween 1 000 B .C .a nd 3 00 B .C . c on fo rm t o a s t anda rd l o ca l p a t te rn . Mo r eove r , t h e s ympo s ium s e t w a s n o t c on f ined t o t h e r a re h i ghe r s t a tu s b u r ia l s . T he e xpan s ion o f t h e h i ghe s t s t a tu s g r ave s i nt h e f i na l p ha se m ay h ave b een ar e su l to fi n c rea sed c ompe t i t ion i n al e s s s t ab le r a nked s oc ie ty t h an i nD o len jska . I n c rea sed r a nk ing a nd i n c r ea sed c ompe t i t ion m ay h ave u l t ima te ly l e d t o t h e c o l lap se o f t h e e l i te a nd a n i n ab i l i ty t o ma in ta in c on t ro l o ve r s ca rce r e sou r ce s ( Row land s 1 980 , 3 0-31 ; P a rke r—Pea r son 1 984 ,5 9-71 ) .

p opu la t ion w a s n o t ar e p re sen ta t ive c r o s s s e c t ion o f t h e a c tua l p opu la t ion . C i r ca 7 00 b a r row s w e re p r e sen t a nd d a t e g ene ra l ly t o t h e H a l l s ta t t Cp e r iod , b u t m o s t b a r row s c on ta ined i n d iv idua l s , a l though i th a s b een s ugge s ted t h a t d oub le b u r ia l s w e re p r e sen t ( Te r ian , p e r s . c omm . ) . I n p ra c t ice t h e d a ta p r ec lude s a ny a t temp t t o r e con s t r uc t t h e a c tua l p opu la t ion , b u t i ft h e 7 00 b a r row s r e p re sen ted 7 00 i n d iv idua l s , at o ta lp opu la t ion o f 10 i n d iv idua l sp e r2 5 y ea r g en e ra t ion w ou ld h ave b een p r e sen t o ve rt h e e n t i re 1 50 y ea r p e r iod , w h i l s t t h e f i gu re f o r L egen w ou ld b e t we lve i n d iv idua l s p e r 2 5 y ea rg ene ra t ion . T he K le in—K le in f i gu r e m ig h t b e c omp l ica ted b y an umbe r o f f a c to r s . T he a c tua l c ac lunen t a r ea o ft h e c eme te ry i su nk nown . I tm igh t h ave b e en a c en t re f o r e l i te s t h roughou t S ty r ia a nd S ' t a je r ska . Mo r e i mpo r tan t i st h e a ppa ren td ec l ine i nb u r ia lp opu la t ion o ve r t h e p e r iod o fu se a nd ac o r rep sond ing i n c r ea se i n w ea l th . T he m o r tua ry p opu la t ion b ecame i n c r ea s ing ly r a nk ed o ve rt ime .

R e f e r ence m u s t b e m ade t o t h e mo r tua ry r e co rd o f t h e H a l l s ta t t Ca nd H a l l s ta t t Dp e r iod s i nt h eE a s tA lp ine r e g ion t op rov ide c ompa ra t ive d a ta f o r t h e c o l lap se o f t h e W ie s— Ma r t i janec g r oup . B a r row b u r ia l c ea sed a t ma jo r s i te s s u ch a sS op ron ( Pa tek 1 980 ,9 3104 )a tt h ee nd o ft h eH a l l s ta t tC p e r iod . T he f o l low ing Ha l l s ta t t Dp e r iod w a s c ha ra c te r i sed b y f l a t i n huma t ion c eme te r ie s w i th m any s im i la r i t ie s i n t h e m a te r ia l a s semb lage t o t h e K a lende rbe rg a s semb lage , b u t d i f f e ren t , e . g . Ma ie r sch ( Be rg 1 962 ) a nd S op ron— K rau ta cke r ( J e r em 1 981 , 2 0 1-220 ) i n L owe r A u s tr ia a nd H ungar y . T he s ympo s ium d r ink ing s e tn ol o nge ro ccu r red i n t h e se g r ave s , a l though d r ink ing v e s se l s w e re s t i l l f ound a nd m ay b e al e s s e l abo ra te v e r s ion o f t h e s ympo s ium u sed i n e l i t e c on tex t s i n t h e p r ev iou s p e r iod . I ti sh i gh ly p robab le t h a t f l a ti n huma t ion g r ave s r e p laced b a r row b u r ia l i nt h e W ie s—Ma r t i janec a r ea . U n fo r tuna te ly , o n ly as i ng le s i te w i th t wo g r ave s h a s b een f o und , t h e t wo H a l ls ta t t D g r ave s i nt h e R oman c eme t e ry o f R i fn i l c n ea r S ' en t ju r ( s ee Map 9 )( Bo l ta 1 981 , T . 12 :912 ; T . 18 :5 ) . T he se w e re c han ce f i nd s a nd o t he r e xamp le s p robab ly a wa i t d i scove ry . T he g r ave s c on ta ined f i bu lae o f t y p ica l H a l l s ta t t D D o len jska g roup t y pe . T he r e g ion w a s n o to c cup ied b y L a nne—u s ing g r oup s u n t i l t h e t h i rd c en tu ry B .C . , w hen t h e Mok ronog g roup a ppea r ed i nt h ea r ea ( Guk in 1 977 ,6 7103 ) .

T he e me rgence a nd c on t inua t ion o f t h er anked s o c ie ty w a s v e ry m uch b ound u p w i th a c ce s s t oe xchange n e two rk s , a s c an b e s e en b y t h ep o s i t ion ing o ft h e W ie s—Ma r t i jane c s i te s i n g t a je r ska ( s ee Map 7 ) o n t h e ma in r o u t e s o f c om mun icat ion . T he u se o f l o ca t ion s ,w h ich a r ec l o se t o o r p r ev iou s ly o c cup ied b y H a l l s ta t t Bs i te s i s i n d ica t ive o f t h e l o ng t e rm s t ab i l i ty o f t h e e xchange n e two rk ( s ee C hap te r 1 , s e c t ion 4 ) . K le in—K le in , t h e l a rge s t a nd p o ten t ia l ly i mpo r tan t s i te , c omb ined a n a dvan tageou s p o s i t ion a d jac en t t ot h e H a l l s ta t t Bb ron ze e xchange r ou te s w i th a c c e ss t oa r ab le l a nd a nd p roduc t ion o f i r on . I tt h u s f i t st h em ode lp ropo sed i ns e c t ion 3 . P r e s t ige c ompe t i t ion a r t icu la ted t h e r a nk ing s y s tem i nt h e r e g ion . T he c e ram ic s ympo s ium s e t s w e r e c l ea r ly c onne c ted t o ad r ink ing c e remon ia l , b u t t h e r u le s o f a s soc ia t ion a r e b l u r r ed b y t h e f r agmen ta ry d a ta . T he s e t w a s s im i la r t ot h e K a lende rbe rg a nd E a s t A lp ine s ympo s ium s e t s , a nd c omp le te ly d i f f e ren t f r om t h e D o len jska g roup s e t ( Te r ian 1 980 , 3 51-352 ) . I n c r ea s ing ly o ve rt h e H a l l s ta t t Cp e r iod t h e K le in—K le in c en t re w a sl i nked t ot h e D o len jska g r oup , f r om w h enc em uch o ft h ep ha se 3p r e s t ige m a te r ia lc ame ( Chap t e r 4 , s e c t ion 3 : 3a ) . T he b ron ze v e s se l s e t s c on ta ined m uch m a te r ia l r e la ted t o d r ink ing a nd t h e s ympo s ium s e t ( s ee F igu r e4 2 ) .

P o s t s cr ip t T h i s c hap t e r h a s d ea l t e x ten s ive ly w i th t h e n a tu re o f s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion a nd p r e s t ige e xchange i nt h e S ou th E a s t A lp in e R eg ion b e tween 1 000 B C a nd 3 00 B .C . , b u t i th a s o n ly b r ief ly t o uched o n t h e s ou r ce s o f p r e s t ige m a te r ia l . I n C hap te r 6 , t h e e x ten t o f i n te r— reg iona l c on tac t w i l l b e d i scu s sed a nd t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o re xchange w i l l b ee xam in ed . Ar e v iew o fe xo t ic m a te r ia l a nd i t so r ig in sw i l l b e c a r r ied o u t a s w e l l a s ar e v iew o fm a te r ia l d e r ived f r om D o len j ska i nf o re ign c on tex t s .

T he d ependen cy o n t h e D o len j ska g r oup f o r p r e s t ige a r te f ac t s i si n s t ruc t ive w hen t h e a b r up t c e s sa t ion o fb a r row b u r ia l i nt h e W ie s—Ma r t i janec g r oup a f te r c i r ca 6 00 B .C . i s c on s id e red . T he t r end t owa rd s i n c rea sed r ank ing d i f f e red f r om t h e D o len jska g r oup ( s ee s e c t ion 3 ) , t h e c o rpo ra te d e sc en t g r oup w a s l e s s w el d ef ined , a nd t h e s ma l l w ea l thy e l i te w a s i n c rea s ing ly d epend en to nD o len jska f o r t h ev e ry m a te r ia l w i th w h ich i t ma in ta ined i t s s o c ia l p o s i t ion . I t c ou ld b e s ugge s t ed t h a t t h e d em i se o f t h e v i s ib le e l i te s t ruc tu r e i nS ta je r ska a nd s ou th S ty r ia w a s ar e su l t o ft h i s d ep end en ce o n t h e D o len jska g r oup f o r p r e s t ige m a t e r ia l , t h u s p u t t ing l o ca le l i te si n ap o s i t ion o f s ubo rd ina t ion t ot h e D o len j ska e l i te s . H oweve r , t h i sc o l lap se a f t e r6 00 B .C .w a s ap henomenon o f t h e e n t i r e E a s ter n H a l l s ta t t c u l tu r e . T he a n swe rm u s t b e s ough t i nt h e n a tu r e o ft h e e l i te i t se l f . T he e l i te a r tef ac t s e t s w e re c ompa ra t ive ly r a re a nd d i d n o t

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CHAPTER 6 S TRATEG IES OF EXCHANGE I N THE SOUTH EAST ALPINE REG ION BET WEEN 1 000 B .C . AND 3 00 B .C . A d i scu s s ion o f t h e n a tu re a nd e x ten t o f e xchange a s i t r e la te s t ot h e L a te B ronze A ge L jub l jana a nd R uk g roup s a nd t h e E a r ly I r on A ge D o len jska a nd W ie s—Ma r t i janec g r oup s i s a pp rop r ia te h e re a s a d eve lopmen t o f t h e d i scu s s ion o fs o c ia l o rgan isa t ion a nd , i np a r t icu la r , p r e s t ige e xchange i nC hap te r 5 .R ecen t s t ud ie s o f t h e L a te B ron ze A ge . L a te B ron ze A ge /Ea r ly I r on A ge i n te r face a nd t h e E a r ly l i on A ge i nC en t ra l a nd S ou th E a s ter n E u rop e h ave e mpha s i sed t h e r o le p l ayed b y e xchange i n t h e r i se a nd m a in tenance o fr anked s o c ie ty ( F ranken s te in a nd R ow land s 1 978 , 7 5-112 ; R ow land s 1 980 , 1 5-55 ; We l ls 1 981 ; Mo r r i s 1 986 , 1 -17 ) . A t ten t ion h a s f o cu s sed o n t h e c on t ro l o f e xchange b y t h e e l i te a nd t h e r ed i s t r ibu t ion o f e xo t ic a r te fac t s t o m a in ta in t h e h i e ra r chy i n t h e H a l l s ta t t D F u r s ten s i t z z one o f s ou thwe s te rn G e rmany , e a s ter n F ran ce a nd n o r th—we s ter n S w i t ze r land ( F ranken s te in a nd R ow land s 1 978 ,o p . c i t . ) . Af u r the ra r ea o fr e sea r ch h a sb een o nt h eu s e o f e x ter na l e xchange a s a n e l emen t o f i n te rna l e l i te c ompe t i t ion , p a r t icu la r ly i nG eome t r ic a nd a r cha ic G r eec e ( Row land s 1 980 , o p . c i t . ; Mo r r i s 1 986 , o p . c i t . ) . T he se f a c to r s h ave b een e xam ined i n t h e a na ly s i s o f p r e s t ige e xchange a bove .

T he t h ree m a jo r h ead ing s c anno t b e c on s ide r ed b e fo r e t h e e v iden ce f o r c on tac t h a s b een d i scu ssed . T h i s w i l l t a ke t h e f o rm o f as u r vey o ft h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fa r te fa c t s ,d e r ived f r om e ach o f t h e f o u r m a in r e g ion s m en t ioned a bove , w i th in t h e D o len jska a nd W ie s—Ma r t i janec g roup s , a nd c onve r se ly t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f a r te fa c t s , d e r ived f r om t h e D o len j ska g roup , w i th in t h ea bove f o u rr e g ion s .T h e t empo ra ld imen s ion o ft h e s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ionn w i l l b e d i scu ssed u s ing t h e f ou r p a r t c h rono log ica ls y s tem e mp loyed i nC hap te r4 . T he c hap te ri s l a id o u ta sf o l low s s S ec t ion 1 S u r vey o fe v idence o fe xchange . 1 : 1 N o r ther na nd C en t ra lI t a ly 1 : 2 A lp ine a nd C en t ra lE u rop e . 1 : 3 T he C a rpa th ian b a s in a nd E a s te rn E u rope . 1 : 4 T he N o r th We s ta nd C en t ra lB a lkan s S ec t ion 2

2 : 1 2 : 2 2 : 3

T he m a in c on ce rn o f t h e f o l low ing i st oa na ly se t h e n a tu re a nd d eve lopmen t o f i n te r r e g iona l e xchange a t af u n c t iona l l e ve l b e tween t h e L a te B ronze A ge L jub l jana a nd R ue g r oup s a nd l a te r , t h e E a r ly h on A ge D o len j ska a nd W ie s— Ma r t i janec g r oup s , a nd t h e i r r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e L a te B ronze A ge a nd E a r ly I r on A ge g r oup s i n n o r ther n a nd c en t ra l I t a ly , A lp ine a nd C en t ra l E u rope , t h e C a rpa th ian b a s in a nd E a s te rn E u rope , a nd t h e n o r thwe s t a nd C en t ra l B a lkan s .

T he N a tu r e o fE xchange i nt h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine r e g ion i nt h e L a te B ronze A ge a nd E a r ly h on A ge . T he S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion a s a n a r ea o fp roduc t ion o f r aw m a te r ia l s . T he D o len jska g roup a s a n i n te rmed ia ry g r oup . T he D o len jska g roup a nd c r a f t p roduc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion . 1 ) S urvey o ft he E v idence . 1 : 1 N or thern a nd C en tra lI t a ly

T he e v iden ce f o rc on tac tb e tween n o r the rn I t a ly a nd t h e L a t e B ron ze A ge L jub l jana a nd R ue g roup s a nd t h e E a r ly h on A ge D o len jska a nd W ie s—Ma r t i janec g r oup s i sl im i ted t oa f ew s p ec i f ic a r chaeo log ica l ly a t te s ted g r oup s . T he se a r e t h e S v . L uc i ja g r oup i n t h e J u l ian A lp s , w h i ch s t radd le s t h e m ode rn b o rde rb e tween I t a ly a nd S loven ia ( Gab rovec 1 966 , 1 -48 ; T e l-Z an a nd T rampui 1 973 , 4 16-460 ) , t h e E s te g r oup s i tua ted i nt h e P o v a l ley i nn o r thea s t e rn I t a ly ( F rey 1 969 ) a nd t h e V i l lanovan c u l tu r e i n t h e Em i l ia R omag na , p a r t icu la r ly B o logna ( F rey 1 969 , 9 4 2 ) . T he r e w a s c on s ide rab le c on ta c t t h roughou t t h e e a r ly f i r s t m i l len ium B C ,ma in ly w i th t h e E s te a nd S v . L uc i ja g r oup s . I n deed , C hap te r2 ,s e c t ion 2 : 1 s how s t h a t m uch o ft h e c h rono logy o f t h e E a r ly h on A ge i nS l oven ia r e s t s o n c r o s s—da t ing w i th E s te m a te r ia l ( Gab rovec 1 966 , 1 -48 ; F r ey a nd G ab rovec 1 971 , 1 93-218 ; K i l ian 1 971 , 2 19-231 ) . Mo re l i m i ted c on ta c t c an b e d e tec ted w i th t h e G o la sec ca c u l tu re o f t h e L omba rd l a ke s( F r ey 1 969 ,4 7-56 ;P aul i1 971 ,8 2-83 ) .

T he r e a r e t h r ee m a in h ead ing su nde rw h ich e xchange c an b e e xam ined f u nc t iona l ly . T he f i r s t i st h e r o le o fB e la K ra j ina , D o len jska , S t a je r ska a nd S ou th S ty r ia a s r e g ion s p roduc ing r aw m a te r ia l s , p a r t icu la r ly c opp e r a nd i r on ,d u r ing t h e L a te B ronze A ge a nd E a r ly I r on A ge ( s ee C hap te r 1 ,s e c t ion 3 ) . T he s econd i s t h e r o le o f t h e D o len jska g roup a s a n i n te rmed ia ry o rm idd leman g roup b e tween t h e p roduce r s o f r aw m a te r ia l s , s u ch a sc oppe ra nd s a l tf r om t h e A lp s , a mbe r f r om t h e B a l t ic c oa s t a nd i r on f r om av a r ie ty o fs ou r ce s , a nd t h e c on sume r g r oup s i nn o r the rn I t a ly a nd t h e B a lkan s ( s ee Map 3 ) . T he t h i rd i sr ea l ly c onnec ted w i th t h e s e cond , a si t r e la te s t o t h e p o s i t ion o f t h e D o len j ska g roup i n c r a f t p roduc t ion , w h ich i nf a c t p rov ide s m uch o f t h e i n fo rma t ion c once rn ing t h e r a nge o f e x t ra— r eg iona l c on tac t s . T h e p r om inence o f t h e D o len jska g roup o ve r t h e W ie s— Ma r t i janec g roup w a s d i scu s sed i n C hap te r 5 , s e c t ion 6 . T he r e i s af o u r th s e c t ion i n t h i s f u nc t iona l a pp roach t o e xchange , w h ich i s d i ff i cu l t t o d e sc r ib e , t h e a c tua l m echan i sm s o f e xchange o u t s ide t h e p r e s t ige s phe r e . T he a s ymme t r ica l n a tu r e o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd i s t h e m a jo rr e a son f o rt h i sd ef i c ien cy ( s ee C hap te r3 ) .

T he e v id ence f o r c on tac t w i th c en t ra l I t a ly i s , c on s ide rab ly l e s s t h an t h ea bove . T he m a in g roup s t h a ta r eo fi n te r e s th e re a r e t h e A d r ia t ic c oa s ta l g r oup s i nP i cenum ( Lo l l in i 1 976 , 17—L55 ) a nd A pu l ia ( T ine—Ge r tocch i 1 971 , 1 25131 ; B a tov i6 1 976 , 4 5-46 ; G logov iC 1 979 , 5 7-84 ) i n t h e s e ven th a nd s i x th c en tu r ie s B .C . T he S ou ther n V i l lanovan a nd E t r u scan c u l tu re so fT u scany a nd n o r the rn L az io w e r eo f

9 0

S t ra teg ie so fE x change i nt h eS ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion B e tween 1 000 B .C .a nd 3 00 B .C . l e s s i mpo r tance , i n d i rec t ly l i nked t o t h e E a r ly I r on A ge D o len j ska g roup , a nd a s s u ch w i l l b e m en t ioned o n ly i n p a s s ing . 1 : la T he L a te B ronze A ge ( Ha l ls ta t tB 1a nd B 2 ) . T he r e la t ion sh ip o ft h e L jub l jana a nd R ue g r oup s w i th t h e L a te B ronze A ge g r oup s i nn o r the rn I t a ly w a s r e la t ive ly m ino r . T h e m e ta lwo rk o fb o th g r oup s w a s r e la t ed t ot h a to f t h e e a r l ie s t p ha se o f t h e T o lm in c eme t e ry i n w e s ter n S loven ia ,p a r to ft h eS v . L uc i ja g r oup ( Gab rovec 1 973 ,3 693 74 ; S vo l jgak 1 973 ,4 13 ,T .3 ) . I np a r t icu la rt h ef i bu la et y pe s p a ra l le led e ach o t he r i nt h e L jub l jana Ig r ave s a tL jub jana , Mok ronog a nd i nt h e g rave s a tT o lm in ( S vo l jgak 1 973 , o p . c i t . ) .S ome e l emen to ft h em e ta lwo rk a s semb lage a tE s te a nd B o logna w a sc ompa rab le t ot h a ta tL jub l jana a nd i nt h eR ue g roup . T h e O b lekov ic e t y pe r a zo r k n i f e f o und i nL jub l jana g rave 1 , Rae g r ave 3 1 a nd B r in jeva g o ra g r ave 1 2 i s a l so k nown f r om t h eL imone h oa rd ( Webe r1 982 ,4 5-56 )a nd i nF on tan e l la g rave 1 2 , B i sman tova , B a s sano V ene to a nd T rev iso ( J ockenhöve l 1 971 , 2 06 ) . H oweve r , t h e re i sl i t t le s im i la r i ty i nf i bu la a nd p i nt y p e s . T he c e ram ic a s semb lage s f r om b o th L jub l jana a nd t h eR uk g roup ss h ow as im i la rl a ck o fc l o se p a ra l le l sw i th t h eE s te a nd B o log na g roup . Mü l le r-Ka rp e ( 1 959 , 19 1 20 )p o in t st o s im i la r i t ie s b e tween c i ne ra ry u r n s f r om P ob r ei je a nd B i ssone a nd s ome o f t h e d eco ra t ive c o rdon e l emen t s a t P ob r ez je a nd E s te , a l though n o c l o se r c onnec t ion c an b e d e tec ted . T he re i s , h oweve r , am ino r e xcep t ion , t h e t wo z oomo rph ic a sko i i nL jub l jana g r ave 5 4 ( F . S t a re 1 9 54 ,6 36 4 ) . T h e se v e sse ls a r e c l o se ly r e la ted t o t h e V i l lanovan a sko i f o und a t B o log na-Benac c i C ap ra ra ( F . S t a r e 1 9 54 , 1 28 ; B ud ja 1 980 , 8 5-95 ) , a nd d i f f e r f r om t h e n o rm i nt h e L jub l jana I ap ha se , b u ts t i l l p r ov id e s t h eb e s te v idence f o r d i rec tc on ta c tb e tween t h eL jub l jana g r oup a nd n o r the rn I t a ly i nt h i sp e r iod ( s ee Map 1 0 ) . Map 1 0 .

C u l tu ra l G roup s i nc on tac t w i th t h e

L j ub l jana /Do len j ska a nd

1 :l b L a t eB ronze A ge /Ear ly I r on A ge I n ter face ( Ha l l s ta t t B 3 ) .

Ra e G roup s f r om 8 00BC t o 7 00BC : 1 .S v . L uc i ja G roup 2 .N o t r an j s l ca

T he L a t e B ron ze A ge /Ea r ly I r on A ge i n te r face p e r iod p r e sen ts ad i f f e ren tp i c tu r e . T he L jub l jana g r oup a nd t h eS v . L uc i ja g r oup h ave v e ry s im i la r m e ta lwo rk a s semb lage s i n t h i sp ha se ( L jub l jana I l b ,S v .L uc i ja I a / lb ) .I r on a nn r ing sa nd n e ck r ing s w e r e p re sen t i nL jub l jana , g r ave s 6 4 , 1 0 1 , 12 , 1 44 a nd 1 7 5( Gab rovec 1 973 ,T . 1 ) ,a nd Mo s tn aS o C i ,g r ave s 34 , 9 48 , 1 0 37 a nd 118 ( Te r Zan a nd T rampui 1 973 , T . 1 ) , i n d ica t ing a t l e a s t a s im i la r s o c ia l r e ac t ion t o t h e i n troduc t ion a s i r on ( s ee C hap te r 5 ,s e c t ion 2 ) . T he f i bu la s e t s o f t h e L jub l jana /Do len jska g r oup , t h e R ue g r oup a nd t h e S v . L u c i ja g roup w e r e d om ina t ed b y b r onze a nd i r on f o rms o ft h et wolooped b ow f i bu la ( Gab rovec 1 970 ,9 15 ) , w h ich w e r eu l t ima te ly d e r ived f r om t h e s ou th-ea s t a nd w i l l b e d i scu s sed b e low . H oweve r , a l though t h e m a te r ia l c u l tu r e w a s s im i la r , t h e S v . L uc i ja g r oup d i dn o t s h a re t h e c hange f r om f l a t g r ave s t ob a r row g r ave s , w h ich c ha rac te r i sed t h e D o len jska a nd W ies-Ma r t i janec g r oup s , d eve lop ing o u t o f t h e L jub l jana a nd R ue g r oup si nt h i sp ha se ( J . D u la r , 1 979 6 5-100 ) .

T he m e ta lwo rk a s semb lage o f t h e L jub l jana g r oup a l so s h owed i n c r ea sed l i nk sw i th E s te a nd B o logna . T he s i ng lel o oped b r onze b ow f i bu la , d a ted t ot h e L jub l jana I ap ha se , f r om S l epkk n ea r Mok ronog i s a lmo s t i d en t ica l t o t h e e xamp le i ng r ave 1 54 a tE s te ( Gab rovec 1 973 ,3 48 ; Mü l le rK a rpe 1 9 59 ,T .90 :C3 ) .I nt h es u c ceed ing L jub l jana I l bp ha se , t h e l e a f b ow f i bu la i n L jub l jana , g r ave 1 44 p a ra l le l s e xamp le s i n E s te-Capodog l io g r ave XL IV , E s te V ia S . S t ef ano g r ave 3 8 a nd g r ave 5 7 a tN ov i la ra-Mo r la ron i i n P i cenum ( Gab rovec 1 973 , 38-385 ; G u g t in 1 973 , 4 68 ) . T he d r e s s-p in a s semb lage i nt h e L jub l jana I i a a nd I l b p ha se s w a s a l so v e ry s im i la r , w i th c on ica l a nd m u sh room-headed p i n s c ommon t ot h e L jub l jana g r oup , e . g . L jub l jana g r ave s 2 2 , 3 8 , 1 3 5 , a nd 1 74 , P odzeme l j , S l epiek n ea r Mok ronog a nd V a Ce , a nd t ot h eg r oup si nN o r ther nI t a ly ,e . g . B o logna&V i ta le g r ave 76 . E s te-V ia S .S t e f ano g r ave s 1 32 , 1 36 , 1 5 4 a nd 2 79 , N ov i la ra-Mo la ron i g r ave 1 05 , C a s te l le t to T i c ino i nt h eG o la sec ca g r oup a nd P fa t ten V adena i nt h eA l to A d ige ( Gab rovec 1 976 , 5 88-600 ; G u g t in 1 973 , 4 68 , 4 69 ) . T he A n tennae-h i l ted b r on ze s wo rd s , f o und i n t h e

G roup 3 .I s t r ian G roup 4 .E s t e5 .B o logna 6 .H a l l s ta t t7 .H ö t t ing G roup .

9 1

I r on A ge i nS l ov en ia

Map 1 . C u l tu ra lG roup s i nc on ta c tw i th t h eL j ub l jana /Do len j ska a nd t h eW i e s—M a r t i janec G roup sf r om 8 00BC t o7 00BC : 1 .S vL uc i ja G roup 2 .N o t r an j ska G roup 3 .I s t r ian G roup 4 .E s te 5 .B o logn a6 .H a l l s ta t t7 .I n n e rA lp in eG roup 8 .G o la s ecca G roup 9 .A l to A d ig e ( Süd t i ro l ) 1 0 . V o jvod in a 1 .S e rb ian D anube R eg ion 1 2 .P i c enum 1 3 .D on ja D o l ina 1 4 .F r og G roup .

H a r te rm ichel coge l 1a nd t h e A n tennae— h i l ted s wo rd g r ave a tP odzeme l j ( s ee Map 1 2 ) . a l so o ccu r r ed i nn o r the rn I t a ly , e . g . g r ave 76 a tB o logna—S . V i ta le ( Gab rovec 1 973 , 383 85 ) .

1 98 1 , 1 97 ) i sa ne xamp le o ft h eG ab rovec t y pe 6( Gab rovec 1 970 ,3 0 ) a nd ,a l though al o ca lf o rm , s e em sr e la ted t ot y p e s a s so c ia ted w i th t h e S v L uc i ja g roup s ( Gab rove c 1 9 73 , T . 1 ;J .D u la r3 ,5 70 ;T e r na nd T rampui 1 9 73 ,F ig 1 . )

T he re w e r ef ew p a ra l le l sb e tween t h ec e ram ic a s semb lage o f e i the rL jub l jana g r oup o rt h e Rd ie g r oup a nd t h eL a te B ronze A ge /Ea r ly I r on A ge g r oup s i nn o r ther n I t a ly . Me ta lwo rk a ppea r st oh ave t h ew ide s td i s t r ibu t ion ( s ee Map 1 ) .

T he b r on ze r i ve td eco ra ted c e ram ic g r oup s , f o und a tK ran j , D raga tu ga nd Sena , a r e a nE s te f o rm ,w h ich o c cu r red i n E s te—Rand i g r ave 1 4 a nd E s te—R icove ro g r ave 2 36 ( F r ey 1 969 ,T .2 : 1 ,3 ,5 ;T .4 : 1 6 , 1 7 ;J .D u la r1 9 82 , 1 80-18 1 ) .

1 :l cH a l l s ta t tC .

T he S t iena 1p ha se r e p re sen t s ap ha se i nw h ich t h e r e w a s a g r ea ti n c rea se i nc on ta c tw i th n o r ther na nd c e n t ra lI t a ly ( Map 1 3 ) . T he f i bu lae o f t h e D o len jska a nd W ie s—Ma r t i jane c g r oup s a r e l o ca l i m i ta t ion s o ft h e l o ng— f oo ted b oa t f i bu lae , t h et wo— a nd t h ree—k nobbed b ow f i bu lae , s em i luna te f i bu lae a nd t wo— loop ed k nobbed—bow f i bu lae c u r r en ti nt h eE s t ea nd S v .L uc i ja g r oup s( F r ey 1 969 , 1 317 ;G ab rovec 1 970 ,5 -65 ; T e r ian a nd T rampui 1 973 , F ig . 1 ;J .D u la r 1 973 , 5 72 ) . T he se f i bu lae w e r ef o und o na l lm a jo rs i t e so ft h i sp ha se .

T he l ow— leve l o fc on ta c t b e tween t h e D o len jska a nd W ie s— Ma r t i janec g r oup sa nd t h eS v . L uc i ja a nd E s te g r oup sw a s m a in ta ined i nt h e P odzeme l j 2 /K le in—K le in 1p ha se ( Map 1 3 ) . T he s em i luna te f i bu lae f r om L jub l jana g r ave s 2 15 a nd 2 56 , Mok ronog a nd Me t l ika—Bo r g tek g r ave 6 ,a l l t r ad i t iona l f l a tc r ema t ion g r ave s , w e r e at y pe c ommon ly f o und a t Mo s t n aS oe i a nd T o 1m in i nt h e S v . L uc i ja g r oup ( D e Ma r in i sa nd G u g t in 1 975 , 2 37-253 ) . As im i la r e xamp le i sk nown f r om K le in—K le in ( Dob ia t 1 981 , F i g 7 ) . T he t wo— looped k nobbed—bow f i bu la i nH o ch schu s t e rwa ld b a r row 1 2( Dob ia t

T he e l i te a r t e f ac t s e t o f t h eD o len jska g r oup i nt h eS t iana 1 c on ta ined m u ch m a te r ia l o f I t a l ian o r ig in o r i n sp i ra t ion

9 2

S t ra teg ie so fE x change i nt h eS ou th E as tA lp ine R eg ion B e tween 1 000 B .C . a nd 3 00 B .C .

•

HA 8 3 SWOF tD GRAVE

Map 1 2 . H a l l s ta t tB 3 Swo rd G rave si nt h eS ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion : 1 .V i l lach—Napo leonw ie se 2 .K le in—K le in —H a r tne rm iche lkoge l 1a nd F o r s twa ld 5 93 . G om ja R adgona 4 .P odzem e l j .

(Map 1 4 ) . T he b ronze t r ipod i n t h e Novo m e s to—Kand i ja T r ipod G rave h a sp a ra l le l s w i th t h e t r ipod si ng rave 2 0 i nt h e B o logna—A r sena le M i l i ta re c eme te ry a nd t h e T omba d e l D uce a tV e tu lon ia i nT u scany . T he b ronze s i eve i nt h e s ame g rave i sl i ke a ne xamp le f r om E s te—R icove ro g rave 2 35 , a nd

T he S t iCna 2 p ha se o f t h e D o len jska g roup a nd p ha se 3 a t K le in—K le in s howed c on t inued c on tac t w i th t h e E s te a nd S v . L uc i ja g roup s , a l though t h e c onnec t ion w i th P icenum o f t h e p rev iou s p ha se w a s d i scon t inued ( Map 1 3 ) . T he f i bu lae f ound i n t h e D o len jska g roup c on t inued t o p a ra l le l c l o se ly t h e f o rm s f ound a tE s te a nd i nt h e S v . L uc i ja g roup ( V . S ta it 1 978 , 6 4-84 ) . B oa t f i bu lae t ype s c on t inued t o o ccu r , b u t

t h e a mbe r—knobbed mu l t iheaded p i n i sa l so a n E s te a nd S v . L uc i ja t y pe ( Gab rovec 1 968 . 1 57-188 ; F rey 1 969 , T .6 :4 ) . T he p o t te ry i n t h i s g rave , t h e S t iCin a A rmou r g rave a nd a t ma r je ta ( J . D u la r 1 982 , 1 82 ) s how s s im i la r i t ie s t o t h e c e ram ic so ft h eE s te c eme te r ie s ( F rey 1 968 , 1 -24 ) . E l i te

m a te r ia l

w a s

a l so

d e r ived

f r om

P icenum .

w e re s upp lemen ted b y g l a s s , a mbe r a nd b one b ead—bowed f i bu lae , a nd a n tennae d eco ra ted s e rpen t ifo rm f i bu lae ( F rey 1 968 , 9 -24 ; T er ian a nd T rampuZ 1 973 , F ig . 1 ) . T he b ronze , k nobb ed n eck r ing s f ound i n g raves , s uch a s Magda len ska

T he

g o ra ( Hencken 1 978 , 5 8-59 ) a nd i n t h e S t iCna 1 g r ave s a t Cmome l j ( J . D u la r 1 973 , 5 72 ) w e re a l so f ound a t

c ompo s i te b ronze h e lme t s f ound i nt h e Novo m es to A rmou r G rave , S t iCna B rez je , Magda len ska g o ra , a nd a s s t ray f i nd s f r om L ibna a nd V aCe , w e re l o ca l f o rm s o f t h e h e lme t o f P icene o r ig in f ound a t B e lmon te P i ceno , C a sa lf iuman se ,

Mo s t n a S oC i i n g rave s 4 14 , 4 52 , 1 009 , 4 40 a nd 1 247 ( Te r ian a nd T rampui 1 973 , T4 : 1 ; T5 : 1 ; T1 ,5 ; T7 : 1 ) a nd d a ted t o t h e S v . L uc i ja l c l a nd 1 c2 p ha se s mak ing t h em c on tempo ra ry a nd s l igh t ly e a r l ie r t h an t h e D o len jska

F ab r iano , F i lo t t rano , Nov i la ra a nd N umana i n P icenum . I ndeed a s t ray f r agmen t f r om t h e s i te o f Magda len ska g o ra

e xamp le s . T he h o r izon ta l ly r i bbed , b and e a r r ing s o f t h is p ha se f r om V aCe , R ov ike a nd Magda len ska g o ra w e re

a nd t h e h e lme t f r om Novo m e s to a r e d eco ra ted i nt h e ' S i tu la A r t ' s t y le , d er ived f r om E s te , a nd s im i la r t o t h e h e lme t

p a ra l le led b y ac oncen t ra t ion o ft h ese t ypes a t Mo s tn aS oC i , K o r i tn ica , B i tn je , K oba r id a nd I d r i ja o n B aja , i n t h e S v . L uc i ja g roup , a nd Ameno , V a l t ravag l ia , A rbedo , C adema r io

f r om S e s to C a lende i nt h e G o la secca a r ea ( F rey 1 969 , 4 75 2 ; E gg 1 980 , 2 41-249 ) . T he T ri ike—Don ja D o l ina v a r ian t maha i ra w a s f ound b o th i nP icenum a nd i nt h e D o len jska g roup , a tD o len je V fhpo l je , a nd p a r t icu la r ly i nB e la K ra j ina ,

a nd

C a s te l le t to

T ic ino

i n t h e G o la secca

g roup

( Ko s

1 975 ,8 61 ; H encken 1 978 ,6 ) .

a t D raga t tg a nd Cmome l j ( J . D u la r 1 973 , 5 72 , T .19 :1 ; G ut in 1 974b , 7 7-94 ) . A f u r the r i mpor t f r om t h e A d r ia t ic

T he b ron ze v es se ls i n t h e s o— ca l led ' P r ince ly G rave s ' a t

c oa s t o f I t a ly w a s t h e A pu l ian k r a te r . T hese c e ram ic v esse ls o c cu r red a t Cmome l j , D raga tu a nd P odzeme l j i n B e la K ra j ina a nd a t S t iCin a i nD o len jska , a nd r e in fo rce t h e i mp ress ion t h a t t h i s a nd t h e o t he r m a ter ia l may h ave a r r ived p r ima r i ly b y s ea v i a t h e I s t r ian p en inu su la ( s ee b e low ) ( J . D u la r 1 973 , 5 72 ; T .16 :1 ; B a tov iC 1 976 , 4 5-46 ; G logov iC 1 979 ,5 7-84 ) .

K le in—K le in a nd S t re t tweg w e re c l o se ly r e la ted t o n o r th I t a l ian e xamp le s . T he f i gu ra l d eco ra t ion o n t h e P omme rkoge l a nd K rö l l—Schm iedkoge l s i tu lae , C is ta ä C o rdon i a nd v e s se l l i d s a r el i nked t ot h ee a r ly ' S i tu la A r t 'o f E s te ( F rey 1 969 , 6 8-7 1 ; D ob ia t 1 980 , 3 74-376 , 3 78-381) , a nd t ot h e s i tu la f r om T rezzo n ea rM i lan , as i te b e long ing t o t h e G o la secca g roup ( De Ma r in i s 1 974 , 6 7-86 ) . T he

9 3

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia P omme rkoge l s i eve i sr e la ted t ot h e f o rm i n t h e E s teR icove ro g r ave 2 35 ( F rey 1 969 , T6 : 4 ) , w h i l s t t h e v e s se l f o rm s a r e r em in i scen to ft h o se a tB o logna ( F r ey 1 969 , 2 54 5 ) . T h e K rö l l-Sc lun iedkoge l h e lme t i s ad oub le-c r e s t ed h e lme t , at y pe c ommon i nD o len jska , w h e r e i t may h ave d eve loped o u to ft h ec ompo s i te h e lme t , a l though i th a sb een f o und a s f a r a f i e ld a s P opu lon ia i n T u scany ( Gab rovec 1 962-63 , 3 21-347 ; E gg 1 978 . 1 91-195 ) . T he K rö l lS chm iedkoge l h e lme tm u s td a te t ot h e f i r s th a l fo ft h e s i x th c e n tu ry B .C . , b u tt h i s d a te i sc on s i s ten t w i th t h e p a rame te r s o fp ha se 3a tK le in-K le in . T he c e ram ic a s semb lage o f b o th g roup s w a s s t rong ly i n f luenced b y t h e E s te g r oup i nt h e S t icna 2 /K le in-K le in p ha se 3 .T he e a r l ie s t f o o ted s i tu la te v e s se l s w i th b l ack a nd r e d p a in ted b and s d a te t ot h e E s te p ha se I / I I I , a nd a r e f o und a tS t iena i nt h i s p ha se ( J . D u la r 1 982 , 2 19-220 ) a nd p o s s ib ly a tt h e S t e t tweg b a r row ( Schm id 1 9 34 , 2 0 ) . T he p r ac t ice o f t i n d eco ra t ion o f c e ram ic v e s se l s , f o und a tt h e K le in-K le in c eme t e r ie s a nd i nt h e D o len j ska g r oup i sa l so k nown a t Mo s tn aS oc i a nd K oba r id i nt h eS v . L uc i ja g r oup , a sw e l l a si nt h eE s te ,G o la sec ca a nd E t ru scan a r ea s( Dob ia t 1 980 , 1 30132 ) . 1 :1 dH a l l s ta t t Da nd E ar ly L aT ene . T he s e cond h a lf o f t h e E a r ly I r on A ge w a s t h e p e r iod o f g r ea te s tc on tac tb e tween t h eD o len jska g r oup o nt h eo ne h and a nd t h e S v . L u c i ja a nd E s te g r oup s o n t h e o t he r ( Map 1 5 ) . T he n on-e l i te m a t e r ia l c u l tu r e e xh ib i ted a n umbe r o f s im i la r i t ie s . T h e f i bu la a s semb lage o f t h e S e rpen t i fo rm p ha se i nD o len jska c on s i s ted m a in ly o fs imp le S e rpen t i fo rm f i bu la e , w h ich w e r e i d en t ica l t oc on tempo ra ry f o rm s a tE s te a nd Mo s tn aS o C i ( T e rian a nd T rampu i 1 9 73 ,F ig . 1 ;T e r ian 1 974 , 3 1-66 ) . T he C e r to sa f i bu lae o f t h e C e r to sa a nd

Map 1 3 . C u l tu ra l G roup s i n C on ta c t w i th t h e D o len j ska a nd W ie sMa r t i jan ec G roup s f r om 7 00BC t o 6 00BC :

1 . S v . L uc i ja G roup 2 .

N o t ran j ska G roup 3 . I s t r ian G roup 4 . E s t e 5 . B o logna 6 . P i cenum 7 . G o la s ecca G roup 8 .I n n e r A lp in e G roup 9 .H a l l s ta t t 1 0 . F r og G roup 1 . D on ja D o l in a 1 2 .P l a t en ice G roup 1 3 .E a s tP om rn e r an ia 1 4 . B a sa rab iG roup 1 5 .B o su tG roup 1 6 .T r eben i i t eG roup .

•

I TAL IAN T YPE H ELMET O R ARMOUR

4 e 2 -

m a ku iRA A ,

A PUL IAN K RATER

•

I TAL IAN T YPE BRONZE V ESSEL

e b Map 1 4 .D i s t r ibu t ion o fF o r e ign 'P r e s t ige G ood si nt h eS t iCna 1a nd S t iCna 2P ha s e si nt h eS ou thea s tA lp s : 1 .Magda len ska g o r a2 .S t iCn a3 .V aCe 4 .N ovo m e s to 5 .B r ez je n ea rT r eb e lno 6 . gma r je ta 7 .L ibna 8 .P odz eme l j9 . Cmome l j 1 0 .D r aga tu i 1 .L egen n ea rS l oven jG rad ec 1 2 .K le in-K le in 1 3 .S t r enweg 1 4 . F rög b e iR o se n 1 5 . Sm ih e l 1 6 .T r i i i Ze .

9 4

S t ra teg ie so fE x change i nt h eS ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion B e tween 1 000 B .C .a nd 3 00 B .C . N egova p ha se s i n D o len jska o r ig ina t ed i n n o r the rn I t a ly , a l though f o r m o s to ft h e s e cond h a l fo ft h e E a r ly I r on A ge , E s te , S v . L uc i ja a nd D o len jska w e re a l l c en t re s o f m anu fa c tu re ( Te r ian 1 976 , 4 26-433 ) . T he f oo ted s i tu la te v e sse l s w i th r ed a nd b l a ck p a in ted b and s w e re a b so rbed i n to t h e D o len jska g roup c e ram ic a s semb lage ,a nd b e came r e la t ive ly c ommon t h roughou t t h e r e s t o ft h e p e r iod . B la ck a nd r e d p a in t ing o n o t he r v e s se l s m ay a l so h ave b een i n sp i red b y t h e E s te a nd S v . L uc i ja g roup s ( J . D u la r 1 982 , 2 17-220 ) . T he e l i te a r te fac t s e t c on ta ined a n umbe r o f c on sp icou s ' I t a l ian 'e l emen t s ( Map 1 6 ) . T he f i gu ra ld eco ra ted s i tu lae , w h ich o c cu r red a t m any s i te s i nD o len jska , w e r e i n sp i red b yt h e' S i tu la A r t ' o ft h eE s te g roup ( F r ey 1 969 ) . I ta ppea red i nt h ee a r ly C e r to sa p ha se i nD o len jska , a nd w a s p robab ly l o ca l ly p roduced ( Knez 1 983 ,8 5105 ) .T hu si tw a s al o ca l c en t re a si tw a s w i th C e r to sa f i bu lae . T he i mpo r tan ce o ft h e f i gu ra lf r ieze sh a sb een d i scu s sed i nC hap te r5 ,s e c t ion 3 .

Map 1 5 .

C u l tu r a l G roup s i n c on ta c t w i th t h e D o len j ska

G roup f r om

6 00BC t o4 50BC : 1 .S v .L uc i ja G roup 2 .N o t r an j ska G roup 3 .I s t r ian G roup 4 .E s t e5 .B o logna 6 .P i cenum 7 .G o la s ecca G roup 8 .I n ne rA lp in eG roup 9 . H a l l s ta t t 1 0 . D i i r rnb e rg b e i H a l le in 1 . D on ja D o l ina 1 2 . E a s tP om rn e r an ia 1 3 .S i l e s ia 1 4 . Smo len ice-M6 lp i r 1 5 . We s te rn H a l l s ta t tA r ea 1 6 .K ap to ln e a r S l avon ska P oi ega .

T he b r onze h e lme t s t h a t w e r e f ound o n ma jo r s i te s i n D o len jska i nt h i s p e r iod w e r e a n i mpo r tan t p a r t o ft h e e l i te s e t . T he d oub le c r e s ted h e lme t w a s c ommon ly u sed i nt h e S e rpen t i fo r rn a nd C e r to sa p ha se s ( Gab rovec 1 963 , 3 21-347 ; E gg 1 978 , 1 91195 ) , a nd w a s al o ca ld eve lopmen t f r om t h e S t icna 1p ha se c ompo s i te h e lme t , a s w a s m en t ioned a bove . E xamp le s h ave b een f ound a t D o len jske T op l ice , Magda len ska g o ra , L ibna , Novo m e s to , S t iCna , gma r je ta , V inkov v r ha nd V aCe ( Egg 1 978 , 1 93 ) ,i n d ica t ing t h a ti tw a s c l ea r ly a l o ca l f o rm . T he N egova h e lme t , w h ich g i ve s i t s n ame t o t h e N egova p ha se i nD o len jska ( s ee C hap te r 2 , s e c t ion 2 : 1 i ) , w a s i n sp i r ed b y a n ' I t a l ian ' o r ig ina l . T he I t a l ian v a r ian t i se a r l ie r t h an t h e l o ca l D o len jsko v a r ian t , a nd w a s f ound m a in ly i nG o la sec ca , E t ru scan a nd P icene a r ea s . O n ly o ne h e lme t o f t h i s t y pe h a s b een f ound i n D o len jska , i nS t iCna g r ave 1 04 , w he r e i td a t ed t o t h e l a te

• S CYT T I IAN MATER IA L , I TAUAN MATER IAL

s4 e -

L A T ENE A MATER IAL

Map 1 6 .D i s t r ibu t ion o f' F o re ign 'E l i t eA r tef a c t si nD o len j ska b e twe en 5 80BC a nd 3 90BC : 1 . Magda len ska g o ra 2 .V a Ce 3 .S t iena 4 .V a l iena v a s5 .D o len j ske T op l ic e6 .N ovo m e s to 7 . §ma r je ta 8 .B r ez je n ea rT r ebe lno 9 .V o lC j en j ive 1 0 .L ibna 1 .P od zem e l j .

9 5

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia C e r to sa p ha se . T he ma in g roup o ft h e se h e lme t s i nD o len jska w e re t h e ' S lovene ' v a r ian ta nd h ave b een f ound a tD o len jske T op l ice , L ibna , Magda len ska g o ra , Novo m e s to , S 'ma r je ta , V a l i ba v a s , V aCle a nd B rez je , a s w e l l a s s t ray f i nd s f r om S ta je r ska , a nd i n ag rave i nt h e I d r i ja o n Bga c eme te ry o f t h e S v . L uc i ja g roup ( Gab rovec 1 965 , 1 77186 ) .

a nd T rampui-O re l 1 984 b T . 7 B , T . 2 73 ) . S ocke ted a xes w e r e a l so f ound i nt h e g rave s a t Mo s t n a S oi , b u t t h e se a r e n o t n ece ssa r i ly o f D o len jska o r ig in . E xamp le s o f t h e l a te ra l r i bbed b e l t h ook , f ound i n l a te N egova c on tex t s i n D o len jska , a nd p robab ly d e r ived f r om t h e n o r thwe s te rn B a lkan s , a r ea l so k nown ( Map 1 7 ) .

A r tefac t s o fD o len jska g roup o r ig in o r i n sp i ra t ion h ave b een f o und i nS v . L uc i ja c eme ter ie s . T he b uck le d eco ra ted v e sse l

1 : 2A lp ine a nd C en tra l E urope .

i ng rave 2 191 a t Mo s t n a S oC i i s at yp ica l D o len jska f o rm o ft h e s i x th t of ou r th c en tu r ie s B .C . ( J .Du la r 1 982 , 2 17-218 ; T e rian , L o S ch iavo a nd T rampui-O re l 1 984b , T . 2 66 :C3 ) . T he L a te N egova ' Wa r r io r G rave ' H o r izon , d ef ined b y T e rian ( 1977 ,9 -21) i nt h es ou thea s te rn A lp s w a se s sen t ia l ly ap roces s o f a dop t ion o f D o len jska w eapon s b y t h e S v . L uc i ja g roup . I r on s ha f tho le a xes o ccu r red i n K o r i tn ica g raves 1 7 a nd 2 5 ( Ko s 1 973 , 8 48-873 ) a nd i ng rave 4 5 a nd a s t wo s t ray f i nd sf r om Mo s tn aS oc i ( Te r ian ,L oS ch iavo

T he re i s ad emon s t rab le r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e D o len jska a nd W ie s- Ma r t i janec g roup s a nd t h e I n ne r A lp ine H a l ls ta t t g roup s , p a r t icu la r ly t h e F rög g roup ( A igne r-Fo re s t i 1 980 , 7 -40 ) , t h e s i te o f H a l l s ta t t i t se lf ( Egg 1 978 a , 11-117 ; 1 978b , 1 91-20 1) , t h eD ü r rnbe rg b e i Ha l le in ( Pau l i 1 978 )a nd t h e I n ne r A lp ine s i te s , s uch a s t h e U t temdo r f c eme te ry ( Moo s le i tne r 1 981 , 2 05-226 ) . T he re i s s ome e v idence t o l i nk t h e We s te rn Ha l l s ta t t a r ea t o t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion , b u t t h i s i s l im i ted t o as ha red U rn f ie ld b ackg round a nd t ot h e m ed ia t ion o ft h e A lp ine g roup s m en t ioned a bove . S im i la r ly t h e re i sl e ss e v idence f o r al i nk i nt h e L a te B ronze A ge ,s ot h is p e r iod w i l lo n ly b eb r ief ly e xam ined . 1 : 2a T he L a te B ronze A ge ( Ha l l s ta t tB i a nd B 2 ) . I ti sd i f f icu l t t oi s o la te mo re t h an af ew i n s tances o fc on tac t b e tween t h e u rn f ie ld g roup s i nt h e A lp s a nd t h e L jub l jana a nd R ue g roup s . T he R ige g roup m e ta lwo rk a ssemb lage w a s f ound o n t h e f ew s i te s k nown i nC a r in th ia , w h i l s t t h e H a l l s ta t t Bs i te s i nt h e S a lzbu rg , Uppe r A u s tr ia a nd No r th T y ro l a r ea s w a s c ha rac te r i sed b y Hö t t ing f o rms ( Map 1 0 ) ( P i t t ion i 1 954 ,5 07-517 ) . T he s i te o f H a l l s ta t t ( Map 1 0 ) h a s p roduced a s i ng le H a l ls ta t t Bp i ece o fD o len jska o r ig in , t h e p i n w i th at w i s ted c y l ind r ica l n eck f r om g rave 1 32 , s im i la r t ot h e e xamp le i n g rave 10 f r om D obova . H oweve r , t h e g r ave i sH a l ls ta t t D i nd a te a nd s o t h e p i n w a s p robab ly a n h e i r loom ( Egg 1 978 , 1 96 ) . 1 : 2b L a te B ronze A ge /Ear ly I ron A ge I n ter f ace ( Ha l l s ta t t B 3 ) . I ti sp o ss ib le t o d i scer n ac l o se r r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e i n ne rA lp ine g roup s a nd t h e S ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion d u r ing t h ee i gh th c en tu ry B .C . ( Map 1 ) . T he mo s tv i s ib le l i nk i st h e A n tennae-h i l ted s wo rd g rave h o r izon , w h ich w a sp re sen ti n t h e n a scen t D o len jska g roup i nt h e A n tennae-h i l ted S wo rd G rave a t P odzeme l j ( J . D u la r 1 978 ) a nd i n t h e W ie sMa r t i janec g roup , i n t h e G or n ja R adgona Swo rd G rave ( Pah iC 1 966 , 1 22 ) , t h e Ha r tne rm iche lkoge l 1a nd F o r s twa ld B a r row 5 9 a tK le in-K le in ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 3 05 , 3 73 ) . T hese g r ave s c ompa re w i th t h e V i l lach-Napo leonw iese Wa r r io r G rave ( Mü l le r-Ka rpe 1 952 , 1 04-113 ) , w h ich d a ted t o t h e

Map 1 7 .

S i te s w i th m a ter ia l o f D o len j ska G roup o r ig in , d a t ing b e twe en

4 50BC a nd 3 00BC : 1 . Mo s tn aS oC i2 .K o r i tn ica 3 .I d r i ja o nB a? . ' a4 .H a l ls ta t t

s e cond h a lf o f t h e H a l ls ta t t B 3 p ha se ( Map 1 2 ) . T h i s h o r izon ma rked t h e s t a r t o f v i s ib le s oc ia l d i f f e ren t ia t ion i n

5 .D ü rmbe rg b e i H a l le in 6 .S op ronK rau tacke r 7 .B e r emend 8 .H o r tobäg y-

t h es ou th-ea s ter nA lp s .

A rku s 9 .S z en t lö r inc 1 0 . V e lem-Sz en tv id 1 . A u a n d e r L e i thageb i rge 1 2 . K u f f a rn 1 3 . D on ja D o l ina 1 4 . S an sk i mo s t 1 5 . C ' . a rakovo 1 6 . C unga r 1 7 . 2 3 .Z emun 2 4 .S re rn ska M i t rov ica 2 5 . g aba c 2 6 .A d aZ evc i2 7 .N ov iJ ankovc i

Me ta l a r tefac t s , w h ich w e re p robab ly i n sp i red b y e xamp les f r om t h e L jub l jana a nd R ue g roup s , h ave a l so b een f ound . T he c on ica l- a nd m u sh room-headed p i n s w i th ad i sc b e low

2 8 .V in kovc i2 9 . Vd Cedo l .

t h e h ead , w h ich h ave b een f ound a tL jub l jana , Mo l c ronog ,

S . ‘ m ihe l 1 8 . T r ig& 1 9 . S i len tabo r 2 0 . K neiak 2 1 . S to ne 2 2 . N ov i B anovc i

9 6

S t ra teg ie so fE x change i nt h eS ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion B e tween 1 000 B .C .a nd 3 00 B .C . P odzeme l j

a nd V aCe ,

h ave a l so b een f ound a t P fa t ten

( Vadena ) i nt h eA l to Ad ige i nI t a ly , a nd a tF rog i nC a r in th ia ( Ga t in 1 973 , 4 68 ) . E xamp le s o f t h e e a r l ie s t t ype o f t wo— l o oped b ow f i bu la , Gab rovec t yp l a , w h ich h a s as t rong c oncen tra t ion i n t h e L jub l jana /Do len jska a nd R uk /W ie s— Ma r t i janec g roups h ave b een f ound a t F rög , t h e G u r ina , J udendor f b e i V i l lach , Wa rmbad—V i l lach , P o t sch l ing a nd S i ege lbe rg i n t h e F rog g roup , a t H a l l s ta t t , G i lgenbe rg a nd G o i sem i nU ppe r A u s t r ia , a nd U t temdo r f i nt h e S a lza ch v a l ley ( Gab rovec 1 970 , 1 4-15 ; Moo s le i tne r 1 981 , 2 10 , 2 11) . F ina l ly , a l though t h ey o ccu r red i nH a l ls ta t t Cc on tex t s , t h e s haped b ronze b e l t h ook s f o und i nn i ne g rave s a t H a l ls ta t tc l ose ly p a ra l le l t h e b e l th ook s f ound i nH a l ls ta t t B g raves a tL jub l jana , O s t roin ik n ea r Mok ronog a nd a tL egen n ea r S loven j G radec ( Egg 1 978b , 1 9 1-201 ; G ab rovec 1 973 , 3 68-370 ; S t rmCn ik—Gu l iC 1 979 ,T .9 :3 ) .

1 : 2d H a l ls ta t tD ,L aT ene A a nd L aT ene B T he d eg ree o f c on tac t w i th D o len jska i n ten s if ied o ve r t h e c en t ra l A lp s a nd No r th A lp ine F o re land i n t h e Ha l ls ta t t D p e r iod ( Map 1 5 ) . I n i t ia l ly t h i s c on tac t s eems t o h ave r ema ined c oncen t ra ted a tH a l l s ta t t . G rave 2 59 c on ta ined a n i d en t ica l a r tefac t a s semb lage t o e l i te g raves o f t h e S e rpen t i fo r rn p ha se , a tV aCe , L ibna , Magda len ska g o ra , e t c . , w i th a d oub le—c re s ted h e lme t ( Map 1 6 ) ( Egg 1 978b , 1 91-201 ) . F u r the r , Ha l l s ta t t g rave 7 / 1939 c on ta ined a ' S cy th ian ' b a t t le a xe , w h i ls t g raves 6 8 a nd 8 3 o f t h e ' L inz E xcava t ion s ' c on ta ined ' S cy th ian ' t r i loba te a r rowhead s . T hese a r tefac t s a r e f a rr emoved f r om t h e i rp o in t o fo r ig in i n t h e S zen te s— V eke r zug g roup o fe a s te rn Hunga ry . Howeve r , t h ec oncen tra t ion o f' S cy th ian ' ma te r ia li nD o len jska h a sb een a mp ly s t ud ied , a nd t h e se a r t ifac t s a t Ha l ls ta t t may d er ive f r om t h i s a r ea . I nD o len jska , t h e e xamp les f r om V o lc je n j ive a nd t h e V o lav gek b a r row a t L ibna d a te t o t h e s t a r t o f t h e Ha l l s ta t tD 2p ha se . As im i la rd a te may b e s ugges ted f o rt h e

1 : 2c Ha l ls ta t t C . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fD o len jska g roup a r tefac t t ype s c on t inued t h rough o u t t h e Ha l ls ta t t Cp e r iod ( Map 1 3 ) . T he Ha l l s ta t t C , V aC s e k nobbed—bow f i bu la a ppea red a t S t eue rbe rg i n C a r in th ia ( Gab rovec 1 970 , 1 4 ) , w h i ls t s em i luna te t wo— l o oped f i bu lae o f s im i la r d a te h ave b een f ound a t F rög i n C a r in th ta , Ha l ls ta t t , a nd a tG a i she im , R abeneck a nd L esau i n S ou the rn G ermany ( Gab rovec , 1 4-16 ; D e Ma r in is a nd G uk in 1 975 , 2 52 ) .T he V aC ‘e k nobbed—bow f i bu la w a s at ype c ommon i nD o len jska a nd B e la K ra j ina i nt h e P odzeme l j 2 p ha se ( s ee C hap te r 2 , s e c t ion 2 : 1d ) , w h i ls t t h e s em i luna te f i bu la , a l though o f S v . L uc i ja g roup o r ig in , w a s a l so f ound i nt h e D o len j ska a nd W ie s— Ma r t i janec g roup s ( De Ma r in i s

H a l l s ta t te xamp les ( Egg 1 978a , 11-117 ) . S ome o f t h e g rave s a t Ha l ls ta t t c on ta ined s imp le s e rpen t i fo rm f i bu lae o ft h e t ype c u r ren t i nD o len jska i nt h e S e rpen t ifo rm p ha se . H oweve r ,t h e ma jo ri n c rea se i n ma te r ia l o f S ou th E a s t A lp ine i n sp i ra t ion w a s i n t h e m idd le o f t h e f i f th c en tu ry B .C . T h is ma rked t h e a ppea rance o ft h eC e r to sa f i bu la , m en t ioned i ns e c t ion 1 : 1d , i nt h e G o la secca g roup , t h e Ad ige v a l ley , a t Ha l ls ta t t a nd t h e D ü r rnbe rg b e i Ha l le in , w h ich a l so h a s s ome H a l l s ta t t D 1 S ou th E a s t A lp ine f i bu lae ( Pau l i 1 978 , 9 5 ) . T yp e V I I C er to sa f i bu lae a l so o ccu r red a t

a nd G u g t in 1 975 . 2 37-253 ) . T ype 6 a a nd 6 b t wo— looped b ow f i bu lae , f ound a tF rög , H a l l s ta t t a nd U t temdo r f , h ave

We lze lach i n t h e E a s t T y ro l a nd n or th i n to B ava r ia ( Te r ian 1 976 , 3 27 , 3 72-374 , 4 33-434 ) . A s i ng le C e r tosa f i bu la h a s b een f ound i nC a r in th ia a tt h e s i te o f F rög , b u t

p a ra l le l s i nt h e D o len jska , S v L uc i ja a nd W ies— Ma r t i janec g roups ( Gab rovec 1 970 , 1-15 , 3 0 ; Moo s le i tne r 1 981 , 3 10 ) .

u n fo r tuna te ly i ti s as t ray f i nd ( Te rian 1 976 , 3 40 , 3 63 ) . T he E a s t A lp ine z oomo rph ic f i bu la w a s a l so r e la t ive ly c ommon a t Ha l ls ta t t a nd t h e D ü r rnbe rg b e i H a l le in ( Pau l i 1 978 , 1 061 09 ) .

T he Ha l l s ta t tC 2 a nd C 2 /D1 i n ter face p er iod a tH a l l s ta t t a nd i nt h e I n ne r A lp ine G roup w a s c ha ra c ter i sed b y a n i n f lux o f

O the r H a l ls ta t t D 2—D3 a nd L a nne A a nd B ma te r ia l o f D o len jska o r ig in a ppea r ed i n t h e A lp s . T he t r an sve r se

n or th I t a l ian t ype f i bu lae o f t h e t y pe a dop ted b y t h e D o len jska g roup . B oa t f i bu lae h ave b een f ound a t F rög a nd Ha l l s ta t t . S pec if ic f o rms ,w h ich a r er e la ted t o t h o se i n D o len jska , a r et h e g la s s— h edgehog b owed f i bu la i ng rave 4 2

r i bbed a rm— o ra nk le— r ing h a s b een f ound i ns ome 3 5 g raves a tH a l ls ta t t , w h i ls t aN egova s t y le h o l low b ronze a rm— r ing w a s f ound i n g rave 1 24 ( Egg 1 978b , 1 99 ) . P a r t icu la r ly

a tH a l ls ta t t , p a ra l le l t ot h e S t i ba 2p ha se f i bu lae i nL ibna , g p i le r1 / 5 , a nd Magda len ska g o ra V I I /40 , a nd t h eb one—bead b owed f i bu la w i th s phynx i nH a l ls ta t t g rave 5 57 , s im i la r t o t h e e xamp le f r om Sma r je ta . T he l a rge b oa t f i bu la , i ng rave 8 0a nd o t he r sa t Ha l ls ta t tw a s af o rm c ommon i nt h eS t iCna 1 p ha se o ft h eD o len jska g roup ( Egg 1 978b , 1 98-199 ) .

i n te res t ing i st h e ' Ku l t s tab ' i ng rave 18 a tt h e D ü r rnbe rg Ha l le in , w h ich i s c l o se ly r e la ted t o t h e e xamp les i n D o len jska ( V . S ta rt 1 973a 7 30-743 ;P au l i 1 978 ,2 69-273 ) . Ha l l s ta t t D 2-3 a nd L a TMe A e l i te a r tefac t s h ave a l so b een f ound ( Map 1 7 ) . T he ' S i tu la A r t ' p i eces a t Ha l l s ta t t a nd a l ong t h e Ad ige v a l ley , a nd i n to t h e Nor th T y ro l a nd E a s t

E l i te a r tefac t s d er ived f r om D o len jska a l so c l u s te red a t Ha l l s ta t t . T he b ronze d i sc h e lme t s i n H a l l s ta t t g raves 7 8 , 1 75 ,7 76 ,7 99 a nd 8 11 a r e i d en t ica lw i th t h e ' 8 'ma r je ta t ype '

T y ro l a t We lze lach , c ou ld h ave c ome f r om e i the r E s te o r D o len jska , o re qua l ly c ou ld h ave b een o fl o ca l manufac tu re . H oweve r , t h ey w e re c e r ta in ly i n sp i red b y t h e t wo ma jo r

d i sc h e lme to ft h eP odzeme l j 2p ha se ( Egg 1 978b , 1 96197 ) . G rave s 4 65 a nd 4 69 a t Ha l l s ta t t c on ta ined a rmou r a nd

c en t re s , p robab ly E s te , d ue t o i t s p rox im i ty t o t h ese s i te s ( F rey 1 969 , 4 6-61 ) . T he c ha rac te r is t ic ' S lovene ' t ype N egova h e lme t h a s b een r e cove red f r om a n umbe r o f

h e lme t a s semb lage s v e ry s im i la r t o t h e S tkna A rmou r A g rave , w h ich d a ted t ot h e S t iCna 1p ha se ( Egg 1 978b , 1 97-

c on tex t s i nt h e A lp s . O ne e xamp le i sk nown f r om S te in i n J aun ta l i nC a r in th ia , s even e xamp les f r om No r th T y ro l a nd t h e A l to Ad ige ( Sou th T y ro l ) a nd o ne e xamp le f r om Manch ing i nB ava r ia ( Gab rovec 1 965 , 1 82 , 1 85 ) . S ocke ted a xe s w e re i nl im i ted u se a t Ha l l s ta t t a nd t h e D ü r rnbe rg b e i

1 98 ) . T he se a r tef ac t s i n d ica te a r ema rkab ly c l o se r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h eD o len jska g roup a nd H a l ls ta t ti nt h e H a l ls ta t tp e r iod , ar e la t ion sh ip w h ich c an b e f o l lowed i nt h e s ucceed ing p er iod .

9 7

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia H a l le in ,b u tt h e se w e r e ag ene ra l e a s ta nd S ou th E a s tA lp ine f o rm , n o t l i m i ted t ot h e D o len jska g r oup ( Egg 1 978b , 1 941 9 5 ;P au l i 1 978 ,2 18-220 ) . T he c on ta c t w a s b y n o m ean s o ne— s ided a nd a r t e fa c t s w h ich m ay d i r ec t i mpo r t s f r om t h e a r ea t ot h en o r th o ft h e A lp s h ave b een f o und i n C e r to sa p ha se c on tex t s i n D o len jska . A s ma l l n umbe r o f We s ter n H a l l s ta t t ' d rum ' f i bu lae h ave b een f o und , p a r t icu la r ly a t Magda len ska g o ra ( Hencken 1 978 , 2 5 , 5 2-53 ) . T he E a r ly N egova p ha se i s d a ted b y t h e a ppea rance o f L a T ene A m a te r ia l i ne l i te c on tex t s ( Map 1 6 ) . T he b e l thook s , K opp e l r inge a nd r i ch ly f u rn i shed s wo rd s , f o und i n Magda len ska g o ra g r ave sV /26a , V /29 a nd V / 19-20 , w e r e e s sen t ia l ly h i gh s t a tu s a r t e fa c t s ( Te ri/a n 1 981 , 6 59-664 ) .I ti sl i ke ly t h a ts u ch a r te fa c t sw e re d e r ived f r om t h e D ü r rnbe rg b e i H a l le in , w he re h i gh s t a tu s b u r ia l s h ave b een f o und ( Pau l i 1 978 , 3 80-381 , 3 91-393 ) . T he L a te N egova p ha se w a sc h a rac te r i sed b y am o r eg ene ra l i n t roduc t ion o f L a T ene B i d ea s , b u t w i thou t a n a c company ing i n t roduc t ion o f a c tua l m a te r ia l . T h e se f a sh ion s a f f ec ted t h e c ompo s i t ion o f t y po log ica l ly m a le w eapon s s e t s a nd t y po log ica l ly f ema le o r namen t s e t s , b u t w e r ee xp re s sed u s ing i n d igenou sm a te r ia l . T h i sp henomenon h a s b een a na ly sed b y T e r ian ( 1 976 , 4 38-443 ; 1 977 , 9 -21 ) a nd d i scu s sed i nC hap te r5 ,s e c t ion 3 : 1 .

b a s ic f o rm . T h e r a nge o f c i ne ra ry v e s se l s i nt h e R u se a nd L jub l jana g r oup s w e r e s im i la rt ot h o se f o und t h roug hou t t h e a bove g r oup s , a s w e r e t h e b ow l , c up , a nd h and led j u g f o rm s . T he t wo—hand led a mpho ra w a s as p ec if i c Rae t y p e a nd m ay r ef le c t ac l o se l i nk w i th t h e S t i l lf r ied c eme t e ry , w he r e s ome o f t h e se c e ram ic s w e r e f o und ( Mü l le r—Ka rpe 1 958 , 16-124 ;G ab rovec 1 976 ,5 90 ) . T he b r on ze a r te f a c t a s semb lage a l so c on ta ined a l a rge n umbe ro ft y pe sc ommon t oa l o r mo s to ft h eg r oup sa bove . S pec ta c le f i bu lae w i th af i gu r e—o f—e igh tl o op w e re c ommon i n t h e H a l l s ta t t B1 a nd B 2 a t m any s i te s t h roughou t t h e r e g ion ( Mü l le r—Ka rp e 1 9 59 , 1 24-125 , F i g . 4 0 ; G ab rove c 1 973 , F ig 1 ) . T h is a l so a pp l ies t ot h e s phe r ica l—headed d r e s s—p in w i th w ave b and d eco ra t ion . T he H a l l s ta t t B 2 p ha se s aw t h e a ppea rance o ft h eh a rp f i bu la , c ommon i nt h e L jub l jana , Rae a nd S t i l l f r ied g r oup s ( Gab rovec 1 973 ,F ig . 1 ; Mü l le r—Ka rp e 1 9 59 , F i g . 6 0 ) . Av a r ie ty o fr a zo rk n i f e t y pe s w e re d i s t r ibu ted t h roughou t t h e e a s te rn A lp s , P annon ian P la in a nd t h eC a rpa th ian R eg ion .T he O b lekov ice t y p e ,m en t ioned i ns e c t ion 1 : 1a , a nd f o und a tR uk ,B r in jeva g o ra a nd L jub l jana , o r ig ina t ed i n Mo rav ia , a nd r ema ined i n u s e d u r ing t h e H a l l s ta t t B 2 a nd B 3 p ha se s , a nd h a s b een f o und i nS i le s ia , B ohem ia , Mo rav ia a nd S l oven ia ( W ebe r 1 982 , 4 5-56 ) . T he b r onze k n if e t y pe s a l so h ad a n e x t ra— r e g iona l d i s t r ibu t ion ( Mü l le r—Ka rpe 1 9 59 , F ig 4 0 ; F ig . 5 0 , F ig .5 1 ;G ab rovec 1 976 ,5 90 ) .

1 : 3 T he C arpa th ian B a s in a nd E a s tern E urope . 1 : 3b L a te B ronze A ge /Ear ly I r on A ge I n ter face ( Ha l l s ta t tB 3 ) .

T he f o l low ing s e c t ion s c h ie f ly c once rned w i th t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion a nd T ran sdanub ia , t h e e a s ter n A lp ine r e g ion a nd t h e e a s t H unga r ian P la in . T he re w i l l a l so b e ab r ie f d i scu ss ion o f m a te r ia lf r om t h eC a rpa th ian sa nd E a s ter nE u rope .T he m a in g r oup u nde r d i scu s s ion i n t h e H a l l s ta t t Cp e r iod w a s t h e K a lende rbe rg c u l tu re o f e a s ter n A u s t r ia a nd w e s ter n H unga ry .T h i s g r oup w a sr e p laced i nt h eH a l l s ta t t Dp e r iod b y t h e e a s te rn A u s t r ian a nd T ran sdanub ian f l a t c eme te r ie s . T he s o—ca l led ' S cy th ian ' S zen te s—Vek e rzug o r A l fö ld g r oup o fe a s te rn H unga ry w a sa l so i mpo r tan ti nt h eH a l l s ta t t Dp e r iod . T he s p r ead o fI t a l ian m a te r ia l i n to S l ovak ia a nd P o l i sh S i le s ia m u s t a l so b e c on s ide r ed , v i s—a—v i s t h e d i scu ss ion o fl o ng d i s tanc ee xchange n e two rk s , ap o in tw h ich w i l lb em o r ef u l ly c on s ide red i ns e c t ion 2 .

T he c l o se s tr a ng eo fc on ta c t sc an b es e en b e tween t h en a scen t K a lende rbe rg c u l tu r e i nt h e e a s ter nA lp s a nd t h ed eve lop ing D o len jska a nd W ie s—Ma r t i janec g roup s ( Map 1 ) . T he f l a t c r ema t ion c eme t e r ie s ,c on tempo ra ry w i th t h e se g roup s ,s h ow ar a nge o f c onne c t ion s , b o th w i th e a ch o t h e r , a nd w i th t h e n ew b a r row c eme t e r ie s . Am a jo r p o in t o fd i f f e ren ce i st h e s u rp r i s ing l a ck o fT h raco—C imme r ian m a te r ia l i nt h e S ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion , a pa r t f r om t h e T r e f f e l sdo r fh oa rd f r om C a r in th ia ( Gab rovec 1 981 , 1 5 5178 ) , w h ich w a sc ommon i n e a s ter nH unga ry a nd t h e e a s te rn A lp s ( Mü l le r—Ka rp e 1 9 59 , F ig . 6 0 : 1 314 ; P a tek 1 982 , 2 8-32 ) . T he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e W ie s—Ma r t i janec g roup a nd t h e K a lende rbe rg g r oup i sd i scu s sed i ns e c t ion 1 : 3c . T he c e ram ic a s semb lage o f t h e Mezö c sä t G roup ( Map 1 ) w h ich r e p la ced t h e G äva a nd K y ja t ice g r oup s i n e a s te rn H unga ry , s h ow s ar e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e L jub l jana a nd R ue g r oup s i nc e ram ic s ( Pa tek 1 9 82a , 3 0 ) . T he i r on a nn r ing s o f ten f o und i n g r ave s o f t h i s g roup , m ake a n i n te re s t ing p a ra l le l w i th t h e L jub l jana I l b p ha se ' O r namen t H o r izon ' i n t h eL jub l jana g r oup ( Pa tek 1 9 82a ,3 0-31 ) .T h i ss ugge s t st h a t t h ei n t roduc t ion o fi r on h a s as im i la rs o c ia li mpe tu s( Chap te r 5 ,s e c t ion 2 : 1 ) .

1 : 3a L a te B ronze A ge ( Ha l l s ta t tB Ia nd B 2 ) . T he L jub l jana a nd R u se g r oup s f o rmed p a r t o f ab r oad c on t inuum o fr e la ted H a l l s ta t t B =f ie ld g r oup s s t r e tch ing f r om t h e n o r thea s te rn A lp s t ot h e m idd le D anube ( Map 1 0 ) . T he se g roup s i n c luded t h e S t i l lf r ied—Podo l ig r oup o fL owe r A u s t r ia a nd Mo rav ia ,w h ich d i rec t ly i n te r fa ced w i th t h eR ue g r oup . t h e C ho t in g r oup o f S l ovak ia , t h e V a l g r oup o f w e s ter n H unga ry a nd t h e D a l j—K i sko szeg g r oup o fe a s t er n C roa t ia a nd s o u thea s ter n H unga ry ( Mü l le r—Ka rpe 1 9 59 , 18119 ; C o le s a nd H a rd ing 1 979 , 39 , 4 43-444 ) . T he G ava a nd K y ja t ice c u l tu re s o fe a s ter n H unga ry a l so h ad a n u r n f ie ld c omponen t ( Pa tek 1 982 , 2 8 ) . T he p ha se I V o ft h e um f ie ld g roup s i nn o r thwe s te rn C roa t ia c an a l so b e l i nked t o t h e L jub l jana a nd Rae g r oup s ( V in sk i—Ga spa r in i 1 973 , 2 07-210 ) . T he c e ram ic a s semb lage s o f t h e se g r oup s s h ow l o ca ld i f f e rence s , b u t h ave a c on s ide rab le d eg ree o fu n i t so f

T he t y pe 2 a nd 3 K ege lha l sgefä sse f r om t h e K le in—K le in n ec ropo l i s w e r e c l ea r ly r e la ted t ot h e l a t e Ur n f ie ld f o rm s o f t h e S t i l l f r ied g r oup . T he r e a r e an umbe r o f m e ta l t y pe s d i s t r ibu ted t h roug hou tt h e S t i l l f r ied /Ka lende rbe rg a r ea t h a t o r ig ina ted i n t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion . T he c on ica l h eaded d r e s s—p in f o und a tG eme in leba rn a l so o ccu r r ed i n f o u r g r ave s a tL j ub l jana a nd a tP odzeme l j , S l epkk n ea r

9 8

S t ra teg ie so fE x change i nt h eS ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion B e tween 1 000 B .C . a nd 3 00 B .C . Mok ronog a nd V aCe ( Gd g t in 1 973 , 4 68 ) . As imp le t ype l a t wo— looped b ow f i bu la w a s f ound a t L engye l , a nd i s a s pec if ic L jub l jana /Do len jska g roup f o rm , w h i l s t t h e t wo— l o oped b ow f i bu la f r om g rave 2 24 a t S op ron—Vä rhe ly ( Bu rg s ta l l ) m ay b e o f l o ca l manuf ac tu re , a s i td o e s n o t c on fo rm t o t h e G ab rovec t ypo logy ( Gab rovec 1 970 , 5 -65 ; P a tek 1 981 , F ig . 2 ; 1 982a , 3 7 , F ig . 1 9 :E1) . Many o f t h e p o t tery t y pes f ound o n s e t t lemen t s i te s i n T ran sdanub ia r e semb le t h o se t ype s f ound g roups ( Pa tek 1 982a , 3 4-37 ) .

i n t h e R u ge a nd L jub l jana

1 : 3c Ha l ls ta t tC . T he W ies—Mar t i janec g roup a nd t h e Ka lende rbe rg g roup w e re c l o se ly r e la ted ( Map 1 3 ) . B u r ia l p rac t ice s w e re s im i la r , t h e r i te o f c r ema t ion b e ing f o l lowed , b u t t h e c r ema t ion w a sp laced b enea th ab a r row ,u n l ike t h ep reced ing u rn f ie ld f l a t c eme ter ie s . T he e mpha s i s o n p o t te ry a s g rave g oods a nd t h e s ma l la moun to fm e ta lwo rk i ng rave c on tex t s i sa no the rp o in t o fc ompa r i son . T he p o t tery s ympo s ium s e t d i scu s sed b y T e tian ( 1980 , 3 51-352 ) w a s l a rge ly d rawn f r om Ka lende rbe rg mo r tua ry s i te s s u ch a s B ad F i schau i n

t ob e d er ived f r om t h e D o len jska g roup ( Pa tek 1 982b , 1 611 80 ) . T h is c oncen t ra t ion o f m a te r ia l i nt h e S op ron a r ea a nd n o r thwe s te rn T ran sdanub ia may b e r e la ted t o t h e a mbe r t r ade , a ne xchange r ou te d i scu ssed i ns ec t ion 2 : 2 . T he p o t tery o f t h e K le in—K le in c eme tery a nd r e la ted s i te s w a s c l o se ly r e la ted i n f o rm a nd d eco ra t ion t o ab road c on t inuum o f g roups s t r e tch ing i n a n a r c f r om t h e Ka lende rbe rg c u l tu re a nd t h e s ou th Mo rav ian H o rakov c u l tu re t o t h e S i le s ian P la ten ice c u l tu re ( Map 1 3 ) . T he f i gu red v e sse l s i nL jub l jana g rave 8 6 ( S labe 1 980 , 7 7-83 ) a nd F o r s twa ld b a r row 1 7 a tK le in—K le in may b e p a r t o f a p o t te ry t ype c onc en t ra ted i n t h e K a lende rbe rg a r ea ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 1 37-139 ) . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f p o ss ib le S ou th E a s t A lp ine ma te r ia li nS i le s ia ,G r ea tP o land a nd E a s tP ome ran ia may s t a r ti nt h i sp e r iod ,b u tw i l lb ec on s ide red b e low . 1 : 3d H a l l s ta t t D ,L aT ene A a nd B . T he W ie s— Ma r t i janec a nd Ka lende rbe rg g roup s d i sappea red a tt h e e nd o f t h e H a l l s ta t t Cp ha se o re a r ly i nt h e H a l l s ta t t Dp ha se . T he b a r row c eme te r ie s o f t h e Ka lende rbe rg g roup

L owe r A u s tr ia a nd Nov6 K o sa r i ska i n S lovak ia , b u t i s c l ea r ly c l o se ly r e la ted t o t h e v e sse l s e t s i nt h e b a r row s a t K le in—K le in . I t i s as t r ik ing f a c t t h a t t h e v e sse l s e t s i n D o len jska g roup g raves b o re l i t t le r e la t ion sh ip t o t h e

p e r iod s i nt h e e a s ter nA lp s a nd T ran sdanub ia ( Map 1 5 ) . T he l im i ted d a ta f r om t h e W ies—Ma r t i janec g roup s ugge s t s a

K a lende rbe rg v e sse l s e t s . T he a c tua l c on f igu ra t ion s o f t h e K a lende rbe rg g roup s i tes a r e s im i la r t o t h o se i n t h e D o len jska a nd Wie s— Ma r t i janec g roup s . H i l lfo r t s w i th

s im i la r p a t ter n ( s ee C hap te r 4 , s ec t ion 4 : 2 a nd 4 : 3 ) . C on sequen t ly t h e e v idence o f c on tac t r e la tes ma in ly t o t h e D o len jska g roup .

a s soc ia ted b a r row c eme te r ies w e re t h e n o rm ( Kau s 1 981 , 1 49-158 ) .

w e re r ep laced b y f l a t i n huma t ion c eme ter ie s , w h ich w e re c u r ren t t h roughou t t h e H a l ls ta t t D a nd e a r ly L a T ene

T he r eg ion o f T ran sdanub ia i nw e s te rn H unga ry r e ce ived a l a rge q uan t i ty o f i mpo r t s f r om t h e D o len jska g roup

L ink s w i th D o len jska a nd t h e W ie s—Ma r t i janec g roup s c an

t h roughou t t h e p e r iod ( Map 1 7 ) . T he K is ravazd h oa rd , d a ted t ot h e H a l l s ta t t C 2o rH a l l s ta t tD 1 p ha se s , c on ta ined a n umbe r o f I t a l ian t ype b oa t f i bu lae , S e rpen t ifo rm p ha se

a l so b e s e en i n t h e ma ter ia l a s semb lage . T he r i ch b a r row b u r ia l a t V a ske re sz te s i n T ran sdanub ia c on ta ined a c ompo s i te h e lme t o f t h e t ype c u r ren t i n D o len jska i n t h e S t iCna 1p ha se , a nd m u l t iheaded d r e ssp in s s im i la r t o t h o se f ound i n E s te—Reba to g rave 1 87 , d a ted t o t h e e nd o f t h e

a rm r ing s a nd t wo g l a s s b ead s ( Feke te 1 973 , 3 41-358 ) . T he Ha l l s ta t t D 2—D3 a nd L a T ene A p ha se s w e re b e t te r r ep re sen ted . C er to sa f i bu lae h ave b een f ound o n 1 4 s i tes i n

s even th c en tury B .C . T he o ccu r rence o fb ronze v e s se ls i nt h is

T ran sdanub ia , i ns ome c a se s a s soc ia ted w i th E a s t A lp ine

g rave p a ra l le l s d eve lopmen t s a tK le in—K le in , w i th t h e s o— c a l led ' P r ince ly G raves ' o f P omme rkoge l a nd K rö l l—

z oomo rph ic f i bu lae ( J e rem 1 981a , 1 07 ) . S op ron—K rau tacke r g rave 3 / a c on ta ined a p a i r o f r i bbed a nk le— r ing s , wh i l s t

S chm iedkoge l ( Feke te 1 982 , 1 29144 ; D ob ia t 1 980 , TA 2— T .A9 ) . A v a r ie ty o f S ou th E a s t A lp ine a nd n o r th I t a l ian f i bu la t yp e s a r e a l so k nown . T he S v . L uc i ja t yp e s em i luna te

D o len jska t ype ' Ku l ts tabe ' w e r e p re sen t a t B e remend , H o r tobägy—A rku s g rave 1 6 . S op ron—K rau tacke r g rave 1 8 , S zen t lö r inc a nd V e lem—Szen tv id ( V . S ta re 1 973a , 7 30-743 ;

f i bu la h a s b een f ound a tB ad F i schau i nL owe r A u s t r ia , i n t h e f l a t c eme tery a t Ma ie r sch i n L owe r A u s t r ia a nd a t P redme r ice i nB ohem ia ( De Ma r in i s a nd G u g t in 1 975 , 2 52 ) . T he se e xamp les a ppea rt oh ave a n Ha l ls ta t tC 2 d a te . A l so o f t h is d a te a r e t h e S v . L uc i ja t ype f i bu lae f r om N agybe rk i—

J e rem 1 974 , 2 29-242 ; J e rem 1 981b , 2 0 1-220 ) . T he f i bu lae w i th r i bbed b ow a nd l o ng f oo t f r om B ru sn ice c an b e r e la ted t o t h eV e lem—Szen tv id t ype f i bu la ( Te r ian 1 974 ,4 7 ;J e rem 1 981b , 2 01-220 ) . P a tek ( 1982b , 1 61-180 ) s ugge s ted t h a t

S za la c ska p usz ta b a r row , E sz te rgom , S i6agä rd—Leänyvä r a nd t h e A sz6 c 1 s e t t lemen t . T he re a r e a l so f i bu lae w i th

t h e g l a s s b ead s f ound o n many o f t h e s i tes , b o th s e t t lemen t a nd m or tua ry a r e s im i la r t o t h o se o ft h e D o len jska g roup . F ina l ly t h e p re sen t o fD o len jska— type h o rn—hand led c up s i n

a mbe r—bead b ow s f r om t h e S za lac ska b a r row c eme te ry , V e lem—Szen tv id a nd S omogy c oun ty , a s w e l l a s a n e a r ly

g raves 2 2 , 2 5 a nd 2 9 a tS op ron—K rau tacke r s hou ld a l so b e n o ted ( J e rem 1 981a , 16 ; 1 981b , 2 0 1-220 ) . T he

S e rpen t ifo rm f i bu la f r om t h e S äghegy s e t t lemen t ( Feke te 1 982 , 1 29-144 ) .

d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h is ma ter ia l b e tween t h e D rava a nd D anube r i ve rv a l ley s a nd n o r th t o t h e N eu s ied le r see ( Map 1 7 ) i s s ugge s t ive o f ac onnec t ion w i th t h e a mbe r r ou te ( s ee s ec t ion 2 : 2 ) .

A no the rg roup o fs uppo sed ly i mpo r ted m a te r ia l i sf o rmed b y t h e g l a ss b ead s w h ich o ccu r red i n s ome q uan t i ty i n t h e

T he H o rakov c u l tu r e o fs ou th Mo rav ia h a s y i e lded e v idence

S op ron—Vä rhe ly b a r row c eme tery , t h e N agyd6m— Mpä spu sz ta f l a t c eme tery , t h e P dc s— Jakabhegy b a r row

o f c on tac t w i th t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion o r n o r ther n I t a ly , b u tt h is i s l im i ted t o as i ng le f i bu la a t Ma rofy , d a t ing

c eme te ry a nd t h eF er tö räko sh oa rd .T he se b ead s a r eb e l ieved

9 9

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia t o t h e H a l l s ta t t D I ( Map 1 7 ) . T he s uppo sed ly C e r to sa d e r iva t ive f i bu lae a nd c r o s sbow f i bu lae f r om Ma ro f y a nd t h e J a rome r ice h i l lfo r t a r e m o r e p rob lema t ic ( Podbo r sky 1 974 , 3 71-426 ) . B ronze b oa t f i bu lae a nd r i bbed b r onze a rm r ing sh ave b een f o und i nt h e l a te H a l l s ta t th i l l fo r to nt h e Mo lp i rn ea r S mo len ice i nS l ovak ia ( Map 1 7 ) ( Du sek 1 974 , 1 37-150 ) . A l i m i ted n umbe r o f C er to sa f i bu lae h ave b e en f o und a t A u a n d en L e i thageb i rge a nd K u f fa rn i nL owe r A u s t r ia , a nd a t K ra lov ice , L ovc ice a nd R adon ic e i n B oh em ia , a l though t h e se s i te s a r eL aT ene A i nd a te ( Te r zan 1 976 ,3 29 , 35 )( Map 1 7 ) .

S zen te s-Vek e r zug c eme te r ie s ( Map 1 7 ) . T he c eme t e ry o f S z en te s-Vek e r zug c on ta ined a l a rge n umbe ro fa mbe ra nd g l a s s b ead s , a nd a h o rn-hand led c e ram ic c up ( P ä rducz 1 9 54 , 2 5-91 ; 1 9 55 , 1 -22 ) . R ibbed a nn r ing s s im i la r t o D o len jska t y pe s h ave b een f o und a t N agyha lä sz a nd N y f r egyhäza ( Pa rducz 1 9 52 , 1 43-172 ) . T he n a tu r e o f t h i s r e la t ion sh ip w a s d i f f e ren t f r om t h a t w i th T ran sdanub ia . I t s e em s t o b e r e la ted t o t h e f l ow o f p r e s t ige g ood s i n to D o len jska ( s ee s e c t ion 2 : 2 ) .

T he re h a s b een s ome d eba t eo ve rt h en a tu r e a nd o r ig in o ft h e i mpo r t si nS i le s ia ,G r ea tP o land a nd E a s tP omme ran ia ( Map 1 5 ) i d en t if ied b y L uka ( 1 963 , 2 71-288 ; 1 966 ) . K o s sa ck ( 1 982 , 9 5112 ) h a s s h own t h a t m uch o f t h e i mpo r ted m a te r ia l i n t h e Wa r the-Ode r a r ea w a s o f We s t H a l l s ta t t o r ig in , a nd t h a t t h e s o-ca l led C e r to sa d e r iva t ive f i bu lae a r en o ti nf a c tr e la ted t oC e r to sa f i bu lae . H oweve r , s ome o f t h em a te r ia lw a sd e r ived f r om t h eS ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion o rn o r the rn I t a ly ,e . g . t h eg l a ss b owed f i bu la i nG o r szew iceK a s im ie r z g r ave 5 , t h e B one B ead b owed f i bu la f r om C ho jno i nR aw icz p r ov inc e ,t h et wo-knobbed b oa tf i bu lae a t N ie t r zanowo i nS roda p r ov ince a nd t h e s imp le s e rpen t ifo rm f i bu lae f r om K or tn ica i n K ro to szyn p r ov in ce . T he b r on ze s i tu la f r om G rabowo i nK o r sc ie rzyna d i s t r ic ta nd t h eb r on ze c i s ta ac o rdon ia nd c ha in sf r om Wo skow ice Ma le a nd S o ln ik Ma le i nG r ea tP o land m ay a l so b eo fI t a l ian o r ig in ( Map 1 7 ) . T he n a tu r eo ft h eD ü r rnbe rg a nd H a l l s ta t tc omp lexe sm ake s i tu n l ike ly t h a t t h e se a r e t h e o r ig in o f t h e a r te fac t s , a nd a s u gge s t ion t h a t a na mbe rr o u te l e dv i at h er i ve rV i s tu la , t h e t r i bu ta r ie s o f t h e r i ve r O de r a nd r i ve r Mo rava i n to T ran sdanub ia a nd D o len jska ,i s ap l au s ib le a l te rna t ive ,g i ven t h e c onc en t ra t ion o fm a te r ia l h e r e ( Ma l inow sk i 1 982 , 131 2 3 ) .

T he n o r th-w e s t a nd c en t ra l B a lkan s d o n o t f o rm au n if i ed g eog raph ica l o rc u l tu ra l a r ea e i the r t o day o r i np r eh i s to ry . S ome o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l g roup s i nt h e a r ea h ad m o re i n ten se c on ta c t w i th t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion t h an o t he r s , b o th s p a t ia l ly a nd t empo ra l ly . T he m a in a r ea s u nde r c on s ide ra t ion a r e t h e N o t ran jska g r oup i n s ou thwe s te rn S l oven ia , t h e I s t r ian g r oup , t h e L ibu rn ian g r oup a nd t h e J apod ic g r oup a l ong t h e D a lma t ian c oa s t a nd h i n te r land , t h e L a te r B ronze A ge a nd E a r ly I r on A ge g roup s i n n o r thwe s ter n a nd e a s te rn C roa t ia , t h e V o jvod ina , S ou th w e s ter n R uman ia a nd t h e S e rb ian D anub e r e g ion , a nd t h e G la s ina cg r oup i ns ou thea s ter nB o sn ia ,n o r the rn Mon ten eg ro a nd s ou thwe s t er n S e rb ia . Af i na l s e c t ion w i l l c on s ide r t h e l i m i ted r a nge o fG reek i mpo r t si nt h eD o len j ska g roup .

T he n a tu re o ft h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h eS zen te s-Veke r zug g r oup a nd t h e D o len jska g r oup i sm o r e p rob lema t ic ( Map 1 5 ) . T he b u lk o ft h e h o r se b i t s f o und i nt h e D o len jska g r oup i nt h e C e r to sa a nd E a r ly N egova p ha se s a r e g ene ra l ly d e sc r ibed a s ' S cy th ian ' . H oweve r , a l l t h e r e co rded p i ece s a r e o f S zen te s-Veke r zug t y p e ( Gann a nd T e r ian 1 977 , 7 7-89 ; Wer n e r 1 985 ,4 70 ) . F u r the re xamp le s o fm a te r ia l o f S z en te s-Veke r zug t y pe h ave a l so b een f o und . Two ' T h racoS cy th ian ' b a t t le a xe s h ave b een f o und , o ne f r om L ibna a nd t h e o t h e r f r om V o l6 je n j ive , b o th p robab ly d a t ing t o t h e C e r to sa p ha se ( Egg 1 978a , 11117 ) . T r i loba te a r rowhead s a r e a l so f i gu red i nm o r tua ry c on tex t s i nD o len jska , o f p a r t icu la rn o te a r et h eq u ive ra nd a r rowh ead s i nL ibna g r ave V o lCa r i gek i i , d e sc r ibed i nt h i s p ub l ica t ion a st h e g r ave w i th q u ive r( Gu g t in 1 9-76 ,T .5 7 :210 ; p e r s .c omm . ) . T he g r oup o f d agge r s , w h ich a pp ea r ed i n t h e H a l l s ta t t D p e r iod a t ' I na r je ta , V a äe , Magda len ska g o ra , M ihovo a nd P od zeme l j d i f f e r f r om t h e We s tH a l l s ta t t d agge r s o f t h e t i me . T hey w e r e a l s t ray f i nd s a nd s o f u r the r c ommen t o n t h e i r a s so c ia t ion si si mpo s s ib le .H oweve r ,i ta ppea r st h a tt h ey a r e l o ca l p r oduc t s i n sp i r ed b y t h e ' S cy th ian ' A k inake s d agge r s f o und i nt h e S zen te s-Veke r zug g r oup ( map 1 6 ) ( F r ey 1 980 , 33-342 ) .

1 : 4 T he N or th We s ta nd C en t ra lB a lkan s

1 : 4a T he L a te B ronz eA ge ( Ha l l s ta t t

a nd B 2 ) .

T he L jub l jana , a nd , t o al e sse re x ten t , t h eR u ge g roup sw e re q u i t e c l o se ly l i nked w i th t h e H a l l s ta t t B1a nd B 2 m a t e r ia l f r om N o t ran jska a nd I s t r ia ( Map 1 0 ) . T he N o t ran jska 1 p ha se w a s c on tempo ra ry w i th L jub l jana p ha se I .T he h oa rd f r om Mu g ja j ama n ea r S . koc jan c on ta ined a r a nge o f m a t e r ia l , w h ich i sf am i l ia r f r om t h e c eme t e ry o f L jub l jana a nd f r om t h e R ue g r oup , p a r t icu la r ly t h e s p e c tac le f i bu lae , d r e s sp in s , w ave b a cked k n ive s a nd O b lekov icetype r a zo r k n ive s . T he O b lekov ice r a zo r k n if e a l so o c cu r red i nt h e S ko c jan C q g r ave 2 17 ( Webe r 1 982 , 4 656 ) . T he p i n s a nd r a zo r k n ive s i nS ko c jan g r ave s 6 0 , 8 4 , 1 24 , 2 50 a nd s n . 2 8 w e r e I t a l ian t y p e s , b u t w e re a l so f o und i nR u se g roup s i t e s . S ko c jan g r ave 1 6 8 c on ta ined a n ' H ' s hap ed b e l t h ook , a t y p ica l L jub l jana a nd R u se a r te fac t . D e sp i te t h e se l i nk s , t h e a r ea ' s c onn ec t ion s w e r e c l o se r t o t h e n o r th I t a l ian um f ie ld g r oup s ,a nd t ot h eI s t r ian a nd L ibu rn ian g r oup s( Gu g t in 1 973 , 4 62-467 ; 1 979 ,5 859 ) . T he I s t r ian c eme t e ry o fG rad ina o n t h e L im sk i K ana l a l so h ad m a t e r ia ls im i la rt ot h a to ft h eS ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion . Ac on s ide rab le n umb e ro fa r te fa c t s a r er e la t ed t ot h o se f r om t h e H a l l s ta t t A /B c eme te ry o f D obova . T he c y l inde rn e cked , w ide b od ied u r n s w i th z i g-zag a nd r hombo id d eco ra t ion d a te s t oL jub l jana Ip ha se , a nd w a s f o und i n g r ave s 2a nd 3a tL jub l jana . A no the rr e la ted p r a c t ice w a st h e d epo s i t ion o ff l i n tf l ake si ng r ave s 1 7 ,4 7 ,a nd 6 7a tG rad ina , d up l ica ted i n L jub l jana g r ave s 2 3 , 2 5 a nd 2 7 ( M ihov i l ic 1 972 , 6 1 , 6 6 ) . A s i ng le g r ave f r om B e ram i n I s t r ia c on ta in ed ar o l l-h eaded d r e ss p i n , at y pe f o und i nL jub l jana g r ave s 3a nd 1 7 ,a nd O s t roin ik a nd S l ep gek n ea r Mok ronog ( Gab rove c 1 973 , T . 1 ; 4 : 18 , 2 0 ; T .8 :2-8 , 115 , 1 7-2 1 ; K uCa r 1 979 , 8 5152 ) . H oweve r , t h e I s t r ian m a te r ia l w a s

Ma te r ia l f r om t h e D o len jska g r oup h a s a l so b een f o und i n

1 00

S t ra teg ie so fE x change i nt h eS ou th E as tA lp ine R eg ion B e tween 1 000 B .C . a nd 3 00 B .C . o n t h e w ho le mo re c l o se ly r e la ted t ot h e n o r th I t a l ian a nd L ibwn ian m a ter ia l . T he c l o se r e la t ion sh ip o f t h e L jub l jana a nd R uk g roup s t o t h e n or thwe s te rn C roa t ian u rnf ie ld g r oup a nd t h e D a l j g roup h a s a l ready b een d i scu s sed i n s e c t ion 1 : 3a . T he f l a t c r ema t ion c eme ter ie s a tO za l j a nd Z ama r i je i nt h e K a r lovac a r ea , e a s t o f B e la K ra j ina , c on ta ined c e ram ic s a nd m e ta lwo rk s im i la r t o t h a t o f t h e R use g roup a nd i n t h e Me t l ika—Bo r g tek c eme tery i nB e la K ra j ina ( Ba len—Le tun iC 1 981 , 1-24 ) . C e r ta in e l emen t s o f t h e m e ta lwo rk a r e d i s tr ibu t ed i n n or th S e rb ia a nd t h e V o jvod ina . S pec tac le f i bu lae a ppea red i nt h e H a l ls ta t t B 2 /B3 p ha se h oa rd s ( Va s iC

c on tempo ra ry o r e a r l ie r f o rm s w e re c oncen t ra ted i n t h e S e rb ian D anube r e g ion o ft h eV o jvod ina a nd n o r th S e rb ia a nd s ou thwe s t R uman ia w i th a s e cond g roup i n t h e G la s inac g roup o f t h e C en t ra l B a lkan s a nd i n Macedon ia ( Map 1 ) ( Gab rovec 1 970 , 4 3 , Map 4 , Map 5 ) . T he se f i bu lae a r e a l so f ound i nN o t ran jska ,b u t d id n o to c cu ri nI s t r ia , t h e L ibu rno— J apod ic a r ea a nd n or the rn I t a ly . T he s i te o f D on ja Do l ina o n t h er i ve rS ava ( Map 1 ) may h ave f o rmed al i nk b e tween t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine ma te r ia l a nd t h e S e rb ian D anube r e g ion , a si td id i nl a te rt imes ( Gab rovec 1 970 , 1 6-23 ) . I n g ene ra l , t h e t wo— looped b ow f i bu la s eem s t o b e o f B a lkan o r ig in . T he W ie s— Ma r t i janec g roup ,

w h ich a ro se

i n t h i s

p ha se ,

1 977 ,6 -8 ) ,b u tw e re c ha rac ter is t ic o ft h en ex tp ha se . F u r the r e v idence o f c on tac t w i th t h e S e rb ian D anube r eg ion c ome s f r om t h e K a lakaCa s e t t lemen t , w h ich h a s p roduced ab ronze

e x tended i n to n o r th—we s t C roa t ia . w he re t h e Ma r t i janec b a r row c eme te ry i ss i tua ted ( Map 1 ) ( V in sk i—Ga spa r in i

h a rp f i bu la o fL jub l jana a nd R uk t y pe , a nd mou ld sf o rt r ip le r i ng s o ft h e t ype f ound i n t h e G raC iC c eme tery a tB r in jeva g o ra . T he ma ter ia l o f t h e n o r th S e rb ian a nd V o jvod ina

1 966 , 3 9-66 ) . T he O za l j b a r row n ea r Ka r lovac c on ta ined m a te r ia ls im i la rt ot h a tf r om Me t l ika—Bo r g tek g rave 1 8 , a nd o t he r s i te s i nD o len jska ( Map 1 ) ( Ba len—Le tun i6 1 981 ,

u rn f ie ld g roups s eem s t ob e r e la ted t ot h e w ide r A lp ine a nd P annon ian u rn f ie ld c omp lex d i scu s sed i ns ec t ion 1 : 3a ( Map 1 0 ) ( Gab rovec 1 981 , 1 55-178 ) .

124 ) . F u r the r e a s t i n S lavon ia , t h e V o jvod ina a nd n o r th S e rb ia , t h e a ppea rance o f t h e t wo— looped b ow f i bu la w a s c on tempo ra ry w i th t h e ma in p ha se o fu se o fs pec tac le f i bu lae w i th f i gu re—o f— e igh t l o op s a nd s p i ra l e a r r ing s w i th f i gu re—

1 : 4b L a te B ronze A ge /Ear ly I ron A ge I n terface ( Ha l l s ta t t

o f—e igh t l o op s , b o th Ha l ls ta t t B 2 t ype s i nt h e L jub l jana a nd R u se g roup s . T he S ou th E a s tA lp ine t ype s a r eg ene ra l ly h e ld t o h ave i n sp i red t h o se i nt h e S e rb ian D anube r eg ion ( Va s ic 1 977 , 1 0-14 ) . I tc an b e s een t h a t at wo—way e xchange o f

B 3 ) . T he c i r cum—Ad r ia t ic k o ine d esc r ibed i ns e c t ion 1 :l b , w h ich i n c luded t h e L jub l jana g roup f r om t h e L jub l jana I a p ha se

m a ter ia l a nd i d ea s e x i s ted i nt h e H a l ls ta t t B 2 a nd B 3 p ha se s b e tween t h e S e rb ian D anube r eg ion a nd t h e S ou th E a s ter n A lps , w h ich c u lm ina ted i nt h e i n t roduc t ion o ft h et wo— looped b ow f i bu la i nt h e L a te B ron ze A ge /Ea r ly l i on Age i n ter face

a nd e x tended i n to t h e R u he a r ea , a l so e x tended i n to No t ran jska , I s tr ia a nd t h e L ibu rno— Japod ic a r ea ( Map 1 ) . C ha rac re r is t ic f i nd s a tL jub l jana a nd S l epkk n ea r Mok ronog a r e m u sh room— a nd c on ica l— h eaded d res sp in s a nd s i ng le l ooped b ow f i bu lae . T he se a l so o ccu r red o n L jub l jana I b /Pod zeme l j 1p ha se s i tes s uch a sP odzeme l j a nd V aCe . S im i la ra r tefac t s h ave b een f ound i nt h e S ioc jan—B reiec a nd Sm ihe lc eme ter ie s a nd t h e T r Z ike h oa rd i n No t ran jska ( map 1 2 ) , t h e P icug i a nd B e ram c eme ter ie s i n I s t r ia a nd t h e c eme te r ies a t Kompo l je , G romac ica , N in , P rozo r , Z ada r ,

i n to D o len jska a nd t h eW ies— Ma r t i janec a r ea . 1 : 4c Ha l ls ta t tC . T he e v idence f o r c on tac t b e tween t h e D o len jska a nd Wies— Ma r t i janec g roup s a nd t h e S e rb ian D anube r eg ion c on t inued i nt h e Ha l ls ta t t Cp er iod ( Map 1 3 ) . D eco ra t ive e l emen t s d e r ived f r om B a sa rab i g roup p o t te ry , wh ich i s

K laCen ica , I s lam g r Ck i a nd V lal co p o l je i n t h e L ibu rno— J apod ic a r ea . L ea f—bow f i bu lae f ound a t Mok ronog a nd L jub l jana a r e a l so f ound i n No t ran jska ( Guk in 1 973 , 4 684 69 ; G ab rovec

1 976 ,

f ound o n many s i te s i n s ou thwes te rn R uman ia , V o jvod ina a nd S e rb ia i nt h e Ha l ls ta t t C1p ha se ( Va s iC 1 977 , 1 4-16 ) a ppea red i nt h e P odzeme l j 2p ha se i nB e la K ra j ina a nd a t K le in—K le in . T he se d eco ra t ive e l emen t s a r e t h e ' Ma l te se C ro ss ' a nd ' Runn ing S 's t amp f ound o nv esse ls a tP odzeme l j ( Bar th 1 969 ,P 1V :9 ;J .D u la r 1 973 ,F ig . 1 : 3 ,5 ) , K le in—K le in

T .2 /2 , T6 ) . T he No t ran jska g roup

a l so h ad as im i la r a s semb lage t ot h e L jub l jana g roup i nt h e L jub l jana I b p ha se . I r on a rm— a nd n eck r ings h ave b een f ound a t Sm ihe l , a nd i r on a nd b ronze t wo— looped b ow f i bu lae h ave b een f ound a t S s koc jan a nd Sm ihe l ( Guk in 1 973 ,

4 69-472 ,

F ig .

( Dob ia t 1 980 , 1 36 ) , Onnoi ( J . D u la r 1 973 , O s redek n ea r R ov ike a nd Me t l ika—Bo rkek

2 : 5-8 , 1 0 ) . T he t wo— looped b ow

1 973 . 5 71-572 ) . T he c ompo s i te s pec tac le f i bu lae f ound a t

f i bu la p henomenon w i l l b e d i scu s sed i ng r ea te rd e ta i l b e low , b u t i ng ene ra l as im i la r s e t o f s o c ia l c on s t ra in t s s eem s t o

L jub l jana i n D o len jska a nd U nec i n No t ran jska , w e re c oncen t ra ted i n t h e V o jvod ina , S lavon ia , n o r th S e rb ia a nd

h ave o pe ra ted i nN o t ran jska a s t h o se i nD o len jska , w h ich r e su l ted i n t h e a dop t ion o f i r on i na n ' Or namen t H oweve r , l a te r d eve lopmen t s w e re d i f f e ren t

F ig-1 .6 ) , ( J . D u la r

T ran sy lvan ia ( Gab rovec 1 976 , F ig . 7 ,5 99 ) . S im i la r i t ies c an

H o r izon ' . a s t h e

a l so b e o b se rved b e tween t h e Ha l ls ta t tC l f o rm s o ft h e t wo— l o oped b ow f i bu la . T ype 5 a f i bu lae , t h e V aCe k nobbed—bow f i bu lae , h ad a d en se c oncen t ra t ion i n D o len jska w i th a n

N o t ran jska g roup ma in ta ined t h e p rac t ice o f b u r ia l i nf l a t c eme te r ies a nd d id n o ta dop tb a r row b u r ia l .

a ppa ren t ly s udden

o u t l ie r a tV inkovc i i nS lavon ia , w h i ls t t h e s im i la r t ype 5 b f i bu la w a s c oncen t ra ted i n S lavon ia , t h e V o jvod ina , n o r th S e rb ia a nd T ran sy lvan ia ( Gab rovec 1 970 , Map 8 ;G ab rovec

i n t roduc t ion o f t h e e a r ly f o rms o f t h e t wo— looped b ow f i bu la , i nb o th b ronze a nd i r on . T he t ype l a a nd 2 af i bu lae ( Gab rovec 1 970 , Map 4 . Map 5 )a ppea r t ob e l o ca l t ypes i n

b een f ound a tD a l j i nS lavon ia ( De Ma r in is a nd G uk in 1 975 , F ig . 8 ) . T he e a r ly f o rm o ft h e Maha i ra s wo rd , t h e s o— ca l led

t h e

B a sa rab i v a r ian t , o r ig ina ted a s t h e n ame i mp l ies i n t h e

T he m o s tn o tab le i n f luence o n t h eS ou th E a s t A lp ine g roup s i n t h e Ha l ls ta t t B 3

D o len jska ,

p ha se

G o ren jska

w a s t h e

a nd S v .

L uc i ja

g roup s ,

1 976 ,

b u t

1 0 1

F ig

7 , 5 98-599 ) .

A s i ng le s em i luna te f i bu la h a s

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia B a sa rab ig roup i ns ou th—wes t R uman ia , a nd e xamp le s h ave b een f o und i n t h e Wa r r io r G rave a t L egen n ea r S l oven j G radec a nd i n t h e F rog b a r row c eme te ry ( Map 1 4 ) ( Gug t in 1 974b , 7 7-94 ; F . S t a re 1 974 , 6 7-76 ) . T he D o len jska a nd W ie s—Ma r t i jane c g r oup s w e r e h eav i ly i n f luenced b y t h e n o r th B a lkan r e g ion i n t h i s p ha se . T he G la s inac g r oup w a s a l so am a jo r c e n t re o ft h e t wo— looped b ow f i bu la , a nd i t s e em s t h a t t h r ee m a jo r c e n t r e s o ft h i s f i bu la h ad d eve loped ,b u t t h e r i bbed b ow t y pe w a s s p ec if i c t ot h e C roa t ian a nd S e rb ian D anube r e g ion a nd t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion . I ti s i mpo s s ib le t o d i s t ingu i sh t h e o r ig ina l c en t re o f t h i s t y pe ; i n deed t h e f i bu lae w e re p robab ly c on tempo ra ry , ad eve lopmen t r e su l t ing f r om t h e l i nk sb e tween t h et wo a r ea s . T he V aCe k nobb ed—bow f i bu la c on t inued i nu s ei nt h eS t iC r ia 1p ha se i nD o len jska , a nd o t he r f o rm s o f t h e t wo— looped b ow f i bu la w e r e u sed ( Gab rovec 1 970 , Map 9 , Map 1 0 ) . T he v a r iou s t y pe 6 f i bu lae w e r e i n d igenou s f o rm s , b u t t h e t y pe 7 d f i bu la f r om g ma r je ta w a s at y p e c ommon i nt h e G la s ina cg r oup ( Map 1 3 ) . T he h o r se r i d ing e qu ipmen ti nt h e S t ia la A rmou r G rave w a s a n o u t l ie r o f t h e N o r th B a lkan g r oup o f h o r se r i d ing e qu ipmen t . T he L e ibn i tz s wo rd i sa T h raco—C imme r ian t y p e f o und i nt h e S i ebenbu rgen r e g ion o f R uman ia , b u t t h e b l ade d eco ra t ion h a s p a ra l le l s w i th G la s ina c s wo rd s ( Map 1 4 ) ( Gab rovec 1 981 , 1 5 5178 ) . T he r e la t ive ly c l o se r e la t ion sh ip o ft h e p r ev iou s p ha se h ad d ec l ined i n i mpo r tanc e , t h e m a in c on tac t s o f t h e D o len jska a nd W ie s—Ma r t i jane c g r oup s w e re n ow w i th I t a ly . C on ta c t i n c rea sed i n t h e S tkna 2 p ha se b e tween t h e D o len jska a nd W ie s—Ma r t i janec g r oup s o nt h eo ne h and a nd t h eG la s ina cc u l tu ra la r ea v i at h es e t t lemen to fD on ja D o l ina o nt h er i ve rS ava n ea rB o san ska G rad i ska i nn o r th B o sn ia o n t h eo t he r( Map 1 3 ) . T he ' G la s inac— foo ted ' t wo— looped b ow f i bu la , w h ich w a s c oncen t ra ted i nt h e G la s ina c g r oup , w a s a l so f o und i nt h e S e rb ian D anube r e g ion , a nd a sa no u t l ie r o f t h e m a in g r oup , in D o len j ska . D on ja D o l ina f o rmed t h e l i nk b e tween t h e se t wo m a jo r d i s t r ibu t ion s . I te xpanded d r ama t ica l ly i nt h i s p c—nod a nd t h e a s so c ia ted c eme te ry c on ta ined s ome f i bu la e o f ' I t a l ian ' t y pe ( Gab rove c 1 9 70 , Map 1 ; Ma r ic 1 964 , 5 128 ) . F u r th e rt y pe s ,w h ich h ave a d i s t r ibu t ion f r om D on ja D o l ina t o t h e S v . L uc i ja g r oup , a r et h eb r onze , tw i s ted o rk nobbed n eck r ing s ,w h ich m ay h ave i n sp i r ed t h e t w i s ted b r onze a nk le— r ing s f o und a tB ru sn ic e a nd R ifn ik . T he r i bbed—bow f i bu la e , f o und a t B ru sn ic e , B r ez je , L ibna , M ihovo , S tkna , S ma r je ta a nd V a& , a r e a l o ca l f o rm o f t h e s im i la r f i bu lae f o und i n t h e E s t e a nd G o la secca g r oup s i nn o r ther n I t a ly , b u t , i mpo r tan t ly , a r e a l so c oncen t ra t ed i n t h e G la s ina c g r oup , a nd a t D on ja D o l ina ( Te r ian 1 974 , 4 2 ,4 7 ) . Af u r the rl i nk w i th t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion w a s t h e p r e sence o ft h e T r i ike—Don ja D o l ina v a r ian t Maha i ra a t D on ja D o l ina ( Gu g t in 1 974b , 7 7-94 ) . T he b r onze h and s a nd f a ce m a sk f r om t h e K ro l l— S ch rn iedkog e l a t K le in—K le in h ave p a ra l le ls w i th t h e m a te r ia l f r om t h e b a r row c eme te ry a tT reb en i g te n ea rL ake O h r id i n t h e R epub l ic o f Macedon ia ( Map 1 3 ) ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 1 7 1 , TA S : 1 ,3 -4 ) .T he S i ppenhüge lb u r ia lr i t e ,w h ich a ppea red m o s t f r equen t ly i nD o len jska f r om a se a r ly a st h e S t i aa 1p ha se , a nd o c ca s iona l ly a tK le in—K le in i np ha se 3 ,

1 02

b u t w a s m o r e c h a rac te r i s t ic o ft h e s e cond h a lf o ft h e E a r ly I r on A ge , a l so h ad a c en t ra l B a lkan o r ig in . T he G la s ina c g r oup c ommon ly e mp loyed ' S ippenhüge lb a r row s , a sd i dt h e T r eben i g t e g r oup i n Macedon ia . T he b u r ia l r i te w a s a l so f o und i n t h e E a r ly l i on A ge i n A lban ia a nd G reek Ma cedon ia i nt h e V e rg ina c eme te ry ( Map 1 3 ) ( Gab rovec 1 966 , 1 4 ; L a h tov 1 965 , 1 8 3185 , B ena c a nd 6A r id 1 9 57 ; R ad t 1 974 ,9 8147 ) . I ti st h e re fo re l i ke ly t h a tt h i sb u r ia lr i t e s p r ead f r om t h e c e n t ra l B a lkan s , s pec if ica l ly t h e G la s inac g roup . T he l a r ge q uan t i t ie s o f a mbe r p r e sen t i ng r ave s a t G la s ina c m ay i n d ica te al i nk w i th D o len j ska v i a t h e a mbe r t r ade ( Lucen t in i 1 981 , 1 06111 ) . T he N o t ran jska g r oup w a si n f luenced b yt h eD o len jska g r oup d u r ing t h e H a l l s ta t t Cp e r iod ( Map 1 3 ) . H oweve r , m any o f t h e a r te f ac t t y p e s , w h ich h ave p a ra l le l s w i th t h e D o len j ska g r oup a s semb lage , w e re a l so c u r ren t i nt h e S v . L uc i ja a nd I s t r ian g r oup sa sw e l la si nt h eL ibu rno— Japod ic g roup . T he s i tu la te c e ram ic v e sse l s i n K r iina g o ra g r ave 3 a nd S ' io c jan—Br eie c g r ave 2 13 a r e f o und i nt h e S v . L uc i ja a nd D o len jska g r oup s ( Gu g t in 1 979 , 6 2 ; J .D u la r 1 982 , 2 16 ) . Two v e s se l f o rm s o r K r ii na g o ra m ay b e o f D o len jska i n sp i ra t ion ( J . D u la r 1 982 , 2 16 ) . T he N o t ran jska I c p ha se , c o r r e spond ing t o t h e P odzeme l j 2p ha se i n D o len j ska , o t he rw i se s howed l i t t le e v idence o f D o len jska g r oup i nf luence . T he S t iCIn a 1p ha se w a s c ha rac te r i sed b y g r ea te r c on ta c t b e tween D o len j ska , N o t ran j ska a nd t h e I s t r ian p en in su la . T he A pu l ian l ave r s a r e s im i la r t o t h e v e s se l s f o und a t N e sa c t ium , P i cug i , K a s te l n ea rB u je , K a s te l ic n ea rI z o la a nd P u la i nI s t r ia . T he se v e s se l s a r e A pu l ian i n s t y le a nd d e co ra t ion , b u t o n ly s ome o f t h e I s t r ian e xamp le s w e r e a c tua l i mpo r t s , t h e r ema inde r w e re i n d igenou s c op ie s ( G logov i6 1 979 , 5 7-84 ) . T he T r i ike—Don ja D o l ina v a r ian t Maha i ra w a sf o und i nB e la K ra j ina , No t ran jska a nd P i cenum ( Gu S t in 1 974b , 7-94 ) .T he P odzeme l j 1p ha se b r onze h o r se b i t sf r om B e la C e rk ev a nd S ma r je ta w e re c on tempo ra ry w i th t h e t w i s ted i r on h o r se b i t si nF rög T umu lu s Ka nd k o c jan— B reiec g r ave s 1 5 5 a nd 1 6 5 . T hese w e r e r e la ted t o V i l lanovan f o rm s i nI t a ly ( Gab rovec 1 981 , 1 5 5-178 ) ( Map 1 4 ) . T he or namen t s f o und i nN o t ran jska g roup g r ave s a nd , t oa l e sse r e x ten t , i ng r ave s o f t h e I s t r ian a nd L ibu rno— Japod ic g r oup s , w e re t y p e s c ommon t ot h e c i r cum—Ad r ia t ic r e g ion . I t a l ian t y pe f i bu lae , t h e b oa t f i bu la w i th l o ng f o o t , t h e t wo a nd t h ree—knobb ed b oa t f i bu lae a nd t h e S angu i suga f i bu la , w e r e t y pe s f o und i nt h e H a l l s ta t t Cp e r iod a nd l a te r( Gu g t in 1 973 , 4 72-474 , F i g . 2 : 23-25 ; L o S ch iavo 1 970 , T . IV :2 , 5 ; T .V I , 4 35-439 ) . T he se t y pe s n eed n o t n e ce s sa r i ly h ave d e r ived f r om t h e D o len jska g r oup , a nd i n deed m ay h ave c ome v i a t h e s e a r o u t e m en t ioned i nc onne c t ion w i th t h e P i cen e c ompo s i t e h e lme t i ns e c t ion 1 : 1c , o rf r om t h e S v . L uc i ja o r E s te g r oup s ( Map 1 3 ) . T he k nobbed n eck— r ing f r om T rz i sce ( Gu g t in 1 973 , F i g . 2 : 26 )a nd t h et wo— looped h o l low—bow f i bu la f r om K r iina g o ra ( Gu s t in 1 973 , F i g . 2 : 34 )w e r e t y pe sc u r ren ti n t h e S v . L uc i ja a nd D o len jska g r oup s ,a sw e r et h es p i ra l' mobb ed a r in r ing sf o und a tT ri i gCe a nd i nS m ihe l g r ave 1 44 ( Gu g t in 1 973 , T .9 :8 -9 ) , a l though t h e se m ay b e s o le ly o f D o len j ska g roup o r ig in ( Map 1 4 )

S t ra teg ies o fE xchange i nt h eS ou th E as tA lp ine R eg ion B e tween 1 000 B .C . a nd 3 00 B .C . ( Gd t in 1 973 ,4 72 ) .

t h e i r on b e l t p la te w i th m id r i b ( F ia la 1 899 , F ig 1 4 , 7 2 ) , a l so f ound a t D on ja D o l ina ( Ma r iC 1 964 , T . 1 5 :1 ) a nd C r ven ice n ea r D uvno ( Cov iC 1 961-1962 , F ig . 9 ) , w h ich

1 : 4d Ha l ls ta t tD ,L a Une B T he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e D o len jska g roup a nd t h e H a l ls ta t tD /La T ene B g roup s i n t h e S ava v a l ley , S lavon ia , t h e V o jvod ina a nd n or th S e rb ia c on t inued t h roughou t t h is p er iod . T he G la s inac g roup i n t h e c en t ra l B a lkan s a l so r ema ined i mpor tan t , l i nked t o D o len jska v i a t h e s i te o f D on ja D o l ina ( Map 1 5 ) . T he l im i ted a moun t o f ma ter ia l a va i lab le f r om n o r th-wes t C roa t ia s ugge s t s t h a t i t t oo w a s c l o se ly r e la ted t o t h e D o len jska g roup . T he s i ng le p ub l i shed g rave f r om S y . P e ta r L udb re sk i c on ta ined a b ronze c au ld ron w i th c r o s s h and le a t tachmen t s , w h ich w a s at ype f ound i nt h e H a l ls ta t t C a nd Ha l ls ta t t Dp e r iod s , a nd t wo ma ss ive r i bbed b ron ze a nk ler i ng s s t rong ly r emen iscen t o f t h e S e rpen t ifo rm a nd C e r to sa p ha se e xamp les f r om V o lC je n j ive , P od zeme l j , V aC 'e , a nd o t he rD o len jska g roup s i tes ( Ba len-Le tun iC 1 983-1984 , 6 97 4 ) .

a ppea red a tD o len jske T op l ice i nt h e N egova p ha se ( Te r ian 1 976 , 4 40441) . T he S an sk i mo s t s e t t lemen t w a s e xcava ted b y F ia la i nt h e l a te n i ne teen th c en tu ry a nd p rov ided e v idence o f i r onsme l t ing . T he r eg ion w a s an o ted R oman i r on p roduc t ion c en t re ( F ia la 1 899 , 1 22-128 ) . F u r the r e v idence o fc on tac t i nt h e S ana v a l ley c ome s f r om t h e s i tes o ft h e Z ecov i s e t t lemen t a nd a s soc ia ted C ' a rakovo c eme te ry , w h ich h ave p roduced b uck le d eco ra ted p o t tery a nd a s i ng le C er to sa f i bu la ( C 'ov iC 1 956 ,T . 3 : 2 ,6 ;T .1 : 9 1 4 ; T . 9 65 , T , 1 :9 ) . T he C lu nga r g rave i nt h e n o r ther n Una r i ve r v a l ley c on ta ined as i ng le b ronze N egova h e lme t ( Map 1 7 )( F ia la 1 896 , 9 4-100 ) . T he No t ran jska a nd I s t r ian g roup s a l so a ppea r t oh ave b een c l o se ly l i nked t o t h e D o len jska g roup i n t h e Ha l ls ta t t D p er iod ( Map 1 5 ) . T he c e ram ic a s semb lage o f t h e No t ran jska g roup s howed l i t t le i n f luence f r om t h e D o len jska g roup ( J . D u la r , 1 982 , 2 16 ) . H oweve r , t h e

T he t h i rd h or izon a t D on ja D o l ina i n c luded ma te r ia l d a t ing t o b e tween 6 00 B .C . a nd 5 00 B .C . ( Map 1 5 ) . I n

m e ta lwo rk a s semb lage w a s h eav i ly i nf luenced , a l though s ome e l emen t s w e re c ommon t ot h e c i rcum-Ad r ia t ic r eg ion

p a r t icu la r , s imp le s e rpen t ifo r rn f i bu lae w i th s add le b ow s a nd s p r ing d i sc s h ave b een f ound , t ype s c ommon t h roughou t t h e S ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion . Mo re p a r t icu la r ly ,m a s s ive r i bbed a rm- o ra n lde r ing s , ac ommon D o len jska t y pe , a l so o ccu r r ed ( Ter ian 1 974 , 4 4 ) . T he p er iod f r om t h e H a l ls ta t t D 2 t ot h e

i nt h e Ha l l s ta t t D p e r iod . T he f i bu lae o f p ha se I V w e re n o r th I t a l ian s e rpen t ifo rm f i bu lae , w h ich a l so o ccu r red i nt h e S v . L uc i ja g roup , b u t w e re l e ss c ommon i n t h e D o len jska g roup ,w he re t h ey d a ted t ot h e S e rpen t ifo rm p ha se . P ha se V , h oweve r , w a s c ha rac te r i sed b y e a r ly C e r to sa f i bu lae , i n

e a r ly L a T ene a t D on ja D o l ina w a s ap er iod o f i n ten s if ied c on tac t w i th D o len jska . C er to sa f i bu lae w e re r e la t ive ly c ommon a tt h e s i te , b o th i nt h e c eme tery a nd t h e s e t t lemen t ( T ruhe lka . Wo ld r ich a nd Ma ly 1 904 ,T .44 : 4 ,2 0 , 2 1 , 2 9 , 3 0 ; T . 4 3 : 3 ;T . 5 3 : 1 3 ; T . 5 9 , 9 , 1 5 ; T . 6 5 : 9 ;T . 6 8 : 2 ; T . 7 3 :

S sm ihe l z a P o lsno c eme tery ( Gu g t in 1 979 , T . 6 1 , T . 6 2 ) , S lav ina ( Te r zan 1 976 , 3 28 ) T r i ik e( Gd t in 1 979 , T .2 0 ) a nd

1 4 ; Ma r iC 1 964 , T . 1 3 :29 ) . D o len jska s t y le c e ram ic s h ave a l so b een f ound : s ma l l b uck le-deco ra ted v e sse ls a nd h or nh and led c up s ( J . D u la r 1 982 , 2 24 ) . S im i la r ly t h e re w a s a l so a n e xamp le o f S zen tes-Veke rzug t y pe h o r se r i d ing

U laka ( Guh in 1 979 , T . 1 5 ) . T he a rmr ing f r om C ' epna n ea r K neiak w a s aD o len jska t ype ( Guk in 1 973 ,4 78 ) , a sw a s t h e a rm r ing f r om T r i iSC 'e . P ha se V i se qu iva len t t ot h e C er to sa p ha se i n D o len jska . P ha se V I i se qu iva len t t o t h e N egova p ha se i n D o len jska . L a rge r , l a te r C er to sa f i bu lae a nd c r o ssbow f i bu lae o ccu r red a tS sm ihe l ( GuS t in 1 979 , T .5 5 , T . 5 7 , T . 5 8 , T .62 - 1 .64 , T . 5 4 ) , S .i l en tabo r ( Gd t in 1 979 , T . 9 ) , G rad ik e n ea r K neiak ( Gu g t in 1 979 , T .8 ) , . to r je

e qu ipmen t , p robab ly d e r ived d i r ec tf r om t h is g roup a nd n o t v i a D o len jska (Wer ne r 1 985 , Map 2 ) . T he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence r ef lec t s t h e f u nc t ion o f D on ja D o l ina a s a ma jo r

( Gug t in 1 979 , T .1) a nd T r i ike ( Gu g t in 1 979 , 1 .1 ) . T he l a rge c eme te ry o f§ koc jan-Breiec w en to u to fu se a tt h ee nd o ft h e

l i nk i nt h e e xchange n e two rk b e tween t h e D o len jska g roup a nd t h eB a lkan s .

Ha l l s ta t t Cp er iod a nd Sm ihe l a ppea r s t oh ave r ep laced i ta s t h e ma jo rc en t re i n No t ran jska . I ti si n te re s t ing t h a t t h is may

T he

h ave r e su l ted f r om i n c rea sed c on tac tw i th t h e S y . L uc i ja a nd D o len jska g roup s . T he l i nk w i th P icenum h ad a ppa ren t ly

S ana

a nd U na

r i ve r

v a l ley s

i nn o r th B o sn ia a l so

c on ta ined s i tes w i th e v idence o f r e la t ive ly c l o se c on tac t w i th t h e D o len jska g roup i nt h e H a l ls ta t t Da nd L a T ene A p er iod s( Map 1 5 ) . T he c eme tery o fS an sk i mo s t( Map 1 7 ) i s

l a p sed . F ina l ly , t h e i r on s ha f tho le a xe s a nd o nes ided w inged a xe f r om S ' m ihe l w e re s pec if ic L a te N egova p ha se t ype s i nD o len jska ( Map 1 7 ) ( Gu s t in 1 973 ,4 79 ) .

t h e b e s t k nown o ft h e se a nd l a y w i th in t h e J apod ic c u l tu ra l T he I s t r ian g roup a nd t h e L ibu rnoJapod ic g roup b o th

a r ea . T he c eme tery w a s r e la t ive ly l a te i nd a te , a nd many o f t h e g rave s c on ta ined C er to sa f i bu lae , a l though o t he r D o len jska t ype a r tefac t s w e re p r esen t , e . g . t h e r i bbed a rm-

c on ta ined l a rge n umbe r so fC er to sa f i bu lae i nt h e i r ma te r ia l a s semb lages ( Map 1 5 ) ( Ter ian 1 976 , 3 18-340 ; T eiakG reg l 1 981 , 2 5-48 ) . T he I s tr ian g roup w a s m uch mo re c l o se ly c onnec ted w i th t h e D o len jska g roup a nd t h e ' S i tu la A r t ' p rov ince . C i s ta a c o rdon i a nd s i tu lae h ave b een

r i ng i ng rave 1 21 ( Ter ian 1 976 , F ig . 5 0 :4 ) . I ndeed s ome 2 8 e xamp les o f t h is a rmr ing t y pe h ave b een f ound ( F ia la 1 899 , 15 ) . D o len jska c e ram ic s o fS erpen t ifo rm , C er to sa o r E a r ly N egova d a te h ave a l so b een r e cove red i n q uan t i ty , p a r t icu la r ly b uck le d eco ra ted a nd h o rned c up s , i n f a c t t h e p o t tery w a s s o s im i la r t h a t D u la r ( 1982 , 2 24 ) s t a tes t h a t i t w a s p robab ly i mpo r ted . S an sk i mo s t c on ta ined a lmo s t a s m uch e v idence o f c on tac t a s D on ja D o l ina . A no the r t y pe c ommon t o b o th S an sk i mo s t a nd t h e D o len jska g roup w a s

r e cove red f r om N e sac t ium , P icug i , B e ram , Nova v a s a nd S y . Ma r t in n ea r T a r . T hese v e sse ls w e re s im i la r t o t h e b ronze v e sse ls i n t h e E s te a nd D o len jska g roup s . T he f i gu ra l d eco ra ted s i tu la f r om g rave 1 2 i n z one 1 a t N e sac t ium d a tes t ot h e s i x th c en tu ry B .C . a nd c an a l so b e r e la ted t o ma ter ia l f r om t h e se r eg ion s . F ina l ly , t h e b ronze

1 03

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia c up s f r om K a s te l n ea r B u je a nd P i cug i d a t e t o t h e f i f th c e n tu ry B .C . a nd h ave p a ra l le l sw i th t h o se a t Magda len ska g o ra , V inkov v r h a nd E s te ( Map 1 7 ) ( M lad in 1 974 , 3 51 5 8 ) . C lea r ly t h e e l i te i nt h e I s t r ian f l a t c eme te r ie s w e r e e ngaged i n a s im i la r p r e s t ige d r ink ing r i tua l t o t h e D o len jska , S v . L uc i ja a nd E s te g r oup s ,p e rhap se ven p a r to f t h e s ame c yc le o ff e a s t ing , b u tc e r ta in ly p a r t ia l ly d ependen t o nt h em f o rp r e s t ige m a te r ia l( s ee C hap te r5 ,s e c t ion 3 : 1 ) . T h e l i nk s w i th t h e C roa t ian D anube r e g ion a nd t h e G la s inac g r oup w e r ea l so o fs ome i mpo r tance ( Map 1 5 ) .T he H a l l s ta t t D a nd D 2 b a r row s a t K ap to l n ea r S l avon ska P o iega i nS l avon ia ( Map 1 5 ) w e r e e spec ia l ly i mpo r tan t . T h e f i nd s i ng r ave I V / 1 w e re l i nked t ot h e t h i rd h o r izon a t D on ja D o l ina a nd t o t h e G la s ina c ' P r ince ly ' h o r izon ( Ter ian 1 974 , 4 7 ) . T he c e ram ic s s how s t rong l i nk s w i th t h e K a lende rbe rg g r oup a nd C en t ra l E u rop e ( Ve jvoda a nd M im ik 1 973 , 5 96-599 ) , b u t a l so c on ta ined t wo c up s a nd a b u ck le d eco ra ted b ow l ( ? ) w h ich a r e r em in i scen t o f D o len jska t y pe s ( Ve jvoda a nd M i mik 1 973 , T .4 :13 ; T . 5 : 11 ) . T he f i bu lae i ng r ave V / 1 a r e o fI t a l ian t y pe a si st h e s t ray f i nd f r om b a r row V ( Ve jvoda a nd M im ik 1 973 , T4 : 1 , 6 ) . T he m a te r ia l i nn o r th S e rb ia a nd t h e V o jvod ina i nh o r izon 3 ( 5 50-450 B .C . d i d n o t r ef l ec t m uch c on ta c t w i th t h e S ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion . Ambe rb ead s w e r e p r e sen ti nt h e f ew g r ave s k nown , b u t t h e i r o r ig in i su nc lea r . T he r e i ss ome e v id enc eo f' S cy th ian 'i n f luen ce ,b u tt h i s i s n o ts u rp r i s ing a s t h ea r ea w a sa d jac en t t o t h e S zen t e s—Veke r zug g r oup . T he m a jo r s ou r ce o fe xo t ic m a te r ia l a ppea r s t ob e t h e G la s inac g oup ( Va s ic 1 977 ,2 6 ) . H o r izon 4 ( 4 50-300 B .C . ) p r e sen t s ad i f f e ren t p i c tu r e . T he S r i jem g r oup i nt h e n o r th w e s t o f t h e m odem S e rb ia i st h e b e s t k nown g r oup i nt h e S e rb ian D anube r e g ion ( Map 1 5 ) . C e r to sa f i bu la h ave b een f o und a s s t ray f i nd s f r om N ov i B anovc i , a nd Z emun , i nt h e i n huma t ion g r ave a tS r em ska M i t rov ica a nd i n ac r ema t ion g r ave a t S abac . C ro s sbow C e r to sa f i bu lae h ave a l so b een f ound i n t h e A da gevc i i n huma t ion g r ave a nd i nt h e Z emun s t ray f i nd s , w h ich a l so c on ta ined a n E a s t A lp ine z oomo rph ic f i bu la a nd ' S cy th ian ' m a te r ia l . T he S aba c i n huma t ion g r ave c on ta ined ap a i r o f h o l low ,r i bbed b r on ze s h ee t a nn r ing s . Af u r th e rE a s tA lp ine z oomo rph ic f i bu la w a sf ound a tN ov i B anovc i ( Va s i6 1 9 77 , 2 8 ) . I ti sa l so i n te r e s t ing t on o te t h a t t h e g l a s s b ead s i nt h e S aba cc r ema t ion g r ave ( Va s i6 1 977 ,P l .5 2 : 8 )a r es im i la rt o S l ovene t y p e s a nd a r e a s soc ia ted w i th a mbe r . T h i s g r oup w a sr e la ted t ot h ei n huma t ion s a t N ov i J ankovc i , V u C , edo l , V inkovc i , B ogdanovc i a nd g r ave 8 9 a tD a l j , a l l o fw h ich a r e i nS l avon ia ( C roa t ia ) ( Va s i6 1 977 , 2 8 ) . T he m a t e r ia l f r om N ov i J ankovc i , V uCedo l a nd V inkovc i a l l c on ta ined C e r to sa f i bu lae ( Tea m 1 976 , 3 24 )( Map 1 7 ) . T h is m a te r ia l w a s a lmo s t c e r ta in ly d i s sem ina ted v i a D on ja D o l ina , a l though t h e se s i t e s m ay a l so h ave b een l i nked t o t h e H a l l s ta t t D /La T ene A T ran sdanub ian g r oup ( J e r em 1 974 , 2 29-242 ) .

p r ince ly g r ave s a tN ov i P a za r a nd A ten ica a r e d a ted t o V a s iC ' sh o r izon 3 , a nd , t o ge the rw i th t h ep r ince ly g r ave so f t h e G la s ina c g r oup , w i th w h ich t h ey w e r e c onnec ted , w e r e r o ugh ly c on t empo ra ry w i th t h e p r in ce ly h o r izon i nt h e C e r to sa p ha se o ft h e D o len jska g roup ( Va s ic 1 977 , 2 3-26 ) . H oweve r , i tm u s t b e s t re s sed t h a t t h e e xo t ic a r tef a c t s a nd i n d igenou s m a te r ia l d i f f e red c on s ide rab ly f r om t h a t o f t h e D o len j ska g r oup . T he m a in p o in t t o m ake h e re i s t h e e x i s t ence o fl a rge q uan t i t ie so fa mbe ri nt h eg r ave g roup s . I t i si nt h e c on tex t o f t h e a mb e r t r ade t h a t t h e r i se o f D on ja D o l ina m ay b es e en , ap o in tm o r e f u l ly d eve lop ed i ns e c t ion 2 : 2 . T h e H a l l s ta t t D 2 t oL a T ene A p ha se p r e sen t t h e m o s t e v iden ce f o r c on tac tb e tween t h e G la s ina c c u l tu ra l a r ea a nd D o len jska . D u r ing t h i s p e r iod , G la s ina c V a o f B ena c a nd C ov iC ' st y po logy ,G la s ina cp ha se 4o f L uc en t in i ' s t y po logy ( Lucen t in i 1 981 , 1 06-111 ) , C e r to sa f i bu lae a pp ea r ed t h roughou t t h e G la s ina c a r ea ( Map 1 7 ) . T ype I I bC e r to sa f i bu lae w e r e e xc lu s ive t ot h eG la s inac g r oup , a l though o n e w a s f o und a t S an sk i m o s t ( Tea m 1 976 , 3 22 ) , a s w e r e c r o s sbow C e r to sa f i bu lae t y pe X I I I . T he e a r l ie s te xamp le s w e r e t h e t y pe V C e r to sa f i bu lae , w h ich d a t e s pec if ica l ly t o t h e f i f th c e n tu ry B .C . ( Ter ian 1 976 , 4 34-435 , F ig . 4 5-48 ) . T h i s i n f lux o f m a te r ia l c an b e s e en a s p a r t o f t h e g ene ra l i n f lux o fD o len jska g r oup m a te r ia li n to t h ew e s ter nB a lkan s , p e rhap s r e la ted t ot h e a mbe r t r ade m en t ioned a bove . T he r o le o ft h eD o len j ska g r oup i nt h ed i s sem ina t ion o fe a r ly L a T ene f i bu lae i sn o tk nown ,b u tn eed n o tn e ce s sa r i ly b eg r ea t . T h e A ten ica h o r se b i ti so fS zen te s—Veke rzug t y pe ( W e rne r 1 985 , Map 2 ) , b u t t h i s a nd t h e C ' i t luC i 1 / 5 a nd O sovo I 1 / 1 e xamp le s a tG la s inac ( Lucen t in i 1 981 , 1 06111) m ay h ave d e r ived f r om t h e S zen te s—Veke r zug g r oup v i aD on ja D o l ina a nd t h e C roa t ian a nd S e rb ian D anube r e g ion , n o t f r om D o len jska . G re ek I mpor t s T h i s i s t h e m o s t d i rec t ly i d en t if iab le s e t o f i mpo r ted m a te r ia l a nd a l so o ne o f t h e s c a rces t . A s i ng le G rae co— E t ru scan b r onze b ow lw a s f o und i nt h eS t iCna A rmou rG rave ( Gab rovec 1 966 , F ig 5 :4 ) . T he r ema in ing f i nd s w e r e a l l c e ram ic v e s se l s a nd w e re c on f in ed t o Magda len ska g o ra a nd S t icna . T he I t a lo—Co r in th ian o i nochoe f r om t h e S t iena g r ave w i th a d eco ra ted b r on ze s i tu la l i d d a te s t ot h e e nd o f t h e s e ven th c en tu ry B .C . , w h i l s t t h e k y l ix i ng r ave 1 /7 d a te s t o t h ef i r s th a l fo ft h ef i f th c en tu ry B .C . A t Magda len ska g o ra , ak y l ix w a sf o und i ng r ave 1 / 58 a nd ah and led c up a nd aj u g i ng r ave 1 / 37 , a l l o fw h ich d a ted t ot h e l a t e s i x th c en tu ry B .C . a nd c ame o r ig ina l ly f r om s ou th I t a ly ( J . D u la r 1 982 , 2 34-235 ) . T hey w e r e w ide ly d i spe r sed c h rono log ica l ly , a nd , r a the r t h an b e ing t h e r e su l t o fd i rec t c on ta c t w i th t h e G r eek w o r ld ,m ay h ave d e r ived f r om t h eE s te g r oup o rf r om I s t r ia . 2 S t ra teg ie so fE xchange . 2 : 1 T he R o le o ft h eS ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion a sa na rea o fp roduc t ion o fr aw ma ter ia l s .

T he G la s inac g r oup h ad m o r e v i s ib le l i nk s t ot h e D o len j ska g r oup t h roughou t t h e H a l l s ta t t D a nd L a T en e A p e r iod s ( Map 1 5 ) , p e rhap sv i an o r th B o sn ia a nd D on ja D o l ina . T he

I ti s d i ff i cu l t t oa s se s s t h ef u l lr a nge o fr aw m a t e r ia l s t h a t

1 04

S t ra teg ies o fE x change i nt h eS ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion B e tween 1 000 B .C . a nd 3 00 B .C . m igh t h ave b een s upp l ied f o r e xchange b y t h e L a te B ronze A ge a nd E a r ly I r on A ge g roup s i n t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion . T he l a ck o f d a ta c oncer n ing l a nd u se i nt h e r eg ion make s i ti mpo s s ib le t o i d en t ify t h e r o le o f a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion i ne xchange a c t iv i t ie s . U l t ima te ly i tm us t h ave p l ayed a m a jo r r o le i n— in t ra g roup e xchange a c t iv i t ies , a r t icu la t ing t h e e l i te s y s tems o f b o th L a te B ron ze A ge a nd E a r ly I r on A ge c ommun i t ie s , a sc on t ro lo fs uch c ommod i t ie s i s ap re r equ i s i te f o r i n d iv idua ls a nd g roup s t o e n te r i n to p r es t ige c ompe t i t ion , a nd p a r t icu la r ly t h e p re s t ige f e a s t ing a nd d r ink ing c omp lexe s c u r ren t i nt h e r eg ion t h roughou t t h e p e r iod u nde r d i scu ss ion . T he l o ca t ion o f E a r ly I r on A ge mo r tua ry /h i l l for t c omp lexes i nD o len j ska o n t h e i n ter face o f t h eh igh land a nd l ow land z ones s ugge s t s t h a ta ce ss t o aw ide r ange o f d i f f e ren t l a nd t ypes a nd p o ten t ia l ly d i f f e ren t a g r icu l tu ra l a r ea s w a s o f ma jo r i mpo r tance ( s ee C hap te r5 , s ec t ion 3 : 1 ) . Howeve r ,t h en a tu re o f t h el a nd u se s ys tem a nd e conomy i su nknown , h ampe red b y t h e l a ck o f e conom ic d a ta f r om s e t t lemen t e xcava t ion s a nd s u rvey . T he r e cen t e xcava t ion s a t t h e s e t t lemen t o f Mo s t n a S o C i i n t h e S v . L uc i ja g roup h ave p roduced s ome i n te res t ing i n s igh t si n to t h e a g r icu l tu ra l e conomy o f t h e s i te . T he f auna l a s semb lage s ugges t st h a t s heep /goa ta nd c a t t le h u sband ry w e re o f g r ea t i mpo r tance ( Ba r to s iew icz 1 985 , 1 01-108 ) . A s im i la r p a t ter n m ay h ave b een p re sen t i n t h e D o len jska g roup , a l though t h e a r ea i s l e ss r ugged t h an t h eJ u l ian A lp s , a nd i t h a s a l so b een s ugges ted t h a t h o r se—b reed ing m ay h ave b en a n i mpo r tan t p a r t o f t h e e conomy i n t h e D o len jska g roup ( Ba r to s iew icz 1 985 , 1 08-109 ) . T he r e i sl e ss e v idence f o r t h e a g r icu l tu ra l e conomy i nt h e H a l l s ta t t Bp e r iod a s m o s t o f t h e s i te s w e re mo r tua ry i nc ha rac te r , a nd t h e n umbe r o f s e t t lemen t s i s n o t s u f f ic ien t t of o rmu la te a c l ea r p i c tu re o f l a nd u se p a t tern sa nd t h ee conomy . T he ma in e v idence f o r r aw ma te r ia l p roduc t ion i sr e la ted

t h e Ha l ls ta t t B 3 p ha se m ay h ave b een ac on t inua t ion o f t h e b ronze e xchange n e two rk o f t h e Ha l ls ta t t B p e r iod , b u t e qua l ly i t s e x ten s ion i n to D o len jska a nd t h e Wies— Ma r t i janec g roup r ep re sen t s amo re i n ten s ive c on tac t , wh ich may b e r e la ted t o t h e p o s i t ion o ft h e se g roup s a sp roduce r s o f i r on ( s ec t ion 1 :l a ; 1 :l b ) . T he d i f f e ren t ia t ion b e tween t h e D o len jska g roup a nd t h e W ies— Ma r t i janec g roup t h e rea f te r w a s ar e su l to f ac hange i nt h er o le o ft h e D o len jska g roup i n t h e e xchange s y s tem , w h ich i sd ea l t w i th b e low . T he c l ea r l i nk s w i th t h e C roa t ian a nd S e rb ian D anube r eg ion c anno tb e s een i nt h i s c on tex t , a l though t h i s r eg ion c ou ld a se qua l ly b e t h e s ou rce o f t h e i r on t e chno logy i nt h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion a sn o r th a nd C en t ra lI t a ly . 2 : 2T he R o le o ft he D o len jska G roup a sa nI n termed iary i nR eg iona l E xchange . T he r o le o f t h e L a te B ronze A ge L jub l jana a nd R uge g roup s a nd t h e E a r ly I r on A ge D o len jska a nd Wie s— Ma r t i janec g roup s a s i n te rmed ia r ies w i th in a r eg iona l e xchange s y s tem c an o n ly b e u nde r s tood b y e xam ina t ion o f t h e c h rono log ica l c on tex t a nd d eve lopmen t o f t h e e x t ra r eg iona l c on tac t s o f t h e g roup s . T he se c on tac t s c an o n ly b e t r aced b y c on s ide r ing t h e i mpo r ted ma te r ia l o r l o ca l c op ie s w i th in t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion , a nd c onve r se ly t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine m a te r ia l i no t he r r eg ion s . T h i s n a tu ra l ly o ve r lap s w i th t h e d i scu ss ion o f t h e D o len jska g roup a s a c r a f t p roduc t ion c en t re , b u t t h i s i su navo idab le , a nd s hou ld n o t o ve r lap w i th d i scu ss ion o f o rgan isa t ion a nd c on t ro l o f c r a f tp roduc t ion . T he

e x t ra r eg iona l

c on tex t

o f

t h e L jub l jana a nd R uge

g roup s i nt h e Ha l l s ta t t B 1 a nd H a l ls ta t t B 2 p ha ses p resen t s t h e f o l low ing p i c tu re . T he L jub l jana a nd R u ge g roups w e re c l o se ly r e la ted t ot h e H a l l s ta t t Bg roup s i n t h e C a rpa th ian

s pec if ica l ly t o m e ta l r e sou rce s , a nd i s l a rge ly i n d i rec t . W i th in t h e H a l ls ta t Bp e r iod o n ly t h e R u ge g roup m ay h ave h ad d i rec t a ccess t oc oppe r s ou rce s ( s ee C hap te r 1 , s e c t ion 3 : 1d a nd s e c t ion 3 : 1e ) . T he p re sence o f Ur n f ie ld s i te s w i th in t h e P oho r je moun ta in s h a s b een t a ken t o i n d ica te a c tua l

b a s in a nd t h e C roa t ian a nd S e rb ian D anube r eg ion ( s ec t ion 1 : 3a , s e c t ion 1 : 4a ) . T he se h ave t ob e s een i nt h e c on tex t o f t h e l o ca l b ronze c i r cu la t ion s y s tem e x is t ing a tt h e t ime . T he L jub l jana a nd R u ge g roup s h ad d i rec t a nd i n d i rec t a ccess t o

e xp lo i ta t ion o ft h ec oppe rd epo s i t si nt h e H a l ls ta t t Bp e r iod , e xp lo i ta t ion w h ich c on t inued i n to t h e H a l l s ta t t C p e r iod , a l though n o a c tua l d i rec t e v idence o f m in ing h a s b een

r e su l ted i n a n a dvan tageou s p o s i t ion w i th in t h e e xchange s phe re . B ronze w a s , b y i t s v e ry n a tu re , a lways c apab le o f b e ing u sed a s ap r es t ige ma te r ia l . T he e xchange s phe re w a s

r e cove red ( Te rian 1 983 ,6 0-65 ) .

s eem ing ly c once rned w i th t h e c i r cu la t ion o f b ron ze b e tween

D i rec t a cce ss t o i r on d epo s i t s m ay h ave b een a n i mpo r tan t f a c to ri nt h ed eve lopmen to ft h eE a r ly I r on A ge g roup s i nt h e

n o r ther n I t a ly . I ti sn o t p o ss ib le t o d ef ine t h e o the r i t em s w i th in t h i s e xchange n e two rk o r s e r ie s o f n e two rk s .

r eg ion . T he K le in—K le in n ec ropo l i s a nd t h e B u rg s ta l lkoge l

A g r icu l tu ra l p roduce

s e t t lemen tw e re s i tua ted i nt h e i r on b ea r ing r eg ion w h ich w a s

s y s tem , p e rhap s i nf e a s t ing a c t iv i t ie s , w h ich s eem t ob e i n d ica ted b y t h e c e ram ic a s semb lage o f t h e L jub l jana a nd

t h e c oppe r s ou r ce s o f t h e e a s te rn A lp s , w h ich w ou ld h ave

t h e n o r thea s t A lp ine , P annon ian a nd D anube r eg ion s a nd

l a ter e xp lo i ted i n t h e m ed iaeva l p er iod ( Dob ia t 1 980 , 3 94 0 ) . S im i la r ly t h e S v . L uc i ja g roup w a sc en t red o nt h eJ u l ian A lp s , ar e g ion n o ted f o r i t s i r on d epo s i t s . T he re a r e a nd

p robab ly

a l so

e n te red i n to t h e

R u se g roup s ( s ee C hap te r 4 . s e c t ion 1 : 1 a nd s ec t ion 1 : 2 ) . T he o r ig in o f t h e t i n u sed i n b ronze p roduc t ion i s mo re u nce r ta in . Two s ou r ces e x is t , w h ich may h ave b een e xp lo i ted i n p reh is to ry , t h e C o l l ine Me ta l l if e re i n E t ru r ia ( G rego ry Wa rden 1 984 , 3 49-364 ) a nd t h e E r zgeb i rge moun ta in s o f

w e re l i mon i te a nd h aema t i te o r e s i n t h e K rk .a v a l ley a nd B e la K ra j ina (We l ls 1 985 , 7 7 ) . T he p rox im i ty o f i r on d epo s i t s t ot h e L jub l jana /Do len jska g roup a nd t h eS v . L uc i ja g roup , b o th o f w h ich h ad c l ea r e v idence o f a n o rnamen t

B ohem ia ( Muh ly 1 973 , 2 56 ) , a nd t h e d i s tr ibu t ion o f ma te r ia l s ugge s t st h a te i the rs ou r ce m igh th ave b een u sed .

h o r izon , a nd t h e K le in—K le in c en t re . i n t h e W ies— Ma r t i janec g roup , w a s v ery i mpo r tan t . E v idence f o r

T he L a te

h i e ra r ch i sa t ion w a s r e la t ive ly e a r ly a nd c o— inc ided w i th t h e s t a r to ft h eu se o fi r on a s ap re s t ige ma ter ia l . T he e a r ly l i nk s w i th t h e E s te g roup a nd t h e I t a l ian n or th Ad r ia t ic c oa s t i n

B ron ze A ge /Ea r ly

I r on A ge i n te r face p e r iod

r ep r esen ted t h e s t a r t o f t h e d i ve rgence b e tween t h e n a scen t D o len jska a nd W ies— Ma r t i janec g roups . T he

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I r on A ge i nS l oven ia L jub l jana /Do len jska g r oup h ad s t rong c on tac t s w i th t h e c i r cum A d r ia t ic c u l tu ra l p r ov in ce ( s ec t ion 1 : 6 , s e c t ion 1 : 4b ) a nd a l so w i th t h e D anube r e g ion ( s ec t ion 1 : 4b ) . T he l i nk s w i th t h e c i r cum—Ad r ia t ic r e g ion m igh t b e ac on t inua t ion o f t h eb r onze e xchange n e two rk o ft h ep r ev iou s p ha se , b u tt h e i n ten s if ica t ion s e em t oh ave h ad o t he ro r ig in s ,m a in ly i nt h e c i r cu la t ion o fi r on p roduced i nt h eS ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion ( s ee s e c t ion 2 : 1 ) .T he r ap id a dop t ion o ft h et wo— looped b ow f i bu la a nd i r on a rm— a nd n e ck r ing s r e f lec t s t h e a dop t ion o f n ew p r e s t ige m a te r ia l s , a l ong w i th w eapon s a nd l e nd s c r edence t o t h eh ypo the s i s i nC hap te r5 , s e c t ion 1 : 2 , t h a t i r on—u s ing w a s t h e r e su l t o f t h e q ue s t f o r n ew p r e s t ige m a te r ia ls , i n i t ia l ly d ue t o t h e s t r e s s o nt h ep r e s t ige s y s tem o f t h e L a te B ronze A ge . T he t r an sm i s s ion o f B a lkan e l emen t s l i ke t h e t wo— loop ed b ow f i bu la , a nd p o s s ib ly t h e p r ac t ice o f b a r row b u r ia l , w h ich i n d ica ted g r ea te r h i e ra r ch i sa t ion ,m u s tb es e en i nt h ec on tex to fp r ev iou sc l o se c u l tu ra l r e la t ion s i n t h e H a l l s ta t t Bp e r iod . T h e G la s inac r e g ion c on ta ined e a r ly e v idenc e o f h i e ra r chy . T he W ie s— Ma r t i janec g roup a r o se i n t h i s p ha se , a l though i tw a s p a r t ia l ly c on tempo ra ry w i th t h e H a l l s ta t t B 3 R u ge f l a t c eme te r ie s .I tw a ss im i la rt ot h ee a s tA lp ine H a l l s ta t tg r oup s i nb u r ia l p a t te rn a nd m a te r ia l c u l tu r e , ac on t inua t ion o f t h e c l o se ly r e la ted H a l l s ta t t BR u ge a nd S t i l l f r ied g r oup s . H e re a l so t h e b r onze c i r cu la t ion s y s tem c on t inued a nd w a s s upp lemen ted b y i r on . A l though l i nk s w i th n o r th I t a l ian g r oup s e x i s ted a nd s im i la r s o c ia l c ond i t ion s t o t h e L jub l jana /Do len jska g r oup ,t h ec on ta c t sw i th I t a ly m ay h ave t a ken p l ace t h rough t h e m ed ia t ion o f t h e L jub l jana /Do len jska g r oup . T h e s i tua t ion w i th r e ga rd t ot h e D anube R eg ion w a s s l igh t ly d i f f e r en t . C on tac t n eed n o t n ece s sa r i ly h ave b een v i at h eD o len jska r e g ion . T he D o len jska g r oup c on t inued t om a in ta in c l o se l i nk s w i th t h e c i r cum—Ad r ia t i c r e g ion a nd t h e n o r ther n a nd c e n t ra l B a lkan s i nt h e H a l l s ta t t Cp e r iod . T h e B a sa rab i d eco ra t ive e l emen t s o n p o t te ry i nt h e D o len jska g r oup a nd t h e W ie s— Ma r t i janec g roup ( s ee s e c t ion 1 : 4b )a nd t h er a nge o f t wo— l o oped b ow f i bu lae ( Gab rove c 1 970 , 5 -65 ) a r e a l l i n d ica t ive o f t h i s c on ta c t w i th t h e D anube r e g ion a nd c on t inue st h e s y s t em o b se r ved i nL jub l jana I bp ha se /K le in— K le in p ha se 1 .C on tac tw i th t h eS v . L uc i ja .E s te ,P i cene a nd I s t r ian g r oup s w a s a l so e x ten s ive ( s ee s e c t ion 1 : 1c ) . T he D o len jska g r oup d u r ing t h e P odzeme l j 2p ha se w a s t h e s ou r ce o f t h e d i sc h e lme t i n O f enmach e rwa ld b a r row 4 8 ( Dob ia t 1 980 ,T .22 :11 ) . T he S t iCna 1p ha se o ft h eD o len j ska g r oup w a s n o tab le f o r t h e a ppea ran ce o f i mpo r ted n o r th I t a l ian b r onze v e s se l sa nd A pu l ian s t y le c e ram ic s , a sw e l la s aw ide r a nge o fn o r th I t a l ian f i bu la t y pe s . T h es p r ead o ft h i s m a te r ia l a nd p a r t icu la r ly t h e e l i t e o b je c t s c an b e r e la ted t o t h ec i r cu la t ion o fb r onze ,i r on ,a nd , i mpo r tan t ly ,a mbe r . T he a mbe r f o und i nt h e B o logna c eme te r ie s i nt h e V i l lanov ian p ha se s I I— IVb2 ( F r ey a nd G ab rovec 1 971 , 1 94197 ; Mü l le r—Ka rpe 1 9 59 , T .64 :E8 ; T .67—T .70 ; T . 80 :A—F ) w a s p robab ly o f B a l t ic o r ig in . Ambe r a l so a ppea r ed i ns ome q uan t i ty i n t h e D o len jska g r oup f r om t h e S t iCna 1p ha se o nwa rd s . T he S t iCna 2p ha se w a sm a rked b yt h ea pp ea ran ce o f a mbe r—bowed f i bu lae s im i la r t o f o rm s f r om E s te a nd B o logna ( V . S t a r e 1 978 , 6 7-84 ) . T he s p read o fI t a l ian a nd D o len jska g r oup f o rm s i n to t h e e a s ter n A lp in e g r oup s w a s p robab ly c onnec t ed w i th t h e a mb e rt r ade ( s ee s e c t ion 1 : 3c ) ,

a l though a mb e r w a s n o t c ommon a tK le in—K le in o r i nt h e V a ske r e sz t e sb a r row ( Feke te 1 983 , 1 29144 ) . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f m a te r ia l i n t h e e a s t er n A lp s a nd a t H a l l s ta t t ( s e e s e c t ion 1 : 2c ) r ep r e sen t ed n o t o n ly t h e i n c r ea sed a mbe r t r ade , b u t a l so a n i n ten s i f ica t ion o f t h e b r onze e xchange n e two rk , a nd i mpo r tan t ly t h e s a l t t r ade f r om H a l l s ta t t . I tm u s tb e s t r e ssed t h a tt h e D o len jska g r oup w a s am a jo rl i nk i no n ly o ne o ft h ea mbe rr o u te st h a te x i s t ed i n t h e E a r ly I r on A ge ( Ko ssa ck 1 982 , 9 5-112 ; Ma l inow sk i 1 9 82 , 13123 ) . H oweve r ,t h e a mb e rf o und i n t h e L ibu rno— Japod ic g r oup , a nd p o s s ib ly P i cenum , m u s t h ave p a s sed t h rough t h e h ead o ft h e A d r ia t ic . I ta pp ea r s t h a tt h e D o len j ska g r oup w a s am a jo ri n t e rmed ia ry ,p e rhap s s upp ly ing a mb e r , s a l t , c oppe r a nd i r on t o t h e c i r cum— A d r ia t ic R eg ion , a sh a sb een n o ted b y We l l s ( 1 985 , 7 5 , 7 7 ) , a nd i n c rea s ing ly s upp ly ing p r e s t ige m a te r ia l t o t h e H a l l s ta t t a nd K le in—K le in c en t r e s , a nd t o t h e K a lende rbe rg g r oup . T h i s e xchange s y s t em w ou ld h ave p rov ided a m a jo r i mpe tu s t o i n te rna l c ompe t i t ion w i th in t h e D o len jska g r oup , w h ich a l so g a ined p r e s t ige m a t e r ia l . T he re w a sn os i ng le d om inan tc en t re w i th in t h e D o len j ska g r oup ; i th a s b een s ugge s t ed t h a t t h i s r e su l ted f r om t h e p rox im i ty o f t h e D o len j ska g r oup t o t h e c i r cum—Ad r ia t ic R eg ion a nd m ean tt h a tm onopo l ies i np r e s t ige t r ade c ou ld n o t d eve lop ( We l l s 1 985 , 8 6 ) . T h i s r e su l ted i nc omp e t i t ion b e tween i n d iv idua le l i te c en t r e si nD o len j ska g r oup . T he K le in—K le in c e n t r em ay h ave r e l ied m o r eh eav i ly o nt h e p rodu c t ion o fi r on , b u ti t sp o s i t ion w ou ld a l so h ave b en ef i t ed i ti nt h e e xchange s y s tem . T he W ie s—Ma r t i jane c s i te s i n t a je r ska w e r e a l so p a r t ia l ly r e l ian t o n t h e d i r e c t p roduc t ion o fr aw m a te r ia l s s u ch a sc oppe r ,b u tt h el o ca t ion o fm a jo rc en t r e s s u ch a sP o g te la i nt h eD rava v a l ley c l ea r ly o wed m uch t ot h et r an s i tt r ade t h rough t h ea r ea ( Pah iä 1 9 73 , 5 21-543 ; T er ian 1 983 , 6 5-71 ) . F ina l ly , t h e a mbe r i nt h e G la s ina c g r oup m ay h ave d e r ived f r om t h e D o len jska g r oup v i a D on ja D o l ina , o r f r om ar o u te r u nn ing t h rough e a s te rn H unga ry ( s ee s e c t ion 1 : 4c ) , a nd t h is w ou ld a c coun t f o r t h e o c cu r rence o fG la s ina ct y pe si nt h er e g ion . T he d i sappea ran ce o f b a r row b u r ia l i nt h e e a s te rn A lp s i s m o re d i f f icu l t t o e xp la in . I nt h e W ie s—Ma r t i janec g r oup , a tl e a s t , i tm ay i np a r tb e ar e su l to ft h e i n c r ea s ing r e l ian ce b y t h e l o ca l e l i te s o n p r e s t ige m a t e r ia l d e r ived f r om D o len jska a nd a r e su l t ing s ubo rd ina t ion . H oweve r , t h e p ro ce ss o fi n c r ea sed h i e ra r ch i sa t ion a tK le in—K le in m ay i n s ome w ay h ave o u t s t r ipped t h e a b i l i ty o f t h e s oc ie ty t o s uppo r ti t . I ts h ou ld b e n o ted t h a t t h e S t iCna 2p ha se i nt h e D o len jska g r oup w a s ap e r iod o f a d ju s tmen t t on ew s o c ia l f o rm s d e r ived f r om t h e c en t ra l B a lkan s ( s ee C hap te r 5 , s e c t ion 3 ) . T he re w e r e t wo d i s t in c t s t r eam s o fp r e s t ige m a te r ia l i nt h e D o len jska g r oup i nt h e H a l l s ta t t Dp e r iod . T he c e ram ic a nd o r namen t a s semb lage s c on ta ined ah i gh p r opo r t ion o fl o ca l f o rm sw h ich i m i ta t e t h em a te r ia l a s semb lage s o f t h e E s te a nd S v . L uc i ja g r oup s( s ee s e c t ion 1 : 1d ) . T h i si n c luded e l i te m a te r ia l s u ch a st h e d oub le c r e s ted h e lme t a nd t h e N egova h e lme t( Gab rove c 1 965 , 1 77186 ) a nd ' S i tu la A r t 'd eco ra t ed b r on ze v e s se ls ( Knez 1 983 , 8 5-105 ) . O n t h e o t he rh and ,

1 06

S t ra teg ies o fE xchange i nt h eS ou th E as tA lp ine R eg ion B e tween 1 000 B .C . a nd 3 00 B .C . h o r se— r id ing e qu ipmen t a nd a r che ry e qu ipmen t w a s d e r ived f r om t h e S zen te s—Veke rzug g roup , a s w e re , p o ss ib ly , h o r se s ( Bököny i 1 968 , 3 9-49 ) . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f C e r to sa f i bu lae a nd o the r p o s s ib le Do len jska g roup m a ter ia l c an b e s een t o h ave e x tended i n to T ran sdanub ia , a ga in a s soc ia ted w i th t h e a mbe rr ou te ( s ee s ec t ion 1 : 1d ) . A ne x ten s ion o ft h is m ay b e t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f C er to sa f i bu lae a nd o t he r ma ter ia l a l ong t h e S ava r i ve rv a l ley t oD on ja D o l ina a nd t h e U na a nd S ana r i ve r v a l ley s . T he D o len jska g roup m a ter ia l i nS lavon ia a nd t h e S r i jem , i nt h e G la s inac g roup a nd i n t h e I s t r ian a nd L ibu rno— Japod ic g roup s , w a s a l so r e la ted t ot h i s . T he ma jo r e xpan s ion o f e x t ra— reg iona l w ade i nt h e H a l l s ta t t D a nd L a T ene A p e r iod s t o ok p lace i nt h e C er to sa a nd E a r ly N egova p ha se s . T he

l i nk s w i th Ha l l s ta t t a nd ,

l a te r ,

t h e s a l t p roduc t ion

c en t re o f t h e D ü r rnbe rg b e iH a l le in ,r ema ined s t rong . T h is i s i nd ica ted b y t h e p re sence o fC e r to sa f i bu lae , D o len jska t ype e l i te a r tefac ts , a nd ' S cy th ian 'm a te r ia la tH a l l s ta t t . T he o ccu r rence o fL aT ene A f i bu lae a nd s wo rd s a t Magda len ska g o ra i ss ugge s t ive o fc on tac t w i th t h e D ü r rnbe rg b e i H e l le in , w h ich r e p laced Ha l l s ta t t a s t h e m a jo r s a l t p roduc t ion c en t re i n t h eA lp s i nt h e L aT ene A p er iod ( s ee s e c t ion 1 : 2d ) . T he l i nk w i th t h e J apod ic g roup i nt h e S ana a nd U na r i ve r

s uch a s s wo rd s a nd s hee t b ronze v e sse ls w ou ld a cqu ir e s pec ia l is t w o rk o ve r a l o ng p e r iod o f t ime . I ti sf ea s ib le t h a t a s pec ia l is t m e ta lwo rk ing g roup e x is ted , b u t i t i s d i f f icu l t t oe l abo ra te o n t h is . T he l o ca l t r ad i t ion s o fp o t te ry a l so i mp ly al o ca l l e ve l o fp roduc t ion , b u t k now ledge o f i t s o rgan isa t ion ' i s a l so l a ck ing . D e ta i led k now ledge o fc ra f tp roduc t ion i nt h eE a r ly I r on A ge i sa b sen t , b u t d educ t ion s c an b e made f r om t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f ma te r ia l . T he o rnamen t t ype s f ound f r om t h e P odzeme l j 2 p ha se t o t h e l a te N egova p ha se , p a r t icu la r ly f i bu lae a nd a rm— a nd a nk ler ing s w e re s im i la r o n a l l s i te s w i th in t h e g roup . Howeve r , p re s t ige a r tefac t s s uch a s b ron ze h e lme t s a nd s hee t b ronze v e sse l s w e re l a rge ly l im i ted t o t h e l a rge mo r tua ry / se t t lemen t c omp lexe s . T h is i mp l ie s t h a t o rnamen t p roduc t ion t ook p lace a t al o ca l l e ve l o n a l l c l a sse s o fs i te , w h i l s t t h e p roduc t ion o f p re s t ige a r tefac t s w a s c on f ined t o t h e l a rge c en t res . I ti sd i f f icu l t t o a sce r ta in w he the r t h is p roduc t ion f o r e l i te u se w a s t h e w o rk o f an umbe r o f l o ca l s pec ia l i s ts , e ach b a sed a t am a jo r c en t re , o r w he the r i tw a s t h e w o rk o f a n a t e l ie r o r g roup o f a t e l ie r s w h ich w e re n o t b a sed a t a ny o ne c en t re . E thnog raph ic d a ta f r om t h e K a la shum i n Nu r i s tan c an p rov ide a n i n te rmed ia te mode l , w he re m e ta lwo rke r s w e re c on t ro l led b y a n i n d iv idua l o r l i neage , b u t w ou ld u nde r take w o rk f o r o the r i nd iv idua l s

v a l ley s , p a r t icu la r ly S an sk i mo s t , m ay h ave b een r e la ted t o t h e f a c tt h a tt h i sw a s am a jo ri r on p roduc ing a r ea ( s ee s e c t ion 1 : 4d ) .

( J one s 1 974 , 9 4-116 ) . T he u n ifo rm n a tu re o ft h e S i tu la A r t c omp lex may h ave b een t h e w o rk o f as i ng le a t e l ie r i nt h e r eg ion , b u t t h e r e i s n o r e a son w hy i tc ou ld n o t h ave b een p roduced a t s eve ra l c en t res , g i ven t h a t c ra f t smen m ay h ave

T he D o len jska g roup w a s ama jo r c en t re i n al o ng d i s tance e xchange n e two rk , a nd i t sr o le w i th in t h i sn e two rk e xpanded d u r ing t h e C er tosa a nd e a r ly N egova p ha se s . I tw a s

c i rcu la ted

t h rough

g i f t

e xchange .

T he re

w e re

l o ca l

d i f f e rences w i th in t h e D o len jska g roup i nc ra f t p roduc t ion . T he re w a s ad i s t inc t ion b e tween t h e a xe t ype s f ound i n w e s ter nD o len jska a nd t h o se f ound i nt h e K rka v a l ley i nt h e

i n vo lved p r imar i ly w i th t h e t r ade i ns a l t , a mbe r a nd i r on , a s w e l l a s c on t inu ing t ot a ke p a r t i nt h e c i rcu la t ion o f b ronze . T he c opp e r s ou rce s w e re e xp lo i ted b y t h e I n ne r A lp ine Ha l l s ta t tg roup , w h ich h ave c on s ide rab le e v idence o fc on tac t

l a te N egova c a se , w h ich h a s b een p o s i ted a s r ep r esen t ing t wo d i s t inc t a r ea s o f p roduc t ion ( Te rian 1 976 , 4 40 ) . T he re w e re a l so d i s t inc t ion s b e tween s ome or namen t t y pe s a nd c e ram ic s f ound i ne a s t a nd w es t D o len jska ( Te rian 1 974 ,4 6 ; J .D u la r 1 982 , 2 31-234 ; 2 38-240 ) . T h i s r e in fo r ced t h e a s sump t ion t h a t p o t te ry a nd o rnamen t s w e re p roduced a ta l o ca l l e ve l , w he rea s t h e p re s t ige ma te r ia l w a s r e g iona l o r

w i th t h e D o len jska g roup a nd t h e E s te g roup . T he S v . L uc i ja a nd N o t ran jska g roup s f o rmed t h e l i nk b e tween t h e D o len j ska a nd t h e E s te g roup s . T he e xchange c on tac t s o f t h e D o len jska g roup w e re c u r ta i led i nt h e l a te N egova p ha se . T h is may h ave b een d ue t oi n c rea s ing p re ssu re f r om L aT ene g roup s i nT ran sdanub ia , w h ich l im i ted a cce s t oe l i te

e ven s up ra— reg iona li nc ha rac te r .

ma te r ia l f r om t h e S zen te s—Vekerzug g roup a nd d i sr up ted t h e

I th a s b een s ugge s ted t h a t t h e l a rge mo r tua ry / se t t lemen t

s a l t a nd a mbe r t r ade i n t h e e a s te rn A lp s . T h is m ay l i e b eh ind t h e d i sappea rance o f e l i te b u r ia ls i n t h e D o len jska g roup i n t h i s p ha se , a nd u l t ima te ly i n t h e e nd o f t h e D o len jska g roup i t se lf ( s ee C hap te r5 ,s ec t ion 3 ) .

c omp lexe s w e re t h e s i te o f l a rge s ca le p roduc t ion o f c er ta in ma ter ia l (We l ls 1 985 , 7 7 ) . L a rge q uan t i t ies o fi r on w e re p robab ly p roduced a tt h e se c en t r es . I mpo r tan t ly t h e r e s eems t o h ave b een a n e x ten s ive s pec ia l is t g l ass b ead i n du s try . T hese a ppea red a s i mpo r t s i n T ran sdanub ia

2 : 3 C raf tP roduc t ion i nt he S ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion .

( Haeve rn ik 1 974 ,

T he h omogeneou s d i s t r ibu t ion o fm e ta l t y pe s i nt h e H a l ls ta t t Bp e r iod i nt h e R ue

a nd L jub l jana g roup s , a nd i n deed i n

6 1-65 ;

P a tek 1 982 ,

1 61-180 ) . T he

c hem ica l c ompo s i t ion o f g l a ss p roduced b efo re t h e s i x th c en tu ry B .C . a nd t h a t p roduced a f te r t h a t d a te d i f f e r s ( J . H ende r son , p e r s . c omm ) . H oweve r , t h e re a ppea r s t oh ave b een a s t anda rd r ange o f c o lou r a nd t ype o f g l a ss b ead i n

t h ec i r cum—Ad r ia t ic R eg ion a nd t h eH a l ls ta t t Bg roup s i nt h e n o r th—ea s ter n A lp s , T ran sdanub ia , n or th—we s t C roa t ia a nd S lavon ia ,s ugges t t h a tt h e p roduc t ion o f fm e ta lwo rk w a s o na

D o len jska o ve r a c on s ide rab le p e r iod o f t ime . U n for tuna te ly , w i thou tf u r the re xcava t ion i ti s i mpo ss ib le t o

l o ca l s ca le . T he a c tua l s i te s o fp roduc t ion a r e d i ff icu l t t o l o ca te d ue t ot h e l a ck o f s e t t lemen t e xcava t ion . H oweve r ,

e s t ima te t h e s ca le o f t h is i n du s t ry o r t od i scove rw he the r o r n o t i t w a s c on f ined t o as pec if ic c en t re . T he w ide

t h e g r ea t s im i la r i ty

d i s tr ibu t ion o f g la ss b ead s t h roughou t t h e r eg ion m ean s t h a t l i ke b ronze wo rk ing i tw a s p robab ly n o t l o ca l ised t o a

i no rnamen t t ype s i nt h e c eme ter ies o f

t h e L jub l jana a nd R ue g roup s c an b e t a ken t o i mp ly p roduc t ion a t al o ca l l e ve l . T he n a tu r e o f c on t ro l o ve r

s pec if ic c en t re , b u t p robab ly t ook p lace a t mo s t o f t h e l a rge mo r tua ry / se t t lemen tc omp lexe s .

p roduc t ion i s mo re d i f f icu l t t o a sce r ta in . P re s t ige a r tefac t s

1 07

CHAPTER 7 THE SOUTHERN EXTENS ION OF THE AMBER ROUTE . Two ma in a mb e r d i s tr ibu t ion n e two rk s , o pe ra t ing b e tween D o len jska a nd I t a ly , h ave b een e xam ined i n C hap te r 1 , s e c t ion 4 a nd C hap te r 6 , s ec t ion s 1 : 1 ,1 :4 , 2 : 2 a nd 2 : 3 . T he f i r s t o ft h e se w a s t h er ou te f r om D o len jska a c ro ss t h e J u l ian A lp s a nd t h e J u l ian K a r s t a nd i n to t h e P o p la in . T h i s m ay h ave b een t h e ma in s ou rce o f s upp ly o f a mbe r t o t h e E s te g roup a nd B o logna , t h e r ou te b e ing ma rked b y t h e d i s tr ibu t ion o f E s te s t y le ma ter ia l a round t h e H ead o f t h e A dr ia t ic a nd i nD o len jska , p a r t icu la r ly i nt h ep e r iod b e tween 7 50BC a nd 3 00BC . T he s econd r ou te r an f r om D o len jska a c ro ss No t ran jska i n to I s t r ia a nd t h ence a c ro s s t h e Ad r ia t ic s ea t o t h e mou th o f t h e r i ve r P o a nd t o P icenum i nE a s t— C en t ra l I t a ly . Ap ropor t ion o ft h e a mbe rf ound i nC en t ra l a nd N o r the rn I t a ly may h ave c ome b y t h is ma r i t ime r ou te , a nd c an b e t r aced t h rough t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f c er ta in a r tefac t t y pe s i nD o len jska , I s t r ia a nd P icenum , f o ri n s tance t h e t wo— l o oped b ow f i bu la ( Gab rovec 1 970 , 5 -65 ) , t h e T r i ike — D on ja D o l ina v a r ian t Maha i ra s wo rd ( Gu§ t in 1 g74b , 7 7-94 ) a nd o t he rS ou th E a s tA lp ine t ypes i nP icenum o ve rt h ep e r iod f r om 7 00BC t o3 00BC ( Lo l l in i 1 975 , 171535 ) .

H oweve r t h e re w a s at h i rd p o ss ib le a mbe r d i s t r ibu t ion n e two rk , w h ich o pe ra ted l a rge ly b e tween t h e C roa t ian D a lma t ian c oa s t a nd E a s t—Cen t ra l a nd S ou the rn I t a ly . Ma te r ia l ly t h is n e two rk h ad a ppa ren t ly l i t t le i mpac t o n t h e d eve lopmen t o f t h e L a te B ronze a nd E a r ly l i on A ge g roup s i nt h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion . T h is r ou te r an f r om B e la K ra j ina a c ro s s t h e V e l ika a nd Ma la K ape la moun ta in s a nd i n to t h e L ika i n te rmon tane v a l ley . F rom t h e re i tr an a c ro s s t h e V e leb i t m oun ta in s t o t h e R av rü K o ta r i p la in o n t h e D a lma t ian C oa s t a round Z ada r . A f u r the r p o ss ib le p a r t o f t h i s r ou te , f r om t h e h eadwa te r s o f t h e r i ve r Ko lpa ( Kupa ) t o t h e c oa s t a t R i jeka , w a s p robab ly l i nked t o t h e I s t r ian— P icenum r ou te . T he D a lma t ian C oa s tb e tween R i jeka a nd t h e r i ve r K rka , a nd t h e L ika v a l ley a nd t h e b a s in s o f t h e r i ve r s S ana a nd U na , w e re o ccup ied t h roughou t t h e p er iod f r om 1 000BC t o3 00BC b y t h e L ibumo— Japod ic g roup , w h ich w a s c l o se ly c onnec ted w i th P icenum a nd A pu l ia i n I t a ly ( A lexande r 1 962 , 1 23130 1 972 , 9 8-112 ; B a tov iC 1 976 , 1-93 ; S ' a ga 1 975 , 7 9-81 ) ( Map 1 8 ) . T he l i nk s b e tween t h e L ibu rno— Japod ic g roup a nd t h e P icene a nd A pu l ian g roup s

Map 1 8 . T he A d r ia t ic r eg ion ,s how ing c u l tu ra lg roup s ,r e g ion s a nd p r inc ip le t r ade r ou te s , m en t ioned i nC hap te r7 :1 .R avn i K o ta r ip enn in su la . 2 . Nor th D a lma t ian I s land s . 3 .L ika i n te rmon tane v a l ley . 4 . No t ran jska . 5 . Ga rgano p enn in su la . a .R ive r S ava .b .R ive rK o lpa ( Kupa ) .c .R ive rU na . d .R ive rS ana . e .R ive rK rka . f .R ive rN e re tva .g .R ive rP o .

1 08

T he S ou thern E x ten s ion o ft h e Ambe rR ou te w i l l b e d i scu ssed i n f ou r c h rono log ica l s ec t ion s , t h e L a te B ronze /Ea r ly I r on A ge I n te r face , t h e H a l ls ta t t Cp e r iod a nd t h e H a l l s ta t t D , L a Une A a nd L a nne B p e r iod s . T he i mp l ica t ion so ft h is s y s tem f o rt h e D o len jska g roup w i l l t h en b ed i scu s sed .

e xamp le s h ave b een f ound i nA pu l ia , a nd a tJ ab lanac i nt h e L ibu rno— Japod ic g roup , a nd i nt h e c eme te ry o f D obova o n— t h e r i ve r S ava i n S loven ia . A ga in t h e se t ypes h ave a c on s ide rab le c h rono log ica l s pan i n to t h e f o l low ing p er iod ( Ba tov ic 1 976 , 3 4-36 ,4 1 ;L o l l in i 1 976 , 1 20 , 1 21122 ) .

1T he L a te B ronze A ge .

T he L ibu rno— Japod ic g roup a l so h ad l i nk s w i th t h e Ha l ls ta t t B Un i f ie ld g roup s i n E a s t—Cen t ra l E u rope . T he w ide l a te ra l ly r i bbed b ron ze s h ee t a nn r ing men t ioned a bove w a s

T he a r ea o ft h eC roa t ian D a lma t ian C oa s t ,s ou th o fR i jeka t o t h e r i ve r N e re tva , a nd t h e i mmed ia te h i n te r land , h ad c l o se l i nk s i nt e rm s o f ma te r ia l c u l tu re w i th t h e A dr ia t ic C oa s to f I t a ly i n t h e 1 0 th , a nd e spec ia l ly , t h e 9 t h C en tu r ie s P C , a s ha rp c on t ra s t t o i t s p auc i ty o f c on tac t w i th t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion a t t h is t ime . Two ma jo r g roup s a r e o f i mpo r tan ce i nt h is c on tex t , t h eL ibur no— Japod ic g roup o n t h e c oa s t a nd i s lands b e tween R i jeka a nd t h e r i ve r K rka , i nt h e L ika v a l ley a nd i n t h e S ana a nd U na r i ve r v a l ley s i n

w ide ly d i s t r ibu ted i n t h is r eg ion . S pec tac le f i bu lae w i th f i gu re—o f—e igh t l o op s w e re c ommon i n b o th a r ea s ( Lo S ch iavo 1 970 , 5 00 ) . S pec if ic C en t ra l E u ropean f o rms o f s em i luna te r a zo r a l so a ppea red i nt h e 9 t h C en tu ry BC , t h e U race t ype , a l ong w i th I t a l ian f o rms (Webe r 1 982 , 4 5-56 ; B a tov ic 1 976 , 3 4 , 4 2 ) . T he p resence o f a mbe r a tt h is e a r ly d a te a tV r s i a nd P r iv laka n ea r N in i nt h e L ibur no— Japod ic g roup , a s w e l l a s i nC en tra l a nd S ou ther n I t a ly , i sa l so o f

Nor thwe s te rn B osn ia , a nd t h e D a lma t ian g roup o n t h e c oa s t a nd h i n t e r land b e tween t h er i ve r sK rka a nd N e re tva ( Map 8 ) .

p r ime i mpo r tance f o r p rov ing t h e e a r ly e x is tence o f a

A r tefac t t ypes o f L ibu rno— Japod ic o r ig in w e re w ide ly d i s tr ibu t ed i n I t a ly i n t h e 1 0 th C en tu ry BC . T he mo s t c ommon f o rm s i n c lude t h e o ne— looped b ow f i bu la w i th t wo

2 T he L a te B ronze A ge /Ear ly I ron A ge I n terface .

s ou the rn e x ten s ion o ft h e Ambe rR ou te .

T he p er iod u nde r d i scu s s ion m a rk s t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e I r on A ge i nt h e C i rcum—Ad r ia t ic R eg ion d u r ing t h e 8 t h C en tu ry BC , a l though i r on—u s ing p robab ly s t a r ted i nt h e p receed ing c en tu ry i n t h e I t a l ian P enn in su la . T he 8 t h C en tu ry BC

t r an sve r se s t ops a nd g eome t r ic i n c i sed d eco ra t ion o n t h e b ow , a sw e l la s c onvex c ro ss— sec t ioned b ronze a r rn r ing s a nd w ide l a te ra l ly r i bbed b ronze s hee t a rm r ing s , a l l o f w h ich c on t inued i n u se u p t o t h e e nd o f t h e B ronze A ge . G ood e xamp le s o f t h ese o ccu r i nt h e V r s i c eme te ry o n t h e R avn i k o ta r i p enn in su la , o n t h e Nor th D a lma t ian I s land s a nd i nt h e c eme te r ie s o f Kompo l je a nd P rozo r i n t h e L ika . T hese a r tefac t s a r e a l so f ound i n I t a ly , s ou th o f t h e P o , w i th e xamp le sf r om t h eL imone h oa rd a nd F lo rence i nE t ru r ia , t h e c eme tery o fP iane l lo i nP icenum , t h e V ie s te c eme te ry o nt h e G a rgano p enn in su la i n Apu l ia , a sf a rn o r th a s Man tua a nd a s f a r s ou th a s P an ta l ica i nS ic i ly . T he se f o rms d id n o t o ccu r

c o r respond s t o p ha se I i nP icenum , No t ran jska p ha ses I l a a nd I l b a nd L jub l jana p ha se I a a nd p ha se I l b ( Lo l l in i 1 976 , 1 22-126 ; C hap te r 6 , s e c t ion s 1 : 1b a nd 1 : 4b ) . T he d eve lopmen t o f t h e Ad r ia t ic " Ko ine" , t h a t i s t h e w ide d i s t r ibu t ion o f c ommon c u l tu ra l e l emen t s a nd i d ea s a round t h e H ead o ft h e A d r ia t ic i nt h e L a te B ronze a nd E a r ly I r on A ge s , h a s a l ready b een d ea l t w i th i nC hap te r 6( s ee a bove ) . H oweve r t h is " Ko ine " w a s a t i t s s t ronges t i n t h is a nd t h e f o l low ing p er iod , e x tend ing f r om A pu l ia a nd P icenum t o No r thea s ter n I t a ly , a round t h e H ead o f t h e A dr ia t ic t o t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion a nd s ou th t ot h e r i ve r N ere tva . I t s hou ld a l so b en o ted t h a t t h e f o re ign e l emen t s i nt h e Apu l ian a nd Da lma t ian g roup s d i f f e red s omewha t f r om t h o se i n g roup s a round t h eH ead o ft h e Ad r ia t ic ,b e ing c h ie f ly r e la ted

a round t h e H ead o ft h e Ad r ia t ic , a pa r t f r om a n a n o u t l ie r a t S ‘ koc jan i nS loven ia ( Ba tov iC 1 976 ,2 1-25 ) . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e D a lma t ian c oun te rpa r t o f t h e a bove f i bu la , t h eG o l in jevo t y pe f i bu la ,d i f f e r sc on s ide rab ly . I tw a s u ncommon i n I t a ly , o ccu r r ing o n o n ly t wo s i tes , o ne i n C a labr ia a nd t h e o t he r i nS ic i ly . I tw a s c oncen t ra ted i nt h e Da lma t ian a nd G la s inac g roup s , s ou th o ft h e r i ve r S ava , b u t ad i s t in c t g roup o fo u t l ie r s h ave b een l o ca ted i n Macedon ia a nd t h eV a rda rr i ve rv a l ley i nT h race ( Ba tov iC 1 976 , 2 1 ,2 3-

t ot h e L ibu rno— Japod ic a nd P ic ene m a te r ia l i nt h is p ha se . I t i st h e refo re a ppa ren t t h a t ac omp lex s e r ies o f i n te rac t ion s w e re t ak ing p lace , t h a t c anno t b e a s c r ibed t o as i ng le c au sa l m echan ism . T he o b jec t t h en i st o b r ief ly r e s ta te t h e l i nk s b e tween t h e S ou th a nd No r th Ad r ia t ic C oa s t s a nd t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion , a nd t o e xam ine t h ose b e tween E a s t— C en t ra l a nd S ou the rn I t a ly a nd a nd t h e C roa t ian a nd

2 4 ) . A n e xamp le o f s ome i mpo r tan ce i sa l so k nown i nt h e L jub l jana p ha se h ac eme tery o fO s t roin ik n ea r Mok ronog i n D o len jska ( Gab rovec 1 973 , 3 70 , T . 1 :1-3 ) . A l l t h e a bove t ype s c on t inued i n u se i n to t h e 9 t h a nd p o ss ib ly t h e 8 t h

D a lma t ian C oa s t s .

C en tu r ie s BC .

An umbe r o fe l emen t s o ccu r red i nt h e L ibu rno— Japod ic a nd

T he 9 t hC en tu ry BC w a s c ha rac te r i sed b y t h e a ppea rence o f

P icene g roup s t h a tw e re a l so f ound i n No r thea s ter nI t a ly , t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion a nd I s tr ia . T he r ange o f c on ica l , m u sh room a nd r o l l—headed d re ss p in s c ommon i n t h e

t h e P i cene a nd Apu l ian g roup s o n t h e I t a l ian Ad r ia t ic C oa s t ( Lo l l in i 1 976 , 1 20 ) . H oweve rt h e c ha rac te r i s t ic s e rpen t ifo rm

L jub l jana g roup , t h e E s te g roup , B o logna , t h e No t ran jska g roup a nd i n I s t r ia , w e re p re sen t i n t h e L ibur no— Japod ic c eme te r ie s o f K ompo l je , G romaaca , N in , P rozo r , Z ada r ,

f i bu la w i th t wo l ooped b ow a nd f oo t s p i ra l , a l so k nown a s t h e I t a lo—Ad r ia t ic t y pe f i bu la , a nd c onf ined t ot h e L ibu rno—

K laCen ica , V la sk op o l je a nd I s lam g r Ck i , a nd i nt h ec eme te ry o f Nov i la ra— Mo r la ron i i nP icenum . O the r a r tefac t s f ound i n b o th o ft h e se g roup s w e re t h e l e a fb ow f i bu la a nd t h e s imp le

J apod ic g roup o nt h e E a s t A d r ia t ic C oa s t , w a s a ga in w ide ly d i s t r ibu ted i n P e r n i in su la I t a ly . E xamp les w e re f ound a t A ncona a nd A sco l i P iceno i nP icenum , A l tamu ra , L ave l lo a nd S a lap ia i n Apu l ia , S a la C on s i l ina i nL ucan ia , V u lc i i n E t ru r ia a nd a t Bo logna . T he o ne— looped b ow f i bu la w i th f oo t

o ne l o oped—bow f i bu la . T he t wo— looped b ow f i bu la w as n o t f ound i nt h e L ibu rno— Japod ic , P icene o r Apu l ian g roup s ( s ee C hap te r 6a bove ) . T he p re sence o f a n tennae—h i l ted b ronze

s p i ra l w a s l a rge ly c onf ined t ot h e w es ter nc oa s t o fI t a ly , b u t 1 09

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia s wo rd s i n t h e H a r tne rm iche lkoge l Ia t K le in—K le in , t h e A n tennae—h i l ted S wo rd G rave a t P odzeme l j , b o th i n t h e S ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion , i nB o logna—S .V i ta le g r ave 7 76 i n N o r the rn I t a ly , A ncona g r ave 9 1 i nP i cenum a nd i ng r ave 9 0 a t N in i n t h e R avn i K o ta r i p enn in su la , a r e p a r t icu la r ly i n te re s t ing i n t h i s c on tex t a s t h ey w e r e p r e s t ige a r te fac t s ( Gab rovec 1 973 , 3 88-385 ; B a tov ic 1 976 , 6 8-69 ; L o l l in i 1 976 , 1 25 ) . T he r e w e r e f a r c l o se r c onnec t ion s b e tween t h e L ibu rno— J apod ic a nd D a lma t ian g roup s a nd P i cenum a nd A pu l ia .T h i s c an b e i lu s t ra ted b y t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e c ha ra c t e r i s t ic b r onze s pec tac le f i bu la w i th b ronze b a rr e in fo r cemen t , w h ich w a s c oncen t ra ted , a nd p robab ly o r ig ina ted , i n t h e R avn i K o ta r i p enn in su la a nd t h e a r ea s ou th t ot h er i ve rN e r e tva . I t f r equen t ly o ccu r r ed i nP i cene c eme te r ie s s u ch a s N ov i la ra— Mo r la ron i a nd A sco l iP ic eno , a nd i nA pu l ian , L ucan ian a nd C a lab r ian c eme te r ie s s u ch a s Mon te S a raceno ,O rdona , S a la C on s i l ina a nd T on eK o rd i l lo . T h i st y pe w a si nu se i nt h e7 t h C en tu ry BC , b u t f i r s t a pp ea r ed i n t h e l a te 9 t h a nd 8 t h C en tu r ie s BC ( Ba tov iC 1 976 , 3 9-4 1 ) . O the r a r tef a c t s c ommon t ot h e se r e g ion s w e re t h e a mbe r—bowed f i bu la , t h e s imp le s e rpen t i fo rm f i bu la w i th o ne l o op o n t h e b ow , t h e b ron ze c ha in p ec to ra l a nd a r a nge o f a mbe r p endan t s . C e ram ic v e sse l f o rm s a l so e xh ib i ted s ome i n te r— r eg iona l s im i la r i ty ( Ba tov iC 1 976 , 4 4 , 4 7-50 , 5 7 ; L o l l in i 1 976 , 1 221 26 ) . H oweve r c on ta c t s e em s t o h ave e x tended b eyond t h e e xchange o f f i n i shed a r t ef ac t s a nd p r e sumab ly r aw m a te r ia l s . T he re w e r e s im i la r i t ie s i n t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f f o r t i f ied s e t t lemen t s o n t h e D a lma t ian C oa s t a nd i nA pu l ia , b u t t h e g r ea te s t c ong ruence c an b e s e en i n b u r ia l r i te . C rouched i n huma t ion a nd c h i ld i n huma t ion i nj a r s h ave b een f o und a tN in ,t h eG udn ja c ave o nt h eP e l jega cp enn in su la a nd i n t h e G a j tan a r ea o f A lban ia , a s w e l l a s a t N ov i la ra— Mo r la ron i i nP i cenum a nd a tS a lap ia i nD aun ia ( No r the rn A pu l ia ) . ' S ippenhüge l ' b a r row s , w h ich c h ief ly o c cu r r ed i n A lban ia ,t h eG la s inac g roup a nd l a te ri nt h eD o len jska g r oup , w e re a l so k nown a tt h ec eme t e ry o fA rp i i nA pu l ia ( Ba tov i6 1 975 , 3 40-347 ) . T he e v iden ce w ou ld a l low i tt ob e a r gued t h a t a c tua l m ig ra t ion m ay h ave t a ken p l a ce f r om t h e E a s t A d r ia t ic C oa s t i n to E a s t—Cen t ra l a nd S ou thea s ter n I t a ly , p robab ly d u r ing t h e p r eceed ing c en tu r ie s , b u t r e la t ion s r ema ined r e la t ive ly c l o se , r e in fo rced b yt h e a mbe rt r ade a nd t h e e xchange i n m e ta l s f r om t h e i n te r io r o f t h e B a lkan P enn in su la v i at h eN e r e tva r i ve rv a l ley . 3 T he H a l l s ta t t CP er iod . T h i sp e r iod c o r r e spond s t ot h ee a r l ie s tp a r to ft h e E a r ly I r on A ge f r om 7 00BC t o 6 00BC , m id E s te I L l a te E s te I a nd E s te i i i i i i nN o r thea s ter n I t a ly . P odzeme l j 2 ,S t ia ia 1a nd S t iCna 2 i n D o len jska , N o t ran jska p ha se I I , p ha se I I i n I s t r ia ,p ha se I o ft h eL ibur no— Japod ic g roup a nd p ha se I Ii n P i cenum ( F igu r e 1 ) . C on tac t b e tween t h e L ibu rno— Japod ic g roup a nd P icenum a nd A pu l ia c on t inued a nd i n c r ea sed . T he c l o se p a ra l le l s i n b u r ia l p rac t ic e , m en t ioned i n s e c t ion 1 , w e r e ma in ta ined t h roughou t t h i s p e r iod . E qua l ly , t h e c ha ra c te r is t ic s pec tac le f i bu la w i th b ronze b a rr e in fo r cemen t r ema ined i n u se i n t h e s ame r e g ion s a s b e fo r e . C on tac t s

10

i n c r ea sed w i th t h e S ou th E a s t A lp in e R eg ion a nd No r th ea s ter nI t a ly , a nd w i l lb er e—exam ined h e r et oi lu s t ra te t h e d eve lopmen t o f m u l t ip le e xchange n e two rk s i n t h e e a r l ie s tp a r to ft h e E a r ly l i on A ge , a l though t h e se h ave b een d ea l t w i th t o s ome e x ten t i nC hap te r 6 , s e c t ion s 1 : 1c a nd 1 : 4c . P ic enum a nd t h eE a s t Ad r ia t ic C oa s tf r om R i jeka t ot h er i ve r K rka , a nd t h e L ika v a l ley , w e r e c l o se i nt e rm s o f m a t e r ia l c u l tu r e . Ar a ng eo ff i bu la t y p e s w e re c ommon t ob o th a r ea s , p a r t icu la r ly f i bu lae w i th a mbe r b ead b ow s a nd f i bu lae w i th a mbe r o r b one d i sc b ow s . T he se t ype s a l so h ad a m o re g ene ra l d i s t r ibu t ion i nE t ru r ia , B o log na , E s t e a nd Do len j ska ( Ba tov ic 1 976 , 4 7-48 ; L o l l in i 1 976 , 1 27-132 ; V . S t a r e 1 978 , 6 4-84 ) . S im i la r ly s e rpen t i for rn f i bu la e w i th a n tennae o rw i th e i gh t , f o u r o rt wo k nob s o n t h e b ow , a s w e l l a st wo a nd t h ree k nob b ow f i bu lae w e re c on tempo ra ry i n t h e se r e g ion s ( Lo l l in i 1 976 , 1 27132 ) . A v a r ie ty o f f o rm s o f a mbe r p endan t s , n ame ly t h e t h o rned ' o r ' O ran s ' a nd r e c tangu la r s haped f o rm s , r ema ined p opu la r i r P icenum , A pu l ia a nd o n t h e E a s t A d r ia t ic C oa s t . H oweve r P icenum w a s a l so s pec i f ica l ly l i nked t h rough a v a r ie ty o f p r e s t ige a r te fac t s t ot h e D o len jska g roup i nt h e 7 t hC en tu ry BC . T h e T r i ike—Don ja D o l ina v a r ian ti r on Maha i ra s wo rd , f ound a t D raga tu g , D o len je V rhpo l je a nd V in ica i nD o len jska a nd B e la K ra j ina , i n t h e T r i ike h oa rd i n N o t ran jska , a l so o ccu r red i nt h e N ov i la ra c eme te ry i nP i cenum . C ompo s i t e b ronze h e lme t s , w h ich r ea ched t h e i rf u l ly d eve lop ed f o rm i n D o len jska , h ave b een f ound i nP i cenum , a nd a s pec if ica l ly P i cene f o rm i sk nown f r om t h e P icug i c eme t e ry i n I s t r ia ( Chap te r 6 , s e c t ion 1 :l c ; M lad in 1 974 , 3 5158 ) . C rou ched i n huma t ion sa nd s t one—ke rbed b a r row sc on t inue t op o in tt oa mo r eg ene ra l i n f luen ce f r om t h eE a s t Ad r ia t i cC oa s t ( Lo l l in i 1 976 , 1 27132 ) .H oweve ro n eo ft h e mo s to bv iou se xamp le s o f t h e m a in tenance o f t h e e xchange n e two rk s i s b e s t c on s ide r ed b e low i nt h ec on tex to f Apu l ia . B ron ze s pec ta c le f i bu lae w i th b ron ze b a r r e in fo rc emen t r ema ined i nu se i nA pu l ia a nd C a lab r ia ,a nd a mbe rb ead b ow f i bu lae o c cu r r ed s po rad ica l ly a t Mon te S a ra ceno i nA pu l ia a nd a t C apua i n C ampan ia ( Ba tov i6 1 976 , 4 7-485 ) . H oweve r t h e m o s t s pec ta cu la r e v iden ce f o r c on tac t i st h e w ide sp r ead d i s t r ibu t ion o f A pu l ian P ro to—geome t r ic a nd G eome t r ic C e ram ic s i n P i cenum , L ib um ia , I s t r ia a nd D o len jska .T he e a r l ie rB o rgo N uovo P ro to—geome t r ic Wa r e s m ay h ave b een i n f luenced b y t h e p a in t ed c e ram ic s o f t h e D evo l i g roup a nd o ft h e We s t Ma cedon ian g roup , a nd w e r e l im i ted t o8 t hC en tu ry BC g r ave s a tN e sa c t ium a nd P icug ii n I s t r ia . T he l a te rN o r th A pu l ian o rD aun ian G eome t r ic Wa r e s h ad t h ree ma in s t y l i s t ic t r ad i t ion s . T he se w e re t h e C ano sa , R uvo a nd T ran s—Au f id iu s s t y le s , a l l o fw h i ch w e re p r e sen t a s i mpo r t s o n t h e D a lma t ian a nd I s t r ian C oa s t s . C ano sa Wa r eh a sb een f o und a tN e sac t ium i nI s t r ia a nd a t Nov i la ra— S e rv ic i i nP i cenum , w h i l s t T ran s—Auf id iu s Wa re h a s b een f ound a tP i cug i i nI s t r ia . T h e m a jo r i ty o f t h e e xamp le s o f A pu l ian p o t te ry i n f o re ign c on tex t s w e r e R uvo Wa r e . U n fo r t une te ly t h e r e i s s ome d i spu te a s t o w he the r t h i s p o t te ry w a s a c tua l ly m ade i nD aun ia . Q uan t i t ie s h ave b een f ound a tN ov i la ra a nd C up rama r i t t ima i nP i cenum , a nd a t N e sa c t ium i nI s t r ia . I nf a c t m o s t o f t h e e xamp le s i nI s t r ia , L ibu rn ia , P i cenum a nd D o len jska a r e e i th e r R uvo Wa r e o r

T he S ou the rn E x t en s ion o ft h e Ambe rR ou te l o ca l c op ie s ( Ba tov iC 1 975 , 3 40347 ; 1 976 , 1-93 ; G logov iC 1 979 , 5 7-84 ; K uCa r 1 979 , 8 5-152 ) . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h is p o t te ry w a s l a rg e ly c onfmed t ot h eR avn i K o ta r ip en in su la , t h e N o r th D a lma t ian I s land s a nd I s t r ia , o n t h eE a s tA d r ia t ic l i t to ra l . Af u r the rg r oup o ccu r r ed a tR i jeka a nd n o r th t o Sm ihe l a nd T rnovo i nN o t ran j ska . T he re w a s a c on s ide rab le c oncen t ra t ion i nD o len jska a nd B e la K ra j ina , a l though t h i s w a s m uch s ma l le r t h an t h a t o n t h e L ibu rn ian C oa s t .T h e se c e ram ic sw e re a b sen tf r om t h eL ika v a l ley , a nd t h e re w a so n ly as i ng le o u t l ie ri nt h er e s to ft h eJ apod ic a r ea , i nt h e d i nga rc eme te ry o nt h e r i ve rU na ( Ba tov iC 1 976 , 4 54 6 ) . A pu l ia i t se lf p rov ide s l i t t le e v iden ce o fc on tac tw i th t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion , t h e o n ly c a se b e ing t h e p r e sen ce o f as em i luna te f i bu la i nt h e c eme te ry a tA n c i r ia n ea r B ar i . T h i s t yp e w a s p ar t icu la r ly c ommon i nt h e S v . L uc i ja a nd No t ran jska g r oup s( De Ma r in i sa nd Gann 1 975 ,2 92 ) . A n umb e r o f e xchange n e two rk s c an b e t r aced i nt h e 7 t h C en tury BC . F i r s t ly t h e re w a s t h e r o u te f r om P ic enum t o I s t r ia a nd o ve r land v i a No t ran jska t oD o len jska . S econd ly t h e re w e re t h e m ar i t ime r ou te s b e tween t h e L ibu rn ian C oa s t a nd A pu l ia a nd P ic enum . H oweve r am a jo r l i nk i n t h e e xchange n e two rk b e tween D o len jska a nd t h e L ibu r n ian C oa s tw a s t h e L ika v a l ley . T he m a jo r i ty o fN o r ther nI t a l ian a nd D o len j ska t ype f i bu lae , s u ch a s t wo— a nd t h r ee—k nob b ow f i bu la e , b oa t f i bu lae a nd s e rpen t ifo rm f i bu lae w i th a n tennae , h ave b een f o und i nc eme te r ie s l i ke K ompo l je a nd P rozo r( Lo S ch iavo 1 970 , 4 35-44 1 ) . Ambe r w a s c ommon i n t h i sr eg ion , a nd L ika v a l ley t y pe a r te fa c t sh ave b een f o und i n c eme te r ie s o f t h e N o t ran jska g r oup , p a r t icu la r ly l a rge s pec tac le f i bu lae w i th f i gu re—o f—e igh t l o op s a nd mu l t iheaded p i n s w i th a ng led s ha f t s a t K r iina g o ra a nd a nd c ha in p ec to ra l s a tg ko c jan ( Gu g t in 1 973 , 4 72— i 74 , 4 77 , 4 95-496 , 4 99 , 5 00 , 5 02 ) . T hu s o ve r land r ou te s f r om D o len jska , c on ce rned p r ima r i ly w i th t h e e xchange o f a mbe r , r a n t ot h e I s t r ian C oa s t , a c ro s s N o t ran jska t oR i jeka a nd t h e N o r th Da lma t ian I s land s , a nd v i a t h e L ika v a l ley t o t h e R avn i K o ta r i p enn in su la , l i nk ing u p w i th t h e m a r i t ime r ou te sm en t ioned a bove ( Map 1 8 ) . 4 T he H a l l s ta t tD ,L aT ene A a nd L aT ene BP er iod s . T he p e r iod f r om t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e 6 t h C en tu ry BC t ot h e e nd o ft h e 4 t h C en tu ry BC w a s c ha rac te r i sed b y t h e d ec l ine o f t h e m a r i t ime e xchange n e two rk s b e tween t h e E a s t Ad r ia t ic l i t to ra l a nd P i cenum a nd A pu l ia , as ha rp c on t ra s tt o t h e f l o r e scence o ft h eD o len jska g r oup a nd t h ei n c r ea se o fi t s i n te rna t iona l c on tac t s ( Chap te r 6 ,s e c t ion s 1 : 1d , 1 : 2d , 1 : 3d , 1 : 4d ) . T h i s p e r iod c o r r e spond s t ot h e S e rp en t ifo rm , C e r to sa a nd N egova p ha se s i nD o len jska , N o t ran jska p ha se s I V t o V I , E s te p ha se I I , p ha se s I V t oVi nP i cenum a nd L ibu rno— J apod i cp ha se I I( F igu re 1 ) .

o n t h e R avn i K o ta r i p enn in su la , a nd a t G r ude , S t on a nd L ok rum i nt h e D a lma t ian g roup . T h i s f i bu la f o rm w a s a l so f o und i nI t a ly , a tN umana , B e lmon te a nd G ro t tazzo l ina i n P i cenum ,C apua i nC ampan ia ,R oc , canova a nd S a la C on s i l ina i n L uca rüa a nd a t A l tamu ra , Mon te scag l io so a nd O r ia i n A pu l ia . T he We s t B a lkan P ro to—La Tne f i bu la h ad a s im i la r d i s t r ibu t ion i nI t a ly ( Ba tov iC 1 976 , 5 1-52 , 6 9-70 ) . Ambe rb ead b ow f i bu lae a nd t h ev a r iou s t y pe s o fa mbe ra nd b r on ze p endan t s , m en t ioned i nt h e l a s t s e c t ion , c on t inued i n u se o n b o th s i de s o f t h e Ad r ia t ic u p t o t h e e nd o f t h e 5 t h C en tu ry BC . S po rad ic c on tac t s w e r e ma in ta ined i nt h e 4 t h C en tu ry BC , w i th t h e o cca s iona l o c cu r r ence o fA pu l ian R ed F igu re Wa r e a nd s e rpen t—head f oo ted b ow f i bu lae i nI s t r ia a nd o n t h e L ibu rn ian C oa s t b e tween R i jeka a nd t h e r i ve r K rka ( Ba tov iC 1 976 ,5 9-60 ) . As im i la rp a t ter ni se v iden t i nt h e b u r ia l p rac t ice s c u r r en t i n P i cenum a nd A pu l ia , t h e t wo r e g ion s f o rme r ly m o s t c l o se ly l i nked w i th t h e E a s t Ad r ia t ic C oa s t . I n P ic enum b u r ia l i n s t one—k e rbed b a r row s c on t inued a tC ampova lano u n t i l t h e e nd o f t h e 6 t h C en tu ry BC ( Lo l l in i 1 976 , 1 33143 ) . C rouched i n huma t ion i n s t one—ke rbed b a r row s a nd c h i ld b u r ia l i nj a r s r ema ined t h e n o rm i nD au rüa ( No r th A pu l ia ) w e l l i n to t h e 6 t h C en tu ry BC , a f te r w h ich t ime I t a l ic b u r ia l p ra c t ice s b ecame c ommon ( Ba tov i6 1 975 , 3 40-347 ) . T he s t one g r ave s t e le o f P icenum , A b ruzz i—Mo l i se a nd A pu l ia , a l lo ft h e s ame d a te , a r er e la ted t ot h o se o ft h eI s t r ian g roup . R e la ted t o t h e se f i gu ra l r e p re sen ta t ion s w e r e as e r ie s o f b ronze f i gu r ine s i nt h es ame a r ea s , a nd t h eJ apod ic d eco ra ted s t one u r n si nt h eL ika v a l ley ( Ba tov i6 1 976 ,7 3 ,7 8 ,8 0 ) . I n t h e 5 t h C en tu ry BC t h e re w a s i n c rea s ing E t ru scan a nd C en t ra l I t a l ian i n f luen ce i n P i cenum , a s s e en i n b u r ia l p rac t ice s a nd a r t efac t t y p e s i nt h e P i cene p ha se s I Vb a nd V . L ink s c on t inued t oe x i s t w i th E s t e , B o logna a nd t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion , s ugge s t ing t h a t t h e e xchange n e two rk s a r ound t h e H ead o f t h e A d r ia t ic c on t inued t ob e i mpo r tan t . I n c r ea sed c on tac t w i th Magna G raec ia , t h a t i s t h e G r eek c o lon ie s i nS ou the rn I t a ly f ounded i nt h e 6 t h C en tu ry BC , s ugge s t s t h a t t h e m a r i t ime e xchange r ou te s i nt h e S ou the rn A d r ia t ic h ad b een t os ome e x ten td i s rup ted a nd t a ken o ve rb y t h e c omp e t ing G reek c o lon ie s i nt h e A d r ia t ic ( Lo l l in i 1 976 , 1 43-151) . T he Umb ro—Sabe l l ian e xpan s ion i nC en t ra l a nd S ou th er nI t a ly a tt h e s ame t ime m ay a l so h ave r e su l ted i nt h e d i s rup t ion a nd r eo r ien ta t ion o f e xchange n e two rk s i nI t a ly t h a t i n vo lved P i cenum a nd A pu l ia ( Ba tov iC 1 976 , 5 7-58 , 9 0-91 ) .T he L a Tne C e xpan s ion i n No r ther nI t a ly i nt h e4 t h C en tu ry BC h ad as im i la re f f ec t o ng roup s a r ound t h e H ead o f t h e A dr ia t ic ( Chap te r 5 , s e c t ion s 3 : 1 , 3 : 2 ; C hap te r 6 , s e c t ion s 1 : 1d , 1 : 4d ) . C onc lu s ion .

T he 6 t h C en tu ry BC w a s s t i l l ap e r iod o fr e la t ive ly i n ten se c on ta c t . C e r to sa f i bu lae w e r e i n t rodu ced i n to t h e L ibu rno— J apod ic g r oup f r om D o len jska , a nd al o ca l s e r ie s d eve loped , i n i t ia l ly i n t h e L ika v a l ley . I n deed t h e C e r to sa f i bu la c on t inued i n u se u n t i l t h e R oman c onque s t o f t h e a r ea ( Te ak—G r eg l 1 981 , 2 5-48 ) . T he s o— ca l led We s t B a lkan C e r to sa f i bu la , al o ca l v a r ian t , w a s c ommon a tK ompo l je , P rozo ra nd V la gko p o l je i nt h eL ika v a l ley , a t NM a nd Z a ton

T he i n i t ia l d eve lopmen t o f t h e t r an s—Ad r ia t ic c on ta c t s b e tween t h eL ibu rno— Japod ic g r oup a nd P icenum a nd A pu l ia m ay h ave a r i sen t h rough a c tua lp opu la t ion m ig ra t ion t oI t a ly d u r ing t h e L a te B ronze A ge . T h i s i st h e t r ad i t iona l v i ew s uppo r ted b y c l a s s ica l s ou r ce s a nd b y t h e c l o se s im i la r i ty i n m a te r ia l c u l tu re o n b o th s i de s o f t h e A d r ia t ic ( A lexande r 1 972 , o p .c i t . , B a tov iC 1 976 , 1-935 ) . A c ommon e t hn ic o r ig in w ou ld i n deed h ave f a c i l i ta t ed e xchange l a te r i nt h e

11

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia E a r ly I r on A ge . I ts hou ld b e s t re ssed h oweve r t h a t t h e e x ten t o fm ig ra t ion c anno tb er ead i ly a scer ta ined , a s l i t t le i sk nown

e xchange n e two rk s c once rned w i th a n umbe r o f d i f f e ren t m a te r ia l s , s u ch a s a mbe r , m e ta ls a nd s a l t . Ambe r , w h ich

o f t h e a c tua l l a nguages o f t h e g roups c oncer n ed . I ndeed c ommon b u r ia lp rac t ice a nd a r tefac t t ype sn eed n o tr ep re sen t m ig ran t p opu la t ion s , w i tness t h e U rn f ie ld e xpan s ion i nL a te B ronze Age E u rope . I ti st h e refo re p robab le t h a t aT ran s—

c ame f r om t h eD o len jska g roup t ot h eL ika v a l ley a nd t h ence t ot h e c oa s t , w a s s h ipped t oP icenum a nd A pu l ia . Ar ange o f p r e s t ige ma te r ia l s , w h ich i n c luded t h e A pu l ian G eome tr ic c e ram ic s , w e r e e xchanged i n r e tu rn . I t w a s h oweve r a c omp lex s y s tem , i n w h ich P icenum h ad d i rec t l i nk s w i th I s t r ia a nd D o len jska , a nd t h e m e ta ls o f t h e B a lkan i n t e r io r

Ad r ia t ic e xchange n e two rk e x is ted i nt h e L a te B ronze A ge , w h ich c omp lemen ted a nd i n te r li nked w i th t h e o ne a r ound t h e h ead o ft h e Ad r ia t ic . T he re wa s a nu p su rge i ne xchange a c t iv i ty f r om t h e9 t ht o6 t h C en tu r ies BC . T he f o rma t ion o ft h e Ad r ia t ic " Ko ine " , w h ich a l so i n c luded t h e L ibumo—Japod ic g roup a nd P icenum , s hou ld b e s een a s c on s i s t ing o f as e r ies o f i n te r lock ing

12

w e re e xchanged , v i a t h e N e re tva v a l ley , w i th t h e I t a l ian P enn in su la . T he a ppa ren t d ec l ine i n t h i s e xchange s y s tem a f te r t h e 6 t h C en tu ry BC w a s p erhap s d ue t o i n c rea s ing G r eek i n vo lvemen t i nt h i s t r ade , l ead ing t ot h e f ounda t ion o f t h e G reek c o lon ie s i n t h e S ou ther n Ad r ia t ic a r ea t o g a in— a cces st ot h eN e re tva v a l ley m e ta l t r ade .

CHAPTER 8 THE I CONOGRAPHY OF S ITULA ART

T he t e rm ' S i tu la A r t ' i sa pp l ied t o t h e a r t s t y le o f f i gu ra l f r ieze s o n b r onze v e s se l s , p l aque s a nd b e l t p l a te s f o und i n N o r thea s t er nI t a ly , t h e S ou th E a s t a nd E a s t A lp ine R eg ion s b e tween 6 00BC a nd 4 00BC , o r l a t e r . T he se v e sse l s w e re f o und c h ie f ly i n e l i te g r ave s , a nd a s s u ch a r e o f s ome i mpo r tan ce f o r t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f E a r ly I r on A ge s oc ia l s t ruc tu re i nt h e a bove a r ea s ,b ecau se t h ef i gu ra l f r ieze s s how s c ene s o f d r ink ing , a t h le t ic f e s t iva l s a nd o t he r p u r su i t s , w h ich h ave c ommon ly b een i n te rp re ted a sr e p re sen t ing e l i te l i f e . I ti sw i th t h e i c onog raphy o ft h i s a r t t h a t t h e f o l low ing s e c t ion i sc h ief ly c onc er n ed . I tw a s r ema rkab ly c on s i s ten t o ve rs pa ce a nd t ime ; t h u s ' S i t u la A r t ' f o rm s au se fu l a d jun c t t ot h e i n te rp r e ta t ion o f h i e ra r chy a nd c omp e t i t ion f r om t h e m o r tua r y d a ta . B e fo re t h e i c onog raphy a nd i t s v a r iou s i n te rp re ta t ion sa r ed i scu s sed ,i ti sa pp rop r ia te t oc on s ide rt h e c h rono log ica l a nd s pa t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o f ' S i tu la A r t ' i n g r ea te rd e ta i l . 1T he C hrono logy a nd D is tr ibu t ion o f' S i tu la A r t ' . T he e a r l ie s t k nown e xamp le o f ' S i tu la A r t ' i st h e s e r ie s o f e mbo s sed , i n c i sed a nd d o t d eco ra t ed f i gu ra l f r ieze s o n t h e b ron ze s i tu la f r om g r ave 1 26 a tE s t e—Benvenu t i , w h ich c an b ed a ted t ot h el a te 7 t ho re a r ly 6 t hC en tu r ie s BC ( Lucke a nd F r ey 1 962 , 6 2-66 ; F rey 1 969 , 1 819 ) . C on tempo ra ry w i th t h i s o rs l igh t ly e a r l ie r a r e t h e b ronz e c i s tae a nd s i tu lae w i th r a i sed d o t f i gu ra l d eco ra t ion f r om S e s to C a lende i n t h e G o la sec ca g r oup a nd K le in—K le in i nt h e W ie s—Ma r t i janec g roup ( F r ey 1 969 , 4 7-52 , 6 8-71 ) . T he a r t s t y le i sd i f f e r en t b u t t h e i c onog raphy i sr e la ted t ot h a to ft h e B envenu t i S i tu la ( A . E ibn e r 1 981 , 2 82 ) . T he s e cond c h rono log ica l a nd i c onog raph ic g roup o f ' S i tu la A r t ' i s w ide ly d i s t r ibu ted , c omp r i s ing t h e C is ta f r om Mon teb e l luna i nt h e E s te g r oup , t h e C is ta f r om S anzeno i nt h e A d ig e v a l ley , t h e S i tu la f r om We lze la ch i nt h e E a s t T y ro l , t h e S i tu la f r om C er to sa g r ave 6 8 a tB o log na a nd t h e S i tu la f r om g r ave 1 2 a tN esac t ium i n I s t r ia , a l o fw h ich d a te f r om f i r s t o rs e cond q ua r te r s o f6 t h C en tu ry BC t oc i rca 5 00BC ( F rey 1 969 , 8 8-91 ) . T he t h i rd g roup o f ' S i tu la A r t ' d eco ra t ed v e s se l s i sc ompo sed o f t h e P rov idenc e S i tu la f r om B o logna , S i tu la 3 3 f r om V aC ' e , a nd t h e S i tu lae f r om b a r row I a nd g r ave X I I I 1 55 f r om Magda len ska g o ra i nD o len jska , w h ich p robab ly d a te t ot h e e nd o f t h e 6 t h a nd t h e 5 t h C en tu r ie s BC ( Lucke a nd F r ey 1 962 , 4 4-47 ) . T he D o len j ske T op l ic ,e S i tu la m ay b e long t o e i the r t h e s e cond o r t h i rd g roup s , b u t t h e v e s se l a nd i t s i c onog raphy a r e f r agmen ta r y ( Team 1 976 , 3 98 , 4 4 1-442 ; A . E ibn e r 1 981 , 2 75 , 2 90 ) . T he f o u r th a nd f i na l g r oup d a te s t oc i r ca 4 00BC a nd p o s s ib ly c on t inued i n to t h e 4 t h C en tu ry BC , a nd c on s i s t so ft h e S i tu la f r om A r noa ld i a tB o logna , t h e S i tu la f r om g rave 1a tK u f fa rn i nl owe rA u s t r ia , t h e C i s ta o r V a se f r om Mo r i tz ing i nt h e U ppe r A d ige v a l ley , t h e t h r ee S i tu la ef r om g rave sI / 6a nd I V / 3a t Novo m e s to , t h eS i tu la f r om Magda len ska g o ra g r ave V / 6 -7-7a , t h e S i tu la f r om V a l icna v a s a nd S i tu la 3 4 f r om V aCe , t h e l a s t s i x e xamp le s a r e f r om D o len j ska ( Lucke a nd F rey 1 962 , 4 6-47 ; K nez 1 973 , 3 09-326 ; A . E ibne r 1 981 , 2 90 ) . ' S i tu la A r t ' a l so

d eco ra ted b ron ze v e s se l l i d s , b ron ze b e l t p l a te s a nd n ume rou s v e s se l f r agmen t s f r om s i te s i nt h e s ame a r ea s a s t h e e xamp le s m en t ioned a bove . H oweve r t h e se a r e n o t c on s ide r ed h e r e , b ecau se t h e i r i c onog raph ic r e pe r to i re a nd f o rm i s u sua l ly t o o i n cohe r en t f o r t h em t o b e e a s i ly i n t e rp re ted o ra s s ig ned t o as pec if i cc h rono log ica lg roup . 2 T he O r ig in sa nd I conography o f' S i tu la A r t ' . T he o r ig in s o f t h e ' S i tu la A r t ' s t y le h ave b een e x ten s ive ly d i scu s sed i nt h el i t e ra tu r e ( Lucke a nd P rey 1 962 ; F rey 1 969 ; B oa rdman 1 971 , 1 2 1140 ; Man sue l l i 1 962 , 2 7-33 ) . I ti s g ene raly a g r eed t h a t t h e i c onog rapy a nd e xecu t ion o f t h i s s t y le w a s i n sp i r ed b y O r ien ta l iz ing E t ru scan mode l s , w h ich w e r e i nt h e i r t u rn h eav i ly i nf luenced b y a r t s t y les c u r ren t i n G r eece a nd t h e E a s t e rn Med i te r ranean Wo r ld i nt h e 8 t h a nd 7 t hC en tu r ie s BC . T h i s c an b e s e en , n o t o n ly i nt h ep r e sence o f m o t i f s s u ch a s w inged b ea s t s o r l i on s o n t h e C e r to sa S i tu la , b u t a l so i n t h e v e ry c oncep t a nd e xecu t ion o f t h e f i gu ra lf r ieze st h em se lve s( Lucke a nd F rey 1 962 , 9 16 ; F rey 1 969 , B 1-9 1) . H oweve r t h e s ub jec t m a t te r o f t h e i c onog raphy c oncer n s l o ca l s o c ia l p henomena f r om N o r thea s t er nI t a ly ,t h eS ou th E a s ta nd E a s tA lp ine R eg ion s . T he i c onog raphy o f' S i tu la A r t 'i sc ha rac te r ised b y as e r ie so f f i gu ra l s c ene s a r rang ed i n c l ea r ly d e l im i ted f r ieze s , n umbe r ing f r om o n e t of o u ro n as i ng le v e sse l . T he f u l lr a nge o fs c ene s i sn o tf o und o ne very S i tu la ,a nd t h e r ei s at e ndency f o rt h en umbe ro ff r ieze sa nd c omponen ts c ene st ob er educed a s t i me p rog re s se s . T he s t y l i s t ic a nd t e chn ica l c ompo s i t ion o f' S i tu la A r t ' i sa l so r ema rkab ly c on s i s tan t o ve r s pace a nd t i me , a nd t h u s w i l ln o tb e c on s ide red , a s t h e ma in c once rn i s w i th t h e r a nge a nd c ompo s i t ion o f t h e f i gu ra l f r ieze s . T he r e pe r to i re c on s i s t s o f t h e f o l low ing s c ene s . P roce ss ion s o f a rmed m en a nd p roce s s ion s o f s im i la r ly d r e s sed u na rmed m en a r e d ep ic ted a nd n o rma l ly o c cupy a n e n t i re f r ieze . P roc e ss ion s o f m en a nd w omen b ea r ing b ronze v e s se l s a nd c e r emon ia l r e ga l ia , s u ch a s s wo rd s o r r oa s t ing s p i t s , a nd l e ad ing a n ima l s , o c cu r w i th t h e se o n S i tu lae o f t h e s e cond g r oup , w h i l s t i nt h e t h i rd g roup p ro ce s s ion s o f r i de r s a nd w agon s a r e m o r e p opu la r ( A . E ibne r 1 981 , 2 62 , 2 69-275 , F ig .1 ) . A no the rg r oup o fs c ene s ,w h ich w e re c omb ined i n to a f r ieze , w e r e t h o se o fd r ink ing a nd a t h le t ic s . T he se a r e f ound o n a l l b u t t h e l a te s t S i tu lae , a nd c omp r i se t h e m ix ing o f 2 p r e sumab ly a l coho l ic d r ink s i nb r on ze v e s se l so nt r ipod s ,a nd i t s o f f e r ing b y a t tendan t s w i th l a d le s t os ea ted o r r e c l in ing m en . T he c ompe t i t ive e l emen t l i nk s i n w i th t h is , i n t h a t p a i r ed o r i n d iv idua l m en p l ay ing l y r e s o r m o re u sua l ly t h e s y r i nx , a r e o f f e red d r ink . Mo re r a re ly s c ene s o f m u s ic ian s p l ay ing f o rd an ce r sa r ef o und ,a so nt h eS i tu la f r om b a r row I a t Magda len ska g o ra ( Lucke a nd F r ey 1 962 , 7 2 ) . Af u r the r e l emen t o f t h e se f r ieze s i st h e b ox ing m a tch , i nw h ich t wo n aked m en f i gh t f o r ap r ize , ab r on ze v e s se l a nd t r ipod o ra b r onze h e lme t . T h i s s e c t ion o n S i tu lae o f t h e s e cond g r oup c ommon ly i n c lude s s c ene s o fp l ough ing , h un t ing a nd s exua l a c t iv i ty , t h e s o— ca l led S ymp legma ( A . E ibne r 1 981 , 2 67-

13

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia 2 69 ) . T he se s c ene s a r e a b sen to nl a te rS i tu lae , a nd o nS i tu lae o ft h e f ou r th g roup , b ox ing a nd m u s ica l s c ene s a r e r ep laced b y c ha r io t a nd h o r se r a c ing , w h i ls t s c enes o f t h e o f f er ing o f d r ink t o as ea ted f i gu re r ema in , a l though t h e m ix ing i sn o l o nge r d ep ic ted ( A . E ibne r 1 981 , 2 75 ) . T he f i na l c ommon f r ieze i so ne w i th a n a n ima l p roce ss ion , w h ich i n mo s t c a se s i sc ompo sed o f i n d igenou s a n ima ls , l i ke t h e d ee r , c hamo i s a nd g oa t . P reda to ry a n ima ls i nt h e f o rm o fw o lve s , l i on s a nd f a bu lou s w inged b ea s t s a r e a l so k nown . H uman f i gu re s s ome t ime s o ccu r a s w e l l , b u t a r e u sua l ly a b sen t . I n deed i ti s t h is f r ieze , w h ich p redom ina te s i nt h e l a te s t g roup ( Lucke a nd F rey 1 962 , 3 5-39 , 5 9 ; A . E ibne r 1 981 , 2 75 , 2 82 ) . A s e r ie s o f g eome t r ic , v ege ta l a nd a v ian mo t if s m ay o ccu r i n a ny o ft h e f r ieze s , a v ian m o t if s b e ing p a r t icu la r ly a s soc ia ted w i th d r ink ing a nd m ix ing v e sse l s a nd p lough ing ( Ko s sack 1 964 , 1 04 ; L ucke a nd F rey 1 962 ,4 0-43 ) .

a nd c ha r io t s . T he n ex te ven ti sc once rned w i th t h ep roces s ion w i th g i f t s a nd s a c r if ic ia l a n ima ls , t h e s o—ca l led F e s t iva l P a rade a nd s a c r if ic ia l g i f t s , w i th w h ich t h e S ymp legma s c enes a r e c l a s sed . T he s ugge s t ion t h a t t h e se h ave r e l ig iou s— o r ' Cu l t ic ' s i gn if icance i s made , b u t t h e S ymp legma i st h en r e lega ted t o am ino r r o le b efo re t h e ma in e ven t s o f b ox ing a nd m u s ica l c ompe t i t ion a nd h o r se a nd c ha r io t r a c ing ( K rome r 1 980 , 2 30-236 ) . T he d r ink ing r i tua l i sn o t s e cu r e ly p laced i nt h i s m ode l , e i the r a tt h e e nd a s ac l o s ing e ven t , o r r unn ing p a ra l le l t o t h e c ompe t i t ive e ven t s ( K rome r 1 980 , 2 37 ) . An umbe r o f c r i t ic i sm s c an b e l e ve led a tt h is mode l . F i r s t ly i ti g no r e s t h e l a ck o f e v idence f o r h o r se a nd c ha r io t r a c ing i n t h e e a r l ie r g roup s , a nd t h e g ene ra l a b sen ce o f mu s ic ian s o n t h e l a te r e xamp le s a t K uf fam a nd A rnoa ld i . A s ide f r om t h ec h rono log ica l p rob lem , t h e c en t ra lr o le o ft h e d r ink ing r i tua l i s l o s t , a l though i ti s c l ea r t h a t o n m any S i tu lae t h i s r i t ua l i sc l a ssed w i th mu s ica l c ompe t i t ion a nd b ox ing . T he m a jo r r o le a sc r ibed t o e que s t r ian e ven t s i sn o t

3T he I n terpre ta t ion o f' S i tu la A r t ' I conography .

s uppo r ted b yt h eb u lk o ft h ei c onog raphy . T he f r iezes c omp r i se w ha t i s c ommon ly c a l led t h e ' S i tu len f es t ' , o r ' S i tu la F e s t iva l ' ( Ka s te l ic 1 965 , 7 -21) . T h i s

Howeve ri ti sp o ss ib le t oa sc r ibe t oo g rea t ar o le t ot h er i tua l

w a s f i r s t r e cogn ised a nd d esc ibed a s s uch b y M . H oe rne s i n 1 891 a nd 1 894 ( K rome r 1 980 , 2 25 ) . T he p ro ce ss ion s o f w a r r io r s ,u na rmed m en a nd f i gu re sb ear ing g i f t so rS ac r if ice s w e re s een a s t h e a r r iva l o f t h e p a r t ic ipan t s i n as e r ie s o f g ame s a nd f e a s t s , w h ich w e re d ep ic ted i n t h e d r ink ing , b ox ing , mu s ica l c ompe t i t ion s a nd h o r se a nd c ha r io t r a c ing . T he se w e re r e cogn i sed a s e l i te a c t iv i t ie s , w h i ls t p lough ing , h un t ing a nd a n ima l s cene s w e re a sc r ibed t o t h e n on—e l i te s phe re . S o c ia l s t ra t if ica t ion i sr e cogn i sab le i nt h e d i f f e ren t d r es s o f t h e v a r iou s p ar t ic ipan t s i n t h e d r ink ing a nd p roce ss iona l s c enes . I nd iv idua l s w ea r ing b roadb r immed h a t s a nd l o ng c l oak s mo s tf r equen t ly a ppea rr i d ing i nw aggon s o r m ix ing a nd r e ce iv ing a l coho l ic d r ink s , w h i l s t t h o se i nf l a t o r t u rban— shaped c ap s o f f e r r e f re shmen t o r p a r t ic ipa te i n

a spec t o ft h e i c onog raphy o f' S i tu la A r t ' . T h is i sp a r t icu la r ly t r ue o f t h e a na ly s i s o ft h e i c onog raphy o f t h e d r ink ing r i tua l c a r r ied o u t b y K o ssack ( 1964 , 9 6-105 ) . T h is a na ly s i s i s l a rge ly c once rned w i th t h e p lace o f t h e ' S i tu la A r t ' i c onog raphy i nt h e b roade r c on tex t o f L a te B ron ze A ge a nd E a r ly I r on A ge d r ink ing r i tua ls a nd p a rapher na l ia i nC en t ra l E u rope . T he p roce ss iona l , d r ink ing a nd s po r t ing s cene s a r e c ompa red t ot h e r i tua l a nd m y tho log ica l s c ene s o n E t ru scan b ronze m ino r s , b e l t p la te s a nd No r the rn I t a l ian R ock A r t . H oweve r t h e m a in b ody o f t h e a na ly s i s i n vo lved t h e C ompa r i son o f t h e d r ink ing p a rapher na l ia i lu s t ra ted i n ' S i tu la a r t ' i c onog raphy w i th e x tan t d r ink ing p a rapher na l ia , s pec if ica l ly b ron ze s i tu lae ,b ronze s i eve s a nd d r ink ing b ow l s , f r om L a te B ron ze A ge a nd E a r ly l i on A ge a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t s i n N o r ther n , C en t ra l a nd E a s ter n E u rope . T h i s c ompa r i son o f d a ta r e su l ted i nt wo ma in p o in t s f o r f u r the r d i scus s ion . F i r s t ly b ronze d r ink ing v es se l s e t s i nE a r ly l i on

p hys ica l c ompe t i t ion . T hese a r e d e sc r ibed r e spec t ive ly a s ' P r inces ' a nd ' F o l lowe r s ' ; b a re—headed m en i n k i l t s a r e ' S er v i to r s ' ( Lucke a nd F rey 1 962 . 1 7-29 ; P e t ru 1 973 , 8 79-

A ge c on tex t s i nt h e E a s tA lp ine R eg ion a nd i nI t a ly t e nded t o

8 82 ; A . E ibne r 1 981 , 2 65 ) . I ts hou ld b e n o ted t h a t t h o se i n t h e a ppa ren t p o s i t ion s o f h onou r o n t h e D o len jska S i tu lae w ea r ' P h ryg ian C ap s ' , n o t b road—b r immed h a t s . E a r ly i n te rp re ta t ion s , p a r t icu la r ly t h o se o f F ranz ( Lucke a nd F rey 1 962 , 4 8-54 ) a nd K a s te l ic ( 1965 , 5 -21 ) , s ugges t t h a t t h e

b e f ound w i th o t he r e l i te m a ter ia l , s pec if ica l ly w eapon ry , h o r se r id ing e qu ipmen t a nd w aggon p a r t s o r mode ls . T h i s i s p e rhap s u n su rp r i s ing i ft h e e l i te c on tex t o f ' S i tu la A r t ' i s a ccep ted a s ab a s ic p rem i se . S econd ly t h e s pec if ic f o rm o f t h e l a d le s d ep ic ted i n' S i tu la Ar t ' i c onog raphy s eemed t ob e r e la ted t o ar ang eo fb ron ze l ad le s w i th z oomo rph ic t e rm ina l s

S i tu la F e s t iva l w a s i nf a c t af u ne ra l f e s t iva l , w i th af u ne ra l f e a s t ,g ame s a nd o f f er ing s , a l ong w i th s c ene s f r om t h el i f eo f t h e i nd iv idua lc oncer ned . F u r the re a r ly i n te rp re ta t ion ,h a s l e d t ot h e s ugge s t ion t h a t t h e s c ene s a r e e p i sod ic r ep re sen ta t ion s

o n t h e h and le s , w h ich w e re p a r t icu la r ly c ommon i nI t a ly , a t B o logna , C a Mo r ta a nd V e tu lon ia , a nd i nt h e E a s t A lp ine R eg ion , i n t h e s ame a r ea i n wh ich T h raco—C imme r ian m a te r ia l w a s c ommon . I ndeed t h e d a t ing e v idence f o r t h e se l a d les s ugges t s t h a t t h ey f i r s t a ppea red a tt h e b eg inn ing o f t h e F i r s t M i l lenn ium BC , b u t w e re g ene ra l ly mo re c ommon

o fs ecu la rl i f e , l i nked t ot h e d ecea sed i n d iv idua l , w i th w hom t h e v esse l w a s p laced ( Man sue l l i 1 965 , 2 7-33 ) . S uch h ypo these sf a i l t ot a ke i n to a ccoun tt h eg r ea ts im i la r i ty o ft h e i c onog raphy a nd t h e o ccu r rence o f a ppa ren t ly l ow— s ta tu s a c t iv i t ies s uch a sp lough ing .

f r om t h e 8 t h C en tu ry BC o nwa rd s . T he r e su l t o f t h is w a s a n

T he mo s t h i gh ly d eve loped v e r s ion o f t h is h ypo the s is i st h e mode lo ft h e ' S i tu la F es t iva l 'p o s i ted b yK rome r( 1980 ,2 25-

a t temp t t o l i nk t h e S i tu la F e s t iva l t o r i tua l p rac t ice i nt h e N ea r E a s t a nd Mesopo tam ia , v ia t h e v esse l s e t s f r om G o rd ion i n A s ia M ino r . T he r i tua l f e s t iva l c once rned w a s

2 40 ) . T he f e s t iva l i sb roken d own i n to i t s c omponen t p a r t s a nd e xam ined a s a s equen t ia l d e sc r ip t ion o f a n e l i te

o ne d ed ica ted t o t h e g odde ss T ammuz , t h e s ub jec t o f A ssy r ian w a l l f r iezes f r om N imn id a nd N ineveh , i n w h ich

c ompe t i t ive e ven t . T h is b eg in s w i th t h e a r r iva l o f t h e

t h e k i ng i sr ep r e sen ted a s t h e g od A ssu r , a nd i st h e c en t ra l f i gu re i n a d r ink ing , m us ica l a nd e ques t r ian f e s t iva l

p a r t ic ipan t s a nd s pec ta to r s , t h e p roce ss ion s o f w a r r io r s , h o r se r i de r s a nd p a ssenge r s i nw aggon s a nd t h ep roce s s ion o f

( Ko ssack 8 964 ,

1 03-105 ) . A n i mmed ia t e p rob lem t h a t

a r ise s f r om t h is m ode l i st h e f a c tt h a t , a l though ' S i tu la A r t ' i s

u na rmed m en , f o l lowed b yt h ep re— race d i sp lay o ft h eh o r se s

14

T he I c onography o fS i tu la A r t u l t ima te ly o fE a s t Med i ter ranean i n sp i ra t ion , i td ep ic t s l o ca l e l i te c ompe t i t ion . T he re i s n o r e a son t o s uppo se t h a t t h e p re sence o f p o ss ib ly E a s te rn i n sp i red l a d le s m ean s t h a t E a s ter nr i tua l p rac t ice s w e re a l so a dop ted . T he se l a d le s a r e g enera l ly a b sen t f r om t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine R eg ion , w he re much o ft h e' S i tu la A r t 'i sc oncen t ra ted .T he s ame c an b es a id f o r e l i te e l emen t s l i ke t h e w aggon , w h ich i na ny c a se h a s a l o ng t r ad i t ion i n C en t ra l E u rope , r e ach ing b ack i n to t h e Um f ie ld p e r iod ( C .P a re ,p e r s .comm . ) . T he ma jo rf a i l ing o fa l l t h e a bove mode l s i st h a tt h ey n eg lec t t h e i n ter na l c h rono logy o f ' S i tu la A r t ' i t se lf . I nt h is r e spec t t h e s equen t ia l mode l p o s i ted b y E ibne r ( 1981 , 2 6 1-296 ) i s t h e mo s t c omp rehen s ive y e t a dvanced . A n e xam ina t ion o f i c onog raph ic e l emen t s a nd g rave a s soc ia t ion sr e su l ted i nt h e f o rmu la t ion o f t h e f ou r c h rono log ica l a nd i c onog raph ic g roup s d e sc r ibed a bove . A n a pp rop r ia te b eg inn ing f o r t h e d i scu ss ion o f t h is mode l i st h e i c onog raphy o f t h e s e cond g roup o f ' S i tu la A r t ' a nd i t s i n te rp re ta t ion . T he i c onog raphy o ft h is g roup c on ta in s t h e w ide s t r a nge o f mo t if s a nd s c enes o fa l l ' S i tu la A r t ' , a nd t h e mode l u sed t oi n te rp re t t h em i sa s f o l low s . I ti ss ugge s ted t h a t t h e ' S i tu la F e s t iva l ' , a s i ti s m an ife s ted i n t h is g roup , w i th t h e p roce ss iona l s c ene s o f w a r r io r sa nd s acr if ic ia lo f f er ing s , t h ed r ink ing r i tua l , m u s ica l c ompe t i t ion , b ox ing , p lough ing , S ymp legma a nd a n ima l f r ieze s , i sr e la ted t o t h e y ea r ly f e s t iva ls o f t h e G reek c i ty

c ompe t i t ive e ven t i s r ep resen ted . D r ink ing r i tua ls a nd c ompe t i t ive e ven t s w e re n ow c en t ra l t ot h e ' S i tu la F es t iva l ' , w h ich h ad l o s t i t s p rev iou s l e ague c ha rac te r a nd h ad b een t r an sfo rmed i n to amo re s e cu la rv eh ic le f o re l i te c ompe t i t ion , r a the r t h an a m ean s o f r e in fo r c ing t h e p o l i t ica l u n i ty o f s oc ie ty ( A .E ibne r 1 981 , 2 71-275 , 2 2 ) . G iven t h e d a t ing o f t h is g roup t ot h e e nd o ft h e6 t ha nd t h e 5 t hC en tu r ies BC , t h is i n ten s if ica t ion o f e l i te c ompe t i t ion w ou ld h ave c o inc ided w i th t h e c e ssa t ion o fb u r ia l i nt h e c eme te r ies a tS t ia ia , a nd t h e d ec l ine o f t h e c en t re s a t L ibna a nd V e l ike Ma lence , w h ich h a s b een a t t r ibu ted t o j u s t s uch a n i n ten s if ica t ion ( Chap te r5 ,s ec t ion 3 : 2 ) . T he f ou r th g roup i s c ha rac te r ised b y a d ec l ine i n t h e i mpo r tance o f t h e d r ink ing r i tua l a nd t r ad i t iona l c ompe t i t ive e ven t s , w h ich w e re s upp lan ted b y t h e h o r se a nd c ha r io t r a c ing , v eh ic le s t h a t f i r s t a ppea red i n t h e t h i rd g roup a s c onveyance s t o t h e f e s t iva l ( A . E ibne r 1 981 , 2 71 , 2 75 ) . D r ink ing n ow a ppea r s t oh ave b een r e lega ted t oa ni nd iv idua l e l i te p u r su i t , r a the r t h an i t s f o rme r p o s i t ion a s a n i n teg ra l p a r to fe l i te c ompe t i t ion o ra s am ean sf o ra ne l i te m embe rt o f e a s t h i s f o l lowe r s . T he m a in e mpha s is i sp laced o n amo re p u re ly c ompe t i t ive e ven t l i ke t h e O lymp ic Games ( A . E ibne r 1 981 ,2 75-283 ) .

l e ague s , e . g . t h e D e l ian L eague , a nd I t a l ian l e ag ue s , e . g . t h e E t ru scan L eague o f Twe lve C i t ie s a nd t h e L a t in L eague o f t h ir ty c l an s . P a r t icu la re mpha s is i sl a id o nt h eL a t in L eague , a st h is h a st h eb es tl i t e ra ry d e sc r ip t ion o ft h e l e ague f e s t iva l , a l though a l l t h eG reek a nd I t a l ian l e ague s h ad c en t ra l p lace s a t wh ich y ea r ly f e s t iva ls w e re h e ld t or e in fo rce t h e u n i ty o f t h e l e ague , t h rough c ommon s ac r if ice a nd r e l igou s r i tua l . T hu s t h e w a r r io r f r ieze o n t h e C e r to sa S i tu la , d ep ic t ing f ou r d i f f e ren t g roup s o f w a r r io r s , m igh t b e r ep re sen ta t ive o f a l e ague o f f ou r d i f f e ren t c l an s o r l i neage s . T he p roce ss ion w i th a n ima l s acr if ice s a nd g i f t s r e p re sen t s t h e a r r iva l o f p ar t ic ipan t s a nd s ac r if ices f o rt h e l e ague f e s t iva l a nd g ame s , s een i n t h e d r ink ing r i tua l a nd a s soc ia t ed s c ene s . T he s ha r ingou t a mong s t t h e a s semb led l i neages o ft h e s a cr if ic ia l w h i te b u l l a tt h e L a t in L eague F e s t iva l i nt h e A lban H i l l s , wa s ap a r t icu la r ly i mpor tan tr i te , r e in fo r c ing t h e u n i ty o ft h e l e ague t h rough r i tua l .T h i s m ay b e t h ec a se i nt h ep re sence o f a n ima l c a r ca sses o n t h e t h i rd f r ieze o f t h e C e r to sa S i tu la . T he a s soc ia ted p lough ing a nd h un t ing s c ene s a nd t h e a n ima l f r ieze s a r e t h us c onnec ted w i th t h e ' l i f e o ft h e l a nd ' o rr i tua l f e r t i l i ty , w h ich w a s am a jo r c once rn o f t h e l e ague f e s t iva ls .

T he e a r l ies t g roup , t h e B envenu t i S i tu la , w a s c onnec ted w i th aw ho le r ange o f l e ss c omp lex f i gu ra l r ep re sen ta t ion s i nt h e E a s t A lp ine R eg ion , a pa r t f r om t h e a fo remen t ioned v esse ls f r om S e s to C a lende a nd K le in—K le in . T he se i n c lude c e ram ic v e sse l s f r om S op ron , Nov6 K oa r iska , a nd R aben sbu rg a nd t h e b ron ze ' Ku l twagen ' f r om S t re t tweg , w h ich s ugges t s t h a t t h e ' S i tu la F e s t iva l ' h a s al o ng h i s tory i nt h e E a r ly l i on A ge E a s t A lp ine R eg ion , f r om t h e m idd le o ft h e 8 t hC en tu ry BC o nwa rd s ( A . E ibne r 1 981 , 2 83-285 ) . T h i s i sc l ea r ly l i nked t o t h e c e ram ic s ympo s ium s e t s f r om Ha l l s ta t t Cg rave c on tex t s i n t h e W ies— Ma r t i janec a nd K a lende rbe rg g roups ( Te r ian 1 980 , 3 43-352 ) . T he E ibne r mode l f o r t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f ' S i tu la A r t ' i c onog raphy i st h u s t h e mo s t a dvanced mode l t o d a te , a nd i t c l ea r ly i n te rg ra te s t h e e a r l ie r mode ls , e xemp l if ied b y t h o se o f K rome r a nd K o ssack , i n to a c h rono log ica l a nd r eg iona l f r amewo rk . C onc lu s ion . I t i s n ow a pp rop r ia te t o e xam ine t h e w ay i n w h ich t h e i c onog raphy o f ' S i tu la A r t ' r e la te s t o t h e mode l o f s oc ia l h i e ra r chy a nd p res t ige e xchange , d e ta i led i n C hap te r 5 ,

T he S ymp legma s c ene s a r e c on s ide red t or e la te t ot h e o r ig in my th o f t h e l e ague , a l though i ti se qua l ly p o ss ib le t h a t i t c ou ld b e t h e ' s ac red ma r r iage w i th t h e l a nd ' , a nd t h e re fo re r e la ted t ot h e p lough ing a nd a s soc ia ted f e r t i l i ty s c enes ( A . E ibne r 1 981 ,2 62-271) . Af e s t iva lo ft h is t y pe w ou ld p rov ide

s e c t ion 3 a nd s ec t ion 6 . T he d a t ing o f t h e ' S i tu la A r t ' c omp lex s ugges t s t h a t a ny r e levance i th a s w i l l b e t o t h e S e rpen t ifo rm , C e r to sa a nd E a r ly N egova p ha ses i n t h e D o len jska g roup . Howeve rt h ee l i te gave s e t so ft h eS t iCna 1 p ha se i n D o len jska f o re shadow m any o f t h e l a te r d eve lopmen t s i nt h e e l i te s e t s , e . g . t h e S t ia la A rmou rG rave , t h e Novo m e s to A rmou r G rave a nd t h e Novo m es to T r ipod

ac hanne l f o r c ompe t i t ion , g i ven t h a t t h e c ompa rab le l e ague f e s t iva l s , m en t ioned i n t h e c l a s s ica l l i t e ra tu re , i n vo lved

G rave ( Gab rovec 1 960 , 2 7-80 ; 1 966 , 1 48 ; 1 968 , 1 57— t88 ) .

m echan i sms l i ke t r uces f o rt h ed u ra t ion o ft h e f e s t iva l , w h ich w ou ld b e a n i d ea l c on tex t , n o t o n ly f o r e l i te e xchange , b u t a l so f o rm undane e xchange t ot a ke p lace .

C on tempo ra ry w i th o rs l igh t ly l a te rt h an t h e se g rave s a r e t h e K le in—K le in e l i te g raves w i th f i gu ra l d eco ra ted b ronze v e s se ls , w h ich a r e c l ea r ly r e la ted t o t h e e l i te p rac t ices i n

T he a b sence o f t h e se f i na l s c ene s r e la ted t o f e r t i l i ty a nd a c ommon o r ig in my th o rf e r t i l i ty r i t e i nt h e t h i rd i c onog raph ic a nd c h rono log ica l g roup , s ugges t s t h a t a mo re g ene ra l e l i te

15

' S i tu la A r t ' p rope r ( Sec t ion 1 ) . T hu s i ti si nt wo ma in a r ea s t h a t t h e i c onog raphy may b e a b le t o c l a r ify t h e a r chaeo log ica ld a ta .

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia F i r s t ly t h e d i f f e r en t a c t iv i t ie s o fd i f f e ren t ly c l ad i n d iv idua l s m ay b e l i nked t os o c ia l s t a tu s . T h ree b a s ic s o c ia l d i v i s ion s a r e r e cogn i sed , P r ince s ' , ' F o l lowe r s ' a nd ' S e rv i to r s ' , d i s t ingu shed b y d r e s s a nd a c t iv i ty . T he t h e p o s i t ion o f t h e w a r r io rf i gu r e s w i l lb ed ea l tw i th b e low . T he se t h r ee g r oup s m igh t c o r re spond t ot h e t h ree s oc ia l g r oup s i s o la ted i nt h e a na ly s i s i n A ppend ix 1a nd C hap te r 4 .H oweve r o n ly t h e n on—pe r i shab le a r te f ac t s r ema in i n t h e g r ave s e t s , s p e c ia l d r e s sf e a tu re s w ou ld h ave l o ng d ecayed , i ft h ey w e r ei nf a c t p r e sen ta tb u r ia l . T he s e cond s t a tu s l e ve li d en t if i ed f r om t h e m o r tua ry d a ta w a st h a to ft h ew eapon sg r ave s . I nt h eo ry t h i s s h ou ld c o r re spond w i th e i the r t h e ' F o l lowe r s ' , o r t h e w a r r io r s , b u t t h e ' F o l lowe r s ' a r e n eve r a rmed , a nd t h e w a r r io r si nt h ef r ieze sw ea rb r onze h e lme t s ,w h ich a r ep a r to f t h e e l i te a r te fac t s e t . I ti st h e r efo r e i mpo r tan t t h a t c a r e b e e xe r c i sed i n t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e i c onog raphy . T he s ymbo l ic n a tu r e o ft h e w a r r io r s c ene s s ugge s ted b y E ibne r ( 1 981 , 2 62— 2 71 ; m ean s t h a t o t he r s c ene s m ay b e l a rge ly

16

s ymbo l ic a nd s os h ou ld n o tb et r ea ted a sn a r ra t ive ,w h ich c an b es imp l i s t ica l ly a pp l ied t om o r tua ry d a ta . T h es e cond a r ea o fi n te re s tl i e si nt h ec ou r se o ft h er i tua la nd c ompe t i t ive ' S i tu la F e s t iva l ' . I n t h i s , t h e e l i te a r t efac t a s semb lage s c an b e s e en i n u se , i nd i sp lay , e . g . h o r se s , w aggon , h e lme t s a nd w eapon s , a nd i n c on sp i cuou s c on sump t ion , e . g . b r onze v e sse l s i n t h e d r ink ing r i t ua l . A l though t h e ' S i tu la F e s t iva l ' p rov id e s af r amewo rk f o r t h e e l i te c ompe t i t ion , w h ich c an b e d e te c ted i nt h e d i f f e r en t ia l d i s t r ibu t ion o fe l i te g r ave s o n a n i n t xa— a nd i n te r— s i te l e ve l , t h ee p i sod ic n a tu re o ft h ef r iezes m ak e si td i f f icu l tt oa s s ign a na c tua l c on tex tt ot h e ' S i tu la F e s t iva l ' i t se l f . I ti st h i s t h a t m o s t o f t h e a bove m ode l s a r e c onc e rn ed w i th . Wha t i s i mpo r tan t , h oweve r , i st h a t , w he the r t h e c on tex t i so ne o fa l e ague , ar e l igou s f e s t iva l , as e cu la r— f e s t iva l o ra nO lymp ic e ven t , a l l o ft h e se e ven t s m igh t p rov id e ac on tex t i nw h ich e l i te c ompe t i t ion c ou ld h ave t a ken p l ac e .

CHAPTER 9

CONCLUS ION

T he f i na l s ec t ion o f t h i s s t udy s e rves t o s umma r ise a nd i n teg ra te t h e d i scu ss ion o f t h e n a tu re a nd d eve lopmen t o f s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion i nt h e L a te B ronze A ge a nd E a r ly I r on A ge i nt h e S ou th E as t A lp ine R eg ion ( s ee C hap te r 5 ) , w i th t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e e v idence f o r e xchanges p a r t icu la r ly p re s t ige e xchange , o ve r t h e s ame p e r iod ( s ee C hap te r6 ) . T he o b jec t i s t o s how h ow t h e se d i f f e ren t a spec t s w e re i n te r l inked a nd r e su l ted i n t h e d eve lopmen t o f t h e r anked s o c ie t ie s o f t h e E a r ly h on A ge D o len jska a nd W ie s— Ma r t i janec g roups o u to ft h e l a te B ronze A ge L jub l jana a nd R use g roup s , wh ich h ad r e la t ive ly mo r e e ga l i ta r ian s oc ia l s y s tem s . T he mode l s o f b o th e xchange a nd s oc ia l

c on ta ined a n umbe r o f ' i n te rna t iona l ' t ypes , s uch a s t h e O b lekov ice r azo r k n if e a nd a r ange o f b ronze k n if e t ypes (Webe r 1 982 , 4 5-56 ; Mü l le r—Ka rpe 1 959 , F ig . 4 0 , F ig . 5 0 , F ig . 5 1 ; G ab rovec 1 976 ,5 90 ) . T he se t ype s a l so h ad al im i ted d i s t r ibu t ion i nn o r the rn I t a ly ( Chap te r 6 ,s ec t ion 1 : 1a ) . T he g ene ra l i mp res s ion i so f ab ronze e xchange n e two rk , w h ich e x tended a round t h e e a s t A lp ine r im f r om L owe r A u s t r ia t o t h e h ead o f t h e A d r ia t ic a nd i n to t h e P annon ian P la in . T he p o s i t ion o f t h e s ma l l s ca le e l i tes o f t h e L jub l jana a nd R u se g roup s w ou ld h ave e nab led t h em t og a in a ccess t ot h eb ron ze s upp ly , w h ich r ep re sen ted t h e ma jo r s ou rce o f p res t ige ma ter ia l .

o rgan isa t ion h ave b een l a rge ly b a sed o n mo r tua ry d a ta , s upp lemen ted b y t h e l im i ted a moun t o f e v idence f r om s e t t lemen t e xcava t ion ( s ee C hap te r 3 ) . Much o f t h e

T he p er iod b e tween 8 00 B .C . a nd 7 00 B .C . , t h e Ha l l s ta t t B 3 p ha se , ma rked t h e t r an sfo rma t ion o ft h e L jub l jana a nd R ue u rn f ie ld g roup s i n to t h e E a r ly h on A ge D o len jska a nd

i n te rp re ta t ive w o rk w a s c a r r ied o u t u s ing i d ea s d rawn f r om a n e xam ina t ion o f e t hnog raph ic m a te r ia l ( Sah l in s 1 958 ; 1 963 , 2 85-303 ; S er v ice 1 967 ; 1 975 ; F r ied 1 967 ; K i r ch 1 984 ; H e lm s 1 979 e ta l ) a nd f r om p rev iou s a r chaeo log ica l

W ie s— Ma r t i janec

g roup s .

A ma rked c hange i n s oc ia l

o rgan i sa t ion t ook p l ace . T he c ha rac te r o f mo r tua ry s i tes c hanged c i r ca 7 50 B .C . w i th c r ema t ion b u r ia ls u nde r b a r rows a ppea r ing i nB e la K ra j ina , t h e m idd le K rka v a l ley ,

s t ud ies o f r anked s oc ie ty , s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion a nd e xchange

g ta je r ska

i nE u rope d u r ing t h e f i r s t m i l len ium B .C . ( F ranken s te in a nd R ow land s 1 978 . 7 3112 ; B rad ley 1 982 , 1 08-122 ; 1 984 , 1 00-127 ; H a rke 1 979 ; O 'Shea 1 981 , 1 67183 ; P a rke r—

a nd

S ou th

S ty r ia ,

c on tempo raneou s

w i th

t r ad i t iona l f l a t c r ema t ion c eme te r ies d u r ing t h e L jub l jana I b a nd K le in—K le in Ip ha se s ( Chap te r 5 ,s ec t ion 2 ,s ec t ion 5 ) . T he g rave g ood s i n b o th g rave t ypes i n t h e L jub l jana /Do len jska g roup w e re v e ry s im i la r . D u r ing t h is p ha se i r on or namen t s a ppea red , o f ten i m i ta t ing b ronze

P ea r son 1 984 , 5 9-71 ; R ow land s 1 980 , 1 5-55 ; We l l s 1 980 ; 1 985 ,6 9-89 ,e ta l) . T he L jub l jana a nd R uk g roup s w e re b o th c ha rac te r ised b y s ma l l f l a t c eme te r ies . T he mor tua ry p opu la t ion o fs uch s i te s w a s t oo s ma l l t o r ep re sen t a n e n t i re p opu la t ion , a l though t h e re w as r e la t ive ly l i t t le d i f f e ren t ia t ion b e tween g rave g ood s . T he ma in t ype o fg rave g ood s i n te r red w i th t h e l ow l e ve l e l i te w e re c e ram ic s , w h ich i n te res t ing ly f o rmed , i n m any c a se s , d r ink ing s e t s . T he se may b e r e la ted t op re s t ige a c t iv i t ie s , p ar t icu la r ly ad r ink ing c e remon ia l . Me ta lwo rk i s r e la t ive ly s ca r ce , a nd d id n o t f o rm r egu la r ly r e cu r r ing s e t s

or namen t s , f o rm ing ac l a s s ic o rnamen t h o r izon . T he r i se o f b a r row b u r ia l , c oup led w i th t h e d epo s i t ion o f b ronze a nd i r on w eapon s i nt h e b a r row g rave s a nd t h e c on s truc t ion o f h i l lfo r t s e t t lemen t s , w a s r e la ted t oi n c rea sed h i e ra rch i sa t ion a nd g r ea te rv i s ib i l i ty o ft h ee l i te . T he r ea son s b eh ind t h i s t r an sfo rma t ion l i e i n t h e b ron ze c i rcu la t ion s y s tem , w h ich w a s i nc r is is n o t o n ly i nt h e S ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion , b u t a l so i nm uch o f E u rope d u r ing t h e e i gh th c en tu ry B .C . T h i s i s i n d ica ted b y t h e h oa rd ing

H oweve r t h e re w a s a n u neven d i st r ibu t ion o f b ronze , t h e ma jor i ty o fe xamp les o c cu r r ing i n af ew g raves , w h i ls t mo s t c on ta ined o n ly o ne o r n o b ronze a r tefac t s ( F igu re 3 3 ) . B ronze w a s t h us t h e ma in w ea l th i t em i nt h e L jub l jana a nd R u se g roup s , a s i t w a s i n t r in s ica l ly c apab le o f b e ing t r an sfo rmed f r om mundane t op re s t ige a r tefac t . T he m e ta l i t se lf mo re t h an t h e f o rm i tt ook , w h ich h ad v a lue . T he g r ea te rt h eq uan t i ty o fm e ta li n ag rave , t h e h i ghe rt h e s t a tu s

p henomenon , w h ich i sg ene ra l ly s een a s a r eac t ion t o s ca rc i ty a nd p oo r q ua l i ty o f t h e a va i lab le b ronze s upp ly ( Row land s 1 980 , 1 5-55 ) . T he h oa rd ing p henomenon w a s p re sen t o n ly i nt h e n o r the rn p a r t o f t h e S ou th E a s t A lp ine r eg ion , i ns ou th S ty r ia . Howeve r , g i ven t h a t t h e L jub l jana a nd R ue g roup s w e re i n c l o se p rox im i ty t o t h e a c tua l s ou rce s o f c oppe r , t h e re wa s n o t l i ke ly t o b e as ca rc i ty o f

o f t h e i n d iv idua l o r i n d iv idua ls i n te r red t h e re ( Chap te r 5 , s e c t ion 1 ,s ec t ion 4 ) .

b ronze , a l though i t s q ua l i ty c ou ld h ave d ec l ined . Howeve r , a no ve rabundance o f b ronze i nc i rcu la t ion may h ave l e d t o

T he L jub l jana a nd R ue g roup s w e re l o ca ted i n c l o se p rox im i ty t o t h ec opp e r s ou rc es o f t h ee a s te rn A lp s , w h ich w e re e x ten s ive ly e xp lo i ted b e tween 1 000 B .C . a nd 8 00 B .C .

a s ub sequen t l e ssen ing o f i t s v a lue a s ap re s t ige ma te r ia l . Two s t ra teg ie s w e re t h en a va i lab le t oc omba t t h i s . F i r s t ly h oa rd ing ,p robab ly a s ap roduc to fc on sp icuou sc on sump t ion , w ou ld h ave s e rved t o r emove q uan t i t ies o fb ronze f r om t h e

( Chap te r 1 , s ec t ion 3 : 1 ) , a nd p robab ly h ad a cce ss t o t h e b ronze c i r cu la t ion n e two rk , w h ich f o l lowed t h e ma jo r l i ne o f

s y s tem , w h i ls ti n c rea s ing t h ev a lue o ft h a tw h ich r ema ined i n c i rcu la t ion . A s econd s t ra tegy w a s t o s eek n ew s ou rces o f

c ommun ica t ion a nd b y i n f e rence e xchange , o n w h ich s i te s s uch a sL jub l jana ( Chap te r4 ,s e c t ion 1 : 1a ) a nd P ob ra je a nd

s ca rce m a te r ia l , w h ich w ou ld s upp lemen t t h e e x is t ing p re s t ige m a te r ia l . h on s e rved t h i s p u rpo se i nt h e or namen t h o r izon o f t h e L jub l jana I l b p ha se . I tw a s u sed i nt h e f l a t

R u se ( Chap te r 4 , s ec t ion 1 : 2a a nd 1 : 2b ) w e re s i tua ted . T he c e ram ic a nd me ta lwo rk a s semb lages o f b o th g roup s w e re

c r ema t ion c eme te r ie s o ft h e L jub l jana g roup i nt h e s ame w ay a sb ronze h ad b een i nt h e p reced ing p e r iod . H oweve r , i tw a s u sed d i f f e ren t ly i n t h e b a r row c eme te r ie s . H e re , i r on

r e la ted t o t h o se o f t h e Ha l l s ta t t Bg roup s i nn or the rn I t a ly ( Chap te r 6 , s ec t ion 1 : 1a ) . T he m e ta lwo rk i n p a r t icu la r

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I r on A ge o fS l oven ia w eapon sw e r ed epo s i ted i nt y po log ica l ly m a le g r ave s ,w h i l s t i r on o r namen t s w e re l a rge ly r e s t r ic ted t o t y po log ica l ly f ema le g r ave s , f o re shadow ing t h e d i cho tomy p r e sen ti nt h e g r ave g ood so ft h eE a r ly I r on A ge a f te r7 00 B .C .T he b a r row c eme te r ie sa nd a s soc ia ted h i l lfo r t s w e r e l o ca ted i n i t ia l ly i n B e la K ra j ina , t h e m idd le K rka v a l ley a nd a tK le in—K le in , a l l o f w h ich w e r e p o ten t ia l i r on p roduc ing a r ea s , a l though m any W ie s—Ma r t i janec s i te s w e r e l o ca t ed i n t h e D rava v a l ley ,w h ich p r ev iou s ly c on ta ined m any Rae s i te s ,a nd w a s am a jo r a g r icu l tu ra l a r ea a d jacen t t ot h e c oppe r s ou r ce s o f t h e P oho r je m oun ta in s ( Chap te r 5 ,s e c t ion s 2 ,5 ) . T hu s t h e e l i te w h ich d eve loped a tt h en ew c en t r e s m ay h ave p a r t ia l ly b een f o unded o n c on t ro l o ve r i r on p roduc t ion , a nd w e re d i s t ingu i shed n o t o n ly b y p o s se s s ion o f l a rge q uan t i t ie s o f m a te r ia l ,b u ta l so b y ad i s t inc ta r tef ac ts e t . T he o t he r m a jo r f a c to r i nt h e d eve lopmen t o ft h e n ew e l i te c e n t re sa nd t h e c hange t o i r on u s ing w a st h ei n ten s i f ica t ion a nd e x ten s ion o f l o ng d i s tance p r e s t ige e xchange , w h ich a r o se o u t o f t h e q ue s t f o r p r e s t ige m a te r ia l . T he n a scen t D o len jska a nd W ie s—Ma r t i janec g r oup s b ecame i n teg ra ted i n to t h e e xchange s y s tem a r ound t h eh ead o f t h eA d r ia t ic , a sd i d t h e L jub l jana g r oup f l a t c eme te r ie s . T h i s r e su l ted i n a c ce ss t o n ew e xo t ic m a te r ia l , e i the r i mpo r ted o r c opy ing a r te fac t s f r om n o r the rn I t a ly , a nd i np a r t icu la r f r om E s te , B o logna a nd P i cenum ( Chap te r 6 , s e c t ion 1 : 6 ) . H oweve r , c l o se c on tac tw a s m a in ta ined w i th t h en o r ther nB a lkan s a nd t h e P annon ian P la in , a nd i n deed i n ten s if ied w i th t h e i n t roduc t ion o f t h e t wo— loop ed b ow f i bu la ( Chap te r 6 , s e c t ion 1 : 3b , 1 : 4b ) . G iven t h i s i n ten s i f ica t ion o f e xchange w i th b o th t h e se a r ea s a nd t h e a cqu i s i t ion o fn ew f o rm s f r om b o th ,t h e a c tua lo r ig in o fi r on t e chno logy ,s oi mpo r tan ti nt h e c r ea t ion o f n ew m a te r ia l , i sd i f f icu l t t op i npo in t , i tc ou ld h ave b een d e r ived f r om e i the ra r ea .T he s p r ead o fS ou th E a s t A lp ine or n amen tt y pe si n to t h ee a s te rn A lp s ,t h eI n ne rA lp ine g r oup a nd H a l l s ta t t( Chap te r6 ,s e c t ion s 1 : 2b , 1 : 3b )s u gge s t s t h a t t h eD o len jska g r oup a nd p o s s ib ly t h eW ie s—Ma r t i janec g r oup w e r e a l ready c on cer n ed n o t o n ly w i th t h e l o ca l p roduc t ion o fi r on f o re xchange ,b u ta l so w i th t h ep o s i t ion o f i n te rmed ia ry b e tween t h e s a l t p roduc t ion a r ea o fH a l l s ta t t , t h ec oppe rp roduc t ion s i tes i nt h eI n ne rA lp ine g r oup a nd t h e a mbe r r o u te w h ich r a n d own t h e e a s t A lp ine r im , a nd t h e m a jo rc en t re si nn o r ther nI t a ly ( Chap te r6 ,s e c t ion s2 : 1 ,2 : 2 ) . T he D o len jska E a r ly l i on A ge g r oup w a s c ha rac te r i sed b y b a r row c eme te r ie s a r ound h i l l fo r t c en t r e s , w h ich w e r e s i tua ted i n r e la t ive ly c l o se p rox im i ty t o e ach o t he r . T he m o r tua ry d a ta e xh ib i t s am a rked d i cho tomy i n t h e g r ave g ood s ,w h ich h a sb een t a ken t oi n d ica te as e xua ld i cho tomy , a nd i sb o rne o u t b y t h e l i m i ted o s teo log ica l d a ta a va i lab le ( Chap te r 4 , s e c t ion 4 : 1 ) . F u r the r , t h e r e i se v id ence t h a t m a rked s o c ia l d i f f e ren t ia t ion a l so e x i s ted . F i r s t ly , t h e b a r row sa tm any s i te sc on ta in m u l t ip le b u r ia l s ,w h ich ,b yt h e S t icna 2p ha se o nm o s ts i te s ,a nd t h eS t iena 1p ha se a tS t iCna i t se l f , w e re o r gan i sed o n t h e ' S ippenhüge l ' p r in c ip le ( s ee F igu re 1 ) . T h is i si n d ica t ive o ft h e e x i s tence o fc o rpo ra te d e scen tg r oup s . W i th in t h e se b a r row sc on s ide rab le v a r ia t ion i na r te fac t s e t s d epo s i ted w i th t h ed ead c an b eo b se r ved . A b a s ic t h ree fo ld d i v i s ion c an b e m ade o f t h e t y po log ica l ly m a le g r ave s w h i l s t t y po log ica l ly f ema le g r ave s e xh ib i t a s im i la r d i v i s ion i nt h e S t iena 1a nd S t ie na 2p ha se s , b u t i n

18

l a te rp ha se sh ave o n ly at wo fo ld d i v i s ion . T he l owe s t s t a tu s l e ve l i nb o th c a se s c omp r i se s t h o se g r ave s w i th n o g r ave g ood s o r o n ly c e ram ic s . T he t ypo log ica l ly m a le g r ave s m ay b e d i v id ed i n to g r ave s w i th w eapons s e t s , w i th a p o s s ib le s ubd iv i s ion t o a c coun t f o r t h o se g r ave s w h ich c on ta ined o n ly b e l ts e t s ,a nd t h eh i ghe s ts t a tus l e ve l ,t h ee l i te g r ave s , w h ich c on ta ined i na dd i t ion t ow eapon s s e t s , b r onze v e s se l s , h o r se r i d ing e qu ipmen t a nd b r on ze h e lme t s . T he t y po log ica l ly f ema le g r ave s c on ta ined a c l ea r e l i te g r oup o n ly i n t h e S t ie na 2 p ha se , w hen f ew t y po log ica l ly m a le g r ave s a nd n o t y po log ica l ly m a le e l i te g r ave s a ppea red . U sua l ly t h e t y po log ica l ly f ema le g r ave s c on ta ined s im i la r o r namen t s e t s , w h ich d i f f e r i nq uan t i ty , r a the r t h an t y pe ( Chap te r5 ,s e c t ion 3 : 1 ) . E l i te b u r ia l s w e r en ow c onfmed t o as i ng le b a r row w i th in a c eme te ry . I no ne p ha se e l i te g r ave s w ou ld b e l o ca l i sed i n o ne b a r row , w h ich m igh t c on ta in n one i n t h e n ex t . T h i s i mp l ie s t h a t t h e e l i te w a s n o t n ece s sa r i ly s t ab le h e red i ta ry g r oup , a nd t h a t h i gh s t a tu s w a s d e r ived i n p a r t f r om c omp e t i t ion f o r s o c io—po l i t ica l p owe ra ta ni n t ra— s i te l e ve l . S im i la rc ompe t i t ion c an b eo b served a ta ni n te r s i te l e ve l .T he c e n t re s i nB e la K ra j ina a r o se e a r ly i nt h e s e cond h a l fo ft h e e i gh th c en tu ry B .C . a nd r ema ined i mpo r tan tu pt ot h ee nd o f t h e S t iena 1 p ha se ( 6 50—c . 6 00 B .C . ) , a f te r w h ich t h ey d e c l ined . D u r ing t h e S t iC na 1p ha se , s i te s s u ch a s S t iena , V a ce , a nd Magda len ska g o ra i n w e s ter n D o len jska , a nd f u r the rs i te si nt h eK rka v a l ley ,N ovo m e s to a nd B r ez je , a nd i ne a s ter nD o len j ska ,L ibna ,a l so b ecame i mpo r tan t .T h es i te o fS t iena w a s t h el a rge s ts i ng le c en t r e i nD o len j ska i nt e rm s o fe l i te b u r ia l s a nd s i ze u n t i l t h e e nd o f t h e C e r to sa p ha se ( c i r ca 4 50 B .C . ) , a f te r w h ich b u r ia l c ea sed i nt h e c eme te ry . As im i la rd ec l ine o ccu r r ed i ne a s ter nD o len j ska a nd o nm any s i t e s i n c ent r a l D o len jska . T hey w e r e r e p la ced b y t h e e x i s t ing s i te s o f Magda len ska g o ra a nd V a ee i n w e s ter n D o len j ska ,a nd N ovo m e s to i nt h eK rka v a l ley , a sw e l la sb y s i t e s s u ch a sD o len jske T op l ice , w he r e b u r ia l b egan d u r ing t h eC e r to sa p ha se . T h i s s i tua t ion c on t inued t ot h ee nd o ft h e D o len jska g r oup i nc i r ca 3 00 B .C . ( Chap te r5 ,s e c t ion s 3 : 1 , 3 : 2 ) . T h e f o rm w h ich p r e s t ige c ompe t i t ion c an b e d educed f r om t h ec e ram ic s e t si nt h eg r ave s ,a nd f r om t h ef i gu ra lf r ieze so n b r onz e v e s se l s , t h e s o— ca l led S i tu la A r t c omp lex T he se i n d ica te t h a t ad r ink ing r i tua l w a s c en t ra l t ot h ec ompe t i t ive c y c le , r e la t ing t o c on sp icuou s c on sump t ion . I tw ou ld a l so a pp ea rt h a t av a r ie ty o fc ompe t i t ive s po r t ing e ven t s , s u ch a s c ha r io tr a c ing a nd b ox ing , t o ok p l a ce o n s u ch o c ca s ion s , a s d i d g i f t g i v ing , at h eme t h a t w i l l b e e xam ined b e low . T he e mpha s i s o n t h ec o rpo ra te d e scen t g r oup , t h e s uppo r t o ft h e d e scen t g r oup i n t a k ing p a r t i n t h e p r e s t ige c yc le w a s i mpo r tan tf o rs u c ce s s( Chap t e r5 ,s e c t ion 3 : 1 ;C hap te r8 ) . P r e s t ige g ood s w e re a l so i mpo r tan t w i th in t h i s c omp lex , s e r v ing a st h ey d i da ss p ec if ic m a rke r so fs t a tu s . Much o ft h e p r e s t ige m a te r ia l , w h ich c hanged o ve r t i me , b u t w i th in p r e sc r ibed l i m i t s ,w a sd e r ived f r om ,o ri n sp i red b y ,m a te r ia l f r om e x t ra— reg iona ls ou r ce s .P r es t ige a r tef ac t s w e r ed e r ived s p ec if ica l ly f r om t h e E s te a nd S v . L uc i ja g r oup s i nn o r ther n I t a ly ( Chap te r 6 ,s e c t ion s 1 : 1c , 1 : 1d ) a nd f r om t h e n o r ther n B a lkan s a nd P annon ian P la in ( Chap te r6 ,s e c t ion s 1 : 3c ; 1 : 1

C on c lu s ion 3 d , 1 : 4 c , 1 : 4d ) d u r ing t h e e n t i r e E a r ly I r on A ge p e r iod . T he E a r ly N egova p ha se i n D o len jska w a s n o tab le f o r t h e a ppea ran ce o fe a r ly L a T ene m a te r ia l f r om C en t ra l E u rope i ne l i te c o n tex t s( Chap te r6 ,s e c t ion 1 : 2d ) .T he f i na lp ha se o f t h e D o len j ska g roup ,t h eL a te N egova p ha se , c on ta ined t h e h i gh s t a tu s b u r ia l s , b u t c on t inued t o c on ta in m a te r ia l o f e a r ly L a T ene i n sp i ra t ion i nm o r tua ry l o t s ( Chap te r 5 , s e c t ion 3 : 1 ,C hap te r6 ,s e c t ion 1 : 2d ) . E xchange r e la t ion s w i th t h e se a r ea s r e s ted p a r t ia l ly o n t h e c on t inu ing p roduc t ion a nd s upp ly o fi r on b y t h e D o len jska g roup ( W e l l s 1 985 ,7 7 ) , b u ta l so o nt h er o le o ft h eD o len j ska g roup a s a n i n te rmed ia ry , s upp ly ing r aw m a te r ia l s o f p r e s t ig ev a lue s uch a sa mbe r , c oppe r a nd s a l t . T he r o le o f t h e D o len jska g roup i nt h e s upp ly o fs a l t a nd c oppe rc an b e t r aced b yt h ep resence o fa r tef ac t so fD o len j ska g r oup o r ig in a t t h e m a jo r s a l t p roduc t ion s i t e s a tH a l l s ta t t , a nd t oa l e sse r e x ten tt h eD ü r rnbe rg b e iH aHe in ,a nd a tI n ne rA lp ine g roup s i t e s , s uch a s We lze lach a nd B i scho f sho f enP es t f r iedho f , w h ich w e r e p robab ly a s soc ia ted w i th c oppe r m in ing ( Chap te r 6 ,s e c t ion s 1 : 2c , 1 : 2d ) . T he Ambe r R ou te r a n d own t h e e a s ter n e dge o ft h e A lp s a nd t h e p r e sence o f L jub l jana /Do len jska g r oup m a te r ia l i nT ran sdanub ia a s f a r n o r th a st h e modem n o r ther nb o rde ro fH unga ry f r om a tl e a s t 1 000 B .C . o nwa rd s , s ugge s t s a n a s soc ia t ion w i th t h e s ou the rn p a r t o f t h e r o u te , a s w e l l a s ap o s s ib le i n te re s t i n i r on p r oduc t ion ( Chap te r 6 ,s e c t ion s 1 : 3c , 1 : 3d ) . T h e re fo re s t a tu sm a in tenance a t as i te l e ve la nd v i s-à-v i so t he rc en t r e s w i th in t h eg r oup r e s ted o nc on t ro lo fe x tareg iona le xchange t om a in ta in as upp ly o fr aw m a t e r ia lt os upp ly l o ca lp r e s t ige n eed s a nd t os upp ly e xchange p a r tne r s i ng r oup s a s soc ia t ed w i th h i g h s t a tu s o u t s ide t h e D o len jska g r oup ( Chap te r 6 , s e c t ion s 2 : 1 , 2 : 2 , 2 : 3 ) . T he u l t ima t e c o l lap se o ft h e p r e s t ige c omp lex c an b e i n te rp r e ted i n ar e s t r ic t ion o f a c ce s s t o e xchange n e two rk s i n t h e A lp s a nd P annon ian P la in b y i n c r ea sed p r e ssu re f r om L a T ene B g r oup s m ov ing i n to t h e P annon ian P la in . T h i sr e s t r ic ted a c ce ss t oa mbe ra nd s a l t ,a s w e l l a s a c ce ss t o p r e s t ige m a t e r ia l f r om t h e S zen te sV eke rz ug g r oup i ne a s te rn H unga ry . U l t ima te ly t h er e su l to f t h is p r e s su re c an b e s e en i nt h e c o l lap se o f t h e D o len jska g roup a f te r 3 00 B .C . , a nd t h e p r e sence o f L a T ene C g roup s , p a r t icu la r ly t h e Mok ronog g r oup , i nS l oven ia a f te r t h is d a t e( s ee C hap t e r5 ,s e c t ion 3 : 2 ) . T he W ie s-Ma r t i janec g r oup i ns o u th S t y r ia a nd g t a je r ska e xh ib i t ss im i la rc ha rac te r i s t ic st ot h eD o len jska g r oup d u r ing t h ep e r iod f r om c i r ca 7 00 B .C . t oc i r ca 6 00 B .C . As e r ie so f l o ca l c e n t re s c on s i s t ing o f h i l l fo r t s w i th a s soc ia ted b a r row c eme te r ie s ,s u ch a sK le in-K le in ,L egen n ea rS l oven jG radec a nd P ok e la , e x is ted t h roughou t t h ea r ea . I n i t ia l ly i nt h el a te e i gh th c e n tu ry B .C . , s im i la r s wo rd g r ave s b enea th b a r row s w e r ea l so c ommon t ob o th g roup s ( s ee C hap te r5 ,s e c t ion 2 a nd 5 ) ,b u tt h e r ea f te rt h ey d i ve rged .T h roughou tt h ed u ra t ion o f t h e W ie s-Ma r t i janec g r oup t h e b u r ia l s i te c on s i s ted o f c r ema t ion u nde r b a r row s , b u t , u n l ike t h e D o len j ska g r oup , t h e g r ave g ood s w e r e l a rge ly c ompo sed o f c e ram ic s o rgan i sed i n to d r ink ing s ympo s ium s e t s , a l though t h e f ew m e ta l a s semb lage s e xh ib i ted a n a ppa ren t s e xua l d i cho tomy o nt y po log ica lg round s . E l i te a r te fa c ts e t sw e re p r e sen ti na l l t h ree p ha se s a tK le in-K le in , w he r e t h ey s howed am a rk ed i n c r ea s e i nn umbe r s t owa rd s t h e e nd o ft h e p e r iod , i np ha se

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3 , w h i l s t t h e a c tua l n umbe r s o f b u r ia l s s howed a c o r re spond ing d e c r ea se o ve r t i me . T he e l i te m e ta l a s semb lage s f o l lowed l e s s r i g id r u le s t h an t h e D o len jska g r oup , b u t t h e b r on ze v e s se l s e t s s e em t or e p re sen t m e ta l v e r s ion s o f t h e c e ram ic s ympo s ium s e t . T he b a r row s t h em se lve sw e re o nt h ew ho le n o tu s ed o ve r al o ng p e r iod o f t i me , a nd h ad r e la t ive ly s ma l l m o r tua ry p opu la t ion s , i n d ica t ing t h a t c o rpo ra te d e scen t g r oup s d i d n o t h ave t h e s ame i mpo r tan ce a si nD o len jska ( Chap te r5 ,s e c t ion s 5a nd 6 ) . T he e l i te s y s tem c on ta ined a n e l emen t o f c on sp icuou s c on sump t ion , e v iden ced b y t h e s ympo s ium s e t s , s o t h a t t h e l a te e l i te s e t s w i th l a rge q uan t i t ie s o f b ronze a r e a n u nu sua ld eve lopmen t ,r e la ted t ot h ei n c rea s ing d ependence o f t h e e l i te o no u t s ide s ou r ce s o fp r e s t ige g ood s , p a r t icu la r ly f r om D o len jska a nd n o r ther nI t a ly . T he e l i te s t ruc tu re m ay w e l lh ave b een l e s s s t ab le , a nd i n he r en t ly u nab le t os uppo r t t h e i n c r ea sed r a nk ing a ppa r en t o ve r t h e p e r iod , w h ich m ay h ave , i n p a r t , l e d t o i t s c o l lap se a f te r 6 00 B .C . T h i s p henomenon o ccu r red i n t h e K a lende rbe rg g roup t o t h e n o r th ,b u ta na dd i t iona lf a c to rm ay h ave b een t h ed ependen cy o ft h e e l i te o n p r e s t ige m a te r ia l o fD o len jska g roup o r ig in , w h ich m ay i n d ica te ad eg ree o fs ubo rd ina t ion t oe l i tes i nt h e r e g ion . L i t t le a r chaeo log ica le v iden ce f o rt h ep e r iod b e tween 6 00 B .C . a nd 3 00 B .C . i sk nown , b u t t h e l im i ted m a te r ia l a va i lab le s u gge s t st h a tf l a ti n huma t ion c eme te r ie s ,s im i la rt o t h o se i nt h e K a lende rbe rg a r ea e x i s ted . I n deed , t h e e a r l ie s t L a T en e m a t e r ia l d a t e s t ot h e L a T ene C , a f te r 3 00 B .C . ( Chap te r5 ,s e c t ion 6 ) . E xchange w a s i mpo r tan t i nt h e m a in tenance o ft h e e l i te s i n t h e W ie s-Ma r t i janec g r oup . T he K le in- K le in c en t re w a s s i tua ted i na ni r on r i ch a r ea , w h ich i n f e r sp roduc t ion o fi r on , a s w e l l a s a c ce s s t oa r ab le l a nd a nd t h e b r onze e xchange s y s tem . T h e c on t inua t ion o ft h e L a te B ronze A ge e xchange s y s tem si nt h er e g ion i si mp l ied b yt h ec on cen t ra t ion o fs i te s i nS t a je r ska i nt h eD rava a nd Mu ra v a l ley s ,a sw e l la sa tt h e i n te r f ace w i th t h e D o len jska g r oup a nd i na nd a r ound t h e c oppe rs ou r ce so ft h eP oho r je m oun ta in s ( Chap te r5 ,s e ct ion 6 ) .F o r e ign e xo t ica d e r ived f r om b o th n o r the rn I t a ly ( Chap te r 6 ,s e c t ion 1 : 1c ) a nd t h e D anube R eg ion ( Chap te r 6 ,s e c t ion 1 : 4 c ) ,b u t t h eW ie s-Ma rf i janec g r oup a lway s s howed c l o se l i nk s , p a r t icu la r ly i nc e ram ic s t y le s , w i th t h e K a lende rbe rg g r oup t ot h e n o r th ( Chap te r 6 ,s e c t ion 1 : 3c ) . I tc an b e s e en t h a t a c ce s s t of o r e ign e xo t ica w a s a n i mpo r tan t p a r t o f t h e e l i te s y s tem , b u t h ow f a r t h i s r e la ted t o s t a tu s v i s- ä -v i s o u t s ide e l i te s o r w i th in t h e g r oup i su nce r ta in . I tw ou ld a ppea rt h a tt h em a jo rv eh ic le f o rs t a tu se xp re s s ion w i th in t h e W ie s-Ma r t i janec g r oup w a s r e la ted t o t h e d r ink ing s ympo s ium , a nd n o t , a s i n t h e D o len jska g r oup , t o p o s se ss ion o fs p ec i f ic e l i te a r tefac ts e t s . T he a bove i si n tend ed t os umma r i se a nd h i gh l igh t t h e m a in p o in t si d en t i f ied i nt h ed i scu ss ion a nd a na ly s i si nC hap te r s4 , 5a nd 6 .A n umbe ro fa venue so fr e sea rch a r eo pen t of u r the r u nde r s t and ing o f t h e s o c ia l o r gan i sa t ion a nd e xchange s y s tem si nt h eS ou th E a s tA lp ine R eg ion i nt h ep e r iod u nde r d i scu s s ion . F i r s t ly t h e p ub l ica t ion o fm o re r e cen t c eme te ry e xcava t ion s w i l l p rov ide f u r the r t e s t s f o r t h e m ode l p r opo sed h e re . S econd ly t h e c on t inued d eve lopmen t o f

I r on A ge o fS l oven ia s e t t lemen t s t ud ie s i n t h e r eg ion w i l l h opefu l ly p rov ide e v idence o fh i e ra r chy w i th in s e t t lemen t s a nd t h e n a tu re a nd e x ten t o f e conom ic a c t iv i t ies c a r r ied o u t . F ina l ly , s ome a t ten t ion mu s tb e g i ven t ot h en a tu re o fs e t t lemen th i e ra rchy , t h e h i n te r land o ft h e l o ca l c en t res a nd t h e w ay i nw h ich t h ey r e la te t oo ne a no the r .

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CHAPTER 1 0 RECENT TRENDS D I LATE BRONZE AGE AND EARLY I RON AGE S TUDIES I N THE SOUTHEASTERN ALP INE REG ION S ince t h i s t h es i s w a s s ubm i t ted i n 1 987 , t h e re h a s b een a

( 5 9-78 ) , Onnoi ( 7 8-82 ) , P tu jska g o ra ( 82-84 ) , Go rn ja

c on s ide rab le a moun t o f f i e ldwo rk e ar ned o u t i n t h e S ou thea s te rn A lp ine r eg ion a nd an umbe r o fi mpo r tan t s i tes a nd s yn the ses h ave b een p ub l i shed . T h is n ew i n fo rma t ion d oe s n o t c hange t h e e s sen t ia l c onc lu s ion s a nd i n deed c on f i rm s an umbe r o f t h e h ypo the ses , p a r t icu la r ly t h o se c once rn ing s e t t lemen t p a t te rn ing , w h ich Ir e ached i n 1 987 .

R adgona ( 84-90 ) , B ened ik t ( 90 ) , R ifn ik ( 90-106 ) , C e l je ( 106-108 ) , G r iie ( 108-112 ) , S en t jani n ea r R eC ica ( 1 1214 ) , S t rmec a bove D obma ( 1 14-115 ) a nd t h e S loven j

T he a im o ft h i sc hap te ri st op resen t ar ound—up o ft h i sn ew ly p ub l i shed i n fo rma t ion a nd t o b r ief ly e xam ine h ow t h i s r e la tes t h e ma jo rc en t re s d ef ined i nt h e ma in b ody o ft h e t e x t . Iw i l l a t temp tt og i ve a no verv iew o ft h i s d a ta a si tr e la te s t o t h e W ie s— Ma r t i janec g roup a nd t h e D o len jska g roup i n

G radec c omp lex ( 1 15-118 ) . I tc an b es een f r om t h i s a na ly s is t h a tt h e t a jer ska g roup w a s f o rmed o n t h e b as is o f t h e p receed ing R ue Umf ie ld g roup ( Pha se I )i nt h e l a te 9 t h a nd e a r ly 8 t h c en tu r ie s B .C . ( Pha se I ) a nd c an b e s ubd iv ided i n to t wo r eg iona l v a r ian t s . T he s ou ther nv a r ian t i sl o ca ted i nt h e S av in ja v a l ley w i th ama jo r r eg iona l c en t re a t R ifn ik , w h i l s t t h e n or ther n v a r ian t i s

S loven ia , a st h en ew d a ta f o rA u s t r ian S ty r ia a nd C a r in th ia i s s t i l l l a rge ly u npub l ished a nd i s , t h e refo re , n o t a va i lab le f o r c on s ide ra t ion .

l o ca ted i nt h e D rava b a s in w i th ar eg iona l c en t re a tP oke la . T h is s econd v a r ian t g roup i sc l o se ly r e la ted t o t h e ma jo r c en t re o f K le in—K le in i nt h e S u 1m v a l ley i nA u s t r ian S ty r ia . P ha se I i sc on tempo ra ry w i th L jub l jana I i n c en t ra l a nd

T he Wie s— Mar t i janec G roup

e a s te rn S loven ia a nd a l so e xh ib i t s e v idence o f a n o rnamen t h o r izon a tR ue a nd O rmoi . T h i s i sa l so t h e p e r iod , i nw h ich

T he m a in n ew w o rk , w h ich r e la te s t ot h is g roup , i st h a to fB .

t h e h o r izon o f s wo rd g r aves i nb a r rows a ppea r s t h roughou t t h e E a s te rn Ha l l s ta t t a r ea a nd i nt h e D o len jska g roup . P ha se

T er ian . T h is s yn thes is , e n t i t led ' S ta re ja i e lezna d oba n a S loven skem .t a je r skem ( The E a r ly I r on A ge i n S loven ian S tyr ia ) ' , w a s p ub l i shed i n 1 990 a nd r ep re sen t s ad e ta i led a na ly s i so ft h ee x is t ing mo r tua ry d a ta , w h ich i sm en t ioned i n t h e a bove t e x t , a s w e l l a s ar e con s ide ra t ion o f t h e e x is t ing s e t t lemen td a ta i nt h e l i gh to fn ew i n fo rma t ion f r om s ome o f t h e h i l l fo r t s i tes , e . g . t h e d a ta f r om r e cen t t r ia l t r ench ing a t P oke la , P tu j , O rmoi , G or n ja R adgona , R ifn ik a nd an umbe r o f s ma l le r s i tes i n t h e r eg ion ( Ter ian 1 990 , 2 5-55 ) . U n for tuna te ly , s e t t lemen tc h rono logy i sm a r red b y t h en a tu r e o f t h e e xcava t ion s . T he se w e re a l l s ma l l— sca le a nd w e re c a r r ied o u t u s ing t h e a r b i ta ry s p i t m e thod , w h ich l e ad s t o p rob lem si na s s ign ing f i nd st oc on tex t s( Te rian o p .c i t . 5 0 ) . I t i si n te re s t ing t os ee t h a t t h e s e t t lemen t s a r e g ene ra l ly d a ted f r om t h e H a B 1 p e r iod a nd s ome o ft h em w e re c on t inuou s ly

I I c ove r s t h e e n t i r e H a C a nd H a D 1 p e r iod s a nd i s c on tempo ra ry w i th K le in—K le in I a nd I I a nd P oke la I a nd I I . I ti sm a rked b yi n c rea s ing e v idence o fs t ra t if ica t ion i nt h e mo r tua ry r eco rd a nd t h e f i na l c o l lap se o f t h e g roup i n t h e e a r ly 6 t h c en tu ry B .C . P ha ses I V a nd V a r e ma rked b y a n a bandonnmen t o f b a r row b u r ia l a nd a f ew r a re f l a t i n huma t ion g rave s ( 1 18-122 ) . T he re f o l low s ad e ta i led a na ly s i s o ft h en e ighbou r ing K le in— K le in g roup i nt h e A u s t r ian S u lm v a l ley a nd t h e d eve lopmen t o f t h e i d ea o f as up e r r e g iona l c omp lex , t h e K le in—G le in — Ma r t i janec g roup , t h e o ld W ie s— Ma r t i janec g roup o f G ab rovec ( 122-123 ) . T h is d oes i n deed s eem t ob e ab e t te r t e rm f o r t h is c omp lex a nd Iw ou ld s ugges t i t s a dop t ion a s a r ep lacemen tf o rt h eo ld t e rm . T he a na lys i so ft h e S u 1m v a l ley

i n hab i ted u n t i l t h e H a D I p er iod , a pa r t f r om t h e R ifn ik h i l lfo r t , w he re o ccupa t ion c on t inued i n to t h e6 t h a nd p o ss ib ly

c omp lex f o l low s t h e D ob ia t c h rono log ica l s cheme ( s ee a bove ) , b u t p ay s c l o se a t ten t ion t ot h e d i f f e rence s i nb u r ia l r i te , s ugges t ing t h e p r e sence o f d i f f e ren t k i n sh ip g roups i n d i f fe ren t b a r row g roup s . T he a u tho re ss t h en g oes o n t o d eve lop t h e i d ea o fi n c rea s ing s oc ia l s t ra t if ica t ion o ve rt ime , r each ing i t s c l imax i nt h e p hase i mmead ia te ly p r io r t o t h e

t h e5 t hc en tu r ie sB .C . ( Ter ian o p .c i t . 5 4-55 ) . T he p rob lem o f l ow land s e t t lemen t w a s n o t c on s ide red i n t h i s s yn the s i s , r e ly ing a s i t d oe s o n e x i s t ing d a ta . H oweve r , r e cen t f i e ld su rvey o f t h e p ropo sed mo to rway r ou te i nt h e S av in ja v a l ley g i ves s ome i n d ica t ion o f t h e e x i s tence o f l ow land s e t t lemen t i n t h e E a r ly I r on A ge , a t l e a s t i n p a r t o f t h e r eg ion .

c omp le te a bandonnmen t o f t h e b a r row c eme te ry i nt h e e a r ly 6 t h c en tu ry B .C . S he a l so s ugge s t s t h e p o ss ib i l i ty o f

T he m a in e mpha s is o f t h e w o rk i sp laced o n t h e o r ig in s ,

s ac r if ic ia l f ema le b u r ia ls i n t h e r i che r ' p r ince ly ' b a r rows ( 124-142 ) . S im i la r a na ly s is i su nde r taken o n t h e s i te s i nt h e

d ef in i t ion a nd c h rono logy o f t h e S ta je r ska E a r ly h on A ge g roup o n t h e b a s is o ft h e mo r tua ry d a ta f r om t h e m a jo r s i te s

S ty r ian R aab b a s in , t h e C roa t ian r eg ion s o f P od rav ina , Med imu r je a nd S lavon ia , T ran sdanub ia i n H unga ry , t h e

i n§ ta je r ska a nd t h e i r c ompa r i son w i th c l o se ly r e la ted s i te s a nd g roup s o f n e ighbou r ing a r ea s . T he re a r e n o n ew s i te s

Ka lende rbe rg g roup i nt h e S op ron a r ea o f H unga ry , L owe r A u s t r ia a nd B u rgen land a nd t h eC a r in th ian g roup .

g i ven i n t h e § ta je r ska r eg ion a nd t h e a na lys is i s ma in ly T he K le in—K le in Ma r t i janec g roup c an b e s ubd iv ided i n to a

c once rned w i th t h er e con s truc t ion o fg rave l o t sf r om 1 9 th a nd e a r ly 2 0 th c en tu ry e xcava t ion s w i th a l l o f t h e r e su l tan t p rob lem s o f i n comp le te d a ta , w h ich t h e a u tho re ss e mpha s i se s . I n s p i te o f t h is , s he h a s b een a b le t op a r t ia l ly

n umbe r o f l o ca l g roup s : t h e S av in ja g roup ; t h e D rava b a s in g roup , i n c lud ing t h e Mu ra a nd S u lm b a s in s i nA u s t r ia a nd p o ss ib ly t h e P od rav ina a nd Med imu r je s i te s ( a l though t h ese may b e long t o t h e n ex t g roup ) ; t h e S ou th P annon ian g roup

r e con s t ruc t t h e b a r row g roup s a nd f l a tc eme te r ie s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e ma jo rh i l lfor ta nd /o r mo r tuary c omp lexe s o f Pd s te la

i n c lud ing s i tes i ns ou ther n T ran sdanub ia , t h e R aba b a s in a s

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I r on A ge o fS l oven ia f a ra st h eD anub e , t h eD anub eb end a nd t h es i te o fK ap to li n S l avon ia . T he r e a r e t wo r e la ted , b u t d i s t inc t g r oup s , t h e K a lende rbe rg g r oup , w h ich b o rde r s t h e K le in—K le in — Ma r t i janec g r oup a l ong t h e u ppe r a nd c en t ra l R aba a nd t h e C a r in th ian g r oup t ot h e w e s t ,c e n t r ed o nt h es i te o fF rog n ea r R o segg i nt h eu ppe rD rau ( D rava )v a l ley ( 2 04-208 ) . T h e c h rono log ica l a nd r e g iona l d i s t r ibu t ion s o f t h e se E a r ly I r on A ge g r oup s a r e c onv in c ing a nd I d o n o t i n tend t o c on s ide r t h em f u r the r i n t h i s c hap te r . H oweve r , t h e i n te rp r e ta t ion o ft h eb u r ia l r i t e a nd t h e s o c ia l s y s tem , w h ich l a yb eh ind i ti ss omewha tc on ten t iou s . T he re i se v idenc e f o r d oub le b u r ia l s ,b u tt h e se h ave o n ly b een s e xed o nt y po log ica l g r ound s a nd m o s t o f t h e g r ave l o t s a r e i n comp le te . O n t h e o ne h and t h ea u tho re ss a r gue si nf a vou ro fr i tua ls a c r i f ice o f f ema le s t o a c company r i ch m a le b u r ia l s a t K le in—K le in , w h i l s t o n t h e o t h e r h and s h e a r gue s f o r t h e p r e sence o f f ema le r i tua ls p ec ia l i s t si nt h es ame c eme te ry o nt h eb a s i so f s im i la r h i gh s t a tu s , t y po log ica l ly f ema le b u r ia l s i nt h e t h e K a lende rbe rg g r oup . T he p r ob lem l i e s i nt h e l a ck o fw e l l— e xcava ted m o r tua ry s i te s . T he r i ch ' p r ince ly ' b a r row s a t K le in—K le in f e a tu red c en t ra ls t one c hambe r sw i th w a l led a nd p aved a c ce s s p a s sage s . T he r e i sn o r e a son t os uppo se t h a t f ema le , o rf o r t h a t m a t te rm a le b u r ia l s c ou ld n o t h ave b een i n se r ted o ve r ar e la t ive ly l o ng p e r iod o f t i me . T he r e i sn o n eed t op o s i tt h ee x i s tence o fs ome f o rm o fH a l l s ta t t' s u t tee ' o nt h eb a s i so ft h i se v idenc e . As e r ie so fs t a tu sg r oup sc an b e d i s t ingu shed , b u t t h e n a tu re o f t h i s s t ra t if ied s o c ia l o r gan i sa t ion i sn eve r o ve r t ly a r t icu la ted . T he e nd o f t h e g r oup i nt h e m id 6 t h c en tu ry B .C . i sg i ven i nt e rm s o ft h e t r ad i t iona lv i ew o ft h ec e s sa t ion o fs e t t lemen to c cupa t ion a nd b a r row b u r ia l a t t h e s ame t i me , d ue a n u ndef ined c a ta s t rophe , v a r iou s ly a t t r ibu ted t os ome f o rm o fe p idem ic o r ac a ta s t roph ic r a id f r om t h e s t eppe r e g ion o f t h e C a rpa th ian B a s in ( Te r zan o p .c i t . 18 ) . Ic on s ide rt h a ts u ch a n h ypo the s is i su n l ik e ly a nd t h a tt h er e a son sf o rt h ec o l lap se o f t h i s g r oup m ay b e m o r e p rof i tab ly s ough t i n t h e i n ten s i f ica t ion o f s o c ia l s t ra t if i ca t ion , w h ich i sa ppa r en t i n t h e i n c r ea se i n t h e n umbe r s o f e x t r eme ly r i ch g r ave s , p a r t i cu la r ly a tK le in—K le in , c oup led w i th ad e c r ea se i nt h e o ve ra l l n umbe r s o f t h e b u r ia l p opu la t ion . T h i s i n d ica te s s t r e s s i nt h e e x i s t ing s o c ia l s y s tem , a no ve r—exp lo i ta t ion o f t h e r e sou r ce b a se , w h ich c oup led w i th ar e a l ignmen t o ft h e e x change n e two rk s a nd a n i n c rea s ing d ependan cy o n t h e D o len jska g r oup f o r p r e s t ige m a te r ia l s ( e i the r a s i n te rmed ia r ie s o r a s m anu fa c tu re r s ) , u l t ima te ly l e d t o t h e c o l lap se o ft h e e l i te s i nt h e E a s te rn A lp ine H a l l s ta t t g r oup a nd t h e a ppea r ence o f f l a t i n huma t ion c eme te r ie s i ns ome a r ea sf r om t h em id 6 t hc en tu ry BC o nwa rd s . T he L jub l jana G roup a nd t h eD o len jska G roup T he a moun t o f a va i lab le i n fo rma t ion o n t h e se t wo c h rono log ica l ly s u cce s s ive g r oup s h a s e xpanded d r ama t ica l ly i nt h e l a s t t e n y ea r s . T h i s i n fo rma t ion c ome s f r om t h r ee m a in s ou r ce s : t h ep ub l ica t ion o fo l de re xcava t ion s f r om t h e l a te 1 9 th a nd 2 0 th c en tu r ie s ( e .g . D ob rn iC , 8 . ' ma r je ta /V in j iv r h , S t iCna ) ; t h ec on t inu ing r e scue e xcava t ion o f m o r tua ry a nd s e t t lemen t s i te s , p a r t icu la r ly i n t h e i mmead ia t ev i c in i ty o fN ovo m e s to ;t h eF o r t if ied P reh i s to r ic S e t t lemen t si nD o len jska r e sea r ch p ro jec t , w h ich i sc u r ren t ly

b e ing u nde r taken b y t h e I n s t i tu te o f A r chaeo logy o f t h e S l oven ian A cademy o f A r t s a nd S c ience s ( SAZU ) . T he se n ew a dd i t ion s t ot h e d a ta b a se w i l l b ec on s ide r ed u nd e rt h e h ead ing so fm o r tua ry a nd s e t t lemen td a ta . Mor tuary D a ta An umbe r o fm o r tua ry s i te s a r e n ow a va i lab le f o r a na ly s i s , a s ar e su l to fn ew p ub l ica t ion s . T he m o s ti mpo r tan to ft h e se a r e t h e b a r row c omp lex o f D ob rn iC ( Pa r z inge r , H . 1 989 , 5 29-635 )a nd t h em o r tua ry c omp lexe sa tN ovo m e s to ( I Cnez , T .1 986 ; 1 993 ;K r ii 1 995 ) . D obrn iC T he D obm ic b a r row c omp lex c on s i s t so ft wo b a r row g r oup s , D ob rava a nd R eva , w h ich a r e l o ca ted , r e spe c t ive ly , t ot h e s ou th w e s t a nd t h e n o r th e a s t o f t h e C v inge r h i l lfo r t ( 7 00 m2) .T h e D ob rava g r oup a nd p a r t o f t h e R eva g roup w e r e p a r t ia l ly e xcava ted i n1 884 , 1 897 a nd 1 898 b yJ eme jP e Cn ik , w ho s e n t t h e m a te r ia l f r om 2 34 g r ave s i n2 8 b a r row s t o V ienna ,l a t e re xcava t ion so nt h eD ob rava g r oup i n1 898 a nd t h e i n terwa r y ea r s p roduced m a te r ia l , w h ich i sk ep t i nt h e N a rodn i m uze j i n L jub l jana , u n fo r tuna te ly w i thou t g r ave c on t ex t s ( V . S t a re , 1 973 , 7 44-779 ) . T he 1 989 p ub l i ca t ion d ea l sw i th t h e2 34 g r ave sf r om 2 8b a r row s ,w h ich a r ek ep ti n V ienna . B a r row s 1 19 , 2 1 , 2 4 , 2 7 a nd 2 8 a r e p a r t o f t h e D ob rava g r oup , w h i l s tb a r row s 2 0 ,2 2 , 2 3 ,2 5 a nd 2 6b e long t ot h eR eva g r oup . T h en umbe ro fg r ave sp e rb a r row r a nge s f r om 3 6 i nb a r row 1 8 t o 1i nb a r row s 6 ,2 2 , 2 3 , 2 5 , 2 6 . H oweve ri ts h ou ld b en o ted t h a tt h e s t anda rd s o fe xcava t ion a nd r e co rd ing w e r e s u ch t h a t g r ave s m ay w e l l h ave g one u n reco rded ,i n d eed t h ep r ac t ic e o fe xcava t ing at r ench i nt h e c e n t r e o f ab a r row , i no rd e r t of i nd ac en t ra l b u r ia l , w h ich w a s ap a r t icu la r f e a tu re o fP eCn ik ' s e xcava t ion s , o f ten l e f t m any g r ave s u n excava ted ( Pa rz inge r 1 989 , 5 32 ; K ra , p e r s . c omm ) . I ti sc l ea r t h a t w e a r e d ea l ing w i th a n i n comp le te s amp le o f t h e m o r tua ry p opu la t ion , w h ich n eve r the le s s a l low s s ome c on c lu s ion s a bou t t h em o r tua ry c omp lex i t s e l f . T he b a r row c omp lex b egan i nt h e s e cond h a l f o f t h e 8 t h c en tu ry B .C . ( Podzeme l j 1 -2 p ha se ) a nd r e ached ad i s t in c t f l o ru i t i nt h e S t iCna 1p ha se w i th t h er i ch e l i te g r ave s i nt h e R eva g r oup ( 2 0 / 1 , 2 2 / 1 , 2 3 / 1 ) , a l though w eapon s g r ave s o f t h e s ame d a te a r e a l so f o und i nt h e D ob rava g r oup . B u r ia l c on t inued i n to t h e l a t e 5 t hc en tu ry B .C . a nd w eapon s g r ave s c on t inued t o f o rm a n i mpo r tan t p a r t o f t h e mo r tua ry p opu la t ion u n t i lt h ee nd o ft h eN egova p ha se .H oweve r ,t h e r e i so n ly as i ng le e l i te g r ave i nt h e l a te r p e r iod , t h e C e r to sa p ha se h e lme tg r ave 5i nb a r row 7 .T he r e a r en oe l i te g r ave s w i th af u l lr a nge o fe l i te a r te fa c t s ,f o ri n s tanc eb r onze v e s se l s a r e c omp le t e ly a b sen t f r om t h e e xcava t ed g r ave s . T he D obm ic m o r tua ry c omp lex c an t h u sb e a s s igned t ot h eg r oup o f l e s se r e l i te c e n t r e s , s u ch a s B ru sn ice a nd p o s s ib ly D o len jsk eT op l ice ( s ee c hap te r 2a nd 3a bove ) . N ovo m e s to T he r e cen t w o rk o n t h eN ovo m e s to c eme te r ie sh a s r e su l ted i n a m a jo r r e v i s ion o f t h e p o s i t ion o f t h i s m o r tua ry / se t t lemen t c omp lex . T he c on t inued r e scue e xcava t ion o nt h em o r tua ry s i te o f Me s tne n j ive h a sr e su l ted

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R ecen tT r end si nL a te B ron ze A ge a nd E ar ly I r on A ge S tud ie si nt h eS ou theas tern A lp ine r eg ion i nt h e d i scovery o f3 95 H a Bg ave s , w h ich make s t h i s o ne o f t h e l a rge s t k nown u rn f ie ld c eme te r ie s i nS loven ia . Af u r the r 5 2 H a Bg rave s h ave b een f ound d u r ing t h e c ou r se o f t h e r e scue e xcava t ion s o ft h e K ap i te l jske n j ive b a r row c eme te ry ( Kr i 1 995 , 1 0-16 ) . I ti sn o t y e t c l ea r w he the r t h e se s i tes r ep re sen t t wo s epa ra te c eme ter ies o rp a r t o f al a rge r , s i ng le e n t i ty t ot h ei mmead ia te n or th o ft h e Ma ro fh i l lfo r t . T he K ap i te l jske n j ive b a r row c eme te ry i s al a rge c omp lex o f a t l e a s t e i gh t b a r row s , w h ich p a r t ia l ly c ove r t h e H a B c r ema t ion c eme te ry i nt h e s ame a r ea . T he s i te i st h rea tened b y a g r icu l tu ra l a c t iv i t ies a nd mo s t o f t h e b a r row s h ave a l ready b een b een c omp le te ly l e ve led b y p lough ing . T o ta l r e scue e xcava t ion h a s b een u nde rway s i nce 1 987 a nd s even

e l i te g rave s f r om e very p ha se o f t h e D o len jska g roup h ave b een f ound d u r ing t h e e xcava t ion s h e re ( K r ii , p e r s . c omm ) . T hu s t h e b a r row c eme tery c l ea r ly d emon s t ra te s t h e c on t inu i ty b e tween t h e E a r ly l i on A ge a nd t h e p receed ing L a te B ronze A ge i n t h e a r ea . T he n a tu re o f t h e p r ima ry b u r ia l i nB a r row Ia l so s how s ac l o se s im i la r i ty t ot h e o the r p r ima ry E a r ly h on A ge e l i te b u r ia ls i n t h e E a s te rn A lp ine r e g ion , w h ich s ugge s t s t h a t t h e g ene s i s o f t h e D o len jska g roup w a s n o t i n i t ia l ly v e ry d i f f e ren t f r om t h e t h a t o f t h e o t he rE a r ly h on A ge g roup s t ot h e n o r th a nd e a s t . H oweve r , i ti sc l ea r t h a t t h e ' S ippenhüge l ' b u r ia l p a t ter n w a s q u ick ly a dop ted i n t h e v e ry e a r l ie s t s t age s o f t h e g roup , w h ich i s c l ea rf r om t h e p o s i t ion o ft h e e l i te g rave 1 6 w e l l a way f r om t h e c en t re o f t h e b a r row a nd c u t b y l a te r g rave s 1 4 a nd 1 5

b a r rows , a s w e l l a s al a rge L a Une c r ema t ion c eme te ry h ave b een e xcava ted i nt h i s t ime . O n ly o ne b a r row h a s s of a r

( Knez o p .c i t . 11) .

b een p ub l ished ( Knez 1 993 ) . T he b a r row h a s ap ub l ished mo r tuary p opu la t ion o f 4 4 g raves , a l though s ome mo re g rave s b e long ing t o t h is b a r row w e re e xcava ted a f te r t h e d ea th o f t h e t h en d i rec to r T one K nez ( Kr ii p e r s . c omm . ) . T h is b a r row i se x t reme ly i mpor tan t a s i tc on ta in s ac en t ra l d rys tone c hambe r , s im i la r t o t h o se f ound e l sewhe re i n t h e E a s te rn A lp ine r eg ion d u r ing t h e LBA /E IA t r an s i t ion a sw e l l a s aw ea l thy e l i te w eapon s g rave , w h ich i s d a ted t o t h e s econd h a lf o f t h e 8 t h c en tu ry BC ( Knez 1 993 , 2 3-24 ) . B u r ia l c on t inued u n t i l t h e e nd o f t h e E a r ly I r on A ge i nt h is b a r row a nd w i th in t h eb a r row c eme te ry a s aw ho le . I n deed ,

T he K and i ja b a r row c eme tery w a s f u l ly p ub l ished i n 1 986 ( Knez 1 986 ) , a l though o ne b a r row a nd i nd iv idua l g rave s w e re a l ready a va i lab le f o rs t udy . T h is g roup i sc ompo sed o f at o ta lo fs i x b a r row so fw h ich f ou ra r ef u l ly p ub l ished i nt h i s w o rk ( t he r ema inde r r ep re sen t o ld p ub l i shed e xcava t ion s , o r w e re a l ready d es t royed ) . T he mo r tua ry p opu la t ion s i n t h e b a r rows a r e r e la t ive ly s ma l l f o r t h e Novo m es to c omp lex a nd f o rt h eD o len jska g roup a s aw ho le ( Ba r row I :3 1 g raves , 1e l i te g rave ; B a r row I : 2 2 g raves , 2e l i te g rave s ; B a r row I I : 3 3 g rave s , 1e l i te g rave ; B a r row I V : 3 2 g rave s , 2e l i te g rave s ) . A l l o f t h e g raves f r om t h ese f ou r ' S ippenhüge l '

Map 1 9 : L a te B ronze A ge a nd E a r ly I r on A ge s i te s i nt h e Novo m es to a r ea .

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I r on A ge o fS l oven ia b a r row s c an b e d a ted t o t h e S e rpen t i fo rm , C e r to sa , E a r ly N egova a nd L a te N egova p ha se s , t h a t i st ot h e l a te rp a r to f t h eD o len jska g r oup .T he e l i te g r ave sd a te t ot h eC e r to sa a nd E a r ly N egova p ha se s a nd a r ef o und i na l l f o u rb a r row s . T he p r ev iou sp ub l i shed g r ave sf r om t h eK and i ja b a r row c eme te ry ( Gab rovec 1 960 , 2 7-79 ; 1 968 , 1 57-188 ) w i th t h e Ma len gek b a r row ( Gu g t in a nd T e rian 1 977 ,7 7-89 )r e p r e sen t as pan o f e l i te b u r ia l f r om t h e S t iaa 1 p ha se t h roug h t o t h e S e rpen t ifo rm p ha se . R e-exam ina t ion o f t h e m a te r ia l f r om o ne o f t h e S t i8i n a 1e l i te g r ave s h a s s h own t h a t i ta l so c on ta in s w aggon p a r t s ( Te ri an 1 990 , 8 ) . I ti st h u s a ppa r en t t h a t t h e K and i ja b a r row c eme t e ry i ss im i la r i n s i ze a nd c h rono log ica l e x ten t t o t h e K ap i te l j ske n j ive b a r row c eme te ry , e ven d own t ot h e p r e sence o f a n a s so c ia ted L a T 6ne f l a tc eme te ry ( Knez 1 986 ,2 5-26 ) . T he s pa t ia lo r gan i sa t ion o ft h eN ovo m e s to c an n ow b em uch b e t te r u nde r s tood ( Map 1 9 ) . T he m a in s e t t lemen t /mo r tua ry c omp lex o f t h e H a BL jub l jana g r oup w a s c e n t r ed o n t h e Ma ro f s i te o n t h e l e f t b ank o f t h e r i ve r K rka w i th a n a s soc ia ted c eme te ry o r c eme te r ie s o n Me s tne n j ive a nd K ap i te l jske n j ive a nd as ma l le r , e a r l ie rc eme te ry a tB re in . L im i ted e xcava t ion o n t h e Ma ro f h i l l fo r t h a s s h own t h a t t h e re i s aL a te B ron ze A ge s e t t lemen t p ha se o n t h e s i te , w h ich e x tend s s ou th o ft h e l a te rE a r ly I r on A ge f o r t i f ica t ion ( K ra 1 995 , 1 0 ) . T he Ma ro f h i l l fo r t r e p re sen t s t h e o n ly k nown E a r ly I r on A ge s e t t lemen t w i th in t h e c omp lex . T he i s o la ted b a r row s i nt h eN ovo m e s to a r ea p robab ly r e p r e sen t t h e d e f in i t ion o f t h e n a r row c o r e a r ea d om ina ted b y t h e Ma ro fc en t re ( Ma son 1 992 , 3 2-39 ) T he b a r row c omp lex o n K ap i te l jske n j ive b egan i nt h e s e cond h a l fo ft h e 8 t hc e n tu ry B .C . , d i re c t ly o n t o p o f t h e p r e ceed ing L jub l jana g r oup c eme te ry . T he K and i ja c omp lex i sl o ca ted l o ca ted o n t h e r i g h t b ank o f t h e K rka a nd b egan a t t h e s t a r t o f t h e 7 t h c en tu ry B .C . B o th c eme te r ie sc on t inued i nu se t h roughou tt h e E a r ly I r on A ge a nd w e r e s u c ceeded b y L a T 6ne f l a t c eme te r ie s . T he p r e sence o f c on tempo ra ry e l i te g r ave s i n b o th b a r row c eme te r ie s r e in fo r ce s t h e h ypo the s i s t h a t t h e D o len jska g r oup w a s c ha rac te r i sed b y al e s s r i g id e l i te s t ruc tu r e o r w a s l e s s s t ra t i f ied t h an t h e h i e ra r ch ica l H a C g r oup si nt h eE a s ter nA lp ine r e g ion ( s ee a bove ) . S e t t lemen tD a ta T h en ew ly a va i lab le s e t t lemen td a ta c ome sf r om an umbe ro f d i f f e ren t s ou r ce s . T he f i r s t r e p r e sen t s t h e p ub l ica t ion o f s t and ing m onumen t s u rvey s , r e la ted t o i n d iv idua l m o r tua ry / se t t lemen tc omp lexe s ,e . g .B rez je n ea rT r ebe lno ( J . D u la r a nd K r iZ 1 990 , 5 31-556 ) a nd S ma r je ta /V in j i v r h ( Du la r , A . 1 991 ) . T he s e cond c on s i s t s o ft h e p ub l ica t ion o f s h o r t i n te r im r e po r t s o rf u l l e xcava t ion r e po r t s f r om r e scue e xcava t ion s o r s i ng le s i te b a sed r e sea r ch p r o jec t s , e . g . C v inge rn ea rD o len jske T op l ice ( K ra ' 1 992 , 8 1-90 ) ,G radec a bove M ihovo ( B re ak 1 990b , 1 0 5106 ) , K o r in j sk i h r ib ( C ig leneCk i 1 985 , 2 55-284 ; 1 990 , 1 07110 ) , K uCa r a bove P odzeme l j ( J . D u la r 1 990 , 3 1-34 ; J .D u la r e t a l . , 1 996 ) , § t a r i g r ad a bove P odbo C je ( Gu g t in e t a l . , 1 993 , 1 7-49 ) , S ume je ( B re ak 1 990c , 1 1-112 ) . C on t inu ing w o rk o n t h e A r chaeo log ica l T opog raphy o fS l oven ia ( ANSL )r e su l ted i n t h e p ub l ica t ion o f a r e g iona l s t udy o f t h e e l even th t o pog raph ica l r e g ion , B e la l c r a j i r ia , i n 1 985 . T h i s s u rvey

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i d en t if ied f o u rn ew h i l l fo r ts i te so nt h eu p land r im ,V e l ik iv r h a bove D o len j i S uho r , S emen iC a bove G ab e rn ea rS em i, S v . K ra 'a bove S t rai n j iv r h a nd G rad igC e a bove G o r ica , a sw e l l a s t h e V e se l ica h i l lfo r t d i r ec t ly a bove t h e h i s to r ica l t own c e n t r eo f Me t l ika ( J .D u la r1 985 ) . T he t h i rd s ou r ce o f s e t t lemen t d a ta c ome s f r om t h e a bove m en t ioned S AZU p ro jec t' F o r t if i ed p r eh i s to r ic s e t t lemen t si n D o len j ska ' . T h i sp r o jec ta r o se f r om t h eS t idna p ro je c t ,w h ich i sn ow b e ing p ub l i shed i nf u l l( Gab rovec 1 994 ) .I ti sa imed a t r e cove r ing ar e g iona lp i c tu r eo ft h ec o lon i sa t ion p roc e s se si n t h e l i on A ge i nD o len jska ( J . D u la r e t a l . , 1 991 , 6 6 ) . I t o ve r t ly e xc lud e s l ow land s e t t lemen t a nd c oncen t ra te s o n d e f ended u p land s i te s . T he f i r s t p a r t o f i t s m e thodo logy c on s i s t s o f t h e i d en t if i ca t ion a nd d ef in i t ion o f u p land s e t t lemen t st h rough j udgemen ta ls t and ing m onumen ts u rvey s , t h a ti ss u rvey i nu p land a r ea sf r om w h ich s e t t lemen td a ta h a s a l r eady b een r e cove r ed ( u sua l ly a s s t ray f i nd s o r 1 9 th c e n tu ry r e po r t s ) o r w he r e s e t t lemen t c an b e e xpec t ed f r om t h ep r e sence o fm o r tua ry s i t e s .I nt h i sw ay , al a rge n umbe ro f e x i s t ing s i te s h ave b een p r ope r ly s u rveyed , a s w e l l a sn ew s i t e s d i scove r ed . T he s e cond p a r t o ft h e m e thodo logy i st h e s ma l lsca le t r i a lt ren ch ing o f as amp le o f t h e s i te s t o e s tab l i sh a c h rono logy f o r t h e u p land s e t t lemen t s i n D o len j ska . T hu s , 1 9 s e t lemen t s w e re t r ia l t r enched b y t h e e nd o f 1 992 , g i v ing a t o ta l o f 2 5 s i te s , w h ich h ave b een s u b jec t t o s ma l lsca le e xcava t ion ( f rom t h e S t iCna e xcava t ion s o nwa rd s ) ( Du la r , J .1 993 , 1 02 ) . Af u r the r f i ve s e t t lemen t s h ave b een p a r t ia l ly i n ve s t iga ted b y t h e p ro jec t s i n ce t h a tt i me ,b u ta r ea sy e tu npub l i shed .G IS t e chno logy i s a l so u t i l i sed i nt h e r e con s t ruc t ion o f u p land s i te t e r r i to r ie s f r om t h ea va i lab le s u r vey a nd e xcava t ion d a ta . T h i s p r o jec t h a s r e su l ted i n d e ta i led s u rvey o f u p land s e t t lemen to nt h ef r inge s o ft h e M i rna -T emen ica b a s in ,t h e u ppe r K rka v a l ley a nd t h e S en t jeme jsko p o l je - S i k oc jan a r ea o f t h e m idd le K rka v a l ley . I th a s p rov ided s ome s u rp r i s ing r e su l t s . T he h i l l fo r ts e t t lemen t sc a nno tb ed a ted t o t h e E a r ly h on A ge a l one . S ome s i te s a r e e xc lu s ive ly E n eo l i th ic i nd a t e , e . g . G radec n ea r M ima ( J . D u la r e ta l . 1 991 , 8 4-90 ) , w h i l s t o t he r s h ave b een r e vea led a s L a te B ron ze A ge i n d a te , s u ch a s Z ' empoh a bove O s t roin ik ( o p .c i t . , 9 6-98 ) , G rad ike a bove G rad ike n ea r T r ebn je ( o p .c i t . , 8 1-84 ) , G rad ike a bove Mek in je n ea r S t ieha , G radec a bove O ta vn ik , Makovec a bove Z ago r ica , P l e g iv ica , K o en ik ,V ih ra a nd G rad ec a bove M ihovo ,a sw e l la st h es i te s o fV e l ik iv r h ,S emen iC ,S v .K ra 'a nd G rad i gee i nB e la k r a j ina ( J . D u la r 1 993 , 1 02-105 ) . O the r s i te s r e vea led e v idence o f d e f ended E a r ly h on A ge s e t t lemen t s , w he r e o c cupa t ion b egan i nt h em id 8 t hc en tu ry B .C .a nd c on t inued i n to t h eL a te h on A ge , f o ri n s tance K unke lb e low V rh t r ebn je ( J . D u la re t a l . 1 991 ,6 9-76 ) ,K r iin iv r ha bove B e l ig r it ( o p .c i t ,9 8105 ) , V e se la g o ra ( o p .c i t . , 9 4-96 ) , C v inge r a bove K o r i ta n ea r D obr n iC a nd V e l ik i V in j i v r h , a s w e l l a s s ome o f t h e s i te s m en t ioned a bove , s u ch a s C v inge r n ea r D o len jske T op l ice , C v inge rn ea r S t iCna , L ibna , S t a r i g r ad a bove P odbo 6 je a nd K uCa ra bove P od zeme l j ( J . D u la r 1 993 , 1 02-106 ) . O n ly o ne s i t es h ow s e v id ence o fc on t inu i ty f r om t h e 1 0 th c en tu ry B .C . i n to t h e L a te I r on A ge ( S v . A na a bove V i l ipec ( Du la r ,J ,e t a l . , 7 6-81 ) ) , w h i l s t o ne o t he r w a s p robab ly f o unded i nt h e 5 t hc en tu ry B .0 ( K ince l ja bove T rb in c( o p .c i t . ,9 0-93 ) ) .

R ecen tT rend s i nL a te B ronze A ge a nd E a r ly I r on A ge S t ud ies i nt h eS ou thea s tern A lp ine r eg ion T he re h ave a l so b een s ome a dvances i n t h e d i scove ry o f l ow land s e t t lemen t . T h i s h a s c ome l a rge ly a s ar e su l t o f r e scue e xcava t ion a bove a l l i n moder n s e t t lemen t s . L a te

o ccupy l o ca t ion s o f ten c l o se t o e a r l ie r s i te s , o r a r e i n c omp le te ly n ew l o ca t ion s , i tm igh tb ep rof i tab le t oc on s ide ra s i tua t ion i n w h ich s ome L a te B ronze A ge u ndef ended

B ronze A ge a nd E a r ly h on A ge s e t t lemen th a s b een f ound i n C ' rnome l j ( Ma son 1 992b , 2 04 ) a nd Me t l ika ( Bre ak 1 992 , 2 55-256 ) a nd d u r ing t h e c ou r se o fr e scue e xcava t ion o n t h e

s e t t lemen t sd id n o t make t h et r an s i t ion t oh i l lfo r ts t a tu s i nt h e LBA /E IA i n te r face p e r iod a nd w e re a bandonned , w h i l s t o t he r s e xpanded a nd w e re f o r t if ied a s h i l lfo r t s . T he se c hanges a r e p robab ly r e la ted t o t h e s uccess o f t h e e l i te s i n i n d iv idua l s e t t lemen t s i n c ompe t i t ion , r a the r t h an e x ter na l m i l i ta ry c onque s t a nd c o lon i sa t ion . T he i n ten s i ty o f t h is

R oman r u ra l c omp lex a t B enec i ja n ea r T rebn je ( Bre ak 1 990a , 8 3-84 ) . Sma l l— sca le s y s tema t ic s u r face c o l lec t ion h a s a l so p roduced e v idence o fl ow land s i tes i nt h e G ro sup l je p o l je ( Ma son 1 988 ,2 40-246 ) . D i scu s s ion T he S AZU e xcava t ion s a nd t h e i n te rven t ion s u nder taken i n t h e c ou r se o f r e scue e xcava t ion b y l o ca l m u seum s a nd h e r i tage p ro tec t ion a genc ie s f o rm a c on s ide rab le b ody o f

c ompe t i t ion m ay b e s een p a r t ly i n t h e e x is tence o f p a i red s e t t lemen t s i nt h e f i na l p a r t o f t h e L a te B ronze A ge , w h ich c e r ta in ly c oex i s ted f o r ap e r iod o f t ime , b efo re o ne o f t h em w a s a bandonned a nd t h e o t he r w en t o n t o d eve lop a s a n h i l lfo r t e . g . t h e c a se o fZ ' empoh a bove O s troin ik a nd K r in i v rh a bove B e l i G r id ( J . D u la r e ta l 1 991 , 9 6-105 ; J .D u la r 1 993 , 1 04 ) .

u sefu l i n fo rma t ion , w h ich i s n ow u nde rgo in a na ly s is . T he mo s t c omp le te ly e xcava ted a nd t h e refo r e b es t u nde r s tood s i te i st h a t o f C v inge r n ea r D o len jske T op l ice , w he re t h e i n te r io r a nd d ef en se s h ave b een t r ia l t r enched a l ong w i th t h e a s soc ia ted e x t ramu ra l i n du s t r ia l ( i ron s me l t ing ) a r ea ( K ra 1 992 ,8 1-90 ) . Howeve r ,t h e m a jo r i ty o fa na ly t ica lw o rk o na r e g iona l l e ve l h a s b een u nde r taken w i th in t h e c on tex t o ft h e SAZU p ro jec t . G iven t h e e v idence o f t h ese e xcava t ion s , i t s e em s r ea sonab le t o c oncu r w i th J .D u la r i nt h e c onc lu s ion t h a t o n ly t h e ma jo r d ef ended s i te s w i th a s soc ia ted b a r row c eme te r ies a r e i nf a c t E a r ly I r on A ge i nd a te . Howeve r , o ne c anno ta g ree w i th t h e c onc lus ion t h a t t h e re i s as ha rp b r eak i n s e t t lemen t i nt h e 8 t h c en t ru ry B .C . , w h ich c an b e s een i nt h e a bandonmen t o f L a te B ronze A ge u ndef ended u p land s e t t lemen t s a nd t h e f ounda t ion o f d ef ended h i l lfo r t s e t t lemen t s w i th a s soc ia ted b a r row c eme ter ie s . H e e xp la in s t h is w th in t h e f r amewo rk o f t h e c u l tu ra l — h i s to r ica l p a rad igm a s t h er e su l t o fn ew i mm ig ra t ion a nd s e t t lemen t i n t h e r e g ion d u r ing t h e 8 t h c en tu ry B .C . ( J . D u la r 1 993 , 1 051 07 ) . H oweve r , t h e re a r e an umbe r o f p rob lems w i th t h is i n te rp re ta t ion , w h ich d er ive d i rec t ly f r om t h e d a ta b a se . T he s ma l l s ca le o f t h e e xcava ted a r ea s m ean s t h a t L a te B ronze A ge o ccupa t ion o nt h e c l a s s ic E a r ly I r on A ge s i te s m ay w e l l h ave b een m issed , p a r t icu la r ly w hen t h e l o ca t ion o ft h e t r ia l t r enche s a lmo s t e xc lu s ive ly o n t h e e dge o f a l l o f t h e s e t t lemen t s i tes i sc on s ide red . T he E a r ly I r on A ge h i l lfo r t s t e nd t ob e m uch l a rge rt h an t h eL a te B ronze A ge u ndef ended s e t t lemen t s a nd many o f t h ese s i tes m ay h ave t h e s i te s o f e a r l ie r L a te B ronze A ge s i te s , w h ich a r e n ow h i dden w i th in

I nc onc lu s ion , i tc an b e s een t h a t t h e d a ta b a se h a s i n c rea sed t og rea t e x ten t i nt h e l a s t f ew y ea r s a nd t h e mode l s p o s i t ed f o rs o c ia l o rgan i sa t ion a nd e xchange i n1 987 h ave t o al a rge e x ten tb een b ou rne o u tb y t h i s . Howeve r , t h e re a r es t i l l many p rob lem s t ob e s o lved . T he s e t t lemen t p a t ter n i nD o len jska a nd B e la k ra j ina h a s b ecome mo re c omp lex w i th t h e a va i l ib i l i ty o fn ew d a ta , w h ich a l so s eem s t ob et h ec a se , t oa l e sse r e x ten t , i n S ta je r ska . Un fo r tuna te ly , t h e d eg rees o f e xcava t ion i nt h e i n ter io r s o f s e t t lemen t s i ss t i l l i n suf f ic ien t t op rov ide i n s igh t s i n to t h ei n ter na l s t ruc t u re a nd o rgan isa t ion o fs pace o n a n i n t ra—s i te l e ve l . T h is m ean s t h a t t h e mode l s g a ined f r om mo r tua ry d a ta c anno t b e t e s ted o n a n i n t ra—s i te l e ve l a ga in s t d a ta f r om t h e a s so c ia ted s e t t lemen t s . F u r thermo r e , i ti sn o t p o ss ib le , a tp re sen t , t od i s t ingu sh t h e r u ra l s e t t lemen t s i n t h e h i n te r land o f t h e ma jo r s e t t lemen t /mor tua ry c omp lexes a nd t h e t e r r i to r ia l e x ten t o f t h ese c omp lexe s ,e ven t h ough s ome a t temp t sh ave b een made ( Ma son 1 992a , 3 2-39 ; 1 996 , i n p repe ra t ion ) . G IS mode l s a r e a l so s ub jec t t ot h e l im i ta t ion s o ft h e a va i lab le d a ta b a se . T hey c an p rov ide c onv inc ing s pa t ia l mode l s f o r c l ea r ly g eog raph ica l ly c on s t ra ined a r ea s e . g . t h e D ob rn iC b a s in , b u t c anno t b e a dequa te ly a pp l ied t o t h e u p land e dge a r ea s a nd l ow land z one s i nt h e a b sence o fl ow land s e t t lemen te v idence . T he e xc lus ion o fl ow land a r ea s f r om t h i s p ro jec t m ean s t h a t u p land s i te s a r e t r ea ted a s t h e o n ly e x i s t ing s e t t lemen t s , w hen i nr ea l i ty t h ey r ep re sen t o n ly o ne p a r t o f t h e o r ig ina l s e t t lemen t p a t ter n a nd a n u nknown p e rcen tage o f i ta tt h a t . Mo re l a rge— sca le s ys tema t ic s u r face s u rvey a nd e xcava t ion w i l l b e r equ i red b efo re t h e l ow land d imen s ion o f t h e s e t t lemen t p a t ter n c an b e u nde r s tood . T he i n c rea s ing

t h em . T h is h a s c er ta in ly p roved t ob e t h e c a se w i th t h e l a rge h i l lfo r t c en t re o f V e l ik i V in j i v rh , w he re t e s t e xcava t ion o n t h e e dge o f t h e h i l lfor t s howed e v idence o f o ccupa t ion a nd a bove a l l f o r t if ica t ion f r om t h e m id 8 t h c en tu ry B .C . o nwa rd s , b u t r e scue w o rk p rov ided e v idence o fL a te B ronze A ge o ccupa t ion i n t h e c en t re o f t h e s e t t lemen t ( Kra p e r s .

c on s t ruc t ion o f n ew mo to rway s i n S loven ia h a s l e d t o t h e a dop t ion o f mode rn m e thod s o f e x ten s ive a nd i n ten s ive s u r face c o l lec t ion . I ti st ob e h oped t h a t t h e se s u rvey s w i l l p rov ide much n eeded d a ta o n t h e l ow land z one , w h ich w i l l e nab le u s t of i l l i nt h is v i ta l p a r t o f t h e s e t t lemen t p a t te rn .

c omm . ) . T he l a ck o f r ad ioca rbon d a te s m ean s t h a t t h e c h rono logy o ft h es i tes i sb a sed e n t i re ly o np o t te ry t ypo logy . T h is i s ap rob lem a s o n ly s i x v e sse l a nd f i ve d eco ra t ive f o rm s a r e c on s ide red t o b e t yp ica l o f t h e p er iod f r om t h e 1 0 th t ot h e8 t hc en tur ie s B .C . a nd a st h ea u tho rh im se lf p o in t s

T he o t he rp o ss ib i l i ty l i es i nt h e s ys tema t ic s u r vey o fs pe c if ic a r ea s a round k nown h i l lfo r t c en t re s . T h is m igh t b e mo s t p ro f i tab ly c a r r ied o u t i na r ea s w he re t wo o r mo re s uch s i te s a r e s pa t ia l ly c l o se ly r e la ted , f o r i n s tance t h e D o len jske

p er iod , a s d o t h e v a s t m a jo r i ty o ft h ec oa r se w a r es ( J . D u la r 1 993 , 1 04-105 ) . T hus i n s tead o fs ee ing as i tua t ion i nw h ich

T op l ice a r ea o r t h e e n t jer ne jsko p o l je . I nt h i s w ay , i t may f i na l ly b e p o ss ib le t o mo re p rec ise ly d ef ine t h e s pa t ia l o rgan isa t ion o f, t he L a te B ronze Age a nd E a r ly h on A ge

L a te B ronze A ge u nde f ended u p land s i te s a r er ep laced i nt h e

c ommun i t ie si nS ta je r ska , D o len jska a nd B e la k ra j ina .

o u t o ne o f t h e se t ype s a l so c on t inue s i n to t h e H a l ls ta t t C

8 t h c en tu ry B .C . b y n ew E a r ly I r on A ge h i l lfo r t s , w h ich

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ABBREV IAT IONS . BAR ANSL L ex ikon F Ö

B r i t i sh A r chaeo log ica lR epo r t s A rheo idea N a jd iklaS l oven i je . F ran z , L . , a nd N eumann , A . , 1 96 5 . L ex ikon um u nd f r ühge sch ich t l iche r F und s tä t ten Ö s te r re ich s . F undbe r ich te a u sÖ s te r re ich .

B IBL IOGRAPHY

A igne r—Fo r e s t i .L 1 980 B e i t räge z um G räbe r f e ld v on F rög i n K ä rn ten C a r in th ia I . 1 980 / 170 J a h rgang ( K lagen fu r t )7 -140 A lexande r ,J . 1 962 G reek s , I t a l ian s a nd t h eE a r l ie s tB a lkan I r on A ge .A n t iqu i ty 3 6( Camb r idge ,E ng land , 1 962 ) , 1 23-130 . A lexande r ,J . 1 972 J ugo s lav ia b ef or et h eR oman C onque s t . A nc ien t P eop le s a nd P la ce s 7 7 ( Thame s a nd H ud son ,L ondon 1 972 ) . A l fö ldy .G 1 974 N or i cum ( London 1 974 ) A rheo lo : ska n a jd ii .e aS l ovem j e1 975 ( I n s t i tu te o fA r cheo logy , S l ovene A cademy o fS c ience sa nd A r t s ,L jub l jana ) B a len—Le tun iC ,D . 1 981 G robov ik a snog b r onCanog is t a r i jeg Z e l jeznog d oba i z o ko l ice K a r lovca ( Spä tb ronzeze i t l iche u nd f r üh e i senze i t l iche G räbe r a u s d e r Umgebung v on K a r lovac V j e sn ik A rheo lo gkog Mu z e ja uZ agr ebu , S e r ie s 3 ;V o lume 1 4( Zag reb 1 981 ) 1-24 B a r th , F .—E . 1 969 D ie h a l l s ta t t ze i t l ihen G rabhüge l i m B e r e ich K u t s che r b e i P od seme l ( S lowen ien ) A n t iqu i ta sR e ihe 3 , 5( Habe l t ,B onn ) B a r th , F .—E . 1 980a D a s p r äh i s to r i sche H a l l s ta t t i n d i e H a l l s ta t tku l tu r C a ta logue o f t h e i n te rna t iona l e xh ib i t ion a t S ch lo s s L ambe rg , S t ey r ( Ob e rö s te r re ich i sche r L ande sve r lag , L i nz 1 980 ) , 6 7-79 B a r th , F .—E . 1 980b F a le renen semb le s i m G räbe r f e ld H a l l s ta t t S i tu la 2 0 /21 Z bom ik p o sveC en S t ane tu G ab rovcu o b g e s tde se t le tn ic i ( L jub l jana 1 9 80 ) 2 112 17 B a r th F .—E . , F e lbe r , H . , S chaube r , 0 . 1 975 R ad iokoh len s to f fda t ie rung d e r p r äh i s to r i schen B aue i n d en S a lzbe rgwe rken H a l l s ta t t u nd D ü r rnbe rg—Ha l le in M i t t e i lungen d e r A n thropo log i s chen G e se l l s chaf t i n W ien 1 0 5 ( V ienna 1 980 ) ,4 5-52 B a r to s iew icz ,L . 1 985 Mo s tn aS oC i . AP r e l im ina ry F auna l A na ly s is o f t h e H a l l s ta t t P e r iod S e t t lemen t A rheo lo : ik iv e s tn ik 3 6( L jub l jana 1 985 ) , 1 07130 B a tov iC S . 1 975 L e R e la z ion i I r a l aD aun ia el aS ponda O r ien ta le d e l l ' A d r ia t ico n e l l 'e ta d e l f e r ro , i nT ine , S . ( e d . ) C iv i l ta p r e i s to r i che ep ro to s to r i che d e l la D aun ia ( F lo r en ce 1 975 ) ,3 40-347 . B a tov i6 , S . 1 976 L e R e laz ion i C u l tu ra l i T ra S ponde A d r ia t iche N e l l 'E ta D e lF e r ro ,i nJ ad ran ska O ba la u P ro toh i s to r z j i . K u l turn i iE tna k i P rob l em i ( Zag reb 1 976 ) , 1-93 B ena c ,A .a nd C ov ic ,B . 1 9 56 G la s ina c 1( S a ra jevo 1 9 56 ) . B enac ,A .a nd C ov ic ,B . 1 9 57 G la s ina c H( S a ra jevo 1 9 57 ) .

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B e rg , F . 1 962 D a s F la chg räbe r f e ld d e r H a l l s ta t tku l tu r v on Ma ie r sch V e röf f en t l ichungen d e r ö s te r re i ch i schen A rbe i t sgeme in s chaf tf ü r U r— u nd F rühge s ch ich te , B and 4( V ienna 1 962 ) . B e rgonz i , G . 1 981 L 'A r ea aS ud— E s td e l le A lp i el ' I ta l ia d e r N o rd i n to rno a l V S eco lo A .C . i n S t ud i d i P ro to s to r ia A d r ia t ica 1 ( Quad r en i d i C u l tu ra Ma te r ia le 2 ,R ome 1 981 ) ,9 -66 . B oa rdman , J . 1 971 A s ou the rn v i ew o f S i tu la A r t , i n B oa rdman ,J . ,B rown ,M .A . , P owe l l ,T .G .E . , ( e d s . ) T he E u ropean C ommun i ty i n L a te r P r eh i s to ry : S t ud ie si nh onou ro fC .F .C .H awk e s( Rou t ledge a nd K egan P au l ,L ondon 1 971 ) , 1 21-140 . B ököny i , S .1 968 D a ta o n I r on—Age H o r ses i nC en t ra l a nd E a s t e rn E u rope , i n Ame r ican S choo l o fP r eh i s to r i c R e sea r ch , B u l l e t in 2 5 ( Peabody Mu seum , H a rva rd , Ma s s 1 968 ) ,3 -71 B o l ta . L . 1 980 P ra zgodv in sk i g rob z R if n ika ( Da s v o rge sch ich t l iche G rab v on R i f n ik ) S i tu la 2 0 /21 Z bom ik p o sveCen S t ane tu G ab rovcu o b e s tde se t le tn ic i( L jub l jana 1 980 )2 91-294 B o l ta , L . 1 981 en ik p r iS en t jur ju K a ta log i i nm onog ra f i je 1 9( L jub l jana 1 981 ) . B o l t in—Tome , E . 1 980 A pu l ska k e ram ika sK a s te l i r p r i D vo r ih n ad I z o lo ( Ce ram ica A pu la d e l K a s te l i r ( Ca s te l l ie r e )p r e s so D vo r is op ra I s o la )S i tu la 2 0 /21 Z bom ik p o sve&n S t ane tu G ab rovcu o b s t de se t le tn ic i( L jub l jana 1 980 ) ,2 19-223 . B rad ley , R . J . 1 982 T he d e s t ruc t ion o f w ea l th i n l a te r p r eh i s to ry Man 1 7( Roya lA n th ropo log ica lI n s t i tu te , L ondon , 1 982 ) 1 08-122 B rad ley , R . J . 1 984 T he s o c ia lf ounda t ion s o fp reh i s tor i c B r i ta in ( Longman ,L ondon 1 984 ) . B r ekak , D . 1 990a B enea ja p r i T rebn jem . A rheo loika n a jd id ia D o l en j sk e( Novo m e s to 1 990 ) ,8 3-84 . B r e ak , D . 1 9 90b G radec n ad M ihov im . A rheo loi ka n a jd i iia D o l en j sk e( Novo m es to 1 990 ) , 1 0 5-106 . B r e ak , D . 1 990c .u me je . A rheo loika n a jd ig ca D o l en j sk e ( Novo m e s to 1 990 ) , 11-112 . B r ekak , D . 1 992 Me t l ika : Me s tn i t r g . V ar s tvo s pomen ikov 3 4 ,1992 ( L jub l jana 1 992 ) , 2 55-256 . B ud ja , M . 1 980 G rob 5 4 z a mega g r ob ika n a d vo rfk u S AZU vL jub l jan i( G rab 5 4a u sd e r Umenne la-o po le i m H o f d e r S l owen ischen A kadem ie d e r W i s sen scha f ten u nd K un s te i n L jub l jana ) S i tu la 2 0 /21 — Z bom ik p o sveCen S ta ne tu G ab rovcu o b g e s tde se t le tn ic i( L jub l jana 1 980 )8 5-94 C ig leneCk i , S . 1 985 P o tek a l tema t ivn e c e s te S i sc i ja— A kv i le i ja n a p r o s to ru z ahodne D o len jske i n

B ib l iog raphy N o t ran jske ve a s u4 .d o6 .s t .P re l im inamo p o rd i lo o r a z i skovan j ih K o r in jskega h r iba i n r e kogn i sc i ran j ih z ahodne D o len jsk e ( De r V e r lau f d e rA l te rna t iv s t ra s se S i sc ia-Aqu i le ia i mR aum v on We s tdo len jsko u nd N o t ran jsko i n d e r Z e i t spanne v om 4 . b i s 6 . J h . P rä l im ina rbe r ich t ( b e r d i e E r fo r schung d e s K o r in j sk i h r ib u nd d i e R ekogno sz ie rungen v on We s tdo len j sko ) .A rheo lo sl i v e s tn ik 3 6 ,1985 ( L jub l jana 1 985 ) ,2 55-284 . C ig lenea c i , S . 1 990 K o r in j sk ih r ib n ad V e l ik im K o r in jem . A rheo lo gka n a jd ige aD o l en j sk e ( Novo m e s to 1 990 ) , 1 07-110 . C o l l i s , J .1 984 T he E uropean I r on A ge ( Ba t sfo rd , L ondon 1 984 ) . &y id , B . 1 956 I l i r ska n ek ropo la u C a rakovu ( Nec ropo le i ly r ienn a t ombe s p l a te s d e &rakovo p r e d e P r i jedo r ) G la sn ik Z ema l j skog Muz e ja u S ara j evu , v o lume 1( S a ra jevo 1 9 56 ) , 1 87-204 . & MC , B . 1 96 1 D on ja D o l ina I n ven ta r ia A r chaeo log ica I u go s lav ica ( Bonn 1 96 1 ) . C ov id , B . 1 965 U vod u s t ra t ig ra f i ju i h r ono log i ju p r a i s to r i jsk ih g r ad ina u B o sn i ( E in le i tung i n S t ra t ig raph ie u nd C h rono lg ie p r äh i s to r i sche r G rad inen i nB o sn ia ) G la sn ik Z ema l j skog Muze ja u S a ra j evu ,V o lume 2 0( S a ra jevo 1 965 ) ,2 7-145 D ehn ,W . 1 980 E in ige B e rme rkungen z u h a l l s ta t tze i t l iche T ren sen S l owen ien s . S i tu la 2 0 /21 - Z bom ik p o sveZ en S t ane tu G ab rovcu o b S e s tde se t le tn ic i ( L jub l jana 1 980 ) ,3 26-332 D e Ma r in i s , R . 1 971 L ' o r izon te d eg l i e lm i t i po N egau n e l l ' I ta l ia S e t ten t r iona le A c te s d u V i l l e C ongr e s I n te rna t iona l d e s S c ien ce s P r eh i s to r ique s e t P ro toh is to r ique s B eog rad 915 th S ep temb r e 1 971 , P ar t 3( Be lg rade 1 973 ) ,7 7-86 . D e Ma r in i s , R . 1 974 L a S i tu la d iT r ezzo ( M i lano ) i nV a r ia A r chaeo log ica , P o sav sk i Mu ze j I( B r ez ic e 1 974 ) 6 7-86 . D e Ma r in i s R . a nd Ga t in M . 1 975 Q ua lche c on s ide raz ione s u l la c r ono log ia ed i f fu s ione d e l le f i bu l is em i luna te . P r e i s tor ia A lp ina V o lume 1 ( T ren to 1 975 ) , 2 372 53 . D ien , A . 1 979 W e s tern E urope : AG eog raph i ca lA na ly s i s . ( London 1 979 ) D ob ia t , C . 1 980 D a s h a l l s ta t t z e i t l i chen G räbe rf e ld v on K l e in-K le in u nd s e ine K e ram ik . S ch i ld v on S t e ie r , B e ih ef t 1( G r az 1 980 ) . D ob ia t , C . 1 981 D ie H a l l s ta t tne l c ropo le b e iK le in-K le in i m S um ta l i n ' D ie H a l l s ta t tku l tu r : S ympo s ium S t ey r 1 980 ' ( Obe rö s te r re ich i sche r L ande sve r lag , L inz 1 9 81 ) , 1 85-204 D o l ina r-O so le ,Z . 1 956 I l i r ska o ko s t ja i zG om i le vV o lc j ih n j ivah ( The I ly r ian S ke le ton s o f V o lc je n j ive ) A rheo lo sk i v e s tn ik 7 / 1-4 ( L jub l jana 1 956 ) , 1 3 11 36 . D u la r , A . 1 978 O k ra s z i va l skSh g l av n a p o sodah h a l g ta t skega o bdob ja S l oven i je ( T ie rkop f schmuck a u f G e fä ssen d e r H a l l s ta t t ze i t i n S l owen ien ) . A rheo lo sk iv e s tn ik 1 9( L jub l jana 1 978 ) ,8 5-94 . D u la r , A . 1 980 B rona s te f i gu r ic , e i z t r t a r je te? ( D ie B ron ze f igu rchen a u s .r n a r je ta ? ) . S i tu la 2 0 /21 Z bo rn ik p o sveCen S t an e tu G ab rovcu o b

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S e s tde se t let rüc i( L jub l jana 1 980 ) ,2 63-266 D u la r , A . 1 991 P ra zgodov in ska g rob ide a vo k o l i c i V in jega v r ha n ad B e lo C e rk v z jo ( D ie v o rge sch i ch t l ichen N ek ropo l en i nd e r Umbegung v on V in j iv r ho be rha lb v on B e la C e rk ev ) . K a ta log i i n m onog raf i je 2 6 ( Na rodn im u ze j ,L jub l jana 1 991) . D u la r , J . 1 973 B e la K ra j ina v s t a roha l § ta t skem o bdob ju ( Be la I C ra j ina i n d en f r ühen H a l l s ta t tze i t ) . A rheo lo gk iv e s tn ik 2 4 ,1973 ( L jub l jana 1 975 ) ,5 445 91 . D u la r , J . 1 978 P od z eme l j . K a ta log i i n m onog ra f i je 1 6 ( L jub l jana 1 978 ) . D u la r , J .1 979 i amo g r ob ik e n a B o rg te l cu v Me t l ik i ( Da s Umen f e ld a u f B o r g tek i n Me t l ika ) . A rheo lod k i v e s tn ik 3 0( L jub l jana 1 979 ) , 6 5100 . D u la r ,J .1 982 H a li ta t ska K e ram ika vS l oven i j i . ( L jub l jana 1 982 ) . D u la r ,J . 1983 G om i lno G rob ikl evL ok i p r i %mom l ju ( D ie H uge lg räbe r n e l c ropo le i n L oka b e i Cmome l j ) . A rheo logk iv e s tn ik 3 4( L jub l jana 1 983 ) ,2 19-244 . D u la r , J . 1 985 T opog ra f sko p od roC je X I ( Be la k ra j ina ) . A rheo lolka t o pog raf i ja S l oven z j e( L jub l jana 1 985 ) . D u la r ,J .1 990 Kda rn ad P odzem l jem .A rheo lo ika n a jd idd a D o l en j sk e( Novo m e s to 1 990 ) ,3 1-34 . D u la r ,J .1 992 Z godov ina r a z i skovan j i e lemodobn ih n a se l i j i np o se l i tve v o s redn j i S l oven i j i ( Ge sch ich te d e r E r fo r schung d e r e i senze i t l ichen S i ed lungen u nd d e r B e s ied lung i nZ en t ra l s lowen ien ) .A rheo lod k iv e s tn ik 4 3 ,1992 ( L jub l jana 1 992 ) ,3 7-52 . D u la r , J .1 993 Z ag e tk i i e lez nodobne p o se l i tve v o s redn j i S l oven i j i ( D e r B eg inn d e r e i senze i t l ichen B e s ied lung i nZ en t ra l s lowen ien ) .A rheo lodk iv e s tn ik 4 4 ,1993 ( L jub l jana 1 993 ) , 1 0 1-112 . D u la r , J . a nd K r ii , B . 1 990 i e leznodobno n a se l je i n g r ob i gCle v B r ez jah p r i T r ebe lnem ( D ie e i senze i t l iche S i ed lung u nd N ek ropo le i nB rez je b e i T r ebe lno ) . A rheo lo dk i v e s tn ik 4 1 , 1 990 ( L jub l jana 1 990 ) ,5 31-556 . D u la r ,J . ,K r ii ,B . , S vo l jgak ,D . a nd T ec co H va la , S . 1 991 U t r jena p ra zgodov in ska n a se l ja v M i r en sk i i n T emen i sk i d o l in i ( Bef e s t ige p räh i s to r i sche S i ed lungen i n d e r M i r en ska d o l ina u nd d e r T emen i ska d o l ina ) . A rheo lodk i v e s tn ik 4 2 , 1 99 1 ,( L jub l jana 1 991 ) ,6 5-205 . D u gek , M . 1 974 D e r J u ngha l l s ta t t ze i t l iche F ü r s ten s i tz a u f d em Mo lp i r b e i S mo len ice , i n : S ympo s ium z u P rob l emen d e r j ünger en H a l l s ta t t z e i t i n M i t t e l eu ropa ( B ra t i s lava 1 974 ) , 1 37-150 . E gg , M . 1 978a E ine T h rako sky t h i sche S t re i tax t a u s H a l l s ta t t . A r chäo log i s che s K o r r e spond en zb la t t V o lume 8 ( Röm i sch-Ge rman i sch Z en t ra lmu seum s , Ma in z 1 978 ) , 11117 . E gg , M . 1 978b D a s G rab e i ne s U n te rk ra in i schen K r iege r s i n H a l l s ta t t . A r ch läo log i s che s K o r r e spond en zb la t t V o lume 8 ( Röm i sch-Ge rman i sch Z en t ra lmu seum , Ma in z 1 978 ) , 1 9 1-20 1 . E gg , M . 1 980 Z um H e lm f ragmen tv on Magda len ska g o ra . S i tu la 2 0 /2 1 Z bo rn ik p o sveCe i nS t ane tu G ab rovcu o b § e s tde se t let rüc i( L jub l jana ( 1 980 ) ,2 4 1-249 . E i bne r , A . 1 981 D a r s t e l lung s inha l te i n d e r K un s t d e r H a l s ta t tku l tu r i nD ie H a l l s ta t tku l tur : S ympo s ium

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia S t ey r 1 980 . ( Ob e rö s te r r e ich i sche r L ande sve r lag , L inz 1 981 ) ,2 6 1-296 . E ibne r , C . 1 982 K up f e rbe rgbau i n Ö s te r re ich s A lpen i n P räh i s to r l s che A r chäo log ie i n S üdo s t europa : B and 1 — S üdo s t europa z w i schen 1 600 u nd 1 000 v .C hr .( Be r l in 1 982 )3 99-408 . E ibne r—Pe r sy , A . 1 980 H a l l s ta t t z e i t l i che G rabhüge l v on S op ron ( Öd enburg ) W i s sen scha f l iche A rbe i ten a u s B u rgen land , V o lume 6 2 ( Bu rgen land i schenn L ande smu seum ,E i sen s tad t 1 980 ) F eke te , M . 1 973 D e r H o r t f und v on K i s ravazd A c ta A r chaeo log ica A cad em iae S c ien t ia rum H unga r i cae 2 5( Budape s t 1 973 ) ,3 41-358 . F eke te ,M . 1 982 A ngaben z uK on tak ten z w i schen I t a l ien u nd T ran sdanub ien S avar ia 1 6 , 1 982 ( S zomba the ly 1 983 ) , 1 29144 F ia la , F . 1 893 D ie E rgebn i s se d e r U n te r suchung p raeh is to r i sche r G rabhüge l a u f d em G la s inac i m J ah r e 1 892 . W i s sen schaf t l i che M i t t e i lungen a u s B o sn ien u nd d e rH e r zegov ina ( V ienna 1 893 ) , 1 261 68 F ia la , F . 1 896a D ie p r äh i s to r i sche A n s ied lung a u f d em D ebe lo b r do b e i S a ra jevo . W i s sen schaf t l i che M i t t e i lungen a u s B o sn ien u nd d e rH e r z egov ina ,4 ( V ienna 1 896 ) ,3 8-72 . F ia la , F . 1 896b U ebe r e i n ige Wa l lbau ten i m n o rdwe s t l ichen B o sn ien . W i s sen s chaf t l i che M i t te i lungen a u s B o sn ien u nd d e r H e r z egov ina 4 ( V ienna 1 896 ) ,9 4100 . F ia la , F . 1 899a D ie E rgebn i s se d e r U n te r suchung p r äh i s to r i sche r G rabhüge l i n S üdo s tbo sn ien ( a n sch l ie ssend a n d e r G la s inac ) . W i s sen s chaf t l i che M i t te i lungen a u s B o sn ien u nd d e r H e r z egov ina , 6 ( V ienna 1 899 ) , 3-61 . F ia la , F . 1 899b ' F la chg räbe r f e ld u nd d i e p r a eh i s to r i sche A n s ied lung i n S an sk i m o s t . W i s sen s chaf t l i che M i t te i lungen a u s B o sn ien u nd d e r H e r z egov ina 6 ( V ienna 1 899 ) ,6 2128 . F ranken s te in , S . a nd R ow land s , M , 1 978 T he I n ter na l S t ruc tu re a nd r e g iona l c on tex t o f E a r ly I r on A ge S o c ie ty i ns ou th—we s te rn G e rmany . B u l l e t in o f t h e I n s t i tu te o fA r chaeo logy , U n ive r s i ty o fL ondon , 1 5 ( London 1 978 ) ,7 3112 . F ran z , L . a nd N eumann , A . 1 965 L ex ikon u r—und f r ühge sch i ch t l i che r F und s ta t ten Ö s te r r e i ch s . ( Habe l t ,B onn /V ienna 1 965 ) . F r ey , 0 —H . 1 969 D ie E n t s tehung d e r S i tu l enkuns t . R öm i sch—Ge rman i sch F o r schungen 3 1 ( Be r l in 1 969 ) . F rey , 0 .—H . 1 974 B e r ich t ü be r d i e A u sg rabungen i m R ingwa l l v on S t iCna ( S lowen ien ) S ympo s ium z u P rob lemen d e r j ünge r en H a l l s ta t t ze i t i n M i t te l europa ( B ra t i s lava 1 974 ) , 1 5 1162 . F r ey , 0 .—H . 1 980 Z u rT ragwe i se h a l l s ta t tze i t l ich e rD o lche i n S l owen ien . S i tu la 2 0 /21 — Z bo rn ik p o sveCie n S t ane tu G ab rovcu o b § e s tde se t le tn ic i ( L jub l jana 1 980 ) , 33-342 . F rey , 0 .—H . 1 981 E i n Z ie r s tuck d e r s pä te r en H a l l s ta t tze i t v on Magda len ska g o ra b e i S ma r je i n D ie H a l l s ta t tku l tu r : S ympo s ium S t ey r 1 980 ( Obe rö s te r re ich i sche r L ande sve r lag , L inz 1 981 ) ,

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2 27-240 . F rey , 0 .—H . a nd G ab rovec , S . 1 971 Z u r C h rono log ie i m O s ta lpen raum . B o logna — E s te — S v . L uc i ja D o len jska ( Un te rk ra in ) — H a l l s ta t t . i nA c t e s d u V i l l e C ong r e s I n t e rna t iona l d e s S c ien ce s P r eh i s to r ique s e t P ro toh i s tor ique s , P t . 1 — R appo r t sG ene raux ( Be lg rade 1 971 ) , 1 9 3-218 . F r ied , M . 1 967 T he e vo lu t ion o fp o l i t i ca ls o c ie ty . ( Random H ou se , N ew Y o rk , 1 967 ) . G ab rove c , S . 1 9 56 I l i r ska g om i la v V o lC i j ih n j ivah ( Th e I ly r ian T umu lu s a t V o l ie je n j iv e ) . A rheo la ek i v e s tn ik 7 / 1-4 ( L jub l jana 1 956 ) ,6 2130 . G ab rove c , S . 1 960 G rob z o k lepom i zN ovega Me s ta ( Pan ze rg rab v on N ovo m es to ) , S i tu la 1( L jub l jana 1 960 ) ,2 7-80 . G ab rove c , S . 1 962-63 H a li ta t ske e l ad e j u govhodnoa lp skega k r oga ( D ie h a l ls ta t t i schen H e lme d e s S üdo s ta lpen K r e i s s ) A rheo loik i v e s tn ik 2 93-347 . G ab rove c , S . 1 965 K rono log i ja C e lad n egov skega t i pa S i tu la 8( L jub l jana 1 965 ) 1 77186 G ab rove c ,S .1 966 Z u rH a l l s ta t t ze i ti nS l owen ien G e rman ia 4 4( F rank f u r t 1 966 ) 1 -48 G ab rovec , S . 1 968 G rob z t r i noin ikom i zN ovega m e s ta ( Da s D re i f u s sg rab a u s Novo m e s to ) . A rheo lo sl i v e s tn ik 1 9( L jub l jana 1 968 ) . 1 57-188 G ab rovec , S . 1 970 D vozanka s te l on e f i bu le ( D ie z we i sch le i f igen B ogen f ibe ln )G oda n jak 8( Sa ra jevo 1 970 ) ,5 -65 G ab rovec ,S .1 9 73 Zge t ek h a lg ta t skega o bdob ja vS l oven i j i ( D e r B eg inn d e r H a l l s ta t tze i t i n S lowen ien ) A rheo lo s 'k i V e s tn ik 2 4 , 1 973 ( L jub l jana 1 975 ) . 38-385 G ab rovec , S .1 974 D ie A u sg rabungen i nS t iCin a u nd i h r e B edeu tung f ü r d i e s üdo s ta lp in e H a l ls ta t tku l tu r i n S ympo s ium z u P rob l emen d er j ünge r en H a l l s ta t t z e i t i n M i t te l europa . ( B ra t i s lava 1 974 ) , 1 63187 G ab rovec , S . 1 9 76 Z um B eg inn d e r H a l l s ta t tze i t i n S l owen ien i nA r cheo log ica A u s t r ia ca , B e ihef t 1 3 — F e s t s ch r if t f ü r R i chard P i t t ion i ( V ienna 1 976 ) , 5 88-600 . G ab rovec ,S .1 9 79 T h i r ty y ea r so fp r eh i s to r ic a r chaeo logy i n A rheo lo gk iv e s tn ik A rheo loik iv e s tn ik 3 0( L jub l jana 1 978 ) , 1 3-20 . G ab rove c , S .1 980 D e r B eg inn d e r H a l l s ta t tku l tu r u nd d e r O s ten i n D ie H a l l s ta t tku l tu r : C a ta logue o f t h e I n te rna t iona lE xh ib i t ion a tS ch lo s s L ambe rg ,S t eyr ( Ob e rö s te r re ich i sche r L ande sve r lag , L in z 1 980 ) , 6 7-79 G ab rovec , S . 1 981 D ie V e rb indungen z w i schen d en S üdo s ta lpen u nd d em j u go s law i schen D onaugeb ie t i nd e r a l t e r en E i senze i t . Ma t e r i ja l i 1 9 ( Nov i S ad 1 981 ) , 1 5 5178 . G ab rovec , S . 1 994 S t i cvn a I : n a se lb in ska i z kopavan ja ( S i ed lung sau sgrabungen ) . K a ta log i i nm onog ra f i je 2 8( Na rodn im uze j ,L jub l jana 1 9 94 ) . G ab rovec , S . , F r ey , 0 .—H . a nd F o l t iny , S . 1 970 E r s te r V o rbe r ich tü be rd i eA u sg rabungen i mR ingwa l lv on S t iCna ( S lowen ien ) G erman ia 4 8 ( F rank fu r t 1 970 ) , 1 2-33

B ib l iography G ed iga ,

B . 1 981 Z u r E n tw ick lung d e r h a l l s ta t tze i t l ichen B u rgen d e r L au s i tz K u l tu r i nM i t te l sch les ien i nD ie Ha l l s ta t tku l tu r : S ympo s ium S t eyr 1 980 ( Obe rö s te r re ich i scher L andesve r lag , L inz , 1 981 ) , 2 97-314

G logov i6 ,D . 1 979 Na la z ig eome t r i jske k e ram ike i zD aun i je n a p od ruC ju I s t re ( Daun ian p o t tery i n I s t r ia ) H is tr ia A r cheo log ica 1 0 / 1 ( Pu la 1 979 ) .5 7-84 G rego ry

Wa rden , P . 1 984 T he C o l l ine— Me ta l l if e re : P ro legomena t o t h e S tudy o f M ine ra l E xp lo i ta t ion i nC en t ra l I t a ly i nH acken s , T . , H o l loway ,N .D . a nd H o l loway , R .R . ( ed s . ) C ro ssroad s o f t h e Med i ter ranean . A r chaeo log ica T ran sa t lan t ica I ( Louva in— la—Neuve 1 984 )3 49-364

G u g t in , M . 1 973 K rono log i ja n o t ran jske s kup ine A rheo loik i v e s tn ik 2 4 ,1973 ( L jub l jana 1 975 ) .4 6 1-506 G ug t in , M . 1 974a G om i le s t a re * Z e le zn e d obe i zo ko l ice Ba tan ja ( D ie e i senze i t l ichen G rabhüge l a u s d e r Umgebung v on B o s tan j ) i n V ar ia A r chaeo log ica , P o say sk i muze j 1( Brei ice 1 974 ) 8 7-91 G ug t in , M . 1 974b Maha i re : d op r ino s kp ovezom P icena , S loven i je i ns r edn jega P odonav l ja v7s t o l p r . n .S t . ( Maha i re K rumm schwe r te r : u rge sch ich t l iche V e rb indungen P icenum—S lowen ien—Ba sa rab i ) S i tu la 1 4-15 ( L jub l jana 1 974 ) . 7 7-94 G ug t in ,M . 1 976 L ibna P o saysk i m uze j 3( Brei ice 1 976 ) G uk in , M . 1 977 R e la t ivna K rono log l ja g robov Mo l c ronoske s kup ine ' ( Re la t ive C h rono logy o f t h e G raves o ft h e Mok ronog G roup )i nG u g t in , M— . ( e d ) K e l tske S tud i je P osay sk i m uze j 4( B rei ice 1 977 ) . 6 7-103 G ug t in , M . 1 978 G rad ig C .a e l ezne d obe v S love rü j i ( Typo log ie d e r e i senze i t l ichen R ingwa l le i n S lowen ien )A rheo loRd v e s tn ik 1 9 ( L jub l jana 1 978 ) . 1 00-121 G ug t in , M . 1 979 N o t ran j ska K a ta log i i n monog ra f i je 1 7 ( L jub l jana 1 979 ) Ga t in , M . , C un ja , R . a nd P redovn ik , K . K . 1 993 P odb k je /S tar i g rad . P o say sk i muze j 9( B rei ice 1 993 ) . G uk in , M . a nd T e rian , B . 1 977 B e i t räge z u d en v o rgesch ich t l ichen B ez iehungen z w ischen d em

V

( ed . )

A n c ien t

E urope

a nd

A n t iqu i ty 4 3 / 1 (Wa sh ing ton D .C . , U .S .A . , 1 978 ) ; 3 5-45 . Hod son , F .R . 1 977 Q uan t ify ing H a l l s ta t t , s ome i n t ia lr e su l ts . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 2 /3 (Wa sh ing ton D .C . ,U .S .A . , 1 977 ) , 3 94-412 . H or va t— ave l , I .1 981 R ezu l ta t i s ond i ran j p razgodv in skega n a se l ja v G o rn j i R adgon i ( D ie R e su l ta te d e r S ond ierungen d e r v o rgesch ich t l ichen S i ed lung i n G o rn ja R adgona ) . A rheo lo g 'k i v e s tn ik 3 2 ( L jub l jana H o r va t ,

1 981 ) ,2 91-310 . J . 1 983 . P razgodv in ske n a se lb in ske n a jdbe p r i

F a rm C e rkv i v K ran ju ( Vo rge sch ich t l iche S i ed lung sfunde b e i d e r P fa r rk i r che i n K ran j ) A rheo l ak i v e s tn ik 3 4 1 983 ( L jub l jana 1 984 ) , 1 402 18 . J ankov iC , S . 1 982 Y ugo s lav ia i nD unn ing , F .W . Myku sa , W . a nd S la te rD . ( ed s . )M inera lD epos i t so fE urope , V o lume 2 : S ou theas t E urope ( I n s t i tu t ion o f M in ing a nd Me ta l lu rgy a nd t h e M ine ra log ica l S oc ie ty . L ondon 1 982 ) , 1 43-202 . J e rem , E . 1 968 T he L a te I r on C eme te ry o f S zen t lö r inc A c ta A r cheo log ica A cad em iae S c ien t iarum H ungar icae 2 0 ( Budape s t 1 968 ) , 1 59— 2 08 . J e rem , E . 1 973 S pä te i senze i t l iche G rab funde v on B e remend ( kom i ta tB a ranya ) . A c ta A r chaeo log ica A cadem iae S c ien t iarum H ungar icae 2 5 ( Budapes t 1 973 ) , 6 58 6 . E . 1 974 H ande lsbez iehungen z w i schen d e r B a lkanha lb in se l u nd d en Ka rpa tenbecken i nVa nd I V J ah rhunde r t v . u .z . i nS ympo s ium z u P rob lemen d e r j üngeren Ha l l s ta t t ze i t i n M i t te leuropa ( Bra t is lava 1 974 ) ,2 29-242 . J e rem , E . 1 981a Z u r S pä tha l ls ta t tze i t u nd F rüh la teneze i t i n T ran sdanub ien i nD ie Ha l l s ta t tku l tur : S ympo s ium S t eyr 1 980 ( Obe rö s te r re ich i sche r L ande sve r lag , J e rem ,

L inz 1 981) , 1 05136 E . 1 98 l b S üd l iche B ez iehungen e i n ige r h a l ls ta t tze i t l ichen F und typen T ran sdanub ien s .

Ma ter i ja l i 1 9( Nov iS ad 1 981 ) ,2 01-220 . J ockenhove l , A . 1 971 D ie R a s ierme sse r i n M i t te leu ropa

Z u d en G la spe r len i n S lowen ien .

P räh i s tor i sche B ron zef und e 3 / 1 ( C .H . B eck 'sche V e r lag sbuchhand lung Mun ich 1 971) .

S i tu la 1 415 ( L jub l jana 1 974 ) . 6 1-65 H am i l ton , F .E . I . 1 968 Y ugo s lav ian P a t tern s o f E conom i c A c t iv i ty ( London 1 968 ) H a rd ing , A . 1 984 A spec t s o fS oc ia l E vo lu t ion i nt h e B ronze A ge i n B in t l i f f ,J .( ed . ) E uropean S o c ia lE vo lu t ion , A r chaeo log ica l P er spec t ive s ( Un ive r s i ty B rad fo rd ,B rad fo rd ,E ng land 1 984 ) . 1 35145

3 2 ( Peabody Mu seum , H a r va rd , Ma ss . 1 978 ) . H i r th , K .C . 1 978 I n te r reg iona l T rade a nd t h e F o rma t ion o f P reh is tor ic G a teway C ommun i t ie s . Amer ican

t h e

Med i terranean .E ssay sp re sen ted i nh onour o fH ugh H en cken ( A ns a nd P h i l l ip s , Wa rm in s te r E ng land , 1 977 ) . 7 7-89 H aever n ik , T .H . 1 974

19-127 . H encken , H . 1 978 T he I r on A re C eme ter y o f Magda len ska g o ra i n S l oven ia : Me ck l enburg C o l l ec t ion P ar t I . Amer ican S choo l o fP reh is to r ic R e sea rch , B u l le t in

J e rem ,

S üdo s ta lpengeb ie t , d em N o rdwe s t l ichen B a lkan u nd d em S üd l ichen P annon ien i m 5 .J ah rhunde r t i n Ma rko t iC ,

H encken , H . 1 974 B race le t s o f L ead—T in A l loy f r om Magda len ska g o ra . S i tu la 1 4-15 ( L jub l jana 1 974 ) ,

J ones , S . 1 974 Men o f I nf luence i n N ur i s tan . S em ina r S tud ies i nA n th ropo logy : 3( Sem ina rP re ss , L ondon 1 974 ) . K a roakovä—Sope r , V . 1 983 T he C as te l l ier i o f V ene z ia— G iu l ia , N or th e a s tern I t a ly ( 2nd— i s t m i l lenn ium B .C . ) . BAR I n ter na t iona l S e r ie s 1 92 ( Oxfo rd

o f

H ä rke , H .G . 1 979 S e t t lemen t T ypes a nd P a t te rns i nt h e W es t H a l l s ta t t P rov ince BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ies 5 7

1 983 ) . K a s te l ic , J . 1 955

( Oxfo rd 1 979 ) H e lms , M .W . 1 979 A nc ien t P anama : C h ief s i n S ear ch o f

T he F ea s t o f t h e S i tu la , i nK a s te l ic , J .

( ed . ) S i tu la A r t ( Thames a nd H ud son , L ondon 1 955 ) , 7 -21 .

P owe r . ( Un ive r s i ty o fT exa sP res s , 1 979 ) .

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I r on A ge i nS l oven ia K a s t e l ic ,J .1 960 N ov t i ph a l s ta t skega d i adema vS l oven i j i . S i tu la 1( L jub l jana 1 960 ) ,3 -26 . K a s te l ic ,J .1 965 S i tu la A r t( New Y o rk 1 965 ) K au s ,K . 1 981 H e r r scha f t sbe re iche d e r K a lende rbe rgku l tu r i n D ie H a l l s ta t tku l tur : S ympo s ium S t ey r 1 980 ( Obe rö s te r re ich i sche r L ande sve r lag , L in z 1 981 ) , 1 4158 . K emen cze i , T . 1 981 O s tunga rn i n d e r Z e i t d e r F r üha l l s ta t t sku l tu r i n D ie H a l l s ta t tku l tu r : S ympo i sum S t ey r 1 980 ( Obe rö s te r r e ich i sche L ande sve r lag ,L in z 1 981 ) ,7 7-92 . K i l ian , K . 1 971 B eme rkungen z u r C h rono log ie d e r f r üh en E i senze i tu nd z um B eg inn d e rH a l l s ta t t ze i ti nI t a l ien u nd N /W J ugo s law ien i nA c te s d u V i l l e C ong r e s I n te rna t iona l d e s S c ience s P reh i s to r ique s e t P ro toh i s to r ique s , P t . 1 — R appo r t G ene raux ( Be lg rade 1 971 ) ,2 19-231 . K i l ian , K . 1 974 Z u d en f r ühe i senze i t l ichen S chwe r t fo rmen d e r A pp en inha lb in se l i n Mü l le r—Ka rpe , H . ( e d ) B e i t räge z u i t a l ien i schen u nd g r iech i schen B ron zef unden . P räh i s to r i sche B ron z ef und e 2 0 / 1 ( Mün ich 1 974 ) , 3-80 . K i l ian ,J .1 975 F ibe ln i nT he s sa l ien v on d e rm yken i schen b i s z u r a r cha i schen Z e i t P räh i s to r i sche B ron z ef und e 1 4 /2 ( Mün ich 1 975 ) . K imm ig ,W . 1 985 D e rH ande li nd e rH a l l s ta t t ze i t .i nD uwe l , K . , J ankuhe , H .H . , S i em s , H . , a nd T impe , D . — U n ter suchungen z u H and e l u nd V e rk ehr d e r v o r— u nd f r ühge sch i ch t l i chen Z e i t i n M i t te l u nd N ord europa , P a r t I : Me thod i s che G rund lagen u nd D a r s t e l lungen z um H and e li nv o rge sch i ch t l ihe rZ e i t u nd i n d e r A n t ik e . ( Vandenhoeck & R up rech t , G o t t ingen 1 985 ) ,2 14-230 . K i r ch , P .V . 1 984 T he E vo lu t ion o fP o lyne s ian C h ief dom s ( Camb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s ,C amb r idge 1 984 ) . K nez , T . 1 966 Z amo g rob iee v N ovem m e s tu ( Umeng räbe r f e ld N ovo m e s to ) A rheo lak i v e s tn ik 1 7( L jub l jana 1 966 ) ,5 1-10 1 . K nez , T . 1 967 i a rn i g r obov i vB r g l j inu ( G räbe r d e r Umen f e ld ze i t i n B r s l j in ) . A rheo loi k i v e s tn ik 1 8 ( L jub l jana 1 967 ) , 1 5 5-16 1 . K nez , T . 1 97 1 H a l g ta t ske G om i le v N ovem m e s tu ( Ha l l s ta t t ze i t l iche T umu l i i n N ovo m e s to ) . Ma te r i ja l i 7( Be lg rade 1 971 ) , 1 23132 . K nez , T . 1 972 N ovo m e s to vd avn in i ( Novo m e s to i nd e r V or ze i t ) .( Za loiba O bzo r ja , Ma r ibo r1 972 ) . K nez , T . 1 973 F igu ra le S i tu len a u s N ovo m e s to .A rheo loik i v e s tn ik 2 4 ,1973 ( L jub l jana 1 975 ) ,3 09-306 . K nez , T . 1 974a H a l l s ta t t ze i t l iche H üge lg räbe r i n N ovo m e s to i n S ympo s ium z u P rob l emen d e r j ünge r en H a l l s ta t t ze i t i n M i t te leuropa ( B ra t i s lava 1 974 ) , 2 43-252 . K ne z , T . 1 974b H ag ta t sk i z l a t i d i adem i zN ovega m e s ta ( E in H a l l s ta t t z e i t l iche s G o ldd iad em a u s N ovo m e s to ) . S i tu la 1 4-15 ( L jub l jana 1 974 ) , 15118 . K nez , T . 1 976 H a l l s ta t tze i t l iche s F raueng rab m i t P seudokemo i a u s N ovo m e s to , J ugo s law ien . A r cheo log ia A u s t r iaca B e ihef t 1 3 —F e s t sch r i f t f ü r R icha rd P i t t ion i( V ienna 1 976 ) ,6 0 1-6 10 . K nez , T . 1 978 E in s pä tha l ls ta t t ze i t l iche s F ü r s teng rab v on N ovo m e s to i nS l owen ien . G e rman ia 5 6( F rank f u r t ,

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1 978 ) , 1 2 5-149 . K nez , T . 1 981 N ovo m e s to i n d e r H a l l s ta t tze i t . i n D ie H a l l s ta t tku l tur : S ympo s ium S t ey r 1 980 ( Obe rö s te r r e ich i sche r L ande sve r lag , L inz 1 981 ) , 2 4 1-260 . K nez , T . 1 983 D enkma le r d e r S i tu lenkun s t i nS lowen ien : F undka ta log u nd B ib l iog raph ie A rheo lo sk i v e s tn ik 3 4 ,1983 ( L jub l jana 1 984 ) ,8 510 5 K nez , T . 1 984 l a rno g r ob ie e v Novem m e s tu : z aea sno p o ro& lo o r a z i skovan ju v l e tu 1 982 ( Da s Umeng räbe r f e ld i n N ovo m e s to . V o rbe r ich t d e r G rabung 1 982 ) . A rheo loik i v e s tn ik 3 5 ( L jub l jana 1 984 ) , 19-133 . K nez , T . 1 986 N ovo m e s to I : H a lka t sk i g r obov i ( Ha l l s ta t t ze i t l iche r G räbe r ) . C a rn io la A r chaeo log ica 1 ( Do len jsk i m uze j , N ovo m e s to 1 986 ) . K nez , T . 1 993 N ovo m e s to I I : K nei ja g om i la ( Fü r s teng rabhüge l ) K ap i te l jska n j iva . C arn io la A r chaeo log i ca 3 ( Do len jsk i m uze j , N ovo m e s to 1 993 ) . K oh la , F .X . 1 96 1 Z u r h a l l s ta t tze i t l ichen ( Vene t i schen ) B e i s ied lung K ä rn ten s , v o rnehm l ich s üd l ich d e r D rau .C ar in th ia I ,1 5 1 ( K lagen fu r t 1 96 1 )3 99-455 . K o s ,P . 1 973 K o r i tn ica o bB ai .A rheo loik iv e s tn ik 2 4 ,1973 ( L jub l jana 1 975 )8 48-873 . K o s sack , G . 1 9 54 T r inkge sch i r r a l s K u l tge r ta t d e r H a l l s ta t t ze i t , i n G r imm , P . , ( e d . ) V a r ia A r chaeo log i ca ( Deu t sche A kadem ie d e r W i s sen scha f t z u B e r l in , S ch r i f ten d e r S ek t ion f u r v o r— u nd f r ühge sch ich te 1 6 ,B e r l in 1 964 ) ,9 6105 . K o s sack , G . 1 980 X imme r i sche B ronzen . S i tu la 2 0 /21 — Z bo rn ik p o s v e C e n S t ane tu G ab rovcu o b e s tde se t le tn ic i .( L jub l jana 1 980 ) , 1 09-143 K o s sa ck , G . 1 982 F rühe i senze i t l iche rG u te r tau sch . S avar ia 1 6 ,1982 ( S zomba the ly 1 983 ) ,9 5112 . K rame r , D . 1 981 Z u r P rob lema t ik d e r s ogennan ten ' O s tno r i schen R e ten t ion sku l tuf in d e r S t e ie rma rk i n D ie H a l l s ta t tku l tu r : S ympo s ium S t ey r 1 980 ( Obe rö s te r re ich i sch e r L ande sve r lag , L inz 1 981 ) , 1 73184 K r ii , B . 1 992 Af i eo lo gko o bmoC je C v inge r ( The C v inge r a r chaeo log ica l s i t e ) . V ar s tvo s pom en ik ov 3 4 , 1 992 ( L jub l jana 1 992 ) ,8 1-90 . K ra ,B . 1 995 N ovo m e s to p r ed I hn ( Novo m e s to v o rd en I l y r en ) .( Do len jsk i m uze j ,N ovo m e s to 1 995 ) . K rome r , K . 1 9 58 G edanken ü be r d en s o z ia len A uf bau d e r B evö lke rung a u f d em S a lzbe rg b e i H a l l s ta t t , O be rö s te r re ich . A r chaeo log i ca A u s t r ia ca 2 4 ( V ienna 1 9 58 ) ,3 9-58 . K rome r ,K . 1 9 59a D a sG räber f e ld v on H a l l s ta t t . ( S an son i , F lo r ence 1 9 59 ) K rome r ,K . 1 9 59b B r e z j eK a ta log ii nm onog ra f i je ( L jub l jana 1 9 59 ) K rome r , K . 1 980 D a s S i tu len f e s t : V e r such e i ne r I n te rp r e ta t ion d e r D a r s te l lungen a u f f i gu ra l v e r z ie r ten S i tu len . S i tu la 2 0 /2 1 Z bom ik p o sveeen S t ane tu G ab rovcu o b se s td e se t le tn ic i ( L jub l jana 1 980 ) ,2 25-240 . K uCa r , V . 1 979 P rah i s to r i jska n ek ropo la B e ram ( La N e c ropo le p r eh i s to r ique d e B e ram ) . H i s t r ia

B ib l iography A r chaeo log i ca 1 0 / 1 ( Pu la 1 979 ) ,8 5152 . L ah tov , V . 1 965 P rob l em t r eben ii k e k u l tu r e ( Da s P rob l em d e rT rebena te K u l tur ) ( Oh r id 1 965 ) . L ich t enbe rge r , E . 1 975 T he E a s tern A lp s T he P rob lem R eg ion s o f E u rope ( Ox fo rd U n ive r s i ty P r e ss , O x fo rd 1 975 ) . L ipp , F .C . 1 976 H a l l s ta t t B lo ckhau s u nd D a ch s te in— A lmhü t ten . A r chaeo log ia A u s t r ia ca , B e ihe f t 1 3 : F es t sch r i f tf ü rR icha rd P i t t ion i( V ienna 1 976 ) ,6 116 33 . L o l l in i ,D .G . 1 976 S i n te s id e l la c i v i l ta P i cena i nJ ad ran ska o ba la up ro toh i s tor i j i : K u l turn i ie t n i ck i p rob l em i ( Zag reb 1 976 ) , 17— 1 5 3 . L o S ch iavo , F . 1 970 I lG ruppo L ibu rn ico— Japod ico . A t t i d e l la A c cad em ia N a z iona l e d e i L ince i ; M emo r ie ; C la sse d iS c ien ze m o ra l i , s t or iche e f i lo log i che . S e r ie s8 , V o lume 1 4 , F a s icu le 6 ( Rome 1 970 ) . L ucen t ia , N . 1 981 S u I la c r ono log ia d e l le n ec ropo l i d i G la s inac n e l l ' e t a d e l f e r rp i nS t ud i d iP ro to s to r ia A d r ia t ica ( Quad ra t i d iC u l tu ra Ma te r ia le 2 ,R ome 1 981 ) ,6 7-171 . L ucke , W . a nd F rey ,0 .—H . 1 962 D ie S i tu la i nP rov iden ce ( Rhode I s land ) . R öm i s ch—Ge rman i s ch F o r s chung en 1 26 ( Be r l in 1 962 ) . L uka , L . J . 1 963 Uwag i oN iek to r ych K on tak tach P omo r za Wschodn iego z B a sen em Mo r za s r od z iemnego Wcze sne j E poce z e la za ( No te s a bou ts ome c on ta c t s o fE a s tP ome ran ia w i th t h e Med i te r ranean B a s in i n t h e E r . I r on E poch ) A r cheo log ia P o l sk i 8 / 2 ( W roc law , Wa r saw ,K rakov 1 963 ) ,2 74-288 . L uka , L . J . 1 966 . K u l tu ra W schodn iopomo r ska n a P omo rzu G dan sk im . B ib l io teka A r cheo log i c zna 1 9 ( W roc law , Wa r saw ,K rakov 1 966 ) . Ma l inow sk i , T . 1 982 L 'Amb r e J aune B a l t ique e t l a p r ob leme d e s on E xpo r ta t ion p endan tl e sp r em ie r e s p e r iodes d e L 'Age d u F e r . S ava r ia 1 6 , 1 982 ( S zomba the ly 1 983 ) , 13123 . Man sue l l i , G . 1 965 T he E a s t . t h e A d r ia t ic , E t r u r ia , a nd S i tu la A r t , i nK a s te l ic . J . (ed . ) S i tu la A r t ( Thame s a nd H ud son ,L ondon 1 965 ) , 2 7-33 . Man sue l l i , G .A . 1 974 . A nc ,o ra s u ip r ob lem id e l l 'A r te d e l le S i t u le .S i tu la 1 415 ( L jub l jana 1 974 ) ,9 5113 . Ma r i6 , Z .1 964 D on ja D o l ina . G la sn ik z ema l j skog Mu z e ja u S a ra j evu 1 9( Sa ra jevo 1 964 ) ,5 -128 Ma son , P . 1 988 C omm ing d ow n f r om t h e h i l l s : A p r e l im ina ry r e po r t o n t h e i n ten s ive s u r fac e c o l lec t ion o f al ow land I r on A ge a c t iv i ty a r ea . I n : C hapman , J . C . , B in t l i f f . J . , G a f f ney , V . a nd S l ap gak , B . ( e d s . ) : R e c en t D eve lopm en t s i n Y ugo s lav A r chaeo logy . BAR I n t . S e r . 4 31 ( Oxfo rd 1 988 ) , 2 39-245 . Ma son , P . 1 992a I r on , L and a nd P owe r : T he S oc ia l L and scape o ft h e S ou thea s t er n A lp s a nd t h e K a r s t i nt h e I r on A ge . A rheo 1 5 , 1 9 92 ( L jub l jana 1 992 ) , 3 2-39 . Ma son ,P .1 992b r n ome l j :S v .D uh . V ar s tvo s pomen ikov 3 4 , 1 9 92 ( L jub l jana 1 992 ) ,2 03-204 . M ihov i ld , K . 1 972 N ek ropo la G rad ine i z nad L im skog k ana la ( La N ec ropo l i d e l C a s t e l l ie re ' G rad ina ' s o v ra s tan te i c ana le d i L e rne ) H i s t r ia A r chaeo log i ca 3 / 2( Pu la 1 972 )

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M i lo jev id , B .Z . 1 9 58 Y ugo s lav ia : G eograph ica l S ur vey . ( Be lg rade 1 9 58 ) M lad in , J . 1 974 B ron Can e p o sude i i l jemov i i z I s t r e ( B ron zege fä s se u nd B ronzehe lme a u s I s t r ien ) . D iado ra 7( Zada r1 974 ) ,3 5158 . Mod r i jan , W . 1 9 50 D ie f i gu ra le B le ip la s t ik v on F rög C ar in th ia 1 , 140 ( K lagen f u r t 1 950 ) ,9 1-120 . Mod r i jan , W . 1 9 57 D a s h a l s ta t tze i t l iche G räbe r f e ld v on F rog ,C a r in th ia 1 , 147 ( K lagen fu r t 1 957 ) ,3 -42 . Mod r i jan , W . 1 965 S t e ie rma rk i nF ranz , L a nd N eumann , A .R . L ex ikon U r— u nd F rühge sch i ch t l i che r F und s tä t ten Ö s te r re ich s . ( Habe l t , B onn /V ienna 1 965 ) , 1 52162 . Mood ie , A .E . 1 945 T he I t a lo—Y ugo s lav B ounda ry ( Ph i l ip s a nd S on L td . ,L ondon 1 945 ) . Moo s le i tne r , F . 1 981 D e r i n ne ra lp ine R aum i n d e r H a l l s ta t t ze i t i n D ie H a l l s ta t tku l tur : S ympo s ium S t ey r 1 980 ( Obe rö s te r r e ich i sche r L ande sve r lag , L inz 1 98 1) ,2 05-226 . Moo s le i t ne r , F . , P au l i , L . a nd P enn inge r , E . 1 974 . D e r D ünnbe rg b e i H a l le in I . Mün chen er B e i t räge z u r V o r— u nd F ruhge sch i ch te 1 7 ( C . B ec i c she V e r lag sbuchhand lung , Mun ich 1 974 ) . Mo r r i s , I .1 986 G i f t a nd C ommod i ty i nA r cha ic G reece . Man : N ew S e r ie s 2 1/ 1 ( Roya l A n th ropo log ica l I n s t i tu te ,L ondon 1 986 ) , 1 17 Mo rva i , G . 1 982 H unga ry i nD unn ing , F .W . Myku ra , W . a nd S l a te r , D . ( e d s . ) M ine ra l D epo s i t s o fE urope V o lum e2 :S ou thea s tE urope . ( I n s t i tu t ion o fM in ing a nd Me ta l lu rgy a nd t h e M ine ra log ica l S oc ie ty , L ondon 1 982 ) Muh ly , J .D . 1 973 C oppe r a nd T in — T he D i s t r ibu t ion o f M ine ra l R e sou rce s a nd t h e n a tu re o f t h e Me ta l T rade i n t h e B ron ze A ge . T ran sa c t ion s o f t h e C onne c t i cu tA cad emy o fA r t sa nd S c ien ces 4 3 ( New H aven 1 973 ) , 1 5 5-535 . Muh ly , J .D . 1 976 S upp lemen t t o C oppe r a nd T in — T he D i s t r ibu t ion o fM in e ra lR e sou r ce s a nd t h en a tu re o f t h e Me ta l s T rade i nt h e B ron ze A ge . T ran sac t ion s o ft h eC onne c t i cu tA cad emy o fA r t sa nd S c ien ce s4 6 ( New H aven 1 976 ) ,7 7-136 . Mü l le r—Ka rp e , H . 1 9 52 D a s K r iege rg rab v on V i l lach . Z um B eg inn d e rH a l l s ta t tku l tu r d en s üd l ichen O s ta lpen . i n : B e i t räge z u r a l te r en e uropa i schen K u l tu rge s ch i ch t e , F e s t s chr if t f ür R . E gge r 1 ( K lag en fu r t 1 9 52 ) , 1 04113 . Mü l le r—Ka rpe , H . 1 9 59 B e i t räge z u r C hrono log ie d e r U rnenf e ld er z e i t n ö rd l i ch u nd s üd l i ch d e r A lpen . V o lume 1 a nd V o lume 2 . R öm i sch G e rman i sch F o r schungen 2 2( Be r l in 1 9 59 ) . Oman , D . 1 981 B r in jeva g o ra 1 953 ( Obde lava p ra zgodv in ske k e ram ike ( B r in jeva g o ra n ea r S l oven ske K on j ice E xcava t ion 1 953 ) . A rheo lo .e i v e s tn ik 3 2( L jub l jana 1 981 ) , 1 44-216 . O 'Shea ,J .1 981 C op ing w i th S ca r c i ty : E xchange a nd S oc ia l S t o rage . i nS he r idan ,A .S . a nd B a i ley , G . ( e d s . ) — E conom i c A r chaeo logy , BAR S upp lemen ta ry S e r ie s9 6( Ox fo rd 1 981 ) , 1 67-183 . P ah ig ,S .1 9 56 P o same zne n a jdbe i zR i f n ika ( S t reu funde v on R i f n ik ) .A rheo loa iv e s tn ik 7 / 1-4 ( L jub l jana 1 9 56 ) , 5 1-6 1 .

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia P ah iC , S . 1 957 D rugo z amo g r ob ik e vR u gah ( Da s z we i te r U rn en f e ld i nR u se ) .R a zp rave 4 / 3( L jub l jana 1 9 57 ) . P ah iC , S . 1 966 i e leznodobne n a jdbe v S l oven sk ih G o r icah ( E i sen ze i t l iche F unde i n d en S l oven ske g o r ice ) . A rheo lo dk iv e s tn ik 1 7( L jub l jana 1 966 ) , 1 0 3143 . P ah ia , S . 1 972 P ob ra j e . K a ta log i i n m onog ra f i je 6 ( L jub l jana 1 972 ) . P ah iC , S . 1 973 N a jd ika s t a r e j se i e lezne d obe v P od rav ju ( Fund s tä t ten d e rf r ühen E i sen ze i t mm s l owen i schen D rau land ) A rheo lod k i v e s tn ik 2 4 , 1 973 ( L jub l jana 1 975 ) ,5 21-543 . P ah iC , S . 1 981 B r in jeva g o ra 1 9 53 . A rheo lo sk i v e s tn ik 3 2 ( L jub l jana 1 981 ) ,7 1143 . P ah iC , V . 1 983 Z akopane n a jdbe i z P ek la p r i Ma r ibo ru ( Ve rg rabung sf und a u s P eke l b e i Ma r ibo r ) . A rheo lod k iv e s tn ik 3 4 , 1 983 ( L jub l jana 1 984 ) , 1 061 28 . P a lave s t ra , A . 1 984 P r in ce ly T ombs d u r ing t h eE a r ly I r on A ge i nt h eC en t ra lB a lkan s( Be lg rade 1 984 ) P ä rducz , M . 1 9 52 L e C ime t ie r e h a l s ta t t ien d e S zen te s— V eke rzug I A c ta A r chaeo lg i ca A cad em iae S c ien t iarum H unga r i cae 2 ( Budape s t 1 9 52 ) , 1 431 72 P ä rducz , M . 1 9 54 L e C ime t ie re h a l s ta t t ien d e S zen te s— V eke rzug I . A c ta A r chaeo log i ca A ced em iae S c ien t ia rum H ungar i cae 4( Budape s t 1 9 54 ) ,2 5-91 . P ä rducz , M . 1 9 55 L e C ime t ie r e h a l s ta t t ien d e S zen te s— V eke rzug I I . A c ta a r chae log i ca A cad em iae S c ien t ia rum H unga r i cae 6( Budape s t 1 9 55 ) , 1 -22 . P ä rducz , M . 1 973 P rob leme d e r S ky then ze i t i m K a rpa tenbecken . A c ta A r chaeo log ica A cad em iae S c ien t ia rum H unga r i cae 2 5( Budape s t 1 973 ) 2 76 3 P ä rducz ,M . 1 974 D ie c ha ra c te r i s t i schen S ky th i schen F unde a u s d em K a rpa tenb ecken u nd d i e d am i t v e rbundenen e t hn i schen F ragen i nS ympo s ium z u P rob l emen d e r j ünge r en H a l l s ta t t ze i t i n M i t t e l europa ( B ra t i s lava 1 974 ) ,3 11-336 . P a rke r—Pea r son , M . 1 984 S o c ia l C hange , I d eo logy a nd t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd i nS p r igg s , M . ( e d . ) Ma rx i s t P e r spe c t ive s i n A r chaeo logy . N ew D i r e c t ion s i n A r chaeo logy ( Camb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s , C amb r idge 1 984 ) ,5 9-71 . P a tek , E . 1 968 D ie U rnenf e ldku l tu r i n T ran sdanub ien ( Akadem ie K iado , B udape s t 1 968 ) . P a tek . E . 1 974 P rä sky th i sche G räbe r f e lde ri nO s tunga rn i n S ympo s ium z uP rob l emen d e rj ünge r en H a l l s ta t t z e i t i nM i t te l eu ropa ( B ra t i s lava 1 974 ) , 37-362 . P a tek , E . 1 981 D ie A n f ange d e r S i ed lung u nd d e s G räbe r f e lde s v on S op ron—Bu rg s ta i l i n D ie H a l l s ta t tku l tu r : S ympo s ium S t ey r 1 980 ( Obe rö s te r r e ich i sche r L ande sve r lag , L in z 1 981 ) , 9 3104 . P a t ek , E . 1 982a D ie H a l l s ta t tze i t l ichen G la spe r len T ran sdanub ien s . S ava r ia 1 6 , 1 982 ( S zomba the ly 1 983 ) , 1 6 1180 . P a tek , E . 1 982b R ec en tE xcava t ion s a tt h eH a l l s ta t ta nd L a T ene h i l l fo r t o f S op ron—Va rhe ly ( Bu rg s ta l l ) a nd t h e p r edece s so r s o f t h e H a l l s ta t t c u l tu re i n H unga ry i nG ab le r , D . , P a tek , E . a nd V ö rö s , I . S t ud ie s i n t h e I r on A ge o f H ungar y . BAR

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I n ter na t iona lS e r ie s 1 44 ( Oxfo rd 1 9 83 ) 1 -56 . P au l i , L . 1 971 S t ud ien z u r G o la secca—Ku l tu r . M i t te i lungen d e s d eu t schen a r chäo log i schen I n s t i tu t s 1 9 ( He ide lb e rg 1 971 ) . P au l i , L . 1 972 U n te r suchungen z u r S pä tha l ls ta t tku l tu r i n N o rdwu r t tembu rg . H amburge r B e i t räge z u r A r chaeo lg ie ,B and 2 ,H ef t 1( Hambu rg 1 972 ) . P au l i , L . 1 978 D e r D ünnbe rg b e i H a l le in I I / 1 . Mün chene r B e i t rage z u rV o r—und F ruhge sch i ch t e 1 8 / 1 ( Mun ich 1 978 ) . P enn inge r , E . , 1 972 . D e r D ü r rnbe rg b e i Ha l le in I . Münchene r B e i t rage z u r V or—und F ruhge s ch i ch t e ( Mun ich 1 972 ) . P e t ra sche ck , W .E . 1 982 I n t roduc t ion i n D unn ing , F .W . , Myka ra ,W . a nd S l a te r , D . ( e d s . )M ine ra lD epo s i t s o fE urope V o lum e2 :S ou theas tE u rope . ( I n s t i tu t ion o f M in ing a nd Me ta l lu rgy a nd t h e M ine ra log ica l S o c ie ty ,L ondon 1 982 ) . P e t ru , P . 1 973 Z ahodno i l i r ska d ruiba p o u podob i tvah n a Vi ik i i n Magda len skogo r sk i s i tu l i ( S oc ie ta I l i r ica o c c iden ta le c ome o ppa r e e f f ig ia ta s u l le s i tu le d i V aCie e Magda len ska g o ra ) . A rheo lo gk i v e s tn ik 2 4 , 1 973 ( L jub l jana 1 975 ) ,8 74-882 . P i t t ion i ,R . 1 9 54 U rge sch i ch te d e sö s te r r e i ch i schen R aum e s . ( F ran zD eu t icke V ienna 1 954 ) . P i t t ion i ,R . 1 980a U r ze i t 1 / 1 ( V ienna 1 980 ) . P i t t ion i ,R . 1 980b U r ze i t 1 / 2( V ienna 1 980 ) . P odbo r sky , V . 1 9 74 D ie S t e l lung d e r s üdmah r i schen H o rakov—Ku l tu r i m R ahmen d e s D anub i schen H a l l s ta t t i nS ympo s ium z u P ob l emen d er j ünge r en H a l l s ta t t z e i t i n M i t te leuropa ( B ra t i s lava 1 974 ) , 3 71-426 . P ound s , N .J .G . 1 969 E a s t e rn E urope ( Longman s L ondon 1 969 ) . P reu schen , E . a nd P i t t ion i , R . 1 954 U n te r suchungen i m B e rgbaugeb ie t K e lcham b e i K i tzbuhe l . U rge s ch ich te i n T i ro l . D r i t te r B e r ich t ü b e r d i e A rb e i t en 1 9461953 z u r d e s K up f e rbe rgwe sen s i n T i ro l .A r chaeo log ia A u s tr iaca 1 5( V ienna 1 9 54 ) ,3 9 7 . P reu schen E . a nd P i t t ion i , R . 1 955 N eue B e i t räge z u r T opog raph ie d e s U rze i t l ich en B e rgbaue s a u s K up f e re r z i n d en ö s te r r ech i schen A lpen A r cha eo log ia A u s t r iaca 1 8( V ienna 1 955 ) ,4 5-79 . P reu schen , E . a nd P i t t ion i , R . 1 9 56 D ie u r ze i t l ichen B e rgbaugeb ie t W i r t sa lm b e i V iehho f en i m M i t t e rp in zgau , S a lzbu rg . A r cha eo log ia A us t r ia ca 1 9 /20 ( V ienna 1 9 56 ) ,2 64-278 . P r ice ,B . J . 1 9 84 C ompe t i t ion ,P roduc t ive I n ten s i f ica t ion a nd R anked S oc ie ty : S pecu la t ion s f r om E vo lu t iona ry T heo ry i nF e rgu son , R .B . , ( e d . ) ' Wa rf a r e , C u l tur e a nd E nv i ronmen t ' ( Academ ic P r e s s 1 984 ) , 2 092 40 . P umo , E . , M e lo , V . a nd O s t ro s i , B . 1 982 A lban ia i n D unn ing , F .W . , Myku ra , W . , a nd S l a te r , D . ( e d s . ) M in e ra l D epo s i t s o fE urope , V o lume 2 : S ou thea s t E u rope ( I n s t i tu t ion o f M in ing a nd Me ta l lu rgy a nd t h e M ine ra log ica l S oc ie ty , L ondon , 1 982 ) , 2 032 14 . P u g ,I .1 971 i a rnog rob ikna n e l c ropo la n ad vo r ig cvuSAZU v L jub l jan iR a zp rave 1SAZU 7 / 1 ( L jub l jana 1 971 )

B ib l iography P u g , I . 1 980

No s i lc i k u l tu re i am ih g rob ik i n I l i r i ( The

Um f ie ld P eop le a nd t h e I ly r ian s ) S i tu la 2 0 /21 . po s r n ik p o svecen S t ane tu G ab rovcu o b S es tdese t le tn ic i ( L jub l jana 1 980 )7 1-75 . P u g , I . 1 982 P razgodov in sko Z a rno g rob i gCe v L jub l jan i R azprave 1 ,r a zp rave SAZU 1 3 /2 ( L jub l jana 1 982 ) P u g , I .1 984 P razgodov insk i Mo ln ik ( Da s v o rge sch ich t l iche Mo ln ik ) A rheo ldk i v e s tn ik 3 5 ( L jub l jana 1 984 ) , 1 34-162 . R ad t , W . 1 974 D ie f r ühe isenze i t l iche H üge lnek ropo le b e i V e rg ina i n Makedon ien i n Mü l le r—Ka rpe , H . ( ed ) B e i träge z u i t a l ien ischen u nd g r iech i schen B ron zef und en . P räh i s to r i sche B ronzefunde 2 0 / 1 ( Mun ich 1 974 ) ,9 8147 . R idgway , D . a nd R idgway , F . 1 979 I t a ly b ef o re t h e R oman s ( Academ ic P res s 1 979 ) . R ow land s , M .J . 1 980 K in sh ip , a l l iance a nd e xchange i nt h e E u ropean B ronze A ge . i nB a r re t t , J .C . a nd B rad ley , R .J . ( ed s . ) S e t t lemen t a nd S oc ie ty i n t h e B r i t i sh L a ter B ron ze A ge . BAR 8 3( Oxfo rd 1 980 ) , 1 5-55 .

S ta re , F . 1 955a V ace . K a ta log i i n monog raf i je ( L jub l jana 1 955 ) . S ta re , F . 1 955b G rob zb rona s t im k o t l iCkom i zS v . L ov renc ( A b ron ze k e t t le i n a t omb a t S v . L ov renc A rheo lodk iv e s tn ik ( L jub l jana 1 955 ) ,2 84-286 S ta re F . 1 974 G rob s t a r e jgega i e leznodobnega b o jevn ika i z L egna p r i S loven j G radcu ( F rühe isenze i t l iches K r iege rg rab a u s L egen b e i S loven j G radec ) . S i tu la 1 415 ( L jub l jana 1 974 ) ,6 7-76 . S ta re ,F . 1 975 D obova . P o say sk im uze j 2( Brei ice 1 975 ) . S ta re , V . 1 960 / 1961 P razgodov in ske Ma lence . A rheo lod k i v e s tn ik 1-12 ( L jub l jana 1 961 ) ,5 0-87 S ta re , V . 1 962 / 1963 P ra zgodv in ske g om i le i zR ov igCa ( D ie U r ze i t l ichen H üge lg räbe r a u s R ov isce ) . A rheo lod k i v e s tn ik 1 3-14 ( L jub l jana 1 963 ) ,4 35-467 . S ta re , V . 1 964 / 1965 i e leznodobne g om i le n a V inkovem v rhu . A rheo lod k i v e s tn ik 1 5-16 ( L jub l jana 1 965 ) , 2 15-258 . S ta re , V . 1 973a K u l tne p a l ice i z Sma r je te ( Ku l t s tabe a us gma r je ta ) . A rheo l dk i v es tn ik 2 4 , 1 973 ( L jub l jana 1 975 ) ,7 30-743 . V . 1 973b G om i le p od K o r i t i n a D o len jskem A rheo lod k i v e s tn ik 2 4 , 1 973 ( L jub l jana 1 975 ) , 7 44-

R ow land s , M .J . 1 984 C oncep tua l iz ing t h e E u ropean B ron ze a nd E ar ly I r on Age s i nB in t l if f , J .( ed . ) E uropean

S ta re ,

S oc ia l E vo lu t ion : A r cheo log ica l P e r spe c t ives . ( Un ive r s i ty o f B radfo rd , B radfo rd , E ng land 1 984 , 1 47-156 ) R ua ro—Lo se r i , L . 1 977 L a N e cropo l i d iB rd e c . Monog raf ie

7 79 . S ta re , V . 1 973c P ra zgodov in ska g mar je ta . Ka ta log i monog ra f i je 1 0 ( L jub l jana 1 973 )

S ta re , V . 1 978 F ibu le zo b logo i zg om i l p od V in j im v rhom ( Büge lf ibe ln a u s d en G rabhüge ln u n te r V in j i v rh . ) A rheo lod k iv e s tn ik 1 9( L jub l jana 1 978 ) ,6 4-84 S t rmCn ik—Gu l iCi,M . 1 979 P razgodov in ske g om i le n a

d iP re i s tor ia 1( T r ies te 1 977 ) . R u t ten , M .C . 1 969 T he G eo logy o f W e s te rn E urope ( E l sev ie r , Am s terdam , L ondon ,N ew Y o rk 1 969 ) . S ah l in s , M . 1 958 S o c ia l S t ra t if ica t ion i n P o lynes ia . ( Ame r ican E thno log ica l S oc ie ty , S ea t t le 1 958 ) . S ah l in s , M . 1 963 P oo rman , r i chman , b i g—man , c h ief : P o l i t ica l t ype s i n Me lane s ia a nd P o lynes ia . C ompara t ive S tud ie s i nS o c ie ty a nd H i s tory 5 ,2 853 03 . S ah l ins , M . 1 972 S tone A ge E conom i c s ( Tav is to ck P ub l ica t ion s ,L ondon 1 972 ) . S chm id , W . 1 915 D ie R ingwa l le d e s B achemgeb ie te s : P t . 1 . M i t te i lungen d e rp räh i s tor i schen K omm iss ion ,B and 2 /4 ( V ienna 1 924 ) , 3 65-391 . S chm id , W . 1 934 D er K u l twagen v on S t re t tweg . F üh re r z u r

B ez iehung

z um

( ed . ) A nc ien t E urope a nd t h e Med i ter ranean : E ssay sp re sen ted i nh onour o f H ugh H enck en ( Ans a nd P h i l l ip s , Wa rm in s te r , E ng land 1 977 ) , 1 57160 . T a s iC N . 1 973 R e la t ivno h rono lo gk i o dno s ij uid n opanon skog

M i t te lmee rgeb ie t . H amburger B e i träge z u A r chaeo log ie , 6( Hambu rg 1 979 ) . S k lena r , K . 1 983 A r chaeo logy i nC en t ra lE urope : T he F ir s t 5 00 Y ear s . S p i tzer ,

1 88-197 . J . 1 975 R im ske c e s te v S loven i j i . i n A rheo loska

n a jd i sca S l oven i je ( I n s t i tu te o f A r cheo logy , S lovene A cademy o f S c ience s a nd A r t s , L jub l jana 1 975 ) , 7 4-88 . a ge l ,J .1 977 S t rabo , O c ra a nd A r chaeo logy i n Ma rko t iC V .

Y o rk , 1 967 )

s e ine

v e s tn ik 2 4 . 1 973 ( L jub l jana 1 975 ) , 3 97-4 15 . S vo l jgik , D . 1 980 P razgodv in ska n a se lb ina n a Mos tu n a S o& ( D ie v o rge sch ich t l iche S i ed lung i n Mo s t n a

' a ge l ,

S erv ice ,E . 1 975 O r ig ins o ft h eS t a te a nd C iv i l i za t ion . (W .W . No r ton . N ew Y o rk . 1 975 ) . S i eg f r ied— We is s , A . 1 979 . D e r O s ta lpen raum i n d e r u nd

L egen p r i S loven j G radcu ( Vo rge sch ich t l iche G rabhüge l a u f d em L egen b e i S loven j G radec ) . A rheo lod k iv e s tn ik 3 0( L jub l jana 1 979 ) , 1 01-150 . S und s t röm , L . 1 974 T he E x change E conomy o fP re—Co lon ia l T rop i ca lA f r i ca ( Bu r s ta nd C o 1 974 ) . S vo l jgak , D . 1 973 . P razgodov in sko g rob igCe v T o lm inu ( Nec ropo l i p re i s to r ica d i T o lm ino ) . A rheo lodk i

S oC i ) S i tu la 2 0 /21 — Z bom ik p o sveC en S tane tu G ab rovcu o b g e s tde se t le tn ic i ( L jub l jana 1 980 ) ,

U rge sch ich te ,B and 1 2( Le ipz ig 1 934 ) . S erv ice , E . 1 967 P r im i t ive S o c ia l O rgan isa t ion : A n E vo lu t ionary P er spec t ive ( Random Hou se , N ew

Ha l ls ta t t ze i t

i n

is l ovenaCkog h a l g ta ta ( The r e la t ive c h rono log ie s o f t h e S ou th P annon ian a nd S loven ian Ha l l s ta t t C u l tu res ) . A rheo lo . i 'k i v es tn ik 2 4 . 1 973 ( L jub l jana

( New Y o rk 1 983 ) .

G . 1 973 E in Ha l ls ta t tze i t l iche r T umu lu s v on D raga tu s A rheo lodk i v e s tn ik 2 4 , 1 973 ( L jub l jana

1 975 ) ,6 11-620 . T e r ian , B . 1 973 V a l iCin a v a s . A rheo lodk i v e s tn ik 2 4 , 1 973

1 975 ) ,7 80-830 . S ta re , F . 1 951 P razgodv in sko g rob i gCe n a R i fn iku p r i C e l ju ( The p reh is to r ic n ec ropo l is o f R ifn ik n ea r C e l je ) . A rheo l ak iv e s tn ik 2 /2 ( L jub l jana 1 951 ) , 1 85-203 . S ta re , F . 1 954 I l ir sk e n a jdbe z e le zne d obe vL jub l jan i . D e la 1 ,R azp rave SAZU ( L jub l jana 1 954 )

T e r Zia n ,

( L jub l jana 1 975 ) ,6 60-729 . B . 1 974 H a lg ta t ske g om i le

i z

B ru sn ice

n a

D o len jskem ( D ie H a l ls ta t tze i t l ichen G rabhüge l a u s B ru sn ice b e i Novo m es to i nV ar ia A r chaeo log ica ,

1 33

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia P o say sk im uze j 1( B r ei ice 1 974 ) ,3 1-66 . T e r ian , B . 1 976 C e r to ska f i bu la ( D ie C e r to sa F ibe ln ) . A rheo loik iv e s tn ik 2 7( L jub l jana 1 976 )3 17536 . T e r ian ,B . 1 977 0 h o r izon tu b o jevn i sk ih g r obov m ed P adom i n D onavo v 5 i n 4s t o l . p r . n . s t . ( Ho r izon o f w a r r io r t omb s f o und i n t h e F i f th a nd f F ou r th C en tu r ie s B .C . i nt h e t e r r i to ry b e tween t h e P o a nd t h e D anube ) i nK e l t sk eS t ud z j e , P o say sk i Muze j 4 ( B r ei ice 1 977 ) , 9 -2 1 . T e r ian , B . 1 980 P o sod je vg r obov ih h a lg ta t sk ih v e l jakov n a D o len j skem ( Ve s se l s e t s i nt h e g r ave s o fH a l l s ta t t C h ie f ta in s i nt h e D o len j ska A rea ) S i tu la 2 0 /21 — Z bo rn ik p o sveC s en S t ane tu G rabovcu o b g e sde se t let r i ic i( L jub l jana 1 980 ) ,3 43-352 . T e r ian , B 1 981 R ev iew o f H . H encken — T he h on A ge C eme te ry o f Magda len ska g o ra i nS l oven ia — 1 978 A rheo lo gk iv e s tn ik 3 2( L jub l jana 1 981 ) ,6 59-664 T e r ian , B . 1 983 D a s P oho r je : e i n v o rge sch ich t l iche s E rz rev ie r . A rheo loik i v e s tn ik 3 4 , 1 983 ( L jub l jana 1 984 ) ,5 1-84 . T er ian , B . 1 985 P o sku s r e kon s t rukc i je h a lg ta t ske d r uzbene s t ruk tu re v d o len j skem k u l tumem k rogu ( E in R ekon s t ruk t ion sve r such d e r G e se l l scha f t s s t ruk tu r i m D o len jsko—K re i s d e r H a l l s ta t tku l tu r ) . A rheo logk iv e s tn ik 3 6( L jub l jana 1 985 ) ,7 7105 . T er ian , B . 1 990 S t ar e* l e l e zna d oba n a S l oven sk em S t a j e r sk em ( T he E a r ly I r on A ge i nS l oven ian S t y r ia ) . K a ta log i i n m onog ra f i je 2 5 ( Na rodn i m u ze j , L jub l jana 1 990 ) . T e r ian , B . a nd T rampui , N . 1 973 P r i spevek h k r ono log i j i s v e to luc i jske s kup ine A rheo lo s 'k i v e s tn ik 2 4 , 1 973 ( L jub l jana 1 975 ) ,4 16-460 . T e r ian , B . , L o S ch iavo , F . a nd T rampui—O re l , N . 1 984a Mo s t n a S oj i ( S . L uc ia ) I : T ex t K a ta log i i n m onog raf i je 2 3 / 1 ( L jub l jana 1 984 ) . T e r ian B . , L o S ch iavo , F . a nd T rampui—O re l , N . 1 984b . Mo s t n a S oa ( S . L uc ia ) I : T ab l e s . K a ta log i i n m onog ra f i je 2 3 /2 ( L jub l jana 1 984 ) . T elik—G r eg l , T . 1 981 C e r to sa f i bu le n a c en t ra lnom j a pod skom p od ru c ju ( D ie C e r to sa f ibe l i m j apod i schen Z en t ra lgeb ie t v on L ika ) V j e sn ik A rheo lo ;kog Mu z e ja uZ agrebu , 3S e r i ja ; V o lume 1 4( Zag reb 1 981 ) , 2 5-48 . T in e—Be r toc ch i , F . 1 971 L a c i v i l tä d auna a l la l u ce d e l le r e cen t i s c ope r te i nA c te s d u V I I l e C ongr e s I n te rna t iona l d e s S c ien ce s p r eh i s to r ique s e t P ro toh i s to r ique s , B eog rad 9 -15 S ep temb r e 1 971 ; P a r t 3( Be lg rade 1 973 ) , 1 2 5-131 T omazzo—Ravn ik , T . 1 984 A n t ropo lo sko p o ro c i lo z g r ob i sca Mo ln ik ( An th ropo log ische rB e r ich ta u sd e r N ek ropo le Mo ln ik ) A rheo lo . ik i v e s tn ik 3 5 ( L jub l jana 1 984 ) , 1 6 3165 T ruhe l l ca , C . 1 893 H üge lg räb e r u nd R ingwa l le a u f d e r H o chebene G la s inac . W i ssen s chaf t l i che M i t te i lungen a u s B o sn ien u nd d e r H e r z egov ina 1 ( V ienna 1 893 ) ,6 1112 . T ruhe lka , C . Wo ld r ich , J .N . a nd Ma ly , K . 1 904 D e r v o rge sch ich t l iche P fah lbau i m S avabe t te b e i D on ja D o l ina ( Bez i rk B o sn i sch—G rad i ska ) B e r ich t ü b e r d i e A u sg rabungen b i s 1 904 . W i s sen s chaf t l i che M i t te i lungen a u s B o sn ia u nd d e r H e r z egov ina 9

1 34

( V ienna 1 904 ) ,3 170 . T u r r i l l , W B . 1 9 29 T he P lan t L if e o ft h e B a lkan P en in su la ( London , 1 929 ) . U r leb , M . 1 974 K r i zna g o ra p r i L o zu . K a ta log i i n m onog ra f i je 1 ( L jub l jana 1 974 ) . V a l iC ,A . 1 983 P ra zgodv in ske g r obne i nn a se lb in ske n a jdbe v K ran ju ( Vo rge sch ich t l iche G rab— u nd S i ed lung sf unde i n K ran j ) . A rheo lo sk i v e s tn ik 3 4 , 1 983 ( L jub l jana 1 984 ) , 1 29139 . V ar s to s pomen ikov 2 6 1 984 ( L jub l jana 1 982 ) . V a s iC , R . 1 977 T he C hrono logy o ft h e E a r ly I r on A ge i n S e rb ia . BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s3 1( Oxfo rd 1 977 ) . V e jvoda , V . a nd M im ik , I .1 971 I s t raLvan ja p reh i s to r i jsk ih t umu la uK ap to lu K ra j S lavon ske P oiege ( t ab . I — X IV ) ( Excava t ion s o f P reh i s to r ic B a r row s a t K ap to l ) V j e sn ik A rheo lo ,aog Mu z e ja u Z ag r ebu , 3S e r i ja :V o lume 5( Zag reb 1 971 ) , 1 83-210 . V e jvoda , V . a nd M im ik , I . 1 973 . H a lg ta t sk i I m eiev s ld g r obov ii zK ap to la k od S l avon sk eP oiege ( Ea r ly h on A g e Wa r r io rG rave s n ea r S l avon ska P o iega ) . A rheo lo sk iv e s tn ik 2 4 , 1 973 ( L jub l jana 1 975 ) 5 926 10 . V in sk i—Ga spa r in i , K . 1 96 1 I s kopavan je k neiev skog t umu la k od Ma r t i jane ca u P od rav in i ( Au sg rabung e i ne s h a l l s ta t i schen G rabhüge l s b e i Ma r t i janec i n D onaugeb ie t ) . V j e sn ik A rheo lakog m u ze ja u Z ag r ebu , 3S e r i ja : V o lume 2( Zag r eb 1 96 1 ) ,3 9-66 . 3 29 V in sk i—Ga spa r in i , K . 1 973 K u l tura p o l ja s a i a rama u s j eve rno j H r va t sko j ( D ie U rnenf e ld e rku l tur i n N o rdk roa t ien ) . S veuC i l is te u Z ag rebu F i lozo f sk i F aku l te t . Monog ra f i je 1( Zada r1 973 ) V in sk i—Ga spa r in i , K . 1 978 O svr t n a i s t rai ivan ja k a snog b ronianog i s t ar z j eg z v e l j e znog d oba u s j eve rno j H r va t sko j ( Rü ckb l i ck a uf d i e F o r schungen d er s pä ten B ron ze z e i t u nd d e r ä l t e r en E i sen z e i t i n N o rd l i chen K roa t ien ) i nA rheo logka i s t rai ivan ja u s j eve rozapadno jH r va t sko j( Zag r eb 1 978 ) V uga , D . 1 9 80 2 e l e z n o d o b n a n a jd i ka v k o t l in i L jub l jan skega b a r ja ( I ron A ge s i te s i n t h e L jub l jan sko B a r je ( Ma r sh land )B a s in ) .S i tu la 2 0 /21 — Z bonük p o sveCen S t an e tu G ab rovcu o n g e s td e se t le tn ic i( L jub l jana 1 980 ) , 1 99-210 . V u lpe , A . 1 981 Z u r D ef in i t ion u nd V e rb r e i tung d e r B a sa rab i—Ku l tu r . Ma ter i ja l i 1 9 ( Nov i S ad 1 981 ) , 1 7 9188 . Webe r , C . 1 982 D ie E in schne id igen R a s ie rme s se r i m Ö s t l ichen M i t t e leu ropa i n d e r A u sgehenden B ron zeze i t . S ava r ia 1 6 , 1 982 ( S zomba the ly 1 983 ) , 4 5-56 . We l l s ,P . S . 1 9 80 C u l tur eC on tac ta nd C u l ture C hange :E ar ly I r on A ge C en tra l E urope a nd t h e Med i t e r ranean W o r ld . ( Camb r idge U n ive s i ty P r e s s , 1 980 ) . We l l s , P . S . 1 9 81 T he Eme rgence o fa n I r on A ge E conomy : T he M e ck l enburg G rave G roup sf r om H a l l s ta t ta nd S t i cna . M eck l enbu rg C o l l e c t ion P ar t I I — Ame r ican S choo l o fP reh i s to r ic R e sea r ch , B u l le t in 3 ( P eabody Mu seum ,H a r va rd , US .A 1 981 ) We l l s ,P . S . 1 9 85 Med i te r ranean T rad ea nd C u l tu ra lC hange i nE a r ly I r on A ge C en t ra l E u rope . i n C hamp ion , T .C . a nd Megaw , J .V .S . S e t t l emen t a nd S o c ie ty :

B ib l iography A spec ts o f W e s t E uropean P r eh i s to ry i n t h e f i r s t m i l l enn ium B C ( Le ice s te r U n ive r s i ty P re ss 1 985 ) , 6 9-89 Wer n e r , W .M . 1 985 P f e rde t r en sen a u s S üdo s teu ropa — E ine Ü be r s ich t . A r chäo log i sche s K o r r e spond en zb la t t 1 5 ,

1 3 5

P a r t 4 ( Ka ta log d e s R öm i sch G e rman i schen Z en t ra lmu seum s , Ma inz , 1 985 ) ,4 63-479 . W i sha r t , D . 1 978 C lu s tan u se r Manua l , 3 rd E d i t ion . P rog ram L ib ra ry U n i t , E d inbu rgh U n ive r s i ty ( Ed inbu rgh 1 978 ) .

A ppend ix

K ey t ot he H is tograms i n Append ix

- E l i te G rave

- N on -e l i te G rave

- Weapons G rave

Abbrev ia t ions

S ec t ion 8 :

S ec t ion 1 4 : S t iena

P odzeme l j

G :

G rm

I * :

B a r row I( Na rodn i muze j )

P :

P odzeme l j

VP :

V as P ede

S k :

S k r i l je

VV :

V as V i r

S ec t ion 1 0 :

V aee

S ec t ion 1 5 :

N ovo mes to -Kand i ja /Ma len§ek

A p :

A pno F l a tC eme te ry

K :

K and i ja

A sh :

A shmo lean

M :

Ma len ek

K :

K len ik F l a tC eme te ry

R n :

R ayne n j ive B a r row S ec t ion 1 8 :

S ec t ion 1 2 :

B o§ tan j

K le in K le in B V :

B udn i v rh

F VV :

F o rs twa ld

D B :

D o len j i B o§ tan j

GVV :

G re l lwa ld

K B :

K l anc n ea r B o§ tan j

HNK :

H a r tne rm iche lkoge l

K P :

K osma tec n ea r P reska

HSVV :

H ochschus te rwa ld

K VL :

K r2 i§de n ea rV e l ik i L ukovec

K B :

K ü rb ischbaue r

ML :

M a l i L ukovec

K BH :

K ü rb ischhans l

VDS :

V e l ika D ob rava n ea r Sma rdna

K SK :

K rö l l -Schm iedkoge l

K SW :

K a ise rschne iderwa ld

S ec t ion 1 9 :

L ibna

L GVV :

L e i teng r i tschwa ld

MVVV :

M uske rvas t lwa ld

D :

D e r an id

OF W :

O fenmache rwa ld

G :

G logo ‘Aek

PMK :

P omme rkoge l

P :

P l an inc

P VV :

P reck lwa ld

R :

R ad id

T F :

T schonegge r f ranz l

S p :

A p i le r

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T schonegger f ranz lwa ld

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A ppend ix

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A ppend ix

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A ppend ix

2 7 , ›

O the r A r te f ac t s 4 +

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F igure 5 : 1

C omb ina t ion T ab l e o f L jub l jana l I b a nd L jub l jana Ma G raves a t Mo ln ik .

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 4 1 3 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 O ther V e s se l s G rave 1 G rave 6

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1

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C eram ic S e ts i n L jub l jana J i b a nd L jub l jana Ila G rave s a t Mo ln ik ( K ey : F igure 1 : 9 ) .

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A ppend ix

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A pp end ix

F i gu r e 8 . 1

P lan o ft h es i t eo fP od zeme l j( A f te rJ .D u la r 1 978 )

1 5 1

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C i S i S i Z n 2 G d P l j t ( K F i t 8 1 0 ) t e r a m c e s n a e r a v s a o e z m e y : g u r e : .

A ppend ix

S e xpe l i t i i i ii i :C . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 O ther V e s se l s G rave G 1 / 14

'1

G rave G 1/ 22

1

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1 1 1

G rave G2 / 17 F igur e 8 : 1 5

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C eram ic S e t s i n S e rpe r z l if or rn G rav e s a t P od zeme l j ( K e y : F igur e 8 : 1 0 ) .

C er to sa

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1 57

I r on A ge i nS loven ia

F igure 8 :1 9 D is t r ibu t ion o f P odzeme l j 1G raves a tP odzeme l j .

1 2 1 1 0 -

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A ppend ix

F igure 8 :2 2 D is t r ibu t ion o fS t iOna 2G raves a t P odzeme l j .

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A ppend ix

F igure 8 : 2 5 D is t r ibu t ion o fE ar ly N egau G raves a tP odzeme l j .

1 2 1 1 0 -

N umbe ro fG raves

98-

6 54

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F igure 8 : 2 6 D is t r ibu t ion o f L a te N egau G raves a t P odzeme l j .

1 2 1 1 0 -

N umbe r o fG raves

98765-

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C omb ina t ion T ab l e o f P od z eme l j IG rav e s a t ü rnome l j .

r . o . . 3 E

i

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G rave

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•

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F igur e 9 : 3

Maha i ra

2F e •

•

G r . 2 / 5 G r . 7 / 1

8 / 4

2

G rave 2 / 5

1

G rave 7 / 1

1

G rave 8 / 2

1

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1

1

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2

G rave 6 / 1

2

G rave 1 / 1

1

G rave 1 / 2

1

G rave 2 / 2

1

G rave 2 / 3

1

F igur e 9 : 6

O the r A r te f ac t s

2F e

C eram ic S e t s i n S t iaa I G rav e s a t e rnome l j ( K ey : F igur e 8 : 1 0 ) .

1 62

3B r . R ing le t s

A pp end ix

F igure 9 :7D is t r ibu t ion o f P odzeme l j 1

F igure 9 :8D is t r ibu t ion o fP odzeme l j 2

G raves a tö rnome l j .

G raves a td rnome l j .

N umbe ro fG raves

N umbe ro fG raves

543 210 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

1

2

3

B a r row N umbe r

4

5

B a r row N umbe r

F igure 9 :9D is t r ibu t ion o fS t iena 1 G raves a tö rnome l j .

N umbe r o fG raves

5 4 3 1 1

1

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F igur e 1 0 : I

We leel•

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia

1 .1 P l an o ft h es i te o fL egen n ea rS l oven jG radec ( A f t e rS t rmCn ik—Gu l iCi1 979 )

1 66

F rag .

P l a te F e

B r . R ing

F e

_

S ocke t ; B r . F rag . I

B r . Ob jec t

O the r A r tefac ts

K ey t oW ie s— Ma r t i jance C e ram ic S e t s i nS 't a je r ska ( Af te rP ah ie ' 1 973 )

A ppend ix

l a s saA g 9 . s c, r , , , . . 7 . ' F . ,c • -

'

( ."

00

CO

,

,

. , • • • • • • • , , .

• ••

i l o t im a ipu tds 1 q2p n A L uocr i p uag l uepuad t u ape !Q p io0

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q u Is i inN u onng a zuo ig 2 u ! . 1 . 122u !d 2 u ! azp iuy 2 upu l . . ry

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l ea° a s ioH z s io ri . C - , . C . c • • , , , • , • , , . , • • , , . • c • • , - c • • , . c • • - , . • c - , • c • • c • , • • , u opEu izip , • ,

1 67

i Ba r row 2 4

' Bar row 2 3

' Ba r row 1 6

' Bar row 2 1

' Bar row 1 5

B ar row 2

' Ba rrow 1 3

B a r row 1 4

' Bar row 7

' Bar row 6

' Ba r row 5

' Bar row 1 9

' Bar row G 1(2

' Bar row 1

' Ba r row 2 0

' Bar row 3

1 0

' Bar row 2 7

I 1 3 ar row

' Ba rrow 2 6

' Bar row 2 8

' Bar row 1

' Bar row 2 5

' Bar row 9

' Bar row 2 2

' Ba r row 4

' Bar row 8

l

u o ! zeu inqu i

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 O ther V esse l s B ar row 3

1 1

B ar row 1 9

1 1

B ar row 2 0

5

B ar row 8

? 1

B ar row 2 8

1 7

B ar row 1

3

1

B ar row 9

1

2

1

2 1 2

' 6

1 1 1 ? 1

2

2 1 2 3

2

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?

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3

1

B ar row 5

1 1

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1

2

2 1 7 17

1

6 1

1 1

3 2

1

B ar row 1 4

1

B ar row 4

?

11 7

B ar row 2 2

1

1

B ar row 7

3

1

B ar row 1

1

7

B a r row 1 5

1

B ar row 2

1

B ar row 2 1

1

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1

B ar row 2 4

1 4

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1

B ar row 1 6

1

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9

F igur e I I : 4

C eram ic S e t s i n B ar row G rave s a t L egen n ear S loven j G ra c l ec ( K e y : F igur e I: 3 ) .

GEME INDE GLE INSTÄT TEN

1 2 .1

P lan o ft h es i te o fK le in—K le in ( A f te rD ob ia t 1 980 )

1 68

?

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?

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1

Append ix

4

•

C omb ina t ion T ab l e o f P ha se I G rave s a t K l e in -K l e in .

1 69

1 . 1 01 1 M21 p U 4 S

I P l aques .

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. , •

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; . 7 -,

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C omb ina t ion T ab l e o f P hase 3 G raves a t K l e in

2 u ! .uug

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a xy

, • . , m L t•

•

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t u ape !G p l op

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p o t pea lpu !ds




—

Press

1 ' Be l t P a r t

! Bow P ar t

1 ! He lme t

' Bronze V esse l I

1

I ' Hor se Gear

' Ho r se

r

1 C rema t ion

1

C omb ina t ion T ab l e o f S erpen t if orm G rave s a t B r e z je n ear T r ebe lno .

n I n h u n

F igur e 1 6 : 5

• •

2 • 2

• 7 8 9

2

F e

S l ag

P b

R ing le t

8 1 • 2

2 4 2 9

G rave L / 48

•

8

G rave 7 ( 1 II 1 12

•

•

G rave V I I /35

•

1

2

C omb ina t ion T ab l e o f C e r to sa G rave s a t B r e z j e n ear T r ebe lno .

1 89

•

2

3

•

1 89

•

F igur e 1 6 : 6

g . c

2

G rave V I I 141

C er t c tsa

Go ld D iadem

. 2

F inge r r ing

' ) ,

' Ku l ts tab

1

•

• l • • •

• •

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0 L E :

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I

I [ Dre ss P in

. 3

c . : , c • c :

B ronze B u t ton I

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1

o i p t

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G rave V I I 132

, 2 "

[ Bow P ar t

G rave X I I I / 14

' He lme t

•

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G rave V I / 1

' Hor se

S e rPent i form

' C rema t ion

= . o . . 7

' Hor se Gear

I

A ppend ix

2 •

—

, . .

—

O the r V e s se l s

O the r V e s se l s

1

I r on A ge i nS l oven ia

, • • . , , ( . 4 -

c p

C)

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t i o !i ewa iD

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; 2

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e z

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C O 0

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u opmunqu i • • • • • • •

l i ed l i ag l i ed mog 2. E1) 1

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G rave X I I I 1 11

F igu r e 1 6 : 1 4

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•

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2 u !iwry

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2 u ! .uo2u u

C • • •

F igur e 1 6 : 1 0

u o l ing a zuoig

CO

( K e y : F igur e 1 : 9 ) .

u oun i a a zuo is

. . .

F igur e 1 6 : 9

l uepuad t upPe !C I P 10 0 q e ls i inN

C omb ina t ion T ab l e o f E ar l y N egova G r av e s a t B r e z j e n ear T r ebe

l uepuzd woPu !C E P I00 q u i su r ix

•

( G rave I 1 72

,

O the r V es se l s

1 12pmwocr i

C omb ina t ion T ab l e o f L a t e N ego va G rav e s a t B r e z j e n ear T r ebe lno .

1 q2pmwocr i

2 upap fub '

F igur e 1 6 : 1 3

z s sz A • • • • •

1

i o x ima ipu !ds

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1 2s2A

e -

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( G rave X I I I / 24

7 217

( G rave X I II 1 19

. .. I

( G rave 1 / 6 1

' G rave 1 / 15

( G rave X I I I 1 20

x i i r 21

! G rave V 1 / 1

( G rave

( G rave X I I I 16

( G rave X I I I / 14

[ G rave 1 /3

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CO

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( G rave X I I I / 40

( G rave 1 / 46

,—

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•-1

( G rave V I I / 17

S er pen t i f onn

e q

( G rave V I I / 42

•1

, .I

• -1

CV

F igure 1 6 : 1 6 D is t r ibu t ion o f P odzeme l j

F igure 1 6 : 1 7 D is t r ibu t ion o fS t iöna

G raves a tB rez je n ear T rebe lno .

G raves a t B rez je n ear T rebe lno .

1 5

1 5 -

1 4 -

1 4

1 3 -

1 3

1 2 -

1 2 -

1 -

1 -

1 0 -

1 0 -

N umbe ro fG raves

N umbe ro fG raves

A ppend ix

9876-

9876-

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F igure 1 6 : 1 9 D is t r ibu t ion o fS erpen t iform

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