The cinema as art [Rev. ed.] 9780140119817, 0140119817

Citation preview

A | Born in New

Zealand, he was

formerly in the Colonial Service in Hong Kong (where he was a Japanese POW), the Seychelles, Ghana and Sierra

J

Guy Phelps writes regularly for the International Film Guide, Sight And Sound and other publications. He is the author of Film Censorship (1975) and co-author of Mass Media and the Secondary School (1973). With degrees in Sociology and Mass Communications, he has worked at various times as a media academic, television critic and, for seven years, as a manager of art-house cinemas.

a

a

He is author of five detective novels, two books on

sailing and two other books on the cinema: Animation in the Cinema and The Animated Film.

VROSIPLIT

Pullman cinema in London.

» dr

ART

oly

AS

Ralph Stephenson worked for eight years for the British Film Institute and was for eleven years a director of the Paris

Leone.

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BOOKS

CONTENTS

Published by the Penguin Group

23 Wrights Lane, London w8 512, England Viking Penguin Inc., 40 West 23rd Street, New York, New York 10010, USA Penguin Books Australia Ltd, Ringwood, Victoria, Australia Penguin Books Canada Ltd, 2801 John Street, Markham, Ontario, Canada L3R 184 Penguin Books (NZ) Ltd, 182—1g0 Wairau Road, Auckland 10, New Zealand Penguin Books Ltd, Registered Offices: Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England

First published Revised edition Second edition Revised edition

1g65 1969 1976 1989

10987654321 Copyright © Ralph Stephenson and J. R. Debrix, 1965, 1969, 1976

Copyright © Ralph Stephenson and Guy Phelps, 1989 All rights reserved

FOREWORD TO THE FIRST EDITION BY SIR WILLIAM COLDSTREAM ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Filmset in 10 on 11%pt Ehrhardt

Printed and bound in Great Britain by Cox & Wyman Ltd, Reading

TRIBUTE

Except ithe ben States of America, is

book

is sold

subject to

. a it shall not, by way Tyme

dit

oe lent, re-sold, hired out, or otherwise circulatedof the publisher's prior consent in any form without binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition

including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser

TO JEAN

DEBRIX

1

THE FiLM AND ART

2

SPACE IN THE CINEMA: Scale, Shooting-Angle, Depth

3

g Camera Movement, SPACE IN : THE CINEMA: . Cutting,

.

Framing

4 5 6

0 2 Dramaticg Psychological, Time IN THE CINEMA: . Physical, SPACE-TIME IN THE CINEMA

THE SURFACE OF REALITY: Décor, Costume, Make-Up;

Lighting, Soft-Focus, Double-Exposure, Negative Image, Distortion; Colour; Special Effects

in

3 E I 5

FIBLIOTEXET

7

Tue FirrH DIMENSION: Sound

8

THE OTHER SENSES: Taste, Touch and Smell REALITY AND ARTISTIC CREATION

INDEX OF FILMS AND DIRECTORS GENERAL INDEX

ForEwORD

TO

THE

FIRST

EDITION

FoR the present generation the art of the film is of pressing interest. The cinema is now over sixty years old and has its own discriminating audience, but compared with the other arts it is still little written about or seriously discussed. The term ‘film criticism’ is generally applied to a weekly review of new films published in a daily or weekly paper and written by a regular contributor known as the film critic. Although it may refer to questions of aesthetics and may reflect a profound knowledge of the cinema, its main purpose is to give some idea of the story and background of the pictures and to assess them as good, bad, or indifferent entertainment. It is basically a guide to current filmgoing. We accept this terminology as a matter of course, but it is not quite what obtains in other fields. In literature, for instance, the

equivalent of a film critic writing a weekly review is a book reviewer, and

the

equivalent

of film criticism,

as we

know

it, is book-

reviewing. ‘Literary criticism’ is a different kind of writing, more occasional,

less topical,

dealing with broad

themes,

seeking by

comparison and analysis to give a fuller knowledge and understanding of literature as an artistic medium and in all its implications. It is clear that in the literary field, book-reviewing and literary criticism are rather different things, both of value but serving different purposes. It is pertinent, therefore, to turn back to the film world and inquire what there is in this sphere corresponding to literary criticism. No doubt we should look for it in the field of film appreciation, but where are its articles, its books, its exponents?

8

THE

CINEMA

AS

ART

Where indeed? Particularly in English. They are represented only by a few specialized journals such as Sight and Sound or Film Quarterly, and by a handful of books published over the past forty years. In any case, the phrase ‘film appreciation’ is a somewhat

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

underrated one with, perhaps, rather amateurish connotati

ons. It would be better if the same terminology as is used in literature became current in the film world, if the term ‘Alm reviewing’ were reserved for current assessment and “film criticism’ came to imply the broader, thematic approach of literary criticism. The Cinema as Art can be regarded as a material contribution towards the new concept of film criticism. It discusses in detail and in depth an indispensable preliminary: the language of the film, a language as important as that of the writer, the painter, or the musician, and different from them all. For the film appreciation or film criticism of the future, this, or books like this, will be essential reading. SIR

WILLIAM

COLDSTREAM

1965

THE British iti Film i Institute i including i i the National i Film Theatre : and the Information Department, Library and Stills Collection (for all plates except those mentioned below); The Imperial War Museum for Plate 10; A. Conger Goodyear and the Museum of Modern Art for Plate 27.

TRIBUTE

TO JEAN

DEBRIX

JEAN DEBRIX, co-author of the original edition of The Cinema as Art, died in 1978. A substantial part of the original was based on his book, Les Fondemenis de I'Art Cinématographique, and he read and agreed the text and illustrations of the first edition and subsequent reprints. Although this edition is to some extent a new book, since it has been revised, brought up to date’and much new material added, with the collaboration of Guy Phelps, nevertheless the work of Jean Debrix remains as a foundation stone. This tribute is therefore in grateful recognition of the part played by a talented and sympathetic collaborator who was an inspiration in the early stages. R.S.

CHAPTER

THE

ONE

FiLM AND ART

IN a book on film aesthetics it is useful to consider the relationship of film to the other arts, and to regard it first as only one member of a large family. Like most rich concepts, art has been variously defined by different authors; and this diversity of approach is welcome, for each description will illuminate a different aspect of the subject and add to our knowledge. THE NATURE

OF ART

Take first a painter, who may make of a ruined building, a pile of rubbish, a junkyard or an industrial landscape, a composition in forms and colours that is dramatic, forbidding or even beautiful; the sensitive spectator will come to see them as such. He may make of rush-hour travellers or factory workers a company of tragic spectres, and again the spectator, who may have been commuting or working in a factory for years, will see them with new eyes. This is how D. W. Griffith, the American film director, saw his work. “The task I am trying to achieve is to make you see,’ he wrote. From a slightly different viewpoint, Walter Pater regarded the artist as liberating, or realizing, the potential of his raw materials and quotes Michelangelo in support of his view:! Art does but consist in the removal of surplusage ... the finished work lies somewhere, according to Michelangelo’s fancy, hidden in the rough-hewn block of stone. 1. Walter Pater, Appreciations, Macmillan, London, 1931.

4

THE

In a biography

CINEMA

of Robert

Flaherty

AS

ART

(The Innoc

ent Eye), Arthur Calder-Marshall describes an exact ly similar approach in a primitive artist: “The Eskimo rarely sets out to carve a seal, but pi the ivory to

find its hidden form . . dat _ This is akin to the view that art consists in reproducing or imitating real life; and it is a plausible explanation of the ori, in f graphic art and sculpture, for instance, to trace them to fos ical imitations of the real thing — cave -drawn bison for stickin i Into to ensure the death of real bison, and little figures of 2 king' s

-.. that’s your Venus, whe nce we turn

To yonder girl that fords the burn. But, even as imitation, art may show us the true ess enc e of things Tare clearly than we

could see it for ourselves. Th e Venus may sa le us = see the girl as we otherwise never would i once spoke of art as the imposi tion of order (‘art an urge to order’) c and the arti st selects from and arranges the haphazard profus ion of nature. As Henry Jame s wrote:

wl 2 kes his raw materi pho po tog a raphic n i

and so on — and, iin accord ance with

may also be regarded as g Creative imagination (Emile Zola called a work nature seen through a tem perament’); ducing the abstract quality of beauty. truth, and art has also been thought of 1t is — provided we qualify the sort of truth we mean. For great art

THE FILM AND

ART

LS

with truth — and they also display a kind of beauty (e.g. a brilliant mathematical solution), as does any supreme skill, from football to brain surgery. The American philosopher John Dewey considered art to be a kind of experience. Joyce Cary in his book Art and Reality follows Croce in preferring the word ‘intuition’, describing it as ‘essentially the reaction of a person to the world outside’. Coleridge, thinking along somewhat similar lines, wrote that ‘the mystery of genius in the Fine

Arts’ was

to ‘make

the

external

internal,

the internal

external and make nature thought and thought nature.’ This quotation neatly sums up the process of artistic creation, and describes the artist absorbing experience and expressing it in the form of art. More recently art has been regarded as a form of communication or language. I. A. Richards called it ‘the supreme form of communicative activity’. Many writers tried to elaborate on the analogy between film and written or spoken language, with sequences compared to paragraphs, cuts to commas and so on. As we shall see, this literal approach proved to be misleading — the smallest unit of film, the shot, usually contains more information than the

average paragraph — but more refined theories deriving from language study have been developed. The most important of these are two related studies — semiology (from the Greek semeion, a sign) and structuralism. The first deals with the relation between reality and the signs used to represent it, and therefore would apply to any system of communication, practical or artistic. The second examines the relationships between the signs themselves, how they interact and are organized to produce a meaningful whole. These theories have revolutionized the study of language, and have been applied to other communication systems including cinema. In this book we have taken their conclusions into account but without using their specialized analyses or terminology. Finally, one should take note of the once fashionable concept of anti-grt: what Arnold Hauser described as ‘a renunciation of art altogether’. Derived from utilitarianism and connected to totalitarian ideologies which regard art as a means to an end, anti-art seeks to exterminate the aestheticism of bourgeois culture’s ‘art for art’s sake’. The technician, worshipping efficiency, arrives at a similar position by regarding art as a by-product which arises ‘in the

16

THE

CINEMA

AS

ART

service of an ideologically conditioned purpose’. A house becomes ‘a machine to live in’, and the fastest aeroplane is, by definition, the

most beautiful. Modern art’s ‘relationshi p to nature is one of violation’, and another facet of the same attitude is that modern art is, of set purpose,

‘fundamentally “ugly”, destroying pictori al values in painting, and melody and tonalit y in music’, There is a mania for totality and documentary realis m, and art is dehumanized. Even the communication aspects of art are in a sense denied — writers invent their own language, musi cians their own tonal system, and painters depict a world of their own imagination. The variety of descriptions of, and app

roaches to, art mentioned here, suggest that while art is clearly different things to diff erent people, there are some common aspects. We may bring them together, in an omnibus definiti on, by saying that art is a proc ess through which the creator( s) make use of their expe rience and intuition to select and arrange material which may be related to reality 10 a greater or lesser exte nt, and that through the artis tic techniques used and the meanin g that flows from them experien ce Is communicated to an audience . : Let us now turn from attempti ng to delineate the qualities of art and try to delimit the terr itory it covers. In general we are concerned with the fine arts, excluding useful or industrial arts, sports, hobbies, science, phil osophy, government and soci al relations. But there are many borderline cases. Ballroom dancin counts as a recreation, icedancing as a sport, but ther e is A continuous gradation from them to ballet, one of the fine arts, In a film, skilled acting (duelling, gun-play, perfectly timed slap stick) can take on the quality of ballet. But the very similar pleasure given by a great cricketer, squash player, or footballer belongs to the world of sport, not art. There js the same difficulty in distingu ishin, strictly between fine arts such as poetry, painting, and music (with no function other than to conv ey experience or feeling), and useful arts such as architecture, pottery, cabinet-making, and dressdesigning (which are functional as well as aesthetic), One difficul In making a clear-cut distinct ion is that the day-before-yest erda useful objects become today’s objets d'art — museum pieces Ano 2 shes is that fine arts may have sec ondary ‘useful’ effects — Dick ens's novels helped social reform; Eisenstein’s film Alexander Nevsky boosted the Russian war effo rt, just as Leni Riefenstahl’s fil The

THE

FILM

AND

ART

17

Triumph of the Will' spread the Nazi cult; the music of the Marseillaise encouraged the French revolutionary soldiers; the television drama Cathy Come Home led to the formation of ‘Shelter’ and to renewed pressures for changes in attitudes towards the homeless; portraits and statues are for commemoration and for stabilizing the social order. Another factor which blurs the distinction is that useful arts (for example, Greek temples, Gothic cathedrals) may convey just as deep a sense of beauty or feeling as fine arts; and, in the film world, a documentary made to persuade or to instruct may be as fine aesthetically as a purely fictional film. Furthermore, if we define the word ‘functional’ widely enough, the

fine arts have a function of their own, ranging from recreation to catharsis, revelation, and ennoblement. Having made these reservations, we are concerned in this book with the film as a fine art rather than as a useful art. A line, however broad, has to be drawn

between the two, because the film ranges widely beyond the boundaries of fine art, and there is no field of human activity untouched by the camera: physics, chemistry, mathematics, technology, history, geography, archaeology, logistics, cartography, and many more. There are important applications in medicine, surgery, microscopy, astronomy, the control of machines (motors, propellers, turbines), and the study of high-speed movement by strobo-

scopic cameras taking 100,000 pictures a second. As we go on, it will be clear where our interest lies and where the line of distinction runs; but it will be a shifting, indeterminate boundary, with exceptions and reservations, and we shall not try to maintain it too

rigidly. THREE

STAGES

IN ART

Whichever description of the qualities of art or whichever delineation of its boundaries we fix upon, it is important that art should be understood to include the whole process, from the artists intuition to the spectator’s appreciation, and not just the object (film, statue, poem, sonata) produced. Artistic activity can be divided into three stages: I. Plate 1.

18

THE

CINEMA

AS

ART

(a) The artist’s experience or intuition;

:

THE

.

(8) Expression of this intuition in an artistic medium; and (¢ Enjoyment by, and ideally the kindling of similar experience in, an audience.

This book is mainly concerned with the second of these three stages. At

the same time,

the process is a continuous and integral whole, and it is debatable how separ ate the various stages are, or indeed where

arc concerned,

one ends and the other begins. So far as (a) and (4) Croce' considered that intuition and expression

were the same thing, on the grounds that it was impos

sible to know what an intuition was until it had been named or expressed in some formal way. This possibly looks at the process of artistic creation too much from the outside. Cary says, and many people can confirm this from their own experience , that for the artist the intuition is quite a different thing from the work of art. Between the two there lies much hard work and possibly the conjunction of various favourable circumstances, Gray’ s ‘mute, inglorious Miltons’ really do exist: those who have inspi ration but lack the opportunity or the ability to express it. So far as (8) and (¢) are concerned, there is no difficulty in distinguishing betw een expression in a work of art and the audience's appreciation, since in these stages different people are concerned. The danger here is that the opposite might happen: that the two be considered as separate, isolated phenomena, and the doctrine

of art for art’s sake, combined with an ivorytower outlook, lead to the selfish seclusion of the artist. It is wort h stressing that art

is a social phenomenon, and the artist 's job is to make the world — meaning us — a richer place, The audience may be small and full appreciation may only come after the artist is dead, but art, in one of its aspects, is communication, and only has meaning if there are at least two people concerned. The artist may €ven serve sometimes as audience for his own work, especially with art forms which are not fully manifested until they are given expression in a large-scale performa nce — an orchestral work, an opera, a play, or a film. The finished product is, of course, no more than the physi cal manifestation of the artis ’s own dream, but its L. Aesthetics, Vision Press, 1953.

FILM

AND

ART

19

may have :a very different impact on him, ! em bodied confirmation | i work. subsequent his ay affect pi will also be influenced by his audience - a he For that matter, cach of the three stages ie

wi ty 3 is

ized } how great an influence rs. It isi generally recognize pos” has — how his personality, born of - a. os the that ace k. It isi not such a commonp i th i d way the ly only a affects not only affec the ist me di ium, » not © ion in1 an artistic hope ¢, expression : ii of 105 the but comes through, a : ay, o. > film, play, i a ballet, novel, tory in Different v fer effect on an a udience. i fferent flavour and a different i pit Solrases of representation are used, he work is Bade. ries on all gee sf t audience. The The spectator i i way to a differen different oo effect on the type of intuition an themes ner v have a powerful ‘specta term the tand i | its expression, and one must unders vir to mean not only the direct audience, but also the Goa

the editor, the critic and, finally, the whole of society. He So oo

oi w ot oh process takes place within a specific cultural ir the artist, ee d by, 3 the work. : Neither 1 and is influence i influences, : e critic, iti nor the spectator can stand outside this fram i a dispassionate view. All are themselves a part of an ongoing

process. ART AND REALITY

es thee We have said that this book is mainly Sr sti process. As : a result, it is frequently stage ini the artistic or. : ture i the relation i of art to rea lity — the sort of pictur with i a work of art gives i ry to the spectator.) It may De be ne which i that art arises i this is make the point ou t of reality, though enough in the case of the cinema. Kracauer bases the pe argument of his book, The Nature ofdi. he = api facility ini representing v Ho ili of the cinema i ting the real world. most abstract art — an abstract pain ting, a mystical: poem, 1 electronic music — even these arise out of the artist's experience of reality, provided we define this in sufficiently hast) Pope... Art has relation i to reality i at three pooints at } least. 1 A ho a lives in the real world, and from his living — his experience a ho: artistic inspiration or intuition. For this purpose, reality s

20

THE

CINEMA

AS

ART

THE FILM AND ART which

art touches

reality,

that

is, with

the

21 influence

the

film

medium will have — the way reality appears through a camera lens, the effect of framing on the image, the effect of different kinds of transitions

from

shot to shot,

and

so on ~ but

the two

other

relationships will be relevant and should be borne in mind.

THE METHOD OF INVESTIGATION wh Seccal art isis rela re ted to it a proper to it. ir wd e a, = ressed and the the

Fi

first stage,

the

reality i because it has to be expres sed in We have already said that the artistic will affect the type of experi ence which way cay tis this expe experirience willi be manife i sted.

artist

is tied

to the

reality

of his

own

:

js oi (he thir. d stage, . the artist — unless he is content to let v n unseen or unheard exc ept by hj i fl casey it hardly exis i exists)s — ha 5 10i present ititoc to aa real cat tl audanc ience, audi e In 5 hs fe i som e Eau of sy Cwatt with the contemporary fashion iid €, g we say, » thou tho gh the phr ph ase is open to challenge oF s t biumes that ! one -

time is ah ead of another), execute his work and jt may be acclaimed after his id

hee can c: But in

Thi : qo ele be co re0 Hen iing factor, a third relati onship with r : tol €te, a work of art must — soo n er or later — reac en into the real world from whi ch it has sprung, and to : Teng ofat least someon i e somewhere, ’ is book we are concerned pri marily with the second point at n

0

.

k

It is time we looked particularly at the cinema itself and examined how this fits into the three-stage process of creation and appreciation which constitutes the complex known as art. But before doing so there is one further general point to make about the method of investigation. We have begun talking about art in the broadest general terms. This has the advantage of presenting, at the start, general principles and broad outlines, so that the particular discussion which follows can be set against a comprehensive background. But this is not the order in which conclusions are built up. All art consists of an endless number of artistic creations; and general conclusions about art — what it is, what it includes, what it should aim at, how it obtains its effects, what is good and bad practice — must in the ultimate analysis depend on what the best individual artists have done. Similarly, the rules of grammar and pronunciation are derived from the practice of good writers and good habits of speech. The definition of ‘good’ will always present difficulty, but this is a difficulty inherent in the subject and will not be avoided by seeking the guidance of aesthetic ‘laws’. The only valid laws are generally those directly based on existing practice. However the findings are ultimately presented, investigation should proceed from the particular to the general and not from the general to the particular. The student or critic should study the material for himself with an open mind, and not start with preconceived notions or follow blindly other people’s opinions. We do not mean that general conclusions should not be aimed at. Film is arranged in a systematic way, and has a syntax. But this is a result of the way in which film is used, not a determinant of it. An analysis of film aesthetics must be derived from actual films,

and this book quotes hundreds of examples in attempting to construct a coherent system. Arguing from the particular case has another advantage: it allows

22

THE

CINEMA

AS

ART

THE FILM AND

ART

23

which already exists. It may be easier if he can approach the visual medium direct. Some of the strength of Flaherty’s films lies in their stemming from a source — Flaherty’s excitement about, and a cine oi

pat

sympathy with, a human way of life, through his direct contact with Je An

undergone endless metamorphoses in technical in of using them, most of which have affected Jot pi

Silent fling sound films, colour, wide 5 0, video — in four generations generati the cinema iner Xperienced more mutations : than MUSIC or painting in a diy

others ran : ge widely, i with ref; erence s to fi and periods and almost eve ry type of ei THE THREE

a

i

it — which is strong and pure, and without literary or dramatic trammels." Moreover, in most arts, but more particularly in film, the first stage does not usually stop short when execution begins. The intuition goes on growing and developing right through the process of execution until the work is completed. In practice, the two processes of intuition and execution are usually inextricably commingled, one affecting the other, and it is only in theory that we can separate them. There are certain exceptional cases in which the intuition and the execution are clearly separate, when an artist is possessed of an intuition so powerful, so vivid, so complete in his mind,

STAGES APPLIED TO FiLm

the cinema. Like any art, the ati m to the making of a film ml ; Fel rE Intuition, execution and exhi bition, but the film’ eine poo a that as early as the first stag e — the Inti artist's experirieence — we dj sco ver a mo re com = €ss than in most other artistic media. Commonly, this Fo 18€ 1s a personal, internal affair, but film js a group art . TheThe ?

builds — ap original scri pt, an situation, or milieu, Not only ha

that he

can express

it without

a single correction.

This

happens occasionally with a great genius and a master of his craft: we read of a long novel, a symphony, or an opera written feverishly in a few weeks, days, or hours, in an explosion of prodigious activity, and achieved in a perfect form, without revision. But this is less likely to happen in the case of a film. For although the intuition may be a personal thing, the second stage, the creation of a film, depends on many people. Film production, with its thousands of cinemas all over the world, its film-stock factories, its processing laboratories, its acres of studios, its army of technicians and workers of all kinds, is an industrial process, and the making of a film is normally a group activity. Artistic creation in a group has certain difficulties, but also certain advantages, and it by no means rules out the possibility of great art. The transfer of the idea to the medium may be more difficult, because for the best results the artistic intuition has to be shared, other people have to be won over and infused with something of the original inspiration. Because of this, and also because it entails intricate physical apparatus which has to be controlled and complex technical processes, film is a ‘tougher’ 1. Plate 2. 2. Plate 3.

24

THE

ora

catch

CINEMA

AS

ART

than writing or painting. On the other hand an idea ma fire from the cont

act of other minds, and an enth usiasm be

THE

FILM

AND

ART

25

questions ‘What is morality? What is decadence?’ may not by any means be a simple one, it has to be remembered that the rich patron and the artists who produced the things we admire were not the same people. But at least in such a society, decadent or not, art

fis

produced by ‘schools’ or ‘movem ents’; music has often run in tes — the effect of group enviro nment as well as of heredity

h: fe

; oi From workin: g offers diff iculties in an age of individualis m in r other reasons. In I the creative st age the best art can be automatically produced in endless quantity, or on demand pa ois i : cannot be forc¢ ed or guaran tee d , by du oe or blueprinted by technicians, accountants or ; ‘1 @ thousand years of history only a few cathedrals have

p— to 35 the best talent by the biggest rewards 1 ame, and in the level of tech nical ay li re performance has succeeded pret ty well. T) be evel his ¢ average novel, the average pl inti e Nor r does it ruleea out the occ: occasasio i nal mas ater e piei ce, thoover ughageno r $ ‘sys rtem’

This is not to sa y that art and mora lityi are the sa me th i perhaps they have, or should have, more in common Ga m

ian, But, quite apart from the poin t that social back1s a complex of influences and that any answer to the

was cultivated and admired. In a puritan society or a nation dedicated to war, money-making or domination may become the principal aim, with art largely excluded. Presumably in any society the best patrons will be those with the best taste, but they may still be insensitive, indifferent — what you will — without affecting the work, provided they give the artist (who is none of these) a free hand. However, the cinema with its massive financial infrastructure — the average Hollywood movie cost around $20 million in 1989 — is particularly open to interference by economic interests. The whole edifice of commercial film-making is designed to ensure that he who pays the piper controls the tune. The ways in which studio interests keep a watchful eye on their investments and step in when they consider it necessary are well documented in Lillian Ross’s book Picture, which describes the making (and, in many respects, unmaking) of John Huston’s The Red Badge of Courage, and in John Gregory Dunne’s The Studio, which took a look inside the portals of Twentieth Century Fox during a period of 1967. John Boorman’s Money Into Light’ records his experiences trying to make his film The Emerald Forest and is particularly revealing about the ways in which the problems of his backers affected his work. Stephen Bach's Final Cut,* by contrast, illustrates a rare phenomenon, a film, Heaven's Gate, that managed

to evade the grasp of its financiers, United ‘Artists, to the eventual ruin of the latter. Whether studio interference is damaging or beneficial (and Joseph Losey has remarked that he made many of his poorer films after he had won complete artistic control) the point remains that film financiers are not patrons commissioning work for their own enjoyment, but businessmen making an investment — and one with a high degree of risk. 1. Gollancz, 1953: Penguin reissue, 1963. 2. W. H. Allen, 1970. 3. Faber and Faber, 1986. 4. Jonathan Cape, 1985.

26

THE

CINEMA

AS

ART

THE FILM AND

ART

27

music, read a novel, or look at a painting, understand the work that lies behind it. They may not understand the growth of the artists intuition, for this is a mystery of creation in the mind which we do not fully understand. But the process of writing it down on paper, of putting the paint on a surface — these are simple (though not simple to do) hand operations as old as mankind and as uncomplex as an axe chopping wood or a wheelbarrow moving rubbish. By contrast, the processes of the cinema are a mechanical conjuringtrick, new, baffling, complex — like a motor-car, an electronic brain,

Ee

: $ in its audience se of film this second stage is m medium is arge piece of

face with reality, or with

compulsive, actual way, It i

shocking, than an abstract words. Finally, the cinema i

are more aliki e, particularly prominent for tremendously powerfu] in work compared with

or a Geiger counter. The results are startling in their effect and so simple to understand that they reach an unsophisticated audience more easily than most arts; but the means by which they are obtained are another matter entirely. It is the purpose of this book to investigate this mystery. That is not to say that this is a book about film technique — a practical guide to making films. We are interested in the film as an artistic medium, and propose to examine the factors at work as they contribute to the final aesthetic effect. We do not attempt to describe how to frame a shot, what exposure or what aperture to use, how to cut a sequence and so on. But we shall be concerned with what aesthetic effects can be obtained by framing, by exposure, by different depths of focus and by cutting. And we shall try to deduce if any aesthetic principles lie behind these techniques, and, if so, what they are. There will be such reference to technical processes as is necessary for clarity, but the stress is on film appreciation, not on practical know-how. The medium of the cinema is little understood for reasons other than those of its mechanical nature, its technical complexity and its newness. For most of its history, until quite recently, it was a transient medium. A book can be read and read again, music replayed on records, a picture enjoyed repeatedly in a gallery or in reproduction. Until the advent of video technology, film (and television to an even greater extent) enjoyed none of these advan-

tages. After a short run, films generally disappeared, re-emerging infrequently, if at all, years later on television. Nor could the viewer re-see a scene or effect without watching the whole work again. Video-recording has overcome this problem, though video presentation can never match the circumstances of cinema projection. Seen on a large screen in a darkened auditorium, film can

28

:

THE

CINEMA

AS ART

Lisl

achieve an enormous impact, and this very power is inimical to analysis. If the viewer is emotionally

absorbed in the film he may very well miss finer points of expression. Not only are many technical effects in a film extremely subtle, despite their contribution to the total impact, but part of a director’s job is to ensure that they do not beg for attention, but affect the Spectator even he remains unconscious of though their presence. In most cases technique is, and should be, invisible. A film can be appreciated without any knowledge of how the effects are achieved. But the ‘uneducated’ viewer remains more at the mercy recipient of the message the of the film-maker, a more passive film conveys. By understanding something of how a film is made, the techniques involved constructing images for the screen, the spectator will not onlyin appreciate more fully what is before him, but will be able to take a more active role in

! | |

interpretation.

A further reason for the art of the film not being understood lies the long tradition in Britain

in

status of art. Dewey referred to

It remains true that Anglo-Saxon film-makers arc still less eager to discuss their work in terms of aesthetics and theory |

than are

ity like Paris offers a far their European counterparts. =n he do either London or wider variety of CEST i r ways recent years have New York. But in met . seen a ora pain Coincidentally or not, dramatic change in attitu has lost its mass audience, just at the moment when ly. The study of film has film is become starting to be taken ae established not only at Ere Ul but in schools. Books on film s well as French and whole theory proliferate in Englis new I and interpreting of film have approaches to the —r One effect has been that the appeared and been pdcl mgr elevating the critical status of past has been seen in a few ae and blurring the previously many commercial Hollywood p nd entertainment. The clear distinction petge ei advent of bd th greater accessibility television and video has allowe be seen (films now gain around and greater control

person does not take to be arts; the movie, jazzed music, the comic strip ... and newspaper accounts of lovenests and murders’. I. A. Richards lumped together ‘bad literature, bad art, the cinema’, and said that the latter was “a medium that lends itself to crude rather than sensitive handling.’ In Britain for many years few people wrote seriously about the cinema or, if they did, treated it a5 a sociological, an economic, or even

the cinema has been a focus intellectual ferment: where for people like Eisenstein, René Clair, Abel Gance, Jean Cocteau, Pasolini, Godard, Truffaut and Tarkovsky, have not only made films byt written articles and books and propounded theories. Unil relatively recently such writing was ignored in Britain and America, dismissed as pretentious and arcane. Indeed it rarely makes easy reading ~ perhaps because, the French theoretician Christian as Metz put it: ‘A film is difficult explain because it is easy to understand.’ to

29

over what 97 per cent of their audience oe) Britain through some form of ages are being made available ia ice ei

and the USA that denice pl. the things ‘the average

an anthropological phenomenon, rather than an aesthetic one. It may be that the cinema hag been least valued in those countriessignificant grip of mass entertainment was where the commercial industry’s different on the Continent where for a long time strongest. It was

FILM AND ART

through an ever-increasing vari medium

channels, interest in how the

of film works has grown in p Foportion.

|

:

Stage Three: Presentation xe ON ey of the second stage in the artistic So much for a preliminary wl oie The third stage, the viewing process of film-making — rea ma the fulfilment of the artistic of the film by an amlence I a techniques by which the filmprocess. As we discuss

x Fl ill always have the final viewing in maker presents his wor i ok this aspect is implicit, frequently mind. Throughout the oy mt in more detail how audiences explicit, and the last chapter 5 » of film images.

interpret and react ta the ‘rea ii are at this stage important The audience and bi im] factors — factors beyond the ists of the artist, beyond the work at all without an audience. The of art itself, fn

ile Towledge of the medium, their social nature of the audience, pact all affect their impressions. Work of

and cultural om

oh =

Colnago Le ence of the medium and in

more of an audience. Wide experi-

ed criticism will help an audience to see more clearly and more = eply.sl Publicity may be useful in be harmful in presenting telling the audience

whatimage a false or exaggerated to expect, p ici lies inin ¢: creating i . The publicist’s skillil lies

30

THE CINEMA AS ART

THE

the conditions for bringing together a film and its audience.

With the regular cinema-goer now almost extinc t, the audience has fragmented from the ‘mass’ into a series of overl apping but separate sub-groups. Few films appeal to all: the rest must be directed at those sections of the audience that will appre ciate them. Unfortunately, in a situation dominated by large conglomerate organizations, too many smaller films never do find their appropriate audience. They are not allotted suitab le channels in the system of distribution and exhibition. Generally the film-maker has no part in this process: he is effectively cut off from his audience and must depend on the complex administrative procedures of the corporations. The whole topic of the ownership and control of the media is hotly debated, but is only one aspec t of the social and economic Structure which establishes the relationsh ip between the film and its audience. Changing leisure habits (including a decline in cinema-going), the growth of the adole scent audience, the ways in which media images may influence attitudes or behaviour, the censorship based on assumptions about this influence ~ all these and other aspects are relevant to a full understanding of the role of the media in society. But what concerns us here is what goes on in that darkened auditorium (or rather less darkened sitting-room, bedroom or kitchen) when an audience, or single viewer, confronts the film itself. As the brain interprets the shado ws on the screen in terms of Space, time, narrative, form and so on, it makes its own idiosyncratic judgements and connections, fitting what is seen into the world as it is known to that particular individual. Even so, the viewer's role is circumscribed, by the film-maker, by the culture that envelops both of them (and the film), and by the fact that both creator and viewer are using a shared language or series of conventions which direct interpretation along certain lines. In Chapter 9 we turn our attention from the analysis of how films are constructed to the more dynamic field of how this construction influences perception . For the moment it js sufficient merely to note that a film is only really completed when it is shown to an audience. This confrontation between film and audience is the final and necessary part of the process, without which the work Temains just so much celluloid or vide otape.

FILM

AND

ART

3 I

FiLm AND REALITY i i og re-= The relationship between the real world and the ams ei p prin the of one been has reality of tion : imp. al debate from a very early date, and it will be an is Corr Kr’ s throughout this book. The first notable or himself to the problematic nature of film realism 0 1e Ee ist Rudolph Arnheim, whose Film as Art was publishe 2 pon roach consisted of a clearly developed coag pero

i

the real world of the senses and the world we oes on

e

een, and an analysis of the elements of di prec ike el nd artistic experiences. Indeed Arnheim went so fr Es I th it was the very differences between screen ey pig oid which make the cinema an art. The closer Ie pu oy to the mere reproduction of what lies before it, ie y impose his vision. i iti i we pd wm not was cinema that tei iE ts chy li seid longest perhaps in England, was ggicealy : pel firs at were photography nor cinema Neither he 4 bax f art, but were regarded merely as methods o Io me i de on pees and movement of the real world.' i: g es anil since by the nature of things the first po ; and uke a than rather scientists were only gradually, andbe Edison, isre Lumieres so. It was

through experime and

Fane bk pronation; that the cinema fevligl ean ; of reproduction in i ing i A mn assthito: as iin well ic ine. pile task which had nothing in enor we ete ation. Film apparatus with its cogs and gears os ithe was to all appearance far from being artistic, Sm re the screen, apart from their scientific Sind mi few a provide ood for little more than to Los: | % Siversion a funfair. However, there were VIED ats Som was the conjurer M¢lies) who Le that ik i irs wi is showground atraction had hidden powers v: 4 oo SC most perceptive writers about the gr article on its origins, describes it as an ‘idealist p 1. Plate 4. 2. Qu'est-ce-que le Cinéma, Editions du Cerf, 1962.

-

32

THE

pach whi = gination and

CINEMA

AS

ART

THE

that its i development was due more to the fantastic enthusiasm of dreamers like Méligs' than to the

FILM

AND

ART

33

tions, extensions, breaks, and jumps which do not occur in the continuous chronology of the real world. Finally, the cinema was for a long time without sound or speech and when it does make use of these elements it does so in ways which are very different

from our experience of them in everyday life. It is clear then that, by comparison with our ordinary experience,

S tremen pee i Sai

of LentiZ Electro~PlastiZ Chromo-Mi

mo-

Poly-Ser. ut even these illusionists, these cinemaniacs, saw th ntion only as a new combin ation of traditional arts which

ace— l ti d i mina i 1si completely different. Spatiall y the fe, a flat world reduced to a sing le plane, lacking the am fin of depth, and limited by the frame which surnd, = or much of its history the screen has been without and (except for 3-D) without the relief of sculpture and and camera movement

1. Plate 5.

the film world is an artificial one ~ albeit one which more obviously

approximates physical reality than can be achieved in any other art form. This paradox stems from the two different directions in which the cinema has been pulled since its earliest days. Lumiere showed how film could ‘possess’ the real world by capturing its appearance, an approach which led to the documentary tradition which aims to present the truth about an event with as little human intervention as technology will allow. Méliés used narrative, animation, and fantasy to demonstrate that the film image can be tailored to the creator’s imagination: the film-maker can present his unique version of the world, ordered by his particular will and the wide range of manipulative techniques at his command. From these two roots emerged the two theoretical branches which for many years dominated discussion of the medium. Expressionism derived from Méliés, with its visionof a controlled world whose creator uses his powers to emphasize differences from the real world. The essential manipulative tool was montage (cutting) which forced both time and space to dance to the filmmaker's personal tune. This theory was dominant for the first halfcentury of cinema. It was not until the 1950s that critics laid the basis for a theory derived from Lumigre. Technical developments had allowed the camera to include more detail in the individual shot, and to move within the shot. Cutting became less crucial and the newer, more ‘objective’ approach allowed realism to come to the centre of the stage, emphasizing content rather than form. Film could record and reveal reality; it could give the spectator the experience of reality itself. These theories will be discussed more fully in Chapter 5 after a consideration of the techniques with which they are associated. It is sufficient here to note that modern theory denies the primacy of any one technique. Rather, the role of the artist is to achieve the appropriate balance and tension between the contrasting urges to

THE

CINEMA

AS ART

CHAPTER

SPACE

IN THE

TWO

CINEMA:

Scale, Shooting-Angle, Depth

WE have already, in Chapter One, mentioned some of the ways in which a film differs from reality. The conditions under which a film is viewed occasion further differences. As soon as we start to analyse the situation of a spectator in the cinema it is apparent that he apprehends the objects on the screen quite differently from those of the world which surrounds him. The host important difference is that the screen is external to the spectator, who is not involved with it as he is with his normal surroundings. At the same time the spectator’s normal surroundings (seats, other spectators, etc.) are obliterated by darkness. Secondly, in the cinema we can

only see and hear — our visual and auditory sensations are not supplemented by touching, feeling, measuring, or weighing, and as a result we cannot estimate accurately volumes, distances, or densities. Our senses, which in nature operate as a whole, are cut

down to sight and sound. FiLMm Vision

Let us consider first the sense of sight. The images on the screen show us the external world in a very arbitrary fashion. The camera lens is a crude device compared with human eyes, possessing neither their stereoscopic vision nor their power of continuously refocusing, changing angle, and accommodating to light. Because of this, and because of the nature of film projection, the cinema gives us, even visually, only an approximate and incomplete account

36

THE

CINEMA

AS ART

of the real world. The spectator has to accustom himself physically and mentally to the peculiarities of film vision. Let us take an example. Because the cinema gives a twodimensional picture of a three-dimensional world, objects will not necessarily be recognizable on the screen irrespective of how they are photographed. They must be taken from the right angle and with the right lighting, and this involves selection by the cameraman from the many aspects of the objects which exist in reality. This has to be borne in mind even when filming such a simple thing as a cube. In the real world, we can see it from a distance or close to, can walk round it, count its sides, compa re it with its surroundings or with ourselves, localize it in space — in short we can identify it completely. It is in the same world as ourselves. In the cinema, the spectator is not only outside the spatial framework of the things he sees in the film; he is also immobile, The camera has to move for him, or the object has to move on the screen. If we film our cube from directly in front, the audience will not recognize it as a cube; it will appear on the screen as a flat surface — a square. To be recognizable the cube has to be suitab ly lighted, and photographed from an angle which will show three of its sides and so its three dimensions; or else jt must be shown turning,

or the camera must move round it to show its differ ent faces." It is so easy to misrepresent common objects by using the wrong viewpoint or lighting that such misleading photo graphs are often used for guessing games. As another example, let us Suppose we want to show an audience either the depth of a valley or the height of a mountain or,

to judge its size. The operator must choose a suitable viewpoint or give some other artificial means to help the audience assess the object. In the case of the valley, for instance, a sense of depth will be given by choosing a time of day when the sun casts shadows on the slopes of the hills. In the case of the mountain, the director 1. This example is taken from Arnhe im's Film as Art.

SCALE,

SHOOTING-ANGLE,

DEPTH

37

ange to include ini the picture a house house or a tree or a: human i i is a ruleswhich re This size.! of scale Give a relative tb = example in excellent an is There follow. snapshots ers film, Moana. In one shot (not a particularly press te er he shows waves breaking over foc and the foray ae oe . A little later we see exactly the sam Polmssians standing in the shower of spray in the foreground i figures at the bottom o f the screen show ; wu: two tiny Lo of the ends waves and give the second picture a far there grows the idea of lighting as ge i i the d scale as forming the rudiments o f an art of

i

is discussed more fully in a later chapter. Scale and

rng

.

are considered further below. SCALE

i seen that a film audience may faili to appreci iate the size of hi : pr The lack of a scale of reference also works ” in? a

so that models on a tiny scale, if carefully ep v ln

in wi with shots of live i action, i The are accepte d as real. ¢ Li the film The Dam Busters (director, Michael Anderson), Showing the destruction of the Méhne Dam during the ba bc hotographed from a model no bigger than an ordinary po eolop, Se : ond the same is true of innumerable film spectacles from vl a of Méligs to Star Wars. In the cinema it is Pp mountaini out of a molehilli as to do the opposite. In ] i film The Night of the Iguana, lizards are use d to set off the credi vai about as large a of the film. Actua lly they are wr the beginning inni but, by shooting in close-up and wil hs, hs the letters of the es they are wer n rn bigi as prehistoric istori monsters. In : the Hammer ah mo BC, the monsters are sometimes models, b for instance, shown towering over the tiny br = Kong Meets Godzilla, an octopus is shown as large as a

: In oe house. a)

"the etbiation of reality (the animal’s oozing, slithery movem 1. Plate 6.

38

THE CINEMA

AS ART

and illusion (its immense size) that gives the sequence its shocking effect. At the other extreme The Incredible Shrinking Man was blessed with a six-foot leading actor and giant props were created to reduce him to smaller proporti ons — huge raindrops were fabricated from water-filled condoms for example. Similar solutions were found in Brats! in which Laur e] and Hardy played the parts of children. Nowadays special effec ts are much more sophisticated and such simple procedures are rarely adequate. Scale is still used to surprise and mislead audiences, Nicolas

evocation of Jams, Roeg was able to mislead his audience ag thoroughly as the baby shark figh ting for its life had misled its captors.

SCALE, SHOOTING-ANGLE,

DEPTH

39

. Si ‘a distant manner’. In some of the love scenes in ges Tango in] Paris,1 the camera, by by never leaving the J couple, brooding atmosphere of obscene sexual obsession. o a ap close shooting in Bergman's Cries and i pone athetic atmosphere of family i trage ly and co co is es dicks and death. In George Roy Hill's ps op ! i i ves atmosphere to a tense po ker game in t the co! of = ifs There are many examples of a director veg br dstent close shots with emotional Shek Gi the a iti defeat their as . fe or over done they will used iinsensitively i ther qualities: forma fA dium and long shots can have o ie sm a on Scenes detachment. peaceful nis of detail, skilfully handled, can be just as menacing as close-ups. a pu = Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid there is a ai hb 0 i We followe ed by a posse. two outlaws are being i -up, only as tiny figures in the dis ; and ince they y are always there an all the more menacing for that, sinc i re in until away, got have isa every time the fugitives think they the end they get on our nerves.

SHOOTING-ANGLE

garden. Unexpectedly the came ra leaves the stricken figure and plunges deep into the undergro wth, seeking out a colony of tiny beetles until their unceasing activ ity fills the screen. This eerie shot is the first indication that all is not what it seems beneath the smooth surface of small-town life, Properly used, scale by itself can give an emotional tone to a film. Close shots will give a scen e an oppressive or intimate feel ing; medium or long shots, an effect of formality or coldness. We use this language in ordinary life and speak of ‘being close to someone’

B 36 shows the importance of> xample of the cube on page ’ Fioehiaess 2% for simple identification, but oi wrt 5 : i zi is not only a question of recognizing an obj ectot an2 hi i i the case of more complex objects (a 4 a tue, a person) shooting-angle may be be used to ) bring out their wom a Certain aspects will be ri pee) thee to

ill embrace others. In Steven Spielberg’s

E.T.,

seston for the extra-terrestrial being ue penely risen i i bodies, their authori kd ar i in wr waists. i Th The angle by the keys dangling at their gle emphasizes e odtheir p power and menace and iis dugmen ted by backlighting whic . ails hidden. The angle also reflects the fa i from a child’s point of view — so the camera looks up from 2 child’s height: as in the classic cartoons, adults are seen only legs and trunks.

I. Plate 7. 1. Plates 8 and g.

40

THE

CINEMA

AS

ART

SCALE,

little girls in the foreground mak e an effective contrast. In Lind say Anderson’s film This Sporting Life the mud-covered football players taken from a low angle appear as black brutal giants. In filming a crowd of any size, the only way to show its typical feature (its numbers) is by setting up the camera in a dominating position and shooting at a downward angle.! If some aspects are typical others are atypical, and abn ormal camera-angles can be used to give an object or person a misl eading character. Seen in a certain way, hypocritical, an inoffensive gest ure threatening, a dwarf a gian t. By filming a ballet dancer from below through a sheet of glas s at a vertical angle, René Clair in Entr'acte makes her look like a flower. In Jack Clayton’s The Pumpki n Eater, Jo's father is made into a grotesque figure on his first appearance by photography which gives a distorted perspective of his face. A similar techniqu e is used rutal appearance to the face of a sadistic sergeant-major. In Joseph Losey’s The Servant, Dirk Bogarde is made by camera -angles into a dominating, most unservant-like figure, The way a director shows an object will depend very much on the dramatic action or on the type of film being made or on the audience for which it is inte nded. An operation will be filmed in one way for an audience of medica] students, and in anot her way for a general audience in an entertainment film. In Altm an’s MASH, for purposes of blac k comedy, the bloody side of surgery

properties, every object logical, poetic — which in and should be stressed. In appropriate cases, subjectively what things character in the film. At

———= —

The essential characteristics of 2 locomotive are its speed and power, and consequently newsreels generally favour upward-angle

shooting-angles can be used to express are like as seen through the eyes of a the beginning of John Huston 's spy film, 1. Plate 10.

4 I

DEPTH

s the Pacific, the hero, Bogart, has just been ee A amped into civilian clothes. As he stands there the ca p = podown at his old uniform with its badges and buttons ripp downward shooting-angle expressing EE bi wie 5 — i i f shame at hisis dishonoural di e disc J bo i hae k's Spellbound and ini Jean Delannoy’s De y Aux :Yeux du prs | the Co shows us the world seen by a sick ect pt out of a coma: an upside-down world of people hac fro ; r= a nurse whose silhouette appears pr the aid hi g kies. Many Japanese films are : a camera two or three feet off ff the the gr ground, » roughly Tou] ; the height a of the p Te head of a person seated on the floor,3 a typical Japanese In Carol Reed’sgE

The Fal len ) Idol (as in E.T., noted

Artee

of ka young8 boy. 1 scenes are shot from the visual | angle an abnormal framing and lighting - all sugg Cl pico XK a world which is familiar but is not a als rs A subjective camera-angle is used in Pier- Paso ini’s a Gospel According to St Matthew, in § sequence sri he Baptist i by the River i Jor dan. As Jesus comes ptt 4 LL baptized i the camera draws backwards and eC into the c rds “This is my beloved Son in vhom | : EE Because the film is restrained and AD bs ener treatment, : thisi larger camera movemen t is extremelyLeeffective. Buiiuel’s fiuel’s Tristana Tri almost the first downward-angle nwar shot innf i in a courtyard. isi of Tristana and her lover mee ting bP oFAgain, e of contrast with what has gone befor coe a change in her feelings which influences the whole of Ee of subjective and objective Eo sx 2 dere d further and it is interesting to compare ic ol of switching from the vicymoint Po one Lens mo that 4

)

.

-

has other properties — dramatic , psychocertain circumstances are mor e important

SHOOTING-ANGLE,

.

.

.

.

of another, to that of the novelist ist himself.

0

A

i

0

Many a film

particular) are told # hrough, perhaps even : by, one aka i cha } cock appeared to be using this convention when hefey which i for half an hour follows the exploits of Marion peck (play: the film’s star, Janet Leigh). i It comes as a s hock when this charac li is suddenly murdered, though study o f the murder sequence ] reveal how Hitchcock cunningly moves the focus away from Marion and

42

THE

towards Norman Bates, £ if fil . Seen.

CINEMA

the killer fro m

AS

ART

Ww hose

SCALE, p 01

i Ww the nt of vie

res t

SHOOTING-ANGLE,

DEPTH

43

climax of the movie, when the space travellers look up at a vast object half-buried in the sand, the camera first shoots it from

behind. We start to wonder what it is, and only gradually realize it is the Statue of Liberty.

In an early Chaplin film, The Immigrant, we see Chaplin bent over the rail of a ship which is pitching violently. From the convulsive movement of his back it is obvious that the poor fellow is sea-sick like the rest of the passengers and we are full of pity for him. But when he turns round we find that in fact he is fishing, and has just landed a monster catch. Another example from a Chaplin film shows Charlie with shaking shoulders, apparently sobbing his heart out because his wife has left him. When the camera moves, it turns out that he is shaking a cocktail. In Jacques Tati’s Traffic, there is a shot of what looks to be a well-endowed

woman displaying an impressive cleavage. Only when she turns do we realize that she is actually holding a baby and that what we were admiring was the baby’s bottom! There is an effective comic scene in one of Laurel and Hardy’s films which shows Hardy apparently strangling Laurel to death. A shot from a different angle shows us that he is only tying Laurel's bow-tie. In all these examples the director has made artistic use of the camera’s inability, when placed in a certain position, to give a correct interpretation of a scene. He

mt)Th : camer

can

of course misi lead us and this capacity can be ramatic or humorous effect, In many thrillers the camera :villain tin and ; can be kept Pt: Ini sus i pense concerning ng hishis iden ident tity. A ee o* in s Variety, the cam era tracks into a i are posing outside a booth. At a dist ok i =e camera moves in we see they Se = ans. am er’s The Naked Kiss, the di ie sensational opening by con centratin g on a bald : headP whichvdjc angles S reveal to be that of a woman whose head has bee n sh = a punishment by a gangster. In Schaffner’s Planer of the Apes rl

has manipulated the spectator to misread the image without any form of cutting or trickery. The camera has no morals: it lies or tells the truth depending on how it is used. Louis Malle’s Pretty Baby explicitly recognizes this fact. The story of a young girl brought up in a New Orleans bordello early in the century, it opens with a shot of young Violet (Brooke Shields). We see only her face as she listens to the apparently orgasmic noises emanating offscreen. Eventually we discover that she has been watching her mother giving birth. Another moment when Malle uses the ability of the camera to lie comes later, when a professional photographer arrives to execute a series of studies of the brothel. His first picture is of Violet’s mother, sweaty and tousled after a hard night’s work. His photograph tells a different story, showing her glowing and fresh as the photographer himself wished to see her. Likewise, every decision the film director makes influences how his camera will reveal the world and suggests how the audience will interpret this reality.

44

THE

CINEMA

AS

ART

SCALE,

PERSPECTIVE

smaller than a man ten feet away , while a man forty feet a appears sixteen times smaller, But, as modern psychologists have demonstrated, we instinctively corr ect the message we revive fr ~ our optic nerve, so that differences in proportion registered ip retina are mentally reduced. If we accepted the immediate Chaction

Po ples mental correction is the fruit of long experience, acquired oy hs ancy, of the relative size of external objects. We are used iy ng what we ie into an intui tive system of reference which 1akes everything of ‘reasonable size’ , so that our mind ‘sees’ thi differently from our eye. Scientis ts call this a ‘constancy’ effect? and it is the same phenomenon which enables the spectat 4 adjust to the size of the screen in different parts of the Zine ’ The camera lens registers perspect ive in the same proportions the retina, that is objectively inst ead of subjectively, so that on ie

oc

hag

Cl - Gag gnher in combinatio n. It follows that many of trom hims would serve to ill n one point. {Generally Il they are citedd as a examples of the point m for e whic l they make the best illustration, but there will often be other applications which rd ie reader can see for *d

2. R. H. Thouless, General and Social Psychology, University Tutor ial Press

1045

SHOOTING-ANGLE,

DEPTH

45

screen the rule of the square of the distance operates. A man photographed with his finger pointing at the camera has a giant hand larger than his head; a skyscraper filmed from a low-flying aeroplane is like a tall pyramid standing on its apex. We see them in this way because, when we are in the cinema watching the screen, we are unable to correct this ‘distortion’ as we would in the real world, since the cinema presents a special world external to us and outside our ordinary experience. Once more, film images differ materially from those we experience

directly and,

as a result, certain shots,

certain angles

are

normally avoided because they give this unnatural impression — because the difference from our habitual observation is too violent. To bring the camera image into line with our customary way of seeing things, and to give the screen image verisimilitude, the director has to intervene and control the ‘automatic’ mechanism of the camera. In some cases this is merely a process of control aimed at presenting reality in an acceptable way. But in other cases this very defect of the camera can be deliberately used for artistic effect. If, instead of filming a building square to the camera and far enough back to approximate normal vision, we go close and shoot from below at an upward angle, then the building will show the violent foreshortening we have described, and will appear to tower above us, larger than life. A person filmed from the same angle will give an impression of force, power, majesty, even if he is a dwarf. This was a constant device of propaganda films, and has been used again and again to add to the stature of dictators and tyrants. There are innumerable shots of Stalin, Mussolini, and Hitler addressing the faithful as if they were gods looking down from heaven. The same upward shooting-angle is used constantly in feature films to establish predominance, and a downward angle is used to suggest inferiority. An upward angle may also be used more prosaically to increase the height of a short actor. An outstanding example of changing the whole appearance of an actor is in John Ford's Young Mr Lincoln. The name part is played by Henry Fonda, an actor of average build. By costume, make-up, shooting-angle, posture and even setting he is transformed into the tall, lanky figure of the President-to-be. In Kurosawa’s The Hidden Fortress, partly by scale, partly by shooting-angle, partly by actual build, the hero Mifune is made to look huge in relation to the rogues he overcomes.

46

THE

CINEMA

AS

ART

Many examples of the psychologica l effect of shooting-angle could be given. In Jacques Feyd er’s Pension Mimosas a woman (Francoise Rosay), having discover ed that her son is stealing from her, bursts into his room to punish him, full of rage and indignation, and is shown in upward angle. She goes straight to him, and despite herself, slaps him with all her force (horizontal angle); then, realizing that she has been brutal and horr ibly unjust, she sinks on to a couch and bursts into tears (dow nward angle). The camera angle very accurately reflects the woman's feeling of moral indignation, of getting even, then of regret at what she has done. In Hitchcock's Frenzy the hero has given up an unco ngenial job, had an unexpected windfall, and is Boing to a comforta ble hotel with his girl-friend. As he gets out of the car and swag gers into the building, striking upward-angle shots express his cheerful mood. But already the

SCALE, ight

and

SHOOTING-ANGLE, unusual

aspects

DEPTH

(for instance,

47 of cloud-

js: In Richard Lester’s A Hard Day's Night camera angles and sodden variations in scale and pace are used for humorous effect ballet sequence of the four Beatles on a playing field — a ballet which is created not by the actors but by the camera. In Hore if the Dunes by Hiroshi Teshigahara, strange patterns o pe extraordinary angles, double-exposure, huge-scale Close Ups Le sual lighting — all combine to give this film also a comp cel individual style. Because of its ability to alter reality, film : an i pmedium for science fiction. Though special effects i hn = one can cite movies like Godard’s Alphaville, Kubrick’s “ pe Orange, Tarkovsky’s Solaris, Lucas’s THX 1138, Lync 5 4 res #ead, Bergman’s Shame and Rudolph’s Trouble in Mind, v ic! AE every means — acting, camerawork, setting, music, colour alienate the spectator from the everyday world. TRANSFER OF DIMENSIONS

Another phenomenon, connected with perspective, stems from fact that, in the absence of stereoscopic vision, distances aweyd =

tall building he watches her tiny figure go out into the street, get into a car and drive away. By means of long-shot and downwa rd angle the camera gives an air of finality to her departure and reinforces the mental concept of parting by the physical means of emphasizing the distance between the two. A further advantage of the came ra’s unusual vision is that a film can achieve the sort of formalism we find in the work of primitive painters who were ignorant of pers pective, or of modern painters, like Picasso and Braque, who reject it. It enables reality to be stylized, and allows a director to express more freely his own personal vision. A good example is Dreyer’s La Passion de Jeanne d’Are, in which unusual angles are constantly used. With the slight distortion of camera perspective and a non-realistic décor, the whole picture is given a formal, abstract feeling. Stanley Kubrick’ s Doctor Strangelove is another pict ure with a brilliant style in whic h an inhuman, unearthly effect is obtained by extreme angles, violent

the spectator are conveyed entirely by differences in size x case of tracking-shots this sometimes leads to an optical illu 3 Instead of seeing objects come nearer or go farther away, we ) the impression that they are staying in the same place ghar

or decreasing in size. The basis of this phenomenon a a Ji third dimension of depth is interchangeable with the & v! : dimensions. What is really a change in depth is Gi pe ; appears

as

a change

in length

and

breadth.

Also

far

2

exaggerated camera perspective, the increase or decrease i: i x be exaggerated. With very fast tracking-shots, and especia y by: : the use of a zoom lens, the effect may be so strongas to make : audience feel dizzy. In Haskell Wexler’s otherwise SUCEphOR political thriller, Medium Cool, there is continuous use of Gps an

hand-held camera which, if viewed from the front rows, produces ist nauseous effect. il | St example of transferred Alizee is Méies s film oe Indiarubber Head, made in 19o1. In it a man’s head is apparently blown up with a pump. It swells and swells, talking and pg to prove it is a real live head, and finally bursts. In fact

the man,

48

THE CINEMA AS ART the . = pp ad male, is. slowly getting nearer and nearer en oe ripe ME dimensions are also stro ngly present in Se oe th telephoto lenses which, in addi tion, tend ene st y attening the image. It is thus common in Ton or cricket matches) and in nature films a animals). The effect is similar whether the i Row or whether an animal or hum an bein g moves id Eg although transfer of dime nsio ns is less i ee since the rest of the scen e, whic h stan ds bi Hedy ndarg of refe rence and prevents ambiguity. How fain is ence is often absent in telephot o shot s beca use the ne es i a the whole screen. la, non is, on the one hand, a defe ct which needs to ed by the film-maker — for inst ance by choosing an

itse 2 lf tracking back — can 1 e expr ess powerful emotional feelj arewell, of hopeless parting, of final ending or pres rn oi e]

:instance,; there are the endin gs off Stroheimi ’s Greed (the rv Comal a the desert), ! of Clair i ’s A Nous la Liberté hs di s a ong tree-lined road), of Reno ir’s . Crime de Mission: R —1. In this case, > ho wever, 3 the effect isi achieved

SCALE,

SHOOTING-ANGLE,

DEPTH

49

Lange (the hero and heroine crossing the wet sand and turning to

wave at the camera), of Antonioni’s La Notte (the camera going away from husband and wife lying in the grass), of Fleming's Gone with the Wind (with Scarlett silhouetted under the tree), of Penn’s Night Moves (with the half-dead hero marooned on a boat steering a never-ending circular route far out at sea), of Mazursky’s An Unmarried Woman (with the heroine merging into the background of a New York street). Not to mention innumerable Westerns in which the lone cowboy rides off into the mythic sunset. CONTRASTS

IN PERSPECTIVE

So far, we have been considering the camera’s peculiar perspective in relation to single objects. But it plays just as important a part in the relationship between two objects. It means that in shots taken in any depth the contrast in size between the foreground and background is very much exaggerated.! In the hands of a beginner this peculiarity can give ridiculous results, but properly used it can be another artistic resource. For example, the ending of Antonioni’s Il Grido has, in the foreground of the picture, the man about to commit suicide; he is on the top of a tall tower looking down on the tiny figure of the woman he cannot forget who gazes up from the ground below, and the shot achieves its effect partly by this contrast. The ending of Eisenstein's Juan the Terrible, with a huge close-up of Ivan’s profile in the foreground juxtaposed against an endless winding queue of tiny figures in the distance, is not only pictorially effective but makes the point which Eisenstein wants to bring out — the paternal relationship between the Tsar and his flock, the Russian people. This point is made symbolically — the Tsar huge and alone, the people myriad and tiny — but at the same time with the strongest realism. There is another good example of this technique in Pudovkin’s The End of St Petersburg, in the sequence where two peasants, fleeing from the famine conditions of the country, come to the town to look for a livelihood. One shot shows us in the foreground the huge mass of an equestrian statue of the Tsar, a black metallic silhouette with the horse’s and rider’s limbs outstretched, and, far off in the background, the two peasants,

in minute scale, tramping across the empty square. : by cutting and not by camera

1. Plate 12.

50

THE

CINEMA

AS

ART

grotesque outline, the hard texture — and also something in the attitude of the peasants, stress the city’s might and hostility, and the peasants’ miserable helpless ness. If the distance between the men and the statue could be assessed by the eye, as in real life, the

statue, but the transformati on

our usual sense

from reality to the cinema

throws of adjustment out of action, and the men are

meaning is expressed through a striking visual symbolism, the sort of symbolism used by Egypti an artists who made their vict orious emperors huge figures while the enemies they defeated were sho wn To set against these two Rus sian examples, there is a stri king shot in a British film, A Taste of Honey, directed by Tony Ric hardson. The heroine, a slum girl neglected by her mot her, has just said good-bye to the handso me Negro sailor with whom she has been having an affair. They part at a swing-bridge across a shipcanal and, with conflicting emo tions, she watches him going across to the other side. At this poin t there is a close-up of her face, and behind it is shown, in the mid dle-ground, a ship going dow n the canal ~ a complicated pattern of machinery, masts, stays, etc., full of life, with the crew workin g round the hatches and a group on the bridge. Besides being most striking visually, the shot is more deeply expressive, ag though the ship symbolized both the vitality of the girl and the confus ion of her thoughts. In ano ther of Richardson’s films, The Char ge of the Light Brigade, there is a finely composed setting in depth in which Vanessa Redgrave sits in a Pre-Raphaelite drawing-room weeping, while dimly in the garden outside, her husband and Colonel Newton (whose bell igerence causes the disastrous attack) discuss the projected campai gn. In

SCALE,

SHOOTING-ANGLE,

DEPTH

5

I

ioned, which depicts a 5servant ’s The Servant already mentioned, \ po fing dominating, and finally destroying his weak pts? Nard his particular technique is used with striking e py: a force the impact of the whole film. At the Rt Fo isi i Bogar de)€ always appears in the servant (Dirk : = ho : iy an insignificant, subservient feta Fi Hiei

brought more and more into

the fort ;

;

oe 3 an ad power while the master steadily becomes by . aller and more ineffec ) i ineffectual. ME of one plane as opposed to Rother ou bi : » 4 the context. In Bo Widerberg’s Raven's Weeks, 1986; Fatal Attraction, 1987.

MCRRIDE, JIM (USA): David Holzman’s Diary, 1967; Breathless, 1983; The Big Easy, 1987.

MCLEOD, NORMAN Zz. (USA): Monkey Business, 1931; The Paleface, 1948; The Secret Life of Walter Mitty, 1948. MAKAVEYEV, DUSAN (Yug): The Switchboard Operator, 1966; WR — Mysteries of the Organism, 1971; Montenegro, 1981; The Coca Cola Kid, 19834. MALICK, TERRENCE (USA): Badlands, 1974; Days of Heaven, 1978. MALLE, Lous (Fr/UsA): Lift to the Scaffold, 1957; Les Amants, 1958; Zazie dans le Métro, 1960; Le Feu Follet, 1963; Viva Maria, 1965; Le Souffle au Coeur, 1971; Lacombe Lucien, 1974; Pretty Baby, 1978; Atlantic City, 1980; My Dinner with André, 1981;Au Revoir Les Enfants, 1987.

MAMOULIAN, ROUBEN (USA): Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, 1932; Love Me Tonight, 1932; Queen Christina, 1933; Becky Sharp, 1935; The Mark of Zorro, 1940; Blood and Sand, 1941; Silk Stackings, 1957.

250

THE

CINEMA

AS

ART

INDEX

MANKIEWICZ, JOSEPH L. (Usa):A Letter to Three Wives, 1948; All about Eve, 1950; Julius Caesar, 1953; Guys and Dolls, 1955; The Quiet American, 1958; Suddenly Last Summer, 1959; Cleopatra, 1963; Sleuth, 1972.

MARKER, CHRIS (F1): Cuba Sil, 1961; La Jetée, 1963 (s); Le Joli Mai, 1963; Sunless, 1983. : MARQUAND, RICHARD (USA): Eye of the Needle, 1981; The Return of the Jedi, 1983; Jagged Edge, 1985.

MAY, ELAINE (USA): A New Leaf; 1970; The Heartbreak Kid, 1972; Mikey and Nicky, 1978.

MAYSLES, ALBERT AND DAVID (Usa): Showman, Gimme Shelter, 1970; Grey Gardens, 1975.

1963; Salesman,

1969;

MAZURSKI, PAUL (USA): Bob and Carol and Ted and Alice, 1969; Blume in oe, 1973; An Unmarried Woman, 1978; Down and Out in Beverly Hills, 1985.

OF

FILMS

AND

DIRECTORS

251

NELSON, GARY (USA): The Black Hole, 1979. NICHOLSON,

JACK (USA): Drive, He Said, 1970; Goin’ South, 1978.

OLIVIER, LAURENCE (UK): Henry V, 1945; Hamlet, 1948; Richard III, 1955; The Prince and the Showgirl, 1958; Othello, 1966; Three Sisters, 1970. OLMI, ERMANNO (It): I] Posto, 1961; I Fidanzati, 1962; A Man

Named John,

1965; One Fine Day, 1969; The Circumstance, 1974; The Tree of Wooden Clogs, 1978; Cammina Cammina, 1983. OPHULS, MAX (Fr/usa): Liebelei, 1932; La Signora di Tutti, 1934; Letter Srom an Unknown Woman, 1948; Caught, 1948; The Reckless Moment, 1949; La Ronde, 1950; Le Plaisir, 1952; Madame de ... , 1953; Lola Montes,

1955.

MEDAK, PETER (UK): Negatives, 1969; A Day in the Death of Joe Egg, 1970; The Ruling Class, 1971.

OSHIMA, NAGISA (Jap): Death by Hanging, 1968; Diary of a Shinjuku Thief, 1969; Bay, 1969; The Ceremony, 1971; Ai No Corrida/Empire of the Senses, 1976; Empire of Passion, 1978; Merry Christmas, Mr Lawrence, 1982; Max, Mon Amour, 1986.

MELIES, GEORGES (Fr): Numerous shorts including The Indiarubber Head, 1901; Trip to the Moon, 1902; The Coronation of Edward VII, 1902; Conquest

0zU, YASUJIRO (Jap): I Was Born, But . . . | 1932; Late Spring, 1949; Tokyo Story, 1953; Ohayo, 1959; Late Autumn, 1960; Early Autumn, 1961.

MELVILLE, JEAN-PIERRE (Fr): Les Enfants Terribles, 1949; Bob, Je Flambeur, 1956; Léon Morin, Prétre, 1961; Le Deuxizime Souffle, 1966; Le Samourai , 1968; Le Cercle Rouge, 1970.

PABST, GEORGE W. (Ger): The Joyless Street, 1925; The Love of Jeanne Ney,

of the Pole, 1912.

MILESTONE, LEWIS (usa): All Quiet on the Western Front, 1930; The From Page, 1931; Of Mice and Men, 1940; A Walk in the Sun, 1945; Mutiny on the Bounty, 1962. MILLAR, GAVIN (UK): Dreamchild, 1985.

MINNELLI, VINCENTE (USA): Cabin in the Sky, 1942; Meet Me in St Louis, 1944; The Pirate, 1048;An American in Paris, 1950; The Band Wagon, 1953; The Bad and the Beautiful, 1953; Lust for Life, 1956; Gigi, 1958; Two Weeks

in Another Town, 1962.

MURNAU, FRIEDRICH W. (Ger): Nosferatu, 1922; The Last Laugh, Tartuffe, 1925; Faust, 1926; Sunrise, 1927; Tabu, 1931.

NEEDHAM, HAL (USA): Hooper, 1978; The Cannonball Run, 1980.

1924;

1927; Pandora’s Box, 1929; Diary of a Lost Girl, 1929; 1930; Kameradschaft, 1931; The Threepenny Opera, 1931.

Wesifront 1918,

PAKULA, ALAN (USA): Klute, 1971; The Parallax View, 1974; All the President’s Men, 1976; Starting Over, 1979; Sophie's Choice, 1982. PARADJANOV, SERGEI (USSR): Shadows of our Forgotten Ancestors, 1964; The Colour of Pomegranates, 196g; The Legend of the Suram Fortress, 1985. PARKER, ALAN (UK): Bugsy Malone, 1976; Midnight Express, 1978; Fame, 1980; Shoot the Moon, 1982; Birdy, 1985; Angel Heart, 1987. PARROTT, JAMES (USA): Another Fine Mess, 1930 (s); Brats, 1930 (s); The Music Box, 1932 (5). PASOLINI,

PIER

PAOLO

(It): Accattone,

1961;

The

Gospel According

to St

Matthew, 1964; Oedipus Rex, 1067; Teorema, 1968; Medea, 1969; Pigsty, 1969; The Decameron, 1971; The Canterbury Tales, 1972; The Arabian Nights,

1974; Sale, 1975.

THE

252

PASTRONE, GIOVANNI

CINEMA

AS

ART

(It): Giulio Cesare, 1909;

INDEX

The Fall of Troy, 1910;

Cabiria, 1914.

PECKINPAH, SAM (USA): Guns in the Afternoon/Ride the High Country, 1962; Major Dundee, 1965; The Wild Bunch, 1969; The Ballad of Cable Hogue, 1970; Straw Dogs, 1971; The Getaway, 1972; Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid, 1973; BringMe the Head of Alfredo Garcia, 1975; Convay, 1978. PENN,

ARTHUR

(USA):

The Miracle

Worker,

1962; Micky

One,

1965;

The

Chase, 1966; Bonnie and Clyde, 1967; Little Big Man, 1971; Alice’s Restaurant, 1973; Night Moves, 1975; The Missouri Breaks, 1976. PENNEBAKER, DON (Usa): Don’t Look Back, 1966; Monterey Pop, 1968. PETERSEN, WOLFGANG (Ger): 1984; Enemy Mine, 1986.

The Boat,

1981;

The Never-Ending Story,

PICK, LUPU (Ger): Shattered, 1921; New Year's Fve, 1923.

POLANSKI, ROMAN (Pol/UK/USA): Two Men and a Wardrobe, 1958 (s); Knife in the Water, 1962; Repulsion, 1964; Cul-de-sac, 1966; Dance of the Vampires, 1966; Rosemary's Baby, 1068; Macbeth, 1971; Chinatown, 1974; The Tenant, 1976; Tess, 1979; Frantic, 1988. POLLACK, SYDNEY (USA): They Shoot Horses, Don't They?, 1969; Jeremiah Johnson, 1972; The Way We Were, 1973; Three Days of the Condor, 1975; Absence of Malice, 1981; Tootsie, 1982; Out of Africa, 1985.

POMMERAND, GABRIEL (Er): Légende Cruelle, 1951 (s). PORTER, EDWIN (USA): The Life of an American Fireman, 1902; The Great Train Robbery, 1903; Rescued from an Eagle's Nest, 1907 — all shorts. POWELL, MICHAEL (UK): The Spy tn Black, 1939; 49th Parallel, 1941; The Thief of Baghdad, 1941; The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp, 1943; A Canterbury Tale, 1944; I Know Where I'm Going, 1945; A Matter of Life and Death, 1946; Black Narcissus, 1947; The Red Shoes, 1948; Battle of the River Plate, 1956 — all with EMERIC PRESSBURGER. Peeping Tom, 1960. PREMINGER, OTTO (USA): Laura, 1944; Carmen Jones, 1955; Porgy and Bess, 1958; Anatomy of a Murder, 1959; Exodus, 1960; Advise and Consent, 1961; In Harm's Way, 1964. PUDOVKIN, VSEVOLOD (USSR): Mother, 1926; The End of St Petersburg, 1927; Storm over Asia, 1928; A Simple Case, 1932; The Deserter, 1933.

RAIMI, SAM (USA): The Evil Dead, 1980; The Evil Dead II, 1987.

OF

FILMS

AND

DIRECTORS

253

RAPPER, IRVING (USA): Now Voyager, 1942; The Adventures of Mark Twain, 1944; Rhapsody in Blue, 1945; The Glass Menagerie, 1950. RASH, STEVE (USA): The Buddy Holly Story, 1978. RAY, SATYANT (Ind): Pather Panchali, 1955; Aparajite, 1956; The World of Apu, 1958; Devi, 1960; Kanchenjunga, 1963; Mahanagar, 1963; Charulata, 1964; Days and Nights in the Forest, 1969; The Adversary, 1970; Company Limited, 1971; Distant Thunder, 1973; The Middle Man, 1975; The Chess Players, 1977; The Home and the World, 1984.

REED, CAROL (UK): The Stars Look Down, 1939; The Way Ahead, 1943; Odd Man Out, 1947; The Fallen Idol, 1948; The Third Man, 1949; A Kid for Tio Farthings, 1955; Our Man in Havana, 1959; The Agony and the Festasy, 1965; Oliver!, 1968. REGGIO, GODFREY (USA): Koyaanisqatsi, 1983.

REISZ, KAREL (UK): We are the Lambeth Boys, 1959 (s); Saturday Night and Sunday Moming, 1960; Morgan: A Suitable Case for Treatment, 1966; Jsadora, 1968; The Gambler, 1974; Dog Soldiers, 1978; The French Lieutenant's Woman, 1981. REITZ, EDGAR (Ger): Mahlzeiten, 1967; Heimat, 1984.

RENOIR, JEAN (Fr): Nana, 1926; La Chienne, 1931; Boudu Saved from Drowning, 1932; Toni, 1935; Le Crime de M. Lange, 1935; Une Partie de Campagne, 1935 (s); La Grande Illusion, 1937; La Marseillaise, 1937; La Béte Humaine, 1938; La Rigle du Jeu, 1939; Diary of a Chambermaid, 1946; Tie River, 1950; Le Carrosse d'Or, 1952; Le Déjeuner sur I'Herbe, 1959; Le Caporal Epinglé, 1961.

RESNAIS, ALAIN (Fr): Guernica, 1950 Hiroshima, Mon Amour, 1959; Last Year La Guerre est Fini, 1966; Je Caime, Providence, 1978; Mon Oncle d'Amérigue, a Mort, 1984; Mélo, 1986. L'Amour

(s); Nuit et Brouillard, 1955 (s); at Marienbad, 1963; Muriel, 1963; Je t'aime, 1967; Stavisky, 1974; 1980; La Vie est un Roman, 1983;

RICHARDSON, TONY (UK): Look Back in Anger, 1958; The Entertainer, 1960;

A Taste of Honey, 1962; The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner, 1962; Tom Jones, 1963; The Charge of the Light Brigade, 1968; Ned Kelly, 1970. RIEFENSTAHL, LENI (Ger): The Blue Light, 1932; Triumph of the Will, 1936; Olympic Games, 1936-8. RIPPLOH, FRANK (Ger): Taxi Zum Klo, 1982.

254

THE

RIVETTE, JACQUES

CINEMA

AS ART

(Fr): Paris Nous Appartient,

INDEX

1960; La Religieuse,

1967;

SCHAFFNER,

FRANKLIN

OF

(USA):

FILMS

AND

DIRECTORS

The Best Man,

1964;

255

The War Lord,

1965;

L'Amour Fou, 1967; Out 1/Spectre, 1971; Celine and Julie Go Boating, 1974; Duelle, 1976.

Planet of the Apes, 1967; Patton, 1969; Papillon, 1974; The Bays from Brazil, 1978.

ROBSON,

SCHLESINGER, JOHN (UK): Terminus, 1961 (s);A Kind of Loving, 1962; Billy Liar, 1963; Darling, 1964; Far from the Madding Crowd, 1966; Midnight Cowboy, 1970; Sunday Bloody Sunday, 1971; Day of the Locust, 1975;

MARK

(USA): Isle of the Dead,

1945; The Harder They Fall, 1956;

Peyton Place, 1958; The Prize, 1964; Von Ryan's Express, 1965; Earthquake, 1974.

RODDAM, FRANC (UK): Quadrophenia, 1979; The Lords of Discipline, 1982. ROEG, NICOLAS (UK): Performance, 1970; Walkabout, 1971; Don’t Look Now, 1973; The Man Who Fell to Earth, 1976; Bad Timing, 1980; Eureka, 1983; Insignificance, 1985; Castaway, 1986; Track 29, 1987. ROHMER, ERIC (Fr): La Collectioneuse, 1967; Ma Nuit chez Maude, 1969; Clair’s Knee, 1971; Love in the Afternoon, 1972; The Marquise of O, 1976; The Aviator’s Wife, 1981; Pauline at the Beach, 1982; Full Moon in Paris,

1984; The Green Ray, 1986. ROMERO, GEORGE (USA): Night of the Living Dead, Dawn of the Dead, 1979; Day of the Dead, 1985.

1968; Martin,

1978;

(It): Rome,

Open City, 1945; Paisa,

1985.

SCHRADER, PAUL (USA): Blue Collar, 1978; American People, 1982; Mishima, 1985.

1980;

SCHROEDER,

BARBET

(Fr): More,

1969;

La

Vallée,

Gigolo,

1972;

Cat

General Amin,

1974; Maitresse, 1976; Barfly, 1987. SCORSESE, MARTIN (Usa): Mean Streets, 1973; Alice Doesnt Live Here Anymore, 1974; Taxi Driver, 1976; New York, New York, 1977; The Last Waltz, 1978; Raging Bull, 1980; Afier Hours, 1985; The Color of Money, 1986; The Last Temptation of Christ, 1988. SCOTT, RIDLEY (UK): Alien,

1979; Blade Runner,

1982; Someone to Watch

Over Me, 1987.

ROSI, FRANCESCO (It): Salvatore Giuliano, 1962; Hands over the City, 1963; The Manei Affair, 1972; Lucky Luciano, 1973; Illustrious Corpses, 1976; Christ Stopped at Eboli, 1979; Three Brothers, 1981; Carmen, 1984; Chronicle of a Death Foretold, 1987. ROSSELLINI, ROBERTO

Marathon Man, 1976; Yanks, 1979; The Falcon and the Snowman,

1946; Germany,

Year Zero, 1947; Stromboli, 1950; Europa 51, 1952; Voyage in Italy, 1953; The Rise to Power of Louis XIV, 1966; Socrates, 1970; Blaise Pascal, 1972; The Age of Cosimo de’ Medici, 1973. ROUCH, JEAN (Fr): I, a Negro, 1958; The Human Pyramid, 1961; Chronicle of a Summer, 1961; La Chasse au Lion, 1965. RUDOLPH, ALAN (USA): Welcome to L.A., 1977; Remember My Name, 1978; Choose Me, 1985; Trouble in Mind, 1986. RUSSELL, KEN (UK): Women in Love, 1969; The Devils, 1971; The Boy Friend, 1972; Mahler, 1973; Tommy, 1975; Valentino, 1977; Altered States, 197g; Crimes of Passion, 1985; Gothic, 1986.

SAVILLE, VICTOR (UK): I Was a Spy, 1933; The Good Companions, South Riding, 1938.

1933;

SEKERS, ALAN (UK): The Arp Statue, 1971.

SEN, MRINAL (Ind): Wedding Day,

1960; The OQuisiders, 1977; And Quiet

Rolls the Dawn, 1979; Genesis, 1986.

SHENGAYALA, GEORGE Neighbourhood, 1974.

(USSR): Pirosmani,

1973; Melodies of the Veriyeski

SHINODA, MASAHIRO ( Jap): Double Suicide, 1967; Sapporo Olympics, 1972. SIEGEL, DON (USA): Riot in Cell Block 11, 1954; Invasion of the Body Snatchers, 1956; Baby Face Nelson, 1957; The Killers, 1964; Madigan, 1968; Coogan’s Bluff, 1969; The Beguiled, 1971; Dirty Harry, 1971; Charley Varrick, 1973; The Shootist, 1976. SJOBERG,

ALF

(Swe):

Frenzy,

1944; Miss Julie,

1950;

Karin Mansdotter,

1954; The Wild Birds, 1955. SJOSTROM, VICTOR (Swe): A Man There Was, 1917; The Girl from Stormycroft, 1917; The Outlaw and his Wife, 1918; Mésterman, 1918; The Phantom Carriage, 1921; He Who Gets Slapped, 1924; The Scarlet Letter, 1926; The Wind, 1928. SKOLIMOWSKI, JERZY (Pol/UK): Walkover, 1965; Barrier, 1966; Le Départ, 1967; Deep End, 1970; The Shout, 1978; Moonlighting, 1982; The Lightship, 1985.

HN 256

THE

CINEMA

AS

INDEX

ART

OF

FILMS

AND

DIRECTORS

257

SNOW, MICHAEL (Can): Wavelength, 1966—71; The Central Region, 1971.

VAN DYKE, W. S. (USA): Trader Horn, 1931; Tarzan the Ape Man, 1932; The Thin Man, 1934; San Francisco, 1936; It’s a Wonderful World, 1939.

SOLANAS, FERNANDO (Arg): The Hour of the Furnaces, 1968.

VARDA, AGNES (Fr): Cleo from 5 to 7, 1961; Le Bonheur, 1965; Les Créatures, 1966; Lion's Love, 1969; One Sings, the Other Doesn't, 1976; Vagabonde, 1985.

SPIELBERG, STEVEN (USA): Duel, 1971; The Sugarland Express, 1974; Jaws, 1975; Close Encounters of the Third Kind, 1977; 1941, 1979; Raiders of the Lost Ark, 1981; E.T., the Extraterrestrial, 1982; The Color Purple, 1985; Empire of the Sun, 1987; Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, 1989. STONE, OLIVER (USA): Safvador, Talk Radio, 1988.

1985; Platoon, 1986;

Wall Street, 1987;

STORCK, HENRI (Belg): Borinage, 1933 (s); The World of Paul Delvaux, 1947 (s); Rubens, 1948 (s).

TARKOVSKY, ANDREY (USSR): fvan’s Childhood, 1962; Andrei Rublev, 1966; Solaris, 1972; The Mirror, 1975; Stalker, 1979; Nestalghia, 1983; The Sacrifice, 1986. TAT, JACQUES (Fr): Jour de Féte, 1947; Monsieur Hulot's Holiday, 1953; Mon Oncle, 1958; Playtime, 1968; Traffic, 1971; Parade, 1974. TAVERNIER, BERTRAND (Fr): The Waichmaker of St Paul, 1975; Que la Féte Commence . .. , 1975; Deathwatch, 1979; Une Semaine de Vacances, 1980; Coup de Torchon, 1082; Sunday in the Country, 1984; Round Midnight, 1986. TEMPLE,

JULIEN

(UK):

The

Great Rock

’'n’ Roll Swindle,

1980; Absolute

VIDOR, CHARLES (USA): The Spy, 1932; Cover Girl, 1944; Gilda, 1946; The Swan, 1956; A Farewell to Arms, 1958. VIDOR, KING

(USA):

The Big Parade,

1925;

The Crowd,

1928; Hallelujah,

1929; The Champ, 1931; Our Daily Bread, 1934; The Citadel, 1938; Duel in the Sun, 1947; The Fountainhead, 1949; Ruby Gentry, 1953. VIGO,

JEAN

(Fr): A

Propos

de Nice,

1930

(s); Zéro

de Conduite,

1933;

LAtalante, 1934. VISCONTI, LUCHINO (lt): Ossessione, 1942; La Terra Trema, 1048; Bellissima, 1951; Senso, 1954; White Nights, 1957; Rocco and his Brothers, 1960; The Leopard, 1963; The Outsider, 1967; The Damned, 1970; Death in Venice, 1971; LudwigIl, 1972; Conversation Piece, 1975; The Innocent, 1976. VON STERNBERG, JOSEF (USA): Underworld, 1927; The Last Command, 1928; The Blue Angel, 1930; Morocco, 1930; Dishonored, 1931; Shanghai Express, 1932; Blonde Venus, 1932; The Scarlet Empress, 1934; The Devil is a Woman, 1935; The Shanghai Gesture, 1941; Macao, 1952; The Saga of Anatahan, 1953. VON STROHEIM,

ERICH (USA): Blind Husbands,

1918; Foolish Wives, 1921;

Greed, 1923; The Merry Widow, 1925; The Wedding March, Kelly, 1928; Walking Down Broadway, 1932.

1927; Queen

Beginners, 1986. TESHIGAHARA, HIROSHI (Jap): Woman Another, 1966; Summer Soldiers, 1972.

of the Dunes,

1963;

The Face of

TRUFFAUT, FRANGOIS (Fr): Les Mistons, 1958 (s); Les Quatre Cents Coups, 1959; Shoot the Pianist, 1960; Jules and Fim, 1962; La Peau Douce, 1964; Fahrenheit 451, 1966; The Bride Wore Black, 1967; Stolen Kisses, 1968; L Enfant Sauvage, 1970; Anne and Muriel/Les Deux Anglaises et le Continent, 1971; The Man Who Loved Women, 1973; Day for Night, 1974; The Story of Adele H, 1975; The Green Room, 1977; Love on the Run, 1978; The Last Metro, 1980; Finally Sunday, 1983.

USTINOY, PETER (UK): Romanoff and Juliet, 1961; Billy Budd, 1962.

WAJDA, ANDRZEJ (Pol): A Generation, 1955; Kanal, 1956; Ashes and Diamonds, 1958; Everything for Sale, 1968; Landscape after Battle, 1970; Promised Land, 1975; Man of Marble, 1977; Man of Iron, 1980; Danton, 1982. WARHOL, ANDY (USA): Sleep, 1963; Empire, 1964; The Chelsea Girls, 1966;

Lonesome Combays, 1968; Blue Movie, 1969. With PAUL MORRISSEY: Flesh, 1968; Trash, 1970. WATT, HARRY (UK): Night Mail, 1935 (s) with BASIL WRIGHT; Squadron 992, 1940; London can Take it, 1940; Target for Tonight, 1941; The Overlanders, 1946; Eureka Stockade, 1948; Where No Vidiures Fly, 1951; People like Maria, 1958. WEIR, PETER (Aust): The Cars that Ate Paris, 1974; Picnic at Hanging Rock, 1975; The Last Wave, 1977; Gallipoli, 1981; The Year of Living Dangerously, 1082; Witness, 1985; The Mosquito Coast, 1986.

258

THE

CINEMA

WELLES, ORSON (Usa): Citizen Kane, 1940;

AS

ART

INDEX

The Magnificent

Ambersons, 1942;

YATES,

PETER

OF

(USA): Bullitt,

FILMS

AND

1968; John

DIRECTORS

and Mary,

1971;

259

The Friends of

The Lady from Shanghai, 1947; Macketh, 1947; Othello, 1952; Touch of Evil, 1957; The Trial, 1962; Chimes at Midnight, 1965; The Immortal Story, 1968 (s); F for Fake, 1973.

Eddie Coyle, 1973; Breaking Amway, 1979; The Janitor/Eyemitness, 1980; The Dresser, 1983; Suspect, 1988.

WELLMAN, WILLIAM (USA): Wings, 1927; Public Enemy, 1931; 1937; Oxbow Incident, 1943.

Thunderball, 1965; The Valachi Papers, 1972.

A Star is Born,

WEXLER, HASKELL (USA): Medium Cool, 1969; Latino, 1985. 1931; The Old Dark House, 1932; Bride

of Frankenstein, 1935; Show Boat, 1936; The Man in the Iron Mask, 1939. WIDERBERG,

BO (Swe): Raven's End,

1964; Ekira Madigan,

1967; Adalen

31, 1960; The Ballad of Joe Hill, 1971. WIENE, ROBERT (Ger): The Cabinet of Dr Caligari, 1919; The Hands of Orlac, 1925. WILDER, BILLY (USA): Double Indemnity, 1944; The Lost Weekend, 1945; Sunset Boulevard, 1950; Ace in the Hole, 1951; The Seven Year Itch, 1955; Some Like It Hot, 1959; The Apartment, 1960; Kiss Me, Stupid, 1964; Meet Whiplash Willie/The Fortune Cookie, 1966; The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes, 1970; Avanti, 1972; The Front Page, 1974; Fedora, 1978. WILLIAMS, RICHARD (UK): The Little Island, 1958 (s); Love Me, Love Me, Love Me, 1963 (3); A Christmas Carol, 1972 (s). WISE, ROBERT (USA): The Set-Up, 1949; Executive Suite, 1954; West Side Story, 1961 — with JEROME ROBINS; The Haunting, 1963; The Sound of Music, 1964; Star, 1968; The Andromeda Strain, 1971; The Hindenburg, 1975.

WISEMAN, FREDERICK (USA): High School, 1968; Training, 1971; Welfare, 1975; Canal Zone, 1977.

Hospital,

1970;

Basic

WRIGHT, BASIL (UK): Night Mail, 1935 (s) — with HARRY WATT; Song of Ceylon, 1935. WYLER, WILLIAM (USA): Jezebel, 1938; Wuthering Heights, 1939; The Little Foxes, 1941; The Best Years of Our Lives, 1946; The Heiress, 1949; Roman Holiday, 1953; The Big Country, 1958; Ben Hur, 1959; The Collector, 1964; Funny Girl, 1968.

TERENCE

(UK):

Dr

No,

1962;

From

Russia

with

Love,

1903;

YUTKEVITCH, SERGEI (USSR): Othello, 1955; Lenin in Poland, 1965.

WENDERS, WIM (Ger): The Goalkeeper’s Fear of the Penalty, 1972; Alice in the Cities, 1974; Kings of the Road, 1976; The American Friend, 1977; The State of Things, 1982; Paris, Texas, 1984; Wings of Desire, 1987.

WHALE, JAMES (USA): Frankenstein,

YOUNG,

ZEFFIRELLI, FRANCO (It): Romeo and Juliet, 1968; La Traviata, 1983; Otello, 1986. ZEMECKIS, ROBERT (USA): Romancing the Stone, 1984; Back to the Future, 1985; Who Framed Roger Rabbit, 1988. ZINNEMANN, FRED (USA): The Men, 1950; High Noon, 1952; Oklahoma, 1955; The Nun's Story, 1958; The Sundowners, 1960; Behold a Pale Horse, 1963;.4 Man for all Seasons, 1967; The Day of the Jackal, 1974; Julia, 1977.

GENERAL

GENERAL

‘A Bout de Souffle, 72 academy ratio, 87 accelerated motion, 101ff. Across the Pacific, 41

acting, 73, 101, 153ff, 223-4 actual sound, 190 Adams, Brooke, 82 Age of Cosimo de’ Media, The, 130 Aguirre, Wrath of God, 59, 183 Ai No Corrida (Empire of the Senses), 208 Akerman, Chantal, 124 Alcott, John, 162 Aldo, G.R., 159 Alexander Nevsky, 16, 182 Alexandrov, Grigori, 91, 190 Alien, 51 Allen, Karen, 82 Allen, Nancy, 83 Allen, Woody, 101, 197-8, 217, 226, Pls: All Quiet on the Western Front, 206 All That Jazz, 170, 184 All the President’s Men, 38, 160 Almendros, Nestor, 82, 159, 16g, 229n. Alphaville, 47, 165 Altered States, 156 Altman, Robert, 40, 57, 61, 155, 178-9,

195

Amadeus, 183 American Friend, The, 68 American Gigolo, 172

American Graffiti, 183 American Tragedy, An, 197 Anderson, Lindsay, 40, 183, 225 Anderson, Michael, 37

INDEX

Anderson Tapes, The, 148 And the Ship Sails On, 149, 217, 225 Angelopoulos, Theodor, 84 angle, see shooting-angle animated film, 143, 195 Annaud, Jean-Jacques, 178 Annie Hall, 197 A Nous la Liberté, 48, 67 Anstey, Edgar, 80 anti-art, 15 Antonioni, Michelangelo, 49, 67, 76, 94, 96, 122, 171

aperture, 52-3, 55

Apocalypse Now, 149, 186 Armchair Theatre, 129 Arnheim, Rudolph, 31, 36n. Arnold, Jack, 68 Arp Statue, The, bg Arrivée d'un Train en Gare, 55 Art and Hlusion, 224 Art and Reality, 15 Art as Experience, 1421. 144 Art of the Film, The, 101 Ashby, Hal, 183 Ashes and Diamonds, 220 aspect ratio, 87 Asquith, Anthony, 190 Assassination of the Duke of Guise, The, 182 Astruc, Alexandre, 109, 218 asynchronism, see synchronism Attenborough, Richard, 69, 184 audience, 19, 261%, 34, 75, 117, 119, 123, 130-1, 179, 183, 201ff,, 213, 228ff. Aux Yeux du Svtrvenir, 41 Aventura, L', 76

‘B’ picture, 129 Babenco, Hector, 204 Bach, Stephen, 25 back projection, 174 Back to the Future, 112 Badlands, 193, 199 Bad Timing, 226 Baker, Rick, 156 Balazs, Bela, 65, 99, 128, 235 Balla, Giacomo, 134, Pl.27 ballet (film), go-1, 170, 215 Ballon Rouge, Le, 172 Balzac, Honoré de, 72 Barber of Seville, The, 204 Bardéche and Brasillach, 167 Barnet, Boris, 195 Barry Lyndon, 162, Pl.40 Battle Potemkin, 59, 75, 139, 177, 235 Baudelaire, Charles, 209 Bazin, André, 31, 65, 108, 141, 163, 179,

211-12, 2200. Beatles, The, 47, 151 Beaton, Cecil, 72 Beatty, Warren, 194 Beineix, Jean-Jacques, 148, 226 being-present feeling, 214-15 Bell, Clive, 24 Belle de Jour, 199 Belle et la Béte, La, 105 Belmondo, Jean-Paul, 67, 195 Benedek, Laslo, 113 Ben Hur, 67 Beresford, Bruce, 144

Bergman, Ingmar, 39, 47, 94, 112, 130, 161, 167, 185, 187, Bergman, Ingrid, 162 Berlin, Alexanderplatz, Bertolucci, Bernardo, Best Man, The, 163 Best Years of Our Lives, Béte Humaine, La, 187 Betty Blue, 226 Bidone, Il, 220 Bierce, Ambrose, 127 Big Chill, The, 133 Billy Budd, 167

192, 235 131 39, 59, 70 The, 56

Birds, The, 68, 92 Birth of a Nation, 89, 125, 182 black and white, 159, 166ff,, 204

Black Hole, The, 164 Blackmail, 196 Black Orpheus, 76

INDEX

261

Black Pirate, The, 166

Blade Runner, 197 Blair, Les, 130 Blier, Bernard, 208 Blow Qut (de Palma), 96, 194 Blow-Out (Ferreri) see La Grande Bouffe Blow-up, 96 Blue Angel, The, 80, 226 Blue Velvet, 38, 150, 152, 196, 208 Boat, The, 82, 189 Boesman and Lena, 70

BOF, 69 ‘Bogarde, Dirk, 40, 51 Bogart, Humphrey, 41 Bogdanovich, Peter, 86 Bonnie and Clyde, 103 Boorman, John, 25, 84, 164, 236 Borowczyk, Walerian, 105

Borttin, Rob, 156 Boulting, John and Ray, 193 Bays from ihe Blacksiuff, The, 130 Brakhage, Stan, 222 Brando, Marlon, 73, 127, 145 Braque, Georges, 46 Brats, 38, Ply Brave New World, zo1° Brecht, Bertold, 157 Bresson, Robert, 109, 155, 19g, 200, 209,

211,223 Bridge on the Réver Kwai, The, 75 Brief Encounter, 80, 186 Briel, Joseph, 182 Brighton Rock, 193 Brook, Peter, 122 Brooke, Rupert, 210 Brooks, Mel, 185 Brown, Garrett, 82 Browning, Robert, 14, 115 Brynner, Yul, 48 Buddy Holly Story, The, 183 Buffalo Bill and the Indians, 61, Pl.14 Buiiuel, Luis, 41, 6g, 104, 129, 139, 178, 199, 206, 219, 226 Burgess, Anthony, 178 Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid, 39,

107 Byrne, David, 183 Cabaret, 69 Cabinet of Dr Caligari, The, 224, P1.30 Cabiria, 58 Calder-Marshall, Arthur, 14

THE

CINEMA

camera see Louma, Panaglide, Skycam, Steadicam camera movement, 71, 75ff,, 9o, 115, 143, see also panning, tracking, etc. caméra-stylo, 109, 218 Camus, Marcel, 76 Cannonball Run, 226 Canudo, Ricciotto, 98 Capra, Frank, 112, 226 Carabinsers, Les, 226 Caravaggiv, 16gn. Carmen, 181 Camé, Marcel, 107, 108, 110, 220 Carpenter, John, 42, 74 Carroll, Lewis, 111 Carroll, Madeleine, 186 Cartier-Bresson, Henri, 72 cartoon, see animated film Cary, Joyce, 15, 18 Casablanca, 219

Casanova, 155 Cassavetes, John, 102, 124 Castaway, 38 Cathy Come Home, 17 Cavell, Edith, 186

censor, censorship, 19, 30, 204f. Chaney, Lon, 156 Chan, Jackie, 105, 226 Chapeau de Paille d’Italie, Un, 104 Chaplin, Charlie, 43, 65, 72, 101, 105, 118, 139, 151 Charge of the Light Brigade, The (Curtiz),

127 Charge of the Light Brigade, The (Richardson), 50, 127 Chariots of Fire, 102 Chelsea Girls, The, 88, 128

AS

Croce, Benedetto, 15, 18 Cronenberg, David, 68 Crosland, Alan, 241 Crowd, The, 177 Cruisin’, 208 Cucaracha, La, 166 Curtiz, Michael, 127, 219 cut, cutting, 60, 64fF. see alse montage cutting ratio, 72

City Lights, 139, 177

Clair, René, 28, 40, 48, 101, 104, 121,

182 Clayton, Jack, 40 Cleo from 5 lo 7, 124, 168 Cleopatra, 223 Clockwork Orange, A, 47, 151 Cloquet, Ghislain, 168 Close Encounters of the Third Kind, 221n.

Dallas, 129 Dam Busters, The, 37 Dante, Joe, 68, 148 David Holzman's Diary, 225 Davis, Bette, 89, 197 Day for Night, 179 Day of the Dead, 157 Days of Heaven, 82, 105, 199 Days of Hope, 130 de Antonio, Emile, 216 Dead, The, 113 Death Day, 106 Death of a Salesman, 113, 127, 143-4 Deerhunter, The, 145, 189 Delannoy, Jean, 41 Demme, Jonathan, 181 Demy, Jacques, 104 de Niro, Robert, 103, 111, 125, 156 de Palma, Brian, 59, 83, 96, 194 depth, 52, 53fF, 161, 163 Deschanel, Caleb, 229n. Deserter, The, 188 de Sica, Vittorio, 79, 1535, 159 Deux Anglaises et le Continent, Les, 169 Devi, 70 Dewey, John, 15, 28, 142n., 144 * dialectical materialism, 138 dialogue, 180ff., 224

close-up, 37-9, 47, 40ff,, 63, 73, 75, 142, 155, PL17, PL48 Clouzot, Henri-Georges, 145 Coalminer’s Daughter, 183 Cocaine Fiends, 219 Cocteau, Jean, 28, 80, 88, 104, 105, 109, 182 codes, 232n. Coleridge, S. T, 15, 20 Color of Money, The, 59 colour, 165ff, colour systems, 166, 173 Come Back to the Five and Dime, Jimmy Dean, Jimmy Dean, 57 Coming Home, 183 commentative sound, 1go Company of Wolves, The, 160 composition, 86, 94, 120

Condamné & Mort S’est Echappé, Un, 199 Constable, John, 227 constancy effect, 44 Contempt (Le Mépris), 225

Conversation, The, 194

Cheyenne Autumn, Pl.2g chiaroscuro, §3, 55, 166—7 Chien Andalou, Un, P54 Chienne, La, 56

Coppola, Francis Ford, 91,112, 125, 149, 168, 194, Pl.32 Cortazar, Octavio, 65 Cortese, Valentina, 179 Costa-Gavras, Constantine, 79 costume, 151ff. counterpoint, 189-go Coup de Foudre, 155 Coward, Noel, 71 Crazy Cottage, 77, 212 Crichton, Michael, 48 Cries and Whispers, 39 Crime de Monsieur Lange, Le, 48 Crimes of the Hean, 144

Chinese Roulette, 84 Choose Me, 58 Chorus Line, A, 184 Christiane F, 208 Christie, Julie, 104, 132 Chronicle of a Death Foretold, 152 Churchill, Winston, 151 Cimino, Michael, 149, 189 Cinemascope, 87, 88, g6n., 165

critic, criticism, 28-9, 231ff.

Cinema Today, The, 1570. anéma total, 176, 201 anéma vérité, 216 cineo-rama, circarama, circlarama, 85 Citizen Kane, 56, 58, 125, 145, 174, 190, 192, PlL.1sg

Chevalier, Maurice, Pl.3g

Chinatown, 106, 234

GENERAL

ART

Diary of a Chambermaid, 206 Diary of Anne Frank, The, P13 Dickens, Charles, 16, 203 Dickinson, Angie, 83 Dietrich, Marlene, P1.28, Pl.35 dimensions, see transference effects Direct Cinema, 216 Dirty Harry, 208 Discreet Charm of the Bourgeoisie, The, 178 dissolve, 66, 110 distortion, 45, 52, 61, 9bn., 165 (sound),

186 Diva, 148, 183 Dixon, Maynard, 169

=

262

INDEX

263

Doctor Mabuse, 55, 67 Decor Strangelove, 46, 161, 167 documentary, 93, 109, 124, 129, 137, 216-18 Dodeska Den, 89 Dolce Vita, La, Pl.53 Donald Duck, 195 Donen, Stanley, 78 Don Giovanni, 181 Donner, Clive, 181 Don't Look Now, 103, 112, 171, 189 double-exposure, 66, 163-4 Dovzhenko, Alexander, 101 dramatic time, 98, 123fF. dramatic unities, 123 Dramma di Cristo, 11, 93 Draughtsman’s Contract, The, 152, P133 Dreamchild, 111 dream states, 104, 108, 137 Dreiser, Theadore, 197 Dressed to Kill, 83 Dresser, The, 181 Dreyer, Carl, 46, 155, 164, 223 dubbing, 179, 223-4 Duel, 130 Duncan, David Douglas, 170 Dunne,J. G,, 25 Dupont, Ewald, 42 Duras, Marguerite, 114 Duvall, Robert, 125 Eagle's Wing, 219 Eames, Ray and Charles, 106 Early Autumn, 75 Earth, 101, 177 Earthquake, 202 Eastwood, Clint, 61 Eclisse, L’, 67, Pl.52 Eco, Umberto, 232n. Edel, Ulrich, 208 Edison, T. A, 31, 176 editing, see cutting and montage

Effi Briest, 128 Eight and a Half (8%2), 161 Eiko, Ishioka, 150 Eisenstein, Sergei, 16, 28, 49, 6o, 69, 76,

91, 94, 105, 138, 155, 170, 182, 190, 197

electronic music, 183 Elephant Man, The, 150, 167, P.34 ellipsis (by cutting, etc.), 72, 85, 110, 115, 123ff. Ekvira Madigan, 107

264

THE

CINEMA

Emerald Forest, The, 25, 84, 236 Emmer, Luciano, 93 emotional nature of art, 34, 38-9, 87, 116-19, 145, 226ff, Empire, 84 Empire of Passion, The, 234 Empire of the Senses, 208 Emswiller, Ed, 222 End of St Petersburg, The, 49, 56 Enfant Sauvage, L', 167 Enrico, Robert, 127 Entr'age, 40, 101 Eraserhead, 150, 221 Esquisse d'une Psychologie du Cinéma, 109

E.T,39,41,175

Evans, Robert, 17gn. Evein, Bernard, 150 Everett, Rupert, 152 Evil Dead, The, 83 Exodus, 125 Exorcist, The, 156, 203 expanded cinema, 221 ‘experiences’, 202 expressionist school, 55, 67, 159 expressive montage, 138ff,, 218ff. Exterminating Angel, The, 129 Faces, 124 fade, 66 Fairbanks, Douglas, 166

faking, 60, 73-4, 105, 173fF.

Falconetti, 156

Fallen Idol, The, 41, 139 Fanfare, 212 Fanny and Alexander, 131 fantasy, 234ff,, Pl.54 Faraldo, Claude, 69 Fassbinder, Rainer Werner, 57, 84, 128, 131, 148, 160 Fata Morgana, 147 Fauré, Elie, 143 Fedora, 110 Fejos, Paul, 127 Fellini, Federico, 149, 155, 161, 217, 220, 225 Ferreri, Marco, 147 Feyder, Jacques, 46 fiction film, 41-2, 136-7, 222 film allusions, 67, 68 Film as Ant, 31, 36n. film script, 22, 180-1 Film Technique, 101 Final Cut, 25

AS

GENERAL

ART

fine arts, 16 Finney, Albert, 69 fish-eye lens, gon. Flaherty, Robert, 14, 23, 37, 155, Pl.2 flashback, 110ff. flash-forward, 112

Flash Gordon, 175 Fleischer, Max, 226 Fleming, Victor, 49

Fly, The, 78 focus, 52 Fonda, Henry, 45 Fonda, Jane, 148, 220

Ford, Harrison, 199 Ford, John, 45, 94, 161, 191 Forman, Milos, 107 Forrest, Lee, 176 Forster, E. M,, 6g Forsyte Saga, The, 129 Forsyth, Bill, g1 For the First Time, 65 Fosse, Bob, 51, 69, 184

Four Hundred Blows, The, 107 Fox, James, 187 frames per second (f.p.s.), 99, 102, 103 framing, 85ft. Frampton, Hollis, 222 France/Tour/Détour/Deux/ Enfants, 108 Franju, Georges, 66 Frankenheimer, John, 88 Frankenstein, 48 Frears, Stephen, 208 freezing, see stopped motion

French Lieutenant's Woman, The, 225

Frenzy, 46, 79

Freund, Karl, 81 Friedkin, William, 82, 208 Fugard, Athol, 70 Full Metal Jacket, 59, 149 Fuller, Sam, 42, 68, 225, 234 functional art, 16 Fury, 109, 139 Gabin, Jean, 161, 187, 220 Gance, Abel, 28, 81, 88, 164 Gangsters, 130 Garbo, Greta, 220 Gaumont, Léon, 176

General and Social Psychology, 44n., 228 General Line, The, 69, 76 Gere, Richard, 82 gestalt psychology, 60, 138 Getaway, The, 70

Gilliam, Terry, 195 Gish, Lillian, 68, 75 glass shot, 174 Godard, Jean-Luc, 28, 47, 61, 67, 69, 72, 108, 141, 178, 104, 225, 226 Godfather, The, 74, 125, 127, 156, 172,

179n. Goldblum, Jeff, 78 Gombrich, E. H., 224, 227, 231 Gospel According to St Matthew, The, 41,

185, 234 Gould, Elliott, 57 Grande Bouffe, La (Blow-Out), 147 Grande Musion, La, 79, 160, 167, 183, 184, 227 Grand Prix, 88 Granion Trawler, 8a graphic (or plastic) arts and film, 46, 50,

91, 93, 119-20, 133-4, 162, 169 Gras, Enrico, 93 Greed, 48, 177, 227, 233, P16 Greek drama, 153, 221 Greenaway, Peter, 102, 152 Gregory's Girl, g1 Gremlins, 68 Griffith, D. W,, 13, 63, 81, 89, 125, 147, 182 Grimoin-Samson, 85 Grosbard, Uly, 125 group activity, 24 Guinness, Alec, 156 Guiry, Sacha, 197 Gulag Archipelago, The, 204 Haanstra, Bert, 70, 212 Hackman, Gene, 194 Hallelujah, 186 Hall, Philip Baker, 155 Hamer, Robert, 156 Hard Day’s Night, A, 47, 101 Harrison, Rex, 223 Harvey, Anthony, 219 ~ Hauser, Arnold, 15 Heartbreak Ridge, 61 Heat and Dust, 125 Heaven's Gate, 25, 149, 169, 222, PL31 Heimat, 131, 167 Hell's Angels, 72 Hedren, Tippi, 92 Henry V, 61, 186 Herzog, Wemer, 59, 147 Hidden Fortress, The, 45 High Neon, 124

INDEX

265

Hill, George Roy, 39, 67 Hill, The, 40, 80 Hill, Walter, 170 Hiroshima Mon Amour, 114, 125 historical film, 218, 223 Hitchcock, Alfred, 41, 46, 67, 69, 79, 83, 84, 91, 118, 149, 162, 171, 186, 196,

215, 225 Hitler, Adolf, 217 Hogarth, William, 134 Holden, William, 111

Hopper, Dennis, 68, 150, 225 Hopper, Edward, 169 Hour of the Furnaces, The, 74 House, 106 Howling, The, 157 Hudson, Hugh, 102 Hughes, Howard, 72 Human Dutch, The, 70 Huppert, Isabelle, 155 Huston, John, 25, 37, 40, 82, 113, 128, 169 Huxley, Aldous, 14, 201 Ichikawa, Kon, 219 IMAX, 85 Immigrant, The, 43 Importance of Wearing Clothes, The, 152 Incident at Owl Creek, 127 Indiana Jones and the Temnple of Doom, 68,

102 Indian films, 123, 184 Indiarubber Head, The, 47 Informer, The, 186 Innocent Eye, The, 14 Insignificance, 112 inspiration, see intuition interior monologue, 197 Intolerance, 75, 125, 177 Into the Night, 68 intuition, 18, 22, 226ff. invisible cutting, 65

In Which We Serve, 71, 89 iris-in, iris-out, 67 TFvanhoe, 117 Fvan the Terrible, 49, Pl.17 Ivory, James, 69, 71

I Was a Spy, 186 James, Henry, 14 Jannings, Emil, 78, 80, 110 Jarman, Derek, 169n., 223

266

THE

CINEMA

Jarmusch, Jim, 84

Faws, 38, 79 Jazz Singer, The, 177, 182, 191, Pl.46 Jeanne Dielman, 23 Quai du Commerce, 1080 Bruxelles, 124 Fetée, La, 106 Jewison, Norman, 88 Jofté, Roland, 125 Johnson, Celia, 71 Johnson, Doctor Samuel, 59 Jolson, Al, 177 Joly, Henry, 176 Jordan, Neil, 160 JourSe Leve, Le, 110, 125, 220 Judgement at Nuremberg, 59

Jules et Fim, g6n., 165 jump cut, 72 Kanal, Pl.47 Kasdan, Lawrence, 68, 183 Kaufman, Philip, 145 Keaton, Buster, 101, 151 Keaton, Diane, 144, 197 Keats, John, 14, 133 Kelly, Grace, 118 key (lighting), 158-9 Key, The, 219 Kid, The, 118, Pl.25 Killer Elite, The, 103 Killers, The, 208 Killing Fields, The, 233, Pl.50 kinaesthetic sensations, 20, 202 Kind Hearts and Coronets, 156 Kind of Loving, A, 126 King and Country, 69, 107, 139 King Lear, Plg King Kong Meets Godzilla, 37 Kinski, Nastassja, 122 Kiss of the Spider Woman, 204 Knack, The, 101, 105 Knife in the Water, 59 Konchalovsky, Andrei, 167 Koyaanisqatsi, 147 Kracauer, Siegfried, 19, 140, 189—91,

213-14 Kramer, Stanley, 59

Kubrick, Stanley, 46, 47, 59, 69, 72, 78, 81, 149, 156, 162, 167, 172, 178, 188 Kuleshov, Lev, 137 Kurosawa, Akira, 45, 89, 123 Kurys, Diane, 155

AS

GENERAL

ART

Lamorisse, Albert, 172 Landis, John, 68

Lang, Fritz, 55, 67, 68, 72, 109, 139,

154n, 175, 205, 225

Langdon, Harry, 112 Lange, Jessica, 144 Langner, Lawrence, 152 Lanzmann, Claude, 131, 208 Last Emperor, The, P1.8 Last Laugh, The, 18, 81, 177 Last Moment, The, 127 Last Movie, The, 68, 225 Last Picture Show, The, 187 Last Tango in Paris, 39, 73, 161 Last Waltz, The, 181 Last Year in Marienbad, 114, 160, 167, 221, 233, Pl. 45 Laszlo, Andrew, 170 Latino, 216 Laura, 219 Laurel and Hardy, 38, 43, 224, Pl. 7 Law and Order, 130 Leacock, Richard, 216 Lean, David, 80 Léaud, Jean-Pierre, 107 Légende Cruelle, 93 Legend of the Suram Fortress, The, 175 leitmotif, 68-9, 195 length of films, 128-9 Lenin in Poland, gbn. lens, camera, 52-3 Leon Morin, Prétre, go, 195 Leonard, R. Z,, 197 Leone, Sergio, 111

Leopard, The, 173, PL. 49

Lester, Richard, 47, 101, 105 Levinson, Barry, 229n. Life and Times of Judge Roy Bean, The, 128 Life is Very Good, 196 Life of Galileo, 157 lighting, 157fF. Linder, Max, 101 Lindgren, Ernest, 101 Lion in Winter, The, 170 Lion's Love, 225 literature and film, rog-10 Loach, Kenneth, 130 location shooting, 148-9 Logan, Joshua, 171 Lola, 104 Lollobrigida, Gina, 184n. Long Day's Journey into Night, 181

long-focus, 47, 52, 61 Lang Goodbye, The, 57 Lung Pants, 112 long-shot, 39 Long Voyage Home, The, 161, 191 Lord of the Flies, 122 Loren, Sophia, 184n. Losey, Joseph, 40, 51, 6g, 107, 139, 181,

187

Lost Weekend, The, 78 Louma camera, 82 Love Me, Love Me, Love Me, 224 Love Me Tonight, 39 Lucas, George, 47, 81, 154n., 183 Lumet, Sidney, 40, 8o, 148, 181, 226 Lumiére, Louis, 31, 33, 55, 147, 217 Lusitania, 110, 213 Lust for Life, 16gn. Lynch, David, 38, 47, 150, 196, 208, 221 Lyne, Adrian, 209 M, 205 Macbeth, 167 McBride, Jim, 225 McLeod, Norman, 197

Made in USA, 178 Magic Head, The, Pl. 5 Magnificent Ambersons, The, 56 Mahanagar, 206 Maitresse, 208 Makaveyev, Dusan, 139 make-up, 153ff. Malick, Terrence, 82, 105, 193, 198—9 Malle, Louis, 43, 124, 179n., 208 Malraux, André, 109 Mammals, 212 Manhattan, 167, 198 Mankiewicz, Joseph, 223 Man of Aran, 186 Man Who Knew Too Much, The, 67 Marker, Chris, 106, 216 Marnie, 149, 171 Marquand, Richard, 102 Marquise of O, The, 169 Marshall, Herbert, 8g Martha, 57 MASH. 40, 178, 179, 193 masking, 87-8

INDEX

267

Mazursky, Paul, 49, 68 Meaning of Art, The, 14 Medak, Peter, 66 Medium Cool, 216-17 medium-shot, 39 Mélies, Georges, 31-2, 33, 47, 147, 164, 174,218 Melville, Jean-Pierre, go, 195 Mépris, Le, 68, 225 Metropalis, 72, 1540. Metz, Christian, 28 Michelangelo, 13 Mifune, Toshiro, 45 Mikey and Nicky, 72

Milestone, Lewis, 206 Milhouse, 216 Minnelli, Vincenti, 169n. miniatures, 175 Miou-Miou, 155 Mirror, 103 mirrors, 85 mise-en-scéne, 141, 14711. Mishima, 150 Mission, The, 125, 147 Miss Julie, 113, 143, Pl. 24 Missouri Breaks, The, 145 Mitra, Subatra, 16on. mix, 66 Moana, 37 Moby Dick, 169, 171 Modern Times, 65 Money Into Light, 25, 236 Monroe, Marilyn, 112 Monsieur Hulot's Holiday, 178 montage, 33, 59-60, 64fT., 108ff, 1351,

188ff. Morin, Edgar, 154 Morming After, The, 148 Mosquito Coast, The, 199 Moulin Rouge, 169n. Mr Deeds Goes to Town, 226 multiple images, 87-8 multi-screen movies, 88 Muppets, The, 157 Muriel, 198 Murnau, Friedrich W., 59, 78, 157, 164, 165 music, 182—4, 188, 195, 221 musicals, 184

maite, 174

My Beautiful Laundrette, 208

Matter of Life and Death, A, Pl. 12 May, Elaine, 72 Mayer, Carl, 81 Maysles, David and Albert, 216

My Dinner with André, 124 Naked Kiss, The, 42 Nanook of the North, Pl. 2

268

THE

CINEMA

narrative montage, 140 National Museum of Photography, Film and Television, 85 Natural, The, 229n. Nature of Film, The, 19, 189, 213 negative image, 165 Nelson, Gary, 164

neo-realism, 140, 159-60 Nesmork, 148 Newman, Paul, 61 ‘new wave’, 67, 72, 136 New Year's Eve, 81 New York, New York, 183 Nicholson, Jack, 92, 106, 145 Niebelungen, Die, 175

Panofsky, Erwin, 142 Parade, 106 Paradjanov, Sergei, 175 Parallax View, The, 104, parallelism, 189 Parents Terribles, Les, 80, Paris, Texas, 57 Partie de Campagne, Une, Pasolini, Pier Paolo, 28,

Night Moves, 49, 165 Night of the Iguana, The, 37 Ninel/z Weeks, 209 1941, 82 Nosferatu, 164, 165, PL. 42 Nostalghia, 168, 192 Notorious, 162 Notte, La, 49 New Voyager, 197 Nykvist, Sven, 104

Orphée, 104, 165 Oshima, Nagisa, 208, 234 Ossessiane, 226 Otello, 165, 182

Out of Africa, 73, 147 Qut One, 124

88, Pl. 16 209 41, 125, 185,

Passage to India, A, Pl. 37 Passenger, The, 92, 122 Passion de Jeanne d'Ars, La, 46, 155, 156,

223

Obsession, 59

Ophuls, Max, 59, 68

194

203, 234

oblique framing, g1—2

220

Pabst, Georg W., 182 Pagliaca, 1, 184n. painting and film, 169 Paisa, 86, 190 Pajama Game, The, 152 Pakula, Alan, 38, 104, 160, 194 Paleface, The, 197 Panaglyde, 82

panning-shot, 77, 79, 143—4

Night Mail, 180

O'Neal, Ryan, 86 O'Neal, Tatum, 86 One from the Heant, 149, Pl. 32 One Million Years B.C, 37 open-ended construction, 213-14

GENERAL

ART

Oxbow incident, The, 226 Ozu, Yasujiro, 75

Napoléon, 81, 88, 164, 177, PL 43

October, 91, 105, 139, PL. z0 Oedipus Rex, 125 Oklzhoma, 152 Okraing, 195 Olivier, Laurence, 61, 181 Olmi, Ermanno, 185 O Lucky Man!, 183, 225 Obvidados, Los, 104, 220, 227 Olympic Games, 102 Once Upon a Time in America, 111,

AS

149,

Pastrone, Giovanni, 58 Pater, Walter, 13, 221 Pather Panchali, 227 Paths of Glory, 59 Pay Day, 105 Peau Douce, La, 46 Peckinpah, Sam, 70, 103 Peek Frean Biscuit Factory, Pl. 4 Peeping Tom, 223 Peggy Sue Got Married, 112 Penn, Arthur, 49, 103, 145, 165 Pennebaker, Don. A, 216 Pennies from Heaven, 130 Pension Mimosas, 46 People Like Maria, 225 perspective, 44fF, 95-6 Peter and Pavia, 107 Peterson, Wolfgang, 82, 189 Perit Soldat, Le, 226 Phantom Carriage, The, 164 Phantom of Liberty, The, 139 photography and film, 36, 159-60, 169—70, 215-16 physical time, ggff. Pickpocket, 155 pictorial space, 93—4 Picture, 25

Pierrot le Fou, 68, 226, PL. 13, PL. 38 Pirosmani, 76, 16gn. pixillation, 106 Planet of the Apes, 42, 1540. Platoon, 197 Point of Order, 216 Polanski, Roman, 59, 82, 106, 122, 165, 187, 212, 234 Police Story, 226 Pollack, Sydney, 73 Pommerand, Gabriel, 93 Porter, Edwin, 147 Potter, Dennis, 111, 130 Poussiére, 66 Powell, Michael, go Power, 148 Preminger, Otto, 125, 219 Pressburger, Emeric, go Pretty Baby, 43, 208 Prick Up Your Ears, 208 Prisoners of War, Pl. 10 Prisoner's Song, The, 130 Procés de Jeanne d'Ar, Le, 209, 223, PL. 48 projection speed, 99

propaganda, 17, 45, 235

Psycho, 41, 67 psychological time, 116fF, publicity 29-30

Pudovkin, Vsevelod, 49-50, 101, 137-8,

145, 188, 190, 196, 209

Pumpkin Eater, The, 40 puppets, see animated films Purple Rose of Cairo, The, 226

Quadrophenia, 183 Quatorze Juillet, Le, 88

Querelle, 160 Quest for Fire, 178 Raging Bull, 103, 156, 167, 168, Pl. 41 Raiders of the Lost Ark, 82 Raimi, Sam, 83 Rain People, The, 149 Rains, Claude, 219 Raitiére, Louis, 6on. Rambo 11, 75, 122, 123 Rancho Notorious, PL. 35 Rapper, Irving, 197 Rashomon, 96 Raven's End, 51, 69 Ray, Nicholas, 68 Ray, Satyajit, 70, 94, 123, 160n., 206

INDEX

269

Read, Herbert, 14 reality and film, 19-21, 31ff, 85, 95-7, 132fF., 140ff,, 1461F., 185(F, 2111F. Rear Window, 83, 118 Red Badge of Courage, The, 25 Red Desert, The, 171 Redgrave, Vanessa, 50 Red Shoes, The, go, 170 Reed, Carol, 41, 139, 182 Reflections in a Golden Eye, 171 Reggio, Godfrey, 147 Régle du Jeu, La, 56 Reisz, Karel, 69, 225 Reitz, Edgar, 131, 167 Renaissance, 105

Renoir, Jean, 47, 56, 79, 94, 160, 167,

183, 187, 233

repetition, 96—7, 129, 136

Repulsion, 165, 187, Pl. 44 Resnais, Alain, 93, 114, 167, 198 Return of the Jedi, 102 reverse motion, 105-6 Revolution, 149 Reynolds, Burt, 226 rhythm (and tempo), 94, 110ff. Richards, I. A,, 135, 28, 86, 138 Richardson, Tony, 50, 67, 127 Riefenstahl, Leni, 16, 102

Riff, 185

Right Stuff, The, 145, 175 Ripploh, Frank, 208 Rivette, Jacques, 124 Robbe-Grillet, Alain, 114, 116 Rabson, Mark, 202 Roeg, Nicolas, 38, 103, 112, 171, 189, 226 Rohmer, Eric, 169 Roman d'un Tricheur, Le, 197 Romero, George, 157 Ronde, La, 68 Room with a View, A, 69 Rope, 84, 124 Rosi, Francesco, 152, 155, 181 Ross, Lillian, 25 Rossellini, Isabella, 150 Raossellini, Roberto, 86, 130, 190 Rouch, Jean, 216

Round Midnight, 169, 183 Royal Wedding, 78 Rudolph, Alan, 47, 58 Ruling Class, The, 66 Rumblefish, 91, 168 Russell, Ken, 92

270

THE

CINEMA

Sacrifice, The, 104 Sal, 203 Saturday Night and Sunday Moming, 69 Savages, 71 Saville, Victor, 186 Savini, Tom, 156 Sawdust and Tinsel, 161 scale, 36—9 Scanners, 156 Scenes from a Marriage, 131 Schaflner, Franklin, 42, 154n., 163 Scheider, Roy, 79 Schlesinger, John, 126, 198 Schrader, Paul, 150 Schroeder, Barbet, 208 science fiction, 47 Scorsese, Martin, 59, 103, 181 Scott, Ridley, 51

Scott, Sir Walter, 117, 223 screen size, 87-8, 100 Searchers, The, 68 Sebastiane, 223 Seconds, 96m, Pl. 22

Secret Honor, 155 Seeber, Guido, 81 Sckers, Alan, 69 Sellers, Peter, 156 semiology, 15 Sen, Mrinal, 123, 193 Sennett, Mack, 101 ‘sensation cinema’, 201-2 Senso, 159 ‘sensurround’, 202 Servant, The, 40, 51, 187 Set-up, The, 124 Seventh Seal, The, 235 sex, 208, 226 Sex Madness, 219 Shadows, 102 Shame, 47 Shengayala, George, 76, 169n. Shepard, Sam, 82 Shields, Brooke, 43 Shining, The, 81, 82, 172 Shinoda, Masahiro, 225 Shoah, 131, 208 Shock Corridor, 234 shooting-angle, 30ff., 45fT. Shoot the Pianist, 67, 139 Sid and Nang, 183 Siegel, Don, 68, 208 Silence, The, 167, 185

AS

ART

silent films, 136, 159, 177 Silent Movie, 185 Simple Case, A, 195 Singing Detective, The, 111, 130 Singin’ in the Rain, 170 Sjoberg, Alf, 113 Sjdstrém, Victor, 112, 164 Skolimowski, Jerzy, 225

Skycam, 82—3 Sleep, 124 Slocombe, Douglas, 170 slow motion, 100-1, 102-6 Slow Motion, 108, 226 smell, 201ff. Smiles of a Summer Night, 161, 192 Smith, Dick, 156 Smith, Percy, 100 Snow, Michael, 222 Stow White and the Seven Dwarfs, 68 soft-focus, 162-3 Solanas, Fernando, 74

Solaris, 47, 234 Song of a Poet, The, 182 Song of Ceylon, 191, 197 Sophie's Choice, 170 Souffle au Coeur, Le, 208 sound, 176ff. Sous les Toits de Paris, 182, 186 Southern Comfort, 170 South Pacific, 171

space, 35fT, 631,

GENERAL Stevenson, Robert Louis, 72 Stewart, James, 79, 230 Still of the Night, 169 stills, 106-7 Sting, The, 39, 67 Stone, Oliver, 197 stopped motion, 106-8 Stop Making Sense, 181 Storck, Henri, 93 Storm over Asia, 101, 209 Strange Interlude, 197 Stranger than Paradise, 84 Straw Dogs, 103 Streep Meryl, 73 Strike, 60, Pl. 18 structuralism, 15 studio sets, 147-9 Studia, The, 25 subjective shots, 42, 80, 215 subtitles, 17g Suburbs, 195 Sunday in the Country, 169

Sunrise, 78 Superman films, 86

suspense, 117-19 Sutherland, Donald, 112, 155 Sweet Charity, 51 Sybil, 130 symbol, 219 Symbolist school, 209 synchronism, 18¢ff.

Spacek, Sissy, 144 space-time, 32, 132fF. spatialization of time, 142ff. special effects, 173-5, 207 Spectre, 124 Spellbound, 41 Spencer and Waley, 157 Spielberg, Steven, 39, 68, 79, 82, 102, 130, 148, 183, 221n. Spirit of the Beehive, 40 Spy, The, 127

Squadron 992, 74 Stagecoach, Pl. 19 Stalker, 168

stars, 214, 230 Star Wary, 154n.

State of Things, The, 68, 225 static arts, 133-5 Steadicam, 82—3, 102 Steamboat BillJr, 151 ‘step printing’, 108

Tarkovsky, Andrey, 28, 47, 59, 103, 104, 120, 138, 192, 211, 234 taste, 201ff. Taste of Honey, A, 50

Tati, Jacques, 43, 56, 233

Tavernier, Bertrand, 169 Taxi Driver, 156 Taxi zum Kilo, 208 Taylor, Elizabeth, 223 telephoto lens, 47, 52 television, 129-31, 148, 205, 214 temporalization of space, 142ff. Tenant, The, 82 Tenue de Soirée, 208 Terminus, 198 Terra Trema, La, 155, 159, 227, PL. 36 Teshigahara, Hiroshi, 47 Tess, 122 Texas Chainsaw Massacre, The, 68 theatre and cinema, 91, 123—4, 126, 147, 153-4, 177-8, 181, 220-1

INDEX

271

Theory of the Film, 65 Thing, The, 68 Third Generation, The, 148 Third Man, The, 75, 92, 160, 182 Thirty-Nine Steps, The, 69 This Sporting life, 40 Thomas Crown Affair, The, 88 Thouless, R, H,, 44, 228

3-D, 53,212 Three Musketeers, The, 101 Threepenny Opera, The, 182 THX 1138, 47 tilting, 84 time, 98ff. tinted film, 166 Toccata for Toy Trains, 106

Tokyo Story, 75, 227 Toland, Gregg, 56 To Live and Die in L.A., 82 Tom Jones, 67

Tommy, 183 Top Hat, Pl. 21 Tom Curiain, 91, 186 touch, 2o1ff. Touch of Zen, A, 103 tracking-shot, 47, 76, 78ff. Traffic, 42 transference effects, 47, 7711. transitions, 66ff, Trauner, Alexandre, 151, 169 Travelling Players, The, 84 Traviata, La, 182 Tree of Wooden Clogs, The, 185, 206 Tristana, 41, 69, 226 Triumph of the Will, 17, Pl.1 trompe 1'oeil, 212-13 Trouble in Mind, 47 True Confessions, 125 True Stories, 183 Truffaut, Frangois, 28, 46, 67, 87, 139,

145, 165, 169, 179, 220.

turn-overs, 67 Twelve Angry Men, 227 2001: A Space Odyssey, 69, 78, 81, 175, 182, Pl. 11 Ugetsu Monogatari, Pl. 55

Umberto D, 79, 155, 159 Uncle Vanya, 167 underground cinema, 221-2 Under the Volcano, 82 Unmarried Woman, An, 49 Ustinov, Peter, 167

272

THE

Vadim, Roger, 68 Vampyr, 164 Van Gogh, 93 Varda, Agnes, 124, 168, 225 Variety, 42, 110 Veronika Voss, 167

Vertigo, 79

video, 27, 99, 222 Vidor, Charles, 127 Vidor, King, 186 Vigo, Jean, 104 violence, 207-8 Viridiana, 219 Visconti, Lucino, 153, 160, 173, 226 Visiteurs du Soir, Les, 107 Vivre Sa Vie, 69, 226 von Sternberg, Joseph, 8o, 226 von Stroheim, Erich, 48, 72, 79

CINEMA

AS

ART

Widerberg, Bo, 51, 69 Wild Bunch, The, 103 Wilder, Billy, 78, 110 Wild Strawberries, 112, 144 Williams, John, 182-3 Williams, Richard, 224 Willis, Gordon, 160

Wings, 177

Winter Light, 187 wipe, 66 Wise, Robert, 124 Wiseman, Frederick, 217 Wizard of Oz, The, 171 World of Paul Delvaux, The, 93 Waman of the Dunes, 46 Wamen in Love, 92 Wright, Basil, 180, 191

WR — Mysteries of the Organism, 139 Wyler, William, 56, 89

Wages of Fear, The, 145 Wajda, Andrzej, 203, 204, 220

Walrus and the Carpenter, The, 71 Warhol, Andy, 84, 88, 124, 128 Watt, Harry, 74, 180, 225 Wedding Day, 193 Weekend, 61, 226 Weir, Peter, 199 Welles, Orson, 56, 59, 94, 141, 167 Wellman, William, 226 Wenders, Wim, 57, 68, 225 Wertheimer’s theory, ggn. West Side Story, 152, 172

Westworld, 47, 202 Wexler, Haskell, 216-17 Whale, James, 48, 1540. Whitman, Walt, 68 wide-angle lens, 53, 165

Yates, Peter, 181 Young Mr Lincoln, 45 Young, Terence, 127

Z,79, 96

Zabriskie Point, 96 Zardoz, 154n., 164 Zed and Two Noughts, A, 102 Zeffirelli, Franco, 165, 182 Zelig, 101, 217, PL 51 Zemeckis, Robert, 112 Zéro de Conduite, 104, Pl. 23 Zinnemann, Fred, 124 zip-pan, 115 Zola, Emile, 14

zoom, 47, 52, 79; 115

Zsigmund, Vilmos, 222 Zvenigora, 101